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BULLETIN OF THE
IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

A QUARTERLY RECORD OF PROGRESS IN ^
TROPICAL AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRIES
AND THE COMMERCIAL UTILISATION OF
THE NATURAL RESOURCES OF THE
COLONIES AND INDIA

EDITED BY THE DIRECTOR AND PREPARED

BY THE SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL

STAFF OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

AND BY OTHER CONTRIBUTORS

VOL. XIV. 1916

LONDON
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W.

ERRATA TO VOL. XIV

p. 304, line 1 3, jf^r diameter r^a</ circumference,
p. 483, line 12 from bottom,/^;- p. 472 read p. 474.
p. 486, line 4 from bottom, >r p. 481 read p. 483.

BULLETIN OF THE
IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

VOL. XIV. 1916

CONTENTS

THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE page

GENERAL STATEMENT i

REPORTS OF REGENT INVESTIGATIONS AT THE
IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

TOBACCO FROM NYASALAND ....... i

COFFEE FROM UGANDA • . . 6

COKERITE FRUITS AND OIL FROM BRITISH GUIANA . 8

SILK FROM TRINIDAD 13

SOUTH AFRICAN BOXWOOD {B UXUS MA CO WANI) {Illustrated) 18

SOLANACEOUS DRUGS FROM AFRICA 21

SOUTH AFRICAN DRUGS AND POISONOUS PLANTS. . 27

SALT FROM CYPRUS 37

DIATOMITE FROM AUSTRALIA 40

EDIBLE BEANS FROM BURMA 149

VOANDZEIA SUBTERRANEA BEANS FROM THE SUDAN . 156

NAKED BARLEY FROM CYPRUS ...... 159

WATER-MELON SEEDS FROM THE SUDAN .... 160

COLOCYNTH PULP FROM THE SUDAN 162

PAPER-MAKING MATERIALS FROM SOUTH AFRICA . . 163

AFRICAN WILD SILK 167

WHALES' BONES FROM THE FALKLAND ISLANDS . . 181
RECENT WORK ON MONAZITE AND OTHER THORIUM

MINERALS IN CEYLON. (^With Maf) ., ... 321

CONTENTS

PAGB

THE NEW COAL-FIELD IN WEST AFRICA. iWith Map and

Illustrations) 369

THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF SHERUNGULU TUBERS.— II . 378

LEMON GRASS OIL FROM INDIA 381

CEARA RUBBER FROM NIGERIA 382

FIBRES FROM THE BELGIAN CONGO 385

INVESTIGATIONS OF THE QUALITY OF PLANTATION
RUBBER CONDUCTED UNDER THE CEYLON RUBBER

RESEARCH SCHEME 495

THE DISTILLATION OF WOOD AND OTHER VEGETABLE

PRODUCTS 566

CAMPHOR OIL FROM THE FEDERATED MALAY STATES

AND MAURITIUS 577

DATES FROM THE SUDAN 585

COCOA FROM SIERRA LEONE 589

CAUTO COTTON FROM BRITISH HONDURAS . . .591

SPECIAL ARTICLES

THE WORK OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE FOR INDIA.
By Wyndham R. Dunstan, C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
Director of the Imperial Institute {With Illustrations) . , .183

SOME PRESENT NEEDS OF THE BRITISH RUBBER IN-
DUSTRY. By Wvndham R. Dunstan, C.M.G, LL.D., F.R.S.,
Director of the Imperial Institute 592

GENERAL ARTICLES

THE OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ZINC ORES.—

PART II 44

UTILISATION OF PEAT.— II 81

CULTIVATION AND UTILISATION OF SUNFLOWER, NIGER,

AND SAFFLOWER SEED 88

THE OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF NICKEL ORES 228

SAPPHIRE-MINING INDUSTRY OF ANAKIE, QUEENSLAND 253

SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF HAZEL-NUTS 261

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ANTIMONY ORES . 389

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF COBALT ORES . 417
THE CULTIVATION OF THE PINE-APPLE FOR FRUIT AND

FIBRE 437

THE WATTLE-BARK INDUSTRY OF NATAL .... 599

Tyj5 ,^S3EST0S INDUSTRY AT THE CAPE .... 604

CONTENTS
NOTES PAGE

THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE (MANAGEMENT) ACT (1916) . loa
IMPORTATION OF TOBACCO FROM BRITISH COLONIES

AND PROTECTORATES 114

LINSEED GROWING IN ENGLAND lU

CASHEW NUTS 115

MINING IN ONTARIO 118

GAS-PRODUCER TESTS WITH CANADIAN LIGNITE . .119

POTTERY CLAYS IN THE FEDERATED MALAY STATES . 120
IMPERIAL INSTITUTE : APPOINTMENT OF EXECUTIVE

COUNCIL 268

CO-OPERATION OF THE CHAMBERS OF COMMERCE WITH

THE WORK OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE . . .272
REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON WEST AFRICAN OIL

SEEDS 277

ECONOMIC PROGRESS IN RHODESIA 279

FEEDING VALUE OF PALM-KERNEL CAKE AND MEAL . 280

EGYPTIAN SHEEP 282

RECENT INVESTIGATIONS ON SOURCES OF POTASH . 284
MINERAL PRODUCTION OF BRITISH GUIANA . . .287
THE BOARD OF TRADE AND THE IMPERIAL INSTI-
TUTE . . 460

INDIAN TRADE WITHIN THE EMPIRE. OFFICIAL ENQUIRY

AT THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE ...... 461

THE WORK OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE FOR INDIA . 464
THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF

WEST AFRICA 470

REFINING OF NICKEL IN CANADA 471

THE WORK OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE FOR

INDIA 608

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT IN UNITED PROVINCES,

INDIA 612

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE TOBACCO INDUSTRY

OF NYASALAND 615

CHINESE BLACKWOOD 616

THE CASTOR-OIL PLANT AS A HOST OF THE SHOT-HOLE

BORER OF TEA 619

BLACK- FOX FARMING IN NORTH AMERICA. . . .619

THE UTILISATION OF WATER POWER 621

CONTENTS

REGENT PROGRESS IN AGRICULTURE AND THE
DEVELOPMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES

PAGES

SOILS AND MANURES 121, 288, 623

FOODSTUFFS AND FODDERS 122, 291, 624

OILS AND OIL SEEDS 124, 292, 472, 628

ESSENTIAL OILS 295

RUBBER 127, 296, 474, 631

FIBRES (INCLUDING COTTON) .... 129, 299, 477, 634
FORESTRY AND FOREST PRODUCTS . .134, 303, 480, 637

TIMBERS 13s, 482

TANNING MATERIALS 482, 637

ECONOMIC MINERALS 136, 305, 483, 638

NOTICES OF RECENT LITERATURE . 141, 312, 489. 645

BOOKS RECEIVED 147,319,493.656

INDEX TO VOL. XIV 657

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Plate I. Engraved Block of South African Boxwood,
(Two-thirds actual diameter)

„ II. Fig. I. The Imperial Institute

„ 2. Drug Exhibit in the Indian Section,
Public Exhibition Galleries .

„ III. Imperial Institute: Public Exhibition Gal
leries, Indian Section.
Fig. i. Mineral Exhibit .
„ 2. Part of Indian Pavilion

„ IV. Imperial Institute : Scientific and Technical
Research Department.
Fig. I. One of the Laboratories for the
Examination of Fibres, Food-
stuffs, Essential Oils, etc.
„ 2. One of the Laboratories for the
Examination of Minerals .

„ V. Sketch-map of Ceylon

„ VI. Outline Map of Southern Provinces, Nigeria

„ VII. Udi Colliery.

Fig. i. High-level Stack at Adit .
„ 2. Main Adit

„ VIII. Udi Colliery.

Fig. I. Shifting Coal from Pit's Mouth

in Barrows

„ 2. Colliers

Facing p.

184

186
186

192

192
321

370

372
372

374
374

THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

OF THE

UNITED KINGDOM, THE COLONIES, AND INDIA

The Imperial Institute was erected at South Kensington as
the National Memorial of the Jubilee of Queen Victoria, by
whom it was opened in May 1893.

The principal object of the Institute is to promote the
utilisation of the commercial and industrial resources of
the Empire by arranging comprehensive exhibitions of
natural products, especially of the Dominions, Colonies,
and India, and providing for their investigation, and for
the collection and dissemination of scientific, technical,
and commercial information relating to them.

Until the end of 1902 the Imperial Institute was managed
by a Governing Body, of which H.R.H. the Prince of Wales
(afterwards King Edward VII.) was President, and an
Executive Council, including representatives of the Indian
Empire and of all the British Colonies and Dependencies.
In 1900 the building became the property of H.M. Govern-
ment, by whom the western portion and galleries were
leased to the Governing Body of the Imperial Institute,
the greater part of the eastern and central portions being
assigned, subject to certain rights of usage by the Imperial
Institute, for occupation by the University of London. In
July 1902 an Act of Parliament was passed transferring the
management of the Imperial Institute to the Board of

ii BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Trade, assisted by an advisory Committee including repre-
sentatives of the Dominions, Colonies, and India, as well
as of the Colonial and India Offices, the Board of Agri-
culture, and the Board of Trade. This Act took effect on
January i, 1903.

On October i, 1907, in virtue of an arrangement made
with the Board of Trade and with the approval of the
Secretary of State for India, the management of the Imperial
Institute was transferred to the Secretary of State for the
Colonies, subject to the responsibility of the Board of Trade
under the Act of 1902. A Committee of Management of
three members, one nominated by each of the three Govern-
ment Departments chiefly concerned, has been appointed,
and at present consists of Mr. C. A. Harris, C.B., C.M.G.,
M.V.O. ; Sir Alfred Bateman, K.C.M.G. ; and Sir John
P. Hewett, G.C.S.I., CLE.

In April, 19 16, an Act was passed transferring the
property and management of the Imperial Institute to the
Colonial Office, and providing for the appointment of an
Executive Council in lieu of the Advisory and Managing
Committees. The full text of the Bill and an account of
its passage through Parliament will be found on pages
102-113.

The first Director of the Imperial Institute was Sir
Frederick Augustus Abel, Bart., G.C.V.O., K.C.B., F.R.S.,
who held the office until his death in the autumn of 1902.
The present Director is Professor Wyndham Dunstan,
C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., who was appointed in 1903.

The staff of the Imperial Institute includes officers with
special qualifications in the sciences of chemistry, botany,
geology, mineralogy, and in certain branches of technology,
in their relation to agriculture and to the industrial utilisa-
tion of economic products.

A Report by the Director on the Work of the Imperial
Institute is presented to Parliament annually.

THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE iii

The following are the principal departments of the
Institute :

Public Exhibition Galleries. — The collections of economic
products, etc., illustrative of the general and commercial
resources of the Dominions, Colonies, and India, are
arranged together with other exhibits, on a geographical
system in the public galleries of the Imperial Institute,
which are open free to the public daily, except on
Sundays, Good Friday, and Christmas Day, from lo a.m.
to 5 p.m. (id a.m. to 4 p.m. in winter).

The following British Dominions, Colonies, and Depen-
dencies are represented by Courts, which are in charge
of Technical Superintendents :

Canada, Newfoundland ; Jamaica, Turks and Caicos
Islands, British Honduras, British Guiana, Bahamas,
Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, Windward Islands, Lee-
ward Islands, Bermuda ; Falkland Islands ; New South
Wales, Victoria, Queensland, Tasmania, South Australia,
Western Australia, Papua, New Zealand ; Fiji, Western
Pacific Islands ; Union of South Africa, Rhodesia, Nyasa-
land, St. Helena ; Gambia, Sierra Leone, Gold Coast,
Nigeria ; East Africa Protectorate, Zanzibar and Pemba ;
Uganda ; vSomaliland ; the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan ; Malta ;
Cyprus ; Ceylon ; Hong Kong ; Mauritius ; Seychelles ;
Straits Settlements, the Federated Malay States ; and
India.

The Ceylon Pavilion, decorated in Kandyan style and
containing pictures of Ceylon and exhibits of native
industrial art, was opened in 1914. Ceylon tea can be
obtained in the afternoon (except in winter) in the
Pavilion. The tea served represents the best tea produced
in Ceylon.

A Central Stand for Publications and an Enquiry
Office are maintained in the centre of the main gallery

iv BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

to facilitate the supply of general information and the dis-
tribution of literature. Handbooks, pamphlets, circulars,
etc., containing information relating to the commerce,
agriculture, mining, and other industries of the principal
British Possessions, and also to emigration, are available
for gratuitous distribution or for sale. The publications
of the Emigrants' Information Office, established by the
Colonial Office, may also be obtained. Lists of the
publications available for distribution or sale are pro-
vided, and the principal Colonial and Indian newspapers
may be seen on application.

In 191 5 the public galleries were visited by 186,889
persons, and 14,013 Colonial and Indian publications were
distributed.

Scientific and Technical Research Department. — The research
laboratories and workrooms of this Department were
established in order to provide for the investigation of
new or little-known natural products from the Colonies
and India and of known products from new sources,
with a view to their utilisation in commerce, and also
to provide scientific and technical advice on matters
connected with the agriculture, trade, and industries of
the Colonies and India.

The work of this Department is chiefly initiated by the
Home and Colonial Governments and the Government of
India. Arrangements have been also made by the Foreign
Office, whereby British representatives abroad may transmit
to the Department for investigation such natural products
of the countries to which they are appointed as are likely
to be of interest to British manufacturers and merchants.

Special analyses and investigations are also undertaken
for firms or private persons in any part of the Empire on
payment of appropriate charges. Application for such
investigations should be made, in writing, to the Director,

THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE v

Materials are first investigated in the research labora-
tories of the Department, and are afterwards submitted to
further technical trials by manufacturers and other experts,
and finally are commercially valued.

A Reference Sample Room is maintained in this Depart-
ment, in which are arranged samples of the principal
materials which have been investigated and valued com-
mercially during recent years, and as to which full informa-
tion is available.

The Department works in co-operation with the
Agricultural, Mines and other technical Departments in
the Colonies, whose operations it supplements by under-
taking such investigations as are of a special scientific or
technical character connected with agricultural or mineral
development, as well as enquiries relating to the composi-
tion and commercial value of products (animal, vegetable,
or mineral) which can be more efficiently conducted at
home in communication with merchants and manufacturers,
with a view to the local utilisation of these products or to
their export.

A very large number of reports on these subjects have
been made to the Governments of the Colonies and India,
a first instalment of which was printed in a volume of
Technical Reports and Scientific Papers^ published in 1903.
A series of Selected Reports is now being issued in the
Miscellaneous Series of Colonial Reports. Of these
Selected Reports, five have been published : Part I.
"Fibres" (Cd. 4588), Part II. "Gums and Resins" (Cd. 4971),
Part III. "Foodstuffs" (Cd. 5137), Part IV. "Rubber and
Gutta Percha" (Cd. 6022), Part V. "Oil-seeds, Oils, Fats and
Waxes " (Cd. 7260). A further Part dealing with Essential
Oils and Spices is in preparation.

Mineral surveys, under the supervision of the Director
of the Imperial Institute, and conducted by Surveyors
selected by him, are in progress in several countries. All

vi BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

minerals found which are likely to be of commercial
importance are forwarded to the Imperial Institute, where
they are examined and their composition and commercial
value ascertained. Reports by the Director on the results
of mineral exploration in Ceylon, Northern Nigeria,
Southern Nigeria, and Nyasaland have been printed in
the Miscellaneous Series of Colonial Reports.

Technical Information Bureau. — For some years past a
steadily increasing stream of enquiries has been received
by the Imperial Institute from manufacturers, merchants,
and others, in Great Britain and the Colonies. These
enquiries relate principally to new sources of supply of
raw materials, methods of utilising new products from the
Colonies and India, or to new or little-known processes
and machinery for industrial purposes. The number of
these enquiries has now become so great that the Secretary
of State for the Colonies has authorised the formation of
a Technical Information Bureau at the Institute for dealing
with them. This Bureau is a special branch of the
Scientific and Technical Research Department, and is
mainly staffed by experts who have had the advantage of
experience in the work of that Department of the Imperial
Institute, which is carried on in communication with pro-
ducers in the Colonies, and with manufacturers and users
of raw materials in this country.

The Bureau was formed at a specially opportune
moment, since the paralysis of German and Austrian
trade and industry has opened up opportunities for the
development of many industries in this country and in
the Colonies which have hitherto been monopolised by
Germany. The new Bureau has already played an active
part in this work by supplying technical information to
enquirers and by issuing special circulars and pamphlets
dealing with various problems in connection with raw

THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE vii

materials, which have arisen owing to the war. The
following circulars can be obtained gratis on application :
(i) New Markets for British, Colonial, and Indian
Copra.

(2) Wattle or Mimosa Bark for Tanning.

(3) The Production and Utilisation of Molybdenite.

(4) New Markets for British Indian and Colonial

Ground Nuts and their Products.

(5) Plumbago (or Graphite) from Ceylon.

(6) Palm Kernel Cake and Meal.

Library, Reading-Rooms, and Map-Room. — The library and
reading-rooms of the Imperial Institute contain a large
collection of Colonial and Indian works of reference,
and are regularly supplied with the more important
official publications, and with many of the principal
newspapers and technical periodicals of the United
Kingdom, the Dominions, the Colonies, India, and Foreign
countries.

The map-room, which adjoins the reading-rooms, is
provided with a large collection of recent maps of the
Dominions, the Colonies, and India, which can be consulted
on application to the Librarian.

The library and reading-rooms are on the first floor, and
admittance to them is obtained through the entrance at the
west (Queen's Gate) end of the building. These rooms are
available for the use of Life Fellows of the Imperial
Institute, and of other persons properly introduced. Books
and newspapers may be consulted for special purposes by
permission.

Tropical African Services Course. — Courses of instruction in
certain specified subjects are given at the Imperial
Institute to candidates selected by the Colonial Office for
administrative appointments in East and West Africa.
Instruction in the subject of Tropical Economic Products

viii BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

in these Courses is given by a member of the staff of the
Imperial Institute. The Courses have been temporarily
discontinued during the war.

Colonial Conference Rooms. — These rooms, specially deco-
rated and furnished, are reserved on the principal floor for
use by representatives of the Colonies for meetings and
receptions.

The Cowasjee Jehangier Hall. — The Bhownaggree corridor
and rooms in connection v^ith this hall are in the occu-
pation of the Indian Section of the Imperial Institute,
whilst the hall is available for lectures, meetings, etc.

The "Bulletin of the Imperial Institute" is published
quarterly by Mr. John Murray, 50A, Albemarle Street,
London, price 25. 6d. (annual subscription 115., including
postage), and may be purchased through any bookseller
or from agents in the Colonies and India. The Bulletin
contains records of the principal investigations conducted
for the Colonies and India at the Imperial Institute, and
special articles chiefly relating to progress in tropical
agriculture and the industrial utilisation of raw materials
(animal, vegetable, and mineral).

Imperial Institute Handbooks on Tropical Resources. — The
Secretary of State for the Colonies has authorised the
preparation of a series of handbooks dealing with the Com-
mercial Resources of the Tropics, with special reference
to West Africa. The handbooks are edited by the Director
of the Imperial Institute, and published by Mr. John
Murray. The first three volumes are : The Agricultural
and Forest Products of British West Africa^ by Gerald C.
Dudgeon, Director-General of Agriculture in Egypt, and
lately Inspector of Agriculture for British West Africa,
price 55. net ; Cocoa : Its Cultivation and Preparation^ by

THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE ix

W. H.Johnson, F.L.S., Director of Agriculture in Southern
Nigeria, price 5s. net; and Rubber: Its Sources, Cultivation,
and Preparation, by Harold Brown, Technical Superin-
tendent, Scientific and Technical Department, Imperial
Institute, price 6s. net. A fourth volume dealing with
Vegetable Fibres, by Ernest Goulding, D.Sc, F.I.C., F.C.S.,
Scientific and Technical Department, Imperial Institute,
is in preparation.

The following Societies have their offices at the
Imperial Institute :

International Association for Tropical Agriculture, British
Section. — The object of this Association, the Central
Bureau of which is in Paris, is the promotion of the
scientific and practical study of all questions connected
with tropical agriculture and the development and
utilisation of natural resources, especially of tropical
countries. The British Section has its headquarters at
the Imperial Institute. Members of the British Section are
permitted to use the library and reading-rooms of the
Imperial Institute. An International Congress of Tropical
Agriculture was held under the auspices of the Association
at the Imperial Institute from June 23 to 30, 1914, the
organisation of which was undertaken by the British
Committee. The Proceedings of the Congress, including
abstracts of the papers supplied by the authors, reports of
the discussions, and the inaugural address of the President,
Prof W. R. Dunstan, C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S., have been
pubHshed by Messrs. John Bale, Sons, & Danielsson,
Ltd., at the price of ids. net ; postage : Inland, 4^. ;
Abroad, ^d. The Transactions of the Congress, com-
prising the complete papers, will be issued in two volumes.
These are now in the press, and Volume I. will be ready
shortly.

X BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

British Women's Emigration Association. — The British
Women's Emigration Association has been assigned
offices on the mezzanine floor, which are open daily from
lo a.m. to 4 p.m. Advice and information respecting
emigration and prospects for women in the Colonies may
be obtained there free of charge. This Association works
in co-operation with the Emigrants' Information Office in
Westminster.

Colonial Nursing Association. — An office has been allotted
on the mezzanine floor to this Association. The principal
object of the Association is the selection of trained hospital
and private nurses for service in the Crown Colonies and
Dependencies.

Tropical Diseases Bureau. — Temporary office accommoda-
tion on the mezzanine floor has been provided for this
Bureau, the main purpose of which is to collect information
regarding tropical diseases and to distribute it as widely as
possible among those who are engaged in combating such
diseases.

Universities Bureau of the British Empire. — An office on
the mezzanine floor has been allotted to this Bureau, the
object of which is the collection and dissemination of
information relating to the Universities of the British
Empire.

Members of the Staff of the Imperial Institute
who have joined H.M. Forces

K. Blair.
S. Blair.

A. BOOTHER.

F. Brown.i

The Hon. T. L. McClintock

BuNBURY, M.A. (Cantab.).
H. Carter.

H. E. COULSON.

C. FURNEAUX.
P. FURNEAUX.

D. R. Home, F.G.S.

H. Johnson, B.Sc. (Lond.).
T. McLachlan.

G. L. Matthews, B.Sc. (Lond.).
W. F. Miller.
V. W. Newman.3

A. W. Potter.
F. Ricketts.
F. W. Rolfe.
J. A. Simpson.

D. J. Taylor, B.Sc. (Lond.).

J. Wells.

J. D. F. West.

B. W. Whitfeild.
W. O. R. Wynn.
L V. Yeatman.

' Missings assumed killed.

^ Killed in action.

REPORTS OF RECENT INVESTIGATIONS AT
THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

The following summaries have been prepared from a selection of
the Reports made by the Director of the Imperial Institute to
the Colonial^ Indian^ and other Governments concerned.

TOBACCO FROM NYASALAND

Tobacco at the present time is the chief crop grown for
export in Nyasaland, the value of the exports during the
last few years exceeding that of any other product. At
one time most of the tobacco grown was sent to the Union
of South Africa, but since 1908 the chief market has been
found in the United Kingdom, and in 191 3-14 out of a total
export of 3,763,014 lb. of locally grown tobacco, 3,731,054 lb.
came to this country. The annual exports since 1904-5
have been as follows :

Quantity. Local value,

lb. £

1904-5 56,826 947

1905-6 199,020 3,317

1906-7 413,216 6,888

1907-8 554,395 9.239

1908-9 570,102 14,253

1909-10 1,084,757 27,120

1910-11 1,704,637 42,627

1911-12 2,146,615 53,690

1912-13 2,262,545 56,599

1913-H 3.763.014 94,168

1914-15 3.308,948 82,735

The decrease in the exports for 1914-15 as compared
with the previous year is stated to be due to a very con-
siderable quantity of tobacco being held back owing to
high freights and war insurance. The actual production
in 1914-15 is believed to be slightly greater than in 1913-14.
The area under the crop in the former year was 9,534 acres,
and in 191 3- 14 10,499 acres, whilst the crop harvested in

2 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

191 5-16 covered an area of 9,042 acres. Of the last-
mentioned area 6,038 acres were situated in the Blantyre
district and 1,955 acres in the Zomba district, the remainder
being spread over the Mlanje, West Shire, and Ruo dis-
tricts. The yield per acre is low as compared with that
obtained in the United States, the average ranging, during
the past six years, from 305 lb. in 1912-13 to 520 lb. in
1910-11. This is attributed to the impoverishment of the
soil and lack of manuring. The cost of transport renders
the use of artificial manures impracticable, but more ex-
tensive use might be made of cotton seed and wood ashes,
combined with a proper system of rotation. In the latter
connection it is worth noting that experiments conducted
at the Government Experimental Farm in 19 14-15 showed
that better results were obtained when tobacco followed
maize than when it followed ground nuts, or when velvet
beans and maize had previously been grown and fed to
animals on the land.

The various districts naturally require different varieties,
but, speaking generally, the most popular varieties in
Nyasaland are " Gold Leaf," " Warne," " Conqueror," and
"White Stem Orinoco." Experiments conducted by the
Agricultural Department during the past two years have
shown that Gold Leaf probably produces the highest
percentage of bright leaf and yields a fair crop on most
soils, and for general purposes it appears to be the most
suitable variety for the greater part of the tobacco-growing
regions. Warne does not produce such a bright tobacco
as Gold Leaf as a rule, but it has more substance and is
suitable for growing on soils which usually produce
tobacco deficient in this respect. Conqueror does well in
a season with short rainfall, and produces on the average
the heaviest crop, but, owing to its susceptibility to mildew
and spot, it is unsuitable for exposed or high situations
subjected to heavy rain, where a large proportion of the
tobacco produced consists of "scrap." White Stem Orinoco
generally produces a high percentage of bright leaf, which,
however, lacks substance ; it gives a low yield, but pro-
duces a good quality of tobacco on comparatively heavy
soil.

TOBACCO FROM NYASALAND 3

In 1914-15 twelve varieties of tobacco were grown
experimentally on the Government Experiment Farm,
the total area under cultivation being 18 acres. Difficulty
appears to have been experienced in curing the tobacco
owing to the lack of barn accommodation, a circumstance
which affected adversely the quality of the product.
Specimens of each of these tobaccos were received at the
Imperial Institute in June 191 5, and were examined with
the results given in the following pages. The results of
examination of other samples of Nyasaland tobacco are
given in this Bulletin (1904, 2, 81 ; 1909, 7, 266).

No. I. "Sterling." — The leaves were fairly uniform in
size, from 20 to 24 in. long and 10 to 12 in. wide. They
varied in colour from bright yellow to orange yellow, with
a brownish tint in places, the colouring being generally
uneven. Some leaves were rather green.

No. 2. "Air-cured Burley." — The leaves were fairly
uniform in size, about 27 in. long and from 11 to 15 in.
wide, and were of typical " Burley " tobacco colour.

No. 3. " Conqueror." — The leaves were uniform in size,
measuring about 17 by 9! in., and were of a bright yellow
colour.

No. 4. •* Bonanza." — The leaves were fairly uniform in
size, about 20 in. long and from 11 to 15 in. wide, and
varying in colour from bright yellow to orange yellow,
with occasional green patches.

No. 5. " Hyco." — The leaves were fairly uniform in size,
from 16 to 19 in. long and from 8| to 11 in. wide, and
varied in colour from bright yellow to orange yellow, with
a brownish tint in places.

No. 6. ** Gooch." — The leaves were fairly uniform in
size, measuring about 17 in. in length and from 8 to 11
in. in width. They varied in colour from bright yellow to
bright orange yellow, with a green or brownish tint in
places. Many of the leaves were much torn, and most of
them were rather badly discoloured and marked with
" burns."

No. 7. " Gold Leaf."— The leaves were fairly uniform in
size, measuring from 20 to 24 in. in length and from 9 to
14 in. in width. They varied in colour from bright

BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

yellow to bright orange yellow, with a brownish tint in
places.

No. 8. *'Warne." — The leaves were fairly uniform in
size, measuring about 21 in. in length and from 10 to 12
in. in width. They varied in colour from bright yellow to
orange yellow.

No. 9. " Goldfinder." — The leaves were fairly uniform
in size, measuring about 24 in. in length and from 9 to 12
in. in width. They were mostly bright orange yellow,
with a brownish tint in places, a few being of a light
reddish-brown colour. The tobacco as a whole was rather
coarse.

No. 10. " North Carolina." — The leaves were fairly
uniform in size, measuring about 22 in. in length and from
ID to 12 in. in width. They were orange yellow in colour,
and were rather uneven, showing a reddish tint in places.

No. II. '* Orinoco White Stem." — The leaves were fairly
uniform in size, measuring from 16 to 21 in. in length and
from 10 to 14 in. in width. They varied in tint from dull
yellow to orange, some leaves having a reddish tint in
places, and the colour on the whole being uneven.

No. 12. "Granville." — The leaves were fairly uniform
in size, measuring about 21 in. in length and from 8 to 12
in. in width. They were mostly dull orange in colour,
with a reddish tint in places.

The results of chemical analysis and commercial valua-
tion of the 12 samples are shown in the following table :

No. I. Sterling .

No. 2. Air-cured Burley

No. 3. Conqueror

No. 4. Bonanza .

No. 5. Hyco

No. 6. Gooch

No. 7. Gold Leaf

No. 8. Warne .

No. 9. Goldfinder

No. 10. North Carolina

No. II. Orinoco White Stem

No. 12. Granville

Moisture.

Per cent.
13-6
II 4
14-3
147
14*0

137

12-5

137
13-8
14*0

14-5
13-6

Nicotine.

Per cent.

3'o

25
2-2

1-8
27

2 '2

2-8

2-9

2-9
2-6

Nitrogen,

Per cent.
2*2
2-9
1-8

23
2-3

1-8

2-0
19

1*9

2*2

2-4

Ash.

Per cent.
II-6
l8-2
ID'S
122
121
117
12-8
11-6

II-3
II-6
no

1 1 -2

Valuation*

(October

1915).

Sd.
Sd.

Id
l\d.

6d.

4^.

6d
6^d.
Shd

Sd.

6d.

' At the date oj valuation^ common to fine Kentucky leaf was quoted at 6d. to lod.
per Ih., and common to fine Virginia leaf at S\d' to u. 6d. per lb.

TOBACCO FROM NYASALAND 5

The ash of samples 1-4 was analysed with the following
results :

No. I.
Sterling.

Lime CaO

Magnesia MgO

Potash K,0

Soda Na,0

Sulphates, expressed as sulphuric acid SO3 .
Chlorides, expressed as chlorine CI .

Carbonates, expressed as carbon dioxide COj

Per cent.
25-0

6-3

283
I'O

1-6

IS
217

No. 2.

Air-cured

Barley.

Per cent.
190

6-3
345
57
19
32
21-8

No. 3.
Conqueror.

Per cent.
22*9

294
60

1-6

217

No. 4.
Bonanza.

Per cent.

27 -2

336

1-3

236

General Remarks and Conclusions

Composition and Burning Quality.— The tobaccos were all
'* conditioned " before analysis, as they were very dry when
received at the Imperial Institute. The amounts of moisture
recorded in the first of the foregoing tables do not there-
fore represent the quantities present in the tobaccos as
received.

All the tobaccos contained satisfactorily low percentages
of nitrogen and nicotine.

The ash is in all cases rather low, but no exception need
be taken to this so long as the burning quality is good.
The analysis of the ash of samples i to 4 shows but little
variation, all being exceptionally high in potash, and
comparatively low in sulphates and chlorides. It is to
these characteristics that Nyasaland tobacco owes its
generally excellent burning quality.

Samples of all these tobaccos were cut for the manu-
facture of cigarette and pipe tobaccos, and on trial proved
to burn easily and to hold fire well. The flavour and
aroma were in some cases rather pungent, but this is to
be expected with tobaccos that are fresh and not fully
matured.

Commercial Valuation. — The samples included no " non-
descript " tobaccos, and were all of medium or good length.
Many of the leaves showed burns, and a few of the samples
included torn leaves, No. 6 being the worst in this re-
spect.

The tobaccos were submitted to two firms for valuation.

6 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Only one of these assigned a definite price to each sample,
and these are quoted in the table on p. 4. This firm
considered No. 3 (Conqueror), No. 8 (Warne), No. 5 (Hyco),
No. 7 (Gold LeaO and No. 1 1 (Orinoco White Stem) to be
the best of the series, in the order given, and regarded
No. 2 (Burley) as a good substitute for American Burley
tobacco.

The second firm valued the tobaccos at 6J<af. to S^d. per lb.,
and regarded No. 8 (Warne) as the best of the series, and
No. 2 (Burley) as the poorest, though the latter w^as re-
garded as a fairly typical Burley tobacco.

Both firms expressed the opinion that although Nyasa-
land tobacco is still mainly used as a substitute for American
tobacco, its special characteristics, and more especially its
excellent burning quality, are beginning to secure for it
a well-defined position in the British market.

COFFEE FROM UGANDA

The rapid progress which has been made in the cultivation
of coffee in Uganda was referred to in an article by
Mr. W. Small, M.A., B.Sc, Botanist to the Uganda De-
partment of Agriculture, in a previous number of this
Bulletin (1914, 12, 242). In 1914-15 the crop continued to
be the chief one grown on plantations under European
control. The agricultural returns for that year show that
there were 3,825 acres of Coffea arabica under two years
old, and 5,726 acres over two years old in these plantations.
The corresponding area under Coffea robusta was 74 and
293 acres respectively. In addition, coffee is interplanted
with Para rubber, the total area containing trees under two
years old being 1,114 acres, whilst 3,721 acres are occupied
with trees over two years old.

The area of coffee cultivated by the natives is also
extensive, and is increasing in many districts. The returns
for native agriculture are incomplete, but in 1914-15 it was
estimated that 8,692 acres of coffee were cultivated by
natives, almost entirely in the Buganda Province. About
660 acres are also under coffee at the various Missions.

COFFEE FROM UGANDA 7

Most of the coffee grown in the Protectorate is exported
in the parchment, i.e. unhusked ; the exports of such coffee
in 1914-15 amounted to 18,998 cwts., valued at ;6"35.463-
This coffee is husked and graded in London. In the same
year 2,103 cwts. of husked coffee, valued at ;^5>542, were
also exported. The rapid growth of the industry since
1910-11 is shown by the following table, giving the annual
exports of raw coffee :

Quantity.

Value.

Cwts.

I9I0-II .

270

383

I9II-I2 .

. 1,712

2,563

I9I2-I3 .

. 3.336

8,940

I9I3-I4 •

. . 12,258

23,167

I9I4-I5 .

. 21,101

41,005

In September 191 5 two samples of parchment coffee,
grown and prepared by natives near Mount Elgon, in the
Bukedi District, Eastern Province, Uganda, were received
for examination at the Imperial Institute.

The samples were as follows :

(A) " Coffee in parchment grown at Wazikonya's, N.E.
Bugishu, at an altitude of 4,360 ft." This sample consisted
of coffee in the parchment in good condition. The parch-
ment was of a pale yellow colour. The beans were of a
good greyish tint and of uniform medium size, but a few
small ones were present.

(B) '' Coffee in parchment grown at Wallasi, N.E.
Bugishu, at an altitude of 5,180 ft." This coffee was similar
to sample A, but the parchment was darker in colour,
having a brownish tint.

The samples were submitted for valuation to brokers in
London, who stated that sample A was in good condition,
and showed careful curing and preparation, the beans
being fresh and of a greenish tint, though rather pale and
inferior in size. They described sample B as having a
parchment of a rather brownish colour, and apparently not
so well dried as sample A.

The firm valued the coffee, after husking, as follows :
Sample A at 545. to 55s. per cwt., and sample B at 53s. to
545. per cwt. in London (December 191 5).

For comparison with the above prices the following

8 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

recent prices for African coffees in the London market may
be quoted (January 1916) :

Ptrcwt.

Nyasaland, plantation .... 50J. to 75J.

Nairobi,
Uganda,
Bukoba,
Marangu,

55^. ., 76 J.

45^- M 72*.

40J. ,, 42J.

50J. „ 7 2 J. dd.

Uganda coffee is now well known on the London
market, and there seems no doubt that, if the quality is
maintained, as shipments increase it will gradually become
an important factor on this market.

COKERITE FRUITS AND OIL FROM BRITISH

GUIANA

The cokerite palm occurs in most parts of British Guiana,
except on the immediate coast-land. As a rule it grows
singly, but occasionally a good number of the trees occur
near together. It is one of the most striking of British
Guiana palms, the almost erect leaves having the appear-
ance of curled plumes. The various parts of the plant are
largely used by the natives : the young leaves are used for
thatching huts, darts for blow-pipes are made from splinters
of the woody midribs, the pericarp of the fruits is scraped
off and eaten, while the kernels, called " mareepa " by the
Carib tribes, form in times of scarcity almost the sole food
of the Indians. The kernels are also employed by the
natives for the extraction of oil.

Samples of cokerite fruits and cokerite kernel oil from
British Guiana were received at the Imperial Institute in
August 191 5.

The fruits were submitted by the Imperial Institute for
identification to the authorities of the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew, who stated that they were derived from a
species of Maximiliana^ possibly M. regia.

The fruits were dark brown, rounded at the base and
pointed at the apex, and measured ij to 2 in. in length and
from f to I in. in diameter. The rounded end was covered
by a thin, papery bract.

Each fruit consisted of pericarp and nut including the

COKERITE FRUITS AND OIL FROM BRITISH GUIANA 9

kernel. The dark brown pericarps were tough and fibrous
externally, whilst internally they were soft and pulpy and
contained oiL The nuts, which were of a pale brown
colour, measured from ij to i| in. in length and from J to
j in. in diameter, and consisted of a hard, woody shell
enclosing two or three kernels.

The kernels were long, narrow, and flattened in shape,
measuring about i in. in length and J in. in breadth. They
were covered with a greyish-brown mottled skin, whilst
internally they were whitish and resembled palm kernels
in consistency.

The sample of kernel oil consisted of a fairly hard
cream-coloured fat, with an odour resembling that of
coconut oil. It was free from dirt and moisture, and
appeared to have been well prepared.

Fruits. — The fruits were found to have the following
percentage composition by weight :

Bracts . . . I2'4 I Shell .... 53*6

Pericarp , . .170 1 Kernels . . .170

The nuts consisted of shell, 76 per cent., and kernels,
24 per cent.

The average weight of a fruit was io'6 grams, of a nut
7*5 grams, and of a single kernel I's grams.

Pericarp OiL — The brown oily pericarp contained in
per cent, of moisture and yielded 150 per cent, of a semi-
solid, orange-red oil, equivalent to a yield of 17*1 per cent,
from the dry pulp, or 2*6 per cent, from the whole fruit.
The oil was submitted to chemical examination, and the
results are shown below in comparison with those recorded
for palm oil (the pericarp oil of the fruit of the oil-palm,
Elaeis guineensis).

Cokerite pericarp oil. Palm oil.»

Solidifying point of fatty acids . 25'5* C. 35-8°-46-4" C.

(usually 44- 5'-45"o°C.)
Acid value ' . . . . 28*6 —

Saponification value ' . . 2ii'6 i963-205'5

Iodine value . . percent. 51-4 53-57'4

' See this Bulletin (1909, 7, 389).
"^ Milligrams of potash for i gram of oil.

This cokerite pericarp oil resembles palm oil in appear-
ance, but it obviously differs somewhat from it in chemical

BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

composition. There is, however, no doubt that cokerite
pericarp oil would be readily marketable if it could be
obtained in quantity.

Kernels. — The kernels, as extracted from the fruits at
the Imperial Institute, contained 11*3 per cent, of moisture,
and yielded 56*9 per cent, of a fairly hard, cream-coloured
fat, with an odour resembling that of coconut oil. This is
equivalent to a yield of 64' i per cent, of oil from the dry
kernels, or 97 per cent, from the whole fruit.

The kernel oil forwarded from British Guiana and the
oil extracted from the kernels at the Imperial Institute were
examined with the following results, which are compared
with those recorded for palm kernel and coconut oils :

Oil pre-

pared in
British

pared at
Imperial

Palm kernel
oil.

Coconut oil.

Guiana.

Institute.

Specific gravity at I^ .
Melting point (open tube method

0-868I

0-8668

0-8731

08736

27-5° C.

27° C.

23°-30°C.

23^-27° c.

Solidifying point of fatty acids

—

242° C.

2o-o°-25-5°C.

2I-2**-2S-2''a

Acid value "...

4-6

—

Saponification value ' .

2523

2530

242-4-254-8

245-268-4

Iodine value . . per cent

12-8

13-0

IO-3-I7-5

80-100

Hehner value

—

88-9

911

88-6-90-5

Insoluble fatty acids, per cent

—

88-6

—

Unsaponifiable matter, per cent

—

0-3

—

Volatile acids, soluble ^

—

3-0

50-7-6

6-65-80

„ ,, insoluble 2 .

—

10-12

15-20

' Milligrams op potash for i gram oj oil.

' Cubic centimetres of decinormal alkali required to neutralise acid from 5 grams
of oil.

The results indicate that the oil obtained from cokerite
kernels is similar to palm kernel and coconut oils, the chief
difference being that it yields somewhat smaller quantities
of volatile acids.

Kernel Meal. — The meal left after the extraction of the
oil from the kernels was a pale brown material, with a mild
and not unpleasant taste somewhat suggestive of coconut.
It was submitted to chemical examination at the Imperial
Institute, and the results obtained have been re-calculated
for a cake containing 70 per cent, of fat so that they may
be conveniently compared with the figures recorded for
palm kernel and coconut cakes :

COKERITE FRUITS AND OIL FROM BRITISH GUIANA ii

^"r«rof.'«,. («P->e<J). («pr«.ed).

Ptr c«nt. Per cent. Per cent.

Moisture 8*6 i2*o 8'5

Crude proteins 15*0 18*5 24*5

Consisting of :

True proteins .... 147 — —

Other nitrogenous substances . o'3 — —

Fat 70 5*5 8*3

Starch, etc. (by difference) . . 52*5 50*0 39*8

Fibre 12*6 lo'o I2'8

Ash 4'3 4*0 6*1

Nutrient ratio ^ i : 4'6 I : 3*4 i : 2*4

Food units' 108 no 122

' The ratio between the percentage of crude proteins and the sum of the percentages
of starch and fat ^ the latter being first converted into its starch equivalent.

* The total obtained by adding the percentage of starch to 2' 5 times the sum of the
percentages of fat and crude proteins.

The foregoing results indicate that the residual meal
from cokerite kernels should have a feeding value approxi-
mately equal to that of palm kernel cake and somewhat
lower than that of coconut cake.

Commercial Value of Cokerite Fruits

It will be seen from the foregoing that the cokerite fruits
have a structure analogous to that of oil-palm fruits {Elaeis
guineensis), and that, like the latter, they furnish two pro-
ducts which need consideration from a commercial point
of view, viz. :

(i) Pericarp oil.

(2) Kernel, yielding oil and feeding cake.

The principal difference between cokerite and oil-palm
fruits, so far as commercial value is concerned, is that the
former have a thin pericarp, giving a comparatively small
yield of oil, w^hereas oil-palm fruits have a thick, soft
pericarp, rich in oil. The essential differences between the
two kinds of fruits are shown in the following table :

Percentage by weight in the fruit.

Cokerite fruits

Oil-palm fruits :

{a) With thick-shelled nuts .
{b) With thin-shelled nuts ,

Pericarp.

Pericarp
oil.

Kernel.

I7-0

2-6

17-0

25-36
69-83

16-19
35-48

13-19

7-9

12 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

In West Africa only oil-palm fruits with thick-shelled
nuts are obtainable in sufficient quantity to be worth
working, and consequently only this variety need be con-
sidered for comparison in the present instance. It is clear
that since this variety of oil-palm fruits yields nearly 7
times as much pericarp oil (palm oil) as cokerite fruits, the
latter form a comparatively poor source of pericarp oil, and
it is scarcely worth while to consider them as a commercial
source of this product, except as a possible by-product in
working the fruits for kernels.

The yield of kernels, on the other hand, compares
favourably with that from the best varieties of oil-palm
fruits. Moreover, since the kernels yield rather more oil
than palm kernels, and the oil itself is quite comparable
with palm kernel and coconut oils, there can be no doubt
that cokerite kernels would fetch the same price as palm
kernels or possibly a little more. The present price
of palm kernels in Liverpool is ;£'2o 5s. per ton (May,
1916).

The sole question, therefore, is as to whether cokerite
kernels can be produced in British Guiana at a price which
will admit of their being sold in Liverpool at about the
same price as palm kernels. In this connection it is im-
portant to ascertain whether the fruits are obtainable in
British Guiana in large quantities in easily accessible areas,
and the Imperial Institute has therefore asked for informa-
tion on this point. Further, it would probably not be
remunerative to export the whole fruits from British
Guiana, so that it becomes important to consider the ex-
traction of the kernels. It is not likely that it would be
possible to do this by hand in British Guiana, and so far as
is known at the Imperial Institute, there is at present no
machine suitable for this purpose.

The extraction of the babassu kernel {Attalea sp.),
however, presents a similar problem. It is stated that a
machine is now in use in Brazil for extracting babassu
kernels, and the Imperial Institute is making enquiries
there on this subject. It is possible that this machine will
also be suitable for cokerite fruits, and if so it might be
feasible to treat the cokerite fruits in the machine to obtain

COKERITE FRUITS AND OIL FROM BRITISH GUIANA 13

a mixture of (a) kernels and (b) shells and pericarp. The
former could be separated and exported, whilst the mixed
shells and pericarp could perhaps be worked by a modern
extraction process for the production of pericarp oil.

Until information is available regarding the Brazilian
machine, all that can be done is to ascertain whether the
supplies of cokerite fruits in British Guiana are large and
sufficiently accessible to warrant their serious consideration
as a workable product. It was suggested that if this seems
likely, a consignment of the fruits should be sent to the
Imperial Institute for technical trial

SILK FROM TRINIDAD

In a previous number of this Bulletin (191 5, 13, Sy) an
article was published on the possibilities of sericiculture in
British Colonies and Dependencies, with special reference
to the rearing of wild and semi-wild silkworms. The
attention of Colonial governments was drawn to this article
by a circular dispatch from the Secretary of State for the
Colonies in May last, and as a result communications have
been received at the Imperial Institute from several British
possessions relating to the possibility of establishing a
sericicultural industry in those countries. In the present
article the possibilities in Trinidad are dealt with, together
with an account of the results of examination at the Im-
perial Institute of samples of silk from that colony.

According to information supplied by the Entomologist
to the Board of Agriculture, Trinidad and Tobago, the
first authentic record of the introduction of silkworms
into Trinidad dates back to 1868, when the Eri silkworm
{Attacus ricini) was imported and successfully reared by
Mr. C. Glaudon; but no attempt appears to have been made
to establish a silkworm-rearing industry at that time. In
1893 cocoons of the Chinese oak silkworm (Antheraea
pernyi\ the Ailanthus silkworm {Attacus cynthia), the North
American silkworm {Telea polyphemus), and of Callosamia
promethea were imported. The caterpillars of the first-
named were successfully reared on Terminalia Catappa^ and

U BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

the cocoons produced were favourably reported on. The
Ailanthus silkworms were fed on the castor-oil plant and
Terminalia, but the resulting cocoons were smaller than
the imported ones. No results were obtained from the
other two silkworms mentioned. In 1894 specimens of
the cocoons of the Ailanthus silkworm {Attacus cynthia)
were received by the Superintendent of the Royal
Botanic Gardens, and although this experiment was not
successful in establishing the silkworm, it was again
proved that it can be reared in Trinidad.

In 1907 mulberry seeds were imported by Mr. Glaudon
and planted at St. Joseph. When the plants were estab-
lished, eggs of Bombyx mori were obtained, and since then
this silkworm has done well on a small scale at this place
and so far has not suffered from any disease. Two strains
are reared, one producing yellow silk and another white,
whilst a cross between the two has been obtained.

In 1 91 2 eggs of the Eri silkworm were again imported
by Mr. Glaudon, who has successfully reared the worms
up to the present time, and so far has not had any of them
attacked by disease. He is now in a position to supply
eggs to other persons in the island.

A wild silkworm, Attacus hesperus^ occurs in Trinidad.
In the wild state, the caterpillars, which possess irritating
bristles, occur only once a year, from June to September.
They are said to spin cocoons after thirty days, and the
moths emerge at intervals varying from forty to sixty days
but sometimes do not emerge for two years.

This silkworm can be reared in a similar manner to the
Eri silkworm, but the moths have to be caged for mating
and ovipositing. The food-plant of the caterpillar is a
species of Casearia^ which is common in most parts of the
island.

In July 191 5 specimens of the white and yellow varieties
of mulberry silk, of Eri silk, and of Trinidad wild silk were
received at the Imperial Institute for examination, and the
results are given in the following pages.

No. I. " Mulberry silk {white variety)!' — This sample con-
sisted of cocoons of dark cream colour externally, having
the usual appearance of mulberry silk cocoons {Bombyx

SILK FROM TRINIDAD 15

mort)^ and measuring on the average about I's in. in length
and 07 in. in diameter. The average weight was 0*39
gram. The cocoons were not pierced and contained dead
chrysalides.

The silk appeared to be of normal strength and char-
acter. The diameter of the double fibre, or " have,"
measured up to approximately 0*0009 in-> ^^d that of the
single fibres was mostly about 0*0004 i"-

These cocoons appeared to be of good quality. Silk
cocoons of a good grade fetch in normal times about 45.
per lb. in Marseilles, and cocoons resembling those of the
present sample should sell in quantity at rather lower
prices, probably at 35. to 3s. 6d. per lb.

No. 2. *' Mulberry silk {yellow variety)'' — This sample
consisted of yellow cocoons, having the usual appearance
of mulberry silk, and averaging about i'2 in. in length and
07 in. in diameter. The average weight was about 0*26
gram.

The silk appeared to be of normal strength and char-
acter. The approximate diameter of the double fibre, or
"have," measured up to o'ooio in., and that of the single
fibres from 0-0004 to 0*0005 in.

These cocoons had been pierced by the moths. Pierced
cocoons can only be used for the manufacture of " spun "
silk yarns, by "carding" the silk, as it is impossible to
unwind such cocoons. They sell in normal times at about
IS. id. per lb. in the United Kingdom. The piercing of
cocoons should be prevented by killing the chrysalides,
either by careful heating in an oven or by immersion in
boiling water.

No. 3. '' Eri silk.'" — This sample consisted of white
cocoons with bluntly pointed ends, having the usual
appearance of Eri silk cocoons, and measuring about 17
in. in length and 07 in. in diameter. The average weight
was about 0*33 gram.

The silk was of good colour and strength. The approxi-
mate diameter of the double fibre, or " have," measured up
to 0-0015 in., and that of the single fibres from 00005 to
0*0007 in.

Owing to the structure of Eri silk cocoons the silk

i6 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

cannot be reeled, but must be carded. The silk is easily
degummed by boiling with soap solution. The uniform
white colour of the present sample would be advantageous,
as Eri silk often contains reddish-brown cocoons which are
objectionable. A previous sample of Eri silk examined at
the Imperial Institute in 1907, which was inferior to the
present material, was valued at about is. per lb.

No. 4. ''Native silkworm {Attacus hesperusY — This
sample consisted of three cocoons measuring from 2*1 to
2*5 in. in length and 0*9 to 1*2 in. in diameter, and varying
in colour from dark cream to dull pale greyish-brown.
The average weight was 08 gram. The cocoons were
bluntly pointed, and bore a long, ribbon-like attachment
at one end. The texture was papery and very tough.

The silk could not be reeled, and it possessed the
further disadvantage of being difficult to degum, as boiling
with soap solution, which is the usual treatment for Bombyx
silk and is sufficient also for Eri silk, proved insufficient
in the present case. Sodium carbonate solution was also
ineffective, and it was necessary to use dilute caustic soda.

The quantity of silk available was too small to allow
of further experiments in degumming, etc., but the material
did not appear to be of a promising character and would
only realise a low price, probably lower even than that
of Eri silk, which it resembles in microscopic appearance.
The approximate diameter of the double fibre, or " have,"
measured up to 0*002 in., and that of the single fibres from
00006 to 0-0008 in.

Remarks on the Possibilities of Sericiculture in Trinidad

In view of the results of the various experiments which
have been carried out in Trinidad, there seems no doubt
that silkworms can be reared successfully in the Island. It
might be possible, therefore, to establish silk-culture as
a village industry which could be carried on chiefly by the
women and children. Such an industry would increase
the resources of the Colony without withdrawing labour
from other occupations.

It has been mentioned already that no less than seven
different kinds of silkworms have been considered as

SILK FROM TRINIDAD 17

possible silk producers in Trinidad, viz. (i) the mulberry
silkworm (Bombyx niori) ; (2) the Eri worm {Attacus ricini) ;
(3) the Trinidad silkworm (Attacus hesperus) ; (4) Attacus
cynthia^ the Ailanthus silk moth of Northern China and
Japan ; (5) Anthercea pernyi^ the Mongolian oak-feeding
silkworm ; (6) Telea polyphemns ; and (7) Callosamia pro-
methea.

In considering which of these silkworms is best adapted
for culture in Trinidad, Telea polyphemus and Callosamia
promethea may at once be ruled out, as they are very little
known commercially, and the experiments with them in
1893 failed to give any results. With regard to Attacus
cynthia and Antheraea pernyi^ the preliminary experiments
afford evidence that these insects can be reared in Trinidad,
but much more work would be required before it was
proved that they could be cultivated successfully on an
industrial scale.

With reference to the indigenous silkworm, Attacus
hesperus^ it might perhaps be worth while to ascertain
whether this species could be domesticated on a large
scale ; but in any case it seems probable that it would not
yield better results than the Eri worm, and the silk of
the latter has the advantage of being well known in the
European and American markets. Moreover, Attacus
hesperus may perhaps be objectionable on account of the
irritating hairs borne by the worms, which might cause
troublesome skin affections to the workers. It might be
worth while, however, to adopt the suggestion of the
Government Entomologist that caterpillars of the moth
should be collected and reared at St. Clair, and that a
supply of the food-plant Casearia sp. be planted, with the
object of testing the possibilities of this insect, of which
so little is at present known.

It thus seems advisable that attention should at first
be directed in Trinidad particularly to the mulberry silk-
worm and the Eri silkworm. These varieties have the
advantage that their respective fcu?d-plants grow well in
the Island, and could readily be planted in any desired
quantity.

It is not unlikely that the Eri silkworm will eventually

i8 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

be found more suitable for the purposes of a local industry
in Trinidad than the mulberry worm, since (i) it can with-
stand a higher temperature than the mulberry worm and
would probably be more easily acclimatised in the Colony,
and (2) the Eri silk is more easily handled, as it is not
necessary to kill the chrysalis, and the cocoons, after the
moths have emerged, only require to be turned inside out
and cleaned (an operation which can be readily accom-
plished either by hand or by comparatively inexpensive
machinery), and can then be packed closely in bales for
export.

SOUTH AFRICAN BOXWOOD {BUXUS
MA COW AN I)
The wood known as South African or Cape boxwood
{Buxus Macowaniy Oliver) has been from time to time
exported in small quantities to this country ; but during
recent years most of the boxwood shipped from South
Africa has been that known as Knysna ** boxwood," derived
from Gonioma Kamassi^ E. Mey. Efforts are now being
made to re-introduce the true South African boxwood into
the markets of the United Kingdom, and in this connection
a small consignment of the wood was sent to the Imperial
Institute for examination. Reference has already been
made in this Bulletin (191 5, 13, 24) to some of the results
obtained. It was found that, as regards working quaUties,
the wood was much like the ordinary boxwood {Buxus
sempervirens, Linn.), but was less dense and hard and
somewhat tougher. A firm of bobbin and shuttle manu-
facturers to whom specimens of the wood were submitted
stated that it was rather soft for their purposes and no
better as regards weight than West Indian "boxwood"
{Casearia prcecox, Griseb.). A firm of wood turners re-
ported that the wood seemed to behave quite satisfactorily
in turning and screwing, and that it could probably be used
for a number of purposes for which Turkish boxwood has
hitherto been employed. Another firm has reported that
the wood is quite equal to Turkish boxwood for turnery.

It was pointed out {loc. cit., p. 25) that a firm of wood
engravers had stated that a preliminary inspection of the

Plate I.

Engraved block of South African boxwood. (Two-thirds actual diameter.)

[19

SOUTH AFRICAN BOXWOOD {BUXUS MACOWANI) 19

wood indicated that it could only be used for a cheap class
of wood engraving, but that a fairer opinion could be
formed in a few months' time, when the wood had become
drier. They proposed to cut up the sample in the usual
wa}^ and, after seasoning the pieces, to submit them to
practical tests by engravers.

The firm, having now completed their tests, state that
they are quite satisfied with the results, and that the sample
of timber submitted to them is as suitable for engraving
purposes as the best Turkish or Persian boxwood. The
wood needs the same care in seasoning as these boxwoods,
and when properly seasoned shows no more tendency to
develop " checks " {i.e. cracks or splits) than the latter.

In support of their remarks the firm courteously sub-
mitted a transverse section of the wood which had been
engraved with a complicated pattern to test its possibilities
in this direction. By permission of Mr. T. N. Lawrence,
who provided this engraved block, a photographic re-
production of the specimen is given in Plate I. Attention
may be drawn to the fact that there is no sign of any
" check " in the wood, and that the edge of the cuts made
by the tools is sharp and well defined, even in the parts
of the pattern where it is difficult to preserve the " edge "
intact.

It has been thought by some that the timber oi Buxus
Macowani has a tendency to develop " checks " when it is
cut up. It may be pointed out, however, that of six firms
to whom the Imperial Institute has submitted samples of
this wood not one has called attention to such a defect
in the wood, whilst two firms mentioned that it showed
this tendency to a less extent than Turkish and Persian
boxwoods.

A number of experiments have been made at the
Imperial Institute with the two small consignments of this
boxwood received from South Africa. Owing to the
pressure of important work in connection with the war
this series of experiments could not be made either as
extensive or as complete as is desirable; but the results
indicate that if care is taken to preserve and season the
wood in such a way that the natural moisture of the logs

20 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

escapes very slowly, little or no checking occurs when the
logs are cut up.

For the present it would seem desirable that the follow-
ing precautions should be taken in South Africa to secure
this end, when this timber is being exported :

1. The timber should be cut when the trees contain the
minimum amount of sap.

2. The bark should be left on the logs.

3. The ends of the logs should be thoroughly waxed or
painted to prevent too rapid evaporation of the sap.

It was recommended in the earlier report that a trial
shipment of the wood should be sent from South Africa to
the Imperial Institute for sale by brokers in London. A
small consignment was received in September 191 5. The
total quantity of wood was about 12 tons, made up as
follows :

Tons. cwts. qrs. lb.

I in. to 2j in. in diameter, 48 pieces . . . o 7 i 14

2| in. to 4^ in. „ 207 „

• 3

I 21

4| in. to 6 in. „ 160 „

. 4

0 14

Over 6 in. „ 62 „

■ . 3

0 7

Also 15 bundles weighing .

. 0

2 21

Total .

. 12

2 21

The wood was inspected at the docks by the brokers
and was reported to be " of regular growth, generally free
from knots, and sound, the pieces having evidently been
selected."

The consignment was sold in London in December 191 5
in one lot, at the price of £g 5s. per ton.

The brokers stated that the shippers might safely be
recommended to send a further consignment of Buxus
Macowani wood of a similar quality, as since the sale they
had had enquiries for the wood from other buyers. They
pointed out that it would be a great advantage to get this
boxwood re-introduced to the English market as quickly
as possible, owing to the continued scarcity of Persian and
Turkish boxwood. They were of opinion that they could
obtain a similar price for another shipment, and added that
there is a possibility of a higher price being secured when
the wood becomes known.

Since the sale of this first consignment it is understood

SOUTH AFRICAN BOXWOOD {BUXUS MACOWANI) 21

that several shipments of the timber have arrived in London
and have sold readily.

According to information supplied by the Forest De-
partment of the Union of South Africa, a fair quantity of
B» Macowani timber is available in the Alexandria forests
of the Cape Province, and far larger quantities in the
Transkeian forests. The timber in the latter forests is not
very accessible at present, but it is thought that it will
be possible to draw on it in future as the demand increases.

SOLANACEOUS DRUGS FROM AFRICA

The present scarcity and high price of the alkaloid atropine,
due to the cessation of supplies from the Continent owing
to the war, have caused considerable interest to be taken
in drugs capable of serving as a source of this alkaloid.
Atropine does not, as a rule, occur in plants as such, but
can be readily prepared from its isomeride, hyoscyamine,
the best source of which is Egyptian henbane, Hyoscyamus
muticuSy Linn., a plant which grows wild in Egypt and the
Sudan and eastwards to India. Examination of specimens
of the Egyptian plant at the Imperial Institute having shown
that the leaves may contain as much as r2 per cent, of
hyoscyamine, the attention of British alkaloid manufacturers
was drawn to the plant in 1902, and since that time supplies
have been coming to this country and to Germany from
Egypt (cf. this Bulletin, 1903, 1, 175 ; 191 5, 13, 29).

Amongst other possible sources of hyoscyamine reference
may be made to the various species of Datura of which
ordinary Stramonium or thorn apple, D. Stramoniitm^ is
perhaps the best known. As mentioned later in this
article, however, D, Stramonium contains less alkaloid than
Hyoscyamus muticus^ and probably could not compete with
the latter for the manufacture of alkaloid so long as
H. muticus was obtainable in adequate quantity.

Specimens of H. muticus from the Sudan and of Datura
Stramonium from Egypt, the Sudan, and South Africa
have been examined recently at the Imperial Institute and
the results are given in the following pages. An account
of the examination at the Imperial Institute of various

22 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Solanaceous drugs from India, comprising D. Stramonium,
D. jastuosa, D. Metel, Hyoscyamus reticulatuSy and H. niger
will be found in this Bulletin (191 i, 9, no).

Hyoscyamus muticus from the Sudan

The sample of H. muticus which is the subject of this
report was forwarded for examination to the Imperial
Institute in May 191 5. It consisted of the mixed leaves
and stems in a dry and broken condition.

The examination of a representative portion of the
whole sample showed that the material as received con-
tained 0*67 per cent, of total alkaloid, equivalent to a yield
of 077 per cent, of total alkaloid from the dry material.
The purified alkaloid was obtained almost entirely in the
crystalline condition characteristic of hyoscyamine, and
further examination confirmed its identity with that
alkaloid.

These results indicate that this sample of //. muticus
from the Sudan contained as large a percentage of total
alkaloid as samples of the stem and leaves of this plant
received at the Imperial Institute from Egypt (see this
Bulletin, 1903, 1, 175).

If abundant supplies of H, muticus can be obtained in
the Sudan, of similar quality to this sample, there is no
doubt that consignments could be disposed of to alkaloid
manufacturers in the United Kingdom. The value of
consignments of the plant will vary from time to time in
accordance with the demand for manufacturing purposes,
but it is understood that a price of ;£"i5 per ton, fo.b.
Egyptian port, was paid for supplies of the dried plant
in 1915.

Datura Stramonium
Egypt

A sample of D. Stramonium was received at the Imperial
Institute from Egypt in October 1914. It consisted
principally of dry, broken stems with attached fruits
containing a quantity of seed. A small proportion of
leaves was present, but owing to the dryness of the
niaterial these had become reduced to powder,

SOLANACEOUS DRUGS FROM AFRICA 23

A representative portion of the entire sample was
selected for chemical examination and furnished the
following results :

Ptr cent.

Moisture (on drying at 100° C.) 9'4

Total alkaloid :

(i) On material as received o'i25

(2) On dry material 0138

The total alkaloid was easily obtained in a crystalline
condition, and subsequent examination showed that it
consisted principally, if not entirely, of hyoscyamine.

The percentage of alkaloid present in this sample is
much less than in a specimen of D. Stramonium from
Egypt examined at the Imperial Institute in 1900, which
was found to contain 0*35 per cent, of total alkaloid in the
seeds and 0*3 per cent, in the mixed stems, leaves and
fruit-cases, and is considerably below that recorded for
Stramonium leaves, stems, and seeds from other countries,
as is shown by the following table :

Yield of total alkaloid.

Leaves : P«r cenu

Indian 0*41 to 0*45

European up to 0*4

South African 0-49

Stems :

Indian 0*25 to 0*26

European (main stems) 0*09

„ (upper branches) .... 0*36

Seeds :

Indian o'i86

European o'2i to 0'48

A further sample of the dried leaves of D, Stramonium
from Egypt was received at the Imperial Institute in
July 191 5. It consisted of leaves measuring from about
6 by 3J in. to about 9^ by 7 in. The colour varied from
light green to brownish-green, but most of the leaves were
of a sage-green colour. The leaves were in good condition
on the whole, but some of them had been attacked by
insects and a few showed signs of mould.

The leaves were submitted to chemical examination,
and were found to contain 0*28 per cent, of total alkaloid in
the material as received, equivalent to a yield of 0*32 per
cent, from the dry material. The alkaloid was identified as

24 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

principally hyoscyamine, and this result agrees with that
obtained for specimens of D. Stramonium leaves from other
sources. The amount of alkaloid present in this Egyptian
sample is, however, below the average (cf figures given
on page 23).

The leaves were submitted to manufacturing druggists
in London, who stated that they were in excellent condition,
so much so that it was doubtful whether leaves of equal
quality could be produced on a commercial scale.

Sudan

Specimens of (i) the mixed stems, leaves and capsules of
D. Stramonium and (2) the seeds of the plant were received
from the Sudan for examination at the Imperial Institute
in May 1915.

(i) Sterns^ leaves^ and capsules. — The material was in a
dry and broken condition, the leaves being largely reduced
to powder. A few seeds were also present.

A representative portion of the whole sample was
submitted to chemical examination, and was found to
contain o'i2 per cent, of total alkaloid, equivalent to a yield
of 013 per cent, from the dry material. On purification the
alkaloid was nearly all obtained in a crystalline condition,
and was identified as hyoscyamine. The predominant
alkaloid is therefore hyoscyamine, and in this respect the
results agree with those obtained for specimens of
D. Stramonium plants from other sources. The amount of
alkaloid present in this sample is, however, considerably
below the average (see p. 23).

(2) S^^^s.— This sample consisted of small, greyish-
black, flattened, wrinkled seeds. The seeds, as received,
were found to contain 009 per cent, of total alkaloid,
equivalent to a yield of 0-096 per cent, from the dry seeds.
Examination showed that in this case also the predominant
alkaloid was hyoscyamine, as is usually the case in D.
Stramonium seeds. The percentage of alkaloid present
is, however, very low in comparison with that furnished by
seed from other countries (see figures quoted on p. 23).

The results show that the samples of D. Stramonium
from the Sudan contained too low a percentage of alkaloid

SOLANACEOUS DRUGS tROU AFRICA 25

to be of any interest to alkaloid manufacturers. It is

difficult to account for the low yield of alkaloid from the

Sudan Stramonium products, and further samples have been

asked for in order to ascertain whether this is characteristic

of Sudan Stramonium. Special recommendations were

made with reference to the collection and packing of the

samples.

South Africa

A sample of leaves of D. Stramonium from South Africa
was received at the Imperial Institute in August 191 5. It
consisted of leaves measuring from 2| by ij in. to 8^ by
7 in., and mostly of a sage-green colour ; several leaves,
however, showed patches of brown or dark green, whilst
a few small leaves were reddish-brown. Some of the
leaves had been attacked by insects, and a few showed
signs of mould.

The leaves were found to contain 0*49 per cent, of total
alkaloid in the material as received, equivalent to a yield of
o*54 per cent, from the dried material. The chief alkaloidal
constituent was hyoscyamine.

The amount of alkaloid in this sample compares favour-
ably with that found in the leaves of D. Stramonium from
other countries, as will be seen from the figures quoted on
page 23.

The present sample also resembles D. Stramonium
leaves from other sources in containing hyoscyamine as
the chief alkaloid.

The leaves were submitted to manufacturing druggists
and merchants in London for valuation. The former
regarded the yield of total alkaloid as particularly good.
The merchants reported that the leaves were dark in
colour, and seemed to have been damaged in drying or
during transit. They were, however, of opinion that if the
material could be dried more carefully to a satisfactory
green shade, it would be possible to market considerable
quantities, provided that the leaves were consistently as
rich in alkaloid as the present sample.

It seems clear from these results that the South African
Stramonium leaves will be readily saleable in the United
Kingdom, particularly if care is taken to dry them more

26 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

carefully so that they acquire a uniform bright green
colour and are not much broken. Leaves so prepared
could probably be sold to manufacturing druggists in com-
petition with French and Italian Stramonium leaves ; and,
as long as the present scarcity of well-prepared Stramonium
continues, they would probably fetch similar prices, if
marketed carefully in comparatively small quantities.

Commercial Value of D, Stramonium Leaves

The leaves and seeds of D. Stramonium^ separated from
the other parts of the plant, were formerly included in
the British Pharmacopoeia, and were used for making
official pharmaceutical preparations. In the new Pharma-
copoeia (19 14), however, D. Stramonium has been replaced
by D./astuosa var. alba and D. Metel^ so that Stramonium
leaves and seeds will no longer be required in the United
Kingdom for official purposes.

There is, however, a special market for the leaves of
D. Stramonium^ which are used for the manufacture of
asthma remedies, and it would probably be possible to sell
consignments of good quality for this purpose. The leaves
should be carefully collected and dried, and should be
packed so as to prevent their becoming broken during
transit.

A firm of manufacturing druggists, to whom the samples
of leaves from Egypt and South Africa were submitted,
stated that the price of Stramonium leaves in London was
rather high at the date of valuation (December 191 5),
French supplies selling at 6ys. per cwt. and Italian at
575. 6^., against a price in normal times of 305. to 40s.
per cwt. The firm added that Stramonium leaves might
possibly be used as a substitute for belladonna leaves
if the present scarcity of the latter drug continues.

The value of the D. Stramonium plant as a source of
hyoscyamine, or of atropine, which can be readily prepared
from hyoscyamine, will of course depend on the percentage
of total alkaloid present. In the first sample from Egypt,
and in that from the Sudan dealt with in the preceding
pages, the amount of alkaloid is very low, and the value
of such material for alkaloid manufacture would con-

SOLANACEOUS DRUGS FROM AFRICA 27

sequently be small. Even the highest yield of alkaloid
recorded for D. Stramonium is, however, very much less
than the amount usually present in Hyoscyamus muticus^
and it would probably be difficult to sell supplies of the
former in competition with the latter except at an
extremely low price. Enquiries among manufacturing
druggists have confirmed this conclusion, and there seems
no doubt that, so long as adequate supplies of H. muticus
are available, they will prefer to use this plant rather than
Datura Stramonium for the manufacture of atropine.

SOUTH AFRICAN DRUGS AND POISONOUS

PLANTS

In a paper read before the British Medical Association,
Cape of Good Hope (Western) Branch, in August 191 5
{S.A. Medical Record, November 13, 191 5), Dr. C. F. Juritz,
Government Analyst, Cape Town, gave a summary of the
work done by various investigators on the active principles
contained in South African medicinal and poisonous plants.
He pointed out that much remains to be done in this direc-
tion, and that, as already mentioned in this Bulletin (191 5,
13, 28), it is only by a thorough co-operation of the chemist
with the botanist on the one hand, and with the phy-
siologist on the other, that results of any value can be
obtained. Although, as Dr. Juritz observes, much still
remains to be done before our knowledge of the con-
stituents of South African drugs and poisonous plants can
be regarded as complete, it must be pointed out that a
great deal of progress has been made in recent years. In
estimating this progress it must be borne in mind that the
investigation of such products is extremely difficult and
tedious, and that the results, regarded from an economic
point of view, are rarely commensurate with the expen-
diture of time and labour incurred. At present it is
extremely difficult to carry on such work, because scientific
staffs are depleted everywhere, and those who remain are
engaged either in work connected directly with the war
or in the solution of economic or industrial problems
brought about by the war.

28 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

A great deal of attention has been given by the Scien-
tific and Technical Research Department of the Imperial
Institute to the investigation of drugs and poisonous plants
in recent years, and an article giving the results of examina-
tion of twenty-five such plants was published last year in
this Bulletin (1915, 13, 28). Further, the last number of
the Bulletin contained a report on the examination of an
extensive series of samples of Indian opium (191 5, 13, 507),
whilst in the present issue reports are published (p. 21)
on Solanaceous drugs from various parts of Africa, in-
cluding Stramonium leaves from South Africa. The subject
is, therefore, not being neglected. The number of South
African drugs and poisonous plants now being examined
or awaiting investigation at the Imperial Institute is twelve,
and progress is being made with these as rapidly as the
present difficult circumstances permit. In view of the
interest now being taken on the subject in South Africa,
the following summary of work completed or in progress
on South African drugs and poisonous plants at the
Imperial Institute is published.

Senecio latifolius^ DC.

In certain parts of the Union of South Africa a disease,
known as Molteno disease, affects cattle and horses, in-
ducing hepatic cirrhosis. It was suspected that 5. lati-
Jolius^ DC. and S. Burchelliiy DC, near relatives of the
common groundsel and ragwort of this country, were
the cause of the disease ; and with the object of ascertain-
ing definitely whether the consumption of the former
plant could produce the effect, the Government of Cape
Colony forwarded a consignment of the plant to the
Imperial Institute in 1907 (cf. this Bulletin, 1911,9, 346).
The chemical examination of S. latijolius was made in the
laboratories of the Imperial Institute by Dr. H. E. Watt,
whose results were published in the Transactions oj the
Chemical Society (1909, 95, 466). It was found that speci-
mens of the plants collected before flowering contained
i*2o per cent, of alkaloids, whilst specimens collected after
flowering contained only 0*49 per cent. The total alkaloids
were eventually separated into their components, which

SOUTH AFRICAN DRUGS AND POISONOUS PLANTS 29

proved to be two new alkaloids, which were fully charac-
terised and were named senecifoline and senecifolidine
respectively. Both alkaloids crystallised well and yielded
crystalline salts. The physiological examination of the
pure alkaloids prepared by Dr. Watt was undertaken for
the Imperial Institute by Dr. A. R. Cushny, F.R.S., of
University College, London, who published a summary
of his results in the Proceedings of the Royal Society {igii^
B, 84, 188) and in the Journal oj Pharmacology and Experi-
mental Therapeutics (191 1, 2, 531). Dr. Cushny, as a result
of his experiments, concluded that the symptoms and post-
mortem findings in animals poisoned by senecifoline nitrate
or senecifolidine nitrate resembled so closely those de-
scribed by various authors as induced in cattle and horses
by 5. latifolius in South Africa that there can be no ques-
tion that the cause is the same in each, and that the Molteno
disease is really more or less chronic poisoning by Senecio
alkaloids.

As these results proved conclusively that Molteno
disease can be caused by the consumption of S. latifolius,
it was recommended that every effort should be made to
eradicate the plant wherever it occurs in quantity on
grazing land; and an account of the successful measures
which have been taken in certain parts of Canada against
the allied 5. Jacobaea^ Linn, (ragwort), which causes a
similar disease in that country, was furnished to the
South African authorities.

Acokanthera venenata^ G. Don

A. venenata (Nat. Ord. Apocynaceae) is a well-known
poisonous plant, and several cases of criminal and accidental
poisoning have been traced to its use in South Africa. So
far, however, the exact nature of the poisonous principle
has not been ascertained, and until the Imperial Institute
took the matter up the physiological effect of the plant had
not been determined completely by exact and detailed
experiments.

The material which was used in the investigations at
the Imperial Institute was received from the Transvaal in
1910 (cf. this Bulletin, 191 5, 13, 53). From certain other ^

30 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTIT\JTE

species of Acokanthera^ which yield a well-known group ot
arrow poisons, two poisonous substances have been isolated
by various investigators, viz. a crystalline glucoside, called
acokantherin, and an amorphous glucoside, variously known
as abyssinin, amorphous acokantherin, or acokanthin, both
of which are poisonous. In the chemical examination of
A, venenata at the Imperial Institute no alkaloid was
detected, and no trace of any glucoside yielding prussic
acid could be found. A considerable quantity of oxalic
acid was present, however, and in addition an intensely
bitter, amorphous product was isolated, which proved to
be highly poisonous. The quantity of the latter product
obtained was too small for fractionation with a view to the
possible isolation of crystalline acokantherin, and it is
impossible to say whether the amorphous product is a
single substance or a mixture. It possessed, however, all
the characters of crude acokantherin as described by Faust
{Arch. exp. Path, und Pharm.y 1902, 48, 272; 1903, 49, 446),
and is probably identical with this substance or very
closely related to it.

The physiological action of the bitter substance was
undertaken for the Imperial Institute by Dr. J. H. Burn, of
the Wellcome Physiological Research Laboratories, and
a detailed account of his results is given in the Bulletin
referred to above. Observations were made on the intact
animal, frogs and guinea-pigs being used for the purpose,
and on the isolated mammalian heart, whilst its effect on
the blood pressure, on plain muscle, and on the kidney
were also investigated. The results showed that the action
of A, venenata is in every way like that of digitalis (fox-
glove) leaves, and in this respect the plant resembles the
allied species A. Ouabaio, It is, however, only one-tenth
as active as digitalis.

The results of the chemical examination referred to
above show that the poisonous substance is so ill-defined
that a chemical examination alone would be of doubtful
value in detecting the poison in cases of accidental or
criminal poisoning. In such cases, therefore, reliance
should, where possible, be placed chiefly on observation of
the character of the toxic symptoms, and from this point

SOUTH AFRICAN DRUGS AND POISONOUS PLANTS 31

of view Dr. Burn's record of the principal physiological
effects of the poison is of special interest. Although,
therefore, the isolation of the active constituent or con-
stituents of A. venenata still remains to be accomplished,
the results already obtained are of great practical import-
ance, and it is doubtful v^hether the isolation of the pure
active principle, interesting as this would be, would add
much to the practical, as distinct from the scientific, value
of the results already obtained.

^^ Cape Slangkop" {Ornithoglossum glaucum^ Salisb.)

This plant, which belongs to the lily family, causes
poisoning of cattle in certain parts of South Africa, and, as
an outcome of the investigation of the plant at the Imperial
Institute, it was suggested to the South African authorities
that it should be proclaimed as dangerous in grazing lands,
and that farmers should be urged to exterminate the plant
by uprooting it wherever it occurs on their land.

The stems and leaves were found to be devoid of any
bitter taste, and the investigation of the plant at the
Imperial Institute has been, therefore, restricted mainly to
the bulbs. Chemical examination showed that alkaloids,
and glucosides yielding prussic acid, were absent from the
latter, but they contained a bitter substance of glucosidic
nature. Physiological experiments conducted by Prof.
Cushny showed that the extract containing this bitter
substance exerts an intensely poisonous action on frogs,
rats, and cats, the effect produced being typical of the
digitalis group of heart poisons. The chemical work on
this plant has since been devoted to the isolation of the
bitter toxic constituent in a pure condition. So far, how-
ever, these attempts have been unsuccessful, possibly owing
to the active substance undergoing partial decomposition
during extraction.

Homeria pallida^ Baker

This plant, known as Transvaal tulp (Nat. Ord. Iri-
daceae), occurs commonly on pasture land in the Province
named, and is said to cause much loss each year by the

32 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

poisoning of cattle. The dry leaves, on examination at the
Imperial Institute, were found to yield, on extraction with
alcohol, an alkaloidal residue in the form of a brown sticky
mass, soluble in water, and possessing a bitter taste. The
clear alcoholic extract had a mildly unpleasant taste, but
was not bitter or astringent. Cyanogenetic glucosides
were not present.

Extracts and other products from this plant have been
prepared at the Imperial Institute and submitted to a
pharmacologist for trial, but this work had to be postponed
owing to the outbreak of war.

Crotalaria Btirkeana^ Benth.

This plant, which belongs to the Nat. Ord. Leguminosae,
has long been suspected in South Africa of causing a
disease of stock, known as " stijfziekte," or " stifF-sickness,"
and it has been proved by feeding experiments with the
plant, carried out under the supervision of the Director of
Veterinary Research, Union of South Africa, that such is
really the case.

Material examined at the Imperial Institute was found
to contain traces of an alkaloid, which appeared to be
different from cytisine, an alkaloid stated to have been
found in other species of Crotalaria and to be present in
C. Burkeana. A small quantity of alkaloidal residue was
prepared at the Imperial Institute, but physiological trials
conducted by Dr. J. H. Burn indicated that it was devoid
of physiological activity. So far it has proved impossible
to isolate any well-defined crystalline constituent from the
plant, but a number of amorphous products of indefinite
character have been prepared, other than the alkaloidal
residue referred to previously; and specimens of these
have been submitted to a pharmacologist for trial, but this
work is delayed by the war.

Chailletia cymosa^ Hook.

C. cymosa (= Dichapetalum cymosum^ Hook.), belonging
to the Nat. Ord. Rhamnaceae and known in South Africa
as "gift-blad" or " gift-blaar," is stated to be one of the

SOUTH AFRICAN DRUGS AND POISONOUS PLANTS 33

most fatal plants to stock in South Africa. It occurs in
the Transvaal, especially in the northern bush veld, where
it causes many deaths annually, and also in Bechuanaland.

Examination at the Imperial Institute of material col-
lected at different ages showed that glucosides yielding
prussic acid were absent, and no poisonous alkaloid could
be detected. On extraction with alcohol the leaves yielded
a mixture of two resins, one easily soluble and the other
soluble with difficulty in this solvent ; neither of these
resins could be obtained in a pure and well-defined state.
Both products were examined physiologically by Prof.
Cushny in 1909, and both proved to be poisonous to
animals.

Power and Tutin (Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc.y 1906, 28,
1 1 70) found that the fruits of the closely related plant,
C. toxicaria^ G. Don, contained resins and extractive matter
which were toxic to animals, but could not be obtained in
a well-defined crystalline form.

Bark and Fruits of Strychnos Henningsii^ Gilg

The bark of this plant, known locally as the " hard
pear tree," has a peculiar bitter taste, and is said to be
freely used in Eastern Pondoland in the preparation of an
"appetiser bitter" by extraction with alcohol. Natives
commonly also use it medicinally and in veterinary prac-
tice. The fruits do not appear to be utilised in any way
by the natives.

Specimens of the bark and the fruits of S. Henningsii
from South Africa have been examined chemically at the
Imperial Institute (cf. this Bulletin, 191 5, 13, 30). An
alkaloid is present in both, the amount found being 5*3 per
cent, in the dry bark, o'i8 per cent, in the dry husk
of the fruits, and 4*4 per cent, in the dry kernels. The
alkaloid in the bark and in the kernels appears to be
the same— the amount obtained from the husks was too
small for examination. The exact nature of the alkaloid
has not yet been determined, but its reactions do not agree
with those of strychnine or brucine, the characteristic
alkaloids of S. Nux Vomica^ Linn, and 5. Ignatii^ Berg.

34 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

The chemical investigation of S. Henningsii is being
continued, with a view to obtaining the alkaloid in a
pure form and determining its nature and physiological
action.

Bark of Gonioma Kamassiy E. Mey.

The bark of this tree (Nat. Ord. Apocynaceae), which
yields the timber exported to Europe from South Africa
as "Knysna boxwood," has an extremely bitter taste. A
specimen of the bark examined at the Imperial Institute
was found to contain an alkaloid, but the amount present
was so small that its investigation could not be completed
with the quantity of bark available at the time. A further
supply of the bark has now been received, and its examina-
tion is in progress.

Roots of Mesembryanthemum Mahom] N. E. Br.

The natives of the Transvaal use the roots of Mesem-
bryanthemum Mahoni in the preparation of an intoxicating
beverage called " khadi," whilst the powdered roots are
sometimes employed by white people in place of yeast in
bread-making. The roots, however, contain a poisonous
substance, which in time proves injurious to the khadi
drinker, and in order to ascertain the nature of this con-
stituent and whether there is likely to be any danger in
using the powdered roots in bread-making, a sample of the
roots was forwarded to the Imperial Institute from the
Transvaal in 1910.

On chemical examination it was found that glucosides
and alkaloids were absent from the roots, but they contained
a quantity of oxalates, equivalent to about 3 per cent, of
oxalic acid. Oxalic acid and its salts are poisonous, and
the injurious effects resulting from the habitual use of
beverages prepared by the aid of this root are no doubt
due to the oxalates present. In view of the presence of
these salts it was pointed out that it is not desirable that
the roots should be used as a substitute for yeast in bread-
making, especially as an unduly large proportion may have
to be employed, it having been noticed at the Imperial

SOUTH AFRICAN DRUGS AND POISONOUS PLANTS 35

Institute that different specimens vary considerably in their
power of inducing fermentation.

The fermenting power of the roots is due to the presence
of a fungus, and, with a view to determining the identity of
the latter, specimens of the roots, as received at the Imperial
Institute, were sent to Prof. Adrian J. Brown, F.R.S., of
Birmingham University. The only organisms present
w^hich possess fermentative properties were a " yeast "
(Torula) and two moulds, Mucor eredus and Aspergillus
oryzae (the fungus largely employed in Japan in the pre-
paration of the beverage known as sake). The "yeast"
was present in only small amount, and was possibly only
a residue of the true active fermenting organism originally
existing in the root. Rhopalocystis nigra (= Aspergillus
niger)f a mould, was also present, and it was found that
this produced a large amount of oxalic acid when grown
on sugar solution. This is of interest in view of the fact
mentioned above that the chemical examination at the
Imperial Institute showed that a quantity of oxalates was
present in the roots.

" Ntsema " Root (Raphionacme divaricata^ Harv.)

The roots of this plant, which belongs to the Nat. Ord.
Asclepiadaceae, are said to be extensively used by the
natives employed on the Witwatersrand mines in the pre-
paration of an intoxicating drink known as ** kali," or
" skokian." There appears to be no record that the root
itself when eaten has any deleterious effects, but the use ot
the kali is stated to create in natives a condition that is
regarded as worse than drunkenness and makes them very
violent and frenzied.

In the native method of making kali the roots are peeled,
cut up, crushed, and the juice extracted, usually with the
aid of boiling water ; the residual pulp is then mixed with
golden syrup and hot water and allowed to ferment. Some-
times kaffir beer is added to the pulp, and the mixture
allowed to ferment for two or three days before the water
and golden syrup are introduced. The results of a pre-
liminary examination of a specimen of the pulp prepared at
the Imperial Institute afforded no evidence that it was

36 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

likely to be injurious, and it seems probable that the chief
effect of its fermentation is to give the beverage a flavour
which the native appreciates.

On analysis the pulp gave the following percentage
results, expressed on the dry material : Fat 8'i, crude
proteins 3*2, starch ;«7, water-soluble carbohydrates a trace,
crude fibre 308, ash 60. It does not seem possible, there-
fore, that the addition of this pulp to beer could have any
real dietetic value, and as it contains neither starch nor
sugar its fermentation would not lead to the production of
alcohol. This, however, does not exclude the possibility
that the material might undergo a fermentative change in
presence of saccharine substances, such as golden syrup,
with the production of some harmful substance. The
amount of material available was not sufficient to enable
this point to be investigated at the time, but a further
supply of the root has now been received from the Trans-
vaal for the purpose.

Datura Stramonium^ Linn.

A specimen of the leaves of D. Stramonium has been
examined at the Imperial Institute and found to be of good
quality. A full report on this sample is given in another
part of this Bulletin (p. 25), and no further reference need
be made to it here.

Leaves oj Barosma venusta^ Eckl. et Zeyh.

A specimen of the leaves of B, venusta from South
Africa was examined in order to ascertain whether they
could be employed in medicine as a substitute for the
ordinary buchu leaves of commerce, which are derived
from B. betulina^ Bartl. et Wendl. A detailed chemical
examination of the volatile oil obtained from the leaves
was made by Dr. Ernest Goulding, F.I.C. and Mr. O. D.
Roberts, A.I.C., of the Scientific and Technical Department
of the Imperial Institute, and the results were communicated
to the Chemical Society {Journ. Chem. Sac, 1914, 105, 2613).
It was found that the oil of B. venusta differs considerably
from that of B. betulina, and that diosphenol, the most
characteristic constituent of the latter oil, is absent from

SOUTH AFRICAN DRUGS AND POISONOUS PLANTS 37

the former. The leaves of B, venusta, therefore, could not
be used in medicine in place of the ordinary buchu leaves.

Tubers of Kaempjeria Ethelae^ J. M» Wood

The dried tubers or rhizomes of Kaempferia Ethelae^
J. M. Wood, known locally as " Sherungulu " tubers, are
utiHsed by the natives of the Rand, among whom they
are reputed to possess medicinal properties. The tubers
are very fragrant, and it was suggested by the South
African authorities that they might possibly be utilised as
a source of perfume. On examination at the Imperial
Institute the dried roots were found to yield 20 per cent,
of a volatile oil. The composition of the oil was established,
one of the constituents proving to be a new ketonic com-
pound, and a paper on the subject was communicated to
the Chemical Society by Dr. Ernest Goulding, F.I.C. and
Mr. O. D. Roberts, A.I.C. {Journ. Chem. Soc.^ 191 5, 107, 314;
see also this Bulletin, 191 5, 13, 15). A further supply of
the tubers has been received recently, and the investigation
is being continued in order to ascertain whether the oil can
be used commercially for any purpose.

Other South African Plants

Amongst other South African plants at present under
investigation at the Imperial Institute mention made be
made of Bersama Tysoniana^ Oliver (Nat. Ord. Sapindaceae),
the bark of which is said to have a very bitter taste, and to
be used medicinally by the natives ; Chrysophyllum viridi-
folium, Wood and Franks (Nat. Ord. Sapotaceae), an allied
species of which in South America yields a bark from
which a saponin-like substance known as " monesin " is
extracted ; and Urginea Burkei, Baker (Nat. Ord. Liliaceae),
the Transvaal Slangkop, which has caused much loss of
stock through poisoning in many parts of South Africa.

SALT FROM CYPRUS
Salt has for a long time been extracted for local use in
Cyprus. It is obtained from two salt lakes, the principal
one being situated about a mile to the south-west of

38 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Larnaca, and stretching along the coast for about 5 miles
towards Cape Kiti ; the other lake lies to the west of
Limassol, on the Akrotiri peninsula. Salt is a Government
monopoly in Cyprus, the amount of revenue derived from
it being about ;^7,ooo to ;^8,ooo annually.

According to information supplied to the Imperial
Institute by the Chief Secretary to the Government of
Cyprus, the average amount of salt available when the
Larnaca lake dries up in the autumn is estimated at
20,000 tons, while the amount which is extracted annually
for local use averages only 2,500 tons.

The lake salt sold in Cyprus is not refined before being
used, but is the crude salt as taken from the lake. The
more prosperous inhabitants use imported salt, of which
about 3 tons only enter the island annually.

The Chief Secretary states that there is no market at
present outside the island for the crude salt, although
several attempts have been made to find one. In the latter
connection it is interesting to note that, according to the
official trade returns, 300 tons of salt were exported from
Cyprus to Turkey in 1913, and 25 tons to Bulgaria in 1914.

A sample of the crude salt collected in October-
November 191 3 from the Larnaca Salt Lake was forwarded
to the Imperial Institute in January 1914 in order to ascer-
tain its composition and commercial possibilities.

The sample consisted of white, coarsely crystalline
sodium chloride in a moist condition.

The salt, as received, was chemically examined with the
following results :

Ptr cent.

Sodium chloride NaCl .... 9005

Potassium chloride KCl .
Calcium sulphate CaSO^
Magnesium sulphate MgSO^
Magnesium chloride MgCIj
Moisture ....

0-44
058
095
o"53
7-19

Borates, phosphates, iodides, bromides, and nitrates
were absent.

A large amount of the moisture present in the salt was
lost on exposure to the air, as much as 37 per cent,
evaporating in four days.

SALT FROM CYPRUS 39

Material represented by the sample received would
doubtless be saleable as a crude salt, but it would pro-
bably be more remunerative to refine it by crystallisation,
and thus to produce, if possible, a pure salt suitable for
table purposes.

In order to ascertain the quality of the product when
thus purified, crystallisation experiments were conducted
at the Imperial Institute, with the following results.

One pound of the salt was dissolved in 3-3 lb. of cold
water, and the liquid allowed to stand until all insoluble
matter had settled out. The clear liquid was then carefully
decanted into shallow vessels, and left at a temperature of
30° to 40° C. to deposit crystals. The crops of salt crystals
which separated each day were removed, drained, and
allowed to dry in the air. About 85 per cent, of the
original weight of salt had separated in twelve days, and
each of the twelve crops so obtained consisted of salt of
good quality. The liquor continued to deposit crystals
for another five days, but these represented salt which
steadily deteriorated in quality owing to the presence of
increasing quantities of magnesium and lime compounds.

The first twelve crops were thoroughly mixed together
and analysed with the following results. The results of
analysis of the original salt are added for comparison :

Sodium chloride NaCl

Potassium chloride KCl
Calcium sulphate CaSO^
Magnesium sulphate MgS04
Magnesium chloride MgCl^
Moisture ....

Crude salt.

Re-crystallised salt

Percent.

Per cent.

9005

98-34

0-44

trace

058

o-6i

095

—

o'53

017

7-19

06 1

The re-crystallised salt was of good colour, and showed
no tendency to deliquesce on exposure to air. It was not
as pure as the best refined English salt, which contains
9996 per cent, of sodium chloride, or only four parts of
impurities in 10,000 parts of salt. The purified Cyprus
salt would, however, be readily saleable as a refined salt,
and is obviously of much better quality than the crude
Cyprus salt.

From the figures quoted on page 38 it is clear that

40 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

17,500 tons of crude salt are at present not utilised.
Assuming that about 75 per cent, of this could be recovered
by re-crystallisation as a refined salt, this would mean that
about 13,000 tons of refined salt would be available for
export. It is a point of some importance to ascertain
whether this supply could be maintained annually, though
the history of the salt industry of the island and such
geological observations as have been made ^eem to indicate
that it could.

A consideration of the trade statistics and fiscal con-
ditions regulating the importation of salt indicates that
there are a number of salt-importing countries, including
certain Mediterranean countries and possibly India and
East Africa, which could probably take refined Cyprus salt,
if the latter can be produced and shipped at rates equal to
or lower than those now ruling for the salt imported there.
On this point enquiries would have to be made in the
countries themselves, but before making these enquiries it
will be necessary to know the price at which refined Cyprus
salt could be offered. For this purpose a large-scale ex-
periment in refining salt must be conducted in Cyprus,
careful note being kept of the cost of production.

DIATOMITE FROM AUSTRALIA

DiATOMiTE, known also as infusorial earth and kieselguhr,
is largely used in the manufacture of dynamite, as a filtering
medium, for making polishing preparations, and for various
other purposes (cf. this Bulletin, 1905, 3, 88). In view of
the present large demand in this country for white kiesel-
guhr of good quality, it was suggested to the Australian
authorities by the Imperial Institute that samples of
diatomite from Australia should be forwarded to the Im-
perial Institute for submission to users of such material
with a view to ascertaining whether it could be profitably
exported to the United Kingdom. Samples were subse-
quently received from Victoria, New South Wales, Western
Australia, and Tasmania. Those from the first two States
proved to be of promising quality on the whole, and an
account of their examination is given below.

DIATOMITE FROM AUSTRALIA 41

Victoria

A considerable number of deposits of diatomite exist in
Victoria, but the material is exploited commercially at the
present time at only two localities, viz. Lillicur, in the
Loddon Valley, north-west of Ballarat, and Portland, near
the coast to the west of the State. The only output recorded
from the latter deposit was 50 tons in 191 3 ; that from
Lillicur has varied considerably in recent years, the pro-
duction since 1909, according to the Annual Report oj the
Secretary for Mines ^ Victoria^ being as follows :

Tons.

Tons,

1909 .

. 800

I912 .

. 850

I9I0 .

. 500

I9I3 .

. 100

191 1 .

. 400

I9I4 .

, 1,000

The Lillicur deposit occurs in basin-shaped hollows in
basalt, and does not appear to be continuous over very
large areas. It is at present worked by two companies
whose holdings cover an area of 160 acres and 60 acres
respectively. In each case the deposit is worked by means
of shallow shafts and drives and tunnels, the latter having
both floor and roof in the diatomite. In the case of one of
the two workings the deposit, according to a report fur-
nished to the Agent-General for Victoria by the State
Petrologist, has an average thickness of about 5 ft, and
consists at the base of about 12 to 18 in. of unlaminated
material, above which it is laminated and flaky. The
diatomite is stated to be moderately tough, and breaks out
in lumps. It is worked only from March to October.
After being brought to the surface the lumps are roughly
crushed with a roller, and then spread on shelves made of
battens and wire netting and dried in the sun. Sometimes
the material is dried by artificial heat. Finally it is crushed
smaller and put into bags for shipment. Before the war
most of the product of the larger of the two companies
was shipped to Germany.

Three samples of diatomite from the Lillicur deposit
were received at the Imperial Institute for examination in
October 191 5.

Samples i and 2 consisted of white diatomite with a

42 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

pale buff tint, and, on examination under the microscope,
were found to be composed largely of acicular diatoms.
After ignition the diatomites assumed a pronounced buff
colour, and had an apparent specific gravity of 0*22. The
only appreciable physical difference between the two
samples was that No. 2 was more "lumpy" than No. i,
and rather inferior to it in colour.

Sample 3 was a snow-white diatomite, though some of
the included lumps showed streaks with a slight buff tint.
After ignition the diatomite lost its pure white appearance,
and assumed a very pale, pinkish-cream tint. It had an
apparent specific gravity of o"i4.

The samples were submitted to two firms interested in
such materials, who reported on them as follows :

(i) A firm of diatomite merchants reported that any of
the three samples could be made use of by buyers in the
United Kingdom if prices were satisfactory. They con-
sidered No. 3 to be very much the best of the three. No. i
being the second, and No. 2 the third in quality. The
Imperial Institute informed the firm as to the prices, which
it is understood were ruling for materials from the same
deposits in May 191 5— viz. £^ 2s. 6d. to £s los. per ton
f.o.b. Melbourne; and they then stated that, provided the
freights were not too high, it should be possible to do
a fair business in the material in the United Kingdom.
The firm was furnished by the Imperial Institute, at their
request, with the names and addresses of the producers of
these diatomites.

(2) A large firm of dynamite manufacturers reported
favourably on sample No. 3, which they found to possess
a higher absorptive power than Nos. i and 2, and they re-
quested further information regarding it. The name and
address of the producers were, therefore, supplied to the
firm, together with particulars of the Lillicur deposits.

It seems clear, from these results, that there would be
a ready market in the United Kingdom for the Lillicur
diatomite, particularly the snow-white quality represented
by sample No. 3.

DIATOMITE FROM AUSTRALIA 43

New South Wales

Numerous deposits of diatomite occur in New South
Wales (see this Bulletin, 1905, 3, 98), but the only pro-
ducing area, according to the Annual Report of the Depart-
ment oj Mines, is at Bunyan, near Cooma. Three samples
from this State were received and examined at the Imperial
Institute recently.

The locality of the deposits from which two of the
samples were derived was not stated. These samples were
submitted to dynamite manufacturers, who regarded one
of them as suitable for their purposes. The firm sub-
sequently ordered a trial consignment of 2 tons of this
material from Australia.

The third sample represented material from deposits at
Bunyan, near Cooma, where the diatomite occurs in de-
pressions in basalt, as in the case of the Lillicur deposits.
The annual output from Bunyan during the past few years
has averaged about 25 tons. The material as received at
the Imperial Institute was in the form of hard lumps. It
was creamy white when dry, and of a pale buff tint when
moistened. The diatoms of which it consisted were, for
the most part, of short cylindrical form, about 0*02 mm. in
length and 0*007 nim. in diameter, and were loosely con-
nected end to end. There were also a few diatoms of a
curved needle-like shape, measuring up to as much as
o*35 mm. in length. The material contained a little clay,
but was free from grit. An analysis of diatomaceous earth
from Cooma has already been given in this Bulletin {loc.
cit. p. 99).

Specimens of this third sample of diatomite were fur-
nished to firms using the material {a) for the manufacture
of dynamite, {b) for filtration purposes, and {c) for making
polishing preparations, as well as to two large firms
of mineral merchants. The results of these enquiries
indicated that it is very unlikely that material of such
quality could be remuneratively shipped to the United
Kingdom under existing conditions of freight, etc. It is
probable, moreover, that even in normal times there would
be considerable difficulty in marketing it in Europe in

44 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

competition with'diatomite from other sources. It seems
to be essential, if Australian diatomite is to be marketed in
the United Kingdom, that it should be white and of ex-
ceptionally good quality.

GENERAL ARTICLES

THE OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ZINC
ORES.-PART II

The first part of this article, published in the last number
of this Bulletin (191 5, 13, 611), gave a description of the
various zinc minerals, a summary of the world's production
of zinc ores, and an account of their occurrence in the
United Kingdom, the Colonies, and India. The present
part deals with the occurrence of zinc ores in foreign
countries, the production of the metal from the ore, and
its utilisation.

Occurrence of Zinc Ores in Foreign Countries

Europe

Austria-Hungary. — The more important zinc ore deposits
are situated in Southern Carinthia, Styria, and Tyrol.

The Carinthia deposits are distributed along a belt of
country several miles wide and nearly 100 miles long,
the chief occurrences being at Bleiberg, Kreuth, Raibl,
Windisch-Bleiberg, Kappel Miess, and Schwarzenberg.
The deposits, which are mostly of irregular form, occur
in Triassic limestone. Although large masses of smith-
sonite (zinc carbonate) occur in certain localities, notably
at Schneeberg, the chief mineral is galena (lead sulphide),
together with some blende (zinc sulphide).

In Tyrol, the exhausted lead mines were re-opened in
1866, to be worked for zinc blende. The lodes vary up
to 50 ft. in width ; the principal ores found are zinc blende,
galena, and small quantities of pyrite (iron sulphide).

Belgium. — This country was, at one time, an important
producer of zinc ore, but since 1856 the output has beep

THE OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ZINC ORES 45

comparatively insignificant, although very large quantities
of imported ores have been smelted in the country.

The principal deposits are at Bleyberg, and near
Verviers and Li^ge, whilst the well-known workings of
the Society de Vieille Montagne are situated in Moresnet.

The Bleyberg veins have produced large quantities of
lead and zinc ore, and occur in Lower Carboniferous
limestones and Coal Measure shales, the veins dipping very
steeply. The minerals present in the veins are chiefly
zinc blende and galena in nearly equal amounts.

The deposits of Vieille Montagne lie in a narrow
synclinal basin in Carboniferous dolomite, walled in by
nearly horizontal Devonian shales. The chief minerals
present are smithsonite and hemimorphite (zinc hydro-
silicate), but large masses of willemite (zinc silicate) are
also occasionally found. The quantity of zinc blende and
galena present is small. Zinc ore has also been mined at
Welkenrodt near Altenberg, Nouvelle Montagne, Corphalie
near Liege, and Philippeville.

Bulgaria. — Zinc ore has been raised from the Sedmol-
chisleniza Mine, about 6 miles south-west of Vratza. The
ore-bodies, which are found on the sides of a steep valley,
occur as bands and lenses 2 to 7 ft. thick, in the stratification
planes of a Triassic dolomitic limestone. The more
important minerals present are finely disseminated zinc
blende, zinc carbonate, and galena. Samples taken across
the vein showed zinc 18 per cent, and lead 2*5 per cent.
By hand-picking the ore, the proportions of zinc and lead
can be raised to 28 and 6 per cent, respectively.

At Roupio, ores containing workable amounts of lead,
copper, and zinc have been obtained. Ore containing zinc
25 per cent, and lead 15 per cent., is obtained from the
Blagodat Mine near Kustendil.

France. — The most important zinc mines in France are
those of Malines (Gard), Pierreflitte (Hautes Pyrenees),
Bulard de Sentein St. Lary (Ariege), Planioles (Lot), Bley-
mard (Lozere), and Bormettes (Var). The output from
these mines in 1912 was 18,027, 8,901, 6,407, 4,247, 4,107,
and 1,891 tons respectively.

The production of zinc ore commenced about 1870, and

46 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

was then mostly carbonate obtained from the country
between the Alps and the Pyrenees.

At Malines, zinc ores which have been worked since
1883 occur in a dolomite of Middle Jurassic age. The chief
metallic minerals present in the veins comprise smithsonite,
hydrozincite (zinc carbonate), anglesite (lead sulphate),
pyromorphite (lead chlorophosphate), zinc blende, and
galena. Other deposits in the locality consist of zinc
blende, galena, pyrite, and barite (barium sulphate), in the
form of large veins traversing limestone.

In the Pyrenees zinc ores occur in many localities.
The Sentein mines in Ariege yield argentiferous sulphides
and carbonates of lead and zinc from a lode in Carboniferous
limestone. Similar ores are found near St. Girons. Im-
portant deposits also occur in both the Hautes and Basses
Pyrenees.

At Merglon, in the Piemart mountains, smithsonite is
found in pockets in a Middle Jurassic limestone.

Mixed sulphides of lead and zinc occur at Alloue
and Ambernac, and in the valley of the Charente, near
Angouleme.

Argentiferous galena and zinc blende are found in a
vein cutting Silurian schists at Pontpean, near Rennes.

Important deposits of zinc carbonate, silicate, and blende
occur in the department of Var. The chief mine is the
Bormettes, which produces zinc blende.

Germany. — For many years past this country has ranked
second only to the United States as a producer of zinc ore
and spelter. The most important deposits are those of
Upper Silesia, whilst ore in smaller quantities is obtained
in Rhineland, Westphalia, Nassau, the Harz, etc.

The deposits of Upper Silesia occur in the south-eastern
corner of the province, on the borders of Russia and
Austria, in beds of Triassic age belonging to the " Muschel-
kalk " series, whilst Coal Measures outcrop to the south of
the zinc region. The most important deposits worked lie
near the towns of Scharley, Brzosowitz, Kamin, Baingow,
Antonienhof, Beuthen, Miechowitz, and Stadt-Dombrowa.

The ore occurs in dolomite in two horizons; in the
upper galena and oxidised zinc ore preponderate, whilst in

THE OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ZINC ORES 47

the lower the dominant minerals are zinc blende and mar-
casite (iron disulphide), galena being only occasionally
present.

The upper or lead zone is usually found 13 to 26 yards
above the lower zone, and is characterised by a sheet-like
deposit of galena which varies in thickness from 2 to
12 in., and is often underlaid by zinc ore (usually smith-
sonite) in stringers. In the lower or zinc ore zone the
deposits are 70 to 125 yards from the surface, and often
attain a thickness of 16 yards. The bed of ore occurs
regularly, being very extensive and lying nearly horizontal.
The zinc blende is in a crypto-crystalline form, and is often
associated with arsenic and cadmium ore. The crude zinc
blende, as sent to the dressing plants, contains, on the
average, about 10 per cent, of zinc, whilst the lead content
may vary from i per cent, upwards.

Other ores produced in Upper Silesia include "red
calamine" and "white calamine." The former consists
chiefly of smithsonite which contains cadmium, and is
usually ferruginous ; specimens of this ore may contain 28
to 35 per cent, of zinc. The "white calamine" consists
chiefly of silicates, and may carry up to 45 per cent, of zinc.
These ores occur in the dolomite in nests, stockworks,
pipes, and sheets, but the deposits lack regularity. It is
stated that " calamine " ore containing as little as 8 per cent,
of zinc finds a local market, and, as a general rule, the zinc
ores smelted in Silesia are of very low grade.

In Westphalia the chief deposits occur at Iserlohn and
Brilon. Those of the former locality yield zinc blende,
oxidised ores, and galena in irregular masses at the contact
of Devonian limestone with shales. The occurrence at
Brilon is of a somewhat similar character, but the ore is
often associated with pyrite.

In the Upper Harz and Hanover zinc blende is re-
covered in the dressing of argentiferous lead ore mined
near Clausenthal and Laurenthal. The ore occurs in
veins in certain zones of crushed slates of Devonian and
Lower Carboniferous age. These zones are often of
considerable extent, being from 65 to 250 ft. wide, and
extending along a distance of about 9 miles. The deposits

48 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

of zinc ore are somewhat irregularly distributed, and the
proportion of zinc blende to galena increases with the
depth.

In the Lahn Valley, Nassau, important deposits occur,
in greywackes of Lower Devonian age, in the form of two
well developed veins. One of these runs from near St.
Goar to Holzappel, a distance of nearly 8 miles. The
second, or Ems vein, extends from Braubach to Deerbach,
the chief mines being situated near Ems and Holzappel.
As a general rule, the ore from this vein is somewhat
complex, containing argentiferous galena and chalcopy-
rite (copper iron sulphide), pyrite, zinc blende, siderite
(iron carbonate), barite, calcite, and quartz. The crude
ore is stated to contain zinc 2*5 per cent., lead 4*0 per
cent., and silver 2 oz. per ton. The ore is concentrated
at the Laurenberg, Silberau, and Friedrichssegen works,
and yields concentrates carrying (i) galena with 36 per
cent, of lead and 11 oz. of silver per ton, and (2) zinc
blende containing 44 per cent, of zinc.

The mines of Friedrichssegen yield ores similar to those
obtained at Holzappel, and amongst the concentration
products is one carrying zinc 15 per cent, and iron 27 per
cent. This ore is calcined at such a temperature that
the zinc blende is not desulphurised, and, after being
magnetically treated, concentrates are obtained carrying
(i) zinc 37 to 42 per cent., together with less than 6 per
cent, of iron; and (2) iron 40 per cent, and zinc under
4 per cent.

In the Lower Harz one of the best known deposits
is that of Rammelsberg, near Oker. The ore body, which
occurs in Lower Devonian slates and shales, has a width
of about 50 feet, and has been worked over a distance
of about I J miles. The ore is an intimate mixture of zinc
blende, galena, pyrite, chalcopyrite, and barite. Two con-
centrates are obtained from it, one carrying 25 per cent,
of zinc and 12 per cent, of lead, and the other carrying
8 to 10 per cent, of copper.

Greece. — The most important mines appear to be those
of the Laurium district, where both zinc blende and car-
bonates occur. The mines are of great antiquity, and yield

THE OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ZINC ORES 49

ore at the contact of limestone and schists of probably
Silurian age. The ore, which consists of argentiferous
galena and zinc blende, with some pyrite, chalcopyrite,
cerussite (lead carbonate), and smithsonite, occurs in lenses
and pockets. Bedded deposits, varying in thickness from
2 to 40 ft., occur, in one case at least extending for a dis-
tance of ij miles; parallel ore-bearing beds are found at
several levels. The carbonate ore is usually calcined
before export, and then contains about 60 per cent, of
zinc.

Deposits are found in many other localities, among
which may be mentioned Mount Hymettus, where the
ore occurs in irregular masses in limestone.

Italy. — The zinc mines now worked, which are amongst
the most productive in Europe, occur chiefly in Sardinia,
but less important deposits are found in Lombardy,
Piedmont, and Tuscany.

In Sardinia, probably the richest mines are those of
the Inglesias district, which yield both lead and zinc ores.
The ore deposits occur chiefly along the contact of lime-
stones and schists of Silurian age. At the lower depths
zinc blende is found, whilst nearer the surface hemi-
morphite and smithsonite occur. At the Malfidano mines,
which are about 8 miles north-east of Inglesias, and are
amongst the largest in the district, hemimorphite and
smithsonite occur, interstratified with limestone, the ore
as mined carrying about 15 per cent, of zinc. At the
Monteponi mines zinc and lead ore occur at different
horizons, the former in crevices and brecciated masses in
limestone. The ore carries up to 33 per cent, of zinc,
together with much iron oxide and cerussite.

At the San Giovanni mines, about 2 miles south-west of
Inglesias, irregular, nearly vertical lodes are found in lime-
stone and yield argentiferous galena and zinc blende, the
latter often occurring in columnar masses.

At Nebida, about 5 miles north of Inglesias, carbonate
and silicate of zinc occur in limestone in chimneys which
may attain a diameter of 60 ft. and extend to a depth
of 600 ft.

In the Turin district of Piedmont zinc blende is present

so BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

in small quantity associated with galena and pyrite at the
Tenda Mine.

Zinc ore has also been obtained from mines at Argen-
tiera, near Auronge, in Lombardy, from Bottino in Tuscany,
and Castagelo in the Valle Seriana district of Milan.

Norway. — Zinc ore has been mined at Hadeland, Modum,
and Ranen, and extensive deposits of low-grade ore have
been prospected near Christiania, but considerable diffi-
culty has been encountered in concentrating it.

Russia. — The deposits which have received most atten-
tion are those of Poland, which are probably an extension
of the Silesian deposits (see p. 47). The chief mines are
the Ulisses and Boleslaw, near Olkusch. Near Boleslaw
the deposits form a mass 2,000 ft. in diameter and 50 ft.
in thickness. The ores found include the carbonate and
silicate, zinciferous dolomite, and limestone. At one time
the zinc deposits of Poland were amongst the most pro-
ductive in Europe.

In the Northern Caucasus, rich deposits occur at Sadon,
the output in 191 1 being about 8,000 tons. At Primorsk,
the ore mined by the Tetysch Co. carries about 43 per cent.
of zinc. The output of the district in 19 10 was about
20,000 tons.

Spain. — About 80 per cent, of the total Spanish output
is usually produced from mines in the provinces of Murcia
and Santander. Small amounts are obtained from the
deposits in the province of Teruel.

The more important deposits of Santander are near
Reocen, Udias, and La Florida. The ores, which occur in
bed-like masses in dolomites of Cretaceous and Jurassic
age, consist chiefly of smithsonite and hydrozincite,
together with some zinc blende and hemimorphite. A
portion of the ore raised is smelted in Spain, the remainder
being treated in France. Deposits in Lower Carboniferous
limestone have been developed at Andosa and Aliva; in
the former locality the ore is chiefly smithsonite, and in
the latter zinc blende.

In Murcia zinc blende is obtained chiefly from the
mines near Cartagena, which are worked primarily for
galena. Smithsonite occurs, associated with siderite, in

THE OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ZINC ORES 51

crevices in a limestone of Permian age, whilst zinc blende
is found in lenses in a schist underlying the limestone.

In Teruel important deposits occur, and the ore has
been worked at Linares.

Sweden. — Deposits of zinc ore are known to occur in the
provinces of Orebro, Kopparberg, and Nerike, but only
the Ammeberg mines in the latter province appear to be of
any considerable importance as producers. The mines are
situated about 8 miles from Ammeberg, at the northern end
of lake Wetter. The zinc blende, associated with pyrite
and galena, is found in lenses of considerable size, in a
folded and contorted schistose gneiss of Laurentian age.
After hand-sorting, the ore carries about 20 per cent, of
zinc and i per cent, of lead. It is slightly roasted before
being crushed and concentrated, in order to facilitate the
removal of the pyrite. The material as shipped contains
about 42 per cent, of zinc.

Asia

China. — The mines with the largest output of zinc in
China are the Shui K'ou Shan, situated in the Prefecture
of Changlin, Hunan province, which, in 1914, produced
22,875 tons of zinc ore concentrates. The deposit has been
exploited by means of surface workings for about two
centuries, and has been considerably developed during
recent years. Zinc blende, galena, and pyrite are the chiel
minerals present in the ore, which occurs in linked veins
running parallel to the joints of a limestone near the
contact of the latter with a granite.

As mined, the ore carries zinc 23 to 29 per cent., lead
19 to 33 per cent, and silver 18 to 21 oz. per ton. The ore
is dressed to yield both lead and zinc concentrates, the
former carrying lead 73 per cent., zinc 77 per cent., silver
29-5 oz. per ton. The zinc concentrates carry zinc 30*5 per
cent., lead 10-4 per cent., and silver 5*1 oz. per ton.

The output of zinc ore and galena during recent years
was as follows :

Zinc Ore. Galena.
Tons. Tons.

^912 9,444 2,987

I9I3 10,319 3,164

19H 22,875 7i625

52 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Numerous deposits of zinc ore are known to occur in
south-western China, and in Kweichow province appreci-
able quantities of metallic zinc have been produced by
native smelting.

Indo-China. — The chief producing mines in Indo-China
appear to be those of Trang-Da, followed by those of
Tonkin, Than Mai and Yen-Liuh Brizard. The total output
in 191 2 w^as about 36,400 tons of ore.

Japan. — Zinc blende is of wide distribution in this
country, being frequently found in association with ores
of copper and lead. Most of the marketable ore is obtained
from the Kamioka mines in the province of Hida. The ore,
which consists of argentiferous galena and zinc blende
carrying zinc 10 to 16 per cent., lead i'3 to 2*5 per cent.,
and 3 to 4 oz. of silver per ton, occurs in irregular masses
replacing limestone in rocks of probably Archean age. The
ore is treated at two dressing works at Shikama and
Mozumi, where wet concentration and flotation methods are
employed. Zinc and lead concentrates are produced, the
latter being smelted in blast furnaces about 35 miles from
Toyama. The annual output of crude ore from the
Kamioka mines is normally about 10,000 tons.

Mines of less importance occur in the provinces of Uzen,
Tsushima, Etchu, Echizen, and Bizen.

Siberia. — Important deposits have been located at the
Ridder Mine in the Altai Mountains, Siberia. It has been
estimated that ore reserves amounting to 2,000,000 tons
have been developed. Half of this is stated to carry zinc
27 per cent, lead 18 per cent., and gold i oz. per ton. ; the
remainder consists of disseminated ore containing zinc
8 to 9 per cent, and lead 4 to 5 per cent. The mine has
recently been taken over by the Irtysh Corporation, which
is building both lead and zinc smelteries at Ekibastus,
about 50 miles west of Semipalatinsk.

Turkey-in-Asia.— Little information is available regarding
the nature and extent of the zinc deposits in Asiatic
Turkey. Zinc ore has been produced from lotape in the
province of Adana, and from Balia in the province of
Broussa, but it has been stated that the chief source of
supply is Karsasu on the Black Sea.

THE OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ZINC ORES 53

Africa

Algeria. — Zinc ores, including blende, are worked in the
department of Constantine. The chief mines are the
Hammam N'Bails and Ain Arko. Ore has been also mined
extensively at Sakamody, Guerraouma, and R'Arbu near
the Atlas Mountains. The ore, which consists of carbonates
above water-level and zinc blende below it, occurs in veins
in Cretaceous marls, schists, and limestones. Galena is
here sometimes associated with the blende.

Both lead and zinc ores occur in the Oued Moziz Mine
in the department of Oran.

Numerous deposits of zinc ore and galena occur in the
districts of Souk-Ahras and Tebessa, and certain of these
have been prospected.

Tunis. — Zinc ore has been obtained from a number of
localities in Tunis, the annual output amounting to about
30,000 tons.

The Sidi-Ahmet concessions lie about 25 miles from
Beja, north of the Sidi-Ahmet Mountains. The mine is
worked "open cast" and yields carbonate ore, which is
calcined locally before being exported. The annual output
amounts to about 4,000 tons of ore. Deposits of consider-
able size, which have been developed to some extent, occur
at Fedj-el-Adoum, about 12 miles south-west of Tebursuk,
in the highest part of the Jouaouda Mountains.

At Zaghouan, about 35 miles south of Tunis, there are
deposits of zinc ore, consisting chiefly of the silicate. The
annual output of calcined ore is about 5,000 tons.

Zinc ore also occurs at El-Akhouat, about 20 miles
south-west of Tebursuk.

America

Bolivia. — Zinc ores have been found in a number of
localities in Bolivia, but at the present time the only one
producing the ore in important quantities is Huanchaca.
The output during the past few years has been decreasing
owing partly to trouble with water. The production in 191 3
was 7,367 tons, and in 1914 it had decreased to 3,755 tons.

Mexico.— Zinc ores occur in the States of Coahuila,
Chihuahua, San Luis Potosi^ Taiijaulipas, and Nuevo Leon.

BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Many of the occurrences cannot be utilised owing to
transport and other difficulties. In San Luis Potosi, zinc
ore and galena have been mined at Charcas, the mixed ore
containing 12 to 40 per cent, of zinc and 12 to 60 oz. of silver
per ton. At the Cusihuirachie Mine in Chihuahua, ore has
been mined carrying zinc 30 per cent, and lead 25 per
cent, together with varying amounts of silver.

United States. — This country holds the premier position
as a producer of zinc ore and spelter. It is only possible,
however, in the space available to indicate the chief
features of the more important deposits. For further
information the numerous publications of the United States
Geological Survey and Department of Mines may be
consulted. A useful summary up to 1907 is given in " Lead
and Zinc in the United States," by W. R. Ingalls (New
York, 1908).

The recoverable zinc content of the crude ores produced
in 191 3 varied from i'6 to 42 per cent., these figures being
the averages for Missouri and Idaho respectively; the
average for the whole of the crude zinc ore produced in
191 3 was 2*8 per cent. The United States possesses the
great advantage of having large supplies of natural gas
which, in many localities, is used as the source of heat for
smelting the ore.

In the following table is shown the mine production
of zinc-yielding ores in 191 3 from the more important
States :

Zinc Ore.

Zinc-lead Ore.

Percentage
of Total

State.

Crude Ore.

Zinc
Content.

Crude Ore.

Zinc
Content.

Spelter pro-
duced in 1913.

Short Tons.*

Per cent.

Short Toms.'

Percent.

Missouri .

8,049,300

1-6

—

38-26

Colorado .

141,295

23-5

203,367

II-4

19-23

Montana .

3.840

9*8

307,615

14-3

1056

Wisconsin .

1,406,000

—

lOOI

New Jersey

490,434

I7'2

—

7-19

Idaho

2,719

422

646,080

1-6

3 -02

Kansas

590,300

—

2-95

Utah

16,322

292

211,609

2-82

Oklahoma .

581,000

—

190

Nevada

10,208

311

16,749

241

I '73

Arizona

14,554

17-2

29,700

7-3

1-38

New Mexico

40,439

170

8,735

161

112

Tennessee .

171,392

3-3

078

One short ton = 2,000 lb.

THE OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ZINC ORES 55

Over Tj per cent, of the available zinc contained in ores
raised in 191 3 was from zinc ore, the remainder, with the
exception of o*8 per cent, being from zinc-lead ores.

Missouri. —TYi^ zinc deposits of Missouri, although they
represent some of the lowest grades of zinc ore worked
in the country, hold the first place as regards spelter
production. About three-quarters of the celebrated Joplin
district is in this State, the remainder being in Kansas and
Oklahoma, and the following particulars relate to this
district.

The country rocks as exposed at the surface are all of
Carboniferous age, most of the ore deposits occurring in
a Lower Carboniferous limestone which immediately under-
lies the Coal Measures of Kansas. This limestone, however,
is not ore-bearing all over the district.

The ore occurrences have been roughly divided into
horizontal and inclined or vertical deposits. The first
class includes the tabular masses of ore known as blanket
veins or " sheet ground." This type occurs chiefly in the
belt of country extending from Duenweg in a north-westerly
direction through Webb City and Carterville to Oronogo,
the greatest development being attained south and south-
east of Carterville. The ore, which is mainly zinc blende
with small amounts of galena and marcasite, occurs chiefly
along the bedding planes of cherts, much being dissemi-
nated in a secondary chert replacing lenses of limestone.
This form of deposit is found almost always in proximity
to deposits of the second type, i.e. the vertical or inclined
veins. These latter have been divided into (i) linear
deposits or " runs " ; (2) circular or elliptical masses ;
(3) irregular deposits.

In the linear deposits, the ore is chiefly zinc blende,
and galena, when it occurs, is usually found in the upper
portion of the deposit. The deposits are somewhat narrow
bodies following roughly the same direction in re-cemented
brecciated cherts, the ore occurring both disseminated and
cementing the breccia. Individual runs vary in size, and
they may be as much as 75 to 150 ft. wide, 40 to 80 ft. deep,
and 100 to 400 ft. long.

The circular or elliptical type of deposit has approxi-

>f^

^Pf \»:

56 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

mately the form of a truncated cone or dome enclosing a
barren central portion. The ore of this type is similar to
that found in the linear deposits. In many cases the circle
has been formed by the intersection of faults. This type
of deposit is found in (i) the Joplin belt, which includes
the zones in the vicinity of Joplin, northward to Tuckahoe
and the outlying group southwards to Shoal Creek and
north-westwards to Carl Junction; (2) the Galena belt,
which embraces the deposits around Galena and to the
north and south of that city.

The irregular deposits have no definite form and are
often combinations of the linear and elliptical types.

Important deposits of " silicate ore " (a mixture of
hemimorphite and smithsonite) occur in the Aurora and
Granby districts; in many cases the ore contains from
40 to 45 per cent, of zinc, and is, therefore, of sufficient
purity to ship in lump.

Colorado. — Zinc ore is raised in many localities in this
State, the chief producing counties being Lake, Eagle,
Summit, San Miguel, Dolores, and Chaffee, the production
of the first-mentioned constituting about 80 per cent, of
the total.

The most important occurrences in Lake County are
those of Leadville, where enormous deposits, yielding
galena, zinc blende, and pyrites, are found both at the
contact of a Carboniferous limestone with the overlying
sheet of porphyry, and in channels in the limestone itself.
Several products are obtained, including a magnetically
separated concentrate containing 40 to 45 per cent, of zinc,
a Wilfley table product with 35 to 40 per cent., and a
hand-picked ore having 30 per cent, of zinc. The output
in 191 3 consisted of 97,704 tons of crude zinc, iron, and
lead sulphide ore containing i9'o per cent, of zinc, and
135,760 tons of zinc carbonate and silicate ore containing
26*4 per cent, of zinc.

Eagle and Summit are the next largest producing
counties, their total output in 191 3 being about 8 per cent,
of that of the whole State. In Summit County, mixed
sulphide ore is worked at Komoko as a bedded vein 10
to 12 ft. thick. There are occasional shoots of rich silver-

THE OCCURRENCE ANt) UTILISATION OF ZINC OkES 57

lead ore, but usually the quantity of galena is small. The
ore as shipped is stated to carry 42 per cent, of zinc.
Certain of the ores also carry small quantities of gold.
Zinc ores are also produced in the Montezuma and
Breckenridge districts. In Eagle County, lead-zinc sul-
phide ore is raised in the Battle Mountain district.

Montana. — Most of the zinc ore produced in this State
is mined in the Butte district of Silver Bow County,
whilst small quantities are obtained from Missoula, Fergus,
Jefferson, and Cascade Counties.

In the Butte district, which promises to become one
of the largest zinc-producing areas in the United States,
the chief mine is the Butte-Superior. The ore, which is
chiefly zinc blende, occurs disseminated through a hard
quartz gangue in granite, being often associated with
much pyrite and some galena, chalcopyrite, rhodochrosite
(manganese carbonate), and rhodonite (manganese silicate).
The ore, as sent to the concentrator, carries about 20 per
cent, of zinc, i*o per cent, of lead, 0*25 per cent, of copper,
and 8 to 10 oz. of silver and 0*02 oz. of gold per ton. The
zinc concentrates produced carry zinc 49 per cent, and
silver 24 oz. per ton ; the lead concentrates contain lead
39 per cent., zinc 19 per cent., silver 43 oz. and gold
08 oz. per ton.

Wisconsin. — This State occupies fourth place as a pro-
ducer of zinc ore, the most important producing counties
being Grant, Iowa, and Lafayette.

The ores, which comprise galena, zinc blende, and
smithsonite, occur in the Galena dolomite and Plattville
limestone, both of which are of Ordovician age. The
ore bodies occur as inclined, perpendicular or horizontal
cavities of considerable extent. Much difficulty was
experienced in concentrating the ore owing to the large
amount of marcasite present, but this has been overcome
by slightly roasting the ore to render this mineral non-
magnetic. A large proportion of the zinc carbonate ore,
which is mined chiefly in the Highland and Mineral Point
districts, is converted into zinc oxide.

New Jersey. — Although this State in 1913 only attained
fifth place according to the quantity of zinc obtained from

58 BULL^iTlN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

its ores, it is of considerable interest on account of the
nature of the zinc minerals present in the ore. Two of
the most important occurrences are situated near Ogdens-
burgh and Franklin Furnace, being known as the Stirling
and Mine Hills deposits respectively.

The ores comprise zincite, containing 94 per cent, of
zinc oxide and about 6 per cent, of manganous oxide ;
willemite, containing 6^ to 6Z per cent, of zinc oxide and
5 to 10 per cent, of manganous oxide; and franklinite,
containing 7 to 23 per cent, of zinc oxide, 56 to 6'] per cent.
of ferric oxide, 10 to 16 per cent, of manganese oxide, and
4 to 10 per cent, of manganese sesquioxide. The relative
amounts of the minerals vary largely, as also does their
form, which is often that of small rounded lumps (" shot ").
The franklinite is separated from the other zinc minerals
by magnetic treatment.

At Mine Hill the vein sometimes attains a thickness
of 50 ft, and contains an average of 21 per cent, of zinc.
In the past, the ore from this deposit has been more used
for the manufacture of zinc oxide (see p. 80 ) than for the
production of spelter. The deposits around Stirling Hill
are of a somewhat similar character to those found at
Mine Hill.

Idaho. — About 90 per cent, of the total zinc content of
ores mined in this State in 191 3 was shipped in the form
of concentrates. These were obtained from the zinc-lead
ore mined in the Beaver, Hunter, and Placer Center
districts of Shoshone County, and contained, on the
average, 34 per cent, of zinc and small amounts of gold
and silver. Crude ore containing about 40 per cent, of
zinc was shipped from Beaver, Summit and Lelande
districts.

Kansas, — Practically the only deposits at present being
worked in this State are those of Cherokee, in the south-
eastern part of the State, which form the western portion
of the Joplin deposits. The characteristics already noted
in respect of the Missouri deposits (see p. 55) are repro-
duced in the Cherokee district, except that the " ground
sheet " type of deposit is here not so well developed. The
principal producing areas are the Galena, Lawton, and

THE OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ZINC ORES 59

Badger-Peacock districts. The chief ore is zinc blende,
small quantities of the carbonate and silicate being also
obtained. Both carbonate and sulphide of lead occur
with the zinc ores, but yield very little silver. In 191 3,
the crude ores as mined contained an average of ig per
cent, of zinc and 0*4 per cent, of lead.

Utah. — The largest production of zinc ore in this State,
in 191 3, was that from Beaver County, whilst important
outputs were made from the counties of Salt Lake, Utah,
Wasatch, Summit, Tooele, and Juab.

The zinc blende concentrates and ore shipped in 1913
contained, on the average, zinc 329 per cent., lead 6 per
cent., and silver r8 oz. per ton. The oxidised zinc ore
carried zinc 28-8 per cent., lead about 3 per cent., and silver
1*5 oz. per ton.

The lead-zinc ores contained, on the average, zinc
26*9 per cent., lead 12-4 per cent., and silver o'o6 oz.
per ton.

Oklahoma. — Zinc ores were worked, in 191 3, only in
Ottawa County, the deposits forming the south-western
portion of the Joplin deposits (see p. 55). In the Miami
district, which yielded 95 per cent, of the total output,
zinc blende occurs in a brecciated sandstone, the ratio of
this mineral to the galena present being about 3 to i. The
crude ore, as mined, carries about 24 per cent, of zinc.

In the Quapaw district, zinc blende occurs, associated
with galena, cementing a chert breccia and in crevices.
The ratio of zinc blende to galena is about 5 to i, and the
crude ore carries about ri per cent, of zinc.

A small quantity of silicate ore is obtained from the
Peoria district.

Nevada. — The production in 191 3 was chiefly from the
Yellow Pine district of Clarke County and the Pioche
district of Lincoln County. The zinc-lead ore sold to
smelters averaged 29*1 per cent, of zinc, whilst the silicate
and carbonate ore contained 3ri per cent.

Arizona. — The zinc and zinc-lead ores raised in this
State are obtained mainly from Mohave and Pima Counties,
whilst smaller amounts are yielded by Yavapai and Cochise
Counties.

6o BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

In Mohave County the principal producing mines are
those of Union Pass and Chloride.

New Mexico. — In 1913, the chief producing mines were
those at Kelly in Socorro County ; Cooks, Tres Hermanns,
and Victorio in Luna County, and in the Animas Mountains
and Central and Pinos Altos districts of Grant County.

The zinc blende ore and concentrates shipped in 191 3
amounted to 12,389 tons containing 41*8 per cent, of zinc,
whilst the output of carbonate ore amounted to 13,337 tons
containing 34 per cent, of zinc.

The zinc ores occur at Kelly at the contact of a Carboni-
ferous limestone with an underlying schist formation.
The ore bodies, which are somewhat irregular, occur in
lenticular form.

Tennessee. — In Knox County, zinc blende is mined in
a dolomite breccia. The crude ore carries from 3 to 5
per cent, of zinc and concentrates are obtained from this,
carrying the equivalent of 60 per cent, of the metal.
Silicate ore is mined in a hard dolomite in small quantity
in Washington County. Considerable activity has pre-
vailed, during the past few years, in prospecting zinc
occurrences in Eastern Tennessee, and several large bodies
of ore have been located. Jefferson County is an important
producer of carbonate ore which, in the crude state, is
reported to carry 12 per | cent, of zinc, whilst the concen-
trates contain about 42 per cent.

Valuation of Zinc Ores

For technical purposes zinc ores are divided into two
groups: (i) zinc blende, and (2) ** calamine," the latter in-
cluding the more common carbonates and silicates.

In the past, several schedules have been employed in
Europe for calculating the value of zinc ore. All these
embody at least three factors: (i) the current price of
spelter, (2) the zinc content of the ore, (3) a "returning
charge" per ton of ore. The last-named is the cost of
smelting a ton of ore, and is affected by the mineralogical
nature of the ore and its physical condition, very fine con-
centrates being more troublesome to treat than those of a
moderately coarse character.

THE OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ZINC ORES 6i

One formula which will serve as a general type is as
follows :

Value in £ per ton = 095 P I ) — R,

\ 100 /

where P = price of spelter (good ordinary brands) in
London, T = percentage of zinc in the ore, and R = the
return! I. g charge.

As an example of the use of this formula, if an ore
contains 48 per cent, of zinc and spelter is £-^0 per ton in
London, and if a returning charge of £2 155. be assumed,
then the ore will be worth per ton :

;^o-95 X 30 y ~^ )~^^ ^^^- "" ^^ ^^'^*

When silver also occurs in the ore in sufficient quantity,
it is usually paid for at 95 per cent, of the current price
of silver.

In addition to the above factors, the price of an ore
may be affected by the presence of certain impurities, such
as lead, iron, manganese, fluorite (calcium fluoride), etc. If
the lead content of a zinc ore is much above 3 per cent.,
there is every probability that the metallic zinc produced
by distillation will be contaminated with lead, and there-
fore of inferior quality (see p. 71). The total percentage
of iron and manganese should not exceed 10 per cent., as
the oxides of these metals give very fusible slags which are
objectionable. Fluorite is probably more undesirable than
either iron or manganese, as it gives a very fusible slag,
and when present in zinc blende causes serious deteriora-
tion in the lead chambers used in the manufacture of
sulphuric acid as a by-product from the roasting of the ore.

In the past, it has been possible to market ore containing
35 per cent, of the metal, but as the price of spelter has
advanced since the outbreak of war, many smelters have
refused to consider ores carrying less than 40 per cent,
of the metal, in order to secure as high an output as
possible from their furnaces.

Concentration of Zinc Ores

Zinc ore as mined is rarely of sufficiently high grade
to be suitable for smelting without previous concentration.

62 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

The methods employed for this purpose include hand-
picking, and separation by gravity, electromagnetic, or
flotation processes, or combinations of these. The dressing
of zinc ore has for its object not only the enrichment of the
ore by removal of the minerals of fairly low specific gravity,
which compose the gangue, but also the elimination, as far
as possible, of heavy minerals which may prove objection-
able in smelting, e.g. those containing manganese, lead,
and iron.

The process adopted varies with the nature of the ore ;
thus a method well adapted for treating a mixture of coarse
crystallised zinc blende and galena will probably prove
unsuitable for the treatment of ore similar to that obtained
from Broken Hill, New South Wales, in which these
minerals are very intimately associated. It may be men-
tioned that in this locality flotation processes are employed
for the treatment of the finer ores.

It may be here remarked that few processes in mining
yield so much waste as does the dressing of zinc ores.

Smelting
Of the general methods which have been used for ob-
taining spelter from zinc ore, viz. the distillation method,
electrothermic smelting, and wet processes, only the first
has been employed to any very large extent.

Distillation Method

The distillation method can be roughly divided into two
sections: (i) the conversion of the zinc compounds present
in the ore into oxide by roasting or calcination, (2) the
reduction of the oxide to metal by means of carbon monoxide
at a temperature sufficiently high to volatilise the zinc.

The processes of roasting and calcination are different
in their operation, but both aim at the same type of product,
i.e. one reducible under the conditions of distillation.

Calcination. — Calcination is used for the expulsion of
carbon dioxide and water from carbonate ores, and of water
from hemimorphite; it also renders the ore more porous.
It would, of course, be possible to reduce zinc carbonate
without previous treatment; but it has been found to be

THE OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ZINC ORES 63

more economical in most cases to calcine the ore first.
Calcination is often performed close to the mine, as a con-
siderable saving in freight is thereby effected. The method
employed in Sardinia is to calcine the lump ore in slightly
conical, circular shaft furnaces, 6*5 ft. in diameter at the
bottom, and varying from 12 to 18 ft. in height. The heat
is supplied either from external grates, or by charging the
furnace with alternate layers of coal and ore. For the
calcination of finely-divided ore, a revolving cylindrical
furnace with a continuous discharge is sometimes used.

Roasting.— Th^ process of calcination as described
above cannot be employed for zinc blende, which requires
special treatment in order to remove the sulphur combined
with the metals. The zinc blende, in the form of small
lumps not over 2 mm. in diameter, is roasted in a current
of air in such a manner that the final product does not
contain more than i per cent, of sulphur, either as sulphide
or sulphate. Numerous difficulties are encountered in the
process, which requires considerable experience on the part
of the man supervising the work. Thus, if the temperature
is too low, zinc sulphate may be produced, which will re-
quire a much higher temperature for the expulsion of its
sulphur, and consequently there is a risk of fusion if
silicates or lead sulphate are present in the ore. On the
average, about 2 per cent, of zinc is lost during the roast-
ing, and up to 10 per cent, of the silver present may also
be volatilised.

Many types of furnace are in use for roasting zinc
blende, amongst which may be mentioned (i) hand-raked
reverberatory furnaces with one or more hearths, or with
shelf burners; (2) mechanically-raked reverberatory fur-
naces ; and (3) multiple-hearth muffle furnaces. Furnaces
of the last-mentioned type are often employed when it is
desired to recover the sulphur dioxide for the manufacture
of sulphuric acid, as the gases from these furnaces often
contain 7 per cent, of sulphur dioxide, whilst those from
the reverberatory type of furnace rarely contain more than
2 per cent. When the sulphur dioxide is converted into
strong sulphuric acid of 60° Be., the yield from one ton of
40 per cent, zinc blende amounts, on the average, to 17. or

64 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

1 8 per cent. In 1914, from nine smelteries in the United
States there was produced 355,424 short tons of 60° Be.
sulphuric acid, compared with 305,167 tons produced in
191 3. These smelteries treated chiefly high-grade ore from
the Joplin district and Wisconsin, Oklahoma, and Ten-
nessee. The cost of roasting zinc blende concentrates
naturally varies largely with the locality. It is stated that
the costs at two of the best operated plants in the United
States are, on the average, 5s. jd. and 6s, 6d. per short ton
(2,000 lb.) of concentrate roasted ; in the first case natural
gas is used as fuel and in the other coal.

Reduction and Distillation. — The methods of distillation
now in use may be roughly classified into (i) Belgian,
(2) Silesian, and (3) Rhenish or Belgo-Silesian. Formerly,
processes termed English and Carinthian were Employed,
but they are now obsolete. The chief differences in the
modern methods of distillation are in the shape, size, and
arrangement of the retorts and the method of heating.

As regards retorts, those used in the Belgian process are
generally circular or elliptical in cross section, about 8 ft.
in diameter, and arranged in the furnace in from four to
seven rows. The heating is usually effected by the con-
tinuous regeneration method. In Wales and the United
States the Siemens regenerator, working on the reversal
principle, is preferred. In the Silesian process there is,
as a rule, one row of large muffle-shaped retorts to each
furnace, although occasionally two rows are used. In both
processes the retorts were formerly heated directly with
coal as fuel, but producer gas is much more economical,
and is now almost universally employed, unless, of course,
natural gas is obtainable as is the case in many American
works. The Rhenish process employs retorts somewhat
larger than those used in the Silesian process ; they are
muffle-shaped and arranged in two or three rows.

The charge for the retort is calculated so that the
residue remaining after distillation shall not fuse. The
reducing agent employed is usually anthracite, coal, or
coke, about 40 or 50 per cent, of the weight of the ore
being generally required. The ore is crushed to pass a
screen having holes 2 mm. in diameter, whilst the fuel is

THE OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ZINC ORES 65

reduced to 6 mm. The charging is done either by hand
or mechanically. In some Continental works, where very
finely divided ore has to be treated, it is briquetted before
being introduced into the furnace.

As an example of the method of working, a brief account
of the work at the Port Pirie smeltery of the Broken Hill
Proprietary Co. may be of interest. The distillation plant
comprises 10 furnaces of the Rhenish type, having 2 tiers
of retorts, back to back, with 3 rows of 24 retorts in each
tier, i.e. 1,440 retorts in all. The outer wall on each side is
built with 3 rows of 12 openings, each of which accommo-
dates 2 retorts. The latter are supported only at the ends,
and measure 5 ft. 6 in. in length and 13 ft. 6 in. in elliptical
cross-section. They are set with a slight slope towards
the front, and their ends, which are bevelled on the outside,
are well smeared with clay in order to make a good joint
with the condensers. The firing is effected by means of
producer gas, the air required for combustion being pre-
heated by a counter-current system. The burners are of
the Bunsen type, 18 in. in diameter, with a gas inlet of 9 in.
set in the hearth of the furnace between the 2 tiers of
retorts. Each row of 24 retorts requires the attention of one
man. The charge consists of about 10,000 lb. of roasted ore
concentrates, 3,000 lb. of coke, and 1,500 lb. of coal. This
is thoroughly mixed on the furnace floor and fed into the
retorts through the condensers. Usually, the top and
middle rows of retorts receive this charge, but the lower
row, which does not get so strongly heated as the others,
is charged with coke, and material scraped from the con-
densers during tapping, consisting of " blue powder " or
**zinc dust" (see p. 71) and waste zinc.

The ends of the condensers are next partly stopped
by luting on to them cast-iron tiles which have an inner
lining of fireclay and a hole for the passage of the evolved
gases. This hole has a small projecting collar, into which
is fitted the small end of a conical " prolong." These iron
prolongs serve to collect the blue powder not retained
by the condensers. The temperature of the retort is
slowly raised until it reaches 1,325° to 1,350° C. When the
distillation is complete, the prolong is removed, and, on

66 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

releasing the iron tile, the molten zinc flows out and is
caught in an iron ladle. The condenser is next scraped to
remove all zinc and dross. The residue in the retort is
removed by pulling down counterbalanced sheet iron
aprons in front of the furnaces, and raking through holes.
The residues fall out and are deflected by the apron into
trucks below, whence they are sent to the lead blast
furnace. Damaged retorts are next located, and, after these
have been replaced, charging is recommenced. The whole
series of operations occupies 24 hours. The recovery of
zinc as spelter and blue powder is stated to amount to
about 80-85 per cent, of the quantity present in the ore.

The blue powder collected amounts to about 12 per
cent, of the total zinc obtained, and contains about 92 per
cent, of metallic zinc. This is sometimes returned to the
furnace for recovery as spelter.

The spelter obtained contains from 2 to 3 per cent, of
lead, and is refined by being melted in a reverberatory
furnace. Owing to the fact that when zinc and lead are
treated together in this manner most of the lead sinks to
the bottom of the furnace, purification of the zinc is easy
up to a certain point. The spelter is ladled out at one end
of the furnace, and the lead which collects at the bottom
of the furnace is tapped off periodically. The spelter
consists, on the average, of 99 per cent, of zinc and about
I per cent of lead. The lead contains about 08 per cent,
of zinc.

The loss of zinc during smelting is always large in
comparison with the losses in other metallurgical opera-
tions. It is subject to wide variations according to the
process used, the grade of ore, and care in working. It has
been stated that in Upper Silesia, when ore carrying 25
per cent, of zinc is being smelted, the loss may vary from
25 to 35 per cent. In the Belgian and Rhine plants, which
treat ore of a higher grade carrying from 45 to 50 per cent,
of zinc, the loss is between 10 and 15 per cent, in the best
operated plants. This is similar to the losses encountered
in the best of the American smelteries.

Retorts. — Owing to the nature of the process of distilla-
tion there is a constant destruction of retorts, usually

THE OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ZINC ORES 67

reckoned at 3 per cent, per day, and it is evident, therefore,
that all the retorts in use have to be renewed once in
33 days. This, of course, necessitates the manufacture of
the retorts in close proximity to the smeltery. Consider-
able difficulty is often experienced in obtaining clay suitable
for the retorts, and only trial can determine the suitability
of any particular clay.

The mixture employed in Germany usually consists of
I part of raw clay to 2 parts of burnt clay ; in Belgium a
mixture consisting of 3^ parts of raw clay, 2J parts of
burnt clay, 3 parts of sand, and i part of coke, is sometimes
employed. The clay needs careful weathering and pugging
before use. The retorts are formed by means of a hydraulic
press capable of making 250 in a 9-hour shift, and are
sent to the drying rooms, where they remain for 60 days at
a temperature of 110° F. Before use the retorts are dried
slowly in the air, then transferred to a steam oven, and
finally annealed in a furnace for 12 hours at about 1,100° C.

The condensers are usually moulded, from a mixture
of crushed old retorts and raw clay, by means of a machine
capable of turning out 1,000 to 1,200 per shift of 9 hours.
After leaving the machine they are allowed to stand for
24 hours, and are then crimped. After standing in the
drying rooms for about a week, they are burnt and are
then ready for use.

Cost. — The combined cost of roasting and distilling one
ton of ore, as estimated by Ingalls for works in various
localities, is shown in the following table :

Labour

Fuel ....

Reducing

Clay . . .

Supplies

Repairs and administration

Totals

(2)

(3)

£ s. d.

£ «. d.

s. d.

017 ^

0 18 10

0 0

034

0 7 oi

3 4

034

3 4

0 1 10

0 I 8

I 10

0 0 10

0 10

062

0 7 ^

5 io|

1 13 2^

I 19 5

15 2i

(4)

£ s. d.

O 13 4

o 15 7

o 2 gi
021

o o 10

o 5 7h

{i) A plant using mechanical roasters and natural gas costing id. per 1,000 cubic
feet. (2) An Illinois coal gas regenerative plant using roasters ; 2*25 tons of coal
{at 3^. id. per ton) used per ton of ore. (3) Operated by natural gas in Kansas.
(4) Rhineland, Germany ^ using hand-roasters and regenerative gas furnaces ; 1'$ tons
of coal {at los. dd. per ton) used per ton of ore.

68 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Considerable discussion has taken place during the past
year as to the possibility of smelting a large proportion of
the Broken Hill zinc ore in the United Kingdom. Without
entering into the many problems involved, the following
estimate for the treatment of the ore in Wales recently put
forward may prove of interest ; an allowance, equivalent
to one-half of the cost of roasting, is made in this estimate
for the recovery of the sulphur as sulphuric acid :

Cost per ton of ore.
£ s. d.

Roasting 039J

Furnace labour 0122

Fuel and flux coal . . . . . , .105
Retorts and condensers . . . . . .048^

Repairs 012

Administration and overhead charges . . . o 2 oj

2 4 3i
Cost of concentrate at works 4 15 10

Total . . 7 o ij
Deduct value of residue less treatment costs . . o 12 8

Net total . . 6 7 54

The estimate is based on a recovery of 85 per cent, of
the zinc, 60 per cent, of the lead, and 50 per cent, of the
silver from an ore carrying zinc 47 per cent., lead 80 per
cent., and silver 10*5 oz. per ton. On this basis, the spelter
recovered would be 0*4 ton for each ton of concentrate
treated.

Considerable difference of opinion exists as to the
necessary equipment and cost of a modern zinc plant.

A recent estimate for a plant capable of producing
10,000-11,000 tons of spelter per annum is as follows:

16 furnaces of 100 retorts each ;^45iOOO

Retort factory, drying rooms, and crushing plant . . 10,000

Ore mixers, crushers, and stores ..... 8,500

Blende roasting plant 16,000

Railway siding, locomotive, repair shops . . . 21,500
If complex ore is to be treated, a washing plant will be

required ; capacity 100 tons per day . . . 10,000

;^III,000

THE OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ZINC ORES 69

Other Methods of Smelting

Electric smelting of zinc ore has received much attention
in the past, but, so far, has not come into general use.

In the De Laval process, v^hich has been employed
in Sweden, the roasted ores are mixed vsrith coal and
a flux and smelted in an arc furnace. The product,
which is a coarse metal, containing zinc, lead, and other
metals, has to be refined by distillation. Much of the
zinc is obtained as fume or dust. About half the cost of
smelting is for electric current, and it is thus evident that
very cheap electric power is essential for the commercial
success of the process.

In the Snyder process, as applied to zinc-lead ores,
the ore is roasted to oxide, and fluxes are added so that
the mixture will melt at about 1,000° C. This is treated
in an electric furnace and results in the production of lead,
which collects below the slag, and zinc oxide, which is
volatilised and condensed in brick chambers.

A wet process of extraction which has been employed
with considerable success in the United Kingdom is a
modification of the method originally devised by HOpfner.
The roasted ore is treated with the waste calcium chloride
liquors from the ammonia-soda process and with carbon
dioxide. This results in the precipitation of calcium car-
bonate and the solution of the zinc as chloride. The
solution is electrolysed, using revolving iron disks as
cathodes and carbon anodes enclosed in cloth diaphragms,
a current density of 30 amperes per square foot of cathode
surface being employed. The products of electrolysis are
metalhc zinc and chlorine, the latter being subsequently
converted into bleaching powder. The zinc has a purity
of about 99*96 per cent.

The bisulphite process is another wet method which
has been tried in several localities, including Tasmania,
for the treatment of pyritiferous zinc-lead sulphide ores.
The roasted ore is pulped with water and sulphur dioxide
gas passed through the mass, resulting in the zinc passing
into solution as the soluble bisulphite ZnH2(S03)2. This
solution is pumped into another tank where the mono-

70 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

sulphite of zinc is precipitated, and this yields the oxide
on calcination in a muffle furnace. The sulphur dioxide
evolved at two stages in the above process is added to the
calciner gases which are in turn employed as the source
of the sulphur dioxide used in the initial leaching pro-
cess. A certain quantity of sulphate of zinc collects in
the leaching solution, and this is periodically recovered
by crystallisation.

The " French " process of zinc recovery, which has
been in operation in Canada, has several points of interest.
Roasted zinc blende is treated with a solution of sodium
bisulphate (nitre cake), containing a small quantity of a
manganese compound. After about an hour the solution
has extracted almost the whole of the zinc, whilst the iron,
lead, and silver remain in the insoluble sludge. The liquor
from the first extraction is run on to a second charge of
ore in order to neutralise its acidity, and when this
has taken place the clear solution is run into vats and
the zinc recovered electrolytically, using lead and zinc
electrodes. Any manganese present is deposited on the
lead, whilst the zinc is deposited on the zinc electrode.
As the zinc is electrolytically deposited, the sodium
bisulphate is regenerated, and when all the zinc has been
removed the solution is again ready for use and is employed
in re-treating the charge of ore previously used to complete
the neutralisation of the solution. It is stated that the
process can be employed equally well for low or high
grade ore, although in the former case the cost of treatment
is somewhat higher.

Numerous attempts have been made to smelt zinc ores
in the blast furnace in order to economise fuel and labour.
Owing to the conditions of working, however, and the fact
that the volatilised zinc has to travel by the same outlet as
the waste furnace gases, the net result in most cases has
been the removal of the zinc from the ore and its con-
densation as zinc oxide. It has been found that the zinc
can be oxidised by as little as 0*5 per cent, of carbon
dioxide in the furnace gases or by water vapour. By
rapid cooling of the furnace gases and other methods, it
has been found possible largely to overcome this oxidation,

THE OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ZINC ORES 71

but so far the process does not appear to have been
generally employed on a commercial scale.

The recovery of zinc from slags containing large
quantities of the metal has been carried out at several
works, notably at the Oker Smelting Works in the Lower
Harz district. The slag, which carried up to 27 per cent,
of zinc, was finely ground, mixed with coke screenings,
and the mixture made into briquettes by means of pitch.
The briquettes were then raised to a high temperature in
an oxide furnace, and the zinc thus volatilised and oxidised.
The fumes containing zinc oxide were run through brick
condensers.

By-products in the Smelting of Zinc

Reference has already been made (p. 66) to the pro-
duction of lead as a by-product in the smelting of zinc.
Another important by-product is " blue powder," a mixture
of finely divided zinc and zinc oxide, the utilisation of
which is dealt with later in this article (p. 'j'j).

Cadmium is also obtained as a by-product. This metal
occurs in zinc blende in small quantities, usually under
I per cent. It is generally found, as the oxide, in at least
two stages in the retort smelting of blende: (i) in the
flue dust resulting from the process of roasting, (2) in the
more volatile portion of the matter which passes over in
the process of distillation. If it is desired to recover the
cadmium these two products are collected and treated
apart from the zinc.

Commercial Spelter

Impurities

The most common impurities in spelter are lead, iron,
cadmium, and arsenic. The lead rarely exceeds 2 per
cent., no matter how much was present in the ore. When
lead occurs in the ore in minute quantity (o"i per cent),
practically the whole will be found in the zinc. As regards
iron, the amount passing into the spelter depends more
on the method of smelting than on the ore employed.
Cadmium, being much more volatile than zinc, is more

72 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

difficult to condense, and so a large proportion of the
cadmium present in the ore is lost unless special pre-
cautions are taken.

The effect of the above impurities on the spelter has
received considerable attention, and the following briefly
summarises the conclusions which have been reached.

When spelter containing moderate amounts of lead is
rolled, it is softer than when this constituent is absent, and,
if used for galvanising, the coating produced has a ten-
dency to peel if the metal is bent. When over 07 per
cent, of lead is present, castings may crack badly, and if
used for the production of brass the alloy is often some-
what brittle and liable to crack.

Iron also tends to render spelter hard and brittle.
Cadmium has a pronounced hardening effect on spelter,
and also makes it brittle. It is particularly objection-
able in galvanising, as the brittleness may cause the
coating to peel off. In brass, cadmium acts like lead.
Arsenic does not seem to cause much trouble in the work
for which spelter is usually employed, but if the spelter is
used for generating hydrogen for use in lead burning, or
autogenous welding, it is often impossible to burn a strong

seam.

Grades

The American Society for Testing Materials have
suggested the following four grades for commercial
spelter :

{a) " High-grade," containing not more than 0-07 per
cent, lead, 0*03 per cent, iron, and 0*05 per cent, cadmium,
and no aluminium. The sum of the above impurities must
not exceed o*i per cent.

{b) •' Intermediate," containing not more than 0*20 per
cent, lead, 0*03 per cent, iron, and 050 per cent, cadmium ;
aluminium must be absent. The sum of these constituents
must not exceed 0*50 per cent.

(c) " Brass special," containing not over 075 per cent,
lead, 0*04 per cent, iron, and 075 per cent, cadmium. The
sum of these constituents must not exceed 1*2 per cent.

{d) " Prime Western," containing not more than 1*50
per cent, lead and 0*08 per cent. iron. This corresponds

THE OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ZINC ORES 73

with " good ordinary brands " in European quotations, and

includes the bulk of American spelter.

It may be mentioned that it is often the custom in

Europe, to remelt metal of this last grade, and ladle off

the top layer of purer zinc, thus reducing the lead to

0*8 per cent.

Prices

The price of spelter during 191 5 was subject to more
violent fluctuations than have been recorded during the
past fifty years. It rose gradually from £2^ per ton in
January to ;^i20 in June; then a reaction occurred, and
by August the price had fallen to ;^55. Thence up to
November there was another increase until the price was
again over ;^ioo. In spite of the considerably enhanced
price of spelter, zinc ore was in little demand in the
United Kingdom, available supplies greatly exceeding the
demand.

Prior to the outbreak of war, the spelter market had
been very largely regulated by the International Zinc
Convention. This association of zinc smelters, first formed
in 1909, and renewed in 191 3 for a period of three years,
was formed to fix, within certain limits, the individual pro-
duction of its members, and, if the market showed that the
demand was not keeping pace with the output, to curtail
the latter. This curtailment began when the price of
spelter had remained at ;^22 or under for two months and
the unsold stocks reached 50,000 tons. Separate syndicates
were formed for each producing country, and included all
the German, most of the Austrian, French, and Belgian, and
many of the British makers. The British and French
smelters had more liberty of action than the other mem-
bers, being free from selling restrictions, but they were
bound to a joint restriction of output in certain circum-
stances. The German smelters were under the most
stringent rules as regards production, prices, and agencies
through which sales could be made. American smelters
were not included in the convention, as the home con-
sumption at that time equalled the production, and it was
therefore unlikely that they could influence the European
market.

BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Production

The quantities of spelter produced by the chief countries
are shown in the following table :

igxi.

1912.

1913-

Metric tons.

United States .

267.472

314,512

320,283

Germany .

250.393

271,064

283,113

Belgium .

. 195,092

200,198

197,703

United Kingdom

66,956

57,231

59.146

France and Spain .

. 64,221

72,161

71,023

Holland .

. 22,733

23.932

24,323

Austria and Italy

. 16,876

19,604

21,707

Russia

9.936

8,763

7,610

Norway .

6,680

8,128

9,287

Australia .

1,727

2,296

3.724

Consumption

The world's consumption of spelter during recent years
is shown in the following table :

ign.

1912,

1913.

Metric tons.

United States .

251,600

312,900

313.300

Germany .

219,300

225,800

232,000

United Kingdom

175,700

185,200

194,600

France

82,000

81,100

Belgium . . . .

73.700

77,200

76,400

Austria-Hungary

43.500

46,800

40,400

Russia

28,900

27,900

33.300

Italy.

10,100

10,700

10,900

Spain

4,800

4,700

5,900

Holland .

4,000

Other countries

17,800

19,700
996,900

20,900

Totals .

. 911,400

1,012,700

Properties of Zinc

Zinc is a bluish-white metal, brittle at ordinary tempera-
tures, and having a crystalline fracture when pure. It
melts at 420° C. and boils at 930° C. ; at a temperature of
about 200° C. it can be readily powdered, but at temperatures
between 100 and iso^C. it may be rolled or drawn, after
which treatment it retains its malleability on cooling. The
presence of a small percentage of lead, which is so
objectionable in the manufacture of brass, is of considerable
assistance in rolling. Zinc tarnishes superficially in moist
air,

THE OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ZINC ORES 75

Utilisation of Zinc
In the following pages an account is given of the more
important uses of metallic zinc. Many of the compounds
of zinc, such as the oxide, chloride, sulphate, and carbonate,
are employed for a great variety of medicinal and industrial
purposes ; but in the present article the utilisation of such
compounds is only considered with reference to the pre-
paration of pigments. For the many other uses of the zinc
compounds reference may be made to the article on this
subject in Thorpe's Dictionary of Applied Chemistry.

Spelter

Galvanising is the most important use to which metallic
zinc is put, probably consuming nearly 80 per cent, of the
total output. The process, which was discovered in 1837,
consists in depositing a very thin coat of the metal on iron
in order to protect the latter from oxidation by the atmo-
sphere. It is stated that this zinc coating exerts a greater
protective action than tin-plating.

In the process of galvanising, the iron is freed from
scale by immersing it in hydrochloric acid contained in
stoneware troughs. The strength of the acid and time of
immersion ("pickling") vary with the nature of the work
and the cost of the acid. In the United Kingdom iron
sheets are pickled in a 20 per cent, solution of hydrochloric
acid, and sometimes undiluted " muriatic acid," which
contains from 26 to 30 per cent, of hydrochloric acid, is
employed.

Iron wire and tubes are treated with acid of 12 per cent,
strength. Using acid of any of the strengths mentioned
above, the operation is complete in a few minutes ; but on
the Continent, where a weaker acid is used for reasons of
economy, it is necessary to immerse the articles for several
hours, and also to warm the bath slightly. At some works
dilute sulphuric acid is used in place of hydrochloric acid.

After pickling, the plates, etc., are well washed, scoured
with sand, and immersed in the galvanising bath, which is
contained in a wrought-iron pot, and consists of molten
zinc covered with a layer of ammonium chloride. From
2 to 3 per cent, of tin is sometimes added to the bath when

76 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

it is desired that the finished goods shall have a spangled
appearance. Corrugated sheets are often galvanised plain
and then passed through the corrugating machine.

The consumption of zinc varies largely with the nature
of the article treated, thin wire requiring up to 25 per cent,
of its own weight.

The process yields two important by-products : (i) "hard
zinc," (2) flux skimmings. The first-mentioned is an alloy
of zinc and iron, containing from 2 to 5 per cent, of the
latter. Flux skimmings consist of chloride and oxide of
zinc, together with some ammonium chloride.

The disposal of the waste pickling liquors, which contain
about 15 per cent, of hydrochloric acid and 10 per cent, of
iron, chiefly as ferrous chloride, has caused considerable
trouble in many localities, and special processes have been
devised to deal with the matter.

Sherardising is the name applied to a special method
of galvanising. The cleaned articles are heated to a
temperature just below the melting point of zinc in a
closed receptacle containing zinc dust. The volatilised
zinc slowly combines with the iron, giving a coherent
protective coating. The process is specially adapted for
coating articles having a pattern or design on the surface
which would become filled up and obliterated if the
ordinary galvanising process were employed.

Electro-galvanising is sometimes employed for special
purposes. In this case the zinc is either in the form of
a neutral solution of the sulphate or dissolved in excess
of caustic soda.

Spelter is largely used for the production of " slush "
castings for ornamental purposes. In these, the metal
is poured back into the ladle as soon as a thin layer of
metal has solidified. These hollow castings must be
sound, as they are usually required to be subsequently
plated. Both lead and cadmium are stated to have detri-
mental effects in this connection.

Amongst other important uses of spelter must be
mentioned its employment in the desilverisation of lead.
Zinc very readily combines with gold and silver, and the
alloy formed can be easily separated from molten lead,

THE OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ZINC ORES 77

In the Parkes process, the zinc in slabs is stirred into
the molten lead, and the alloy of gold, silver, copper, and
zinc, which rises to the top, is skimmed off. Three or four
treatments with zinc are usually sufficient to remove all
the silver from the lead except o'l oz. per ton. The con-
sumption of zinc varies according to the content of silver;
thus, lead containing silver o'l per cent, requires r4 per
cent, of zinc, whilst if i*o per cent, silver is present, only
2*5 per cent, of zinc is required. The skimmings are dis-
tilled so that a large proportion of the zinc is recovered,
whilst the precious metals remain in the non-volatile
portion. It is essential that fairly high-grade zinc be used
for this purpose, as certain impurities, particularly iron,
cause a much larger consumption of zinc.

Another use v^hich consumes a large quantity of zinc
is that of precipitating gold from cyanide solutions by
means of zinc shavings. From 5 oz. to i lb. of the metal
is used for each ounce of gold recovered. The consumption
of zinc in South Africa, chiefly for this purpose, amounted
to 4,867 tons in 1914.

Zinc Dust

When zinc vapour is cooled too rapidly after distillation,
or if it becomes too largely diluted with other gases, a
bluish-coloured impalpable powder results. Some of this
substance, which is known as *' zinc dust," or " blue
powder," is always formed during the process of distillation,
the amount varying from 3 to 10 per cent, of the total zinc
present, when retort smelting is used. With electrothermic
processes the quantity may be still larger. This powder,
which consists of metallic zinc and 8 to 15 per cent, of zinc
oxide, cannot be made to coalesce by ordinary means, and
if it is desired to recover the zinc in a coherent form, i,e,
as spelter, the powder must be re-distilled. Zinc dust
is usually found in the " prolongs " beyond the condensers.
There is a limited market for the product, and the com-
mercial standard is that it shall pass a loo-mesh sieve and
contain not more than 10 per cent, of zinc oxide.

Zinc dust is considerably more active chemically than
spelter, being subject to more rapid oxidation, and having

78 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

the power to absorb hydrogen. On this account it finds
many uses in chemical industries, being used to discharge
locally the colour of dyed cotton goods, and in the pre-
paration of synthetic indigo. It has also been used for the
recovery of gold from cyanide solutions of the metal, for
which purpose it has been stated to be more efficient than
zinc shavings.

Alloys

Zinc enters into the composition of a number of alloys
of considerable industrial importance, such as brass,
German silver, and antifriction metal.

Zinc and copper alloy in all proportions, the resultant
products being of uniform composition throughout, as the
metals do not segregate. The addition of small quantities
of zinc to copper renders it " red short," that is, incapable
of being worked when red hot, but has no appreciable
effect on the malleability of the metal when cold. Alloys
containing over 80 per cent, of copper are red or reddish-
yellow in colour. Brass containing 60 per cent, of copper
can be rolled hot or cold, but it is less ductile than the
alloys containing a larger percentage of copper, although
its tensile strength is greater. The alloys containing over
50 per cent, of copper are chiefly employed as " brazing "
or " hard " solder. Muntz metal was originally introduced
for sheathing wooden ships, but is now chiefly used, under
the name of " yellow metal," for the cheaper varieties of
brass tube, wire, and sheet. When the quantity of copper
is reduced to 50 per cent, the resultant zinc alloy cannot
be rolled either hot or cold, and as the amount of copper
is further decreased the alloys become more fusible, brittle,
and nearly white in colour.

German silver, which is also known under the names
of " nickel silver," " electrum," and " white copper," is an
alloy containing copper 50 to 60 per cent., zinc 14 to 30
per cent, and the remainder nickel. It is almost white in
colour, practically unaffected by air, and can be rolled,
spun, or cast; for the last purpose, however, a small quantity
of lead is often added.

The addition of a small quantity of zinc to certain alloys

THE OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ZINC ORES 79

increases their wearing power, and for this reason it is
added to bearing metals and to the bronze coinage, which
contains about i per cent.

The approximate composition of various zinc alloys is
shown in the following table :

Zinc. 1

copper

Tin.

Antimony.

Nickel.

Zn.

Sn.

Sb.

Ni.

Per cent.

Percent.

Per cent.

Antifriction metal

—

Foundry pattern metal .

—

Brazing solder

—

Delta metal *

—

Muntz metal .

—

Stereo metal '

—

Naval brass .

—

Ordinary brass

—

Yellow brass

—

White metal .

—

German silver

—

' Also contains i to 2. per cent, of iron.

As already mentioned, zinc readily alloys with silver and
gold, and this property is utilised in the separation of the
latter metals from metallic lead (see p. 77).

Zinc Pigments

The most important zinc pigments are zinc oxide, or
*' zinc white," and lithopone ; zinc-lead oxide and leaded
zinc oxide are of less importance.

Zinc white is prepared by a number of methods which
may be roughly grouped into those involving production
from {a) spelter, {b) the ore, without intermediate separation
of the metal.

In the Silesian method, the spelter is heated to its
boiling point in retorts, and the vaporised metal allowed
to burn in air to zinc oxide. As the crude spelter always
contains some lead, which in this process would be con-
verted to oxide and impart a yellowish tint to the zinc
white, a small quantity of gas containing carbon dioxide
is introduced into the retort. The lead is thus converted
to carbonate, which is considerably heavier than the zinc
white, and therefore settles first in the condensers.

So BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

In Belgium, the pigment is also made by burning spelter,
but the final product is purified by levigation. The spelter
used in Belgium contains up to 2 per cent, of lead, and
o'oi to 0*04 per cent, of iron, and the zinc white contains
lead o'oo2 to 0*2 per cent., iron 0*003 to 0005 per cent.,
zinc oxide 9969 to 99*99 per cent.

It has been claimed that zinc white made direct from
the ore is a more durable pigment than that obtained by
burning spelter.

One of the best known direct methods is the Wetherill
process, which is largely used in the United States.
In this process, the oxidised ore is mixed with the
quantity of anthracite necessary for its reduction, and then
spread upon a bed of anthracite, which is burned on a
perforated grate by means of an underdraught. The metal
thus produced is volatilised and oxidised by the products
of combustion, and the oxide finally drawn away into the
flues and collected in muslin bags.

Lithopone is much used as a pigment and filler for
rubber goods, linoleum, enamel paints, and table oilcloth.
It consists of a mixture of zinc sulphide and barium sul-
phate. As in the case of other white pigments, purity of
raw materials is essential, iron compounds being very ob-
jectionable. It can be prepared by mixing solutions con-
taining equivalent quantities of barium sulphide and zinc
sulphate, about 0*5 to i*o per cent, of a mixture of freshly
prepared magnesia and common salt being added to the
mixture before filtration. The precipitate is collected in a
filter press, dried, mixed with 3 per cent, of ammonium
chloride, and the whole heated to dull redness. Lithopone
darkens when exposed to sunlight, and it is therefore
desirable to combine it with other pigments when it is to
be used for outside work.

The quantity of lithopone produced in the United States
in 1912 was 24,220 short tons, and in 191 3 the output was
29,685 short tons.

UTILISATION OF PEAT 8i

UTILISATION OF PEAT.— II

In the eleven years since the last article on the utilisation
of peat appeared in this Bulletin (1905, 3, 166), much
progress has been made in Europe and America towards
reducing the cost of production of this fuel. With such a
low-grade fuel as peat the margin of profit is at best a
narrow one, and each step in the preparation and use of
the material must be carefully studied if the undertaking is
to be a commercial success. Such questions as mechanical
excavation, pulping, drying, briquetting, disposal of the
fuel or of power produced from it in steam engines or
producer gas plants, the recovery of the nitrogen content
and the reclamation of the peat bog for agricultural pur-
poses, must all be considered in relation to local conditions,
while the comparative cost of imported coal and the pos-
sible utilisation of local water power may be important
factors.

For some time past the Canadian Department of Mines
has been interested in the utilisation of the large quantities
of peat and lignite available in the Dominion. B. F. Haanel
was sent to Europe to study the by-product recovery
gas producer industry, and his report (Mines Branch,
No. 299, 1914) contains detailed accounts of many European
peat workings and power plants. With regard to Canada,
the east and west are well supplied with high-grade coals,
as well as water capable of being utilised for the production
of cheap power, but large areas in the central part are at
present importing coal from the United States. These
central provinces contain numerous peat bogs and lignite
deposits, but many of the attempts to work the peat have
proved commercial failures. Peat was being worked in
19 14 on a fairly large scale at Farnham, Quebec, and by the
Mines Branch at Alfred, Ontario. The report mentioned
above gives details of four other peat bogs, selected for
their high nitrogen content, which are specially suitable
for the production of gas in the by-product recovery gas
producer. Estimates of the cost of plant and production
are also given. Report No. 266, 1914, Mines Branchy Canada^
gives particulars of other peat bogs.
4

82 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

An account of some of the more important developments
described by Mr. Haanel, together with other recent in-
formation, will be found in the following pages.

Excavation

In small undertakings the peat is usually dug by hand,
but in larger ones mechanical excavators are often employed.
The Strenge machine, used on several bogs in Germany,
is driven by electric motors and consists of a number of
buckets attached to an endless chain. It excavates the bog
in steps and does not mix the peat from different layers ;
consequently the fuel produced varies considerably in
quality. In bogs with uneven bottoms there is a danger of
the underlying sand being excavated with the peat, and
the presence of roots or stumps in the bog interferes with
the use of such machines.

At Farnham, Quebec, a mechanical excavator of special
design is being tried. On many bogs the peat is dug by
hand and conveyed by a bucket elevator to the pulping mill
on the bank of the excavation.

Pulping

The lower layers in a peat bog are usually more
altered than the upper, which contain much fibrous
matter. To obtain a product of fairly uniform quality it is
necessary to mix thoroughly the peat from the different
layers. This is done in some form of pulping mill, in which
circular knives revolve against fixed knives and cut, tear,
and mix the peat, which is forced between them by a screw.
The machine moves on rails beside the excavation, from
which it is fed by an elevator. The Anrep machine is
largely used in Russia, where over 1,300 machines were
working in 1909, and also in Sweden. In Germany the
Dolberg machines are preferred, and these are also used at
Orentano, Italy.

Drying

Peat as it exists in the bog frequently contains 90 per
cent, of water, and sometimes more. The percentage is
usually reduced to 25 or 30 in the peat fed to the furnace or

UTILISATION OF PEAT 83

gas producer, and the drying is effected by exposure to the
air in practically all cases. The pulped peat is conveyed
from mill to drying field either in small cars running on a
portable track or in buckets travelling on an aerial cable.
These are discharged into the hopper of a field-press and
spreader, which flattens out the ground it moves over and
deposits the peat in a series of narrow continuous strips,
which are subsequently cut, turned and, when dry, conveyed
to the storage bin or railway siding.

Open-air drying of peat, though cheap, has many
disadvantages. The process is dependent on weather
conditions, and can only be carried on during a limited
season each year. Provision must be made for storing the
dry, semi-dry, and wet peat in such a way as to protect it
from frost and snow. At the Wiesmoor in East Friesland,
the season lasts from April till August, in which time
about 30,000 metric tons of peat, containing 25-30 per cent,
of moisture, are produced. In the hot summer of 191 1 the
output increased to 35,000 metric tons and the average
moisture percentage fell to between 18 and 22.

Artificial drying of peat, by pressure or heat, or both,
increases the cost of production and has not hitherto
proved an economic advantage on a large scale. Much of
the water present forms a gelatinous compound with the
hydrocellulose, which is readily pressed through canvas.
On this account the moisture percentage cannot as a rule
be reduced below 70 by pressure alone.

Brune and Horst recommend the mixing of one part of
dry peat, containing not more than 20 per cent, of moisture,
with three parts of wet peat, and pressing in a hydraulic
press. If the resulting cake is broken up and again
pressed, the moisture can be reduced to 53 per cent. It
is stated that the dry peat provides minute channels
through which the water can escape.

Ekenberg's wet carbonising process, in which the peat
is subjected to a pressure of 54 atmospheres at a tempera-
ture of 220° C, has not proved a commercial success, since
on a large scale it is not possible to ensure that the product
will have a moisture content below 70 per cent. In the
Jameson process an electric current is passed through the

84 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

peat at comparatively low temperature and pressure, in
order to decompose the hydrocellulose.

The thermal conductivity of peat is so low that the
surface of a block may be charred in a drying oven while
the interior has still ^6 per cent, of moisture. Moreover,
it has been calculated that, if the water is evaporated in
the most efficient manner from peat containing 86 per cent,
of moisture, loo lb. of dried peat must be burned to pro-
duce 100 lb. of peat dried to the same moisture content.
Waste heat from exhaust steam, furnace flue gases, or gas-
engine exhaust gases, may, however, be utilised for drying
peat.

At the Mond gas plant at Orentano, Lucca, Italy, the
peat is dried by hot air. The raw peat, with 77 per cent,
of moisture, is placed in trays mounted on trucks, which
are rolled into the drying chambers. There are five of
these, and the air is forced through them and around the
trays of peat by a 40-horse-power electric fan. The waste
gases from the boiler plant and the gas-engine exhaust, with
hot air from a pre-heater, are mixed with enough cold air
to reduce the temperature of the mixture to about 150° C.
In two hours this hot air reduces the moisture content of
the peat from 77 to about 30 per cent.

Steam Power Plants

The dried blocks of peat may be at once marketed, or
they may be taken to a central power station where their
potential energy is converted into electric current, which is
then distributed to customers. This may be done by
burning the peat under steam boilers, or by some form of
producer gas plant. The former course is adopted at the
Wiesmoor, in East Friesland, Germany.

The Wiesmoor power station has a capacity of 5,400
horse-power. Peat is obtained from the bog at a cost of
5 marks per metric ton, and is stored in a large shed with
a capacity of 2,000 tons, while another 600 tons may be
stored in the power-house itself. The peat is transported
irom the stacks or shed in cars, which are discharged into
hoppers. An elevator and conveyor belts carry the peat

UTILISATION OF PEAT 85

to the charging hoppers of the boilers, where the stoker, at
intervals of fifteen minutes or more, operates levers which
drop the whole contents of the hopper on to the grate. In
this way the production of dust is reduced to a minimum.
Step grates inclined at 36° to the horizontal are used ; they
are in two halves, each 4 square metres in area, which are
charged alternately. The four water-tube boilers have
each a water-heating surface of 300 square metres, super-
heating surface of 100 square metres, and a grate area of
8 square metres, and the bog water used in them is first
purified. They supply steam at a pressure of iii atmo-
spheres and a temperature of about 300° C. to three turbo-
dynamos of 1,250 kw. This power-station supplies electric
current to Wilhelmshaven, Emden, Leer, and the surround-
ing villages, besides operating machines for the cultivation
of the reclaimed bog land.

Peat powder, prepared by special processes, may also
be burned under steam boilers, and is stated to give good
results. Trials on a Swedish railway with locomotives
fired with peat powder instead of coal have proved very
successful.

Producer Gas Power Plants

Peat may also be burned in the gas-producer, and the
resultant gas either sold or used in gas-engines to drive
dynamos. Moreover, the peat from many bogs contains
1*5 to 2 per cent, or even more of nitrogen, and this may be
recovered in the form of ammonium sulphate, for which
there is a steady demand as a manure.

In the Mond gas-producer a blast of air and steam is
forced through the glowing fuel-bed, and the gas comes off
at a comparatively low temperature. It contains much
hydrogen, with smaller amounts of carbon monoxide and
marsh gas, and most of the nitrogen in the fuel appears in
the form of ammonia. The gas passes through three super-
heaters, where it gives up much of its heat to the blast
entering the producer, and enters a mechanical washer,
where a spray of water thrown up by paddles frees it from
soot, dust, and some of its tar. In the ammonia-absorption
tower it encounters a dilute solution of sulphuric acid,

BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

which combines with the ammonia in the gas to form
ammonium sulphate. Finally, in the gas-cooling tower it
meets a spray of cold water, which robs it of most of its
remaining heat and tar. The hot water from this tower
passes through a tar separator, and is pumped to the top of
the air-saturating tower, where it warms and saturates the
air blast, which is further heated in the superheaters and in
an annular space surrounding the producer. A supply of
live steam is provided by steam boilers, so that the blast
contains about 2 lb. of steam for every pound of fuel burnt.
Some results obtained from peat in Mond gas-producers
by the Power-gas Corporation, Ltd., of Stockton-on-Tees,
are given below :

Fuel used.

German
peat.

Italian
peat.

English
peat.

Moisture content of fuel .... per cent.

Nitrogen content of fuel .... per cetii.

Quantity of gas produced per ton of theoretically dry
peat cubic ft.

Heat value of gas produced . B. T. U. per cub, ft.

Sulphate of ammonia produced per ton of theoreti-
cally dry peat lb.

40 to 60
i*o

85,000
150

15
1-58

60,000
166

IIS

57'5
2*3

90,000
134

215

At Orentano, Italy, the plant has a capacity of 100 tons
of peat a day, and includes three producers of the Mond
type without superheaters and without annular spaces round
the producers, and one Cerasoli producer. The latter aims
at utilising the moisture in the peat to reduce the quantity
of steam supplied from the boilers, and also at decomposing
much of the tarry matter distilled from the peat. This
producer is divided into three compartments, and the
volatile matter passes down through the fuel-bed to reach
the outlet.

In spite of the fact that the bog has to be drained by
pumping, and that a parting of gravel and clay occurs in
the middle of the peat, the results obtained at Orentano
were so encouraging that the Society per TUtilizzazione
del Combustibile Italiani built a second plant at Codigoro
(Ferrara). This plant is capable of dealing with 150 tons
of dry peat and of producing 10 to 12 tons of ammonium
sulphate daily. The sulphate is produced at a cost of

UTILISATION OF PEAT Sj

45. loa^. to 55. yd. per cwt., while the market price is above
125. per cwt.

At the Schweger Moor, near Osnabrtlck, Germany, the
Mond process was modified by Frank and Caro with a view
to utilising peat containing 6o per cent, or more of moisture,
but the venture does not appear to have been a success.

A gas-producer plant of 400 horse-power capacity, not
recovering by-products, has been working successfully for
some years on Irish peat at Portadown, Co. Armagh (see
this Bulletin, 1912, 10, 171), and small plants of similar
design are working at Veenhuizen and other places in
Holland.

It has been suggested that peat ashes may have some
manurial value on account of the potash and phosphoric
acid they contain. The tar collected in gas-producer plants
is capable of yielding on distillation a variety of products,
including disinfectants, burning and lubricating oils, wax,
and pitch. The aqueous distillate from the producer con-
tains various substances in addition to ammonia, among
them being methyl alcohol, acetone, pyridine bases, and
acetic acid.

Not only producer gas, but also ordinary gas for lighting
and heating, may be obtained from peat. The municipal
gasworks of Akkrum, in Friesland, are extracting gas from
a mixture of one part of peat and two of coal. The mixture
produces about 10,000 cu. ft. of gas per ton. The gas is
said to be of excellent quality, and the saving in cost is
great, as gas coal is very expensive in Holland.

Reclamation

An example of the successful reclamation of bog land is
furnished by the Wiesmoor, the steam-power plant of which
has been described above (p. 84). The scheme originated
in the desire of the German Government to utilise the
16,000 acres of unproductive bog land, and to found on it a
colony of small holders, each farming from 17 to 25 acres.

The main canals are bordered by roads on either side,
and also have a tow-path. Except for the preliminary
drainage trench, they are dug by Strenge mechanical ex-
cavators, and the sandy subsoil is used to form the roads.

88 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

The peat from the canals alone was far beyond the con-
sumption of the 2oo-horse-power plant originally installed
to supply power for the cultivation of the bog, and the
plant was therefore enlarged to 5,400 horse-power capacity,
and transmission lines constructed to the surrounding
towns and villages. The Government sells peat to the
power company at 5 marks per metric ton.

At right angles to the main canal, roads are made, 22 ft.
wide, bordered by narrow ditches and sown with grass,
which is rolled to form a firm turf. After six or eight
months the bog between the roads has dried and sunk
considerably, while the grass roads are firm enough to
support a twelve-ton electric windlass moving over broad
planks. This machine, with an anchor waggon on the next
grass road, drags a tilting plough with three shares over
the intervening bog land. The plough weighs about 3 tons,
and its capacity is 12 acres a day. Harrowing and rolling
are done in the same way. Lime and artificial manure are
then scattered on the rolled surface and harrowed in. The
cost of this preliminary cultivation is stated to be 600 marks
per hectare, or about £\2 per acre, and the initial results
have been most satisfactory. The first rye harvest was
sold standing for 300 to 400 marks per hectare, or £6 to ;^8
per acre.

CULTIVATION AND UTILISATION OF SUN-
FLOWER, NIGER, AND SAFFLOWER SEED

The sunflower {Helianthus annuuSy Linn.), safflower (Car-
thamus tindorius^ Linn.), and niger-seed plant {Guizotia
abyssinica, Cass.), all belong to the Natural Order Compositae.
They are grown on a fairly large scale for the production
of seed, and appear to be capable of more extended cultiva-
tion than they now receive. The " seeds " or achenes yield
drying oils, which can be used as such or converted into
solid fats by hydrogenation (see this Bulletin, 191 3, U, 660),
and the field of usefulness of the oils is, therefore, likely to
increase in the future. A less important member of the
same order is Madia satwa, Mol, an account of which is
given in a previous number of this Bulletin (1915, 13, 344)

SUNFLOWER, NIGER, AND SAFFLOWER SEED 89

Sunflower Seed

The sunflower is an annual plant which is too well
known in gardens to need description here. It appears to
be a native of the great plains of North America, from
Nebraska to northern Mexico. Its distribution as an
ornamental plant is very widespread, and although its
cultivation on a large scale as a source of oil-seed is
practically confined to central and south-eastern Europe,
trials have been made in many other parts with promising
results.

In South Africa twenty-six trials were made in 1907
with satisfactory results in all but three cases, and it was
concluded that no reason existed for not extending cultiva-
tion on a commercial scale {Cape of Good Hope Agric.Journ.^
1908, 32, 85). The plant is grown in most districts of
Southern Rhodesia in small quantities, and a considerable
increase in the industry is anticipated. In 1914-15 424
acres were under the crop, the total yield of seed being
246,168 lb. Hooper states {Agric. Ledger^ 1911-12, No. 5,
151) that the plant is grown occasionally in India. It does
not seem to be of any economic importance, however, in
that country. In Queensland the plant is said to thrive
equally well in the dry west, on the Darling Downs, and on
the eastern coast lands. Seed has been produced com-
mercially on one farm on the Binjour Plateau, Gayndah,
and it has been suggested that the present conditions are
favourable for extending the cultivation {Queensland Agric.
Journ.^ 191 5, 3, 6). Successful trials have also been made
recently at the Moumahaki Experiment Farm in New
Zealand {Journ. Agric. New Zealand^ 191 5, 11» 233). In
Mozambique, sunflowers gave good results as an intercrop
with young coconuts {Journ. d' Agric. trop.^ 1905, 5, 40).
Recent trials at Palermo, in Sicily, yielded favourable
results, especially on irrigated land {Bulletin di Studi ed
Informazioni del R. gardino Coloniale di Palermo^ 191 5, 1»
1 691). In the United States of America numerous trials
have been successfully carried out, but sunflower seed does
not appear to have been produced there on a commercial

90 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

scale. Trials also have been made in Spain, Portugal,
Tunis, German East Africa, and other countries.

There are a number of different varieties of sunflower,
the seeds of which vary in size and in colour. The latter
ranges from black or brown to white or grey, whilst some
forms are striped. The variety most commonly recom-
mended for cultivation as a seed crop is the " Giant
Russian."

Cultivation

The sunflower will grow on most kinds of soil, but
heavy soils appear to be less suitable than light soils.
According to Wiley {Bulletin No. 60, 1901, Div. of Chem.^
U.S. Dept. Agric.^ p. 12) the soils which are best suited for
maize produce the best crops of sunflower. The soil
should be well ploughed and reduced to good tilth by
harrowing, and, if the land is not naturally fertile, manure
should be applied liberally. Experience in Russia has
shown that fresh farmyard manure tends to reduce the
yield and quality of the seed, and consequently the plant
should be grown on land which was well manured for the
previous crop or in the previous autumn, so as to give the
manure time to decompose. In parts of Russia it is grown
successfully after crops, such as cucumbers or water-
melons, which require heavy manuring. Much of the
plant-food constituents can be returned to the soil by
feeding the stems, etc., to stock, or by chopping up the
plants and ploughing them in.

The seed should be sown in drills in early spring as
soon as the frost is out of the ground, either in rows 3 to
3i ft. apart with a distance of 2 to 3 in. in the rows, or it
may be broadcasted. In light soils it is advisable to sow
the seed 2 to 3 in. deep, so that it may obtain sufficient
moisture to permit it to germinate ; in heavy soils it should
not be sown so deeply. From about 5 to 15 lb. of seed is
generally sufficient to sow i acre, but much larger amounts
are sometimes recommended. It is stated, for instance,
that 46 lb. per acre is used in Russia. It seems likely that
these variable quantities are due to differences in the size
of seeds of different varieties and to uncertain germinative
powers.

SUNFLOWER, NIGER, AND SAFFLOWER SEED 91

The young plants, when about 6 or 7 in. high, are
thinned out so that they are about i to ij ft. apart in the
rows. When the plants are about a foot high the soil is
commonly banked up against the stalks, and when they are
about 2 ft. 6 in. high the side branches are removed in
order to encourage the growth of the flower-heads. The
crop requires little further attention beyond superficial
cultivation to remove weeds and conserve moisture during
dry periods. In windy, exposed places, however, the plants
may need supports. Superfluous flower-heads should be
removed in order that the main heads may develop fully.

In some parts of Russia, notably in the Caucasus, the
plant suffers badly from a rust (Puccmta helianthi). The
attack has been so serious in certain regions that it has
been suggested that the safflower should be grown as a
substitute for the sunflower. It has been noticed that the
attacks have been most serious where the crop has been
grown for several seasons in succession. The disease can
be checked by burning the plants after the heads have
been harvested, by a proper system of rotation of crops,
and by the introduction of new seed, certain varieties being
said to be less susceptible to rust than others.

Extensive damage has been caused in some districts of
Russia by a lepidopterous larva {Homeosoma nebulella^ Hb.).
The plant is also said to be attacked by a beetle belonging
to the family Curculionidae, as well as by a parasitic
flowering plant {Orobanche sp.).

Harvesting

Harvesting is effected either by cutting the heads of
standing plants or by cutting or uprooting the plants, and
in any case should be done before the seeds are quite ripe,
so as to avoid loss of seed. The heads are dried to prevent
them becoming mouldy, and the seed is removed either by
beating, by holding the heads against a revolving cylinder
studded with spikes, or by special machinery. A simple
and easily made device consists of a strong wooden disk
about 2 in. thick and 3 ft. in diameter bound by a stout iron
rim and worked by a pedal and crank (or by a belt if power
is available). It is mounted in a similar fashion to an

92 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

ordinary grindstone. Stout nails are driven through the
disk parallel to the axis and near the periphery, and are
allowed to project about half an inch on each side. A band
about 6 in. wide is formed in this way, in which the nails
are not more than about half an inch apart. The seeds are
removed by holding the flower-head against the nails while
the disk is in motion. The seed can be separated from
dried florets and other light impurities by winnowing, and
should be carefully dried in order to prevent fermentation
during storage.

The yield of seed in Russia varies from about 700 to
2,000 lb. per acre, the ordinary farmer obtaining about 800
to 900 lb. per acre. As much as 3,250 lb. per acre has been
recorded (Cape of Good Hope Agric. Journ., 1908, 32, 86), but
this seems to be abnormal. A crop of 1,200 lb. per acre
was obtained over a large area in 1905 in the Trans-
Caucasus {Agriculture in the Trans-Caucasus in ipoj, Dipt,
and Cons. Reports, Ann. Ser. No. 3,514 [Cd. 2682 — 39], 1905,
p. 7). This yield was considered to be fairly good, although,
owing to drought, it was not up to expectations.

Uses of the Sunflower Plant

Ensilage of fair quality may be prepared from the whole
plants, including flower-heads and seeds, but the stems
and leaves alone possess only a poor nutritive value. The
entire mature plant, in a fresh state, has the following
composition :

Per cent.

Moisture 85-21

Fat .103

Crude proteins 170

Carbohydrates, etc 6" 14

Fibre . 400

Ash r92

The Stems are tough and fibrous, but the fibre is too
brittle to be of value for textile purposes, and no serious
attempts appear to have been made on a practical scale to
use them for paper-making.

In the Caucasus district, where wood is scarce, the stems
and seed-husks are used as fuel, the ash forming a source
of considerable quantities of potash. The latter is pre-

SUNFLOWER, NIGER, AND SAFFLOWER SEED 93

pared by lixiviating the ash with water, evaporating, and
calcining the residue. The ash of the stalks contains,
according to Wiley, about 39 per cent, and that of the
seed-husks about 56 per cent, of potash (calculated as K2O).
An acre of land is said to produce 2,600 to 4,000 lb. of
stalks, equivalent to 160 lb. of ash yielding 40 to 53 lb.
of potash {Vyestnik Finansov, 1907, 24, 134). In 1905 there
were said to be twenty-four factories in the Caucasus
engaged in potash manufacture producing 12,600 to 16,200
tons of crude potash a year. About one-quarter of this
potash is used in Russia, the remainder being exported,
largely from Novorossisk ; the exports of carbonate of
potash from this place in recent years have been as follows
(cf. World's Supply of Potash ^ 191 5, p. 29).

Tons.

Toms.

1907

. 8,242

191 1

, 6,282

1908

. 4.717

1912

. . 6,736

1909

. 2,623

1913

. . 6,843

I9I0

■ 4.399

1914

. 3,120

Uses of Sunflower Seed

The chief use of sunflower seed is as a source of oil,
but it is also largely used as a poultry food, and in ad-
mixture with other materials as a food for cage-birds. It
is commonly eaten by the Russians, either in a raw state
or salted or roasted. When ground the seeds form a
useful feeding stuff for stock of all kinds, although they
do not appear to have been used largely for this purpose ;
being rich in protein and fat, the seed should be fed in
admixture with materials containing less of these con-
stituents.

The composition of the seeds and kernels is shown in
the following table (Wiley, loc. cit. p. 27) :

Moisture .

Fat .

Crude proteins

Carbohydrates, etc.

Crude fibre

Ash .

Seeds.

Kernels.

Per cent.

Ptr cent.

4'43

4-89

27-08

45-21

14-97

26-85

20'94

i6-o6

29-17

2-67

3*41

4*32

The seeds usually consist of about equal proportions
of husk and kernel ; the husks, being tough, fibrous, and

94 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

rather absorbent, should be removed before expressing
the oil. Russian seed is said to be inferior to Hungarian
seed, as the kernels yield only 1 8 to 24 per cent, of oil on a
commercial scale, while Hungarian kernels yield 28 to 30
per cent. A sample of seed grown in the Sudan and
examined at the Imperial Institute {Selected Reports from
Set. and Tech. Dept. Imp. Inst.^ Part V, p. 467, Colonial
Reports Miscellaneous ^ No. S^ [Cd. 7260], 19 14), was found
to contain 22 per cent, of oil, the kernels containing
47*9 per cent.

The manufacture of sunflower-seed oil and oil-cake is
practically confined to Russia and Central Europe, but
consignments of seed have been sent from Odessa to Hull,
and small quantities of oil-cake manufactured in Hull have
been shipped to the Continent (cf. this Bulletin, 1912,
10, 316).

Sunflower-seed Oil

The oil is a pale yellow liquid with the following con-
stants, shown in comparison with those of linseed oil :

Sunflower-seed oil. Linseed oil.

Specific gravity at ,^ . . . 0-924-0*926 0-93 1-0*937

Saponification value .... 188-194 190-195

Iodine value, /^ ^^«/. . . . 120-135 170-194

Cold-pressed oil from seed of good quality is almost
tasteless, and the better grades of oil are consequently
suitable for use in the manufacture of butter substitutes,
for culinary purposes and as a salad oil. The hot-
pressed oil contains mucilaginous matter from which it
is purified by treatment with sulphuric acid, as in the
case of rape oil (cf. this Bulletin, 191 5, 13, 455). Oil
unsuitable for edible purposes is used for burning and
soap making; it is also said to be used in Russia and
Germany for the manufacture of varnish, although it
possesses drying properties inferior to those of linseed oil.

Sunflower-seed Cake

Decorticated sunflower-seed cake forms a nutritious
feeding stuff for live-stock, although containing a rather
high percentage of crude fibre. The cake made from

SUNFLOWER, NIGER, AND SAFFLOVVER SEED 95

undecorticated seed is naturally less valuable, the per-
centage of fibre being very high. Analyses of the two
kinds of cake, according to Smetham (Ann. Journ. Roy,
Lanes, Agric. Soc^ 191 4), are shown in the following table,
compared with cakes used in this country :

,"|

•a

a
■Co

Per

CtHt.

cent.

Sunflower-seed cake, unde-

corticated . .

7-IO

19-01

7-43

28-93

30-03

7 'SO

1:2-42

Sunflower-seed cake, de-

corticated

775

38-38

8-68

22-46

16-03

6' JO

I : i-ii

140

Linseed cake, English

made, average

II-I6

29-50

9'SO

35'54

9*10

5 -20

1:1-94

133

Cotton-seed cake, decorti-

cated, from Atlantic ports

7-40

42-37

io'i6

25-86

706

7-15

1:1-16

157

Cotton-seed cake, unde-

corticated, English made

1375

24-62

6-56

29-28

21-19

4-60

I : 1-67

107

Coconut cake, English

8-5

24'S

8-3 38-8

12-8

6-1

I : 2-42

122

Palm kernel cake, English

I2'0

i8-5

5 '5 50 -o

lo-o

4-0

1:3-39

* For meaning of these terms seep. 10.

Sunflower-seed cake is produced in large quantities in
South Russia, and is principally exported to Denmark,
where it appears to be a popular cattle food, and also
to France, Sweden, and Norway. Little or no interest
appears to have been taken by farmers in this country in
the use of sunflower-seed cake, although it is quite
probable that it has been used in compound cakes. The
fact that large quantities of the cake are sent to important
cattle-rearing countries, such as Denmark, should be
sufficient to show that sunflower-seed cake is worthy of
trial by British farmers.

The cake is said by Hansson {Meddel. Centralanst^
Forsoksv Jordbruksomradet, 1909, No. 15) to be well adapted
for dairy cows in quantities of about 3 to 4J lb. per day ;
if larger quantities are used an unpleasant flavour is im-
parted to the butter. According to Buschmann {Landw.
Jahrb., 1908, 37, 899) the use of sunflower-seed cake instead
of coconut cake caused a decrease in the yield of milk and
of the percentage of fat in the milk, with some alteration
in the chemical character of the fat.

96 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Production and Trade in Sunflower Seed^ Oily and Cake

As already mentioned, the sunflower is cultivated on a
commercial scale only in Central and South-eastern Europe.
In Russia the chief centres of production are the govern-
ments of Saratov, Varonezh, Tambov, Kursk, Samara,
Kharkov and Poltava, the territory of the Don, and in the
Caucasus.

.Unfortunately, no statistics appear to be available for
the total production of sunflov^er seed, oil, and cake in
Russia ; but the industry is evidently a considerable one.
According to Lewkowitsch {Chemical Technology of Oils^
Fats and IVaxes, 1914, vol. ii, p. 137) 50,000 to 60,000 tons
of sunflow^er-seed cake were produced in the Northern
Caucasus (Kuban district) during 1906. An idea of the
extent of this industry can also be obtained from the
statement that, owing to failure of crops in 1903, the stocks
of seed had fallen to 64,000 tons, or about one-third of the
quantity sufficient for the oil-mills of the Trans-Caucasus
{Agriculture in the Trans-Caucasus ^ i903> Dipl. and Cons.
Reps., Ann. Ser. No. 3108 [Cd. 1766 — 42], p. 10).

Most of the Russian seed appears to be worked locally,
but a varying quantity is exported. In 191 3, 515 tons of
seed were exported from Taganrog and 1,125 tons from
Rostov-on-Don. Larger quantities, however, are exported
from Novorossisk, the amount shipped in 191 1, 1912, and
1913 being 20,909, 5,811, and 5,873 tons respectively.

In Hungary the cultivation of the sunflower as a main
crop is carried on chiefly in the Comitats of Szabolcs,
Szatmar, Szilagy, Zemplen, Barenya, and Pest. Recent
figures of production are not available, but in 1907 over
2,300 tons of seed were produced as a main crop and
14,000 tons as a secondary crop. The greater part is used
locally, only about 100 tons being exported per annum.

Niger Seed

The niger seed plant {Guizotia abyssinica, Cass.) is said
to be a native of Abyssinia, but is cultivated fairly generally
in East Africa for local use and also on a large scale in
Jndia.

SUNFLOWER, NIGER, AND SAFFLOWER SEED 97

Cultivation

In India this crop is generally grown on light, sandy
soil or rough rocky laterite. The land is prepared by
ploughing twice. The seed, at the rate of 4 to 6 lb. per
acre, is sown in drills about i ft. apart. The plant is
generally grown alone, but sometimes in conjunction with
leguminous crops. Niger seed is generally regarded as " a
poor man's crop," and would probably be unsuitable for
cultivation on a large scale except where labour and land
are very cheap.

When ripe the plants are cut and stacked for eight days,
and are then dried in the sun for two or three days. The
seed is obtained by beating, and separated from the debris
by winnowing.

The seeds are similar in shape to those of the sunflower,
but are very much smaller and quite black. The seed usually
contains 40 to 45 per cent, of oil. Seed grown in the East
Africa Protectorate, and examined at the Imperial Institute,
contained 37-6 per cent, of oil, and was valued at 36s. to 385.
per quarter (416 lb.) ex ship Hull (September 1909); but it
was stated that it might fetch a somewhat higher price in
Marseilles. No difficulty is likely to be experienced in
selling niger seed in fair quantity in Hull or Marseilles.

Niger-seed Oil
The oil is a yellow liquid having the following constants :

i5°C
Specific gravity at o^' . . . 0-92 5-0-927

Saponification value . . . 189-192

Iodine valne^ per cenf. . . . 127-134

The oil is used as a substitute for linseed oil when the
latter is scarce, although it possesses inferior drying pro-
perties. It is also suitable for soap-making, and is used
in India, Africa, and Europe as an edible oil.

Niger-seed Cake

The cake contains a fairly high percentage of proteins,
and, considering that the seeds are too small to allow of
decortication, only a moderate amount of fibre. The
following figures, taken from \h^Journ, Board Agric. (191 5,

98 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

22, 874), represent the average results obtained from the
examination of five samples of cake :

P$r ctftt.

Moisture 104

Cnide proteins 33- 1

Fat 61

Carbohydrates, etc. (by difference) .... 23-4

Fibre i6'8

Ash lOJ

It is stated {loc. cit.) that the cake has been used occa-
sionally in recent years in Essex, where farmers appear
to have been quite satisfied with the results it gives.

Hansen states {Mitt, Deut. Landw. Ges., 191 1, 26, 396,
412, 425), as the result of feeding trials, that niger-seed
cake is about equal in feeding value to sunflower-seed
cake, although less rich in fat and protein. Seissl and
Wester meier {Zeitsch. Landw. Versuchsw. Osterr., 1911, 14,
12 11) found niger-seed cake to be a good feeding stuff for
dairy cows, but not so valuable as soy-bean cake.

Trade in Niger Seed

Fairly large quantities of niger seed are exported from
India, and in some years a large proportion of it has been
sent to the United Kingdom, as is evident from the fol-
lowing statistics, showing the quantity of seed exported
from India in recent years, the chief countries of destina-
tion, and the total value of the exports :

1909-10.

1910-11.

1911-12.

1912-13.

1913-14.

United Kingdom .
Germany
France .

Austria-Hungary .
Italy .
Other countries

Cwts.

21,522

32,036

110,484

1,500

350

Cwts.

128,988

27,027

48,967

5.997

3,159

Cwts.
103,508
23,023
55.619

3.993

14,946

1,027

Cwts.
32,996

4,941
47,149

7,995
20,070

533

Cwts.

40)584

20,940

11,322

1,004

948

Total quantity .

165,892

214,138

202,116

113.684

82, 146

Total value

;^72,005

;^I05,072

;l{^102,650

;^57,843

;^42,926

Safflower Seed

Safflower {Carthamus tinctorius, Linn.) has been cultivated
Egypt, India, and elsewhere from very early times.

SUNFLOWER, NIGER, AND SAFFLOWER SEED 99

chiefly as a source of red dye, which is derived from the
florets. Owing to the introduction of artificial dyestuflfs in
modern times, however, the use of safflower dye has become
of minor importance, although it is still used in India to
a small extent, principally for ceremonial and religious
purposes, and it is as an oil-seed crop that safflower is now
chiefly cultivated. The young shoots of the plant are
sometimes used in India as a salad or as a vegetable, while
the stalks are employed in Egypt as fuel.

As far as can be ascertained, safflower seed is not
imported into Europe for use as an oil seed. The large
quantities grown in India appear to be used for the pro-
duction of oil and oil-cake for local consumption.

The safflower plant is an annual, erect, glabrous herb,
about 5 ft. in height, branched at the top, with a white,
smooth, pithy stem. There are several distinct varieties,
or at any rate races, of safflower or ** Kurdee " seed grown
in India, those grown for oil-seed being generally more
spinose than the dye-yielding plants. In Egypt the two
varieties are generally cultivated together, the thorny
variety being named " Dakka " (C tinctorius var. typicus^
Schw.) and the smooth variety " Netaya " (C tinctorius var.
inermis, Schw.) (Journ. Khedivial Agric. Soc.^ 1904, 6, 132).

Although the plant has been grown experimentally in
other countries, e.g. Nyasaland (cf. this Bulletin, 191 3, 11,
560), German East Africa {Tropenpjlanzer^ 1904, 8, 511), and
Germany, and its introduction into the Caucasus as a sub-
stitute for the sunflower has been suggested, it does not
appear to be of any economic importance outside India and
Egypt* It seems that safflower merits trial, especially as a
dry-farming crop in arid regions, as it withstands well the
conditions which obtain in the Deccan when the monsoon
is short (Trop. Agric. ^ 191 5, 44, 349).

Cultivation

The plant prefers a light, deep soil, especially one
which possesses a fair amount of humus and lime and
is not too sandy ; stiff clay or very fertile soils rich in
nitrogen are unsuitable. The ground should be pre-
pared by one ploughing and harrowing to provide a

loo BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

good seed-bed, and the seed sown in drills about i6 to
1 8 in. apart, or it may be broadcasted and subsequently
thinned out. In Egypt the seed is generally sown on dry
land, which is irrigated afterwards. The seed should be
sown thinly so as to obtain bushy plants. Practically no
cultivation is required except thinning. In India this crop
is, like many others, frequently cultivated in admixture
with other crops, such as juar {Sorghum vulgare)^ wheat, or
gram {Cicer arietinum)^ the safflower being grown in three
consecutive rows alternating with 9, 15, or 21 rows of the
principal crop.

Safflower is the most important oil seed cultivated in
Bombay, from 500,000 to 600,000 acres being grown annually
in association with the crops already mentioned. A certain
amount of seed is also obtained from the plants cultivated
as a source of dye. The quantity of seed obtained per acre
in India cannot be estimated, owing to the crop being grown
in admixture with others. In Egypt the yield of seed is
stated to be from 16 to 21 bushels per acre.

Safflower-seed Oil

Safflower seed is smaller than sunflower seed, but is
very similar in appearance and composition. The seed,
like that of the sunflower, in addition to its use as a source
of oil, is eaten and is used as a poultry food. It contains
about 60 per cent, of husk, which is rather more than in
the case of sunflower seed, and which should be removed
before expressing the oil.

According to Lewkowitsch {Chemical Technology oj Oilsy
Fats and Waxes, 19 14, vol. ii, p. 105) the seeds contain, as a
rule, 30 to 32 per cent, of oil, but when undecorticated
yield only 17 to 18 per cent, on expression. A specimen of
safflower seed, grown experimentally in Nyasaland, was
found, on examination at the Imperial Institute, to contain
57 per cent, of moisture and 29*6 per cent, of oil (see this
Bulletin, 191 3, U, 560).

The oil is very similar to sunflower-seed oil, but appears
to possess better drying properties, as would be expected
from its higher iodine value.

SUNFLOWER, NIGER, AND SAFFLOWER SEED loi

The usual constants of the oil are shown in the fol-
lowing table :

Specific gravity at ——TT^ • • • o-925-o'928
15 5 <^.

Saponification value .... 187-194

Iodine value, /^r ^^«/. .... 130-150

In India and Upper Egypt the oil is largely used for
edible purposes, for which it is prepared by cold pressing.
In India the ground seed is sometimes heated in an
earthenware jar, and the oil which separates is drained
away into another vessel. Oil prepared in the latter way
is dark coloured, and suitable only for such purposes as
dressing leather well-buckets or ropes. Oil of the seed of
the wild safflower (C. oxyacantha^ Bieb.) is used in the
native manufacture of " Afridi wax cloth " ; the oil is boiled
for about twelve hours and poured into flat dishes con-
taining cold water, when it yields a jelly-like mass, termed
" roghan." This material, when mixed with pigments and
applied to cloth by means of iron styles, dries completely,
yielding an indelible pattern. It has been suggested that
safflower oil might find an application in the manufacture
of linoleum, but, so far as can be ascertained, it has never
been put to this use commercially.

Safflower-seed Cake
The undecorticated cake appears to contain too large
an amount of fibre to find much favour as a cattle food,
but the decorticated cake is evidently highly nutritious.
The following analyses of safflower-seed cake are quoted
by Voelcker in the Standard Cyclopedia of Modern Agri-
culture (vol. X, p. 166) :

Undecorticated. Decorticated.

P«r ctnt. Per cent.

Moisture 8'55 11 60

Crude proteins .... 202 5 47 '88

Fat 973 770

Starch, etc. (by difference) . 2512 1972

Fibre 32*95 6*20

Ash 3-40 6'90

It is Stated that cattle will not eat the cake readily until
they have become accustomed to it. The cake is said to
be imported to England occasionally in small quantities;
it keeps well and does not turn mouldy.

I02 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

The Imperial Institute (Mauagement) Act 1916

The Imperial Institute Bill introduced into Parliament
this Session by His Majesty's Government having passed
through both Houses without amendment received the
Royal Assent on April i8th.

It provides for the transfer of the management of the
Imperial Institute v^hich v^as vested in the Board of Trade
by the Imperial Institute (Transfer) Act of 1902, to the
Secretary of State for the Colonies, and for the appoint-
ment of an Executive Council of twenty-five members
which supersedes the present Advisory Committee of the
Act of 1902 and the Managing Committee which was subse-
quently constituted.

The Bill was introduced into the House of Commons by
Mr. Bonar Law (Secretary of State for the Colonies), Mr.
A. Steel-Maitland (Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State
for the Colonies), and Mr. Harcourt (First Commissioner
of Works and Public Buildings).

In his speech on the second reading of the Bill in the
House of (Commons on March 29th Mr. Bonar Law ex-
plained the provisions of the Bill, and stated that the
Government, in view of the valuable work which had been
done by the Institute, desired that through an enlarged and
representative governing body it should be in a strong
position to take a leading part in the commercial reorgani-
sation which would occur after the war.

Sir Owen Philipps said that the Bill was a step in the
right direction, and especially through the increased repre-
sentation of the Dominions he considered that the great
difficulty under which the Institute laboured in carrying on
its valuable work, namely want of funds, would be removed.
If this were brought about the Institute would be able to
do even more valuable work than it was doing at the
present time.

Sir Philip Magnus expressed his approval of the Bill
and his high appreciation of the valuable work performed
for all parts of the Empire by the Imperial Institute. He
referred to the need for further accommodation for this
work, and expressed the hope that co-operation would be
established with the Imperial College of Science and Tech-
nology, and especially that students of the College might
be able to utilise the unique Colonial and Indian Collec-
tions which had been established in the Galleries of the
Institute.

Sir J. D. Rees said he recognised the excellence of the
work which was being done by the Institute and the value
of its Collections to commercial men. He suggested that,
having regard to the importance of the work of the Insti-

NOTES 103

tute to India, the Indian representation on the Executive
Council might well be increased.

Colonel Yate desired that the Government of India
should be given two representatives in place of the one
given by the Bill.

The Bill was considered in Committee of the House of
Commons on April nth.

Sir J. D. Rees moved an amendment giving the Secre-
tary of State for India the right of appointing four repre-
sentatives on the Executive Council instead of two. He
referred to the fact that the trade of India is 1 5 per cent, of
the trade of the Empire, and contended that, therefore,
India was entitled to greater representation on the govern-
ing body of the Institute.

Sir John Jardine and Colonel Yate supported the
amendment.

Mr. Steel-Maitland, in reply, said that the Government
were unwilling to increase the size of the Executive Council
by adding to the number of twenty-five members. It was
proposed, however, to increase the representation given to
India by nominating one additional Indian member out of
the fourteen members who, under the Bill, were to be
nominated by the Secretary of State for the Colonies,
among whom would also be Lord Islington, the Parlia-
mentary Under-Secretary of State for India. In all,
therefore, India would have five representatives. The
members to be nominated by the Secretary of State for the
Colonies would include only two members of the staff of
the Colonial Office, whilst representation would be given
to the Chambers of Commerce of this country, the Crown
Colonies, and Protectorates. It had also been arranged to
ask the newly-constituted Committee of the Privy Council
for Scientific and Industrial Research to select one repre-
sentative. Considering all the various and important
interests which had to be represented through the fourteen
members nominated by the Secretary of State for the
Colonies, the number was not too large.

The amendment was withdrawn.

Sir Philip Magnus moved an amendment providing that
out of the fourteen members nominated by the Secretary
of State for the Colonies one should be a member of the
governing body of the Imperial College of Science and
Technology, and one a member of the Senate of the
University of London. He considered that it would be
advantageous to arrange close co-operation between the
Institute and the College, and, as the College was a School
of the University of London and the University occupied
a portion of the Imperial Institute building, it seemed
desirable that the University should be represented on the
Executive Council.

I04 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Mr. Steel-Maitland said that the difficulties in providing
for representation of even the most essential interests were
very great, and he hoped that no definite pledge of this
kind would be asked for, especially since there was already
co-operation between the Institute and the College, and
further co-operation, if necessary, could also be arranged.

The amendment was withdrawn, and the Bill reported
to the House without amendment and read a third time.

In the House of Lords the Second Reading of the Bill
was moved on April 13th by Lord Islington (Under-Secre-
tary of State for India), who explained the scope and
objects of the measure in the following speech :

** My Lords, in rising to move the Second Reading of
this Bill, I will briefly explain its main provisions and the
objects which it sets out to achieve. As the title of the
Bill indicates, it proposes to transfer the management of
the Imperial Institute from the Board of Trade to the
Colonial Office. By the Act of 1902 the Imperial Institute
and all its property was vested in the Board of Trade ;
and by a subsequent arrangement, in the year 1907, entered
into by the three Departments concerned— namely, the
Colonial Office, the India Office, and the Board of Trade —
the management and control was placed in the hands of the
Colonial Office. The first object of this Bill, therefore, is
to bring the law into conformity with the practice and to
place by Statute the control of the Institute under the
Secretary of State for the Colonies, who is, after all, the
most appropriate Minister to exercise authority in regard to
questions of this character.

" The second part of the Bill deals with the management
of the Institute, and substitutes for the present Advisory
Committee and Management Committee an Executive
Council of twenty-five members. The schedule will show
your Lordships the constitution of the Council as deter-
mined within that schedule. It is hoped by this readjust-
ment of departmental control to remove the somewhat
roundabout methods which have hitherto existed in regard
to the authority of the Institute, by which the Board of
Trade held the nominal supremacy whilst the real manage-
ment was in the hands of the Colonial Office. Again, by
the establishment of an Executive Council it is hoped to
create a board of management which will be competent,
under the control of the Colonial Office, to exercise the
general administrative control of the Institute. The exist-
ing system of an Advisory Committee which has really no
powers whatever and a Board of Management of three has
not been found from many points of view to be so effective
in its working as might be desired.

"As a descriptive analogy of the kind of relationship
which we propose shall exist between the Colonial Office

NOTES to5

and the Imperial Institute, I would say that the Institute
will take the place in that connection of a Crown Colony in
its relation to the Colonial Office. The estimates of the
Institute will have to be submitted annually to, and all
matters of important policy will have first to receive the
sanction of, the Colonial Office. But subject to this, the
Executive Council of the Institute will possess a general
authority over the administrative work of the Institute, and
it will report its proceedings annually to the Secretary of
State for the Colonies, who, I have no doubt, in due course
will submit them to Parliament and the Empire. The
Executive Council must necessarily be numerous owing to
the very wide and far-reaching interests that must be
represented upon that body, and in order to ensure, as we
all desire, its true Imperial and commercial character. I
will say a word in a minute in regard to the personnel
of the Executive Council. But I would, if I may, develop
briefly the scheme as contemplated, but which is not
actually embodied in the Bill.

" It is contemplated that an essential part of the ad-
ministrative work of the Institute will be undertaken by
sub-committees formed from the nucleus of the Executive
Council. For instance, a Finance and General Purposes
Committee will undertake the ordinary routine administra-
tive work, and will meet frequently for that purpose. It is
contemplated also that there will be appointed sub-com-
mittees for particular parts of the Empire and for any
particular products or groups of products in which one or
other component parts of the Empire are interested. For
instance, it is contemplated that there will be appointed a
Sub-Committee for India. There may be special Com-
mittees appointed respectively for the Dominions, for other
parts of the Empire, and for the Crown Colonies and Pro-
tectorates ; and from time to time it ma}^ be found advisable
to appoint ad hoc Committees to deal with those groups of
products which form the raw material for our manufactures,
such as palm kernels, oil seeds, copra, and other articles
familiar to your Lordships. These details, of course, are
not mentioned in the Bill, and properly so, but will be
undertaken by regulations issued from the Colonial Office.
I merely mention them to show your Lordships that an
active and comprehensive system of management is in
contemplation for the Imperial Institute, and that every
opportunity is going to be afforded to the Institute of
developing and extending its work of research in co-opera-
tion with all parts of the Empire, and, as far as possible, of
translating the results of that research work into practical
application for our industries at home and in other parts
of the Empire. The constitution of the Executive Council
has this object very prominently in mind, as will be seen
from the Schedule.

io6 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

" In the Schedule your Lordships will observe that the
Empire is represented on the Executive Council by all the
great Dominions and by India, the Public Departments
concerned by the Board of Trade and the Board of Agri-
culture, and in addition there are fourteen members to be
appointed by the Secretary of State for the Colonies. I
w^ould like to say a word of explanation in regard to this
last line in the Schedule, because this might appear at first
sight to be a somewhat undue proportion to be allotted to
the Colonial Office, but 1 think on explanation your Lord-
ships will see that there is no foundation for that appre-
hension. Of the fourteen, two will be taken from the
present Advisory Committee in order to ensure continuity
with the past and existing management. There will be
two officials appointed from the Colonial Office. The
Director of the Imperial Institute will occupy a position
upon that body; there will also be one representative of
the interests of the associated Chambers of Commerce;
and a representative to be approved by the Privy Council
Committee of Research will also occupy a position on this
Council. It is needless for me to emphasise the importance
of having a representative in touch with the Imperial
Institute from a body such as the Privy Council Committee
of Research, which is one of such authority, and v/hich will,
I believe and hope, play so important a part in the in-
dustrial research of the Empire in the years to come.
Then, in response to an appeal by my right hon. friend the
Secretary of State for India, an additional member to those
already mentioned will be afforded by a fourth representa-
tive approved by the Secretary of State for India. That
makes four representatives for India, as against three now
on the Advisory Committee. I think that number will
allay the doubts of those in another place who appeared to
have apprehensions that India would not be adequately
represented upon this body. This disposes of eight of the
fourteen members to be appointed by the Colonial Office.
The six remaining members will be taken from those who
are interested in the Crown Colonies and Protectorates.
And I would mark here the importance of having adequate
representation for the Crown Colonies. Whereas it is
absolutely necessary, of course, to have full representation
of the great Dominions of India, and all the other interests,
it is of vital importance to have full representation for the
Crown Colonies, which in essence must be in a large
measure dependent upon the Imperial Institute for contact
as between the producer of the raw material in their
countries and the manufacturer in this country, and which
are not possessed, as the other Dominions and India are,
of well-established research laboratories. This completes
in broad outline the scheme ; but I shall be very glad to
offer additional information to any noble Lord who may

NOTES 107

desire such at a subsequent stage of the Bill. Before
sitting down, perhaps I may be permitted very briefly to
describe the work of the Institute. I think that any one
acauainted with its work of recent years will agree that
it has earned the esteem of all who are desirous of pro-
moting Imperial interests in commerce and industry. I
have had especial opportunity of observing the work of
the Institute, because I have had the honour of occupying
for the last two years the position of chairman of the
Advisory Committee. Much has been done recently, and
especially since the outbreak of the war. Every opportunity
has been taken to promote to practical utility raw products
from various parts of the Empire as material for British
industries. And I may, perhaps, be allowed to say here
that the Director of the Imperial Institute, Professor
Dunstan, is largely responsible for the active work that has
been done in this connection. By his ability, initiative,
and untiring energy, he has rendered great service to the
Empire and to the manufacturing industries of this country.
Had I time I could give several instances of raw products
that have been made applicable for manufacture as the
result of research in the laboratories of the Imperial
Institute since the war commenced, but it v^ill be sufficient
for me to say that this work has been and is being under-
taken with vigour.

" In connection with the research laboratories of the
Institute a branch has of recent years been established
known as the Technical Information Bureau of the Imperial
Institute, which forms a kind of agency between the pro-
ducer in the distant Colony and the manufacturer at home.
This bureau has been instrumental in giving technical
information to many manufacturers in this country as
regards the raw material in the Colonies and in India, and
thereby has enabled that rav/ material to form the founda-
tion for new and progressive industries here. When we
come to realise the size and extent of our Empire, the
capacity it has to produce in abundance and in excellence
practically every ingredient required for every article of
manufacture in use in the world ; when, again, we realise
that whole groups of products growing and available in
profusion in one or other of our possessions, some even
hitherto regarded as mere useless superfluities of nature,
have now as the result of research and of experiment in the
laboratory become invaluable and, indeed, indispensable
foundations of modern industry and manufacture, I think
that we can begin to appreciate the supremely important
place that the Imperial Institute and kindred organisations
of this character must occupy in the scheme of our in-
dustrial progress in the future.

"There are two points that I think must have been
brought to our minds vividly as the outcome of the present

io8 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

war— first, the absolute necessity of applying scientific
research at every stage of our manufacturing methods ; and,
secondly, our growing and, I hope, universal determination
that our own raw products, wherever grown or found
within the Empire, shall in future form the basis for British
Imperial industries, and not, as hitherto, be sent to be
manufactured in Germany. It is because I believe that one
and by no means the least of the methods by which this
object can be achieved is the improvement of the machinery
of the organisation of the Imperial Institute and the oppor-
tunity thereby afforded to extend and develop its useful
activities, that I with complete confidence submit to your
approval this Bill and ask you to give it a Second
Reading."

Lord Sudeley referred to the interest he had taken
in the Imperial Institute from the commencement, and his
appreciation of the valuable work which had been accom-
plished in recent years. The Bill met with his entire
approval. He hoped that very close touch would be
secured w^th the Dominions and Colonies, and in this
connection he suggested that Ministers from the Dominions
and high officials from the Colonies and India, when at
home, should be made ex-ofificio members of the Executive
Council. It was also of the utmost importance that the
work of the Institute should be properly sujDported by
funds, which had not hitherto been the case. There was
always a difficulty to find the means to do even the most
important work. He alluded to the need of popularising
the great Collections of the Institute to which he had
referred on previous occasions, yet little or nothing had
been done for want of money. He trusted that the question
of finance would be one of the first matters to which the
Executive Council would give attention.

Lord Milner said :

" My Lords, this Bill is, as I understand, machinery —
quite good machinery, as far as I am able to judge from
what the noble Lord said in explaining it. But we have
had the Imperial Institute for many years, and until quite
recently little has come of it. Whether or not the machinery
proposed in this Bill is going to be of really great value to
the Empire will depend entirely upon the amount of interest
which the present and succeeding Governments continue to
take in the Institute and upon the liberality, with which
they may be prepared to support it. We have been in the
past extraordinarily indifferent to the enormous resources
of our Colonial Empire, and especially of the Crown
Colonies, and we have been equally indifferent to the
importance of science in every branch of our public life and
in the development of the resources of our Empire. I may
say that I listened with the greatest pleasure to the con-

NOTES 109

eluding sentences of the speech of the noble Lord. If the
two principles which he laid down and to which he attached
such great importance are really going to be live principles
in Imperial policy in the future, then I think we may look
forward to the dawning of a better day.

•* It has been a matter of extraordinary difficulty in my
experience — and I dare say the noble Lord will agree that
it has been so in his, for we have occupied somewhat
similar positions in the past — to get any sympathy or
appreciation in this country for the possibilities of what the
late Mr. Chamberlain once called * our vast undeveloped
estate.' A new spirit, no doubt, came into Imperial
administration with his advent to the Colonial Office, and 1
am glad to be able to say that, certainly as far as the Crown
Colonies are concerned, the progressive spirit which he
introduced has been maintained by his successors. Alto-
gether there has been more progress in the last ten or
nfteen years in what I may call the appreciative adminis-
tration and the sound economic development of the
dependent Empire, especially of the great tropical Crown
Colonies, than in all our past history, certainly for fifty or
a hundred years past. No doubt at one time the value of
Colonies like the West Indies was fully appreciated, but
throughout nearly the whole of the nineteenth century they
were almost forgotten.

" I do not wish to detain the House, but 1 could not
help remembering something of my own experience and
difficulties of the past. I could not help most cordially
welcoming the spirit in which the noble Lord introduced
this measure, and, if I may so express myself, underlining
the words which he used with reference to the importance
of it. We are a very small assembly here to-day, and in
the midst of the tremendous question of Imperial policy
with which we are all confronted a matter of this kind
may appear of comparative insignificance. Certainly it
does not attract a large audience. But I feel honestly
convinced that if the Imperial Institute is really to be a
central home of science and research for the development
of the products of the Empire, and if those who are
responsible for its administration are to realise that in it
they have an instrument which may be of fundamental
importance, not only economically but politically, in welding
the Empire together, I say the matter which we are
discussing to-day may come to be looked back upon in the
future as one of the most important subjects brought before
this House. There can be no question, of course, that this
measure will pass. I may possibly have something to say
on minor points in Committee. But the main point is that
we should all realise how big a subject it is with which we
are dealing. Above all I would venture to express the
fervent hope that the history of the Imperial Institute may

no BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

not be in the future what it has been in the past — namel}^,
a great splash followed by years of negligence — but that
this Government and successive Governments may continue
to recognise its immense importance and give it that
liberality in money without which it cannot accomplish its
great objects so eloquently described by the noble Lord."

Lord Peel said :

" My Lords, I should like to ask the noble Lord in charge
of this Bill whether it is contemplated merely to transfer
these liabilities, duties, and so on, to this new body, or
whether there is in contemplation a further and larger
grant for all these new developments. The noble Lord
gave us an eloquent picture of what was to be done at the
Imperial Institute under the new system, but no one knows
better than he does that in order to translate that picture
into fact and to prevent his speech being merely an eloquent
performance, a great deal more money is wanted. There-
fore I ask whether it is in contemplation to give larger
grants to the Institute than have been given in the past."

Lord Islington, in replying, said that the Bill dealt only
with the machinery of government and not with finance.
The Bill was read a second time.

The House of Lords went into Committee on the Bill
on April 17th, when Lord Sudeley moved an amendment
that the schedule should provide that, in addition to the
twenty-five appointed members. Ministers of Dominion
Governments, Governors of Crown Colonies and Pro-
tectorates, members of the Governor-General's Council in
India, Governors of Indian Presidencies and Lieutenant-
Governors of Indian Provinces, when in England, shall
be ex-officio members of the Executive Council without
the power of voting.

Lord Islington said :

" My Lords, the Amendment which my noble friend
has moved deals with an object which I am sure all members
of this House would desire to see attained. Certainly it is
one with which I have the strongest sympathy myself, and
I am authorised to say that the Secretary of State for the
Colonies, on whose behalf I am speaking, shares the same
sentiment. The arguments which the noble Lord has
advanced go to show that his main desire is to bring into
closer contact with the Imperial Institute those in re-
sponsible positions in the Colonies and Dominions and in
India. If I am unable to accept the Amendment in the
form in which it is moved, I can assure the noble Lord
that it is not due to any reluctance or indifference on my
part to affording every possible opportunity to those
representatives to become intimately acquainted with the
Imperial Institute. The proposal, however, in the precise
form in which it is placed on the Paper is hardly in

NOTES III

accordance with our ordinary procedure in regard to Bills
of this character. The matter is rather one which should
be left to executive action on the part of the statutory
constitution when it is set up.

"1 would remind noble Lords that the Executive Council
which is proposed is already a large one, twenty-five in
number. In another place it was argued by some hon.
Members that this number was too great, but, as I
attempted to point out in moving the Second Reading of
this Bill last week, the number decided upon is inevitable
owing to the numerous interests which have to be repre-
sented on this body ; and prominent among those interests
will be the very representatives whom the noble Lord, by
his Amendment, seeks to admit in duplicate. If this
Amendment were accepted, it would at certain periods of
the year greatly increase the number of the Executive
Council ; whilst the extra members who would thus be
eligible to attend would in the very nature of the case
attend somewhat intermittently, and would not be in the
same position to be fully acquainted with the routine work
as the regular members of the Council. I think noble
Lords will agree that if the Institute is to be efficiently
conducted in the years to come the same body of people
should work to a definite and considered objective, and that
any sudden infusion of new members, even if they did not
have votes, might to some extent prejudice the smooth
working of the administrative machine.

" Although I am unable on behalf of the Colonial Office
to accept the Amendment proposed, I hope that for all
practical purposes I shall be able to meet the object which
the noble Lord seeks to attain when I inform him that I am
authorised by His Majesty's Government to say that, whilst
these representatives, whether they are from the Dominions
or from the Colonies or Protectorates or from India, cannot
actually be admitted as members of the Executive Council
by Statute during their sojourn in England, steps will be
taken to secure that every opportunity shall be afforded to
them not only to visit the Institute whenever they desire
to do so, but also they may be invited to attend the sittings
of the Executive Council during the time that they are in
England. I would go further, and say that I have no doubt
that the Executive Council— it will be a matter for them
to decide — when they are in working order, will also give
facilities to any responsible representative from any part
of the Empire who happens to be here at the time to
attend, and he might possibly also be co-opted as a member
of any of the sub-committees that might be sitting at the
time dealing with parts of the Empire or with groups of
products with which that particular representative might
be especially concerned. I hope my noble friend will
realise that I have approached his Amendment with every

112 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

sympathy in regard to its object, and 1 trust that what
I have said will satisfy him that every opportunity is to be
taken to bring responsible oversea representatives, when
they are in this country, into the closest possible contact
with the Imperial Institute, so that the Institute may have
full advantage of their advice and counsel. In these
circumstances I hope that the noble Lord will not press
his Amendment."

Lord Sudeley said that on the understanding that an
official invitation from the Colonial Office would be given
to those he had named to attend the meetings of the
Executive Council he would withdraw his amendment.

The Bill was reported to the House without amend-
ment, read a third time and passed.

The following is the full text of the Bill :

A Bill to provide for transferring the Management of
the Imperial Institute from the Board of Trade to the Colonial
Office^ and for other purposes connected therewith.

Whereas by the Imperial Institute (Transfer) Act, 1902
(hereinafter referred to as the "principal Act") the Im-

gerial Institute was placed under the management of the
loard of Trade, and it is expedient to transfer the manage-
ment thereof to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, and
to make such other provisions in connection therewith as
are contained in this Act :

Be it therefore enacted by the King's most Excellent
Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords
Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present
ParHament assembled, and by the authority of the same,
as follows :

1. — (i) All property, real or personal, and all rights or
obligations, and all debts or liabilities, which were trans-
ferred to the Board of Trade under the principal Act or
which have become the property, rights, obligations, debts
or liabilities of the Board of Trade in pursuance of that
Act, shall become the property, rights, obligations, debts,
or liabilities of the Secretary of State for the Colonies, and
the Secretary of State for the Colonies for the time being
shall have any powers necessary to enable him to hold any
such property.

(2) Sections three and seven of the principal Act (which
relate to the application of property and to powers of
management) shall have effect as if the Secretary of State
for the Colonies were substituted for the Board of Trade,
and as if property transferred to the Secretary of State for
the Colonies under this Act were substituted for property
transferred to the Board of Trade under that Act.

(3) The Secretary of State for the Colonies shall be
substituted for the Board of Trade in sections four and five
and in subsection (3) of section nine of the principal Act

NOTES 113

(which relate to the Imperial Institute Building and the
Endowment Fund, and to the Imperial Institute Trustees).

(4) The Advisory Committee appointed under section
eight of the principal Act shall be abolished, and there
shall be established for the purpose of carrying on the
management of the Imperial Institute under the Secretary
of State for the Colonies an Executive Council constituted in
accordance with the provisions of the Schedule to this Act.

Subsections (i) and (2) of section eight of, and the Third
Schedule to, the principal Act are hereby repealed and the
Executive Council shall be substituted for the Advisory
Committee in section five, in subsection (3) of section eight,
and in subsection (3) of section nine of the principal Act.

2. This Act may be cited as the Imperial Institute
(Management) Act, 1916.

Schedule

1. The Executive Council shall consist of twenty-five
members, appointed as follows :

By the Board of Trade .... Two.

By the Secretary of State for India . . Two.

By the President of the Board of Agri-
culture and Fisheries .... One.

By the Government of India . . . One.

By the Government of the Dominion of

Canada One.

By the Government of the Commonwealth

of Australia One.

By the Government of the Union of South

Africa One.

By the Government of the Dominion of

New Zealand One.

By the Government of Newfoundland . One.

By the Secretary of State for the Colonies Fourteen.

2. The term of office of a member of the Executive
Council shall be three years.

3. The members of the Executive Council shall retire
on the expiration of their term of office, and their offices
shall be filled by fresh appointments in accordance with the
foregoing provisions of this Schedule.

4. A casual vacancy occurring in the office of any
member of the Executive Council by death, resignation, or
otherwise, shall be filled by appointment in manner directed
by the foregoing provisions of this Schedule as respects the
member whose office is vacant ; but the member so appointed
shall hold office only so long as the member whose office is
vacant would have held office.

5. A retiring member may be reappointed.

6. The Executive Council may act notwithstanding any
vacancy in their number.

114 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

'm^\ NOTES

importation of Tobacco from British Colonies and Protectorates.
—In connection with the Proclamation prohibiting the im-
portation of tobacco into the United Kingdom, a Committee
was appointed by the Government to advise as to the issue
of licences for importation in special circumstances. Re-
presentations have been made to the Board of Trade by
the Tobacco Trade Section of the London Chamber of
Commerce, pointing out that the tobaccos grown in Nyasa-
land and Rhodesia are the only tobaccos which resemble
or could replace Virginia tobacco, and that the prohibition
of importation of these products would entail considerable
hardship and would seriously retard the growth of the
industry in these countries. As a result, the Tobacco Com-
mittee is now empowered to grant licences "for any tobacco
manufactured or unmanufactured, the produce or manufac-
ture of any part of His Majesty's Dominions." This ap-
parently means also that cigarettes manufactured in such
countries as Egypt and Cyprus from imported raw tobacco
may be imported to the United Kingdom.

It may be mentioned that at the commencement of the
war British-grown tobaccos were not included in the War
Office specification for tobacco, although certain of them,
such as those of Nyasaland and Rhodesia, had already
found a good market in this country. An application was
therefore made by the Imperial Institute to the War Office
with the result that the specification was modified so as to
allow the use of tobacco of satisfactory quality grown in
any British Colony or Protectorate from American seed,
and, as a consequence of this concession, Nyasaland and
Rhodesian tobaccos are now largely employed and highly
esteemed for the manufacture of the tobaccos and cigarettes
supplied under Government contracts for the Army. The
Admiralty had previously allowed the use of certain British-
grown tobaccos in their specification for tobacco to be sup-
plied to the Navy.

Linseed Growing in England. — For some time past experi-
ments in the cultivation of linseed {Linum usitatissimum)
have been made at various places in England, and chiefly
on the experimental farms of Agricultural Colleges. The
results of investigations of the oil content of a number of
samples of seed grown in England and of certain other
matters connected with linseed cultivation have been pub-
lished by Eyre and Fisher {Journ. Agric. Science, 1915,7, 120).
It was commonly believed to be impossible to obtain from
the same crop flax fibre of high quality and linseed con-
taining a high percentage of oil ; experiments by Ivanoff
{Beih^te zum Bot. Central, 191 2, 28, 159), however, showed
that little difference existed between the percentage of oil

NOTES 115

obtained from seed of plants grown for fibre, and that of
plants grown specially lor seed. The authors have inves-
tigated this ponit and confirmed Ivanoff's conclusion, but
have shown that, as would be expected, there is a difference
in the yield of seed per acre. In order to obtain fibre of
high quality, it is necessary to harvest the plants before the
seed is quite ripe. Experiments have shown that unripe
seed is deficient in oil, but that there is no very great
difference in oil content between nearly ripe and wholly
ripe seed. The following average figures were obtained :

Oil.
Per cent.

Seed quite green 2105

Seed just turning brown 30-08

Seed wholly brown, not loose in capsule . . . 38*03

Seed fully ripe, loose in capsule 40'88

It is important to note that the authors found that seed
grown in England usually contained as much oil as the

Earent imported seed, although previous investigators
ave stated that English-grown seed is inferior in oil
content to imported seed. A number of different kinds of
seed were experimented with, and on the whole Plate seed
gave higher yields of oil per acre than Moroccan, Dutch, or
Steppe seed. When sown at the rate of i cwt. per acre,
Plate seed gave a yield of 14 cwts. 72 lb. of seed per acre,
the seed containing 42*8 per cent, of oil. There appears to
be a slight increase in the oil content with increase in the
size of the seeds of any one variety. It has sometimes
been stated that, in order to obtain the best results in
linseed cultivation, frequent change of seed is necessary.
The experiments now recorded, however, lend no support
to the view that a lowering of the oil content results from
continued growth of seed from the same original stock.

Manuring does not have any appreciable effect on the
oil content of the seed, although it increases the yields both
of seed and straw.

Cashew Nuts. — Among the edible nuts produced in the
British Empire, the cashew nut is worthy of note as one
I that has recently been attracting increasing attention in this
country. It is the fruit of an evergreen tree, Anacardium
occidentale^ Linn. (Nat. Ord. Anacardiaceae), which is native
to South and Central America and the West Indies, and
is now found more or less plentifully in the tropics
generally, especially in India, Indo-China, the Malay Penin-
sula, the Philippine Islands, West and East Africa, and
Madagascar. It exists in small numbers in Australia.

The tree, in the wild state, is of somewhat irregular and
spreading habit, but under cultivation its growth is more
upright; it attains a height varying in different countries

ii6 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

from about i6 to 30 or 40 ft. It seems to grow best on a
sandy soil; it withstands drought well, though its pro-
ductiveness may sometimes be increased by suitable irri-
gation. It prefers low altitudes, but in the immediate
neighbourhood of the sea its form tends to be stunted,
and it does not generally flourish so well if it is exposed
to excessive wind. In India its habitat is mainly in the
coastal forests, especially in the Goa district.

It is quick growing, and may bear fruit as early as its
third or fourth year, though generally not in great quantity
till its eighth or tenth year. The flowers are small, rose-
coloured, and aromatic. In Madagascar flowering begins
about February, and the fruits are mature about June;
in other countries flowering may commence in December,
and the fruits ripen as early as April or May. In Brazil
and in Portuguese East Africa, the tree is reported to be
in fruit about January. The tree is usually grown from
seed, but can also be propagated by grafting or layering.

The fruit is kidney-shaped, greenish at first, dull grey
when ripe, and about i to ij in. long. The stalk, imme-
diately Delow the fruit, undergoes a remarkable swelling
until it forms a fleshy, pear-shaped receptacle, considerably
larger than the fruit itself; this receptacle, known as the
" cashew apple," and sometimes incorrectly as the " fruit,"
is red, yellow, or sometimes white, according to the variety
of the tree.

The pericarp, or "shell," of the nut is externally hard
and leathery ; internally it is cellular, and contains a dark
brownish, acrid, oily juice, which has a powerfully vesi-
cating action on the skin. The kernel, which consti-
tutes about 30 per cent, of the nut, is covered with a
thin yellowish or greenish grey skin ; the flesh is a clear
white.

The kernels have a bland taste; they are eaten in the
countries where the tree grows, and are esteemed as a
dessert nut in Europe. They are used, after roasting, as
a constituent of nut chocolate, and have other applications,
similar to those of the almond, in confectionery.

In the following table the composition of the kernels,
recorded in the Phil. Journ. Sci. (191 3, 8, A, 66\ is compared
with that of sweet almonds :

Water

Proteins

Fat . . .

Carbohydrates, etc.

Fibre

Ash .

Food units
Nutrient ratio .

Cashew-nut
kernels.
Percent.

Sweet
almonds.
Per cent.

l6*OI

6-0

18-00
57-38

5-28

24-0

54-0

lO'O

0*91

2-42

3-0
3-0

194
1:7-63

205
1:5-59

NOTES 117

The kernel oil is of non-drying character; it is pale
yellow in colour, and has a bland taste, which is con-
sidered equal to that of almond oil. Determinations of
its chemical and physical constants by different observers
are not in very good agreement, but the figures recorded
mostly lie between the limits shown in the following table,
which also includes the constants of almond oil :

Cashew-nut oil.

Almond oil.

Specific gravity .
Saponification value .
Iodine value . per cent.

o"9i 1-0*916
182-195
77-85

0'9l7-0-9l9

189-195

93-101 -2

There is a good market for cashew kernels in the
United Kingdom, as well as on the Continent; they are
shipped in considerable quantities from Portuguese East
Africa to European ports ; shipments received in London
are, however, mainly from Bombay.

The kernels are always shipped without the shells,
the nature of the pericarp oil rendering the shells highly
objectionable. Decortication is effected by slightly roast-
ing the nuts, which has the effect of causing the shells
to split open, rendering their removal less difficult. The
roasting operation has to be conducted with care, as the
pericarp oil gives off a vapour which is very injurious to
the face and eyes. The roasting has the effect of making
the kernels keep better, but it converts the white colour
of the flesh into a pale yellowish-brown.

The kernels generally come on the European markets
in cases containing 2 cwts., or 100 kilograms. The price
fluctuates considerably, depending upon the supply of
almonds ; when these are scarce, as at present, the demand
for cashew kernels increases, and the price rises in conse-
quence. Early in the present year the Indian kernels
were quoted in the United Kingdom at 55s. to 655. per
cwt. Blanched or " peeled " kernels {j.e. kernels with the
skins removed) are also shipped from India to London in
small quantities, and command a higher price ; they were
quoted at about 725. 6d, per cwt. at the beginning of the
present year.

The cashew nut has not, up to the present, been used
as a source of oil, the price obtainable lor the kernels for
confectionery and other edible purposes being prohibitive
to the oil-mills.

In addition to the kernel the tree yields other products
which are utilised locally. The pericarp juice is used in
India by natives for medicinal purposes, and for preserving
the floors of houses, carved wood, and books, from the
attacks of white ants ; and the Andaman Islanders use it
for preserving fishing nets. Its chief chemical constituents
are cardole and anacardic acid, which are present to the

ii8 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

extent of about lo per cent, and 90 per cent, respectively
in the ether-extract ; it is to the former, that the peculiar
irritant properties of the juice are due.

The cashew " apple " is succulent, and is eaten as a
fruit, either raw or cooked, in the countries where it
occurs ; it can also be made into a preserve. In Brazil,
Portuguese East Africa, and some other countries, a wine
is prepared from the juice by fermentation, and a spirit
is obtained from the wine by distillation. Both the wine
and the " apple " itself are considered to have antiscorbutic
properties.

The bark of the tree exudes a gum, which is only
partially soluble in water; it is said to be used in book-
binding both in India and in South America and to
be effective in keeping away destructive insects. The
bark also contains a milky sap, which turns black on
exposure to air and is used in countries where the tree
grows as an indelible ink for marking linen. The sap is
also stated to be used as a varnish, and, like the pericarp
juice, for preserving fishing nets.

The wood of the tree is fairly hard and of a reddish
brown colour, and has a limited use as a timber ; according
to R. S. Troup in his Indian Woods and their Uses^
{Indian Forest Memoirs : Economic Products Series^ 1909, 1,
76), it weighs 35 lb. per cubic foot, and is used in India for
boat building, as well as for making packing cases.

Mining in Ontario. — An interesting statement on the
mining industry of Ontario during 191 5 is made by
Thos. W. Gibson in the Monthly Bulletin, Can. Min. Inst.
(1916, No. 45, p. 16), showing that during last year mining
made good progress in this province. The chief items in
the metal output of Ontario are silver, gold, nickel, and
copper. Estimating the total output for 191 5 on the basis of
the production of the first nine months of the year, the
following figures show the comparative values in dollars
of the total productions for 1914 and 191 5 :

1914. 1915.

Silver 12,795,214 10,750,000

Gold 5' 529*767 8,000,000

Nickel 5,109,088 7,200,000

Copper 2,081,332 2,700,000

It will be seen from these figures that though the output
of silver ore for 1915 is substantially less than in 1914, this
deficiency is more than compensated for by the increase
in the gold output, whilst there are substantial increases
in the production of nickel and copper.

Part of the decrease in the silver output is attributed to
the low prices for silver prevailing during most of the year.
The sudden increase in value near the end of the year

NOTES 119

stimulated production, and at the close of the year the
prospects at Cobalt were much brighter. Most of the silver
produced from the mines is now refined in the province ;
much of it is refined at the mines, and the remainder at
Deloro and Thorold.

With the exception of about three-quarters of a million
dollars, all the gold was obtained from the Porcupine Mines,
where the developments were very satisfactory. At the
Hollinger Mine alone, the chief of the Porcupine Mines,
the gold output for the year had a value of $3,000,000. A
feature of the year in gold mining was the discovery of a
rich deposit in the township of Munro at the Croesus Mine.
A portion of vein quartz from this mine, weighing about
800 lb. avoirdupois, was treated by hand and yielded gold
of the value $40,000. This quartz is considered to have
been as rich in free gold as the high-grade ore at Cobalt is
in silver. In sinking a shaft to a depth of about 120 ft. an
average of $1,000 per foot is stated to have been obtained,
and it is believed that there is $1,000,000 worth of ore in
sight at present.

As regards nickel and copper, nearly the whole of the
output came as usual from the Sudbury district, only a
small amount being obtained at the Alexo Mine near
Porcupine, and from the Cobalt ores. The nickel mining
companies have pushed the production of nickel to the
utmost limit of their capacity in attempting to supply the
demand for war purposes. At present the final product
obtained at Sudbury is the Bessemer matte, containing
75 or 80 per cent, of combined nickel and copper. This
matte is sent partly to New Jersey and partly to Wales for
further metallurgical treatment. Besides nickel and copper,
some gold, silver, platinum, and palladium are obtained
from these Bessemer mattes.

Gkis-producer Tests with Canadian Lignite. — In Publication
No. 331, 191 5, Mines Branch, Dept. of Mines y Canada, B. F.
Haanel and J. Blizard report on " Results of the investi-
gation of six lignite samples obtained from the Province
of Alberta."

This work forms part of a systematic investigation of
the coals of Canada, and the report deals with tests made
by means of a well-known commercial type of gas-producer
in order to ascertain the suitability of Alberta lignite for
use in this \yay. The importance of such an investigation
for Canada lies in the fact that many parts of the Dominion,
which are far removed from supplies of bituminous coal,
are provided with ample supplies of lignite, and for these
districts the use of gas-producers and gas-engines will
constitute the best means of power production.

The tests were carried out on six commercial samples
of lignite obtained from six of the principal producing mines

I20 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

in the vicinity of Edmonton. The results of the tests show
that all the lignites were eminently suited for the production
of gas when burned in the gas-producer. No trouble
whatever was experienced in burning the gas in a gas-
engine, and comparatively little labour is required for the
management of the plant.

In certain of the lignites there is sufficient nitrogen to
make its recovery as ammonia or ammonium sulphate profit-
able under favourable circumstances. It is noteworthy
that slacked lignite behaves exceedingly well when burned
in the gas-producer, and that the cheaper grades can
therefore be utilised for the production of gas and power.

In addition to the gas-producer trials, boiler tests were
made for the purpose of ascertaining the suitability of the
lignites for steam raising. In these tests an effort was
made to keep the rate of steaming constant. The fuel was
fired by hand throughout, and the thickness of the fuel bed,
and frequency of firing, were adapted to suit the fuel used.

The results of the boiler tests with lignite show that an
amount of moisture up to 30 per cent, does not materially
affect the boiler efficiency, and that the carbon-hydrogen
ratio exercises the greater influence in this direction. The
lower rate of consumption per square foot of grate surface,
combined with a suitable type of grate bar, improved the
efficiency of the fuel. Finally, the results show that fuels
of the lignite type require a specially large combustion
chamber and brick ignition arch, arranged so as to burn
effectively the large percentage of volatile matter present
in the fuel

Pottery Clays in the Federated Malay States. — " Clays of
Economic Importance in the Federated Malay States" is
the title of a publication of 45 pages, written by W. R.
Jones, Asst. Geologist, F.M.S. (Kuala Lumpur, Govt.
Printing Office, 191 5). One would expect, from its title,
that the publication would deal with the clay deposits of
the Federated Malay States, kaolinic and otherwise. In
fact, however, it is for the most part confined to gener-
alities about the nature, properties, classification, and origin
of clay. A brief, interesting, and illustrated account is
given of the Chinese practice in pottery work at Kingteh-
chen, Kiangsi, China, embodying the results of observations
made by Mr. Jones during a visit to the Kingtehchen pot-
teries. The crude materials used at these potteries are
" decomposed granite porphyry," and " undecomposed
granite aplite." The decomposed granite porphyry is
presumably a kaolinised felspathic rock of the Cornish
stone type. The rocks are powdered by means of stamps
run by water-wheels, the powdered material being washed
to obtain a fine-grained product that is moulded into
briquettes for use in pottery making. An analysis of the

UO'TES i2i

levigated portion of the powdered kaolinised granite por-
phyry gave, silica 50*92, alumina 31*4, ferric oxide o'33,
lime 072, magnesia 052, alkalis 0*36, loss on ignition 1077,
and other constituents 4-98 per cent. An analysis of a
levigated portion of the powdered undecomposed granite
aplite gave, silica 70'oi, alumina 15*91, ferric oxide 0*22,
lime 1*07, magnesia 0*40, alkalis 172, loss on ignition 3*62,
other constituents 7*05 per cent. These materials are
mixed in equal proportions for the manufacture of the
best porcelain.

The material used as a glaze at Kingtehchen is a mixture
of lime and powdered quartz porph3Ty, usually in the pro-
portion of one part of lime to three of the powdered and
washed quartz porphyry.

The raw materials for the manufacture of pottery and
porcelain are stated to be abundant in the Federated Malay
States. Attempts have already been made to utilise certain
of these deposits for porcelain and pottery manufacture,
but have failed, and the failure has been attributed by some
to the poor quality of the raw materials available, and by
others to defective management of the enterprise. The
Government Geologist appears to have regarded the failure
as due to the difficulty of obtaining good workmen.

RECENT PROGRESS IN AQRICULTURE AND THE
DEVELOPMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES

In this section of the Bulletin a summary is given of the contents of
the more ijnportant papers and reports received during the preceding
quarter^ in so far as these relate to tropical agriculture and the utilisation
of the natural resources of the Colonies^ India^ and the Tropics generally.

AGRICULTURE

Soils

Erosion and Water-logging of Soils in India. — In some regions
of India serious soil erosion is taking place, owing largely
to the exceptionally heavy rainfall, concentrated into a few
months of the year. In many parts of the Bundelkhand
and the Central Provinces, for example, the soil has been
washed away over large areas, leaving the bare rock
exposed. Erosion is less obvious in the plains, but even
there it is occurring to a serious extent in places where
no measures are taken to prevent it. As evidence of this
it is mentioned in Bulletin No. 53, 191 5, Agric. Res. Inst.,
Pusa, that the level of a gently sloping plot 94 ft. wide at

122 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Pusa, which was slightly embanked to prevent loss of silt,
was raised 6J in. at its lower end in four years. Not only
is the soil of the higher lands deteriorated by the removal
of its finer particles b}^ rain-wash, but the soil which is
formed by the deposition of the silt at lower levels is more
liable to water- logging, and the crops on such soil suffer
accordingly.

The use of embankments for preventing soil erosion
is common in many places in Peninsular India, but it is
pointed out in the Bulletin referred to that there is hardly
any provision for the discharge of the surplus water, with
the result that the whole of the rain is often held up and
the land becomes flooded for long periods. It follows
that, if the embankments are not very strong, they are
liable to give way and the escaping water carries with it
much valuable soil, whilst the flooding of the land leads
to a loss of available nitrogen and consequently to
diminished crops. It is suggested that the use of embank-
ments should be combined with a suitable drainage system,
somewhat on the lines of those used in Italy.

A drainage system which prevents soil erosion and
which is suitable for slightly sloping land, has been devised
at Pusa, and is now being adopted on the indigo estates
in Bihar. The land is divided up into areas of five to ten
acres separated from each other by trenches. The sides
and tops of the latter are turfed to prevent breaching.
Their size depends on the amount and distribution of
the rainfall ; in Bihar they are usually 4 ft. broad at the
top, 2 ft. at the bottom, and 18 in. deep. The field trenches
lead into larger channels which carry off the water to low-
lying rice areas or to streams and rivers. This method of
drainage not only checks soil erosion and prevents water-
logging in years of normal rainfall, but if a shortage of
rainfall is feared the lower edges of the fields can be raised
b}^ throwing up a few plough ridges and so preventing any
of the water from running off the land.

Foodstuffs

Maize. — The commercial grades fixed for *' corn " (maize)
by the United States Department of Agriculture, with
detailed explanations as to how the various factors should
be determined, are given in Bulletin No. 168, 191 5, US.
Dept. Agric. The table of grade classification shows the
maximum allowances of (i) moisture, (2) damaged corn,
(3) foreign material including dirt, cob, other grains, finely
broken corn, etc., and (4) " cracked " corn, not including
finely broken corn. A coloured plate is included, showing
types of colour and types of damage.

Sugar. — In Trinidad the 19 14 season was favourable for
sugar cane, and the exports increased from 32,655 tons in

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 123

191 3-14 to 48,087 tons in the following year. Part of the
1914 crop realised the high prices brought about by the
war. Of the exports in 1914-15, 54 per cent, were shipped
to Canada, and 45 per cent, to the United Kingdom
(Ann. Rep. Dept. Agric^ Trinidad and Tobago^ 19 14-15,
Part I, p. 7).

Cocoa. — According to information received from the
Colonial Office, the exports of cocoa from the Gold Coast
during 191 5 amounted to 77,278 tons, of value ;^3,65 1,341,
as compared with 52,888 tons valued at ;^2, 193,749 in 1914,
and 50,554 tons valued at ;^2,489,2i8 in 1913.

The exports of cocoa from Trinidad in 1914 were
63,447,876 lb., value ;^i, 469,893, and the proportions shipped
to the chief countries of destination were : United States
49 per cent, France 29 per cent., United Kingdom iij per
cent. {Ann. Rep. Dept. Agric.^ Trinidad and Tobago, 1914-15,
Part I, p. 7).

Coffee. — The prospects of Robusta coffee and its advan-
tages and disadvantages from the planter's point of view are
discussed in Trop. Agric. (191 5, 46, 73). Recent results
obtained with this species and with C. stenophylla at the
Experiment Station, Peradeniya, Ceylon, are also briefly
recorded.

Results of tests made as to the resistance of the foreign
varieties of coffee to disease are briefly recorded in Rep.
Porto Rico Agric. Expt. Station, 191 4. P- 28. C. liberica^
C. Abeokutae and C, canephora were the species that appeared
most resistant to the fungus Stilbella flavida, whilst the last-
named species seemed least readily affected by Pellicularia
koleroga. Robusta coffee was easily infected by both these
fungi in Porto Rico.

Activity in coffee planting in British Guiana is recorded
in Rep. Dept. Sci. ana Agric, British Guiana, 191 3-14, p. 15.
Cultivators are advised to plant Liberian and Arabian
coffees instead of Robusta, which does not appear to be of
promise on the lowlands of the Colony. The area under
coffee was 3,166 acres, an increase of 270 acres over that of
the previous year.

Diseases of Lime Trees. — Pamphlet No. 79 Imper. Dept.
Agric, West Indies, entitled, " Diseases of Lime Trees in
Forest Districts," embodies the observations made by the
Mycologist to the Department (Mr. W. Nowell) concerning
certain root diseases of lime trees that are met with
principally in districts where hmes are planted in areas
recently cleared from forest growth. The means of
recognising the existence of these diseases when they occur
are indicated, as well as the measures that are to be
adopted to control them. The results of much original

124 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

work on the part of the author and his predecessors are
included. Root diseases of Hmes are also dealt with in
Rep, Agric. Dept., Dominica, 191 4-1 5, pp. 8, 11; to avoid
such diseases, the budding of limes on Sour Orange stocks
is suggested.

The first annual report of the Citrus Pathological
Laboratory, San Pedro, Isle of Pines, published by the
San Pedro Growers Company, Columbus, Ohio, reviewed
in Agric. News (191 5, 14, 318), refers to diseases of citrus
trees, mostly grape-fruit, at San Pedro. The Isle of Pines
is a dependency of Cuba, situated to the south of the western
end of that island. The report includes notes on a number
of insect pests and of various affections of trees and fruit.
The longest article, on the subject of Diplodia diseases, has
special interest as dealing with a condition which has also
come under notice in Montserrat. In seeking to remedy
the disease, beyond cutting out diseased limbs, reliance
must chiefly be placed on such cultural methods as will
keep the trees in a good growing condition.

Oils and Oil Seeds

Coconuts. — At Batticaloa, the centre of coconut cultivation
in the Eastern Province of Ceylon, the average annual
rainfall is nearly 63 in., but 50 in. of this falls during the
north-east monsoon from October to February ; owing to
this uneven distribution of the rainfall the palms only bear
small crops {Trop. Agric, I9i4» ^5» 293). The trees are
planted 80 to the acre and bear on an average 25 nuts per
tree a year; it is suggested that conservation of soil
moisture by removal of weeds and disk-harrowing once a
month would increase the yield. The soil is sandy and
suitable for coconuts, although lacking in humus. The
waste husks should be returned to the soil instead of
being burned, and jungle mulch should be applied wherever
this is easily available. Green manures are recommended
for young plantations, divi-divi being particularly suitable.

Coconut planting has made good progress in the Gold
Coast Colony, but at present copra is produced almost
exclusively in the Quittah and Addah districts of the
Eastern Province {Rep. Agric. Dept., Gold Coast, 19 14,
pp. 10, 16).

Coconuts planted at the Assuantsi Experiment Station
in the Central Province are making very satisfactory
growth, and palms planted in 1910 flowered in 1914.
Rhinoceros beetles have been troublesome on the plantation,
but no trees have been destroyed.

In St. Lucia the soil and climate are very suitable for
coconut cultivation, and the young groves show promise
of a flourishing industry being established shortly. Many
of the older plantations are coming into bearing, and

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 125

attention must now be directed to the methods of pre-
paring copra for the market. {Rep, Agric, Dcpt.^ St. Lucia^
1914-1915, p. 8.)

In Brazil, coconut palms are freauently attacked by
a bacterial disease similar to that which has been ascribed
to Bacillus coli, and some trees have been destroyed {Boletim
da Agricultural Sao Paulo, 191 5, No. 5, p. 435). It appears
that certain insects cause damage which aids in the spread
of the disease, and of these Amerrhinus pantherinus is the
most important; the larvae excavate galleries in the leaf
petioles, thus causing the death of the leaves ; destruction
of the parts attacked is the only remedy. The larvae of
Alurnus marginatus, Guer., also attack the leaves; spraying
with insecticides has been found useful for the control of
this pest.

The larva of a moth {Castnia daedalus) was reported a
few years ago as causing damage to coconut palms in
British Guiana (cf. this Bulletin, 19 14, 12, 305). The insect
has since been found to be very abundant in some districts,
and according to the Government Economic Biologist
it is the worst pest which has hitherto attacked the coconut
palm in the Colony, and it is considered that, unless its
ravages are checked, coconut cultivation will cease to be
profitable (7?^/. Dept. Sci, and Agric, British Guiana, 191 3-
14, App. Ill, p. 7). The enactment of a Plant Protection
Ordinance is regarded as desirable for the purpose of
eradicating this and other pests.

Ground Nuts. — The area devoted to ground nuts in Burma
has increased from 247,110 acres in 191 3-14 to 273,315 acres
in 1914-15 {Ind. Agric, 191 5, 40, 311). The crop is grown
chiefly in Upper Burma, but the cultivation is now extend-
ing in the Maubin district of Lower Burma, probably owing
to the large number of Upper Burmans who have settled
there. In 1914-15, 5,422 acres were planted in this district
as compared with 2,685 acres in 1913-14.

Oil Palm. — Certain varieties of oil palms growing at
agricultural experiment stations in the Gold Coast have
commenced to flower, and in some cases to bear fruit {Rep.
Dept, Agric, Gold Coast, 19 14, pp. 10, 30). Two varieties,
" Gamopeley " and " Lisombe," from the Cameroons show
promise of being very prolific. The exports of oil-palm
products continue to decrease, the value of the exports
during 1914, viz. ;^i26,3i7, being the lowest for many years;
the decline is general throughout the Gold Coast {loc.
cit, p. 14).

In British Guiana attempts have been made to grow oil
palms from seed imported from Nigeria, but of nearly
12,000 seeds only 77 germinated {Rep. Dept. Sci. and Agric,
1913-14, App. II, p. 13).

126 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

MisceUaneous.—According to recently published informa-
tion {Bull. Soc. dEnc, hid. Nat., 191 5, 124, 411) there are
at present twenty-six factories employing the process of
hardening oils by hydrogenation. Of these, 9 are in
Austria and Germany, while England, France, and Russia
have three each, Holland, Scandinavia, and the United
States two each, and Italy and Switzerland one.

The ** Coyol " palm, Acrocomia vinijera, Oerst., is abun-
dant in Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Upper Panama (Spice
Mill, 191 5, 38, 1240). The kernels contain 577 per cent,
of oil similar to coconut oil, but the nuts, like those of the
cohune palm (this Bulletin, 1914, 12, 237), have very hard
shells which are difficult to crack.

The kernels of the " Cato " nut, Chisocheton ctimingianus,
Harms, Nat. Ord. Meliaceae, a tree widely distributed in
the Philippine Islands, contain 44 per cent, of a reddish-
brown, non-drying oil, which has purgative properties
{Phil. Journ. Sci., 191 5, 10, A, 107).

The " Dika " tree (irvingia sp.) of West Africa, known
in the Belgian Congo as " Meba," is stated to yield 220-260
lb. of fruit per year {Bulletin Agric. Congo Beige, 191 5, 6,
1 39). The gathering of the fruits presents difficulties, for, as
the trees are very tall, only fallen fruit can be collected; for
this reason one man cannot obtain more than about 25 to
30 lb. of fruit in a day.

Martynia louisiana^ Mill. {— M. proboscidea, Glox.), a
herbaceous plant belonging to the Nat. Ord. Pedaliaceae,
which occurs wild in many parts of the United States,
yields 20 bushels of seed per acre {Journ. Ind. Eng. Chem.,
1915* 7, 867). The kernels contain about 61 per cent.
of oil, and it is suggested that the plant might perhaps
prove valuable as a crop for cultivation on certain large
areas of barren land, as it will grow in extremely dry
situations.

The seeds of Hyptis spicigera, Lam. (** Benefing "), a plant
of the Nat. Ord. Labiatae, from Koulikoro, French West
Africa, contain about 22 per cent, of oil of high drying
power {Mededeel. II, Kolon. Inst. Amsterdam, 19 14, p. 2).

Stillingia sebijera, Michx. (= Sapium sebiferum, Roxb.,
Nat. Ord. Euphorbiaceae), the tree from the fruits of which
Chinese vegetable tallow, a valuable solid fat, is obtained
(cf this Bulletin, 1903, 1, 208), is grown by the natives of
Tonkin for the sake of the leaves, which are used in dyeing
{Bulletin Econ. de Undo-Chine, 191 5, 18, 190). Attempts are
being made to cultivate it as a source of seed. Experiments
have shown that the tree grows best on loamy soils,
particularly on low-lying ground near water, and reaches
a height of about 12 ft. in 4 years, when it commences to
bear fruit. Trees of 7 to 8 years old yield from 17 to 26
lb. of seed.

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 127

Rubber

Hevea. — In " Notes on the History of the Plantation
Rubber Industry of the East" {Annals Roy. Bot. Gard.
Peradeniya, 1914, 5,433), Fetch has collected a large amount
of interesting information, dealing chiefly with the establish-
ment and growth of the Para rubber tree in Ceylon, Malaya,
and neighbouring countries ; mention is also made of Ceara,
Castilloa, and other rubber-yielding plants which have been
tried. The article is a valuable addition to the historical
aspect of the rubber industry.

In Bulletin No. 23, 19 14, F.M.S. Dept. Agric, entitled
" The Tapping of the Para Rubber Tree : Some Physio-
logical Experiments," Bateson has published the results of
a number of experiments on the effect of tapping and of
leaf change on the starch reserves, the lateral transport
of food in the bark, the theory of tapping and the effect of
different systems, bark renewal, burr formation, and the
artificial stimulation of branching.

From the results of his experiments on the effect of
tapping on the starch reserves, the author concludes that
the thickness of the renewed bark is a safe criterion from
which to judge whether re-tapping may be undertaken, and
that Fitting's recommendation to carry out an examination
of the starch reserves is unnecessary. The impoverish-
ment of food reserves owing to leaf-fall lasts for many
months, and, considering how small a depletion is caused
by tapping, no useful purpose appears to be served by
resting the trees during the wintering season. With regard
to tapping systems, the results of experiments are discussed
on three methods which are in common use at the present
time, viz. (i) single-quarter system, two cuts on one
quarter, (2) adjacent-quarters system, one cut on each of
two quarters, (3) opposite-quarters system, one cut on each
of two quarters. The third system gives very inferior
yields and is not recommended. In the one experiment
quoted in which all three systems w^ere compared, the
adjacent-quarters system gave the highest yields of rubber ;
with this system too the recovery of the renewing bark in
starch is more rapid than with the others. It is pointed
out, however, that further experiments are necessary before
a definite decision can be arrived at as to whether the
adjacent-quarters or the opposite-quarters system gives the
better results. The formation of burrs is a matter of con-
siderable importance, as they prevent tapping when they
become large. Burrs are caused by irritation set up by
local coagulation of latex, owing to injury to the latex
vessels, and it is an unfortunate fact that the presence of
one burr causes the formation of others on adjacent por-
tions of the bark ; it also appears that exhaustive tapping
favours burr formation. Burrs which appear on or near

128 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

tapping surfaces should be removed. Trees which do not
throw out branches until they have reached a considerable
height, twenty feet or more, generally show very slow
growth in thickness of the trunk. The author found that
branching can be induced by removing a small strip of bark
about I in. wide just above the bud which it is desired to
develop.

Tapping experiments at various agricultural experiment
stations in British Guiana have shown that an annual yield
of 300 lb. of dry rubber per acre can be counted on from
Hevea brasiliensis trees growing on suitable land {Journ.
Board of Agric, Brit. Gtiiana, 191 5, 8, 73). Preliminary ex-
periments on the cost of tapping and collection have also
been made, and indicate that, after allowing for all costs,
including that of sale in Europe, a profit of about ;£"ii
per acre should result. The trees show very satisfactory
growth at the various experiment stations, except on the
heavy clay soil of the Botanic Gardens, Georgetown {Rep.
Dept. Set. and Agric.^ Brit. Guiana^ 191 3-14, p. 11).

In Dutch Guiana, close to the Brazilian border, nearly
40,000 Hevea trees have been planted, some of which have
now reached the tapping stage (/;i(i/a Rubber Worlds 1915,
63, 91).

Details of the cost of producing Para rubber on an
estate in Trinidad are given in Bulletin Dept. Agric, Trinidad
(1915, 14, 118); 1,200 trees from 6 to 9 years old, planted
14 ft. by 14 ft. (220 trees per acre) yielded 1,608 lb. of
rubber, or 294 lb. per acre. Allowing for all costs, a profit
of over ;^ 1 2 per acre was obtained. The main item in the
cost was the tapping, which amounted to nearly one-half
of the total cost, including that of shipping and selling.

In Travancore and Cochin, a secondary leaf-fall from
Hevea trees has been observed during the monsoon, in
July to August (Planters' Chronicle^ 1915,10,452). Experi-
ments by McRae and Sundararaman show that a fungus
agreeing in its characters with Phytophthora Faberi^ the
fungus which causes the "canker" disease of Hevea and
cocoa stems and the "black pod" disease of cocoa, is
common on many parts of affected trees, and may be the
cause of this leaf-fall. The authors succeeded in obtaining
pure cultures of the fungus, which, when placed on leaves
of seedling Hevea plants, caused the leaves to fall.

The fungus, Ustulina zonata^ which causes one of the
commonest root diseases of tea, was observed some years ago
on dead Hevea trees in Ceylon, but at the time it was un-
certain whether the death of the tree was due to this fungus.
Brooks has recently investigated its occurrence on Hevea
trees in Malaya, where it is by no means uncommon, and
has shown that it produces a well-marked disease which
may cause the death of the tree (Bulletin No. 22, 191 5,
F.M.S. Dept. Agric). The disease chiefly affects the collar

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 129

and root system of old trees, but five-year-old trees have
also been attacked. The fungus, which often appears to
start its growth on decaying stumps, but in some cases has
been found to follow attacks of white ants, produces greyish-
brown or blackish plate-like fructifications on the collar
and exposed roots. It should be dealt with in the early
stages by cutting out and destroying all discoloured tissues.
Valuable information on the pests of Hevea in the
Belgian Congo is given by Mayne in Bulletin Agric. Congo
Beige (1914, ^ 577)-

Manihot spp. — Experiments at Lemba, in the Lower Congo,
with several species of Manihot have shown that during
the first two years Manihot Glaziovii made the best growth ;
M. dichotoma, M. tyauhyensis, and M. heptaphylla gave in-
ferior results {Bulletin Agric. Congo Beige, 191 5, 6, 36).

A number of trials with Manihot Glaziovii have been
made in Italian Somaliland {L Agricoltura Colon.^ 1915,9, 537);
owing to the dry climate and soil conditions the tree appears
to develop very slowly.

Sapium. — Tapping experiments with Sapium trees at
Issorora, in British Guiana, show that the tree does not
respond to tapping, and that only small yields are obtain-
able, chiefly in the form of scrap adhering to the bark.
This species is evidently considered unprofitable, as it is
being cut out and replaced by Hevea on some plantations
{Rep. Dept. Sci. and Agric. ^ Brit. Guiana, 191 3-14, p. 11, and
App. V. p. 7).

Fibres

Urena lobata.— Several references to the fibre derived
from the bast layer of the stem of this plant have already
been made in this Bulletin (1903, 1, 24; 1905, 3, 262; 1907,
5, 9; 1908, 6, 134; 1909, 7, 12; 1914, 12, 34), and samples
from Brazil, India, and British West Africa have been
described. The fibre is fine, soft, lustrous, very similar
to jute, and capable of replacing the latter in the manu-
facture of sacking. It has been found in India that by
ratooning the plants a second year's crop can be obtained
of equal value to that of the first year.

Uretta lobata grows wild in Brazil, where it is known
as '* aramina." It is stated by J. C. Oakenfull in " Brazil
(1913)" that the fibre of this plant and that of a species of
Triumfetta, are used in Sao Paulo for the manufacture of
coffee bags, and that 12,500 acres are under cultivation,
producing about 800 tons of fibre per annum, nearly the
whole of which is used by a single factory in the capital
of the State. The cultivation is carried on near the coast,
about |-bushel of seed being sown per acre. The fibre is
harvested from February to July.

I30 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Attention has recently been directed to Urena lobata in
Madagascar {Btdletin de I Office Colonial^ 1915, 8, 373), where
the plant grows abundantly, especially on the alluvial lands
along the water-courses. Nearly two million jute bags are
imported into Madagascar each year, and large numbers
are also used in the neighbouring islands of Reunion and
Mauritius. The Madagascar Government have, therefore,
enacted an ordinance offering special facilities for the culti-
vation and utilisation of Urena fibre, with a view to the
creation of a local bag-making industry. The following
advantages are offered to the first enterprise which shall
be undertaken with this object, provided that certain con-
ditions are observed: (i) A free grant of land for the
erection of the factory and its outbuildings. (2) A free
concession of land up to an area of 500 hectares (1,235 acres)
for the cultivation of the fibre, on condition that the factory
is kept in operation for at least five years. (3) The right
of harvesting for five years the wild plants in a region to
be assigned on the crown lands at a nominal rent of one
franc per annum, the lease to be renewable for one or
several periods at an annual rent to be fixed according to
the results obtained.

New Zealand Hemp. — The cultivation of the New Zealand
hemp plant {Phormium tenax) in St. Helena is now a
flourishing industry, and the area devoted to the crop
is steadily increasing. According to Colonial Reports^
Annual^ No. 847, St Helena, Report for 1914 (Cd. 7622-38),
the area under Phormium in that year was estimated at
about 700 acres, and there was still ample land available
for further extension. At the Government mill, 1,257 tons
of green leaves were treated, and yielded 127 tons of fibre
and 37 tons of tow. The fibre was sold at an average
price of £2^, \\s. per ton, and the tow at £\i per ton.
Owing to the outbreak of war, no fibre could be exported
during the last four months of the year, but the mill was
kept working, and the cultivators did not suffer any loss.
There is a private mill in the island which was also kept
running, and dealt with 1,571 tons of leaves, with the pro-
duction of 177 tons of fibre and 45 tons of tow. The total
value of the exports of fibre and tow amounted to ;^7»439i
as compared with ;^5,372 in 1913.

Paper-making Materials. — In Bulletin No. 39, 191 5, U.S. Dept.
Agric, an account is given of an investigation oi Epicampes
macroura^ Benth., as a possible paper-making material.
This grass grows abundantly in the mountainous regions
east and west of the City of Mexico, and the roots, known
in Mexico as " Raiz de Zacaton," and in France and England
as " chiendent " and " Mexican whisk," are used in the
manufacture of brushes. The plant is perennial, and is

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 131

propagated from self-sown seed. Large areas, many square
miles m extent, are commonly found densely covered with
the grass. It could probably be grown successfully for
paper-making purposes in certain localities in the south-
west of the United States. It is estimated that an acre of
the grass yields a ton of roots, prepared for the market,
and at least three tons of the tops. The harvesting of the
roots in Mexico might be profitably combined with the
utilisation of the aerial parts of the plant, which are now
a waste product, for the manufacture of paper-pulp in areas
where the growth is profuse and the cost ot collection is
not prohibitive.

Experiments have shown that the grass can be readily
reduced to pulp by the ordinary soda process and gives
the same yield of air-dry pulp as esparto grass, viz. 43 per
cent, of the weight of the air-dry grass. The pulp has good
felting properties, and the ultimate fibres vary in length
from 0-5 to 3'o mm. (0*02 to 0-12 in.). The bleached pulp
consists of an oxycellulose, closely related to poplar pulp
in chemical properties, and superior to the straw celluloses
in power of resisting attack by chemical agents. The paper
manufactured from Zacaton pulp has a satisfactory appear-
ance, and in physical properties is equal to a high-grade
printing paper. No estimation of the cost of manufacture
or of the value of the product can be made until the grass
has been thoroughly tested in a paper-mill.

Attention has been directed recently to the monkey-
puzzle tree {Araucaria imbricata), which grows abundantly
in Argentina, as a source of wood-pulp. It is stated in
Paper Making (191 5, 34, 332) that this material has been
investigated by a Swedish pulp expert, who has found that
it yields an excellent product, superior to the wood-pulps
generally used in Europe and America. The Minister of
Agriculture of Argentina commissioned two Government
engineers to investigate the possibilities of Araucaria, and
their report shows that in the Territory of Neuquen the
tree occurs over an area of more than 2,470,000 acres.
Three and one-half trees of average size yield i ton of pulp,
or for news print two and one-half trees will furnish a ton
of pulp.

Cotton

Cyprus. — The cultivation of cotton in Cyprus is gradually
extending, and it is considered probable that cotton will
eventually become the chief export of the island. It is
pointed out in the Cyprus Journal {igi^, No. 39, p. 889) that
an increase in the yield and an improvement in the quality
of the product are much to be desired. Cultivators are
urged to abandon the native variety and to turn their
attention to some of the imported varieties, which have
now become acclimatised. They are also advised not to

132 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

pick the cotton in an unripe condition, and to avoid the
introduction of pieces of husks and leaves.

Sudan* — In the Ann. Rep., Director, Commercial Intelligence
Branch, Central Economic Boara, Sudan, 19 14, it is stated
that the exports of cotton in that year amounted to 9,435
bales of 400 lb. as compared with 12,830 bales in 191 3, the
decrease being due to the production of an unusually small
crop at Tokar, owing to an unsatisfactory flood. The
(quantities of seed-cotton produced in the various districts
in the years 1912-13 and 1913-14 were as follows :

1912-13. 1913-14.

Metric tons. Metric tons.

Tokar (flood grown) 5.140 2,983

Khartoum and the Nile Valley north of Khartoum

(grown under pump irrigation) . . , 1,209 1*523

Tayiba (Gezira) (grown under pump irrigation) 507 336

Kassala (flood grown) 248 322

Gallabat (rain grown) 124 42

The whole of the Tokar crop in 191 3-14 was grown
from Sudan seed, owing to the importation of seed from
Egypt being prohibited in order to prevent the introduction
of the pink boll-worm {Gelechia gossypiella). The results
have shown that the use of acclimatised seed is quite satis-
factory, and is much more economical both to the Govern-
ment and the grower. Only 11,353 feddans (i feddan =
1*038 acres) were planted owing to lack of control of the
flood water, much of which broke awa}'- and was lost. In
the Blue Nile Province, on account of the lack of rain, very
little cotton was grown except at Tayiba and at a cotton
experiment station at Barakat, near Wad Medani, which
has been established recently by the Sudan Plantations
Syndicate. On the Zeidab estate about 3,900 feddans were
planted with Ashmouni, Sakellaridis, and Zeidabi cottons,
the last-mentioned being an improved form of the Nyasaland
Upland variety. The best results were yielded by the
Ashmouni variety, but Zeidabi is considered the most
suitable for cultivation by the natives.

Uganda. — Cotton cultivation continues to be the chief
agricultural industry of Uganda. In the Ann. Rep. Dept.
Agric., Uganda, 1 914- 15, it is stated that the crop of that
year was the highest on record, amounting to about
18 million lb. The exports were 107,139 cwts. of ginned
cotton, of value ;^32o,486, and 30,188 cwts. of unginned
cotton, of value ;^33,66o, whilst the cotton seed exported
amounted to 180,334 cwts., of value ;^i8,i72. In consequence
of the war, there was no market for the cotton for more
than half of the year, and the growers were unable to
provide adequate storage accommodation. As a result,
many of the cotton plantations were neglected and the

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 133

plants uprooted, and in some cases the cotton was destroyed
as the planters despaired of being able to sell it. Proper
facilities for storing^ cotton are much needed in all parts of
the Protectorate. The area devoted to cotton in the year
under review was over 100,000 acres, of which more than
three-fourths was in the Eastern Province.

Uganda cotton is clean, strong, and of good colour, its
one defect being the presence of unripe fibre, which causes
a good deal of waste in manufacturing operations. There
are twenty power ginneries at work in Uganda, but un-
fortunately many of them are situated so far from the
producing areas that the seed-cotton has to be carried long
distances. If ginneries were erected in the vicinity of the
cotton fields, the numerous porters now needed to carry
the crop would be able to devote themselves to cotton
growing and other agricultural pursuits. The extension of
the industry will increase with the provision of greater
facilities for transport on Lake Kioga, and with the
introduction of wheeled vehicles on the roads.

Gold Coast. — In the Rep. Agric. Dept,^ Gold Coasts 19 14,
reference is made to the cotton-growing trials at the
Tamale Experiment Station in the Northern Territories.
The best results were obtained with the Black Rattler
variety, but the average production on the 25 acres planted
was only y2\ lb. of seed-cotton per acre. The application
of manure has not increased the yield, and, in general, the
experiments indicate that cotton cannot be grown profitably
at Tamale. Cotton growing in the Gold Coast Colony has
now been almost entirely abandoned, and, as long as cocoa
can be grown successfully, it is unlikely that the industry
will revive.

India. — An interesting account of the establishment of
American cotton in the Punjab is given in the Agric. Joum.
India (191 5, 10, 343) by w. Roberts, B.Sc, Professor of
Agriculture, Agricultural College, Lyallpur. Twelve years
ago, very little American cotton was grown except a few
plots at some of the Government experiment farms. In
191 1, the area devoted to such cotton was less than 10,000
acres, whilst in 1914 at least 70,000 acres were planted.
The American cotton must be sown early, as its growing
period is rather longer than that of the native " desi " type ;
but it gives a somewhat better yield and realises higher
prices. It is estimated that, on the average, the produce
of one acre of American cotton realises Ss.9 (125.) more
than the " desi " kind. The American cotton plant has
now become thoroughly established by a kind of natural
selection, unsuitable types having been eliminated by
jassids and other pests. Unfortunately, the crop often
becomes mixed with the " desi " kind owing chiefly to the

134 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

action of the middleman through whose hands the cotton
passes and to the carelessness of the ginners.

dueensland. — In the Queensland Agric. Journ. (191 5, New
Sen, 4, 200), it is stated that the area planted with cotton
in 1914 was 134 acres and produced 20,336 lb. of seed-
cotton. The Department of Agriculture pay i^d. per lb.
for the seed-cotton, and subsequently sell the cotton and
seed and distribute the profits among the producers. The
chief obstacle to the industry is the cost of labour for
picking, but a machine is being tested which, it is hoped,
will overcome this difficulty.

FORESTRY AND FOREST PRODUCTS

Prosopis spicigera Forests of the Punjab. — An interesting
account of the '*jand" {Prosopis spicigera^ Linn.) forests,
which exist in the arid plains between the Salt Range
and Sutlej River in the Punjab, is given in the Indian
Forester (191 5, 41, 307). The climate of this region is one
of intense heat alternating with considerable cold, a few
degrees of frost being registered at night in the cold
season. The annual rainfall varies from about 5 in. in
the south-west corner near the Indus River to 30 in. at
the foot of the hills, most of the rain falling during the
south-west monsoon in July and August. The soil is
usually a good fertile loam. In some parts, however,
"kankar" (a concretionary deposit of limestone) forms a
layer a few inches in thickness a few feet from the surface,
and in others there is an excess of alkali salts in the soil,
and in such places trees are absent. As might be expected,
the woody plants growing in this region are specially
adapted to withstand the dry conditions. Prosopis spicigera^
which is a medium-sized tree, rarely exceeding 30 to 40 ft.
in height, is provided with an exceedingly long tap-root
which enables the tree to draw upon the permanent water-
supply in the subsoil. The plants usually associated with
Prosopis are Salvadora oleoides^ Dene., an evergreen bush,
with thick, leathery leaves, and Capparis aphytla^ Roth., a
leafless bush with whip-like green twigs. In the drier
parts of the forests where the water-level is farther from
the surface, these two species alone occur.

The forests are worked for firewood on the coppice
system with a rotation of 30 years. Prosopis spicigera yields
a hard wood which affords excellent firewood and charcoal,
and although the timber produced is not large it is of
value to the local villagers, who utilise it for many
purposes. The timber of the other species formes only
mferior firewood, but the twigs and leaves of Salvadora
oleoides are valuable fodder for goats and camels.

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 135

Tree-planting in New Zealand. — The native forests of New
Zealand are rapidly diminishing, and, as most of the
indigenous trees are unsuitable for afforestation on account
of their slow growth, North American species have been
largely introduced. An account of the introduced trees
which have been found most suitable in the Canterbury
Province is given in the Journ. Agric, New Zealand
(191 5, 11, 107). These, in order of value, are : Pinus insignis^
Dough, which grows rapidly and thrives up to an altitude
of 1,200 to 1,500 ft. ; Cupressus rnacrocarpa, Hartw., which
grows well in warm soils up to an altitude of 900 ft. ;
Abies Doiiglasii, Lindl. {Psendotsnga Douglasii, Carr.),
specimens of which, 30 years old, have attained a height
of 60 to 70 ft. and a girth of 6 to 7 ft. ; larch, Pinus
ponderosa, Dough, P. Strobus, Linn., and P. Laricio, Poir.

A North American Pine Disease. — A description of a serious
disease of pine trees caused by a rust fungus {Peridermium
pyriforme) is given in Bulletin No. 247, 191 5, 6^.5. Dept
Agric. The fungus attacks the main stems or branches of
young trees, producing spindle-shaped swellings which
often girdle the stem, resulting commonly in the death of
the portion above the point of infection. On one plot in
the Klamath National Forest containing 314 trees of Pinus
ponderosa, one-third had died through the attack of the
fungus, whilst one-sixth were suffering from the disease.
The fungus has not only been recorded as attacking
various species of pine throughout the United States, but
has also been found on Pinus contorta in Alberta and on
P. ponderosa in British Columbia. As in the case of the
wheat rust, three kinds of spores are formed. Those
produced on the pines are secidiospores, and the authors
discovered that the uredo- and teleutospores of Cronartium
pyriforme which are formed on species of Comandra
complete the life-cycle of the fungus. In order to check
the disease it is necessar}^, therefore, not merely to destroy
infected pines, but also to eradicate all Comandra plants in
the neighbourhood of plantations and nurseries.

Timbers

Strength Tests of Creosoted Timbers. — An account of the
results of strength tests of structural timbers treated with
creosote by the usual commercial processes is given in
Bulletin No. 286, 191 5, U.S. Dept. Agric. The timbers
used consisted of beams of loblolly pine, longleaf pine,
and Douglas fir. It was found that the timber may be very
materially weakened by preservative processes, but the
creosote in itself did not appear to weaken it. Tests with
small pieces of timber seemed to indicate that the weakening
was probably caused by rapid and unequal shrinkage

136 BULLETIN Ot THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

during the preservative process, and further tests on beams
8 ft. long and 8 in. by i6 in. in section are being carried out
to elucidate this point.

ECONOMIC MINERALS

Chromite. — According to T. C. Denis, Superintendent of
Mines, Quebec, a revival of chromite mining took place in
the Coleraine — Black Lake region during 191 5 {Monthly
Bulletin Can. Min. Inst., 19 16, No. 45, p. 13). This was due
to difficulties connected with the shipping of ores from
South Africa and new Caledonia. It is estimated that,
during the last six months of 1915, 10,000 tons of Quebec
chrome ore was shipped. In November, mining work was
in progress at twenty-two mines and prospects, all of
which were contributing to the production. The ore
obtained varied in composition from 25 to 50 per cent, of
chromium sesouioxide, with an average of probably about
30 per cent. The ore was sold to a firm in Philadelphia,
for use in steel manufacture in the United States. The
low-grade ore had to be concentrated in the U.S.A. before
it could be used.

Coal. — In Bulletin No. 17 {new series), Geol. Surv. Branch,
Dept. of Mines, New Zealand, P. G. Morgan and J. A. Bartrum
deal with "The Geology and Mineral Resources of the
Buller-Mokihinui Sub-division, Westport Division." The
chief mineral assets of this sub-division are its coal deposits,
in which some of the most important coal-mines of New
Zealand are worked. The coal of this sub-division is of two
different formations, one probably Eocene and the other
Miocene. The Eocene coal is chiefly bituminous, whereas
the Miocene coal, except where it is strongly affected by
earth movements, is of the brown coal type and contains
from 10 to 20 per cent, of water.

The Eocene coals of the Westport division show a wide
range in composition. Anthracite occurs in places, but the
predominant type is a bituminous variety showing more or
less lustrous surfaces or bands interspersed with duller
patches. The coal from the Denniston collieries as mined
contains from 55 to 60 per cent, of fixed carbon, 37 to
41 per cent, of volatile hydrocarbons, i to 4*5 per cent, of
water, 0*5 to 5 per cent, of ash, and 0-5 to about 3 per cent,
of sulphur.

The differences between the coals from the various
localities are to some extent attributable to variations in
amount and nature of the present cover, but are probably
more closely connected with changes of pressure that took
place during the uplift of the Coal Measures.

As regards the origin of the bituminous coal-seams, the
evidence available favours as a whole the *' drift theory "

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 137

rather than the " growth in situ " theory. There is no
evidence of any true surface soil having ever existed
beneath the Westport coal-seams. Facts quoted in support
of the " drift theory " are the gradual passage of coal into
shale, the lenticular nature of the thicker coal deposits, the
thinning out of the coal-seams against ancient islands of
the pre-Tertiary rocks, and the current bedding of the
underlying and overlying sandstones, which indicates the
prevalence of strong currents capable of transporting and
sorting vegetable matter. The lumps of resin occurring in
the coal are supposed to have been transported, and are
regarded as evidence in support of the " drift theory."

The estimate of the total available and workable bitu-
minous coal in the BuUer-Mokihinui sub-division has been
revised. The total amount of proved coal originally in the
ground is estimated at 123,000,000 tons, of which about
half, or 60.000,000 tons, may be considered extractable under
present conditions ; but of this 13,000,000 tons has already
been mined, leaving only 47,000,000.

The brown coal or lignite of the Charleston district
exists over an area of several hundred acres, and has a
thickness of from 4 ft. to over 20 ft. There are thus probably
some millions of tons of brown coal in the Charleston
neighbourhood. The brown coal has probably a much
more extensive distribution than this, but no safe estimate
of its actual extent can be given at present.

Copper Ore. — The Mines Branch of the Dept. of Coloniza-
tion, Mines and Fisheries for the Province of Quebec,
Canada, has issued a report by J. A. Bancroft on "The
Copper Deposits of the Eastern Townships of the Province
of Quebec ' (Quebec, 191 5). Extensive prospecting took
place in this area many years ago, and from 1859 to 1866
there was a mining boom, during which a vigorous search
was made for copper ores. At present only two mines,
the Eustis and Weedon, are steadily producing copper ore
in large quantities. A note on the nature of the ore worked
at these mines has already appeared in this Bulletin
(1913, 11, 365). The abandonment of many of the "mines"
formerly worked for copper ore in this area has been
frequently attributed to lack of transport facilities, and it
has been claimed that modern improvements in mining
and increased railway facilities render it possible to re-open
the old workings with successful results. Mr. Bancroft
finds, as a result of his recent investigation, however, that
no deposits of importance have been proved to exist in the
majority of the prospects and " mines " that were formerly
worked and are now idle. In some instances, surface
enrichment had given rise to patches of good ore at the
surface, but when these were stripped off the ore was
found at even shallow depth to be too poor to make mining
profitable.

138 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

The predominant type of deposit is that of lenticular
bodies of pyrite carrying a little chalcopyrite, frequently
with very small quantities of zinc blende and galena, and
very low values in silver and gold. It seems probable
that a few of the properties now idle got their supplies
of copper ore from isolated lenticles of this type, and that
no extensive deposit was proved.

Mr. Bancroft concludes that there is plenty of scope
for prospecting in the area, but that any further systematic
work that is done should be directed to the finding of new
deposits rather than to the attempt to develop old " mines."
He is of opinion that a company, organised on a proper
financial basis to carry out intelligently a systematic
prospecting campaign and to amalgamate the few properties
now idle that are worthy of further exploration, would
probably make valuable discoveries and extend the copper-
mining work of this area.

Iron Ore.— In Publication No. 344, 1915, Mines Branchy
Dept. of Mines, Canada, A. Stansfield deals with the
electrothermic smelting of iron ores in Sweden, and reports
on the results of an investigation made by him into the
economic value of the electrothermic process of iron smelting
as carried on in Scandinavia.

He points out that the Swedish iron industry is con-
cerned chiefly with the smelting of high-grade Swedish
ores with charcoal in blast-furnaces of moderate dimensions
and small yield. The success of this industry has depended
on the high quality, and consequently the high price, of the
pig-iron produced. The output of this material has been
restricted by its high price and the difficulty of obtaining
supplies of charcoal for smelting purposes.

For the production of iron of this high quality, the use
of the " Elektrometall " furnace, which is now well estab-
lished in Sweden, is very suitable. Indeed the iron
obtained by the electric furnace is even better in quality
than that got by using the charcoal-iron blast-furnace,
using the same ores and fuel ; and the cost of making the
iron, using cheap water power, as in Sweden, is somewhat
less than in the charcoal blast-furnace. Moreover, the
amount of iron that can be made with a given supply of
charcoal is three times as much in the electric furnace as in
the blast-furnace ; and it appears to be on this account that
electric smelting has made progress in Sweden.

As regards the possibility of introducing electric iron
smelting in Canada, Mr. Stansfield concludes that, on
account of the high cost of electric smelting, the difficulty
of using coke in the Swedish furnaces, and the small size
of these furnaces, there is no likelihood that electric iron
smelting will take the place of the existing blast-furnace
industry.

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 139

In Memoir No. 78, 191 5, GeoL Siirv.y Canada, A. O. Hayes
gives an account of the petrology and chemistry of the
Wabana iron ore of Newfoundland, and discusses the origin
of the deposit.

The Wabana iron ore forms part of a series of Ordovician
sediments which are exposed on Bell Island in the south-
central part of Conception Bay. The ore occurs in the
form of a series of beds in the upper part of a mass of strata
several thousand feet thick. The strata consist chiefly of
shales and sandstones, and range in age from Lower
Cambrian to Lower Ordovician.

The iron ore of the Wabana deposit is of reddish-brown
colour and oolitic in texture. The concretionary bodies
of haematite of which it is chiefly composed are very small;
they vary in diameter from o"i to 0*5 mm., and they are
usually somewhat disk-shaped, suggesting that they have
been flattened parallel to the bedding plane. In addition to
haematite, there is in the concretionary bodies a consider-
able amount of a green silicate of iron and aluminium which
has been identified as chamosite. Small amounts of siderite
and quartz and fossil shell fragments are also present.

As regards the origin of the Wabana ore, the author
infers, as the result of much work, that the deposit was
formed largely in its present condition as a bedded deposit,
and that the iron minerals were present in the sediments
at the time the beds were deposited. He thinks it probable
that the concretionary bodies of haematite and chamosite
were formed from the very fine-grained ferruginous
sediments of the Ordovician sea-floor, in water sufftciently
shallow to allow of a certain amount of agitation by surface
waves.

Mica. — In Bulletin 580-F, 6^.5. GeoL Surv., D. B. Sterrett
gives an account of " Some Deposits of Mica in the United
States."

The deposits of commercial value in the United States
are those of muscovite, occurring in pegmatites. The
pegmatites occur in irregular masses, sheets, and lenses,
which vary in size from small deposits up to masses that
are many yards in length and thickness. Most of the
mica-bearing pegmatites are found among highly meta-
morphosed gneisses and schists.

The mica occurs in rough crystals and blocks, varying
in diameter from a fraction of an inch up to several feet.
The rough blocks of mica obtained by mining yield only a
small percentage of trimmed sheet mica, a yield of 10 per
cent, being unusually high. The remainder is suitable only
for grinding.

The pegmatites sometimes lie along,- and sometimes cut
across, the foliation planes of the enclosing gneisses and
shcists. As in other countries, the irregular shape and

I40 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

pockety character of the mica deposits make mining:
difficult.

Good mica mines in the United States have been worked
in North Carohna, New Hampshire, South Dakota, Idaho,
New Mexico, Virginia, South Carolina, and Alabama ; and
there are promising deposits in various other States.
Details of the conditions of occurrence for numerous deposits
are given by Mr. Sterrett, who states that many of the
United States deposits are good, and that the production
is increasing. Although the imports generally exceed the
production, the mica mines of the United States are capable
of supplying the whole of the domestic demand, excepting
that small part which requires the use of the softer Canadian
phlogopite mica. It is inferred that the United States
demand for muscovite mica could be readily satisfied by
mines in the United States if some of the mines were
operated on a larger scale.

Molybdenite. — In the Monthly Bulletin^ Can. Mm. Inst.
(191 5, No. 43, p. 872), C. W. Drysdale gives some notes on
the geology of the " Molly " molybdenite mine, Lost Creek,
Nelson Mining Division, British Columbia.

This molybdenite deposit occurs at the upper border of
a large intrusive mass of granite that has been laid bare
by erosion. The granite is intrusive into schists and
limestones, and is cut by pegmatite veins which appear to
lie in a direction parallel to that of the ore-bearing zone.
The ore at the surface weathers to limonite, kaolin, and
molybdic ochre.

The portion of the granite in which the molybdenite
is being worked at present is characterised by tabular
jointing, the joints being closely spaced, interlocked, and
roughly parallel to the margin of the intrusion. The
molybdenite occurs in these closely spaced joints and im-
pregnates the granite between them. In the block-jointed
portion of the granite the ore is very poor or absent
altogether, so far as observations have gone at present.

Associated with the metamorphosed limestone at one
point is a replacement deposit of pyrite and pyrrhotite
m a matrix of calcium silicate and crystalline limestone.
Molybdenite occurs in the metamorphosed zone, but
not in sufficient quantity to make the deposit worth
working.

The ore zone appears to be about 10 ft. thick. It has
been traced and in part proved at the surface for about
1,200 ft. along a hill-side. An open cut in which it was
being worked in July 191 5 had a depth of 75 ft. and a
width of 10 ft. at the bottom.

The ore is stated to contain only traces of copper. The
first shipment of ore (50 tons or so) was not highly con-
centrated, as it contained only from 12 to 30 per cent, of

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 141

molybdenite (M0S2). Several thousand tons of ore, con-
taining probably about 4 per cent, of molybdenite, were
lying on the mine dumps.

NOTICES OF RECENT LITERATURE

Le Maroc. By Augustin Bernard. Third Edition,
revised and brought up to date. Pp. viii + 490, Demy 8vo.
(Paris: Libraire Felix Alcan, 191 5.) Price 5 francs; post
free. United Kingdom 45. 5^?., abroad 45. 6d.

Prof. Bernard is a recognised authority on the French
penetration of North Africa, and this is one of the best-
known of his various works on that subject. The present
edition has been revised and brought up to date through-
out, while the chapters on the French Protectorate in
Morocco are new.

A full account is given of the gradual extension of the
French influence in Morocco, and the geographical, his-
torical, and other sections are excellently arranged and no
less excellently written. To the criticism that the enormous
agricultural possibilities of Morocco might have been con-
sidered more fully. Prof. Bernard would probably reply
that this important side of the subject, which, in fact, he
has treated elsewhere, was outside the scope of the present
volume.

As a patriotic Frenchman, the author insists very
strongly on the geographical unity of Morocco, Algeria,
and Tunis — Africa Minor as these countries have been
called, Berbera (the old Barbary) as Prof. Bernard prefers
to call them. He quotes Gen. Lyautey— " North Africa
is for our race what the Far West is for America ; that is to
say, the field above all, for energy, rejuvenation, and
fecundity " — and he looks forward to a French population
of 100 millions firmly established on each side of the Medi-
terranean. The volume contains maps and a bibliography,
but no index.

Sandford Fleming, Empire Builder. By Lawrence J.
Burpee. Pp. 288, Demy 8vo. (Oxford University Press:
Humphrey Milford, 191 5.) Price 105. 6d, net; post free,
United Kingdom los. 11^., abroad 115. id,

Sandford Fleming (1827-191 5), born at Kirkcaldy, emi-
grated to Canada at the age of eighteen after four years'
training in Scotland as an engineer and surveyor. In Canada,
after finding employment for some time in general surveying
work, he joined the staff of the Northern Railway, becoming
eventually chief engineer. In 1863 he was appointed to
carry out the Surveys for the Intercolonial Railway be-

142 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

tween Quebec and the Maritime Colonies, and in due
course was appointed chief engineer of that line. In 1871
he became chief engineer of the Canadian Pacific Railway,
*' a gigantic undertaking, viewed even from the standpoint
of to-day," but in 1871 "a project without parallel in the
development of transportation facilities." The project,
says the author, appealed to Fleming "as a great and
intricate engineering problem, but even more so as a
matter of material and imperial significance. He was . . .
a practical imperialist, he dreamed dreams and formulated

Erojects that were sometimes in advance of his times; but
is dreams were never impracticable, and his projects were
always based on a firm foundation of common sense. They
looked always to the knitting together of the scattered
members of a world-wide Empire by creating and improv-
ing the means of communication."

Other developments of Fleming's imperialism include
his persistent advocacy of the Pacific cable, the ** All-Red
Line," and his conception of an authoritative Imperial
Intelligence Service to be furnished by cable without cost
to newspapers in every part of the Empire. The length
to which he was prepared to go on his own initiative and
at his own expense to secure what he conceived to be a
practical Imperial advantage is shown in his attempt, told
nere at some length, to secure Necker instead of Fanning
Island as an intermediate landing-place for the Pacific
cable.

This volume gives a good and accurate account of
Fleming's work (including the part he took in founding the
Canadian Institute), and so provides a valuable memorial
of his high services to the Empire. In personal interest,
in visualisation of Fleming, the man, it is, however, some-
what deficient — biography is, indeed, not every one's gift.
There are a good index and bibliography, and several
interesting photographs of Fleming at various periods of
his career.

A Text-book of Paper-making. By C. F. Cross and

E. J. Bevan. Fourth Edition. Containing additional
matter, and in part re-written, with collaboration of J. F.
Briggs. Pp. viii + 507, Demy 8vo. (London : E. and

F. N. Spon, Ltd., 1916.) Price 15s. net; post free. United
Kingdom 15s. 6d., abroad 15s. \od.

The new edition of this well-known text-book, whilst
preserving the general order and arrangement of earlier
editions, differs from the latter in several important re-
spects. The number of pages has been considerably
increased and the size of the page has been enlarged.
The work has benefited by the collaboration of Mr. J. F.
Briggs, who has had practical experience in one of the
leading British paper-mills.

NOTICES OF RECENT LTrERATURE 143

The first chapter, dealing with cellulose and the cellulose
group generally, a subject on which the authors have made
extensive researches, has been well brought up to date.
The other chapters have been thoroughly revised and
substantially increased by the addition of new matter.
The chapter on the physical structure of fibres contains
some excellent photomicrographs contributed by Mr. John
Christie. The chemical and physical characteristics of all
the principal raw materials employed in modern paper-
mills are described, and an account is given of the special
treatment adapted to the conversion of each of these
materials into pulp.

Descriptions are given of the various processes involved
in the manufacture 01 paper and of the machinery employed,
particulars of the most recent improvements being incor-
porated. The sections containing paper-trade statistics
and a bibliography are of special value ; the latter gives
not merely the title and the name of the author, but also
an indication of the character of the subject matter.

The book is written in an essentially practical manner,
is well illustrated throughout, and will be invaluable to all
students of paper-making.

The Cotton Year-book and Diary, 19 16. Eleventh
year of issue. Compiled (for " The Textile Mercury ") by
S. Eckroyd. Pp. civ + 659, Foolscap 8vo. (Manchester :
Marsden & Co., Ltd., 1916.) Price 2s, 6d. net; post free,
United Kingdom 25. ii<^., abroad ss.

This work contains a vast amount of information pre-
sented in a compact and handy form. The first chapter
describes the leading varieties of cotton, and tells where
they are grown and the characteristic features of each,
gives a clear account of the operations of the Liverpool
cotton market and a lucid explanation of such technical
matters as trading in ** spot " and " futures." In succeeding
chapters an account is given of the various processes to
which cotton is submitted in its preparation for the market,
and its manufacture into yarns and fabrics. The various
classes of cotton fabrics are defined, and particulars are
given of the methods of bleaching, mercerising, dyeing,
calico printing and finishing. Other matters dealt with
are the calculation of costs, the mode of keeping the de-
partmental books of a spinning-mill and weaving-mill, means
of avoiding accidents, arbitration between cotton-spinners
and manufacturers, ventilation, motive power, different
methods of driving, mill construction, and the associations,
societies, and unions existing in the cotton trade.

The book constitutes a valuable work of reference for
mill managers, foremen, and other workers in the cotton
industry, and, in general, for all who are interested in the
trade.

144 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Elements of Mineralogy. By Frank Rutley. 19th ed.,
revised by H. H. Read. Pp. xxii -f- 394, Crown 8vo.
(London : Thomas Murby & Co., 1916.) Price 35. 6d. net;
post free, United Kingdom and abroad is. iiol.

In revising Rutley's well-known book on mineralogy an
attempt has been made to bring it ''into line with modern
tendencies in economic mineralogy and to make it an
introduction to the scientific prospecting and determination
of mineral deposits." As much as possible of the original
rnatter has been retained, but there are considerable altera-
tions. The chapter on crystallography has been entirely
re-written and a chapter on optical properties has been
added. In the section dealing with the mineral species the
original arrangement has been followed with few exceptions,
but in the descriptions of the minerals greater stress has
been laid on their occurrences and uses.

Mr. G. T. Holloway contributes an introduction on the
importance of economic mineralogy to the mining man and
prospector and a brief glossary of terms used in economic
geology is appended. The present edition is printed in
good type, the descriptions are easy to follow, and, in
general, it shows a considerable improvement over the
previous editions.

Limes and Cements: Their Nature, Manufacture,
AND Use. By E. A. Dancaster, B.Sc. Pp. xii4-2i2. Crown
8vo. (London: Crosby, Lockwood & Son, 1916.) Price
5s. net ; post free. United Kingdom and abroad 5s. s^-

As stated on the title-page, this is intended as an
elementary treatise, and as such it serves its purpose well.

The author's original intention was to revise the book
on " Limes, Cements, and Mortars," by G. R. Burnell, but,
owing to this latter work being much out of date, it has
been necessary to re-write it entirely.

Descriptions are given of the manufacture, properties,
and uses of lime and plasters, and of natural, bituminous,
slag, and Portland cements, and puzzolanas. Other chapters
deal with the waterproofing of cement, its constitution,
chemical analysis, and testing. A matter of some general
interest is the so-called " saltpetreing " of cement and plaster
work, ie. the production of the white efflorescence which
sometimes makes its appearance through paint work, and
the possible causes and suggested remedies are described.

The book should prove of service to all desiring an
introduction to the nature and use of the materials described,
whilst the frequent references in the text will serve to
indicate where fuller information is to be found. The
clear illustrations provided will materially assist the reader
to grasp the details of the plant used in the manufacture of
hme and cement.

NOTICES OF RECENT LITERATURE 145

Rural Sanitation in the Tropics : being Notes and
Observations in the Malay Archipelago, Panama, and
Other Lands. By Malcolm Watson, M.D., CM., D.P.H. Pp.
xvi + 320, Demy 8vo. (London : John Murray, 191 5.) Price
I2S. net; post free. United Kingdom 125. 5^., abroad 125. 8^^.

In this work the author gives an account of his
experience of malaria in British Malaya, Sumatra, Panama,
and British Guiana, together with a record of observations
which have been made on the disease in Italy, India, Hong
Kong, and the Philippine Islands.

When Dr. Watson entered on his duties as District
Surgeon of Klang, Federated Malay States, he found that
a large percentage of the patients in his hospital were
suffering from malaria, and that not only the town of
Klang but the whole coast-line was affected severely with
the disease. In view of Ross's discovery that malaria is
carried by the Anopheles mosquito, he decided to endeavour
to eradicate the disease by eliminating this pest. With
this object the breeding-places of the mosquito were sought
out and mapped on a plan, and a proposal was made
to the Government that Klang should be thoroughly
drained. This work was carried out and subsequently a
similar scheme was undertaken at Port Swettenham, where,
in addition to drainage, all the pools were oiled with
petroleum and quinine was provided for the people. In
these two places, malaria ceased within a short time to
be of any practical importance, and the number of cases
admitted to hospital decreased from 610 in 1901 to 69 in
1903 and 23 in 1905, whereas in other parts of the district
they increased from 197 in 1901 to 353 in 1905. Con-
currently with the diminution of malaria the mortality
from other diseases greatly declined, and this general
improvement in health is explained by Dr. Watson on the
ground that many people harbour the malaria parasite
without exhibiting malarial symptoms, and that this " un-
recognised malaria " renders them very liable to be attacked
by other diseases. The work was afterwards extended
over a very large area. Special difficulty was encountered
in hilly districts, but this was overcome by conducting
away the hill streams by means of underground pipes.
The striking results obtained in Malaya led the author
to desire to increase his knowledge of malaria and its
prevention in other lands, and he therefore visited the
countries already mentioned.

In the last chapter of the book, a discussion is given
of the reasons for the absence of malaria in Barbados.
The author does not accept the usual view that it is due
to the presence of the small minnows, known as millions,
but considers that the freedom from the mosquito may
be accounted for by the practical absence of surface water
owing to the geological structure of the island.

146 BULLETIN OF THE LMPERIAL INSTITUTE

The work is written in an interesting manner, and
should be read by all who have any responsibility in
connection with the health and welfare of our tropical
possessions.

Sleeping Sickness. By B. F. Bruto da Costa, J. F. Sant*
Anna, A. C. dos Santos, and M. G. de Araujo Alvares.
Translated by Lieut.-Colonel J. A. Wyllie, F.R.G.S. Pp.
xii + 261, 4to. (London: Bailliere, Tindall & Cox, 1916.)
Price ys. 6d. net; post free, United Kingdom ys. 11^.,
abroad 8s. 2d.

This is the record of four years' war against sleeping
sickness in the island of Principe, Portuguese West Africa,
being the report of the work of the Portuguese medical
mission to this colony in 191 2-14. The success of the
work of extinction in Principe of the tsetse fly {Glossina
falpalis), which acts as the carrier of this disease, may be
judged from the fact that while in 1908, after the work ot
a previous mission, the general mean of infected persons
in Principe was 2607, the mean had fallen in 191 3 to 77,
and at the end of June 1914 stood at 0*66. The mortality
from sleeping sickness dropped from 8*3 per cent, of the
population in 1906 to 27 in 191 3. From April 1914 to the
date of this report (September 1914), not a single tsetse fly
was found in the island, and, we are told, " it can hardly
be supposed that a single living specimen remains."

The Portuguese medical mission may obviously be
warmly congratulated on the results of its labours. The
principal methods of attack employed against the pest were
the clearing of vegetation so as to let the direct rays of
sunlight get to the soil and the air circulate freely around
the clearing ; the drying of the swampy lands ; and the
extinction of the particular local fauna on which the insect
used to feed. The fly has also been hunted directly by
means of sticky cloths.

The report, which is freely illustrated with photographs
of characteristic breeding-places of the pest, now cleared
or drained, includes an interesting coloured chart showing
the distribution of the former centres of the insect through-
out the island. The whole forms a valuable addition to
the literature of tropical sanitation, while incidentally it
furnishes considerable information on the geographical
and economic features of the colony.

Notice sur les Glossines, ou Tsetses. Etudes de
Biologie agricole : No. i. Service de TAgriculture,
Ministere des Colonies Belgiques. Par E. Hegh. Pp. 148,
Demy 8vo. (London : Hutchinson & Co., 1915.)

The economic development of certain parts of tropical
Africa is greatly hindered by the presence of " sleeping
sickness " of both man and animals. These diseases are

NOTICES OF RECENT LITERATURE 147

transmitted through the agency of tsetse flies, and a know-
ledge of the habits of the latter is therefore of great
importance to all concerned in the development of infested
countries." M. Hegh's object in writing the present book
was to place such knowledge within the reach of agri-
cultural officials in the Belgian Congo, most of the
information on record being scattered throughout a large
number of publications.

The general characters of tsetse flies are described,
together with methods of distinguishing them from other
flies. A description is given of the various species, and
their geographical distribution is outlined, special attention
being devoted to those which occur in the Belgian Congo.
The life-history and methods of feeding of the tsetse flies
are dealt with, as well as the effect of certain external
agents such as temperature, colour, etc., on them. Perhaps
the most useful section of the book is that dealing with the
methods of destroying the flies and reducing the area
infested by them. The last section deals with methods of
collecting, preserving, and studying tsetse flies.

The book should prove of value for the purpose for
which it was written, and will be found useful also in other
countries where the tsetse fly abounds. It may be men-
tioned, however, that a book for English readers is available
in Austin's Handbook of the Tsetse-Flies issued by the British
Museum (Natural History), London, 191 1.

The Athenaeum Subject Index to Periodicals, 191 5.
Science and Technology, with special reference to the
War in its Technological Aspect. Pp. 79, Roy. 4to.
(London : The Athenceum^ 1916.) Price 25. 6d. net ; post
free. United Kingdom and abroad 25. <^d.

This book, the scope of which is indicated by the title,
is part of the subject index to periodicals which The
Athenceum is issuing at the request of the Council of the
Library Association. As far as it goes it should prove of
value to the general reader, but it will scarcely appeal to
the specialist. To be of use to the latter an index of this
kind must be as complete as possible, and this cannot be
said of the present section, which cites only a limited
number of publications, and includes no reference to any
journal specially devoted to rubber, oil seeds, or timber, or
to any American mining journal, to mention only some of
the omissions.

BOOKS RECEIVED

Heart of Europe. By R. A. Cram, Litt.D., LL.D.
Pp. xii + 325, Demy 8vo. (London : Macmillan & Co., Ltd.,
1916.) Price los. 6d. net; post free, United Kingdom 105. i \d,,
abroad us. 2d.

148 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

The Guide to South and East Africa. Edited by
A. Samler Brown and G. Gordon Brown. 22nd ed. Pp.
li + 773» Crown 8vo. (London : Sampson Low, Marston
& Co., Ltd., 1916.) Price 15. ; post free, United Kingdom
IS. s^i abroad 15. Sd.

A BoRNU Almanac for the Year a.d. 191 6. Compiled
by P. A. Benton. Pp. 119, i2mo. (London: Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 1916.) Price 2s. 6d, net; post free, United
Kingdom and abroad 25. Sd.

Field Analysis of Minerals. By G. D. McGrigor.
Pp. S6j Crown 8vo. (London : The Mining Magazine.)
Price 3s. 6d. net ; post free, United Kingdom and abroad
3s. Sd.

Mining World Index of Current Literature, vol.
viii., last half-year 191 5. By Geo. E. Sisley. Pp. xxv + 228,
Med. 8vo. (Chicago : The Mining World Company, 1916.)
Price $2; post free. United Kingdom Ss. 9^., abroad Ss. iid.

The Handicap of British Trade. With special regard
to East Africa. By W. H. Hooker. With a Foreword by
Charles E. Musgrave. Pp. xi + 143, Crown 8vo. (London :
John Murray, 1916.) Price 2s. 6d. net; post free, United
Kingdom and abroad 2s. lod.

The " South Africa " Map of Central and South
Africa, 1916. (London: Sou^h Africa, 1916.) Price I5. ;
post free. United Kingdom and abroad 15. 2d. ; or, mounted,
2S. 6d. ; post free, United Kingdom and abroad 25. gd.

Directory of Paper Makers of the United Kingdom,
1916. Pp. 236, Imp. 8vo. (London : Marchant, Singer
& Co., 1916.) Price is. net; post free, United Kingdom
IS. 5^., abroad is. Sd,

REPORTS OF RECENT INVESTIGATIONS AT
THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

The followmg summaries have been prepared from a selection of
the Reports made by the Director of the Imperial Institute to
the Colonial^ Indian^ and other Governments concerned.

EDIBLE BEANS FROM BURMA

In previous numbers of this Bulletin (1914, 12, 355; 1915,

13, 196) reference was made to experiments which have

been carried out in Burma, in association with the Imperial

Institute, with a view to producing beans more suitable for

the home markets than those usually grown in that country.

In 1912 and 191 3 Madagascar beans {Phaseolus lunatus var.)

were sent by the Imperial Institute for trial cultivation in

Burma, and the results of examination of the beans thus

produced are given in the articles referred to. During

1914 a further supply of Madagascar beans was sent to

Burma, and samples of the resulting crop were sent to the

Imperial Institute for examination in August 191 5, together

with samples of Madagascar beans grown for two and three

years respectively in Burma. The results of examination

of these specimens are given in the following pages.

Samples of Lima beans {P. lunatus var.) and of tepary

beans {P. acutifolius var.), grown in each case from seed

supplied by the United States Department of Agriculture,

were also received from Burma, and are dealt with in the

present article,

149

150 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Madagascar Beans

The following samples were received :

No. I. — Third year's produce at Naty wagon from seed
received from the Imperial Institute on November 4
1912.

No. 2. — Second year's produce at Naty wagon from
seed received from the Imperial Institute on August 13,

1913-

No. 3. — Second year's produce at Mandalay Farm from
seed received from the Imperial Institute on August 13,

1913.

No. 4. — First year's produce at Natywagon from seed
received from the Imperial Institute on July 7, 1914.

No. 5. — First year's produce at Mandalay Farm from
seed received from the Imperial Institute on July 7,
1914.

It was stated that samples Nos. i, 2, and 4 (from Naty-
wagon) were grown on sandy loam, and samples 3 and 5
(from Mandalay Farm) on stiff black clay.

The five samples were, on the whole, slightly inferior
in appearance to the Madagascar beans examined previously
at the Imperial Institute (see this Bulletin, 1914, 12, 196),
especially as regards colour, in which respect they were
considerably inferior to the original seed beans. The yellow
discolorations were more pronounced, and in samples 2 and 4
a pink patch had appeared in a few cases round the hilum.
In this connection it is interesting to note that in the Report
of the Mandalay Agricultural Station for 19 14-15, p. 30, it is
stated that one plant, the progeny of the first supply of
seed sent from the Imperial Institute, and of the same
generation as the plants which yielded sample No. i of the
present series, gave only red seed, which was speckled and
marked like that of the ordinary red Burma bean ; no
coloured beans were growing in the immediate neighbour-
hood. In samples i and 5 the size of the beans was variable,
and, on the whole, smaller than in the case of the original
seed. The beans of sample 2 were slightly larger than
the sample examined previously (first year's growth),

EDIBLE BEANS FROM BURMA 151

and those of sample 4 were slightly larger than the seed
beans.

The five samples were submitted to chemical examination
at the Imperial Institute, in order to ascertain the per-
centages of prussic acid which they yielded. The amounts,
expressed on the beans as received at the Imperial
Institute, are shown below :

Sample. Yield of prussic acid.

Per cent,

I 0*004

2 0003

3 0003

4 0*0025

5 00025

The samples were submitted to two firms of importers
in London.

The first firm considered that from their size and colour
samples 4, 2, and 5 would be the most valuable, in the order
named, but that samples 3 and i might be difficult of sale,
and would realise relatively low prices. They valued
samples 4, 2, and 5 at about 25s. or 26s. per cwt., and
samples 3 and i at possibly not more than 22s. or 23s. per
cwt., c.i.f. London (March 1916).

The firm added that, on the whole, the samples were
inferior to the beans imported from Madagascar, but they
were of opinion that if beans of uniform size and good
colour and shape could be grown in Burma it might be
possible to market them successfully as a distinct grade.

The second firm remarked that the beans were not so
large as the original seed, but valued them at ;^24 to £2%
per ton in London, according to size (March 1916), adding
that before the war the price would only have been £\/i^ to
;^i8 per ton.

Comparison with Previous Samples

The following table shows the colour, size, and yield of
prussic acid of the Madagascar seed beans supplied by the
Imperial Institute in 1912, 1913, and 1914, and of the beans
grown from them in Burma :

152 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Where grown, and
character of soil.

Sample
represent-
ing:

Colour and condition
of beans.

Number

required

to fill a

200 cc.

measure.

Weight
of 100
beans,

.in
grams.

Percent-
age of
prussic

acid
yielded.

Madagascar . .

Natywagon ; on

sandy loam

Do.

Seed beans
(1912)

1st year's
produce

2nd year's
produce

3rd year's

produce ( i )

Good white, with occa-
sional yellow discolora-
tion, and of plump
appearance

Similar to the seed beans,
but more discoloured

Dull white ; discoloured
like the 1st crop

Less plump, and slightly
inferior in colour to the
2nd year's produce

114

130
143

144

118

108

0-0025

0-005
0008
0-004

Madagascar . .

Natywagon ; on

sandy loam

Do.

Near Mandalay ;
on stiff black
clay
Do.

Seed beans

(1913)

1st year's

produce

2nd year's

produce (2)

1st year's
produce

2nd year's
produce (3)

Similar to seed beans of
1912

Plump and dull white, with
yellow discolorations

Similar to ist year's pro-
duce ; slightly pink in
some cases round the
hilum

Dull white, with yellow
discolorations ; fairly
plump

Similar to 1st year's pro-
duce, but slightly more
discoloured

162
122

202
194

102

72
74

0'002
0008
0-003

0*007
0*003

Madagascar . .

Natywagon ; on
sandy loam

Mandalay ; on
stiflf black clay

Seed beans

(1914)

1st year's

produce (4)

ist year's
produce (5)

Good white, with some yel-
low marks ; fairly plump

Dull white, and more dis-
coloured than the seed
beans. A few coloured
pink near hilum

Similar to the foregoing
samples, but with no
pink colouring

122
158

109
116

0*0025
0-0025

0-0025

The numbers in brackets in the second column correspond to the numbers of the
samples in the series received in August 191 5 {see p. 150).

It will be seen from the foregoing table that in the case
of the present samples Nos. i, 2, and 3 the amount of
prussic acid is considerably less than in the produce of the
previous year, and is only slightly higher than in the original
seed, and that in samples 4 and 5 the percentage of prussic
acid has not risen during the first year's cultivation in
Burma, but is the same as in the seed beans. These results
confirm the opinion expressed in the Imperial Institute
Report on the previous set of samples (loc. cit. p. 199), i.e.
that the weather conditions of the growing season probably
greatly influence the yield of prussic acid. In the above
table it will be observed that the season 191 3- 14 produced
a hig^h yield of prussic acid, whilst the season 1914-15 did

EDIBLE BEANS FROM BURMA 153

not. In the case of beans grown for the first time in
Burma from imported seed during 191 3-14 the yield of
prussic acid increased from 0*002 per cent, in the seed beans
to o"oo7 and o'ooS per cent., whilst in the season 1914-15
the yield of prussic acid from the first year's crop was the
same as from the imported seed from which it was grown.

The amount of prussic acid yielded by the samples of
Madagascar beans at the Imperial Institute does not appear
to have been influenced by soil conditions, as the percentages
from the beans grown both in the sandy loam at Naty-
wagon and in the stiff black clay at Mandalay Farm are
practically the same. It is, however, noticeable that the
beans deteriorate in size more rapidly at Mandalay than at
Natywagon.

Lima Beans

This sample was stated to be the first year's produce of
seed received from the Department of Agriculture, United
States, and sown on sandy loam at the Natywagon Sub-
station. It consisted of creamy-white beans, on the whole
of a flat, rounded oblong shape, tapering at one end, and
measuring from t^ to | in. in length. The beans were
fairly plump and in good condition, and free from insect
attack. They were found on examination at the Imperial
Institute to yield 0*0045 per cent, of prussic acid.

These beans were submitted for valuation to two
firms of importers in London. One firm valued them at
185. to 205. per cwt. c.i.f. London (March 1916), but added
that the sample was much inferior in quality to Californian
Lima beans, particularly as regards size. They mentioned
that they had known similar beans to be sold at only ys.
per cwt. a few months before the war.

The second firm considered that it might be possible to
regard these small beans grown in Burma as a distinct
variety, and that they might compete with flat Danubian
haricot beans, for which there is always a good market in
the United Kingdom. They stated that even before the
war such beans might easily have realised ;^i2 to £14. per
ton in London, and that their present value would be about
^25 per ton (March 1916).
7*

1^4 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

It will be seen on reference to the table on page 152 that
the amount of prussic acid yielded by these Lima beans
grown from American seed is higher than that given by
any of the Madagascar beans grown in the same season,
but only by a small amount. It will be interesting to see
how this variety behaves in this respect in succeeding
seasons.

Tepary Beans

This bean is grown largely for human consumption by
the Indians and Spanish settlers throughout southern
Arizona and northern Sonora, and its cultivation probably
extends westwards into California and southwards into
northern Mexico. According to Freeman {Botanical Gazette^
191 3, 56, 395) the cultivated plant is a broad-leaved variety
of P. acutijolius^ A. Gray, a species occurring in a wild
state in the mountain valleys west of the Pecos and in the
adjacent parts of New Mexico and Mexico. Seed has been
distributed from the United States to Burma and elsewhere,
and the plant is stated to have given good results, both as
a field and a garden crop, in New South Wales. Under
cultivation a number of more or less distinct varieties have
been produced, which differ mainly in the colour of the
flowers and in the shape and colour of the seed. The
tepary is stated to be specially adapted to dry situations
where other beans do not succeed, as it germinates quickly
in soil of a low moisture content, and, when once established,
can withstand protracted seasons of drought without per-
manent injury. Moreover, the plant will bloom and set
seed during periods of extreme heat, which would cause
the buds or flowers of other beans to fall prematurely.
Freeman states that in a number of experiments carried
out over a period of two or three years in different parts
of Arizona, the average yield of the tepary bean was
slightly more than four times that of varieties of the kidney
bean {Phaseolus vulgaris).

The tepary beans received from Burma represented
the first year's produce grown at Natywagon. They
were small, plump, and white with a greenish or cream
tint. The length varied from i to § in., but generally

EDIBLE BEANS FROM BURMA

155

approximated to the latter figure. The beans had a thin
husk, and a yellowish buff-coloured hard interior of waxy
appearance. They were in good condition and free from
insect attack.

The beans were analysed with the results shown in
the following table, which includes the figures recorded for
some other leguminous food grains :

Present sample
of tepary beans.

Haricot
beans.

lentils.

Peas.

Moisture

Crude proteins ....
Consisting of :

True proteins

Other nitrogenous substances

Fat

Starch, etc. (by difference) .

Fibre

Ash

Per cent.
12-0

23-6
206

1-3

57-2

Per cent.
14-0
230

23
52-3

55
29

Per cent.
117
249

1-5

55-0

2-3

Percent.
236

I '3

54-5

2-4

Nutrient ratio ' . . . .
Food units - . . . .

1:25
119

1:2-5
116

1:25

122

1:2-4
117

' The ratio between the percentage of crude proteins and the sum of the percentages
of starch and fat ^ the latter being first converted into its starch equivalent.

* The total obtained by adding the percentage of starch to 2*5 times the sum of the
percentages of fat and crude proteins.

The beans contained no alkaloids or cyanogenetic
glucosides.

The above results indicate that tepary beans possess a
high food value, and compare favourably with haricot beans,
lentils and peas, which they closely resemble in composition.

As these beans are practically unknown in this country,
a sample was submitted to a firm of importers, who stated
that in their opinion this class of bean should find a ready
sale in the United Kingdom and in some of the Allied
countries, and if introduced during the war should obtain
a good footing in the market. They valued the beans
under present conditions at about ;^22 to £22, per ton
(February 1916). They added, however, that under pre-
war conditions they would have been worth only about
;£"io per ton. The firm stated that they would be glad to
receive offers of these beans in commercial quantities.

It is interesting to note that this firm regard the tepary
beans as a possible substitute for small haricot beans in the

156 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

United Kingdom. The normal price of such haricot beans
in the United Kingdom varies from ;6"io to £\2 per ton, but
at present the prices range from ^20 to £21 per ton, de-
pending on the quality. If on practical trial in the United
Kingdom the tepary beans prove acceptable as small white
haricots, they should prove a valuable export crop for
Burma, provided that they grow well and give good yields.

VOANDZEIA SUBTERRANEA BEANS FROM
THE SUDAN

V. SUBTERRANEA^ Thou., is a Icguminous plant widely
cultivated in tropical Africa for its seeds (or beans) which
form an article of native diet. Specimens of the beans
from the Northern Provinces, Nigeria, and from Zanzibar
were examined at the Imperial Institute some years ago
(cf. this Bulletin, 1909, 7, 151 ; 1914, 12, 345) and last year
two samples of the pods were received from the Sudan.

The first sample was stated to have been grown in the
Nuba Mountains Province, where the beans are known as
Ful Abu Gawi ; but the place of origin of the second
sample was not stated. The plants are said to be found in
very large quantities on the Boma plateau. They grow
very freely in soil similar to that employed for ground-nut
cultivation in the Sudan.

The first sample consisted of pods possessing thin, pale
brown, loose-fitting husks, each, as a rule, enclosing one
round seed about 0*4 in. in diameter. The seeds varied
greatly in colour, being buff, brown, red or black, whilst
some of them were speckled with purple. The seed-coat
was thin, and the body of the seed was firm and cream-
coloured. The sample was in good condition and free
from insect attack.

The second sample closely resembled the first, but had
been attacked to a small extent by insects.

In each case the husks which formed 26-27 P^r cent, of
the samples were removed and the seeds analysed with the
following results, compared with those obtained in the
case of the Northern Nigeria and Zanzibar seeds previously
examined at the Imperial Institute :

V. SUBTERRANEA BEANS FROM THE SUDAN 157

Moisture

Crude proteins ....
Consisting of:

True proteins . . . .

Other nitrogenous substances .

Fat

Starch, etc. (by difference) .

Fibre

Ash

Nutrient ratio '
Food units ' .

Present samples.

Per ctnt,

8-3

21'2
198

1*4

3*2

3*3

I :3-4
126

Per cent.

8-2

21-4

19-8

1-6
61
57-9
31
3'3

1:3-4
127

Sample from
Northern
Provinces,
Nigeria.

Per cent,
13-1
i6'o

6-2

58-4

3-9
24

1:4*5
114

Sample from
Zanzibar,

Per cent.

7-8
191

18*0
11
6-5

589
4-2

rs^

1:3-9
123

' For meaning of these terms seep. 155.

No cyanogenetic glucosides or alkaloids were present
in the seeds.

It will be seen that the two samples of V. subterranea
beans submitted to the Imperial Institute from the Sudan
were practically identical in composition, and were some-
what superior to the beans from the Northern Provinces,
Nigeria, and Zanzibar.

There is no demand in the United Kingdom for beans
in the pod, and the samples were therefore husked before
valuation.

The first sample received was submitted for trial to a
firm of feeding cake manufacturers, who stated that the
seeds could no doubt be used in making compound foods
for cattle and valued them at about £s los. per ton c.i.f.
Liverpool (October 1915), adding that their value in
normal times would be only about £4. per ton.

The second sample was submitted to two firms of
importers with the following results :

A London firm stated that this class of bean is hardly
suitable for the London market, but would probably be
saleable on some of the Colonial and also some of the
Southern Continental markets. They considered that in
the latter markets the present value of the beans in good
condition and free from insect attack might be as high
as ;^2o per ton (February 1916). The firm added that they
would like to receive offers of the beans when they are
available for export.

158 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

An Aberdeen firm stated that if the beans were offered
in good condition, free from insect attack and suitably
prepared, it was possible that a market could be found
for them similar to that which exists for split peas.

At the time that the valuation of this second sample
was made some of the chief leguminous feeding stuffs were
quoted in the markets of the United Kingdom at the
following rates :

English beans .

. per quarter of 532 lb.

56^. to 57J.

Indian white peas .

„ 504 lb.

84J.

Rangoon beans

per ton

£2A

EngUsh maple peas

per quarter of 504 lb.

60s. to 66s.

„ blue „

„ 504 lb.

120s. to lyos.

Indian gram .

M 504 lb.

SSs.

As examples of the rise in prices of certain leguminous
products it may be mentioned that in July 1914 " English
maple peas " were worth 585. to 60s. per quarter, " English
blue peas" 475. to 53s. 6d. per quarter and "Rangoon
beans " £y los. per ton. While " English maple peas "
have risen very little in price, the other two products
show very large increases.

That a higher price was quoted for the second sample
was partly due to the scarcity of other leguminous food-
stuffs and feeding beans at the time, and partly to the
possibility, which the two firms consulted had in view, of
using these beans as a human foodstuff either in this
country or on the Continent. The valuation given of the
first sample was from a manufacturer of compound feeding
cakes, who would use the beans in compound feeding
cakes as a substitute for ** gram " and other Indian legu-
minous products. It is probable that during the war the
higher price quoted could be secured for these beans if
they were exported in good condition, free from pods, and
were carefully marketed.

It was suggested to the Sudan authorities that, if there
is any prospect of these beans being exported from that
country, the names and addresses of exporters should be
supplied to the Imperial Institute with a note of the
quantity available in each case, so that the exporters may
be placed in communication with suitable merchants in
this country.

NAKED BARLEY FROM CYPRUS
NAKED BARLEY FROM CYPRUS

159

A SAMPLE of naked or skinless barley was received from
Cyprus in October 191 5. The grains varied in size,
were of a light-brown colour and had a dull translucent
appearance. Although a small percentage of the grains
showed a brown discoloration in places, the sample was
clean and in good condition. The fracture was translucent.
No gluten was present in the grain. The germinating
power was 96 per cent, within five days.

The barley was analysed at the Imperial Institute with
the following results, compared with English and Azof
barleys :

Present
sample.

Average
English barley.

Azof barley.

Moisture

Crude proteins ....
Consisting of :

True proteins ....

Other nitrogenous substances .

Fat

Starch, etc. (by difference)

Fibre

Ash

Percent.
10-4
11-5

IO-3
1-2

1-9

72-4
1-8

2'0

Per cent.

14-9
8-0

1*5
68-5

2-6

Per cent.
12-9
1 2*3

Nutrient ratio ' . . . .
Food units '

1:67
106

I :9'o
92

1:57

102

^ For meaning 0^ these terms see p. 155.

Naked barleys cannot be employed for malting for
ordinary brewing purposes, though a malting expert, who
was consulted by the Imperial Institute, thought that the
present sample might be used by distillers (who only
require a partially malted barley) if it could be offered at
from 45. to 5s. per quarter below the price of good malting
barley, which was recently quoted at about 6is. per quarter
of 448 lb. (February 1916).

If on trial this use of the barley proved impossible, it
would still rank as a good class feeding barley. For a
valuation from this point of view the barley was, therefore,
submitted to importers in London, who valued the sample
at 505. per 400 lb. landed in London (February 1916),
and stated that its value would always be about that of
feeding barley.

i6o BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

The sample was also submitted to a firm manufacturing
barley foods, who stated that it was difficult to estimate the
commercial value of the grain, but that, regarded from a
*' food value " point of view, it should be worth 50s. to
52s. 6d. per 480 lb. c.i.f. London (March 1916). They
submitted a sample of the barley to a large firm of millers,
who stated that the grain was quite new to them, but
valued it for blending with other feeding stuff's at from
£\2 to £\^ per ton.

In view of these reports there seems no reason why
this skinless barley should not be exported to this country
from Cyprus at a profit, if it can be produced in commercial
quantities.

WATER-MELON SEEDS FROM THE SUDAN

A SAMPLE of water-melon seeds {Citrullus vulgaris) was for-
warded to the Imperial Institute from the Sudan in March
191 5. It was stated that the water melon is cultivated on
a considerable scale in Kordofan Province, and it was con-
sequently desired to ascertain whether the seeds would be
likely to find a market in London.

The sample consisted of small flat seeds, varying in
colour from pale yellowish-brown to very dark brown.

The seeds contained 7-4 per cent, of moisture and
yielded 23*6 per cent, of a brownish-yellow oil, equivalent
to a yield of 25*5 per cent, from the dry seeds.

The oil was found to have the following constants :

Specific gravity at o^j .

Solidifying point of fatty acids

Acid value *

Saponification value * . . .
Iodine value .... per cent,
Hehner value '

0-9230

305" C.

8-4

191-4

II7-I

95-1

* Milligrams of potash jor i gram of oil.

' Percentage of insoluble fatty acids and unsaponifiaJble matter.

The oil yielded by these seeds appears to be very
similar to that of " Senat " seed {Cucumis sp.) from the
Sudan, previously examined at the Imperial Institute, and
to other oils derived from cucurbitaceous seeds (cf. this

WATER-MELON SEEDS FROM THE SUDAN i6i

Bulletin, 1913, U, 59); but the amount of oil in the seeds
is somewhat lower.

The residual meal left after the extraction of the oil was
a brownish-white material with a pleasant taste. It was
analysed with the following results :

Moisture

Crude proteins ....
Consisting of :

True proteins ....

Other nitrogenous substances .

Fat

Starch, etc. (by difference) .

Fibre

Ash

Nutrient ratio '
Food units ' .

Residual meal.

P«r cent.

95
18-3

17-3
10

05
269
419

2-9

i:i'S
74

Composition of

original seeds

(calculated).

Per cent.

7-4
14-0

07
236
206
322

2-2

1:39
104

' For meaning of these terms see p. 155.

The meal contained no alkaloids or cyanogenetic glu-
cosides.

The above analysis shows that the water-melon seeds
have a composition somewhat similar to that recorded for
sunflower seeds, but the percentage of oil is lower (cf. this
Bulletin, 191 6, 14, 93).

The residual meal has a low food value, and contains a
high percentage of fibre.

Samples of the seeds were submitted for valuation to
two firms of oil-seed crushers, who reported on them as
follows :

(i) One firm stated that the value of the seeds would
be determined largely by the use which could be made
of the oil. In their opinion the properties of the oil are
very similar to those of maize and soy bean oils, for which
there is a comparatively limited market ; whilst the residual
meal is of relatively low feeding value, and would therefore
realise only a low price. In view of these facts and the
low yield of oil, the firm were doubtful whether these seeds
could be sold in the United Kingdom under present con-
ditions at more than ^7 per ton (September 191 5).

(2) The second firm stated that the oil from these seeds

1 62 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

comes within the group of oils similar to cotton-seed oil,
and would be very suitable for soap-making. They were of
opinion that experiments with various methods of refining
would probably result in rendering the oil suitable for
edible purposes, and in that case it would of course com-
mand a much higher price than if it could only be used in
soap-making. The firm did not consider, however, that
under present conditions the oil would be worth more than
about ;^28 per ton (October 191 5). The residual cake was
regarded as practically valueless, the percentage of fibre
being so high as to make it inadvisable to use it for feed-
ing purposes, except possibly as a constituent in a mixture.
The percentage of nitrogen is also low, and the value of
the cake as a manure would probably not be more than
30s. per ton. In these circumstances the firm valued the
seed at only about £$ los. per ton dehvered in England
(October 191 5), and added that at the high rates for freight
now ruling the export of the seeds from the Sudan did
not seem likely to be remunerative. They asked, how-
ever, to be informed as to the prospects of obtaining
the seeds in future in commercial quantities, and the Sudan
authorities, therefore, have been requested to supply such
particulars to the Imperial Institute.

COLOCYNTH PULP FROM THE SUDAN

CoLOCYNTH is the name given to the peeled, dried fruits of
Citrullus Colocynthis, Schrad. (Nat. Ord. Cucurbitaceae), the
material freed from seeds constituting the drug known in
the British Pharmacopoeia as colocynth pulp. Colocynth
is a drastic cathartic, and is usually administered in ad-
mixture with other drugs. Before the outbreak of war
colocynth was largely obtained from Turkey and Austria.
Fairly considerable quantities of the pulp have been exported
recently from the Sudan, and early in the present year a
sample of the Sudan product was received at the Imperial
Institute for examination.

It consisted of pulp free from seeds, and in good con-
dition, but slightly brown in parts and containing some

COLOCYNTH PULP FROM THE SUDAN 163

yellowish dust. It was submitted to two firms of merchants
in London.

One firm considered the sample to be very satisfactory
except for the slight coloration referred to above, and stated
that there is a good market in London for colocynth pulp
in fairly large quantities. The firm pointed out that for
a parcel of Sudan colocynth 3s. id. per lb. had been asked
recently in London, but that buyers were not prepared to
pay more than about half that price.

The second firm also described the sample as of good
quality, but added that if the fine dust were removed it
would be still better. They valued it at about is. 3^. per
lb. c.i.f. London. They further stated that they had recently
purchased several tons of colocynth pulp from the Sudan
at as much as is. 6d. per lb., the pulp in question being of
extra fine quality, free from dust and discoloured portions.

PAPER-MAKING MATERIALS FROM SOUTH

AFRICA

Attention has already been directed in this Bulletin to
the possibility of utilising various plants occurring in
British Possessions for paper-making (1912, 10, 372; 1913,
11, 6% ; 1914, 12, 42), and in the following pages an account
is given of the results of examination at the Imperial
Institute of further specimens of such materials.

Tambookie Grass from the Transvaal

Tambookie or tambootie grass {Cymbopogon Nardus var.
vallidus) is said to grow luxuriantly over vast tracts of
country in the Transvaal, particularly in the northern
parts. A sample of the grass was received at the Imperial
Institute in April 1914 for examination, in order to ascertain
whether it would be of value for paper-making.

The grass varied in length up to a maximum of about
5 ft. 6 in. The stems measured about J in. in diameter at
the base.

The results of the chemical examination of the grass are
shown in the following table, in comparison with corre-
sponding figures for Algerian esparto grass from Oran :

Tambookie

grass.

Per cent.

Algerian

esparto grass

Per cent.

IO-2

8-8

7-4

37-1

295

413

323

I 3

400

320

0-0I2 to

0012 to

o-i88in.;

012 in.;

average

o-o8i in.

0*045 in.

164 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Moisture (on drying at ioo°-i 10° C.)

Ash (expressed on dry material) ....

Yield of unbleached pulp (dried at ioo''-iio'' C.) :

(i) Expressed on air-dry material .

(2) Expressed on material dried at ioo°-iio° C.

Loss in weight of pulp on bleaching

Yield of bleached pulp (dried at ioo°-iio° C),

expressed on original material dried at ioo°-i 10° C.

Length of ultimate fibres

On heating with caustic soda solution under pressure
the Tambookie grass was readily converted into a pale
fawn-coloured pulp, which was very easily bleached to a
pure white product. It will be noticed that the average
length of the ultimate fibres is considerably greater than in
the case of esparto grass.

In the course of examination of various paper-making
materials at the Imperial Institute, it has been customary
to treat the raw products under particular conditions of
temperature, pressure, and strength of alkali, and to compare
the yields of pulp with those furnished by a commercial
specimen of Algerian esparto grass under the same con-
ditions. It has always been recognised that the results
obtained in this way, whilst being of great value for com-
parison, do not necessarily represent the actual yields
which would be obtainable in a modern pulp-mill.

In order to enable a more direct comparison to be made
with the yields obtainable on an industrial scale, a study
has been made under various conditions of a number of
commercial samples of esparto grass, both Algerian and
Spanish, which were kindly supplied to the Imperial
Institute by the late Mr. John Christie, of Messrs. Ide
& Christie, the well-known firm of fibre brokers. Efforts
have been made to ascertain the conditions of laboratory
treatment under which these grasses would furnish ap-
proximately the same yield of pulp as is obtained in the
mill, in order that similar conditions could be applied to
Tambookie grass and other new materials.

These experiments have demonstrated the accuracy of

PAPER-MAKING MATERIALS FROM SOUTH AFRICA 165

the comparative results obtained previously with various
paper-making materials in the Imperial Institute labora-
tories, but have indicated that the actual yields obtained
both with the new materials and with esparto grass used
for comparison are lower than those which would be
produced under ordinary manufacturing conditions in the
mill.

With regard to Tambookie grass, it may be stated that,
in general, it gives a yield of pulp greater than that fur-
nished by Algerian esparto grass under the same conditions,
but a little lower than that from the Spanish grass.

Paper-making trials carried out at the Imperial Institute
showed that a satisfactory paper of fairly good strength
could be prepared from the Tambookie pulp.

The high yield of pulp of good quality, and the ease
with which the pulp is bleached, show that Tambookie
grass is well adapted for paper-making, and in normal
times the crude material would probably be worth about
£4 per ton in the United Kingdom. It would, however,
probably be more remunerative to convert the grass into
'• half-stuff" in South Africa, and either ship this " half-stuff"
to Europe or utilise it locally for the manufacture of paper.

Papyrus from Zululand

The papyrus which is the subject of this report was
forwarded to the Imperial Institute by the Trades Com-
missioner to the Union Government of South Africa in
April 19 14. It was stated to have been obtained from the
St. Lucia Bay Districts of Zululand, and it was desired to
ascertain whether the material would have any commercial
value in Europe as a source of pulp for paper-making.

The sample consisted of greenish-yellow pithy stems,
averaging 7 ft. in length and about i in. in diameter at the
base. Each stem bore at the top a tuft of narrow, pointed
leaves, about 14 in. long. The entire sample consisted
approximately of stem 80 per cent, and leaf-tufts 20 per
cent.

Two series of experiments were carried out with the
papyrus at the Imperial Institute, employing (i) the whole
stems including the leaf-tufts, and (2) the stems only, the

i66 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

leaf-tufts being removed. The analytical results are given
in the following table, in comparison with corresponding
figures for papyrus from East Africa and the Sudan and
for Algerian esparto grass :

Present
sample of
papyrus ;
stems and

leaves.

Present

sample of

papyrus ;

stems only.

Papyrus
from East

Africa :
stems only.

Papyrus

from the

Sudan ;

stems only.

Esparto

grass from

Algeria.

Moisture (on drying

Per cent.

at ioo°-iio°C.) .

I2-I

II-6

16-3

13-8

8-8

Ash (expressed on

the dried material)

9'4

8-6

6-9

Yield of unbleached

pulp (dried at

lOO^-iio^C):

(i) Expressed on

air-dry mate-

rial .

21-2

225

26-3

29-4

29-5

(2) Expressed on

material

dried at

ioo°-iio°C.

24-0

25-5

31-4

34-2

323

Loss in weight of

pulp on bleaching

139

4*9

2-3

2-9

1-3

Yield of bleached

pulp(driedatioo°-
iio°C.), expressed

on original mate-

rial dried at ioo°-

iio^C.

207

243

307

33-1

320

Length of ultimate

From 0-009

From o"Oi

From o'oi

From 0-014

From 00 1 2

fibres

too- 18 in. ;

to O'iSin. ;

to 0-14 in.;

to 0-14 in. :

too-l2in. ;

average

avera ge

av e'r age

0*042 in.

0-048 in.

0*052 in.

0052 in.

0-045 in*

It will be seen that the yield of pulp and the average
length of the ultimate fibres were slightly less in the case
of the stems and leaves than when the stems only were
used, but the differences are so small as to be practically
unimportant. In both cases, however, the yield of pulp
was less than the quantities obtained at the Imperial
Institute from papyrus stems from East Africa and the
Sudan.

The pulp was in both cases readily obtained from the
papyrus by heating with caustic soda under pressure.
It was of a pale fawn colour, and was easily bleached,
being thereby rendered almost white.

Paper-making trials showed that the pulp could be
converted into a satisfactory paper of good strength.

Owing to the comparatively low yield of pulp and the

PAPER-MAKING MATERIALS FROM SOUTH AFRICA 167

bulky nature of this papyrus it is unlikely that it could be
profitably exported to Europe in the crude state. In this
condition it would probably not realise in normal times
more than about ;^3 per ton in the United Kingdom. The
papyrus could, however, be converted in South Africa into
*• half-stufif " for export, or it could be used locally for the
manufacture of paper.

AFRICAN WILD SILK

There are various insects in tropical Africa which produce
silk. The most important of these appear to be the different
species of Anaphe, belonging to the family Eupterotidce ^
which have been observed in many parts of East, West,
and South Africa.

These silkworms are gregarious ; at a certain point in
their development they assemble in groups and co-operate
in weaving a silken nest or colony, within which each worm
spins its own cocoon. These nests or aggregations of
cocoons vary considerably in size and also in form. Some
contain several hundred cocoons, whilst others contain
only ten or even less. With several species, such as A*
infracta and A. venata^ the nests are hollow and more or
less spherical in form, whilst with other species, such as
A. Moloneyiy the colony takes the form of a flat mass. In
the former case, the envelope of the nest usually consists
of three layers of silk. The outer layer is somewhat closely
spun and more or less papery in texture ; beneath this is a
more loosely spun portion which presents the appearance
of a number of superposed sheets of silk; the innermost
layer is hard and parchment-like. In the second case, the
flattened mass consists of closely packed cocoons, and is
covered on each side with a papery layer of closely inter-
laced silk. The individual cocoons in the nests are composed
of fine silk, but their value is diminished by the presence of
much dirt and foreign matter. The cocoons in the interior
of the nest are of a paler colour than the exterior, probably
on account of the obscuring of the light.

The occurrence of wild silkworms in Nigeria and the
Gold Coast and their utilisation by the natives were studied

i68 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

by Mr. G. C. Dudgeon during his tours in West Africa as
Inspector of Agriculture during the years 1906-10, and
specimens of the silk were furnished to the Imperial Insti-
tute. Samples have also been received from Uganda, Natal,
and Mozambique. An account of the results of examina-
tion of the silks at the Imperial Institute is given in the
following pages.

Southern Provinces^ Nigeria

In the Southern Provinces, Nigeria, the silk is known
as " sanyan," and is employed by the natives for making
the so-called sanyan cloths. For this purpose the whole
cocoon mass is boiled with water and wood ashes, and is
subsequently washed with water and spun on small hand
spinning-wheels by the women. The yarn thus obtained
is woven in the native looms in admixture with cotton in
order to produce cloths with a brown and white pattern.

In the Ibadan district the cocoon masses are furnished
by Anaphe infrada and A. venata^ whilst in Agege they are
yielded by A. Moloneyi and probably other species. In the
Ibadan and Oshogbo markets, the whole nests are some-
times offered for sale, but sometimes only the enveloping
layers are marketed, the pupae being previously removed
and eaten as a delicacy. There is probably a good demand
for sanyan throughout the Yoruba country. A white form
of the silk, known as " Gambari " sanyan, appears on the
Oshogbo and Ibadan markets. This is said to be produced
by collecting the larvae and enclosing them in calabashes,
where they spin white silk instead of brown. It has been
found by experiments at the Imperial Institute that when
worms of a species normally yielding brown silk were
confined in a dark box they produced white silk, thus
proving that the production of the white silk is due to the
absence of light. In the Yoruba country the principal food
plants of A. infrada are Albizzia Jastigiata and a species
of Sterculia, whilst Anaphe Moloneyi in the Agege district
feeds chiefly on Cordia Milleni.

Two samples of silk cocoons from the Southern Pro-
vinces, Nigeria, have been examined at the Imperial
Institute.

AFRICAN WILD SILK 169

The first sample, which was received in 1907, consisted
of "boiled" cocoons of Anaphe sp., together with some
chrysalides ; in some cases the cocoons had been " pulled
out," but generally they were intact.

A quantity of the silk was stained brown, probably
owing to the worms or chrysalides having been crushed.
The material was very soft and lustrous, and, apart from
the stained portions, of a pale creamy white colour. A
prolonged "boiling off" treatment with soap and water
caused the material to lose only about i per cent, in weight,
thus showing that the sericin (silk gum) had been almost
completely removed by the native treatment. The amount
of sericin present in ordinary silk is about 25 per cent.

The strength of the silk was normal, and the diameter
of the fibres varied from 0*0004 to o'ooo/ in., with an average
of 0*00053 in. The fibres possessed the characteristic
structure of silk, and on some of them slight longitudinal
striations were observable.

The second sample, received in 1908, consisted of
"nests" or aggregations of cocoons produced by silkworms
of Anaphe sp., which it was not possible to identify owing
to the absence of specimens of the moths. Efforts were
made to obtain moths from the cocoons, but to no purpose,
as the chrysalides had evidently perished.

Two types of nests were present in this sample, viz. :

(i) Nests consisting of a coarse outer covering of light
brown silk, enclosing a hard papery layer of dark brown
silk, which, in turn, enclosed a mass of small cocoons
similar in colour to the outer layer of the nest. This type
of nest is produced by the larvae of several species of
Anaphe.

(2) Nests consisting simply of a flat mass of dark-brown
cocoons without any surrounding layers of silky material.
It is possible that these had been produced by the larvae of
A. Moloney i.

Anaphe silk contains a considerable quantity of " gum,"
which is more resistant to the action of the usual degumming
agents than that of mulberry silk or tussar silk. A series
of experiments with the nests of the A. infrada type from
the Southern Provinces was conducted at the Imperial

I70 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Institute with a view to determining the best means of
degumming the silk. The best results were obtained by
boiling the silk, first in a 3 per cent, solution of sodium
carbonate and afterwards, without intermediate washing,
in a solution of soap of the same strength. The loss on
degumming by this process is shown in the following
table :

Material.

Degumming agents

Time ot

Loss

employed.

treatment.

Per cent.

Cocoons

{

Sodium carbonate

45 mins.

\ i6-2

Soap solution

»»

Papery

{

Sodium carbonate

I hour

1 180

layers

Soap solution

2 hours

Outer

{

Sodium carbonate

45 mins.

1 187

layers

Soap solution

The silk was lighter in colour after degumming, was
loose and could be combed out easily, and was of good
strength.

The amount of clean degummed silk obtained at the
Imperial Institute was as follows : 100 lb. of the crude
nests, on being freed from chrysalides, twigs, and other
extraneous matter, yielded 41 lb. of the silk envelopes,
which contained about 18 per cent, of gum; 100 lb. of the
nests therefore furnished about 33*5 lb. of clean, degummed
silk. The degumming process should not be attempted in
the country of origin, as the silk is liable to be injured
unless the process is carried out with great care, and for
this reason European spinners prefer to treat the silk by
their own methods.

NortJiern Provinces^ Nigeria

In the Northern Provinces, Nigeria, there are four kinds
of silk recognised. In the case of the most valuable kind,
which is known as "tsamian tsamia," the silkworms are
said to congregate in hollows and crevices of the trunks of
Tamarindus indicus (the tamarind or " tsamia " tree), on the
leaves of which they feed. This worm is probably a species
of Anaphe, but has not been definitely identified. The silk
realises a high price, and is utilised for making the em-
broidery for Hausa gowns. A second kind, " tsamian doka,"
consists of the flattened masses of cocoons characteristic

AFRICAN WILD SILK 171

of Anaphe Moloneyi; this worm feeds on Macrolobium sp.
The two other kinds of silk are of inferior quality.

A sample of wild silk cocoons from the Northern Pro-
vinces, Nigeria, was received at the Imperial Institute in
1907. It consisted of aggregations of from 100 to 500
cocoons arranged evenly and closely together, without the
silky covering usually found surrounding cocoon-colonies
of this kind.

A few moths were obtained from the cocoons and
identified as A. Moloneyi.

The cocoons were about i*o in. long and 0*4 in. broad.
The open end of each cocoon was prolonged into a silky
passage from 2 to 4 in. long, reaching to the exterior of the
cocoon-colony and forming a convenient passage for the
moth to emerge.

Four samples of silk from the Bauchi Province were
received in 1909. They were as follows :

No. I {a). Cocoons of Loni or Boko Silk. — This sample
consisted of a small mass of reddish-brown cocoons, each
of which had a loosely spun tube or "stocking" of silk
attached to the open end. The cocoon masses were not
enclosed by a hard, papery layer; in this respect they
resembled those of A. Moloneyi^ and differed from those of
several other species of Anaphe. In the present sample a
flat outer covering of silk, measuring 10 in. by 3 in., was
folded over the mass of cocoons. This outer covering was
firm, fairly stiff, dark brown in colour on the inner side,
and almost white on the outer side. The moths appeared
to have emerged from the cocoons, since no larvae or pupae
were noticed in the sample.

No. I {b). ^^ Boiled" Cocoons of Loni or Boko Silk. — This
silk was soft and fairly lustrous, but of very uneven colour,
varying from reddish-brown to white, and much stained.
It was brittle and of rather poor strength.

The diameter of the single strands was from 0*0003 to
o'oooS in., with an average of 0*00059 in.

Microscopical examination of the sample showed that
the silk had not been perfectly degummed, a number of
double strands being present.

No. 2 {a). Cocoons of TsamianTsamia Silk. — This sample

I7« BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

consisted of a number of silk cocoons, mostly greyish-yellow,
but occasionally light reddish-brown, and i to ij in. long
with a diameter of about J in. Most of the cocoons were
rounded at one end, whilst the other end (that at which
the moth emerges) was somewhat pointed and of very
loose texture.

Some of the cocoons were adhering lightly together
in a manner which suggested that they had originally
formed a part of a cocoon-colony. Many perished larvae
and pupae were present.

No. 2 {b). *^ Boiled'' Cocoons oj Tsamia Silk. — This
material was soft and lustrous, but rather uneven in
colour, varying from reddish-brown to nearly white. It
was of fair strength, but some portions were rather weak
and brittle. A number of dried-up larvae and pupae were
noticed in this sample.

The diameter of the single strands of this boiled silk
was 0*0003 to 0*0008 in., with an average of o'ooo57 ^^'

The silk appeared to have been fairly regularly de-
gummed, although microscopical examination revealed a
number of double strands, and also single strands upon
which fibrillae were noticed. The presence of the fibrillae
suggests that portions of the material had been subjected
for too long a period to the degumming process.

Three other samples were also received from the
Northern Provinces in 1909. They were as follows :

No. I. Tsamian Doka. — This consisted of large flattened
masses of cocoons, probably those of Anaphe Moloneyi.
The cocoons were dirty-white to pale-brown in colour, and
yielded a silk of somewhat inferior quality. The sample
closely resembled the material forwarded to the Imperial
Institute from the Northern Provinces in 1907 (see p. 171).

No. 2. Tsamian Tsamia. — This sample consisted of a
number of cocoons which varied in colour from greyish-
yellow to reddish-brown, and were from i to ij in. long
with a diameter of about J in. The cocoons were rounded
at one end, whilst the other end, where the moth emerges,
was somewhat pointed and of a very loose texture. In
many cases the cocoons were slightly adhering together
in groups, in a manner which suggested that they had

AFRICAN WILD SILK 173

formed part of a cocoon-colony. The cocoons generally
contained dead larvae or pupae.

No. 3. Tsaniian Tsamia^ ^' boiled." — This material was
soft, lustrous, light brownish-grey to white, and mostly
free from stains. The strength of the fibres was generally
normal, although some portions of the sample were weak
and brittle. A number of dried larvae and pupae were
noticed in the material.

The single strands of boiled silk had a diameter of
0*0003 to 0-0008 in., with an average of 0-00056 in. This
corresponds with the measurements of the " Tsamia " silk
from Bauchi Province already referred to (p. 171). The silk
appeared to have been fairly evenly degummed, although
microscopical examination revealed a number of double
strands from which the gum had not been completely
removed.

The " Tsamian Tsamia " silk of samples Nos. 2 and 3
appeared to be lustrous, of even colour, generally of very
good quality, and greatly superior to the material repre-
sented by sample No. i.

A sample of wild silk which was stated to have been
collected at Koko, in the Sokoto Province, was received for
examination in 19 14. It consisted of an irregularly shaped,
flattened mass of cocoons, about 10 in. long by 7 in. wide,
and weighing about if oz. The mass consisted of a large
number of closely packed cocoons, varying in colour from
dull reddish-brown to light brown, and each having a
loosely spun tube or " stocking " of silk at the open end.
One side of the mass was covered with a silvery-white,
papery layer of closely interlaced silk, whilst the other side
bore the remains of a similar papery layer which was dull
reddish-brown in colour.

The cocoon mass resembled in appearance and con-
struction the samples o{ Anaphe Moloneyt silk from Nigeria
previously examined. The moths seemed to have emerged
from the cocoons, as no larvae were noticed in the sample.

The material was free from leaves, stems, etc., and was
comparatively clean. The silk was of fairly good strength.

A specimen of wild silk cocoons, found on a thorn bush
at Zungeru, Northern Provinces, Nigeria, was received for

174 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

examination at the Imperial Institute in 1908. Specimens
of the leaves of the bush were also supplied.

The cocoons were rather small, from i to ij in. in
length, and each was furnished with a brittle and some-
what papery covering of light-brown silk. The cocoon
itself, obtained on removing the covering, was of slightly
darker colour, and of firmer texture. The cocoons were
pierced at one end, and were there provided with a strong
silken stem, by means of which they had been attached to
the stems of the food-plant.

The silk before degumming varied in diameter from
G'ooio to 0*0017 ii^M with an average of o'ooi48 in. On
boiling in dilute alkali, the single fibres were obtained,
which had a diameter of 0*0005 to o'oooS in., with an
average of 000062 in. The following figures showing the
diameter of Bombyx silk are given for comparison : Before
degumming, 0*0009 to 0*0015 in., average 0*0012 in.; de-
gummed, 0*0004 to 0*0007 in., average 0*0005 in.

Considerable difficulty was experienced in freeing the silk
from the gum, and the resulting product was of poor lustre.

Microscopical examination showed the fibre to be
ribbon-like. The strength of the fibre, both before and
after degumming, was very poor.

It was not possible to identify the insect producing the
cocoons, since there were no specimens of the moth avail-
able. The cocoons were, however, quite distinct from
those produced by species of Anaphe.

The botanical specimens of the plant, upon which the
cocoons were found, were identified at Kew as Zizyphus
mucronata^ Willd. Other species of Zizyphus are recorded
as supplying the food of the tussar silkworm of India.

The results of the above examination indicate that these

cocoons from Zungeru would be of no use for spinning,

chiefly owing to the very poor strength of the fibre, and

also to the difficulty in removing the " sericin," or silk

gum. The cocoons would, therefore, be of no commercial

value.

Gold Coast

Nests of Anaphe venata are very commonly met with in
Northern Ashanti on a great variety of plants. These

AFRICAN WILD SILK i75

worms do not usually congregate in such large numbers
as those of A. infmcta and A. Moloneyi, and, as a rule, the
nests do not contain more than about 20 cocoons.

Uganda

Several species of the Anaphe silkworm occur in
Uganda, of which the principal is A, infracta. In 1909
a specimen silkworm was received at the Imperial Institute
from Uganda, and was identified at the British Museum
(Natural History) as an abnormal type of A. amhrizia.
Other kinds which have been observed are Hypsoides
milleti and Mimopacha gerstaeckeri^ but neither of these is
abundant. The Anaphe worm feeds on the leaves of
Bridelia inicrantha^ Cynometra Alexandria and Triumfetta
macrophylla.

Natal

A sample of wild silk from Natal was received at the
Imperial Institute in 1916. It consisted of a "nest" or
aggregation of cocoons. One side of the "nest" was
open, revealing the cocoons tightly packed together, whilst
the other side was covered with several layers of reddish-
brown silky material of paper-like texture.

The cocoons were reddish-brown, and averaged about
0*4 in. in breadth and i in. in length. Both the cocoons
and the outer layers of silky material were brittle and of
poor strength.

It is probable that the silk had been produced by a
member of the genus Anaphe^ two species of which,
A. panda and A. reticulata^ have been recorded from Natal.
No live larvae or pupae were present in the cocoons, so
that it was not possible to identify the insect.

It is not likely that silk of the quality represented by
this sample would be of any commercial value as a textile
material, since it is extremely weak and brittle.

Mozambique

A sample of wild silk, which was stated to have been
collected in the forests of Madanda and Mafuci, was for-
warded to the Imperial Institute by the Director of
Agriculture at Beira in 191 1. The nests are fairly abun-

176 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL mSTlTUTE

dant in the forests on the Rhodesian frontier, and are
found frequently on Bridelia micrantha^ but also occur on
various other trees. The insects are known to the natives
as " Zunguni."

The sample examined at the Imperial Institute consisted
of nests or aggregations of cocoons, varying in weight
from J to 2j oz., and containing twigs, around which they
had apparently been built.

The outermost layer of the nests was thin and of an
almost papery texture ; within this were several layers of
loosely-textured silk of golden-brown colour, then a parch-
ment-like layer, much tougher and harder than the first ;
and inside this the individual cocoons were closely packed.
The cocoons consisted of loosely-textured silk varying in
colour from golden-yellow to brown. In some of the nests
most of the cocoons had apparently contained live pupae,
but in others the pupae appeared to have been killed by
ichneumon flies and other insect pests.

A number of moths emerged from the cocoons, and
some of these were submitted to the British Museum
(Natural History), where they were identified as Anaphe
sp., closely allied to A. amhrizia.

Six of the nests were cut up, and the silk sorted into
three grades : (i) The outer layers, consisting of the
paper-like covering and the loosely-textured silk beneath
it; (2) the parchment-like layer; and (3) the cocoons.
Fair samples of each grade were taken for examination
and submitted to the " boiling-off " process, with {a) 3 per
cent, sodium carbonate solution and {b) 3 per cent, soap
solution. The results obtained were as follows :

n, . , Degumming agents Time of Loss

iviaienai. employed. treatment. Percent.

Cocoons

Parchment-like
layer

Degumming agents
employed.

Time of

treatment.

{

Sodium carbonate

45 mins.

Soap solution

{

Sodium carbonate

if hours

Soap solution

2 hours

{

Sodium carbonate

45 mins.

Soap solution

•1

} 294

I 18-5

p. , ( Sodium carbonate 45 mins. \

\ Soap solution „ /

After degumming, the silk was soft and lustrous, varying
in colour from light to dark brown. In the case of the
outer layers it was rather matted and difficult to comb.

AFRICAN WILD SILK 177

The losses on "boiling off" this silk are rather high
compared with those obtained with the sample of Anaphe
nests from the Southern Provinces, Nigeria. In other
respects these nests of cocoons from Mozambique and the
silk obtained from them resembled the samples of Anaphe
nests and silk received at the Imperial Institute from
Uganda and Nigeria already referred to.

Uses and Value of Anaphe Silk

The African wild silk cannot be reeled, as is done in the
case of mulberry silk, and it is therefore carded and spun
as " waste " silk. The product has been found suitable for
the manufacture of velvet, plush, sewing silks, and other
materials.

Nests of cocoons from Uganda were submitted by the
Imperial Institute to a large firm of silk manufacturers, who
made careful spinning trials in which the product was
taken through the whole of their usual processes. Both
the nest itself and the cocoons are composed of silk of the
same kind, but the paper-like layer of the nest contains a
very large proportion of " gum," and therefore exceptional
degumming treatment is required. In preparing the silk
for the spinning trials, the manufacturers worked up the
whole mass, including both the nest and the cocoons.

Specimens of the combed silk and samples of threads,
both of natural colour and dyed, were furnished to the
Imperial Institute, and were of very satisfactory quality.
The opinion was expressed that this wild silk resembles
Bombyx silk more closely than does any other kind.
Unfortunately, however, so large an amount of manual
labour is required to free the silk from extraneous matter,
and the actual yield of clean silk is so small, as to have
forced the spinners to the conclusion that the nests would
not be worth more than id, or 2d. per lb. in this country.
They stated, however, that if the natives could clean the
material carefully, removing all twigs, leaves and chrysa-
lides, the clean product might be worth as much as 6d.
per lb., but that it was unlikely that this price would be
sufficient to repay the cost of the native labour involved.
8

178 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

The same firm considered that the silk, after having
been degummed, would be worth about is. per lb.

Manufacturing trials have been conducted by a firm of
silk-plush manufacturers, with samples of 2/60S (English
count) silk yarn spun from a consignment of wild silk
cocoons from Uganda. The firm stated that they could
place a very large contract for such yarn at a price some-
what below that of Continental schappe yarn, say from
6s. 6d. to 6s. gd. per lb. (October 1909).

Domestication of Anaphe Silkworm

If the silk nests had to be collected one by one over a
very large area, the cost of collection would be so great as
to render it very unlikely that a reasonable profit could be
assured. It view of this fact, it was suggested by the
Imperial Institute in 1909 that the Government Entomolo-
gist in Uganda should be asked to investigate the question
in order to ascertain (i) whether the domestication and
rearing of the silkworms is practicable, (2) if so, whether
large supplies of the nests could thus be obtained, and
(3) the price which would be remunerative to the native.

A study oi Anaphe infracta has since been made by Mr.
C. C. Gowdey, the Government Entomologist in Uganda,
and a description of the insect and its life-history and
habits has been published in the Bulletin oj Entomological
Research (191 2, 3, 269). Bridelia micrantha^ the chief food-
plant of the worm in Uganda, can be grown from seeds or
cuttings, but the latter method is preferable. The trees
should not be planted more than 6 ft. apart, as the silk-
worms need to be w^ell shaded. When they are about a
year old they are ready to afi'ord the larvae the necessary
nutrition, and nests may be placed on the trees, or egg-
masses placed on the leaves. It is essential that the larvae
should not be disturbed during the course of their life.

After the moths have emerged, the outer envelope of
the nests should be cut and the nests then allowed to soak
in water for about half an hour. If the nests are handled
in the dry state they are liable to cause an intense irritation
of the skin, owing to the urticating hairs left by the larvae.

AFRICAN WILD SILK 179

The outer envelope should now be removed, the nests
again soaked, and the second envelope then removed and
separated into its different layers. The nests should again
be soaked both before and after removal of the inner
parchment-like envelope. All extraneous matter, including
the cast skins of the larvae and pupae, should now be care-
fully picked out, and the silk of the envelopes and that of
the cocoons should be packed separately.

The Anaphe silkworm does not appear to be attacked
by any of the diseases to which the mulberry silkworm is
liable, but it is attacked by various parasitic insects in
almost every stage of its development. One of the most
common of these is an ichneumon fly, which passes its
larval period inside the silkworm, destroying the host and
utilising the chrysalis as a protection for its own pupal
stage. If the rearing of the silkworm is undertaken as a
native industry, precautions will have to be taken against
these parasites. In this connection Mr. Gowdey points out
that if the nests are collected from the trees and placed in
houses any parasites can easily be destroyed on emergence,
and that if the eggs of the silkworm, instead of the nests,
are used for stocking new plantations the spread of these
parasites will be lessened.

Summary and Conclusions

The only silkworms of commercial importance found in
a wild state in Africa belong to the genus Anaphe (fam.
Eupterotidae). The chief species occurring in British
territory are A. injracta^ Nigeria and Uganda ; A. venata^
Nigeria and Gold Coast ; A. Moloneyi^ Nigeria ; A. ambrizia^
Uganda; A. panda and A. reticulata^ Natal. The cocoons
of all these species are spun in masses, which are enclosed
in a silken nest. The latter varies in size and shape
according to the species; it may be hollow and more or less
spherical, as in the case of A. infracta and A, venata^ or
flat, as in the case of A. Moloneyi. The envelope of the
spherical nests usually consists of three layers : the outer-
most more or less papery in texture, the middle portion
composed of loosely spun silk arranged as a number of
superimposed sheets, and the inner layer hard and parch-

i8o BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

ment-like ; that of the flat nests consists of a single papery
layer of closely interlaced silk. The silk of both nests and
cocoons is naturally brown in colour, but in the absence of
light the worms produce a white silk, and for this reason
the natives in parts of Nigeria sometimes enclose them in
calabashes.

Anaphe silk cannot be reeled, as is done in the case of
mulberry silk, and it is therefore carded and spun as
** waste " silk ; but apart from this, it more closely resembles
mulberry silk than does any other kind. It takes dyes well
and has been found suitable for the manufacture of velvet,
plush, sewing silks, and other materials. The degummed
silk has been valued at about is. per lb., but owing to the
large amount of labour required to free the silk from
extraneous matter, and the low yield of degummed silk,
the crude material, if shipped to the United Kingdom,
would only realise about id. or 2d. per lb. If, however,
the silk were cleaned locally by the natives, the clean
product might be worth 6d. per lb. in this country.

The main difficulties in the way of establishing an
Anaphe silk industry are (i) the fact that the nests have to
be collected one by one over a large area, (2) the cost of
cleaning the crude silk, and (3) the bulkiness of the material
for export. These difficulties can be overcome to some
extent as follows: (i) by domesticating the silkworm so
that the cost of collection is reduced (and it has been shown
experimentally in Uganda that the worms can be success-
fully domesticated) ; (2) by removing all chrysalides, twigs,
etc., from the silk on the spot by native labour ; and (3) by
compressing the resulting clean product in bales for export.
So long as the existing methods of collection prevail, it
seems extremely doubtful whether the industry can be a
success ; but if the methods suggested above for reducing
the cost of production were carried into effect upon a
sufficiently large scale, and the clean product shipped to
Europe, there seems to be no reason why a new industry,
contributing to the welfare of several of our African
possessions, should not be established.

WHALES' BONES FROM THE FALKLAND ISLANDS i8i

WHALES' BONES FROM THE FALKLAND
ISLANDS

The whaling industry of the Falkland Islands and its
Dependencies (South Shetlands, Graham's Land, South
Orkneys, and South Georgia) is now the most important in
the world. In the 1913-14 season 9,429 whales were
caught, the total value of the products being ;£"i,30i,548.
The bones, which accumulate in enormous quantities, were
formerly thrown away, but are now boiled down with
the flesh to extract the oil and the residue is converted into
manure. In the 191 3-14 season 1,327 bags of bone meal
valued at £S7o were produced in South Georgia, while the
entire Colony and Dependencies in the same year pro-
duced 94,835 bags of whale guano valued at ;^47,887.

In August, 1914, a specimen of whale's rib was sent to
the Imperial Institute by the Government of the Falkland
Islands in order to ascertain whether there was any
likelihood of such bones finding a market in the United
Kingdom. The quantity available was too small to allow a
definite opinion to be expressed as to the value of the
material for button making, and a larger supply was
asked for in order that small-scale technical trials might be
carried out.

The following specimens of whales' bones, collected in
the South Shetlands during the 1914-15 whaling season,
were forwarded to the Imperial Institute in September
1915:

(i) Four rib bones, measuring about 6 ft. in length,
with a diameter of about 2J in., and having an average
weight of about 22 lb. each.

(2) Part of a lower jaw bone, weighing 66^ lb., and
measuring about 4 ft. in length, with a diameter of about
9 in. in one direction and 6| in. in the other.

(3) Two trough-shaped bones, probably from upper
jaws, weighing respectively 31 lb. and 8 lb., and measuring
7 ft. and 3j ft. in length by about 6 in. in width.

(4) Two bones, weighing 25 lb. and 17 lb. respectively,
one being a flat bone measuring approximately 2 ft. 8 in.
long by 12 in. wide, and the other also being 2 ft. 8 in.

i82 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

in length with a diameter of 8 in. at the ends and 5 in.
in the middle.

An average sample of the bones reduced to a meal was
analysed at the Imperial Institute with the following
results, which are shown in comparison with those
recorded for commercial raw bone meal :

Present ^'iitlT.lf'

samnle (English,

sample. untreated.)

Per cent. Per cent.

Moisture 7-3 3-80

Organic matter^ 40*4 34'94

Phosphoric acid," PjOj .... 20-24 2r66

Lime, CaO 24*06 2853

Magnesia, etc 739 4-62

Siliceous matter 0'6i 145

^ Containing nitrogen . . . . 387 4-19

' Equivalent to lime phosphate . . 4420 47*33

Oil 11*5 about 10

The meal from whales' bones is therefore very similar
in composition to English raw bone meal, used as a source
of oil and bone manure.

Representative samples cut from the bones were
submitted to a firm of bone-crushers and button manu-
facturers, who reported that on cutting up several of the
most promising pieces of bone to test for button-making
they found them much too coarse-grained to compete with
the cattle bones which they use for this purpose.

The firm stated, however, that the bones would make a
good manure when the oil was removed from them, and
desired to ascertain the price at which they could be
delivered at Hull. They stated that the value of the
ground whales' bones would be about equal to that of
English bone meal of the average commercial quality,
which is now selling at about £^ ids. per ton (May 1916).

The firm considered that, with the high freights now
ruling, it is unlikely that these bones could be exported
remuneratively from the Falkland Islands, and they also
pointed out that the working up of such large bones
would be more costly than that of ordinary kinds such
as cattle and sheep bones. They expressed a desire,
however, to be put into communication with exporters,
and the Imperial Institute has therefore applied to the

WHALES' BONES FROM THE FALKLAND ISLANDS 183

Colony for the names and addresses of possible exporters
of these bones and has asked for particulars of the
quantities available and the price at which the bones could
be delivered at Hull.

It seems probable, however, that it would be more
profitable to extend the existing oil and manure manu-
facturing industry than to export the whole bones.

SPECIAL ARTICLE

THE WORK OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE
FOR INDIA

By Wyndham R. Dunstan, C.M.G., M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.,

Director of the Imperial Institute

This paper was read at a meeting of the Indian Section of the Royal Society
of Arts on Jutie i, 1916, the Rt. Hon. Lord Islington^ G.C.M.G.^
D.S.O., Under-Secretary of State for India^ in the chair.

In response to the invitation of the Indian Section of the
Royal Society of Arts, I shall endeavour in this paper to
give some account of the work of the Imperial Institute
for India during the last twenty years, but more especially
during the thirteen years in which the Institute has been a
Government institution.

The initial operations of establishing and equipping the
Imperial Institute for the great work which was originally
planned for it occupied the first governing body several
years after its formal opening by Queen Victoria in 1893,
during which time the Institute was seriously handicapped
for want of funds for its current expenditure, and the
unsuccessful attempt to provide these funds by popular-
ising the Institute is too well known to need more than
a passing comment. This plan of providing income failed
in its object before the real foundations of the work of the
Institute had been laid. The Princes and people of India
had responded generously to the appeal of H.R.H. the
Prince of Wales, afterwards King Edward VII., for sub-
scriptions to the general building fund, and from these
subscriptions in part a small and wholly inadequate

i84 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

endowment fund was formed. The Government of India
made no contribution to the General Fund, but soon after
the opening of the building by Queen Victoria, in 1893,
an Indian Section was formed to be devoted to the exhibi-
tion of Indian raw materials and industries, which was
subsequently placed in charge of a separate Indian Com-
mittee, and with an annual contribution from the Govern-
ment of India by means of which a special Indian Curator
was appointed as the executive officer of this committee.
On the establishment of the Scientific and Technical
Research Department in 1896, the Government of India
made a small contribution to the support of this depart-
ment of ;£^ioo a year, which some years later was increased
to its present amount of ;^2oo a year, and with this ex-
tremely modest endowment for Indian research a vast
amount of useful work has been done. In 1906 the Indian
Section Committee was discontinued and the management
of the Indian Section was merged in the general adminis-
tration of the Institute, and at the same time the contribu-
tion of the Government of India to the support of the
Indian Section was reduced.

The responsibility of the Imperial Government for the
management of the Imperial Institute dates from 1903, when
the present writer became Director, and the Institute
passed to the control of the Board of Trade under the Act
of that year.

The present is an opportune time to consider in brief
review the work which has been accomplished for India in
that period of thirteen years, since a new Act has just been
passed by which the control of the Imperial Institute has
been transferred to the Colonial Office, and the actual
management of the Institute vested in a large and repre-
sentative Executive Council, on which India will occupy an
important place.

The Indian Collections of the Imperial Institute

The Indian Collections of the Imperial Institute, which
have been completely reorganised in recent years, consti-
tute the Indian Section of the Public Exhibition Galleries.
They include a representation of the important raw

Pl.ATK II

Fig. I. — The Imperial Institute.

Fig. 2. — Drug Exhibit in the Indian Section, Public Exhibition Galleries.

184I

THE WORK OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE FOR INDIA 1^5

materials of India, illustrations of its chief industries and
their results, tabular information and diagrams respecting
Indian trade and commerce, maps, pictures, and photo-
graphs of its cities and industries. All important exhibits
are provided with descriptive labels which enable the
visitor at once to gain general knowledge of the sources
and uses of the materials shown.

The contributions made by the Government of India
to these collections in recent years have not been numerous,
partly because there is no longer an officer in India to
whom can be delegated the duty of collecting the material
required, so that additional exhibits have to be obtained
separately from the various Provinces and Departments
of India. Fortunately, however, private contributions
have done much towards making the Indian Section repre-
sentative of the resources and industries of modern India.
To the interest and generosity of Their Majesties the King
and Queen are due some hundreds of illustrations of Indian
industries in all materials, as well as photographs and pic-
tures of India, including many interesting souvenirs of
Indian loyalty.

The principal Indian fibres are shown, together with
native manufactured materials, accompanied by labels
descriptive of the origin, composition, and uses, actual
and potential, of these fibres. The great Indian tea in-
dustry is illustrated by specimens of tea of various grades,
maps showing the tea areas of Southern India, photographs
of tea gardens and factories, statistics of production and
destination, and printed statements explanatory of the pro-
duction and preparation of tea in India. The industries
of silk, opium, lac, and metal-working are similarly illus-
trated and explained, whilst all the raw materials of India
which find their way into European commerce are also
shown and explained. The principal minerals of India are
likewise shown and their composition and uses described.

The value of the Indian Collections cannot be over-
estimated, and it is hoped that in future they may be further
augmented. In furnishing material for research they have
proved of great service, not merely to the scientific inves-
tigator, but to the commercial man in search of materials

186 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

for industrial purposes. Their special value in this connec-
tion is enhanced by the fact that the commercial enquirer
can also find at the Imperial Institute full information
respecting the sources, composition, and uses of raw
materials, and that he can, through the Institute, obtain
particulars as to supplies and also trial consignments for
manufacturing purposes.

The fear has often been expressed that the position of
the Imperial Institute at South Kensington would be a
serious drawback to its utility for business purposes.
Whatever drawbacks there may have been in early days
when means of communication were not as numerous or
as convenient as they now are, the record of the operations
of the Institute in the past decade is sufficient proof that
its geographical position has not seriously interfered with
the prosecution of a very large body of important work
in which manufacturers and merchants have been intimately
concerned, and at the present time the number of enquiries
received are such as to severely strain the capacity of
the staff allotted to this work. So far as India is con-
cerned, the chief purpose in view is to interest the British
manufacturer in her raw materials, and in those cases in
which a visit to London from manufacturing centres in
the provinces is needed, the actual locale of the Institute is
of small importance if the information required is obtained.
Each year there are nearly a quarter of a million visitors
to the Public Galleries, few of whom are mere sightseers.

In reorganising the Indian Section, one object which
has been kept steadily in view is to render the Indian
Collections intelligible and attractive to the general public,
whose interest in the countries of the Empire has so
greatly increased in recent years, and to enable schools
to use this unique representation of modern India in con-
nection with the teaching of the commercial geography of
the Empire. In order to provide more effectively for this
important use of the Indian Collections, it has been part
of the duty of the superintendent of the section to conduct
a large number of parties from schools through the Indian
Section and explain the principal exhibits. The demand
for this assistance, both on the part of the general public

< S

THE WORK OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE FOR INDIA 187

as well as schools, has now become so great as to require
the services of a special demonstrator. For want of funds
no permanent arrangement is possible at present, but a
beginning has been made with a series of short illustrated
lectures on the countries of the Empire, followed by
demonstrations in the corresponding sections of the Public
Exhibition Galleries, and the number of requests for ad-
mission shows that in this way the Indian and Colonial
Collections of the Imperial Institute can play an important
part in a much neglected branch of education. This
scheme has more recently been supplemented by a series
of short illustrated lectures on ** Our Tropical Industries "
(tea, coffee, rubber, sugar, etc.), illustrated by the collections
in the Public Galleries.

Scientific and Technical Research Department

Some of the earliest work of the Scientific and Tech-
nical Research Department was on Indian problems, to
which I shall refer in detail hereafter. This department,
which has been very greatly extended since its inception,
includes research laboratories and technical work-rooms,
with a staff of trained workers in the several aspects of
the utilisation of raw materials for industrial purposes. Of
the important work accomplished by this department for
India I shall speak presently. At this point it is only
necessary to say that, whilst many special investigations
of a scientific character have been carried out — e.g, on
Indian drugs and oils — the chief Indian researches have
been technical and commercial, and of a character which
renders it desirable that they should be carried out in
whole or in part in this country rather than in India.

Technical Information Bureau

Ever since the department was started, a most important
part of its work has been, in addition to conducting re-
searches, to collect and critically collate all published
information respecting the production and industrial uses
of raw materials, and it has gradually come to be recognised

i88 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

as a central clearing-house for information of this character.
Merchants and manufacturers in this country, as well as
producers in India and the Colonies, have applied in
increasing numbers for information on these subjects. In
order to be in a position to deal more effectively v^ith such
enquiries, a special branch of the department was formed
in 1914, whose business it is, in collaboration with the staff
of the Scientific and Technical Research Department, to
collect and distribute technical information. Since the war
this branch, known as the Technical Information Bureau,
has been very full of work, and has not only dealt with a
large number of enquiries as to Indian materials and their
possibilities, but has taken the initiative with British
manufacturers and merchants in bringing to their notice
important Indian materials which await a new market.

The three principal agencies for promoting the Indian
work of the Imperial Institute, the Indian Collections, the
Scientific and Technical Research Department, and the
Technical Information Bureau, have now been generally
described, and it is only necessary to refer to the library
and map rooms, which are important auxiliaries to this
work, and to the Bulletin, which has played a conspicuous
part in making known throughout the Empire the results
of researches conducted at the Institute, and the records of
progress in the various aspects of the production and
utilisation of commercial and economic materials. For
some years the Bulletin, in an enlarged and extended
form, has been published for the Institute by Mr. John
Murray, and shows an increasing circulation throughout
the world. A glance at the contents of the thirteen pub-
lished volumes will show how much attention has been
given to Indian subjects of importance.

I now propose to describe in some detail the results of
the more important work which has been accomplished for
India at the Imperial Institute, and especially that carried
on by the Scientific and Technical Research Department,
and its branch the Technical Information Bureau.

[At this point a number of views of the various depart-
ments of the Institute were thrown on the screen, some of
which are reproduced here (Plates II.-IV.)].

THE WORK OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE FOR INDIA 189

The Work of the Scientific and Technical Research

Department

The Scientific and Technical Research Department of
the Imperial Institute has had as its chief purpose the
investigation of economic products and raw materials of
the Empire, with a view to their utilisation in industries
and commerce. India had at the time of the initiation of
this department an officer called the Reporter on Economic
Products, whose principal duty was to make a survey
of the economic products of India and to take steps to
secure their investigation, and the introduction to commerce
of those not fully or at all utilised.

The work of this officer, Sir George Watt, was naturally
closely connected with that of the Scientific and Technical
Research Department of the Imperial Institute, and for
some years he provided a large number of subjects for
investigation. Results of great importance were obtained,
and, in fact, for some years Indian materials were those
which chiefly occupied the attention of the department.

Soon afterwards other countries, and especially the
tropical Colonies, began to take advantage of the facilities
thus provided by the Imperial Institute for the investigation
and commercial utilisation of raw materials, and the in-
creasing use made of the department by the manufacturer
and merchant at home gradually led to its present ex-
tended operations, which have now developed in many
directions. The Scientific and Technical Research Depart-
ment and its recent offshoot, the Technical Information
Bureau, are now utilised, not only by the Colonies and
India in finding outlets for raw materials, in gaining
information as to how these are best prepared and marketed,
but are extensively used by manufacturers and merchants
in this country for obtaining trustworthy information as to
suppHes of raw materials or of materials from new sources,
and also in gaining information as to their uses and in
overcoming technical difficulties in regard to their industrial
emplo3'ment.

I propose now to consider the work which has been
accomplished for India, the difficulties which have been

iQo BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

encountered, and the lines on which further progress can
be made, not only with reference to the extended utihsation
of Indian products in British industries, but also to the
promotion of industrial enterprise in India itself through
the increased industrial utilisation in India of some of the
vast resources of that country.

At the basis of the operations of the Scientific and
Technical Research Department is the principle that the
uses to which raw materials may be put or adapted can
best be determined in the first instance by scientific and
technical investigation of their composition and properties,
by which their industrial use is determined.

The question whether a new material is of value, for
example, for tanning leather must depend first on the
nature and amount of its constituents, which can be
ascertained by chemical analysis. This is the scientific
aspect of the question, which must be dealt with in the
laboratory ; but scientific results are at the beginning and
not at the end of the enquiry. If the necessary constituents
needed for tanning leather are proved to be present, the
actual suitability of the material for tanning leather and its
capacity for tanning certain classes of leather have next to
be ascertained. This is the technical aspect of the matter
which must sooner or later mean consultation with the
practical tanner. If the material is proved to be suitable
for tanning certain kinds of leather, the commercial question
is the next to be determined, the price which will be paid
for it, and at this stage the views have to be ascertained of
several manufacturers of the particular classes of leather
for the production of which the material has proved to be
suitable. Assuming that the price provisionally fixed is
one which is satisfactory to the manufacturer, the next
question is whether this price will be profitable to the
exporters in India. Enquiries have therefore to be made
as to the sources of supply in India, the amount which
could be annually exported from India, the export price,
and the arrangements for export. At this stage reference
to India, therefore, becomes necessary, and ultimate success
will depend on the means which exist there for assisting
the enterprise. Lastly, assuming that everything is satis-

THE WORK OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE FOR INDIA 191

factorily arranged in India, the next step is for a large trial
consignment to be exported to test the market at home
and to open the new channel of business. This, which
may be regarded as the final stage, requires preliminary
arrangements on this side with brokers and merchants as
well as with manufacturers.

The system is a comprehensive one designed to do all
that is needed to initiate the commercial utilisation of a
new material, the entire work being controlled by one
organisation specially adapted for the purpose. Stress may
be laid on the supreme importance, if success is to be
attained, of one organisation being responsible for the
whole of the operations described, for this secures unity
and directness of purpose, avoids waste of effort, overlapping
of work, and misunderstandings.

Much is heard of the apathy of the British manufacturer,
of his want of initiative and enterprise, and his indisposition
to recognise the importance of science in relation to his
business. The experience of work at the Imperial Institute
is that success in initiating new industrial development
depends very largely on the manner in which the case is
prepared and presented to the manufacturer, and the extent
to which the requirements of an industry and the manner
in which it is conducted have been ascertained and studied,
and especially on the completeness and clearness with
which the case is put in relation to the technical develop-
ments required.

It is not enough to have obtained in the laboratory a
definite result of scientific interest. It is necessary, in
addition, to demonstrate the practical applications with
precision, and to indicate the probable commercial results
for the industry affected. The power of interesting the
manufacturer depends, therefore, not only on knowledge
of the scientific result, but in large measure on the ability
to discuss this result in connection with the details of the
manufacture concerned. For this reason the work of the
Imperial Institute has not been restricted to scientific
investigations of raw materials, but has included a study
of the uses to which they are put throughout the world.

Before proceeding to describe more in detail the

192 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

machinery of this organisation, it should be mentioned
that the possibility that the raw material in question may
be industrially employed in India has always been kept in
view, but as this question is a separate and complicated
one its special consideration is best dealt with later.

I may now proceed to describe the details of the organi-
sation at the Imperial Institute for dealing with the separate
stages of the problems which have been referred to.

The Imperial Institute is provided with research labora-
tories, technical testing plant and machinery for conducting
the whole of the work in the scientific or first stage, and
for all the preliminary work in the technical or second
stage. The staff of the department includes trained workers
to whom are allotted separate sections of the materials to
be dealt with, which include fibres, oil seeds, tanning
materials, rubber, feeding stuffs, minerals, etc., etc. On the
technical and commercial side there are men qualified to
deal with these aspects of the problems to be solved.

In addition to the analysis and investigation, the required
arrangements exist for small-scale technical trials to deter-
mine provisionally the suitability of a material for a specific
purpose before the matter is referred to the manufacturer.
Between thirty and forty scientific and technical investi-
gators are thus employed in groups allocated to the chief
raw materials. The work is controlled by superintendents
whose business it is to supervise these investigations and
communicate with the manufacturers concerned and keep
themselves in touch with industrial requirements. In all
important industries it has been found that representative
firms are ready to consider the employment of any new
material as to which precise and accurate information can
be supplied as the result of the various researches con-
ducted at the Imperial Institute. To revert for illustration
to the case of a tanning material, the composition and pro-
perties of which have been investigated in the laboratories,
small-scale trials of the material as a tanning agent will
also have been made at the Imperial Institute, and various
samples of the leather produced will be available. These
results are sufficient to induce the manufacturer to give
immediate attention to the subject, and to decide whether

Plate IV.
Impf.riat, Institute : Scientific and Technical Research Department.

ir'u,. I. — (jnc ni uie La'Dorai.ines lor me hxanunauon of Fibres, Foodstuffs,
Essential Oils, etc.

Fiti- 2. — One of liie Laboratories for the Examination of Minerals.

192]

THE WORK OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE FOR INDIA 193

the material is worth development, in which case he is
usually ready to make further large-scale trials with it in
the factory.

The Institute has established relations with manufac-
turers and users of all classes of raw materials, who are
ready to assist the Institute to discover new industrial
openings for the raw materials of the Empire.

A department charged with the complicated and many-
sided problems which have been referred to requires to
have within its organisation not only a staff of thoroughly
competent laboratory investigators, but in addition efficient
arrangements for collecting information respecting the ex-
isting sources of supply of the raw materials of commerce
and the advances which are being made in their utilisation
in all countries. For some years this information has
been systematically collected at the Imperial Institute under
expert supervision and arranged for use. There has been
a steadily increasing flow of enquiries from British manu-
facturers, merchants, and brokers for information of this
character.

In addition to requests received from this country,
similar requests are received from the Colonies and
India.

The operations of the Scientific and Technical Research
Department have now been outlined and illustrated. It
should be added that samples of the products which have
been investigated in the department are added, with full
descriptive labels, to the collection of Indian products
shown in the Indian Section of the Public Galleries. This
collection has served on several occasions to initiate im-
portant investigations, and has also been used as a means
of verifying the nature of materials used by manufacturers,
and has been invaluable as a reference collection of
Indian materials, and as affording to the enquirer
samples of materials which have been investigated and
valued.

The position of a material which has reached the stage
of having been proved by investigation at the Imperial
Institute to be of commercial value may now be considered.

It is necessary to arrange for supplies, and to interest

194 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Indian exporting firms to do all that is needed to develop
enterprise in India. It is in this connection that the
Institute has so far experienced the greatest difficulty.
There is no Government organisation in India whose
special business it is to deal with this side of the question,
and the utilisation of several materials is thus delayed.
The work is outside the scope of a special Department
such as that of Agriculture or Forestry, which is able to
assist chiefly by collecting information ' as to the prin-
cipal sources of supply available for export. At present
neither the Department of Commerce and Industry nor the
Commercial Intelligence Department can undertake this
work in its entirety. The Chambers of Commerce, as well
as the Directors of Industry who have now been appointed
in many places, may, however, be able to render consider-
able help in the future, since there is a general awakening
to the importance of utilising, so far as possible, our own
materials for our own industries.

So far as the advancement of the utilisation by British
manufacturers of the raw materials of India is concerned,
the exceptional value is evident of a central scientific and
technical organisation in London, with special knowledge
of Indian raw materials, and in close and direct communica-
tion with the manufacturers, through whom their utilisation
will be chiefly secured.

In this connection it should be pointed out that there
is still much to be done in interesting British capitahsts
in industrial development in India, and the work of the
Imperial Institute in bringing Indian raw materials to the
direct notice of British manufacturers is of great value in
this direction.

It is natural that every country should desire to do
within its own territory the most it can do to develop its
own resources, and the question of how much can be done
in India is obviously important.

In the development of agriculture India has made great
strides, as Mr. MacKenna has shown in a paper recently
read before this Society. On the scientific side the Central
Research Institute at Pusa has devoted itself to the investi-
gation of the scientific problems of Indian agriculture, and

THE WORK OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE FOR INDIA 195

has rendered great service notably in the subject of plant-
breeding in its relation to the selection of the type of plant
best adapted for the production of the economic product
required, of which the work on wheat furnishes a striking
example. The scientific work conducted at Pusa, involving,
as it does, systematic investigation of agricultural problems,
is a necessary part of the scheme for improving and de-
veloping Indian agriculture. The Institute at Pusa is, in
fact, rendering to Indian agriculture the same kind of
service as that which has been for so many years rendered
to agriculture in this country by the Rothamsted Experi-
ment Station. On another occasion (Presidential Address,
International Congress of Tropical Agriculture, 19 14) I
ventured to point out that in a vast country like India it
would be a mistake to suppose that rapid advances and far-
reaching results will be obtained through the operations of
only one centre for research in India.

The Provincial Departments of Agriculture require to
be as effectively equipped for systematic research as the
various local agricultural colleges and institutes are in this
country. The conclusions reached in one province or
district of India require to be confirmed and in many cases
amplified by experimental trials before they can be accepted
as true for another province where the agricultural con-
ditions may be very different. In this connection the
experimental farms which have been established in many
of the provinces of India are of great importance. These
farms are essential to the practical adoption of the results
of agricultural research, for it must not be forgotten that
practical tests of the suggestions of scientific research and
actual observations and demonstrations by the trained
agriculturist in the field are as essential to the actual
progress of agriculture as the observations and tests of the
clinical observer are to the advancement of medicine. The
real problem for India is how to bring these two directions
of progress into effective co-operation. It is not, however,
my purpose in this paper to discuss the organisation of
agricultural research, except in so far as it is necessary
in considering the manner in which the economic resources
of India are to be developed.

196 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

The Provincial Departments of Agriculture in India are
now in direct communication with the Imperial Institute.
In determining the relative quality of the actual products
of Indian agriculture, in ascertaining their suitability for
particular purposes and suggesting new fields for their use,
the Imperial Institute, as I shall show, has rendered great
service to India ; and no unprejudiced observer can doubt
that work of this kind, which requires knowledge of
European industrial conditions at the moment, of the re-
quirements of the various markets, and which needs,
discussion with manufacturers and merchants at home
can best be conducted through one central organisation
in London which possesses special facilities for the expert
examination of materials and for ascertaining the facts at
first hand, and this is true whether the materials are to
be exported or utilised in newi Indian industries.

In forestry the Forest Department in India has, espe-
cially through the Forest Research Institute at Dehra
Dun, an organisation which can render great service in
developing the utilisation of the forest products of India.
It will, however, be unfortunate if it is assumed that such
a department in India, however ably equipped, can by
itself reach complete commercial or industrial success.
Whether the problem is to find an outlet for the export of
a forest product or to secure its utilisation in India, it will
be essential to consider the results of similar technical
and commercial undertakings in Europe, and it is this
information which the Imperial Institute is organised to
provide.

Research in India is mainly concerned with improve-
ments in the production of existing materials to suit the
purposes of the commercial user, as in the cases of wheat
and cotton, where it is to the interest of India that better
descriptions should be grown, or with securing the pro-
duction of new materials which have been proved to be of
value, of which several illustrations are given in this paper.
Such work must necessarily be conducted in India.

Research at the Imperial Institute, in communication
with Indian Departments, is mainly concerned with ascer-
taining the value of raw m^terj^ls for th^ purpose of

THE WORK OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE FOR INt)IA tQ)

British industry and commerce— that is, in investigating
and introducing new materials and in finding new outlets
for materials already known. This work can only be
efficiently conducted in this country in close co-operation
with manufacturers.

These two lines of work may often be interrelated.
Both are of importance— the one in India leading to the
production of the material required, the other at home for
securing its use.

The operations of the Commerce and Industry Depart-
ment of the Government of India should in future be in
closer touch with the work of the Imperial Institute, and
especially through the Commercial Intelligence Depart-
ment in Calcutta, which has been recently rearranged. In
particular, by means of its publication, the Indian Trade
Journal^ much can be done to make known in India the
openings for Indian raw materials and the possibilities of
industrial enterprise. During the directorship of the late
Mr. F. Noel Paton this department worked with the
Imperial Institute on several subjects in which technical
information and commercial suggestions were required.

In the future the Commerce and Industry Department
might well furnish in India the link which is needed
between those in India who are anxious to see the raw
materials of India more fully utilised, as far as possible in
India itself, and the Imperial Institute, which is equipped
and ready to supply information and undertake the special
investigation and research at home which is needed.

The Directors of Industries and the Chambers of Com-
merce in the Provinces should also become powerful
agencies for the same purpose, and during the present
crisis their co-operation with the Imperial Institute has
proved to be of great value.

Much could also be accomplished in this direction by
the publication in the Indian Trade Journal of the results
of enquiries and researches conducted at the Imperial
Institute which are likely to be important to Indian
commerce.

The investigations of Indian raw materials in the labora-
tories of the Scientific and Technical Research Department

198 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

of the Imperial Institute, and the enquiries now undertaken
by the Technical Information Bureau, cover a very large
field. There are but few important materials mentioned
in Sir George Watt's comprehensive Handbook to the Com-
mercial Products of India which are not referred to as
having been investigated, and their commercial value ascer-
tained by this department of the Imperial Institute. Many
of these materials which proved to be of probable com-
mercial value were not sufficiently abundant at the time
in India to render commercial development feasible. In
some cases, however, these materials have since been pro-
duced in quantity, whilst several have been cultivated and
are now exported. The main purpose of the joint work
of the Reporter on Economic Products and of the Imperial
Institute was a comprehensive survey of every class of the
raw materials of India, so that their possible uses might
be ascertained and put on record. The importance of such
an enquiry, conducted, as it has been, at the Imperial
Institute, with the assistance of British merchants and
manufacturers, is very great ; and perhaps this importance
will be more generally realised at the present time when
it is obvious that every effort must be made to develop and
utilise the natural products of India for the benefit of the
Empire as a whole, and not least for the benefit of India
herself.

There are important and abundant materials which
cannot, at present at all events, be utilised in India.
Many of these have hitherto been exported to Germany
and other foreign countries, and the Indian producer has
recently experienced the disadvantages of an almost ex-
clusive foreign channel of trade.

Some striking illustrations of Indian dependence on the
predominant utilisation by foreign countries of her raw
materials have been given in a monograph on Oil Seeds and
Feeding Cakes (London : John Murray), which was issued
by the Imperial Institute last year. Oil seeds of the value
of several millions annually have hitherto gone from India
to Germany and other foreign countries. Hides and skins
for tanning, also to the value of several millions annually,
have also gone to foreign countries, and chiefly to Ger-

THE WORK OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE FOR INDIA 199

man3^ Medicinal plants for the manufacture of drugs are
in the same case, and there are many others.

The information accumulated at the Imperial Institute
respecting Indian materials, as the result of many years'
work, has enabled the Institute to be of very material
assistance in relieving these difficulties caused by the war.
Through the recently established Technical Information
Bureau, it has taken every step to draw the attention of
the British manufacturer to the uses of ground nuts,
hitherto little known in this country as a source of edible
oil and of a most valuable feeding cake for animals.
Thymol, a valuable drug hitherto produced in Germany,
has been shown to be easily obtainable from the ajowan
seed of India, which had hitherto gone to Germany for
the purpose.

In both these instances, as I shall show later, practical
results have followed. Ground nuts are being taken by
English seed-crushers, and thymol is being made in this
country from Indian ajowan seed.

The future of the Indian hide, skin, and leather industry
is under active consideration, and there seems to be no
reason why selected Indian hides should not be used in
the United Kingdom to a far greater extent than they have
been in recent years, and also converted more largely into
leather in India and exported tanned or partly tanned.

It should be possible to make in India large quantities
of paper pulp, sufficient not only to provide for the manu-
facture of paper used in India— a large proportion of which
comes from abroad—but in addition to supply the United
Kingdom with pulp for paper manufacture. Canada and
Newfoundland are at present the chief sources of paper
pulp within the Empire, but most of the pulp used for
paper manufacture is still imported from foreign countries
—notably Norway, Sweden, and the United States. In
Canada and Newfoundland the cost of labour is an obstacle
which in India would not be so great, and for this reason
the making of paper pulp, like the tanning of leather,
appears to afford good openings for additional Indian
industries, since the raw materials are to be found in
abundance.

260 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

I may now give a brief description of some of the more
important commercial products of India which have been
investigated from the scientific, technical, and commercial
standpoints in recent years at the Imperial Institute, and a
number of which have been introduced into commerce.

Drugs

Opium. — The opium of India very early received atten-
tion. It was shown by detailed investigation of the opium
produced in various districts throughout India that, whilst
some samples are so poor in morphia as to justify the
popular belief that Indian opium is inferior to Turkey and
Persian opium for medicinal use and for the manufacture
of morphia, the opium produced in the majority of the
opium districts of India as a rule is sufficiently rich in
morphia to render it suitable for both these purposes.
Samples of Indian opium examined at the Imperial In-
stitute were found to be as rich, and some even richer,
in morphia than good specimens of Turkey and Persian
opium ; whilst certain of these samples possessed the
advantage of containing more of the valuable alkaloid
codeia than is usually present in other opiums. Trials of
selected specimens in medicine, arranged by the Imperial
Institute at St. Thomas's Hospital, showed that the thera-
peutic results are entirely satisfactory, and trials of Indian
opium for the manufacture of morphia and codeia proved
to be equally satisfactory. The attention of the Govern-
ment of India was in consequence drawn on several
occasions to the possibility of exporting Indian opium for
medicinal use ; but before the outbreak of war, the Govern-
ment of India saw considerable difficulties in the way of
permitting an export trade. Since the war, however,
Turkey opium has become scarce, and there has been an
increased demand for the drug. Under these circumstances
the export of a certain amount of provision and excise
opium has been allowed to this country, where it is being
employed chiefly for the manufacture of morphia and
codeia.

The matter ought not, however, to rest here. Provision
and excise opiums are of comparatively poor quality, being

THE WORK OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE FOR INDIA 201

an average mixture of a number of samples reduced to a
definite consistence, the result being a relatively poor
material. By selecting for export those varieties of opium
which have been shown to be the richest in alkaloids a
much more valuable material would be furnished. Scientific
experiments in breeding a poppy which will, under Indian
conditions, produce opium of good qualit^^ have been already
commenced, and will no doubt eventually furnish important
results. In the meantime, by selecting for growth in the
opium districts those varieties of poppy which have been
shown by the investigations at the Imperial Institute to
yield the best opium, an increasing output from India of
opium of better quality could be arranged without delay.
A detailed report on Indian opium embodying the results
of all the researches conducted at the Imperial Institute
during a number of years has now been published, together
with suggestions and recommendations, in the Bulletin of
THE Imperial Institute (191 5, 13, 507).

There can be no doubt that India might in the future
contribute the whole of the opium required for medicinal
purposes in this country, and, if need be, throughout
Europe and the United States.

Podophyllum Emodt.— One of the best-known purgatives
used in medicine is the root of the American plant, Fodo-
phylliim peltatum. Detailed researches at the Imperial
Institute have shown that Indian podophyllum {P, Emodi)
can be employed for the same purpose. Extensive and
wholly satisfactory medical trials having been made, the
Indian drug has for some years been in demand. The
supply of the wild plant from India until recently has been
small, but it has now been put under cultivation, and it is
hoped that supplies will be increased. The drug is now
included in the British Pharmacopoeia.

Aconites.— The investigation of the composition and
therapeutic value of the various Indian aconites is, from
the scientific point of view, one of the most important
investigations which has been conducted for India at the
Imperial Institute. As a result of researches which have
extended over a number of years, the alkaloids have been
isolated and their chemical characters determined, whilst

:i;

202 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

with the valuable co-operation of Prof. J. T. Cash, F.R.S.,
of the University of Aberdeen, their precise mode of action
and therapeutic value have been ascertained. It has been
made clear that several of these alkaloids are valuable
therapeutic agents. A series of important papers on the
pharmacology of Indian Aconites has been published in
the Philosophical Transactions and Proceedings oj the Royal
Society^ whilst a similar series of papers on their chemistry
has been published in the Transactions of the Chemical
Society.

Henbane. — The recent dearth of the alkaloid atropine
and its congeners, hyoscyamine and hyoscine (scopolamine)
and the high prices commanded by these solanaceous alka-
loids, which are largely used in ophthalmic medicine, is
due to their manufacture having being carried on in Ger-
many. Some years ago a solanaceous plant (Hyoscyamus
muticus\ closely allied to common henbane and growing
wild in Egypt, proved on investigation at the Imperial
Institute to be a most valuable source of these alkaloids,
and since the outbreak of war the Imperial Institute has
arranged for large quantities to be sent from Egypt to this
country, where it is now being employed by manufacturers.
Before the war Germany had taken nearly the whole of the
supply from Egypt.

The same plant grows in India, but investigations at the
Institute have shown that the wild plant from Northern
India apparently may contain less alkaloid than that from
Egypt. In view of the demand for the drug, which is not
likely to be met from Egypt alone, the question as regards
the Indian plant deserves further investigation.

The same is true of the related plant. Datura Metel,
which examination at the Imperial Institute has shown to
contain the valuable alkaloid scopolamine, though with
Indian samples in smaller amount than is usual in the
plant grown in other countries.

On the other hand, Datura Stramonium from India has
furnished quite satisfactory amounts of alkaloid, and if
procurable in quantity would be of value.

The question of the production in India of solanaceous
plants is one which is worth further consideration. For

THE WORK OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE FOR INDIA 203

commercial production the collection of wild plants could
not be depended on, and cultivation would have to be
undertaken. This should not be difficult, as the plants
grow readily especially in Northern India.

Tanning Materials and Leather

A large number of investigations have been made at the
Imperial Institute of the value of Indian tanning materials,
with a view to the export to this country of those which
are rich in tannin, but were not known or used by the
British tanner, and to the utilisation of those, such as the
barks of cassias, acacias, shorea, and mangrove, which are
too poor to repay export in the crude state. Some of the
latter class might be profitably manufactured into extracts
in India, and partly utilised there and partly exported for
tanning purposes in this country. This work has involved
not merely investigation of the constituents of the materials,
but technical trials in communication with tanners.

Much of this work has been carried on in co-operation
with the Forest Department and with the Forest Research
Institute at Dehra Dun. After many years' work some
progress has been made, and the manufacture of extracts
from these materials is about to be tried systematically.

There is a great opening for the development of tanning
extract manufacture and of the tanning industry in India,
including the extension of native tanneries.

The supply of suitable hides and skins is enormous,
and a large part of these, which have hitherto been exported
chiefly to Germany, should in future be tanned in India.
No doubt, in some instances, chemical or chrome tannage
could be adopted with advantage, but vegetable tannage
should remain an important Indian industry and receive
development on scientific lines. A definite scheme of
operations is required, in connection with which the needs
of Indian tanners and those of the British purchasers
should be taken into account.

Among the unutilised vegetable tanning agents of India
which have been investigated at the Imperial Institute is
Caesalpinia digyna, a common plant in many districts of
Assam and Burma. Investigations at the Imperial Institute

204 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

have shown that the shells or cases of the seed pods of this
plant contain about 60 per cent, of tannin. Technical trials
as a tanning agent on a small scale showed that the
material produced excellent leather, and this conclusion has
been confirmed by trials on a large scale in the tan-yard.
A demand in consequence arose for the material in this
country, but so far the supply has been small ; but
whenever the pod-cases of C digyna have been offered
they have been sold readily at good prices. It would
appear that the cost of collecting and shelling pods from
the wild plant will interfere with the extended use of this
promising material, and that further progress can only be
made through the cultivation of the plant in India, which is
now under consideration.

Turpentine Oil and Rosin

The pine forests in the Punjab and the United Provinces
have been worked to a certain extent and several factories
for the distillation of turpentine oil and the preparation of
rosin have been in operation for some years by the Forest
Department. All the turpentine oil and rosin at present
produced is used in India, and there is at the moment no
question of these products being exported from India to
Europe, although it is possible that such an export may be
undertaken in the future. Most of the turpentine oil is
obtained in India from Pinus longijolia, as this species is
the most abundant and accessible ; but other species, such
as P. excelsa and P. Khasya^ also occur which might be
used.

The oils of these species have been examined at the
Imperial Institute as well as the crude turpentine (oleo-
resin) of P. excelsa and P. Gerardiana^ and the rosin
(colophony) of P. longifolia^ P. excelsa^ and P. Gerardiana.

The oil of P, longifolia from India was found to differ
from the American and French turpentine oils. There
seems little possibility of the oil from the Indian P. longijolia
being accepted in commerce as similar to the best grades of
American and French turpentine oils, and it would have
to be sold on its own merits as Indian turpentine oil.
The Indian oil, however, is as good as Russian oil, for

THE WORK OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE FOR INDIA 205

which there is a large market in the United Kingdom, and
in recent years, owing to the rise in price of American
turpentine, various methods of utilising inferior turpentines
have been devised, so that when Indian turpentine from
this species is produced in excess of Indian needs there
will be no difficulty in finding a market for it in the United
Kingdom.

The oil from P. Khasya is rather better than that from
P. longifolia, and is quite equal to the lower grades of
American turpentine.

The oil of P. excelsa, on the other hand, when properly
prepared, is comparable with the best French turpentine
oils of commerce.

Further information is needed as to the yield of
turpentine from these Indian pines, but from what has
already been done there seems no reason to doubt that the
yield is as good as from French and American pines.

The rosin from P. longijolia^ P. excelsa^ and P. Gerardiana
was found at the Imperial Institute to be very similar in
composition to that from the United States and France,
and could be used for the same purposes, but its manu-
facture needs to be improved to produce pale-coloured
rosin of the best type.

In addition to the chemical investigations of Indian
turpentine and rosin, steps were taken to bring them to
the notice of manufacturers in the United Kingdom. In
this connection an article on ** The Production and Uses
of Oil of Turpentine," including references to the Indian
products, was published in the Bulletin of the Imperial
Institute in 1906, and other reports dealing more especially
with Indian turpentine have been published at intervals
since that time.

A large plant of French design has recently been installed
in the Government turpentine factory in the Punjab, which
should result in turpentine of better quality being produced.
As a result of this action, enquiries have been received
at the Imperial Institute from several British manufacturers,
and in some cases trial consignments of Indian turpentine
oil have been obtained on their behalf. These have proved
fairly satisfactory, but in every case the price has been

2o6 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

prohibitive, and for this reason alone it has not yet proved
possible to import regularly Indian turpentine oil to this
country.

The production of turpentine and rosin in India has,
however, now been firmly established, a good local demand
has been created, and, as the industry is profitable, the
Forest Department is wisely extending it, and it is quite
possible that eventually there may be an excess available
for export. In any case, the Indian production has been of
indirect benefit to British manufacturers, as it has increased
the total of supplies of turpentine and has made available
for European use a large part of the French and American
turpentine formerly imported to India. Prices of turpentine
oil have been steadily rising for the last few years, and the
rise would probably have been considerably more rapid if
India had not come forward with additional supplies for
her own use.

The Imperial Institute has throughout been in close
co-operation with the Forest Department and the Forest
Research Institute in India on this question. Up to the
present the Government of India has itself worked the pines
for turpentine, and the important point still remains to be
settled as to whether this policy should be continued or
whether certain areas of pines at least should not be con-
ceded for development by private enterprise.

It has been ascertained that important British firms
would be willing to take up and work such a turpentine
concession in India.

Burma Beans

The edible beans most commonly grown in Burma are
varieties of Phaseolus lunatus^ large quantities of which are
exported to the United Kingdom and the Continent, where
they are commonly known as Burma or Rangoon beans.
Those shipped are of two kinds, small reddish beans, and
white ones resembling " small haricots " in appearance.
During the course of an investigation conducted at the
Imperial Institute on the production of prussic ^cid by
certain plants, it was found that the Rangoon beans, when
ground into meal and mixed with water, gave indications of

THE WORK OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE FOR INDIA 207

the presence of this poison. In the case of the red beans,
the quantity of prussic acid formed was not exactly
negligible though usually harmless, whilst the white Burma
beans, as a rule, yielded little or none.

So far as is known, no harm has arisen from the use of
the beans as a feeding stuff. The export trade in these
beans from Burma continues to flourish, but as the yield of
prussic acid is variable, the beans are sometimes regarded
with suspicion by agricultural experts in Europe ; and for
this reason they bring, in ordinary times, comparatively
small prices in the market.

In view of these facts the Imperial Institute, in con-
sultation with merchants in London, suggested to the
Department of Agriculture in Burma that steps might be
taken to encourage the natives to cultivate for export a
better class of beans suitable for human food. In order to
carry out experiments from this point of view, a special
experiment station was established by the Department at
Natywagon. The Imperial Institute forwarded samples of
the large white butter beans (Madagascar beans), which are
in demand in this country, to the Department for trial
cultivation, and later on two tons of similar beans were
forwarded by the Institute for experimental cultivation by
co-operative credit societies in Burma. These butter beans
belong, like Rangoon beans, to the species P. lunatus ;
but through cultivation they have lost, to a large extent,
their characteristic of producing prussic acid, and it was
hoped they would retain this cultural peculiarity in Burma.
It was also suggested by the Imperial Institute that trials
might be made with the true white haricot bean, and a
supply of one of the best varieties of the white haricot bean
was forwarded to Burma for this purpose this year.

Madagascar beans have now been grown in Burma for
three seasons, and the produce has been examined at the
Imperial Institute. Although the beans w^ere found to
yield somewhat more prussic acid than the original beans,
the quantity was negligible, and less than that yielded by
the ordinary Rangoon beans.

If the Madagascar beans are found to give satisfactory
yields in Burma, and to retain their characteristics of large

268 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

size and only minute yield of prussic acid, they would be far
more profitable to grow than the Rangoon beans. In the
case of one sample of Burma-grown Madagascar beans,
a firm of merchants in London stated that consignments
of equal quality should realise the ordinary price of
Madagascar beans, which is about ;^20 per ton, against
£6 per ton for Burma beans. These are, of course, pre-
war prices. Samples subsequently received were smaller
than the original beans, but it was stated by a firm of mer-
chants that they would realise good prices. At the present
time all edible beans command exceptionally high prices.

Indian Paper-making Materials

Although India possesses an abundance of fibrous
materials suitable for the manufacture of paper pulp, less
than one-third of the paper used in the country is made
in the Indian mills, and even this is manufactured partly
from imported wood pulp.

The consumption of paper in India in the year ending
March 31, 1914, may be estimated as between 85,000 and
90,000 tons, of which only about 29,000 tons were manu-
factured in the country itself. The total imports of paper
(excluding writing paper, the quantity of which is not
recorded) in 191 3-14 amounted to 57,607 tons, and of this
quantity 13,685 tons were imported from Germany and
Austria-Hungary. The imports of writing paper were of
total value ;^259,964, the share of Germany and Austria-
Hungary being ;^63,8 19

The imports of wood pulp and other paper-making
materials in 1913-14 were 12,382 tons, of which 4,907 tons
were contributed by Germany and Austria-Hungary.

These facts show that an extension of the Indian pulp
and paper manufacturing industry might well be under-
taken with a view to supplying the whole of the paper
required in India. Subsequently it might be possible to
create an export trade in paper with China and Japan.

Consideration might also be given to the possibility of
establishing an export industry in paper pulp, of which
Great Britain and other British countries could take large
quantities.

THii WORK OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE FOR INDIA 209

The chief raw materials at present used in the Indian
paper-mills are "sabai" grass (Ischaemum angustifolium\
old rags, jute, gunny bags, hemp, old rope, and waste-
paper.

Other materials that are available are bamboos, soft
Himalayan timbers such as Indian spruce and silver fir,
and a large number of grasses. An investigation of many
of these materials has been made by Mr. W. Raitt on
behalf of the Forest Research Institute at Dehra Dun, and
his results have been published in the Indian Forest Records.
Mr. Raitt has recently continued some of these investiga-
tions in the research laboratories of the Imperial Institute.

Fibres

The fibres of India may be roughly classified in three
groups : (i) Textile fibres, such as cotton, flax, silk, jute,
and jute substitutes ; (2) cordage fibres, such as Sunn
hemp, Manila hemp and plantain fibre, and Sisal, Mauri-
tius and bowstring hemps ; and (3) fibres suitable for other
purposes, including upholstery work, the manufacture of
explosives, and paper-making. Work on Indian fibres of
all these groups has been carried out at the Imperial
Institute, but in the time at my disposal it is only possible
to mention a few typical examples of such investigations.

As an example of the first group, viz., textile fibres,
reference may be made to a fibre which appeared on the
London market about fifteen or sixteen years ago under
the name of Bimlipatam jute, the origin of which was not
then known. Analysis and a comparative examination of
commercial Bimlipatam jute with the various Hibiscus
fibres contained in the Indian Collections of the Imperial
Institute proved that the fibre was the product of //.
camtabinus. Consequent on this discovery, considerable
attention has been devoted to the plant in India during
recent years, and improved races have been established.

Another fibre of the jute class, Sida rhombifoha^ on
examination at the Imperial Institute, was found to be of
such high quality that it was recommended that its cul-
tivation should be encouraged. A good deal of work has
9

210 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

now been carried out by the Department of Agriculture
in Bengal, and it has been found that the value of the
fibre is about lo to 20 per cent, in advance of " first marks"
Calcutta jute, but that the plant gives a smaller yield per
acre and the fibre is more troublesome to prepare than jute
owing to the interior of the stem being soft instead of
hard and woody. These difficulties deserve further
attention.

The second group, viz., cordage fibres, may be illustrated
by reference to the fibre known as Sunn hemp, which is
obtained from the stem of Crotalaria juncea. Samples of
this fibre from Burma, Calcutta, and the Pabna district of
Eastern Bengal have been examined at the Imperial
Institute. All the samples were of good quality, those
from the Pabna district being the best. This fibre
finds a ready sale in the United Kingdom at good prices,
and it was pointed out in the report that the cultivation
of the crop could be safely extended. The annual exports
of Sunn hemp from India during the years 1909-1914
amounted to about 30,000 tons, of which about one-half
was consigned to the United Kingdom. Since the outbreak
of war the demand for Sunn hemp in this country has
greatly increased owing to the difficulty of obtaining
Russian hemp, the imports in 191 5 being about 28,000 tons
as compared with 15,000 tons in 1914.

The third group, viz., miscellaneous fibres, may be
illustrated by the products consisting of the seed-hairs of
various plants and known as flosses or silk-cottons. Those
of the following Indian plants have been examined at the
Imperial Institute and information supplied as to their
value and uses : Eriodendron anfractuosum (the true kapok
tree), Cochlospermum Gossypmm^ Calotropis gigantea^ and
C. procera. There is an export trade in such materials
from India, but it is probable that the source of most of
the exported floss is Bombax malabaricum.

The use of these flosses has assumed increased
importance during recent years. Formerly they were
almost exclusively employed as stuffing materials for
upholstery, but owing to their buoyancy and impermeability
to moisture they are now being used extensively in the

TttE WORK OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE FOR INDIA 21 1

manufacture of life-saving jackets and similar appliances.
Considerable demand has arisen for flosses for such
purposes, and good prices are being realised.

Minerals

A large number of Indian minerals have been investigated
at the Imperial Institute in order to ascertain their suit-
ability and value for various industrial purposes. These
include coal, lignite, clays, mica, metallic ores, rare earth
minerals, etc., etc. The composition and quality of the
various coals of India has formed the subject of several
extensive and important reports. In 1902 the present writer
gave an account of some of this work in a paper entitled, The
Coal Resources of India^ read before the Indian Section of
the Society of Arts at a meeting at which Lord George
Hamilton, then Secretary of State for India, presided. The
predictions I then ventured to make as to the future of the
coal supply of India have been amply justified, but some of
the difficulties with which a rapidly expanding industry has
to contend are, I observe, still encountered. The war has
served to emphasise the importance of many industrial
positions, and among them the coal supply of India and
its capacity to supply the markets of the East. In Egypt,
where coal is not known to occur, increasing quantities are
being used in connection with the extension of irrigation
schemes, and Welsh coal is now obtainable only at prices
which would usually be prohibitive. The present transport
difficulties stand seriously in the way of Indian enterprise,
and the admitted fact that most Indian coal is inferior to
Welsh coal constitutes an objection which every engineer
will press so long as supplies of Welsh coal can be secured
at a reasonable cost. I cannot do more in this paper than
briefly refer to this subject, which is full of interest and
importance to India.

I must, however, not leave it without referring to the
great possibilities which Indian coal offers as a factor of
industrial importance to India itself, not only as a source
of power, but in connection with the adoption of improved
methods of carbonisation and the production of liquid
fuel as well as of power gas.

212 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

The only other mineral to which I shall be able to refer
in any detail in this paper is monazite, of which it is now
known that India possesses the richest deposits in the
world.

The constituent of this mineral of industrial importance
is thorium, which is essential to the gas-mantle industry,
an industry which until lately has been entirely controlled
by Germany. Germany having secured the monopoly of
the Brazilian supplies of monazite, was able to dominate
the manufacture of gas-mantles in this country. The
importance of discovering an additional source of thorium,
under British control, was therefore very great.

Through the mineral surveys established by it in
West Africa and Ceylon, the Imperial Institute was able
to attack this problem. Monazite was found in numerous
localities in West Africa, but nowhere in sufficient quantity
to be of commercial importance. In Ceylon, however,
in addition to scattered monazite, a new mineral — thorianite
— was found, and this proved to be the richest known ore
of thorium, containing over 80 per cent, of thoria as against
about 5 per cent, in Brazilian monazite.

This is not the occasion to tell the story of the com-
petition of Germany for this new mineral of Ceylon, which
was eventually secured by the Imperial Institute for British
users, by whom virtually, the entire output of Ceylon has
been taken. Unfortunately, the occurrence of thorianite
in Ceylon is sporadic, and the supply is now reduced
to small dimensions. The importance of the subject to the
British industry was so great that the Imperial Institute
drew the attention of the Government of India in 1905 to
the German thorium monopoly which placed British
manufacturing enterprise at a great disadvantage. It was
suggested to the Government of India that a special search
should be made in India for thorium minerals, since the
existence of these minerals in Ceylon rendered it probable
that they would also be found in India. The reply of the
Government of India was that no special search was
necessary, as the Geological Survey was already alive to
the importance of the subject, and there the matter rested
until about 1909, when a German prospector, Schomburg,

THE WORK OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE FOR INDIA 213

discovered deposits of monazite sand on the coast of
Travancore. Specimens secured by the Imperial Institute
were examined, and it was found that the sand was rich
in monazite, whilst the monazite contained nearly twice
as much thoria as the monazite of Brazil. A com-
pany, the Travancore Minerals Company, was eventually
formed under German control, and Travancore monazite
was worked in German interests. Since the war this
company has been reconstructed, with Sir John Hewett as
chairman, and it may therefore be hoped that its valuable
produce will be secured for British industry. In addition
to the area dealt with by this company, it is stated that
other areas of the Travancore sands are to be worked by
a second British company, so that in future it is to be
expected that the gas-mantle industry in this country will
be able to pursue a course of untrammelled development.

From this brief account of the mineral work of the
Imperial Institute it is clear that it should be a valuable
auxiliary to the operations of the Geological Survey of India.

Scientific Papers

It will be seen that the work of the Imperial Institute
has been to an increasing extent industrial and commercial
in its aims, and that its scientific and technical investigations
have been necessarily directed to this chief purpose.
Each report made to India consists for the most part of
the co-ordinated results of the work of a number of
individuals who have been concerned with different aspects
of the problems presented, the ultimate purpose of the
report being commercial and industrial and not scientific.

Although the complete investigation from the scientific
standpoint alone of any large number of the subjects has
not been possible for want of funds, individual workers
have been encouraged so far as possible to prosecute
research in this direction, the results of which have been
communicated by them to scientific societies and published
as papers by these individuals. Owing to the limitations
imposed on work of this description by the smallness of
the funds placed at the disposal of the Imperial Institute,
arrangements have been made whereby external workers

214 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

in special subjects have taken up researches at the
suggestion of the Imperial Institute and by this means a
considerable body of scientific work has been accomplished
for India, quite apart from the co-ordinated commercial
work which forms the subject of the majority of the reports
made to India, and which occupies the first place in the
scheme of operations.

The following are the titles in chronological order of
over fifty of the principal scientific and technical papers of
importance to India which have been contributed to the
Royal Society and to other scientific societies, etc., by
members of the stafT of the Imperial Institute and
associated workers :

*' The Constituents of the Indian Dye-stuff Kamala." Part I.
By A. G. Perkin. Transactions oj the Chemical Society,
1893, Ixiii. 975.

" Kamala." Part II. By A. G. Perkin. Transactions of the
Chemical Society, 1895, Ixvii. 230.

**The Colouring Principles of Rubia sikkimensis.'' By
A. G. Perkin and J. J. Hummel. Transactions of the
Chemical Society, 1893, Ixiii. 1157.

" Colouring and other Principles contained in Chay Root."
Part I. By A. G. Perkin and J. J. Hummel. Transac-
tions oj the Chemical Society , 1893, Ixiii. 1160.

** Colouring and other Principles contained in Chay Root."
Part II. By A. G. Perkin and J. J. Hummel. Transac-
tions of the Chemical Society , 1895, Ixvii. 817.

" Colouring Matter of the Indian Dye-stuff Tesu." By
J. J. Hummel and W. Cavallo. Proceedings of the
Chemical Society, 1894, x. 11.

"Colouring and other Principles contained in Mang-
koudu." By A. G. Perkin and J. J. Hummel. Transac-
tions of the Chemical Society, 1894, Ixv. 851.

" Colouring Principles of Ventilago madraspatana'' By
A. G. Perkin and J. J. Hummel. Transactions oJ the
Chemical Society, 1894, Ixv. 923.

** Constituents of Artocarpus integrijolia!' By A. G. Perkin
and F. Cope. Transactions of the Chemical Society, 1895,
Ixvii. 937.

THE WORK OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE FOR INDIA 215

" On the Colouring Principle of Toddalia aculeata and
Evodia meliaefolia'^ By A. G. Perkin and J. J. Hummel.
Transactions of the Chemical Society ^ 1895, Ixvii. 413.

**0n the Colouring Matter in the Bark oi Myrica NagV^
By A. G. Perkin and J. J. Hummel. Transactions of the
Chemical Society^ 1896, Ixix. 1287.

" Contributions to our Knowledge of the Aconite Alka-
loids. Part XIV. On Pseudaconitine." By Wyndham
R. Dunstan and Francis A. Carr. Transactions of the
Chemical Society, 1897, Ixxi. 350.

" The Colouring Matters of the Indian Dye-stuf^ Delphinium
Zalil" By A. G. Perkin and J. A. Pilgrim. Transac-
tions of the Chemical Society, 1898, Ixxiii. 267.

"A Chemical Investigation of the Constituents of Indian
and American Podophyllum {Podophyllum Emodi and
Podophyllum peltatum).'' By Wyndham R. Dunstan and
T. A. Henry. Transactions of the Chemical Society, 1898,
Ixxiii. 209.

" The Physiological Action and Therapeutic Properties of
Podophyllin, with special reference to Indian Podo-
phyllin." By H. W. G. Mackenzie and W. E. Dixon.
Edinburgh Medical Journal, November 1898.

" The Chemical and Physical Characters of some Indian
Edible Oils." By A. W. Crossley and H. R. Le Sueur.
Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, 1898, xvii.
989.

" The Occurrence of Hyoscyamine in Hyoscyamus muticus
of India." By Wyndham R. Dunstan and Harold
Brown. Transactions of the Chemical Society, 1899,
Ixxv. 72.

" The Oil of Carthamus tinctorius (Safflower Oil)." By
H. R. Le Sueur. Journal of the Society of Chemical
Industry, 1900, xix. 104.

" Constituents of Gambier and Acacia Catechus." By
A. G. Perkin and E. Yoshitake. Transactions of the
Chemical Society, 1902, Ixxxi. 11 60.

"The Pharmacology of Pseudaconitine and Japaconitine
considered in Relation to that of Aconitine." By J.
Theodore Cash and Wyndham R. Dunstan. Philo-
sophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 1902, cxcv. 39.

2i6 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

** Cyanogenesis in Plants. Part II. The Great Millet,

Sorghum vulgare'' By Wyndham R. Dunstan and

Thomas A. Henry. Philosophical Transactions of the

Royal Society ^ 1902, cxcix. A. 399.
*'The Coal Resources of India and their Development."

By W. R. Dunstan. Journal of the Society oj Arts^

1901-2, 1. 371.
" Cyanogenesis in Plants. Part III. Phaseolunatin in

Phaseolus lunatus'' By W. R. Dunstan and T. A.

Henry. Proceedings of the Royal Society^ 1903, Ixxii.

B. 285.
" The Pharmacology of Indaconitine and Bikhaconitine."

By J. T. Cash and W. R. Dunstan. Proceedings oj the

Rcyal Society^ 1905, Ixxvi. B. 468.
" Indaconitine, the Poisonous Alkaloid of Aconitum chas-

manthum." By W. R. Dunstan and A. E. Andrews.

Transactions of the Chemical Society^ 1905, Ixxxvii. 1620.
*' Bikhaconitine, the Poisonous Alkaloid of Aconitum spica-

tum." By W. R. Dunstan and A. E. Andrews. Trans-
actions oj the Chemical Society^ 1905, Ixxxvii. 1636.
♦' The Aconitine Group of Alkaloids." By W. R. Dunstan

and T. A. Henry. Transactions oj the Chemical Society ^

1905, Ixxxvii. 1650.
" The Gum of Cochlospermum Gossypium" By H. H.

Robinson. Transactions oj the Chemical Society ^ 1906,

Ixxxix. 1496.
"The Chemical Aspects of Cyanogenesis in Plants." By

W. R. Dunstan and T. A. Henry. Reports of the British

Association for the Advancement of Science ^ York Meet-
ing, 1906, p. 145.
" Cyanogenesis in Plants. Part IV. Occurrence of

Phaseolunatin in Common Flax." By W. R. Dunstan,

T. A. Henry, and S. J. M. Auld. Proceedings of the

Royal Society^ 1906, Ixxviii. B. 145.
"Cyanogenesis in Plants. Part V. Occurrence of

Phaseolunatin in Cassava." By W. R. Dunstan, T. A.

Henry, and S. J. M. Auld. Proceedings of the Royal

Society^ 1906, Ixxviii. B. 152.
" On the Occurrence of Prussic Acid and its Derivatives in

Plants." By T. A. Henry. Science Progress^ 1906, i. 39.

THE WORK OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE FOR INDIA 217

" Investigation of Tanning Materials." By T. A. Henry.

Year-book oj the Manchester^ Liverpool^ and District

Tanners' Federation, 1906, p. 79.
" Cyanogenesis in Plants. Part VI. Phaseolunatin and

the Allied Ferments in Flax, Cassava, and the Lima Bean."

By W. R. Dunstan, T. A. Henry, and S. J. M. Auld.

Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1907, Ixxix. B. 315.
" Le Glucoside cyanogenetique de Phaseolus lunatus^ By

W. R. Dunstan and T. A. Henry. Annates de Chimie

et de Physique, 1907, x. 118.
** Le Glucoside cyanogenetique de Lin." By W. R. Dunstan

and T. A. Henry. Bulletin de lAcademie Roy ale de

Belgique, 1907, No. 7, p. 790.
*' Note on the Constituents of the Seeds of the Para Rubber

Tree (Hevea hrasiliensis)!' By W. R. Dunstan. Pro-
ceedings of the Chemical Society, 1907, xxiii. 168.
** The Poisonous Properties of the Beans of Phaseolus

lunatus, with some Observations on Linseed and

Cassava." By W. R. Dunstan and T. A. Henry. Journal

of the Board oJ Agriculture, 1908, xiv. 722.
"The Occurrence of Cyanogenetic Glucosides in Feeding

Stuffs." By T. A. Henry and S. J. M. Auld. Journal of

the Society of Chemical Industry, 1908, xxvii. 428.
" The Use of the term Laterite." By T. Crook. Geological

Magazine, 1909, vi. 524.
'* Recent Research on Indigo." By H. H. Robinson. Science

Progress, 1909, iv. 575.
"An Examination of Irritant Woods. Part I. Chloro-

xylonine from East Indian Satinv^ood." By S. J. M.

Auld. Transactions of the Chemical Society, 1909, xcv. 964.
" The Active Constituents of the Indian Solanaceous Plants

Datura Stramonium, D. fastuosa, and D, Metel." By

A. E. Andrews. Transactions of the Chemical Society^

191 1, xcviii. 1871,
"The Determination of Codeine in Opium." By A. E.

Andrews. Analyst, 191 1, xxxvi. 489.
'* The Carbohydrate Constituents of Para Rubber : Separa-
tion of 1-methyhnositol." By S. S. Pickles and B. W.

Whitfeild. Proceedings of the Chemical Society, 191 1,

xxvii. 54.

ai^ BULLETIN OF THE LMPERIAL INSTITUTE

" The Constituents of the Oil of Pinus longifolia, Roxb."

By H. H. Robinson. Proceedings of the Chemical Society^

191 1, xxvii. 247.
*' Harmine and Harmaline." Part I. By W. H. Perkin and

R. Robinson. Transactions oj the Chemical Society, 191 2,

ci. 1775.
" Harmine and Harmaline. Part II. The Synthesis of

Iso-harman." By W. H. Perkin and R. Robinson.

Transactions oj the Chemical Society, 191 3, ciii. 1973.
*'The Pharmacological Action of Harmaline." By J. A.

Gunn. Transactions oj the Royal Society oj Edinburgh,

1909-10, xlvii. 245.
" The Pharmacological Action of Harmine." By J. A. Gunn.

Transactions oj the Royal Society oj Edinburgh, 1911-12,

xlviii. 83.
**La Combustibilite de Tabac." By T. A. Henry and

S. J. M. Auld. L Agronomic Tropicale, 191 2, iv. 60, 65.
" The Essential Oil of Nepal Sassafras." By S. S. Pickles.

Transactions oj the Chemical Society, 1912, ci. 1433.
"The Composition of Bassia Fats." By R. G. Pelly.

Journal oj the Society oj Chemical Industry, 191 2, xxxi. 98.
" Composition of the Fruit and Seeds oi Adansonia digitata."

By R. G. Pelly. Journal of the Society oj Chemical In-
dustry, 191 3, xxxii. 778.
" Monazites from some New Localities." By S. J. John-
stone. Journal of the Society oj Chemical Industry, 19 14,

xxxiii. 55.

Work of the Technical Information Bureau

So far I have briefly described some of the investiga-
tions conducted for India in the Scientific and Technical
Research Department, and I may now refer to some of the
operations of the recently established Technical Information
Bureau, which has become of so much importance since the
war. In the last two years several hundred enquiries on
subjects of importance to India have been dealt with by the
Bureau, whilst the attention of users of raw materials in
this country has been drawn by special circulars and
notices in the Press to the suitability of Indian materials
for certain purposes. Assistance has also been given to

THE WORK OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE FOR INDIA 219

the India Office in selecting special officers for technical
employment in India and in several other directions.

It will be evident that there is great room for India in
the future to contribute the raw materials, not merely for
industries of her own, but for those of the United Kingdom
and other countries of the Empire in preference to those of
foreign countries. To take only three great groups of raw
materials — cotton, copra, and hides — the exports from India
in 1913 and 191 5 are shown in the following table :

Exports from India, 191 3 and 191 5

Value of
Total Exports.

Percentage to

Germany and

Austria-Hungary.

Percentage
to United
Kingdom.

Percentage to other countries.

Raw Cotton

1913
1915

24,995,750
14,875,818

979,335
519,056

5,329,656
3,959,117

i8-8

77'5

3'3

8-4

Copra

3-8
50-5

Raw Hides

56-5 3-8

14*3

^j;||chiefly to Japan.

187 Chiefly to Belgium

and Russia.
49*5 Almost entirely to

France.

397 I Chiefly to Italy and
857/ the United States.

This table shows that in each case there has been since
the war a remarkable increase in the percentage exported
to the United Kingdom. This, however, is not due solely
to an increase in the exports to this country, but is partly
the result of a decrease in the total exports. The actual
increase in the exports to the United Kingdom in the case
of copra and raw hides is shown in the tables on pages
220 and 222.

In the case of cotton nearly the whole has gone to
foreign countries, and chiefly to Japan. The reason is that
most of the cotton grown in India is coarse and of short
staple. This is of little value to the British manufacturer,
but is valuable in Japan. It is now known that cotton of
the kind required by the British manufacturer can be
largely and profitably grown in India, and steps are being
taken to encourage and extend the cultivation of this kind
of cotton. When it is remembered how greatly the British

220 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

manufacturer is dependent on the United States for the
cotton he requires, and how this source of supply has more
than once been threatened since the war began, it may be
hoped that these efforts in India may be redoubled and
concerted action taken to secure that the cotton grown in
India shall be for the benefit of the British user no less
than for that of the Indian producer.

Copra

In the case of copra, more than three-fifths went to
Germany before the war and a negligible quantity to
this country. The figures in detail are shown in the
following table :

Exports of Copra from India

1913.

1915-

United Kingdom

Russia

Germany .

Holland .

Belgium .

France

Other countries

Cwts.

29,843
44,844
565,743
7,750
49,691
23,371
15,614

37,636

58,049

758,938

9,392

65,212

30,405
19,703

Cwts.

211,279

219,862
3,684

262,198

252,733
4,125

Total .

736,856

979,335

434.825

519,056

On the outbreak of war, considerable difficulty was
experienced in disposing of the supplies of Indian copra,
as new markets had to be found for the product. There
was, however, no reason why much larger quantities of
Indian copra should not be utilised in the United Kingdom,
which previously had imported large supplies of coconut
oil from Germany, and soon after the beginning of hostili-
ties the Imperial Institute issued a circular to oil-seed
crushers and other firms likely to be interested calling
attention to the position, and suggesting that the pressing
of copra in this country should be considerably extended.
Further information on the subject, including particulars as
to the value of coconut cake as a feeding stuff for animals,
was published in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute,
and also in the Imperial Institute monograph on "Oil
Seeds and Feeding Cakes " (John Murray, 191 5).

THE WORK OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE FOR INDIA 221

As a result of this action arrangements have been made
by several British firms to extend their plant for crushing
copra, and large quantities are now being utilised in the
United Kingdom. It is satisfactory to find that in 191 5
the exports of copra from India to the United Kingdom
amounted to 21 1,279 cwts., or about half the total, compared
with 35,450 cwts. in 1914, and 29,843 cwts. in 1913. The
other half is being taken by our ally, France.

Ground Nuts

The facts are similar in the case of ground nuts, the
great commercial value of which the Imperial Institute has
done much to bring to notice in this country since the
outbreak of war. The figures are given in the following
table :

Exports of Ground Nuts from India

19^3-

1915-

Germany ....

Austria-Hungary

France ....

Belgium ....

Hong Kong

Other countries '

Cwts.
144,427
273,260
3.947,772
370,694
213,012
152,162

87,157
144,080

2,198,895

222,103

99,765

140,242

Cwts.

2,267,074

1,123
323,754

£
989,002
131,289

Total .

5.101,327

2,892,242

2,591,951

1,120,825

^ Including United Kingdom.

The principal market for Indian ground nuts was
France, 4,405,798 cwts. out of a total export of 5,237,006 cwts.
being sent to that country in 1914; however, in 1915,
owing to the disorganisation of the French trade produced
by the war, only 2,267,074 cwts. of ground nuts were ex-
ported from India to France, and the total exports from
India fell to 2,591,951 cwts. Ground nuts had not been
previously crushed to any extent in the United Kingdom,
and the Imperial Institute, therefore, took similar action
with reference to this product as had been taken with
regard to copra. A circular on " New Markets for British
Indian and Colonial Ground Nuts and their Products,"
calling attention to the supplies available and to the value
of the nuts for edible purposes and as a source of oil and

222 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

feeding cake, was issued early in 191 5, and was widely
distributed to oil-seed crushers, merchants, and others in
the United Kingdom, and a full account of the ground-nut
industry was given in " Oil Seeds and Feeding Cakes "
(John Murray, 191 5). As the result of the publication of
this information considerable interest was aroused in the
subject, and several British firms are now regularly crush-
ing ground nuts, and the imports to the United Kingdom,
especially from West Africa, have very considerably in-
creased, although France is still the chief purchaser.

The present activity in the oil-crushing and allied
industries in this country leads to the belief that greatly
increased quantities of Indian oil seeds will in future be
taken by British firms, that is, if these firms can be assured
that foreign countries will not be able after the war to
secure a controlling position in the industries and to obtain
the command of raw materials which can be utilised in this
country.

Raw Hides

The case of raw hides is even more remarkable, since
Germany and Austria were able to secure, chiefly through
German firms in India, over half the total output from
India of the value of about three millions sterling. The
figures are given in the following table :

Exports of Raw Hides from India

1913-

1915. '

United Kingdom

Germany .

Austria- Hungary

Holland .

Belgium .

France

Spain

Italy .

Turkey, Asiatic .

United States .

Other countries .

Cwts.

52,507
408,737
211,213

51,673
21,192
25,638
55.919
107,494
25,588

147,957
24,430

201,893

2,015,542

998,477

226,758

93,186

98,195
327,332
541,161

61,270
669,746

96,096

Cwts.
135,777

20,872

48,741
322,883

239,450

51,5"

567,700

63,569

265,892

1,806,916

1,019,033
236,007

Total .

•

1,132,348

5,329,656

819,234

3,959,117

These hides are now recognised to be of value to the
British tanner, and since the outbreak of the war they
have been extensively employed for the manufacture of

THE WORK OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE FOR INDIA 223

boots for our soldiers and those of our Allies. Whilst the
exports to this country have more than doubled, large
quantities have gone to Italy— quantities far in excess of
those which Italy is believed to be in a position to tan.
The entire question, which is obviously a most important
one, is under consideration. The problem is not merely
to secure the use of these hides in this country at the
present time, but to assure British traders that their busi-
ness can be safely continued after the war. An extension
of the tanning industry in India would do much to assist
a satisfactory solution of this question.

I may now turn to several cases of minor or new
industries in which the Technical Information Bureau has
given assistance.

Chank and Mussel Shells

The Imperial Institute was recently consulted by the
Honorary Director of Fisheries in Madras regarding a
machine suitable for cutting sections from chank shells
for the manufacture of the shell bangles which are exten-
sively worn by the natives of India. At present the
sections of the chank shells are all cut by hand, chiefly
at Dacca, in Bengal, a heavy crescent-shaped saw being
used for the purpose, and each cut through the shell takes
about five minutes to effect. Attempts to find in Europe
some form of machine-saw which would facilitate this
operation had failed, and the question was, therefore,
referred to the Imperial Institute.

As the result of practical trials carried out by a firm
in this country, at the request of the Imperial Institute,
it was found that a type of machine-saw used for cutting
Trocas shells would serve admirably for cutting the sec-
tions from the chank shells. The saw in question is a
circular power-driven saw running under water at a very
high speed, and each cut through the shell required only
a few seconds to make. Samples of the sections cut by
this saw were forwarded to India and were pronounced
to be quite satisfactory, and at the request of the Director
of Fisheries one of the saws has been despatched to India
for trial. The use of these machine-saws in India will

224 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

effect a very great improvement in the manufacture of the
shell bangles.

Further assistance has been rendered by the Imperial
Institute to the Director of Fisheries in Madras in con-
nection with the possible utilisation of the shells of fresh-
water mussels for button-making. It was stated by the
Director of Fisheries that fresh-water and other mussels
occur abundantly in the Madras Presidency, and that, in
addition, the culture of mussels was being undertaken in
the fish farm recently established by the Department.
Information was consequently desired as to the types of
mussel shells already used for button-making in Europe
and the United States.

In response to this request the Imperial Institute ob-
tained and forwarded to India a complete set of the mussel
shells which are used for industrial purposes, and also
furnished informatiorl regarding the various species of
shell and the machinery used in the pearl-button industry.

Reports on the value of fresh-water mussel shells which
occur in India were also made. The results of the en-
quiries indicate that a market can be found in Europe for
certain kinds of Indian mussel shells. At present these
shells are utilised to some extent in India for making
buttons and ornaments.

Indian Beeswax

There is a very large demand for beeswax in Russia for
the manufacture of church candles, and after the outbreak
of the war the authorities of the Russian Church withdrew
the prohibition of East Indian beeswax for the purpose.
It was essential, however, that all wax supplied to the
Russian Church should be free from adulteration, and con-
siderable difficulty was experienced in obtaining commercial
samples of Indian beeswax which fulfilled this condition.
Out of forty samples of Indian beeswax examined on behalf
of the Russian authorities, only four were pure, the re-
mainder being more or less adulterated, chiefly with paraffin
wax.

The Imperial Institute accordingly called the attention
of the Government of India to the matter, and also consulted

THE WORK OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE FOR INDIA 225

importers in this country with a view to preventing the
extensive adulteration of beeswax which is at present
practised in India. As a result of this action considerable
publicity has been given to the question in India, and steps
are now being taken to ensure that supplies of the pure
wax will be forthcoming in the future. If consignments of
pure Indian wax can be offered regularly on the London
market, it is probable that India will be able to secure a
part of the Russian trade in beeswax, which was valued in
191 3 at over ;^6oo,ooo, of which the amount contributed by
Germany was valued at no less than ;^56o,ooo.
The following are the figures :

From

Cults,

Austria .
Great Britain
Germany
Holland
Denmark
Spain .
Other countries

Total

265

2,057

2,833

22,009

72,089

560,007

1,574

12,227

710

7.263

38s

6,129

43,776

83,649

647,724

The exports of beeswax from India are not recorded
separately, but in 191 3-14 the exports of wax of all kinds,
no doubt almost entirely beeswax, were only 8,881 cwts., of
which 2,604 cwts. went to Great Britain and 3,849 cwts. to
Germany.

Thymol

Thymol, a solid substance derived from the volatile oils
of certain plants, including thyme, has been extensively
used as an antiseptic during recent years and manufactured
almost exclusively in Germany. The best commercial
source of thymol is the volatile oil of ajowan seed {Carum
copticum), a kind of caraway, which is abundant in India.
Before the war almost the whole of the exports of ajowan
seed from India went to Germany for the manufacture of
thymol. As a result of the war there was at once a serious
shortage of thymol in this country, and the price rapidly
rose to eight times its usual level. There was, however,
no reason why the manufacture of thymol should not be

226 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

undertaken in the United Kingdom from the Indian ajowan
seed. The Imperial Institute accordingly drew the attention
of British manufacturers to the subject, and offered to put
them in touch with Indian exporters of the seed, which was
virtually unknown to manufacturers. In response to this
offer a large number of enquiries were received at the
Imperial Institute from firms in this country, some of
whom obtained consignments of ajowan seed from India
for the purpose of starting the manufacture of thymol,
which is now definitely established.

In addition to putting British manufacturers in touch
with sources of supply of ajowan seed, the Imperial Insti-
tute also rendered assistance to them in connection with
the process of manufacturing thymol from the seed. A
general process for the preparation of crystalline thymol
from ajowan seed was drawn up by the Imperial Institute,
and was successfully adopted by manufacturers in this
country. In some cases, however, difficulty was experienced
in obtaining the thymol in the large transparent crystals
formerly produced by the German manufacturers, and the
Imperial Institute accordingly made a special investigation
of this point. Methods of converting the opaque crystals
of thymol into transparent crystals were successfully worked
out in the Scientific and Technical Research Department
and afterwards communicated to manufacturers. As a
result of this action of the Imperial Institute thymol is now
being made by several firms in this country, and the pro-
duct is quite equal in quality and appearance to that
previously imported from Germany.

Potash

Recently the Imperial Institute has had under con-
sideration the steps which should be taken to ensure in the
future an adequate supply from British sources of potash,
which is of immense value in more than one industry, and
especially to agriculture. So far the valuable deposits of
Stassfurt, in Prussia, have been the chief source of the
world's supply.

In response to numerous requests for detailed informa-
tion, the Technical Information Bureau published a pamph-

THE WORK OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE FOR INDIA 227

let entitled " The World's Supply of Potash," in which the
possible sources of supply are considered, including those
of India. Of possible Indian sources the deposits in the
Punjab Salt Range are the most promising, and the Im-
perial Institute is informed that the Government of India
is taking steps to investigate further their nature and
extent with a view to their commercial development.

The Imperial Institute is about to enter upon the third
stage of its existence, which it may be hoped will see
further development of its usefulness to India. The Insti-
tute is placed by the Imperial Institute (Management) Act
of this year under the control of the Secretary of State for
the Colonies as representing the central authority for the
Dominions, Colonies, and Protectorates of the Empire. The
actual management of the Institute will be with an execu-
tive council of twenty-five members, which, subject to the
general control of the Secretary of State for the Colonies,
will possess considerable autonomy and will be the govern-
ing body of the Institute. India is to be represented on
this council by four members, one nominated by the
Government of India, two by the Secretary of State for
India, and one by the Secretary of State for the Colonies.
In addition, it is understood that there will be a special
Indian Committee of the Council with co-opted members —
an arrangement which will greatly increase the connection
of the Institute with Indian interests, and, it is hoped, will
promote the development of those activities of the Institute
for India which are most needed in this country. Con-
tributory to the same end will be the several committees
on technical subjects, some of which are already at work,
whilst others are in process of formation. It is the earnest
desire of all those associated with the operations of the
Imperial Institute that it should become, even more than
it has been, a centre of intelligence and research in this
country for all the raw materials of the Indian Empire.

228 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

GENERAL ARTICLES

THE OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF
NICKEL ORES

Nickel is one of a few metals that are of considerable
interest at the present time in connection with the manu-
facture of alloys, notably steel alloys. Nickel finds its chief
use in the production of nickel steel, which is one of the
most valuable of the special steels. Its use as an alloy
with copper and zinc in imitation of silver, under various
names, has long been known.

Nickel was discovered by Cronstedt in 175 1 in a cobalt
ore from Helsingland, Sweden. The element was found
later by Cronstedt in the mineral niccolite (nickeline,
nickelite, or copper nickel), an arsenide of nickel, and it
was presumably in the form of this mineral that nickel was
present in the Swedish cobalt ore in which Cronstedt dis-
covered the element. By German miners the mineral
niccolite was known as kupfernickel (false or worthless
copper), from its fancied resemblance to copper, and it was
from this name that the name nickel was derived.

Formerly the amount of nickel ore required was small,
and the supply was obtained from European deposits,
notably those of Scandinavia, and from certain deposits in
the United States.

The discovery of nickel ore in New Caledonia was
made in 1865 by M. Jules Garnier, after whom garnierite,
the chief nickel mineral found there, was named. Little
mining was done in New Caledonia before 1875, however,
though this locality soon after became the chief source of
supply.

It was at a later date than this that the importance of
the copper ores of Ontario came to be recognised as a
source of nickel. Nickel was reported to occur in the
Sudbury district of Ontario as early as 1856, but it was not
until this region came to be opened up by the Canadian
Pacific Railway in 1883 that important deposits were dis-
covered. The copper ore originally mined at Copper Cliff,

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF NICKEL ORES 229

where mining commenced in 1886, was not suspected to
contain nickel, and it was not until 1888 that the production
of copper-nickel matte commenced. The Canadian output
grew rapidly from that date, and Ontario soon took first
place in the world's nickel production. This place it has
since held, and its only serious competitor at present is
New Caledonia.

Nickel Minerals

The chief nickel minerals are nickeliferous pyrrhotite
(iron sulphide), pentlandite (sulphide of iron and nickel),
and garnierite (hydrated nickeliferous magnesium silicate).
Other nickel minerals of some note include millerite and
polydymite (nickel sulphides), niccolite and chloanthite
(nickel arsenides), gersdorffite (sulpharsenide of nickel),
and annabergite (hydrated arsenate of nickel).

Pyrrhotite, also known as magnetic pyrites, is a sulphide
of iron approximating in composition to the protosulphide
(FeS), but with a slight excess of sulphur over the amount
required by this formula. The mineral frequently contains
nickel, usually in the form of pentlandite. It is occasion-
ally found in the form of tabular hexagonal crystals, but
is usually massive. It is an opaque mineral, pale bronze-
yellow to brown in colour, with a metallic lustre, and is
highly magnetic. Its hardness is about 4, and specific
gravity 4*6.

Pentlandite is a sulphide of iron and nickel of variable
composition, but usually corresponding to the formula
(Fe,Ni)S. It occurs as inclusions in pyrrhotite, and is the
chief nickel mineral of the Sudbury deposits. It crystal-
lises in the cubic system, and shows an octahedral cleavage.
The mineral is opaque, pale bronze-yellow in colour, with
a metallic lustre. When free from pyrrhotite it is only
weakly magnetic.

Garnierite^ sometimes called noumeite or genthite, is, as
already mentioned, the nickel mineral of the New Cale-
donia deposits. It is a hydrated silicate of magnesium,
containing a variable amount of nickel, which ranges from
2 or 3 per cent, up to 30 per cent, or more. The mineral
occurs as a compact earthy material in the form of veins

230 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

traversing serpentine. It varies in colour from pale green
to dark green, whilst the hardness and specific gravity are
also variable, the former ranging up to 3, and the latter
from 2-27 to 2-87.

Niccolite, or kupfernickel, is an arsenide of nickel (NiAs),
belonging to the hexagonal system, but is usually found
massive. It is an opaque mineral, of pale copper-red
colour, with a metallic lustre. The hardness is about 5J,
and specific gravity 7*5. Weathered specimens turn green
owing to the formation of annabergite.

Millerite is a sulphide of nickel (NiS). It crystallises
in the rhombohedral system, but is usually found in the
form of hair-like growths. It is opaque, brass-yellow in
colour, with a metallic lustre. The hardness is about 3J,
and specific gravity 5*65.

Gersdorffite is a sulpharsenide of nickel (NiAsS) be-
longing to the cubic system. The mineral is opaque, white
in colour, often with a grey tarnish, and has a metallic
lustre. Its hardness is about 5J and its specific gravity
varies from 5*8 to 6"2. As in the case of niccolite,
weathered specimens turn green through the formation of
annabergite.

Chloanthite is a nickel diarsenide (NiAsg) usually with
appreciable amounts of cobalt and iron replacing the nickel.
It crystallises in the cubic system. It is an opaque mineral,
tin-white in colour, with a metallic lustre. The hardness
is about 6, and the specific gravity varies from 6*4 to 6'^.
Weathered specimens of this mineral turn green owing to
the formation of annabergite.

Annabergite is a hydrated arsenate of nickel (Ni3As208,
8H2O). It usually occurs as an apple-green, earthy
alteration product on weathered specimens of nickel
arsenide minerals, and is of importance as an indicator of
the presence of these minerals.

Production of Nickel

The following tables give statistics of the output of
nickel ore and metal from the chief producing countries
during the last five years for which figures are available :

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF NICKEL ORES 231

Canada

19H.

1912.

«9i3.

19x4.

»9iS.

Copper-nickel ore rained .
,, ,, smelted
Bessemer matte produced
Copper content of matte .
Nickel „ „

Short tons.*

612,511

610,834

32,607

8,966

17,049

Short tons.^

737,584
725,065

41,925
11,116
22,421

Short tons.'

784,697

823,403

47,150

12,938

24,838

Short tons. »

1,000,364

947.053
46,396

14,448

22,759

Short tons.^
1,364,048
1,272,283

34,039

Spot value of matte

;^i,o3o,332

^^1,313,148

;^i,474,364

;^i,497r7i5

;^2,i56,738

' I short ton = 2,000 lb.

In addition to the above, small quantities of nickel
and nickel oxide are produced from the silver-cobalt-nickel
ores of the Cobalt district of Ontario (see p. 239).

The quantities of nickel contained in the matte, etc.,
exported from Canada during the past five years, together
with the countries to which the material was consigned,
were as follows :

Countries of destination.

1911.

1912.

1913.

1914.

1915-

United Kingdom
United States .
Other countries

Short tons.

2,512

13,798

Short tons.

2,536

19,575

Short tons

2,582

22,112

Short tons.

5,146

18,008

1 10

Short tons.

6,874

26,331

Total

16,310

22, 1 1 1

24,729

23,264

33,205

New Caledonia

Year.

1910 .

1911 .

1912 .

1913 .

1914 .

Quantity of
ore produced.

Metric tons.

99.039
150,005

157,367
164,406

172,365

Exports.

Ore.

Quantity.

Metric tons.

113.897

147,060

74,312

93,190

94,154

Value.

£
123,009
176,472
101,064
111,828
109,219

Matte.

Quantity.

Metric tons.

3,839
5,098
5,893
5,364

Value.

107,492
144,072
143,604
128,736

Norway

1909
1910
1911
1912
1913

Quantity of
ore produced.
Metric tons.

5.770
19.639
27,743
30,697
49,990

232 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Occurrence of Nickel Ores
America

Canada.— In Canada numerous deposits of nickeliferous
pyrrhotite are known, but only the Ontario occurrences
have hitherto proved to be of any economic importance.
Of these the deposits of the Sudbury region are by far
the most important. In addition to these, however, nickel
occurs in some quantity in the Cobalt silver region, and
there is a deposit of note at the Alexo mine in Dundonald
township, near Matheson in northern Ontario.

Sudbiiry District of Ontario, — The nickel ore deposits of
the Sudbury region lie to the north and west of the town
of Sudbury, which is about thirty-five miles north of the
north-eastern part (Georgian Bay) of Lake Huron. The
geological formations of the Sudbury region are of pre-
Cambrian age, and include the altered rocks of the Kee-
watin and Huronian series, and the intrusive Laurentian
rocks. The oldest of these formations is the Keewatin,
including greenstones and green schists that have, at least
in part, resulted from the metamorphism of basic igneous
rocks.

Younger than the Keewatin is an important series,
formerly regarded as Lower Huronian, but now defined as
an independent formation under the name of the Sudbury
Series. It consists of sediments, of which quartzite is the
chief rock, but it includes also slates, conglomerates, and
other rocks. The Sudbury Series is cut by eruptive rocks
of great variety comprising both basic and acid types,
and including a gabbro containing some nickeliferous
pyrrhotite.

Younger than the Sudbury Series is the Lower Huro-
nian, consisting of a boulder deposit suggestive of a glacial
origin, but no striated boulders have been found in it.

The " Laurentian " comprises gneisses and schists that
occur in intrusive relation with the rocks of the Keewatin,
Sudbury, and Lower Huronian formations ; and are there-
fore considered to be younger than these, though they are
older than the Upper Huronian.

The Upper Huronian, or Animikie formation, was de-

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF NICKEL ORES 233

posited on a denuded surface of Lower Huronian and
Laurentian rocks, and is, therefore, much younger than
these. It consists of a thick series of sandstone, slate and
tuff, with a basal conglomerate.

It was after the deposition of the above-mentioned
formations that the economically important igneous forma-
tion of the Sudbury region was injected. This was the
vast intrusion of molten rock known as the norite-pegma-
tite sheet, which spread itself out in the form of a laccolite
intrusion between the Upper Huronian conglomerate and
the older denudation surface on which this conglomerate
was deposited. It is estimated that this laccolitic sheet ex-
tends over an area of more than 500 square miles. It cooled
slowly, and became differentiated into three distinct layers,
namely, a lower layer of rich nickeliferous pyrrhotite ore,
a middle layer of norite containing some pyrrhotite, and an
upper layer of micropegmatite, or fine-grained granite.
After intrusion the floor of the laccolite sank somewhat,
and the intrusion assumed the form of a basin, to which
the overlying sediments accommodated themselves. The
basin is elongated ; it has a length of thirt3r-six miles from
south-west to north-east, a width of sixteen miles, and the
ore crops out along the edge of the basin. The ore has
been obtained hitherto chiefly from the southern or
Sudbury side of the basin. The basal conglomerate of the
Upper Huronian sediments was much metamorphosed by
the upper or micropegmatitic portion of the intrusion.

The immense size of the laccolite may be judged from
the fact that its present volume is estimated at not less
than 600 cubic miles, and much of it has been lost by denu-
dation. The age of the intrusion is somewhat uncertain,
but it is considered probable that it took place in late pre-
Cambrian (Keweenawan) times.

The only rocks younger than pre-Cambrian known to
have been formed in the Sudbury area, excepting the com-
paratively recent glacial deposits, are certain igneous dyke
rocks that are supposed to have been intruded in Palaeozoic
times. The region has suffered extensive denudation
during Palaeozoic and later times.

The prevailing type of ore at Sudbury is the nickelifer-

334 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

ous pyrrhotite referred to above as forming the lower
part of the norite-micropegmatite intrusion. The view
most widely adopted to explain its origin is that it segre-
gated gravitatively during the differentiation of the norite-
micropegmatite magma. Some have held the view that the
ore was formed by later infiltration ; but, though later
infiltration has probably modified the deposit in some
details, the facts as a whole favour the segregation view,
and seem to indicate that later infiltration has only been
responsible for certain minor changes in the character of
the ore since its formation by the process of segregation
referred to above.

The predominant sulphide mineral in the Sudbury ore
is pyrrhotite. Together with this there is usually a con-
siderable amount of chalcopyrite (CU2S, FegSg). The
pyrrhotite is of variable composition, but numerous
analyses show that its average composition is represented
by the formula FcgSo. It is nickeliferous, and the nickel
appears to be usually present in the form of the mineral
pentlandite, scattered in grains of irregular shape and size
through the pyrrhotite, from which it cannot be easily dis-
tinguished on a fractured surface owing to the similarity of
appearance of the two minerals. It is possible, however,
that in some of the pyrrhotite the nickel is present as a
more intimate isomorphous admixture with the pyrrhotite.

At the Vermilion mine the nickel-bearing mineral in
the pyrrhotite is stated to be polydymite, a cubic mineral
of dark iron-grey colour and cubic cleavage, with a compo-
sition approximating to that represented by the formula
Ni4S6, though it usually contains an appreciable amount of
iron. Analyses of polydymite from the Vermilion mine
show percentages of nickel, iron, and sulphur varying
between the following limits: nickel 36-85 to 5351, iron
i8'i7 to 3'84, sulphur 38*43 to 40*80. Other ingredients
found in small amounts include arsenic, antimony, cobalt,
and copper. It is suspected that polydymite rather than
pentlandite may be the nickel mineral present in pyrrho-
tite in many places where it has not yet been proved.

Other minerals found occasionally associated with the
nickeliferous pyrrhotite include millerite, gersdorffite,

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF NICKEL ORES 235

niccolite, magnetite, and tinstone. In certain veins that
traverse the norite-micropegmatite intrusion, the minerals
zinc blende, galena, and molybdenite are found.

Of the precious metals it is noteworthy that gold, silver,
platinum, and palladium occur in small amounts in the
Sudbury ores. The proved occurrence of sperrylite
(PtAsa) associated with gold in the gossan of the Vermilion
and Victoria mines indicates that this mineral is probably
disseminated in the form of small grains through the nickel
ore, and is the source of the small amount of platinum
obtained from the Sudbury mattes. The sperrylite appears
to be present chiefly in the chalcopyrite, from which it can
be separated by treating the chalcopyrite with acid.

Where the ore deposits are exposed to the weather the
sulphides readily oxidise, copperas and other sulphates
being formed. The ultimate result of weathering is to pro-
duce limonite, which is the typical gossan of the Sudbury
region. Where this gossan exists in large masses it is an
indication of the presence of a deposit of pyrrhotite worthy
of investigation.

In the ore-bearing zone of the intrusive mass there is a
fairly gradual transition from ore consisting almost entirely
of sulphide minerals to material consisting mostly of sili-
cates. This would be expected from a consideration of its
mode of origin. In fact, the pyrrhotite ore always contains
some pyroxene and plagioclase, which are silicate minerals.
The extremes of composition may be shown by the follow-
ing analyses of two samples ; the first a sample of pyrrho-
tite ore from the Creighton mine, the second a sample of
norite :

Pyrrhotite ore.

Norite.

Ptr cent.

Silica

SiO,

lo-io

60-15

Alumina

A1,0, .

6-85

18-23

Ferric oxide
Ferrous oxide

FeO

1 44-68 (Fe) |

1-51
604

Magnesia

MgO .

1-4

3-22

Lime

CaO

119

4-01

Soda

NajO

1-28

Potash

K,0

—

1-68

Titanium dioxide TiOg

1-34

Nickel

Ni .

562

017 (NiO)

Copper

Cu .

177

o-i6

Sulphur

S .

27-48

0-54

a36 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

In the above analysis of norite, the silica is above the
average and the basic ingredients below, owing to admix-
ture with micropegmatite. On the average the norite
contains about 52*8 per cent, of silica, 4*9 of magnesia, and
T6 of lime.

It is estimated that the ores as mined contain on the
average about 45 per cent, of iron, 3*09 of nickel, and 2*12
of copper. The 80 per cent, matte obtained by smelting
the ore contains from 0*02 to 0*3 oz. of gold, 2J to 7 oz.
of silver, and 0*17 to 0*5 oz. of platinum per ton.

In shape the ore deposits are variable. Two main types
are recognised : (i) Marginal deposits, which occur at the
basic margin of the norite, lying between it and the adjoin-
ing rock. These usually dip at moderate angles towards
the middle of the basin. The length of the workable
masses of ore is usually several times their thickness.
They may vary in thickness from a few feet up to 100 ft.
or more, and in length from 100 to 700 ft. The extent
of the deposits in depth is unknown ; but in one case they
have been proved to a depth of 900 ft. (2) Offset deposits,
which are connected with dyke-like projections from the
basic edge of the norite intrusion. In some instances there
is no visible connection between these and the norite
intrusion.

In some instances the marginal deposits are faulted, and
in consequence of this their disposition has been modified,
and the ore has been much crushed. This condition of
things has facilitated the action of infiltration processes,
which have enriched the ore in copper and deposited other
minerals, notably quartz, carbonates, zinc blende, and galena.

Two different kinds of " offset " deposits have been
defined. In one of these the ore-bodies are roughly
cylindrical or columnar in shape and extend to great
depths ; examples of this type of deposit are provided by
two ore-bodies at the Victoria mine, which are pipe-like in
shape and one of which has been proved to a depth of
2,025 ft. These pipe-like ore-bodies usually contain more
copper and more of the precious metals than do the
ordinary marginal bodies ; they usually contain also quartz
and carbonates.

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF NICKEL ORES 237

A second type of "offset" deposit is termed "parallel
offset," and in this the form of the deposit is sheet-like.
An example of this is the Frood-Stobie deposit, a remarkable
deposit which runs roughly parallel to the basic edge of
the norite intrusion at a distance of a mile or so to the
south-east. It extends over a distance of nearly 2 miles,
and has been proved by drilling to extend to a depth of
1 ,000 ft.

The four types of ore deposits mentioned above as oc-
curring in the Sudbury region are summarised as follows :

1 . Marginal, dipping towards the axis of the basin ; in
these the ores contain comparatively little rock impurity,
and there is more than twice as much nickel as copper.

2. Faulted marginal, of an irregular shape and character.
These usually contain a considerable amount of rock im-
purity, and contain as much copper as nickel, or sometimes
more copper.

3. Columnar offsets; these are pipe-like or roughly
cylindrical, nearly vertical, and extend to great depths.
The ore is usually comparatively rich in copper and
precious metals.

4. Parallel offsets, which are sheet-like in form and dip
inward toward the basic edge. The ore in this case is like
that of the ordinary marginal deposits.

As might be expected from the nature of the deposits,
the Sudbury mines have usually been commenced as open
workings, but where the development has become extensive
it has been found necessary to proceed by the more compli-
cated methods of underground mining. At the prospecting
stage, and for the work of exploration generally, much use
has been made of the magnetometer and the diamond drill.

The ore is roughly concentrated, to some extent by
hand-picking, but chiefly by means of crushers, screens^
and travelling belts, to separate as effectively as possible
the rocky matrix from the pyrrhotite. The rocky matter
thus rejected is accumulated in immense^umps ; it contains
a considerable amount of nickel and copper, but has been
treated as waste hitherto on account of its unsuitability for
metallurgical treatment in comparison with the richer
rough concentrates ; but it will doubtless be put to use

238 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

when more refined methods of concentration come to be
adopted.

The lack of a more refined system of mechanical con-
centration is due partly to tlie comparative friability of the
ore-minerals and partly to the fact that the ore can be
conveniently concentrated by metallurgical methods, a rich
copper-nickel matte being thus produced. Attempts at
magnetic concentration have been made, but these have
proved to be economically ineffective owing to the finely
disseminated condition of the nickel in the pyrrhotite.

The usual metallurgical treatment of Sudbury ores
involves four processes, as follows :

1. Roasting to remove part of the sulphur.

2. Smelting in water-jacket furnaces to produce a
standard matte.

3. Re-smelting the standard matte in converters to make
a matte of 75 or 80 per cent, of nickel and copper.

4. The separation and refining of the nickel and copper.
All these processes, excepting the fourth, have hitherto

been carried out in the Sudbury district. Quartz and lime-
stone are used as fluxes in matte smelting. The reduction
of nickel and copper from the high-grade mattes has been
carried out by the International Nickel Company at Bayonne,
New Jersey, and by the Mond Nickel Company at Clydach,
near Swansea, Wales. The larger part of the Canadian
mattes have up to the present been treated by the former
company ; but arrangements have now been made whereby
all the nickel required for use in the British Empire will be
prepared in Canada.

The method adopted by the International Nickel Com-
pany consists in smelting the matte with coke and sodium
sulphate, which dissolves the iron and copper sulphides,
and allows the heavier nickel sulphide to sink to the bottom.
The different layers of molten material are tapped off at
different levels. It is necessary to repeat the process, as
the nickel sulphide is not obtained free from iron and
copper at one melting.

As described by Roberts-Austen, the Mond process
consists essentially of five operations as follows :

I. Roasting to drive off as much sulphur as possible.

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF NICKEL ORES 239

2. Extraction of about two-thirds of the copper by
sulphuric acid, forming copper sulphate.

3. Reduction of the nickel and remaining copper by
water gas or producer gas rich in hydrogen at a tem-
perature not exceeding 400° C.

4. Treatment of the reduced metals in a " volatiliser,"
in which they are subjected to the action of carbon mon-
oxide gas at a temperature not exceeding 80° C, volatile
nickel carbonyl being formed.

5. Decomposition of the nickel carbonyl in a tower or
horizontal retort heated to 180*' C, metallic nickel being
produced.

The residues remaining after the extraction of nickel
and copper from the mattes are treated for the purpose of
extracting platinum, silver, and gold.

Cobalt District^ Ontario. — In the now famous silver-
cobalt-nickel-arsenic ores; of the Cobalt district, nickel
occurs chiefly in the form of arsenides. The mode of
occurrence in this case, in the form of comparatively thin
and irregular veins, is in contrast with that at Sudbury,
and the nickel minerals are different. The nickel vein-
minerals are chiefly niccolite and chloanthite in a matrix
of carbonates (calcite and dolomite). Millerite also occurs.
The weathered ore at and near the surface frequently
contains annabergite. It is estimated that the 34,282 tons
of ore and concentrates shipped from Cobalt in 1910 con-
tained on the average 1-47 per cent, of nickel The nickel
in this ore, however, is not paid for. According to the
Twenty -fourth Ann. Rep. Bur. Mines ^ Ontario^ 191 5» only
I ton in all the shipments from the Cobalt silver mines
during 1914 brought any monetary return to the mines for
its nickel. This was a consignment of residues for which
;^i8 was received. A certain amount of nickel has been
obtained as a by-product in the smelting and refining of
the Cobalt ores in Canada for several years. In 1915
28 short tons of metal and 100 short tons of oxide were
recovered in this way as compared with 196 short tons of
oxide in 1914.

Alexo Mine, Ontario. — A promising deposit of nickeli-
ferous pyrrhotite occurs at the Alexo mine in Dundonald

i4o BULLETIN OF Th£ IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

township, near Matheson, in Northern Ontario. In its
nature and mode of origin this deposit closely resembles
that at Sudbury, except that the matrix is serpentine
instead of norite. The serpentine is intrusive in andesite,
and the ore deposit occurs at the margin of the intrusion.
The ore consists of pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite, associated
with serpentine, and the nickel is present in the pyrrhotite
in the form of the mineral pentlandite as at Sudbury.
The ore deposit crops out over a distance of about 200 ft.,
and shows about 6 ft. of solid ore at the widest place,
together with several feet of mixed ore and rock. The
ore is of high grade, samples having yielded from 579 to
7-08 per cent, of nickel. According to the Twenty-fourth
Ann, Rep. Ont. Bur, Mines^ 191 5, the output of the Alexo
nickel mine during 1914 was 7,982 tons. During that year
the mine was closed from August 5 to November 20.

Quebec. — Nickel minerals occur at various localities in
the Province of Quebec, and have been mined to a small
extent. In the township of Orford, millerite occurs asso-
ciated with chrome garnet and pyroxene in a calcitic vein.
This deposit was formerly worked, but mining operations
were abandoned in 1883.

At Calumet, Pontiac County, in the same province, a
deposit of nickeliferous pyrrhotite occurs associated with
a mass of diorite, which is intrusive in gneisses and crys-
talline limestones. An analysis of a sample gave 3*88 per
cent, of nickel and 032 per cent, of cobalt. The ore band
is described as having a thickness of about 12 ft. At the
Cowcn mine a shaft was sunk to a depth of 40 ft. on this
deposit, which was found to dip to the south at an angle
of about 50°.

New Brunswick. — Much interest was formerly taken in
a deposit of nickeliferous pyrrhotite occurring near St.
Stephen, in New Brunswick. Here the nickeliferous pyr-
rhotite occurs in a mass of gabbro intrusive in Lower Palae-
ozoic slates. The pyrrhotite is found in pockety masses,
and attempts at mining were formerly made at Rogers*
farm (Todd mine) and Hall farm (Carroll mine). A sample
from a locality about three miles north of St. Stephens, con-
taining pyrrhotite associated with chalcopyrite, was found

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF NICKEL ORES 241

to contain 172 per cent, nickel, o'i6 per cent, cobalt, and
03 1 per cent, copper.

For an account of various other occurrences in Canada
of no commercial importance reference should be made to a
" Report on the Origin, Geological Relations, and Com-
position of the Nickel and Copper Deposits of the Sudbury
Mining District, Ontario, Canada," by A. E. Barlow (Geol.
Surv. Canada, 1904, No. 873). A more recent publication,
dealing with later developments at Sudbury, is " The
Nickel Industry, with Special Reference to the Sudbury
Region, Ontario," by A. P. Coleman (Depf. 0/ Mines, Mines
Branch, Canada, 191 3).

Newfoundland. — According to J. P. Howley (The Mineral
Resources of Newfoundland, 1909), niccolite, chloanthite, and
millerite are found associated with chalcopyrite in the Tilt
Cove copper ores of Newfoundland. Some 320 tons of
nickel ore were produced between 1869 and 1876.

United States. — Nickel minerals occur in many parts of
the United States of America, and at some localities they
have furnished substantial supplies of the metal. A
notable deposit, which contributed supplies prior to the
opening up of the larger deposits of New Caledonia and
Sudbury, is that of the Gap mine in Lancaster County,
Pennsylvania. Here the ore consists of a segregation mass
of pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite at the margin of a meta-
morphosed intrusion of gabbro in mica-schist. The gabbro
has been metamorphosed to amphibolite. The ore con-
tained 1*3 per cent, of nickel, 0*25 to 075 of copper, and 0*05
to 015 per cent, of cobalt.

At the Webster mine, Jackson County, North Carolina,
a deposit of garnierite in serpentine, similar in character to
the New Caledonia deposits, is stated to contain not more
than 2 per cent, of nickel. An attempt was made some
years ago to use this ore for the manufacture of nickel
steel.

At the Key West mine in Nevada a basic intrusion con-
tains an ore the sulphidic portion of which shows 3*5 per
cent, copper, 2*5 per cent, nickel, and 0*25 to 0*3 oz. of
platinum per ton. The deposit is stated to occur in lenses
10 to 50 feet thick, and 50 to 600 feet long ; but the deposits
10

242 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

have not been worked, and the average ore available would
presumably show values well below those mentioned
above.

Nickel occurs in the lead ores mined at Mine la Motte
in Missouri, where it is stated to occur in the form of
nickeliferous pyrite associated with galena. The Missouri
lead ores have been dressed to yield in large amounts a
product of concentrated sulphides averaging 5 per cent,
copper and 3 per cent, each of nickel and cobalt.

Nickel minerals are also reported to occur in Idaho,
Oregon, Washington, California, Wyoming, Arizona, and
South Dakota ; but so long as existing supplies are main-
tained from Canada and New Caledonia, these and the
other known deposits occurring in the United States are not
likely to provide supplies of any great importance.

Cuba.— On the northern side of Cuba, at Mayari and other
places, there are important deposits of a nickeliferous iron
ore of an unusual type. Iron ores rarely contain any
appreciable quantity of nickel, but the brown iron ores of
Cuba contain i per cent., and between i and 2 per cent, of
chromium. These ores are of the lateritic type, and are
very highly hydrated, containing in their freshly quarried
state as much as 45 per cent, of water. They are character-
ised further by a low percentage of sulphur and phosphorus.
These Cuban ores occur in association with serpentine
rocks from which they have presumably been derived by
weathering, which fact explains the presence of an appreci-
able quantity of nickel and chromium. The water is
removed from these ores before shipment in order to save
freight. The dried ore contains about 55 J per cent, of
iron, 4*4 of silica, I4"2 of alumina, 2*1 of chromium, i of
nickel, and o'022 per cent, of phosphorus. The Cuban ores
are smelted in the United States by the Pennsylvania and
Maryland Steel Companies.

Europe

United Kingdom.— Nickel minerals occur in veins of
copper ore in Cornwall, and niccolite was formerly worked
to some extent at the Pengelly mine, St. Ewe ; whilst
pentlandite is stated to have been found in some quantity

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF NICKEL ORES Mi

at the Wheal Jane lead mine near Truro. Millerite is
reported to occur in certain clay iron-stones of the South
Wales Coal Measures, notably those about Merthyr Tydvil.

According to the Home Office Mines and Quarries Report
(Part III), nickeliferous asbolan was formerly obtained in
small amounts in Flintshire. The Report also states that
nickel mining was started in Kirkcudbrightshire in 1897,
and that 300 tons of ore, valued at ;^300, were raised.

Austria-Hungary. — At Schweidrich, near Schluckenau in
Bohemia, there is an occurrence of nickeliferous pyrrhotite
impregnating a basic dyke that traverses granite. The
deposit, however, is of no economic importance.

Nickeliferous cobalt ore was formerly worked at Dob-
schau in Hungary.

Germany. — Nickel mines were formerly worked at St.
Blasien in the southern Black Forest. The ore here is
nickeliferous pyrrhotite associated with pyrite and chalco-
pyrite, occurring in association with basic intrusive rocks
of the gabbro type.

Nickeliferous copper ores containing on the average 12
to 15 per cent, of copper and about 3 per cent, of nickel
were formerly worked at the Hulfe-Gottes mine, Nanzen-
bach.

Nickeliferous cobalt ores occur in the Harz and the
Saxon Erzgebirge.

A notable German deposit of nickeliferous pyrrhotite is
that of Sohland in Lausitz, Saxony. Here the occurrence
resembles that already mentioned at Schweidrich in
Bohemia. The ore occurs in a basic dyke, and as mined
it contained from 5 J to 6 per cent, of nickel, together with
some copper. The ore occurs at the margin of the dyke in
contact with the enclosing granite.

Nickel ores have been worked at mines situated to
the north of Frankenstein in Silesia. The ore occurs as a
fissure-filling in serpentine and usually contains from 0*5
to 3 per cent, of nickel. Less commonly, ore containing
from 4 to 18 per cent, has been obtained.

Greece. — A deposit of nickel ore of some importance is
stated to occur on the Greek island of Locris, east of
Athens. The mine commenced operations as one of

U4 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

iron-ore. Below the iron ore a deposit of nickel ore, con-
sisting of earthy brown material, with patches resem-
bling garnierite, was obtained. A sample of the ore was
found to contain 7*22 per cent, of nickel. The nature of
the deposit suggests that it has probably been formed by
the weathering of nickeliferous serpentine. Material from
this deposit has been smelted at Evje in Norway.

Italy. — At Varallo in Piedmont a basic intrusion con-
sisting partly of norite contains nickeliferous pyrrhotite.
Mines were formerly worked at this locality.

Norway. — Nickeliferous pyrrhotite deposits similar in
character and mode of origin to those at Sudbury in Canada
occur in various parts of Norway. The pyrrhotite occurs
as a segregation product in norites that are intrusive in
gneisses and schists. A notable occurrence is that of the
Flaad mine (Evje mine) near Evje, where a large amount
of nickel ore has been mined. The ore deposit here occurs
partly within and partly at the margin of an intrusive
mass of gabbro and norite. The ore contains a high
percentage of pyrrhotite associated with chalcopyrite.
Selected ore contains 4*6 per cent, of nickel and 1-5 per
cent, of copper ; but the average values are stated to be
2'3 per cent, of nickel and 1*2 per cent, of copper. Another
notable productive deposit of pyrrhotite in norite is that of
the Erteli mine, near Ringerike.

The ore from the Flaad mine is smelted to a matte at
Evje, and that from Erteli mine at the Ringerike nickel
works. The matte is refined at Christiansand by a special
electrolytic process known as the Hybinette process, from
its inventor, N. V. Hybinette.

In this process the matte is first roasted and converted
into oxides. It is then leached with weak sulphuric acid
to extract copper sulphate, after which the residue is heated
with sulphuric acid to a temperature at which hydrous
sulphates do not exist. It is then again leached with weak
sulphuric acid to extract copper sulphate. Afterwards it is
heated with hydrochloric acid to a temperature sufficiently
high to cause partial decomposition of the anhydrous
chlorides, and again leached with weak acid, the heating
being repeated if necessary. The ultimate residue thus

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF NICKEL ORES 245

obtained contains nickel oxide which can be refined by
ordinary means.

According to the Diplomatic and Consular Report on
Norway {or 191 3, the output of ore at the Flaad mine for
that year was 28,000 tons. A small amount of ore was
obtained also from the Faeo mine near Haugesund. A
quantity of ore, amounting to 19,000 tons, from the Erteli
mine was smelted at the Ringerike nickel works, which
are now leased by the Christiansand nickel refining com-
pany. The amount of imported ore smelted at Evje and
Ringerike during 191 3 was 3,000 tons. The Hybinette
refining process at Christiansand produced 600 tons of
nickel and 350 tons of copper during 191 3, as compared
with 400 tons of nickel and 200 tons of copper in 191 2.
Some platinum, palladium, gold, and silver were obtained
as by-products.

Russia. — A deposit of nickel ore of the garnierite type
occurs at Rewdinsk in the Urals, south-west of Ekaterin-
burg. It occurs in an almost vertical quartz vein, about
6 ft. thick, which traverses serpentine rocks. The ore
contains from 4*8 to i9"2 per cent, of nickel oxide, but the
deposit is small. Several attempts have been made to
work the deposit.

In the Verkhne-Ufalei district to the south-east of
Rewdinsk, H. W. Turner reports the occurrence of
nickeliferous pyrite in the Nijni-Karkadinsk mine {Bull.
Amer. Inst. Min. Eng.y 1914, p. 191), in a black carbonaceous
deposit. This carbonaceous material contained 14*85 per
cent, of fixed carbon, 26*55 of volatile matter, 35*65 of
moisture, and 1*69 of nickel and cobalt. The ash obtained
by burning the carbonaceous matter constituted 22*9 per
cent, of the sample and contained 7*2 per cent, of nickel.

The ore-bodies at this and other mines in the district
are iron ore consisting of a mixture of chalybite and
limonite and are associated with deposits of nickeliferous
serpentine. Nickeliferous pyrite occurs in the limonite-
chalybite deposit. The deposit has been tested by boring
and an average sample of the iron ore, representing about
40,000 tons of ore, was found to contain 075 per cent, of
nickel. A sample of pyrite obtained by concentrating

246 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

the crushed ore was found to contain 6'28 per cent, of
nickeL

It is of interest to note in this connection that nickeli-
ferous pyrite containing 4-34 per cent, of nickel is reported
by T. L. Walker to occur at the Murray mine in the
Sudbury district, Canada, in association with pyrrhotite.
Nickel in the ores of Mine La Motte in Missouri, U.S.A.
(see p. 242), is stated to be present in the form of nickeli-
ferous pyrite. Further, a nickeliferous pyrite is described
by Hillebrand as occurring in the patronite (vanadium
ore) of Minasragra in Peru.

Spain. — Niccolite associated with chromite occurs in a
mass of serpentinised peridotite at Los Jarales, 35 km.
north-west of Malaga. At and near the surface the ore
is altered to garnierite. The deposits are stated to be
small in extent.

Sweden. — At various localities in Sweden, notably at
Klefva in Smiland, nickel ores occur, and were formerly
worked to a small extent. These Swedish occurrences
resemble those of Norway.

Switzerland. — Nickel ore occurs in the Gollyre and Grand
Praz mines, near Ayer, in the Val d'Anniviers. An ore
averaging 3 to 4 per cent, nickel, 7 to 8 per cent, cobalt,
and 2 to 3 per cent, bismuth is stated to occur at Kaltenberg
in Turtmanntal.

Africa

Union of South Africa. — A promising deposit of nickeli-
ferous pyrrhotite, closely similar to that at Sudbury in
Canada, occurs at Insizwa^ Cape Province. Here, as at
Sudbury, there is a basin-shaped mass of intrusive norite,
from 2,000 to 3,000 ft. thick, lying in the shales and sand-
stones of the Beaufort series of the Karroo system.

The ore when fresh consists chiefly of pyrrhotite, pent-
landite, and chalcopyrite. There are two different kinds
of ore, one rich in chalcopyrite with only a small amount
of nickel, the other rich in pyrrhotite and pentlandite, with
a larger proportion of nickel. Bornite and niccolite also
occur in the ore. The ore contains platinum, probably
in the form of sperrylite.

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF NICKEL ORES 247

The following is a summary of the values yielded by
material obtained from the adits of the Insizwa mining
area :

Copper.
Per cent.

Nickel.
Per cent.

Platinum.
Per ton of ■2,000 lb.

Maximum .... 19-3
Minimum . . . . V2
Average of fourteen analyses 41

7-3
06

3-8

4 OZ. 19 dwt.

12 grains

2 dwt. 15 grains

Cobalt, silver, gold, and osmiridium are present in
traces.

Two trial shipments of about 5 tons each were sent to
England. Samples from these, on analysis, gave the fol-
lowing results :

Copper .

. 3*4 per cent.

3*5 per cent.

Nickel and cobalt .

525 M

Gold

6 grains per ton

Platinum

2 dwt. 12 grains per ton

12 dwt. „

Silver .

10 dwt. per ton

12 dwt. „

There appears to be no doubt that these ores of the
Insizwa range are genetically connected with the intrusion
of norite, and that they segregated from the norite magma
in the same way as the Sudbury ore. (See Report by
A. L. Du Toit in the Fifteenth Ann. Rep. of the Geol. Com-
mission^ Cape of Good Hope Dept. of Mines^ 19 10.)

A basic laccolitic intrusion, including some norite,
occurs in the Tugeli mountains of Natal under geological
conditions resembling those at Insizwa. In this intrusive
rock occurs a deposit of nickel ore, consisting of nickeli-
ferous pyrrhotite associated with chalcopyrite.

Nyasaland. — Nickeliferous pyrrhotite, similar to that of
Insizwa and Sudbury, occurs in the Blantyre district of
Nyasaland, where it is found in masses of norite. A
sample examined at the Imperial Institute some years ago
was found to contain pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, and possibly
pentlandite. It contained 41*28 per cent, of iron (present
as sulphide), yg6 per cent, of nickel, 0*28 per cent, of
cobalt, and 0*99 per cent, of copper. A trace of platinum
also was present.

Madagascar. — Madagascar possesses deposits of garnierite
in serpentine similar to those of New Caledonia (see
below). Such a deposit is found at Valojoro, near

248 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Ambatofangehana. A sample of garnierite at this locality
was found to contain 26 per cent, of nickel oxide (NiO).

A deposit containing ore, with an average of from 3 to
4 per cent, of nickel, is stated to have been opened up near
Ambositra, not far from a waterfall capable of supplying
power for mining and smelting the ore.

Australasia

Tasmania. — Nickel minerals are reported to occur in
several of the western districts of Tasmania. In the
Zeehan tin-field veins of the nickel-silver-cobalt type
occur, and the mineral niccolite occurs in some abund-
ance in the veins. At Trial Bay deposits of the garnierite
type occur in serpentine, associated with pentlandite and
niccolite. In the Zeehan district the mining of nickel
ore has been carried on recently by the Dundas Currie
Mining Company, Limited, and by the Copper-Nickel
Prospecting Syndicate ; but mining was stopped at the
outbreak of the war owing, it is stated, to their inability
to dispose of the ore. During 19 14 the Copper-Nickel
Prospecting Syndicate sold 3,089 tons 4 cwt. of copper-
nickel ore for ;^ 15,8 15. The metal contents of the ore
were about 10 per cent, nickel and 4J per cent, copper.

New South Wales. — Nickel ore occurs at Port Macquariein
New South Wales. This occurrence resembles that in New
Caledonia (see below). The nickel ore occurs in nests and
pockets scattered irregularly through a mass of serpentine
and the clayey material resulting from the decomposition of
the serpentine. The most promising deposits occur at the
base of red ferruginous clays and in the upper layer of the
decomposing serpentine. The ore is a nickeliferous asbolan.
An analysis of an average sample gave 31*05 per cent, of
manganese dioxide, 7*48 cobalt oxide (CoO), 1*36 nickel
oxide (NiO), 0*41 chromic oxide (CrgOs), and 0*05 per cent,
copper oxide (CuO). A picked sample contained 7*03 per
cent, cobalt oxide and 2*39 per cent, nickel oxide. The ore
appears to be too irregular and uncertain to make its
working profitable, and none has been mined at this locality
since 1904.

New Caledonia. — The only nickel ores of the world

OCCURREINCE AND UTILISATION OF NICKEL ORElS 249

comparable in commercial importance' at the present time
with those of the Sudbury district of Ontario are the
garnierite ores of the island of New Caledonia, a French
colony in the Pacific in latitude 22° S., and some 800 or 900
miles east of the Queensland coast of Australia. The ore
has been mined chiefly in the Thio district on the east side
of the island.

Geologically, New Caledonia is made up of ancient
schists and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks and an extensive
series of intrusive igneous rocks. Included in the igneous
rocks are large masses of peridotite (olivine rock), which
have suffered hydration to a large extent and become con-
verted into serpentine. The serpentinised peridotites
stretch along a mountain chain from the south-eastern
portion of the island towards the north-west end. It is in
these serpentines that the garnierite deposits occur, in the
form of veins and concretionary masses. The unaltered
olivine rock contains nickel, sometimes in considerable
quantity, and certain samples of peridotite are reported to
contain as much as 2 J per cent, of nickel.

It is, however, in the garnierite veins traversing the
serpentine that the rich deposits occur. The richer gar-
nierite contains from 20 to 45 per cent, of nickel oxide (NiO),
and there is a vast amount of poorer silicate containing a
lower but still considerable percentage of nickel. The ore
grades from rich garnierite vein-like deposits to poor
nickeliferous earth containing only a small amount of
nickel. The extreme result of decomposition of the peri-
dotite is the formation of a red clayey material, much of
which is associated with the nickel ore.

The rich ore is found at and near the surface, where it
occurs in the form of weathered sheets up to 20 ft. in thick-
ness, and is worked in open quarries. Formerly a fairly
rich ore, containing up to 12 per cent, of nickel, was pro-
duced. Latterly it has been the practice to mix poorer
material with the richer ore, to produce an ore containing
some 5j per cent, of nickel in the condition of a hydrated
silicate, the percentage being raised to an average of from
6J to 7 per cent, on drying at 100° C.

Nickel is exported from New Caledonia partly in the

IO»

450 bull:e:tin of the imperial institute

form of ore and partly in the form of matte. There has
been an increase in the amount of matte produced in
recent years. The production during 191 3 amounted to
91,694 tons of ore valued at ;£"i 14,345, and 5,799 tons of
matte valued at ;^i5o,i52. This represents an increase in
value of ;^i 3,288 for ore and ;^6,i5o for matte as compared
with 1912. The output of nickel during 1914 is stated to
show an increase of 4 per cent, as compared with 191 3.

For further details respecting the nickel deposits of
New Caledonia reference should be made to a report on
these deposits by M. E. Glasser (Ann. des Mines^ 1903,
pp. 299 and 397).

Asia

India.— Rocks of the norite type occur in some abundance
in various parts of India, and pyrrhotite is abundant at
some localities, as in Travancore. A sample of Travancore
pyrrhotite examined at the Imperial Institute some years
ago was found to contain some chalcopyrite and molybde-
nite. An analysis showed the presence of 0*63 per cent,
of nickel oxide (NiO), 0*15 per cent, of cobalt oxide (CoO),
and o'39 per cent, of copper oxide (CuO). A small amount
of gold and probably also a trace of platinum were present.

Nickeliferous pyrrhotite occurs also at various localities
in Rajputana, as at Khetri, and in the Kolar gold reefs,
associated with chalcopyrite.

Uses of Nickel

Nickel is used chiefly in the form of alloys, of which the
most important is nickel steel. There have recently been
considerable developments in the manufacture and utilisa-
tion of special steels of all kinds in this country, but for
obvious reasons the following information as regards nickel
steel and other nickel alloys is confined to information
already published.

It is of interest to note that nickel is generally present
in naturally occurring iron, as in certain meteorites ; and it
is present also in the native metal found sometimes in basic
igneous rocks, as in the basalts of Ovifak in Greenland.

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF NICKEL ORES 251

Nickel steel containing from 2J to 3J per cent, of nickel has
a much higher elastic limit and a greater tensile strength
than ordinary steel. Structures built of nickel steel can,
therefore, be safely submitted to a much higher tensional
stress than can structures built of ordinary steel. It is on
this account that nickel steel is now used so extensively in
bridge building, in naval and military armaments, and in
the motor-building industry.

A nickel steel containing 13 per cent, of nickel is stated
to be the strongest of the nickel steels, and so hard as to
be unmachinable.

In the manufacture of certain special steels nickel is
used in conjunction with chromium, and in recent years
there has been a tendency to use nickel-chromium steel
instead of simple nickel steel or nickel-chromium-vanadium
steel. Chromium is cheaper than nickel, and nickel-
chromium steels cost less to manufacture than nickel steel
of the same quality. The amount of nickel present in high-
grade nickel-chromium steel is 3*5 per cent., and the amount
of chromium 1*5 per cent. Low-grade nickel-chromium
steels contain about 1*25 per cent, of nickel and o*6 per cent,
of chromium. This variety of special steel is now being
used largely in the manufacture of motor-cars, armour-
plate, and armour-piercing projectiles.

In connection with the use of nickel-chromium steels
the remarkable ore mined at Mayari, in Cuba, is of special
interest. As already indicated (p. 242), this ore contains
sufficient nickel and chromium to yield a nickel-chromium
iron when smelted. The crude iron obtained by smelting
this ore contains about 1*4 per cent, of nickel and over
2j per cent, of chromium, and when the iron is converted
into steel nearly the whole of the nickel and part of the
chromium is retained in the steel. According to a recently
published huWetm (Bulletin 100, 191 5, U.S. Bureau of Mines),
steel made in part from Mayari iron is giving good results
in the manufacture of rails, and especially in track bolts.
The use of steel made from Mayari iron is stated to be
increasing, and the demand is such that steels of the same
composition are being made synthetically.

There is a highly useful alloy of iron and nickel which

252 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

is known as " Invar," owing to the fact that it suffers no
appreciable variation of length for ordinary variations of
temperature. It contains 36 per cent, of nickel and 0*2 per
cent, of carbon. It has a guaranteed co-efficient of expansion
as low as 0*000,000,8. It is for this reason very useful
for making tapes used in surveying, and for many other
purposes. It is well suited for making clock pendulums,
especially those used in hot countries.

Nickel steels of the " Invar" type, containing more than
24 per cent, of nickel are characterised by a low degree of
magnetic permeability, and some of them are stated to be
practically non-magnetic at ordinary temperatures. They
are used to a small extent for electrical resistance.

A nickel steel containing 46 per cent, of nickel and 0*15
per cent, of carbon is known by the name of " platinite."
It has about the same co-efficient of expansion as glass, and
for that reason has been used to some extent as a substi-
tute for platinum in the manufacture of electrical lamp
bulbs. For use in this way a compound wire having a
nickel-steel core (with 38 per cent, nickel), and an outer
case of copper is now more generally used, and has been
found to be a better substitute for platinum.

When alloyed with copper and zinc, nickel yields a
white metal which is widely used for the manufacture of
domestic articles under the names German silver, Nevada
silver, argentan, etc.

One of the most important alloys of nickel and copper
is that known by the name of Monell metal, from the name
of its discoverer. This alloy contains about 70 per cent, of
nickel. The remainder is chiefly copper, with small
amounts of iron and carbon. It is a white metal and takes
a good polish. It has a melting-point of 1350^0., and has
the same specific gravity as copper. It can be cast or
rolled ; it has great strength, and resists corrosion. It is
recommended for use in making propellers, boilers, and
roofs exposed to acid fumes. Sheets of the metal are said
to be as flexible and malleable as copper, and wire can be
drawn in it of all sizes down to 0004 in.

An important fact about Monell metal is that it can be
obtained directly from nickel-copper matte at a cost not

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF NICKEL ORES 253

much greater than that required for the production of
copper.

Alloys of copper and nickel are used for a variety of
purposes. The alloy " constantan " contains 40 per cent,
of nickel and 60 per cent, of copper. It is used for electrical
resistances. Another alloy used for this purpose is " man-
ganin," containing 12 per cent, of nickel, 84 per cent of
copper, and 4 per cent, of manganese. An alloy containing
85 per cent, of copper and 15 per cent, of nickel is being
used under the name of " cupro-nickel " in the United
States for making bullet-jackets, for which purpose it is
stated to be admirably adapted on account of its non-
corrosive qualities.

Vessels made of pure nickel are used for laboratory
purposes. A considerable amount of nickel is used in the
form of nickel sulphate for electro-plating. The whiteness,
strength, and durability of pure nickel, and the fact that it
is not liable to tarnish have led to its employment for
coinage. Nickel-bronze is also sometimes used for this
purpose.

It is estimated that, up to the end of 191 2, 909,167,567
pure nickel coins had been issued. The number of nickel
bronze coins containing 25 per cent, nickel issued up to
that date is estimated at 4,543,799,57l

SAPPHIRE-MINING INDUSTRY OF ANAKIE,
QUEENSLAND

The mining of sapphires in the Anakie sapphire-field of
Central Queensland has for many years been one of the
interesting subsidiary features of the Queensland mining
industry. Sapphires were discovered in this area about
forty years ago, and since then a large amount of the
gemstone has been mined. At first the stones were not
considered to be very attractive, due presumably to the
fact that they presented novelties of colour, and it took
some time to develop a demand, which seems to have come
chiefly from Russia through the medium of German agents.
It is, therefore, not surprising to find that the sapphire-

254 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

mining industry of Anakie suffered a set-back during the
war between Russia and Japan. It recovered from this,
however, and gradually improved its position in conse-
quence of a growing taste for the colour varieties of
sapphire peculiar to the Anakie field.

The record year was 191 3, when the estimated value of
the output was ;^43,292. During the first half of the year
1914 the industry was fairly prosperous, and though prices
were lower than during 191 3, the development of the field
made progress. On the outbreak of the war, however, the
industry collapsed owing to the fact that the buying,
cutting, and retailing of the Anakie sapphires had been
monopolised by Germans; and 75 per cent, of the popu-
lation of this gem-mining district had to leave and seek
work elsewhere.

According to the Report of the Under-Secretary for
Mines, Queensland, for the year 191 5 {Queensland Govt.
Min. Journ.y 1916, p. 115), the year 1915 was the dullest on
record for sapphire mining, and the value of the total
output was only £600. The outlook at the end of the year
was more hopeful, and it is stated that arrangements have
now been made to market the stones in London, through
an agency which would deal with all classes of stone, and
operate quite independently of enemy countries.

In view of the fact that the best sapphires from Anakie
make very attractive gems, it seems highly desirable that
they should be more widely known. The following brief
account of the nature, mode of occurrence, and mining of
sapphire at Anakie is given for the purpose of helping to
spread a knowledge of these gems among those interested
in the resources of the Empire.

Mineralogical Characters of the Anakie Sapphires

The crystalline form of the Anakie sapphires is fairly
typical. The hexagonal pyramid is common, but the prism
is comparatively rare. The usual rhombohedral form also
occurs, and crystals are frequently terminated by a basal
plane. Basal and rhombohedral partings frequently occur,
and in consequence of these, basal " cleavage " plates,

SAPPHIRE-MINING INDUSTRY OF ANAKIE 255

showing the familiar triangular striations on the base, are
not uncommon. In some instances the basal parting planes
are so fine that they give a moonstone-effect in the polished
stone. Stones of the star-sapphire type, showing the phe-
nomenon of " asterism," also occur.

The hardness of the Anakie sapphires is stated to be
somewhat variable. Lapidaries find in cutting the stones
that some portions are more difficult to cut than others,
and they have repeatedly stated that in some specimens the
hardness is greater than 9, which is the degree of hardness
of typical corundum.

The specific gravity of many specimens which have been
examined has varied from 4 to 4'05. The colour is variable,
and the following eight varieties have been observed :
sapphire (blue), "oriental amethyst" (purple), "oriental
ruby " (red), " oriental peridote " (green), " oriental chry-
soberyl " (yellowish green), " oriental topaz " (yellow),
" oriental cat's eye " (smoky), and " oriental moonstone "
(pearly).

The lustre of the clear stones is stated to be " almost
adamantine," but in the coarser translucent varieties it
may be opalescent, bronzy, milky, pearly, or silky. Opaque
varieties are usually black, but sometimes also brownish-
black, dark blue, light blue, and greyish-white.

In some of the stones foreign mineral matter has
penetrated the parting planes, in some instances rendering
the stone opaque. In other instances a blood-red colour
may be seen along certain directions, due to the deposition
of films of haematite. Magnetite occurs as inclusions in
some specimens, sometimes in the form of microscopic
crystals. In several specimens of deep-green sapphire,
magnetite was observed in dusty masses, and in one
crushed specimen it was readily detected both with the
blow-pipe and magnet.

Geological Features

The oldest and most widespread rocks of the district
are granites, syenites, gneisses, schists, and slates. Pegma-
tite, porphyry, and felsite occur abundantly as intrusions
traversing the granites and gneisses in all directions.

256 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Rhyolites and intrusive diorites also occur. Slates pre-
dominate in the eastern portion of the district. In some
places the slates dip vertically and are disturbed by diorite
intrusions.

There is a conspicuous break in succession between
these older rocks and the next younger formation — the
Drummond beds. The Drummond beds consist chiefly of
shales, sandstones, and conglomerates. They are of doubt-
ful age, but possibly Permo-carboniferous.

No Mesozoic beds are found in situ ; but there occur in
the surface alluvial deposits certain boulders of rock that
may have been derived from younger beds which formerly
existed in this area, but which have been denuded away.
These boulders are known locally as ** billy " ; they consist
of hard flinty quartzite, and are of frequent occurrence in
the alluvial deposits of Central Queensland. Their exact
origin is doubtful. They have been regarded as remnants
of a Mesozoic formation, but it has also been suggested that
they have been formed by the cementation of sand under-
lying the basalt (see below).

The youngest formations of the district are alluvial
deposits and flows of basalt. The alluvium partly under-
lies and partly covers the basalt. Peaks of basalt occur in
many places, but no extensive sheets of it are known at
present. It is suspected, however, that basalts formerly
covered a large area in the district, and that they have been
largely removed by denudation. Some of the basaltic
peaks reach a considerable altitude, and heights of 2,000 ft.
or more above sea-level are recorded.

Origin of the Sapphire

The study of the basalt has thrown some light on the
problem of the origin of the sapphire. At Mount Hoy,
spinel of the pleonaste variety was found to occur abun-
dantly in the basalt, and the crystals had the appearance of
being corroded. A specimen of pale-blue sapphire was
found on the summit of Mount Hoy, at a height of 500 ft.
above the highest of the sapphire-bearing alluvial deposits,
and it is considered probable that the sapphire, like the

SAPPHIRE-MINING INDUSTRY OF ANAKIE 257

pleonaste associated with it, was weathered out of the
basalt.

At Mount Leura, one of the loftiest of the basalt peaks,
a piece of bronze-black corundum was found embedded in
the basalt. Other minerals enclosed in the basalt at Mount
Leura are pleonaste, ilmenite, hornblende, olivine, plagio-
clase, and quartz, all of which show corrosion effects.
From the summit of Black Peak, the highest of the basalt
peaks, pleonaste, ilmenite, hornblende, and corundum were
obtained.

An interesting occurrence of basalt is that at Policeman
Knob, where an old alluvial deposit lying on mica schist is
covered by a sheet of basalt. Here zircons are numerous
in the alluvial deposits underlying the basalt, but sapphire
is not associated with them. This occurrence of zircon and
absence of sapphire in the alluvium underlying the basalt,
taken in conjunction with the proved occurrence of corun-
dum in and on the basalt, leads to the conclusion that the
sapphires have probably been derived from the basalt
Confirmatory evidence for this view is provided by the fact
that basalt is associated with sapphire in the sapphire-
bearing gravels.

The Sapphire Deposits

As already pointed out, the sapphire occurs in surface
gravels of younger age than the basalt, from which they
have probably been derived. There are some four or five
important sapphire-bearing alluvial deposits, and various
others smaller and less important The chief deposits are
those of the Central, Tomahawk, Boot and Kettle, Police-
man, and Retreat Creeks. Of these only the deposits on
the Policeman and Retreat Creeks were being worked
recently. It was on the Retreat Creek that sapphire was
discovered about forty years ago.

The thickness of the sapphire-bearing alluvium varies
considerably in different parts of the field. In some places
it is only a few inches thick, in others several feet. At the
base of it there is frequently a layer of reddish clay resting
on decomposed schists and slates. In some instances,
however, sapphire-bearing gravel underlies this layer of

258 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

reddish clay. The gravel is in some places very clayey ; in
other places it is practically free from clay, and can be
more readily sifted and worked. The sapphire is not dis-
tributed uniformly through the gravel; in some instances
small patches only are found to be sapphire-bearing, and
these are surrounded by large quantities of barren gravel.
In other instances there is a nearer approach to uniformity
of distribution, the sapphire occurring more generally
throughout large masses of gravel. The colour of the
gravel, where its rests on a foundation of the older rocks,
varies with the natui-e of the rock. It has been observed
that the gravel tends to a reddish colour where it rests on
schists and slates, and to yellowish on granite, whilst it
is almost black where it rests on basalt or other basic
igneous rocks.

The mineral composition of the gravel does not vary
very much in different parts of the district, the most note-
worthy difference being that "billy" is abundant in the
gravels of Retreat Creek and other creeks trending east-
ward, whereas it is absent in most of the deposits on
Tomahawk Creek and other creeks trending northward.

Minerals other than sapphire found in the sapphire-
bearing gravels include spinel (spinel ruby and pleonaste
varieties), garnet (pyrope variety), zircon, quartz (rock
drystal, amethyst, and cairngorm varieties), chalcedony
(carnelian variety), rutile, magnetite, ilmenite, tourmaline,
hornblende, topaz, and diamond. Diamonds, however,
appear to be very scarce. A colourless, flawless crystal
of diamond weighing ij carats was found some years ago
at Policeman Creek; and two straw-coloured diamonds
weighing about i carat each are reported to have been
found in Retreat Creek.

Method of Working the Gravel

The mining of the Anakie sapphire deposits has been
carried on by holders of small claims, and the methods
adopted in obtaining and treating the gravel have been
rather simple and perhaps lacking in efficiency. The
methods of digging adopted are described as (i) "sur-
facing," or simply removing and treating the soil; (2) "deep

SAPPHIRE-MINING INDUSTRY OF ANAKIE 259

surfacing," which necessitates the removal of several feet
of overburden that may or may not carry sapphire; and
(3) sinking shafts through the overburden into the sapphire-
bearing gravel, the boulders and large pebbles of which
are packed behind to prevent caving and to save unnecessary
haulage.

Where the gravel is coarse and the sapphires are of
fairly large size, hand-raking is adopted and the gems are
picked out. Otherwise, sieves are used to screen the
material. One type is a small circular sieve swung from
a tripod. Another type is a double screen, the upper sieve
of which has a i-in. or ij-in. mesh, whilst the lower sieve
has a J-in. mesh. Where the double screen is used the
material that passes the upper sieve and is caught on the
lower sieve is reserved for further treatment in a rotary
machine, which may be driven by hand, horse, or engine.
Oil engines have been introduced and used successfully for
this purpose.

The recently adopted practice of using rotary machines
to sort the gravel has proved to be a substantial economy
of labour. The rotary machine in use is described as a
circular iron pan, 5 ft. in diameter and i ft. deep, with a
marginal feed and a central discharge. The wet gravel as
fed in is stirred up by blades, set diagonally, each 10 in.
long and 2 in. wide, attached to four arms driven from a
central shaft making seven revolutions per minute.

The gemstones and heavy minerals are thrown back
towards the margin of the pan, and the slush escapes as
waste at the centre of the pan. The concentration effected
is in the ratio of about 50 to i. The concentrates are then
roughly classified by sifting and the sapphires picked out

The yield of the gravel is variable. At the Scrub
working, on the south side of Policeman Creek, the average
yield per load is given as J oz. of " parcel blues," J oz.
" small blues," and ij oz. " machine stone." " Parcel blues "
are defined as those of medium size ; " small blues " are
mostly less than i carat in weight ; " machine stones " are
defective in colour and are up to | oz. in weight.

At some workings "fancy" stones are sought chiefly,
and the yield of stones of this character is uncertain.

26o BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Large blue stones and coarse corundum crystals are
obtained in some places. Gravel yielding i oz. of " parcel
blues " per load can generally be worked without loss, but
if less than a foot of gravel has to be mined, a return of
I oz. per load may be necessary for profitable working.

In April 191 3 the prices realised for stones were 5s. to
£S per dwt. for fancy stones; £2 10s. to £6 per oz. for large
blue stones; 35s. per oz. for parcel blues; 75. 6d. per oz.
for small blues ; and 35. to 35. 6ci. for machine stones.
Pieces of opaque corundum over i oz. sold at 6s, to 85. per
oz. An inferior or flawed variety of stone sold as "schneid"
at IS. 6d. per lb.

Much of the corundum and sapphire found at Anakie
has proved to be valuable for mechanical purposes, and
when free from fracture, though it may be useless for
ordinary gem purposes, can be made into small bearings
and pivots for parts of machines running at high speeds.

It is noteworthy that there has been a strong demand
for dark violet-blue stones. These stones are so dark that
they appear quite opaque in dull weather, and can only be
identified on a cloudless day. In the larger sizes (up to
3 oz. in weight), stones of this colour sell for as much as
£$ per oz., although they yield a black stone when cut
locally, and it is suspected that the Germans have some
method whereby they can modify the colour. It may be
suggested that this is probably done by the simple method
of heating the stone. Many minerals, such as, for instance,
smoky zircon, have their colour modified and their trans-
parency greatly increased after having been heated to
redness ; and a specimen of Anakie sapphire examined at
the Imperial Institute showed a greatly increased trans-
parency as the result of this treatment.

Output

In the year 1900, the first year for which the output
of Anakie sapphire was reported, the estimated value of
the output for the year was given at ;£"2,5oo. Since that
date there has been a substantial increase, and in 1913 the
year's output reached a value of ;^43,292. As already
pointed out, however, the industry was practically brought

SAPPHIRE-MINING INDUSTRY OF ANAKIE 261

to a standstill during 1914 at the outbreak of the present
war, owing to the fact that the market was controlled by
German agents. The value of the output for 1914 is esti-
mated at ;^i5,ooo, and that of 191 5 at £600. For fuller
details on the Anakie sapphire industry see " The Sapphire
Fields of Anakie," by B. Dunstan {Publication No. 172, 1902,
GeoL Surv.f Queensland)', and "Notes on the Anakie Sap-
phire Fields," by L. C. Ball {Queensland Govt. Min. Joum.,
1913, 14, 233).

SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF HAZEL-NUTS

The various kinds of hazel-nuts, or filberts as they are
sometimes called, are the produce of species of Corylus,
a genus of shrubs or small trees native to the temperate
parts of Europe, Asia, and North America. Collectively
these nuts are known in commerce as " small nuts," the
different kinds being distinguished by trade names accord-
ing to their country of origin. A considerable quantity of
hazel-nuts is produced in this country, and supplementing
this supply there is a large annual import derived chiefly
from Spain, Italy, and Asiatic Turkey. Hazel-nuts are not
at present grown on a commercial scale in any of the
British possessions outside the United Kingdom, and, in
view of the large demand for these nuts which is met
almost entirely by imports from foreign countries, it would
appear to be desirable to introduce or extend the cultiva-
tion of this crop in countries within the Empire. It is
possible that it would succeed in parts of the Union of
South Africa, Rhodesia, British East Africa, Australia, and
Cyprus, where land not suited to choicer fruit crops might
be utilised.

The value of small nuts depends upon the supplies
available, and also upon the size of the almond crops, as
hazel-nuts are used as a cheap substitute for almonds,
especially when the latter are scarce. During the season
191 5 to 1916 the prices of hazel-nuts ruled very high, and
supplies from Turkey were not procurable. The price of
Spanish nuts per sack in December 191 5 was 60s., as
against 385. per sack in 1914; Barcelonas were quoted at

262 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

48s. per bag, as against 305. to 35s. during the preceding
year ; whilst Sicilian nuts were 425. 6d. per bag.

United Kingdom. — The hazel-nuts produced in this country
are derived from cultivated forms of Corylus Avellana, or
hybrids between that species and C. maxima. They are
grown chiefly in Kent, and are marketed as filberts or cob-
nuts. These terms are rather loosely applied, but,
generally speaking, varieties in which the leafy cups are
shorter than the nuts are termed cob-nuts, whilst those
with cups as long as, or longer than, the nuts are termed
filberts. The nuts of the former are usually of roundish
shape, whilst filberts are generally oblong in outline. There
is no reason why the cultivation of these nuts should be
confined to Kent, as the nut-bush is not exacting as to soil
or climate. The most suitable soil is a light, well-drained
loam in an open situation ; soils that are rich and wet, or
situated in shady positions, are liable to produce much
wood and only a small yield of nuts. The point of most
importance connected with the cultivation of hazel-nuts
is the pruning of the bushes, and neglect of this is the
chief cause of failure. In Kent the young bushes, pre-
pared in nurseries for planting out, consist of a stem 12
to 18 in. high, from the head of which about six branches
radiate in the form of a bowl, the centre being left open.
These branches are shortened to outward-pointing buds,
and from the resulting growths about twelve main branches
are secured. The flowers are produced on wood of the
preceding year's growth, and the annual pruning consists
in cutting back all strong growths to the main branches
to form " spurs," leaving only the best of the young wood
to fruit. The growths that have borne fruit are in turn
spurred ba^k to the main branches to make room for
younger growths. This pruning should not be done until
March after the male flowers have shed their pollen, so as
to ensure an ample supply of pollen for the female flowers.
The nut-bushes are planted out at least 20 ft. apart each way,
the space intervening being utilised for growing vegetables
or bush-fruits until the nut-bushes have attained their full
size. Propagation is effected by planting nuts, or more
commonly by means of layers and suckers taken from

SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF HAZEL-NUTS 263

parent bushes. There are a number of named varieties
in cultivation, the most commonly met with amongst the
filberts being the " Red," " White," " Cosford," and
" Frizzled " varieties, and amongst cob nuts the " Kentish
Cob or Lambert Filbert," " Merveille de BoUwyller,"
" Pearson's Prolific," and ** Berger." A yield of 100 tons
of nuts has been frequently obtained from a plantation of
100 acres in Kent, whilst as high a yield as 2J tons per
acre was recorded for some localities in 1904, which was
an exceptional year. The usual wholesale price is about
Sd. per lb.

Spain. — In Spain the hazel-nut can be grown in all the
cultivated zones, but it is chiefly in the Catalan Provinces
of Gerona and Tarragona that the crop is of commercial
importance. The nut-bushes are grown in fields inter-
cropped with other products, such as grain, or they are
planted in market gardens, by the sides of ditches, roads,
or banks, or as hedges to mark boundaries. In Gerona
the principal nut-growing area is the " Selva," in the
district of Santa Colonna de Fames, whilst in Tarragona
the crop is produced in the neighbourhood of the capital
and at Tortosa and Montblanch. The light but moist
soil of this area, and the facilities for exporting the nuts
to the home market and to other European countries,
have made nut-growing a flourishing industry. The
hazel-nuts imported into the United Kingdom from Spain
are known on the market as " Spanish " and ** Barcelona"
nuts; the former are shipped from Gijon, a port in the
Bay of Biscay, and the latter from Tarragona, a Mediter-
ranean port. The Spanish nuts are grown in the Pro-
vinces of Galicia and Asturias, and are considered to be
the produce of cultivated forms of C maxima. The varieties
chiefly grown are known locally as " Mallorquina " or
" Negreta de la Selva," a large nut with a hard reddish
shell completely filled by the kernel, and " Asturiana,"
which is a medium-sized or small nut produced in bunches
of three or four.

The total annual crop of hazel-nuts produced in Spain
is valued at over half a million sterling, whilst the quantity
exported is valued at about ;^4qo,ooo.

264 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

The following figures, which are taken from the Diplo-
matic and Consular Reports on the Corunna district of
Spain for the years quoted, show the quantities and values
of the nuts exported from the Port of Gijon :

X902.

1904.

1906.

1908.

1910.

1912.

Quantity (tons) 2,172

805

1,199

•65

1.983

2,769

Value . . ;^39.096

14,490

21,581

2,970

35.794

49,842

Formerly the United Kingdom took the bulk of this
export, but during recent years Germany and the Argentine
have become importing countries.

The so-called Barcelona nuts, which are grown in
Tarragona, are derived from C. maxima var. barcelonensis.
The average yield is said to be about 55 lb. of nuts per
bush. As seen in commerce the nuts usually have a dark
shell, which is due to their being kiln-dried in order to
improve their keeping qualities. They are shipped from
Tarragona in bags containing about 128 lb. each.

Of recent years there has been a demand for shelled
nuts, which are shipped in bags weighing about 220 lb.
each. About half the entire crop has been exported in this
condition, the principal importing countries being Germany,
the United States, and the United Kingdom. The following
figures, taken from the Diplomatic and Consular Reports
on the Barcelona district for the years quoted, give the
quantities and values of the hazel-nuts shipped from
Tarragona to the United Kingdom and British Colonies :

1909.

1910.

1911.

1912.

1913.

Nuts, in shell (bags) . 53,223

36,400

46,560

19,510

15.790

Nuts, shelled (bags) . 5,749

8,240

7.105

10,617

4,870

Value. . . ;i^ 103,257

104,640

112,470

92,967

40,730

To the above figures for 19 12 must be added 300 barrels
of nuts, weighing 180 kilos, each, valued at ;{^i,8oo, and to
the 191 3 figures 140 barrels valued at £^A0-

Italy. — Large quantities of hazel-nuts are produced in
South Italy, particularly in the province of Avellino ; a
good proportion of this crop is consumed locally when
prices are low, but there is usually a considerable quantity
annually exported from the port of Naples. The principal
countries which have imported Naples filberts, as these

igog.

1910.

1911.

1912.

1913.

6,037

3.249

2,355

3.003

3.777

SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF HAZEL-NUTS 265

nuts are called, are the United States, Germany, Holland,
Austria-Hungary, France, and the United Kingdom in the
order named. The following figures, taken from the
Diplomatic and Consular Reports on Naples for the years
quoted, show the quantities of hazel-nuts exported during
recent years :

Tons .

Of recent years Sicilian cob-nuts have attracted attention
on the English market owing to deficiency of crops in other
producing countries. In Sicily hazel-nuts are grown in
woods at an elevation of more than 1,200 ft. above sea-level.
The highest yield recorded for Sicily was in the year 191 3,
when the crop amounted to 13,000 tons. These nuts have
been sent chiefly to Central Europe from the ports of
Palermo and Messina in bags of 50 kilos, (no lb.) each.
The following figures, taken from the Diplomatic and
Consular Reports on Sicily for the years quoted, show the
quantities exported during recent years :

1908. 1909. 1910. 1911. 1912. 1913.

Palermo (met, tons) . 398 1,987 2,194 2,756 636 1,068

Messina (Brit, tons) . — ^1,025 '2,145 '5,682 '2,354 '945

» Filberts and Walnuts,

Cyprus. — In Cyprus the hazel-nut grows luxuriantly in
the hill villages, and the nuts produced are of good size
and fine appearance. In an article in the Cyprus Agric,
Joiinu (1916, No. 41, p. 916) the Inspector of Agriculture
points out that the hazel-nuts exported from Cyprus are
gathered before they attain full maturity, and that therefore
the kernels are relatively small and soon become rancid.
The necessity for allowing the nuts to become fully ripe
before harvesting them is emphasised, and the extension of
the cultivation of this crop in Cyprus is urged. In the
Cyprus export statistics, hazel-nuts are not separately
recorded, and it would therefore appear that the exports
are at present small.

Asia Minor. — The hazel-nuts obtained from Asiatic Turkey
are known as Turkish or Trebizond nuts, and in former

266 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

times they were spoken of as Pontic hazels. They are the
produce of Corylus Colurna^ a tree of moderate size,
attaining a height of 60 to 80 ft. if allowed to develop
fully. This species, or one or other of its geographical
forms, is distributed from South-east Europe through Asia
Minor and the Caucasus to the Himalayas and Western
China. The cultivation of hazel-nuts for export is ex-
tensively carried on in the Black Sea coast region within
30 miles of the sea, from Khopa, on the Russian frontier,
to Fatsa, which is just east of Unieh. The following
account of the methods of cultivation and preparation of
the nuts for export is taken from Diplomatic and Consular
Reports on the Trebizond Vilayet. The nut-bushes,
consisting of suckers or layers, are planted in a light loamy
soil which is naturally well drained. They are planted in
the autumn in clumps of seven about three yards apart. The
trees, or rather shrubs, begin to bear in four years, are
best at eight years, and cease to yield satisfactorily at
twenty years. Each tree produces annually from 16 to
24 lb. of nuts, which are of three kinds : the round, the
pointed, and the almond-shaped. The pointed are usually
10 per cent, and the almond shaped 30 per cent, dearer
than the round nuts, which form about 70 per cent, of
the whole crop. The bulk of the round nuts are shelled
before being shipped. The nuts are first sorted by revolving
screens, then cracked by means of stone-mills, after which
the kernels are dried in the sun and then packed in sacks
for export. The shelling reduces the weight to half, and in
consequence there is a saving on freight charges of 50 per
cent, when nuts are exported shelled. The work of
shelling also gives employment locally to several thousands
of people. The bad practice of tinting the nuts a fine
yellow hue by exposing them to the fumes of sulphur is
said to be still practised to some extent, although this adds
to the cost of the product.

The following figures give the production of hazel-nuts
during recent years in the Trebizond Vilayet :

1902-10 (average). 1911. 1912. 1913.

cwts. cwts. cwts. cwls.

564,775 943.815 672,801 667,04$

SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF HAZEL-NUTS 267

The Kerassond is the chief district of production, its
crop usually averaging from three-eighths to nearly five-
eighths of the whole. The combined crops of Trebizond,
Yomura, Off, Surmeneh, and Tazestan furnish between
them from about one-quarter to three-eighths, whilst the
remainder comes from the Tripoli-Eleon, Ordu, and Sharli
Fol districts in unequal proportions. Of the exports, about
48 per cent, have usually gone to Germany, 22 per cent, to
Austria-Hungary, and about 14 per cent, each to France
and the United Kingdom. Exports to Russia have
practically ceased, as nuts are successfully grown within
Russian territory from Batum to Soukhoum Kaleh.

Uses of Hazel-nuts

Hazel-nuts are used as dessert-nuts, and also in the
preparation of various nut-foods and nut-chocolate. They
are also used as a cheap substitute for almonds in the
preparation of various nut-pastes used in confectionery.

The composition of fresh kernels of hazel (filbert) nuts
is shown in the following table :

Hazel-nut kernels.
Per cent.

Water 48-0

Crude proteins 8*4

Fat 28-5

Starch, etc. (by difference) . . . ii*i

Fibre 2*5

Ash 1*5

Nutrient ratio * i : 9-12

Food units ^ 103-4

' For meaning of these terms see p. 155.

Hazel-nut kernels yield a bland golden-yellow oil with
the characteristic odour of hazel-nuts. The oil resembles
almond-oil, but has a lower iodine value.

368

BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

>The Colonial Office.

NOTES

Imperial Institute : Appointment of Executive Council. — An
account of the Imperial Institute (Management) Act, 1916,
appeared in this Bulletin (19 16, 14, 102). The Executive
Council provided for under Section i (4) of the Act has
now been appointed, and is constituted as follows :

The Rt. Hon. Lord Islington, G.C.M.G., D.S.O., Par.\ Appointed by

liamentary Under-Secretary of State for India.

The Rt. Hon. Lord Burnham.

The Rt. Hon. Lord Emmott, G.C.M.G., Director of
the War Trade Department.

The Rt. Hon. the Earl of Scarbrough, K.C.B.,
Chairman of the Niger Company.

Prof. Wyndham R. Dunstan, C.M.G., F.R.S., Direc-
tor of the Imperial Institute.

Sir Algernon Firth, Bart., President of the Associa-
tion of Chambers of Commerce of the United
Kingdom.

Mr. G. E. A. Grindle, C.M.G., Assistant Under-
Secretary of State for the Colonies.

Mr. R. M. Kindersley, Director of the Bank of
England.

Mr. T. C. Macnaghten, Colonial Office.

Mr. D. O. Malcolm, Director of the British South
Africa Company.

Sir Owen Philipps, K.C.M.G., M.P., Chairman,
Royal Mail Steam Packet Company.

Sir Marshall Reid, C.I.E,, Member of the India
Council, formerly Chairman, Bombay Chamber
of Commerce.

Sir William Taylor, K.C.M.G., formerly Resident-
General of the Malay States.

Mr. R. Threlfall, F.R.S., Member of the Advisory
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. /

Sir W. H. Clark, K.C.S.I., C.M.G., formerly MemberN
for Commerce and Industry, Governor-General's I
Council, India. >The Board of Trade.

Mr. H. Fountain, C.M.G., Assistant Secretary, I
Board of Trade. J

Sir J. P. Hewett, G.C.S.I., CLE., formerly Lieu-^

tenant-Governor, United Provinces, India. I The Secretary of State

Mr. L. J. Kershaw, C.I.E., Secretary, Revenue and j for India.
Statistics Department, India Office. J

Sir Sydney Olivier, K.C.M.G., Permanent Secretary, I „ ^ r a u
« / r A • 1* J t:- u • \ Board of Agriculture

Board of Agriculture and Fisheries. I d F' h

Sir R. W. Carlyle, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., formerly Mem-
ber for Revenue and Agriculture, Governor
General's Council, India.

The Hon. Sir George H. Perley, K.C.M.G., Acting'i The Government of the
High Commissioner for Canada. J Dominion of Canada.

■•}

The Government
India.

NOTES 269

Appointed by

_, _ -- - , „. , TT- . /- • • rThe Government of the
The Rt. Hon. Andrew tisher, High Commissioner I ^ ,.u r

° \ Commonwealth of

for Austraha. a * i-

V Austraha.

T^x. TT 117 D c u • V r- r-xK n u- u f^hc Government of the

The Hon. W. P. Schremer, K.C., C.M.G., High ... . ^ ^,

_ • c*uAf i Union of South

Commissioner for South Africa. I .^ .

The Hon. Sir Thomas Mackenzie, K.C.M.G, Highf Dominio^^of ^New
Commissioner for New Zealand. I Zealand

,-- . , V fThe Government of

(Not yet appointed.) | Newfoundland.

At the first meeting of the Council, held at the Imperial
Institute on June 16, Lord Islington was elected Chairman.

At a meeting of the Council held on July 7, in addition
to a Finance and General Purposes Committee, the appoint-
ment of Special Committees for India, Canada, Australia,
South Africa, and for various Colonies and Protectorates
was decided on, with a view to developing and extending the
work of the Institute for India and the respective Dominions
and Colonies.

The following article appeared in The Times of June 1 5
in connection wMth the announcement of the appointment of
the Executive Council :

" Imperial Institute

" The formal transference of the Imperial Institute to
the Colonial Office and the reconstitution of its management
have attracted little public attention in the daily rush of
more exciting events. But they form a definite step in the
organisation of the Empire, full of significance and promise
for the future.

'* The more effective utilisation of the natural resources
of the Empire for commerce and industry is one of the

firoblems that have been brought to the front by the war.
t is intimately bound up with the closer union of the com-
ponent States which is now generally recognised as a certain
sequel of the present struggle. The war has brought them
all together in defence of their common interests, and has
at the same time revealed the danger of dependence on
enemy countries for materials which can be produced within
the Empire, and of allowing German agencies to control
British products.

" The Institute is not new to the work. On the contrary,
it has for several years been doing valuable service in help-
ing to develop and utilise the natural resources of the British
Dominions. It has done so by exercising two important
functions ; it has acted as a centre of industrial and com-
mercial intelligence, and as a laboratory of technical research
for the raw materials of the Empire.

" It has, in fact, been at work during the war filling some

270 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

of the gaps caused by the cessation of trade with enemy
countries. It has given technical advice and assistance to
manufacturers and traders in regard to a number of sub-
stances the supply of which was cut off or curtailed by the
war. One of these is potash, an extremely important raw
material for which we have been almost wholly dependent
on Germany, where there are the largest known natural
deposits of the world. Potash is essential for many branches
of manufacture of primary importance — and particularly for
chemicals and manures — and the provision of an alternative
supply is one of those problems of applied science which
we shall have to solve in earnest hereafter. The Imperial
Institute has been able to help by supplying information on
the subject, but that is only a beginnmg.

"Another instance is in the manufacture at home of raw
materials from British possessions, which used to be ex-
ported to Germany for the purpose. The conversion of
palm kernels and copra into oil and cake is a prominent
example. Largely through the technical information and
advice supplied by the Institute, producers of these materials
have found an alternative market in Great Britain, where
the manufacture of oil-seed products has been correspond-
ingly extended.

"A third line of development is the introduction of new
materials to meet an increased demand or a diminished
supply; it is illustrated by the application of wattle bark
from Australia, South and East Africa for tanning leather,
A fourth field is the exploitation of new sources for increasing
the supply of materials for * key ' industries, such as high-
speed tool steel ; instances of this are the working of
molybdenum ore for alloys in Canada and the supply of
plumbago for crucibles and other purposes from Ceylon.
Other examples of new commercial and industrial enter-
prises stimulated by the war and promoted by the Imperial
Institute as an organising and technical centre are the
manufacture of thymol for surgical purposes, the use of
dura as a feeding stuff, the supply of natural dyestuffs, the
preparation of atropine from Egyptian henbane, the use of
South African in place of Turkish box-wood.

"The foregoing list of recent positive activities, brief
and incomplete as it is, will probably surprise a good many
readers, who have no conception either of the multifarious
possibilities of commercial development within the Empire,
or of the part played by the Imperial Institute in realising
them. The false start made on wrong lines when the Insti-
tute was opened in 1893 led to a rapid decline of public
interest, from which it has suffered ever since. As a matter
of fact, it has been gradually struggling, through a series
of changes, into the position it was originally intended to
occupy.

** It is just another example of the national practice of

NOTES 271

muddling through and working out, by the method oisolvitur
ambulando, a sound, practical, efficient machine from a
clumsy, stupid, misdirected first attempt. This has been
accomplished by a gradual process of improvement carried
out mainly since the transfer of the Institute to the Govern-
ment in 1903, and the appointment of the present Director,
Prof. Wyndham Dunstan, who had been head of the tech-
nical department under the previous management, and to
whose efforts its practical evolution is mainly due. The
Institute was built as a national memorial of Queen
Victoria's Jubilee in 1887, and its object was * to promote
the utilisation of the industrial and commercial resources
of the Empire.' It is now at last, we hope and believe, to
come fully into its own.

" The transfer to the Colonial Office is the last step in a
series of departmental changes. In 1903 control was vested
in the Board of Trade ; in 1907 this was changed to a sort
of triple management, shared between the Board of Trade,
the Colonial Office, and, in part, the India Office, though
the Board of Trade remained the statutory Department in
control. The new Act abolishes this awkward and unwork-
able arrangement, and substitutes the single authority of
the Colonial Office for the previous divided responsibility.

"At the same time the internal management of the
Institute has been reconstituted on a different basis. It is
placed under an executive council directly responsible to
the Colonial Office. The Council is composed of twenty-five
members representing the Colonial Office (fourteen), the
Board of Trade and the India Office (two each), and the
Governments of each of the Dominions and India. The
Colonial Office, of course, represents the Crown Colonies,
which are an extremely important source of raw materials.
The idea is that the Council will act as a co-ordinating centre
for all the interests concerned. The actual working will be
managed by committees in the usual way. When the Bill
was in the House of Lords it was proposed by Lord Sudeley
that statutory recognition should be given to official repre-
sentatives of Dominions and Crown Colonies as ex officio
members, when they are in England ; but it has been left to
the Council to invite them to attend or to co-opt them as
members of any committee.

" All this promises well ; but the outcome will depend
not on the form of management, but on the energy thrown
into the working. The possibilities are unlimited, and the
opportunity fits them marvellously well. The resources
are there, and the means of utilising them by organisation
and technical research are here. If for lack of energy and
foresight we fail, at this great turning point of Imperial
destiny, to apply the latter to the former, then, however the
war may end, we shall deserve ultimate failure as an Imperial
people worthy of an incomparable heritage."

272 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Co-operation of the Chambers of Commerce with the work of
the Imperial Institute. — The importance of bringing the
operations of the Imperial Institute, in connection with the
utilisation of the raw materials of the Empire in British
industries, into closer touch with the commercial and in-
dustrial interests of this country was discussed at the
Annual Meeting of the Association of Chambers of Com-
merce recently held in London.

The following resolution was proposed by Mr. A. M.
Samuel on behalf of the Norwich Chamber ol Commerce,
and seconded by Sir William Priestley, M.P. (Bradford) :

" That the Scientific and Technical Staff of the Im-
perial Institute which works in co-operation with the
Colonial Office and the India Office, having rendered
useful service in securing industrial employment in this
country for the raw materials of the Sister States and
India, be brought into touch with the Chambers of
Commerce and that the Association should be repre-
sented on the Council of the Imperial Institute."

Mr. Samuel said that in the past the Imperial Institute
had had a staff providing the manufacturers of this country
with information with regard to the materials to be found
in the British Dominions, and the resolution would do a
great deal to strengthen the power of production in the
Empire. The Imperial Institute was primarily set up for
the purpose of helping everything connected with imperial
trade, and the staff on many occasions had discovered
materials which manufacturers could use. He had in-
tended to go into the matter very fully, but as he was
given to understand that Lord Islington and Prof. Dunstan
were to speak on the resolution he would content himself
with simply moving it.

The Rt. Hon. Lord Islington, G.C.M.G. (Under-Secre-
tary of State for India), said he was pleased to have the
opportunity of being present that day and supporting the
resolution in the capacity of Chairman of the Advisory
Committee of the Imperial Institute. As Chairman of the
Advisory Committee, he had had an opportunity of close
and intimate acquaintance with the work of the Institute,
and also, before that, as Under-Secretary for the Colonies,
he was brought into very close touch with its work in
connection with the Empire. He supported the resolution
because he believed that the work the Institute had done in
the past, and especially the work that it was doing during
the war, was of the very highest value both to the commercial
interests of the manufacturers of this country and also to
the producers of raw material throughout the Empire. He
was also confident that with extended assistance and en-
couragement the Imperial Institute in years to come, and

NOTES 273

as an outcome of the war, would play a very important
part in the commercial interests of the Empire. Nothing
had been brought more vividly before his attention during
the present war than two facts. One was that within the
wide circle of the Empire there was to be found practically
the whole of the raw material that was necessary for manu-
factures, whether for consumption in this country or for
export to foreign countries ; and, secondly, it had been
found that by no means an inconsiderable number of those
raw materials brought from the distant parts of the Empire
did not come to be manufactured in this country, but went
almost exclusively, and in some cases quite exclusively, to
be manufactured in foreign countries, especially the enemy
country of Germany. Those two aspects of commerce
were important in the eyes of the Imperial Institute, and
the Institute had tried, and he thought successfully, to
develop both those aspects, and was doing so to-day. It
was impossible in the very short time at his disposal to go
into any detail, but he would like to say briefly that there
were three main aspects of the Institute. One was its
Department of Exhibition, which drew attention to all the
raw products that were available in the Dominions and
India and the Colonies, materials which were not merely an
interesting study to those who w^ent to see them, but were
of most important use to the manufacturers of this country,
and he ventured to commend them especially to Members
of the Association. Then there was the second depart-
ment, the Scientific Research Department, consisting of
several laboratories with an able staff, although the staff
was somewhat depleted owing to the war. In those labora-
tories there were two important branches of work being
carried out— one the development of the application of a
product to the most suitable form of manufacture, and the
other experiments on raw products which hitherto have
been regarded as mere superfluities of nature in the distant
colonies, whereas, by investigation, they were converted
into useful and indispensable raw materials for manufac-
tures in this country. Thirdly, there was the Technical
Information Bureau, which worked in the closest touch
with the laboratories, and was able to put to practical
application the work of the laboratories by bringing into
direct touch with one another the manufacturers of this
country and the producers in distant colonies. It was
unnecessary for him in such an assembly to urge the in-
creasing necessity of applying research and science to raw
materials in order to convert them into manufactured
articles, and he only did so in order to emphasise the
important work the Institute was doing. For instance,
there was the antiseptic thymol, which was produced from
the oil of a seed mainly grown in India. Hitherto this
country had been dependent for its supplies of thymol on
II

'2J74 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Germany, and within six weeks of the outbreak of the war
that antiseptic had risen eight-fold in price. Owing to the
work of the Institute the manufacture of thymol was now
being carried out in this country equal in quality to that
hitherto made in Germany ; and the quantity manufactured
was increasing steadily, and, with that increase of quan-
tity, he hoped there would be a corresponding reduction
of cost. Another branch of investigation was in connec-
tion with boxwood, which was the raw material for many
parts of textile machinery, musical instruments, and many
other kinds of manufactures. That wood had hitherto
been drawn exclusively from the shores of the Caspian and
Black Seas. By an experiment on the wood of a species of
Buxus from South Africa in the Imperial Institute it had
been found that that wood possessed the same qualities as
boxwood from the Caspian, and by arrangement with the
Government of the Union of South Africa a consignment of
the wood had been sent to this country and had been sold at
fy 5s. a ton. He hoped that from now it would form the
staple substitute for the foreign raw material upon which
hitherto the country had depended. He would not go into
the details with regard to cotton, except to mention that
much had been done with regard to the perfection of
cotton. Much was also being done in the development of
the manufacture of copra, palm kernels, and ground nuts,
and he had every hope that in years to come those raw
materials, which were largely manufactured abroad, would
form a very important staple industry in this country.
The work that had been carried out in the Institute— a
most useful work which would gradually extend in years
to come — was largel}^ due to the able pioneering adminis-
tration of the Director of the Institute (Prof. Dunstan),
and both this country and the Dominions owed a debt of
gratitude to him for the energy and the zeal and the ability
he had devoted towards the advancement of the Institute.
The work of the Institute was of the utmost value to
manufacturers in this country, and would be of increasing
use to producers throughout the Empire ; and he believed
that, with assistance from the Government and the Do-
minions and India, and with encouragement from the
commercial interests, the Institute in years to come would
be regarded as by no means the least important of the
great commercial pivots of the Empire, a great centre for
scientific research, and a great channel for practical
communication between manufacturers and producers
throughout the length and breadth of the Empire.

Prof. Wyndham R. Dunstan, C.M.G. (Director of the
Imperial Institute), said it was the business of the Institute
to assist in introducing the raw materials of the Colonies
and India to the British manufacturer, and in that respect
it was not merely an office for collecting and distributing

NOTES 275

information, but also a department of industrial research
possessing extensive laboratories and an expert staff. Since
the war there had been a large increase of work in indi-
cating new sources of materials urgently required by-
manufacturers, and in providing outlets for raw materials
of the Colonies and India which formerly went to Germany
to be manufactured and returned. Many of the materials
had relation to products which were urgently needed for
the war, to which he would refer in illustration. Thymol
was a very important surgical antiseptic which a little time
ago was scarcely obtainable in this country, for the reason
that it had been entirely manufactured in Germany. At the
Imperial Institute they were able to indicate that India
possessed a very considerable supply of seeds from which
thymol could be readily obtained. It was then necessary
to do two things— first, to arrange for supplies of the seeds
to come from India, and, secondly, to indicate to the manu-
facturers the process hitherto used in Germany for extracting
the thymol. With that assistance, in a very short time
there was a quantity of thymol put on the market. Unfor-
tunately, it did not quite have the appearance of the German
thymol which the people were accustomed to, and the
Institute had to set to work to find out exactly how a par-
ticular appearance had been produced in Germany; and
they were successful in doing so, and in indicating to firms
of British manufacturers how the process ought to be
carried out. Then there was atropine, which was used in
treating diseases of the eye and in operations on the eye.
That was very largely in demand at the Front as well as at
home, and had been hitherto manufactured in Germany
almost exclusively from plants grown either in Germany or
in Northern Europe. The drug could not be procured in
Great Britain except at a fabulous price, but the Institute
was able to indicate that in Egypt there was a certain plant
which had been examined at the Institute some years ago
and found to furnish considerable quantities of atropine ;
and they at once entered into communication with Egypt and
a supply of the material was sent to this country. It had
been experimented upon by several manufacturers, who
were now using it to as large an extent as it could be sent
from Egypt for the manufacture of atropine. There had
also been a great difficulty in getting opium and morphia
obtained from opium, because supplies of opium had
hitherto come from Turkey and Persia. The Institute
had been able to show that the opium of India could be
used in place of the Turkish opium in medicine and that
it was equally suitable for making morphia; and it had
now been arranged with the Government of India to send
regular supphes of Indian opium to this country, and
the manufacturers of morphia wxre now employing that
material. The Institute had also done good work in con-

276 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

nection with minerals. They had found outlets in this
country for the plumbago of Ceylon, and had indicated
new sources of monazite, the material required for the
manufacture of incandescent gas mantles, which had
hitherto been a German monopoly. He believed that
that monopoly was now broken, and the supplies in future
would come not only from India but from the Colonies.
The Institute had also done work in connection with
wolfram, cotton, fibres, oil seeds, copra, and the ground
nuts of India. With regard to dyes, every one was aware
of the difficulty there had been in getting synthetic dyes.
In the future he hoped it would be possible to produce dyes
in this country on a large scale. The dearth of dyes had
led to considerable difficulties at the present time, and one
difficulty is the manufacture of khaki cloth. Yellow dye
was not obtainable, but the Institute had been able to
indicate that in some of the Colonies there was a wood
known as fustic, which gave the right tint for khaki cloth,
and arranged some time ago for considerable supplies to
come from Jamaica and other Colonies which had been
used for that purpose. The Institute had also been very
active in connection with new sources of paper pulp and
tanning materials. With those examples from a long list
he thought the Association would agree with him as to the
necessity of an expert department in direct touch with the
manufacturers and the producers. The great Dominions
were forging ahead, and we must look forward to the time
when they would require their raw materials for their own
manufactures. Our tropical Colonies, rich in resources of
every description, were very largely still in the position
of being, to use the late Mr. Joseph Chamberlain's memor«
able phrase, *' the undeveloped estates of the Empire."
The imperial Institute had done much to assist their
commercial development, and they now required further
co-operation with the manufacturers; and it was in that
direction that the Imperial Institute would welcome the
assistance of Chambers of Commerce throughout the
country.

The President (Sir Algernon Firth, Bart.) expressed
the very deep interest with which the Association had
listened to the most admirable remarks of Lord Islington
and Prof. Dunstan, who had given a most practical object-
lesson of how science might be the handmaid of industry.
Every one realised that the two must combine, and that
business men had to call science to their aid far more than
they had ever done before. Very few realised what the
Imperial Institute was doing for commerce, but the war
had brought the Institute to the front ; and it was easy to
see what a serious state the country would have been in if
it had not been for the research work of the Institute. He
had heard from several business men in his own locality

NOTES 277

as to the aid they had received. Business men had only to
call upon the Imperial Institute to help them in any diffi-
culties that might arise, and if the Institute could not help
them he did not think anybody else could. Far more
Government money should be devoted to research work.

The resolution was carried unanimously.

Subsequently the resolution was forwarded to the Secre-
tary of State for the Colonies, who stated that the matter
was already receiving his special attention, and as a result
the Association was invited by the Secretary of State to
nominate a representative on the new Executive Council of
the Imperial Institute. The Association accordingly nomi-
nated the President, Sir Algernon Firth, Bart.

The Association of Chambers of Commerce has since
appointed a Committee to consider and advise with regard
to the work of the Imperial Institute on raw materials. This
Committee consists of representatives of the Chambers of
Commerce of London, Manchester, Bristol, Hull, Glasgow,
Liverpool, and Middlesbrough.

Report of Committee on West African Oil Seeds. — In June 191 5
a Committee was appointed by the Colonial Office to " con-
sider and report upon the present condition and the prospects
of the West African trade in palm kernels and other edible
and oil-producing nuts and seeds, and to make recommenda-
tions for the promotion in the United Kingdom of the
industries dependent thereon."

The members of the Committee were : Mr. A. D. Steel-
Maitland, M.P., Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State
for the Colonies {Chairman) \ Sir G. V. Fiddes, K.C.M.G.,
Assistant Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies {VicC'
Chairman) ; Sir Hugh Clifford, K.C.M.G., Governor of the
Gold Coast ; Mr. L. Couper ; Prof. Wyndham R. Dunstan,
C.M.G., F.R.S., Director of the Imperial Institute ; Mr. C. C.
Knowles; Sir Frederick Lugard, G.C.M.G., C.B., D.S.O.,
Governor-General of Nigeria; Mr. T. H. Middleton, C.B.,
Board of Agriculture and Fisheries; Mr. G. A. Moore ; Sir
Owen PhiHpps, K.C.M.G., M.P. ; Mr. T. Walkden ; Sir
W. G. Watson, Bart. ; Mr. T. Wiles, M.P. ; Mr. T. Worthing-
ton, Director of the Commercial Intelligence Branch, Board
of Trade.

The Report of this Committee was presented to Parlia-
ment in June 1916 [Cd. 8247]; the Minutes of Evidence are
printed separately as [Cd. 8248].

Although all West African oil seeds and oils, including
palm kernels, palm oil, ground nuts, shea nuts and benni
(sesame) seed, came within the scope of their enquiry, the
Committee directed their attention predominantly to the
problem of establishing in the United Kingdom the trade in
palm kernels and the industries which crush them or which
refine or manufacture the oil thus obtained. This was due

278 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

to the vast dimensions of the trade in palm kernels, and the
fact that nearly the whole of the industry of crushing them
was in German hands. Readers of this Bulletin will
already be familiar with the main facts regarding the trade
in palm kernels from the article published immediately after
the outbreak of war (1914, 12, 458) ; the question has also
been dealt with at length in the Imperial Institute mono-
graph on " Oil Seeds and Feeding Cakes " published last
year by Mr. John Murray. It will suffice, therefore, to
recall the fact that in 191 3, out of a total of 234,208 tons
of palm kernels exported from British West Africa, 181,305
tons were sent to Germany and only 35,175 tons to this
country.

As a result of the evidence taken, the Committee recom-
mend an export duty of not less than £2 per ton on all palm
kernels exported from British West Africa, the duty to
continue during the war and for five years afterwards, and
to be remitted on all kernels shipped to and crushed in any
part of the British Empire. If this amount of duty is found
insufficient to divert the palm-kernel trade to this country,
the amount is to be raised until the duty is adequate to
effect its purpose.

The Committee attach great importance to the provision
of a market for palm-kernel cake in this country, and they
recommend that the efforts to extend the knowledge and
use of the cake amongst farmers should be continued. In
this connection it may be noted that the Appendixes to the
Report include a memorandum by Dr. C. Crowther on the
results of feeding experiments carried out in this country
with palm-kernel cake, the most important of which have
been summarised already in articles in this Bulletin (191 5,
13, 151, 446; and the present number, p. 280).

The principal use of palm-kernel oil is in the manufac-
ture of margarine, and, with a view to benefiting the British
margarine industry, the Committee recommend that the
Food and Drugs Act should be amended so as to allow
the addition of the words " British-made " to the word
*' margarine " on the statutory wrapper.

The Committee expressed the opinion that the Agricul-
tural and Forestry Departments of the West African
Colonies should take measures for the careful investigation
of the properties of the several varieties of oil palm in each
Colony and of the best methods of cultivation of the species
which are considered most suitable for economic purposes.
" These measures," says the Report^ " should be taken in
co-operation, on the scientific and technical side, with the
Imperial Institute, by which admirable work has been done
in the past in connection with the oil palm, and to which
much of the existing knowledge of the palm and its economic
products is due."

The Secretary of State for the Colonies has instructed

NOTES 279

the Governor-General of Nigeria, and the Governors of
Sierra Leone, the Gambia, and the Gold Coast to *' take the
report into consideration and cause the legislation necessary
to carry it into effect to be drafted as soon as practicable."

Economic Progress in Rhodesia. — The report of the Directors
of the British South Africa Company for the year ended
March 31, 191 5, shows that in Southern Rhodesia the period
was one of noticeable progress in agriculture as well as in
the mining industry, notwithstanding the war in Europe
and in territories adjacent to Rhodesia. Labour was plentiful
and cheap, ranching on a large scale was being developed,
new markets were being opened up, and new crops grown.
One of the most interesting statements in the report is that
the British South Africa Company proposes to grant free
land to the extent of 500,000 acres to British ex-soldiers
from overseas, and to provide expert advice and supervision
to assist them to make a good start in their new homes.

In Southern Rhodesia the area under crops grown by
European farmers in 1914-15 was 183,407 acres, of which
142,950 acres were in Mashonaland, where both arable and
pastoral farming are pursued, and 40,457 acres in Matabele-
land, which is mainly a pastoral country. The area under
maize was 167,012 acres and the yield 914,926 bags (equiva-
lent to about 83,175 tons). The exports of maize in 1914-15
from Southern Rhodesia were 326,353 bags (about 29,668
tons), mainly to the United Kingdom and Australia. The
grading of maize for export, which began in the previous
year, developed during the year 1914-15, and the benefits
of the system are now generally realised. The certificate
affords an assurance to buyers in oversea markets, whilst
at the same time farmers are led to take greater care in the
preparation of their produce for export.

The cattle industry developed greatly, and ranchers in-
creased their herds by the introduction of new blood from
abroad. The number of horned cattle owned by Europeans
and natives in 1914 was 748,058, as compared with 463,923
at the census of 191 1. The breeding of sheep for the pro-
duction of mutton and wool is extending, and a slight
diminution occurred in the number of slaughter sheep im-
ported during the year. Southern Rhodesia is conspicuous
for the absence of many serious contagious diseases of stock
as well as of minor ailments. Cases of African coast fever
still occur, but, provided that the outbreak is reported early,
the Veterinary Department is able to confine its ravages to
the original site. It is hoped that this disease may soon be
eradicated.

A bacon factory was opened at Salisbury in 1914, and an
oil factory started work in May 191 5 (cf. this Bulletin, 191 5,
13, 484). Ground-nut oil, oil-cake, and soap of excellent
quality are being made and find a ready market locally.

28o BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

The Rhodesia Agricultural Journal (191 6, 13, 52) states that
enlargement of the oil factory is already necessary, as the
quantities of ground nuts received in the first year exceeded
its capacity.

The tobacco crop of 191 5-16 was estimated at 450,000 lb.
The falling off in the area under tobacco in Rhodesia has
been already referred to in this Bulletin (191 5, 13, 493).

The value of gold produced in Southern Rhodesia in
1915 was i^3»823,i67, as compared with ;^3, 580,209 in 1914.
In 191 5 the output of coal from the Wankie Colliery was
409,763 tons. In each case the figure is the highest yet
recorded. The output of chrome iron ore from the mines
of the Rhodesia Chrome Mines, Ltd., was 60,581 tons.
Asbestos was produced to the extent of 2,010 tons, valued
at ;^32,i90, as compared with 487 tons, value ;^8,6i2, in 1914.
High opinions are held of the extent and value of the
asbestos deposits in the Victoria District, and the industry
appears to be capable of expansion.

In Northern Rhodesia the area under cultivation by
Europeans in 1914-15 was 28,729 acres, of which 16,600
were under maize, over 3,500 under cotton, and about 900
under tobacco. Exports of maize and maize meal, mainly
to the Belgian Congo, were 3,850 tons, valued at ^^2 1,900.
Cattle ranching is being extended, and importations of new
blood continue. The production of copper was 813 tons,
value ;^3 1,618, for the eleven months ended February 28,
1915, as compared with 1,317 tons, valued at ;^47,974, for
the year ended March 31, 1914. The Rhodesia-Katanga
Junction Railway and Mineral Co., Ltd., started to work
bismuth in January 1914, and in four months produced
5,740 lb. of ore, with an average yield of 60 to 70 per cent.
Bismuth has also been discovered to the east of Lusaka.

The report shows that while progress has to some
extent been retarded by the war, the country has not ex-
perienced any real set-back, but, on the contrary, there has
been an advance in all the main branches of industry. The
rapid expansion of copper production in the Belgian
Congo is reacting most favourably on the earnings of the
Rhodesian railway system and the agricultural development
of Northern Rhodesia.

Feeding Value of Palm-kernel Cake and Meal. — Reference
was made in this Bulletin (191 5, 13,450) to the fact that
a good deal of palm-kernel cake had been fed to dairy cows
and fattening sheep at the University College of North
Wales, Bangor, and that from careful observations of the
animals the cake could be recommended as a feeding stuff.
In the summer of 191 5 a careful experiment was carried out
at the College Farm in order to ascertain the value of the
cake for dairy cows on grass in comparison with Egyptian
cotton-seed cake, and the results have been published

NOTES i&t

recently by the College in Bulletin IV. of the Department of
Agriculture. Sixteen cows, including both Shorthorns and
Welsh, were divided into two lots. After a preliminary
period of three weeks, during which both lots were fed on
a mixture of equal parts of palm-kernel cake and undecorti-
cated cotton-seed cake, the lots were given 2 lb. of each
cake respectively for every 10 lb. of milk produced, for
a period of three weeks. The cakes were then gradually
changed so that the lot which previously received palm-
kernel cake received cotton-seed cake and vice versa, the
experiment being continued for a further period of three
weeks.

The milk yields of the cows were recorded, and it was
found that there was no striking difference between the
results from the two cakes, so that it is evident that palm-
kernel cake is not inferior to Egyptian cotton-seed cake as
a feeding stuff for milch cows on grass. The palm-kernel
cake had no ill effect on the health of the cows or on the
flavour of the milk. No difificulty was experienced in
storing the cake for any length of time, and it is pointed out
that in this respect it apparently requires less care than
undecorticated cotton-seed cake.

The results of an interesting experiment on the feeding
of calves, carried out recently at the Woburn Experimental
Farm, have been published in a special Report, by Dr. J. A.
Voelcker, issued by the Royal Agricultural Society of
England. The foods compared consisted of (i) crushed
oats and separated milk, (2) calf meal (purchased), (3)
crushed oats and water, (4) palm-kernel meal and water,
(5) beans and water, (6) maize and water. In each case the
calves, which were bought when two or three days old,
were fed for a fortnight on whole milk alone, a little of the
special food was then given, and after a day or two the
whole milk was replaced by separated milk. After a further
three days, during which the amount of special food was
increased, the milk diet was stopped, except, of course, in
the case of those fed on food No. i. After the calves were
from four to five weeks old a little hay chaff was given with
all the foods, and when eight weeks old each calf was given
i lb. of linseed cake per day.

Some difficulty was experienced at first in getting the
calves to take to the palm-kernel meal, but after various
trials had been made it was found that they ate it best
when dry, and when a little hay chaff was added they ate
it well, after which no difficulty whatever was found. The
quantity of meal was gradually increased until, at the end
of seven weeks, the four calves were receiving 5 lb. between
them.

After twelve weeks' special feeding the calves fed on
palm-kernel meal and water showed a gain of 6'oo lb. per
calf per week, and this was only exceeded in the case of
II*

2§2 BULLETIN OF* THfi IMPERIAL INStlTtJtE

those fed on oats and separated milk, and even then only
by 0*58 lb. When the cost of the foods is taken into account,
however, it is clear that feeding with palm-kernel meal is
the most remunerative, the cost per lb. gain in liveweight
being only \"jod. as against 47 it/, in the case of oats and
separated milk ; the next lowest in this respect was beans
and water which cost 2'i\d.^ but the gain per calf per week
was only 4*56 lb.

The percentage composition of the palm-kernel meal
was: moisture iri2, oil 673, albuminoids i8'o6, digestible
carbohydrates, etc. 50"26, woody fibre 10*28, ash 3*55.

Egyptian Sheep. — Although sheep-breeding cannot be said
to be an important industry in Egypt, the animals occur in
fair numbers in parts of the country. They are sometimes
allowed to graze along the canal banks or are fed on
Egyptian clover (berseem) and other crops, but the best
are raised on the natural pastures in the north of the delta
and along the Mariut coast-region. Considerable quantities
of wool are exported, chiefly to the United Kingdom. In
1915 the total exports amounted to 72,734 cwts. valued at
;^E25 5,273 {\£Y. = £\ OS. 6\d?) Large numbers of sheep are
slaughtered each year, more than a quarter of a million being
brought to the Cairo abattoirs alone. As the animals come
from various parts of Egypt, opportunity is afforded for a
close examination of the various breeds found in the country,
and an article by G. C. Dudgeon and Mohammed Askar
Effendi based on such observations, supplemented by
enquiries made in the different sheep-breeding districts,
appears in the Agric. Journ. Egypt (191 5, 6, 31), published
this year.

Three breeds of sheep are found in Upper Egypt, viz.
Saidi, Ebeidi, and Sanabawi. The first-named occurs most
commonly in the district south of Assiut. It possesses
long, silky wool, black or brown in colour as a rule, but
occasionally white. The skin is thick and more in demand
locally than any other for making leather for native shoes.
The Ebeidi, which occurs in the district north of Assiut,
almost as far as Giza, is one of the most important kinds
found in Egypt. The sheep in the region mentioned are
better nourished than in other parts of Upper Egypt and
the meat of this breed is consequently much better than that
of the Saidi. The wool is white, but it contains a high
proportion of fat, which imparts a yellowish tint to the
shorn wool ; it is long and silky, and samples of skin wool
are said to have realised as much as i^^d. per lb. in
Liverpool. The Sanabawi, which is thought to be a cross
between the Saidi and Ebeidi, is found in the neighbour-
hood of Sanabo in Assiut Province. The wool is nne and
silky, but rather weak ; it is usually white, but sometimes
reddish.

NOTES ^H

In Lower Egypt also three breeds occur. These are
the Ooseemi or Merais, Fellahi, and Rahmani. The Ooseemi
is found pure in Giza, but it is largely used for breeding ;
crosses of this sheep with Rahmani and Ebeidi are found in
different parts of the country, and it is said to be supplant-
ing the latter breed in some parts. The wool is white and
normally long-stapled with a silky lustre, but that of the
second shearing is shorter. First quality white skin wool
of this breed is said to have been sold in Liverpool at 140^.-
lyd. per lb. The skins are of good quality, and are usually
exported to Europe. The Fellahi is found commonly in
the northern parts of Gharbia and Daqahlia, occurring in
the Barari or waste lands in the whole north of the Delta.
The pastures in this region are some of the best in Egypt,
and there is a plentiful supply of berseem. These advan-
tageous conditions of feeding render it possible for the
Fellahi ewes to be milked for the manufacture of cheese
and butter. The wool is similar to that of the Saidi, being
black, long, and silky, with a good deal of grease. A sample
of skin wool of this breed was priced in Liverpool at i^id.-
i4id. per lb. The Rahmani, originally imported from
Syria, is found throughout the north of Beheira and
Gharbia. The grazing ground here is good, and the
Rahmani mutton is consequently of excellent quality, being
brighter in appearance than that of Ebeidi, but not so fat.
The wool is long, usually red in colour, but occasionally
dark brown or nearly black. It resembles mohair to some
extent, being mostly free from grease and rather hairy in
texture. The wools of this breed and of the Saidi are in
good demand for the manufacture of native cloth, and are
preferred for this purpose to the white wool furnished by
some breeds. The skins are of good quality, and are mostly
exported to Europe.

A breed of sheep found in the Barqa District of eastern
Tripoli and known as the Darnawi, Gharbawi, or Barquei,
occurs along the Mariut coast-line of north-west Egypt.
These sheep are well fed, and the ewes are milked, whilst
the quality of the meat, especially that of the lambs, is ex-
cellent. The wool is chiefly white, short, silky, and entirely
free from grease.

Sudanese sheep occasionally come into the Egyptian
market. They can be recognised by their greater size and
absence of true wool, their covering consisting merely of
short hairs of no value. The skins, however, are of good
quality, and are in demand for export.

There is a considerable trade in Egyptian raw hides
and skins, the value of the total exports in 191 5 amounting
to ;^Ei67,5i9, of which ;^E5o,683 represented sheep and goat
skins. Large quantities of tanned hides and skins are also
exported, the total value in 191 5 amounting to ;^Ei35,28o,
the value of tanned sheep and goat skins included in this

284 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

total being £^27,^^1, Most of the trade in hides and skins,
both raw and tanned, is with the Mediterranean countries,
except in the case of tanned sheep and goat skins, nearly all
of which came to the United Kingdom in 191 5 ; the United
States takes a share of the raw hides and skins. With a
view to drawing the attention of British merchants and
manufacturers to Egyptian leather, it is announced that the
Egyptian Government propose to have an exhibit of
leather at the Industries of the Empire Fair to be held in
London next year.

An account of the method of preparing Egyptian hides
and skins is given by Mohammed Askar Effendi in the
Journal already referred to (p. 46). Sheep skins, as soon
as they come from the abattoirs, are washed until clean,
and the wool is then scraped off and dried in the sun. If
the wool is long it is sometimes left on, and the skins are
made into rugs and wearing apparel. Sudanese skins are
either salted or air-dried, but the other kinds are at once
prepared for tanning. The principal tanning material used
IS sant pods {Acacia arabtca), the best of which are stated to
be brought from the Sudan. The local price of the skins,
except in the case of those from Sudanese sheep, depends
on the quality and quantity of the wool. Cattle, buffalo,
and camel hides from the abattoirs are usually air-dried,
but those collected from the villages are not so well cleaned
as a rule, and these are usually salt-dried in the ordinary
manner. Buffalo-heifer's hides are stated to be in greatest
demand owing to the white colour they acquire after drying
and tanning, and their great strength.

Eecent Investigations on Sources of Potash. — In The WorlcCs
Supply of Potash^ issued by the Imperial Institute last year,
an account was given of all the more important sources of
potash in the world, including the celebrated deposits at
Stassfurt in Germany. Since that was published a consider-
able amount of information on the subject has appeared,
the more important of which is summarised below.

Seaweeds. — In a paper read at the Manchester Meeting
of the British Association, September 191 5, and reprinted
in the Journ, Bd. Agric. (19 16, 22, 1095), Professor
J. Hendrick dealt with the composition and uses of certain
seaweeds occurring round the coasts of Scotland. In
addition to the question of utilising seaweeds as sources
of potash and iodine, their feeding value was considered,
and analyses of four species used as food were given. The
same author has more recently dealt with certain aspects
of the subject in more detail in a paper read before the
Edinburgh Section of the Society of Chemical Industry,
entitled *' The Value of Seaweeds as Raw Materials for
Chemical Industry '' {Journ. Soc. Chem. Indust., 1916, 36, 565).
The results of a very large number of analyses are given

NOTES 285

in the latter paper from which the following figures are
taken ; in each case the figure represents the average of
several analyses :

i-'iumDer 01
samples
analysed.

Ash in weed
as received.

Potash (K,0)
in ash.

Iodine in
ash.

Pir cent.

Per cent.

Laminaria digitata (stems)

6*09

29-89

1-548

M M (fronds)

5*31

23*34

1-697

L. stenophylla (stems)

575

3373

ro45

(fronds)

472

1990

1*364

Fucus nodosus .

6-19

12-86

0-418

F. vesicidosus

6-38

14*95

0-177

F. serratKs

5-60

17-57

0-220

It will be seen that the stems of the tangles {Laminaria
digitata and L. stenophylld) are rich in both potash and
iodine, and they are regarded as the most likely seaweeds
to form the basis of a permanent chemical industry. The
bladder-wracks {Fiiciis spp.), although not so rich in potash
as the tangles and very poor in iodine, might be utilised
profitably during the present scarcity of potash as a source
of ash for use as potash manure.

Experiments were conducted to ascertain whether the
potash and iodine in the tangles can be extracted by water
without previously burning the seaweeds. It was found
that both constituents can be almost completely extracted
if the seaweed is first heated with steam under pressure to
about 150° C. The iodine can be readily obtained from the
solution so produced, but the recovery of the potash salts
by crystallisation from the solution is rendered extremely
difficult owing to the large quantity of organic matter
present. Unless means can be devised for overcoming
this difficulty it does not appear that the water extraction
process can be a commercial success.

Analyses were made of two samples of tangles, which
were stated to have been carefully dried in the ordinary
way and without excessive exposure to weather, and the
results showed that nevertheless there had been a con-
siderable loss of potash and iodine during drying. It is
well known that to obtain the best results it is necessary
to dry the seaweed under cover, and Professor Hendrick
suggests that the burning of the weed might also be carried
out under cover and the heat generated used to assist in
drying the fresh material. He also points out that large-
scale experiments on artificial drying should be conducted
and the cost of such treatment determined.

Another important question which requires to be
elucidated by large-scale experiments is that relating to
the loss which takes place during burning. The results of
laboratory experiments showed that tangles may be
burned at a full red heat till the ash is quite fused without
any serious loss of either potash or iodine, provided that

286 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

the weed is not mixed with any impurity. If, however,
silica and calcium carbonate are present, and the ash is
strongly heated for a considerable time, there may be much
loss, and this indicates the necessity of devising some means
of harvesting the seaweed to prevent contamination with
beach sand.

Seaweeds, either in a fresh condition or partially dried,
have, of course, long been used as manure. It has been
suggested that it would probably be more profitable to dry
the weed thoroughly and apply it to the land as a fine
powder, either alone or in admixture with other manures.
In order to ascertain the extent and rate of decomposition
in the soil of seaweeds in this form, experiments have
recently been carried out on the laboratory scale by A. W.
Christie at the California Agricultural Experiment Station
{Journ. Indust. and Eng. Chem.^ 1916, 8, 425). It was found
that Macrocystis pyrifera and Nereocystis leutkeana^ two of the
giant seaweeds of the Pacific, when oven-dried and finely
ground, had decomposed to a considerable degree in the
soil at the end of 5 months, increasing the humus content
to an extent comparable with the increase produced by an
equal amount of finely ground alfalfa (lucerne), stable
manure, or straw. It is pointed out, however, that the
value of humus from different sources is not necessarily
proportional to the amount present in the soil; the relative
value of the humus derived from seaweeds could only be
finally determined by field experiments.

Banana Stalks and Skins. — R. H. Ellis {Jonrn. Soc, Chem.
Indust.^ 1 9 16, 35, 456, 521) has shown that the ashes of
banana stalks and skins contain respectively 45*9 and 57'i6
per cent, of potash (K2O), equivalent to i"i4 and 1*05 per
cent, in the fresh material and 1373 and 9*03 per cent, in
the dried material. Dried banana stalks are thus as rich in
potash as kainite, and both this and the ash of the skins
should prove of great value as manure, provided they can
be obtained in sufficient quantity. In the course of the
discussions on Mr. Ellis's papers it was pointed out that the
refuse burnt in municipal destructors consists largely of
vegetable matter, and is therefore likely to be of value as a
source of potash.

Felspars. — According to the Ann. Rep.^ Ontario Bureau
of Mines (191 5, 24, Part I., p. 50), a process for the production
of ** available " potash from felspar has been devised by
Prof. C. W. Drury, of Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario.
The process appears to be similar to that employed in
Sweden for the production of " electrokali " (see fvorld's
Supply of Potash, p. 44), and consists in heating the crushed
felspar, mixed with limestone, iron ore and coke, in a blast
furnace. The slag formed is ground, and can be used as a
manure alone or mixed with phosphoric acid and nitrogen
compounds to form a "complete" manure. The ground

NOTES 287

slag, produced in a preliminary trial on a comparatively
small scale, has been examined by the Dominion Chemist,
who found that it contained 3*21 per cent, of "available"
potash (KiO), i.e. soluble in i per cent, solution of citric
acid, the total amount soluble in strong hydrochloric acid
being 5-41 per cent.; only a very small proportion of the
potash is soluble in water, and it is suggested that it is no
doubt largely present as silicates {Rep. Exper. Farms, Dept.
Agric, Canada, 1914-15, p. 124).

Indian Village Ashes. — An investigation has been con-
ducted by the Imperial Agricultural Chemist, Pusa, with a
view to ascertaining the possibility of extracting crude
potash salts from the village ashes which accumulate
throughout India, and which consist of a mixture of earth
and the ashes of vegetable debris {Rep. Agric. Res. Inst.,
Pusa, 19 14- 1 5, p. 24; Indian Tr. Journ., 191 5, 38, 132).
They naturall}^ vary greatly in composition, and the potash
may be present as carbonate, sulphate, chloride, or silicate.
A large number of samples from various provinces were
examined, and the total amount of potash (K2O) was found
to vary from 1*35 to 10*67 P^r cent., the percentage of water-
soluble potash ranging from o*i6 to 6-38. Extraction of the
total potash by means of acids is out of the question owing
to the cost, and, although most of that soluble in water
can be extracted by the methods employed in India for the
extraction of saltpetre from nitre earths (see The World's
Supply of Potash, p. 33), the cost of evaporating the liquor to
obtain the crude potash salts would leave little or no profit
to the workers. It is considered, therefore, that it is very
improbable that Indian village ashes will form a useful
source of potash.

Mineral Production of British Guiana. — According to the
Report oj the Lands and Mines Dept. of British Guiana for
1914-15 (Georgetow^n, Demerara, 191 5), the gold output for
that year was 64,982 oz., a decrease of 17,724 oz. compared
with the output for 191 3-14. The decrease was due chiefly
to the smaller amount of gold produced by the Pigeon
Island placers, Cuyuni River. Dredging was actively
carried on during the year by the Guiana Gold Company
and the Minnehaha Development Company in No. 2 Mming
District with satisfactory returns. In the opinion of the
Commissioner there is large scope for gold-dredging in
the Colony, as many of the larger creeks that have been
already worked with the sluice would pay to re-work with
the dredge.

The diamond industry of British Guiana was adversely
affected by the war during the latter part of the year.
During the former part of the year, however, there was
a good output from the workings on the Mazaruni River.
The total output for the year was 100,522 stones, weighing

288 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

13,716^ carats, with an estimated value of ;^28,576, an
increase in weight of 2,597 carats and in value of i^7,5o6,
as compared with 191 3-14. The stones averaged 7-32 to
the carat, an improvement in size on those obtained during
the previous year.

Prospecting for bauxite was carried out in the Upper
Demerara durmg the year, ^nd deposits were located.

Exploration licences for mineral oil were issued during
the year for areas in the north-western district.

A new coloured map of the Colony, compiled in the
Lands and Mines Department, and incorporating geological
information collected by Prof. J. B. Harrison, C.M.G., has
been published by Messrs. Stanford, Ltd., of London.

RECENT PROGRESS IN AGRICULTURE AND THE
DEVELOPMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES

In this section of the Bulletin a summary is given of the contents of
the more important papers and reports received during the preceding
quarter^ in so far as these relate to tropical agriculture and the utilisation
of the natural resources of the Colonies^ India^ and the Tropics generally.

AGRICULTURE

Soils and Manures

Green Manuring in India.— Under this title A. C. Dobbs,
officiating Imperial Agriculturist, Pusa, has written a com-
prehensive account of the more important experiments
which have been carried out with green manures m various
parts of India (Bulletin No. 56, 19 16, Agric. Res. Inst.y
JPuso), After a brief account of the theory of green
manuring, a description is given of the work done in con-
nection with plantation crops and in general agriculture,
including rice, tobacco, jute, sugar-cane and irrigated
crops, as well as a summary of the scientific results ob-
tained at Pusa and elsewhere. The conclusion is reached
that, although valuable results have been attained, much
remains to be done, particularly with regard to the place
occupied by leguminous food and fodder crops in the
rotation and in determining the extent to which they main-
tain the fertility of the soil. It is considered that legumin-
ous fodder and green-manuring crops will become of even
greater importance in Indian agriculture than is at present
the case, as the existing economic conditions necessitate
the production of a greater bulk of produce from the land
by more intensive cultivation.

Effect of Green-manuring on Germination. — It has been ob-
served that if crops are sown on land immediately after

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 289

green manures have been ploughed in a decrease in ger-
mination may result. Experiments designed to ascertain
the cause of this have been carried out by E. B. Fred
{Joum. Agric. Res., 1916, 6, 1161). It was found that clover,
and to a smaller extent green oats, have an injurious effect
on the germination of seeds, but that, two weeks after the
green crop has been ploughed in, the conditions that affect
germination disappear. Oily seeds, such as cotton, soy
beans, flax, ground nuts, hemp and mustard, are affectedf,
the first two seriously ; but starchy seeds, such as buck-
wheat, maize, oats and wheat, are little, if at all, affected.
The roots of seedlings which failed to develop were found
to be attacked by fungi of the genera Rhizoctonia and
Fusarium, and the author suggests that a possible explana-
tion of the decreased germination is that the green manure,
in its first stages of decomposition, furnishes an excellent
medium for the development of these injurious fungi.

Effect of Sulphur and Sulphur Compounds on Soil Bacteria. — A
number of investigators have shown that sulphur has a
beneficial effect on crops when applied to certain types of
soil (cf this Bulletin, 1912, 10, 66-^), and similar results
have been obtained with sulphates. It is thought that
these substances may act either directly as manures, or
indirectly by favouring the growth of beneficial bacteria
and retarding the growth of injurious forms. In order to
ascertain their effect on soil bacteria, experiments have
recently been carried out by W. Pitz {Journ. Agric, Res.^
1916, 5, 771). He found that sulphur decreased the total
number of soil bacteria when applied at the rate of 0*5 per
cent, and over, and this is apparently due to its causing
increased acidity of the soil ; at the same time nitrification
was decreased and ammonification increased. Calcium
sulphate, on the other hand, had no effect on the bacteria
commonly found on agar plates, but it was found to increase
the growth of those occurring in the root nodules of
red clover. As might be expected from this, calcium
sulphate was found to increase the yield of red clover, pro-
ducing a greater root development and a greater number
of nodules. Sulphur, however, only produced a slight
increase in the yield of red clover, and did not affect the
root development or the number of nodules.

Radio-active Manures. — Two series of experiments were
carried out by Mr. Martin H. F. Sutton {Bulletins 6 and 7,
Sutton &> Sons, Reading) during 1914 and 191 5 with the
object of ascertaining the effects of pure radium bromide
and of various radio-active ores and proprietary radio-active
manures on plant life. In the first series radishes, lettuces,
peas and flowering annuals were grown in pots or boxes,
and in the second series, in addition to the first two,

29© BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

tomatoes, potatoes, onions, carrots, vegetable marrows and
spinach beets were employed, some being grown in pots
and others in the open ground. The results showed a
certain amount of variation, but in no case was there any
definite evidence that the addition of radium produced an
increased growth, and in most cases better yields were
obtained from the control pots and plots treated with
ordinary manures. These results are in accordance with
those obtained in the United States by Hopkins and Sachs
in the case of soy beans and maize {Bulletin No. 177, 191 5,
Univ. of Illinois Agric. Exper. Sta.).

Manurial Value of Karroo Ash. — In the drier parts of South
Africa where sheep-farming alone is carried on, a large
amount of manure accumulates in the kraals. This manure
is used as fuel, and the ash, known as karroo ash, is thrown
away. It w^as pointed out some years ago that the ash is
of great economic value owing to the amount of potash it
contains. In view of the present shortage ot potash
manures, attention has again been called to the matter by
Dr. C. F. Juritz in the South African Journal of Science
(191 5, 12, 133). Analyses of the ash are recorded, which
show that it may contain as much as 19*27 per cent, of
potash, the average content of a large number of samples
being 9-85 per cent. It also contains a large proportion of
lime (average 21 'Si per cent.) and a smaller amount of
phosphoric acid (average 2*86 per cent.) and is thus admir-
ably suited for use with the guano from the Government
islands which is largely employed as a manure in South
Africa.

Bat Guano from the Fiji Islands. — The results of analysis
of samples of bat guano obtained from a cave at Cicia in
the Fiji Islands are given in Fiji Planters' Journ. (19 16, 3,
309). The samples were very moist, but if air-dried, so as
to contain 20 per cent, of moisture, the material would be
of useful quality. A sample taken from the surface of the
deposit and dried to this extent would contain 2-01 per
cent, of nitrogen and 1666 per cent, of phosphoric acid,
while samples taken at depths of 5 and 10 ft. from the
surface would contain 4-81 and 2*52 per cent, of nitrogen
and 4*99 and 15*32 per cent, of phosphoric acid respectively.

Manurial Value of Locusts. — A. E. Collens, in Bull. Dept.
Agric, Trinidad and Tobago (191 5, 14, 6), calls attention to
the fact that locusts form a valuable nitrogenous manure,
and when they can be collected in quantity should be
applied to the land. Air-dried specimens of Tropidacris dux,
a large locust found in the Cedros district of Trinidad, con-
tained 9*98 per cent, of nitrogen, 0*94 per cent, of potash,
and 1*44 per cent, of phosphoric acid. Venezuelan locusts

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 291

{Schistocerca paranensis) in an air-dried condition contained
io'99 per cent, of nitrogen, 0*85 per cent, of potash, and i'30
per cent, of phosphoric acid.

Foodstuffs

Wheat. — A report published under the authority of
the South Australian Government on the storage and
handling of wheat in bulk in South Australia recommends
that a system of elevators to handle 30,000,000 bushels in
bulk should be built and that they should be controlled
by a Government Grain Commission. It is further recom-
mended that permanent grain grades should be arranged
in conference with representative departmental and com-
mercial authorities from other Australian States, if possible
{Bd. of Trade Journ. 19 16, 93, 564). The adoption of the
bulk system of handling grain has also been proposed in
New South Wales {Bd. of Trade Journ., 1916, 92, 917;
and 93, 761).

Maize.— -Efforts are being made to foster the production
of maize in the Leeward Islands. Hitherto they have been
mainly confined to Antigua, though their influence has
been felt in the other islands to some extent. As a result
of experiments, the Government of Antigua decided to
undertake on a commercial basis the kiln-drying, purchase
and sale of maize, together with the manufacture of maize
meal, with the idea of fostering the development of the
industry. The effect is already apparent in decreased
imports of maize. Beside a good local market, there appear
to be openings for trade in maize with other West Indian
Colonies, while it is also hoped that developments may
eventually result in an export trade being established with
the United States and England {Colonial Reps.-Ann. Ser.,
Rep. on Leeward Is. for 1914-15 [Cd. 8172-2], 1916).

Cocoa. — Bulletin 33 (191 5), Department van den Landbouw
in Suriname, gives the results of an investigation by
G. Stahel of the witch-broom disease of cocoa, which has
caused much loss to the cocoa industry in Surinam. Three
different types of fungi were found on dead witch-brooms,
and experiments clearly showed that one, a species of
Marasmius, to which Stahel has given the name M.pernicio-
sus, is the cause of the disease. The cutting off and removal
from the field of all witch-brooms is recommended as the
most rational method of treatment, and thorough spraying
with Bordeaux mixture is also advised.

Sugar.— An area of 166,000 acres was under sugar culti-
vation in Mauritius on December 31, 1914, and the output of
sugar for the year 1914-15 was 277,180 metric tons. This is
the largest crop the island has ever produced, and, with the

292 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

high prices realised, has placed the industry in a sound
financial condition {Colonial Reps.- Ann, Ser., Rep, on
Mauritius for 1914 [Cd. 81 72-1], 191 6).

An impetus has been given to sugar cultivation in
Montserrat by increased prices, and an additional 500 acres
were planted for the 19 16 crop (Rep, Agric. Dept.y Mont-
serrat^ 1914-15, p. 22).

The exports of sugar from St. Kitts in 1914 were
9,946 tons, of which 4,132 were crystals and 3,814 tons
muscovado. The extension of the railway in connection
with the central sugar factory has added eight additional
estates, representing about 8,000 acres of cane, to the area
of the factory's supply, which now comprises two-thirds
of the island's cane cultivation. A further extension of the
railway, or the erection of another factory on the north
side of the island, would probably lead to a large increase
in the production of sugar for export (jRep, Agric, Dept^
St, KittS'Nevis, 1914-15, p. 16).

Limes. — The lime crop of Dominica for 1914 was 388,011
barrels, or only 3,196 below the record crop of 1913. The
maintenance of the output is due to the newly planted
areas which come into bearing. Root diseases are causing
some anxiety, and their control will call for effort on the
part of planters (cf. this Bulletin, 1916, 14, 123). Mistletoe
was prevalent, and caused damage in certain districts ;
whilst the love-vine, another dangerous parasite, was
reported in new localities. Notwithstanding the excellent
prices realised by lime products, little or no attention is
paid by cultivators to the important matter of manuring
{Colonial Reps.-Ann, Ser,^ Rep, on Leezvard Is. for 19 14- 15
[Cd. 8172-2], 1916).

Oils and Oil Seeds

Coconuts. — Cleare has contributed an article to the Bul-
letin Entom. Res, (191 5, 6, 273) on Brassolis sophorae, a
butterfly the larvae of which attack coconut palms. This
pest sometimes proves very destructive, and in George-
town, British Guiana, a recent epidemic of it caused the
death of about 5 per cent, of the coconut palms. The
caterpillars live in " nests " during the daytime, and the
best means, therefore, of checking the pest is to collect
the nests and destroy the larvae by crushing them in the
nests or placing the latter in a bucket of water and
kerosene. Many birds and other natural enemies destroy
the caterpillars, and thus play an important part in con-
trolling the pest.

Oil Palm. — According to Swart {De Ind. Mercuur, 19 16,
39, 2), 10,000 acres on the east coast of Sumatra were

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 29;^

planted in 1914 with nearly 350.000 trees, about 33 to
40 ft. apart, with cofifee as an intercrop.

Ground Nuts. — Experiments on a small scale have been
carried out in Toriola {Rep. Agric. Dept., Tortola, 1914-15,
p. 12). Four varieties were tried, and the following yields
per acre were obtained: Gambia, 1,500 lb.; Dixie Giant,
1,500 lb.; Spanish, 1,050 lb.; Rufisque, 750 lb. These
results are regarded as promising, and further work is in
progress.

In Ce3^1on experiments with three varieties of ground
nuts gave the following results {Trop. Agriculturist, 19 16,
46, 124). Yield of nuts per acre : Spanish, 360 lb. ; Ceylon,
1,560 lb. ; Virginia Bunch, 290 lb. The small yield in the
last case is probably due to the facts that the seeds were
not sown closely enough, and that, being an erect variety,
the plants should have been earthed up so as to allow the
nuts to be formed in the soil. A profit of about £'j i6s.
per acre is calculated from the Ceylon variety, but only
about 295. to 30s. from the other varieties.

In the United States the cotton-seed oil mills are pre-
paring to undertake the crushing of an increased quantity
of ground nuts, and are encouraging farmers to grow the
crop {American Fertilizer, 19 16, 44, 31). Large areas in
Texas unsuitable for cotton are said to be suitable for
ground nuts.

Soy Beans. — An article on the cultivation of the soy
bean is contributed by Mestdagh to the Bulletin Agric,
Congo Beige (191 5, 6, 272). Yellow soy beans grown in
the Congo gave a yield of seeds of about 1,310 lb. per
acre; black beans gave about 1,5901b. per acre. A short
note on insects attacking soy-bean plants is included.

Several attempts have been made to grow soy beans
in England {Journ. Bd. of Agric, 1916, 22, 1287). Previous
to 1909 the few attempts made had been unsuccessful. In
1909 seed of sixteen varieties was obtained from Japan and
sown at the Midland Agricultural and Dairy College, and
also on the Cambridge University Farm. Many of the
varieties grew well, but none formed flowers ; root nodules
were only formed on those plots which had been inocu-
lated with soil obtained from Japan in which soy beans
had been grown. In 1910 seed from Manchuria gave plants
which grew vigorously, but formed no seed at the Midland
College, although at Cambridge a small quantity of seed
ripened. This Cambridge seed was sown in 191 1, but,
although the season was hot, the plants failed to produce
seed. It is suggested that other varieties than those tested
might yield seed when grown in England ; *' Early Ten-
nessee " beans grown at Wye on inoculated soil in 1910
produced well-filled pods. Apart from the production of
seed, the plant might prove useful in England as a forage

294 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

crop, as it resists drought well, and is grown largely in the
United States for green fodder.

Sugar-cane Wax. — According to Clacher {Intern. Sugar
Journ.^ 1916, 18, 23), a number of factories in Natal extract
the wax from sugar-cane press-cake by means of benzene.
The dry press-cake commonly contains 14 per cent., and
sometimes as much as 17 per cent., of wax, which is a
larger proportion than is present in the press-cake of most
other sugar-growing countries. The cane chiefly grown in
Natal is the Uba variety.

Experiments in Mauritius {Memorandum of Director of
Agriculture, Mauritius, June 191 5) show that the percentage
of wax in the dr}^ press-cake varies considerably, viz. from
I '8 to i6*8 per cent., although in most cases 10 per cent, or
more is found ; it appears that seedling canes give higher
yields of wax than Tanna varieties, and that virgin cane is
richer in wax than ratoons. It appears that the wax is
now being prepared on a larger scale, and that further
plant for its extraction is being erected in Natal.

Miscellaneous. — The export of " Mafureira " seed {Trichilia
emetica, Vahl) from Portuguese East Africa has suffered a
large reduction owing to the war ; only S66 tons, valued at
;^5,025 were exported in 1914, compared with nearly 7,840
tons, of value ;^44,829, in 1913 ; practically the entire export
is to Marseilles. An oil and soap factory has been estab-
lished in Lourengo Marques capable of producing i ton of
oil and 1,000 boxes of soap a day; at present the whole
output is consumed locally {Dipt, and Cons. Reps., Ann. Ser.
5558 [Cd. 8170-3], 1916, p. 13).

The purification or refining of crude oils is generally
effected by agitating the oil with a calculated quantity of an
aqueous alkaline solution, by which the free fatty acids in
the oil are converted to soaps which, on standing, separate
out and carry down most of the undesirable colouring
matter and other impurities. This process possesses a
number of disadvantages, such as the time taken for the
soap, etc., known technically as "foots," to settle, and the
waste of considerable quantities of oil in the " foots." By
the addition of cellulose to the oil, Baskerville {Journ.
Indust. Eng, Chem., 1916, 8, 119) finds that the oil may be
filtered through filter presses, thereby increasing the
rapidity with which refining may be carried out and saving
much waste of oil. The process usually requires the
addition of 2 per cent, of cellulose, short-fibred cotton
" linters " being a suitable form. The addition of anhydrous
sodium carbonate or of sodium sulphate also tends to
accelerate the process by absorbing water and preventing
the formation of emulsion. The residual press-cake is
said to be suitable for the manufacture of soap, as the finely
divided cellulose does not prove objectionable.

ACRICULTURt: ANt) NATURAL RESOURCES 295

Essential Oils

Bay Oil. — In the IVest Indian Bulletin (191 5, 16, 176),
issued on April 28, 1916, a summary is given of existing
information on the bay oil industry, including an account
of the methods of cultivating the bay tree {Pimenta acris^
Kostel., Nat. Ord. Myrtaceae) and of distilling the oil and
packing it for export. The distillation of bay oil and the
manufacture of bay rum have been carried on for many
years in the West Indies in the Danish island of St.
Thomas, the leaves being obtained chiefly from the
neighbouring island of St. Jan. Small exports of leaves
have been made from several of the Britisn West Indian
Islands, especially Dominica. Hitherto the leaves have
been obtained solely from wild trees, but during the last
twelve years investigations on the systematic cultivation of
the bay tree and on the distillation of the oil have been
conducted in Montserrat (cf. this Bulletin, 1914, 12, 308).
There seems to be a good prospect for the extension of the
bay-oil industry in the British West Indies if oil of reliable
and uniform quality can be steadily produced. In order
to ensure such production, a good deal of care would be
required in the preparation of the oil, and it is pointed
out that this could best be secured at a central distillery
placed under competent supervision and control. Such a
distillery, capable of dealing with large quantities of leaves,
could be erected and equipped at comparatively small
expense, and its establishment would serve as a means of
fostering and encouraging the industry and of placing it on
a satisfactory basis.

Thymol. — In considering the possible sources of thymol
(this Bulletin, 1914, 12, 601) mention was made of the
American horsemint {Monarda punctata, Linn.). During
the last nine years a study of this plant has been made in
the United States with reference to the possibility of
cultivating it on a commercial scale for the production of
thymol. The plant grows abundantly as a weed on the
sandy lands of central Florida, and a sample of the wild
herb yielded from o'i2 to 0-20 per cent, of oil which
contained 56 to 62 per cent, of phenols, consisting almost
entirely of thymol. By continued cultivation and selection
of the best types, the yield of oil has been gradually
increased and a t3^pe has now been secured which yields
0*42 to 0*44 per cent, of oil, containing J2 to 74 per cent, of
phenols. The selection experiments also aimed at increasing
the size of the plants and thus increasing the yield per
acre. Considerable success has been attained, and it is
considered that the improved form could now be used for
the commercial production of thymol. In Bulletin No. 372,
1916, U.S. Dept. Agric, an account is given of this work,

296 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

and information is afforded with regard to the methods of
cultivating horsemint, harvesting the plant, distilling the
oil, and extracting the thymol. It has been found that a
plantation will not need to be replanted more than once in
five years, and under average soil conditions will probably
give a full yield for a still longer time. The cost of manures
can be reduced by allowing the distilled herb to become
well decomposed, and then returning it to the soil. The
average yield of oil from first-year plantings is about 20 lb.
per acre, and in subsequent years from 30 to 40 lb. per acre
may be obtained. Assuming the average amount of phenol
in the oil to be 70 per cent., a yield of 12*86 lb. of thymol
per acre may be secured in the first year and at least
I9"29 lb, per acre in succeeding years. It is probable that
the cultivation of horsemint and the extraction of thymol
would be a profitable undertaking if carried out in con-
junction with other oil-yielding plants for which distillation
plant is required.

Rubber

Hevea. — Hevea trees planted in Uganda at the Kakumiro
plantation in 1906 are giving fair results considering the
high altitude (4,500 ft.) of the plantation and the fact that
early neglect has allowed a species of couch-grass (" Lum-
bugu") to establish itself among the roots {Rep. Dept.Agric,
Uganda^ 1914-15, p. 31). Seed collected from the trees has
been sown in nurseries, and has also been distributed to
various parts of the Protectorate.

In an illustrated bulletin entitled " The Seed and Ger-
mination of Hevea brasiliensis " {Bulletin dii Jardin Botaniqiie
de Buitenzorg^ No. 19, 191 5), Sprecher deals at length with
the fruit and seed of Hevea, the mechanism of germination,
and the various factors which influence germination.

Results of experiments by Eaton and Grantham {Agric.
Bulletin^ Fed. Malay States^ 191 5, 3, 442; 191 5-16, 4, 58)
show that rubber possessing a rapid rate of cure and
good physical properties can be obtained by keeping
the coagulum in a moist condition for six to ten days
before rolling and drying. Samples of rubber prepared
by rolling and drying the coagulum on the day of coagu-
lation took about 2J to 3 hours to cure, and in some
instances the vulcanised rubber had somewhat poor phy-
sical properties. On keeping the coagulum for six days
before rolling the time of cure was reduced to less than
two hours, while the physical properties of the vulcanised
rubbers were good. No appreciable increase in rate of
cure was detected in rubber prepared from coagulum which
had been kept for longer than ten days, and it is un-
necessary, therefore, to keep the coagulum for more than
this period before crepeing.

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 297

Grantham {Agric. Bulletin ^ Fed. Malay States^ 191 5-16,
4, i) has determined the percentage of nitrogen in samples
of slab and sheet rubber, both smoked and unsmoked, with
different rates of vulcanisation, and has obtained results
leading to the following conclusions: (i) In the case of
smoked rubbers, both slab and sheet, from the same latex,
the nitrogen content is constant although the rate of
vulcanisation varies greatly. The nitrogen appears to be
fixed by the smoking. (2) In the case of unsmoked rubbers
from the same latex, the nitrogen content after crepeing
shows considerable variation ; it is lower in the rapidly
vulcanising rubbers than those which cure more slowly.
(3) The low percentage of nitrogen in unsmoked rubber
prepared in slab form, and subsequently creped, is attributed
partly to loss of nitrogen in a gaseous form during super-
ficial drying of the slab and partly to the removal of nitro-
genous decomposition products when the rubber is washed
(creped). (4) Although the results with the unsmoked
rubbers indicate that there is some connection between the
rapidity of vulcanisation and the loss of nitrogen, it is
evident that the loss of nitrogen cannot be the direct cause
of the increased rapidity of cure since rapidly vulcanising
smoked slab rubber contains just as high a percentage of
nitrogen as the slowly vulcanising sheets.

Editon {loc. cit, p. 4) shows that by blending slow and
rapid curing rubbers in suitable proportions rubber of any
intermediate desired time of cure may be obtained.

Investigation of the spontaneous coagulation of rubber
latex by Eaton and Grantham {loc. cit., p. 26) indicate that
coagulation is more probably due to the action of bacteria
than to the action of enzymes, as suggested by Whitby
(Congress Applied Chem., 191 2). Two types of bacteria are
present, viz. aerobic organisms which cause formation of
an alkaline scum on the surface of the latex and tend to
inhibit coagulation, and anaerobic organisms which produce
acidity and cause coagulation. Spontaneous coagulation
of latex is irregular, being complete on some days and not
on others; by the addition of sugars to the latex spon-
taneous coagulation is assisted owing probably to the
medium being thus rendered more favourable to the growth
of the organisms causing coagulation and less favourable to
putrefactive organisms. A patent has been taken out for
an anaerobic process of coagulation by Maude, Crosse,
Pratt and Barrowcliff in the Federated Malay States.

Eaton shows {Agric. Bulletin, Fed. Malay States, 191 5-16,
4, 30) that the treatment of moist, freshly coagulated rubber
with dilute alkaline solutions (sodium hydrate or carbonate)
causes the production of rubber possessing a rapid rate of
cure.

In the Journ. Soc. Chem. Indust. (1916, 35, 493), Whitby
discusses the results of vulcanisation tests made by

298 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Schidrowitz's method on a number of samples of rubber
prepared by different processes. Whitby has attempted to
solve the vexed problem of the supposed superiority of
Hevea rubber prepared by the native Brazilian process
over plantation rubber by preparing from the same latex
samples of smoked sheet by the ordinary estate method and
of smoked ball rubber by a process approximating to that
employed in Brazil. The results tend to show that the
Brazilian process does not yield rubber of a quality superior
to plantation smoked sheet. Smoked sheet was found not
to be generally superior to air-dried sheet, and was in some
cases inferior ; in time of cure, smoked sheet was only very
slightly different from air-dried sheet from the same latex.
Smoked crepe cured more slowly than air-cried crepe, and
is regarded by the author as inferior. Sheet rubber pre-
pared from latex to which 035 per cent, of phenols had
been added before coagulation cured more slowly than
sheet prepared without phenols, and w^as regarded as
inferior to the latter.

Experiments by Schidrowitz and Goldsbrough {India
Rubber Journ.^ 1916, 51, 505) have shown that the amount
of combined sulphur is not constant in different samples
of rubber cured for the correct time, i.e. cured in such a
way as to obtain the optimum physical properties, as
would be done in works practice.

Further work on Ustulina zortata is recorded by Sharpies
in Agric. Bulletin, Fed. Malay States (1916, 4,98), in contmu-
ation of that previously carried out by Brooks (cf. this
Bulletin, 1916, 14, 128). This fungoid pest appears likely
to prove serious unless the greatest care is taken to prevent
its spreading. In order to do so all land should be cleared
of stumps and rotting timber as soon after planting as
possible, all rubber trees attacked by borers should be cut
out, and any young trees attacked by Ustulina should be
destroyed. Where old and valuable trees are attacked, it
may be possible to save them by removing the diseased
wood and supporting the tree with concrete. During the
thinning out of rubber plantations all the trees cut down
and the stumps must be cleared away quickly. An illus-
trated bulletin is being prepared, and lectures are to be
given to enable planters to recognise and combat this
disease.

Manihot spp. — Ceara rubber trees in South Coorg, India,
are said to give low yields of latex during overcast or wet
weather {India Rubber World, 1916, 53, 317), better yields
being obtained when the nights are clear and dewy, unless
there is wind, which causes the latex to dry in the tapping
cuts.

The full herring-bone system of tapping enables larger
yields to be obtained than the vertical system, but it is too

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 299

drastic for Ceara trees, and the latter system is therefore
employed. This consists of a single vertical channel about
6 ft. long and extending to within about 6 in. of the ground.
A fresh strip of bark is pared off on one side of the cut each
time the tree is tapped, or a fresh cut may be made at a
short distance from the last ; in this case the cut is made
with a special tapping knife fitted with a guard, which
prevents the cut from penetrating too deeply and injuring
the cambium. Tapping is impracticable during the south-
west monsoon, the best yields being obtained during
November to January ; each coolie is expected to bring in
60 to 80 oz. of latex a day.

Trees planted in July 191 2 at the Kakumiro Plantation,
Uganda, have made good growth, and many were ready for
tapping in 191 5 {Ref. Dept Agric, Uganda, 1914-15, p. 33).
Some trees planted in June 19 12 were tapped heavily during
December 1914 and January 191 5, as they were of irregular
growth and it was intended to remove them. The number
of trees tapped was sixty-five, with an average girth of 19 in.
at a height of 3 ft. The}^ were tapped twenty-four times,
and yielded no oz. of dry rubber. The flow of latex was
then but small, and the trees were therefore rested with a
view to tapping again at a later date.

Fibres

Flax. — Considerable attention has been devoted recently
to the development of flax growling in Canada. It is stated
in the Bd. of Trade Journ. (1916, 92, 818, 971) that the possi-
bilities of this crop have lately been investigated by the
Dominion Department of Agriculture. The flax plant is at
present grown chiefly for the production of linseed, and in
191 5 the area devoted to it amounted to 860,000 acres. On
March i, 1916, the Dominion House of Commons agreed to
the following resolution : " That, in the opinion of this
House, taking into consideration the stability of the flax
industry and the market value of the product, more attention
might be given to promoting its cultivation in Canada ; that
the flax and linen industry should, both as to culture and
manufacture, receive that encouragement and consideration
from the Government which would enable it to assume the
importance the natural resources of our country assure it.
And to this end serious encouragement should be given to
farmers by such means as the Government, after full in-
vestigation, deem best to increase the production of flax
throughout the Dominion." A flax and fibre expert has now
been appointed by the Dominion Government and attached
to the Department of Agriculture, with a view to discovering
the localities best suited for flax growing, to inspect the
various methods now practised, and also to study the types
of machines used in the Canadian flax industry.

300 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

According to a report of the Canadian Flax Growers,
St. Mary's, Ontario (Census and Statistics Monthly, Canada,
1916, 9, No. 89, p. 30), the area devoted to flax grown for fibre
in Southern Ontario during 191 5 was about 4,000 acres, and
the yield of fibre was about 800 tons. The average value
of the flax amounted to about ;^8o per ton, and the total
value was therefore about ;^64,ooo. In addition, 80 tons of
tow were produced, which realised about £^60. The same
crop also furnished nearly 12 bushels of seed per acre, or a
total yield of 48,000 bushels, of value 6s. M. per bushel, or
total value ^16,000. About 30 per cent* of the fibre is
exported to Ireland, and the remainder to the United States.
Most of the crop is grown on land rented from the farmer
at £2 to £1 per acre ; the farmer prepares the land and
sometimes conveys away the crop when harvested, whilst
the sowing, weeding, and harvesting are arranged for by
the lessee. Plax straw, with the seed on, realises £1 per
ton or more, delivered at the mill. The straw has hitherto
been retted in Canada almost exclusively by the dew-retting
process, which has been described in this Bulletin (191 i,

9, 373).

The production of flax in Europe has been reduced to a
serious extent owing to the war, and prices are now ex-
tremely high. The present time, therefore, is considered
particularly opportune for the establishment of a flax in-
dustry in the United States, and, with a view to encouraging
enterprise in this direction, an account of flax cultivation
and preparation has been issued as Farmers Bulletin No.
669, 191 5, U.S. Dept. Agric. It is stated that the average
yield of flax per acre in the United States is about 2 tons of
straw, from which 400 to 550 lb. of clean retted fibre can be
obtained and about 6 to 10 bushels of seed. It is pointed
out that whilst the individual farmer can grow flax, it is not
practicable for him to carry out the preparation of the fibre,
and it is suggested that he should produce the straw under
contract with a flax dealer who would prepare the fibre for
sale to the manufacturers. Such co-operation between the
different branches of the industry is regarded as essential
to success.

Hemp. — In view of the heavy expenditure incurred in the
West of Canada for binder twine and cordage, an effort is
being made to determine whether it would be possible to
grow hemp satisfactorily in the Dominion. It was stated
in the Journal of Commerce {Montreal) of January 25, 1916,
that experiments were made in 191 5 in growing a high-
grade hemp from seed imported from Kentucky, but the
results were unsatisfactory owing to damage caused by
storms. Extensive trials are to be undertaken this year in
Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba in order to' ascertain
which province has the most suitable climate for hemp

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 301

cultivation, which varieties of hemp are best adapted to the
country, and whether fibre of satisfactory quality can be
produced. Should it be found possible to grow hemp pro-
ntably in Canada, a means would be afforded of effecting a
large saving to the industry of the Dominion.

Jute. — During recent years a good deal of work has been
done in Bengal on the selection of the best races of the jute-
plant {Corchoms capsidaris), and seed of pure cultures has
now been obtained in sufficient quantity to sow a large
area. An account of the progress made in this work is
given in the Annual Report of the Fibre Expert to the Govern-
ment of Bengal^ Dacca, for 1914-15. The new races have been
selected from a very large number of types procured from
every jute-growing district, but, as it is possible that even
better races may be in existence, test plots have been
established in the various districts in order to compare the
selected races with the local forms, and should any superior
kinds be met with they will be duly investigated. The
same object has been pursued by planting more than 700
small plots on the Dacca Farm with seed from the different
districts. It is probable that one particular race will not be
equally suitable for all the jute-growing areas, and it is
almost certain that a special form will have to be produced
for the " desi " districts where C. olitorius is grown. A
separate scheme of selection of C. olitorius is already in
progress. The production of large quantities of seed of the
races already established has been undertaken, and the
demand for this seed by the cultivators is continually in-
creasing.

An investigation into the " heart-damage " which some-
times occurs in bales of jute has proved that such deteriora-
tion is only likely to take place when the jute has been
packed in a markedly wet state ; an approximate maximum
moisture limit has been fixed, beyond which the jute is
certain to suffer damage.

Paper-making Materials.— It is estimated that in the linseed
growing industry of the United States about 1,600,000 tons
of straw are produced, of which not more than 200,000 tons
are at present profitably utilised in the manufacture of tow
and insulating material, the remainder being burned. The
great economic importance of this enormous quantity of
linseed straw (or flax straw) is pointed out in Bulletin
No. 322, 1916, U.S. Dept. Agric, entitled ** Utilisation of
American Flax Straw in the Paper and Fibre-board Indus-
try," and an account is given of a study of the possibilities
of its utilisation for the manufacture of paper and card-
board. In preparing the flax tow% the straw is not retted,
but is passed through a series of corrugated rollers whereby
the woody portion is crushed and broken into small pieces

302 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

which fall between the rollers and are further removed by
dusting and screening devices. The tow has already a
limited sale for upholstery work and as a packing material.
Laboratory tests and commercial trials have now shown
that flax tow can be employed in place of imported flax
waste for the manufacture of counter boards, used for
stiffening the toes and heels of shoes, and the investigation
is being continued with the object of ascertaining the value
of the material for the manufacture of writing and wrapping
paper.

Cotton

West Indies. — An account of the cotton industry of the
St. Kitts-Nevis Presidency is given in the Rep. Agric. Dept.^
St. Kitts-Nevis, 1914-15. The area devoted .to the crop in
the season under review was about 5,500 acres, distributed
as follows: St. Kitts, 2,000 acres ; Nevis, 2,500 acres; and
Anguilla, about 1,000 acres. In St. Kitts, some injury was
caused to the crop by a drought which prevailed during
June, July and August. The market was seriously affected
by the outbreak of war, but confidence was somewhat
restored by the action of the Fine Spinners' and Doublers'
Association in guaranteeing a minimum price of is. 6d. per
lb. for St. Kitts' cotton of good quality, and 15. 2d. per lb. for
cotton from the other islands. In Nevis, the unfavourable
meteorological conditions caused the yield to amount to
only about 118 lb. per acre, which is below that of previous
years, but the quality of the cotton was well maintained.
The exports of cotton from each island for the year ending
June 30, 191 5, were as follows : St. Kitts, 375,484 lb. ; Nevis,
295,446 lb.; Anguilla, 33,750 lb.; making a total of 704,680
lb. as compared with yoG^yjS lb. in 1913-14.

It is stated in the Rep. Agric, Dept.^ Tortola, 1914-15, that
the cotton-growing season in the Virgin Islands during
that year was marked by unfavourable weather, and that
continuous rain fell during the period of harvesting. As a
result of these conditions, black boll disease was prevalent
and was accompanied by much boll-dropping. The cotton
plants were also attacked by cotton aphis, cotton worm
{Alabama argillacea), leaf-blister mite (Eriophyes gossypii),
and cotton stainer [Dysderciis andreae). The crop amounted
to 35,191 lb. of lint as compared with 32,316 lb. in 1913-14.
The exports during 1915 were 35,191 lb., of value i;" 1,941, as
compared with 32,317 lb., of value ;^2,i9i,in 1914, the lower
value in 191 5 being due to a fall in price in the European
market. Work has been continued on the systematic
selection of cotton plants with a view to obtaining a strain
suited to local conditions, producing high yields of lint of
good quality, and seed of some of the best strains has been
planted on a cotton-seed farm of about 6 acres. These
selected strains have proved very resistant to drought and

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 303

also to the attack of insect pests. It is hoped by this
means to obtain a supply of rehable seed for planting in the
Virgin Islands instead of depending on imported seed,
and also to afford a demonstration of the best methods of
cultivation.

An account of the position of the cotton industry in
Montserrat is given in the Rep. Agric. Dept., Montserrat,
1914-15. Some disappointment has been caused in the
island during the last few years owing to the fact that the
cotton is reported by experts to lack the finer qualities
shown by that produced in St. Kitts and St. Vincent. The
experimental work carried out by the Agricultural Depart-
ment has indicated that the quality of the cotton is due to
the environment in which it is grown, and that improve-
ment can only be effected by the selection of types within
the island or at least from acclimatised strains. The area
planted with cotton in Montserrat in 1914-15 was 2,350
acres, and the yield amounted to 380,923 lb., or an average
of 162 lb. of lint per acre. Considerable damage was caused
by the cotton stainer, the quantity of stained cotton being
6 per cent, of the whole crop. In February 191 5 an
Ordinance came in operation, providing for the destruction
of old cotton plants at the end of February, and prohibiting
the sowing of seed before March 20.

United States. — An account of the " Handling and Market-
ing of the Arizona-Egyptian Cotton of the Salt River
Valley" has been published as Bulletin No. 311, 1915,
U.S. Dept. Agric. The crop produced in the Salt River
Valley has increased from 280 bales in 19 12 to 2,200 bales
in 1913 and 6,187 bales in 1914. The Arizona- Egyptian
cotton has been classed according to the length of staple
into (i) Sacaton, which has a length equivalent to that of
the best imported Sakellaridis, (2) River, equivalent in
length to the best Yannovitch, and (3) Valley, equivalent
to the best Mitafifi. Each of these is graded into " fancy,"
"extra," ** choice," " standard," and "medium." Improved
methods of handling and ginning the crop have led to an
improvement in the quality of the product, and the system
of grading has tended to secure a more stable market and
more uniform prices. The reports of cotton merchants,
spinners and exporters indicate that the quality, character
and length of this cotton are such as to lead to the establish-
ment of a permanent market for it.

FORESTRY AND FOREST PRODUCTS

Forests of Labrador. — An article on the possibilities of
Labrador as a source of supply of pit-props and timber for
paper pulp is reproduced in the Paper-Maker {igi6, 61, 26y).
The coast is practically treeless, but thick forests cover the

304 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

land in Hamilton Inlet, Lake Melville County, around
Sandwich Bay, and in the valleys of the numerous rivers
vvrhich flow into the Atlantic. Until recently the export of
unmanufactured woods from Labrador was prohibited, but
this law was repealed last year, and it is reported that
several cargoes of pit wood have already been marketed in
the United Kingdom.

It is estimated that about 90 per cent, of the trees are
spruce, and 5 per cent, fir, whilst juniper, white and yellow
birch, and others constitute the remainder. The forests are
thus eminently suitable for exploitation as a source of pulp
wood. Most of the trees are about 40 to 50 ft. high and
6 to 10 ft. in diameter, but they often reach a height of
80 to 90 ft, and in some parts saw-mills could be operated.
Here and there patches of primeval forest still exist con-
taining trees of exceptional proportions. Transport of
timber from the interior is rendered easy by the network
of rivers, and abundant water power is available for working
pulp mills.

Reclamation of Drifting Sands in New South Wales. — In the
Forest Flora of New South Wales (Vol. VI., Part 7, p. 164)
J. H. Maiden discusses the question of arresting and
reclaiming the sand-dunes which occur in various parts of
that State. In the coastal region, as at Sydney and
Newcastle, much damage is caused by drifting sand, and
hitherto very little appears to have been done to reclaim
the dunes, with a view to tree-planting, which has been so
successful in the Landes district of France and elsewhere
(cf. this Bulletin, 191 i, 9, 176; 1912, 10, 135 ; 1913, 11, 689).
A long list of plants suitable for planting on the coastal
sand-dunes is given, special prominence being given to
indigenous plants, of which the Norfolk Island pine
{Araucaria excelsa^ A. Cunn.) is particularly recommended.
In addition to the exotic marram grass {Psamma arenaria^
R. et S.), it is suggested that the indigenous Spini^fex hirsiitus,
Labill., among other grasses, should be planted. The
coarse, creeping stems of this grass, which root strongly
at the joints, may reach a length of 30 or 40 ft.

In the extreme west of the State also drifting sand is
common, the sand-hills sometimes rising to a height of
70 or 100 ft. Here the problem is more difficult to solve
than on the coast. It is suggested that much may be done
to check the movement of the sand by conserving the
existing vegetation ; to achieve this, the region should be
divided into areas which, in turn, should be kept free from
stock for a period. The tree specially recommended for
such areas is the cypress pine (Callitris sp.) which is native
to that part of the State. Various species of Eucalyptus^
Acacia and Casuarina are also recommended, whilst the
most valuable grass is stated to be the porcupine grass.

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 305

Germination of Teak Seed. — Experiments carried out by
R. S. Hole at Dehra Dun have shown that the germination
of teak seed is much less satisfactory when the shade is
heavy than when the seed is sown in the open {Indian
Forester, 1916, 42, 51). This appears to be due partly to
the fact that a fairly high temperature is necessary for the
germination of teak, and partly to the fact that dead teak
leaves when kept constantly wet are injurious to germin-
ation. Provided sufficient moisture is present, seedlings
raised in the open are much more vigorous than those
raised in heavy shade. These results indicate that the
most satisfactory natural reproduction of teak can be
obtained by a system of clear felling.

The Ashes and Willows of the United States. — Bulletins
Nos. 299 and 316, 191 5, U.S. Dept. Agric, deal respectively
with the sylviculture and uses of the various kinds of ashes
and willows which occur in the United States. About
18 species of ash (Fraxinus) are native to the country, the
three most important commercial species being white
'{F. americana, Linn.), green {F. lanceolata, Borkh.), and
black ash {F. nigra, Bosc.)- Commercially only two kinds
are recognised, viz., w^hite and brown, and, as they are put
to the same use, they are usually sold under the common
name of ash. The lumber from the green ash is marketed
as white ash, or simply ash. The timber is almost entirely
used for the manufacture of articles such as handles of
agricultural implements, butter-tubs, vehicles and boat-
oars, its high value and comparative scarcity precluding
its use in general construction work.

Of the willows, the most important native species is the
black willow (Salix nigra, Marsh.), which reaches its
greatest development in the lands bordering the lower
Mississippi River. The timber of this tree, which was
formerly marketed under the name of black or brown
Cottonwood, is used for making boxes, as a substitute for
basswood in cabinet work and furniture, and for small
boats, athletic goods, etc. A certain amount of willow
wood is also employed for making charcoal and for paper
pulp.

Both Bulletins are well illustrated with photographs, and
that dealing with the ashes contains line-drawings of the
leaf and fruit of twelve species of ash.

ECONOMIC MINERALS

Asbestos. — According to a preliminary statement on the
mineral production in the Province of Quebec during 191 5
(Mines Branch, Quebec, 1916), the asbestos shipped from
the mines in 191 5 was valued at £73S,sg6, an increase of
£^3Sf077 over 1914, though less than the value (;^798,022)
12

3o6 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

for 1913. The rock mined amounted to 2,134,073 tons^
from which asbestos to the value of £64g,6g^ was recovered,
or 6s, id. per ton of rock quarried. In 19 14 the quantity
of rock mined was 2,127,395 tons, and the value of the
asbestos per ton of rock mined was 6s. Of the total rock
mined some 20 per cent, is barren, and is not milled but
goes direct to the refuse dump.

The stock on hand at the close of 1914 was valued at
;^227,498. The market was stagnant at the beginning of
191 5, but began to show signs of activity in the early part
of the summer, and during the remainder of the year the
condition of the market was satisfactory. The stock on
hand at the close of 191 5 was valued at ;^ 138,794.

Bauxite. — In Economic Geology (19 16, 11, 42), D. C. Wysor
has a paper on " Aluminium Hydrates in the Arkansas
Bauxite Deposits." The aluminium ore of these deposits
occurs chiefly in three different physical forms — viz.
''granitic," massive, and oolitic.

The " granitic " ore is so called because it preserves the
crystalline texture of the syenite from which it has been
derived. The massive ore is in a soft, compact condition.
The oolitic form has arisen from one or both of the other
forms, and consists of relatively small concretionary struc-
tures, the composition of which may or may not be similar
to that of the matrix.

The oolitic concretions vary in hardness from 2 to 7,
and in specific gravity from 2*42 to 3*01, the hardness and
specific gravity increasing as the percentage of water
diminishes. Analyses show variations in composition be-
tween the following limits : alumina (AI2O3), 59*30 to
72*52 per cent.; ferric oxide (FegOs), 27 to 11*5 per cent.;
titanium dioxide (Ti02), i'7 to 3*4 per cent; silica (SiOa),
1*54 to 376 per cent. ; water (H2O), i4'58 to 31*96 per cent.

The matrices in which the oolitic concretions are em-
bedded show hardnesses from 2 to 4 and specific gravities
from 2*35 to 2*38. Analyses show variations in composition
between the following limits : alumina (AI2O3), 56*72 to
60*76 per cent.; ferric oxide (FegOs), 2'o to 5*5 per cent.;
titanium dioxide (Ti02), 3*6 to 4*2 per cent. ; silica (Si02X
0*68 to 2*64 per cent. ; water (H2O), 31*9 to 32-5 per cent.

As the result of his work the author concludes (i) that
the aluminium hydrates in the Arkansas Bauxite Field
include gibbsite, bauxite, and diaspore ; (2) that gibbsite is
present in all types of ore, while bauxite and diaspore are
confined to certain of the oolites ; (3) that bauxite and
diaspore are subsequent to the gibbsite, having resulted
from it because of the greater stability of the lower hydrates.

Copper Ore. — According to a preliminary review and
estimate of mineral production for British Columbia

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 307

during 191 5 {Bulletin No. i, 1916, Bureau of Mines, British
Columbia), the output of copper during 191 5 is estimated
at 57,905,488 lb., worth ;^2,o84,598. This is a record output,
the highest previous production, that of 1912, having been
51,456,537 lb., valued at ;^i,75i,774. The output for 1915
shows an increase in amount of 12,895,789 lb,, and in
value of ;^8o9,323 on the output for the previous year.
The increase is due to the heavy demand for war purposes,
chiefly in connection with the brass required for making
shells. The price of copper (in New York) rose from
127 cents per lb. at the beginning of the year to 22*25 cents
at the end of the year, the average price during the year
having been 17*275 cents as compared with 13*6 cents
during 1914 — a fact which readily explains the increased
production.

Prominent among the copper-mining features of the year
were the return to a nearly normal output from the Boundary
District ; a greatly increased production at the Hidden
Creek Mine, Anyox, on Observatory inlet ; a large output
from the Rocker Deboule Mine, near Hazelton, in the
Omineca Division ; and an increased output in the Trail
Creek Mining Division.

Copper mining is now the most important of the metal-
liferous mining industries of British Columbia ; the value
of the output during 191 5 almost equalled that of all other
metals put together, and amounted to 34 per cent, of the
total mineral production.

Copper converters were installed during the year at the
Consolidated Company's smelting works at Trail, the copper
matter from this locality having hitherto been converted
to blister copper at Tacoma. The question of refining the
blister copper produced in British Columbia has been under
consideration by the Government and some of the larger
companies, and it is possible that a copper refinery may be
established in the near future.

According to a preliminary statement on the mineral
production in the Province of Quebec during 191 5 (Mines
Branch, Quebec, 1916), the cupriferous pyrite mines of
Quebec were unusually active throughout the year, owing
to a great demand for ores both for the manufacture of
sulphuric acid and for the extraction of copper. The output
of ore for the year was 142,769 tons, valued at ;^2 12,626.
The output in 1914 had a value of ;^i66,902. The shipments
are the highest ever made, and they would have been still
greater but for the destruction by fire of the power plant
and the concentrator of the Eustis Mine which interfered
with the production.

Diatomite. — In the Summary Rep., Mines Branch, Dept.
Mines, Canada, 1914, reference is made to deposits of
diatomite in Nova Scotia and Nev/ Brunswick. All the

So8 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

worked deposits have been rendered accessible by the
draining of the lakes in which the diatomite is found, and
it is considered likely that other lakes would be found to
contain deposits if they were drained.

The only deposits worked in recent years are those of
Silica Lake (formerly known as Bass River Lake) in
Colchester County, and Munro Point, St. Ann's Bay, Cape
Breton, both in Nova Scotia.

The Silica Lake deposit is about i6 miles from London-
derry and 12 miles from Thompson — the shipping point on
the Intercolonial Railway. The lake depression covers an
varea of about 12 acres. The crude diatomite is dried, and
treated on the spot in a mill of lo-ton capacity per diem.
Six grades of products are obtained from the deposit, and
the prepared material is exported to the United States.

The deposit near Munro Point was formerly worked,
but no extraction has taken place for some years past,
though small shipments of crude material from stock have
been made at various times. A small mill for treating the
earth exists on the property, but has not been in operation
for the last ten years. The area of the drained lake is stated
to be about 12 acres, and only a comparatively small portion
of the available material has been taken out.

Another noteworthy deposit of diatomite is that of
Fitzgerald Lake, about 8 miles east of St. John, New
Brunswick The lake has been drained and there is a
deposit averaging 10 ft. in thickness over an area of about
50 acres. An attempt was made to work the deposit in
1909, but only a small amount of the earth was extracted.
This was air-dried and experimentally treated in a small
mill, but the operations were soon discontinued, and the
plant is now in a dilapidated condition. The material
appears to be of fairly good quality, and the deposit contains
a large quantity of the earth, which could be extracted
conveniently and hauled by a good road to St. John for
.shipment.

The following are analyses of diatomite samples from
€hQ three localities mentioned :

Silica Lake,

St. Ann's Bay,

Fitzgerald Lake,

Nova Scotia.

Cape Breton.

New Brunswick.

Per cent.

Per ctnt.

Per cent.

Silica .

. 8130

72-10

74-98

Alumina

—

3-81

Ferrous oxide

0-38

051

0-64

Ferric oxide

—

072

Lime .

—

0-54

Magnesia .

—

036

Soda .

—

065

Potash

—

025

^Vater (below

no'

C.) 516

610

574

Water (above

'C.) 9-34

1070

956

Organic matter

0-82

630

272

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 309

In the Summary Rep., Geol. Sun'., Dept, Mines , Canada^
191 5, reference is made to a discovery of diatomite at Loon
Like Island, Liverpool River, Queen's County, in Nova
Scotia.

These deposits of diatomite are confined to the meadow-
flats bordermg the river. The material is described as
white and pure throughout the whole thickness of the
deposits, being seldom contaminated by impurities or
interstratified with layers of foreign matter. The deposit
is overlain by 4 to 6 in. of decayed vegetable matter.

The total area covered by the deposits, so far as they
have been examined, is estimated at 485,000 sq. ft. The
apparent specific gravity of the crude diatomite is 0*45, and,
assuming an average thickness of i J ft. of material of good
quality, there should be about 10,000 short tons of diatomite
available.

The locality of the deposits lies about 8f miles west of
Caledonia, the terminus of the Caledonia branch of the
Halifax and South-Western Railway. From Caledonia the
distance by the present road is 11 J miles.

Gold. — The total gold production of the Federated Malay
States for 191 5, as reported to the Secretary of State for
the Colonies, was 18,641 oz., valued at ;^72,234 (gold at
£1 lys. 6d. per oz.). The total output for 1914 was 14,272 oz.,
valued at;^55,3o6.

Monazite. — In Proc, Geol. Soc, South Africa (January —
December 191 5) are some notes by R. N. Kotz6 on an
occurrence of monazite in South Africa, based on a report
by T. G. Trevor, Inspector of Mines, Pretoria District.
The monazite occurs in irregular, ill-defined veins in the
red granite of the Bushveld on the farm Houtenbek, sixty
miles north-east of Pretoria. The monazite is associated
with quartz, felspar, fluorite, molybdenite, and various iron
minerals (see note on molybdenite at Houtenbek, this
Bulletin, 191 5, 13, 502). The outcrops of the deposits are
marked by honeycombed quartz, the iron pyrites having
decomposed and left cavities. The reddish-brown colour
of the monazite renders it liable to confusion with the red
felspar with which it occurs, but it is readily distinguished
from the latter by its higher specific gravity. The veins
are up to 3 ft. in width, and have been proved to extend to
a depth of 30 or 40 ft. About a dozen veins have been
found scattered over a distance of 2 miles. The monazite
contains from 3 to 4J per cent, of thoria. Prospecting work
was done on the deposits about ten years ago, and there are
dumps at the locality containing a considerable amount of
monazite. It is stated that from these dumps probably
about 6 tons of material containing 40 to 50 per cent, of
monazite could be obtained by hand-sorting.

3ro BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Tungsten Ore. — In a paper on tungsten ores read before
the Chamber of Mines at Ipoh, on March 25, 1916, J. B.
Scrivenor, the Government Geologist, gives a brief account
of the distribution and mode of occurrence of tungsten ores
in the Federated Malay States, and deals with the tests
that are of value as an aid to the recognition of the ores.

The total output of tungsten ores during 191 5 v^as 4,901
piculs (i picul= 133^ lb. avoir.), made up as follows : Perak,
978; Selangor, 2,663; Negri Sembilan, 1,260. It is note-
worthy that Negri Sembilan, which is the smallest tin-
producer, produced during 191 5 more tungsten ore than
rerak, which is the largest tin-producer.

In Perak wolfram is known to occur in Larut, in the
Kuala Kangsar District, in Kinta, and in Batang Padang.
Scheelite occurs in Kinta. The best-known locality for
tungsten ore in Perak is Bukit Rumpian, south of Tapah.
Here the country rock is tourmalme-granite, which is
traversed by small quartz veins carrying tin ore and
wolfram, both in paying quantities.

In Selangor wolfram is obtained from Ulu Klang, Ulu
Langat (Bukit Arang), and Ulu Kanching, from some
tributaries of the Serendah River, and from the hills behind
Ampang. Scheelite is found at Kanching and near the
Batu caves. Most of the 51 tons of scheelite produced
in Selangor during 191 5 is stated to have come from
Kanching.

Practically all the wolfram-tin ore occurs in the vicinity
of contacts of granite and schist. Where the quartz veins
traverse schist they contain fairly pure wolfram ; at the
contact the same veins carry mixed ore, and if they continue
into granite they get richer in tin and poorer in wolfram,
a fact which indicates that the tin ore was deposited at a
higher temperature than the wolfram.

The scheelite occurrences are in limestone. A scheelite
deposit is being worked near Pulai, close to a granite-
limestone contact. The ore is all won from the residual
red earth overlying the limestone, and, though no vein of
ore was observed in the rock, there appears to be no doubt
that the scheelite has been dissolved out of the limestone
matrix close by. The limestone shows signs of having
been metamorphosed. This metamorphism has resulted in
the formation of green spinel and brown mica.

The Government Geologist concludes that tungsten
ores should be sought in the localities where tin ore
occurs. He suggests that the production of tungsten
ore could be increased by encouraging the Chinese, who
are mining in a small way, to bring forward their mixed
wolfram and tin-ore concentrates for electromagnetic treat-
ment, He is, moreover, of opinion that a greatly increased
output of tungsten ore would involve a corresponding
increase in the output of tin ore.

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 311

Zinc Ore. — According to a preliminary review and esti-
mate of mineral production for British Columbia during
191 5 {Bulletin No. i, 19 16, Bureau of Mines ^ Brit. Columbia)^
the output of zinc during 1915 amounted to 13,817,8081b.,
valued at ^^"323, 855. This is a record output for zinc. The
highest previous production was 8,500,000 lb., valued at
;^83,ooo, in 1909. The output in 1914 was y,d>66,46y lb.,
valued at ;£"72,io9. This remarkable increase in output
was due to the war. The average price of zinc during
the year in the New York market was 13*23 cents per lb.,
as compared with 5*2 1 cents per lb. during 1914.

Of the total output of 13,817,808 lb., about 8,822,880 lb.
was obtained in the Slocan district, 3,127,209 lb. in the
]Melson Division, 1,376,000 lb. in the Ainsworth Division,
^nd 491,719 lb. from East Kootenay. The output of ore
was largely in excess of the capacity of the smelters to
deal with it. Smelters, therefore, bought only at a very
large margin of profit, and miners did not make such
great profits as the increased value would lead one to
expect.

A plant for the electrolytic refining of zinc, with a
possible capacity of 35 tons of spelter per day, was in
course of erection during the year, and was planned to
be ready for operation early in 19 16.

GeneraL — In consequence of the war and the numerous
enquiries that have arisen with reference to the economic
mineral resources of Great Britain, the Geological Survey
is issuing a series of ** Special Reports on the Mineral
Resources of Great Britain." Up to the present five
volumes have appeared, as follows : Vol. L, tungsten and
manganese ores ; Vol. IL, barytes and witherite ; Vol. IIL,
gypsum and anhydrite; Vol. IV., fluorspar; VoL V. in-
-cludes potash felspar, phosphate of lime, alum shales,
plumbago or graphite, molybdenite, chromite, talc and
steatite (soapstone, soap rock, and potstone), and diatomite.

In each volume the characters, sources, uses, and
methods of preparation of the minerals are described. An
account is given of each of the mines or quarries from
which the minerals are or have been produced, together
with notes on some occurrences which have not been
commercially exploited.

These volumes will be found very useful by anyone
<iesiring information on British deposits of certain minerals,
ithe supplies of which have been affected by the war.

312 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

NOTICES OF RECENT LITERATURE

The Tropics: Their Resources, People, and Future^
By C. R. Knock, CE., F.R.G.S. Pp. xxiii -f 466, Demy 8vo.
(London: Grant Richards, Ltd., 1916.) Price 16s. net;.
post free, United Kingdom, i6s. 6d.j abroad 165. Sd.

This work may be of interest to the general reader,,
but it is of little value to the specialist or to the serious
student of the tropics. Mr. Knock attenipts the impos-
sible, and the obvious result is failure. To give a com-
prehensive account of every tropical country, its scenery^
inhabitants, resources and trade is a large and ambitious
task for any one man to attempt, and to condense such an
account within the limits of a single volume of less than
500 pages can only result in a general and superficial
account.

The book is very largely a compilation, and it is obvious
that Mr. Knock has not visited many of the countries he
describes and has depended on second-hand information
which is often inaccurate. The treatment of the various
countries is very unequal, and the most valuable portions
relate to South and Central America, of which the
writer evidently has special knowledge. The account of
the British West Indies is, however, most disappointing.
The sections on India and Ceylon are among the least
satisfactory. Cinnamon is described as " one of the abundant
trees," and quinine as "exceedingly important" in Ceylon.,
It is astonishing to be told that, in mining plumbago in
Ceylon, " Cornish and Italian miners are superseding the
natives." The condemnation of the climate of Accra in
the Gold Coast is opposed to the testimony of Sir Hugh
Clifford.

In discussing the future of the tropics the author urges
the importance of a new science of "Human Geography,"
the exact position of which he fails to make clear. It
appears to be in part political economy applied to the
development of tropical countries; but the conception is
crude and is not discussed with any clearness or grasp.

The Rubber Industry of the Amazon and how its^
Supremacy can be maintained. By J. F. Woodroffe and
H. Hamel Smith, with a Foreword by Viscount Bryce,
O.M., P.C. Pp. xlviii 4- 435, Demy 8vo, with 48 illustra-
tions. (London : John Bale, Sons & Danielsson, Ltd.,
1915.) Price 215. net; post free, United Kingdom 21s. 6d.y
abroad 215. 10^.

The very large increase which has taken place during
recent years in the production of Hevea rubber from the

NOTICES OF RECENT LITERATURE 315

plantations in Malaya and Ceylon has had a considerable
influence on the rubber industry of Brazil, where Hevea
rubber is obtained from wild trees growing in the
Amazonian forests, and much discussion has taken place
as to the ultimate result of the competition between these
two classes of rubber. In the book now under notice the
view is taken that it would have a very disastrous effect
on the future development of the enormous natural re-
sources of Brazil if the rubber industry, which is one of
the principal sources of revenue of the country, were to
cease altogether ; and methods are suggested whereby the
industry may be maintained and placed on a surer founda-
tion than at present. This result, it is claimed, could be
brought about without conflicting in any way with the
Eastern plantation interests.

One of the authors, Mr. J. F. Woodroffe, has spent
several years in Brazil, and has already published a book
on The Upper Reaches of the Amazon. It was intended
that he and Mr. Hamel Smith, the editor of Tropical Life,
should collaborate in the production of the present book ;
but, owing to Mr. Woodroffe joining the Army on the
outbreak of war, this course was impossible. Mr. Hamel
Smith has therefore edited Mr. WoodrofTe's MS., and has
added five chapters and numerous notes throughout.

The unsatisfactory nature of the present arrangements
for carrying on the Brazilian rubber industry has been
frequently pointed out, and Mr. Woodroffe adds his testi-
mony in support of this view. Radical reforms in the
labour arrangements ; the abolition of the truck system
under which the rubber collectors now work, and the
improvement of their conditions of life ; the reduction of
the cost of living ; the cheapening of transport ; and the
reduction of the high export duties on rubber are all
questions demanding immediate attention in the interests
of the industry. The authors maintain, however, that the
Brazilian rubber industry can only be successfully con-
tinued in the future, in competition with plantation rubber
from the East, if it is made subsidiary to agricultural and
stock-raising industries instead of being practically the sole
industry of the territory as at present. They are of
opinion that it would be useless for Brazil to attempt to
establish rubber plantations on a large scale in competi-
tion with those in the East, but that, if the money were
expended in clearing suitable tracts in the forest areas, an
agricultural industry could be established for the cultiva-
tion of foodstuffs, cotton, etc., and the rubber and other
products of the adjoining forest could then be worked as
secondary industries at a very cheap rate. The obvious
objection to such a scheme is that the population of the
Amazon Valley is quite insufficient for such a purpose, and
the authors propose to meet this difficulty by introducing

314 BULLETIN OF THE LMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Chinese or Japanese to settle in the area and to take up the
work. It is suggested that, as regards the production of
rubber, Brazil should work in co-operation with the Eastern
plantations, and should, for example, agree to a restriction
of output in case of over-production.

A scheme of this nature would, of course, have to com-
tnend itself to the Brazilian Government before it could be
adopted, and it remains to be seen whether it will appeal to
them as a feasible proposition. It is clear that it would
take many years to give effect to the proposals, and that
the initial cost of opening up the Amazon region for agricul-
tural purposes would be enormous. Even if the scheme
were put into operation it seems doubtful whether the cost
of obtaining rubber from the wild forest trees in Brazil
could be reduced to the low figure at which it now stands
on many of the Eastern plantations. The scheme is, how-
ever, put forward for discussion, and in this connection it is
pointed out that the United Kingdom is vitally interested
in the future welfare of Brazil, as ;^3 50,000,000 of British
capital has already been lent to that country. In addition,
Brazil offers enormous opportunities for future trade with
this country.

Among the chapters contributed by Mr. Smith to the
book is one on Native Labour in the Tropics, in which he
urges the importance of native labour for the development
of the resources of the tropics, and the necessity of doing
everything possible to preserve and increase the native
races for this purpose. This subject is also dealt with in
the " Foreword " by Viscount Bryce. Mr. Smith has also
added a chapter on the Monroe Doctrine and its bearing
on the Development of the Latin-American States.

The Microscopy of Vegetable Foods, with Special
Reference to the Detection of Adulteration and the Diagnosis
of Mixtures. By Andrew L. Winton, Ph.D., with the col-
laboration of Dr. Josef Moeller and Kate Barber Winton,
Ph.D. 2nd Edition. Pp. xiv H- 701, with 635 illustrations,
Large 8vo. (New York : Wiley &. Sons, Inc. ; London :
Chapman & Hall, Ltd., 1916.) Price 275. 6d. net; post free,
United Kingdom 285. i</., abroad 285. 4^.

After a preliminary section in which information is given
regarding the equipment necessary for the microscopical
investigation of food products, the methods to be followed
in such work, and a description of the various tissues and
elements met with in vegetable histology, the author pro-
ceeds to the individual materials, and deals in turn with
cereals, their products and impurities, oil-seeds and oil-
cakes, legumes, nuts, fruit and fruit products, vegetables,
alkaloidal products (tea, coffee, cocoa, kola, coca, tobacco,
etc.), spices and condiments, and commercial starches. The

N0T1CF,S OF RECENT LITERATURE 315

microscopic structure and microchemical reactions of the
different tissues and cell-contents are described in each
case in order to facilitate identification and enable adultera-
tion to be detected. The excellent illustrations provided
afford great assistance in this direction.

Among the special features of the new edition, mention
may be made of the additions to the section on wheat and
flour, the complete revision of the portions of the oil-seed
section dealing with mustards, rapes and linseed, and
of the sections on pomes and drupes, with hints on the
methods of examining almond pastes, jams, and other fruit
products.

The work is of special value to the food analyst, and
should also be of service to the miller, brewer, oil-seed
crusher, cattle-food manufacturer, and the tea and coffee
expert in affording information on the intimate structure
of the products in which they are severally interested, and
enabling them to judge of the purity of their raw materials.

The Chemistry and Technology of Printing Inks. By
Norman Underwood and Thomas V. Sullivan, respectively
Chief and Assistant Chief of the Ink-Making Division,
Bureau of Engraving and Printing, United States Treasury
Department. Pp. ii -f 139, Med. 8vo. (London: Constable
Sc Co., Ltd., 1915.) Price 12s. 6d. ; post free, United Kingdom
125. 11^., abroad 13s.

This work has been written with a view to giving a
practical and accurate account both of the raw materials
used in the manufacture of printing inks and also of the
finished products of the industry. It is divided into three
parts, the first dealing with the methods of testing the raw
materials, the second with the manufacture and properties
of pigments and varnishes, and the third with the manu-
facture of the various classes of printing inks. The book
embodies information collected by the authors during many
years of laborator}^ work and factory experience, and is
therefore well fitted to be of practical service to the manu-
facturer. It contains some useful illustrations.

Methods in Practical Petrology : Hints on the Pre-
paration and Examination of Rock Slices. By H. B. Milner,
B.A., F.G.S., and G. M. Part, B.A., F.G.S. Pp. iii + 6^,
Crown 8vo. (Cambridge : W. Heffer & Sons, Ltd., 1916.)
Price 25. 6d, net ; post free, United Kingdom and abroad,
2s. gd.

This little book should prove useful to the student as a
practical companion to the standard text-books on petrology.
As the sub-title indicates, it deals solely with tne micro-
scopical determination of rocks. Information is provided
as to the methods of grinding and mounting rock sections,

3i6 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

with hints on the special treatment necessary in the case of
friable and porous rocks. In the section on the examination,
of rock slices, a mode of procedure for the determination of
the nature of rocks, both igneous and sedimentary, and of
their constituent minerals, is outlined, and the chief dis-
tinguishing features of the latter are described. Special
sections are devoted to methods of staining rock sections
and the mounting of sands and crushed rock materials.
The latter section includes a brief description of the method'
of separating minerals by means of heavy liquids, and an
outline of Dr. Schuster's method for the determination of
felspars in cleavage flakes.

Mining World Index of Current Literature, Vol. VII I.^
last half-year, 191 5. By G. E. Sisley. Pp. xxv + 228, Med.
8vo. (Chicago: The Mining World Company, 1916.) Price
$2; post free, United Kingdom Ss. gd,, abroad 85. 11^.

This is an international bibliography of mining, compiled
and revised semi-annually from the index of the world's
current literature published weekly by the Mining ajid
Engineering World, The subdivision 01 the contents is as
follows: Part I., geology and mineralogy; Part II., ores
and mineral products; Part III., technology; Part IV.,.
miscellaneous. A large number of publications are indexed,,
and a brief digest of each article is given in order to afford
a general indication of its contents. A noteworthy feature
in the section on " Mill and Milling," in Part III., is a list
of the numerous articles on flotation that have appeared
recently. The book contains useful authors' and subject
indexes, which add greatly to its value.

The Chemists' Year-book, 1916. Edited by F. W. Atack,.
M.Sc. Tech. (Manchester), B.Sc. (Lond.). Vol. I., pp. 354;
Vol. II., pp. 636. Pott 8vo. (London and Manchester:
Sherratt & Hughes.) Price los. 6d. net ; post free. United
Kingdom los. iid.^ abroad us. id.

The new edition of this useful laboratory reference book
is arranged on the same lines as the first edition, published
in 191 5 (see this Bulletin, 191 5, 13, 333). The work has
been carefully revised and brought up to date. Some of
the sections have been rewritten, and two new sections
have been added, one on " Milk and Butter," and the other,
by C. F. Cross, F.I.C., on " Cellulose and Paper." The
year-book should be in the hands of all working chemists.

The Wool Year-book and Diary. Compiled by the
Editor of The Textile Mercury, in collaboration with Thomas
Oliver, D.Sc, James A. Hunter, S. B. Rollings, P. Maguire,
S. Eckroyd, and others. Pp. Ixiv -i- 608, with diary and

NOTICES OF RECENT LITERATURE 317

illustrations. Eighth year of issue. Fcp. 8vo. (Manchester:
Marsden & Co., Ltd.) Price 2s. 6d. net ; post free, United
Kingdom and abroad 2s. \\d.

This work forms a handy book of reference on all aspects
of the wool trade. The information covers a wide range,
and includes an account of the different raw materials, their
•characters, production, and prices, and the various processes
of manufacture. The machinery required for the manifold
operations of the spinning and weaving mills is described
with the aid of lucid diagrams and illustrations, and par-
ticulars are given with reference to bleaching, dyeing,
finishing, and cloth construction and designing. One
•section, devoted to useful notes and memoranda for the
office and factory, deals with such subjects as factory legis-
lation, trade agreements, finance, insurance, discounts,
commercial associations and trade unions. A glossary of
the numerous wool fabrics and textile terms is provided,
together with a good general index.

In the present edition, the work has been thoroughly
revised and new matter added, including a summary of
prohibited exports and contraband of war. The book is
therefore well qualified to continue to be of great service to
all engaged in the various branches of the wool industries.

Trade as a Science. By Ernest J. P. Benn. With
Introductory Preface by the Rt. Hon. Lord Burnham,
M.A. Pp. 184, Crown 8vo. (London : Jarrold & Sons.)
Price 2s. 6d. net ; post free, United Kingdom and abroad
2S. ^d.

Mr. Benn diff'ers in two ways from most of the authors
•who have written articles and books about the short-
*comings of the British trader and manufacturer. In the ,
iirst place, he knows certain trades from the inside, and is
^ble to give convincing evidence of defects in their organi-
sation ; and in the second place he has thought out a
definite scheme for putting British trade and industry on
a sound basis.

The essential feature of his scheme is that each trade
should form an Association which would include all the
firms concerned in that particular trade. Each Association
would have a staff of officials, paid partly by the Govern-
ment and partly by the Association, to deal with (a) export,
ib) research, {c) commercial education, {d) statistics and
finance, {e) labour, and (/) exhibition and publicity, as they
affect the trade concerned. Each of these branches of work
would be controlled by a Committee, which would be re-
sponsible to the National Council of the Association.

It is proposed that each Trade Association should
receive official recognition and be subject to a certain
amount of official control, probably through a Ministry of

3i8 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Commerce, though the possibility of utilising the Board
of Trade in this connection is not excluded. Safeguards
against the conversion of the Trade Associations into
Trusts of the American type, or the Kartells which have
secured unenviable notoriety in Germany, are suggested,
though it is admitted that the export trade of each Associa-
tion might well be managed on the lines adopted by Trusts
and Kartells.

It is clear that Trade Associations organised on the
lines suggested by Mr. Benn would remove many difficulties
which at present beset British traders and manufacturers.

A properly conducted Trade Association would, for
example, be able to control production, and to some extent
prevent the recurring periods of depression arising from
over-production that are a common feature of British in-
dustry. Similarly, a Trade Association could finance and
carry out large schemes of industrial research for the
benefit of its members which would be quite beyond the
means of a single manufacturer, and such action would
facilitate greatly the initiation of new branches of industry
in this country.

All the functions of the Trade Associations are dis-
cussed in detail by the author, and he is able to make out
a good case for his proposals. Whether they will ever be
put into practice is another matter. In this connection
one sentence in Lord Burnham's interesting preface to the
book is very much to the point : ** The mam reason for
the want of scientific organisation has been the intense
individualism of the British trader." There are signs, how-
ever, notably in the chemical and engineering industries,
of co-operative action among manufacturers, and it may be
hoped that this points to a move in the direction of better
industrial organisation.

Mr. Benn's book may be recommended to all interested
in the subject. It has at least the merit of putting forward
definite proposals which the trader and manufacturer can
discuss, and that is more than can be said for most of the
contributions that have so far been made to the discussion
on methods of organising British trade.

The Handicap of British Trade, with special regard
TO East Africa. By W. H. Hooker. With a Foreword
by Charles E. Musgrave, Secretary of the London Chamber
of Commerce. Pp. xi + 143, Crown 8vo. (London : John
Murray, 1916.) Price 25. 6d, net ; post free. United King-
dom and abroad 25. \od.

This book discusses the difficulties now confronting the
exporting merchant, and especially those which have arisen
or become accentuated in consequence of the war. The
subject is dealt with in particular from the point of view of

NOTICES OF RECENT LITERATURE 319

trade with British East Africa, in which the author has had
special experience. Among the various problems con-
sidered are those connected with transport, contraband,
customs, and British methods of business, including such
matters as catalogues, samples, and price lists.

In most cases measures for surmounting the difficulties
are suggested. While criticising the legislative and ad-
ministrative methods of the Government in relation to the
export trades, the opinion is advanced that the Govern-
ment is really anxious to help the exporting merchant ; but
that, owing to lack of agreement and co-operation among
the trading community, the requirements have not hitherto
been clearly or definitely stated. The book is written in an
interesting manner, and many of the difficulties referred to
are illustrated by instances which have occurred in Mr.
Hooker's own business experience. The hope is expressed
that the information presented may enable both officials
and traders to gain a clearer comprehension of the needs
of the situation.

BOOKS RECEIVED

Laboratory Manual in General Microbiology. Pre-
pared by the Laboratory of Bacteriology, Hygiene, and
rathology, Michigan Agricultural College. Pp. xvi + 418,
Crown 8vo. (New York : John Wiley & Sons ; London :
Chapman & Hall, Ltd., 1916.) Price 105. 6d. net ; post free,
United Kingdom 105. iid.^ abroad 115. 2d.

The Year-book of Wireless Telegraphy and Tele-
phony, 1916. Pp. civ + 876, Demy 8vo. (London : The
Wireless Press, Ltd., 1916.) Price 3s. 6d, net ; post free,
United Kingdom 45. id.^ abroad 4s. M.

South African Exploration. Fourth Series, and
" German " East Africa and its Resources, First Series.
"South Africa" Handbooks, Nos. S^, 84. Pp. 28, Royal
i6mo. (London: ** South Africa," 1916.) Price 6d, each;
post free. United Kingdom and abroad, 6ld.

The Shans. By W. W. Cochrane. Vol. I., pp. xx +
227, Demy 8vo. Published by authority. (Rangoon :
Superintendent, Government Printing, Burma, 191 5.)

The Flora of the Nilgiri and Pulney Hill-tops

(above 6,500 FT.), being THE WiLD AND COMMONER INTRO-
DUCED Flowering Plants round the Hill-Stations of

OOTACAMUND, KoTAGIRI, AND KoDAIKANAL. With 286 full-

page illustrations and 4 maps. By P. F. Fyson, B.A.,
F.L.S., Indian Educational Service, Professor of Botany,
Presidency College, Madras. Vol. I., pp. xxvi + 475 ;
Vol. II., pp. 286. ^ X 5 J in. (Madras : Government
Press, 1915.) Price (2 vols./ 155.

320 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Perry's Directory of Great Britain and Ireland,
AND Continental and Colonial Mercantile Guide for
Universal Trading and Professional Reference, 1916.
Pp. XXX + 2678, Super Royal 8vo. (London : \A^alter
Perry & Co., Ltd., 1916.) Price to subscribers, 21s.; non-
subscribers, 305.

Directory of South African Manufacturers, 19 16.
Pp. 200, Medium 8vo. (Johannesburg : The South African
National Union, 1916.) Price is. ; post free, United King-
dom and abroad, 15. 4d.

Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural
Society of Scotland. Fifth Series, Vol. XXVII. , 1916.
Pp. vi + 439, Demy 8vo. (Edinburgh : Blackwood & Sons,
1916.) Price 5s.; post free. United Kingdom and abroad,
55. 7^.

Transactions of the Institution of Mining and
Metallurgy. Twenty-fourth Session, 1914-15. Vol. XXIV.
Pp. Ivi + 553, Demy 8vo. (London: Institution of Mining
and Metallurgy, 191 5.)

The Stock Exchange Official Intelligence for 1916.
Edited by the Secretary of the Share and Loan Depart-
ment. Vol. XXXIV. Pp. ciii + 18 18, 8J x 9! in. (London :
Spottiswoode, Ballantyne 8c Co., Ltd., 1916.)

Commercial Year-book of the Johannesburg Chamber
OF Commerce, 1916. Pp. xxii 4- 126, Demy 8vo. (Johan-
nesburg : E. H. Adlington, Ltd., 1916.)

Year-book of the Swedish Chamber of Commerce
FOR THE United Kingdom (Inc.), 1915. Pp. 215, Demy 8vo.
(London : The Swedish Chamber of Commerce for the
United Kingdom [Inc.], 1916.)

Plate V.

Sketch-map of Ceylon.

Scale 40 miles to an inch.

Negcmbo

Benlota.

A-mha-ntola.

To illustrate the article on " Recent Work on Monazite and other Thorium Minerals in
Ceylon," Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, 1916, 14, No. 3, pp. 321-369.

[321

REPORTS OF RECENT INVESTIGATIONS AT
THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

The following summaries have been prepared from a selection of
the Reports made by the Director of the Imperial Institute to
the Colonial^ Indian^ and other Governments concerned.

RECENT WORK ON MONAZITE AND OTHER
THORIUM MINERALS IN CEYLON

A Mineral Survey of Ceylon was instituted in 1902 at
the suggestion of the Director of the Imperial Institute,
in order to examine the existing deposits of minerals
of economic importance and to search for new deposits
of similar minerals, so that trustworthy information should
be available as to the extent and value of the mineral
deposits of the island and the way paved for com-
mercial development. It was arranged that the actual
work of exploration should be conducted in Ceylon by two
Surveyors, who would also collect mineral specimens of
probable value for dispatch to the Scientific and Technical
Research Department of the Imperial Institute, where
they would be fully examined and afterwards submitted
when necessary to practical tests by experts and manu-
facturers. Work commenced in Ceylon in 1903, and since
that time forty-eight Progress Reports have been furnished
by the surveyors on the results of field work, and a very
large number of mineral specimens have been examined
at the Imperial Institute.

The Reports on the Results of the Mineral Survey for
the years 1903 — 1910 have been presented to Parliament
and published in the Miscellaneous Series of Colonial

3?i

322 BULLETIN OF THP: IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Reports, the complete list being as follows : 1903-4 [Cd.
2341, 1905], 1904-5 [Cd. 3190, 1906], 1905-6 [Cd. 3762,
1907], 1906-8 [Cd. 5390, 1910], and 1909-10 [Cd. 7175,
1914]. Owing to circumstances arising out of the war, it
has been impossible for the present to continue the publi-
cation of the Reports in this form; but, as the results
obtained during the years 1911-1915 are of considerable
interest, a summary of the principal results is given in
the following pages.

The account of the field work is summarised from the
Progress Reports furnished by the Surveyors ; whilst the
analytical and commercial results represent the work of
the Imperial Institute.

The Principal Mineral Surveyor during the period was
Mr. J. S. Coates, B.A. ; the late Mr. F. D. Paisley, B.A.,
was Assistant Mineral Surveyor until August 191 1,
and Mr. E. J. Wayland, F.G.S., since April 191 2.

The chief work carried out during the period under
review was the continuation of the search for thorium-
containing minerals. Several promising deposits of
monazite were located, and particular reference may be
made here to the shore sands described in detail on pages

323-331.

An important deposit of iron ore was located on the
Kiribatgala Estate, Dela, in 191 1, and further examined
in 191 2. An account of the occurrence and the results
of examination of a specimen of the ore at the Imperial
Institute has already been published in this Bulletin
(191 3, 11, 248).

The results of the work done during the years 1911-15
are dealt with in the following sections :

1. Shore Deposits of the West and South Coasts

(p. 323).

2. Alluvial Deposits in the Ratnapura District (p. 331).

3. Gravels of the Kelani Ganga (p. 336).

4. Gravels of the Sitawaka Ganga (p. 342).

5. Nuwara Eliya District (p. 344).

6. Thorianite and Thorite Deposits in the Bambara-
botuwa, Denawak Ganga, and Walawe Ganga Districts
(P- 359)-

MONAZITE AND OTHER MINERALS IN CEYLON 323

7. Thorianite at Niralgama (p. 363).

8. Thorianite at Maddegama, Southern Province (p. 365).

9. Prospecting for Thorium Minerals in the Yalkum-
bura District (p. 365).

10. Rhodohte Garnet at Dewalegama (p. 367).

Shore Deposits of the West and South Coasts
Shore Deposits from Colombo Northwards

The whole of the coast from Colombo to Mannar is
low-lying and bordered by shallow water. Such outcrops
as occur are of sedimentary origin. Travelling northwards
from Colombo, cliffs are not seen till Ambalawa is reached.
Here a white argillaceous deposit stands out as a small
steep-faced promontory about 9 or 10 ft. high. Between
Ambalawa and Karativu sandy beds rise up at various
points to a height of 30 ft. or so, while southward of the
Kala Oya^ a scarp of limestone runs up sheer for about 50 ft,
rising inland in a " turtle-back " (covered with red earth)
which descends fairly steeply and without cliff formation
to the flats of the Kala Oya in a mile or so. North of the
Pomparippu River the same feature is repeated, but is less
conspicuous. The sedimentary outcrops, which extend
more or less continuously from Ambalawa to Arippu,
appear as sandstone cliffs some 40 ft. high about three miles
south of Kudremalai ; from there they gradually rise north-
wards, reaching an altitude of about 100 ft. at Kudremalai
Point. Eastwards and northwards from Kudremalai the
cliffs descend in altitude somewhat irregularly. They are
composed of two beds, viz. a soft argillaceous sandstone
below and a red earth deposit above. North of Moderagam
Point the lower bed is only represented along the sea front
as a broad sandstone plateau descending straight to the
sea. There is little or no beach here.

Various exposures of soft sandstone and red earth occur
beyond this, but are buried at Kallar Beacon under large
accumulations of blown sand. They appear again some
way to the north of Kallar Beacon, where they are
obviously dying out. At Chilavaturat there are no cliffs

^ Oya =: small river.

324 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

of any kind, and the last of these occurrences is seen by
the Doric near Arippu in a bed of argillaceous sediment
capped with sand. Karativu Island is very low-lying and
said to be composed entirely of yellow sand, while the
northern part of Kalpitiya Peninsula (also low-lying) is
composed of limestone — not of coral, as generally supposed.

A reef of hard calcareous sandstone fringes part of the
coast more or less continuously from a point about a mile
north of the mouth of the Kelani Ganga^ to Negombo,
where, keeping to the same line, it runs out to sea as the
coast recedes. It appears again west of the Chilaw Lake,
and again runs out to sea as the coast recedes north of the
Deduru Oya ; after this it is not seen. At Pamunugama
the stone is used for building purposes, while at Chilaw
it is being quarried for road-metal. All the included fossils
belong to recent species, but indicate a distribution some-
what different from that which obtains to-day.

South of Mundal Lake, and also to the west of Maduran-
kuli, blue and brown clays occur. These contain curious
pencil-like crystals of selenite. The clays appear to be
geologically recent. The sandstone exposed along the
Puttalam-Anuradhapura road is of interest; it is part of
a very thick series which has been considerably affected
by earth movements. At Tabbowa it includes a bed of
pipe-clay lo ft. thick which contains fossil plant remains
(impressions chiefly). The age of these beds has not been
determined, but they appear to be of some antiquity.
They form marked features on the country, and have
probably been preserved by folding. Between Tabbowa
and Puttalam an interesting exposure is to be seen, where
a small acid intrusion has metamorphosed some sedi-
mentary rocks.

The coastal sediments (younger than those of Tabbowa)
are very diverse in character, and probably belong to more
than one period. Red gravel deposits occur at several
places inland and at the shore between Kalpitiya and
Ambalawa.

Along the Puttalam-Anuradhapura road the gravels
appear to be associated with a loamy deposit of bright

* Ganga » large river.

MONAZITE AND OTHER MINERALS IN CEYLON 325

brick-red or venetian-red colour. The same association
may be seen at some places along the coast. The red
earth deposit covers a considerable area. It extends from
Puttalam to the Kallar, and has been seen at Katunaria,
north of the Maha Oya. It is generally about 15 ft. thick,
and makes a very fertile soil supporting a dense jungle
growth. The red earth appears to be a close parallel to
the Plateau deposits of Burma. It is of some interest, as
it contains monazite. The percentage ot this mineral is
quite low, but it appears to be the source of the monazite
of the Kudremalai-Pukulam beach described later (p. 327).

Blow^n sand is common along the shore. North of
Negombo the surface of the country is covered with sand
for miles inland, but dunes appear only near the coast.
South of Marawila there are some interesting terraced
dunes. High dunes are seen landward of the barren
stretch of sand separating the cultivated lands from the
beach south of Chilaw. Some high dunes appear to the
south of the Kalpitiya Peninsula, and again to the north
of the Pomparippu and Uppu rivers (notably at Kallar
Beacon). Perhaps the highest of all occur some 5 or 6
miles south of Kudremalai, where they rise for 100 ft. or
more and are covered with forest.

Nambus ' were found to be more or less local in their
development. Large quantities of almost pure black nambu
were found at the mouths of the Kelani Ganga and the
Maha and Ging Oyas. Other rivers did not share the
peculiarity to any marked degree. From Colombo to a
few miles north of Madurankuli thin accumulations ot
nambu were found practically all along the coast at high-
tide level. Locally, accumulations were large, as for
example at Kepungoda and Maha Pamunugama. Small
bays or inlets of the coast were not on the whole more
productive of nambu than the straight north-by-west,
south-by-east stretches. North of Navakkudu, however,
the conditions change. The ocean side of Kalpitiya Penin-
sula is remarkably barren (especially at its northern ex-

* Nambu = a natural concentrate of heavy minerals ; also employed to
denote the residue of heavy minerals which is left after washing a gem-
gravel and removing valuable gems.

13*

326 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

tremity) except on the northern shores of the east and west
promontories. The eastern shore of the peninsula is very
unproductive. On the opposite shore of Puttalam Lake,
however, the same distribution is seen, the best develop-
ments of the nambu occurring on east and west stretches
facing northwards. North of Karativu conditions again
change, and the best nambus are seen along north-east,
south-west stretches.

Nambu deposits vary in depth from a mere film to a few
feet in thickness ; they are often interbedded with layers of
white sand. They are seldom less than a foot wide, and
may be several yards.

Speaking generally, the nambu from Colombo to Dutch
Bay Point, and from Puttalam to Kudremalai contains a
very low percentage of monazite (2 or 3 per cent, and
sometimes less). In some places the amount is higher, as
at the mouth of the Maha Oya, where 7 per cent, was found,
and near Marawila, where in one instance 9 per cent,
was given. The greatest amount, viz. 12 per cent., was
obtained near Welaboda.

Monazite, as a constituent of igneous and metamorphic
rocks, generally occurs in tiny rounded grains ; though in
the pegmatite veins, which break through these rocks, it is
commonly crystalline. The rounded form appears to be
characteristic of the sea-shore nambus, for in no case has a
particle showing crystalline faces been observed in them,
whereas small crystals of other minerals are exceedingly
common.

From Colombo to Dutch Bay, garnet (sometimes of
more than one variety), zircon and rutile were the common
non-metallic associates of the monazite. At the mouths of
the Kelani Ganga and Maha Oya spinel and corundum were
found in small quantity. Thorianite was not observed.
Ilmenite was always dominant to magnetite, though the
quantity of the latter was found to vary locally. From
Puttalam northwards zircon was found to be rather less
common, while in the Kudremalai district garnet is com-
paratively rare, and continues so northwards to the Kallar.

Along the south-east shore of the large bay between
Kudremalai and Moderagam Point some nambus have

MONAZITE AND OTHER MINERALS IN CEYLON 327

reached a fairly high degree of concentration. Along the
southern part of the roughly north and south stretch of
coast south of Pukulam thick nambus have been found ;
but they contained only 3 per cent, of monazite. Higher
percentages are found towards Kudremalai, but the amount
is variable. The coast along here is a continuous series of
small rocky bays, blow-holes and caves. The floors of
these bays are thickly covered with nambu, which is under
water at high tide.

Within two miles or so of Kudremalai there are three
fairly long stretches of beach, two of which are uninter-
rupted with rocks. On the second of these a well-developed
and rather highly concentrated nambu was found, about
200 cubic yards of which will yield 22 per cent, of monazite.
In many places on the surface of the deposit (as on the
surface of some other nambus in the district containing a
lower average percentage of monazite) streaks and films of
monazite are to be seen. The presence of such films does
not of necessity indicate a rich nambu beneath, for they
have been seen on the surface of nambus containing no
more than 6 per cent, of monazite. The nambu deposits
north of Pukulam, though well developed in places, contain
but a low percentage of monazite.

Gypsum-bearing clays were found at the south of
Mundal Lake, and near Madurankuli. South of the Mundal
Lake they cover large areas, and underlie the blown sand
deposits of the coast and the soil of the coconut estates.
The gypsum occurs commonly in radiating groups of
crystals. Its distribution in the clay is irregular, and the
clay contains much sandy matter.

Samples of the gypsum-bearing clay to the south of
Mundal Lake were taken at various points over an area of
half a square mile. The gypsum, when crushed and burned,
produced a good plaster-of-Paris, but the cost of production
will not allow of the sale of the commodity at a profit even
for local use.

Coast Belt between Colombo and Hambantota

From Colombo to Hambantota the coast presents a
series of bays and rocky headlands. The water in the

328 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

majority of these bays is quite shallow, but Galle and
Hambantota are exceptions. All the outcrops of any im-
portance are formed by rocks belonging to the igneous and
metamorphic complex which is markedly developed in the
interior. Large sand-dunes occasionally occur, especially
in the Hambantota district.

Good sections are seen along the coast. The pre-
dominant rocks are gneisses and pyroxene granulites, with
frequent intrusions, especially in the south. The gneisses
appear to be remarkably constant over long distances.
Perhaps the greatest variety of rock types is to be seen
along the southern portion of the coast where the shore-
line crosses the strike more obliquely. The normal granu-
lites (generally gneissose) are quartz-felspar rocks with
very little biotite; mica is always rare except at their
junctions with the intrusions. Garnet is generally seen,
and in the Galle, Matara and Hambantota districts is
highly characteristic. Quartz occurs sometimes in the
form of elongated grains, while magnetite and apatite are
among the more usual accessories.

Pyroxene granulites occur at Colombo, Galle, Dondra
Head, and other places, but are on the whole more con-
spicuous in the north than in the south.

Lept3mite, consisting of small clear garnets in a white
matrix, is fairly common in the Tangalle district. The
garnet sands of Tangalle and Hambantota are derived in
part from this source. Khondalites appear to the south
of Weligama Bay, but do not seem to be widely distributed.
Garnetiferous gneisses, on the other hand, are of general
occurrence. Gabbros and norites are locally developed.

Pegmatite intrusions sometimes occur on a large scale,
and are everywhere common. They are typically non-
micaceous, but in the Galle district a ferro-magnesian
constituent is represented in the form of large hornblende
crystals.

A series of sandstones, calcretes and raised coral-beds,
similar to those recorded from the coast between Colombo
and Mannar, is to be seen fringing the shore more or less
continuously along the whole tract. These beds are of no
great age, and may have been formed within historic

MONAZITE AND OTHER MINERALS IN CEYLON 329

times. Occasionally they extend a mile or so inland, as at
Weligama, but for the most part they are confined to the
shore. A red earth, identical in appearance with that
occurring north of Colombo, crops up here and there
and is well developed between Ranna and Hambantota.
In this district it is seen to overlie a series of plateau
gravels of marine or estuarine origin, which are often
exposed in road-cuttings where they cross the top of the
hills. Near Welipatanwila they cap a sea-cliff at an eleva-
tion of some 50 ft. above mean sea-level. Locally the de-
posit is very hard and partakes more of the nature of a
conglomerate than a gravel.

The nambus seen along the coast between Colombo and
Hambantota may be roughly divided into two groups
which are remarkably distinct in their occurrence : (i) black
nambus with ilmenite predominant, and (2) red nambus
with garnet predominant. The former are characteristic
of the west coast, the latter of the south coast.

The black nambus nearly always contain monazite,
sometimes in large proportions. The garnet nambus
seldom contain monazite, and when present the amount
is small. The highest amount of monazite, viz. 47*5
per cent., was obtained from a surface deposit south of
Bentota (see p. 330). Other high percentages were
obtained in the district, and 10-5 was given by a nambu to
the north of Dikwela. This deposit was too small to be of
any value.

A very large deposit occurs along a straight stretch of
beach to the north of Galle, but in this the monazite
percentage is very low, and the deposit apparently
unimportant.

In certain places nambus are being formed along the
coast at the present time (during the South-west Monsoon),
while others are being buried beneath deposits of white
sand. In one instance it was observed that a good deposit
of nambu in Beruwela Bay was buried under a foot of clean
white sand within five days.

Garnet nambus were first noted to the north of
Weligama, later to the west of Tangalle, and afterwards
in many places along the coast from Welipatanwila to

330 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Hambantota and beyond. Nambu with a garnet content
approaching 50 per cent, can be obtained in almost
unlimited quantity.

The deposit of nambu at Kaikawala beach, Bentota, was
examined in detail. It occurs on the beach of a shallow
bay bounded by two rocky headlands 1,000 yards apart.
Along the greater part of the arc the shore is low and
sandy, but almost exactly at the middle it rises to a height
of 20 or 30 ft., and a band of granulite crops out in the
sand. A nearly flat bed of recent sandstone, dipping
gently seawards, crops out discontinuously near low-water
mark. The beach is about 10 yards wide and has a fairly
steep slope.

The nambu occurs in irregular bands of varying degrees
of concentration, either on the surface or under varying
depths of light barren sand. Frequently several layers of
nambu, separated by layers of barren sand, are to be
observed down to a depth of 5 ft. No rich bottom layer
resting on the bed-rock was observed, but, as the only holes
in which bed-rock could be reached were those highest up
on the beach, it cannot be said that no concentration occurs
on the bed-rock near low-water mark.

The percentage of monazite in the nambu varies from
five to twenty, and the maximum amount of monazite per
square foot of beach is 30 lb. In two areas the nambu was
of higher grade and in greater quantity than on the rest of
the beach. In addition, a rich surface patch, which was
separately sampled, was found near the culvert below the
road, at about the middle of the beach.

A sample of concentrate from the fourth bay south of the
Bentota River was examined at the Imperial Institute. It
consisted chiefly of monazite and ilmenite, with some zircon
and rutile, and small amounts of garnet, titanite, sillimanite
and quartz. An analysis gave the following results :

Per cent.

Thoria ThO, . . . . 4*1 5

Ceria and allied oxides Ce^Oj, etc. . . . 29*91
Uranium oxide ^a^i • • • ♦ °'^^

These figures indicate the presence of about 48 per
cent, of monazite in the concentrate, and this agrees

MONAZITE AND OTHER MINERALS IN CEYLON 331

with the results obtained by magnetic separation. There
would be no difficulty in preparing a high-grade monazite
concentrate from this material. In order to compete suc-
cessfully with the Travancore monazite sand which is now
being exported on a large scale, monazite sand concentrates
should contain from 9 to 10 per cent, of thoria.

A concentrate from Kaikawala was also received. It
consisted chiefly of monazite together with small amounts
of ilmenite, zircon, spinel, rutile, garnet, quartz and calcite.
It was found to contain 839 per cent, of thoria (ThO,) and
5871 per cent, of ceria and allied oxides (CcjO,, etc.), these
being together equivalent to 958 per cent, of monazite.
Monazite of this quality would find a ready market as a
source of thoria.

Alluvial Deposits in the Ratnapura District
Kalu Ganga Valley

The alluvial deposits of the Kalu Ganga valley, for
6 miles below Ratnapura, were examined. The Kalu Ganga
is formed by a confluence a little above Ratnapura of several
streams rising on the Adam's Peak range. The principal
tributaries joining the river below Ratnapura in the section
under consideration are the We, Niriella, and Hangomuwa
Gangas on the left bank, and the Ellawala and Kuru Gangas
on the right bank. The most important gemming fields in
the country are situated in the valleys of the tributary
streams named, and the Kalu Ganga traverses the gemming
belt at right angles for the first 12 miles of its course below
Ratnapura.

Numerous gem-pits have been worked at intervals along
the main valley and near the mouths of the tributaries.
The gem deposits are of three types : (i) the gravels of the
existing river-beds, worked by dredging with long mamoties ;
(2) the gravels of buried river-channels, worked by pits
through the overlying barren sands and clays ; (3) terrace
gravels. Workings of the second and third types are in
progress at the present day, but river-dredging has for
some years been prohibited by Government, though it is
probable that the smaller stream courses were exhausted
before the prohibition came into force.

332 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Numerous gem-workings occur along the flank of the
Potgul-kanda range, which borders the river on the left
flank immediately below Ratnapura. At its western end
the workings have been carried almost up to the crest of the
range, and have there produced exceptionally fine sapphires.
West of Potgul-kanda is the wide valley of the combined
Niriella and Hangomuwa Gangas. In addition to the scat-
tered workings on the Niriella flats, an almost continuous
line of old workings extends parallel to the Kalu Ganga for
several miles, the pay gravel being apparently found in the
remains of an old terrace of the Kalu Ganga. A gem-mine
has been operated unsuccessfully at Maraliya in this deposit.
A few pits have been worked in the alluvial flats (owitas)
near the Sabaragamuwa temple, but none are to be seen in
the extensive flats of the main river between the supposed
terrace and the present channel.

Except for the occurrence of thorianite at Muwagama,
none of the usual heavy minerals have been reported by the
Survey from this particular area, though thoria minerals
and cassiterite have been found at no great distance up the
tributary valleys. According to local tradition, the river
gravels carry gold, but they have not been prospected by
the natives in a systematic way.

Twenty-two bore-holes were put down in the river-bed
with the keystone drill. No appreciable amounts of gold or
thorianite were found, except in a bore near the mouth of
the Niriella Ganga, where the gravel was found to contain
2-24 grains of gold and ^V lb. (25 grams) of thorianite per
cubic yard ; the amount of monazite present was negli-
gible ; the bore-holes on the owitas, even where they pene-
trated deep-lying coarse gravels, yielded equally worthless
concentrates.

Seventeen samples of concentrates from sands obtained
by drilling in the bed of the Kalu Ganga were examined at
the Imperial Institute. They were very similar to one
another in mineral composition. Ilmenite and garnet were
the chief constituents. Some spinel, zircon, rutile and
sillimanite were present, together with small amounts of
hypersthene, magnetite, quartz and monazite. Other
minerals observed in small amounts were phlogopite

MONAZITE AND OTHER MINERALS IN CEYLON 333

mica, hornblende, augite, titanite, pyrite, corundum and
calcite.

Evidence of the existence of gems in the gravels was
afforded by the presence of corundum and gem-minerals in
the gravel samples brought up by the boring tools, those
from two of the bores yielding a considerable amount of
corundum and chrysoberyl fragments.

In a traverse from Ratnapura to Ayagama several ex-
posures of pebble-bearing laterite (kabuk-gravel) were
observed. These were not tested, but there is no doubt
that if they contained gems they would be vigorously
worked by the natives. The observation is interesting as
further evidence of the wide distribution of high-level
gravels on this side of the island.

Gravels of the We Ganga

The bed of the We Ganga and the flats bordering the
river were examined by means of bore-holes. Gold was
found in a few of the bores, but the quantity in the best
instance was only 6 fine colours, corresponding to an
average value from surface to bed-rock of about 0*25 grain
per cubic yard, while the majority of the bores were
barren.

No coarse thorianite was observed in any of the bore-
holes, but a small quantity was separated by closely con-
centrating a large quantity of the black sand accumulated
behind the excavation made in dredging.

Fourteen concentrates obtained by boring in the river-
bed and adjacent flats of the We Ganga were examined at
the Imperial Institute. In all cases they consisted chiefly
of ilmenite, the amount of this constituent varying from
about 50 to 80 per cent. Other minerals present were
magnetite, garnet, pyroxene, hornblende, monazite, spinel,
zircon, rutile, sillimanite and quartz. Very small amounts
of tourmaline, corundum, anatase, mica, siderite, thorianite,
pyrite, andalusite, and possibly also cassiterite and titanite,
occurred in some of the concentrates. The amount of
monazite present in no case exceeded 2 per cent., and as a
rule there was only about i per cent. The gravels repre-
sented by these concentrates are of no commercial value.

334 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Dredging by the native method was tried at two points
f mile above the Dela new bridge with the object of testing
the value of the gem-bearing gravel. The illam ^ here lies
under more than lo ft. of barren sand, at a depth of 12 to
15 ft. below low-river level. It has a thickness of about
I ft., and appears to be very compact and cemented with
clay.

No good gems were found at either place, and the value
of the dalam * obtained would not pay the cost of removing
the overburden and dredging. Good gems are sometimes
discovered, however, but it would be necessary to dredge
a larger area to form an estimate of their distribution.

A concentrate obtained by dredging in the We Ganga
was found on examination at the Imperial Institute to
resemble closely those obtained by boring (see p. 333). It
consisted chiefly of ilmenite, with some garnet, rutile,
zircon, sillimanite, and small amounts of spinel, pyroxene,
hornblende, monazite, magnetite, quartz and corundum,
together with possible traces of tinstone and titanite.

Other specimens received at the Imperial Institute in-
cluded two grains of platinum, two grains of gold coated
with silver, and a grain of iridosmine, all found amongst
gold collected while dredging in the We Ganga.

Gravels of the Denawak Ganga

The Denawak Ganga lies in a broad strike-valley parallel
to the valley of the We Ganga, and separated from it by the
Kiribatgala range. The stream, which is about 15 yards
wide and very shallow, is bordered by wide expanses of
meadow and rice land. Numerous gem-pits have been
sunk in the rice fields and beside the river, especially in
the villages of Ganegama and Kottapitiya. Coarse thori-
anite has been found in the pits and in the river at
Ganegama.

Forty-one bore-holes were put down in the upper part
of the valley to test the alluvial deposits. In almost all the
bores quartz gravel was found at depths ranging from

* Illam = gem-bearing gravel.

' Dalam »> semi-transparent, pale-coloured varieties of corundum.

MONAZITE AND OTHER MINERALS IN CEYLON 335

20 to 40 ft., the average being 25 ft. Frequently two beds
of gravel, separated by clay, were found ; in such cases the
lower or pay gravel has a characteristic dead-grey colour,
distinct from the warmer yellow tint of the upper, barren
gravel.

The majority of the bores produced no thorianite, but
two distinct areas in which thorianite occurs were located.
In the Pelmadulla village area the deposits cover an area
of 3 or 4 acres, and the highest amount of thorianite found
was only i"5 grams, at a depth of 18 ft, corresponding to a
value of 27 grams per cubic yard, while the surrounding
bores gave only traces of the mineral. Even if a large area
of the richer ground existed it would not pay to work, as
the average value of the mineral content from surface to
bed-rock is only 15 cents, or 2id. per cub. yard.

At Ganegama many large gem-pits have been sunk, and
the gravel is said to be very rich in gems. There is no
doubt that a certain amount of coarse thorianite is found
in the pits, but it is usually thrown away. By sluicing a
quantity of surface soil from a spot where old nambus have
been thrown away, about 2 lb. of thorianite was obtained.
A small amount of finer thorianite was washed out of the
river-gravels at a point where much illam from the neigh-
bouring pits has been washed. Only a trace of thorianite
was found in bore-holes sunk in this area; but it was
difficult to reach bed-rock in the parts where it lies deepest,
owing to the existence of a layer of large stones. It seems
fairly certain that the area in which thorianite occurs is
very limited, and that no workable deposit exists.

The remarkably fresh appearance of the thorianite
crystals in both localities, and the almost complete absence
of rounded masses, show clearly that the mineral has not
travelled far from its matrix. It does not, therefore, seem
likely that any wide-spread deposit of thorianite exists in
the valley, though continued prospecting by bore-holes
might discover other patches of the mineral under the
flats.

No other minerals of value were found in the district,
with the exception of a trace of gold in the river-bed, and
a minute trace of a silver-white metal, possibly platinum.

336 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

All the principal tributary streams were tested, but
except a trace of gold, no minerals of value were found.

The gemming ground in Ganegama and Kottapitiya
seems to be very suitable for exploitation on a large scale.
The fact that the native method of working is apparently
remunerative shows that the ground must be rich, and, as
a considerable area of gemming ground apparently exists,
the returns should repay the initial expense of the plant.

Dredging tests were made at Ganegama which showed
that the approximate value of the gem-content of the
gravels at the place dredged is about ^i per cub. yard. If
this represents the average value of the gravel in the
neighbourhood, it should be possible to work these gravels
at a profit with a mechanical dredge.

Ofher Deposits

Other areas in the Ratnapura district which were visited
include the Karawita-Niriella Valley, the vicinity of Dela,
the Ninuwan Deniya^ and neighbouring deniyas, and the
Weralupe Valley. The gravels were in many cases at one
time worked for gems and thorianite, but now most of them
appear to be exhausted. A promising nambu, made up of
zircon, garnet, spinel, tourmaline and corundum, and a few
fragments of blue dalam, was, however, found in a trial pit
sunk in Niwitigala village in the Dela district. The gravel
appears to be fairly extensive and might be worth further
investigation. Monazite was found in many of the gravels,
but nowhere in sufficient quantity to render its extraction
profitable.

Gravels of the Kelani Ganga

(i) Between Madagoda and Pugoda

Boring on the Kelani Ganga was begun at Madagoda, a
mile above the junction of the Sitawaka, this being the
limit of navigation in the dry season, and was continued
down to Pugoda, a distance of 8 miles.

' Deniya = a narrow valley running up between the spurs of a range of
hills.

MONAZITE AND OTHER MINERALS IN CEYLON 337

The depth to bed-rock appears to increase steadily in
descending the river, and this tends to reduce the average
value of the gravel when the minerals are mainly present
in one rich streak under barren overburden. The gold
content was fairly high below the rapid at Madagoda, and
an equally good prospect was shown by a bore put down
with the hand rig above the rapid.

No other favourable prospects were seen till Hadduwa
was reached, where a value of 12 grains per cub. yard was
found in one bore, the gold being unusually coarse. The
value must, however, be accepted with caution, as the pipe
bottomed on hard rock, and it is possible that gravel from
the rich pay streak may have been drawn into the pipe by
the strong suction of the sand-pump. In another bore the
average value was 6 grains per cub. yard. The intervening
bores were practically barren, and this reach must therefore
be considered as on the whole too poor to dredge. Below
this reach the gravels appear to be quite barren.

Samples of sixteen concentrates from the Kelani Ganga
bore-holes were examined at the Imperial Institute. Ilme-
nite was the predominant mineral ; garnet was present in
all the samples, and in some cases was abundant. Other
minerals present, in comparatively small amounts, included
magnetite, hornblende, hypersthene, monazite, zircon,
rutile, spinel, pyrite, sillimanite and quartz, and occasion-
ally titanite and anatase. The amount of monazite
present in the samples sent to the Imperial Institute in no
case exceeded 2 per cent., the average being i per cent.
A chemical examination of one sample showed the presence
of only 027 per cent, of rare earths, and stannic oxide was
proved to be absent.

A silver - white metallic particle, weighing about
o'l milligram from a bore-hole, Kelani, was also examined.
Its behaviour towards acids indicated that it was probably
platinum.

Near Hadduwa is a field known as Ranwella, or " Gold-
field," and prospecting in this showed traces of gold in the
wash of small tributary streams, but no quartz outcrops
were found.

338 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE
(2) Between Pugoda and Malwana

Nine bore-holes were put down between Pugoda and
Malwana, all of which gave discouraging results. Nothing
approaching payable ground was met with in the river
after passing the north and south bend between Hadduwa
and Ranwella. At Ranale also the results of the bore-
holes proved the river gravel to be quite valueless so far
as gold and other minerals of economic importance (apart
from gems) are concerned. Quicksands are markedly
prevalent in the lower reaches of the river, and boring is
consequently difficult, the north and south bend above
Malwana being extremely treacherous. The results here
were negative.

Nine concentrates from bore-holes put down between
Pugoda and Malwana were examined at the Imperial
Institute. They were remarkably alike in mineral com-
position, and they closely resembled those from the Kelani
Ganga referred to on page 337. Ilmenite was the pre-
dominant mineral, the amount in all cases being about
70 per cent., and garnet was present in considerable
quantity. Other minerals present were magnetite, zircon,
rutile, monazite, hypersthene, hornblende, spinel, quartz
and sillimanite. The monazite amounted to about 2 per
cent, in all except two cases, in which the quantity was
about I J per cent.

(3) Lower Valley of the Kelani Ganga

The valley of the Kelani in the vicinity of Kaduwela,
about fifteen miles from the mouth of the river, is several
miles wide and comprises low elevations, frequently capped
with alluvium and separated by extensive swampy flats
(owitas). The alluvial deposits are clearly of widely
different ages, and were laid down under conditions differ-
ing from those now prevailing. As their correct interpre-
tation has an important bearing on the question of the
existence of other auriferous deposits, it is advisable to
consider them in some detail. Owing to the lack of
reliable maps and to other difficulties the correlation of the
different deposits given in the following pages must be
regarded as tentative.

MONAZITE AND OTHER MINERALS IN CEYLON 339

The alluvial deposits recognised in the valley are as
follows :

A. Malwana gravel. — An older coarse gravel, existing
now in the form of a quartz-laterite conglomerate (kabuk-
gravel), with a base generally considerably above the
present river-level, but sinking locally below it. This is
well seen along the Colombo-Avisawella road at Ranale
village, near milestone i4i, where its surface is more than
60 ft. above mean sea-level, and is also well developed in
Malwana village.

Remnants of this gravel are seen capping the ridge
that runs parallel with the river in Ranale and Nawagama
villages. The highest level of its upper surface is 64 ft.
above mean sea-level, or about 50 ft. above the present
normal river-level. The base has an elevation at milestone
14J of 40 ft., but sinks gradually on both sides, till near the
BadahelmuUa Ela,^ according to native gemmers, it is only
12 ft. above mean sea-level.

North of the river, remnants of the same gravel are
seen at Malwana, where they have been worked for gold,
and in the villages of Mapitigama, Weelgama, Chittipattire,
and Wiyanalanda. Patches of high-level coarse quartz
gravel at about the same elevation above the river have
been noted at other places higher up stream, and are ,
probably contemporaneous. Nearer the river mouth out-
lying patches of gravel of similar appearance occur at
Biyagama and Waragoda, and another exposure was re-
ported at Talangama but was not examined. These also
may be regarded as contemporaneous.

B. Ranale gravel, — This is a younger gravel similar in
general appearance to the Malwana gravel, but with
uniformly smaller quartz pebbles. This forms the re-
markable level platform in the southern part of Ranale
village, and outcrops as a conglomerate in a cinnamon
garden half a mile to the south of the cart road. Its
surface is 32 ft. above mean sea-level. On its southern
edge the platform is bounded by a line of paddy fields
drained by a creek which joins the Kelani some miles
lower down, and having a general elevation of only 19 ft.

* Ela =B a small stream.

340 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

above datum. A pit sunk near the edge of the plateau
passed through 12 ft. of gravel without reaching bed-rock.
The base of the gravel is, therefore, not more than 12 ft.
above datum.

C. Owita alluvium, — The alluvial sands and clays ol
the present paddy fields and owitas, with the underlying
gravel beds, if present, constitute the alluvium of the
present river, and may be called the Owita alluvium.
The surface of the owitas is 30 ft. above mean sea-level
near the river. In a tributary creek half a mile south of
the river the level of the paddy fields is, however, only
18 ft. above datum. The bore-holes put down on the
Malwana owitas passed through 45 ft. of alternating clayey
and sandy sediments without reaching bed-rock. The bores
in the river reached bed-rock at about the same horizon
without encountering any coarse gravel bed, though a few
pebbles were found in the lowest stratum of sand. An
equal thickness of similar deposits was passed through in
all the borings below the abrupt bend of the river at
Pugoda. In the paddy fields south of the Ranale terrace
the borings showed a sloping bottom, which at 50 yards
from the edge of the field was already at sea-level, and
in the middle is probably much lower.

Gold and gems have been worked in the Malwana
gravels in Malwana village, and according to report the
auriferous gravels were fairly rich. The pits are situated
on the edge of the gravel-capped elevation and extend well
below the level of the owitas. The gravel on the dumps
gave a yield of 18 grains of gold per ton, in flattened discs
of moderately fine grain, but the quantity of the material in
sight is small. A pit sunk in virgin ground near by passed
through 1 5 ft. of pebble-bearing laterite, carrying traces ot
gold from the surface, but bed-rock was not reached in this
pit. The yield of gold increased with depth but never
attained any considerable value. In many of the trial pits
opened in the gravels of Malwana and the villages to the
east, traces of gold were found in the bottom layer of the
deposit, where it rests on lateritised country rock, but in
all these the bed-rock was reached at a considerable height
above the owitas.

MONAZITE AND OTHER MINERALS IN CEYLON 341

The same gravel has been worked for gems in Ranale
village, on both sides of the Badahelmulla Ela, near mile-
stone 14 on the cart road. Several trial pits were put
down here, but no virgin ground could be found. The old
pits, according to local information, are about 36 ft. deep
and reach bed-rock on about the same horizon as the
Malwana pay-gravel. The gravel carries a small trace of
gold. Two pits were sunk in the gravel near milestone 14J,
but these reached bed-rock at an elevation of 15 ft. above
the minimum, and no enriched bottom layer was found.

The high-level gravels at Biyagama also yield small
rolled fragments of gem-minerals in fair quantity, and those
at Waragoda are reported to be rich, but were not
examined.

As regards the younger formations, old gem pits were
noticed in the lower gravels at Wiyanalanda, which may
belong to the Ranale gravel, and pits have been worked on
the edge of the Ranale terrace.

Gem-pits have also been worked in isolated localities in
the owitas, but without direct evidence it cannot be said
whether the actual pay-gravel belongs to the youngest
alluvial deposit or to one of the older deposits. The same
uncertainty exists in the case of pits in the intermediate
formation. A rich gravel was worked many years ago at
Biyagama, in the paddy fields immediately below the
outcrop of the gem-bearing high-level gravel, and in this
case there is no doubt that the pay-gravel belongs to the
most recent alluvial deposits.

The field has apparently long been known, and native
gem-seekers show such remarkable assiduity and shrewd-
ness in prospecting in a known gemming district that it is
quite safe to assume that no other workable deposits exist
among the easily accessible high-levels of the district.
According to the natives, however, rich gravels exist
under the owitas, which they have been unable to work
on account of the water-logged nature of the ground.

Borings made in the Badahelmulla Ela showed that the
Malwana gravels carry a mere trace of monazite, only
sufficient to distinguish the detrital laterite of the con-
glomerate from the laterite in situ of the bed-rock. The

342 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Ranale gravels yield a concentrate containing from 2 to 3 per
cent, of monazite, while the youngest gravel, underlying
the paddy fields, gave a concentrate containing as much as
28 per cent, of monazite. So high a percentage of monazite
is rare in Ceylon concentrates, except in the neighbourhood
of monazite-bearing rocks. In this case the Ranale gravel,
with its 2 per cent, of the mineral, is the monazite-bearing
rock, and the increased percentage of the monazite in the
paddy-field gravel is a measure of the concentration which
the heavy minerals in the original gravels have undergone
in the process of reconstruction. If the same factor can
justly be applied to the gold-content, in places where the
gold-bearing beds have been reconstructed, it is obvious
that a valuable auriferous deposit must have been formed.

The evidence afforded by the river bore-holes is on the
whole unfavourable, since no coarse gravel was anywhere
encountered, and the layer immediately above bed-rock
consisted merely of sand with a few scattered pebbles.

Gravels of the Sitawaka Ganga

This river is one of the chief factors of the Kelani
Ganga. It drains the south-west slopes of the Adam's
Peak range and joins the Kelani two miles below Avisawella.
The river emerges from a deep gorge at Yogama and runs
parallel to the strike of the country for two miles, this
reach being navigable for large boats above Algoda ferry.
Below Algoda the river crosses the strike of the rocks and
is frequently obstructed by rapids. At Sitawaka village it
again turns northwards, roughly parallel to the strike, and
is navigable to its junction with the Kelani.

The river below Yogama is from 15 to 25 yards wide,
but the depth in the channel in dry weather is often not
more than 2 ft. It is subject to violent floods, following
heavy rain in the mountains, and may rise 20 ft. in a few
hours and fall with equal rapidity. The current is normally
slow, but may be rapid in flood time, though this depends
on the distribution of the rainfall.

The lower reaches of the river have been extensively
gemmed, and it is stated that considerable quantities of
gold have been won by natives from the gravels, and

MONAZITE AND OTHER MINERALS IN CEYLON 343

thorianite is recorded from the river gravels at Deraniya-
gala, some miles above Yogama.

The results of borings in the bed of this river show
that the depth of the alluvium in the part below the first
rapids above Sitawaka ferry and the railway bridge is very
variable, and that large boulders make certain stretches
unsuitable for dredging. It appears, moreover, that most
of the shallower ground is worked out.

In one bore the amount of gold found was 0*03 gram,
corresponding to 4 grains per cubic yard of gravel. Except
that the gold was rather fine, this would indicate the possi-
biHty of dredging for gold alone, provided that a sufficient
quantity of equally rich gravel exists. Unfortunately the
values obtained from the other bores have been much in-
ferior, varying from a trace to about 07 grain per cubic
yard. Thorianite is almost always present, but the amount
is small, and the mineral would probably not repay the cost
of extraction. Monazite forms from 2 to 5 per cent, of the
concentrate, giving a value up to i lb. per cubic yard. The
river has been extensively gemmed in the past, and is
said to have yielded valuable stones.

The upper navigable reach of the Sitawaka Ganga, be-
tween Yogama and Algoda, was tested by boring. Twelve
bores were put down from sandbanks in the river at low
water, and showed an average thickness of 12 ft. of gravel.
Except at the mouth of the gorge at Yogama and near the
bend at Algoda ferry the barren upper gravel rests on hard
rock and there is no layer of pay-gravel. Near Algoda
the bed-rock is decomposed, and there appears to be a layer
of illam, but the gold content is negligible. Thorianite is
also absent, and the monazite vv^hich occurs in all the con-
centrates is insignificant. This upper reach is, therefore,
valueless.

Thirty 6-in. bore-holes were put down in the reach from
the first rapid above Sitawaka village to the Kelani.

Twenty-seven of the concentrates were sent to the
Imperial Institute for examination. They were very much
alike in mineral composition. Ilmenite was the predomi-
nant mineral, the amount being usually from 70 to 80 per
cent., while garnet w^s abundant in a few of the concen-

344 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

trates. Other minerals present in small amounts included
magnetite, hornblende, hypersthene, monazite, zircon, rutile,
spinel, pyrite, sillimanite, quartz, and occasionally tourma-
line, corundum, titanite and gold. The Principal Surveyor
reported that small amounts of thorianite and gold were
present in nearly all cases. The amount of monazite in
the concentrates sent to the Imperial Institute in no case
exceeded 3 per cent., the average amount being about
1} per cent.

A chemical examination of two of the specimens showed
the presence of 1*2 and 0*09 per cent, of total rare earths
respectively, and stannic oxide was proved to be absent.

The Principal Surveyor estimated that the material
represented by these twenty-seven concentrates contains
on the average about 0*4 grain of gold and about 3 oz.
of monazite per cubic yard. Judging from the results of
examination of the concentrates received at the Imperial
Institute, however, these estimates, as regards the monazite,
are rather high, and since the amount of thorianite is
negligible it is clear that the river could not be dredged
profitably for gold and rare earth minerals.

A prolonged attempt was made to test the value of the
gem-gravel by dredging in the native manner, but the work
had to be postponed owing to the unfavourable season.

Virgin gravel was struck in only seven out of the thirty
bore-holes. It appears, therefore, that the gem gravels
have been largely exhausted by native workers, who have
probably at the same time extracted most of the gold, and
that the greater part of the gold that now remains is that
which has been raised by native dredgers from the rich
bottom pay-streak, and, escaping their crude methods of
collection, has been disseminated throughout the gravel.

On the whole, therefore, it does not seem that these
gravels can be worked profitably.

NuwARA Eliya District

A considerable area of country round Nuwara Eliya was
examined, including the Nanu Oya valley on the west side
of Pidurutalagala, and the plateau extending from the south
base of the mountain to the Horton Plains.

MONAZITE AND OTHER MINERALS IN CEYLON 345

The term "plains" is applied to undulating tracts of
open grassy country, traversed by shallow valleys. The
streams draining the plains eventually descend through
deep gorges to the deeply eroded valleys of the major
rivers; in most cases waterfalls mark the points of exit
from the plains.

The Piduru massif consists of a thick series of charnock-
ite beds dipping gently to the west and striking N.N.W.
To the east of Piduru is an anticlinal depression, followed
by a remnant of a syncline in Ragala and Mahakudagala,
beyond which the country falls away rapidly, and the
westward-dipping beds are exposed in fine scarps over-
looking the low country. In Hakgala Mountain the beds
strike N. 60 W., and dip N.N.E. ; this appears to be the
prevalent dip in this part of the plateau.

The overlying charnockite beds reach a total thick-
ness of over 2,000 ft. Below them quartzite is largely
developed; a wide band of dolomitic limestone outcrops
below Hakgala, and calcareous rocks are exposed on about
the same horizon near Watagoda. The serpentinous lime-
stone exposed in a stream below Ragala in Rupaha village
may represent another portion of the dolomitic band. The
sequence of the beds is very similar to that observed in the
escarpment overhanging the Haputale-Balangoda road.

Intrusive rocks are not often seen, but their proximity
is frequently indicated by the occurrence of tourmaline and
zircon in the gravels. A thick dyke of pegmatite, which
contains several interesting minerals, is found on the Moon
Plains, and several others were located in the neighbour-
hood. Smaller barren veins of mica, pegmatite and quartz
are found at Sita Eliya and Ragala.

The areas examined are described in succession below.

Nuwara Eliya Plains

The lower part of the Nuwara Eliya plains, i.e. the
broad lower portion of the Nanu Oya valley, above the
gorge, is occupied by an artificial lake, which fills the valley
for a length of i mile. Almost immediately above this
is the racecourse, and above that, in turn, the park and the
golf links. It was, therefore, impossible to do much pros-

346 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

pecting in this valley, and the results of the work done
afford no encouragement for further exploration.

Nine bore-holes were put down on the waste land at
the head of the lake. These showed that the alluvial de-
posits are very variable in character. The deepest hole,
near the middle of the valley, showed a thin layer of well-
rounded quartz gravel under clay, at a depth of 25 ft., while
in a hole 50 yards distant a thick bed of coarse red gravel
was passed through from 12 ft. below the surface to bed-
rock at 19 ft. The concentrates contained an insignificant
amount of gold, and the quartz gravel yielded a little black
tourmaline and small zircon crystals.

Hawa Eliya and Kandapola Flats

In the Hawa Eliya and Kandapola flats, situated at the
south-east base of Piduru, nothing of importance was found.
One pit in Hawa Eliya gave a single grain of gold, remark-
able on account of its rough and unrounded form. The
lower part of the Hawa Eliya flats is occupied by a reser-
voir and is consequently inaccessible.

Sita Eliya Flats

These flats lie in an expansion of the valley at the foot
of Hakgala Mountain. They have been thoroughly gemmed,
and are reputed to have yielded good stones. Several pits
were sunk, but no minerals of interest were found, except a
few fragments of a peculiar greenish-blue sapphire, though
two of the pits certainly penetrated virgin gravel. A mica
vein exposed in the side of the valley, near the junction of
the streams, yielded large imperfect spinel crystals, but no
trace of thorium minerals. An orthoclase pegmatite vein
near Hakgala gardens also proved barren.

Mipalamana Plains

The Mipalamana Plains, at the head of the Magoda 03^a,
comprise perhaps 50 acres of alluvial flats. Nine pits were
sunk to bed-rock at an average depth of 7 ft. These all
yielded an unusually large proportion of concentrate, con-
sisting chiefly of rutile and green spinel. In one pit, near
the middle of the basin, several ounces of corundum were

MONAZITE AND OTHER MINERALS IN CEYLON 347

found in large opaque crystal fragments. A little xenotime
was also found.

The adjacent pits, each about 550 yards distant, showed
barely a trace of this mineral, though a fair quantity was
yielded by another pit 200 yards away.

At the end of the Mipalamana Plains, the Magoda Oya
descends over a waterfall and traverses a small gorge for a
quarter of a mile, after which the valley again expands and
contains a few acres of alluvium. The stream gravels have
been thoroughly gemmed, and it was with some difficulty
that any virgin ground could be located. This yielded a
remarkable nambu, containing a very large quantity of
small fragments of corundum (principally star-sapphire)
and chrysoberyl (cat's-eye), together with black tourmaline.
The nambu is exactly similar to that found on the Moon
Plains, which are referred to below. No stones of value
were found, and, even if such exist, the area is too small
and has been too thoroughly worked to be worth further
exploitation.

Moon Plains

The Moon Plains include two drainage basins, separated
by a low watershed. One stream, which may be called the
Moon Plains Stream, falls into the Nuwara Eliya Lake ; the
other runs for half a mile along the rifle-range, eventually
descending through a deep gorge to the Buluhela Oya ; this
may be referred to as the Rifle-range Stream.

A circumstantial account of the gold-digging on the
Moon Plains is given by Sir Samuel Baker in his book,
Eight Years in Ceylon. It is stated that gold was found
in the upper gravels, but more abundantly in the lower
gravels at a depth of 18 ft., while in a pit sunk to 40 ft.
gold was found in increasing quantities from the surface.

A large group of disused pits of fairly recent date lie
beside the Moon Plains road, and this may be taken to be
the site of the gold-diggings. A pit was sunk in virgin
ground amongst these pits and seven others elsewhere
on the Moon Plains, and five bore-holes were put down
amongst the old pits. Some interesting gem-minerals were
found, but Baker's statements as to the gold contents of the

348 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

gravels were not confirmed, and the conclusion was reached
that there are no auriferous gravels of value at this locality.

The Moon Plains gravels are, on the other hand, remark-
able for the large amount of corundum and chrysoberyl
they contain. The corundum is of all varieties, pale blue
fragments with a strong silk being most common. Small
rubies of excellent colour are also found. If larger stones
could be found, they would no doubt furnish star-sapphires
and cat's-eyes of the finest quality, but the gem fragments
are peculiarly uniform in size, and in several tons of gravel,
yielding half a pound of good dalam, no pieces large enough
for cutting were found.

The most conspicuous of the heavy material associated
with the gem-stones is tourmaline, zircon being compara-
tively rare. The nambu also contains a little fine monazite.
In one pit, near the head of the flat, unworn black tourma-
line prisms are specially abundant, but corundum and
chrysoberyl are very rare.

A remarkable nambu, rich in monazite, opaque corun-
dum, zircon and xenotime, with a few gem-stones, was
obtained from a small flat on the Rifle-range Stream, near
the head of its gorge. Prospecting in the vicinity revealed
a thick pegmatite dyke, from the outcrop of which all the
minerals named could be separated by washing the kao-
linised rock. The washings also yielded a very few small
fragments of star-sapphire and cat's-eye, identical in ap-
pearance with the gem fragments found in the stream
below, and a trace of gold.

The dyke rock is an orthoclase pegmatite with bunches
of pale mica and large segregations of quartz. It was
trenched across in five places and proved for a length of
150 yards. The maximum width is over 20 ft., but the full
width was nowhere seen, as the hanging wall is covered
by the stream alluvium.

On the occasion of the first visit to this area the dyke
was sampled in two trenches and in the road-cutting. The
proportions of the various accessory minerals were as
follows (excluding fines):

Monazite 1 00 grams per metric ton.

Zircon 12 „ „ „

Xenotime i to 10 grams per metric ton.

MONAZITE AND OTHER MINERALS IN CEYLON 349

The monazite occurs in coarse crystals up to an inch
in length, though on account of its friable nature doubly
terminated crystals are rarely found.

A sample of the monazite was found, on analysis at the
Imperial Institute, to have the following composition :

Ptr cent.

Ceria and allied oxides CCjOj, etc."» c6*co
Yttria and allied oxides YgO^, etc. /

Thoria ThOj. 7-90

Uranium oxide UsOg 2-66

Ferric oxide FejOs i"40

Alumina AI2O3 01 3

Lime CaO 027

Silica SiOa 192

Phosphoric acid PgOj 2680

Loss on ignition 2*20

This sample of monazite contained rather less thoria
than is usually found in Ceylon monazites, and it is of
special interest as containing 2*66 per cent, of uranium
oxide.

Zircon crystals can be picked out of the decomposed
rock by crumbling up the lumps of kaolin. In the gravels,
on the other hand, yellow transparent zircons are common.

Two specimens of the xenotime were sent to the Im-
perial Institute, and an analysis of one of them gave the
following results :

Per cent.
60-28
0-30
060
169
1-25
0-26

Yttria and allied oxides YjO^, etc.
Ceria and allied oxides CeaOa, etc.

Thoria

Uranium oxide
Ferric oxide
Lime
Silica

Phosphoric acid
Loss on ignition

ThOs

U3O8

Fe,0,

CaO

SiO.

P.O5

150

32-93

113

The crystals washed from the outcrops are small, but
large imperfect fragments up to 5 grams in weight are
found in the gravels.

The pegmatite vein was subsequently opened up by
three trenches cut across the outcrop near milestone 3^,
and was found again in the road-cutting half-way between
milestones 3I and 4. ^The width near milestone 3 J is about

J50 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

lo yards, and at milestone 3I, on the side of the gorge of
Buluhela Oya, the width is 25 yards.

Samples were taken right across the vein at different
places, with the inclusion of some of the wall-rock. The
accessory minerals, with the exception of tourmaline, were
found to diminish in amount in proceeding from the south-
west towards the north-east end of the vein, but were
evenly distributed across the vein in each transverse
section. The proportion of tourmaline varied in the in-
verse sense. The monazite was determined by picking
out the coarse crystals and estimating the percentage of
fines by the magnetic separator. In the case of xenotime
and zircon the am.ount of coarse mineral only was esti-
mated.

The maximum monazite content observed on this
occasion was 378 grams per ton, and the average over
the richer part of the vein 310 grams per ton, giving a
value for the vein material of only 2'4d. per ton (calculating
the monazite value at £s per unit of thoria per cent, per
ton, and the thoria content as yS per cent).

The highest monazite content was found in trench i,
where the proportion of xenotime (4 to 11 grams per ton)
and of zircon (3 to 16 grams per ton) was also above the
average. Garnet, while entirely absent from trench i, was
very abundant and conspicuous in trench 3, over 10 lb. of
large trapezohedral limonite pseudomorphs after garnet
being collected from a ton of vein-stuff. Specimens of
garnet showing crystalline form from this locality were
examined at the Imperial Institute. They were partly
altered, and on the whole badly flawed, but small kernels
of fresh garnet remained in some of the crystals.

The following specimens collected during a second
visit to the Rifle-range Stream were examined at the
Imperial Institute :

(i) '* Altered monazite^ — This sample consisted chiefly
of monazite. An analysis gave the following results :

Ptr cent.
Ceria and allied oxides Ce^Oa, etc. .... 52'6o

Thoria ThO 7*3o

Silica SiOa 2*08

Uranium oxide UgOg trace

MONAZITE AND OTHER MINERALS IN CEYLON 351

This analysis indicates the presence of about 86*5 per
cent, of monazite. The remainder of the material was in
the form of an earthy impurity coating the monazite, but
small amounts of zircon, garnet and mica were present.

(2) ** Monazite, etc. ; mile 3|."— This sample consisted
chiefly of monazite, partly decomposed and of ferruginous
appearance. Some xenotime was present; also small
amounts of zircon and tourmaline. An analysis gave the
following results :

Percent

Ceria and allied oxides CeoOg, etc.

. 4257

Yttria and allied oxides Y.-Oj, etc. .

. 6-14

Tlioria TliO^

. 3'6i

Silica SiO.,

. 3'3o

Uranium oxide U-Oa

.- trace

(3) " Tough pebb/es.''— These were waterworn fragments.
The sample proved, on analysis, to consist almost entirely
of xenotime, and contained only 0-38 per cent, of thoria
(ThO,).

(4) " Concentrate from pegmatite^ — This consisted chiefly
of zircon, with some biotite, ilmenite and garnet. Quartz,
felspar, rutile, tourmaline, monazite and pyrite were also
present ; but the amount of monazite was very small.

An examination of the vein seemed to indicate that a
considerable quantity of corundum and chrysoberyl might
be obtained on sluicing the vein-stuff in bulk. Less than
3 cwts. of the vein-stuff were washed in the rocker and
yielded two fragments of star-sapphire and one of opaque
chrysoberyl, and subsequent washings of about half a ton in
each instance invariably gave one or two fragments of the
gem-minerals. On the occasion of the second visit, how-
ever, from over 20 tons of vein-stuff from trench i only
three small fragments of gem-minerals were separated.

From a careful examination of the surroundings it seems
evident that the pegmatite vein contains corundum and
chrysoberyl, in the forms in which they are of value as
gems, but in very small quantities and probably only in
certain parts of the vein. The value of the gem-content
is insignificant, and that of the monazite content too low
to allow the mineral to be profitably extracted.

352 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

In the flats below seven pits were sunk. Of these the
two highest were practically barren, though in one a single
rolled crystal of sapphire was found. The remaining five
pits showed very irregular gravel deposits resting on bed-
rock 5 to 6 ft. below the surface, and yielding an unusually
large nambu.

Six samples of nambus from various pits were sent to
the Imperial Institute for examination. The predominant
minerals in Nos. i, 2, 4, 5 and 6 were ilmenite, zircon,
rutile and monazite, the monazite percentages being 12,
9, 9, 12 and II respectively. In No. 3 the predominant
minerals were zircon and monazite, and the monazite
amounted to not less than 35 per cent. Other minerals
present in these nambus were garnet, hypersthene, spinel,
xenotime, sillimanite, titanite, corundum and quartz.
Assuming the thoria percentage in this monazite to be
about the same as that of the sample referred to on
page 349, No. 3 will contain about 2*8 per cent, of thoria,
and the remaining samples will contain less than i per
cent.

The total area of the flat is only about two acres, so
that the amount of alluvium is small. The gold content,
as determined by washing 45 cwts. in a rocker, is only two
grains per cubic yard. The gem-minerals are much rarer
than in the Moon Plains gravel, and though the colour
of the pieces was excellent, they were all too small to be
valuable as gems.

The Magoda Oya gravels yield a nambu rich in small
fragments ot corundum and chrysoberyl, with zircon and
black tourmaline ; monazite is, however, present only in
fine grains, though near the matrix it is possible that
coarse crystals may be found.

Several other outcrops of pegmatite were located in the
vicinity ot Nuwara Eliya. A wide vein beside the lake
at milestone 8J on the lake path yielded a little monazite,
while pannings of the gravel below the outcrop gave a little
altered monazite and xenotime, with abundant tourmaline.
A concentrate from this vein examined at the Imperial In-
stitute consisted of coarse fragments, chiefly of monazite
and xenotime. Small amounts of zircon, quartz and ilme-

MONAZITE AND OTHER MINERALS IN CEYLON 353

nite were also present. An analysis of this sample gave
the following results :

Ptr cent.
Ceria and allied oxides Ce.O;,, etc. ... . 29*16

Yttria and allied oxides YjOa, etc 22*20

Thoria ThO^ 4'95

Silica SiC, 321

Uranium oxide UsOa ^race

This result indicates the presence of about 45 per cent,
of monazite and about 35 per cent, of xenotime.

Other Monazite-bearing Rocks

In addition to the pegmatite, a monazite-bearing rock
of a different type was found on the lake-shore. The rock
in the outcrop appeared as a friable granular aggregate of
quartz and kaolin, similar in appearance to that at the
south-west end of the Rifle-range pegmatite. It yielded a
small quantity of monazite in fine grains without crystalline
form, together with magnetite, ilmenite and rutile. No
fresh outcrops were observed, and the true nature of this
rock is therefore doubtful. The rock is probably an acid
granulite, and may possibly be regarded as an older
monazite-bearing granite in which the monazite has under-
gone granulitisation together with the other constituents.
It appears to be continuous along the southern shore of
the lake, and similar outcrops were seen elsewhere.

The monazite content is very small, the average yield
being 20 grams or 0*05 lb. per ton (0*0025 per cent.).

It is quite possible that the granular monazite found so
widely distributed in the alluvial gravels of Ceylon is
derived mainly from similar rocks of the granulite series
and not from the pegmatite intrusions.

A concentrate from this granulite examined at the Im-
perial Institute consisted chiefly of rutile, with some ilmenite
and sillimanite ; quartz, zircon, spinel and monazite were
also present, but the amount of monazite was very small.
A sample consisting almost entirely of monazite with a few
grains of ilmenite, zircon, quartz and rutile was also
examined. An analysis showed the presence of 9*81 per
cent, of thoria (ThOg).

-^U BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Eik Plains

The bridle-path from Nuwara Eli3^a to Ambewela crosses
a large patana at mile 4, and traverses a second irregular
patana area from mile 5i to 6i. These patanas are known
as the Elk Plains, and are here referred to as Elk Plains
I and 2 respectively.

Elk Plain i. — The patana is separated by a high forested
ridge from the Mipalamana patana. The open area is about
a mile long, with a fairly uniform width of a quarter of
a mile, and extends along the upper course of a stream
running eastward to Uva Province.

Several pits were sunk along the course of the main
stream, reaching bed-rock at depths of 5 to 8 ft. Fine
monazite was observed in all concentrates, but even where
most abundant was only 2 to 3 per cent, of the whole.
In pit 8 two crystals of monazite weighing 5 grams were
found, but no fragments intermediate in size between these
and the fine grains were observed. A little pale blue
corundum and some opaque corundum were found in the
lower half of the stream. These minerals were traced up
a tributary entering the main stream about half a mile above
the road. Small broken monazite crystals were also found
in this tributary, and both minerals increased in quantity
up to pit II, and were absent higher up stream. In a
secondary tributary entering from the right, near pit 11,
monazite was fairly abundant, and a little pale blue corun-
dum was found, while in a similar gully from the other
side, monazite was less plentiful, but violet corundum was
abundant. A hundred yards up the right bank sub-tribu-
tary both minerals were absent. It is clear that the minerals
are derived from matrices close to the stream above pits 10
and II, but the amount of valuable mineral in the gravels
was too small to encourage further prospecting.

The corundum in the gravels w^as mainly of an unusual
pale blue colour and opaque, or so much split up by parting
planes as to be virtually opaque. In addition, some violet-
coloured corundum and a little clear dalam in fairly sharp
crystals were observed.

MONAZITE AND OTHER MINERALS IN CEYLON 355

An analysis at the Imperial Institute of a sample of
monazite from Elk Plain i gave the following results :

Per ctnt,

Ceria and allied oxides Ce.^Oj, etc 63'62

Thoria ThO, 496

Silica SiO, 1-88

Uranium oxide UjO^ trace

Another specimen from this locality consisted almost
entirely of rather coarse and somewhat rounded crystals
of zircon. A little monazite was present, and probably
also xenotime. An analysis showed the presence of 3*6 per
cent, of yttria and 015 per cent, of ceria and allied oxides,
from which it appeared that if xenotime was present the
amount must be very small. No thoria was detected.

Elk Plain 2. — This is a ramifying patana occupying the
head-basins of streams which unite near mile 6 on the
bridle-path, and, entering a gorge half a mile lower down,
eventually flow under the railway at mile 135.

As before, pits, to the number of ten, were first sunk
along the main stream, and the indications afforded by them
were followed up. Tourmaline was very abundant through-
out the gravels, sometimes in large rolled masses. Fine
monazite was as usual ubiquitous, but never in significant
proportions. Pits 2 and 3 yielded a little dalam, and a
single monazite crystal was found in the former. The
right fork of the stream was barren except for the usual
fine monazite and zircon. In pit 10, on the left fork, a
single rolled crystal of monazite and two of xenotime were
found. This branch was then followed up, monazite be-
coming increasingly abundant up to its source, which is
found in a small patana crossed by the path just before
mile 5. Monazite, xenotime and small crystals of corun-
dum, with much pink zircon, were found here, but not in
valuable amounts. On the path near the stream-head mica
scales are plentiful, indicating the presence of a pegmatite,
from which the minerals are probably derived.

The source of the monazite found in pit 2 was shown
to lie in the basin of a small tributary. Similar minerals
were found here, but the proportion of monazite was again
tpo small to bp of value,

356 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

The monazite crystals from this area resemble closely
those found in the Moon Plains pegmatite. The zircon, on
the contrary, has a peculiar brownish-pink colour, which
seems to be the characteristic of the district.

A mixture of grains of monazite, fergusonite and zircon
from Elk Plain 2 was received at the Imperial Institute.
An analysis showed the presence of 4875 per cent, of total
rare earths and 2-63 per cent, of thoria.

Horton Plains

The path southwards from Pattipola crosses undulating
patana for two miles and then climbs 1,000 ft. to a gap in
a steep range of hills and descends slightly to the Horton
Plains, which lie at an elevation of 7,000 ft. above sea-
level, or 800 ft. above the Nuwara Eliya-Ambewela plateau.
The plains cover an area of about four miles square,
narrowing to the eastward to form the long mountain spur
which sweeps round by Haputale to Bandarawela. On
the west side the plateau has been trenched by several
deep gorges, separated by sharp spurs, while at its southern
edge the country falls away rapidly, at first in sheer escarp-
ments, for 4,000 feet.

Most of the drainage of the plateau descends by the
gorge of the Belihul Oya to the Walawe Ganga. The
plateau portion of the stream has a remarkably tortuous
course owing to deflection by hard bands of quartzite, and
consists of a series of broad basins separated by miniature
gorges. The basins are filled with thick accumulations of
peaty soil, covering very irregularly distributed patches
of sub-angular gravel.

The country rock is the usual alternation of granulite
and quartzite. A pegmatite vein about a foot wide was
observed cutting the charnockite ledge in a pool of the
Belihul Oya, and a narrower vein traversing quartzite was
seen near the rest-house, but rock exposures on the plains
are very few in number. Some wide outcrops of unusually
coarse pegmatite are exposed in the scarp, along the
Haldumulla path, and are referred to below.

The gravels were thoroughly prospected by nearly forty

MONAZITE AND OTHER MINERALS IN CEYLON 357

pits, but nothing of importance was found. Monazite as
usual is present, but even when traced up the tributaries
the mineral is never found in workable amount. The
monazite resembles that found on the Elk Plains, and is
accompanied by similar pink zircon. In a pit near the
stream, below the bridge on the Belihul Oya path, a single
well-rolled monazite crystal an inch long was found. Gems
have been worked in two tributaries on either side of the
rest-house. A little dalam was washed from these gravels,
but the deposits do not appear to have been rich and are
now practically exhausted. A thin bed of very white quartz
gravel on a gentle slope below the rest-house yielded a
little dark chrysoberyl and abundant zircon in small crystals,
with a trace of gold.

Two pegmatite veins on the Haldumulla bridle-path
were investigated. One of these is well exposed in the
road cuttings on the zig-zags near mile lo. In the highest
exposure the outcrop is 30 ft. wide and consists of quartz
and felspar, with a small proportion of coarse biotite mica.
Lower down the vein is probably 50 ft. wide, and contains
over 30 ft. of solid felspar, the individual crystals being
sometimes 2 to 3 ft. long. The second vein is seen 200
yards to the west, and is probably a branch of the former.
Both veins carry a little magnetite and a trace of thorite.
Magnetite was observed in situ in another branch in a
stream-bed on the east side. Pegmatite debris is very
common in the thick talus at the foot of the escarpment.

A concentrate from the wide vein on the Haldumulla
path was examined at the Imperial Institute. It consisted
chiefly of ilmenite, with some magnetite. Zircon, garnet,
hypersthene, quartz, felspar, rutile, hornblende, spinel,
tourmaline, muscovite and monazite were present, but the
amount of monazite was very small.

A concentrate from the branch of the wide vein con-
sisted of a mixture of zircon, magnetite, ilmenite, biotite,
and probably xenotime.

A third pegmatite vein on the edge of the plateau,

30 yards from milestone 11 on the bridle-path, yielded

abundant corundum. The vein consisted of a very coarse

aggregate of quartz, felspar and mica in the middle, gradu-

14*

358 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

ating into a finer-grained quartz-felspar rock at either end,
where the vein branches irregularly and cannot be traced
further on the surface. A lenticular mass of felspar, 5 ft.
long and 4 ft. thick, in this vein yielded 2J lb. ot pale
greenish-blue and blue corundum exactly similar to much
of the pale dalam found in the Ratnapura gravels.

The corundum crystals are very brittle, and can often
be crumbled into small flakes between the fingers, and it
is difficult to find unflawed pieces large enough to be cut.

A few of the corundum fragments have been cut and
yield sapphires of a good pale blue colour, but marred by
flaws and cloudiness (silk). It is highly improbable that
any good stones would be found in the locality, and the
discovery is only of practical importance as a clue to
the origin of the corundum pebbles in the Ratnapura
gravels.

Pegmatite veins are strongly developed in the rich
gemming districts, and it seems probable that the fel-
spathic portions of these are the matrix of the alluvial
gem-stones. The alluvial deposits on the Horton Plains
are of insignificant value in gems compared with the
average Ratnapura gem-gravel ; the matrices of the gems
in the Ratnapura district may therefore be expected to
have a much higher value than the Horton Plains vein,
and, if the corundum-bearing portion of the veins should
prove to be extensive, a new field for mining would be
opened in the now declining gem-fields. The search for
corundum matrix is likely to be a difficult one, since the
mineral appears to be confined to the felspathic portions,
whereas it is only the quartzose parts that form con-
spicuous outcrops.

Fragments of a brownish mineral found in the middle
of the vein, where quartz is predominant, were received
for examination at the Imperial Institute. Most of the
fragments had the appearance of altered thorite ; a little
monazite may have been present. An analysis showed
51*9 per cent, of thoria (ThOg) and i7'8 per cent, of water,
indicating that the material was for the most part probably
altered thorite.

MONAZITE AND OTHER MINERALS IN CEYLON 359

Thorianite and Thorite Deposits in the Bambarabotuwa,
Denawak Ganga, and Walawe Ganga Districts

With a view to reviving interest in the production of
thorianite, which for some years past has been at a stand-
still, the headmen in the chief thorianite fields were in-
formed early in 191 5 of the increase in value of the mineral
and an offer was made to examine samples. The thorianite
formerly marketed appears to have been obtained for the
most part in small quantities as a by-product in gemming
operations, and to have been collected by the gem-buyers
who visit the fields during the gemming season. The
gemming industry at this time, however, was completely
neglected for want of a market, and it was therefore un-
likely that any thorianite would be produced in this way,
especially as the gem-buyers had deserted the fields. An
offer to buy thorianite at a fixed rate of I^ss per pound
led to the production of only one pound of the mineral.

After a close examination of the fields it was concluded
that the exploitation of the thorianite-bearing lodes affords
the only possibility of renewing the production of the
mineral, unless new fields should be discovered in hitherto
unexplored parts of the island.

Details of the localities examined are given below.

Bambarabotuwa District

The district explored contains the most extensive de-
posits of thorianite hitherto found in the island. In ad-
dition to a deposit in the Kuda Pandi Oya which has been
worked for some 37ears, small rich deposits were w^orked
under Crown lease in the Kalugal Dola,^ Kuda Oya, Alupola
Oya and Hin Alupola Oya. These were all detrital deposits
in the beds of streams and the wash on the sides of the
valleys. Enquiries, supplemented by personal investiga-
tion in some cases, showed that all these placer deposits
are practically exhausted, and though a little thorianite
could no doubt still be won from them, the work would
not be remunerative except to native workers. Systematic

' Dola = a natural watercourse.

36o BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

exploration of the surrounding district failed to disclose
any new placer deposits.

Prospecting was begun on the Kuda Pandi Oya, as this
was the richest deposit known and the easiest one to ex-
amine on account of the clearing of the jungle already
carried out. In addition to two veins exposed by the
operations of the former owners of the land, five other
veins or lenses were discovered by trenching on the right
side of the valley. Probably numerous other lenses would
be discovered by further trenching, but the work done
sufficed to show that no large outcrop of thorianite-bearing
rock exists in the area, except that described as vein 2
below. The veins all yield thorianite as the principal
accessory mineral, with ilmenite next in importance and
small quantities of thorite, monazite and zircon.

The largest outcrop (vein 2) has a maximum width of
10 yards, but includes some bands of granulite, and can be
traced for 30 yards along the strike. Vein i has a width of
2 yards and a length of 20 yards. The remaining outcrops
are merely short lenses varying in width up to 2 yards and
traceable for only a few yards along the strike. The out-
crops are situated close to the head of the stream and no
natural water supply is available, except for a short time
after heavy rain.

The thorianite content of the veins proved in all in-
stances to be extremely low, the maximum proportion
observed being 0*5 oz. per ton, or o'ooi per cent. The lack
of a constant water supply is an obstacle to the rapid and
economical extraction of the mineral, and though the out-
put might be increased by using some form of log-washer
to break up the clayey vein-stuff, it is clearly impossible to
work any of the veins at a profit, and no further output of
thorianite from this field is to be hoped for.

Thorianite-bearing veins of similar character but slightly
more felspathic were found at the head of the Kalugal Dola,
but in these also the proportion of thorianite is com-
mercially negligible, the maximum observed being ij oz.
per ton, or 0*003 per cent., though the crystals from one
vein were on the average much larger than those from the
Kuda Pandi Oya veins.

MONAZITE AND OTHER MINERALS IN CEYLON 361

In the two fields examined it is evident that the richness
of the detrital deposits is to be attributed, as in the case of
most placer deposits, to the large aggregate area of the
thorianite-bearing outcrops, and not to the existence of rich
veins. It is probable that similar conditions exist in the
other small fields of the district, and though the matrix of
the thorianite could no doubt be discovered in each of
them by systematic trenching, the prospect of the discovery
of any deposit of commercial importance is remote.

During the last four years the systematic prospecting of
the principal mineral districts of the island has proved that
no large deposits of thorianite exist. New placers will no
doubt be discovered from time to time, as instanced by the
finding of the mineral at Mitipola ; but these are not likely
to yield any large supply of the mineral.

A sample, consisting chiefly of thorianite, together with
5 per cent, of ilmenite, obtained at Mitipola, was examined.
The sample was freed from ilmenite at the Imperial Insti-
tute, and was then found on analysis to contain :

Per cent,

Thoria ThC, 5400

Uranium oxide U3O9 39'3o

A consignment of thorianite, closely resembling this
sample in chemical composition, and weighing about i cwt.,
was also received at the Imperial Institute from Ceylon,
and was sold in London at ys. 6d. per lb.

Denawak Gmiga District

Reference has already been made to the occurrence of
thorianite at Pelmadulla and elsewhere in this district
(p. 334). Some unworked gravel remains along the steeper
course of the stream, by which it descends to join the
Bambarabotuwa near Malwela. Dredging was done at
intervals along this reach, and abundant small, well-rolled
fragments of gem-minerals were found, chiefly zircon and
spinel, with a trace of thorianite, at a depth of from 4 to 5 ft.

The Tun Dola, on Kiribatgala, was also examined. This
stream, for a length of half a mile, and a deniya several
acres in extent, have been completely worked out illicitly,
for gems and thorianite. No thorianite was observed

362 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

in the small patches of gravel left unworked. At the
source of the stream, which is a tributary of the Denawak
Ganga, and not of the We Ganga, as supposed, there is a
large deniya where the gravel lies at a considerable depth ;
this is being prospected.

Walawe Ganga District

Thorianite was collected in former years from an exten-
sive jungle at Walaweduwa and Waleboda, on the right
side of the upper Walawe Valley. This jungle was, how-
ever, thoroughly searched without any new workable
deposit of thorianite being found. The old workings seem
in every case to have been carried on till they became
unremunerative, and, though thorianite can still be obtained
at the heads of the streams formerly worked, it is no longer
obtainable in paying quantity.

A number of mineral specimens from Walaweduwa
were forwarded to the Imperial Institute for identification.
These proved to be zirkelite, and one of them, on analysis,
gave the following results :

Per cent.

Zirconia ZrO^ 36-2

Thoria ThOa 17-4

Titanium dioxide TiO^ 24*6

Lime CaO 67

The mineral would clearly be a valuable source of thoria,
if it could be obtained in large quantities.

The Radiyarawa, a small deniya half a mile east of the
Walawe Ganga, opposite Walawe estate, yields a very little
thorianite and gold, with some corundum, at its lower end.
The dola draining it has been worked for gems. In neither
place is the gravel rich enough to be worked for thorianite
alone.

The Pita Ela, a stream on the boundary between Walawe
and Morahela estates, yields the same minerals, and might
possibly be worked for gems. The thorianite, which is
present in very small amount, can be traced to the mala
dolas^ on the hill-side, but no deposits of value are to be
found nearer the matrix.

* Mala dola = a natural watercourse which dries up at some seasons of the
year.

MONAZITE AND OTHER MINERALS IN CEYLON 363

Twenty bores were put down in the bed of the Walawe
Ganga, along the reach from one mile above Walawe fac-
tory down to Morahela factory. Only two of these showed
any trace of gold, and the rest were barren. No thorianite
was observed in the concentrates. The conditions here
are unfavourable for any large-scale exploitation of the
gravels. The river is barely 10 yards wide, and flows
in a deep V-shaped trough with no bordering flats, and it
is subject to violent floods. Unless, therefore, the gravels
were very rich they could not be profitably worked, and
there is no clear indication that this is the case.

Thorite was formerly worked in the jungle at the head
of Massena estate, near Balangoda. The workings were
confined to a stretch of less than 100 yards along the bed
of a stream and the narrow flats bordering it. The sur-
rounding jungle was searched thoroughly, but no other
deposit of the mineral was found. From the form of the
deposit, and the sharpness of the crystals found originally,
it was inferred that the stream here runs along the outcrop
of a thorite-bearing rock. There appears to be no prospect
of producing more of the mineral in this district.

Thorianite at Niralgama

An occurrence of coarse thorianite in rain-wash near
the foot of a gentle hill-slope was observed at Niralgama,
situated about 5 miles south of Ratnapura, in a small strike-
valley parallel with the Hangomuwa Ganga valley, and at
a considerable elevation above it. Gem-workings exist at
the foot of a low ridge in a shallow basin which slopes
very gently towards a watercourse generally dry, except
immediately after rains. The gems were found chiefly in a
bed of coarse sub-angular gravel following the foot of the
hill and in the talus for a few yards up the hill-side. On
the opposite side of the channel gems are said to have
been found in the surface soil, but on the hill-side the talus
or rain-wash formed a well-defined bed, overlain by
2 ft. of soil, and resting on sandy laterite derived from the
underlying rocks. The best part of the gemming-ground
has already been exhausted, but the talus-bed is still
worked at intervals. Owing to lack of water the material

364 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

is sorted by hand, and, as the stones are large, though not
of frequent occurrence, they are easily picked out. The
gem-workings extend round the end of the ridge and along
its other flank for from 200 to 300 yards.

A couple of bags of earth from a certain spot were
washed in the usual way and yielded several ounces of
coarse thorianite, but subsequent examination showed that
the rich deposit is of very limited extent. At the original
spot an occasional crystal of thorianite can be found by
sorting over the talus material, but a few yards away very
little was found even on washing the earth. Careful pros-
pecting showed that the thorianite was confined to an area
of less than 150 square yards on the edge of the old
workings. The thorianite content of the bed was only
about half a pound to the ton, and the total quantity avail-
able would be less than half a hundredweight.

The thorianite was found to be shed from a pegmatite
vein dipping flatly across the foliation, and almost coin-
ciding with the surface of the hill. A block of pegmatite
lying just beneath the surface gave crystals of thorianite
and thorite when crushed and panned, but the downward
continuation of the vein was thinner and poorer in heavy
minerals. The vein was much decomposed and was traced
with difficulty through the laterite, and it was obviously
not worth while to carry the workings down to unde-
composed rock, which lies at a depth of 20 ft. or more.

A second wider vein containing a trace of thorite was
found some 20 yards higher up the slope, and probably
another exists still higher up, as traces of thorite could be
found in the soil above the outcrop. This had a width of
2 to 3 in., but the mineral was split up by partings filled
with iron ochre. In one place the veins swelled out in a
pocket 4 in. wide, filled with compact greasy graphite.

The country rock is charnockite, the foliation of which
strikes N.W. and dips N.E. at 40°. All the surrounding
exposures are traversed by interlacing veins of quartz and
pegmatite. A large outcrop of very coarse hornblende
granite is conspicuous on the top of the hill ; this contains
zircon, but no thoria minerals.

In addition to thorianite, which is the predominant

MONAZITE AND OTHER MINERALS IN CEYLON 365

mineral, the following were found: thorite, fergusonite,
rutile and zircon. Monazite was absent. A trace of gold
was found while prospecting in the soil on the hill-side.

Thorianite at Maddegama, Southern Province

This place was visited to inspect the workings formerly
carried on in a thorianite-bearing pegmatite vein, and to
see if there was any possibility of working the vein
systematically.

A pit was sunk to a depth of 50 ft., and levels driven
along the micaceous part of the vein, which was stoped out
and washed in gemming-baskets of fine mesh. Payable
material seems to have been confined to a definite shoot,
the length of which could not be ascertained. Work was
abandoned when the material became too poor to repay
the cost of treatment, which, with the crude methods
adopted, was fairly high. It was stated that rock con-
taining i lb. of thorianite per ton could not be profitably
treated.

Unfortunately the rich part of the outcrop lies at a
height of 100 ft. above the nearest water, and it would not
be possible to bring in water by a ditch. Whether it would
pay to pump up water from the paddy fields and run a
sluice alongside the outcrop it is difficult to say. The
landowners are washing the remaining alluvium, and a
small amount of thorianite is thus being produced.

Another occurrence of thorianite in the soil on a hill-
side has been discovered, two miles from the Maddegama
vein. The stream below has been worked out for gems,
but the thorianite has been traced up the slope, and it is
expected that a vein must eventually be discovered.

Prospecting for Thorium Minerals in the
Yalkumbura District

A number of mica and pegmatite veins traverse the
rocks exposed in the cuttings between the 6th and 9th
mileposts on the new Bandarawela-Welimadaroad. Thorium
minerals were found to be almost constantly present in the
veins, but the proportions are small, and no original or
detrital deposits of commercial value were discovered.

366 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

A fair quantity of monazite, some of it in grains weigh-
ing over a gram, was found in a small dry gully 150 yards
east of milepost 8 on the cart-road, on the track leading
to Badulla, and a crystal of monazite, with only slightly
rounded edges, was also found in the gravel. The gully is
only a small one and not more than 200 yards in length.
Possibly 20 lb. of the monazite could be won from the
whole of it, but the work could not be remunerative, even
if a larger amount of mineral were in sight.

An outcrop of pegmatite, wdth large phlogopite crystals,
occurs near the head of the dry dola, and pannings
from the surface gave abundance of fine monazite.
Material from the body of the vein gave an abundance of
zircon, with one or two crystal fragments of greenish
monazite, whilst that from the footwall side, where the vein
is in contact with unaltered granulite, gave about 30 grams
of monazite concentrate, or not much over i oz. per ton.
The monazite from the footwall of the vein was all of fine
grain, but, as larger crystal fragments were found in the
dola below, it is possible that the mineral is also distributed
in coarse grains through the vein, and richer samples might
be obtained at other points ; but the result does not en-
courage further prospecting.

A little coarse monazite was found near the head of the
next stream that crosses the track, but no outcrops of
pegmatite were to be found in the basin of the stream, and
the gravels lower down were barren.

In the first gully beyond milepost 9 a trace of
thorite was discovered, but an attempt to ascertain its
source was not successful.

In the Yalkumbura Dola traces of thorianite and gold
were found in the upper gravels exposed in its banks, but
the water was too high to admit of cleaning up the stream
bottom except at a point much higher up stream, where the
gravel proved barren.

Thoria minerals have now been reported in Uva
Province from Welimada, Wilson's Bungalow, Bogoda,
Naulla, and Namunakuli, and, although the deposits so far
discovered in the province are of little practical importance,
there appears to be as much likelihood of finding payable

MONAZITE AND OTHER MINERALS IN CEYLON 367

deposits in this part of the country as there is of locating
further deposits in Sabaragamuwa.

The following specimens from Yalkumbura were re-
ceived for examination at the Imperial Institute :

Monazite from gullies. — This was a small concentrate of
monazite sand containing coarse fragments of monazite,
together with small amounts of zircon, rutile, sillimanite
and quartz. An analysis of a specimen of the monazite
obtained by magnetic separation showed the presence of
6o'i2 per cent, of ceria and allied oxides, and 4-91 per cent,
of thoria. This percentage of thoria is lower than that
usually found in Ceylon monazite (cf. Colonial Reports —
Miscellaneous [Cd. 3190], pp. 30 and 35, and [Cd. 3762],
pp. II and 16 ; and this Bulletin (1914, 12, 56).

Thorite, etc., from gullies, — This specimen consisted
chiefly of zircon and spinel, with some thorite and rutile.
An analysis showed the presence of 15 '56 per cent, of
thoria.

Zircon from pegmatite. — A concentrate consisting almost
wholly of zircon, with some quartz and monazite, and small
amounts of rutile, ilmenite, hornblende and magnetite. The
monazite amounted to about 4 per cent.

Monazite^ etc.^ from pegmatite. — This concentrate con-
tained about 60 per cent, of monazite. Some zircon and
quartz were present, together with small amounts of
ilmenite, rutile, garnet and hypersthene.

Rhodolite Garnet at Dewalegama

An occurrence of garnet on Crown land in this village
was examined.

The garnet was originally found in the bed of a small
dola, which is now exhausted. Numerous pits have been
dug on the hill-side by illicit gemmers, exposing a soft
micaceous band at the junction of a coarse granitoid rock
and a finely laminated leptynite. The soft, much decom-
posed, micaceous rock contains hard round balls, which
consist of large garnet aggregates much shattered by earth
movements in the rock. The bands are limited in extent,
and are not traceable for more than a few yards. The

368 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Strike of the rocks, as measured in adjacent pits, is variable,
and it is therefore difficult to trace the beds or to form an
estimate of the quantity of the valuable mineral.

The garnet masses are divided up by numerous parting
planes filled with limonite. Unflawed fragments of over
10 carats have occasionally been found, but stones of more
than a few carats weight are rare, and the average weight
is about I carat. The associated minerals are felspar, mica,
transparent green hornblende, and apparently wollastonite;
but all are highly decomposed.

As over-production of the stone would only result in
the reduction of its market value, it seems not worth
while to exploit the deposit on a large scale. It can
easily be worked by native methods, as the outcrops are
high above the stream-level and the ground is dry. Larger
unflawed pieces of garnet may possibly occur below the
limit of decomposition, but it seems likely that the shattering
of the garnet masses is due to earth movements rather
than to decomposition.

Specimens consisting of cut and uncut garnets ap-
parently of the rhodolite variety, of a pale rose-red colour
with a tinge of violet, were forwarded to the Imperial
Institute for examination. They were not free from
flaws.

The uncut stones averaged slightly over 2 carats in
weight, and the cut stones about 2J carats, the largest of
the latter weighing rather less than 4 carats.

The garnets were submitted to an expert in London,
who stated that there is practically no market for such
stones in England, but that they might be saleable on the
Continent of Europe. He accordingly forwarded specimens
to a client on the Continent dealing largely in garnets,
who reported, however, that as the stones were not of the
dark Almandine variety they were of no value for his
purposes. The London expert nevertheless considered
that a parcel of the cut garnets would realise id. or ^.
per carat in Europe, but he pointed out they could scarcely
be cut in Europe at this rate. Large specimens of the
garnet sell locally at Rss {6s, 8^.) per carat, while the
small I -carat stones, which form the bulk of the product,

MONAZITE AND OTHER MINERALS IN CEYLON 369

are worth 50 cents, to Ri {^d. to is. 4^.) per carat. It
would, therefore, apparently not be advantageous to send
consignments for sale in Europe.

THE NEW COAL-FIELD IN WEST AFRICA

In 1903, on the suggestion of the Director of the Imperial
Institute, a Mineral Survey was organised to examine the
mineral resources of Southern Nigeria. The object of this
Survey was, in the first place, to obtain general information
as to the probable mineral resources of the country and
then to study in greater detail those areas which were found
to contain minerals likely to be of economic importance.
With this object in view it was arranged that two Surveyors,
selected by the Director of the Imperial Institute and
trained in field geology and mining, should visit Southern
Nigeria each year and carry out a definite scheme of ex-
ploratory work in selected areas. In the course of this
work the Surveyors collected representative samples of all
minerals of economic importance, and these were forwarded
to the Imperial Institute for mineralogical and chemical
examination, commercial valuation, and suggestions for
development. From time to time reports of progress were
made to the Government on the field work done in Southern
Nigeria and on the results obtained at the Imperial Institute.
Summary reports of these results, chiefly intended to direct
attention to the economic aspects of the work, have been
presented to Parliament and published in the Miscellaneous
Series oj Colonial Reports. The Survey was continued until
1913, and in the period 1903-13 nine of these summary
reports of results were published.

One of the most important results obtained in the course
of the Survey was the discovery of large deposits of lignite
and coal. Large lignite or brown coal deposits were found
on both sides of the river Niger near Asaba, but this
material was completely overshadowed in its importance as
a fuel by the subsequent discovery of a great coal-field
named the Udi-Okwoga coal-field, from the names of the
native villages at its known southerly and northerly limits.

370 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

The total area of the coal-field as at present determined is
about 1, 800 square miles.

The existence of coal in this area was first noted by the
Surveyors, Messrs. A. E. Kitson and E. O. Thiele, in 1909,
and the work of determining the area of the field by the
observation of outcrops, and later on by boring trials, was
continued by these officers and by their successors, Messrs.
A. D. Lumb and M. Whitworth, until the close of the
Survey in 191 3.

As the Government of Nigeria is the chief consumer of
coal in the country for the use of the Government railwa3^s,
the development of the coal-field has been undertaken by the
Public Works Department, and, as shown later on, the work-
ing of the coal-field has already reached an important stage.

Now that a railway has been built from Port Harcourt
to the best-known part of the coal-field the resources of
this area have assumed a still greater importance, and it is
proposed in this article to give a general account of the
coal-field and of its recent development.

Geological Features of the Coal-field
The youngest rocks of the Udi region are loose detrital
sediments consisting of reddish sands. These occur at
the surface, are very variable in thickness, and are regarded
as belonging to the Benin Sand series, which is of com-
paratively late Tertiary age.

These superficial sands lie unconformably on Cretaceous
strata, which are made up chiefly of sandstones, shales,
and mudstones. It is in these Cretaceous beds that the
coal-seams are found. The Cretaceous strata extend over
a raised plateau region for a distance of some 80 miles,
stretching northward from the Udi district to the Okwoga
district. The plateau surface rises somewhat towards the
north, and attains a height of over 2,000 ft. It slopes
gradually to the west, and is not more than 200 ft. or so
in height along the Oji River. The plateau is bounded on
the east by a scarp in which outcrops of coal are found.
A line of outcrops stretches along this escarpment north-
wards from near the source of the Mamu River, south of
Udi, to Otukpa north-west of Okwoga.

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THE NEW COAL-FIELD IN WEST AFRICA 371

The Cretaceous beds are almost horizontal. On the
whole there is a slight westerly dip, so that to the west
of the above-mentioned scarp the coal occurs at some
depth from the surface. A boring made at a locality to
the west of Udi and 32 miles from Onitsha revealed two
seams of coal at depths of 40J ft. and 82^ ft. respectively.
In another boring still farther west, and 17 miles east of
Onitsha, coal was found at a depth of 115 ft. Farther
north coal outcrops have been observed as far west as
the lyokolla River, which is a few miles east of Ogrugru,
and near the Anambra River.

Nature of the Coal

The Udi coal is of the sub-bituminous type, and
usually of a dull-black appearance, though some of the
seams show alternating bands of dull and more lustrous
coal. The specific gravity varies, and for material not con-
taining more than about 15 per cent, of ash the value ranges
from about 1*16 to 1*32, with an average of about i'23.

As a rule the coal is fairly free from mineral impurity,
but occasionally it contains nests and films of amorphous
clayey matter and pyrites. Films and patches of chalybite
and kaolinite occur as infillings of the joint cracks and
small crevices in the coal.

The coal ignites readily, and burns with a bright, steady
flame, giving off only a small amount of smoke. It does
not cake or decrepitate on heating. The ash is usually
white or light grey, and practically free from clinker.

An analysis of a typical specimen of the coal taken from
the 5-ft. seam now being developed gave the following
results :

Ptr cent.

Fixed carbon . 48'4i

Volatile matter 38* 1 8

Ash 779

Moisture 562

loooo

Sulphur 076

Calorific value,* small calories 6969

* The calorific value represents the number of grams of water which would be
raised from 0° to 1° C. in temperature by the combustion of I gram of the coal.

372 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Distribution and Character of the Coal-seams

The localities in which coal-seams of the Udi type
are known to occur can be conveniently grouped as
follows : (i) Udi district, (2) Okwoga district, (3) Idah
and western Okwoga districts, (4) Awka and western Udi
districts.

(i) Udi District. — In this district the coal-seams are well .
exposed in the ravines that cut through the escarpment
forming the eastern limit of the plateau area. During the
course of the Mineral Survey six distinct seams were
found in this district, ranging from 2 in. to 5 ft. 8 in. in
thickness.

In the Udi neighbourhood there are four seams that
reach a thickness of over 2 ft. The composition of the
coals of the more important seams in this neighbourhood
may be indicated by the following proximate analyses of
two Udi specimens :

Fixed carbon .
Volatile matter
Ash
Moisture .

Sulphur 074 i-i6

Calorific value, small calories . . 5976 6913

Farther north numerous outcrops are seen in the
sections exposed along the various rivers and their tribu-
taries, notably the Atava, Nyaba, Olawba, Nyo, Azata,
Obweti, Alia, Ekulu Abor, and lyoku rivers. This is the
most important of the coal areas known at present in
Nigeria, since it contains the thickest seam, which has a
thickness of 5 ft. in the Azata River exposure, and increases
in thickness to 5 ft. 8 in. in the Obweti River exposure,
w^here it is now being developed.

The following are analyses of samples obtained from
this seam in various tributaries of the Obweti River:

3fam River.
2 ft. seam.
Per cent.

Stream behind

Hausa barracks.

2 ft. 4 in. seam.

Per cent.

42-30

3382

18-42

5-46

48-20
38-34

8-45
5-01

lOOOO

1 0000

Plate VII.
Udi Colliery.

Fig. I. — High-level stack at adit.

372]

Fig. 2. — Main adit.

THE NEW COAL-FIELD IN WEST AFRICA 373

lyocha lyuguwene lyubc

Stream. Stream. Stream.

5ft. 5 in. seam. 5 ft. 4 in. seam. 5 ft. 8 in. seam.

Percent. Percent. Percent.

Fixed carbon . . . 4488 4970 48*18

Volatile matter . . . 3560 3683 3736

Ash 14-89 7-61 742

Moisture .... 4*63 5*86 704

icx>oo loo-oo loooo

Sulphur .... 073 0-67 ri5

Calorific value, small calories 6437 6940 6580

A sample of coal obtained more recently from the seam
now being opened up, and stated to have been taken loo ft.
from the surface, presumably where the adit is being driven,
gave the following analysis :

Per cent.

Fixed carbon 54-21

Volatile matter 34'30

Ash 4-35

Moisture 7-14

1 0000

Sulphur 0-50

Calorific value, small calories 7368

This sample consisted of black compact coal of good
quality. The analysis shows that it approximates more
closel}'' to the ordinary bituminous type of coal than do
samples from the Udi field previously examined at the
Imperial Institute. The coal did not cake on burning, and
it gave a pale buff ash.

An examination of a large number of samples of coal
collected in the Udi district shows that the coal is fairly
uniform in quality, and this is particularly true of the thick
seam in the Obweti River exposures, as shown by the
analyses given above. A large number of samples from the
Udi district as a whole showed extreme calorific values of
5,437 and 7,456, with an average of about 6,500. A number
of samples from the main seam in the Obweti area showed
extreme calorific values of 6,134 and 7,107, with an average
of about 6,670.

Okwoga District. — In the south of the Okwoga district
lumps of transported coal were found by the Mineral
Survey in the Uwelli district.

Proceeding north-eastward from this locality, outcrops

374 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

of coal were found to the south-west of Okwoga in the
Apalla, lyocha, and Afafa rivers. Analyses of samples from
these localities gave the following results :

Apalla River.

lyocha River

. Afafa River.

Afafa River,

3 ft. 3 in.

3 ft. 2 in.

I ft. 4 in.

4 ft. 9 in.

seam.

Beam.

Per cent.

Ptr cent.

Per cent.

Fixed carbon ....

39-62

2929

43-56

4347

Volatile matter

4377

39'55

35-82

37-59

Ash

4-6o

21-26

8-59

8-13

Moisture

I2-OI

9-90

loo-oo

12-03

io-8i

loo-oo

loooo

loo-oo

Sulphur .....

0-89

0-67

0-49

ri3

Calorific value, small calories .

6552

5215

5912

6131

Specific gravity

1-3

1-4

1*3

1-3

All four samples consisted of black, sub-bituminous coal,
and, excepting the lyocha River sample, in which the per-
centage of ash was rather high, they represented coals of
fairly good quality.

Farther north still, and lying to the west of Okwoga,
coal outcrops were found near Orukuram and at Otukpa.
The two seams occurring between Orukuram and Okwoga
are in the lyikor and Inimini Rivers, and are i ft. 5 in. and

2 ft. thick respectively. The seam occurring at Otukpa, to
the north-west of Okwoga, is in the lyorba Stream and is

3 ft. II in. thick. Samples from these three seams gave the
following results on analysis :

Fixed carbon
Volatile matter
Ash .
Moisture

Sulphur

lyikor K iv«r.

near Orukuram.

I ft. s in. seam.

Percent.

4142
37-41
11-64

953

Inimini
River.

2 ft. seam.

Per cent.

43-31
3426
10*07
12-36

1 00 00

lyorba
Stream.
3 ft. II in. seam.
Percent.

3949

3496
1405
11-50

100-00

1 0000

0-54

062

0-73

' 5936

1-25

5630
130

5494
I '35

Calorific value, small calories
Specific gravity .

The samples were rather friable as compared with
typical Udi coal, but the results of analysis show that, from
the standpoint of calorific value and chemical composition,
they are of moderately good quality,

Plate VIII.
Ui)i Colliery,

Fig. I. — Shifting coal from pit's mouth in barrows.

374]

Fig. 2.— Colliers.

THE NEW COAL-FIELD IN WEST AFRICA

375

Idah and Western Okwoga Districts.—To the west of
Okwoga, and near the western boundary of the Okwoga
District, outcrops of coal were found at the Aluma Spring,
Enugu (lo in. seam); at lyobo Spring, Obimo (3 ft.
6 in. seam), and the lyokolla River, between Upabi and
Adani, a few miles east of Ogrugru (i ft. 8 in. seam).
Another outcrop was found at a locality 3 miles south-east
of Angba (6 in. seam) in the Idah district. Samples of these
coals gave the following results on analysis :

Aluma

Spring

10 in. seam.

lyobo Spring,

Obimo.
3 ft. 6 in. seam.

lyokoHa

River.

I ft. 8 iti. seam.

South-east
of Angba.
6 in. seam.

Per cent.

Per cenl.

Per cent.

Fixed carbon
Volatile matter
Ash . . .
Moisture

36-88

34-36
19-29

9"47
I coco

18-52

24-85

5009

6-54

lOO'OO

4461

34-59

15-06

5-74

10-65
I8-I3

68-75

247

lOOOO

lOO'OO

Sulphur

5-62

090

0-76

1-32

Calorific value, small

calories .
Specific gravity .

5269
. 128- 1-48

2428

6299

I 3

2058

r7i-2-28

The lyokolla River sample consisted of dull-black sub-
bituminous coal of moderately good quality, though the
percentage of ash was rather high. The still higher
percentage of ash in the Aluma Spring sample, together
with the high percentage of sulphur, renders it of poor
quality, whilst the other two samples represent material of
little or no value as fuel, owing to their shaly character and
consequent high percentage of ash.

The outcrop at lyokolla River, which is a few miles east
of Ogrugru and is near the Anambra River, is of special
interest as being the most westerly outcrop found in the
northern area. The position of this occurrence is 45 miles
in a direct line west of the outcrop at Otukpa to the north-
west of Okwoga.

Awka and Western Udi Districts. — Investigations were
made in the area to the west of Udi to ascertain by boring
whether coal of the Udi type occurred within easy reach
of Onitsha. Eight holes were drilled in the neighbourhood
of Onitsha, to an average depth of 200 ft.

A 4-in. seam of black and apparently sub-bituminous

376 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

coal was struck at Nofia, 17 miles east of Onitsha, at a
depth of 115 ft., but the amount obtained was too small for
analysis. Coal was next found at a distance of 32 miles
from Onitsha, two seams being struck at Oha Obenagu in
the west of the Udi District, viz. a 3 ft. 10 in. seam at a
depth of 40J ft. and a 2 ft.« 3 in. seam at 82J ft. The bore-
hole was continued to 190 ft, but no further seam was
encountered. The samples obtained at Oha Obenagu con-
sisted of black sub-bituminous coal, and gave the following
results on analysis :

3 ft. 10 in. scam. 2 ft. 3 in. seam.
Per cent. Per cent.

Fixed carbon 50*46 36*06

Volatile matter .... 3454 29*13

Ash 7-35 29-10

Moisture 7*65 571

lOOOO lOOOO

Sulphur 2*6o 1*24

Calorific value, small calories . . 6801 5114

These results indicate that the material from the 3 ft.
ID in. seam is of good quality as a fuel in most respects, but
its sulphur percentage is rather high ; whereas the material
from the 2 ft. 3 in. seam is of comparatively poor quality
owing to the high percentage of ash.

At a distance of 34 miles from Onitsha, near the Oji
River, three seams were struck, viz. a 6 in. seam at 19 ft.,
a I ft. I in. seam at 39 ft., and a i ft. 6 in. seam at 51^ ft.
The specimens obtained, however, were too small for
analysis, and the boring was stopped at 272 ft. Both here
and at Oha Obenagu a strong flow of artesian water was
reached at a depth of about 90 ft.

In addition to the drilling operations in this district, the
Surveyors carried on surface prospecting as far as possible.
A 4 in. seam, previously located at Obinoffia, was found to
widen out to i ft. 6 in. on being traced northward, and the
following seams were also located :

(i) A 2 ft. seam at Achallowa.

(2) A I ft. 2 in. seam between Achallowa and Amandim.

(3) A 3 ft. 2 in. seam in the Oba River near Oha Oben-
agu; this is the same as the 3 ft. 10 in. stream struck in the
bore-hole half a mile to the east.

THE NEW COAL-FIELD IN WEST AFRICA 377

Samples from these seams gave the following results
on analysis :

Fixed carbon ....
Volatile matter .

Ash

Moisture

Achallowa.
a ft. St am.
Per cent.

2473
2838
42-56

4-33

Between Achallowa
and Amandim. Oba River.
I It. 2 in. seam. 3 ft. 2 in. seam,
Per cent. Per cent.

3718 4884

3452 3526

20'io 7*86
820 804

lOOOO

1 0000 1 0000

Sulphur

081

I '54 3*44

Calorific value, small calories .
Specific gravity

3982

i-6-r8

5598 6795
1-35-175 I -32-1 46

Extent of the Area of the Udi-Okwoga Coal-field within which
Outcrops of Coal occur

The line of outcrops in the vicinity of the eastern
escarpment extends northward from near the source of
the Mamu River, south of Udi, to Otukpa, north-west of
Okwoga, a distance of about 72 miles in a direct line. Coal
is found outcropping almost continuously between these
two localities. The westerly limit of the area runs north-
ward from the Mamu River through the Oji River, via Oha
Obenagu and Amandim in the Udi District, and thence
within a few miles of Ogrugru to Angba in the Idah District.

In the Udi District, the width of the area, in an east to
west direction, over which outcrops have been observed, is
about 10 miles. The area widens northward, until at the
northerly limit, as at present known in the Okwoga and
Idah Districts, its width is about 40 miles.

Assuming the area thus defined to have an average
width from east to west of about 25 miles, the area over
which known outcrops occur amounts to about 1,800 square
miles.

Recent Developments

A colliery, known as the Udi Colliery, has now been
established in the vicinity of Enugu Ngwo, where an adit
has been driven in the Obweti Valley.

According to a report received by the Colonial Office
from the Director of Railways and Works, work is pro-
ceeding by the bord-and-pillar system. The roof requires

378 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

careful timbering. Local timber has been used, but this is
becoming scarce, and supplies are now being obtained from
Lagos. The timber loses its strength rapidly, partly through
dry rot, and partly through the activity of the borer beet le

There is a fairly plentiful supply of labour. The local
bush natives are good colliers, and are working on the
piece system. In November 191 5 between 600 and 700
men were employed at the mines. The output of coal up
to December 31, 191 5, was 7,182 tons. The photographs
reproduced in this article were supplied by the Director
of Railways and Works to the Colonial Office.

Further details regarding the distribution of coal in the
Udi-Okwoga coal-field, and analyses of samples, can be
obtained from the following official Reports on the Results
of the Mineral Survey of Southern Nigeria, which have
been published in the Miscellaneous Series of Colonial
Reports, 1910 [Cd. 6425, 1912], 191 1 [Cd. 7067, 1913], 1912
[Cd. 71 10, 1913].

THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF SHERUNGULU
TUBERS.— II

In a previous number of this Bulletin (191 5, 13, 15) an
account was given of the results of chemical examination
of the essential oil of Sherungulu tubers {Kaempjeria Ethelae,
J. M. Wood), and a paper dealing with the composition
of the oil has been published by Dr. E. Goulding, F.I.C.,
and Mr. O. D. Roberts, A.I.C., of the Scientific and Technical
Research Department, Imperial Institute, in the Transac-
tions of the Chemical Society (191 5, 107, 314). In August
191 5 a further supply of the tubers was received from the
Transvaal, in order that a sufficient quantity of the oil
might be prepared to enable its commercial value, if any,
to be determined.

The consignment weighed 235 lb., and consisted of
tubers similar to the previous samples examined at the
Imperial Institute. In the present case, however, the
tubers were very moist, containing 747 per cent, of moisture
as received, compared with 42*2 per cent, and 25 per cent,
in the earlier samples.

THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF SHERUNGULU TUBERS 379

A small quantity of the material was distilled at the
Imperial Institute, whilst the bulk of the consignment was
distilled for the Imperial Institute under works conditions
by a firm of essential oil distillers. The results of both
experiments are given below, in com.parison with corre-
sponding figures for the two previous samples :

Present

sample.

samples.

Results

Rf.sults

I
Results

2
Results

obtained at

obt;iined in

obtaii'.ed at

ohtaine.l in

the Imperial

large-scale

the Imperial

larg'e-scale

Institute.

distillation.

Institute.

distillation.

Per cent.

Ptr ctnt.

Per ctnt.

Ptr cent.

Yield of volatile

oil, expressed on

the tubers as re-

ceived

0-55

0-45

1-5

Yield of volatile

oil, expressed on

the tubers dried

at 100° C. .

2-35

I -So

2-0

It will be seen that the yield of oil from the present
sample was about the same as those previously obtained,
the apparent differences being due to variation in the
amounts of moisture in the tubers and in the methods of
distillation employed.

The volatile oil produced during the large-scale dis-
tillation was examined at the Imperial Institute, and the
results obtained are given below, in comparison with those
for the volatile oil obtained from a previous sample of
tubers (this Bulletin, 191 5, 13, 16) :

Present sample.

Previous sample.

Specific gravity at 15715° C.

0924

0-944

Optical rotation in a 100 mm

tube at 22° C. .

. +26° 42'

+ 19° 47'

Acid value ....

2 '3

Ester value before acetylation

ii'S

„ „ after acetylation

. 33-6

476

The oil was also subjected to fractional distillation,
and the results, compared with those for the oil from the
previous sample of tubers, are given in the following table :

Present sample. Previous sample.
Percent. Percent.

Fraction distilling at i6o°-i95"* C. . 44 42
„ i95°-27o° C. . 26 25
Residue (chiefly ketone and ses-
quiterpene) 30 33

38o BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

The oil as obtained in the large-scale distillation
possessed an unpleasant odour, apparently due to the de-
composition of some of the methyl anthranilate present.
It was therefore carefully refined at the Imperial Institute
before being submitted to experts for trial and valuation.

Samples of the refined oil were submitted to a large
number of firms of manufacturing perfumers, dealers in
perfumery products, and toilet soap manufacturers. All
these firms were of opinion that the oil would not be of
much value, as it did not possess a specially desirable
odour or a sufficient amount of any constituent which is
particularly useful from a perfumery point of view.

One firm of soapmakers tested the oil as a substitute
for spike lavender oil as a perfume, but they found it was
less permanent than spike lavender oil, and the soap
perfumed with it darkened in colour on keeping.

It is clear from the foregoing results that it will not
be profitable to distil these tubers for the production of
oil. At best the oil would only be a substitute for spike
lavender oil, which varies in price from 2s. gd. to 45. id.
per lb. The Sherungulu oil would probably have to be
sold below the current price of spike lavender oil, and
when the low yield of oil from the tubers is taken into
account it is certain that such a price would not be profitable
to the producer.

It is interesting to note that attempts have already been
made to utilise Sherungulu tubers as a source of perfume
by one of the essence extraction processes {Transvaal Agric.
Journ,^ 1910, 9, 46), and this, like the present attempt to
work by a distillation process, failed to yield a valuable
oil. The cause of these failures is clear from the results of
the investigations on the composition of the oil carried out
at the Imperial Institute (this Bulletin, 1915,13, 16). The
oil is not regarded as of value by perfumery experts, because,
although it contains methyl anthranilate and linalool, both
valuable perfumes, these are only present in small amount,
and their pleasant odour is masked by the much less pleasant
aromas of the other constituents, especially the cineol and
the solid ketone. A further disadvantage is that the high-
boiling constituents of the oil are of a comparatively^ odour-

THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF SHERUNGULU TUBERS 381

less type, and consequently the oil, considered as a perfume,
lacks persistence. These results are disappointing, because
in the tuber itself when freshly cut it is the combined
aroma of linalool and methyl anthranilate that is most
marked, that of cineol being scarcely noticeable until the
cut tuber has been exposed to the air for some time.

LEMON GRASS OIL FROM INDIA

In connection with an investigation carried out at the Im-
perial Institute on the cause of the occasional "insolubility"
of the lemon grass oil shipped from Cochin, a specimen of
oil, stated to have been distilled from " white-stemmed "
lemon grass, was examined in 191 3. It proved to resemble
a citronella oil rather than a true lemon grass oil (cf this
Bulletin, 1914, 12, 224). Herbarium specimens of the
" white-stemmed " lemon grass were received last year, and
these were identified at Kew as Cymbopogon flexuosns^
Stapf, the recognised source of Cochin lemon grass oil. It
seemed probable therefore that some error had occurred in
the preparation of the sample of oil, and it was requested
that a further sample of the "white-stemmed" lemon
grass oil should be sent from India for examination.

A specimen of the oil, together with specimens of the
grass from which it had been distilled, w^as accordingly
received at the Imperial Institute this year, and was sub-
mitted to examination with the following results.

The herbarium specimen of the grass was identified
by the authorities at Kew as Cymbopogon flexiwsus^ Stapf, f.
albescens, a colour variety of the ordinary Cochin lemon
grass. This confirms the identification of the previous
specimen of this grass (see above).

The oil was cloudy and of reddish-brown colour, and
possessed the usual odour of lemon grass oil. On examina-
tion it gave the following results, compared with those
afforded by the sample of supposed " white-stemmed "
lemon grass oil dealt with in the previous Imperial Insti-
tute report {loc, cit.) :
15

382 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Present »tmple. Previous sample.

Specific gravity at lij-^l 0-915 0909

15 v>.J
Optical rotation in a 100 "j The oil was too dark for

mm. tube . . ./ this observation . . - 10° 50' at 22° C.
Aldehydes, per cent. . 8ro 9

Solubility :

In 80 per cent, alcohol Soluble in 07 or more Soluble in 08 or more
vols., becoming slightly vols., becoming shghtly
turbid in 45 vols. turbid in 4 vols.

In 70 per cent, alcohol Not soluble in 5 vols, at Not soluble in 5 vols.
15° C, but soluble in
2-5 vols, at 20° C.

The above results show that the present sample is a
normal lemon grass oil, and is quite different from the
previous sample referred to.

From the fact that this sample of oil, prepared from
authentic material, is of an "insoluble" type, it seems clear
that the occasional " insolubility" of Cochin lemon grass oil
is not due to chance inclusion with the typical Cochin lemon
grass (C flexiiosus) of other wild grasses yielding an "in-
soluble " oil. As suggested in the previous report (loc. cit,
p. 225), the insolubility is probably due to the distillation
being carried too far, so that "insoluble" constituents are
included in the distillate.

CEARA RUBBER FROM NIGERIA

Two samples of Ceara rubber from Nigeria were received
for examination at the Imperial Institute in March 191 5 and
January 19 16 respectively. Both specimens had been pre-
pared from the latex of trees growing in the Government
plantation at Ankpa, Bassa> Northern Provinces.

The first sample had been prepared by a native from
trees three years old, having an average girth of 15 in. at 3 ft.
from the ground. Sixty trees were tapped fourteen times
on the Lewa system during a period of one month, the
total yield of dry rubber being 118 oz. The rubber was
dark brown in colour and in the form of thin rough sheets.
It was in good condition, and contained only a small
amount of impurity in the form of fragments of bark. Its
physical properties were quite satisfactory.

CEARA RUBBER FROM NIGERIA 383

A chemical examination of the rubber gave the following
results :

Per i$nt.

Loss on washing (moisture and impurities) . . 53

Composition of dry, washed rubber :

Caoutchouc 83* i

Resin 5'3

Protein 99

Ash 17

The sample was valued at 2S.-25. id, per lb. in London,
with fine hard Para at 2s. 6ld. per lb. and dark-brown
plantation Para cr^pe at 2s. id-2s. ^d. per lb.

The rubber, although derived from young trees, was
of satisfactory composition, comparing favourably in this
respect with many specimens of Ceara rubber previously
examined at the Imperial Institute. Compared with an
earlier specimen from the Northern Provinces of Nigeria
(cf this Bulletin, 191 3, 11, 380), it contained a lower per-
centage of resin and a higher percentage of protein.

The sample was clean and well prepared, and of good
quality. Consignments of similar character would be
readily saleable.

The second sample, weighing 20 lb., had been obtained
from ninety-six trees which were tapped twenty-six times
during the months of May and October. During the inter-
vening four months the trees were allowed to rest. The
trees were from three to four years old, and varied in girth
from 18 to 20 in. at 3 ft. from the ground, the majority
being about 20 in. Half of the tree^ had been tapped in
1914, but the remainder were being tapped for the first
time.

The sample consisted of rough sheet rubber, in pieces
measuring about 5 in. square. The colour varied from pale
to dark brown, but many of the pieces were whitish on the
surface. The physical properties of the rubber were good.

The results of chemical analysis of the rubber were as
follows :

Per cent.

Loss on washing (moisture and impurities) , . 8'0

Composition of dr}^ washed rubber :

Caoutchouc 847

Resin 6-3

Protein 77

Ash 1-3

384 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

A firm of brokers valued the rubber at 2s. 4d.~2s. 6ci.
per lb. in London (April 3, 1916), with plantation Ceara
cr^pe at 3s. 1^.-35. 2ci. per lb., and plantation Para crepe
at 35. 4^cl. per lb. A second firm valued it at 25. gd. per lb.
in Liverpool (April 20, 191 6), with plantation Para at 3s. 2d.
per lb.

This sample of Ceara rubber was satisfactory in com-
position, comparing favourably in this respect with speci-
mens of Ceara rubber from young trees which have been
received at the Imperial Institute from East Africa. The
amounts of resin and protein were not excessive for Ceara
rubber, but the loss on washing was a little high. The
rubber was in good condition, and there is no doubt that
consignments of similar character would be readily saleable.

Vulcanisation and mechanical tests were carried out at
the Imperial Institute with this sample of Ceara rubber,
and the results are given in the following table in com-
parison with the average figures obtained for plantation
Para sheet :

Time of cure.

Minutes at

50 lb. pressure.

Present sample ..... 50
Plantation Para sheet (average figures) . 70

It will be seen from these figures that the Ceara rubber
cured more quickly than Para sheet, and that its tensile
strength was quite satisfactory. The elongation at the
breaking point was a little below the average for plantation
Para sheet. The results indicate that this sample of Ceara
rubber was of good quality for manufacturing purposes.

The Director of Agriculture, Northern Provinces, states
that the soil and climate of Bassa appear to be admirably
suited to the Ceara tree, but owing to the cost of labour
required for tapping and preparation of the rubber,
European plantations are out of the question. It might be
possible, however, for plantations to be worked profitably
by the natives themselves.

Tensile strength.

Elongation.

lb. per sq. in.

Per cent.

2,330

847

2,300-2,400

875

FIBRES FROM THE BELGIAN CONGO 385

FIBRES FROM THE BELGIAN CONGO

In spite of the fact that almost the whole of Belgium is in
German occupation, the Belgian Government continue to
carry on the work of developing the economic resources of
their vast African colon}^ the Belgian Congo. The quar-
terly Bulletin agricole du Congo Beige is being published
by the Minist^re des Colonies Beiges at their temporary
quarters in London, products are being sent from the
Colony for examination, and enquiries relating to tropical
agriculture are received. The Belgian authorities naturally
have not their original facilities for dealing with either the
products or the enquiries, and the Imperial Institute has
been glad to afford assistance in both directions. Amongst
the products examined recently was a series of fibres,
which are dealt with in the following report.

The materials received comprised the bark of the baobab
tree {Adansonia digitata, Linn., Nat. Ord. Malvaceae) ; punga
bark, derived from Cephalonema polyandriim^ K. Schum.,
Nat. Ord. Tiliaceae, a bush reaching a height of 12 ft. and
found in the Belgian Congo and the Cameroons ; several
Agave and Furcraea fibres ; and cord and rope made from
the various fibres.

Both the baobab and punga barks would be suitable for
paper-making. The former is in favour with certain paper-
makers in the United Kingdom for the production of
wrapping papers with a high finish, and properly pre-
pared material, i.e. with the rough outer bark removed,
should realise at least £Z per ton in this country under
normal conditions, if marketed in fair quantities. The
punga bark is less valuable, and, if marketed in ribbon-like
strips bearing the outer bark, would probably be sale-
able for paper-making at about the same price as jute
root-ends or cuttings, which in normal times realise about
^4 to ;^5 per ton. Somewhat higher prices than those
mentioned could possibly be obtained for the barks at the
present time, when all paper-making materials have in-
creased in value.

The samples of cord and rope were on the whole well
made, but such materials would probably not be marketable

386 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

at remunerative prices in this country in competition with
rope and cord of British manufacture.

The detailed results of examination of the Agave and
Furcraea fibres were as follows :

No. I. Agave rigida var. sisalana. — This was coarse,
clean, lustrous, well-prepared fibre, mostly cream-coloured,
but in parts of a buff tint. It was of very good strength
and about 4 ft. in length.

The fibre was examined chemically with the following
results :

Per cent.

Moisture 8-6

Ash 12

a-Hydrolysis, loss 129

/3-Hydrolysis, loss. 14*6

Acid purification, loss 3-6

Cellulose yy-},

The sample was valued in London at £^0 per ton (April
1916), with "fair" Manila hemp at ;^53 per ton. The value
would have been somewhat greater if the fibre had been
of a uniform cream colour. It should be noted in this con-
nection that the price of " fair" Manila hemp before the
war was only £26 per ton.

This fibre was of good appearance, but it had been
insufficiently washed, as is indicated by the high loss on
acid purification. This condition also causes the loss on
hydrolysis to be higher than is usual in Sisal hemp of good
quality.

No. 2. Agave Cantala,— This fibre was clean, lustrous,
and well-prepared, of a cream to pale buff tint, and much
softer and finer than the preceding sample derived from
Agave rigida var. sisalana. It was of good strength and
varied in length from 3 to 4 ft.

The results of chemical examination were as follows :

Per cent.

Moisture 8-8

Ash 14

a-Hydrolysis, loss 15-4

j3-Hydrolysis, loss 16-5

Acid purification, loss 3*5

Cellulose 75-0

The sample was valued in London at £S3 per ton
April 1916), with " fair" Manila hemp at the same price.

FIBRES FROM THE BELGIAN CONGO 387

This fibre was of good quality, but appeared to have
been insufficiently washed. It would be suitable for use in
admixture with fine Manila hemp.

No. 3. Agave Azul {A. tequilana, Weber). — This was
a fairly lustrous, clean, and well-prepared fibre, of harsh
character, but less coarse and stiff than the sample derived
from A, rigida var. sisalana and similar in character to the
fibre of Furcraea gigantea. The colour was uneven, varying
from cream to pale buff. It was of fairly good strength and
from 4 to 5 ft. in length.

The fibre gave the following results on examination :

Per cent.

Moisture 9-2

Ash 1-4

a- Hydrolysis, loss 14*0

/3-Hydrolysis, loss 1 7 3

Acid purification, loss 3*4

Cellulose 747

Length of ultimate fibres, from 18 to 2*2 mm. (or 007 to 0*09 in.)

This sample was valued in London at £aS-£a^ per ton
(April 1916). The firm who valued the fibre stated that
this quality of Agave fibre was classed in commerce with
Mauritius hemp {Furcraea gigantea), the current value of
which was then about the same as that quoted, although in
normal times it is only about £26 per ton.

The sample was of good quality, but insufficiently
washed.

No. 4. Furcraea gigantea. — This fibre was clean, fairly
lustrous and well prepared, varying in colour from pale
brown to cream. The strength was rather uneven, but on
the whole good. The length ranged from 4 ft. to 5 ft. 6 in.,
being mostly about 5 ft.

The results of chemical examination of the fibre were as
follows :

Per cent.

Moisture 9*4

Ash 1-8

a-Hydrolysis, loss 17*1

fl-Hydrolysis, loss 1 8' 5

Acid purification, loss 5*4

Cellulose 74*2

The sample was valued in London at £^^-£^6 per ton

388 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

(April igi6), ie. about the price ruling at the time for
Mauritius hemp.

This fibre was of good quality on the whole, but the
colour was somewhat uneven and this would detract from
its value. The presence of gummy matter due to in-
sufficient washing caused the losses on acid purification
and hydrolysis to be somewhat high. The high price
quoted for the fibre is probably due to scarcity of Mauritius
hemp, as in normal times fibre similar to the present
sample would scarcely realise the same price as first grade
Mauritius hemp.

No. 5. Furcraea Lindeni. — This was clean, fairly soft
fibre, well prepared, lustrous and of cream colour. The
strength was rather uneven, but on the whole very good.
The fibre ranged in length from 4 ft. to 5 ft. 6 in., but was
mostly about 4 ft. 6 in.

The fibre gave the following results on examination :

Per cent.

Moisture 9*3

Ash 1-4

a-Hydrolysis, loss 13' 5

^-Hydrolysis, loss , . . . . . I5'l

Acid purification, loss 2*5

Cellulose 77*1

Length of ultimate fi^bres, from 2*3 to 4*2 mm. (or 0*09 to 0*17 in.).

The sample was valued in London at £6^^ per ton
(April 1916) (see also remarks on Sample No. 3).

This fibre appears to have been more thoroughly
washed than the preceding three samples of Furcraea and
Agave fibres (Nos. 2, 3 and 4). It is similar to the
F. gigantea fibre, but somewhat softer and finer, although
it is not superior in these respects to other samples of
F. gigantea previously examined at the Imperial Institute.

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ANTIMONY ORES 389

GENERAL ARTICLES

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF
ANTIMONY ORES

For many years before the war the available supplies of
antimony ore far exceeded the demand, and there was,
therefore, little to encourage the prospecting and develop-
ment of any deposits other than those from which high-
grade ore could be easily obtained, unless exceptional
facilities existed for smelting and marketing the metal in
the neighbourhood of the mines.

After the outbreak of war there was a scarcity of
antimony in the United Kingdom, and the price rapidly
rose from about £2,0 to £go per ton, the present spot
price (October 1916) for munition purposes only being
^85 per ton. No metal, of course, came from the
Central European countries, and certain of the French
deposits were in territory occupied by the enemy early
in the conflict. In these circumstances considerable
activity sprang up in working antimony deposits outside
Europe, and many which had remained idle for long periods
were again put in operation.

Prior to the war most of the antimony ore imported
into this country came from Australia and China, whilst
large quantities of crude antimony metal and regulus were
imported from Mexico and China ; the total imports in
the years 1912-1914, together with the chief countries of
origin, are shown in the following tables :

Imports of Antimony Ore into the United Kingdom.

1912.

1913.

1914.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

British East Indies .

Australia

Germany

Turkey .

China .

Other countries

Tons.

1.338
250

1,091
970
812

771

17,127

2,492

7,092

13,890

7,741

Tons.

486

2,039

402
2,166

409

£
6,706

20,297

4,333
24,452

3.784

Tons.

274

2,711

199

4,367
1,628

3,440

38,704

1,288
33,911
13.401

Total

4,537

49,113

5.503

68,598

9,179

90,760

Under one ton.

IS*

390

BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Imports of Antimony y crude and regulus, into the United Kingdom.

1912.

1913-

1914.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

V4lue.

Quantity.

Value.

Germany
China .
Japan
Mexico .
Other countries

Tons.

386

1,107

3,296
350

6,344
14,803

88,384
7,978

Tons,

121

2,040

2,345
300

3,700
35,546

437

68,470

5,422

Tons.
16

1,294
307

1,543

355

397
21,857

8,390
46,500

8,230

Total

5,139

117,509

4.831

113.575

3.515

85.374

The following table showing the quantity and value of
(i) antimony ore and (2) antimony, crude and regulus,
consigned from each country to the United Kingdom during
the year 191 5, has been kindly supplied by the Statistical
Office, H.M. Customs and Excise :

Antimony ore.

Antimony, crude and
regulus.

Countries whence consigned.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Tons.

Russia

. —

3.015

France

483

22,228

Algeria

3,080

42,701

—

Portugal

Portuguese East Africa

1,460

—

China (exclusive of Hong-Kong, Macao,

and leased territories)

4,041

60,976

3,432

135.730

Japan (including Formosa and Japanese

leased territories in China)

467

33.558

United States of America . . ,

605

1,468

Peru

1,118

36,604

—

Chile

5,905

173,247

—

Brazil

—

Bolivia

1,522

51,068

—

Argentine Republic ....

1,157

34,703

—

Egypt

180

4.500

—

Natal

British India

i?o

Straits Settlements and Dependencies,

including Labuan ....

236

4,363

British North Borneo ....

212

4,490

Hong Kong ......

2,710

213

19,110

South Australia

120

1,800

Victoria

2,317

61,177

New South Wales

1.413

32,538

Queensland

—

Canada

1,026

27,568

Newfoundland

1,590

—

Total

22,569

542,635

4.694

215,109

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ANTIMONY ORES 391

Antimony Minerals

Antimony occurs in many minerals either in the form of
its sulphides, or oxides, or as antimoniates of gold, silver,
and copper. The following brief descriptions of the more
important antimony minerals may be given :

Stibnite, also known as^antimonite, antimony glance, and
grey antimony, is the most important ore of antimony. It
is a sulphide of the formula SbaSg, and, when pure, contains
71-4 per cent, of antimony and 28'6 per cent, of sulphur.
The mineral crystallises in the orthorhombic system, but
more commonly is found as a confused aggregate of acicu-
lar crystals. Its hardness is about 2, the specific gravity
about 45, and the colour and streak are lead-grey. Small
quantities of arsenic, lead, and zinc are often present. On
exposure to the atmosphere stibnite becomes oxidised,
first to kermesite, or red antimony, a mixture of the oxide
and sulphide (2Sb2S3, SbgOg), and on further oxidation to
the oxide valentinite (SbaOs), whilst antimony ochre or
cervantite (SbgOO is sometimes formed.

Valentinite (antimony trioxide, SbgOs) crystallises in the
rhombic system, but usually occurs in white aggregates ;
occasionally, however, the colour is reddish, grey, or brown.
It has a hardness of about 2\ to 3 and a specific gravity of
5'5. Its usual mode of occurrence is in the upper portion
of stibnite deposits.

Senarmontite has the same composition as valentinite,
but crystallises in the cubic system.

Jamesonite is a lead-grey mineral which, when pure,
contains 29*5 per cent, of antimony, 50*8 per cent, of lead,
and 197 per cent of sulphur, this composition correspond-
ing with the formula 2PbS, SbgSa. It crystallises in the
orthorhombic system, but usually occurs in massive form,
having a specific gravity of 5*5 to 6, and a hardness of
2 to 3. The mineral usually carries small quantities of
iron, and occasionally silver, copper, and zinc. Large
deposits of this mineral occur in Mexico ; but, owing to the
disturbed condition of the country, they do not appear to
have been worked.

Native antimony^ which is of somewhat rare occurrence.

392 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

crystallises in the rhombohedral system, and has been
found associated with silver and other ores in Bohemia,
Sweden, New Brunswick, the Harz Mountains, and
Mexico. It has a hardness of 3 to 3*5, a specific gravity of
66 to 675, and a tin-white streak.

The World's Production of Antimony Ore and Metal

The production of antimony ore and metal during recent
years, so far as figures are available, is shown in the
following table :

191 1.

ta.

1913-

1914.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity,

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Metric

Metnc

Metric

Europe :

tons.

Austria

270

210

4,520

978

1,270

—

France (ore)

29,267

68,866

11,018

24,280

17,036

—

,, (metal) .

4.775

—

5,406

—

6,390

—

Hungary (ore) .

341

305

—

,, (crude and

regulus) .

892

20,206

859

20,954

1,038

—

Italy (ore) .

2,441

3.266

1,876

4,490

1,822

—

„ (metal) .

—

Portugal (ore) .

—

100

689

—

Serbia (regulus) .

169

3,903

297

7,022

—

Spain (ore)

100

400

500

2,000

—

Asia:

China* (ore)

6,811

63,286

2,054

12,905

4.351

4,972

—

„ (regulus and

refined)

6,986

95,310

13,527

165,518

13.032

—

19,645

—

Japan (metal) .

2,656

1,829

—

Africa :

Algeria • (ore) .

7,428

—

4,661

16,780

582

—

America :

Argentina .

226

—

Bolivia (ore)

312

5,473

1,827

—

186

—

Mexico (ore)

121

1.308

ol^

—

,, (metal) .

4,131

206,547

3,491

173,864

2,340

—

United Stales *■' (metal)

1.403

1,113.

—

2,004

—

Australasia :

New South Wales

(metal and ore)

169

2,010

355

407

464

New Zealand (ore) .

nil

—

Queensland

nil

—

nil

—

nil

—

Victoria (concentrates)

743

8,928

1,475

16,162

2,676

2,439

29.350

' Exports only.

- Contained in hard lead, and exclusive of antimony recovered from old alloys^
dross, etc.

Occurrence of Antimony Ores
Europe
AustriarHungary. — At one time Austria produced notable
quantities of antimony ores, but during the last few years

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ANTIMONY ORES 393

the amount has been very variable. The production from
Hungary, on the other hand, has been regular.

Important deposits of antimony ore occur, and have
been worked at Pricov near Selcan in Central Bohemia.
The ore occurs in hornstone veins in kersanite dykes
traversing granite. The distribution of ore in the veins is
irregular ; antimony ochre is found at the top of the veins
and stibnite below, neither ore carrying any gold.

Auriferous antimony deposits occur at Mileschaw and
Krasnahora to the south-west of Prague. The deposits,
which have been worked since the fourteenth century
for various minerals, are now being worked at a depth
of over 800 ft. for antimony and gold. The ore, which
occurs in veins of lamprophyre and porphyry which
traverse schists, is associated with quartz, mispickel (sul-
phide of iron and arsenic), pyrite (iron sulphide), and
calcite. The gold content of the ore is over i oz. per ton.

Another important deposit yielding stibnite and gold is
that of Magurka to the south of Tatra. The vein, which
occurs in granite, consists of stibnite, quartz, and native
gold, together with a filling of lead and copper minerals.
One vein worked, which has a thickness of about 13 ft.,
carries stibnite, native gold, galena (lead sulphide), zinc
blende (zinc sulphide), pyrite, chalcopyrite (sulphide of
copper and iron), calcite, and brownspar (ferriferous
carbonate of calcium and magnesium).

Important deposits of antimony ore occur in the Rech-
nitz district, and have been traced for over two miles.
The principal veins, which traverse crystalline schists,
contain stibnite, calcite, quartz, and pyrite, the last-named
carrying o'oo2i per cent, of gold. The graphitic schists in
contact with the veins carry workable quantities of cinnabar
(sulphide of mercury).

At Aranyidke and Rosenau, veins carrying jamesonite,
associated with zinc blende and gold in a gangue of quartz,
have been worked.

France. — Prior to the outbreak of war, France was one of
the most important countries producing antimony. The
chief deposits occur in the Departments of Mayenne,
Cantal, and Haute Loire, the respective outputs of ore in

394 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

1912 being 4,933, 2,483, and 2,367 metric tons, whilst the out-
put for the whole country amounted to 11,018 metric tons.

In Mayenne, the most important antimony and gold
mine is La Lucette, which is situated near Genest, about
12 miles west of Laval. The stibnite is associated with
pyrite, carrying about i oz. of gold per ton, and is present
in nearly vertical quartz veins, occurring between quartzites
and Silurian schists.

In the central plateau (Cantal, Haute Loire, and Puy-de-
Dome) deposits occur in many districts, the most important
of these being Brioude and Massiac. In the former district
the occurrences at La Licoulne, Freycenet, Marmeissat, La
Fage, and Chazelles are noteworthy, whilst those of Massiac
include the deposits at Ouche, Croix d'Astric, and Luzer.
The veins in these districts occur in mica schist, gneiss
and granite, are nearly vertical, and contain stibnite in
lenses, usually mixed with a gangue of quartz, and associ-
ated with pyrite.

The deposits of Freycenet occur about four miles west
of Lavoute Chillac in mica schists. There are seven veins
of antimony ore, and also three veins carrying argentifer-
ous antimonial lead ore, and one yielding argentiferous
galena. The antimony veins consist of bluish quartz
carrying needles of stibnite and a little pyrite, but little or
no arsenic, lead, gold, or silver.

The veins carrying argentiferous antimonial lead are
represented by the occurrence at La Rodde (Ally). The
quartz veins carry chiefly antimonial galena, which has
about 140 oz. of silver to the ton of lead.

The deposits of Chazelles, Barlet, and Lubilhac are of a
similar character.

Slightly to the north of these deposits occur those of
La Licoulne and Mercoeur. The former has been de-
veloped to a considerable extent, the veins which occur in
gneiss being numerous but irregular. The principal vein
at Mercoeur is that of La Bissade, which consists of massive
stibnite with a little quartz. The stibnite carries a little
lead and traces of arsenic and silver.

In Corsica antimony deposits have been worked at
Luri, Meria, and Ersa, situated between Bastia and Cape

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ANTIMONY ORES 395

Corso in the north of the island. The quartz veins, which
occur in schists, carry stibnite, pyrite, and occasionally
zinc blende ; those of Meria, in addition, yield cinnabar.

Germany. — Only small quantities of antimony ore are
produced in Germany. In Westphalia antimony ore occurs
in certain localities in veins cutting rocks of Devonian
age. The most important mine is probably that between
Wintrop and Mentrop, about four miles from Arnsberg,
where stibnite penetrates beds of bituminous limestone
interstratified with clay slates and siliceous shales.

In the Fichtelgebirge antimony ore occurs at Goldkro-
nach in sericite schists of Cambrian age, associated with
auriferous mispickel, zinc blende, and bournonite (sulphide
of antimony, lead, and copper) finely disseminated in a
gangue of quartz. At Bohmsdorf and Wolfsgalgen, near
Schleiz, quartz veins, carrying stibnite, zinc blende, siderite
(iron carbonate), pyrophyllite (hydrated aluminium silicate),
and copper ores occur in Silurian schists. Antimony ore
also occurs at the Hoffnung mine near Bruck.

Italy. — The principal antimony deposits of Italy occur
in the province of Tuscany and in the island of Sardinia.

In Tuscany the occurrences are of interest on account of
the association of mercury ore with the stibnite in certain
deposits. At Pereta, stibnite, together with sulphur, occurs
in stringers and pockets in a quartz dyke. To the west of
Sienne and near Montarrenti occurs the important mine
of Cettine di Cotorniano, where pockets of stibnite, quartz,
calcite, and realgar (sulphide of arsenic) occur, and are
worked in a vein of blackish quartz rock. Antimony
deposits also occur in Tuscany at Selvina, San Martino,
Capalbio, Tafone, and Montauto, the stibnite being often
associated with cinnabar.

In Sardinia deposits occur at the contact of a Rhaetic
limestone and Permian slate at the Su-Suergin mine near
Villasalto.

Portugal. — At one period Portugal was one of the fore-
most producers of antimony ore. The chief deposits occur
in the Oporto and Braganza districts. In the former, the
more important mines are in the neighbourhood of Valongo,
Paredes, and Gondomar, where the ore occurs in bed-like

396 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

masses in Silurian rocks. Another region in which
antimony ores have been obtained is near Alcoutim in the
Faro district, where two important lodes occur in slates
of the Culm formation. In the district of Evora antimony
ores have been worked which occur in a quartz lode at the
contact of granite and Palaeozoic beds.

Russia. — So far as recorded, few antimony deposits are
worked in Russia. In the Urals important deposits are
stated to occur in the Achatochevsky mines, and near the
Verch-Neivinsky works and at the Blagodat silver mines.

Serbia. — Antimony ores have been mined in Serbia for
many years past, the more important deposits being found
in the neighbourhood of Kostainik. The country rocks
consist of limestones probably of Triassic age which are
overlain by slates. These are cut by biotite trachytes.
The antimony ores occur either as tufts and stringers of
stibnite in decomposed trachyte, e.g. at the mines of Kik
and Stohtza, in veins in the slates, as at Rovine, or as ore
masses bedded between the slates and limestone.

Spain. — The principal deposits of antimony ore in Spain
occur at Salamea de la Serena near Badajos, San Jos6,
Genara, Caurel, Perseverence, Huelva, Leon, Oviedo and
Ribas. In the Ribas Valley, situated in the Catalan
Pyrenees, the stibnite deposits occur in quartz veins in a
belt of schists and shales.

Sweden.— Stibnite and small quantities of the native
metal have been obtained at Sala, where they occur
associated with argentiferous lead.

United Kingdom.— It is about twenty-four years since this
country produced any antimony ore. In Cornwall at
Herodsfoot, the lode carries stibnite, bournonite, and small
amounts of chalcopyrite, pyrite, and zinc blende. In the
Lake district, stibnite occurs at the Robin Hood and
Wanthwaite mines, and near Bassenthwaite and Carrock
Fell. Stibnite also occurs at Westkirk, Dumfriesshire, and
at the Wheal Boys mine in Devonshire.

Asia

Asia Minor. — Antimony ores occur in many localities in
Asia Minor, often in fissure veins associated with pyrite.

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ANTIMONY ORES 397

In the past mining has been irregular, as the high cost of
production has permitted only high-grade ore to be worked
at a profit. One of the chief producing districts was that
of Murat Dagh, between Ushak and Kutaya, where stibnite
occurs in a quartz outcrop. Another mine of some import-
ance is the Djinli Kaya at Odemish. Important deposits
are also reported to occur near Alexandretta and near
Aidin.

Borneo. — Ores of antimony occur in many localities in
South and West Borneo. At one time considerable quanti-
ties of ore were produced in Sarawak, about 25,000 tons
being exported between 1859 and 1879, but no considerable
output was effected from the years 1894 and 1895, when the
production was 599 and 657 tons respectively, until 1914,
when 870 tons were exported ; in 191 5 the exports amounted
to about 350 tons.

The occurrences are distributed over the whole of
Sarawak, the minerals present including stibnite, antimony
ochres, and the native metal, the latter being most plentiful
in the Busan Hills. Workable deposits occur at Bidi,
Busan, Jambusan, Piat Grogo, Sikungit, Tudong, Kanowit,
and Silalang. For a full account of these deposits, Borneo :
its Geology and Mineral Resources^ by T. Posewitz (Stanford,
1892), should be consulted.

China. — China is now the largest producer of antimony
ore, and from a time soon after the outbreak of war has
practically controlled the market.

Antimony ores occur in all the southern provinces, the
most important and extensive deposits being in Hunan,
Kwangsi, Kwangtung, and Yunnan ; whilst others of less
importance are found in Kweichow, Szechuen, Fukien, and
Kiangsi.

In Hunan province, the output from which exceeds that
of the rest of China, the chief ore-producing districts are :
Sinhwa, Yiyang, Anhwa, Supu, Chenki, and Pasa, the
eastern boundary of the deposits being the Sieng River,
and the western boundary the Yuen River. The first-
named district contains the mines of Hsi-king Shan, which
are probably the most important sources of antimony ore
in China. The ore, which is stibnite, partly oxidised above

398 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

the water level, occurs in seams, pockets, and masses, dis-
tributed throughout a layer of limestone, which varies up
to 40 ft. in thickness.

The ore is sorted underground, carried to the surface in
baskets, cobbed {i.e. trimmed with a hammer to remove
waste), and carefully sorted. The picked ore thus produced
carries about 65 per cent, of antimony. The lower-grade
material carries about 40 per cent, of antimony, and often
up to II dwts. of silver and 15 dwts. of gold per ton. The
fine ore is concentrated by jigging by hand in baskets.

The district finds employment for about 10,000 persons
in the various operations of mining the ore and preparing
it for the market, and it is estimated that the monthly
output of ** crude antimony," i.e. liquated sulphide (see
p. 409), amounts to about 1,000 tons.

The Panhsi mines, which are situated about twenty-
five miles south of Chanhsi, a small town on the Tzu
River, are being worked for antimony ore, which occurs in
shoots in fissure veins. The ore is only cobbed and sorted
to about 30 per cent, grade, and then sent to Changsha for
treatment.

India. — Small quantities of antimony ore have, from time
to time, been produced in India. In Lahul, Punjab, stibnite
and oxides of antimony occur in lodes in gneissose granite
near the Shigri Glacier at an elevation of 13,500 ft The
locality is somewhat difficult of access, as the Hamta Pass
has to be crossed at 14,500 ft., and work can only be carried
on during two months of the year. In spite of these
difficulties, about 15 tons of stibnite were shipped to the
United Kingdom in 1905, and a further quantity has since
been produced. The ore carried about 6 dwts. of gold
per ton.

In 1911-13 a small quantity of antimony ore was ob-
tained in the Jhelum district, Punjab.

In Monghsu, one of the Southern Shan States, an
antimony deposit of considerable size has been worked to
some extent. In 1908 about 1,000 tons of ore were pro-
duced, and a portion of this was shipped to London. In
1909 the output was only 2J tons, and since that year no
production has been recorded.

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ANTIMONY ORES 399

Stibnite associated with cervantite was found in the
Northern Shan States in 1905.

Indo-China. — Antimony ores occur in pockets at the con-
tact of calcareous and igneous rocks at many places in
Tonkin, particularly in the province of Quang-Yen. In
Hai-Ninh Province two important mines are situated
between Than-MaT and HacoT.

Japan. — At one time Japan produced and smelted notable
quantities of antimony ore, but during recent years the
output has declined, the chief activity now being in smelting
imported Chinese ore.

The more important mines occur in veins intersecting
Mesozoic strata. At Itshinokawa, in the province of lyo,
the ore occurs with a gangue of calcite and quartz in
a sericite schist. The ore is occasionally auriferous. The
veins at Kano, in the southernmost part of the Hondo
Peninsula, vary in width from 2 to 9 ft., and have been
worked for a considerable distance. Other important mines
have been worked at Tengu-iwa in Hyuga Province, and
Hanta in Yamato Province.

Russia-in-Asia. — In the Government of Yenissei, antimony
ore occurs in the gold placer deposits of the river Isikiyum
in the Avginsky district, and on the Malaya, Seiba, and
Amyl Rivers of the Minusinsk district. In the Transbaikal
province large reserves of grey antimony ore are reported
to occur at the Pokrovsky silver-lead mines. In the Amur
province, antimony deposits occur along the hill crests
of Bakchan, on the river Amur, the veins attaining a
thickness of 3^ ft.

Ajrica

Algeria. — Deposits have been worked in the past at
Djebal-Hammat, about 16 miles north-east of Ain Beida.
The ore, which is chiefly antimony oxide, occurs in masses
in beds of clay. At Djebal-Taya, about 20 miles to the
west of Guelma, deposits of antimony sulphide and oxide
occur in veins with quartz and calcite.

Antimoniate of iron containing 40 per cent, of antimony
occurs in the deposits of Hamman N'Bails, situated on the
right bank of the Seybouse River.

400 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Rhodesia.— The antimony deposits of Rhodesia do not
seem to have received much attention, except those v^^hose
content of the precious metals renders them w^orkable on
that account. Thus, in the Sebakwe and Hartley districts
the gold deposits often yield cervantite on the surface and
jamesonite in the lower workings. At the Globe and
Phoenix mine, in the Sebakwe district, part of the ore con-
sists of auriferous and argentiferous stibnite, and such is
also the case at the Gothic and Pagamesa mines of the
Lower Gwelo district Antimony lodes are known to occur
on a workable scale at Hope Fountain near Bulawayo,
Umniati, and Belingwe.

The total quantity of antimony ore marketed up to the
end of 191 5 from Southern Rhodesia was 1375 tons, valued
at ;^275.

Union of South Africa. — So far as can be ascertained, no
antimony ore is mined as such in the Union.

In the Transvaal, antimony ores occur in a string of
kopjes, in the Murchison Range, which extend in a north-
easterly direction for thirty miles from Leydsdorp. The
stibnite, which occurs in lenticular veins in schist, has been
traced along the length of the kopjes. The lodes have
been prospected at several points, notably at the Free State
mine, where the antimony ore occurs disseminated through
a calcareous gangue. The reef varies in width, usually
between 3 and 10 ft., but occasionally it attains 20 ft. The
ore occurs in bunches and masses of considerable size
associated w^ith calcite, dolomite, and iron carbonate. The
transport facilities are now good, and the only difficulty is
the scarcity of water ; but it is stated that this has received
the attention of the Union Government and could be easily
remedied if the industry justified the expenditure. A new
deposit, which is stated to be of a promising character,
has been opened up recently near Steynsdorp.

A promising deposit, yielding stibnite and oxidised ore,
occurring on the Koomatie River, about 30 miles south of
Barberton, was worked in 1906, and 15 tons of ore carrying
55 per cent, of antimony were produced.

During 191 5 a process was put into operation for treating
the antimonial gold ore from the United Jack Co.'s mine

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ANTIMONY ORES 401

near Leydsdorp. The average ore contains 7 to 8 dwts.
of gold per ton, and 12 J per cent, of antimony sulphide.

Atnerica

Bolivia. — The production of antimony ore in Bolivia
has recently undergone considerable expansion. From
191 1 to 1914 the annual production did not exceed 312 tons,
but during 191 5 it rose to 17,9^3 tons.

An important deposit, which has been v^orked, occurs
at Palea, near La Paz. The veins, which are somewhat
bunchy and irregular but fairly persistent, are worked by
adits from the hillsides. The ore obtained can be easily
raised by hand-sorting to 50 per cent, grade.

Antimony ore is known to occur on the western side of
Quinsa Cruz at the head of Luribay Waters. The deposits
now being worked are mostly of a superficial character, and
little or no development work is being carried out.

Canada. — Antimony ores, consisting largely of the
sulphide, have been mined at irregular intervals since
1865, the largest output during any year being that of
1907, when 2,016 tons of ore and 29 tons of metal were
produced. For a few years prior to 191 5 no ore was
produced, but in that year the demand for the metal and
the high prices caused a renewal of mining and large
quantities of both ore and metal were exported.

One of the most important producing deposits is that
of West Gore in Hants Count}'', Nova Scotia, from which
about 1,288 tons of concentrates were shipped to the
United Kingdom in 1915. Here the ore, which consists of
stibnite, kermesite, valentinite, and small amounts of galena,
occurs with a quartz and calcite gangue in a vein 6 ft.
wide, 20 inches of which is stated to be commercial ore.
Gold is present in amounts varying from 3 to 4 oz. per
ton. The veins, which occur in talcose slates of the Nova
Scotia gold-bearing series, stand nearly vertical and have
been opened up to a depth of 500 ft. along a length of about
1,500 ft. Assays of the high-grade ore have shown 60*29
per cent, of antimony and 266 oz. of gold per ton, whilst
the ore classed as second grade contains on the average

402 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

14*46 per cent, of antimony and about 2 oz. of gold per
ton. This second grade ore occurs over an average width
of ID in.

At Prince William, York County, New Brunswick, is
situated another important deposit which has been worked
intermittently since 1864; smelting has also been carried
out in the neighbourhood. The ore, which is chiefly
stibnite with some native antimony, occurs in veins which
vary in width from a few inches up to 6 ft, and are
traceable for distances up to a mile or more. The deposits
are stated to be very regular and to contain considerable
reserves of ore. There was no output during 191 1 to 1913,
but the smeltery was in operation during 191 5.

In British Columbia antimony ore has been recorded
from several localities, notably Carpenter Creek, in the
Slocan district, and Bridge River in the Lillooet district.
Small amounts of ore are stated to have been produced in
191 5 from both these deposits. The ore is reported to
occur at Carpenter Creek in a lode 30 ft. wide, which has
been traced for nearly 4 miles.

At the Bridge River deposits lenses of stibnite occur in
a quartz vein, which also carries galena and chalcopyrite.

In the province of Quebec there are few recorded
occurrences of antimony ore of a promising character, the
best being probably that of South Ham, in Wolfe County.
Here a vein, 6 to 18 in. wide, intersecting Cambrian schists
and dolomites, carries stibnite associated with valentinite
and kermesite in a gangue of quartz and dolomite.

In Yukon Territory very promising, but little worked,
deposits are reported to occur in the Wheaton River
district, and on Carbon and Chieftain Hills. In the last
locality the ores, which occur in fissure veins, are asso
ciated with silver ores, zinc blende, tetrahedrite (sulphide
of copper and antimony), and galena, in a gangue of quartz
and barite (barium sulphate). The deposits are stated to
be of considerable extent, and the veins, which vary in
width up to 6 ft, often carry up to 200 oz. of silver per ton.
It is stated that large quantities of ore, carrying 31 per cent,
of lead, 187 per cent, of antimony, and 50 oz. of silver per
ton, can be obtained readily.

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ANTIMONY ORES 403

In Ontario antimon}^ ores occur at Sheffield, Addington
County; Echo Lake, Algoma District; Barrie, Frontenac
County ; and at Marmora, Hastings County.

Honduras. — The recent high prices have led to the work-
ing of a rich deposit of antimony ore near the village of
Voro. Transport of the ore is somewhat difficult, as it has
to be carried by pack-mules for six days to the Sulaco
River, then by canoe to Pimienta, which is reached in two
days, and finally by rail to Puerto Cortes, whence it is
shipped to New York.

Mexico. — Antimony has been found in many places in
Mexico, notably in Durango, Sonora, and Oaxaca, but in
recent years the most important producing deposits have
been those at Catorce. Here a vein, carrying 5 to 55 per
cent, of antimony in the form of sulphide and oxides, occurs
at the contact of a blue limestone and porphyry. Much of
the ore from Catorce has been smelted at Wadley, about
100 miles north of San Luis Potosi, the crude product being
shipped to the United Kingdom for refining. It has been
stated that a smeltery for the production of refined antimony
is being erected at San Luis Potosi for the treatment of ore
produced in the latter district and at Queretaro.

An important deposit of jamesonite occurs at La Sirena,
near Zimapan, but mining operations have been rendered
impossible owing to the disturbed state of the country.
The ore-body constitutes a mass at least 1,000 ft. long and
from a few feet to probably over 100 ft. in thickness. The
bulk of the deposit consists of a heavy sulphide ore with
up to 50 per cent, of gangue. The metallic ore minerals
present, in addition to jamesonite, are mispickel, pyrrhotite
(iron sulphide), and zinc blende.

Newfoundland. — A deposit of high-grade antimony ore
was worked some years ago at Morton's Harbor, on New
World Island, Notre Dame Bay. The exports in 1905-6
amounted to 51 tons, and in 1906-7 to 30 tons.

Peru. — Antimony ores have been found in many localities
in Peru, but the output has been small, probably owing to
the fact that in many cases transport is costly and difficult.

In Southern Peru antimony mines are found in the
neighbourhood of Puno, on Lake Titicaca, and along a line

404 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

extending from Juliaca to Checacupe. In the latter region
high-grade antimony ores, which occur in decomposed
schists at Pucara, have been mined and exported. Small
quantities of ore have, from time to time, been produced and
exported from deposits at Araranca, and a number of lodes
carrying stibnite and visible gold occur near Aguas
Calientes.

Deposits are stated to occur in well-defined lodes in
metamorphic schists at Macusani, but the severe climatic
conditions prevent any extensive working.

United States. — The only antimony produced in the
United States for several years prior to 191 5 was that
contained in antimonial lead, obtained chiefly as a by-
product in the smelting of gold and silver ores, and small
quantities from the electrolytic refining of copper and
lead. The content of antimony in the lead was variable ;
thus, in 191 2, it constituted 22*8 per cent, of the product,
whilst in 1913 it only amounted to 15*05 per cent. The
total quantity of antimony thus produced amounted to
about 2,500 tons per annum. The annual consumption
of antimony in the United States, however, was about
12,000 tons, and the country depended largely on the
United Kingdom for its supplies. As a consequence of
the prohibition of the export of the metal from the United
Kingdom there was a considerable scarcity in the United
States. This was partly met by the importation of Chinese
metal and partly by an increase in the home production.
Hitherto the mining of antimony ores in the United States
has proved unremunerative, but the rise in price has enabled
certain deposits to be worked at a profit, and mining was
recommenced in many districts, with the result that in 191 5
the output amounted to about 5,000 tons of antimony ore
containing 2,000 tons of antimony. At the beginning of
the year 50 per cent, ores were demanded, but later even
those containing as little as 20 per cent, of antimony were
bought.

According to recent information, the largest production
of antimony ore during 191 5 was from the mines near
Wild Rose Springs, in the Panamint Range, California.
These deposits have been known for many years, but

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ANTIMONY ORES 405

their development has been hindered by the absence of
transport faciHties. The development of the salt deposits
of Borax Lake, and the consequent extension of the rail-
road to Trona, have solved this difficulty. The deposits
yield stibnite and antimony ochre. During the year a
number of deposits were worked in Kern County, Cali-
fornia— notably those near Neuralia and on Moore's Flat,
near Grass Valley. Ores were also mined at many places
in Nevada, particularly around Lovelock in the north-west
corner of the State; and small quantities were produced
in Idaho, Oregon, and Washington. In Alaska about
685 tons of ore, carrying 58 per cent, of the metal, were
obtained from the Fairbanks district, chiefly from Eva,
Vault, Treasure, and Chatham Creeks. About 132 tons
were also shipped from Nome. During 191 5 smelteries
were in operation at Los Angeles, Chelsea, Staten Island,
and Brooklyn.

Australasia.

New Caledonia. — Important deposits of antimony ore have
been worked to some extent on the west coast of New
Caledonia, between Canala and Nakety. The stibnite
occurs in lodes in well-defined quartz veins, the antimony
content of the crude ore being about 20 to 25 per cent.

New South Wales.— Antimony mining in this State has
never assumed a stable condition, the output being largely
due to spasmodic efforts during " boom " periods, such as
those of 1890-4, 1906-7, and the present time, when
unusually high prices have been obtainable for the ore.
The greatest output for any single year was 2,450 tons,
valued at ;^52,645, produced in 1906. Antimony ores have
been found in many localities, for a full list of which " The
Antimony Mining Industry in New South Wales," by
J. E. Carne {Mineral Resources, No. 16, 19 12, Geol. Surv.
New South Wales) should be consulted. In the following
account only deposits from which antimony ore has been
raised during the past ten years are dealt with.

The Hillgrove district is the chief antimony producing
centre in New South Wales, and in 191 5 produced 773
tons of ore, equal to about 390 tons of crude antimony,
valued at ^15,343-

4o6 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Antimony ores were discovered in commercial quantity
in the Hillgrove district in 1880, and the locality has, on
the whole, produced the largest amount of any district in
the State, but during the last few years its production of
antimony has been overshadowed by its gold output. The
principal lodes occur near the junction of slate and granite.
The Eleanora lode, which has been yielding antimony ore
since 1883, runs for the greater part of its course along
Baker's Creek gorge. The country rock is granite and
metamorphosed sedimentary rocks, probabl}'' of Devonian
age, the antimony reefs coming to the surface at many
places on both sides of the steep valley. A plant for
recovering the antimony from the ore before extracting the
gold was at one time in operation, and in 1890 it was stated
to be capable of an output of 50 tons of " crude antimony "
per week. The calcined antimony concentrates produced
in 1890 contained, on the average, 3^ oz. of gold per ton.

The Cosmopolitan mines are probably an extension of
the Eleanora reef, the whole of which has a length of
I J miles. At these claims, which were originally for gold,
the lode varies in width from 2 to 5 ft., and has been
opened up for a length of over 200 ft.

In 1906 about 480 tons of antimony ore, valued at
;£'io,ooo, were produced from the Sunlight mine at Metz,
Hillgrove. Much development work has been done on the
deposit by means of short tunnels driven into the hillside.

The Pucka mine at Yulgilbai in the Copmanhurst
division yielded 12 tons of 48 per cent, antimony ore in
1907, whilst about double that amount was produced in
1892. Two lodes yielding stibnite occur about 12 ft. apart
and vary in thickness up to 18 in. Wolfram ore has also
been found on this claim.

Antimony ore is present in varying amounts in the
sulphide levels in the Broken Hill silver-lead-zinc deposits
and antimonial lead has been produced by the Port Pirie
smelting works.

Antimony smelting works have been in operation, at
various times, at Carangula, in the Macleay River district ;
Hillgrove and Metz, in the Hillgrove division ; and Taylor's
Arm in the Nambucca district,

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ANTIMONY ORES 407

New Zealand. — The production of antimony ore in
New Zealand during the past decade has been small and
irregular; from 1906 to 19 13 the total output was 125 tons,
valued at ^^2,343, none being produced in 1910, 1912, and
1913. In 1907 a deposit at Russells, about 6 miles from
Opua, Bay of Islands, was opened up, and about 50 tons
of ore were shipped.

Deposits are known to occur in Otago at the Alexandra
Mine, Nevis Bluff, Lammerlaw Range, and Sunrise Peak,
near Aruon River.

Queensland.— Antimony ore has been found in a number
of localities in Queensland, but for many years past the
annual production has been small, the largest being in
1906, when 530 tons, valued at £6,giy, were produced.

In the past the producing mines, roughly in order of
importance, have been those of Northcote and Woodville,
near Hodgkinson ; Neerdie, near Gympie ; Cocoa Creek,
in the Cooktown district ; McKonkey Creek ; Herberton ;
and Chillagoe. A full list of localities in Queensland in
which antimony ore has been found is given by B. Dunstan
in The Queensland Mineral Index (191 3).

At the Northcote mines the ore occurs in lodes, the
more important of which trend north-west from the head
of Leadingham Creek to the head of the Hodgkinson River,
and can be traced on the surface as quartz lodes stained
with antimony oxide. The antimony ore from several of
the mines carries about i oz. of gold per ton.

In the Cooktown mining district the deposits of Cocoa
Creek have been worked in the past for both antimony
ore and gold. The antimony lodes are stated to be cased
in auriferous quartz which may yield from 2 to 5 oz. of gold
per ton, the precious metal being present also in the
antimony ore. The lodes, which vary from i to 2 ft. in
thickness and increase in depth, are situated on the south-
easterly spur of a hill composed of slates and quartzites.

Antimony smelting was started in Queensland many
years ago, but in many cases the financial results have not
proved satisfactory. Thus, in 1882, a plant v/as erected on
the Hodgkinson Mulgrave gold-field for treating the
auriferous stibnite from the Northcote mines, but wa? spon

4o8 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

abandoned. In 1884 it was started again for a short time
and again stopped owing to loss ; finally, in the same year
it was started by another company, and about 145 tons of
metal were produced.

Victoria. — Stibnite and oxidised antimony ores, such as
valentinite, occur in many localities in Victoria, being found
both in lodes and veins in quartz traversing Ordovician
and Silurian slates, mudstones and sandstones.

During the last few years the only locality producing
any appreciable quantities of ore has been Costerfield.
Antimony is stated to occur, however, in considerable
quantity at Tooborac and Heathcote in Dalhousie ; Grey-
town, Whroo, and Redcastle in Rodney; Templestowe,
Warrandyte, and Ringwood near Melbourne ; Reedy Creek
in Anglesey ; and at Big River near Enoch's Point in
Wonangatta. The ore is usually associated with gold.

During 1914 the output from Costerfield amounted to
7,600 tons of ore, which yielded 2,283 tons of concentrates
carrying 48 per cent, of antimony and 2 J oz. of gold per ton.
In addition, there were also treated 3,370 tons of tailings,
which gave 156 tons of concentrates containing 38 per cent,
of antimony and 2 oz. of gold per ton. This mining gives
employment to about 200 men.

Western Australia. — Deposits of antimony ore occur in
the Roebourne district, at Mallina and Peeawah, in the
West Pilbara gold-field, and at Wiluna and Mount Magnet,
in the Murchison gold-field. The only outputs recorded
appear to be 22 tons of ore in 1903 and 25 tons in 1907.

Valuation of Antimony Ores

The following particulars as to the present basis of
purchase of antimony ores required for the manufacture
of metal for munition purposes have been kindly supplied
by Messrs. Cookson & Co., Ltd., the well-known antimony
manufacturers.

For stibnite ores containing 60 per cent, or over of
metallic antimony the price agreed with the Ministry of
Munitions is iis. per unit; when the antimony content is
between 55 and 60 per cent, the price is los. gd. per unit,
and from 50 to 55 per cent. los. 6d, per unit. These gross

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ANTIMONY ORES 409

prices are subject to a discount of 2^ per cent, and the
contents are calculated on the net dry weight received at
the buyer's works less a deduction of 12 lb. per ton draft.
So long as higher-grade stibnite is available, ore containing
less than 50 per cent, of antimony would be unsaleable
under present circumstances.

Lead, bismuth, arsenic, copper, and zinc are considered
objectionable impurities, and are penalised as follows :
Lead up to 0*3 per cent, is allowed, and for each ci per
cent., or part above this, a deduction of 5s. per ton is
made. The maximum lead content allowed is 1-5 per cent.
Arsenic up to 01 per cent, is not penalised, but for each
o'l per cent, or part, up to a maximum of 0*5 per cent., a
deduction of ys. 6d. per ton is made. The same deductions
are made for copper as for arsenic. Both zinc and bismuth
are considered very objectionable impurities, and should
not be present in more than traces. If present in amount
up to, say, 05 per cent., the price of the ore would be
subject to heavy deductions, which would depend largely
on the other constituents of the gangue. Ores having
a siliceous gangue are preferable to those of a pyritic
character. It is stated that in ordinary times ample sup-
plies of ore, practically free from the impurities named,
are available in the United Kingdom, and consequently
only such ores would be saleable here.

In the case of oxide ores these would probably be
saleable with a percentage of antimony below 50 per cent.,
but the deductions from the price of los. 6d. per unit,
payable for 50 per cent, stibnite, would be 15. for each
unit below 50 down to 45, and 25. per unit below 45 per
cent.

Concentration of Antimony Ores

Stibnite is frequently submitted to a process known as
" liquation," which is carried out as a rule near the mine,
with the object of getting rid of certain impurities before
smelting. In this process advantage is taken of the fact
that stibnite has a much lower melting point than the
gangue, with which it occurs in the veins.

The usual method employed is to heat about 50 lb. of

410 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

ore at a time in a perforated clay pot in a furnace. As the
sulphide of antimony melts it drips into a second pot or
is allowed to run into a cavity at the back of the furnace,
from which it is ladled into moulds. The process as
usually carried out is very wasteful, as there is a loss of
12 to 30 per cent, of the antimony, owing to some of the
sulphide remaining with the residue in the upper pot, and
further loss due to volatilisation as oxide. The liquated
material is cast into bricks weighing about 14 to 16 lb. each,
and is sold as *' crude antimony " or ** needle antimony."

This process cannot usually be applied to ores contain-
ing both antimony sulphide and oxide, as a pasty mass
is often obtained owing to the formation of "antimony
glass " (antimony oxysulphide). Liquation is also carried
out in tube furnaces, in which case, it is stated, the con-
sumption of fuel is less, and the yield of stibnite greater,
than when pots are employed.

Liquation has also been carried out in reverberatory
furnaces, but, although the working is cheaper and less
fuel is consumed than when the pot method is used, the
losses due to volatilisation are very high.

The " crude antimony " usually consists of antimony
sulphide together with i to 4 per cent, of iron sulphide,
and up to 3 per cent, of arsenic sulphide.

The residues remaining from the liquation processes are
sometimes smelted for antimony regulus.

Smelting of Antimony Ores

There are several general methods for the production of
crude metallic antimony'- " regulus " from its ores. These
involve either "dry" or fusion processes, or "wet" or
solution processes. On the large scale only "dry" pro-
cesses are used. The chief " dry " methods may be roughly
divided into —

(i) Smelting high-grade stibnite with iron as a desul-
phurising agent; this is the so-called "English" process.

(2) Sublimation processes, for the treatment of mixed
and low-grade ores, the oxides produced thereby being
subsequently reduced to the metal by fusion with fluxes
and carbon.

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ANTIMONY ORES 411

Whichever process is used the regulus produced has to
be refined to give what is known as " star" metal.

" English " Process

In the " English " process the ground high-grade or
liquated sulphide ore is treated in two stages, termed
** singling" and "doubling," respectively.

Singling. — The ore is heated with iron, salt and slag in
crucibles, in a reverberatory furnace with condensing
chambers. A typical charge is ore 42 lb., iron 16 lb., salt
4 lb., slag from " doubling" (see below) i lb. The mixture
is charged into the hot crucibles and kept molten for
several hours, after which the regulus is poured into
moulds. The metal thus obtained contains about 91 per
cent, of antimony.

Doubling. — The blocks of crude metal, termed " singles,"
are broken up and mixed with 10 per cent, of liquated
antimony sulphide, 5 per cent, of salt, and fused as before,
for about i^ hours. The slag is next ladled off and the
metal run into moulds. It is now termed " bowl metal,"
or " star bowls."

The loss of antimony during these processes of refining
ranges from 2 to 5 per cent, of the antimony treated.

Sublimation Processes

Many sublimation processes are in use, but, although
differing in detail, most of them have for their object the
production of the volatile trioxide (SbgOs) from low-grade
or mixed ores, containing from 7 to 20 per cent, of antimony.
The advantages claimed for the method are that (i) less
fuel is required, (2) losses due to volatilisation and non-
condensation are very small, (3) a good separation of the
antimony from arsenic is effected owing to the greater
volatility of arsenic trioxide, (4) low-grade ores can be
profitably treated if the smelting is carried out near the
mine so as to avoid transport charges, and (5) any gold
and silver present remains in the non-volatile residues.

In the Chatillon process, which has been employed
on a large scale in France, the furnace consists of two

412 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

double cupolas terminating in a common flue, from which
the volatilised oxides are led to water-cooled condensing
chambers made of sheet-iron. The upper cupolas are
charged with alternate layers of fuel and ore, and as the
liquated sulphide melts and falls through to the lower cupola
it meets an upward current of hot air, which converts it
into the trioxide, SbaOs. Before leaving the plant the gases
are reduced to a temperature of ioo° C, and passed through
a bag-house. The sublimate obtained by this process
contains from 98 to 99 per cent, of antimony trioxide, SbgOj.

In the Herrenschmidt process, which is used in France
and China, the ore is broken into fragments varying from
J in. to I J in. in size, and roasted with about 4 per cent, of coal
or coke in a rectangular shaft furnace, having a step grate ;
the dust which is screened off is briquetted with clay,
before roasting. The volatile gases are drawn through a
series of condensing chambers, and finally up a tower filled
with coke, over which water trickles.

The antimony oxide produced by sublimation methods
can be reduced to the regulus by several processes.

At Sept^mes the reduction is carried out in reverberatory
furnaces having deep and hollow beds, which slope towards
a central tap-hole. The charge consists of 500 lb. of a
mixture of oxide ore, roasted ore, and flue dust, 90 to no lb.
of flux, composed chiefly of salt, soda, and sodium sulphate,
60 to 75 lb. of charcoal, and 220 to 330 lb. of old slag. The
antimony volatilised during the operation amounts to about
14 per cent, of the quantity operated on, but some of this
is recovered as flue dust, which is re-smelted.

Refining

The composition of specimens of the antimony regulus
before refining is shown in the following table :

Produced by "English"
process.

Produced by sublimation
process.

II.

III.

IV.

Antimony ....

Iron

Sulphur ....
Arsenic ....

Per cent.

94-5
3-0

2'0
0-25

Per cent.

84-0

100

I'O

Per cent.

972

2-5

0-2

o-i

Per cent.
950

4'0

075

025

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ANTIMONY ORES 413

The above analyses show that the crude metal contains
a considerable proportion of impurities. All of these,
except the lead, can be largely removed by fusing the metal
v^ith oxidising and desulphurising agents. Fusion with
soda, potash, or ** antimony glass" (antimony oxysulphide)
removes sulphur and arsenic, whilst copper and iron may
be removed by fusion with Glauber's salt (sodium sulphate)
and charcoal. Lead may be partly removed by roasting
with chloride of sodium, potassium or magnesium, but this
treatment may cause the volatilisation of a serious amount
of the antimony with the lead. The operation of refining
may be carried out either in crucibles or reverberatory
furnaces ; the fuel consumption in the former case is some-
what excessive, but the loss by volatilisation is less.

When the refining is done in crucibles, the crude metal
is broken into small pieces, freed from slag, and melted
with about 2 per cent, of its weight of antimony flux, which
is prepared by melting 2 parts of stibnite with 3 parts of
" potashes." The refining is complete usually at the end
of one hour, when the metal is run into moulds for '* star"
metal (see below).

When reverberatory furnaces are used, the bed of the
furnace is heated to bright redness and charged with
12 to 14 cwts. of impure metal. When the metal is
thoroughly melted about 5 per cent, of carbonate of soda
is added together with a little coke. The furnace is
maintained at a good heat for i to 3 hours, when the slag
becomes pasty and is removed from the fused metal. Next
a mixture consisting of 3 per cent, of antimony sulphide
and I '5 per cent, of antimony tetroxide is added, and then
4J per cent, of potassium carbonate, these proportions
being calculated on the charge of metal. This treatment
removes the remaining iron and sulphur, and at the end of
about 15 minutes the refining is complete.

As the quality of pure antimony is largely judged by
the fern-like crystallisation (" starring ") shown on its
surface, it is important that the operation of casting should
be carried out in such a manner as to produce the best
" starring " effect on the metal. For this reason the metal
should not come into direct contact with the ladle or
16

414

BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

mould, and this is accomplished by giving both a coating
of slag. The surface of the antimony is protected in the
same way when in the mould.

The slag which is obtained in this final fusion is termed
"star slag," and consists chiefly of "antimony glass"; it
carries from 20 to 60 per cent, of antimony, and is used
repeatedly for refining.

The loss during the refining process due to volatilisation
amounts to 20 or 30 per cent, of the impure metal, much of
the volatile antimony going into the flue-dust as trioxide
and tetroxide.

Under normal conditions the cost of refining in
reverberatory furnaces amounts to about is. 3^. to is. 7^.
per cwt. of metal treated.

The following analyses of ingots of antimony, showing
the purity of the commercial metal, are taken from a paper
by W. A. Cowan, presented to the American Institute of
Metals in 1914 :

Cookson's

Hallett's

Japanese
"M.C." Brand.

Chinese

'• C" Brand.

" H " Brand.

"W.C-C." Brand.

Percent.

Per cent.

Lead ....

0-I02

0-718

0*424

0*029

Tin ....

trace

0012

0*012

none

Arsenic ....

0092

0*210

0095

0*090

Bismuth

none

Copper ....

0*046

0046

0*043

0012

Cadmium

none

Iron ....

0-004

0*007

OOC7

0*004

Zinc ....

0034

0*023

0*027

Nickel and Cobalt

0-028

none

trace

Sulphur ....

o-o86

0*128

0*201

0*078

Antimony (by difference)

99-608

98*856

99-195

99760

Properties of Metallic Antimony

Metallic antimony has a bluish-white colour and a
laminated structure, and melts at about 630° C. It is ex-
tremely brittle, and can be readily powdered. The solid
metal is little affected at ordinary temperatures by exposure
to the air, but in the molten state the metal undergoes
rapid oxidation. One of its most valuable properties, from
the industrial standpoint, is that, when alloyed with other
metals, it expands slightly when passing from the liquid to
the solid state.

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ANTIMONY ORES 415

Uses

Metallic antimony alone— ie. unalloyed — has but few
uses. By treating an acid solution of an antimony salt
with zinc, metallic antimony is produced in the form of a
fine powder, known as " iron-black," which is used for
producing an appearance of polished steel on articles made
of papier m^che, plaster of Paris, or zinc.

Alloys

Antimony readily forms alloys with most of the heavy
metals, its effect being to increase their hardness and
expansion on solidifying. This latter property is of con-
siderable importance, as it enables very sharp impressions
to be obtained with castings.

The more important alloys may be roughly classified
into (i) antifriction or " white " metal, (2) type metal,
(3) hard lead, (4) Britannia metal.

Antifriction, bearing, or white metals vary largely in
composition according to the nature of the work for which
they are intended. Tin, antimony, and copper are usually
present, whilst certain varieties also contain a large per-
centage of lead.

Type metal consists usually of lead, antimony, and tin,
copper also being sometimes present. The chief features
of type metal are its ready fusibility and expansion on
solidification.

Britannia metal, which has several other trade names,
is employed in the manufacture of cheap domestic table
ware, such as teapots, spoons, etc. It consists chiefly of
tin, together with 5 to 10 per cent, of antimony, i to 3 per
cent, of copper, and occasionally small quantities of zinc,
lead, and bismuth. The alloy has a silver-white appear-
ance, and, compared with tin, it is more sonorous, is
capable of taking a better polish, and has a higher melting
point. An increase in the quantity of antimony present
causes a corresponding increase in the hardness and brittle-
ness of the alloy — a similar defect being also caused by the
presence of iron, zinc, or arsenic. Lead increases the
fusibility, but impairs the colour and lustre of the alloy.

4i6 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

The alloy known as " hard lead " is of special interest
at the present time as it is being employed in the manu-
facture of shrapnel bullets.

Lead-antimony alloys are employed for making acid-
resisting valves.

Antimony is sometimes added to brass in order to
deepen its colour, the resultant product being also finer
in texture and capable of taking a better polish than ordi-
nary brass.

The approximate composition of a number of industrial
antimony alloys is shown in the following table :

Alloy.

Antimony.

Tin.

Lead.

Zinc.

Copper.

Other metals.

Per

cent.

Antifriction, for rapid working

—

,, extra hard .

—

,, medium

—

,, American

78-4

—

Iron o"6

„ Babbitts'

7"3

89"

—

Type metal .

27-8

—

Bismuth 222

»» >»

—

j» >>

—

Stereotype plate

14-3

—

857

—

»> >»

—

Bismuth 15

Linotype metal

13*5

84-5

—

Hard lead .

—

Britannia metal

—

), )t

—

Pewter .

88-5

—

3 -5

Antimony Compounds

Antimony compounds find extensive and varied uses in
the arts, industries, and medicine.

" Naples yellow " is an antimoniate of lead containing
an excess of lead oxide. It is a fine, permanent, yellow
pigment, and is used in oil-painting and in the glass and
ceramic industries. Antimony white consists chiefly of
the tetroxide, and has been suggested as a substitute for
white lead.

Antimony pentasulphide has a fine orange-yellow
colour, and is employed in rubber manufacture as a pig-
ment and sulphur carrier.

Antimony compounds are employed in dyeing both as
acid and basic mordants, the salts employed being tartar

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF ANTIMONY ORES 417

emetic (double tartrate of antimony and potassium) and
antimony fluoride.

In medicine, tartar emetic and antimony trioxide are
used.

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF
COBALT ORES

Although metallic cobalt was unknown till 1735, when
Brandt first prepared it, cobalt ores have been used from
very early times for the decoration of porcelain, the pro-
duction of blue glass, and of smalt and other pigments.
Blue cobalt glass has been found in the tombs of the ancient
Egyptians and in the ruins of Troy. The blue pigment
known as smalt was rediscovered in the sixteenth century,
when the smalt industry of Saxony was started.

Recent experiments show that metallic cobalt can be
used for many purposes with marked success ; and only its
high price, about four times that of nickel, has prevented
its extensive employment in the past.

The word " cobalt " is said to be derived from the
" kobolds," the legendary mine goblins. By mediaeval
writers it was used for substances which, although re-
sembling metallic ores, yielded no metal on smelting.
Later, it denoted a mineral used in the production of blue
glass.

Cobalt Minerals

The minerals which are of chief importance as ores of
cobalt are the arsenide, smalttte, and the sulpharsenide,
cobaltite. Asbolite, a mixture of hydrates, also forms
valuable deposits, and erythrite^ a hydrous arsenate formed
by the decomposition of arsenical cobalt minerals, is of
value as indicating the presence of such minerals. These
four minerals are described below.

Among the less abundant cobaltiferous minerals may
be mentioned the sulphides linnceite, C03S4; carrollite^
C02CUS4 ; sychnodymite (Co, Cu)4S5 ; and cob altnickelpy rite
(Co, Ni, Fe)S2 ; the sulpharsenides glaucodote, (Co, Fe)AsS
and alloclasite, a bismuth-bearing glaucodote; and the
arsenides skutterudite, CoAss, and safflorite, CoAsa- Sphaero-

4i8 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERL^L INSTITUTE

cobaltite and remingtonite are cobalt carbonates, the latter
being hydrated ; heterogenite is a hydrous oxide, bieberite a
hydrous sulphate, while cobaltomenite and pateraite appear
to be a selenite and a molybdate of cobalt respectively.

Cobalt is also an occasional constituent of many other
minerals, especially of pyrrhotite (sulphide of iron) and
arsenopyrite (sulpharsenide of iron), and is usually present
in nickel ores. Cobaltiferous varieties of arsenopyrite,
known as danaite, are probably due to isomorphous inter-
growths of glaucodote. Metallic cobalt has been recorded
as occurring in meteorites.

Smaltite^ sometimes known as tin-white cobalt, crystal-
lises in the pyritohedral class of the cubic system. Com-
binations of the cube and octahedron are common, but the
mineral often occurs massive. It has an imperfect octa-
hedral cleavage and uneven fracture. Its hardness is 5*5
or 6, and its specific gravity is about 6'3. It is opaque,
with a metallic lustre, and a colour varying from tin-white
to steel-grey, tarnishing on exposure. The streak is
greyish-black. Smaltite is essentially an arsenide of cobalt,
CoAso. Nickel and iron are both present, and frequently
a small amount of sulphur. With increase of nickel the
mineral graduates into chloanthiie (cf. this Bulletin, 1916,
14, 230).

Cobaltite, or cobalt glance, is also cubic and pyritohedral
in its crystallisation, the pyritohedron being a common
form. It often occurs massive. The cleavage is cubic, and
the fracture uneven. It has a hardness of 5*5 and a specific
gravity of 6'2. It is opaque, metallic in lustre, and pinkish-
white to steel-grey in colour, with a greyish-black streak.
In composition it is a sulpharsenide of cobalt, CoAsS. A
little iron is present, and a large amount in the variety
Jerrocobaltite.

Asbolite, or earthy cobalt, is an amorphous, earthy or
compact substance of dull black colour. It is a variety of
wad, or hydrous oxide of manganese, containing a variable
percentage of cobalt.

Erythrite, often called cobalt bloom, crystallises in the
monoclinic system. The crystals are prismatic and vertic-
ally striated; they often form radiating tufts or stellate

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF COBALT ORES 419

groups. More often the mineral occurs as an earthy
incrustation on smaltite. There is a perfect pinacoidal
cleavage. The mineral is sectile, has a hardness of 1*5 to
2*5, and a specific gravity of 2*95. It is transparent to
subtranslucent, and pearly to dull in lustre. The colour is
peach-red or crimson, occasionally greyish, and the streak
a little paler. Erythrite is a hydrous cobalt arsenate,
C03AS2O8. 8H2O. Nickel, iron and calcium are sometimes
present. This is the usual alteration product of arsenical
cobalt minerals, and on account of its striking colour forms
a useful ** cobalt indicator."

The cobalt minerals may be recognised by the deep
blue colour they impart to borax and microcosmic salt
beads.

Distribution

America

Canada: The Cobalt District — Cobalt lake and town are
situated 4 or 5 miles west of the northern end of Lake
Temiskaming, which forms part of the eastern boundary
of Ontario. The ore bodies were discovered during the
building of the Temiskaming and Northern Ontario Rail-
way in 1903, and production began in the following year
with 158 tons of ore, valued at ;^28,095. The output steadily
increased to a value of £2>fi7Ai979 in 191 2, and the total
production of the Cobalt mines for the eleven years 1904 to
1914, according to the Ann. Rep. Ontario Bur. Mines (191 5,
24, Pt. I., p. 17), is as follows :

Silver .
Cobalt.
Arsenic
Nickel .

Output.

. 210,660,655 oz.
8,007 tons

31.547 H

3.790 ,.

Value.

22,904,177

425,273

117,067

14,682

23,461.199

As the above figures indicate, the ores mined at Cobalt
are exceptionally rich silver ores, and cobalt, nickel and
arsenic are merely by-products. One shipment of ore
contained 7,402 oz. of silver to the ton, and several exceeded
6,000 oz. to the ton. A typical high-grade ore is said to
contain 10 per cent, silver, 9 per cent, cobalt, 6 per cent.

420 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

nickel, and 39 per cent, arsenic ; the rest is lime, silica,
and smaller amounts of antimony, iron, sulphur, tellurium,
etc. One of the principal mines — tl:*^ Coniagas — derives its
name from the chemical symbols of the four most important
elements in the ores. Although the cobalt is a by-product
for which the mine-owners receive little or no return, these
ores have displaced almost all others in supplying the
world with cobalt. Indeed, sufficient ore was produced at
Cobalt, prior to the outbreak of war, to provide 1,500 tons
or more of cobalt oxide annually, while the world's con-
sumption was estimated at only 300 tons per annum.

The oldest rocks in the Cobalt district belong to the
Keewatin complex, and consist mainly of altered basalts
and diabases, with infrequent acid intrusive rocks and
metamorphosed sediments. They are overlain by the con-
glomerates, greywackes and slates of the Temiskaming
series, in which lamprophyre dykes and the Lorrain granite
were intruded. Younger than these are the rocks of the
Cobalt series, of which erosion has left only remnants.
They consist of grey wacke, quartzite, arkose, conglomerate
and boulder beds, for the last of which a glacial origin has
been claimed. Younger still is the Nipissing diabase sill,
which has a wide outcrop in the neighbourhood of Cobalt.
It is believed to be of Keweenawan age. Intrusive in this
and the older rocks are the cobalt-silver veins and dykes
of aplite, diabase and basalt.

The cobalt-silver veins occupy narrow, practically ver-
tical fissures in the Nipissing diabase, the Cobalt series
and the Keewatin series, and are most numerous in the
Cobalt series. The first minerals to be deposited in them
were smaltite, niccolite (arsenide of nickel), and dolomite.
The veins were then reopened, with fracturing of the
minerals already formed, and the rich silver ores were
deposited, together with calcite. Besides native silver,
minerals such as dyscrasite (antimonide of silver), argentite
(sulphide of silver) and pyrargyrite (sulphide of silver and
antimony) were formed. Subsequent decomposition gave
rise to erythrite, annabergite (hydrous arsenate of nickel),
asbolite, and other minerals.

The veins do not appear to become narrower in depth,

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF COBALT ORES 421

though in veins below the diabase sill the ore tends to
become less rich with increasing distance from the sill.
Some of the veins are " blind "—that is, they do not reach
the surface — and some are continuous from the diabase sill
into the foot-wall or hanging-wall rocks. Veins in the
Cobalt series, however, which reach the junction with the
Keewatin, usually either end at the contact, or split into
stringers, or continue down into the Keewatin in an im-
poverished condition.

The veins are narrow, averaging about 4 in. in width.
A few of them reach a length of 900 or 1,000 ft., but the
majority are much shorter. The depth of productive veins
is variable, depending on whether they continue downward
in one class of rock or encounter rocks of different classes,
as well as on the strength of the fissures and on the
distance from the diabase sill. Some of the veins have
been worked to a depth of 200 ft. or more in good ore, but
most of them are productive to lesser depths. The rich-
ness of the ore and the large number of the veins more
than compensate for their narrowness. Moreover, the
values are not confined to the vein itself, but in many cases
extend into the wall rock. In exceptional cases this dis-
seminated ore has a stoping width of 15 ft., and from 5 to
6 ft. is not uncommon. For further particulars of the
Cobalt district see W. G. Miller's account of " The Cobalt-
Nickel Arsenides and Silver Deposits of Temiskaming,"
Fourth Edition, Report^ Bureau oj Mines, Ontario (19 13, 19,
Part II.).

Cobalt is obtained frorn these ores in the form of cobalt
oxide and cobaltic material containing nickel and a little
silver, in smelteries at Deloro, Thorold and Orillia. Metallic
cobalt also is now being produced at these localities. Other
smaller plants are irregularly operated at North Bay, King-
ston, and Welland, and a considerable amount of ore is
sent out of Canada. The extraction is a complicated wet
process, and yields cobalt oxide, C03O4, in the form of a
black powder. A bounty of six cents per lb. of metallic
cobalt is paid on cobalt and cobalt oxide produced in
Ontario ; this bounty was to expire on April 10, 1917, but
has now been extended for a further period of five years.
i6»

42 2 BULLETIN OF THE LMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Other Canadian Occurrences. — In addition to the numerous
veins in the immediate vicinity of Cobalt, similar cobalt-
silver veins occur, associated with the Nipissing diabase,
at considerable distances from the town. They are worked
at Bucke, four miles to the north-east of Cobalt; at Casey,
15 miles to the north; and at South Lorrain, 15 miles
to the south-east. Near Gow^ganda and Elk Lake, on
the Montreal River, 40 to 60 miles to the north-west of
Cobalt, the ores occur in aplite dykes and calcite veins.
Small shipments have been made from Maple Mountain,
30 miles west of Cobalt. Native silver with cobalt bloom
has also been found in veins containing much barite (sul-
phate of barium) at Langmuir, near Porcupine, 100 miles
north-west of Cobalt. Minor occurrences of cobalt bloom
have been recorded at Ingram, near Anima-Nipissing Lake,
and at Dymond. At Rabbit Lake, 30 miles south of Cobalt,
there is a peculiar occurrence of cobalt and nickel with
gold.

At Otter, near Thessalon, on the north shore of Lake
Huron, cobaltite and native bismuth occur in quartz veins
in diabase.

The Lake Superior silver deposits contain cobalt, nickel
and arsenic in smaller amounts than those of Cobalt. Here
also the veins occupy vertical fissures in slightly inclined
pre-Cambrian rocks, but they contain a large amount of
gangue material, and the ore occurs in bunches or pockets.
The veins are filled with quartz, barite, calcite and fluorite
(fluoride of calcium), in which occur blende (sulphide of
zinc), galena (sulphide of kad), pyrite (sulphide of iron),
chalcopyrite (sulphide of copper and iron), native silver
and argentite. At Silver Islet, niccolite, cobalt bloom and
macfarlanite (a complex silver ore) also occur.

Cobalt is present in the nickel and copper deposits of
Sudbury, and a small recov^ery was reported from 1892 to
1894.

United States. — A small amount of cobalt was formerly
recovered from the Sudbury nickel ores smelted in the
United States, but in the present method of smelting the
cobalt is slagged out of the matte. From the lead ores of
Mine La Motte and Fredericktown, Missouri, cobalt was

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF COBALT ORES 423

at one time recovered, the metal being present as linnaeite
in association with galena and calcite. At Marion, Ken-
tucky, cobalt and nickel minerals occur in the fluorite
deposits. Grant County, Oregon, is said to have produced
small amounts of ore containing cobalt, gold and copper.
Smaltite occurs in a calcite vein in granite at Gothic in
Colorado. Near Blackbird, Lemhi County, Idaho, lenticular
bodies of cobalt-nickel ore occur in pre-Cambrian schists
and quartzites cut by diabase and lamprophyre dykes. In
Los Angeles county, California, cobalt-silver ores are found
in barytic lodes.

Argentina. — A cobalt deposit, occurring in veins in a
talcose schist near its contact with an acid igneous rock,
has been worked at Valla Hermoso, Vinchina, Provincia de
la Rioja.

Chile. — At the Blanca Mine, near San Juan, in the
Department of Freirina, Province of Atacama, cobaltite is
associated with tourmaline, apparently deposited at the
same period, and accompanied by later quartz and erythrite.
The country rock is schist. Smaltite occurs in small
quantities in the silver mines of Tres Puntas and else-
where.

Mexico. — Cobaltite, smaltite, and erythrite are found at
Pihuamo, Jalisco, in veinlets cutting a large vein of mag-
netite (oxide of iron), associated with pyrite and pyrrhotite.
These ores were formerly mined. Cobalt minerals also
occur at Iturbide in Chihuahua, Guanacevi in Durango,
Cosala in Sinaloa, and at the Mirador mine in Jalisco. At
Boleo, Lower California, the zinc in smithsonite (carbonate
of zinc) is said to be partly replaced by cobalt.

Peru. — Nickel and cobalt minerals are reported in the
Department of Cuzco.

Europe

Austria-Hungary.— At Joachimsthal, in Bohemia, the veins
cut a series of mica-schists, calc-schists and limestones,
and are themselves cut by dykes of basalt. The veins are
narrow and contain quartz, hornstone, calcite, and dolomite
as gangue. The ore minerals may be divided into: (i)
Silver ores (native silver, argentite, polybasite, stephanite,

424 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

tetrahedrite, proustite, pyrargyrite, sternbergite, argento-
pyrite, rittingerite, acanthite and cerargyrite) ; (2) Nickel
ores (niccolite, chloanthite and millerite) ; (3) Cobalt ores
(smaltite, bismuth-cobalt-pyrite and asbolite) ; (4) Bismuth
ores (native bismuth, bismuthinite, bismutite and bismite);
(.5) Arsenic ores (native arsenic and arsenopyrite) ; (6)
Uranium ores (pitchblende). Galena, zinc blende, pyrite,
marcasite, chalcopyrite and bornite (sulphide of copper and
iron) are occasionally present in small amount. The
general conditions are similar to those prevailing at
Schneeberg and Annaberg on the Saxon side of the
Erzgebirge. The silver ores were mined first, and as early
as 1518 the first " Joachimsthaler " were minted. This
silver coin is now known as the '* thaler," from which the
word *' dollar" is derived. After 1545 mining declined, but
acquired new vigour when the cobalt and bismuth ores
became valuable. The industry again languished, but
received a fresh impetus with the demand for uranium
and radium.

At Dobschau, in Hungary, Palaeozoic slates are intruded
by a sheet of diorite, which follows the contact with a stock
of garnetiferous serpentine. The veins consist chiefly of
siderite (carbonate of iron), calcite, ankerite (carbonate of
calcium, magnesium and iron), and some quartz, with
tourmaline in a few cases. The ore bodies are irregularly
scattered through the veins, and consist largely of a com-
pact mixture of smaltite and rammelsbergite (arsenide of
nickel). Copper ores, arsenopyrite and niccolite are some-
times present. The veins broaden upwards into trumpet-
shaped expansions of coarsely crystalline siderite as much
as 100 ft. thick, containing scattered nests of the copper
and nickel ores.

In Styria cobalt and nickel ores are found in lodes
traversing pyritic " fahlbands " in hornblendic slates and
gneiss.

France.— Narrow veins containing silver, cobalt and
nickel ores occur in crystalline schist at Chalanches, in
Dauphine, France. They were discovered in 1767, and for
long were worked only for their silver contents. The
richness of the ore and its ready fusibility led to systematic

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF COBALT ORES 425

robbery of the mines. Later, the slags and speiss con-
taining nickel and cobalt were recognised as being valuable,
and the arsenide ores of these metals were exported to
England and Germany. An attempt to manufacture cobalt
pigment at Allemont was unsuccessful.

Quartzose veins containing ferriferous smaltite were
prospected in 1784 at Juzet, near Montauban-de-Luchon,
Haute-Garonne. The ores produced, together with those
from Gistain on the Spanish side of the Pyrenees, were
treated at Saint-Mamet.

Germany. — At Schneeberg in Saxony veins containing
cobalt, nickel, bismuth and silver occur in contact-meta-
morphosed clay-slates, and tend to become impoverished
in the underlying granite. The primary gangue minerals
are calcite, ankerite, barite and fluorite ; but these minerals
are now largely replaced by fine-grained quartz. The ore
minerals are smaltite, chloanthite, niccolite, bismutite and
native bismuth, native silver and silver ores, and uraninite
(pitchblende). As at Cobalt, the cobalt and nickel minerals
were deposited first and the silver minerals later. The
uranium ores are intermediate in age. The rich silver ores
were first mined in the latter part of the fifteenth century,
and the invention (or re-invention) of smalt blue soon
afterwards led to the exploitation of the cobalt veins. The
colour industry rapidly developed in Saxony, and colour
works, using Schneeberg ore, were also erected in Holland
and elsewhere. It is estimated that the total production
of pigment by the end of the eighteenth century was from
four to five thousand tons per annum, representing three
or four hundred tons of cobalt, which is greater than the
world's consumption in recent years.

At Annaberg in Saxony, veins of similar composition to
those of Schneeberg occur in gneiss with dykes of granitic
and lamprophyric character. They are younger than the
veins in the same region carrying cassiterite (oxide of tin)
and those yielding pyritic ores with galena, but are cut by
basalts. Chloride of silver is remarkably abundant in the
veins.

A similar association of ores is found in several other
localities in the Erzgebirge, as well as at Wittichen and

426 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

at Wolfach, in the Black Forest, where the veins occur in
granite.

In Thuringia fault fissures in the Kupferschiefer and
Zechstein are filled with barite, calcite and fragments of
the country rock, together with smaltite, asbolite and
erythrite. They have been worked especially at Schweina,
near Liebenstein.

The palaeopicrite of Dillenburg (Nassau) contains cobalt,
together with nickel, copper and bismuth. At Querbach
and Giehren, in the Riesengebirge, the mica-schist near
the contact with gneiss is impregnated with cobaltite,
chalcopyrite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, blende, galena,
magnetite and cassiterite.

In the Fichtelgebirge ores of cobalt and nickel are
associated with siderite, bismuth and barite. Siderite and
copper ores are their associates in the Siegen district,
Prussia.

In Alsace veins of smaltite, chloanthite and native
silver in a calcite gangue were formerly worked at
Sainte-Marie-aux-Mines.

Italy. — Cobalt and nickel ores occur in Piedmont with
quartz, calcite and ores of copper.

Norway. — At Skutterud and Snarum, near Modum, in
Southern Norway, the rocks are highly metamorphosed
slates, schists, gneisses, amphibolites and quartzites. They
are traversed by ** fahlbands " impregnated with pyrite ;
these at a few points contained cobaltite in workable
quantity, and the ore was mined here as far back as
1772.

Russia. — The Dashkessan cobalt deposits are on the east
side of the Katschkar-Tschai Valley, about 6 miles west of
Elisabethpol, south of the main range of the Caucasus.
The ore minerals, mainly cobaltite, accompanied by chalco-
pyrite and a little zinc blende, haematite and magnetite,
occur very irregularly in a sheet of serpentinised rock
lying between magnetic iron ore and a decomposed por-
phyry. The mines have been worked by a German firm
and the product sent to Saxony.

Spain. — Several mines w^ere worked in the eighteenth
century, and reopened for a time in 1872, in the valley of

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF COBALT ORES 4?7

Gistain, Huesca, near the French frontier. The chief
mineral is a compact ferriferous smaltite, accompanied by
niccoHte, chloanthite, bismuth and bismuthinite. The
gangue is calcite, and the veins occur at the contact of
schists and Palaeozoic limestones.

At Guadalcanal, in Andalusia, veins containing ores of
silver, cobalt, and sometimes copper, in a calcite gangue,
were at one time of importance.

Sweden. — Cobaltiferous " fahlbands " similar to those in
Norway w^ere once worked at Vena, near Askersund, on
Lake Wetter, but the cobalt content is lower than in the
Norwegian occurrences. At Tunaberg, in Sodermannland,
cobaltite and chalcopyrite occur as grains scattered through
crystalline dolomitic limestone. At Gladhammar, south of
Westerwik, cobaltite, pyrite and chalcopyrite occur in
irregular deposits in leptynites.

Switzerland. — Cobalt and nickel ores occur in Valais, as
at Ayer in the Val d'Anniviers and at Kaltenberg in Turt-
manntal. They accompany ores of copper and lead.

United Bongdom. — Small quantities of asbolite containing
both nickel and cobalt were raised at Moel Hiraddug, near
Rhyl, in Flintshire, between 1873 and 1890. The total
output for the period was 1,264 tons, valued at £6,784,
The asbolite occurs in masses up to the size of an egg in
red clay, which fills " swallow holes " in the Carboniferous
limestone.

Cobalt minerals occur in small amounts at Alderley
Edge in Cheshire, in several of the Cornish mines, and
elsewhere.

Asia

India. — A cobalt mineral, described as a simple cobalt
sulphide under the name oi jaipurite, has long been raised
at the copper mines of Khetri and elsewhere, in Jaipur
State, Rajputana, It appears, however, to be really
cobaltite. It is used in making blue enamel and blue glass
bangles, and is said to produce a rose colour on gold.

Earthy cobalt, with manganese, is reported to have been
found near Henzai in Tenasserim, Burma, and elsew^here.

Linnaeite has recently been identified among some
copper ores from Sikkim.

428 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

AJrica

Belgian Cong^o. — The crude copper produced by the Union
Miniere du Haut Katanga, of which 8,064 tons was produced
and shipped to Germany in 191 3, contained from 2*8 to
3*25 per cent, of cobalt. This formed a by-product easily
saved in electrolytic refining, and is said to have been the
chief source of German cobalt in recent years.

Transvaal. — At Balmoral, east of Pretoria, the schists of
the Cape formation are traversed by veins composed of
hornstone with actinolite (silicate of magnesium, calcium,
and iron), smaltite and erythrite.

Smaltite sometimes occurs in the auriferous quartz
veins, as in the Middelburg district. One vein in the
Lydenburg shales is filled almost wholly with smaltite,
and contains 7 or 8 per cent, of cobalt, 0*5 to i per cent,
of nickel, and 60 to 150 grains of gold per ton. Another
vein has a gangue of auriferous quartz mixed with kaolin,
with bunches of smaltite, copper ores and sometimes
molybdenite (sulphide of molybdenum). The ore carries
100 to 250 grains of gold per ton, 90 per cent, of which is
contained in the chalcopyrite.

Australasia

New Caledonia. — This island was the chief producer of
cobalt ores at the time the deposits at Cobalt were dis-
covered, but the industry was practically killed by the fall
in prices which followed the Canadian production. The
ore is asbolite, and usually occurs in the form of bluish-
black nodules in ferruginous clay. Like the New Caledonian
nickel ore, it is the result of the decomposition of perido-
tite. Cobalt oxide averages from 4 to 6 per cent, of the ore.

New South Wales.— The second largest producer of cobalt
in the world, before the discovery of the Canadian deposits,
was New South Wales. Here the chief deposits are
situated near Port Macquarie, and are similar in character
to those of New Caledonia. Asbolite was also worked
near Bungonia, and glaucodote near Carcoar.

South Australia. — Cobalt ore, containing smaltite and other
minerals, is found at Bimbowrie, near Olary, on the Broken
Hill line, but little work has been done on the deposit.

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF COBALT ORES 429

Cobalt Compounds and their Uses

The cobalt compounds, and especially the pigments,
were for centuries the only form in which cobalt was
employed.

Smalt {bleu cTazur, bleu de Saxe\ the manufacture of
which in Saxony dates from the sixteenth century, is a
blue glass, essentially a silicate of potash and cobalt, and
usually contains about 6 per cent, of cobalt. For its pre-
paration the cobalt ore, consisting of smaltite with a little
bismuth in the case of the Saxon industry, was first gently
heated to melt out the bismuth, and was then stamped and
roasted in reverberatory furnaces. The resulting crude
cobalt oxide, known as zaffre, safflor, or safflower, was
mixed with potassium carbonate and white quartz and
fused in a glass furnace. A little arsenic, obtained as a
sublimate in roasting the ores, was added to the mixture ;
it combined with the deleterious metals present in the ore,
such as iron, copper and nickel, and caused them to settle
to the bottom of the melting-pot. The fused cobalt glass
was dipped out with iron spoons and poured into cold
water, giving a friable glass which was afterwards ground
to powder, levigated, dried and sifted. Modern methods of
manufacture are essentially the same as that described
above. The name eschel is sometimes given to a fine-
grained and light coloured grade of smalt.

Cobalt blue (Thenards blue^ cobalt ultramarine ^ king's
blue) is essentially a compound of cobalt oxide and
alumina; phosphoric acid and zinc oxide are often added,
the latter changing the tint from a sHghtly reddish- to a
greenish-blue. This pigment is usually obtained by
calcining a mixture of alum and cobalt sulphate, either
alone or with zinc sulphate.

Cerulian blue {bleu celeste\ obtained by heating together
cobalt sulphate, tin oxide and precipitated silica or chalk,
is a light-blue artists* colour.

Cobalt green {Rinmann's green, or zinc green) is a com-
pound of zinc oxide and cobalt oxide analogous to cobalt
blue. It is a bright green colour with a slightly yellow
tinge.

430 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Turquoise green, a bluish-green colour, used chiefly in
porcelain painting, is usually made by heating to redness
a mixture of aluminium hydroxide, chromium hydroxide
and cobalt carbonate.

Indian yellow iaureolin, cobalt yellow) is an artists' colour,
prepared by treating an acetified solution of cobalt nitrate
with a solution of potassium nitrite, the precipitate being
washed, filtered, pressed and dried.

Cobalt brown is formed by calcining a mixture of
ammonium sulphate, cobalt sulphate and ferrous sulphate.

Red and pink cobalt compounds are of scientific rather than
technical interest. If cobalt arsenate is strongly heated
and then ground it yields a pinkish-red powder. The
precipitate obtained from a solution of a cobalt salt with
sodium phosphate is pink, changing to violet when heated.
Cobalt magnesia pink is obtained from precipitated mag-
nesium carbonate, mixed to a thin paste with cobalt nitrate
solution, then dried and heated in crucibles.

Cobalt bronze is a phosphate of cobalt and ammonia,
of a violet colour with a bronze-like metallic lustre.

Although most of the cobalt colours mentioned above
have considerable permanence, their high price and
generally poor covering power as compared with other
pigments of similar tint prevent their extensive use, and
most of them have only a limited application as artists'
colours. In the glass and pottery industries, however,
cobalt is the only blue colouring matter employed, with
the exception of the turquoise blue given by oxide of
copper, and these industries are the chief consumers of
cobalt compounds. The oxide is generally used, but also
the carbonate, silicate and phosphate; added alone to a
glaze, they give a beautiful deep blue, which is slightly
violet ; with alumina a sky-blue colour is produced, while
the addition of oxide of zinc gives an ultramarine tint.
A small percentage of cobalt oxide, or a cobalt solution,
is sometimes added to the body in order to counteract the
yellow colour due to the presence of iron, and gives a
pure white ware.

Organic compounds of cobalt, such as the resinate,
oleate, linoleate and tungate have been used as driers of

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF COBALT ORES 431

oils, especially of fish oil and other cheap oils used as sub-
stitutes for linseed oil in paint. It is stated that the
linoleate or resinate of cobalt and lead acts better than
the single cobalt salt.

Cobalt nitrate is emplo3^ed in the blowpipe examination
of minerals. When moistened with this reagent and
strongly heated, alumina gives a blue colour, magnesia
a pink, zinc oxide green, and zinc silicate blue, owing to
the formation of some of the cobalt pigments described
above.

Sympathetic /;f^5.— Many of the soluble salts of cobalt
are pink and deliquescent. If a weak aqueous solution of
one of them, such as the nitrate or chloride, is used as ink,
the writing is practically invisible, but if the paper is held
near the fire the combined water is driven off and the writ-
ing becomes blue and visible. It will afterwards absorb
water from the atmosphere and again disappear.

Uses of Metallic Cobalt and its Alloys

The great production of cobalt-silver ores in Ontario
has led the Canadian Department of Mines to endeavour
to find fresh applications for cobalt, with a view to increas-
ing the consumption. Accordingly, a series of researches
on cobalt and its alloys was undertaken for the Mines
Branch of the Department of Mines by H. T. Kalmus at
Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario. The investigations
include : I. The preparation of metallic cobalt by reduction
of the oxide; II. A study of the physical properties of the
metal cobalt ; III. Electro-plating with cobalt and its alloys ;
IV. Cobalt alloys of extreme hardness; V. Cobalt alloys
with non-corrosive properties ; VI. The magnetic proper-
ties of cobalt and of the alloy FcaCo. The results of the
first three of these investigations were published by the
Mines Branch in 191 3, 1914 and 191 5 (Reports Nos. 259,
309 and 334), and the others are still in progress.

The preparation of cobalt from the oxide C03O4 was
successfully performed by Dr. Kalmus in four ways, using
carbon, hydrogen, carbon monoxide and aluminium respec-
tively as reducing agents. The first of these is the usual
commercial method. Using powdered anthracite intimately

432 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

mixed with the cobalt oxide, he found that practically com-
plete reduction can be obtained in one hour or less at a
temperature of about 1200° C. Powdered charcoal or
lampblack gives better reduction, and the temperature may
be as low as 900° C. Briquetting the charges with an
organic binder tends to increase the rate of reduction at all
temperatures, and yields the metal in a form that can be
easily handled without previous fusion. The final product
need not contain more than o'20 per cent, of carbon. Small
amounts of very pure cobalt may be obtained by heating
in a current of hydrogen or carbon monoxide. The re-
duction takes place very rapidly at all temperatures above
500" C. in the first case and 600° C. in the second. Complete
reduction is obtained in a few minutes at temperatures of
iioo°C. and 900"* C. respectively, and the cooling must be
carried out in the reducing atmosphere to avoid re-oxida-
tion. Producer gas may also be employed, and offers a
cheap and efficient method of preparing large quantities
of pure metallic cobalt. Reduction of cobalt oxide with
aluminium powder in an ordinary thermit welding furnace
takes place with extreme violence, and gives metallic cobalt
containing o'l per cent, or less of aluminium and no carbon
at all.

In his memoir on the physical properties of cobalt
Dr. Kalmus describes the pure metal as resembling nickel
in colour, although it possesses a slightly bluish cast.
Metallic cobalt that has been reduced from its oxide at a
sufficiently low temperature is a grey powder. The specific
gravity of cobalt is 87918 at 17° C. when cast and un-
annealed, 8*9253 when swaged. The hardness of cobalt,
cast from just above its melting point, is 124 on the Brinell
scale, which is considerably higher than that of cast iron
or cast nickel. The metal has a sharply defined melting
point at 1467° C. Previous determinations of the melting
point gave 1530^ C (Copaux) and 1478° C. (U.S. Bureau of
Standards). The tensile strength of pure cast cobalt is
about 34,400 lb. per square inch, and slightly higher after
annealing. The tensile yield-point is very near the tensile
breaking load. When the metal is rolled its tensile strength
increases rapidly, and may reach over 100,000 lb. per square

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF COBALT ORES 433

inch in a swaged wire. The presence of o*o6 to 03 per
cent, of carbon, as in " commercial cobalt," raises the tensile
strength from 34,400 to 61,000 lb. or more per square inch.
The compressive strength of pure cast cobalt is about
122,000 lb. per square inch, and very slightly less when
annealed. The compressive yield-point is 56,100 lb. per
square mch when annealed, and 42,200 when unannealed.
** Commercial cobalt," with o'o6 to 0*3 per cent, of carbon,
has a compressive breaking strength of over 175,000 lb.
per square inch.

Pure metallic cobalt may be machined readily in the
lathe, although it is somewhat brittle and yields a short
chip. The addition of small amounts of carbon renders
cobalt less brittle and yields a longer curling chip on turn-
ing. " Commercial cobalt," containing small percentages
of carbon, may readily be swaged down from cast bars to
wires of any desired diameter, but cobalt of extreme purity
cannot be rolled or swaged unless first cooled down under
pressure, and then rolled at 500° or 600° C. The specific
electrical resistance of cobalt wires of extreme purity is
89*64 X 10"^ ohms per centimetre cube at 18° C, or about
five times that of pure copper. The effect of annealing the
wire in vacuo is to reduce the specific resistance b}^ about
5 per cent. As little as 0*5 per cent, of impurities may
treble the specific resistance, and samples of " commercial
cobalt" gave values between 231 x lo"^ and 103 x io~^ ohms
per centimetre cube. Cobalt is magnetic at all temperatures
up to about iioo°C. The mean specific heat of cobalt
between 15'' and 100° C. is 0*1053.

The third memoir by Dr. Kalmus, published by the
Mines Branch, deals with electro-plating with cobalt. Of
many solutions tried, the best were found to be (i) cobalt-
ammonium-sulphate, 200 grams per litre of water ; (2)
cobalt sulphate, 312 grams, and sodium chloride 19*6 grams
per litre, together with nearly sufficient boric acid to
saturate the solution. From these solutions cobalt will
readily deposit on articles of the various shapes, sizes, and
compositions met with in ordinary nickel-plating practice.

The electrical conductivity of these two solutions is
considerably higher than that of the standard commercial

434 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

nickel solutions, so that they may be operated at a lower
voltage for a given speed of plating. At higher voltages they
are capable of plating at very high speeds, the first solution
at four times, and the second at quite fifteen times the
speed of the fastest satisfactory nickel solution, without any
agitation of the solution. The cobalt plate is firm, adherent,
hard and uniform, and may be buffed readily to a brilliant
surface. It is deposited well in the indentations of the work,
and withstands the bending, hammering and burnishing
tests to which nickel plate is ordinarily submitted. It is
harder than nickel plate, and consequently a lesser weight
of cobalt deposit will afford the same protective coat as
a greater weight of nickel. The second solution, for ex-
ample, will deposit in one minute as satisfactory a plate
as the best nickel baths will deposit in one hour, the actual
weight of the cobalt deposit being one-fourth that of the
nickel. This difference in the weight of metal used more
than counteracts the higher price of cobalt compared with
nickel, and the extreme rapidity of the process would
further reduce the working cost. Not only would a smaller
plating room be required for a given amount of work a
day with cobalt than with nickel, but mechanical devices
for passing the work through the bath become possible,
thus reducing the labour cost.

As a steel-alloying element, cobalt has been employed
with notable success in high-speed steels. Steels con-
taining about 4 per cent, of cobalt, in addition to tungsten
and chromium, make high-speed tools which retain their
edge well at or near a red heat, and will cut or turn
manganese and nickel-chromium steels successfully.

In the form of a cold saw the cobalt-steel was found to
be less satisfactory, its most valuable property being its
" red-hardness," which enables the steel to cut at a high
speed. Nickel, on the other hand, gives a steel which
softens at the edge when hot.

A German steel, somewhat misleadingly called " iridium
steel," contains approximately 4*25 per cent, cobalt,
i6*oo tungsten, 3-55 chromium, 067 vanadium, o*8o molyb-
denum, and o*6o per cent, carbon. It is said to be greatly
superior to the best tungsten steels.

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF COBALT ORES 435

Ferrocobalt, containing about 70 per cent, of cobalt,
is the usual form in which the cobalt is added to steel.
It has recently been proposed, however, to introduce the
cobalt in the form of cobalt fluoride, which can be pre-
pared cheaply.

An alloy of cobalt and iron, approximating to FcaCo,
has been found to possess a magnetic permeability in strong
magnetic fields which is about 10 per cent, higher than
that of the best Swedish soft iron. This was discovered
independently by P. Weiss at Zurich and by H. T. Kalmus
at Kingston, Ontario.

Small percentages of cobalt added to pure iron give
alloys which resist corrosion and are suitable for roofing.

Alloys of cobalt and chromium, on account of their
hardness and resistance to acids, are much used in " stain-
less " cutlery. The original stellite is one of these alloys,
containing about 75 per cent, of cobalt and 25 per cent,
of chromium ; table knives made from it may be used in
vinegar and acid fruit juices without tarnishing or appre-
ciable loss of lustre or sharpness.

By the addition of molybdenum and tungsten the stellite
alloys are made very hard. In some experiments by
E. Haynes {Bull. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng. No. 74, Feb. 191 3,
p. 249), with the chromium maintained at 1$ per cent., it
was found that the alloy gradually increased in hardness
with the percentage of tungsten. When the quantity of
tungsten is 5 per cent., the alloy is distinctly harder, par-
ticularly when forged under the hammer. When the
tungsten reaches 10 per cent, the metal still forges readily,
and a tool formed from it takes a fine cutting edge. This
alloy is suitable both for cold chisels and for wood-working
tools. When the tungsten rises to 15 per cent, the metal
can still be forged, but great care is necessary to avoid
checking. This alloy is considerably harder than that con-
taining 10 per cent, of tungsten, and is excellent for cold
chisels. When the tungsten rises to 20 per cent, the alloy
is still harder and can be forged to a small extent. With
25 per cent, of tungsten a very hard alloy is formed, which
cannot be forged, but casts readily into bars which can be
ground to a suitable form for lathe tools. These tools are

436 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

highly efficient, particularly in the turning of steel, since
they are very strong and retain their hardness at high
speeds. The tungsten may be increased to 40 per cent,
giving an alloy that will readily scratch quartz.

When molybdenum is added to a cobalt-chromium alloy
containing 15 per cent, of chromium, the hardness rapidly
increases with the molybdenum content, until the latter
reaches 40 per cent., when the alloy becomes extremely
hard and brittle, scratching quartz with ease. With 45 per
cent, of molybdenum the metal takes a strong, keen edge, has
a beautiful lustre, and is very suitable for fine, hard cutlery.
If carbon, boron or silicon is added to any of the above
alloys a harder, but more brittle, metal is obtained.

Similar additions of tungsten or molybdenum, or both,
to a cobalt-chromium alloy containing 25 per cent, of
chromium gave equally satisfactory results.

Another cobalt-chromium alloy, cochrome^ may be
swaged into wires which are in some respects superior to
nichrome wires in electric heating elements. They are less
readily oxidised at high temperatures, and have a higher
melting point.

A French patent (No. 460,093, July 7, 191 3) covers the
preparation of cobalt filaments for incandescent electric
lamps. The filament is made from a solution of cellulose
with zinc chloride, cobalt oxide and manganese sulphate ;
it is heated to incandescence for twenty hours and then
coated with carbon.

An alloy containing 40 per cent, of cobalt and 60 per
cent, of tin is extremely acid-proof, even to aqua regia, but
is too brittle for practical use. If from 5 to 20 per cent, of
this alloy is added to molten copper, a product is obtained
which can be machined and still retains a high degree of
non-corrodibility.

The addition of 0*25 and 0*5 per cent, of cobalt to a brass
containing 80 per cent, of copper and 20 per cent, of zinc
was found to increase the tensile strength by 1 5 and 20 per
cent, respectively.

Light alloys of aluminium and cobalt usually contain
from 9 to 12 per cent, of cobalt. The structure of these
alloys is coarsely crystalline, and the tensile strength is

OCCURRENCE AND UTILISATION OF COBALT ORES 437

little more than that of pure aluminium. The addition of
0-8 to 1*2 per cent, of tungsten, however, renders the struc-
ture fine, and increases the strength to two or three times
that of aluminium. Such alloys have a specific gravity
between 28 and 29; they work and polish well, and are
very stable in air. Molybdenum has the same effect as
tungsten.

An amalgam of cobalt with mercury is used in dentistry.

THE CULTIVATION OF THE PINE-APPLE
FOR FRUIT AND FIBRE
The pine-apple is native to South America, where it in-
habits sandy maritime tracts in the north-east States. It
was probably first made known in Europe by the Spaniards
shortly after the discovery of America, and is at the present
time to be found in cultivation throughout the warmer parts
of the World, and in some districts, as in parts of Asia and
Africa, in a semi-wild condition as an escape from cultiva-
tion.

As early as the seventeenth century the pine-apple was
in cultivation in Holland, and is said to have been intro-
duced thence to England in 1670. Special glass houses,
known as pine-stoves, were constructed in which to grow
the pine-apple, the degree of temperature required being
maintained by means of flues, whilst the soil in which the
plants were grown was kept warmed by being placed on
" hot-beds " formed of spent tan bark.

The introduction of hot-water systems of heating greatly
facilitated the warming of plant-houses, and the cultivation
of pine-apples became more general. Under both systems
of heating it took several years to produce fruit, and in con-
sequence pine-apples were expensive, and could be pur-
chased only by the rich. Owing to the present facilities
for rapid transit and for cool storage it is now possible to
obtain imported pine-apples of excellent quality on the
European markets for a very reasonable sum, whilst the
"tinned" or "canned" fruit is sufficiently cheap to be
within the purchasing power of the poorest. This being
the case, the cultivation of pine-apples in glass-houses in this

438 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

country has almost entirely ceased, whilst the area under
this crop in warm countries has been greatly extended.

The principal supplies of fresh fruit that reach the
markets of the United Kingdom are derived from the
Azores, whilst the tinned pine-apple is imported chiefly
from Singapore, Hawaii, and, more recently, from Siam.
According to the Dipl. and Cons. Report on Siam for 1911-12
(Ann. Sen, No. 5,034) pine-apple tinning is a new industry
in that country, a small company having been formed by a
German for starting the industry ; whilst a factory has been
opened at Petriu by a Chinese firm for the same purpose.
The value of the export for the first year was ;^2 1,498.

The following table shows the quantities and values of
the imports of preserved pine-apple into the United King-
dom for the years 191 3- 191 5, and also the countries whence
the imports were consigned :

1913.

1914.

1915-

Cwts.

Cwls. £

Straits Settlements

and Dependencies

'^\\.1M

285,477

216,348

266,323

305,799 401,732

Siam

11,300

13,855

9.195

11.339

83 96

U.S. America .

3.521

5,604

34.536

55.392

41,441 72,338

Hawaii .

8,969

17,203

8,245

13.295

6,925 10,190

Mexico .

730

1.553

—

— —

Other Countries

453
269,720

611
324.303

333
268,657

432
346,781

217 330

Total

354.465 484,686

The imports of fresh pine-apples are not separately

shown in the returns, but the following figures taken from

the Dipl. and Cons. Rep. on the Azores indicate the number

of fruits sent from St. Michaels to the London and

Hamburg markets :

1906. 1908. 1910.

London . . . 402,870 267,496 340,697

Hamburg . . . 878,617 888.392 1,214,576

Total . . 1,281,487 1,155.888 1,555.273

Since 1910 the returns have recorded the total numbers

of cases exported and their values, without differentiating

the countries to which they were sent. The figures are as

follows :

1911.

Cases . . —

Value . . ;^ 1 20,0 1 5

1912.

I9I3.

1914-

145,000

170,000

175,000

107,432

111,926

66,444

THE CULTIVATION OF THE PINE-APPLE 439

The outbreak of war in 1914 closed the port of Hamburg,
and in consequence a large number of St. Michaels pine-
apples that in normal times would have gone to the Conti-
nent have been sent to the London market.

The Plant and its Varieties

The pine-apple plant is known botanically as Ananas
sativa, Linn. It belongs to the natural order Bromeliaceae,
the members of which are native to the western hemisphere,
and are chiefly confined to South America. The plant is a
herbaceous perennial, consisting of a short stem bearing
long, strap-shaped leaves which are furnished in most cases
with spiny margins. From the centre of the leaves the
flower-scape arises, attaining a height of some 3 to 4 ft., and
bearing a terminal mass of flowers. The flowers are situ-
ated in the axils of bracts, and are at first separate, but
ultimately the calyces, bracts and fruits coalesce, and,
together with the portion of the stem on which they are
borne, become succulent.

The growth of the stem is continued above the fruit
where it terminates in an apical tuft of small leaves known
as the " crown." The fruit of the cultivated varieties has
been so much improved both in size and flavour that it
bears but slight resemblance to that produced by the wild
plant, which is usually of small size, fibrous and coarse in
texture, and lacking in sweetness and flavour.

The fruits of cultivated pine-apples may attain as much
as 10 or 12 lb. in weight, but they vary considerably in size,
and it is not always the largest that possess the best flavour.
After fruiting, the growth of the plant is continued by
"suckers" or ** ratoons " (see p. 444).

Numerous varieties are known in cultivation to which
names have been given, but they are probably not all
distinct kinds, as local names are frequently applied in
different countries to the same or similar varieties. Of the
large number of varieties grown, the following list enumer-
ates in alphabetical order those that are generally favoured.
The varieties diff*er from each other in size, shape, flavour,
and colour of the fruit, and also in habit of growth and
constitution.

440 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Abbaka. — An excellent variety ; the fruit is above the
average size, conical in shape, and has a delicious flavour.
The plant is vigorous, and produces an abundant supply of
suckers.

Antigua (black). — A moderately prolific variety, pro-
ducing a rather small, oblong fruit of an orange-yellow
colour and good quality.

Antigua (white).— A variety giving a good yield, and
producing a fruit of medium size, round shape and good
quality.

Black Jamaica.— Ps. variety producing a fruit of large size,
good quality, oblong shape and orange-yellow colour.

Black Prince. — The plant is not very prolific, nor a
vigorous grower. It produces a fruit of medium size,
conical shape, orange-yellow colour and good quality.

Blood, — A vigorous and prolific plant ; the fruits are
small, orange-red and of good quality.

Charlotte Rothschild. — A vigorous and fairly prolific
variety. The fruits are of conical shape, medium size,
orange-yellow colour and good quality. The leaves of the
" crown " are fringed with fine reddish spines.

Crown Prince. — A moderately vigorous and fairly pro-
lific plant producing fruits of medium size, conical shape,
orange-yellow colour and good quality.

Enville or Enville City. — A moderately vigorous and
fairly prolific variety producing fruit of medium size and
of fair quality. The " crown " consists of a number of small
rosettes of leaves instead of a single tuft.

Lord Carrington. — A moderately vigorous variety, and
fairly prolific. The fruits are of conical shape, medium
size, yellow colour and good quality.

Pernambuco. — A fairly vigorous grower, producing
heavy crops of small fruit of fine quality.

Porto Rico^ or Cabezona. — A very strong-growing variety
that requires much room. It is not prolific in all localities,
but produces a very large fruit which averages from 8 to lo
lb. in weight, and is somewhat variable in shape, but of
good quality. It is largely used for tinning in Porto Rico.

Prince Albert. — A vigorous variety yielding a good crop
of fruits of large size, orange-yellow colour and fine quality.

THE CULTIVATION OF THE PINE-APPLE 441

Queen. — A vigorous and prolific variety producing fruit
of small to medium size, conical shape and yellow colour ;
the flesh is tender, juicy and sweet, and of excellent quality.

Red Spanish. — A vigorous and prolific variety producing
medium to small fruits of variable size and reddish-yellow
colour. The variety known as " Bullhead " in Jamaica is
probably identical with this.

Ripley Queen. — A first-class variety, highly esteemed in
Jamaica. It has only a small "crown," and this somewhat
detracts from the appearance of the fruit.

Smooth Cayenne. — The most highly esteemed of all the
varieties. It produces a fruit of large size, perfect form
and excellent flavour, and is especially valuable for the
English market. This variety has smooth leaves.

Sugar Loaf.— A moderately vigorous and fairly prolific
form producing small fruits of very good quality. The
fruits are said to be liable to develop " black heart " when
shipped, and they are therefore not suitable for export.

The ** Queen " and the '* Ripley Queen " are considered
the svv^eetest varieties, and are unsurpassed for local con-
sumption if allowed to ripen on the plant. For commercial
purposes, owing to its large size and fine appearance, the
" Smooth Cayenne " is the most popular variety, and is
highly valued for tinning purposes in Hawaii. The " Red
Spanish " is also grown on a large scale for export, as it
travels well, and has a good appearance.

Cultivation
Climatic Conditions and Soil Requirements
The pine-apple is sensitive to cold, and its cultivation in
the open is, in consequence, restricted to those districts that
are free, or almost free, from frosts. It does not flourish
in the hottest parts of the tropics, but appears to succeed
best on islands or in maritime districts where extremes
of temperature are modified by the sea. A mean annual
temperature of from y^"" to 80° Y. is usually found to be
the most suitable. In certain of the pine-apple districts of
Florida, where frosts sometimes occur, the plants are pro-
tected by means of flat-roofed sheds, which consist of
planks or laths, spaced far enough apart to admit of ample

442 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

light and air, and supported by posts 7 ft. high. During
severe weather the sheds are covered with thin canvas,
which is usually sufficient to protect the plants from injury.
The provision of these sheds adds considerably to the cost
of producing the crop, and they are, therefore, employed
only for choice varieties that command a high price on
the market. Besides protecting the plants from frost, it
is claimed for the sheds that they prevent the excessive
evaporation of moisture from the soil, and in this connection
they have an additional value in districts where droughts
occur.

During its period of vegetative growth the pine-apple
requires a considerable amount of moisture ; but it is able
to resist droughts well if they are not unduly prolonged.
As a result of continued dry weather, the growth is liable
to be partially arrested, and fruits either do not develop or
do not attain their full size. An alternating wet and dry
season is to be preferred, the best-flavoured fruit being that
which ripens during the warm dry season.

With regard to soil, the pine-apple differs from most
cultivated crops in being able to thrive in very light, sandy
loams of poor quality. The texture of the soils intended
for pine-apples is of more importance than their chemical
composition, since the plants will not succeed in any soil,
however rich it may be, unless it is of open texture, with
perfect drainage. On the other hand, it is possible to
obtain fruit of good quality from a soil which is too poor to
produce ordinary vegetable crops, provided that it has no
tendency to become water-logged. It is this aspect of the
subject that is of importance where areas of light land exist
that cannot be profitably cropped in the ordinary way.

In Farmer's Bulletin^ No. 140 (1901), 6^.5. Dept. Agric.,
are given analyses of a number of soils from the pine-apple
districts of Florida. The chemical analyses show that
these soils are deficient in all the constituents usually
found in fertile soils with the exception of lime, whilst the
mechanical analyses show that only small percentages of
moisture and organic matter are present. The chief con-
stituent of these soils is sand, comprising 4r42 to 61 11 per
cent, of medium sand, whose particles measure from 05 to

THE CULTIVATION OF THE PINE-APPLE 443

025 mm. in diameter, and 3376 to 41*8 per cent, of fine sand
with grains measuring from 0*25 to o'l mm. in diameter.
Such soils have the mechanical texture most suited to the
pine-apple, but they need heavy dressings of manures con-
taining potash, phosphoric acid, and nitrogen, in order to
yield successive crops of fruits of good quality. A sandy
loam of alluvial origin rich in humus and naturally well
drained to a depth of at least 15 in. is a more profitable
type of soil to employ, as it requires less manuring.
Heavier soils may be employed where the rainfall is scanty,
as they are less liable to dry up during droughts.

In Singapore pine-apples are largely grown in the stiff
clay of the small hills that cover the island, whilst in the
islands known as the Keys, off the southern coast of
Florida, they are grown on coralline rocks with only a very
thin layer of surface soil.

Preparation of the Soil

The preparation of the soil for pine-apples consists in
bringing it to a fine state of tilth by digging or forking, or
by ploughing and harrowing. Land newly cleared of trees
and shrubs by burning is not suited to this crop unless it
has been thoroughly prepared by several workings and
deep cultivation in order to aerate the subsoil and to pro-
vide a suitable rooting medium of considerable depth. The
system of clearing land and planting pioneer crops in the
surface soil is too crude a method to employ for pine-
apples, since this crop is unable to compete with the weeds
and grasses that usually appear on newly cleared land
prepared in this way.

Where a subsoil exists that is liable to retain water at,
or near, the surface of the soil, the land must be formed
into beds or ridges in order to give the pine-apple plants
a deep-rooting medium of well-drained soil. Trenches
must also be dug at intervals to carry off the water during
heavy rains. The distance apart of these trenches will vary
according to the character of the subsoil and the amount of
the rainfall, but distances of from 20 to 40 ft. apart are the
usual extremes, the depth of the trenches being from ij
to 4 ft.

444 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Propagation and Planting

The pine-apple is easy to propagate, but it is of the first
importance that only those plants that are vigorous and
healthy, and that produce fruits of good size and fine
flavour, should be selected for the purpose. By continuing
the selection over a period of years a strain of plants may
be obtained of exceptionally high quality.

Propagation may be effected by means of seeds,
" crov^ns," " slips," ** ratoons," or " suckers." Seeds are
rarely produced by the best cultivated varieties, and are,
therefore, not available for ordinary purposes of propaga-
tion ; but, for raising new cross-bred forms, seeds must be
employed. Several years are required for seedling plants
to arrive at the fruiting stage. The " crown," or tuft of
leaves surmounting the fruit, is sometimes used for propa-
gating choice sorts, but, as it is left attached to the fresh
fruit exported, it is not in all cases available. Plants raised
from crowns are of rather slow growth. " Slips " are the
shoots that form at the base of the fruit in many varieties ;
they are usually rubbed off as soon as they appear, so as
to throw all the strength of the plant into fruit develop-
ment ; but, when available, they may be employed for
propagating. The plants obtained from slips are usually
of slow growth, taking not less than eighteen months to
fruit. " Ratoons " are shoots that arise from below the
surface of the soil at the base of the plant. If allowed to
grow after the fruit of the parent plant has been gathered
they will develop into plants and bear fruit the following
year. " Suckers " are the shoots that develop in the axils
of the leaves of the parent plant, and these are usually em-
ployed for the purpose of propagation, as they give the best
results. They should be pulled from the parent plant
when they have attained a length of about a foot; the
lower leaves should be removed so as to expose the roots
which have usually begun to develop in the leaf-axils, and
the base of the stem should be trimmed " square." They
may be planted out either in nurseries or in their perma-
nent quarters in the field. In the nursery well-prepared
beds of light soil should be provided in which the suckers

THE CULTIVATION OF THE PINE-APPLE 445

may be planted closely together. The beds should be
kept watered during the dry season, and shaded during
the day by means of palm-leaves or tree-branches. The
roots of the suckers develop rapidly under this treatment,
and on the approach of the rainy season the young plants
may be transferred to the fields.

One advantage of the nursery treatment is that time is
saved, as growth commences at once after planting, and is
continuous through the dry season ; a further advantage
is that the resulting harvest is more regular, as the nursery
system permits of evenly developed, vigorous plants being
selected for planting out, and these tend to mature evenly.

Where the nursery system is omitted and the suckers
are planted out at once into their permanent quarters,
care should be taken not to plant them more than 2 in.
deep, or they are liable to become choked with sand
should the soil become very dry and the weather windy.
To prevent "sanding," it is the practice in Florida to
place between the leaves of newly-planted suckers a
mixture of five parts of cotton-seed meal and one part of
tobacco refuse. This not only prevents sand getting into
the plant during the dry weather, but, during the rains
which follow, the mixture is washed <iown to the roots of
the plant, and serves as a manure ; the tobacco also tends
to prevent insect attacks.

The suckers are usually planted out at a distance apart
of 2 ft. or 2 ft. 6 in., more or less, according to the vigour of
the variety and the character of the climate. Where the
climate is dry the suckers may be planted more closely so
that the leaves may shade the soil and prevent the too
rapid evaporation of soil moisture. In Porto Rico some
plantings of the " Red Spanish " variety are made as close
as 12 in. by 12 in. in double rows, with a view to pro-
ducing small fruits for tinning purposes. In more humid
localities a wider spacing is necessary, as in such situations
the leaves usually attain a larger size, and require more
space. If the soil has not been formed into beds, spaces
5 ft. wide should be left at intervals between every three
or four rows to serve as paths for workmen during cultural
operations so as to obviate the necessity for treading on

446 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

the soil between the plants. Where planting does not take
place each year, and ratoons are depended on to supply
successive crops, a wider spacing is left between each of the
original rows so as to afford room for the ratoons to de-
velop. As much as 9 ft. is allowed for this in some cases.

After-cultivation

The after-cultivation of the pine-apple is simple, consist-
ing merely in keeping down weeds by hand-weeding, and
hoeing the soil between the plants with a Dutch or push
hoe. Care should be taken not to injure the leaves during
the hoeing operations, as damaged leaves are liable to
become diseased.

After the flowering period has passed, and the fruit has
formed, the plantation should be gone over, and the " slips,"
or shoots that appear on the scapes beneath the fruits,
should be rubbed off so as to encourage the fruits to attain
their full size. Hoeing should be discontinued during dry
weather if the fruits are developing, as this operation is
liable to raise dust which would collect on the fruits. After
the fruits have been harvested and the suckers removed
from the plants for propagating, the old stems should be
cut out and removed, and the ratoons thinned to one or
two at each stool, and left sufficiently far apart to allow
of the full growth of the plants which subsequently de-
velop.

Manures

It has already been pointed out that soils possessing the
most suitable texture for the pine-apple crop are usually
deficient in plant-food constituents, and require applications
of manures containing potash, phosphoric acid and nitro-
gen, in order to produce satisfactory crops.

In Florida artificial manures are applied on a large scale
to pine-apple lands, whilst in Singapore, where a different
type of soil exists, manures are not commonly used on
large estates, although the Chinese occasionally give dress-
ings of cow-dung and wood-ashes. Stable manure is not
suitable for pine-apples, as it is too hot ; but cattle manure,
where available, may be applied with advantage.

The best method of applying farm-yard manure is to

THE CULTIVATION OF THE PINE-APPLE 447

turn it into the soil, either by digging or ploughing, some
months before the pine-apple plants are put out. This
method not only renders the manure incapable of causing
injury to the sensitive roots of the plants, but it also greatly
improves the physical property of the soil.

The most important element required by the pine-apple
appears to be potash, and this is usually most readily
obtainable in the form of wood-ashes. The most suitable
commercial forms of potash for application are the sulphate
and carbonate.

For the proper development of the plants a supply of
nitrogen in the soil is also necessary, and this may be pro-
vided by growing between the rows of pine-apples, and
digging or ploughing in as green manure, some such legu-
minous crops as ground nuts or cow peas.

Where the pine-apple plantations are intended to remain
for several years, and the original rows are widely spaced
to allow of the development of plants from ratoons, the
cultivation of green manure crops, as suggested, may be
readily carried out, and their return to the soil not only
adds nitrogen but improves its texture.

In Florida, nitrogen is supplied in the form of dried
blood, nitrate of soda, and cotton-seed meal. Phos-
phoric acid is less important than potash and nitrogen,
and as cotton-seed meal contains a small amount of this
constituent, it supplies what is required without the addi-
tion of special chemical manures for this purpose. As a
source of phosphoric acid where cotton-seed meal is
not used, bone-meal, guano or dried fish refuse may be
employed.

The quantity of manure required will, of course, depend
largely upon the quality of the particular soil, but in the
case of soils deficient in the more important elements of
plant food, the percentage proportions of the principal con-
stituents of a compound manure should be as follows :
ammonia, 4; potash, 6; phosphoric acid, i. Such a manure
may be applied at the rate of 1,000 lb. per acre after the
suckers have been planted out and become well rooted ;
a second application, of 1,500 lb., may be made three months
after the first ; a third about six months after the second

448 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

and a fourth when the blooms appear. If the bed is to
stand for several years a dressing should be given after the
first crop has been harvested, and repeated as above de-
scribed. The amount should be increased or decreased
according to the response the plants make, and the time of
applying the manure may likewise be varied to suit local
conditions.

Mulching the plants with decayed vegetable refuse,
leaves and weeds, is also beneficial provided that the
material used as a mulch is thoroughly decayed before it
is applied.

Harvesting

The pine-apple fruits ripen at different times of the
year according to local climatic conditions and the time of
planting ; but the best flavoured are those that ripen during
the dry season. The length of time the fruits should be
allowed to remain on the plants after they have attained
full development depends on the purpose for which they
are required. If for local consumption, they may remain
until ripe and well coloured ; if required for a distant
market, to be reached by rail, they should be gathered
when just changing colour; and, if wanted for shipping,
they should not be allowed to become so far advanced,
but should be gathered whilst still green. Some varieties
travel better than others, and judgment and experience are
required in order to select the different varieties at the
best time for the particular purposes for which they are
needed. A study of the ripening of pine-apples at the
Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station {Annual Report^
1910), has shown that the sugar content of the fruit does not
increase after the fruit has been removed from the plant.
Fruits gathered green and then allowed to ripen lack the
sweetness and flavour of those that remain on the plants
until they are fully ripe. The sugar content of green fruits,
or fruits that had ripened after being gathered green, was
found to be only about 2 or 3 per cent, as against from
9 to 15 per cent, in fruits that had ripened on the plants.

The actual harvesting operation consists in removing
the fruit by either cutting or breaking the stem. In the
former operation the stem is cut through by means of a

THE CULTIVATION OF THE PINE-APPLE 449

knife about an inch or so below the fruit. By the breaking
method the fruit is held between both hands of the labourer
and by a combined twisting and bending movement the
stem is broken, leaving about an inch attached to the
fruit. If the " break " is too close to the base of the fruit
decay of the latter is liable to result ; whilst, should the
portion of stem left on the fruit be too long, it interferes
with the packing, and has to be shortened by cutting in the
packing-shed, an operation necessitating extra handling,
and requiring time. The gathered fruits are usually
thrown to a second labourer, who places them in a basket
or on a trolley for conveyance to the packing-sheds or
factory.

In the case of choice varieties t^e stem is cut through
some 6 in. or so below the fruit to afford means for handling.
In the packing-sheds this portion is cut off close to the
base of the fruit, and is sealed with paraffin wax to prevent
decay setting in.

Yield
The yield of pine-apples per acre varies according to
the system of cultivation and the fertility of the soil.
When closely planted, or when a large number of suckers
are allowed to develop, the fruits are numerous, but
usually of small size. Wide spacing, on the other hand,
yields a smaller number of fruits, but these are usually of
large size. In the West Indies the yield is said to be from
8,000 to 15,000 fruits per acre ; in Porto Rico from 10 to 14
tons per acre ; whilst in the Straits Settlements the yield
is only about 5,000 fruits per acre. In Queensland, from a
plantation in full bearing, it is said to be possible to obtain
a yield of 12,000 fruits per acre, each fruit averaging 2 J lb.
in weight, or over 13 tons of fruit per acre.

Grading and Packing
When the fruit is intended for export it is first of all
graded, according to the degree of ripeness, into ripe,
medium and green, and also according to size. It is
necessary to deal with the ripe fruit quickly or it will
deteri orate ; hence it is usual to send this to a local market
or by rail to the nearest town. The medium ripe and

450 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

green fruits intended for export to distant markets are first
wrapped in paper to protect them from dust and to prevent
damage to their skins ; they are then packed in crates built
of slats with spaces for ventilation. The size of the crate
varies in different localities ; in Florida the barrel crate
measures 12 x 20 x 36 in. and the half-barrel 12 x 10 x 36 in.
Various kinds of material are employed for filling in the
crate between the fruits ; but, whatever the material, it is
essential that it should be clean, soft, dry, and free from
smell. Chopped maize-husks are frequently used for this
purpose. The fruits are placed in the crates in either single
or double layers, the stalks and crowns of the fruits alter-
nating in each row. A cross-piece of wood is nailed inside
the crate either length-wise or across its narrowest part in
order to keep the fruits in position. It is essential that
each crate should contain fruits that are uniform in size.
The tendency of recent years has been to use small crates
containing only one layer of fruit, as these appeal to the
small buyer and also enable the whole of the contents to be
seen at once without handling the fruit.

Carefully packed pine-apples will stand rough handling
and yet remain in good condition longer than any other
tropical fruit provided they are not in an advanced state of
ripeness. It is preferable from the salesman's point of view
for the fruit to be packed too green rather than too ripe,
as in the latter case they usually deteriorate during a long
sea-journey and the delays incidental to their transit from
grower to retailer.

The lower grades of fruit, or *' culls," that are not worth
packing are either dealt with locally or sent in bulk to
factories for tinning.

Insect Pests and Fungoid Diseases

The pine-apple is not subject to many fungoid diseases
and is not usually attacked by insect pests, provided the
plants are healthy and in a clean condition when they are
planted out. The more common insect pests that attack
the plants are mealy bug, red spider, and scale insects.

Mealy bug {Dactylopius citri) attacks the plant at the
leaf-bases, and also the fruit, especially in the "eyes."

THE CULTIVATION OF THE PINE-APPLE 451

Nothing much can be done in the field to check this pest,
as spraying with the usual insecticides has little effect on
it. When starting a new plantation care should be taken
to see that the suckers are perfectly free from this pest
before being planted out, and as a precautionary measure
they should be fumigated with hydrocyanic acid gas.
Washing the young plants or dipping them in kerosene
emulsion will also tend to check this pest. In Florida
plants affected with mealy bug are dusted with tobacco
refuse between the leaves before the flowers appear, and
this is said to destroy some of the bugs and their eggs.
Obviously tobacco dust cannot be used when the fruit is
the part attacked.

Red spider {Stigmaeus floridanus) also attacks the leaf-
bases of pine-apples, causing brownish areas to appear in
the white tender portion of the leaf below the green part.
In bad cases the affected leaves drop off at the point
attacked; in milder cases the cuticle of the leaf is sufficiently
damaged to enable fungoid pests to gain access to the leaf-
tissue.

The best remedy is said to be tobacco dust applied in
the manner above described for treating mealy bug.

Pine-apple scale (Diapsis bromeliae) is troublesome in
some localities, especially in dry regions where growth is
slow. Scale usually attacks the under surface of the leaf,
causing a yellow spot to appear on a corresponding area of
the upper surface. Dipping the young plants before plant-
ing, or, in the case of older plants in the field, spraying
with a resin wash, an emulsion of kerosene, or a solution
of whale-oil soap has been found effective.

The disease known in Florida as wilt or blight is said to
be due to a fungus which attacks the root of the plant,
causing the tips of the leaves to wither and eventually to
dry up. The disease spreads from one plant to another,
and, if not checked, eventually affects plants over a con-
siderable area. In view of the part of the plant affected,
the employment of the usual fungicides is not possible, and
the only method of checking the spread of the disease is to
root up affected plants, as well as the plants in their imme-
diate neighbourhood, and burn them. The soil should then

452 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

be treated with a strong solution ot copper sulphate,
thoroughly dug, and dressed with a chemical manure
before replanting takes place.

Several species of fungus attack the fruit of the pine-
apple, but it is unlikely that in all cases these are the
original cause of the decay of the fruit. In most cases of
decay there has been damage to the outer skin of the fruit,
which has enabled the fungus to obtain a footing. The
most serious cause of the rot in pine-apples is a fungus
known as Thielaviopsis paradoxa (De Seyn), V. Hohn.,
which also attacks other cultivated plants. Experiments
as to the best methods of checking this disease have
been conducted by the Bureau of Plant Industry of the
United States Department of Agriculture, and a report on
the results has appeared in their Bulletin^ No. 171 (1910).
The experiments show that by fumigating the fruits with
small quantities of formaldehyde gas, the initial growth of
Thielaviopsis paradoxa may be retarded, while certain larger
quantities of the gas proved fatal to the fungus. The
quantity of gas necessary to kill the fungus was obtained by
the use of 1,200 c.c. of formalin per 1,000 cub. ft. of air space.

The disease known as " black heart," " bitter heart," or
" heart rot " attacks the fruit, causing the centre to become
watery and bitter, and ultimately to turn dark-coloured.
The cause of this disease is obscure, and no effective
remedy appears to be known.

Besides the foregoing diseases there are several mal-
formations of growth to which the pine-apple is liable, but
which cannot be attributed to either insect or fungus
attacks. To this category belong " spike " or blindness,
and tangle-root.

In cases of " spike " the leaves grow long and narrow
and have rolled-in margins, and in severe cases they stand
almost erect; the roots are few in number, but appear
normal. This condition is attributable to the misuse of
artificial manures or to an uncongenial soil. Amongst the
manures to be avoided where this disease appears are acid
phosphate, kainite, sulphate of ammonia, and cotton-seed
meal; those recommended being bone-meal, blood and
bone, or dried blood. ** Ripley spike " affects the variety

THE CULTIVATION OF THE PINE-APPLE 453

known as " Ripley Queen," causing one or two of the leaves
to thicken and to grow to an abnormal length. Growth
eventually ceases and suckers appear from the base of the
plant as if fruiting had taken place. There appears to be
no remedy for this abnormality, but it has been proved
that suckers taken from affected plants frequently inherit
the disease, and, this being the case, care should be taken
not to employ such plants for purposes of propagation.

" Tangle-root " is a twisted and contorted condition of
the root-system, which checks the growth of the plants.
Badly prepared suckers and an uncongenial soil probably
favour the development of this disease, but the exact cause
is not at present known.

Tinning or canning Pine-apples

The fruit of the pine-apple is readily preserved by
tinning, or canning, as the process is termed in America.
The great centres of the pine-apple tinning industry are at
Hawaii, Singapore and Porto Rico, but the trade is now
being developed in other countries where the pine-apple is
grown.

In Singapore the tinning is done chiefly by the Chinese,
who transfer the finished product to Europeans for export.
The method of tinning, as adopted in Singapore, is as
follows : The fruits used are of various stages of ripeness,
according to the requirements of purchasers. The top and
bottom of the fruit are cut off and the skin is removed by
peehng with a knife, hand labour being used, as it is cheaper
than machinery for this work. The " eyes " are next taken
out, and, if the fruit is to be tinned whole, it is usually
cored. If not tinned whole, the fruit is cut up into various
forms, known as slices, chunks, or cubes. It is necessary
to protect the hands of the workers by means of rubber
gloves, as constant contact with the juice of the pine-apple
is liable to cause a skin disease. The fruit thus prepared
is placed in tins of various sizes, capable of holding from
I to 3 lb., or, in exceptional cases, as much as 10 lb. The
contents of the tins are covered with syrup, which is com-
posed of water mixed with refined cane sugar ; or it may
consist of the juice of the fruit mixed with an equal quantity
17*

454 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

of water. The former is known locally as " syrup grade,"
the latter as " own juice." The filled tins are soldered up
and then plunged into boiling water, where they are
allowed to remain for about 15 minutes, after which they
are taken out and a hole is pierced through the lid in order
to allow of the escape of steam. On cooling, these air-holes
are soldered up and the tins heated again for periods vary-
ing from half an hour to an hour, according to their size,
or until the contents are cooked. After being removed
from the cooker they are allowed to stand for a few days
to cool, and are then labelled and packed.

In modern factories in the Hawaiian Islands the various
processes of peeling, removing the " eyes," coring and
slicing the fruit prior to tinning are effected by means of a
number of patented machines, which have almost eliminated
the necessity for touching the fruit by hand. Special
machines are also employed to recover the "pulp" which
remains attached to the rind when large fruits are reduced
in size to fit the tins. The Hawaiian fruit is usually put
up in the form of circular slices about 3^ in. in diameter.
The *' pulp " and cores are tinned separately, and these
forms are largely used for confectionery purposes.

Recently attention has been devoted to the utilisation ot
the juice of the fruit, which has hitherto been, for the most
part, a waste product. In some cases, after being sterilised
by boiling, the juice is bottled for use as a beverage. Another
method of treating the juice, which is said to have given
satisfactory results, is to extract from it a sugar, which is
afterwards employed for making the syrups used in the
tinning process (U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Rep. No. 91, Special
Agents Series).

Pine-apple Fibre

The leaves of the pine-apple furnish a fibre of fine
quality and great strength, suitable for textile purposes ;
but the time and labour involved in extracting the fibre have
hitherto restricted its use to a few countries and prevented
it from becoming one of the important fibres of commerce.
The fibre is produced in fairly large quantities on the
inland of Hainan, South China, particularly on th/e ea^t

THE CULTIVATION OF THE PINE-APPLE 455

side of the island ; also on the Liu-Chow Peninsula on the
mainland opposite. It is also produced on a smaller scale
in Formosa and in Hawaii and the Philippine Islands.
The fibre produced in the Philippines is made into the fine
fabrics known locally as pina cloth.

For fibre production the plants are grown closer
together than when fruit only is required in order to
induce the plant to form long leaves; or they may be
grown under trees in partial shade with this end in view.
Fully developed leaves yield the best fibre, but they must
not be too old or the extraction of the fibre becomes very
difficult. For the same reason the leaves should be treated
as soon as possible after they are taken from the plant, and
should not be allowed to become dry.

The methods of preparing the fibre vary slightly in the
different countries mentioned, but all involve hand labour
of a tedious and laborious kind. Several machines have
been invented for extracting the fibre, but so far the fibre
they produce has not equalled in quality that obtained by
hand methods of preparation.

In Hainan the pine-apple is grown as a hedge plant and
also in parallel rows in fields. At the end of their first
year they produce leaves capable of being decorticated for
fibre, but it is usual to wait till the second year, when longer
leaves are obtainable, which give a better yield of fibre.

About a dozen leaves are taken from each plant, a
sufficient number being left to enable the plants to con-
tinue their growth.

For extracting the fibre the first operation consists in a
vigorous scraping of both the upper and under surfaces of
the leaf by means of a scraper formed of bamboo or metal,
the latter not being sufficiently sharp to cut the leaf. The
scraping is done along the length of the leaf in one direction
only. After the green tissue has been removed by the
scraping process there remains a skein of yellowish fibres,
and this is plunged into clear cold water, where it is
allowed to remain for about six hours, and is then taken out
and exposed to the sun to dry. This alternate washing
and drying is continued for about three days, until the
f)bre has become sufficiently bleached and all non-fibrous

456 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

tissue has been removed. The material thus prepared is
next combed by means of a wooden comb in order to reduce
it to regular filaments of the required fineness, after which
it is made into threads for weaving. In the Philippines
the scraping process is carried out as above described, but
each layer of fibres, as exposed, is lifted out of the leaf by
means of the fingers and a small spatula, and is afterwards
washed and bleached until it attains the texture and colour
desired. The yield of fibre is said to be from 50 to 65 lb.
per ton of green leaves, which is very low in view of the
amount of time and labour involved.

The combings from pine-apple fibre are said to give
excellent results for paper-making. Tests made by Mr.
Clayton Beadle are described as follows in the Journ. Roy.
Soc. Arts (1915, 63, 631): "It was found that, taking an
average sample of combings and treating the same by the
soda process for the manufacture of paper-pulp, digesting
for 6 hours with caustic soda at 50 to 60 lb. pressure, there
was a yield of unbleached fibre of 38 per cent. The
material was strong, but it will be seen the yield was low.
In another test, where the fibrous matter was selected, a
yield of as much as y^ P^^ cent, of useful fibre resulted, and
the general testing indicated that, by proper separation of
the more fibrous portion with a suitable mechanical appli-
ance, a good product is readily obtainable."

An analysis of a sample of pine-apple fibre from the
Gold Coast, which was examined at the Imperial Institute,
is given in this Bulletin (1908, 6, 242).

Pine-apple Cultivation in the British Empire

The pine-apple is grown for local consumption in most
of the British Possessions where a tropical or sub-tropical
climate prevails, and there are many parts where it succeeds
admirably, but where, at present, the crop is not an im-
portant one. In view of the regulations now in force, which
restrict the imports of foreign fruit into the markets of
the United Kingdom, the countries in the British Empire
where the pine-apple can be grown have a unique oppor-
tunity of establishing or expanding the pine-apple industry.
The crop might also receive more attention as an intercrop

THE CULTIVATION OF THE PINE-APPLE 457

with citrus fruits. In Porto Rico this combination is said
to give satisfactory results, the pine-apples practically
paying the cost of the establishment of the citrus planta-
tion in some cases {Rej>. Hawaii Agric. Exper. Sta., 191 5).

In India the pine-apple succeeds in many parts, and on
the Malabar Coast and in Burma is said to produce fruit of
very good quality, whilst on the Khasi Hills of Assam the
fruit produced is said to be excellent. In view of the large
import of fresh fruit into India, there would appear to be
a ready market for home-grown pine-apples were the cul-
tivation of this crop taken up or extended. In the returns
of imports into India the various kinds of fresh fruits are not
separately shown, but the value of the total imports under
this heading, exclusive of coconuts, amounted to £24,4.01
in 1913-14, as against ;^29,569 in 191 2-1 3, and ;^29,903 in
1911-12. In Ceylon and Mauritius the pine-apple also
succeeds, but its cultivation is only on a small scale. It
is in the Straits Settlements that the cultivation, preserva-
tion and export of pine-apples are on a sufficiently large
scale to form an important industry. The cultivation and
tinning are carried out almost entirely by the Chinese, who
ow^n about a dozen tinning factories in Singapore. The
fruit is grown locally, and is also brought in from the
neighbouring islands of Pulo Sambo, Pulo Tekong, and
Pulo Seking. The average output of a Singapore factory
is 18,000 tins a day, but the amount varies according to
the season. There is a long season extending from March
to August, and a short one from November to January.
The quantities and values of tinned pine-apples exported
from Singapore during recent years and the principal
importing countries are shown in the following table:

912.

1913-

1914.

Iraportinp Countries.

Cases.

United Kingdom .

345,771

226,554

508,683

253,008

514,530

225,622

U.S. America

31,202

18,277

47,820

20,086

59,472

26,049

Canada .

40,358

25.372

19.393

9-442

I5.II4

6,891

Hong Kong .

24,307

10,103

26,617

9.827

12,416

4.548

New Zealand

23,237

13,976

13.417

5.686

15,984

6,632

France .

22,638

13.968

24,613

13,036

13,335

5,650

China .

2,703

1,312

7,943

3.177

6,364

2.426

Other countries .

89,872

55.229

99.734

48.919

58,221

27,565

Totals . . 580,088 364,791 748,220 363,181 695,436 305,383

458 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Pine-apples are grown in the New Territory of Hong
Kong, and tinned in Hong Kong itself. There is a fair
local demand and a large export to Northern China and
Eastern Siberia, and, as will be seen from the above
table, there is also an import of tinned fruit from
Singapore.

The pine-apple is successfully grown in Queensland,
and is a profitable industry in the Brisbane, Cleveland and
Maroochy districts, where there are large areas of land
said to be suited to this crop. There is a good home
market for the fresh fruits, and excellent opportunities
for developing an over-sea trade in preserved pine-apple.

The area under the crop in Queensland in 191 2-1 3 was
returned at 2,584 acres, producing 679,646 dozen fruits,
valued at £^7,96^. In 191 3 the area had increased to
3,014 acres, producing 744,996 dozen fruits, and in 1914
the area was 3,423 acres, producing 819,949 dozen fruits.

In New South Wales the pine-apple is said to thrive
well on the coastal highlands from Manning River north-
wards. At present the production is on a small scale, but
in view of the good market for locally grown fruit that
exists at Sydney the cultivation will probably be extended.
During 191 5 New South Wales exported 184 cwts. of pre-
served pine-apples to the United Kingdom and a small
quantity of fresh fruit to New Zealand.

Pine-apples of good quality have been grown in the
Northern Territory of Australia, and when this country
has become more developed the pine-apple will probably
be an important crop.

In the Rep. Dept. Agn'c, Union 0/ South Africa, 191 3- 14,
it is stated that it is only a question of a comparatively
short time before South Africa will be well known as
a pine-apple exporting country. In Cape Province the
district of Lower Albany is considered unequalled in
South Africa for producing the varieties of pine-apples
known as " Cayenne " and " Queen." The yields are said
to be very good, and, under favourable conditions, two
crops a year are obtained, whilst disease amongst the
plants is almost unknown. There is a good home market
for the produce of the pine-apple plantations, and in

THE CULTIVATION OF THE PINE-APPLE 459

addition an oversea trade has begun, amounting in 191 3
to 938 cases.

The cultivation of pine-apples in Natal is an expanding
industry, and the outlook is said to be bright. In the
year 191 3 some 2,500 cases of the fruit were exported,
chiefly of the " Cayenne " and " Queen " varieties. These,
for the most part, were packed in ordinary orange boxes
each of which contained 32 fruits ; but experiments are
now being conducted with a view to improving the packing
and transport methods.

In the Transvaal pine-apples grow to perfection in many
of the warmer districts, such as Barberton, Zoutpansberg,
Marico, Waterberg, and other districts ; but, as they are
imported at a cheap rate from Natal, their cultivation has
not proved profitable.

In British East Africa the experimental cultivation of
pine-apples carried out at the Government experiment
farms has proved satisfactory. Improved varieties have
been introduced and distributed, and the future will no
doubt see the cultivation of this crop extended.

In West Africa the pine-apple is grown in the Gold
Coast and in the Southern Provinces of Nigeria, but only
on a small scale for local use.

The British West Indies formerly produced pine-apples
in quantity, but largely owing to the competition with
the neighbouring islands of Cuba and Porto Rico, where
pine-apples are grown for export on a large scale, the pro-
duction in the British West Indian Islands has gradually
declined. Excellent fruit was at one time produced in
Jamaica, but there are no exports from that island at the
present time. Experimental shipments of pine-apples from
Montserrat to Canada have recently been made, and the
consignments have been favourably reported on with
regard to the flavour and quality of the fruits ; but an
improvement in appearance is said to be essential if they
are to compete successfully with the fruits derived from
Florida and California. The West Indian export is chiefly
from the Bahamas, which in the year 1908-9 exported
59)839 cases of preserved pine-apple, valued at ;^io,997,
and 118,526 dozen fresh fruits, valued at ;^i 1,836. The

46o BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

quantities and values of preserved pine-apple exported
during the past three years are as follows :

1912-13-

1913-14.

1914-15.

Cases. £,

Cases, I

27.536 5.175

31,172 6,188

33.070 7,535

It is interesting to compare these figures with those
for Hawaii, where the area under pine-apples in 191 2-1 3
was about 15,000 acres, and the value of the export
;^743,ooo. The rapid increase in the production of tinned
pine-apples in this territory is shown by the fact that in
1901 there were only 2,000 cases exported; in 1905 the
export was 51,300 cases; in 1910 it had increased to
650,000 cases, and in 191 3 to 1,600,000 cases. The popu-
larity of the Hawaiian product is said to be due to the fact
that the fruits used for tinning are allowed to ripen on the
plant, and therefore contain a high percentage of sugar,
so that in most cases added sugar is not required for the
tinning process. Florida, Cuba, and Porto Rico together
export about as much fresh fruit annually as Hawaii
produces in the tinned form.

NOTES

The Board of Trade and the Imperial Institute. — An inter-
departmental Committee presided over by Mr. Harcourt
has now arranged the respective spheres of work and
co-operation, in dealing with commercial enquiries, of the
new Department of Commercial Intelligence of the Board
of Trade and the Imperial Institute, which in recent years
has become a central Department for information and
investigation respecting the sources and uses of the raw
materials of the Empire.

In future the Technical Information Bureau of the
Imperial Institute will answer all commercial enquiries
respecting the sources of supply, technical uses and value
of raw materials within the Empire, and will be responsible
for supplying all information required in order to bring the
producer overseas in touch with the manufacturer at home.

Enquiries as to immediate supplies may be addressed
either to the Board or to the Institute, as may be most con-
venient ; but the Department of Commercial Intelligence of
the Board of Trade will, as a rule, be prepared to deal with
enquiries for immediate supplies of well-known raw materials

NOTES 461

which can be obtained at once through ordinary trade
channels. In answering those enquiries in which special
statistical or trade information is required, in addition to
technical information, the Board and the Institute have
arranged to co-operate.

Investigations of the possible industrial uses of raw
materials will, as heretofore, be dealt with by the Imperial
Institute.

The terms of the official resolutions are as follows :

1. The Imperial Institute should deal with enquiries as
to the sources of supply of raw materials produced within
the Empire in connection with their industrial and com-
mercial utilisation. Either the Board of Trade or the
Imperial Institute may deal with enquiries as to supplies
immediately available, but the Board of Trade shall, as a
rule, deal with enquiries for ordinary supplies of well-
recognised raw materials through the usual trade channels.

2. The Imperial Institute should undertake all necessary
investigations of the value and uses of raw materials pro-
duced within the Empire.

3. The Imperial Institute and the Board of Trade should
co-operate in cases in which the questions concerned involve
special statistical and trade information as well as technical
treatment.

The arrangement proposed by the Committee has now
been accepted by the Secretary of State for the Colonies,
the President of the Board of Trade, and by the Executive
Council of the Imperial Institute.

Indian Trade within the Empire. Official Enquiry at the
Imperial Institute. — The Secretary of State for India has
authorised the Indian Committee of the Imperial Institute
to enquire into and report on the possibilities of further
extending the industrial and commercial utilisation of Indian
raw materials in this country and elsewhere in the Empire.
The Committee has already commenced its work and
has appointed a number of Sub-Committees to deal with
the more important groups of materials, to consider the
results of investigations and enquiries already conducted
by the Imperial Institute, and to obtain the views of leading
merchants, manufacturers and other users of the raw
products of India.

One of the important aspects of the Committee's work

will be to suggest openings for the employment of those

Indian materials which before the war went to enemy

countries.

The Indian Committee of the Imperial Institute includes

Lord Islington, Under-Secretary of State for India; Sir

Marshall Reid, Member of the India Council ; Prof.

Wyndham Dunstan, Director of the Imperial Institute ;

Mr. L. J. Kershaw, Secretary, Revenue and Statistical

462 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Department, India Office ; Sir John Hewett, formerly
Lieutenant-Governor of the United Provinces; Mr. George
B. Allen, of Messrs. Allen Bros. & Co., and Messrs. Cooper
Allen, Cawnpore; Mr. Yusuf All, late Indian Civil Service;
Sir George Sutherland; Sir Charles Armstrong; Sir R. W.
Carlyle, lately Member of the Viceroy's Council; and Sir
J. Dunlop Smith. Mr. C. C. McLeod, Chairman of the
London Jute Association, is Chairman of the Committee,
and the Secretary is Mr. A. J. Hedgeland of the Imperial
Institute.

The follow^ing article appeared in the Indtaman of October
20, 1916, in connection with the above announcement :

Indian Products and their Utilisation

'* It was with unstinted and peculiar satisfaction that
we received the foregoing communique. Readers of this
journal require no reminder that the appointment of the
Industries Commission — now about to open their enquiry
in India — commanded our immediate and whole-hearted
support. We look to Sir Thomas Holland and his col-
leagues— as a result of their survey of the economic resources
and industrial possibilities of India — to formulate recom-
mendations likely to mitigate in considerable degree, b}'' the
greater diversity of the occupations which manufacturing
activity may bring, the present overwhelming dependence
upon agriculture of ' India's teeming millions.' Progress,
however, in this direction must be necessarily slow and
gradual. India, in spite of her vast resources, is yet in the
preliminary stage of industrial development ; she must rely
for at least many years to come, for the maintenance of her
trade balance, upon the export of her raw materials ; nothing
short of magic can bring about an immediate response to
our hope that a greater part of these products will be
eventually utilised for industrial purposes within her own
borders.

" Not the least satisfactory feature of the new departure
implied by the appointment of the Holland Commission
was the evidence it afforded of a growing appreciation on
the part of the authorities that India should be considered —
in respect of an Imperial trade policy — quite independently
of other British possessions. In that connection it appears
opportune to recall the following observations quoted from
an article which appeared in this journal just six months
ago:

" ' In these columns, both by ourselves and by corre-
spondents, complaints have been made repeatedly that,
whereas we hear much in this country — in connection with
trade after the war — of the interests of the United Kingdom,
the Dominions and Colonies and Allied nations, India is
seldom or never mentioned. That she also has economic

NOTES 4<53

interests — frequently of quite distinctive and peculiar
character — appears only occasionally to dawn upon com-
mentators. This tendency is not only mischievous and
misleading, but even positively dangerous, mainly because,
officially, commercial and industrial India are to all intents
and purposes practically unrepresented in home councils.
We nave, of course, the India Office, presided over by a
Secretary of State, whose good-will to India no one can
question for a moment ; but this department is necessarily
more closely associated with the Imperial Government than
with unofficial India, and, consequently, exposed to in-
fluences not always helpful to the economic development
of the great Dependency. Very different, it need not be
pointed out, is the position of the Australian Commonwealth
and self-governing Dominions. Not only do they enjoy a
full measure of fiscal independence, but also— in the presence
in London of their High Commissioners or Agents-General
— an official representation, in commercial matters, almost
equivalent to that of foreign Powers. In this connection
we have been reminded by several correspondents of an
interesting suggestion contained in a letter published in
this journal some weeks ago. This was to the effect that
there might be established in London — with great advantage
to India — a committee representing and qualified to speak for
the commercial and economic interests of the Dependency,
not merely as a consumer of manufactures from the United
Kingdom, but particularly as a producer of commodities
sought for throughout the world. The idea seems deserving
of more than passing and superficial attention, especially at
a time when — thanks to the pressure of divergent and often
rival claims and a plethora of uninformed and irresponsible
chatter — the very distinctive and seldom understood in-
terests of India may be almost wholly ignored.'

** The Indian Committee of the Imperial Institute goes
far, in our opinion, to supply the want alluded to in the
latter part ol this quotation. Indeed, for the work imme-
diately set before it no better qualified authority can be
imagined. We note with especial pleasure that the terms
of reference apply particularly to the raw products of India
—at present the main sources of her wealth — and that an
essential feature of the operations of the Committee will be
to suggest openings, particularly in the United Kingdom
and elsewhere in the Empire, for the employment of those
Indian materials which before the war went in considerable
quantity to enemy countries. In this respect the work of
the Imperial Institute Committee will in no respect clash
with that of the body presided over by Sir Thomas Holland,
which is concerned less with agriculture than with the
building up of manufacturing industries and the develop-
ment of India's mineral resources. Few people, it is to be
feared, recognise the paramount importance to India of its

464 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

agricultural industry and the ever-pressing need for a policy
of progressive development. How vital to the interests of
India is agriculture may be gathered from the facts that the
estimated annual value of the agricultural produce of the
country is no less than ;^ 1,000,000,000, and that directly
dependent upon their labour on the land are no fewer than
225,000,000 of the population. Whatever changes of thought
and policy may come with education, whatever new pros-
perity may follow in the train of industrial advancement,
one thing is certain — that for many 3/ears to come, it may
be for generations, the great primal industry of husbandry
will remain the chief occupation of the vast majority of the
Indian people.

"When we bear in mind what has been done for agricul-
ture by the Australian Commonvv^ealth, the Dominion of
Canada or the United States of America, it is natural to feel
a little impatient at the very slow progress in India. We
must not forget, however, that, while the Governments of
the newer civilisations had the advantage of building on
new foundations and in accord with the scientific spirit of
the times, in India new methods had to be grafted upon an
ancient civilisation full of prejudice and distrustful of in-
terference. Even so, it is w^orth enquiring whether the
best use has been made in India of the opportunities offered
by the existence of its Agricultural Department. Great as
is the present value of the agricultural output of India,
there is no doubt that, with intelligent direction, it might
be enormously increased. To take the case of wheat alone,
it is estimated that, owing to the researches of the Howards,
if all seed sown were of the variety they have arrived at by
cross-breeding as the most suitable for India, the value of
the crop would be increased by ;^5, 000,000. It is not, how-
ever, only conservatism on the part of the ryot which has
to be combated. The Indian cultivator is a poor man, and
has no capital to lay out on manures, even if he knew of
their existence and their potency. Nor can he spend money
on the erection of irrigation bunds to hold up the soil — a
very important matter, because, as Mr. Howard has pointed
out, the surface soil of India, which is the best part of the
land, is being washed away. This problem of financing the
industry is one which the Government must deal with."

The Work of the Imperial Institute for India.— The following
article appeared in the Leather Trades' Review for July 19,
1916, with reference to the work of the Imperial Institute
on Tanning Materials :

The Imperial Institute as a Commercial Asset.

" The provision of adequate and suitable supplies of raw
material for the production of the finished articles of trade
is not, in normal times, a question over which the average

NOTES 46s

manufacturer bothers his head very much. The process of
manufacture in all trades is very much standardised, and
the raw materials most usually needed are well recognised ;
for the due supply of these the importer and the broker
are relied upon, the manufacturer's part being mainly to
keep his wants well covered, and to purchase when the
market of the day seems to offer an advantage.

"Considerations of other material which might possibly
be equally suitable, possibly even superior or cheaper,
were not generally matters of which he took much cogni-
sance, and we are well aware of the extreme initial diffi-
culty there was in introducing certain raw materials into
the tanning trade, materials which have since become
standard articles of every-day use. The outbreak of war
and the succeeding closing up of many sources of supply
gave a nasty jar to this complacent attitude, and without
really any volition or inclination of their own, leather pro-
ducers were forced to make changes, and materials were
introduced which had not been over-favourably regarded
before. We believe the results have on the whole been
satisfactory, and, as a wider source of supply is always an
advantage, the enforced experiments which have been made
are all to the good. At the same time, even now the
fullest use is not being made of the facilities which exist
for practically testing and determining the value of many
tanning agents not in common use.

" A very interesting lecture was recently delivered by
Professor Wyndham Dunstan, Director of the Imperial
Institute, which is fully reported in the July 7th issue of
the Journal 0/ the Royal Society of Arts. Possibly the most
interesting point in the lecture is the description of the
scientific and technical research work which is undertaken
at the Imperial Institute. We fear that this side of the
Institute's work is not as fully recognised as its value
entitles it to be, and we would like to strongly emphasise
the fact that the Imperial Institute is not in the popular
sense a museum. It was founded with a definite and prac-
tical purpose, one of which is ' the investigation of economic
products and raw materials of the Empire, with a view to
their utilisation in industries and commerce.' Without
staying to reason whether it is a good or bad trait, it is
true that British industry and commerce has usually pre-
ferred to * gang its ain gait,' with just as much reference to
Government counsel or direction as could not well be
avoided, and it is to this independent trait in our character
we would ascribe the fact that the Imperial Institute has
been so little consulted by manufacturers, and the un-
doubtedly valuable results of its investigations and research
so inadequately appreciated.

** It is an accusation frequently levelled at scientists and
theorists generally that they fail to allow for practical diffi-

466 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERL^L INSTITUTE

culties, and that their scientific formulae cannot always be
translated into practical working conditions ; on the other
hand, we have rather more than a suspicion that these time-
hallowed * working conditions ' have with many become too
sacrosanct to permit of any amendment or interference,
and it is to this ingrained conservatism of the British char-
acter we attribute the fact that progress and improvement
in process is achieved comparatively slowly with us.

" That the Imperial Institute works on very practical
lines, and that the results of its labours are worthy of the
most serious attention of industrialists, is illustrated by the
sketch Professor Dunstan gives of the method followed.
Speaking at the moment of products of India, he said :

" * The question whether a new material is of value, for
example, for tanning leather must depend first on the
nature and amount of its constituents, which can be ascer-
tained by chemical analysis. This is the scientific aspect
of the question, which must be dealt with in the laboratory ;
but scientific results are at the beginning, and not at the
end, of the enquiry. If the necessary constituents needed
for tanning leather are proved to be present, the actual
suitability of the material for tanning leather and its
capacity for tanning certain classes of leather have next to
be ascertained. This is the technical aspect of the matter,
which must sooner or later mean consultation with the
practical tanner. If the material is proved to be suitable
for tanning certain kinds of leather, the commercial ques-
tion is the next to be determined, the price which will be
paid for it, and at this stage the views have to be ascer-
tained of several manufacturers of the particular classes ot
leather for the production of which the material has proved
to be suitable. Assuming that the price provisionally fixed
is one which is satisfactory to the manufacturer, the next
question is whether this price will be profitable to the
exporters in India. Enquiries have, therefore, to be made
as to the sources of supply in India, the amount which
could be annually exported from India, the export price,
and the arrangements for export. At this stage reference
to India, therefore, becomes necessary, and ultimate success
will depend on the means which exist there for assisting
the enterprise. Lastly, assuming that everything is satis-
factorily arranged in India, the next step is for a large trial
consignment to be exported to test the market at home and
to open the new channel of business. This, which may be
regarded as the final stage, requires preliminary arrange-
ments on this side with brokers and merchants as well as
with manufacturers.

" * The system is a comprehensive one designed to do
all that is needed to initiate the commercial utilisation of a
new material, the entire work beino^ controlled by one
organisation specially adapted for the purpose, Stress

NOTES 467

may be laid on the supreme importance, if success is to be
attained, of one organisation being responsible for the
whole of the operations described, for this secures unity
and directness of purpose, avoids waste of effort, over-
lapping of work and misunderstandings.*

" The useful activity of the Institute does not end with
this, for having established that certain materials contain
tannin in commercially valuable quantity, and should
theoretically be valuable agents for the tanner, they carry
their investigations a step further, and Prof. Dunstan adds
that with —

" ' a tanning material, the composition and properties of
which have been investigated m the laboratories, small-
scale trials of the material as a tanning agent will also
have been made at the Imperial Institute, and various
samples of the leather produced will be available.'

" As the lecturer says, these results should be sufficient
to induce the manufacturer to give immediate attention to
the subject, and to decide whether the material is worth
development.

"Such in brief outline are some of the services the
Imperial Institute is all the time rendering to our trade.
These services would naturally be more effective if more
general use were made of them, but we are afraid that
there has been a great deal of ignorance in trade circles
about the functions and work of the South Kensington
institution, and we are pleased to have this opportunity of
bringing to the notice of the leather trade in particular the
very practical and valuable nature of the work done there.
Most of the materials in common use in the tannery are, or
can be, produced within the British Empire, and there are
other materials possibly as valuable and economical, as yet
commercially unrecognised, which could be developed if a
little encouragement w^ere given. It appears to us, there-
fore, that our tanners and leather producers would not
only increase their own knowledge and resources by fre-
quent reference to the information at their disposal at the
Imperial Institute, but they would also be fulfilling a
patriotic duty which would tend towards developing the
Empire and rendering it more self-contained."

The following article appeared in the Indian Textile
Journal for August 1916:

The Imperial Institute and India

" The early history of the Imperial Institute of London
is tolerably well known. It was formally opened by Queen
Victoria in 1893, and was from the first seriously handi-
capped from want of funds to meet current expenditure.

468 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

The appeal for subscriptions made by H.R.H. the Prince of
Wales, afterwards King Edward VII., met with a generous
response on the part of the Princes of India, but the
Government of India made no contribution to the general
fund, although a small annual payment was made for the
Indian section devoted to the exhibition of raw materials.
In 1896 a scientific and technical research department was
established, a very important and desirable move, and the
Government of India then contributed ;^ioo a year towards
the support of this department — a sum which some years
later was increased to its present amount of ;^20o. In 1903
Prof Dunstan was appointed Director, and the Institute
then passed to the control of the Board of Trade. From
that time, under the guidance of the Director, an officer full
of enthusiasm and of great scientific and administrative
ability, the progress has been of a very valuable and im-
portant kind.

" Few lectures delivered at the Indian Section of the
Royal Society of Arts have been of greater interest to this
country than Prof. W3mdham Dunstan's recent pronounce-
ment on the work that the Imperial Institute has done, and
is doing, for India. The Indian collections have been com-
pletely reorganised, and the Indian Section is now repre-
sentative of the resources and industries of the country.
The collections include examples of all the important raw
materials, with tabular information and diagrams respecting
Indian trade and commerce. The principal fibres are shown,
with native manufactured materials, and labels descriptive
of the origin, composition, and uses, actual and potential.
The Indian tea industry is fully illustrated. Industries such
as those of silk, opium, lac, and metals are explained. The
raw materials and minerals all find a place with descrip-
tions of their composition and uses. It can readily be
imagined that all this information is of great value to
manufacturers and merchants. Every year there are nearly
a quarter of a million visitors to the public galleries, and
the enquiries received by the Institute severely tax the
capacity of the staff* to attend to them. The scientific and
technical research department has been greatly extended.
It includes laboratories and workrooms, with a highly
trained staff" of w^orkers in the various aspects of the utilisa-
tion of raw materials for industrial purposes, and much
important work has been accomplished for India.

" Referring to Prof. Dunstan's lecture, the Civil and
Military Gazette writes :

"'Much has been heard of the apathy and want of
enterprise of the British manufacturer, as compared with
the energy and initiative of his German rival. But Britain
has not helped her manufacturers in the way that Germany
has done, and the value of the work done by the Imperial
Institute lies in supplying a real want. For the success of

NOTES 469

any new industrial development, much depends on the way
the case is prepared and presented. It is not enough to
have obtained m the laboratory a definite result of scien-
tific interest ; it is necessary to demonstrate practical
applications and to indicate the probable commercial
results ; and there is no Government organisation in India
whose business it is to deal with this side of the question.
Neither the Department of Commerce and Industry, nor
that of Commercial Intelligence, can possibly undertake it.
The work is outside the scope of such departments as the
Forest or Agriculture, and the Imperial Institute therefore
supplied a very decided need which is not the less decided
because the war has led to many new problems in economics.
The Institute has already done much to assist India. It is
in touch w^ith European industrial conditions, with require-
ments which demand discussion with manufacturers at
home, and it possesses special facilities for the expert
examination of materials whether for export or for utilisa-
tion in India as new industries. But India must play her
own part in the movement in order to exploit her own
resources as far as possible.

" * There are many directions in which Indian products
have been recently investigated by the Institute from tech-
nical and commercial standpoints. In the case of raw
hides, Germany and Austria have, in the past, secured one-
half the total output from India to the value of about three
millions sterling; and the Institute has shown how great
an extension in the tanning industry of India is possible,
and has drawn attention to the value of the tanning
materials of the country. Dr. Dunstan's remarks on the
subject of monazite are specially interesting. In 1909 the
Imperial Institute drew the attention of the Government of
India to the German thorium monopoly which placed
British manufacturing enterprises at great disadvantage.
It pointed out that the existence of thorium minerals in
Ceylon rendered it probable that they would be found in
India also, and suggested that a search should be made.
The Government replied that no special search was neces-
sary, as the Geological Survey were alive to the importance
of the subject ; and there the matter rested till a German
prospector discovered sand on the coast of Travancore
exceptionally rich in monazite, and a company was formed
under German control. The material is required for the
gas-mantle industry of Britain, and it is to be hoped that the
Travancore deposits will now pass into the hands of British
companies.

** * In the matter of paper-making materials, although
India possesses a great abundance of materials, less than
one-third of the paper used in the country is made in Indian
mills, and of this much is manufactured from imported
wood-pulp. Prof. Dunstan shows that India could easily

470 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

manufacture all the paper she requires, and even export to
China and Japan, The fibres of India, whether textile,
cordage, or fibres required for upholstery work, are im-
portant products capable of being more extensively used.
The export trade in Burma beans continues to flourish, and
at the present time all edible beans command high prices.
But the Madagascar bean has been recommended for culti-
vation in Burma, where it will probably thrive just as well
as the indigenous bean, and it is nearly four times as valu-
able. There is a very large demand for beeswax in Russia
for the manufacture of church candles, and since the out-
break of the war the authorities have withdrawn the pro-
hibition on Indian beeswax. It is essential, however, that
the wax should not be adulterated, and if India will export
pure wax she should be able to secure a large part of the
Russian trade. The potash deposits of Prussia have in the
past been the chief source of the world's supply, but
the deposits at Khewra in the Punjab are promising, and
at the instance of the Institute the Government of India
are taking steps to investigate their commercial value.
These are a few instances of the ways in which the Imperial
Institute is doing work of incontestable value to India, and
under the new arrangements by which India will be repre-
sented on the council by four members the future should
see an increased sphere of usefulness to this country. The
operations of the past have been by no means infructuous,
but they should now be more than ever instrumental in
developing the possibilities of the raw materials of the
Indian Empire.' "

The Imperial Institute and the Development of "West Africa. —
The following article relating to the work of the Imperial
Institute for West Africa appeared in the African Mail for
September 29, 1916 :

The Imperial Institute

" We have upon several occasions ventured to draw the
attention of our readers to the work of the Imperial Institute.
We are not by any means positive that West Africans,
Black and White, realise what an asset this Institute really
is. Perchance now that it has obtained the dignity of an
arm of the Colonial Office the people concerned will pay it
more attention and give it more homage. We remember in
the long ago the late Mr. John Holt saying that ' Prof.
Wyndham Dunstan is the best man West Africa has got.'
This was not merely because he was a theorist, but was the
expression of a keenly critical commercial man. He viewed
Western Africa through different spectacles to most of his
contemporaries, thinking more of tne country as a place of
possibilities than somewhere to trade. That is precisely
why he thought so highly of the head of this institution.

NOTES 471

The primary object of its existence is to report upon the
potentialities for trading with the Colonies in products
other than those ordinarily known. We must confess that
each issue of the quarterly journal is read by us with the
keenest interest, because of these analytical statements.
They may be dry reading to many, but there is alwaA^s
sound criticism and careful judgment in every line. We
have been taken to task for quoting from the journal as we
do, because, forsooth, * people do not want to be bothered
with that class of reading.' It is because we wish to force
it upon their reluctant attention that we do reproduce so
much of the matter contained in that journal. West Africa
is a country of potentialities. We have but the slightest
knowledge of her riches, and never will have whilst we are
content to deal in those things classed as her staple products.
There is a most informative article in the recently issued
number of the quarterly, and we quote largely therefrom.
It deals with African wild silk. Unfortunately, in the main,
it would seem that it is hardly a commercial proposition to
work up the industry; yet, without the analysis, we never
would have known. It might have been an extremely
lucrative trade avenue ; in any case the Institute has saved
somebody money in fruitless experiments, and that is
money gained. One of these days we may be startled to
find that something of very great value has been brought
to light by these researches. Much solid w^ork has been
done in the past, and many unusual products brought to
light. At all events the Government realise that the
Imperial Institute is an Imperial asset. That is a self-
evident fact. Why it is not made more use of we cannot
understand. It would be an excellent thing to urge the
Colonial Office to send out some of these experts to collect
specimens of products which were likely to be of com-
mercial value and send them home for analysis at the
laboratory in London. We hear so much of German
thoroughness and our own slipshod lack of method in
doing such things that we are rather tired of listening,
especially when the means are at our disposal and we fail
to use them."

Refining of Nickel in Canada. — In the article published in
the last number of this Bulletin entitled " The Occurrence
and Utilisation of Nickel Ores," the words **or this country"
should be added after the word " Canada " at the end of line
29^from the top on page 238.

472 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

RECENT PROGRESS IN AGRICULTURE AND THE
DEVELOPMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES

In this section of the Bulletin a summary is given of the contents of
the more important papers a?id reports received during the preceding
quarter^ in so far as these relate to tropical agriculture a?id the utilisation
of the natural resources of the Colonies^ India^ ajtd the Tropics generally.

AGRICULTURE

Oils and Oil Seeds

Coconuts. — There are about 794,000 acres under coconuts
in the Madras Presidency, principally on the west coast,
the annual production in Southern India (including the
Native States) amounting to about 1,000 million nuts. In
normal times coconut products valued at about ;^ 1,497, 000
are exported yearly from Madras ports alone, and there is
also a large local consumption. The Government of Madras
has sanctioned recently the proposals of the Director of
Agriculture to establish experimental farms for the investi-
gation of problems connected w\\h coconut cultivation
{G.O., No. 349, February 1916, Rev. Dept.y Govt of Madras).
Farms are to be started in the South Canara district on the
three different types of soil on which coconuts are commonly
cultivated — viz. sand, mixed sand and loam, and lateritic red
loam. In order that work may be begun immediately on
manurial and cultural problems, it is proposed to lease two
suitable existing plantations.

Castor Seed. — Seven varieties of castor seed cultivated at
Nadiad, in the Kaira District, Guzerat, Bombay (Rep.y
Nadiad Agric. Sfa., 1914-15, p. 14), gave yields varying
from 336 to 1,184 It), per acre. The lowest yield was
obtained from the variety known as Brisbane, which is
apparently not a pure type, and gives a poor yield owing
to its shedding seed in the field. The highest yield was
obtained from the Chani local variety. The season was not
good owing to excessive rain, while most of the seed capsules
were damaged by a borer {Dichocrocis punctiferalis).

Ground Nuts. — In No. 2a of a series of publications dealing
with Egyptian agricultural products Dudgeon gives an
account of the history, varieties, distribution, and cultiva-
tion of the ground nut in Egypt, and also supplies much
general information on the growth and uses of this crop.
In Upper Egypt the largest area under ground nuts is at
Giza, and smaller areas occur in Fayum, Assiut, Girga, and

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 473

Aswan ; in Lower Egypt the largest area is in the province
of Sharqia. On the whole, ground nuts are fairly free from
disease in Egypt, but the cotton-worm {Prodenia litura) is
sometimes very destructive to the crop in Lower Egypt.
The total exports from Egypt in 1912, 191 3, and 1914
amounted to about 780, 548, and 291 tons respectively, most
of which was sent to Turkey. These quantities show a
considerable decrease compared with former years, over
1,524 tons having been exported in 1902. This diminu-
tion appears to be due to an increased local demand in
most parts ; the only locality from which the exports are
increasing is Sharqia.

Experiments in the Deccan {Rep. Agric. College Farm,
Poona, 1914-15, p. 48) have shown that the large erect
variety gives better yields than the spreading Pondicherry
variety. A small Japanese kind gave 60 per cent, more
nuts than the local Poona variety, and, although the latter
gives more fodder, three years' results have proved con-
sistently that the small Japanese is superior to the local
variety where rainfall alone is depended on, and that it also
possesses the advantage of leaving the land free two months
earlier. Manurial experiments were carried out on a light
red shallow soil which was deficient in potash. The appli-
cation of five to ten cartloads per acre of farmyard manure
almost invariably increased the yield sufficiently to repay
the cost of the manure. A comparison was made in sowing
shelled and unshelled nuts, and it was found that the latter
gave results about equal to those obtained with the former.
As the nuts can only be satisfactorily shelled by hand,
owing to the danger of injuring the germ by mechanical
shelling, a considerable saving can be effected by sowing
unshelled nuts. The process of germination in the case of
the unshelled nuts is curious. One of the kernels germinates
first and forces its radicle through the husk ; the plumule,
growing upwards, carries with it the other kernel, covered
by the shell and not yet germinated ; this kernel is forced
nearly to the surface of the soil, falls to one side, and
then germinates. The process takes about a week, and if
the surface moisture of the soil has then dried up the second
kernel has difficulty in germinating unless rain falls.

At the Surat Agricultural Station {Rep. Sural Agric. Sla.,
1914-15, p. 22) Spanish ground nuts have again given better
yields of^ nuts than the small Japanese variety, which is
considered in consequence to be unsuitable for heavy black
cotton soil. Although the experiments have indicated good
profits per acre, it seems unlikely that cultivators will take
up this crop, as it entails a good deal of labour, especially in
rainy seasons, and is liable to damage by crows and jackals.

At Dharwar trials with several varieties have been in
progress since 191 1 {Rep. Dharwar Agric. Sla., 1914-15,
p. 12), but the order of merit of the different varieties has

474 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

varied so widely from year to year that it is only possible
to state that the Brazilian variety cannot compete in pro-
ductivity with the other kinds.

Rape Seed. — Indian mustard or "rai" {Brassica juncea,
Hook. f. et Thorns.) has been found to exhibit an extra-
ordinary range of form {Rep. Agric. Res. Inst, and College,
Pusa, 1914-15, p. 41). One hundred and two pure types
have been isolated, ranging in height from 2*5 ft. to nearly
10 ft.

Safflower. — A botanical study of Indian oil seeds has been
in progress for some time at Pusa {Rep. Agric. Res. Inst,
and College, Pusa, 1914-15, p. 40). Twenty-four types of
safflower nave been studied m pure culture. Self-pollina-
tion is usual with this crop, but a fairly large proportion of
crossing also takes place. The different types were found
to vary widely in production of carthamin, the red colour-
ing matter of the florets. The percentage of oil in the
seeds varied from 20*8 to 30*2 in the twenty-four types,
nineteen of which contained over 25 per cent, of oil.

Waxes. — In the utilisation of esparto grass for paper-
making, quantities of dust are obtained in the preliminary
removal of impurities from the grass. This dust contains
from 25 to 50 per cent, of wax of high melting point, which
can be extracted and for which the demand is now said to
exceed the supply {Joiirn. Soc. Chem. Indust., 1916, 35, 401).

The leaves of the ** snow brush " {Ceanothus velutinus,
Dougl., Nat. Ord. Rhamnaceae), a shrub common in Cali-
fornian forests, contain about 7 per cent, of wax, which
can be extracted by means of solvents {Jonrn. Indust. Eng,
Chem., 1916, 8, 411). It is suggested that the economic
utilisation of this shrub would be advantageous, as there
are large quantities available, and its removal would lessen
the danger of forest fires (see also p. 481).

Rubber

Hevea.— In Fiji, trees from seedlings planted in 1906 at a
distance of 17 by 17 ft. had attained in 1914 an average girth
of 1 7' I in. at 3 ft. from the ground {Rep. Dept. Agric, Fiji,
1914, p. 3). Thirty trees tapped on about 170 days (in all
4,970 tappings) yielded 22 J lb. of smoked biscuits and 6J lb.
of scrap. Seedlings planted in 1908 attained a girth of
11-4 in. in 1914, and stumps planted in 1908 a girth of in in.
in 1 9 14, in each case at a height of 3 ft. from the ground.
In most cases the plots had suffered somewhat from the
effects of storms.

The results obtained during the third and fourth years
of tapping experiments at Kuala Lumpur are tabulated and

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 475

discussed in the Agj-ic. Bulletin^ Fed. Malay States (1916, 4,
168). The experiments include investigations on half and
full herring-bone, single and double V, and opposite
quarters tapping systems, and also on the effects of daily
and alternate day tapping. Each plot contained originally
65 trees planted 16 by 16 ft., but during the four years of
experiment one or two trees have been lost on each plot.
The average increases in girth during the whole period of
the experiment varied on the six plots from 107 to 12*5 in.
at 3 ft. from ground ; these increases are exceptionally poor,
but this is probably owing to close planting. Comparing
daily and alternate day tapping over a period of four years,
the three plots which were tapped daily gave a total yield
of nearly 2,515 lb. of rubber compared with nearly 2,298 lb.
from the plots tapped on alternate days, or only 2171b. in
favour of daily tapping. The opposite quarter system has
given very poor results compared with other systems, both
for daily and alternate day tapping. The single V, starting
36 in. from the base of the tree, gave 934 lb. of rubber com-
pared with 898 lb. from trees tapped on single quarters
with two cuts of 18 in. In both cases tapping was carried
out daily, and a similar period was allowed for bark
renewal.

Bunting has recorded the results of some interesting
manurial experiments on Hevea trees in Perak {Agric.
Bulletin^ Fed. Malay States ^ 1916,4, 125). The experiments
were carried out on 2j-acre plots, the total area amounting
to 40 acres, containing over 4,500 trees, planted 20 by 20 ft.
The soil was somewhat sour, and consisted of a fairly rich
loam of a peaty nature on an alluvial clay subsoil. The low
yields of rubber obtained are attributed to the fact that the
land, previous to being planted with rubber, had been
heavily cropped with sugar and tapioca.

The eight plots received the following manures per acre:
(i) Sulphate of ammonia (20 per cent, nitrogen) J cwt.,
sulphate of potash (50 per cent. K2O) J cwt., Perlis guano
(18 per cent. P2O5) 2 cwts., lime 5 cwts. ; cost per acre 40s.
(2) Sulphate of ammonia i cwt, lime 5 cwts. ; cost per acre
335. 4</. (3) Sulphate of potash i cwt., lime 5 cwts. ; cost per
acre 29s. 6d. (4) Perlis guano 4 cwts., lime 5 cwts. ; cost per
acre 30s. gd, (5) Basic slag (20 per cent. P2O5) 4 cwts. ; cost
per acre 25s. id. (6) Lime i ton; cost per acre 53s. 6d.
(7) Changkolled control ; cost per acre 145. (8) Not chang-
kolled control.

Duplicate plots were used in each case. Periodical
inspection of the plots showed that the general appearance
of the foliage on manured plots was healthier than on the
unmanured plots, w^hile the plants on the manured and
changkolled plots suffered little from drought. This was
probably due to the fact that, by changkolling, the surface
IS loosened and the evaporation of moisture from the soil

476 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

reduced to a minimum. Not a single tree on the treated
plots, which were all deeply changkolled, was uprooted,
although those on neighbouring plots suffered severely
from the wind, a result probably due to increased root
development in the former case. In almost all cases an
increased yield of rubber resulted from the application of
manures. The largest increases were obtained by the use
of lime and " complete manure" (sulphates of ammonia and
potash, guano, and lime), and amounted on an average to
an increase respectively of about 49 and 42 lb. of rubber
per 100 trees above the quantity obtained from the un-
manured plots. Considering that the increased yields do
not increase the cost of tapping, the results leave a margin
of profit after deducting the cost of the manure.

The fungoid disease known in Burma as ** black thread "
disease is caused by a species of Plrytophthora (Bulletin
No. 14, 19 16, Dept. Agric.^ Burma). This fungus attacks
the fruit and also the tapping cuts, where it penetrates the
cambium and finally causes a large gaping wound, or,
where the area of attack is small, a rough area of bark
which cannot be tapped. On one plantation in 191 5, 42,000
out of 117,000 trees were not tapped owing 10 this disease,
causing a loss of between 8,000 and 9,000 lb. of rubber.
Sun and light are important factors in checking this disease,
which flourishes under moist conditions, and as preventive
measures the thinning out and pruning of plantations are
recommended. Where the plantations are already attacked,
the tapping of diseased trees should be discontinued, and
thinning out, pruning, and destruction of diseased fruit
should be undertaken. Treatment of the diseased parts of
trees with Burgundy mixture (prepared by mixing solutions
of copper sulphate and sodium carbonate) was not found
to be effective ; in Java, where a similar disease is known,
the application of 20-per-cent. solution of *' carbolineum "
or other disinfectant every 5 days is recommended.

Freshly coagulated rubber treated with alkaline solutions
has been shown by Eaton to cure more rapidly than rubber
not treated in this way (cf. this Bulletin, 19 16, 14, 297).
Further experiments have now been made with dry rubber^
and a similar effect has been noticed {Agric. Bulletin, Fed.
Malay States^ 1916, 4, 162). It is uncertain whether the
effect is due to the action of the alkali on the rubber itself
or to its action on some constituent in the rubber which
influences the rate of cure. The earlier specimens prepared
by treating freshly coagulated rubber with alkaline solutions
have become tacky on keeping, and as the treatment causes
deterioration its use cannot be recommended. It appears
that this deteriorating effect was known previously to
manufacturers in Great Britain, as the author received a
letter from the manager of a rubber works asking him to
warn planters against the use of alkalis.

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 477

Sulphuric acid and other mineral acids and potash alum
were found to increase the time of cure, especially when
more than the minimum amount of coagulant was used.

Fibres

Silk. — An active part is being taken by the Salvation
Army in the development of the silk industry in India and
Ceylon. A trained staff has been gradually obtained, the
members of which have become well acquainted with the
various difficulties encountered in all branches of the in-
dustry, and are qualified to give instruction to others.
In the A7in. Rep. on the Silk Centres of the Salvation Army
in India and Ceylon^ 191 5-16, a list of the 28 silk centres
is given, comprising 2 in Mysore, 5 in the Punjab, 10 in
the United Provinces, 2 in Bombay Presidency, i in Bengal
Presidency, i in Bihar and Orissa, 5 in the Madras Presi-
dency, I in Travancore, and i in Ceylon. These centres
contain 8 silk schools, 25 silkworm-rearing stations, 25 silk-
reeling stations, and 9 weaving establishments. During
the present year, 350 oz. of silkworm seed, imported from
France and hibernated in Simla, have been distributed to
various parts of India. Experiments have been made with
the indigenous varieties of silkworms, and it has been
found that until considerable improvement has been effected
they will not compare favourably with foreign varieties.
Arrangements have been made for cold storage of European
seed in Simla, and for its distribution from this centre to
all parts of India at the proper season. The reeling stations
will shortly be producing about i ton of raw silk per
month, for which a supply of over 4 tons of cocoons will
be required. As the local supply of cocoons will probably
be insufficient, it will be necessary for some time to import
cocoons for the purpose. The Report gives a brief account
of the activities of the various centres. Of special interest
is the work carried on in the Punjab, which possesses the
advantage of a mulberry forest at Changa Manga. By per-
mission of the Forest Department a silk farm has been
established in the forest where, during the present year,
150 students have been employed in rearing silkworms, and
it is hoped that this Annual Silk Camp will form part of
the regular curriculum of the students of the Sir Michael
O'Dwyer Silk School and Institute of Simla.

Urena lobata. — In a recent number of this Bulletin (1916,
14, 129), reference was made to the fibre of Urena lobata^
particularly with regard to its cultivation and utilisation in
Madagascar. Efforts are also being made in Cuba to pro-
duce this fibre for the manufacture of sacks for sugar.
The plant grows abundantly in the wild state in the
Province of Pinar del Rio, where it is known as " malva,"
18

478 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

and is regarded by tobacco planters as a troublesome
weed. An account of the methods employed in Cuba for
cultivating the plant and extracting the fibre has been
given by Garrard Harris, United States Special Agent, in
Commerce Reports (1916, No. 42, p. 715).

The plant requires a good soil and an abundance of rain
and moisture. The ground is ploughed and harrowed, and
the seed is sown in quantities of about 40 lb. per acre.
The young plants are thinned out until, on the average,
there are about 44 per square yard. By growing the plants
so closely together, the tendency to branching is reduced,
and long straight stems are obtained. The plants reach a
height of 6 to 8 ft. in 3 J months, and should then be cut.
Two crops are said to be obtainable in a year without
replanting, owing to new stems arising from the stumps
left at the first cutting. The stems are cut by means of
machetes, and are loaded in wagons which convey them to
the retting tank or steeping pond. If the bark (in which
the fibre resides) is stripped from the stems in the field, the
cost of transportation to the retting station is only about
one-tenth of that of conveying the stems. It is, therefore,
proposed to introduce portable bark-stripping machines.

Two methods of retting are employed. In the first
method, the stems, or the bark, are steeped in a rectangular
wooden retting tank which is about 25 by 60 ft. and 4 ft.
deep, and is filled with weak sulphur water to which a
small quantity of potash has been added. The time re-
quired to complete the retting varies from 6 to 40 days,
according to the temperature. The second method consists
in placing the stems or bark in one of the running sulphur
streams of the Vinales District. The fibre obtained by the
latter method is much whiter than that from the tank. The
retted fibre is hung out in the air and allowed to dry in
the sun, and is then shaken vigorously to remove any
adhering particles of pulp or bark. The product is tied
into small bundles and packed in bales of about 400 lb.
each. It is suggested that the stems from which the bark
has been peeled could be employed as fuel, or possibly as a
source of paper-pulp.

Manila Hemp and other Cordage Fibres. — In the Philippine
Agric. Rev. (1916, 9, No. i) an account is given of the effect
produced on the Manila hemp industry by the Fibre Grading
Law which came into force on January i, 191 5 (cf. this
Bulletin, 191 5, 13, 134). During the first year of its
operation the provisions of the law were carried out, the
standards were defined, and every bale of fibre bore the
name of the grade, the name of the grader, and the name
of the district or province in which the fibre had been
produced. That this system has already caused a distinct
improvement in the condition of the Philippine fibre

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 479

industry is acknowledged both by producers and users of
Manila hemp, and it is believed that its continued operation
will place the industry on a firm and satisfactory basis.

In the same issue a description is given of the various
standard grades of Manila hemp and also of Maguey
{Agave Cantala, Roxb.) and Sisal hemp, and statistics are
furnished of the production of fibre in the Philippines
during 191 5, both according to grades and also according
to the districts of growth. In the case of Manila hemp,
1,011,136 bales were produced; the percentage of each
grade was as follows : extra prime, ro; prime, 17 ; superior
current, 3*4; good current, 5*6; midway, 11*4; current, 147;
good fair, io'9; fair, 13-9; streaky No. 1,2*1 ; streaky No. 2,
2'3 ; streaky No. 3, 0*9 ; seconds, 4*0; brown, 2*5 ; medium,
4*6; coarse, 13*0; coarse brown, 6-5; strings, tow and
damaged, 1*5. The production of Maguey fibre amounted
to 59,940 bales. This fibre is almost entirely prepared by a
retting process; the machine-cleaned fibre, however, is
superior to the retted product both in strength and lustre,
and efforts are being made to encourage its production
on a large scale.

Cotton.— An interesting review of the work of the British
Cotton Growing Association is given in their Eleventh
Annual Report for the twelve months ending December 31, 191 5.
The grant of ;^io,ooo a year from Imperial funds expired
on March 31, 19 16, but the Government sanctioned a grant
of ;^i,ooo for the year 1916-17. This reduction of the grant
will unfortunately necessitate some curtailment in the
operations of the Association at a time when an extension
of the work is urgently needed. In this connection, it is
pointed out that the consumption of cotton is increasing
so rapidly in the United States that, if the present rate of
increase continues, the balance of the crop will soon be
insufficient to meet the demand in the United Kingdom and
other countries with the result that many of the mills will
have to work short time or cease working entirely. The
percentage of the United States crop taken by the American
mills during the last six years was as follows: 1910-11,
356; 1911-12, 33-5; 19^2-13, 38-2; 1913-14, ?>7'^) 1914-15,
40*2; and 1915-16, 58*3.

Reference is made to the work carried on during the
year in various parts of the Empire. In the West Indies,
dissatisfaction was expressed by the planters with the delay
in selling their Sea Island cotton and the low prices
obtained owing to the restricted demand for cotton of this
class ; but the situation was relieved to some extent by the
arrangements which the Association were able to make
with the Fine Cotton Spinners' and Doublers' Association
to purchase the cotton at guaranteed prices. Since the
beginning of 1916, Sea Island cotton has risen in value, and

48o BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

the prospects are now much brighter. The exports of
cotton from the West Indies during the year ending
September 30, 191 5, amounted to 1,823,956 lb. of Sea Island
and 426,128 lb. of Marie Galante cotton, of total value
;^ 1 20,649.

The results obtained in the Northern Territories, Gold
Coast, have been so unsatisfactory that the Association
decided to abandon their efforts in the Gold Coast. The
ginnery at Labolabo is being maintained, however, for deal-
ing with any cotton which may be produced in that district.

The production of cotton in the Lagos District, Nigeria,
suffered from the drought, and was also severely afi^cted
by the fall in price due to the war. The crop marketed
in 191 5 was only 6,161 bales, as compared with 13,547
bales in 1914; but it is anticipated that, owing to the
favourable weather prevailing in the present season, the
1916 crop will exceed 10,000 bales. Cotton growing in
the lUushi District of the Southern Provinces has made so
little progress that the Association's station at Illushi has
been closed. In the Northern Provinces a long-stapled
cotton has been introduced by the Department of Agri-
culture, and has given excellent results. Great progress is
being made, and, during the first six months of 1916, more
than 10,000 bales of cotton were purchased as compared
with 1,128 bales during the whole of 191 5.

In Uganda, the cotton industry received a severe check
owing to the reduction in price due to the war, and also
owing to the lack of support from the principal buying and
ginning companies, and it is feared that it will be some
years before the confidence of the natives is fully restored.

In Nyasaland, the natives were somewhat discouraged
at first by the fall in the price of cotton, but, owing to the
action of the Government and the Association in explaining
the situation, the area under cultivation has not suffered
any reduction, and it is anticipated that on the return of
normal conditions the industry will undergo considerable
expansion.

Satisfactory results were obtained in the Sudan, and the
crop for the 191 5-16 season amounted to over 24,000 bales,
of value about ;^300,ooo.

On the whole the results obtained, in spite of the serious
difficulties created by the war, are regarded as very favour-
able. With the exception of Uganda, the prospects are
most encouraging, and it is expected that the West African
crop of 191 5-16 will constitute a record.

FORESTRY AND FOREST PRODUCTS

Finns longifolia. — A very complete monograph of the chir
or chil pine {P. longifolia, Roxb.), from a sylvicultural point
of view, has been contributed by R. S. Troup to Indian

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 481

Forest Memoirs {Sylviculture Ser., 19 16, 1, Part L). This
species, which occurs naturally in the outer ranges of the
Himalayas and the Siwalik Hills from Bhutan in the east
to Afghanistan in the west, is one of the most important of
Indian trees. It forms gregarious forests at low elevations,
and the timber can consequently be extracted at a compara-
tively low cost. The timber is not equal to that of some
other Indian trees, but it is in good demand, and, as the
employment of antiseptic treatment becomes better known
in India, the timber should find even wider uses than at
present. Much work is being done to extend the resin
industry, and from this point of view alone the tree is of
great potential value (cf. this Bulletin, 1906, 4, 215; 191 1,
9, 8; 1912, 10, 506, 539; 1913, 11, 158, 361, 697; 1914, 12, 495;
191 5, 13, 319). The Memoir, which occupies 126 pages of
quarto size, is illustrated by 24 plates of excellent photo-
graphs as well as 4 coloured plates.

Teak in Trinidad.— East Indian teak (Tectonagrandis, Linn.)
was first introduced into the plantations in the Forest
Reserves in Trinidad in 191 3, when 14 J acres were planted
(Kezv Bulletin, 19 16, p. 84). The seeds germinated well and
the growth has been excellent, one plant, measured in
October 191 5, 2 years 3 J months after sowing, being 32 ft.
high and 16J in. in girth at 3 ft. from the ground. The soil
is a sandy loam, and the elevation does not exceed 1,000 ft.
The normal rainfall of the district is about 115 in. per
annum, but during the last two years it has been 20 per
cent, below the average.

Larch Mistletoe. — In certain parts of north-west United
States the lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta, Dougl.), yellow
pine (P.ponderosa, Dougl.), western larch {Larix occidentalism
Nutt.), Douglas fir {Pseudotsuga taxifolia, Britton = P.
Douglasii, Cam), and other conifers are seriously attacked
by species of mistletoe, and special studies are being made
in several of the most important forests in order to obtain
reliable figures on the damage to forest growth caused by
these parasites. In Bulletin No. 317, 1916, 6^.5. Dept. Agric,
J. R. Weir gives an account of an investigation ot the
injurious effects of the larch mistletoe {Razoumojskya laricis,
Piper, Nat. Ord. Loranthaceae) on its host in the Blue
Mountain region of Oregon. In this area the mistletoe is
extremely abundant on the western larch, particularly in
the more open and exposed stands. Trees of all ages are
attacked, and when seriously infected they exhibit poor
health and a reduced diameter and height. If not entirely
suppressed or killed, trees attacked early in life seldom
produce a good grade of merchantable timber. The para-
site can only be eradicated by cutting down infected trees,
and the author suggests that in all timber-sale contracts a

482 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

clause should be inserted requiring the cutting on the sales
area of all larches infected with mistletoe, whether mer-
chantable or not.

Further details of the injury caused by mistletoe to the
four conifers mentioned above are given by the same author
in Bulletin No. 360, 19 16, U.S. Dept. Agnc.

Timbers

Jimiper Woods. — An account of the timbers yielded by
various species of Juniperus is given by W. DalHmore in
Kew Bulletin (1916, p. 16). In addition to J. virginiana^
Linn., /. barbadensis, Linn., and J. procera^ Hochst., which
yield pencil-cedar, and to which reference has been made
previously in this Bulletin (1914, 12, 146), a number of
species yielding lesser-known timbers are dealt with. In
all twenty-six species are referred to.

The wood of /. bermudiana^ Linn., the Bermuda cedar,
is stated to be valuable for boat building and for furniture.
The Canary Island cedar (/. Cedrus^ Webb et Berth.) yields
a wood of good quality, but it is too scarce to be of much
commercial value. It has been suggested recently that
this tree should be planted for the sake of its timber, and
seed has been distributed to the West Indies and New
Zealand for the purpose. The wood of the common juniper
(/. communis^ Lmn.) is too small for building purposes, out
it is used for fencing with satisfactory results, as well as
for making milk-pails and walking-sticks. J. niexicana^
Schiede, is one of the largest junipers, sometimes attaining
a height of 95 ft. ; its timber is used for general construc-
tion purposes, for fencing, telegraph-poles, etc. Another
of the larger forms is J. excelsa^ Bieb., which occurs in
South-eastern Europe and Asia Minor. The timber of
this species is reputed to be of good quality, and it has
been recommended for railway sleepers. The Canadian
juniper (/. occidentalism Hook.) yields a heavy, close-grained
wood, which lasts well in contact with the soil, and is thus
very suitable for fencing. J. phoenicea^ Linn., is an im-
portant tree of the Mediterranean region, where its timber
IS used for building purposes. A description of the volatile
oil yielded by the berries of this species was given in this
Bulletin (191 3, U, 428); it differs considerably from the
juniper-berry oil of commerce, which is distilled from the
berries of J. communis^ Linn.

Tanning Materials

Indian Sumach. — The results of an investigation by Puran
Singh of the tannin content of the bark and leaves of the
Indian sumach {Rhus Cotinus, Linn.) from various localities,
and of the best time for collection, are given in Indian

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 483

Forest Bulletin No. 31, 1916. Specimens of the bark dried
in the shade contained from 8*25 to 20*86 per cent, of
tannin. That giving the highest yield was collected during
the rainy season, but on the whole the results recorded
appear to throw little light on the question of the best
time for collection. In the case of the leaves, however, it
seems clear that they should be collected in India in the
autumn, that is, after the rains, specimens collected in the
spring and summer containing from 6 to 13 per cent, of
tannin (expressed on material dried in the shade), and
those in the autumn from 18 to 22 per cent, and in one
case as much as 26 per cent. (31 per cent, expressed on
the dry material). In winter the percentage falls. So far
as the tannin content is concerned, therefore, the material
gathered in the autumn compares favourably with European
sumach, which contains on the average 18-20 per cent, of
tannin.

Saw-mill Waste. — According to H. K. Benson and T. G.
Thompson {Journ. Indust. Eng. Chem., 191 5, 7, 915) the
slabs trimmed off logs of Douglas fir form a possible raw
material for the manufacture of tannin extract. A sample
of fir slabs from a saw-mill contained 5*92 per cent, of
tannin, as compared with 6*62 per cent, in the case of
chestnut wood, which is one of the chief materials used in
the tannin extract industry in the United States. Com-
pared with Western hemlock bark, another important source
of tannin extract in the States, it is estimated that three
cords of fir slabs will yield as much tannin as one cord of
bark, but the cost of the former would be less than half that
of the latter. Tanning trials with extract made from the
slabs gave satisfactory results.

Saw-mill waste of western spruce was found by the same
investigators to contain over 4 per cent, of tannin.

Ceanothus velutinus leaves. — The investigation of this plant
recorded in Journ. Indust. Eng. Chem. (1916, 8, 411) and
referred to on p. 472 of this Bulletin, included a study of
the tannin content of the leaves. They were found to
contain 17*3 per cent, of tannin. Large-scale tanning trials
gave satisfactory results, except that the material did not
plump the hides properl3^ A further objection is the
bulkiness of the leaf residue in the tanning vats, and in
order to utilise the material it would have to be made up
into an extract.

ECONOMIC MINERALS.

Alunite. — In the Ann. Rep. Min. Prod., Canada, 19 14,
reference is made to the occurrence of deposits of alunite
and pyrophyllite at Kyuquot Sound, Vancouver Island.

484 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

According to C. H. Clapp, who has examined these deposits,
the rocks in the vicinity are chiefly volcanic (andesites and
dacites) and are of Triassic and lower Jurassic age. Intru-
sive in these are various bosses of ouartz-diorite and dykes
of porphyrite. The volcanic rocks have been in part much
altered, and four different types of altered rocks have been
observed, viz. (i) quartz-sericite-chlorite rocks; (2) quartz-
sericite rocks ; (3) quartz-pyrophyllite rocks ; and (4) quartz-
alunite rocks. These different types of altered rocks occur
in separate well-defined masses. They all contain pyrite,
but it is suspected that the alteration of the rocks had taken
place before the pyrite was introduced, and that it resulted
from the action of hot sulphuric acid solutions of volcanic
origin.

One large deposit of this alunite covers an area of 4^
acres. It is estimated to contain about 600,000 tons above
sea-level, and it is known to extend below sea-level. The
alunite rock contains from 20 to 45 per cent, of alunite, 40
to 50 per cent, of quartz, up to 14 per cent, of sericite, a
little diaspore, and usually some pyrite. The following
are analyses of two samples taken from the large deposit
referred to above :

Pink to white

Bluish-grey

rock.

Per cent.

Silica SiOj. . . . 48*82

62-70

Alumina AljOa

19-08

12-68

Ferric oxide Fe20s

0-07

1*40

Soda Na^O

274

1-09

Potash K^O .

4-40

2-10

Sulphuric anhydride SO, ,

17-32

7-o6

Sulphur S

0-57

2-88

W^ater H,0

7-00

7*15

Pyrite FeS^

—

2-69

These analyses show that the alunite is of the sodic
variety (natroalunite), which contains a considerable
amount of soda replacing potash. This fact, together with
the presence of such large amounts of silica make it doubt-
ful whether the rock will prove of economic value as a
source of alum. Hitherto there has been no output, but it
is hoped that some use will be found for these large deposits
of potash-bearing rock.

Fuel. — In Bulletin No. 89, 191 5, U.S. Bureau of Mines,
E. J. Babcock deals with economic methods of utilising
the lignites of the Western States. The work was carried
out at the college of mining engineering and at the mining
sub-station of North Dakota. The average percentage
composition of the lignites of the Western States, calculated
free from water, is as follows : Fixed carbon, 51 ; volatile

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 485

matter 39; ash 10. The moisture in the lignites as mined
ranges from 10 to 40 per cent.

The Bttlletin deals more especially with the manufacture
of producer gas or of by-product gas from the lignite, and
the conversion of the residue into briquettes. The briquettes
made from the lignite residue were found to be excellent
fuel. One ton of the air-dried lignite will produce from a
half to two-thirds of a ton of briquettes in addition to 8,000
or 10,000 cubic ft. of gas. The briquettes have about
twelve-thirteenths of the heating value of anthracite. They
have nearly double the calorific value of the original lignite,
and they can be stored without being damaged by atmo-
spheric conditions. Comparative burning tests in stoves
showed that the lignite briquettes did not require as much
draught as did anthracite, and the anthracite ash contained
13 times as much unburned carbon as did the ash from the
lignite briquettes.

Mica. — In the Queensland Govt. Min.Journ. (1916, 17, 263),
the Government Geologist calls attention to occurrences
of mica in the mining fields of Northern Queensland.
Pegmatite veins containing large crystals of mica occur on
the Einasleigh River to the south-east of Georgetown, and
at Brookland, near Junction Creek, both within the Etheridge
goldfield.

Deposits have been found also on Rifle Creek, a tributary
of the Upper (West) Leichhardt River about 6% miles west
of Cloncurry. The mica at this locality occurs in a pegma-
tite that cuts hornblendic and micaceous schists. The
pegmatite vein is from 10 to 12 ft. thick. The vein has not
yet been opened up, and the surface material is much
weathered. The crystals of muscovite measure about 9 in.
across and appear to be of a promising quality. A large
number of other pegmatite veins are known to occur at this
locality, and the mica-bearing belt is stated to extend for
several miles.

Molybdemiin ore. — In the Bulletin Canadian Min. Inst.{igi6y
No. 51, p. 609) A. H. Claudet gives an account of the
molybdenite deposits of Southern Norway. The most
important locality is Knabeheien, near Kvinas Valley, north
of Flekkefjord. The molybdenite occurs in quartz and
pegmatite veins traversing granite, and also in the granite
Itself. The minerals associated with the molybdenite are
pyrite, chalcopyrite, p^^rrhotite, quartz, felspar, mica, horn-
blende and fluorite. The molybdenite is, as a rule, finely
disseminated through the matrix, but in some places rich
pockets of large dimensions have been found.

The ore is crushed to about i mm , and separated b}^ the
Elmore Vacuum Process. Good results have been obtained
on ore containing not more than o'S per cent, of molybdenite,

486 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

which has been concentrated up to 70 or 75 per cent, of
molybdenite in one operation. With an ore containing o-8
to I per cent, of molybdenite, a concentrate containing from
75 to 85 per cent, of molybdenite is obtained with a recovery
of over 80 per cent.

Molybdenite ores containing mixed sulphides and mica
are stated to have been treated successfully owing to the
relatively strong affinity of oil for molybdenite as compared
with other sulphides. With reference to the possibility of
exploiting various molybdenite properties in Canada, the
author states that, allowing for higher working costs, a
mine with a well-defined vein capable of producing 30 tons
of mill material per day assaying i percent, of molybdenite,
should under ordinary circumstances prove an attractive
investment, reckoning on a selling price of $10 per unit for
a 75 per cent, concentrate.

Phosphate. — In Bulletin No. 12, 19 16, Mines Branchy
Canadian Dept. of Mines ^ H. S. de Schmid gives an account
of a phosphate deposit recently discovered within the limits
of the Rocky Mountain Park near Banff, Alberta.

The phosphate occurs in the form of a bed about a foot
thick in the upper portion of the Rocky Mountain Quartzite
(Upper Carboniferous). The phosphate rock is black and
basaltic in appearance ; it is quite hard, dense and compact.
The average dip of the beds is 55° W. The highest
percentage of phosphorus pentoxide found in samples
taken across the entire bed was 27*63 per cent., equivalent
to 6o'37 per cent, of tricalcic phosphate. The average of
nine analyses taken at widely separated points showed 20*0
per cent, of phosphorus pentoxide (equivalent to 437 per
cent, of tricalcic phosphate), and 43*3 per cent, of silica.

The highest percentage of ferric oxide was 271, and the
average i'5o. The average percentage of combined iron
oxide and alumina was 1*95.

There are at least two outcrops of the phosphate bed
that are conveniently situated as regards transport facilities,
one about four miles from Banff station and the other about
a mile from the railroad.

The low percentage of phosphate and high percentage
of silica render the material unsuitable for the manufacture
of superphospate by the sulphuric acid method. It is
suggested that one of the thermic processes that have
lately been tried may prove applicable, and in this connection
the natural gas supplies of Alberta may prove an important
factor in utilising this low-grade phosphate.

Pyrophyllite. — Reference has already been made on p. 481
to the occurrence of alunite and pyrophyllite deposits at
Kyuquot Sound, Vancouver Island, and a brief statement
has been there given of the conditions of occurrence.

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 487

The pyrophyllite of Kyuquot Sound is the compact
variety. It contains from 20 to 50 per cent, of quartz and
up to 8 percent, of sericite. There are two deposits of this
quartz-pyrophyllite rock, one of about 3 acres, another about
I acre in extent, on the Deertrail and Monteith claims re-
spectively. The estimated amounts of material available in
these two deposits are 400,000 and 100,000 tons respectively
above sea level. Analyses of two samples from the above-
mentioned deposits gave the following results :

Deertrail claim. Monteith claim.
Per ctHt. Per cent.

Silica SiO, . .71*88 81-94

Alumina

ALjO, .

• 23-56

15-29

Ferric oxide

Fe,0. .

014

o-ii

Soda

Na,0 .

036

0*40

Potash

K,0 .

043

050

Waaler

HjO .

• 324

2-40

Sulphuric anhydride SOs . trace trace

The rock at the Monteith claim has been quarried since
1910 for use as a refractory material. It is mixed with the
surface clays dug near Victoria West, and with Cretaceous
shales from Comox, to produce a fireclay.

The rock at the Deertrail claim is quarried for use as
an abrasive ; it is used in a powdered state as a polishing
powder. It is stated that the quartz grains in the rock are
on the average less than o'ooi mm. diameter, and that the
rock crushes to a very fine powder.

Tungsten and Molybdenum Ores. — The Geological Survey of
Tasmania has issued (in two parts) the first of a new series
of publications on mineral resources, giving an account of
the tungsten and molybdenum ore deposits of Tasmania.

In Part I., L. Hills deals with north-eastern and eastern
Tasmania, including occurrences of molybdenite at Mount
Stronach ; wolframite and molybdenite in the vicinity of
Lottah, at Constable's Creek and Upper Scamander; and
wolframite at Gipp's Creek and Story's Creek. There has
been no output of molybdenite from this district up to the
present, but the molybdenite prospects in the Stronach and
Constable's Creek districts are regarded as promising. The
mining of wolframite is at present confined to Story's and
Gipp's Creeks, and the output at these localities amounts
to about 12 tons of mixed tin and tungsten concentrates
per month, of which about 7 tons consists of wolframite.
Story's Creek is the most important of these localities so
far as is at present known. Here the country rocks are
slates and quartzites, striking north-west and dipping to
the west at from 76° to 80°. There are two main lodes
averaging about 3 ft. in width, striking N. 25° W. and N.

488 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

10^ W., and dipping 37° and 20° respectively. The vein
minerals are quartz, wolframite, cassiterite and pyrite. The
wolframite and cassiterite occur in separate aggregates, no
intergrowth of the two minerals being observed. Masses
of wolframite weighing about i cwt. are quite common, and
much larger masses have been found. The pyrite also
occurs in separate aggregates. It is estimated that the
Story's Creek deposits can be worked to yield from 8 to
ID tons of wolframite per week.

In Part II., L. Hills deals with the tungsten and molyb-
denum ore deposits of the Middlesex and Mount Claude
Districts, in Northern Tasmania, about 25 miles south of
Devonport. The ore deposits of this mining field have
already been described by W. H. Twelvetrees in Bulletin
No. 14, 1913, Geol. Surv., Dept. of Mines ^ Tasmania {zi. this
Bulletin, 1914, 12, 497). One mine at Moina had an
output of 27 cwt. of wolframite per week. The vein de-
posits at this mine traverse quartzite and limestone that
have been metamorphosed by granite intrusions. The
vein minerals are cassiterite, wolframite, bismuthinite,
native bismuth, molybdenite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, galena,
arsenopyrite, quartz, fluorite, topaz, beryl, monazite and
a greenish mica. The chief ore minerals are cassiterite,
wolframite and bismuthinite, and the proportionate
amounts of these minerals are roughly cassiterite, 5 ;
wolframite, 3 ; bismuthinite, |.

The total output of wolframite from the district is esti-
mated at about 350 tons of concentrate containing 70 per
cent, of tungstic acid. The present rate of output is about
6 tons of wolframite per month.

The amount of molybdenite in the ores is usually very
small, but at one or two localities there is a larger amount,
and it is considered possible that the district may ultimately
become a producer of molybdenite.

Zinc-lead ore. — In Bulletins Nos. 19 and 23, 191 5, Geol.
Surv. Dept. of Mines, Tasmania, L. Hills gives an account
of the zinc-lead sulphide deposits of the Read-Rosebery
district, in Western Tasmania. Bulletin No. 19 deals with
the deposits at Mount Read, which is about 10 miles east-
north-east of Zeehan, and Bulletin No. 23 with the deposits
of the Rosebery area, which lies to the north of Mount
Read.

The chief ore bodies are of the replacement type, but
ordinary vein deposits also occur, and there are oxidised
masses at and near the surface. A careful study of assays
of ore samples from mine-workings throughout the Read-
Rosebery district shows that the zinc-lead sulphide has
the following average percentage composition : zmc blende
43'3» pyrite 3ro, galena 10*4, quartz 5*5, aluminium silicate
2*5, calcite 2*4, barite i '5, chalcopyrite i'2, rhodochrosite r2,

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 489

tetrahedrite 01. The average amounts of gold and silver
are 3 dwts. and 10 oz. per ton respectively. The ore bodies
are confined to an horizon of calc schists in what is known
as the Read-Rosebery schist group. Within 3 miles of the
zinc-lead sulphide belt there is the tinfield of North Dundas,
the ore deposits of which are known to have resulted from
the intrusion of a granite magma in Devonian times.

In the intervening area there are vein deposits contain-
ing minerals that are characteristic of the tin ore group, as
well as galena and zinc-blende. It is inferred, therefore,
that the ore bodies of the Read-Rosebery district have
been derived from ascending solutions which were given
off from the granite magma, and which, at a deeper level,
deposited the tin ores.

It is inferred, from a study of the geological conditions,
that the calcareous beds in which the ore has been de-
posited are likely to occur throughout the district examined,
which covers an area of not less than 85 square miles. It
is considered probable that the zinc-lead ores will persist
to a considerable depth, and that the conditions of forma-
tion of zinc-lead sulphide extend to a depth of over 2,000 ft.
below sea-level at Rosebery.

The total output of ore in the Read-Rosebery district
up to the present is estimated at 295,737 tons, valued at
;^383,4i6. It is estimated that there is about i J million tons
of ore of good grade available at the present time, and it is
expected that further exploratory work will very greatly
increase this estimate.

NOTICES OF RECENT LITERATURE

The Small Grains. By Mark Alfred Carleton. Pp.
xxxii + 699, Crown Svo. (New York : The Macmillan Co.,
1916.) Price ys. 6d. net; post free. United Kingdom Ss.,
abroad 8s. 5^.

This volume is one of the Rural Text-Book Series,
edited by Prof. L. H. Bailey, and, like others of the series,
is adapted specially for agricultural students in the United
States. As an exposition of the methods adopted in the
latter country, however, the book will be of considerable
value to farmers in other countries where the crops dealt
with are grown. After discussing briefly the fundamental
principles of plant structure and nutrition, with special
reference to cereals, the four principal cereals — wheat, oats,
barley, and rye — are treated separately as to their origin,
characters, classification, varieties, selection, and hybridisa-

490 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

tion. Subsequently these cereals are treated together in
respect to soil and climatic conditions, acclimatisation,
cultivation, irrigation, weeds, insect pests, fungoid dis-
eases, and uses. Separate chapters are devoted to the
consideration of buckwheat and rice. A valuable feature
of the book is a very full bibliography, occupying forty-
seven pages.

British Forestry : its Present Position and Outlook
AFTER THE War. By E. P. Stcbbing. Pp. xxv + 257, Crown
8vo. (London: John Murray, 1916.) Price 6s. net; post
free, United Kingdom 6s. s^-t abroad 6s. 6d.

In this book the author, who is head of the Forestry
Department, University of Edinburgh, draws attention to
the paramount need for afforestation in the United Kingdom.
For many years past this country has depended practically
entirely on imported timber, the value of the imports of
forest products in 1913 amounting to ;^42, 725,000. The
disadvantages of obtaining our supplies almost solely from
other countries was made evident soon after the outbreak
of war, when, owing to high freights and the closing of
certain sources of supply, the price of timber rose rapidly
and many of our industries suffered from the lack of
supplies. Mr. Stebbing considers that even after the war
prices will remain high, partly owing to the enormous
demand for timber that will arise when the devastated
villages and towns in Belgium, North France, and Poland
are rebuilt, and partly to the destruction or depletion of
valuable forests during the war. Tree-planting in this
country, therefore, is likely to be more profitable in the
future than it has been in the past.

Although a number of Government Committees have
considered the question of afforestation during the past
twenty-five years, not a single tree has been planted as an
outcome of their recommendations. Mr. Stebbing urges
that planting on a commercial scale should no longer be
delayed, and that the Government should see that the matter
is dealt with at once. He discusses the most suitable trees
for planting, how the necessary labour is to be provided,
and the probable cost. Even if planting is commenced now
it will be forty or fifty years before the timber is available,
and a large portion of the book is devoted to the question
of the supply of timber during this waiting period. Although
the Russian supplies have been of such considerable im-
portance in the past in the European markets, it is considered
that they are likely to exert an immensely larger influence
in the future, and in view of this a very full account is given
of the resources of the Russian forests, both in Europe and
Asia. Other sections of the book deal with the effect of the
war on timber supplies and the employment of women in
forestry.

NOTICES OF RECENT LITERATURE 491

Sierra Leone : its People, Products, and Secret
Societies. By H. Osman Newland, F.R.Hist.S., F.LD.
Illustrated. Pp. xv + 251, Demy 8vo. (London: John
Bale, Sons & Danielsson, Ltd., 1916.) Price 7s. 6d. net;
post free, United Kingdom 75. iid., abroad 8s.

This volume was written as the outcome of a visit to
Sierra Leone. The author has concerned himself chiefly
with those matters in which he is personally most interested,
viz. the ethnology, customs and pursuits of the natives.

The portions dealing with the natural products of the
colony were, to a large extent, added after the rest of the
book had been prepared, in view of the fresh interest in
West Africa as a field for commercial enterprise that has
been aroused b}^ the war. General information is given on
rubber, palm kernels and cocoa, and reference is made to a
number of other products, including kola, coconuts, coffee,
ground nuts, bananas, ginger, mangoes, rice, cassava, benni
seed (sesame), gum copal and cotton.

For the planter, however, the most useful information is
that contained in the ** postscript " by Mr. Hamel Smith.
This gives practical instructions as to laying out estates,
and deals with the application of "dry-farming" methods
to tropical conditions ; it also has separate chapters on
cocoa and ground nuts.

Principles of Oil and Gas Production. By Roswell
H. Johnson and L. G. Huntley. Pp. xv. -f 371, Med. 8vo.
(New York : John Wiley & Sons ; London : (Chapman and
Hall, Ltd., 1916.) Price i6s. net. ; post free, United King-
dom 165. 6d.^ abroad 165. gd.

The subject of this book is one on which there has been
much progress in recent years, and one, therefore, on which
books rapidly get out of date. The authors have, whilst
treating the subject broadly, given comparatively little
space to the chemical and geological aspects of the subjects,
and have, in accordance with the title, given much space
to methods of locating and extracting oil and gas. In
dealing with conditions of occurrence of oil and gas the
authors emphasize the shape and texture of the reservoir
rather than the disposition of the beds, and appear to think
that the importance of the purely stratigraphical aspect of
oil occurrence has been much exaggerated.

The practical value of the book may be judged from the
fact that useful chapters are devoted to the locating of oil
and gas wells, drilling for oil and gas, and the management
of wells.

The chapter on drilling is very brief, but the subject has
been treated elaborately in other books. Useful, though
rather brief, chapters are given on the preparation of reports
on oil and gas prospects or properties, and on the valuation

492 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

of oil properties. A comparatively long chapter is devoted
to the oil and gas fields of North America. The illustra-
tions are numerous and good, and at the end of the book
there is a coloured geological map of North America.

The authors warn the reader that they are fully con-
scious of the widely varying conditions of oil and gas
production in different parts of the world, and that they
have treated the subject chiefly with reference to American
conditions. They are well-known American workers, how-
ever, and their book will doubtless be studied with much
interest and profit by other workers in all parts of the
world.

Concentrating Ores by Flotation. By Theodore J.
Hoover. Pp. vi + 320, Med. 8vo. (London : The Mining
Magazine, 1916.) Price 12s. 6d, net; post free, United
Kingdom 135., abroad 135. d^d.

This is the third edition of a book that has been found
very useful by readers interested in the flotation method of
ore-concentration. The first edition was published in 191 2,
but the progress of work on flotation has been so rapid that
the first edition was soon out of date. The second edition,
published in 1914, contained much new matter. The present
edition contains the text of the second edition intact, together
with an additional chapter dealing with the progress that
has taken place during the years 1914-16. The book gives
a very readable and well-illustrated account of the subject,
including a description and history of flotation processes,
together with a summary of patents and litigation. An
exhaustive and up-to-date bibliography adds much to the
usefulness of the work, the author of which is a well-known
authority.

The Flotation Process. Compiled and edited by T. A.
Rickard. Pp. 364, Med. 8vo. (San Francisco : Mining and
Scientific Press, 1916.) Price 85. 6d. net ; post free. United
Kingdom 85. 11^., abroad 9s. \d.

In this book the editor of the Mining and Scientific Press
has brought together numerous articles that have been
written during the last two years on the subject of the
flotation problem. Of all the many aspects of ore-dressing,
this is the one which has been most widely discussed in
recent years, more especially in the Mining and Scientific
Press. The articles are ably written, and were well worth
publishing in this form. The book is likely to be found of
great interest, not only to the general reader as an inter-
esting discussion of a highly controversial problem, but
also to the metallurgists and mill-men on whose work the
discussion has a special bearing. The articles are prefixed

NOTICES OF RECENT LITERATURE 493

by a useful glossary of terms used in the discussion, and
the book is illustrated.

Guide to Egypt and the Sudan, including a Descrip-
tion of the Route through Uganda to Mombasa. 7th ed.
Pp. XX -f 196, Globe 8vo. (London : Macmillan & Co., Ltd.,
1916.) Price 7s. 6d. net; post free, United Kingdom and
abroad ys. gd.

The new edition of this well-known guide-book differs
considerably from the 6th edition, published in 1909. The
whole work has been carefully revised by an experienced
Anglo-Egyptian. New maps have replaced old ones, and
the information relating to places visited by tourists has
been brought up to date, and considerably enlarged.
Special attention is given to the various museums, to
archaeological discovery, irrigation works, the growth of
the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and the development of the
chief towns in both Egypt and the Sudan. The editors
have been fortunate in obtaining the assistance of the heads
of several of the museums in dealing with these institutions.
The Conservator of the Egyptian Museum has assisted in
summarising the investigations of famous archaeologists at
work in Egypt, the Under-Secretary of State for Public
Works has provided a full account of the work accomplished
by irrigation engineers, and assistance has been rendered
by the Financial Secretary to the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
Government in connection with the part dealing with the
Sudan. These portions of the book in particular may
therefore be regarded as authoritative.

The general arrangement of the book follows that
usually found in guide-books. The introductory matter
consists of miscellaneous information and notes on the
geography, history, archaeology, etc., of Ancient and
Modern Egypt. The descriptive portion is divided into
three parts, dealing respectively with Lower Egypt and
the Fayum, Upper Egypt, and the Sudan and Uganda.
There are useful lists of books on the countries dealt with.
The maps are excellent, and, on the whole, the book can be
recommended to visitors as a thoroughly reliable and up-
to-date guide.

BOOKS RECEIVED

The Panjab, North-West Frontier Province and
Kashmir. By Sir James Douie, M. A., K.C.ST. Pp. xiv + 373,
8vo. (Cambridge : The University Press, 1916.) Price 6s.
net ; post free. United Kingdom 6s. ^d., abroad 6s. 6d.

Green Manures and Manuring in the Tropics. By
P. de Sornay, translated by F. W. Flattely. Pp. xvi + 466,

494 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERL\L INSTITUTE

Royal 8vo. (London : John Bale, Sons & Danielsson,
Ltd., 1916.) Price i6s. net ; post free, United Kingdom
i6s. Sd.f abroad 175. 6d.

A Hausa Botanical Vocabulary. By John M. Dalziel,
M.D., B.Sc, D.T.M. Pp. 119, Demy 8vo. (London: T.
Fisher Unwin, Ltd., 1916.) Price 6s. 6d. net; post free,
United Kingdom and abroad 6s. gd.

SULPHITATION IN WhITE SuGAR MANUFACTURE. By

Francis Maxwell, Ph.D., A.M.I.Mech.E., F.C.S. Pp. xii +
72, Demy 8vo. (London : Norman Rodger, 1916.) Price
js, 6d. net ; post free, United Kingdom and abroad ^s. lod.

The American Fertilizer Handbook, 1916. Pp. 398,
4to. (Philadelphia : Ware Bros. Company, 1916.) Price
$1.00, postage paid.

Trade Politics and Christianity in Africa and the
East. By A. J. Macdonald, M.A., with an Introduction by
Sir Harry Johnston, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., Sc.D. Pp. xxi +
296, Demy 8 vo. (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1916.)
Price 6s. net; post free, United Kingdom 6s. 5^., abroad
6s, 6d.

Conquered East Africa and its Resources. 2nd Series.
"South Africa" Handbooks— No. 85. Pp. 28, Roy. i6mo.
(London: "South Africa" Offices, 1916.) Price 6d,; post
free, United Kingdom and abroad 6^d.

REPORTS OF RECENT INVESTIGATIONS AT
THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

The following summaries have been prepared from a selection of
the Reports made by the Director of the Imperial Institute to
the Colonial, Indian and other Governments concerned.

INVESTIGATIONS OF THE QUALITY OF PLAN-
TATION RUBBER CONDUCTED UNDER THE
CEYLON RUBBER RESEARCH SCHEME.

A SCHEME of rubber research, arranged by the Government
of Ceylon in conjunction with some of the principal planting
companies in the island and with the Imperial Institute,
has been in progress during the last three years, and in
the course of the work a very large number of samples of
specially prepared plantation rubber have been examined
at the Imperial Institute. The object of the scheme was to
provide for a continuous and systematic investigation of
the special problems which arise in the production of
plantation rubber, with particular reference to the suita-
bilities of the rubber for manufacturing purposes. In
connection with the work in Ceylon two Committees were
appointed to advise : a General Committee composed of
representatives of the Government and of the planting
and mercantile companies concerned, and a Technical Com-
mittee of which the Director of Agriculture is Chairman.
An Advisory Committee, including representatives of rubber
planting companies and of manufacturers in this country,
was formed in London in connection with the work con-
ducted at the Imperial Institute. These Committees in
Ceylon and in London work in close co-operation. A
comprehensive series of experiments was drawn up at the
outset with a view to determining the effect of various
methods of preparing and treating the rubber on its vul-
canising and mechanical properties, and the work in Ceylon

495

496 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

was placed under the superintendence of Mr. L. E. Camp-
bell, B.Sc, F.LC, who was detached from the staff of the
Imperial Institute for the purpose. The practical work
involved in the vulcanisation and mechanical testing of the
specimens of rubber at the Imperial Institute has been
carried out by Mr. R. G. Pelly, F.LC, Mr. B. W. Whitfeild
and Mr. W. S. Davey, who have effected many improve-
ments in the methods employed. The chemical examination
of the samples has been conducted by Mr. G. T. Bray and
Mr. S. J. Rogers, B.Sc. Several reports on the results
of the investigations carried out at the Imperial Institute
have been forwarded to Ceylon, and those dealing with the
first two series of samples are included in the following
account.

The investigations recorded in the present article deal
with the effect upon the mechanical properties of the
vulcanised rubber of (i) different methods of coagulation ;
(2) the addition of various substances to the latex in order
to retard coagulation ; (3) the form of the rubber ; (4) the
method of drying; (5) ** over-working" freshly coagulated
rubber in the washing machine ; (6) various methods of
smoking ; (7) drying sheet rubber under tension ; (8) rolling
up wet and dry sheet rubber, with and without tension ;
(9) the conversion of wet and dry crepe rubber into block,
and (10) separating the rubber from the latex in successive
portions.

The latex employed in the experiments was furnished
by two sets of trees, respectively 7 and 16-20 years old,
situated on the Gikiyanakande estate in the Kalutara
district.

The younger trees were planted in 1906, 12 by 12 ft.
(about 300 to the acre), and had not been thinned out. The
average girth of the trees at the time the experiments were
conducted was 20-23 in. at 3 ft. from the ground. The
number of trees reserved for the experiments was 1,200.

The older trees, of which about 750 were available for
the experiments, were planted about 200 Ito the acre. The
trees varied considerably in girth, the average at 3 ft. from
the ground being 32 in.

In both series the trees were tapped on the full herring-

THE QUALITY OF PLANTATION RUBBER 497

bone system every third day ; three cuts were made, and
tapping was changed over from one side to the other
about every two months. The average yield of latex per tree
on the days the experiments were conducted was about
22 c.c. per tapping in the case of the young trees, and about
50 c.c. per tapping for the old trees. The percentage of
rubber in the normal latex varied from 30 to 34 per cent.,
so that the average yield of dry rubber per tree was about
7 and 16 grams per tapping, respectively.

The rainfall during part of the period when the experi-
ments were being carried out was heavy, and on some days
it was impossible to collect sufficient rubber for experiment.
The daily rainfall up to 6 a.m. on the dates shown, during
the experimental period is given in the following table.
The plantations of young and old trees are situated about
4 or 5 miles apart, which accounts for the differences in
rainfall shown for the month of December in the two series.

Series I.

Series II.

Trees 7 years old.

Trees 16-20 years old.

Day.

September.

October.

November.

December.

January.

Day.

in.

0-33

078

0-49

0-48

nil

0-04

0175

nil

0-065

098

002

nil

221

nil

0-33

0-50

nil

176

004

115

049

nil

007

3-83

nil

019

0-19

I '44

0-05

0-35

0-07

065

0-31

0-66

nil

0-31

171

1-39

095

0-96

nil

008

074

274

2-24

nil

040

nil

0-02

nil

0-29

015

o-i8

0'45

0-06

nil

015

012

nil

079

0-36

o-io

036

0-32

nil

0-57

077

nil

038

013

nil

0015

nil

274

2-63

nil

033

nil

5-00

4-87

nil

020

001

nil

0-21

0-23

nil

0-005

nil

III

nil

0-07

0-94

nil

0-85

nil

0-29

nil

003

nil

0-69

007

0-I4

007

o-o6

4-24

001

0 19

nil

092

nil

i-i6

'■'2

136

0-96

nil

372

0-98

0-91

311

nil

017

0*04

302

nil

023

0-84

1-41

nil

032

001

2-04

nil

1-90

0-005

1-44

nil

1-89

0-05

2-88

nil

5-5

—

0-95

—

nil

498 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Preparation of Samples

The specimens included in each section were made from
the same sample of bulked latex, so that the results should
not be influenced by any possible variation in the latex,
and the specimens of each section are, therefore, strictly
comparable among themselves. A control specimen was
also made for each section, the rubber being prepared in
exactly the same way in every section, in order that some
idea should be obtained as to the extent of the variation
between different sections prepared at different times.
Each section was prepared in duplicate for comparison,
Series I being obtained from latex furnished by the trees
7 years old and Series II from the trees 16-20 years old.

The methods employed for the preparation of most of
the samples are dealt with under the respective sections.
The control specimens were prepared in the following
manner : Two litres of normal latex {i.e. containing from
30 to 34 per cent, of dry rubber) were diluted with i litre of
water, and the acetic acid, diluted to i litre, was then stirred
in. The final mixture of latex, water, and acid in all cases
contained 15 to 17 per cent, of dry rubber. The coagulum
was allowed to remain in the dish overnight, i.e. for 16 hours,
and was then rolled out by the standard method (see below).
The amount of acetic acid used for coagulation was 0*2 gram
to 100 c.c. of normal latex— that is, i part of pure acetic acid
to 1,000 parts of the diluted latex. This quantity of acid
was also used throughout the experiments for all samples
prepared with acetic acid, unless the contrary is expressly
stated, as in the case of Section I, Sub-section 2 (p. 502).

In making the specimens of sheet rubber the same
procedure was followed throughout. The coagulum was
allowed to remain in the coagulating dish overnight, and
the rubber was then put through smooth, equal-speed
rollers five times, the distance between the rollers being
diminished each time as follows :

ist time. Distance between rollers 0*22 in.

2nd „ „ „ „ o'i6 „

3rd „ „ „ „ o-ii „

4th „ „ „ „ 0-05 „

5th „ „ „ „ 0-04 „

THE QUALITY. OF PLANTATION RUBBER 499

The sheets were washed between each rolling, and were
finally hung up to dry in a special drying chamber.

The crepe rubber was made on machines of the "straight-
groove" type, the ratio of the rates of revolution being 2:1.
The crepe thus obtained was always rolled out finally
between smooth rollers revolving at equal speed.

The samples were dried, except where stated otherwise,
without artificial aid in a special drying chamber, the
temperature of which varied from 85° to 90° F.

In the description of the samples the notes on their
preparation are compiled from information supplied by
Mr. L. E. Campbell.

Method oj Testing Samples

A description of the rubber-testing machinery at the
Imperial Institute has already been given in an illustrated
article published in this Bulletin (1914, 12, y6\ and it will
only be necessary here to give a brief account of the
methods employed in the vulcanisation and mechanical
tests. It may be mentioned, however, that since the article
referred to was published, an autoclave press has been
added to the equipment.

It was decided to use a mixing containing rubber and
sulphur only for the tests, as this plan has been largely
adopted for experimental rubber-testing purposes, and it
avoids the necessity of having to consider the effects of
the " fillers " or " accelerants " used in a compound mixing.
The proportions of rubber and sulphur used throughout
the tests were : rubber 90 per cent, and sulphur 10 per
cent.

The homogeneous mixing of rubber and sulphur is
rolled into sheets of uniform thickness, pieces of which
are vulcanised in moulds by heating in steam at 50 lb.
pressure (147*6° C.) for the requisite time.

The mechanical tests are made three days after vulcani-
sation. Eight rings are cut from each test piece, two of
which are used for the permanent set test, and the re-
mainder for the tensile strength and elongation tests.

The Schopper machine used for the mechanical tests

20*

500 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

records by means of an autographic attachment the stress-
strain diagram throughout the test and the load and elon-
gation at the breaking point. The breadth and thickness
of each ring is measured by means of a micrometer, and
from the area of the section thus obtained the tensile
strength per square inch is calculated. The elongation
at the breaking point is expressed as a percentage on the
original length ; thus an elongation of 800 per cent, means
that the increase in length was eight times the original
length. In this test, and also in the permanent set test,
the results were calculated on the inner circumference of
the rings.

In the permanent set tests the rings are stretched over
rollers to five times their original length for 24 hours and
are allowed to recover for 24 hours before measurement. The
permanent set is the elongation produced by this treat-
ment expressed as a percentage of the original length.

The most important point in connection with these tests
is the time required for vulcanisation which, working with
a constant pressure of steam, has to be varied very con-
siderably with different rubbers in order to obtain the best
results. It is useless to vulcanise all the specimens for the
same length of time and then to compare the mechanical
properties, as the results would give no indication of the
true values of the different rubbers. The time of vulcani-
sation which will give the best result has to be determined
experimentally for each specimen by means of small-scale
trials, and larger sheets are then vulcanised for the correct
time and used for the tests.

For purposes of comparison specimens of Fine Hard
Para and Soft Para rubber from South America were
submitted to vulcanisation and mechanical tests under
exactly the same conditions as adopted for the Ceylon
samples, the results being as follows :

Fine Hard Para '

" Regular

Time of
vulcanisation.

Minutes at
50 lb. pressure.

Tensile
strength.

lb. per sq. in.

Elongation.
Per cent.

Upriver "
Fine Hard Para '

•Acre" .

2,276
2,312

893
880

Fine Soft Para

2,325

930

THE QUALITY OF PLANTATION RUBBER 501
(i) Experiments to determine the effect of different

METHODS OF COAGULATION ON THE MECHANICAL PRO-
PERTIES OF THE Rubber

Section I, Sub-seotion 1. Spontaneous coagulation

Series I

Date of experiment : September 2, 1913.

Rainfall : 004 in.

Percentage of dry rubber in latex : 33.

No, I. — Rubber which coagulated in cups and buckets
during collection of latex. " It was found to be impossible
to press the sample between boards, but it was passed
through the Golledge Hand Roller once and hung up to
dry. This is equivalent to simple pressing, as the ribbed
rollers revolve at equal speeds."

No. 2. — Scrap from trees. " This was collected in the
usual way the day after tapping."

No. 3. — Latex allowed to stand until coagulation occurred.
" Two litres of latex were placed in a dish and left. The
coagulum was removed in 24 hours and rolled in the
usual way."

Series II

Date of experiment : December 24, 191 3.

Rainfall : 0*96 in.

Percentage of dry rubber in latex : 32.

No. 105. — Rubber which coagulated in cups and buckets
during collection of latex.

No. 106.— Scrap from trees.

No. 107. — Latex allowed to stand until coagulation
occurred. Time of drying : 10 weeks.

Section I, Sub-section 2. Acid coagulation

Series I

Date of experiment : September 2, 191 3.
Rainfall : 0*04 in.

Percentage of dry rubber in latex : 33.
" In each of the following experiments in Section I,
Sub-section 2, two litres of latex were placed in a dish,

502 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

one litre of water added, and the requisite quantity of acid,
diluted to one litre, stirred in."

Experiments were made with acetic acid, formic acid,
sulphuric acid and hydrofluoric acid (" purub ") ; the
quantity of acid used and the time the rubber took to
dry are shown in the following table :

No. of Sample.

Acid.

Quantity of acid used.

Time of drying
of rubber.

Series J.

Grams ptr looc.c. of latex.

Weeks.

Acetic

013

>»

0-26

Formic

0-07

OI4

Sulphuric

OIO

>»

0-20

Hydrofluoric

004

Not stated

008

When the minimum quantities of acid were used the
process of coagulation was very lengthy, the latex first
becoming of a creamy consistence and then gradually ad-
hesive. The latex did not completely coagulate in 4 hours,
but the process was complete in 16 hours. When twice
the minimum quantities of acid were employed coagulation
commenced almost immediately and was complete in
half an hour.

Series II

Date of experiment : December 24, 1913.

Rainfall : o'96 in.

Percentage of dry rubber in latex : 32.

The same amounts of acids were used as in the case of
the corresponding samples of Series I, as shown in the
following table :

No. of Sample.

Acid.

Quantity of acid used.

Time of drying
of rubber.

Series 11.

Grams per 100 c.c. of latex.

Weeks.

loS

Acetic

013

109

>»

026

Formic

007

III

»»

014

112

Sulphuric

O'lO

0'20

114

Hydrofluoric

004

0-08

THE QUALITY OF PLANTATION RUBBER 503

When twice the minimum amount of acid was used, the
latex in each case commenced to cream in about 10 minutes
and was coagulated in i hour. The latex to which the
minimum amounts of acetic, formic and hydrofluoric acids
had been added was creaming after standing 4 hours, but was
still semi-liquid ; the corresponding sample with sulphuric
acid was rather more advanced, but latex was still present.

Section II. Hot coagulation (crfipe rubber)
Series I

Date of experiment : September 5, 191 3.

Rainfall: nil.

Percentage of dry rubber in latex : 33.

No. 12. — Latex heated to 60° C, acetic acid added and
temperature of latex raised to 80° C. ; rubber creped.

The coagulum was removed from the latex about 2 hours
after the addition of the acid. The rubber was creped by
passing it seven times between rough rollers (speed ratio
= 2 : i), the distance between the rollers being kept con-
stant; it was then passed once between smooth rollers
(equal speed). Time of drying : i week.

No. 13. — Latex coagulated at the original temperature
(27° C), using same amount of acetic acid as in No. 12;
coagulum removed from liquid about 2 hours after addition
of acid ; rubber creped exactly as No. 12. Time of drying :
I week.

Series II

Date of experiment : December 27, 191 3.

Rainfall : nil.

Percentage of dry rubber in latex : 31.

No. 116. — Latex heated to6o°C., acetic acid added and
latex raised to 80° C. Rubber made into crepe. Time of
drying : 3 weeks.

No. 117.— Latex coagulated at ordinary temperature,
using exactly same amount of acetic acid as for No. 1 16 ;
rubber made into crepe. Time of drying : i week.

Sam.ples Nos. 116 and 117 were creped in the same way,
being passed five times through rough rollers and once
through smooth rollers.

504 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Section III. Hot coagulation (sheet rubber)

In these experiments the rubber was prepared in exactly
the same way as in those of Section II, except that the
rubber was made into sheet instead of crepe.

Series I

Date of experiment : September 8, 1913.

Rainfall: nil.

Percentage of dry rubber in latex : 33.

No. 14. — Coagulated hot.

No. 15.— Coagulated at ordinary temperature.

In each case the coagulum was removed from the liquid
about 2 hours after the addition of acid, and rolled into
sheet by the standard method used throughout the experi-
ments (see p. 498). Time of drying : 3 weeks.

Series II

Date of experiment : December 27, 191 3.

Rainfall : nil.

Percentage of dry rubber in latex : 31.

No. 118. — Coagulated hot. Time of drying: 5 weeks.

No. 119. — Coagulated at ordinary temperature. Time of
drying : 3 weeks.

The specimens of rubber included in Sections I-III
were submitted to vulcanisation and mechanical tests,
with the results shown in Tables I and II. The results
of the chemical examination of the samples are given in
Tables III and IV.

Remarks on Sections I-III

Time of Vulcanisation. — The figures obtained show that,
in order to procure the best results from the different
specimens of rubber, the time of vulcanisation, under the
conditions of the experiments, that is using a mixture of
90 parts of rubber and 10 parts of sulphur and working at
a constant steam pressure of 50 lb. per sq. in., had to be
varied from 50 to 107 minutes.

In Section I the rubbers obtained by the spontaneous
coagulation of the latex (Nos. 3 and 107) required shorter

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508

THE QUALITY OF PLANTATION RUBBER 509

times of vulcanisation (50 and 60 minutes respectively) than
the large majority of the other specimens which were
coagulated by the addition of acids. The sheet rubbers
prepared with different acids (Nos. 4- 11 and 108-115) varied
in time of vulcanisation from 75 to 107 minutes, and in
both Series the samples prepared with twice the minimum
amount of sulphuric and hydrofluoric acids required the
longest times ; in Series I the specimen prepared with the
minimum amount of formic acid also required nearly the
maximum time. Doubling the amount of acid used for
coagulation increased the time of vulcanisation in the case
of sulphuric and hydrofluoric acids in both Series, and of
formic acid in Series II ; in Series I the specimen prepared
with twice the minimum amount of formic acid had the
shorter time of cure. In the case of acetic acid the increase
in the amount used has apparently very little effect on the
time of vulcanisation.

The results for the whole of the specimens in Sections I-II I
show that the times of vulcanisation of sheet rubber pre-
pared with acetic acid varied from 60 to 80 minutes.

In Sections II and III of both Series the crepe rubbers
required a much longer time of cure than the corresponding
sheets.

Tensile Strength.— In both Series the rubbers prepared
by the spontaneous coagulation of the latex (Nos. 3 and 107)
gave fairly good values, viz. 2,170 and 2,2501b. respectively.

In Series I the specimens prepared with acetic, sul-
phuric and formic acids were also satisfactory in tensile
strength, which ranged from 2,0^ to 2,220 lb. in the
diff*erent samples, compared with 2,020 lb. in the case of the
control specimen. The two specimens prepared with
hydrofluoric acid gave much lower figures. The use of the
larger amount of the acids for coagulation had no very
marked effect on the tensile strength of the rubber.

For some reason which cannot be explained at present,
the specimens of Series II, Sub-section 2, which were
coagulated with different acids (Nos. 108-115), all gave low
results. As the results are quite uniform throughout the
Sub-section, it would seem that the specimens have been
exposed to some influence which has adversely affected

510 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

their physical properties. The experiments have been
repeated, and the results of examination of the specimens
of rubber will be available later. As in the case of the
specimens of Series I, the amount of acid did not seem to
have much influence on the tensile strength. The two
specimens prepared with hydrofluoric acid again gave the
lowest figures in the Sub-section.

All the rubbers of Sections II and III in both Series
gave tensile strengths of over 2,000 lb., whilst eight of
the eleven samples gave values of over 2,200 lb., and
were equal to the fine hard Para tested for comparison.
No. 117 gave the best result, viz. 2,510 lb., which is higher
than the values for the fine hard Para (see p. 500).

Elongation. — The elongation varied from y^y to 907 per
cent., i.e. the elongation at the breaking point was from
7'^ to 9 times the original length of the test rings. About
half the specimens gave elongations equal to the lower of
the two values obtained for fine hard Para (see p. 500).

Chemical Composition. — In Section I, Series I, the speci-
mens coagulated with different acids (Nos. 4-1 1) were very
similar in composition, as would be expected from the fact
that they were made from the same sample of bulked latex.
They all contained over 95 per cent, of caoutchouc, except
the two specimens prepared with hydrofluoric acid (Nos. 10
and 17) which contained 9478 and 94*16 per cent, respec-
tively. The control specimen, prepared with acetic acid,
and specimen No. 3 obtained by the spontaneous coagula-
tion of the latex, also contained a little less than 95 per cent,
of caoutchouc. Specimens i and 2 (rubber which coagulated
in the cups and buckets, and scrap from the trees) contained
large amounts of resin and proteins, and the percentage of
caoutchouc fell to 92*55 and 92S5 respectively.

In the corresponding section of Series II the figures are
also in close agreement, but the percentages of caoutchouc
are distinctly lower throughout, and the resin higher, than
that in Series I, although the latex was obtained from
older trees. In Series II the two specimens prepared with
hydrofluoric acid are quite satisfactory in composition;
specimen No. in, prepared with the double quantity of
formic acid, contains the lowest percentage of caoutchouc.

THE QUALITY OF PLANTATION RUBBER 511

The specimens of Sections II and III in both Series
agree fairly closely in composition, and in these Sections
there is not the difference in the percentage of resin in the
two Series which was noticeable in the specimens of
Section I.

No relationship can be traced between the chemical
composition of the crude rubber and the time of vulcanisa-
tion or the results of the mechanical tests.

(2) Experiments to determine the effect of adding
VARIOUS Substances to the Latex in order to
RETARD Coagulation

These experiments were designed to determine the
effect of adding (a) ammonia, (b) sodium sulphite, and (c)
formaldehyde to the latex, which substances are sometimes
used to prevent spontaneous coagulation of the latex during
transit from the plantation to the factory. In each case the
latex was divided into three parts, and specimens of rubber
were prepared as far as possible (i) the same day, (2) the
next day (after 24 hours), and (3) after 7 days. The latex was
coagulated with acetic acid in each case, and the rubber
was made into sheet by the standard method (see p. 498).

The date of the experiments, rainfall and percentage of
dry rubber in the latex in Series I and II were as follows :

Series I. Series II.

Date of experiment .... Sept. 14, 191 3 Dec. 30, 191 3

Rainfall 057 in. nil

Percentage of dry rubber in latex . 21*6 31

Section IV, Sub-section 1. Ammonia

A 2-per-cent. solution of ammonia was added to the
latex, with stirring, until a slight alkaline reaction was
obtained. The amount of pure ammonia added was 00056
per cent. In both Series the latex coagulated spontaneously
the next day.

Series I

No. 16. — Latex coagulated same day. Time of drying :
3 weeks.

" In 24 hours the latex containing ammonia had almost
completely coagulated. A quite considerable pressure of

5T2 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

gas existed in the carboy, and the latex gave an acid
reaction."

Series II

No. 120. — Latex coagulated same day. Time of drying:
3 weeks.

Section IV, Snb-seotion 2. Sodium Sulphite

A lo-per-cent. solution of sodium sulphite was added to
the latex until the latter contained approximately o'2 per
cent, of sodium sulphite (crystals). In both Series the latex
coagulated spontaneously after 3 days.

Series I

No. 17. — Latex coagulated same day. Time of drying:

5 weeks.

No. 18. — Latex coagulated after 24 hours. Time of
drying : 5 weeks.

" In 24 hours the latex showed signs of putrefaction.
Some latex had coagulated, but not to a great extent."

Series II

No. 121. — Latex coagulated same day. Time of drying :

6 weeks.

No. 122. — Latex coagulated after 24 hours. Time of
drying : 9 weeks.

Section IV, Sub-section 3. Formaldehyde

Formalin was added to the latex until the latter con-
tained 05 per cent, of formaldehyde. In neither Series did
the latex coagulate spontaneously.

Series I

No. 19. — Latex coagulated same day. Time of drying:
I week.

'* On adding the normal quantity of acid for the latex no
coagulation took place in 30 minutes. The quantity of acid
was increased by an amount equal to the original quantity
added. Coagulation took place slowly."

No. 20. — Latex coagulated after 24 hours. Time of
drying : 3 weeks.

THE QUALITY OF PLANTATION RUBBER 513

"The same amount of acid was added as in No. 19. No
coagulation, in the ordinary sense of the word, took place
at all. Next morning a clear s«rum existed, but the
coagulum had no adhesion at all. It had to be worked to
a considerable extent with the hand, etc."

No. 21. — Latex coagulated after 7 days. Time of drying :
3 weeks.

'* In 7 days only a very small amount of coagulation had
taken place, and no odour of decomposition was observed.
The phenomena observed in the case of No. 20 were again
apparent, but to an increased extent. Next morning the
latex had formed a non-cohesive cream. The day after
this the coagulum was still non-cohesive, and on pressing
offered no resistance, but broke up into flakes. It was,
however, pressed by hand, after some trouble, and put
through rollers, but it was not possible to obtain a satis-
factory sheet."

Series II

No. 123. — Latex coagulated same day. Time of drying:
3 weeks.

" The normal amount of acid used for coagulation had
to be increased (normal amount x 1*5). The coagulum
obtained was rolled out in the usual way."

No, 124. — Latex coagulated after 24 hours.

"The amount of acid used was twice the normal. A
satisfactory coagulation could not be obtained, and the
small particles of rubber had to be squeezed into lumps
with the hands. The rubber was put through the smooth
rollers five times, but could not be made into ordinary
sheets."

No. 125. — Latex coagulated after 7 days.

** Same results as in the case of No. 124."

The results of the vulcanisation and mechanical tests of
the specimens in Section IV are given in Table II, and the
results of their chemical examination in Table IV.

Remarks on Section IV

Time of Vulcanisation. — The specimens to which formal-
dehyde had been added required a much longer time of

514 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

vulcanisation than the specimens in the preparation of
which ammonia or sodium sulphite had been used, although
all these groups were made from the same sample of bulked
latex. The addition of 0-5 per cent, of formaldehyde to
the latex, therefore, appears to lengthen considerably the
time of vulcanisation of the rubber. This quantity, how-
ever, is larger than that usually employed in practice, and
experiments have been made to determine the effect of
smaller quantities of formaldehyde, and the results of
examination of the specimens of rubber will be available
later.

In Series I the specimens to which ammonia and sodium
sulphite had been added required a distinctly longer time
of vulcanisation than the control sample (prepared by
coagulating the latex with acetic acid without any other
addition), but in Series II the times of cure of the corre-
sponding specimens approximated more closely to that of
the control sample.

Tensile Strength. — The results of the tensile strength
tests were very satisfactory, only one sample (C18), which
was slightly under-vulcanised, giving a value below 2,150 lb.
per sq. in., the maximum being 2,460 lb. The addition of
ammonia, sodium sulphite or formaldehyde to the latex
before coagulation does not appear to have had any marked
effect on the tensile strength of the rubber.

Elongation. — Excluding one sample (No. 19), which was
somewhat over-vulcanised and gave a value of 818 per
cent, the elongation of the samples ranged from 854 to
899 per cent. In this respect also, the addition of ammonia,
sodium sulphite or formaldehyde to the latex before
coagulation did not appear to have any influence.

Chemical Composition. — The samples of both series were
of normal composition, although the percentage of caout-
chouc was lower and that of resin and proteins higher, on
the whole, in Series II than in Series I. As in the case of
the specimens of Sections I-III, it is not possible to trace
any connection between the chemical composition and the
times of vulcanisation or the results of the mechanical tests.

THE QUALITY OF PLANTATION RUBBER 515

(3) Experiments to determine the Effect of the Form
OF the Rubber on its Mechanical Properties

In these experiments the rubber was made into pressed
sheet, machine sheet, thin crepe, thick cr^pe, blanket crepe,
and block, the coagulant used being either acetic acid or
hydrofluoric acid.

(a) Pressed Sheet, machine Sheet, thin Crdpe and thick Crdpe

Section V. Coagulated with Acetic Acid

Series I

In this Series the experiments were repeated on different
days, and the various sets of samples may be designated
Wa, Vb and Vc respectively. In addition one sample was
prepared by the ordinary Michie-Golledge process (V^).

Section Va,

Date of experiment : September 20, 191 3.

Rainfall : 0*07 in.

Percentage of dry rubber in latex : 28*5.

No. 22. — Sheet, hand-pressed. The drying process was
not complete on November 4.

" The coagulum was treated by the method formerly
followed on small native estates, i.e. by pressing with the
hand, followed by stretching and pressing with a bottle or
rolling-pin. These samples were, of course, thick, as no
great pressure was applied to them."

No. 23. — Machine sheet.

" The coagulum was removed 3 hours after the addition
of acid, and rolled in the standard way."

No. 24. — Crepe, thin. Time of drying : i week.

The crepe was passed four times through the rough
rollers at constant distance apart, and the resulting strip
was put through the smooth rollers once.

No. 25. — Crepe, thick. Made by rolling the rubber in the
machine to the required thickness.

The rubber was put through the rough rollers four

Si6 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

times, and was afterwards put through the smooth rollers
wide apart.

" This sample dried very slowly, and at the time of des-
patch some of the thick portions of the crepe were still
moist at the centre. . . . Darkening took place in the thick
parts of all samples of thick crepe hung up to dry in air at
the ordinary temperature. The rubber presented a very
mottled appearance."

Section Vb.

Date of experiment : October 8, 191 3.

Rainfall : 0*31 in.

Percentage of dry rubber in latex : 25*5.

The samples were prepared in the same way as in
Section Va, except that the thin cr^pe was passed six times
through the rough rollers and once through the smooth
rollers, and the thick crepe five times through the rough
rollers and once through the smooth rollers.

No. 31. — Sheet, pressed.

No. 32. — Machine sheet.

No. 33.— Crepe, thin.

No. 34. — Crepe, thick.

Section Vc.

Date of experiment : October 11, 1913.

Rainfall : nil.

Percentage of dry rubber in latex : 35*5.

No, 61. — Pressed sheet. Time of drying : about 3 weeks.

This sample was prepared by coagulating the latex in a
thin layer and pressing the rubber thus obtained between
boards.

No. 62. — Machine sheet. Time of drying : 3 weeks.

This was prepared and rolled by the standard method.

Section Vd.

]\jo. 65.— Michie-Golledge rubber in form of " blanket "
crepe.

This was prepared by the ordinary Michie-Golledge
process from the same latex as was employed for Section
Vc.

THE QUALITY OF PLANTATION RUBBER 517

Series II

In this Series only one set of samples was prepared,
comparable with Section Va of Series I.

Section Va.

Date of experiment : January 2, 1914.

Rainfall : nil.

Percentage of dry rubber in latex : 32.

No. 126. — Sheet, pressed. Time of drying: 2 weeks,
except at the edges. This sample was prepared as in No.
22 (Series I), but was pressed out between the plates of a
hydraulic press.

No. 127. — Machine sheet. Time of drying: 3 weeks.

No. 128. — Crepe, thin. Time of drying: i week.

No. 129. — Crepe, thick. Time of drying: 3 weeks.

*' Nos. 128 and 129 were creped in exactly the same
w^ay, viz. seven times through the rough rollers. No. 128
was then passed through the smooth rollers, whereas
No. 129 was not further treated."

Section VI. Coagulated with Hydrofluoric Acid

The samples in this Section were prepared in the main
in the same way as in Section V, except that hydrofluoric
acid was used as a coagulant in place of acetic acid.

Series I

As in the case of Section V (Series I), three sets of
samples were prepared on different days, and these are
designated Sections Via, VI^ and V\c respectively. They
were prepared on the same day as Sections V«, V^ and Vc,
using portions of the same sample of bulked latex.

Section Via.

No. 26. — Sheet, pressed.

No. 27. — Machine sheet. Time of drying : 3 weeks.

No. 28. — Crepe, thin. Time of drying : i week.

No. 29. — Crepe, thick. Not entirely dry after 6 weeks.

Si8 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Sections Va and Via,

No, 30. — Scrap rubber from same day's tapping.

Section VIb.

No. 35. — Sheet, pressed.
No. 36. — Machine sheet.
^0. 37. — Cr^pe, thin.
No. 38.— Crepe, thick.

Sections Vb and VIb.

No. 39. — Scrap rubber from same day's tapping.

Section Vic.

No. 63.— Sheet, pressed.
No. 64. — Machine sheet.

Series II

As in the case of Section V, only one set of samples was
prepared in this Series, comparable with Section Via of
Series I.

Section Via.

These samples were prepared on the same day as
Section Va (Series II), portions of the same sample of
bulked latex being used for each.

No. 130. — Sheet, pressed. Time of drying: about
2 weeks.

No. III. — Machine sheet. Time of drying : 10 days.

No. 132. — Crepe, thin. Time of drying: i week.

No. 133. — Crepe, thick. Not dry when despatched.

Sections Va and Via.

No. 134. — Scrap from same day's tapping.

The results of the vulcanisation and mechanical tests
with the samples of rubber in Sections V and VI are
shown in Tables Vand VI, and the results of their chemical
examination in Tables VII and VI II.

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>
1

Form of Rubber: Latex
coagulated with Hydro-
fluoric Acid.

Section Via.

Sheet, hand- pressed
Sheet, machine-made .
Crepe, thin .
Cjepe, thick .
Scrap from Sections Va

and Via .
Control ....

Section VIb.

Sheet, hand-pressed
Sheet, machine-made .
Crepe, thin .
Crepe, thick .
Scrap from Sections V^

and Mlb .
Control ....

522

THE QUALITY OF PLANTATION RUBBER 523

Remarks on Sections V and VI

Time of Vulcanisation.-— ^'\\.\\ reference to Sections V
and VI the results show that in most cases the pressed
sheet cured more quickly than the machine sheet. The only
exceptions were in the case of Sections Vc and Vk of
Series I, in which the pressed sheet was prepared by
pressing the rubber between boards. In Sections Va, V^,
VI« and VI^ of Series I the pressed sheet was made by
pressing the coagulum with the hand and then rolling it
out with a bottle or rolling-pin ; in the corresponding
samples of Series II the coagulum was pressed out between
the plates of a hydraulic press. The machine sheet was
prepared by passing the coagulum through smooth rollers
five times, the distance between the rollers being gradually
diminished from 0*22 to 0*04 in. On the whole the results
suggest that the more severe treatment of the coagulum in
the rollers has lengthened the time of vulcanisation.

Similarly it will be seen that in five out of six cases the
thin crepe required a longer time of vulcanisation than
the thick crepe. In these specimens the coagulum was
passed through the rough rollers an equal number of times
for both the thin and thick crepe, the latter being made by
rolling the freshly coagulated rubber to the required thick-
ness, and not by rolling together several pieces of the thin
crepe. The results, therefore, again indicate that more
severe treatment in the rollers lengthens the time of
vulcanisation.

Another point which also supports this conclusion is
that the thin crepe rubbers, with one exception, all required
a longer time of cure than the corresponding sheet. This
fact was previously observed in the case of the specimens
of Sections II and III (p. 509).

Tensile Strength. — The results of the tensile strength
tests are again very satisfactory, as the whole of the
specimens, with the exception of the scrap rubbers Nos. 30,
39 and 134, have given values over 2,160 lb. per sq. in., the
highest value being 2,570 lb.

Excluding the scrap rubbers there are 35 specimens
in Sections V and VI, and their tensile strengths may be
21

524 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

summarised as follows: 2 from 2,100 to 2,1901b.; 6 from
2,200 to 2,290 lb. ; II from 2,300 to 2,390 lb. ; 12 from 2,400
to 2,490 lb. ; and 4 over 2,500 lb. The average tensile
strength of these 35 specimens is 2,380 lb. The corre-
sponding values of two standard samples of fine hard Para
were 2,280 and 2,310 lb. respectively, and 29 out of the
35 Ceylon specimens gave figures equal to or higher than
the lower value, whilst the average value for the 35 Ceylon
specimens is higher than that of the best specimen of fine
hard Para.

As regards the effect of the form of the rubber there is
no decided or constant difference between the results of
the tensile tests in the case of the specimens of pressed and
machine sheet. The thick crepe, however, has given in
each case slightly better figures than the corresponding
thin crepe.

In order to afford a comparison between the sheet and
crepe rubbers, the following table gives the average figures
for the specimens of these two types of rubber in Sections V
and VI :

Series I, Section Ya i „ f ^
(^Crepe

Section Vd P^eet
I^Crepe
Sheet
Crepe
'Sheet
Crepe

Series II, Section V i^^^l

Section VI<^ I j

Tensile strength. Elongation.

lb. per sq. in. Per cent.

2,380 882

2,240 891

2,460 865

2,330 865

2,290 871

2,280 890

2,350 879

2,280 888

2,500 855

2,300 888

2,350 881

2,290 875

It will be seen that in each Section the mean value for
the tensile strength of the two samples of sheet rubber is
invariably higher than the mean value of the two samples
of crepe, although the differences are usually not very
large. The craping, therefore, appears to reduce the tensile
strength slightly, but to a much less degree than is usually
supposed. It is of interest that the four specimens which
gave the highest tensile strength (over 2,500 lb. per sq. in.)
were sheet.

THE QUALITY OF PLANTATION RUBBER 525

The three samples of scrap rubber in Series V and VI
all gave low results in the tensile strength tests, the values
being 1,760 lb., 1,7301b. and 1,8901b. The scrap rubbers
in Section I (see p. 505 and footnote on p. 564) also gave
low figures, and it would appear that this type of rubber
possesses poor tensile strength after vulcanisation.

Sections V and VI also afford a further comparative test
of the influence on the tensile strength of using acetic acid
or hydrofluoric acid as a coagulant. The following table
gives the average values for the specimens of Sections V
and VI, the former being prepared with acetic acid and the
latter with hydrofluoric acid :

Tensile strength. Elongation.

Series I, Section Va (acetic acid)

„ Section Vb (acetic acid)

„ Section Via (hydrofluoric acid)

„ Section Vlb (hydrofluoric acid)

Series II, Section V (acetic acid) .

„ Section VI (hydrofluoric acid)

The tensile strengths of the rubber prepared with
hydrofluoric acid are therefore slightly lower in each case
than those of the rubber prepared with acetic acid, but the
differences are not so marked as in the case of the speci-
mens in Section I, Sub-section 2, where the two sets of
figures were as follows :

lb. per sq. in.

Per cent.

2,310

887

2,390

865

2,290

880

2,310

884

2,400

872

2,320

878

Tensile strength.

Elongation,

lb. per sq. in.

Per cent.

Series I.

Acetic acid .

2,110

868

Hydrofluoric acid

1,690

875

Series II.

Acetic acid .

1,820

869

Hydrofluoric acid

1,590

890

Elongation. — The elongation at the breaking-point varied
from 832 to 919 per cent, the former figure being given by a
sample of scrap rubber.

It has been pointed out previously (p. 524) that 29
of the specimens had a tensile strength equal or superior
to the lower of the values obtained for two samples of
fine hard Para. The elongation of these 29 specimens
ranged from 842 to 900 per cent., with an average of
879 per cent., which is practically equal to the lower value

526 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

(880 per cent.) found for the two specimens of fine hard
Para.

Chemical Examination. — As in the case of the results
described in previous sections, it is not possible to trace
any connection between the chemical composition of the
samples as recorded in Tables VII and VIII and the
results of the vulcanisation and mechanical tests.

(b) Machine Sheet, thin Crdpe, thick Cr^pe and Block

Section VII. Coagulated with Acetic Acid

Series I

The rubber (excepting the control sheet) was made into
thin crepe by passing it eight times through the rough
rollers and once through the smooth rollers. The thick
crepe and the block were made subsequently from the dry
thin crepe.

Date of experiment : September 23, 1913.

Rainfall : o*o6 in.

Percentage of rubber in latex : 36.

No. 40. — Thin cr6pe. Time of drying : i week.

No. 41. — Thick crepe, made by rolling together four
pieces of the dry thin crepe.

No. 42. — Block rubber made from the dry thin crepe,
the pressure used being | ton per sq. in. applied for half an
hour.

Series II

The samples were prepared in the same way as in
Series I, except that the thin crepe was made by passing
the rubber seven times through the rough rollers and twice
through the smooth rollers, and the thick cr^pe was made
by rolling together six pieces of the dry thin crepe,
instead of four pieces.

Date of experiment : December 24, 191 3.

Rainfall : 0*96 in.

Percentage of rubber in latex : 32.

No. 135. — Thin crepe. Time of drying: i week.

No. 136. — Thick crepe.

No. 137. — Block rubber.

THE QUALITY OF PLANTATION RUBBER 527

Section VIII. Coagulated with Hydrofluoric Acid

The specimens in this section were prepared in the
same way as those of Section VII, except that hydrofluoric
acid was used as a coagulant instead of acetic acid. They
were made on the same day as those of Section VII and
under identical conditions.

Series I

No, 43. — Thin cr.epe. Time of drying : i week.
No. 44. — Thick crepe, made as No. 41.
No. 45. — Block rubber, made as No. 42.

Series II

No. 138. — Thin crepe, made as No. 135. Time of drying :
I week.

No. 139. — Thick crepe, made as No. 136,
No, 140. — Block rubber, made as No. 137.

Section VIlR. Coagulated with Acetic Acid

This section was a repetition of Section VII (Series I),
the specimens being made from latex obtained from trees
contiguous to those used for the Series I experiments.
The trees in question are of the same age as the Series I
trees, and are growing under parallel conditions.

Date of experiment : October 7, 191 3.

Rainfall : 0*35 in.

Percentage of rubber in latex : 36.

No, 46. — Thin crepe, made as No. 40.

No. 47. — Thick crepe, made as No. 41.

No. 48. — Block rubber, made as No. 42.

Section VIIIe. Coagulated with Hydrofluoric Acid

This section was a repetition of Section VIII (Series I),
the specimens being made on the same day and from the
same sample of bulk latex as those of Section VII r.

No. 49. — Thin crepe, made as No. 40.

No. 50.— Thick crepe, made as No. 41.

No. 51. — Block rubber, made as No. 42,

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Section VI
Form of Rubber : Latex coagulat
Thin crepe ....
Thick crepe— four pieces of dry thin
Block rubber— made from dry thin
Control

Section VII
Repeat of Section

in VII) ! \
[) . . .

Section VI
■ Latex coagulated

in VII) !

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Section VI
Repeat of Section

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Control .

528

THE QUALITY OF PLANTATION RUBBER 529

The results of vulcanisation and mechanical tests of
the specimens included in Sections VII, VII r, VIII and
VIII R are shown in Table IX.

Remarks on Sections VII and VIII

Time of Vulcanisation. — In all the sections of this group
of experiments the machine sheet (the control specimens)
had a distinctly shorter time of vulcanisation than the
crepe, thereby confirming the conclusion drawn from the
previous results that the conversion of the freshly coagu-
lated rubber into crepe lengthens the time of vulcanisation.

It is noteworthy that the thick crepe and block had
in each section the same time of vulcanisation as the thin
crepe from which they were made. The further treatment
of the thin crepe had therefore no influence on the time of
vulcanisation.

In two out of the three sets of specimens the rubber
coagulated with hydrofluoric acid had a slightly longer time
of vulcanisation than that prepared with acetic acid ; in the
other set (Sections VII and VIII, Series I) the time was
the sam.e. In previous sets of specimens (Sections I, Va,
Via, Vby VI^, Vc and Vk) the rubber prepared with acetic
acid has also usually had the shorter time of vulcanisation.

Tensile Strength. — In these sections there was very little
difference in the tensile strength between the thin crepe
and the machine sheet (control samples). In four out of
six sets of specimens the crepe had the higher value. In
the previous Sections V^, V^, Via and VI^ the average
tensile strengths of the sheets were invariably higher than
those of the corresponding crepe, but the differences were
usually small, as in the case of the present results.

The conversion of the thin crepe into thick crepe by
rolling four or six pieces together had no marked in-
fluence on the tensile strength ; in three out of six sets of
specimens the thick crepe gave the higher figures. In five
of the six sets of specimens the block rubber had a lower
tensile strength than the thin crepe from which it was
made, but the differences were not large.

These sections afford a further comparison between
rubber coagulated with acetic and hydrofluoric acid. The

530 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

results show only slight differences in tensile strength in
the two sets of specimens, the average value of the speci-
mens prepared with acetic acid being, however, in each case
higher than that of the specimens prepared with hydro-
fluoric acid. The results, therefore, agree with those
obtained in Sections Va and Via, V^ and VI^, and Vc and
Vk, and do not confirm those in Section I, which showed a
marked superiority in the rubber coagulated with acetic
acid.

Elongation. — The elongation at the breaking point of the
21 samples ranged from 855 to 897 per cent., the average
being 873 per cent.

Permanent Set, — The permanent set of 20 of the samples
was determined. The elongation was found to be satisfac-
torily low in each case, the figures ranging from i'94 to 3*44
per cent., with an average of 2*69 per cent. Eleven of the
specimens had an elongation below 275 per cent.

(4) Experiments to determine the Effect of Different
Methods of Drying the Rubber

Section IX

The latex was coagulated with acetic acid and the
rubber made into thin crepe. The creped rubber was then
divided into three portions, which were dried by different
methods.

Series I

Date of experiment : September 26, 191 3.

Rainfall : 0*17 in.

Percentage of rubber in latex : 22.

No, 52. — Creped rubber hung up in drying chamber ;
temperature, 85-90° F. Time of drying : 2 weeks.

No. S3. — Creped rubber dried in current of hot air; 8
hours in hot air-drier; temperature, 140° F.

No. 54. — Creped rubber dried in vacuum drier (Pass-
burg). Vacuum : 27 in. The temperature in the chamber
was of course variable, but the average was about 130" F. ;
the temperature of the trays was 170° F. Time of drying:
50 minutes.

THE QUALITY OF PLANTATION RUBBER 531

Series II

Date of experiment : January 5, 1914.

Rainfall : nil.

Percentage of rubber in latex : 30.

No, 141. — Creped rubber air-dried ; temperature of
chamber about 90° F. ; time of drying : 7 days.

No. 142. — Creped rubber dried for 2 hours (4 to 6 p.m.)
in current of hot air at 125° F. The rubber was dry next
morning.

No. 143. —Creped rubber dried in vacuum drier. Vacuum :
28 in. Time in drier: i hour. Temperature of rubber
when removed from the drier : 146° F.

Section IX R

This was a repetition of Section IX (Series I).

Date of experiment : October 14, 191 3.

Rainfall : 077 in.

Percentage of rubber in latex : 22.

7^0.55. — Creped rubber air-dried; temperature, 95-100° F.
Time of drying : i week.

No. 56. — Creped rubber dried for 5I hours in a current
of hot air at 120-140° F., and then hung up in drying
chamber at 85-90° F. ; dry in two more days.

No. 57. — Creped rubber dried in vacuum drier (Pass-
burg). Vacuum: 27 in. Temperature, 130 F. Time of
drying: 55 minutes.

The results of vulcanisation and mechanical tests of the
samples included in Sections IX and IX r are given in
Table X.

Remarks on Sections IX and IX r

Time of Vulcanisation. — The effect of different methods
on the time of vulcanisation is very slight. The results
indicate that thin crepe rubber has approximately the same
time of vulcanisation whether dried (i) in air at the ordinary
temperature, (2) in hot air, or (3) in vacuo. In these
sections again the machine sheet had a distinctly shorter
time of vulcanisation than the crepe.

Tensile Strength. — The sheet rubber in these sections
invariably gave better results than the crepe in the tensile

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air .
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Section X.

ct of Over-working the
! the Washing Machine :
agulated with Acetic A^
ubber made into Cripe.

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ough rollers 70 times '
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532

THE QUALITY OF PLANTATION RUBBER 533

strength tests. The drying of thin cr6pe in hot air and in
vaciiOy as compared with air-drying at the ordinary tem-
perature, did not affect the tensile strength in any marked
degree. The differences were small in all cases. In two of
the three sets of specimens the rubber dried in air at the
ordinary temperature had the lowest tensile strength and
that dried in vacuo the highest ; in the other set the speci-
men dried in hot air gave the best result and that dried in
vacuo the lowest. All the samples treated in the vacuum
drier were sticky and the pieces of crepe of which they
were composed had become firmly adherent. Judging
from appearance, the rubber would have been declared to
be badly " over-heated," but the results of the test show
that its mechanical properties had not suffered.

Elongation. — The figures obtained for elongation at the
breaking point ranged from 839 to 895 per cent., with an
average of 870 per cent., only one sample falling below 855.

Permanent Set. — These results were also satisfactory, the
figures for elongation ranging from 2*24 to 3*22 per cent.,
with an average of 2*59 per cent., and in eight of the twelve
samples the elongation was below 275 per cent.

(5) Experiments to determine the Effect of over-
working THE Freshly Coagulated Rubber in the
Washing Machine

Section X
Series I
The latex was coagulated with acetic acid and the
rubber made into crepe, different portions being passed
through the rough rollers 7, 35 and 70 times, respectively,
and then once through the smooth rollers.
Date of experiment : October 2, 1913.
Rainfall : o'i75 in.

Percentage of dry rubber in latex : 21.
No. 58. — Coagulum passed through rough rollers 7
times. Time of drying : 12 days.

No. 59. — Coagulum passed through rough rollers 35
times. Time of drying : 16 days.

No. 60. — Coagulum passed through rough rollers 70
times. Time of drying : 16 days.

534 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Series II

The samples were prepared in the same way as those
of Series I, but the different portions were passed through
the rough rollers 5, 25 and 50 times, respectively.

Date of experiment : January 2, 1914.

Rainfall : nil.

Percentage of dry rubber in latex : 32.

No. 144.— Coagulum put through the rough rollers
5 times. Time of drying : i week.

No. 145. — Coagulum put through the rough rollers
25 times. Time of drying : 12 days.

No. 146. — Coagulum put through the rough rollers
50 times. Time of drying : 14 days.

The specimens in Section X were submitted to vulcanisa-
tion and mechanical tests with the results given in Table X.

Remarks on Section X

Time of Vulcanisation. — The results show that excessive
working of the freshly coagulated rubber in the washing
machine has only a small influence on the time of vulcanisa-
tion. The crepe made by passing the coagulum through
the rollers 5 or 7 times had a much longer time of vul-
canisation than the control sheet, but the time was only
slightly increased by passing the rubber through the rollers
from 25 to 70 times.

Tensile Strength. — The over-working of the rubber in the
washing machine had no distinct effect on the tensile
strength. In Series I the crepe which had been passed
through the rollers 70 times was stronger than that passed
through only 7 or 35 times, whilst in Series II the crepe
treated 50 times was not quite so strong as that treated
5 times, but was stronger than that treated 25 times. The
figures for the crepe were below that for the control sheet
in both sets of specimens.

Elongation. — The elongation at breaking point ranged
from 855 to 890 per cent, with an average of 872 per cent.

Permanent Set. — In seven of the eight samples the elonga-
tion ranged from 1*90 to 2*50 per cent, with an average of
2*24 per cent., the figure for the remaining specimen being
3*05 per cent.

THE QUALITY OF PLANTATION RUBBER, 535
(6) Experiments to determine the Effect of different

METHODS OF SmOKING ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

OF THE Rubber

Section XI. Eflfect of smoking Sheet Rubber, and of adding
Alkaline Creosote Solution to the Latex before Coagulation

A portion of the bulked latex was coagulated with acetic
acid, the rubber made into sheet and smoked for varying
periods; alkaline creosote solution was added to another
portion of the latex, which was then coagulated with acetic
acid, the rubber being made into sheet and dried in the
usual way.

Series I

Date of experiment : November 4, 191 3.

Rainfall : nil.

Percentage of dry rubber in latex: 31.

No. 66. — Sheet rubber, smoked 3 days and then dried in
air. Time of drying after smoking : 10 days.

No. 6y. — Sheet rubber, smoked 7 days and then dried in
air. Time of drying after smoking : 6 days.

No. 68. — Sheet rubber, smoked 14 days. The rubber
was dry after smoking.

The temperature of the smoking chamber used in the
above experiments was 100° F.

No. 69. — Alkaline creosote solution (creosote dissolved in
sodium hydroxide solution) was added to the latex so that
the latter contained 0-125 per cent, of creosote. In coagulat-
ing the latex an amount of acetic acid equivalent to the
sodium hydroxide used was added in excess of the routine
quantity. Rubber made into sheet. Time of drying : 3
weeks.

Series II

Date of experiment : January 5, 1914.

Rainfall: nil.

Percentage of dry rubber in latex : 30.

No. 147. — Sheet rubber, smoked for 3 days and then dried
in air. Time of drying after smoking : 2 weeks.

No. 148. — Sheet rubber, smoked for 7 days and then dried
in air. Time of drying after smoking : 2 weeks.

536 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

No. 149. — Sheet rubber, smoked for 14 days. The rubber
was dry after smoking.

No. 150. — Alkaline creosote solution was added to the
latex so that the latter contained 0*25 per cent, of creosote.
The sheet rubber was dried in the standard way. Time of
drying : 3 weeks.

The results of vulcanisation and mechanical tests of the
samples included in Section XI are shown in Table XI.

Remarks on Section XI

A comparison of the results obtained shows that the
smoking of sheet rubber considerably lengthens the time
of vulcanisation. In Series II the samples smoked for 3,
7 and 14 days all had the same time of vulcanisation. In
Series I this was also the case with the samples smoked for
7 and 14 days, whereas the sample smoked for 3 days
vulcanised in a shorter time.

The average results given by the smoked sheet rubbers
are shown in the following table, together with those of
the corresponding plain and creosoted sheets :

Smoked sheet : Nos. 66,

67, 68, 147, 148, 149 Time of vulcanisation, minutes

Tensile strength, lb. per sq. in.

Elongation . . percent.
Creosoted sheet: Nos.
69,150 . . . Time of vulcanisation, wmw/^j

Tensile strength, lb. per sq. in.

Elongation . . percent.
Plain sheet: C9, C20 . Time of vulcanisation, w/«7//^jr

Tensile strength, Ib.persq. in.

Elongation . . per cent.

' Under-vulcanised,

The average time of vulcanisation of the smoked sheet
samples is therefore practically double that of the plain
(unsmoked) or creosoted sheet made from the same latex.
This increase in the time of vulcanisation owing to
smoking is also evident in Section XV (p. 552). Further,
the average tensile strength of these smoked sheet rubbers
is lower than that of the plain or creosoted sheet rubber
made from the same latex, or than that of the majority
of the specimens so far examined. The smoked samples

Series I.

Series 11.

102

130

2,230

2,310

868

866

2,430

2.350 '

871

902

2,460

2,500

886

855

THE QUALITY OF PLANTATION RUBBER 537

in Section XV also had a distinctly lower tensile strength
than the corresponding samples of plain sheet. This point,
which is of considerable importance, can be further con-
sidered when the results of the examination of further
samples of smoked rubber now under investigation at the
Imperial Institute are available. It is, however, of interest
to note that other samples of smoked Para sheet examined
at the Imperial Institute have given very good physical
results, and in some cases vulcanised fairly rapidly, as will
be seen from the following figures :

Description.
Smoked ribbed sheet .

Time of cure.

Tensile strength.

Elongation,

Minutes.

lb.

per sq. in.

Per cent.

100

2,450

870

2,450

892

100

2,340

864

. 65

2,650

862

The samples prepared by the addition of an alkaline
solution of creosote to the latex before coagulation are
practically identical in time of cure and physical properties
with the plain sheet, and if this method of preparation is
advantageous in preventing the development of moulds
during drying it may prove useful in practice.

The reason for the increased time of cure of the smoked
samples is not at present evident, but some conclusion
on this point may be possible as the result of further
investigation.

Section XII. Smoked Eubber prepared by the Brazilian,
Wickham and B3rrne Processes

Series 1

Date of experiment : December 4, 19 13.

Rainfall : 0*33 in.

Percentage of dry rubber in latex : 31.

No. 70. Brazilian Process. — The latex from one day's
tapping only was used in order that the specimen might be
comparable with those prepared by the Wickham and Byrne
processes.

No. 71. Wickham Process. — The average temperature of
the smoke-jet was about 140° F. It was found to be ex-
tremely difficult to control the smoke. If the smoke was
not sufficiently hot the latex did not coagulate, and, on the

538 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

other hand, the fire was liable to flare up and cause an
exceedingly hot blast to impinge on the band of rubber.

Nos. 72-75. Byrne Process. — Four specimens were pre-
pared by this process. In two of these the latex was
coagulated in the Michie-GoUedge machine, as the wet
rubber thus obtained was stated by the inventor of the
Byrne process to be peculiarly suitable for the treatment
owing to its porosity and its power of rapidly absorbing
the fumes. The other two samples were prepared by
coagulating the latex in the standard way.

No. 72. — One gallon of latex was diluted with 2 gallons of
water and coagulated with 33 drams of acetic acid (i to 7)
in the Michie-Golledge machine ; the rubber was then cut
into worm, Byrne-cured, partially dried, and pressed into
block.

No. y^. — Prepared in exactly the same way as No. 72^
but the rubber was completely dried before being pressed
into block.

No. 74. — The latex was diluted till it contained 15 per
cent, of rubber, and was then coagulated with the standard
amount of acetic acid ; the rubber was craped and Byrne-
cured.

No. 75. — The latex was coagulated in the same way as
No. 74, but the rubber was cut into worm, Byrne-cured,
partially dried, and pressed into block.

Samples Nos. 72, 73 and 75 were pressed at the same
time in a screw-press, in order to ensure exactly similar
treatment in each case.

Three other samples which had been prepared in some
preliminary experiments with the Byrne process were also
forwarded. These three specimens, numbered 102, 103, and
104, were described as follows :

No. 102. — Worm block, Byrne-cured. Treated for i hour.

No. 103. „ „ „ „ „ 2 hours.

No. 10^. „ „ „ „ „ 3 hours.

Series II

Date of experiment : January 23, 1914.

Rainfall : 092 in.

Percentage of dry rubber in latex : 31,

THE QUALITY OF PLANTATION RUBBER 539

No. 151. — Brazilian process.

No. 152. — Wickham process.

No. 153.— Worm, Byrne-cured, then blocked.

No. 154. — Byrne-cured sheet. Time of drying : 3 weeks.

No. 184. — Byrne-cured crepe. Time of drying : 4 weeks.

No, 185.— Crepe as used for No. 184.

The various samples in Section XII were submitted to
vulcanisation and mechanical tests with the results shown
in Table XI. The effect of preparing the rubber by the
different processes is discussed below.

Remarks on Section XII

Brazilian Process, — The samples of rubber prepared by
the Brazilian method have given practically identical results
in the two Series. The figures for tensile strength are
rather below the average results obtained for plain un-
smoked sheet. The samples, however, can scarcely be
regarded as typical of rubber prepared by the Brazilian
method, as they were very small and lost less than 2*5 per
cent, on washing, whereas fine hard Para from Brazil loses
up to 20 per cent, on washing. The time of vulcanisation
is shorter in each case than is usual for dry smoked sheet.

Wickham Process. — The rubber prepared by the Wick-
ham process in both Series is of good quality, and cures
more rapidly than dry smoked sheet. In the light of the
results obtained with wet creosoted rubbers {see Sections
XIV and XVI, pp. 547 and 554), it seems likely that the
comparatively rapid curing of these specimens of Wickham
block rubber is connected in some way with their moist
condition (the samples lost about 10 per cent, on washing).

Byrne Process. — The rubbers prepared by the Byrne pro-
cess have given very irregular results. On the whole, the
mechanical properties of the vulcanised rubber are below
the average, and it is evident that this process, like ordinary
smoking, increases the time of vulcanisation. This is well
shown by the regular increase in the time of vulcanisation
of specimens Nos. 102, 103 and 104, which were submitted
to I, 2, and 3 hours' Byrne treatment, and required no,
120 and 140 minutes respectively for correct vulcanisation.
Sample No. 104 had the longest time of vulcanisation

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542 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

(140 minutes) yet found in the examination of these Ceylon
rubbers.

In this connection it may be of interest to record the
results obtained with a sample of "Byrne loaf" rubber
kindly presented to the Imperial Institute by the Dunlop
Rubber Company. This rubber was in rectangular cakes,
apparently formed by pressing sheet rubber, and lost about
4 per cent, (chiefly moisture) when washed. On testing,
the following results were obtained :

Description. Time of vulcanisation. Tensile strength. Elongation. Permanent set.
Minutes. Ib.persq. in. Percent. Percent.

Byrne loaf 80 2,330 874 3*57

The sample is, therefore, about as good as average
quality sheet, the results of the mechanical tests being
better than the average values for the specimens of the
Byrne-cured rubber included in Series I and II. The
rapidity of vulcanisation of the " Byrne loaf," compared
with that of the samples prepared in Ceylon, is probably
connected in some way with its moist condition (see remarks
on Sections XIV and XVI, pp. 547 and 554).

(7) Experiments to determine the Effect of drying
Sheet Rubber under Tension

Section XIII. Effect of stretching Sheet Rubber during drying

The rubber was prepared in sheet by the usual method,
and was then stretched to a definite extent during drying.
The stretching was effected by means of a wooden frame.

Series I

Date of experiment : December 7, 191 3.

Rainfall : 0-65 in.

Percentage of dry rubber in the latex : 32*5.

No. 76. — Sheet dried in the usual way without stretch-
ing. Time of drying : 3 weeks.

No. Tj. — Sheet stretched during drying to \\ times its
original length. Time of drying : about 18 days.

No, 78. — Sheet stretched during drying to \\ times its
original length. Time of drying : about 18 days.

THE QUALITY OF PLANTATION RUBBER 543

Series II

Date of experiment : January 2, 1914.

Rainfall : nil.

Percentage of dry rubber in latex : 32.

No, 155. — Sheet dried in the usual way without tension.
Time of drying : 3 weeks.

No. 156. — Sheet stretched during drying to \\ times its
original length. Time of drying : 14-18 days.

No. 157.— Sheet stretched during drying to ij times its
original length. Time of drying : 14-18 days.

Table XII shows the results of vulcanisation and me-
chanical tests with the specimens included in Section XII I.

Remarks on Section XIII

The results given by the samples of sheet rubber dried
under tension do not indicate that there is any advantage
in this method of treatment. No improvement in the
tensile strength appears to be brought about by stretching
the sheet during drying. The rate of drying is slightly
accelerated by the tension.

(8) Experiments to determine the Effect of rolling
UP Sheet Rubber, both Wet and Dry, with and
WITHOUT Tension

Section XIV. Effect of rolling unsmoked Sheet Rubber up
under Tension

The rubber was prepared in sheet by the usual method,
and was then rolled up under varying degrees of tension ;
in some cases the rubber was dried before being rolled up,
whilst in others it was rolled wet. The tension was kept
constant during the rolling process by means of a spring
balance.

Series I

Date of experiment : December 10, 191 3.
Rainfall : nil.

Percentage of dry rubber in latex 131.
No. 79. — Sheet dried in the usual way.

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546 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

No. 80.— Sheet dried in the usual way, and then rolled
up without tension.

No. 81. — Sheet dried in the usual way, and then rolled
up under tension sufficient to stretch it to i\ times its
original length.

No. 82. — Sheet dried in the usual way, and then rolled
up under tension sufficient to stretch it to ij times its
original length.

Samples Nos. 79-82 took about 3 weeks to dry.

No. 83. — Sheet rolled up wet, direct from machine, with-
out tension.

No. 84. — Sheet rolled up wet under tension sufficient to
stretch it to ij times its original length.

No. 85. — Sheet rolled up wet under tension sufficient to
stretch it to ij times its original length.

In Nos. 83, 84 and 85, 0*125 per cent, of creosote in
caustic soda solution was added to the latex prior to coagu-
lation (c/ No. 69, p. 535).

Series II

Date of experiment : January 17, 1914.

Rainfall : nil.

Percentage of dry rubber in latex : 34.

No. 158. — Sheet dried in the usual way. Time of drying:
3 weeks.

No. 159.— Sheet dried in the usual way, and then rolled
up without tension.

No. 160. — Sheet dried in the usual way, and then rolled
up under tension sufficient to stretch it to ij times its
original length.

No. 161. — Sheet dried in the usual way, and then rolled
up under tension sufficient to stretch it to ij times its
original length.

No. 162. — Sheet rolled up wet without tension.

No. 163. — Sheet rolled up wet under tension sufficient to
stretch it to 1} times its original length.

No. 164. — Sheet rolled up wet under tension sufficient to
stretch it to ij times its original length.

In the case of Nos. 162, 163 and 164, 025 per cent, of

THE QUALITY OF PLANTATION RUBBER 547

creosote in caustic soda solution was added to the latex
before coagulation.

The results of vulcanisation and mechanical tests of the
specimens included in Section XIV are shown in Table XII.

Remarks on Section XIV

These trials were made with the object of checking the
results of a previous experiment in Ceylon, which appeared
to indicate that the rolling up of sheet rubber under tension
had a very marked advantageous effect on the tensile
strength of the vulcanised product. It is obvious, how-
ever, from the results now recorded, that the rolling up of
dry sheet rubber, with or without tension, had no effect either
on the time of vulcanisation or on the mechanical properties
of the vulcanised rubber, the figures for the rolled samples
being practically identical with those of the control sheet.
When, however, the sheet rubber (creosoted) was rolled up
wet, the tensile strength was unaltered or slightly in-
creased, but a very marked effect on the time of vulcanisation
was produced ; in fact, the wet rolled samples required for
correct vulcanisation only a little more than half the time
required for the dry control sheet prepared from the same
latex. These facts will be seen from the following state-
ment giving the average figures obtained in Series I and II

Time of

Tensile

Elongation.

Permanent

vulcanisation.

strength.

set.

Minutes at
SO lb. pressure.

lb. per sq. in.

Per cent.

Elongation
per cent.

Plain dry sheet, no creosote.

Series I, C 12.

2,470

881

2-II

„ II,C2i. . .

2,450

879

271

Rolled dry sheet, no creo-

sote.

Series I, Nos. 80, 81, 82.

2,430

862

274

„ II, Nos. 159, 160,

161 ... .

2,490

874

2-21

Rolled wet sheet, with creo-

sote.

Series I, Nos. 83, 84, 85 .

2,430

867

2-93

„ II, Nos. 162, 163,

164 .. . \

2,600

882

2-58

The results obtained in Section XI (p. 536) showed that
the addition of creosote to the latex does not affect either

548

BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

the vulcanising or mechanical properties of the rubber
when the latter is prepared in the form of dry sheet. In
the present Section the sheet rubber prepared with creosote
but rolled up wet is quite equal in mechanical properties
to the dry sheet, but the time of vulcanisation is very con-
siderably reduced. It would appear, therefore, that this
acceleration of the rate of vulcanisation has been brought
about in some way by the rubber remaining in a moist con-
dition. In this connection it is of interest to note that in
Section XVI the time of vulcanisation of the blocks of wet
crepe rubber (creosoted) was shorter than that of the blocks
made from dry crepe under similar conditions, but the
difference in time of vulcanisation is not so large as in the
present Section.

Analyses were made of all the rubbers in Section XIV
with the object of seeing whether any relationship could be
traced between their chemical composition and the time of
vulcanisation. The analyses were made on the dry washed
rubber, and the results are given in the following table :

Serial

Form of rubber.

Loss on

washing.

Composition of dry, washed rubber.

No.

Caoutchouc.

Resin.

Proteins.

Ash.

Per cent.

80
81

83
84
85

CI2

Roll, dry

Roll, wet, creosoted

Control sheet

Series I.

9518

228

2'37

1-3

9496

248

239

1-2

9507

246

233

93-88

4-04

184

94-25

361

1-93

9-8

9375

413

192

95'oo

2-48

229

017

017
0*14
0*24

0-2I
020
0-23

Series II.

159
160
161
162

164
C21

Roll, dry

Roll, wet, creosoted

Control sheet

0'9

94-24

3-10

2-39

94'34

3-03

2-39

0-8

9439

292

2-46

100

9471

300

204

8-9

9384

3-65

226

100

9415

3-44

2-17

0-8

94-33

2-97

2-45

0-27
0*24
023

0*25
0-25
024
025

It will be seen from these figures that the moist creo-
soted rubbers lose from 8-7 to 10 per cent, on washing
(principally moisture) compared with a loss of only o'8 to
1*3 per cent, from the dry rolls.

THE QUALITY OF PLANTATION RUBBER 549

The average composition of these two classes of rubber
is given in the following table :

Caoutchouc.

Resin.

Proteins.

Timeofvulcanisat

P«r cent.

Per cent.

Minutes at 50 lb,
pressure.

Series I.

Roll, dry

95-07

2-40

2-36

„ wet

93-96

3-92

1-89

Series II.

Roll, dry

94-32

3'oi

2*41

„ wet

94-23

3-36

2-i6

A comparison of these figures does not suggest any
direct relation between the average percentages of caout-
chouc and the variation in the time of vulcanisation. In
Series II the percentages of caoutchouc are practically
identical in the two sets of samples, while in Series I the
difference is only I'l per cent.

The percentages of resin in the wet rubber are higher
in both cases than in the dry, but whereas the difference is
considerable in Series I it is only small in Series II. It is,
however, of interest that the quicker vulcanising rubber
in each Series contains the higher percentage of resin.

It will also be seen from the figures that the two groups
of wet rubber contain a lower percentage of proteins than
the corresponding groups of dry rubber, and that the
increase in the time of vulcanisation is associated with an
increase in the average amount of proteins. In each Series
the rubber containing the least proteins vulcanises in the
shortest time.

So far as these specimens in Section XIV are concerned
it may be said that the wet rubber has a short time of
vulcanisation, and contains more resin and less proteins
than the dry rubber which has a longer time of vulcanisation.

The majority of the samples in Section XIV were too
small to allow of further work being done with reference
to the differences in the amounts of resin and proteins, and
their possible relation to the variation in the time of vul-
canisation, but another set of similar samples is at present
under investigation. Some experiments have, however,
been made as regards proteins with a fair-sized roll of wet
creosoted rubber which Mr. Campbell brought to the
Imperial Institute. A sample cut from the moist inn^r

550 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

portion of this roll was carefully washed, and it was found
that the wash water contained soluble nitrogenous sub-
stances (giving a positive reaction with Millon's reagent for
proteins) equivalent to o'li per cent, of proteins on the dry
rubber, showing conclusively that washing removes some
proteins from rubber which has been kept in a moist con-
dition. This loss of proteins was also confirmed by the
results of analyses of the rubber before and after washing,
as shown in the following table :

Composition of dry, washed rubber.
Form of Rubber. Treatment. Caoutchouc. Resin. Proteins. Ash.

Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent.

Wet roll, moist inner

portion . . Not washed 95*i8 2'67 2*05 0*23

V^^et roll, moist inner

portion . . W^ashed 94*53 3'34 I'QO 0*20

These results, together with those given in the table of
analyses on p. 548, indicate (i) that when rubber is allowed
to remain in a wet condition after coagulation proteins are
removed by subsequent washing ; and (2) that the wet
rubber, after washing, contains less proteins than the
corresponding specimen dried in the ordinary way after
coagulation, and subsequently washed.

It cannot, however, be concluded that a short time of
vulcanisation is always associated with a low percentage of
proteins, as rubber containing comparatively large amounts
of proteins has also been found to vulcanise rapidly.
This is particularly noticeable in the case of a sample of
rubber prepared in Ceylon by the evaporation of latex in a
vacuum, which was described as follows : " Rubber pre-
pared by evaporating to dryness (in vacuum drier) latex
containing about 33 per cent, dry rubber : all the non-
volatile constituents of the latex are therefore present."

The results of the examination of this specimen are
given in the following table :

Not washed.

Washed.'

Caoutchouc .

. per cent.

9201

92-13

Resin .

. per cent.

2-37

303

Proteins

. per cent.

4-26

3-64

Ash . . .

. per cent.

1-36

r2o

Time of vulcanisation

. minutes at

SO lb.

pressure 30

Tensile strength .

. lb. per sq.

in.

2,310

2,410

Elongation .

. per cent.

885

873

Permanent set

. per cent.

4*43

4'oo

THE QUALITY OF PLANTATION RUBBER 551

In this case the time of vulcanisation was very short,
although the sample contained a larger amount of proteins
than is usual in plantation Para rubber. A considerable
amount of proteins (14*5 per cent, of the total) was lost
during washing, but its removal had no appreciable effect
on the time of vulcanisation.

This sample of rubber was in the form of thin sheet,
and was nearly dry when examined, losing only 1*32 per
cent, on washing. No information was supplied as to the
time taken in drying the rubber, and particulars on this
point would be of interest.

Possibly the investigation of the further samples of wet
creosoted rubbers now under examination will throw more
light on the cause of this variation in the time of vulcanisa-
tion, but it is obvious that much further work on this most
important point will be needed.

Section XV. Effect of rolling Smoked Sheet Rubber np
under Tension

The rubber was made into sheet, some of which was
smoked for 2 days and another portion until dry (2
weeks); the sheet was then rolled up with and without
tension.

Series I

Date of experiment : December 13, 191 3.

Rainfall : 0*36 in.

Percentage of dry rubber in latex : 31.

No. ^6. — Sheet dried in usual way ; not smoked. Time
of drying : 3 weeks.

No. 87. — Sheet smoked until dry (2 weeks) and rolled up
without tension.

No. 88.— Sheet smoked until dry (2 weeks) and rolled
up under tension sufficient to stretch it to i J times its
original length.

No. 89.— Sheet smoked for 2 days and rolled up without
tension.

No, 90.— Sheet smoked for 2 days and rolled up under
tension sufficient to stretch it to ij times its original length

552 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Series II

Date of experiment : January 5, 1914.

Rainfall : nil.

Percentage of dry rubber in latex : 30.

No. 165. — Sheet dried in the usual way ; not smoked.

No. 166. — Sheet smoked until dry (14 days) and rolled
up without tension.

No. 167. — Sheet smoked until dry (14 days) and rolled
up under tension sufficient to stretch it to \\ times its
original length.

No, 168. — Sheet smoked until partially dry (2 days) and
then rolled up without tension.

No. 169. — Sheet smoked until partially dry (2 days) and
then rolled up under tension sufficient to stretch it to \\
times its original length.

The results of vulcanisation and mechanical tests of the
specimens included in Section XV are shown in Table XII.

Remarks on Section XV

The effect of smoking in lengthening the time of vulcani-
sation is again evident, and in the mechanical tests all the
smoked samples gave results inferior to those furnished by
the plain unsmoked sheet from the same latex (cf. Section
XI, p. 536). The rolling up of the rubber under tension
again appeared to have no decided effect on the time of
vulcanisation or the mechanical properties.

The samples which were only partially dried by smok-
ing for two days before rolling vulcanised more rapidly than
those which were smoked till dry and then rolled. In the
present case it is not possible to say whether this is due to
the moist condition of the partially dried samples (the
specimens were not appreciably moist when examined at
the Imperial Institute), or to the fact that they were only
smoked for a short period.

(9) Experiments to determine the Effect of converting
Wet and Dry Crepe Rubber into Block

Section XVI
In this section wet or dry crepe was converted into
block, using different pressures and times. The latex was

THE QUALITY OF PLANTATION RUBBER 553

coagulated in the usual way; the rubber was first rolled
out with the Golledge hand-roller, craped three times, and
then passed through the smooth rollers.

Series I

Date of experiment : December 22, 191 3.

Rainfall : 007 in.

Percentage of dry rubber in latex : 35*5.

E. I. — Crepe used for these experiments. Time of
drying : i week.

No. 91. — Dry crepe pressed into block ; J hour at J ton
per square in.

No. 92.— Dry crepe pressed into block ; i hour at J ton
per square in.

No. 93. — Dry cr6pe pressed into block ; J hour at i ton
per square in.

No. 94. — Wet crepe pressed into block ; i hour at J ton
per square in.

No. 95. — Wet crepe pressed into block ; J hour at i ton
per square in.

In Nos. 94 and 95 a quantity of alkaline solution of
creosote was added to the latex before coagulation, so that
the latex contained 0*25 per cent, of creosote.

Series II

Date of experiment : January 17, 1914.

Rainfall : nil.

Percentage of dry rubber in latex : 34.

E2. — Crepe used for these experiments. Time of dry-
ing : about i week.

No. 170.— Dry crepe pressed into block ; \ hour at J ton
per square in.

No. 171. — Dry crepe pressed into block; i hour at \ ton
per square in.

No. 172. — Dry crepe pressed into block ; \ hour at i ton
per square in.

No. 173. — Wet crepe pressed into block; \ hour at J ton
per square in.

No. 174.— Wet crepe pressed into block; \ hour at i ton
per square in.

554 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

In the case of Nos. 173 and 174, 0*25 percent, of creosote,
in caustic soda solution, was added to the latex before
coagulation.

The crepe in all cases was passed 5 times through
rough rollers, and then once through smooth rollers.

The specimens in Section XVI were submitted to vul-
canisation and mechanical tests with the results shown in
Table XIII.

Remarks on Section XVI

The compressing of dry crepe into block evidently has
very little effect on the time of vulcanisation or the me-
chanical properties of the rubber. It will be noticed that
all the dried crepe rubbers take longer to vulcanise than
plain sheet from the same latex, but that they give very
similar results for tensile strength and elongation.

When the crepe is pressed in the moist state the result-
ing wet block vulcanises in a much shorter time than the
dry crepe or block, and this difference in the time of vul-
canisation again appears to be connected in some way with
the moist condition of the rubber (cf. Section XIV, p. 547).

The method of pressing wet creosoted crepe into block
may, therefore, prove advantageous as a means of shorten-
ing the time of vulcanisation in comparison with that of
the dry crepe. The long time of vulcanisation required by
ordinary dry crepe is not in its favour. Moreover, the
results of the examination of the specimens in this Section
indicate that the wet crepe block may be slightly superior
in tensile strength to the dry crepe or dry crepe block, as
will be seen by the following average figures :

'ensile strength.

Elongation.

lb, per sq. in.

Per cent.

2,390

874

2,300

875

2,470

872

Dry crepe ....
Dry crSpe block
Wet crSpe block .

(10) Experiments to determine the Effect of separating
THE Rubber from the Latex in Successive Portions

Section XVII

The rubber was obtained from the latex by spontaneous
coagulation or by the addition of acetic or hydrofluoric acid.

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555

556 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

All the samples were craped in exactly the same way, five
times through the rough rollers and once through the
smooth rollers.

Series I

Date of experiment : December 28, 191 3.

Rainfall : nil.

Percentage of dry rubber in latex : 32' 5.

Spontaneous coagulation.

No. 96. — First clot ; separated in the evening of the day
on which the latex was collected.

No, 97. — Second clot ; separated the day after the collec-
tion of the latex.

Time of drying : No. 96, about 3 weeks ; No. 97, about
2 weeks.

Acetic Acid Coagulation in Michie-Golledge Machine.

No. 98.-— First clot.

No. 99. — Second clot.

Separate clots could not be obtained by the ordinary
method of coagulation with acetic acid, as the coagulation
is too uniform. Two gallons of latex were, therefore,
mixed with four gallons of water, 66 drams of acetic acid
(i in 7) were added, and coagulation was effected in the
Michie-Golledge machine. The first clot was removed in
4 to 5j minutes, and the second in 5J to 7 minutes after the
drum started revolving.

Time of drying : about i week in each case.

Hydrofluoric Acid Coagulation in Michie-Golledge Machine,

No, 100. — First clot.

No, loi. — Second clot.

The coagulation in this case also was effected in the
Michie-Golledge machine, if gallons of latex were mixed
with 3i gallons of water and 1,200 c.c. of Purub solution
(containing approximately 0*4 per cent, of hydrofluoric
acid), that is to say, about o'o6 gram of hydrofluoric acid,
were used to each 100 c.c. of latex {cj. p. 502). The first
clot was removed after 5 minutes, and the second clot after
8 minutes.

Time of drying : about i week in each case.

THE QUALITY OF PLANTATION RUBBER 557

Series II
Date of experiment : January 26, 1914.
Rainfall : nil.
Percentage of dry rubber in latex : 32.

Spontaneous Coagulation.

No. 175. — First clot.

No, 176. — Second clot ; removed in the evening of the
day on which the latex was collected. Time of drying :
10 days.

No. 177. — Third clot ; removed the next morning. Time
of drying : 10 days.
Acetic Acid Coagulation in the Michie-Golledge Machine.

No. 178. — First clot, removed after 2 to 3 minutes.

No. 179. — Second clot, removed after 3 to 5 minutes.

No. 180. — Third clot (residual), removed after 5 to 8
minutes.

Hydrofluoric Acid Coagulation in Michie-Golledge Machine.

No. 181. — First clot, removed after 3 to 4 minutes.

No. 182. — Second clot, removed after 4 to 5 minutes.

No. 183. — Third clot (residual), removed after 5 to 7
minutes.

The time of drying of samples Nos. 178 to 183 was
about I week.

The results of vulcanisation and mechanical tests of the
samples included in Section XVII are shown in Table XIII.

Remarks on Section XVII

Spontaneous Coagulation. — This method appears to yield
rubber of good quaUty, as all the specimens, with the ex-
ception of No. 97 (Series I, second clot), have given results
similar to those obtained with plain sheet coagulated with
acetic acid. In Series I the first clot was the stronger, while
in Series II the third clot was the strongest.

It may be noted that these samples, which were all
creped shortly after coagulation, vulcanise comparatively
rapidly in about the same time as the control sheet rubbers,
whereas cr^pe rubbers generally take much longer to vul-
canise than plain sheet. The earlier samples of rubber
prepared by spontaneous coagulation, which were in the

558 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

form of sheet, also vulcanised rapidly (see Nos. 3 and 107,
Section I, p. 504).

Coagulation with Acetic Acid, — In Series 1 the mechanical
results given by the successive clots of rubber coagulated
with acetic acid in the Michie-GoUedge machine are de-
cidedly poor, whereas in Series II they are average figures
although below the results given by the control sheet. In
Series I the first clot was the stronger, while in Series II
the first and second clots were practically equal in tensile
strength. In both Series the time of vulcanisation is
normal for crepe rubber.

Coagulation with Hydrofluoric Acid. — In both Series the
first and second clots have given similar results, but below
the figures for the control sheet in each case.

It would appear from these results that there is no
advantage in fractionally coagulating the latex.

General Discussion of Results

The results obtained in the course of this extensive
series of experiments show that it is in respect of the time
required for correct vulcanisation that plantation Para
rubbers, prepared by different methods, exhibit the greatest
variation. The times of vulcanisation of the specimens
range from 38 to 140 minutes. There are thus wide varia-
tions in the time of vulcanisation required by rubbers
prepared by different methods, and variations are also
shown in this respect by rubbers prepared in exactly the
same manner at different times.

This latter point is well illustrated by the results given
by the various control specimens of Series I and II.

These specimens were prepared at different dates from
latex derived from the same groups of trees ; Series I from
trees 7 years old, and Series II from trees 16 to 20 years
old. The latex was diluted to contain the same percentage
of dry rubber in each case ; coagulation was effected with
the same amount of acetic acid throughout ; and the rubber
was made into sheet and dried in exactly the same way
(see p. 498). The results of the vulcanisation and physical
tests, together with the chemical composition of these
specimens, are shown in Tables XIV and XV.

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S60

THE QUALITY OF PLANTATION RUBBER 561

A comparison of these average figures shows that there
is no difiference in the physical properties of the vulcanised
control samples of Series I and Series II. The time of
vulcanisation is, on the average, somewhat greater in the
case of the rubber from the older trees (Series II), but it is
not possible at present to connect this variation definitely
with the age of the trees. In chemical composition no
appreciable difference exists between the rubber from the
old and young trees.

It is evident, however, that fairly considerable variations
in the vulcanising properties of the rubber occur among the
control specimens of each Series, and the following sum-
mary gives the maximum, minimum and average values
found for the time of vulcanisation, tensile strength and
elongation :

Series I (18 specimens)

Maximum.
Time of vulcanisation . . minutes 80
Tensile strength . . lb. per sq. in, 2,600
Elongation .... percent. 899

Series II (8 specimens)

Maximum.
Time of vulcanisation . . minutes 75

Tensile strength . . lb, per sq. in. 2,520
Elongation .... percent. 897

' This was the only value below 2,300 lb.

' Over-cured {No. C i^X

' Probably under-cured {No. CiS) ; this was the only value below 2,290 lb.

These results indicate that very marked variations in the
time of vulcanisation may occur even in rubbers prepared
at different times from the same group of trees under
identical conditions. In the control samples of Series I
the time of cure varies from 55 to 80 minutes, the maximum
time being 45 per cent, greater than the minimum period.
In Series II the variation in the time of vulcanisation is
much less — from 67 to 75 minutes, or an increase of only
12 per cent. It would appear from these results that the
rubber from the older trees shows less variation in time of
vulcanisation than that from the younger trees, but it must
be remembered in this connection that there were a larger
number of control samples in Series I than in Series II

Minimum.

Average.

66-6

2,020 1
828 »

2,390
869

Minimum.

1,950'
855

Average.
7I-0
2,380
875

562

BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

(18 in the former and only 8 in the latter), so that the
chances of variation in the rubber from the younger trees
were correspondingly greater. Further investigation will,
therefore, be required before it can be concluded that rubber
from old trees is less liable to vary in time of vulcanisation
than rubber from younger trees.

The difference in the tensile strength of the control
samples is only small if one specimen in each Series, which
gave abnormally low results, be excluded. Thus in Series I
the tensile strength of 17 out of the 18 control samples
varied only from 2,310 to 2,600 lb., while in Series II the
values for 7 out of the 8 samples ranged from 2,290 to 2,520
lb. The elongation at the breaking point shows only slight
variation in both Series.

In the hope that the chemical composition of the sam-
ples might throw some light on these variations in the time
of vulcanisation and the mechanical properties of the
rubbers, all the control samples were submitted to chemical
analysis, and the results are included in Tables XIV
and XV. From the figures it is evident that the variations
in the composition of plain sheet rubbers, prepared always
in exactly the same way, are very small, and the following
summary gives the maximum, minimum and average values
for caoutchouc, resin, proteins and ash in both Series :

Caoutchouc
Resin
Proteins .
Ash

Maximum.

Minimum.

Average.

Per cent.

Pet cent.

95-36

93'6o

94-58

3*47

2-30

2-88

2-68

2 '02

2-32

0-31

0-I5

0-235

The composition of the quickest and slowest curing
rubbers in the two sets of control samples is given below :

Time of
vulcanisation.

Loss on
washing.

Composition of dry, washed rubber.

Caoutchouc.

Resin.

Proteins.

Ash.

Minutes.

Per cent.

No. C9

0-59

9464

2-66

242

0-28

No. C5

042

9504

2-53

225

o-i8

There does not appear, in the case of these control
specimens, to be any definite connection between the times

THE QUALITY OF PLANTATION RUBBER 563

of vulcanisation or the physical properties of the vulcanised
rubbers and the composition as determined by the methods
at present generally used for the chemical examination of
raw rubber.

With reference to the whole of the samples included in
Series I and II the majority gave excellent results in the
tensile strength tests, which may be summarised as follows:

Tensile Strength. Number of Specimens.

lb. per sq. in.

Under 2,000 ....... 20

2,000-2,099 10

2,100-2,199 21

2,200-2,299 4^^

2,300-2,399 56

2,400-2,499 45

2,500-2,599 14

Over 2,600 3

The specimens which gave a result under 2,000 lb. per
sq. in. included 5 samples of scrap rubber and 8 samples
in Section I, Series II which gave abnormally low results.
Excluding these 13 samples the approximate average
tensile strength is 2,320 lb. per sq. in.

From all the results so far obtained it appears fairly safe
to assume that a rubber of good average quality should
give a tensile strength of from 2,300 to 2,400 lb. per sq. in.
It will be seen from the preceding table that out of a total
of 205 specimens (exclusive of the scrap rubbers) 118 have
had tensile strengths of 2,300 lb. per sq. in. or over, while
62 samples have given values of 2,400 lb. per sq. in. or over,
r No very great variation in the elongation at the break-
ing point has been observed among the samples examined.
The average value for the whole of the specimens is 870
per cent., and the maximum value is about 900 per cent.
The figures obtained for all the samples in Series I and II,
and also for other specimens of plantation Para rubber
examined at the Imperial Institute, indicate that it is un-
usual to find a correctly cured specimen with an elongation
of under 850 or over 900 per cent, (with the standard
methods of testing used).

The permanent set was determined for 131 samples, and
the values obtained ranged from 1*53 to 4*99 per cent. ; only
22*

564 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

one sample gave a value above 4 per cent, and only sixteen
above 3 per cent.

General Conclusions

The more important conclusions which have been
reached during the course of the present enquiry are
summarised below :

(i) Spontaneous coagulation of the latex usually yields
rubber of good quality which cures quickly, but the
method is scarcely suitable for practical use.

(2) Scrap rubber ^ from the trees has invariably given a
low tensile strength after vulcanisation.

(3) Acetic acid is quite satisfactory as a coagulant, and,
so far as the vulcanising and mechanical properties of the
rubber are concerned, there would appear to be no advan-
tage in using any other acid in place of it. Further, excess
of acetic acid is less likely to adversely affect the rubber
than excess of some acids, such as sulphuric acid.

(4) Plain unsmoked sheet rubber is usually of excellent
quality, the vulcanised product having as a rule a tensile
strength of 2,300 to 2,400 lb. per sq. in. The rubber also
vulcanises fairly rapidly, the average time under the con-
ditions of the present series of tests being about 70 minutes.

(5) Crepe rubber invariably takes a much longer time
to vulcanise (105 to 130 minutes) than the corresponding
plain sheet from the same latex, and this effect is brought
about even if the freshly coagulated rubber is only passed
through the rough rollers four times. The mechanical
properties of crepe rubber after vulcanisation are very
frequently inferior to those of the corresponding plain
sheet.

(6) The " over-working " of the freshly coagulated
rubber in the preparation of crepe (up to 70 times through
the rough rollers) has very little effect on the mechanical
properties of the vulcanised rubber, and only slightly
increases the time of vulcanisation compared with that of
cr^pe made by passing through the rough rollers only 5 or
7 times.

' This scrap was sent to the Imperial Institute without being washed or
worked, crude impurities only being removed by hand.

THE QUALITV OF PLANTATION RUBBER 565

(7) Thick cr^pe rubber, made by rolling together
several pieces of thin crepe, does not differ from the latter
in time of vulcanisation, and the differences in tensile
strength are not very marked or constant. Thick cr^pe,
made by rolling out the coagulum to the required thickness,
usually vulcanises in a shorter time than the corresponding
thin crepe.

(8) Different methods of drying (air-drying at the
ordinary temperature, drying in hot air, and in vacuo) have
very little effect on the time of vulcanisation or the tensile
strength of the rubber,

(9) The smoking of sheet rubber increases the time of
vulcanisation very considerably, and in some cases appears
to affect adversely the mechanical properties of the vulcan-
ised product.

(10) The addition of an alkaline solution of creosote to
the latex before coagulation does not affect in any way the
properties of the dry sheet rubber.

(11) The Wickham and Byrne processes do not appear
to offer any advantages so far as the mechanical properties
of the vulcanised product are concerned.

(12) Pressing the dry rubber into block or rolling it up
with or without tension has very little effect on the time of
vulcanisation or on the mechanical properties.

(13) There is no marked difference in the time of vul-
canisation or physical properties between the rubbers
obtained by coagulating latex in two or three fractions.

(14) Rubber which is allowed to remain in a wet con-
dition after coagulation (creosote having been added as a
preservative) appears to have invariably a short time of
vulcanisation, and to give very good mechanical results
after vulcanisation. Such rubber loses some proteins on
washing. In these cases the rapidity of vulcanisation
appears to be related in some way to the moist condition
of the rubber, and in some specimens the time of vulcanisa-
tion varies with the percentage of proteins, the sample
containing the lowest amount of proteins vulcanising in the
shortest time. It is, however, impossible at present to
connect these facts definitely, as a sample of rubber pre-
pared by evaporating the latex in vacuo^ which contained a

566 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

very large amount of proteins, also had a very short time
of vulcanisation. Further work on this important point
will be required, but if in the meantime a quick vulcanising
rubber with good mechanical properties is desired by
manufacturers it would appear that it could be obtained
by pressing wet creosoted sheet into blocks of suitable
size.

(15) It is not yet possible to suggest a method of
obtaining rubber with a uniform rate of vulcanisation, as
samples made under exactly similar conditions at different
times vary considerably in this respect. The bulking of
the product obtained over a considerable period would
appear at present to be the only practicable way of
approximating to this result, until further research has
thrown more light on the fundamental conditions in rubber
which influence rate of vulcanisation.

THE DISTILLATION OF WOOD AND OTHER
VEGETABLE PRODUCTS

It was pointed out in an article on the *' Utilisation of
Waste Wood," published in this Bulletin some years ago
(1909,7, 73), that the distillation of wood is an industry that
might well be extended in the British Empire, and brief
reference was made to the position of the industry in
Canada and Australia, and to its possibilities in Natal
and India. Since that time, however, comparatively little
progress has been made in these countries, though
proposals for the development of this industry have been
made in several of them. Wood distillation at the present
time is being carried on at a number of places in the
United Kingdom, notably at the Government Works in
the Forest of Dean, Gloucestershire ; but this country is
still largely dependent on foreign countries for its supplies
of wood distillation products, which include acetate of
lime, acetic acid, acetone, methyl alcohol, and wood tar.
The imports of these products into the United Kingdom
during the last three years are shown in the following
tables :

THE DlsriLLATlON OF WOOD, ETC.
Imports of Acetate of Lime

567

19^3-

1914.

191S.

From

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Cwls.
Canada .... 62,329
l-nitetl States of America 27,191
Other Foreign Countries . 10,062

31.104

13.648

4.590

Civts.
26,656
51,283

6,372

12,801

23,785

2,333

Cwts.
10,257
84,938
6,072

11,425

69,368

3,445

Total . . . 99,582

49.342

84,311

38,919

101,267

84,238

Imports of Acetic Acid (other than for table use)

From

1913-

1914.

1915.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Canada ....

United States of America

Netherlands

Belgium ....

Germany ....

Other Foreign Countries .

Cwls.

18,912

31,999

18,455

2,634

3,128

22,031

36,700

20,049

3,574

3,436

Cwts.

25,056
28,633

17,772

3,185
3,121

200

31,093

35,179

19,503

3,699

3.972

Cwts.

85,724
11,441

6,102

167,088
39,765

6,828

Total

75,128

85,790

77,917

93,646

103,267

213,681

Imports of Acetone

From

1913.

1914-

1915-

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Canada ....
United States of America
Germany ....
Austria- Hungary
Other Foreign Countries .

Cwts.

7,830
15,924

8,619

13.600

434

£
26,308
58,111
28,153
48,675

1,386

Cwts.
4,939
33,453
4,570
4,202
40

14,513
97,289
13,981
12,870
160

Cwts.
7,880
107,674

25,647

499,230

Total

46,407

162,633

47,204 1 138,813

"5,554

524,877

Imports of Methylic Alcohol {not purified so as to be potable)

From

1913.

1914.

1915.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Canada ....
United States of America
Germany ....
Other Foreign Countries .

Galls.

162,631

297,702

93,500

64,210

18,951

31,327

11,935

7,962

Galls.

82,755

355,881

32,326

26,281

£
9,862

36,140
4,073
3,189

Galls.
650,948
1,400

75.803
247

Total . .

618,043

70,175

497,243

53,264 j 652,348

76,050

S68 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE
Imports of Tar {other than Coal Tar)

From

1913-

1914.

1915.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

United States of America

Russia ....

Sweden ....

Germany

Other b oreign Countries .

Cwts.

16,586
242,125

22,664
2,057
3,232

5,008

76,582

7,672

1,080

Cwts.

12,262

189,811

30,867

331
20,497

4,892

62,911

10,849

IIS

11,757

Cwts.

47,543
181,016

10,953
9,805

22,129

84,947

4,586

6,010

Total . . .

286,664

90,932

253,768

90.524

249,319

117,672

Practically the v^hole of the imports of these substances
are retained for consumption in the United Kingdom, the
total quantity and value of each re-exported during the last
three years being as follows :

1913.

1914.

191S.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Cwts.

Acetate of Lime

400

150

2,299

1,049

—

Acetic Acid (other than

for table use)

—

884

2,210

Acetone ....

1,094

4,007

1,163

3,679

577

3,009

Methylic Alcohol (not puri-

fied so as to be potable)

—

1 90 galls.

—

Tar (other than Coal Tar)

17,382

7,797

20,024

9,194

23,402

13.966

It will be seen that the only country of the Empire
which supplies the United Kingdom with any of these
products is Canada. Our dependence on foreign countries
for these supplies is unsatisfactory, especially in view of
the fact that acetone is required in large quantities for the
manufacture of propellant explosives. During the last year
or two, however, the question of the destructive distillation
of wood and other vegetable substances has been taken up
in certain British countries. In Natal, for instance, it was
proposed to erect a factory for the distillation of wattle
wood and the manufacture of acetone ; but the project is
in abeyance for the time being owing to the war. The
possibility of utilising the wattle wood which accumulates
in connection with the wattle-bark industry in the East
Africa Protectorate has also been considered, and a con-
signment of this wood, as well as of olive wood, which
is used as fuel in the Protectorate, was sent to the
Imperial Institute early this year in order that distillation

THE DISTILLATION OF WOOD, ETC. 569

trials might be carried out. The results of these trials are
given on pages 570-575. In Uganda distillation experiments
were conducted recently with the wood of Podocarpus
milaiijianuSf chiefly with a view to the production of a
substance which could be applied to wood as a pre-
servative against the attacks of white ants.

Large quantities of acetic acid are used in the prepara-
tion of rubber in Ceylon, and, with a view to its production
locally, experiments have been carried out on the distillation
of coconut shells and of vera or viral wood {Hemicyclia
sepiaria, W. A., Nat. Ord. Euphorbiaceae). The former gave
excellent results, the crude aqueous distillate containing
from 8 to 12 per cent, of pure acetic acid, whilst the
creosote produced can be utilised for the preparation of
smoked rubber. A number of estates which grow both
coconuts and rubber have installed small stills for the
distillation of coconut shells, and these are now producing
all the acetic acid required on the estates for the manufac-
ture of rubber. The vera wood is the product of a small
tree or shrub, which is very abundant in the dry forests
in parts of the Northern and North Central Provinces of
Ceylon, in some areas constituting 60 per cent, of the
forest. Owing to its gnarled and knotted character, the
wood is suitable only for fuel or for the production of
charcoal and distillation products. According to the Report
of the Government Chemist (Rep, Dept Agrtc, Ceylon, 1914,
p. 18), distillation trials with the wood gave the following
percentage yields : charcoal 25-0, crude acetic acid liquor
407, tar 1*85. These yields have since been confirmed by
experiments on a larger scale, using 10 tons of the wood.
The crude acetic acid liquor, which had a specific gravity
of 1*022, contained 4*14 per cent, of pure acetic acid, and
could be employed for the manufacture of smoked sheet or
the darker coloured rubbers. By redistilling the crude
liquor, after the addition of fresh charcoal, a pale yellow,
clear solution of acetic acid was obtained which could be
used for the production of ordinary crepe rubber. It is
proposed to erect a small plant for the distillation of
vera wood at a place near the railway in the north of
Ceylon, and as the production and demand develop plants

S70 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

will be erected in other centres. The dry branches and
leaves of the tree yield 6'S per cent, of ash, containing 9 to
10 per cent, of potash, and it is proposed to manufacture
carbonate of potash as a secondary product of the vera tree,
or to utilise the ashes as manure. Specimens of charcoal
and acetate of lime produced in the course of the Ceylon
experiments were received at the Imperial Institute, and
the results of their examination are given on pages 575-577.
In Egypt it is proposed to utilise cotton stalks as a
source of charcoal and distillation products. This will
serve a two-fold purpose, for not only will the cotton stalks
form a source of profit, but their destruction will help to
check the ravages of the pink boll-worm and other pests
(cf. this Bulletin, 1914, 12, 313).

Destructive Distillation Trials with Black Wattle and
Olive Woods from the East Africa Protectorate

The consignments of timber received at the Imperial
Institute for trial were as follows :

No. I. Biack Wattle Wood.—WQighi^ i ton. This con-
sisted of straight logs 3 ft. in length and from 2J to 6 in.
in diameter.

No. 2. Olive Wood. — Weight, i ton. This consisted of
logs of irregular shape, about 3 ft. in length, and from 2^ to
8 in. in diameter. The wood was very hard.

The timbers were subjected to preliminary examination
before distillation, and gave the following results :

""'"wood."'' Olive wood.
Weight per cubic foot . . . . 47 lb. 64 lb.

Moisture .... percent. 8*6 I3'8

Calorific value, small calories . 4,200 4*205

„ British Thermal Units . 7»56o 7,569

Distillation trials with the timbers were carried out in
the Imperial Institute laboratories under conditions as
nearly as possible approaching those which would exist in
a modern wood distillation works. Several trials were
made with each kind of wood, and comparative trials were
also made under the same conditions with waste oak and
pine (deal) which are distilled on a large scale in England
and the behaviour of which is well known. The results
are summarised in the three following tables :

IHE DISTILLATION Ol- WOOD, ETC.

S7I

Table I

Black Wattle Wood

(^Moisture itt Wood 8*6 per cent.)

Mean of

I. II.

III.

I. and II.

Time required for distilla-

tion ....

4 hours

4i hours.

7 hours.

Weight of wood distilled

4 lb.

Per

P«r

Per

Products :

cent, by

cent, on

cent, by

cent, on

cent, by

cent, on \ cent, by

cent, on

\ vueight.

wood.

iveight.

wood.

xvcight.

wood. \ weight.

wood.

Charcoal.

28-8

—

2'>-8

—

28-1 ; —

27*3

Crude pyroligneous acid .

! —

48-6

—

47*9

—

46*5

—

4«'3

Containing :

Acetic acid .

q-8

4-8

9'5

4-6

8-9

4'i

Methyl alcohol .

2-,s6

I 26

2-45

I-I7

260

I •21

2*52

I -21

Acetone

0-50

0*24

0-49

0-24

0-62

0-29

0-50

0'24

Dissolved tar

II-6

117

S-6

10-9

5*1

117

Tar, separated

S'»

6-2

—

5'2 ! —

Containing acetic acid .

0*35

S-8

0-36

0-31 i 59

0*36

Total yield of tar .

—

"'5

II-8

—

10-3

—

117

Total )aeld of acetic acid

—

5'2

—

5-0

—

4'4

Note. — 77te third distillation was made to determine the effect 0/ a slow distilla-
tion on the yields. The yield of acetic acid was appreciably lower ^ and
consequently this procedure is not to be recommended.

Table II

Olive Wood
{Moisture in Wood^ 13-8 per cent.)

II.

III.

IV.

Mean.

Time required for

distillation

4^ hours.

5l hours.

7 hours.

5I hours.

Weight of wood

distilled .

61b.

4 lb.

61b.

Per

P.r

Per

Products :

cent, by

cent, on

cent, by

cent, on

cent, by

cent, on

cent, by

cent, on

cent, by

cent, on

weight.

wood.

weight.

wood.

weight.

wood.

weight.

wood.

weight.

wood.

Charcoal

—

286

307

— -

27-0

—

28-1

28-6

Crude pyrolig-

neous acid

—

46-4

—

461

—

47 '2

—

46-4

—

46-s

Containing :

Acetic acid

6-6

3-0

3*1

5 "9

2-8

6-2

2*9

6-4

3*o

Methyl alcohol

3-52

1-63

3-56

1-64

—

3 54

1-64

Acetone .

0-39

o-i8

0-47

022

—

o'43

0'20

Dissolved tar .

8-s

4-0

7*4

3*4

8-4

3 "9

6-8

7-8

3*6

Tar, separated .

7-8

7*4

7-2

7*4

Containing acetic

acid.

4 "2

0-33

4-S

0-33
IO-8

—

4*4

0*33

Total yield of tar.

II-8

Ill

—

IO-4

II'O

Total yield of

acetic acid

3-3

3 '4

—

3*4

Note. — The third distillation was made at a slow rate. The results do not differ
appreciably from those obtaitied by distilling at the normal speed, and there-
fore thtre is no improvement to compensate for the extra time and heat.

572 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Table III

Oak and Pine

{Moisture in Oak, 17- 1 per cent.)
{Moisture in Pine, wo per cent,')

Oak.

Pine.

Mean of

II.

I. and II.

Time required for distilla-

tion ....

4 hours.

3 hours.

3i hours.

Weight of wood distilled

4 lb.

3 lb.

Per

Products :

cent, by

cent, on

cent, by

cent, on

cent, by

cent, on

cent. 6y

cent, on

weight.

wood.

weight.

wood.

weight.

wood.

weight.

wood.

Charcoal.

—

25-0

—

25-0

—

25-0

—

29-2

Crude pyroligneous acid .

—

53-4

—

54-4

—

53*9

—

40- 1

Containing :

Acetic acid .

4*3

8-3

4*5

8-2

4 '4

5-5

2*2

Methyl alcohol .

1-94

1-04

2*00

I -08

1-97

I -06

1-57

063

Acetone

0-45

0*24

0-45

0-25

o'45

0-25

067

0-27

Dissolved tar

10-3

5*5

iro

6-0

107

S-8

127

5*1

Tar, separated

S-8

—

7'o

—

6-4

12-9

Containing acetic acid .

4*9

0*29

5-5

0-39

5*2

0-35

2'3

0*30

Total yield of tar .

II-3

13-0

12*2

180

Total yield of acetic acid

—

4*6

—

4*9

—

4'8

—

2*5

For convenience of comparison, the detailed results

given in the foregoing tables may be summarised as

follows :

Table IV

Average results of small scale trials
made at the Imperial Institute.

Factory distil-
lation results

Black
Wattle.

Olive
Wood.

Pine
Wood.

Oak
Wood.

with oak
wood.

Acetic acid ....
Equivalent to acetate of lime .
Methyl alcohol ....
Tar, separated ....
Charcoal

Percent.

4*7
6-2

1-2
60
27

Per cent.
30
40
1-6
7*4

Per cent.

2*2

0-6

12*9

Percent.

4*4
5-8
I'l
6-4
25

Per cent.

3-8

5-0
II

4*5
26

It is well known that soft and hard woods give different
results on distillation, and this is illustrated in the foregoing
table by the differences in the results obtained with pine
and oak wood. As was to be expected, the black wattle
and olive woods behave on distillation like typical hard
woods, and give low yields of black, viscous, unpleasant-
smelling tar, but high yields of acetic acid and wood spirit
(methyl alcohol). The yield of acetic acid from the wattle
wood is distinctly high.

THE DISTILLATION OF WOOD, ETC. 573

From these results it is clear that both black wattle and
olive woods give as good results as oak on distillation.

Quality of the Distillation Products

Pyroligneons Acid, — The crude pyroligneous acid ob-
tained in the distillation trials was of normal quality. On
re-distilling the crude acid and neutralising the re-distilled
product with lime, " grey acetate of lime " of ordinary com-
mercial quality was obtained. The value of grey acetate of
lime before the war was £Z per ton; at the close of 1916,
owing to the large war demand for the manufacture of
acetone, it was worth £16 per ton.

Methyl Alcohol. — The methyl alcohol returned in Table IV
is real methyl alcohol, and is the chief constituent of the
commercial product, " wood alcohol," or '* wood spirit,"
which includes some acetone, esters and other products.
The yield given under methyl alcohol in Table IV is
therefore lower than the yield of ** wood spirit" would be
in practice.

The value of wood spirit in July 1914 was 25. ^d. per
gallon; but since the outbreak of war it has risen con-
siderably, and its value at the close of 1916 was 5s. 6d.
per gallon.

Tar. — It is not easy to say what the value of the tars
from these two woods will be. It is not possible to use
hardwood tars for treating ropes and twine, as is done with
the tars distilled from pine wood and which come on the
market under such names as Baltic and Stockholm tars.
On re-distillation the hardwood tars yield a certain quan-
tity of volatile hydrocarbon, which can be used as a solvent,
but is not popular for this purpose owing to its unpleasant
smell. It is unlikely that the price obtainable for the tar
in the United Kingdom would be large enough to warrant
its exportation from the East Africa Protectorate, and the
best method of using it will probably be to burn it as fuel.

Charcoal. — The black wattle wood charcoal was soft,
compact, and brittle, whilst that from the olive wood was
hard and showed numerous radiating cracks. Both char-
coals took fire easily and held fire well.

On analysis they gave the following results, which are

574 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERL\L INSTITUTE

compared with those given by other charcoals recently
examined at the Imperial Institute, and by certain typical
briquette fuels :

Table V

Calorific value.

Moisture.

Volatile
matter.

Carbon.

Ash.

Sulphur.

Small
calories.

7,615
7,645

7,607

7.413
7,218

7,400
7,800

6,522

5,575

British

Thermal

Unils.

13,707
13,761

13,892

13,341
12,992

13,320
14,040

11,740
10,035

Per
cent.

Ptr

cent.

Ptr
cent.

77-78
7290

82-57
8256

71-51

8o'o

33-35
2828

P*r

cent.

1-35
2-52

i-ii

2-12

3-35

4-0

571
7-46

Ptr

cent.

Wattle wood charcoal
Olive wood charcoal
English block charcoal

(compressed)
English rough charcoal .
Rhodesian charcoal
** Standard " coal (steam

coal) ....
Welsh coal briquettes
Southern Nigeria lignite

briquettes .
German lignite briquettes

20-87
24-58

028
0-09

6-8o
8-29
4-17

i-o

7-14
1567

9-52
7-03

20-97

15-0

53-80
48-28

O'lO

o-is

007
0*67

3*29

It will be seen that the two charcoals are satisfactory in
calorific value and are low in sulphur, so that so far as
these factors are concerned they should be quite suitable
for use as fuel.

Using the results given above, the following table shows
the probable yield and value of the various products ob-
tainable from a ton of each of these woods, compared with
the actual yields and values of the products obtained at a
modern factory in the United Kingdom distilling oak
wood :

Table VI

Acetate of
lime.

Wood spirit.

Tar.

Charcoal.

Oak wood :
Yield per ton .

Value of yield, June 1914

Value of yield, Dec. 1916

112 lb.

8j.
£1 i6s.

3i galls.
8^. 4^d
17s. lo^d.

100 lb.
r IS. gd. 1
1 2S. zd. ]

580 lb.
14J. lod.

Black wattle wood :
Yield per ton .

Value of yield, June 1914

Value of yield, Dec. 19 16

139 lb.

gs. lid.

£2 4s. yd

37 galls.

gs. eld

£1 OS. 4d.

1341b.

[2S.4ld.\

1 V' J

605 lb.
15.. 6A^.

Olive wood :
Yield per ton .

Value of yield, June 1914

Value of yield, Dec. 1916

90 lb.

6s. 5i/.

£1 Ss. Id.

50 galls.

i2s. gd.

£1 is. 6d.

166 lb.

^2s.ll^d\

iZs.^d ]

650 lb.
165. %d.

THE DISTILLATION OF WOOD, ETC. 575

It will be seen that, taking the prices obtainable in
June 1914, which may be regarded as normal, both wattle
wood and olive wood show a slight advantage over oak
wood, and should therefore be at least as profitable to
distil.

Utilisation of the Distillation Products

If a wood distillation industry were started in East
Africa, it would be necessary to convert the crude pyro-
ligneous acid into grey acetate of lime, and to export this
as well as the wood spirit, as the local demand for these
products is not likely to be large. Large quantities of both
these products are used in the United Kingdom, and, as
is shown in the tables on p. 567, considerable quantities are
imported from the United States and elsewhere. There
will therefore be no difficulty about finding a market for
these products from East Africa in the United Kingdom.

Coconut Shell Charcoal from Ceylon

This sample of coconut shell charcoal, which was for-
warded for examination to the Imperial Institute by the
Chemist to the Department of Agriculture, Ceylon, in
January 1916, consisted of curved pieces of shell charcoal
of irregular size and about \ in. thick. The charcoal was
hard, brittle, and of dark black colour, and broke with a
glass}^ fracture.

On analysis, the sample gave the following results,
which are compared with those furnished by other speci-
mens of charcoal examined recently at the Imperial
Institute :

Coconut

shell
charcoal.
Per cent.

English

rough wood

charcoal.

Per cent.

English
charcoal in
briquettes.
Per cent.

Moisture

8-3

6-8

Matter volatile at a low red heat

i8-2

9*5

Fixed carbon ....

76-1

826

82-6

Ash

2-1

1000

loo-o

Sulphur

0*05

0-I5

010

C2i\oT'\fic vaXne^ small calories . 7,529 7»4i3 7»6o7

The matter volatile at a low red heat is rather high in
this coconut shell charcoal, indicating that it has not been

576 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

fully carbonised. This defect can be remedied easily, either
by longer heating or by the use of a higher temperature.
The amount of sulphur is low, and the calorific value satis-
factory, and the charcoal is quite suitable for use as fuel.

This charcoal will, no doubt, find a ready sale in Ceylon
for use as a fuel in suction gas-producers and in other
ways.

Vera Wood Charcoal from Ceylon

This sample of vera wood charcoal was forwarded for
examination to the Imperial Institute by the Chemist to
the Department of Agriculture in April 1916. It consisted
of pieces of charcoal of irregular shape, and varying in size
from about i in. cube to about 8 x 3 x 2 in.

The charcoal was of brownish-black colour and had a
glassy fracture. It held fire well, but gave off smoke on
burning, accompanied by a rather strong tarry odour.

On analysis, the charcoal gave the following results,
which are compared with those obtained with other samples
of charcoal examined recently at the Imperial Institute :

Vera wood
charcoal.

English

rough wood

charcoal.

Rhodesian
charcoal.

Per cent.

Moisture and volatile matter

. 38-2

153

251

Fixed carbon

566

82-6

71-5

Ash

1CX)*0

2-1

3-4

1000

loo-o

Sulphur ....

0-4

0-I5

C9\oi\?ic vdiXne, small calories . 6,575 7.413 7.2i8

The large amount of matter volatile at a low red heat in
the charcoal indicates that it was not fully carbonised, and
this is confirmed by its brownish colour and the tarry
odour given off on burning. The charcoal would be quite
suitable for use as fuel, though the sulphur is rather high.

Acetate of Lime from Ceylon

This sample was received at the Imperial Institute with
the vera wood charcoal referred to above. It consisted of
a coarse powder, pale grey in colour, and had a tarry
odour. Its solution in water was of dark brown colour.

THE DISTILLATION OF WOOD, ETC. 577

On analysis, the sample gave the following results :

Ptr cent.

Moisture 3-50

Calcium acetate 83'6o

Sulphates, expressed as calcium sulphate . . o'6o

Carbonates, expressed as calcium carbonate . . o-o8

Total ash 32*20

Matter insoluble in water i-20

Free lime

Calcium formate \ nil

Sulphites

■}

This sample corresponds in quality with commercial
"grey acetate of lime," which usually contains 80 per cent,
of acetate of lime. The amount of tarry matter is not
excessive.

The present price of grey acetate of lime is £z^ per ton,
as against a normal price of ;^8 per ton in July 1914, before
the outbreak of war. There is a large demand for acetate
of lime, similar in quality to this sample, in the United
Kingdom at present, and the Imperial Institute is enquiring
whether any supply is likely to be available for export
from Ceylon.

CAMPHOR OIL FROM THE FEDERATED MALAY
STATES AND MAURITIUS

In the following pages an account is given of the results of
examination of specimens of camphor oil distilled experi-
mentally in the Federated Malay States and Mauritius.
The oils dealt with are in no case typical camphor oils
such as reach this country from Japan ; but the results are
of interest as indicating the type of oil produced by the
camphor trees growing in the countries mentioned.

Specimens from the Federated Malay States
Camphor was first grown experimentally by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture in the Federated Malay States in 1904,
when seeds, obtained from Japan, were sown at Batu Tiga,
Selangor. The seedlings were planted out in their per-
manent quarters when about 6 months old, at a distance of
10 ft. by 10 ft. The conditions at this place appear to be
well suited to the tree, and the growth of the plants is

578 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

stated to have been equal to that seen in Japan. In 1907
a further supply of seed, as well as young plants, was
obtained from Japan and planted in the Experimental
Plantations of Kuala Lumpur, where the growth has also
been good. Other supplies of seed have since been ob-
tained from Japan, but the germination on the whole has
not been satisfactory, and it is stated that the best way to
obtain a stock of plants is to import 2-year-old seedlings
from Japan (see Bulletin No. 15, 191 2, Dept. Agric, F.M.S.).

It is suggested in the Bulletin mentioned that the cam-
phor industry should prove a remunerative one in the
Federated Malay States. The trees should be planted
closely, about 700 to the acre, so as to form hedges ; they
should be pruned, to provide material for distilling, two or
three times per annum. To run a distilling plant econo-
mically, it is stated that at least 100 acres should be
planted.

Distillation was first carried out experimentally in 1909,
and has been continued at intervals since. In 191 1, by
using a wooden still of the Japanese t37-pe, a yield ranging
from 0*13 to 0-5 per cent, of camphor and camphor oil was
obtained from fresh green prunings. This low yield was
apparently due entirely to the inefficiency of the wooden
condenser, as in subsequent experiments, using a galvan-
ised iron condenser, fresh prunings from 4-year-old trees
gave yields ranging from 0*53 to 077 per cent. Air-dry
material from 2-year-old trees gave yields ranging from
o'6o to o'8o per cent, with a metal condenser. Experi-
ments were also conducted, using the latter condenser, in
order to ascertain the yield of camphor and oil from the
leaves and twigs separately, the results being as follows :

Leaves. Twigs.

Per cent. Per cent.

2-year-old trees . . . i •4-1-6 o*io-o25

4-year-old trees . . . r3-i7 0'i3-0'22

Average . . . . 15 1 0-19

The distillate in all cases consisted principally of camphor,
with only a small proportion of camphor oil.

Specimens of camphor oil and crude camphor produced
in the course of the experiments in the Federated Malay

CAMPHOR OIL FROM THE F.M.S. AND MAURITIUS 579

States were examined at the Imperial Institute in 191 2 (see
this Bulletin, 191 3, 11, 46). The oil was found to contain
19-3 per cent, of camphor, whilst safrole, which is the
characteristic and valuable constituent of the Japanese
camphor oil of commerce, was absent. The crude cam-
phor was of satisfactory quality, and would be readily
saleable in the United Kingdom.

In 191 3, a further sample of camphor oil was received
at the Imperial Institute. This, like the previous sample,
consisted of a pale yellow oil containing a considerable
deposit of crystalline camphor.

The oil was first cooled to ~ 12'' C, in order to separate as
much as possible of the camphor present, and the camphor
was then removed by filtration, the low temperature being
maintained during the operation. By repeated treatment
of the oil in this way, a yield of i4'8 per cent, by weight of
crystalline camphor was obtained from the original oil.

The residual oil left after the separation of the camphor,
as described above, possessed the following constants,
compared with the corresponding figures for the previous
sample :

Present sample. Previous sample.

Specific gravity at ^^ ' . . 0920 0*913

15 C

Optical rotation in 100 mm. tube . +38° 23' +41° i'

(at22°C.) (at 18' C.)

Acid value ri —

Saponification value :

Original oil ... . 3*6 * —

After acetylation . . . 257 ' —

' Indicating the presence ofo"j per cent, of esters in the original oil.
' Equivalent to 6'1 per cent, of total alcohols in the original oil.

The residual oil from which the camphor had been
separated was fractionally distilled at atmospheric pres-
sure, and the following results were obtained :

Fraction.

Boiling point.

Per cent, by volume.

iss^-igs^c.

i95°-225° C.

225"-275°C.

An examination of fraction i of the distillate showed
that it contained a quantity of cineole (eucalyptol) equi-
valent to 4*3 per cent, in the original oil.

By cooling fraction 2 of the oil, boiling at 195° to 225° C,

58o BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

to — 12° C. a further quantity of camphor separated, and
by repeating the operation twice a yield of 157 per cent,
by weight expressed on the original oil was obtained.

The total solid camphor separated from the oil by
physical means was therefore 305 by weight, viz. 14-8 per
cent, by cooling the original oil, and 157 per cent, by cooling
fraction 2 of the residual oil.

No safrole could be detected in fraction 3 of the residual
oil, and in this respect the present sample of oil is similar
to the previous specimen. As stated in the previous
report (loc. cit)^ the absence of safrole is probably due to
the fact that the oil was obtained from the prunings of
young trees. The Japanese camphor oil of commerce is
derived from old wood of mature trees.

This camphor oil from the Federated Malay States
differs from ordinary camphor oil as now placed on the
market, in that the camphor has not been separated, and
that it contains no safrole. Samples of the original oil and
of the three fractions into which the residual oil was sepa-
rated by distillation were therefore submitted to a firm of
essential oil distillers for an opinion as to its probable
value. After examining the samples, the firm expressed
the opinion that the original oil, as sent from the Federated
Malay States, should realise about the same price in the
United Kingdom as ordinary brown Japanese camphor oil,
the absence of safrole in the oil being compensated by
the camphor present. The firm stated (March 191 5) that
the price of Japanese brown camphor oil in London was
£4S per ton, i.e. slightly over 4!^. per lb., and that during
the last five years it had varied from £4$ to ;^8o per ton.

Specimens Jrom Mauritius

The camphor tree has been introduced into Mauritius
and appears to grow well there. It is cultivated in the
various Botanical Gardens and Forest Plantations and else-
where ; but so far camphor has not been produced on a
commercial scale in the island. Distillation experiments
have been conducted in recent years, and specimens of the
oils obtained have been examined at the Imperial Institute.

No. I.

No. 2.

No. 3.

0907

0906

0925

-20° 4'

-21" 5'

-6° 20'

CAMPHOR OIL FROM THE F.M.S. AND MAURITIUS 581

Three samples of camphor oil were received in 191 2.
The only information regarding them furnished by the
authorities in Mauritius referred to the kind of still used in
their production, Nos. i and 2 being obtained with a copper
still and No. 3 with a wooden still. All three samples con-
sisted of clear, almost colourless oil, with a strong odour
of cineole (eucalyptol). They were examined with the
following results :

Specific gravity at -~j=^
15 C.

Optical rotation in 100 mm. tube

at2I*'-22°C

* Cineole . . . percent.

' Determined by the resorcinol method.

These samples differed greatly from the camphor oils
of commerce, which usually contain only 5 or 6 per cent, of
cineole, and further samples were therefore asked for in
order that the oils might be more fully examined.

Five samples were received in the following year, viz. :

No, I. — Camphor-leaf oil. No, 3. — Camphor-twig oil.

No, 2. — Camphor-root oil. No, 4.— Camphor-twig oil.

No. 5.— Camphor-wood oil.

In all cases the oil was obtained by using a copper still,
except in the case of sample No. 5, which consisted of a
mixture of two oils obtained by means of a wooden still
and a copper still respectively.

The following notes on the distillation of the different
oils are compiled from information supplied by the Assistant
Director of Forests and Gardens, Mauritius :

Camphor-Leaf Oil. — This was distilled from fresh leaves
of varying maturity, with their petioles and the very small
twigs to which they were attached; they were gathered
from very old trees at the Pamplemousses Gardens or its
vicinity, or from stool-shoots. The Pamplemousses ma-
terial gave an average yield of 0797 per cent, of oil, the
quantity varying according to the time of year. In January
the percentage yield was from 075 to 0*92, and from March
to May it fell to o"48 and o'6i, rising gradually in June and
July to 071, 0*89, 10, and ri, these yields being maintained
until August, when the experiments ceased. One load of

582 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

fresh leaves from which the petioles and very small twigs
were removed yielded 1*24 per cent, of oil in July. No
solid camphor was obtained from the leaves or from the
other parts of the tree referred to below (see p. 584).

Camphor-root Oil. — Partially buried roots, 3 to 4 in. in
diameter, of a very old tree were used in this experiment.
They were cut into chips and yielded 2*97 per cent, of oil.
This was the highest yield obtained in this series of
experiments.

Camphor-twig Oil. — The material distilled in this case
consisted of twigs, from | to 1 in. in diameter, chopped
into pieces i to 2 in. long. The maximum yield of oil was
o'6o per cent., obtained from fresh twigs from very old
trees in the Pamplemousses Gardens, Fresh twigs from a
tree growing close to a stream yielded only from 0*21 to
0*31 per cent, of oil.

Camphor-wood Oil, — This was obtained by distilling
chips from one of the stems of a tree younger than those
growing in the Pamplemousses Gardens. The yield of oil,
using a copper still, was 077 per cent., but in a wooden
still of the Japanese pattern only 0*03 per cent, of oil was
obtained.

The oils were examined at the Imperial Institute with
the following results :

Samples Nos. i and 4 were of a pale yellow colour ;
Nos. 3 and 5 were of a somewhat darker tint ; whilst No. 2
was of a light brownish-yellow colour, and was slightly
turbid owing to the presence of moisture.

The oils, after being dried, were submitted to chemical
examination, but in the case of Nos. 4 and 5 only a partial
investigation could be made owing to the small quantities
available. The following results were obtained :

No, I. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No, 5,

Leaf oil. Root oil. Twig oil. Twig oil. Wood oil.

Specific gravity at -Vp^ 0-9162 0-9508 0-9143 09243 09164
15 ^.

Optical rotation od at 22''C. -18" 38' +13° 36' -15° 22' -11° 37' -ir26'
Percentage of oil absorbed \ 56 38 54 not deter- not deter-

by resorcinol ' j mined mined

* Probably chiejly cineole.

Samples Nos. i and 2 gave saponification values of 6*4

No. 1.
Leaf oil.

No. 2.
Root oil.

Per cent.

6
8

I 7 ^

CAMPHOR OIL FROM THE F.M.S. AND MAURITIUS 583

and 2*2 respectively; after acetylation they had a saponi-
fication value of 39'2 in each case, indicating the presence
of in per cent, of alcohol (expressed as CioHigO).

No camphor separated from any of the samples on cool-
ing to - lo"" C.

Samples Nos. i, 2, and 3 were subjected to repeated
fractionation, with the following percentage results by
volume :

No. 3.
Twig oil.
Per cent.

1. Fraction distilling up to 195* C. . . 86 52 88-5

2. „ „ at i95°-22o'' C. . . 6 33 5-5

3- n M „ 220°-245°C.-

4. Residue

From sample No. 2, 6 per cent, of camphor was obtained
as the result of repeated fractionation and the cooling of
the fractions to — 10° C. An appreciable amount of safrole
was present in fraction 3 of this oil. The other four oils,
Nos. I, 3, 4, and 5, were apparently very similar to one
another in composition, although samples Nos. 4 and 5
could not be examined in detail. No camphor could be
separated from either Nos. i or 3 by fractionating the oils
and subsequently cooling the fractions to — 10° C; and in
none of the four oils could the presence of safrole be
detected.

The three samples previously examined were all found
to contain large percentages of cineole and to be laevo-
rotatory (see p. 581). In these respects \hty agree with
samples Nos. i and 3 of the present series.

These camphor oils from Mauritius differ in several
respects from either the ** light " or " heavy " camphor oils
of commerce. On the whole, the three oils, Nos. i, 2 and
3, which were examined in detail, resemble the " light "
rather than the "heavy" camphor oils. These *' light"
oils consist of the lower-boiling fractions of the crude cam-
phor oil, and contain a considerable quantity of cineole, but
no safrole. Samples Nos. i and 3 agree with the "light"
oil in the latter respects, but differ from it in having a
higher specific gravity, and in being laevo-rotatory instead
of dextro-rotatory. Sample No. 2, on the other hand, con-
tains both safrole and cineole, and is dextro-rotatory.

584 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

As in the case of the first series of oils, these five oils
were abnormal in character, and did not resemble com-
mercial camphor oil. The leaves, twigs, and wood of
genuine camphor trees should yield considerable quantities
of camphor as well as of camphor oil, and the camphor
should separate in the solid state from the oil in the course
of the distillation. In the distillation of these Mauritius
oils, however, no solid camphor was obtained. Further,
camphor wood on distillation should yield camphor and a
camphor oil similar to that produced in Japan and China,
which is rich in safrole ; but this Mauritius camphor wood
oil is quite different in characters from normal camphor oil
as produced in China and Japan.

In view of the results of examination of these oils at the
Imperial Institute, a comprehensive series of distillation
trials on the laboratory scale was conducted in Mauritius
by the Chemist to the Department of Agriculture. The
results confirmed the previous experiments, and showed
that the camphor trees in Mauritius do not yield solid
camphor on distillation, and that the small amount of
camphor present is readily dissolved in the oil and not
easily separated from it.

It was thought possible that the abnormal character of
these oils might be due to the trees not being genuine
camphor trees, and the Imperial Institute therefore sug-
gested that a number of typical herbarium specimens of
the trees from which the oils were prepared should be
forwarded for identification.

Six specimens were accordingly sent in January 1916,
viz. two each from Le Reduit Grounds, the Pamplemousses
Gardens, and the Curepipe Gardens.

The specimens were submitted to Kew with the follow-
ing results :

All the specimens seemed to belong to Cinnamomum
Camphora, Nees ; but the plants from Curepipe were in an
anomalous condition, having stunted inflorescences and
flowers precociously developed. On the whole, the leaves
of the specimens were, perhaps, slightly smaller than those
of Japanese camphor trees, whilst the leaves from Pample-
mousses and Curepipe were slightly more glossy and

CAMPHOR OIL FROM THE F.M.S. AND MAURITIUS 585

firmer, agreeing in this respect with specimens of C. Cam-
phora from Madagascar, which, however, have normal
inflorescences.

The Mauritius trees, therefore, are genuine camphor
trees, and an explanation of the abnormal character of the
oil they yield must, consequently, be sought in other
directions.

There are many references in the literature of the sub-
ject to camphor trees which do not yield camphor, but the
reason for this abnormality is not at all clear. It can
scarcely be due to climatic causes, since camphor has now
been produced successfully under a considerable variety of
climatic conditions. On the whole, it seems more likely that
there are certain cultural races or varieties of the species
which give good yields of camphor, whilst others do not ;
thus, Giglioli states in La Canfora Italiana (p. 72) that
even in Formosa varieties exist which yield oil from which
no camphor separates. The Bulletin Economique de Mndo-
Chine (1907, 10, 204) states that there are two chief varieties
of the camphor tree, one with green leaf stems and the
other with red leaf stems, and that the latter type alone
yields oil rich in camphor.

It has been suggested in France that, owing to this
difficulty, camphor trees should be propagated from types
known to yield camphor, by means of grafts or cuttings ;
but it is clear from experience in Ceylon, the Federated
Malay States, Florida and elsewhere, that it is possible to
raise trees giving good yields of camphor from seed.

It is proposed to obtain fresh seed for trial in Mauritius,
and the Imperial Institute has suggested to the authorities
in the Colony that it would be well to procure this from
selected trees in Ceylon, or the Federated Malay States,
which are known to yield camphor.

DATES FROM THE SUDAN
The date palm {^Phoenix dactylifera, Linn.) is grown largely
in some parts of the Sudan, notably in the Dongola, Berber,
Haifa, and Kordofan Provinces, and constitutes a consider-
able source of revenue to the Government, a tax at the rate

586 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

of 2 piastres (= s^-) per tree being levied. The anticipated
receipts from this source in 19 14 were ;^ 18, 500. There is a
large local demand for the fruit and considerable quantities
are exported, the chief market being Egypt, the total annual
export amounting to about 3,000 tons, valued at about
;^3 5,000. Ov^ing to the comparatively hot, dry climate, the
dates as a whole are of the "dry" kind, which are not
regarded as the best for oversea export, and experiments
have been made in planting the best varieties of Algerian
and other " soft " dates. Certain of the local varieties, e.g.
" Bertamoda " and '' Gondeila," can, by special treatment,
be made ''soft" and remain in this condition for long
periods. With a view to ascertaining whether they would
be saleable in the United Kingdom, a small consignment,
comprising three varieties, viz. " Gondeila," ** Bertamoda,"
and " Garban," was forwarded from the Haifa Province to
the Imperial Institute in May, 1916. According to a state-
ment supplied by the Director, Commercial Intelligence
Branch, Central Economic Board, Sudan, the annual crop
of ** Gondeila " and " Bertamoda " dates in Haifa Province
amounts to about 5,000 sacks of about 340 lb. each, and
similar dates are also obtainable from Dongola Province.
No information was supplied as to the *' Garban" dates,
beyond the statement that this variety is a permanently
"soft" date. It is possible, however, that it is identical
with the **Ghars" or '* Rhars," one of the commonest of
the ''soft" dates of North Africa.

The dates received at the Imperial Institute were packed
in boxes about 10 in. square and 4 in. deep, each box con-
taining approximately 8J lb. of fruit. The dates had been
packed irregularly in the boxes and pressed, and although
on the whole they could be separated fairly easily from
one another as entire fruits, many of them were slightly
broken owing to the irregular packing. They were
examined with the following results:

No. I. — Twenty-one boxes of " Gondeila" dates. Weight
about 1781b. net. These dates were slightly larger than
the other two varieties on the whole, averaging about 46 to
the lb. They were of light reddish-brown colour, and had
the best appearance of the three samples. The fleshy

DATES FROM THK SUDAN 587

portion of the fruit was rather thin, and separated easily
from the stone, which was somewhat large. The flavour
was good, and not too sweet.

No. 2. — Four boxes of "Garban" dates. Weight about
34 lb. net. These dates were dark reddish-brown, and
averaged about 48 to the lb. The fleshy portion ot the
fruit was firmer than in the " Gondeila " or " Bertamoda"
varieties, and slightly less sweet. The stones were rather
large.

No. 3. — Eight boxes of "Bertamoda" dates. Weight
about 681b. net. These dates were similar in colour to the
** Garban " variety. The fleshy portion of the fruit was
somewhat softer than in either the " Gondeila " or the
" Garban " dates, and the fruits when separated were more
broken and sticky. The dates averaged about 50 to the lb.
The flavour was sweeter than that of the other varieties,
but not so pleasant. The stones of these dates were also
rather large.

Samples of the three varieties of dates were submitted
both to retail dealers and to brokers, and the following
opinions were obtained :

(i) The retail dealers stated that the samples did not
represent dessert dates of the best class, such as Tunis or
Tafilat, but that they were of good quality for ordinary
dates. They would be classed with Persian dates, and it
was thought that the '* Bertamoda" variety would compare
with Sayer dates, and the "Gondeila" variety with Khed-
rowie dates.

(2) The brokers reported that the dates resembled the
Sayer variety now shipped from the Persian Gulf, and
would be saleable in the United Kingdom. They esti-
mated the value of the samples at about 215. per cwt.,
landed in London (July 1916), and added that the three
varieties would be considered as of equal value in the
United Kingdom, as the ordinary buyer does not dis-
tinguish between the diff'erent varieties.

In connection with their valuation ol the samples, the

brokei;s mentioned that the yearly importation of Persian

dates into the United Kingdom is from 500,000 to 700,000

boxes containing 70 lb. each, and that their normal price is

588 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

from los. to 12s. per cwt. ex wharf London, the present
high value being due to the short supply, combined with
very high charges for freight.

Thirty of the boxes of Sudan dates were handed to this
firm of brokers for sale, the remaining three boxes (one of
each variety) being retained at the Imperial Institute for
purposes of reference. The consignment, which had a net
weight of 2 J cwts., w^as sold in London at 245. per cwt
(July 29, 191 6), i.e. at 3s. per cwt. more than the original
valuation.

The retail dealers who were consulted regarding these
dates considered the boxes in which the samples were for-
warded to be of a very handy size, and recommended that
the exportation of the dates in such boxes should be con-
tinued, attention being given to the following points :

(i) A definite weight of dates should always be packed
in a given size of box, so that they can be sold ** per box,"
" per cwt," or " per ton."

(2) The dates should be packed to a "level face" in
the boxes.

(3) There should be no holes or leaks in the boxes.

(4) There should be no false packing.

It was also suggested that it might be worth while to
send consignments of these dates in cartons, each contain-
ing about I lb. of dates, packed in boxes of 4 dozen.

The brokers made the following observations :

(i) Small boxes might prove popular with buyers, but
as they would be costly to pack and transport, it may be
found more profitable to use 70-lb. boxes, as in Persia.
Such boxes should be iron-hooped to prevent damage.

(2) The dates should be packed side by side, as is now
done with Persian dates, and not irregularly like the
present samples.

In view of the results of the sale of these small samples,
it was suggested that a trial consignment of say 100 to 200
boxes of about 70 lb. net, each of properly packed dates,
should be forwarded to the Imperial Institute for sale by
brokers in London. It was further suggested that if the
process of packing and shipping these dates in small boxes
containing a definite quantity of fruit appears likely to be

Dates from the sudak 5*9

profitable, a trial consignment of at least 10 cwts. ol dates
packed in this way should be forwarded to the Imperial
Institute.

In connection with the question of future shipments,
the brokers stated that they were considerably interested
in the possibility of establishing a trade in these Sudan
dates, and regarded the prospects as promising. They
pointed out, however, that the market for ordinary dates
is subject to heavy fluctuations, and that it is not possible
to guarantee that the price realised by the present samples
will be obtainable for future consignments, as the value
will depend on the market conditions existing at the time.

As regards the keeping qualities of these Sudan dates, a
small sample consisting of a mixture of the three varieties
dealt with in this report was received at the Imperial
Institute in January 1916, and at the end of seven months
no change had taken place in them as regards flavour, but
they had become somewhat darker in colour and duller in
appearance. Otherwise the dates kept well, and the experts
who were consulted regarding the consignment reported
on above considered that the appearance of the mixed
sample was still satisfactory and the flavour good.

COCOA FROM SIERRA LEONE

Although cocoa is not yet of much economic importance
in Sierra Leone, and first appeared in the export returns
in 191 5, when £'j^ worth was sent to the United Kingdom,
its cultivation is extending in the Northern Sherbro
District. The product as a whole is not fermented,
being merely washed and dried. The Department of
Agriculture, however, are endeavouring to improve the
methods of preparation, and proper methods of fermenta-
tion have been demonstrated to the natives on their farms,
whilst plantations have been established at the Govern-
ment Experimental Farm at Jala, Mano. Better prices are
now being paid to the natives for their produce, and planta-
tions are being extended. Altogether the cocoa industry
is exceedingly promising, and it is hoped that in the near
future the export trade will rapidly increase.

590 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

In May 1916 a sample ot cocoa from Sierra Lconc
prepared entirely by natives was received at the Imperial
Institute for examination, and the results are given below.
A report on samples received previously was published
in this Bulletin (191 2, 10, 239).

The sample consisted of washed, partially fermented
cocoa beans varying in size from medium to large, a few
very small beans being also present. The average weight
of a single bean was voy gram.

The beans had a rather difficult " break," mostly of a
slatey colour, and possessed a rather harsh flavour. About
4 per cent, of the beans had been attacked by insects, but
the remainder of the sample was clean and free from
extraneous matter.

The beans, when freed from the husks, which formed
7 per cent, of the whole, were analysed and found to be
of normal composition ; the results were as follows :

Per cent.

Moisture 5*2

Total alkaloid r8s

Fat 497

Ash 3*1

The cocoa was submitted to brokers in London and
Liverpool, who reported on it as follows :

(i) A London firm stated that the sample represented
good fermented cocoa of the large type and described it
as clean and bright, but having a rather slatey " break."
They valued it at about 615. per cwt. in bond (June 21,
1916).

(2) A Liverpool firm regarded the sample as of good
appearance, but not fully fermented, and valued it at 575.
per cwt. (June i, 1916), adding that if the whole of the
cocoa had been well fermented it would have been worth
from 69s. to 70s. per cwt. On the same date F.A.Q. Accra
cocoa was quoted at 66s. to 6ys. per cwt.

(3) A second Liverpool firm stated that the cocoa was
only partly fermented and was about equal in quality to
F.A.Q. Accra cocoa, which on the same date was worth
59s. per cwt. (June 21, 1916).

It will be seen that this Sierra Leone cocoa was equal

COCOA FROM SIERRA LEONE 591

in quality to the ordinary Gold Coast cocoa which reaches
this country, and similar cocoa, if produced in commercial
quantity, would find a ready sale in the United Kingdom.

CAUTO COTTON FROM BRITISH HONDURAS

The Cauto cotton, as has been stated previously in this
Bulletin (1914, 12, 629), is a perennial tree-cotton which
was introduced recently into Jamaica from Cuba. Accord-
ing to the Afin. Rep. Dept. Agric, Jamaica, 191 5-16, p. 14,
this variety continues to give promising results at the Hope
Experimental Station, the yield of a field of 2*3 acres being
at the rate of 1,080 lb. of seed-cotton per acre. The plant
ratoons well, but it has been shown that it cannot be suc-
cessfully forced to give two crops a year, the second crop
of bolls becoming attacked by disease, which prevents
their opening normally.

This cotton has also been grown at the Botanic Station,
Belize River, British Honduras, from seed supplied by the
Hope Experimental Station, and a sample of the produce
was received for examination at the Imperial Institute in
June 1916.

The sample gave a yield of 35*4 per cent, of lint, on
ginning, equivalent to a yield of 7*3 grams per 100 seeds.
The lint was clean, rather harsh and rough, fairly lustrous
and of cream colour. A very small proportion of immature
fibre was present, and the sample was slightly damaged by
insect attacks. The seeds were large, smooth, and very
dark brown (almost black), with a small tuft of brown fuzz
at the pointed end.

The cotton was of fairly good strength, and the length
of the fibres varied from o*6 to \'6 in., being mostly from
1*2 to rs in.

The ginned cotton was valued at i2d. per lb. (July 1916),
with American " futures " at 778^. per lb., and " good fair"
moderately rough Peruvian at ir^od. per lb.

The yield of lint from this unginned cotton was high,
and the ginned product was ot good quality. The cotton
resembled the rough Peruvian type, and, like the latter,
would be suitable tor spinning in admixture with wool.

592 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

The cultivation of perennial or tree-cottons cannot be
recommended as a general rule on account of the danger of
the plants harbouring insect pests and diseases, and if they
are grown the plants, after being cut down, should be
sprayed with an insecticide, such as lime-sulphur wash, and
the prunings burnt. This naturally adds to the cost of
production, but it might pay in the case of a variety like
Cauto, which, so far as the experiments at present con-
ducted indicate, gives a high yield of good quality cotton.

SPECIAL ARTICLE

SOME PRESENT NEEDS OF THE BRITISH
RUBBER INDUSTRY 1

By Wyndham R. Dunstan, C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S.

Director of the Imperial Institute

Last year the total export of British plantation rubber
exceeded 70,000 tons, whilst the natural forests of Para
trees in the Amazon district of Brazil exported only 34,629
tons. The Empire has already gained, and will certainly
maintain, the premier position as the producer of the raw
material, to the great benefit of the tropical countries of the
Empire which furnish the commodity, contributing not
merely to the prosperity of the planters, as individuals or
companies, but to the general welfare of the countries con-
cerned. Apart from the intrinsic value of the material
for the manifold purposes of warfare, it may fairly be
claimed that the generous contributions of the Governments
of Ceylon and Malaya to the sinews of war, in money and
material, are in no small measure the result of the pros-
perity of the rubber-planting industry.

Not less important than the production of the raw
material is its utilisation within the Empire for industrial
purposes. The Empire has command of the raw material,
and it is desirable that so far as possible this material

^ This article is reprinted, by the courtesy of the Editor of the Times,
from the Rubber Section of the Imperial and Foreign Trade Supplement o
the Timts for December 19 16.

PRESENT NEEDS OF BRITISH RUBBER INDUSTRY 593

should be manufactured within it, manufactured goods and
any surplus of the raw material not required for Imperial
use being exported.

In this connection there is surely room for further
enterprise and for co-operation between producer and
manufacturer, both in this country and in the Dominions.
In 191 3 20,782 tons of British-grown rubber were imported
to the United States alone. In 191 5 the United States
took as much as 46,432 tons of British-grown rubber, or
more than half the total export, whilst in addition nearly
20,000 tons was taken from Brazil. Apart from the special
circumstances of war, which no doubt account in part for
the increased export, it is evident that the United States
has become the principal rubber manufacturing country of
the world, deriving much of the rubber it uses from our
Empire.

It may be added that some of the great rubber manufac-
turing enterprises in the United States have begun to
acquire land in the tropics for rubber production, and this
movement on the part of American manufacturers to secure
a direct supply of the raw material under their own control
has special significance. The problem for us is the reverse
of theirs, and it will probably best be solved in the reverse
manner.

This is not the occasion to discuss the economic factors,
apart from the war, which have given the United States this
pre-eminence in m.anufacture, but there is nothing discover-
able which militates against the view that there is a need
for further enterprise in this country as well as in the
Dominions, and especially in Canada, in the manufacturing
industry. It is to the advantage of the Empire as a whole,
especially in view of our increasing production of the raw
material, that the rubber manufacturing industry should be
increased and more trade created with foreign countries in
the supply of manufactured rubber goods. Canada is not
likely to wish, directly or indirectly, to depend in large part
on the United States for the manufactured rubber goods
she requires. Canada, as well as Australia, will no doubt
desire to take a larger share in working up the raw material
furnished by the tropical countries of the Empire. I refrain

594 BULl-ETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

on this occasion from making more than brief allusion to
this important aspect of the subject, which demands serious
attention at the present juncture ; but it may be suggested
that those who produce rubber might co-operate with those
who are in a position to manufacture it, to the great advan-
tage of the entire British rubber industry. Some of the
large profits which accrue from the production of rubber
might well be applied to the extension of the rubber manu-
facturing industries here and elsewhere within the Empire.

I have been asked to make some reference to the
assistance which the Imperial Institute has given to the
rubber-growing industry, in supplying information and in
conducting investigations into questions of fundamental
importance.

From the inception of the British rubber-planting in-
dustry the Imperial Institute has rendered continuously
scientific and technical assistance, both in information and
research, to the Governments of every tropical country con-
cerned in which planting has been attempted, and has
published, especially in its Bulletin, a very large amount
of important information. In this connection mention may
also be made of the article on " Rubber" contributed by
the present writer to the last edition of the Enyclopcedia
Britannica^ and to the comprehensive volume in the
Imperial Institute Series of "Handbooks to the Commercial
Resources of the Tropics," entitled Rubber: Its Sources^
Cultivation and Preparation^ by Mr. Harold Brown, a
member of the staff of the Scientific and Technical Depart-
ment of the Imperial Institute, several other members of
which have made important contributions in recent years
to our knowledge of rubber.

Some of the earliest research work conducted at the
Imperial Institute was a comprehensive study of the com-
position and properties of rubber from planted and wild
trees, and it is interesting to recall now that one of its first
reports was to the Government of India in 1900 on the
quality of rubber obtained from Para rubber trees experi-
mentally planted at Mergui, in Burma. In 1907 a further
report on the quality of the Para rubber from Mergui
<;howed it to be of excellent quality, comparing very favour-

PRESENT NEEDS OF BRITISH RUBBER INDUSTRY 595

ably with plantation Para rubber from Ceylon and
Malaya. Burma has been somewhat slow in its progress in
this matter, and it still remains one of the several countries
in which further developments in rubber planting, when
such are called for, might well be undertaken.

A report presented to Parliament in 191 2 shows that the
Imperial Institute had conducted investigations on rubber
and the various rubber-producing problems in connection
with experimental production in the following countries of
the Empire: India, Ceylon, Federated Malay States, Sey-
chelles, Zanzibar, Uganda, East Africa, Sudan, Northern
Nigeria, Southern Nigeria, Gold Coast, Sierra Leone,
Gambia, Borneo, Sarawak, Natal, Transvaal, Zululand,
Rhodesia, and the West Indies. The sample rooms
attached to the Scientific and Technical Department of
the Institute contain a unique collection of authentic sam-
ples of rubber from all these countries which have been
submitted to laboratory tests and valued for commercial
purposes.

The rapid progress of rubber production in Ceylon
and Malaya is too well known to need comment. In
conjunction with the Agricultural Departments in those
countries, the Imperial Institute has been identified with in-
vestigations of immediate practical importance. The same is
true of other countries in which for one reason or another
rubber planting has not been so successful in its results.
There is one country, at present little heard of as a rubber
producer, to which much attention has been given at the
Imperial Institute, and after considerable investigation into
more than one difficult problem success is at last apparent,
and that is the portion of West Africa now known as the
Southern Provinces of Nigeria, formerly Southern Nigeria.
Here there is already one large plantation of about 1,500
acres of Para rubber trees which has reached the producing
stage and the yield and quality of rubber from which is
entirely satisfactory, and has recently been sold at the best
prices in this country. Climate and soil in large tracts of
the Southern Provinces of Nigeria are well suited to the
growth of the Para tree, and native labour has proved to
be suitable and adequate for the purpose.

23*

596 BULLETIN OF THK IMPERL\L INSTITUTE

There are few industries which open up a greater vista
for enquiry and research than those of rubber production
and rubber manufacture. In these two divisions ot the
great rubber industry there is a multitude of subjects of
practical importance which demand systematic investi-
gation. I can do no more now than allude in passing to
some of these. They were considered in detail in my
Address as President of the International Congress of
Tropical Agriculture held in 1914 (cf. this Bulletin, 19 14,
12, 375)> when important discussions took place on these
subjects, in which planters and manufacturers and investi-
gators from all parts of the world took part, and of which
a full account is to be found in the Proceedings of this
Congress which were published in 191 5.

In growing rubber trees in plantations problems arise
as to the precise conditions most favourable to the life of
the tree, to its growth, and to the maximum production
of rubber. Closely connected with these problems are
those of the effects of climate, soil, and manuring, and also
of disease and insect attack and their remedies.

Equally important are the questions which arise as to
the most effective times and methods of tapping the trees
for latex, and there are others connected with the com-
position and coagulation of the latex and the best methods
of preparing the raw rubber.

It is clear that most of these are questions which can
only be investigated in the tropics. Much has been done
in recent years to deal with these important matters, and
it is right that full acknowledgment should be made of the
valuable work which has been carried on in the tropics by
and under the auspices of the superintendents and managers
of estates in making exact observations and trials, in addition
to the systematic investigations for which the Government
Agricultural Departments have been responsible, and to
the work conducted on a co-operative basis by the various
planting companies represented in the Rubber Growers'
Association.

The rubber planter, as a rule, has realised the precise
importance of exact observation and experiment in the
planting industry, and, in fact, he has recognised that he

PRESENT NEEDS OF BRITISH RUBBER INDUSTRY 597

must be an accurate observer and investigator himselt. A
large amount ot valuable research has been done, and is
now in progress, and what is chiefly needed at the present
time is co-ordination of results and more co-operation.

The allegation that Para rubber obtained from trees in
plantations was inferior to rubber obtained from forest
trees led, a few years ago, to the recognition of the im-
portance of discussion and co-operation between the rubber-
grower in the tropics and the manufacturer at home, so
that the former may produce the substance that the latter
requires. With this end in view a committee was formed
at the Imperial Institute composed of representatives of the
planting industry and of manufacturers in order to select
the subjects of more immediate concern to the rubber
industry as a whole which, need elucidation by research. A
plan of operations on these lines was drawn up necessi-
tating experimental work in the tropics in cjonnection with
the latex, and experimental work in this country in con-
nection with the raw rubber and its industrial employment.
Arrangements were made for the work required in the
tropics to be conducted in Ceylon with the assistance of
the Government Agricultural Department and of some of
the leading planting companies, and a joint committee was
formed in Ceylon to be in communication with the com-
mittee in London. An extension of the Rubber Research
Laboratory at the Imperial Institute provided for the special
work required to be done in this country in co-operation
with the manufacturers, who also placed their own labora-
tories and technical staff at the disposal of the committee.
This scheme of work, conducted by competent investigators
on both sides, has now been in full operation for over two
years, and has been productive of results of importance
both to the producer and the manufacturer, who have acted
together on the committee both in formulating the plan of
work and in selecting subjects for investigation, as well as
in discussing the results obtained in relation to production
and usage. The committee decided that whilst there should
be the freest interchange of facts and opinions among those
concerned, it was inexpedient to publish proposals for the
modification of existing procedure in the production of

598 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

rubber on estates until these had been thoroughly con-
firmed and substantiated by manufacturing tests.

The committee have now arrived at a number of im-
portant conclusions as a result of the researches conducted
in Ceylon and at home, and these will shortly be published
for general information.^

There can no longer be any doubt that plantation
rubber, properly prepared, will equal, if not excel, for the
purposes of manufacture, the rubber obtained from the
forest trees of Brazil. There are, however, still a number
of questions relating to the preparation of rubber in the
tropics which require investigation in order to establish
for general adoption a thoroughly satisfactory method of
preparing rubber in the form best adapted for manufacturing
use. In the course of the work which has been already
done on this subject it is clear that research is also needed
on the manufacturing side, in order to elucidate and
improve methods which are at present largely empirical,
and some of this investigation is being conducted by the
principal rubber manufacturing companies in their own
laboratories.

In order that effective progress may be made in research
in connection with the rubber industry, the different
spheres in which systematic research is required should
be clearly recognised and provided for. There are matters
requiring elucidation which are of immediate importance,
both in production and in manufacture, and there are other
and more fundamental questions in each of the two divisions
which are the proper subjects of scientific research, and
will take years of strictly scientific investigation to unravel.
Research on the principal and urgent problems which now
confront the rubber industry is best arranged and conducted
by agreement and co-operation between those who are
qualified to know what is required to be done and those
who are qualified to do it. A modest beginning has been
made on these lines at the Imperial Institute, through the
committees to which I have referred, on which producers,
manufacturers and investigators are working together to

* The results of the examination of the first two series of samples of
rubber are published in the present number of this Bulletin (pp. 495-5^)-

PRESENT NEEDS OF BRITISH RUBBER INDUSTRY 599

solve certain selected problems which they agree it is of
first importance to the industry should be attacked without
delay, and to which they also agree the work should, to
begin with, be limited. Work on these lines now needs
extension.

There is, however, room for other work of a more
general character, especially on the chemistry of the rubber
molecule. Research of this general nature is, as a rule,
best carried on in the research laboratories of universities
and colleges, since it belongs in the first instance to the
advancement of a particular science or sciences. From
such discoveries the industrialist may ultimately greatly
benefit.

There are some who hold the view that the whole of
the research of both descriptions I have referred to, some-
times roughly classed as "practical" and "theoretical,"
required for the rubber-producing and manufacturing
industries should be centralised in one scheme and con-
ducted at one institution. Any such scheme is, in my view,
entirely impracticable and undesirable. The subject is too
large and complicated in its various aspects to be dealt
with in this way. There is room for research in the tropics
and in all countries of the tropics, and there is room for
work at home and in many places and directions at home.
What is really important is that there should be a clear
understanding and co-operation as to the problems to be
solved, and a partition of the work in different places
according to its requirements.

GENERAL ARTICLES

THE WATTLE-BARK INDUSTRY OF NATAL

Reference has been made frequently in this Bulletin to
the cultivation of the wattle tree in South Africa, and the
results of examination of the bark at the Imperial Institute
have been published (1907, 5, 352 ; 1908, 6, 157 ; 1910, 8, 245 ;
191 1, 9, 116). Considerable quantities of the bark have
been imported into the United Kingdom from Natal in
recent years, but most of it, prior to the war, was re-

6oo BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

exported to Germany and Belgium. The quantity and
value of the total imports ol tanning bark into the United
Kingdom from that Province, the re-exports and the
amount retained in this country, during the last three
years for which statistics are available are shown in the
following table :

1913- 1914. 1915-

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Cwts.

Cwis.

Ctvts.

Imports

811,222

325,228

722,567

281,633

682,194

286,648

Re-exports .

652,360

267,419

549.133

217.837

233,958

103,894

Retained in United

Kingdom

158.862

57,809

173.434

63.796

448,236

182,754

Percentage retained

19*6

—

240

—

657

—

These figures show a remarkable and gratifying increase
in the amount of wattle bark retained for consumption in
this country.

In 191 5 more than two-thirds of the bark re-exported
from the United Kingdom was sent to Russia and Sweden.

Since the outbreak of war wattle bark has been utilised
to a far greater extent by tanners in this country, as the
foregoing figures indicate. Many tanners, however, prefer
to use a tanning extract, rather than the crude bark, and to
meet this demand the manufacture of wattle-bark extract
has been commenced in Natal. The present position of
the industry is summarised in the following account by
Mr. C. Williams, Chemist at the School of Agriculture,
Cedara, Natal, which has been kindly furnished to the
Imperial Institute by the Secretary for Agriculture, Union
of South Africa.

In order to obtain a proper idea of the magnitude of the
wattle-bark industry in Natal it is advisable, first, to study
the following table giving the quantity and value of the
wattle bark shipped from South Africa during the past
five years :

Year.

Amount.

Value.

lb.

191 1 .

111,205,265

289,557

I912 .

118,219,023

283,060

I9I3 .

145.717.738

309.328

I9I4 .

130,216,826

286.399

I915 .

89,661 464

195,244

THE WATTLE-BARK INDUSTRY OF NATAL 60 1

Practically the whole of the bark was shipped from
Durban (with the exception ot a tew tons from Delagoa
Bay) and was almost entirely the product of Natal planta-
tions. There is comparatively very little wattle bark used
for tanning or other purposes within the Union, so that the
above figures represent nearly the whole output of bark
from this industry.

It will be seen that the exports during the past two
years have seriously decreased, chiefly owing to the
difficulty of obtaining shipping tonnage, so that it is safe
to assume that the output, under normal conditions, at
the present time would approximate to 150,000,0001b. per
annum.

The bark, as shipped, is in an air-dried condition, con-
taining usually from 10 to 12 per cent, of moisture, but in
the drying process under commercial conditions the freshly
stripped green bark loses about 45 per cent, in weight, so
that the above quantity of naturally dried bark corresponds
approximately to 270,000,000 lb. (about 120,000 tons) of green
bark, as representing the total amount stripped per annum.

The most important development in connection with
the industry during the last few years has been the large
amount of experimental work— much of it of an empirical
nature — that has been carried out by several individuals
for the purpose of devising methods for the economical
extraction of the tanning matter from the bark. As a
result, several patents have been granted, of which two, at
any rate, relate to processes applicable more especially to
green bark, although the patentees claim that dried bark
could be successfully treated, as well, if desired.

The first of these patents is the Bilbrough & Frew
process, and a company (The Natal Wattle Products,
Limited) has been floated to work it, with a capital 01
^25,000, all ot which has been privately subscribed. In
this process the bark is crushed between a series of bronze
rollers, hot water being applied to it during the pressing.
A successful trial ot the process on a manufactunng scale
is claimed to have been conducted in 191 5 in one ot the
sugar-mills at Mount Edgecombe. A factory is in course
of erection at Merebank on the South Coast Line about

6o2 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

8 miles from Durban, but great difficulty is being
experienced in obtaining delivery of the plant from the
manufacturers in England, the multiple mill crushing plant
and the evaporators being still in the course of construction.
It is estimated that this particular plant has a capacity of
I, GOO tons of green bark per month, or 12,000 tons per
annum, but the Company hopes to double this capacity
with an additional vacuum pan. This firm proposes
to market a solid or block extract containing about
20 per cent, of moisture, and packed in cube boxes holding
about I cwt. each.

Another patented process is that of the Natal Tanning
Extract Company, which also treats the bark in the green
state, although it is claimed that the process is just as
efficient in the treatment of the dried bark. The factory is
in Pietermaritzburg, and has been successfully turning out
a good marketable solid extract for some months past.
Messrs. Humphreys, Percival Ellis & Co., the sole agents
for the sale of the extract in the United Kingdom, state that
at present 100-120 tons per month are coming forward and
that if the necessary freight is available the amount is likely
to be increased in the near future to 300-400 tons per
month.

In this process the bark is first chopped up finely and
then passed through a pair of bronze rollers, from which it
is mechanically conveyed to the leaching vat. The latter is
a wooden vessel, about 50 ft. in length, within which revolve
several bronze paddles or propellers for mechanically
pushing the chopped bark from one end of the vat to the
other, the bark entering at one end and the hot water at the
other. The exit pipe for the infusion is near where the
fresh bark comes in, and this outlet is so arranged that
there is a slow movement of the infusion in the tank in the
opposite direction to that of the bark.

When the bark reaches the opposite end of the vat, it is
mechanically picked up by means of revolving buckets,
squeezed through rollers, and this spent material is utilised
as fuel. To increase the efficiency of the working of the
vat, stem coils are placed along the bottom, and the whole
vessel is covered in. When these details are completed it

THE WATTLE-BARK INDUSTRY OF NATAL 603

is hoped that the whole leaching process will be completed
in twenty-four hours.

The evaporation is carried out by means of a multiplex
evaporator and two vacuum pans, manufactured by Blair,
Campbell & McLean, Ltd., Glasgow, and the finished pro-
duct is run out straight into small gunny bags, holding
about 100 lb., in which the material solidifies to a hard
block in a few hours.

When the two leaching vats are in full working order
the plant will be capable of turning out about 300 tons
of solid extract per month. The product has been reported
on very favourably by tanners in Great Britain, and the
firm hope shortly to be able to treat 50 tons of green bark a
day or over 13,000 tons per annum. Plans are already
drawn up to double, and perhaps treble, the capacity of the
factory, and negotiations are also on foot to erect four other
factories at convenient centres.

Another process is that patented by J. S. Tod, Mount
Nqwibi, via Vryheid, Natal. In this case an endeavour is
being made to float a company with ^10,000 capital, but
difficulty is being experienced at the present exceptional
time in finding a portion of the money in England.

A small factory is also in course of erection by Mr.
A. Fawcus, M.L.A., at Rosebank, near Richmond, Natal,
where the well-known method of leaching vats is being
adopted. Owing to the insuperable difficulties of obtaining
skilled labour at the present time, the work is not yet
completed, but the owner hopes to be able to make a start
very shortly. The capacity of this factory will apparently be
quite small as compared with the others mentioned above.

It may be mentioned that these factories, including the
one at present working and those in actual construction,
will be capable of utilising a large proportion of the bark
at present grown in Natal. When all the factories pro-
jected by the first two companies mentioned above are in
full work, it is estimated that they will be capable of dealing
with the greater portion (at least two-thirds) of the Natal
output.

Representative samples of leather tanned with Natal
wattle bark, together with a specimen of the extract manu-

6o4 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

factured by the Natal Tanning Extract Company, may be
seen in the South African Court of the Public Exhibition
Galleries of the Imperial Institute.

It has been suggested that the distillation ot wattle
wood should be carried on in conjunction with the wattle
bark industry, and in this connection reference may be
made to the results of distillation trials with wattle wood
from the East Africa Protectorate dealt with elsewhere in
this Bulletin (p. 570).

THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY AT THE CAPE

The Annual Report of the Government Mining Engineer ^
Dept. of Mines and Indust.^ Union of S. Africa , 191 5, includes
a memorandum on this subject, by G. E. B. Frood, the
Deputy-Inspector of Mines. The memorandum, from which
the following information has been obtained, contains some
useful information on the extent of the deposits of blue
asbestos in Cape Province.

Blue asbestos is found in the lower Griquatown beds,
which build up the range of hills known as the Asbestos
Mountains and the continuation north of these in the
Kuruman-Honingvlei range. The mineral is said to have
been discovered thirty miles south of Prieska, and has
actually been opened up as far north as the border of the
Bechuanaland Protectorate. This represents a distance
of well over 300 miles, taking into account the rather
sinuous course of the range of hills mentioned above.
Throughout that distance, the asbestos deposits occur in
greater or less abundance. There may be short stretches
where it has not yet been opened up, or in which it has
not afforded satisfactory prospects ; but there is no portion
of the hills on this line in which it can be said positively
that it will not be found. The actual extent of the deposits
is uncertain, but there appears to be no doubt that the
known deposits in the three districts of Kuruman, Hay and
Prieska cover a very large area. The richest occurrences
so far opened up to any considerable extent are those at
Koegas, on the Orange River.

THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY AT THE CAPE 605

All the prospecting done so far has been simply in
the nature of examination of the exposed strata occurring on
the hill-sdes. As the formation is very nearly horizontal,
the same strata will often appear on successive hills, and
thus one discovery will lead to another. It is only at
Khosis that the mineral has been found elsewhere than in
the hills, and there it occurs only to a small extent.

The only mines on which considerable reserves are
actually developed and in sight are those of the Cape
Asbestos Company, Limited, at Koegas and Westerberg.
These are developed underground on normal lines, as also
are the workings at Naauwpoort and Elandsfontein in the
Hay District. At Wonderwerk, in the Kuruman District, a
good start has been made with tunnelling and stoping
underground. At Bretby, in the same district, a small
amount of experimental work has been done on similar
lines. Elsewhere, the recovery is at present obtained by
surface quarrying.

A supply of asbestos is already assured that is more
than adequate to meet any expansion of the market that
can reasonably be anticipated for many years to come.

The Cape Asbestos Company, formed in 1893, still
controls the great bulk of the production, though a large
proportion of the output appears to be gradually reaching
the market from independent sources. The difficulty of
marketing its produce in competition with the better-known
chrysotile asbestos forced the Company to mill and manu-
facture its own product, and it has established factories
not only in England but also at Turin and Hamburg.
The most important development, however, has been the
formation in Paris of the Compagnie Frangaise de I'Amiante
du Cap, to take over the good-will and trading rights in
France. At present, in addition to handling perhaps two-
thirds of the whole local production, including the output
from its own mines and part of the production of con-
tractors working outside properties, the Cape Asbestos
Company is also much the largest of the European manu-
facturers of blue asbestos goods.

Practically all the mining and extraction work is done
by natives working on contract or being paid by results.

6o6 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Development work is generally paid for independently;
but, apart from this, payment is made by the sack of cleaned
asbestos fibre, the price varying according to the length of
the fibre as sorted and bagged. The cheapness of working
is noteworthy. On two properties, single veins of asbestos
not averaging more than i in. in width are being mined
hundreds of feet in from the outcrop, and the product is
being put on the market at a profit.

At Koegas and Westerberg, in the south, there is found
an average of perhaps four or five seams of asbestos, in
which the fibre varies in length, from J-in. upwards,
within a zone of from 12 to 18 in., though in places, and
in some instances for considerable distances, especially at
Westerberg, the number increases to eight, nine, or ten
seams within the same or a little greater width. On
some of the Kuruman properties, such as Bretby, on the
contrary, the asbestos may be worth following in a suc-
cession of terraces at irregular intervals from the bottom
to the top of a hill, the difficulty there being to pick the
most profitable zone or zones on which to concentrate
work. Further, exceptional places occur, some carrying
as many as from twelve to seventeen veins in a face of
not over 6 ft., while 20 ft. away there are only one or
two, so that a good deal of averaging out is necessary
before the best paying zones can be decided upon. The
profitable working of the deposits depends upon the number
of seams that can be brought within the stope faces, and
the length of fibre carried by the respective seams.

While the mining conditions are simple, the dis-
tribution of the asbestos, as regards both the number of
seams found from point to point and the length of the fibre,
is very irregular. The lower Griquatown series has been
subject to much contortion throughout, more especially
near Westerberg, where the richest deposits of asbestos so
far opened up on any considerable scale have been found.

The preparation of fibre at Koegas is briefly described.
Common standards of local classification are :

(i) From f in. to | in. ; J in. to li in. ; li in. to 2 in. ; and
2 in. and over ; and,

(2) From i in. to J in. ; J in. to i in. ; etc.

THE ASBESTOS INDUSTRY AT THE CAPE 607

The product, according to its class, is put up in bags
and marked, the bags generally containing 100 lb. of cleaned
fibre or a little more.

For textile purposes, about 25 per cent, of the fibre must
be I in. and over. The average length of fibre, as mined in
the Kuruman district, is somewhat over this standard, while
that in the south appears to be lower. The average for
the whole field of the present production will probably
not fall very greatly short of the standard.

The best blue asbestos has recently realised £4$ P^r ton
on the European market, some special parcels going as high
as £6s. Other current prices are from £16 to i;i8 for J-in.
to J-in. stuff, £2S to £27 for J-i^- to i in., and £2^0 to £is
for I in. and over. Making allowances for discoloured
fibre, the whole Cape output realises at present an average
of about £2$ per ton landed in England.

A great deal of rusty fibre is seen in the Kuruman
district. It is generally yellow or reddish, obviously the
result of decomposition of the blue material, and is scarcely
likely to be of any practical use or value. The proportion
of discoloured material being put on the market from the
Kuruman district is estimated at as high as 30 per cent, of
the whole ; but this will decrease as more of the asbestos
is produced by underground mining. Rusty and dis-
coloured material are both practically unknown in the
south.

The fibre of the Kuruman district is lighter than that
from the Koegas and the southern districts, while samples
from the Kuruman district uniformly break down to a
much softer and more fleecy product than do those
from Koegas. The specific gravity of various specimens
examined was found to range from 2-93 to 3'2.

Of the world's production of asbestos for the years 1910
and 191 1, approximately 80 per cent, was produced in
Canada, 13J per cent, in Russia, and only 12 percent, at
the Cape. As blue asbestos is almost entirely confined to
the Cape, the last figure may be taken as representing the
total proportion of blue to white produced in those years.
The Cape output for 191 5 shows a remarkable increase,
due to an increasing all-round demand from English manu-

6o8 BULLETIN OF THE LMPERIAL INSTITUTE

facturers, and in spite ot the loss of the German market,
which had been a large buyer before the war. The Cape
production in recent years has been as follows, in tons ot
2,000 lb. : 1910, 1,403 tons; 1911, 1,253 tons; 1912, 1,217
tons; 1913, 1,1 1 1 tons; 1914, 1,276 tons; 1915, 3,034 tons.
The outputs for the last three years are founded on
Customs figures of exports.

NOTES

The Work of the Imperial Institute for India. — The following
article appeared in Indian Engineering for November 4,
1916 :

The Imperial Institute and India

" The special article prepared by the Director of the
Imperial Institute and read before the Royal Society of
Arts on June i appears at an opportune time. While
India is agitated by a healthy desire for industrial advance-
ment, and a Commission is at work to make enquiry as to
the directions in which advances may be made, we have
Dr. Dunstan stepping forward to show us what progress
has been made already and what an excellent organisation
already exists to assist progress if only it is properly
utilised. After reading this paper we are disposed to think
that much of the outcry filling the columns of the Home
Press against the slackness existing in scientific and indus-
trial research proceeds from a lack of full information ; the
Research bodies seem to be taking their castigation lying
down ; and perhaps if a few others emerged from their
retreat to enlighten us as to what they are really doing we
might find that the sum total of effort is not a thing to be
scoffed at. Dr. Dunstan sets an excellent example, and we
hope others will follow it, so that our Industrial Commis-
sion may have something solid to base their deductions on
instead of formulating schemes based on an idea that no
ground to speak of has been broken before.

" Let us note briefly what the Institute is doing for
India and then pass on to note what India is doing for the
Institute. First, there is the exhibition side of the work,
showing all the important raw materials of the country and
its chief industries, all with descriptive labels supplemented
by tabular information regarding the business done in
them, so that the commercial enquirer may not only see the
thing he is enquiring about but learn about its source of
production and how it could be supplied him, if wanted.
Next, there is a Scientific and Technical Research Depart-
ment wqth a staff of trained workers engaged upon testing

NOTES 609

the applications of the raw materials to industrial uses both
from the technical and commercial standpoint. Then there
is a Technical Information Bureau which, in collaboration
with the Scientific and Technical Research Department,
collects and distributes information to merchants and manu-
facturers. There is a large library and map room to afford
detailed information, and lastly there is the Institute
periodic Bulletin which is distributed and largely read.
Some more detail will show the processes of work better,
and Dr. Dunstan gives it to us in connection with the
tanning industr3\ The officers of the Institute have first
to determine by chemical analysis whether a tanning
material has the necessary constituents ; next has to be
determined whether these constituents are practically suc-
cessful in application to certain classes of leather, and this
has to be ascertained in consultation with the tanner him-
self. Next has to be ascertained the price that tanners will
pay for it, not one but the trade generally. This settled,
India has to be consulted as to whether it can supply the
tanning material for the price and at a profit. This involves
extended enquiry as to the sources of supply, the quantity
which can be supplied, the export price and the arrange-
ments for export. Provided these preliminaries are satis-
factory, it next becomes necessary to arrange for a large
trial consignment to be exported to test the home market
and to open up the business channel; and this requires
arrangements at home with brokers, merchants and manu-
facturers. The Imperial Institute does all this for India.

"And now, what is India doing for the Institute? The
Princes and people of India subscribed liberally towards
the building fund of the Institute, but the Government of
India gave nothing. After the Institute was opened in
1893 an Indian Section was formed, and then the Indian
Government made an annual contribution which went
towards the maintenance of a special Indian Curator, who
was executive officer of the Indian Committee. In 1896
the Scientific and Technical Research Department was
opened, when the Government of India began to contribute
towards it the annual sum of ;^ioo, and later raised it to
;^2oo, which is the limit at which it stands to the present
day. In 1906 the Indian Committee was abolished, and the
contribution from India towards support of it was reduced,
although the work in behalf of India continued to be
carried on by the general administration of the Institute.
As regards the administration of the Institute, it has to be
stated that from its opening in 1893 to the year 1903 it was
an independent institution managed b}' a Governing Body ;
in 1903 it was taken over by the Imperial Government and
placed under the Board of Trade ; in the present year it
was transferred from the Board of Trade to the Colonial
Office, and its management vested in a large and repre-

6io BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

sentative Executive Council, on which India will occupy an
important place. Yet the Government of India has not
thought fit to help the Institute materially in its work,
either financially or otherwise, for the Director says : ' The
contributions made by the Government of India to these
collections in recent years have not been numerous, partly
because there is no longer an officer in India to whom can
be delegated the duty of collecting the material required, so
that additional exhibits have to be obtained separately from
the various Provinces and Departments of India. Fortu-
nately, however, private contributions have done much
towards making the Indian Section representative of the
resources and industries of modern India.* While Sir
George Watt was Reporter on Economic Products for
India he worked in close touch with the Institute, and at
that time Indian materials were those which chiefly occupied
the attention of the Scientific and Technical Research De-
partment ; the abolition of his appointment seems therefore
at least unfortunate, since no other agency has since been
created to maintain this connection. This would not
matter if India were able to utilise for herself all her raw
materials, but she is not, and must for a long time to come
depend on British capital to do it. Success in interesting
British capitalists depends very much on the way the case
is put before them, and as the Imperial Institute is organised
and worked it is difficult to conceive of an organisation
better fitted to undertake this part of the work. Thus,
whether a new industry is to make its way in India, or at
home, or abroad, a central' organisation in London, which
may be said to be the very hub of the commercial wheel of
the Empire, is the best fitted to put it on its feet.

" As an instance in detail, let us put briefly what the
Imperial Institute has done for the Indian turpentine oil
and rosin industry. As is well known, most of the turpen-
tine oil is obtained from Finns longifolia (chir), the most
largely distributed and easiest grown of Indian pines. The
Institute has definitely ascertained that this oil is not equal
to the best grades of American and French oils, but is as
good as Russian oil, and, as a large quantity of the last-
named oil is used in the United Kingdom, there will be no
difficulty in finding a market for it there as soon as it is
produced in excess of Indian needs. Meanwhile, the Indian
production is proving of indirect benefit by making more
of the American and French products available for home
use, and thus keeping down prices. The oil of Pinus
Khasya has been found to be better and cmite equal to the
lower grades of American turpentine. The oil of Pinns
excelsay when properly prepared, is comparable with the
best French products. The rosin obtained from all these
pines has been found to be very similar in composition to
that from the United States and France, and could be used

NOTES 6ii

for the same purpose ; but its manufacture needs to be
improved to produce pale-coloured rosin of the best type.
Quality of turpentine products can be improved by the use
of better plant, and it is satisfactory to learn that so far the
Puniab has already installed a lar^e French plant with
^ood results. As a consequence of the publicity given at
home to the Indian industry, the Institute has received
enquiries from several British manufacturers, and in some
cases trial consignments of Indian turpentine oil have been
obtained on their behalf; but so far the price has been too
high to enable a trade to be established. The Institute has,
however, ascertained that important British firms are
willing to work a turpentine concession in India. Should,
therefore, the Indian Government see its way to arrange
such a concession, and the industry be then undertaken on
a large scale with the best European plant, there is no
reason to doubt that production will become cheaper, and
Indian turpentine oil and rosin will be able to compete in
home and other foreign markets.

*' Dr. Dunstan informs us that, since the war began and
trade with certain foreign countries has been restricted,
there have been several hundred enquiries on subjects of
importance to India which the Institute Technical Informa-
tion Bureau has dealt with, showing its value as a medium
between the British manufacturer and the Indian producer.
As now constituted, the Imperial Institute is to have an
Executive Council of twenty-five members, India being re-
presented by four, one nominated by the Government of
India, two by the Secretary of State for India, and one by the
Secretary of State for the Colonies ; and it is understood
that, in addition, there will be a special Indian Committee
of the Council with co-opted members. This constitution
will place India in a most favourable position with regard
to the Institute ; but unless the Government of India
appreciates the advantage better than in the past little
benefit will result. It should support the Institute finan-
cially in a much more liberal manner, and follow up its
suggestions with more thoroughness. Above all things, it
should let slip no opportunity of securing the co-operation
of British capitalists. Very little is ever done in this
country without them. It is they who have the energy
and the courage to embark on a new thing, although there
may be a sufficiency of money in India for the purposes of
many undertakings without the need of British money. A
point that struck us with some force in the remarks of the
Bengal Chamber of Commerce, when supporting the policy
of having Home Boards for Indian Railways, was that their
presence at home was a strength to the Companies in India,
financially, officially and personally. The Imperial Institute
in London, if properly recognised, would have a similar
influence on the success of industry in India/'

6i2 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Industrial Development in United Provinces, India. — During
the past year or so noteworthy efforts have been made in
the United Provinces to introduce new industries and to

gromote the growth of those already existing A special
oard of Industries has been established, which has issued
a series of memoranda, the object of which is to interest
capitalists and others in the possibilities of certain industries.
Tne memoranda so far issued deal respectively with (i) the
oil-pressing industry, (2) the cultivation and preparation ot
flax, (3) indigenous dye-stuffs, and (4) babul pods as a
tanning agent.

In the Memorandum dealing with the possibilities of the
oil-pressing industry, it is suggested that the climatic con-
ditions of the United Provinces are most favourable to such
an industry, and it is pointed out that there are ample
supplies of seed available, including castor seed, cotton
seed, linseed, poppy seed, rape and mustard seed, and
sesame. The total exports of oil seeds from the United
Provinces in 191 3-14 amounted to 426,512 tons, of value
;f 3,862, 180. In addition large quantities of seeds are crushed
by native methods, and the oil either used locally or
exported, the exports of oil in 1913-14 amounting to 6,809
tons, valued at ;^i77,846. At present there is only one oil-
mill working in the whole of the Provinces which possesses
modern plant, but it is estimated that even if only half the
oil seeds grown in the Provinces were crushed locally, they
would provide work for 800 large mills. One great economic
advantage of crushing the seeds locally would be that large
quantities of cake would be available for feeding purposes
or as manure. With the production of linseed oil locally,
there would be an opening for the establishment of a paint
and varnish industry, for which other raw materials are
available in the Provinces, lac having been exported to
the amount of 8,336 tons in 1913-14, whilst rosin and
turpentine oil are being produced in increasing quantity
at Bhowali.

It may be pointed out, however, that there are a number
of difficulties in the way of rapidly developing the oil-
pressing industry on modern lines on a large scale in India.
The Indian production of oil and cake is already in excess
of the local demand, the exports of fixed oils, other than
coconut oil, amounting to 1,960,171 gallons, valued at
;f 2 19,797, in 1914-15, and in the same year 136,932 tons of
oil cake, valued at £709,21^^ were sent out of the country.
It seems clear, therefore, that any further supply of oil and
cake produced would have to be exported, and it may be
doubted whether it is not more costly to export oil and cake
separately than it is to export them together as they occur
in the seed. Much more cake could be used in India, both
as a feeding-stuff for cattle and as a manure, than is the
case at present, and the most practical step towards the

NOTES ^13

eventual extension of the oil-pressing industry is to improve
the local demand for oil and cake.

The fact that lac is available in the United Provinces is
of no importance in connection with the local production of
linseed oil, because lac is not used in oil varnishes but only
in alcohol varnishes and polishes.

The notes on flax, by Mr. B. C. Burt, are based largely
on the results obtained in experiments on the cultivation
and preparation of flax, which were carried on over a period
of several years at Dooriah, in Bihar, under the direction of
Mr. Vandekerkhove, and which have already been referred
to in this Bulletin (1908, 6, 401 ; 19 10, 8, 304). In the
Dooriah experiments the flax straw yielded 8 per cent, of
fibre and 7I per cent, of tow, and Mr. Vandekerkhove con-
sidered that a factory for preparing the fibre could pay Bi
per maund (is. ^d. per 82 lb.) for such straw, and leave a
clear profit of 8 per cent, after paying all expenses, including
the cost of skilled European supervision. Flax straw grown
at the Cawnpore Experimental Farm in the United Pro-
vinces yielded 12 per cent, of fibre and 13 per cent of tow,
so that a factory could afford to pay more than the price
mentioned above. Assuming a yield of 40 maunds (nearly
30 cwts.) of straw per acre, a result which has been obtained
at the farm under irrigation but without manuring or any
particularly high cultivation, even Ri per maund, plus the
amount realised for the seed, is stated to represent practically
the same return to the cultivator as an irrigated wheat crop
at normal prices. As the fibre produced at Cawnpore was
somewhat superior to that obtained at Dooriah, it is con-
sidered that a factory could probably obtain more than
8 per cent, profit.

The natural dye-stuffs occurring in the United Provinces
have been systematically examined in the Technical Labora-
tory of the Department of Industries since the outbreak of
war, with a view to their utilisation as substitutes for coal-
tar products. Experiments have been made on the prepara-
tion of the colouring matter from the raw material and on
its behaviour towards various fibres, mordants and reagents,
and it is stated that as a result the laboratory has been able
to aff*ord valuable assistance to local industries engaged in
dyeing. Three memoranda on indigenous dye-stuff's have
so far been issued. The third gives a general summary of
the first two, and contains a table showing the relative cost
of certain indigenous and coal-tar dye-stuffs. In every case
the cost of the former is lower than that of the latter at
the current prices. Even with coal-tar dye-stuffs at their
normal prices, it is considered that the indigenous materials
would be cheaper, provided that proper arrangements are
made for their collection and supply. Dr. Marsden, the
Dyeing Expert to the Government of Madras, however, as
a result of an investigation of the indigenous dye-stuffs of

6i4 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Mysore, with special reference to cotton-dyeing, came to
the conclusion tnat '* the indigenous materials are incapable
of meeting the demands which have been created by the
developments in the manufacture of synthetic colours," and
that "it would only be the absolute impossibility of obtain-
ing any synthetic dyes whatever which would give any
hope of the indigenous dyes finding application " {Bulletin
No. 31, 1 91 6, Industries and Commerce Committee^ Mysore
Econ. Confer.^ p. 14).

Babul {Acacia arabica) pods, although rich in tannin (see
this Bulletin, 1906, 4, 96; 1913, 11, 410), are not utilised for
tanning in India, as, it is stated, the tan liquor prepared
from the pods speedily undergoes deterioration. The same
objection to their use has been raised in the case of the

Eods from the Sudan, where they are known as sant pods ;
ut enquiries made by the Imperial Institute have shown
that in the United Kingdom, at all events, this difficulty has
not arisen to any great extent, probably owing to the fact,
as mentioned below, that the fermentative action is weaker
at low temperatures.

Experiments have been made in the Technical Laboratory
of the Department of Industries, United Provinces, with a
view to devising a means for preventing the fermentation
of the tan liquor prepared from babul pods to a sufficient
extent to allow of their use in tanning. The fermentation
was found to be due mainly to a species of Mucor, which
acts upon the large amount of sugar contained in the pods.
It can be stopped by boiling the liquor, by keeping it at
a low temperature, or by the addition of antiseptics. An
infusion of 4 oz. of pods in 20 oz. of water fermented badly,
but no fermentation took place within a week when carbolic
acid or phenazole was added in strengths of 0*3 and 025 per
cent, respectively or over (expressed on the weight of tannmg
material taken). An objection to the use of phenazole
alone is its alkaline nature, but it was shown that it is
equally effective when slightly acidified with acetic acid,
and it is recommended for use when carbolic acid is not
available or is too costly. With regard to the effect of
temperature, it was found that a liquor prepared with 4 oz.
of pods and 20 oz. of water fermented when kept at 65° F.,
but fermentation was only very slight at the end of a week
when the liquor was kept at 50° F. This seems to indicate
that it may be possible to do without any antiseptic, or
that it may be necessary to add only very small amounts,
during the winter montfis.

The use of antiseptics to arrest undesirable kinds of
fermentation in tanning-pits is, of course, quite well known
in Europe, but a drawback to their use is that they may
arrest desirable, as well as undesirable, fermentations. The
experiments referred to were carried out merely with
aqueous infusions of the pods and not in the presence of

NOTES 6is

skins or hides, and it will be interesting to have the results
of the large-scale trial which, it is stated, is to be conducted
in a tannery in the United Provinces.

Recent Developments in the Tobacco Industry of Nyasaland. —
The cultivation of tobacco in Nyasaland has made great
strides within the last ten years (cf. this Bulletin, 1916,
14, i) and this crop is now the chief one grown for export
in the Protectorate. The industry suffered a slight set-
back on the outbreak of war, but the restriction imposed
on the import of foreign-grown tobacco into the United
Kingdom {loc. cit.^ p. 114) gave the Nyasaland planters and
growers an opportunity which they were not slow to
take advantage of. According to a memorandum fur-
nished to the Imperial Institute by the Director of Agri-
culture, Nyasaland, the locally grown tobacco sold with
little delay after the restrictions came into force, and even
old stocks, both in the United Kingdom and Nyasaland,
found a ready sale at lucrative prices. In order to
strengthen the position of Nyasaland tobacco on the home
market, a system of grading was drawn up by the Manager
of the Imperial Tobacco Company's local factory, to which
most of the planters have adhered. The grades are as
follows :

A. Mahogany and Dark Leaves, of Heavy or Good
Body, suitable for Pipe and Plug Tobacco

A.E. Sound, ripe, bright mahogany leaves of heavy body
and slightly mottled and of good texture.

A.F. Same as A.E., but not so bright and more mottled.

A.G. Dark mahogany or reddish-brown leaves with good
body.

A.H. Very dark mahogany, dark brown or dark leaves,
generally of good body.

B. Brighter and thinner Leaves suitable for
Cigarette Tobacco

B.B. Best bright yellow leaves of good body and size and

of fine texture.
B.C. Same as B.B., but of lighter body.
B.D. Leaves of fairly good body, but not so bright as B.B.

and smaller.
B.F. Same as B.D., but with less colour and body.
B.G. Good leaves of less colour than the foregoing; also

spotted leaves if of good body.
B.H. Inferior leaves, if sound and of fair colour.

The memorandum referred to above also includes the
conclusions arrived at from the results of experiments con-
ducted at the Government Farm at Namiwawa. These
conclusions are as follows :

(i) Expensive, imported artificial manures are not neces-

6i6 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTItUtE

sary, as good tobacco can be produced by utilising local
manures, the best results being obtained by the application
of cattle manure and lime ; other manures tried were, in
descending order of merit, cotton seed and lime, cattle
manure, cotton seed, lime.

(2) The quality of the tobacco does not suffer when the
crop follows a leguminous crop, as many planters suppose,
and it is much better to grow a crop 01 velvet bean and

C lough it in than to attempt to regenerate worn-out land
y allowing it to run to natural bush for three or four years.

(3) The spotting of leaves due to the attacks oiCercospora
nicotianae and other fungoid diseases is wrongly attributed
to the use of nitrogenous manures ; it is generally a sign
of worn-out soil and can be remedied largely by green
manuring.

(4) Topping experiments show that the greater the
number of leaves left on the plant the poorer is the body,
but, as plants growing in rich soil can produce a larger
number of marketable leaves, no strict rule can be laid down
as to the number which should be left on.

(5) "Gold Leaf" and "Warne" have proved to be the
most suitable varieties for Nyasaland, with " Conqueror "
as a reserve for special purposes.

(6) Tobacco which gives a nondescript leaf when cured
as a bright tobacco will produce a larger proportion of
marketable leaf if cured slowly. According to a previous
communication from the Director of Agriculture, this result
can be attained by heating the curing barn to 1 10° F., then
drawing the fire and leaving the tobacco for two to four
days before raising the temperature.

(7) Harvesting the leaves separately is much preferable
to harvesting the whole plant, as the bottom leaves are
frequently lost if the plant is left until the greater propor-
tion of the leaves are ready for gathering.

(8) The best tobacco is usually made from the middle
leaves, and the secret of successful curing is to have all the
tobacco well grown and of the same type and degree of
ripeness when put in the barn.

(9) The fact that a large proportion of the Nyasaland
tobacco is of inferior quality is due simply to insufficient
barn accommodation, and the tobacco is either perished in
the fields, or the temperature of the barn is raised too
quickly, before the leaf has sweated and yellowed, in order
that the barn may be refilled.

It has been found that plants raised from even the best
seed procurable from the United States exhibit a "sporting"
tendency, and selection experiments have therefore been
conducted with a view to producing pure seed suitable for
the local conditions.

Chinese Blackwood.— For the manufacture of the so-called
" blackwood " furniture the Chinese employ several distinct

NOTES

617

species of timber, the botanical identity of which has hitherto
been a matter of some uncertainty. The ** blackwood " is
imported into China chiefly from Bangkok and Saigon, but
some forms are also importe4 from Java. It is not possible
to state definitely the amount of blackv/ood annually im-
ported into China, as this is not separately recorded in the
Chinese Maritime Customs Returns of Trade, but the
following table giving the imports of hardwood (exclusive
of sandalwood) into China during the years 191 3-1 5 in-
dicates the importance of the Chinese import trade in
hardwoods :

From

United Kingdom

Hong Kong

Singapore

British India ,

Japan (including Formosa)

Philippine Islands .

Macao

French Indo-China .

Siam

Dutch Indies .

Other countries

Total Imports

cub. ft.

915,299

426,142

42,482

1,284,420

302

32,374

14,757

4,101

1,879

10,118
2,731,889

I9I4.

cub. ft.

1915.

cub. ft.

69,130

1,182

936,257

1.278,966

603,075

204,116

243

—

1,826.634

575.407

68,304

9,880

26,560

25,422

33.965

22,214

4,894

1,683

109

28,425

19,603

24.519

3.588,774

2,171,814

The following information relating to the " blackwood "
exported from Siam to China has been obtained from a
memorandum on the subject recently received at the Im-
perial Institute from H.B.M. Consul at Bangkok. All the
species of timber mentioned as being exported from Siam
under the general name of " blackwood " occur in India and
some of them in the Malay Peninsula, and it would, there-
fore, appear worth while for Indian and Malayan exporters
of timber to give some attention to the Chinese market.
The timbers exported as " blackwood " from Siam are as
follows :

Siamese name.

1. Mai Deng (Ht. "Red

Wood ").

2. Mai Pradoo.

3. Mai Kilek.

4. Mai Payoong.

5. Mai Ching Chan.

6. Mai Dam Dong.

7. Mai Maklua.

Common name.
Ironwood.

Padauk (Burmese).
Maizalee or Mdzali (Burmese).
Rosewood.
Yindaik (Burmese).
Ebony.

Moong (Burmese).

Botanical name.
Xylia dolabriformis.

Pterocarpus indicus.
Cassia siatnea.
Dalbergia latifolia.
,, cultrata.

Diospyros sp. (prob-
ably D. Ebenum).
Diospyros sp.

In Siam the rosewoods are worked more particularly
from the regions lying north-east and east ot Bangkok.
They are exported in the form of roughly trimmed round
logs, of average size from i to 2 ft. in circumference and

6i8 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

from 6 It. 8 in. to lo ft. in length. The timber could prob-
ably be obtained in slightly larger logs, but, owing to its
great weight, the size mentioned appears to be the largest
that the Siamese villagers can conveniently handle and
transport. Further, as this timber is employed by the
Chinese almost entirely for furniture-making, a demand for
larger pieces does not appear to have arisen.

The Siamese rosewood forests have been heavily over-
worked in the past, and the Siamese Government is now
taking measures to protect these w^oods by requiring workers
to take out permits. These measures will probably result
in restricting the general output of rosewood timber.

The species of Diospyros that yield the ebony woods are
found to the westward of Bangkok, in the districts of
Kanburi, Petchaburi, and southwards towards the Malay
Peninsula. The ebony logs are roughly trimmed for export,
and measure from 12 to 20 in. in circumference and 6 ft. 8 in.
to 10 ft. in length.

The extraction of these woods is not a regular industry
anywhere in Siam, but forms one of the desultory occupa-
tions of the people when they are not engaged in rice
cultivation. The wood is bought from the natives by the
Chinese, who are either middlemen or the agents of Chinese
firms in Bangkok. The ** blackwoods " are too heavy to
float, and are therefore brought down to Bangkok either by
boat or rail. They are sold by weight, the unit for export
being usually 100 piculs (i picul= 133 J lb.), and the average
prices ;£"22 105. to £1^ 105. per unit for rosewoods and about
;^22 105. for ebonies. The price for rosewoods varies ac-
cording to the size of the log, the age of the trees, and the
fineness of the grain. The ebonies are usually more uniform
in quality than the rosewoods. These woods are subject
to taxes in the form of a forest royalty or a customs export
duty. The forest duty is calculated at the rate of 9s. to
los. 6d. per cubic metre, and the export duty is levied by
weight at the rate of is. \o\d. per picul.

The articles of furniture made of " blackwood " by the
Chinese comprise beds, divans, stools, chairs, tables, book-
cases, mirror-frames, chests of drawers, etc. These are
sometimes inlaid with mother-of-pearl, but this is not con-
sidered to be in the best taste by the Chinese. The furniture
made for the Chinese home market is not so elaborately
carved as that intended for export to Europe, but great
importance is attached to the finish and polish of the wood
and also to its colour and uniformity of grain.

In the furniture made for the European market the wood
is stained black and waxed so that the original colour is
completely hidden.

Examples of Chinese blackwood furniture are exhibited
in the Hong Kong Court of the Public Exhibition Galleries
at the Imperial Institute.

NOTES 619

The Castoivoil Plant as a Host of the Shot-hole Borer of Tea. —

The s}iot-hole borer {Xyleboriis fornicatus) is a small beetle
which attacks a number of plants, boring into the stem and
making tunnels in the wood, in which the eggs are laid. In
Ceylon this insect causes serious injury to the tea plant,
and in 1914 regulations were issued, under the Insect Pest
and Quarantine Ordinance, making it compulsory for per-
sons in charge of tea estates infested with the pest to notify
the Director of Agriculture, who should then declare the
estate in quarantine.

Of the plants, other than tea, which are attacked by the
beetle, the castor-oil plant is pre-eminently adapted as a
host and to facilitate the spread of the insect.

At an altitude above 5,000 ft. the shot-hole borer is absent
from both tea and castor-oil plants, but at lower eleva-
tions, from 1,800 to 4,000 ft., the latter are badly attacked,
both when growing near tea and at long distances from it.
There is no question that the beetles are the same in both
cases, for not only have they been authoritatively identified
as such, but they have been actually observed flying from
the castor-oil plant and boring into the tea and vice versa.
That the castor-oil plant is specially favourable as a host is
shown by the fact that beetles bred in it are always some-
what larger than those bred in the tea plant, indicating that
they obtain more nourishment from it.

Before anything can be done, therefore, to exterminate
the pest in the tea plantations, it is considered necessary to
eradicate all castor-oil plants in their vicinity. The Depart-
ment of Agriculture suggested that such eradication should
be made compulsory, and that the cultivation of the plant
in the tea-growing area should be prohibited. This sug-
gestion was considered by the Ceylon Planters' Association
at a meeting held at Kandy in November 191 5, at which
Mr. E. R. Speyer, who has charge of the shot-hole borer
investigation, gave an address and took part in the dis-
cussion. The proceedings of the meeting were reported in
extenso in The Planting Gazette of Ceylon (19 16, 3, 329), from
which much of the foregoing information relating to the pest
is taken. A resolution was passed agreeing to the suggestion
of the Department of Agriculture, and in June of this year
a series of Regulations under the Insect Pest and Quarantine
Ordinance, No. 5 of 1901, embodying these suggestions, was
put into force {Ceylon Govt Gaz., June 16, 19 16, Part I.,
p. 462). The Director of Agriculture can, however, give
written permission to allow the plant to be grown in suitable
areas. The tea-growing area as at present defined by the
rules embraces practically the whole of the Central, Uva,
Sabaragamuwa, and Western Provinces, the Southern
Province west of the Kelani Ganga, and the south-eastern
portion of the North-west Province.

Black-Fox Farming in North America. — Reference has been
24

620 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

made already in this Bulletin (1914, 12, 273) to the increasing
importance of the raising of fur-bearing animals in captivity,
more particularly with regard to silver- or black-fox farming
in Canada. Most of the fox ** ranches " are situated in
Prince Edward Island, where there were in 191 2 two hundred
ranches owning 650 silver foxes, although the industry was
then in a more or less experimental condition; in 191 3 the
number of ranches increased to 277, owning 1,602 silver and
a number of cross-bred and yellow foxes (Ann. Rep.^ Dept,
Agric.^ Pr. Edward Is,j 191 3, p. 6). The industry appears
to have become firmly established, and of such importance
that a tax amounting to i per cent, on the value of the
offspring in each year was imposed in 191 3.

Although progress in 191 3 was somewhat disappointing
and many litters of cubs were lost soon after birth, probably
owing to a spell of abnormally hot weather towards the end
of April, the results demonstrated that silver foxes are
hardy and healthy in captivity when kept under good con-
ditions. New undertakings were prevented in 1914 by the
war, but none of the existing companies ceased operations
(Ann. Rep., Dept. Agric, Pr. Edtvard Is., 1914, p. vii), and
the extent of the industry is shown by the fact that in Prince
Edward Island alone the authorised capital amounted to
over ;^7, 500,000. In 19 14 over 55 per cent, of the vixens
brought up their young to maturity, compared with about
46 per cent, in 191 3, this improvement being due apparently
to improved methods of ** ranching " and to more complete
domestication of the animals.

A fur-sales Board of the Silver Black Fox Breeders'
Association of Prince Edward Island has been organised
for the purpose of collecting pelts from the producers and
arranging permanent marketing facilities. The first Report
of this Board was published as an appendix to the Report of
the Agricultural Department of Prince Edward Island for
1915, and contains much useful information on the marketing
of this valuable fur. Representatives of the Board and a
representative of the Government visited New York early
in 1914 to enquire into the possibility of the sale of fox furs
in New York instead of in London, where the conditions of
sale were somewhat unpromising owing to the war. Fur
dealers and merchants in New York who examined the
skins expressed the opinion that they were superior in
quality to wild black-fox skins. Twenty skins were sold at
prices ranging from about £6% to ^208 each, with an average
price of over ;^i5o per skin, or about five times the average
prices paid for a representative collection of wild skins sold
at auction sales. These prices are regarded as very satis-
factory, as the collection of skins was not large enough to
permit the matching of skins to form pairs, which fetch
enhanced prices, while the season of sale was somewhat
unfavourable.

NOTES 621

Attention is being given to fox farming in other parts
of Canada, such as Quebec, where 150 foxes were born in
captivity during 19 14 (Rep. Ministry oj Colonisation ^ Mines,
and Fisf/enes, Quebec, 191 3-14, p. 219). A great deal of
interest has been also aroused in North America in the possi-
bility of extending the raising of other valuable fur-bearing
animals in captivity, and numerous enterprises have been
commenced for breeding such animals as beavers, mink,
lynx, and racoons in captivity.

A recent Bulletin of the U.S. Dept. Agric. (No. 301 of
19 1 5) deals with the question of silver-fox farming in
North America, and includes an interesting map showing
the areas in North America in which conditions for fox
farming are excellent, and also where it is feasible.

The Utilisation of Water Power.— The development of a
large number of industries in the British Colonies is very
largely, if not entirely, dependent on a supply of cheap
power. In most cases the cost of fuel renders steam
power out of the question, but fortunately in many of the
Colonies there is an ample supply of water power which
can be utilised for the production of electric energy. So
far, however, such power has been comparatively little
utilised, and, with a viev^ to calling attention to what
can be done in this direction, reference may be made to
the hydro-electric power works at Lake Margaret, near
Macquarie Harbour, on the west coast of Tasmania, and
the power station on the Winnipeg River, Canada, de-
scriptions of which are given in Engineering for January 7
and February 4, 1916, and July 26 and August 2, 191 2,
respectively.

The electric power generated at the first-mentioned
works is employed in the Mount Lyell Reduction Works
for the production of copper, silver and gold, and for
running a railway between the mines and the reduction
works and the coast. The lake is situated at an altitude of
2,150 ft., and has an area of 303 acres, the greatest depth
being about 150 ft. The water is carried from the lake
to the generating station through a wooden pipe, which
has a fall of about 40 ft. in a total length of 7,100 ft., and
then through two steel pressure pipes, which have a fall
of 1,040 ft. in a length of 2,909 ft. The steel pressure pipes
feed four 1,750-brake-horse-power turbines, together with
the necessary exciter turbines, while arrangements have
been made for fitting a third pipe at some future time which
will allow of two more main turbines being installed. The
steel pipes, together with the necessary valves, etc., and
all the turbines and their accessories, were supplied by
Messrs. Boving & Co., Ltd., of Imperial Buildings, Kings-
way, London, W.C. The electrically-driven blowing-
engines for the smelter furnaces and converters, which

622 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

replace the original steam-driven plant, were manufactured
by Messrs. Brown, Boveri & Co., of Baden, Switzerland,
the remaining electrical equipment, such as alternators,
exciters, etc., were supplied by the General Electric Com-
pany of Schenectady, N.Y., U.S.A.

The whole scheme, since its completion in November
191 5, is stated to have proved an unqualified success, and it
has not been considered necessary to retain the old steam-
plant in case of a breakdown.

The Winnipeg Station was built by the municipality to
supply electric power to the city of Winnipeg. It is
situated at Point du Bois Falls, on the Winnipeg River,
about 70 miles from the city. The natural fall at this point
was from 28 to 33 ft., but it was increased artificially to one
of from 43 to 47 ft. The dams which were constructed
have resulted in the formation of a reservoir of 6,000 acres,
which is regarded as giving ample storage. The river flow
on the whole is very uniform as compared with that of
other Canadian rivers, the minimum for a period of four
years being 16,000 cub. ft. per second, and the maximum
55,000 cub. ft. per second. It is estimated that the water
supply will allow of the generation of an average of
65,000 horse-power for 24 hours at all seasons. Up to
1912, however, less than half this capacity had been
installed at the station, the installation consisting of five
two-runner turbines, each of 5,200 horse-power, coupled
to 3,ooo-kw. generators. In this case also the turbines
were supplied by Messrs. Boving & Co., Ltd., but the
alternators were supplied by Messrs. Vickers, Ltd., of
River Don Works, Sheffield, and the transformers and
switch apparatus by the Canadian Westinghouse Company,
of Hamilton, Ontario.

Hydro-electric power, of course, is not only of vast
importance from an industrial point of view, but it can
be utilised to great advantage on the farm ; and in some
countries, notably in Ontario, special arrangements are
made to supply power to rural districts.

It may be pointed out that in the installations referred to
here a good deal of the equipment has been supplied by
firms domiciled outside the British Empire, and, in view of
the great developments in the use of water power likely to
take place in the near future, it is highly desirable that
Britisn engineering firms should begin to give more atten-
tion to the manufacture of the various kinds of plant
required for such installations.

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 633

RECENT PROGRESS IN AGRICULTURE AND THE
DEVELOPMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES

AGRICULTURE

Soils and Manures

Aeration of Soils. — In a paper contributed by the Imperial
Economic Botanist to the Third Indian Science Congress,
held in Lucknow in February 19 16 {Agric. Journ. India,
Special Ind. Sci. Cong. No., 19 16, p. 46), a number of
instances are quoted showing the importance of properly
aerating the fine alluvial soils of the Indo-Gangetic plains.
The ** yellowing " of peach-trees, which is so frequent at
Quetta, in Baluchistan, has been shown to be due to lack of
air in the soil, and affected trees can be transformed into a
healthy, vigorous condition in a single season by any efifec-
tive method of soil-aeration. The beneficial effect of green
manuring on these soils can only be secured by properly
aerating them, e.g. by drainage and the addition of broken
tiles. Leguminous crops can only be successfully grown
on well-aerated soils, and the distribution of certain of
them, such as gram, closely coincides with the occurrence
of such soils. Not only is the actual growth of crops influ-
enced by an abundant air-supply in the soil, but it appears
to affect also the ripening processes and development of
quality. The best grown samples of wheat, for example,
are always produced in tracts like the Meerut Division of
the United Provinces or on the black soils of Central India,
where the soils are naturally highly porous, whereas in
Bihar, Oudh and in parts of the Punjab, where the natural
porosity is not so great, the grain is always much thinner
m appearance. The best vegetables and flowers also are
produced on soils which possess an abundance of air, and
the same is true of tobacco, the best of which in Bihar is
obtained on light, high-lying lands which have been
manured with the refuse from indigo pits.

Basic Slag. — The usual method of ascertaining the
manurial value of basic slag is to determine the percentage
of phosphoric acid which can be dissolved from the material
by shaking it up in a 2 per cent, solution of citric acid.
The value of this method has been questioned by various
authorities, and with a view to settling the point a series of
experiments were conducted for several years at five
Experiment Stations in Germany. The results, which are

624 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

reproduced in the Journ. Bd. Agric. (1916, 23, 540), show
that there are no grounds for departing from the customary
methods of evaluation of basic slag. The agreement be-
tween citric solubility and availability varied in different
instances according to the character of the soil and the
fineness of the basic slag, but on the average there was
a fairly well-marked agreement between the two. In all
cases where conclusive results were obtained the citric
solubility was found to be a much better indication of the
manurial value of the slags used than the total phosphoric
acid content.

Manurial Value of Cotton-seed Meal. — Oil-pressing mills for
the extraction of cotton seed exist in a number of the
British West Indian Islands, notably in Barbados, St.
Vincent and St. Kitts. The oil is mostly exported, but the
residual meal or cake is almost entirely used locally, either
as a feeding-stuff for cattle or as a manure. In the Agric,
News (1916, 15, 273) an account is given of the manurial
value of the meal when applied directly to the land, and
reference is made to experiments which have been con-
ducted in the West Indies. In Barbados, when the price
is reasonably low and there is an adequate supply, the
planters use the meal as a manure for sugar-cane at the
rate of about |- ton per acre, apparently with satisfactory
results. Experiments conducted for eight years in
Dominica have shown that it is also of considerable value
for cocoa ; a plot manured with J ton of cotton-seed meal
per acre gave an average yield of 1,766 lb. of cured cocoa
per acre as compared with 1,264 Ih. in the case of an un-
manured plot, and it is believed that even better results
would have been obtained with a heavier dressing. In
Nevis it has been used as a manure for coconuts, and
although the results have been satisfactory so far, it is
considered that the experiments have not been conducted
long enough to definitely determine its value for this crop.
It has also been tried for cotton, in St. Kitts, but no
remunerative return has been obtained after many years'
trials. In this case however the soil is of an open and
fertile nature, and the use of other manures has resulted
in no appreciable gain.

Foodstuffs

Wheat. — According to a leaflet published by the National
Association of British and Irish Millers, a new variety of
wheat for cultivation in the United Kingdom has been
issued by the National Institute of Plant Breeding and the
Home Grown Wheat Committee of the Association. At
the Agricultural Department of Cambridge University,
under the auspices of the latter Committee, wheats are
bred with the object of providing for British soils and

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 625

climates varieties which are likely to raise the already high
yields per acre of grain and straw obtained in this country,
and in all but abnormally bad seasons to provide millers
with the raw material from which flour can be obtained in
the highest degree suitable, primarily, for the requirements
of bread bakers in the districts where the wheats are
grown. Results of great economic and technical import-
ance are being obtained. Thousands of selections are being
tested so that in each season, for some years to come, one
or more varieties may be issued at moderate prices to
agriculturists. Such wheats will be grown in all parts of
the kingdom, and in due course each new variety will find
its most suitable environment.

The new variety, named " Yeoman," is the offspring of
a cross between " Browick " and " Red Fife " and has been
thoroughly tested on a large field scale at Cambridge. The
grain has been subjected to preliminary milling and baking
trials and is satisfactory from the point of view of strength.
The British Seed Corn Association, i, High Street,
Dunmow, Essex, is distributing seed of this new variety,
on behalf of the Committee, and samples of the wheat
and flour produced by farmers may be sent to Mr. A. E.
Humphries, Coxes Lock Mills, Weybridge, who will con-
duct milling and baking trials for the Committee.

During 1916, a wheat sow^n on the Committee's plots
at Addlestone on April 7 came into ear on June 7, another
sowing planted on April 25 came into ear on June 25,
whilst another planted on May 15 came into ear on July 12.
In contiguous plots " Marquis " and the old English
variety, "April," did not grow nearly so rapidly, and autumn-
sown "Square Head's Master" came into ear on June 22.
Crosses have been made using this rapidly growing variety
as one of the parents, with the object of getting one or more
new varieties suitable for very late sowing in England.

Wheat has been grown in different parts of the East
Africa Protectorate for several years with varying success.
Some early-maturing varieties gave promising results when
first sown, but subsequent crops were attacked by rust.
" Rieti" withstood rust to a greater degree, but it is weak
in the straw and the grain is poor in quality for milling
purposes. The Ann. Rep. Dept. Agric.^ British East Africa,
191 3-14, states that in Njoro district some 250 varieties
from different parts of the world have been tried ; but with
the exception of two or three " durums " all have proved
susceptible to one or more of the three rust fungi. Some
very satisfactory results have been obtained by hybridisa-
tion, and 170 acres have been sown at Njoro with these
crosses. The seed obtained will be distributed for trial in
other districts. Experiments in the hybridisation of wheats
are also being contmued at Kabete.

In view of the short wheat crop in the United States

626 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

and the consequent probability of a shortage of supplies of
flour from that source for the West Indian markets at
reasonable prices, the Imperial Department of Agriculture
for the West Indies has suggested that attention should be
directed to the cultivation in larger quantities of certain
crops yielding substitutes for wheat flour {Agric. News,
1916, 15, 337). The principal crops suggested are maize,
guinea corn, cassava and sweet potato. The increased
cultivation of maize in the West Indies has been urged in the
past in view of the large quantities of this cereal that are im-
ported; but if the grain is to be kept for any length of time
provision must be made for drying and storing it. In Antigua
and St. Vincent the local Governments have established
kiln-driers, capable of dealing with large quantities of grain,
which are worked on a co-operative basis, whilst in the
former island vermin-proof storage tanks have also been
installed. It is pointed out that maize can be dried satis-
factorily on a small scale in any ordinary domestic oven, and
on a larger scale in a baker's oven. Guinea corn is little used
as food, except in Barbados. If the best kinds were grown
and suitable thrashing and winnowing machines and small
mills introduced, extension of the use of this grain for
human food should follow. Sweet potatoes are already
grown extensively in the West Indies, but they do not
keep well, except when converted into meal ; yams, how-
ever, can be stored for much longer periods. Cassava
meal, which is chiefly produced in the Windward Islands,
is an excellent foodstuff, and cassava cultivation is strongly
recommended where the soil conditions are favourable. It
is observed that, on the whole, the home-grown foodstuffs
of the West Indies are of a perishable nature, but it seems
quite probable that an urgent need for effective storage
may bring forth the means of overcoming the difficulties
connected therewith.

Sugar. — Planters in Jamaica are now considering a
revision of their major industry, banana cultivation, in
favour of sugar. In the Ann. Rep. Dept. Agric, Jamaica,
191 5-16, it is stated that banana planters in St. Catherine
and St. Thomas have expressed a desire to give up the
whole or a portion of their banana cultivation and plant
sugar-cane instead. The irrigable area of St. Catherine is
the finest agricultural region of the island, and planters in
the district consider that sugar-cane is the best rotation
crop for bananas on these lands. The danger of exhaustion
of the soil with production of second-class fruit, owing to
loss of humus from prolonged banana cultivation, would be
well met, it is thought, by a rotation of cane and bananas
in approximately equal proportions. A project for a sugar
factory for St. Catherine has been considered for many
years past, and the present time appears favourable for its
fruition.

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 627

The value of the produce of the maple syrup and sugar
industry in the province of Quebec is estimated at two
million dollars a year. In the Agric, Gazette of Canada
(1916, 3, 742) the Deputy Minister of Agriculture for Quebec
expresses the opinion that a great future lies before this
branch of agriculture. Improvements have been made
during the last two or three years, largely with funds pro-
vided under the Agricultural Instruction Act. Mention is
made of the means taken by the Quebec Cheesemakers'
Co-operative Society to encourage the production of sugar
and syrup of high quality, and of the practical demonstra-
tions given in the sugar-making schools, of which there are
now four, and in the sugar cabins, to producers in the
various sugar-making localities.

Tea. — Tea is likely to be exported from Nyasaland in
increasing quantities for some years to come {Ann. Rep.
Dept. Agric, 191 5-16, p. 8), and, at satisfactory prices such
as have prevailed since the war, it is one of the most
attractive cultivations of the Protectorate (cf. this Bulletin,
191 5, 13, 644). The output increased during 191 5-16 by
75 per cent. A few introductions of improved seed have
been made from India, and the Department of Agriculture
is using precautions to safeguard the industry against the
importation of diseases.

Cocoa. — Valuable results of experiments with cocoa in
Trinidad and Tobago are recorded in Bulletin Dept. Agric.,
Trinidad and Tobago (1916, 15, 1 1 1). Full details of manurial
trials, experiments on shade and on the removal of
" chupons " or suckers, and on the estimation of natural
yield, which have been conducted over periods of four and
five years, are given. In the manurial experiments of the
year 1914-15, several of the manured plots gave an increase
in yield compared with the previous year notwithstanding
an unfavourable season and deficient rainfall. The largest
yield per acre of 300 trees (about 11 years old) was 1,7501b.,
and was obtained from a plot to which 3,600 lb. pen
manure, 13 lb. sulphate of ammonia, and 25 lb. sulphate of
potash had been applied each year for five years. The
next largest yield per acre (1,655 lb.) was from a plot to
which 94 lb. bird manure, 25 lb. sulphate of ammonia, and
50 lb. sulphate of potash had been applied. In the shade
experiments all the plots of trees 25 to 30 years old showed
a decrease in yield on the crop of the previous year and on
that of the first year in which the experiments were started.
The average yield for five years was greatest with partial
shade, less with no shade and least with full shade. In the
case of trees 7 to 8 years old and 9 to 10 years old the
average yield for five years was greatest with full shade
and less with no shade. The object of the chupon experi-
ments is to observe the effect of allowing all, or some, or

24*

628 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

no chupons to grow. The average number of pods picked
per acre of 300 trees (9 to 10 years old) during five years
was : 12,375 when one chupon was allowed to grow, 12,333
when no chupons were allowed to grow, 11,505 with two
chupons, 11,124 with three chupons, and 9,768 with all
chupons. The average number of pods picked per acre of
190 trees (25 to 30 years old) during five years was : 13,140
when no chupons were allowed to grow and 12,584 when
all chupons were allowed to grow. So far the results seem
to show that only the young trees are definitely affected
by allowing the suckers to grow. The facts recorded by
the results of the natural yield experiments tend to confirm
the contention that, in order to be able more readily to
arrive at trustworthy conclusions as to the relative value of
different manures applied to cocoa trees, it is necessary to
ascertain the natural yield of the plots over a series of years,
previous to the application of the manures. The great
difference recorded between the highest and the lowest
yielding plots in each field shows also that it would be
erroneous to consider any one plot as a control 'for any
series of plots.

Oils and Oil Seeds

Coconuts. — According to the Rep. Dept. Sci mid Agric,
Brit Guiana^ 1914-15, p. 24, more attention is now being paid
in that Colony to the proper spacing of coconut palms, but
drainage of plantations is often neglected. Trees in the
experimental fields of the Botanic Gardens raised from
Singapore nuts bore 123 nuts per tree, compared with 91
nuts per tree from selected local nuts, and 82 and 56 nuts
per tree, respectively, from Tobago and Trinidad nuts ;
these results, however, can scarcely be considered as
definitely proving the superiority of Singapore seed-nuts
as the figures were only obtained from a small number of
trees. For an account of the present state of the coconut
industry in British Guiana see this Bulletin (191 5, 13, 215).

In the East Africa Protectorate coconut planting is the
chief industry on the coast lands and is likely to remain so
{Rep. Dept. Agric.^ British East Africa^ 191 3-14, p. 20).
Until a few years ago planting was mostly in the hands
of natives, but large areas have now been planted by
Europeans; in 1914 there were 3,749 plantations carrying
456,600 trees. Native plantations are in a very unsatis-
factory state owing to tapping of the palms and to the
attacks of Oryctes beetles and fires. So far, efforts to
induce the natives to improve their methods of cultivation
and to destroy pests have met with little success, and the
introduction of legislation to deal with the matter has been
strongly recommended. Owing to imperfect methods of
drying, the copra produced frequently contains sand and

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 629

becomes mouldy during shipment. The exports for 1913-14
showed an increase in value of ^28,365 over the previous
year.

Although the bulk of the copra produced in the
Philippine Islands is of low quality, the industry is pros-
perous and the cultivation of coconuts is increasing largely
{Trop. Agric, 19 16, 47, 70). In 1915, 131,558 tons of copra,
valued at over ;£" 1,500,000, were exported, an increase of
19,103 tons over the quantity exported in 19 14. Over
88,000 tons of the quantity exported in 191 5 went to the
Continent of Europe, 30,427 tons to the United States of
America and 11,640 to the United Kingdom. In the same
year 19,000 tons were used locally for oil manufacture.
The oil-mill at Cebu which was to be ready for work in
June 1914 will absorb all the copra at that port (50,000 tons)
and also draw supplies from other districts.

In Fiji, a species of Pestalozzia, similar to P. palmarum,
Cooke, a common fungoid pest of coconut palms, and
another fungus, Graphiola cocoina^ Pat., have been found on
coconut leaves in two localities {Rep. Agric.^ Fiji, 191 5,
p. 26). In both cases the fungi appear to attack only old
leaves nearing the end of their existence or on unhealthy
trees. To prevent these attacks it is suggested that trees
should be kept in a healthy state by thinning out close
plantations and by better cultivation.

Ground Nuts. — In Nyasaland repeated experiments at Naisi
and elsewhere have shown that a yield of 1,500 lb. of shelled
nuts per acre should be obtained in ordinary seasons from
plants spaced 15 in. x 15 in. (Rep. Dept. Agric.^ Nyasaland,
191 5-16, p. 10). At Namiwawa 6*5 acres of unmanured
soil yielded 619 lb. of shelled nuts per acre and two areas
of 20 acres each at Nyachiperi, which were planted too
thinly, only yielded 265 and 120 lb. per acre.

In Rhodesia the Salisbury experimental oil mill appears
to have proved an incentive and European planters are
taking more interest in ground-nut cultivation {Rep. Director
of Agric, Southern Rhodesia, 191 5, p. 8). In 191 5, 10,471
bags (of about 100 lb.) were produced apart from the
native crop, the average yield being io'i8 bags per acre at
Mayoe and 687 bags per acre on the whole area cultivated.
The factory anticipated buying 7,000 bags in 1916, and the
possibility of export is being considered. Ground nuts are
used as food by natives working in the mines, and the cake
from the Salisbury mill sells readily as a cattle food.

An experiment on 4^ acres of rather poor soil in
Rhodesia with the " Spanish bunch " variety gave very
promising results {Rhodesia Agric.Journ., 1916, 13, 392), and
the farmer proposes to cultivate 200 acres as this crop
resists drought well.

The disposal of the ground-nut crop of Texas (cf. this

630 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Bulletin, 1916, 14, 293) appears to be causing oil-seed
crushers some difficulty {Board of Trade Journ.y 1916,94, 590).
The area under ground nuts in Texas amounts to between
225,000 and 250,000 acres and furnishes an amount of oil
equivalent to the produce of 600,000 acres of cotton. The
ground-nut crop of 1916 is estimated to yield about 60,000
barrels of edible oil and 40,000 tons of meal, and in view of
the fact that the prospects of the Texas cotton seed crop
were good early in the year, the disposal of the oil seems
likely to prove difficult owing to the high rates of freight
to Europe.

Oil Palm. — Out of over 27,000 nuts obtained from West
Africa, only 1,293 germinated when planted in British
Guiana {Rep. Dept. ScL and Agn'c, Brit Guiana ^ 1914-15,
Appendix XL, p. 10); poor results were also obtained from
seed of local origin. Nearly 700 plants were distributed
for cultivation at the Clonbrook experimental station,
Onderneeming farm and Hills plantation.

Attempts are being made to increase the output of palm
oil and kernels in Gaboon {L Expansion Coloniale, 1916,10, 15),
where, in spite of the existence of large areas of oil palms,
the exports are comparatively small, amounting in 191 2 to
only 50 tons of oil and 354 tons of kernels, compared with
170 tons of oil and 728 tons of kernels in 1902, in which
year the exports were the largest since 1900. The quality
of the kernels is frequently poor and the value low owing
to the presence of damaged kernels. Various proposals are
made with a view to improving the industry, among which
may be mentioned the prohibition of destruction of oil
palms, the suppression of other vegetation, and the clearing
of the trunks of debris and epiphytic plants so as to im-
prove the yield of fruit.

Olive. — Although "margines" or " marchies," the residue
obtained in the manufacture of olive oil, were known to
ancient Roman writers and recommended for use as insecti-
cides, large quantities are at present allowed to go to waste
{Monthly Bulletin Agric. IntelL and Plant Diseases^ 19 16, 7,
591). The material amounts to about one-third of the
weight of the olives, and in France 80,000 metric tons a
year are thrown away. This quantity would contain about
9,800 tons of potash, 3,200 tons of nitrogenous matter and
300 tons of phosphoric acid. Its use as a manure is recom-
mended, and also its trial as an insecticide, e.g. for scale
insects.

Sunflower. — Yields of sunflower seed averaging 700 to
800 lb. per acre have been obtained in experimental culti-
vation in Nyasaland {Rep. Dept. Agric.y Nyasaland, 1915-16,
p. 10).

In Rhodesia, this crop is becoming more popular {Rep.

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 631

Director oj Agric, S. Rhodesia^ 191 5, p. 8), although only
424 acres were grown in 191 5. The seed is used for oil
production, and also as food for poultry and stock. The
average yield was 580 lb. per acre. In experiments con-
ducted on the Gwebi Experimental Farm, black-seeded
sunflower, sown 15 in. apart in drills 3 ft. apart, i.e.^ at the
rate of 5 lb. per acre, yielded 571 lb. of seed on untreated
soil, 649 lb. per acre on soil manured with kraal manure,
and 731 lb. on soil manured with 100 lb. of artificial manures
{Rhodesia Agric. Journ.^ 1916, 13, 479). The crops were not
heavy owing to rain, but the prospects of sunflower are
considered good. Some difficulty has been experienced in
removing seed from the flower heads, but this can be
effected by holding the heads against a wooden disc bear-
ing spikes (see this Bulletin, 1916, 14, 91), or against the
spokes of a bicycle wheel, or by means of a maize sheller ;
a worn-out "Derby" maize sheller was adapted for this
purpose by exposing one of the studded discs.

Miscellaneous. — Versfeld and Britten have published the
results of some interesting investigations on the "Naras"
plant (Acmtthosicyos horrida^ Hook.) in the South African
Journ. Sci. (1916, 12, 232). This cucurbitaceous plant grows
in the sandy desert region of Walfish Bay, and the fruit
pulp and seeds form the staple diet of the natives of this
region, while the seeds have been exported to South Africa
under the name of " Butterpits," and eaten as dessert nuts
or used in confectionery. Attempts were made some years
ago to introduce the plant into the Sudan on the assump-
tion that its occurrence in a sandy region in South Africa
rendered it probable that it would grow in the North
African deserts ; the experiment was apparently unsuccess-
ful, and the authors show that, although the plant grows on
high sand-dunes, the roots penetrate down to the base of
the dune and so obtain water and nourishment. The plant
bears fruit from December to about May, and it is considered
that if a regular supply of the seeds could be assured the
demand should increase considerably.

The kernels of the fruit of the Haitian palm {Pseudo-
phcenix vinifera), known as "grains cartiers," have been
found to contain about 14 per cent, of greyish-brown fat of
unpleasant odour ; the kernels also contain about 2 per cent,
of saponin {Chem, Weekblad.^ 1916, 13, 862).

Rubber

Hevea. — In British Guiana trees on the older plantations
are producing seed, and the stations of the Agricultural
Department are now able to supply the local demand for
plants {Rep. Dept. Sci. and Agric. ^ Brit. Guiana, 19 14- 11;.
Appendix II, p. 9). Hevea is the only kind of rubber tree
now being planted in this colony. Tapping experiments

632 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

at Issorora and at Onderneeming have given satisfactory
results. In the latter place the trees, which were first
tapped in 191 3, yielded an average of more than 4 lb. of
rubber per tree.

In Fiji, trees from seedlings planted at the Nasina Ex-
perimental Station in 1906 had reached a girth of 18*2 in.
at 3 ft. from the ground in 191 5 {Rep.Agric.^ Fiji, 191 5, p. 3).
Fifty trees were tapped on 209 days during 191 5 and yielded
61*5 lb. of sheet and 8 lb. of scrap rubber.

In Lower Burma the extension of rubber planting
appears to have been hindered by the land revenue assess-
ment, which might rise to as much as 335. 3<a^. per acre
{India Rubber Joiirn.y 1916, 62, 340). At the beginning of
1916 the matter was discussed between the Lieutenant-
Governor and representatives of the Lower Burma Planters'
Association, and it has been arranged that land for rubber
cultivation shall be granted in perpetuity, subject to pay-
ment of the annual land revenue assessment and the
royalty on the net value of rubber produced and exported.
Exemption from land revenue will be granted for the first
eight years, and land revenue and royalty will be levied
at the rate of 4s. and 2s. %d. respectively, for the next
twenty years. One-tenth of the area must be planted
within two years, one-half in four years, and three-quarters
in eight years. The rules came into force on July i, 1916.
The area at present under rubber is 57,843 acres, and
1,285,984 lb. of rubber were exported in 191 5-16. Large
areas are suitable for rubber cultivation in Burma, and it
is estimated that not less than 350-400 lb. of rubber per
acre should be obtainable.

In Cochin China the interest in rubber planting arose
at a later date than in Ceylon, the Federated Malay States
and neighbouring countries {India Rubber World, 1916, 64,
649). A few trees existed in the Botanical Gardens at
Saigon as early as 1880-81, but they seem to have disap-
peared a few years later, and it was not until 1897 that
any serious attempt was made to introduce Hevea into the
country. In that year Raoul obtained seed from Ceylon
from which seedlings were raised and sent to the experi-
mental station at Ong-Yem in 1898, and to Nha Trang in
southern Annam and also to planters in parts of Cochin
China. On January i, 1916, there were in Cochin China
and the adjacent countries of Annam and Cambodia about
173,000 acres under rubber; over 400,000 trees had been
tapped, and about 440,000 more were to be tapped during
1916 ; the production of rubber for 1916 is estimated at
1,540,000 lb. The article referred to also discusses the
selection of sites for rubber planting in Cochin China,
and further instalments {loc. cit., 1916,66, 3, 136) deal with
questions of land tenure, the formation of plantations,
methods of tapping and preparation, the value of the

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 633

Cochin China rubber, cost of production, transport facilities,
production and export, and the present position and future
prospects of the industry.

Hevea rubber trees were introduced to the Island of
Hainan in 1910 by Chinese, and trees were first tapped
in 191 5 {Indian Trade Joiirn.^ 1916, 42, 162). The rubber

Croduced was sent to Singapore, where it was stated to
e of good quality but improperly prepared. There are
12,000 trees near Modea but these have not reached the
tapping stage.

Bark-rot is said to be very prevalent on rubber trees in
the Kalutara district of Ceylon {Ceylon Observer, 19 16, 56,
1523), nearly 50 per cent, of the trees being attacked. The
disease is generally found on the older trees, over eight
years of age, and is first indicated by splitting of the
coarse outer bark ; the inner bark and cambium then turn
brown and evil-smelling latex exudes. The point of attack
is generally situated at the junction of branches with the
main stem. The disease spreads during wet weather and
the flow of latex is diminished by the attack. So far the
only remedy known is to scrape off the outer bark and tar
the exposed surface, but this is not always efficacious.

The illustrated Bulletin dealing with the " dry collar rot "
disease of Hevea, caused by Ustulina zonata, which was
referred to in this Bulletin (1916, 14, 298), has now been

fiublished {Bulletin No. 25, Dept Agric., Fed. Malay States).
t deals fully with the characters of the disease and remedial
measures, which have already been summarised in this
Bulletin {loc. cit, and 1916, 14, 128).

In a paper communicated to the Journ. Soc. Chem.
Indust. (19 16, 35, 872), Stevens has published the results of
" ageing " tests on vulcanised rubber. From the alteration
in physical properties on keeping this author concludes
that the " optimum cure " of Eaton and Grantham is in
reality an overcure, and that rubber cured in this way will
deteriorate rapidly, but that it "must have some significance
and should bear some relationship to the optimum cure
based on a correlation of physical properties and ageing
tests."

A reply to Stevens's criticisms has been made in a paper
by Schidrowitz and Goldsbrough {India Rubber Journal,
1916, 52,615), who have also carried out work on the ageing
of vulcanised rubber, and further discussion of the question
will be found in the \2X\.^x Journal (pp. 679, 756 and 794).

Manihot. — The profitable results obtained during the
rubber boom from plantations in German East Africa
induced planters in tne East Africa Protectorate to plant
Ceara rubber {Rep. Dept. A gric., British East Africa, 191 3-
14, p. 21). In 1910 and 1911 rubber was exported with
very satisfactory results, but owing to the fall in price of

634 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

rubber in recent years tapping has become unprofitable in
British, as in German, East Africa, and planters have in
some cases abandoned the plantations or have uprooted the
trees and planted the land with coconuts and Sisal hemp.

Balata. — The production of balata in British Guiana
during 191 5 suffered a decrease owing to the war, but
1,148,724 lb. were produced and in normal circumstances a
record output would probably have been obtained {Rep.
Dept. Lands and Mines ^ Brit. Gttiana^ 19 14- 15, p. 7). There
were 6y^ licences for tapping balata trees in existence at
the end of 191 5.

Miscellaneous. — The series of articles dealing with
Euphorbia Tiriicalli originally published in LAgricoltura
coloniale by Scassellati-Sforzolmi have now been pub-
lished in book form {Biblioteca Agraria Coloniale, 1st. Agric.
Col. Ital.y 1916). The book forms an exhaustive treatise,
and deals fully with the morphology of the plant, the
composition of the latex and its uses, etc. It is illustrated
by diagrams, reproductions of photographs, and a map
showing the distribution of the plant.

According to investigations in Germany the latex of
Lactuca viminalis (" Rutenlattich," a species of lettuce) of
eighteen months' growth contains rubber {India Rubber
World, 1 91 6, 64, 571). The plant grows wild in certain
districts and proposals to cultivate it have been made.

Analyses and vulcanisation tests by Heim of the rubber
of Landolphia Kirkii from East Africa {Bulletin de I' Office
Colon., 19 16, 9, 173) show it to be of good quality. An
attempt to extract rubber from the bark by mechanical
means was unsuccessful ; similar attempts with the bark
of Mascarenhasia variegata were also unsuccessful {loc. cit.,
p. 277), while rubber from this tree was of rather inferior
quality.

The candlewood shrub, or " ocotillo " plant {Fouquieria
splendens), is stated {India Rubber World, 19 16, 55, 75) to
contain a large amount of rubber suitable for technical
purposes, and a company has been formed in Arizona to
exploit the plant. The plant grows wild from north-west
Texas through New Mexico and Arizona to southern
California, as well as in other regions of North America.
In the wild state it grows to a height of 6 to 20 feet, and
as much as 400 tons per acre is said to be obtainable ; new
growth reaches maturity in from three to five years. Actual
details as to the yield and quality of the rubber are not yet
available.

Fibres

Sisal Hemp. — In the Ann. Rep. Dept. Agric., British East
Africa, 191 3-14, an account is given of the development of
the Sisal hemp industry in that Protectorate. It has been

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 635

found that the leaves of plants grown at the coast furnish
a larger percentage of fibre than those grown in the High-
lands, but the latter region has the advantages of cheaper
labour and the use of oxen for cultivation and draught
purposes. It is estimated that 7,500 acres are now planted
with Sisal hemp, and new land is under cultivation for the
extension of the industry. Five large decorticators are at
work, together with a few raspadors, and more decorticators
are being erected in order to deal with the increasing
number of plants now reaching the cutting stage. The
total output of fibre at the time of the report was about
50 tons per week, and this was realising from £28 to ;^38
per ton in the London market

The following is given as a rough estimate of the capital
expenditure required in establishing a plantation :

Purchase of 1,200 acres (250 acres of which are re-
quired for the grazing of working oxen) . . ;^2,40o

Planting with suckers and further tillage (this ex-
penditure being spread over a period of 6 years) . 3,800

Farm house and buildings 800

Machinery and other plant, including engine, baling
press, sheds, tram-rails, etc. (this expenditure
occurring in the third year) 5,000

Total . . , ;^ 1 2,000

A small return can be obtained during the first and
second years from catch-crops, but the Sisal hemp itself
does not yield any revenue until the beginning of the
fourth year.

Mauritius Hemp. — In the Kezv Bulletin (1916, No. 7, p. 169)
an account is given by Mr. M. T. Dawe, Director of
Agriculture, Colombia, of the occurrence of the Mauritius
hemp plant {Furcraea gigantea) in Colombia and the local
utilisation of the fibre. The plant is grown throughout
the sub-tropical parts of the country and especially in the
districts of limestone formation where the spiny from
grows abundantly in the wild state on the hills. The fibre
is known as *' fique," and is used for making the soles of
shoes, bags and sacks for the collection and transport of
produce, cordage, matting, pack-saddles and girths for
transport animals, and for other purposes. The green
leaves are commonly used for thatching roofs. Although
the fibre is so widely used in Colombia, the cultivation of
the plant and preparation of the fibre are carried on mainly
as a domestic industry. The fibre is prepared by a primi-
tive arrangement, consisting of knives fixed on a tree.
One man shreds the leaves whilst another extracts the
fibre. About 10 lb. of fibre can be thus prepared per day
by two men working together ; the cost of labour amounts
to i\d. per lb. of fibre, and the product realises ^d. to 6d,

636 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

per lb. in the Bogota market. It is pointed out that by the
use of modern machinery an important industry could be
developed, and a large supply of labour would thus be
released which could be much more profitably utilised. It is
estimated that the cost of producing one ton of the fibre
by such machinery and conveying it to Bogota would be
about £i2,j and would yield a profit of £ig per ton if sold
at the present local price of £2,2 per ton. After the local
demand has been met, the surplus could be exported to
New York at a total cost, including production, of about
£ig per ton, and would yield a profit of £s to ;£^io per ton
when the selling price is £2$ to £2^0 per ton.

New Zealand Hemp. — Reference was made in this Bulletin
(1912, 10, 130) to the offer of a bonus or bonuses by the New
Zealand Government for improvements in connection with
the extraction and dressing of New Zealand hemp, or the
utilisation of the by-products obtained in the course of these
operations. It is stated in the Ann. Rep. New Zealand Dept
Agric.^ 191 5, p. 6y, that in that year a Committee, appointed
by the New Zealand Flax-Millers' Association, and including
the Chief Inspector of Machinery, the Hemp-Grader, Auck-
land, and the Chief Hemp-Grader, inspected the various
patents entered for competition, and issued the following
report : " Out of the thirty-three applicants, only four of the
applicants' processes were considered to be of any benefit
to the industry, viz., G. Craw, Linton, patent stripper-slip
machine for the purpose of converting stripper-slips into
marketable tow ; amount of bonus granted, ;^ioo. Robinson
& Wanklyn, Foxton, tail-clipping machine, ;£"i5o. H. B.
Murphy, Waikanae, washing machine; bonus of ;^5oo,
granted with a view to perfecting his machine. Suttie &
Wynyard, Auckland, patent automatic scutcher ; bonus of
£7S^ granted, and allowed to charge 25. per ton on all hemp
scutched. It is a matter of regret that the Committee were
unable to recommend any of the dressing machines entered
for competition, as none of them showed any promise of
superseding our present method of dressing Phormium
tenax^

Carludovica palmata. — The young leaves of this palm con-
stitute the material of which Panama hats are made (cf. this
Bulletin, 191 3, 11, 687). In the Rep. Dept. Sci. and Agric.y
British Guiana, 1914-15, it is stated that the plant grows
very readily in that Colony, especially on the lighter lands.
During the year under review about 1,000 plants were
raised, principally from seed. When growing under favour-
able conditions, the palms become ready for cutting in
about eight months. It is considered that the success
which has attended the formation of a Panama Hat School
in Surinam may possibly lead to the establishment of a
similar institution in British Guiana.

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 637

Cotton. — According to the Ann. Rep. Dept. Agric, Nyasa-
land, 191 5-16, the exports of cotton from Nyasaland during
that year amounted to 3,065,248 lb., of value ;£"68,586, as
compared with 2,648,508 lb., of value £72,06^ in the pre-
ceding year. The area under cultivation during 191 5- 16
was 24,006 acres, whilst during the present season the crop
occupies 29,586 acres. These areas are those planted by
Europeans, and do not include the land planted by the
natives. The best crops were produced in the Lower
Shire, Zomba and Mlanje districts. The cotton grown in
the Luchenza area of the Blantyre district was unsatis-
factory, and in the greater part of the Ruo and West Shire
districts the crop failed owing to drought. The Depart-
ment of Agriculture is continuing its work on selection, and
pure seed has been supplied to Europeans at \d. per lb.

FORESTRY AND FOREST PRODUCTS

African Mahogany. — In view of the fact that the native
hardwoods of Tropical America are, in some cases, gradually
becoming scarcer in the more accessible forests, it is sug-
gested in the Bulletin of the Pan-American Union {19 16,
43, 71), that the African mahogany (Khaya senegalensis) should
be planted. The seeds germinate readily and the plants
grow rapidly, trees sown in Trinidad in 1900 being
about 40 ft. high, and having a diameter of 10 in. at 3 ft.
from the ground. The tree produces a long, straight,
clear bole, and a comparatively small crown, so that it
would bear close planting and the yield per acre should
therefore be large compared with the true mahogany, which
has a rather large, somewhat spreading crown.

Eucalypts. — The Eucalypts are quick-growing trees which
are well adapted for the rapid production of timber suitable
for pit-props, firewood, etc., as well as for the production
of planks. For these purposes they are being planted in
almost all the warmer parts of the globe, including India,
the West Indies, South Africa, Southern United States, etc.
(cf. this Bulletin, 1912, 10, 165; 1914,12, 142). An article
dealing with species suitable for Southern Rhodesia is
published in the Rhodesia Agric. Journ. (1916, 13, 361).
Details are given regarding seed sowing, planting, and care
of plantations, as well as a brief description of the various
species recommended and the soil and climatic requirements
of each. The species dealt with comprise Eucalyptus
rostrata^ E. saligna, E. hotryoides^ E. citriodora^ E. maculata^
E. paniculata, E. crehra, E. robusta, E. calophylla^ E. amyg-
dalina^ E. microtheca^ E. melliodora and E. Sieberiana.

Tanning Materials.

Biuma Myrabolans. — The results of an investigation of
Burma myrabolans or " panga " fruits as a tanning material

638 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

are given by Puran Singh in Indiart Forest Bulletin, No. 32,
1916. These fruits are derived from a species of Terminalia
which apparently differs from that yielding Indian myra-
bolans (7. Chebula), but its exact botanical identity has not
yet been ascertained. It was found as a result of the
examination of seventeen samples from various parts of
Burma that the percentage of tannin in the pulp on the
average varied from 20 to 25, i.e., about half that of Indian
myrabolans, whilst the percentage of non-tannin substances
was three times as great, viz., 27-30. Further the Burma
fruits give a much darker extract. Used alone they furnished
a spongy, tough leather, similar to that produced by Indian
myrabolans, but of a very dark colour, and, Hke the Indian
material, they would have to be used in conjunction with
some other tanning substance, such as babul bark.

Some years ago an attempt was made to introduce the
Burma myrabolans on the Indian market, but it failed, as
the fruits had a tendency to rot when stored. It is sug-
gested that this difficulty can probabl37- be overcome by
collecting only fully ripe fruits, and by removing the pulp
and drying it either in the sun or in a steam-heated room.
The dried pulp could then be pressed into blocks, in which
form it would keep better on storage, as well as economise
space.

ECONOMIC MINERALS

Antimony Ore. — According to the Interim Report of the
Rhodesia Munitions and Resources Committee for the period
ending June 30, 19 16, there are two types of antimony
ore deposits in Rhodesia: — (i) The ore occurs sporadically
distributed in quartz veins and schists. This includes
the auriferous jamesonite occurrences, in which the ore
mineral is scattered in the form of minute crystals through
schist; (2) deposits of coarse-bladed and non-auriferous
antimonite occurring in veins that are sometimes free from
quartz.

In normal times, only the auriferous type, in which the
antimony is obtained as a by-product, can be expected to
be worked at a profit; but with the high prices now pre-
vailing, it should be highly profitable to work both types,
provided that the transport charges are not excessive.

Antimony ore is distributed through the central part of
Southern Rhodesia in the belt of country extending from
Hartley to Belingwe, and from Gwelo to Selukwe ; in this
belt it occurs most abundantly around Gatooma, Que Que
and Lower Gwelo. It is distributed sparingly in many of
the mines, and in many such cases is not worth considering
as a source of antimony. In other mines, however, it forms
patches and pockets of considerable size, as in the ore bodies
of the Globe and Phoenix, and many other mines from which

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 639

it has been picked or concentrated for export (cf. this
Bulletin, 19 16, 14, 400).

The Modern Claims occurrence, 4^ miles south-east of
Gatooma, is a type of the non-auriferous antimony veins.
This vein is about 6 in. wide, and dips westerly at 60".
After sinking about 10 ft. the vein was found to contain
no gold and was abandoned, but it is now being opened up
as an antimony mine.

Gold. — According to the Ann. Rep. Mines Dept., Northern
Provinces^ Nigeria, 191 5, the output of gold for the year was
1,396 oz., making a total of 1,746 oz. since operations were
started in 1914. The gold won was all alluvial. Three
shafts, each about 30 ft. deep, have been sunk on lode out-
crops, but the assay results on these have proved disap-
pointing, and work on these outcrops has been suspended.
There appears to be no hope of any important developments
in lode mining for gold.

Iron Ore. — In Rec. Geol. Surv., India (19 16, 47, 137),
J. Coggin Brown has a note on the iron ore deposits of
Twinnge, Northern Shan States. These deposits are
situated about 1,000 yards N.N.W. of a point on the railway
2 miles N.E. of Thondaung, a station on the Lashio branch
of the Burma Railways between Mandalay and Maymo.
The iron ore occurs in a red clay that has been derived from
a limestone of Palaeozoic age on which it rests. The clay
is of a bright Indian-red colour, and attains a depth of
20 or 30 ft.

The clay is practically free from sandy matter; it is
stiff and tenacious and full of iron oxide nodules. The
mining lease covers an area of 1,630,000 sq. ft. Of this
160,000 sq. ft. is occupied by bare limestone. The remain-
ing 1,470,000 sq. ft. is covered by ore-bearing clay. At the
surface there is an overburden of barren red clay averag-
ing from 2 to 3 ft. thick. Under this there is a layer of
ore-bearing deep-red clay averaging 3 ft. in thickness. The
ore occurs in rounded grains, pebbles and masses, ranging
in size from small pisolitic concretions up to huge boulders
several feet in diameter and weighing many tons. The ore
consists of mixtures of limonite and haematite, with per-
haps other hydrated oxides of iron.

The ore delivered from Twinnge, from Sept. to Dec.
1914, contained on the average 56*3 per cent, of metallic
iron, 3*4 per cent, of alumina, and io'2 per cent, of insoluble
matter. The ore delivered from Jan. to Mar. 191 5, con-
tained on the average 6o'i per cent, of metallic iron, 3*4 per
cent, of alumina, and 6*4 per cent, of insoluble matter.

A noteworthy feature is the wasteful mining carried on
by the native method, which consists in digging pits and
trenches in a haphazard fashion at any spot where the
miner thinks he will obtain a good ore. The bottom layer

640 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

of ore, in most cases, is not extracted and gets covered with
waste. A more economical and systematic procedure in
quarrying the ore is desirable, and it is suggested that a
better method of working would be to start at the bottom
of the slopes and remove the whole thickness of overburden
and ore.

It is estimated that within the proved area of the mining
lease there was originally about 275,000 tons of ore. Of
this some 50,000 tons had been extracted up to March 1914.

Magnesite. — In view of the attention that is at present
being devoted to magnesite, an account of the deposits
near Tumby Bay, South Australia, by L. Keith Ward, the
Government Geologist, which appeared in the Review oj
Mining Operations^ South Australia^ No. 20, is of some
interest. These deposits are situated in section 6 B,
hundred of Stokes, rather more than 5 miles distant from
the township of Tumby in the Eyre Peninsula. The rocks
of the district are mica-schists, gneisses, metamorphosed
magnesian limestones and pegmatites. In addition to
magnesite, there are deposits of asbestos, talc and kaolin in
the district.

The magnesite occurs in veins, a large number of which
are irregularly spaced along a zone over 20 chains in
length and \\ chains in width. The maximum thickness of
the veins is between 4 and 5 feet, and a few of them appear
to extend continuously for a length of 40 feet. Veins of
haematite occur parallel with those of the magnesite, and
the magnesite is in part stained superficially with iron
oxide.

Samples of magnesite obtained from three trenches that
had been cut at the time of the Government Geologist's
visit were analysed by W. S. Chapman, with the results
given in the table below. The samples represent material
of average quality to be obtained by carefully hand-picking
the material mined.

No. I Trench.

No. 2 Trench.

No. 3 Trench

Magnesia

MgO . .

4183

46-23

43-01

Carbon dioxide

CO,.

46-86

50-99

47-46

Lime

CaO

108

0-24

0-32

Ferrous oxide

FeO

0-14

020

019

Ferric oxide

Fe^O, .

096

0-20

046

Alumina

AI2O3 .

203

0-57

213

Silica

SiO., .

5-56

I 00

5-12

Sodium chloride

NaCl .

028

o'i8

Water at 100° C.

030

016

026

Water above 100° C. .

094

020

0-34

Totals

99-98 9990 99'47

White specimens of weathered magnesite occur scattered
at the surface of the deposit, and one of these was found to
contain 99*38 per cent, of magnesium carbonate. The

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 641

Government Geologist is of opinion that a fair quantity
of very pure magnesite can be obtained from the deposit
by selecting only the clean material.

A further reference to the magnesite deposits of the
Tumby Bay District appeared more recently in Rev. Mm.
Opcr. No. 24, 1916, in which it was stated that 100 tons of
recently extracted magnesite was at the time of writing
awaiting shipment from Tumby Bay jetty to Port Pirie.

In tne Summary Rep.^ GeoL Stirv., Lanada^ 191 5» G. A.
Young gives an account of the hydromagnesite deposits
of Atlin, British Columbia. The deposits are situated
close to Atlin ; one of the two chief groups of deposits is on
the highway leading to Discovery and is only about half a
mile from Athn Wharf; the other lies on the south-east
border of the town site.

The first group (about half a mile from Atlin WharO
consists of one large and four small areas. The large area
covers about 18 acres, and from various measurements
made it would appear to have an average thickness of
2 ft. 8 in. ; this gives a volume of about 80,000 cubic yards,
and, assuming a weight of 115 lb. per cubic ft., a total
weight of about 125,000 short tons for this area alone.
The smaller areas of this group contain on the whole
perhaps 9,000 tons.

Two sets of samples from the main body were analysed
with the results given in the table below, i A, i B, and i C
were taken at depths of 3 in., i ft. i in. and i ft. 11 in.
respectively, from a pit in the south-eastern part of the
boay, where the total depth was 2 ft. 2 in. ; 2A, 2B, and 2C
were taken at depths of 4 in., i ft. 4 J in. and 2 ft. 4 in.
respectively, from a pit in the northern part of the body,
towards the middle of the deposit and about 800 ft. from
the northern end, at which place the thickness of the hydro-
magnesite layer was 3 ft. 6 in. The analyses were made
on material dried at 105° C., at which temperature the loss
of water varied from i'3i to 2*64 per cent.

I A.

iB.

iC.

2A.

2B.

Silica

SiO, .

1-86

090

0-54

I '22

1-96

922

Alumina

AlA .

067

o-io

0-17

067

0-14

0-94

Ferric oxide

Fe,0, .

015

0*09

o-i8

0-45

0-73

Ferrous oxide

FeO

060

045

064

063

065

0-78

Lime

CaO .

204

082

0-68

I 26

1-50

6-44

Magnesia

MgO .

41-13

42-35

42-19

40-56

41-93

35-23

Carbon dioxide COj

35-98

36-10

36-17

35-96

3604

37-70

Water

H2O .

1802

18-95

19-05

19-04

17-66

820

Total

. . .

I0O-4S

99-76

99-55

99-52

ioo"33

99-24

The second group of deposits (that on the south-east
border of the town site) consists of three large bodies of

642 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

hydromagnesite, that lie in shallow valleys depressed
30 to 75 ft. below the surrounding country. The magnesite
in this group of deposits is in part much wetter than that of
the first group, and the analyses show losses of from ri8
to 2177 per cent, of water at 105° C. Otherwise the deposits
appear to be of the same character. The three deposits of
the second group occupy areas of 4J acres, 075 acre and
I acre, and are estimated to contain 33,000 tons, 8,600 tons
and 4,500 tons respectively. The largest of these three
deposits varies in thickness from i ft. to 5 ft. with an average
of 3 ft. Two samples from different parts of this deposit
gave the following results on analysis. The analyses were
made on material dried at 105° C, at which temperature the
samples lost 1*21 and 1*18 per cent, respectively.

Silica SiOa

074

3-48

Alumina AljOs .

0*35

2-85

Ferric oxide FejOs

0-I5

0*56

Ferrous oxide FeO

o'66

o*8i

Lime CaO

0-32

0*42

Magnesia MgO

. 42-85

38-94

Carbon dioxide COj

36-35

34-31

Water H,0 .

19*10

iS'io

Total

100*52

99*47

It is estimated that the two groups of deposits contain
approximately 180,000 tons of hydromagnesite in the form
of beds rangmg from about i ft. to 5 ft. in thickness. The
material is exposed at the surface, and consequently mining
can be carried on by open quarrying without the removal
of any overburden. The hydromagnesite is saturated with
water in some places, but the deposits are so situated that
they could be very readily drained. There appears to be
no reason why the deposits should not be worked in a
simple and efficient manner.

It is reported that about 200 tons of the material was
shipped to San Francisco in 1904, and that some was sent
to England. During 191 5 a trial shipment of some 500 tons
was made to Vancouver. Remoteness of situation has,
doubtless, had much effect in retarding the development of
these deposits, but it is stated that the district is easily
accessible by way of the White Pass and Yukon Railway
from Skagway, Alaska, to Carcross, Yukon Territory, and
thence by a bi-weekly boat service on Tagish and Atlin
Lakes.

Talc. — According to Rev. Min. Oper., South Australia,
No. 24, 1 9 16, a shaft has been sunk recently at Yaranyacka
to a depth of 22 ft. in a talc deposit. For the first 10 ft.
the material is slightly discoloured by iron oxide. The
lower portion for 12 ft. is white and compact and appears

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 643

to be of good quality. Judging from indications, this lower
deposit seems likely to be extensive, and should yield a
large quantity of marketable material.

In an earlier Review (No. 20) L. Keith Ward, the Gov
ernment Geologist, gives a brief account of the Yaranyacka
Talc Mine. This mine is situated in the w^est portion of
section 46, hundred of Yaranyacka, 2I miles to the west
of Lipson in the Eyre Peninsula.

The deposit occurs high up on the flank of a ridge the
rocks of which include impure crystalline limestone. There
are weathered masses of magnesite strewn about the sur-
face on the outcrops of limestone, but the only surface
indication of the presence of talc is the white dust around
the rabbit-burrows.

A shaft has been sunk to a depth of 38 ft. in impure
talcose material, stained in places with iron oxide. The
chief impurities found in the talc are lenticular masses of
quartz. Apart from these lenticles the material consists
of practically homogeneous, minutely foliated talc, with an
almost pure white colour. A sample, taken by making a
cut round the whole face of the talc exposed in the chamber
at the end of the drive at the 38 ft. level, was analysed by
W. S. Chapman with the following results : — Silica (SiOa)
61*26 per cent., magnesia (MgO) 30*53 per cent., lime (CaO)
nil, ferrous oxide (FeO) 0*04 per cent., ferric oxide (FcaOa)
o*33 percent., alumina (AI2O3) 176 per cent,, soda (NagO)
017 per cent., potash (KoO) o'lo per cent., chlorine (CI) 0*30
per cent., water at looX. 0*22 per cent., water above lOO^'C.
4-9oper cent.

The dimensions of the deposit are known to be not
less than 40 ft. by 20 ft. The rock walls have not been
encountered, so that the exact form of the deposit and its
relation with the surrounding rocks are not known.

The talc is bagged at the mine and shipped to Adelaide,
where it is ground as fine as possible and exported to
Queensland and Fiji. During 191 3, 50 tons was shipped.
Including this a total of 275 tons of talc valued at ;^i,ooo
had been raised at this locality. The deposit could, how-
ever, yield a much greater supply if required.

In an account of '* The Pre-Cambrian Geology of South-
Eastern Ontario " {Rep. Bur. Mines, Ontario, Vol. 22, Part 2),
by W. G. Miller and C. W. Knight, the talc deposits of the
Henderson talc mine, Madoc, are described. The talc
mined here is the massive white variety. It occurs in a
brown crystalline dolomitic limestone of the Grenville
series.

An analysis of a specimen of the limestone gave lime
(CaO; 29*29 per cent., magnesia (MgO) 15*52 per cent, car-
bon dioxide (CO2) 43*67 per cent., and insoluble matter 4*62
Eer cent. The talc deposit has a width of 25 to 40 ft., and
as been mined a distance of about 500 ft. horizontally, but

644 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

the extent of the body has not yet been determined in the
underground workings. A horizontal plan shows that the
talc deposit occurs in the form of a horseshoe, due to the
strata having been folded.

The talc is supposed to have arisen from the alteration
of tremolite which occurs in the limestone as a product of
metamorphism. Certain hand specimens show tremolite in
limestone, the tremolite being partly altered to talc.

A granite intrusion occurs close by and it is thought
that this granite may have given oif siliceous solutions at
the time of intrusion and that these led to the formation of
tremolite. It is pointed out, however, that quartz may
have been present in the original limestone to provide all
the silica required to form the tremolite by regional meta-
morphic action.

During the years 1899 to 1913 Ontario has produced a
total quantity of about 40,000 tons of talc, valued at
$265,577. The output has grown steadily from 920 tons,
valued at $2,625, in 1903, to 8,238 tons, valued at $74,500,
in 1913.

The deposit at the Henderson mine has yielded almost
the w^hole of this output, but some has been worked also at
Eldorado and Gananogue. A talc grinding mill has been
operating at Madoc since 1908, and one at Eldorado since
1911.

Tin Ore. — In the Ann, Rep. Mines Dept^ Northern Pro-
vinces^ Nigeria, 191 5, it is stated that the tin ore won during
the year amounted to 6,910-01 tons, being an increase of
766715 tons on the output for 1914. The amount of ore
exported was 6,507 tons, having an estimated value of
£77Zy7oo. Most of the mining leases are in Bauchi, but
others are held in Nassarawa, Zaria, Kano and Ilorin.
The average cost of winning the ore is about ;^9o per ton.
There were on the average 161 Europeans and 14,316
native labourers employed by the mining companies during
the year. There have been no new discoveries of lodes,
and no further development has been carried out on the
lodes already known.

Tungsten Ore. — The Review oj Mining Operations in South
Australia Jor the half-year ending December -^i, 191 5, includes
a report by R. L. Jack on a tungsten deposit at Callawonga
Creek, hundred of Waitpinga. The field is situated 18 miles
by road from Normanville. The rocks of the locality con-
sist of fine-grained quartzite, sandstone and slate. Schists
appear to be present, but were not seen in situ.

The tungsten ore mineral is ferberite (a variety of wolf-
ramite almost free from manganese), occurring in a peg-
matite vein associated with quartz, tourmaline, felspar, mica
and patches of kaolin. The ore occurs in irregular pockets.
A specimen of clean ferberite gave the following analysis :

AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES 645

Tungstic oxide (WO3) 7r35 per cent, ferrous oxide (FeO)
26-26 per cent., silica (SiOj) 024 per cent, manganous oxide
(MnO) 0*17 per cent., magnesia (MgO) 0*03 per cent., water
(H2O) 1*26 per cent.

The lode varies in width from 2 ft. to 6 ft It has been
opened up in the main workings to a depth of 10 ft over a
distance of 120 ft. A second open cut, on a quartz vein
carrying pyrite, disclosed two pockets containing 180 lb.
and 3 cwt. of ore respectively.

NOTICES OF RECENT LITERATURE

A Historical Geography of the British Dependencies.
Vol. VII. India. Part I. History to the End of the East
India Company. By P. E. Roberts. Pp. iv + 415, Crown
8vo. (Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1916.) Price 6s. 6d.; post
free. United Kingdom 6s. ud., abroad ys.

Reference has been made in previous numbers of this
Bulletin (191 i, 9, 321, 322; 1914, 12, 160, 161 ; 191 5, 13, 326)
to this excellent series of volumes on the historical
geography of the British Dependencies. The high standard
of the previous volumes is fully maintained in this latest
addition to the series. The author rightly adopts the plan
of discussing chiefly broad outlines of policy, and he has
the gift of selecting only relevant and important details
with which to fill in the picture. The result is a most
interesting narrative of the activities of the various European
nations in India, which culminated in the absorption of the
country into the British Empire.

The volume contains a number of sketch-maps, appro-
priately placed to illustrate subjects under discussion.
These maps are commendably free from unnecessary detail,
and with their help it is easy to follow the story, whether
this is concerned with the political condition of India, or
the course of the military operations which formed such an
important part of the early history of the British in India.

The Panjab, North-West Frontier Province and
Kashmir. By Sir James Douie, M.A., K.C.S.I. Pp. xiv +
373, 8vo. (Cambridge : at the University Press, 1916.) Price
6s. net ; post free. United Kingdom 6s. sd., abroad 6s. yd.

This volume is one of the series known as the ** Provincial
Geographies of India " which is being published under the
general editorship of Sir Thomas Holland, K.C.I. E., D.Sc,
F.R.S., etc. In addition to a description of the physical
features of the Provinces of North-West India, it contains
an account of the people, their handicrafts and manufac-
tures, agriculture and crops, their history and general and
local systems of administration.

The area of the country dealt with is about one-quarter

646 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

of a million square miles; the inhabitants are a heterogeneous
people numbering some 29J millions, and their recorded
history, full of stirring incident, dates from 500 b.c.

It is obvious that to deal with such a country within the
limits of a small volume, the information given must
be compressed into the smallest possible compass. The
extent to which this compression is carried is instanced
in Chapter XVI, which treats of the trade of the country,
where a single paragraph of twenty lines disposes of this
subject, although the volume of trade is considerable, the
exports for 1911-12 amounting in value to over ;^i8,ooo,ooo,
whilst the imports were valued at over ;^20,ooo,ooo. Within
the limits at his disposal, however, the author has succeeded,
for the most part, in producing what is termed in the
Editor's preface " an accurate and well-proportioned thumb-
nail sketch of North-West India." included within the
boundaries of the area described are both mountainous
regions and plains, and in consequence there is a diversity
of climates admitting of the growth of a variety of crops,
the most important being wheat, and a correspondingly
diverse flora and fauna. The mineral products are also
various, but only coal and salt from the Salt Range of the
Punjab are at present of commercial importance. The
forests on the Himalayan slopes are rich in species of trees
and shrubs, and include a number of conifers, amongst
which is the deodar cedar. This tree is referred to on p. 80
as Cedriis Libani^ but it is usually considered a distinct
variety of the Lebanon cedar, and by some authorities it is
accorded specific rank ; also on p. 85 there is an error in
referring to the shrub Jitniperus pseudo-sabina as the pencil-
cedar.

The chapter on canals is one of the best in the book.
In this chapter the author places on record a British
achievement in India which is irequently forgotten or over-
looked— namely, the magnificent system of irrigation canals
which British capital has given to the Punjab. By means
of these canals vast areas of arid land which, without
irrigation, would yield no crops, now support a large
population and are a source of revenue to the State.

The charts and diagrams illustrating the text are very
helpful, but the process illustrations are of varying merit,
and might, with advantage, have been of larger size in
some cases.

A Practical Guide to Coconut Planting. By R. W.
Munro and L. C. Brown. Pp. xx + 186, Crown 8vo.
(London : John Bale, Sons & Danielsson, Ltd., 1916.)
Price js. 6d, net; post free. United Kingdom ^s, iid.,
abroad 8s.

This book is primarily intended for planters of coconuts
in the Federated Malay States, Sumatra and Borneo, and

NOTICES OF RPXENT LITERATURE 647

the information given has special reference to conditions
obtaining in those countries. Every phase of the coconut
industry from the planters' point of view has been dealt
with, from the selection of land for planting, to the pre-
paration of copra for the market, and in addition there are
chapters on the cultivation of catch-crops and green
manures, and the method of controlling pests and diseases.
As a former Government Inspector of Coconut Plantations
in the Federated Malay States, Mr. Brown, one of the
authors, speaks with special authority on the subject of
pests and diseases, ancl gives valuable information as to
their control.

The chapter on curing copra for the market is rather
weak, and might with advantage have been extended to
include details regarding cost and working of modern dry-
ing plant for copra, the selection of which is one of the
difficult problems that the European planter has to contend
with. It is hoped that in future editions of this book the
planter will be supplied with data that will enable him to
select a suitable apparatus for producing first-class copra
at a sufficiently cheap rate to compete wdth sun-dried
copra or the produce of native kilns.

The numerous photographs have been carefully selected
and they assist in explaining the text, but in many cases
the details are lost owing to their being either over-inked
or badly " backed."

Profitable Herb-growing and Collecting. By Ada B.
Teetgen. With a Preface by E. M. Holmes, Ph.C., F.L.S.
Pp. xi + 180, Crown 8vo. (London: Country Lije^ 1916.)
Price 3s. 6d. net ; post free, United Kingdom and abroad
35. \od.

This book is designed as a guide to those who propose
to add to this country's supplies of medicinal plants and
herbs by collecting the wild plants or by cultivation. It
gives useful information on how to collect, treat and pack
herbs, on methods of growing, and on methods of drying.
The bulk of the book is occupied by a list of medicinal
herbs, shrubs and trees, which includes not only plants
which yield preparations official in the British Pharma-
copoeia or mentioned in the British Pharmaceutical Codex,
but those used in veterinary practice, in homoeopathic
medicine and by herbalists. Altogether nearly 350 dif-
ferent plants are referred to, so that the information is
necessarily very brief in most cases, and where details as
to cultivation are given they are mostly taken from well-
known publications, such as the Board of Agriculture
Leaflet (No. 288), Bulletin No. 663 oj the United States
Department of Agriculture, or Mr. Holmes's papers. The
plants are grouped in their natural orders, which are
arranged alphabetically, but the absence of an index will

648 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

make it difficult for the non-botanical reader to find the
reference to any particular plant in which he may be
interested.

The book fulfils a useful purpose in gathering together
notes on practically all the medicinal plants that can be
collected or grown in the United Kingdom ; but there is
still room for a really good book on the cultivation, pre-
paration and marketing of those drugs, comparatively few
in number, that are in constant and good demand.

A Handbook for Cane-Sugar Manufacturers and
THEIR Chemists. By Guilford L. Spencer, D.Sc. 5th ed.
Pp. XV + 529, Foolscap 8vo. (New York : John Wiley 8c
Sons; London: Chapman & Hall, Ltd., 1916). Price 155.
net; post free. United Kingdom and abroad, 15s. 4d.

The author of this well-known handbook was at one
time Chief of the Sugar Laboratory of the United States
Department of Agriculture, and is now Chief Chemist in
Charge of Manufacture to a large Cuban sugar company
with six refineries, so that he is eminently qualified to pro-
duce a book like the present one, which should be in the
hands of all concerned in the manufacture of cane sugar.
In the present edition, the section devoted to the manufac-
ture has been greatly enlarged, and a chapter on sugar
refining and refinery control as practised in the United
States has been contributed by Mr. G. P. Meade, Superin-
tendent of the Cardenas Refinery, Cuba.

The subject matter is divided into two parts : (i) Manu-
facture and (2) Analysis. In the former, separate sections
are devoted to the extraction of the juice, steam plant and
fuel, purification of the juice, including the defecation,
sulphitation and carbonation processes, filtration processes
and machinery, evaporation of the juice, crystallisation of
the sugar, separation of the sugar from the molasses, and
sugar refining. The analytical part, which occupies the
bulk of the book, deals with every possible phase of the
examination of the sugar-cane and its products, includ-
ing a general account of optical and chemical methods
and density determinations, detailed methods for the analy-
sis of the cane, juice, syrup, molasses, sugar, filter-press
cake, bagasse, factory wastes and molasses cattle food, as
well as of limestone, sulphur, lubricating oils, flue gases,
etc. There is a very complete set of reference tables for use
in sugar laboratories, which occupies over 100 pages, and
a translation is given of the index, compiled by Dr. E. O.
von Lippmann, of substances that are or have been used
for purifying, decolorising, and clarifying sugar-containing
solutions.

The book is very well got up, and, being handy in size,
and bound in limp leather witn rounded corners, is well
adapted for the frequent usage which it merits.

NOTICES OF RECENT LITERATURE 649

Chemical Control in Cane-sugar Factories. By H.
C. Prinsen Geerligs, Ph.D. Pp. xii + 140, Roy. 8vo.
(London: Norman Rodger, 1917.) Price los. net; post
free, United Kingdom los. 6d., abroad 105. Qr/.

This volume gives an account of the modern methods
used in sugar-cane factories for the samphng and analysis
of the various products, and for calculating and recording
the results. The first and longest part deals with the
sampling and analysis of the cane, bagasse, raw and clari-
fied juice, filter-press cake, syrup, molasses, and sugars,
while subsequent sections deal with the determination of
the quantities of different products, calculated percentage
and various other calculations, and the calibration of factory
and laboratory instruments. Tables are given for finding
the sucrose content of the juice, and showing the relation
between specific gravity, Brix and Beaume degrees, and a
large number of specimen schedules for entering up the
results are included.

The instructions in all cases are concise and clear, and
the book should be of value to all chemists in cane-sugar
factories, and particularly to those commencing such work.

SULPHITATION IN WhITE SuGAR MANUFACTURE. By F.

Maxwell, Ph.D., A.M.LM.E. Pp. xii + ^2, Demy 8vo.
(London: Norman Rodger, 1916.) Price 75. 6d. net; post
free, United Kingdom and abroad 75. 10^.

This book gives a succinct account of what has become
one of the most important processes in the manufacture of
white sugar, and the author states that the greater part of
the data given is the result of his own investigations in the
chief plantation white sugar producing countries. It de-
scribes not only the sulphitation process itself, but also the
refining of sulphur used in the preparation of sulphurous
acid, the properties and action of the latter, and the plant
employed for its generation. The different types of sul-
phitation vessels and tanks are also described. The portion
dealing w^ith the process itself gives an account of the
principles underlying the application of sulphitation to the
juice, syrup, and molasses, a general account of the pro-
cess in actual practice, and lastly, particulars of the processes
adopted in Java, Mauritius, and Natal — the three leading
white sugar producing countries — where these differ from
the general description given.

Green Manures and Manuring in the Tropics. By
P. de Sornay. Translated by F. W. Flattely. Pp. xvi -h
466, Roy. 8vo. (London : John Bale, Sons & Danielsson,
Ltd., 1916.) Price 165. net; post free, United Kingdom
1 6s. %d,^ abroad 175. 6d.

This book is a translation of *' Les Plantes Tropicales
Alimentaires et Industrielles de la Famille des Legumin-

650 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

euses," a title which gives a much better indication of the
scope of the treatise than that selected for the English trans-
lation. M. de Sornay was for some years Assistant Director
of the Station Agronomique, Mauritius, and in the course
of his duties had occasion to investigate the composition of
a large number of leguminous crops, and the chief value of
the present work lies in the numerous analyses given,
which represent the results not only of his own investiga-
tions but of other workers in various parts of the world.
After a brief botanical account of the family, and a detailed
discussion of the theories on the absorption of nitrogen
from the air by the Leguminosae, a description of the culti-
vation, composition and uses of the chief plants of agricul-
tural value is given. Then follows an account of the
distribution of manganese in the plants, the formation of
prussic acid, the character of the starch of the principal
seeds, and the value of leguminous plants from an agricul-
tural point of view, whilst subsequent chapters are devoted
to the plants which yield gums and resins, tanning materials
and dyes, timbers, drugs, fibres, etc.

The translator states that, owing to the war, close colla-
boration with the author was impossible, and no attempt
was made to modify the plan of the original in any way.
It would have been better perhaps if publication had been
deferred until such collaboration was possible, as the book
could have been greatly improved by careful editing. Soy-
bean oil, for example, is stated to consist " chiefly of
glycerines, palmitic and oleic oils." In the case of the
ground nut the number of seeds to a hundred pods is said
to vary but little, even in different countries, and to prove
this point the relative proportion of seeds and shell in the
fruits from four countries are quoted ! As a matter of fact, of
course, the number of seeds in a hundred pods varies con-
siderably, as is shown in a table on the same page. It is
said that '* at the end of the first year [green] peas placed
in water absorb 100 per cent, of the liquid." Such instances
will serve to illustrate the lack of care displayed in preparing
the book for the press, but unfortunately this is not the
only drawback to the book, which contains many errors of
fact. In the account of the ground nut, for example, China,
Gambia and Nigeria are omittedfrom the list of "chief centres
for the cultivation of the pea-nut," while French India
and Sierra Leone are included. The latest statistics given
for this product are those for 1905, when the total imports
into Europe amounted to a little over 96,000 tons, and a
statement, originally published in 1907, is quoted that " the
export of pea-nuts has fallen off during the last few years ";
that such out-of-date statistics are misleading is evident
from the fact that the imports into France alone in 191 3
amounted to over 500,000 tons. A brief account is given
of the cultivation of trees yielding tanning bark, the method

NOTICES OF RECENT LITERATURE 651

of preparing the latter and the yield ; but, unfortunately,
beyond the statement that " numerous species of acacia
and cassia yield tanniferous barks of excellent quality," the
names of the trees referred to are not given.

The book is well illustrated, and there is an index
occupying thirty pages, which, however, is by no means
complete, such well-known names as liquorice, gram, velvet
bean, sword bean, alfalfa, wattle and tonka bean being
omitted.

The Canning of Fruits and Vegetables. By Justo P.
Zavalla. Pp. xii + 214, Med. 8vo. (New York : John Wiley
& Sons ; London : Chapman & Hall, Ltd., 1916.) Price
105. 6d. net; post free. United Kingdom los. 11^., abroad
115. 2d.

The canning of fruits and vegetables is essentially an
American industry, and has reached its greatest perfection,
perhaps, in California, and the description of the methods
lollowed, which is given in the present work, is based on
those in use in that State. In the first section a general
account is given of the preparation of the fruits and the
syrup, methods of exhausting the cans and cooking the
fruit, etc., and then each fruit is dealt with separately as
regards the most suitable varieties, any special method of
preparation that may be necessary, grading, packing, etc.
In the second part each vegetable is dealt with separately ;
the method of preparation is described, the strength of the
brine indicated, as well as the time required for cooking
cans of various sizes. In the case of maize and tomatoes,
the latter of which is by far the most important vegetable
canned in California, an account is also given of methods of
cultivation. A special section is devoted to the bacterio-
logical and microscopical examination of canned foods, and
another deals with the methods of making tin cans. The
Pure Foods Act of the State of California is printed as an
appendix.

The book is thoroughly practical, and well illustrated
with diagrams and photographs of machinery. It should
be of great value to all interested in the canning industry.

Oil-field Development and Petroleum Mining. By
A. Beeby Thompson. Pp. x + 626, Medium 8vo. (London :
Crosby Lockwood & Son.) Price 255. net ; post free, United
Kingdom 255. yd., abroad 265. id.

This is a new and largely re-written edition of the
author's well-known treatise, published in 1910, under the
title Petroleum Mining and Uil-field Development. In his
preface the author remarks that the rapid development of
new oil-fields, and the introduction of improved types of
plant and machinery to deal with ever-changing conditions,
render any work descriptive of oil-field operations subject

652 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

to periodical revision. The present edition omits a mass
of statistical data that found place in the original work,
such matter being now available in current petroleum
periodicals. Deficiencies and omissions have been reme-
died, and a commendable attempt has been made to support
conclusions on some contentious matters by the introduc-
tion of personally observed or authentic examples. An
entirely new chapter is concerned with the Customs,
Leasing and Valuation of Oil-fields, attention being drawn
to the unjustifiable waste of products so prevalent in oil-
field developm.ent, and to the chief directions in which
economies are being effected.

Another new chapter deals with the compilation of
drilling returns and details of oil-production and fuel-con-
sumption, with specimen forms of logs and diagrams, stress
being laid on the necessity for, and the utility of, clear
statistical data regularly collected and preserved. There
is also a new chapter on Oil-field Organisation and
Accounts, which cannot fail to be of practical value to
those initiating and carrying on the technical and commer-
cial departments of oil-producing companies. Another
new feature is an appendix, in which the author counsels
wisely against expenditure on sites chosen by " diviners,"
as to whose claims to have the power of tracing oil he is
sceptical; the remainder of this section includes an appro-
priate selection of measures and conversion figures. A
detailed index adds very considerably to the value of the
book as a handy work of reference.

The treatise under its new title retains all the many
good features of the original work, much of the older
information appearing in a more condensed form ; and the
fresh matter is of such a character as to convert what might
not unreasonably have been regarded as a rather interest-
ing book of general information on the subject of oil-
Qccurrences and oil-field operations into a practical and
precise manual that must unquestionably be of great
service to all concerned with the exploration of petroliferous
areas and the actual winning of petroleum.

Eight sheets of coloured geographical maps are bound
up in the book, these showing the localities of the principal
oil- and gas-fields of the world, among them those of
Trinidad, Canada, Egypt, Burma and New Zealand. While
necessarily drawn on a small scale, these maps serve a
distinctly useful purpose, indicating not only the approxi-
mate situations of the different fields, but also pipe-lines,
refinery centres, railways and steamship routes.

Of the West Indian Islands, Trinidad alone has so far
given proof of the existence of payable oil-fields, although
indications of oil occur in Barbados and Hayti. Detailed
geological investigations and exploratory drilling have con-
firmed the anticipations of those closely allied with pioneer

NOTICES OF RECENT LITERATURE 653

work in Trinidad. No oil-fields have been operated to any
important extent in Canada, except those of Ontario, where
the output has diminished since 1899. At two places on
the Egyptian mainland of the Gulf of Suez, commercial
supplies of petroleum have been struck, and development
on an important scale has been undertaken. According to
the author, no other oil-field of importance has been
brought to light in Africa. The oil-fields of Upper Burma
have steadily acquired increasing importance, and great
profits have been earned in recent years by the leading
operating company. No oil-field of importance has yet
been located in Australasia, but promising indications of
oil have been reported in Papua (cf. this Bulletin, 191 5, 13,

185).

To those familiar with this treatise in its original form,

the increased value of the work will be readily apparent

from what has been said with regard to the new matter

now introduced.

The American Petroleum Industry. By Raymond
Foss Bacon, Ph.D., and William Allen Hamor, M.A. Vol. I.
Pp. X + 446 ; Vol. II. Pp. 447 to 963, Med. 8vo. (New York :
JVlcGraw-Hill Book Company; London: Hill Publishing
Company, Ltd., 1916.) Price £2 2S. ; post free, United
Kingdom £2 2S. Sd.

There have been so many books published on petroleum
and the petroleum industry in recent years that one is apt
to wonder what new features there can be about the sub-
ject to justify the issue of yet another treatise. The fact
is, however, that the subject is one with manifold aspects,
and different authors approach it from diff'erent points
of view according to their experience. Moreover, new
developments are constantly taking place, and to be of
much practical use a book requires to be modern and up to
date.

The authors of this book have sought " to produce a
treatise which would present a comprehensive survey of
the American petroleum industry, distinctly modern in
every respect, and suitable not only as a general reference
work for those engaged in the industry, but also as a text-
book for students of petroleum engineering." A perusal of
the book shows that the ground has been well covered
excepting certain branches, reference to which has been
purposely avoided or touched on lightly because they are
dealt with at length in other books that have appeared in
recent years.

A noteworthy feature of the book is the inclusion in
Vol. I of chapters by various well-known authorities who
have specialised in the subjects with which they deal. In
Chapter II F. G. Clapp deals with the geology of petroleum.
Chapters VII and X on the valuation of oil properties and

654 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

efficiency in the production of petroleum are by Roswell H.
Johnson. J. P. Cappeau deals with some commercial
factors involved in the appraisement of petroleum properties
in Chapter VIII ; and in Chapter IX L. G. Huntley gives
an account of the possible causes of the decline of oil-wells
and suggested methods of prolonging the yield.

Other important chapters in Vol. I deal with the history
of the petroleum industry in the United States, and oil-well
technology.

Vol. II deals chiefly with the technology and engineer-
ing of refining processes, but includes a long chapter on
the shale-oil industry. This chapter deals almost entirely
with the Scottish shale-oil industry, and makes only brief
references to the oil-shales of other localities. It is, perhaps,
not in strict accordance with the title of the book, but in
view of the growing significance of oil-shales the authors
have done well to give such a useful and practical account
of this important Scottish industry.

The book is very well illustrated ; it includes a useful
glossary, rich in references to the world's petroleum litera-
ture, and concludes with a good index.

The Portland Cement Industry. By W. A. Brown.
Pp. X + 158, Demy 8vo. (London: Crosby Lockwood &
Son, 19 1 6.) Price 75. 6d. net ; post free, United Kingdom
7s. lid., abroad 8s.

As would be expected from the pen of an author who
has controlled large cement works both in this country and
the United States, this book has been written entirely
from the practical and modern standpoint.

The history, development and manufacture of Portland
cement are very briefly dealt with, and it is to be regretted
that no more than six lines is devoted to any one raw
material, and that no analyses of such are included. The
most valuable portion of the book is that dealing with
" The Design and Construction of a Modern Portland
Cement Plant," which includes considerations of the site
and the quarrying, grinding and transport of the raw
materials, many of the descriptions of plant being accom-
panied by good illustrations.

The rotary kiln and its accessories are described, and
the account of the equipment of the works is completed
by a description of various power plants. It is interesting
at the present time to note the author's statement that " up
to within a few years most of the machinery came from
Germany, as no British firm was prepared entirely to equip
works with plant embodying the new designs, although
there were firms who could supply certain parts. . . . The
author, out of his lengthy experience, can confidently assert
that British cement machinery can now challenge compari-
son with anything of the kind manufactured in Germany."

NOTICES OF RECENT LITERATURE 655

In the chapter on " Costs and Statistics " the labour charges
per ton ot cement on a plant making 3,000 tons per week
are itemised, and typical blank cost sheets for each section
of the works are given. An account is given of the
mechanical plant installed in certain works erected during
the past five years, including that used for producing
cement from chalk and clay (wet process) ; argillaceous
limestone and shale (wet process) ; and limestone and clay
(wet and dry processes), tne output from the plants varying
from 1,200 to 3,000 tons of cement per week. In the final
section, dealing with the physical testing of cement, the
author borrows freely from R. K. Meade's Portland Cement.
The book should prove of service to all concerned with
the erection of new, or the modernisation of old, cement
plant ; especially in certain of the British Colonies where
the raw materials are of a hard character, as adequate treat-
ment is given throughout the work to this class of material.

The Foundations of Indian Economics. By Radhakamal
Mukerjee, M.A., with an Introduction by Patrick Geddes.
Pp. xxvi + 515, Demy 8vo. (London : Longmans, Green &
Co., 1916.) Price 9s. net. ; post free, United Kingdom gs. 6d.^
abroad gs. lod.

Mr. Mukerjee divides his subject-matter into four books :
I. The Social Environment, II. The Cottage and Village
Industries, III. Credit and Trade Systems, and IV. The
Economic Progress of India. In his view no system of
economic development is suitable to India unless it main-
tains the Indian village as a social unit. This rules out at
once the industrial factory system, which is the character-
istic feature of economic development in Europe and
America, and, to a certain extent, also in recent years of
India and other Eastern countries. The author admits that
certain industries, such as steel and iron production, en-
gineering and transport, can only be economically managed
on a large-scale system, but he maintains that the textile
industries, oil-seed crushing, etc., can be effectively organised
as cottage or village industries by taking advantage of
modern systems of power development and distribution.
He looks forward, therefore, to a condition of things in
which the Indian village will be a thriving agricultural and
industrial centre worked on a co-operative basis, in which
the moneylender will be replaced by a co-operative credit
bank, and the business of buying commodities and selling
the village produce will be done by a co-operative store.
Real improvement in the social conditions of the ryot can
no doubt be brought about by these means, but just as it
has been found in Europe that co-operation is not enough
in itself to prevent migration of peasants to the towns, so
it is not likely that co-operation by itself will be found
sufficient to prevent the deterioration of the Indian village

6s6 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

as a social unit, which the author finds is already taking
place, and which he fears will go on unless a remedy is
found.

The weakest portion of this work is Book II, which
describes the cottage and village industries. The descrip-
tions are too detailed to interest the general reader, and not
accurate enough to be worth mention as a source of infor-
mation on this important subject. This section is also
disappointing in its lack of properly thought-out sugges-
tions as to how these industries can be improved and
reorganised on the co-operative system which forms the
basis of the author's plans for the re-establishment of the
Indian village. It would be tedious to discuss in detail
the suggestions made for any one of these industries, but
the chapter on the oil-pressing industry (pp. 125-136) may
be quoted as an instance where the real difficulties of the
case are not grappled with. It is, however, only fair to the
author to say that in his views on the oil-seed industry of
India he errs in good company. In spite of these defects
in detail, Mr. Mukerjee's volume is a useful contribution
towards the solution of a difficult problem, and when he
has had time to think out his scheme and to divest himself
of certain views which, though common in India, have
really nothing to do with his main thesis, his work will
gain in clearness and in coherence and consistency.

BOOKS RECEIVED

A Historical Geography of the British Dominions.
Vol. V. Canada. Part I. Historical. By Sir Charles
Lucas, K.C.B., K.C.M.G. 2nd ed. Pp. 364, Crown 8vp.
(Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1916.) Price 6s. ; post free,
United Kingdom and abroad 6s. s^.

Australia. By J. W. Gregory, F.R.S. Pp.156. (Cam-
bridge : University Press, 1916.) Price is. 3^. net ; post
free, United Kingdom and abroad is. 6ci.

The Guide to South and East Africa. For the Use of
Tourists, Sportsmen, Invalids and Settlers. Edited annually
by A. Samler Browne and G. Gordon Browne. 23rd ed.
Pp. li + 773, Crown 8vo. (London : Sampson Low, Marston
& Co., Ltd., 1917.) Price is. net ; post free. United Kingdom
is. 5(^., abroad is. yd.

Histology of Medicinal Plants. By W. Mansfield,
A.M., Phar.D. Pp. xi + 305, Med. 8vo. (New York : John
Wiley & Sons ; London : Chapman & Hall, Ltd., 1916.)
Price i2s,6d. net; post free, United Kingdom 13s., abroad
13s. 2d.

BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE 657

VOL. XIV, 1 916

INDEX

Botanical names and titles of books reviewed are printed in italics

PAGE

Acacia arabica {see babul pods)

Acanthosicyos horrida, value as foodstuff ... ... ... ... 631

Acetate of lime, imports into United Kingdom ... ... ... 567

„ „ ,, , from Ceylon ... ... ... ... ... 576

Acetic acid, from coconut shells in Ceylon ... ... ... 569

,, ,, , „ vera wood in Ceylon ... ... ... ... 569

„ „ , imports into United Kingdom ... ... ... ... 567

Acetone, imports into United Kingdom ... ... ... ... 567

Acokanthera venenata, poisonous principle of ... ... ... 29

Aconites, investigation of Indian ... ... ... ... ... 201

Acrocomia vinifera, nuts and oil from ... ... ... ... 126

Adansonia digitata {see Baobab tree)

Africa, solanaceous drugs from ... ... ... ... ... 21

wild silk from ... ... ... ... ... ... 167

East, rubber from Landolphia Kirkii ... ... ... 634

„ , British, Ceara rubber industry in ... ... ... 633

„ , „ , coconut planting and pests in ... ... ... 628

„ , „ , distillation of timbers from ... ... ... 570

„ , „ , pine-apple cultivation in ... ... ... 459

,, , M > Sisal hemp industry in ... ... ... 634

„ , ,, , wheat cultivation in ... ... ... ... 625

South, antimony ores in ... ... ... ... ... 400

,, , asbestos industry of the Cape ... ... ... 604

„ , boxwood from ... ... ... ... ... 18

„ , cobalt ores in Transvaal ... ... ... ... 428

„ , Datura Stramonium from ... ... ... ... 25

,, , drugs and poisonous plants from ... ... ... 27

„ , monazite in Pretoria ... ... ... ... 309

,, , nickel ores of ... ... ... ... ... 246

„ , paper-making materials from ... ... ... 163

„ , pine-apple industry in ... ... ... ... 458

„ , sherungulu tubers from Transvaal ... ... ... 378

„ , sugar-cane wax industry of Natal ... ... ... 294

,, , wattle bark industry of Natal ... ... ... 599

„ , wild silk from Natal ... ... ... ... 175

West, new coal-fields of ... ... ... ... ... 369

„ , oil-palm seed from ... ... ... ... ... 630

,, , pine-apple cultivation in ... ... ... ... 459

„ , work of Imperial Institute for development of ... ... 470

658

BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Agave

A 2U I fibre from Belgian Congo

387

i»

Cantala {see Maguey fibre)

rigida var. sisalana fibre from Belgian Congo

386

tequilana (see Agave Azul)

Agriculture in Rhodesia ...

279

i»

, summaries of recent work on ...

121, 288, 472, 623

Ajowar]

seed, Indian

225

Alcohol, methylic, imports into United Kingdom

567

Algeria

, antimony ores of

399

•1

, zinc ores of

Alunite

in Vancouver Island

483

Americ

an Petroleum Industry^ The

653

Anacardium occidentale {see Cashew)

Ananas sativa {see Pine-apple)

Anaph

? species {see Silk, African wild)

Annabergite

... 230

Antimony, alloys of

415

, compounds ...

... 416

, imports into United Kingdom ...

389

, metallic properties of ...

414

, ,, uses of

415

»»

, native

391

ores, concentration of ...

409

„ in Algeria

399

„ ,, Asia Minor

396

t»

„ „ Australia

405

„ „ Austria-Hungary

392

f»

„ „ Bolivia

... 401

»»

„ „ Borneo

397

„ „ Canada

... 401

„ „ China

397

„ „ France

393

„ „ Germany

395

„ „ Honduras

403

„ „ India ...

398

»l

„ „ Indo-China

399

u ,1 Italy

395

M 1, Japan

399

,, „ Mexico

403

•1

„ „ New Caledonia

... 405

„ „ Newfoundland ...

... 403

„ „ New Zealand ...

407

„ „ Peru ...

... 403

„ „ Portugal

395

l»

„ „ Rhodesia

400, 638

l»

„ 1, Russia

396

„ ,, Russia-iu-Asia ...

399

„ 1, Serbia

396

„ „ Spain...

396

„ „ Sweden

396

»i

„ „ Union of South Africa ...

... 400

„ „ United Kingdom

396

„ „ lUnited^States ...

404

BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE 659

PAGE

Antimony ores, occurrence and utilisation of ... ... ... 389

„ ,, , smelting of ... ... ... ... ... 4^0

,, „ , valuation of ... ... ... ... ... 408

„ , pigments ... ... ... ... ... ... 4^6

„ , refining of ... ... ... ... ... ... 4^2

„ , world's production of ... ... ... ... ... 39^

" Aramina " (see Urena lobaia)

Araucaria imbricata, as source of wood pulp ... ... ... 131

Argentina, cobalt ores in ... ... ... ... ... 423

Asbestos industry at the Cape ... ... ... ... ... 604

„ production in Quebec ... ... ... ... ... 3^5

,, „ „ Southern Rhodesia ... ... ... 280

Asbolite ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 418

Ash, cultivation and uses in United States... ... ... ... 305

Asia Minor, antimony ores of ... ... ... ... ... 396

„ ,, , hazel nuts from ... ... ... ... ... 265

AthencEum Subject Index to Periodicals, 191 5 : Science and Technology 147

Aureolin {see Indian yellow)

Australia, antimony ores of ... ... ... ... 405, 407, 408

„ , cobalt ores of New South Wales ... ... ... 428

„ , cotton cultivation in Queensland ... ... ... 134

„ , diatomite from ... ... ... ... ... 40

„ , mica in Queensland ... ... ... ... ... 485

„ , molybdenum ores in Tasmania ... ... ... ... 487

„ , nickel ores of... ... ... ... ... ... 248

„ , pine-apple cultivation in ... ... ... ... 458

„ , reclamation of drifting sands in New South Wales ... 304

„ , sapphire-mining industry of Anakie, Queensland ... ... 253

,, , tungsten ores in Tasmania ... ... ... ... 487

„ , zinc-lead ore ,, ,, ... ... ... ... 488

„ , South, cobalt ores of ... ... ... ... ... 428

M > M > magnesite in ... ... ... ... ... 640

„ » »i » talc mining in ... ... ... ... ... 642

M t )> I tungsten ore in ... ... ... ... ... 644

n » M . wheat storage in ... ... ... ... 291

„ , Western, antimony ores in ... ... ... ... 408

Austria-Hungary, antimony ores of ... ... ... ... 392

» n , cobalt ores of ... ... ... ... ... 423

»f II , nickel ores of ... ... ... ... ... 243

»i It » zinc ores of ... ... ... ... ... 44

Babassu kernels, extraction of ... ... ... ... ... 21

Babul pods, antifermentation experiments with tan liquor from ... 614

Bahamas, pine-apple industry of ... ... ... ... ... 459

Balata, production in British Guiana ... ... ... ... 634

Banana, potash from stalks and skins of ... ... ... ... 286

Baobab bark from Belgian Congo ... ... ... ... 385

Barcelona nuts from Spain ... ... ... ... ... 264

Barley, naked, from Cyprus ... ... ... ... •.• I59

Barosma venusta \ea.\Gs hom Sonih Aifics. ... ... ... 36

Basic slag, manurial value of ... ... ... ... ... 623

Bat guano from Fiji Islands ... ... ... ... .., 290

Bauxite deposits of Arkansas ... ... ... ... ... 306

25*

66o BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

PAGE

Bauxite, prospecting for in British Guiana ... ... ... ... 288

Bay oil industry of West Indies ... ... ... ... ... 295

Beans, Burma or Rangoon ... ... ... ... ... 206

„ , edible from Burma ... ... ... ... 149, 206

„ , Lima, from Burma ... ... ... ... ••• '53

„ , Madagascar, from Burma ... ... ... ... ... 150

„ , Tepary from Burma ... ... ... ... ... 154

„ , Voandzeia sud/erranea, (rom Sudan ... ... ... 156

Beeswax, Indian ... ... ... ... ... ... 224

Belgium, zinc ores of ... ... ... ... ... ... 44

Bersama Tysoniana, bark from South Africa ... .,. ... 37

Blackwood, Chinese ... ... ... ... ... ... 616

Bleu celeste {see Cerulian blue)

,, d'Azur or de Saxe {see Smalt)

Blue powder ... ... ... ... ... ... 65,66,77

Board of Trade and Imperial Institute, spheres of work and co-operation 460

Bolivia, antimony ores of ... ... ... ... ... 401

„ , zinc ores of ... ... ... ... ... ... 53

Books received... ... ... ... ... 147.3191493,656

Borneo, antimony ores in ... ... ... ... ... 397

Boxwood, Knysna, examination of bark ... ... ... ... 34

,, , ., » from South Africa ... ... ... ... 18

„ , South African or Cape... ... ... ... ... 18

Brassica juncea {see Rape seed)

Brazil, coconut disease in ... ... ... ... ... 125

„ , Urena lobata fibre from ... ... ... ... ... 129

British Columbia, alunite in Vancouver ... ... ... ... 483

„ ,, , copper ore in ... ... ... ... ... 306

„ „ , magnesite in ... ... ... ... ... 641

„ „ , molybdenite in ... ... .,, ... 140

„ „ , pyrophyllite in Vancouver ... ... 483, 487

,, ,, , zinc production in ... ... ... ... 311

„ Guiana, balata production in ... ... ... ... 634

,, „ , coconut cultivation in ... ... ... ... 628

„ „ , coconut pest in ... ... ... ... ... 125

„ „ , coffee cultivation ... ... ... ... 123

„ „ , cokerite fruits and oil from ... ... ... 8

„ „ , mineral production of ... ... ... ... 287

n M , oil palm cultivation in ... ... ... ... 125

„ „ , Panama hat industry in ... ... ... ... 636

,, „ , Para rubber cultivation in ... ... ... ... 632

„ „ , tapping experiments with Sapium ... ... ... 129

„ Honduras, cauto cotton from ... ... ... ... 591

Bulgaria, zinc ores of ... ... ... ... ... ... 45

Burma, edible beans from ... ... ... ... ... I49

,, , ground-nut cultivation in ... ... ... ... ... 125

„ , iron ore mining in Northern Shan States ... ... ... 639

„ , myrabolans from ... ... ... ... ... 637

„ , Para rubber disease in ... ... ... ... ... 47^

„ , Lower, Para rubber planting in ... ... ... ... 632

Buxus Macowani ... ... ... ... ... ... 18

Caesalpinia digyna/xTiV^sWgdXiovi oi ... ... ... ... 203

BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE 66i

Camphor oil from Federated Malay States...

„ ,, „ Mauritius

Canada, alunite deposits of Vancouver

„ , antimony ores of

,, , asbestos production in Quebec

„ , black- or silver-fox farming in

,, , chromite mining in Quebec

„ , cobalt ores of ...

,, , copper ore in British Colombia

„ , „ „ „ Quebec ...

,, , diatomite in

„ , flax and linseed in

„ , gas-producer tests with lignite from

,, , hemp experiments in

„ , magnesite in British Columbia

„ , mining in Ontario

„ , molybdenite in British Columbia ...

„ , nickel ores of ...

„ , ,, production in

„ , phosphates in Alberta

„ , pyrophyllite in Vancouver

„ , talc deposits of South-Eastern Ontario

„ , zinc production in British Columbia
Candlewood shrub (see Fouquieria spleiidens)
Cane-sugar Factories , Chemical Control in

„ „ Manufacturers and their Chemists^ A Handbook for
Canning of Fruits and Vegetables^ The
Cape Province, asbestos industry of

„ ,, , nickel ores of

Carludovica palmata fibre, for Panama hats in British Guiana
Carthamnus tinctorius (see Safflovver)
Carum copticum {see Ajowan seed)
Cashew '* apple," uses of
gum ...

,, nuts ...

M oil

„ wood ...
Cassava, cultivation in West Indies
Castor-oil plant, shot-hole borer of, in Ceylon

„ seed, yields in India
"Cato" nut oil...

Ceanothus velutinus (see Snow-brush)
Cement Industry, The Portland ...

Cements; Limes a?id their Nature, Manufacture and Use of
Cephalonema polya7idrum (see Punga bark)
Cerulian blue ...
Ceylon, acetate of Hme from

, acetic acid manufacture in

, charcoal from ...

, coconut cultivation in

, coffee cultivation experiments

, garnets from

, ground-nut experiments in

PAGE

... 577

... 580

... 483

... 401

... 305

... 620

... 136

... 419

... 306

137. 307

... 307

... 299

... 119

... 300

... 641

... 118

... 140

... 232

... 231

... 486
483, 487

... 643

... 311

... 649

... 648

... 6SI

... 604

... 246

... 636

118
118

115
117
118
626
619
472
126

654
144

429
576
569
576
124
123
368
293

569. 575i

662

BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Ceylon, gypsum in

„ , iridosmine in

,, , monazite in

,, , Para rubber bark rot in ...

„ , platinum in

„ , recent survey of minerals in

„ , rubber disease in

„ , thorianite in

„ , thorite in

„ , thorium in
Chailletia cymosa from South Africa
Chambers of Commerce, co-operation with Imperial Institute.
Charcoal, coconut shell, from Ceylon

,, , vera wood, from Ceylon
Chemical Control in Cane-sugar Factories
Chemisfs Year-Book, The
Chile, cobalt ores of
China, antimony ores of...

„ , zinc ores of
Chir or chil pine (see Pinus longifolid)
Chisochetoncumingianus, kernel oil of
Chloanthite

Chromite mining in Quebec
Chrysophyllum viridifolium from South Africa
Citrullus Colocynthis [see Colocynth)
,, vulgaris {see Water-melon)
Citrus s^Y^.f diseases of ...
Clays, pottery, in Federated Malay States
Coal from West Africa ...
„ in New Zealand
„ production in Southern Rhodesia
Cobalt blue

„ bronze ...

„ brown ...

„ compounds and their uses

„ District, nickel ores of

„ driers ...

„ , electro-plating with
green ...

„ , metallic, alloys of

„ , „ , physical properties of

„ , >. > preparation of ...

„ , ,» , uses of...

,, nitrate ...

„ ultramarine {see Cobalt blue)

„ yellow {see Indian yellow)

„ ores in Argentina

„ „ „ Australia

„ „ „ Austria-Hungary ...

„ „ „ Belgian Congo

„ „ „ Canada ...

„ „ „ Chile

France ...

PAGE

334
321

633

334, 337

359
359
321

272

575
569, 576
649
316
423
397
51

BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE 663

PAGE

Cobalt ores ill Germany ... ... ... ... ... ... 42$

,. M India 427

„ „ Italy ... ... ... ... ... ,.. 426

„ „ „ Mexico ... ... ... ... ... ... 423

„ ,, „ New Caledonia ... ... ... ... ... 428

„ „ ,, Norway ... ... ... ... ... ... 426

„ „ Peru 423

,, ,, ,, Russia ... ... ... ... ... ... 426

„ „ Spain ... ... ... ... ... ... 426

„ „ ,, Sweden ... ... ... ... ... ... 427

,, ,, „ Switzerland ... ... ... ... ... 427

,, „ „ Transvaal ... ... ... ... ... 428

,, ,, ,, United Kingdom ... ... ... ... ... 427

„ „ „ United States ... ... ... ... ... 422

„ „ , occurrence and utilisation of ... ... ... ... 417

Cobaltite ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 418

Cob-nuts {see Hazel-nuts)

Cochin China, Para rubber cultivation in ... ... ... ... 632

Cochrome ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 436

Cocoa from Sierra Leone ... ... ... ... ... 589

„ , summaries of recent work on ... ... ... 123,291,627

Coconut Plantings A Practical Guide to ... ... ... ... 646

Coconut shell charcoal from Ceylon ... ... ... ... 575

„ shells, acetic acid from, in Ceylon ... ... ... 569

Coconuts, summaries of recent work on ... ... 124,292,472,628

Coffeaarabica,ixoxn\^g2iTidi2i ... ... ... ... ... 6

„ robusta, from Uganda ... ... ... ... ... 6

Coffee from Uganda ... ... ... ... ... ... 6

„ , prices of African ... ... ... ... ... 8

„ , summary of recent work on ... ... ... ... 123

Cokerite fruits and oil from British Guiana ... ... ... 8

Colocynth pulp from Sudan ... ... ... ... ... 162

Colombia, Mauritius hemp industry of ... ... ... ... 635

Concentrating Ores by Flotation ... ... ... ... ... 492

Congo, Belgian, cobalt in crude copper from ... ... ... 428

„ , „ , fibres from ... ... ... ... ... 385

„ , Lower, Ceara rubber cultivation in ... ... ... 129

Constantan ,.. ... ... ... ... ... ... 253

Copper ore, in British Columbia ... ... ... ... ... 306

„ , „ Quebec ... ... ... ... ... ... 137

„ , production in Northern Rhodesia ... ... ... ... 280

„ , „ „ Ontario ... ... ... ... ... 118

„ ore, production in Quebec ... ... ... ... 307

Copra, markets for Indian ... ... ... ... ... 220

Corsica, antimony ores in ... ... ... ... ... 394

Cotton, Cauto, from British Honduras ... ... ... ... 591

„ seed meal, manurial value of ... ... ... ... 624

,, stalks, charcoal from, in Egypt ... ... ... ... 570

,, summaries of recent work on ... ... 1 3 1» 302, 479, 637

Cotton Year-book and Diary i()i6, The ... ... ... ... 143

'• Coyol " palm, nuts and oil of ... ... ... ... ... 126

Crotalaria Burkeana from South Africa ... ... ... ... 32

Cuba, iron ore of ... ... ... ... ... 242,251

664

BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Cuba, nickel ore of

„ , l/rena lodata hhie in
Cupro-nickel ...
Cymbopogon flexuostis {see Lemon grass)

,, Nardus var. vallidus {see Tambookie grass)

Cyprus, cotton cultivation in
„ , hazel-nuts from...
„ , naked barley from
„ , salt from

Dates from the Sudan ...
Datura Mefel, investigation oi

„ Stramonium from Egypt ...

„ „ „ South Africa

M Sudan

„ „ , Indian ... ... .

„ „ leaves, commercial value of

Diamond industry of British Guiana
Diatomite from Australia

„ in New Brunswick
„ ,, Nova Scotia
Dichapetalum cymosum from South Africa...
" Dika " tree fruit from West Africa
Distillation of wood and other vegetable products
Dominica, lime cultivation in
Drugs and poisonous plants. South African

„ , investigations of Indian

„ , solanaceous, from Africa ...
Dunes, reclamation in New South Wales ...
Dyestufifs, Indian, experiments in United Provinces

Ebony from Siam

Economics ^ the Foundations of Indian

Egypt and the Sudan^ Guide to ...

„ , ground-nut cultivation in ...

„ , hide and skin industry of...

„ , sheep-breeding in

„ , solanaceous drugs from ...
Electro-plating with cobalt
Epicampes macroura, for paper-making ...
Erythrite
Eschel

Esparto grass, wax from...
Essential oils, summary of recent work on ...
Eucalypts, suitable for Southern Rhodesia...
Euphorbia Tirucalli, treatise on . . .

Falkland Islands, whales' bones from
Federated Malay States, camphor oil from ...
„ , gold output of

Para rubber, tapping and manuring experiments

, pottery clays in
, tungsten ores in

PAGE
242,251

... 477
••• 253

132
265

159

585
202

25. 36

24
202

26
287

40
308
307, 309

32
126
566
292

27
200

21
304
613

618
655
493
472
283
282
22

433
130
418
429

474
295

637
634

181
S77
309

475
120
310

BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE 665

PAGE

Felspar, production of potash from ... ... ... ... 286

Fibres from Belgian Congo ... ... ... ... ... 385

„ , Indian ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 209

„ , summaries of recent work on ... ... 129, 299, 477, 634

Fiji, bat guano from ... ... ... ... ... ... 290

„ , coconut palm pests in ... ... ... ... ... 629

,,, Para rubber in ... ... ... ... ... 474,632

Filberts (see Hazel-nuts)

Flax, experiments in United Provinces, India ... ... ... 613

„ , summary of recent work on ... ... ... ... 299

Flax-straw for paper-making in United States ... ... ... 301

Fle7m7tg,Satidford^ Empire Builder ... ... ... ... 141

Flotation, Concentrating Ores by ... ... ... ... ... 492

Flotation Process, The ... ... ... ... ... ... 492

Foodstuffs, summaries of recent work on ... ... ... 122, 291, 624

Forestry and forest products, summaries of recent work on 134, 303, 480, 637

Forestry, British ; its Present Position and Outlook after the War ... 490

Foundations of Indian Economics, The ... ... ... •••655

Fouquieria sj) lend ens iwhh&r hoxn Arizom. ... ... ... 634

Fox, black, farming in North America ... ... ... ... 619

France, antimony ores of ... ... ... ... ... 393

,, , cobalt ores of ... ... ... ... ... ... 424

„ , zinc ores of ... ... ... ... ... ... 45

Fruits a?id Vegetables, The Canning of ... ... ... ... 651

Fuels, summary of recent work on ... ... ... ... 485

Furcraea gigantea {see Hemp, Mauritius)

/^«^rr^^^ Zm^^«2 fibre from Belgian Congo ... ... ... 388

Gaboon, palm oil and kernel industry of ... ... ... ... 630

Garnets, commercial value of Ceylon ... ... ... ... 368

Garnierite ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 229

Gems, in Ceylon gravels .. . ... ... .. ... ... 331

Genthite {see Garnierite)

Germany, antimony ores of ... ... ... ... ... 395

,, , cobalt ores of... ... ... ... ... ... 425

„ , nickel „ „ ... ... ... ... ... ... 243

,. , zinc „ ... ... ... ... ... 46

Gersdorffite ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 230

"Gift-blad" or "gift-blaar" (see Chailletia cytnosd)

Glossines ou Tsetses, Notice sur les ... ... ... ... 146

Gold Coast, cocoa exports from ... ... ... ... ... 123

,, ,, , coconut cultivation in ... ... ... ... 124

„ „ , cotton cultivation in ... ... ... ... ... 133

„ ,, , oil-palm cultivation in ... ... ... ... 125

„ „ , wild silk from ... ... ... ... ... 174

„ production in British Guiana ... ... ... ... 287

II ,1 n Federated Malay States ... ... ... 309

11 I, ,1 Northern Nigeria ... ... ... ... 639

II ,1 M Ontario ... ... ... ... ... 118

,, „ ,1 Southern Rhodesia ... ... ... ... 280

„ , prospecting for in Ceylon gravels ... ... ... ... 332

Gonioma Kamassi {see Knysna boxwood)

Grains Cartiers, composition of ... ... ... ... ... 631

666 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

PAGE

Grains, The Small ... ... ... ... ... ... 489

Great Britain, reports on mineral resources of ... ... ... 311

Greece, nickel ore of ... ... ... ... ... ... 243

„ , zinc ores of ... ... ... ... ... ... 48

Green Manures and Manuring in the Tropics ... ... ... 649

Ground nuts, markets for Indian ... ... ... ... ... 221

„ ,, , summary of recent work on ... ... 125, 293, 472, 629

Guide to Egypt and the Sudan ... ... ... ... ... 493

Guinea corn as foodstuff in West Indies ... ... ... ... 626

Guizotia abyssinica (see Niger seed)

Gypsum in Ceylon ... ... ... ... ... ... 327

Hainan, Para rubber cultivation in ... ... ... ... 633

Handbook for Cane-sugar Manufacturers and their Chemists ^ A ... 648

Handicap of British Trade, The^ with special regard to East Africa ... 318

Hawaii, pine-apple industry of ... ... ... ... ... 460

Hazel-nuts, composition of ... ... ... ... ... 267

„ „ from Asia Minor ... ... ... ... ... 265

„ „ Cyprus ... ... ... ... ... 265

M Italy 264

„ Sicily ... ... ... ... ... ... 265

„ „ „ Spain ... ... ... ... ... ... 263

„ ,, M United Kingdom ... ... ... ... 262

„ „ sources of supply of ... ... ... ... ... 261

„ „ uses of ... ... ... ... ... ... 267

Helianthus annuus (see Sunflower)

Hemicyclia sepiaria (see Vera wood)

Hemp, cultivation experiments in Canada ... ... ... ... 300

,, , Manila, standard grading of in Philippines ... ... ... 479

„ , Mauritius, from Belgian Congo ... ... ... ... 387

„ , ,» » occurrence and utilisation in Colombia ... ... 635

„ , New Zealand, bonuses for improved machinery for ... ... 636

„ , „ .1 , cultivation in St. Helena ... ... ... 130

„ , Sisal, industry in British East Africa ... ... ... 634

Henbane, Egyptian (see Hyoscyamus muticus)

Herb-growing and Collecting , Profitable ... ... ... ... 647

Hevea brasiliensis (see Rubber, Para)

Hides and skins, Egyptian methods of preparing ... ... ... 284

„ „ „ , „ trade in ... ... ... ... 283

„ , markets for Indian raw ... ... ... ... ... 222

Historical Geography of the British Dependencies. Vol. F//., India, Pt. I. 645

Homeria pallida horn South Ahica. ... ... ... ... 31

Honduras, antimony ores in ... ... ... ... ... 403

Horsemint, thymol from American ... ... ... ... 295

Hybinette electrolytic process ... ... ... ... ... 244

Hydrogenation of oils, factories for ... ... ... ... 126

Hyoscyamine, sources of ... ... ... ... ... 21

Hyoscyamus muticus kom Sudan ,.. ... ... ... ... 22

I, M , investigation of ... ... ... ... 202

Hyptis spicigera, oil {Tom seeds o( ... ... ... ... 126

Imperial Institute and Board of Trade, spheres of work and co-operation 460

„ n I co-operation of Chambers of Commerce with ... 272

BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE 667

PACK

Imperial Institute, Executive Council, appointment of ... ... 268

„ „ , general statement ... ... ... ... i

,, „ , Indian collections of ... ... ... ... 184

„ „ (Management) Act ... ... ... ... 102

„ , work for India ... ... ... ... 183, 464, 608

India, antimony ores of ... ... ... ... ... ... 398

„ , Ceara rubber tapping in ... ... ... ... ... 298

„ , cobalt ores of ... ... ... ... ... ... 427

„ , coconut cultivation in Madras ... ... ... ... 472

„ , cotton cultivation in ... ... ... ... ... 133

„ , dyestuff experiments in United Provinces ... ... ... 613

„ , flax experiments in United Provinces ... ... ... 613

„ , forests of Punjab ... ... ... ... ... ... 134

„ , green-manuring in ... ... ... ... ... 288

India: Historical Geography of the British Dependencies. Vol. VII.,

Parti. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 645

India, industrial development in United Provinces ... ... ... 612

,, , investigations on fibres from ... ... ... ... 209

,, , ,, ,, minerals from ... ... ... ... 2II

„ , jute experiments in Bengal ... ... ... ... 301

„ , lemon-grass oil from ... ... ... ... ... 381

„ , nickel ores of ... ... ... ... ... ... 250

„ , oil-pressing industry of United Provinces ... ... ... 612

,, , paper-making materials from ... ... ... ... 208

„ , pine-apple cultivation in ... ... ... ... ... 457

,, , Pinus longifolia in ... ... ... ... ... 480

„ , rubber disease in ... ... ... ... ... ... 128

„ , silk industry of ... ... ... ... ... ... 477

„ , soils, erosion and water-logging of ... ... ... ... 121

„ , trade enquiry at Imperial Institute ... ... ... ... 461

„ , work of Imperial Institute for ... ... ... 183, 464, 608

„ , yields of castor seed in ... ... ... ... ... 472

Indian Economics, The Foundations of ... ... ... ... 655

Indian rape seed, varieties ... ... ... ... ... 474

„ safflower. varieties ... ... ... ... ... 474

„ section of Imperial Institute ... ... ... ... 184

„ sumach, tannin value ... ... ... ... ... 482

„ village ashes, potash from ... ... ... ... ... 287

,, yellow ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 430

Indo-China, antimony ores of ... ... ... ... ... 399

„ „ .Stillingia sebiferazvXWvdXxonva. ... ... ... 126

,, „ , zinc ores of... ... ... ... ... ... 52

Inks, sympathetic ... ... ... ... ... ... 431

Invar steel, nickel in ... ... ... ... ... ... 252

Iridosmine in Ceylon ... ... ... ... ... ... 334

Iron ore industry in Sweden ... ... ... ... ... 138

,, „ in Newfoundland ... ... ... ... ... 139

„ „ of Cuba .., ... ... ... ... 242,251

,, „ „ Northern Shan States... ... ... ... ... 639

„ „ production in Southern Rhodesia ... ... ... ... 280

/rz/m^/« sp., fruit of ... ... ... ... ... ... 126

Italy, antimony ores of ... ... ... ... ... ... 395

,, , cobalt ores of ... ... ... ... ... ... 426

668 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

PAGE

Italy, hazel-nut cultivation in ... ... ... ... ... 264

„ , nickel ores of ... ... ... ... ... ... 244

„ , zinc ores of ... ... ... ... ... ... 49

Jaipurite ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 427

Jamaica coffee, disease-resistance experiments ... ... ... 123

Jamesonite ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 39>

•' Jand" forests (see Prosopis spicigerd)

Japan, antimony ores of ... ... ... ... ... ... 399

„ , zinc ores of ... ... ... ... ... ... 52

Juniper woods, uses and commercial value of ... ... ... 482

Jute, summary of recent work on ... ... ... ... ... 301

Kaempferia Ethelae, volatile oil from tubers of ... ... 37, 37^

YiaXx, ixom Raphionacme divaricata ... ... ... ... 35

Karroo ash, manurial value of ... ... ... ... ... 290

Y^\idi^\h&vQX2i%^ixQvs\ Mesemhryanthemum Mahoni ... ... ,.. 34

Khaya senegalensis {see Mahogany, African)

King's blue {see Cobalt blue)

Knysna boxwood, examination of bark ... ... ... ... 34

„ „ , from South Africa ... ... ... ... 18

Kupfernickel {see Niccolite)

Labrador, forests of ... ... ... ... ... ... 303

Lactuca viminalis, inhbex ixom. ... ... ... ... ... 634

Landolphia Kirkii inhh&x iiom 'E.d^st Mx'icB. ... ... ... 634

Leather, investigation of Indian ... ... ... ... ... 203

Leeward Islands, maize cultivation in ... ... ... ... 291

Lemon-grass oil from India ... ... ... ... ... 381

Lignite, commercial utilisation in United States ... ... ... 484

„ , gas-producer tests with Canadian ... ... ... ... 119

„ , from .Southern Nigeria ... ... ... ... ... 369

Limes and Cements : Their Nature^ Manufacture and Use ... ... 144

Limes, cultivation in Dominica ... ... ... ... ... 292

Limestone, in Ceylon ... ... ... ... ... ... 324

Lime trees, diseases of ... ... ... ... ... ... 123

Linseed, cultivation in Canada ... ... ... ... ... 299

„ . M M England 114

Unum usitatissimum {see Linseed)

Lithopone, production in United States ... ... ... ... 79

Locusts, manurial value of ... ... ... ... ... 290

Madagascar, nickel ores of ... ... ... ... ... 247

„ , Urena lobata ^hxe ixoxxi ... ... ... ... 130

Mafureira seed industry of Portuguese East Africa ... ... ... 294

Magnesite, in British Columbia ... ... .. ... ... 641

„ , in South Australia ... ... ... ... ... 640

Maguey fibre from Belgian Congo ... ... ... ... 386

„ „ , production of in Philippines ... ... ... ... 479

Mahogany, African, suggested cultivation in tropical America... ... 637

Maize, cultivation in West Indies... ... ... ... ... 626

„ , summaries of recent work on ... ... ... 122,291

Malva (see Urena lobata fibre)

BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE 669

PAGE

Manganin ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 253

Manihot spp. (^see Rubber, Ceara)

Manures and Manuring in the Tropics, Green ... ... ... 649

Manures, radio-active, experiments with ... ... ... ... 289

„ , summaries of recent work on ... ... ... 288,623

Manuring, green, effect on germination ... ... ... ... 288

„ , „ in India ... ... ... ... ... 288

Maple syrup and sugar industry of Quebec ... ... ... 627

Maroc, Le ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 141

Martynialouisiana^s^^d.2cad^Q>\\ ... ... ... ... ... 126

„ proboscidean seed and oil ... ... ... ... 126

Mascarenhasia variegata, Tuhbei horn ... ... ... ... 634

Mauritius, camphor oil from ... ... ... ... ... 580

,, , sugar cultivation in ... ... ... ... ... 291

Maximiliana regia, iiuits and oil ,.. ... ... ... ... 8

Mesemdryanikemum Mahoni roots from South AMca. ... ... 34

Mexico, antimony ores of ... ... ... ... ... 403

„ , cobalt ores of ... ... ... ... ... ... 423

„ , zinc „ „ ... ... ... ... ... ... 53

Mica in United States ... ... ... ... ... ... 139

„ ,, Northern Queensland ... ... ... ... ... 485

Microscopy of Vegetable Foods n The ... ... ... ... 314

Millerite ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 230

Mineralogy , Elements of ... ... ... ... ... 144

Minerals, economic, summaries of recent work on ... 136, 305, 483, 638

„ in Ceylon ... ... ... ... ... ... 321

„ , investigations on Indian ... ... ... ... 211

Mining World Index of Current Literature ... ... ... 316

Mistletoe, larch, in United States ... ... ... ... ... 481

Molteno disease, causation of in South Africa ... ... ... 29

Molybdenite in British Columbia ... ... ... ... ... 140

Molybdenum ore in Southern Norway ... ... ... ... 485

„ ores in Tasmania ... ... ... ... ... 487

Monazite in Ceylon ... ... ... ... ... ... 321

„ „ Pretoria ... ... ... ... ... ... 309

Monell metal ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 252

Monkey-puzzle tree (see Araucaria imbricata)

Montserrat, cotton cultivation in ... ... ... ... ... 303

, sugar „ „ ... ... ... ... ... 292

Mozambique, wild silk from ... ... ... ... ... 175

Myrabolans, Burma, investigation of .„ ... ... ... 637

" Naras " plant (see Acanthosicyos horrida)

Natal, pine-apple industry in ... ... ... ... ... 459

„ , wattle bark industry of ... ... ... ... ... 599

„ , wild silk from ... ... ... ... ... ... 175

New Brunswick, diatomite in ... ... ... ... ... 308

• f „ , nickel ores of ... ... ... ... ... 240

„ Caledonia, antimony ores of ... ... ... ... ... 405

»t „ , cobalt ores of ... ... ... ... ... 428

„ „ , nickel „ „ ... ... ... ... ... 248

f, u , M production in ... ... ... ... 231

Newfoundland, antimony ores of ... ... ... ... ... 403

670 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

l»

»>

l»
»)

PAGE

Newfoundland, iron ore of ... ... ... ... ... 139

,, , nickel ores of ... ... ... ... ... 241

New South Wales, antimony ores of ... ... ... ... 405

„ ,, „ , cobalt ores of ... ... ... ... ... 428

„ „ „ , nickel ... ... ... ... 248

„ ,, „ , pine-apple cultivation in ... ... ... 458

„ „ „ , reclamation of drifting sands in ... ... ... 304

„ Zealand, afforestation in ... ... ... ... ... 135

„ ,, , antimony ores in ... ... ... ... ... 407

„ „ , coal deposits of ... ... ... ... ... 136

Nickel alloys ... ... ..: ... ... ... ... 250

,, , occurrence and utilisation of ores ... ... ... ... 228

„ ores of Australia ... ... ... ... ... ... 248

„ „ „ Austria-Hungary ... ... ... ... ... 243

„ „ „ Canada ... ... ... ... ... ... 232

Cuba ... ... ... ... ... 241,251

Germany ... ... ... ... ... ... 243

Greece ... ... ... ... ... ... 243

India ... ... ... ... ... ... 250

Italy ... ... ... ... ... ... 244

Madagascar ... ... ... ... ... 247

New Caledonia ... ... ... ... ... 248

Newfoundland ... ... ... ... ... 241

Norway ... ... ... ... ... ... 244

„ „ Nyasaland ... ... ... ... ... 247

„ „ „ Russia 245

„ „ „ South Africa ... ... ... ... ... 246

,1 V Spain 246

M M Sweden 246

„ „ „ Switzerland ... ... ... ... ... 246

„ ,, „ Tasmania... ... ... ... ... ... 248

„ „ „ United Kingdom ... ... ... ... ... 242

„ „ „ United States ... ... ... ... ... 241

„ „ , metallurgical treatment in Canada ... ... ... 238

„ , „ „ „ Norway ... ... ... 244

„ production in Ontario ... ... ... ... ... 118

„ , production of ... ... ... ... ... ... 230

„ -steel ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 250

„ , uses of ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 250

Niccolite ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 230

Nigeria, Ceara rubber from ... ... ... ... ... 382

„ , wild silk from ... ... ... ... ... 168,170

„ , Northern, gold production of ... ... ... ... 639

„ , M , tin ore production in ... ... ... ... 644

„ , Southern, lignite deposits of ... ... ... ... 3^9

Niger-seedcake ... ... ... ... ... ... 97

„ „ , cultivation and utilisation of ... ... ... ... 9^

M oil 97

Norway, cobalt ores in ... ... ... ... ... ... 426

„ , nickel ores of ... ... ... ... ... .•• 244

„ , „ production in ... ... ... ... ... 231

„ , zinc ores of ... ... ... ... ... ••• 5°

Notes... ... ... ... ... ... 102,268,460,608

BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE 671

Notices of recent literature

Noumeite (sre Garnierite)

Nova Scotia, diatomite deposits of

" Ntsema " root (see Raphionacme divaricata)

Nyasaland, cotton production in ...

,, , ground-nut yield in

,, , nickel ores of

„ , sunflower cultivation in

„ , tea from

„ , tobacco from...

„ , „ industry of ...

" Ocotillo " plant (see Fouquieria splendens)
Oil and Gas Production, Principles of
Oil factory at Louren90 Marques ...
Oil-Field Development and Petroleum Mining
Oil palm, summaries of recent work on
,, -pressing industry of United Provinces ...
„ seeds, report of committee on West African
Oils and oil seeds, summaries of recent work on
,, , hydrogen ation industry
,,, refining of crude
Olive " margines " as manure
Olive wood, distillation trials with East African
Ontario, mining industry of
„ , nickel ores of ...
„ , talc deposits of South-Eastern
Opium, investigations of Indian ...
Omithoglossum glaucum, poisonous principle of

Palm-kernel cake and meal, feeding value of

„ kernels, export duty on
Panama hats (see Carludovica palmata fibre)
" Panga " fruits {see Myrabolans, Burma)
Panjab, North-West Frontier Province and Kashmir, The
Paper-making, A Text' Book of ...
Paper-making materials from India

u H 11 M South Africa ...

M „ „ , summaries of recent work on

Papyrus from Zululand ...
Pear-tree, " hard " (see Strychnos Henningsit)
Peat, excavation, pulping and drying

„ land, reclamation ...

„ , producer gas from ...

„ , utilisation of
Pentlandite
Peru, antimony ores in ...

„ , cobalt ores in
Petroleum Industry, The American
Petroleum Mining, Oil Field Development and
Petrology, Methods in Practical ...
Phaseolus acutifolius {see Beans, Tepary)

„ lunatus {see Beans, Burma, Lima, and Madagascar)

PACK

141,

312, 489, 645

...

307, 309

... 637

...

... 629

...

... 247

... 630

...

... 627

...

... 615

... 491

...

... 294

...

... 651

...

125, 292, 630

...

... 612

...

... 277

124, 292, 472, 628

...

... 126

...

... 294

...

... 630

...

... 570

...

... 118

...

... 232

...

... 643

...

... 200

...

... 31

.. 280

...

... 277

... 645

...

... 142

...

... 208

...

... 163

...

130, 301

...

... 165

... 82

...

... 87

...

... 85

...

... 81

...

... 229

...

... 403

...

... 423

...

... 653

...

... 651

... 315

672

BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

Philippines, coconut industry of ...
„ , fibre grading law in ...

Phormium tenax {see Hemp, New Zealand)
Phosphate, discovery in Alberta ...
Pigments, antimony
,, , cobalt
,, , zinc ...
Piila cloth from Philippines
Pine-apple, climatic conditions for

, cultivation for fruit and fibre ...
fibre for paper-making

„ , preparation of ...
, fungoid diseases of ...
, grading and packing of
, harvesting and yield of
, imports into United Kingdom ...
industry in British Empire
, insect pests of
juice

, manures for ...
, propagation and planting
, soil preparation for ...
, soil requirements of ...
, tinning or canning of ...
, varieties of ...
Pine disease of North America ...
Pinus longifolia in India
Platinite

Platinum in Ceylon

Podocarpus 7nilanjianus^ distillation experiments in Uganda
Podophyllum Emodi
Portland Cement Industry^ The ...
Portugal, antimony ores in
Potash from banana stalks and skins
,, felspar

„ Indian village ashes ...
„ seaweeds ...
investigation of Indian sources
, recent investigations on sources of...
Practical Guide to Coconut Planting^ A
Prince Edward Island, black- or silver-fox farming in
Principles of Oil and Gas Production
Profitable Herb-growing and Collecting ...
Prosopis spicigera forests of the Punjab
Pseudophoenix vinifera kernels {see Grains Cartiers)
Punga bark from Belgian Congo ...
Pyrophyllite in Vancouver Island ...
Pyrrhotite

Quebec, asbestos production in ...
„ , chromite mining in
„ , copper ore in ...
„ , nickel ores of ...

... 629

...

... 478

...

... 486

...

... 416

...

... 429

...

... 79

...

... 455

...

... 441

...

... 437

...

... 456

...

... 455

...

... 451

...

... 449

...

... 448

...

... 438

...

... 456

...

... 450

...

... 454

...

... 446

...

... 444

...

... 443

...

... 442

...

... 453

...

... 439

...

... 135

...

... 480

...

... 252

...

334, 337

...

... 569

...

... 201

...

... 654

...

... 395

...

... 286

...

... 286

...

... 287

...

... 284

...

... 227

...

... 284

...

... 646

...

... 620

...

... 491

...

... 647

...

... 134

... 385

...

483, 487

...

... 229

...

... 305

...

... 136

...

137,307

...

... 240

BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE 673

PAGE

Queensland, antimony ores of ... ... ... ... ... 407

„ , cotton cultivation in ... ... ... ... ... 134

,, , mica in ... ... ... ... ... ... 485

„ , pine-apple cultivation in ... ... ... ... 458

„ , sapphire-mining industry of Anakie ... ... ... 253

Rape seed, in India ... ... ... ... ... ... 474

Raphionacme divaricaia root irom SovXh AincB. ... ... ... 35

Rhodesia, agricultural development in ... ... ... ... 279

, antimony ores of ... ... ... ... 400, 638

, ground-nut industry in ... ... ... ... 629

, mineral production in ... ... ... ... ... 280

, sunflower cultivation in ... ... ... ... 630

, eucalypts for ... ... ... ... ... ... 637

Rhus Cotinus {see Sumach, Indian)
Rinmann's green {see Cobalt green)

Rosewoods, from Siam ... ... ... ... ... ... 617

Rubber, Ceara from Nigeria ... ... ... ... ... 382

„ I M I summaries of recent work on ... ... 129, 298, 633

„ , „ . vulcanisation and mechanical tests on ... ... 384

„ , Fouquieria splendens ... ... ... ... ... 634

Rubber Industry of the Amazon^ The ... ... ... ... 312

Rubber industry, some present needs of British ... ... ... 592

,, ^ IxLCtuca viminalis ... ... ... ... ... 634

„ , Landolphia Kirkii, Xesis oi ... ... ... ... 634

„ , Mascarenhasia variegata... ... ... ... ... 634

„ , Para, ageing of vulcanised ... ... ... ... 633

„ , „ , diseases of ... ... ... 128, 298, 476, 633

„ , „ » effect on vulcanising and mechanical properties of adding

ammonia to latex ... ... ... ... 511

M > M > effect on vulcanising and mechanical properties of adding

creosote solution 535, 546, 553, 554

.1 > If ) efifect on vulcanising and mechanical properties of adding

formaldehyde ... ... ... ... ... 512

„ , „ , effect on vulcanising and mechanical properties of adding

sodium sulphite... ... ... ... ... 512

M I » > effect on vulcanising and mechanical properties of

coagulating with acetic acid 501, 515, 525, 526, 527, 529

,, , , , effect on vulcanising and mechanical properties of

coagulating with formic acid ... ... ... 501

M III effect on vulcanising and mechanical properties of

coagulating with hydrofluoric acid... ... 501,517,525

,1 , > , effect on vulcanising and mechanical properties of

coagulating with sulphuric acid ... ... ... 501

II III effect on vulcanising and mechanical properties of

converting wet and dry crepe into block ... ... 552

II , .1 I effect on vulcanising and mechanical properties of

different methods of drying ... ... ... 530

II I II I effect on vulcanising and mechanical properties of

different methods of smoking ... ... ... 535

II , „ , effect on vulcanising and mechanical properties of

drying sheet rubber under tension ... ... 542

674 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

PAGE

Rubber, Para, effect on vulcanising and mechanical properties of form

of rubber ... ... ... ... ... 515

„ , effect on vulcanising and mechanical properties of

hot coagulation ... ... ... ... 503,504

„ , effect on vulcanising and mechanical properties of over-
working the freshly coagulated rubber ... ... 533

„ , effect on vulcanising and mechanical properties of rolling

up smoked sheet rubber under tension ... ... 551

,, , effect on vulcanising and mechanical properties of rolling

up unsmoked sheet rubber under tension ... ... 543

„ , effect on vulcanising and mechanical properties of

separating rubber from latex in successive portions ... 554
,, , effect on vulcanising and mechanical properties of

spontaneous coagulation ... ... ... 501, 556, 557

I, , relation between chemical composition and vulcanising

and mechanical properties ... 510, 514, 526, 562

„ , summaries of recent work on ... 127,296,474,631

„ , tapping experiments ... ... ... 127, 474, 632

„ , time of vulcanisation of plantation ... ... ... 55^

„ , vulcanising and mechanical properties of Brazilian smoked

rubber... ... ... ... ... ... 537

„ , vulcanising and mechanical properties of Byrne-cured

rubber ... ... ... ... ... ... 537

„ , vulcanising and mechanical properties of plantation ... 566
„ , vulcanising and mechanical properties of scrap rubber 501, 518
,, , vulcanising and mechanical properties of Wickham-

cured rubber ... ... ... ... ... 537

„ , vulcanisation experiments, recent work on ... 296, 476, 633
Sapium, tapping experiments ... ... ... ... 129

summaries of recent work on ... ... 127,296,474,631

Russia, antimony ores in ... ... ... ... ... 39^

cobalt ores in ... ... ... ... ... ... 426

nickel ores of ... ... ... ... ... ••• 245

zinc ores of ... ... ... ... ... ... 5o

Russia-in-Asia, antimony ores in ... ... ... ... ••• 399

„ „ ,, , zinc ores in ... ... ... ... ••• 52

Safilower-seed cake

„ „ , cultivation and utilisation of

„ „ oil

„ , studies at Pusa
St. Helena, New Zealand hemp cultivation in
St. Lucia, coconut cultivation in ...
St. Kitts, sugar industry of
St. Kitts-Nevis, cotton industry of ...
Salt from Cyprus

Salvac^ora oleotc^es twigs and leaves 3iS iodder
Sanitation, Rural, in the Tropics ...
Sapium rubber, tapping experiments in British Guiana
Sapphires from Queensland
Saw-mill waste, tannin extract from
Scheelite, in Federated Malay States
Science and Technology, Athenaum Subject Index to Periodicals 191 5

lOI

98
100

474
130
124
292
302
37
134
145
129

253
483
310
147

BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE 675

Scientific and Technical Research Department, Imperial

work of
Seaweed, as manure

„ , potash from ...
Senarmontite ...
Senecio latifolius, cause of molteno disease

Serbia, antimony ores in

Sericiculture, possibilities in Trinidad

Sheep, Egyptian

Shells, chank, for bangle making ...

„ , mussel, for button making
" Sherungulu " tubers (see Kaempferia Ethelae)
Shot-hole borer of tea, castor-oil plant as host of
Siam, blackwoods of

„ , pine-apple industry of ... ■
Siberia, zinc ores of
Sicily, hazel-nuts from ...
Sierra Leone, cocoa from

Sierra Leone; its People^ Products, and Secret Societies
Silk, African wild
„ , Anaphe, from Africa
„ , development of Indian industry
„ from Trinidad
Silver production in Ontario
Singapore, pine-apple tinning industry of ...
" Skokian " from Raphionacme divaricata ...
" Slangkop," Cape

„ , Transvaal ...
Sleeping sickness ... ... ... ,

Smalt, preparation of ...

Smaltite

Snow-brush leaves as tanning material

„ „ „ , wax from

Soap factory at Louren^o Marques
Soils, summaries of recent work on ,,,

Somaliland, Italian, Ceara rubber cultivation in
Soy beans, cultivation experiments in England

» , M in Congo ...

Spain, antimony ores in ...

„ , cobalt ores in

,, , hazel-nut cultivation in

„ , nickel ores of

„ , zinc „ „
Spelter, commercial, grades of
M • M . impurities of

M • ». » prices of

.» » .» > production and consumption of

M I i> , utilisation of

Steel, cobalt in...

„ , nickel in ...
Stellite
Stibnite
" Stijfziekte " or " Stiff-sickness," cause of . . .

Institute,

187, 189

... 286

... 284

... 391

... 29

... 396

... 16

... 282

... 223

... 224

... 619

... 617

... 438

... 52

... 265

... 589

... 491

... 167

... 477

... 13

... 118

... 457

... 35

... 31

... 37

... 146

... 429

... 418

... 483

... 474

... 294

. 121, 288, 623

... 129

... 293

... 396

... 426

... 263

... 246

... 50

... 72

... 71

... 73

... 74

... 75

... 434

... 250

... 435

... 391

... 32

676 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

PAGE

Straits Settlements, pine-apple industry in... ... ... ... 457

Strychnos Henning sit h^i^ and fruits from South Africa ... ... 33

Sudan, beans from ... ... ... ... ... ... 156

„ , colocynth pulp from ... ... ... ... ... 162

„ , cotton cultivation in ... ... ... ... ... 132

„ , dates from ... ... ... ... ... ... 585

Sudan^ Guide to Egypt and the ,.. ... ... ... ... 493

Sudan, solanaceous drugs from ... ... ... ... ... 22

„ , water-melon seeds from ... ... ... ... ... 160

Sudbury district, nickel ores of ... ... ... ... ... 232

Sugar-cane wax in Natal and Mauritius ... ... ... ... 294

Sugar Manufacture, Snip hi tation i?t White ... ... ... 649

Sugar maple industry of Quebec ... ... ... ... ... 627

,, , summaries of recent work on ... ... ... 122,291,626

Sulphitation in White Sugar Manufacture ... ... ... 649

Sulphur and sulphur compounds, effects on soil bacteria ... ... 289

Sumach, Indian, tannin content of ... ... ... ... 482

Sunflower-seed cake ... ... ... ... ... ... 94

„ „ , cultivation and utilisation... ... ... ... 89

„ ,, oil, uses of ... ... ... ... ... 94

„ ,, , summary of recent work on ... ... ... 630

Sweden, antimony ores of ... ... ... ... ... 396

„ , cobalt „ „ ... ... ... ... ... 427

„ , iron-ore industry of ... ... ... ... ... 138

„ , nickel ores of ... ... ... ... ... ... 246

„ , zinc „ „ ... ... ... ... ... ... 51

Switzerland, cobalt ores of ... ... ... ... ... 427

„ , nickel „ „ ... ... ... ... ... 246

Talc in Ontario ... ... ... ... ... ... 643

,, „ South Australia ... ... ... ... ... ... 642

Tambookie, or tambootie, grass for paper-making ... ... ... 163

Tanning materials, Indian, work of Imperial Institute for ... ... 464

,, „ , investigations of Indian ... ... ... 203

„ „ , summaries of recent work on ... ... 482,637

Tar, wood, imports into United Kingdom ... ... ... ... 568

Tasmania, molybdenum ores in ... ... ... ... ... 487

„ , nickel ores of ... ... ... ... ... 248

„ , tungsten ores in ... ... ... ... ... 487

„ , zinc-lead ore in ... ... ... ... ... 488

Tea industry of Nyasaland ... ... ... ... ... 627

„ , shot-hole borer of, in Ceylon ... ... ... ... 619

Teak, germination of seed ... ... ... ... ... 3^5

„ in Trinidad ... ... ... ... ... ... 481

Technical Information Bureau, Imperial Institute, work of ... 187, 218

Tectona grandis {see Teak)

Texas, ground-nut industry in ... ... ... ... ... 629

Th^nard's blue (see Cobalt blue)

Thorianite in Ceylon ... ... ... ... ... ... 359

Thorite „ „ 359

Thorium „ „ ... ... ... ... ... ... 321

Thymol from Indian ajowan seed ... ... ... ... ... 225

Thymol homiMonarda punctata in United States ... ... ... 295

BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE 677

Timbers of Labrador

„ , summaries of recent work on
Tin ore, production in Northern Nigeria ...
Tobacco, cultivation in Rhodesia ...

,, from Nyasaland

„ , importation from British Colonies and Protectorates

„ industry of Nyasaland ...
Tobago, cocoa cultivation in
Tortola, ground-nut experiments in
Trade as a Science

,, , The Handicap of British, with special regard to East Africa
Transvaal, antimony ores in
„ , cobalt ores in

,, , pine-apple industry in ...

„ , sherungulu tubers from
Trichilia emetica (^see Mafureira seed)
Trinidad, cocoa cultivation in

„ „ exports ...

„ , Para rubber, cost of production ...

„ , silk from

„ , sugar production in

,, , teak in
Tropics, Rural Sanitation in the ,.,
Tropics, The: Their Resources, People, and Future
Tsetses on Glossines, Notice sur les
Tulp, Transvaal (see Homeria pallida)
Tungsten ore in Federated Malay States ...

„ ,f „ South Australia ...

,, M „ Tasmania

Tunis, zinc ores of
Turkey-in-Asia, hazel-nuts from ...

M M , zinc ores of
Turpentine oil and rosin, investigation of Indian
Turquoise green

Uganda, Ceara rubber in

„ , coffee from

„ , cotton cultivation in

„ , distillation experiments with Podocarpus milanjianus wood

„ , Para rubber in ...

„ , wild silk from ...
United Kingdom, antimony ores in

,1 „ , cobalt ores in ...

„ „ , hazel-nut cultivation in Kent

„ „ , nickel ores of ...

„ States, antimony ores in ...

„ ,. , ash and willow cultivation in

„ „ , cobalt ores of

„ „ , Egyptian cotton industry of Arizona ...

I, ,, , maize grading in ...

•f „ , mica deposits of ...

„ „ , nickel ores of

,, „ , zinc ores of

PAGE

... 303
135. 482
644
280

. 299

. 132

. 560

. 296

. 175

. 396

. 427

. 262

. 242

. 404

• 305

. 422

. 303

. 122

. 139

. 241

. 54

678 BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

PAGE

Urena lodafa Hhre, summanes of recent work on ... ... 129,477

Urgtnea Burkez irom South Airica. ... ... ... ... 37

Valentinite ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 391

Vancouver, alunite deposits of ... ... ... ... ... 483

„ , pyrophyllite in ... ... ... ... 483, 487

Vegetables, The Canning of Fruits and ... ... ... ...651

Vera wood, acetic acid from in Ceylon ... ... ... ... 5^9

„ „ charcoal from Ceylon ... ... ... 569, 576

Victoria, antimony ores in ... ... ... ... ... 408

Virgin Islands, cotton industry of ... ... ... ... ... 302

Voandzeia subterranea heans iiom Sndan ... ... ... 156

Vulcanisation of rubber {see Rubber, Para)

Water-melon seeds from Sudan ... ... ... ... ... 160

„ -power, utilisation of in British Colonies ... ... ... 621

Wattle-bark industry of Natal ... ... ... ... ... 599

„ -wood, distillation trials with East African ... ... ... 57°

Waxes, summary of recent work on ... ... ... ... 474

West Indies, bay oil industry of ... ... ... ... ... 295

„ „ , increased cereal cultivation in ... ... ... 626

„ „ , pine-apple industry in ... ... ... ... 459

„ ,, , {see also names of islands)

Whales' bones from Falkland Islands ... ... ... ... 181

Wheat, summaries of recent work on ... ... ... 291,624

Willow, cultivation and uses in United States ... ... ... 3^5

Wolfram, in Federated Malay States ... ... ... ... 310

„ , in Tasmania ... ... ... ... ... ... 487

Wood, distillation of ... ... ... ... ... ... 5^-^

Wool of Egyptian sheep ... ... ... ... ... ... 283

Wool Year-book and Diary ^ The ... ... ... ... ... 316

Xenotime from Ceylon ... ... ... ... ... 348,349

Xyleborus fomicatus {see shot-hole borer)

Zinc alloys ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 78

,, , by-products ... ... ... ... ... ... 7'

„ dust 65,66,77

„ green ... ... ... ... ... ,., ... 429

„ -lead ore, in Tasmania ... ... ... ... ... 488

„ ores, concentration ... ... ... ... ... ... 61

occurrence in Algeria ... ... ... ... ... 53

,, „ Austria-Hungary ... ... ... ... 44

„ ,, Belgium ... ... ... ... ... 44

„ „ Bolivia ... ... ... ... ... 53

„ Bulgaria ... ... ... ... ... 45

„ „ China ... .. ... ... ... 5^

„ „ France ... ... ... ... ... 45

„ „ Germany... ... ... ... ... 46

„ „ Greece ... ... ... ... ... 48

,, „ Indo-China ... ... ... ... 52

M Italy 49

BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

679

PAGE

Zinc ores

occurrence in Japan

M II

„ „ Mexico

...

»' 1?

M Norway

...

• 1 II

„ „ Russia-iu

■Europe

*l tl

II Siberia

...

II II

,, „ Spain

...

II II

,, „ Sweden

...

II II

„ „ Tunis

l> II

„ „ Turkey-in-Asia

II II

„ „ United States

II II

, smelting

II II

valuation of ...

II pigm

ents ...

„ , production in British Columbia

... 311

„ , properties of

Zirkelite,

from Ceylon ...

362

Zululand,

papyrus from ...

165

PRINTED BY

HAZEIX, WATSON AND VINEY, tD.,

LONDON AND AYLESBURY,

ENGLAND.

ONTARIQ

HC Bulletin (imperial Institute

246 (Great Britain))
B8 Bulletin

V.14

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CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET

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