This is a digital copy of a book that was preserved for generations on library shelves before it was carefully scanned by Google as part of a project
to make the world's books discoverable online.
It has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject
to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books
are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often difficult to discover.
Marks, notations and other marginalia present in the original volume will appear in this file - a reminder of this book's long journey from the
publisher to a library and finally to you.
Usage guidelines
Google is proud to partner with libraries to digitize public domain materials and make them widely accessible. Public domain books belong to the
public and we are merely their custodians. Nevertheless, this work is expensive, so in order to keep providing this resource, we have taken steps to
prevent abuse by commercial parties, including placing technical restrictions on automated querying.
We also ask that you:
+ Make non-commercial use of the files We designed Google Book Search for use by individuals, and we request that you use these files for
personal, non-commercial purposes.
+ Refrain from automated querying Do not send automated queries of any sort to Google's system: If you are conducting research on machine
translation, optical character recognition or other areas where access to a large amount of text is helpful, please contact us. We encourage the
use of public domain materials for these purposes and may be able to help.
+ Maintain attribution The Google "watermark" you see on each file is essential for informing people about this project and helping them find
additional materials through Google Book Search. Please do not remove it.
+ Keep it legal Whatever your use, remember that you are responsible for ensuring that what you are doing is legal. Do not assume that just
because we believe a book is in the public domain for users in the United States, that the work is also in the public domain for users in other
countries. Whether a book is still in copyright varies from country to country, and we can't offer guidance on whether any specific use of
any specific book is allowed. Please do not assume that a book's appearance in Google Book Search means it can be used in any manner
anywhere in the world. Copyright infringement liability can be quite severe.
About Google Book Search
Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers
discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web
at|http : //books . google . com/
feed by
GoogI
Digitized by
Google
Digitized by
C„,J
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
R Aj: 3£A-^:i^
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURF
Department Bulletin^
Nos. 351-375, .4
i / ■
WITH CONTENTS
AND INDEX.
» ^-
Flrepared in the Division of Publications.
WASHINGTOK:
QOVERNMINT PBINTING OmOB.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
i
425151
BINDMG
IIAR28'4S
Digitized byCjOOQlC
CONTENTS,
Dkpartmbmt Bulletin No. 361. — ^Thb Tbbrapin Scal^: An Important Insect
Eneict of Peach Orchards: ^age.
Introduction 1
History 2
Distribution 2
Economic importance 3
Injury 3
Food plants 4
Life history 4
Seasonal history 61
Mortality 61
Attendants 62
Predaceous enemies 63
Parasites 65
Sooty molds 66
Remedial measures 67
Summary 86
Recommendations for control 89
Bibliography 90
Publications of Unitm States Department of Agriculture relating to insects
injurious to deciduous fruits 94
Department Bulletin No. 352. — The Cherry Leap-beetle, a Periodically
Important Enemy of Cherries:
Introduction I
Food plants 2
Distribution 3
Economic history previous to 1915 3
The 1915 outbreak 3
Feeding habits and destructiveness 5
Description of stages 6
Life history 9
Seasonal-history summary 18
A predatory enemy 19
Control 19
Bibliography 25
Publications of United States Department of Agriculture relating to insects
injurious to deciduous fruits 27
Department Bulletin No. 353. — ^Moisture Content and Shrinkage op
foraob and the relation op l^ese factors to the accuracy op
Experimental Data:
Introduction I
General plan of the experiments 2
Use of samples in correcting forage yeilds 3
Relation oi the elajL,^ gi MwtE of forage plants to their moisture content 22
LooB of moisture in forage duri ng the early stages of curing 27
Variation in the moisture content of growing alfalfa during a single day 31
Moisture content of baled hay 31
Shrinkage of hay after storing and variation in weight due to changes in
atmospheric humidity 32
Summary 36
Depabtment Bulletin No. 354.— Forests op Porto Rico, Past, Present,
AND Future, And Their Physical andEconomio Environment:
Introduction I
Phvsical and economic features. 2
TheFor^ 21
Appendices—
I. Trees of Porto Rico 56
n. Bibliography 98
3
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
4 DEPABTMENT OP AGRICULTURE BULS. 351-575.
Dbpastment Bulletin No. 355.— Extension Course in Soils: P>8e^
Lessons I. Origin, farmation, and composition of soils 2
II. The soil and plant growth — i 10
III. Physical properties of the soil 17
IV. The water supply of the soil 24
V. Soil temperature and drainage 31
VI. The nitrogen supply of the soil 41
VII. The phosphorus and potassium of soils 47
VIII. Manures and fertilizers 54
IX. Soil acidity and limine 62
X. Management of special soib 68
XI. Soil adaptation to crops 80
XII. Crop rotations and soil fertility 84
Appendix —
Reference books 91
List of apparatus and supplies required 91
Department Bulletin No. 356. — Milk and Cream Contests:
Introduction 1
National contests 2
Hew contests are conducted 4
Educational features 11
List of exhibitions 12
Average scores of recent contests 15
Benefits of milk contests to dair3rmen 17
Suggestions for production of contest milk 19
Publications of United States Department of Agricult^e relating to milk
and cream 24
Department Bulletin No. 357. — Alaska and Stoner, or ** Miracle,"
Wheats: Two Varieties Much Misrepresented:
Introduction 1
Alaska wheat 2
Stoner, or "Miracle," wheat 14
Conclusions 27
Publications of United States Department of Agriculture relating to cer^
investigations 29
Department Bulletin No. 35S. — Studies op the Mexican Cotton Boll
Weevil IN the Mississippi Valley:
Introduction 1
Lonffevity of adult weevils T 3
Food plants of the weevil 8
Feeding habits on cotton leaves and terminals 11
Sex of adults 12
Period from emergence to oviposition 12
Period from first feeding on squares to oviposition 13
Fecundity 13
Oviposition period 23
Rate of oviposition 24
Maximum number of eg^B per day 24
Period from deposition of last egg to death 24
Activity of females in different parts of the day 25
Cessation of oviposition bv hibernated weevils 26
Total development period 26
Effect of size of square on weevil development 30
Generations 30
Summary 31
Department Bulletin No. 359. — Comparative Spinning Tests of the Dif-
ferent Grades op Arizona-Eoyptian wrre Sea Island and Sakellar-
nws Egyptian Cottons:
Introduction 1
Purpose of the spinning tests 2
Mecnanical conditions 2
Grade, staple, and price comparisons 3
Waste comparisons 4
Tensile strength compfarisons 7
Bleaching, dyeing, and mercerizing 11
Difi&culties in introducing a new variety of cotton 16
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
CONTBNTBw 5
Dbpabtmbnt Bulletin No. 359. — Comparatitb Spinnino Tests or the Dif-
rsRBNT Grades of Arizona-Eotptian wrra Sba Island and Sakellab-
iDis EoTPXiAN CoTTONs—Continued. Page.
Oomparative spinmng tests of the crop of 1913-1914 17
Sonmiaiy ^ 18
Publications of the United States Department of Agriculture relating to
the subject 21
Depabtmbnt Bulletin No. 360.— MiarrLETOB Injury to Conipers in the ^
Northwest:
Introduction 1
General nature of the mistletoe injury •. . . . 2
Result of infection on the branches 13
Result of infecftion on the trunk ^. 20
Relation of mistletoe injury to fungous attack 25
General suppression and fungous attack 27
Relation of mistletoe injury to insects 28
Influence of mistletoe injury on the seed production of the host 30
Host affinities in relation to silviculture f 31
Suggestions for control 33
Summary 37
Literature cited 39
Dbpabtvent Bulletin No. 361. — Oohfarison of the Bacterial Count of
Milk wtth the Sediment or Dirt Test:
Utility of the sediment test 1
Object of the work 2
Outline of e^Deriment 2
MeUiod of coUecting[ samples 3
Details of tJie expermients 3
Conclusions. 6
References to literature 6
Publications of United States Department of Agriculture relating to b^-
terial content of milk 7
Department Bulletin No. 362.— A System of Accounts for Primary Grain
Eletators:
Introduction 1
Types of elevator accounting systems 2
Office equipment .' 2
Taking an inventory 3
Auditing the books 3
Hedging 4
Insurance of elevators 4
Description of the office of Markets and Rural Organization grain elevator
accounting system 4
Instructions for operating the system 8
Conclusion 19
Blank forms Nos. 1 to 15, following 20
Dbpartment Bulletin No. 363.— The Pink Corn-worm: An Insect De-
STRUcnvB to Corn in the Crib:
Introduction 1
Nature of injury .' 2
Description 3
Distribution 6
Records of injury 6
History and literature 12
Associated insects 14
Natural enemies 15
Methods of control 15
Summary r. 18
Bibliography • 19
Dbfabtment Bulletin No. 364. — Forest Conservation for States in
THE Southern Pine Regions:
The situation summed up 1
What the lumber industry means to the southern pine States 3
Forest fires 4
Unie^cted grazing 7
Potest management 8
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
6 DEPABTMENT OF AGBICULTUEE BUL8. 361-376.
Department Bulletin No. 364. — Forest Conbervation por States in the
Southern Pine Rboions— Continued. Fac»-
State-owned forests 8
Legislation 9
How the Federal Government will aid 12
Literature 14
Publications of the United Sta^tes Department of Agriculture relating to
the conservation of forests 14
Department Bulletin No. 365. — Larkspur Poisoninq of Live Stock:
Introductory 1
Experimental work 28
Results and conclusions - 59
General summarjr 84
Literatu!re cited in this paper 87 ,
• Index to species of plants 91
Index to experimental feeding of animals 91
Department Bulletin No. 366.— Manupacturino Tests op Cotton Fumi-
gated wrrH Hydrocyanio-acid Gas:
Introduction 1
Spinning tests 1
Cnemical laboratory tests 7
Conclusion 12
Department Bulletin No. 367. — Carrying CAPAcrrv of Grazing Ranges in
Southern Arizona:
Introduction 1
Climatic conditions 6
Character and distribution of forage 9
Nature and rate of the recovery 16
Carrying capacity 18
The most important factor governing possible improvement of the range ... 22
Hay-cutting operations 23
Grazing experiments 28
Miscellaneous notes 33
Future investigations 36
Summary and conclusions 36
List of publications relating to this subject 40
Department Bulletin No. 368. — Brown-rot op Prunes and Cherries in
THE Pacipio Northwest:
Introduction 1
Blossom infection of prunes 2
Spraying experiments 4
FVuit rot of prunes 5
Summary and conclusion for prunes 8
Blossom infection of cherries 9
Brown-rot of cherries 9
Summary and conclusion for cherries 10
Department Bulletin No. 369. — Bacteria in Commercial Bottled Waters:
Introduction J
Significance of bacteria in potable waters 2
Inspection of springs 3
Examination of commercial bottled waters 4
Conclusions 6
Tabulated data 7
Publications of United States Department of Agriculture relating to bac-
teriological studies 14
Department Bulletin No. 370.— The Results op Physical Tests op Road-
BUiLDiNo Rock:
Introduction , 1
Agencies causing road deterioration 2
Factors influencing the selection of rock for road building 2
Physical properties of road-building rock 3
Variations in results of tests 5
Interpretation of results of physical tests 9
Table IV. — Geographical distribution of samples tested 12
Table V. — Results of physical tests of road-building rock IS
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
CONTENTS.
DVABTMSNT BXTIXBTDT No. 371.— PaTRONAOB DlYTDMHVS IN GOOPBRATIYB
Grain Companies:
Introduction 1
Cooperative organization in relation to patronage-dividend payments 2
Accounting and busineeB practice in relation to patronage-dividend pay-
ments 4
Publications of the United States Deiwrtment of Agriculture relating to
cooperative marketing 11
Depabticbnt Bulletin No. 372. — Commercial Production of Thymol from
HoRSEMINT (MONARDA PUNCTATA): »
Introduction 1
Cultural methods for horsemin t 3
Harvesting 5
Distillation 6
Extraction of the thymol 8
Yield per acre 10
Commercial prospects 10
Department Bulletin No. 373.—Brick Roads:
Introduction 1
The raw materials 2
The manufacture 3
Physical characteristics 4
Testing the brick 5
Construction 8
"Monolithic" brick pavements 21
Cost of brick pavements 22
Maintenance lor brick pavements 24
Ccmclusion 25
App^idix A 26
Appendix B 34
Department Bulletin No. 374. — ^The Intrinsic Values of Grain, Cotton-
seed, Flour, and Similar Products, Based on the Drt-matter Con-
tent:
Introduction 1
Comparative values on a dry-matter basis 2
Method of determining comparative values on a dry-matter basis 4
Advantage of buying and selling on a dry-matter basis 6
Oth^' factors to be considered 6
Relation of reduction of moisture content to shrinkage in weight 7
Explanation of tables 8
Dbpartmsnt Bulletin No. 375. — Disadvantages of Selling Cotton in the
Seed:
InbtKluction 1
Method of in vestigatbn 3
Out-turns from seed cotton at gins 4
Conversion of seed-cottcn price to the equivalent of lint-cotton price 6
Elements that determine the price of seed cotton 7
Variations in prices of identical grade of lint cotton when sold unginned . . 9
Prices received for the lowest and highest grade bales in the same market
during the same week 10
Irr^^olaritiee in prices received for the lint content of seed cotton 12
Prices received for lint cotton compared with equivalent lint prices of seed
cotton 14
A study of conditions in a specific locality 16
Conclusions 18
Selected publications of United States Deimrtment of Agriculture relating
tooottcm 19
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
INDEX.
Bane-
Acada — tin No. Page.
i, occurrence and foracs value, Ariacfna 867 33-34
ft, forest tree for Porto Rico, recommendations 354 48
Accounta —
patronage dividend parents in cooperative grain companies 371 4-10
system for primary grain elevators, bulletin by John H. Humphj^y
andW. H.Kerr 362 1-30
See aUo Bookkeeping.
Agriculture, extension course in soils for self-instructed classes in mov-
able Bchools, bulletin by A. R.- Whitson and H. B. Hendrick 355 1-92
Ajowan seed, source of thyinol 372 10
Alabama rocks, road-building, physical tests % 370 13
Alaska wheat —
description, history, and variant names 357 2-6
expdoitaticm 357 6-9
varieties misrepresented, bulletin by Garleton R. Ball and Clyde
E. Leighty 357 1-28
vields, milling and baking tests, comparisons with other varieties.. 357 9-14
curing, moisture loss during early stages 353 2^30
growing, moisture content, changes during a day 353 31
moistaie content at different stages ^^12426-27
bromoides, occurrence, growth habits and forage value, Arizona. . . 367 9-10
diuxriisaki, occiurence, growth habits, and forage value, Arizona. . . 367 13-15
Arizona —
rocks, road-building, physical tests 370 13
Santa Rita Range Reserve, forage, nature, and distribution 367 9-16
southern —
climatic conditions of Santa lUta Range Reserve 367 6-8
grazing ranges, carrying capacity, bulletin by E. O. Wooton . . 367 1-40
Aiizona-fig^rptian cotton, spinning tests with Sea Island and Sakellan-
dis Egyptian varieties, bulletin by Fred Taylor and William S. Dean . 359 1-21
ArkansauB —
IHuk com worm, occurrence and damage to stored com 363 6-7, 10
• rocks, road-building, phvsical tests 370 13
Anenate, lead, use against cherry leaf beetle, experiments 352 20-21
Auditing, grain elevator books, importance and recommendations 362 3
Bacilli, presence in commercial bottled waters, organism isolated, list. . 369 5
Bacillus, colt, presence in bottled waters, signifioince 369 2-4
fiacterial count, milk, comparison with the sediment or dirt test, bulle-
tin b/ H. C. Campbell 361 1-7
Bacteriological studies—
cominercial bottled watees 369 1-14
publications of Department, list 369 14
Bail, Caaleton R., and Cltdb £. Lbiohty, bulletin on '' Alaska and
Stoner," or "Miracle " wheats: Two varieties much misrepresented . . 357 1-28
Bairaekedra riUyi. See Com worm, pink.
Bean, mesqnite, forage value, Arizona 367 33-34
BeeUe, cherry leaf, a periodically important enemy of cherries, bulletin
byR. A. Cushman and Dwight Isely 352 1-28
Bmb, sugar, soil requirements, lesson for movable school 355 82
15810*— 17 2 9
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
10
DBPABTMENT OP AGEICULTURE BULS. 351-315.
BuUe-
Bibliography— tin No.
cherry leaf beetle 352
forests of Porto Rico 354
mistletoe 360
pink com worm 363
terrapin scale 351
Birds-
dissemination of mistletoe seed, note 360
scarcity on cane plantations in Porto Rico, remedies, suggestions. . 354
Bituminous roads, rock requirements for different kinds of traffic 370
Black-^rama grass, occurrence, growth habits, and forage A^ue, Arizona. 367
Bleaching —
cotton, fumigated and unfumigated lint, comparisons 366
cotton yams, tests of different cottons 359
BoEBNER, E. G.^buUetin on ''The intrinsic values of grain, cotton seed,
flour, and similar products, based on the dry-matter content" '374
Boll weevil —
development in squares and bolls, comparison 358
fecundity, studies, tabulated data 358
feeding habits 358
females, oviposition 358{
food plants / 358
generations, number and dates of development 358
longevity under various conditions, records 358
Mexican cotton, Mississippi Valley, studies, bulletin by R. W.
Howe 358
sexes, proportion 358
Bookkeeping —
elevator, system of Office of Markets and Rural Oiganizatlon 362
elevator systems 362
patronage-dividend payments in cooperative grain companies 371
Bottle, milk —
selection 356
treatment for contest milk 356
Bouteloua —
aristidoideSy occurrence, growth, habitat, and forage value, Arizona. 367
rothrockii, occurrence, growth habits, and forage value, Arizona. . . 367
Brick-
inspection and testing for paving, methods 373
manufactiu^, processes and apparatus 373
pavements —
cost, items 373
maintenance 373
paving —
abrasion test, method 373
crushing strength, discussion 373
requirements 373
roads, bulletin by Vernon M. Peirce and Charles H. Moorefield 373
test, apparatus and operation 373<
testing for road pavement 373
Brooks, Charles, and D. F. Fish^, bulletin on "Brown rot of pmnes
and cherries in the Pacific Northwest" 368
Brown rot —
pmnes and cherries, distributing asents, note 368
pmnes and cherries in Pacific Northwest, bulletin by Charles
Brooks and D. F. Fisher 368
Brush, W. D., Louis S. Murphy, and C. D. Mell, article on "Trees of
Porto Rico" 354
Cabbage, soil requirements, note 355
Cacao —
industry in Granada 354
plantations in Porto Rico 354
California, rock, road-building, physical tests 870
Page.
25-26
98-99
39
19-20
90-93
34
49
10-11
10-12
8-10
13-14
1-32
29
13-23
11-12
13-14,
2a-30
8-11
30-31
3-8
1-32
12
4-30
2
4-10
23
20
9-10
12-13
iyi 't'M.
4
22-24
24-25
e-«
5
4-S
1-40
6-8
34-39
5-8
1-10
4
1-10
56-97
82
38
35-36
14-16
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
INDEX. 11
Bone-
tin No. Page.
Campbell, H. C, bulletin on ^'GompariBon of the bact€iial count of
milk with the sediment or dirt test" 361 1-7
Canada, rocks, road-building, physical tests 370 99-100
Cane plantations, Porto Rico, scarcity of birds, remedies, suggestions 854 49
Carbon bisulphid, use against pink com worm, directions and value. . . 363 16-18
Carum ajowan oil, source of thymol 372 10
r 10-11
Cattle, x>oisoning by larkspur, symptoms, etc 365] co^g
I 82-81
Celery, soil requirements, note 355 82
Cement —
blocks, road-building, requirements 370 12
roads, rock requirements 370 12
Cereals, soil requirements, lesson for movable school 355 83
Charcoal, industry in Porto Rico 354 44-45
Chemes —
blossom infection by brown rot, investigations and treatment, Wash-
ington 368 9
brown rot —
(and of prunes), Pacific Northwest, bulletin by Charles Brooks
andD. F. Fisher 368 1-10
spraying experiments, Oregon 368 9-10
enemy, cherry leaf beetle, bulletin by R. A. Cushman and Dwight
Isely 352 1-28
Cherry-
early Richmond, injury to trees by cherry leaf beetle 352 6
leaf oeetle —
a periodically important enemy of cherries, bulletin by R. A.
Cushman and Dwight Isely 352 1-28
control, experiments 352 19-24
control of larvae, difficulties and recommendations 352 23-24
feeding habits 352 5-6
food plants, distribution and historical notes 352 2-5
Kfe history, etc 352 6-18
outbreak, 1915, history 352 3-5
trees, defoliation by cherry leaf beetle 352 6
Chert, road-building properties 370 8
CBrrTENDEK, F. H., Dulletin on "The pink com worm: An insect de-
structive to com in the crib " 363 1-20
Clawson, A. B.^ C. Dwight Marsh, and Hadleiqh Marsh, bulletin on
''Larkspur poisoning of livestock'' 365 1-91
Clay soils, management, lesson for movable school 355 71-74
Clays, brick —
"leanness" and ''&tness,'' use of terms 373 3
nature and requirements 373 2-3
Coeetn«//u/<z«, enemies of terrapin scale, note 351 63
Coconut palm groves, Porto Rico 354 34-35
forests, Porto Rico 354 35
diadin^ with leguminous trees, practices and advantages 354 35-36
Color, standards for cotton 366 12
Colorado —
rocks, road-building, physical tests 370 17
sheep, poisoning by larkspur 365 11-13
CffliifeiB—
fungous —
attacks, relation to mistletoe burls 360 25-26
enemies, occurrence and relation to mistletoe burls 360 25-28
injury by mistletoe, nature 360 2-13
mistletoe-infected —
effect on growth 360 2-11
relation to insect attack 360 28-30
Northwest, injury by mistletoe, bulletin by James R. Weir 360 1-39
seed production, relation to mistletoe injury 360 30-31
species injured by mistletoe 360 1
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
12
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 351-375.
Bulle-
tin No-
Connecticut rocks, road-building, physical tests 370
"Conuco" farming system, Porto Rico 354
Cook, L. B., Ernest Kelly, and J. A. Gamble, bulletin on **Milk and
cream constests' ' 356
Com —
fumigation against pink com worm 363
soil requirements, lesson for movable school 355
storage in husk, danger from pink com worm 363
stored, destmction bv pink com worm 363
value on drv-matter basis, comparative studies, tabulated 374
Com worm, pink —
bibliography 363
control measures 363
description and life history 363
destmctiveness on com in the crib, bulletin by F. H. Chittenden. . 363
distribution and records of injury 363
hosts 363/
injury to com, nature and extent 363
Com-ear worm, relation to damage by pink corn worm, note 363
Com-husk motn. See Com worm, pink.
Cotton —
boll weevil —
Mexican, in MissiBsippi Valley, studies, bulletin by R. W.
Howe 358
See also Boll weevil,
fumigation with hydrocyanic-acid gas, manufacturing tests, bulle-
tin by William 8. Dean 366
gins, outturns from seed cotton, lint, seed, and trash, by grades and
markets.... 375
new variety, introduction, diflBculties 359
outturns from gin, percentage of seed cotton 375
pink com worm, occurrence 363
prices —
comparison withlint prices for seed cotton 375
for given grade ginned and in seed 375
for lowest and highest grade in same market in same week 375
in seed and when ginned, variations for same grade 375
publications of Department relating to, list 359
selling in seed —
bales and percentage of crop, by States 375
disadvantages, bulletin by Charles F. Creswell 375
soil requirements^ lesson for movable school 355
spinning tests of lint fumigated with hydrocyanic-acid gas 366
trash, outturns from gin. percentage of seed cotton 375
Triumph, prices, comparison with other seed-cotton sales, Crowder,
Okla 375
weevil development in —
bolls, comparison with squares 358
squares, comparison with cotton bolls 358
Cotton seed —
buying and selling on dry-matter basis, advantages and considera-
tions 374
outturns from gin, percentage of seed cotton 375
value —
based on dry-matter content (and grain, flour, and similar
products), bulletin by E. G. Boemer 374
on dry-matter basis, determination methods 374
Cottons —
bleaching Qualities, tests and comparisons 359
dyeing qualities, tests and comparisons 359
mercerizing qualities^ testsand comparisons 359
spinning tests of Anzona-Egyptian, Sea Island, and Sakellaridis
Egyptian, bulletin by Fred, Taylor and William S. Dean 359
"Cow poison. " See Larkspur.
Cows, management in production of contest milk 356
Page.
17-18
13
1-24
16-18
80-81
15
2-3
30-32
ld-20
14-18
3-6
1-20
6-12
11,12,
13,14
2-3
3.10
1-32
1-12
4-6
16-17
11,31
15-16
8^9
10-12
9-10
21
2-3
1-19
80-81
1-7
4-6
16-18
29
29
6-7
4r-6
1-32
4-d
11-14
14-15
15-16
1-21
19-20
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
IKDEX. 13
BuUe-
Cfeam — tin No. Page,
contests (and milk), bulletin by Ernest Kelly, L. B. Cook, and J. A.
Gamble 356 1-24
publications of Department, list 356 24
See aUo Milk.
Creswell, Charles F., bulletin on *' Disadvantages of selling cotton
inthesoed" 375 1-19
Crops-
rotation, advantages and systems, lessons for movable school 355 84-88
soil adiHptation, lesson for movable school 355 80-84
Crowfoot grama grass, occurrence, growth habits and forage value 367 12-13
Cubarocks, road building, physical tests 370 99
Cucurbits, soil requirements, note 355 82
Curbing, brick-paved roads, construction 373 9-10
CusHMAN, R. A., and D wight Isely, bulletin on *'The cherry leaf
beetle, a periodically important enemy of cherries " 352 1-28
Cymene, separation from thymol in horse-mint oil 372 8
Dairy Show, National, milk and cream contests 356 1-24
Dairymen, benefits of milk contests 366 17-18
Dban, William S. —
and Fred Taylor, bulletin on ''Comparative spinning tests of the
different grades of Arizona-Egyptian with Sea Island and Sakel-
laridis Egyptian cottons" 359 1-21
bulletin on ''Manufacturing tests of cotton fumigated with hydro-
cyanic-acid gas" 366 1-12
Delaware rocks, road-building, physical tests 370 18-19
Ddphinin, effcKTts on animals, experiments 365 9-11
Delphinium —
alkaloids, investigations and discussion 365 8-11
species —
considered in larkspur poisoning, descriptions 365 14-16
poisonous, list 365 8
See also Larkspur.
Dirt test, mUk, comparison with bacterial count, bulletin by H. C.
Campbell 361 1-7
Distillation, horse mint, oil yields, etc 372 6-7
Dolomites, road-building properties 370 6
"Dolphin flower. " See Larkspur.
Drainage, soil, lesson for movable school 355 33-40
DyeiM cotton yams —
enect of hjdrocyanic-acid gas fumigation, tests 366 10-11
tests of different cottons 359 14-15
Dyes, cotton, color standards 366 12
Eden wheat. See Stoner wheat.
£ducation, agriculture, extension courses in soils for self-instructed
classes in movable schools 355 1-99
ptian wheat. 8u Alaska wheat,
ator —
companies, cooperative organization, relation to patronage-divi-
dend payments 371 2-4
grain, omce equipment, requirements 362 2
Elevators, grain, system of accounts for, bulletin by John R. Humphrey
andW.H. Kerr 362 1-30
EnBion, retaxxiation on range lands, Arizona 367 34
^deamium nigrcfaadatym. See Terrapin scale.
Farming, Porto Rico —
"conuco " system 354 12, 13
land utilisation, practices, and recommendations 354 13-14
PertilizerB —
hoise-mint growing, experiments 372 4-5
lesson for movable school 355 59-62
Fntering, milk, practices of dairymen 361 2
Fflte», milk, comparison of different kinds 361 2-3
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
14 DEPAKTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 351-375.
BuUe-
Fir, Douglas— tin No. Page.
miatTetoe infestation in Northwest 360 6-6
mistletoe-infested, growth rates 360 5-6
Fire protection, southern pine region, economic considerations 364 5-7
Fires, forest —
effect on forage and new growth 367 33
relation of " witches* brooms " in Northwest 360 1 7
southern pine region, losses from 364 4-7
Fisher, D. F., and Charles Brooks, bulletin on "Brown rot of prunes
and cherries in the Pacilic Northwest" 368 1-10
Flavor, milk, influences 356 20-21
Florida rocks, road-building, physical tests 370 19
Flour —
buying and selling on dry-matter basis, advantages and considera-
tions 374 6-7
. value based on dry-matter content (and grain, cottonseed, and
similar products), bulletin by E. G. Boemer 374 1-32
values, on dry-matter basis, deterimination methods 374 4-5
Forage—
curing, loss of moistiu-e during early stages 353 27-30
moisture content- -
bulletin by II. N. Vinall and Roland McKee 353 1-37
comparisons of different kinds 353 6-13
plants, moisture conteniL relation to stai?e of growth 353 22-27
shrinkage, bulletin by H. N . Vinall and Roland McKee 353 1-37
Bouthem Arizona, nature and distribution on Santa Rita Range
Reserve 367 9-16
sun-dried, comparison with shade-dried samples 353 20-2 1
yields, correction, use of samples 353 3-30
Forest-
conservation, southern pine region, bulletin by J. Girvin Peters. . . 364 1-14
southern pine region, losses from 364 4-7
industries in Porto Rico 354 44-46
management —
Porto Rico —
recommendations 354 50-55
recommendations by Board of Commissioners of Porto Rico. 354 1
practices and needs in southern pine region 364 8
planting, Porto Rico, need and recommendations 354 47-52
products, Porto Rico, note 354 46
relation of " witches' brooms " in Northwest 360 17
Forestry —
Departments, State, establishment and advantages 364 9-12
State, aid from Federal Government ^ 364 12-13
Forests —
conservation, publications of Department relating to 364 14
deciduous, Porto Rico, characteristics and occurrence 354 32-34
pine, grazing practices and damage in South 364 7
Porto Kico —
bibliography 354 98-99
past, present, and future, and their physical and economic
environment, bulletin by Louis S. Murphy 354 1-99
State-owned, advantages 364 8-9
taxation in Porto Rico, objection and recommendations 354 14-16
Forty-to-one wheat. See Stoner wheat.
Fruits, deciduous —
insects injurious, Depaitment publications relating to 352 27-28
insects injurious, publications of Department relating to 351 94-96
Fruit-tree leaf syneta, injury to prunes. Pacific Northwest, note 368 4
Fumigation, cotton, effect of hydrocyanic-acid gas, manufacturing testa,
bulletin by William S. Dean 366 1-12
Oalerucella cavicollis. See Cherry leaf beetle.
Gamble, J. A., Ernest Kelly, and L. B. Cook, bulletin on ''Milk and
cream contests " 356 1-24
Geoigia, rocks, road-buildingi physical tests 370 19-23
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
INDEX. 15
Bane-
tin No. Page.
Gins, cotton, ouUurns firom seed cotton, Unt, seed, and trash, by grades
and markets 375 406
GneisB, road-building propoiies 370 7
Gmin—
buying and selling on dry-matter basis, advantages and considera-
tions 374 6-7
companies, cooperative, patronage dividends, bulletin by John R.
Humphrey and W. H. Kerr 371 1-11
etevatcu*, office equipment, requirements 362 2
devatore, pnmajry, system ot accounts for, bulletin by John R.
Humphrey and W. H. Kerr .>. 362 1-30
mdes by moisture content, comparative values 374 2-3
handling at elevator, cost analysis, importance and method 362 15-16, 30
shrinkage in weight, relation to reduction of moisture 374 7-8
value —
based on dry-matter content (uid cottonseed, flour, and
similar products), bulletin by E. G. Boemer 374 1-32
on dry-matter basis, determination methods 374 4-5
Granada, cacao industry 354 35-36
Granites, road-building properties 370 6
Grape belt, Lake Erie, invasion by cheny leaf beetle, 1915, history 352 4-5
Graases —
soil requirements, note 355 83-84
species, Santa Rita Range Reserve, Ariz., growth habits and
f oraee value 367 9-16
Grazing—^
experiments on Santa Rita Range Reserve, Ariz 367 28-33
pine forest, practices and damage in South 364 7
ranges, carrying capacity in southern Arizona, bulletin by E. O.
Wooton 367 1-40
Grouse, feed on mistletoe, note 360 34
Harvesting, hcvsonint 372 5-6
Hay-
moisture content 353 3 1-32
production and harvesting, Santa Rita Range Reserve, Ariz 367 23-28
shrinkage after storing 353 32-35
weight, variation due to changes in atmoq>heric humidity 353 32-36
Hedging, practices at grain elevators 362 4
HeUothu ob»oUtay relation to damage by pink com worm, note 363 3
Hendrick, H. B., and A. R. Whttson, bulletin on ''Extension course
in soils for self-insts-ucted classes in movable schools of agriculture " . . 355 1-92
Hibiscus, food plant of boll weevil 358 10-11
Scmeydew —
excretion by tenapin scale 351 62
injury to p^ich orchards, relation to terrapin scale 351 3
Hood, 8. H., bulletin on ^'Commercial production of thymol from
hioraea^t (Monarda ^ncUxtay* 372 1-12
Horaemint —
composition before and after distillation 372 4-5
cultural methods 372 3-5
nowing for thymol production, cost and |MX)fitB 372 11-12
narvesung , 372 5-6
occurrence and habitat 372 3
oil yield—
at different stages of growth 372 6
of different species 372 2
seed, gathering and sowing 372 3
•oils and fertilizer requirements 372 3-5
thymol from, commercial production, bulletin by S. H. Hood 372 1-12
yield of oil and phenol per acre 372 10
Horses, poisoning by larkspur, experiments and symptoms 365{ g{l^|g
BowE, R. W., bulletin on "Studies of the Mexican cotton boll weevil
in the Mississippi Valley" 358 1-32
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
16 DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTURE BULS. 351-375.
BuUe-
tin No. Page.
Hubbard, Provost, and Frank H. Jackson, Jr., bulletin on ''The
results of physical tests of road-building rock " 370 1-100
Humphrey, John R., and W. H. Kerr —
bulletin on * * A system of accounts for primary grain elevators " — 362 1-30
bulletin on ' ' Patronage dividends in cooperative grain companies " . 371 1-1 1
Hydrocyanic-acid gas, cotton fumigation, effect, manufacturing tests,
bulletin by William S . Dean 366 1-12
Hypodermelia taricis, occurrence and damage to larch, note 360 27
Idaho rocks, road-building, physical tests 370 23
Illinois rocks, road-building, physical tests 370 23-26
Imports, thymol, 1906-1915 372 11
Inaiana rocks, road-building, physical tests 370 26-29
Insecticide, larkspur, notes 365 2
Insects, fruit, list of Department publications relating to 351 94-06
Inspection, niilk, sediment tests at receiving stations, practices and re-
liability 361 1-2
Insurance, grain elevators, suggestions 362 4
Inventory, grain elevator, practices and recommendations 362 3
Iowa rocks, road-building, physical tests. 370 80
IsELY, D WIGHT, and R. A. Cushman, bulletin on '*The cherry leaf
beetle, a periodically important enemy of cherries " 352 1-28
Jackson, Frank H., Jr., and Provost Hubbard, bulletin on "The
results of physical tests of road-building rock" 370 1-100
Kansas rocks, road-building, physical tests 370 30
Kelly, Ernest, L. B. Cook, and J. A. Gamble, bulletin on **MiIk and
cream contests" 366 1-24
Kentucky rocks, road-building, physical tests 370 31
Kerr, W. H., and John R. Humphrey —
bulletin on * * A system of accounts for primary grain elevators " — 362 1-30
bulletin on ' ' Patronage dividends in cooperative grain companies " . 371 1-11
* * King's consound . " See Larkspur.
* * Knight's spur. ' ' See Larkspur.
Ladybirds, habits and methods of attack on terrapin scale 351 63-65
Laetilia coccidivora , enemy of terrapin scale, habits and method of attack. 351 63
Larch, mistletoe-infected, growth rates 360 2-5
Larkspur —
historical notes 365 1-8
poisoning —
antidotal treatment of animals, experiments 365 77-82
experimental work with live stock 365 28-59
live stock, bulletin by C. Dwight Marsh, A. B. Clawson, and
Hadleigh Marsh 365 1-91
of cattle, preventive measures 365 82-84
plant, toxicity of different parts 365 74-75
seed, use as insecticide, note 365 2
toxic dose for animals, experiments 365 66-73
Larkspurs —
poisonous nature, antidotes, etc., discussion by different authors.. 365 1-13
toxicity, relation of age of plant 365 75-77
variant names 365 13-14
Lead arsenate, use against cherry leaf beetle, experiments 352 20-21
Leaf beetle, cnerry. See Cherry leaf beetle.
Lcfr^ia omato, enemy of cherry leaf beetle 352 19
Lecanium. See Eulecanium,
L^^lation—
forest, for Porto Rico, need and suggestionB 354 52-55
forestry, Texas Law 364 11-13
Legumes, soil requirements, note 355 83-84
Leighty, Clyde E., and Carleton R. Ball, bulletin on *' Alaska and
Stoner, or 'Miracle* wheats: Two varieties much misrepresented". . . 367 1- 28
Limestones, road-building properties 370 fi
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
INDEX.
17
BiUto-
ttaiNo. Past.
liming, soils, leflBon for moYsble sdiool 355 64-68
Lmseed oil, use as sfuray, cost of LDgredientB 351 82-^
live stock —
losses from larkspur poisoning, historical notes 365 11-13
poisoning by larkspur —
bulletin by C. Dwi^t Marsh, A. B. Clawson, and Hadlei^
Marsh 365 1-91
det^mination by examination of stomach contents 365 17-28
symptoms 365{ ^^]^
post-mortem appearance from larkspur poisoning 365 73-74
Ix^n2 appaiatus, milk filtering, value and use 361 2-3,4--6
Louisiana —
pink com worm, occuirence and damage to com 863 10-11
rocks, road-buildinff, physical tests 370 32
"Lousewort." See Larkspur.
Lumber —
industry, southern pine States, magnitude and importance S64 3-4
sdstlertoe burls, prevalence in Northwest 360 20-25
Lumbering, industTV in Porto Rico 354 45
LoquiUo National Forest, location, area, and nature 354 55
Macadam roads, water-bound, rock requirements for different kinds of
traffic 370 10
Mune rocks, road-buUding, phyncal tests 370 32-33
Mangrove, nature and occurrence, Porto Eico 354 25-27
Manures, lesson for movable school 355 54-59
Many i^ikes wheat. See Alaska wheat.
Marble, road-building properties 370 7
Marketing —
coop^ative, publications of Department relating to 371 11
gram, patronage dividends in cooperative companies 371 1-11
Mabsh —
C. DwiOHT, A. B. Clawson, and Hadlbigh Mabsh, bulletin on
"Larkspur poisoning of livestock'' * 365 1-91
Hadlkioh, a. B. Clawson, and C. Dwioht Marsh, bulletin on
''Larkspur poisoning of Hve stock" 365 1-01
soils, management, lesson for movable school 355 75-79
Marvelous wheat. See Stoner wheat.
Maryland rocks, road-building, physical tests 370 34-36
Massachusetts rocks, road-buuding, physical tests 370 36-40
McKbb, Roland, and H. N. Yin all, bulktin on ''Moisture content and
shrinkage of forage aend the relaitioa of these Actors to the accuracy of
experimental data" 353 1-37
Mbll, C. D., W. D. Bbush, and Louis 8. Mubphy, article on "Trees of
PcatoRico" 354 56-97
Mercerizing, cotton yaca —
effect of hydrocyanic-acid gas fumigation, tests 366 11-12
tests of different cottons 359 15-16
Mes(]uite, forage value in Arizona 367 33-34
Mexican cotton boU weevil —
MissisBippiValley, studies, bulletin by R. W.Howe 358 1-32
See also Boll weevil.
Michigan rocks, road-building, physical tests 370 41-42
bacterial content, publications of Departznent, list 361 7
bacterial count, comparison with the sediment or dirt test, bulletin
by H. C. Campbell 361 1-7
contest on production, suggestions 356 19-23
contests-^
(and cream), bulletin by Ernest Kelly, L. B. Cook, and J. A.
Gamble 356 1-24
educational features...^ 356 11-12
lists of exhibitions and scores 356 12-17
management, scoring methods, etc 356 4-12
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
18 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE BULS. 351-375.
Bulle-
Milk— Continued. tin No. Fags,
dirt test, comparison with bacterial count, bulletin by H. C. Camp-
bell 361 1-7
national contests, 1913, 1914, scope and requirements 356 2-4
publications of Department, list 356 24
samples, management for milk contest 356 4-9
score card, National Djdry Show 356 7-9
scoring, directions, National Dairy Show 356 8-11
sediment test, utilitj; 361 1-2
Minnesota rocks, road-building, physical tests 370 43
" Miracle " wheat. See Alaska wheat; Stouer wheat.
Mississippi —
pink com worm, occurrence and damage to com 363 7-10
rocks, road-building, physical tests 370 43
Valley, Mexican cotton boll weevil, studies, bulletin by R. W.
Howe 358 1-32
Missouri rocks, road-building, physical tests 370 43-44
Mistletoe —
bibliopaphy 360 39
burls, injury to lumber. Northwest 360 20-25
control on conifers in Northwest 360 33-37
eradication in Northwest forests 360 33-38
Rermination and growth on conifers, studies 360 6-13
host trees in Northwest 360 1
injury to conifers —
in the Northwest, bulletin by James R. Weir 360 1-89
relation to fungous attack 360 25-28
seed, distribution, factors 360 35-37
Mold, peach, control, formulas and experiments 351 67-86
Molds, presence in commercial bottled waters, list 369 5-6
Monarcui punctata. See Horsemint.
** Monolitnic *' brick pavement, constmction, advantages, etc 373 21-22
Montana rocks, road-ouilding, physical tests 370 44
MooREFiELD, Charles H., auQ Vernon M. Pbircb, bulletin on "Brick
roads" 373 1-40
Morrison, Donald, statement on feeding habits of grouse in Northwest,
note 360 34
Moth, pink com wora[i, description and life history 363 3-6
Muhlenberffia yorteri^ occurrence, growth habits and forage value, Ari-
zona 367 10-12
Murphy, Louis S. —
bulletin on ''Forests of Porto Rico, past, present, and future, and
their physical and economic environment " 354 1-99
W. D. Brush, and C. D. Mell, article on ** Trees of Porto Rico". . 354 56-^7
Naval-stores industry. South, magnitude and importaQce 364 3-4
Nebraska rocks, road-building, physical tests 370 45
Needle grass, occurrence, growtn habits and forage value, Arizona 367 13-14
New Hampshire rocks, road-building, physical tests 370 45
New Jersey rocks, road-building, phyBicai tests 370 46-47
New York rocks, road-building, pnysical tests 370 47-50
Nicotine sprays, use against terrapin scale, experiments 351 77, 83
Nicotine-sulphate sprays, use agamst cherry leaf beetle, experiments. . 352 21-22
Nitrogen, supply of soil, lesson for movable school 355 41-46
North Carolina —
forest fires, losses from 364 4-6
rocks, road-building, physical tests 370 61-53
Northwest, conifers, injury by mistletoe, bulletin by James R. Weir. . . 360 1-39
Oat grass, tall —
curiiig, moisture loss during early stages 353 29
moisture content at different stages of curing 353 9-10
Obst, Maud Mason, bulletin on "Bacteria in commercial bottled
waters" 369 1-13
Ohio rocks, road-building, physical tests 370 64-67
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
INDEX.
19
Bulle-
Oil— tin No.
kofsemint —
phenol content 372
yield of different spedee 372
yield per acre 372
sprays, aooty-mold control in peach orchards, formulas and experi-
ments 351
OUahcHna rocks, road-building, physical tests 370
Okra, food of boll weevil 368
Orchard grass—;
curing, moisture loss during early sta^ 353
moisture content at different stages of curing. 353
Oregon rocks, road-building, physical tests 370
Pacific Northwest, brown rot of prunes and cherries, bulletin by Charles
Brooks and D. F. Fisher 368
Pavements, brick, construction, requirements and suggestions 373
Peach orchards, insect enemy, terrapin scale, bulletin by F. L. Siman-
ton 351
Teco." See Larkspur.
PcntcE, Yebnon M., and Chablbs H. Moobehbld, bulletin on
"Brick roads" 373
Pemisylvania rock?, road-building, physical teeits. 370
Petebs, J. GiBviN, bulletin on "Forest conservation for States in the
Hmthem pine region" 364
Hienol, yield per acre of horsemint 372
Phosphorus, soil content, lesson for movable school 355
Pine-
forests—
grazing, practices and damage in South 364
South, damage by fire, losses^ and suggestions for protection ... 364
insect damage, relation to iforest fires 364
lands, cut-over, reproduction, menace from forest fires 364
region, southern, forest conservation, bulletin by J. Girvin Peters. . 364
yeUow, timber in South and cutting rate ^ 364
PilHfi, mistletoe-infected, growth rates of different species. 360
Pink com worm, destructiveness on com in the crib 363
Pink worm. See Com worm, pink.
^ant growth, study in relation to soils, lesson for movable school 355 10-17
''Poison weed. ' ' See Larkspur.
Poisoning, larkspur, of live stock, bulletin by C. Dwight Marsh,
A. B. Clawson, and Hadleigh Marah 365
Porto Rico-
cacao growing, advantages 354
climatic conditions 354
farming, relation to forests, practices, etc 354
forest conditions, history, formations, and influences 354
forests, past, present, and future, and their physical and economic
environment, bulletin by LouisS. Murphy 354
fuel, use in industries 354
geographic situation, area and extent 354
uuDd in, distribution, utilization, and taxation 354
mountain ranges, formation and physical features 354
physical features 354
population, increase, nature, and density, historical note 354
rpcks, road-building, physical tests 370
timber, supply and demand 354
transportation facilities, discussion and suggestions 354
^tawim, soil content, lesson for movable school 355
^btatoes, soil requirements, lesson for movable schod 355
Jwdard wheats, characteristics 357
Page.
8
2
10
67^6
57-58
8-9
29
9-10
58
1-10
8-21
1-96
1-40
59-72
1-14
10
47-50
7
4-7
7
5-6
1-14
3-4
2-13
1-20
cotton —
comparison with lint prices for seed cotton 375
ginned and unginned, variations for given grade 375
1-91
35-36
7-9
13-14
20-39
1-99
41-42
2-4
9-16
4-5
2-9
16-17
99
39-44
18-20
50-54
82
2-6
15-16
8-9
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
20 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE BULS. 351-376.
Bi]Ue-
Pricea— Continued tin No. Tn^
seed cotton —
conversion to lint prices 375 6-7
highest and lowest grades in same market in same week 375 10-13
Prunes—
blossom infection by brown rot, investigations and treatment,
Washington.... 368 4-5
brown rot (and oi cherries), Pacific Northwest, bulletin by Charles
Brooks and p. F. Fisher 368 1-10
fruit rot, spraying experiments and results 368 5-9
Publications—
deciduous-fruit insects, list of Department 352 27-28
Department —
list, milk and cream 356 24
on oacteriological studies, list 369 14
on cotton, list 359 21
relating to bacterial content of milk 361 7
relating to insects injurious to deciduous fruits 351 94-96
Quartzite, road-building properties 370 7
Rain, forests, nature and occurrence in Porto Kico 354 28-32
Range-
carrying capacity, quadrat measurement, Santa Rita Range
Reserve, Ariz 367 18-22
fires, effect on forage and new growth 367 33
hay production and cutting, Santa Rita Range Reserve, Ariz 367 23-28
reseeding, experiments on Santa Rita Range Reserve, Ariz 367 34-35
Ranges —
depleted, nature and rate of recovery, Arizona 367 16-18
grazing, carrying capacity in soutliem Arizona, bulletin by E. O.
Wooton ..: 367 1-40
"Rattler, "test for paving brick 373|
Bazoumofikyaf spp. See Mistletoe.
Red com wonn. See Com worm, pink.
Reed wheat. See Alaska wheat.
Rhode Island rocks, road-building, physical tests 370 72-73
Roadbed, preparation for brick pavement 373 8-16
Road-buildingrock, physical tests, results, bulletin by Provost Hubbard
and Frank H. Jackson, jr 370 1-100
Roads-
bituminous, rock requirements for different kinds of traffic 370 1 1
brick —
bulletin by Vemon M. Peirce and Charles H. Moorefield 373 1-40
nudntenance 373 24—25
specifications for constmction 373 26—34
building, rock selection, factors influencing 370 2-3
cement, rock requirements 370 12
deteriOTation, a^nciee causing 370 2
macadam, rock re<^uirements for different kinds of traffic 370 10
Porto Rico, conditions and need 354 10-20
Rock—
road-building—
physical properties, determination 370 3--5
phvsical tests, results, bulletin by Provost Hubbard and Frank
H. Jackson, jr 370 1-100
variations in properties 370 5-0
selection for road building, factora influencing 370 2-3
Rocks, road-building—
physical tests, samples by States, tabulated 370 12-100
rare, names and properties, list 370 8
Sakellaridis Egyptian cotton, spinning tests with Arizona-Egyptian and
Sea Island varieties, bulletin by Fred Taylor and WilUam 8. Dean. . 359 1—21
Sandstones, road-building properties 370 6
Sandy soils, management, lesson for movable school 355 63-71
6-8,
34-39
Digiti
zed by Google
INDEX. 21
Bulle-
tin No. Page.
Smta Rita Bange Reserve, Ariz. —
carrying capacity , 367 1-40
topography and plant distribution, maps 367 3-6
Santo Domingo, forest area and lumber imports 1 354 19
Scale, terrapin. See Terrapin scale.
Schist, road-building properties 370 7
Schools, movable, agricultural, extension course in soils for self-instructed
cbwes, bulletin by A. R. WhitBon and H. B. Hendrick 355 1-92
Sderotinia cinerea. See Brown rot.
Score card, milk, National Dairy Show 356 7-9
Sea Island cotton, spinning tests with Arizona-^^yptian and Sakellaridis
E^^tian varieties, bulletin by Fred Taylor and William S. Dean. . . 359 1-21
Sediment —
test, milk, comparison with bacterial count, bulletin by H. C.
Campbell 361 1-7
tests, milk, apparatuses and experimeoots 361 2-6
Seed, mistletoe, distribution, factors 360 35-37
Seed cotton —
price, factors in determination 375 7-9
selling, disadvantages, bulletin by Charles F. Creswell 375 1-19
Seven-headed wheat. See Alaska wheat.
Shale, road-building properties 370 8
Shales, brick, nature and requirements 373 2-3
8heei>—
grazing, southern Arizona, experiments 367 35-36
poisonmg by larkspur —
experiments ^ 365 55-59
historical notes, experiments, etc 365< ^^gi
Sila^, feeding, management to prevent flavor in milk 356 21
Shnculture, coniferous forests in Northwest, relation to mistletoe pest. 360 31-33
Soi ANTON, F. L., bulletin on "The terrapin scale: An important insect
enemy" 351 1-96
Six- weeks graases, occurrence, growth habits and forage value, Arizona. 367 9-10
Slags, road-building properties, note 370 9
SUte, road-building properties 370 8
Smith, Gideon B . , Tetter to American Fanner relating to Alaska wheat. 357 5
"Saags,'' conifer in Northwest, percentage 360 ^10
Snake bite, treatment with larkspur flowers, note 365 2
Soan-carbolic add spray, use against cherry leaf-beetle, experiment 352 21
fertility, maintenance by rotation of crops, lesson for movable school. 355 87-89
management of special types, lesson for movable school 355 68-84
mineral elements, requirements 355 47-54
nitrc^n supply, lesson for movable school 355 41-46
temperature and drains^, lesson for movable school 355 31-40
water supply, crop requirements, etc., lesson for movable school. . . 355 24-31
Scflfe--
acid, oMTection, etc.. lesson for movable school 355 62-68
adaptation to crops, lesson for movable school 355 80-84
horeemint growing, requirements. ^ 372 3
lessons for movable schools, reference books, apparatus and supplies
required, lists 355 91-92
origin, formation and composition, lesson for movable school 355 2-10
physical properties, lesson for movable school 355 17-24
studv in extension course for self-instructed classes in movable
schools of agriculture, bulletin by W. R. Whitson and H. B. Hen-
drick 355 1-92
Sooty molds, occurrence on peach trees, cause and remedies 351 66-68
Mipium—
f 12—1^
curing, loss of moisture during eariy stages 353^ 28-29
moisture content at different stages ^^25 26-27
8ottth Carolina rocks, road-building, physical tests 370 73-74
BoBtli Dakota rocks, road-building, physical tests 370 74
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
22 DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUBE BULS. 361-375.
BuUe-
tin No. Page.
South, pine region, forest conservation 364 1-14
Spiketop, nature and causes on conifers 360 8, 12
Spinning —
cotton, waste comparisons 359| itZi g
tests —
Arizona-Egvptian, Sea Island, and Sakellaridis Egyptian cot-
tons, bulletin by Fred Taylor and William S. Dean 359 1-21
cotton fumigated with hydrocyanic-acid gas 366 1-7
Spray, linseed oil, cost per gallon and per tree 351 82-83
Spraying, prune trees for brown rot, experiments, Washington 368 4-9
Sprays —
coating, use against terrapm scale, experiments 351< gol^
formulas for use against cherry leaf-beetle 352 20-23
terrapin-scale control in peach orchards, formulas and experiments 351 67-86-
use aeainst brown rot of —
cherries, experiments 368 10
prunes, experiments 368 4-8
Springs, sources of bottled waters, inspection and results 369 3-4
"Sta^rweed." See Larkspur.
Staghead, conifer, nature and causes 360 8, 12
* * Stavesacre. ' ' See Larkspur.
Stone blocks, road-building, requirements 370 12
Stoner, K. B., introduction of Stoner wheat, history 357 15-18
Stoner wheat —
description, history, and exploitation 357 14-19
investigations by Department 357 1^27
misrepresentation, bulletin by Garleton R. Ball and Clyde E.
Leighty 357 1-28
Sugar beets. See Beets, sugar.
Syneta alhida, injury to prunes. Pacific Northwest, note 368 4
Syrian wheat. See Alaska wheat.
Taxation, forest lands in Porto Rico, objections and recommendations. 354 14-16
Taylor, Fred, and William S. Dean, bulletin on ** Comparative
spinning tests of the different grades of Arizona-Egyptian with Sea
Island and Sakellaridis Egyptian cottons'' 359 1-21
Teachers, agriculture, in movable schools, suggestions 355 1-2
Tennessee rocks, roaa-building, physical tests 370 74-75
Terrapin scale —
bibliography 351 90-93
enemies 351 63-66
history, distribution, and economic importance 351 2-3
host plants 351 4
life history, studies 351 4-62
peach enemy, bulletin by F. L. Simanton 351 1-96
Texas-
forestry department, law authorizing 364 11-12
pink com worm, occurrence on cotton and corn, notes 363 10, 12
rocks, road-building, physical tests 370 76-77
Thymol-
extraction from horsemint oil, methods 372 8-10
importations, 1906-1915 372 11
production from horsemint, commercial, bulletin by S. H. Hood.. 372 1-12
production from horsemint, commercial prospects 372 10-12
sources and usee 372 10-12
yield per acre of horsemint 372 10
Timber-
destruction by forest fires in South, losses and preventive measures 364 4-7
southern pine region, standing and cutting rate 364 3
Timothy—
curing, moisture loss during early stages 353 28-29
moisture content at different stages ^^25 26-27
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
INDEX. 23
Bulle-
tin No Page.
Tobacco, soil requirements, lesson for movable school 355 81
Tomatoes, soil requirements, note 355 82
Trap rock, road-building properties 370 5
Trees, Porto Rico, list and descriptions 354 56-97
Triumph cotton, prices, comparison with other seed-cotton sales,
Crowder, Okla 375 16-18
Utah rocks, road-buUding, physical tests 370 77
Vermont rocks, road-building, physical tests 370 78
Yin ALL. H. N.. and Roland McKee, bulletin on *' Moisture contrac-
tion and shrinkage of forage and the relation of these factors to the
accuracy of experimental data" 353 1-37
Virginia rocks, road-building, physical tests 370 79-87
Waidiington —
prunes, investkations and treatment of brown rot 368 4-5
rocks, road-building, physical tests 370 88-92
Waste, cotton, spinning tests of fumigated and nonfumigated lint 366 1-5
Wastes, cottmi spinninp^, comparison of Arizona-Egyptian with Sea
Island and Sakellaridis-I^^tian cottons 359 4-5
Waters—
a»nmercial bottled —
bacteria in, bulletin by Maud Mason Obst 369 1-14
examination, and tabulated data 369 4-14
purity requirements, opinions 369 2-3
sprinff, bactenological examinations 369 7-13
Weevil, Mexican cotton boll. See Boll weevil.
Wkir, Jaxss R., bulletin on ''Mistletoe injury to conifers in the North-
west" 360 1-39
West Virginia rocks, road-building, physical tests 370 92-95
Wheats, '"Miracle " (Alaska and Stoner), varieties much misrepresented,
bulletin by Carleton R. Ball and Clyde E. Leighty 357 1-28
Whttson, a. R., and H. B. Hendrick, bulletin on "Extension course
in soils for self-instructed classes in movable schools of agriculture " . 355 1-92
WOd goose wheat. See Alaska wheat.
Wisconsin rocks, road-building, physical tests 370 95-99
"Witches* brooms,*' formation on conifers, effect on host, etc 360 13-20
Woodlands, Porto Rico, types 354 25-34
Wood-working, industry in Porto Rico 354 45-46
WooTON, E. O., bulletin on "Carrying capacity of grazing ranges in
southern Arizona" 367 1-40
Wyoming rocks, road-building, physical tests 370 99
\^... ...lU... -
bleaching fumigated and uiifumigated product^ tests 266 10
tensile strength, tests of fumigated and nonfumigated 366 5-7, 10
Yams, cotton —
bleaching a ualities, tests and comparisons 359 13-14
dyeing qualities, tests and comparisons 359 14-15
mercerizing qualities, tests and comparisons 359 15-16
tensile strength, comparison of Arizona-Egyptian with Sea Island
and Sakellaridis Egyptian 359 7-11,18
K
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
/' /. >■••,
'^
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 351
Contribadon from the Bureaa of Entomolo^
L. O. HOWARD. Chief
Washington, D. C.
PROFESSIONAL PAPER
April 22, 19ie
THE TERRAPIN SCALE:
AN IMPORTANT INSECT ENEMY OF
PEACH ORCHARDS
By
F. L. SIMANTON, Entomological Assistant, Dedduons Fruit
Insect Investigations
CONTENTS
latTodmeHkam . . • .
HisUNT ......
Diatribatipn . . . .
Ecoaomlc Importance
inJ«y
FtodPteiitA . . . .
UfeHialory . . . .
SeaMoal Hlitorr • <
MortaUky
Page
. 1
2
2
3
. 8
4
4
. 61
. 61
Page
Attendsnis 62
Predaceoua Enemies • 63
Paradtes 65
Sooty Molds 66
Remedial Measures 67
Summary 86
Recommendations for Control .... 89
BibUography 90
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1916
Digitized byCjOOQlC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 351
L. O. HOWABD, CMef.
Wadibiirtom D. C.
PROFESSIONAL PAPER.
April 22, 19ie
THE TERRAPIN SCALE: ^ AN IMPORTANT INSECT
ENEMY OF PEACH ORCHARDS.
By F. L. SiMANTON, Entomological Assistant ^ Decidwms Fruit Inm/A Investtgatiom,
CONTENTS.
Page.
iDtrodaetkni 1
History 2
Dirtribution. 2
Eeonomic importance 3
Injury 3
Food phots 4
LiithJstory 4
SeaMsial history 61
Mortality 61
Page.
Attendants 62
Predaceous enemieB 63
Parasites 66
Sooty molds 66
Remedial measures 67
Summary 86
Recommendations for controt 89
BibUograpliy W
INTRODUCTION.
For several years the terrapin scale, EuUcaniu mnigrofasciaium Per-
gande, has been increasing in abundance in certain localities in the
eastern United States, and complaints have recently come to the
Bureau of Entomology from orchardists in numerous localities within
the Appalachian peach belt of severe injury to peaches, and of inability
to control the insect with the materials commonly used.
In order to investigate the insect under favorable conditions the
Office of Deciduous Fruit Insect Investigations of the Bureau of
Entomology maintained afield laboratory during the seasons of 1912
and 1913 at Mont Alto, Pa., which is well within the limits of the
badly inf^ted area. The following pages contain a record of
the life-history studies made, together with a short historical account
of the specie. A detailed account is also given of its habits and of
the remedi^ that have been devised for its control.
The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance of Dr. A. L.
Quaintance, under whose direction this investigation was conducted,
and to thank Messrs. D. M. Wertz and Aaron Newcomer for the use
of their orchards and spraying machinery.
1 Euleeanium nigrofiuciatum Pergande.
20782"— BolL 361—16
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
2 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPAKTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
HISTORY. *
The terrapin scale, Evlecanium nigrofasdaium Pergande, is a
native species which came to the notice of economic entomologists
about 1870. Mr. Theodore Pergande, of the Bureau of Entomology,
observed it as early as 1872. It was then believed to be the Euro-
pean scale Lecanium persicae Fab., an insect of similar habits. The
publications prior to 1898, for the most part, refer to it under the
latter name. Miss Mary E. Murtfeldt was the first writer to treat
of this insect at any length. She observed it in 1893, at Bjrkwood,
Mo., but did not completely work out its life history. Her observa-
tions are recorded in Bulletin 32 [old series] of the Division of Ento-
mology, United States Department of Agricidture (1893), imder the
name Lecanium persicae Fab.
Dr. L. O. Howard treated this species in the Yearbook of the
United States Department of Agriculture for 1894 under the name
Lecanium persicae Modeer, and there figured it for the first time.
Mr. Theodore Pergande became convinced that this lecanium was
distinct from L. persicae Fab., and described it in Bulletin 18 [new
series], Division of Entomology, United States Department of Agri-
culture (1898), as Lecanium nigrofasciaium, new species.
Since about 1898 the terrapin scale has gradually assumed more
and more importance as an enemy of the peach, until now it is feared
by the peach growers of Maryland and Pennsylvania more than any
other species of scale insect. Most of the States east of the one
hundredth meridian have mentioned this pest in their entomological
publications during the last 10 years. At the present time it appears
to be most abundant in portions of Maryland and Pennsylvania.
DISTRIBUTION.
There are no indications that the terrapin scale occurs outside of
North America. It is at present, for the most part, confined to the
humid area of the Austral Region, but there is danger that it may
idtimately invade western peach orchards, especially those in the
Austral Zones. This species has been tal^en in New Mexico and is
doubtfully reported from southwestern (Colorado, but, so far as knovm,
it does not now occur in the other Western States. It has a slight
foothold in Ontario Province, Canada, mostly upon maple. At the
present time considerably more than one-half of all the known infes- ,
tations are foimd in Pennsylvania and Maryland. (See fig. 1.)
In general this scale has advanced into the region of its principal
food plants, having spread through the peach belt of the Eastern
United States, and progressed northward beyond this belt by attack-
ing ornamental trees, of which the maples and sycamores seem to be
its favorite hosts. It has also extended its range in the Southwest
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TERRAPIN SCALE.
3
by attacking the mistletoe, upon which it thrives very well. It will
undoubtedly spread considerably beyond its present range by ad-
vancing farther into the territory of its chief host plants. Those
regions in which the peach, the plum, the maple, the sycamore, and
the mistletoe are abundant probably oflFer suitable conditions for its
growth.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE.
The terrapin- scale, in its range and importance, ranks easily as
second among the scale pests of the peach, and while not so prohfic
and not so injurious as the San Jose scale, Aspidiotus pemidosys
( i ^"""^T^^-J —
~\
-A
~-7^
p.
^
1* * • /
\ -n
\-
\
K^
..^
VlVJ.-^—
•-->
1 \ •<
4^
•\ r
J
.i-JC
riG. I. — DistnTmtion in the United States of the terrapin scale {Eulecanium nigrofasciatum). (Original.)
Comstock, it is even more of a nuisance, owing to the difficulty met
with in its control,
INJURY.
This insect causes injury first, hy sucking the sap from the trees,
and second, by covering the fniit, loaves, and branches with a sweet
sticky fluid known as honey dew.
The injury to the trees from the loss of sap taken by the scale is
considerable in badly infested orchards, but is small in comparison
with the damage resulting from the deposit of honeydew. This
deposit, while objectionable, would not cause serious injury were it
not for a black or sooty fungus which grows abimdantly in the
honeydew whenever this is present. On trees which are badly
I infested with the scale the fruit soon becomes covered with a black
I sticky coat which makes it almost unsalable, as it is nearly all classed
■ i0 culls and is sold accordingly.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
4 BULLETIN a51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
FOOD PLANTS.
Evlecanium nigrofasciatum attacks more than 30 species of plants.
It becomes abundant, however, upon only a comparatively few of
these. Its preference for its principal food plants is about in the
following order: Peach, plum, maple, cherry, sycamore, mistletoe.
The following list includes all of the host plants known to the
author:
Acer psewdoplaUmus L. Sycamore maple.
Acer aaccharinum L. Silver maple.
Acer saccharum Marsh. Sugar or rock
maple.
AmygdaluB persica L. and var. Peach
and nectarine.
Benzoin aestivale (L.) Nees. "Bpice-bush.
Betula sp. Birch.
Bumelia angustifolia Nutt . Saffron plum .
Castanea dentata (Marsh . ) Borkh . Chest-
nut.
Cerds oanadentU L. Red-bud.
Chaenomeles japonica Lindl. Japan
quince.
Clematis sp. Clematis.
Crataegus oxyacantha L. Hawthorn.
Crataegus. Most species.
Cydonia oblonga Mill. Quince.
Elaeagnus angustifolia L. Oleaster.
Euonymus atropurpureus Jacq. Wahoo
or burning bush.
Fraxinus sp. Ash.
Ilex opaca Ait. American or white holly.
Magnolia virginiana L. Sweet bay.
Melia azedarack L. Wild China-tree.
Morus spp. Mulberry.
Nerium oleander L'. Oleander. Rose
bay.
Ollea sp. Olive.
Padus sp. Wild cherry.
Phoradendron sp. Mistletoe.
Platanus ocddentalis L. Sycamore or
plane-tree.
Platanus orientalis L. European plane-
tree.
Populus deltoides Marsh. Cottonwood.
Prunvji sinconii Carr. Simon or apricot
plum.
Prunus spp. Cultivated and wild cher-
ries and plums.
Pyrus communis L. Pear.
Pyrus mains (L.) Britton. Apple.
Quercus virginiana Mill. Live oak.
Ribes sp. Gooseberry.
Rosa spp. Roses.
Salix babylonica L. " Weeping willow.
Salix spp. Willows.
Sapindus marginatus Willd. Soapberry.
Tilia sp. Linden or basswood.
Umbelliferae. One species.
Vaccinium spp. Blueberries.
VUis vinifera L. European grape.
VUis spp.
LIFE HISTORY.
MATURING OF FEMALES IN SPRING.
Hibernation is terminated by weather conditions. The conditions
that cause the peach buds to open also bring this lecanium to the end
of hibernation. At Mont Alto, Pa., in 1913, hibernation ended about
April 1, at which time many blossoms were ready to burst. From
April 1 to May 1 growth was rapid. From May 1 to May 16 it vras
comparatively slow. At the latter date the advanced females
reached their maximum size, which they retained imtil the p>eriod of
reproduction was nearly over. All the females had reached maturity
by June 10. Table I shows the minimum, maximum, and average
sizes of 414 specimens measured during the spring development and
the reproduction periods of 1912 and 1913 at Mont Alto, Pa.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TEBRAPIN SCALE. 5
This material was taken from vigorous trees. Twigs containing
about 200 specimens were cut to secure material for each measure-
mmt. To overcome the natural variation in size the 60 largest speci-
mens were removed from the twigs and the largest of these taken
each time for measuring. These measurements show the following
maxima:
Length, May 16, 1912 3.7 mm.
Mdth, May 30, 1912 3.35 mm.
Height, May 24, 1913 1.60 mm.
Table I. — Measurements showing growth of 4U females of the terrapin scale during the
spring development^ Mont Alto, Pa., 1912 and 191S.
Date.
Num-
ber of
speci-
Length.
Mini-
mum.
Maxi-
mum.
Aver-
age.
width.
Mini-
mum.
Maxi-
mum.
Aver-
age.
Height.
Mini-
mum.
Maxi-
mum.
Aver-
age.
F^. 24, 1913.
Mar. 3B, 1913.
Apr. g, 1913..
Apr. 10, 1912.
Apr. 11. 1912.
Apr. 16, 1912.
Apr. 17, 1913.
Apr. 19, 1912.
Apr. 22, 1912.
Apr. 33. 1913.
Apr. 96, 1912.
.ipr.2S,19ia.
Apr. 30, 1913.
May 6, 1912..
May 7, 1913..
May 10, 1913.
May 16, 1912.
Mayl6,19U.
May 23, 1913.
May 94,1913.
May 30. 1912.
May 31, 1913.
Jams. 1913.
Jim 5. 1912.
JT»e7. 19U. .
ioM30,1913
lone 2», 1912.
Total..
Mm,
1.80
1.726
1.825
1.81
1.85
1.6
1.87
2.05
1.7
3.24
1.975
2.613
2.706
2.5
2.803
2.8
2.65
2.94
2.8
2.8
2.6
2.983
2.893
3.05
2.8
2.52
2.6
Mm.
2.875
2.053
2.31
2.2
1.9
2.55
2.53
2.7
2.3
2.98
2.925
3.427
8.042
Z975
3.22
3.266
3.7
3.621
3.38
3.36
3.525
3.453
3.593
3.5
3.36
3.173
3.06
Mm.
2.076
1.891
2.114
1.995
1.88
1.926
2.195
2.372
2.057
2.576
3.314
2.866
2.94
2.666
8.024
3.021
3.127
3.204
3.046
3.170
3.217
3.177
8.113
8.275
3.102
2.947
2.887
Mm.
1.8
1.683
1.87
1.75
1.8
1.5
1.842
2.1
1.6
1.82
1.726
2.24
2.473
2.3
2.501
2.52
2.65
2.52
2.61
2.706
2.7
2.613
2.613
2.5
2.66
2.426
2.7
Mm.
2.275
2.146
3.255
2.2
1.0
2.85
2.365
2.375
2.25
2.613
2.625
3.033
2.94
2.675
2.803
2.893
8.3
3.173
3.22
3.266
8.35
2.986
8.08
8.1
3.22
2.986
3.30
Mm.
2.030
1.758
2.060
1.905
1.833
1.828
2.037
2.302
1.900
2.298
2.200
2.566
2.721
2.458
2.639
2.674
2.94
2.951
2.861
2.950
3.067
2.UA
2.811
2.8
2.885
2.717
2.85
Mm.
0.725
.65
.73
.8
.865
.825
.85
.925
1.00
1.00
1.2
1.05
1.225
1.15
1.225
1.07
1.20
1.20
1.325
1.275
1.22
1.075
Mm.
1.10
.975
1.15
1.1
1.00
1.225
1.275
1.3
1.25
1.60
1.50
1.19
1.475
1.60
1.43
1.49
1.55
1.375
1.525
1.525
1.5
Mm.
0.908
.741
.854
.949
.953
.922
.995
1.118
1.165
1.437
1.343
1.317
1.365
1.333
1.435
1.352
1.319
1.392
1.35
1.383
1.384
1.282
It is doubtful whether individuals ever are lai^e enough to have
an the above measurements, since excessive size in one dimension is
accompanied by a smaller size in the other dimensions.
The date of greatest average measurements of the same 414 speci-
mens are:
Mm.
Kay 30, 1912, length (7 spedmeiifl) 3.217
Hay 30, 1912, width (7 specimens) 3.067
May 6, 1912, hei^t (6 specimens) 1.437
It is evident from these data that the females reach their maximmn
fiize between the middle of May and the end of the first week in June.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
6
BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TPE EMBRYO.
The terrapin scale is viviparous. Authors making reference in
literature to the eggs of this insect undoubtedly referred to the
embryos, which probably were mistaken for eggs. Undeveloped eggs
are present in some specimens in the fall before hibernation. Dis-
sections made September 9, 1913, showed a pair of very small race-
mose ovaries containing a few imdeveloped eggs located to the right
and left of the aUmentary canal, and a small, globular, brown-
colored receptaculum seminis attached to the vagina. Dr. Quain-
tance has observed eggs in hibernating females from Winchester,
Va., as early as January 19. The writer has taken rudimentary eggs
at various times during the hibernating period. With the renewal
of growth in the spring there is a rapid increase in both the number
and size of the eggs. The average size of four embryos at birth was
as follows: Length, 0.3437 mm.; width, 0.1625 mm.
The data in Table II were taken from the largest embryos obtained
at each dissection. Some of these were nearly full size by May 16,
although it was not until the first week in June that the eyespots
and segments became prominent.
Table II.
-Measitrements of developing embryos of the terrapin scale, taken by dissection,
1913.
Date.
Number
ofspeci-
rnens.
Average
length.
Average
diame-
ter.
LocaUty.
May 10...
16...
17...
23...
27...
June28»..
Mm.
0.2986
.3343
.32
.344
.346
.3437
Mm.
a 1754
.1781
.184
.173
.1625
.1625
Mont Alto, Pa.
Do.
Do.
Do.
MWvale, Pa.
Mont Alto, Pa.
1 Measured at birth.
The ovaries remain active and continue to produce eggs as long
as nutriment is supplied to them. They are among the last organs
of the scale to disintegrate.
Table III gives data from dissections during the spring of 1912
and 1913. These counts show that most of the embryos are formed
before the end of May. The greatest number found was 881 on
Jime 4, 1913, and the ovaries of the parent scale were still active.
It is evident from this that vigorous females may produce as many
as 900 embryos. The oldest embryos are far advanced by Jimo 6,
and they are mature by June 15, at which time the eyes, the apj>en-
dages, and the abdominal segments were clearly seen through the
membrane.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TEBBAPIN SCALE. 7
Table III. — Rudimtntary eggs and embryos from developiruf females of the terrapin
scale, taken at Mont Alto, Pa., during the seasons o/l912 and 191 S.
Dateofdlsseo-
ticm.
Females
dissected
on given
dates.
I^irge
embryos.
Rudi-
mentary
eggs.
Dateofdisseo-
ti<Hl.
Females
dissected
on given
d^.
Large
embryos.
Rudi-
mentary
eggs.
1913.
May 27
May 28.
Do
May 29
Do
May 30
Do
Do
Jane5
Do
Jane6
June7
604
271
297
349
8S6
625
463
673
362
696
824
684
Many.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do?
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Few.
Do.
1912.
Jane 15
Do
1913.
May 16
June4
June7
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
1
2
1
1
1
2
8
4
6
6
747
611
632
881
734
758
689
785
663
598
Few.
Many.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
The data given in Table IV show the number of embryos pro-
duced by 13 normal scales during the season of 1912. These data
were obtained by isolating the individual scales with tree tangle-
foot and taking the daily emergence. When these scales loosened
at the end of their reproductive periods they were removed and
dissected. The average number of embryos per scale was 406.34.
In this experiment approximately 60 per cent of the embryos that
formed appeared as migrating larvse.
Table IV. — Record of progeny and embryos from IS parent terrapin scales, season of
1912, at Mont Alto, Pa,
No.
Date of
dissec-
tion.
Number
of em-
bryos,
emerging
as larvae.
Embryos
tion.
Total
embryos.
Condition of embryos
removed by dissec-
tion.
Condition of scale
when taken for dis-
section.
1
1912.
July 12
15
3
15
15
10
15
12
15
15
15
15
15
142
180
214
245
189
137
119
303
220
168
187
349
291
451
60
204
218
192
37
150
326
195
138
22
193
343
593
249
418
463
381
174
269
629
415
306
209
542
634
One-third dead
Mostly dead
Loose and exhausted.
2
Do.
3
do
Do.
4
do
do
All dead
Nearly exhausted.
Exhausted.
5
C
Do.
do
Do.
gl
One-fourth dead
Mostly dead
Black; neariy ox*
hausted.
Nearly exhausted.
Exhausted.
9
It
All dead
U,
do
Do.
12
do
do
Do.
o.
Do.
Total ...
2,753
2,629
5,282
1
It will be noticed from Table IV that most of these scales were
removed for dissection upon July 15. These scales were among the
most advanced in the orchard. Their exhaustion in the middle of
July does not therefore represent the end of reproduction in the
orchard, which came much later.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
8 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
BDEtTH OF THE TERRAPIN SCALE, AS OBSERVED AT MONT ALTO, PA^ IN If IS.
The following data were obtained by observing 50 scales which
gave birth to 3,000 young during the period of 4 days, June 22 to
June 26, 1913:
The young are brought forth as embryos, usually inside of a sao or
amniotic membrane. The vaginal passage of the mother offers con-
siderable resistance to the passage of the first young of the season, as
they are very tui^d or swollen, and the amniotic sac is nearly always
ruptured, allowing the embryo to escape. This is the only time when
they are bom free, as later in the season the embryonic sao comes
through imbroken. Toward the end of the season the larvse, after
birth, may remain as long as 8 minutes in the embryonic membrane,
but the time is seldom more than 4 minutes. The embryos have an
average length of 0.36 mm., and a transverse diameter averaging 0.18
mm. (PI. I, fig. 1,6.)
The structure of the larva shows through the amniotic membrane.
The antennae are folded downward and lie parallel along the ventral
siuf ace. The proboscis lies between the antennae and extends along
the midventral line for three-fourths of the length of the body. The
legs lie alongside the antennae and extend beyond them to near the
posterior end of the body. The major apical setae and the anal plates
are folded forward upon the ventral surface of the body. The eyes
show prominently through the membrane. The sides of the body are
rolled slightly inward, so as nearly to enfold the ventral appendages.
When the embryonic membrane bursts the yoimg appears as a wet,
flat larva, which remains motionless for a few minutes, during which
the body imfolds and the appendages assume their normal position.
The cast membranes of the numerous progeny remain and form a
deposit on the floor of the brood chamber. (PI. I, fig. 1, a.) Twenty
minutes after birth the larvae have assumed their characteristic
flatness and are moving about in the brood chamber, where they
remain usually imtil the following day, or even longer if imf avorable
weather conditions prevail.
Observations of birth are difficult. The displacement necessary for
observing this operation loosens the feeding tube and so deprives the
parent of the needed nutriment. It is, therefore, impractical to
make observations covering an extended interval.
At the beginning of reproduction the time between births may be
as short as 2 minutes. As the exhaustion of the parent increases the
interval between births becomes longer, until by the thirtieth day
birth has practically stopped.
Table V gives birth data for 7 larvae from well-exhausted parents,
under favorable conditions. It shows an average interval between
births of 8.5 minutes and the average time per birth as 2.43 minutes.
These birth data can be taken as a good average for the major part
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 351. U. S. D*pt. of AgricuKura.
Plate 1
The Terrapin Scale.
Fio. 1.— Embryos and larvffi as disclosed by removing a female near the end of reproduct ion:
a. Embryos in silu; 6, embryo enlarged; e, area covered by the scale. (EnlargcHl.) Yia. 2.—
First-instar male at the leafward migration. (Greatly enlarged.) Fig. 3.— Leiif-at inched
larva near the end of the first instar: o. Lateral view of the caudal extremity; b, enlargfiiuMit
of the anal plates. (Greatly enlarged.) Fio. 4.— Female at twipward migration (preaily
enlarged): a, Anal cleft (greatly enlarged); 6, enlarged mouth parts; c, ventral view of the
anal plates; d, spiracular spines, more enlarged; e, antenna, more enlarged. Fig. 5.— The
mature female: a, Ventral view; o, dorsal view; c, lateral view. (Enlarged.) (Original.)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TERRAPIN SCAX,E.
9
of the reproductive period. The averages are too long, however, for
the first 3 or 4 days of reproduction.
Tabus V. — Birth data of 7 larvx of the terrapin scale under favorable conditionSy Mont
Alto, Pa.
Females.
Num-
ber of
lanrse.
Temper-
ature
at start.
Embryo
at
<Hlfice.
Birth
com-
pleted.
Time
re-
quired.
Interval
between
births.
Date.
Degree
of ex-
haustion
of the
female.
Atmos-
pheric
conditioDS.
•F.
75
76
76
76
76
76
76
7.14
7.24
7.86
7.16
7.24
7.31
8.07
a.m.
7.17
7.28
7.36
7.18
7.27
7.33
8.09
Minutee,
3
4
1
2
8
2
2
ifhiutes.
1913.
June 24
...do.....
...do
...do
Percent.
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
Favorable.
1
U
8
Do.
I
Do.
n
Do.
n
9
6
...do
...do
...do
Do.
n
Do.
m
Do.
Averace
76
2.43
as
Table VI gives data for 7 larvee from two well-exhausted parents
under rather unfavorable conditions. These data show an average
interval between births of 13.87 minutes. They also show that the
interval varies widely in the case of diflFerent individuals.
Table VI . — Birth data for the terrapin scale under unfavorable conditions, Mont Alto, Pa,,
191S,
FiBoale.
Num-
ber of
larve.
Tem-
iKffe
at
start.
Time
of
birth.
Interval
between
births.
Date.
Degree
of ex-
haustion.
Weather
OGQditions.
L
1
2
3
4
74
74
76
76
0.«l.
7.37
7.43
7.80
8.05
Minutee.
1913.
June 13
...do
...do
...do
Percent.
70
70
70
70
Unfavorable.
6
7
16
Do.
Do.
Do.
AytgMn for tint female . . , . ,
76
9.3
1918.
June 13
...do
...do
n
1
2
3
76
76
76
8.03
8.24
&46
90
90
90
Do.
20.6
20.75
Do.
Do.
76
20.67
13.87
THE TOUNG LARYiC IN THE BROOD CHAMBER.
In the orchard the larv» appear in the brood chambers from 1 to
3 days before any of them emerge. During the time of maximum
emergence most of the larvae remain in the brood chamber only until
the day following birth. If larvae are removed from the brood
chamber by overturning the scales they migrate at once to the leaves.
Even those that have been bom but a few hours do this. The maxi-
mum time during which they can remain in the brood chamber
depends upon their ability to hve without food. Experiments indi-
cate that 4 dayB is the maximum limdt of Hfe for imemei^ed larvae.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
10
BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
After periods of iinf avorable weather lasting from 3 to 5 days dead
young are always found in the brood chambers. Unfavorable
weather up to 3 days duration does not seem to have an unfavorable
effect upon the imemerged larvae.
EMERGENCE.
Unless weather conditions interfere, the emergence starts upon the
second day after the young appear in the brood chambers.
In 1912 a scattered emergence started in the orchard at Mont Alto,
Pa., on June 8, with the first young in the brood chambers on Jime
6. These specimens showed the regular two-day interval between
birth and emergence. The regular emergence did not start until a
week later.
Emergence from 26 isolated females started June 16, and gave
its daily maximum on June 18. Upon June 25, 50 per cent had
emerged, and 75 per cent had emerged July 1. Emergence from
these scales ceased July 17, after 4,273 had emerged. Twenty-nine
specimens in aU were isolated at the start of the forgoing experi-
ment. Data from all these are included in Table VII. Specimens
numbered 12, 16, and 23 were so manifestly abnormal that they were
omitted in calculating the forgoing percentages.
Table VII. — Recovd of 29 isolated females of the terrapin scale during the emergence
period of 1912, at Mont Alto, Pa.
No.
Total
emer-
gence.
Last
larva
emerged.
Scale
loose.
Scale
dropped.
Scale
Embryos
bydis-
seotioD.
Number
dead
embryos.
1
142
121
189
214
245
189
152
137
119
143
303
3
140
88
220
11
124
168
71
187
349
45
1
42
291
144
151
153
125
July 8
July 3
July 9
July 3
July 15
July 13
June 26
July 7
July 15
June 27
July 7
June 21
July 2
July 8
July 12
June 24
July 15
...do
July 12
July 4
July 12
July 6
July 15
July 3
July 16
...do
451-
0
60
204
218
192
One-tbinL
2
All
3
Host.
4
Do.
5
Da
6
July 8
Da
7
June 96
8
July 10
July 10
July 16
37
150
Do.
9
All.
10
June 30
11 .
July 12
July 12
326
One^oiirth.
12.
June 24
July 3
13
14
July 11
July 11
July 15
8
196
AIL
15
Most.
16
July 7
17
July 15
97
138
AH.
18
Da
19
June 24
July 15
July 12
July 15
June 22
July 8
July 6
July 11
July «
July 15
July 8
June 25
20
July 15
...do
22
193
34
Do.
21
Da
22
'iune'26'
...do
Do.
231
24 ...
July 8
July 6
July 8
July 6
145
343
Do.
25
Da
26
July 12
27
July 11
July 11
July 15
July 11
350
148
73
Host.
28
Da
29
July U
Da
Total
4,273
3,383
> Larva of Hjtperanpu binotaia emerged June 24.
Total embryos, 7,656.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TEBBAPIN SCALE.
11
Table VTI gives, in summary, the history of the isolated scales
used in 1912. It shows the ratio between the number of emerged
larvBB and the total niunber of embryos produced, but it does not
show the date of exhaustion of all the scales.
Table Vill gives the detailed emergence of larvae for 29 isolated
females from June 16 to July 15, 1912. At the latter date the scales
were nearly all exhausted and 18 of them had dropped. Only 9
were able to produce young at the tune of removal. The total num-
ber emeiging was 4,273. Scale No. 21 gave 349, the highest munber
of larvae produced by any of these scales.
Tablb VIII. — Daily emergence of larvtefrom the 29 isolated females of the terrapin scale
in Tabk'Vn, Mont Alto, Pa., 1912,
yit\
June,
1912.
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
1
1
1
87
4
21
4
33
21
8
34
7
8
30
45
1
46
9
39
8
6
28
4
12
17
44
5
7
4
9
1
10
8
3
7
10
6
6
15
7
12
3
20
20
9
30
12
6
8
. 20
14
24
1
14
17
11
14
13
2.
*'*3*
6
3
7
4
5
12
18
2
9
3
11
li
7
20
16
24
2
13
4
6
15
1
6
25
9
18
10
13
8
5
10
17
26
26
16
29
1
1
24
12
3
3
4
33
22
2
37
44
8
5.
3
6
1
4
4
71
2
3
8
6
6
3
9
18
12
1
1
9
10
62
110
U
2
3
24
1
15
13
2
50
5
10
"ie*
2
'"%
n
8
26
.....
...„
4
11
5
3
19
16
20
9
4
4
11
27
9
9
1
3
12
8
6
20
14
3
6
14
1
14-
U
3
W..
1
17..
1
7
13
4
22
8
15
20
26
13
10
•*2i'
10
2
2
18
1
6
».. .
15
ao
1
4
6
18
12
20
6
13
1
14
14
2
21
2
80
48
22....
2J1
1
4
39
Sl> .
"i9"
1
6
15
8
2J
"9*
6
1
15
1
7
8
8
2
20
2
15
16
30
368
8
13
7
26
11
6
229
»<
1
32
2
32
n
1
8
14
24
4
10
7
2
21.
27
14
16
21
19
30
295
3
10
1
»...
...
6
Total
9
24
534
2
421
164
261
202
296
194
91
21
1 Dropped Jnne 26.
s Ifypemspta binotata larva em«rf{ed June 24; scale dropped June 25.
9 Loose and removed for dissection July 8.
• Loose and removed for diasection July 6.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
12
BtJLLETiN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUBB.
Table VIII. — Daily emergenty of larvxfrom the t9 isolated females of the terrapin scale
in Table Vll, MorU Alto, Pa,, 19if -Continued.
No.
July, 1012.
To-
1
2
8
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
U
14
15
taL
1
80
2
83
7
21
28
14
10
14
1
8
2
11
4
2
7
6
6
0
19
8
6
141
2
121
3
2
1
1'
11
8
6
189
4
214
6
10
8
8
7
1
3
11
4
8
1
6
8
345
6
1
180
7»
152
8
4
2
2
137
9
9
2
8
8
7
1
1
119
10
143
11
6
6
2
6
2
ao3
12
3
13
1
2
14
146
14
1
9
8R
16
48
6
10
9
8
4
2
4
2
1
220
16
11
17
28
17
6
7
6
4
2
2
8
7
6
1
9
8
-j-
1
1
2
2
3
IM
18
2
168
10
n
20
86
28
2
17
11
8
8
6
9
6
8
.....
24
8
9
6
.....
7
11
0
7
0
4
4
8
8
2
4
1
3
187
21
S40
22
3
45
28*
1
242
2
13
81
28
7
10
17
42
26*
4
12
8
14
6
2
6
4
3
4
4
15
4
2
8
19
6
13
3
6
2
392
26
9
21
8
6
2
'*
144
27
151
28
8
7
2
4
2
8
4
6
153
20
125
Total
380
155
77
88
21
134
48
132
42
20
21
11
8
31
4,273
> Dropped Tone 26.
s Hyperoipis binotata larva emerged Tune 24; scale dropped Juno 25.
* Loose and removed for dl3S(K!tion July 8.
4 Loose and removed for dissection July 6.
The weather was abnormal during the emergence period of 1912.
It was very cold, with a daily maximum below 70® F. from June 13
to 15, inclusive. June 19 was rainy and cold, with the daily maxi-
mum below 60® F. The daily maximum did not go above 70® until
June 22, when it rained. From June 24 to 28, inclusive, the weather
was favorable, except for local showers on June 25 and 27. June 29
and 30 were unfavorable, due to a cold rain and no sun. July 5 also
was a rainy day. The only favorable weather was from July 6 to 11,
inclusive, but it was too late to have an appreciable effect.
The dotted curve on the following emergence graph, figure 2,
shows clearly the effect of these weather conditions. The solid line
shows the curve as it would probably be in favorable weather.
During 1913 a few larvae appeared in the brood chambers at Mont
Alto, Pa., on June 11. The larvae were quite abundant in the brood
chambers on June 12, and emergence started June 13. Thus the
interval between first birth and first emergence was 2 days. The
emergence from the isolated scales also started June 13 and the
maximum daily emergence was June 18. Fifty per cent and the 75
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TERRAPIN SCALE.
13
per cent of emergence came upon Jmie 23 and Jmie 30, respectively.
Emergence ceased September 30, after 12,336 larvse had emerged.
Table IX gives an individual record of the scales observed in 1913,
showing the date of exhaustion. It also shows the effect of the
so
\ BO
•» 70
Vl
40
JUNC JULY
^
r
N
\
V
/
y
J
\
1
1
i
r
SJ
/
\
J
r
%
^
N^-*:^
^Jf-
\
J
^
>
»^
Mr
^
1^
f
'I
J
i A
r
y
^
^
\
>
y
*^
y
-
-
^
^
V
/
p
V
^
r
^.
N^
/
^
seo
S30
4B0
440
^400
^3€0
X
^eso
\ne4o
\£00
teo
i£0
so
40
51
*t
\
\
•
•1
1 1
M
1
TT
ii
1
!i
1 •
J 1
1
\
f
66
i
ao
1 '
1
1
\
n
II
• i
j 1
\
V
'i
e
f
w
1
1
1 1
1 1
1
\
6t
s
1 \
1 '
f
1
l\
r 1
1
1
1 '
• ;
1
\ 1
ft
^
\ 1
si
^
L
b\
«
1
\
ac
a
o
/S
^
f
"S
\
L
j
/€
^
N
S
s
i
\
IS
s
i
34
3S2
1 1
• 1
S
S
S
^
8
1 \
1
\
1 \
1
4|
•l
il
1
« 1
77
\
1
s
4
« 1
•s
1
^
^
k
^?4
1
I
/
I
/
_£
1
f
1^
A
^
Fig. 2.— Emerigeiioe curve for the first 28 days of emergenoe of the terrapin scale, Mont Alto, Pa., 1912.
(Original.)
attack of Hymenoptera and the effect of the predacious beetle
Hyperaspis binoUUa Say, but does not show the total number of
cmbiyos.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
14
BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPABTMENT OP AGBICULTUBE.
Table IX. — Tke emergence from 41 isolated females of the terrapin scale during the emer-
gence period oflBlS. Mont AltOj Pa.
No.
Total
larvs.
Last
larva
eoMrged.
Parent
scale
turned
black.
Knocked
off by
accident.
Scale
looeened.
Scale
dropped.
dead.
1
204
76
494
206
209
233
421
708
458
796
245
663
221
165
53
387
389
192
174
94
394
130
240
114
9
389
267
654
472
309
196
42
76
121
98
464
373
433
391
657
119
July 14
July 1
Aug. 7
July 4
June 29
Aug. SO
Aug. 26
Sept. 19
July 20
Aug. SO
June SO
Sept. 30
July 7
June 28
June 22
July 21
July 7
July 2
June 29
June 24
"^^0 '
July 14
July 21
2
July 21
3
Aug. 27
4
July 4
July 4
July 10
Sept. 30
Sept. 2
Sept. 30
Aug. 15
JuRr'si
Aug*. 1
June 28
July 11
Jane 30
5
6. . ..
8ejft.6
Sept. 1
Aug. 28
Sept. 20
July 2
7
8
9
10
Sept. 2
Sept. 1
Ill
July 1
Oct. 11
12
13«
July 8
June 28
14
June 22
...do
15
June 22
16»
Aug. 7
Aug. 1
July 18
July 1
June 22
174
Aug. 1
July 18
July 1
July 21
July 18
July 11
July 18
18*
19
20>»
June 15
21«
July 18
22
July e
July 7
23
July 6
June 20
June 19
July 10
June 28
Aug. 18
Aug. 14
Aug. 1
July 3
June 29
July 2
June 23
June 28
Aug. 7
July 14
July 26
July 6
Sept. 19
July 21
24
Jane 22
25
Jane 21
June 22
July 11
June 29
June 22
26
July 11
June 29
27
28
Aog. 23
29»
Aug. 27
Aug. 2
Aug. 1
July 1
July 3
30
Oct. 11
Aug. 18
July 1
31 »o
32
33
34
Jane 28
35
Jane 28
J^m^ 2S
36
Aug. 27
July 15
Aug. 11
July 17
Sept. 20
July 22
37
38
Aug. 11
Aog. 18
39
40
41
Aug. 23
Total
12,336
1 First instar Rppnaspis binotata emerged from this scale July 1.
> First instar Hyperaapis binotata emer^ from this scale July 14.
* One hymenopterous parasite ( Coccophagtu sp.) emerged from this scale Aug. 7.
* Two hvmenopterous parasites ( Coccoph<uus sp.) emerged from this scale July 16.
» Seven nymenopterous parasites ( Coccophagus sp.) emer^ from this scale July 13.
• First instar Hyper<upi$ binotata emerged from this scale July 5.
"> Three hymenopterous parasites ( Coccophagw sp.) emerged rroi
• Second instar
' Three hymenopterous parasites ( Coccophagw sp.) emerged
» Second instar Hyperaspis binotata emerged from this scale July 1
* First instar Hyperaspia binotata emerged from this scale July 18.
>m this scale July 13.
yperaspis binotata emerged from this scale July 18.
10 First instar aypcra^pit binotata emerged from this soale June 30.
The emergence started June 13 with 18 larvae; the maximum
daily emergence occurred upon June 18, when 1,229 larv» emerged.
This was 5 days after emergence had started. The first half of the
brood (6,168 larvae) completed its emergence upon June 23. This
was the tenth day of emergence. Seventy-five per cent of the brood
(9,250 larvae) had emerged by June 30. This was upon the seven-
teenth day of emergence. The daily emergence was not taken for
the entire period of 1913, but data for the first 22 days, which cover
sUghtly more than three-fourths of the total emergence, are given
in Table X.
Table XI supplements Table X. It carries the emergence throng^
the entire period by weeks. It also gives the date of the end of
emergence for each of the parent scales.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TEBBAPIN SCALE.
15
1
1
1
s
|sS5§SSgSSiSSS3SSSS»SSI2-§S3S§89RS«Ji2iS«
s
i
4
•*
• eoe« |r»^
re«MM
i :^ 1 1 : jeo
MM j •« |^C««4 j
1 I • jiO |«
^
s
i
oo
;eoeo ;t«M
»e«<«oo
: :**
: : : ! r
^le • •« |aoM»4»4
J J I ',^^c%
• »<«
8
2
S
^
e«
^ :«- j^;
sa^*
•fO j
1 jie I.4 1 1^
0000 j jr* j^ JM j
\m \ Jg-^^w© J
3
25
1 •♦-M^eo \to<
1 :
^2*5;
JM !
::*•:: is
|m 1 |t« jci^to •
i i i ia«^<B«o^ :
n
1
•^
S
* ::3* :••
oag»o^«4M 1
: :*• : : :-
j^ j |e* jci^o 1
J |0l«-4f«M«»4
"^
s;
9
»Oao«^»<«0igMO
:«''
: :ar.«« ja
:^ j j-o :a"o«^-
■*2 i i8222««
Is
-3
5
»
ooiego^ i'
'•a^-a^-
i2«aft ja
i« i :2«aa2«»-« :''a**a««
g
I
S«
2SS2««»«-8S22aS'"'-
' jsa-*!; i8
•*§ i isacssa** :**55a«a2«-
g
1
s
•oMooioocoMAieeeioo j-
' !*'' :« : !
• ^ j |r««2«r«t«
• •e«^2coc<<«
R
1
s
ssss**— aaaas8^«
^ ia«a«» :3
^«5 i i«S'-aaa
i i22saa2*-
§
^
^^ «i4
:^-««-g
"«5; : iasssagg
i i ia8a525?2
2
•
JO
83
gj^jHgoogjctj^go^acoc
» jSfSS'- ia
«« j .>«005g«-j^O^-*-2JO««
%
g
a
^"•ss^assjgaa^a-^s;** i ja
22 : :«»«2aa*' i2«»2'-sass-'.
'i
1
s;
S'^^SSaSSoS^lS^^^^^SSSS^g
222 issagsa^
' i i82Si889S
a
s
^^8$ss8s8asa8fcafeg'-«^8
saj; i85i5ia8a'-aa»a5i3ss2
3
>
2
3 :U22«a8S5a2S^S'"S5S''-»''$2S*^8Sg8aa2
: :8^8888^a
i
1
1
2
2'^s2a*-98s&a858aasa22-»258«8asaa&^
- :8''8RSe«a
%
t*
« i82*'-&8S2aSSa22S2«» :
a8^-*a2S»''2
i i^ :j;aa
s
S
a-*-*
s-*saa2*'2a«28^2-« j
2«s«a ia •> i
: i-* : i2a
g
«o
|c«^M jc
ooogco cogger
i : ia i i*
•* J'^p !fH I '» '»w* •
o
?
-♦
•
''9-4
'^ •
: : : :•
M^g,^
' i i i^ i i i
1 |« j^t-4 1 • 1 1
s
'^
jc*« J
: i**'
. . . \ . . ,
1 ...;•• •
i :*• i i i i i i :
X
r
a
a
,
o
S5
«N
««
»^
•OOI
■^oooloj
daa:
;22U2a8c5
^asi^ss^^siads
:38;s^8^^
85
'T
3
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
16 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
S
I
It
S.
n
<
H&S
s-""'as82!3gss'-aaa-''as« .
July 6
June 20
June 19
July 10
June 28
Aug. 18
Aug. 14
Aug. 1
July 3
June 29
July 2
June 23
June 28
Aug. 7
July 14
July 20
July 0
Sept. 19
July 21
hi
eo
«9
^
9*
tM .
«
il
9*
le
-
-
-
-
o» •
2
id
cTT*
s
00
^ ;
*3
It
^
^
»-•
S
•^ J
«
-^g
Si
00
5 j
s
n
o
5g
P:
s
t*
•<9» ;
s
i
n
««g
S
§s
— eo
5 I
a
eo
•^55
^
s
558-
s;
^%
\ :
i
«
S
8"I3
s
s
558*=*
8
^oj>
«
•8
8SS-&
•
a
8S2
3
s^gs-^
§
ti
a»8
SS^SSS
^
s
sa-
2*«o^«
g
s.
OOg-^"
S{cSS;S
««
00 C4
iOiO«*
«
S5!^
222*8-
i
It
gS;SSS?55SSS8gS«
JD$;33
t^ to Oft
^4 ^4 CO
?22|28SS*8
S28g25J2
a
s
«
Sg|2|g|2gSSSSSS|g8S!525SS5
§S2il2S5;gsss§g£S
^'-aSgSSS5SSSg|SS§8S{8SS;SgSf:*5SS5S§5:^«SS&§8Sg$
i
of
r
a"
i-lii§Sl^g§iS§S?g|
Si2"i§55iS^^SS5g§sgS
1
ci
CO
■^'
«d
«
r*
00
oi
2
£3
2
^
2
«
r'
s
S^
S
^
s
^
s
s^
g
eS
ss
i^
S
S
So
ss
9
;^
^9
I
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TERRAPIN SCALE.
17
Table XII gives a summary of these data, with some additional
details from Tables VII and IX. It also compares 13 normal females
from each isolation.
Table XII. — A summoary of the emergence data from Tables VII, VIII, IX, X, and XI.
No.
Year.
Number
orremaks.
Number
oflarvse
emerged.
Average
number
per
female.
Emer-
gence
started.
Maxl-
mum
daUy
gence.
Emer-
genoe,50
per.oent.
Emer-
gence, 76
percent.
Emer-
gence,
100 per
cent.
1912 >..
1913...
rroui26...
\Normall3.
/Total 41...
\Nonnall3.
4,258
2,753
12,336
163.7
211.8
297.95
400.8
June 16
...do....
June 13
...do....
June 18
...do....
...do....
...do.-..
June 25
...do....
June 23
June 24
July 1
...do....
June 29
July 10
Julv 15
Do.
Sept. 30
5,211
.Ml females on twigs were dissected July 15. The isolated females in 1912 had all stopped producing
by July 15.
/3 00
/eoo
//oo
/ooo
M 900
5
^ aoo
700
eoo
S soo
^ ^oo
300
aoo
/oo
/?.
"r
I
9/
/I
/ 1
i9
?
N A/
%
1
il
% 1
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1 1
\
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
\
1
\
73
0
...-
i
5r
S
1
1
S
/^
1
\
ss
.'1
5€
^
I
— r
. 1
s
1
1
1
1
1
\
1
V
1
1
/
??
>
1
1 {
\
\
37
s
3/
7
i
\
1 1
s
s
/
W
/7
€
/
TS
K
y
>.
i
St
V
-•«
^
j^
r
3
66
^
Fxs. S.—Emergence curve for the terrapin scale; first 22 days of emergence, Jane 13 to July 4, inclusive,
Mont Alto, Pa., 1913. (Original.)
20782**— Bull. 351—16 2
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
18
BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The 1912 emergence was shortened by the drying of the twigs to
which the females were attached. This was due to the method of
isolation. This difficulty was overcome in the 1913 record.
The larvsB of Hyperaspis hinotata Say were more destructive in 19 13
than in 1912, but on the whole both records are very true to the
conditions prevailing in the orchard during tlie respective seasons.
For convenience in comparison and abo to show the effect of
weather conditions upon this emergence, two graphs, figures 3 and 4,
AS
JUNC
f 2
1 4-
JUL
tt-/7
3
r
^'3t
7
9
AUi
9't4
S
/O
r
//
.1,
19
SCP
s-//
*3
r/TM
f9-£S
/s
/s
7Gr
3'S
^9 CO
jfi
r/4
^SSO —
3'
JQ^O
_ . I'
3SOO —
#- .
4 3fSO
f
o 2800
Li
1
Cv S^SO
1
\
5 ^/^O
\B3t
^
\
/ OSO ♦
\
\S
V
9 vo i\
3si\
V
X
560
387
373
B7
^
^
^
7 i
gfjg
4_
fS
8
3
Fig. 4.— Curve of the leafward migration of the terrapin scale for the total emergence period of 1913.
(Original.)
are appended. Figure 3 has a solid line added. This represents the
weather correction for the curve. In figure 4, where the curve is
determined from weekly observations, very little irregularity, due to
the daily weather conditions, appears.
The emergence period of 1913 was moderately favorable. The
temperature was high and the storms were of short duration. On
June 19, 22, and 26 rain checked the emergence, but the larvaEi
merely remained in the brood chambers over night and emerged od
the following day.
The graph of total emergence by weeks during 1913 (fig. 4) shows
a very uniform curve. From the graph it appears that the major por-
tion of the young emerged during the first three weeks of the period.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TERBAPIN SCALE.
19
LEAFWARD MIGRATION.
The migration to the leaves begins immediately after emergence.
The larvae start emerging usually about 10 a. m., or even earlier if
the temperature is high, and by 3 p. m. the daily migration has
nearly ceased. At Mont Alto, Pa., during the noon hours of June 15
to 20, the branches of infested trees were swarming with countless
numbers of migrating larvae. During the leafward migration the
larvae axe strongly phototropic and negatively geotropic. The time
required for an individual to make this mi-
gration and to take its position upon the
leaf is remarkably short.
Two hours is about the average time from
emei^nce to the completion of the migra-
tion. Many reach the leaves and attach in
less than an hour, but others, specially those
that have ascended dead branches, may con-
tinue to move about for several days if a
suitable leaf is not found sooner.
It is very unusual for the larvae to relocate
when they have once taken position upon a
leaf, though they do this when the leaf loses
its vigor. The larvae, except in rare and
unusual cases, attach to the underside of the
leaves, mostly alongside and parallel to the
midrib, or the larger veins. (Fig. 5.)
Larvae usually attach to the first avail-
able leaves. The basal leaves upon an
infested branch are always more heavily
infested than those farther up. A sticky
secretion upon the very yoimg leaves repels
the young larvae and prevents them from
attaching. The wooly coat of the fruit pro-
tects it from larvae. Larvae frequently crowd
upon the fruit, but in their struggles to free themselves from the fuzz
they invariably fall to the groimd.
The rate of migration varies with the temperature and the surface
upon which the larvae are placed. Table XIII gives the rate per
hour, time, temperature, and the distance traveled by five migrating
knr» of the first instar upon smoked wrapping paper. The average
temperatm'e in this experiment was very favorable, being 87° F.
Tlie rate per hom* was very low, owing to the annoyance caused
Fig. 5.— Peach leaf with attached
larvtf) of the terrapin scale.
(Original.)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
20
BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPAKTMENT OF AGEICULTUBE.
the larvae by the fine soot deposit upon the smoked paper. The dis-
tance traveled varied from 97.7 cm. to 175.8 cm. Figure 6 shows a
tracing made by four of the above-mentioned larvse.
Table XIII. — Record of travel of five Jirst-instar terrapin-scale larvae on smoked paper,
Oct 9, 1912, Mont Alto, Pa.
No.
Start
End.
Time.
Distance.
Rate per
hoiir.
Avcra^
teiiq>cr-
ature.
1
9.26 a.m..
9.26 a.m..
11.20 a.m.
10.08 a. m.
9.26 a.m..
2p. m
3.15 p. m..
2p. m
2t). m
2.50 p.m..
Hts, Mn.
4 34
5 49
2 40
3 52
5 24
Cm.
113.7
175.8
97.7
90.6
161.7
Cm,
26.54
26.596
36. &4
25.76
29.94
S7
2
86
3
80
4
5
87
S6.7
Average
29.095
S7
The larvae are so small that they leave no trace when movbig over
the finest soot deposit. The deposit, moreover, retards them. In
moving they are constantly exploring the surface with their antennsBy
and these soon become coated with soot particles. When this hap-
pens the insect halts until the antennae are cleaned. (For compari-
son with the rate of progress upon smooth, unsmoked pap^, see
Table XIV.)
A single larva that emerged at 12.10 p. m traveled, when placed
upon plain wrapping paper, 826 cm. during the 3 hours and 20 min-
utes in which it was under observation. This larva traveled con-
stantly after the first interval, and its speed was about eight times
that of larvae on sooted paper. Figure 7 shows a tracing made of
this larva.
Table XIV. — Record of the travel of a newly emerged larva of the terrapin scale on plain
urapping paper, July 10, 1912, Mont Alto, Pa.
Time of observa-
tion.
Tempera-
ture.
Total dis-
tance.
Interval
distance.
Rate per
hour.
Average
tenqMra-
ture.
12.10p.m
12.25 p. m
1 p. m
86
86
86
86
86
87.5
87.5
Cm,
Cm,
Cm.
•F.
35.3
184.4
239.3
298.3
473.4
557.2
826
35.3
149.1
44.9
59
175.1
83.8
188
141.2
255.6
179.6
236
262.65
251.4
282
86
86
86
86
86.75
87.76
88
1.15 p. m
1.30 p. m
2.10 p. m
2.30 p. ra
3.30 p. m
Average
1 1
231.356
86.9
\ 1
In 1912 three experiments were performed to determine the longev-
ity of the leaf ward migrants when they were unable to reach, the
loaves. The data from these experiments are recorded in Table
XV, and summarized in Tables XVI and XVII. They show that
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TEBBAPTN SCALE.
21
flie migrating larvae can live from 2 to 3 days. More than 78 per
cmi of the larvae died upon the second day, and the mortality of the
remtunder was about equally divided between the first and third day.
It was apparent that the third day was of very little value to the
IwT® as they were in a state of coUapse.
Table XV. — Longevity of larvse of the terrapin scale at the leafward migration.
No.
Nmn-
berof
brvse
used.
Time of start.
TimeoffloJsh.
Surface.
Time of observatloD.
Num-
ber of
lame
dead.
r
3
125
13
July 2, 9 a. m. .
July 7, 12 noon.
July 4, 8.30
a. nu
July 4, 1p.m...
July 10, 3.30 p. m-
July«, 8.30 a.m..
Dead peach twig..
Exterior surface
of test tube over
water.
Inner surf^koe of
test tul)e over
wato*.
July2, 9 a. m
0
July 8, 0 a. m
0
July4, 9 a. m
2
July 4, 1 p. m
3
n
July7,Uiioon
July 8, 8 a. m
0
10
m
Jmy9, 7.30 a. m
July 9, 12 noon
July 10,8 a. m
July 10, 3.30 p.m.
July 4, 8.30a. m
July 4, 3 p. m
108
110
122
125
0
0
July 6, 8.30 a. m
July 5, 4 p. m
5
7
July 5,9 p. m
7
July 6, 8.30 a. m
13
Table ICVl. — Daily mortality of larvse. of the terrapin scale from data in Table XV.
Day of death.
Experi-
ment I.
Experi-
ment n.
Experi-
ment m.
Dead,by
days.
Perotet
dead, by
days.
Ffcu..
0
10
5
8
0
15
110
10
10.03
Swrnd
2' 100
1| 15
78.01
ThW.-
1L34
Tflf ^ _ . .
3 125
13
141
90.98
The summary in Table XVII shows that the average longevity for
the three experiments was 2 days 9^ hours and the maximum longev-
ity 3 days.
Table XVII. — Maximum longevity of migrating larvse of the terrapin scale from
experiments given in Table XV.
Experiment.
Number of
specimens.
Longest life.
ATera^e.,
3
125
13
2 days 4 hours.
3 days.
2 days.
2 days 9J hours.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
22
BTLLRTTN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The Lkakwart) Mic.ration as a Factok in the Spread of tuk Terrapim Scai-f:.
The leafward migration is a strong element in the spread of the
scale over the branches of infested trees, but it is not directly effective
in spreading it from tree to tree unless the trees are in actual contact.
Indirectly it is one of the strongest factors in the spread of the
scale. Tlie young lan-a? are not readily displaced by wind, but
they sometimes drop purposely
from dead twigs, especially "when
tliey have reached the tips with-
out finding foliage. Such larvae
may fall upon foliage lower down
or drift in air currents to foliage
on adj acen t trees. Most of them,
however, perish on the ground.
During windy days particles of
bark and loosened leavers are car-
ried by the wind. That wind is
a prominent factor in the local
spread is indicated by the fact
that infestations travel through
orchards hi the direction of the
prevailing wind. Thimderstonns
sometimes come so suddenly that
tlie young migrants are washed
from the twigs before they have
reached the leaves. This seldom
happens, because the yoimg do
not ordinarily emerge when the
himiidity is high. The migrants,
when displaced by rain, will float
for some distance, especially if ac-
companied by particles of bark
or other debris.
The spread, except as indicat-
ed , requires the aid of some trans-
porting agent. The migrathig
larvffi cling readUy to hairs, to feathers, and to other small ob-
jects. WhUe the author has never taken insects with the larvae
attached, he has placed specimens of Brochymena upon branches
covered vrith migrating young, with the result that the larv»
were soon clinging to their legs. Feathers touched lightly to
the same branches were chisped by the moving yoimg. A pair
of cloth gloves placed for 10 minutes upon a branch had 20
larvae upon them when removed. This last observation indi-
£A/D
STAPT^TART
START
START
Fro. 6.— TniciiiRof four youiiK terrapin scales diiriuj;
the leafward migration. Keduoed H times. Tem-
perature, H7° F. A vemKo rate \wt hour, 29.095 cm.
(Oripinal.)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TEBBAPIN SCALE.
23
^AfD
cates that orchard workers during the migrating period might unwit-
tingly aid in the dispersal of this pest.
It is possible for larvae of the first instar which have attached
themsdyes to leaves to be transferred to other trees, as the following
experiment shows. Thirty larvae that had loosened themselves
from a wilting leaf were placed on the fohage of another tree July
22 at 2 p. m. The first
of these was foimd at-
tached Jidy 23 at 8 a. m.,
and all of them were at-
tached by July 24 at 8
a. m.
Dispersal may occur at
ihis period in at least
four ways:
(1) By dropping of lar-
vae from dead branches,
fruit, etc.
(2) By wind transpor-
tation.
(3) Through transpor-
tation by storm water.
(4) By animate agents
(msects, birds, orchard
workers, etc.).
Mortality Dubing Migra-
tion.
PracticaUy all of the
emerged young make a
successful migration.
TTie only exceptions are
in cases where the larvae
stray upon dead branches
or the fruit and are imable
to return and in the case
of those destroyed by the occasional attacks of predatory enemies.
Tlie mortality at this time is indicated by the small nimiber of larv»
that fail to attach themselves to the leaves. Of the 12,336 larvae
that migrated in 1913 from the isolated scales, all but 15 successfully
attached to the underside of leaves. The mortaUty upon the average
orchard tree is sUghtly higher than is shown in the case of these
isolated larvae.
START
Fio. 7.— Tracings of a young terrapin scale for the first 3 hours
and ao minutes of the leafward migration. Reduced 8 times.
Temperature, 86.90* F. (Original.)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
24 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Size op the LARViB at Time of Migration.
The size of the larvae varies. Strong females produce larger
young than weak ones. The larvae are largest at the beginnuxg of
reproduction. They gradually become smaller as the season advances.
Measurements made in June, 1913, of 10 larvae give the following
results: Length, maximum 0.475 mm., minimum 0.41 mm., average
44 mm.; width, maximum 0.26 mm., minimum 0.20 mm., average
0.23 mm.
Description op the Migrating LARViE.
The distinguishing characteristics of the leaf migrant are: Average
length, 0.43 mm.; average width, 0.23 mm.; color, pale translucent
yellow, with reddish brown eye-spots; body very flat and oblong;
antennae with six joints; feeding tube internal and folded midway
upon itself. (PI. I, fig. 2, p. 8.) The anal plates have each a single
major apical seta 0.2 mm. in length. The plates have their distal
ends just reaching to the tips of the body lobes. These plates are
held in a relaxed position, that is, with their adjacent edges forming
an acute angle. The terminal anal plates, together with the folded
feeding tube, are reliable characters for identifying the leafward
migrant.
LEAF-ATTACHED LARVyE. FIRST INSTAR.
The larvae emei^e, make their migration, and attach to the leaves
during the second day after birth, but take no food until after attach-
ing to the leaf. Death by starvation and exhaustion results during
the third day after emerging provided an attachment is not made.
It is doubtful whether the larvae can live in the brood chamber more
than 4 or 5 days, and at any rate they would be too weak after the
fourth day to make an effectual effort to reach the leaves. In 1912
there were several periods in which it was cool and wet for four
successive days. After these periods many dead larvae were foimd
m the brood chambers, some chambers becoming so clogged as to
prevent the further escape of young.
The larva, after attaching to the underside of the leaf, retains in
the main its earUer characteristics. The proboscis in thrust into the
leaf tissues. The anal plates, which during the migration were jcbt-
ried with their adjacent edges diverging, are now held in close contact
when in repose. The body lobes, which at attachment were even
with the tips of the anal plates, grow steadily backward and inward
until they meet behind the anal plates. By this growth the anal
plates with their long sota^ arc made to recede from the posterior edge
to a position upon the dorsal surface, as shown in Plate I, figure 3, a, b,
p. 8. A thin, brittle covering of wax appears on the dorsal surface of
the larvje during the latter part of the first iustar. AU leaf-attached
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TERRAI>TN SCALE.
25
larvae that have their anal plates adorned with major apical setae are
in the first instar.
The growth is constant. Both length and width increase in the
same ratio. In the first instar the larvae increase their length and
width about two and one-half times, but they do not noticeably in-
crease their height. Tables XVIII and XIX show the measurements
for a total of 201 larvse at various ages during the first instar. The
data in Table XVIII are from larvae that emerged late in the season
of 1912. They encountered more than the usual amoimt of imfavor-
able weather. The data in Table XIX are from larvae that emerged
in July, 1913, and that had favorable conditions. This table also
shows the percentages in the first and second instars at various ages.
It required about 25 days for larvae emei^ing on August 9, 1912, to
reach their full development (0.9 to 1 mm. long) and to molt for the
first time, while those emerging July 1, 1913, reached this stage on
the sixteenth and sevetiteenth days.
Table XVIII. — Measurements of 91 first-instar larvae during the unfavorable season of
1912, Mont Alto, Pa.
No.
Age.
Number
of speci-
mens.
Average
length.
Avenge
width.
Emerged—
1
Dcys.
0.25
5
6
7
9
12
15
21
22
25
6
5
3
2
14
6
24
12
7
12
Mm.
0.44
.5325
.555
.6046
.6307
.8467
.8968
.931
.9318
.999
Mm.
0.23
.2044
.287
.276
.279
.425
.439
.50
.499
.522
^Ifo.'
2
3
Do.
4 ...
Do.
5
Do.
6.
Do.
Do.
«
Do.
9
Do.
10
Do.
Total
91
Table XIX. — Measurements of 110 first-instar larvse during the favorable season of 191.3 ,
and the percentages of larvx on the trees in the first and second instars.
No.
Age.
Number
ofspeci-
mons.
Averago
length.
Average
width.
Emerged—
Percent
of iarvaj
innrst
instar.
Percent
of iarvjp
in second
instar.
Day».
3
5
8
15
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
22
21
15
19
8
10
5
3
3
3
I
Mm.
0.5176
.555
.7275
.94725
.9025
.9975
.97
.9375
.9916
.925
.975
yfm.
0 2»V59
.2S?3
.39
.52:W
..521875
.62.5
..52
.525
.5116
.525
.55
July 17
...do
July 1
...do
...do
...do
...do
June 26
July 1
Juno 24
Juno 26
July 1
100
100
100
100
80
48
20
10.9
7
10.7
3.2
2
^
i
."i
«
20
52
80
s
89.1
9..
93
li
89.3
11
9fi.S
12
100
Totil
110
...
1
1
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
26
BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTURE.
The second column in each table gives the age in days. This is
calculated from the time the larva? left the brood chamber. Tho
sixth column gives the date upon which the specimens emerged.
There are added to Table XIX two columns of data to show the
percentages of larvae in the first instar and second instar at different
ages. An examination of these columns will show that 50 per cent
of the larva> had passed from the first to the second instar upon the
/iG£ /N DAYS
/
.s
.8
Nl
— .4-
J
97
s
.9
99
y
^
o
96
93
o.,
^9
97
^'
A
/
/.
94
7a
^«
,^
.3
3/
o.
9a
5
s
/
/
^'
*
*
^
as
68
/
i
1
r
f
S^
67
/
•
i
1
.7
?7
56
\
> #
1
f
k
/
f
1
SO
S3
^6
07
,s
ss
J
1
*
*
5
•
SI
J
/
?!
53
as
y
A
*
0
41
%*
_J
_
Fig. 8.— rirowth curves for the first iustar of the terrapin scale. (Original.)
eighteenth day, and that all had left the first instar by the twenty-
fourth day. Eighteen days is the normal time spent in the first
instar by larvae during favorable seasons. Figure 8 shows the deflec-
tion of the growth curve for larvae in the first instar which resulted
from the late emergence during the unfavorable season of 1912, as
compared with the curve for the favorable season of 1913. These
curves are derived from the data in Tables XVIII and XIX. The
curves are similar, but the broken curve shows clearly the effect of
unfavorable weather in 1912 at both the beginning and the end of
the instar.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 27
Length of the First Instar.
The earliest molts were upon the sixteenth day and were observed
during the very favorable weather of June and July, 1913. Eighteen
deys is the average length of the fir8t instar at Mont Alto during fav-
orable years, as shown in Table XVIII, columns 7 and 8. This time
may be nearly doubled by xmf avorable weather. Honeydew is ex-
creted during this instar, but in very small quantities, and is of no
economic importance.
Dispersal op First-Instar liARViB by Leaves.
It is probable that this species is dispersed to some extent by the
transportation of larvsB upon wind-borne leaves during storms. An
experiment performed July 22, 1913, showed that first-instar larvae
can loosen from slowly drying leaves and that they can move about
and reattach to living foliage, so that if infested leaves should lodge
in adjacent trees the latter would undoubtedly become infested.
Sexual Dimorphism in the First Instar.
Thffle are no noticeable indications of sex during this instar,
except in the anal ring. It is possible in some cases to distinguish
the females from the males after the fifteenth day by their increased
width. At this time the length of the females is usually less than
twice their width, while the length of the males is usually greater
than twice their width.
Nearly all specimens are distorted by crowding, or by contact with
the veins of the host (fig. 5), so that this variation in the ratio of
length to width can not be depended upon for distinguishing the sexes.
By dissection, however, they can be distinguished. The anal ring
of the male consists of only six setae, while the anal ring of the female
consists of eight.
The First Molt.
There is no change of position at the first molt. The skin splits
along the back and is worked downward and backward underneath
the body. The last portion to loosen is that about the anal plates.
The major apical setse disappear at this molt; hence the absence of
these is positive evidence that the first molt has passed.
The larv88 stop growing one day before molting and become more
tqwqtie. The time required to make this molt is from 5 to 30 min-
utes, depending upon the weather conditions and the vigor of the
krv». The molt is usually made in the early morning.
Observations made upon 5,000 larvse approximately one-half of
which emerged from June 24 to August 9, 1912, and the others from
Jane 24 to July 1, 1913, show that this molt may take place as early
M the sixteenth day and as late as the twenty-sixth day. The aver-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
28
BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ago age for this molt in 1912 was 20 days, but this period Is longer
than in favorable years. During the favorable season of 1913 a few
specimens from the rearing of July 1 made this molt on the sixteenth
day, but the largest daily molts were from the eighteenth to the
twenty-second day, with the maximum molt upon the eighteenth day.
It is, however, very frequently delayed. Table XX gives details of
the first molt as shown by three rearings in 1913 and by data ob-
tained in orchards in 1912. It will be noticed that in all cas^ molt-
ing started either upon the sixteenth or seventeenth day and that it
terminated in all cases by the twenty-sixth day. The 1913 rearings
all had favorable weather and would undoubtedly all have given
their maximum daily molts upon the eighteenth day had it not been
for a local storm on that date which retarded the natural emergence
for the rearings of June 24 and June 26.
Table XX. — Details of the first molt of the terrapin scale from S rearings in 191S and
from orchard data of 1912.
Datelarvse
emerged.
Age at
start-
ing of
first
molt
Per cent molted at various days specified.
Age at
maxi-
daOy
mdi.
17th.
18th.
19th.
20th.
2l8t.
22d.
26th.
July 1,1913...
June 24, 1913.
June 26. 1913.
Orchard lar-
vae 1912....
Day..
16
16
17
20
2
5
62
80
100
85
100
*"'i66"
22
19
20
40
91
20
0)
60
90
i
1 Blanks represent days upon which no data were taken. It was impoesible to determine, under ordiaid
conditions, the percentage of the total infestation that molted at definite ages.
LEAF-ATTACHED LARY>E, SECOND INSTAR.
The second instar lasts in favorable weather for 18 days and
usually extends from the eighteenth to the thirty-sixth day. In the
orchards about Mont Alto specimens can be taken in this instar at
almost any time after the middle of July. The instar is at its niaxi-
mum from July 20 to August 5. This stage of development is char-
acterized by sexual differentiation, which begins very early in the
instar. The female larvae continue to widen and tend to became
circular in outline, while the males lengthen and tend to become eval.
The male secretes during this instar the characteristic puparium.
This is a waxy scale which forms over the dorsal surface. It is roof-
like and is held in place by elastic strands which extend from points
upon its edges to the surface of the leaf. (PI. II, a, e, p. 52.) It
can be recognized as early as the seventh day, but it does not reach
its full development until the next to the last day of the instar, at
which time growth ceases and the larva shrinks, preparatory to
making the second molt.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TERRAPIN SCALE.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FEMALE.
Female Larva, Second Instar.
29
During the second instar the females mcrease in length fn^n an
average of 1 mm. to an average of 1.6 mm., and in width froBa an
average of 0.525 mm. to 1 mm., but there is very little increase in
h^ht.
Table XXI shows the average measurements of 268 females taken
at frequent intervals during this instar. These females emerged
from June 20 to 26, 1913; that is, during the height of the emergence
period.
Table XXI. — Measurements of 268 female terrajniv-scale larvse of specified ages during
the second instar, Mont Alto, Pa., WIS.
No.
Emerged.
No. of
speci-
mens.
Average
age at
time of
entering
the sec-
ond
instar.
Age when
meas-
ured.
Days in
second
instar.
Average
length.
Average
width.
1
1913.
June 26
...do
20
39
17
30
21
19
16
7
17
21
16
20
11
14
Pay«.
19
19
21
19
19
22
22
22
22
22
19
22
22
22
21
22
23
24
26
27
30
30
31
32
33
34
36
1
2
8
8
9
13
11
12
14
Mm,
1.064
1.076
1.063
1.114
1.257
1.431
1.380
1.471
1.395
1.504
1.506
1.587
1.575
1.483
Mm.
0.558
2
.590
3
June 24
June 29
...do
.55
4
.638
5
.676
ft
June 24
...do
.775
7
.776
8
...do
.892
9
June 21
June 20
Jime 26
June 24
...do....
...do...
.713
10
.835
11
.937
12
.978
U
14
1.012
.966
Total : ..
268
The rate of growth is very uniform throughout the second instar,
but there is a variation in size among specimens of the same age.
This is instanced in lines 8 and 9. Such variations are common and
are usually the result of weather conditions or of low vitality in the
host. In this instar there is very httle growth in height, the aver-
age height at the end of the instar being about 0.11 mm. There is
no change in color. The excretion of honeydew is moderate and is
unimportant. The female has but slight ability to change position
and seldom moves from one position to another upon the leaf.
Larvse from withering leaves, when placed upon fresh ones, mostly
fail to make a satisfactory attachment.
In an experiment, twigs, the leaves of which were infested with
second-instar larvse, were placed in water. The larvse soon loosened
and migrated to the twigs. The advanced specimens made the sec-
ond molt prematurely and migrated in the third instar; the yoxmg
specimens, even those less than half the normal size, migrated also,
bat without molting. Some of the smaller specimens would un-
doubtedly have reattached to fresh loaf tissue had there been any
on the twigs. Tlio others attached in the normal manner to twigs.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
30
BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Table XXII shows the time spent in the second instar by larvae at
Mont Alto. The orchard data are derived from the maximum daily
emergence and the maximum daily molts. These data show for
the season of 1912 a variation in the length of the instar from 16 to
36 days. Most of the specimens in the orchard, from July 20 to
August 5, spent 20 days in the instar, while in the rearing of July 22
two-thirds of the larvcB completed the instar in 18 days.
Table XXII. — Data showing the lenath of the second instar of the terrapin scale from 4
rearings qflarvx at Mont AltOj Pa.
Year.
Brood.
Emerg-
ence.
Beginning of see*
End of second instar.
instar.
1912. . . .
Rearing A....
Rearing B....
Rearing A....
Rearing B....
July 22
Aag. 9
Jane 24
June 26
TwenUethday
Twentieth day....
Twenty - second
day.
Nineteenth day...
First specimen, thirty-sixth dav
MftTJmnm numbw, toirty-eig^ui day . . .
Last specimen, forty-ninui day
16
18
29
First specimen, thirty-sixth day
Last specimen, fifty-sixth day
16
18
36
1913....
First specimen, thfrty-fifth day
13
17
31
First specimen, thfrty-third day
MftTlmnm number, thirty-seventh day . .
Last specimen, thirty-ninth day
14
18
20
In 1913 the maximum daily orchard emei^ence was two days earlier
than in 1912. The first instar required 18 days as against 20 days
for the previous year. However, when the age at the end of the
second instar is considered, it appears that in both seasons the maxi-
mum numbers completed the instar upon the fortieth day.
The larvae used in Table XXII were placed upon 1-year-old peach
trees. For the date of entering the instar is given the day upon
which the maximum number entered it, and the date of leaving th^
instar is given for the first specimen, for the last specimen, and for
the maximum daily number.
The table shows that the second instar may last from 13 to 36 days
and that the maximum number of specimens remain in it from 17 to
18 days; the greatest number molting upon the eighteenth day.
Second Molt op the Female.
The second molt of the female coincides with that of the male and
is little more than the casting of the skin in response to gro^vt,lu
There is no change in the structure of the appendages or of the mouth
parts.
In 1912 the second molt for a rearing of 213 females that emei^ed
July 22 extended over a period of 10 days. The maximum daily molt
was upon the thirty-eighth day after emergence, and 50 per cent
had molted by the fortieth day. A rearing of 1 00 females that emerged
upon August 9, 1912, made its maximum molt upon the thirty-eiglith
day after emergence. One-half of the rearing molted upon that day.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TERRAPIN SCALE.
31
In the orchards at Mont Alto, Pa., in 1912, the maximnm molt was
upon the fortieth day. In all the reaiings there was a very short
interval between the first molt and the maximum daily molt. This
mtenral varied from 2 to 5 days, with 3 days as the normal time.
In 1913 observations were made upon two rearings, one of which
emei^ed Jime 24. This rearing of 174 females made its maximum
daily molt upon the thirty-ninth day. Reference to Table XXII
wUl show that the first molt for this rearing was made upon the
twenty-second day. It was slightly delayed by a storm, but the
larv» reached the maximum of the second molt on the thirty-ninth
day; that is, 1 day ahead of the average time for the orchard larv».
Table XXIII. — Age of the terrapin scale at the second molt as determined from the maxi-
mum daily molt.
Yew.
Material.
Number of
spedmeos.
Age at the
maximum
daily molt.
Weather oonditlans.
1912....
Brood of July 22
213
100
1,765
Days.
38
38
37
Unlavcffablo.
Brood of Aug. 9
Do.
Brood of OTpfiard »
Do.
Avera^B fw the year
37.1
1913....
Brond rtf Jvriw 24 ,
174
69
190
39
37
36
Favwable.
Brood of Jane 26
Do.
Brood of orchard * ,
Do.
Average for the year
37.3
■TheoB date refier to larv» reared upon isolated twigs at Mont Alto, Pa., and not to the entire orchard
famod.
TTie forgoing data show that the averages for the two years differ
by only two-tenths of a day. Some of the individuals, however,
departed 4 or 5 days from this average, while in 1912 some specimens
made the molt as late as the forty-second day and in 1913 some made
it as early as the thirty-second day.
Leaf Phase op the Third Instar.
After molting to the third instar the females remain motionless on
the undersii^e of the leaf for a period of 1 day while they secrete a
very thin dorsal scale which protects them during migration to the
twigs.
The individuals vary in size in the same season, and there is a
ali^t variation in the average size from year to year. The measure-
ments from 11 specimens showed a minimum length of 1.387 mm.
ind a minimum width of 0.862 mm. ; a maximum length of 1.65 mm.
and a maximum width of 1.074 mm. ; an average length of 1.545 mm.
and an average width of 0.995 mm. The average length in 1912 was
1.466 mm. and the average width 0.974 mm. In 1913 the average
length was 1.64 mm. and the average width 1.02 mm., showing an
fflcrease in size for the latter year of 0.175 mm. in length and 0.046
mm. in width.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
32
BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Migration to the Twigs.
The twigward migration of the females starts about the 1st of
August and reaches its maximum before the middle of the month, after
which it continues in a small way imtil the leaves fall. In the
vicinity of Mont Alto, Pa., from 80 to 90 per cent migrate between
August 8 and August 20. (PI. I, fig. 4.)
Table XXIV gives data from observations made upon 1,494
migrating females during 1912 at Mont Alto, Pa. The observations
in Part I were made upon larvae that settled naturally upon orchard
trees. The material considered was isolated with tree tanglefoot
August 1 and the females as they migrated were removed and counts
at two-day intervals. The age at which these particular larvae
migrated is not definitely known, but was about 40 days. The rear-
ing of July 22 (Part II) migrated from the thirty-ninth to the fiftieth
day after emergence, and made its maximum daily migration August
30, which was the thirty-ninth day. The rearing of August 9 (Part
III) migrated from the thirty-first to the fifty-seventh days and
made its maximum daily migration upon September 15, which was
the thirty-seventh day. It is evident from a comparison with figure
11 that the maximum in Part III was retarded. A cold wave,
which started September 7, retarded the maximum daily migration,
causing it to bo nearly a week after the start.
Table XXI V. — The time of the twigtvard migration of 1 ,4S3 female larvae of the terrapin
scale, M<mt Alio, Pa,, 1912,
Twlgward migra-
tion
Twigward migr»>
tkHU
Material
observed.
Num-
ber of
larvffi.
Material
observed.
Num-
ber of
lar\^.
Part.
Num-
Part.
Num.
Date.
ber mi-
grated.
Date,
bermJ.
grated.
I
Orchard lan'w,
976
Aug. 12
0
III...
Rearing of Aug-
294
Sept. 8
0
Mont Alto,
14
283
ust 9.
9
2
Pa.
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
Sept. 1
3
5
176
202
120
65
33
32
24
13
10
12
6
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
5
13
24
23
18
(15
ao
18
20
11
34
IL...
Rearing of July
213
Aug. 30
61
21
5
22.
31
Sept. 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
19
6
50
20
17
14
10
7
4
3
2
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Oct. 1
2
10
5
8
9
3
3
1
0
0
1
0
11
0
-
3 1 O
12
0
4
0
1
5
6
■
Total
1,483
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TERRAPIN SCALE.
33
The orchard larv® considered in Table XXIV, Part I, had very
favorable weather during their twigward migration. The relation
of this migration to the prevailing temperature is shown graphically
in figure 9. The migration curve shows the shortness of the interval
between the start of migration and its maximum.
The migration started on August 13 and was 50 per cent complete
upon August 17. Thus, one-half of the migration was made during
y^UQUST
SEPTCMBER
•
VI
^ eo
Q SO
* k
i\
r
Sfe
_, ^
<
\J
1
4
V.
>
r
"O
^
>
r
^
r
J
■»>
\
1
MAX
. DAILY
)rEMfii
. r
s
V
y
r
■N
^
>
■>
^
•
X
.—
/^
■"
■^
A
■v
WsAAfOAILV
" T£MP.\
LAfwJ 0A/Ly
y
N
s
\
/
1
^
,y
/
/
^
H
V,
-
si
/
7
£MP.
V
3 00
27 O
I
>l iSO
<
O iSO
2 i20
60
30
J?
9
L
';■■
\
1
1
\
\
ac
B
1
\
1
/7
\
^;
eo
^
L V
\
sj
s
i
^
S
^
y
2*
Li
^
19
rr.
10
?*
L
Pk. 9.— Curve of Uie twigward migration of the terrapin scale for the orchard larvae of 1912. (Original.)
the first four days of the period. This curve is typical for the
migration in favorable seasons.
The larv» considered in Table XXIV, Part II, encountered very
unfavorable weather diuing the period of migration. Cold inter-
fered at the banning, and rain continued throughout most of the
period. The effects of these conditions are shown graphically in
%are 10. The solid curve represents a normal migration, the dotted
cune the iiugration under prevailing conditions. This graph
20782°— Bull. 351—16 3
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
34
BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
also includes the data for rainy and clear days. August 28 was
clear and favorable and the following day was rainy. August 30
was clear, and migration started. August 31 to September 2 was
^OGOST 'SEPTEMBER
y^GE
— 90
0
tl: eo
Q so
4-0
Na)0)ON.M<^'*«0^KCD0>Ox.CVi0}4^V)
^
\
/
r
^
'A
k
<^
r
<-
'^
/
\.
/
/
/"
ISA,
/
•>
■^
J
r
/
^
^
^
/
>>
1.
1
V
J
f
»-^
^
s.
J
f
>
h
w
J
T
/
^
^
r
J
^
70
nI
,*"
0
30
tS\20
«/
\
L
so
• \
1 1
1
\
. 1
1
\
1 \
1
I
1
1
I
\
1
\
1
k
IT
\
1
\ 1
^K
"S
^
^
7
\ 1
6
^
V
■^s
3
^^^-^.. .^..^'^ -
M 1^ >4 <^ -^ ^ nI
Fig. 10.— Curve of the twigward migration of the terrapin scale for a rearing that esierged July 22, 1913.
(Original.)
rainy, but on the last of tliese days it was clear and hot in the after-
noon, thus permitthig a heavy migration. The remainder of the
period was clear, except for slight rains upon September 3 and 7.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TEBRAPIK SCALE.
35
Daring the migration of the rearing of July 22 the maximUm daily
temperature rose gradually from 73** F. on August 28 to 85® F. upon
September 1, after which it fell to 74*^ F. upon September 3, and
then rose abruptly to 90® F. upon September 6. It then dropped
to 67® F. upon September 12. The average daily temperatiux)
ran&ined nearly constant at 66® F. from August 28 to August 31,
as
OCTOBER
•V <W *> 4 10 <e K
V
-
*">
I—
/
-\
N
^
V.
L
/
ry
<
X
^
\
/
^
V
!l>
M*
V
\
V
^
^^
/
/
^
i
^
r^
\
\
^
1
P
?f
r
^t*f.
^N
\ ,
/
r-
1
1
\
«s
1^
J
^
■"
^
"*
^
-
1/
J
- r
ft
—
3S
^>j
\
y
I
nL^
>
z'
^
vfi
25
€8
9*
5
\
!•
1 '•
; ;
^
/
\
'
n
1
\
'
t
»/**
•
•
<.
V
a
r^.
N
L
BO
5!
1
^^
»
M
^
Ps
«
i
N
V
!
S
'^
&
B
4.
t
'A
If
■fr
^
«
1
ik
*^\
^^
^
1
3
__
„_
a
Q
kl
»
—
Li
^
U
0
Li
^
Fio. 11.— Curve of Uie twlgward migration of (be terrapin scale for a rearing that emerged August 9, 1912.
(Original.)
when it rose abruptly to 73® F. upon September 1. During Sep-
tember 2 and 3 it made a gradual drop to 68® F., and then rose in a
gradual way to 80® F. upon September 6. This was followed by a
gradual drop to 54® F. upon September 12. This rearing gave its
mftYimiiTn daily migration when 39 days old and its 50 per cent of
migration four days later.
The larvae considered in Part III of Table XXIV were a late rearing.
They had favorable weather to near the end of the second instar,
but very unfavorable weather during the twigward migration. The
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
36 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
relation of the temperature to the migration of this rearing is shown
in figure 11.
This migration extended from September 8 to October 5, 1912,
imder unfavorable temperature conditions. There was a drop in
the average daily temperature from 71° F. on the first day of migra-
tion to 56° F. on the sixth day (September 13). This was followed
by a favorable day, when the average temperature rose to 69° F,,
after which it dropped gradually to 40° F. at the end of September.
There was a rainstorm of three days' duration, September 23, 24,
and 25, btit it came too late to modify the rate of migration to any
extent. Under these conditions 95 per cent of the rearing had
migrated by the end of the tenth day of migration, or by the fortieth
day after emerging. The maximum daily migration was made by
this rearing upon the seventh day after the start of migration; that
is, upon the thirty-seventh day after emei^ing. A comparison of
the curves, figures 9 to 11, shows that the curve for optimum con-
ditions (fig. 9) tends to have a perpendicular ascending slop^e and
a very steep receding slope, and that unfavorable conditions tend
to flatten the curve and to cause serrations in the slop^.
TIME REQUIRED FOR MIGRATION.
The migration is made during the hottest part of the day. Usually
very few migrating specimens can be taken imtil after 12.30 p. m.,
because of the low morning temperatures. The larv» start upon this
migration when the temperature reaches 70° F. By 1.30 p. m.
larvee are usually moving in great numbers upon the twigs. By 3
p. m. nearly aU migrants have selected their locations and perma-
nently established themselves.
LONGEVITY OP MIGRANTS.
In case the twigward migrants are prevented from attaching, they
can live for 2 days, and a small percentage even for 3 days b^ore
dying.
The following experiment was made to determine the longevity of
a twigward migrant when prevented from attaching. A quantity of
material was kept imder observation from August 30, 1913, imtil one
of the larvce was observed to start upon its migration. This speci-
men was then placed upon wrapping paper for observation. The
details of these observations are shown in Table XXV.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TBBBAPIK SCALE.
37
Table XXV. — Rate per hour and distance traveled by a migrating larva of the terrajpin
$caU upon wrapping paper during the total time of the twigrcard migration^ Mont
Alio, Pa., 1912.
LARVA NO. 1.
Obeerved-
Inten-al.
Distance.
Rate per
hour.
Tempera-
ture.
Al«. 30
3.45 p.m.
t.LS p. m. .
3.30 p.m..
4p.in
4.J0p. m..
4.45 p.m.
5 p.m.....
5.15 p.m..
.6p. m
Total.
Aug.
Sipft.
Total.
mn.
Cm.
Cm,
3ta. 15 m.
4h.
3h. 15 m.
30.6
27.8
02
61.5
16.2
15.4
9.1
9.3
231.9
8
1.7
17.3
3.2
8.6
2.7
41.5
3.6
.4
7.9
25.1
12.1
49.1
61.2
111.2
124
123
64.8
61.6
36.4
12.4
10.6
6.8
23.06
12.8
5.7
5.4
6.17
2.4
15.8
25.1
12.1
70
84
88
90
80
78
77
76
72
70
86
88
82
78
75
72
70
72
80
86
Migration, first day: Migration started at 2.45 p. m., and continued until6p. m., when
it stopped. The larva remained motionlees all night. During the time of migration,
wtiich was 3} hours, the larva traveled 231.9 cm. It traveled at a rate of 124 cm. per
hour from 3.30 p. m. to 4 p. m., with a rate of 123 cm. per hour from 4 to 4.30 p. m.
The rate then fell off rapidly after 4.30, being 36.4 cm. per hour for the interval from
5 to 5.15 p. m., and only 12. 4 cm. per hour for the interval from 5.15 p. m. to 6 p. m.
The temperature during this migration rose gradually from 70^ F. at 2.45 p. m. to
90^ F. at 4 p. m . , and then fell to 72^ F. at 6 p. m. The highest rate of travel therefore
coincided closely with the time of highest temperature.
Migration f second day: The larva remained motionless from 6 p. m., August 30, until
2JS0 p. m., August 31, when it again started to migrate and continued until 6.30 p. m.,
an interval of 4 hours, during which it showed signs of exhaustion and traveled only
41.5 cm. The rate per hour gradually increased from the start until it reached a maxi-
mum of 23.06 cm. per hour for the period 3.30 p. m. to 4.15 p. m., after which it dropped
to 12.S cm. per hour during the next interval and then to 5.4 cm. per hour for the last
ixttenral. The temperature during this second day's migration was slightly lower than
on the previous day. The temperature at the resumption of migration, 2.30 p. m.,
was 70^ F., from which it rose rapidly to a maximum of 88^ F. at 3.30 p. m., and then
dropped gradually to 72** F. at 6.30 p. m.
Migration f third day: The third day was very warm. The larva had remained
motionless from 6.30 p. m., August«31, to 8.45 a. m. of the following day, at which
time it resumed migration and continued until 12 noon, when it died, after traveling
for 3i hours, during which time it advanced 49.1 cm. The rate of travel, which was
very low, reached its maximum of 25.1 cm. per hour in the interval ending at 11 a. m.,
■fter which it dropped to 12.1 cm. per hour for the interval between 11 a. m. and 12
The tempenture during the third day was very favorable. It reached 70° F.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
38
BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
at 8.45 a. m., at which time the larva resumed its migration. At 9.30 a. m. the temper-
ature was 80° F., at 10 a. m. 86° F., and at 11 a. m. 88° F., from which hour it dropped
to 84° F. at noon, when the experiment was terminated by the death of the larva.
Ordinarily larvse start migrating when the temperature reaches
70° F., and the rate of travel increases in nearly the same ratio as the
increase in temperature above 70° F. Larvae, if unattached, become
motionless when the temperature falLs below 72° F. The female
£ND
Fig. 12.— Tracingof the total twigwardmigrationofafemaleiaryaoftheterrapinscale. Reduced 8 times.
Total distance traveled, 322.5 cm. (Origiiia].)
under observation started migration August 30 at 2.40 p. m., and
died September 1 at 12 noon, having lived 2 hours and 40 minutes
less than 3 days, and having traveled over smooth paper a distance
of 322.5 cm. (lOi feet). (Fig. 12.) This was imdoubtedly farther than
the average specimen is able to travel upon its host plant. There \b
therefore very little chance of the Jarvx crawling to adjacent trees unless
the limbs are in conkbct.
A second female larva (Table XXV), captured August 26, during
the first day of migration, was placed upon wrapping paper at 2.25
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TERKAPIN SCALE.
39
p. m. This larva traveled 192 cm. in 2 hours and 35 minutes at an
aycrage rate per hour of 74.84 cm. (Fig. 13.)
Fio. 13.— Tracing of a female larva of the terrapin sca!e for 2 hours and 35 mhiutes duruig
tiie first day of the twig^nu-d migration. Distance traveled, 192 cm. (Original.)
XXVI. — RcUe per hour and distance traveled by two migrating larv:r of the
terrapin scale on wrapping paper.
k Larva number.
Observed—
Interval.
Disf-inc'c.
Itrv^e per
hoiir.
2 25 p. m .
Mm,
Cm,
Cm.
.
2.47 p. m. .
3.40 p.m..
4 p. m
4.45 p.m..
ftp. m
22
53
20
2-1. 7
15
r-
31. «
2,5.7
21
1.>S.S8
9J.S
:i1.2fi
Jvl.OO
V
■ *M>I .
2hr3.35m.
192
74.81
U ft. m
,
;.
11.30 a. m.
12 noon...
12.30 p. m.
,1 p. m
30
30
30
30
45
48.1
:t7.ri
101.5
90.
96.2
75
. TMH
2hrs.
IHI.l
92.05
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
40
BULLETIN 351, U. R. DKPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
A third larva, Table XXVI, taken Soptombor 1, 1912, at 11 a. m,,
while in the first day of migration, gave a maximum rat^ por hour
of 101 cm., at 88° F., and an average rate for 2 hours of 92.05 cm.
(Fig. 14.)
The rate of migration depends both upon the temperature above
70° F. and upon the length of time that has elapsed since the migra-
tion started.
It is ver}^ exceptional for specimens to require more than one day
for the twigward migration. More thjin 90 per cent of the females
Fir,, 14.— 'rmcinj; of a fv n;.i]e lar'. a of the lorra-un scale for tae first two
hours of the twii,'war(l migration, He<iiu»Ml H times. Total distance,
1H4.1 cm. (Original.)
complete this migration during the first 4 hours. Females may
occasionally shift to a more favorable position durmg the second
and third days^ sojourn upon the twigs, but after this they remain
in one place.
During the day preceding the twigward migration the female larvce
secrete a thin scale which covers the dorsal surface and gives rigidity
to the flat, leaf-shaped body. The larvae in migrating pass down the
petiole and move along the twigs toward the region of greatest iUu-
uigiiizea Dy vjv^'v/'v iv^
THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 41
minaiion. They finally reach the tips of the twigs, where they locate
by preference upK>n the basal part of the young growth. Many, how-
ever, locate upon 1-year-old wood, and a few upon the 2-year-old
wood. Other parts of the tree are very seldom infested. The larv»
settle by preference upon the underside of horizontal limbs and upon
the xmshaded side of vertical branches. There is a t-endency for
ihsm to group themselves in rows upK>n the illuminated sides of the
twigs. The individual scales within these rows are not necessanly
m alignment, either with their neighbors or with the axis of the twig.
This linear arrangement results solely from their instinctive desire to
locate in the area of greatest iUummation, which, from the nature of
the twigs upon which they locate, is always many times longer than
wide. During migration the mortaUty is very low.
TTie females are very flat and have the pale yellow color of the pre-
ceding stages. This color appears rather lighter than in the second
instar, due, no doubt, to the effect of the nearly transparent dorsal
scale. The only colored pK>rtions at this time are the brown eye-
spots and the chitinized anal plates.
Specimens measured in 1912 and in 1913 were from 1.23 to 1.57
mm. in length and from 0.65 to 1.12 mm. in width, the average
hei^t being about 0.1 mm. The average size for both seasons was,
length 1.47 mm., width 0.98 mm.
The Femalb Upon the Twio: Development Dubino the FnwT 20 Days.
After attaching to the twigs the young females begin a period of
rapid growth. A small red blotch, which appears over the oral region
either during the migration or immediately after it, begins at once to
enlarge and to form itself into a narrow band of a reddish-brown color
which extends backward along the middorsal line until by the sixth
day it reaches the anal plates. (Fig. 15, a.) Meanwhile the dorsum
changes from a £at to a mildly arched surface and the larva increases
from about 1.54 to 1.65 mm. in length and in width from 1.03 to 1.29
mm. TVhen the dorsal band reaches the anal plates it forks. Each
fork when developed equals the original band in width and is slightly
longer than wide. These forks start about the sixth day and are
about one-half completed by the eighth day. From the sixth to the
tcoath day there is a very decided arching of the dorsum. Growth is
greatest just in front of the anal plates, and the elongation of the
dorsum at this place first constricts and then breaks the dorsal band,
leaving a short piece of it attached to the forked portion that is form-
ing about the anal plates. (Fig. 15, &.) Later the anterior piece is
displaced forward and shrinks until it becomes inconspicuous just
above the oral region. About the eleventh day after migrating, the
forks of the dorsal band are completed. This band is a secondary
sexual character, wUch, after copulation, fades and blends with the
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
42
BULLETIN 351, U. 8. DEPABTMENT OF AGBICULTTJBE.
roddish-brown ground color. The rent between the two parts re-
mains nnpigmented and shows hi mature specimens as the charac-
teristic dorsal stripe. (PL I, fig. 5, 6, p. 8, and text fig. 15, d.)
Up to and including the eighth day the general aspect is strictly
larval, except for the slight arching of the dorsum and for the dorsal
Fio. 15.— Diagrammatic representatton of the color and markings of the female terrapin scale: a, ]
seventh day upon the twig; h, larva, eleventh day upon the twig; e, larva, fifteenth day upon Um
twig; df larva, twentieth day upon the twig and after; db, dorsal band; adb, anterior segment of dorsal
band; pdb, posterior segment of dorsal band;/pz, first pigment zone;«pz, second pigment tone; 9ds,
adult dorsal stripe; U2, unpigmented zone. (Original.)
band. At the ninth day the female is about equally adult and larval
in appearance. At this time the pale yellow body color of the larva
begins to turn to a reddish amber and the characteristic crimps at the
margin of the derm (fig. 15, 6) begin to appear. In the depressions
formed by the crimping, a brownish pigment develops and marks
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TERBAPIN SCALE. 43
them in sharp contrast with the narrow ridges of the crimps. These
pigmented depressions blending form the first pigment zone or mar-
ginal pigmentation. (Fig. 15,/p2.) By the fourteenth day the female
has bec<Hne decidedly adult, both in shape and color. The first pig-
ment zone now reaches completely around the dorsum and extends
upward as far as the anal plates; the dorsal band has blended with
the reddish-brown groimd color, and a second zone of pigmentation
hasformed about the rent in the original dorsal band, thus transforming
it into the permanent reddish-brown stripe which is so characteristic
of the mature female. (Fig. 15, ads.) The second zone of pigment is
comp<»ed of dark-brown granules similar to those in the marginal
region. It surroimds the amber-colored gap in the original dorsal
band and extends downward and outward nearly to the marginal
zone, from which it is separated by an irregular impigmented zone
(fig. 15, uz) which lies parallel to the edge of the dorsimi at about the
height of the anal plates. By the twentieth day the female has
assumed both the characteristic shape and color of the adult, but the
general color is not so bright as in the case of older specimens. After
the twentieth day there is no change in the color pattern. The pig-
mentation, however, deepens and the insect continues to grow, but
at a decreasing rate, imtil it hibernates.
The data in Table XXVII show in detail the development of the
female up to and including the fifteenth day after attaching to the
twig. A very rapid growth is also shown during this period. The
ground color changes from light yellow to reddish brown; the dorsal
band develops and breaks and the adult pigmentation starts.
To obtain more extended observations upon the twig-attached
females, 100 larvae were taken August 15, 1913, while making the
twigward migration, and placed upon a vigorous potted peach tree.
This tree was kept imder orchard conditions and such of the speci-
mens as had accessible locations were numbered and observed from
time to time through a Zeiss binocular. These observations were
continued to the sixty-seventh day after migrating. Data from
these specimens are given in Table XXVIII ; they supplement Table
xxvn.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
44
BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
;§
I
j
■i
1
i
>
X
X
n
<
w|
2.
1^
5
S
Is
tl
I
,6 66^
dddddododddoooddfi .dfiSS
(X,^ (M(i4^
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiil;:
J o d o Q do odd 6o d d d d d d o B^^A ^AA
o -o -o -o -o "d "S -o -o "d "d -o -o "O "O -o "O -o "d -g .sro "d •- -o -o
i : : i i i ; ; ; : i j il
Id 00660006060
■.S ■.:■.•{%■. \ ■.::•. :
. a • • • : a • :
_ _ _J*"OOQO*"0000000
•^•d'd'^'d'd'S'Q'^'d'd'd o'd'cj-d-d o'dxj'd'd'd'd'd
■e : :S : :t; '5 : :t;5 :::::::::::::
jl : :© : :|^ : :|5 : . : . . I ig : : : : .
*'d'd*-'d'd'T'C S'd'd^ B'd'd'd'd'd'd'dJK^'d'd'd'd
I ; i| i ii|i i ;li •:•;•::• i| • i ! i !
A . 'tH ■ .oiso ■ •Oo «
dddddddoodoooQoooo-^-^ooooo
rt'd'd'd'd'd'd'd'd'd'd'd'd'd'd'd'd'd'dSS'O'd'd'd'd
!iii;;iii;:iii;iii;2li;!:i
•:ti
siss^iiggssg-^coSSsSStstg
^^^c«cic«o<«<or<«<>Qr«t»t»ooaoaoaooo^^e4e«kO*Q
I
•<OQ0 • ••^OCOO^HC
• ^ leo '^
fee© tittco o ^^^wB^tooO o bao ec© bo© be© bto ©^
s-d 3 s-d-d ris 3 3 3^3'd'd s'd 3'd r -" -— —
-< :<;-<
^ ^ , ' 3'd 3'd 3'd'd'd
:-s;^-<-<-i*^ : :<; :^ :-< :-< :^ : : :
.•««V««-t^'x«2S22S22::;228S8aSS5S
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TEBBAPIN SCAI£.
45
5
I
u
<
i
I
1
if
a • • Ofl o
I : :^g :::::: :^
« €
11
III
fill
•d'O'O'O'O'O'd'O'O'OT
9 ;
I
t3 : :
Ill i
iliiiiiiii-
•8 :8 :|i : : :|i
p^p-Spf-gp ppf"s
ffi^^ffi :^ :o :ffi0
irl
ill
111
2 ; ;2
inl
^il4^lti"iili
|i
> P P P P P o
2
3 : ill i i : ; i i ill ; ; i i i
t::|t:::::::i|:::::
5 : -M i i i i i • iff : ; i i • •
531 ! 33
fiiif^op?
s
l?^?::::!^!n::!!!^^^^:^!l! |^^^§ss§82§g.e,-
it
pug
ii
ilii
^^^^^^^^^^•OiOiOiOioaeioiOioaoooQOooao aoaoaoxaoaoaoao*-
:R ::::::: :a ::: : : :
^2^2 ^2 ^^^^ ^^^ PPPPPPmPP P P PPPPOOOObfiPPOtiCOO
•^^^^^^»H^ CVCVC4 ^ ^ ^ w^ ^ w^ ^4^4*4
•^«»-riO«^-QCO»Ojj22S
.O «i l> X Oft O ;-•
Sc^sss^c; »s»st$8;;i3f:;?5^s5|'<^^^
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
46
BULLKTIX .T)!, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
o
o
■g
1
00
3.2
V o
A,
s
1^
o
>
^
r /•
«
i i
C w'
o o
«.—
E =
= *?
-3- a
•tJ OS
S
ll
<
x;*.^:;*. t- u
o
1
S. o o o o o o o o" o d d d d d d 066660666666066660
1
o
g*-C -3 t; TJ rr T3 TJ T| -3 TJ T3 TJ -q -O TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ T3 TJ T? "O TJ Tj -O TJ T3 T3
::::::::;::::::!::::::::::::::::::
C c3
jf eorapl
f the an
"*• * ' 1 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! I ! ! t ! ! ! i ! ! ! I ! ! I I I ! I ' ' ' *
ill
5-^
? d d d d 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 66666666
S*r t2 -c •© -c "O -c -0 -o -c -s T3 •« -d -o "T^ T3 -d •« "d -o -o -d "O -d •« •« -o -d -d -o -d •«
c ::;::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :
^ :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :
1.- .
nil
^ooooooooooooo_oooooooooooooooooooo
£-- — -^ -J -3 -d-d -d-d -d-s-c-d -d-d -d-d -d-d -d-d -d-d -d-d -d-d -d-d -d-d -d-d
C^
S3 :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :
i^-^
g-- a
^1^
11
£!!!!! I ! I !.'!!! i ! ^ !!!!!!!*!!!! I I !! !
-=:300000000000000000000000000000000
S-O t; t; X3 t; -d t; -d T3 T3 T3 t; -d TJ -d TJ TJ T> T3 T3 T3 -d T3 TJ T3 ^ T3 T3 T3 TJ ^
£^'
p '.,..'. '. t ..!;.!;!:;;;;;;;; ;
o
8
J : :^ 1 :::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :
i :: S ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :
e
00 -2 000000000000000000000000000000
^'d'd^-d'd'd'd'd'd-d'd'd'd'd'd'd'd'd'd'd'd'd'O'd'd'd'O'd'O'd'O'O'd
M : :-2 ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::; :
«5
c
J : ;a: ::::::::::::::::::;:::::::::: :
• . «o • 10 lA t>> »0 '
g- ::::::::::::::::::: :S :SSSSSt^f:ssi :S
^ ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; ;6 ; " '
'*'
6Sl1c.S^.,2.?sl5.5g.5SsSs,si'iRieS2^S5S3iisS
^=?g.33S$s$S«l3s$iisii?siiig«s82S82§2
--, ^^^^c«i(N-H^^oics^oioi-HM(Ncvi^^^e«c>ie«c«ie«-Ne»icicic«ic«i.-Jc>i
.-p.*^^^o>Oi04C>o>o»oiosoi3iO>cs(3>(3>c»c»r-i^r-.t^i^r^r»i>.t^r^t^t^i>.
g^-, ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ -^ ^ ^ »^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ;0 « ® « CO <o « « to « <o to «
0
^i
Q
» *
S :■: :=^ ::::::::::::•: :S :::: i ::: i i : i
«l
.oooo*eooooooooooooooo* 000000000000
bcd-d-d-d g*T3*dT3x3T3T3TJT>T>'dTJT3TJ'dT3 oTJ'dTjTS'd'd'd'd'd'O'O'd
o
-<::: :^ :::::::::::::: :^ ::::::::::: :
^2ss2?i'^^^^'-'*s2s22i:;2sa?5'^*^''^'-5as2ssaa
Uu
lo^l
o>
o-^c555;o-«5g5^gs:§a?{^2§S8SSSSSSS88^SPis
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TERBAPIN SCALE,
The Female Upon the Twig: Rate of Gbowth.
47
To determine the relative rate of growth of females after attaching
to the twigs Table XXIX was compiled from the data obtained in
1913. This shows an increase from attachment on the twigs to the
sixty-seventh day of 500 per cent in height and a pronounced increase
in length and width. It is evident from this table that nearly all the
growth takes place during the first 19 days.
Table XXIX. — Size of twig-attached females of the terrapin scale after the specified days
upon the twigs, Mont Alio, Pa., 191S.
Date.
Number
ofspect-
mens.
Period
on twig.
Average
length.
Average
width.
Average
height.
Aug.l...
Auk. 7...
Aug. 8...
Aug. 19..
Aug. 20..
Aug. 23..
Aug. 26..
Aug. 29..
8ept.3...
Oct. 21..,
10
3
3
10
10
13
4
8
13
16
2
4
5
8
11
14
19
67
Mm.
1.542
1.600
L65
1.649
1.619
1.686
1.762
1.887
1.996
2.057
Mm.
1.03
1.058
1.141
1.297
1.226
L177
1.25
1.331
1.S02
1.680
Mm.
0.125
.208
.615
.625
1 Just attached.
The Female Upon the Twig: Movement After Attachinq to the Twigs.
It k very doubtful whether the females ever reattach after the first
week's sojourn upon the twigs. During the first few dajrs specimens
have been observed to move, but whether or not the proboscis had
been inserted into the host is unknown. Efforts were made to deter-
mine this, but no data were obtained. However, observations made
upon specimens attached to slowly drying twigs indicate that they do
not change position after the eleventh day.
The Derm.
With the arching of the dorsum during the first week the flat wax
scale which protected the female larva during the migration from
leaf to twig scales off; meanwhile the exposed surface thickens and
hardens until by the end of the week it is so rigid that it responds to
the growth changes by crimping. This hardening and thickening of
the dorsum which produces the hard shell-Uke derm is completed by
the twenty-fifth day. The excretion of wax, however, continues
and wax flakes can be found attached to the derm up to the time of
death.
Honbydew.
The attachment of the females to the twigs marks the beginning
ol the maximum period of honeydew deposit. If it were not for the
deposit at this time the honeydew would be of very Uttle economic
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
48 BULLETIN 351, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
importance. This period of excretion extends to the time of hiber-
nation, but practically all the honeydew is deposited during the first
25 days.
The anal apparatus is specially adapted to the excretion of honey-
dew. The anal plates, which are situated near the posterior end of
the derm, are so hinged at their anterior ends that they can be both
elevated and separated. When in this position they expose the anal
chamber which Ues just below them. This chamber is boundetl
laterally by the body lobes and connects ventrally with the brood
chamber, while a cloacal cavity extends forward, within which there
is a retractile spindle-shaped rectum, at the distal extremity of which
the anal aperture is located. It is surrounded by a fringe of eight
filaments called the anal ring. During repose the rectum occupies
the anterior part of the cloacal cavity, and the anal fringe, which is
folded into a cylindrical mass, occupies the posterior part. When
the scale is not excreting the anal cavity is empty and closed at
the top by the UdUke anal plates. Preparatory to excretion the anal
plates are elevated and separated; the rectum with its fringe is
drawn backward from the cloacal cavity into the anal chamber, from
which it is thrust through the opening between the elevated anal
plates. Contraction of the muscular walls of the rectum causes the
contents to ooze into the basket formed by the filaments of the anal
ring, where it forms a bubble which is held in place upon the end of
the rectum by the supporting filaments, much as a jewel is held in
its setting. When the bubble is fully formed it bursts, hurling the
liquid composing it in the form of minute drops to a distance of from
3 to 8 inches. CJohesion between the honeydew and the filaments of
the fringe is very slight. As a result no honeydew remains upon the
fringe after the bursting of the bubble. The rectum is always with-
drawn and the anal cavity closed after each expulsion. The deposit
of honeydew from the twig-attached females becomes noticeable in
orchards during the first week in August and rapidly increases in
amount during the remainder of the month. At Midvale, Pa., in
1913, the deposit was first noticed August 4. It was made by the
few advanced females then upon the twigs. The amount excreted
reached its maximum on August 23, after which the amount upon
the trees remained nearly constant until the first week of September.
The sooty fungus which develops upon this honeydew increases in
abundance with the increased deposit, and by the end of August its
black spores have transformed the transparent honeydew into a
sooty paste. By the end of the first week in September the leaves,
branches, and fruit are covered by a black film of dried honeyde\ir
and spores. In some cases the infestation is so severe that the soil
under the tree is coated almost as thickly as the limbs. The deposit
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TERRAPIN SCALE.
49
appears at its worst upon varieties that ripen after September 1. A
basket of sooty peaches, with two normal peaches for comparison, is
shown in figure 16.
Hibernation.
The scales depend for protection during hibernation upon their
protective coloration, their hard derm, and their waxy coating.
The color, while conspicuous in detached specimens, blends so nicely
with the color of the young twigs as to conceal them effectively.
The hard derm protects them from birds and insect enemies, and
the wax film protects the insect from rain, surface moisture, and
scalecides by prevent-
mg their passing un-
der the scale.
SIZE DURING HIBERNATION.
EuUeanium nigro-
fasdaium passes the
winter as an impreg-
nated female. The
following measure-
ments, which were ta-
ken from fresh speci-
mens at Mont Alto,
Pa., February 24,
1913, are typical for
the hibernation
period: Length, maxi-
mum 2.375 mm., mini-
mum 1.80 nmi., aver-
age 2.072 mm. ; width, maximxmi 2.28 mm., minimum 1.79 mm., aver-
age 2.0308 nma.; height, maximum 1.1 mm., minimum 0.725 mm.,
average 0.9084 mm.
POSITION ON TWIGS DURING HIBERNATION.
This species when on peach locates exclusively upon the last three
seasons' growth, and by far the largest number of specimens is found
upon the earliest formed wood of the last growing season. (See
PL III, figs. 1, 2.)
The females in 1912 continued more or less active until November
12, and they remained dormant until April. This made the hiber-
nating period cover about 4 J months.
MORTALITY DURING HIBERNATION.
Practically every normal female will pass the hibernation period
Bafely unless some accident happens to the host. Specimens at Mont
20782**— Bull. 351—16 4
Fio. 16.— A basket of "sooty" peaches with two clean ones for con-
trast. (Original.)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
50
BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPAETMENT OF AGEICULTURE.
Alto, Pa., during the winter of 1912-13 passed this period with a
mortahty of less than 10 per cent. At Midvale, Pa., during the winter
of 1913-14, specimens upon poorly nourished trees had a mortality
as high as 54 per cent. Neither birds nor other animals make a
noticeable attack during hibernation, but there is a strong parasitic
attack upon the young females before hibernation. This was espe-
cially noticeable during the first week in September.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE MALE.
Male Larva, Second Instar.
In this instar the elongation of the larva and the secretion of the
puparium imdoubtedly start immediately after the first molt, but
it is usually five or six days before they can be detected. The male
increases, as is shown in Table XXX, from an average length of 1.03
mm. to an average length of about 1.706 nun., and in width from an
average of 0.421 ram. to an average of about 0.830 mm. There is
also an appreciable increase in height.
Table XXX. — Average measurements of the male terrapin scale in the second instar at
various ages between the tvoenty-fiflh and thirty-fourth daySy at MorU AUoy Pa.
Year.
Date
emerged.
Age.
Number
of speci-
mens.
Average
length.
Average
width.
1912
19i2
1913
1912
1913
1913
1913
Aug. 9
...do
June 24
A up. 9
June 26
June 24
...do
Days.
25
26
30
31
32
33
34
1
2
14
4
13
13
8
Mm.
L031
1.218
L628
1.579
1.661
1.621
1.706
Mm.
0.468
.421
.830
.642
.809
.813
.777
In 1912 the instar extended to the fortieth day, but practically
all males had shrunk in preparation for the second molt by the
thirty-fifth day.
The following table compares the measurements of 54 females in
the second instar with 48 males of the same rearing, and shows that
the females average 0.168 mm. wider and 0.111 mm. shorter than the
males.
Table XXXI. — Comparative m£asurements of male and female larvss of the terrapin scale
during the second instar, Mont Alto, Pa.
Age.
Date
emerged.
Number
Length
males.
Width
of
males.
Number
of
females.
Width
of
femakB.
32
33
34
June 24 ' 14
June 26 13
June 24 13
...do 8
Total....' 48
Mm.
1.628
1.661
L621
1.706
Mm.
0.830
.809
.813
.777
7
16
20
11
Mm.
1.607
1.506
L587
1.575
Mm.
0.962
.937
.978
L012
1
54
Average.
1. 654 1 - 807
1.543
.975
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 51
The male larva stops growth one day before the second molt, after
which it shrinks and tends to assume a cylindrical form. The
amount of this shrinkage, as is shown, averages 0.16 mm. in length
and about 0.137 mm. in width. As a result of this shrinkage the
edges of the pupariom extend beyond the larva like the eaves of a
roof.
Tablb XXXII. — Shrinkage of IS male larvse of the terrapin Kale during the last day of
the second instar, 191S.
July 27.
July 28.
DiflereDce.
AWBMlSIIKtll
Mm.
2.17
1.075
Mm.
2.01
.9375
Mm.
0.16
JlSgiSaS:; :::::::::: ::::
.1376
The author's observations indicate that both sexes make the
second molt at the same time and that they spend the same number
of days in the second instar.
Thb Pupabium.
The puparium is a transparent protective covering under which
the male passes the third, fourth, and part of the fifth instar. It is
secreted by dorsal wax pores during the second instar (PI. II, a, «),
and has the same dimensions as the full-grown larva, but o^ing to
the abrinking of the larva the puparium at the end of the second
instar is the lai^er. This structure is held in place by elastic bands
which extend from points upon its edges to the leaf below. The
largest of these is attached directly in front of the head. The orna-
mentation of the puparium consists of 2 longitudinal lines, 3 cross-
lines, and a spear-shaped notch, which coincide in position at the
time of its secretion with the anal plates and anal cleft of the larva.
The longitudinal lines extend from the anterior end of the anal notch
in mildly diverging curves anteriorly to a termination on the lateral
edges near the position of the eye-spots of the larva. The cross lines,
which are broken, are located at the middle and on the anterior and
posterior thirds.
In this species the puparium is always placed upon the imderside
of the leaf (PI. HI, fig. 3) and never upon the twigs. In this it differs
frcHn Eulecanium comi Bouchfi, which frequently has puparia upon
the twigs. Twenty-fom* puparia taken at Mont Alto, Pa., during 1912,
had the following sizes: Length, maximum 1.725 mm., minimum
1.443 mm.; average 1.641 mm.; width, maximum 0.825 mm., minimum
0.54 mm., average 0.707 mm. The puparia of 1913 in the same
OTchard were slightly larger; 13, measiffed July 28, averaged in length
1.706 mm, and in width 0.778 mm.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
52 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
Second Molt of thb Male.
In 1912 the second molt was made by orchard larvae from the
thirty-eighth to the forty-third day, Vith its maximum upon the
forty-first day, after emergence from the brood chamber. In 1913,
with a more favorable season, this molt was made by orchard larvaB
upon the thirty-sixth day. Since the larvae entered the second instar
upon the eighteenth day, they averaged 18 days in the second instar.
Two rearings were made in 1913, the first from larvae that emerged
June 24 and the second from larvae that emerged Jime 26. The
former made their maximimi daily molt for both sexes upon the
thirty-seventh day, the latter upon the thirty-fourth day.
When the male larva shrinks at the end of the second instar the
larval skin retains its original shape and position (PI. II, b). This
leaves the larva nearly free within. At this time a decided meta-
morphosis begins. The original legs, antennae, and mouth-parts dis-
appear and the anal lobes, which in the second instar are one-half as
wide as the body and extend caudad beyond the anal plates (PL II, a),
now shrink to short, narrow projections which extend only slightly
beyond the anal plates. As a result of this change in the anal
lobes the anal crease disappears and the anal apparatus assumes
again its original position on the caudal margin. During this meta-
morphosis the hard portions of the mouth-parts remain attached to
the larval skin and disappear at the second molt, after which all trace
of the mouth-parts is lost. In the act of molting the larval skin is
ruptured by contortions of the larva along the middorsal line, and in
a few minutes it is worked downward and backward and is exi)elled
at the caudad margin of the puparimn, where it usually remains for
a few days clamped under the pupariiun.
The Prepupa.
The prepupal instar is characterized by a rapid metamorphosis,
which, however, actually starts before the casting of the second molt
skin. The plump anal lobes of the first and second instars shrink,
and the characteristic anal plates (PI. II, a) are lacking. The most
evident characters at the beginning of the instar are the wing-pads
and the pointed anal lobes.
The prepupal period covers but 2 da3rs, yet the metamorphosis is
so rapid that decided changes occur. The wing-pads expand to their
full size; the antennal sheaths expand from buds to nearly one-half
of their final length, and the leg sheaths, which at the b^inning of
the instar were indicated by imaginal buds, become one-fourth devel-
oped. The metamorphosis of the anal region continues throughout
this instar and at its end all trace of the conspicuous anal plates is
lost. In their place there now project from the caudal extremity two
Digitized by Google J
Bu). 35 1. U. S. Oept. of Agricuttuw.
Plate
The Terrapin Scale.
a. The second Instar under the puparium; 6, same, sbriaking in the last day of the second
in&tar; c, prepupa; d. pupa; e, imago before emergence; /, pupa case clamped under the pupa-
hum; ff. imago at twigiK'ard migration; h, lateral view of caudal extremity; i, enlarged antenna.
All much enlarged. (OriginaL)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 351, U. S. Dttpt. of Agriculture.
Plate III.
The Terrapin Scale.
Fig. 1.— Appearance of the scale on peach twig during winter; somewhat enlarged. Fio. 2.—
Same, about natural size. Fig. 3.— Male puparia along midrib of peach leaf; considerably
enlarged. (Original.)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TERBAPIN SCALE.
53
fleshy lobes, l>et;^^een i^hich are the sheaths of the copulatory appa-
ratus. (PL II, C-) Tlie ventral eyes are represented at the end of
this instar by ti?«ro broivn spots.
This inst&r is qixit;e constant in its length, being almost invariably
2 days. Table ZXIX-XIII gives data upon 18 males from the rearing
of June 24, 1913. The average length was 2 days.
Table XXXIII. — JLverctge iiunUion of the prepupal instar for 18 specimens of (he terrapin
scale, Mont Alto, Pa., 191S,
No.
\
X>«teof
molt.
I>ateof
tliird
molt.
J Jxily 3X I Aug. 2
A.ue. 4 I Aug. 6
July 81 I Aug. 2
^
July ao
...do
.\ do .-
Ao
...do
Aus. 1
July 31
'■V
Aug. 1
...do
...do
Aug. 2
Aug. 1
Aug. 3
Aug. 2
Time in
propupa.
Days. ^
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
No.
n..
12..
13..
14..
15..
16..
17..
18..
Average.
Date of
second
molt.
July 31
July 30
July 31
July 29
Aug. 1
...do
Aug. 6
Aug. 4
Date of
third
molt.
Aug. 3
Aug. 1
...do
July 31
Aug. 3
...do
Aug. 7
Aug. 6
Time in
prepupa.
Dajft.
Larvse tliat emerge upon the same day may vary as much as IC
days in tlie time required for them to reach the prepupa. The
namial time of entering this instar, however, is clearly defined foi
moBt individuals. One-half of the males in any rearing will ordinarily
become prepupse upon the same date. The normal tinxe for enter-
ing this instar in the region about Mont Alto, Pa., is upon the thirty-
MgrKtVi day after emerging from tmder the parent scale.
I^rep\xp8B were abundant in the orchard at Mont Alto, Pa., in 1912.
from August 8 to August 20. They were present in largest numbers
about August 12; after this they became gradually less abtmdani
\jjii 11 AugiL^t 20. After August 25 they were very scarce. At Mid-
vale, Pa., in 1913, the first prepup» were taken July 18. At Moni
Alto, Pa., in 1913, the first prepupaB were taken July 24. This is t
davs earlier than they appeared at Mont Alto the preceding year.
Since both sexes made the second molt at the same age, anc
since the females migrate twigward upon the second day after this
molt, it happens that the twigward migration of the females coin-
r 'ul<?3 with the prepupal instar of the male. In 1912 the first returnee
females — 6 specimens in all^were taken July 29. While there were
undoubtedly as many prepupse as returned females at this time
upon the trees, none was found. By August 2 the number of returnee
iemales had greatly increased and, upon this date, the first prepupa
of the season were taken.
There was a difference in 1913 of 6 days in the appearance o:
prepup® at the Wcrtz and in the Newcomer orchards. This was du(
to the difference in the locaUties. The Wertz orchard has a stronj
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
54 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
westward slope and is located at an altitude of 1,100 feet, with a
mountain crest extending 1,000 feet above it. There is consequently
a good air drainage and a partial exclusion of the sun^s rays during
the forenoon. The Newcomer orchard, upon the other hand, is
located upon a slight knoU, with relatively level surroundings. Its
altitude is less than 900 feet. Consequently the air drainage is not
good and the siui's rays are unobstructed.
Four prepupae were measured in 1912, with the following results:
Length, maximum 1.29 mm., minimxmi 1.08 mm., average, 1.208 mm.;
width, maximmn, 0. 618 mm., minimum, 0. 562 mm., average, 0.587
mm. On April 28, 1913, 8 specimens gave the following measure-
ments: Length, maximimi 1.420 mm., minimum 1.25 mm., average
1.33 mm; width, maximum 0. 6 mm., minimum 0. 525 mm., average
0.559 mm.
Thikd Molt.
The prepupa starts the third molt by a series of convulsive move-
ments which cause the dorsal skin to spht over the thoracic r^on.
The skin is loosened and removed almost entirely by extending and
contracting the abdomen. The extension thrusts cause a tension
upon the ventral part of the molt skhi which draws the head down-
ward and \mder. This causes the dorsal thorax to protrude through
the spht in the molt skin. This tension increases with each thrust
of the abdomen, so that the head is drawn farther and farther down-
ward and backward untU it finally sUps free from the skin. The
larva then assumes its regular position. In stripping the molt skin
from the legs and antennae the thrusting movements of the abdomen
are aided by the puparium, which, owuig to its attachment with
elastic bands, yields to the molting movements and serves as a
clamp to hold the skin in place while the abdomen contracts for the
next thrust. The thnisting movements of the abdomen usually
cease before the skin is completely expelled from under the puparium.
Because of this the cast skins are mostly found clamped under the
posterior end of the puparium.
The diu'ation of this molt varies with the temperatiffe at the time
of molting and also with the vigor of the specimen. The molt
usually starts in the forenoon with the resimiption of the daily
activity. The average time for this molt is less than an hour. Upon
days when the temperatiu-e reaches 70° F. before 9 a. m., practically
all the molts for the day will be completed by 10 a. m. At low
temperatiu-es many specimens die without completing it. Some
specimens kept in the laboratory where the temperature did not rise
above 70° F. required 18 hours for this molt. They started molting
about 4 p. m. and became dormant before completing it. These
molts were completed the following day.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TEBBAPIK SCALE. 55
The Pupa.
The pupal instar is one of development. In it the rudimental
structiu-es of the preceding instar reach their full development. The
leg sheaths are mere tubes at the beginning of the instar; at the end
they contain the matured legs. The wing sheaths have a similar
history, being at first transparent bags, which develop graduaUy
until the last third of the instar, when the wings fold and the charac-
teristic fleshy color appears. The pupa (PI. 11, d) has a pale flesh
color with chitinized areas upon the head and anal region. There is
also a crescent-filiaped spot and a transverse band of a bright flesh
color. The antennae and legs are at first ventral, but they elongate
and finally appear prominently in the dorsal view.
TniE IN PUPA.
The pupal instar varies in length, occupying from 4 to 11 days,
and averages about 6 days in favorable weather. Those individuals
that spend only 4 days in this instar have invariably been delayed
as prepupse. It is very exceptional for a male to pass 8 days in the
pupa, even when weather conditions are unfavorable. When condi-
tions are such that the pupae require over 9 days, there is a heavy
mortality. Many die, and those that enter the adult stage mostly
die without leaving the protection of the puparimn.
In both 1912 and 1913 rearings were made to determine the length
of the pupal period under varying conditions. Observations made
upon the sp>ecimens in the orchard showed that most of the specimens
remained in the pupa 6 days. A brood that emerged July 22, 1912 —
that is, approximately a month after the height of the normal emer-
gence— was retarded 6 days by unfavorable conditions. Thirteen
mal^ passed successfully through the pupal stage and gave an aver-
age of 8.15 days in the pupal instar.
The average mean temperature for July, August, and September-
1912, was 71.5*" F.
A brood that emerged June 24, 1913 — ^that is, appproximately at
the height of emergence — ^passed through the larval instars in a nor-
mal manner, and the images left the puparia upon the forty-sixth
day. These specimens were slightly retarded, owing to their removal
while in prepupa from the orchard to the laboratory. Foiute^n of
these specimens passed through the pupal instar in a normal manner.
They gave an average of 6.2 days for the pupal instar. The fraction
of a day in excess of 6 days is small and is clearly due to the imf avor-
able environment of the laboratory. Table XXKIV gives the indi-
vidual record of these 14 males. The average mean temperature for
June, July, and August, 1913, was 73.4'' F.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
56
BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Table XXXIV. — Length of the pupal instar of the terrapin scale for larvx that emerged
June 24y 1913, Mont AUo, Pa,— Ccmditwns favorable.
No.
Date
ent«red.
Date
left
Pupal ,
stage. 1
Na
Date
entered.
Date
left
Pupal
stage.
1
.Aug. 2
Aug. 10
Aug. 8
...do
Aug. 7
Aag. 8
...do
Aug. 5
Aug. 10
7 1
0
Aug. 2
Aug. 1
July 31
...do
Aug. 3
Aug. 1
Aug. 0
Aug. 8
Aug. 6
Aug. 6
Aug. 8
Aug. 7
1M99-
2
...do
10
3
11
4
12
13
5
...do
6
Aug. 2
Aug. 1
Aug. 3
14..,
Average
7
8
&2
APPEARANCE OF PUPiB IN THE ORCHARD.
PupsB appear in the orchard upon the second day after the females
start migrating to the twigs, and they are most abimdant about the
sixth day after the maximum daily migration.
At Mont Alto, Pa., 80 per cent or more of the males pass tbiou^
the pupal state during the first half of August.
SIZE OP PUPiB.
The pupa; are slightly smaller than the prepupae, but owing to the
great size oi the wing-pads the pupae average slightly wider.
Table XXXV gives measurements for 20 specimens, the first 10 of
which were from 1912 and the remainder from 1913. The sizAiS are
quite uniform for the two seasons and average 1.248 mm. long and
0.5918 mm. wide. A comparison of the prepupal and pupal measure-
ments from the same individuals shows an average decrease in length
of 0.09 mm. and an increase of 0.03 mm. in width in passing into the
pupal instar.
Table XXXV. — Measurements of 20 mature pupse of the terrapin scale ^ Mont Alto, Pa.,
1912 and 1913.
No.
Length. Width.
No.
1
Length.
Width.
No.
Lengtli.
Width.
1
^f^n.
1.2250
1.3.375
1.2750
1.3(X)0
1.30(K)
1.2.7)0
i.2:i<K)
1.2000
Mm.
0.55
.575
.550
.600
.550
.600
.54;2
.625
0
Mm.
1.1000
1.2500
1.325
1.260
1.250
1.250
1.200
Mm.
0.600
.625
.625
.475
.650
.550
.600
16
Mm.
1.250
1.175
1.275
1.250
1.250
Jim.
ae5u
10
17
.S75
a
11
18
.650
-1
12
19
.665
13
20
.600
(\
14
Average...
15
1.2481
.5916
K
Fourth Molt.
The fourth molt, like the third, usually starts in the morning when
the temperatm-o rises to about 70° F. The first indication that a
molt is about to start is a series of convulsive movements. These
cause the thin pupa case to spht along the anterior third of the mid-
dorsal line. As these movements continue the dorsal thorax pro-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 57
tnidee more and more through this slit and the head is forced down-
ward. Before the head escapes the anterior legs are withdrawn from
their sheaths. These are the first appendages to become free. They
push the case downward until the head is free. After this they force
the case backward under the body. The antennal sheaths cling
ti^tly to the antennas and have to be stripped free from them. The
middle and posterior legs take no active part in the molt, but lie
motionless along the edges of the abdomen. The antennal sheaths
are the last parts of the case to be shed. After the head escapes from
the case it presses against the anterior end of the puparium, which
serves as a fulcrum in forcing the adult free from the pupa case.
Pap« that escape by accident or are removed from under the pupa-
rium are xmable to complete the molt. They continue the effort for
about 24 hours and then die. In the case of weak specimens the
impulse to molt often ceases before the tips of the antennae are free.
After this molt the pupal case is usually found lightly clamped imder
the posterior edge of the puparium. (See PI. 11,/.)
This molt ordinarily requires about 2 minutes for specimens at
temperatures above 70° F., but at a temperature of 66° F. the time
required is 5 minutes. This molt should take place about the forty-
seventh day, but it is frequently delayed. For example, part of a
brood that emerged August 9, 1912, was removed from the trees
when in pupa. They were placed in the laboratory late in September,
away from heat and sunlight, and imder these conditions many of
tile specimens died. The remainder were abnormal and did not molt
until the fifty-fifth day, or 8 days after the natural time. It was evi-
dent that a sUghtly longer delay would have resulted in the death
of all the specimens in the pupa or during the molt.
The Adult Male.
The fourth molt, like the third, is made under the puparium. The
young imago at first has soft and folded wings, but these soon assume
their natural shape. Several hours, however, are required for them to
harden and to become fully colored. After expanding they protrude
sli^tlj from under the posterior end of the puparium and serve as a
means of identifying this stage. The time spent imder the puparium
varies from a few hours to 4 days. The normal time for the male to
remiain under the puparium is from 1 to 2 days. The male regularly
enters the imago in the forenoon of one day and emerges during the
afternoon of the following day, but there are well-defined exceptions
to this. If favorable weather has so accelerated the growth as to
shorten the preceding instars, the imago tends to remain imder the
puparhim imtil the regular time for emerging, but when the early
iDstars are lengthened by unfavorable weather the imago emerges in
less than 2 days.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
58
BULLETIN 351, IT. S. DEPAETMENT OF AGRICULTUEE,
In Table XXXVI are recorded data from 14 males that emerged
late in the season of 1912. They had the fourth molt delayed to the
fiftieth day and give an average of 1.36 days as the time spent under
the puparinm. Specimen No. 3 partly escaped from imder the
puparinm during the fourth molt. It remained in this position for
4 hours and then emerged and started to leave the leaf.
Table XXXVI. — Emergence of 14 males of the terrapin scale from a brood that made the
fourth molt upon the fiftieth day, Mont Alto, Pa., 1912.
No.
Fourth molt.
Emetgenoe.
lime spent
Date.
Time.
Date.
Time.
under pdp*.
1
Sept. 5
Sept. 9
Sept. 11
...do
Sept. 10
Sept. 12
Sept. 11
Sept. 12
Sept. 11
Sept. 12
8.40s. m..
10 a.m....
68. m
68. m
2 p.m.....
6a. m
12 m
Ip. m
2p. m
6 p. m.....
Sept. 6
Sept. 10
Sept. 11
Sept. 14
Sept. 14
...do
8.40 a.m..
10 a. m
10 a.m....
6a. m
68. m
6p. m
9a. m
68. m
6a. m
6a. m
68. m
6 a. m
6a. m
6a. m
1 0
2
1 0
3
4
4
6
S 0
1 16
6
12
7
3 n
8
1 17
Q
1 16
10
12
11
12 m
12m
9 8. m
...do.....
18
12
IS
13
Sept. 10
1 21
14
3p. m
...do
1 15
Average
1 9.07
In Table XXX VTI are recorded data from 12 imagos that emei^ged
from the brood chamber Jime 24 and made the fourth molt upon the
forty-fifth day. They were thus normal in development. They give
an average of 2 days spent imder the pupariuim. Eight specimens
from this same brood were removed from the orchard 7 days before
they emerged as imagos and placed upon glass plates in the laboratory.
As a result of this treatment they were delayed in the pupal stage and
spent only one day imder the puparium, a reduction of one-half in the
time due to the changed conditions.
Tablb XXXVII. — Emergence of 12 males of the terrapin scale from a brood that made
the fourth molt upon the forty-fifth day, Mont Alto, Pa,, 1913
No.
Date
of fourth
molt.
Aug. 10
Aug. 8
. . .do . . . ,
July 7
Aug. 8
.do.
Aug. 6
Imago
emerged.
Aug. 11
Aug. 9
...do
Aug. 11
AuR. 9
...do
..do....
Time
under pu-
parium.
Days.
No.
Average.,
Date
of fourth
molt.
Aug. 10
Aug. 8
Aug. 7
Aug. 5
Aug. 8
Aug. 11
Aug. 10
...do....
Aug. 8
Aug. 10
A comparison of Tables XXXVI and XXXVII shows that th|
time spent under the puparium by the imago varies from 4 houj
to 4 days and that the average time for normal development is
days.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 59
LnagoB were taken from under puparia in small nmnbers at Mid-
vale, Pa., on July 27, 1913. These were the earliest specimens taken
dining the two seasons of observation.
EMEBGENCE OF ADULT MALE.
The imago (PI. 11, g) usually leaves the puparium about the forty-
ninth day. In 1912 the early part of the season was favorable and
theimagos emerged upon the forty-ninth day, but later in the season
males reared from larvae that emerged from the brood chamber August
9 did not leave the puparium imtil the fifty-second day, with several
specimens delayed imtil the fifty-eighth day. In 1913 the males
emei^ged from the forty-third to the fifty-ninth day, with the maxi-
mum emergence upon the forty-ninth day.
DEBCBIFTION OF ADULT MALE.
Length, excliuive of style, 1 mm.; style 0.15 mm.; caudal lobes 0.075 mm., being
one-half as Icmg as the paired lateral appendages; antenna 0.6 mm.; wing, 0.44 mm.
long, 0^ mm. wide. Light flesh color in general. Head light flesh color; anterior
pair of dcnsal eyes reddish brown; posterior dorsal eyes similar and one-half as large;
ventral pair dark brown and sli^^tly larger than the anterior dorsal pair; antennae
whitish, S-jointed, joint I short, thick, semiglobular; joint II slightly longer than I,
claviform; joint III as long as both I and II, slender and cylindrical; the remaining
joints cylindrical and subequal. Collar short cylindrical; prothorax narrow; dorsal
mesothorax lig^t flesh color, with a flesh-colored shield-shaped spot above, and ter-
minated posteriorly by a narrow bright band of the same color; metathorax light
flesh color. Wing iridescent, surface granulose, false vein through anal third; hal-
teres none; caudal filments none; legs and style light brown.
TWIGWARD MIGBATION OF THE MALE.
The male backs out from under the puparium and at once starts
for the twigs. The wings are not ordinarily used in this migration.
The insect is attracted by strong light and seems to be guided some-
what in its movements by gravity and possibly also by the scent of
the femiale. The males leave the underside of the leaf and pass
down the petiole. When the twig is reached they turn downward
and examine the surface carefully as they pass over it. The antennsB
are held aloft and nearly motionless, but the anterior tarsi are kept
in constant motion, tapping and feeling the surface of the twigs.
The males frequently in their search pass to the tips of the twigs,
and in such cases they may circle the twig a few times and then
return to the base and pass on, but when the illumination is strong
they aHght upon other twigs and start again in active search. The
interval between ^n^*ging and starting the active search for the
female scales is very brief, being always less than 30 minutes. The
male is sexually mature when he emerges. When he approaches
a female he taps upon the derm with his anterior legs, usually pass-
ing several times around the specimen in doing so, or he may conduct
dke examination while upon the female's back. During such an
Digiti
zed by Google
60 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPAETMEKT OF AGEICULTURE.
examination the male is often diverted and may move away, but
he will return, again and again, before finally abandoning his efforts.
Those females that have copulated are indifferent to the male, but
females of the same age that have not copulated respond by elevat-
ing and distending the anal plates. After a preliminary examina-
tion of the dorsal surface of the female the male mounts and takes
the copulating position, with the head forward and the body paral-
lel to that of the female. In the act of copulation the abdomen is
curved under until the tip is in contact with the anal plates. The
act of copulation requires from 2 to 10 seconds, according to the
d^ree of exhaustion of the male. At the end of copulation the
male departs and continues his search for additional mat^. If
by chance he returns a second time to the same female his tappings
bring no response. The male is decidedly polygamous and con-
tinues copulating with one female after another until he dies of
exhaustion. The following observations were made upon a male
that left the puparium September 6, 1913:
Emerged from puparium 9.40 a. m.
Discovered first susceptible female and copulated 9.42 a. m.
Discovered second female and copulated 9.44 a. m.
Discovered third female 9.46 a. m.
Discovered fourth female 9.50 a. m.
Discovered fifth female 9.66 a. m.
Died of exhaustion 9 p. m.
At the end of the fifth copulation detailed observations stopped,
but the male continued in diligent search for more females. This in-
dividual died of exhaustion 12 hours after leaving the puparium.
The active male, when moving naturally upon the host plant, lives
less than 24 hours. Almost invariably the male emerges in the fore-
noon, exhausts himself in copulation during the hottest portion of the
day, and dies before midnight. When confined singly in test tubes
they Uve from 1.25 to 2.75 days. Six specimens confined in test
tubes gave 2.75 days as the maximum, 1.25 days as the minimum, and
1.625 days as the average longevity.
Summary op Life History op the Male.
The male Uves an average of 49 days and passes through 5 instars.
In the first two instars it is a vigorous feeder, and accumulates all
the energy used during the remainder of its life. The 3 remaining
instars are characterized, as a whole, by the absence of functional
mouth-parts and by the development of the adult organs.
The length, in favorable weather, and the distinguishing character-
istics of the instars are as foUows.
The feeding instars: First ins tar, length 18 days — vegetative;
second instar, length 18 days — sexual differentiation.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 61
The nonfeeding instars: Third instar (prepupa), length 2 days —
metamorphosis; fourth instar (pupa), length 6 days — development
of adult structures; fifth instar (imago) dormant phase, length 2
days — ^hardening of exo-skeleton; active phase, length 1 day — migra-
tion and copulation.
SEASONAL mSTORT.
There is one generation of the terrapin scale annually. This species
passes the winter as immature females. At the start of hibernation
these are very plump and the ventral part of the abdomen crowds
ag&inst the surface of the host, so that there is no vacant space be-
neath the scale, but by the middle of March the abdomen has
shrunken until there is a dome-shaped cavity beneath it. When the
spring growth starts the specimens become plimip again and the space
beneath the scale disappears. Most of the specimens reach maturity
during the middle of June and begin at once to produce young.
The majority of the scales reproduce for a period of about one month.
but an occasional female may continue actively reproducing for as
long as 3i months. On the second day after the first yoimg are born
they b^in to emerge from the brood chamber of the parent, mostly
through the anal cleft. During the first 5 weeks there is a heavy
migration of larvae to the leaves. This migration reaches its maxi-
mum during the first week of emergence. It then gradually- declines,
until by the end of the fifth week it amounts to less than 5 per cent
of the maximum emergence. (See figs. 2 and 4.) At the beginning
of the sixth week after the appearance of the first young the female
larvBB start migrating from leaf to twig. By the end of the seventh
week the females are ready for copulation and the males migrate to
the twigs. Copulation occurs at this time and the males die at once,
but the females start upon a period of rapid growth, during which
they excrete a vast amount of honeydew, which is responsible for
most of the injury caused by this scale. After 2 or 3 weeks of extreme
activity their growth gradually slackens, but it continues imtil cold
weatJier forces the partly matiure females into hibernation, after which
they remain dormant until the following spring, dying about mid-
summer after the production of yoimg.
MORTALITY.
There is more or less mortality at aU seasons of the year. Ordi-
narily there seems to be comparatively little due to winterkilUng,
thou^ at times this may be considerable. The amotmt of winter-
kiffing depends mainly upon the vigor of the host plant and upon the
sermiy of the winter. During 1912-13, upon well-nourished trees,
the mortaUty from this source was not more than 5 per cent of the
hibernating scales. During 1913-14, however, scales upon trees
€f W vitality had a mortahty as high as 40 per cent.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
62 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The femalos during the sprmg development are sometimes heavily-
attacked by hymenopterous parasites, especially species of the geniis
Coccophagus. At the start of reproduction the larvae of the cocci-
nelUd Ilyperaspis hinotata Say (fig. 17) enter the brood chambers and
attack the lecanium larv^ae, while later the maturing larvae of this
beetle, in atteinptmg to enter the brood chambers, dislodge many of
the gravid females, thus destroying at once both the female and the
unborn young. (See fig. 18.)
Cold, wet weather at the time of reproduction causes many larvae
to die in the brood chamber. These frequently clog the exit and pre-
vent the egress of the remainder of the brood. This condition was
especially noticeable in the season of 1912, when owing to protracted
rain 5 per cent of the gravid scales were affected in this way.
During the leafward migration most of the yoimg succeed in reach-
ing the leaves, and the loss at tliis period is due mainly to drowning
by sudden rains and to the dropping of larvae from dead twigs. Dur-
ing the leaf phase the larvae are often heavily attacked by predatory
enemies, but the female larvae are practically free from parasitic
attack, and the males are but slightly attacked. However, after
returning to the twigs the females are subject, at times, to a heavy-
parasitic attack which may cause a mortahty as high as 20 per cent.
They are also subject to attack at this time by a pyralid moth,
Ldetilia coccidivora Corns t. In conclusion it may be said that the
mortaihty from weather conditions throughout the year is not more
than 50 per cent, and that in favorable seasons it is almost negligible.
ATTENDANTS.
The terrapin scale excretes a honeydew which is very attractive to
ants, and durmg the time in which it is being deposited all the species
of ants in the vicinity will be foimd working upon it, while at other
seasons no ants will be about. In the early spring, when the fruit
buds are about to burst mto bloom, considerable honeydew is excreted
and ants are then actively working, but dmiog the period of re-
production very few ants appear. When, however, the twigward
migration of the females starts, the ants return and remain in almost
constant attendance until the scale hibernates. There is no species
of ant that habitually attends this scale, but most of the orchard
ants feast upon its bounties. Only sUght benefit to the scale results
from the attendance of the ants. Some of them are pugnacious and
undoubtedly tend to ward ofiF predators and to frighten away and
confuse parasites.
The following four species taken at Mont Alto, Pa., attending this
scale were identified by Dr. W. M. Wheeler:
Formica irundcola Nyl. subsp. integra Nyl.
Formica fusca L. var. siibsericea Say.
Lasius niger L. var. americanus Emery.
Prenolepis imparls Say.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TEBBAI^IN SCALE. 63
PREDACEOUS ENEMIES.
At Mont Alto, Pa., in 1912, the lacewing fly Chrysopa nigricornis
Barm, made an attack during the twigward migration which was nn-
important, although it continued until the larvae migrated to the
twigs. This species was reported in 1893 by Mary E. Murtfddt as
actively attacking the larvae of this lecanium.
LarvaB of Hemerohius stigmaterus Fitch were present in 1912 in
considerable numbers and the residt of their attack was quite notice-
able.
The predaoeous pyralid LaetUia coccidivora Comst. was present in
1913, and its larvae made a very vigorous attack. The eggs were
placed singly among th.e scales upon infested twigs, apparently during
the first hidf of June, and hatched in about 6 days. The larva is
grewiish black, with a black, slightly bilobed head, and feeds within
a delicate silken tube which it constructs from scale to scale as it ad-
vances along the twig. It first attacks the gravid females, and
hundreds of their empty derms can often be seen clinging to one
another and to the silken tubes upon trees where it has fed. When
the larva reaches its full development it spins a cocoon within the
silken tube, usually near the axil of a bud or at the base of a fruit
spur. L. coccidivora, at Midvale, Pa., requires about 10 days to pass
through the pupal stage. The imagos emerged from their cocoons
during August and deposited their eggs upon the twigs among the
young scales, which were at that time migrating to the twigs. The
larv» of this second brood made a vigorous attack upon the young
females. This predator is aggressive and \mder favorable conditions
can undoubtedly control this scale. The author observed its work
during the season of 1913, in the orchard of Mr. A. Newcomer, near
Midvale, Pa. It was, however, heavily parasitized, and so made
very little impression upon its host. Two species of parasites were
reared in abxmdance from this pyraUd at Midvale, Pa. They were
Mesostenus ihoracicus Cress, and an imdescribed species of Habro-
hracon.
The predatory bug Camptohrochis nebulosua Uhl., although not
foxmd at Mont Alto, Pa., was reported by Mary E.Murtfeldt as prey-
ing upon the active larvae of this lecaniimi at Kirkwood, Mo., in 1893.
Species of CoccineUidae of the genus Hyperaspis are imdoubtedly the
most efficient agents in the control of this lecanium. Miss Murtf eldt,
in reporting upon Hyperaspis signata for 1893, says: *'The flocoulent
knr» of this coccineUid were very nuimerous and active among
swarming larvae of L. nigrofasciatum but were not foimd upon any
other coccid or aphis during the season.'^
Mr. A. B. Gahan, in Maryland Agricidtural Experiment Station
Bulletin 149, mentions the attack by ladybirds and says: '^* * *
4e species most commonly observed being the twice-stabbed lady-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
64
BULLETIN .T)!, U. S. DKPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
bird, Chilocorus bhmlnerusJ^ Tlie \^Titer has occasionally taken the
adults of this species, whicli is scarce about Mont Alto,. Pa., upon
trees infested with the teiTapin scale, but has never observed either
it or its larva? preymg upon this scale.
At Mont Alto, Pa., there was, m 1912 and
1918, a heavy and effective attack by i7?/-
l)eraspw h'motaia Say. This ladybird was
taken abundantly in the orchard of D. M.
Wcrtz in 1912 and was very abimdant there
and ui adjacent orchards during the follow-
ing year. It was also taken in considerable
nunibei-s durhig 1913 at the Newcomer or-
chard near Midvalo, Pa. ThLs ladybird
worked so ofTectively at Mont Alto, Pa., as
nearly to cxteiTiimate a very severe infesta-
tion. //. hirwtata (fig. 17) differs somewhat
from tlie common species of ladybirds, both
in its habits and life history. Tlie adult l)eetles hibernate under bark
and in rubbish and become active in early spring. They feed upon
Fig. 17. — .V predaceoii.s tMiemy of
the terrapin scale, llyiKTOif plf
hinotata. Much enlarged.
(Original.)
Fig. is.— Eggs and a second-instar larva of Hyiicra.sj,i;< hhintnfn as it appears under a displaced scale: a.
Second instar as disclosed by displacing the host: b, larvic of the terrapin scale; c, a displaced scale;
d, eggs of the pre«latorj' beetle IlyjMra.ypis hinotata in situ; f, egg, highly magnified. All much enlarged.
(Original.)
honeydew and upon apliides dm*hig the early part of the season but
are unable to attack tlie h^caniiim in the spring because of its hard
derm. Tliey feed upon it readily when the derm is crushed.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TBBBAPIN SCALE,
65
The eggs, which are a sahnon color, are deposited singly upon
Uie twigs, a favorite place being upon the ringlike scars that mark
the limit of the seasonal growth. (Fig. 18, d, e.) The eggs are too
small to be seen readily by the unaided eye. They commence to
hatch about the middle of May and the young seek the mature
scales and enter their brood chambers by way of the anal cleft.
When once within the brood chambers they prey upon the newborn
young. The ladybird larvae make their first molt within this brood
chamber and continue to feed until the end of the second instar;
by this time the Hyperaspis larvae are so large that they crowd the
brood chamber and often displace their host.
Finally the larvae leave the host and make
the second molt, usually at the base of a
fruit spur, and then attack other scales,
which they do by forcing their heads un-
der the margin and displacing them. In
this manner they continue through the
third and fourth instars, each larva de-
stroying many gravid scales. When all
the gravid females are destroyed the Hy-
peraspis larvae, which are then mostly in
tiie fourth instar (fig. 19), migrate to the
leaves and continue their feediog upon
such of the larvae as have reached the
leaves. Afterwards the ladybird passes the
pupal stage in a pupa case attached to
the leaves or to the twigs, and sometimes
in cavities under the bark. Most, of the hibernating beetles die
before the first brood emerges from the pupa.
PARASITES.
The terrapin scale is heavily parasitized, and this parasitism is
mostly confined to the female, though the male is slightly attacked.
The first and second instars are very free from parasites, but a heavy
attack starts soon after the young females have attached to the
twigs. This attack increases in violence untU checked by the
approach of winter. Most of the parasites pass the winter within
the host and emerge early in the season to make a new attack, which
reaches its maximum just before the scales begin producing young.
CoccopTiagua lecami Pitch was the most abundant species reared
in 1912, but (7. cogruiius Howard was also abundant, especially in
the falL In 1913 C. lecanii Fitch was rare. In its place C, cognatus
20782**— BuU. 351—16 5
Fio. 19.— The fourth-instar larva of
Hypcnupis binotata as it appears
when attacking the larvs of the
terrapin scale. Much enlarged.
(Original.)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
66 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
appeared in large numbers and attacked the developing females in
the spring. That which was apparently the first brood emerged
from the hosts about June 30. This infestation was very noticeable
owing to the excessive blackening of the scales, as from 20 to 50 per
cent of the scales were killed. Later this same species made an attack
upon the male larvae when in the second instar, and in some instances
5 per cent of the males were destroyed. At Ledy Station, Pa.,
and at Midvale, Pa., this species made a heavy attack in the faU,
but at Mont Alto, Pa., it was scarce, owing to the ahnost complete
destruction of the host by Hyperaspis binotata,
Aphycus stonuichosus GirT was the most abundant parasite in 1913,
being more numerous than C. cogncUus. It was reared in greatest
numbers from the nearly mature females in the early part of June,
but it was also taken in large numbers in the orchards during the
first half of September. Apliycus johnsomi Howard was reared
in small numbers from both EuUcarmm mgrofascUUum Pergande
and E. comi Bouch6 at Mont Alto, Pa., but the last-named species
seemed to prefer i. comi as a host.
B.esides the foregoing parasites, Bldstothrix sericae Dalman was
reared from E. nigrofasciatum in 1912, as weU as numerous specimens
of a new genus of Encyrtid®.
A number of specimens of Prospalta sp. were taken from the
parasite cages during the season of 1912, but these may have come
from armored scales that were introduced by accident.
The records of this bureau contain references to the following
species as parasites of Evlecanium nigrofdscicUum:
Coccophagus ater How.
cognatus How.
lecanii Fitch.
dnguliventris Gir.
longifaaciaius How.
flavoscutellum Ashm.
fratemus How.
Aphycus annulipes Ashm.
johnsoniKo^.
8tomacho8U8 Gir.
Anagyrus nubilipennis Gir.
Eunotus lividus Ashm.
Padiyneuron altiscuta How. (secondary).
Prospalta aurantii How.
Chiloneurus aUncomis How.
Blastothrix sericea Dalm.
Comysfusca How.
SOOTY MOLDS*
Eulecanium nigrofasciatum does most of its damage to the peach
through its mold-infested honeydew, which is deposited in varying
amoimts throughout the entire season. While this honeydew is
objectionable, it would cause very httle damage were it not for the
sooty molds which grow abimdantly on the leaves, twigs, and fruit
and on the soil beneath the trees when these are coated with the honey-
dew. This honeydew becomes noticeable only at three times during
the year. A sUght deposit from the maturing females appears in
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TEBBAPIN SCALE. 67
April aad May, and another in July from the leaf-attached larvse;
Imt neither of these deposits is sufficient to do much damage. The
leaDy important deposit starts about August 10, at the time when
Ae females attach to the twigs, and continues until the approach of
cdd weather. The amount of sooty mold produced is limited
^parently only by the amount of honeydew excreted. The mold
becomes noticeable during the first week in July as black streaks
wbich first appear in the depressions on the upper surface of the
leaves. It gradually increases in amoimt imtil the middle of August,
and from this time until the middle of September the increase is
very rapid. The infestation is at its worst about the middle of
September, at which time fruit, foUage, and branches are coverec^
with a sticky black slime. The extent of the injury depends upon
the degree of infestation and upon the time of ripening of the fruit.
Late varieties are damaged most by the mold-infested honeydew, as
it shows worse upon fruit which ripens after the middle of August.
REMEDIAL BiEASURES.
At the beginning of this investigation lime-sulphur was known to
be ineffective and kerosene emulsion was considered imsatisf actory in
the control of the terrapin scale. The so-called miscible oils (pro-
prietary emulsifiable oils), however, were beheved to be reasonably
efficient when properly employed, though it was believed that there
was more or less danger to the trees and fruit buds from their use.
For convenience in treatment the materials used in these experi-
ments are considered in groups. In aU 62 experiments were per-
fonned, most of them in the orchard of D. M. Wertz, at Mont Alto,
Pa. Tlie others were at Midvale, Pa., and at Washington, D. C.
A consideration of the life history of this scale shows that it can
be attacked both in the larval and the adult stages. The adult stage,
owing to its long duration and accessibiUty, obviously offers the more
favorable opportimity for treatment. During the first season spray-
ings were made against both the larva and the adult.
OIL IVRATS.
Experience shows that all oil sprays are most effective when
applied as a fine mist and imder strong pressure. All oils were
^plied with disk nozzles of the Vermorel type, having apertures of
one-sixteenth inch. The oils noted in Table XXXVIII, aJl of which
were applied in the spring after the buds had started to swell but
before they had opened, proved to be inefficient. These oils were
cmolsified as follows:
Oil 2 gallons.
Soap (hard) i pound.
Hot water 1 gallon.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
68 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPABTMBNT OF AGBICULTUEE.
The soap was dissolved in the water and to this the oil was added.
The whole was churned through a spray pump until no free oil
remained. The emulsion was then diluted to the required strength
and applied.
Figure 20 shows that portion of the Wertz orchard in which most
of the experimental work was done. The orchard is in apples, inter-
planted mostly with Smock and Chair's Choice peaches. The trees
were 11 years old in 1912 and very vigorous. At the beginning of
the investigation these trees were grouped into 14 major plats, as
shown in the figure. The check plats were used as such until a better
method of checking was devised, when they were subplatted and
sprayed. Most of the checking was done by scale counts from
tagged branches upon special check trees left within the plats.
The rosin-oil emulsion was very efficient so far as killing scales was
concerned. This oil dried rapidly, the trees soon appeared as if
covered by a varnish, and the scales died almost at once. Unfor-
timately this oil gave very severe spray injury and some of the
trees were so severely damaged that they required drastic pruning
and stimulation to save them. While the spray injury could have
been lowered by reducing the amount of oil, it was not thought
advisable to continue the experiments.
The com oil, which was also used as a 20 per cent emulsion, was
equally good as a scale killer but formed a waxy scum over the
branches and penetrated deeply into the tree, causing the death of
many large limbs. These trees required drastic pruning and stimu-
lation, but the injury was not so severe as in the case of the rosin oiL
It was, however, too severe to justify its further use.
The gasoline, which was used as a 10 per cent emulsion, had a very
low efficiency as a scale treatment but gave promise in other ways,
as it readily dissolved the wax film which protects the scale from
water, and it caused the scales to loosen temporarily from the bark.
After 'the emulsion evaporated, however, the scales soon resumed
their normal condition. This emulsion produced no spray injury.
MISdBLE OnJS (PROPRIETARY EMULSIFUBLE OILS).
In order to secure data for the better imderstanding of the factors
that enter into the successful use of miscible oils the sprayings
enumerated in Table XXXTX were made.
Digiti
zed by Google
TKE TEBBAPIN SCAI^.
69
I
o
o
o
o
V
9
O
o
9
O
>
9 <
O o
C <
^ <
a <
K o
^ <
O o
<7 <
^ <
<7 <
l»^ o
^<
<7
9 <
D o
a <
O o
O <
^ <
V 9
B <
O
a <
3
4
1^ 1^ •> ^j <M n, 1^ m nnu S S 5 S 5 5 1 ^ 5 $ 5 5 ^ $ •, * K ,» lo ♦ #, n, ^
o < o <
o oo ooeeooeo •••oeeoeeeo* e o«
oooeo ee ooooeeooe*ee*oeooAaatt
ooeoo ooeooooeoooooo oooeoeoee
<o<o<o<o<o<e<o<e<o<o< •<o<e<o<«<«
o<<o<<o<o<o<o<o<o<o<o^ <e<o^o<o<»^o
• OOOOO COOOOOO •00000000900 o
o<o<o<o< <o<o<o<o<o< <o<o<<o<e< <
ooeoeoooooooooooeo ooooeoooo o
^< <0<0<0<0<0<0<0 <o<o< <o< < ^ o
oo OOOOO ooooooooo oo ooo ooo
o<o<o<o<o< <o< <o<o< ^o< ■<o<<o»< <a
ooo ooooo ooooooooo o oo oooooo
< < <o<o<o^o<o<o<o<o< <o< <o< <o
oo o oooooooooooooooooo ooo ooo
o<o<o< <o<o<o<o<o^o<o<e<o< <o<o< o.
oooooo oooooooooooooooooooo oooo
®< < < <o<o<o<o<o<o<e<o<o<o<o<o<o
ooo oo oooooooooooooooooooo oooo
<0<0< <0<0<0<0<0<0-<0<0<0<0<0<o<o
o ooooooooooooooooooooooe ooooooooo
o<o-<o< <o<o<o<o< <0<0^0<0<0<0<0<
OOOOO ooooooooooooooooooooooo
0<0<0<0<0<0<0<0<0< <0<0<0<0'<0<0<
OOOOO ooooooooo ooo ooooooooooooo
0<0<0<0<0<0<0<0<0< <0<0<0<0<0<0<
oooO'Oooooooo oooo ooooooooooo o
0<0<0<0<0<0<0< <o< <o^o<o< <o<o<
oooooooooooooooooo ooooooooooooo
0< <0< <0<9<0<0<0<0<0<0<0<0<0<0<<
oooo oo oooo oooooo oo oooooo
0<0< <0<0<0<0 <0'<0< ^o< < o < o <
o OOOOO oooo ooooo ooooooooo
o< <o<o< <o<o<o< <o< <0<0-<0<0<0
OOOOO oo o oooooooo oooooo
<0<0 0<0<0<0<0<0<0<0<0<0 < o < o < o
o oooo oooo OOOOOOO O OOOOO o
<o<o< <o< <0<0<0<0-<0<0< < < <
ooooooooooooooo ooooo o ooo o
0<0<0<0-,<0<0<0<0<0<0<0-<0<<0<0<<
ooooooooooooooo oooooo o oo o
0< ^0<0<0<0<^<0<0< < < <0'<0<0
oooooo ooo oooooooooo oo o
<o-<o<<o<o< < <o<o< <o<o<o< ^
ooooooooooo ooooooooooo oo
o< <o<o< < < < <o<o<o<o^o<
OOOOO oo-oo oo ooo oo o o
< < <o<o«<o o< <o< < o <o<
o «o 0 o o o o '
o< <o< < < <o< < < < <
oooo o oo ooo
<o< o <o< < < < <o-<
< o <
o o o
< < o
< o <
o o
< o <
o o
< <
a
2
< o < o < < o
o o o
o < ^ o <
ooo ooo
< o < o < o
o o o
• < < o < o
e o
< o <€
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
70
BULLETIN 351, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTUIffi.
4i
8
i
:!
I
1
X
u
<
E
1
p.
all
^^
s
I I
;? f ^
ss sss
c«c< e4oe«
SS s§s
ss III I
S23 232 2
Ob O^ O^ Oft Oft Oft
a « a 2 « 8
Hill a
is
s;
51
1^
2^
p.g P.d
f i f i ji
tM ^ «
§ g I
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TBRBAPIN SCAI^.
71
•5
Si
I
1
If ii ^ i i
I ^^ ^ ^ I
=1
a :m
Sis
o o ooo o o
*. b E : : b E • : : ►»■« ^ ; : : : :
S S S^SS S 9 S S^5 Si!iF: 8* tf {J ^
M
M
I
8.
I
a
I
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
72 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUEE.
In all cases the plats were first carefully inspected and typical
branches were marked with tags which stated the condition of the
scales and the nature of the infestation. About 10 per cent of the
tagged trees were then left unsprayed and the results were taken by
an individual examination of the scales upon the tagged branches.
Before taking the scale coimt all winter killed and parasitized scales
were removed from the branches, so that the coimt includes only
scales that were ahve and normal at the time the sprayings were
made. The result of miscible-oil sprays became evident in a very
few days after the application, when the dead scales began to drop.
Because of the dropping of the scales it was foimd that counts
should be made within one week after the application to show
the true mortaUty. The result of delaying the coimt is well illus*
trated by a comparison of experiments 1 and 2. So far as the counts
show these applications were equally effective, but in the second
experiment there was an interval between the application and the
coimt, and some of the dead scales had disappeared, thus making the
mortality appear lower than it was. In comparing experiments 1
and 2, it appears that miscible oil at the strength of 1 gallon of ofl
to 18 gallons of water, when applied in the spring, is moderately
effective against the scale, without producing injury to the trees,
and that when appUed in the fall it is nearly as effective against the
scale, but produces severe injury to the trees.
Experiment 3 was made to determine the effect of using the p^u-
lar lime-sulphur nozzles in applying miscible oil, and the plat was
sprayed by the regular orchard force without oversight. Of the two
coimts made in experiment 3, the first represents the true mortality
and the second shows only the condition of the scales present on
May 2, when there were fewer dead scales than on April 23, due to
their falling in the interval between the counts. The results in
experiments 1 and 3 show clearly the necessity for using nozzles
with smaller apertxu'es and for making a more thorough application
than is customary when applying dormant lime-sulphiu: sprays.
Experiments 4, 5, 6, and 7 show the effects of applying miscible
oil in the winter, at a time when both the lecanium and the trees are
dormant. When these apphcations were made the day was mild
and calm, with the temperatxu'e well above freezing. A power out-
fit was used and the trees were sprayed until there was a alight
dripping from the branches. The time between the date of apply-
ing these sprays and the date of making the scale coimt was rather
too long to give the full mortality. The error, however, was small
and was estimated at less than 6 per cent. These four experiments
were all ineffective. Experiment 4 was accompanied by severe
injury and experiments 5, 6, and 7 showed spray injiuy and failed
to control the scale. It is therefore concluded that miscible oils are
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 73
Dot satisfactory when applied against the terrapin scale in the winter
season.
In the spring of 1913 6 sprayings were made to test the efficiency
of commercial miscible oils to which a wax solvent had been added.
Accordingly experiments 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13 were made and the
sprays were apphed in connection with the sprayings in experiments
1 to 7. It is to be noted that the spray used in experiment 8 was
quite effective as a scale destroyer and that only a small amoimt of
spray injury resulted. It serves, by contrast with experiment 4, to
show that oils which are dangerous and ineffective when apphed in
winter may be apphed with success in the spring. Particular atten-
tion is called to the effective work done by miscible oil when used at
the rate of 1 gallon to 20 gallons of water in experiment 9. Where
gasoline was added to the miscible oil there was a decided loosening
of the scales, and many of the dead scales fell before the coimt was
made, while comparatively few fell where miscible oil was used
alone. This condition was noticed at the completion of the coimt,
and comparisons were then made of the nimiber of hving scales in
the plats having miscible oil only, in contrast with those having
both miscible oil and gasoline, with the result that in all cases fewer
living scales were foimd upon the twigs treated with the spray con-
taining gasoline than upon those having miscible oil alone. It is
therefore concluded, regardless of the count, that miscible oils are
improved as a spray by the addition of gasoline emulsion.
Experiment 14 was made in Mr. A. Newcomer's orchard near Mid-
vale, Pa., November 6, 1913, to determine the effect of a miscible oil
and gasoline mixture when apphed in the fall just after the leaves
had fallen, and 15 trees were sprayed for comparison with the same
percentage of miscible oil, but without gasoline. Unf ortimately it was
not possible to make a scale coimt until March 31, 1914, when many
of the dead scales had fallen. Infested limbs upon the check trees
were compared with similar branches on the trees in experiment 14,
and these comparisons showed that the formula was more effective
with gasoline than without it. The spray injury in this experiment
was slight and the treatment was moderately efficient. All of the
experiments made March 28 and 29, 1913, were finally rated as effi-
dent, except No. 13, where the spray was deficient in oil. It is the
author's behef that miscible oil — ^while not as desirable as linseed-oil
^nubioD; which is treated later — can be used with safety when
applied just before the buds open, in dilutions of 1 gallon in 16 to 20
gallons of water. It is very effective, especially when the oil is
mixed with one-half its volume of gasoline (emulsified). The natural
mortality in the Newcomer orchard for the winter of 1913-14, as
determined by a scale count from unsprayed trees, was 55.01 per cent.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
74 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTURE.
COTTONSEED OIL.
The 10 experiments summarized in Table XL were made with cot-
tonseed oil dming 1912 and 1913. This oil was emulsified in all cases
exactly as kerosene oil is emulsified in the preparation of kerosene
emulsion. The sprays were applied in experiments 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7
with a hand sprayer and the appUcations were so thoroughly made
that every scale was covered. The sprays in the other experiments
were applied with a power sprayer.
Digitized by Google j
THE TERRAPIN SCALE.
75
OOOOO OO OO
m
4^
8SSS8 SS SS 9
S'
OOOOO OO OO
I
oc^ooo OO >oe«
I
8SS8S8 SS SS 9
i§S8§ §§ §8 §
S29 88
I
I
22
«^
ja.
s
o
i
CO
I
IS
<
1
I
SI'S
l^r
M e« ,00 eo
&•§ ^-o gl g-o
-< 5z; iS 5
2 .
I
11
1^
a
I
e
»
is
'■■^ r
5
9
.a
I
>.
I
^1
IslslslfIS lit Ip kS Ms lit
s~5:
I
■§'1
i
«^ e« eo ^
Jl
A4
i I BoSkS 5c5 I'd ad
S
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
76
BULLETIN 351, XJ. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
-2i
I
i
5i
<
It
feel
3
o
II 21 i
oo oo
oSS oSo So
oo oo
§ §
§s ss g g
So
c«co
So
S^ s:;^ ^
I
fi^^ k I i
<
3*0 a'C)
>.
11
m
m
•J
1
3
a
ill
wg,|z
§
s
I
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TKRRAPIN SCALE.
77
^ $. ^ i t
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
78
BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGKICULTUBE.
*2
1
a sas
^S
s
i i i i
U
i
■§' ^4-s"
•o
i i 4 i
2
o ogo
SS
s
2 2 2 2
1
1
ni
to
CO
•o ®^®
SS
s
1
^ 2 :: S
Jill
o
o opo
o«
2
o o o o
1
4i
>
g
$ 8SS
22
2
S S R S
i
1
??
- og:
SS
S
a 2 sj s
3
1
§
§ §§§
§§
S
8 8 1 g
i
5
CO
0.
00 00 CO 00
3 IP
»o 1
1^
1
■1
1
P.
a
<
si
wo /-iCS C^ C«» C>» M C« • •
CI
4
m i i ^:
1
>
n
<
i
i
Is
11
o o
•o -c
c
Hi
i
1 "
i
2SS Sp 8-.? 5z9
»|.g slg «•?; 3=1
|S||U=ltlS|iJt.|
00 B> «0 P- .
H
Hi
li-
c c
c
©•
©•
o° o' o° e°
■C T! -o -o
fe
<
^= ==== = = = = =
P
1
s
1^ § i^ 5:
o
S 2 2 - '
-^
CI «
-r ic
to
!>. QC Ci = 1
2
0^
>
d ►<
K
>
>
till
1 1 K \
CO G S S3
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TEBKAPIN SCALE.
79
I
a,
I
a,
1..
3
St
a
a
5
I
&U^1
m
I
I
<
•81
6 "T, 6 6 6
Q g Q Q A
sj ?; s;
1 ssaas
5 s
g 8 S « *
•O aOtOtOOiO
lO lO to O O
I S^^^i ^ ^ ^
§ §§§§i
s s s s s
00 »-^s«a
00 •«okao
eg ««SeoS2
33 3 33
Weoeo «o «
2S0S s s
si
J;oo g
33 "3 3
3 "3 •3-5B
Ill
5)3 S
iir ? I
c« mMeq
!■§■§
I I
>!
,8
SSilf
.11!-
eq M « C9 c«
1-1 10 >o
h
f^
«o r« 00 Ok
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
80 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGBICULTURE.
The spray used in experiment 1, which was made jxist before the
flower buds burst, was very effective as an insecticide. Every scale
that was covered with the spray solution was killed. Of 1,000
scales examined only 1.2 per cent were alive, and these were pro-
tected in various ways from the spray and were not completely
drenched. The spray injury was severe, however, owing to the
excessive amount of oil.
Experiment 2 was made late in the fall with 2 per cent less oil. This
spray was very efficient against the scale, but the injury was more
pronoimced than in experiment 1. The trees used in both experi-
ments required severe pruning and a liberal application of sodium
nitrate to restore them to their original vigor.
Experiment 3 was made at Washington, D. C, to determine the
effect of this oil upon young trees. A vigorous 2-year-old tree was
thoroughly sprayed with a hand sprayer xmtil all the scales were
wet with a 10 per cent emulsion of the oil. AU the scales upon this
tree were destroyed, but the spray injury was so severe that the
tree died. It is worthy of note that this was the only tree killed
with oil during the two seasons' work. The increased tolerance of
the older trees to oil seems to be due entirely to the protection
afforded by their corky bark.
Experiment 4 was also made at Washington. It shows that
cottonseed oil in a 5 per cent emulsion can be appUed effectively
and safely to 2-year-old trees in mild winter weather. This formula,
however, does not contain enough of oil to make it effective agidnst
the terrapin scale when applied on old trees, as is clearly shown in
experiment 9.
Experiment 5 was also made at Washington, D. C. Two heavily
infested 2-year-old trees were sprayed with a 5 per cent emulsion of
equal parts of cottonseed oil and gasoline. A hand sprayer was
used and all the scales were thoroughly wetted with the spray.
Nine days after the apphcation 98 per cent of the scales were dead
and no spray injury developed during the season. This spray was
also effective against scale upon old peach trees, as is shown in
experiment 8.
In experiment 6 the amount of oil was reduced to 1.5 per cent and
the gasoline was increased to 3.5 per cent. The application was
made in the same manner and at the same time as in experiments
3, 4, and 5, but it was ineffective, owing to the small percentage of
oil. The high percentage of gasoline increased the wax-solvent
power of the solution and its narcotic power, but did not directly
contribute to its killing power.
Experiment 7, in which 10 per cent cottonseed oil and 5 per cent
gasoline was used, gave practically the same results as 10 per cent
cottonseed oil when tised alone. Since experiment 7 shows leas
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TERBAPIN SCALE. 81
spray injury than experiment 3, it is evident that the gasoline did
not tend to increase the spray injury. This experiment^ in connec-
tion with experiment 3, shows that a 10 per cent emulsion of the
oil, even when used at the most favorable season, is too strong for
2-year-old trees whether used with or without gasoline. The for-
mula in experiment 7, while containing more oil than is required for
killing scale upon young trees, would imdoubtedly be very effective
when used upon old trees, but owing to the effective results obtained
with. 2 J per cent of this oil in experiments 5 and 8, it was not thought
advisable to experiment further with the 10 per cent emulsion.
In experiment 8 an emulsion containing 2i per cent of cottonseed
oil and 2i per cent of gasoline was applied to 28 vigorous 12-year-old
trees at Mont Alto, March 29, 1913, with very satisfactory results.
The interval between the appUcation of this spray and the time of
making the scale coimt was too long to show the maximum effi-
ciency of the spray, nevertheless the mortality as shown is above 90
per cent and there was no spray injury. Observations made upon
the trees used in this experiment show that the oil content could
have been considerably increased without injury to the trees.
Experiment 9, in which a 5 per cent emulsion of cottonseed oil
was carefully sprayed upon 16 trees at Mont Alto, Pa., gave unsat-
isfactory results. The mortality was about 50 per cent and the
spray injury was neghgible. Tlie oil in this case seemed to lack
penetration and spreading power.
A comparison of the data in this experiment with that in experi-
ments 5, 8, and 10 shows that a 5 per cent emulsion of this oil is
satisfactory only when used with gasoline. Experiment 10 was the
last one performed with cottonseed oil. An extensive spraying was
made to test the efficiency of the gasoline and cottonseed-oU emul-
sion when appUed in the fall. This experiment was successful and
showed that the terrapin scale can be attacked in the fall with satis-
factory results. Cottonseed oil, however, gives its best restQts when
Implied in the spring. It is possible to increase the percentage of
cottonseed oil in this formula up to as high as 7 per cent without
noticeable injury to the trees. This increase in oQ, however, adds
to the cost of the spray without greatly increasing its efficiency,
except for use on old trees with very rough bark. In this case it
may be found of advantage to use 7 per cent of the oil.
UNSEED on..
Five experiments against the terrapin scale were made with raw
linseed oil. The essential facts established in these experiments are
shown in Table XLI.
Experiment 1 was made at Mont Alto, Pa., upon vigorous 11-year-
old trees that were nearly ready to burst into bloom. The same
2a782*»— BuU. 351—16 6
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
82 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
power outfit was used as in applying the cottonseed-oil sprays. The
oil was emulsified in the same way as kerosene in making kerosene
emulsion. This oQ at 20 per cent gave an efficiency of from 93 to
100 per cent, but the injury to the trees was severe. It did far less
injury, however, than any other of the oils used at this strength.
This experiment shows that raw linseed oil was a pronusing oil and
that it should be used at a much decreased strength.
Experiment 2 was performed on March 19, 1913, by spraying a
vigorous 2-year-old tree at Washington, D. C, with a 10 per cent
emulsion of raw linseed oil. This spray was apphed very thor-
oughly with a hand sprayer at the time the buds were swelling.
Every scale upon this tree was killed and there was no spray injury.
The experiment shows that it is feasible to apply a 10 per cent emul-
sion to 2-year-old trees in the spring without injury.
Experiment 3 demonstrated that a 5 per cent emulsion of raw
linseed oil will destroy more than 80 per cent of the scales upon
12-year-old trees, provided the apphcation is made in the spring
before the buds open. In experiment 4 the formula used differs
from the one used in No. 3 in that gasoline was substituted for one-
half of the oil. The scale coimt gives nearly the same efficiency for
this experiment as for the preceding one. This experiment shows
clearly that gasoline increases the efficiency of the spray. E^xperi-
ment 5 was made by spraying 200 moderately vigorous 12-year-old
peach trees at Midvale, Pa., November 5, 1913, at which date the
trees had just finished shedding their leaves. An emulsion con-
taining 5 per cent raw linseed oil and 3 per cent gasoline was applied
with a power sprayer, furnishing 175 to 200 poimds pressure, and
equipped with angle nozzles having apertures of one-sixteenth inch.
The efficiency upon well-sprayed branches was 100 per cent and there
was no spray injury.
Experiments 4 and 5 show that an emulsion containing 5 per cent
raw linseed oil and 3 per cent gasoline will effectively control the
terrapin scale without injury to the trees. While experiment 5
shows that linseed oil gives good results in the fall, the author recom-
mends that this oil bo apphed in the spring just before the buds o]>en.
Cost op Linseed Oil.
At the date of writing this paragraph linseed oil sold in Wash-
ington, D. C, for 50 cents per gallon in barrel lots, and gasoline at
13 cents per gallon. The cost of this spray, exclusive of the labor of
making it, would be about 3 cents per gallon.
5 gallons raw linseed oil, at 50 cents $2. 50
3 gallons gasoline, at 13 cents 39
2 pounds laundry soap, at 5 cents 10
92 gallons water
lOOgallons 2.99
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 83
It requires fi^m IJ to 2J gallons of this emulsion thoroughly to
spnj a vigorous 12-year-old tree. The average tree of this age
requires about 2 gallons, while a 2-year-old tree requires from a pint
to a quart. It appears that from these figures the spray material
will cost from 1 cent to 8 cents per tree.
A single application of this spray, if carefully made, will control
the terrapin scale. It has been found that the best way of preparing
this spray is by mixing 5 gallons of raw linseed oil and 3 gallons of
gasoline and then adding 2 pounds of soap dissolved in 4 gallons of
hot water. The whole is churned for 5 minutes through a spray
pump, then diluted to double its volume and churned again for 1
minute, after which it should be diluted to 100 gallons, when it is
ready to use.
MVaSD OILS.
Two experiments were performed in 1913 with emulsions of mixed
oik. These emulsions were made and appUed in exactly the same
way as the linseed-oil emulsions.
Table XTJT shows the chief details, and the results for the mixed-
oil emulsions. These experiments, when compared with experi-
ments 3 and 4 of Table XLI, show that these mixed oils were less
efficient than raw linseed oil and that there is no advantage in mixing
them.
NiconNB.
E^ight experiments were made with nicotine compoimds. These
sprays were appUed partly with a barrel sprayer and partly with a
power sprayer, but the same set of disk nozzles was used in all cases.
The chief details and the results of these experiments are recorded
m Table XLIII.
When reference is made to nicotine sulphate, the commercial article
containing 40 per cent of nicotine is intended; Ukewise references to
tobacco extract refer to preparations containing 2.7 per cent of
nicotiQe, or its equivalent.
Experiments 5 and 6 of Table XLIV and experiments 5, 6, 7, and 8
of Table XLV are to be considered in connection with Table XLIII.
Of these 14 experiments, 5 were directed against the hibernating
scales (4 of these in the spring and 1 in the fall) ; 5 against the leaf-
attached larvae, 2 against the females while making the twigward
migration, and 2 against the young females while making their
maximum growth. These experiments were aU negative and showed
that nicotine is ineffective against the terrapin scale.
COATING SPRAYS.
A number of experiments were performed in 1912 with coating
sprays, to determine the feasibihty of smothering the scale. The
chief details and the results of these experiments are recorded in
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
84 BULLETIN 351, IT. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTURE.
Table XLIV. The first 4 experiments were made with self-boiled
lime-sulphur, 8-8-50, and were applied with coarse nozzles at a
pressure of 100 pounds.
In experiment 1 the application was made May 24, when 95 per
cent of the overwintered scales were mature. This spraying was both
extensive and thorough, but was inefficient against the mature
females and failed to control the sooty molds. Experiment 2 was
directed against the larvae during the beginning of the leafward migra-
tion, but gave an efficiency of only 15 per cent and also failed to
control sooty molds.
In experiment 3 two appUcations were made, the first at the be-
ginning of the leafward migration and the last when 95 per cent of the
larvae were upon the leaves. Both sprayings were ineffective and
the small mortality (6.3 per cent) came entirely from the first appli-
cation.
In experiment 4, 3 applications were made, when the leafward
migration started, when 95 per cent were upon the leaves, and just
before the twigward migration. These applications were also ineff-
fective, and the mortality was no greater than in the case of experi-
ment 1. The fimgus was partly controlled, but the fruit was coated
with lime to such an extent that the general effect was injurious
rather than beneficial.
In experiments 5 and 6 tobacco extract was added to the self-
boiled lime-sulphur, and the applications were made when 95 per
cent of the larvae were upon the leaves. These experiments gave no
better results than the preceding ones and showed that tobacco
extract is inefficient, at the strength used, when applied against the
larvae when they are upon the leaves.
In experiment 7 self-boUed lime-sulphur was modified to increase
the thickness of the coating, and was directed against the young
females. The branches of the yoxmg twigs were coated jxist before
the females started their twigward migration. This experiment 'was
ineffective.
Experiment 8 was made to test the smothering properties of
Paris white and glucose. The application was made with a barrel
pump, just before the females started migrating to the twigs. THie
spray was ineffective.
In experiment 9 a thick whitewash^ to which casein had been
added, was applied just before the young females started the twig-
ward migration. The limbs were heavily coated, but the scales were
not killed.
In experiment 10 pulverized china clay was used. It proved to
be a poor coating material and was inefficient. Considered as a whole
the experiments in Table XLIV indicate that self -boiled lime-sulphur
is ineffective when applied at the time of the twigward migration,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 85
both against the scale and the sooty molds. They also mdicate that
the other substances tested are meflfective against the terrapin
scale.
The experiments with coating sprays performed in 1912 were fail-
ures, so far as controlling the terrapin scale was concerned, but they
were valuable in showing that sulphur was the active component of
self-boiled lime-sulphur and that its efficiency could be improved
by iuCTeasing its spreading and sticking powers. It was evident also
that sulphur was ineffective against the mature females.
COATING SPRATS WTTH FLOUR ADDED.
In 1913 experiments were made to perfect a coating spray by adding
a spreader and sticker to self-boiled lime-sulphur and by increasing
the sulphur content. The chief details and the results of these ex-
periments are recorded in Table XLV.
In these experiments the flour was first made into a thin batter
with cold water and then cooked to form a paste. The other ingre-
dients were combined exactly as in making self-boiled lime-sulphur,
after which the flour paste was added.
In the first four experiments the same spray was used. Experi-
ment 1 was directed against the larvae during the leafward migration
and was very successful. Experiment 2 was directed both against
leafward migrants and against the larvae upon the leaves. It shows
high efficiency, which is, however, entirely due to the first spraying,
as is shown by the negative results in experiment 3.
Experiments 5, 6, 7, and 8 were performed with the same formula
used in the preceding experiments, except that 1 pint of 40 per cent
nicotine sulphate was added. The results from these experiments
show that the nicotine adds nothing to the efficiency of the spray.
Exi>eiiment 9 was made with flour paste and shows that flour
acts only as a spreader and adhesive and not as a killing agent.
Experiment 10 was made with modified self-boiled lime-sulphur
to which flour paste was added, and was directed against the larvae
after they were well established upon the leaves. The spray was
ineffective, as were all other applications made against the leaf-
attached larvae.
From these experiments it appears that the terrapin scale can be
eontrolled by a coating spray applied against the larvae diu-ing the
leafward migration and that these sprajrs are inefficient at other
times. Coating sprays are more difficult to apply than the oU sprays
and require a first-class sprayer with a powerful agitator and plenty
of pressure. Coarse-angle nozzles should be used and the underside
of the leaves should be thoroughly drenched, and the spray must be
applied just before the young emerge. The time for applying this
apray, which is immediately after the appearance of yoxmg xmder the
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
86 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
scales, can best be determined by displacing a number of scales daily
during the early part of June. In the region of Mont Alto, Pa.,
the young will appear imder the scales about Jime 12. For this
coatmg spray use the following formula:
Pounds.
Stono lime 15
Sulph iir 20
Flour 10
Water to make 50 gallons.
The lime and sulphur arc combined exactly ae in making self-boiled
lime-sulphur. The flour is made into a thin batter with cold water
and cooked to a paste. It is then added to the lime-sulphur, and the
whole should then be diluted to 50 gallons, when it is ready for use.
Particular care must be taken to get a batter free from lumps; if this
is done, and the spray is strained through a sieve, there will be no
trouble in passing it through the nozzles. This spray when properly-
applied will kin from 94 to 100 per cent of the larvee. It is effective
only against the leafward migrating larvae and is useless if applied
after the larvae have attached to the leaves.
SUMMARY.
SUMMARY OF LIFE HISTORY.
The female of the terrapin scale reaches maturity about the 1st of
Jime and gives birth to living young soon afterwards. These are
retained for a period of from 1 to 3 days in the brood chamber, which
is a dome-shaped cavity beneath the scale. They then emerge and
migrate at once to the underside of the leaves, where they settle,
mostly along the midrib and the larger veins. The first instar, which
lasts about 18 da^'^i, is vegetative and the larvae show no sexual differ-
entiation, but during the second instar, which also lasts about 18
da>^, sexual differentiation is very pronounced. At the end of this
instar the female is very flat and circular, while the male, which is flat
and decidedly oval, is protected by a conspicuous waxy structure
called the puparium. After the second instar the sexes follow
entirely different lines of development.
The female remains for 1 day upon the leaves after entering the
third instar, which is the final instar for this sex. Diuing this day it
secretes a tliin wax scale, which protects it during the twigward
migration. At the beginning of this migration the female larvae
abandon the leaves and pass to the basal part of the new growth,
where they make their final attachment within the area of greatest
illumination. They then commence a period of rapid growth, during
the first 11 days of which they develop their mating color, which is a
conspicuous red band upon the middorsal line. At the time the
dorsal band is completed the male migrates to the leaves, mates, and
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TEfiHAPlK SCALE. 87
dies. The female after mating starts a rapid growth during which the
mating colors and the larval characters are lost and during which vast
quantities of honeydew are deposited. By the end of the twentieth
day upon the twig the female has assumed all the adult characters.
After this, growth graduaUy slackens xmtil the cold of the approaching
winter forces the scale into hibernation. In the spring growth is
r^umed. Maturity is reached early in June and the scale dies early
m July, after having lived about 13 months.
The male, which makes the second molt and passes all of its remain-
ing instars, except the last day of the imago, under the protection of
the puparium, loses its mouth-parts at this time and lives during the
remainder of its life upon nourishment taken in the first two instars.
The third or prepupal instar lasts about 2 days and is a period of rapid
metamorphosis, in which the larval organs are replaced by the adult
stnxctures. In the fourth or pupal instar, which lasts for about 8
days, the adult organs reach their full development. At the fourth
and final molt the imago escapes from the pupal case, but remains for
about 2 days xmder the puparium before emerging, when it migrates
at once to the twigs, copulates, and then dies, after having lived about
49da3rs.
SUMMARY OF REMEDIAL MEASURES.
An endeavor was made to prevent the soot injury which is the main
cause of complaint from orchardists against this scale. During the
first season one series of sprayings was made to control it in the
presence of the living scale, and another series was made to control it
by destroying the scale. It was foimd impracticable to control the
''soot " directly. Accordingly in the second season all sprayings were
made against the scale. Seven groups of materials were tested, the
first of which contained com oil, rosin oil, and gasoline. Of these, the
two former were good treatments, but were very injurious to the
trees. The latter was inefficient but gave promise as a wax solvent
and penetrant.
MiSCIBLE OUiS.
The second group contained miscible oils. Nine experiments were
made with miscible oil, including 6 with miscible oil and gasoline,
and 2 with miscible oil and nicotine.
In the first case it was evident that miscible oil was injurious when
used in the winter at effective strengths, but that it could bo used
without injury if applied in the spring between the swelling and the
bursting of the fruit buds. It was also evident that healthy 1 1-year-
old trees could be sprayed for three consecutive seasons with miscible
oil 1 to 18 without injury to the trees, and that the scale could be
controlled by two seasons' spraying with this oil.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
88 BULLETIN 3.")!, V. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
In the second case it was evident that combining gasoline emulsion
and miscible oil added to the efficiency of the oil. The greatest effi-
ciency was obtained when 5 parts of miscible oil were added to 3
parts of gasohne (emuLsifiod) and 92 parts of water. In the third
case it was evident that adding nicotine did not increase the efficiency
of miscible oil.
Cottonseed Oil.
The third group consisted of 10 experiments made with cottonseed
oil. This was a promising oil and both its penetration and wax-
solvent powers were greatly increased by the addition of gasoline.
The highest efficiency was obtained by using an emulsion containing
Cottonseed oil 5 gallons.
(laHolino 3 gallons.
Soap 2 pounds.
Water 92 gallons.
combined as indicated on page ()7. This oil proved nearly as effective
as linseed oil.
Linseed Oil.
The fourth group consists of 5 experiments made with raw lin-
seed oil. It was soon evident that this oil was promising. It was
very efficient when used alone as a 10 per cent emulsion, but it gave
even better results when combined with gasoline. The gasoline
component increases the fluidity of the oil, dissolves the protecting
wax fdm, and tends to asphyxiate the scales. After the emulsion has
penetrated to the underside of the scale this component evaporates,
while the other component, after smothering the scale, becomes inert.
In this respect it is superior to the oils ordinarily used against this
scale. The best results are obtained by using an emulsion made up
as follows:
Raw linsoetl oil 5 gallons.
Gasoline 3 gallons.
Laundry soap ' 2 pounds.
Water 92 gallons.
When made as indicated on page 82, this emulsion applied in the
spring before the buds burst will control the terrapin scale at a single
application and at a cost for material of from 1 to 8 cents per tree.
This was found to be the most effective treatment of any of the reme-
dies tried against this insect.
Mixed Oils.
Group 5 contains only two experiments. They show conclusively
that there is no advantage in mixing linseed and cottonseed oils.
' This in the minimum amount; more may be required if the ooap is mild.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 89
Niooukv.
In group 6 the efficiency of nicotine was tested in 14 experiments.
Both the commercial sulphate and the aqueous solution were tested.
This substance proved inefficient in all cases.
Coahno Sprats.
In group 7 various coating sprays were tested. Twenty experi-
ments were made. They were intended for the control of both the
sooty fungus and the terrapin scale, but were ineffective against the
"soot" in all cases where the insect was not killed.
From these experiments it is evident that the period in the life
history of this insect when it can be most readily controlled by a coat-
ing spray is during the leafward migration. It is also evident that sul-
phxu* is the efficient component in the coating sprays, and that the
ordinary self-boiled lime-sulphur lacked the spreading and adhesive
properties necessary to make it an efficient coating spray. The modi-
fied formula given under *'Reconmiendations" (second formula,
below) was accordingly devised.
RECOBfMENDATIONS FOR CONTROL.
Spray in the spring before the buds burst, with the following
emulsion (see page 82):
Raw linseed ail 5 gallons.
Qasoline SgaUons.
Soap 2 pounds.
Water >... 92 gallons.
If the forgoing formula is not used, spray with proprietary mi.srible
oils, containing not less than 75 per cent mineral oil, at the rate of
1 part to 16 to 20 parts of water. Applications of this formula should
likewise be made in the spring diuing the period between the swelling
and the opening of the buds. (See pp. 68-73.)
To protect a crop after the trees are in foliage, spray just before
the leafward migration (see pp. 19-24) with the following formula
(p. 85):
Flour (in paste) 10 pounds.
Stone lime 15 pounds.
Sulphur 20 pounds.
Water to make 50 gallons.
This should be applied at the time the yoxmg appear in the brood
chambers, but before they have emerged. This time can be best
determined by making a daily examination of infested twigs. Since
the young are not destroyed after they have attached, only one
thorough application is advisable. This treatment, owing to the
limited time for its application, is not as practicable as the dormant
sprayings and should be used only in emergencies. This spray does
not seriously coat the fruit.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
90 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPAETMENT OF AQWCULTUBE.
BIBUOGRAPHY.
Bbckwith, M. H. Report of the Entomologist. In 7th Ann. Rpt. CoL Agr. Expt
Sta., p. 160-175, 5 fig., 1895.
Plum scale, p. 168-160.
Banks, Nathan. Principal Insects Liable to be Distributed on Nuraery Stoc-k
U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Ent. Bui. 34, n. s., 46 p., 43 fig., 1902.
The peach lecanium, p. 11-12.
Britton, W. E. The Chief Injurious Scale-Insects of CJonnecticut. Conn. Agr.
Expt. Sta. Bui. 151, 16 p., 17 fig., June — , 1915.
Terrapin scaist—Euleomi^m nigrofaackOum Perg., p. 8-9.
Bethunb, 0. J. S. Remedial note. In 38th Ann. Rpt. Ent. Soc. Ontario, p. 20. 1907.
Bethtjne, C. J. S. Insects Affecting Fruit Trees. Ontario Dept. Agr., Agr. Col.
Bui. 158, 36 p., 49 ^g.. 1907.
The peach lecanium scale {Leoanium penicae)^ p. 23.
Caesar, Lawson. Observations on a few insects of the seaflon. In 40th Ann. Rpt,
Ent. Soc. Ontario, p. 16-18, 1910.
General note, p. 18.
Chambuss, C. E. Scale Insects: San Jose and Other Species. Univ. Tennessee
Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui., v. 10, no. 4, p. 140-151, 1898.
The peach lecanium, p. 149.
CocKERELL, T. D. A. Miscellaneous notes on Coccidae. In Canad. Ent., v. 27, no. 9,
p. 253-261, Sept., 1895.
Lecanium persicae upon an umbellifer, p. 256-257.
CocKERELL, T. D. A. Scale insects. In Sci. Gossip, v. 3, no. 33, p. 239-241, 1897.
Lecanium associated with ants.
CocKERELL, T. D. A., and Parrott, P. J. Contributions to the knowledge of the
Coccidae. In Industrialist, v. 25, no. 4, p. 227-237, 1899.
Note on locality and characters, p. 234.
Close, C. P., and Ballard, W. R. Peach Culture. Missouri Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 159,
p. 111-190, 1911.
The terrapin scale, p. 18^190.
Dodge, C. R. Scale insects of the peach. In Field and Forest, v. 3, nos. 7 and 8,
p. 131, 1878.
Felt, E. P. Scale Insects of Importance and List of the Species in New York State.
N. Y. State Mus. Bui. 46, v. 9, p. 290-377, 15 pi., 5 fig., 1901.
Locality note, p. 357.
Felt, E. P. Insects Affecting Park and Woodland Trees. N. Y. State Mus. Memoir 8,
V. 1, 459 p., 48 pi., 63 fig., 1905.
Black-banded scale, p. 200-203.
Fernald, H. T. The San Jose Scale, and Other Scale Insects. Penn. Dept. Agr. Bui.
43, 22 p., 9 fig., 1899.
Life-history note, p. 21.
Fernald, Mrs. M. E. A Catalogue of the Coccidae of the World. Mass. Agr. CoL,
Hatch Expt. Sta. Bui. 88, 360 p., 1903.
EuUcanium spp., p. 101.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TEBBAPIN SCALE. 91
Gahak, a. B. The peach lecanium or terrapin scale. In Maryland Agr. Expt. Sta.
Bui. 123, p. 15^-160, fig. a^, 1907.
Gahan, a. B., and Weldon, G. P. Miscellaneoufi insect notes from Maryland for 1906.
U. 8. Dept. Agr. Bur. Ent. Bui. 67, p. 37-^, Nov., 1907.
Gillette, C. P. A Few Insect Enemies of the Orchard. Colorado State Agr. Ool.
Expt. Sta. Bui. 38, p. 33-40, 5 fig., 1897.
Letamimm penkae, p. 37.
GiRAULT, A. A. The Chalcidoid parasites of the cocdd Eulecanium nigrofasdatum
(Peigande), etc. In Psyche, v. 16, p. 7&-86, Aug., 1909.
Herbick, G. W. Some Scale Insects of Mississippi and Texas. Miss. Agr. Expt.
Sta. Tech. Bui. no. 2, 77 p., 33 pi., 2 fig., Feb., 1911.
Locality note, p. 12. .
Hewttt, C. Gordon. Report of the Entomologist. In Canada Expt. Farms Rpts.,
p. 223^250, 3 pi., 1910.
Locality note, p. 234.
Hood, C. E. The Lecaniums, or Soft Scales. Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Cir. no. 6, 3 p.,
May, 1907.
Hie tanapin, or peach scale, p. 2-3.
HoussR, J. S. The More Important Insects Affecting Ohio Shade Trees. Ohio Agr.
Expt. Sta. Bui. 194, 243 p., 21 pi., June, 1908.
Tlie m^le terrapin scale, or black banded scale, EuUcanium nigrofatdatum Perg., p. 178-179.
HowABD, L. O. Some scale insects of the orchard. InV. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook f.
1S94, p. 249-276, fig. 26-42, 1894.
Tfae peadi fcyantnm, p. 270-272.
Jasvis, T. D. A preliminary list of the soale insects of Ontario. In 38th Ann. Rpt.
Ent. Soc. Ontario, p. 50-72, 4 pi., fig. 10-27, 1907.
Locality note, p. 65.
Jastis, T. D. The Coccidae of Canada. In 4l8t Ann. Rpt. Ent. Soc.. Ontario,
p. 64-77, 1911.
L4Katit7 note, p. 70-71.
Johnson, W. G. Notes on New and Old Scale Insects. U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Ent.
Bui. 6, n. 8., p. 74-78, 1896.
LocBlity note, p. 77.
Johnson, W. G. Locality note. U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Ent. Bui. 17, n. s., p. 66,
1898.
Johnson, W. G. Miscellaneous Entomological notes. U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Ent.
Bui. 20, n. s., p. 62-68, 1899.
Tbe torapin scale, p. 60.
Johnson, W. G. The odour of Coccidae. In Canad. Ent., v. 31, no. 2, p. 87-88, 1899.
King, G. B. Contributions to the knowledge of Massachusetts Coccidae. In Canad.
Ent., V. 31, no. 6, p. 139-143, 1899.
Leeamium nignfaackUum, p. 141.
Kino, G. B. The Coccid« of British North America. In Canad. Ent., v. 33, no. 7,
p. 193-200, 1901.
Laeaatlnn, p. 104-100.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
92 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
King, G. B. CoccidsB of British North America. In Oanad. Ent. , v. 34, no. 5, p. 158-
161, 1902.
Locality note, p. 160.
King, G. B. Some new records of CoccidsB. In Oanad. Ent., v. 35, no. 7, p. 191-197,
1903.
Locality note, p. 102.
LiNTNER, J. A. CJoccus on peach trees. In Cultivator and Country Gentleman,
V. 44, no. 1395, p. 679, Oct., 1897.
Lugger, Otto. Bugs Injurious to Our Cultivated Plants. Univ. Minnesota Agr.
Expt. Sta. Bui. 69, 259 p., 16 pi., 200 fig., 1900. Also, 6th Ann. Rpt. Ent. State
Expt. Sta. Univ. Minnesota, 1900.
Oenentl note, p. 218-219.
McCarthy, Gerald. The Cultivation of the Peach Tree. Pt. I. North Oajolina
Agr. Expt. iSta. Bui. 120, p. 285-308, 1895.
Remedial note, p. 207.
Murtfeldt, M. E. Lecanium persicsp. Ann. Rpt. State Hort. Soc. of Missouri f . 1892,
p. 186, 1893.
Murtpbldt, M. E. The peach bark louse. In Colman's Rural World, v. 46, no. 17,
p. 131, April, 1893.
Murtfeldt, M. E. Notes on the insects of MisBouri for 1893. U. S. Dept. Agr. Div.
Ent. Bui. 32, o. s., p. 37-45, 1894.
The peach or plum bark-louse, p. 41-44.
Nellie, C. R. Kerosene emulsion for terrapin scale. In Jour. Econ. Ent., v. 2,
no. 2, p. 192-193, April, 190
Petttt, R. H. Insects Injurious to Fruits in Michigan. Mich. State Agr. Col. Expt.
Sta. Bui. 24, 79 p., 70 fig., 1904.
The peach lecanium, p. 53.
Petttt, R. II. Some Insects of the Year 1901. Mich. State Agr. Col. Expt. Sta. Bol.
200, p. 181-212, 21 fig., 1902.
The peach lecanium, p. 187-189.
Pergande, Theo. The Peach Lecanium. U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Ent. BuJ. 18,
p. 26-29, 1898.
QuAiNTANCE, A. L. The principal insect enemies of the peach. Jn U. S. Dept. Agr.
Yearbook f. 1905, p. 325-348, pi. 27-33, fig. 82-^.
The peach lecanium, p. 340-341.
Saunders, Wm. Insects Injurious to Fruits. 436 p., 440 fig. Philadelphia, 1909.
The peach-tree bark-louse, p. 195.
Sanders, J. G. The Terrapin Scale. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Ent. Circ. 88, 4 p.,
3 fig., 1907.
Sanders, J. G. The identity and synonymy of some of our soft scale-insects. In
Jour. Econ. Ent., v. 2, no. 6, p. 428-448, Dec., 1909.
The terrapin scale, p. 446^47.
Scott, W. M. Notes on Coccidse of Geoigia. U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Ent. Bui. 26,
n. s., p. 49-54, 1900.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 93
Smith, J. B. Report of the Entomologist. Rpt. New Jersey Agr. Col. Expt. Sta. f.
1905, p. 527-^2, 37 fig.
The pnch Boft scale, p. 533.
Smith, J. B. Unusual insect happenings in New Jersey in 1906. U. S. Dept. Agr.
Bur. Ent. Bui. 67, p. 34-37, 1907.
LocaUtj note, p. 36.
Smtth, J. B. The insects of New Jersey. In Ann. Rpt. N. J. State Mus. f. 1909,
888 p„ 339 fig.
Locality note, p. 125.
Smith, J. B. Insects Injurious to the Peach Trees in New Jersey. N. J. Agr. Expt.
Sta. Bui. 235, 43 p., 18 ^., 1911.
The terrapin scale, p. 38-32.
Smith, J. B. Remedial note. In Jour. Econ. Ent., v. 4, no. 2, p. 203, 1911.
Smith, R. J., and Lewis, A. C. Some Insects of the Year in Geoigia. U. S. Dept.
Agr. Bur. Ent. Bui. 60, p. 77-82, 1906.
Remedial note, p. 77.
Starnrs, H.N. The San Jose and Other Scales in Georgia. Georgia Agr. Expt. Sta.
Bui. 36, 31 p., figs., 1897.
The peadi lecanhim, p. 28.
SiTBFACE, H. A. The San Jose Scale in Pennsylvania. Pa. Dept. Agr. Mo. Bui.
Div. Zool., V. 4, no. 8, p. 275-304.
Oeneral note, p. 302.
Stmons, T. B. The Common Injurious and Beneficial Insects of Maryland. Mary-
land Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 101, p. 125-204, April, 1905.
Tbe peadi scale, p. 147.
Stmons, T. B., and Coky, E. N. The Terrapin Scale. Maryland Agr. Expt. Sta.
Bui. 149, p. 83-92, 1 pi., Dec., 1910.
Stmons, T. B., and Cort, E. N. Miscellaneous Insect Pests. Maryland Agr. Expt.
Sta. Bui. 175, p. 171-180, Mar., 1913.
The terrapin scale, p. 172-173.
Stmons, T. B., Cort, E. N., and Babcock, O. G. Treatment for the San Jose Scale
and Terrapin Scale Insects. Maryland Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 161, p. 221-234, 3 fig.,
1911.
Spfsiying tests for the terrapin scale, p. 227-231.
Tatior, E. p. Scale Insects of the Orchards of Missouri. Mo. State Fruit Expt.
Sta. Bui. 18, 87 p., 26 fig., 1908.
Peacb leranimii or terrapin scale, p. 84-^
Thro, W. C. Distinctive Characteristics of the Species of the Genus Lecaniiun.
Cornell Univ. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 209, p. 205-221, 5 pi., 1903.
Webster, F. M. , and Burgess, A. F. A Partial List of the Coccidse of Ohio. U. S.
Dept. Agr. Bur. Ent. Bui. 37, p. 109-1.13, 1902.
Locality note, p. lia
WoRSHAJf, E. L. Insects of the Year in Georgia. In Jour. Econ. Ent., v. 2, no. 3,
p. 206-210, 1909.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
94 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
PUBUCATIONS OF U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO DECIDUOUS FRUTTa
AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION.
Important Insecticides. (Farmers' Bulletin 127.)
Insect and Fungous Enemies of the Grape East of the Rocky Mountains. (Fannera*
Bulletin 284.)
Spraying Peaches for the Control of Brown Rot, Scab, and Curculio. (Farmers'
Bulletin 440.)
Banger of General Spread of the Gipsy and Brown-tail Moths Through Imported
Nursery Stock. (Farmers' Bulletin 453.)
The More Important Insect and Fungous Enemies of the Fruit and Foliage of the
Apple. (Farmers' Bulletin 492.)
The Gipsy Moth and the Brown-tail Moth, with suggestions for Their ControL
(Farmers' Bulletin 564.)
The San Jose Scale and Its ControL (Farmers' Bulletin 650.)
The Apple-Tree Tent Caterpillar. (Farmers' BuDetin 662.)
The Round-headed Apple-tree Borer. (Farmers' Bulletin 675.)
Grape Leafhopper in Lake Erie Valley. (Department BuUetin 19.)
Control of Codling Moth in Pecos Valley, N. Mex. (Department Bulletin 88.)
Walnut Aphides in California. (Department Bulletin 100.)
The Lesser Bud-Moth. (Department Bulletin 113.)
The Mediterranean Fruit Fly in Bermuda. (Department Bulletin 161 .)
The Life History and Habits of the Pear Thrips in California. (Department Bulletin
173.)
Studies of the Codling Moth in the Central Appalachian R^on. (Department Bul-
letin 189.)
Report on the Gipsy Moth Work in New England. (Department Bulletin 204.)
The Cranberry Rootworm. (Department Bulletin 263.)
Pear-tree Psylla. (Entomology Circular 7.)
Buffalo Tree-hopper. (Entomology Circular 23.)
Boxelder Plant-bug. (Entomology Circular 28.)
Larger Apple-tree borers. (Entomology Circular 32.)
Apple Maggot or Railroad Worm. (Entomology Circular 101.)
Oyster-shell Scale and Scurfy Scale. (Entomology Circular 121.)
San Jose Scale and Its Control. (Entomology Circular 124.)
How to Control Pear Thrips. (Entomology Circular 131.)
Mediterranean Fruit Fly. (Entomology Circular 160.)
One-spray Method in Control of Codling Moth and Plum Cuculio. (Entomology
Bulletin 80, pt. VII, revised.)
FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS.
Homemade Lime-sulphur Concentrate. (Department Bulletin 197.) Pric<*, 5 cents.
Food Plants of the Gipsy Moth in America. (Department Bulletin 250.) Price, 10
cents.
Life History of the Codling Moth in Maine. (Department BuUetin 252.) Price, 10
cents.
American Plum Borer. (Department Bulletin 261.) Price, 5 cents.
The Parandra Borer. (Department Bulletin 262.) Price, 5 cents.
Dispersion of Gipsy Moth Larvae by the Wind. (Department Bulletin 273.) Price .
15 cents.
Miscellaneous Insecticide Investigations. (Department Bulletin 278.) Price, 10
cents.
Canker-worms. (Entomology Circluar 9.) Price, 5 cents.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE TERRAPIN SCALE. 95
Woolly Aphis of Apple. (Entomology Circular 20.) Price, 5 cents.
Periodical Cicada in 1897. (Entomology Circular 22.) Price, 5 cents.
Pear Slug. (Entomology Circular 26.) Price, 5 cents.
Fruit-tree Bark-beetle. (Entomology Circular 29.) Price, 6 cents.
How to Control San Jose Scale. (Entomology Circular 42.) Price, 5 cents.
Peacfa-tree Borer. (Entomology Circular 54.) Price, 5 cents.
Plum Curculio. (Entomology Circular 73.) Price, 5 cents.
Aphides Affecting Apple. (Entomology Circular 81.) Price, 6 cents.
Terrapin Scale. (Entomology Circular 88.) Price, 5 cents.
Apple-tree Tent Caterpillar. (Entomology Circular 98.) Price, 5 cents.
Nut Weevils. (Entomology Circular 99.) Price, 6 cents.
Control of Brown-rot and Plum Curculio on Peaches. (Entomology Circular 120.)
Price, 5 cents.
Two Deetructive Texas Ants. (Entomology Circular 148.) Price, 5 cents.
Leaf Blister Mite. (Entomology Circular 154.) Price, 5 cents.
San Jose Scale, Its Occurrence in United States, with Full Account of Its Life History
and Remedies to be Used Against it. (Entomology Bulletin 3, n. s.) Price, 10
cents.
Gipsy Moth in America, Account of Introduction and Spread of Porthetria dispar in
Massachusetts and of Efforts Made by State to Repress and Exterminate It. (Ento-
mology Bulletin 11, n. s.) Price, 5 cents.
Periodical Cicada, Account of Cicada Septendecem, Its Natural Enemies and Means of
Preventing Its Injury, with Summary of Distribution of Different Broods. (Ento-
mology Bulletin 14, n. s.) Price, 15 cents.
Principal Insects Liable to be Distributed on Niursery Stock. (Entomology Bulletin
34.) Price, 5 cents.
Codling Moth. (Entomology Bulletin 41.) Price, 15 cents.
San Joee or Chinese Scale. (Entomology Bulletin 62.) Price, 25 cents.
Pecan Cigar Case-bearer. (EIntomology Bulletin 64, part 10.) Price, 5 cents.
Piapefs on Deciduous Fruit Insects and Insecticides. (Entomology Bulletin 68, 9
parts.) Price, 25 cents.
Pear Thrips. (Entomology Bulletin 68, part 1.) Price, 10 cents.
Spring Canker-worm. (Entomology Bulletin 68, part 2.) Price, 5 cents.
Trumpet Leaf-miner of Apple. (Entomology Bulletin 68, part 3.) Price, 5 cents.
Leaser Peach Borer. (Entomology Bulletin 68, part 4.) Price, 5 cents.
Leaser Apple Worm. (Entomology Bulletin 68, part 5.) Price, 5 cents.
Grape Root- worm Investigations in 1907. (Entomology Bulletin 68, part 6.) Price,
5 cents.
Demonstration Spraying for Codling Moth. (Entomology Bulletin 68 , part 7 . ) Price,
5 cents.
Grape-leaf Skeletonizer. (Entomology Bulletin 68, part 8.) Price, 5 cents.
Peach-tree Barkbeetle. (Entomology Bulletin 68, part 9.) Price, 5 cents.
Periodical Cicada. (Entomology Bulletin 71.) Price, 40 cents.
Codling^ Moth in the Ozarks. (Entomology Bulletin 80, part 1.) Price, 10 cents.
Ggan Case-bearer. (Entomology Biilletin 80, part 2.) Price, 10 cents.
Additional Observations on the Leaser Apple Worm. (Entomology Bulletin 80,
part 3.) Price, 5 cents.
Pear Thrips and Its Control. (Entomology Bulletin 80, part 4.) Price, 10 cents.
On Nut-feeding Habits of Codling Moth. (Entomology Bulletin 80, part 5.) Price,
5 centa.
life Hiatory of Codling Moth i'^ -^mology Bulletin
80, part 6.) Price, 10 ce-
Fumigation of Apples for S
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
96 BULLETIN 351, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Report on Field Work Against Gipsy Moth and Brown-tail Moth. (Entomology
Bulletin 87.) Price, 35 cents.
Grape Root- worm, with Especial Reference to Investigations in Erie Grape Belt, 1907
to 1909. (Entomology Bulletin 89.) Price, 20 cents.
Papers on Deciduous FVuit Insects and Insecticides. (Entomology Bulletin 97, 7
parts.) Price, 25 cents.
Spraying Experiments Against Grape Leafhopper in Lake Erie Valley. (Entomology
Bulletin 97, part 1.) Price, 5 cents.
Life History of Codling Moth and Its Control on Pears in California. (Entomology
Bulletin 97, part 2.) Price, 10 cents.
Vineyard Spraying Experiments Against Rosechafer in Lake Erie Valley. (Ento-
mology Bulletin 97, part 3.) Price, 5 cents.
California Peach Borer. (Entomology Bulletin 97, part 4.) Price, 10 cents.
Notes on Peach and Plum Slug. (Entomology Bulletin 97, part 5.) Price, 5 cents.
Notes on Peach Bud Mite, Enemy of Peach Nursery Stock. (Entomology Bulletin 97 ,
part 6.) Price, 10 cents.
Grape Scale. (Entomology Bulletin 97, part 7.) Price, 5 cents.
Pliun Curculio. (Entomology Bulletin 103.) Price, 50 cents.
Life-history Studies on Codling Moth in Michigan. ( Entomology Bulletin 115, part 1 . )
Price, 15 cents.
One-spray Method in Control of Codling Moth and Plum Curculio. (Entomology
Bulletin 115, part 2.) Price, 5 cents.
Life History of Codling Moth in Santa Clara Valley of California. (Entomology
Bulletin 115, part 3.) Price, 10 cents.
Spraying Experiments Against Grape Leafhopper in Lake Erie Valley in 1911.
(Entomology Bulletin 116, part 1.) Price, 5 cents.
Grape-berry Moth. (Entomology Bulletin 116, part 2.) Price, 15 cents.
Cheery Fruit Sawfly. (Entomology Bulletin 116, part 3.) Price, 5 cents.
Lime-sulphur as Stomach Poison for Insects. (Entomology Bulletin LL6, part 4.)
Price, 5 cents.
Fruit-tree Leaf-roller. (Entomology Bulletin 116, part 5.) Price, 10 cents.
Dispersion of Gipsy Moth. (Entomology Bulletin 119.) Price, 20 cents.
Insects Injurious in Cranberry Culture. (Farmers' Bulletin 178.) Price, 5 cents.
Control of Codling Moth and Apple Scab. (Farmers' Bulletin 247.) Price, 5 cents.
Brown-tail Moth and How to Control It. (Farmers' Bulletin 264.) Price, 5 cents.
Gipsy Moth and How to Control It. (Farmers' Bulletin 275.) Price, 5 cents.
Spraying for Apple Diseases and Codling Moth in Ozarks. (Farmers' Bulletin 283.)
Price, 5 cents.
ADDITIONAL COPIES
or TUIS PUBLICATION MAY BB PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OP DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTTNQ OFFICE
WASHINQTON, D. C.
AT
IK nKMTS PER COPY
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
e /.3! 3^1
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 352
ContrilNittoa ftwB the
L. O. HOWARD, CU«r.
WaddngtoB, D. C.
PROFESSIONAL PAPER.
Mar 5, mo
THE CHERRY LEAF-BEETLE/ A PERIODICALLY
IMPORTANT ENEMY OF CHERRIES.
hy R. A. CusHMAN, EnUmiological Assistant^ and Dwioht Isely, Scientific AssislaJHy,
Dectdtums Fruit Insect Investigations.
CONTENTS.
Intzodnctioii
Food plants
DfatribotkuL.
Eeooomk history previAus to 1915 . .
TlMldlSoatbmk
Feeding habits and d«stnictiveness.
Page.
1
2
Z
8
8
5
\
Description of stages /. (:ij^.t ^
Life history ^ «
Seasonal-history summary f'^-\ ' 18
A predatory enemy ...^ - 19
Control v.. 19
Bibliography 26
INTRODUCTION.
The sudden appearance of enormous numbers of a email red
beetle throughout a wide area in the northeastern United States in
the spring of 1915 caiised consternation among many of the fruit
growers of that region. It attacked the foliage of cherry and peach
trees and to some extent the fruit of the former. Its range of great-
est destructiveness was in New York, Pennsylvania, and northern
West Virginia. This insect is the so-called cherry leaf-beetle
{GaleruceUa cavicoUis LeC.) (fig. 1), a member of the family Chrysc-
melidae, and is closely allied to the imported elm leaf-beetle {G. luteola
MuUer). At the time of its appearance practically nothing was
known by fruit growers in regard either to its habits or its control,
and comparatively little was known by entomologists. Sporadic
outbreaks had occurred in the past, but references to them in ento-
mological literature are brief. Taking advantage of this imusual
outbreak, the writers have undertaken to secure as complete data as
possible in regard to its natural food plants, its immature stages and
1 OfdemceUa cavkolUt LeContc; order Coleopt^ra, family Chrysomolidce.
Note.— While this paper was going throtigh the press an account of this insect appeared in the
Joomal of Agricultural Research under the authorship of Glenn W. Herrlck and Robert Matheson of
Cornell Uoiyersity.
20968'-Bull. 362—16 1
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
2 BULLETIN 352, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE.
life history, and the means for its control. The work herein dis-
cussed was conducted at North East, Pa., during the season of 1915.
FOOD PLANTS.
In the region covered hy the writers' observations the natural food
plant of this insect is the pin, fire, or bird cherry iJPrunus pennsyl-
vanica). (PL I; PL V, A and B.) Wild black cherry {P. serotina)
and chokecherry (P. virginiana) are entirely immune from attack,
even by the beetles. Among cultivated fruits only sour cherry and
peach trees are attacked. Even in the sour cherries those varieties,
such as the Early Richmond, which have comparatively thin foliage,
are much more seriously injured than the thicker leafed varieties.
Sweet cherry and plum, common report to the contrary notwith-
standing, are not at all eaten. The beetles have frequently been
f oimd on these trees, but never feeding. Color is lent to the belief
that they attack plimis by the very general prevalence of the shot-
hole fimgus on these trees, casual observers taking the holes caused
by the fungus to be the feeding marks of
the beetles.
All of the foregoing observations in
relation to cidtivated trees apply to the
adult beetle. On only one occasion were
larvae found on anything other than the
pin cherry. On August 24 two larvae
were found on leaves of Early Riohmond
cherry. One of these had attained nearly
full growth, while the other was still in
the first stage. Neither of them Uved to
Fio. i.-cherry leaf-beoUe iGaUruceua matiu-itv- In the confinement of cages
cavicoUit): Adult beetle. Much en-. y. , jxi.-Jx ^j
larged; natural siie at right. (Origi- larv8B oi the second and tmrd Stages led
^•) • sparingly on leaves of cultivated cherry,
but first-stage larvae died without feeding. One lot of 57 newly
hatched larvae were fed on peach leaves, but within 6 days all were dead.
From the records jiist given it appears that, except in the adult
stage, this species is not likely ever to become of economic importance.
The beetles are mentioned in literature as having been taken on
various other plants, such as apple and chestnut, but these were
probably merely strays, although Davis (1896)* states definitely that
they attacked apple in Michigan. The apple was, however, entirely
immune to attack during the present outbreak.
Lugger (1899) mentioned '^native plum'' as a natural food plant as
well as the **fire cherry."
The old idea that G. rufosanguinea Say is a Southern form of cavir-
coUis together with an obvious mixing of data has led to the inclusion,
in literature, of Ranunculus acrisj a buttercup, among the host plants
of cavicoUis. G, rujosanguinea is known to breed on wild azalea.
1 Dates in parentheses refer to the Bibliography, p. 25.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE CHBBBY LEAF-BEETLE. 3
In a note entitled ''Beetles on buttercup and azalea/' in answer to a
correspondent, Wakh (Pract. Ent., 1866, vol. 2, p. 9) determined
G. rufoaangmnea from Bammcutus aeris and another beetle from
AzdUa nudiflora. Quite obviously the G. rufosanguinea should have
been recorded from the azalea. Lintner (1896), quoting Walsh,
says: '*If the identification of Walsh was correct, it [i. e., 6. cam-
coSt^l has ako been taken in June on buttercup, BanuTiculus acrisy in
the vicinity of Albany, N. Y."
DISTRIBUTION.
GaUerucdla eavicoUis is known to occur from Canada and the
New England States west to Minnesota, and south along the Appala-
chians into West Virginia and Yii^inia. The type specimen is said
to have come from North Carolina. It has been taken, accord-
ing to Smith (1909), at Sea Isle and Anglesea, both localities near the
southern point of New Jersey. According to Chittenden (1899), it has
ako been taken at Vancouver, British Columbia, and in Texas. It
quite likely occurs throughout the natural range of its native host
plant, Prunus pennsylvanica, which, according to Gray,^ is '*Lab. to
B, C, S. to Pa., Great L. region, centr. la., and along mts. to N. C,
Tenn., and Colo." Britton and Brown ' add Georgia.
ECONOMIC HISTORY PREVIOUS TO 1915.
Elconoinic injury by this beetle was first recorded in 1894 by Davis,
who found it feeding on cultivated cherry at Beilaire, Mich. It was
again reported the following year from Au Sable Forks, N. Y., by
llotner. In 1897 it was reported as destructive at Traverse City,
Mich., by Pettit, and (1898) at Coming, N. Y., by Felt. The next
year Chittenden (1899) recorded injury from St. Ignace, Mich., and
Spruce Creek and Lebanon, Pa. Injury was observed by Harvey
(1901) at Orono, Me., in 1900.
No outbreaks occurring after this time have been specifically
recorded in entomological literature, although there are some general
references to the beetle. However, economic injury was reported by
correspondents to the Bureau of Entomology in 1912 from Newberry
and Pontiac, Mich., and in 1914 from Muncy and Williamsport, Pa.
THE 1915 OUTBREAK.
EXTENT OF INJURY.
The 1915 outbreak was probably by far the most injmious that has
ever occurred. Complaints regarding this pest were much more
numerous and from many more localities than those from all preced-
ing years combined. The beetle, instead of inflicting injury in a few
^> K«v Hftnaal of Botany (7th edition). > Illustrated Flora of the United States and Canada.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
4 BULLETIN 352, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
restricted localities, was generally destructive throughout two com-
paratively large regions; the one, in the Appalachian region, involving
the greater part of New York, Pennsylvania, and northern West
Virginia; the other in the northern part of lower Michigan, espe-
cially in the Grand Traverse region, where cherry growing is very
extensive. In regard to the latter region Prof. R. H. Pettit, of the
Michigan Agricultural College, writes (in litt.) that during the period
of destructiveness by this beetle nearly every mail brought com-
plaints. No complaints were received by the Bureau of Entomology
from the territory intervening between these two regions. One of
the writers, on June 17 and 18, traveled by trolley through Ohio from
Sandusky to Ashtabula, stopping at a number of points between, and
no injury by these beetles was noted.
The majority of complaints came in June. However, the beetle
was reported from Jamestown, N. Y., as early as May 12, and from
WiUiamsport, Pa., May 21. The general migration to cultivated
food plants in northwestern New Yo/k and Pennsylvania did not
occur until the week of Jjme 7. Farther south, in West Virginia, it
occurred about the same time, the first report having been sent
June 9.
THE If 15 INVASION OP THE LAKE ERIE GRAPE BELT.
The beetles appeared in the vicinity of North East, Pa., on June 7,
literally covering the leaves of the trees attacked. Early in the
morning their advent attracted the attention of fruit growers living
3 or 4 miles south of Lake Erie, and by noon they were found in great
numbers in orchards near the lake. After this first day of migration
the increase was comparatively small, and no increase at all was
noticeable in the- vicinity at large after June 9, although there was
some local shifting of numbers.
Dming the first few days of the migration stories told by fish^rm^i
of the abundance of the beetle on the lake were current; how pieces
of wood floating on the water had been covered with them; how they
had crowded on black buoys until the color of the buoys had been
changed to red; and how the water itself had been full of them. But
even after giving these stories the fxill discoxmt that is generally
accorded to stories of like origin, the fact still remains that the migra-
tion of great numbers of beetles extended for some distance over the
lake. Dead beetles were found in considerable niunbers on two of
the lake beaches by one of the writers on Jxme 10, when a strong
north wind was blowing, and it was reported that they had been
washed up in windrows. The occxurence of these beetles in the
lake gave rise to the opinion that they had come from Canada.
The actual source of the beetles was to the south of the grape belt,
from cut-over forest land grown over by pin cherry. The preceding
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 352, U. S. Dept. of Agricultura.
Plate I.
Typical Breeding Ground of the Cherry Leaf-Beetle (Galerucella cavicollis).
A group of pin-cherry bushes stands in the center of the picture. (Original.)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 352, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Plate II.
Fig. 1.— Comparative Injury to Lower and Upper Branches. (Original.)
Fig. 2.— a Young Orchard Defoliated. (Original.)
DEFOLIATION BY THE CHERRY LEAF-BEETLE OF YOUNG RICHMOND
CHERRY TREEa
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 352. U. S D«pt of AgricuHura.
Plate III.
Injury to Foliage and Fruit of Cherry by the Cherry Leaf-Beetle. (Original.)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 352, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Plate IV.
Injury TO Foliage and Fruit of Cherry by the Cherry Leaf-Beetle. (Original.)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 352, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Plate V.
The Cherry Leaf-Beetle.
PigrtirtfS A and B show the effect of feeding of the cherry leaf-beetle on pin cherry. Figures
C and I) show beetles feeding on leaves of cultivated cherry. (Original. )
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE CHEBBY LEAF-BEETLE. 5
season had undoubtedly been favorable to the development of un-
Tisnal numbers of these beetles — as much as then* native host plant
could support. Furthennore, the f oUage of the pin cherry was reduced
by a freeze on May 27, and perhaps in a part of the range by tent
caterpillais ako. Similar conditions were probably responsible for
the outbreak in Michigan. These conditions induced a migration
which was given direction by a strong wind that blew from the south-
east and south on June 5, 6, and 7. It is probable that the majority
of the beetles had emerged from hibernation and had been feeding
for some time before their advent in the grape belt, for an outbreak
was reported from Jamestown, N. Y.^ about 25 miles south of Lake
Erie, as early as May 12.
Within a few days after their arrival the numbers of the beetles
began to decrease in some orchards, and in two weeks this was gen-
eral By the latter part of June practically all had disappeared from
the orchards, although a few scattering ones were found as late as
early August.
CAUSE OF INCREASE OP BEETLES.
The increased numbers of the cherry leaf-beetle may be attributed
to an increase in abimdance of its natural food plant, the pin cherry.
This tree springs up rapidly along roadsides and in cut-over or fire-
swept forest land which has been left imcultivated. Such lands cover
wide areas in western Pennsylvania, and furnish ideal breeding con-
ditions for the beetle. A typical view of such a situation is shown
in Plate I. .
FEEDING HABITS AND DESTRUCTIVENESS.
The adult cherry leaf-beetle feeds almost exclusively on the under-
side of the leaves of the plants attacked (PI. V, C, 2?), eating small,
irr^ular holes through the lower epidermis and parenchyma and
sometimes through the entire leaf. These holes may join one
another or come so close together as to skeletonize the leaf. In a
few days after feeding, the upper epidermis thus exposed dries and
fafls out, and, in case of severe injury, the whole leaf dries, and
defoliation ensues. To an extent it feeds also upon the fruit of the
dierry, scarring and pitting it. (Pb. Ill, IV.)
On cold days and at night the beetles crowd on the upper surface
of the leaves, and hence have given the impression that they feed
there. Occasionally the writes have found beetles feeding on the
upper surface of peach leaves, usually those attacked by leaf curl,
and once on the upper surface of cherry leaves. The misapprehen-
sion in r^ard to their feeding on plum has been discussed in an earher
paragraph. The shot-hole fungus, responsible for this mistaken
belief, also attacks other stone fruits which the beetle attacks, and
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
6 BULLETIN 352, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE.
caused the impression that the injury by the beetle was greater than
really was the case.
The larvae of all ages feed in a manner similar to the adults, on the
under surface, eating through the leaf to the upper epidermis, but
leaving that intact. Occasionally a first-stage larva is found feeding
on the upper surface, but this occurs only on very yoxing leaves that
have not entirely unfolded.
The feeding preference for sickly or injured trees was marked.
Such trees were invariably loaded with beetles, while the surround-
ing trees may have been comparatively free from attack. The f olii^
on an unhealthy branch was attacked before the rest of the tree.
The preference for the foUage on the lower limbs to that of the
upper was still more conspicuous, for the lower limbs may have been
completely defohated, while the f oUage of the upper limbs was com-
paratively uninjured. (PL II.)
The period of economic injury due to this beetle extended over
14 or 18 days after its first appearance in June. Probably the greater
part of the feeding was done during the first three
or four days. There was no injury noticeable
from the later brood.
Severe injury due to this beetle was confined
almost entirely to the Early Richmond cherry,
especially to young trees. (PL II.) In a few
young orchards, within four days after the first
FiQ.2.-The cherry leaf-beetle: appearance of the beetles, the foliage on the
Egg.^Muchonlar^. (Orlg- j^^^^. j^^ ^f ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^ witWcd brOWU,
as if it had been burned. In two weeks the
trees were almost completely defohated. On peach and other varie-
ties of cherry trees, although in some instances the feeding appeared
quite severe, there was httle defohation.
DESCRIPTION OF STAGES.
THE EGG.
The egg (fig. 2) wajs first described by Chittenden (1899). It is nearly spherical aod
bright reddish brown and has the surface deeply pitted with irregularly hexagonal
areas. The eggs vary somewhat in size and proportions, but average about 0.75 nun.
long by 0.65 mm. in width.
THE LARVA.
Except for the increase in size, all three larval instars are very similar. In the early
part of each instar the larva is nearly uniform, very dark olive in color, about three
times as long as broad, and with short stout legs. It is broadest at the prothoiax, which
is about twice as broad as the nearly hemispherical head, and tapers backward to the
ninth abdominal segment, which is slightly narrower than the head. Each of the three
thoracic and the first eight abdominal segments are more at lees conically prodaced
at the sides and bear long bristles extending laterally. Dorsally there are transverse
rows of short bristles across the front of the prothorax and double rows across each of
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE CHEBBT LEAF-BEETLE.
Fio. 3.— The chtfry
leaf-beetto: Newly
hatched larva.
Much enlarged.
(Original.)
the other thoracic seg^ments, and all abdominal segments except the ninth and tenth.
The head ie prqvided with a few scattered long bristles. The ninth abdominal seg-
ment is rounded behind and concave above, very heavily chitinized, and with a row
of long bristles around the edge. Below it is rather conical, with
the very small tenth segment f(M*ming the apex of the cone. The
ktler bears the anus, which is modified to form an auxiliary oigan
d locomotion. On each aide, between the prothoracic and meso-
thoracic segments, can be seen a small tubercle surrounding the
mesothoracic spiracle, and each of the first eig^t abdominal seg-
ments is provided with a pair of spiracles. On each side of the
middle the pro thorax is irregularly impressed. This concavity
persists through all stages.
At full growth (fig. 4) each instar is very much distended, the
yellowish skin becomes visible, and the dark color is confined to
plates and patches, the head , and the legs. The abdomen is parallel
aided and wider than the thorax. The head and ninth abdominal
segment, at least above, do not share in this distension, but retain
the size originally assumed after the molt. The dorsal surface of
the proth<HUX is covered by a single large, dark-colored plate, flanked on either side
by the dark colored, chitinized tips of the lateral prominences. Just below the latter
are two small plates partially surrounding the base of the coxa. Ventrally the dark
color is confined to a nearly square median patch with a
very small oval patch behind it. In the mesothoracic and
metathoracic segments the dorsal plate is broken up into
two double transverse rows of three plates each, the middle
one in each row being much the largest, and transversely
elongate. The lateral edges of the dorsum are very heavily
chitinized and dark colored. Below the latter are two
smaller plates, the anterior one of which on the mesothorax
bears the spiracle, the other being the tip of the lateral
prominence. Each of the coxae is partially surroimded
above by two small plates as in the prothorax. Ventrally
there are three plates, a large transverse anterior one and
a pair of small, nearly oval ones posteriorly. The dorsal
plate of each of the first eight abdominal segments is simi-
lar to that of the mesothorax and of the metathorax, being
broken up into two double rows of plates, but on the lateral
edge of the dorsum are two very small plates, the posterior
one of which bears the spiracle. Beyond these is the
chitinized apex of the lateral prominence. Below the color
is distributed in a transverse row of five spots. The ninth
segment has ventrally a crescent-shaped plate in front of
and partially surroimding the very small tenth segment,
which bears the anus. The tenth segment is heavily chiti-
nized laterally and posteriorly. (Fig. 5.)
The newly hatched larva is shown in figure 3. The com-
parative size of the three larval stages is indicated by fig-
ure 6, which shows the heads and ninth abdominal seg-
ments drawn to the same scale.
Pvrtt wMter.— The first larval instar (fig. 3) varies with
age from 2 to 3 mm. in length with the head 0.38 nmi. and the ninth segment 0.36 mm.
broad. (Fig. 6, a.)
no. 4.— The cherry leaf-beetle:
FnO grown laira. Much en-
(OriginaL)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
8
BULLETIN 352, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGMCULTUBE.
Second instar. — Immediately after the fint molt the second instar is aboat 3 mm.
long, and at fuU growth 4.5 mm. long. The head is 0.57 nmi. and the ninth abdominal
s^ment 0.5 mm. broad. (Fig 6, b.)
Third instar. — The newly molted larva of the third instar is 4.5 mm. long with the
head 0.78 mm. and the ninth segment 0.7 mm. broad. At full growth (fig. 4) it is
7 mm. long and the measurements of head and caudal seg-
ment are unchanged. (Fig. 6, c.)
THE PUPA.
The pupa (fig. 7) is slightly lees than 5 mm. long, bright
yellow, and with a pair of strong curved spines at the apex
of the abdomen. The prothorax has the concavity charac-
teristic of all stages of the species. The head has a curved
row of four bristles above, the concave side of the curve to
the front. On the pronotum are two rows of four bristles
each, the anterior one curved to the front and the posterior one
to the rear, and in addition a long bristle on each lateral
angle and two near the posterior edge. The scutellum and
metanotum each have a nearly straight row of four briBtles.
Each of the abdominal segments, except the last, has a pair of
small bristles near the middle, and a single long bristle at each lateral angle. Each
femur has a pair of apical bristles. The spiracles of the first five abdominal s^-
ments and of the mesothorax are conspicuous from their black color; the outer ends
Fio. 5.— The oherry leaf-
beetle: Eighth and ninth
abdominal segments, lat-
eral view, showing ex-
traded end of alimentary
canal used as anxiliary
organ of locomotion.
Much enlarged. (Origi-
nal.)
Fio. 6.— The cherry leaf-beetle: Larval heads and caudal segments, showing proportional siae in the
three instars: a, First instar; b, second instar; e, third instar. Qreatly enlarged. (OriginaL)
of the tracheae show black through the body wall for a short distance. The spiracles
of the sixth and seventh segments are paler.
THE ADULT.
The adult beetle is rather oval in shape, about one-sixth of an inch
long by about one-half as broad, and somewhat flattened. It is dull
red with black legs and antennae.
As Le Conte's original description of the species is in Latin^ the
description given by Horn (1893) is quoted below:
0. cavicollis Lee., Proc. Acad. 1865, p. 216. Oval, narrower in front, subdepreased;
color dull red, slightly shining, very sparsely finely pubescent. Antennae entirely
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE CHBBBY LEAF-BEETLE.
9
black. Head red, coarsely punctured, without median depression, frontal tubercles
smooth. Thorax nearly twice as wide as long, narrower in front, sides arcuate, or
obtoaely subangulate, hind angles distinct, base on each side obliquely sinuate, disc
feebly convex, a broad depression each side and another along the middle, surface
coareely punctured, more densely in the depressions; scutellum red; elytra broader
behind the middle, sides arcuate, maigin explanate, humeri distinct, but rounded;
Butural angle well marked, but obtuse; disc with coarse and deep punctures not
crowded, lees deep near the apex, interspaces smooth, shining. Body beneath red,
the metastemum often piceous, sparsely finely punctate and finely pubescent.
Legs variable in color entirely red to almost entirely piceous. Length .1^.22 inch;
4.'S-5.5 mm.
Male. — Claws finely bifid at apex. Last ventral segment broadly emaiginate at
apex, with a deep triangular depression limited by a sharply elevated line.
Female. — Claws more deeply bifid, the parts more divergent. Last ventral segment
with a very slight emargi nation, in front of which
is a slight fovea.
The middle coxse are absolutely contiguous, the
mesoet^num is not prolonged between them, except
as to the color of the legs no variation has been
obeerved in this species.
LIFE HISTORY.
In the life-history work data were ob-
tained on nearly 600 individuals, ahnost
half of which were carried through their
Mitire development from hatching to
emergence of the adult insect. Daily
observations were made and recorded, so
that all transformations were noted
within 24 hours of their occurrence.
It should be noted that the period —
August and the first half of September —
covered by these observations was one
of unusually low temperature and high
humidity for the season. In August there
was at Erie, 16 miles west of North East, an average daily deficiency
in temperature of 2.3° F. and an excess in precipitation over the
normal, for the month, of 6.02 inches. In September the tempera-
ture was higher, but the precipitation was still abnormally high. The
life-history periods shown by this data, therefore, are probably some-
what longer than the normal for the species.
The life-history work Was carried on in 1-inch vials, the larva
being supplied daily with fresh leaves of pin cherry. For pupation
about IJ inches of earth was supplied. For larger lots jelly txunblers
were used. Very few of the individuals failed to mature and emerge
as beetles.
20968*— Bull. 35^-16 2
Fig. 7.— The cherry leaf-beetle: Pupa.
Much enlarged. (Origtoal.)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
10 BULLETIN 352, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
I ADULT]
Roaching the adult stage in the late summer and early fall, the
beetles feed for a few weeks, and then seek out a protected situation
in which they pass the winter. According to Pettit (1904) the beetles
pass the winter several inches below the surface of the ground.
Emerging from hibernation in the spring, they feed again for some
time, mate, and the females descend to the base of the trees, where^
among the decaying leaves and other vegetable matter, they depoBit
their eggs. Occasionally they utilize for this purpose accmnulations
of rubbish in the cavities in the bark of large trees. In such situa-
tions eggs have been f oxmd as high as 4 feet above the groimd.
INCUBATION PEBIOD.
No definite data on the incubation period were obtained, but on
August 3 and 5 two lots of eggs were collected and placed in vials with
the rubbish on which th^y were deposited. Most of those of August 3
had already hatched, but young larvse continued to emerge until
August 14, 11 days after the collection of the eggs. This lot was col-
lected on the hiUs about 4 miles back from the lake. The lot of August
5 was collected only about a mile from the lake, and included a much
smaller percentage of hatched ^gs. This lot continued to produce
larvee until August 18, 13 days after collection. These figures are
probably very near to the incubation peridd for the season of 1915,
since Chittenden (1899) records a period of 11 days in 1898 at Wash-
ington, D. C.
THBLABYA.
In hatching the larva cuts an irregular slit in one side of the egg.
It then ascends the tree, and, feeding on the underside of the leaf,
grows very rapidly. During its feeding period it molts twice. In
molting the skin spUts down the middle line of the thorax, the split
oxtonding on to the head, where it divides and extends to each side
of the mouth. The head, thorax, and appendages are withdrawn,
and the larva seciures a hold on the leaf with its feet and crawk out
of its old skm, which remains for some time fastened to the leaf.
First insiar. — In the course of the life-history work 243 larv» were
carried through the first instar. Of these 79 required 4 days; 140,
6 daj-s; 17, 6 daj-a; 5, 7 days; 1, 10 days; and 1, 11 days. This gives
an avi>rage period for the first instar of 4.83 days. The first of these
l\aU'hod on August 5 and the last molted for the first time on August
24, tliis Ixung tiie period in which all the data on this instar were ob-
tained. Table I summarixes these data.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE CHEBBY LEAF-BEETLE. 11
Table I. —Period of first larval instar of the cherry leaf-beetle at North East, Pa., 1915,
Number of
indiYiduals.
Duration of
first larval
instar.
79
140
17
5
1
1
no,..
5
6
7
10
11
343
M.83
» Average.
Second instar. — ^Data for the duration of the second instar were
obtdned from observations on 268 larvcB. The period covered by
these observations was from August 6, when the earliest first molt
took place, to August 29, when the last one molted for the second
time. Table II shows the results obtained:
Table II. — Period of second larval instar of the cherry leaf-beetle at North East, Pa,, 1915,
Number of
individuals.
Duration of
second larval
instar.
145
100
18
5
1
4
5
e .
7
260
»3.58
1 Average.
Third instar. — ^When the larva becomes full grown it leaves the
tree, burrows into the soil for a fraction of an inch, and constructs
ita pupal cell. That portion of its life between its second molt and
its entrance into the ground — that is, the feeding period of this
instar — ^was determined for 349 larvae, with the results given in
Table III. The first of these, to molt for the second time did so
on August 7, and the last one entered the ground on September 5.
Table III. — Feeding period of third larval instar of the cherry leaf -beetle.
North East, Pa., 1915.
Number of
indivldiiAh.
Feeding period
of third larval
instar.
M
211
55
8
8
3
4
5
«
7
8
349
14.12
'Average.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
12
BULLETIN 362, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
Total feeding period, — ^A total of 227 larvae were carried through
the entire feeding period from hatching to entrance into the ground.
Table IV contains the data obtained. These data were obtained
during the period from August 5, when the first one hatched, to
September 5, when the last one entered the ground.
Table IV. — Total feeding period of larvx of the cherry leaf-beetle, North East, Pa., 1915.
Number of
Individuals.
Total feeding
period.
Number of
individuals.
Total feeding |
period. 1
3
49
\\h
36
7
7
n
12
13
14
15
1
2
5
2
17
18
20
227 1 112.33
I Average.
PERIOD IN GROUND.
FiQ. 8.— The cherry leaf-beetle :
Prepupal larva. (Original.)
The pupal cell is neariy spherical and about 5 mm. in diameter.
It is from a fourth to a half inch below the surface. Within it the
insect passes through the transformations from
larva to pupa and from pupa to adult. The
larva lies for several days curled up as shown
in figure 8 before transforming to the pupa.
Data on the dates of transformation of the
larva are difficult to obtain, since this neces-
sarily involves the breaking up of the pupal
cell, and such data as were obtained are based
on but few individuals.
Prepupal period. — ^In a lot of larvae that
entered the ground on August 5 daily examination showed that the
first one pupated on August 13, or 8 days later. On the same day
1 pupa was f oxmd among larvae that entered the ground on August
6, giving a prepupal period of 7 days. One out of 3 larvae that
entered the ground on August 7 had pupated 7 days later, on
August 14. Larvae that entered the ground on September 4 and
5, when the weather was much warmer than in August, required
only 5 days to pupate.
Pupal period, — In the August lots just mentioned the first trans-
formation to the adult stage took place 9 days after the first pupa-
tion, while in the September lots the pupal period was only 7 or 8
days. In a lot which entered the ground on August 22 the first one
pupated on September 10, 19 days later. Unfortunately, the pre^
pupal period for these was not determined, but as that period was
passed during the very cold days of late August, it was undoubtedly
longer than in the earUer and later lots, and the pupal period was
probably dose to 11 days in length.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE CHBRBY LEAF-BEETLE.
13
Emergence of the adults takes place from a day to several days
after transformation.
ToUd period in ground. — ^Five hundred and sixty-three individuals
were carried through this period of their development^ the time
required varying from 14 to 28 days, with the greatest emei^ence on
the twenty-second day. Table V gives the data on this point.
Table V. — Total period spent in the ground by stages of the cherry leaf-beetle.
Number of
individimlA.
Period In
ground.
Number of
individiials.
Period in
ground.
44
30
68
148
15
16
17
18
10
20
21
22
116
47
63
30
3
1
24
26
26
27
28
563
>22.36
I Average.
The males required on the average 0.1 of a day longer than the
females, the average for the males being 22.41 days and for the
females 22.31 days.
DEYBLOPMBNTAL PERIOD.
The total developmental period, exclusive of the incubation period,
of 218 individuals was obtained. This varied from 31 to 40 days,
with the heaviest emergence on the thirty-third and thirty-fourth
days. Table VI gives the data obtained.
Table VI. — Total developmental period of the cherry leaf-beetle, exclusive of the incuba-
tion penod, North East, Pa., 1915.
Number of
individuals.
Developmen-
tal period.
Number of
individuals.
Developmen-
tal period.
3
27
67
63
45
0
32
33
34
35
36
2
1
1
39
40
218
»33.76
1 Average
The males required 33.81 days and the females 33.73 days. Al-
kwring an incubation period of 11 days the total developmental
period would be in the neighborhood of 45 days. Table VII gives
in more detail all the life-history data obtained.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
14
BULLETIN 352, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
S3 » .
•g§oS5
5 i^
QO 3i 23 x: r>
?^^x^s?;»?i^^£^^:^s^32ssg^?ss^sss»s;c;^ss;ae;8S9oiS9
o • -oi .fx"* '^TC^T Qcn •— • . — .MC* — .M .« — — o -c^r^cc • '^
WM--CM ci « "T «-r •-^t'Oii^ic -r .^ -CM — cspcr «o.M.M • c« «0 04 ^ M V ec "^ -« • -^
8
4S
M M Si Of M « 2f 2f 5f sf a^ » ^iiis. ¥ » §■ »ss.i s? » »s.^li^^^
5=i
mi
|c1
S a
^ w eo-*-
I
9 9?
< «
§11
o 2 2
51-
^11
c
III
I 'I
S6
3 55
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE CHEBBT LEAF-BEETLE.
16
::::::::::::: :8SSSSS5SSS88
aiisat^s
iasaaassasa ja«sssao;
cs j8a»s9as;assae3S3s;?sas9ssie;8S9a
«4^p4^e« j
'. 1 l^^ I \\\^ 'ow^^ |m
•*
e«
«
\m* j«oioe«
i i i i'^w •« • i*^ i*^ |«.H^e« ••^tt • '• i^^w^w^ j.-* j j.Me9^c9«^
-«-«€0«
llllll
• liiiillilii iiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiifif iiifi
ill i i i i i i ^^ ^S ^S
« ^ iC<D «
O-** CO-*
X a^
lo ^fi^t-iesie e«*o ^^e« e« ^m ^^c4 '«c
e«€0 eo^
I <<riO*o-«
io«r
•oom
•*
iO«
CO
^
m
• ^^^00
«iO
^^M
•o
^e»
s
to
00
9
•<
I
aa 2sa a
^99^ 99
999 9
a a
I I
to <D
Ft a
Aug. d
Aug. 6
Aug. 7
Aug. 8
Aug. 9
Aug. 11
Aug. 13
1 1
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
16
BULLETIN 352, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGBICULIUBE.
.S
a
o
I
Ob
I
^
ml
i-Sg
f^ fee
SS^SSS^$^!3S^^S$S;S^^SS^^^SSSS^SJSg3S3^S^S^^gSg3S;S^
^SIe^S:ic;?iSSgiS9aSg1giSc;$^g1S9S^as;S^SS9e^S^SiS9?SS1S9?3S9S^^^88^g|
M^ •O'^'M -roo*-* .c«>Me<« ••M>M .*4»o«-«r«co
•Mfx^.M^.M^eoxd^'vco .e«i-«.Mt^^^ •■*« • •«• i-* ^ et o ac ^ ^ e>« . .e4««4 .^
25 a
Ch C« O4 CX 0< O. & D, O4 O. O. O, O4 & O, P< O4 O4 O. O. O4 P. C. P< O, Q. C, 0. 0, 0« 0« P. P< P< CI P< O. O. Ci Ob
(2 CQ OQ C» CO 00 OQ CG QQ CQ QQ OQ OQ ca ^ QQ QQ OQ I/: OQ (2 QQ OS a5 00 OQ ro m c2
3l^
_C0^ »OM500O^^ N « C«»C>0«DO-
rc«eo»o«^N«
«•♦ iO'*co»oeo« '•• »o co^uscc* w ^ oo'*
««^iO'r»0'*
5i1
3 0-5:
■•M « ® coM^pooo eo 00 xfc ^Ki-«>^x«Deo
28 SSSSSSS 2 8 28S552 * 8 28 88558988
3S 333333 3 3 33333 3 3 33
ga5
•♦ co^o-^^eo
"*ro^cc "^
1=^
6*
a.
6-
08 P O
to r» ;H ^ lO lO
;h r^ r^ c« o f-« f-i
two bceACtf^ui^
3 3 3 3 3
«« <
Ct |Hr^^«(
III
£2 *DI>.i-«C
^ -<<^-<
60 6«M
3 3 3
3
Il
9
^6
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THie CHERBY LEAF-BEETLE.
e;Se:8!Se:s)ss:8S3ss?:Se;8sss2sssss2S£::2s2
:«•• ...^te ..H»4»4c«^»Nie^
m .^•i«m..«c« •«-* . • .^ .^^ . .^«4c« .-i*-* •»-•
<*i9 vnMv iQ <v lo <v « oo <v Md lo <e e <e t« 00 V to too lo* <D (O « ao ae ae
M v4 v4 *« »4 *« tM 94 ^4 1^ 94 ^4 *N f-* «H .H ^4 »4 «H tM ^4 ^4 <-l ^4 *N f-4 tM ^4 ^4 ^4 tM tM
g>o.agifiigia a a o. o. P. a o. o. Pi P. a a Oi fit a OiPi o. Q. Q. e. p, p. o. Oi
e« CO t^e« CO '«'or«oc4 co to
^ o ^ 00 oc oc ao
■O Q "« •« ^o « .-«M»Ht-»^ ^9 eo c« w t-t i-« ^ ft .^
» n 'V eo ^ to^ »o ^»o<et*'* »o ^
•viotcvud
*•«•<'«••♦ -«o e« w^e*^^-^
I t S ^ # ^t ^ ti^^? i i StS^§
•o <ot»«e
04 «4«^^
2 2
1^
0»r<.
s
<x
0»
?S Sic^S
1
li
1
II
<
1
i
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
li
If
«
s
■V
S 15 2
1
-<
1 1 1
P
a a s
17
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
18 BULLETIN 352, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGRICULTXJBE.
The proportion of sexes tinder natural conditions was not det^-
mined, but among those reared in the life-history cages the males
and females appeared in almost exactly equal nimiberSy there being
282 males and 281 females.
SEASONAL-mSTORT SUMMARY.
The cherry leaf-beetle hibernates in the adult stage. The beetles
emei^e from their winter quarters in the late spring, and, after feed-
ing for a few weel^ and mating, the females go to the bases of the
trees and deposit their eggs in the accimiulation of rubbish. In some-
thing less than two weeks the eggs hatch. The larvae grow rapidly
and in less than two weels attain full growth, when they burrow a
short distance into the ground, pass through their pupal stage, and,
in from two to three weeks after entering the ground, reappear as
adult beetles. These beetles feed until cold weather compeb them to
seek shelter for the winter.
The season of 1915 was imusually cold and wet, and this condition
imdoubtedly delayed the development of the insect to a considerable
extent. The hibernating beetles appeared at North East on June 7.
Within two weeks their niunbers were noticeably diminishing, but
beetles of both sexes were observed as late as August 5, and females
collected at this time still contained eggs. Unfortunately the natural
food plant and egg-laying habits were not learned until the 3d of
August, but at this time many eggs were still tmhatched. Larvie
continued to emerge until August 14, and from another lot of eggs
collected August 5 larv» were hatched as late as August iS. At the
time these eggs were collectel there were full-grown larv» on the
trees, and many had imdoubtedly entered the ground for pupation.
LarvsB were observed on the pin cherry as late as September 10, when
a full-grown lai-va and a yoimg third-stage larva were found on some
foliage that had been brought into the laboratory two days earlier.
The active feeding portion of the larval life in the cages varied from
10 to 20 days, the average being 12.33 days.
The period spent in the ground in the cages varied from 14 to 28
days, the average being 22.36 days. The total developmental per-
iod is from 45 to 50 days.
The earliest adult to emerge in the cages appeared on August 23,
but the pale, newly emerged beetles were observed in the open on the
16th. On August 31 the adults of the new brood were abundant on
pin cherry, while many young beetles and pup» and a few larvaa were
f oxmd in soil and leaf mold imder the bushes. On September 8 adults
were abundant, but by September 23 they had begun to disappear,
and no pupae could be found in the ground, although a few newly
emerged adults were observed.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE CHEBBY LEAF-BEETLE. 19
A PREDATORY ENEMY.
In the leaf mold at the base of wild cherry trees, in which cherry leaf-
beetles were transforming in great numbers, small carabid beetles with
a striking color pattern of black and yellow were also abimdant. These
beetles were determined by Mr. E. A. Schwarz to be a large form of
Lebia amata Say. (Fig. 9.) In confinement these carabids would
eat pup» and callow adults voraciously. In attacking an adult
Galerucella the carabid would tear off one elytron and then eat the
soft body tissues. In confinement one Lebia killed four callow Gale-
rucella adults in one night; only one was eaten, but the others all
had the wings on one side torn off and were more or less mutilated
otherwise. When pupae were killed nothing was
left but the pupal skin.
Several other carabids were found in places where ^-jfBft' I
the cherry leaf-beetle transforms, but none was ,^SL. ^
foimd feeding upon it, nor could any of them be in-
duced to do so in confinement.
CONTROL.
PBEVIOUS REOOMMKNDATIONS.
There is no indication from entomological litera- ^p^^^J^^'ot
ture that any experiments to control this beetle thecherryi«af-be©tie.
have been conducted previous to 1915. Pettit (^"j^^J'^*'"***-
(1898), Chittenden (1899), and O'Kane (1914) have
recommended the use of Paris green and other arsenicals, doubtless
basing their recommendations on their knowledge of related insects.
Pettit (1898) recommended also the use of soap solution and kerosene,
emulsion, if spraying must be done on the trees when fruit is ripening.
EXPERIMENTS IN 1915.
When the cherry leaf-beetle appeared in the vicinity of North
East, experimental spraying against the grape-berry moth was in
progress at this station. Consef^uently no experimental work to
control the beetle was imdertaken imtil four days later, when the
woik in hand was finished. The effectiveness of poisoned sprays in
these experiments was lessened somewhat by the fact that the beetles
were feeding less heavily at the time of the application than they
had been immediately after their arrival in this region.
An sprayii^ experiments made against beetles of the spring migra-
tion were in two small orchards belonging to the late J. L. Spofford
and M. D. Phillips, except some small cage experiments which
were conducted in the insectary yard. These two orchards adjoined
each other and were alike in so many ways that they were treated as
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
20 BULLETIN 362, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTTJBE.
one orchard. The trees were 4 years old and of Early Richmond
and Montmorency varieties. The foimer variety was used almost
exclusively in the experiments.
Arsenate of Lead,
killing strength.
In order to determine the amoimt of poison necessary to kill the
cherry leaf -beetle, trees were sprayed with various strengths of arsen-
ate of lead on Jime 11. Two, 3, 4, 5, and 6 poimds were used to 50
gallons of water; one-half pound of lime was added to each of these
mixtures. In addition mixtures at the rate of 3 pounds to 50 gal-
lons and 5 pounds to 50 gallons, to which had been added 1^ gallons
of molasses, were applied. To supplement the conclusions on the
eflFect of the various mixtures drawn from observation of the beetles
on the trees sprayed, about 100 beetles were confined in a bag on a
branch of one tree sprayed by each of ^ the different mixtures. No
burning of foliage foDowed the application of any of the solutions
used.
The various arsenate of lead and lime mixtures were ineffective in
killing many of the beetles. The stronger solutions — 4, 5, and 6
poimds to 50 gallons — ^were repellent and consequently to an extent
protected the trees. The weaker solutions — 2 and 3 pounds to 60
gallons — were ineffective even as repellents, for the beetles confined
in bags on trees thus sprayed fed without apparent inconvenience.
The beetles confined in bags on the trees sprayed with the stronger
solutions, especially 5 and 6 pounds to 50 gallons, fed but little,
although they were confined for a week. A negligible number of
beetles, never 10 per cent, was foimd dead in the bags.
The sweetened arsenate of lead used at the rate of 3 poimds to 50
gallons was comparatively effective, although far from satisfactory.
There were some dead beetles on the ground, and 40 per cent of those
in the bag were dead. There was a good deal of feeding on the tree.
The sweetened arsenate of lead tipplied at the rate of 5 pounds to
50 gallons was effective. There were many dead beetles on the ground
under the trees, and of the beetles in the bag 96 per cent were dead
when examination was made three days after spraying. The trees
sprayed with this mixture were effectively protected from injury.
On June 14 a tree that had been sprayed with 2 pounds of arsenate
of lead to 50 gallons three days previous was resprayed yrith the same
mixture to test the effectiveness of a double spray with a weak solu-
tion. The application was ineffective.
A second comparison of the sweetened and unsweetened mixtures
of arsenate of lead was made June 19. The only strength of poiscm
used was 5 pounds to 50 gallons of water, the weakest solatioii
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE CHERBY LEAF-BEETLE. 21
effective in the first experiment. No lime was added to the un-
sweetened mixture and the molasses was used at the same rate as
formerly, viz, 1^ gallons to 50 gallons of water.
Dead beetles were found under all the trees sprayed, but they were
far more numerous imder the trees sprayed with the sweetened mix-
ture than under those sprayed with the imsweetened mixture. Also
tiiere was less feeding on the trees sprayed with the sweetened
ars^iate, although there was comparatively little on either, while
the unsprayed check was loaded with beetles.
EPFECT OP LIME IN COMBINATION WITH ARSENATE OP LEAD.
To test the effect of lime as a repellent when used in sprays in com-
bination with arsenate of lead, beetles were caged on parts of a tree
in the insectary yard sprayed with lime water at the rate of 1 pound
to 50 gallons and 5 pounds to 50 gallons. In both cages the beetles
fed as freely on the leaves thus sprayed as on those that had not been
sprayed.
CJoNtACT Sprays.
SOAP-CARBOLIC ACID SOLUTION.
A solution of fish-oil soap, 10 pounds to 50 gallons of water, to
which three-fourths of a pint of carbolic acid was added, was tried
as a contact spray on June 11. Immediately upon the application
(rf this solution the majority of the beetles fell from the tree, appar-
ently dead. 'Several hundred of these were gathered from the groimd,
placed in vials, and taken to the insectary. By the evening of the
next day practically aU of the beetles were active again and appar-
ently uninjured by the spray. The solution is not permanently
repellent, for the trees thus sprayed were badly attacked again two
days after the application of the spray. This spray was not injurious
, to foliage.
NICOTINE SULPHATE.
A solution of 40 per cent nicotine sulphate at the rate of 1 part to
600 parts of water, to which was added fish-oil soap at the rate
of 2 pounds to 50 gallons of liquid, was used as a contact spray on
June 11. The effect was apparently similar to that of the soap-car-
bolic acid solution; some of the beetles escaped by flight but the
majority fell from the tree when hit by the spray and soon appeared
dead. Several hundred of them were gathered and taken to the
insectary to test the permanence of this state. They were kept
nnder observation for five days without showing any signs of life.
In order to compare the effectiveness of nicotine sulphate without
soap, a large tree in the insectary yard was sprayed with nicotine
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
22 BULLETIN 352, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
sulphate (40 per cent) on June 27. Of the beetles that fell from the
tree, 318 were collected on a sheet and placed in a ventilated cage in
the insectary. Five days later practically all of them, over 98 per
cent, still showed no signs of life.
Weaker dilutions of 40 per cent nicotine sulphate were tested on
September 9 on beetles of the new brood. Pin-cherry trees were
sprayed, because at this time the beetles were feeding on no othcur.
The following strengths were used: One part of nicotine sulphate to
800, 1,000, and 1,200 parts of water, respectively. Soap was added
as in the first experiment at the rate of 2 pounds to 50 gallons of
liquid. None of these strengths was eflFective, and none of them
showed the immediate effects that followed spraying with a solution
at the strength of 1 to 600. Many of the beetles hit with the sprays
of the strengths of 1 to 800 and 1 to 1,000 became very sluggish and
in 10 or 15 minutes appeared dead. Very few of those hit by the 1
to 1,200 solution appeared injured at aU. About 150 beetles w^re
collected from trees sprayed with each solution and placed in jars in
the insectary. On the evening of September 10, 60 per cent of the
beetles sprayed with the 1 to 800 solution, 68 per cent of those sprayed
with the 1 to 1,000 solution, and 96 per cent of those sprayed with the
1 to 1,200 solution were active and feeding.
Results from Spraying by Growers.
Immediately f oDowing the advent of the cherry leaf-beetle in the
Lake Erie grape belt there was imusual spraying activity to check it.
Arsenate of lead was used in most instances, but applications of lime-
sulphur, Bordeaux mixture, nicotine sulphate, soap, and lime, used
in various combinations and at various strengths, were also made.
The results were various.
Orchards in which arsenate of lead had been used at the rate of 5
poimds to 50 gallons of water, with and without lime, were obsOTved
by the writers. In these orchards the trees were generally quite wdl
protected, although few dead beetles were found on the groimd under
the trees. Where weaker solutions of poison were used the results
were far from satisfactory in the orchards observed. The use of
sweetened arsenate of lead was observed in only one orchard outside
of the experimental plats, and in this instance it was entirely imsuo-
cessful. The spray was applied immediately before a heavy rain,
which washed it all off.
A number of combination sprays in which 40 per cent nicotine
sulphate was used were successful. The nicotine sulphate was
sometimes used at rates as strong as 1 to 400. The following is a
typical effective mixture: Arsenate of lead, 3 pounds; 40 per cent
nicotine sulphate, 1 pound; laundry soap, 2 bars; water, 60 gallons.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE GHEBBY LEAF-BEETLE. 23
Hjdnted lime, dusted on trees by hand, was used as a protective
measure, and in some instances appeared to be effective.
SuHMARY OP Experiments.
Prom the experiments and observations described, the following
condusions may be drawn:
Arsenate of lead must be used at a rate of not less than 5 pounds
to 50 gallons of water to be effective in protecting trees from injury
by the cherry leaf-beetle. A mixture to which molasses was added
at the rate of 1^ gallons to 50 gallons of the mixture was effective in
kfllmg practically all of the beetles which fed upon the trees on which
this mixture was applied. This addition of sweetening to the arse-
nate has the serious disadvantage of making the spray easily washed
off by rains. Arsenate of lead used without molasses was less effective
in protecting the trees, although it killed some beetles and it was to an
extent repellent to them. Lime in the amoimt in which it is added
to an arsenate-of-lead spray was not repellent.
Forty per cent nicotine sulphate applied with water at the rate of
I to 600, with or without soap, was effective as a contact spray.
Weaker dilutions of nicotine sulphate and soap-carbolic acid solu-
tions, although apparently effective at the time of application, did
not have a permanent effect.
CONTBOL OW LABTJL
If the larv» fed on a cultivated plant, control measures might be
directed against it, thus preventing the adults from developing in
destructive numbers. But it feeds on a wild plant that is usually
present where control measures can not be applied, often on land that
is in no way controlled by the fruit grower, and not even in the imme-
diate vicinity of fruit farms. Nevertheless the clearing up of cut-over
timberland and the destruction of the wild hosts of the larva of this
beetle would greatly limit its possibilities of destructiveness. Should
the cherry leaf-beetle become a permanent pest, cooperative work
along this line might be advisable.
BEOOMMENDATIONS.
Spray practice for the control of the cherry leaf-beetle at the time
of its next appearance in economic nimibers can not be absolutely
detennined from the foregoing experiments. The numbers of the
beetles, the duration of the migration, and the weather conditions
at the time must qualify any recommendation. More extensive
ejcperiments also might modify the results.
Nicotine sulphate, while temporarily effective, does not prevent
a new invasion of an orchard on the "day following its application.
However, its use in peach orchards is recommended, for the greater
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
24 BULLETIN 352, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
strengths of arsenate of lead would be likely to cause severe injury to
peach foliage. The addition of 2 pounds of soft soap or 1 pound of
hard soap to 50 gallons of the mixture has been generally found to
increase the effectiveness of the nicotine sulphate.
Sweetened arsenate of lead is recommended for cherry trees because
of its ej£ciency in killing the beetles and because its effect is con-
tinuous in favorable weather. Rain destroys the effectiveness of
thi? spray. The combination f oimd most useful is 5 pounds of arse-
nate of lead, 1^ gallons of molasses, and 50 gallons of water.
If the beetle migration shoidd occur during a rainy period, the
unsweetened arsenate of lead might be most useful.
In applying a poison spray care must be taken to cover the under-
side of the leaves where the beetles feed. In some instances it may
be necessary to spray only young cherry trees or older trees of the
thin-leaved varieties. In large orchards into which the beetles are
migrating in great numbers it is advisable to spray first the trees
most susceptible to attack, for during the season of 1915 the maxi-
mum injury occurred immediately after the first arrival of the beetles.
In no case should the sweetened arsenate of lead be used with Bor-
deaux mixture as a combination spray, for burning of foliage is
likely to result.
Digitized by VJ.OOQ IC
BIBUOGRAPHT.
1865. LbConte, J. L. On the species of Galeruca and allied genera inhabiting North
America. In Proc. Acad. Nat. Sd. Phila., p. 204-222.
Page 216. GcUmea cavkoUit, Oilgliial description in Latin.
1890. Packard, A. S. Insects Injurious to Forest and Shade Trees. Fifth Rpt.
U. S. Ent. Com., 957 p., 50 pL, 306 fig.
Page 520. OaUruea Mra^uinea obaerved in great abundance at Berlin Falls, N. H., Sept. 13,
eating boles in leaves of wiM cherry. Brief description of beetle.
1891. ScHWABZ, £. A. Galeruca Mngwnea, In XJ. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Ent. Insect
Life, V. 4, nos. 3 and 4, p. 94.
Conectlon of name naed by Paclcard (1800). "Common northern species.'*
1893. Horn, G. H. The Galemcini of h<»eal America. In Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc.,
V. 20, p. 57-144, pi. 1.
Pages 76-77. OalemeeUa cmkoiUt Lee. Description in English. "Occurs from Canada to
the New England and Middle States westward to Wisconshi; North CaroUna (Lee.)."
1894. Davis, G. 0. Report of the consulting entomologist. In 7th Ann. Rpt. Expt.
Sta. State Agr. Col. Mich., p. 85-93, 5 fig.
Page 93. A^mtmia cavicoOiM,
1894. Davis, G. C. Special insects of the year. In U. 8. Dept. Agr. Div. Ent.
Insect life, v. 7, no. 2, p. 198-201.
Page aoo. Adimonia eavkoOit recorded as ipjuring ooltirated dierry at Bellaiie, Mich. First
record of injury to cultiyated cherry.
1895. Hamilton, John. Catalog of the Coleoptera of Southwestern Pennsylvania,
with notes and descriptions. In Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., v. 22, p. 317-381.
Page 371. Ooiertbcdla cavkoUiM mentioned as rare in southwestern Pennsylvania.
1896. Davis, G. C. Report of the consulting entomologist. In 9th Ann. Rpt. Expt.
Sta. State Agr. Col. Mich., p. 135-138.
Page 136. Adivumia eovkoUU attadlcing, in addition to cherry, apple, peach, and plum.
Anenites reported as of little value for control.
1896. LiNTNBR, J. A. ChUeruceUa cavieoHis Lee. In 11th Report on the Injurious
and Other Insects of the State of New York f . 1895, p. 197-198.
Recorded as feeding on the foliage of cultivated dierry and as tal en on chestnut at Au Sable
Folks, N. Y . Quotes Davis, Packard , and others.
1897. Johnson, C. W. Report on insects injurious to the spruce and other forest
trees. In 3rd Ann. Rpt. Penn. Agr. Dept., Pt. II, p. 69-110, 6 pL, 11 fig.
Pages 10^107. QolarueeUa eavkoUiSt beetles and larvee feeding in myriads on leaves of "fire
cherry" first week of September In Wyoming Co., Pa.
1898. Barbows, W. B., and Pbttit, R. H. Some insects of the year 1897. In 37th
Ann. Rpt. Mich. State Bd. Agr. f. 1897-1898, p. 565-602.
Pages 598-fi94. OaUmeOia eavieoOii Lee. Comments on change from wild food plants to
cultivated trees. Quotes Davis. life cyde. Recommends Paris green, fish-oil soap, and
kerosene emulsico.
1898. Felt, E. P. Qalemcella cavioollia Lee. In Bui. N. Y. State Mus., v. 5, no.
23 (14th Rpt. State Ent. N. Y.), p. 235.
Records ix^ury to cherry at Coming, N. Y. Quotes Lintner.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
26 BULLETIN 352, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
1898. Felt, E. P. Notes on some of the insects of the year in the State of New York.
In U. 8. Dept. Agr. Div. Ent. Bui. 17, n. s., p. 15-23.
Repetltioo of foresoin^.
1898. Smith, J. B. GaUrueeUa eaviooUU. In U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Ent. Bui.
17, n. s., p. 23.
Records finding species on peach in Pennsylvania.
1899. Chtttendbk, F. H. The cherry leaf-beetle (Oakrueella eaviooUis Lee.). In
U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Ent. Bui. 19, n. s., p. 90-93.
Only long article on this species. Sommarizes prerioos aoootmts and records iitjury to <dMny
at St. Ignace, Mackinao Co., Mich., and to peach at Spruce Creek, Huntington Co., Pa., and
at Lebanon, Lebanon Co., Pa., in 1896. Distxibotion. Descriptioii of egg and incobstkm period.
Arsenical spray, as described for use against tlie leaf4>eetle, recommended.
1899. LuooER, Otto. Fifth Ann. Rpt. Ent. State Expt. Sta. Univ. Minn. f. 1899,
248 p., 6 pi., 249 fig.
Pages 152-154. The cherry leaf4>eetle, Adimonim femontt» Melsh. Native plom and <'llre
cherry" (Pruwu penm^lvanka) as natural food plants. Descr^ons of adults, egg, and lanra.
Life cycle.
1900. Harvbt, F. L. Notes on insects of the year 18Q9. In Maine Agr. Expt.
Sta. Bui. 60, p. 31-36.
Page 35. Adinumia cavieotUt. Reports ix^ury to cherry in vicinity of Orono, Me.
1901. PETTrr, R. H.* Insect and animal life on the Upper Peninsula Experiment
Station. In 40th Ann. Rpt. State Bd. Agr. Mich., p. 184-195, 7 fig.
Page 192. OalenteOla cavkoUi* Lee Mentions "pin cherry" as natural food plant. Cftes
two occasions when it attacked cultivated cherry in Michigan, quoting Davis (ISM) and Pettit
(1897). Paris green effective remedy.
1903. Washburn, F. L. Injurious insects of 1903. Univ. Minn. Agr. Expt. Sta.
Bui. 84, 184 p., 1 pi., 119 fig.
Page 96. Galerucelia cavicoUii Jjec. Brief mention in list of cherry insects with recoomiaftd*-
tion of ''arsenical sprays if any remedy should be called for.'*
1905. Pettit. R. H. Insects injurious to the apple. Special Bulletin No. 24. In
44th Ann. Rpt. State Bd. Agr. Mich., p. 287-346, 70 ^.
Pages 312^13. OaUrueeOa eavkoOU. Natural food plant, v^ ohecry. Hibematioa aad
habits of hibernated beetles. Larva also works on foliage.
1906. Felt, E. P. Insects Affecting Park and Woodland Trees. Memoir 8, N. Y.
State Mus., 877 p., 70 pi., 223 fig. Albany.
Page 560. OmUntedki eatfkoUii Leo. abundant on wfld 6bi&ncy in Adirondada tn August, 1900.
(Quotes Lintner.
1909. Smtth, J. B. Report of the New Jersey State Museum f. 1900. The Insects
of New Jersey, 888 p., 340 fig. Trenton.
Page 847. O^tentedla eavkotUt Lee feeds on peach, phmi, and 6bi&ncy.
1910. Blatchlet, W. S. Ooleopt^a of Indiana. 1386 p., 590 fig. Indianapolis.
Page 1100. CMeruedU eavkotUt Lee. Descriptioo of adult. Distributiao.
1911. GossABD, H. A. OaUmcella cavioollit. ii Ohio Agr. Expt. Bui. 233, p. 129.
Recorded as occurring in September. Control spray of arsenate of lead, 3 to 5 pounds to »
gallons of water.
1914. O'Kanb, W. C. Injurious Insects, 414 p., 606 ftg. New York.
Page MS. CMemcdU cavkolUs Leo. feeds oo tiMRj, phnn, and peaolL Lame abo feed on
the leaves. Pupal stage tn ground. Two broods aonoally. Arsenate of lead or Paris grecA
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PUBUCATIONS OF U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO DECIDUOUS FRUITS.
ATAILABLB FOR FREE MSTSIBirnQN.
insect and Fungous Enemies of the Grape East of the Rocky Mountains. (Farmers'
Bulletin 284.)
^[naying Peaches for the Control of Brown Rot, Scab, and Curculio. (Farmers'
BoUetin 440.)
The More Important Insect and Fungous Enemies of the Fruit and FoUage of the
Apple. (Farmers' Bulletin 492.)
The Gipey Moth and the Brown-tail Moth, with suggestions for Their Control.
(FarmerB' Bulletin 564.)
The San Joee Scale and Its Control. (Farmers' Bulletin 650.)
The Apple-Tree Tent Caterpillar. (Farmers' Bulletin 662.)
The Round-headed Apple-tree Borer. (Fanners' Bulletin 675.)
Grape Leafhopper in Lake Erie Valley. (Department Bulletin 19.)
Control of Codling Moth in Pecos Valley, N. Mex. (Department Bulletin 88.)
Walnut Aphides in Calilomia. (Department Bulletin 100.)
The Leaser Bud-Moth. (Department Bulletin 113.)
Hie life ffistory and Habits of the Pear Thrips in Califtmia. (Department Bulletin
173.)
Studies of the Codling Moth in the Central Appalachian Region. (Department Bul-
letin 189.)
The Cranberry Rootworm. (Department Bulletin 263.)
Pear-^ee Pbylla. (Entomology Circular 7.)
Buffalo Tree-hopper. (Entomology Circular 23.)
Bozelder Plant-bug. (Entomology Circular 28.)
Laiger Apple-tree Borers. (Entomology Circular 32.)
Apple Maggot or Railroad Worm. (Entomology Circular 101.)
Oyster-ehell Scale and Scurfy Scale. (Entomology Circular 121.)
San Joee Scale and Its Control. (Entomology Circular 124.)
How to Control Pear Thrips. (Entomology Circular 131.)
One-^ray Method in Control of Codling Moth and Plum Curculio. (Entomology
Bulletin 80, pt. VII, revised.)
ffOS 8ALB BY THB SUPBUKIKNDENT OF DOCIIMKNTS.
Hcmiemade lime-eulphur Concentrate. (Department Bulletin 197.) Price, 5 cents.
life Hietory of the Codling Moth in Maine. (Entomology Bulletin 252.) Price^ 10
cents.
American Plum Borer. (Department Bulletin 261.) Price, 5 cents.
The Parandra Borer. (Department Bulletin ?62.) Price, 5 cents.
IGsceUaneous Insecticide Investigations. (Department Bulletin 278.) Price, 10
cents.
Canker-wtffms. (Entomology Circular 9.) Price, 5 cents.
Woolly Aphis of Apple. (Entomology Circular 20.) Price, 5 cents.
Pear Slug. (Entomology Circular 26.) Price, 5 cents.
Fmit-tree Bark-beetle. (Entomology Circular 29.) Price, 5 cents.
Peacfa-tiee Borer. (Entomology Circular 64.) Price, 5 cents.
Phnn Curculio. (Entomology Circular 73.) Price, 5 cents.
Aphides Affecting Apple. (Entomology Circular 81.) Price, 5 cents.
27
Digitized by
Google
28 BULLETIN 352, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE.
Terrapin Scale. (Entomology Circular 88.) Price, 5 cents.
Nut Weevils. (Entomology Circular 99.) Price, 6 cents.
Leaf Blister Mite. (Entomology Circular 154. ) Price, 5 cents.
San Jose or Chinese Scale. (Entomology Bulletin 62.) Price, 25 cents.
Pecan Cigar Case-bearer. (Entomology Bulletin 64, part 10.) Price, 6 centa.
Papers on Deciduous Fruit Insects and Insecticides. (Entomology Bulletin 68, 9
parts.) Price, 25 cents.
Spring Canker-Worm. (Entomology Bulletin 68, part 2.) Price, 5 cents.
Trumpet Leaf-Miner of Apple. (Entomology Bulletin 68, part 3.) Price, 5 cents.
Lesser Peach Borer. (Entomology Bulletin 68, part 4.) Price, 6 cents.
Lesser Apple Worm. (Entomology Bulletin 68, part 5.) Price, 6 cents.
Demonstration Spraying for Codling Moth. (Entomology Bulletin 68, part 7 . ) Price,
5 cents.
Grape-leaf Skeletonizer. (Entomology Bulletin 68, part 8.) Price, 5 cents.
Peach-tree Barkbeetle. (Entomology Bulletin 68, part 9.) Price, 5 cents.
Periodical Cicada. (Entomology Bulletin 71.) Price, 40 cents.
Codling Moth in the Ozarks. (Entomology Bulletin 80, part 1.) Price, 10 cents.
Cigar Case-bearer. (Entomology Bulletin 80, part 2.) Price, 10 cents.
Additional Observations on the Lesser Apple Worm. (Entomology Bulletin 80,
part 3.) Price, 5 cents.
On Nut-feeding Habits of Codling Moth. (Entomology Bulletin 80, part 5.) Price,
5 cents.
Life Histofy of Codling Moth in Northwestern Pennsylvania. (Entomology Bulletin
80, part 6.) Price, 10 cent%
Fumigation of Apples for San Jose Scale. (Entomology Bulletin 84 . ) Price, 20 cente.
Grape Root-worm, with Especial Reference to Investigations in Erie Grape Belt, 1907
to 1909. (Entomology Bulletin 89.) Price, 20 cento.
Papers on Deciduous Fruit Insects and Insecticides. (Entomology Bulletin 97, 7
parts.) Price, 25 cento.
Life History of Codling Moth and Ite Control on Pears in California. (Entomology
Bulletin 97, part 2.) Price, 10 cento.
Vineyard Spraying Experimento Against Rosechafer in Lake Erie Valley. (Ento-
mology Bulletin 97, part 3.) Price, 5 cento.
California Peach Borer. (Entomology Bulletin 97, part 4.) Price, 10 cento.
Notes on Peach and Plum Slug. (Entomology Bulletin 97, part 5.) Price, 5 cents.
Notes on Peach Bud Mite, Enemy of Peach Nursery Stock. (Entomology Bulletin 97,
part 6.) Price, 10 cento.
Grape Scale. (Entomology Bulletin 97, part 7.) Price, 6 cento.
Plum CurcuHo. (Entomology Bulletin 103.) Price, 50 cento.
Life-history Studies on Codling Moth in Michigan. (Entomology Bulletin 115, part 1 . i
Price, 15 cento.
One-spray Method in Control of Codling Moth and Plum Curculio. (Entomology
Bulletin 115, part 2.) Price, 5 cento.
Life History of CodUng Moth in Santa Clara Valley of California, (Entomology
Bulletin 115, part 3.) Price, 10 cento.
Cht^^^''^^- (Entomology Bulletin 116, part 2.) Price, 15 cento.
lSuS^'^^- (Entomology Bulletin 116, part 3.) Price, 5 cento.
Pri'c^ 5 c^tT ^°'^*' ^'^^'^ ^^' ^"^^^ (Entomology Bulletin 116, pwt 4.)
J^SJTnS;^?^^^^ Price, 10 cento.
junousm Cranberry Culture. (Farmers' Bulletinl78.) Price, 5 cents.
WASHINGTON : GOTERNMBN? PRINTINQ OmCI : IW«
Digitized by VjOOQ IC ,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digiti
zed by Google
/? /. 3. 3 S-J
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 353
ContribatloD from the Bureau of Plant Industry
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief
Washington, D. C.
PROFESSIONAL PAPER
March 16, 1916
[OISTURE CONTENT AND SHRINKAGE
OF FORAGE
AND THE RELATION OF THESE FACTORS TO
THE ACCURACY OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA
By
H. N. VINALL, Agronomist, and ROLAND McKEE,
Assistant Agrostologist, Office of Forage-Crop
Investigations
CONTENTS
latrodoetioii ........
Gaaerml nan of the Experiments . . .
Uae of Samples In Correcting Forage
Yfeida
Belation of the Suge of Growth of Forage
PteoLs to Their Moisture Content . .
Lots of Moistore In Forage during the
Ewty Stages of Curing ......
Pago
1
27
Pftge
Variation In the Moisture Content of
Growing Alfalfk during a Single Day . 31
Moisture Content of Baled Haj .... 31
Shrinkage of Hay after Storing and Vari-
ation in Weight Due to Changes In At*
mospheric Humidity 32
Suuiinaiy ..•. 36
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICB
1916
Digitized by
Google
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 353
CoBtrllNrtlMi fkoM the Bnnra of Plut Indulry
WM. A. TAYLOR, CUef
WaaUBftoii, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER Mareh le, 1916
MOISTURE CONTENT AND SHRINKAQE OF FORAGE AND
THE RELATION OF THESE FACTORS TO THE ACCURACY
OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA.
By H. N. ViNALL, Agronomist^ and Roland McKbb, AsiUtarU AgroHologitt, Office of
Forage-Crop Inveetigatkms.^
Pago.
latroduotioo 1
0«Mnl pita of tbe experiments 2
UaBofaemplee in correcting forage yields.... 3
B«iitlan of the stage of growth of forage plants
to their moistixre content 22
LoM of molstare in forage during the early
stages of oaring 27
CONTENTS.
Page
Variation in the moistoTe content of growing
aUaUa during a single day 81
Moisture content of baled hay 31
Shrinkage of hay after storing and variation in
weight due to changee in atmospheric hu*
mldlty 32
Summary 80
INTRODUCTION.
Agronomic literature contains but little in the way of well-planned
investigations on the subject of the moisture content of different
forage plants either green or cured, a matter which is intimately
related in farm practice to the proper handling and wise marketing
of forage crops and in investigational work to the correct interpreta-
tion of yield data. This subject is of sufficient importance to justify
much more attention than has previously been given to it by experi-
menters. Careful investigators have long recognized that many of
the published data on forage crops are inaccurate, on account of the
imcertain amount of water included in the yields.
The term ''air dry/' as used in the investigations described in the
following pages, refers to that stage of curing when the humidity of
the forage and the humidity of the atmosphere have reached a state
of equilibrium. The percentage of moisture in the forage when
air dry of course varies with the changes in atmospheric humidity,
. W. J. Morse, H. L. Westoiver, M. W. Evans, A. B. C^on, and R. E. Qetty, members of the
I of the Office of Forage-Crop Invertlgatlons, have contributed quite largely to this poblioation by
ir jwhtanfw in eoUeottaig and preparing records of the numerous samples required.
21216*— Bun. 3fi3-10 1
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
2 BULLETIN 363, U. S, DEPABTMENT OP AGMCULTUBE.
but this variation is within rather narrow limits. The term "field
cured" is more indefinite, denoting that condition of forage which
obtains in general farm practice when the hay or fodder is consid-
ered sufficiently well cured or dried so that it will not spoil when
placed in bales, stacks, or in a haymow. In this stage the forage is
very seldom completely air dry.
Most publications on forage crops use the term "field cured" to
denote tiie condition of the forage under consideration, but such a
term does not imply a uniform percentage of moisture, and little or
no care has ever been used to indicate even approximately the
moisture content of the forage when the yields were determined. It
is, therefore, impossible to interpret correctly many data foimd in
such publications.
The variation in the moisture content of forage when yields are
taken is often greater than the actual difference in yield that we may
expect from improved varieties or improved methods. There is
little dependence therefore to be placed in experimental results along
these lines imtil this factor of error is eliminated, or at least greatly
reduced. The data presented in this bulletin are sufficient to sug-
gest a remedy for this difficulty, and it is hoped that experimenters
will consider carefully the method here indicated.
Aside from the experimental value of this work, it has an economic
significance, in that it points out the relative weight value of forages
at different stages of maturity. However, the economic side of the
question is not discussed in detail and is given only as it forms a part
of the experimental data presented.
GENERAL PLAN OF THE EXPERIMENTS.
During 1914 a series of experiments was carried out to secure data
on which to base a sampling system that would give greater accuracy
to field tests in forage experiments. In connection with the efficiency
of the sample method, investigations were also carried on to determine
the amount of moisture in forage plants at different stages of devel-
opment, the variation in moisture content due to locality and to
cutting at different times of the day, and the differences in loss of
weight when samples are dried in the smi as compared with those
dried in the shade. Information was also secured on the rate of
moisture loss in forage in the early stages of curing and the changes
in moisture content of hay stored in bales and loose in a bam.
In conducting the experiments at the various places the methods
followed were the same or varied only in minor details. Half-bushel
and bushel cotton bags were used to receive all samples except the
largest, for which common burlap grain bags having a capacity of 2
bushels were used. For inclosing the bales of hay a close-weave
burlap was used. In taking samples of field-cured forage, care was
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MOISTUBE CONTENT AND SHRINKAGE OF FOEAGE. 3
uBed to have each sample representative of the entire crop. Material
from the outside as well as from the middle and bottom of the wind-
lowB or shocks was included.
Samples of green material were taken by cutting the plants either
by hand or with machinery, each sample including only that part of
the plant that is used in making hay or fodder. The samples of
different sizes in both the field-cured and green material were repUcated
five or six times, and each sample was marked with a tag bearing a
number and other data necessary for identification. In taking
samples, the work was done as quickly as possible, to avoid loss in
wei^t by evaporation. Each sample as soon as prepared was
wd^ied immediately.
After the samples ^ were placed in the containers and weighed, they
were stored in a favorable place to facilitate further drying and at the
same time were given protection from rain.
In ascertaining the total water and dry-matter content of the
various samples, determinations were made by the usual method of
oven drying. For this purpose a special oven having a capacity of
164 cubic feet was built. Steam heat under pressure was used and a
temperature of 100^ C, or a little above, was maintained.
In the following account, the outline for each experiment is given as
it was carried out at the various stations, and this outline is followed
by a tabulated statement of the original data from which the sum-
maries are prepared and conclusions drawn.
USE OF SAMPLES IN CORRECTING FORAGE YIELDS.
McEee, in the Journal of the American Society of Agronomy,'
gtves a general discussion of moisture as a factor of error in determin-
ing forage yields, wherein it is suggested that forage-yield data can
be made much more nearly comparable if small samples taken at the
time of weighing field-cured or green material are used in determining
the moisture content of the material and these data used in reducing
the yield either to an air-dry or to a dry-matter basis.
In the experiments described in the present bulletin, the eflSiciency
of correcting ordinary green and field-cured forage weights with 2, 4,
6, 8, 12, or 16 pound samples was determined with the following
crops: At Arlington Farm, Va., alfalfa and a mixture of tall oat-grass
ind orchard grass; at Chico, Cal., alfalfa; at New London, Ohio,
timothy; at AmariUo, Tex., sorghum; and at Hays, Kans., sorghum.
To provide a basis for checking up the moisture loss in small samples,
100 pounds of ordinary field-cured forage were taken from the shock
^Thtnaq^es of tall oat-f^ass and orchard grass at ArUngton Fann, Va., were prepared by H. N. Vinall
«iH.UWettorer;tbealfaUaatArUiigtOQFann,Va.,b7W.J.MorBe;tbe alfalfa at Chico, Cal^
Vd:ei: the timothy at New London, Ohio, by M. W. Evans; the sorghums at Amarillo, Tex., by A. B.
<^<Mndat Hays, Kan8.,by R. B. Getty.
'VdCaByBoland. McdatareaaafactoroferTorindetenniniDgfocage yields. /nJoi]r.Ainer.Soo.Agron.,
▼.I»oo.3,p.u»-U7,1914.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
4 BULLETIN 363, U. S. DEPABTMEKT OF AGMCULTUBE.
or windrow and 500 pounds of green forage were taken immediately
after cutting and placed on a canvas to prevent loss of weight other
than moisture. When the forage on the canvas had become suffi-
ciently dry, these bidk lots were placed in burlap bags and kept in
an open shelter until they ceased to lose weight.
Composite samples, 2, 4, 6, and 8 pounds in size, of field-cured
forage, part from the outside and part from the inside of shocks, were
secured at the same time and firom the same material as the 100-
pound lot before mentioned. These samples were weighed at once
and put aside to become perfectly idr diy. Samples, 4, 8, 12, and
16 pomids in size, of green forage were taken immediately after cutting
and were treated similarly. Samples were replicated five or six
times to check the variation due to sampling. All samples were taken
at the stage of maturity generally recognized as the proper cutting
time for each crop. The samples were kept in a shelter and weighed
at intervals until they ceased to lose weight. They were then shipped
to Washington, D. C, for the purpose of reducing them to a moisture-
free state in the drying oven. The intention was to secure samples
of timothy at both New London, Ohio, and Arlington Farm, Va., so
that each crop would be handled at two stations, but an unfavorable
season caused a failure of the timothy crop at Arlington Farm, and
it was found necessary to substitute there the mixture of tall oat-graas
and orchard grass.
In Table I an attempt has been made to arrange the data so as to
make the conclusions to be derived from them as clear as possible.
Column 1 contains the number under which the identity of the sample
was preserved from the time it was prepared until it was finally
weighed from the drying oven.
Column 2 gives the original weight of the sample, whether green
or field cured.
Colmnn 3 gives the weight of the sample at a date between the time
it was prepared and the date when it was considered air dry. This
column is intended to show about what time is required for each
sample to lose most of its moisture, that is, when it was drier than
field cured, but in most cases not yet air dry. This colimm is blank
in sections A and B because no weights were obtained between the
date of cutting and the date when the samples were completely air dry.
Column 4 carries the air-dry weight of the sample. In some cases
this was the weight obtained just before the sample was placed in the
drying oven, but where an earlier weighing made at the field station
showed the sample to be practically as dry at that time, the earlier
weight is given.
Column 5 gives the weight of the samples oven dry and represents
the dry matter contained in each sample as nearly as it can be deter-
mined in an ordinary oven.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MOISTURE CONTENT AND SHBINKAGE OP FORAGE. 5
Cehimn 6 carries a statement of the percentage of moisture in each
of the original samples, as determined by the difference between the
original and the oven-dry weights. It is recognized that this loss
may not necessarily be exclusively water. Slight losses may have
taken place through volatilization of substances other than water or
through fermentation due to enzyms or bacteria, but such losses are
undoubtedly small when the hay has been quickly cured. The percent-
ages as given are determined by using the original weights of the
samples as the base. It is recognized that this practice is open to
criticism, owing to the fact that the original weights vary in relative
importance, due to the differing percentages of moisture which the
samples contain. This criticism is of little importance in the present
case, however, since the percentage of moisture is very nearly the
same in each group where a comparison is made. The use of the
absolute dry matter as a base from which to figure the percentages
was tried, but this method seemed impracticable, because it makes
the percentages so at variance with the moisture percentages as
usually given. Column 6 also gives the means of groups of three and
groups of five or six samples, with their probable errors. In tables
where there are only five samples in each class the second group of
three represented by the second mean includes the remaining two
samples and the one next above, which has already been considered
in the first group. For example, in section A the first ''mean of 3"
IB based on samples 1, 2, and 3, and the second ''mean of 3" on
samples 3, 4, and 5. These means are set in black-faced type, so
that they will be apparent at a glance. The consistency in the per-
centages of moisture in each set of samples is remarkable. In only
one case has the probable error for the group of six samples exceeded
1 per cent, and the probable error for a single sample averaged con-
siderably less than 1 per cent, although in exceptional cases it ap-
proach^ 2.5 per cent. The probable error was chosen as the most
efficient measure of the comparative reUabihty of the different sizes
of samples and methods of sampling. Since the moisture is here
stated in percentages, means of practically the same size are dealt with,
and the need for a term like the coefficient of variability is lacking.
Column 7, as shown by the heading, is a record of the percentage
of moisture in the air-dry material, the weight of which is shown in
column 4.
Cohunn 8 gives the percentage of moisture which was lost in reduc-
ing the material from its original state to an air-dry condition. The
base on which this percentage was calculated is the weight of the
original material given in column 2. The actual losses of weight in
100 pounds of field-cured and 500 pounds of green material under
the same conditions as those surrounding the samples are given fol-
lowing the tabulation of sample weights.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BULLETIN 363, U. S. DEPABTMEKT OP AGBICXTLttmE.
Tablb I. — Comparison of differerU-mzed samples of forage.
Sscnoir A.— Gbbbn Alfalfa Coluctid at AsmrofON Fabm.
[Dates of weighing: Original material, Oct 16; air-dry material, Feb. 2.]
Weigjit.
Moistore.
Sample.
Ori£-
inal.
Inteiv
mediate.
Air dry.
Oven
dry.
Original
material.
AJwlry
material
Lost in air
drying.
No.l
Ouneee.
64
64
64
Ounces.
Ounces.
18.0
18.0
18.5
Ounces.
16.0
16.5
16.0
Percent.
75.0
74.2
75.0
Percent.
11.1
8.8
13.6
PereenL
7L9
No.2
71.9
No.8
71.1
Meanofa
74.7±0.148
64
64
20.0
18.5
18.0
16.6
No.4
71.9
74.2
10.0
10.8
6&8
No.5
7L1
Mean of 8.. . .
78.7 ± .510
74.1 ± .344
± .760
•
KfnnofS
10.7±a610
71 .•±01287
128
128
128
38.0
35.0
35.0
34.0
31.5
31.5
No.6
75.4
75.4
75.4
10.6
10.0
i0.0
7a3
No.7
72.7
No.8
72-7
MmiiofS .
74.7± .367
128
128
36.5
36.0
82.5
32.0
No.9
74.6
75.0
10.9
11.1
71.5
No. 10
71.9
ICeanofS
76.0± .127
7AS± .226
± .601
Mfnnoffi . .
10^± .129
11J^± .SSI
Error of 1
192
192
102
51.5
52.5
54.0
46.0
46.5
48.0
No. 11
76.0
76.8
76.0
ia7
11.2
11.1
73.2
No. 12
72.7
No. 13
71.9
Mean of 3
76.«± .168
192
192
53.5
52.6
47.5
47.0
No.l4
75.8
76.6
11.2
10.5
72.2
No. 15
72.7
MeanofS
75.2± .081
76.6± .160
± .248
Meanof5
10.9± .107
7S.S± .136
Error of 1
256
256
256
65.0
67.6
68.6
68.0
69.5
61.5
No. 16
77.8
76.8
76.0
10.8
11.9
10.2
74.6
No. 17
73.6
No. 18
73.2
Meanofa
7«.7± .207
266
256
67.6
68.5
61.0
60.5
No. 19
76.2
76.4
9.6
11.7
73.6
No.20
73.2
MeanofS
76.S± .063
76.6i: .166
± .347
Mean of 5
10.8db .251
nA± .166
Error ofl
Section B.— Fixld-Cubko i Alfalfa Collbcted at Ablington Fabm.
(Dates of weighing: Original material, Oct. 20; air-dry material, Feb. 2.]
No. 21.
No. 22..
No. 23.
Mean of 3..
No. 24.
No. 26.
MeanofS..
Mean of 6.
Error ofl..
32.5
33.0
32.5
32.0
32.0
29.0
29.5
29.0
29.0
29.0
9.3
7.7
9.3
8.8±0.294
9.3
9.8
9.8±0
9.0± .193
± .432
9.6
9.6
9.6
9.8
9.8
9.6±a046
Jf^^^JSr^.^^^* weather conditions, this material was moved into a greohouse shorUy after ItwM
arero^w oe considered field cored, and the percentage of moistore lost in air drying to tlicrafore di»>
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MOISTURE COKTEKT AKD 8HBINKA6E OF FOBAOB.
Table I. — Comparison of differerU-^ited manpUs of forage— Conthmed,
SxcBON B.— Field-Ctrbd Alfalfa Collected at Ajuinqton Fabic— Coottaiaed.
Weight
Moisture.
Sample.
Sf
Intep-
mediate.
Air dry.
Oven
dry.
Original
material.
Alwiry
material
Lost in air
drying.
No. 26
Ouneet.
64
64
64
ounces.
Ouncee.
64.0
64.5
68.5
Ouneet.
57.5
57.5
57.0
PereenL
10.1
10.1
10.8
Percent.
10.1
10.7
10.2
Percent.
No. 27
No. 28
MfuiofS
103± .130
.
64
64
63.6
63.0
57.0
57.5
1
No.2»
10.8
10.2
10.2
8.7
No.»
McADofS.
10.6d: .110
10.4± .099
± .221
tfmn off.
10U»± .203
EfTorofl
96
96
96
92.6
94.6
02.6
84.0
85.0
83.5
. .
No. 31
12.4
11.4
13.0
9.1
10.0
9.7
No.a
No.»
MmnotZ.
123± .258
96
96
03.0
92.0
85.0
83.0
No.J4
11.4
13.5
8.6
9.8
No.»
M4>mAf9 . , .
12.6i: .349
U.S± .257
± .576
ir«Biof5..
9A± .156
Efiorofl
128
128
128
126.5
128.0
127.0
113.0
113.0
112.5
No. 36
11.6
11.5
12.1
10.6
11.5
11.3
No. 37
No.38
Mesa of 3
11. 7± .110
128
128
126.0
124.6
112.0
111.5
No.38
12.3
12.8
11.1
10.3
No. 40
Mean of 3.
12 A± .115
n.0± .181
± .406
Hfan^'f ..
nA± .135
Error of 1
Secbon C— Obebn Alfalfa Collected at Chioo, Cal.
(Dates of weighing: Original material, June 11; intermediate, Jane 80; aimlry material, Jaly 28.]
No. 601 ".
60.5
60.5
60.5
17.50
17.00
16.00
17.25
16.75
15.75
16.0
16.5
14.5
73.6
74.4
76.0
7.2
7.5
7.8
71.5
No. 502
72.3
No. 503
74.0
Meaaofd
74.7±a380
60.5
6a5
60.5
16.25
16.50
16.00
16.25
16.00
16.00
15.0
14.5
16.0
No.304
75.2
76.0
75.2
7.5
9.3
6.2
73.2
No. 506
73.5 -
No. 506
73.2
MeooofS.
75.6±
76.1±
±
.148
.268
.576
MmnofO
7.6±a253
78.0± 0.249
Eirorofl
123.2
123.2
124.5
83.05
31.95
36.25
32.70
30.45
32.75
29.0
27.0
30.0
No. 507
76.5
78.1
75.8
11.2
11.4
8.4
72.5
No. 608
75.3
No.90B
73.7
Kfan i>f t ,
WS±
.375
128.2
124.5
124.5
34.20
35.00
33.75
32.45
83.25
30.25
29.0
30.0
28.0
No.510
7fS.i
75.8
77.5
10.7
9.6
7.4
73.7
No.511
78.8
No.512
75.7
Vf%>^<^f9
7«.«±
76.7±
±
.275
.234
.574
M«anf>fft
9.8± .407
74.C± .258
Inorofl.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BULLETIN 353, U. 8. DEPABTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Table I.^-Campariion of different-wed eamplee of forage— Conimued.
SxonoN C— Gbisn Altalti. Collected at Chioo, CAL.^C(iiitiiii]6d.
Weight.
Moiston.
Sample.
Inat
InteN
mediate.
Air dry.
Oven
dry.
Original
matedaL
AJr^iry
material.
Lost In air
drying.
No. 513
Ouneet.
187.2
187.2
187.2
Ouneet.
50.20
50.20
51.70
Ouneet.
45.20
45.70
46.20
Ouneet.
40.5
41.0
41.5
Percent,
78.4
78.1
77.8
PereenL
10.2
10.2
10.0
PereenL
75.9
No.514
75.6
No.515
75.)
Meanof3
78.1 ± .095
187.2
187.2
187.2
52.05
50.95
50.20
48.20
46.70
47.20
43.0
41.5
42.5
No.516
77.0
77.8
77.3
10.7
11.0
9.8
74.8
No.517
75.1
No* 518
74.8
Mean of 3
77.4± .125
77.7± .129
± .316
Mean of 6
103± .113
75.Sd: .144
Error of 1
251.2
251.2
251.2
72.70
73.45
72.20
61.45
62.95
59.95
55.5
56.5
53.6
No. 519
77.9
77.5
78.7
9.6
10.1
10.5
75.5
No.520
No.521 !....
74.9
78.1
Mean of 3 . . .
78.0± .195
251.2
251.2
251.2
69.96
76.96
7U70
60.70
62.20
62.20
54.5
56.0
55.6
No. 522
78.3
77.7
77.9
10.1
10.0
10.7
75.7
No.523
75.2
No.524
76.2
Mean of 3 . .
78.0± .098
78.0± .109
± .267
Mean of 6
10Ji± .098
75.4 ± .108
Error of 1
Section D.— Field-Cubed Alfalfa Collected at Chico, Cal.
pates of weig^hing: Original material, June 13; intermediate, Jane 30; air-dry material, Joly 23.]
No. 525
28.5
28.5
28.6
24.00
25.25
24.76
24.00
25.25
25.00
22.6
23.5
23.0
21.0
17.6
19.0
6.2
7.0
8.0
15.8
No. 526
11.4
No. 527
12.3
Mean of 3
19.8±0.511
28.5
28.5
27.2
23.60
24.00
23.70
23.75
25.60
23.70
22.0
22.5
21.0
.... ...
No. 628
22.5
21.0
22.7
7.3
11.7
11.3
16.6
No. 629
10.5
No. 530
13.8
Mean of 3
28.0d: .297
«0.«± .568
±1.247
Mean of 0
8.6±0.687
is^s^aei;
Error of 1
60.2
60.2
60.2
51.20
49.95
48.45
51.45
60.45
49.20
46.5
45.6
44.0
- ....
No. 531
21.2
23.0
26.5
9.5
9.6
10.4
13.0
No. 632
14.8
No. 633
16.8
Mean of 3
2t.2± .685
60.2
59.2
60.2
48.70
60.45
48.45
48.20
60.70
48.70
43.5
46.0
44.0
.....
No. 534
26.3
22.0
26.6
9.7
9.3
9.8
18.6
No. 536
14 3
No. 536
17.7
Mean of 3
24.6d: .727
n.9± .586
±1.308
Mean of 6
9.7± .095
16.fi: .548
Error of 1
91.2
91.2
91.2
75.70
78.70
78.20
76.45
77.96
77.95
68.6
71.0
71.0
No. 637
24.8
22.0
22.0
9.1
9.0
0.0
17 2
No. 538
14 5
No. 539
14 5
Mean of 3
22.9± .614
91.2
91.2
91.2
77.45
79.95
79.20
76.70
80.20
78.96
00.5
72.5
71.6
No. 540
23.5
20.3
21.5
9.5
9.6
9.4
15.9
12.1
13.4
No. 641
No. 542
Mean of 3
S1.8± .514
M.4± .399
± .977
Mean of 6
9.t± .067
14.«± .459
Error of 1
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MOISTUBE CONTENT AND SHRINKAGE OF FOBAOB.
9
Table I. — CcmpcBrimm of different-^Ued msmpUi o//orti9»— Omtinued.
8KCTION D.— Fbld-Cvbbd Altalta Collictsd at Cmco, Cal.— ConttanMd.
Wtlght
Hoittore.
SUlQilB.
Orle-
iiial
Inter-
mediate.
Air dry.
Otwi
dry.
OrisliM]
mstvlal.
Alrdry
materlaL
Lost in air
drying.
Ka543
Owtua.
114.0
116.5
115.25
Ottfittt.
06.25
105.00
101.50
Ottiicef.
90.00
105.75
108.75
0ufie*9.
87.5
04.25
91.75
Ptrctni,
28.8
17.7
20.5
Per emu,
11.6
10.0
W.7
Percent.
18.1
HouSM
0.2
Ho. 545
10.8
Vfff""'^^
tO^db .971
115.75
115.75
116.25
100.50
06.75
93.75
. 101.25
07.75
94.00
90.00
85.75
82.25
Ko.546
23.3
21.0
20.8
11.2
12.8
12.5
12.6
N©.547
15.6
Ko.5tt
10.1
VflOlfffff
f4.2dbL421
tt^db 1.454
i:2.402
Uf^^^f
ll^i: .186
lS.4db .060
Kznirof 1
Sioncnr B.— OBsnr Taix Oat-Qeass aitd Obchakd Grass > CouBcnD at ABUNoroir Famm.
(Dates of weighing: Original material, June 2; intermediate, July 8; airnSry material, July 18.]
No. 41
64
64
64
22.0
21.5
22.0
22.5
2L5
22.5
19.0
ISLO
19.0
7as
71.8
70.8
15.5
16.2
15.5
66.5
Ko.42
66.4
No. 48
65.5
Vfian^ff
70.8:i:a275
**
64
64
23.0
21.5
21.5
22.0
18.0
18.5
No. 44
71.8
7L1
16.2
15.8
66.4
No. 45
65.6
Vetn ^(8
71.1i: .230
71.1i: .308
±.435
Mflfni ^^ .
U^±a095
«5.9±a 129
Error oil
128
128
128
45.5
43.0
43.0
46.0
42.0
43.0
88.0
35.0
35.5
,
— ^— ^__^_i.
No. 46
7a8
72.6
72.2
17.4
16.6
17.3
64.1
No.47
67.2
Na48
66.4
¥«ano(8
71.7± .801
128
128
46.5
43.0
45.5
44.0
37.5
sao
*
No. 49
70.7
71.9
17.5
18.1
64.4
No. 50
65.6
lfeono(3
71.6i: .252
71^db .268
± .599
^wnofff
17^± .145
«5.5± .863
Error 0(1
128
128
128
46.0
46.5
48.0
48.0
48.0
4Z0
38.5
86.5
34.5
No. 51
69.0
71.5
73.0
19.7
23.9
17.8
62.5
No. 52 ;..
62.5
No. 63
67.2
Minora
njk± .493
128
128
47.5
46.8
47.5
48.0
38.6
80.0
"
No. 54
09.0
69.6
l&O
18.7
62.8
No. 55
62.5
Mem 0(3
70.8± .699
70^± .301
± .873
Mean 0(5
10.8± .204
68.5± .558
Error 0(1
103
102
192
63.0
65.0
63.0
65.0
64.5
65.5
53.0
53,5
54.0
No. 56
72.4
72.2
71.0
18.4
17.0
17.5
66.2
No.67.
66.4
Na58.;..::::;:::;::.
65.9
Hem 0(3
72.S± .081
102
102
63.5
63.5
64.5
64.5
53.0
53.5
No. 59
72.4
72.2
17.7
17.0
66.4
N0.6O::.:::::;::;::::
66.4
Hem 0(3
72.2db .081
7«.«± .056
± .134
HemS?:::;:::::
17.5±.157
<6.8± .060
Error oil
>8eapkB 46, 47, 48, 49, and 50 were cured in the shade for oomparison with the other group of 8-poand
iuaplii whidi were cored in the sun.
21216^— BuU. 353—16 2
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
10
BULLETIN 363, U. S. DEPABTMEKT OF AGRICULTXJBE.
Table I. — Compariaon of dyffererU-^ized 9ample$ of forage— Conthmed.
SBcnoN B.— Gbbsn Tall Oat-Oba88 axtd Obchasd Oeass Collscted at AuoroTOW FAmM— Con.
Wei^t
Moisture.
Sample.
Ord-
inal.
Intd^
mediate.
Air dry.
Oven
dry.
Original
materiaL
Alwiry
materiaL
Lost in air
drying.
No. 61
Ounces.
256
266
266
Ounces.
83.0
83.3
88.0
Ounces.
82.8
82.8
88.5
Ounces.
68.5
68.0
73.5
Percent.
73.2
73.4
71.3
Percent.
17.1
17.8
17.7
Percent.
67.6
No. 52
67.6
No.(J3
65.1
Mfmiof3
nS± .808
256
266
84.6
77.5
82.5
78.0
68.0
64.0
No.M
73.4
75.0
17.6
17.8
67.8
No. 55
68.6
MeanofS
7S.Si: .500
7t.8± .355
±.793
Mean of 5
17.6± .078
€2A± .491
Error of 1
SscnoN F.—FiELD^UBiD Tall Oat-Orass and Orchard Grass Collbcted at Arlinoton Fabx.
[Dates of weighing: Original material, June 6; intermediate, July 3; air-dry material, July 18.)
No. 66
32
32
32
26.0
27.0
20.5
20.5
27.0
20.0
22.0
22.5
21.5
31.2
28.7
32.8
16.8
16.6
17.3
17.1
No. 67
15.6
No. 68
18.6
Mean of 3
tl.9±a488
82
32
26.5
26.0
27.0
26.0
22.0
21.0
No. 68
31.2
34.3
18.5
18.1
15.5
No. 70
1&6
Mean of 3 .
tt.8± .483
tl.8± .408
± .814
MfmiofA
17.7±a286
17.1±a418
Error ofl
64
64
64
58.5
57.0
53.5
52.5
57.0
53.0
43.6
47.5
42.5
No. 71
32.0
25.8
33.6
24.8
2L6
18.8
17.9
No. 72
ia8
No. 73
17.1
Mmnof?.,. .
80.5± 1.310
64
64
56.0
56.0
55.5
56.0
46.5
46.6
* * '
No. 74
27.3
27.3
16.2
17.7
13.2
No. 76
1L7
Mean of 3
W.4± 1.157
WA± .750
±1.677
Mean of 5
19.9± .861
14.1± .863
Error of 1
86
86
86
84.0
83.5
83,0
82.5
84.5
82.0
68.0
70.5
67.6
No. 76
28.2
26.6
28.6
17.6
16.6
17.6
14.0
No. 77
12.0
No. 78
14.5
Mean of 3
28.5± .518
86
86
83.3
80.3
83.0
87.0
68.5
72.0
'
No. 78
28.5
25.0
17.4
17.2
13.5
No. 80
9.3
Meanof3
«7.7± .764
27.8± .522
±1.167
Meanof5
17.8± .112
12.7 ± .566
Error ofl
128
128
128
113.0
116.5
115.0
116.5
116.5
116.0
83.5
84.0
83.0
_.
No. 81
26.9
26.6
27.4
19.7
19.4
19.8
9.0
No. 82
9.0
No. 83
9.3
Mean of 3
27 .0± . 128
128
128
114.0
115.5
114.5
115.5
83.0
83.5
...
No. 84
27.4
26.8
18.8
19.1
10.5
No. 85
9.7
Mean of 3
27.2± .083
27 .2± .136
± .304
Meanofd
19.4± .113
9.5^ .149
Error ofl
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MOIBTUSE CONTENT AND 8HEINKAGB OF FORAQE.
11
Tablb I.— dnnporticm of differenl'msud manpUi offorage-Ooaimu^,
BEOBCm Q.^-QSMMM TntOEST COUBOEID AT NlW LOMDOV, OHIO.
[Sataiarweighiiig: OifgiiMl iiiiiterlil, Jioly 10; tattannedtate, Sept. 2; a^^
Weii^t.
Hbirtn...
Saoqila.
sr
inter-
mediate.
Air dry.
Oven
dry.
Orlgfaial
materiftL
^^
Lortlnalr
drylDf.
N&4(a
Ounett,
64
67
68.
Otmeet.
88
88
82
Owmta,
81
82
81
OvncM.
26.6
27.6
26.0
PtreenL
68.6
60.0
68.8
PereemL
14.6
it?
PereenL
61.8
Na4l0
Rz
Nou«B
6a8
MBoaors.
i6^^a068^
66
64
68
i
86
88
82
84
28.0
27.0
29.0
K&404
67.0
67.9
67.4
15.1
15.6
14.7
49.8
Na406
5ao
Ko.406
50.0
M^n ^? ,
KA± .144
i6.1d: .204
±.499
Mmnofll
U.«i:ai92
i6.#±a272
Emrof 1.
184
m
m
07
66
66
66
68
64
66.0
68.6
610
NaW
58.2
60.2
68.8
16.1
15.0
15.6
50.8
Na4QB
52.0
NattO
61.1
ffem«f9..r.r.,..
iS.l± .161
128
128
128
67
68
66
66
66
64
66.0
66.0
610
Na4lo
66.8
66.8
67.8
16.1
15.1
15.6
48.6
Na.4U
48.6
Not 412
50.0
M^noft. ...a...
UJ^± .276
ViS± .310
± .760
iES"* ":
UJi± .070
i6.t± .350
EmrofL
192
100
97
99
96
96
97
88.6
81.6
8L6
No. 413
67.2
57.6
57.6
14.7
14.1
15.9
40.8
No. 414
60.6
Na4U
49.5
M^nflfS,
KA± .074
192
192
192
96
96
96
98
96
96
79.6
80.0
81.6
Na41ft
58.6
58.4
67.6
14.6
15.7
15.1
51.6
Na417
51.6
Na418
5ao
V^TIOf? .. .
i6.2± .168
67.8± .137
± .835
v«rf^«:
nA± .176
i#^^ .230
Bnorof L
256
256
266
128
126
180
126
127
107.0
106.0
108.6
Na419
58.2
50.0
57.7
15.1
14.6
14.6
50.8
Na420
52.0
No.«l
50.4
ItenofS.
i64±.206
266
126
126
180
126
126
129
108.0
106.6
109.0
No. 422
50.0
58.8
67.6
16.0
16.3
16.6
51.2
Na428
50.8
No. 434 -
49.7
V^TIOfS
iSA± .260
i6.4i: .167
± .410
MeaoofO.
UA± .179
i6.8± .194
BiTWCfl
SBcnov H.— Fbld-Cuud Tncamr Collbotbd at Nsw London, Ohio.
[Dates of weighing: Origizial material, July 11; intennediate, Aug. 27; air-dry material, Sept. 28.]
Na«5
82
82
82
80
80
80
80
30
81
26.0
28.0
28.6
18.8
18.8
17.2
18.3
13.3
14.5
6.3
No.426..: :::;;:::
6.3
NaC7
3.2
IfatiicfS.
184±a294
82
82
82
80
80
29
80
81
30
26.6
28.0
26.0
N0L428
20.4
18.8
18.8
15.0
13.3
13.8
6.3
N0.C9.. :;:;:;:
3.2
Na4ao.:.:;:;:::;:;::
6.3
^''^vit
194± .294
18.8i: .254
± .623
Mi*f»n^6
U.8±0.192
i.8±0.402
tecrSi.::::::::
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
12
BULLETIN 353, U. 8. DEPABTMENT OP AGBIOULTUBE.
Table I. — Comparison of different-sized tamples ofjorage — Contiiiued.
SicnoN H.— Fuld-Cubid Tmotht Collbotbo at
N«w LoNDOK, Omo-Contlmied.
Weight.
Moblure.
Sample.
Orig-
inal
Inter-
mediate.
Air dry.
Oven
dry.
Original
materiaL
Air^iry
Losttnair
drying.
No. 431
Oufiea.
64
64
64
Ovnuf.
59
59
Ottfieet.
60
60
58
Owieet.
61.5
61.6
5ao
Percent.
19.6
19.6
21.9
Percent
14.0
12.7
13.7
Percent,
6.3
No. 432
7.9
No. 433
9.4
Mean of 3
WA± .422
64
64
64
S7
68
60
60
49.5
61.0
51.0
No. 434
22.7
2a3
20.8
14.6
15.0
15.0
9.4
No. 435
6.3
No. 436
6.3
Meanof3
Sl.l± .440
«0.7± .321
± .786
Mean of 6
14.S± .224
7.6 ± .384
Error of 1
96
96
96
87
88
80
88
89
88
75.6
75.5
76.5
No. 437
21.4
2L4
21.4
14.1
15.1
14.1
&4
No. 438
7.3
No. 439
&4
Mean of 3
21.4± .000
96
96
96
88
88
85
88
89
85
76.0
75.5
73.0
No. 440
20.8
21.4
24.0
13.6
15.0
14.1
8.4
No. 441
7.8
No. 442
1L5
Mean of 3
M.l± .541
21.7± .285
± .697
Mean of 6
UJi± .148
8.6± .388
Error of 1
128
128
128
118
118
118
118
117
119
101.0
101.0
102.5
No. 443
21.2
21.2
19.9
14.4
13.7
13.8
7.9
No. 444
8.6
No. 445
7.1
Mean of 3
80.8± .239
128
128
128
119
121
120
118
122
120
101.6
104.0
104.0
'
...
No. 446
20.6
18.8
18.8
14.0
14.7
13.3
7.9
No. 447
4.7
No. 448
6.3
Mean of 3
19.4± .331
80.1± .277
± .678
Meanof6
U.0± .127
7.1± .354
Error of 1
Section I.— Gbken Red Aubeb Sobohuh Collected at Amabillo, Tex.
[Dates of weighing: Original material, Sept. 4; intermediate, Deo. 5; air-dry material, Dec. 16.]
No 201
64.0
65.0
70.0
32.0
32.0
35.0
25.0
25.0
28.0
10.5
15.5
19.0
74.2
76.2
72.9
34.0
38.0
82.1
60.0
No.202
61.5
No. 203
60.0
Mmn of 3 ...
74.4±0.528
,
04.0
72.0
34.0
40.0
27.0
33.0
18.5
22.5
No 204
74.2
68.7
8S.9
31.8
57.8
No. 205
64.2
Meanof3
71 .9± .897
7«.2± ,516
±1.153
Mean of 5
84.8i:0.894
68.9±0l801
Error of 1
137.0
128.0
136.0
78.0
64.0
76.0
66.0
65.5
66.0
39.0
35.5
40.0
No.206
71.6
72.3
70.6
40.0
86.0
39.8
52.6
No. 207
56.6
No. 208
51.6
Mean of 3
71 .ii: .270
139.0
72.0
64.0
41.0
No.209
70.5
35.9
64.0
No 210*
Mean of 4
71.2± .248
± .494
37 .9± .690
tt.7± .648
Error of 1
204.0
192.0
200.0
110.0
96.0
110.0
ioa6
87.0
100.0
61.0
62.5
6L0
No.211
70.1
72.7
69.6
39.8
39.7
39.6
50.7
No.212
64.7
No.218
50.0
Mean of 8
70.8± .541
1 Sample injured by mSoe.
Digiti
zed by Google
MOISTUBB OOKTBHT AHD SHBIKKACn OF FOBA£».
13
Table I. — C<m,pairiMn (^ diferenl-tixtd mmflei <^ fi^^
SBcnow L— Omzsir Bsd Ambb Sobohum Ooklbotbd at Amabolo, Tbx,— Oonttomd.
Wdght.
Moirtare.
Samide.
OriK-
iiiaL
Inter-
mediate.
Air dry.
Orcn
dry.
Orisiiial
materiftL
^SSSl
Lost In air
drying.
No.2H
Oimcet.
196.0
902.0
Otmect.
106.0
1010
Owncm,
97.6
96.6
Owen,
02.6
6L0
PirunL
68.1
69.8
Per emu.
86.9
36.8
Per em,
50.3
No. 215
52.3
I'wmofJ
•9.1 ± .148
70.1 ± .451
^1.010
M^nAfff . . ,
t8.1i: .470
$1J$± .533
Error ofl
360.0
258.0
960.0
18L0
18L0
138.0
122.6
122.0
136.6
76.5
78.0
78.0
No. 216
70.6
69.8
70.0
87.6
86.1
87.8
52.9
No. 217
5X7
Mo. 218
5L7
¥Mnof8
1^.\± .188
964.0
302.0
iao.0
139.0
181.6
119.0
8L6
74.0
No, 219
60.1
71.8
38.0
37.8
50.2
No. 230
54.6
ItenofS.
nX± .487
794i: .274
±.613
M™Sfff ; ;
tlJi± .309
9tA± .437
Imrofl
SBCflOH J.^FBLD-CUBBD RBD AMBBB SOBGHUIC COLLBCRD AT AMABILU), TBZ.
[Dates of wsighlng: Original material, Nor. 9; Intermodiate, Dec. 5; aimlry material, Deo. 10.)
No. 221
42
86
87
40.0
83.0
84.0
81.0
34.0
36.0
310
17.0
1&6
42.9
5L4
50.0
22.6
29.2
36.0
26.0
No. 222
31.4
No. 221
82.4
VtmftfS.
48.1±1.450
40
88
37.0
86.0
37.6
36.0
3L0
19.0
No.224
47.5
50.0
33.6
36.9
8L2
No. 226
3L0
Mum of 8 ........
49.2± .459
48.4i: .813
±L816
Mean of 6.
ttJ(±a713
80.8±0.694
Brrarofl
07
69
70
OLO
64.0
64.0
62.6
610
616
86.5
86.5
8&6
No. 226
47.0
47.1
45.0
83.4
82.4
29.4
2L6
No. 227
21.7
No. 228 -
22.1
Men of 8.
4%A± .377
70
72
64.0
07.0
610
68.0
8&0
416
No. 229
45.7
38.3
29.0
23.8
22.9
No. 230
19.4
Mean of 3 . .. ..
48.0±1.317
44.#± .987
±2.221
Mnnof5 . .
i94±L003
S1.6± .351
Snorofl
WMMV.
106
104
102
98.0
96.0
96.0
87.5
85.5
85.5
03.0
02.5
60.5
No.231
41.0
40.0
40.7
29.1
26.9
29.2
16.7
No.M :
17.8
No,233:.::::;;::::;;;
16.2
MmiofS
40.6± .168
104
106
97.0
100.0
88.6
88.0
60.5
60.5
N0.2M
41.8
42.9
81.6
31.3
15.0
No. 285
17.0
Mean of 3.
41.8± .349
414± .800
± .671
Mean of 5l
i9.7± .515
16.6± .281
Bnorofi;
N0.2M
183
136
134
126.0
137.0
136.0
113.5
116.0
116.5
82.0
79.6
80.0
88.8
41.1
35.8
27.8
81.6
26.3
117
No. 217
111
No,2«
13.1
M«iiof8.
S8.4± .842
No.2»
134
134
13&0
134.0
118.0
115.0
82.0
810
38.8
87.3
30.5
27.0
12.0
NO.M0...;:;;;;:;;:;;
112
Mcanof3
±1.182
MeNior5
t8.9± .617
18.6± .290
Srrorofl
1
1
Digiti
zed by Google
14
BULLETIN 363, V. S. DEPAKTMENT OF AGRICULTUEE.
REUABILITT OF ADt-DBIBD SABfPLES.
The reliability of air-dried samples may be determined in three
ways: (1) By a comparison of the percentages of moisture loss in
the samples with that in the 100-poimd and 600-pound quanti-
ties, which, on account of their bulk, approximate field methods;
(2) by a careful comparison of the relation between the moisture
lost in air drying and the total moisture content as revealed by oven
drying; and (3) by noting the variation in the percentage of moisture
remaining in the air-dried material. A comparison of the moisture
loss in air-dried samples with that in bulk lots of the same material
is given in Table II.
Table II. — ComparUon of the loss of moisture in preen and fUld-aired forage when air
dried in small samples and in large biUk.
Plaoa.
Crop.
Moisture in green material.
Moisture in fleld-corad
materiaL
TotaL
Loss in
samples.
Loss In
bulk.
Total.
Lomin
samples.
Loss in
bulk.
Chico,Cal
AifnlM . ,
Percsnt.
76.9
72.0
58.0
71.2
Percent
74.6
66.3
50.5
54.2
65.8
Percent.
73.0
64.3
49.2
58.2
60.9
Percent.
22.3
29.0
20.3
43.2
Percent.
14.3
13.4
7.2
20.5
26.0
J^ercem,
11.5
Arlington Farm, Va. . .
New London, Ohio . . .
Tall oat-grass and
orchard grass.
Timothy
13.5
10.1
Aniarlllo, Tex
florghum.. , . . ,
16u8
Hfiy», Kww
Tdo
22il
It will be seen that the losses in the small samples of green material,
except for those of sorghum at Amarillo, Tex., which were not weQ
cured, averaged from 1.3 to 4.9 per cent greater than it did in the
bulk lots. This was to be expected, since the small sample naturally
dries out more completely than the bulk. The difference, however,
is slight, and the loss of moisture in the small samples seems to be
fairly consistent with the loss which was foxmd in the bulk lots.
The comparison of small samples with bulk lots of field-cured
material is not so favorable to the use of the sample method as in
the case of the green material. Table II also shows that the mois-
ture loss in the samples, when compared with the total moisture con-
tent, is not quite so confi^tent as the percentage of moisture loss in
the bulk lots.
A better way to determine the reliability of the sample method is
by a study of the percentages themselves, specially in the column
devoted to percentage of moisture in the air-dry material. The uni-
formity of these percentages throughout one crop means that the air
drying of samples can be depended upon to bring samples to a nearly
uniform moisture content, and this method therefore serves the pur-
pose of correcting field weights almost as well as to oven dry the
samples. The moisture content of the air-dry samples is not en-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
M0I8TUBE GOKTEKT AND 8HBIKKA0E OF FORAGE.
15
tirely uniform, but except in a few instances the probable error is
quite low, averaging for over 200 samples only 0.28 of 1 per cent.
With such a low probable error it seems entirely reasonable to depend
upon the air drying of samples for all practical purposes.
CCOfPABISON OF SAMPLES OP GREEN PORAGE WTIH SAMPLES OP PIELD-CCRED
PORAGE.
Summary Table III gives a complete comparison of the averages
of the probable error in green and field-cured samples for the differ-
ent crops as collected by six individuals. These averages include
more than 250 samples of green material and more than 200 sam-
ples of field-cured material. The best index to the reliability of
&ese samples is in the percentage of moisture in the original samples.
Tabib III. — Jfeon percentages of moisture in forage samples of different sises, shomng
also probable errors.
SBcnoN A.— Gbbeh Matebul.i
Crop.
Plaoa.
lioiitiire.
Sample.
Original
samplee.
Air dry.
Lostlnair
drytaf. i
Sorghinxi..
...do
...do
...do
Amaiilk), Tex.
do
do
do
PereetU.
73.3^0.616
71. 2i: .248
70. 1± .451
70. 3± .274
Percent.
34.8±0.804
37.0d: .630
88.1d: .476
87. 5± .200
Percent,
68.9^0.801
hmmd
rf-poond
V^voaad
63.7± .643
51. 6d: .623
68.4d: .437
M^mn . .
71.8
S7.1
M.fi
Sor^inxi..
...do
...do
...do
ITnini- TTmui _ .
4.nQand
66.9^ .526
8i»and"".*!*.;;il"
opooDd
ISiwond
do
68.0± .296
do
do
64.9d: .289
63.4d: .303
Rttn
66.8
4fkMind
Tlmotby..
...do.
...do
...do
Ohio.
do
do
do
68. Id: .204
OT.8H- .810
67.8:k .187
68. 4± .167
15. Od: .102
15. 8± .070
16. Od: .176
16. 4± .170
60.6± .272
8iwind
a^ooDd
MlKHmd
60.2± .360
60.6d: .230
60. 8d: .194
VfflD
68^
16.fi
60.6
Tall oat-
...ST:...
...do
...do
ArUngton, Va.
do
do
do
4.pM|n4
71. 1± .203
71. 6± .268
72. 2± .066
73.8± .865
15. 8d: .095
17. 4± .146
17. 6± .167
17. 6± .079
65.9± .129
frpoond
i>5oiiiid
ttpooiid
66.6± .863
66. 3± .060
67.6± .424
Mean
72.0
17.1
06.S
*^wm^
Altolfe....
...do
...do
...do
Arlington, Va.
do
do
do
74.0± .344
74.8± .225
76.6± .160
76.6± .165
10. 7d: .617
10. 6d: .129
10. 9± .107
10.8± .251
71. 0± .237
8joond
liioaDd
W-poond...
71. 8d: .257
72.6± .136
73. 6± .165
Retn
76.fi
10.7
7«.fi
44wand
Alfalfa....
...do
...do
...do
Chico,Cal
do
do
do
75. Id: .258
76.7:k .234
77.7± .120
78.0± .109
7.6d: .253
9.8d: .407
10. 3± .113
10.2d: .008
73.0d: .249
iQaSd
74.2d: .258
75.2± .144
76. 4± .108
lituk
76.f
9.6
7401
. 1 Avwage proMble error for the 4-poimd aamplee. 0.306; for the 8-poand, 0.257; for the 12-poand, 0.187;
lor the IB^ooDd, 0 J12; and for all the samples, 0.240.
Digiti
zed by Google
16
BULLETIN 363, U. 8. DEPAKTMENT OP AGRICULTUEB.
Table III. — Mean percerUaaei of moistwre in forage samples of different siteSy showing
also probable «Tor«— Continued.
SBcnoN B.— Fdeld-Cureo Matsbul.i
Crop.
Place.
Kolsture.
Sample.
Original
samples.
Air dry.
Lost in air
drying.
2.p<nind .
Sorghum..
...do
...do
...do
AmarUlo, Tex.
do
do
do
Percent.
48.4^:0.812
44. 6± .987
41.3± .300
38.3i: .528
Percent.
25. 5i: 0.712
29. 3± 1.003
29. 7d: .515
28. 6± .617
Percent.
30. 5d: 0.694
4-pound
6-pound
8-pound
21.5:t .351
16. 5d: .281
13.6=t .290
Mmn
48.S
28.S
S0.6
Sorghum..
...do
Hays, Kans. . .
3-pound
26. 9± .953
4-pouiid
Ido
25.0d: .433
6-pound
8-pound
...do
...do
do
do
26.9:1: .428
25. OJ: .303
Mean
se.o
Timothy..
...do
...do
...do
New London,
Ohio.
do
do
do
2.p<nind
18. 8± .254
20. 7± .321
21. 7± .285
20. 1± .277
13. 8± .192
14. 2i: .224
14.3d: .148
14. 0± .127
5.3^ .408
4-pound
6-pound
8-pound
7.6^ .384
8.6± .388
7. lit .354
M«ttn.
80.t
14.1
7.2
TaU oat-
...ST:...
...do
...do
Arlington, Va.
do
do
do
2-DOund
31. 8± .409
29. 2i: .750
27. 8± .522
27. 2± .136
17. 7± .295
19. 9± .861
17. 3± .112
19. 4± .113
17. 1± .418
4-pound
6-pound
8-pound
U.l± .883
12. 7± .566
9.5± .169
U«<^n ,
29.0
18.6
lt.4
Alfalfa....
...do
...do
...do
Arlington, Va.»
do
do
do
2-pOUTMl
9.0± .193
10. 4± .099
12. 3± .257
12. Oi: .181
9.5d: .045
10. Oi: .203
9A± .156
11.0± .135
\
4-potind
8-pound
^^n
10.0
AlfUfa....
...do
...do
...do
Chlco,Cal
do
do
do
3-pound
30.6± .558
23.9d: .585
22. 4± .399
22.4± 1.454
8.6i: .587
9.7± .095
9. Si: .067
11. 5± .186
13.3i: .611
4-pound
6-i)ound
8-pound
15.9± .648
14. 6± .452
13.4± .089
^^n
S24
9.8
144
1 Average probable error for the 2-pound samples, 0.445; for the 4-pound, 0.548; for the 6-poimd, 0.35S;
for the 8-pound, 0.515; and for all the samples, 0.465.
* The alfalfa at Arlington was cured In the greenhouse before the original wei^t was taken, so that the
original weight is of air-dry rather than of field-cured material.
The average probable error for the green samples is about 0.240
of 1 per cent, and of the field-cured samples 0.465 of 1 per cent. It
appears from this that the probable error for green samples is approx-
imately half that foimd in the corresponding field-cured samples.
In field practice, however, this difference is not so important as it
appears, because the bulk on which the correction is made in the
field-cured material is approximately half of that where the original
green weight is considered.
Much greater extremes, however, are found in the field-cured sam-
ples than in the green samples, showing that even though the aver-
age probable error is not excessive, still there is a possibility of
sufficient error in these to affect the results when corrections are
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MOISnXBB CONTENT AND BHBINKAGE OF FOBAOE.
17
made with odIj one sample. Tahle II also shows that the samples
of field-cured material are less coBsistent than samples of green
material when compared with bulk lots of the same forage dried
under similar conditions.
BBLATITE VALUE OF SAMPLES OF DIFrBBENT SIZES.
The figures on thci relative value of. samples of different sizes as ^ven
in Table III are not conclusive. There is a general, though not
consistent, decrease in the probable error as the size of the sample
is increased, but what would otherwise have been an expressive array
of averages has been spoiled by the excessive probable error in the
S-pound field-cured sample of alfalfa at Chico, Cal. The average
probable error for the 8-pound samples, including the Chico results, is
0.515 i)er cent; if we eliminate the Chico results it would be 0.281 per
cent, which perhaps is nearer what might ordinarily be expected. It
will be noted that as the green samples of alfalfa and of teJl oat-grass
inorease in size, the greater was the percentage of loss in curing, as
indicated by the column headed ''Moisture in original samples'' in
Table III. This fact makes it seem probable that there was a loss,
by fermentation, of matter other than water, but such a loss would
not mean an increase of error in the use of samples when the samples
are of a uniform size.
On account of the difficulty of curing samples of green forage they
must necessarily be comparatively small, and when used in correcting
actual field weights the samples, whether green or field cured, must be
small enough to admit of easy handling. From the data presented
in the table, it seems that the 4-pound field-cured and the 8-pound
green samples are neariy as accurate as the larger ones. Considering
accuracy, the f acihty of handling, the ease of figuring percentages,
etc., 5-pound samples of field-cured and 10-poimd samples of green
material are recommended as the most desirable for practical work.
BTPBCT OF REPUCATING THE SAMPLES.
The data on the effect of rephcating the samples are found in Table
IV, where the probable error has been expressed for single samples,
replicates of three, and repUcates of five and six.
Tabls IV. — Average of the
probable errors of one, three, and five or six
samples.
KaabtrofrapUo*-
FieU-eand material.
Green material.
Grand
3-
4-
pound.
8-
pound.
8-
potmd.
Aver-
age.
4-
poimd.
8-
pcund.
12-
pound.
16-
pound.
Aver-
age.
aver-
age-
Om
Perct.
1.0M
.468
.445
Pnct.
L343
.MS
.648
Perct.
a 818
.897
863
Peret.
a994
.473
.616
Peret.
1.016
.499
.465
Perct.
a688
.831
.278
Perct.
a6S6
.277
.257
Perct.
a407
.166
.187
Perct.
a486
.256
.212
Peret.
0.627
.266
.234
Perct.
fi.Trr
Tknt.
.Z7T
nvsmisix.
.84»
2121««— BuU. 363—16 3
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
18 BULLETIN 363, U. 8. DEPABTMENT OP AGBICULTUBE.
Extreme care in sampling has kept the probable error very low on
the single sample, so that it is nowhere excessive, but replicating the
sample three times reduces the probable error 51.5 per cent, while a
repUcation five and six times reduces the probable error over single
samples 55.1 per cent and over three replications only 7.4 per cent.
It does not seem necessary, therefore, in practice to repUcate more
than three times. Single samples, however, can not be considered
safe when there is wide variation within the plat unless extreme care
is used to make the sample composite and representative of the entire
area.
MOISTURE PEBCENTAOES IN GREEN FORAGE AND IN FIELD-CURED FORAGE* AS SHOWN
BY SAMPLES.
Farrell, in an article in the American Journal of Agronomy,^ sug-
gests the desirability of expressing alfalfa-hay yields in terms of green
weight. In the article referred to above, he reports 76.5 per cent of
moisture lost in air dr3ning, which would be approximately equivalent
to 79.5 per cent of total moisture. The average percentage of moisture
in the 23 analyses of green alfalfa reported by Jenkins and Winton '
was 71.8.
At Arlington Farm, Va., green alfalfa averaged 75.2 per cent of
moistiu*e in 20 samples. This percentage is probably near the aver-
age for moderately thrifty alfalfa grown without irrigation in the
Central and Eastern States. Alfalfa grown imder irrigation and cut
when one-tenth in bloom at Chico, Cal., averaged in 1914, 76.9 per
cent of moisture. In 1911 McEee' found at this station as the
average of 28 determinations in alfalfa not quite in bloom 85.8 per
cent of moisture. The 1914 results indicate that the condition of
growth aflFects the moisture content very decidedly. Owing to excessive
heat and scarcity of water, the alfalfa used for the 1914 samples was
less vigorous than that of 1911 and correspondingly less succulent.
These differences indicate very clearly the danger of basing yields on
the green weight, as suggested by Farrell, or of using some arbitrary
percentage of moisture in making corrections on the green weight.
Samples should always be taken in experimental work when the crop
is harvested and the amount of moisture in the forage at that time
determined from them. Field-cin-ed alfalfa at Chico in 1914 had 22.3
per cent of moisture, whUe Jenkins and Winton * report as the average
of 21 analyses only 8.4 per cent. The samples of Jenkins and Winton
had probably dried out to some extent after being brought into the
laboratory.
*■ Farrell, F. D. Basing alfalfa yields on green weights. In Jour. Amor. Soo. Agnm., y. 6, no. I, p. 43^
1914.
> Jenkins, E.H., and Winton, A. L. A oompUatkm of analyses of American feeding stujfe. XT. S. Dept
Agr., Office Exp. Stas. Bui. 11, p. 23-75, 1802.
* McKee, Roland. Arabian allUfa. /n U. 8. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Cir. 110, p. 35-W, 1»13.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MOISTUBE OONTENT AND 8HBINKAGE OF FOBAGB. 19
The bulk of the thnothy samples taken at New London, Ohio, in
1914 were overmature for hay, being past bloom and with many of
the lower leaves dead. In this condition the green timotliy con-
tained only 58 per cent of moisture, but when cut at the proper time
(m bloom) it contained 71.4 per cent. The timothy which contained
58 per cent of moisture when green contained 20.3 per cent when
field cured. Jenkins and Win ton * report an average of 61.6 per cent
of moisture for green timothy and 13.2 per cent for field cured.
Meadow hay at Arlington Farm, Va., containing a mixture of tall
oat-grass and orchard grass had when green 72 per cent and when
field cured 29 per cent of moisture. Although the field-cured samples
were taken after the hay had dried suj0B.ciently so that moisture could
not bo wrung from the stems by twisting a bxmch of hay in the hands,
still it was adjudged not quite dry enough to stack.
Red Amber sorghum in fairly thrifty condition at Amarillo, Tex.,
had 71.2 per cent of moisture when green and 43.2 per cent when
field cured. The percentage of moistm^e, though about the same as
that of other crops for the green material, was much higher in the
field-cured state. Undoubtedly this was due to the moisture carried
in the stems. Jenkins and Winton * report 79.4 per cent of moisture
in grerai sorghimi, but give no figures for the field-cured material. In
com, however, which should be much the same as sorghum, the
average of 126 analyses of green material showed 79.3 per cent of
moistxu*e, while 35 analyses of field-cured material gave an average
of 42.2 per cent of moisture.
These results go to show that forage crops when ready to harvest
average about 70 to 80 per cent of moisture in the fresh material.
Field-cured material of different crops varies so widely in moist\u*e
content that the percentage to be expected in any one case can
hardly bo foretold.
MOISTUBE LOST IN AIR DRYING SAMPLES.
Consideration of the means in Table III shows that irrigated alfalfa
at Chico, Cal., lost in air drying 74.5 per cent of moistiu'o out of a
total of 76,9 per cent. Unirrigated alfalfa at Arlington Farm, Va.,
lost 72.2 per cent out of a total of 75.2 per cent. Timothy at New
London, Ohio, lost 50.5 per cent out of a total moisture content of
58 per cent, but, as shown in Table VI, the loss was 68.8 per cent
when the total moisture content was 71.4 per cent; the mixture of
tall oat-grass and orchard grass at ArUngton Farm, Va., lost 66.3
per cent out of a total of 72 per cent; and the Red Amber sorghiun
at Amarillo lost 54.2 per cent out of a total of 71.2 per cent. At
Hays, Kans., sorghum lost 65.8 per cent in air drying. This differ-
ence is no doubt due to the fact that the stems of the sorghum
1 Joikiiis, B. H., and WintOD, A. L. Op. dt.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
20 BULLETIN 353, U. 8. DEPAHTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
were split in the Hays samples, while in the Amarillo samples the
stems were left entire. SpUtting the stems when collecting sorgfamn
samples greatly accelerates air drying and probably adds to 1^ uni-
formity of the dried samples. This practice is recommended in the
preparation of sorghmn samples for correcting yields.
AMOUNT OP MOISTURE IN AUt-DBT SABfPLBS.
The amoimt of moisture in the air-dry material depends not only
upon the himiidity of the atmosphere but also on the nature of the
material in the sample. The sorghums, imlcss allowed to remain
an extraordinary time under conditions suited for drying, retain a
considerable percentage of moisture because of their large stems
with the hard outer walls. Alfalfa, on the other hand, being quite
succulent and leafy, loses its moisture rapidly and rather completely.
Alfalfa at Chico had 9.7 per cent of moisture in the air-dried mate-
rial, while at Arlington Farm, Va., there was 10.4 per cent. Thia
difference probably represents the effect of the different d^rees of
humidity at the two places.
Timothy at New London, Ohio, retained 14.7 per cent of moisture
in the air-dried material, while the mixture of tall oat-grass and orchard
grass at ArUngton Farm, Va., retained 17.9 per cent. Sorghum at
Amarillo, where the steins were not split in the samples, retained an
average of 32.7 per cent. It is imfortunate that dry-matter deter-
minations were not made on the samples collected at Hays, Elans.,
as this would have given an opportunity to compare with the Ama-
rillo samples others in which the stems were spUt and the drying
was much more complete.
The above percentages no doubt represent fairly accurately the
moisture percentages which may be expected in the air-dry samples
of these different crops.
EFFECTS OF DRYING SAMPLES IN THE SUN AND IN THE SHADE.
To compare the relative moisture content of air-dry material
allowed to cure in the shade with that cured in the direct sunahiney
two sets of alfalfa samples were taken at Chico, Cal., and two sets
of the mixture of tall oat-grass and orchard grass were prepared at
ArUngton Farm, Va., one set at each station being placed in the
shade to cure, while the corresponding set was cured in the sun.
The results, as given in Table V, show that while the total shrink-
age was greater in the shade-cured samples at both places the mois-
ture content of the air-dry material was a Uttle less in the sun-cured
samples at Chico and a Uttle greater in those cured in the same way
at Arlington Farm.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MOISTUBB CONTEirT AKI> SHKIirKAOE OF FOBAGB.
21
T4BUi y. — Camparimm ofnMrdried and $hack-<trUd acmiples of green material c/al/alfa
and of a mixture of tall oat-graee and orchard grass.
Fteeai
Crop.
TrMttnuBt.
Moisture,
ordinal
material.
Koisture,
air-dry
material.
Moisture
lost in
air drying.
ArlingtanFarm,Va....
Do
Tall oat-grass and or-
chard grass.
do
Cur«dinsim
Cored in shader..
Cured in sun
PereaU.
71.5±0.»8
7a8db .391
7i.9± .287
74. 0± .061
Percent,
17.4i:0.145
19. 8± .204
11. d± .480
10.7± .180
Percent.
65.5i:0.353
63.5± .558
cMtojciu.:::::. ::::::
72. 7± .314
Do.i.
do
70. 8± .120
> The dfltalied record of these samples is given in Table XII. Samples 549, 590, 551, 654, 555, 550, and 5S7
TOscttred In the shade; Nos. 552, 553, 550, and 500 were cured in the sun.
The differences indicated in Table V are too small to warrant any
conchisions, even if the residts at the two stations agreed. It would
seem, therefore, that so far as the moistm*e content of the air-dry
material is concerned it makes httle difference whether the samples
are dried in the stm or in the shade. The greater shrinkage in the
riiade-dried samples was perhaps due to loss of dry material on
account of fermentation, which might well be greater in green mar
Icrial dried in the shade than that dried in the sun on account of the
Biore favorable conditions for the development of fermentation
organisms.
VALUE OF CORRECTING FIELD WEIGHTS BY TH^ SAMPLE METHOD.
The work so far done in correcting forage yields by samples makes
it apparent that the method is of greatest importance with crops
that lose their moisture slowly, such as the sorghums and Sudan
grass. It is also valuable in comparative work where the treatment
accorded different plats of the same crop differs widely, or in a com-
parison of varieties that lose moisture at different rates. The use of
this method of correcting yields by samples, if it should become
general, would be of much value in standardizing agronomic data
obtained in different countries and different parts of the United
Slates, where conditions affecting a crop during the growing and
harvesting period differ greatly.
The use of the sample method and the differences which may be
expected from corrections made in this way are well illustrated by
the following results obtained on the forage-crop field stations in
the regular plat work.
Sorghum. — ^At Chico, Cal., the corrected weight of sorghum, as
determined by the use of air-dried samples, was 41.6 to 47 per cent
leas IJian the weights taken in the field at the time of. stacking the
oop. This fodder was not as dry at the time of taking the field
we^ts as is desirable, yet it may fairly have been called field cxired
in the ordinary meaning of the term. At Hays, Kans., the corrected
wei^ts, as computed from air-dried samples, average 20 to 30 per cent
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
22 BULLETIN 363, U. 8. DEPABTMENT OP AGBICULTUBB,
lower than the field weights, even when the sorghum had been curing
through seven weeks of good drying weather after harvest. The dif-
ferences in field-cured and computed air-dry weights for different
varieties and different dates of planting varied from minus 3.7 per
cent to plus 31.3 per cent. It would seem, therefore, that maturity
at harvest, size of shock, and succulence of the variety are factors
affecting the moisture content of field-cured sorghmn almost as much
as different lengths of drying periods. At Amarillo, Tex., the differ-
ence in the percentage of moisture in field-cured material of Red
Amber sorghum and air-dry samples of the same varied from 12 to
33 per cent, while the total moistiu'e in the samples varied from 35.8
to 65.7 per cent, as determined by oven drying. Such differences are
enough in many instances to change the conclusions of the value of
different methods of treatment or different dates of planting.
Sudan grass. — ^At Hays, Kans., after Sudan grass had been cured
three days, the field weights were 25 to 40 per cent greater than the
computed air-dry weights based on samples, and there was 21 to 40
per cent difference after a similar period of curing at Chillicothe, Tex.
Many of the phenomenal yields of Sudan grass and sorghum that are
reported by newspapers can be explained in part by this excessive
moisture content.
Alfalfa. — ^The computed air-dry weights of alfaUa at Chico, Cal.,
were 10 to 15 per cent less than the field-cured weights, while at Hays,
Kans., in good curing weather, there was a difference of only 2 per cent.
Different methods of culture affect the moisture content quite
decidedly, as shown with alfalfa at Chico, where in the May 15 cutting
the hay from drilled plats showed only 10.9 per cent loss in air drying,
while in the 35-inch rows the loss was 24.3 per cent. Cuttings of
alfalfa made at different stages of maturity can not be compared
accurately unless they are checked by the sample method. The
difference in moisture content of the field-cured material has been
found in a number of instances to be as great as 30 per cent.
Millet — Of all the crops tested, millet showed the least difference
between the air-dried and the field-cured material. The loss at
Hays, Kans., averaged about 9.3 per cent.
RELATION OF THE STAGE OF GROWTH OF FORAGE PLANTS TO THEIB
MOISTURE CONTENT.
It has long been known that plants when young contain a larger
percentage of water than they do when mature, but no great amount
of data on this point, even for our principal crop plants, is to be
found. A compilation^ of all the data available on this subject
indicates the average percentage of moisture in alfalfa to be as follows:
t Vinall, H. N. , and HcKee, Roland. A digest of literature relating to the moisture oontent and shrink-
age of forage. In Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron. , v. 8, no. 2, 1916.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MOISrUBB GONTBKT AHD SHBIKKAGB OF FOBAOS.
23
Height of 18 inches, 83.3; in bud, 70.1; eariy bk>om, 77.8; half in
bloom, 74.3; in full bloom, 70.6; bloom fading, 68.3; leaTes drying,
65.1; folly ripe, 55.9. For timothy: Heads not yet visible, 74.4;
heads just appearing, 72.9; heads fully out, 70.8; beginning to
bloom, 66.7; in full bloom, 64.3; past bloom, 59.8; seed fully fonned^
54.3; seed becoming hard, 49.2.
Liyestigations on this point were made with the following crops:
At Ghico, Cal., alfalfa; at Hays, Kans., and AmariUo, Tex., sorghum;
and at New London, Ohio, timothy. In the alfalfa several cuttings
were made at intervals early in the season, so that later all the differ-
ent stages of maturity could be secured on the same date. The same
result was accomplished in the annuals by using plats of sorghum
which were planted at different dates. The intention was to handle
the tunothy in the same way as the alfalfa, but such arrangements
were foimd impossible, and the cuttings of timothy were made on
different dates. Samples of all these crops were secured, representing
approximately the following stages of development:
(a) Very young, intflcmediate between the b^^inning of growth and
budding.
(5) In bud, befoi^ bloom began,
(e) About one-tenth in bloom.
(d) Full bloom.
(e) Fully mature, seed hardening.
Eight-pound samples representing each stage of development were
taken immediately after cutting. Each sample was placed in a sack
and kept for 20 days or more until it became perfectly air dry. The
amount of moisture lost in air drying was then determined and the
sample was sent to Washington, D. C, where it was reduced to a
water-free basis in the drying oven. The results obtained with the
different crops are given in Table VI, the averages for each crop
being also set forth in a separate summary (Table VII).
Table VI. — Moisture in growing fi
'e at different stages of development and in the air'
material.
SBcnoH A.— Alfalfa Samflbb Collected at Cmco, Cal.
[DatM of weighing: Original mftterial, July 2; intcnnediate, Aug. 19; air-dry material, Aug. 24.)
Wel^t.
Moisture.
Simple and stag» of
growtli.
Qreen.
Inter-
medl-
ate.
Air
dry.
Oven
dry.
Original
material.
Alr-drv
mftterial.
Lost in air
drying.
▼wyyomp 12 indies high:
Ouneet.
123.2
123.2
123.2
123.2
123.2
Ouneet.
27.96
29.45
31.70
31.45
27.95
Ouneet.
27.95
29.45
31.95
31.45
28.20
Ouneet.
24.0
26.0
28.0
28.0
24.5
Percent.
80.5
79.0
77.3
77.3
80.2
Percent,
14.1
11.8
12.3
11. 1
13.1
Percent,
77.3
No.587
76.1
NO.S88
74.1
Na5»
74.5
NO.S::::::::::::::::::
77.1
A^^ragft
78.9^:0.412
lf.ft±0.314
75.8db0.396
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
24
BXTLLBTIK
U. 8. IMIPABTMB]!rr OF AOBICULTOBB.
Tablb VI. — Maitture tn growing forage at dijferent staget of deodopmeni^ «fe.--OoBM.
Section A.—Altai^a SuiPLKa Collbctxd at Cmco, Cal.— CootiniMd.
Bampleiind stage of
growth.
Wel^t.
Molstare.
Oreen.
Inter-
medi-
ate.
dry.
Oven
dry.
Origiiial
materiaL
i£S2.
Lost in air
drying.
OnMtmth bloom:
No. 681
Owneei.
123.2
123.2
123.2
123.2
123.2
OiMieet.
30.96
82.20
30.96
34.70
31.96
Otmcet.
30.96
81.95
30.95
84.20
31.70
Otmcet.
26.0
28.5
27.5
81.0
28.0
PtreeiU,
78.9
76.9
77.7
74.8
77.8
PereMl.
16.0
10.7
U.1
9.3
11.6
Ptremd.
74.9
No. 682
74.3
No. 683
74.9
No. 684
TSLS
No. 686
74.3
Average
77.1 d: .393
n,li .680
74.1^ .389
123.2
123.2
123.2
123.2
123.2
86.45
36.46
85.20
34.70
35.46
85.20
35.^5
84.95
84.95
85.20
81.5
31.5
81.0
31.0
31.0
FuU bloom:
No. 576.
74.4
74.4
74.8
74.8
74.8
10.5
11.3
It 3
11.3
1L8
71-6
No. 677
71.3
No. 678
71.«
No. 679
71. e
No. 680
71.6
Avenge
74.6± .060
UJi± .134
71.6^ .(M6
123.2
123.2
123.2
123.2
123.2
38.20
37.46
36.96
36.70
37.95
87.96
36.95
36.70
36.70
37.70
88.5
88.0
81.5
32.5
33.6
Past fuU bloom:
No. 671
72.8
73.3
74.5
73.7
72.9
11.7
10.6
1L8
11.5
1L3
09.3
No. 572
70.0
No. 673
71.0
No. 674
7a3
No. 676
00.6
Average
78.4± .188
\IA± .131
Mj9± .188
Section B.— Sobghum Samples Collected at Am abillo, Tex.
(Dates of weis^iing: Original material, Aog. 17; intermediate, Nov. 2; air-dry material, Dec 17.]
^"^S-S??:
135
136
134
138
135
25
30
25
23
24
15.5
16.0
16.0
16.0
15.0
13.0
11.6
13.0
13.0
13.0
90.4
91.5
90.3
90.6
90.4
16.1
23.3
13.3
13.8
13.3
88.6
No. 242
89.0
No. 243
88.8
No. 244
89.1
No. 245
88.9
Average
90.6d:0.134
16.9^:1.169
88.9i:a068
139
138
138
140
140
40
39
86
39
38
27.0
24.0
22.0
26.0
24.0
19.0
18.0
17.0
18.0
17.6
'Heads in boot:
No.24ii
86.3
87.0
87.7
87.1
87.5
29.6
25.0
22.7
28.0
37.1
80.6
No. 247
82.6
No. 248
84.1
No. 249
82.1
No. 250
83.9
Average
87.1 ± .146
»Jk± .725
82.6^ .847
135
113
134
389
140
40
42
89
41
40
28.0
29.0
27.0
29.0
28.0
20.0
21.5
21.0
21.0
21.0
Beginning to head:
85.3
84.0
84.9
84.8
85.0
28.6
25.9
32.3
27.6
35.0
79.8
No. 252
78.4
No. 253
80.6
No. an
79.0
No. 266
80.0
Avorage
84.8± .134
36.9i: .670
79.6^ .30
138
138
138
139
138
48
48
49
47
47
84.5
35.0
35.5
34.5
36.5
30.0
36.0
38.0
27.6
28.0
Heads in bloom:
No. 266
81.3
81.3
79.7
80.3
79.7
346
35.7
31.1
90.8
2L1
76.0
No. 257
74.6
No. 268
74.8
No. 259
75.3
No. 260
74.8
Average
R0.4d: .304
38.6db .653
74.7dc .lU
132
136
135
135
141
58
50
50
58
63
43.6
45.5
44.0
42.5
46.0
84.0
33.0
33.0
33.0
36.0
Ripe:
No. 361
74.3
75.7
75.6
75.6
75.2
31.8
27.5
35.0
32.4
38.9
67.0
No. 262
66w5
No. 263
67.4
No. 264
68.6
No. 265
67.4
Average
764:k .157
UA± .613
mA±, .119
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
M0I8TXJBB OONTEKT Ain> SHBINKAQB OF FOBAOE.
25
Tabu YL — Moitiure in i^rcwmg fijirage ai diJferenJt ttagei of devehpment, efo.— Oont'd.
SBOBcni C— 43oBasuM flAHPtm Couaoud at TLatb, Kajm.
IDulbm of weighing: Orlgbial material, An^ 18; intamediato, Sept. 21; alr^ry material, Sept 37.)
Weight.
llototare.
Sample and stege of
growth.
Oreen.
lutein
medi-
ate.
AJr
dry.
Oven
dry.
Orlgfaud
material.
Aii^-dry
materia
Lost hi air
dryhig.
^•^ffSS^.
(hmee9,
1M.00
UO.M
141:25
15a 00
147. fiO
OMieet.
28.00
27.50
24.25
28.00
28.60
Otmeei,
18.60
2a 50
2a 76
19.00
19.00
Otmeei,
15.25
17.25
17.75
ia25
ia25
Perem,
91.0
8a2
87.4
89.8
S9.0
PereenL
17.5
15.8
14.4
16.0
14.4
Percent,
88.0
No. 803
87.1
No.a08
85.8
lIo.a(M
87.3
No^306..
87.1
Awace
80.2 ±a344
18.4 ±a349
87.0 ±a270
148.78
134.25
148.75
15a 25
187.60
81.75
29.25
80.75
84.25
88.50
25.75
24.75
2a 25
27.75
8a 60
21.50
20.75
28.25
28.25
26.50
Bloom:
No.ao6
8a8
84.5
83.8
86.0
83.8
ia6
lao
11.6
lai
las
82.0
Ka807
81.8
NaaoB
81.7
Nam
81.8
NowSlO
8a8
Aiwaff^
84J(± .185
184 ± .672
81.# ± .192
180.25
14a 50
157.50
151.75
18a 75
88.25
87.00
87.60
80.75
45.75
2&75
81.50
84.50
85.75
4a 25
24.75
2a 50
29.25
8a 00
88.50
"'^s:^^
88.5
81.4
81.4
8a2
79.3
ia8
lao
15.1
lao
ia7
8a9
N0.S12
77.6
NaSlS
78.1
No. 814
7a 4
N0.8U
76.0
Aiiwafft
81.1 ± .484
U4i:.802
77.# db .608
180.75
188.75
18L75
140.75
180i50
48.75
57.75
42.75
48.75
49.60
41.25
8&25
4a 25
48.75
45.50
84.00
82.75
88.60
8a60
8a60
Barddooidti:
No.8i^
78.7
81.4
74.8
75.8
7ao
17.5
14.4
ia7
las
15.4
74.3
No. 817
77.1
Na81S
80.4
No. 819
7a8
Na830
71.6
Awiagff
774 ± .748
18.1 ± .326
72.6 db .828
18LO0
140.25
180.25
187.00
14L50
8100
68.25
5a 25
8L00
49.60
42.3
41.75
48.75
6a5
4a5
8a75
84.75
89.75
47.75
8a 75
NoTsn
75.7
7a7
71.5
80.8
728
lao
las
1&5
15.5
ia7
72,1
No. 823
72,0
No. 82t. .
6ao
Na824
64.0
No. 828
67.1
ATonge
78.1 db .795
18.1 ± .549
88^ ^1.088
SBonoir D.-^mofBT
Plates of weighing: Origfaial material.
Sampus Collbccbd at New London, Omo.
May 20 to July 20; intennediate, Sept. 2; air-dry material, Sept. 28.]
▼gyoojfc Itoy 30, 10^12
No. 41^!
124
188
158
S
81
86
41
2ao
82L5
87.0
77.5
ao
75.0
iMtheadhig:
Ho. 460...
7a5
7a6
7.1
a7
74.6
Now 461
74.0
Awage
78.6 d:a084
8.4 ±a6ao
744 ±ai43
187
188
44
48
S
8ao
8ao
liifrr bloom, 7viB 30*
7L6
71.2
a8
7.1
6&6
Na468
6a9
ATmge
71.4 db .095
84 ± .625
884 ± .076
181
183
47
81
48
40
42.0
44.5
»«««». i«»»-
6&0
6a8
a7
ai
64.9
No. 468
62.9
Ami«B
€74 ± .406
84 ±.095
684 ± .837
Uamdgtog^WyT:
119
127
88
62
54
60
4a5
6a5
59.3
67.9
lai
ia8
515
iS:4w::;;r.;ii;"'.i;:i;
52.8
ATwagir
864 d: .384
16.8 db .169
88.7 ± .406
181
181
75
74
70
71
64.0
64.0
8»dmet»,7iily30:
No. 466
61.2
61.3
a5
a8
4a6
K5;ii;;;:i;.;.i.;.;;
45.8
AvWlgR ..
814 ± .000
84 ± .311
464 ± .191
Digiti
zed by Google
26
BULLETIN 353^ U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AQBIOULTXJBE.
These results, which agree fairly well with the averages for timotliy
and alfalfa cited on page 23, show a decided decrease in moisture per-
centage as the crop approaches maturity. This difference is least Id
alfalfa and greatest in timothy, although in sorghum it was also con-
siderable. The exact relation of the three crops as regards the
moisture content at different periods of their growth is not apparent,
because the stage of maturity when samples were taken was not
identical in the three crops. It is quite probable that the mature seed
stage of timothy, when the moisture content reached the very lo^virest
figure, 61.2 per cent, was relatively later in the life period of the crop
than was the ripe stage in the sorghums. This may accoimt partly
for the rather decided difference in the amoimt of moisture contained
by the two crops at this stage. It appears, however, that sorghum
has an unusually high moisture content throughout its entire life
period. The fact that the very yoimg sorghum plant is approxi-
mately 90 per cent water, while the young timothy is only 77 per
cent and the young alfalfa 79 per cent water, suggests one reason why
cutting sorghima when it is very immature affects the feeding value of
the resxilting hay so much more seriously than a like treatment does
timothy or alfaMa.
These resxilts are more apparent in the summary (Table VII),
where the averages are brought together so as to make comparisons
easier.
Table VII. — Summary of average percentages of moisture in sorghum, timothy, and
alfalfa at different stages of growth.
Place, crop, and stage of growth.
Moistore.
Original
matenaL
Air-dry
materlaL
Lost in Air
drying.
Amarillo, Tex., Red Amber sorghum:
Very young
Shooting for heads
Beginning to head
FuU bloom
Ripe
Hays, Kans., Red Amber sorghum:
Very young
Bloom. .
Soft dough
Hard dough
Ripe
New London, Ohio, timothy
May 20
Very young, 13 inche8*high, June 8.
;arly"' — '
Early bloom, June 20.
Full Dloom. June 26
Leaves drying, July 7
Seed mature, July 20
Chiqo. Cal., alfalfa:
Plants 12 inches high
First bloom to one*tenth in bloom
Full bloom
Past full bloom
PereefU.
90.6±0.134
87. li: .146
8«.8d: .124
80.4± .204
76.3± .157
89.2d: .344
84.5± .186
81. Id: .434
77.3d: .746
73.2± .796
77.5
76.6± .034
7L4± .006
67.2± .406
58.6± .834
6L2± .000
7S.9± .413
77. Id: .806
74.6± .000
78. 4± .188
Percent.
15.0d:Lie0
36.5d: .736
35.0± .670
22.6± .653
2Ll± .612
15.4± .349
15.3± .573
15.5± .803
16. 1± .336
16. 1± .549
9.6
8.4d: .620
8.3± .535
8.9d: .095
10. 5± .166
9.8± .811
13.5d: .814
1L7± .689
U.3± .134
U.4± .181
Pereemt.
88.9^0.083
79.5db .232
74. 7± .111
67.4db .199
87.0d: .370
81.6J: .192
77.6d: .598
78.6db .839
68.0±L0B
76.0
74.8± .148
68.8^ .098
«8.9± .8Kr
68.7db .406
46.8^ .101
75.8i: .886
74.1db .289
71.6db .045
70.0± .UB
1 Only 1 sample taken on Hay 30; on other dates 8 mnxgHas were takoi.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
M0I8T(JBB OOKTBKT AND SHBIKKAGE OF FOEAOB. 27
The effect of the stage of development on the amount of moisture
renaming in the air-dry material, as shown in Table VII, is also a
matter of interest. In the case of alfalfa at Chico, Cal., the young
plants air dry contained a Uttle more moisture than the older plants.
At New London, Ohio, timothy showed practically no difference.
Red Amber sorghum at Hays, Kans., showed no difference, while at
Amarillo, Tex., the yoimg plants contained decidedly less. The
uniformity of the moisture content at Hays and the lack of uniformity
at Amarillo (Table VI) is accoimt/cd for by the fact that at Hays the
stems of each sample were split, thus allowing the complete drying of
the mature samples, while at Amarillo the stems were not split, and the
immature specimens dried out more completely than the mature ones.
LOSS OF MOISTURE IN FORAGE DURING THE EARLY STAGES OF
CURING.
To detennine the rate of loss of moisture in different crops during
tlie period directly following the cutting in different localities and
under different weather conditions, the following crops were used: At
Arlington Farm, Va., alfalfa and a mixture of tall oat-grass and orchard
grass; at Chico, Cal., alfalfa; at New London, Ohio, timothy; and
at Hays, Kans., sorghum. The material was cut as quickly as
possible and weighed immediately, using about 100 pounds green
weight. This 100 pounds of green forage was placed on a canvas
and weighed every 10 minutes through 1 hour, and every 30 minutes
thereafter imtil 4 hours had elapsed. At Hays and New London
determinations were made imder both dear and partly cloudy con-
ditions, but at Chico and Arlington Farm determinations were made
for each crop under one condition only.
At Hays, Kans., the experiment was carried out with Red Amber
soT^um in the soft-dough stage, and records of moisture loss were
secured both for forage scattered as it would be in the swath, and
also bunched, as it would be if raked into windrows. On August 18
the sky was partly cloudy, the wind was blowing but Uttle, and the
maximum temperature was 104^ F. On September 25 the first
wei^ts were taken at 1.40 p. m., and the last at 5.40 p. m. The
day was bright, with a gentle breeze and a maximum temperature
of 82** F. Table VIII gives the rate of loss of moisture in these
experiments.
The rate of loss was greatest in the scattered material, but the
difference is not as great as one might expect. In the first 30 minutes
tfie loss ranged from 1 to 2 per cent. The difference in the amount
of mc»sture lost by the bimched and the scattered lots was 4.89 per
cent on August 18 and 4 per cent on September 25. The greatest
loss m 4 hours in the bunched lots was 8.2 per cent and in the scat-
tered lots 13.1 per cent.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
28
BULLETIN 353, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGBICULTUBE.
Table YUl.^Rate of Ion ofmoi$ture in Red Amber $orgkum during the early 9tage$ of
curing at HaySj Kane., in 1914-
Time
elapsed.
On August 18.
On September 25.
Time of
weighing.
BoDOhed.
Scattered.
Bunched.
Boattered.
Weight.
Loss in
weight.
Weight.
Loss in
weight.
Weight.
Loss in
weight.
Wel^it.
Lost in
weight.
1.45 p.m....
1.55 p.m....
2.05 p.m....
2.15 p.m....
2.25 p.m....
2.35 p. m....
Hr. m,
','.'. 10*
... 20
... 30
... 40
... 50
Potmdt.
110.0
109.5
109.0
108.0
107.5
106.5
106.0
104.6
101.0
103.0
102.6
102.0
101.0
Percent.
0
.5
.9
1.8
2.3
3.2
3.6
5.0
5.6
6.4
6.8
7.8
8.2
Pounds.
99.5
99.0
98.0
97.6
97.0
95.5
94.5
93.5
90.5
89.0
88.0
87.0
86.5
Percent.
0
.5
1.5
2.0
2.5
4.0
5.0
6.0
9.0
10.6
11.6
12.6
13.1
Pounds.
100.0
99.5
99.0
98.5
98.5
96.0
97.5
97.0
96.5
96.6
95.5
95.5
95.0
Percent.
0
.5
1.0
L5
1.5
4.0
2.5
3.0
3.6
3.6
4.5
4.5
5.0
Pounds.
100.0
100.0
99.5
99.0
98.0
97.5
97.0
96.0
95.0
94.0
93.0
02.0
91.0
Percent.
0
0
.5
LO
3.0
2.5
2.45 p.m....
3.16 p.m....
3.45 p.m
4.15 p.m....
4.45 p.m
5.16 p.m....
5.45 p.m
1 ...
1 30
2 ...
2 30
3 ...
3 30
4 ...
8.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
The striking point to be noted in connection with Table VIII is
the great difference in the rate of moisture lolss between sorghum
and alfalfa or timothy, as indicated in Tables VIII to XI, inclusive.
At New London, Ohio, determinations were made of the rate of loss
of moisture in timothy cut when in full bloom on July 4 and again
on July 6. The sky was partly cloudy on July 4 and the temperature
was 76° F. at noon. On July 6 the sky was clear and the thermome-
ter registered 80° F. at 11 o'clock a. m., 79° at 1 o'clock p. m., and
76° at 4 o'clock p. m. In each case the samples were scattered in
drying.
Table IX. — Rate of loss of moisture in timothy during the early stages of curing at New
London, Ohio, in 1914-
Time of weighing.
July 4:
12.00 m.
12,10 p.m
12.20 p.m
12.30 p.m
12.40p. m
12.50 p.m
1.00 p.m
1.30p. m
2.00 p.m
2.30 p.m
8.00 p.m
3.30 p.m..:...
4.00 p.m
4.30 p.m
6.00p. m
Time
elapsed.
Hr. m.
'.'. io
.. 20
.. 30
.. 40
50
Weight.
Pounds.
115
112
110
107
106
105
103
99
96
92
88
85
83
80
80
Loss in
weight.
Percent.
0
2.6
4.3
7.0
7.8
8.7
10.4
13.9
16.5
20.0
23.5
26.1
27.9
30.4
30.4
Time of weighing.
July 6:
11.00 a.m....
11.10 a.m....
11.20 a.m....
11.30 a.m....
11.40 a.m....
11.50 a.m....
12.00 m.
12.30 p.m....
1.00 p. m
1.30 p.m
2.00 p.m —
2.30 p.m....
3.00 p.m —
3.30 p.m —
4.00 p.m —
Time
Hr, m.
V. io
.. 20
.. 80
.. 40
.. 50
1
1
2
2 30
8 ..
8 30
4 ..
4 30
5 ..
30
Weight.
Pounds.
115
112
110
106
100
104
103
98
94
89
86
84
81
78
77
Loss in
weight.
PeremU,
0
2.6
4.S
0.1
7.8
9.6
10.4
14.8
1&8
22.0
SSuS
37.0
aoio
S2.2
88.0
The data given in Table IX show that in the first 30 minutes after
cutting on July 4 there was a loss of 7 per cent and on July 6 in the
same time a loss of 6.1 per cent. In the first hour on both dates the
loss was 10.4 per cent, and in 5 hours the loss was 30.4 per cent on
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MOIBTUBB CONTENT AND SHBINKAGB OF FOBAGB.
20
hty 4 and 33 per cent on July 6. These results show the rate of
mosture loss in tunothy at New London, Ohio, to be very nearly the
nme as that of alfalfa and the mixture of tall oat-grass and orchard
grass at Arlington Fann, Va. (Table X), where the atmospheric humid-
ity and the temperatures are very similar to those at New London.
Determinations of the rate of loss of moisture in amixture of tall oat-
grass and orchard grass and in alfalfa during the early stages of curing
were made at Arlington Farm, Va., on June 3 and on October 16,
1914, respectively. The data secured in this work are given in
Table X.
Table X. — RaU of lo$$ of moisture in a nwOure of tall oal-grasa arid orchard gran and
m alfaifd during the early stages of curing at Arlington Farm, Va,, in 1914.
Alftdftk
TfiM of writhing.
Ttme
W«|«hft.
L088iD
wdght
Time of weighing.
Time
elapeed.
Weight.
Loss in
weight.
SmmZ:
UJOp.m
U.46p.m
12.56 p. m
L]Op.m
LSOp.m
UBp-m
L46P.1IL.
3.Up.m
2.45 p. m
SJSp.m
S.46p.m
4.15 p. m
Br, w.
','. is
.. 25
.. 40
.. 50
1 ..
1 15
1 45
2 15
2 45
8 15
8 45
Powidt.
loao
95.5
06.0
02.5
00.0
8S.5
88.0
80.5
76.5
73.0
70.0
00.5
Percent,
0
8.5
5.0
7.5
lao
11.5
14.0
10.5
23.5
27.0
80.0
33.5
Oct. W:
12.40 p. m
12.50 p. m
1.00 p. m
1.10 p. m
1.20 p. m
1.30 p. m
1.40 p. m
2.10 p. m
2.40p.m
3.20 p. m
3.40 p. m
4.10 p. m
4.40 p. m
Hr. m.
'.'. io
.. 20
.. 80
.. 40
.. 50
1 ..
1 80
2 ..
2 40
3 ..
3 30
4 ..
Pomndt,
100.0
08.0
OewO
04.0
OLO
80.0
85.0
81.0
77.0
75.0
72.5
50.5
68.0
Percent,
0
XO
4.0
0.0
0.0
ILO
14.0
19.0
23.0
25.0
27.5
80.5
32.0
The afternoon of Jime 3 was bright and fairly free from cloudiness,
with a maximum temperature of 82^ F. Under these conditions the
mixture of taU oat-grass and orchard grass which was scattered on a
tarpaulin lost 5 per cent of its weight in the first 25 minutes^ 11.5 per
cent in 1 hour, and 33.5 per cent in 3 hours and 45 minutes after
cutting. The weights were taken as quickly as possible and the
material scattered each time as soon as the tarpaulin was lowered.
It will be noted that the loss of moisture was quite rapid, exceeding
slightly that of the timothy at New London, Ohio.
TTie afternoon of October 16 was partly cloudy, but very warm for
that season, the maximum temperature for the day being 73*^ F.
Alfalfa under these conditions lost 6 per cent of its weight in the first
30 minutes, 14 per cent in 1 hour, and 32 per cent in 4 hours after
cutting. On a bright day and with the same temperature as that
prevailing on June 3 it is probable that the loss of moisture would
have exceeded that of the mixture of tall oat-grass and orchard grass.
Determinations of the rate of moisture loss in alfalfa at Chico, Cal.,
have been made during several years, and these results are given in
Table XI. These data appeared in slightly different form in an earUer
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
80
BULLETIN 353, U, S. DEPABTMBNT OF AGBICULTURE.
publication by McKee/ who called attention at that time to the fact
that because some varieties of alfalfa after cutting lose moisture
more rapidly than others the field weights will be incomparable unless
sufficient time has elapsed to insure a uniform moisture content.
Table Xl.^Rate of loss of moisture in alfalfa varieties during the early stages of curing,
at Chico, CaL, in 1910, 1911, and 191t.
Time elapsed.
Aiabian.
Peravfcn.
OnUnary.
Timeofweishing.
1
1
1
Weight.
Loesin
weis^
Weight.
Wetfit.
1
1
1
1
LoesiD
weigjit.
Losin
welKlit
TeetA:
June 22, 1910
254.0
08.8
76.7
400.0
243.8
174.3
145.1
88.6
100
78
41
86
24
22
100
7&5
60.5
34.5
26
Peret,
0
61.1
69.8
0
89.1
56.4
68.7
79.1
0
27.0
59.0
610
76.0
78.0
0
22.5
89.5
66.5
74.0
278.0
120.7
OLO
400.0
27L8
212.8
172L0
83.8
100
78
48
42
24
22
100
88.5
66.5
3L5
24.5
PercL
. 0
58.0
66.8
0
8X2
46.0
56.8
79.2
0
22.0
52.0
58.0
76.0
7&0
0
16.5
84,5
68.5
75.5
OrsiM.
240.0
107.5
88.8
400.O
269.8
206.8
175.0
89L5
Per<L
0
June 23, 1910
24
72
55.2
June 25, 1910
6&3
Test B:i
June9.1911»-
10.22 a. m
0
11.52 a. m
1
8
5
30
'38'
82.7
1.22p.m
4&6
4p. m
56.0
June 9, 1911—
9.07 a. m.
110
7114
11 a. m
1
4
6.
58
58
58
2D.m
4p. m
June U, 1911
8
60
Aa2.8.1911
TeetD?
Jim»4,1912-
10 a. m
11 a. m
12 a. m
3D.in
4p. m
1 The weights of test B are an average of two samples in each case. Tbeleaves ooostitated 56.4 percent
of the weight in the Arabian variety, 62.5 per cent m the Peruvian, and 40.8 per cent in the ordbury.
* First weight was taken about five minutesafter cutting.
These data indicate very clearly that the rate of loss during the
first four or five hours at Chico, Cal., greatly exceeds the loss during
a like period at Arlington Farm, Va. This is doubtless due to both
the higher temperature and the lower humidity of the atmosphere
at Chico, the loss during the first 1^ hours at Chico being nearly equal
to that during the first 3 hours at Arlington Farm.
In connection with these results it is well to note that the weighings
of alfalfa at Chico were made in the month of Jime^ while those at
Arlington Farm were made in October.
It is also interesting to note that in tests B and C the Arabian
variety lost moisture faster for the first few hours after cuttmg than
the Peruvian or the ordinary alf alf a, but that in the end it had prac-
tically the same percentage of dry matter. A high percentage of
leaves is usually thought to indicate a high moisture content, but
the Arabian has 6.6 per cent more leaves than the ordinary, and yet
thci total moisture content is about the same for the two varieties.
iMoKee.Rolaad. Arabian alfalfa. In U. 8. Dept Agr., Bar. Plant Indns. Clr. 119, p. 25-80, ins.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MOISTUBE CONTENT AND 8HBINKAQE OF FORAGE. 31
YASUnON IN THE MOIOTUBE CONTENT OF GROWING ALFALFA
DUBING A SINGLE DAT.
In order to determine whether a difiFerent percentage of moisture
is to be expected in forage plants cut at difiFerent times of the day,
five samples of alfalfa were cut at 8 o'clock in the forenoon and six
samples at 3 o'clock in the afternoon. The alfalfa was in a fairly
yigoroos condition and about one-tenth in bloom. The day was
wann and sunny. A detailed statement of the results with each
sample is given in Table XTT.
Tabu XII. — Moittwre content of growing alfalfa at 8 a. m. and at S p. m., at Chieo,
Cal, in 1914,
Weight.
Moisttire.
Stoqile.
Green.
June 18.
Jane 80.
^y^:
Oven
dry.
Original
materiaL
Alr-dry
materiaL
Lost In air
drying.
CQtat8a.m.:
No. 610
Otmeee.
123.2
128.2
123.2
123.2
123.2
Oumeee,
83.70
85.95
86.70
81.95
84.95
Oumees,
31.95
83.70
82.45
85.20
84.96
Oumeee,
28.5
29.0
29.5
81.5
81.5
76.6
76.1
74.5
74.5
Percent.
10.7
18.8
9.1
10.5
9.7
Percent,
74.1
No. ISO
72.7
No. 651
73.7
No. 552
71.4
No. 565
71.6
Vfvi .
75.7±0.216
10.8d:0.346
72.7 ±0.231
91.2
0L2
9L2
91.2
91.2
91.2
20.95
26.45
2170
26.20
27.45
28.70
26.95
25.70
23.95
26.70
27.70
26.95
24.0
22.5
21.0
22.5
24.5
24.0
CiitatSn.111.:
N0.5M.
73.6
75.8
77.0
75.8
78.1
78.6
10.8
12.2
12.2
12.8
11.5
10.8 •
70.4
No. 566
71.8
No. 556
78.7
No. 567
71.8
No. 550
60.6
No. 560
70.4
Hum
74.7 d: .263
11.6± .127
71.8± .261
Hie mean for the two methods of treatment shows 1 per cent more
moistare in the alfalfa at 8 a. m. than at 3 p. m. While this differ-
ence is not largC; there is a sufficient number of samples so that the
resultB are dependable. In actual practice this result has little sig-
nifieance/but it is of interest to find that in the open field tmder
favorable moisture conditions transpiration may exceed the absorp-
tion of water by the roots sufficiently so that the moisture equilibrium
in the plant tissues is not maintained.
MOISTURE CONTENT OF BALED HAT.
In order to give some idea of the amount of moisture in ordinary
baled hay, samples were taken from oat hay in the bale at Chico, Cal.,
it two dates, the first about one month and the second about two
months after the hay was baled. Ordinary commercial hay was
ified in this experiment, so the moisture percentage may be con-
adered as fairly representative of that in the grain hays on the
market in California. The moisture content, as determined by two
sets of samples, is given in Table XIII.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
32
BULLETIN 353, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Table XIII.— Moisture content of baled oat hay and rnoitture hit in air drying at Ckieo ,
Cat., in 1914^
Weight
Moistore.
Sample.
July
July
10.
July
20.
July
27.
*?•
Aug.
19.
Aug.
Ov«n
dry.
Orlg-
inai
sam-
pie.
Lost in
air
drying.
No. 661 :....
Ouneet.
44.5
44.6
44.5
44.5
44.6
Ounces.
43.00
43.00
42.75
43.25
42.60
Ounces.
43.25
43.25
43.00
43.50
42.75
Ounces.
42.76
42.50
42.50
43.00
42.25
Ounces.
Ounces.
Ounces.
Ounces.
39.0
30.0
39.0
39.6
80.0
Peret.
12.4
12.4
12.4
11.3
12.4
Peret.
4.0
No. 562
4.6
No. 563
4.6
No. 564
3.3
No. 566
6.1
Average
44.6
42.90
48.16
42.60
89.1
1«.«
4.8
44.6
44.6
44.5
44.5
44.5
43.25
43.00
43.25
43.00
43.25
43.00
43.00
43.25
43.00
43.25
No. 591
39.6
39.6
40.0
89.5
89.6
11.3
11.3
10.0
11.8
11.3
8.2
No. 502
8.3
No. 593
4.0
No. 594
8.8
No. 595
4.0
Average
44.6
48.16
48.10
t9.6
11.0
tJi
1
Thesamples described in Table XIII were taken from bales 566 to 570,
used for the investigations recorded in Table XTV. This hay was baled
on June 1, and the samples taken one month later had 12.2 per cent
of moisture, while the five samples taken two months after baling
averaged only 11 per cent of moisture. The weather during July
and August was imusually dry and hot, so that the loss of 1.2 per
cent of moisture from July 1 to August 4 is not excessive, even for
baled hay. The 44.5-ounce samples which were inclosed in cotton
bags and suspended \mder a shelter where the air could circulate
freely about them lost in the same period an average of 4.3 per cent
of moisture. This loss probably left the samples practically air dry,
since the samples taken from the bales August 4 lost only 3.5 per cent
during the period from August 4 to August 24.
SHRINKAGE OF HAT AFTER STORING AND YARUTION IN WEIGHT DUE
TO CHANGES IN ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITT.
In order to determine just what shrinkage in weight might be
expected in baled hay and also the effect which radical changes in
atmospheric humidity might have on this weight, four bales of oat
hay were weighed at intervals during the season from Jime 1 to De-
cember 1, 1913, and five bales during the season from June 1, 1914, to
February 25, 1915, at Chico, Cal. The record of these weights is
given in Table XIV.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
M0I6TUKE CONTENT AND SHBINKAGE OF FORAGE.
83
TiBLB 'XIY.Shnnkafe ofoai hof cfier haling and variation in ioeighty due to changes
in aimoBphenc humidUy, at ChieOy Cdl., in 191S and 1914-15.
Weight.
Btfe.
When
baled.
Jimef.
j^r
^f^
T
Nov.
4.
Dec
1.
Loss,! jxnie 1 to—
Qaini
Sept.
Sept. 26.
Deo.l.
26 to
Deo. 1.
Tvtsinins:
No.1
Pounds.
226.0
24a0
246.0
265.0
Pounds.
221,0
231.6
237.0
256.0
Pounds.
217.6
230.0
234.0
254.6
Pounds.
213.0-
227.0
280.6
252.0
Pounds.
216.0
230.0
283.0
263.0
Pounds.
216.6
231.0
285.0
254.0
Pereenl.
6.8
6.4
6.0
4.0
Percent
3.S
3.8
4.1
4.2
Percent.
1.6
Na2
1.6
Na8
1.8
No.4
7
AT«nge
ttt^
2M.4
8M4I
280.6
2S2.8
8M.1
ft.4
4U^
1.4
Wben
baled.
M,
^1f
^
Deo.
17.
Fdb.2,
1016.
LoB8,i June 1 to—
Oain.i
Aug. 81
to Feb.
25.
^.■If-
Feb. 26,
1916.
TM8iDM14-15:
No. 508
Pounds.
160
100
166
200
175
Pounds.
150.26
176.60
164.00
180.00
163.00
I'ounas.
147.76
172.60
16L76
184.60
161.00
Pounds.
147.76
172.60
162.26
184.50
161.50
Pounds.
152.00
176.26
166.50
187.76
164.26
Pounds.
158.6
182.6
162.0
104.0
172.6
7.7*
9.2
8.0
7.8
8.0
Percent.
0.9
3.9
1.8
3.0
1.4
Percent
6.8
No. 667
6.8
Na568
6.2
No. 669
4.8
No.570
6 6
Awage
178
166^
168.60
168.70
166.96
178.0
8.1
8.S
ft.O
> In flgariDgall tbe peroentagee, the original weight of the bale was taken as the base.
It is tmf ortunate that no determination of the moisture percentage
was made for the hay used in 1913 and also that the weights were not
continued through the winter, so that the gain due to increase of
atmospheric humidity could have been more fully recorded. A com-
parison of the results in 1913 with those in 1914 indicates that the
hay used in 1913 was somewhat drier than that used in 1914, -since
the total shrinkage was less ; however, this may have been due, to some
extent at least, to the character of the season. July and August in
1914 were unusually dry, while the months of December, January,
and February, following, were extremely wet. The month of No-
vember, 1913, was also quite wet, having a precipitation of 8.5 inches
and 21 cloudy or partly cloudy days. Under the extreme conditions
in 1914, the variation in moisture content of the oat hay was quite
large. The shrinkage in weight from the time of baling, June 1, to
August 31 , when the weight was least, amounted to 8.1 per cent of the
original weight. Such a loss in weight woidd require the producer to
advance the price of his hay considerably after holding it in storage
several months, in order to protect himself against loss. The Ohio
Agricultural Experiment Station * found a shrinkage of 6.7 per cent
itt baled oat straw when stored on a bam floor from September until
1 BkHaaaan, J. F. Experiments with oats. Ohio Agr. Exp. Bta. Bui. 67, p. Ill, 9 tab., 1804.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
84 BULLETIN 363, U. S. DEPABTMBNT OF AGBIOULTUBE.
March of the following year. Jordan ^ in his work at the Pennsyl-
yania State College, 1882, found the loss of weight on hay stored in a
bam to average 24 per cent. On this basis he figured tiiat hay sold
for $10 per ton when taken from the field should bear a price of
nearly $12.50 per ton at the beginning of winter, provided no con-
ditions affecting the price had changed other than loss in weight.
Calculation indicates the exact price warranted by such a change in
weight to be about $13.15 rather than $12.50 per ton. A loss of 8
per cent in weight when the piice of hay was about $10 per ton at
baling time would require an advance of 85 cents to $1 per ton, in
order to insure the owner against loss.
Table XIV also shows that at Chico, Cal., baled hay following its
loss of weight during the dry stmmier months takes up moisture dur-
ing the wet winter months and gains back nearly all the weight lost,
so that there is only a slight difference in weight between the time of
baling and the weight at the end of the following February. The
difference in this case was only 2.2 per cent, the hay having taken up
5.9 per cent of moisture between August 31 and February 26. This
gain did not really begin, however, until after the October 16 weighing.
An almost equivalent gain was found in 1913, where the baled hay
showed a gain in weight between September 25 and December 1
equal to 1.4 per cent of the original weight of the bale. At Obico,
Cal., holding the hay until late winter would, it seems, overcome to
a great extent any decrease in weight caused by loss of moisture
during the siunmer months. This gain, however, takes place slowly.
It appears from a consideration of the reeiQts obtained in both
years that baled hay in a humid atmosphere will take up about 1^
per cent of moistiure the first month and in four months increase in
weight approximately 6 per cent.
The shrinkage in loose timothy hay and the variation in its wei^t
because of changes in atmospheric humidity are shown in Table XV.
The hay used in both lots 1 and 2 was practically pure timothy
which was cut Jxily 10. The hay in lot 1 was allowed to cure in tti
field and the 108.5 pounds were taken from the windrow July 11,
when it appeared to be in about the right condition for placing in
the mow. The hay in lot 2 was taken immediately after cutting and
weighed, while green, 512 pounds. After weighing, it was spread out
on a canvas and allowed to cure until the following day, being
turned or stirred several times to hasten the drying process. On
July 11 it was placed in burlap sacks and removed to a bam, where
it was kept under the same conditions as lot 1. The first weighing
of lot 2 was made on July 17, and even at this date it was evidently
not so dry as lot 1 had been on July 11, although both lots appeared
1 Jordan, W. H. Ezperimenta aod Investigations ooodooted at tbe Pennsylyania State CoOflce, 1881-2,
p. 7-14. Harrisbnrg, Pa.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MOISTUEB COKTEKOr AKD SHitlKKAGE OF FORAGE.
35
dry enough on that date to place m a mow. The weight of the hay
at this stage, when it was supposedly ready to be placed in a bam,
is used as the base for figuring all percentages.
Tablb XV. --Shrinkage of Hv
inatmo$pheric]
" ttoring and variation in tceigJU due to changet
New London, OkiOy 1914.
Lotl.
Lot 2.
Dttoof
WeU^t.
Pereent-
aeeof
welsht.
Loss In
weigjit.
Weic^t.
Peroent-
ageof
Loss in
weight.
Weather condltioDS.
JiOjlO
Pownia.
Percent.
Pounds.
Percent,
Clear.
jlSn.::..
10&5
103.5
97,5
lOLO
M.5
91. S
91,5
oa.5
M.0
100.5
100.0
95.4
80.0
03.1
91.7
80.9
80.9
88.9
9L2
92.6
0
4.0
10.1
0.9
8.8
10.1
lai
11.1
8.8
7.4
Do.
j55i7
AiS.17
SepLt.
IftS:::::
g&'^::::
OotB.
OBt.l».
OtLM.
205.25
246.00
2saoo
25a 75
242.25
244.75
243.75
25L76
255.50
253.00
.. 2S0.75
100.0
83.4
84.7
86.0
82.1
83.0
82.6
85.3
86.6
85.8
85.0
84.0
85.4
0
16.6
15.3
15.0
17.9
17.0
17.4
14.7
13.4
14.2
15.0
16.0
14.6
Do.
Rain, Aug. 6.
Rain!
Very dry.
Clear.
Cloudy.
Rain on several iKreoeding
days.
Cloady and some rain on
every day since Oct. 13.
Clear from Oct. 20 to 23: Oct.
WoT.a
24, rain; Oct. 25, dear;
Oct 26, rain.
Weather clear nearly all the
NOT.U
247.75
252.00
time8inoeOct.26.'
Weather clear since Nov. 2.
D«63
Cloady tor four or five days
preceding Deo. 2. Rain on
two days.
The seasonal effect is not so marked in this instance as it was in
the alfalfa at Chico, Cal., but the more frequent weighings provide
an opportunity to observe the almost immediate response of loose
hay to changes in atmospheric humidity. This point is illustrated
best by the increase in weight during the period from October 13 to
October 26, a maximum increase of 4 per cent over the weight reg-
istered on October 6 being noted on October 19. This decided
increase in weight is accounted for by a period of almost continuous
rain between these dates. Clear, sunny weather after October 26
caused sufficient loss of moisture to reduoe the weight 2.6 per cent
by November 11, showing that even as late as this in the season dry,
sunny weather would affect the moisture content noticeably.
The average amount of shrinkage from a field-cured condition in
lot 1 was 8.6 per cent, while in lot 2 the shrinkage was 15.6 per cent.
A compilation ^ of the results obtained at several experiment stations
showed an average shrinkage of 17.9 per cent in timothy when it was
stored in a bam from 5 to 10 months. These figures represent
fairly well the shrinkage that is to be expected in timothy hay
which has been stored in a haymow, but more data on this point are
needed.
1 ViDill, H. N., and MoKee, Roland. A digest ofliterature relating to the moisture content and shrink-
•Ci 0(10000. In Jour. Amcr. 8oc Agnm., v. 8, no. 2, 1016.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
36 BULLETIN 353, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGBIOULTUBE.
SUMMARY.
The variation in moisture content in field-cured forage often gives
rise to errors greater in amount than the differences in yield between
improved varieties or different methods of culture.
A study of the use of samples in correcting forage yidds indicates
the following results:
(1) Air-dried samples are a little lees accurate than oven-dried samples, but the
difference is so small that the air drying of samples can be relied upon for all prac-
tical purposes in correcting forage yields.
(2) Much greater extremes are found in the samples of field-cured material than
in the samples of green material, indicating that replication of samples is more
important in the former than in the latter.
(3) Corrections by means of samples can be accurately made from either green or
field-cured material, provided care is used in sampling.
(4) Considering acciuncy of results, facility of handling, and ease in figuring per-
centages, 5-pound sample of field-cured material and 10-pound samples of green
material are recommended as the most desirable sizes for practical use.
(5) Samples need not be replicated more than three times.
(6) The percentage of moisture in the different crops at that period of growth when
they are ordinarily harvested for forage was as follows: Alfalfa at Chico, Cal., 75 to
78 per cent; average, 76.9 per cent. Alfalfa at Arlington Farm, Va., 74 to 76.5 per cent;
average, 75.2 per cent. Tall oat-grass and orchardgran mixture at Arlington Farm,
Va., 71 to 73 per cent; average, 72 per cent. Timothy at New London, Ohio, when
in fuU bloom, average, 67.2 per cent. Sorghum at Amarillo, Tex., 70 to 73 per cent;
average, 71.2 per cent. These percentages are probably near the average for each crop,
but the fact that McKee found 85.8 per cent and Farrell an estimated 79.5 per cent ol
moisture in alfalfa indicates that it will be impossible to establish any arbitrary
percentage of moisture in the green plant as a basis for correcting forage yields.
(7) The average amount of moisture in field-cured material was as foUows: Alfalbb
22.3 per cent; timothy, 20.3 per cent; tall oat-grass and orchard-grass mixture, 29 per
cent; sorghum, 43.2 per cent. The moisture content of field-cured matmal varies so
widely that it can not be foretold with accuracy.
The use of the sample method in correcting forage yields would
greatly assist in standardizing agronomic data and do much to
promote greater accuracy in field tests.
The system of correcting yield data by the use of air-dried samples
is of most value in succulent crops like sorghum and Sudan grass
and is of least value in fine-stemmed plants like millet, which cnre
quickly and rather completely.
The relation of the moisture content to the stage of development
in the plants was studied in alfalfa^ timothy, and sorghum. Tlie
results were as follows:
(1) Alfalfa at Chico, Cal.: Very young (12 inches high), 78.9 peat cent; <me-teiitli
in bloom, 77.1 per cent; full bloom, 74.6 per cent; past full bloom, 73.4 per cent.
(2) Sorghum at Amarillo, Tex.: Very young, 90.6 p« cent; shooting for heads,
87.1 per cent; beginning to head, 84.8 per cent; full bloom, 80.4 per cent; seed ripe,
75.3 per cent.
(3) Sorghum at Hays, Kans., varied from 89.2 per cent when very young to 73.2
per cent when seed was ripe, showing practically the same gradations as at Amarillo,
Tex.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MOISTUKB CONTENT AND 8HBINKA0E OF FOBAQB.
87
(4) TimoUiy at New London, Ohio: Very young (10 to 12 inchee hifi^), 77.6 per
cat; just heading, 76.6 per cent; early bkKmi, 71.4 per cent; full bloom, 67.2 per
cent; leaves drying, 68.6 per cent; seed mature, 61.2 per cent.
(5) The exceadve percentage of moisture in young sor^um exj^ains the very
cbaffy chaiBcter ol sor^um hay when the crop is cut too soon, and the 90 per cent
k» in wei^t is an additional reason why sorghum should be tuily mature before it
18 harvested.
(6) The moisture ccmtent of any crop at a given stage of maturity is not constant,
bat may vary with the conditions under whidi the crop is grown.
A study of the rate of loss of moisture in forage during the early
stages of curing ahowB the following results:
(1) The i^proximate losses in the different crops i
Crop and location.
Moirtoraloss.
ibonr.
Iboor.
3 boors.
Sbonrs.
4honr8. .
AMllHutQliW..
Pereem,
Perem,
17
14
12
10
5
Pereem,
»
34
18
9
Per cent
PereenL
S9
Ai%i%tit Artti^timTann
6
5
0
2
28
30
36
12
83
lUoat-^as and orobard grass at Arlington Farm . .
TSonthy at New London, r.
84
80
8"Bh«»ttHay«
18
(2) The rate of loss of moisture after cutting differs in different varieties of the
ome crop, as well as in different crops.
(3) AlUkough the Arabian alfalfa loses moisture faster than the Peruvian or ordinary
tUiaihL in the first one or two hours after cutting, still the total percentage of moisture
is about the same for the three varieties.
(4) A hi^ percentage of leaf surface in alfalfa varieties is correlated with a rapid
Ion of moisture immediately after cutting, but it does not indicate a hi^ molBture
content
Studies of the variation in the moisture content of growing alfalfa
during a single day at Chico, Cal., show an average of 1 per cent more
moisture in the alfalfa at 8 o'clock a. m. than at 3 o'clock p. m.
Studies of the shrinkage in hay after storing and variation in
moisture content due to changes in atmospheric humidity made with
baled oat hay at Chico, Cal., and loose timothy hay at New London,
Ohio, indicate restdts as follows:
(1) At Chico, Oal.) where the atmospheric humidity changes radically from the
dry sommers to the wet winters, baled oat hay showed a shrinkage in 1914 of 8.1 per
cent between June 1 and August 31, and a gain in weight from August 31, 1914, to
i'ebniary 25, 1915, of 5.9 per cent of the original weight.
(2) The results at Chico, Cal., indicate that even baled hay responds noticeably to
chtngee in atmospheric humidity, and that hay dealers are justified in taking into
accoant the shrinkage of their hay when fixing prices.
(3) The results secured at New London, Ohio, with loose timothy indicate a
(fannkage ai 8.6 per cent in one lot and 15.6 p» cent in another lot when the hay was
Btoed in a bam for about three months. The effect of a week of rainy weather was
iuHcated by an increase of weight in the loose hay.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ADDITIONAL COPIES
or THIS PUBUCATION IfAT BE PROCURED FROM
TUE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFHCE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT
10 CENTS PER COPY
V
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
/9/,
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 354
Gontrfbatloii from (he ForeflC Serrlee
HENRT S. GRAVES, Forester
ra8yiigtoii,D.c.
October 20, 1916
FORESTS OF PORTO RICO
PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE
AND THEIR PHYSICAL AND ECONOMIC ENVIBONMENT
By
LOUIS S. MURPHY, Forest Examiner
la Coopentlon with the GoTemment of Porto Hlco Board of Cnininl— loneri
of AgrfaUture. John A. WUson, Temporary President,
Succeeded by TuUo Larrinaga, Preddent
CONTENTS
lairodaetioa .
Pkyaica] and Economic Featurea:
Geographic Sitnaiion . . .
Phyiiograyliy and SoUa . .
Draiaa^
Lad Distiibiition, UtUIzaiion, and
Taxation
Page
1
2
S
7
7
TriMpaitillnp ,
neForeH:
9
18
21
The Foreat— Continued
Forest Formatlooa ....... 2S
Forest Inflaencea 8<
Commercial Aspecta ...... 89
Forest IndttStrlea 44
Forest Prodaetfl 4d
Forest Problems 441
Insular Forest Policy 61
The Luqnlllo National ForeaC ... 66
Appendices:
I. Trees of Porto Rleo M
n. Blbltogrmvhy 98
ii(
WASHINGTON
GOTEBNMENT PRINTING OFFICB
1916
Digitized by VjOC/p^ i\^
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 354
HBNBT & GBATB8, rwMtor
'Washington, D. C.
October 20, 191S
FOBESTS OF PORTO RICO; PAST, PRESENT, AND
FUTURE, AND THEIR PHYSICAL AND ECONOMIC
ENVIRONMENT.
By Louis S. Mubpht, Forest Examiner.
CONTENTa
Page.
Xntrodoctioo 1
Fbysical and economic features :
Q^ogTajthlreitqatton 2
Fliysiograidiy and Bofls 3
Dimfnage 7
CUmate. 7
Land distiibatloD, utflkation, and taxa-
tion 0
^ PopnlatlOQ 16
Tran^wrtatlon ^8
The Fonst:
Forested oonditiQii and distribution 21
Fa«e.
The Forest-Omtinued.
Forest formations 23
Forest influences 3«
Commercial aspects 30
Forest Industries 44
Forest prodnots 46
Forest problems 46
Insular forest policy...^ 51
The Luqunio National Forest ft5
Appendices:
I. Trees of Porto Rico 66
n. Bibliography 98
INTRODUCTION.
Every year the people of Porto Rico consume over three tunes as
much wood as the forests of the island produce. Great quantities
of timber have been cut or burned by the *'conuco" to make a clear-
ing, which is abandoned after a few years and becomes a mere waste.
The charcoal burner is still at work destroying the yoimg growth
needed to keep up the forest. Failure to put an end to the destruc-
tive practices that are rapidly reducing the forests or to provide the
means of developing and fully utilizing them in a scientific maimer
has already brought about a diortage in the domestic supply of wood
and consequent hardship to the people. It is the object of this bulle-
tin^ to give a complete account of the trees and the forests of Porto
1 Under an informal ooopeiative anangeoMat between the Secretary of the U. S. Department of Agrl-
enttore and the Oownor and Board of CommJiMignera of Agrkmlture of Porto Rioo the author spent six
montlts, firom November, 1011, to liay , 1912, on the island, making a first-hand study of its forest problems.
A preliminary report of his findings and reoommendations regarding these problems was published in the
*'Ftast Report of the Board of Gommtekmers of Agriculture of Porto Rioo," San Juan, Jan. 1, 1912, pp.
48-40. In this report it was recommended that the authority of the board be extended to cover the man-
aseoDMBt (rfthe fbfests; and that an insular forest service, with a qualified and experienced forester in charge,
beeBfWhhed to carry on the work. This service could be established at a maTJmnm cost of t20,000 and
maintained for S8,000 or less a year, and would effect an annual gain to the island through the scientific
Dt of its forests amounting to over 1360,000.
2U71*— Bull. 354-16 1 '
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
2 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPABTMENT OP AGBICULTUBE.
Rico, to show their value to the people of the island, and to siiggest
the means of improving them and making them permanent.^
PHYSICAL AND ECONOMIC FEATURES.
Porto Rico is very sparsely wooded. The impenetrable forest
jungles, conmionly associated with the West Indies, are so scarce
that one may cross and recross the island without seeing them, for,
with the exception of those in the Sierra de LuquiUo, they are tucked
away in the more inaccessible places into which few except the
'*jibaro" ever penetrate. The island is, however, by no means
devoid of wood growth. Around almost every habitation there are
groups of trees, such as the bread fruit and mango; and numerous
scattered single trees, mostly palms, dot the open landscape. The
protective cover of shade trees of the coffee plantations gives a
decidedly forested appearance to many localities.
Porto Rico presents an unusual combination of physical and eco-
nomic conditions. The insular and geographic position of the coun-
try, its diminutive size, it^ restricted area of level lands, and its
density of population, to mention but a few of many influences, have
occasioned unusual demands on the forests. The same cycle of
change is found here as is recorded by civilization everywhere — a
profligate waste and despoliation of the bounties of nature, followed
by an acute need for what has been destroyed.
GEOGRAPHIC STTUATION.
Porto Rico is the easternmost and smallest of the Greater Antilles
and is well within the Tropics. It is situated between latitudes 1 7^ 54'
and 18"* 30' north and longitude 65"* 35' and 67** 15' west, occupying a
position about midway in the chain of islands connecting Florida and
Venezuela and separating the Carribean Sea from the Atlantic Ocean.
It is about 450 miles east and slightly south of the nearest point of
Cuba; about500milesnorthof the nearest point of Venezuela; about
1,000 miles from Colon (Panama) ; about 1,500 miles from New York
and New Orleans, and a little more than twice that distance from
Gibraltar.
I In addition to new material the present bulletin revises and brings up to date t^vo previous boIMlBS
of the Forest Service: "Notes on the Forest Conditions of Porto Rioo/' by Robert T. Hfll, BuDettn 35,
Division of Forestry, Department of Agriculture, 1899, and <'Tbe Luquillo Forest Reserve, Porto RIdo,**
by John C. Glfford, Bulletin 64, Bureau of Forestry, U. 8. Dept. of Agriculture, 190(.
It is appropriate to acknowledge in this place the author's indebtedness to the woria enumflr»t«d above
and in the bibliography. Special adaiowledgment is due to the officers and employees of the Insolir
Government and of the Porto Rico Agricultural Experiment Station CU. S. Dept. of Agriculture) for giv-
ing the author access to official unpublished data and personal assistance In locating and getting to the
various places visited; to Mr. Paul BuffiMilt, Conservateur, Administration des Eaux et Ton^, France,
and Mr. Thomas R . Wallace, American consul at Fort de France, ibr valuable Information ooooernlng forest
conditions and leglslatfon in Martinique (French West Indies); also to the Office of Acclimatisation and
Adaption of Crop Plants of the Bureau of Plant Industry, Department of Agriculture, for the use of photo-
graphs compristof Plates I, IV; and VI, fig. 1.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
FORESTS OF POBTO BICO. 3
fotio Rieo has a total area of 3,435 square miles (2,198,400 acres).*
The main island is 3,349 square miles in extent, and the islands of
Vieques, Mona, Culebra, and other adjacent smaller islands within
its governmental jurisdiction are 51.5, 19.5, 11, and 4 square miles,
respectiyely. The territory as a whole is thus about five-sixths
the size of Jamaica or the ialand of Hawaii, seven-tenths the size of
Connecticut, and four times as large as Long Island.
In general outline it is almost a geometrically regular parallelogram,
approximately 100 miles long and 35 miles wide. Its longest dimen-
sion lies east and west. The sea line is nearly straight and the coast
is usually low, especially on the southern side, although there are a
few headlands. The only protected harbors are San Juan on the
north coast, Guanica and Jobos on the south, and Elnsenada Honda on
the southeast. The
remaining ports, such Connecticut^
as Arecibo, Mayaguez,
and Ponce, are scarcely
more than open road-
steads.
rRYSIOGBAPHT AND 80n&
Porto Rico and the
other islands of the
Antilles and Central
America and northern
South America were
formerly, according to
geologists, aimited and
distinct continental
land mass — the AntiUean continent. Then came a great subsidence,
which left only the tops of the mountains above water. After a while
the ocean floor was again thrust up, the old continent reappearing.
The sediment of which it was composed, covered in the meantime
by deep-sea muds and chalks, was then folded into huge mountain
systems, individual peaks reaching as high as 20,000 feet above sea
level. Another but lesser subsidence of the Antillean continent ac-
complished its breaking up into the present island groups, Jamaica
being the first to be isolated, then Cuba, and finally Porto Rico and
Haiti.
There are at the present time three main physiographic regions of
the island of Porto Rico — a central mountainous core of volcanic
- f
< "Areas of the United States, the States and Territories/' Bulletin 302, U. S. Geological Survey. This
va is the one olHdally determined upon by the U. S. Geological Survey, the General Land OtTlce, and the
Bvcao of the Census, and is based on computation from the U. S. Coast Survey map. The detailed
flguns coroerning the areas of the smaller islands were obtained directly from the Office of the U. S. Coast
ind Geodetic Survey.
Fio. 1.— Porto Rico compared in sise with Connecticut and Long
Island, New York.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
4 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE.
origin, an elevated area of coral limestone (former marginal marine
deposits) snrroimding the momitainous portion, and the coastal pkin.
CENTRAL MOUNTAIN AREA.
The central moimtain area occupies by far the largest portion of the
island. Viewed from the sea it presents a nigged and serrated aspect;
numerous peaks and summits, with no definite crest line, rise from a
general mass, which has been cut by erosion into lateral ridges, separ
rated by deep, steep-sided goi^es. The drainage divide is approxi-
mately parallel to the southern coast and about 10 or 15 miles distant
from it. The region thus has a long and relatively gentle inclination
toward the north coast, but falls off rather abruptly toward the soutL
The Sierra de Luquillo,* the most easterly of the three ranges making
up the central moimtain mass, is surrounded by low coastal plains, and
is completely isolated, except for alow water-divide wliich crosses near
Las Piedras to the Sierra de Cayey. By thus completely dominating
the landscape it gains the appearance of being very high; and one of
its peaks, El Yunque (the anvil), has been credited with being the
highest eminence on the island. According to the most recent
determinations * this peak reaches an altitude of 1,062 meters (3,483
feet). The east peak has an elevation of 1,054 meters (3,457 feet)
and the west peak 1,020 meters (3,346 feet).^ These higher peaks are
flanked by numerous lateral ridges which extend in every direction.
The valleys, known as ''quebrados,'' are deep and gorgehke and are
separated one from another by very narrow, almost knife-edged
ridges, '^cuchillas." Falls, cascades, and rapids are conspicuous
features of the drainage system here. This range supports the only
large tract of vii^n forest growth on the island.
The remaining mountain mass forms an iminterrupted expanse <rf
broken uplands. The main crest Une extends from Humacao on tlie aast
through Aibonito and Adjuntas to within a short distance of Migpk
guez on the west coast. The portion east of Aibonito is known iirAe
'^.Sierra de Cayey;" that to the west, the ''Cordillera Central.^' ub
region has an average elevation of about 2,500 feet, above wliioKlfl
higher peaks project irregularly, a few to an elevation of mqre T
3,500 feet. The thirteen highest peaks on the island are in th6.*i
diUera Central." The highest of these (not named on the Coaii|4
Geodetic Survey chart) situated about due south of Jayuya, "
1 Horera (see Bibliography) describes the Luquillo as follows: "Teo leagues Ea
City of Puerto Rico is a very high and great Mountain, with three Breaks on it, call'd del !
the little Madman, on Account of a revolted Indian [that withdrew to it. The bluest 1
call'd Fursidi, a Name given by the Blacks, signifyhig a place always clouded, and the third i
Holy Ghost."
s U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Chart 920, issued July, 1910.
« These two together appear to be given the name " El Cacique " (The Indian ChleO by Gifford. Biti»
names the round mountain to the west "El Toro" (The Bull), and the mountahi next to it on the south
«£1 Camero" (The Sheep).
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bwl.354, U. S. 0«pt. of AgricuHun,
Plat
e<:
Opeminq in Virgin Stand of Mixed Tropical Hardwoods. Rain-Forest Formati
Near La Isolina (Arecibo).
uigiTized by
Google
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
FORESTS OP POBTO EICO. 5
elevation of 1,341 meters (4,398 feet), whUe *'Mt. Guilarte/' com-
monly considered second to El Yunque, is 1,204 meters (3,950 feet).
The many lateral ridges which diverge from the central mountains,
mostly from the north side, are conmionly very steep-sided and nar-
row-crested, and the valleys are deep, V-shaped, and almost devoid
of level bottom land. Rock outcrop is generally infrequent, except
toward the outer portion, where the ridges are often capped with hard
limestone.
The central mountains are composed largely of black or other dark-
colored igneous rocks, which occur in the form of tuffs, conglomerates,
silts, and an occasional dike of diorite. Their volcanic forms have
been destroyed by erosion. The material thus worked over into sedi-
ment in prdiistoric ages now occurs in well-defined strata. Two rela-
tively inconspicuous limestone formations also occur, one black, bi-
tuminous, and shaly, and the other light gray and crystalline.
As a result of the almost uninterrupted action of an abundant pre-
cipitation, a high relative humidity, and a warm temperature, rock
weathering at the higher elevations b more rapid than erosion, as
shown by a soil mantle of imusual depth and almost no bare indiu*ated
rock here. The characteristic soik are deep, reddish clay loams and
tenacious red clays. So cohesive, unctuous, and compact are these
soils that they are able to maintain themselves in an almost vertical
position. Cultiv^ion, in consequence, is in many places carried on
to the very tops of the ridges and on the steepest slopes, yet evidence
of excessive erosion and landslides is smprisingly inconspicuous.
At the lower elevations the sandy character of the soil and the more
common occurrence of outcrop show that the rate of rock erosion has
exceeded that of weathering. .
THE COKAL LDIBSTONE BBIA*.
The belt of coral limestone is several miles wide in places and on its
interior border overlaps the igneous rocks. This area is of sedimen-
tary origin. Where rock solution has been the most active agent of
decay, it retains the general form of a table-land. Where erosion
has been the most, active only isolated conical hills remain. In
certain parts of the island the limestone extends directly to the
water's edge, where it terminates in steep scarps, often 100 feet or
more in height, notably on the south coast west of Ponce and on the
north coast west of Quebradillas. Elsewhere on the island the rem-
nants of this formation stand as steep, sloping, sohtary mounds or
domes, which rise singly or in chains above the coastal plain.
Along the jimction of the central moim tains and the hmestone belt
b a distinct line of weakness marking the former shore hne. Strong
valley lines are developed there, separating the two physiographic
regions. These * 'parting valleys " are especially well developed on the
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
6 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUEE.
south side of the island in the valley of the Ouanajibos at Sabana
Grande, and on the north side at the junction of the Don Alonso (or
Lini6n) and Arecibo Rivers.
An uninterrupted block of limestone formation, known in places as
the Pepino HiUs,^ occurs along the north side of the island frcmi (Sales
nearly to Aguadilla, and is some 6 to 10 miles wide frcun north to
south. It offers a marked contrast to the \oPr rounded limestone
hills which flank it to the north, because of its greater elevation,
rough, angular topography, pitlike valleys, bare rock outcrops of
chalky whiteness, and subterranean drainage. Wherever the laige
rivers, such as the Rio Grande de Arecibo and the Manati, cross this
area they have cut deep canyonlike vidleys whose sheer cliBa of con-
siderable height occasionally rise directly from the water's edge.
Otherwise the area is strikingly devoid of surface drainlage features.
The hills are very closely packed tc^ether, their connecting ridges
hardly more than rocky septums sepiarating the disconnected pitlike
valleys. The steep-sided depressions show, on a tremendous scale,
to what an enormous extent rock solution takes place under tioincal
conditions.
The region, if viewed from above, would look like a honeyccnnb.
Not infrequently the ^'sinks'' are 100 feet and occasionally 200 feet
or more deep. The larger pits sometimes contain an acre or more of
bottom with a very fertile soil, commonly imder cultivation to such
crops as coffee, bananas, and ground provisions. The bottoms ci
others are occupied, by bogs or small lakes. The orags and summits
are almost invariably wooded. Caves, which mark the early stages
of pit formation, are common.
Travel here is extremely difficult. Roads are out of the question
and the traik are not numerous and are extremely rough. There is
no alternative but to cross the pits in succession, descending to the
bottom of one and then cUmbing to the rim of the next almost
straight down and straight up again.
THB OOA8TAL VLLDi,
The sandy ridge fronting the coast forms a barrier between the sea
and a narrow low-lying area sc^cely above tidewatw level, and
partly marine and partly alluvial in origin. On the north side of
the island there are many swamps and lagoons covered with a thick
growth of mangrove bushes. The most typical are the Cafio y
Lagima de Tibitrones between Arecibo and Barceloneta, Laguna del
Tortuguero north and east of Manati, and the string of lagoons east
of and connected with the harbor of San Juan. On the south side.
1 The term ''pepino" (cucumber) undoubtedly refers to tiie appeuiuioe of the elongited i
summits of the hills. An equally characterlsUc term/' cockpits/' applied toasimiiarformaiioiiinJaoaki
is descriptive of the valley bottoms.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
F0BE8TS or POETO BICO. 7
die mangrove is only aliglitly developed, but there are in places
extensive saline plains too low and wet for cultivation, where rank
grasses, a few scattered acadas, or low, succulent, salty herbs con-
stitute the only vegetation.
The coastal plain proper is elevated but a few feet above the sea,
and has but a slight gradient toward the mountains. It terminates
rather abruptly at the foothills, except in the valleys of the larger
rivefs. These plains are entirely sedimentary, having been laid
down when the island stood at a somewhat lower level than now.
The coast-plain hills are isolated, low, and dome-shaped. Some
have been nearly buried by the alluvial deposits of the rivers; others
rise 100 feet or more above the level of the plain.
The soil, except on the hills, is largely a fine, rich alluvium, sandy
in places, and is almost entirely under cultivation or in pasture.
DRAINAGB.
It would be difficult to find another cotmtry of its size so well
watered as Porto Rico. Within the mountainous area are many
swift-flowing streams which have cut for themselves deep, steep-
sided valleys. In their upper courses they traverse steep, angular
gorges, where numerous cascades and cataracts are to be found, par-
ticularly in the Sierra de Luquillo. The peculiarity of the drainage
S3rstem where it passes from the central moimtain into the limestone
region has already been described. Within the coastal plain the
valleys are broad, with considerable areas of bottom land through
whcih the rivers pursue a meandering course. The streams flowing
north from the main divide are much more numerous and longer than
those from the south side, and they likewise carry a much greater
and more constant volume of water. The island is reported to have
upward of 1,300 named streams, of which the Rio de la Plata is con-
sidered the longest, about 45 miles. None of the rivers is naviga-
ble, except for small boats, and then chiefly in their tidal reaches.
They, neverthdess, are of tremendous importance as a source of
dcmiestic water supply, and their power possibiUties are also very
considerable.
CUBfATB.
Though Porto Rico is well within the Tropics, it has an equable
and comfortable climate, for the modifying influences of the ocean
»e accentuated by its position in the direct path of the North
Atlantic trade winds. These counteract the enervating effect of the
Ugh temperature and humidity, the occasional periods of sultry and
oppressive weather invariably occurring when they f ail» They vary
in Erection from northeast to southeast, usually coming from east or
Mst-southeast. Their average velocity from month to month is
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
8 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPABTMENT OP AGMCULTUBE.
remarkably constant, rarely varying more than a mile from the
annual average of 11 miles per hour, excepting in July, when the
velocity rises to 13 miles, and in October and November, when it falls
to 8 or 9 miles.
Hurricanes whose centers pass over the island are rare; in the past
40 years there have been but three, the most recent as wdl as the
most destructive being that of August 8, 1899. The recorded
storms of this character for the entire West Indies average about (me
a year and occur chiefly during the months of August, September,
and October.
TBMPEBATUSB.
The temperature throughout the year is imiform. The records <rf
the United States Weather Bureau for a period of more than 10 years
show a combined average annual temperature for over 40 stations in
the island of 76^; during the coolest months of winter the average
is 73° and during the warmest months of summer 79®. The daily
range is much more than the seasonal range; thus at San Juan the
difference between the afternoon and early morning temperature is
10® or 11® and at an inland station may be as much as 20® or 25^
In the afternoon the temperatures along the coast' rise to an average
of 84® in the winter months and to 89® in the summer months and in
the early morning fall to 66° and 73®. In the hills and mountains of
the interior the average daily maximxmi is about 81® in winter and
87® in summer, while the corresponding minima are 61® and 68°,
respectively.
The extremes of temperature recorded during the past 10 years do
not differ greatly in different portions of the island. At the more
elevated stations the maximum range is between 90® and 95® and
along the coast and in the valleys 95® and 100®. The extreme maxi-
miun has reached 100® only three times during the 10 years, at one
time reaching 103®. The minimum temperatures range between 50°
and 55® except for stations on the immediate coast, where the tem-
perature seldom goes below 60®. The lowest recorded temperature
is 43®, and it is probable that on the highest elevations it goes some-
what lower. It is, however, extremely doubtful if it ever approaches
very near to the frost line.
The average annual rainfall is much more variable than the
temperature. The average for a 12-year period from 44 stations
shows 77.30 inches; for the year 1901 it was 93.72, and for 1907 but
64.18. The geographic distribution of rainfall shows a still wider
variation. The heaviest is recorded in the Sierra de Luquillo, which
18 exposed to the full sweep of the moisture-laden trade winds. The
average annual rainfall here exceeds 135 inches, with a maximum
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
FOEESTS OF POBTO MCO. 9
record in 1901 of 169 inches. There are two other well-defined areas
where the average annual rainfall exceeds 100 inches, namely, the
peaks about Adjuntas and the mountains surroxmding Las Marias and
Maricao, San Sebastian, and Lares, in the central and west-central
portions, respectively, of the Cordillera Central. These centers of
heavy precipitation are likewise centers of heavy f orestation. Except
for the Luquillos, the forests are artificial ones, being largely coflfee
plantations, yet their influence on climate is in all respects similar.
While abundant rain and the absence of protracted droughts char--
acterize conditions on the north side of the island, the reverse obtains
to the south, where several months may elapse with little or no rain.
Here precipitation is not only scanty but unevenly distributed througl^-
out the year. The average annual rainfall for ihe stations aldng and
near the south coast is 45 inches. The TniniTmim average annual
rainfall of 37 inches is recorded at Guanica, while 21 inches in 1907 is
the absolute recorded minimum of recent years.
The rainfall on the whole island increases from 11 inches in the
winter months (February being the lightest) to 16 inches during the
spring, 23 inches during the summer, and 26 inches during the fall.
The maximiun generally occurs in September on the east coast, in
October along the south coast, and in November along the north coast.
The rainfall is largely in the form of showers, which, although Jre-
qn^tly very heavy, seldom last over 10 or 12 minutes. Rain for a
day or more at a time is comparatively rare.
Rain falls practically every day ia the year over some portion of
the island, except possibly a few days in February. For the island as
a whole the average number of days in a year with rain is 169, the
minimum and maximum frequency are 28 at Guanica on the south
tsoast in 1907 and 341 in the Sierra de Luquillo in 1900, respectively.
The average himiidity for the island is about 78 per cent, the minimum
I m the driest month, 75 per cent, and the maximum in the most humid,
81 per cent.
LAND piSTRIBirnON, imUZATION, AND TAXATION.
Land Distribution.
The land policy of Spain appears to have been conceived in a spirit
of great liberality. It not only provided for the usual extensive
grants to the grandee and to the soldier of fortune, but also offered
oieouragement to the bona fide settler of small means. The first law,^
ynmiulgated by Ferdiuand V imder date of Jime 18, 1513, a scant
IB years after the discovery of America, granted settlers free title to
of something in excess of 170 acres, upon compliance with
kj.*lsv Pint" (See Recapltolatlon de Leyes de los Reinos de las Indlas, Book 4th, Title 12th).
^ by Borean of Insular Afbirs, War Department.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
10 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
certain requirements concerning residence and cultivation, resembling
very strikingly oiu* own national homestead act, passed 350 yeais
later.
GOVERNMENT LANDS.
By 1830 the Government had disposed of apjwroximately half of the
island, and between that time and the Spanish-American War had
given away about nine-tenths of the remainder. The rest of the
Crown lands, which, by the Treaty of Paris, December 10, 1898, became
the property of the United States, amount, as nearly as can be ascer-
tained from the records,* to 147,971 acres, of which 7,400 acres are
classified as swamp land. These lands, except a small amount
reserved for Federal use, were ceded by act of Congress approved
July 1, 1902, to the people of Porto Rico. Some 3,000 acres in addi-
tion have reverted to the local government in default of taxes. Thus
the entire public domain, including Federal and insular lands, amounts
to less than 151,000 acres..
By far the greater part of this land lies in the mountains. Except
for a few of the more accessible tracts, comparatively little is known
about its present condition, or even its location, since in only one or
two instances has any sxu^vey or detailed examination been made.
General information gathered in the vicinity of some of the Ifuiger
tracts indicates that only a very small amount of this land supports a
productive forest, except a tract in the Sierra de Luquillo. The
greater part is at present an idle, unproductive, grass or brush covered
waste. In some few instances it is so situated as to be suitable for
coffee culture, but in the aggregate it is of slight agricultural value,
though it has a large potential value as forest land.
PBIYATBLT OWNED LANDS.
Figure 2^ indicates for the years 1828, 1900, and 1912 the compara-
tive areas of public lands and of private lands under cultivation to
different crops, xmder pasture, and under forests.
In 1828, while slightiy over half of the Island was privately owned,
scarcely more than 3 per cent was under cultivation. A^cultture
was then carried on largely for the production of home staples. Thus
plantains, Indian corn, and rice covered more than haK, while the
commercial agricultural staples of to-day, cane, coffee, and tobacco,
t(^ethor covered scarcely one-fourth of the whole cultivated area.
Between 1828 and the end of the Spanish regime the area imder culti-
vation had increased to about 13 per cent. Nearly haK of this iras
in coffee, and somewhat more than one-fifth of the remainder in cane.
I See report of the Commissioner of the Interior for Porto Rico, 1909.
« Compiled from Flinter's " Porto Rico," containing the official returns tor 1828, froan EJMpp's •*Api-
cultoral Resom-ces and Capabilities of Porto Rico," and the summary of tax nunnwiiMinl (fiommtgd to
Aug. 10, 1912) In Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1912.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
FOfiESTS OP POBTO BICO.
11
During the same period the area of soK^alled pasture land had more
ihan doubled, so that it exceeded in extent all the other land classes
combined, and privately owned forests
had increased slightly. Private owner-
ship was thus almost doubled, having
absorbed nearly 95 per cent of* the
total land area.
During the period of American occu-
pation the cultivated area has nearly
doubled, amounting in 1912 to 23^8
per cent.^ Of this area cane covers a
tarifle more than two-fif tl», coffee more
than one-third, minor fruits about a
fifth, and tobacco, coconuts, oranges,
and pineapples, in the order named,
the remainder. This agricultural ex-
pansion has been carried on about
equaDy at the expense of ''pasture"
and ''timber and brush" lands. On
account, however, of the much greater
area of pasture lands, these were rela-
tively little affected in the aggregate,
while the forest lands were reduced
neariy two-fifths.
There is no information available
showing the average-size holdings in
the various classes of property or in
what proportion the economically de-
veloped lands are held in conjunc-
tion with the waste and forested
lands. The data upon which the dia-
grams (fig. 3) are based most nearly
approach this information by showing
for the assessment area analyzed the
proportion of the total, "by num-
ber" and "by area" of the fanns in
certain acreage g!roupB.
PUBUCLANOtllD
PRIVATE
LAMD
CULTIVATED LAND
Rg^ PASTURE
^^ TIMBER AND BRUSH
GSia UNCLASSIFIED
Fio. 2.— Land in Porto Rioo. The changes
from public to private ownership and the
main uses to which it is put.
1 This flg:urt differs ttam the one (56 per cent) given
in the Register of Porto Rico for 1910, which also varies
from the so-oalled ''improved area" (75.8 per cent) given
hj the Thirteenth Decennial Census (1910). Both of these
percentages have included in them a considerable area
of KHsaUed "pasture" land. The grass land In the
low ooimtry might be considered "Improved," because It Is osed part of the time as pasture and
is then plowed up and put into oane, but It is Impossible to conceive of more than one-fourth to one-
^I of the total of land classified as "pasture" as being thus alternately cropped and pastured. This
would make the "improved" acreage aggregate 36 to 50 per cent of the total territorial domain. The
MDsfaifaig one-half to tfaiee-foarths of the land classed as " pasture" could more properly be classed as waste
tend or ** ruinate," as is done In Jamaica and elsewhere, because it serves no productive economic use.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
12
BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPABTMEKT OP AGBIOULTUBE.
We find 91.34 per cent of all farms have an area lees ttian 1
acres each, which would indicate a wide popular distribution of t
land in small holdings. But the average area per farm in this gro
is only 21.4 acres; so that by far the greater number of individi
holdings must be much lees than 20 acree.^ It is not surprisi]|
therefore, that the remaining 8.66r per cent of the whole number i
farms covers 55 per cent of the total farm area, or that these fart
have an average of about 280 acres per farm.
With 93 per cent of the land in private ownership, the success i
any reforestation work attempted by the Government will depei
in a large measure upon the cooperation which can be secured fro
the private landowner. The conditions are the most unfavorable
the mountain region, where there is a considerable proporticm
Acreage Grouj
I to too Acres (91,54-%)
fO/ to 200 Acres (5.02%)
201 to500 Acres (/.65%)
ZOttoSOOAores //. I^%)
50/ro/500Acres( .67%)
and over
Acreage Groups
i to /OO Acres (44.72\
fOI fo2O0Acres06Z6%) ^
201 fo500Acres(9. J 9%) ^^
50/ fo^OOAcres (5,56%)
40/ to500Acresl4',67'%)
50/ fo/OOOAcres (/0, 27%)
/OO/ fo/500AcrGs(4, 22%)
150/ and over (5,09%)
Number of Farms - Percent
0 /O 20 50 40 50 60 70 SO
so ta
Area of Feirms ^Percent
20 30 40 50 60 70 60
SO /a
m^
FiQ. 3.— Distribution of land ownership in Porto Rico by acreage groups and number and area of fea
From data compiled by bureau of property taxes, Oovemment of Porto Rioo.
small holdings, from which as a class very little cooperation can
expected. In addition to the small f arms, there are a few coffee a
tobacco plantations. Much of the land, however, is not even xmi
small-farm cultivation. Vast stretches of it are nothing more lb
grass land, which is classed for assessment purposes as ''pastun
In the coastal country the holdings are larger and offer better poe
bilities for cooperation. Many of the coast hills are ^eady woodi
while others have been cleared for pasture. Here the need for fore
on account of their protective influence on water and soil is not
importance, but the demand for wood is obviously urgent. Fore
are needed in this particular section also as a refuge for birds, wl
are an important factor in controlling insect pesta in the cane fi
besides being of esthetic value.
I Acoording to the census of 1899, 51 per cent of all flEurms were less than 5 aores in extent, while the 1
teenth Decennial Census (1910) reports 72 per oent of all larms less than 19 acres in extent.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
i
J
■I73C
»^& '^t.^j:^
rH« MommtB pmm oo^ wAamiti^toH. a. c.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
FORESTS OF POETO RICO. 13
Land Utilization.
Porto Rico is essentially an agricultural country and will undoubt-
edly continue as such. Of its commercial staple crops — sugar,
coffee, and tobacco — only the first two are important competitors of
the forest from an acreage point of view, tobacco occupying less
than 1 per cent of the insular area. Cofifee cultivation is a most
satisfactory form of agriculture for the steep moimtain slopes where
it is carried on and its replacement of the forest is usually justified,
for it exerts many of the beneficial influences of the forest and few
of the detrimental ones of the field crops. Sugar might be said to
offer little economic competition with forests, because it usually
occupies the more level and strictly agricultural soils.
Cattle raising was early taken up, and there was formerly a very
considerable export trade in live stock, hides, and tallow. The total
live stock now on the island amoimts to not more than 350,000 to
400,000 head, and there is no export trade whatever. Cattle and
horses make up nine-tenths of the stock (cattle alone three-fourths),
the larger part of which is work stock. These are, to a considerable
extent, used in the low coimtry and' are grazed in the pastures there.
There seems, therefore, to be little economic justification for any
longer retaining the bulk of the cleared uplands in pasture. Their
partial or complete reforestation would add materially to the pro-
ductive wealth of the island.
It is in the cultivation of native groxmd provisions — ^rice, yams,
ajid the like — that agriculture comes into closest contact with the
forest. From time immemorial, not only in Porto Rico but through-
out the Tropics the world over, the same primitive agricultural prac-
tice has prevailed. Wherever it is in operation the I'conuco,'' or by
whatever other name ^ the method is known, is essentially the same.
Upon the area which it is desired to cultivate all the trees are felled
and set on fire. Sometimes the larger ones are killed by girdling
and allowed to remain standing. Clearing is most apt to occur
during the dry season, when conditions are most suitable both for
burning and for planting the new crop. Little or no care is taken to
control the fire and it often bums over a far greater area than is
wanted for cultivation. The beans, rice, or other ground provisions
are planted immediately following the burning, the ashes having
enriched and sweetened the soil. JLittle or no cultivation is given
the crop, and cropping seldom continues for more than 3 years.
Eventually, as the fertility of the soil decreases and grass, weeds,
and other volunteer growth get the upper hand, the area is aban-
doned and a new clearing made.
* What is known as the "contico" in Porto Rico and other of the Spanish West Indies is known in the
Philippines as caiftgfai, in India variously as Jhum, kumri, and kbll, in Burma as Juangya, and in Ceylon
u dMDa or hena. The same practice is also reported fh>m the Sudan, Central America, and many other
parts of the Tropks.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
14 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT 43P AGRICULTURE.
The best types of forest are invariably the ones first selected,
because they give the richest ash and are less difficult to clear than
areas of small, thorny growth. Thus for a meager crop of native
provisions a valuable timber crop is destroyed, which it will require
a generation and more to reproduce.
Where the amoimt of available land is scarce an area may be
successively cut over several times at intervals, the parts deared
becoming naturally reforested again between cuttings. Where, how-
ever, climatic, particularly moisture, conditions are not favorable it
may be difficult or impossible for the forest to reestablish itself in
competition with a grass cover. In such cases the succeeding forests
may grade from a dense thorny growth through chaparral and low
brush, or a very fragmentary scattered tree growth, to open savanna
and even desert. It is almost certain that the vast and almost totally
unproductive area of so-called pasture land in the central mountain
section is the direct result of this practice, which is even now being
extensively carried on in all its primitiveness.
The total lack of property survey, lax title registration, and the
free and immolested operation oj( the prescriptive right have made
it easy for this devastating practice to thrive. Legislation can and
ought promptly to be imdertaken to eliminate these contributory
causes. But tiie government must go farther. There must be a
serious educational campaign combining, unifying, and extending
the work of the public-school system, the agricultural experiment
station, and any other agencies working for rural betterment, until
there can be instilled into the mind of the "conuco'* farmer a proper
regard for the fxmdamentals of economic agriculture, by which con-
tinuous cultivation imder a suitable rotation of xrops will be substi-
tuted for the present nomadic system. To give force and eflfect to
that campaign the government must, of course, provide these peojJe
with the means of acquiring* the land and other essentials to the
practice of such improved agriculture.
Taxation.
The same arohaic provisions are in force in Porto Rico for the taxa*
tion of forest property as are to be foimd throughout the United
States. The system of taxing the forest annually is unjust and dis-
criminatory, encouraging forest destruction. In a country like Port*
Rico, with practically no forest resoiu*ces, it becomes prohibitory as
well. Certainly few will elect to plant new forests or apply forestry
to improve the productiveness of forests already there if by so doing
they merely invite an increased assessment and taxes. The system,
in fact, offers a distinct incentive to the owner to destroy what
timber there is, so that there will remain but the bare land to tax.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
FORESTS OF POBTO RICO. 16
Under these circumstances the law should make it possible for the
forest to be classed as a crop. The growing of a forest is no less
desirable to encourage than the growing of a crop of sugar cane, coffee,
or tobacco; yet thsoe latter are exempted entirely from taxation,
while the forest is classed as an "immovable" and taxed annually
at its full value. There is little wonder, under these circumstances,
that no effort is made to practice forestry, which would inevitably
increase the extent and value of the forest; or that the value of this
claae of property has decreased regularly from year to yeur, and for
the fiscal year 1912-13 amoimted, both timber and land together, to
but 3.3 per cent of the total assessed value of all real property.
The law should at least provide that the land and timber be classi-
fied, assessed, and taxed independently of one another. The average
forest crop requires several years, often decades, to matiu-e. During
this period it yields little or no revenue whatever. It is only fair to
the producer of such a crop that his taxes be arranged to fall due in
laige part at the time when the crop matures and is sold. This may
be accomplished in one of three ways. If the owner pays throughout
the entire period a tax based on the" fuU productive value of the bare
land, then the timber should be exempted entirely. At most it
should be taxed but once — on its sale value as it stands in the forest
in the year that it is cut. The rate in this case should be the same
as that applied to all other real and personal property for that particu-
lar year. A second method is to defer collecting any tax on the land
until the timber is cut and then to take both the land and timber tax
out of the sale value of the standing timber in that year. The rate
in this case would, of course, have to be considerably higher . than
the general property tax rate and would properly be graduated accord-
ing to the length of the period dince the p]*evious tax was paid. A
combination of these two methods, modified according to circum-
stances, though less just to the landowner, would be at once an
advance over the present plan and the most Ukely to be acceptable
to the community. Thus an annual tax on the land would be levied
cither at the full general property rate on a nominal fixed value for
the bare land or at half or other fractional part of the general prop-
erty rate on the full productive value of the bare land. Then when
the timber was cut, it, too, would be taxed, but at a rate corre-
spcmdingly higher than the general property rate, say 10 per cent.
Porto Rico is fortimate in that it has no constitutional obstacles to
remove before it can proceed to a change. Neither the organic act
nor aoy of the subsequent acts of Congress puts any specific restric-
tions on taxation. It is only necessary, therefore, in order that this
wijnst discrimination against forests and forestry may be removed,
to induce the l^islative assembly to amend the present law.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
16 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
A decidedly favorable feature of the present taxation system of
the island is its centralized organization. The insular government
assumes the responsibility for the assessment and collection of all
taxes, general and municipal, thus reducing the chances of inequali-
ties being introduced between urban and rural properties, and be-
tween similar classes of property in different municipalities. Until,
however, there can be effected a complete cadastral survey of the
island, making possible the enforcement of compulsory title r^is-
tration and the assessment of land values based thereon, any system
of taxation, no matter how adequate, must, as now, be a dead letter
in its real property provisions; and the present practice of "distrain-
ing personal property for all taxes due and only proceeding on real
property when no personal property exists'' must continue.
POPULATION.
Porto Rico has had a steady increase in population since CJolumbus
found 30,000 native Indians * on the island, except in the early years
of settlement, when through conflict, disease, emigration, and davery,
the native population was rapidly reduced to a state approaching
extinction. Although it was reported in 1543 that but 60 Indians
remained on the island, it is probable that relatively pure Indian
stock persisted in the moimtainous sections up to comparativelj
recent times.^ Here, too, the aboriginal type of feature is readily
discernible to-day and the primitive method of ''conuco" cultivation
is most commonly encountered.
Because of extensive slave importations almost from the beginning
of settlement and the correspondingly slow colonization up to the
middle of the eighteenth century, as late as 1820 the negro popu-
lation outnumbered the white by 5 to 4. At present, however, the
white race dominates aU others by more than 7 to 4. Elxcept for
Cuba, there is no other island in the West Indies where this condition
is even closely approximated, all but two showing 10 per cent or less
of white people. Porto Rico has also a smaller proportion of n^ro
population than most of the southern seaboard States.
The density of population in Porto Rico is phenomenal, particularly
as there is a great preponderance of rural inhabitants. It is exceeded
in but few of the other West Indies, is 1 per cent more than in China,
and slightly more than in Japan. Porto Rico, with 325.5 persons per
square mile (79.9 per cent rural), ranks fourth among the political
subdivisions of the American territory,^ after Rhode Island with
508, Massachusetts with 418.8, and New Jersey with 337.7. On the
1 Fewkes, Jesse Walter, "The Aborigines of Porto Rico," 25th Aimoal Report, Bureau of Ethnology,
1907.
> Flfaiter (see bibliography) remarks that there were in 1832 Indian families living in the mountainous
interior.
• Thirteenth Decennial Census (1910).
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
FORESTS OF PORTO RICO.
17
basis of rural population alone, Porto Rico, with 260 country people
par square mile, outnumbers its nearest competitor, New Jersey, by
m-ve than 3 to 1, and Rhode Island by 17 to 1. Furthermore,
Porto Rico's rural popidation density alone outranks the total popu-
lation density of any but the three States mentioned (fig. 5).
The distribution of population in Porto Rico is remarkably even,
and the centers of area and population are less than 5 miles apart
f9fO
I \Whifmf^9ce
^BkNufiwe Indigo
Fio. 4.— Growth in population in Porto Rico.
t 148. IslaiiddisooTeredbydolumbiis. Pr^Oolombian population (Fewkes).
1 1508. First wbite setti^nent under Ponce de Leon.
3. 1516. Indians ImportM from Jamaica and other West Indies in servitude (Fewkes).
A> lao. First numerical record oonoeming importation of African negroes (census 1890).
fi> 1548. Bishop of San Juan rept^ted to the King of Spain but 60 native Indians remaining on the island
(census 1800).
i. Total poiNilatlon middle of seventeenth century, 880 (census 1809).
7. Savery abolished by act of the Spanish Revolutionary National Assembly, March 22, 1873.
%. Census of 1877 adopted new classification dividing the colored population into "mulattoes" and
''blacks," which it will be seen closely conibrms to the earlier classes of "free" and "slave"
(osisas 1800).
m a direct line.* The center of population lies to the north of the
ceater of the island, because of the more equable climatic conditions,
tte greater area of arable land, and the location of the capital and
largest city, San Juan, on the north side.
' ' ThB center of area of the island is situated 3 miles north and 2X miles west of the town of Barros, and
; ttitewter of population (1800) was 8.0 miles west and 2.4 miles north of the same town, making the two
IHiatidiitBBt from each other 0 miles east and west and 4J} miles north and south. (Census of Porto
I »fce,M»).
218n«»— BuU. 354—16 1
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
18
BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE.
Occupational statistics show that 33 per cent of the total popu-
lation * are engaged in gainful occupations, and that 62.8 per cent
of that number are engaged in "agriculture, fisheries, and mining,"
the two latter of which are almost negligible.' Almost three-fourths
of the men and boys engaged in any gainful occupation are employed
directly in agriculture. Literacy is a feature of population statistics
which has changed so considerably since the American occupation
that but little value attaches to the 1899 figures, which are the latest
available. Some idea, however, can be gained by a comparison of
the school attendance, which has increased from between 2 and 3 per
^O^LATtOH O
/ JNfOOe fJLAHO. SOS.S. ^^.J.J%.,..
M UASitACttUSgm, '#/«.« 7.i%....
s tmitjemaer. j;jr.7. £4.%%....
4.Pomx) mco jzss t9.6%...
s cofmec7K</r.f... ,£S/.<j. >ojS
6 Ma¥}f0^f<, t9t.£ Z/.ZX,^..
7 ^sf^sri¥Mm4 ^trt.o. JSiffiX..,.
a MMVLAMO,^. ~ /JO.J. -fSJtX..^
9 OftfO lt7.0..,.^ 44.t%.„.
10 Dojum^e,..., fOJ.o. st.ox..,.
ft tlLtNOiS.^ ..../oo.d. J».J%....
^a /(eNTucftr.,.^ -^ S7.o... ^7S.7t
^ rtmfe^££. ^«?.< ^.#st_
tsyms/wA.^.^ .3v.* TT.ox..,.
m J¥¥tsr ytMttmA^*. so.a, 9f.s%
tr JOUTM CA^OUMAlt ^9. 7. ^ 99.9% ^
1/ AfO^TW CA/fOUM4 .-W^..^ 99.9%
U 9eoa9fA ^•^.•^. ..90.0%,..,
9f^ ALABAMA «.^/.^ ..99.7%
tS fOmA ...40.0. 70.0X.^
97 M/99l9Zi^/. .,...^9.9. 99.9%....
l9*LOUt9tAfM ...J6.S. 70.0%.^
99 A9^Afif9A9.*. ....JO.O. 97.f%
39 OHLAHOMA* ....99.9. ....j90.7%..„
94/rAAf9A9^. 90.7. 70.9X....
^OPULATtOM pen 9Q.MiLE
too 900 900 ^00_
99 fieOffA9f<A
• ♦
../S.S.,
...XJSZ...
97 CALir09MtA^. /SJL 99.9%..
19 7eAA9 ^.9. 7S.SX..
9rAT£s AtA^reo TMus • ctosttr Af^^roxfMAre Ao^rro Atco m r¥9 MUM9eit o^ TftemmfAAL AOAVtArfO/t
9rAre9 maakco tvm » haitc saoss AOAt/LArtofts ejrc££otMs TfMrcirpo/rTO jr/eo 9rL99S tmaat je }6
Fio. 5.— Comparative density of populations, showing graphically the relative position of Porto Riooand
certain selected States.
cent of the total population during the year following the close of
the Spanish- American War to 14.4 per cent in 1912.' In 1899, of the
total population over 10 years of age, only 16.6 percent could read.
TRANSPORTATION.
The mountainous character of the island, the heavy and unctuous
qualities of the soil, and the excessive rainfall conspire to render road
building both expensive and difficult, so that imtil comparatively
1 This low percentage of persons engaged in gainful oocupationsls occasioned largely by the abnonnally
large number of women and of children under 10 years of age, most of whom are enumerated in the
dependen t class. Thos 30.9 per cent of the total population are children under 10 years of age, and 4S.9 per
cent under 15 years. (Census, 1899).
s The census of 1899 showed but 455 fishermen and 48 miners or quarrymen on the entireisland.
• Report of the Commissioner of Education (Annual Reports, War Department, fiscal year ending June
90, 1912, Report of the Governor of Porto Rico).
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
FOEESTS OP PORTO RICO. 19
recently roads and other means of travel in Porto Rico have been
poor. This confined early settlement and development to the sea-
board and delayed the opening up of the interior. Then, too, the
products of one section have not been sufficiently different from those
in another to sustain an intra-island trade either by land or water.
These circimistances and the system of trading which flourished
between the West Indies, Europe, and America imtil recent times
made the ports of the south coast, for instance, each commerciaUy
closer to Bilboa and Cadiz and to the world ports in general than to
San Juan or each other. San Juan in particular, being formerly the
last port of call on the voyage to the Old World from Gulf and Carib-
bean ports, often found it easier to get timbers and other natural
products from Santo Domingo than from the immediately adjacent
country or a neighboring Porto Rican port. The fact that for over
a century Santo Domingan timbers have been in common use in San
Juan has led to the belief that Porto Rico was never wel> timbered or
that what lai^ material there was soon became exhausted, whereas
the lack of adequate internal transportation facilities offers a more
likely explanation.^
This paucity of transportation facilities persisted until well past
the middle of the last centmry .' The famous military road, the main
artery of the projected plan for highways under Spanish sovereignty,
was commenced about 1842 and finally completed in 1888, with a
total length of 134 kilometers (about 84 miles). The remaining
mileage of improved roads, which aggregated 275 kilometers (about
176 miles) at the close of the Spanish regime in 1898, largely com-
prised isolated sections of several road projects. Prom the Ameri-
can occupation to Jime 30, 191*2, 794 kilometers (500 miles) of mac-
adam road have been constructed, making a total of 1,069 kilometers
(670 miles). These are largely trunk-Uhe roads, from which extend
many dirt roads suitable for the bull cart and Uke vehicles, while
beyond these are mountain trails where pack and saddle horses and
the land canoe, or flat-bottomed dugout hauled by oxen, are still
the only means of transportation.
It is usually only rough moimtain trails that reach the *'conuco"
farmer, the forested area, and many of the coffee plantations. These
trails are mostly in very bad condition. Absolutely without drainage,
1 Oofi can see the effects of similar conditions in operation to^y in Santo Domingo. With 86 per cent
of her land area under virgin forests, a sixth of which is pine, Santo Domingo imported from the United
States In 1911 forest products to the amount of $130,800, including 3,937,000 board feet of lumber, vahied at
tn,298,and8hool:sand other unmanuf&itured timber products, exclusive of naval stores, valued at $12,206
addltionaL
s Rol^ (see bibliography) In 1802-1806 testifies not only to the poor transportation facilities, but to the
abundant forests, in the fbllowing reference: "The island of Porto Rico is still little inhabited, in spite
of the earltness of its settlement. * * * The habitations, isolated and dispersed over the island, lack
oommonication with one another.' * * * It is, however, not necessary (in order to provide roads) to
cut the mountains, raise the valleys, or fill the marshes, but simply cut down the leu^e and vigorous
tiMB.'!
Digitized by VjQOQIC
20 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the tenacious clay soil, already saturated with moisture, has kneaded
into it additional water through the travel of the bulls and heavily
burdened pack animals imtil in places it become a semifluid mass
resembling thick orange-red paint, often of a depth reaching to a
horse's belly. During the dry season, when they dry out on top
and crust over, these **baches" are even more treacherous than in
their semifluid state, for when a horse breaks through the crust he
is the more Uable to got mired. Only horses bred to this kind of
travel know how to handle themselves under such trying conditions.
For draft purposes in this back country the bull is almost exda-
sively used. Most of the freighting across the island and into the
interior is even now, and on the best roads, done by buU carts, except
for a short line of railroad between Rio Piedras and Caguas. ' Very
recently the auto truck and auto stage have been tried in the cross-
the-island freight and passenger service, as well as along the coast,
and their xise unquestionably will be extended.
At the time of the American occupation there were 254 kilometers
(about 160 miles) of narrow-gauge railroad in operation in the coastal
portion of the island. At the present time (1912) it is possible,
through the connections established between the various sugar com-
panies' railroads and the original pubUc-service road, almost to en-
circle the island by rail.
THE FOREST.
The forests of Porto Rico are now so fragmentary and so limited
in extent and have been so materially modified by the acts of man
during several centuries that they afford of themselves little basis
for classification and description. Clearings, severe cuttings, and the
cuUing of the more desirable timbers were noted by the earliest trav-
elers. Then, too, many native species have been transplanted from
their natural haunts to others and many introduced species have
been brought in and spread over the island. It has consequently
been necessary to draw extensively on information from a num-
ber of sources and to study the various formations as they have been
described in their undisturbed natural state in whatever other part
of the Tropics they could be found. In this manner only could a
groimdwork be obtained for classifying and distributing according
to their proper relations the renmants of the once extensive POTto
Rican forests.^
1 In describing the fundamental features of the various formations the works of Schimper and of Broun
particularly have been freely drawn on, and In reference to special features those of Harshbeiger, of Fe^
now, and Taylor, and of Woodward (see Bibliography), not to mention the various historical works whicfa
have contributed side lights on matters of genera] distribution.
The work of defining the distribution of formations is a comparatively simple one, beoaoae of their clo»
relation to the distribution of ralnliall, which latter has been carefully charted by the local Weather Baraao
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 354, U. S. D«pt. of Agriculture.
Plate II.
F-lffTMA
Fia 1 .—An Unimproved Country Road Through the LowLANoa
F-IITMA
FiQ. 2.— Native Means of Transportation which Requires no Roads.
COUNTRY ROAD AND NATIVE TRANSPORTATION.
uigiTized by VjOOQ IC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
FORESTS OP PORTO RICO. 21
rORBSTED GONmnON AND DISTBIBfmON.
There can be little doubt that Porto Rico was at one time forested
from the shores of the Atlantic to the Caribbean, from the 'Virgin
Passage to Mona.^ Historians, while in general silent as to the
extent and character of the forests on the island, have in the aggre-
gate l^t a considerable collection of data concerning the subject,'
sufficient it would seem, together with present-day indications, to
bear out the contention of a once completely forested Porto Rico.
One has but to turn to the neighboring islands of the Greater
Antilles, which are closely related both geologically and botanically,
if further corroboration of Porto Rico's original forested condition is
required. This close relationship and similarity even down to such
details as common names is strikingly brought out by a comparison
of the description by Femow and Taylor * of the Sierra Maestra in
Cuba, by Woodward,* of the Santo Domingo forests, and by Giflford,'
office. Slight departures only are necessary to make aUowanoe in certain caaes for the Inflocnoe of the
]fwnfmiMt^ soils. Altltodinal differences are so slight as to have comparatively little effect.
In the descriptions local names, wherever possible, have been adhered to, and following each such
name is a number in parentheses, thus, guaraguao (74),'whidi number refers to the spedflo descriptioo
In Appendix I, "The Trees of Porto Rico.''
Whenever desirable, a brief paragraph hi small print oonoeming the chief features of the same or a
doaaly related formation in other parts of the Tropics' follows the descr^tion of the local Porto Rican
fonnatkm. Thus it is hoped that interest in the forest wUlbe heightened through comparison and that
the way may be opened for the Judidous selection of new species to be introduced into Porto RIoo.
1 The following from aletterfrom Mr. Alex. Wetmore, assistant biologist, Bureau of the Biological Survey,
U. 8. Department of Agriculture, who recently completed an exhaustive study of the bird life of the island,
is of considerable interest hi this connection: '* On examining the endemic species of Porto Rican birds,
I ffaid that yftQi one or two exceptions they are forest-inhabiting forms, pointing thus to a very extensive
forest area on the island. The forms as differentiated here must have hihabited such an area during the
period of evolution, and species with a preference for bpen savannas may have come in later, or may have
been very few in number untfl within historical times. The extensive area of moist deciduous and tropical
rain forests shown by you on the forest-distribntfon map, all point to this hypothesis.''
> Oviedo, writfaig of the early years of 1500 concemhig animals, trees, and the lilce in Porto Rico, stated
that they did not differ fh>m those already described in the "IslaEepanola." The North American and
West Indian Gaxetteer (1778) states that "the sides of the hills are covered with trees of varfous kinds,
proper for building ships and other useful purposes." Fray liUgo (1788), besides menttoning the superior
and omdi greater variety of timber trees in the uplands, also states that many trees are found in the southern
part of the island as well, althou^ conditions there were mudi more arid and less fertile than on the north
eoast. In the account of the capture of San Juan by the Earl of Cumberland (1507), the small island on
whidi San Juan is situated is described as "for the most woods." Continuing, the LuquUlo regfon and
Am interior generally are described as follows: "The valleys are much wooded but in very many places
Interlaced with goodly large Playnes and spaofous Lawnes. The woods are not only underlhigs but
timber trees of goodly tallnesse and stature,- fit for the building of ships ^d of every part of them." Acoord-
h^ to Herrera, (English translation, 1736), "The Island * • * has mndi good pasture for oattie,
whiefa decreases, by reason of the great number of trees increasing * * * so that the Islaixl is over-
grown with Woods." Flinter (1834), speaking of the surroundings of Chiayama, says that 5 or 0 years
previously it was merely "an immense tract of woodland." He also says: "The forests ^i^iidi cover the
mountains of Porto Rico are AUed with timber of the best quality for the construction of ships and houses.
In some parts o f the coast from the very improvident manner in which wood has been cut down and burned
for charcoal and much left to rot on the ground, timber is getting scarce: but hi the interior there is yet
an abandanoe of superior timber." In 1830 timber to the value of $21,000 was exported through
the customhouses of this island, exclusively of what is shipped clandesthiely." This work in particul&r
has mmierous otiier references to the extent and luxuriance of the forest growth on the island. Finally
Barrett (1002) tails us that "more than half a century ago the Spanish planters of the island began clearing
the Interior districts for coffee and tobacco culture. There being no good roads and but litUe demand for
timber, the trees were burned where they Ml; hundreds of thousands of dollars' worth of himber and
cabinet woods were thus deatroiyad."
■SeeBibliograpliy.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
22 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGEICULTCRE.
of the Luquillo. The forests of Porto Rico difiFer from those of the
other islands chiefly in the absence of any pine growth. Santo
Domingo, now least changed from its original pre-Columbian con:
dition, still has fully 85 per cent of its land area imder virgin forest
Probably at least 50 per cent of Cuba is wooded, not far from 30 per
cent being virgin forest. Santo Domingo has a population density
of 33 per square mile, Cuba 46, and Porto Rico 325. There is little
wonder that Porto Rico is nearly deforested.
The assertion of a completely forested Porto Rico does not mean
that there were no open lands at the time of Columbus's first visit
There were in fact even then more or less extensive clearings surround-
ing each native village. These clearings were continued and extended
by the white settlers that they might cultivate sugar cane, gingw,
^oi9 m99 '/9QS AccoAom^ TO i/.^ i¥£Arffejf aujfg-At/
Yxy/\ Afo/sroectoooas n^£srs 7% iSSS^I^tS^
Fio. 0.— Porto Rico. Pre-Columbiandistribution of forest formatioog. (DtagranunatloaDy
and other crops,' and provide pasture for cattle brought from Spain.
The clearing proceeded more rapidly on the north than on the south
side of the island and was Ukewise confined for the most part to the
lowland. Until nearly the middle of the nineteenth century the
interior moimtain forests were probably but little disturbed. The
gradual ascendency of the coffee industry over that of sugar and
tobacco, which culminated dining the closing years of Spanish role,
imdoubtedly strongly influenced the development of the interior.
Of the once extensive virgin tropical forest there now remain only
isolated remnants scattered over the island in its most mountainous
parts. The best known and most famous of these, and the largest
as well, still covers a considerable portion of the Luqijullo R^ige.
While it has for upward of half a century been gradually encroached
upon, progress has been slow. The abruptness of the slopes and the
size of the trees have made timber exploitation by native methods
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
FORESTS OF POETO EICO. 28
very difficult. Exposure to excessive and constant strong winds,
abnormally heavy precipitation, and extended cloudiness have pre-
vented the region from being invaded to a greater extent by the
coffee planter. These same conditions also have doubtless not been
entirely to the liking of the ''conuco" farmer, at least so long as there
were other lands available. This tract has an aggregate acreage of
between 35,000 and 40,000 acres, including several thousand ac^es of
low gnarled growth on its summits and wind-swept slopes. A part
at least of this forested area is in government ownership.
Other tracts, more or lees limited in extent, of virgin or only lightly
culled high forest are to be found near Maricao, in a deep ravine at
the headwaters of the Rio Maricao, near Jayuya, on Mount Morales
and Mount Mandios;^ near '^La Isolina'' on the Rio Limon between
Utuado and Ciales,' and in Barrio Angeles between Lares and Utuado
on the Rio Angeles.' The aggregate of all such areas, aside from the
LuquiUo, is beUeved to be well within 5,000 acres, making the total
area of high forest scarcely 2 per cent of the total land area.
There are besides about 400,000 acres assessed as '' timber and
brush lands" and a few thousand acres additional classified as
swamps and lai^ely under mangrove. Of the timber and brush
areas the bulk will be foimd in the southern, southeastern, and south-
western parts of the island, on the dry limestone hills and other land
of little or no agricultural value. On the north side such areas will
be found almost exclusively on the thin-soiled, conical limestone
hiDs.
Thus, including vii^in forests and all, the total wooded area
amounts to approximately 20 per cent of the total land area. In all
probabiUty not more than from one-fourth to two-fifths of this area
(5 to 8 per cent of total land area) is now under forest capable of
yielding a wood product other than charcoal and fuel wood. If now
there be added the 168,000 acres in coffee plantatibns and the 6,500
acres under coconut palms which are in effect artificial forests, the
grand total of all lands under a forest or brush cover will approximate
600,000 acres, or 27 per cent of the insular domain.
FOREST FORMATIONS.
The term "virgin forest" was formerly applied by travelers in
the Tropics exclusively to the evergreen forest found in constantly
humid regions or those of similar luxuriance along the watercoinrses;
in other words, to the tropical forest jxmgle. Not only are these not
^Baported by N. L. Brittoa in Joarnal N. Y. Botanical Garden, May, 1906.
*Biported to the writer personally by the director of the U. 8. Weather Bureau at San Juan and by
L. M. Underwood in Journal N. Y. Botanical Garden, Nov., 1901.
*a«perted perxmally to the writer by the lieutenant of police at Utaado.
Digiti
zed by Google
24 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGEICULTURE.
the only virgin forests in the Tropics, but in many cases they them-
selves may not be virgin at all, but second growth.'
Because the rain-forest — the jungle — ^presents not only unusual but
often spectacular features which make a most direct appeal to the
interest and a most lasting impression on the mind, it hai9 come to
typify the tropical forest in general. Yet it would be scarcely less
misleading to represent the mammoth redwoods or the giant fir and
cedar forests of our Pacific coast, or even the magnificently diversified
hardwood forests of the Appalachian region, as being the typical
and prevailing forest growth of temperate North America.
In its original forested condition Porto Rico undoubtedly pre-
sented a diversity of forest formations unexcelled in any other
similar area in the West Indian Tropics. Of the general types found
throughout the Tropics, only those were impossible of occurrwiee
which result from extremes of altitude and of drought. Thus alpine
and desert elements were unquestionably never developed here.
The various formations in the order of tlieir occurrence from the
coast toward the interior are as follows: Littoral woodlands, moist
deciduous forests,* and tropical rain-forests on the north or humid
side, and the dry deciduous forest • on the south or semiarid side.
The distribution of these formations was, of course, not so simple
as might be implied by the last sentence, there being more or less
overlapping. Renmants of these formations are, with few excep-
tions, still to bo foimd in the out-of-the-way places of the island,
although their original balance and relative importance have been
very much modified.*
1 This {s very iDterestingly brought out in Cook's ''Vegetation Affected by Agriculture in Central
America" (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 145), from which the foUowfng Is quoted: "ICany loealitiM
which are now occupied by apparently virghi forests are shown by arofafleologkal remains to be regions of
reforestation . Thus in the Senahu-Tahabon district of Alta Vera Pat, relics of two or three yery different
types of primitive civilizations indicate that as many ancient populations have oooopied soooessiTely the
same areas which are now being cleared anew by the coffee planters as though for the first time.
"It does not yet appear that any considerable region of forest has been explored in Central Americs
without finding similar evidence that the present forests are not truly virgin growth. • ♦ •"
And again, speaking of the evidence of antiquity as ezempUfled by the crumbling of large earthenwaie
pots of an earlier civilization, he continues: " We can not know how long it has taken the pottery tocrumble,
but we can at least contrast the condition of these decayed pots witii other pieces of pottery idaced in caves
of the same district in later prehistoric ages, which will appear fresh and new, as though recently burned.
And yet the bones beside these apparently new pots have also crumbled nearly to dust, and there bss
been time for the surrounding country to be occupied with old forests of hardwood trees, like true vlrglD
growth." He also mentions terracing of the land as showing that agriculture was formerly extensively
practiced and notes the presence of a type of terrace evidently designed "to hold drainage water and
prevent erosion * * * belngfrequently met with in the heavily forested region d eastern Ouatemala."
t Called "monsoon forest" by Schimper.
* Also called " thorn-woodland" by 8chimper and "chaparral" by Harshberger.
* The natural balance and relative importance of the different formations as given by Woodward for
Santo Domingo on a percentage basis for the total forested area is as follows: Wet hardwood type (whidi
includes the "moist deciduous" and "tropical rahi" forests of the above dasstficstlon), BS per oent; dry
hardwood type ("Uttoral woodlands" and "dry deciduous" forests), 28 per cent; phie type (laeldng
entirely in Porto Bioo, but occurring on a similar site to the "dry dedduoos" forest), 14 per cent.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Sul. 354, U. S, Dept. of Agricultur*.
Plate III.
<
z
_1
o
o
D
Q
O
2
CO
O
k
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
FOBESTS OF POBTO RICO. . 25
Littoral Woodlands.
The littoral woodlands, although most characteristically developed
on the humid side of the island; have certain strong resemblances to
the dry deciduous forests of the south coast, the one mergmg into,
giving way to, or overlapping the other at their points of contact.
Both formations are forced to struggle continually against the effects
of drought. In the case of the Uttoral woodlands this is occasioned
largely by porous and saline soil conditions accentuated by certain
adverse climatic factors, strong wind particularly. With the dry
deciduous forests, the determining factor is deficient rainfall, to
which adverse soil conditions give added effect. The httoral wood-
land formation presents two distinct types, namely, the mangrove
or wet tidal woodlands below high-water mark and the dry tidal
woodlands above high-water mark.
THB MANQBOVB.
TTie mangrove, or wet tidal woodland, is a distinctly tropical for-
mation. Though unable to withstand unbroken wave action on the
open coast, it readily establishes itself in the shallow braclrish waters
of protected embayments, creeks, and lagoons, where, imder favorable
climatic conditions, it forms dense, almost impenetrable thickets.
The Porto Rican mangrove rarely attains a height of over 10 feet
above Uie water, though elsewhere it reaches very respectable forest
dimensions. Even in the more or less protected lagoons it is gen-
erally exposed to the strong trade winds, which accounts in part for its
low stature, while its popularity for fuel and other uses imdoubtedly
prevents it from attaining its full size.
The sea, receding at low tide as far as the edge of what seems at
high tide a veritable forest rising from the waters, reveals a tangled
mass of stiltlike roots anchoring the trees to the blue-black muck
along the 'shore. With every tide new soil material is deposited
among the mangrove, which keeps gradually pushing out to occupy
new groimd, through its remarkable mode of reproduction. The
fruit when it reaches maturity remains attached to the parent plant,
the seed embryo aU the while continuing its development into a
new yoimg plant. Having attained a certain size this plant releases
its^, falls into the soft mud, strikes root, and becomes firmly fixed
within a few hom^.
The mangrove in general attains its most favorable development
where the humidity is high, precipitation abimdant, and an inter-
mittent cloudiness prevails. Its distribution accordingly coincides
in general with that of the rain-forest.* Thus the mangrove in Porto
Rico is most abundant along the north and east coasts, is much more
restricted on the west coast, and is only sparingly and locally de-
> See Schimper's Plant Geograi^y.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
26 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGBICULTURE.
veloped on the south. Here it occurs chiefly at the mouths of the
larger rivers, where a dilution of the sea water enables it to grow
in spite of the otherwise unfavorable climatic conditions.
Three of the four common species of the western mangrove/ of
tropical American and West African coasts, occur in Porto Rico.
One is known locally as mangle Colorado (122),* and the other two
as mangle bianco (or bobo) (127 and 157). Mangle Colorado occupies
the outer exposed edge of the formation, while mangle bianco occur,
the one (Avicennia) intermediately and the other (L(igufu;ylana) at
the inner boundary. The latter often forms pure mangrove. Other
species associated with this formation are mangle bot6n (125) and
mangle prieto (unidentified), small trees, usually under 20 feet in
height. On drier islets within the formation other species may occur,
and likewise on the inner side, where by a gradual transition the man-
grove gives way to the dry tidal woodlands. Epiphytes, so charac-
teristic of other tropical forest formations, are scarce and are con-
fined to a few bromeUads and lichens.
The mangrove is of considerable economic importance, furnishing
fuel, especially to the bakeries, from its Umbs and branches, and posts
and house piling from the submerged parts. For these latter uses it
is very highly prized because of its resistance to decay and to the
attack of the white ant. The bark contains a tanning material and
a dye, though to what extent it is used locally is not known.
Practically aU of this mangrove land belongs to the insular govern-
ment. In a few places, as in parts of San Juan Harbor, the mangrove
will have to be cleared away to make room for needed water-front
improvements. Other tracts might perhaps be converted into arable
land by drainage. Most of these lands, however, should be retained
by the government and managed imder approved forestry principles
as pubUc wood reserves.' They would constitute a most valuable
> The fourth species, Avicennia tomentota Jacq., is not Ideotffled from Porto Rioo. 'fht Mstcn wto-
grove is much richer in forms. Thus in Farther India and the Malay Archipelago, where It shows its
greatest diversity, It consists of Rhizophoraoese (9 species), Ljrthraceee (3 species), CombretacesD, IfeliaceK,
and VerbenacesB (2 species each), M3rrisinace8B, Rubiaoee, Anthraoeee, and Pahnse (1 species eacb): 9
species in all, according to Schimper.
« The figures in parenthesis refer to the descriptive list (Appendix I).
• In many eastern tropical countries the immense value of titese swamp areas Is now fully appreeiitol
In the Federated Malay States the mangrove is classed as " one of the two important divisions of Uie eooH
mercial Malay forests." In 1904 the development of the mangrove areas as a source of fuel supply for tbi
Government railways and for general public consumption was begun under sytematlcally prepared worktag
plans. (Bums-Murdock, A. M. ** Notes from the Federated Malay States," Indian Forester, Vol. XXX,
No. 10, Oct., 1904).
In the Philipphies the mangrove is regarded as "in many respects one of the most vahiabla fortst tSMts
of the islands." The bureau is now engaged in selecting the most Imirartant commercial iy«as and that-
oughl'y investigating their possibilities. (Director of Forestry of the Philippine Islands, annual report
lor fiscal year ending June 30, 1912).
The mangrove is managed on a short rotation under a dean-cutting syston, making it a simple crop
to handle. As practiced by the Philippine natives in growhig "bacauan" (Includes several mangrcvt
species) for oordwood, the seed is collected and sown at a oost of about S2.fi0 an acre. Then wf thmt any
further attention the crop at the end of six years is ripe to cut, and brings as high as $20 ao acre oo the
stump, according to W. D. Sterrett, formerly forester of Bataan Province, Philippine Boreaa oC Fonstry.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
FORESTS OP PORTO RICO. . 27
sonrce of cheap wood supply for general use, where it is most needed,
in and around the coast cities, and would yield a considerable income
to the government through the sale of the wood and other products.
Dby Tn>AL Woodlands.
The dry tidal woodland is confined to the sandy or gravelly soil
areas skirting the open shore or lying directly behind the mangrove
type in the sheltered embayments. While its former extent and
distribution can be reasonably well defined, its original composition
can only vaguely be surmised. Its sole representatives at the present
time are groves of coconut palm; the dry deciduous forests of more
or less strongly modified composition, due to the intermingling of
typical shore species, such as uvero (14) and others; and the open
shrub growths of these latter species alone.^ The coconut palm type
will be considered in more detail elsewhere as will also the dry decid-
uous forests.
BA8TBRN LITTORAL WOODLANDS.
The Uttoial woodland is readily distinguishable in the East Indies and adjacent
contiDeDtal areas, where it has been more or lees carefully studied and described, par-
ticularly in Java. At present two of the most conspicuous trees planted in and around
San Joan are from this formation, the almendra (123) and the more recently intro-
duced Cotuartfia equisettfolia (Australian beefwood). Other characteristic tree species
(A the eastern littoral are Oyoas cvrcinalist Pandanus (several species), Calophyllum
tHophyUum (Guttiferse), Cerbera odollam (Apocynacese), Hibiscus tiliaceus and Thes-
petui pojnUnea ("Enunajagua" and "Ssmta Maria," respectively, of Porto Rico),
(Malvaceee), Herrumdia peltata (Hemandiaceae), Heritura HUoralis (Sterculiacese), and
various Leguminosce (Inocarpus eduliSy species of Albuzkif Cyrwmetra^ Erythnna^ Pirn-
gamia glabray Sophora tomerUosay and others).
Moist DEomuous Forests.
Transitional between the littoral woodlands and the rain-forest
formations in all probability originally occurred the moist deciduous
forests. On the north side of the island this formation occupied the
limestone belt lying between the coast and the central moimtains
and extending from San Juan west to Aguadilla. On the south side it
very likely was confined largely to the middle and upper south slopes
of the central mountain clay soils. Little forest growth of any sort,
however, now remains on these areas. Particularly is this true of
the south slopes of the Cordillera Central, where the trees are scattered
> The fdtare of plant geographfln to rooognlxe aM segregate this infoni^
tbiy due to the feet that the sites where this formation had formeily attabied most characteristic develop-
■Mot hare long been exdosively appropriated by man for the ooltiyation of the coconut palm. Else-
wtare, possibly by catting and the more aggresstve competition on the part of the dosely allied dry deddn-
oosformaUon. its composition has been so modified as to make these two formations scarcely distinguish-
ifaie one from the other.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
28 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPAHTMENT OP AGRICULTUBE.
singly or in small clumps on the open grass slo]>es and in narrow
strips along the watercourses.*
On the north side of the divide the virgin^forest area near La
Isolina constitutes a possible remnant of this moist deciduous forest.
Here the tabanuco (69) is a prominent feature in the stand. Else-
wherOy as on the limestone uplands north of Lares, the moi^alon (15)|
aceitillo (66), capa blanca (155), limoncillo (129), granadillo (124),
and other large trees are reported formerly to have been common.
Here, too, we should expect to have found the caoba (72). Some of
the rich forest growth was cut for fuel and building material, but
much of it is reported to have been cleared away by the ''conuco."
The land here is now merely open grass land.
In the **pepino" or '*pit'' coimtry a homog^ieous forest cover is
impossible. In the pit bottoms, which are now largely under culti-
vation to bananas and coffee, a high forest cover of the moist deciduous
type imdoubtodly prevailed. The steep sides and smnmits of tiiese
hiUs in many places even to-day present a well-wooded appearance,
though the occurrence of an occasional fair-sized tree in some par-
ticularly inaccessible place throws into contrast the main cover,
which is low and bushy and much like that of the dry deciduous
formation. Undoubtedly those rough crags have been cut over in
the past, but owing to their absolute uselessness for cultivation they
have escaped being burned over.
EASTERN MOIST DECIBUOTTS FORESTS.
The moist deciduous fonnation of India and Ceylon contains most of their valuable
timber trees, such as teak ( Tedona grandis), sal {Shorea robusta), satinwood {Chlcroxy-
Ion 8un€t€nia)y ebony (Diosypros ehenum), trincomalie-wood (Berrya ammonilla\ etc.
Near the coaat a number of everji^reen trees are found in mixture, as Mimu»op$ hexandrOj
M. elengiy species of Memeqflon, Pleurostylia wigJUiiy Nepheliuiriy Sapindus, etc. In
Australia this is a savanna forest and consists lai^ely of acacias and eucalypts.
In South America this formation more closely resembles the savanna than the rain-
forest type and is known locally as **campo8," ''llanos,** ''caatinga,** etc. It is
important economically because of the rubber-yielding trees which grow within it,
the "ceara-nibber" tree or **manisoba" (Manihot glaziovii, M, dichotoma, M. piyctur-
herms, etc.) and the "para-rubber'* tree (Hevca hraziliensis), the former in tlie open
savanna forests of northern Brazil and the latter in the basin of the Amazon.
Tropical Rain -Forests.
Forest vegetation culminates in density and luxuriance of growth
in the rain-forests, the most extensive of the original forest forms,
> Frinffinff-forests. ^Closely allied to both the moist deciduous and laln-forest formations are iht
appropriately named fringing-forests or gallery-forests, mentioned, respectively, by Sdilmper and Bimm*
denae tropical forests of nnusual loxnriance occupying the banks of streams and rivers within dry regjoos.
They owe thefa* luxuriance to the abundant moisture in the soO. Their extent back from the river tluis
depends on the quantity and constancy of the stream flow and the modifying influence it is able to exert
on the adjacent soils. Such was the type of forest in all probability that Flinter (see note, p. 21) referred
to particularly as occurring in the vicinity of Guasrama. Remnants of tnese forests are to be seen to-daj,
in many places bordering the south coast streams where they have not been destroyed to make way Cor
cane growing. The contrast between therr and adjacent forests of the dry deciduous formation Is v&y
striktag. The rich forests of the Amason are to a considerable extent of this type.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 354, U. S. Dept of AgricuKure.
Plate IV.
FiQ- 1.— Second Growth Moist Deciduous Forest Between Isabella and
QUEBRADILLAS.
Fifl- 2-—" Frinoinq Forests" which Skirt the Water Courses through the
Semi'arid South Coast Regions, yet Exhibit Many of the Characteristics
OF THE Moist Deciduous and Rain-Forest Formations.
TYPES OF FOREST.
Digiti
zed by Google
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 29
formerly covering the entire central uplands of the island, including
die valley plains of the large rivers, and reaching quite to the coast
on the east and west ends of the island. They undoubtedly attained
their richest development in the bottoms and sheltered slopes of the
larger river basins, but these being the most productive and the most
accessible, were the first to be stripped of their forest wealth. There
is little doubt that the greater part of this splendid natural resource
was never utilized, but was felled and burned. What remains is but
a poor example of this once magnificent forest domain.
The rain-forest from a distance looks not unlike our northern
deciduous forests, except where groups of palms or the yagruma (136)
occur in mixture with the broadleaf trees or where the bright-colored
blossoms of some flowering tree or epiphytic plant perched high in
the cax)wn of its towering host interrupts the green of the background.
The foliage presents a variety of the duller and more somber greens,
but lacks entirely the fresh new green of the spring foliage in the
north. The crown level is also less regular than that of our northern
woods. Individual trees with wide-spreading crowns tower far above
the general level, the whole presenting a jagged and haphazard appear-
ance. On closer inspection a further contrast is apparent in the
greater number of trees with compoimd leaves, such as cedro (71),
goaraguao (74), and many others. The crown of the average tree of
the rain-forest is very much less branched than that of the northern
deciduous forest tree, there being but few main branches, themselves
only slightly branched, so that the tree has a very irregular appear-
ance. The leaves are highly diversified, not infrequently glossy, and
of a fine leathery textiu^, and though pinnate seldom finely so or
felted with hairs. They are usually set obliquely with relation to the
direct overhead light and often aggregated in tufts at the ends of long,
bare branches.
The interior of the rain-forest is still more striking in contrast and
more haphazard in appearance than its exterior. The growing space
appears to be imequally utilized; in places the stand is very dense
and is matted and tangled with a profusion of thick-stemmed woody
lianas and countless epiphytic orchids, bromeUads, ferns, and even
trees, covering every branch and extending to the tops of the tallest
trees; in other places the cover is very much broken, permitting great
patches of sunlight to reach the groimd. In the denser parts the
ground is very sparsely covered, while in the openings palms and
other yoimg trees, or a most detestable cutting grass, strive to occupy
the ground. True shrubs are inconspicuous, most of the imdergrowth
being of tKe same species as the main forest cover.
The soil in the forest is not only in large measure bare of herbaceous
growth, but it is very poor in vegetable mold. It is simply blackened
by the decaying vegetable matter. Humus, as we know it in the
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
30 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUBE.
broadleaf forest of the the north, is very rare. Decomposition is
extremely rapid imder the influence of tropical heat and great humid-
ity, and these, together with more gradual leaf fall, extending over the
entire year, prevent the accumulation of Utter. Then, too, the tor-
rential rains wash much of it oflf the steep slopes almost as^^^pidly as
it is formed.
As to the trees themselves there is almost infinite assortment of
kinds, sizes, and forms. One of the most striking features is the large
nimiber of Ught-colored, smooth-barked species resembling in appear-
ance our northern beech.* Then, too, the trunks of the trees forming
the main crown cover are very characteristic, being for the most part
of very unequal thickness, and usually more slender ' than those in
the virgin forests of the Temperate Zone. Large trees up to 5 feet
in diameter above the root flare, however, are not lacking even to-day
in the Luquillo. There are, besides, many trees, tabanuco (69) for
instance, with a much-buttressed base formed by planklike outgrowth
from the trunk and the uppermost roots.
There is a striking lack of uniformity in association and in distribu-
tion of species. The reasons for this are the vast number of species,'
the combination of accidental association that such a number makes
possible, and the absence of any considerable modifying soil or other
conditions tending to form fixed associations within the broader and
more imiform climatic one.* The presence or absence of a tree, par-
ticularly one of the more valuable kinds, like cedro, appear^ to be a
matter largely of chance. The really valuable trees seem almost
hopelessly in the minority, while the inferior species are so numerous
as to impress one with the apparent worthlessness of the forest. Un-
questionably many of the so-called worthless woods are unjustly
1 Aooording to Schlmper this is owing to the prejudicial effect of humidity on the formation of ooilc, the
bark thus remaining poorly developed. The formation of bark is often so poor that moderatelj Hrgd
trees show green, owing to the chlorophyll of the cortical layer being visible thiough it. There is, never-
theless, considerable individuality to the bark of different trees; some have thin flaky and scaly bark, ts
in Myrtace(p, or a green surface, as in some Legominoses; others, again, are armed wltfa spines or oorky
warts, while still others exude resins when wounded.
* This, according to Schlmper, is a distinguishing characteristic of the virgin tropical forest Woodwaid,
too, discussing the rain-forest in Santo Domingo, states that while trees over 5 feet in diameter and 100 feet
high are occasionally found, the average is far below these figures.
* Giflord and Barrett in their ''Trees of the Luquillo Region ** (appendix to Bulletin 64, Forest Service,
"The Luquilk) Forest Reserve, Porto Rico'') compiled a classified description of something over 100 identi-
fied species and enumerated besides the common names of nearly 100 more.
* That the condition is not peculiar to Fofto Rico, as many believe, and that, except in extent, the rain
forests of the Luquilto do not essentially differ from the other Antillean forests, the folfowlng will show:
Woodward remarks that in the virgin rain-forests of Santo Domingo two caoba (mahogany) trees to the
acre constitute a good stand. Femow, likewise, is speaking of the virgin forests of the Sierra lla(>stra, Gaba,
remarks that it was most pussling to discover a law of distribntfon. ** After many days cruising," be says,
"over canyon, sfope, and ridge one finds in identically the same kind of k>cality a new species, asfng^ tree
or group never to be seen again in further cruisings. Nearly 400 miles had been traveled before the first
group of ebony was met." He further states that "the openness of the main stand may be Judged from Qie
statement that as developed by some 1,200 acres of sample area, less than 1.4 trees of commercial site per
acre were found. When it is considered that over 100 species partkipate in making up this stand the diffi>
oulties of a commercial or even a botanical survey will be realiied."
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 31
discriminated against because their good qualities are commercially
unknown.
There is an almost complete absence of species having a gregarious
habit, the tabanuco (69)* and palma de sierra (3) being the chief
exceptions.
BAIN rORBSTS OP THE LUQUUiLO.
The entire forested area in the Sierra de Luquillo is within the
rain-forest belt. The situation is, however, a generally imfavorable
one as compared with other areas of abundant rainfall by virtue
of its unshielded exposure to the full force of the trade winds, so that
the forests here represent rather the mininiiini tropical rain-forest
development.
The main stand of the typical rain-forest development previously
described covers probably somewhat more than half of the moimtain
area. Its four leading species are tabanuco (69), guaraguao (74),
laurel sabino (17), and ausubo (141), in the order of their numerical
importance. Largely because it has always been in grea.t demand
among the natives for all manner of uses, the ausubo is now quite
scarce. Cedro (71), too, is only occasionally to be foimd here. It is
doubtful if there was ever more than a scattering of caoba (72),
because of its preference for a slightly less humid site. While these
forests are usually considered to be undisturbed original growth,
such is not, strictly speaking, the case, for cedro and others of the
more valuable woods have been taken out a tree at a time by a
gradual culling process extending over many years.'
Two subordinate types within the tropical rain-forest belt of the
Luquillo are the "hurricane hardwood" and ''sierra palm" types.
The former, occupying the places of greatest exposure, the ridge sum-
mits and the easterly slopes above 2,500 feet elevation particularly, is
a low, gnarled, and stunted tree growth, mainly of the inferior species.*
Scarcely 25 feet high, the stands are in most places very dense and
the limbs of the trees interlace and are covered with water-laden
moss. For days at a time this type may be continuously bathed in
i8ee Plate HL
sT!Hra isaatbentle informatioQ oonoeming one oedro oat within the last 6 years from the soath side of
tbe ransB, the stump of whioh yet remains and measmes 18 feet in ciroumf^renoe (5} feet in diameter).
Serenl attempts are reported to have been made before a purchaser could be found for this tree becaose
of itssiae and the difBcolty of felling it and moving it away with the ordinary means at hand. Another,
itiD standing at the present time, measores 25 feet 5 inches hi drcomferenoe.
■Aninitanoe called to the attention of the writer relative to one of the secondary peaks visited by him in
ms toward tbe sooth side of the range (elevation 3.000 feet) soggests the possibility of the horricane of 1896
bdngat least a contribatory cause of the low cover found on these exposed sites and led to the selection
cf the mune " fanrrfcane hardwood " type to designate this growth. An American resident said that at the
time she took up residence there in the winter of 1890-1900 this peak was stripped entirely bare of aU vege-
tation and that it lemahied so for 2 to 3 years afterward. Gradually it showed patches of green and
eventually became enthely covered. The present stand is a dense young growth of yagrumo, palma de
skna, and other of the poorer quality hardwoods. It may be significant that Dr. George Eggar, quoted
by HBI, don not remark on the presence of such a growth at the time cf his exploration of El Yunque in
18B7, whe&a more normal growth may have been present.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
32 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTTJBE.
moisture by the clouds, which leave the simimits of these mountaiiis
only intermittently during a considerable part of the year. Although .
conamercially of no value whatever, this scrub growth is tremendously
important in protecting the exposed slopes from erosion.
Palma do sierra occurs throughout the uplands and in places in
sufficient numbers to dominate the stand, forming what may be
called the "sierra palm*' type. This occurs alike on the exposed
easterly slope and in the protected basins, often where the land is
rough and stony and windfall most likely. Consequently it is quite
Ukely a temporary type brought about through windstorm or other
accident to the original stand. In the protected lok^alities the
associated species comprising the more valuable hardwoods are
nimierous and usually well developed, so that the growth is not
without commercial value and future possibilities. At present these
two types — the " hiuricane hardwood " type, of no commercial value,
and the "sierra palm'' type, only partially merchantable — aggregate
about half the forested area and dominate the moimtain tops and
exposed uplands of the LuquiUo.
RAIN. FORESTS OF THE EASTERN TROPIOS.
Many valuable species, including the great natural order of the Dipterocarpaceae,
find their homes in the luxuriant rain forests of the Philippines, the other East Indies,
and the neighboring mainland. The different trees of this order by the variety dt
their woods, varying from those resembling our soft pine to the heaviest and hardest
cabinet woods, are suitable to almost every conceivable use. Several are gregarious
and form more or less pure forests, as for instance the eng (Dipteroearpus tuhercuIatuM)
of Burma, the hora (D. zeylanicus) of Ceylon, also Vatica obseura and F. rtxdmr^iiiana
of Ceylon. Other forests are dominated by members of this natural order. Thus, in
the moister forests of Ceylon there are portions composed almost entirely of different
species of DoorWy freely mixed with Dipterocarptuty Shorea, Stemonoporus, Hopea^ and
along rocky gullies Valeria . In the Philippines 70 per cent of the total stand of timber
is said to consist of trees of this family. Economically, therefore, this natund cftnder
is a very important one, for besides its major timber products it yields many valuable
minor products, as camphor froni Dryabalanops aromaUcaj gum resin and ^JAfntnar
from several species of Shorea, Doona, and DipterocarpuSy and so on. The tribe d
the bamboos also finds in these wet tropical forests its greatest development.
Besides the above there are many species of value both in the East Indies and on the
mainland, in Africa, and tropical Australia and Queensland. This region, not to
mention the resources of tropical America, affcods oppc^unity for almost infinite
selection for introduction by which to repair any deficiencies in commercial qualities
of the Porto Rican tree flora.
Dry Deciduous Forests.
The dry deciduous formation known in others of the West Indies
and in Central America and Mexico as chaparral was in pre-Colum-
bian times the second most extensive. Typically a formation of the
semiarid region, it dominated the south coast lands, foothills, plains,
and lower slopes of the central moimtains from Patillas to Hormin-
Digitized by
Google
rail'
Bui. 354, U. S. Dept of Agriculturo.
Plate V.
i
■^
■
1
M
'
J
1
1
1
t^
ijlii
tm
^ ^^ ,.^^
3
FiQ. 1 .—South Slopes of Luquillo Mountains.
Cleared almost to the sammit ** La Florida," the fruit farm In the 'foregrotmd. is In the
soatheast comer of the Forest on the Rio Blanco. The elevation here is abont 100 leet while
the peak In the background, scarcely 2 miles distant, is 8,000 feet above sea level.
■Hb^^-J^
*" F-I«769A
FiQ. 2.— Luquillo Mountains from the North.
Valley of Rio Maneyes in foreground. El Yunque, elevation 8,483 feet, at the right Smoke
in the middle ground probably from the burning of cane refuse after the harvest.
LOQUILLO NATIONAL FORES¥.
zea Dy ^
But. 354, U. S. Oept. of Agriculture.
Plate VI.
F-tffTMA
FiQ. 1 .—The Wooded Summit of El Yunque, from Las Piedras, a Rock Bald
Close to the Summit.
Note the sierra palms mixed groupwise in the hardwood stand.
FiQ. 2.— View to the East from El Yunque, Showing the Outline of the East
Coast from Cape San Juan Southward.
The rreater part of the forested tract in the foreground belongs to the insnlar gOTemmeni
Note the smoke in the right center from a charcoal pit or oonnoo clearing, doubUeas.
LUQUILLO NATIONAL FOREST.
uigiTized by VjOOQ IC
FOBESTS OF POETO MOO. ^3
gueros (not far from one-fourth the area of the island), as well as
Vieques, Culebra, Mona, and the other outlying islands. It still
occupies to a lai^e extent the thin-boiled, rugged limestone hills, and
has extended itself on the poorer soils of the north coast, principally
t the expense of thft dry tidaJ woodlands and moist deciduous forests
of the limestone formation. In both situations, however, its compo-
sition is somewhat modified through the persistence of some of the
more tenacious species of the formations displaced. On the deeper
soils of the more gentle slopes and plains of the south coast country
back from the streams the dry deciduous foredt has in large meas-
ure been displaced by agriculture — nomadic agriculture originally
which burned and destroyed the forests and planted on their ashes.
This land once ^leared and then abandoned reverts to a forest growth
with extreme difficulty, if at all. The open grass-covered savanna
is the general result, with but here and there a tree where a particu-
larly large individual escaped destruction or local conditions favored
its getting a start and enabled it to compete with the turf. A tran-
sitional form of forest which might be called the "savanna forest"
may occasionally be met with where the open savanna and the true
forest join. Here the most harcjy and drought-resisting varieties of
trees form open stands in the grassy waste.
Although thp dry deciduous forests vary from the closed chaparral
form to that of the open savanna, they have certain well-defined
characteristics. They are more or less leafless during the several
months of the dry season and have a generally brown and parched
appearance, evergreen trees such as the pajuil (86) being rare. Grass
and other herbaceous growth imder and between the trees is almost
always present. Lianas are small and slender and absent entirely
from the more open parts of the formation. TiUandsia (Spanish
moss) festoons many of the trees and is the most conspicuous and
most common among the epiphytes, here known collectively as
pifiuelas. There are a few other bromeliads and an occasional orchid.
Exceedingly characteristic also of the formation are the pitajaya
(120) and tima (120), the tree cactuses and opuntias.
Hie trees themselves, rarely over 30 feet high, are short and thick-
bodied, have a thick, fissured bark and a light, open, feathery crown
whidi in the open is very apt to be flat-topped and imibrella-shaped,
or to have its branches and foliage arranged in tiers. Leguminous
trees witii thorny branches and fine, usually firm-textured compound
leaves, are particularly characteristic. Among the more common of
these are guava (36), guama (37)^ tachuelo (54)^ cobana negra (44),
algarrobo (45), campeche (60), moca (58), and many others. The
wood of many of these trees is extremely heavy, hard, and durable.
2187r— BuU. 354—16 8
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
34 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPABTMENT OP AGMCULTUBE.
Among nonleguminous trees are guayacan (60), jobo (87), almacigo
(70), tea (64), guano (107), near (126), quebra hacha (94), and a host
of others. The ceiba (105) is a conspicuous tree of the open savanna.^
Old Fibld Growth.
The old field type is an incidental and temporary one, in many
places in a formative state. It varies considerably from place to
place, the designation having been selected for all situations where
there is a manifest tendency of land formerly cultivated and now
more or less covered with grass to revert to forest. This tendency
is at present general except on some dry south coast situations. The
palm-studded hills most strikingly display this effort of nature to
restore the balance. Palms, through their ability to grow in dry
situations, are to that extent admirably adapted to assumo this
pioneer r61e. Their poor reproductive capacity, with the possible
exception of the palma de sierra, renders them less aggressive than
they otherwise might be. Another conspicuous old field pioneer
growth is the poma rosa (133). The'^pomarosa" type is very con-
spicuously developed on the uplands between Cayey and Guayama
and in the vicinity of Aibonito. Natural reforestation even by this
apparently more aggressive tree is slow^. This may be due in part
to a practice of successive clearings rotating this volimteer wood
growth with intermittent cropping to rice, beans, and the like. . Cut-
ting for charcoal and for other uses also undoubtedly interferes.
CuM-tJKAL Forests.
A description of the forests of Porto Rico would be incomplete
without mention of its cultural forests. They not only cover a con-
siderable acreage and are uniformly developed and kept up, but they
are the most conspicuous forest growth on the island taken as a
whole.
COCONUT PALM GROVES.
The palma de coco (4), or simply coco, is of imcertain origin,' but,
however that may be, it has by one means or another been distributed
1 One especially notable tree of this species near Ponoe measures, aooording to Cook and GoUins, 30 1
(118 feet) in tircumference 4 feet from the ground, following the sinuosities of tlie tnmk. Herrers says of
the ceiba that it "has so great a shade that a strong man can not throw a stone across it. The tr«e Is so
big that a cari)enter whose name was Pantaleo made a chapel of one hollowed out, being so tiiiek tiM4
15 men holding hand in hand can not grasp it. *'
s Cook ("The Origin and Distribution of the Coconnt Patan,'' by O. F. Cook, OmtribiitioDS from tlie
National Herbarium, Vol. VII, No. 2) scouts the currently accepted qptaiion that this qwciee originated in
the Indian Archipelago and concludes: "The original habitat of the coco palm is to be sought In South
America, the home of all the other species of cocos and of most of the closely related genera. " He likewise
controverts the common notion that the coconut originated as a strand plant, that the thick husk Is an
adaptation to enable the dispersal of seed by ocean currents, and that even the seeds thus transported have
the ability to germhiate and maintain themselves in competition with the other strand vegetatioQ. " Tbs
coco pahn," he says, "is unable to maintain an existence when sol^leeted to the oompetitkii of the wild
vegetation of tropical shores and forests." And, finally, " the idea (that they can not thrive in undlstarfoed
nature) is recognized in the Cingalese proverb, ' The coconut will not grow out of thesoond of the sea or of
human voices/ and hi the belief held among the same people that the trees will not thrive tmlesB ' ^ WBlk
and talk amongst them.' '*
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
POEESTS OF POBTO MCO. 35
widely throu^out the maritime regions of the Tropics. How long
it has been cultivated can only be surmised, but sufficiently long at
any rate for the development of many varieties. These varietal
forms are mostly f oimd in the islands of the Indian Ocean and the
Malay region, little attention having been given to improvement by
selection in tropical America.
These groves line the shore in many places and, when well cared for,
are a profitable source of income. As yet the nut is the only product
exported from the island.^ There were, according to the 1912 tax
assessment list, 6,556 acres of land imder coconuts, having a total
value of $663,710, and an average value per acre of $101.24 (maxi-
mum $269.45 in Anasco and minimum $24 in Comerio).
THE COFFEE FORESTS.
Coffee will grow, without difficulty at sea level, but it thrives best
in the upland district above 2,000 feet elevation. Because of this
adaptability to soil and climatic conditions more or less imf avorable
to crops requiring clean cultivation, its extension throughout the
uplands of the interior was readily accomplished. Whether or not
the coffee bush was ever cultivated in the open here, as in Brazil, it
is now considered necessary to grow it under shade.' While areas
of virgin forest wero available these were used for coffee culture, the
overwood being thinned and the underwood cleaned out and replaced
by the coffee tree. In the absence of a natural forest growth the
leguminous trees guava (36) and guama (37), and to a less extent
bucare (59), are planted instead. The shade trees and coffee bush
are planted at the same time, the former by their naturally rapid
growth reaching a size to afford the requisite protection by the time
the coffee tree comes into bearing.
The coffee forests are of interest from the forestry stahdpoint
chiefly because of the protection which they afford to the steep
mountain slopes, although, on account of the relatively thin cover
and the small amoimt of cultivation they get, a certain amount of
soil erosion necessarily occurs.
- CACAO PLANTATIONS.
Practically no cacao is now cultivated commercially, although
formerly it was to a limited extent. It is a semif orest crop growing
> The cooonat yields In addition "coir," a fiber obtained from the liosks and used in the manufacture of
eoidage and for many otlier porpoeos; "copra/' the dried meat of the nut, which when pressed yields
eocooot oil-and a ''cake'' ; besides the various uses of the wood. (See Appendix 1, under " Coco.")
*The advantages which may be attributable to the shading of the coffee, particularly when leguminous
trees are oeed f6r this purpose, are as follows: The trees hold the soil in place, at the same time protecting
the waperfkclal roots of the coftee tree, require little care or replanthig, discourage by their shade the growth
of weeds, dhnJninh the eost of cultivation, and lessen the bad effects of drought, act beneficially in breaking
the force of the strong trade winds and of the i>elttng of the torrential rahi, and enrich the soU. The actual
ibade Itaelfy however, is said to be onneoesaary and even prejudicial. The use of leguminous shade trees
iiirid to be a remnant of a prehistoric agricultural practice employed in the cultivation of both cacao (choco-
lite) nd cooft (cocaine) by the natives of (Central and Sooth America before the advent of Europeans and
bitill lo favor anung them.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
36 • BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPABTMENT OP AGMCULTUBE.
under a forest-tree shade, like coffee, but, unlike coffee, it does best
in the low country at elevations below 500 feet. It is diiefly of
interest here as offering a suitable means of restoring a forest cover
and providing an agricultural crop on some of the less fertile cane
lands,^ where a forest cover is particularly desirable because of its
influence on bird life so necessary to the control of insect pests.
FOREST D^FLUENCBS^s
Forests make their presence felt through their influence on climate,
on stream flow, and on soil erosion. In a coimtry as abundantly
watered as is Porto Rico whether the forests cause slightly more rain
in the aggregate matters little. Within the forests, particularly those
in the mountainous interior, the temperature of the air is appreciably
milder and the humidity relatively higher than in the open. One
effect of this may be observed in the formation dilring the dry season
of clouds above the forests of El Yunque and vicinity, when none
exist elsewhere. These rapidly disappear as they pass on to the
westward and come in contact with the columns of heated air rising
from the open slopes and cultivated valleys toward Juncos and
Caguas. The modifying influence is likewise manifested in the cool
air which descends after simdown into the open cultivated valleys
from the wooded slopes of the coffee district.
The most important influence vof the forests is in the checking of
floods and erosion, though the conditions in Porto Rico are such as
to make control of floods by f orestation alone impossible. Through-
out a greater part of the year the forest soils, except those of the
limestone hills, are nearly, if not quite, saturated with moisture.
Steep slopes and rain in the form of brief but torrential downpours
are the rule and complete a combination favorable to most rapid
run-off. These make it necessary to supplement forestation by a
I Cacao ondoubtedly oould be grown as profitably in Porto Rico as in Qranada (British West IndiK),
where conditions of configuration, rainfoU, soil, trade winds, etc., are very similar and where an erea gnUar
density of population prevails. According to a '' Report on the Economic Resources of the West Indte"
(by Daniel Morris, assistant dirtactor Royal Gardens Kew, in Kew Bulletin of MJsoeUaneoas Infonnatian,
Additional Series 1, 1898) cacao was first planted in Granada on mountain lands as it formerly was in Porto
Rico, the lowlands being entirely in sugar estates. But later it-was tried on the lowlands and found to
rival sugar in productiveness. In 1895 Granada was said to be the only West Indian colony of Great Britiii
that was independent of sugar. An especial feature of the cultivation of cacao is that it can be railed te
advantage on small holdings. ^
> Of more than passing interest in this connection are the following observations by CoL Fllntcr (w»
Bibliography), written in 1834: "The government has most wisely ordered that three trees should be
planted for every one cut down. It is to be hoped that this order may be rigorously enforced; for, in Qm
first place, wood is the great and principal agent in the atmosphere for the attracti<Hi of the doads, * * *
If these laws on this head are carried into force by the local miagistrates the island will atwaysliave on it n
inexhaustible source of tipiber; but if, on the contrary, these useful precepts are not followed, water will
become scarce; the rivers will dry up; the fields will become scorched savannas for want of moisture; tb»
cattle will find neither food nor shade from the noonday sun; and this beautiful and fertile island wfllat
once be deprived of its enchanting verdure, its fertility, and itsriches. This is not the dream of ImeglnitiflB
or the ridiculous prognostication of ideal ills. I am aware that this can not happen befcre the exptrstkB
of a century; but Hit the duty of govemmenu and individuaU I o look forward to posUritf. It i$ their Hif, if
wise and prudent meaturet, to foresee and prevent at the present day the ilU which may be infUeUd om futmrt
generatioru 6y undue eontideratUme or conceetions of temporary irUerate." (ItaUoiiing is the author^)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BuL 354. U. S. 0*pt of Agricultur*.
Plate VII.
CO
111
cc
o
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 354. U. S. Oej>t. of Africultura.
Plate VIII.
Digiti
zed by Google
F0BE8T8 OF POBTO MOO. 37
succession of reservoirs and a cleaning up of the channels if any
noticeable reduction of the eroding effects of floods is to be had.
Forests aid in conserving the water in the soil. The trees both aid
the water in getting into the soil and then help the soil to hold on to
it. In the first place, the trees break the beating force of the rain,
which in the Troj>ics is considerable, and thus help to keep the surface
layers of the forest soil from being beaten down and rendered compact
and impervious like the soil in the open. Then the roots of the trees
make the soil more open and accessible to percolating water. The
roots and such ground cover and litter as there are impede the progress
of surface run-off and afford the soil more time to absorb the water.
With more water getting into the forest soil than in grassland soil,
both being of a retentive character, there will be more water to find
its way to springs and be gradually poured out into the rivers to
sustain them during the periods of little rain.
The forest influences erosion in two ways: By reducing the force
and interrupting the passage of the surface run-off in the catchment
areas aroimd the headwaters of the streams it slows up the washing
away of the surface layers of the soil and greatly impedes gullying.
At the same time the ability of the run-off to transport eroded ma-
terial is very considerably lessened. A grass cover, if it forms a firm,
well-knit sod, is also quite effective in resisting the erosive action of
surface run-off. When, however, the grass grows in bimches and is
interspersed with patches of bare ^oimd or with tender, succulent
herbage that dies out in dry weather, leaving the soil exposed, erosion
and run-off is little affected. This is often the condition on the
upper and drier slopes on the south side of the island. That these
open slopes are not scored more deeply than they are is imdoubtedly
due in large measure to the tena^^ty of the soil.
It is when the run-off is g ..ered into the streams of the island
and reaches the foothills cowol*^ j, where the character of the soil
changes from the heav^ iays of the interior to the lighter and^ more
readily eroded coast soils, that the greatest damage is done. The
rivers are generally too short to choke up and overflow, as would
otherwise more frequently happen. Yet they are continually
widening and shifting their channels, cutting off islands from adjoin-
ing fields, and imdemuning their banks. Frequently it is not so
much the water that creates the havoc as the material which it picks
up and transports. Besides the finer soil particles and gravel, large
bowlders are dislodged and rolled along with great destructive force.
Thus the volimie of water which comes from the hUls may in the
course of its passage to the sea be doubled by the material trans-
ported by it or dimiped into it from caving banks.
A fringe of forest growth along the banks will materially lessen the
liability to this kind of erosion. Certain of the bamboos are par-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
38 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGMCULTUBE.
ticularly siiitable for this purpose and formerly were plentiful along
the water courses in Porto Rico. But since sugar cane has become
the all-important crop in the lowlands, the bamboo has been sacrificed
to secure a few more feet of land or because it shaded the cane planted
near the edge of the field. The folly of this procedure can be seen
in places where the extra feet of cane rows thus secured at the sacrifice
of bamboo and several more with them have been subsequently
undermined by flood and dumped into the river.^
The close relation of forests to stream flow and erosion is not
difficult to observe in Porto Rico. Compare, for instance, the lower
reaches of the north coast rivers, particularly those rising in the coffee
district or the Luquillo, with the south coast rivers, as, for instance,
the Portugues. The former have relatively few abandoned channel
beds and less spreading stream bottoms, are obstructed only by sandy
or gravelly bars and relatively small bowlders, and show a reasonable
flow of water even in the dry months. The Portugues and other south-
side rivers, which are largely fed by the rains falling on the steep
grass slopes of the Cordillera Central, have wide, dry bottoms showing
often no less than six different channels separated by low islands, and
many shoals, remnants of a former river bank. The bowlders, which
are everywhere strewn about, are several times the size of those in
the north coast rivers, the banks are often steep and imdermined, and
the stream is of almost inconceivable insignificance on the midst of
surroimdings indicative of such destructive power. The many
streams and waterfalls in the heart of the interior flow from the wooded
slopes (even when swollen by heavy rains) practically clear, carrying
but little sediment; on the other hand, the waters of the south coast
embayments at the mouths of the rivers are red-brown in the flood
season with the soil brought down by the rushing torrents.
Many examples might be found in the Tropics of serious injury resulting from
destruction of the forest or of benefits following its restoration. Owing to refOTestatioDS
effected on a large scale, the rainfall on the island of St. Helena has actuaUy been
doubled educe the time of Napoleon I ; and in Lower Egypt, where in the eighteenth cen-
tury rain only fell on from 10 to 12 days in the year, the number of rainy days nowadays
reaches from 30 to 40. On the other hand, in Syria and Palestine there are numerous
r^ons which were formerly in a flourishing condition but have become arid and waste
in consequence of the destruction of forests." In the West Indies themselves, the
experiences of Martinique are particularly instructive. Here as early as 1843 the man-
1 The following, which bears closely on this situation, is quoted from the 1907 report of Lorrin A.
Thurston, chairman of the committee on forestry of the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Assodatioii:
"In the past the subject of forestry has been largely treated by this association as an interesting inddttt,
but not as one of direct concern or of possible immediate benefit or profit to its members. WUkim twi
years I have heard of tree* bounding fields being cut out because the shade injured the adjoining cane.
" In all earnestness I urge upon the association that the time for this view of forestry and its possibilities
in Hawaii has passed, and that the preservation, propagation, and utilizing of forests and forest products
should from this time forth be made one of the leading features of the efforts of the planters' assodadfon,
both by it as an organization and through the individuals and corporations which give it its strength."
(Italicizing is the author's.)
> General report by C. Capolletti, of the proceedings of the Navigation Congress at IfiUn in 1906.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Forests of poeto bic6. 3d
dkctore of diarcoal was recognized as the most serious single cause of the forest de-
straction which resulted in timber shortage, interruption and impairment of stream
fknr, soil wastage, damage to valuable, agricultural lands through erosion, and shortage
in the supply of water for power and other purposes. To remedy this situation the ex-
portation of charcoal was prohibited, and stringent measures were adopted to regulate
itB manufacture, sale, and distribution. Most important of all, however, a forestry
iBociation > was fom^ which is supported by the Government. It has not only made
I beignming in experimental reforestation, but is working through the schools, the
oekbiation of Arbor Day, and the distribution of forest-planting stock at cost to
aronae public interest in forestry.
Tlie subject of conserving the forests for their influence on the
water supply has not been without consideration in Porto Rico,
since there appears in the ''4aw of waters'' this very significant
language: '*The colonial secretary shall also direct that a study be
made of the portions of the basins and watersheds which it is advisable
to keep wooded in the interest of a control of the water supply." *
Like many another good piece of Spanish legislation, it remained legis-
lation to the end. It is still, however, a part of the laws of the realm
to-day and awaits as formerly official action. So much and more
should be undertaken without delay.
GOMMEBCIAL ASPBCT8.
In the larger commercial sense the forests of Porto Rico are
insignificant. Leaving out of consideration coconuts and coffee, there
is not a single article of export which is in any sense a forest product.
The foT^ts are, however, of tremendous importance as a source of
domestic wood supply.
Local Tdcbbb and Wood Sitpplt.
The estimated present resources of those forest lands capable of
yielding saw logs are placed at 96,442,500 cubic feet (1,165,000 cords).
Of this amount, however, there are only 4,592,500 cubic feet (27,-
500,000 feet, or 55,000 cords) of saw-log size, the great bulk being
chiefly suitable for fuel, small house logs, and piling, posts, and the
like. There are about 110,000 acres of such lands on which it is
believed the average yield will not exceed 876.7 cubic feet (10.5
cords) per acre, of which 41.7 cubic feet (0.5 cord) will be foimd suit-
able for saw logs. On another 333,000 acres, comprising small wood
and brush lands, including mangrove, the produce consists largely
of fuel, house piling, and other small materials, averaging scarcely
334 cubic feet (4 cords) per acre. This will add another 111,222,000
cubic feet (1,332,000 cords) to the general resources. The total
present supply is, therefore, 207,664,500 cubic feet (2,487,000 cords).
1 *'La Soctote Ifartiniqaaise des Amios des Arbres" was fbanded in November, 1909.
• Art. 50 of the Spanish law of June 13, 1879, which w&s extended over Porto Rico by Royal decree of
fM>. 5, 1886, and reenacted and amended by the Legialatlve Assembly of Porto Rloo, Mar. 12, 1903.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
40 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTOBE.
Stated in one lump sum it seems considerable, yet it is equivalent to
scarcely 185 cubic feet per capita — ^less than the annual per capita
consumption of the United Stat^ or Canada.
The value of this resource is $6,780,000, on the basis of 3 cents a
cubic foot for all material except timber, which is estimated at 15
cents. The value of any by-products and the far more important
soil protective value are, of course, left entirely out of accoimt.
The wood value alone, however, if invested at 5 per cent, would
yield in interest approximately $340,000. The expenditure through
an appropriation from the insular treasury of less than 6 per cent of
this latter amoimt, or about $20,000, for a forest service to protect
and improve the principal, would seem, therefore, to be a fully war-
ranted, sound, and businesslike policy.
LUHBBB AND TlHBER ImPOBTS.
Commercial expansion during the last few years has created a
heavy demand for building lumber, timbers, and the like, which,
because of the scarcity of suitable native woods, have been imported.
Naturally most of this material has come from the United States,
the Gulf ports more particularly.
Imports of forest products from the United States for the fiscal
year 1911 totaled $1,308,579, an increase of 225 per cent over those
of 1909. Besides this the United States supphed furniture and other
manufactures of wood amounting to $684,560. Foreign lumber,
timber, and manufactures to the amount of $131,623 were imported,
of which material worth $14,616 came through the United States.
The gross value from all sources was thus $2,124,762, of which lum-
ber, timber, etc., exclusive of naval stores or manufactures of wood,
amounted to $1,382,506.
The quantity of wood imported, exclusive of such products as
shingles, box shocks, etc., amounts to 9,120,872 cubic feet (54,616,000
feet b. m.), including 8,382,064 cubic feet (50,192,000 feet b. m.) in
lumber, acantling, and sawed timber from the United States, and
738,808 cubic feet (4,424,000 feet b. m.) from abroad. In addition,
there was imported from the United States 26,717 cubic feet in
hewed timber. Thus the grand total of wood imports amounted to
9,147,589 cubic feet, or about 8.2 cubic feet per capita.
Demands fob Wood.
The demands for wood products are about half for commercial
and half for domestic uses. Most of the commercial demands are
supplied by imports. The commercial demands supplied by native-
grown wood come chiefly from power development, which takes
3,633,336 cubic feet (43,513 cords) each year, equivalent to 3.25
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
FORESTS OF POBTO BIOO.
41
cubic feet per capita.^ The ra^w materiak for the manuf aoture of
fanuture and novelties, native carts, ox yokes, and the like, also
raflioad ties, for narrow-gauge roads principally, posts and heavy
s^ctural timbers, in the a^regate probably amount to less than
1 cubic foot per capita.
Probably not less than 11,180,000 cubic feet (133,892 cords),
equivalent to 10 cubic feet per capita, is consumed for domestic
purposes. This means that an average family of five persons con-
sumes only a little more than hall a cord of wood each year. The
demand for house piling, rafters, flooring, and the like is at the
present time inconsiderable — ^not more than 2 cubic feet per capita
(2,236,000 cubic feet) — ^because of the great scarcity of wood over
most of the island and the prevailing low standard of living, especially
among the rural population.
Hie various present demands for wood, aside from the manufac-
tures of wood, may thus be sunmiarized:
CSoracter of de-
Sooroe of supply and i
Per capita.
TotaL
CoonMrdaL.
DomuOc..,.
Imports, bufldJng material, etc
Local, fael only
Local, fuel «
House piUiigs, and poles, po^ts, etc.
Total
Net total, excluding imports
CuMcfeeL
8.25
laoo
2.00
CkbicUet.
9,147,580
3,633,336
11,180,000
2,236,000
23.45
15.25
26,106,925
17,0«0,336
Note.— The domestic demand is entirely an estimate; the commercial demand is based on the
tad eattoroB reports for 1910 and 1911, respectively.
The present status of the supply and demand is graphically repre-
sented in figure 7, which shows that the present per capita supply,
at the rate it is now being consumed, will be exhausted in about 12
years. Yet at the present rate of production it will require more
than 45 years to produce a similar supply, or nearly four times as
iMamifactures, Porto Rico; BuUetin of the Thirteenth Census, 1910: "Closely related to the question
ofUxhd of power employed is that of the fuel used in generating this power. * * * Porto Rico has no
mineral fuel, and its wood supply is being depleted as manuiiactures increase. The foUowing table shows
the quantity of each Idnd of fuel used in 1909. *'
Industry.
Anthra-
cite coal.
Bitumi-
nous coal.
Coke.
Wood.
Ofl,
includ-
others.
AU industries ;.
946
Tom.
41,988
Tont. ^
368
Cords,
43,513
Barrels.
1,086
Torw.
520
BrfMl and other bAkenr products
6
128
200
6
234
13,444
2,846
737
19,656
76
33
OrfllM claanhis ^nd polishing
1,293
2,712
31,808
790
5,385
IJqnfirff 4.br^\^^.. ' "
^m' anil hiaHimim.
365
17
546
^ 275
TwSmw nuunifliictnrAit , , , ^ , , - , —
J^" fl^lMT indnstri««. .
613
128
6,830
245
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
42
BULLETIN 364, U. S. DEPABTMENT OP AGRICULTUBE.
long to produce as to consume it. New growtii, however, during
the period will extend the supply to slightly more than 16 years.
It is, however, not to be expected that the island will be denuded of
all woods at the end of this period. Experience teaches us that what
actually happens in such cases is that consumption decreases as more
U..L4_j_ f . \ 4-.-1-1-
\ V-'X v I V / ^v ' J
\ \ \ /v^ • ^^^ X ^ ^
\X J<7fhYear \6fhY&ar^^ /
^ I
Fio. 7.— Per capita supply, production, and consumption of wood in Porto Rioo^showlng tberateatvhleh
present merchantable wood supply is being drawn on each year to meet domestic need, and the rale of
its replenishment through new growth. The large circle represents the present per capita wood supply
(185 cubic feet) exclusive of imports. The small drcle represents per capita tA wood production in om
year (4 cubic feet), and the dot and dash circles the corresponding production per decade. (Based on a
present annual growth of 10 cubic feet per acre per annum, equivalent to 4 cubic feet per oH^tta.)
and more people are unable to pay the advancing prices. In the
present instance it simply means a progressively increasing privation.
TREND OF FUTURE DEMANDS.
Education and the establishment of a more permanent form of
agriculture will inevitably raise the standard of living among the
lower classes and increase correspondingly the demands on the forests
for both building materials and fuel, and besides these is the
normally increasing demand occasioned by increased population.
Kerosene and denatured alcohol can not, at least for a long time,
Digitized by VjOOQIC
F0BE8TS OF POBTO RICO. 48
take the place of wood. The change would necessitate not only the
displacing of the customs of centuries, but an investment in stoves
and burners, which the average person can not afford. The domestic
per capita consumption of fuel can therefore be expected to rise from
year to year.
The sugar mills are now the largest commercial users of native
wood. Under present improved methods the refuse cane fiber, known
as '^bi^asse/' is biu-ned imder the boilers, which effects a considerable
wood saving. Some wood is still required to sustain this "bagasse"
fuel, but as one ** central" has already substituted crude oil for this
purpose with satisfactory results, it is possible that in time all the
larger mills at least may likewise adopt that fuel. It is thus probable
that the maximum demands on the native wood supply have been
reached by this industry. A gradual decline may consequently be
expected.
The bakeries are the second largest commercial consimiers of
wood, and they demand cordwood of r^ulation size. The possi-
bility of their changing to oil or other substitute fuel seems remote at
the present time. The business is conducted on a small scale, with
too limited a capital to justify such an outlay. The Army bakeries
also consume a relatively large amoimt of cordwood. Any inmie-
diate decrease in demands of these or other industries where wood is
largely used in the generation of power is thus hardly to be looked for.
BALANCmO 8UFPLT AND DEMAND.
Everything points to a sustained or an increased demand for wood.
Commercial expansion can and will be taken care of by an increased
volume of imports. But local and domestic needs accommodate
themselves less readily and less promptly to new sources of supply.
With production falling behind consumption, hardship and depriva-
tion must be the inevitable consequences. This condition promises
to grow more serious unless relief can be had through increased pro-
duction. Two ways are open to effect this — planting new forests and
improving the existing woodlands.
The restoration of a reasonable balance between cleared lands and
forests is necessary. One-half million acres under prime forest
growth will scarcely more than meet the situation. At present a
large part of the 443,000 acres of timber and brush land yields not
more than 10 cubic feet per acre a year, worth, at 3 cents per cubic
foot, about $135,000. The improvement of these and the planting
to new forest growth of 100,000 acres besides would provide approxi-
mately one-half acre of productive forest per capita, which is about
ibe TniniTniiTn required by a people to meet their own needs. A con-
servative estimate of the average annual growth to be expected on
such area under forest management would be 30 cubic feet per acre,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
44 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPABTMENT OP AGMCULTUEE.
worth in the aggregate approximately $490,000. Accordingly, to
neglect to adopt a constructive forest policy for the future will mean
the loss of a possible income from wood products of $355,000 per
anniun.
FOBEST INDUSTRIES.
Charcoaling.
One could hardly expect that with depleted forests there would be
many or very flourishing industries.' The charcoal industry is prob-
ably the leading forest industry of Porto Rico, as of many otiiw of
the West Indies. Charcoal is the fuel most generally used, particu-
larly for domestic purposes. It is the only fuel of the poorer classes
in the cities and is still in use to a great extent among the better
classes also. Generally speaking, the charcoal is of exceedingly poor
quality and small size. Some is scarcely larger than pea coal. Such
stuflF, the good and the bad indiscriminately, sells in San Juan for
as high as 25 cents a can.^ A sack holding about 2 bushels sells for
from $1 to $1.25.*
The manufacturing part of the industry is carried on in a crude
and haphazard way. All sizes of material, even to brushwood and
small limbs scarcely one-half inch thick, jtnd all kinds of wood are
fired in the same heap. Because of its crookedness the wood is cut
into short lengths — 4 to 6 inches. The kilns are of poor and crude
construction, and the fire control consequently is ineffective. Too
rapid combustion is thus apt to occur and great waste results through
the cooaplete consumption of part of the wood, or incomplete com-
bustion may leave some of the wood only partially carbonized, which
renders the product very variable in burning and heating qualities.
The sources of supply are numerous. Most of the material comes
from the clearing of land for agricultural use, but the mangrove
swamps and the south coast hills furnish considerable. In some
instances the charcoaling is done by contract with the bona-fide
owners of the land, especially of land being cleared for the cultivation
of sugar cane. In this case the large material is frequently cut and
sold at from $1 .50 to $2 a ton * to the " central." The charcoal op^a-
I The census (1910) reports 8 estabUshments classed as "lumber and timber products'' Indnstrles, havic^
a total personnel of 171—26 proprietors, 22 clerks, and 123 laborers. These industries represent aoomblned
capital of $113,392 and handle a product valued at 1268,719, of wbioh 100,301 is tbe ywiuib added by maao-
tactme.
* Since the advent of the automobile the 5-gaIlon gasoline containers have become very pkntiftil and
have been adapted to a variety of uses, one of which is as a unit of measure for the retaUing of charooftL
s A small amount of charcoal is brought in from Santo Domingo, but only one iast.anoe is kzMwn to the
writer of any being brought from the mainland. The sale of this, however, under adverse market ooodl-
tions yielded a slight profit and shows not only the high price of the native product but the possihiUty of
developing a successful and profitable competition with it.
* The wood is thrown loosely into the car and is of varying lengths and frequently crooked. Under tbesS
conditions a car having a capacity of 1,000 cubic feet weighed 22,548 pounds, or about 22| pounds per oAte
foot. Making an allowance for the condition of the wood in the c&r, 150 cubic feet seems a fair equlvatant
of a properly cut and stacked cord. On this basis a cord would wei£^ about 3,400 pounds.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 354. U. S. D«pt. of Agricultur*
Digiti
zed by Google
Bui. 354. U. S. Dept. of Aj^ricultura.
Plate X.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
FOBBSTB OF POBTO BICO. 45
tor may be given the material for clearing up the land or he may pay
the owner a stipulated amount per sack of charcoal yielded.
Often the charcoaling is not even done '^by your leave," since it is
an adjunct to ''conuco" farming. When the squatter finds a piece
of woodland which he wants to cultivate he may first cut such mate-
rial as is suitable and make charcoal from it, or a charcoal burner
may cut over a piece of land for charcoal without having an intention
of subsequent cultivation. The pubhc lands have by this process
been laigely despoiled of their forest growth.
Lumbering.
As an organized business limibering hardly exists at all. Probably
the nearest approach to it is in the Sierra de Luquillo, where a few
lumbermen or woodcutters are to be found. They own their own
implements and log on contract; that is to say, if any one wants a
piece of ausubo for an ox yoke or bull cart or any other special mate-
rial these men will go in and get it out for him. Their method of
lumbering is a very gradual process of culling. Having found a suit-
able tree, they fell it and cut it into logs of the desired length. The
log is squared with an adz, then a knob is fashioned at one end, to
which a rope may later be made fast to drag it out by. Finally the
log is placcKl on a rudely constructed scaffolding of poles erected on a
hillside and sawed by the world-old pit>«aw method. If they may be
skidded directly from the pit, the planks are not sawed through the
whole length of the log, but the log is left intact for a short distance
back from the knob end to facilitate handling. Otherwise each
plank is entirely severed from the log and carried out by hand to a
place accessible to oxen. There the septate planks are assembled
as they were in the log, a rope is made fast to the knob, and they are
skidded the rest of the way to their destination or to where they can
be loaded on a cart. The smaller logs and pole and post timbers are
skidded singly or sdmetimes several at a time.
Skidding is accomplished by oxen on slopes where such work seems
impossible. Grade appears to receive scant consideration, the skid-
ding trails in places descending straight down the slope. Frequently
these are hoUowed out, whether intentionally or by the wearing of
the logs is not evident, and stakes are driven at the side, where they
turn sharply around a shoulder or follow obliquely down the hillside.
After a time erosion supplements the wearing of the logs and the
trails become so deep in places that they have to be abandoned.
WOOD-WORKINO InDUSTBIBS.
With this system of Imnbering there is, of course, no need for
sawmills.^ What few mills there are — ^located principally in the
i FUnttr (966 Bibliography) reported one water sawmlU on the island In 1880 nearOamny.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
46 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DBPABTMBNT OF AGMCULTTTBE.
seaport cities, San Juan, Mayaguez, and Ponce — resaw American
lumber. Some of these carry a small stock of native logs which they
saw on order for special work.
One of the largest manufactories on the island, located near San
Juan, is devoted to the making of cigar boxes. The stock, cedro (71),
for this factory is entirely imported, in large measure if not wholly,
from Cuba. It comes in strips already cut to the proper thicknefls,
namely, { inch and ^ inch. The annual consiunption amounts to
about 2,000,000 superficial feet, or something less than 1,000,000 feet
b. m. A box of the size to hold 50 cigars contains about 1^ square
feet of material.
The trunk and match industries use considerable wood, but it is
all imported. Furniture and, other cabinet work and novelties, of
which very little is produced, are to a large extent the product of
hand labor. Native woods are almost exclusively used. The
furniture is very excellently made, and, though of a style some-
what different and considerably more ornate than our furniture, is
very attractive and pleasing. Itr especially brings out the beauties
of the native woods, which, though practically imknown to com-
merce, possess very desirable qualities of both grain and cobr.
The native furniture trade is imfortunately doomed to extinction,
because of its inability to meet the competition of cheap machine-made
furniture from the mainland.
POBEST PHODUCTS.
The forests of Porto Rico yield a large variety of gums, resins,
fibers, coloring and dyeing materials, edible fruits, and the like, hav-
ing a decided commercial value if systematically developed. Some
of these are well-known articles of commerce, as anatto, fustic, and
other coloring and dyeing materials. AJthough none are produced in
sufficient quantity for export, most of them are to be found on sale '
in the public markets. It is doubtful if the -vsarious products and
their still more varied uses have ever been completely catalogued.
Many of the more important uses are given in Appendix 1, whore,
however, the wood uses are the ones chiefly considered.
FOBEST PBOBLEMS.
Every acre of land best suited, either temporarily or for all time,
to forest production should be devoted to that use. Every acre of
land aroimd the headwaters and along the banks of the rivers on
which a forest cover would offer a protection superior to the present
cover against erosion and soil wastage shotdd be forested. All for-
ested lands and those to be forested should be so managed as to yield
a maximum of the products most needed by th^ local communities
and industries. The forestry program should also provide suitable
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
FORESTS OP POBTO BICO. 47
protection to the birds, live stock, and even man himself in the f orm^
respectively, of small groves at intervals throughout the cane and
tobacco districts, open cover in the pastures, and shade trees along
the roadsides. Of scarcely less importance than these phases of the
practice of forestry are painstaking investigations and a thorough
campaign of educational propaganda.
PLANTINa.
The planting of new forests is by far the most important, in point
of magnitude at least, of the forestry work to be done in Porto Rico.
Tree planting figured rather conspicuously in the early Spanish laws.
"Law First"* of **Laws of the Indies," which concerned the allot-
ment of lands to settlers, provided "two 'huebras' of land for
orchard, and eight for planting other trees," while **Law Eleventh"
promulgated by Emperor Charles in 1536, provided even more explic-
itly for the planting of ''willows and trees," so that in addition to other
purposes *'it be possible to use the timber (wood) which might be
necessary." As the Indies were generally well wooded, these laws,
it may reasonably be inferred, were merely Spanish laws devised to
meet conditions in Spain and more or less perfunctorily extended over
the new possessions. Certain it is that they were never given force or
effect in Porto Rico.
The need for reforesting the headwaters of the streams has already
been mentioned. In most cases, however, protection can be as well
supplied by the forests managed^from the standpoint of wood pro-
duction. It will not often be necessary to refrain from any cutting
whatever. A system of harvesting the wood crop which will expose
the soil on the steep slopes as little as possible to the imbroken force
of the Sim, wind, and rain, will usually be sufficient. For planting
work along the streams to prevent the banks from washing, it may be
necessary to adopt special material, such as bamboo. But with
proper care even tiiis cotdd be harvested without impairing its useful-
ness as a soil binder.
In planting for the production of a wood crop the first consideration
is, what products are most needed. Many would plant mahogany,
ebony, rosewood, and all the other valuable cabinet and dye woods
solely because they are valuable. Some time in the future it may be
good forestry to try producing these woods for export, but that time
will not come imtil the virgin supply of Santo Domingo and other
countries is much nearer exhaustion and the growth qualities of these
woods is much better known than now. In the meantime the home
market is urgently in need of attention; its requirements are known,
«id it can be profitably supphed. Those trees which will produce
fuel wood in the greatest abundance, the shortest time, and the most
1 See p. 9.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
48 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGBICULTURE.
suitable quality should unquestionably be the ones most extensivdy
planted. What the species are that will best fulfill those require-
ments is now imknown and must be determined by experiment and
investigation.* The discovery of the best varieties of woods for the
manufacture of charcoal is also of the utmost importance. ^
Second only to the need for fuel is that for an increased supply of
suitable woods for various native uses. At present the demand is
more or less irregular and specialized. Particular kinds of wood have
particular uses and there is practically no demand for wood for native
house construction except for underpinning, sills, and the like. Tie
advancement of civilization on the island vnll necessitate the improve-
ment of housing conditions in the interest of public health, sanitation,
and morahty; and universal education through the public schoob
wiD inevitably set up a standard and a demand which will not tolerate
present conditions. To meet this demand the properties of the vari-
ous woods vnll have to be closely studied and very likely the intro-
duction of some such species as the pine will be foimd desirable.
There is at least one native industry of large proportions that mi^t
possibly produce its own box material through the practice of for-
estry— the cigar industry. At present the cedro used by the Porto
Rican trade comes almost exclusively from the virgin forests of Cuba.
This wood is particularly prized for its Ughtness, clearness of grain,
and strong yet pleasant aromatic odor. It is, of course, largely
conjectural how far these properties would inhere in the wood of a
planted growth. The cedro (71) is a rapid grower under favorable
conditions of soil and climate.
Undoubtedly many trees could be planted which would yield
products of bark, leaf, or sap for use as the basis of new industries.'
The achiote might be set out on a steep hillside, several acres of it
together. The gathering of the seed coats and the extraction of their
coloring matter would fmnish light labor for a number of persons at
certain seasons of the year, if not the year round. Then there is the
1 One such species undoubtedly is the Acacia palida (41), stands of which, aooording to inveetig&tioDsof
the Philippine Bureau of Forestry, will yield over 13 cords per acre in 2 to 3 years. It is splendidly adapted
for the reforestation of grasslands wastes either as a permanent crop or as a pioneer and nurse crc^ for subse-
quent plantations of more valuable but less hardy and aggressive species. It may also be planted to advan-
tage on worn-out agricultmtil lands and, after one crop of firewood is harvested, the twigs and tops plowed
into the soil as a green manure. (The author is indebted to Mr. H. M. Curran, formerly of the PhfllppiDe
Bureau of Forestry, for calling his attention to the work done by that bureau and its published report
concerning this tree, entitled " IpU-Ipil— A Firewood and Reforestation Crop," by D . A. Matthews, Bnlktin
No. 13, Philippine Bureau of Forestry.)
* Dr. Seaman A. Knapp, in his " Report on Investigations of the Agricoltural Resources and CapabiUtks
of Porto Rico" (Senate Doc. 171, 56th Cong., 2d sess.), emphasises the need of new industries. He says:
« The early establishment of anumber of mhior Industries closely related to a^culture is of vital importaooe
to future prosperity. The object of such industries is to give profitable employment to the wives and
children of farm laborers, so that the earning ability of the home may be doubled, and in some oases qoad-
nxpled. * * * Manv philanthropic Porto Ricans suggested that the farm laborers on the coffee and
tobaoco plantations scattered upon the mountains * * * could never derive ^m full advantai^ of free
education « * * until they were gathered into small villages and became amenable to aodefiy."
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 354. U. S. Dept. of A^ricuKurt.
Plate XI.
T^:^
[I
k ' v.'J
f^
^^^X^^HHS
F'^^^V'.''*
m'::
p^r ^"^ --^r^wi' - '
i'fi^P'^'SK
whIvjI
T v^jpH^yi^ggjI^^fl
r
1
<
o
3
<
I
CJ
^
i
^H^^vCflLs^^
1
•c
82
is
g
X
"o
1
•S CO
1 5
D
o
o
flC
Q.
K
CO
tiJ
fiC
5 K
6 <
i 2
J. 3
^
CO
•o
U
s
I
M
J-
a>^
o
It
1-
1-
z
tlJ
§^
a.
BS
£
92
s
J ^^
ul
< neS
5
o
UJ q"
UJ<
J Is
z
1-
85«
>*
2
o
§1
o
ss.
^
il
o
Sg'
o
? I
Digiti
zed by Google
Bui. 354, U. S. D«pt. of Agrleuitur*.
Plate XII.
^^^^^^BF?^
.. lif^..
-:---.^
^^^^^^^^^H
P^
M
W^^^^t^^^^^^S^^fS^j^L
1
■^^
WmiO^^^^^^^^K/^3!^^''j^
F
^MpWB
w^^
^
s^
i^H
Fia 1 .—A Section of the Comerio-Barranquitas Road. EfiTiRELY Devoid of Shade
OF Any Kind.
Fia 2.— The Famous Military Road.
This stretch of roadway just outside of Cagxias is attractiyely shaded
by overarchiDg flamboyan.
IMPROVED ROADS.
Digiti
zed by Google
FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 49
emajagua^ which might he planted as a soil protector and yet he so
managed as to yield a regular amount of fiher and fagots each year.
The poma rosa could he made to furnish a continuous supply of hoop
mat^ial for haling tohacco, fruit hoxes, and the like, as well as fagots.
The growing and tapping of tahanuco for its ruinous sap likewise has
possibilities. These and many others, the hamhoos especially, are
worthy of careful study and consideration
While recognizing the larger and more purely economic aspects of
tree planting, it will not do to neglect esthetic and utilitarian con-
siderations. No country can aflFol-d to he ugly or to neglect the
comfort, both physical and mental, of its own or a visiting people.
The roads of the island, particularly those through the lowland
country, are usually hot and unattractive for lack of proper shade.
There are some notable exceptions to this, but their occurrence serves
rather to heighten the discomfort after they are passed. Such a one
is the avenue of flamboyan bordering the miUtary road between
Caguas and Cayey. The kind of tree is of nearly as much importance
as the fact that there are trees at all. Thus the almacigo and jobo,
to mention two of the most common, have little to recommend them
for roadside planting, except their ease of propagation and rapidity
of growth. In the open country, trees that are tall and carry their
branches high on a straight, clean trunk ofiFer httle obstruction to the
view or to the circulation of air, yet they protect the roadway during
the midday hours from the beating stm, and relieve the monotony of
cultivated fields and pastures.
Th^^ is much concern about the scarcity of bird life in the cane
country and the consequent prevalence of destructive insects. An
occasional grove of trees would help this situation by fmnishing the
birds a refuge and nesting place; yet what few patches of woodland
there are are constantly being cleaned up to get a few more square
feet in cane.*
Systematic tree planting could be carried on in the pastures, even
those which are actually utilized for grazing. There are several of
the leguminous trees the pods of which are very nutritious and very
1 Intliis eolmectlon the foUofwlog from a letter of th* U. S. Bl<dogical Surrey to tiie Boerd of Commis
sfooers of Agrioiltiiie pablished in its second annual report Is of interest:
''Id connection with the increase of island birds Mr. Wetmore suggests the great desirability of providing
them with more shelter than they now have. The grackles and yeUow-shouldered blackbirds, for Instanoe-
nest and roost In the pahns. Can not the individual owners of plantations be sufficiently interested in
Um matter to plant royal palms along the roads leading through the cane fields? The i^and kingbirds
tipftat to be very osefiil, and they , need small perches from which to watch for insects. Bamboo planted
along ^M streams and the drainage ditches would not only favor the three species mentioned above, but
▼onld also provide shelter from the sun for the green heron and the anis. For mocking birds, small brushy
anas are essential, but these need not be of any great size, and if hilltope tmflt for cane or other crops be
kit and not denuded of brush fliey will answer well the purpose.
""Ht. Wetmore further suggests that along the coast restrictions should be placed upon the total clearing
of areas of mangroves by the chareoal burners, and special care should be taken not to disturb the roolnries
of heraos-the snowy, little blue, and little green species.''
21871<>— BuU. 354—16 i
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
50 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DBPABTMENT OF AGMCULTUHE.
much sought after by stook. These trees, besides affording food and
shade for the cattle and naturally enriching the soil and improyiog
the grass crop, could be cut at intervals for fueL
Manaobmbnt.
The problems in forest management are those first of all which
concern the protection of the present forests, such as the regulation
of ''conuco" farming, charcoal burning, and wood trespass in gen-
eral, which alone will undoubtedly yield ample returns. Yet these
little more than open the way to the real problems. The need for
the improvement and conservative management of the mangrove
has already been referred to. The insular lands, too, and to a large
extent the privately owned lands which still remain forested, should
not only be kept so but should be improved under systematic man-
agement. The nature of such management will depend on a variety
of circumstances. Its fundamental purpose, howevCT, will.be to
favor the growth and reproduction of those trees best suited to the
needs which the particular forest is intended to serve. If the most
suitable species do not occur in the original growth, it will be neces-
sary to introduce one or more of them by planting; but careful inves-
tigation will usually discover among even those commonly thought
to be useless quahties of excellence undreamed of.
iNVBSnOATION.
In a country like Porto Rico, where so little is known about the
native trees, their habits and requirements, it would be folly to
ignore the needs for scientific study and research. The forest crop
grows and matures comparatively slowly, and it accordingly takes
several years for a mistake to become fully manifest. It thus wiD
not do to go ahead blindly and plant lai^e areas with htUe-known
species, to find later that they are not suitable. Provision for inves-
tigative work is therefore indispensable to the practice of forestry.
Education.
One can not expect those who all their Uves have been engaged in
wasting and destroying what has come to them without exertion to
see imaided the advantages of turning about and putting exertion
into its production. Educational work of a very thorough and
earnest sort is necessary to induce a people to support a tree-planting
or other forestry campaign because usually the benefits -are either
obscure and indh*ect or are obtainable only by a future generation.
There are many educational means by which forestry can be car^
ried to the people. The pubUc-school system is, of course, one of the
first and most effective means to be considered. Then the more ad-
vanced thinkers may be formed into forestry associations for dis-
cussion and propaganda, and others may be reached through popular
pubUcations, lectures, and the press.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
FOBESTS OF POETO BICO. §1
Already a considerable interest is manifested by different branches
of the insular government in improving forest conditions. Several of
the sugar companies are also interested in planting up waste lands
and in the open planting of leguminous trees in their bull pastures to
provide green forage, improve the grass crop, and furnish shade for
die stock. They are also planting for ornament about their groiuids,
along the roads, and bordering the cane fields.
INSULAB FOBEST POUCT.
It must be evident that a program which has for its fundamental
purpose the improvement of conditions affecting both directly and
indirectly the interests of a whole people can not be left to private
initiative. It must be undertaken and directed by the insular gov-
enmient itself. An efficient and well-equipped insular forest admin-
istration * should, therefore, be provided, and a forest policy be estab-
lished which would make effective the following work: A campaign of
education, investigative work in forestry, the care and management
of the most suitable parts of the insular domain as insular forests,
and cooperation with private individuals, municipahties, and others <
interested in the practice of forestry. The praRstice of forestry and
forest experimentation is a distinctly long-time operation. In
scarcely less than 10 years are any practical results forthcoming,
unless an experiment results in conclusive and disastrous failure.
Only when fuel wood or other small-sized material is the object of
production can any conclusive results be obtained even in 10 years.
For larger products 30 or more years will ordinarily be required.
The necessity for taking a long look in advance and tiie desirabihty
of fiiring by permanent legislation the organization and scope of the
work are thus apparent, stabihty, permanence, and continuity being
indispensable conditions.
In weighing the advisability of taking such a step, the conditions
and tendencies of the world supply of forest products can not be
overlooked. The time is not far distant when the countries which
produce the great bulk of the world's supply of the common economic
woods will cease to have any considerable amount of timber to
export. In anticipation of these conditions many of the producing
countries have seriously set about making definite provisions for
the future. If countries like the United States find it necessary to
undertake the organized practice of forestry as a measure of self-
protection, how much more necessary is it for Porto Rico to do so ?
The Philippines, too, maintain a technical forest organization, which
> PravkiQs ftttempts to provide a forest adminJstration were made in the Regalatioiis for the Payment
•f Fees to the Tedmical Personnel of Public Works, Mines, Forests, and Telegraphs of the Island of
Porto Rioo, issoed 1S79, which provided, among other things, for the ''inspection of forests for the forma-
tiea of plans lor their use." The Political Code for Porto Rico of 1902 (sec 134) provides for "a diief of
ieodi and forests ifhkhdian have charge of aUmatttcsiitatiiig to la^ Neither of th«M
Ifvi, hoirfw, yielded any tangible results*
Digiti
zed by Google
52 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE,
not only cares for their Vast resources, but is undertaking the reforest-
ing of the grassy wastes which have resulted from the same destruc-
tive agricultural practices that have devastated the Porto Rican
forests, *'conuco" cultivation. Hawaii for the last 10 years has
maintained an active forest organization which has given special
attention to watershed protection, and, although one-fourth of the
total land area is still forested and laCtgely permanently reserved
and carefully protected, has done much forest planting besides. In
fact, forest planting has been carried on by private enterprise m
Hawaii for nearly a generation.
There is no country of all of these more favorably situated than
Porto Rico to undertake the practice of forestry. Local market
conditions can hardly be equaled anywhere. The forest soils are
generally well isolated, and well and centrally located, and are thus
admirably adapted to serve easily and at a minimum of expense
the general needs of the surroimding population, at the same time
affording protection to the headwaters of the more than a thousand
streams of the island.
Needed Legislation.^ ^
•
Laws concerning the forests and trees are no new thing to Porto
Rico. Mention has previously been made of the early land laws,
which required tree planting as a condition of the grant; of the
**Law of Waters," providing for the study of the watersheds which
it was advisable to keep wooded; of the ^^regulations" of 1879
concerning pubUc works, which provided an apparently elaborate
forest administration intrusted with *'the inspection of forests for
the formation of plans for their use"; and lastly to the provision in
the PoUtical Code of 1902 for a ''chief of lands and forests." It is
not known that these various works and officials ever existed except
on paper, but certainly no tangible results from them have come
down to the present day.
More recently, by the act of March 9, 1911, the legislative assem-
bly created a Board of Commissioners of Agrictdture* which has
interested itself in forestry. The supervisory machinery is thus
already in existence and its. interest in the work already aroused.
1 A forestry lawwas drafted along the lines discussed In these pages for tnclnsfcm herein as an appendix.
It was, however, omitted as the bulletin was going to press and referred instead to the committee leeenUy
created by Joint resolution [J. R. No. 3, approved April 3, 1916] of the legislative assembly "for the stody
of the forestry needs of Porto Rioo." This committee is composed of the President of the Board of Oca-
missioners of Agriculture, the Commissioner of the Interior, the Commisskner ol Edoortibn, aad tke
Special Agent in Charge of the Porto Rico Agricultural Experiment Staticm at Mayagues.
s The president ex ofBcio is a head of department designated by the governor. Of the other six mwnhwi
one must be a member of the House of Delegates and be designated by the speaker, while each of the
commercial associations— Associacion de Puerto Rico, Associacion de Productores de Asocar, Assodadon
de Productores de Cafe, Associacion de Productores de Tabaco, and Assodadon de Productons de I
nominftte one of the five remaining commissioneis.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
FORESTS OF PORTO BICO. 63
It is now only necessary to have the designation and powers of the
board* ecstended to include the subject of forestry.
The law giving the board charge and direction of forestry work
should also provide the technical machinery for carrying it into
efifect. A provision of first importance is one creating the position
of insular forester and defining the qualifications for this office so as
to insure the work being developed under a forester not only of
liberal technical training but of practical experience as well. It is
abo essential to make theoffice strictly nonpoUtical. This can best
be done by setting a high standard of technical qualifications and
making the incumbent subject to removal only upon his failure to
measure up to the standard set or because of improper conduct.
The position would thus come virtually under the classified civil
service, as is the case in the Federal Forest Servic^. The insular for-
ester wotdd have immediate charge, direction, and control of all for-
estry matters, subject to the supervision and approval of the board.
Much requires to be done in a scientific way to learn the distribu-
tion, properties, and habits of the various trees suitable for forest
planting and management. It would therefore be advisable to pro-
vide for the establishment of a forest experiment station. Here, in
addition to other work, forest tree nurseries could be maintained
and experimental tree planting done. In connection with such a
station an arboretum might be developed where all the different
trees of the island could be set out. Such an experimental garden
would be of inmiense educational value. The data and experience
of the station staff should be made available to the pubUc through
publications and lectures and cooperation with landowners in
carrying on forestry work.
The instdar government has at different places scattered over the
islaQd tracts of vacant land, much of which is now idle and improduc-
tive, and generally located in out-of-the-way places. Some of it
will always be most profitably utilized for growing timber. It would
accordingly be extremely desirable to have all of these tracts carefully
examined T^th the view to determining their adaptabiUty to forest
or agricultural use. As much as is imquestionably best suited to the
growth of a forest cover or is not now available for other uses could
very profitably be reserved for demonstration and experiment,
permanently or otherwise as circumstances might warrant. Lands
80 reserved might very properly be constituted Insular Forests, and
the power to set them aside by proclamation be reposed in the
governor. After their creation they ought to be subject to the
exclusive control of the insular forest service, which would have
I An amendment woold also be desirable prorfding for a longer term for each of the five commissioners
nominated by the different associatians, the terms to be so arranged that not more than two would expire
in mj one year. This would insure a greater stability and continuity in the controlling policy and pro-
yUiakog aioogh term to make It worth whUe for a member to iamfliarlEe himself with the work of the
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
54 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGBIOULTtJttB.
the right to make and enforce all necessary mles and r^ulations
for their protection and management, and to sell or lease under
limited permit any products or uses.
In justice to a municipality in which an insular forest might be
located, provision ought to be made that it receive a certain per-
centage of any revenue of such forest as recompense for loss in
taxable income caused by the presence of tax-free government land.
This method has been adopted by the Federal (jovemment in
reimbursing States on account of National Forests. A second method
which aims to accomplish the same purpose and is now in effect in
some of the States is for the State to pay to the county or town in
which a State forest may be located a fixed sum annually, generally
from 1 to 4 cents an acre, in place of taxes exempted from these lands.
Dming the first .few years the work of the insular forest service
would yield only such revenue as could be realized from the sale of
seeds or seedUngs which it seemed desirable to the board to dispose oi
After the organization of the insular forests there would be some
revenue from leases and other special uses, and later on a regular
income from the mature timber. During the formative period, at
least, it would be extremely desirable to cover into the insular
treasury all revenues from forestry sources, to be constftuted a
special fund available for expenditure for any forestry purpose.
It is desirable to make the law as comprehensive as possible at
the outset in order to outline in advance the full scope and significance
of the work. The initial annual appropriations need, however,
provide for only the few essentials required to get the work under way.
An appropriation of $5,000 should be sufficient to cover the salary
of the forester, his necessary field and office expenses, and the hire (rf
any assistants he may need for niursery and investigative woriL
When it comes to establishing the experiment station, a special
building and equipment fimd of $10,000 will be necessary and an
additional maintenance fimd of $3,000 annually.
There are other considerations than those concerned strictly
with forestry which merit legislative attention. The regulation <rf
the indiscriminate and nomadic cropping of ground provisions and
the equally indiscriminate practice of charcoal burning are of first
importance. The most permanent and logical means are educati(Hi
and the definite establishment of land titles. A cadastral survey
of the island has been repeatedly urged by the principal government
officials, both present and past, who have come in contact with the
land situation in any of its phases. The difficulties in levying taxes
and in knowing what are and what are not government lands have
already been mentioned. The further difficulty, and the one with
which we are particularly concerned here, is the enforcing of ib»
pohce powers against unlawful trespass on both public and private
property. It is obvious that it must be known with certainty wi»
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
POBESTS OF POBTO BICO. 55
owns land before it becomes possible to enforce trespass laws with
anj d^ree of assurance. The establishment of the botmds of each
man's lawful property by siurvey would remove this present difficulty
and many others.
A temporary expedient to meet the "oonuco" and the charcoal
situation is to require a license. In the case of the '^conuco'' it
would only be possible to carry out a definite plan of licenses or
pennits with respect to the public lands. In the case of charcoal
burning the method of regulation employed in Martinique offers a
favorable means of control. This law* provides in brief that before
a man can manufacture any charcoal he shall declare his intention
at the mayor's office and state also where he is to make it and in what
quantity. The vendor of charcoal other than the manufacturer
must also have a license. To secure such license the vendor must
present a certificate from the mayor showing that the manufacturer
has complied with the requirements of manufacture. Parties trans-
porting charcoal for their own use or that of another must have a
certificate from the police or mayor giving the residence of the person
from whom it was bought, his license number, and the nimiber and
residence of the buyer. Retailers are prohibited from buying their
supplies in other than the regular markets of the island, and appro-
priate penalties are provided for violating any of these provisions.
Sadi a law as this properly enforced in Porto Rico would go a long
way toward preventing indiscriminate charcoal burning.
THE LDQUnXO NATIONAL FOREST.
Upon the transfer of the island to American sovereignty the Span-
ish Crown lands in the Sierra de Luquillo ' became the property of
the Federal Government. Originally supposed to aggregate some
40,000 acres ' and to embrace a considerable amoimt of practically
virgin forest land which was rapidly being cut and destroyed, these
lands were constituted the Luquillo Forest Reserve (now National
Forest), by presidential proclamation January 17, 1903.* Rec^itly
completed surveys covering all but a small part of the central moun-
tain areK, however, indicate a reduction in acreage to not over 15,000
acres, including probably the entire ** hurricane hardwood" type.
Thus the timber producing possibilities of a considerable portion of
the area are not very promising, judging from present knowledge of
c(»iditions. Nevertheless, for the present at least, these lands will
be retained in public ownership and whatever forest growth there
may be on them will be protected.
> A dfBBSt of this law has been lefeimd to the oommlttee mentioned In the note, p. 52.
* For foiest deflcrlptkm of this region see p. 81.
* Based on offidal records in the ardilves of the Diyislan of PuhUo Lands, Department of the Interior,
PortoRleo.
* The reeommflDdation that this be done was made by Dr. Walter H. Evans, Chief of Division of Jnsniar
BtatSoos, States Relations Service, U. 8. Department of Agricoltore, while the exploratory survey upon
which the boondary prodamation was based was made by Mr. O. W. Barrett, at that time Botanist of the
Porto BIco AgriooltQial Experiment Station.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
APPENDIX I.
TREES OF PORTO RICO.
By W. D. Brush, Scientific Assistant^ and Louis S. Mubpht, Forest Examiner, Feral
Service; and C. D. IdELLy formerly A$9iitant Dendrologist, Forest Service.
INTRODUCTORY NOTE.
Much has been published concerning the flora of Porto Rico, yet little of it is avail-
able for general use, particularly concerning the trees. Hill in Ids bulletin on the For-
ests of Porto Rico (Bui. 26, Forest Service) listed some 60 different kinds of trees, and
the woods of 15 of these were described by Sudworth. The work of Gifford and Bar-
rett (Bui. 54, Forest Service, "The Luquillo Forest Reserve, Porto Rico") has already
been referred to.
As to arrangement and nomenclature particularly, the principal reliance in preparing
this present compilation has been Ignatius Urban's Symbolse Antillante Seu Funda-
menta Florse Indite Occidentalis. Scientific equivalents have been given only in
cases where they appear to be in well-established popular usage, as, for example, Rof-
stonia borinqueTia for Oreodoxa caribaea.
Acknowledgment is also due to the authors of the above-mentioned Forest Service
bulletins, Cook and Collins (Economic Plants of Porto Rico), W. Harris (The Timbcra
of Jamaica), John T. Rae (West Indian Timbers), and numerous other authorities for
descriptive data concerning the uses of the wood and other products of the trees listed.
Special acknowledgment is due to Miss J. S. Peyton for painstaking work in the prepa-
ration of the index and comparing the spelling of both common and scientific names
in the final copy of the manuscript with the original authorities.
The microscopic descriptions of wood structure of the species marked with an
asterisk, thus (*8. Chlorophora tinctaria) are based on examination by Messrs. Mell and
Brush of wood samples in the Forest Service wood collection.
It has been the intention of the authors to include all erect woody plants which
attain a height of 15 feet or over, including the tree cactuses and opuntias. The
heights and diameters, it should be remembered, represent the extreme sizes whidi
the species have been reported to attain, and are thus often considerably larger than
those commonly met with. For convenience in reading, the technical wood
descriptions, the less important species, and all but the most common exotic spe-
cies have been subordinated to the general text little-known species and sx>ecie8
and genera of very minor importance have been combined where possible and sub-
ordinated into notes, yet for completeness have been included.
Following is a synopsis showing the families represented, 57 in all, and the number
of genera and species in each family. The genera total 172 and the species 292:
Famfly.
Oenera.
Spedes.
Pamfly.
Genera.
Species.
Famfly.
Genera.
Species.
Palma
Juglandaoea....
Malpi^iiaoes....
Eupborbiacese...
11
ThymelaeaoeflB..
UUnaoesB
Anaoardiaceffi...
Combretaoee....
Polygonaoee....
AqulfoUacesB....
Celastraoeffi.
Myrtaoea
n
i^MS!:::
Staphyleaoese....
Saplndaoes
Sablaoes
Aiallaoea
Myrsinaoea
Anonaoes
Sapotacea
17
LauracesB
17
RhamnaoesB
Ebenaoea
HeniandaoeaB....
Cepperdiace»...
Elaeocarpaoes...
Symplocaoea....
Siyraoaoea.
BrunelUaoese....
SterouUaoeee.....
Oleaoea.
Rosfkoes.
3
Apocynacea
LegomiDoseflB...
22
80
Ternstrcemiaoeffi
ZygophyllaoMB..
2
Guttifera.
Verbenaoea. —
Rntaoeee
14
Bixaoera.
Ru^iaoea
Simarobaoea....
2
Winteraoee.....
U
It
BuraeraoesB.
3
Flacoortiaoen...
3
0^>rifoUaoea^..
Meliao6»
0
Cactaoee
4
Giaminea
66
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
TREES OP POBTO RICO.
57
INmXTO
No.
Abejuelo 100
AbellueUo 100
Acacia Amaiilla 39
Acacia nudiflora 40
Acacia nu(K)8a 40
Acacia palida 41
Aaidariparia 40 (note)
Aca|on 74
Acaju 86
Acana. 139,145
Aoeite, Palo de 68
AceitiUo 66
Aceituna 148
Aceituna Blanca 148
Aceituna Cimarrona 148
Aceituna, Palo de 80 (note)
Achiote ^ 115
AddotiUo 81,100
Achote 115
Afknumpota 138
Aeritia moniicola ^... 3
Aar)dididiitm9aUcifoHum 30
Adenanthera pavanina 42
Agoacate 25
Aguacate Cimarron 29
Aguacatillo 99,100
Aguaytar&n 100
Albiaialebbeck 39
Aldiomea IcUifoUa 81
Aldiorneoptis portoricensU 81
Alelf 151
AlellCimanon 151
Akurites moltuxana 82
AUurites triloba (see 82).
Akazrobo 45
Alilaila- 73,73(note)
Alljgatar Apple 22
Affigato Pear 25
^^&i.*!.'. ".*.'.*!!!!!.*!!!!!. *!.*!! 123
AlmendriUo 34
Ahnendrdn 34,123,142
Almond, Indian 123
Aloe Wood 153 (note)
Amcmis earyophyllata 129
Amcmis earyapkyllata var. grisea, , 129
(note)
Amor Platonico 39
Amordguado 78
Am^ bahamtfera 64 (note)
Amjfris maritima 64
Anacabtoac&Sj XXII (85-89)
Aniwardiwn oixtdentale 86
Anastaslo, Palo de 75
Anatto 115
Andxrajamaicensis 58
Angelin. 58
Aii6n : 22,23,24
Antma mantana 23 (note)
Anonamurioata 21
AskOfnapahi9tns 22
AnofiaTelieulata 23 (note)
A9ffna9qyamo$a 23
AlRniAOUp VUI (1&-24)
OF PORTO RIOO.
No.
Anonde Escamas 23
ArUirrhoea coriacea 167
Antirrhoea ohivMfolia 166
Antirrhoea sirUenisit 167 (note 1)
Apocynaceje, LI (151, 152)
Aquipoliacrb. XXIII (90, 91)
Aralia arborea (see 135).
Ahaliacilb, XLIV (135, 136)
Arbol Madre 59
Ardida glauciflora 137
Ardida guoddlupenm 137 (note)
Amatta 115
Arroyo 99
Artocarpus communis (see 9).
Artocarpus indsa 9
Ausd 130
Axisti Guayavita 129
Ausubo 141, 146
Auzd 129
Avicennia nitida 157
Avispillo 26, 26 (note), 28, 78, 93
Avocado 25
Avocate 25
Ayua 61
Btoil6 53
Badula r 137 (note)
Balata 146
Balsa Wood 107
Balsam Fig 114
Balsam Tree 114
Balsamo .". 154
Bambti 172
Banibum vulgarii 172
Bamboo 172
Barbasco 116
Bartaballi 138 (note)
Bastard Cabbage-bark 58
Bastard Cedar 110
Bauhinia Jtappleri 47
Bay Berry Tree 129
Bay Rimi Tree 129
Bergamota 65(note(
Bertero 160(note)
BlQNONIACEJB, LIV (158-161)
Biji 115
Birch, West Indian 7o
Bixa • 115
Bixa oreUana. 115
BiXACEiE, XXXV (115)
Black Lancewood 18
Black Mangrove 157
BlueMahoe 102
Bois de Lait 151
Bois Grisgris 126
Bois Immortelle 59
Bois li^ge 107
Boie 167
BojeQuina 167
BOMBACACBuE, XXXI (105-108)
BORBAGINACBJB, LII (153)
Boxwood, West Indian 159
Boyo, Palo de 59
Bread Fruit 4 9
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
58
BULLETIN 364, V. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGBICULTUBE.
No.
Bread Nut 9
Brigueta Naranjo 90
Brunellia comocladifolia 33
BRUNELLIACEiB, XII, (33)
Bucago , 59
Bucare 59
Bucaro , 126
Buchenaina capitata 124
Bucidabuceras 126
Bullet Tree 138
Bullock's Heart 23(note)
Bum Cimarron, Teta de 35
Burra, Teta de 35, 144
Burro 17 (note), 32, 32 (note)
Burro Blanco 32
Burro Prieta, Palo de 32 (note)
Bursera gummifera (see 70).
Bwrstra timaruba 70
BuRflERACE-as, XVIII (68-70)
Butter Pear 25
Byrsonima lucida 77
Byrtonima spicata 76
Cabbage Tree 58
Cabbj^e-bark, Bastard 58
Cabo de Hacha 75
Cabra, Palo de 6
CacaiUo 27,99,101
Cacao * 108
Cacao Bobo 99
Cacao Motilla 101
Cacao Otillo 101
Cacao Roseta 101
Cachimbo 152
Cactace^, XXXVIII (120)
Caf^ 168
Caf6 Macho 168
Caf eillo 80, 80 (note) , 119, 170
Cafeillo Cimarron 119
Cafetillo 119
Caguani 141
Caunitillo 140, 144 (note)
Caimito 143
Caimito de Perro 144 (note)
Caimito Morado 143
Caimito Verde 144 (note)
Cainito 143
Caiuil 86
Calabash ^ 161
Calambreflas * 15 TnoteJ
Callicarpa ampla 154 (note)
Calocarjfmm mammogum 138 (note )
Calophyllum calaba 113
Calycogonium Uflorum 134 f note 2)
Calycoaonium squamulosum. . 134 (note 2)
Calypmranthes sintenisii 131
Camasey 134, 134 (note]
Camasey Blanco 134 ^note 1
Camasey Colorado 134 (note 2
Camas^ de Costilla 134 (note 1
Camasey de Oro 134 (note 2)
Camasey de Paloma 134 (note 2,
Cambr6n 163
Campeche 50
Campeche, Palo de 50
Cafiafiatula 48
No.
Cafiafistula Cimanona 49
Candela, Palode * 118
Candle Wood 09
Candleberry Tree 82
Candlenut 82
Canela 25 (note), 27, 30
Canelillo 30
Canelon 27
Caoba 72
Cap4 153,155
Cap&Amarillo 155
Cap4 Blanca 155,
Cap4 Cimarron 153 (note)
Capd de Sabdna 155
Cap4 de Sabdna, Palo de 155
Cap4 Prieta 153
CapdRosa 154 (note)
CapdSabanero 155
CAPniRDIACE^, XI (32)
Capparia jaTTudcensU 82 (note)
Capparis portoricensis 32
CAPRIFOLIA0E2B, LVI (171)
CaracoUllo 75,117,119
Carubio 62 (note)
Casearia arborea 119
Casearia bicolor : 119
Casearia decandra 119
Casearia guianensia 119
Casearia sylvestris 119
Cashew Tree 86
Cassia fistula 48
Cassia grandis 49
Cassipourea alba 122 (note)
Caatafia 9
Cayur 22
Cavures 22
CeDoruquillo , 94
Cecropia peltata 12
Cedar, Bastard 110
Cedar, Cigar-box 71
Cedar, Spanish 71
Cedar, West Indian 71
Cedrela odorata 71
Cedro 71
CedroHembra 71,93
Cedro Macho 29,81
Cedro Prieto 89
Ceiba 105
Ceiba pentandra..,. 105
Cblastracejb, XXIV (92)
Cenizo 61
Central American Oak 91
Cereus peruvianus 120
CereiLS quadricostatus 120
Cereus jimrteti (see 120).
Cereus triangularis 120
Cereus trigonus 120
Cereza 119
Cereza Amarilla 78
Cereza Cimarrona 153 (note)
Cerezas 78, 153 (note)
Cerezo 117
Cherimolla 28
Chiflede Vaca 157
China 65
ChinaBenry 73, 73 (note)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
TEEES OP POETO EICO.
59
No.
CbinaDulce 65
Cbioa, Naianja 65
CkioneveFumi 167(note2)
CbirimoTa 28
(Xon>pliora tmctoria 8
(]9iry9(^)hyUtan argenUum 144 ^note)
CSffy9(^)hyUum bicolor 144 (note)
Chyaophylhmi cainito 143
Chyaophylhmi olivifonM 144
Chjftopf^liwn paucijhrum, . . 144 (note)
Qraparcallo 116
CbnpaGallo 166
Ochimbo, Palode 170
Cidra 65 (note)
(SeneeuiUo 121,130
G^-box Cedar 71
Cmnamodendron macranthum (see
116>
Cfaalillo 99
Cinida. 88
Ciraela del Pais 88
Citron 66(note)
dbruM aurarUium 65
Citnu bigaradia. 65 (note]
Citnu decwnana 65 ( note^
Citna h($trix subsp. acida 65 (note,
(Stnifl Limetta. 65(note|
(StusUmontmu 65 mote*
Oit%umedic(u. 65(note^
(XAarexyhtm caydatum 154 (note,
OiAarexylwnJhiHoowm 154
dAcarexyhtm quadrpngulare (see
154).
(Sammy Cherry 153 (note)
Oleyera albojmncUUa Ill
Cmtia acuminata (see 114 note).
Chuia tntgiaruL 114 (note)
Chuia rosea 114
G6baia 44
Cobana,Negra 44
C6bflno 44
Ooecoloba diver8\folia 15 (note)
Oocadoba arand^olia T 15
Ooceohba laurifolia 15 ^note)
Coeeoloba nata 15 (note)
Ooecoloba ohtusifolia 15 (note)
Cbeoolobaruqoda. 13
Ooemhba urbaniana 15 (note)
Ooecoloba uvyfera. 14
Coco. 4
CocoPafan. 4
Ooco, Palma de 4
Ooconitt 4
CocQRdn. 92
OofMrvwafera 4
Oocotearo. 4
Cbfuara&ioa 168
Coffee. 168
Coioba. 38 (note), 40, 43
Coidbana. 38 (note), 40, 43
Cffib: 43
Cowbo 43
Cottdifinaferruffinoia 100
Oohtbrinaredinata 100 (note)
OOMBRBTACKiB, XLI (123-127)
Cbnocorpta erector 125
No.
Conlreveait 139
Copal 68
CoralWood 59
Coralitas 42
Corazon 23 (note)
Corazon Cimarron 22
Cwcho •. 16,22,107
Cordia alliodora 153
Cordia borinquenns 153 (note)
Cordia collooocca 153 (note)
Cordia gerasearUhoides (see 153).
Cordia geraacanthtis (see 153).
Cordia nitida 153 (note)
Cordia sebeatena 153 (note)
Cordia sulcata 153 (note)
Cork Wood 22,105,107
Coscorron 92
Cotorrerillo. . , 119
CotoiTo, Palo de 163
Cotton Tree 105
Courbaril 45
Crescentia cujete 161
CrestadeCtallo 53
Cucubano 15 (note)
Cucubano, Palo de 165
CuerodeSapo 90
Cupania amarioana 96
Cupania triquetra 96
Cupel 114 (note)
Chipeillo 114 (note)
Cupey 114,114 (note)
Cupey, Palo de 114
Custard Apple 23 (note)
Dacryodes excelsa 69
Dajao 169
Dajao, Palode 169
Daphnopris caribaea 121
Daphnopsis pkilippiana 121
Diaymopanax morototoni 136
Diospyros ebcTMster 147
Dipnolis salictfolia 142
DtpJiolis sintenisiana 142 (note)
Doncella 97, 97 (note)
Doncella, Palo de 77
Doncella, Sangre de 77
Down Tree 107
Drypeteaalba 80
Drypetes alauca 80 (note)
Drypetes lateriflora 79
East Indian Walnut 39
Ebenacelb, XLVII (146, 147)
elaeogabpaceib. xxix (101)
EUuodendron xytocarpum var. co-
rymhosum 92
Elm, West Indian 109
Emajagua 102
Emaiagua Brava 121
Emaiagua de Sierra 121
Emaiaguilla 103
Erioaendron anfractuosum (see 105).
EryOirma coraflodeTidron 59
Erythrina gUmea 59
Erythrvna micropterix 59
Escambron 163
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
60
BULLETIN 364, V. S. DEPABTBCENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
No.
Espejuelo 142 (note)
E4)iiiillo, Palode 163
EapiBo 61, 62 (note)
EspinoRubial 61, 62 (note)
Eepinoeo, Pifion 69
Eugenia aerumnea 132
Eugenia Jloribunda, .*. 132 (note)
Eugenia jawbos -i 133
Eugenia aintenisii 132 (note)
Eugenia stahlU 132 (note)
Eugenie 93
EUPHORBIACE^, XXI 78-84
Bbx>ihea panniculata 98
Fagara caribaea .'. 62 (note)
Fagaraflava 62
Fagara martinicenMs * 61
Fagara monophylla 62 ^note)
Fagara tri/olmta 62 (note)
Faramea occidentalis 170
Ficus laevigata var. lentiginow, sub-
v^, mbcordata 11
Ficus lentiavnosa (see 11).
Ficusnima 11 (note)
Ficus mUenitii 11 (note)
Ficus stahlii 11 (note)
Fiddle Wood 156,156
Fig, Balsam H4
Flacourtiace^, XXXVII.... (117-119)
Flamboyan 39,51
Flamboyan Blanco 47
Flamboyan Colorado 51
Flame Tree 61
Florida Plum 79
Forte Ventura 66
Frangipanic Blanc 151
Fromager 106
Fustic 8
(5aita....'. 76,98
Gallito 63
Gallo, Crestade 63
Grangulin, Palo de 136 (note)
Cfarrocha 106
(Sarrocha, Palode 106
Garrocho 106
Gateado 15 (note)
(jeiger Tree 153 (note)
CrenipTree 96
OenijHi americana 164
Gempe 95
Geno 66
Geno-Geno 66
Gia'Mansa 119
Gia Verde 119
Gilibertia arhorea 135
Oilibertia laurtfolia 136 (note)
Ginep 95
Glat^o 15 (note)
Gongoli, Palo de 122 (note)
GongoUn 91
Geaminejb, LVII (172]
Grana, Palma de 2
Granadilla Clmarrona 134 (note 2)
Granadillo 124
Grape Fruit 65 (note)
Grayume 136
GrayumeMacho IM
Grayumo 136
Greenheart, West Indian 100
Grosella 7B
Grosella Blanca 78
Guaba 36
Guacar&n 98
Gudcima 109,110
GuAcima del Norte 109
Guicima del Sur 110
Guadmilla 6
Guaita 75
Onajacum officinale 60
Guajacum sanctum 60(DOte)
Guam^ 37
Guan&bana 21
Guan&vana OimaiTona 23 (note)
Guango 38
Guano 107
Guara 94,96
Guara Blanca 96
Guaraguaillo 74(note)
Guaraguao 74
Guaraguao Macho 74^noto)
Chiarea ramiflora 74 (note)
Guarea trichilioides 7
Guarema 67
Guarumbo 12
Guaa&vera 1^
Ouatteria blainii 20
Guava 36,128
Guayaba 128
Guayabacoa 114 (note)
Guayabac6n 130,132
Guayabota 132 (note), 147
Guayabota-nisp^ro 146
Guayacdn 60
Guayadm Blanco OOfnote)
Guayacandllo 60 (note)
Guayarote 92
Guayava 128
Guayava Pera 128
Guayavac6n 75, 130
Guayrote 99
Ovazuma auazwna (see 109).
GuazumaTlum 109
ChiazuMa tomeniasa 110
Guazuma ulmifolia 109
Guazymillo 6
Guenepa , 95
GucUarda krugii 166 (note)
Guettarda laevis : 165(note)
Guettarda ovaltfolia 165(noto)
Guettarda scabra 1^
Guiana Plum 79
Guitardn 100
Guitaira, Palo de 154
Gumbo limbo 70
GUTTIFBRiB, XXXIV (112-114)
Hdcana 189
Hacha, Gabode 75
Hachuelo 54
Hackia 169
Haematoxyhm eamvechianum 50
Haemocharii portor^amit Ill
Digitized by VjOOQIC
TBEE8 OF POBTO BICO.
61
No.
a^a» 164
Hagtley 11 (note)
Hat Palm 1
Hat Palm, Porto Rican 1
Han 102
Havarilla 84
Havillo 84
Haya 20
HayaBlanca 19
HayaMinga 20
HayaPrieta 18
Hediondilla 41
EtnrieUeUa fasdeukais 134 Tnote 2)
Btnriettdla macfadyeniL 134 mote 2)
HenrietUUa membranifolia.. 134 (note 2)
nfrmmdia scmortL. 31
Hebnandiacea, X (31)
HeUrotridtum cymontm 134 (note 2)
Bibiacus ehtus (see 102).
Hibiscus tUuuxna 102
EReronynUa dusioides 81
Hierro, Palo de 169
Hignerino 78, 154, 154 (note, 156
HiguCTo ll(note),161
Higmllo 78
ffigmlloPreto 11 (note)
fiOncha-huevoe 81
^j>p(mume Tnanemella 83
BvtdlarogoM 35
Buiella Handra 35
HpePlmn 87,89
HojaMenuda 130,131
Emalium raeeTnoium 117
Hucap Blanco 126
Hueaillo 150
Hneeo 67,80
Hneeo Blanco.... 150
Hneeo, Palo de. . . . 67, 90, 122 (note), 150
HueeoPrieto 67,90
B^eUmdia pendula 29
Hmcrepitaru 84
Bfmanaea courharil 45
H^pelata panicuUUa (see 98).
Icadllo 35
Ikx^oica (see 90),
TUxnitida 90
Hex rideroxyloides var . ocddentalis . . 91
Indian Almond 123
Indian Walnut 82
hga kncHna 37
mavera 36
Ink Berry 163
hodes eausiarum 1
hodesglauca 1
Ironwood 100
Iionwood, West Indian or Mar-
tinique 169
horaferrea 169
Ixpepe 6
lacana 139
lagoa 164
lagttey 11, 11 (note)
jjBMttctn Walnut 5
No.
JamboM jamboM (see 133).
Jaqueca, Palo de 103
Jatoba 45
Javillo 84
Jicara 161
Jignerillo 11
Jobillo 75,88
Jobo 87
Jobo Frances 88
JUOLANDACSA, II (5)
JugloM jamaioermi 5
KopakTree 105
LaguneuUxria racemow, 127
Lancewood 24
Lancewood, Black 18
Lancewood, True 18
Lancewood, White 19
LAimACEiB, IX (25-30)
Laurel 11 (note),
17, 26, 26 (note), 27, 28, 29
Laurel Amaiillo 28
Laurel Avi^illo 27
Laurel Blanco 28
Laurel Bobo. 26,27
Laurel Canelon 28
Laurel de India 11 (note)
Laurel Espada 119
Laurel Geo 27, 28
Laurel Geo-geo - 26, 27, 28
Laurel Macho 28
Laurel Roseta 28
Laurel Sabino — '. 17
Laurel Sassafras 27
Laurel Savino 17
LaureliUo *28
LechePrieto 140
LechesiUo 11, 81, 144, 144 (note)
Leoxjminobji, XIV (36-59)
Lemon 65 (note)
Leucaenaglauca 41
Lignum Vitae 60
Lilaila 73
Lilaililla 93
Lima 65 (note)
Lime 65 (note)
Lim6n \ 65 fnote)
Limon Dulce 65 (note)
Limoncillo 129,
129 (note), 131, 132 (note)
Limoncillo de Monte 131
lAnociera d(yrmngerm9 150
Lizard Wood. £ 156
Llagrume 136
Llagrume Macho 136
Llagrumo 12
LocustTree 45
Log Wood 50
Lonchocarpua domingenais 56
LaWDhocarpua qlaudfoliua 56
LonchocarpualaiifoMia 56
Lora, Negra 10,20
Ltu:uma muUyUjra 139
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
62
BULLETIN 354, U. 8. DBPABTMBNT OF AGBICULTUBE.
No.
MabamUenisii 146
Mabi 100, 100 (note)
Machineel '. 83
Madre de Cacao 59
Maga 104
Magar 104
Magas 104
Magnolia portoricensis 17 (note)
Magnolia splendens 17
MAGNOLIACBiB, VII (17)
Maffo 31
Mahagua. 102
Mahoe, Blue or Mountain 102
Mahogany 72
Mahot 102
Mahot-franc 102
Majagua 102
Maiagua Quemadora 121
Malagueta 129, 129 (note)
Malpighiace^, XX (76, 77)
MALVACBiB, XXX (10^104)
Mamey .- 112
Mamey Sapote 138 (note)
Mameyuelo 137, 137 (note), 145.
Mammea 112
Mammea americana 112
Mammee Apple 112
Mangifera inaioa 85
Mangle 122,125
Mangle Blanco 127,157
Mangle Bobo 127, 157
Mangle Bot^Sn... 125
Mangle BotonciUo 125
Mangle Colorado 122,125
Mangle Sapatero : 122
Mang6 85
Mangrove, Black 157
Mangrove, Red 122
Mangrove, White 127
Manzanillo 81, 83
Mapurito 62 (note)
Marafi6n 86
Maria, Palo de 113
Marias 113
Maricao 76, 111
Martin Avila 167 (note) 2
Martinique Ironwood 169
Masa 68
Masa Colorado , 68
Mastic 141
Mastichodendron (see 141).
Matayaha apetala 97 (note)
Matayaba aomingensis 97
Mato 42,52
Mato Colorado 42
Mato, Palode 42,52
Mauricio : 17 (note)
Mayepea domingensis (see 150).
MELA8T0MATACE.E, XLIII (134)
Melia azedarach 73
Melia azedarach urnbraeulifera. . 73 (note)
Meliace^, XIX (71-75)
Melicocca oijuga 95
Meliosma Jierbertii 99
Meliotma obtustfolia 99
No.
Melon, Palo de 161
Melon Tree r. lei
Metopiym taxiferum 89
Miocmia guianensis 134 (note 1)
Miconia vmpetiolaris 134 (note 1)
Miconia pradna 134 (note 1)
Miconia Utrandra 134
Micropfiolis curvata 140
Micropholis gardnifolia 140
MiUo 78
MiUo, Palode 78
Mimtiaops duplicata 145
Mimu8op8 glohosa (see 145).
Mimusopsnitida 145
Moca 58
MocaBlanca. 68
MoliniUo 75,84
Monkey's Dinner Bell 84
Mqra 8
Mora^ Palode 8
MORACBiB, IV (7-12)
Moral 153{note)
Moral de Paz 153 (note)
Mondon 15
Motillo 101
Mountain Mahoe 102
Multa 122(nGte)
Mufieca 135, 153 (note)
Mufieca, Palo de 153 (note)
Mufieco, Palo de 152
Murta 132(notc)
Musk Wood 74
Mwroph 0 lis chrygophyUoides 140
Myrcia (kJUxa 130
Myrcia Uptodada 130
Mt/rcia f pagani 130
Myrcia splendens 130
Myroxylon brixifolivm (see 118).
Myroxylon sdiwanedteanum (see 118).
Myrsinacejb, XLV (137)
Myrtackb, XLII (12^-133)
Naceberry 188
Naranja 65 (note)
Naranja China 65
Nectandra, coriacea 28
Nectandra hrugii 28
Nectandramembranaoea 28
Nectandra patens 28
Nectandra sintenisii 28
NegraLora 10,20
Nemoca 27
Nifio de Cota Ill
Nispero 138
Nispero Cimarron, Palo de 148
Nogal 5
Nopalea coccinelltfera 120
Nuez 82
Nuez de India 82
NuezMoscada 27
Nuez Moscada Cimarrona 27
Nuez Moscada del Pays 27
Nuez, Palo de 5
Nutmeg 27
Ntctaoinacbjb, VI (16)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
TREES OF POBTO BICO.
68
Na
Oak, Gentral American 01
Omoma lagopus 107
Oeotm cunecUa 27
OeoUaJkfrihtmda 27
OtoUa leucaxylon 27
0eoteani09ckata 27
Oeotm poriorieerms 27
OcoUa wrightU 27
Oleacba, L (150)
Olive Wood of Jamaica, Wild 126
Opuntia eatacantha 120
Opuntia gtumicana 120
0reja,P4lode 122 (note)
Oreixhxacaribaea 2
Ortodoxa regia (see 2).
Onne d'Amerique 110
Orwumakrugii 52
Ortegon 13,15(note)
Otahdte Gooseberry 78
Oxandra kmceolata 18
Oxandn laurtfolia 19
Pkjml 86
PalioouTM alpina 170
RUm,Coco 4
F^Um, Hat 1
P^m, Porto Rican Hat 1
Pilm, Royal 2
PalmaCoBto 2
F^fanadeCoco 4
Fkhna de Giana 2
Palma de la Sierra 3
PymadeSierra 3
Pafana de Sombrero 1
Pftlma de Yaguas 2
PidmaBeal 2
Fklmacte 2
Palmje, I (1-4)
PaloAmargo 152
Palo Blanco 80 (note)
119, 150, 167 (note 2)
Palo Blanco de la C^osta.* 122 (note)
PlUoBobo 16 (note), 16,33
F^Oachumba 135, 185 (note)
PiloCokwado 29,111,118
PalodeAceite 68
P^deAceituna 80 (note)
Palo de Anastasio 75
Pido de Boyo 59
Palo de Burro Prieta 32 (note)
P^deCatat 6,148
Palo de Campeche 50
Pak) de Gandela 118
Falo de Gap& de Sabana 155
Pklo de Cichimbo 170
P»deCotona 81,163
Wo de Cucubano 165
PdpdeCupey 114
Pak) de Dajao 169
Pkk) de Doncella 77
PUo de Espinillo 163
ModeGaJlina 81
PhJodeGangulin 135 (note)
PyodeGanocha 106
FabdeGongcdi 122 (note)
FUo de Guitarra 154
No.
PalodeHieno 169
PalodeHueeo 67, 90, 122 (note, 150
Palo de Jaqueca '. 103
P^Jode Maria 113
PalodeMasa 68
PalodeMato 42,52
Palo de Melon 161
PalodeMillo 78
Palo de Mora 8
Palo de Mufieca 153 (note)
Palo de Mufieco 162
Palo de Nispero Cimarron 148
Palo<feNuez 6
PalodeOreja 122 (note)
Palo de Pan 9
Palo de P6ndula 156
Palo de Polio 66
PalodeQuina 167
Palo de Tea 64
PalodeToro 122 (note), 170
Palo de Vaca 135 (note)
Palo de Vaca Blanco 80
Palo Hediondo 56
PaloMabi 100 (note)
PaloPoUo 65
Pana 9,135
Pana Oimarrona 136
Papayo 89
PariHvm Hliaceum (see 102).
Pasilla 73
Pendola 16
P^ndola Cimarron 154 (note)
P^ndula 154,166
P^ndula Blanco 166
P^udula Colorado 164
P6ndula, Palode 166
Peronia 52
P^ronilas 42
Persea americana 26
Penea gratisnma ( see 25).
Peneahugii 25 (note)
Petitia dommgensiB 166
Phoebe dongaia 26
Phoebe numtana 26 (note)
PhyUanthus distichtu 78
PfnfUanthtLs nobUis var. antUUmus . 78
Picnmma pentandra 67
Picteiia acuUata 54
PicteHa aristata (see 54).
P<locereu$ royem 120
Pimienta 129 (note)
Pimienta Malagueta 129
Pifion Espinoso 59
Piptadenm peregrina 43
P%9eid%a piscipula 57
Pisonia tvJbcordata var. typica 16
Pitajaya 120
Pithicolobium arborewm 38 (note)
Pitkicolobium ioman 38
Pleodendron macranthum 116
Plum, Florida, or Guiana 79
Plum, Guazuma 109
Plum, Hog 87,89
Plwmxera alba 161
Povnaaina regia 61
PoiflonWood 89
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
64
BULLETIN 354, V. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGBICULTUBB.
No.
Polisandro 44
POLYOONACEiE, V (13-15)
PomaRosa 133
Pomelo 65 (note)
Porcupine Wood 4
Porto Kican Hat Palm 1
Prickly Aah 61
Prince Wood 153
Prunus occidentalis 34
Pseudolmedia spuria 10
Ptidium giLQJava 128
Psychotria brachiata 170
Pterocarpua officinalis 1 . 55
Pumu 2
Purio 19
Quapinole Jutahy 45
Quararibea turbinata 106
Queuepas 95
Quiebra Hacha 94
Quina 167,167 (note)
Quina, Palo de 167
QuitarAn 100
RaboRat6n 119
Rabojunco 119
Rain Tree.. . .* 38
RamaMenuda 130
Ramon ' . . 7
Ramoncillo 7, 75
RaTidia aculeata 163
Raton 97, 100
Rauwolfia nitida 152
Ravenia urbani 63
Red Bean Tree 59
Red Mangrove 122
Retamo 75
Rhamnace^, XXVIII (100)
Rheedia portoricensis 114 (note)
Rhizophora mangle 122
RmzoPHORACEiB, XL (122)
Roble 158, 159, 160, 160 (note
Roble Blanco 159
Roble Colorado 158
Roble Prieto 160
Rollinia mucosa 24
Rondelelia portoricensis 162
Rosacea, XIII (34)
Rose Apple 133
Rosewood 64 (note)
Roseta 118
Royal Palm 2
Roystonea borinquena (see 2).
Riibia 62 (note)
RuBiACE^, LV (162-170)
RUTACE^, XVI (61)
Sabiacejb, XXVII (99)
Sabino 17
Saman 38
Sambucus intermedia var . insularis . 171
San Bartolome 153 (note)
Sand-box Tree 84
Sangre de Doncella 77
Sanguinaria 100
SantaMaiia 103,113'
No.
Santa Olalla 167 (note 2)
Sapindace^, XXVI (94-^)
Sapium lawrocerasus 81
Sapo, Cuerode 90
Sapodilla 138
Sapotace^, XLVI (13&-146)
Sapote 146
Sapote de Costa 145
SamadePerro 119
Saruma 12
Sassafras 27
Satinwood 62
Satinwood, West Indian 66
Sadco 171
Sauco Cimandn 93
Sea Grape 14
Sebucdn.^ 114 (note), 120
SeburoquiUo 94
Sei)lina 47
Serillos 99
Serrasuela 166
Sesbania grandiftora 53
Sideroxyumfoetidissimum 141
Sideroxylon mastichodendron (see
141).
Sideroxylon portoricense 141 (note)
Siete-cueros 78
Silk-cotton 105
Simaruba tulae 66
SiMARUBACEiE, XVII (66, 67)
Si ris Tree : 39
Sloanea berteriana 101
Snakeweed 100
Sour Orange 65 (note)
Soursop 21
Spanish Cedar 71
Spanish Elm 153
Spanish Plum 88
Spondias lutea (see 87).
Spondias Tnombin 87
Spondias purpurea 88
Stahlia monosperma 44
Staphtlbace^, XXV (93)
Star Apple 143
Sterculiacb^, XXXII (109, 110)
STYRAOACEiE, XLIX (149)
Styrax portoricensis 149
Sugar Apple 23
Sweet Lemon 65 (note)
Sweet Orange 65
Sweetsop 23
Swietenia mahagoni 72
S YMPLOCACEiB, XL VIII (148)
Symplocos lanata 148
Symplocos lat^olia 148
Symplocos martinicensis * 148
Symplocos micraniha 148
Symplocos polyantha 148
Tabanuco 69
Tabebuiariqida. . .' 158
Tabebuia saiumanniana 158
Tabeiba 81,146,151
Tablondllo 141 (note), 142
Tabonuco 69
Tachuelo 54
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
TREES OF POBTO BICO.
65
No.
Talaiito6n 119
Tamarind 46
Tamarindo 46
Tamarindo Cimarron 40
T(marindus iruHca 46
Tea 64, 64 (note)
Tea Cimarrona 97
Tea, Palo de 64
Teeoma haemaniha 160 (note)
TetmmUutoxylon 160
Teeoma pentap?tylla 159
Temante 161
Terciopelo 134 (note 2)
Termindlia catappa 123
Temstroemia heptasepala Ill
Temstroemia luquillensis Ill
Temstroemia peauncularis. ..'. Ill
TEBNSTROEMIACEiB, XXXIII. . . . (Ill)
TetadeBarra 35,144
Teta de Burra Cimarron 35
TetaPrieta Ill
Tetraaastris halsami/era 68
Theohroma cacao 108
Thapesia grandiflora 104
Thespma populnea 103
Thouinia striata 94
Thtmblaeacbjb, XXXIX (121)
Tigulate 161
Tintillo 163
Torchwood 64 Tnote)
Toronja 65 (note)
TOTtuga 141
Tortugo Amarillo 141
Tortugo Prieto 63,141
Tortuguillo 166
Tortado 117
Towmita elliptica (see 114, note).
Tremarmcranihum 6
TriMiakirta 75
TridtUia pallida 75
Tridttlia triacantha 75
Trophiiraoemosa 7
True Lancewood 18
Trumpet Tree 12
Tuna de Espafia 120
TunaManaa 120
Turpinia panniculata 93
Ucar 126
Ucar Blanco 126
Ulmace^, III (6)
Umbrella China Tree 73 (note)
UvadelMar 14
Uverillo 15 (note)
21871^— Bull. 354r-16 6
No.
Uvero 14
UviUo 15 (note)
Varietal 47
Vafital. : 79, 80 (note)
Ventura 57
Ventura, Forte. . : 56
VERBENACEiE, LI II (154-157)
Vibona 135, 135 (note)
Vitex divaricata 156
Vomitel Colorado 153 (note)
Walnut, Eastlndian 39
Walnut, Indian 82
Walnut, Jamaican 5
Walnut, West Indian 6
West Indian Birch 70
West Indian Boxwood 159
West Indian Cedar 71
West Indian Elm 109
West Indian Gfteenheart 100
West Indian Ironwood 169
West Indian Satinwood 66
West Indian Walnut 5
White Lancewood 19
White Mangrove 127
Whitewood. . , 79, 160
Wild Cinnamon 116, 129
Wild Olive Wood 126
WinteroTih canella 116
WiNTERANACEiE, XXXVI ^ (116)
Woman's Tongue 39
Xylosma buxifolium 118
Xylosma ickwaneckeantim 118
Yagrume 136
Yagrume Hembra 12
Yagrume Macho 136
Yagua 2
Yagua del Monte 3
Yaray 1
Yaya 19
Yaya Blanca 19
Yellow Sanders 124
Yellow Wood 62
YobiUo 81
YuquiUo 78
Zanthoxylvm (see 61, footnote). *
Zapote Negro 0 Prieto 147
Zarza 40 (note)
Zipote 145
ZYOOPHYLLACEiB, XV (60)
Digitized by Google
66 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTTTRE.
DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.
I. PAUCiE.
!• Inodes ccmsiarum Cook. Yaray: Porto Rican hat palm (Br. W. I.) .
Inodes glavca Urb. Damm. Palma de sombrero; Hat ptdm (Br. W. I.).
Two palms more or less common on the western end of the island, usually along
the shore on the coral sand. The leaves are held in high repute in Porto Fico for
making hats, immense quantities of which are manufactured every year. The center
of this industry is at Joyua, just south of Mayaguez.
2. Oreodoxa caribaea (Spreng.) Damm. & Urb. {=RoysUmea 6orin^i£^na •Cook?=0.
-regia Bello?). Palma real, Yagua, Palma de yaguas, Palma costa, Palina
degrana; Palmacte, Pumu (Sp. W. I.); Royal palm (Br. W. I.).
Tree from 40 to more than 80 feet high and sometimes 2 feet in diameter, found
throughout the island, the West Indies, and southern Florida. One of the most con-
spicuous objects in the Porto Bican landscape. The most iiseful part is the sheal.hing
base of the leaf called ^'yagua,'' which is used for roofing and siding of huts, and fora
great variety of other purposes, especially by the poorer classes. The outer portion
of the trunk is used for boards, posts, poles, piles, etc. The leaves are used for thatch-
ing roofs. The royal palm has more economic uses than any other tree in the West
Indies.
3* Acrista monticola Cook. Palma de la Sierra, Palma de Sierra, Yagua del Monte.
Tree from 30 to 80 feet high and from 12 to 18 inches in diameter, cloeely allied
to the royal palm {Oreodoxa caribaea). The Porto Rican species is conilned chiefly
to the moimtain r^ions. Theiouter portion of the trunk, split into boards, is used
for making huts, and the leaves for thatching roofs.
4. Coco* nucifera L, Palma de coco, Coco, Cocotero (Sp. W. I.); Coconut, Porcupine
wood. Coco palm (Br. W. I.).
Tree usually from 40 to 50 feet tall and from 12 to 15 inches in diameter, found
everywhere along the coast in Porto Rico, the West Indies, and the Tropics generally.
Extensively planted and of great economic importance. The "milk*' of green fruit
is in great demand locally. It is drunk directly from the nut, which is then thrown
away. The ripe fruit is exported in large quantities. The wood is used for waUdng
sticks, umbrella handles,. posts, piles, and for other purposes 'requiring strong and
durable material. The fiber of the husk, known as coir, and the dried meat of the
nut, known as copra, both important articles of export from the East Indies to
Europe, have no commercial value in Porto Roco.
The wood is somewhat similar to that of the royal palm, very hard, hea\-y (aboot
60 pounds per cubic foot), strong, tough, and very durable in contact with the soil
II. JUGLANDACE^.
5* Juglans jamaicenns C. DC. Nogal, Palo de nuez; Jamaican or Weet Indian
walnut (Br. W. I.).
Tree from 40 to 80 feet high and from 18 to 24 inches in diameter, occurring only
at hii^h altitudes on the island. The wood is similar to that of our native Butternut
{Juglans cinerea L.) but is seldom used except occasionally for furniture.
III. ULMACEiB.
6* Trema wicranthum (L.) Bl. Palo de cabra, Guacimilla, Guazymillo; Ixpepe
(Mexico).
^ Tree from 15 to 60 feet high, occurring here and there throughout the idand. Wood
little used. Wood light brown, moderately fine grained, capable of a good polidi,
but rather soft, light, and weak. Pores small, isoEited, or in groups of two to five or
more, and evenly distributed. Pith rays minute, inconspicuous.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
TREES OF POETO EICO. 67
IV. Horace JE.
7, Tnphisraeemosaijj.) Urb. Ramon, ^ .Ramofltdllo.
Tree from 30 to 50 feet high, occurring in the northwestern part of the island, chiefly
of importance on account of the leaves, which are used as fooder for cattle ana horses.
Its wood is good for all purposes except in exposed situations.
*8, Chlorophora tinctoria (L.) Gaudich. Mora, Palo de mora, Fustic.
Tree from 45 to 65 feet high and from 18 to 24 inches in diameter, occiuring mostly
in the southwestern part of the island. The wood is used locally for shelving in
country houses and for spokes of wheels; also for furniture and wherever great strength
and durability are required. This tree, which occurs throughout the West Indies
and Gentrfd America, furnishes one of the most important dyewoods of conunerce.
Wood ' a handsome brownish-yellow, very fine-drained. Pores small, isolated or
in groups of two to four, more or less connected by short wavy tangential lines of wood
parencnyma, which are conspicuous on a transverse surface. Pith rays very narrow
and inconspicuous. Wood takes a fine polish, hard, heavy (about 44 pounds per
cubic foot), stzong, tough, and durable.
*!. Artocarpus indsa L. 0=sArtocarpiLS communis Forst.). Pana, Palo de pan, Castafia;
Bread fruit, Bread nut (Br. W. I.).
Tree from 40 to 60 feet high, introduced from t^ East Indies, now growing spon-
taneously in many parts of the island, particularly the north side. The fruit is very
large with numerous large seeds resembling the Spanish chestnut, whence the common
name " castafla. ' ' These seeds are an important article of native food. Wood , though
tittle used, is said to be highly appreciated for furniture and for building houses.
Wood is yellowish-gra^ in color; rather light and soft, but strong, resistant, and
dastic. Its specific gravity is given as 0.495 (C. & C).
11. Pmidoljnedia spuria (Sw.) Griseb. Negra lora.
Tree from 25 to 50 feet high with a limited distribution on the island. It is of very
little use except for fuel and charcoal.
*11. Picus Issvigata var. lentigiTwsa subvar. subcordata (Warb.) Urb. {=F. lentiginosa
Vahl.). Jagftey, Jiguerillo, Lechesillo.
Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and from 4 to 5 feet in diameter, occurring quite gen-
erally in the mountainous regions. It is at finst semiepiphytic and often destroys,
trees on which it grows. It is used in making fishing canoes.
Wood light eray with narrow brown lines of softer tissue, fine, and straight-pained
moderately soit and light (about 30 pounds per cubic foot). Pores small, solitary or
in groups of two to four, evenly distributed. Tangential Unes of wood-parenchyma
fibers visible on a smooth transverse surfcice. Pith rays very narrow and indistinct.
Note. — Similar to the above in the uses and properties of their wood are Ficus
strUenisii Warb. (Jagliey, Higuillo preto) and Ficus stahlii Warb. (Hagttey,
Jagiiey) trees, 15 to 60 feet high, which occur in the mountainous r^ons. Several
other species of Fums known locally as "Higuero " are reported as being generally
distributed throughout the island. These are small trees averaging from 10 to
20 feet high and fiom 4 to 6 inches in diameter. The wood, which is very little
used, is white, soft, light (about 43 pounds per cubic foot), and not strong nor
durable in the soil.
Another species Ficus mtida Thumb. (Laurel de India, Laurel), introduced
from Asia, is a beautiful tree from 45 to 65 feet high and has been planted on the
idand for ornamental purposes. The wood is not used.
I This tree must not be oonfased with the bread-nut tree (Brosimum alicutrum Sw.), which is also called
''^anuni'' throughout the West Indies and Yucatan. The latter is a natlTe of Jamaica but has not
iMo reported from Porto Rico.
'8ce pp. 13-14, Forest Senrioe Circular 184.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
68 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
12. Cecropia peUala L. Yagrume hembra, Llagrumo, Trumpet tree; Guarambo,
saruma (Mexico).
Tree from 20 to 60 feet high and from 10 to 12 inches in diameter, occurring in moun-
tainous regions. 1 1 is conmion throughout the West Indies. The trunks and branches
are hollow and are often made into carrying poles and floats for fishing nets. Wood
white, light, soft, moderately weak, and not durable in contact with the soil.
V. POLYGONACEiB.
• *18« Coccoloba rugosa Desf . Ort^jon.
Tree from 40 to 100 feet high, occturing from sea level to 2,000 feet elevation, abun-
dant along the coast. Wooof useful for construction timber. Wood purplish, fine-
grained, hard, heavy, strong, and tough. Pores very small, isolated or in groups of
two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays narrow, inconspicuous.
*14. Coccoloba uvifera (L.) Jacq. Uvero, Uva del mar, Sea grape.
Tree from 15 to 30 feet high and from 3 to 4 feet in diamet^, growing along the coast
The trees are reproduced by cuttings. The wood is highly esteemed Tor cabinet work.
Wood dark brown with nearly black linear markings, very fine-grained, taking an
excellent polish, very hard, heavy (65 pounds per cubic foot), strong, and tough.
Pores very few, very small, isolatea or in radial rows of two to four. Pith rays narrow,
inconspicuous.
*15. Coccoloba grandifolia J &cq. Moralon. ^
Tree from 60 to 60 feet high and from 1 foot to 2 feet in diameter, occurring in moun-
tain forests. Reported formerly very common in the vicinity of Lares and throughout
the limestone belt from Ciales and Utuado to the west coast. It is also native to otheiB
of the West Indies and to Mexico and Guiana. Wood was highly prized for building
purposes and for furniture and cabinet work, but is now scarce.
Wood reddish, close and sometimes cross-grained, very hard, and heavy. Porea
minute, isolated, or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays minute,
very inconspicuous.
Note. — Other species of this genus are * Coccoloba nivea Jacq. (Calambrefiis)
Coccoloba laurifoda Jacq. (Uvillo, Cucubano, Gateado, Glateado, UvcriUo);
Coccoloba obtusxfolia Jacq. (Uvillo); Coccoloba diversifolia Jacq. (Palo bobo^
Coccoloba urbaniana Linaau. COrtegon^. Trees from 15 to 45 feet high, growiM
mostly in the mountains, and yielding fine and useful timbers. Wood in genenl
simili^ to the above.
VI. NYCTAOINACEiE.
16. Pisonia subcordata var. typica Heimerl. Corcho, Palo hobo.
Tree from 40 to 60 feet high, occurring here and there throughout the island. Wood
of very little use.
VII. Maqnouace^.
*17. Magnolia splendens Urban. Laurel sabino, Laurel savino. Laurel, Sabino.
Tree from 50 to 100 feet high and from 1} to 2} feet in diameter, found in all parte
of the island, though now very scarce. One of the most valuable timbers on the
island, and used for beams, boards, and furniture.
Wood clear olive-brown, often turning yellowish-ereen, beautiful, aromatic, strai^t
and fine-grained, resembling the wood of tulip popkir (Liriodendron tulipifera L.) M»d
cucumber tree (Magnolia acuminata L.) with which it is closely allied. It is moder-
ately hard, heavy, strong, tough, and very durable in contact with soil and air. Dow
not warp or check during seasoning. Pores very small, solitary or in Dairs, and evenly
distributed throughout the annual rings of growth, which are markea by more or less
distinct narrow lines of radially compres^ wood fibers. Pith rays veiy nanow,
scarcely visible on a polished radial surface.
Note. — Magnolia portoricensis Bello (Burro, Mauricio) recognized by Bello as a
separate species is a tree from 45 to 80 feet high. It is reported only from the t
em part of the island. Wood similar to that of M, splendens.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
i
TBEES OF PORTO RICO. 69
VIII. Anonace^.
18. Oxandra lanceolata (Sw.) Baill. Haya prieta; Black lancewood, True lancewood
(Br. W. I.).
Tree from 20 to 30 feet high and from 8 to 12 inches in diameter with a limited
occurrence in the western part of the island. It occurs largely throughout the West
Indies, and in parts of South America where the wood is highly esteemed for lances,
fishing rods, shafts, spars, ramrods, and general turnery.
Wood yellow, very fine-grained, hard, light, strong, and very elastic. Pores are
minnte, solitary or in groups of two to five, radially disposed, and evenly distributed.
^Hth rays narrow, scarcely visible to the unaided eye.
II. Oxandra laurifolia (Sw.) A. Rich. Yaya, Yaya blanca, Haya blanca, Purio;,
White lancewood (Br. W. I.).
Tree from 30 to 80 feet high and from 10 to 20 inches in diameter. It occurs in the
mountain forests and is distributed throughout the West Indies. It is used largely
for the same purposes as the true lancewood {Oxandra lanceolota), but is not so
valuable.
Wood li^t yeUowish and fine-grained, hard, light^ and strong. Pores minute,
solitary or m small groups, and evenly distributed. Pith rays inconspicuous.
SI. GiiaUeria blainii (Griseb.) Urb. Haya, Haya minga, Negra lora.
Tree from 30 to 60 feet high, quite generally distributed throughout the island.
*tl. Anona muricata L. Guandbana; Soursop (Br. W. I.).
Tree from 10 to 35 feet high and from 6 to 12 inches in diameter, extensively cul-
tivated throu^out the island for the sake of its fruit, which has an agreeable slightly
add flavor, and is closely allied to the East Indian species (Anona squamosa L.).
Wood of little use except for fuel.
Wood light brown, turning darker with age, fine and straight-grained, resembling
somewhat the wood of our papaw (Asimina triloba Dunal.), which is called 'Anona"
in Spanish. It is soft, li^ht, not strong, brittle, not durable in contact with the
aofl. Pores very small, sohtary, or occasionally in pairs, and very evenly distributed
throughout the annual rings of growth, whicn are scarcely visible to the unaided
eye. Pith rays numerous and indistinct.
tt. Anona palustris L. Cayul, Cayur, Anon, Corazon cimarron, Cayures, Corcho;
Alligator apple, Cork wood (Br. W. I.).
Tree from 20 to 30 feet high and from 8 to 12 inches in diameter. It grows usually
in swampy localitiefi and is found along the coasts. Wood used for rafts, floats for
fishing nets, and as stoppers for bottles. Wood gray or light brown, somewhat tinged
with green, lustrous, fijae and straight-grained, soft, very light, weak, not durable in
contact with the soil, resembling that of the papaw (Asimina triloba Dunal.). Pores
small, solitary or in small groups, and evenly distributed. Pith rays scarcely visible
to the unaided eye.
21. Anona squamosa L. An6n, Anonde escamas, Chirimoya, Cherimolia; Sweetsop;
Sugar apple (Br. W. I.).
Tree from 10 to 20 feet high. An East Indian species, introduced into all tropical
countries, and now extensively cultivated for its fruit. It is found in most parts
of the island . The wood is of little use . Wood light brown streaked with yellow, fine-
grained, moderately soft, light, weak, brittle, and not durable in contact with the soil.
Note. — Of the other two species found on the island, Anona reticulata L.
(Corazon; Custard apple, Bullock's heart [Br. W. I.]) is a tree from 15 to 30
feet high and from 6 to 12 inches i^ diameter, extensively cultivated throughout
the island for the sake of its fruit, Anona montana Macf. (Guandvana cimarrona),
which attains a height of from 30 to 50 feet, occurs chiefly in mountainous regions.
The wood of both is similar to that of the other species and is of little use except
for firewood.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
70 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGMCULTUBE.
ti. Rollinia mucosa (Jacq.) Baill. Anon; Lancewood (Br. W. I.)-
Tree from 30 to 50 feet high and from 8 to 12 inches in diameter, of limited occur-
rence in Porto Rico. Indigenous also to several islands in the Lesser AntiUes, to
Trinidad, and to Mexico. The wood is said to be occasionally used as a substitute
for the true lancewood (Oxandra lanceolata)^ which it resembles. Wood ligjit yellow,
moderately hard, heavy, strong, and tough.
IX. LAUBACBiB.
2S. Persea americana Mill (»P. gratisnima Gaertn.). Aguacate, Avocate, Avo-
cado; AlUgator pear, Butter pear (Br. W. I.).
Tree from 30 to 40 feet high and from 12 to 18 inches in diameter introduced fnun
Mexico and now growing spontaneously throughout the island. It is widely planted
throughout tropical and ^btropical regions for its edible pear-shaped fruit. The
fruit yields an abundance of oil for biuning and for soap making. A deep indelible
black juice used for marking linen is obtained from ^e seeds. The wood is suggested
for use in cabinetmaking.
Wood light reddish-brown, beautifully figured and fine grained, soft, light (about
40 pounds jp^ cubic foot), and brittle. Pores small, numerous, isolated or in ^ooupa
of two or three, evenly distributed throughout the annual rings of growth, which are
only faintly visible. Pith rays very minute and inconspicuous.
Note. — Peraea hrugii Mez. (Ganela) is reported as a tree from 30 to 60 feethi^
with a very limited occurrence on the island. Wood similar to that €tf the above.
*M. Phoebe elongcUa (Vahl.) Nees. Avispillo, Laurel, Laurel bobo, Laurel geo-geo.
Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and from 1 foot to 2 feet in diameter, from the LuquiDo
region. Wood light brown, fine, and cross^rained, taking a ^ood polish; haid, heavy,
stroDg, and tough. Pores very small, evenly distributed. Pith rays very narrow and
inconspicuous.
Note. — Phoebe montana (Sw.) Griseb. (Laurel, Avispillo), another species of
this genus is of limited occurrence in the interior of the island and is similar in
size and in the character of its wood.
n. OcoUa.
A genus of Umited occurrence and little known uses in Porto Rico, is represented by
the six following species: Ocotea torightii (Meissn.) Mez. (Canela, Canelon); Ocoiea
moschata (Meissn.) Mez. (Nemoca, Nuez moscada, Nuez moscada cimarrona, Nuei
moecada del pays, nutmeg); Ocotea cuneata (Griseb.) Urb. (Sassafras, Laurel sassafras);
Ocotea floribunda (Sw.) Mez. (Laurel); Ocotea leucoxylon (Sw.) Mez. (Cacaillo, Laurel
I^aurel bobo. Laurel geo, Laurel geo-geo); Ocotea portoricensis Mez. (Laurel^ Laurel
avispillo. Laurel geo). Trees from 30 to 90 feet hign and from 1 foot to 3 feet in diam-
eter, occurring in mountain forests. The wood resembles that of Phoebe eUmgata.
ZS. Nectandra.
The following five species of this ^enus are reported from Porto Rico: Nectandra
nntenisii Mez. (Laurel, Laiu^l amanllo, Laurel bianco, Laurel geo, Laurel macho);
Nectandra hrugii Mez. (Laurel, Laurel canelon^; Nectandra membranacea (Sw.J (Maeb.
(Laurel, Laurel geo-geo, Laurelillo); Nectandra patens (Sw.) Griseb. (Laurel, Laurd
roseta); Nectandra conacea (Sw.) Griseb. (Avispillo, Laurel). Trees from 30 to 70 feet
high, occurring mostly in the mountains of the Luquillo region, and relatively unim-
portant. Wood light brown. Pores small, isolated or in groups of two or thiee,
evenly distributed. Pith rays minute, inconspicuous.
29. Hufelandia pendula (Sw.) Nees. Aguacate cimarron, Cedro macho. Laurel, Bale
Colorado.
Tree from 50 to 60 feet high and from 1 foot to 1} feet in diameter, occuiiing in
mountainous regions. Wood yellowing-brown turning darker with exposure to air mud
light. It is fine and straight-grained, hard, moderately neavy, strong, and tough. Pores
niunerous, small, and evenly distributed. Pith rays narrow and inconspicuous.
30. Acrodiclidium salicifolium (Sw.) Griseb. Canela, Ganelillo.
Tree from 25 to 50 feet high. Common in the mountainous districts, but of ali^t
economic value.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
TBEES OF POBTO RICO. 71
X. HsRNANDIACBiB.
tL Eemandia soncra L. Mago.
Tree from 30 to 60 feet high, with a limited occurrence in the mountains of the
Ltiaaillo r^ion. Wood little used. Wood cream colorwi, fine-grained, rather soft
ana light. Pores visible to the unaided eye, isolated or in groups of two to six, often
more, evenly distributed.
XI. Oafparoiacejb.
tL Cap-parts portoricerms Urb. Burro, Burro bianco.
Tree from 45 to 60 feet high, found near the southern coast. Wood white or light
yellow, fine-grained, taking a good polish, moderately hard and heavy. Pores small,
iselated or in groups of two to four, evenly distributed. Pith rays narrow, incon-
spicuous.
Note. — Capparis jamaicensis Jacq. (Burro, Palo de burro Prieta), is reported
as a shrub or tree from 10 to 50 feet high, occurring along the coast. Wood similar
to the preceding.
XII. Bbuneluac&s.
O. Brunellia comoeladifolia H. ^ B. Palo bobo.
Tree from 45 to 60 feet high, of limited occurrence in the mountainous region of the
island.
XIII. Rosacea.
9L Prunus ocdderUalis Sw. Almendron, AlmendriUo.
Tree from 40 to 50 feet high and from 1 foot to 2 feet in diameter, common throughout
the island. Wood employed, like the black cherry {Prunus ierotina), for cabinet
inA and interior finish of houses.
Wood light brown^ fine and straight-grained, taking an excellent polish, and often
difficult to distinguish from light-colored mahogany. It is hard, neavy (about 66
pounds per cubic foot), strong, moderatelv tough, and very durable under water,
rores small, numerous, evenly distributed throu^^out the annual rings of growth,
which are easily seen on a smooth transverse section. Pith rays moderately narrow
and easily visible under the hand lens. -^
3S. Hirtella.
Two species are reported from Porto Rico: Hirtella tiandra Sw. (Teta de burra) and
Birlella rugosa Pers. (Teta de burra cimaironf Icacillo).
Describ^ as shrubs or small trees ranging from 20 to 50 feet high and from 6 to 12
inches in diameter, occurring throughout the island, chiefly in mountainous re^ons.
The wood is used principally for fuel and charcoal. Wood light brown, turning darker
with age, fine and str&ig^t-grained, hard, heavy, strong, tough, and moderately dura-
ble in the soil.
XIV. LEOUMINOSiB.
*9k Inga vera Willd. Guava, Gauba.
. Tree from 30 to 50 feet high growing in mountainous region and extensively planted
for shade in coffee plantations, for which it is considered the most important tree in
Porto Rico. Wood used only for fuel and charcoal.
Wood light gray, fine grained, moderately hard, heavy (40 pounds per cubic foot),
and strong, rores small, isolated or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed and
sometimes connected tan^entially by the wood-parenchyma fibers surrounding each
pore. Pith rays minute, inconspicuous.
*tl. Inga laurina (Sw.) Willd. Guamd.
Tree from 30 to 50 feet high, abundant in the foothills, and very valuable as a shade
free in coffee plantations, being considered only second to Inga vera for this purpose.
Wood used for firewood and charcoal.
Wood dark gray, fine-grained, moderately hard, and heavy (44 pounds per cubic
wot). Pores small, isolated or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed, and
0^ connected by tangential lines of wood-parenchyma fibers. Pith rays minute
^f^ ineonspicuoiis.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
72 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
*38, Pithecolobium soman (Jacq.) Benth. Saman, Guango; Rain tree (Br. W. I.).
Cultivated tree from 45 to 60 feet high, occurring sparingly throughout the island.
Native of Central and South America. Excellent for shade in yards and along road-
sides, as well as in pastures where through the property of its roots to accumulate and
store nitrogen in the soil it is also beneficial to the grass crop. It yields pods very suit-
able for food for cattle. It is believed to be superior to the bucare {Erythrina) as a
shade for nutmeg, cacao, coffee, tea, and similar crops because less liable to fall and
injure the plantation. It is especially well adapted for planting in dry arid regions.
In Central America the wood is used to make wheels for oxcarts.
Wood red, fine-grained, taking a ^ood polish, fairly hard and heavy, not durable.
Pores moderately small, isolated or m groups of two to four, evenly distributed snr-
rounded by wood parench3rma which sometimes forms tangential lines. Pith rays
small, inconspicuous.
Note. — Pithecolobium arboreum (L.) Urb. (Cojoba, Cojobana) is reported as
being a tree from 45 to 60 feet high and about 18 inches in diameter, occurting in
many parts of the island . The structure of the wood is similar to that of P.
*99. Albizzia lebbeck (L.) Benth. Acacia amarilla. Amor platonico, Flamboyin;
East Indian walnut, Siiis tree, Woman's tongue (Br. W. I.)-
Beautiful cultivated tree from 30 to 40 feet high, drought resisting, and planted in
the southern part of the island. Native of the East Indies. Has no economic usee
in Porto Rico, but elsewhere the wood is used for house and boat building, furniture,
sugar-cane crushers, etc., while the gum, as an adulterant of gum arable, is used in
calico printing.
Wood dark brown, lustrous, and rather cross-grained, resembling our black walnut
{Jxwlans niora L.) in app^rance and finish, takes a good polish, seasons and works
well, is hard, heavy (about 48 poimds per cubic foot), moderately strong, and durable.
Pores small, isolated or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed and more or less
surrounded by wood parenchyma. Pith rays small, inconspicuous.
40. Acacia nudiftora Willd. Cojoba, Cojobana, Tamarindo cimarron, Acacia nudosa.
Tree from 25 to 50 feet high and about a foot in diameter, with a limited distribution
on the east coast. Wood brown, tin^d with red, somewhat coarse and straight-
grained, taking a eood polish. It is nard^ heavy, strong, moderately tou^h, and
durable. Pores rather large and arranged in more or lees irregular timgential rows
visible on smooth transverse surface. •
Note. — Another species. Acacia riparia H. B. K. (Zarza). is reported as quite
fifenerally distributea on the island. It attains at times a neight of 45 feet and
nas a wood similar to the above.
*41« Leucaena glauca (L.) Benth. Acacia palida, Hediondilla; Ipil-Ipil (Philip{mke
Islands). "■
Tree from 25 to 30 feet high and sometimes a foot in diameter, quite common througli-
out the island and tropical America generally. The tree is especially well adapted
for reforestation of grassy wastes because of the ease with which it establishes itself in
competition with the grass sod and its rapid growth. Wood used locally lor making
tools, handles, etc.
Wood brownish, tinged with red, rather coarse and straight-grained, taking a good
polish. It is hard, heayv, strong, tough, and very durable. Pores rather large,
solitary, and evenly distributed. Pith rays very narrow and indistinct.
42. Adenanthera pavonina L. Coralitas, Mato, Mato Colorado, Palo de mate, Peio-
nilas.
Tree seldom more than 30 feet high, introduced from the East Indies, and growing
spontaneously in many places. The wood resembles red sandalwood (Pterooarpug)
and is used for making a red dye. The seeds when cnished and mixed with bormz
make an adhesive substance. Wood used for house building and cabinetmaking.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
TREES OF POETO MCO. 73
Wood takee a good polish and is hard, heavy, strong, and durable. Pores moder-
ately laive, solitary, and surrounded by abundant wood parenchyma, which occa-
sioiudly forms tangential lines. Pith rays very numerous and inconspicuous.
*43. Piptadenia peregrina (L.) Benth. Cojobana, Cojoba, Cojobillo, Cojobo.
Tree about 60 feet in height and about a foot in diameter, qiiite generally distributed
on the island. In central and South America it grows to be a very large tree, yielding
Taluable timber known as "yoke," but in Porto Rico no uses have been recorded
except for fuel and charcoal.
Wood dark reddish-brown, close-grained, hard, heavy, strong, tough, and very
durable.
4A* Stahlia monosperma (Tul.) Urb. Oobana negra, C6bana, C6bano, Polisandro.
Tree from 20 to 30 feet high and about a foot in diameter, found chiefly along the
coast and watercoiurses. The wood is much used for making furniture, also for rail-
road ties for the cane roads. Wood is black, hard, heavy, strong, and tough.
HS. Eymmsea oourbaril L. Algarrobo, Courbaril, Quapinole jutahy, Jatoba; Locust
tree (Br. W. I.).
Tree from 30 to 90 feet high, with a diameter of from 4 to 6 feet, well distributed
throu^^at the island. The ^ood is used largely for the cogwheels of sugar mills,
for wagon wheels, in carpentry, and especially for cabinet work and fine furniture.
A restn, known as American copal, resina copal, and courbaril obtained from this tree
is used as a medicament and for ornaments. The fruit is sometimes used as food.
Wood J red with light and dark streaks; sapwood lighter, beautiful, somewhat
resemblmg mahc^any, very fine grained, capable of a high polish, hard, heavy (about
W potmds per cubic foot), tougn, duraole (except when placed underground), and
seasons well. Pores moderately small, isolated or in groups of two to four, evenly
distributed, surroimded by wood parenchyma, which often connects them tan^en-
tially. Annual rings of growth clearly visible. Pith rays small, scarcely visible
to the unaided eye on a smooth transverse surface.
Hi. Tamarmdus indica L. Tamarindo; Tamarind (Br. W. I. ).
Tree from 20 to 60 feet high, very common throughout the island, and widely
cultivated in the Tropics for the acid pulp of its fruit. It is a beautiful ornamental
tree, well adapted for roadside planting. Its leaves, bark, seeds, and flowers all
have medicinal and other useful properties. Probably native to tropical Africa.
The wood is highly esteemed for the handles of tools, as axes and hoes, is sometimes
used for building purposes, and is said to furnish excellent charcoal for the manu-
facture of gunpowder.
Wood light yellow, fine and cross grained, hard, heavy (about 59 poimds per cubic
foot), tough, elastic, and very durable. Pores moderately small, isolated or in groups
of two or three, evenly distributed, often connected by conspicuous tangential lines
of wood parenchyma. Pith rays minute, very inconspicuous.
H. Baukinia kappleri Sagot. Flamboyan bianco, Seplina, Varietal.
Tree from 30 to 50 feet high, introduced from Asia. Grows spontaneously in many
Wis of the island. Wood used for fuel and sometimes for making small articles of
lumiture. Wood brownish in color and very handsome, fine gramed, and takes a
beautiful polish.
*48. Cassia fistula L. Caflafistula.
Cultivated tree from 20 to 60 feet high and about a foot in diameter, a native of
tropical Asia, and very common over the entire island. Wood is used for fuel, the
bark for tanning, and the pulp of the pods medicinally. Wood of a reddish color,
hard, heavy (about 60 poiinds per cubic foot), strong, tough and durable.
*tt. Cassia ffraruHs L. Caflafistula cimarrona.
, Cultivated tree from 40 to 60 feet high and from 1 foot to li feet in diameter, occur-
ring mortly in the southwestern part of the island, foimd to some extent in a wild
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
74 BULLETIN 354, U. 8. DEPABTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
state. Wood used for carpentry and cabinetwork. Wood reddish-brown, handsome,
fine and straight grained, taking a high polish, hard, heavy (about 51 poondfl per
cubic foot), strong, and durable.
*M« Hamatoxylum campechianttm L. Palo de Gampeche, Campeche; Logwood.
Tree from 20 to 40 feet high and 6 or more inches in diameter, occuning in
the western part of the island chiefly along the coast and throughout tropical America.
It is occasionally planted on the island for its wood, the logwood of commerce, which
is used in mftlring dyes.
Wood blood red, very fine and cross grained, taking a very high potish, hard, heavy,
strong, tough, and very durable.
51* Paindana regia Boj. Flamboy^, Flamboyan Colorado; Flame tree (Br. W. I.).
Cultivated tree from 45 to 60 feet high, found mostly in the western part of the
island. Native of ^fadagascar. It is a beautiful ornamental shade tree very common
in the West Indies and widely planted throughout the Tropics. Wood little uted.
Wood white, moderately fine grained, taking a good polish, but soft, light, and not
strong. Pores small, isolated or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Tan-
^ntial lines of wooa-parenchyma fibers very prominent. Pith rays minute, very
mconspicuous.
53. Ormona hrugii Urb. Palo de mato, Mato, Peronia.
Tree from 30 to 80 feet high, with a limited occurrence throughout the island. The
wood is used only for charcoal. Wood very light, soft, and inferior.
6S. Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers. Gallito, B&culo, Cresta de gallo.
A tall shrub or small cultivated tree from 10 to 30 feet hkh, quite generally planted
over the island. Probably a native of the East Indies. The wood is used for poles,
posts of native houses, and firewood. Parts of the tree are used medicinally and as
food. Wood white, soft, light, and not durable. Pores of medium size, isolated or
in groups of two to five, evenly distributed. Pith rays small, indistinct.
*54. Pictetia aeuleata (Vahl.) Urb. (=- P. aristata P. DC). Tachuelo, Hachuelo.
Tree from 15 to 30 feet high, foimd chiefly in the southern and eastern coastal
regions. The wood is often used in native house construction for underpinning,
shingles, and shelving, and for cabinet work. It becomes with age extremely hard,
so that it will turn the edge of almost any woodworking tool. It is somewhat used
for fuel, but the charcoal burner avoids it because of the effect upon his ax.
Wood dark brown, fine, and straight grained, taking a very high polish, extremely
hard, heavy, strong, tough, lasting sdmost indennitely m contact witn the soil. Pores
ra^er smail and connected by numerous fine tangential lines, which are visible
only imder a hand lens on a smooth transverse surface.
55. PUrocarpus officinalis Jacq. Palo polio, Palo de polio.
Tree from 75 to 90 feet high and from 1 foot to 2 feet in diameter, found chieflv in
swampy localities in Porto Rico, but more generally distributed in other parts of the
West Indies and Central America. Wood is used for fuel.
Wood light brown or rusty colored, fine and straight grained. It doee not take a
very high polish and is soft, light (about 35 pounds per cubic foot), weak, brittle,
and not durable in contact with the soil.
56. Lonchocarpus.
This j;enus is represented in Porto Rico by three species which are of but slight
econonuc importance. Lonchocarpus latifolius (W.) H. B. K. (Palo Hediondo, Forte
Ventura), a tree occasionally 60 feet high found in many parts of the island. The
wood, sometimes used locally for furniture, is reddish with occasional dark or black
streaks. Lonchocarpus domingensis (Pers.) P. DC. (Geno-geno)^ and Londiocarpus
glaucifolius Urb. (Geno), tree from 15 to 45 feet high with a limited distribution in
the western part of the island. Wood used for fuel.
Digitized by VjOQQIC
TBEES OP POBTO BICO. 75
*fl. PisddUi piscipiUa (L.) Saig. Ventura.
Tree often 60 feet high and about 2 feet in diameter. It hae a very limited occur-
imce along the shores of the island. Wood is lifi;ht yellow-brown, very fine and
straight grained, taking a very good polish, hard, heavy (about 54 pounds per cubic
foot), strong, tough, and very durable in contact with the ground. Pores rather
kige, not numerous, and surrounded bv softer tissue which is clearly visible in
transverse surface as numerous tangential bands.
18. Andirajamaicenns (W. Wr.) Urb. Moca^ Moca blanca; Cabbage tree (Br. W. I.);
Bastard cabbage-bark, Angelin (Jamaica).
Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and from 12 to 30 inches in. diameter, quite generally
distributed in the forests throughout the island. The wood is very suitable for piles,
bridges, boat construction, the hubs of wheels, flooring, and all kinds of carpentry
work. Its most common use in Porto Bico is for the framework of country houses.
The wood is imported into Europe and this country for walking sticks and umbrella
and parasol handles and for the turned parts of cabinetwork.
Wood reddish-yellow with dark streaks, cross and coarse-grained, capable of a high
polish, hard, heavy (from 47 to 55 pounds per cubic foot), strong, tough, and espe-
cially durable in water. Pores moderately laige, isolated or sometimes in groups of
two to four, evenly distributed, and connected by tangential branching lines of wood-
parenchyma fibers. Pith rays narrow, indistinct.
A. Erytkrina,
A genus reixesented in Porto Rico by two native and one introduced species. Of
the native species Erytkrina corallodendron L. (Bucare, Piilon eepinoso; Red bean
tree [Jamaica); Coral wood, Arbol madre [Mexicop is a shrub or small tree from 10 to
20 feet high, found chiefly on limestone hills, while Erytkrina alauca Willd. (Bucago)
is from 30 to 40 feet high, with a limited occurrence^ usually along rivers. Both
species occur quite penerally throughout tropical America^ Their wood is made into
corks, floats for fishing nets, li^t ladders, etc., and is lifi;ht in color, coarse-grained,
corky, soft, light, ana weak. ^ Tores of medium size, isolated or in groups of two or
three, evenly distributed. Pith rays easily distinguishable on a smooth transverse
sorhce. Erytkrina micropteryx Poepp. (Bucare, Palo de boyo; Bois immortelle, Madre
decacao[S. Am.]) is a tree from 45 to 60 feet high, cultivated in many localities on the
ifllamd, mostly on coffee plantations, for its shade. Indigenous in Peru. Wood soft,
similar to the other two species.
XV. ZTOOPHYLLACBiB.
*U. Guajojcum officinale L. Guayadln, Lignum-vitee.
•Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and from 12 to 18 inches in diameter, occurring chiefly
along the southern coast. The wood is highly esteemed for its wearing qualities, and
is widely used for pulleys, rollers for casters, wooden cogs, mortars, hubs for wheeb,
and wherever great strength and hardness are required.
Wood dull yellowish-brown with dark olive-brpwn streaks, very fine, close and
croes grained, greasy to the touch, takes a fine polish, and is extremely hard and
heavy (about & pounds per cubic foot), very tough, and durable. PcM-es minute,
isolated, and easily distributed. Pith rays minute and very inconspicuous.
NoTB. — ^Another species said formerly to have been abundant by now of only
limited occurrence along the south coast is Quajacwm sanctum L. (Guayacdn
bianco, Guayacancillo), a shrub or tree from 30 to 45 feet high, having a wood
similar to that of the jneceding.
XVI. RXTTACEiB.
•1. Fagara^ martinicensis Lam. Cenizo, Espino, Espino rubial, Ayua; Prickly ash
(Br. W. I.).
Tree from 40 to 80 feet high and from 1 foot to 3 feet in diameter, found in the moun-
tain forests throughout the island. The wood is used for furniture and cabinetwork
and also for house building. The bark contains a dye.
1 fVigoro— ZafiAoqflttiii.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
76 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Wood * light yellow, fine and straight grained, taking a very beautiful polish, hard,
heavy (60 {)ounds per cubic foot), strong, somewhat brittle, and not considered dura-
ble for outside work. Pores small, solitary or sometimes erouped in twos and threes.
Pith rays very narrow and scarcely visible under the hand lens.
*<»• Fagaraflava (Vahl.) Kr. et Urb. Satinwood, Yellow wood (Br. W. I.).
Tree from 10 to 30 feet high and from 10 to 12 inches in diameter with a limited
distribution in the southwestern part of the island. The wood is used for veneering,
cabinetwork, and furniture. It is too valuable for structural purposes. It was for-
merly exported as a substitute for the true satin wood (Chloroxylon 9wietenta DC.) ci
India.
Wood light yellow, but darkening with age. It has a satiny luster on a longitudinal
surface, wnere it shows when polished a beautiful rippled pattern. It is hai^, heavy
(about 60 pounds per cubic foot), strong, and moderately tough. Structure of wood
similar to the preceding.
Note.— Other species of this genus in Porto Rico are Fagara carihsta Kru^ et
Urb. (Espino Rubial). a tree from 30 to 60 feet high; Faaara monophylla Lam.
^Carubio, Mapurito, Kubia, Espino, Espino Rubial); and jPo^ora trifoliata Sw.
(Espino Rubial), trees from 10 to 30 feet high, each commonly occurrin'? in the
foomills and south coast regions.
63* Ravenia xirbani Engl. Tortugo Prieto.
Tree from 30 to 50 feet high, of rare occurrence, reported only from the high forest
region of the Sierra de Luqmllo.
ti* Amyris maritima Jacq. Tea, Palo de tea.
Tree from 15 to 30 feet high and ^m 4 to 8 inches in diameter, growing in thickets
near the sea. It is very suitable for furniture, and splinters are used as torches by
ihe natives. It is especially useful in exposed situations.
Wood light yellow, with a spicy odor, very fine-grained, and oily to the touch. It
takes a fine polish and is hard, heavy, strong, and durable. Pores minute, isolated
or in groups of two to twelve, sometimes more, evenly distributed. Pitli rays very
small and inconspicuous.
*NoTE. — Another species of but slight importance in Porto Rico is Amtpis haU
Bomifera L. (Tea; rosewood or torchwood [Jamaica]), a tree from 15 to 20 feet hig)i,
with whitish wood very similar in properties and uses to A. maritima.
*65. Citrus aurantium L. China dulce, Naranja China; Sweet orange (Br. W. I.).
A cultivated tree from 15 to 40 feet high and occasionally nearly a foot in diameter.
A native of southern Asia, it has been widely introduced throughout the Tropics. It
is planted everywhere on the island and to some extent grows spontaneously. The
wood is much used for making walking sticks, in cabinetwork, and for kni^kknacks
of various sorts. The fruit varies widely in quality and size, but the best of it is heavy
and juicy and has a fine flavor.
Wood light yellow, close and straight grained, taking a beautiful polish, hard, heavy
(about 55 pounds per cubic foot), very strong, tough, and durable. Pores verv amali,
numerous, and more or less evenly distributed. Numerous fine tangential lines of
soft tissue visible on a smooUi transverse surface under the hand lens. Pith rays
very narrow, numerous, and inconspicuous.
Note. — The principal horticultural varieties also cultivated for their fruit,
some of which are to be found growing in the semi wild state, are: Citrus bigaradia
Loisel (Naranja; Sour orange [Br. W. I.]); Citrus deamuma L. (Toronja, Pomelo,
Grapefruit)* Citrus hysUiXy suosp., acida (Roxb.) Bonavia (Lima, Idme); CitruM
limonum Risso (Lim6n, Lemon); Citrus inedica L. (Toronja, Cidra, Citron, Citrus
limetta, Bergamota, Limon dulce, Sweet lemon).
^ See pp. 10 and 11, Forest Service Circular 184, "Fustic Wood: Its Adulterants."
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
TREES OF PORTO RICO. 77
XVII. SnCASUBACEiE.
H$» Simaruba tulm Urb. AceitiUo; West Indian satinwood (Br. W. I.).
Treefirom20to 50 feet high and from 12 to 18 inches in diameter, occurring in moun-
tain forests from the LuquiUoe to Maricao. It is reported formerly to have been plen-
tiful on the limestone uplands north of Lares, in aasociat*on with moralon and capa
bknca, and to have been cut into lumber for building purposes. Now sojscarce as to
be no longer of any importance. Elsewhere in tropical America it is considered one
of the rarest and moot expensive ornamental woods for furniture and interior finish,
bemg so much sought after that the stumps are often dug up and cut into veneer.
Wood h^t yellow, very fine, and often wavy-grained, taking a high polish, hard,
heavy (about 55 pounds per cubic foot), strong, and durable. Pores small, isolated
or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays narrow, not visible to the
unaided eye.
17. Piaramnia pentandra 8w. Guarema, Hueso, Hueso prieto, Palo de hueso.
Tree from 15 to 35 feet high and from 15 to 25 inches in diameter, occurring quite
generally on the island. Wood used in house building.
Wood dark colored, fine grained, taking a good polish, hard, and very heavy (about
76 pounds per cubic foot). Pores small, isolated or in groups of two or three, evenly
distributed. Pith rays narrow, inconspicuous.
XVIII. BURSERACELE.
18. Tetraaastris halsamifera (Sw.) O. Kuntze. Masa, Masa Colorado, Palo de aceite,
Palo de masa; Copal (Guatemala).
A conmion forest tree from 20 to 70 feet high and from 16 to 20 inches in diameter,
foond in the mountainous parts of the island. This tree yields a very desirable wood
ks interior work of houses.
Wood rose-colored or yellowish, beautiful, fragrant, and fine-grained, moderately
hard, light, strong, and very durable. Pores small, isolated or in groups of two to four,
evenly distribute. Pith rays small, inconspicuous.
O. Dacryodes exceUa Vahl. Tabanuco, Tabonuco; Candle wood (Br. W. I.).
A tree from 60 to 75 feet high and from 3 to 5 feet in diameter, foimd quite generally
in the mountainous regions, especially in the Luquillos, where it often occurs in large
stands. One of the most valuable trees on the island for lumber, because of its large
aze, straightness of bole, and occurrence in close, pure stands. A resin obtained
from the gum is used extensively by the natives for candles and torches, as incense,
and medicinally. The wood is used for flooring, ceiling, etc., and is often stained
and sold as mahogany.
Wood brown, sometimes cross and fine grained, often giving a ''satiny" appearance.
It is similar in phvsical properties to our yellow poplar {Liriodendron tuapifera L.),
lumber dealers of this country placing them in the same class. Tabanuco is, however,
bandsomer and finer grained than yellow poplar and capable of a bidder polish. It is
modautely hard, heavy, strong, and not durable when exposed. Fores small, soli-
tary, or in groups of two cor two or three, and evenly distributed. Pith rays small,
inconspicuous.
*W, Btmera simaruba (L) Saig. (=J?. gummifera, Jacq.). Almdcigo; Gumbo limbo.
West Indian birch (Br. W. I.).
Tree imm 20 to 40 feet high, very common on the island. This is the largest tree
of the cbapanal forests on the limestone hills of the south side of the island. Like the
jobo {Sjxmdias lutea), it is readily propogated from cuttings, even from stakes of large
siie. It is therefore used for "live" fence posts and is one of. the commonest trees
to be seen along the roadside, where it also serves, though poorly, for the piuT)ose
of diade. The wood is of little value.
Wood light brown, often with dark discolorations, fine grained, very soft, spongy,
ligjit, weak^and very liable to decay. Pores numerous, small, isolated or in groups of
two^ three, sometmiee more. Hth rays very inconspicuous.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
78 BULLETIN 364, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
XIX. Ueuacex.
^1. Cedrda odorata L. Cedro, Cedro hembra; West Indian cedar; Spanish cedar;
Cigar-box cedar (Br. W. I.).
Tree from 50 to 100 feet high and from 4 to 6 feet in diameter, fcmnerly common
to all parts of the island, but now rare except in the inaccessible places. Spanish
cedar is one of the most highly esteemed woods in' the West Indies and is used for
more purposes than any other. Its principal use, however, is for cigar boxes.
The wood is pale reddiflh-brown, but varies considerabljr from very light to very
dark, depending upon the age and the kind of soil in which it grows. It has a general
app^u'ance similar to that of mahogany and possesses a characteristic fragrant odor.
It IS moderately soft, light (about 30 pounds per cubic foot), rather strong, somewhat
tough, and very durable in contact witn the soil . Pores are rather large, not numerous,
solitary, or often in small groups distributed evenly throughout the wood. Pith rays
few, narrow, and indistinct to the naked eye.
*!%• Stvietenia mahagoni Jacq. Caoba; Mahogany (Br. W. I.).
Tree from 60 to 100 feet high and from 3 to 5 feet in diameter. This tree hmfl not
been reported from Porto Eico by recent botanical explorers. There is some evidence,
however, that mahogany occurred at one time on the island. It is the most highly
esteemed wood for furniture and interior finish. No other wood has such a wide range
of uses and so many substitutes.
Wood light or dark brown, with a very pleasing appearance when polished. It is
fine and cross grained, works rather easily, hard, heavy (varies from 35 to 67 pounds
per cubic foot}, strong, tough, and very durable. Pores are moderately large, often
filled with white or brown substance (tvloses), and arranged singly or in small groups;
pith rays inconspicuous to the unaided eye.
^3* Melia azedarach L. Alilaila, Lilaila, Pasilla; China berry (Br. W. I.)
Tree from 20 to 60 feet high and from 8 to 15 inches in diameter, cultivated and
growing spontaneotsly in various parts of the island, including the Cordillera Cential
and the limestone formation of the western and southwestern coast. This tree has
been introduced from Asia and is now very common throughout tropical and sub-
tropical parts of the world for shade and ornament. The wood is sometimes used by
the country people for tool handles and the like.
Wood mahogany colored, with a coarse and straight grain, moderately soft, Ught, weak,
and not durable in contact with the soil. Pores rather lajge in early wood, which ren-
der the boundary of the annual rings of growth usually very conspicuous; the pores
in the late wood are much smaller and inconspicuous.
*NoTE. — ^An umbrella variety of the alilaila, Melia azedoBrach umbraculUera
Sarg. (Umbrella China tree, China berry (Br. W. I.), which was developed in
Texas in about 1880, is planted in Porto Rico merely for shade and omam^it.
The wood has characteristics similar to the one above.
*74. Ouarea trickUioides L. Guaraguao, Acajou; Musk wood*(Br. W. I.).
Tree from 40 to 80 feet high and sometimes 6 feet in diameter. It occurs in mountain
forests from the Luquillos to Maricao and is one of the leading woods of the island,
being very highly prized by the natives . Because of the great demand it is now rather
scarce. Its principal uses locally are for strong wagons «nd carriages, farm imple-
ments, and general carpentry. The wood resembles mahogany and Spanish cedar
and is useful for the same purposes.
Wood light reddish-brown, sometimes streaked with lighter and darker shades,
hard, moderately heavy, strong, tough, and very durable in contact with the soil.
It has in a general way the appearance of dark-colored mahc^ny and an odor resem-
bling musk. Pores small, very numerous, and connected by fine tangential KneB
of softer tissue which are scarcely visible to the unaided eye. Pith rays very narrow,
numerous, and inconspicuous.
*NoTE. — ^Another and little-known species of this genus is G. rami^Um
Vent. (Guaraguaillo, Guaraguao macho), a tre^ usually und^ 25 feet and rarely
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
TBEE8 OF POBTO EICO. 79
60 feet high, occumng in the forests, widely distributed, but not plentiful,
throughout the uplands from the Luquillos to Mayaguez. Wood similar to the one
above.
74. TruhClia,
Three species of this genera occur in Porto Rico: TricMlia pallida Sw. (Caracolillo,
Giita, Ramoncillo, Cabo de hacha); THchUia hirta L. (Cabo de hacha, Guaita, Jobillo,
Molinillo, Palo de anastaaio, Retamo, Guayavac6n}; and TruMlia triacantha Urb.,
trees from 15 to 60 feet high, occiuring princifmlly in the mountainous regions of the
isluid and to some extent in the limestone hills of the south coast. Wood, though
very similar to that of G. trichUioideSj is seldom used except for fuel.
XX. Malpiohiacejb.
*!%• Bjfnonma spicata (Oav.) L. Gl. Rich. Maricao.
Tree from 20 to 60 feet high and from 18 to 24 inches in diameter, occurring quite
generally in forests throughout the island. The wood is used for fmmiture and house
building. The bark is astringent and is used for tanning.
Wood dull reddish brown, moderately fine ^ined. taking a good polish, moder-
ately hard, Jieavy, and strong. Pores small, isolated or in groups ot two or three,
evenly distributed. Pith rays narrow, inconspicuous.
*77. Bynonima ludda (Sw.) L. Gl. Rich. Palo de doncella, Sangre de donceila.
Tree from 20 to 30 feet high, quite widely distributed on the island. The wood is
highly esteemed for furniture and interior finish. Wood dark brown, v^ fine
(grained, taking a good polish, moderately hard, heavy, and strong. Pores minute,
isolated^ or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays very narrow ana
inconspicuous.
XXI. Etjfhobbiaobjb.
78. PkyUanthus.
T#o swedes of this genera are found in Porto Rico, one a native (Phyllanihus nobilis
var. annUanua (Jxiss^ Mail. (Amortiguado, Avispillo, Higuerlllo, HiguUlo, Millo,
Palo de millo, Siete-cueros [mas.], Yaquillo Tfem.]) is a tree fcrom 30 to 60 feet high,
widely distributed on the island; the other JPhyllanthus disHchiis (L.) MtUl. (Grosefla,
Grosella blanca, Gerezas, Gereza amarilla, Otaheite ^ooseberry)^ introduced from
India^ is a tree from 15 to 30 feet high, cultivated for the sake of its fruit. Wood of
both IS but little used, although very beautiful, white, hard, strong, and tough.
•Tf. Drypetes laUriflora (Sw.) Kr. et Urb. Varital; Florida or Guiana plum, White-
wood (Br. W. I.).
Tree from 20 to 30 feet high and from 5 to 10 inches in diameter, found principsdly
near Bayamon. It is also common in southern Florida and on the islands of the West
Indies. Wood rich dark brown, very fihe and cross grained^ hard^ heavy (about 58
pounds per cubic foot), not strong, brittle, and liable to check in drying. Pores small,
solitary, or in short radial rows, with numerous very fine tangential lines of softer tissue
present. Pith rays very numerous and inconspicuous.
81. Drypetes alba Poit. Gafeillo, Hueeo, Palo de vaca bianco.
Tree from 15 to 60 feet high found in the moimtain forests of the Sierra de Luquillo
and Gordiilera Gentral. The wood is often used for hubs of wheels, and also for fuel
and charcoal.
Wood light yellow, with irr^^ular, thin, yellowish-brown streaks, fine and cross
grained, taking a high polish, hard, moderately heavy, strong, tough, and difficult
to sptit. Pores rather small, solitary or in short interrupted radial rows, evenly dis-
tributed. Pith rays very narrow, but plainly visible on a smooth surface under the
hand lens.
Note. — ^Another species of this genera of slight importance, yielding a wood
of inferior quality wnich is seldom used except for fuel and charcoal, is Drypetes
gltmca Vahl. (Palo bianco, Oafeillo, Varital, Palo de aceituna), a tree from 20 to
50 feet high and from 1 to 2 feet in diameter, generally distributed throughout the
mountain forests and somewhat in the wooalands alongthe south coast. It is
also common throughout a number of the islands of the West Indies. The wood
is of inferior quality.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
80 BULLETIN 364, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTXJBE.
81* A ^up of unimportant ^nera of this family, each represented by a single specks,
comprises Hieronymia cltunoidea (Tol.) Mull. ^Cedro macho), a tree m>m 45 to
100 feet high, occurring in the western parts oi the island. Native also to other
of the West Indies. Tnere are no recorded uses for the wood nor deecriptions
of its characteristics. Alchomeopsis portoricensis Urban. (Palo de gallina], tree
from 30 to 50 feet hi^h, known only from the Luquillo, and central regions of the island.
It yields a soft wood of Uttle use. .Alchomea latifolia Sw. (Achiotillo, Palo de cotorra,
Yobillo), a tree from 25 to 60 feet high, quite widely distributed, yielding a wood with
groperties similar to that of Palo de gallina. Sapium laurocerasus Desf. (Hincha-
uevos, Lechesillo, ManzaniUo, Tabeiba), a tree from 15 to 50 feet high, widely dis-
tributed in mountainous regions on the island.
*8». Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd. (= A, trUoha Forst.). Nuez, Nuee de India;
Candleberry tree, Candlenut, Indian walnut (Br. W. I.).
Tree from 20 to 40 feet high. Introduced from tropical Asia and the South Set
Islands and planted here and there throughout Porto Rico. It is useful mainly for
shade throughout the Tropics and for the nuts it bears, which are called "kukui"
nuts in the Sandwich Islands. Wood little used.
Wood very light yellow, soft, light, weak, and not durable in contact with the soil. ^
Pores small, isolated or in groups of two to five, radially disposed, and evenly distrib- '
uted. Pith rays minute and very inconspicuo\is.
*88. Hippomane mancinella L. ManzaniUo, Machineel.
Tree from 15 to 50 feet in height, occurring in the coastal regions. It ha^ a poisonoiis
acid sap which necessitates considerable care being taken in felling and in thoroughly
seasoning the wood before workings The wood is suitable for furniture and is used
largely for veranda floors and weatherboarding because of its durability when exposed.
Wood yellowish brown, with darker stripes, beautiful, slightly frafijant, straidit
and very fine grained, resembling in general appearance and texture me boxwood of
commerce (Bvxua sempervirens L. ). It takes a high polish, is hard, varies from light
to heavy (from 36 to 50 pounds per cubic foot), strong, tough, very durable, and very
easy to work; in all these quahties this wood resembles mahogany. The pores are
minute, numerous, solitary, and evenly distributed. Pith rays minute, scarcely
visible to the unaided eye on a radial surface.
84. Hura crepitans L. Javillo, Molinillo, Havillo, Havarilla; Sand-box tree. Mon-
key's dinner bell (Br. W. I.).
Tree from 20 to 50 feet high and from 1 foot to 2} feet in diameter, introduced from
South America. It is planted extensively .throughout the island for shade, because
of its spreading crown. The add irritant sap necessitates careful felling and seascm-
ing of the wood before working. The wood is valued locally for making canoes and
for interior work in houses. In some parts of the West Indies the trunks are often hol-
lowed and used extensively for holding cane sugar.
Wood very light brown, with darker brown stripes, fine and straight grained, taking
a fine poUsh. It is soft, li^t (about 31 pounds per cubic foot), extremely brittle,
and is said to resist the action of water. Pores very small ana evenly distributed
throughout the annual rings of growth. Pith rays very inconspicuous.
XXII. Anacardiacej£.
*SS. Mangifera indica L. Mango.
A cultivated and sparingly naturalized tree from 30 to 50 feet high and from 12 to
18 ipches in diameter, native of southern Asia or the Malay Archipelago. It yields
a very common but highly prized fruit of the Tropics, comparable in quality and
value with the apple or the orange, though entirely different from either in texture
and flavor. The wood is useful for the same purposes as our common ash (Fnxinus),
gunstocks, tool handles, window frames, etc.
Wood gravish brown, fine grained, hard, heavy (about 50 pounds per cubic foot),
strong, tougn, and elastic. Pores small^ isolated or in groups of two to four, eventy
distributed. Pith rays narrow, inconspicuous.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
TBEES OF POBTO RICO. 81
81. Anacardhtm ocdderUale L. Pajuil, Cajuil, Acaju, Marafi6n; Cashew tree (Br.
W. I.).
A wild and cultivated tree from 20 to 40 feet high and from 9 to 12 inches in
diametef , occnmng in all parts of the island. It is used largely in boat building, for
cuiiage hubs, yokes, and farm utensils. Its principal use in Porto Eico is for char-
coal and fuel. The nuts are edible when roasted, and yield oils whiph are useful for
many purposes. An acrid irritant substance contained in the soft shell of the nuts
neceasitates care in handling them. This is driven off as poisonous fumes in roasting.
Wood pinkish, fine grained, hard, moderately heavy (about 36 pounds per cubic
foot), strong, and durable. Pores small, isolated or in groups of two to four,, evenly
distributed. Pith rays^small, inconspicuous.
87, Spondias mcmbin L. {=8. lutea L.). Jobo; Hog plum (Br. W. I.).
Tree from 30 to 40 feet high and from 1 foot to 2 feet in diameter. Very common
throughout the island, particularly alo^ roadsides. It is much used for stakes and
fence posts, which are very durable because they take root and live. It is probably
dae to this property, as with the almac'igo {Bursera simaruba)^ more than to any
specially favorable quality as a shade tree that they are so commonly foimd along
roadsides. It is one of the trees commonly pollarded for fuel wood and bears an edible
fruit which is much esteemed.
Wood yellowish brown, fine grained, soft, light (about 30 pounds per cubic foot),
and moderately strong. Pores small, isolated or in groups of two or three, evenly
distributed. Pith rays minute, very inconspicuous.
8S. Svondias purpurea L. Ciruela, Ciruela del pais, Jobillo, Jobo francos; Spanish
plum (Br. W. I.).
A tree or shrub from 20 to 30 feet high, occurring in mountainous regions. It is
often cultivated for its fruit, which is considered superior to 8. mombin. Wood in
all respects similar to 8. mombin.
9L Metopium toxiferum (L.) Krug. et. Urb. Cedro prieto, Papayo; Poison wood,
Hogplum(Br. W. I.).
Tree from 30 to 50 feet high, with a short trunk sometimes 2 feet in diameter. It
has a limited distribution in the southwestern part of the island, and occurs through-
out the West Indies and on the keys of southern Florida.
Wood rich, dark brown streaked with red, fine and strai^t grained, resembling
the wood of our native sumacs. It takes a fine polish, is easily worked, moderately
hard, heavy (about 50 pounds per cubic foot), not strong, and only moderately tou^h.
Pores smtafl, very numerous, and evenly distributed throughout the wooa. Pith
rays v^y naiTow and inconspicuous.
XXIII. Aquifoliace^.
Ii» Ikx niUda (Vahl.) Maxim. (= J. dioica Griseb.) Cuero de sapo, Brigueta naranjo,
Hueao i)rieto, Palo de hueso.
Tree from 20 to 60 feet high and from 10 to 15 inches in diameter, occurring in the
mountain forests of the Luquillo region and generally throughout the island. The
wood is used for fuel and for hut .building. Wood light-colored, fine-grained, hard,
and heavy.
9L Hex nderoxyloides var. occidentalis (Macf.) Loes. Gongolin; Central American oak
(Br. W. I).
Tree from 30 to 50 feet high, occurring in the moimtain forests of the Luquillo
regioQ. Wood of little use. Wood fiesh-colored, hard, and heavy.
XXIV. CELASTRACB-fi.
tL EUeodendron xylocarpum var. corymbosum (Vahl.) Urb. Cocorron, Coscorron,
Guayarote.
Shrub or tree from 10 to 30 feet high, occurring quite generalljr along the seacoasts
of the island. Wood fiiie-grained. Pores minute, isolated, or in groups of two or
three, evenly distributed. Pith rays moderately narrow but conspicous.
21871<'— BuU. 354-16 6
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
82 BULLETIN 364, V. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTURE.
XXV. Staphyleacejb.
93. Turpinia paniculata Vent. Aviapillo, Cedro hembra, Eugenio, Lilaililla, Sauco
Cimarron.
Tree from 30 to 60 feet or more high, occurring in the moimtaii\8 and waste places.
The wood, which is used for fuel and charcoal, is somewhat similar to that of out blad-
der nut {StaphyUa tnfolia L.).
XXVI. Sapindaceje.
94. Thouinia striata Radlk. CeboruquiUo, Guara, Quiebra hacha, Seburoquillo.
Tree from 25 to 65 feet high, occurring generally throughout the island, usually in
the drier situatioD s. No uses are reported for the wood , doiibtless because of its extreme
hardness.
Wood light-colored, very fine-eiained, with manv fine light lines, giving a pleasing
fi^e. It takes a fine pohsh and is extremely hard, heavjr, strong, and tough. Pores
minute, isolated, or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays minute,
inconspicuous.
95. Melicocca hijuga L. Guenepa, Quenepas; Genip tree, Genipe; Ginep (Br. W. I.).
A cultivated and semiwild tree from 25 to 60 feet high and up to 3 feet in diameter
reported from the east, south, and west parts of the island. It is native of tropical
America and ts found throughout the West Indies. It is cultivated somewhat for its
fruit and is also suitable for ornament and for roadside shade. Wood is said to be
heavy and hard and useful for all purposes except in exposed situations. No local
uses are reported.
*96« Cupania.
There are two species of this genera represented in the tree flora of Porto Rico,
namely, Cupania americoTia L. (GKiara, Guara blanca), and Cupania triqwetra A. Rich.
(Guara).
Trees from 30 to 60 feet high, quite widely distributed locally, and occurring gener-
ally throughout the West Indies. The woods of all are alike and are used largely for
posts.
Wood very light brown, with a conspicuous wavy ^mn. It takes a high polish, is
soft, moderateljr light, and brittle. Pores solitary or m groups of two or three, evenly
distributed. Fith rays minute, very inconspicuous.
*97. Matayaha domingensis (DC.) Radlk. Doncella, Tea cimarrona, Raton.
Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and from 8 to 10 inches in diameter, occurring chiefly in
Luquillo and central mountain regions. It is found also in the otiier Greater Antilles.
No local uses for the wood are reported.
Wood red, fme and straight grained, taking a beautiful polish and resembling dark-
colored mahogany. It is hard, heavy, strong, tough, and very durable. Pores rather
large, solitary, and evenly distributed; pith rays are narrow and more or less indistinct
except under the hand lens.
Note. — Another species Matayaha apetala (Macf.) Radlk. (Doncella) is also
reported from the same localities. Size and uses are not noted, although in
Jamaica it is r8]:)orted as attaining a height of from 40 to 60 feet and a diameter of
2i feet and as bein^ a most useful hardwood, suitable for all purposes and eqKKoally
for exposed situations.
98. Exothea paniculata (Juss.) Radlk. (=nypelata paniculata Camb.). Guaciran,
Gdita.
Tree from 20 to 30 feet high and from 12 to 18 inches in diameter, occurring in the
limestone hills of the western part of the island. Wood used occasionally for cabinet
work. Wood white, moderately hard, heavy, and strong.
XXVII. SABIACEiB.
99. Melioama.
Two species of this genus occur in Porto Rico: Meltosma obtustfolia Kiug, and tJrb.
(Guayrote arroyo, Aguacatillo, Cacao bobo, Cacaillo, Ciralillo, SeriUos), and Melioma
herbertii Rolfe. (Aguacatillo, Cacao bobo). Trees from 30 to 60 feet high, generally
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
TREES OF POBTO RICO. 83
distributed throughout the mountainous interior from the Luquillos to Maricao and
Anaaco. Reported also from several other of the West Indies. No local uses for the
wood are reported. Pores of wood small, isolated, or in groups of from two to ei^t
or more. Pith rays small, inconspicuous.
XXVIII. 'Rhamnace^.
IMl Colubrina femiginosa Bron^. Abelluello, Abejuelo, Achiotillo, Aguacatillo,
Aguaytaiin, Guitaran, Quitaran, Mabi, Raton, Sanguinaria; Snakewood, Iron-
wood, West Indian groenheart (JBr. W. I.).
Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and sometimes 2 feet in diameter, quite generally dis-
tributed throughout the island. The wood is used for building and occasionally for
piling on account of its resistance to decay in water.
Wood liffht yellowish-brown, very fine and wavy-grained, taking a very good pol-
ish, very durable in contact with the soil, hard, heavy (about 60 pounds per cubic
foot), strong, and tough. Pores very small, somewhat more numerous in the early
wood than in the late wood. Pith rays very narrow and inconspicuous.
*NoTB. — Another species of little economic importance is Colubrina reclinata
(rn^.) Brongn. (Mabi, Palo mabi), a tree 15, rarely 30, feet high from the south-
western part of the island. Wood similar to the preceding.
XXIX. Elo^carpace-b.
WL SUxmea berteriana Choisy. Cacao motilla, Cacao otillo. Cacao roseta, Cacaillo,
Motillo.
Tree from 25 to 90 feet high and sometimes over 2 feet in diameter, occurring chiefly
in mountain iare8ta. The wood is used locally for fuel and building purposes.
Wood white, taking a high polish, very hard, heavy, strong, tough, and very durable
in exposed situations.
XXX. Malvace^.
*lt8. Hibiscus tiliaceus L. (=E%biscus elaius Sw.=Paritium tiliaceum A. Juas.)
Emmajaqua, Emajagua, Maja^a, Mah^ua; Blue or mountain mahoe (Br. W.
I.); Mahot, Mahot franc (Haiti); Hau (Hawaii).
Tree from 10 to 30 feet high,- growing in moist situations, widely distributed through-
out the uplands of the island. Common also in the other West Indies and throughout
the remaining tropical world. The bark furnishes a strong and flexible fiber com*
pvable to jute, which is often used in making cordage. Nearly all the ropes in Porto
Rico are made from this tree. It has also been highly recommended as a raw material
for paper making. The wood makes handsome furniture, cabinetvrork, and flooring,
and is used largely for shingles and railway sleepers.
Wood dark bluish green, with dark and light streak8,(about 47 pounds per cubic
foot), straight and fine-grained, taking a fine polish, hard, neavy, beautiful when pol-
ished, strong, toudi, and very durable. Pores small or in groups of two or three,
evwily distributed. Pith rays minute, inconspicuous.
\9L Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland. Emajaguilla, Palo de Jaqueca, Santa Maria.
Tree from 30 to 60 feet high, occurring on the north and west coasts in moist situations.
It is a common tree on the seashore of most eastern tropical countries ard throughout
the West Indies. The inner bark of the yoimg branches yields a tough fiber which
is used for cordage. The wood is little used locally, but elsewhere in the Tropics is
used iot cabinetwork, building, and a variety of other purposes.
Wood dark brown, tinged with red, beautiful, ** satiny," fine-grained, resembling
in general appearance our black walnut ( Jiigtans ni^ra L. ) . It is hard, heavy, tough,
»M very durable, especially in water. Pores small, solitary, or in groups of two or
three, evenly distributed, rith rays moderately narrow, distinct, clearly visible on
a pohflhed radial Bur£ace, where they appear as light flecks and give a pleasing
appeaiance.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
84 BULLETIN 364, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
*104. Thespesia grandiflora P. DC. Maga, Magar, Magas.
Tree from 30 to 45 feet high and from 1 to 3 feet in diameter, occurring quite gen-
erally throughout the island. The wood is highly esteemed for furniture, flutes,
guitar pegs, etc. It is also used largely for shesfving and for foimdations, house piling,
etc., because of its durability in the ground.
Wood rich' chocolate-brown, beautiful, fine-grained, takmg a good polldi, hard,
heavy (42 pounds per cubic foot), strong, and very durable in contact with the soil.
Pores solitary or occasionally in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith raye
inconspicuous.
XXXI. BoMBACACEiB.
*1©5« Ceiha pentandra (L.) Gaertn. (=^Er%odendron cmfraetuotum DC). Ceiba;
Silk-cotton, Cotton tree, Kopak tree, Cork wood (Br.- W. I.); Fromager
(Haiti).
Tree from 60 to 100 feet high and sometimes from 8 to 10 feet in diameter, moet com-
mon in the south and west coast regions, particularly on limestone soils. It is^also
widely distributed throughout the Tropics and usually present in open plains and cul-
tivated fields. The wood is used for making boats, dugouts, rafts, tubs, and basins.
Boards and shingles are often made of this wood after treating it by inmiersing the logs
in Umewater. In West Africa its chief commercial value Lies in the ** floes" or '* ko-
pak ' '^ as it is known to Commerce, which is a cottony substance surrounding the seeds.
Wood white or light brown, coarse and straight-grained, very soft, light (about 28
pounds per cubic foot), rather strong, and not durable in contact with the soil. Pom
laige, evenly distributed throughout the annual rings of growth; the latter are not
always clearly marked. Pith rays conspicuous.
IM. Quararibea turbinata (Sw.) Poir. Garrocha, Garrocho, Palo de Gairocha.
A shrub or tree from 25 to 30 feet high, common in all parts of the island.
*107. Ochroma laqopus Sw. Giiano, Corcho; Bois Liege (Haiti); Cork wood, Down
tree (Jamaica); Balsa wood (of commerce).
Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and 1 foot or more in diameter common on the limesUHie
soils and along the shore directly behind the mangrove in the north and west coast
regions and generally throughout the south coast and south slopes of the Ceotial
Mountains. Particularly common along the roads. It is a tree of the open couAtzy,
Uke the ceiba. The wood, because of it^ extreme lightness, is sometimes iised as a
substitute for true cork, for stopping bottles, as floats for fish nets, and for other pur-
poses where a light wood is required . The bark yields a chestnut-brown fiber suitable
for rope making, and the seed envelopes yield a soft cotton or down extensively used
for stuffing pillows and mattresses and to a limited extent for making into garments.
The bark is also used locally for the tannin it contains, and both bark and roots are
used medicinally.
The wood is nearly white or slightly tinged with red, showing practically no dis-
tinction between heartwood and sap wood. It has a silky texture, loose structure,
and soft tissue eaaily compressible under the thumbnail, and is very fibrous and diflS-
cult to work. It is said to be the lightest of all woods, having a specific gravity varying
1 This floss of the celba Is exported in large quantities from the East Indies and West Africa; the vwrititf
from Java is regarded as a fiber of great merit, and is used for stuffing piUows and sofas. Its lightnes.solt-
ness, and elasticity render it superior to the best qualities of feathers, wool , or hafr. This material has been
employed also as a buoyant material for packing life belts and for making hats and bonnets, and has ev«n
been suggested for the manufacture of paper and guncotton. It is too short in staple and too weak to be
spun into yarn. I'nf jrtunately the silk cotton from the West Indies is accounted of little value at pmwnt,
but it only remains for some one to start its collection hare and ship it to American markets. It has beas
estimated that the average yield of silk cotton from a single tree in the West Indies and Mexico is approxi-
matoly 100 pounds. Many thousands of bales of silk cotton might be collected annuaUy in the West Indlei
and turned to economic use. In 1907 allttle over 20,000,000 pounds of silk cotton was exported tnm. Java
and Sumatra, and of this quantity about 3,000,000 pounds were consumed in the United States for a great
variety of purposes.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
TREES OF PORTO RICO. 85
from 0.120 (or about 7) pounds per cubic foot) to 0.240. Pith rays quite conspicuous
on a transverse section; they are also plainly visible on the radial surface and give
figfure to the wood, resembling the character of beech or sycamore, only they are
more numerous.
*1I8. Theohroma cacao L. Cacao.
A cultivated and seminaturalized tree from 12 to 30 feet high occurring locally on
the north and west sides of the island. It is native to tropical America and is grown
commercially in a number of the West Indies. It is said to grow best under thor-
oughly tropical conditions of moisture and warmth at or near sea level (below 500 feet).
It ia commonly grown under the shade of some one of the leguminous trees, usually
Enfthina mieropteryz (or E. umbosa).
XXXII. Sterculiace^.
*M* Guazuma ulmi/olia Lam. (=Guazuma giuizuTna Cock). Gudcima, Gudcima del
norte; West Indian elm, Guazuma plum (Br. W. I.).
Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and from 15 to 18 inches in diameter, very common
throughout the island, the Antilles generally, and on the continent. Wood used for
oars, posts, staves, fuel, and charcoal.
Wood light grayish-brown, fine and straight-grained, rather soft, light (35 pounds
per cubic foot), moderately weak but tough. Pores small, solitary or in groups of two
or three, rarely more, evenly distributed. Pith rays distinct, but rather inconspic-
Qotii, plainly visible on a smooth radially cut surface.
in. Guazuma tomerUosa H. 6. K. Guidma, Gudcima del sur; Bastard cedar (Br.
W. I.); Orme d'Amerique (Fr. W. 1.).
Tree from 45 to 60 feet high and from 1 foot to 2 feet in diameter, very conamon along
the southern coast of the island and distributed quite generally throughout tropical
America. In Jamaica the wood is said to be used largely for staves of sugar hogsheads,
and the best of the young shoots is used extensively for cordage.
Wood light or grayish-brown, rather fine and straight-grained, fissile, taking a
fairly good polish, moderately soft, li^ht, rather tough and durable in exposed situa-
tions. Pores small, solitary or in radial rows of from two to three. Pith rays narrow
and inconspicuous.
XXXII 1. TERNSTROEMIACEiE.
IIL Represented in Porto Rico by three genera and five tree species, none of which
are commercially im]X)rtant.
These are Temstroemia peduncularis P. DC, from 20 to 30 feet high; Temstroemia
hejUasepala Krug ot Urb., from 15 to 25 feet high; Temstroemia luquillerms Krug et
Trb. (Palo Colorado), from 30 to 60 feet high; Cleyera albopunctata (Griseb.) Krug et
Urb. (Teta prieta), from 25 to 30 feet high; and Haemocharis portoricenm Krug et Urb.
(Madcao, Nifio de cota), from 15 to 60 feet high; all conmion in the Sierra de Luquillo,
the second last extending through the Cordillera Central to Maricao.
XXXIV. GUTTIFER^.
*llti Mammea americana L. Mamey, Mammea; Mammee s^ple (Br. W. I.).
Tjee from 30 to 60 feet high and from 18 to 24 inches in diameter, common in all
parts of the island. Its fruit is very highly regarded by the natives and it is very gen-
erally planted on this account here and elsewhere throughout the American Tropics.
The tree also produces a medicinal gum. The wood is well adapted for house build-
ing, posts, and piles.
Wood reddish brown, beautiful, wavy, and fine-grained, taking a good polish, hard,
heavy (61 pounds p^ cabic foot), resinous, and very durable in damp situations.
Pores small, solitary, or occaaionaUy in pairs, evenly distributed. Pith rays narrow,
very incoD^ucuous.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
86 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUBE.
*113. Calophyllum calaba Jacq. Marias, Palo de Maria; Santa Maria (Jamaica). '
Tree from 45 to 60 feet high and from 2 to 3 feet in diameter (in Jamaica said to
att^ a height of 150 feet and a diameter of 5 feet and over), rather common in the
humid north, east, and ndrthwest sections and occasionally along the banks of the
streams in the semiarid southcoast region. Common also throughout the West Indies.
The wood is said to be greatly prized locally for carpentry work, and for canoes when
the trunk is large enough. Elsewhere it has a variety of uses, such as construction
work, shipbuilding and heavy machine work, ix)sts, furniture, fellies of wheels, and
shingles. Seeds yield an oil said to be used in lamps. Tree is suitable for ornamental
planting.
Wood white or reddish in color, hard and durable. Reported to weigh about 46
poimds per cubic foot.
*114. Cluaia rosea Jacq. Cupey, Palo de Cupey ; Balsam Fig; BaLsam tree (Br. W. I.).
Tree from 20 to 60 feet high and from 18 to 24 inches in diameter; commonly starts
as a parasite on the branches of other trees, although it may start directly on the
ground. It is quite generally distributed on the island and throughout the West
Indies. The wood is used largely for posts and fuel.
Wood reddish-brown with brown and white streaks, very cross and fine grained,
hard, heavy (55 pounds per cubic foot), and durable. Pores small, solitary or in
pairs, evenly distributed. Pith rays moderately narrow, distinct, but not con^ic-
uous.
Note. — Other incidental and imimportant trees in this and a closely related
genus are Clusia hruaiana Urb. (Cupey, Cupei, Cupeillo), occurring in the Lu-
' '^ ^'aportoruxnsis Urb. (^Clusia acuminata Spreng=rapo-
quillo region, and Rh , ^ ~
mita elliptica C. & 0.) (Guayabacoa, Sebucdn), growing along the seacoasts,
shrubs or trees from 10 to 60 feet high, with wood resembling that of Chmat wsgl
XXXV. BlXACEiB.
llff. Bixa orellana L. Achiote, Achote, Bixa, Biji, Amatta, Anatto.
Tree from 20 to 30 feet high and about a foot in diameter, occurring in the interior.
It is planted in many parts of the island. The wood is little used. A coloring matter
extracted from the arillus of the seed is much used locally for coloring rice, soup, etc.;
and as the "anatto" of conmierce is widely used for coloring cheese, chocolates, and
butter, also by varnish makers for imparting a rich orange tinge to some grades of th«r
products. .
Wood nearly white in its natural state, but when polished turns slightly yellowiah
or reddish. On a radial surface it has narrow lines of slightly darker color, which
correspond with the annual rings of growth clearly visible in transverse sections.
It is very soft, light (about 25 pounds i)er cubic foot)^ weak, brittle, and not diirabte
in contact with the soil. Pores rather conspicuous in the early wood, rendering it
somewhat coarse and open-grained.
XXXVI. WiNTERANACEiE.
116. Represented by two genera, each with one tree species, neither one of which is of
importance.
WinteraTia canella L. (Barbasco, Wild cinnamon), a tree from 25 to 45 feet high,
of rather general distribution along the coast and throughout the West Indies, Wllh a
pale, orange-colored, aromaticbark which is used as a tonic; and PUodendron vMcron-
thum (Baill.) v. Tiegh. {=^Cinna7nodendron -macranthum Baill.) (Chupa gallo, Chupa-
callo), a tree from 20 to 30 feet high, from the Sierra de Luquillo, with a white, hanii
and heavy wood.
XXXVII. FlacourtiaceuB.
117. Homalium racemosum Jacq. Tostado, Caracolillo, Cerezo.
Tree from 20 to 60 feet high, quite generally distributed throughout the island
The wood is very xiseful for building and carpentry.
Digiti
zed by Google
TREES OP PdETO RICO. 87
Wood light-colored, fine-grained, moderately hard, heavy, and strong. Pores
minute, numerous, isolated. or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith
lays numerous, minute, inconspicuous.
US. Xylomia,
Two species very similar as to their wood and uses and neither of any great impor-
tance are Xylosma schwanecheanum Krug. A Urb. {=Myroxylon schwaneckeanum
Krog. & Urb.) (Palo de candela, Palo Colorado), and Xylosma huxifolium A. Gray
i^^Myroxylcm huxifolium Knig. & Urb.) (Roseta), trees from 15 to 35 feet high and 1
toot in diameter, the former found chiefly m the Luquillo region and the latter through-
out the southwestern part of the inland and the West Indies generally. The wood has
no uses except for fuel and charcoal.
Wood light brown, turning darker with age, straight and fine-grained, hard, heavy,
sbtRig, touj^h, and very durable in contact witii the soil. Pores nimierous, very email,
anaiiged smgly or in uiort radial rows. Pith rays very narrow and inconspicuous.
lli» Caseana.
Five species attain tree size, namely. Casearia ffuianensis (Aubl.) Urb. (Cafeillo,
Cafetillo^ Palo bltoco), from 15 to 30 feet high; Casearia bicolor Urb. (Talantr6n,
Cotorrenllo?),45 feet high; Casearia decandra Jacq. (Caracolillo, Cereza, Gotorrerillo,
Gia maosa, Palo bianco), from 18 to 25 feet; Casearia arborea (L. CI. Rich.) Urb. (Gia
verde, Rabojunco, Rabo rat6n), from 15 to 45 feet high; and Casearia sylvestrU Sw.
(Cafeillo cimarron, Laurel espada, Sama de perro), from 25 to 60 feet high.
These Irees are most common in the calcareous foothills and along the coast in all
parts of the island, except the last two, which are reported well distributed through-
oat the interior mo\mtains from the Sierra de Luqiiillo to Maricao and Mayaguez.
They are also widely distributed throughout the ^est Indies, except C. bicolor ^ which
is reported only from Porto Rico (Utuado).
Wood of C, guian^nsis reported to be yellow, hard, and heavy (about G5 pounds per
cubic foot), and to be used for lumber, for building native huts, for fences, and for
similar uses.
XXXVIII. CACTACB.B.
Ui. Represented in Porto Rico by four genera (one exotic) and eight species (two
exotic).
These have an erect form and attain tree proportions, or at least are designated
'*Pitajaya*' (meaning tree-cactus) by the natives, although they do not all nave a
true woody structure and are consequently not real trees, namely, Cereus quadrico-
^atus Bello (Pitajaya, Sebuc4n), from 6 to 30 feet high; Cereus triangularis (L.) Haw.
(Pitajaya); Cereus trigonusK&w. (=C iriangvlaris Stahl. C. AC.) (Pitajaya), from 3
to 9 feet ai^h; Cereus peruvianus (L.) Mill, a continental sj)ecies from 15 to 25 feet
high, occasionally cultivated in gardens; Pilocereus royeni (L.) Rlimgl. (^Cereus
swartxii Stahl. C. A C.) (Sebudm), 9 feet high; Opuntia catacantka Lk. et C)tto, 15 feet
high; Opuntia guanvxma K. Schum. (Tima), from 12 to 15 feet high* and Nopalea
cocdneuifera (L.) Salm-Dyck (Tuna ae Espafia, Tuna mansa), a tropical American
and West Indian species 12 feet high, occasionally cultivated in gardens.
Their natural distribution is limited largely to the semiarid south coast region,
including the small adjacent islands, as Ciuebra, etc., though they occasionally are
found on the limestone hills along the north side of the island. All, except C. quad-
rieostatus and Opuntia guanicana, which are strictly local in occurrence, are more or
leas common to the other islands of the West Indies and tropical America.
XXXIX. Thymeubacb^.
121. Daphnopsis.
Two species attain tree size in Porto Rico: Daphnopsis caribaea Griseb. (Emajagua
de sierra), from 15 to 45 feet high, found chiefly in the Sierra de Cayey and Cordillera
Central and widely distributed throughout the West Indies; and Daphnopsis philips
iana Krug et Urb. (Cieneguillo, Emajagua brava, Emajagua de sierra, Majagua
qnemadora), from 8 to 25 feet high, occurring throughout the mountains from the Sierra
de Luquillo to the Cordillera Central .
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
88 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGEICULTUBB.
XL. RmZOPHORACEiB.
*t22. RhizopJiora mangle L. Mangle, Mangle Colorado, Mangle sapatero, Red num-
grove (Jamaica).
Trefe from 30 to 50 feet higltiind from 1 foot to 3 feet through, growing in tidewater
Bwamps. Wood used for making hogsheads and for knees and ribs of boats and other
small craft, also for charcoal and fuel. The logs are used for posts and piling and
occasionally cut into boards for flooring and interior finish.
Wood light red or reddish brown with darker, often nearly black, streaks, fine and
cross grained, taking a good polish, very hard and heavy (about 70 pK>unds per cubic
foot), strong and durable. Pores very small, numerous', isolated or in groups of two
to five or more, evenly distributed. Pith rays visible to the unaided eye on a smooth
transverse surface of me wood.
NoTB. — Cassipourea, a closely allied genera, is represented by a single species,
Cassipourea alba Griseb. (Multa, Palo bianco de la costa, Palo de gongoli, Palo
de hueeo, Palo de oreja, Palo de toro), a shrub or small tree of from 15 to 30 feet
high, with a rather general distribution in various parts of the central mountain
area, as well as on the limestone foothills.
XLI. OoMBRETACKfi.
*123. Terminalia catappa L. Almendra, Almendr6n; Indian almond (Br. W. I.).
Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and about 2 feet in diameter. This is arspecies intro-
duced from the East Indies, but naturalized and now a very common tree through-
out the West Indies, especially in the lowlands. The wood is similar to mahogany
and is used for fumitm-e and house building.
Wood is brownish, coarse and straight grained, taking a beautiful polish, moderately
hard and heavy (about 40 pounds per cubic foot), brittle and not strong. Pores of
moderate size, evenly distributed^ and connected by numerous tangential lines of
soft tissue. Pith rays narrow and inconspicuous.
*tH. Buchenavia capitata (Vahl.) Eichl. Granadillo; Yellow sanders (Br. W. I.).
Tree from 40 to 80 feet high and from 2 to 3 feet in diameter. This is a very common
tree throughout the island. The wood is used for furniture and fancy carpentry
work.
Wood fine and often wavy grained, satinv, taking a beautiful polish, moderately
hard, hea\7^, strong, and tough. This wood has a very wavy grain. Pores moderately
large, evenly distributed, solitary or sometimes in small groups. Pith rays narrow
and inconspicuous.
*135. Conocarpus erecia L. Mangle, Mangle bot6n. Mangle botoncillo. Mangle
Colorado.
A shrub or small tree from 6 to 25 feet high , growing in the tidewater swamps. Wood
used for making charcoal and for fuel.
*126. Bucida buceras L. Ucar, Ucar bianco, ITucar bianco, Bucaro; Wild olive wood
of Jamaica; Bois grisgris (Haiti).
Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and about a foot in diameter. It is found chiefly near
the coast. The wood is used for shelves in houses and for mallets, wooden cogs, and
shingles. It was formerly used for knees in boat building.
Wood white or ashy brown, fine and cross grained, remotely resembling the wood of
American elm. It is hard, heavy, strong, tough, and verj^ durable in water. Pores
very small, numerous, occurring solitary, and evenly distributed. Pith rays narrow
but distinct.
Itl. Laguncularia racemosa (L.) Gaertn. Mangle bianco, Mangle bobo; White nian-
grove (Jamaica).
Tree from 20 to 30 feet high, growing in the tidewater swamps. Wood used for
making charcoal.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
TEEES OP POETO EICO. ' 89
XLII. Myrtack*.
*lt8. Psidvwn guajava L. Guayava, Guayaba, Guayava pera; Guava (Br. W. I.).
Tree from 15 to 25 feet in height and from 6 to 8 inches in diameter. It is culti-
vated throughout the island and in the Tropics generally and is well known on accoimt
of its fruit. The wood is used for making agricultural implements for structures
where strength and elasticity are required, and for posts, fuel, and charcoal.
Wood brownish gray, tinged with red, compact, fine and straight grained, with a
mottled and often very beautiful appearance. It is hard, heavy (about 45 i)ounds
p» cubic foot)^ strong^ and tough. Fores verv small, not numerous, and distributed
m rather wide inconspicuous zones, visible only imder the hand lens: Pith rays very
inconspicuous.
*t3$. Anumiis carvophyUata (Jacq.) Krug et Urb. Auzd, Ausd, Guayavita, Limon-
dllo, Malagueta. Pimienta malagueta; Bayberry tree, Bay rum tree, Wild
cinnamon (Br. W. I.).
Tree from 20 to 45 feet high and about 2 feet in diameter, occurring in mountainous
parts of the island and throughout the West Indies. The wood is suitable for car-
pentry, cabinetwork, posts, siUs, cogs, rollers, and other millwork, and was formerly
exported. The leaves have the taste and odor of lemon, and an essei^tial oil of bay
or bay oil is obtained by distillation.
Wood dark, mottled, compact, fine and occasionally cross grained, taking a beautiful
polish. It is very hard, heavy (about 60 poimds per cubic foot), strong, tough, and
very durable. Pores very small, numerous, evenly distributed throughout the wood.
Pith rays very narrow and inconspicuous.
♦Note. — ^A variety of this species is also recognized, Amomis caryophyllata var.
grisea (Klaersk.) Krug et Urb. (Limoncillo, Malagueta, Pimienta), a tree some-
times 50 feet high in mountainous regions, the wood of which is very similar to
that of the preceding.
M. Myrcia.
The genus is represented in Porto Rico by the following four species, which attain
tree size: Myrcia leptoclada P. DC. (Guayabac6n, Guayavac6n); Myrcia splendens
(Sw.) P. DC. (Rama menuda, Hoja menuda); Myrdaf pagani Krug et Urb. (Austi);
and Myrcia defiexa (Poir.) P. DC. (Cieneguillo, Guayavacon).
Trees from 15 to 60 feet high, found in the mountainous regions of the island.
The wood is used very little except for fuel and charcoal. Wood reddish brown,
hard, heavy, and strong.
Ul. Calyptranthes sirUenim Kiaersk. Hoja menuda, Limoncillo, Limoncillo de
monte.
Tree from 15 to 25 feet hig^h and from 6 to 10 inches in diameter, occurring in the
LuquiUo r^on. The wood is used in carpentry and for fuel and charcoal.
Wood fine and straight grained, hard, heavy, strong, and flexible. Pores small and
nomarous. Pith rays inconspicuous.
tSt. Eugenia aeruginea P. DC. Guaa^vera, Guayabac6n.
Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and from 1 foot to 2 feet in diameter, rather widely
distributed on the island.
Wood light brown or chestnut colored, fine and straight grained, beautiful when
polished, hard, heavy, strong, and flexible. Pores very small and arranged singly or
in radial rows of from two to three between the very narrow inconspicuous pith rays.
Note. — Other species of this genus very similar to the above but of sligM
importance are Eugenia siahlii (luaersk.) Krug et Urb. (Guayabota, Limoncillo^,
tree from 15 to 60 feet hierh and from 1 to 2 leet in diameter; Eugenia sintenidi
(Kiaen^.) Krug et Urb., from 45 to 60 feet high; and Euaenia florihwnda West
(Murta) 30 feet high. All aro conmion throughout the island and their woods
uesimilarta the preceding. ^ .
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
90 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGEICULTUBE.
*133. Eugenia jambos L. {=Jambo8a jambos Millflp.). Poma roea; Rose apple (Br.
W. I.).
Tree from 20 to 50 feet high and from 1 to 2 feet in diameter, introduced from the
East Indies and ndw largely naturalized throughout the island. The wood is used
for barrel hoops, poles, fuel, and charcoal. It also furnishes material from which
large baskets are made.
Wood grayish brown, fine and straight grained, hard, heavy, strong, and tou^.
Pores small and arranged in irregular tangential lines. Pith rays very narrow and
scarcely visible imder the hand lens.
XLIII. MELASTOMATACEiB.
134. Miconia tetrandra (8w.) D. Don. Camaaey.
Tree from 30 to ^0 feet high and about a foot in diameter, common in the moun-
tains of Porto Rico and found on aU the islands of the West Indies. The wood is used
for poles, fuel, and charcoal.
Wood light brown, fine and straight grained, hard, moderately heavy, stjonc,
flexible, and durable in the soil. ' Pores small, nimierous, and evenly dikributed.
Pith rays very narrow and-inconspicuous.
Note 1. — ^Three other species in this genus similar in size, distribution, and
uses are Miconia guianensu (Aubl.) Oogn. (Camasey, Camasey bianco, Camasey
de Costilla); Miconia impepiolaris (Sw.) D. Don (Oamasey, Camasey de costilla)
and Miconia prasina (Sw.) P. DC. (Camasey).
Note 2. — ^Three other genera and six species in this family attain tree size,
though they are of but slight local or general importance, namely. Calycogonium
squamulomm Cogn. ^ranadiUa cimarrona), from 15 to 30 feet nigh, from the
Sierra de Luquiflo; Calycogonium bijlorum C^^n., from 25 to 30 feet nigh, from
near Barranquitas; Heterotrichum cymosum (Wendl.) Urb. (Camasey Colorado.
Camasey depaloma, Terciopelo), from 26 to 30 feet high, from various part^ oi
the island; nenriettella macfadyenii (Triana), 60 feet high, from Sierra de Luquillo
and Cordillera Central, found also m Jamaica; Henriettella membrani/olia Cogn.,
30 feet high, from Lares; and Henriettella fasdcularis (Sw.) Ch. Wright (Camasey
de oro, Camasey de psdoma), from 25 to 30 feet high, from various places on the
island, also throughout the Greater Antilles.
^ XLIV. Araliacr«.
135. Gilibertia arborea (L.) E. March {=Aralia arborea L.). Mufieca, Palo cachumba,
Pana, Vibona.
Tree from 30 to 60 (feet high, quite common throughout the island, and found in all
parts of the West Indies. The wood resembles boxwood (Buxus sempervirem L.) and
should make a suitable substitute.
Wood light or pale yellow, very fine grained, taking a good polish, very hard, heavy,
strong, and tough. Pores very small, niunerous, scarcely visible under the hand lens,
and evenly distributed. Pith rays very narrow and inconspicuous.
Note. — Another species in every way similar to the above ia Gilibertia kturi-
folia E. March (Palo cachumba, Palo de gauguUn, Palo de vaca, Vibona).
*136. Didymopanax morototoni (Aubl.) Dene et PI. Yagrume macho, Yagrume:
Grayume, Grayume macho, Grayumo, Pana cimarrona, Llag^ume, Llagrume
macho.
Tree from 40 to 60 feet high and about a foot in diameter, very common in the
mountains and distributed quite generally throughout tropical America. The wood
is used for boards and beams in house building, and has been suggested as a good
material for making matches.
Wood light olive brown, fine and straight grained, moderately hard, heavy, brittle,
and not strong. Pores small, very numerous, and more or less evenly di^buted
throughout the annual rings of growth, which can be readily distinguished by means
of the hand lens. Pith rays very conspicuous.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
TREES OF PORTO RICO. 91
XLV. Myesinacejb.
137. Ardisia glauciflora Urb. Mamejruelo.
Tree from 15 to 25 feet high, occuiring in the Luquillo region. The w:ood ia uaed
iot furniture.
Wood white, beautiftdly marked with fine lines, fine-grained, taking a good polish,
hard, and heavy. Pores minute, isolated or in groups of two or three, evenly dis-
tributed. Pith rays numerous, broad, very conspicuous.
Note. — ^Another species, Ardisia gtuidalupensia Duchass. (Badula^ Mameyuelo),
attiuns a somewhat larger size' and wider distribution on the islana. Its wood is
similarly used and has the same structural characteristics as the above but is a
light readish brown instead of white.
XLVI. SAPOTACEiE. ^
*U8. Achras zapota L. Sapodilla, Nfspero*; Naceberry, Bullet tree (Br. W. I.).
Tree from 30 to 45 feet high and about a foot in diameter. It Is cultivated and
wild on the inland, having been originally introduced from Venezuela, and widely
planted for the sake of its fruit. It is said to yield a gum similar to ''gum chicle,"
principally obtained from Mimusops globosa and Sapoia zapotilla. The wood is
adapted for inside work, cabinetmaking, and f\imiture.
"Wood light red with darker stripes, fine and straight grained, susceptible of a high
polish, difficult to work on account of its extreme hardness, heavy (aoout 74 pounds
per cubic foot), strong, 'tough, and very durable in contact with the soil. Pores
very small, numerous, and arranged in more or less distinct radial rows between the
narrow pith ra^'*»
Note. — C-. . , he above is Calocarpum mammosum (L.) Pierre
(Mamey Sapotef Bartaballi, [Br. Guiana]), a tree trom 30 to 40 feet high and
of limited occurrence on the island.
tSi. Lucuma midtiflora A^ DC. Acana, Hacdna, Jdcana; Contrevent (Br. W. I.).
Tree from 40 to 90 feet high and irom 2 to 3 feet in diameter, found quite gener-
ally on the island and throughout tropical America. It yields very excellent timber
which is used for mill rollers, frames, fiimlture, and house building.
Wood light colored, fine and straight grained, beautiful when polished, hard,
very heavy, strong, toi^h, and durable. Pores small and arranged in radial rows.
Pith rays narrow and indistinct.
IM. Micropholis.
There are three tree species in this genus, Micropholis gardnifoUa Pierre (Caimi-
tilk)), from 45 to 60 feet high; Microvholis curvata (Pierre) Urb. (Leche prieto), from 30
to 60 feet high; and Micropholis cnrysophylloides Pierre ^Caimitillo, Leche prieto),
from 60 to 75 feet high, the former in the Sierra de Luquillo chiefly and the others in
the Sierra de Cayey and CordiUera Central . The wood , particularly of the last named ,
is very haid and heavy, similar to that of Achraa Zapota and is regarded locally as a
first<:las8 wood.
*Uh Sideroxylon foMdissimum Jacq. (=S. mastichodendron Jacq.). Ausubo,^
Tortuga, Tortugo amarillo, Tortugo prieto; Caguani (Cuba); Mastic (Fla.).
Tree from 30 to more than 50 feet high and from 2 to 3 feet in diameter, occurring
on the coast. It is common in southern Florida and throughout tropical America
1 Thieahould not be confused with the true medlar, Mespilus germanica L., to which the Spanish "nls>
p6n>" most commonly applies, nor with the Japanese medlar or loquat (Eridbotryajaponica LIndl.), neither
of Trtileh are known to the Porto Rlcan public (C. & C).
'Two species, Sideroxylon fcutdtnimum and Mhnusops nitida are both known as "ausubo.'' Of the
knut Giflord and Barrett say, that it is " probably the most valuable wood per cubic foot in Porto Rico.''
tlthoogh they admit that "possibly two species are included under this name," which is more likely.
-Recording to Urban, Sideroxylon fcUidusimum is not reported from the Sierra de Luquillo or other parts
of the faiterior, while ifinttMop* nttida Is. Aoocrding to Femow and Taylor, however, this Siderotxylon is
videly distributed in the Sierra Maestra (Cuba) .
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
92 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPABTMENT OP AGEICULTUBE.
and the West Indies, ranking as a very valuable timber. The wood is used locally
for all purposes requiring great strength and durability, such as beams and raftCfB,
also for all parts of wheels, axles and other parts of native bull carts, for ox yokes
and other native uses, and somewhat for furniture.
Wood maroon-red, very fine and straight grained, susceptible of a good polisii,
easily worked considering its hardness, and very durable in the Tropics; in the
temperate climate it is less durable. Wood hard, heavy (about 65 pounds per cubic
foot), strong, and tough. Moderately conspicuous ducts in short detached long and
short chains (sinde lines of cells) evenly diffused; chains usually between two
medullary rays. Medullary ravs very numerous, minute, indistinct. Wood fibers
slightly interlaced and appearing straight-grained. Resembles somewhat a fine-
grained teak. (Hill and Sudworth.)
Note. — ^Another species of very limited distribution is Sideroxylan wrtopcenm
Urb. (Tabloncillo), a tree from 75 to 90 feet high, reported only from the vicinity
of Utuado and Lares. Wood similar to that of Sideroxylon fcp.tUiissimum, and
probably similarly used.
*142. Dipholis salicifolia (L.) A. DC. Almendr6n, Tabloncillo.
Tree from 30 to 40 feet high and from 12 to 18 inches in diameter, occurring in dry
limestone soils near the coast. It is common in southern Florida and throu^out
the West Indies. The wood is used locally principally for fuel and charcoal.
Wood dark brown-red, fine and straight grained, taking a beautitul polish, hard,
heavy (about 55 pounds per cubic foot), strong, and tough.
Note. — Another rather incidental species is Dipholis sintenitiana Pierre
(Espejuelo), a tree from 60 to 70 feet high, from the northwestern part of the
island, having a wood similar to that of D, salicifolia.
*143« Chrygophyllum cainilo L. Cainito, Caimito ^ ' ' Star apple (Br.
Tree from 45 to 60 feet high and from 12 to 18 inches in diameter. It is a cultivated
and wild tree and found in most parts of the island. The wood is suited to a variety
of uses and particularly ^in exposed situations.
Wood red or reddish-brown, very ifine and curly grained, taking an excellent polish,
hard, heavy, strong, tough, and very durable in contact with the soil. Pores very
small and airanged in short radial rows between the rajther inconspicuous pith xays.
*144. Chrysophyllum olivi/qrrru L. Teta de hurra, Lechesillo.
Tree from 30 to 40 feet hii^h and about a foot in diameter from the southwestecn
part of the island . It is distributed throughout the West Indies and southern Florida,
but is nowhere common.
Wood light brown tinged with red, fine and straight grained, taking a good polish
hard, heavy (about 58 pounds per cubic foot), very strong, and tough. Pores snudl
and arranged in short raidial rows, which are easily seen on a smooth transverse siuface
under a hand lens.
Note . — Other species of this genus are Chrysophyllum bicolor Poir. (Oaimitillo,
Lechesillo), from 30 to 50 feet high, occurring very locally and in Porto Rico
only; Chrysophyllum argenUum Jacq. (Caimito verde, .Lechesillo), from 25 to
60 feet high, occurring rather widely distributed throughout the island and
others of the West Indies^ and Chrysophyllum paudjiorum Lam. rGdmito de
perro ), from 40 to 60 feet high, reported only from the southern part ot the island.
Wood of each is similar to that of the above.
145. Mimusops.
Two species of this genus occur in Porto Rico, Mimusops nxtida (Seas^ et Moc.)
Urb. (Acana, Ausubo^), a tree from 20 to 50 feet or more high, occurring in moun-
tainous regions; and Mimusops duplicata (Sess^ et Moc.) Urb. (= M, glohosa (Mseb.)
(Mameyuelo, Sapote, Sapote de costa, Zipote, Balata), from 40 to 60 feet hirfi, occur-
ring along the north coast. Both are local species.
1 See footnote under Sideroxylon fatidistimum.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
TBEES OP POBTO RICO. 93
Wood of theee two species is dark brown, fine and straight grained, taking a splendid
potiflh, hard^ heavy (^bout 60 pounds per cubic foot), strong, tough, and very durable
in contact with soil and water. Pores very small, and arranged in more or less oblique
itdial rows which are visible imder the hand lens.
XLVII. EBEKACEiB.
U$» If aba sinUnisii Krug. et TJrb. Guayabota-nispero, Tabeiba.,
Tree from 25 to 30 feet high, of uncommon occurrence, reported from only two
localities on the island.
Wood verv light brown, very fine and straight rained, taking a very good polish,
very hard, heavy, strong^ tough, and durable, rores very minute, numerous, ana
arranged in indistinct radial rows. Very fine tangential lines of soft tissue are visible
under a strong hand lens.
*147. DiotjnfTos d>ena9ter Retz. Guayabota; Zapote negro 6 prieto (Mexico).
Tree about 30 feet high, of infrequent occurrence in the mountains. It is native
of the West Indies, Mexico, and Malay Islands. It has a black bark and heartwood.
This tree attains much larger size in Mexico than it does in Porto Rico, where it is
used only for fuel and charcoal.
XL VIII. SYMPLOCACEiB.
MS. Symplocos. ^
Genus represented in "Potto Rico by five tree species, namely, Symplocos kmata
Krug et Urb. (Palo de nispero dmarron), from 24 to 30 feet high, &om Adjuntas and
Peduelas; Symplocos micrantha Erug et Urb. (Palo de cabra), from 20 to 50 feet
hi^ from the Sierra de Luquillo.and Cordillera Central: Symplocos martinicensis
Jacq. (Aceituna, Aceituna bianca* Aceituna cimarrona), from 10 to 30 feet high,
from Bayamon and Afiasco; Symplocos polyantha Krug et Urb. (Palo de cabra), from \
the Sierra de Luquillo; and Symplocos latifolia Krug et Urb. JfAceituna), &x)m 25
to 45 feet bi^, from Sierra de Cayey and Cordillera Central. Except for the third
of these, which occurs generally throughout the West Indies, all are local species.
Their woods, which are alike, are apparently very little used.
The wood of S . martinicensis is white, hard, moderately heavy, and strong. Pores
amaU, numerous, isolated or in groups of two to four, evenly distributed. Pith rays
narrow, inconspicuous.
XLIX. Sttbacacea.
m. Styrax portorioensis Krug and Urb.
Tree apparently little known even locally. Reported as being from 30 to 60 feet
high and occurring only in the mountain forests of the eastern part of the island.
L. Oleace^.
Ml Lmodara domingensis (Lam.) Knobl. (—Mayepea domingensis Krug and Urb.).
Hueeo bianco, Palo de hueso, Huesillo, Palo olanco.
Tree from 30 to 45 feet high, quite generally distributed throughout the northern
part of the island. Common also to the other islands of the Greater Antilles.
Wood light colored, moderately fine grained, hard, and moderately heavy. Pores
small^ isolated or in groupc of from two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays nar-
row, inconspicuous.
LI. APOCYNACEiE.
UV Plumiera alba L. Aleli, Aleli dmarron, Tabeiba; Frangipanic blanc, Bois de
lait (Fr. W. I.).
Tree from 20 to 30 feet high and from 6 to 10 inches in diameter, occurring along the
coast, very common throughout tropical America. The wood is used for carpentry
work, and as a substitute for true sandalwood (Santalum album L.).
Wood yellowish-white or light grayish-yellow, marked with numerous irregular
undulating lines, giving the wood a very pleasing appearance. It is very compact
lod fine grained, taking a very good polish, hard, neavy, strong, and tough.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
94 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPABTMBNT OF AGBICULTUBE.
i&%. Rauwolfia nitida Jacq. Cachimbo, Palo amargo, Palo de mufieco.
Tree from 30 to 60 feet high, common to the sandy coast soils. Common also to
other of the West Indies.
LII. BORRAGINACE-S. ^
153*- Cordia alliodora (R. & P.) Cham. (=C. gerascanthuB Jacq. and C. gerascanthoidet
C. A C.) Capd, Capd prieta; Prince wood, Spanish elm (Jamaica).
Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and from 12 to 18 inches in diameter, found commonly
in the mountainous interior. Although now rather scarce, this wood is very highly
prized locally because of a variety of good qualities. In Jamaica it is considered
one of their best woods. It is used for furniture, flooring, doors, Venetian bhnds,
beds, interior finish, carriage building, posts, and cooperage.
Wood rich light brown with dark streaks, fine grained, taking a good polish, mod-
erately hard and heavy (about 36 pounds per cubic foot), strong and diu»ble. Pores
small, numerous, isolated or in groups of from two or three, evenly distributed.
Annual rings of ^owth visible on a smootli transverse surface. Pith rays narrow but
conspicuous, visible to the unaided eye on a smooth transverse surface.
Note. — Other species of this eenus are Cordia sebestena L. (Vomitel Colorado,
San Bartolom^; Aloe wood [Br. W. I.]; Geiger tree [Florida Keys]), from 20 to 35
ieet high, occurring along tne eastern, southern, and western coasts. It is often
planted as an ornamental tree in tropical gardens. Wood brown, fine gjjdned,
moderately hard, and heavy. Cordia collococca L. (Cereza cimarrona, ralo de
mufieca; Clammy cherry [JamaicaJJ, from 15 to 30 feet high, occurring in the south-
western p2uii of the island near the coast. Used for barrel staves in Jamaica,
having a wood which is soft, brittle, and not durable. Cordia niiida Vahl. (Cere-
zas, Cereza cimarrona, Mufieca), from 15 to 60 feet high, occurring in the southern
part of the island. Cordia sulaita DC. (Moral, Moral de paz), from 30 to 60 feet
nigh, found in the interior moimtain forests. Wood little used. * Cordia borin-
qaensis Urb. (Mufieca, Palo de mufieca, Capd cimarron), from 20 to 60 feet high,
found in interior mountain forests, having wood light yellow, fine grained, takmg
a good polish, moderately heavy, and hard.
LIII. VERBENACEiK.
154. Citharexulum fruiicosum L. {=Cithar€xylum qvxidrangulare Griseb.). P^ndola;
P^ndula, Pendula Colorado, Palo de guitarra, Balsamo, HigueriUo.
Tree from 20 to 40 feet high and from 12 to 20 inches in diameter, occurring near the
eastern and southern coasts. It is used for furniture and in house building. The
natives make their guitars from it.
Wood Ught red, moderately fine-grained, fairly hard, heavy (about 46 pounds per
cubic foot), and strong.
Note. — Incidental species in this and a closely allied genera are CStharexyhan
cavdalum L. (HigueriUo), from 15 to 60 feet high, from the Sierra de Luquillo
and Cordillera Central, also occurs in the other of the Greater Antilles, the Baha-
mas, and Mexico; and Callicarpa ampla Schauer ((^apd rosa, P^ndola clmarronV
from 25 to 50 feet high, occurring only in mountainous regions of Porto Rico.
^55. Petitia domingensis Jsicq. Capd, Capdblanca, Capd sabanero, Capd de sabdna.
Capd amarillo, Palode capade sabdna; Fiddle wood (Br. W. I.).
Tree from 20 to 50 feet high and 2 feet or more in diameter, occurring chiefly in the
interior. Common also to the other islands of the Greater Antilles. The wood is used
locally for making rollers in coffee-hulling mills and is suitable for cabinetwork, inte-
rior finish, and general building purposes where a hard, tough wood is required.
Wood light to dark brown, streaked with a decidedly beautiful wavy grain, moder-
ately fine grained, taking a good polish, hard, and heavy. Pores small, isolated, or in
groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays minute, inconspicuous. Struc-
turally similar on the radial section to the Ajnerican beech.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
TREES OF POBTO RICO. 95
iSL VUex dharicata Sw. Higuerillo, P^ndula, Palo de p6ndula, P^ndula bianco;
Lizard wood, Fiddle wood (Br. W. I.).
Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and from 20 to 30 inches in diameter, found in moimtain-
ous regions, common to many of the islands of the Lesser Antilles. Used locally for
shelveB, boards, framework of houses, in cabinetwork*, and suitable for all inside and
outside work.
Wood white, moderately fine gramed, hard, heavy (about 50 pounds per cubic foot),
■trang, and durable. Pores small, isolated or in groups of from two to five. .Pith rays
narrow, inconspicuous.
*m. Avieennia nitida Jaca. Chifle de vaca. Mangle bianco, Mangle bobo; Black
mangrove (Br. W. I.).
Shrab or tree from 40 to 70 feet high and from 12 to 24 inches in diameter, .found in
tidal swamps. Widely distributed throughout the West Indies, and the shores of the
American and African continental Tropics. The wood is used locally for foimdations,
underpinning for houses, fence posts, drains, and for charcoal and fuel.
Wood dark brown, rather coarse grained, with conspicuous tangential lines visible
m a transverse surface, hard, heavy, and very durable in damp situations. Pores
anall, isolated or in ^oups of from two to five, arranged largely in radial lines. Pith
layB narrow, inconspicuous.
LIV. BlGNONIACE^.
U8. Tabebma.
This genus embraces two local species, first described by Urban in 1899, of very lim-
ited distribution^ namely, Tdbebuia rigida Urb. (Roble), from 20 to 60 feet high from
the Luquillo resrion, and Tabehuia schurrumniana Urb. (Roble Colorado), from 30 to
50 feet nigh, occurring in the moim tains near Utuado.
Wood light brown, fine grained, taking a good poUsh, moderately hard and heavy,
Btzong, tough, and very durable. Pores small, niunerous, arranged in conspicuous
tangential ones visible to the imaided eye on a smooth transverse surface. Pith rays
inconspicuous.
*15i. Tecoma pentaphylla (L.) Juss. Roble, Roble bianco; West Indian boxwood.
Tree from 20 to 60 feet high, quite common throughout the island, particularly in the
limestone hills, and found in the Antilles generally. The wood is used in Porto Rico
and throughout tropical America for ox yokes, piles, for house and boat building, and
for general purposes.
Wood white and fine grained, moderately hard, heavy (about 52 poimds per cubic
foojt), and s^ong. Pores small, isolated or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed.
Faint tangentisd lines of soft tissue may be seen with a hand lens. Pith rays minute,
mconspicuous.
W* Tecoma leuycoxyhn (L.) Mart. Roble, Roble prieto; White wood (Br. W. I.).
Tree from 20 to 60 feet high most commonly found in the limestone hills of the south
coast and less frequently in the Sierra de Luquillo and Cordillera Central. Not an
important tree in Porto Rico, but in other parts of tropical America it yields a wood
nsed for furniture, house building and soundii^g boards, and musical instruments, also
Ua posts, piles, and other purposes in exposed situations.
Wood resembles somewhat that of the preceding.
Note. — ^Another species of little importance is Tecoma haemantha (Bertero)
Giisd). (Roble), from 25 to 30 feet high, from the coast hills and interior valleys.
*1il. Crescenda cuiete L. Higttero; Calabash (Br. W. I.]; Jfcara, Tigulate, Temante,
P^o de melon. Melon tree (Mexico and Central America).
Wild and cultivated tree from 10 to 45 feet high and from 12 to 18 inches in diameter,
widely distributed throughout the island. The wood is not known to be used locally,
but the rind or bony outside covering of the fruit, like the shell of the coconut, finds
a mal^licity of domestic uses for cooking utensils and tableware. The wood is used
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
96 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPABTMENT OP AGMCULTUBE.
in Jamaica for tool handles, carriage parts, fellies of wheels, saddles, and duuis. It
is also employed for ship's knees and cabinetwork in Mexico and Central America.
Wood light brown, coarse grained, taking a good polish, moderately hard, heaw
(about 54 pounds per cubic foot), very tough, flexible, and durable m the gnmnd.
Pores small, isolated or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Alternating
tangential wavy lines of hard and soft tissue are barely visible to the unaided eye on
a smoothly cut tranverse surface. Pith rays narrow, inconspicuous.
LV. RUBIACEJB.
162* RondeleUa portoriceruis Krug & Urb.
A recently described tree from 20 to 60 feet high and from 12 to 20 inches in diametef ,
occurring in various places in the Sierra de Luquillo and Cordillera Central.
*163« Randia aculeata L. Tintillo, Palo de equniUo, Palo de cotorra, Cambr6n, Escam-
br6n; Ink berry (Br. W. I.).
Tree from 20 to 30 feet high and from 6 to 9 inches in diameter, widely distributed
throughuot the island. Wood little used.
Wood dark brown, fine, close and straight grained, taking a very good polish, hard,
heavy, strong, tough, and very durable. It resembles the true lignum- vitse in genenl
appearance. Pores exceedingly small and indistinct. Pith rays very narrow and
scarcely visible imder the hsaid lens.
*tHm Genipa americana L. Jagua, Hagua.
Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and from 15 to 20 inches in diameter, widely distributed
throughout the island and the West Indies generally. Th^ wood is suitable for pack-
ing boxes, shoe lasts, barrel hoops, and wherever strength and elasticity are required.
Wood light brown, tinged with red, very fine grained, moderately hard, heavy,
(about 54 poimds per cubic foot), strong, tough, and durable; in these qualities it
resembles the ash. Pores small, isofated, or occasionally in pairs, evenly distributed.
Pith rays numerous, narrow, inconspicuous.
16& GueUarda scabra (L.) Lam. Palo de cucubano, Serrasuela.
Tree from 20 to 40 feet high and from 8 to 12 inches in diameter, occuning in the
coast hills chiefly, and sparingly in the interior valleys. The wood is used principally
in bmlding nat've huts.
Wood ash-colored, moderately fine grained, rather hard and heavy (about 54 pounds
per cubic foot). Pores small, isolated or in groups of from two to five or mofe, and
evenly distributed. Pith rays small, inconspicuous.
Note. — Other less important species with very limited distribution and wood
similar to the above are G. krugii Urb., G. ovalifolia Urb.j and O. Uevis Urb.,
which attain a height of from 30 to 60 feet and occtir chiefly in the coast hills and
shore woodlands.
166. AntirrhtBa ohtusifolia Urb. Tortuguillo.
Tree from 25 to 45 feet high, found in the mountains of the Luquillo region and
Yabucoa. The wood is apparently little used, although suitable for structural and
cabinet work.
Wood light reddish-brown, straight and fine pained, taking a good polish, hard,
heavy, and strong. Pores minute, evenly distnbuted throughout the annual rings
of growth, which are easily visible to the unaided eye.
167. Aniirrhma coriacea (Vahl.) Urb. Quina, Palo de quina, Boje, Boje quina.
Tree from 40 to 50 feet high and sometimes 2 feet in diameter, chiefly occurring in
the northern part of the island. Occurs also in several of the islands of theLeser
AntRles. The wood is used for carpentry work, furniture, cabinetwork, and frame-
work of houses.
Digitized by VjOO^ IC
TREES OP POETO RICO. 97
Wood yellowiah, very fine and straight grained, taking a very good polish, hard,
heavy, strong, thoti^ brittle, and very durable in contact witJi the soil.
Note 1. — AnHrrhcea sirUenisii Urb. (Quina) is a tree sometimes 45 feet high,
described from the limestone hills in the vicinity of Utuado^ La^, and Manati,
and yielding yellowish wood similar to that of AntirrhcMi conacea,
NoTB 2. — Ckume, a closely related genus^ is represented by one species of little
known importance. Ckione venoaa (Sw.) Urb. (Martin avila, Palo olanco, Santa
olalla), a tree from 20 to 50 feet high reported from the Sierra de Luquillo, Sierra
de Laies, and the vicinity of Ba^ramon and Toa-Alta. Found also in several other
of the West Indies. Wood is ssud to be made into lumber.
•M8* Coffta wrabica L. Caf6, Caf6 macho; Coffee (Br. W. I.).
A cultivated and seminaturalized tree from 10 to 20 feet high and from 2 to 4. inches
in diametex', grown in plantations at all elevations but doing best in sheltel^ locations
at or above 2,500 feet on the northern and western parts of the island. Native of
Arabia. Coffee is one of the most important articles of export of Porto Rico. The
wood is often used for walking sticks.
Wood white, very fine grained, taking a fine ]X)li8h, hard, heavy, strong, and tough.
Pores minute, very numerous and evenly distributed. Pith rays minute and incon-
spicuous.
*MI. horafarrea (Jacq.^ Benth. Palo de hierro, Dajao, Palo de dajao, Hackia; West
Indian or Martinique ironwood (Br. W. I.).
Tree from 15 to 30 feet hi^, occurring quite generally in the limestone hills and
somewhat on the slopes of the interior mountains. Elsewhere in the West Indies and
m the northern part of South America it sometimes attains a height of from 30 to 60
feet and a diameter of from 1 foot to 2 feet. The wood is not reported as being used
locally, but in the other countries where it occurs it is used largely for cogs, shafts,
and furniture.
Wood dark brown, taking a very beautiful polish, exceedingly hard, heavy, very
BtioDg, and tough.
171. Other genera of this family represented by tree species.
Psythotna hroMdUi Sw. (Palo de cichimbo), usually a shrub or small tree, but occa-
nonally 45 feet high; Palicowrea alpina (Sw.) DC, shrub or small tree from 15 to 30
feet high^ and Fammea occidental^ (L.) A. Rich (Cafeillo, Palo de toro), from 15 to
45 feet high, all rather widely distriouted locally as well as generaUy throughout the
West Indies.
LVI. CAFRIFOLIA.CEiB.
171* Sambucus intermedia var. insularia Schwerin. Sadco.
A cultivated and seminaturalized tree occurring in various places throughout the
idand. Introduced from Central America and foimd in many of the other West In-
dian Islands.
LVII. Graminea.
1TB. Bambuta wdgaris Schrad. Bambd; Bamboo.
This bamboo (althougk the bamboos belong to the grass family and are not trees at
all) has an erect wood stem which attains a height of 40 feet and a diameter of 4 inches,
and is rather commonly distributed over the island, particularly along the watercourses
and throughout the West Indies. It is a native of Java. The bamboos, of which
there are many species, are adapted to a wide variety of uses and their planting should
be greatly extended in Porto Rico.
21871**— Bull. 354—16 7
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
APPENDIX IL
BIBUOGRAPHT.
UST OF THE BOOKS CONSULTED IN THE PREPABATION OF THIS WOBK.
Abbad y LasibreA; Fray I £^100. Historia geogrifica, civil y politica de la Isle de S.
•Juan Bautiflta de Puerto Rico. Madrid, 1788.
Abbas of thb United States, the States and the Tebbttobibs. BuUetin 902, U. S.
(jeokgical Survey.
Babbett, 0. W. The Eall of Porto Rican Forests. In Plant World, Vol. V, No. 6.
June, 1902.
and GiFFOBD. {See Gifford. )
Bbtiton, N. L. Recent Botanical Exploiatbns in Porto Rico. Journal New York
Botanical Garden, May, 1906.
Broun, A. F. Silviculture in the Tropics. MacMillan, 1912.
BuRNS-MuRDOCK, A. M. Notes from the Federated Malay States. Indian Forester,
Vol. XXX No. 10, October, 1904.
Oaine, Thomas A. (See Dorsey.)
Oapoll^tti, C. General Report of the Proceedings of the Navigation Congreas.
Milan, 1906.
Census of Porto Rico 1899. Taken under the direction of the U. S. War Depart-
ment.
Census, U. S., Thirteenth Decennial, 1910.
Clifford, George, 3d Earl of Cumberland. The Voyage to Saint John de Porto
Rico. In Purchas, his Pilgrimes, pt. IV, 1625.
Collins, G. N. (See Cook.)
CooGSHALL, George. 36 Voyages to Various parts of the World between 1799 and
1841.
Cook, 0. F. The Origin and Distribution of the Coconut Palm. Contributions from
U. S. National Herbarium, Vol. VII, No. 2.
. Shade in Coffee Culture. Bui. 25, Division of Botany, U. S. Dept. of
Agriculture.
. Vegetation Affected by Agriculture in Central America. Bui. 145, Bureau of
Plant Industry.
and G. N. Collins. Economic Plants of Porto Rico. Contributions from the
U. S. National Herbarium, Vol. VIII, pt. 2, 1903.
Dorset, Clarence W., Louis Mesmer, and Thomas A. Caine. Soil Survey from
Aredbo to Ponce, Porto Rico. Field Operations, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept.
of Agriculture, 1902.
Export of Farm and Forest Products, 1909-1911. Bui. 96, Bureau of Statistics,
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Fassig, Oliver L. The Climate of Porto Rico. Unnumbered Circular, Weather
Bureau, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Fernow, B. E. The High Sierra Maeotra (including a*Iist of trees and botanical notes
by Norman Taylor). Forestry Quarterly, Vol. IV, No. 4, December, 1906.
Fewkes, Jesse Walter. The Aborigines of Porto Rico and Neighboring Islands.
Part of 25th Annual Report Bureau of American Ethnology. Washington, 1907.
Flinter, Col. G. D. An Account of the Present State of the Island of Porto Rico.
London, 1834.
Gazetteer of Porto Rico. Bui. 183, Series F, Geography. U. S. Geological
Survey, 1901.
Gifford, John C. The Luquillo Forest Reserve, Porto Rico (with appendix. Trees of
the Luquillo Region, by John C. Gifford and 0. W. Barrett). Bui. 54, Bureau td
Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1905.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 99
Habris, W. The Timbers of Jamaica. Bulletin, New Series, Vol. I, No. 1, Depart-
ment of Agriculture. Jamaica.
Habshbbrgbr, John W. Phytogec^raphic Survey of North America, being a part of
Die Vegetation der Erde, by Engle and Drude, 1911.
Hkarn, Lapcadio. Two Years in the French West Indies. New York, 1890.
Hebskra, Antonio de. The General History of the Vast Continent and Islands of
America * « *, translation by Capt. John Stevens. Vol. IV. London, 1726.
Hnx, Robert T. Notes on the Forest Conditions of Porto Rico, Bui. 25, Division
of Forestry, TJ. S. Department of Agriculture, 1899.
Imposts op Farm and Forest Products, 190^1911. Bui. 95, Bureau of Statistics,
TJ. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
ISioo, Fray. (See Abbad y Lasierra.)
Knaff, Sbajcan a. Report on Investigation of the Agricultiual Resources and
Capabilities of Porto Rico. Senate Doc. 171, 56th Cong., 2d Sess.
LsDRui, Akdre Pierre. Voyage aux lies de T^n^riffe, La Trinity, Sainte Thomas,
Sainte Croix, et Porto Rico, etc. Vol. II. Paris, 1810.
Letbs db Los Reinos db las Indias. Recapiladon de. Book 4, title 12, Trans, by
Bureau of Insular Affairs, War Dept.
Mbsmer, Louis. (See Dorsey.)
Morris, Daniel. Report on the Economic Resources of the West Indies. Kew
Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information, Additional Series, I, 1898.
Murphy, Louis S. A Preliminary Report on the Forest Problems of Porto Rico.
First Report Board of Commissioners of Agriculture of Porto Rico, January 1,
1912.
North Ajcerican and West Indian Gazbtteeb, 1778.
Oviedo t Valdbs, Gonzalo Fernandez de. Historia Greneral y Natural de las
Indias, Vol. I.
Philippine, Director op Forestry. Annual Report of 1912.
PoBTO Rico. Reports of the Governor of, from 1899 to 1913.
. The Registers of, for 1901 and 1^10.
Rba, John T. West Indian Timbers. Indian Forester, Vol. XXVIII, No. 12.
Dec., 1902.
Robin, C. C. Voyages dans Tinterieur de la Louisiana, de la Florida, ocddentale,
etc. • * * pendant les annees 1802-6, Vol. I.
Sghdiper, A. F. W. Plant Geography upon a Physiological Basis (Trans, by W. R.
Fisher). Oxford, 1903.
SincMARY OP Transactions in U. S. Customs District of Porto Rico for the fiscal
years 1909, 1910, and 1911.
Taylor, Norman. (See Femow.)
Thurston, Lorrin A. Report of. Chairman of Committee on Forestry of Hawaii
Sugar Planters' Association, 1907.
Trabb with Non-contiguous Posssessions in Farm and Forest Products,
1901-1903, 1904-1906. Buls. 31 and 54, Bureau of Statistics, U. S. Dept. of
Agriculture.
Underwood, L. M. Report on a Trip to Porto Rico. Journal New York Botanical
Garden, November, 19(U.
Wbyl, W. E. Labor Conditions in Porto Rico. Bui. 61, Bureau of Labor, Depart-
ment of Commerce and Labor, November, 1905.
Wilson, H. M. Water Resources of Porto Rico. Water Supply Paper No. 32, U. S.
Geological Survey, 1899.
Woodward, Karl W. Informe sobre las Condiciones Forestales de la Republica
Dominicana. Santo Domingo, 1910.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ADDITIONAL COPIES
or THIS PUBUCinON MAT BB PROCUBKD TBOM
THB STJFERraTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
OOVERNME^fT PBINTINO OWICE
WASmNOTOH, D. C.
AT
26 CENTS PER COPY
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 355
ConCribation trom the States Retaaona Service
A. C. TRUEp Director
Washingtoii, D. C.
PROFESSIONAL PAPER
AprU 13, 1916
EXTENSION COURSE IN SOILS
FOR SELF-INSTRUCTED CLASSES IN MOVABLE
SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE
By
A, fL WHITSON, Professor of SoUs, Uiii?ersity of \Tisconsiii,
and H. B. HENDRICE, Assistant in Agricultural
Education! States Relations Service
1 CONTENTS
Page
Pago
LHBon 1. OrWn, Forniatioii. and Com-
Leflfloa vn. The Phosphoras and Potaa-
poaitlon of Soils 2
Blom of Soils 47
n. Tlie Soil and Plant Growth . 10
Vin. Maonrea and FertiUzers . . 54
m. Physical Properties of the Soli 17
IX. Sod Acidity and Liming . . 62
IV. The Water Supply of the Soil . 24
X. Management of Special Soils 6a
?. Soil Temperature and Diminage SI
XI. Soil AdapUtion lo Crops . . 80
VL The Nitrogen Supply of the
XII. Crop RotaUons and Soil
Sou 41
Fertility 84
WASHINGTON
GOTEBNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1916
Digitized by
Googk
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 355
GontrltadairlhHii the Stofes Belatioiifl Serrke
A. C. TRUE, Dlraetor
WmMagUM, D. C T April 13, 1916
EXTENSION COURSE IN SOILS.
ByA. R. WHireoN, ProfenorofSoiU, Univer9UyofWi30otmn,tJid H. B. Hbndrick,
Asiittant in Agricultural Education, States Relatiom Service.
CONTENTS.
Page.
I. Qrigiii, formatloD, and com-
positlan of soils 2
n. The soil and plant growth 10
UL Physio^propertiesofthesoll. 17
rv. The water supply of the soil... 94
V. Soil temperature and drainage. 81
VL The nitrogen supply of the
lofl 41
Page.
LesBonVn. The phosphorus and potassium
ofsoils 47
Vm. ICanures and fertilisers. 64
IX. Sou acidity and liming 62
X. Management of special soils... 68
XL Soil adaptation to crops 80
XTT. Crop rotations and son ferw
tiUty 84
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS TO LEADERS.
AlthoTigh it is not necessary that the leader of this course shall
ihaye had any special training, his work will be easier if he reads at
iieast a lesson ahead of the class work, or, better still, goes more or
less rapidly through the whole bulletin in advance. In this way it
;will be easier for him to make suggestions regarding the practice work
iin connection with each lesson.
The references of each lesson haye been carefully selected and are
thought to be about sufficient to utilize the remainder of the forenoon
after the lesson text has been carefully read and discussed. Where a
idioice is given between two references, the leader may use his judg-
Notm^— This eoorae has been prepared by direct oooperatlon between the authors and J. 1£. Stedman,
fmrntn* iDstltnte Specialist, of the States Relations Service, and is designed to aid agricultural colleges
.iBftifr extension work. It is Intended for the use of small groups of fumers assembled as a class to study
fbsiris|ect In a systematio manner with one of their number as a leader. It is adapted lor use in any part
'Of theUnited States. The agricultural college is to loan the class the reference library listed in the Appendix
tad also a set of apparatus and the supplies designated therein. The dass meets as often as oonvenient hi
ttSoMilila room where tables fbr exercise work are available. The forenoon is devoted to the lesson and
teooework and the afternoon to the exercise work, an entire day being thus consumed for each lesson.
^.Aft the ooopletSon o f the eourse and as often as desired the ooUege ooiMlQCt9 axaoilBVtiQns ^
i eocrecu and returns the papers.
aa82*— BolL 356-16 ^1
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
2 BULLETIN 355, U. 8. DEPABTBCEIirr OF AGBIOULTtrKB«
ment as to which will be most profitable for the class to read. No
attempt should be made to read tables of record data, but many of
these can be caref uUy studied by the class and conclusions called for by
the leader. If in any lesson the references should be too short, it
will be easy to select others from the reference library; if, on the
other hand, they should prove to be too long, the leader can cause
certain parts of least importance to be omitted.
The exercise equipment and supplies should be put away, and only
such parts of them as are needed for the exercise in hand should be
handled or used during the period. The leader should make him-
self responsible for this practice by the class.
The queries at the end of each exercise are intended to aid in fixing
the leading points of the lesson in the minds of the members and
should be conducted at the close of the practicmn work. The
majority of the questions have to do with facts brought out in the
lessons, but some of them refer to matters which the class is expected
to have gathered from experience and thought.
LESSON L ORIGIN, FORMATION, AND COMPOSITION OF SOILS.
The intelligent use and management of the soil is based on an
imderstanding of its structure and composition. A good soil consists
largely of two parts: (1) The organic matter derived mainly from
plants which have previously grown on the land and have decomposed
more or less, but also to some extent from the remains of animal life;
(2) inorganic or mineral matter, derived originally from rocks. If
soil ia burned at a red heat, the organic matter is burned off, leaving
the rock material. The organic part is the principal factor con-
tributing to the dark color of soils. The inorganic is that derived
from the rock and is made up of particles of all sizes from coarse
sand or gravel down to those so minute that they can not be seen by
the naked eye. Both the organic and the inorganic matter play
important parts in determining soil fertility.
ORIGIN OP SOIL.
Rocks and minerals as soU factors (Ref. No. 3, pp. 1-3, 7-12). —
Minerals are the substances of which rocks are composed and con-
stitute the inorganic part of soils. Some familiar minerals are gypsum
or land plaster, and calcite, which occurs in marble and limestone.
Some of the most common rock-forming minerals are quartz, feld-
spar, hornblende, and mica. White sand is nearly pure quartz. The
fertility of the soil is closely related to the minerals which it contains.
Rocks are masses of minerals, physically imited, and form a con-
siderable portion of the earth's crust. Geologically rocks are grouped
with regard to their origin and structure. The most important
group, agriculturally, are the aqueous rocks, so-called because they
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION C0TJB8E IN SOILS. 8
are believed to have been formed mainly through the agency of
water. Examples of one class of these rocks are the deposits of
gypsum and phosphate beds. The most important classes of the
aqueous rocks, however, are those of sedimentary origin. They are
composed of the materials resulting from disintegration of older
rocks and from the mineral remains of animal and plant life. These
rocks are largely distributed over the earth's surface and include
the limestones, the sandstones, and the shales.
Organic matter as a soil factor (Ref. No. 7, pp. 120-126). — ^The
organic matter of the soil has many important relations to the soil's
fertihty. Vegetable matter, commonly in the form of leaves, and
of stems and roots of plants which have died, undergoes a process
of decomposition in which it breaks down into simpler substances.
When moisture and the air have ready access to it, vegetable
matter slowly decomposes into the substances which were taken by
the plant, in growth, from the soil and those which were absorbed
from the atmosphere. The process is much the same as though the
v^etable matter were slowly burned, and, like burning, it pro-
duces volatile gases and mineral ash, which again serve as plant-
food materials. However, when the air does not have ready access
to the decomposing vegetable matter, it undergoes much slower
and often different changes, yielding residues known as humus,
muck, and peat.
Humus may be defined for present purposes as vegetable matter
in such an advanced stage of decomposition as to have lost its
original physical identity. The degree of fertility of soils is very
closely related to the amoimt of humus which they contain, and one
of the most important problems of a farmer is to manage his soil
so as to retain a high humus content. The quantity of vegetation
returned, the drainage, the temperature, and the character of the
soil are conditions affecting humus content. Peat and muck are
terms applied to vegetable matter which has undergone changes
mider water, largely without air, and which may be in various stages
of decomposition. Marsh soils are largely composed of muck and
peat.
FORMATION AND COMPOSITION OP SOUS.
Agencies oj soil formations. — ^The principal agencies which have
formed soils from rocks and organic matter may be classified as
physical, chemical, and biological. (Ref. No. 9, pp. 1-6.)
A physical change in matter is one which does not produce a
substance or substances of different composition. For example,
the changes of water to ice or to steam are physical. The form of
the matter is changed, but not the composition. Likewise, the dis-
solving of salt in water produces a physical change. The physical
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
4 BULLETIN 365, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGMCTTLTUBB,
agencies which have most affected the formation of soils are tem-
peratm*e changes, or heat and cold, water, ice, and wind.
A chemical change, or reaction, is one which separates or rear-
ranges the elements of a substance or compoimd. Chemically, an
element is a single substance which can not be separated into two
or more different substances; a compound is a union of two or more
elements in certain definite proportions. Gold, silver, quicksilver,
oxygen, and nitrogen are examples of elements. There are about
80 known elements. Common salt is a compoimd of the elements
sodium and chlorin; water is a compound of the elements hydrc^«a
and oxygen; carbon dioxid, present in the air, is a compoimd of the
elements carbon and oxygen. The formation of carbon dioxid in
the decomposition of vegetable matter and the uniting of this gas
with other substances to form carbonate compoimds, are common
examples of chemical changes in the soil.
A biological change is one resulting from plant or animal life within
the soil and may affect soil substance physically or chemically. Insect
life in the soil is a matter of common knowledge. When plant or
animal organisms are so small that they can be identified and studied
only by the use of the microscope, they are called microorganisms,
and a study of those commonly occurring in the soil is called soil
microbiology or soil bacteriology. Nitrification, or formation of
nitrates, is a typical example of microbiological (bacterial) changes
in soils. The work of nodiile-forming bacteria upon the roots of red
clover, alfalfa, and- other leguminous plants, is another example of
such changes affecting the productiveness of soils. The biological
changes produced in the soil are very extensive and important. See
Lesson VI.
The physical, chemical, and biological factors which have been
potent agencies in the formation of soil for past ages are constantly
producing soil changes. Their action may be advantageously con-
trolled to some extent by the farmer, as will be shown in otli^ lee-
sons.
Residual soils (Ref . No. 3, pp. 31-35). — Soils formed from the rocks
immediately imderlying them are called residual soils. On examin-
ing a stone quarry, it is usually found that the upper portion of the
quarry rock is more or less broken up and pieces of the rock aw
embedded in the lower layer of the soil. In fact, the finer pebbks
and cobbles of stone often extend aU the way to the surface of the
soil. A careful study will show that the soil itself has reaUy been
formed from the rock. This has resulted from the action of several
agencies. Among them the expansion and contraction of the rock due
to alternate heating and cooling are very important. The expansion
of water as it freezes has much the same effect. During the long
period of transition from solid rock to thoroughly disintegrated rock,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC \
EZTEKSION GOUBSE IN SOILS. 5
or BoH, the percentage composition of materials may be somewhat
changed by the difference in solubility of the compounds forming
the rock, and by other factors. Because of the wide yariation of
rocks forming residual soils and the changes which may take place
daring rock disintegration, these soils are of many kinds.
Granite rocks consist principally of the mineriJs feldspar, quartz,
hornblende, and mica. In the decomposition of granites carbon
dioxid, usually called carbonic acid, dissolved in soil water, combines
with the elements potassiimi, sodiimi, or calcium in the feldspar,
forming soluble carbonate compounds of these elements, while
insoluble alumina and silica, uniting with small quantities of water,
collect as clay. Quartz grains, on the other hand, are not appreciably
affected by carbon dioxid, and so collect as sand in the soil. In this
way there is formed from granites a mixture of clay, sand, and partly
decomposed particles of all the minerals found in the granite rocks.
Soil is also formed from limestone rocks by weathering and solu-
tion. Limestone consists principally of calcium and magnesium car-
bonates. These slightly soluble carbonates are made more soluble
through the action of carbonic acid in the water of the soil. A good
illustration of such solution is the so-called hard water from a lime-
stone weU. When such water is boiled the carbon dioxid holding
the calcium carbonate in solution is driven off and the carbonate is
precipitated as a solid residue which often adheres to the containing
vessel, forming what is known as scale. In soil formation from lime-
stones, as the carbonates are dissolved and leach out, the impurities
in the limestone, chiefly fine clay and silt, are left to coUect and form
a soil. Mixed with this fine residual clay and silt is usually found a
great deal of stony material consisting largely of silica, and known as
flint or chert. Soils formed from limestones are, therefore, largely
clay, containing more or less flint or chert.
in the formation of soils from sandstone rocks the changes taking
place are largely physical, and the composition of the soils differs but
little from that of the rocks from which they are derived. The chief
process is the disintegration of the rock and the separation of the sand
grains through freezing and thawing and the action of water. Soils
formed in this way from sandstones are, of course, sandy in character,
though they may be somewhat finer than the rock itself, since the
grains of sandstone not only separate one from another, but spUt
up into somewhat finer parts.
The principal area of residual soil in the United States is south
of a line extending roughly from New York to Pittsburgh, thence fol-
lowing the Ohio River to the Mississippi River, up the Mississippi
and ^Gssouri Rivers to the Dakotas, and from thence west to the
Paget Soimd region in Washington, where it turns well southward.
Frran this area, however, should be excluded the coastal plains,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
6 BULLETIN 356, U. 8. DEPABTBfENT OF AQBIOTJLTUBB.
deposits which, in the South Atlantic and the Gulf Coast r^ous,
have an average width of over 100 miles and which are not residual
soils, but there should be added numerous small areas of residual
soils scattered throughout areas of other kinds of soil.
Oumvlose or svximp soils (Ref. No. 3, pp. 35-38). — ^This type oi
soil is related to residual soils in that it has been formed largely from
materials not transported. When plants grow where water fills the
soil most of the time, the lack of air in the land surface hinders the
decay of organic matter to the extent that large deposits of this
material finally collect. Such accumiQations going on for ages
result in what are commonly known as peat bogs or muck swamps.
They contain, as a rule, only such minersd matter as has been washed
in from adjoining areas. Cumidose soils are widely distributed and
vary greatly in area. In this country they are most nimierous in
the northern United States, while larger areas of slightly different
type, known as seacoast swamps, are common along the Atlantic
and Gulf coasts. Such soils are generally useless for agricultural
purposes until drained. The management of marsh soils, however,
is considered in Lesson X.
While soil in many cases has been derived as above explained from
the rock directly under, or from plant remains in place, there are many
kinds of soil which were formed in other sections of the coimtry and
have been brought to their present location by some natural agency.
The three most important agencies transporting soil materials are
water, ice, and wind.
AUuvial soils (Ref. No. 2, pp. 43-60). — ^The action of water as a
soil-forming agent is a matter of common observation. Whenever
streams flood and overflow their banks they deposit some of the sedi-
ment brought down from higher up in their valleys. In this way
they frequently form layers of sand or fine gravel when the stream is
rapid, and of silt when it is moving very slowly, and in the broad,
lakelike floods which occupy the larger valleys of the more important
rivers the finest sediment, or clay, is frequently deposited in deep
layers. Soils thus transported by water are called alluvial soils.
They are always stratified, and the strata frequently vary a great
deal in the size of grains, so that a layer of gravel is often found und^
one of coarse sand, and a layer of coarse sand under one or more of
fine silt. For this reason alluvial soils differ greatly in character, and
one must examine the subsoil of any alluvial field if he desires to
know its condition and value. Alluvial soils include laige agricul-
tural areas, and when well drained are among the most productive
soils of the earth's surface. The high percentage of organic matter
which they commonly contain and the frequent renewing of fertility
by repeated overflows (in case of the low-lying alluvial soils) are
reasons why they keep productive. The Nile Valley in Egypt is a
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BXTEK8I0N COtJBSB IN SOILS. 7
notable example of alluvial deposit regularly renewed. Large soil
areas of this nature are common in the yalleys of the Mississippi River
and its tributaries, and those of smaller extent are common in the
northern United States.
Olaeidl sails (Ref . No. 2, pp. 64-61). — In lands far toward the poles
snow accumulates to great depths, and its pressure becomes such as
to compact it into immense fields of ice. Where sloping land surfaces
or valleys occur, the force due to gravity causes these sheets of ice,
called glaciers, to move slowly down the inclines, grinding the rock
surfaces and carrying along large bowlders and much soil materiaL
When the ice front of winter begins to melt and recede, as summer
approaches, there is left a layer of miscellaneous ground rock mate-
rials whose position has been more or less affected by the carrying
properties of the water formed by the melting ice. Such formations
of soil are constantly being produced in the Arctic and Antarctic
regions. This condition illustrates a period in recent geological
times when immense sheets of ice moved over the land surface of the
earth, in both Northern and Southern Hemispheres, much beyond
the present limits of perpetual snow. Soik formed as the result of
the action of glaciers during this ice age are called glacial soils. (Ref.
3, p. 62.) In the United States soils of glacial formation extend ap-
proximately to the line described as the northern boundary of residual
soils, page 5.
It is easy to understand how th^ character of glacial soils may vary
widely even within the limits of small areas, since they are composites
of all the rock materials over which the ice sheets have passed.
Where the ice moved across granite rocks it mixed the residual soil
previously formed from the granite with cobbles and bowlders
brought from farther north. The granite rock itself was too hard to
be much affected by the ice, though it was often polished quite
smooth. On the other hand, when the ice sheets passed over areas
underlain by sandstone, which is much softer than granite, the rock
was groimd up and formed into a sandy soil of rolling topography.
The chemical comporition of the soil, however, like residual soiis from
the sandstone, was not much changed. The ice in passing over lime-
stone country groimd up a good deal of the limestone underlying the
surface residual soil, mixing it with the surface and forming a soil
richer in limestone, or calcium carbonate, than the corresponding
residual soil. The glaciers in their movement often filled up valleys
and in many cases left shallow basins which filled up with water until
an outlet was foimd. The region which was covered by glacial ice
is characterized, therefore, by a large number of small lakes and
marshes since formed in lake beds. When the glacial sheets
receded, the water flowing from the melting ice carried with it the
sedimentary materials ground up in the ice, producing fanlike plains
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
8 BULLETIN 355, XJ. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGEICULTURE.
and frequently filling valleys beyond the ice border with gravel, sand,
and finer sediment to a depth of from 50 to 200 feet.
Glacial soils, as would be supposed, vary widely in their productive
capacity, and the management of soils within the glacial area is often
difi^cult because of the wide differences in soil types which may occur
even within the boundaries of a single farm.
Wind-formed soils — Loess (Ret, Nos. 2, pp. 68-69; 3, pp. 59-61). —
It is a familiar fact that the atmosphere carries suspended a consid-
erable quantity of fine dust particles and that after rains and snowB
the air is left clearer because much of the dust has been carried to the
earth by the falling raindrops or snowflakes. Duiring high winds,
when the land surface is dry and not covered by vegetation, the air
frequently becomes so laden with fine soil that one can see for only
a short distance. Where windbreaks occur these soil grains are often
deposited in large quantities, forming soil drifts of varying character.
The sand dimes bordering the shores of the Great Lakes are of wind
formation. On the Great Plains of the western United States, where
the soil is dry and heavy winds are common, considerable damage is
often done to farms by the transportation and drift of soil from
place to place.
Loess is a type of soil of a fiuie, silty composition, which commonly
contains a considerable amount of calcareous materials. Loess has a
pecuUar abihty to stand in nearly vertical walls when eroded by wind or
stream. Such soils are imusually uniform, both in physical and mineral
composition, and possess high natural fertility. An extensive area
of typical loess soil is found in the Chinese Empire, where the material,
as above described, extends to the depth of 1,000 feet or more. This
immense deposit is generally believed to have been transported by the
wind. The so-called loess soil of the United States, however, extending
over much of the Mississippi Valley, is commonly believed to have
been transported largely by water. Its depth varies from a few feet
in the outer edges of the area to 150 feet, or more, in the more central
portions.
^ « EXERCISES, LESSON L
Materials needed, — Samples of typical soils found in the community, includii^ manb
soil, if any; hand lens; long pickle bottles with corks; a few pieces of rock candj
(this can be secured at the local store) ; specimens of common rock, such as granite,
trap rock, schist, shale, slate, limestone, marble, sandstone, and quartzite; specimenfl
of conmion rock-forming minerals — ^feldspar, hornblende, quartz, black and white
mica, calcite, and gypsum.
ROCKS AND MmERALS.
(a) Examine carefiilly the rock-forming minerals — ^feldspar, quartz, homblende,
mica, and calcite. Compare relatively their weight, then note color and plane or
direction of .cleavage of each, after which determine their relative degree of hardness.
The relative hardness can be determined by scratching each xnth the others.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION COtJIlSE IN SOILS. 9
WMch are the two most common rock-fonning minerals of the earth's crust?
(b) Examine with the lens the difierent rock samples— granite, trap rock, schist,
shale, date, limestone, marble, sandstone, and quartzite. Compare these with the
mineral samples and try to determine from which minerals the rocks were largely
fofined. What kind or kinds of soil are formed from granite? From sandstone?
Fxom limestone? From shale and slate?
PHT8I0AL AND GHBMICAL OHANGBS.
Emmlne a piece of rock candy, noting color, cr3r8talline form, hardness, and taste.
Grind a piece to powder with the mortar and pestle. Has the taste changed? Dis-
solve a little of the powder in a small quantity of water. Taste the liqiiid to determine
if the material still exists. The changes thus far have been physicsd changes. Now
heat a little of the powder in a dish, slowly first, noting all the changes. Heat imtil
no further changes take place, then allow to cool. Taste the residue. Note its color.
What does the new substance resemble? Will it dissolve in water? What kind of a
change has taken place?
SOIL COMPOSITION.
Material eomponng Moils, — Examine carefully (hand lens may be used) several
samples of soil in the field or classroom and note their physical make-up. Distinguish
between organic and inorganic particles, between vegetable and mineral matter.
Which contain more vegetable matter, the light or dark colored soils? Are the
oqsanic and inorganic particles distinct and separate, or do they adhere closely to one
another? What is the source of the vegetable matter? The mineral matter?
Mineral hate of soils. — Examine carefully these samples again and note the variation
in size of the mineral particles. What name is given to the large mineral particles?
Of what may these particles consist? What name is given to the fine, dustUke parti-
doB? Of what may these particles consist? What are the intermediate-sized grains
called? Do you find particles of these sizes in greater or less abundance in all samples
examined?
Mineral particles determined by sediTnentation. — Place a tablespoonful of soil in a long
pickle bottle and fill the bottle up to the neck with water; add a few drops of ammonia;
Aaike well for at least three minutes. Set down the bottle and observe the settling
of soil particles. The material which settles to the bottom during the first few seconds
is coarse sand or gravel. The material which continues to settle more slowly during
the next few minutes is silt. The water is turbid after settling has apparently ceased
because of the fine clay particles in suspension. Put aside the bottle and find how
kmg some of the fine particles will stay in suspension.
FIELD STtJDT.
Where {nacticable, field trips or excursions may be made for studying the rock
formation of the community, noting relations between the prevailing rocks and the
types of soil. It should also be noted whether the particular areas of soil visited
are of residual or transported formation.
REVIEW QUESTIONS, LESSON L
1. Of what two parts does soil largely consist? From what does each part originate?
2. Name some common rock-forming minerals. What are sedimentary rocks?
3. What is humus? Explain how it is produced in the soil.
4. What Is a physical change? A chemical change? A biological change? Give
examples of each.
5. What is an element? A comx>oimd? Give examples of each.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
10 BULLETIN 365, V. S. DEPAETMENf OP AGBICULTURfi.
6. What are residual aoik, and what kinds of residual soils are formed from ssnd-
stone, limestone, and granite?
7. What is loess, and how is it produced?
8. Why are alluvial soils often found to be very coarse in the subsoil?
9. What are the characteristics of glacial soils, and how are they related to the
rocks from which they were derived?
LESSON n. THE SOIL AND PLANT GROWTH.
Under favorable conditions of sunshine and heat, aeration and
moisture, plants grow from materials furnished to them from the air
and from the soil. Since plant-food materials are constantiy being
removed from the soil in the growth and harvest of crops it is impor-
tant to imderstand to what extent the diflFerent farm crops draw upon
the soil for plant food, what amounts of these materials are contained
in the different soils, and by what means the soil replenishes the essoi-
tial food materials for the needs of crops.
WJuit the air and the soil furnish to plants (Ret. Nos. 1, pp. 16-20,
31-34; 3, pp. 477-482). — ^The atmosphere is one of the sources
from which plant food is derived. The air is made up almost entirely
of gases, nearly four-fifths being nitrogen, about one-fifth oxygen, and
only four one-himdredths of 1 per cent, or about 4 parts in 10,000,
carbon dioxid. Oxygen is used directly by plants as by animals.
The air passes into the leaves, where a small amoimt of oxygen is
taken up and combines with other materials in the cells. Carbon-
dioxid gas is a compound of the elements carbon and oxygen. (See
p. 4). In sunHght the green leaves of plants decompose this gas,
fixing the carbon and returning the oxygen to the air. The carbon
thus used comprises about 50 per cent of the dry weight of plants.
Nitrogen is not taken directly from the air by plants, although it is a
most important plant food.
When a quantity of any green farm crop is cut and allowed to wilt
and cure in the sun it loses a large part of its weight by the evapora-
tion of the water which it contains. If the cured material is heated
in an oven at 212*^ F., the temperature of boiling water, it again loses
weight for a time from evaporation. What remains is called dry
matter. If this be burned, the organic matter passes away as gases
while the mineral matter remains as ash. The water from evapora-
tion contains the elements hydrogen and oyxgen; the escaping gases
include the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, and the
ash contains compounds of the elements potassium, phosphorus, cal-
cium, magnesium, iron, sulphur, chlorin, sodium, and silicon. AH of
these elements except carbon and a smaU quantity of oxygen -were
secured by the growing plants from the soil.
It has been found by chemical analysis that the 13 elements men-
tioned above are present in all growing crops, but they vary in
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION C0UE8E IN SOILS. 11
quantity with different crops and with the stage of development of
the plants. In general^ the mineral elements and the nitrogen make
up only about IJ per cent of the dry weight of plants, while the
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen comprise about 98^ per cent of the
total dry weight. While silicon, sodium, and chlorin are present in
growing crops, these elements do not appear to be indispensable to
Uie succeseful growth of plants. Attempts to grow plants without
any of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, potassium,
phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, iron, or sulphur have resulted only
in failure. These elements have been called, therefore, the 10 essential
elemente of plant food. Whenever all conditions favorable to the
beet growth have been furnished to plants, with the exception that
some one essential element was supplied only to a limited extient, the
plants have never developed beyond the point made possible by the
dement which was limited in supply. When this principle is applied
to crop production, it means that no matter how favorable the water
supply, the tilth, and other essentials for growth may be, the harvest
will never exceed what is made possible by the element which rela-
tively is least supplied to the crop from the soil. The element of
plant food thus limiting growth is called the limiting factor in crop
production. The elements commonly considered as limiting crop
production are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassimn. The manage-
ment of soils so as to build up the supply of these elements of pl^t
food is specially treated in Lessons VI and VII.
How soil maieridk are vMized by plants (Ref. No. 3, pp. 404, 405,
412-418; or No. 10, pp. 166-174) .-^oil materiab must be dissolved
in water before plants can absorb them. The plant-food elements of
the soil go into solution in the form of compounds called salts. A
salt results from a chemical reaction between an acid and a base.
An acid is a substance which will turn blue litmus paper red, while
a base is one which will neutralize an acid and will turn red litmus
paper blue. Vin^ar contains an acid, while slaked lime is a base.
When muriatic acid is added to slaked lime they react and form calcium
chlorid, which is a salt. Calcium phosphate, potassium sulphate, and
sodium nitrate are examples of salts which serve as sources of plant
food. While these and aU other salts must be dissolved before they
can be utilized by plants, it is not necessary or even desirable that
large quantities of plant food be in solution in the soil at any one time.
Flant-food substances in solution or in condition to become so from
the action of natural agencies are called available; those not in con-
dition to become soluble for plant use are said to be imavailable.
Plants during growth absorb the soil solution through many small
projections called root haiis. These root hairs constantly develop
anew near the ends of protruding rootlets and keep in close contact
with soil grains and immersed in the water iT]vn surrounding soil
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
12 BULLETIN 355, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTXTRE.
grains. Root absorption of liquids takes place by a physical actkm
called osmosis. If a bladder be filled with a solution like the white of
an egg, the opening tightly tied with string, and the bladder put in
a dish of salt dissolv^ed in water, there is set up a movement of the salt
solution through the walls of the bladder to the inside which soon
distends the bladder to a considerable extent. The movement of
liquid in this case is mainly inward, as colloidal solutions like the white
of an egg pass but slowly through porous membranes. This move-
ment will continue until the tension force from the stretch of the
bladder walls equals the force which causes the water to move inward.
The cause of the movement of the water through the bladder is
called osmotic pressure. The illustration helps one to understand
the movement of soil solution into the roots of growing plants. The
walls of the cells composing the roots, like a bladder, are permeable
to dissolved salts only, and the dilute salt solutions of the soil pass
by osmosis through the cell walls into the denser solutions of the cell
sap. When all the root cells become sufficiently turgid (distended)
the plant-food solution is forced into the minute vessels and channels
of the stem structure and upward to be utilized for growth.
Three conditions are necessary for the osmotic absorption of wat^
by plant roots. These are: (1) A favorable temperature of the sur-
rounding soil; (2) a supply of fresh air; and (3) a suitable quantity
of water. Some plants are able to absorb water at temperatures as
low as the freezing point, but this is not conamon. It has often been
observed that the growth of potted plants is hindered by lowering the
temperature of the soil by the use of cold water. A proper supply of
water in the soil is indispensable for root absorption^ but an excess of
water shuts out the air from the soil and causes carbon dioxid poison-
ing and death of the root hairs, due to improper respiration or breath-
ing in their cells. Soils are also made cold by much evaporation due
to excess of water. The matter of air and water supply in soils will
be considered at length in Lessons IV and V.
How elements of soil and air function in plants (Ref. No. 1, p. 37). —
By supplying varying quantities of available mineral plant foods to
growing plants with a suitable supply of moisture in the soil some
conclusions have been reached concerning the functions of the
essential elements. When a liberal supply of materials giving up
nitrogen has been used, plants have produced rank, green foliage,
often to the detriment of seed production. Therefore, when leaves
and stems furnish the food part of plants, as with cabbage and
celery, the soil growing these crops should be well supplied with
available nitrogen. Seeds and grain contain relatively lai^ quanti-
ties of the element phosphorus in combination. A good supply of
available phosphorus-bearing materials hastens the maturing of
plants and is particularly essential in the seed and grain crops.
Digiti
zed by Google
EXTENSION C0UB8E IN SOILS. 18
Fho^honis also seems to bear an intimate relation to the development
of plant cells. Potassimn and calcium are closely allied with stem
and root structure. A liberal available supply of these elements
favors stiff; strong steins in grain and other crops. Potassium is also
essential in starch formation. A good supply of available potassium
in soils is needed, therefore, for root crops. Sulphur has an important
function in cell structure. Iron is necessary in the forming of
chlorophyll grains which give the green coloring to leaves and which,
in the presence of sunshine, aid in the manufacture of starch in the
leaves, largely from carbon dioxid and water. Carbon, together with
water, composes a large percentage of plant structure and is the
basis of all oi^anic substance. Oxygen not in combination with
other elements enters the plant and causes the breaking down, or
oxidation, of other materials in the plant.
SoUmaieridls removed by crops (Ref. No.3, pp.418-420). — In nature,
as plants mature and decay, the soil materials used in plant growth
are largely returned to the soil. The loss to the soil of inorganic or
mineral substances by leaching and erosion is usually coimter-
baianced by the natural f^encies of disintegration, while the organic
or v^etable decomposition enriches the soil in nitrogen and returns
the mineral substances f^ain to the soil. Mineral compoimds from
v^etable decay, it should also be noted, become more readily avail-
able in the soil than do the minerals from rocks. Under ordinary
farm practice, on the other hand, soil materials are removed in
crops, waste occurs in connection with the management of manures,
straw, and plant residues, and the soil often leaches and erodes very
readily. All of these things deplete the fertihty of the soil. The
plant-food elements removed by crops vary with the yield, the crop
grown, and the available materials in the soil. A rehable table
showing the averf^e quantity of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium
removed from the soil by crops is found in reference No. 5, page 154.
Plantrfood materials contained in soils (Ref. No. 5, pp. 58-60). —
The amounts of the essential plant-food elements in soils are ex-
tremely variable. Since the nitrogen in soils comes almost entirely
from vegetable decay, the supply of this important element depends
upon the plant materials returned to the soil and the activity of the
agencies of decomposition. The total supply of the mineral ele-
ments present in the soil, as stated in Lesson I, depends largely upon
the original rocks from which the soil was formed. The quantity
of materials available for plant growth, it must be understood,
depends upon good soil management as well as upon the tjrpe of
soil formation. Hopkins says:
We can aasume for a rough estimation that the equivalent of 2 per cent of the
nitrogen, 1 per cent of the phosphorus, and one-fourth of 1 per cent of the total po-
tMinm contained in the surface soil can be made available during one season by
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
14 BULLETIN 356, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGBIOULTURE.
pfBCtical methods of faraung. Of coune, the percentage that can be made available
will vary very much with different seasons, with different soils, and for different
crops; and yet with normal soils and seasons and for ordinary crops the above
percentages represent roughly about the proportion that is liberated from our com-
mon soils of the elements that limit the yield of the crop.
The meaning and value of chemical soil analysis. — Chemical analysis
of soil is a means of helping to determine how areas of soil which
are improductive should be managed^ A few things should be
imderstood with regard to soil analysis: (1) It is highly important
that the surface and subsurface soil samples be representative of
the area examined. To this end it is advisable to get directions from
the analyst before taking the samples of soil to be analyzed. (2) The
chemical analysis of a sample of soil will probably not detect a bad
physical condition which may be an important factor of its non-
productiveness. For example, poor drainage of a soil may not
be evident from its chemical analysis. (3) A soil may be dead, so
to speak, due to microbiological inactivity, or other causes. The
regular process of soil analysis probably would not detect this con-
dition. (4) Chemical soil analysis does give the amounts of nitro-
gen, phosphorus, and potassiimi in the samples of soil anal3^zed, and
if the samples are representative the total quantities of these essen-
tial elements of plant food per acre to a stated depth can be quite
accurately estimated. The supphes of these elements available for
plant growth may also be indicated by the analysis, but the reliabil-
ity of the methods used in determining availability is still a matter
under discussion by soil chemists. It is safe to say that chemical
soil analyses often indicate what is the limiting factor in crop pro-
duction in the soil. (5) In soil analysis a test is made for acidity,
and if acid is foimd this is stated in terms of the amount of lime
necessary to correct the condition, and from this the application most
practical for the cropping system in use may be estimated.
The relation between the terms nitrogen, phosphorus, and potas-
sium, and the corresponding terms ammonia, phosphoric acid,
and potash, commonly used by soil analysts, will be explained in
subsequent lessons.
TJie possilUity of exhaustion of soil nutrients (Ref. No. 3, p. 419). —
It is a matter of common knowledge that the cultivated soils of the
United States, imder the ordinary farm practices, frequently become
less and less productive. There are various causes for this decline
m productiveness. The removal of plant-food materials in cropping,
which has already been referred to, is one of these. The leaching
of soluble compounds into the drainage water of soils is likewise a
source of considerable loss. It has been found in general that soib
nave greater retentive power for compounds containing phosphorus
and potassium than for compounds containing nitrogen. Sodium
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION COURSE IN SOILS. 16
nitrate, a common source of nitrogen, is readily leached from the
soil. Very little loss occurs from the leaching of phosphorus com-
poxmds. The amount of leaching also varies considerably with the
type of soil. Soluble materials are leached more readily from sandy
soils, for example, than from clays. Erosion is another cause of
much loss of fertiUty from soils. Leaching arid erosion can both
be avoided to a large extent by keeping the soil covered with plant
growth.
There are several ways and means by which plant-food materials
are replenished in the soil The removal by diflFerent agencies of
surface-soil materials subjects the subsurface to increased action
from the agencies of disintegration and decomposition which set
free plant food. Then the dissolving action of water in the soil is
constantly increasing the availability of the mineral nutrients. The
return of organic matter in the form of manures, straw, and plant
r^idues from crops and weeds is doubtless the best means at the
command of the average farmer for keeping up the productive-
n^s of bis soil. Various substances in the form of commercial ferti-
lizers are now much used, the quantity and nature of these materials
depending upon the type of soU, the crops grown, and the judgment
of the user.
EXERCISES, LESSON n.
MalenaU needed. — Balance; porcelain dishes; sodium hydroxid; red and blue
litmuB paper; muriatic acid; burnt lime; covered fruit jar; glass tubing; one-holed
stoppers; rubber tubing; limestone; marble slab; some small boxes; sandy soil and
a few kernels of com; sealing wax; large-mouthed pickle bottles; and eggs (to be
fomielied by the class).
Composition of plants. — ^Take a growing plant and weigh it. Record the weight.
Cut up and put pieces into a porcelain dish. Heat very gradually, causing the plant
to wilt and dry out, but do not apply enough heat to cause charring or burning . While
the drying is being done, hold a clean, dry glass plate over the containing dish.
Remove glass at times and note from its appearance what is being expelled from the
plant. After the plant is thoroughly dried, cool and weigh again. Record the
weight. What percentage of the total weight passed off as moisture? Now bum the
dried substance until only ash remains. Weigh again. Record the weight and
figure the percentage of ash. The ash contains the mineral materials taken irom the
soil. The part consumed by burning represents what was formed from the carbon
dioxid of the air and the water and nitrogen from the soil.
Formation of a salt. — Dissolve a piece of sodium hydroxid about the size of two
peas in a small quantity of water. Dip the tips of forefinger and thumb into the solu-
tion and rub together. Note the feeling, then wash finger and thumb. Put about
one-fourth teaspoonful of this solution into a separate dish (keeping remainder) and
add about 5 teaspoonfuls of water. Dip finger into this solution and touch to the
tongue. Note taste, then spit out. Put small piece of red litmus paper into this
weak solution. What happens? Sodium hydroxid is a base. After noting all its
properties, discard this weak solution.
(a) Put about 10 teaspoonfuls of water into a dish . Add not over 5 drops of muriatic
add and stir. Touch tip of finger to solution and taste, but do not swallow. After
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
16 BULLETIN 355, U. S. DEPABTICEKT OF A(aiCULTUBE.
QotiiigtJUBte, put a onaU piece of blue Utiims paper into tbeaoln^^ What happeniff
After noting piopertiefl of the acid, diacaid thia aolutkxi.
(b) Now take the original strong salutitHi of the aodinm hydroxid and very slowly
wAdmniiaiicaad, drop by drop. Place piece of Mnelitnnis paper in the 8(4atioii,keq>
etiiring while dowly dropping in the add, and sU^ adding acid tke insiant that the
bine litmiu paper turns red. Now pour the solution into a pofcelain dish and boO
until all the liquid has evaporated and the remaining substance is completely dry.
Taste the residue. What is it? It was formed fnun a chemical leactum between an
acid and a base.
Carbon dioxid of carbordo-add gas. — Put a piece of burnt Hme one-half the size of
your fist into a pint fruit jar. Add water to dake the Hme. Now add more water
until can is nearly full, put on cover, shake thmoughly, then set away to settle. (One
can of the liquid will probably suffice for the use of the class.) Put a glass tube
through a one-holed stopper. (Be careful not to break the tube and cut the hands.)
Fit a piece of rubber tubing over the end of the glass tube. Put a small piece of
limestone into a bottle in which the stopper containing the glass tubing fita. Pour a
little of the prepared limewater into one glass dish, or bottle, and a little water into
another. Dilute not over one-half teaspoonful of muriatic acid by adding about 4 or
5 teaspoonfuls of water. Have the bottle containing limestone, the bottle contain-
ing limewater, and the bottle containing water all in readiness, then pour the dilute
add upon the limestone and quickly insert stopper containing glass tube. Put end d
rubber tube into bottle containing limewater so that end of tube is below the oorbce.
After the gas has passed into the limewater fen- a little time, remove the rubber tube
and place it under the water in the other glass dish or bottle. The gas escaping from
the bottle containing limestone is carbon dioxid. What effect does it have upon
limewater? Put a small piece of blue litmus paper into the water throu^ which
the carbon dioxid has been passing for some time. What happens? Do you see
why the gas is sometimes called carbonic-add gas? Wash one of your glaas didies or
test tubes thoroughly, then add another small quantity of limewater. Use a ^aas or
rubber tubing and blow your breath through the limewater. What does your breath
contain? Pour another small portion of limewater into a clean glass and let it set
for some hours, or even days, in a place not dusty. What gas is shown by this experi-
ment to be present in the air? The result can be shown much more quickly by
using a bicycle pump and forcing air through the limewater.
Root hairs arid the action of roots. — Place a square piece of polished marble dab at
the bottom of a box about 4 or 5 inches deep, with the other dimensions equal to that
of the slab. Place the polished surface up and fill the box with moist soil of a sandy
nature. Plant a few kernels of com in this soil. Put in a warm place and keep the
soil moist. When the plants have grown at least 6 inches high, remove them very
carefully. Note how the rootlets cling to the soil grains. Now dean the rootlets
carefully with water and examine near the ends with the magnifying glass for root
hairs. Remove the soil from the box and note the effect of the roots on the pohshed
marble.
0*mo«w.— Using sealing wax and a piece of glass tubing about 4 or 5 inches long;
seal the tubing on the small end of an egg. Very carefully break and remove the
shell, or outer covering, from a small portion of the other end of the egg. Fill a wide-
mouthed pickle bottie with a strong solution of common salt and set the egg, tube
upward, in the opening of the bottie. Now run a hatpin down the ^ass tubing and
carefully break through both coverings of the end of the egg. Keep the bottie full ol
water and leave the egg set up in this way for several hours. What leeults? Stick
the hatpin into the solution within the egg and taste. Do you now b^in to under-
Btand how plants get dissolved mineral foods from the soil?
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTEKSIOK COUBSB IN SOILS. 17
BEVIEW QUESTIONS, LESSON H.
1. What chemical elements are essential to the growth of plants? In what condition
are they utilized by plants?
2. What is a salt? Give example. Name some properties of adds and of bases
which yovL have discovered. Give examples of acids, bases, and salts.
3. Tell what you understand by the limiting factor in crop production.
4. "What are root hairs? Describe the process by which plants absorb materials
/ram the soil.
5. Is it possible that plants might not be able to get enough plant-food material for
their growth, oven though the soil may contain sufficient quantities of it? Explain.
6. Mention a special function of potassium in plants; of phosphorus; of nitrogen.
7. How much nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are taken from the soil in re-
moving a lOO-bushel crop of com? A SO-bushel crop of wheat? Three hundred
bushels of potatoes? Six hundred bushels of apples? Four hundred pounds of butter?
(See Table 23, Rof. No. 5, p. 154.)
8. Of what value is chemical soil anal3^is to the farmer? Discuss.
9. Give the means of removing and the means of replenishing plant-food materials
insoils.
10. What is adsorption?
LESSON m. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS.
In farm practice the term '' soil " is somewhat loosely used to include
the furrow slice. It is commonly about 6 to 8 inches in depth, com-
pu^tively friable and porous, and in hiunld climates is darker and
contains more organic matter than the part beneath, called the sub-
soil. These two parts are better designated by the terms surface
soil and subsurface soil, both parts being comprehended in the general
term "soil,'' which usually includes a layer of about 4 feet, or the
depth to which the roots of farm crops commonly extend. In con-
nection with tillage, soils are also spoken of as being heavy or light,
depending upon whether they are hard or easy to work. Clay soils
are hard to till, due to their fineness of particles and their stickiness.
Sandy soils till easily, but are coarse grained and really heavier than
the clays. All soils are mixtures of diflferent-sized particles. The
size of tho particles determines the texture of a soil. Structure has to
' do with the arrangement of the particles of soil and is independent of
their size. When the structure of soil particles is such as to be highly
favorable to the growth of crops the soil is said to be in good iiUh.
TEXTUBE.
(Ref. No. 2, pp. 70-76, or No. 3, pp. 84-86, 97, and 102.)
Meehamcal analysis. — ^To study textxu'e the inorganic soil particles
are separated into a number of grades according to size. This sepa-
ration is called mechanical analysis. Fine wire sieves, carefully
constmcted, are employed for separating the coarser sands into dif-
erent grades, and bolting cloth, such as is used in flour mills,
21862**— BuU. 355-16 2
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
18
BULLETIN 366, U. S. DEPAETMENT OP AGEICULTUBE.
is used for separating the finest sands. To separate the still finer
particles constituting silts and the clays it is necessaiy to shake the
remaining portion of the soil thoroughly in water and then at di£Ferent
periods of time to draw off that which remained suspended during
the previous period, allowing it to stand in another vessel for a longer
time. By using these methods any number of different grades may
be established. As a rule, however, but seven grades are separated.
These have the following names and diameters expressed in milli-
meters and inches.
Table I,— Grades and tize of soil panicles.
Grade of 8oU.
MlUlmeters.
Inches.
Grade of eon.
MUlimeters.
Inches.
Fine gravel
3 tol
1 to .5
.5 to .25
.25 to .1
0.12 to 0.04
.04 to .02
.02 to .01
.01 to .004
Very fine sand
Silt.
aiotoaos
.05to .005
.005
aoo4toaoQ3
CoarM mid
.OQSto .OOOS
Medium sand
Clay, aUparUcles lees
Fine sand
(nrnffindlm
The measurement of the diameter of these particles is made by
means of a microscope.
Mechanical composUicm of various soils. — ^AU soils contain some
particles of each of the seven grades as previously given, but the pro-
portion varies greatly. Heavy clay soils are lai^ely made up of silt
and clay particles with small quantities of the different-sized sands,
while sandy soils are made up of relatively large quantities of the
various grades of sand and correspondingly smaller quantities of silt
and clay. It is therefore desirable to subdivide soils on the basis of
the relative proportions of the different-sized grains. Soil investi-
gators recognize on this basis coarse sand, sandy loam, fine sandy
loam, loam, silt loam, clay loam, and clay.
These different classes of soils have the average mechanical com-
position or texture shown in Table II.
Table II.
—Average texture of important cUuaea qf soils.
Class of soiL
Biedianical analysis giving average percentage of soO sqpvated Id
each uaas.
Fine
graveL
Coarse
sand.
Medium
sand.
Fine
sand.
Very fine
sand.
SflL
ov.
Coarse sand ....,,,,,- ^ - ^
5
6
1
1
1
15
10
25
10
5
4
2
2
2
30
86
20
15
6
5
5
10
15
25
20
10
1.1
12
10
20
SO
40
00
42
SO
1
Sandy loam
u
Fine sandy loam , . . . , r ^ -
15
Loam ..,.'..
IT
sat loam
n
Clay loam
Jl
Clay soO
fQ
Quantity of surface exposed in soils. — ^The area of the total surface
of the particles in a soil of fine texture is much larger than in one of
coarse texture. The principle is illustrated by considering the effect
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION COURSE IN SOILS. 19
of dividing a block of wood 1 foot on each edge by sawing it through
in the middle in the three directions. This will produce eight cubes
6 inches on each edge. The large cube will contain 6 square feet of
surface; each of the smaller cubes will measure 6 inches, or one-half
of a foot, on each edge and will contain one-fourth of a square foot
Ml each surface. This multipUed by 6, the number of surfaces on a
cube, then by 8, the number of small cubes, gives 12 square feet of
surface. The area is therefore doubled by the division. The same
division of each of these smaller cubes would again double the area,
and so on. In the same way the division of a grain of sand into
ei^t smaller particles having one-half the original diameter would
multiply the entire surface exposed by 2. A cubic foot of coarse,
sandy soil has about 40,000 square feet of surface, or nearly 1 acre.
A cubic foot of sandy loam has about 65,000 square feet of surface,
a cubic foot of clay loam nearly 105,000 square feet, and a heavy
day about 200,000 square feet, or nearly 5 acres. It should be noted,
however, that imder certain conditions the particles in soils of fine
texture tend to flocculate or collect in small aggregates (see p. 20),
thus reducing the effective area of exposed surface.
Rdaiian of effective sail sitrface to fertility. — ^That the quaUties of
soib are largely influenced by the size of the soil grains is due to the
fact that many of these quahties actually depend on the area of the
total effective siu^ace of all the soil grains in the mass of soil that
the roots of plants occupy. The water held by the soil after draining
is in the form of fine films surrounding the soil grains, and therefore
the quantity depends on the extent of surface of the soil grains.
CSiemical and microbiological processes forming available plant food
abo take place on the siurface of the soil grains. The finer the par-
ticles of any soil the greater is the relative quantity of available
plant-food materials carried in the soil solutions. The total feeding
area of plant roots is therefore increased as the size of the particles
composing the soil is decreased.
STRUCTURE.
(Ref. Nofl. 3, pp. 116-116; 184-197; 10, pp. 99-101.)
PUuHcUy and gmvAdatioTL — ^The particles of a soil when wet have
a tendency to stick together and to adhere to other objects with
which they come in contact. This property of stickiness or ability
to be molded is called plasticity. Coarse-textured soils show thb
property only to a very small degree. In soil-management studies,
therefore, plasticity need be considered only in connection with the
fine-textured soils, especially the clays. The plasticity of soil is due
principally to the size and arrangement of the soil particles, the
water present in the soil, and the materials contained in the soil solu-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
20 BULLETIN 366, U. S. DBPAETMBNT OF AGBICULTURE.
tions. If day soil is tilled when wet, its smaller particles seem to
become more closely fitted into the spaces of the larger particles,
and in this very plastic condition the soil is said to be puddled.
As wet soils dry out the water films surrounding the particles be-
come thinner, which causes a contraction of the soil mass. Hib
contraction causes separations between particles having least cohe-
sion, which results in irregular cracking and the formation
of soil masses of various sizes. Highly plastic clay soils which have
become puddled form into large masses upon drying, and when
tilled break up into clods. On the other hand, when rightly man-
aged, clay soils upon drying form into small, irregular masses, which
by tilling form a crumbhke structure. This property is called ffran-
viation. The granulation of soils has a very important influence on
the growth of crops, since it permits the excess of water to drain off
more readily than would be the case if all the soil grains were as
closely arranged as possible, and it offers the roots of the plants an
opportunity to penetrate the soil much more readily than they could
otherwise do. It also gives the air better access to the growing roots
and to the microorganisms causing changes in the soil.
Agencies producing granulation. — ^The principal agencies which
affect granulation in soils are: (1) Good drainage. Where land is
well drained any excess of water quickly passes away instead of satu-
rating the soil and thus inducing puddling and the formation of solu-
tions which hinder granulation. (2) The use of lime. The addition
of lime to clay soils causes a flocculation, or gathering into aggr^ates
of materials suspended in the soil solutions, and thereby reduces
plasticity and promotes granulation. (3) Insects and plant roots.
The borings of insects and earthworms, and the penetration of plant
roots far into the subsurface soil, deepen the zone of granulation.
(4) Decaying vegetable matter in the soil. It is believed that the
humus in the soil becomes distributed over the surfaces of soil grains
and through the solutions of the soil, reducing its plasticity and per-
mitting better granulation. At any rate, it is a practical fact of
conmion farm experience that plowing manure, straw, and plant
residues deeply into the soil produces a loosening, granulating effect
which makes tillage easier and adds to productiveness. (5) The
growth of grasses. The fine, fibrous roots of grasses, completely
permeating the openings of the surface soU, attach themselves thor-
oughly to the soil particles and gradually develop a condition of
granulation. The good tilling properties of land which has been
in grass for several years are well known. (6) Tillage operations.
Soil must be tilled at the right time and with the right implements to
secure the best granulation.
Pore space in soils (Ref. Nos. 10, pp. 101, 102; 3, pp. 108, 109). —
Pore space in soils may be thought of as the space not occupied by tie
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION COURSE IN SOILS. 21
solid soil particles and the moisture film surrounding these particles.
It is the space in well-drained soils which is open to the circulation
of air and other gases and to the growth of plant roots. The total
pore space in any soil depends less upon the size of soil particles than
upon the arrangement of these particles. From the standpoint of
pore space the granules in soil are similar to single soil grains. The
pore space in sandy soils under ordinary field conditions is about 40
per cent of the total. In clay loams the granulation is conmionly
such that 55 per cent of the total volume of the soil is pore space,
only 35 per cent being occupied by solid matter; while in fertile
heavy clays granulation may be present to such an extent that 65
per cent of the total volume is pore space. Ample pore space in
soil to a depth of 4 feet or more is very essential to a thorough distri-
bution of plant roots, and a free circulation of air in the soil is indis-
pensable to the growth of farm plants.
Circvlaiion of air in the soil. — Some of the principal causes of the
circulation of air in soils are: (1) Water movements in the soil. Any
movement of water through the soil has an effect upon the circulation
of the soil air. A good example of this is seen in underground
drainage. Following rains, or accompanying irrigation in arid lands,
as the water passes downward through the soil into the drains, the
atmospheric pressure forces the air into the pore spaces opened by
the water passing out. (2) Changes in barometric pressure. Varia-
tbns in the pressure of the atmosphere, indicated by the barometer,
produce currents of air, or winds, which pass over the earth's surface.
Hiese causes of surface movements of air also affect subsurface
movements of soil air, but to a lesser degree. (3) Changes in tem-
perature, due to day and night. After simset the atmosphere cools
more rapidly than the earth's surface. The warmer air of the soil,
being lighter, moves upward through the pore spaces and into the
atmosphere, while an equal volume of cooler air above the surface
moves downward into the soil to take its place. (4) Diffusion.
It is a physical law that when two gases are in contact they always
mix, or diffuse. Carbon dioxid given off in the soil from the roots
of plants and from vegetable decay, together with other soil gases,
gnudually diffuses in the soil air and thereby helps to produce a
certain kind of circulation.
Among the causes influencing pore space and soil-air circulation
those most under control in soil management are drainage and
granulation. If soils are filled with water there can be no circulation
of air therein. On the other hand, if clay soils are so managed as to
become puddled and baked, the lack of pore space and granulation
will result in poor circulation of Air through them and thus prevent
the succeaaful growth of plants.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
22 BULLETIN 365, U. 8. DEPABTMENT OF AQBICULTUBE.
TILTH.
(Ref. No. 2, pp. 277-283.)
Sail management to produce good tilth. — Ample pore space and
thorough granulation in a soil are two of the most important factors
of good tilth. It is impossible in a brief treatise of this kind to for-
mulate rules for tillage covering the use of all farm implements,
for all farm crops, grown upon all types of soil. But a thorough
knowledge of the principles involved and the ends to be attained
is of greater value in farm practice than any set of rules. It is only
by experience, together with a mastery of the principles of soil man-
agement, that the best tilth will be secured and the best results in
farming produced. This is especially true of the different clay
soils, many of which are fertile, but all of which require intelligent
management.
EXERCISES, LESSON ID.
Materials needed. — One-pound baking-powder cans; a balance or scales, 2 quarts
each of dry sand, clay, silt loam, clay loam, sandy loam, loam; several 1-inck wooden
cubes; any simple apparatus to measure cubic inches of water; set of soil sieves; pie
tins, or saucers.
SOIL TEXTURB.
Heavy verms light soils. — ^Take two 1-pound baking-powder cans of equal wei^t
and fill one level full with air-dried sand. Fill the other with finely divided air-diied
clay or silt loam. Compare the weights of these two voliunee of soil. Which does
the farmer usually consider as light soil? Why? Why is the other commonly called
a heavy soil? To which soil may the term fine textured be applied? Descxibethe
texture of the light soil.
Soil classes based on size of soU grain (Ref. No. 3, p. 77). — Obtain dry samples of
sand, clay, silt loam, sandy loam, clay loam, and loam. Examine each class care-
fully with a hand lens and note the following characteristics: Comparative siae of
soil particles; the feeling between the fingers when wet, whether gritty, sticky, or
velvety; kind of soil particles based on texture.
(To THE LEADER. — ^A tablespoouful of each sample of soil may be placed in separate
small dishes and labeled to enable the members of the class to work alone or in pun.
After the members have become familiar with each soil class, unknowns may be
passed out for identification.)
Mechanical analysis.— Take about half of a pound baking-powder can of two or three
different kinds of dry soil. Weigh each sample separately and record. Take one
kind of soil and pour upon the coarsest soil sieve. Shake until no more of the mate-
rial passes the sieve. Retain the part passing through. Weigh the part retained by
the sieve and record the weight. Take the part passing through the sieve, repeating
the process as above with the next finer sieves in order and recording the wei^its,
until all the sieves have been used. Compare percentage of separates with table oa
page 18, and try to determine the correct names for classes of soils used.
Textwre and film water (Ref. No. 2, pp. 157, 158).— (a) Take eight 1-inch cubes and
build them up into a 2-inch cube. How many square inches of surface does this
2-inch cube have? Determine the total number of square inches of surface on all
the smaller cubes.
Cutting a cube in three directions increases the number of cubes bow niuiy timei?
How many times does it increase the surface area?
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BXTEySION C0T7BSB IK 80IL8. 23
(b) Let the origbal 2-inch cube represent a soil gndn of a coane-textnred soil. Gut
it in three directions, and cut each resulting cube again in three directiims. Into
how many cubical particles is the original soil grain now divided? The total suiUce
area of these particles is now how many times that of the original soil grain?
A soil made up of these resulting particles is how much finer textured than soil
made up of particles like the original soil grain? Which soil will hold more film
watCT? Why?
Texture and pore space.— Secnie two 1-pound baking-powder cans and make them
wster-tig|it by use of a little paraffin. Fill one within half an inch of the top with
dry sand, and the other with dry clay loam and silt loam. Measure carefully the
cubic inches of water required to saturate the soil in each can. Apply the water to
one edge of the can only as fast as it is absorbed by the soil. This will allow the air
in the soil pores, or spaces, to escape. Detenbine the number of cubic inches of soil
in each can (3| times radius squared times height of soil column equals volume) and
compare each volume of soil with the volume of water required for saturation.
What percentage of the volume of band is water?
Where is this water in the soil? Draw a diagram showing the relation of the sand
grains to the water. What, then, is the approximate percentage of pore space in the
sand? In the clay or silt loam? Explain fully why clay or silt loam is more porous
than sand. When is a soil said to be saturated? What is the relation between the
pQCosity of a soil and its texture? Between porosity and weight of dry soil?
PlcukcUy. — Place small quantities of a clay soil and some other class of soil upon
two different pie tins or saucers. Add water slowly to each and continue to stb
until the samples can be molded like dough. Which soil shows the greats degree
of plasticity? Add water and mix each sample until the soils have become puddled.
Set aside to dry. What happens to the two samples when entirely air dried?
OTanuiatUm.—TM^ a small sample of dry clay soil upon a dish and add water with-
out stirring so dowly that the soil absorbs it as fast as added. Do not add water
enough to saturate the soil, only add what would be held by a well-drained soil.
Set the soil aside to dry and try to stir at just the time when best granulation can be
effected. How does the structure of this soil now compare with the dried-clay sample
that was puddled?
Field trips. — If possible, field trips should be made to study soil clasKs. With a
apade dig down through the surface soil and partly into the subsurface. Make a
smooth, perpendicular edge. Now note line between surface and subsurface and
measure the exact depth of the surface soil. Observations as to differences of color,
tex^ire, and structure should also be made. What has caused these variations?
REVIEW QUESTIONS, LESSON HL
1. What is meant by texture of soils? By structure?
2. How do you distinguish between heavy and light soils?
3. By what process is the texture of the soil determined?
4. Compare the sand, silt, and clay content of a fine sandy loam with that of a clay
BOO.
5. Mention some ways in which the fertility of a soil is influenced by its texture.
6. Explain fully the influence of the area of surface of the soil grains on the water-
holding capacity of soils.
7. What is meant by soil granulation? Soil tilth?
8. Mention several agencies which develop granulation in soil.
9. How is puddling of soils produced?
10. What is meant by pore space in soils? Draw diagram to illustrate.
11. About what fracticm of clay loam soils imder the ordinary field conditions is
pore space?
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
24 BULLETIN 355, V. S. DEPABTMENT OP AGBICTJLTUBB.
12. Qive some influences which cause a circulation of air in soils.
13. TVhy is air circulation in soil important?
14. Discuss the different factors which have to do with good tilth.
LESSON IV. THE WATER SUPPLY OF THE SOIL.
The soil is a reservoir which stores a part of the water supplied to it
by rain and irrigation, giving it up again to meet the needs of growing
plants.
Water-Tiolding capacity of soils (Ref. Nos. 2, pp. 157-162; or 3, pp.
210-218; 10, pp. 119-122).— If the surface soil of a field is thoroughly
saturated with water for some time, most farm-crop plants stop
growing, because the small amount of oxygen dissolved in the water
will not suffice for the needs of the plants and further supplies can not
penetrate the saturated soil. If land with a porous subsurface or an
underdrainage system be examined after a thorough soaking with
rain, it will be found that the water remaining is held in the form of
films surroimding the individual soil grains and the smaller dusters
of soil particles. The excess of water which has drained away under
these conditions is called drainage or gravitational water. (Ref. No.
10, pp. 104, 105.) That which remains is called capillary or film
water. (Ref. No. 10, p. 106.)
Since capillary water exists as a film siuroimding the soil grains and
therefore depends on the area of these particles, fine-textured soils
can hold more water than coarse-textured soils. Moreover, this
capillary water in the soil not only forms films aroimd the soil graiusy
but these films are continuous from the surface downward in such a
way that the moisture in the subsiuf ace soil forms a weight on the
films above, just as the lower links in a chain hanging by one end pro-
duce the weight supported by the upper links. The result of this is
that the films near the surface in the soil are stretched by the capillary
moisture below, so that a soil layer which is a number of feet above
saturated soil can hold less capillary water than a layer only a few
inches above saturated soil. The amount of capillary moisture held
by the soil after a heavy rain depends, therefore, not only on the
texture of the soil, but on the distance to the saturated subsurface
soil on the groimd-water table. The thickness of these films also
varies with the temperature of the water. Films of warm water are
drawn out considerably thinner than those of cold water. As a
result of this principle, as soils get warmer during the summer, the
quantity of capillary water diminishes.
Organic matter and vxtter-Tiolding capacity (Ref. No. 3, p. 218). —
Vegetable matter in the soil in various stages of decomposition has a
strong power to absorb and hold water. In a well-advanced stage of
decay, as with muck and humus, organic matter can hold several
times its owli weight of water and very much more than the mineral
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION C0UB8E IN SOILS. 26
part of the soil can hold. In clay soils humus also has a considerable
indirect influence on water-holding capacity through its power to
affect granulation.
The total quantity of water held by different soils when saturated
has been found to vary from about 40 per cent of their dry weight in
coarse sand to about 55 per cent in well-granulated day, and up to
over 300 per cent, or three times its dry weight, in muck. The quan-
tit J of capillary water which these same soils have been f oimd to hold
Yaries from about one-fourth of the amount held upon saturation in
coarse sand to over one-half in well-granulated day, and up to nearly
the total amoimt in muck. Thp larger capillary capadty of the muck
is due largely to its high absorptive power. (See tables, Bef. No. 3,
pp. 154-162.)
Water available to jUanta (Ref. No. 3, pp. 200-202). — Crops growing
in soil are unable to take all the water which it holds. If soil in which
plants have died for lack of water is thoroughly dried in an oven it will
be found that there is expelled a small quantity of moisture which the
plants were unable to secure. Coarse-textured or sandy soils retain
very much less of such water than do the fine-textured clay loams or
days. This is because the plants are able to withdraw the water only
to a given thinness of water film around the soil grains, and the larger
total exposed surface of the fine-textured soils causes them to retain
the lai^r quantity of water. It is evident, therefore, that only a
part of the capillary water can be considered as available for growing
crops. When the ground-water level is 10 feet below the surface the
upper 4 feet of a very sandy soil can hold available water equal to a
layer of about 3 inchee in depth, a sandy loam 4^ inches, a silt loam
6 inches, and a well-granulated day soil 7i inches.
Water required hy growing crops (Ref. Nos. 1, pp. 12-16; 10, pp. 12-
17). — It was stated in Lesson II that water is used by plants directly
as a plant food, and further, that water dissolves mineral substances
in the soil and carries them to all parts of growing plants, where the
mineral dements are utilized so as to perform their special function.
In fact, all movements of substances within the plant take place
largely through the medium of water. The larger portion of the cell
sap of growing plants is composed of water. An average of 80 per
cent or more of the green weight of staple farm crops is water.
'When the water supply from the soil is insufficient, the plant cells
become shrunken, causing wilting. The temperature of growing
plants is also regulated to some d^ree by the transpiration of water
in the form of vapor from the leaves and stems. The quantity of
water transpired, that is, given off as vapor to the smrounding air by
growing plants far exceeds the quantity directly utilized to form plant
substance* Experiments have shown that for every pound of dry
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
26 BULLETIN 365, U. 8. DEPAETMENT OP AGMCULTUKE.
matter stored in ordinary crops an average of about 350 pounds of
water is taken from the soil. This amount varies widely imder differ-
ent conditions and with different crops. Vivian says, ''There is no
doubt that the proper condition of moisture is the most important
single factor in determining the fertiUty of the land, and that more
soils fail to produce good crops for lack of it than for any other cause."
Variations in water requirements. — ^There is no necessary relation
between the rate of growth and the quantity of water transpired by
the plant. When all conditions are favorable to rapid growth the
quantity of water transpu'ed for each pound of dry matter produced
seems to be distinctly less than whea an essential element of plant
food is lacking, or when disease attacks the plant, or any other cause
exists which lessens the rate of growth. Moreover, there is a very
marked influence of climatic conditions, especially temperature and
humidity of the atmosphere, on the quantity of water which plants
require. Most staple crops growing in the dry, dear atmosphere of
Utah, for example, require from 50 to 100 per cent more water than
in Wisconsin. But there also seems to be a marked difference among
crops in respect to the relative quantity of water they require. Ex-
pressed by rainfall in inches, it has been found that in the eastern
part of the United States and in Europe a crop of com yielding 90
bushels per acre requires on the average 15 inches of water, one of
oats yielding 75 bushels per acre requires 12 inches, 300 bushels of
potatoes per acre, 6i inches, and 2 tons of clover hay, 9 inches. These
figures include the water lost by evaporation from the surface imme-
diately under the plant when careful tillage and mulching to prevent
evaporation are practiced, as well as that transpired by the plant.
Depth to which roots extend for waier (Ref. No. 10, pp. 86-93). — ^In
climates which have frequent showers dinging the siunmer period,
crops get most of their water comparatively near the surface and do
not usually extend their roots for moisture more than 3 or 4 feet in
depth. On the other hand, in regions in which there is a heavy
winter rainfall and a long, dry summer, crops sown in the spring must
go deeper and deeper for their moisture as simmier advances and the
rains cease. Some crops, especially alfalfa, are able to send their
roots to great depths, often 20 feet or more. Under such conditions
the water-holding capacity of the soil to great depths must be con-
sidered. In the Mississippi Valley, with considerable rainfall during
the smnmer, one may be satisfied with a soil having a good water-
holding capacity to a depth of 6 or 8 feet. On the Pacific coast and
other parts of the country, where the rainfall comes all during one
season, it is important that a fine-textured soil continue to a depth
of 15 to 20 feet. This is particularly true for fruit trees.
CapiUary rise of water (Ref. No. 4, pp. 30, 31). — Fortunately, crops
are not entirely dependent on the moisture held in the layer of soil to
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BZTBNSION 00UB8E IK SOILS. 27
which their roots penel^rate. After this has been partially dried out,
as a result of the extraction of water by the growing crops, the water
fihns are reduced somewhat in thickness and therefore have acquired
greater tension and have the power of drawing up some of the moisture
m the thicker fihns of the soil below. This capillary rise of water
undoubtedly causes an important addition to the available supply.
This movement of water varies greatly, however, in soils of different
texture. It is of importance in coarse or sandy soils only when the
ground-water level is within 10 or 12 feet of the surface, while in
heavy clay soils it may come from considerably greater depths.
The capillary movement is not rapid, but it is much faster in sandy
than in clay soils. In the case of rapidly growing crops, especially
on clay soils, in which the rate of capillary rise is slow, the water
supply furnished in this way is altogether inadequate to maintain
growth after the moisture in the surface soil has been reduced to the
lower limits of good growing condition. It is, nevertheless, an
important addition to the moisture already held in the soil.
Capillary rise of water in soils is illustrated by holding two glass
tubes of very small but different-sized bores perpendicular, with the
lower ends imder the surface of water. In both tubes the water will
rise above the surface level of the water in the containing vessel, but
the cohunn in the smaller tube will stand the higher. This rise of
water in capillary tubes is due to two forces: (1) The attraction of
the glass for water, which causes the water to creep up the tubes a
little above the general level of the water surface within the tube;
and (2) the tension, or stretch, which is on the surface of all liquids.
If a dry needle is carefully placed upon a smooth surface of water,
the necMlle will float, but can be seen to be causing a stretch of the
liqnid surface beneath it. This elastic tension of a liquid surface
causes the surface within the tubes to tend to form a plane. The
simultaneous action of these two forces noted will cause the water to
rise within the tubes imtil the weight of the water therein equals the
force of- tension of the surface films. The column of water in the
smaller tube, being the lighter, will risQ to the higher level.
In soils, the openings between particles, or pore spaces, serve as
eapiUary tubes, and the perpendicular rise of water behaves in
accordance with the laws of capillarity. Fine-textured soils, there-
f(ne, have a higher rise of water from this cause than soils of coarse
texture, although the rate of rise is much slower in the former.
There are, however, other factors of practical importance affecting
capillarity in soils which should be noted: (1) Some mineral salts in
solution strengthen the surface tension of water and add somewhat
to the rise of water in soils; (2) heat reduces the strength of the sur-
face film of water and other liquids as weU ; and (3) some liquids, such as
those from manures and decaying vegetable matter, have been found
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
28 BULLETIN 355, U. 8. DEPABTMENT OP AGBICULTUBE.
to reduce the surface tension of soil water and so lessen to a sli^t
extent the rise of water in the soil by capillarity.
Rainfall in relation to water requirements of crops. — According to a
report from the United States Weather Bureau the normal annual pre-
cipitation from rain and snow in different parts of this coimtry between
1870 and 1901 varied from 1 inch to 100 inches. The great agricul-
tural area included in the central basin of the Mississippi River bad a
mean annual precipitation varying between 30 inches and 50 inches;
the North Atlantic and Middle Atlantic States had from 40 to 50
inches; the South Atlantic and Gulf States from 50 to 60 inches; the
Great Plains States from 15 to 30 inches; the Rocky Moimtain States
from 1 to 20 inches; while the annual precipitation of the Pacific
States ranged from 10 inches in the extreme southwest to 100 inches
in the extreme northwest. It has been stated luider '^ Variation in
water requirements," that the growth of 90 bushels of com per acre
requires approximately 15 inches of water; 75 bushels of oats, 12
inches; 300 busheb of potatoes, 6i inches; and 2 tons of clover hay,
9 inches. Comparing these figures with the normal annual precipi-
tations of the principal agricultural areas, it will be seen that the
moisture falling as rain or snow would in nearly every instance be
sufficient to produce lai^e yields of staple crops if it could all be
held in the soil and utilized for plant growth. It will be recalled,
however, that the different classes of soil can hold in the upper 4 feet
only from 3 inches to 7i inches of water available for plant growth
at any one time. On the other hand, over all the agricultural areas
of highest precipitation the fall of moisture is very unevenly dis-
tributed throughout the year, and the larger quantities do not f idl dur-
ing the growing season. Because of this, large quantities of water
drain away from the land, making it necessary in nearly every farm
area to adopt means to prevent the escape of moisture from the soiL
Prevention of evaporation (Ret. No. 6, pp. 108-119; or No. 10, pp.
147-164). — ^The most effective preventive of loss of capillary water
from soil is a dry surface which retards the movement of moisture
through it. Probably everyone has tried the old experiment of
making a path for a little stream of water by wetting a finger and
drawing it along a gently inclined board and has been astonished to
see how irregular a path the water can be made to follow by this
means. This is because the film of water supplied by the wet finger
offers less resistance to the movement of the remainder of the water
than does the surface of the dry wood. ' In the same way moisture
in the subsoil can pass upward by capillary action much more readily
when the soil is moist than after it has been dried. A surface layer
a few inches in depth of thoroughly dry soil practically prohibits the
further capillary rise of water to the suif ace. Water doe8| of oooxse,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION 00UE8B IN SOILS. 29
continue to evaporate at the upper portion of the layer containing
moisture, but the surface layer of dry soil keeps the moist soil below
somewhat cooler, so that loss by evaporation is greatly lessened. A
dry, loose layer of soil or other material is called a mulch. The
development of a soil mulch is by all means the cheapest and usually
the most eflfective way of reducing the water loss by evaporation.
The common farm method of developing a soil mulch is by cultiva-
tion, which also kills weeds and promotes the circulation of air in
the soil.
The loss of water from surface evaporation, other conditions being
equal, is greater in fine-textured than in coarse-textured soils; like-
wise, the firmer the soil surface, the greater is the loss. This explains
an objection to leaving a rolled surface in preparing a seed bed or
after planting. Experimental results from cultivation to depths of
1, 2, and 3 inches, respectively, and at intervals of one-half, one, and
two weeks have shown, in general, that within these limits the deeper
the mulch and the more frequent the cultivation, the greater are the
quantities of soil moisture preserved. A general average from these
same results shows that a soil mulch prevents the evaporation of
about 3,500 pounds of water per day over each acre of land, which is
about one-tenth of the quantity required during three months of the
growing season to produce a 90-bushel crop of com. While these
results vary considerably with climate, soil, and season, yet they are
significant in showing the means of retaining moisture in the soil by
cultivation.
The depth of mulch which is desirable depends on circumstances.
Under most conditions a mulch of 3 inches has at least three-fourths
the efficiency of a mulch of 5 or 6 inches in depth, and in the case of
such crops as com, in which the roots are apt to come close to the
surfaee, so that cultivation to a depth of 5 or 6 inches would cut off
many of them, it is unwise to attempt to produce a mulch more than
3 or 4 inches in depth. In many cases the cultivation of the soil
from 2 to 3 inches in depth is to be preferred. Deep cultivation is
generally undesirable in the Mississippi Valley and the eastern part
of the United States. Farther west, where the rainfall is 25 inches
or less annually, and the roots of plants are forced to grow deeper,
a greater depth of mulch is considered desirable, and it is a common
practice to cultivate to a depth of 5 or 6 inches.
Dry farming (Ref. No. 10).— Dry farming is a term which has
come to be applied to the practice of agriculture in the arid lands of
the West and Northwest. Where irrigation is impracticable, and
where the annual rainfall is so low that it is impossible to grow a
crop eax^h year, land is fallowed every other year by keeping up a
thorough cultivation which prevents the growth of vegetation and
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
80 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGEIOULTUKB.
keeps up a protective mulch over the surface. This mulch and the
destruction of weeds largely prevent the loss of moisture from the
soil and it is held for use by the crop of the following year.
Other means used to control the water supply of the soil are irri-
gation and drainage.
EXERCISES, LESSON IV.
MateriaU required. — One email balance or scales; four 1-pound baking-powder cans;
4 quarts each of dry sand, dry muck or peat, dry clay or silt loam; one 2-qtiart pail;
a small piece of cloth; two cups; two or three pie tins; two or three small dudlow
dishes (saucers) ; a small quantity of lump and powdered sugar; six fine sewing needJes;
two pieces of } or 1 inch glass tubing 2 feet long; one-half bushel of moist loam or alt
loam; two 2-gallon crocks.
Water-holding capacity of soils (See reference in lesson). — ^Tum four 1-pound baking-
powder cans upside down and punch three holes in the bottom of each. Obtain the
weight of each can. Pill can No. 1 with dry sand, can No. 2 with dry muck or peat,
can No. 3 with dry clay or silt loam, and can No. 4 with a mixture of one part (by
volume) of dry sand and one part of dry muck or peat. Determine the weight of dry
soil in each can. Saturate all with water, let stand until no more water drips from
them, then weigh again. Determine the percentage of capillary water retained by
each kind of soil. Account for the variation in water-holding capacity of the several
samples. How may the water-holding capacity of a sand be increased? Of a heavy
clay? Which class of soil will give up its water the easier, sand or clay? Why?
On which soil do crops suffer more for want of water during a drought?
Percolation of water through soils (Ref. Nos. 2, pp. 170-173; 4, p. 32).— Punch a
half-inch hole through the side and near the bottom of a 2-quart tin pail. Cover the
opening on the inside with tl;4n cloth and fill the pail with sand. Put a stopper in
the opening and saturate the soil with water, measuring the quantity of water used.
When saturated, remove the stopper and catch and measure the water that runs oot.
When dripping ceases compare the quantity of water caught with that used to saturate
the soil. What name may be given to the water retained by the soil?
Capillary rise of soil water. — Pour a cupful of dry sand on a pie tin in a conical pile.
Pour about a third of a cupful of water into the tin (not on the sand pile) and observe
results. What name is given to this phenomenon? Of what importance is it in
agriculture? Is this the only direction in which film water moves in the soil?* What
determines the direction of movement? In what kind of soil will water rise the
higher, sand or clay? Explain. Repeat this experiment, if possible, by using
2-foot glass tubes filled with dry sand and clay loam. Cover the lower end of eadi
tube with cloth, tamp the soil carefully, and stand tubes in a tray. Pour aboot
half an inch of water into the tray and observe results. Note carefully the rate of
rise and the height to which the water will rise in each tube.
Resistance of dry soil particles to water films. — Fill a small dish with water; jJace a
perfectly dry, fine needle carefully on the surface film of the water. The needle
will float. Explain. Take a pinch of road dust and let it drop carefully into the
water. What happens to the finest dry particles? Explain. Why do water dit^
roll off a dusty board like so many shot?
Conserving soil moisture (Ref. No. 3, p. 264).— Sprinkle as much powdered sugar on
top of a lump (do not press down the jwwdered sugar) as it will hold, and place the
lump in a pool of about 12 drops of water poured out on a smooth sur&u^e. What hap-
pens? Explain fully. Let the lump of sugar represent a portion of soil inunediately
underneath a thoroughly cultivated surface. What does the powdered sugar repfe-
sent? Is this principle of moisture conservation practiced in connection with all iMm
crops? Repeat the experiment using dry caked and powdered clay.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION OOUBSB IN SOILS. 31
Obtain about 16 quarts of moist soil, mix well, and fill one 2-^allon crock within
half an inch of the top, leaving the surface smooth and compact. In filling this
crock tamp the soil gently so as to bring the soil particles in close contact with each
other. Fill another crock in a similar manner within an inch and a half of the top.
Cover this surface, which should not be too compact, with an inch and a half of loose
dty soil. Place both crocks exposed to sun and circulating air. Do not water. After
a week or 10 days take off the dust mulch in crock No. 2 and compare the moisture
content of the soil beneath with the soil 1 J inches beneath the surface of crock No. 1.
What precautions should be observed in frequent cultivation during a dry period?
Is it possible to keep a heavy soil in good tillable condition if soil mulching is prac-
ticed? What should be done with the garden during dry seasons to conserve the water
applied in the evenings? When should this be done? Why?
Field excursions. — Observations may be made concerning methods of cultivation,
soil mulching, crop growth on low, wet lands, on gravelly knolls, etc.
REVIEW QUESTIONS. LESSON IV.
1. What is meant by water-holding capacity of a soil?
2. Distinguish between gravitational or drainage water and capillary water. Draw
a diagram to illustrate how capillary water is held by the soil.
3. What is meant by the groimd water table?
4. Explain the relation between texture and capillary water content of soils.
5. Why is the water-holding capacity of soils affected by the percentage of humus
they contain?
6. Compare the quantity of water available for growing crops, a few days after
heavy rains, in the depth of 4 feet of a silt loam and a very sandy soil.
7. Explain the cause of capillary rise of water in soils.
8. Explain fully the way in which evaporation of moisture from the soil may be
leftened and state the principles underlying this method.
9. Why is it that a rainfall of 15 inches in the northern part of the United States is
as effective for the growth of crops as one of 25 inches in the southern portion?
10. To what exttot do you think that the moisture in the subsoil at a depth of 20
feet may be counted on for support in growing large crops? Discuss fully.
LESSON v. SOIL TEMPERATURE AND DRAINAGE.
SOIL TEMPERATURE.
(Ref. No. 2, pp. 218-238; or No. 3, pp. 28^294; 314-317; 325.)
It is a well-known fact that the soil must be comparatively warm
before plants will grow. The limits of temperature for growth vary
considerably for different farm crops, and there is some variation in the
temperature necessary for the growth of any one crop in different
latitudes. It has been foimd that, with other conditions favorable,
staple crops will grow when the soil temperatures are as low as from
40'' to 50'' Fahrenheit, and as high as from 110"^ to 120°. The best
growth ordinarily takes place at temperatures ranging from 65® to 70**.
In the Uilited States, especially in the northern half, the average soil
temperatures for the growing season are considerably below these
figures. Besides being necessary for the performance of the functions
of growth in plants, certain temperatures are also essential in order
that the chemical reactions and the microbiological activities furnish-
ing available plant food may take place in the soil.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
82 BULLETIN 355, TJ. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGMOULTUBB.
Factors mfluencing soil iemperaMre. — The sun is the chief source of
heat for the earth's surface. The sirn's rays are conducted to the
earth as light. These rays are transformed into heat and absorbed^
or are largely reflected back into the atmosphere, depending upon the
condition of the soil material which the rays reach. Dark soik trans-
form and absorb as heat much more from the sim's rays than do light-
colored soils. Besides the sim, an indirect source of a small amoimt
of heat is the chemical and microbiological changes taking place in
the soil. A chemical reaction usually produces heat, and microbio-
logical activities frequently do.
The principal conditions affecting the temperature of the soil are:
(1) Latitude. The farther north or south of the equator a land sur-
face is the less direct are the sim's rays upon it and, other things
being equal, the less will be the total heat absorbed in any givoi
time. (2) Slope. A southern hillside will be wanner than the
northern, because the sim's rayB upon it are more direct. (3) C5r-
culation of air above the soil. The varying temperature and hu-
midity of the currents of air upon hillsides and in valleys have a
considerable eflFect upon the temperature of the soil areas over whidi
they pass. (4) Composition and texture of the soil. Both of these
factors affect the conductivity of heat into the subsurface soiL
Some rock materials are better conductors of heat than others.
Again, air is a poor conductor of heat, and the greater the pore space
in soil the less rapidly will heat be conducted through it. Fine-
textured soils thus conduct heat less rapidly than coarse-textured
soils of like composition. Clay soib warm up less quickly in spring
than sandy soils which have less pore space. Peat soils formed in
marshes are very open and spongelike, and this large air space causes
heat to pass down into such soils with extreme slowness. Frost is
often found in marshes several weeks after it has entirely disappeared
in upland and more compact soils. (5) Water content of the soil.
This has a very important influence upon the soil temperature. It
takes nearly twice as much heat to raise water 1® in temperature
as it does to raise the same weight of soil 1^. Then the evapo-
ration of moisture from the surface of the soil uses up a great deal of
heat and does much to keep the soil cold. It requires as much heat
to evaporate a poimd of water as would raise the temperature of a
cubic foot of average soil over 10® Fahrenheit. (6) Color. Daric-
colored soils, other conditions being equal, are warmer than light-
colored.
There are at least four practical means by which the temperature
of soil may be regulated: (1) By means of vegetable matter. A good
supply of barnyard manure or green manure in the soil will have im ap-
preciable effect in warmmg it. (2) By rolling. The heat conductivity
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION COUBSE IN SOILS. 33
of soil can be much improved by rolling, especially when the surface
is loose. By this means an additional amount of heat can be carried
into the subsurface soil. At a depth of 3 inches rolling conmionly
warms the soil as much as 3®. If the surface soil is moist, however,
the rolling should be followed at once by cultivation to prevent evap-
oration of moisture. (3) By use of a soil mulch. As has been stated
above, the evaporation of moisture takes a great deal of heat from
the soil. The soil mulch, by preventing evaporation, conserves much
heat for the growth of crops. (4) By drainage. In well-drained
soils the gravitational water is drawn oflf from beneath instead of
evaporating from the surface. Soil that is tile drained is 5® to 10®
warmer in the spring than it was before it was drained. The tem-
perature of the soil in turn affects the temperature of the air in im-
mediate contact with it, and frost often occurs on poorly drained
soil at night where it does not form on weU-drained soil.
DRAINAGE.
An excess of water prevents the entrance of the necessary air into
the soil; it hinders the normal development of soU miorooi^anisms;
it leads to the puddling of clay soils and consequently produces poor
tilth; it keeps the soil cold, especially in the spring; and, finally, it
causes a leaching of plant-food substances from the soil.
Conditums where drainage is necessary (Ref. No. 8, pp. 14-16). — It
is usually not difficult to detect the need of drainage. There are
cases, however, when late in summer it is difficult to determine
whether partial crop failure was caused by poor drainage earlier in
the season or from the lack of necessary elements of plant food.
Water should not stand on the surface of cultivated soils any longer
than can be helped. Especially in the Northern States, where the
growing season is short, it is desirable to have drainage in the spring
as thorough as possible. Soil should not be saturated within 3 feet
of the surface for most crops, though many grasses will make a very
good growth on land which is saturated within 18 inohes of the
surface, or even nearer, for a portion of the growing season. Drain-
age is especially desirable in irregular fields where the drainage of
wet portions will permit the laying out of a field of proper dimen-
sions and also make it possible for the whole field to be tilled at one
time. This not only increases the acreage of available land but
greatly increases the efficiency with which operations of tillage and
harvesting can be performed. Drainage in any case simply removes
the gravitational water, and it is a mistake to think that good drain-
age is detrimental to crops, even in dry seasons.
It is customary to speak of surface and subsurface drainage,
lefcrring to the removal of surface or flood water in one case and to
the withdrawal of the excess of water from the subsoil in the other.
21862*'~Bull. 35&-16 3
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
34 BULLETIN 355, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Surface drainage (Ref. No. 8, pp. 7-9). — In the removiJ of surface
water it is ordinarily necessary to use open ditches of sufficient size
to carry the water coming to the drained land from adjacent terri-
tory. The size of the ditch necessary in such a case can be approxi-
mately estimated by observing the flow of water following a severe
freshet. When the surface water from lai^e areas is to be carried
away it is best to secure the services of an engineer who, after mak-
ing the necessary survey of the area to be drained, can compute the
size of the ditch necessary.
In the case of comparatively level land, where it is impossible to
establish an outlet for subsurface drainage, surface drainage should
be made as effective as possible. This is especially necessary where
the land is imderlain by an impervious day subsoil. It is often
practical to use the common plow in ditching Isuch level areas. The
plowing should be done in long narrow lands, and the dead furrows
should be carefully cleaned out to serve as drainage ditches. It is
frequently necessary to cut ditches across from one dead furrow to
another in order to drain a slight depression which would otherwise
be filled with water. These narrow plow lands should usually be
kept in the same position for two or three years in order to round up
the back furrow somewhat and deepen the dead furrow, but they
can not be kept longer than three years ordinarily without widening
the dead furrow to an undesirable extent. After this the plowing
must be reversed, and the first two furrows of the lands turned into
the dead furrows. This method of surface drainage has its greatest
objection, perhaps, in the difficulty which comes from working over
the open-furrow ditcher.
The timely use of a shovel or large hoe in the spring will greatly
aid in removing the surface water coming from rain and melting snow.
Subsurface or underdrainage (Ref. No. 8, pp. 27-34). — Practically
aU underdrainage is now accomplished through the use of common
porous clay tile or glazed tile, laid loose jointed so that the water
may pass into the drains through the joints or where the tile meet.
The glazed tile are usually more expensive than the porous, but they
are also more durable. Factors of greatest importance to be deter-
mined in planning an underdrainage system are (1) depth at which
the tile should be placed, (2) the available fall or grade of the tile,
(3) the system to be used, (4) the distance apart of tile lines or laterals,
and (5) the size of tile to be used.
Depth. — ^The depth for placing tile is dependent upon several
things. First of all, tUe must always be placed below the depth of
tillage and also below the frost line. Freezing will crumble porous
tile, and it causes heaving of the groimd and displacement of the tile
in any case. The depth to which tile should be placed varies also
with the type of soil and the desired depth of water table. The
Digiti
zed by Google
EXTENSION COURSE IN SOILS. 35
movement of water in silt loam, clay loam, and clay soils is essen-
tially all through granulation spaces, as very little takes place be-
tween the finest soil grains. In such soils tile must not be placed
much below the level to which granulation extends. This usually
means about 3 to 3^ feet. Occasionally it is necessary for short
dktances to place tile much deeper in order to keep the necessary
grade.
Grade. — The diflFerence of levels between the outlet and the highest
point of the drainage system divided by the distance between these
positions naturally establishes the maximum grade possible. Where
the fall is slight the minimum grade permissible for eflFective drainage
depends largely upon the length of the drain and the size of the tile.
Water will flow more rapidly in large tile having a given gradient
than in small tile. Lateral or branch tile having a diameter of 3 or
4 inches may be laid with as little fall as 1 inch to 100 feet for several
hundred feet in length, provided the soil is of a clayey nature. If
laid in fine sandy soils, so that there is danger of the sand finding
entrance to the tile through joints, the grade must be not less than
3 or 4 inches per 100 feet, in order that the current in the tile
may be sufficient to keep it clean. Soil may often be kept from
passing into the tile by placing straw or other similar material over
the joints before covering the tile.
System (Ref. No. 8, pp. 38-43). — By "drainage system'' is meant
the arrangement of the lines of tile which are to collect the surplus
waters from any piece of land. There are several of these systems.
The one which should be used in any case will depend upon the shape,
the size, and the surface topography of the area to be drained. In
many instances two or more of these systems may be effectively
combined.
Distance apart of laterals. — ^When wet lands are in the form of
narrow nms or sloughs, tile ditches should be dug as nearly as prac-
ticable along the courses in which the water naturally runs, although
it is frequently necessary to straighten these considerably. When
broader areas are being drained, so that laterals or side branches of
tile are necessary, the distance between these will be determined by
the degree of drainage to be secured and by the character of the soil.
In the case of fine-textured clay soils it is necessary to put tile drains
as close as 2 rods apart in order to secure the thorough drainage neces-
sary for garden or truck crops, though laterals placed 4 rods apart
should give sufficient drainage for practically all staple crops. In wet
sandy soils the laterals may be placed farther apart, though, as
mentioned above, they must be of sufficient size to remove the water
freely.
Size oftUe (Ref. No. 8, p. 82). — ^In determining the sizes of lateral
and of main tile to use under different conditions, certain principles
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
86 BULLETIN 355, V. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
should be kept in mind. The quantity of water carried by any pipe
or carrier of drainage is equal to the area qf the cross section of the
stream multiplied by its rate of flow. This rate of flow in a tile line
will vary with the fall, the length of line, the size of tile, and the degree
of smoothness of the inside of the tile. It is well to keep in mind
that the cross sectional area of a tile varies directly as the square of
its diameter. This means that, other things being equal, a 64nch
tile has about four times the water-carrying capacity of a 3-inch tile.
It should also be kept in mind in this connection that the cost of tile
does not increase in proportion to size. That is to say, 6-inch tile
does not cost twice as much as 3-inch tile. Frequently 4-inch tile
con be bought as cheap, or nearly so, as 3-inch, although their water-
carrying capacity is nearly double that of the 3-inch. Again, the
cost of digging the ditch and laying the tile, which is commonly of
greatest consideration, is practically independent of the size of the
tile to be laid. It is always best to be on the safe side with regard
to the size of tile purchased for any drainage system. An estimate
of the size of tile necessary for fields of different dimensions is given
by ElKott (Ref. No. 8, p. 84).
Where the size of tile, or anything else in connection with drainage,
is difficult to determine, it is advisable to consult the State agricul-
tural college or a drainage engineer.
Laying out the drainage system, — ^Af ter the lines along which tile are
to be laid have been staked out by the use of laths or other stakes 2
to 3 feet in length, placed 50 feet apart, short stakes, called grade
stakes, should be driven even with the surface of the ground near
the lath. (Ref. No. 8, pp. 48, 63-65.) A Ime of levels should
then be run along the grade stakes, beginning with the lower end at
the level of the outlet. In recording the levels this first stake should
be numbered zero (0). (Ref. No. 8, pp. 58-63.) By determining
the difference in height between each succeeding pair of stakes the
lino of elevation of the sm^ace of the groimd is determined and may
be platted on horizontally ruled paper. When tMs line of elevation
has been drawn the fall available can be determined.
The next item to be found is the grade which can bo used. (Ref.
No. 8, pp. 68-74.) To do this, subtract the distance which the tile
must be placed below the surface at the upper end, or at the point
where the tile comes nearest to the surface, from the total height
of the surface at that point above the outlet. This gives the fall
which may be used by the tile through this distance, ^dinarily the
gradient should be uniform, but where laterals join lai^r mains it
is possible to use smaller gradients on the mains than are used on the
laterals. Having determined the total fall in inches or hundredths of
feet, divide this by the nxunber of hundred feet in the length of tile
to get the fall per himdred feet. Half of this wiD be the difference in
Digiti
zed by Google
EXTBll^SION GOUBSE IN SOILS. 37
kvel of the bottom of the ditch between the stakes which are 50 feet
apart.
The height of the bottom of the ditch or the grade line, above the
outlet can now be determined for each grade stake. These heights
should be written in a column opposite the elevations of the surface
of the ground. By subtracting the elevation of the grade line from
that of the surface of the groimd, the depth of cut can be foxmd at
each stake. These depths can be written in proper order in a third
cohmm.
The construction of the ditch may now be undertaken. (Sef . No.
8, pp. 89-98.) This should be started at the lower end, or outlet.
It IS necessary now to have a method of determining exactly when
the grade line or bottom of the ditch ia reached. To do this, place
strong stakes at each of the two lower stakes with a line between.
This line is to be placed at a uniform height above the bottom of
the finished ditch. A string may be adjusted at a convenient height
of 5 or 6 feet above the bottom of the ditch by subtracting the depth
of digging at each stake from the 5 or 6 feet decided on and measuring
up from the surface of the groimd this distance on the stake. Fas-
tening the string at this point for each of the two stakes will bring
the string exactly parallel with the bottom of the ditch and 6 or 6 feet
above it.
Digging the ditch and completing the drain. — ^The tools necessary
include a ditching spade with a blade about 8 inches wide, slightly
curved, and square at the cutting edge; a long-handled pointed
shovel; a tile scoop; and, if much tile is to be laid, a tile hook. A
strong string is first stretched along the edge of the ditch to keep it
straight. Digging begins at the lower end and proceeds upgrade
m sections, removing the dirt to a spade depth at a time. The
width of the ditch will depend on the depth but should be no greater
than is absolutely necessary. Care must be taken not to remove
dirt below the grade line. When the grade line is nearly reached
over a distance of 6 or 8 feet the last thin layer of dirt is removed
with the tile scoop, which produces a straight, smooth bottom on
which the tile may be placed. Tile may be placed by hand, though
if the ditch is deep and much is to be laid the tUe hook will permit
much more rapid and easy work. The tile should be placed so that
they fit closely together end to end, and care must be taken whenever
work is left for the night to have the upper end protected by a flat
stone or otherwise so that much soil may not be washed in in case of
rain. The tile should bo covered immechately after laying to a depth
of 2 or 3 inches after heavy soil or other material has been used over
joints to prevent sand or other loose material from working into the
tile« (Bef. No. 8, p. 99.) This is called blinding. The remainder
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
88 BULLETIN 356, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
of the filling may sometimes be done quickly and efficiently with a
team and scraper.
Cost and profits of drainage. — ^The final questions which are always
considered in connection with any needed drainage are (1) the cost,
and (2) whether the accruing profits from increased production will
warrant the cost of putting in the drainage system. The conditions
which determine these two factors are so varied that no discussion
of the matter will be entered into in this lesson. The different items
of cost and profit are separately considered by Elliott (Ref. No. 8,
pp. 121-138) and should be carefully studied by those who con-
template carrying out a drainage project.
Drainage ojf irrigated and dOcali lands. — ^It frequently happens in
arid lands where irrigation is practiced that soil areas which are
adjacent to or somewhat below the level of irrigation canals or
irrigated fields, and which have been fertile and productive for
years, finally become unproductive and practically useless for agri-
cultural purposes. Investigation has shown that almost iavariably
the changed condition \a due to the subsiurface soil being water-
soaked from seepage from irrigated areas or irrigation canals or
from excessive use of irrigation water. These areas are often at
considerable distances from the source of the trouble. Where such
a condition exists the siurf ace soil also frequentiy becomes laden with
soluble salts which are harmful to the crops commonly grown upon
the land. This is because the seepage and other waters have carried
quantities of these salts in solution which later become deposited
at the surface of the soil upon the evaporation of the salt solu-
tion. Such deposits of salts, including sulphate, chloride and
carbonates of sodiiun, magnesiiun sulphate (epsom salts), caldmn
sulphate (gypsum), and calcimn chlorid, are also commonly found
in spots of the surface area of extremely arid lands not irrigated.
This is because the rise of water from capillarity, leaving the salts
deposited upon evaporation, exceeds the downward movements from
the rainfall. Areas containing harmful quantities of soluble salts
in the surface soil are called alkali lands. If sodium carbonate b
present in considerable quantity the alkali is usually dark colored
due to action of the alkali on organic matter and is known as black
alkali. The sodium carbonate, besides being harmful to plant growth,
often causes the soil particles to puddle and to form an impenetrable
hardpan a few Laches below the siurface of the soil. White alkali
is that in which sodimn sulphate and similar neutral salts wfaidi
do not blacken organic matter predominate. This is much less
harmful than black alkali. Underdrainage is one of the best ways
of preventiQg the accumulation of alkali in soils and of reclaiming
watersoaked and seeped areas, it being frequently established as a
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
fiXTEKSIOK COXJBSE IN SOILS. 39
the excess of soluble salts to percolate through the soil and pass
away in the drains. Where alkali spots occur in, arid lands the
most effective and certain relief is usually afforded by imder-
drainage combined with surface flooding. The few rains which
occur in these places, or a flooding of the land where possible, will
finally carry the excess of harmful soluble salts from the surface
soils into the drains. Calcium sulphate (gypsiun) is very advan-
tageously applied to black alkali lands before flooding. This results
in a chemical reaction yielding calciimi carbonate and sodium sul-
phate, which is much less harmful than sodium carbonate and is
readily removed by drainage.
The methods of underdrainage of irrigated and alkali lands differ
from those used in humid sections.
EXERCISES. LESSON V.
MaterialM required. — Four boxes 1 foot square and 4 inches deep; a sufficient quantity
of day or silt loam to fill these boxes; a few small thermometers; three d-inch unglazed
tile; two tight wooden boxes 10 by 12 by 10 inches; a small quantity of paraffin or
paint; paper, pencil, and ruler.
hifiuence of nlope (Ref. Nos. 2, pp. 228, 229; 3, pp. 458, 459).— Pill two boxes, each
I foot square and 4 inches deep, level full of the same kind of soil. Have the soil
equally compact in both boxes. Place both boxes in the sunlight, so that the surface
of the BoU in one box will be at right angles to the rays, and in the other nearly parallel
with the rays. Alter an hoiir or two compare the temperature of the two soils.
Explain the differences. What are the advantages of a north slope as a site for an
orchard?
bifiaence of water content, — Fill two boxes as in the preceding exercise with almost
dry cky or silt loam. Compact soil equally in both boxes. Wet the soil in one box
afanoBt to saturation with water. The water used should be of the same temperatiu'e
as the soil in the other box. Take the temperature of the soil in both boxes, then
place them in the sun. After two or three hours compare the temperature of the soil
in the two boxes. Which requires more heat to raise 100 poimds 1®, water or dry
«il? Why should a low, wet soil be called a cold soil?
How tiU works (Ref. No. 8, p. 28). — Secure three 3-inch imglazed tile and two
ti^t wooden boxes about 10 by 12 by 10 inches. Cut two holes in opposite sides
near the bottom of one and on opposite ends near the bottom of the other box large
enough to allow the tile to enter. Place one tile in the first box so that the two ends
^ project from either side. Place the other two tile end to end with the joint in
the middle of the box and the ends of the tile projecting from either end of the box.
Make both boxes water-tight by means of paraffin or paint (do not seal the joint of the
tile in the box containing the two tile), and fill each box with sandy soil. Saturate
the soil with water and note results. Explain fully how tile works imder field con-
ditioDs. Are there any objections to glazed tile?
Two dramage systems. — A level field 80 rods long and 20 rods wide has a ditch 6 feet
deep across one end. Draw out to scale of 5 rods to 1 inch two systems for laying out
drains, namely, one with a long main and short laterals, and the other with a short
laain and long lat^^ls Place the laterals in each case 4 rods apart.
Compare the number of rods of tile required for the two systems. Make computa-
tions from the drawings.
Prmeiples of tile laying (Ref. No. 8, pp. 63-68).— An outlet ditch 6 feet wide at the
bottom, 7 feet deep, and 20 feet wide at the top has a line of tile emptying into it 4 feet
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
40 BULLETIK 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTURE.
below the grade stake No. 0 at the top of the ditch. The elevations above datum plane
at the grade stakes are as follows: No. 0, 52 feet; No. 1, 52 feet; No. 2, 52.5 feet; No. 3,
52.75 feet; No. 4, 53.25 feet; No. 5, 54.25 feet; No. 6, 53.75 feet; No. 7, 54 feet; No. 8, 54
feet; No. 9, 54 feet; and No. 10, 53 feet.
(a) Draw a profile or cross section of the ditch and ground, showing the line of
elevation of the surface of the ground. Use ruled paper having lines drawn i inch
apart each way. Let each i inch on the horizontal lines represent 25 feet, and each i
inch on the vertical lines represent 2 feet.
(b) At grade stake No. 10 the tile was laid 3} feet deep. Determine the fall that
was available. This line of tile was laid with a uniform gnulient. Determine the fall
in inches per hundred feet.
(c) Determine the grade line, or the height of the bottom of the ditch above the out-
let at each grade stake. (Ref. No. 8, pp. 72-74.) Set these elevations down in a col-
umn opposite the elevations of the surface of the ground at each grade stake.
(d) Determine the depth of cut that was made at each grade stake. (Ref. No. 8,
pp. 77-82.)
(e) On the profile map draw a line 5 feet above and parallel with the grade line
from stations No. 0 to station No. 10. Let this line represent the line of sight formed
by the string to aid in the co^ostruction of the ditch. (See p. 37.) Determine the
height the string should be above each grade stake.
Field excursions. — (a) By the use of any convenient thermometer, the temperature
of various soils may be compared; north slopes with south slopes, black and li^t
colored soils, upland and lowland, drained and undrained lowland, sandy soil and clay
or silt loam, loose and compact clay or silt loam. Explain all variations found.
(b) If convenient, make a trip to inspect some drainage systems. Make a sketdi
of the drained area and draw in the drainage system.
If convenient, in the spring compare the temperature of the soil above a line d
tile with that midway between laterals.
Observe the natural drainage of any interesting area.
BEYIEW QUESTIONS. LESSON V.
1. How is soil temperature related to fertility and the growth of crops?
2. Explain fully what becomes of the heat which is absorbed by the surface of the
soil.
3. What factors influence the amount of heat which penetrates the subsoil?
4. Explain why frosts sometimes occur on poorly drained ground when they do not
occur on well-drained ground?
5. Discuss the practical means of regulating soil temperature.
6. State several benefits which may be derived by good drainage of soils.
7. How can you tell whether the soil of a given 'field is well drained or not?
8. Describe a good method for the surface drainage of flat land which is nearly level.
9. Why is underdrainage by the use of tile more to be desired than surface drain-
age?
10. How does the water from the surface find its way into lines of tile?
11. What kind of soil is most difficult to drain by means of tile?
12. Estimate the slope in feet per mile necessary to permit good tile drainage on an
80-acre field?
13. What should the diameter of a main outlet of tile be on a field of 100 acres havix>g
a slope of 1 inch to 100 feet?
14. Define grade stakes, line of levels, grade line.
15. How should tile be laid? A\Tiat is meant by blinding tile?
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION COURSE IN SOILS. 41
LESSON VL THE NITROGEN SUPPLY OF THE SOIL.
(Ref. No. 2, pp. 110-119.)
As stated in Lesson II, nitrogen is one of the most important
elements of plant growth. Nearly four-fifths of the atmosphere, or
over 70,000,000 poimds over each acre of land, is nitrogen. While
this is sufficient to support plant growth for thousands of years, yet
atmospheric nitrogen can not be utilized directly in plant growth but
must first be combined in the soil with other elements before plants
can absorb it. It will be the purpose of this lesson to explain how the
nitrogen of the air becomes transformed so as to be used by plants
and to discuss briefly the practical means of maintaining the soil-
nitrogen supply.
Combined nitrogen in (he atmospJiere (Ref. No. 1, p. 22). — ^From the
decay of vegetable and animal materials, burning, electrical dis-
charges, and other causes the atmosphere derives certain substances,
among which are ammonia and nitric acid, both compounds of
nitrogen. These gases are readily absorbed by the moisture of the
atmosphere, and when this moisture condenses and falk as rain or
snow it carries with it into the soil the nitrogen compoimds which
it contains. While the available nitrogen thus added to the soil is
not large, yet it is an appreciable quantity and contributes in a
small way to the soil's fertility.
The -fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in the soil (Ref. No. 7, pp. 213-
223). — ^The nitrogen of the soil which plants require comes ultimately
from the atmosphere. A large supply of this nitrogen is collected
from the atmosphere in the soil through the action of microorganisms
called bacteria. The nitrogen-fixing bacteria of the soil may be
divided into two classes. One class lives independently in the soil
and secures nitrogen direct from the air for its growth. After these
bacteria perform their life's work their bodies decompose and the
combined nitrogen which they contain becomes available for the
growth of plants. The amount of nitrogen fixed by this class of
bacteria in ordinary cultivated soils has been estimated by different
mvestigators at from 15 to 40 poimds per acre. Probably the latter
figure is much above the general average, even imder favorable con-
ditions. Tb,e other class of nitrogen-fixing bacteria lives in connec-
tion with the roots of certain plants, viz, of the family of legumes,
including clovers, alfalfa, beans, peas, and others. TTiese bacteria
form nodules or tubercles in which the chemical combination of nitro-
gen with other elements takes place and from which the host plant
obtains much of its nitrogen for growth.
Inoculation (Ref. No. 7, pp. 223-228). — ^The bacteria which form
tubercles on the roots of leguminous plants are generally different for
different species of plants. Those which live on alfalfa, however, are
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
42 BULLETIN 355, V. S. DEPABTMENT OP AGRICULTUBE.
the same as those which live on sweet clover, and the nodule bacteria
of the true clovers have also been found to be interchangeable for
purposes of inoculation. The bacteria of cowpeas and soy beans are
not interchangeable nor can they be used for inoculating any other
of the leguminous plants. It often happens in a particular field
that bacteria of the right kind are not present to form nodules on a
species of legume which is being grown on the field for the first time.
It is then necessary to supply these bacteria. This ia done in two
different ways:
(1) A culture of bacteria is used. This culture is made by trans-
ferring some bacteria from a plant nodule to a substance suitable for
their growth. Under right conditions of temperature and air these
bacteria multiply very rapidly, and in a comparatively short time
the growing medium will contain millions of the microorganisms and
is then called a culture. This culture growth of nodule bactma
needs to be handled by trained people in order that it may be kept
pure. The United States Department of Agriculture, several of the
State agricultural experiment stations, and many conunercial firms
have been growing cultures for agricultural use. These cultures, with
directions for their use, are shipped direct to farmers by express or
parcel post. The cultures are most commonly applied to seeds just
before sowing. The methods are very simple and easy to carry out.
(2) Soil is used for inoculation. Soil to be used for this purpose
should be taken from a field in which are growing, or have recently
grown, healthy plants containing a good supply of the nodule bacteria
desired. Nodules occur largely in the surface soil, ordinarily in the
first 5 or 6 inches. In securing soil for inoculating, the first inch or so
should be scraped away and the soil to the next few inches of depth
should be taken. From 200 to 400 pounds per acre of inoculated soil
can be scattered over a field before sowing and harrowed in, or the
soil containing bacteria can be stirred up in water and after settling
the Uquid can be poured off and used to inoculate seeds much as the
cultures are used. With either method of inoculation care must be
taken not to permit too intense heat from the sim to kill the bacteria.
This can be avoided by harrowing under the seeds or soil-carrying
inoculation soon after sowing them, or by doing the work early in
the morning or late in the afternoon.
Amount of nitrogen fixed in the soil by legumes. — ^Tne fixation of
nitrogen through the action of tubercle-forming organisms growing
on the roots of legumes is the only practical method available to the
farmer for storing this essential element in the soil. It must not be
supposed, however, that all the nitrogen used by leguminous plants
in their growth is secured in tJtds way from the nitrogen of the soil
air. Soluble nitrates of the soil are absorbed by growing clover and
alfalfa, for example, just as they are by com and cotton. But while
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION COUBSE IN SOILS. 43
com, cotton, and other nonl^umes secure all of the nitrogen from the
soil for their growth, clovers, alfalfa, and other legumes secure a
substantial part of their nitrogen by fixation from the air. Since
there is alwajrs under field conditions a larger or smaller amount of
nitrogen compounds made available to l^umes, it is extremely
difficult to determine just how much is fixed from the air. Under
conditions of average fertility it is probable that about one-third of
the nitrogen used by clover or alfalfa is taken direct from the soil,
while about two-thirds is secured from the nitrogen of the air in the
soiL When these crops are cut for hay, about one-third of the total
amount of the nitrogen contained in the entire plant is left in the
roots and stubble and about two-thirds is reinoved in the hay.
Figuring from the above estimates, when a crop of clover or alfalfa
is removed from the land the soil is left with practically the same
amount of nitrogen that it had before the crop was grown. This,
however, does not take into account what is lost by leaching. Cow-
peas, soy beans, and other legmnes restore to the soil from roots and
stems a somewhat smaller percentage of nitrogen than do the clovers
and alfalfa. When legiuninous crops, therefore, are sold from the
farm there results at least no gain of nitrogen to the soil. On the
other hand, if these crops are fed to stock and the maniu*e produced
returned to the land,*much of the nitrogen contained in the crops
win go back to the soil and an actual increase of the nitrogen content
of the farm will result. But when only com and other grains or
hay from timothy and other nonlegumes are grown, there results a
positive gradual loss in the nitrogen content of the soil, no matter
what may be the disposition of the crops.
NitriJUxUion (Ret. No. 4, pp. 135-140). — Nitrogen is used for
growth by plants in the form of chemical compoimds called ammonia
and nitrates. It is now known that rice takes up ammonia directly,
while, as far as is known, all other farm crops absorb nitrogen chiefly
in the form of nitrates. Organic matter can not, therefore, be uti-
lized for plant growth imtil it has first imdergone a process of decompo-
sition. This decomposition is caused by microorganisms, or bacteria,
living in the soil, which use the organic matter, mostly vegetable, for
their nourishment and produce as by-products aiomonia and nitrates,
which can then be absorbed by plants. The normal process of
decomposition of organic matter and the formation of nitrates
tiurough bacterial action is called nitrification. These organisms
perform their work only imder favorable conditions of moisture,
aeration, and temperature. Nitrification is twice as rapid at 70*^ as
it is at 50^ and twice as rapid at 90^ as it is at 70^, but the maximum
temperature is probably between 95° and 100*^, and if a much higher
temperature is reached the bacteria do not grow well. If the soil is
poorly aerated and water-soaked from a lack of proper drainage, an
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
44 BULLETIN 355, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
abnormal decomposition takes place, through bacterial action, result-
ing in a loss of free nitrogen from the soil. Such an abnormal de-
composition is called denitrification. An acid condition of the soil
is mrfavorable, also, to nitrification. The fanner should recognize
that suitable conditions must be provided for normal bacterial growth
in the soil if good crops are to be expected.
Commercidl materidla containing nitrogen (Ref. No. 1, pp. 190-196;
or No. 7, pp. 244-260). — ^Besides the natural methods discussed
above of keeping up the nitrogen supply of the soil, there are many
commercial products on the market wiiich are used to a considerable
extent for certain soils and crops. These include mineral salts,
together with waste products of both animal and vegetable origin.
The principal mineral salts of nitrogen used on soils are sodium
nitrate and ammonium sulphate, together with calcium cyanamid
and calcium nitrate, which have recently been manufactured from
atmospheric nitrogen.
Cottonseed meal is the principal organic source of nitrogen used as a
fertilizer in the "United States. In fact, it is used to a larger extent
in this country than any other kind of nitrogenous fertilizer, notwith-
standing the fact that it is also a valuable stock food for which the
demand is steadily increasing.
The commercial animal products used as fertilizer include slaughter-
house refuse, especially dried blood and tankage; fish not valuable for
human food, which has teen prepared for use as fertilizer by cookiiig
and extraction of oil; bird guanos; and stockyard manure. Peruvian
guano formed from the excrement of birds deposited in large quan-
tities on islands off the coast of Peru is rich in nitrogen and was once
extensively used in this country, but the original deposits are now so
nearly exhausted that there is little or none of the material avail-
able for export.
Of the mineral nitrogen salts, ammonium sulphate is used to a cod-
siderable extent in this country. Its long-continued use has been
found to produce xinf avorable soil conditions, which, however, are easily
corrected by applications of lime. A mineral material lai^ely used
to supply nitrogen to soils is sodium nitrate or Chile saltpeter, so-
called because it is obtained mainly from the nitrate deposits of Qiile.
The great advantage of sodium nitrate as a plant food is that it is
readily soluble in water and quickly becomes available to growmg
crops. When applied to a poor soil its effect can usually be quicU^
seen in the rapid growth and the rich green color which the plants
take on. A disadvantage in the use of this material is its tendency
to leach from the soil, as noted in a previous lesson. Sodium nitrate,
and other products rich in nitrogen as well, must be applied to the
soil with much knowledge and skill if they are to prove profitable.
Usually from 100 to 200 pounds per acre of the nitrate is used, and
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION COUESE IN SOILS. 45
it is often well to make an application at a time when the crop is in
especial need of help or stimulation in its growth.
Need of decaying vegetdble matter in the soil, — Doubtless one of the
greatest needs of the soils of the United States is more nitrogen*
through the growth of leguminous crops. This is especially true in
the South, where long summers and much sandy soil eause the vege-
table matter quickly to become depleted. Growing legumes for green
manure, or, preferably, feeding the legumes and returning the manure
to the soil, are the cheapest and most effective ways of supplying
nitrogen for staple crops. Other advantages which green manure or
barnyard manure have over commercial nitrogenous substances in
the soil are: (1) They do much to maintain the moisture content; (2)
they improve the textiire; (3) they increase the temperature; and (4)
they promote bacterial action. These advantages should never be
overlooked in farm practice. Some of these benefits to the soil from
decaying vegetable matter have been mentioned in previous lessons,
but they will bear repetition.
KXKBCISES, LESSON VL
UaUrials required, — Four boxes; some poor, sandy soil; a iew peas, oats, or grains
of com; sodium nitmte, anmioniimi sulphate, and pulverized Umestone.
Ltgwfnxnous plants. — If conditions permit, carefully dig up different species of
legominous plants and examine the roots for nodules. If plants are carelessly removed
from the ground the nodules will be pulled off and remain in the soil. If plants are
taken up ^th a spade or shovel so that considerable earth remains on the roots, and
tlien if the soil be very carefully washed away, an examination of the fine roots will
Aow the nodules. These will vary on different legumes from the size of a pinhead
to that of a small pea, or even larger. If plants can not be dug out of doors, peas or
beaos planted in a box and kept growing well will show the nod ules after a few weeks.
JnocuZo/ton. — ^It will be fotmd interesting as a field test to sow two strips side by
aide of some leguminous plant not commonly grown in the community, inoculating
the seed used for sowing one strip and sowing the other strip from uninoculated seed.
Cultures for Inoculation may be secured by applying to your State experiment station
or to the United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. After growing
some six weeks the roots of plants from the two plats should be carefully examined
for Dodulee. After two or three months of growth note whether there is a difference
in the growth of plants on the two plats.
8alU containing nitrogen.—Fiil foiur boxes with poor sand. Plant either peas, oats,
<7 com in all four boxes. Keep warm and moist until the seeds are up. Mix into the
aoil of one box a good sprinkling of sodium nitrate; mix a like quantity of ammonium
sulphate into the soil of the second box, and ammomium sulphate and powdered
limestone into the soil of the third; leave the fourth box imdistiurbed. Keep all the
plants in good condition for growth and watch for a few weeks. Note results.
PROBLEMS.
1. A 30-buahel wheat crop removes from 1 acre about 48 poimds of nitrogen; a 50-
buflhel oat crop removes about 60 pounds; and a 65-bushel com crop removes about
85 pounds of nitrogen per acre. How many pounds of nitrogen are removed from
the soil on a grain farm where 30 acres of wheat are raised averaging 20 bushels per
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
46 BULLETIN 355, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGBICULTURE.
acre, 25 acres of oats averaging 40 bushels per acre, and 50 acres of com yielding 52
bushels of shelled com per acre?
2. A clay or silt loam soil weighs in round numbers 2,000,000 pounds per acre, 8
inches deep. How many pounds of nitrogen are contained in an acre 8 inches deep
of a fertile clay loa«n that analyzes 0.25 per cent of nitrogen? (a) How many 65-
bushel com crops will the nitrogen contained in an acre of this soil supply?
3. An acre of sand 8 inches deep weighs, in round numbers, 2,500,000 pounds.
What is the nitrogen content of an acre of poor sand that analyzes 0.04 per cent nitrogen?
4. An acre of peat soil 8 inches deep weighs, in round numbers, 350,000 pounds.
How many pounds of nitrogen are contained in an acre 8 inches deep of a soil of this
Jdnd that analyzes 2} per cent nitrogen?
5. A certain silt loam contains 0.2 per cent nitrogen and a peat 3 per cept. In
comparing these percentages, how may times more nitrogen are contained in the pett
than in the silt loam?
(a) In comparing the actual number of pounds per acre 8 inches, how many times
more nitrogen does the peat contain than the silt loam? Why this difference?
6. One ton of red-clover hay contains about 40 pounds of nitrogen, and 1 ton of al£al&
hay contains about 50 pounds. How many pounds of nitrogen are contained in 30
acres of clover yielding 2 tons per acre and 20 acres of al^lfa averaging 5| tons per
acre frovi three cuttings?
(a) How many pounds of nitrogen can reasonably be assumed to have been fixed
from the air by these two crops?
(b) At 15 cents per pound what is the value of the nitrogen contained in 5 tons of
alfalfa hay?
(c) Wheat bran contains 2.5 per cent nitrograi. How much bran is equivalent to
1 ton of alfalfa in nitrogen content?
7. How many square inches of air over 1 acre?
8. Atmospheric pressure averages about 15 pounds per square inch. How many
tons of air over 1 acre?
9. About four-fifths of the atmosphere consists of nitrogen. 'How many tons of
nitrogen over 1 acre? Do you think legumes will ever run short of this element in
their work of nitrogen fixation?
REVIEW QUESTIONS* LESSON ¥L
1. Discuss fully the fixation of nitrogen in the soil by nodule bacteria.
2. Name some leguminous plants. In what particulars, from the standpoint of
soil fertility, do they differ from nonl(^uminous plants?
3. Explain what is meant by inoculation of soils.
4. What conditions affect the amount of nitrogen fixed by legumes?
5. About how much nitrogen is fixed by a 2-ton clover crop?
6. Explain fully how legumes may be made of most use in increasing the amount of
nitrogen in the soil of a farm.
7. What is meant by nitrification, and how does it differ from nitrogen fixation?
8. Name some of the commercial materials used to increase the nitrogen contoit of
the soil.
9. Compare the value of these commercial materials with the products of vegetable
decay in general farm practice.
10. Is all vegetable matter in soils helpful in supplying fertility? Explain.
11. May soils be considerd inexhaustible in fertility?
12. Explain fully why a given soil may produce a large growth of native vegetation
while the same soil after being brought under cultivation may fail to prtxiuce a laije
yield if the crops are removed from the land each year.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTEKSION C0UB8E IN SOILS. 47
LESSON YIL THE PHOSPHORUS AND POTASSIUM OF SOILS.
The miaeral elements of plant food in the soil which are most apt
to he so low as to limit crop production are phosphorus and potassium
(see p. 11). These elements, it will hd remembered, come from the
dii^tegration of rock materials. The total phosphorus and potas-
sium content of a soil, therefore, depends primarily upon the kind of
rocks from which the soil was formed. On the other hand, the quan-
tity of phosphorus or potassiimi available to plants is not accurately
measured by the total quantity of these elements in the soil, but
depends much upon soil management. A soil may be rich in total
phosphorus and potassiimi and yet crops may not be able to secure
sufficient of these elements for lai^e yields. The quantity of decaying
vegetable matter in the soil has much to do with the quantity of
mineral elements available to plants, but if a soil is low in phosphorus
or potassium, or if the system of farming is such as to draw heavily
upon these elements, materials rich in available phosphorus and
potassium compounds may be added.
Any material which adds to the fertihty of the soil is a fertilizer.
This term, however, is more commonly apphed to conmiercial
materials used for this purpose, especially when the product contains
two or more of the essential elements of plant growth. The phos-
phorus content of fertilizers is commonly expressed in textbooks and
fertilizer analyses as phosphoric acid and the potassium content as
potash. To think in terms of phosphorus, the compound phosphoric
acid may be reduced to phosphorus by multiplying by 0.4366;
potash may be reduced to the element potassiimi by multiplying
by 0.83.
Phosphorus in the soil (Ref. No. 5, pp. 183, 184). — ^The proportion
of this element in the most common soils of the United States is
very small. The total amount on the average is from 0.05 per cent
to 0.1 per cent. In many cases it is as low as 0.02 or 0.03 per cent.
Since the soil of the siu^ace, 8 inches, in which most of the organic
matter occurs, weighs about 2,000,000 pounds on an acre, this means
that there are normally between 400 to 2,000 pounds of phosphorus
per acre, which constitutes most of the supply which can be made
available to crops. Agricultural crops on the average take from
8 to 10 poimds of phosphorus per acre annually. The total supply
of phosphorus in the soil to the depth of 8 inches would be, on this
basis, sufficient to meet the needs of crops for from 50 to 250 years.
This period would be much shorter in case of low phosphorus content
or larger yields. Of course, it is probable that some of the phos-
phorus in the soil below a depth of 8 inches can be drawn on, but
even if we assume that a considerable amount comes from below 8
inches, it is still evident that if the phosphorus absorbed from the
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
48 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUKE.
soil by crops grown on it is continually removed from the farm by
the sale of crops, the supply will become depleted and phosphorus
will become the limiting factor in crop production. In many
instances this is now the case.
P7u>sp7u>rus taken from the soil, — Most of the phosphorus absorbed
by plants in their growth goes to the seed, so that when grain or seed
is sold much of this element is removed from the soil. Likewise,
when crops are fed to animals much of the phosphorus goes into
the bones and milk, and if the animals or milk are sold from the
farm considerable phosphorus is lost. It is evident also that the
amoimt of phosphorus sold from the farm will vary greatly with
the type of farming practiced. Grain raising is most apt to deplete
the supply of phosphorus, since large quantities of this element are
removed in the seed. The handling of live stock, especially if young
animals bom on the farm are raised and sold when they reach matur-
ity, also removes considerable phosphorus. Dairy farming, in which
it is customary to use a good deal of feed brought from outside of
the farm and to sell butter fat which contains only a small amount
of this element, removes much less; but even in dairy farming it
must be recognized that there is some loss in the bones of old cows
and in the nulk, as well as by unavoidable leaching in the manure.
In practice, these losses can be made good only by the purchase of
phosphorus-bearing materials or of feeding stuffs which contain
this element.
PHOSPHORUS-BEARING MATERIALS.
(Ref. No. 1, pp. 201-208; or No. 3, pp. 511-518; or No. 5, pp. 183-193; or No. 7, pp.
261-277.)
Besides what is naturally in the soil, the principal phosphorus-
bearing materials are, (1) the bones of animals, (2) natural beds of
calcium phosphate, and (3) phosphatic iron ores.
Bone pTiospJtates. — A very limited supply of phosphorus for soil
improvement comes from the bone meal prepared by packing houses.
This, of course, comes originally from the soil. Raw bone contains
from 9 to 11 per cent of phosphorus, but in preparing it for use on
soils it is now usually steamed or otherwise treated to remove the
bulk of the organic matter, and then ground. Steamed bone me^
contains from 12 to 14 per cent of the element phosphorus. Sul-
phuric acid is sometimes added to bone meal. The resulting acidu-
lated bone phosphate or so-called dissolved bone is more readily
available than the raw bone. This product contains about 7 per
cent of phosphorus and 2 per cent of nitrogen. Bone tankage, a by-
product of the packing houses, contains 2^ to 9 per cent of phos-
phorus. Unacidulated bone phosphate is not readily soluble in
water and becomes available to crops slowly, so that rather larger
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION COUBSE IN SOILS. 49
quantities of the element must be applied in this fonn than it is
expected a single crop will remove." When 300 to 400 pomids of
ground steamed bone meal are used per acre, it will supply sufficient
phosphorus for from three to five crops, depending largely on kind
and yield.
Natural phosphates. — ^The chief supply of phosphorus for soil
improvement is from natural phosphate beds. These are widely
distributed over the earth, the most important deposits being in
the United States, Canada, France, Spain, Norway, and north
Africa. More than half of the world's output of these phosphates is
produced in the United States. The principal phosphate beds in
this country which have been worked are in Florida, Tennessee, and
South Carolina. Enormous deposits, however, have recently been dis-
covered in adjacent parts of Utah, Idaho, and Montana. Natural
phosphate deposits are prepared in two ways for appUcation to the
soil, (1) by grinding the material to an extremely fine condition
which is known and sold as raw phosphates or floats; and (2) by
treating the groimd material with sulphuric acid so as to form acid
phosphate or superphosphate.
Raw phosphate or floats. — ^Rock phosphate varies greatly in con-
tent of phosphorus, ranging from 9 to 18 per cent, though the usual
limits are 11 to 15 per cent. Even when groimd to extreme fineness
this material is dissolved in the soil with very great difficulty and
becomes available to crops slowly. Certain crops, however, have
greater power to seciure their phosphorus from this source than others.
The chief process by which this material is made available is through
the action of carbon dioxid set free by the decomposition of oi^anic
matter in the soil. It is very necessary, therefore, that this material
be used only when it is intimately mixed with some form of actively
decomposing vegetable matter. This occurs when it is thoroughly
incorporated with barnyard manure or applied as a top-dressing on
some green-manuring crop which is being plowed imder, or is applied
to a soil naturally containing large quantities of vegetable matter,
such as peat or muck soils. When used imder these conditions rock
phosphate is often as profitable to crops having a long period of growth
as either of the other forms mentioned. From 500 to 1,000 poimds
per acre of finely ground phosphate is conmaonly applied once in
three or four years.
Add phosphate. — In order to make the phosphorus or rock phos-
phate more readily available than in its natural condition it is very
generally treated with sulphuric acid. Crude sulphuric acid and raw
rock phosphate are mixed in about equal proportions, so that the
percents^e of phosphorus in the mixture is about one-half that in the
raw rock phosphate, though essentially all of it is made available to
21862^— BuU. 355—16 4
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
50 BULLETIN 366, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
crops. The reaction of the sulphuric acid with the calcixim phos-
phate produces in addition to acid phosphate, calcium sulphate
(gypsum), to which may be attributed some of the benefit secured by
the use of the acid phosphate.
On account of its ready availability, acid phosphate may be used
in moderate amounts so as to supply only the phosphorus needed by
the crops of one or two years. Since it usually has 6 or 7 per cent of
phosphorus, crops requiring from 12 to 14 poimds of that element
would need 200 to 300 pounds of the acid phosphate to fiimkh
sufficient phosphorus for a single year. Where the crops grown are
such as require large supplies of this element, as in the case of clover,
alfalfa, cabbage, turnips, and certain other crops, a larger applica-
tion would be better.
Slag phosphate, — ^When pig iron from ores rich in phosphorus is con-
verted into steel by the basic process in which an exce^ of lime is
used, a by-product, or basic slag, results. When produced by proper
methods, the basic slag contains about 8 per cent of phosphorus,
together with a considerable quantity of lime, from which the slag
may derive a part of its benefit to the soil. Slag phosphate is pro-
duced in lai^e quantities in Europe, and to some extent in the United
States.
Potassium in the soil (Ret. No. 4, pp. 214, 215). — Potassium exiBte
in large quantities in most soils, having been left as a residue from
the incomplete decomposition of minerals rich in that element such as
feldspar and mica. The total amount in sand, silt, and clay soib
varies from 0. 5 to 2.5 per cent. A large part of this is still combined
with silica in an extremely insoluble form, and it becomes available
only through the further decomposition of these silicates. The
availability of these great natural stores of this element depends
largely upon the presence of an abimdant supply of organic matter
in the soil. Peat and muck soils, which have been chiefly formed
from vegetation which has grown in water or in very wet marshes.
have usually had a considerable portion of the potassium leached out
after the death of the plants, so that the resulting peat or muck
contains relatively small quantities of this- element. The average
content of potassiiun in muck and peat soils is only from one-twentieth
to one-fiftieth of that contained in upland earthy soib. It is tme
that the rapid decomposition of the oi^anic matter of such soils which
takes place when they are drained and broken generally leads to a
fair supply of this element for a few years, but in practically all cases
heavy applications of potassium are required sooner or later, and
of phosphorus also in most cases.
Potassium taken hy crops (Ref. No. 4, p. 213). — Cereal crops require
relatively small amounts of this element, ranging from 20 to 40 pounds
per acre annually, of which from one-third to one-fifth only is con-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTEKSION COUBSB IN SOILS. 51
tained in the seed, the greater portion being left in the stalk or straw.
Com, potatoes, cabbage, and most truck crops require relatively
laige supplies, varying from 60 to 100 pounds per acre, depending on
yield and somewhat on kind of plant. Tobacco, for instance, requires
unusually large quantities of this element. The legumes, especially
clover and alfalfa, which are used as hay, also contain laige quan-
tities, alfalfa frequently removing as high as 150 pounds of this ele-
ment per acre in the 5 or 6 tons grown annually. Essentially all the
potassixun which truck crops and hay contain is removed from the
farm when they are sold, while in the growing of cereals of which only
the seed is usually sold, relatively small amounts of this element are
lost from the farm.
Soils needing potassium (Ref. No. 1, p. 197). — ^From the foregoing
it is evident that potassium-bearing materials are especially needed
under the following conditions: (1) On muck and peat soils; (2) on
upland soils low in potash and of coarse texture, such as sandy soils;
and (3) in the growth of certain truck crops and of hay, which require
unusually lai^ quantities of this element. •
Potassiumrbearing materials (Ref. No. 7, pp. 278-287). — ^The most
important sources of conunercial potassium are the deposits of the
Stassfurt region, in Germany. (Ref. Nos. 4, pp. 216-218; 5, pp. 529-
531.) The potassiimi exists in various salts, so that the raw product as
mined varies greatly in the amount of potassium contained. Some of
these salts are used directly upon the soil where the distance of haul is
not too great. Kainit, one of these salts containing from 9 to 10 per
cent of potassium, is very largely used in Germany and is imported
to some extent into this country. The salts of potassium used most
as fertilizers in this country, both alone and in the manufacture of
complete fertilizers, are potassium sulphate and potassium chlorid
(muriate of potash). It has been generally held that the chlorin
in the latter material is injurious to certain crops, especially to
potatoes and tobacco, and for these crops the use of the sulphate is
usually advised.
The use of potassium salts. — When potassium salts must be de-
pended upon to supply all or essentially all the potassium, from 100
to 300 pounds of muriate of potash must be tised annually. Such
crops as potatoes, sugar beets, and cabbage require relatively larger
supplies than grain. Larger quantities should be used on sandy,
muck, or peat soils than on loam or clay-loam soils. The salts
•hould be spread evenly and should be well worked into the soil.
Where potatoes are to be grown the muriate should be apphed the
fall before or the sulphate of potash used in the spring. Heavy
applications of muriate in the spring tend to roughen the skin of the
potato. When a large part of the crops grown on the farm are fed
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
62 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DBPABTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE.
to stock and the manure returned to the soil, very little potaseiiiin
need be purchased except on farms located on marsh soils.
EXERCISES, LESSON VD.
Materials required. — Sodium nitrate, muriate of potaah, sulphate of potash, kainit,
acid phosphate, rock phosphate, bone meal, and of as many other fertilizer salts as
possible; four 3-gallon crocks; i bushel of moist sand or loam; a handful of com; a
small teaspoon, a tablespoon; two or three cups.
Solubility of fertilizer materials (Ret. No. 4, p. 240).— Place a teaspoonful al sodinm
nitrate in a cup and fill the cup two-thirds fuU of water. Stir for a few minutes.
What happens to the fertilizer? When is a fertilizer considered soluble? Try the
same test on muriate of potash, sulphate of i>otash, kainit, acid phosphate, rock
phosphate, and bone meal.
Fertilizer material in hill versus broadcast application. — Fill four 3-gallon crocks with
moist clay or silt loam soil and treat as follows:
(a) In the center make a hole about 2 inches deep and place in it three kemeb of
com. On top of the com place a tablespoonful of muriate of potash or any one of the
other potash fertilizers; cover and water when necessary.
(b) Eepeat as in (a), but place the tablespoonful of the same kind of fertiHier
2 inches deep and 3 inches away from the com kemels. Cover and water wiien
necessary.
(c) Bepeat as in (a), but use only a small teajspoonful of the same kind of fertaHaa.
(d) Determine the area of soil surface in this crock and i^ply as much muriate at
potash as is equivalent to a 400-pound application per acre. Mix the fertilizer thor-
oughly with the top 4 inches of soil and plant three kemels of com 2 inches deep.
Give all the crocks the same care and note carefully the effect of the different tieat-
ments upon the growth of the com.
(e) A small teaspoonful of potash fertilizer weighs one-fourth of an ounce. Galcu-
late the amount of fertilizer required per acre if each hill were treated as in crocks (a)
and (c), the com being planted in hills 3 J feet each way.
(f) Similar tests may be made, using phosphate materials or mixed mi^pnd*.
What conclusions may be drawn from the results of these tests?
PROBLEMS.
1. An acre of dry sand or sandy soil 8 inches deep weighs in round numbers 2,500,000
pounds; a clay or silt loam, 2,000,000 pounds; and a peat, 350,000 pounds. How
many times heavier is sand than peat?
2. A productive silt loam analyzed 0.11 per cent phoephorus. How many pounds
of this element are contained in an acre 8 inches deep?
3. A 75-bushel com crop removes from an acre approximately 16 pounds of phos-
phorus. How many such crops of com can be supplied by the total amount of phos-
phorus in an acre 8 inches of that fertile silt loam?
4. A certain clay loam contains 0.049 per cent phosphorus. How many moie poundi
of this element are contained in an acre 8 inches of the fertile sUt loam ihi^ in thk
clay loam?
5. How many 75-bushel com crops will the phosphorus in an acre 8 inches of the
clay loam supply? Is any soil able to produce a 75-bushel com crop every year until
the soil supply of phosphorus is entirely exhausted? Explain. (Ref. No. 5, pp.
107, 108.)
6. A silt loam soil was cropped almost continuously for 63 years. It is now in a
badly exhausted condition and analyzes only 0.04 per cent phosphorus. A 8ampl«
of this same soil which was never cropped contained 0.074 per cent phoqihania.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION OOTTBSE IN SOILS. 63
Determine the apparent average annual loss of this element from the soil during those
yeazB.
7. One ton of clover hay contains approximately 5 pounds of phosphorus and timothy
hay about 2} pounds per ton. How many pounds of phosphorus are sold from the
fum. when a fanner sells 30 acres of clover averag:ing 1} tons per acre and 25 acres of
timothy averaging 1} tons of hay per acre? What is the value of this phosphorus at
10 cents per pound?
8. One ton of wheat bran contains about 25 pounds of phosphorus and cottonseed
meal the same amount. How many pounds of phosphorus does a farmer bring to his
him. when he buys 20 tons of bran, 8 tons of cottonseed meal, and 15 tons of clover hay?
Is all of this phosphorus added to the soil?
(a) The loas of phosphorus in the feeding transaction may be considered 20 per cent,
the manure being hauled directly to the field. How many pounds of phosphorus will
this farmer add to his soil through the piuchase of these feeds?
9. Twenty-five per cent phosphoric acid is equivalent to what per cent phosphorus
(P)? Fifty poimds of the compound phosphoric acid (PqC^) is equivalent to how
many pounds of the element phosphorus (P)?
10. One phosphorus fertilizer contains 14 per cent phosphorus, while another is
marked to contain 30 per cent phosphoric acid. Which contains the more phos-
phorus, and how much more?
11. When rock phosphate containing 30 per cent phosphoric acid can be delivered
for $8 a ton, what is the cost of 1 poimd of phosphorus?
12. When acid phosphate analyzing 16 per cent phosphoric acid can be had for
$16 a ton, how many poimds of phosphorus can be purchased for a dollar? Compare
this with rock phosphate. Which of these two fertilizers is soluble?
13. The phosphorus contained in rock phosphate analyzing 13 per cent phosphorus
and applied at the rate of 1,000 poimds per acre is sufficient to supply about how many
TS-bushel com crops?
14. How much basic slag analyzing 8 per cent phosphorus must be added per acre
to return to Uie soil approximately the amount of phosphorus removed by three clover
crops averaging 2 tons of hay per acre, two 75-bu8hel com crops, and one crop of
timothy hay averaging 1} tons per acre?
15. One thousand pounds of milk contains 0.8 of a pound of phosphorus. How
much phosphorus is contained in the milk produced by one cow in a year if she aver-
ages 30 pounds of milk per day?
16. How many pounds of potassium are contained in a heavy clay loam analyzing
2.5 per cent potassium? In a peat containing 0.5 per cent potassium?
17. A poor, sandy soil analyzed 0.68 per cent potassium, while a peat analyzed 0.3
per cent of this element. In comparing the percentages, what per cent more of
potassium does the sand contain thim the peat?
18. In comparing the actual number of pounds in an acre 8 inches deep, what per
cent more of potassium does the poor sand in problem 20 contain than the peat?
Explain the different results obtained in these two problems.
19. A 1,600-pound tobacco crop removes from 1 acre about 75.5 poimds of potas-
simn. How many such crops will the potassium supply that is contained in an acre
8 inches deep of a sik loam analyzing 2 per cent potassium?
20. A 4-ton alfalfa crop removes from 1 acre about 95.5 poimds of potassium. What
ifl the value of the potassium contained in 40 tons of alfalfa hay when 1 pound of this
dement is worth 6 cents per poimd?
21. Sixty-five pounds of potash (Kfi) is equivalent to how many poimds of potas-
rimn? Fifty per cent potash is equivalent to how many per cent potassium?
22. A man can buy muriate of potash analyzing 43 per cent potassium for $45 per
ton and kainit containing 12 per cent potassium for $15 a ton. Both are soluble fer-
tilizers. Which will give him the more potassium for his money?
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
54 BULLETIN 366, V. S. DEPAKTMENT OP AGEICULTUKE.
REVIEW QUESTIONS, LESSON VIL
1. How many pounds of phosphorus are there in the surface 8 inches of a silt loam
soil if the chemical analysis shows that it contains 0.07 per cent of this element?
2. State ways in which phosphorus may be lost from the soil.
3. How may these losses be replaced?
4. Why is dairy farming less liable to exhaust the phosphorus of the farm than
grain raising?
5. Name the chief soiurcee of phosphorus used for fertilizers.
6. Mention the principal kinds of phosphate fertilizers available for use in this
country.
7. Which contains more phoephorus, rock phosphate or acid phoephate?
8. How should rock phosphate be used? How may acid phosphate be applied?
9. Do legumes such as alfalfa and clover remove phosphorus from the soil?
10. How is the phosphorus content of phoephate fertilizers conmionly expressed?
11. In what part of the plant is most of the potassium left when the crop matures?
12. How does potasaiiun differ in this respect from phoephorus?
13. How much potassium is usually removed from an acre by a crop of com?
14. What plants draw most heavily on this element?
15. How does the amount of potasaiiun compare with that of phosphorus in OTdinanr
clay loam soil?
16. What kinds of soil are most lacking in potassium?
17. What is the chief source of potassium fertilizers, and what are the most im-
portant kinds?
18. About how much muriate of potash would you apply to muck soils on which yoa
expected to grow a heavy crop of cabbage?
19. When should muriate of potash be applied to ground on which potatoes are to
be planted?
20. Under what conditions is it unnecessary to use potassium fertilizers on heavy
soils?
LESSON Vm. MANURES AND FERTILIZERS.
In the general use of the terms, manures are thought of as the
waste materials from the care of Uve stock, while fertilizers include
commercial materials of value to the soil because of their nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium content. In this lesson we shall include
as manures crops which are grown and returned to the soil, either in-
directly through animal excrement and straw or other material used
as bedding, or directly by returning the crop without harvesting
solely for purposes of soU improvement. These subjects will be
treated, respectively, imder the headings of barnyard manure and
green manures. The use of manures as soil builders has a distinctive
advantage over commercial fertilizers because of the value which re-
sults from the decaying vegetable matter in addition to the nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium which they furnish to the soil. Commercial
fertilizers stimulate the growth of plants by supplying the three es-
sential elements noted above in a concentrated and usually available
form. The intelligent combined use of the two is best for both soil
and crops.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION COURSE IN SOILS.
55
I; or No. 6,
BARNYARD MANURES.
(Ref. No. 1, pp. 113-121; or No. 7, pp. 316-347; or No. 9, pp. 229-236
pp. 131-148; No. 5, pp. 541-543; No. 4, pp. 158-160.)
Materidla retained and voided by animals. — ^Much of the plant food
removed from the soil by crops may be returned in the manure from
animals to which the crops are fed. The actual amoimt of plant food
so returned depends on the quantity absorbed by animals in their
bones and flesh or converted into milk, and on the loss from the
manure before it is returned to the soil. The more digestible the
food and the younger the animal the lai^er is the portion retained in
the form of bone and flesh. Hall, in England, foimd that when lin-
seed cake was fed to fattening steers and milch cows, the distribu-
tion of the nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium were as shown in
Table III.
Table III. — DiatribiUion of nitrogen^ phosphorus, and potassium contained in linseed
cake when fed to fattening oxen and mUch cows.
Nitrogen.
Phospho-
rus.
Potassium.
Cootent of 100 pounds of linseed cake
When fed to fahening oxen:
Retained in meat
Voided in urine
Voided in dung
When fed to milch cows:
Retained in milk
Vdded in urine
Voided in dung
Pound*.
4.75
.21
3.88
.66
1.33
2.75
.67
Pound*.
0.872
.061
.039
.772
.218
.031
.623
Pound*.
1.162
-.017
.913
.232
.116
.872
.174
This table is of special value in showing the comparative quantities
of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium retained in meat and milk;
also in the comparative quantities of these essential elements shown
to be voided in Uquid and soUd excrement. It emphasizes the cost
of producing milk from the fertiUty standpoint, and it clearly shows
the importance of saving the liquid manure and returning it to the
soiL Hopkins shows that as a general average for dairy farming,
cattle feeding, and sheep feeding, practically one-third of the organic
matter, three-fourths of the nitrogen, and three-fourths of the phos-
phorus contained in the feed and bedding are recovered in the total
manures. Nearly all of the potassium may be recovered except that
sold in milk.
Value of hamyard manure. — From a large number of chemical
analyses it has been determined that the average sample of fresh
manure, including bedding used in absorbing the urine, contains
about 10 pounds of nitrogen, 2 poimds of phosphorus, and 8 poimds
of potassium per ton of material, varying with the age of the animal
and the feed. Estimated upon the fertiUty value of the three essen-
tial elements nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, fresh barnyard
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
56 BULLETIN 355, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTTJRB.
manure is worth from $2.50 to $2.75 per ton. After being exposed
in the open yard for a few months, 2 tons of fresh manure decomposes
to about 1 ton, with an analysis showing 10 pounds of nitrogen, 3
pounds of phosphorus, and 8 pounds of potassiiun, having a fertilizer
value of from $2.60 to $2.85 per ton. These estimates do not include
the value to the soil of the organic matter furnished by manure.
The comparative value of manures voided by different animals will
be foimd in the references. It is highly important in farm practice
to imderstand that the kind of feed given to farm animals has a very
close relation to the value of the maniu*e voided. The richer the feed
in nitrogen content, the more valuable will be the excrement pro-
duced. Therefore, one who winters live stock largely on com fodder
and straw will have much less valuable manure to return to the soil
than one who adds clover hay, alfalfa, or grain to the feeding ration.
Losses from barnyard manure. — ^The losses from manures on farms
of the United States is hundreds of milUons of dollars annually. This
is poor economy, considering the needs of the farms from which this
imjnense loss occiu^ and the fact that much of it could be avoided by
good management. The losses occur largely in two ways: (1) From
Uquid manures not being saved, and (2) from storing and exposure.
Loss of liquid manure. — ^The collection and return to the soil of
the liquid portion of the manure is evidently the most difficult prob-
lem. About one-half of the fertilizing value of barnyard manure is
contained in the hquid portion. Storage in cisterns is only partially
successful, especially in the Northern States, where the freezing of
the liquid during the winter makes its distribution difficult or im-
possible. On the whole, the most satisfactory method for conserving
liquid manure on the farm is to absorb it in the bedding. As much
straw, cut or shredded cornstalks, or other refuse material should
be used as may be necessary entirely to absorb the liquid. (Ref.
No. 4, pp. 160, 161.) Peat or moss, when available, is a far more
effective absorbent than straw. The dust from this material, how-
ever, makes it objectionable for bedding dairy cattle. Finely ground
phosphate rock is often used upon the floors as an absorbent after
cleaning the stables. Such use also helps the phosphorus of this
material to become available to plants after the manure is applied
to the soil and decomposition begins.
Losses from storing manures (Ref. No. 3, pp. 598-602; or No. 4,
pp. 175-181). — There are two ways in which fertility is lost from
the manure pile while stored. First, by leaching out of much of the
soluble and most valuable part, and second, by fermentation and
heating, which causes loss of nitrogen in the gaseous form. Leaching
should be prevented by having the manure pile either covered or
so completely built that no more water is absorbed by the manure
than is necessary to keep it in a moist condition. In the South and
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION COUBSE IN SOILS. 5T
other i^ions of considerable winter rainfall some form of manure
shed should be provided. In some localities of the North the winter
rainfall may be not more than sufficient to keep the manure properly
moist. However, alternate wetting and drying is especially objec-
tionable on account of the large loss of nitrogen it causes. Over-
heating from fermentation is most likely to occur in horse manure.
(Ref. Nos. 1, p. 149; 7, p. 312.) This should if possible be mixed
with cow manure, and if not, it should be kept sufficiently moist
and compact to prevent overheating, or firef anging. Under the very
b^t care it is practicable to collect and return to the soil about
85 per cent of the plant-food elements contained in the fresh manure.
If three-fourths of the food elements taken from the soil by the crops
which are fed to animals is voided in the manure, and 85 per cent of
this can be returned to the soil, about two-thirds of the fertility
contained in crops removed from the land and fed to animab can be
returned to the soil in manure. Every effort should be made to
make the fraction actually returned as large as possible.
Application of manure to the land (Ref. Nos. I, pp. 165-172; or 3,
pp. 602-609; or 4, pp. 181-186). — On accoimt of the danger of loss
of plant-food material from manure imdergoing decomposition, it is
best to apply it directly to the land as produced. This can usually
be done in general fanning. Coarse and fresh manure can be used on
rank-growing crops such as com, cabbage, sugar beets, etc., by apply-
ing it during the winter as produced to land to be planted to these
crops. These crops can then be followed by those to which it is not
well to apply manure directly, such as potatoes and other crops
affected by fungus diseases which are encouraged by the raw manure.
When it is to be applied to sandy soils, however, the manure should
be composted, as otherwise the decomposition in the soil of the bedding
will dry out the soil too much. Fine or well-rotted manure can also
be used to great advantage as a top-dressing on meadow land or on
pasture.
It is often thought that pastures do not need fertilization, but this
is a great mistake, for since the animals are in the yards or stables
part of the time and are storing up the elements of plant food in
their bodies, they cause a constant drain on the soil of the pasture
which is not made good by the manure dropped in the pasture. This
loss must be met by additions either of manure from the stable or of
commercial fertilizers.
Few crops will give better returns for manure applied than hay,
especially timothy and other true grasses. Clover, alfalfa, and other
legumes will respond wonderfully to manure; but since these plants
can secure most of their nitrogen from the air, if necessary, they
shoidd be made to do so by supplying them with fertilizers containing
the other elements only. This will permit the use of all of the manure
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
58 BULLETIN 366, U. S. DEPAETMENT OF AGBICTJLTUBE.
of the farm on crops which require the nitrogen as well as the other
elements, and so increase the fertility of the whole farm. Manure
appUed to meadow land should be well composted, so that its ferti-
lizing constituents are lai^ely soluble and will be leached down into
the soil at once, and the straw used as bedding will be rotted and will
not be raked up with the hay.
As a rule it is better to plow manure imder when applied on such
crops as com, cabbage, sugar beets, etc., because then it causes no
difficulty in cultivating these crops, as it often does when applied
as a top-dressing after the land is plowed. But on heavy clay soib
the manure is more effective when applied as a top-dressing and culti-
vated into the soil, because then it is more readily oxidized than when
plowed under. It can be used as a top-dressing in this way if well
rotted.
The rate at which the manure should be applied will, of course, be
determined in part by the supply produced on the farm. But it is
much better to use small quantities frequently than lai^e quantities
seldom. Four or five tons to the acre every tlu'ee years is better than
12 or 15 tons every nine years. The even distribution of manure,
such as can be accomplished with the manure spreader, is also a matter
of great importance.
GREEN MANUBBS.
(Ref. No. 7, pp. 348-362; or No. 6, pp. 342-348.)
Decaying vegetable matter in some form is indispensable for keep-
ing a soil in the best physical condition and in the highest state of
f ertihty. If the system of farming is such that not much live stock is
fed upon the farm, the manure will not be sufficient to supply the
needed amount of vegetable matter to the soil, and some other means
should be adopted as a substitute. In such a case, the most practical
method is to grow crops to turn back to the soil. Such crops are
called green manures.
There are two ways of furnishing green manures: (1) A crop is pro-
duced diu'ing the regular growing season, but instead of being har-
vested, it is returned to the soil. This method may be necessary in
the North where the growing seasons are short; (2) a crop to retmm to
the soil is grown with the regular harvested crop and left on the ground
from the harvest; or a crop is sown after the regular crop is removed
and gets its growth during the fall and winter months, in which case
it is called a cover crop. This method of green manuring is now much
used in the Southern States.
In addition to the value to the soil of vegetable matter supplied,
the following benefits come from the green-manure crops: (1) Where
a cultivated crop has been grown and harvested, considerable avail-
able plant food is left in the soil which may be taken up in the growth
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION COURSE IN SOILS. 59
of the cover crop to be given up again from decay in the soil tfO the
succeeding regular crops. Where no cover crop is used, there may
be considerable leaching during the fall and winter, especially of the
nitrogen compounds. (2) When a cover crop is on land during the
heavy rains of fall and winter, the covering and the roots in the soil
are very effective in preventing erosion. This is especially true in the
case of day soils. (3) When legumes are grown for green manures;
the nitrogen content of the soil is much increased. This important
fact should not be overlooked.
The crops most commonly grown for green manuring are: Non-
leguminous — ^rye, wheat, oats, and barley; legimiinous — cowpeas, soy
beans, crimson clover, red clover, sweet clover, bur clover, Japanese
clover, and vetch.
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
(Ref. No. 7, pp. 449-475.)
Sinoe the time when it became generally accepted that one or
more of three essential elements of plant growth, viz, nitrogen, phos-
phcNToSy and potassium, are most apt to be found in soib in such
small quantities as to limit crop production, there have gradually
sprang up commercial enterprises organized for the purpose of manu-
facturing and distributing materials containing one or more of these
so-called essential elements. Usually substances containing two or
three of these elements are mixed in different proportions and put
' upon the market under different names, such as com grower, cotton
grower, potato grower, etc. When materials thus manufactured and
sold contain the three essential elements, they are called complete
commercial fertilizers. There are hundreds of brands of complete
fertilizers upon the market, and the number is fast increasing.
Materials commonly used for complete fertilizers are sodium nitrate
for nitrogen, acid phosphate for phosphorus, and potassium chlorid
(muriate) or potassium sulphate for potassium. In the higher grade,
and consequently higher priced, complete fertilizers the materials
used are comparatively pure; in the lower and cheaper grade some
material called a £Qler is often used in the mixture. At the present
time ground limestone and peat are used to some extent as fillers.
C«^ of fertilizers in the United Stages. — ^The largest part of the
fertilizers used is appUed to those soils which have been longest under
cultivation. This statement is particularly appUcable to the South-
ern States where the sandy soils, the long hot seasons, and especially
the single-crop system (culture of cotton, a nonleguminous crop)
have very much depleted the humus content and general fertihty of
the soils. Quoting from the United States Census Report:
In 1909 the faimers of the United States reported the expenditure of $114,882,541
far fmitizers, of which $75,752,296, or 65.9 per cent, was spent by the fanners of the
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
60 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE.
South. The fanners of the Atlantic division alone spent $59,625,130, or more than
half of the total. Most of the expenditure for fertilizers outside of the South was
reported from the three northeastern divisions of the country, the New England,
Middle Atlantic, and East North Atlantic.
Fertilizer control. — ^Most of the States have enacted laws to govern
the sale of fertilizers. The laws generally require that the containing
packages shall show the guaranteed analysis of the materials. The
analyses are commonly reported in terms of nitrogen or of ammonia,
total and available phosphoric acid, and potash.
Fertilizers containing about 2 per cent ammonia, 8 per cent phos-
phoric acid, and 2 per cent potash are very commonly found in the
market and are often known as 2:8:2 goods. Such fertilizers are
considered low grade.
As stated before, nitrogen may be calculated from anmionia by
multiplying by 0.82, phosphorus from phosphoric acid by multiplying
by 0.4366, and potassiiun from potash by multiplying by 0.83.
Thus 2 per cent of ammonia X 0.82 =1.64 per cent of nitrogen.
The use of mixed fertilizers. — ^There are so many different kinds of
soils in the United States, so many different crops grown, and so
many different conditions to meet, that it is wholly impracticable in
this treatise to attempt to give directions with regard to proportion
and quantity in the use of mixed fertilizers. The agricultural
experiment stations of the different States have conducted soil sur-
veys, soil analyses, and soil-fertility experiments until there is now
a considerable fimd of information with regard to the best use of
fertilizing materials for the types of soil and crops grown in each
State, and it is best to apply to one's own experiment station for this
information. In general, it is well to decide first how much nitrogoi,
phosphorus, and potassiimi should be added to the soil for the crop
to be grown; then to compute the quantity of the different compounds
of these elements necessary to furnish what is desired; and, finally,
to use the materials which will furnish the elements needed in avail-
able form at the least cost.
Home mixing of fertilizers. — Of late years farmers are b^inning to
buy separately the fertilizer materials and to mix these materials
themselves as desired. Some of the advantages of this practice are:
(1) One can add to the soil at any time any one of the fertilizing
elements alone, or any combination of the elements, in the propor-
tions desired. (2) Many grades of complete fertilizers can be made,
as needed for different crops and soils, from only three materials.
(3) The buying and appUcation of the fertilizers can be done more
intelligently, and often more cheaply. (Read pp. 476-490, Ref.
No. 7.)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION OOUBSB IN SOILS.
61
EXERCISES, LESSON YIIL
MateriaU required, — A pint of muck or peat; two wide-mouthed pickle bottles;
three or four ounces of ammonium carbonate; two pieces of woolen cloth for strainers;
two glass tumblers.
1. Why homy card water is colored. — Every farmer and farm boy has observed the
peculiar color of barnyard water and has detected strong ammonia odors in the horse
stable. The one condition is closely related to the other in this way: The nitrogen
of an animal body is excreted through the urine. The principal nitrogenous sub-
stance in urine is urea. Urea is acted upon by fermenting organisms producing the
c<Hnpound ammonium carbonate which, with moisture, has the ability to dissolve
organic matter. This accounts in a large degree for the brownish color of barnyard
water. This solvent action may be observed as follows:
Place a handful of peat or muck in each of two wide-mouthed pickle bottles. Add
about half a cup of ammonium-carbonate solution to one, and a like amount of water
to the other. Shake each for a few minutes, let stand about 20 minutes, then shake
again for a few seconds. Run the liquid contents of each bottle through woolen cloth
into glass tumblers and note color of liquids. Explain results.
PROBLEMS.
1. A ton of good average barnyard maniue contains about 0.5 per cent nitrogen,
0.1 per cent phosphcnus, and 0.4 per cent potassiiun. How many pounds of each of
the elements are contained in 1 ton?
2. When nitrogen is worth 18^ cents per pound, phosphorus 10 cents, and potassiiun
6 cents per pound, what is the value of the plant food contained in 1 ton of good
manure?
3. A faunefr applied 30 tons of good manure per acre to his tobacco land. About
how many poimds of each of the fertilizing elements did he apply per acre in the
manure? What may be considered the total value of the plant food applied?
4. How many pounds of each of the three fertilizing elements are applied when
8 tons of manure are appl led per acre? What is the value of these f ert il izing elemen ts?
Under average good conditions about 40 per cent of the nHrogen is lost in the feed-
ing transaction and production and handling of manure, about 20 per cent of the
phosphorus, and about 5 per cent of the potassium (straw for bedding).
5. A 40-bushel barley crop removes from the soil about 48 pounds of nitrogen,
9 pounds of phosphorus, and 30 pounds of potassiiun. If 10 acres of such barley were
fed and all the manure produced from this crop were returned to the same field, would
there be a loss or gain, and how much of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium as
compared with that contained in the soil before the crop was planted?
6. The amount of plant food removed per acre by com, oats, and alfalfa is as follows :
Amount of plant food removed from the soil by differerU crops.
Yield per
acre.
Pounds per acre removed from sofl.
Crop.
Nitrogen.
Phos-
phorus.
Potas.
slum.
Gorn.hmiMV
05
fiO
4
85
50
200
14
8
18
79
Oats.bosheb
37 5
Aiftifi toni
05 5
How much plant food would be lost in feeding 7 acres of com averaging 65 bushels
of shelled com per acre, and 10 acres of oats, averaging 50 bushels per acre? (All
straw used for bedding.)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
62 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AORICULTUBE.
(a) The nitrogen contained in the alfalfa crop may be considered the amount fixed
from the air by that crop. How much nitrogen would be added to the soil if the
manure produced from feeding 2 acres of alfalfa hay averaging 6 tons per acre were
returned to the same field? Would there be a loss or gain of phosphorus, and how
much?
(6) A man fed 20 acres of com yielding 65 bushels of shelled com per acre, 10 acree
of oats yielding 50 bushels, and 5 acres of alfalfa hay yielding 5 tons per acre. All
manure produced was used on the farm. What was the loss or gain of nitrogen in the
feeding transaction?
(c) If 5 tons of cottonseed meal were fed during the time required to feed the
crops in the preceding problem, what would be the loss or gain of nitrogen and phos-
phorus to the soil? One ton of cottonseed meal contains about 135 pounds of nitrogen
and 25 pounds of phosphorus.
7. At the Hatch experiment station, Massachusetts, it was foimd that the drainage
from the gutter behind milch cows contained 0.98 per cent nitrogen, 0.1 per cent
phosphorus, and 0.73 per cent potassium. How many poimds of each of these ele-
ments were contained in a ton of this liquid?
(a) At the same station it was found that the liquid drained from a manure heap
contained 1.5 per cent nitrogen, 0.043 per cent phosphorus,, and 4.06 per cent potas-
sium. Compare the fertility contained in 1 ton of this liquid with that in problem 7.
What conclusions are to be drawn from these figures?
REVIEW QUESTIONS, LESSON X.
1. Name some of the factors which influence the amoimt of plant-food material
that may be recovered in the manure produced from feeding.
2. In what form is most of the nitrogen voided from the animal body?
3. Compare the amount of phosphorus retained in milk with that retained in meat
4. About what part of the nitrogen and phosphorus in feeds fed is recovered in
the manure?
5. About what part of the plant food contained in feeds is returned to the soil?
6. How may the loss of the liquid manure be reduced to a minimiun?
7. Explain how losses of plant food from manure occur.
8. Discuss the time and method of applying maniu*e.
9. Discuss the condition manure should be in when applied to certain crops and
soils.
10. How much plant food is contained in 1 ton of average manure, and what is its
value?
11. What is a green manure? Under what conditions is it necessary to use green
manures to retain or to increase the fertility of a soil?
12. What crops are best to use for green manuring?
13. What is a cover crop? Of what value are cover crops to the soil besides their
manurial value?
14. What is a complete commercial fertilizer?
15. Is it better to use fertilizers of high or low grade? Why?
16. Discuss home mixing of fertilizers.
LESSON n. SOIL ACIDITY AND LIMING.
(Ref. No. 1, pp. 242-248; or No. 5, pp. 160-164; or No. 6, pp. 313-^19.)
A condition of the soil which effects important changes, including
nitrification and nitrogen fixation, is that of acidity. PracticAlly
all soils formed in regions of moderately heavy rainfall and not
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION COURSE IN SOILS. 63
derived by glaciation from limestone rocks are f omid to be more or
less acid. Tiiming is the only practical way for correcting acidity.
It is also beneficial to the soil in several other wa3rs. Nearly all of
the vast area of sandy lands of the South, and much land of the
North and Northeast, as Well, need liming. Besides other related
topics, there will be taken up in this lesson the means for detecting
soil acidity, together with the different kinds of lime, the quantity
of each to be used on the soil, and the methods of appUcation.
Lime is not generally considered as a fertilizer, although calcium,
the mineral element of lime, is present in certain soils to such a limited
extent that some substance containing this element needs to be
added as a plant food.
Reasons for soU dddity. — While the question of acidity is still
under investigation, the following reasons for this condition in soils
seem to be fairly well established: (1) The abnormal breaking down
of large quantities of vegetable matter in lowlands poorly drained
causes acidity. (2) Because of the greater water solubiUty of the
basic compounds of the soil than of the acid silicates, the bases are
removed more rapidly from leaching than are the acid compoimds.
Since cultivated areas leach more readily than wooded and pasture
lands, they thus develop acidity more rapidly. (3) In cropping, the
basic elements of plant food are taken more rapidly from the soil
than are the acid elements. When crops are removed from the land,
therefore, instead of being fed and the manures returned, an acid
condition eventually results from this cause. Moreover, the basic
elements are carried from the subsoil to the surface to some extent
by the roots of plants, and it is a common experience to find the sub-
soil acid when the surface is still neutral or alkaline. (4) An acid
residue is left in the soil from some fertilizers. Ammonium sulphate,
for example, when appUed to the soil gives up ammonia as a plant
food and leaves sulphuric acid as a residue. It is thought, Ukewise,
that when potassium sulphate is used in fertilizers, a part of the
potassimn becomes liberated, leaving an acid salt of potassium in
the soil.
Objections to acidity (Ref. No. 7, p. 141). — Nitrification of organic
matter does not take place readily in acid soils, although in the case
of acid marsh soils which are well drained, the nitrification may be
sufficient to supply nitrates for the rapid growth of most crops.
Acidity in the soil, moreover, has much more detrimental effects in
its influence on nitrogen fixation by certain tubercle-forming organ-
isms than on the process of nitrification. The bacteria which form
tubercles on medium red clover, alfalfa, sweet clover, soy beans, and
some other legumes do not develop at all rapidly in acid soils, and
when the soils are quite acid it is necessary to use lime to correct
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
64 BULLETIN 355, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the acidity in order to secure a good growth of these plants. Some
other legumes, such as yellow lupine, serradella, and cowpeas are
usually able to grow well on distinctly acid soils, though in some
cases even these plants seem to be benefited by lime. The beneficial
effect of lime on alfalfa and the other first-mentioned croi>s is in
changing the reaction of the soil from acid to neutral or alkaline,
while the benefit occasionally reported in the case of serradella and
lupine is possibly due to the fact that on certain soils these plants
do not find suflScient calcium for their growth, and the lime supplies
this element.
Detection of acidity (Ref. No. 1, p. 247). — ^The presence of acidity
may be detected in various ways. Perhaps the simplest method is
by the use of litmus paper. TTiis is cheap and can be purchased at
any drug store. A strip of blue litmus paper is placed in the bottom
of a drinking glass and covered with white blotting paper or filter
paper on which the soil to be tested is placed. Clean rain water
is added slowly imtil the soil and the Utmus paper become damp.
If the paper turns distinctly pink it shows that the soil is acid. It
may be well to wait for ten minutes or more before coming to a final
decision. The degree of acidity is roughly indicated by the rate at
which the change in color takes place and its final intensity. Red
litmus paper turns blue in the presence of alkalinity. It will often
add to the interest and value of the test if strips of both red and
blue litmus paper are placed in the bottom of the glass.
A method of determining the presence of limestone and the con-
sequent absence of acidity is to drop dilute muriatic acid upon moist
soil. Any perceptible bubbling, or effervescence, indicates the presence
of lime. The character of this effervescence may easily be learned
by dropping some of the acid upon a piece of limestone or marble,
or into a little baking soda dissolved in water. The presence of
Ume in the subsoil may sometimes be shown by this test when the
surface gives no positive test. A failure to detect the presence of
limestone by this test should not be interpreted as proof of acidity in
the soil.
The best indication of the need for lime is the type of plant growth
that the soil bears. Where alfalfa, red clover, and sweet clover
grow vigorously no lime is needed. The predominance of sorrd,
broom sedge, white daisy, or redtop indicates a need for lime.
Correction of acidity (Ref. No. 7, pp. 382-390; or No. 6, pp. 303-
313). — ^The practical means for correcting the acidity of soils are
(1) drainage, where needed, and (2) the application of Ipne in some
form. Lime suitable for use in correcting soil acidity may be in any
one of three forms. The first is the carbonate; second, burned or
quicklime; and third, water-slaked or hydrated lime. These forms
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION COUB8B IN SOILS. 66
of lime are different compounds of the element calcimn, and any one
of them will neutralize the acidity of soils. The carbonate occurs in
different forms, among which are limestones, marl, chalk, sheUs of
mussds, and refuse lime from sugar-beet factories. (Ret. No. 5,
pp. 160-182.) Any of these forms of calcium carbonate when grotmd
sufficiently fine are well adapted for use in correcting soil acidity.
Not only does this form of lime have a good effect upon the soil,
but it is relatively convenient to handle. Whenever it can be applied
at a reasonable price as compared with other forms of lime it diould
generally be used.
Quicklime, sometimes caUed lump lime, results from the burning
of limestone. In the process of burning carbon dioxid is driven
from the limestone as a gas, leaving the quicklime, chemically,
calcium oxid, in lump form. Quicklime, like the forms of calcium
carbonate, should be finely divided before it is mixed into the soil.
This form of lime is caustic and disagreeable to handle.
Water-slaked or hydrated lime results from adding water to
quicklime. This process produces a great deal of heat and causes a
chCTiical reaction which results in the formation of calcium hydroxid.
Hydrated lime is finely pulverized and, from this standpoint, is in
good condition to apply to the soil. Quicklime is sometimes spread
without grinding or slaking, and, if done during a rainy season,
will soon become slaked by the water which falls upon it. In this
case it is advisable to spread it more thoroughly by harrowing
before working it into the soil.
Slaked lime, like quicklime, is caustic. It is not advisable to use
these forms in excessive quantities, particularly on light soils deficient
in oi^anic matter, since they unduly hasten the breaking down of
the vegetable matter of the soil. This process is accompanied by an
increased formation of nitrates, which may be obvious in growing
plants, but with a corresponding depletion of the soil, especially if
the growing crop is nonleguminous. Caustic lime gradually unites
with carbon dioxid and is thus converted into the carbonate. When
heavy applications of caustic lime are mixed with sandy soils,
a cementing of the sand grains sometimes takes place, causing a
detrimental clodding condition. On the other hand, liberal appUca-
tions of caustic lime produce a flocculating effect upon clay soils,
which reduces clods and improves soils physically.
No harm can come to the soil from the use of any form of calcium
carbonate, even in large applications, but it should be noted that
large quantities of lime in any form are favorable to the scab of pota-
toes. The form and quantity of lime to use is a practical question
depending primarily on the degree of acidity of the soil and the rel-
ative cost of available materials. The cost depends on grade of
21362*— BuU. 355—16 5
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
66 BULLETIN 355, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTURE.
material, original cost, fineness, freight, distance to haul, condition
of roadsy and handling.
When 100 pounds of pure limestone is burned it gives 56 pounds
of quicklime, which, when slaked with water, will give 74 potmds of
hydrated lime. Hence, for neutralizing acidity, 56 pounds of burned
Ume is equal to 100 pounds of limestone or 74 poimds of slaked lime.
Relatively speaking, the appUcation of 1 ton per acre of burned lime
would be equivalent to the use of 1 J tons per acre of slaked lime, or
2 tons per acre of finely groimd limestone. On average acid soik
such an application is ample for from three to five years, at the end
of which time it might be advisable to use one-half the amoimt of
the previous application. When limestone is used it should be
comparatively fine, and it might prove in many cases more practical,
and eventually more economical, to apply a larger quantity per acre
than above noted at correspondingly longer periods of time. Where
lime in any form is used for alfalfa, which commonly occupies the
land from six to eight years, liberal applications are necessary. In a
short rotation, where potatoes is one of the crops, it is advisable to
make light applications of lime and to add the material during each
cycle of the rotation following the harvest of the potato crop.
Lime may be applied at any season of the year when its use is
convenient. It should be mixed with the soil as thoroughly as pos-
sible. For this reason it is better not to plow the lime under, but to
apply it^after plowing, following with the disk or other harrow. If
applied just ahead of a tilled crop, such as com, the oultivation of
the crop will aid in mixing the lime into the soil. In a distinctly
acid soil, where red clover is one crop of the rotation, it is well to
apply the lime in preparing for the crop preceding the red clover.
Surface application on grass land will give some benefit, but not so
much as where the lime can be more thoroughly incorporated with
the soil.
The application of lime by hand with a shovel is tedious, and it
can not be spread very evenly in this manner. The fertilizer attach-
ment of a grain drill will sow lime when it is granular and not damp,
but will spread not more than one-half ton to the acre. It is a com-
mon practice to use a maniu*e spreader for this purpose, placing a layer
of litter upon the table before loading the lime. Moreover, where
the use of some form of lime is an established practice on the farm,
a lime distributer will prove a good investment. There are several
kinds of these on the market. Satisfactory homemade distributers
have been built by using the wheels from a laid-by mowing machine
and constructing a box and the feeding apparatus.
Other benefits from the use of lime. — ^Besides correcting acidity, lime
causes other benefits in the soil, the principal of which are (1) the im-
provement of the physical condition, especially of clays; (2) the im-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION COUBSE IN SOILS. 67
provement of the soil for the work of nitrifying bacteria; and (3) an
increase in the beneficial results from potassium salts and phosphates.
While there may still be some question as to the exact chemical changes
in the soil from the use of lime, experimental work at different stations
has now quite clearly proved beneficial results to the extent of profit
from the use of lime with potassium salts, phosphates, or manures
over the use of any of these alone. The extent of these benefits, of
course, varies with the type of soil.
KXEBCISES. LESSON IX.
SOIL ACmiTY AND LIMmO.
MaleriaU required. — Two long pickle bottles; a small quantity of clay soil; soft
water; Ilmewater; a bottle of dilute muriatic acid; some powdered limestone, marble
dust, old wood ashes, coal ashes, air-slaked lime, baking soda, and quicklime; blue
uid red litmus paper; some conmion salt; a few sweet apples; a bar of soap; vin^;ar
and sugar; samples of soil from the commimity; a few old cuim and saucers.
The flocculating effect of lime on heavy day (Ref. Nos. 1, p. 243; 4, p. 228; 7, p. 379).—
In each of two long, clean pickle bottles put a teaspoonful of fine clay soil. Fill both
bottles within 2 inches of the top with soft water. Into one bottle poiur about three
tablespoonfuls of limewater. Shake both thoroughly for two or three minutes and
note the formation of floccules in the bottle containing the limewater. Set the bottles
aside and note the comparative rate of clearing by settling. What is meant by soil
flocculation? How does limewater aid in clearing the turbid water?
Simple chemical test for carbonates. — Effervescence occurs when muriatic acid comes
in contact with carbonates. This is a simple chemical test by which carbonates may
bedetennlned.
(a) Place a quarter of a teaspoonful of powdered limestone in an old cup or saucer,
poor on about a tablespoonful of dilute muriatic acid, and note results. What causes
the bubbling or effervescence?
Apply this test to the following substances: Marble dust, wood ashes (old), coal
ashes, air-6laked lime, baking soda, and fresh quicklime. What kind of gas is chem-
ically combined in all carbonates? How does iMs gas differ from that given off by our
hm^B? What kinds of carbonates do most limestones contain? Baking soda?
THE USB OF LITMUS PAPER.
(Ref. No. 9, pp. 41^7.)
LitTnus paper may be used to determine the reaction of liquids. — (a) Dip a small piece
of blue litmus paper into an acid solution. What happens? Try a piece of red litmus
paper. Any reaction? Acid turns blue litmus paper red.
(b) Dip a piece of blue litmus paper into an alkaline solution. Any reaction? Test
with a piece of red litmus paper. What change takes place?
An alkaline solution turns red litmus paper blue. An alkaline solution is the oppo-
site in reaction to an add solution.
(c) Detennine the reaction that pure water has on blue and red litmus paper.
Wat^ is a neutral liquid, neither acid nor alkaline.
(d) By the use of blue and red litmus paper determine the reaction of the following
»lutionB: A common salt solution, sweet apple juice, soapy water, and vinegar solu-
tkm sweetened with sugar.
Litmus-paper test for acid soUs.-'—Siace an acid solution will turn blue litmus paper
red, we can tell by use of blue litmus paper whether or not a soil is quite add.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
68 BULLETIN 355, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
(a) Place about three tableepcxmfuls of soil in a clean dish and moisten to a thick
mud with clean, soft water. With a clean stick separate the mud into two portions
and lay on one portion a piece of blue litmus paper. Press the other portion of wet
soil down on the litmus paper; leave for five minutes, then carefuUy remove the upper
portion of the soil and examine the papw. If it has turned pink or pink spots appear
upon it the soil is add.
(b) Place one piece each of red and blue litmus paper in the bottom of a drinkiDg
glass. Over thb place white blotting pap^ or filter paper, upon which put three or
four tablespoonfuls of soil. Now add clean rainwater slowly until the paper beccMnee
damp. After 10 or 15 minutes note whether a change has occurred in the color of
the litmus pap^. If the blue litmus paper has changed to a pink color, the soQ ia
acid.
Compare this test with (a) to determine which method is pref^able.
(c) Repeat test (a) or (b) on other soils. Save one of the acid soils far the next
exercise.
Lime is vMd to correct acidity in soiU (Ref . No. 1, p. 251). — ^Place about three table^
spoonfuls of acid soil in a clean dish and thoroughly mix with it about a quarter of t
teasponful of air-slaked lime. Moisten the mixture and test with blue litmus paper
as before. What effect did the lime have on the acid soil?
SBVIEW QUESTIONS. LESSON DL
1. How can acidity in soils be detected?
2. What are the objections to soil acidity?
3. Name some l^:umes that can tolerate soil acidity.
4. Describe lime carbonate, quicklime, and water-slaked lime.
5. Explain how lime neutralizes acids in soils.
6. Why is it undesirable to use quicklime in excessive quantities on light, Etandy
soils?
7. Discuss the relation of the fineness of pulverized limestone to the rate of applica-
tion.
8. Describe three ways in which the application of ground limestone to a very poor
acid clay soil may be of benefit.
9. When a soil is neutral or alkaline in reaction, what may be implied?
10. What becomes of the lime supply of soils?
LESSON X. MANAGEMENT OF SPECIAL SOILS.
Tho successful management of any soil de]>ends on an understand*
ing of its special characteristics. Its weak points must be recog-
nized and corrected if possible, and crops which are best adapted
to the soil should generally be grown. Among the soils which
require special management are the sands, the clays, and marsh lands.
SANDY SOILS.
Sandy soils are low in water-holding capacity, are subject to being
blown by the wind, and are low in elements of plant food.
Moisture of sandy soils. — Low water-holding capacity of sandj
soil has been explained in discussing the relation of texture to the
amount of moisture soils can retain. Moreover, small differences in
the texture of sandy soils or the influence of small quantities oi
oi^gauic matter considerably increase the total amount of water held
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION C0UB8E IN SOILS. 69
during a season. This is because the additional quantity of water
which the soil having the finer texture or the larger proportion of
organic matter may hold is repeated after each succeeding rain^ so
that if showers come eight or ten times during a season and are fol-
lowed by dry periods, the total quantity of water available to crops
under the first-named condition is considerably larger than under
the second. The capillary rise of water is comparatively fast in
sandy soil, but it can not be raised from any great depth. The
moisture of sandy soils which is retained by capillarity is more effec-
tively used by the growing crop, however, than in the case of soils
of finer texture. (Ref. No. 2, p. 161.) Besides, the portion of the
rain falling as light or moderate showers after dry periods is more
largely available to crops growing on sandy than on heavy soils. A
rainfall of one-quarter inch wUl penetrate the sandy soils several
inches and so reach the roots of the growing crop, while this amount
of rain falling on a soil of fine texture will be absorbed and held so
near the surface that it does not affect the roots of the plants, and
practically all of it evaporates from the surface soon after the rain-
fall. The control of soil moisture in sandy soils can be effected by
the methods discussed under prevention of evaporation, page 28.
Rolling these soils after seeds have been planted has the effect of
increasing the movement of the water to the seed bed, but the field
must be dragged after the rolling to prevent the evaporation of
water from the surface. It is desirable to plant seed more deeply
in sandy soils than in heavier or clay loam soil. Clover, or other
small seed, should be sown an inch or an inch and one-half deep,
80 that it will have sufficient moisture for germination.
The topography, or ''lay of the land,*' and the distance to the
ground water of sandy soils is a matter of considerable importance.
Owing to the freedom with which the water of the saturated portion
of the subsoil can move in sandy soils, the ground water table is usu-
ally quite level and does not rise as rapidly imder hills of sandy soils
as it does in hills of heavier soils. For this reason the upper portions
of hills of sandy soils are usually so far above the ground water table
that practically no water is drawn from the subsoil. On the other
hand, when sandy soils are level or have only a very small slope, and
the ground water table is 6 or 8 feet below the surface, a considerable
amount of moisture may be drawn up far enough to reach the roots
of growing crops.
Wind blowing of sand. — ^In addition to danger from smothering by
drifting soil, crops growing on sandy soils are often very seriously
injured by the cutting action of sand blown against tiem. Not
infrequently a single sand storm of a few hours' duration coming
in spring or early summer will do as much damage as a severe frost.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
70 BULLETIN 355, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
These windstorms usually do not have much chance to develop dur-
ing the summer when the ground is more fully covered by growing
crops. To prevent this danger of wind-blown sand the groimd should
be kept covered with growing crops as much as possible. Land
on which potatoes have been grown may be seeded to rye at once
after the digging.of the potatoes, and, if desired, clover may be sown
on the rye early in the following spring. In this way the ground is
never exposed for any length of time to the wind. Fields on sandy
farms should also be laid out in long narrow strips, so that the ground
on which the tilled crop, such as com or potatoes, is planted will alter-
nate with strips bearing grain or grass which protects the ground.
Fertility (Ref. No. 7, p. 415). — Sandy soils are low in the total
amount of plant food they contain, and often what they do have is
rather unavailable beoause of the coarseness of the grains of which it
consists. It is particidarly desirable that the organic matter of such
soils be increased, partly because by so doing the nitrogen can be best
increased, and partly because the organic matter acts on the mineral
matter in the soil so as to make it available for growing crops. For
adding organic matter legumes should be used as far as possible, since
they have the power of gathering nitrogen from the air. In the
growing of these legiunes, such as clover, soy beans, etc., the use of a
fertilizer containing potassiima and phosphorus is important. Lime is
also often needed to secure satisfactory crops of alfalfa or clover.
These plants can secure much of their nitrogen from the atmosphere,
but they require the mineral elements from the soil just as all plants
do. However, it is important to notice that in the decomposition of
organic matter produced by the growing and plowing under of l^ume
crops the phosphorus and potassiiun which was used in their growth
become available to succeeding crops, and this further increases the
value of legumes as fertilizers.
Crops for sandy soils. — The readiness with which sandy soils may
be worked, even immediately following rains, especially adapts sudi
soils to the growth of crops requiring considerable manual labor, such
as vegetables and small fruits. The advantage which simdy soils
have in this respect is so great that it offsets their low fertility and
makes it preferable to use them for such purposes, even though fer-
tilizers must be purchased in larger quantities than would be necessary
on heavier soils. The low water-holding power of such soil also per-
mits it to become warm much more quickly in the spring than heavier
soils which contain much water, the evaporation of which keeps them
cold. This higher temperature of sandy soils adapts them to certain
crops requiring a high temperature, such as melons, tomatoes, and
potatoes. The fact that sandy soik are subject to drought during
periods of small rainfall in the summer makes them poorly suited to
grass crops, which should grow all the season, especially when used
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION COUBSE IN SOILS. 71
for pasture. This seriously lessens their value for such crops as sugar
beets, cotton, or com, which grow through the whole summer. On
the other hand, some small grains, which make their growth very
early in the season, are better adapted to such land. Crop rotation
for light soil should be short. Many of the best rotations are of but
three years' duration.
Live-stock farmirig on sand, — The use of pasture is still, and prob-
ably will long remain, an important factor in most lines of live-stock
farmii^. This is partly because in grazing, stock harvest their own
feed, and in this way greatly lessen the expense for labor. Since
sandy soils, as we have seen, are poorly adapted to pasture grasses,
they are not as well suited to most lines of live-stock raising as are
heavier soils. However, it is frequently the case that considerable
quantities of produce, ^own in connection with truck raising on sandy
soik, are not marketable and should be fed to some form of live stock.
A small number of Uve stock, therefore, shotdd usually be kept, even
on sandy farms, the principal business of which is the growing of
truck or vegetable crops.
CLAY SOILS.
Formation and location. — CHay soils are commonly formed by the
settling out of fine sediment in standing bodies of water into which
streams carrying the sediment have nm. Such areas of standing
water occur as lagoons along main river valleys like those of the
Mississippi, Ohio, Missouri, and other large rivers. They were also
formed in extensions of the Great Lakes which existed toward the
close of the glacial period. Broad belts of extremely heavy clay soils
were formed in this way along the southern shore of Lake Superior,
along Lake Michigan in Wisconsin, and on the southern borders of
Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. Many shallow lakes existed for a
comparatively short time at the close of the glacial period. In these
great areas heavy clay soils were formed. Lake Agassiz in Minnesota,
North Dakota, and Manitoba Gong since dried up) is one of the best
illustrations of the formation of heavy clay soils. The clay soil of
the Champlain Valley in New York has its origin in the same way.
Some areas of heavy clay soil have also been formed along the sea-
shore as deltas and in bodies of salt water formed by shutting oflf the
main portion of the ocean. As stated in Lesson I, a residual soil from
limestone is also an extremely fine clay. This is because the soil is
made up of the insoluble portions of the rock, the soluble portions
having been dissolved and carried away by percolating water.
Characteristics of clay soils (Ref. No. 7, pp. 95-99). — Clay soils owe
their special character largely to their very fine texture. Their large
water-holding capacity and poor underdrainage is the immediate
result of this texture. As a secondary result they often have poor
tilth and are liable under certain conditions to be cold during the
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
72 BULLETIN 355, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
spring. They usually have a high content of potassium, and the
phosphorus content is sometimes large. Their treatment, therefore,
must be such as to overcome their peculiar difficulties and take
advantage of their particularly strong points.
Drainage. — Since large portions of these heavy day soils were
formed as deposits in standing 4>odies of water, they very commonly
have comparatively level surfaces. They therefore frequently have
poor surface drainage as well* as poor imderdrainage. For general
farming everything possible must be done to secure good surface
drainage when the expense of tile is unwarranted. Tile drainage}
however, is often necessary in order to permit the use of such land
for crops requiring considerable tillage. This form of drainage for
such land is usually profitable, even for staple crops. The expense,
of course, varies, depending on the distance to an outlet, the presence
of stones in the subsoil, and other factors. Ordinarily the expense is
between $20 and $30 per acre. Since a tile system once carefulfy
installed in clay soil will last almost indefinitely, the expense to be
charged to the land is simply that of the interest on the investment,
or from $1.50 to $2 per year. Indeed, the entire expense is very
commonly recovered by the increase of crops in from one to three
years.
Tilth. — ^The most serious difficulty in the management of heavy
clay soils results from their poor tilth. Such soils are apt to bake
and form large clods, so that preparation of a good seed bed and the
cultivation of the crop is difficult and involves much extra labor.
This poor tilth is due to the fact that the films of water surrounding
the fine grains draw the particles so closely together when they dry
that they are held with considerable tenacity. This difficidty may
be overcome to a limited extent by increasing the amount of organic
matter. Humus and vegetable matter in such soils has the eflfect of
lessening the tendency to form clods. Thus, after a heavy clay soil
has grown a crop of clover, or has been in grass for some time, it is
easier to retain a good tilth than if it is kept in tilled crops ccm-
tinually. As before shown, liming of clays, especially with quick-
lime, produces a flocculating eflfect upon the soil and so reduces the
tendency to clodding and greatly improves its tilth. Another
extremely important factor is the moisture condition when they are
cultivated. As before stated, when such soils are plowed or other;
wise worked in a wet condition, they have a marked tendency to
puddle and run together in such a way that very hard and resbtant
clods are formed. It is extremely important to do all the work of
tillage on such land when the soil is in just the right condition <rf
moisture, so that the clods will break down in the soil. This condi-
tion must be determined for each individual field and with a little
practice can readily be recognized. Plowing clay land in the fall and
Digitized by Google
EXTENSION COUBSE IN SOILS. 73
leaTing it in the rough plowed form gives frost and weather an oppor-
tunity to break down the clods, causing them to crumble. Care
must be taken not to attempt to work the land in the spring imtil the
surface is dried off enough to permit harrowing or disking without
causing puddling.
Crofsfor day soil. — On accoimt of their fine texture and the diffi-
culty with which roots penetrate clay soils they are not well adapted
to such crops as have coarse roots, which can not readily enter the
soiL On the other hand, extremely fine roots of grass are able to find
their way into the most dense clays and can therefore take advantage
of the large water-holding capacity such soils possess. Small grains,
sudi as baiiey and wheat, do well on these soils for the same reason.
V^etable and truck crops are, as a rule, very poorly adapted to
heavy soils, because their roots usually find difficulty in penetrating
the soil, especially in a climate characterized by frequent summer
rains. This soil is particularly objectionable for the growing of pota-
toes, since it is very difficult to prevent the soil from baking and
cracking after cultivation has stopped, thus permitting the sun
to strike the tubers and cause sun scald. When all of these factors
are taken into consideration, it is evident that such lands are best
adapted to the growing of cereals, com, alfalfa, clover, and grass, and
that stock raising in which the grass is used for pasture is especially
adapted to them.
Fertilizers. — Clay soils vary a great deal in chemical composition.
This applies to practically all elements of plant food. Since potas-
sium is almost always present in relatively large amounts, it is often
nnneceesary to add potash fertilizers. Tlie phosphorus content, on
the other hand, is frequently found to be comparatively low, as in the
case of the heavy clay soils occiuring in the Lake Superior and Lake
Michigan region. Besides such soils frequently contain considerable
iron, which tends to reduce the availability of the phosphorus. For
tills reason, and because heavy clays warm up rather slowly and
vegetation is apt to be slow and backward, particularly in the spring,
a good supply of this element in available form is desirable in such
soils. The element phosphorus has a very marked effect in hastening
the maturity of practically all crops, so that it is often possible by
the use of moderate applications of phosphate fertilizer on cold soils
to cause crops to mature from one to two weeks earUer than they would
oth^wise do. The amount of nitrogen in such soils is extremely
variable. In many cases a considerable supply of organic matter
containing this element occurs in clay soils as a result of their more
or less marshy condition before drainage. This condition permitted
the growth of considerable native vegetation, but lessened its decom-
position. Soils of this character are usually f oimd well supphed with
nitrogen after drainage and cultivation. It often happens, however,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
74 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE.
that a considerable part of this black humus is of a very resistant
character, and after the more decomposable portion has been used up
by a few years' cropping, the nitrogen does not become available
rapidly enough to supply the needs of growing crops. Under these
conditions nitrogen must be supphed by the growing of l^umes,
the use of barnyard manure, or in some other way. The amount of
lime occurring in these soils is also quite variable. As a rule, soils
which were formed in standing bodies of water contain a fair amount
of this material, secreted by shell animals and deposited as the clay
formed, and also derived from streams running into such bodies ol
water, which very commonly carry more or less lime. Nevertheless,
clay soils of this character are often f oimd which are very low in
lime carbonate, or are even acid, so that lime must be used.
Erosion (Ref. No. 2, pp. 50-64; 3, p. 14). — ^The erosion of soil is a
cause of much loss of f ertiUty, and on hillsides, especially of clay soils,
it often nearly ruins the fields eroded. Sandy soils are not so readily
eroded as clay, because the coarser texture permits the water, except
in beating rains or on frozen groimd, to pass down into the soil instead
of running off the surface. The most practical means of lessening or
preventing erosion are: (1) Keeping a high content of decaying v^e-
table matter in the soil, (2) the maintenance of a grass sod where
practicable, (3) the use of channels havings a slight grade, keeping
grass growing in the bottom where possible, (4) subdrainage, and (5)
terracing. A high content of decaying vegetable matter in clay soils
causes a texture of increased water-holding capacity, and thus less
water will have to run off the surface. Land which is so steep as to
give trouble from erosion should be kept in grass as much as possible.
It is often possible to grow one intertilled crop on hillsides without
danger so as to permit of a rotation, though a second or third year in
succession of tilled crops would be followed by serious difficulty.
Hillsides should sometimes be laid out in narrow plow lands along the
slope and carefully planned so that the dead furrows when cleaned out
may be used as channels with very slight fall to conduct the water
along the hillside to well-grassed or otherwise well-protected nuun
ditches extending up and down the slope. Deep plowing, which will
increase the amoimt of water a soil may hold from a heavy shower,
will lessen the amoimt which must run off the surface and conse-
quently lessen erosion. The same principle may be still further
followed by placing tile for subsurface drainage on springy hillsides,
the soil of which would otherwise be kept saturated so near the
surface that the water from rain must run off the surface, thus caus-
ing erosion. The extreme method of preventing erosion is through
the use of terraces, which are sometimes necessary on steep sidehiUs,
especially in the South and other sections where the rainfall is very
heavy.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION COUBSE IN SOILS. 75
MAKSH SOILS.
(Ref. No. 2, pp. 64-68.)
Marsh soils are those which are naturally wet most of the year
and contain moderate or large quantities of organic or vegetable
matter. Such soils are formed in marshes occurring along the valleys
of the larger rivers, along seashores where they are known as tidal
marshes, and generally throughout the area which was covered by
the last glacial ice sheets, where they were caused by the gradual
drying up of hundreds of shallow lakes and ponds. (Ref. No. 3,
pp. 41-43.)
ComposiHon. — ^Marsh soils vary greatly in chemical composition,
especially in the amoimt of organic matter they contain. (Ref.
No. 7, pp. 123-125.) It is customary to speak of those which contain
moderate quantities of vegetable matter together with considerable
quantities of soil and earthy matter as mucks, while those which
consist largely of organic matter are called peats. As a rule, soils
which would be termed mucks contain from 15 to 50 per cent of
vegetable matter, while those which would be called peats always
contain over 50 per cent and usually from 70 to 75 per cent of v^etable
matter.
Drwmage. — It is self-evident that the first need in the improvement
of marsh lands is drainage. This has been briefly discussed in the
chapter on that subject. In many cases the construction of good
open ditches and surface drains is all that is necessary to permit
cultivation of marshlands, but these must be made of large size.
They should also be given sufficient depth to produce as much imder-
drainage as possible. Ditches from 6 to 8 feet in depth will drain
land for a considerable distance on either side as well as carry very
large volumes of flood water. It is important that such a ditch be
given the proper cross section; that is, it must not be so wide at the
bottom that the small stream of the drier portion of the year will
shift back and forth over it, causing it to fill up. A narrow bottom
will confine the smaller stream and cause it to keep the ditch clean.
The slopes of the sides of the ditch should not be so steep that it
win tend to cave in, and they should be grassed as far as possible.
However, tile drainage is frequently necessary to permit the maximum
use of marshlands. When peaty soils are to be tile drained it is
frequently best to put in ditches where the tile lines are to be laid
and allow the soil to settle for two or three years before the tiles are
placed. If the ditches are then thoroughly cleaned out and the bottom
lined, the tile can be placed and covered. In this way a line of tile
will be much less apt to be distorted by irregular settling.
Fertility. — ^Marsh soils have certain marked pecuharities in regard
to fertility. Their high content of organic matter, of course, always
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
76 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGMCULTUBE.
means the presence of a large supply of nitrogen. This is usnaUy so
great that practically no attention need be given to this element, but
it occasionally happens that acid marsh soils are so cold on accaant
of their wetness that nitrification takes place with extreme slowness
and there is not a sufficient supply of this element miade available.
Under such conditions the use of some form of lime to correct the
acidity and hasten nitrification is very beneficial. This is discussed
on page 62. Manure is often beneficial to marsh soils and should be
appUed when practicable. (See Ref. 3, p. 613.)
The most marked weakness of marsh soils is with respect to the
chemical elements, phosphorus and potassium. While, of course,
aU of the vegetation which causes the accumulation of organic matter
in the marsh contained potassium when it was growing, this element
is often leached out of such soils as they accumulate to such an extent
that there is not left sufficient to supply the needs of growing crops.
For tins reason barnyard manure or some commercial fertilizer am-
taining potassium must be used. It is frequently found that marsh-
lands give fair yields for a few years after reclamation before this
marked need of potassium develops. This is because some of the
v^etable matter most recently formed still contains considerable
potassium, and this becomes available through its active decomposi-
tion. As a rule, however, fertilizers containing this elem^it must
be used on such lands within a few years after their reclamatioiL
The phosphorus needs of marsh soils are quite variable. Marshes
which were formed in regions containing considerable limestone, and
especially in regions of glacial soils formed from limestone, usuaUj
contain a considerable quantity of phosphorus which was d^>o8ited
in them from surrounding highlands and which becomes available
to growing crops. It is often found, therefore, that ms^^hes of this
character are not acid and do not show a marked need of pho^horos
fertilizers for some years after their reclamation and cultivatioD.
Practically all other marsh soils do require phosphate fertilizers just
as much as potassiiun. The large amoimt of oi^anic matter in marsh
soils may make profitable the use of raw rock phosphate with ordinaiy
field crops. This cheap form of phosphate fertilizer therefore is often
preferable to more expensive forms for use on such land.
On account of the unbalanced fertility conditions of these soils,
it is usually much more economical, when farms contain upland as
well as marshland, to use the barnyard manure produced on the
farm on the upland soil, which requires the nitrogen which it con-
tains as well as the other elements, and to purchase comm^xnal
fertilizers containing potassiiun and phosphorus for the marsh soils.
Physical management. — ^Marsh soils are usually very loose and
light in structiure, so that growing crops do not find a good foothold
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION COUBSE IN SOILS. 77
in them and do not come in contact with a sufficient amount of the
soil to supply their needs. This is particularly true when fine-
rooted crops are to be grown. The use of heavy rollers to firm such
soil results in great improvement in this respect. Not only does the
rdling and finning of the soil have the effect of bringing the roots in
direct contact with a much larger area of soil surface, but it permits
a more rapid conduction of the heat from the surface downward.
In this ^way the lower layers of the soil are warmed, and this greatly
increases the growth of the roots and promotes bacterial changes,
such as nitrification, to which the fertihty of the soil is in part due.
Crops for marsh sails. — A great variety of crops have been grown
(Mi marsh soils on account of their large supply of nitrogen. They are
espedially adapted to crops which produce rank growth and require
large quantities of this element, such as com, cabbage, rape, turnips,
beets, and potatoes, though, of course, the quality of sugar beets and
potatoes grown on such land may not be quite so good as when
groiPTn on upland soil. Since marsh soils as a whole are apt to be cold
and affected by local frosts, care should be taken in the selection of
crops, especially in northern cHmates. Here com and potatoes, for
example, might be out of the question. On the other hand, cabbage,
rape, turnips, hay, of which a mixture of timothy and abike clover
is perhaps the best, and grain to a limited extent when proper care is
taken may be grown to advantage.
EXERCISES, LESSON X.
PROBLEMS.
1. A man had 40 acres of marah land which produced on an average 1 ton of wild
grass per acre, valned at about $3 per ton. He spent |1,000 in draining it. Now
those 40 acres raise com averaging 15 tons of silage com per acre, valued at at least |3
per ton. Determine this man's interest on his investment.
2. Fifteen tons of manure per acre were applied on a drained peat soil. How many
pounds Off phosphorus and potassium were applied? How big a crop of com will this
amount ci potassium supply?
3. Two hundred pounds per acre of muriate of potash were applied to a muck soil.
What was the cost of this application at $46 per ton, and how many pounds of potassium
per acre were applied? (See table 24, p. 157, Bef. No. 5.)
4. Compare the value of the manure applied in problem 2 with the cost of the potash
fertilizer in |m)blem 3.
5. A portion of a peat marsh was treated with manure at the rate of 15 tons per acre;
another portion was treated with an application of 400 pounds of muriate of potash per
acre, costing $47 per ton. The first year the manured portion produced 10.5 tons of
flilage (green) com per acre, and the second year a yield of 6 tons was secured with-
out any further treatment. On the potaedi portion the com averaged 14 tons the first
year and 14 tons the second year, wi^out further treatment. Comx>are the results pro-
duced with the cost of manure and fertilizer in this case.
6. On another mardi (muck), an application of a mixture of muriate of potash at the
rale of 200 pounds x>er acre and rock pho^hate at the rate of 800 poimds per acre pro-
duced 12.5 tons of flilage com per acre. An application of 25 tons of manure on
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
78
BULLETIN 366, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGEIOULTUBE.
another portion produced 15.8 tons per acre. The rock phoBphate coet $10 per ton
and the potash fertilizer $46. How many more dollars* worth of plant food in the
manure did it require to produce the gain in yield for that year?
7. A mixture of acid phosphate and muriate of potash in the proportion of 100 pounds
to 60 pounds, respectively, was applied to a field at the rate of 150 pounds per acre. The
field produced 14.5 tons of silage com per acre as compared with 3 tons where no treat-
ment was made. The acid phosphate cost this farmer |16 per ton, and the potash
fertilizer $45 per ton. What was the cost of this fertilizer treatment, and what may
be considered the interest on the fertilizer investment for that year?
A farmer owns a clay farm of 160 acres. For regular cropping purposes he has six
20-acre fields. His crops are alfalfa, com (two fields each year), oats, wheat, and red
clover. The alfalfa occupies a field for five years, then is plowed for com. The crops
on the other fields are, in the order named, com, oats, wheat, red clov^. Rye, or rye
and vetch, are used as a cover crop following the crops of com. The crops are so
planned in the five fields not growing alfalfa that each year the fanner has two fields
of com and one field each of oats, wheat, and clover. The analysis of the soil on this
farai is fairly uniform and shows per acre in the total 8 inches of surface 4,000 pounds
of nitrogen, 2,000 pounds of phosphorus, and 24,000 pounds of total potassium.
8. If C stand for com, O for oats, W for wheat, and CL for red clover, and A lor
alfalfa, fill in the blank below so that the order of cropping in each field will be as given
above, and so that there will be for harvest each year one field of al&lfa, two of coin,
and one each of oats, wheat, and clover.
Field.
Year.
1
2
3
4
5
«
1
A
2
A
3
A
4
A
5
A
9. Assuming that the plant food liberated from this soil during the average i
is equivalent to 2 per cent of the total nitrogen, 1 per cent of the phosphorus and \ of
1 p^ cent of the potassium:
(a) From table 23, reference No. 5, page 154, deteraiine whether sufiicient oi the
plant-food elements, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, would be liberated during
a growing season on this farm to produce a 100-bushel crop of com.
(b) Compute whether any of these plant-food elements is present in this soil in
sufiicient quantity to produce the maximiun of any crop noted in table 23.
1 0. The yields of crops on the farm averages 4 tons of alfalfa hay per acre, 50 bodi^
of com per acre with 2 tons of stover, 50 bushels of oats with 1) tons kA stniw, 25
bushels of wheat with 1} tons of straw, and 3 bushels of clover seed per acre with
H tons of clover hay the first cutting, three-fourths tons clover straw from hulling,
and one-half ton growth of clover to turn under for com.
(a) If the fanner sells his alfalfa, the grain including the com, and the clover seed,
but returns to the soil all com stover, straw, and clover; and if each tcm of dovcr
fixes in its growth 40 pounds of nitrogen, and each clover crop fixes 12 pounds otf
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION COURSE IN SOILS. 79
nitrogen per acre from the growth of vetch: Determine the nitrogen balance to the
soil of a field resulting from one period of the cropping syBtem, not including alfolfa.
(See table 23, Ref. 5, p. 154). What would be the result if cowpesfl were grown
in tile com and added 30 pounds of nitrogen to the soil each year?
(b) If the fanner feeds to live stock three-fourths of all produce grown, including
alfalfa, and uses one-fourth for bedding; and if one-third of the oiganic matter fed is
recovered in the manure, and if three-fourths of the nitrogen and three-fourths of the
phoephorus likewise are retained from the feed and bedding: determine the balance of
humufl and nitrogen to the farm in any period of five years, resulting from this syBtem.
(Each ton of al&lfa grown may be considered as fixing 40 pounds of nitrogen from the
air.) Compare this balance with the one obtained in (a).
(c) Figure how much phosphorus would be removed from the farm during each
j>-year period from both the grain farming and the live-stock farming. How much 6
per cent acid phosphate would have to be added every five years to balance the amount
of phosphorus removed?
11. Consider your own system of farming and figure a balance from the standpoints
ci humus, and the plant-food elements, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.
REVIEW QUESTIONS, LESSON XI.
1. Why has sandy soil little ability to conduct water upward from lower layers?
2. Why is it true that sandy soils may use the water of a light rainfall more efficiently
than heavy soils?
3. Explain why topography must be considered more carefully in the case of sandy
toils than In the case of clay soils, especially in climates of moderate rain^l.
4. Elxplain why rolling a sandy soil aids in the germination of fine seeds.
5. In what ways may the injury due to blowing of sand be lessened or prevented?
6. What are the two chief causes of low fertility in sandy soils?
7. How can the nitrogen supply of a sandy soil be best increased and maintained?
8. What advantages has a sandy soil over a heavy soil?
9. What small grains are especially well adapted to sandy soils? Explain.
10. To what classes of crops are sandy soils beet adapted?
11. What is meant by heavy clays?
12. Describe how heavy clay soUs may be formed. Give examples.
13. Name some of the characteristics of clay.
14. Discuss methods of maintaining good tilth on heavy clay land.
15. Explain why grasses and cereals are best adapted to these soils.
16. Why are heavy soils particularly objectionable for the growing of potatoes?
17. Why do most crops on heavy clay soils respond well to the use of phosphate
iertilizerB?
18. Why do some clays contain more organic matter than others?
19. Whem a clay sdl is black, does it necessarily mean that it is well supplied with
aivailable nitrogen? Explain.
20. Do clay soils ever require lime?
21. What are marsh soils, and how are they formed?
22. Digtinguiflh between muck and peat soils.
23. What ^tors should govern the construction of open ditches?
24. What precaution should be taken in laying tile in a peat maish?
25. What are the peculiarities of marsh soils as a class in regard to fertility?
26. Explain why some marsh soils are acid and others are not.
27. How may the fertilizer needs of marsh soil be best supplied?
28. In what ways is the looseness of marsh soils un&ivorable to the growth of crops,
and how may it be overcome in part?
29. What crops are especially wdl adapted to marsh soils, and why?
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
80 BULLETIN 355, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
LESSON XL SOIL ADAPTATION TO CROPS.
Rdaiions between soils and crops (Ret. No. 4, pp. 291-306; or No.
10, pp. 232-256). — ^There are a number of important relations between
the character of the soils and the crops to which they are adapted.
The climate also has an important effect, not only directly on the
crop, but indirectly through the soil. Certain crops require long
growing seasons between frosts, and they are seriously injured by a
freezing temperature. The amount of rainfall is likewise an impor-
tant consideration. Some crops growing very early in the spring
and maturing in the early sxmmier require much less water than do
those growing during the longer smnmer season when evaporation,
not only from the plant itself, but also from the soil, is at the maxi-
mum. Moreover, there is an intimate relation between the water-
holding capacity of the soil and the character of the rainfall upon
crop production. Soils which have a fine texture and deep subsoil
are able to retain nearly enough moisture from the early spring rains
to matiure crops growing throxigh the summer, provided sufficient
care is taken to develop a mulch so as to lessen the surface evaporation.
Again, there is a close relation between the texture of the soil and
the conditions affecting the quality of the crop, and also the use of
tools both in planting and harvesting. All of these matt^B must
be carefully considered. The following paragraphs are intended
only as suggestions on some of the more important of these relatioDS
as they affect some of the more important crops. Crops may, for
this piupose, be grouped into three classes, (1) tilled crops, (2)
cereals, and (3) grasses and legumes.
SOILS ADAPTED TO TILLBD CROPS.
While tilled crops, such as com, potatoes, sugar beets, cabbage, etc.,
differ among themselves in many important respects, they are iJifeft
in that they permit tillage of the soil to kill weeds and for the develop-
ment of a soil mulch to lessen evaporation of water. Most of them
also grow through the long summer season, making a large growth,
which requires abundant supplies of all the essential elements of
plant food.
Com (Ref. Nos. 7, p. 576; 10, p. 243).— Com may be grown in any
section having a season of 100 days free from frost, but the laiger
yielding varieties require 120 days, and a maximum growth of this
crop occurs only in sections having relatively warm nights. Hi^ur
altitudes are therefore not suitable, since they are charactensed by
cool night temperatures. The larger quantity of water used by
heavy crops of com can be supplied only by soils having large water-
holding capacity or in sections where the simmier rainfall is relatively
large. Hence the best results with this crop are secured on com-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION GOUBSE IN SOILS.. 81
paratively lerel allimal sdls, which are not so fine m texture as to
make tillage for the development of good tilth and conservation of
moisture impossible. Sandy loams, loams, and silt loams are there-
fore better than heavy clay soils. The large amoimt of nourishment
required by this crop can be supplied only by soils having high natural
fertility or by the use of fertilizers. The virgin fertility of the rich
black prairie soils has proved sufficient to meet the demands of this
crop far a number of years after being first broken, but in no case can
undiminished yields be expected to continue indefinitely without the
application of fertilizers.
The study of the root system of com is interesting. (Ref. No. 2,
pp. 215). As ordinarily planted in rows 3^ feet apart in a deep
permeable soil, the roots extend to a depth of 18 inches by the time
the crop is 1} feet high and is about 6 weeks old. Even at this stage
the roots meet between the rows so that the entire subsoil is occupied.
When the com has reached a height of 3 feet the roots often extend to
a depth of about 24 inches.
ChUon (Ref. No. 7, pp. 695, 696). — Cotton requires approximately
130 days to reach maturity and so is confined practically to the
region south of a line running from southern Virginia to northern
Oklahoma. The lowland varieties of cotton require a longer season
than do the upland varieties. The requirements of cotton for water
and fertility are very similar to those of com, and this crop gives
good yields on heavy soils well supplied with organic matter in sections
where the rainfall is not too large. This is especially true in Texas.
In the Southeastern States, however, the most widely grown varieties
give best results on sandy loam soils.
T6ba4xo (Ref. No. 7, pp. 699-701). — ^Tobacco is similar to com and
cotton in its fertiUty requirements, except that it uses somewhat less
phosphorus than these crops. It requires large amoimts of nitrogen
and potassium and must grow rapidly and thoroughly cover the
ground in order to develop the self-shading which is niecessary to the
fine texture cff the leaf essential to the production of a good smoking
flavor. For this reason the soil must be kept in the highest state of
fertility, and there must always be an excess of the essential elements
in available form beyond that needed to supply the actual require-
ments of the growing crop.
The texture of the soil also has an important influence on the quality
of the tobacco leaf. The finer textured wrappers are grown only on
loams and sandy loams, while the coarser textured fillers may be
grown on heavier soils, which produce larger yields, though of a lower
grade. Topography has an important bearing on the growth of
tobacco, since it ii^uences humidity and danger of storms to which
tiiis crop is especially subject. Shallow-dipping valleys in which the
21«62*~Btill. 355—16 6
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
82 BULLE1*IN 366, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF- AGMCULTURJS.
humidity is higher than on hilltops and in which danger of stonns is
less are especially well suited for this crop.
Sugar beets (Ret No. 7, pp. 606-608). — ^With reference to fertility,
sugar beets have essentially the same requirements as com, thou^
it is important to recognize the fact that this crop requires a great
deal of hand labor. A highly fertile soil, cctoparatively free from
weeds, is therefore even more desirable for this crop than for com or
cotton. There is a close connection between the climate and the
sugar content of the beet. The most favorable conditions are those
of relatively cool nights and of very clear, bright weather, especially
during the ripening period. These two conditions are combined in
the North and in the western prairie States, where the altitude is such
as to produce cool nights.
Potatoes (Ref. Nos. 7, pp. 698, 604; 10, p. 254).— AVhile potatoes
are similar- to com and sugar beets in their general requirements of
plant food, their production on a lai^e scale is chiefly controlled by
conditions affecting: (1) Their quality and freedom from the dis*
eas€M3 to which they are subject, and (2) the use of tools for planting
and digging. The largest yields of this crop may be secured on rela-
tively heavy soils which have high water-holding capacity and ordi-
narily greater fertility, but on these soils the crop is subject to dis-
eases and can not be planted or harvested as readily as on the lighter
sandy loams which permit the use of the digger and do not bake or
crack so as to allow sunburn. Hence, this crop is best grown on
relatively light soils. When grown on heavier soils and in a region
of heavy sunmier precipitation a ridged system of culture is best,
but on the lighter soils and wherever summer rainfall is not excessive
flat culture is preferable.
Scab and other fungus diseases to which the potato is subject
develop more often on soils of neutral or alkaline reaction than on
those which are acid, and hence, as before stated, the use of lime for
the correction of soil acidity is not desirable on the potato crop, or
if used on land on which potatoes are to be grown it should be applied
on the crops from one to three years before the potatoes are grown.
Cabbage and celery (Ref. No. 7, pp. 626, 628). — ^These crops are
similar in that they require large amoimts of nitrogen, potash, and
water for their growth. Muck soils meet the requirements in regard
to nitrogen and water and require chiefly the use of potash fertilizer
to meet the demands of these crops.
Melons, cucumbers, t^miaioes, etc. (Ref. No. 7, pp. 614-637).— These
crops are similar, especially in that they rwjuire imusually warn soils
and so are especially adapted to sandy loams. The fertility of these
seals can be maintained only through the use of relatively Iwge quan-
tities of fertilizer, which should be apptied in tlie form of organic
matter, such as bamyard manin-e and dried blood, as far as possible.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION COUBSE IN SOILS. 83
- SOILS ADAPTED TO CEBEAL&
(Ref. No. 7, p. 574.)
The most important cereals are similar in regard to their root sys-
tems, which are much finer than those of crops which are commonly
intertilled. They are also similar in that their growth takes place
early in the season and they are therefore able to take advantage of
the moisture which has accumulated during the winter. Hence they
may be grown in sections of relatively low rainfall, in which the sum-
mer is quite dry.
Oais (Ref. Nos. 7, pp. 587--589; 10, p. 241).— Oats are especially
adapted to a northern climate and have a relatively strong root sys-
tem, going 50 per cent deeper than other gr«dns. Varieties have been
developed which are adapted to different tyi>e8 of soil. The Kherson
or sixty-day oat, for instance, is especially well adapted to marsh
land, because of its strong stem which prevents it from lodging on a
soil on which crops are naturally very subject to that difficulty.
Rye (Ref. Nos. 7, pp. 585-587; 10, p. 243).— Rye has been devel-
oped chiefly in climates of relatively light rainfall, and this, together
with the fact that it is sown in the fall and attains considerable root
development then, permitting it to mature quickly the succeeding
spring, makes it fairly profitable on sandy soils low in water-holding
capacity and in sections of the country having a light rainfall.
Wheat (Ref. Nos. 7, pp. 581-585; 10, pp. 234-241).— On account of
the fact that wheat has been more widely grown for human food and
over a much larger part of the earth than other cereals, it has devel-
oped the power of adapting itself to a greater variety of conditions
than other grains. It grows in coimtries with very hot climates as
well as in almost the coldest climates permitting growth of agricul-
tural crops. Some varieties will do well with very high rainfall,
while others are adapted to regions of very low rainfall. While it
can be grown on many different kinds of soil, wheat is best adapted
to relatively close-textured soils, such as silt and clay loams.
SOILS ADAPTED TO GRASSES AND LEGUMES.
(Ref. No. 7, pp. 636-^73.)
True grasses, especially those used for pasturage and hay, are char-
acterized by very fine root systems. They differ also from most other
cultivated plants in that they grow continuously through the entire
growing season and therefore require a more uniform distribution of
moisture than is essential to crops growing only early in the spring
or during the midsimimer period. The extremely fine root systems
of these plants adapt them especially to clay soils, which they are able
to permeate and from which they can extract the large suppUes of
moisture which these soils are able to hold.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
84 BULLETIN 366, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGMCULTURB.
Legumes, such as clovers, soy beans, aud cowpeas, on account of
thei^ ability to secure nitrogen from the atmosphere, are of particular
value for growth on soils low in organic matter. They include an-
nuals and biennials of wide range of resistance to drought and frost,
so that a selection can be made of those which are best adapted to
almost any conditions, and every farmer should see to it that he has
thoroughly mastered the growth of one or more legumes in such a way
as to maintain the nitrogen and organic matter of his soil at its
highest state.
EXEBdSBS, LBBSON XL
(a) Draw a map of the United States, or secnire outline maps having State Unee,
then locate and label the in^rtant com, wheat, potato, sweet potato, cotton, tobacco,
and flax sections by States. Use the Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for
1913 to select the States, as foUows:
Com.— Select five States having highest acreage, page 372.
Wheat. — Select five States having highest acreage, page 381.
Potatoes. — Select eight States having highest acreage, page 411.
Sweet potatoes. — Select six States having highest acreage, page 414.
Cotton. — Select six States having highest acreage, page 423.
Tobacco. — Select five States having highest acreage, page 428.
Flax. — Select five States having highest acreage, page 434.
(b) Discuss the relation of climate, soils, and rainfall in these fections to the varioos
crops named. Consult this lesson, Ref. No. 7, pp. 574-710, and any good genenl
cyclopedia.
REVIEW QUESTIONS, LESSON XL
1. Name some of the factors which determine the adaptability of crops to soils.
2. Discuss the relation of com growing to the climate conditions of the Miaaanppi
VaUey.
3. What influence has texture of the soil on the quality of tobacco?
4. Mention three conditions of soil or climate essential to success in raising sugar
beets.
5. For what reasons are potatoes best grown on sandy loam soils?
6. Explain the relation between fungus diseases of potatoes and the chemical
reaction of the soil.
7. What are the special reqiurements of cabbage and celery?
8. What conditions of soil are best adapted to the growing of melons and cucumben?
9. Explain why grasses are able to grow better on heavy clay soils than root crops can.
10. On what principle does the classification of soils into grass soils, grain soils, and
truck soils rest?
LESSON Xn. CROP ROTATIONS AND SOIL FERTILITY.
(Ref. No. 4, pp. 273-283; or No. 6, pp. 356-.372; or No. 7, pp. 505-607; or* No. 10, pp.
298-300.)
Although it is easier to learn to grow one crop well than to learn
to grow several crops well, nevertheless, there are distinct reasons
why it is best to grow more than one crop on most farms. It permits
a more economical and efficient use of labor; it involves less chance
of failure, which may be entire in case of loss of a single crop grown;
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION COUBSE IN SOILS. 85
it permits the growth of crops on different kinds of soils occurring
on the farm; and, most important, it permits a cropping system
whereby soil fertility may be improved.
Advantages of rotation to the sail, — ^The advantages of a rotation of
crops or cropping sjrstems in its relation to fertility are (1) it per-
mits the use of manure on those crops to which it is best adapted;
(2) it aids in preventing diseases or other unfavorable conditions
which may develop on soil kept continuously in one crop; (3) it per-
mits tillage calculated to improve the tilth; (4) it aids in the eradi-
cation of weeds; and (6) it permits the growth of crops which will
result in an addition of humus and nitrogen to the soil.
We have already seen that raw manure can be used to much
better advantage on certain crops, especially such rank-growing
crops as com, sugar beets, cabbage, and cotton, which permit inter-
tillage, than on small grains or many of the v^etables.
The advantages of a rotation of crops in lessening diseases are
becoming more and more apparent as our agriculture becomes more
fixed. The growth of any cultivated plant on a given area or even
in a given neighborhood continuously for a number of years is almost
invariably followed by the appearance of some specific diseases
or insect enemies, which are attached in one way or another to the
soil on which the crop is grown. The development of the corn-root
fungus, the cabbage diseases, the flax-wilt diseases, and many
others which might be mentioned are evidences of this fact. While
many of these diseases can be treated with specific remedies, appUed
to the seed before sowing or to the plant in the proper stage of devel-
opment, it is nevertheless a very great aid in reducing difficulties
of this kind to have the crop grown but one or two years on a given
piece of land and then have it followed by other crops not subject
to the same diseases.
Crood tilth may be much more readily maintained on soils diffi-
cult to work by a rotation of crops than when the same crop is
grown continuously. For example, the use of heavy clay land for
meadow and pasture, in which the development of sod occurs makes
it much easier to keep such soil in good tilth than when it is kept
continuously in tilled crops.
A lai^e part of the labor of land tillage is concerned in the eradi-
cation of weeds. A rotation of crops greatly aids in this matter.
Some weeds are entirely unable to withstand the crowding of grasses,
and the use of land as meadow and pasture will naturally kill them.
Others, on the contrary, develop imder these conditions and can be
removed only when the land is in tilled crops which permit culti-
vation. The planning of any rotation must take into accoimt the
eradication of noxious weeds when these constitute a serious diffi-
culty on the farm.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
86 BULLETIN 366, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGBICULTUBE.
Probably the most important object of the rotation of crops on
a large part of the best agricultural land of this country is concerned
with the maintenance and increase of humus and v^etable matter
in the soil. (Ref . No. 4, p. 275.) Increase of hiunus in the soil takes
place when crojjs are grown which are not intertilled and have fine
root systems permeating even compact soils. The use of land
as meadow and pasture is, therefore, one of the most effective ways
for adding to the humus content of the soil. If the meadow or pasture
contains legumes, the nitrogen as well as the hiunus content is in-
creased.
Planning the cropping system. — ^To gain the advantages mentioned
above, a rotation of crops must be very carefully planned. The es-
sential parts of the rotation consist in (1) intertilled crops, (2) grain
crops, and (3) grass and legume crops to be used either as hay or
pasture. But in working out the plan for rotation the farmer must
consider not only the crops to be grown, but the relative yield of
each, since it is necessary that the farm be laid out in fields of essen-
tially imiform size. On an 80-acre dairy farm, for instance, the
farmer might wish to grow com, oats, or other grain, clover, and have
some pastiire. While the best division of the farm among these
crops might be an even one, it is necessary to adjust the total yields
of the several crops grown imtil the division of the farm into fields
of equal size is practicable. It is possible, however, to grow any of
these crops more than one year on the same piece of land in a single
rotation, so that if it is desired to have more than one-foiurth of the
land in com, that can be arranged by growing this crop two years in
succession, or if more grain is desired the same method may be used.
Again, a large number of farms include unimproved land, which can
be used as permanent pasture but can not readiiy be brought into
the rotation with other crops.
Relation of rotation to type of soil. — Each type of soil must be con-
sidered separately with reference to the rotations for which it is best
adapted. (Ref. No. 7, p. 506.) On sandy soils short rotations give
better results than long rotations. As far as practical, at least one-
third or one-fourth of the soil of a sandy farm should be in a legume
or other crop, part or all of which is to be turned under for green-
manuring purposes. On one of the best potato farms in Wisconsin
the following rotation is practiced: First, potatoes in which rye is
sown ahead of the potato digging, so that it makes a good start in
the fall, and then timothy. Clover is sown and dragged in the fol-
lowing spring. This gives a 3-year rotation of potatoes, rye, and
clover. Practically all of the clover is plowed under as a green-
manure crop. In this way the soil is kept well supplied with active
organic matter, and the sand is protected from blowing by the rye
in the fall and spring.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION COURSE IN SOILS. 87
On heavier soils, where grain and stock raising is practiced, a
longer rotation is nsuaUy desirable, especially if some of the culti-
vated land is also to be used for pasture. A 6-year rotation can
then be worked out, such as the following: Com, wheat, oats, clover,
timothy, and pasture, or it can be shortened to five years by omitting
^ther one of the grains or the pasture year.
Rciationfcr different types of soil on the same farm. — Over a con-
siderable part of the United States there is such a variation in soils
within short distances that the relation of one type of soil to the
other must be fuUy considered. When a farm includes sand and
marsh soils which have been drained and brought under cultivation,
all of the maniu-e should be used on the sandy soil, since the marsh
soil does not need nitrogen, and can be kept in a high state of fertility
through the use of moderate quantities of commercial fertilizers con-
taining potassium and phosphorus, thereby making it possible to
keep the fertility of the whole farm in a high state. The same
method may be used when the farm includes clay and marsh soils.
In such cases it may be necessary to develop two or more systems of
rotations on a single farm. All of these matters must of course be
worked out with reference to each particular case, and the success
of the farmer depends to a considerable extent on his judgment in
working out logical systems of cropping adapted to his soil conditions
as well as to his market and other factors affecting his work.
Rotation systems for permanent fertility (Ref. No. 5, Chaps. XV and
XVI, pp. 226-235). — ^After all, it must be recognized that the most
important problem in any system of farming is so to conduct the
cropping and the disposition of thla crops that the fertility of the
soil shall not alone be maintained, but that it shall be constantly
built up in the best and most profitable manner. Herein lies one of
the most vital parts of good farm management.. The somewhat
prevalent idea among farmers that simply rotating crops wiQ improve,
or even maintain, the fertility of soil is without a safe foundation.
It is true, for reasons stated in the beginning of this lesson, that far
better results in cropping will be realized from a well-planned rotation
than from a single-crop system. But actually to build up the
fertility of a soil one should first imderstand what elements of plant
food are low in the soil, then the cropping system, the type of farming,
the building up of hiunus and mineral elements through manures
and fertilizers, and the physical management of the soil should all be
so studied and planned that gradual soil improvement will result.
The management necessary to attain this end will vary, of course,
with the sjTstem of farming practiced.
In v^etable gardening, maniure from cities can usually be secured
in quantity, and the soil can be improved while profits are realized
from the crops by the purchase of both stable mamure and com-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
88 BULLETIN 355, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
mercial fertilizers. In fruit farming, it is generally necessary for sdl
improvement to grow legume crops to return to the soil as well as to
add the mineral elements which are low in the soil by using fertilizers.
In grain farming, if fertility is to be maintained or increased, the
grain, including small seed, may be sold, but all roughage, including
cornstalks and straw from grain and seed, should be returned to the
soil; besides, a legume crop like red clover should be grown once in
three or four years as a green manure to furnish v^etable matter
and nitrogen to the soil, while mineral elements not plentiful in the
soil should be regularly added to provide for what is removed from
the sale of grain. It should be remembered also that phosphorus
is removed from the farm in large quantity in grain farming. In
live-stock farming, where the manure is well cared for and returned
to the soil without much loss, the humus and nitrogen content of the
soil can be built up where sufficient leguminous crops are grown in
the rotation to furnish the feed of this kind necessary for the best
results with the Hve stock. However, it wUl still be necessary
to return some mineral elements, especially phosphorus, in order
to increase the fertility of the soil.
EXERCISES, LESSON Xn.
ROTATION PROBLEMS.
1. Plan a system of crop rotatioD on an 80-acre sandy farm, potatoee being the main
crop.
2. Plan a rotation for fanning on a 120-acre sandy &rm. The following crops are to
be grown each year as far as possible: Com, 25 acres; rye, 12 acres; oats, 15 acres;
clover, 25 acres; alfalfa, 10 acres; potatoes, 4 acres; tomatoes, 2 acres; and melons, 2
acres. Five acres are allowed for buildings, etc., and 20 acres for pasture.
3. Describe a plan for treating the soil in problem 2 — use of manure (200 ton*),
commercial fertilizers, liming, and inoculation.
4. Suppose the sand on one of the forties in problem 2 is subject to blowing by the
wind, will that make any change in the plan for rotation? Work out a plan d oop
rotation under these conditions.
5. Suggest a plan for rotation on a sandy soil on which potatoee, tomatoes, meloiiP^
and onions are the principal market crops.
6. Plan a rotation on a southern sandy plantation of 200 acres where peanuts are an
important crop. Other crops grown are cotton and com. (Ref . No. 7, pp. 69&-710.
7. A man owns the W. J and the SE. J of the SW. i of a section of land. Locate
this land in the section.
8. All of this land in problem 7 is level and under cultivation. Each year ht
raises 40 acres of com, 20 acres of clover, 20 acres of timothy, and 40 aci« of oats in *
3-year rotation. Outline his system of rotation.
9. A farmer has a farm including the SE. J of the NW. i; the SW. i of tbe NE. J.
theNW.ioftheSE. J; and the NE. i of the SW. i of a section. Hia farm biiildi:^.
orchard, and garden take out 5 acres in the NW. comer of the NW. i of the S£. I
Thw land is aU level, silt loam. In order to meet his requirements he wants to iai«
each year 40 acres of com, 40 acres of hay (30 of clover and 10 of timothy), 30 aciw of
oats, 10 acres of barley, 5 acres of potatoes, and 30 acres of pasture. Plan a syslem <rf
crop rotation.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXTENSION COUBSE IN SOILS. 89
10. If 300 tone of manure are produced on the farm annually, in problem 8, how
can this manure be most economically used?
11. A man owns the W. J of the NW. J of a section of land. On the north end 20
acres are taken out of the crop-producing portion of the farm on account of woodlot,
{arm buildings, and railroad right of way. Each year this man raises 20 acres of corn,
20 acres of oats, and 20 acres of hay (5 of alfalfa and 15 of a mixture of clover and a
little timothy). A 3-year rotation is practiced, with the exception of alfalfa, which
is left four years. Draw a diagram showing how this man rotates his crops.
12. A farm located in the S. ) and the NE. i of the SE. J^ of a section contains 20 acres
woodlot in the W. half of the NE. {, 10 acres of hillside subject to erosion in the NE. i
of the NE. }, and 20 acres of acid sandy soil at the west end of the S. J. Five acres in
the SE. earner of the farm are taken out for buildings. Plan a system, or systems, of
rotation on this farm when the following crops are to be raised each year as far as
poBBible: 30 acres of com, 20 acres of oats, 10 acres of barley, 10 acres of alfalfa, 15
acres of clover, and 30 acres of pasture, including woodlot.
RBVIBW QUESTIONS, LESSON XD.
1. Give specific reasons why it is best to grow more than one crop on a farm.
2. Name five advantages derived from a crop rotation.
S.^What is understood by tilled crops? Intertilled crops?
4. Explain how grasses are better adapted to humus formation than cultivated
crops.
5. Name the essential parts of a rotation.
6. What determines largely the kind of rotation a farmer may practice?
7. Discuss the rotation best suited to a sandy farm.
8. Suggest a 6-year rotation for a dairy farm. A 5-year rotation.
9. On a farm consisting of sand and marsh, where can manure be used to best ad-
vantage? Why?
10. Discuss the relation of different types of soils in a farm to crop rotations.
11. Outline a cropping system and a plan of fertilization for grain farming whereby
the fertility of the soil of the farm may be maintained or increased.
12. Compare grain farming with live-stock farming from the soil-fertility stand-
point.
13. What is the most important problem in connection with permanent agriculture.
14. Are you now able to figure out accurately a profitable system of cropping and
iertilization whereby the fertility of your farm will gradually be increased?
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
APPENDIX.
REFERENCE BOOKS.
The publications here listed are specifically referred to in the
text and must be consulted in order to obtain the information pur-
posely omitted in the bulletin because of want of space. This
library of reference books will be supplied by the State agricultural
colleges and loaned by them as a unit to each dass.
1. Firet Principles of Soil Fertility. Alfred Vivian, 1906.
2. The Soil. F. H. King. 1896.
3. Soils, Their Properties and Management. T. L. Lyon, E. O. Fippin, and H. O.
Bnckman, 1915.
4. Soils and FertilizenB. Harry Snyder, 1908, 3. ed.
5. SoU Fertility and Permanent A^culture. C. G. Hopkins. 1910.
6. The Fertility of the Land. I. P. Roberts. 1909, 3. ed.
7. Fertilizers and Crops. L. L. Van Slyke. 1912.
8. Phu;tical Farm Drainage. C. G. Elliott. 1908, 2. ed.
9. Chemistry and its Relations to Daily life. Louis Kahlenberg and E. B. Hart.
1913.
10. Dry Fanning. J. A. Widtsoe. 1913.
11. Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture. 1913.
12. Manures and Fertilizers. H. J. Wheeler. 1913.
13. Sdls. E. W. Hilgard. 1910. To be included when classes are conducted in
arid regions.
Any unabridged dictionary.
USX OF APPARATUS AND SUPPLIES REQUIRED.
APPARATUS.
12 Coddingtcm or other cheap hand lenses.
12 kng pickle bottles with corks.
6 wide-mouthed bottles with corks.
24 one-inch cubes.
6 two-gallon crocks or jars.
6 ooe-pint glass fruit jars.
6 jeQy glasses.
1 balance with weights.
12 one-pound baking-powder cans.
2 measures graduated for cubic inches.
2 amall mortars and pestles.
6 one-quart glass fruit jars.
6 tin cups.
6 pie tins.
6 shallow dishes (saucers).
6 pieces of }-inch or 1-inch glass tubing
(2 feet long).
6 feet small-sized glass tubing.
3 three-inch ungk^ed tile.
4 wooden boxes, 1 foot square and 4 inches
6 small Fahrenheit thermometers.
1 marble slab, 1 foot square, polished on
on both sides.
4 three-gallon crocks.
24 outline maps of the United States.
6 porcelain dishes.
12 one-hole stoppers.
6 feet rubber tubing.
1 setof soil sieves.
Cheesecloth.
1 package small needles.
91
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
92
BULLETIN 355, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
SUPPLIES.
Specimens of common rocks as follows:
Granite, schist, shale, slate, limestone,
marble, sandstone, quartzite, feldspar,
hornblende, quartz, black and white
mica, calcite, gypsum.
1 pound parafl^.
4 ounces muriatic acid.
I quart powdered limestone.
Several small pieces limestone.
1 quart sodium nitrate.
1 quart muriate of potash.
I quart sulphate of potash.
1 quart anmionium sulphate.
Note.— The apparatus and sappUoB have been estimated for a class of twelve. Ordinarflytwo peopla
will work together in laboratory practice, and the quantity of apparatus and supplies may be varied to
suit the size of the class. The different soib needed should either be furnished as a part of the sapplta,
or else arrangements must be made for the class to seoore and dry them before the work of th« oomw li
begun.
1 quart kainit.
1 quart acid phosphate.
1 quart rock phosphate.
1 quart bone meal.
4 ounces ammonium carbonate.
4 ounces marble dust.
6 packages each of red and blue litznus
paper.
I pound lump sugar.
1 pound powdered sugar.
6 sticks sodium hydroxid.
I quart burnt Hme.
1 stick sealing ^
ADDITIONAL COPIES
OP THIS fubucahon mat be PROCUaSD fbom
THE SUTEBIMTENDENT OF DOCUIOCNTS
OOYERNlfEMT FBOniNO OfflCB
WASHINQTON, D. C.
AT
10 CENTS PER COPY
A
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
l9/.3: ?J^^
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 356
CoBtribatioB from tbe Buroaii of Animal Indastir
A.D.MELVIN.Ctal«r
Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER March 7» 1916
MILK AND CREAM CONTESTS. ; '
By E&NBST Kellt, in Charge of Market Milh Inveitigations, and L. B;r^OK and
J. A. Gamble, Market MUk Specialists, Dairy Divinon, . :^, ' t-
CONTENTS. \ ^
Page.
Intiodoetion 1
National contests 2
How contests are oandncted 4
Edaeatiooal features 11
List of exhibitions 12
Average soores of recent contests 15
Benefits of mfUc contests to dairymen 17
Extracts from letters 18
Soggestlons for production of contest milk. . . 19
INTRODUCTION.
Among those engaged in the production of sanitary milk there is
an axiom that ''education accomplishes more than legislation." To
a certain point law can be applied; glaringly insanitary conditions
and willful wrongdoing can be severely dealt with, but after a certain
d^ree of cleanliness has been reached much of the subsequent
improvement must be based upon the incentive offered the producers
to go to more trouble and expense to improve the product.
For the purpose of teaching producers the fundamentals of clean-
milk production, as well as offering them an incentive, the plan of
holding milk and cream contests was devised. On February 14-24,
1906, during the National Dairy Show in Chicago, 111., the first milk
and cream contest was held. A tentative score card was devised
for rating the samples, and from time to time, as defects were demon-
strated, this card has been modified. From the beginning rapid
progress has been made and in the nine years from February, 1906,
to February, 1915, 87 such contests have been judged by members
of the Dairy Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, United States
Department of Agriculture.
in March, 1907, with the belief that these contests would aid
greatly in improving the milk supply of a city, the first city milk
Note.— This bolletin is of interest to dairymen generally, and especially to those who (tre engaged in
impnrviug the outpat of their establishments.
22007*— Boll. 856-16 1
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
2 BULLETIN 356, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE.
contest was held in Cleveland, Ohio. The Dairy Division, by sup-
plying judges and lecturers, cooperated with the chamber of commerce
of that city. Since the Cleveland exhibit several other cities have
seen the value of these contests and have conducted similar eaU^-
prises. UsuaUy the chamber of conmierce arranges for the exhibit
by securing a meeting place, furnishing the prizes, and sending
advertising matter to the dairymen and consimiers. Among the
cities that have held such contests are Cleveland, Columbus, Toledo,
Cincinnati, and Dayton, Ohio; Pittsburgh and Philadelphia, Pa.;
Detroit, Muskegon, Grand Rapids, and Pontiac, Mich.; Jacksonville
and Tampa, Fla.; South Bend, Ind.; Cumberland, Md., and Roches-
ter, N. Y. The exhibits have not only increased in number, but have
grown greatly in size.
NATIONAL CONTESTS.
The contest for milk and cream producers annually held in con-
nection with the National Dairy Show has grown remarkably since
the first exhibit in 1906. Such a national contest brings together a
set of imusuaUy fine samples, from all parts of the country. From
the data on the production of these samples much useful and inter-
esting information can be obtained. The two most recent contests
in connection with the National Dairy Show, in the years 1913 and
1914, brought out 217 entries, from 20 States and from Canada. The
following-named States were represented, the figure after each State
indicating the number of samples submitted: Wisconsin, 6; Ohio, 10;
lUinois, 9; Michigan, 56; Pennsylvania, 38; Massachusetts, 12; New
Hampshire, 3; Virginia, 1; New York, 10; Indiana, 2; Missouri, 1;
Kentucky, 3; Washington, 37; Iowa, 1; New Jersey, 13; Texas, 1;
West Virginia, 2; Connecticut, 3; Maryland, 6; Minnesota, 1. Two
entries were from Canada. Thus samples were sent from as far west
as the Pacific States, from as far east as the New England States,
from as far south as Texas, and from as far north as Canada.
The form of entry for the National Dairy Show is presented here-
with:
[National Dairy Show A^ociation. Milk and Cream Show. Chicago, HI., Oct. 23 to Nov. 1, 1913, i
the direction of the Dairy Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Africa]-
tore.]
[Only this official entry blank wHl be aocepted.)
CLASS 209, MARKET MILK.
Grentlemen: Please enter for me 4 pints of market milk in competition for prixss
offered by the National Dairy Show, in accordance with the conditicms herdn
prescribed.
Proprietar.
Manager.
P.O. Address
Date 1913.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MILK AND CREAM CONTESTS 8
(1) Competitian in ndlk and cream department is open to all milk and cream pro-
dncers in the United States and Canada.
(2) Producers of market milk may compete in both market milk and market cream
(3) Producers of milk can make but one entry in amy one class.
(4) Producers of certified milk are barred from competition in market milk and
BUffket cream classes. All samples of certified milk must be accompanied by a cer-
tificate issued by a medical milk commission.
(5) Entries in milk classes consist of 4 pints of milk in pint bottles.
(6) Entries in cream classes consist of four i pints of cream in ^-pint bottles.
(7) All entries of milk and cream after scoring become the property ci the United
States Department of Agriculture.
(8) No exhibitor will be entitled to a medal or diploma who does not make answer
to each question, sign declaration, and forward this c^cial entry blank to Ernest
Kelly, 8ui>erintendent of milk and cream exhibits, National Dairy Show, 817 Ex-
change Avenue, Chicago, 111.
HOW TO COMPETE.
Milk entered to compete io^ prizes must be sent by express (ht otherwise from station
nearest the producer direct to Ernest Kelly, superintendent milk and cream exhibit,
care of Armour & Co., Chicago, butter and egg storage department.
EXPBB88 CHABOES ON EXHIBITS HITST BB PAID TO DESTINATION.
Bottles must be carefully packed, caps should be sealed, making bottle air-tight,
and both top of bottle and cap should be protected with paper, metal, or other
material and all covered with crushed ice suflldent to maintain a low temperature
during transportation.
Tlie package should be plainly addressed on outside. A card should also be tacked
on bcs, on inside, giving plainly sender's name and address so as to avoid mistakes
in identifying packages.
In order that all milk entered by exhibitors may be of the same age when
scored, it is hereby specified that it shall be produced on Thursday, October 16, and
flipped and delivered to express company at once. This is necessary for perfectly
fair competition.
A representative of the Department of Agriculture will be in Chicago to take charge
of the milk on its arrival and see that it is properly cared for.
Whenever possible, entries should be shipped in cases which need not be returned.
The show aeeodation does not guarantee the return of shipping cases, but will endeavor
to have them returned to the proper owner at the owner's expense when properly
requested.
QUBSTIONS TO BB ANSWBBED IN DBTAIL BT EXHIBIT0B8 OP MILK.
1. Onwhatdayandhourwasthesampleof milk entered in this show drawn?
2. How many cows contributed to the sample of milk entered?
3. How many cows in your herd are now giving milk?
4. How long since the cows contributing to the sample of milk freshened? (Average
time)
5. Are the cows supplying this sample grades or piire bred?
If pure bred, give name of breed
6. What kind and amount of feed was given cows daily during the week preceding
the production of thissample of milk?
7. Were cows cleaned previous to milking? If so, describe method of
cleaning
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
4 BULLETIN 356, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
8. Were cows in stable or out of doors when the sample of milk was drawn?
If in stable, how was stable cared for?
9. What precautions were taken by the milkers as regards cleanliness of clothing and
hands?
10. IIow many milkers were engaged in milking the sample entered?
11. What kind of milk pail was used— narrow or wide top?
12. How were pails cleaned pre\dous to use?
13. Was milk drawn from the cow direct into the pail or through cloth cover or cotton
fiber?
14. What method of straining milk, if any, was followed?
15. How long after milk was drawn from cows before it was cooled?
16. Describe milk cooler, if any was used
17. IIow was milk cooler prepared for use?
18. To what temperature was milk cooled?
19. IIow were bottles and caps prepared for use?
20. What bottling process or what method of bottling was followed?
21. How was milk cared for after bottling and previous to shipment?
22. Give date or hour when milk was (or will be) shipped
23. Do you wish shipping case returned at yoiu' expense?
24. Have you previously exhibited milk or cream at any local, State, or NatioDal
show?
25. Give name and address of medical milk commission certifying to your product?
Remarks:
I, , do hereby declare each and every statement
in answer to the above questions to be absolutely true. I do furthermore declare
that the milk submitted by me in this contest is the pure natural product, free from
preservatives, and that it has not been heated or changed in any way.
Proprietor,
Manager,
HOW CONTESTS ARE CONDUCTED.
In preparing for a milk and cream exhibit the persons who have
charge of the contest usually send out preliminary notices to the
dairymen, stating that a contest will be held at a certain time and
place and urging them to prepare to enter samples. Samples should
be produced about six days before the meeting; this gives ample time
for announcing results and awarding prizes, and affords an oppor-
tunity for contestants to discuss their scores with the judges. Later,
entry blanks, such as shown above, are sent out. The filling out
and returning of these blanks is made a prerequisite to the entering
of samples of milk or cream in the contest. Usually there are several
classes for which prizes are offered, such as certified milk, market
milk, market cream, and pasteurized milk.
Certified milk and cream must be produced under the direction
of a medical milk commission and bear the proper stamp of certifica-
tion. Market milk and cream classes consist of those samples ^diich
are not eligible to compete as certified. AU samples in the market
and certified classes must be free from preservatives. Producers of
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MILK AND CBEAM CONTESTS. 5
certified milk or cream are usually prohibited from entering any
samples in the market classes.
MANAGEMENT OP THE SAMPLES.
There are no restrictions placed on the dairymen as to the produc-
tion of the samples for the contest. The answers to questions on
the entry blank show that many methods of milking are pursued.
On some farms the cows are milked in the bam; at other places they
are milked in the pasture or feed lot. Various methods of cleaning
the cows are resorted to, and the milk is handled in a varied number
of ways after it is drawn from the cow.
AU the samples of milk that are entered in a contest must be
produced on the same day. This makes all the samples the same
age when they are scored. After the milk is bottled, it is packed in
a shipping case and surrounded with ioe so that it will be in the best
possible condition when it arrives at the place of exhibition. Mixing
salt with the ice may cause the samples to freeze.
The samples should be consigned to some cold-storage warehouse
hi the city where the exhibit is to be held, and upon their arrival
put immediately into a cold room. In each entry should be four
bottles, one for chemical analysis, one for bacteriological examina-
tion, one for judging flavor, odor, sediment, and appearance, and
one to be placed on exhibition. When all these samples have
arrived, the four bottles in each entry should be given a number,
preferably on a tag put around the neck of each bottle. The bottles,
bearing simply the number, are submitted to the judges, and the
scores are all made by numbers instead of by the names of the dairies
or of the owners.
It will be noticed on page 15 that some contests are tabulated
separately. These contests were held under somewhat different
relations. Instead of allowing the dairyman to submit a sample
of milk produced in any way, the samples, at irregular intervals
through one entire month or more, were taken from the regular
supply, as it was deUvered. It was behoved by those in charge of
these contests that such a procedure would give a more definite idea
of the average milk furnished by the dairymen and would also have
the advantage of continuing a supply of high-grade milk from all the
dairies entered.
Two objections to this method have been raised by some authori-
ties. First, the taking of samples, through an extended period and
at times unknown to the dairyman, is the legitimate duty of any
health department; therefore a contest conducted in this way is very
liable to confuse the dairymen as to the distinction between health-
department work and milk exhibits. The second objection is the
more potent one. Under the usual procedure the dairyman knows
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
6 BULLETIN 356, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGBICULTURE.
just when and how the milk submitted to a contest is produced.
At the time of milking he has to answer questions as to all the detaib
of the process, so that he has a record of the condition of the cows,
the feed, the cleanliness of his utensils, etc. Then, when he receives
his score card and observes, for instance, that he has received a cut
on flavor, he can go over the various details of the production of that
milk and perhaps find the method which caused the trouble. Whai
the samples are. taken at times unknown to the dairyman, the direct
educational value is lost to a certain degree. The dairymen, unless
they have kept a complete diary of all methods and operations dur-
ing the entire month, do not know xmtil sometime afterwards when
the samples were taken and have no means of knowing the conditions
that prevailed when the milk was drawn.
On the other hand it has been argued by some that the score on a
sample of milk submitted by a dairyman is not a correct indicator
of the average product handled by that man. For instance, a man
may ordinarily have a very mediocre supply of milk but by special
efforts he may produce a very high-scoring sample for competition.
No claims, however, should be made at the milk exhibits by those in
charge that a high-scoring sample indicates that the exhibitor has
an average supply of the same high quaUty. It is thought, more-
over, that a man who learns the principles of clean milk production
well enough to produce one sample of high-scoring milk is much more
likely to put those principles into general practice than a man who
has not studied the principles at all. Excellent results, howevw,
have been obtained in the collected-sample contests.
SOME EXAMPLES OP PACKING.
Much ingenuity has been shown in shipping milk to some of the
shows. One firm in Canada made a large box about 4 feet square,
the sides, top, and bottom of which were made of thick cork. The
whole was then covered with a preparation of tar to make it wat»-
proof , and the bottles of milk were placed in a rack inside and the box
filled with ice. The whole was then crated to prevent injury to the
cork-board box. The cork was intended to serve as an insulation
and to keep the ice from melting so rapidly.
In 1911 one Colorado dairy sent to the National Dairy ^ow milk
which was shipped in a specially constructed crate made as follows:
A galvanized cylinder, fastened at the bottom in a galvanized-iron
box, was made for each bottle of milk or cream. The bottles of
milk or cream were set down in the cylinders and a tightly fitting
cover placed over the top of each one. Then the space surrounding
each cylinder inside the galvanized-iron box was filled with crashed
ice.
Digiti
zed by Google
MILK AND CBEAM CONTESTS. 7
So much interest in proper refrigeration of the samples has been
manifested that exhibitions as far away as Seattle, Wash., have sent
a man with the exhibit to re-ice it whenever necessary upon the
journey.
BfETHOD OF SCOBING THE BXmBITa
The samples are scored for bacteria, flavor and odor, visible dirt,
fat, solids not fat, acidity, and the appearance of the bottle and cap.
Cream is scored on the same basis as milk, except that no score is
given for solids not fat, the total of 20 points under chemical compo-
sition being given solely to fat.
UNTTED STATED
Bui
SCOI
Place
\ DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
IKAU OF ANIlf AL INDVSTRT,
DAIBT MViaON.
IE CARD FOR Mn.K.
CImb
E
rhiWf. N". . .
Item.
Perfect
score.
Remarks.
Btftfrift ...
35
25
10
10
10
5
5
Bncter^ ffflind ppi* cubic Cfoitimeter. ........
FlAT<r and odor
Cowy, bitter, feed, flat, strong
Vfaft^H 4H .
Fit
Per cent found
fMUffTMAtM
Per cent found
' AHdKy
Per cent found
1
Bottle and 019
Cap
iBottle
1
Totel
100
1
1
, Kxhibitor . , , . .
AddreflB
(Skned) -
Date
n. n. No. 462.
Jiuige.
,191
[OVIR.1
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
8
BULLETIN 356, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGMCULTTJBE.
DIRBCTIONS FOR SCORINO.
BaCTESIA PXB CTTBIC CKNTDfETER^PERnCT SCORX, 35.
Points.
Under 600 35.0
500-1,000 34.9
1,001-1,500 34.8
1,501-2,000 34.7
2,001-2,500 34. «
2,501-3,000 34.6
8,001-3,500 34.4
3,501-4,000 34.3
4,001-5,000 34.0
6,001-6,000 33.8
«,001-7,000 33.6
7,001-8,000 33. 4
8,001 -9,000 33. 2
9,001-10,000 33. 0
10,001-11,000 32. 8
11,001-12,000 32. 6
12,001-13,000 32.4
13,001-14,000 32. 2
14,001-15,000 32. 0
15,001-20,000 31. 0
20,001-25,000 30. 0
Poiiits.
25,001-30,000 29.0
30,001-35,000 28.0
35,001-30,000 27.0
40,001-45,000 ato
45,001-50,000 2S.0
50,001^55,000 24.0
6^,001-60,000 210
60,001-66,000 22.0
65,001-70,000 2L0
70,001-75,000 20.0
75,001-80,000 19.0
80,001-85,000 18.0
85,001-90,000 17.0
90,001-95,000 10.0
95,001-100,000 15.0
100,001-120,000 as
102,001-140,000 10.0
140.001-160,000 7.5
160,001-180,000 5.0
180,001-200.000 - 2.5
Above 200,000 0.0
Note.— When the number of bacteria per cubic centimeter exceeds the local limit the score shall be 0.
Flavor and Odor— Perfect Score, 25.
Deductions for disagreeable or foreign odor or flavor should be made according to oonditioDS temd.
When possible to recognize the cause of the difficulty it should be described under Remarks.
Visible Dirt— Perfect Score, 10.
Examination for visible dirt should be made only after the milk has stood for some time nndistuibed in
any way. Raise the bottle carefully in its natural, upright position, without tipping, until hi^er than the
head. Observe the bottom of the milk with the naked eye or by the aid of a reading glass. The presence
of the slightest movable speck makes a perfect score impossible. Further deductions should be made
according to the amount of dirt found. When possible the nature of the dirt should be described nndtf
Remarks.
Fat in Milk— Perfect Score, 10.
Points.
4.0 per cent and over 10
3.9 per cent 9. 8
3.8 per cent 9. 6
3.7 i>er cent 9. 4
3.6 per cent 9. 2
3.5 per cent 9
3.4 per cent 8
3.3 per cent 7
Points.
3.2 per cent
3.1 per cent
3.0 per cent
2.9 per cent
2.8 per cent
2.7 per cent
Less than 2.7 per cent .
Note.— When the per cent of fat is less than the local legal limit the score should be 0.
SouDs Not Fat— Perfect Score, 10.
Points.
8.7 per cent and over 10
8.6 per cent 9
8.5 per cent 8
8.4 per cent 7
8.3 per cent 6
8.2 per cent 5
Points.
8.1 percent
8.0 per cent
7.9 per cent.
7.8 per cent
Less than 7.8 per cent.
Note.— When the per cent of solids not &t is less than the local legal limit the score shall be 0.
AcuMTY— Perfect Score, 6.
Points.
0.2 per cent and less 5
0.21 per cent 4
0.22 per cent. 8
Points.
0.23 per cent 2
0.24 per cent 1
Over 0.24 per cent 0
Digiti
zed by Google
MTLK AND CBEAM CONTESTS. 9
Bottle and Caf— Psktsct Soosi, 5.
BottliidMXiM be made of clear glan and free from attadied metal ports. Gaps sboold be sealed In their
plaoe with hot paraflVn, or both cap and top of bottle covered with parchment paper or other protectiai
against water and dirt. Deduct for tinted glass, attached metal parts, unprotected or leaky cape, partially
filled bottles, or other conditioDS permitting nnntamftMitinin of mUk or detracting from the appearance of
the package.
NoTS.«-Tlke card shown above was adopted in Aprfl, 1915, and is mora nearly uniform In regard to Iti
bacterial ratings than the old one. This one was not used te any of the oontests mentioned te this bulletin,
and Is tlM third form adc^ted by the Dafry DivUon.
BACTEBIA.
Tbe samples are all plated for bacteriological examination on the
same day. Standard methods of plating on agar are used, and the
samples are incnbated for 48 hours. In milk-contest work the dilu-
tions used are 1 to 100 and 1 to 1,000 which give residts close enough
for such work. Any sample having fewer than 500 bacteria per
cubic centimeter receives a perfect score, while any sample having
more than 200,000 bacteria per cubic centuneter receives a zero. No
attempt is made to differentiate between the kinds of bacteria
present, only a quantitative analysis being made. It is a well-
established principle that in the production of market milk all kinds
of bacteria are to be excluded, so the awards are made on the basis
of freedom from bacteria of any kind.
As bacteria in milk are extremely imdesirable, both from a health
as well as from economic standpoint, the greatest weight on the
score card is given to freedom from bacterial contamination, 35 out
of 100 points being allowed for this item.
FLAVOR AND ODOB.
While not so important as bacteria in their relation to public health,
the flavor and the odor of dairy products considerably influence their
commercial value. If consumers are served with an unpleasantly
flavored milk, they will either use less of it or will seek some other
dealer whose products are more acceptable. The most common
"off flavors" and odors found in contest milk and cream are those
produced by certain feeds and by the absorption of foul odors from
the stable air. These defects will be considered more fully later in
this bulletin.
In scoring, it is best to allow the samples to stand for a short while
m a warm room, as undesirable flavors and odors are more easily
detected if the milk is slightly warm. So far as possible, the room
where the scoring is done should be free from any odors. The milk
should be mixed as much as possible before the cap is removed.
When the cap is removed about half the contents of the bottle should
be poured into a clean receptacle; by quickly placing the nose over
the mouth of the bottle any odor present can be detected.
22097**— BuU. 356—16 2
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
10 BULLETIN 356, U. S. DEPABTMENT OP AGEICULTUBE.
Flavors, are, of course, scored by tasting the sample; if the flavor
is very bad it can usually be definitely classified, but often the flavor
is so slight or indistinct that it can not be traced with certainty.
Even though this be the case, an experienced judge of milk is able to
score the flavor of the product very accurately. Flavor and odor are
allowed 25 points out of 100.
VISIBLE DIBT.
An appreciable amount of sediment in the bottom of a bottle of
milk is a mute indication of carelessness between the cow and the
consumer. Freedom from visible dirt does not necessarily mean
that the milk is clean, but the presence of sediment does mean that
not only was dirt allowed to faU into the milk, but that not even
care enough was taken to strain it out.
To score perfect on this point, the judge must be unable to find
so much as a single movable speck in the milk as determined by
examining the bottom of the bottle. Very few samples have been
scored perfect on this point, while some, on accoxmt of an extremely
heavy precipitate of manure, dust, sand, cow hairs, or chaff, have
been marked as low as zero.
Before scoring, the bottles should be allowed to stand undisturbed
for some time to allow any sediment to settle. Then the bottle should
be carefully raised without tipping and the bottom examined. An
electric bulb with a long cord is a great aid in this work, as the light
can be held close to the bottle. A maximum of 10 points out of 100
is allowed for freedom from visible dirt.
FAT AND SOLIDS NOT FAT.
The solids in milk are apportioned 20.points out of 100, 10 for fat
and 10 for solids not fat; 4 per cent of fat and 8.7 per cent of solids
not fat are minimums for which a perfect score is given. In the case
of cream aU 20 points are given to the fat content, 20 per cent or more
being considered a perfect score. If the sample of milk or cream
contains less than the legal standard, a zero is given on the score card.
The fat is determined by the Babcock method, while the solids
Li+F
not fat are calculated by the formula — j— • In this formida L
stands for the corrected Quevenne lactometer reading and F repre-
sents the fat. As an illustration of this formula, let us suppose that
the fat test is 4 per cent and the corrected lactometer reading is 32.
Then, — j — '^"i"'^^* Hence, the solids not fat equal 9 per cait
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MILK AND CREAM CONTESTS. 11
ACIDITY.
The acidity is allowed 5 points out of 100. Phenolphthalein is
used as an indicator, and the milk is titrated with tenth-normal
sodium hydroxid. Hie restdts are reduced to percentages and the
scores allowed according to the scale on the score card. As 0.2 per
cent is considered the danger line in commercial milk and cream, no
sample containing more than that amount of acidity is given a
perfect score. While such milk may taste perfectly sweet, it has been
found that it is usually unsafe to use it on account of the fact that it
is apt to turn sour very quickly.
BOTTLE AND CAP.
The general appearance of the sample is considered of importance
enough to demand an allowance of the remaining 5 points out of the
100. Samples shotQd all be submitted in regulation milk bottles,
and the mouth of the bottle should be thoroughly protected from
dust, dirty water, etc. Deductions should be made for dirty or
chipped bottles, or for flaws or other imperfections in the glass; for
metal parts, especially such as come in direct contact with the milk,
alight cuts shotQd be made in the score. Caps should be sealed in
place with hot paraffin, or both cap and top of bottle covered with
parchment paper or other protection from water and dirt. It very
often happens that the caps are hastily placed in the bottles, or are
not of the proper size. This should be penalized, as it results in
leakage from the bottles as well as permitting dirty ice water, etc., to
seep into them.
Bottles should be filled so that there will be no room for churning
during transit. Deductions should be made for violations of this
rale.
EDUCATIONAL FEATURES.
Whenever milk and cream contests are held, it is desirable to have
in connection therewith a meeting or a series of meetings at which
the subject of clean milk production ]s thoroughly discussed. Usu-
ally at least two meetings are held, one for the producers and the other
for consumers. At the producers' meeting the technical side of clean
milk production is taken up and the dairymen are shown how they
can improve the quality of their product. Comments are made on
the samples entered in the competition, and remedies for the defects
are suggested. At the consumers' meeting great stress is laid on the
fact that dean milk is more diffictdt and expensive to produce than
dirty milk, and an effort is made to educate the consumer to the point
where he will be willing to pay an increased price for a safer and more
wholesome article of food. Instruction is given to city milk consum-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
12
BULLETIN 356, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTUBE.
ers as to the proper care of rnilk in the home alter it is delivered to
them by the producer. These lectures are very often illustrated
with stereopticon slides; also moving pictures illustrative of good
and bad methods on the dairy farms are sometimes shown.
usT OF ExmernoNS.
The statements following show the most important facts relating
to all the competitive exhibitions so far held in cooperation with the
Dairy Division.
List oj milk and cream contests held in cooperation tvith the Dairy Division, using the first
score card.
Name and place.
Date.
Product.
Num-
ber of
entries.
Average
National Dairy Show, Chicago, HI
Granite State Dairymen's Association, Peterboro,
N.H.
City milk contest, aeveland, Ohio
Granite State Dairymen's Association, White-
field, N. H.
State Dairymen's Association, Marengo, 111
Pennsylvania State Dairy Union, Wflkes-Barre,
Pa.
State Dairymen's Association, Columbus, Ohio. . .
State Dairymen's Association, Battle Creek, Mich.
aty milk contest, Qeveland, Ohio
State Dairymen's Association, Traverse City, Mloh.
City mUk contest, Pittsburgh, Pa
Feb. 15,1906.
Deo. 6-7, 1906.
Mar. 16, 1907..
|Dec.&^,1907.
Jan. 13-15,
1906.
an. 14-16,
1906.
/Feb. 12-14,
\ 1908.
/Feb. Ift^l,
\ 1906.
Mar. 7, 1908...
Mar. 11, 1906..
Oct. 22, 1906..
<;:
National Dairy Show, Chicago, HI .
State Dairymen's Association, Dexter, Me
State Dairymen's Association, Burlington, Vt
Granite State Dairymen's Association, Contoo-
oook, N. H.
City milk contest, Columbus, Ohio ,
State Dairymen's Association, Grand Rapids,
Mich.
City milk contest, Toledo, Ohio
Kentucky Dairy Cattle Club, Lexington, Ky
Michigan Dairymen's and Grand Traverse Dairy-
men's Associations, Traverse City, Mich.
City milk show, Cincinnati, Ohio
City milk show. Grand Bapids, Mich
City milk show, Dayton, Ohio
Illinois State Fair, Springfield, ni .
/Dec. 2-10,
\ 1906.
/Dec. 8-10,
\ 1906.
Jan. 6, 1909...
Jan. 13-14,
1909.
Feb. 5, 1909..
Feb. 17-19,
1909.
Feb. 27, 1909.
Mar. 13, 1909
Mar. 25, 1909.
May7,19Q0...
May 14,1909..
Sept.— ,1909.
Oct. 1-9, 1909.
(Market milk...
^Market cream..
[Certified milk..
/Market milk...
iMarket cream.,
arketmilk...
Market cream.,
arketmllk...
Market cream.,
arketmllk...
Market cream..
Market mUk...
Certified milk.,
arketmllk...
.Market cream.,
arket mOk . . .
Market cream.,
arketmllk...
.Market cream.,
arketmllk...
/Market mUk...
\Market cream.,
(Market milk...
jMarket cream.
ICertifiedmilk.
(Certified cream
/Market mUk...
iMarket cream..
Market milk...
Market cream..
Market milk...
Market cream.
Market milk..,
[Market cream.
Market milk..,
iMarket cream.
/Market milk..,
IMarket cream.
Market mUk..,
Market milk...
National Dairy Show, Mllwaakee, Wis. .
.do.
atymilk show, Pittsburgh, Pa
Maine Dairymen's Association, Skowbegan, Me . .
Michigan Dairymen's Assodatioii, Detroit, Mich .
Nov. 4, 1909.
Dec. 1, 1909.
Feb. 4, 1910.
Market milk....
[Certified milk...
Market milk
Market cream...
Market milk
JCarket cream...
ketmilk
Market cream...
Certified milk...
Market milk....
Market cream...
Certified milk...
(Certified cream..
Market milk....
IMarket cream...
Market milk....
Market cream...
ketmilk....
\Mark
Mark
23
80.70
14
93. «0
8
94.80
11
90.80
9
91.40
53
90l80
6
88.50
4
83.30
6
89.40
6
93.29
2
93.10
10
9L90
4
95.80
10
80.90
12
9a 00
5
95.50
4
94.40
38
88.90
6
90.90
10
tLM
50
^20
8
77. 3i
30
8S.79
20
83.80
14
90.20
6
85.90
3»
91.69
31
88. 6»
20
90.60
16
81.30
5
92.50
7
90. 40
15
91.9
7
tt.30
6
8L10
4
96.39
7
90.9
5
86.09
4
94.30
«
90.30
47
83.80
25
ff.Tl
39
9a68
14
80.9
11
9e.n
1
91. «o
7
74.»
7
7B.9
2
Ttm
21
9Lm
IS
85.13
12
79. It
6
».n
44
80.M
4
9110
51
•.»
31
8&.0*
8
fo^a
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MILK AND CBEAM CONTESTS.
13
Stanmary to February 4i 1910.
Number of contests.
Samples entered. .
Avcfage scoTGs.
(Milk...
(Cream.
^^/Certified.
28
65
589
12
227
*et
Certified
Market
Certified milk 87. 54
Certified cream 83. 83
Market milk 88.77
Market cream 87. 47
It should be stated that up to this date certified milk and market
milk were judged by different standards; hence it is owing to this fact
and not to inferiority that the former has a lower average score than
the market milk. During 1910 new score cards for milk and cream
were devised, which gave greater weight to the bacterial coimt and
less to flavor and chemical composition. The restdts of the com-
petitions during the use of the second form of score card are as
follows:
lAst of milk and cream contests held in cooperation with the Dairy Division during the
use of second score card.
Name and place.
Num-
ber of
entries.
Average
score.
Illinois State Fair, Springfield, lU
National Dairy Show, Chicago, 111
State Dairymen's Association, Baltimore, Md,
Kentucky Dairy Cattle Club, Lexington, Ky..
State Dairymen's Association, Roanoke, Va
State Dairy Union, Harrisburg, Pa
PhOadelphJa UOk Show, Philadelphia, Pa. . .
City mllkshow, Detroit, Mich
State fair,8pringflfild,m.
National Dairy Show, Chicago, m
Muskegon ICIIk Show, Muskegon, Mich .
State dairy union, Pittsborgh, Pa
Oct. 4, 1910....
/Oct. 1^- 29,
\ 1910.
Nov., 1910
Jan. 3^,1911..
Jan. 11,1911...
/Jan. 23 - 27,
I 1911.
ray 20-27,
19U.
nyt. 26-26,
/Sept. 29-Oct.
\ 7,1911.
/Oct. 26-Nov.
\ 4,1911.
Deo. 6-0,1911..
/Jan. 15-20,
\ 1912.
^ffnaea* week show, Amherst, Mass. .
C%ahow, South Bend, Ind
Mar., 1912....
June 12, 1912.
Cerfifledmflk...
Certified cream. .
Market mili....
Market cream...
Certified milk...
Certified cream..
Market milk
Market cream . . .
Market milk
{Certified milk...
Certified cream..
Market mfik
Market cream...
fMarketmilk
\Market cream...
|Cer(ifiedmiik...
{Market milk....
(Market, eream...
Ceriiiitiduiilk...
Certified cream..
Market milk....
Market cream...
Market milk....
Market cream...
Certified milk...
Certified cream..
Market milk....
Market cream...
Certified milk...
Certified cream
Market miik
Market cream...
/Market cream...
IMarketmilk
Certified milk...
Market milk
.Market cream...
Certified milk...
Market milk....
Market cream...
Market milk....
i
1
13
6
30
8
51
16
37
3
3
7
3
13
3
1
8
2
16
2
16
4
111
4
1
1
16
14
17
4
28
18
1
17
1
42
8
1
40
14
3
90.30
95.00
68.77
67.22
86.75
85,45
85.13
79.11
75.91
91.50
87.33
75.93
69.33
89.98
83.66
86.75
87.55
75.13
86.18
89.25
85.13
74.56
75.40
79.66
83.90
86.25
77.46
80.26
88.46
91.28
84.68
80.09
92.25
85.68
93.25
85.33
88.75
95.00
92.00
87.21
94.68
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
14
BULLETIN 356, U. S. DEPABTMENT OP AGMCULTUBE.
List of milk and cream (xmtests held in cooperation with the Dairy Division during the
use of second score card— Contmued.
Name and place.
Date.
Product.
Num-
ber of
entries.
National Dairy Show, Chicago, HI.
atymillE show, Detroit, Mich
Pacific International Dairy Show, Portland,
Oreg.
City milk show, Jacksonville, Fla
State Daily Union, Harrisburg, Pa
State Dairymen's Association, Saginaw, Mich.
State Dairymen's Association, Richmond, Va.
Bureau of Social Service, Muskegon, Mich. . . .
Farmers' week show, Amherst, Mass
Industrial Exposition, Rochester, N. Y
State Fair, North Yakima, Wash
City mUk show, Taooma, Wash
National Dairy Show, Chicago, 111
State milk show, Springfield, Mass
Stote Daily Union, York, Pa
City milk show. Salt Lake City, Utah
rOct2«-Nov.2,
\ 1012.
rov. U-12,
1912.
^Nov.21,1912..
Deo. 14-21,
1912.
Jan. 22, 1913...
Feb. 4-7, 191S.
Feb. 6, 1913...
Feb. 7-10, 1913
Mar. 19,1913..
Sept. 16, 1918..
Oct. 1,1918... .
Oct, 1913..
Certified milk..
Certified cream
Market milk...
Market cream..
[Market milk...
.Market cream..
Certified mOk.
Market milk...
^Market cream..
Market milk. . .
State Dairymen's Association, Grand Rapids,
Mich.
Farmers' week, Amherst, Mass
City show, Tacoma. Wash ,
American Association of Medical Milk Com-
missions, Rochester, N. Y.
Charter Oak Fair, Hartford, Conn.
State Fair, Detroit, Mich.
National Daiiy Show, Chicago, III
Chamber of Commerce, Cumberland, Md .
StateShow, Worcester, Mass
State Dairjmen's Association, Manchester,
N. H.
Pure-food department show, Tampa, Fla
State Dairymen's Association, Flint, Mich. .
City mOkshow, Grand Rapids, Mich
City milk show, Pontiac, Mich
Farmers' week show, Amherst, Mass
/Oct 23-Nov.
\ 1,1913.
Dec. 2-3, 1913..
Jan. 13,1914...
Jan. 22,1914...
Feb. 10-13,
1914.
Mlu-. 18, 1914..
Apr. 21, 1914..
^JunelO, 1914..
Aug. 27, 1914..
rs^t 7-18,
[ 1914.
Oct 24, 1914...
Nov. 9, 1914...
Dec 2, 1914...
^Feb. 10,1915..
Feb. 12-16,
1915.
Feb. 17, 1915..
Feb. 22, 1915..
Feb. 25, 1915..
Mar. 19, 1915.*
fCertifledmflk
Market milk
Market cream
Market milk
Market cream
Market milk
.Market cream
Market mUk
.Market cream
Certified mUk
Market milk
Market cream
Market milk
[Certified milk
Market milk
, Pasteurised milk..
JMarketmilk
IPasteurisedmilk..
Certified milk
Market mUk
Market cream
Market milk
Market cream
Certified mUk
Market milk
fMarketmilk
VPasteurixed milk..
/Market milk
iMarket cream
/Market mUk
\Market cream
Market mUk
/Certified milk
Market milk
Market milk
Market cream
Certified milk
Market milk
Market cream
Certified milk
Market milk
Market cream
Market mUk
tketmllk
ket cream
ketmilk
ket cream
ketmilk
fMarketmilk
[Market cream
fMarketmilk
[Market cream
fMarketmilk
ilforketmiik
[Market cream
I Pasteurised mOk..
15
2
30
18
163
7
7
5
1
21
8
30
4
23
7
16
4
17
1
2
63
16
15
2
27
6
28
2
23
73
19
145
24
4
19
30
6
30
0
05
23
42
17
17
18
10
2
111
4
19
64
18
17
133
24
45
8
23
30
5
26
13
36
75
20
6
Number of conteete.
Summary of scores made with the second card.
Number of samples 2, 434
Milk...
Cream.
45
^ Certified 1«5
Market 1,J05
Pasteurized. 20
^^Certified A
^Market W
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MILK AKD OBEAM CONTESTS.
15
The f ollowing-nained contests, on account of the different methods
of collecting samples, are not included in the averages:
Name and idaoe.
Date.
Product.
Number
of
entriea.
AveragM.
State Dairymen's Asodatkm, Baltimore, Md
Oraoite State Dairymen's Assodatian, CoDoard.X
N.H. .7
City dxyvr, Portland, Oreg
City riiofir, Seattle, Wash.
Oty siiair, Portland, Oreg
Qty show, Seattle, Wash.
nUnois State Fair, SpringAeld, lU
State Dairymen's Assoriation, Baltimore, Md.
City show, Portland, Oreg
City shoir, Seattle, Wash
CItysborar, Portland, Oreg.
Portbnd Pure Milk Co., Portland, Oreg
7-«,1911
Nov. 20, 1912
[Nov. 15,1913
Sept. 9,1914
Sept. 18,1914
Nov. 13,1914
Deo. 11,1914
Jan. 8,1916
Mar. 31,1915
Jan. 29,1916
Market milk
Market mOk
Market mflk
/Market milk
.Market cream
CertiHedmOk....
Market milk
Pasteurised mnk. .
Certified mOk....
Market milk
Pasteurised milk..
Certified mOk....
Market milk
Pasteurised milk. .
Certified mnk....
Market milk
Pasteurized milk. .
Market milk
Market milk
Certified milk....
Market milk
Pasteurised milk. ,
Certified mOk....
Market milk
Pasteurised milk.
Certified milk....
Market mflk
Pasteurized milk.,
Market milk
33
17
47
5«
4
2
106
17
5
76
17
2
105
10
5
73
15
36
25
2
111
15
5
80
19
2
101
15
63
67.07
81.18
7L06
76.19
69.44
95.37
82.63
66.21
93.12
85.88
84.19
94.21
76.56
67.28
94.70
87.66
88.36
95.34
83.06
72.18
95.12
9a 42
88.60
91.69
1 No data.
One hmidred and twenty-nine other samples have been judged
under regulations somewhat different from those described.
AVERAGE SCORES OF RECENT CONTESTS.
The average scores of the contests in which the second score cards
were used are as follows:
Average scores^ in detail, of contests where the ucond cards were used.
Milk.
Cream.
Item.
Perfect
score.
Certi-
fied.
Market.
Perfect
score.
Certi-
fied.
Market.
Bacteria
Percent.
85
25
10
10
10
5
5
Percent.
31.04
20.29
8.85
9.33
9.53
4.94
4.94
Percent.
30.51
22.95
8.67
9.19
9.09
4.89
4.62
Percent.
35
25
10
20
Percent,
28.83
20.43
9.28
19.52
Percent,
26.00
Fltror and odor
20.08
Visible dirt
9.18
Pat
19.91
ScUdsnotlat
Addity
5
6
4.76
4.77
4.85
Bottie'end f«p
4.73
Total
100
88.92
89.92
100
87.59
84.75
To demonstrate further the weakest points in the samples entered
in these contests, the table below shows the scores on each class of
milk and cream in terms which indicate the per cent of the average
score to the perfect score.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
16 BULLETIN 356, U. 8. DBPAETMBNT OP AGMCULTUKE.
Fer cent ofpeTfectwn aUained by samples in preceding table.
liUk.
Cream.
Item.
Certi-
fied.
Market.
Certi-
fied.
Maitat
Bacteria
Percent.
88.68
81.16
88.50
93.30
95.30
98.80
98.80
Percent.
87.17
91.80
86.70
91.90
91.90
97.80
92.40
Percent.
03.37
81.72
92.80
97.60
Per cm.
74.S
Flavor and odor
n.S2
Visible dirt
9L8I
Fat
98L»
Solids not fat
Acidity
96.20 97.69
Bottl© and cap
95.40 94.10
These two tables bring out some very interesting data concerning
the samples of milk and cream entered.
It is believed that the second form of the milk and cream score card
which was in use gave a great deal better analysis of the quality of
the milk than the old one. The first milk and cream score cards put
certified milk and cream at a disadvantage, as different cards were
used for the certified and market classes, the standards for certified
milk being much higher. This must be remembered in examining
the average scores made in the contests held while the first cards
were in use. Also a higher standard was made for acidity in certified
milk than in market milk.
It was decided after much deliberation that only one score card
should be used for milk, whether it be certified or market, tlie
great point to be made in the consideration of milk is its value as a
food for infants, so in the final analysis aU milk must be considered
from the same standpoint when held up to the standard of perfectioiL
The second card balanced up the desirable characteristics in a
much better way than the old, and the results seem to justify Ae
change. Certified milk averaged better than market nulk on every
point except on flavor and odor, where it fell about 2 J points bdiind
market milk.
The average score of the certified milk for bacteria, 31.04 per coit,
indicates that the average sample submitted contained from 6,000
to 7,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter. The average fat content was
between 3.6 and 3.7 per cent. The average solids not fat were almost
8.7 per cent, while the average acidity ran between 0.2 and 0.21 per
cent. In the market milk the average score indicates a bact^ial
count of between 7,000 and 8,000; the fats average between 3.5 and
3.6 per cent; the solids not fat between 8.6 and 8.7 per c^it; while
the acidity was between 0.2 and 0.21 per cent.
Considering that some of the samples above were shipped 2,000
miles or more, were several days in transit, and after their aimtl
they were held in storage for several days, making them over a week
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MILK AND OBEAM CONTESTS. 17
old when scored, the showing is remarkable and points out very
strongly the fact that milk properly produced and handled and
thorou^y refrigerated in transit and storage can be kept sweet for
a considerable length of time.
The latest card shown on page 7 is more nearly imif orm as to cuts
in bacterial rating than the former cards. For the same increase in
bacteria practically the same cuts are made, there being no serious
breaks.
BENEFFTS OF MILK CONTESTS TO DAIRYMEN.
As milk and cream contests are intended primarily for the educa-
tion of the dairymen, it is interesting .to go over the scores made in
some of these contests to see whether they accomplish the purpose.
In examining the scores of contests which have been held in ihe same
place two years in succession, two things are very noticeable. The
first is that dairymen who compete for two successive years almost
always do better in a second contest than they did in their first,
showing very plainly that they have received valuable suggestions
as to the production of sanitary milk. The second is that dairymen
who have had experience in these competitions nearly always do
better than those who are competing for the first time. The follow-
ing results which have been tabulated from three contests show con-
clusive figures along these lines:
MARYLAND STATE DAIRYMEN *S ASSOCIATION, 1911 CONTEST.
Ayerage
10 men who competed the year previouB 73. 83
23 men competiDg f(»r the first time 64. 15
IIUNOIS STATE FAIR.
Ayerage Average
score 1910. score 1911.
7 dairies which competed both years 74. 64 79. 68
7 dairies which did not compete in 1910 64. 39
NATIONAL DAIRY SHOW.
Market milk:
5 dairies which competed both years 89.60 89.53
23 dairies which did not compete in 1910 83. 62
Certified milk:
14 dairies which competed both years 83.10 91.05
3 dairies which did not compete in 1910 75. 72
Looking at the Maryland State Dairymen's Association's 1911 con-
test, it is seen that the 10 men who had had previous experience in
preparing milk for contests averaged more than 9 points better on
the score card than those men who were competing for the first time.
At the Illinois State Fair in 1911 those who had competed the
previous year bettered their former scores by more than 5 points and
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
18 BULLETIN 356, U. S. DEPAKTMENT OF AGKICULTUBE.
averaged more than 15 points hi^er than the dahrymen who were conh
peting for the first time.
The scores made by both market and certified milk samples at the
National Dairy Shows in 1910 and 1911 have been compiled, and
they show similar results for the two years, though in the case <rf
market milk the improvement from 1910 to 1911 is very small; but
the fact that the dairies which had had the advantage of a previous
competition averaged 6 points better than the new competitors bears
out the truth of the statements made in this connection* The
improvement in the certified milk was very remarkable, as in 1911
14 dairies increased their 1910 score by nearly 8 points and exceeded
by more than 15 points the 3 certified dairies which were competing
for the first time.
These figures, which are the result of the compilation of a large
number of samples, show how the dairyman is taught by these con-
tests to improve the quality of his products. The score cards made
on each exhibit of milk and cream are always sent to the competitors
with comments on the defects of the product, and they should contain
suggestions for improvement. Progressive dairymen everywhere
are availing themselves of the benefits derived from these contests
and are finding that the competition aids them in many ways.
KXTUACTTS FBOM LBTTERS.
The following are quotations from letters that have been received
from dairymen subsequent to milk contests:
I was 80 much surprifled on the foUowing moming after the annooncemeiit; wben
I arrived in town the people came in every direction to congratulate me en my socceaB;
I could not believe it. From the fact that there are so many older and more experi-
enced dairymen than myself I was not expecting anything of the kind.
I have this much confidence in myself that if I won this time I will try again. I
have discovered where I can make much improvement next time in flavor.
I expect to use narrow-top pails hereafter. I use straw for bedding; I dampen my
bedding with a sprinkler just before the cows go in. I washed my cow 12 hours before
milking; later, I rubbed her down- one hour before milking I rubbed her down again
with a damp cloth.
We are very glad that we had our goods entered. The winning of cup and honar>
able mention are a source of satisfaction, not from their value, but to know our standing.
We have been trying to produce good, clean,. wholesome products, but did not
know where we stood as compared with others, as this was our first en^.
It has certainly been a good advertisement for us, as we have not been able to fill
our orders since.
Although my milk was not good enough to receive a diploma, I learned more than
if it had scored better. The appearance of the samples on Friday made me think I
was free of many undesirable kinds of bacteria, and I believe that if my methods are
improved I can produce as good milk as is produced in the much more expensive
plants.
I
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MILK AND OBBAM CONTESTS. 19
SUGGESTIONS FOR THE PROIHJCTION OF CONTEST MILK.
It lias been found in examining the answers to the questions con-
oeroing the production and handling of the best samples of milk and
cream entered in contests that the producers have in every case
exercised great care, and that the result^ obtained bear out the prin-
dples which from time to time have been laid down as necessary for
the production of pure milk. It is not the purpose here to go into
great detail regarding all methods which might be used, but a short
rfeam6 of the more important things to be considered in preparing
a sample of milk or cream to enter in one of these contests will be
presented.
BAOTEBIA.
As the bacterial count has so much weight on the score card, it
win very naturally be the source of much consideration on the part
of the producer. The bacterial count in samples entered in past
contests has varied from below 100 to several millions per cubic
centimeter. As it can be assumed that any one preparing samples
for contests will exercise all the care and intelligence whidi he pos-
sesses, it must be concluded that at the present time many of our
producers do not understand just where the bacteria come from and
how Uieir entrance into the milk can be prevented.
First of all, in the production of milk which will have a low bacte-
rial count, it is necessary to have absolute cleanliness in every branch
of the work. The bam itself and the bam air must be free from dust
at the time of milking. This can be accomplished by keeping the
waDs, ceiling, and floors scrupulously clean, and some producers just
before milking thne have even gone so far as to sprinkle the air in the
bam, and also the bedding, with a fine spray of water to la^ the dust.
The cow herself is a source of very dangerous bacterial contamina-
tion. She very often carries on her akin dust, dry manure, loose hair,
and other impurities, which fall into the milk p€dl during the process
of milking. To produce milk of the highest grade it is necessary to
have the cows thoroughly groomed with the currycomb and brush.
Just before milking is commenced the cow's udder and flanks should
either be wiped with a damp rag or the parts thoroughly washed and
then dried with a clean towel, so that no water can drip from the
body into l^e milk pail. Better results are obtained, however, if
the cow's hair is slightly moist during milking. This method washes
from the cow's hide much dust and dirt which might not be removed
by currying. The hands of the milker should be thoroughly cleaned,
and to secure the best results he should milk dry-handed.
It has been demonstrated that a large nimiber of the bacteria that
get into the milk may be excluded by the use of a small-top pail,
which protects the milk from dust and germs which may drop from
Digitized by
Google
20 BULLETIN 356, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE.
the cow's body. All utensils, such as pails, strainers, bottles, dippers,
etc., which come into contact with the milk, should be sterilized with
either live steam or boiling water. Many dairjrmen make the mis-
take of thoroughly washing the bottles and then rinsing them with
water which is only warm. This does not kill the bacteria which
may be on the surface of the utensils, and considerable contamination
ensues. Many competitors have been in the habit of discarding the
first few streams of milk that come from each teat, for it is known
that the first milk drawn contains a larger proportion of bacteria than
that which follows. Milking should be done as quickly as possible
and with as little agitation of the cow's udder as is possible, as such a
disturbance is very liable to shake bacteria from the cow's hide into
the milk pail.
As milk is so easily contaminated it is necessary, as soon as drawn,
to take it to a clean, convenient milk house, where it can be cooled
immediately. The milk house should be well protected against flies
and should be scrupulously dean. As bacteria grow very fast in
warm milk, prompt cooling is an absolute necessity. Fresh milk con-
taining 100 bacteria per cubic centimeter, if not cooled will in the
course of time contain the offspring of the original bacteria which
may amoimt to millions. In the scoring of cream it has been noticed
that the bacterial coimt has averaged higher than that of the mUk
samples submitted. This may be attributable to the fact that clumps
of bacteria are broken up by the force of the separator, and hence an
apparently larger count is the result, or it may be caused by milk
passing through one more piece of apparatus, namely, the separator,
which is not always thoroughly cleaned and sterilized.
The bottles into which the product is put and the caps with which
they are sealed should be sterilized so that no contamination can
ensue. In cooling the milk it is not necessary that any special form
of cooler be used. In fact, many of the successful competitors in
the past who have obtained very low bacterial counts have believed
that the exposure of the milk to the air in passing over a cooler was
not a desirable feature, and have bottled the milk warm and cooled
it with ice water. While this method does not cool the milk quite so
quickly, it saves it from any possible contamination caused by expos-
ing it in a thin sheet to the air. Bottles should be kept in ice or ice
water until ready for shipment; then they should be packed in a
durable shipping case surrounded with ice and forwarded without
delay.
FLAVOR AND ODOR.
Several causes contribute to imdesirable flavors and odors in milk
and cream. One instance is the flavor which is the result of bacterial
action. This may be owing to the lactic-acid bacteria which aoois
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MILK AND GBEAM CONTESTS. 21
milk. In some contests those in charge have received samples that
were actually curdled; such milk, being of no value as market milk,
could not, of course, get credit for flavor or odor. Then certain forms
of bacteria cause fermentation or decomposition in milk, and when
they have worked for a considerable length of time they cause a very
undesirable flavor.
Certain feeds also contribute to the flavor and odor. In several
competitions milk scores have been cut heavily because of a pro-
nounced garlic flavor. Silage flavor is very often in evidence, espe-
cially during cold spells in the winter when the bams are kept tightly
closed. If the silage is fed directly after milking instead of either
before or during milking, there shotQd be no trouble on account of
silage flavor in milk. There is one thing, however, that must be
remembered: If the cows leave any silage in the mangers it must be
cleaned out and taken from the bam when they are through, as the
warm milk very readily absorbs the silage odor if it is in the air.
The stable air, if close or *'cowy," is another source of bad odors
which are absorbed by the milk. Sometimes flavors are detected
in milk which are due to foreign substances. Milk has been sub-
mitted in bottles from the rubber parts of which it had absorbed a
flavor of rubber. The use of unparaffined caps may give rise to a
** brown paper" flavor in the milk.
It would seem that the best results, so far as flavor and odor go,
can be sectired by mixing the milk of three or more cows. Some-
times the physical condition of the cow or the period of her lactation
influences the flavor of the milk considerably, so that if the milk
from only one cow is submitted there is a risk of the individuality of
the cow playing some part in the flavor. It is also best to avoid
**stripper" milk on account of a strong flavor which very often
develops.
VISIBLE DIBT.
With proper care in milking or even with proper care in straining
there is no excuse for large amounts of sediment in milk. As a
matter of fact, however, few samples, even in the certified milk class,
have been scored perfect on this point, and some samples have been
so extremely dirty as to receive a zero on the score card. The sedi-
ment usually foimd is a fine, dark-brown or black precipitate, which
is the result of dust and dried manure finding its way from the cow's
hide into the milk. Some of this fine sediment in a state of tempo-
rary suspension in the milk may pass through coarse strainer cloths,
if such are used, and settle to the bottom of the bottle after the milk
is allowed to stand for any considerable time. Very often large
pieces of foreign matter have f oimd their way into the milk. In some
cases it is almost unbelievable that such matter could get into contest
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
22 BULLETIN 356, U. S. DBPAETMEITr OF AGWCULTUBE.
milk and escape the observation of the producer. Bits of straw or
hay an inch or an inch and a half long have been found in the bottom
of the bottle, and cow hairs are often found in the sediment, and
occasionallj bristles from "brushes
To avoid visible dirt in the milk and thus receive a high score <m
this point it is necessary to follow the rules for cleanliness laid down
under the heading "Bacteria." Sometimes the sediment is due to
the fact that pails or bottles after being sterilized are allowed to
stand imcovered. If there is any wind stirring, chaff, dust, etc, are
almost sure to be blown into the pails or bottles and will thus appear
as sediment in the milk. Coarse strainers should be avoided if the
producer wishes to get all the fine dirt out of the milk. The best
results in the past have probably been secured with the use of cotton
as a straining medium. Various forms of cotton are on the market,
some in bulk and some prepared in thin sheets especially for stoun-
ing. In the answers to questions on the production of milk for con-
tests there does not seem to be any special advantage in milking
on to a strainer over the milk pail. Unless the strainer cloth is
changed when each cow is milked such a practice is liable to result
in worse contamination than when the milk is simply milked into an
open pail and then strained into the can.
FAT AND SOLtDS NOT FAT.
Except in occasional cases a normal milk having a fat cont^it of
4 per cent contains more than 8.7 per cent of solids not fat. In some
contests several samples have been entered which apparently had
been modified by the producer in the attempt to obtain a higher score
on chemical composition. Milks testing 8 per cent of fat and ovot
have been submitted. Fortimatoly, such an adtdteration is very
easily seen by the judges when the fat is compared with the solids
not fat. The contestant who tries to improve upon nature in this
manner ofton decreases, rather than increases, his score. Any milk
containing as much as 4 per cent of fat receives a perfect score, so
that an 8 per cent milk gets no higher score on fat than a 4 per cent
milk. The result of adding cream to milk to bring it from a 4 per
cent to an 8 per cent fat is to lower the proportion of solids not fat
in the milk, so that the score on that item is sometimes cut consider-
ably. In normal milk the soUds not fat increase as the fat increases
but not in the same ratio. In milk to which cream has been added,
however, the fat increases and the sohds not fat are decreased.
To eliminate contact with all imnecessary utonsils some contest-
ants have milked directly into the milk bottle. The first part of the
milk drawn from the cow is quite deficient in fat, while the very last
of the milk runs high in that constituent. In order to have a noimal
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MILK AND CBEAM CONTESTS. 23
diemical composition in milk it is necessary to mix the entire milk
from one or more cows.
AdDriT.
The presence of acid-forming bacteria in milk in large numbers is
i^ually responsible for a high acidity. It may be that there are other
factors which play an important part in the acidity of milk, but at the
present time they are not well imderstood. To keep down the acidity
of milk daused by acid-forming bacteria it is necessary to keep the
bacterial coimt as low as possible by following the precautionary
measures previously mentioned. To check the growth of bacteria
the milk shoidd be thoroughly iced from the time of millcing until it
b scored.
BOTTLE AND CAP.
It is best to select bottles which are made of clear glass and which
are free from flaws and other imperfections. The bottles should be
filled up to the cap seat with the milk or cream. The cap should fit
the mouth of the bottle tight enough to prevent leakage but not so
tight that it will have to be janmied in order to force it into place.
When it is in place melted paraffin may be poured on it, taking care
to fin the depression in which the cap rests. The bottle top may be
protected by waterproof material, such as oiled or paraffined paper,
tin or tin-foil caps, etc. The most conmion cut against the appear-
ance of the bottle and cap has been made because either the bottles
have not been filled or because the cap and the mouth of the bottle
were not properly protected. The protection of the mouth of the
bottle is important not only from the standpoint of appearance but
because iced cases of bottles are piled one above the other and often
the dirty water resulting from the mixture of dust and melted ice
Mckles down upon the bottles.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PUBUCATIONS OF U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO
MILK AND CREAM.
AVAILABLE FOB FBEE DISTBIBUTION.
The Application of Refrigeration to the Handling of Milk. (Department Bulletin 98.)
The Alcohol Test in Relation to Milk. (Department Bulletin 202.)
Estimation of Total Solids in Milk by Use of Formulas. (Bureau of Animal Industry
Bulletin 134.)
Influence of Stage of Lactation on Composition and Properties of ^filk. (Bureau of
Animal Industry Bulletin 155.)
Chemical Changes Produced in Cows' lifilk by Pasteurization. (Bureau of Animal
Industry Bulletin 166.)
Extra Cost of Producing Clean Milk. (Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 170.)
Utilization of Exhaust Steam for Heating Boiler Feed Water and Wash Water in Milk
Plants, Creameries, and Dairies. (Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 209.)
Use of Milk as Food. (Farmers Bulletin 363.)
Care of Milk and Its Use in Home. (Fanners Bulletin 413.)
Bacteria in Milk. (Farmers Bulletin 490.)
Grading (tf Cream. (Separate 536 from Yearbook 1910.)
FOR SALE BT THB SUPBEINTENDBNT OF DOCUMENTS
Medical I^k Commissions and Certified MUk. (Department Bulletin 1.) I^ce,
10 cents.
Fat Testing of Cream by Babcock Method. (Bureau (rf Animal Industry Bulletin 58.)
Price, 5 cents.
Bacteria of Pasteiuized and Unpasteurized Milk Under Laboratory Conditiona. (Bu-
reau of Animal Industry Bulletin 73.) Price, 5 cents.
Market Milk Investigations: 2. Milk and Cream Exhibit at National Dairy Show.
(Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 87.) Price, 10 cents.
Milking Machine as Factor in Dairying. Preliminary Report: 1. Ptactical Studies of
Millcing Machines; 2. Bacteriological Studies of Milking Machine. (Bureau of
Animal Industry Bulletin 92.) Price, 15 cents.
Chemical and Physical Study of Laige and Small Fat Globules in Cows' Milk. (Bu-
reau of Animal Industry Bulletin 111.) Price, 5 cents.
Variations in Composition and Properties of Wlk from Individual Cow. (Bureau d
Animal Industry Bulletin 157.) Price, 5 cents.
Study of Bacteria Which Survive Pasteurization. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bul-
letin 161.) Price, 10 cents.
City I^k and Cream Contest as Practical Method of Improving Milk Supply. (Bu-
reau of Animal Industry Circular 117.) Price, 5 cents.
Some Important Factors in Production of Sanitary'Milk. (Bureau of Animal Industry
Circular 142.) Price, 5 cents.
Competitive Exhibitions of Milk and Cream, with Report of Exhibition Held at
Pittsbuigh, Pa. (Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 151.) Price, 5 cents.
Improved Methods for Production of Market Milk by Ordinary Dairies. (Bureau of
Animal Industry Circular 158.) Price, 5 cents.
Extra Cost of Producing Clean Milk. (Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 17D.)
Price, 5 cents.
Fermented Milks. (Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 171.) Price 5 cents.
Pasteurization of Milk. (Biu^au of Animal Industry Circular 184.) Price, 5 cents.
Directions for Home Pasteurization of Milk. (Bureau of Animal Industry Circuitf
197.) Price, 5 cents.
Milk and Cream Contests and how to Control Them, and How to Prepare Samples hs
Competition. (Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 205.) Price, 5 cents.
24
WASHINGTON : GOTEBNHIINT PRINTING OFTICa : UU
uigiiizea oy ''
lOOglt
TfJTdT^T^
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 357
ConMbattmi fbom the Bnraia of Plant ladoatry
WM. A. TAYLOB, Chtef
Waaiiiiii^ii, D. C
April 27» 1916
ALASKA AND STONER, OR "MIRACLE," WHEATS:
TWO VARIETIES MUCH MISREPRESENTED. .
By Casleton R. Ball, Agronomist in Charge of Western Wheat InvestigtHionsl
and Clyde E. Leiqhty, Agronomist in Charge of Eastern Wheat Ii^i^fga- ^.
tions.
CONTENTS.
Iitve&iga' ^
Znlroductioii
Alaska wheat
Descr^tion.
Early history
Recent dxploitation
Yields.
MOIiiig tests
etonar, or "Miracle," wheat
DeKriptton '.
History.
Ezploitation in Philadelphia
Promoting *' Miracle" wheat
Chicago
PromoUng "Marveloiis" wheat
JnAhyns^
Promoting "Miracle'' wheat
Brooklyn.
The Stoner Seed Wheat Company
Page.
1
2
2
3
6
9
11
14
15
15
17
in
hi
18
18
Pager
Stoner, or " Miracle/' wheats-Continued.
Experimental data
Yields in comparison with other
varieties
Tests at the Maryland Agricul-
tural Experiment Station
Tests at Arlington Farm
Tests at Nephi, Utah
Rate-of-seeding tests 22
Tillering power 24
General tests by State experiment
stations 25
Tests in Kentucky 25
Tests in Pennsylvania 26
Tests in Indiana 27
Conclusions 27
INTRODUCTION.
There are many named varieties of wheat and other cereal crops.
Xew varieties and new names for old varieties are appearing con-
stantl J. Many of these new varieties, or so-called varieties, are good ;
some are not. The good varieties are sometimes advertised as being
much better than they really are. Varieties of little value sometimes
are claimed to be the best of all.
There are various ways by which the promoters of supposed new
varieties interest their customers. Sometimes it is a story of wheat
of mysterious or foreign origin; sometimes it is a new or unusually
developed character that is claimed. Examples of this are the enor-
mous tillering power claimed for the so-called Miracle wheat or the
23342*'— Bull. 367—16 1
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
2 BULLETIN 357, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
wonderful productiveness claimed for the branched heads of the
so-called Alaska wheat. Always, however, the yields are said to
be enormous. Sometimes the same variety is exploited again and
again under a new name and with a new and wonderful story.*
The present paper deals with two misrepresented varieties of
wheat. They have had very interesting and varied histories in past
years. This bulletin tells what they really are, gives the story of
their origin, quotes the claims made for them, and states what ihey
may reasonably l>e expected to do under average conditions.
Active efforts to promote the sale of these wheats are etill being
made and many farmers are being misled into purchasing them be-
cause of the plausible statements made by the prcwnoters. The United
States Department of Agriculture and the State agricultural experi-
ment stations endeavor to keep informed concerning all such exploi-
tations and to warn their constituents of the danger. The present
paper is the result of this endeavor.
ALASKA WHEAT.
The so-called Alaska wheat is merely a very old variety under
a new" name. Attempts to promote it under one or another of its
many names have been numerous and persistent for more than a
hundred years. There is evidence that these exploitations usually
have been profitable to promoters and expensive to purchasers. In
order that the reader may know definitely some of the ways in which
it has been promoted its histoiy is given rather fully. Quotations
from early American writers show former exploitations, while the
most recent one is fully discussed. These instances should serve to
put readers on guard against future exploitations. This wheat has
never been proved to have value anywhere in the United States.
DESCRIPTION OF ALASKA WHEAT.
The variety recently ex])loitod under the name Alaska wheat
belongs to the poulard subspecies of wheat. Botanically, the poulard
wheats are known as THticum turgidum or THticum destivum,
turgidum. They are somewhat intermediate between the common and
the durum wheats. All of them ai*e bearded, and the beards are more
or less intermediate in their length and color l)etween those of com-
mon wheat and those of dunmi wheat. They have the peculiarly
flattened heads, the broad chaff, and the amber kernels of the durums.
The chaff, however, is rather thin and papery, and the kernels are
shorter, softer, and more humpbacked than those of durum wheat.
These wheats are not grown commercially anywhere in this coun-
try, and the relationships of the different varieties are not well known.
* Seo Ball. C. K. " Throe much misrepresented sorghums/' U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. PUnt
Indus. CIr. 50, 14 p., 2 fig. 1910.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ALASKA AND STONER, OB MIBACLE/ WHEATS. 3
The chaff is usually without hairs, but sometimes it is hairy. Some
have simple heads, like the common and durum wheats ; others have
branched heads.
The pouhu'd variety here discussed as
Alaska wheat is fairly well known in the
United States. It has branched heads and
liairs on the chaff. It has been adver-
tised many different
times under many
names, but has
never become per-
manently estab-
lished. On account
Fig. 1. — Large, medium, and small heads of Alaska wheat. (About half natural size.)
of the large, branching head it has always been easy to interest people
in this variety. Heads of this wheat are shown in figure 1.
EARLY mSTORT OF ALASKA WHEAT.
Poulard wheat in one or another of its forms is grown to some
extent in the Mediterranean region of Europe. This variety of
poulard wheat with branched head has been known in this country
onder many different names. Among them are Alaska, Egyptian,
Eldorado, Jerusalem, Many-Headed, Many-Spiked, Miracle, Multi-
ple-Headed, Mummy, Beed, Seven-Headed, Smyrna, Syrian, Wheat
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
4 BULLETIN 357, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE.
of Miracle, Wheat 3,000 Years Old, and Wild Goose. It is probable
that as many more names for this variety could be found if early
agricultural literature were searched.
Like many other crops, it probably was introduced in colonial days.
In 1815, a letter dated 1807 and signed by John Keemle^ was pub-
lished concerning a so-called Jerusalem wheat. This was a part
of a small crop produced by Dr. Keemle from seed secured by him
from Ireland and sown in the fall of 1806. These statements are
found in this letter (p. 137) :
Its productiveness may be estimatcHl by the number of heads on a single
straw, on some there are 3-5-7 heads, as you will observe by those I send you.
The straw is 6 feet high, and very stout, sufficiently so to bear its own weight
uncommonly well. The grain is full and plump, differently shaped from our
wheat, and somewhat larger.
From this it is evident that the Jerusalem wheat of 1807 was iden-
tical with the Alaska wheat of the present time.
In connection with this letter the origin of the name Jerusalem
is given by Dr. J. Mease,^ secretary of the Philadelphia society.
According to this statement, a small sheaf of this wheat was brought
from Palestine. by a traveler and used as "a sign to an alehouse
which he kept for some years after in Dublin." Some seeds from this
sheaf were picked up and planted by a farmer, who several years
later sold the produce of several acres at about $3.65 a pound.
Dr. Mease further states (p. 138) :
It is believed that the same variety of wheat was introduced into this country
in 1792, as some of a kind answering to the description of the Jerusalem wheat
was presented to the society, and distributed among the meml>ers, but as it has
been lost it is more than probable it possessed no particular good qualities.
In the issue of the American Farmer for September 26, 1S40,
there is an engraving from a drawing of a head of wheat, without
doubt the same as the Alaska wheat of the present time. This
wheat was grown by Mr. Alpheus Baker,* of Abbeville, S. C, who
is quoted in part as follows :
The wheat to which you allude was brought to this place from the Osage
Nation, by Col. Spleren, who had been sent to them as a commissioner by tbe
President of the United States. • * * We sell the wheat at $5 per bead.
In the same journal, in the issue of October 7, 1840, Mr. Gide<Hi
B. Smith,* of Baltimore, Md., writes as follows:
^ Keemle, John. On Jerusalem wheat. In Mem. Phila. Soc Prom. Agr., ▼. 1, p. 136-
137. 1815.
* Mease, James. On Jerusalem wheat. In Mem. Phila. Soc. Prom. Agr.. t. 1, p. 137— 13S,
1815.
'Baker, Alpheus. [A new wheat.] In Amer. Farmer, n. s., t. 2, no. 19, p. 148* 1 US'
1840.
* Smith, Gideon B. The new species of wheat. In Amer. Farmer, n. s., t. 2, no. 20.
p. 154. 1840.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ALASKA AKD STONEE, OB ''mIRACLE/' WHEATS. 5
THE NEW SPECIES OF WHEAT.
Baltimobe, October 3, I84O,
To the Editor of the American Farmer.
Sir : I think it proper to take the earliest occasion to notice the new species
of wheat, a drawing of which tias Just been published in the American Farmer
and copied into the American and Patriot, accompanied by a letter from Mr.
Read. I do this for the double purpose of saving money and trouble to all
concerned. This new species of wheat Is, without doubt, the Egjrptian wheat
Triticum campositum, for a drawing and description of which, see Loudon's
Encyclopedia of Plants. The engraving in Loudon and that in the Farmer
present the same characters precisely. Besides, I have often seen the E^gyptian
wheat, and the head of the new species which has been exhibited to me is
identical with the Egyptian. This kind of wheat was introduced into Eng-
land in 1799, and from that time to the present has made frequent appearances
in the United States. It has been called successively the Egyptian, Syrian,
Many-spiked, Seven-headed, Reed, Wild Goose wheat, etc. The name Wild
Goose was given to it from the fact that a few grains of it were found some
years ago in the crop of a wild goose that was killed on the shores of Lake
Champlain. The name Reed wheat was given to it because of its stout stem
resembling a small reed or cane. It was received by the Philadelphia Society
for Promoting Agriculture, in 1807, from Gen. Armstrong, th«i our minister
at Paris. Judge Peters took charge of a part of it, and grew it five or six
years. It was at first very productive under his cultivation, a pint of seed
sown in drills and hoed producing one bushel and a peck of grain. But after
the first three or four years, the Judge says it did not thrive sufficient to
authorize extensive cultivation. At that time it was extensively distributed
by the al>ove-named society. Judge Buel says he had seen extensive fields
of it
In the Domestic Encyclopedia, published in 1821, it is stated that the
Elgyptian wheat does not yield as much fiour as any of the other kinds, and
that the fiour is scarcely superior to that obtained from the finest barley. In
March, 1838, it was selling in Albany, N. Y., at $5 per bushel. It has several
times been brought from Santa Fe by travelers and traders. It appears to
be cultivated in that country, probably owing to Its better adaptation to the
climate than other kinds. That the Osage Indians might have obtained it from
Santa Fe is no way improbable. How it found its way from Egypt to Santa
Fe I cannot pretend to guess, unless a wild goose also carried it from the
former to the latter country, which, on reflection, is scarcely more improbable
than the fact stated above, that one of these birds carried it to the shores of
Lake Champlain.
Fnmi all these facts it would appear that if the wheat in question had been
adapted to our climate, or was susceptible of acclimation, and in other respects
a good variety, it would have gone into general cultivation long before this
time, as I take it for granted that an article that had been so extensively
distributed and so thoroughly experimented upon would have been retained and
universally cultivated, if it had been found valuable. During the 20 years of
my agricultural experience it has been presented to my notice at least 20 times.
Tour obedient servant,
Gideon B. Smith.
The names Egyptian, Miracle, Mummy, and Wheat 3,000 Years
Old all are derived from one of the most common untrue stories
about this variety. The story varies somewhat in detail but in gen-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
6 BULLETIN 357, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
eral it tells that when the coffin of an Egyptian mummy 3,000 or
4.000 years old was opened, some wheat was found; ' Seed was
planted, but only a single kernel grew. The resulting plant proved
a wonderful yielder and very different from any wheat now known.
Of course, this story in all its forms is a fabrication, pure and
simple. Stored under most f aVorable conditions, seeds of wheat will
not keep their vitality more than a few years. No wheat thousands
of years old has ever been known to germinate.
The name Egyptian wheat has recwitly been used in explmt-
ing a very different crop, namely, a variety of sorghum properly
known as shallu.^ The name Miracle has been recently used for an
entirely different kind of wheat. The name Wild Goose has been
used also for Arnautka durum wheat and for Polish wheat.
It always has seemed easy to interest people in this wheat. The
branched head and the mummy, wild-goose, and other stories have
been the very profitable stock in trade of many a promoter. It seems
very natural to many people that if an unbranched head will jield
so much, a branched head should yield much more. Head for head,
this may sometimes be true, but acre for acre it is not, as shown by
the results of experiment. The wheat is not grown commercially
anywhere in this country, and ought not to be until it is shown to
possess better qualities than are known at present.
RECENT EXPLOITATION OF ALASKA WHEAT.
In the early summer of 1908 accounts of what was claimed to be a
wonderful new wheat appeared in the press. These set forth in brief
that in 1904 an Idaho farmer had found, in a secluded spot on the
Alaskan coast, a wheat plant with branched heads. They further
stated he had brought back one head and sowed its seed that fall,
increasing the quantity to 7 poimds in 1905 and to 1,545 pounds in
1906, the latter being an increase of 220 fold, from which it was
argued that sowing 1 bushel to the acre would produce 220 bushels.
One of the statements about the wheat which awakened much in-
terest in the Eastern States was al follows: ^
And, last and best of all, it wUl bring back wheat raising to tbe worn-oat
farms of tbe East, where, with wheat yields 200 bushels to the acre, farmers
can afford to use manures and chemicals and make a profit.
There was obtained soon after a well-illustrated advertising cir-
cular containing exaggerated and misleading statements regarding
the origin of the wheat, its yielding power, its milling value, its
drought and cold resistance, its adaptability to poor soils, etc. This
1 Ball, C. R. Three much-misrepresented sorghums. U. S. Dept Agr., Bur. Plant Indos.
ar. 50, 14 p., 2 flg. 1910.
« Day, O. F. O. A miracle In wheat In Sat Even. Post, v. 181, no. 7. p. 11. 1»08.
The assertions made In this article were later disavowed by the paper. (Editorial, Stt
Even. Post, v. 181, no. 11, p. 16. 1908.)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ALASKA AND STONEE, OE ''mIRACLE/' WHEATS. 7
bore the name of a seed-grain company in Juliaetta, Idaho, which
offered a limited supply of the seed at $20 per bushel.
The following quotations from this circular contain the claims
made for the origin, character, yield, and value of the Alaska wheat:
THE BIRTH OF ALASKA.
Alaska wheat is the result of a bright idea on the part of Abraham Adams,
an Idaho farmer, who realized the possibilities of a "double" wheat crop if it
Gould be i>erfected. After working several years he perfected a head of wheat
with one single central head, around which were nine other shorter heads. If
this head would repeat in the planting, it meant a crop six to ten times greater
than ordinary wheat
The double head was planted in the fall of 1904, and the next summer 7
poonds resulted, and every head was double.
The 7 pounds planted in the spring of 1906 brought forth 1,545 pounds, 222i
times the plant made, or, at 1 bushel plant to the acre, 222-J bushels to the acre.
THE ALASKA WHEAT REVOLUTION.
It means that it is made possible to increase the wheat yield of the country
tenfold when Alaska seed is plenty. It means that with Alaska wheat the
farmer with a hundred acres finds his acreage value increased to a thousand
acres.
Farmers in the winter-wheat countries will have a winter wheat that will
be hard wheat instead of soft
The worn-out farms of the East can again raise wheat, because with such
a yield farmers can afford to use fertilizer and get valuable returns.
Farmers in dry countries will- find in Alaska wheat an ideal wheat for dry
land, where it flourishes, because Its native spot was dry.
Farmers in hot countries will find a wheat that remains cool and green after
two weeks of dry weather with the thermometer at 140** in the fields.
Farmers in cold countries will find a wheat that resists frost and hail that
would ruin any other wheat.
ALASKANS YIELD.
Regarding the trial of Alaska, a hundred bushels to the acre is only a small
yield. It has run from 100 bushels to 222i bushels to the acre in large tracts,
and even more in favored places. Ldke all wheat, much will depend on the
woU ; the better the soil the larger the yield.
From corr^pondence with the promoter of the wheat, it is known
that in the spring of 1908 samples of seed were sent to a chemist for
analysis. The report of this analysis, submitted in May, 1908,' was
favorable to the wheat Without making a milling test, the chemist
repealed that probably it would be as good as, if not superior to,
Palouse Bluestem for flour-making purposes.
The United States Department of Agriculture early in June, 1908,
b^an an investigation of the exploiting of this wheat. A warning
statement, issued on August 18 following, was widely distributed.
At the same time a cereal expert in the department was instructed to
study the wheat in the Idaho fields and report on the yields obtained.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
8 BULLETIN 357, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
At Juliaetta, on September 4 and 5, 1908, the expert found abont
700 acres of this wheat being grown for the seed company. The
wheat in different fields was then being thrashed and was found
to be yielding from 10 to 35 bushels per acre. The average was esti-
mated to be about 25 bushels. Well-known wheat varieties of the
Pacific Northwest were yielding as much and more under identical
conditions. It was found that good farmers around Juliaetta were
not growing this wheat.
This accords with a statement made by the promoting company
in a later pamphlet to the effect that the farmers refused to rent
their summer fallow for the growing of this wheat, and the pro-
moters were obliged, therefore, to sow it on c(Mitinuously crc^ped
land.
Orders and remittances for the seed wheat were being received
in large numbers. Most of the wheat was being shipped in bushel
and half-bushel lots to farmers of the New England and Atlantic
States. It will be remembered that the wheat had been advertised as
having especial value for eastern conditions. An agent was spend-
ing his entire time taking orders in the South. Very little was
found to have been sold in the Northwest Many telegrams cancel-
ing orders were also being received, probably as a result of the press
notice given out by the United States Department of Agriculture
and of the disclaimer published by the paper which contained the
original article.
A widespread controversy immediately arose concerning the iden-
tity and value of the so-called Alaska wheat Those who had seed
for sale claimed that it was a wheat of wonderful producing power.
State and Federal investigators reported it to be nothing more or
less than the old Egyptian or Seven-Headed wheat under a new
name. Chemical analyses and milling and baking tests were made
at several places, with results unfavorable to the flouring value of
this wheat.
The Post Office Department in 1908 took account of the doubtful
nature of the advertising matter being circulated and issued a fraud
order against the promoting company. .
In 1909, however, another campaign was begun in favor of the
wheat. Various press items appeared contradicting the conclusions
of the chemists and millers. It was claimed that the wheat was
just as good for milling and baking purposes as the Palouse Blue-
stem or any other wheat A 12-page pamphlet was published by
the promoting company, discussing the controversy which had
arisen over the value of the wheat Extracts from Idaho Agricul-
tural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 65, issued in November, 1908,
are included in this pamphlet.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
AJLASKA AND STONEB, OR ^'mIRACLe/' WHEATS. 9
Extracts from letters said to have been written by several well-
known agronomists of the country are frankly included also, al-
though unfavorable to the wheat. Their opinions may be summed
up in these quotations:
Farmers are warned to avoid this wheat as they would a pestilence.
It Is one of the p'H)rest wheats known for flour-making purposes, and it is
neyer grown where o^^'^nary varieties of wheat will thrive.
Not even good for stock feed.
Shnn it as you would the smallpox.
Warning against what I must now recognize as a brazen fraud.
The illustrations in this pamphlet are exactly the same as those
in the original advertising circular. Some of the statements con-
tained in the previous circular are repeated, and in addition affi-
davits from growers, thrashers, and others are included. The only
figures in this circular from which a yield per acre can be deter-
mined are to the effect that on one field, in 1908, 501 sacks were
thrashed from 30 acres. Assuming that these sacks contained the
osoal 2 J bushels each, this yield would be only 37^ bushels per acre.
It is stated also that the 1,545 pounds grown in 1906 yielded 53,000
pounds in 1907. The acreage is not given, but this is an increase of
only 35 fold. A greatly increased acreage was harvested in 1908,
but the acre-yields are not given. In the pamphlet the price is still
given as $20 a bushel, for sale by a certain seed grain company.
Liittle more public attention was attracted to the Alaska wheat
until the spring of 1915, when it was placed on exhibition by the
promoter at the Panama-Pacific Exposition. Visitors at the exhibit
were invited to take a copy of the pamphlet just discussed. It had
been provided with a new cover, the last leaf of which is so pasted
on as to cover the name of the seed grain company and the quoted
price of $20 a bushel. The front cover announces that Alaska wheat,
"smut proof" and a "big yielder," is for sale by the promoter at
Juliaetta, Idaho.
Early in 1915, also, still another exploitation of this wheat seemed
to be getting imder way. This time a Wyoming association offered
the seed under the name of Egyptian Seven-Headed Wheat. The
price was $10 a bushel.
YIELDS OF ALASKA WHEAT.
An agent of the United States Department of Agriculture visited
the field of Alaska wheat being grown in the vicinity of Juliaetta,
Idaho, in 1908. There were about 700 acres in all. The yields were
found to vary from 10 to about 35 bushels to the acre, the average
yield being about 25 bushels. Other varieties, growing under condi-
tions apparently identical, were yielding as much and more.
23342**— BuU. 357—16 2
■ Digiti
zed by Google
10 BULLETIN 357, U. S. DEPAETMENT OF AGBICULTURE.
Regarding the yield of Alaska wheat, this statement is made by
French and Jones.^
The yields this season, 1908, have not been phenomenal in any way. In some
cases the wheat was quite badly mixed witli other varieties, such as Canadian
Hybrid and Little Club. An estimate of the yield, verified In some cases by
the thrashing-machine record, is from 20 to 40 bushels per acre. This is about
the same yield as obtained from ordinary winter wheat this season. Tbat it
will exceed these yields when grown under field conditions remains to be
proven.
Alaska wheat has been frequently tested in rows and small plats
in several States in different sections of the country by the United
States Department of Agriculture in cooperation with the respective
State experiment stations. The results of some of these tests are
here reported.
At Akron, Colo., when sown in 20-foot rows in the spring of 1909,
two tests of Alaska wheat gave yields at the rate of 14 and 11 bushels
per acre, respectively. There were 82 rows in the nursery of this
year, exclusive of checkrows, consisting of many different varieties
and strains. Of these, 69 yielded at rates in excess of 14 bushels per
acre, the b^ of the Alaska yields.
In 1912 Alaska wheat was again tested at Akron in 20-foat rows
and yielded 5.5 and 11.5 ounces per row, respectively, in two tests.
There were in this year 114 rows in the nursery, exclusive of check
rows, consisting of many varieties and strains. Of these, 28 yielded
more than 11.5 ounces per row, the best yield of the Alaska wheat.
In 1913, at Akron, Alaska wheat was tested in nine rows, each
about a rod in length. It varied in yield from 2 to 9 ounces per
row, with an average of 5.8 ounces. There were no less than 60
rows of several varieties, out of more than 600 rows grown, that
yielded more than 9 ounces, the best yield of the Alaska, and a
great many more that yielded better than the average. In 1914,
Alaska wheat again gave about an average yield in row tests at
Akron.
When sown in short rows at Williston, N. Dak., in the ^ring of
1909, Alaska wheat was one of the poorest yielding varieties among
the many durum and common kinds tested. It was so poor that it
was not continued.
When sown in a 60- foot row at Belle Fourche, S. Dak., in the
spring of 1912, Alaska wheat yielded about the amount of seed sown
and was not continued.
When sown in rows a rod long at Cheyenne, Wyo., in the spring of
1913, Alaska wheat yielded a little more than the seed sown, or at
the rate of about 1^ bushels per acre. A common spring variety
1 French, H. T., and Jones, J. S. Alaslca wheat investigation. Idaho Agr. Exp. Sta
Bui. 65. p. 6. 1908.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ALASKA AND STONER, OB MIRACLE/ WHEATS. 11
yielded in a similar test about 7 bushels per acre. In 1914 at this
place on a plat containing 1/142 of an acre it yielded at the rate of
18.9 bushels per acre, while Fife and bluestem wheats yielded at the
rate of 8.3 and 9.5 bushels per «cre, respectively, in similar tests.
At Chico, Cal., in 1912, out of 57 selections tested, Alaska wheat
ranked forty-third.
In the Judith Basin, Mont., Alaska wheat was sown in the fall of
1908, but winterkilled.
These results, meager as they are, indicate that Alaska wheat is not
a valuable wheat in respect to yield in many parts of the central and
western United States.
Alaska wheat has been tested for several years in short rows at
the Arlington Farm, at Rosslyn, Va., and has done very poorly there.
It has never yielded much more than the seed sown and has usually
yielded less than this quantity. It is clearly not a valuable wheat for
the ea^iem part of the United States.
Alaska wheat has usually proved a total failure or has given poor
results when it has been tried in a small way at the various stations
of the United States Department of Agriculture. This and its known
inferiority as a milling wheat are responsible for its not being sown
in the plats along with other varieties that are being tested. Usually
only the better wheats are included in such tests.
This wheat, either under its present name of Alaska or under some
of its earlier names, has doubtless been tried on many types of soil in
many parts of the United States in the course of the last century.
That it has never become established indicates apparently that it is
not a valuable variety under any of the conditions where it has been
grown. It has remained for promoters to resurrect it time and again
and, aided by its striking and unusual appearance, to sell it to the
unwary at exorbitant prices. Agricultural literature abounds in
instances of this deception.
MILLING TESTS OF ALASKA WHEAT.
Regarding the tests made at the Idaho station,^ it may be said that
milling and baking tests were made of wheat "secured at the ware-
house in Juliaetta from the spring and winter Alaska wheat stored
there " and of a good grade of Little Club wheat Without going into
details regarding these tests, the following quotation indicates what
results were secured :
The resalts uniformly bear out the laboratoiiy experience that there is very
Uttle difference in the baking quaUties of flour obtained from the Little Club
wheat and that obtained from the Alaska wheat The Little Club is a soft
wheat grown extensively in this part of the State, both as a spring and winter
* Data from the following : French, H. T., and Jones, J. S. Alaska wheat Investigation.
Idaho Agr. Exp. Sta. Bnl. 65, 12 p. 1908.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
12
BULLETIN 357, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE.
wheat; for milling purposes it would probably be placed about halfway be-
tween the best and the poorest milling wheata We understand that it is con-
sidered a good mixer by commercial millers and doubtless much of it is milled
accordingly. It should be remembered that all the work mentioned was done
upon wheat of this year's crop. It is possible that if samples representinsr these
same lots were taken and grpund three months from now and the floor so ob-
tained compared in the same way, more decided differoices might be revealed.
A bushel of the Alaska wheat was secured from Mr. Adams's
ranch, in 1908, and forwarded to the Grain Standardization Labora-
tory of the United States Department of Agriculture at Fargo,
N. Dak., where it was milled at the experimental mill at the North
Dakota Agricultural College. Mr. L. A Fitz, assistant in grain
standardization, reported the results as follows:
A baking test of the three grades of flour obtained was made two days after
milling and this was followed by a second test after the flour had aged three
weeks. A "standard" or "check" loaf was baked from a hard red spring-
wheat flour each day to compare with the particular flour being tested. In aU
cases 340 grams of flour were used, and the amount of water used was regu-
lated by the absorptive ability of the flour. The same amounts of sugar, salt,
and yeast were used in all cases.
The results of the milling tests were as follows :
Laboratory sample No. 24S of Alaska wheat, milled November 10, 1908,
Weight per bushel:
Before cleaning — pounds— 59. 5
After cleaning, scouring,
and tempering pounds 51. 5
Quantity milled do 60.0
Loss in milling per cent . 53
Bran per cent 9.74
Shorts do 19. 48
Total flour do 70.78
Wheat per barrel of flour:
Bushels 4
Pounds 38
Of the total flour 54.14 per cent was patent flour, 38.76 per cent
was first-clear flour, and 7.10 per cent was second-clear flour. This
wheat was tempered with water and steam just before grinding. It
milled rather peculiarly, reducing to middlings very easily, but was
slow to pulverize to flour.
In comparison with the data just given, 16 samples of hard red
spring wheat gave the results shown in Table I.
Table I. — Milling test of h^rd red spring whe^t.
Sixteen samples.
Floor (per cent).
Wheat par baml of
flour.
Total.
Patent.
Bushels.
Pounds.
Haxlmum
75.M
60.99
73.22
78.41
63.52
74.30
5
4
4
0
Minim^im ,
33
Average
3i.S
The baking tests of Alaska wheat gave the results shown in
Table II.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ALASKA AND STONEB, OB ''mIBACLe/' WHEATS. 13
Table II. — Baking report on sample of Alaska wheat.
I>ate and mark.
Water
used.
Loaf.
Color.
Texture.
Remarks.
Weight.
Volume.
Hov. 12, 1908:
Standard patent
C.c.
185
162
172
180
184
183
196
209
Omnu.
459
427
439
455
475
473
488
498
C.c.
2,433
1,049
1,195
1,098
2,368
1,156
1,320
1,270
Percent.
97
99
91
82
100
99
91
82
Good
Poor
...do
...do
Good.
Poor
Fair
Graybh.
Alaska-
Patent
Ffrit oVwr
DuU and ashy.
Second clear
D«. 2, 1908:
Alaaka-
PaUnt
Dull.
Fir«tp»wr
Second clear
...do '
The test on Xovember 12 showed that the water absorption was
lower, the weight was less, and the volume of loaf was less by half
than that of hard spring patent. The color and texture were both
quite poor. The test made on December 2 merely showed the im-
provement which was to be expected as the result of aging.
Fig. 2. — Whole loaves (above) and cut loavea (below) baked from patent flours: 1,
** Standard/* fromt hard spring wheat ; 2, from durum wheat ; 3, from Alaska wheat.
Photographs of the loaves obtained in the first baking aid in in-
terpreting the data given. Figure 2 shows whole and cut loaves
baked from the patent flour of (1) hard spring wheat, (2) durum
wheat, and (3) Alaska wheat The hard spring loaf is used as the
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
14
BULLETIN 357, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
standard for comparison. Figure 3 shows whole and cut loaves
baked from (1) durum first-clear flour, (2) durum second-clear flour,
(3) Alaska first-clear flour, and (4) Alaska second-clear flour.
Fig. 3. — Whole loaves (above) and cut loaves (below) baked from first-clear and sec-
ond-clear flours : 1, First-clear flour from durum wheat ; 2, second-clear flour from
durum wheat; 3, first-clear fiour from Alaska wheat; 4, second-clear fiour from
Alaska wheat.
The results of these tests show that Alaska wheat is clearly not
in the same class and does not deserve to be compared with the hard
red spring, the hard red winter, or the durum wheats. The reason
for this becomes more apparent on considering the results of the
chemical analyses given in Table III.
Table III. — Chemical anulyscs of flour mnde from Fife, bluest em, and other
wheats, compared with flour made from Alaska wheat.
Sam-
ples
aver-
aged.
Patent flours.
First-clear floiu-s.
SecoDd-cl«ar floors.
Kind of wheat.
5P
5&
u
3&
Fife and bluestem.. .
Durum
12
13
4
12.00
11.33
9.60
7.64
6.70
6.58
5.55
3.99
P.ct.
56.06
58.35
58.80
52.24
12.92
12.61
11.03
8.72
6.95
6.77
5.84
4.39
p.ct.
53.865
53.98
53.105
50.313
13.71
13.23
11.16
9.75
7.10
6.97
5.»
4.61
P.€L
a. 17
53. n
Preston and winter
wheats
53.19
Alaska
47 39
STONER, OR « MIRACLE," WHEAT.
In the last 10 years a variety of wheat has been widely advertised
in the United States under the name "Miracle" wheat. Some very
valuable characters have been claimed for it, and for that reason its
history, characters, and value, as determined from experiments, are
presented in this paper.
Digitized by
Google
AI.ASKA AND STONER, OR ''mIRACLe/^ WHEATS. 15
The name Miracle is undesirable, so the Department of Agriculture
has named this variety Stoner, after the man who first grew it.
Other names that have been applied to it are Eden, Forty-to-One,
and Marvelous. This is not the only wheat variety that has been
called by the name Miracle. Curiously enough, that name has been
applied also many times during the last century to the Alaska wheat.
DESCRn»nON OF STONER, OR "MIRACLE,** WHEAT.
The wheat here discussed is a variety belonging to the soft red
winter wheats. This is the class of wheat commonly grown in the
eastern United States from the Atlantic coast to the Mississippi River
and beyond. Th^ Stoner wheat has beardeil heads (fig. 4), white,
hairless chaff, and a medium-sized, rather soft, red kernel. This
shows it to belong in the group with Bearded Purple Straw (fig. 5)
and Fulcaster (fig. 6), both well-known varieties in the Middle At-
lantic States. It grows from 3^ to 4i feet tall, according to soil and
season. It ripens at about the same time as these two varieties which
it so closely resembles. Heads of all three varieties are shown in
figures 4. 5, and 6. The Stoner (Miracle) wheat is a pure strain;
that is, it is descended from a single plant.
HISTORY OF STONER, OR " MIRACLE,** WHEAT.
The strain of wheat now known as Stoner originated on the farm
of Mr. K. B. Stoner, of Fincastle, near Roanoke, Va. It was first
brought to the attention of the United States Department of Agricul-
ture through a letter from Mr. Stoner,^ dated June 8, 1906.
In the spring of 1904 Mr. Stoner noticed a large bunch of grass
in his garden ; when headed it proved to be wheat. It had 142 stems,
or tillers, and he became impressed with the idea that it was a very
wonderful wheat. Just how the kernel of wheat became sown in
the garden or from just what variety it came, Mr. Stoner does not
know. The Fulcaster variety is commonly grown in that section
of Virginia, however, and the Bearded Purple Straw less commonly.
It is reasonable to suppose, therefore, that the Stoner wheat is a
pure line from one of these varieties, which it so closely resembles.
Mr. Stoner saved the seed and increased it during the two years
1905 and 1906, as shown in his letter. He stated that while he could
have his wheat grown at Fincastle on shares, he receiving two-thirds,
Un the year 1904 there originated with me a plant of wheat. produclnR more than a
thousandfold. The product of this single grain twice 80wn (In the years 1904 and 1905)
will this harvest (1006), we think, yield sufficient to sow much more than 100 acres.
The yield (I suppose) Is unprecedented in this or any other country, and for that reason
difficult of belief. Possibly this wheat may enable us to successfully compete with the
Canadian yield ; surely so, if wc can grow 2 bushels to their 1.
The drought Injured wheat here, but I have single grains showing a thousandfold, and
some near twice that. I think the wheat capable of exceeding 100 bushels to the acre,
and think experiments made show that not more than a half bushel should be sown to
the acre. The mistake so far has been oversowing.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
16
BULLETIN 3o7, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
he wished to get a foothold in Kansas and Iowa as soon as possible.
He further asked that an expert be sent to see the wheat and advise
regarding its propagation.
The following three chief claims were made for this wheat by
the introducer .in his various letters of 1906 and in the years fol-
lowing:
( 1 ) TliMt it would ontyield any other variety anywhere.
(2) That it tiUerwl more freely; tliat is, that It sent up more stems from
one soe<l tlian any otlier variety of wheat.
{'^) Tliat 20 pounds of seed to the acre was enough to produce maxiiiium
yi(»lds, Willie other varieties required 8 pecks (120 pounds).
I'ic. I. i:«'|>rrscnt;itiv«» liead of Ston«»r, or
" Miracl.',*' wheat. (About half natural
si/.r. (
Fig. 5. — Representative head of Bearded
I*urplo Straw wheat. (About half nat-
ural size.)
In the fall of 1907 an agent of the department visited Mr. Stoner's
farm. Tlie visit occurred after harvest, however, and only the stub-
ble, field and shocks could be seen. The agent reported that this
Avheat had l)een grown in the field for two seasons, but not many
definite facts about its value could be obtained.
The re|)ort states that "on one farm the yield was 27.5 bushels
per acre, which was 3 to 5 bushels more per acre than that of other
varieties on the same farm." ♦ ♦ ♦ The Miracle wheat was
sown at the rate of only 3 j)ecks, however, while the other was sown
at the rate of 8 pecks per acre. A single test in a single year on
different fields, with a difference of 5 pecks per acre in the rate
of seeding, is inconclusive.
The report states further that when sown in fields at the 3-peck
rate, from 8 to 15 heads were produced on each plant, while the
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ALASKA AND STONER, OR ''mIRACLe/' WHEATS.
17
widely spaced plants in the breeding nursery each produced from
10 to 50 heads. In any case the number varied with the rate of
seeding and the fertility of the soil, which is true of all wheats.
EXPLOITATION IN PHILADELPHIA.
1
Mr. Stoner's desire to have his wheat grown on a large scale in the
SCssissippi Valley has been noted already. He expected to have about
800 bushels from the harvest of 1907. At some time in the summer
of that year a Philadelphia promoter undertook the handling of the
wheat and Mr. Stoner wrote to the United States Department of
Agriculture that he now could
get all the money necessary to
promote the growing of his
wheat on a large scale.
The plan fir st proposed by this
promoter was to lease a farm in
Texas and increase the supply of
seed rapidly. It seems that this
plan was not carried out.
In the early spring of 1908 the
promoter organized a company
to exploit this wheat, and a 20-
page illustrated circular was is-
sued. Plausible in most of its
language, the* circular contained
several erroneous statements.
Fc^ instance, it contained what
was said to be the report of the
Government agent who inspected
the fields of Stoner (Miracle)
wheat. The language was so changed, however, as to alter entirely
the meaning of the report. The statement that in one field the
Miracle wheat had yielded from 3 to 5 bushels more than other
varieties on the same farm was made to read " two to three times
the yield of other varieties." In like manner the figures for the
average number of heads to each plant in the field and in the breed-
ing nursery were greatly exaggerated.
The plan proposed in this circular was to place the wheat with
responsible farmers in each county of the wheat-growing States.
The farmer receiving the seed was supposed to contract (1) to de-
posit $5 for each bushel received, (2) to grow it exclusively for the
promoting company, and (3) to receive $1.25 per bushel for all that
he grew and also the return of his original deposits. The wheat was
dius to be increased during the two years 1909 and 1910 and then
Fig. 6. — Representative head of Fulcaster
wheat. (About half natural size.)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
18 BULLETIN 357, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
sold in foreign countries, according to the pamphlet. It does not
appear, however, that any part of this plan was followed.
PBOMOTINO " MIRACLE " WHEAT IN CHICAGO.
In the summer of 1908 the financial interest in this wheat seems
to have been transferred from the Philadelphia exploiting com-
pany to a grain company in Chicago. The details of this trans-
action are not known, though press items appearing on July 30, 1908,
stated that Mr. Stoner had sold the rights to his wheat to western pur-
chasers for a large sum of money and that the wheat would be sown
the next season in the great wheat-producing States of the West.
The stated intention of growing this wheat in the West seems
to have been carried out at this time, for in the fall of 1908 a con-
troversy developed between the grain company and State officials
in Kansas over the merits of the wheat. Nothing further has been
heard of this company in connection with this wheat.
PROMOTING ** MARVELOUS " WHEAT IN INDIANA.
In 1908 Mr. Stoner sold a quantity of his wheat to a seed company
in Indiana. By them it was renamed " Marvelous " wheat and ad-
vertised in extravagant terms as a wonderful variety. This company
is still advertising the Stoner wheat under the name given above.
PROMOTING " MIRACLE " WHEAT IN BROOKLYN.
In the summer of 1911 an organization in Brooklyn began adver-
tising Miracle wheat at $1 a pound in its own publication. Two or
three years previously it had quoted a portion of the pamphlet pub-
lished by the exploiting company of Philadelphia.
In the summer of 1912 this organization issued a four-page special
publication, of full newspaper size, the entire first page of which
was an advertisement of the wonders of Miracle wheat and spineless
cactus. The headlines read: "Spineless cactus — ^Miracle wheat —
Millionaires and vast irrigation schemes are Bible propositions.'"
The seven columns of text were to the effect that these two crops are
creations in fulfillment of biblical prophecy. By means of an enor-
mous irrigation project, financed by Wall Street millionaires, all the
arid West was to be converted into vast fields of wheat and cactus.
THE STONER SEED WHEAT COMPANY.
During these years when various organizations were exploiting this
wheat, the introducer continued to sell seed. There is no reason to
think that he had any connection with any of these organizations.
In June, 1911, he published an illustrated advertising booklet to
increase the demand for the seed. Testimonials from 12 growers are
printed therein, but only one gives an actual yield from a piece of
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ALASKA AND STONEB, OB MIBACLE/ WHEATS. 19
ground of stated size. That one got 12 bushels from a half acre, or
at the rate of 24 bushels to the acre. Part of the others tell what
they think their wheat will yield. The rest tell what their 2-pound
and 4-pound lots yielded without stating the size of the plat on
which these were sown.
The statement is repeated that this wheat will yield more when
sown at the rate of 2 or 3 pecks per acre than when sown at 8 pecks,
or than other wheats will yield when sown at the usual rate. Ref-
erences are made to the size of the plants and the large number of
grains produced by them when widely spaced in the nursery. Defi-
nite statements that prove in any way the superior value of the
wheat was not found in the pamphlet.
The pamphlet states that previously the wheat had been selling
at the rate of $1.25 a pound, with 4 pounds the largest quantity
sold to any one person. At this time, however, the price was re-
duced to $5 a bushel.
In recent correspK)ndence Mr. Stoner has stated that during 1911
and 1912 the demand for the seed was not very large. He states
further, however, that interest in the crop is increasing rapidly and
that during the last two seasons sales have been numerous. Previ-
ously much of the crop had been milled for lack of a demand for
it as seed wheat.
Mr. Stoner still claims that his wheat is a superior yielder. He
still claims that it will make better yields from thin seeding than
other wheats wiU from thick seeding. He even advises using less
Uian a peck of seed to the acre and closing each alternate seed tube
in the drill.
EXPERDfENTAL DATA ON STONER (MIRACLE) WHEAT.
The Stoner (Miracle) wheat has been tested at several of the
State experiment stations and by the United States Department of
Agriculture. These tests have been made in comparison with other
varieties, and the best approved methods have been used without
favor or bias. Actual yield tests in comparison with other varieties,
t^ts of the effect of different rates of seeding, and tests of the
tillering of the variety are therefore now available.
YUSJDS OF STONER WHEAT IN COMPARISON WITH OTHER VARIETIES.
TESTS AT THE MABTLAND AGKICUI.TURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.*
At the Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station the Stoner
(Miracle) wheat has been tested since 1912, in cooperation with the
United States Department of Agriculturcj in one-twentieth acre
plats, with the results shown in Table IV.
»For further data concerning the tests made at College Park, Md.. and at Arlington
Farm, Roasljn, Va., see Stanton, T. R., Cereal Experiments In Maryland and Virginia, U. S.
Dept. Agr., BuU No. 886, 52 p., 6 fig. 1916.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
20
BULLETIN 357, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TABrjs IV.-— FieW of Sianer (Miracle) wheat tested at College Park, Ud,, oX
different rates of seeding y in comparison icith other varieties seeded at the
rate of 6 pecks per acre.
Yield per acre of Stoner wheat at differ-
ent rates of seeding.
Best
yield ob-
tained
from
other
varieties.
Nomber
ofv*.
rieties
tested.
Rank of
best
platoT
Btoocr
wheat.
Crop year.
2 pecks.
6 pecks.
Grain.
Straw.
Grain.
Straw.
1912
Bushels.
22.67
12.53
34.23
Pounds.
4,540
1,948
3,686
BusheU.
27.87
16.20
32.33
Pounds.
6,740
1,988
3,740
BushOs.
29.20
28.33
41.87
52
42
41
S
1913
34
1914
31
Average
23.14
3,391
25.47
3,823
■
From the data given in Table IV it is seen that better yields of
grain were obtained from the 6-peck seeding in two years out of
three, and the average for the three years is 2.33 bushels larger for
the heavier seeding. The 6-peck per acre seeding has resulted in
the better yield of straw for each year of the test. It is further seen
that Stoner (Miracle) wheat is not as good a yielding wheat as
many others that are being grown. In the year 1912, whmi it did
best, compared with other varieties, it was fifth in yield among the
52 varieties tested and fell behind the best variety 1.33 bushels. In
1913 it was thirty-fourth among the 42 varieties tested, and in 1914,
thirty -first among the 41 varieties tested.
TESTS AT ABLINGTON FARM.
Tests similar to those made at the Maryland Agricultural Ex-
periment Station have been made at the Arlington Farm, Kosslyn,
Va., by the Office of Cereal Investigations of the United States
Department of Agriculture. The wheat used in these tests was
developed from a small amount of seed presented to the office by
Mr. K. B. Stoner in 1907. The tests here have been carried cm for
four years, 1911 to 1914, inclusive. The varieties were grown in
one-tenth or one-twentieth acre plats and were seeded at the rate
of 6 pecks per acre. The results are shown in Table V.
Tabi^ v. — Yield of Stoner {Miracle) wheat tested at Arlington Farm, RosMiyn,
Va.y in comparison tvith other tmrieties in similar plats.
Crop year.
Yield
per acre
of Stoner
wheat.
Best yield
obtained
from other
varieties
and strains.
Number
of varie-
ties and
strains
tested.
Rank of
Stoocr
wheat.
1911
1912 :
1913
1914 ".''.!!!;!!!;;;;;
Bushels.
25.20
30.17
22.00
32.30
Bushels.
32.30
37.17
34.70
38.20
34
37
41
86
U
IS
IS
•
Average
27.42
uigiTized by
Googk
ALASKA AND STONEB, OB ''mIBACLE/' WHEATS. 21
It is seen from the results here presented that this wheat has
never ranked better than sixth in yield, and was then 5.9 bushels
under the best variety tested. It has always ranked among the bet-
ter half, but only once among the best fourth of the varieties tested.
The 30 varieties and strains with which the Stoner (Miracle)
wheat has been compared during the entire four years it has been
grown, 1911 to 1914, inclusive, in the plat tests at Arlington Farm
and the yields of these are shown in Table VI. Varieties that have
not been grown in these comparative tests for the entire four years
are omitted from the table. The varieties are arranged in the table
according to average yield for the four years. It is here shown that
this wheat has ranked tenth in the 31 kinds in average yield for
this period, and has yielded 6.55 bushels less than the best variety.
Table VI. — Yield of the varieties of uHnter wheat groum each year at Arlington
Famiy Rosslyn, Va., 1911 to 19 H, inclusive.
a I. No.
Variety.
Yield per acre (bushels).
1011 1912 1918 1914 Average.
1915
1733
1«57
1M5
1979
1744
1913
1942
1939
29»
1949
1928-
193»
9008
9017
1981
3377
1969
3614
3608
1974
3616
1983
3618
1911
1980
9610
9000
9613
9611
9613
Pnrple Straw
Dawson Ooldeii Chafl.
Purple Stra;w
Poole.
Genesee Giant
Missouri 6 luestera
Bearded Winter Fife. . . .
Rocky Mountain.
Stoner (Miracle)
Iforyland Flint
Pults
New Amber Longbeny.
Mammoth Red
HTbrld
DfeUJ
Vlrsinla
Mioiigan Amber
HybrHT.
.....do
Martin Amber
Hybrid
Jooes Winter Fife
Hybrid
Bearded Purple Straw . .
Fnltzo-Mediterranean . . .
Hybrid
.....do
do
do
.....do
35.80
24.80
31.30
28.80
24.30
20.30
28.60
26.60
25.80
25.20
32.30
25.20
26.50
25.30
21.70
25.20
24.50
28.00
16.80
21.20
21.90
20.00
22.80
22.50
20.10
21.70
16.70
14.70
12.00
20.70
13.80
37.17
36.00
33.08
29.08
31.92
30.67
32.08
36.42
31.50
30.17
29.08
31.22
29.50
29.20
34.67
28.34
35.15
28.83
30.07
31.67
31.50
29.67
24.00
30.55
28.67
28.83
29.20
32.53
22.27
21.60
20.27
34.70
25.80
24.20
26.50
26.60
28.40
22.50
24.90
26.20
22.00
23.50
22.70
22.70
25.20
21.80
21.10
21.00
21.00
19.20
19.07
20.00
16.10
24.70
20.80
23.20
19.20
22.00
18.01
19.70
15.70
19.50
38.20
35.20
30.80
33.30
29.20
32.50
28.70
23.30
26.30
32.30
23.70
29.10
29.50
28.20
27.80
28.20
21.50
21.00
31.30
25.30
23.70
31.00
24.70
22.20
22.30
22.50
21.00
23.30
31.20
24.70
24.50
83.97
30.45
20.84
29.42
28.00
27.97
27.07
27.80
27.45
27.42
27.14
27.06
27.05
26.97
26.40
25.71
25.54
24.71
24.34
24.31
24.27
24.10
24.05
24.01
23.67
23.06
22.22
22.13
21.20
20.67
10.52
1 Used as the dieck; the figures given are the average of the yields from several plats.
TESTS AT NEPHI, VTAH.
Stoner (Miracle) wheat was tested at Nephi, Utah, in 1911, by the
United States Department of Agriculture in cooperation with the
Utah Agricultural Experiment Station, in one-twentieth acre plats,
in c<Mnparison with several other varieties. The results are shown
in Table VII. In this test of seven varieties, this wheat ranked
sixth in jaeld, producing 26.7 bushels, or 11.4 bushels less than the
best yielding variety.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
22
BULLETIN 367, U. S. DEPAETMENT OF AGBICULTUKE.
Table VII. — Yield of wheat grown at NepH, Utah, in 1911 from pedigreed teed
of 1910,
Variety.
C. I. No.
Clus.
Yield per
acre.
Odessa
3274-1
1583-2
297»-17
29d&-l
3055-13
2980
1571-2
Soft winter
llard winter
do
38.1
Kharkof
il.O
Alberta Red
Ykt
Turkey
do
27.7
Po
do
27.3
Stoner
Soft winter
Hard winter
96.7
Turkey
1S.0
Average
38.3
RATE-OF-SEEDING TESTS.
Rate-of -seeding tests have been conducted on the Arlington Farm
by the United States Department of Agriculture with the Stoner
(Miracle) wheat for three years, it having been first included in these
tests in the sowings made in the fall of 1911. In these tests this wheat
was compared in the first year with seven other varieties, four of
which are well-known sorts commonly grown amcmg farmers. In
the two succeeding years it has been compared with three of these
well-known sorts. The names of the varieties used and the yields for
the different rates of seeding are given in Table VIII^ only those
varieties being included which have been used throughout the entire
3-year period. In 1912 no seeding of less than 4 pecks per acre
was made of any of the varieties. In the succeeding two years seed-
ings of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 pecks per acre were made. The plats
were one-twentieth of an acre in size in 1912, and the tests were not
replicated, but in 1914 the size of the plats was reduced to one- fortieth
of an acre, and the sowings were made in duplicate and the results
averaged.
These results show that the best yield of Stoner wheat has been
obtained by sowing 4 pecks per acre. When 2 pecks were sown in
the two years 1913 and 1914, 22.15 bushels were harvested. In these
same years 24.5 bushels were harvested from 3 pecks sown and
24.95 from 4 pecks. From sowings of 5, 6, 7, and 8 pecks, less
quantities were harvested than from the 3-peck or 4-peck seedings,
but in each case more than from the 2-peck seeding. An addition
of 2 pecks to the quantity sown has increased the yield over the
2-peck sowing an average of 2.8 bushels per acre for the two years.
Including the year 1912 and averaging for only the 4, 5, and 6 peck
seedings, the best yield was again obtained by sowing 4 pecks, the
yield here, 26.52 bushels, being larger than that secured from sowing
either 5 pecks or 6 pecks per acre. Smaller or 3arger sowings were
not made in the year 1912.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ALASKA AND STONEB, OE ''mIBACLe/' WHEATS.
23
Table VIII. — Yield of Stoner (Miracle) wheat and other varieties in compara-
tive rateof'Seeding test at Arlington Farm, Rosslyn, Va,
Variety and year.
-
Yield per acre (bushels) at different rates
of seeding.
2pecks.
3 pecks.
4 pecks.
6pecks.
6 pecks.
7pecks.
Specks.
BtooerdOrade):
1912
29.67
17.10
32.80
82.22
17.50
28.90
30.17
14.70
29.70
1913
17.40
26.90
18.30
30.70
14.50
30.90
16.00
1914
29.80
Avcsaee 19U-14
22.16
24.50
24.95
26.52
23.20
26.21
22.20
24.86
22.70
22.90
Avenge 1912-14
DIeU:
1912
28.00
16.80
29.50
24.50
18.70
27.80
22.67
19.40
29.70
1913
i&oo
26.70
io.io
30.00
17.40
30.60
19.70
1914
32.50
ATenge 1913-14
22.80
24.95
23.15
24.77
23.25
23.67
24.55
23.93
24.00
26.10
Avenge 1912-14
Fnlte:
1912
1
32.55
24.70
39.00
32.42
24.60
37.70
31.22
24.00
36.20
1913
19.10
29.70
22.70
33.00
21.80
37.40
24 80
1914
37.90
Average 1913-14
24.40
27.85
31.86
32.08
31.16
81.57
30.10
80.47
29.35
31.35
Avenge 1912-14
Mutfa Amber:
1912
1
34.92
19.00
26.00
31.83
17.20
24.90
28.83
17.40
27.80
1913
18.40
22.60
19.70
27.00
12.40
25.60
14.70
1914
23.90
Average 1913-14
20.50
23.35
22.50
26.64
21.05
24.64
22.60
24.68
19.00
19.30
Avenge 1912-14
▲verKeofall:
Average 1913-14
22.46
25.16
25.61
27.50
24.66
26.52
24.86
25.98
23.76
24.91
Avenge 1912-14
, 1
1
When these results are compared with those for the other varieties
used, it is seen that as an average for the two years 1913 and 1914
the largest gross yields were obtained from sowing 8 pecks of Dietz,
4 pecks of Fultz, and 8 pecks of Martin Amber. On account of
the larger quantity of seed used in sowing 8 pecks, the largest net
return from the Dietz was from the 3-peck seeding. The largest net
returns from the other varieties were from the same seedings men-
tioned above. Including the year 1912 and averaging for only the
4, 5, and 6 peck seedings, the largest net and gross returns were
obtained for the three years 1912-1914 in every case from the smallest
quantity; that is, from the 4- peck seeding.
When all varieties are averaged both for the two years, 1913-1914,
and for the years, 1912-1914, the best gross and net yields were
obtained from the 4-peck seeding. The 4-peck seeding yielded 0.45
bushel more than the 3-peck and 3.15 bushels more than the 2-peck
seeding.
It most be concluded that Stoner wheat does not diflfer from the
other varieties tested in requiring less seed per acre, and also that 2
pecks are not sufficient from which to obtain maximum yields.
It should be said in connection with these tests that these wheats
WCTe drilled in fertile soil in a well-prepared seed bed. More seed
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
24
BULLETIN 357, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTURE.
of all these varieties would probably be required where conditions
are not so favorable.
TILLERING POWER OF STONER (MIRACLE) WHEAT.
Tests to determine the tillering power of Stoner (Miracle) wheat
were made at Arlington Farm by sowing, in both 1912 and 1913,
individual kernels of this variety and of three standard varieties,
each kernel being given plenty of room for maximum developmait
These kernels were sown 6 inches apart in rows 1 foot apart and 5
feet long, in uniform soil, the order of sowing being that given in
Table IX. All varieties were grown under identical conditions on
small adjacent plats of land.
Table IX. — Tillering power of Stoner (Miracle) wfieat in comparison irith
other varieties at Arlington Farm, Rosslyn, Va.
Number of heads per plant.
Number of plants, crop
of 1913.
Numbi
Fultz.
M- of plants, crop of 1914.
FulU.
Dlet«.
Stoner.
Martin
Amber.
Dietx.
Stoner. iS22
1
2
1
1
5
3
1
3
4
1
3
3
5
3
1
3
2
i'
1
l'
2
1
}•
3
2
1
2
6
1
5
3
6
8
5
6
4
4
2
1
3
3
4
3
2
1
3
3
3
7
4
1
1
1
4
2
6
4
1
4
4
2
4
1
2
2
2*
1
2 i::; :
4
2
5
4
7
12
11
10
14
16
3
4
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
6
11
11
10
13
17
14
2
3
3!
5
2 '
6
4 1
7
8 9
8
6
20
12
a
5
6
6
5
9
10
16
11
12
13
19
14
15
16
2
1 1 1
17
18
1
1
19
1
,
20
1
21
1
31
1
Total plants
57
" 10.5
42
10.3
41
8.7
41
9.0
97
10.1
94 91
91
Averaf^e number of culms per
plant
10.4
9.6
12.2
Table IX shows that in 1913 the 41 plants of Stoner wheat pro-
duced an average of 8.7 culms to the plant. This is the smallest
number produced by the plants of any of the varieties used, Martin
Amber producing 9 culms, Dietz 10.3, and Fultz 10.5.
The results for 1914 are similar to those of the previous year in
this respect, that the plants of Stoner wheat again produced the
smallest average number of culms, there being in this year 9.6 to the
plant of this variety. Fultz produced 10.1, Dietz 10.4, and Martin
Amber 12.2. The tests for these two years indicate, then, tiiat
Stoner is the poorest of these four wheats in tillering power. These
results also show that in neither year was there a larger number
of culms than 18 produced by any plant of the Stoner wheat, while
there is a total of ten plants of the other varieties in the two years
which produced more than 18 culms each.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ALASKA AND STONER, OB "mIBACLe/' WHEATS.
25
Similar tests to determine the tillering power of Stoner (Miracle)
wheat were conducted in the years 1909, 1911, and 1912 at Nephi,
Utah, by the United States Department of Agriculture in coopera-
tion with the Utah Agricultural Experiment Station. The sowing
was in head rows 10 feet long and 1 foot apart, the seeds being placed
4 inches apart in the row. The results are shown in Table X.
The average number of culms produced by the plants of this
wheat in the three years is 11. It is third in rank among the nine va-
rieties tested for all or part of the time, but it produced eight culms
less than the best tillering variety, the Turkey, which produced an
average of 19 culms per plant for the three years. In no year was
the Stoner wheat highest in culms produced. In yield this wheat
ranks third as an average for fill varieties tested for the three years.
A yield test in head rows, however, is inclusive. Yield tests in one-
twentieth acre plats at Nephi have been previously reported.
Table X. — Tillering power and yield of Stoner (Miracle) wheat and eight other
wheats at Nephi, Utah, in the years 1909, 1911, and 1912,
C.I. No.
Varlety.
Class.
Average number of
heads per plant.
Yield per row (grams).
1909
1911
1912
Aver-
age.
1909
1911
1912
Aver-
age.
3055-13
Turkey
Kofloid
Gold Coin
Hard red winter... .
Soft white winter..
do
13
9
7
7
3
5
7
6
4
25
16
16
16
18
10
7
11
19
12
10
11
3
5
7
6
3
210
253
191
213
47
56
211
144
181
265
165
186
US
157
129
lie
180
2997-^
225
2996-2
162
2M0
Miracle
Alaska
Black Don....
Silver aub....
Galgalos.
Durum.
Semihard red win-
t<»r.
Soft white winter
(or spring).
Durum
172
47
2100
5
25
41
3001-1
Soft winter dub....
Soft white spring...
Durum
211
23!»8-l
144
2934-1
3
3
AveragP.-
6.8
13.5
9.8
h.2
165.6
164.4
137.5
147.7
"
GENERAL TESTS BY STATE EXPERIMENT STATIONS.
TESTS IN KENTUCKY.
The following results of tests of Miracle wheat made at the Ken-
tucky Agricultural Experiment Station are published in Bulletin
155 of that station :
Seed sown per acre.
2 pecks..
Species..
4 pecks..
Specks..
Specks..
7 pecks..
Specks..
Yield per acre in 1911.
Miracle.
Bushels.
31.3
32.7
34.7
35.3
36.7
Harvest
King.
Bushels,
35.0
35.0
34.7
36.3
25.0
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
26
BULLETIN 35*7, U. S. DEPARTMENT 0^ AGRICULTURE.
The party furnishing Miracle wheat recommended 2 pecks per acre, claiming
great stooling power for It
Subsequent results obtained at the Kentucky station are givoi in
the letter below from E. J. Kinney, assistant agronomist of that
station :
I beg to say that we did not continue the experiments recorded in 1911
in Bulletin 155 any longer than the one year. The Miracle wheat showed no
greater propensities for stooling than any of the standard varieties of wlieat,
and there seemed no necessity for carrying the experiment any farther. So
far as moisture was concerned, 1911 was a very normal season ; in fact, better
than a normal season, according to my records, so that the thinner sown wlieat
had the best opportunity to stool.
In 1912 Miracle wheat yielded only 22.5 bushels, as compared with 28.1
bushels for Fulcaster and an average of SO bushels for a standard Fultx va-
riety; 1912 was a very hard winter, and only the hardiest varieties of wlieat
came through In good shape.
In 1913 Miracle yielded 28.7 bushels per acre, or a corrected yield according
to check plats of 32 bushels, as compared with an average of the check plats
of 32.8. Fulcaster the same year gave a corrected yield of 33.9 bashels per
acre.
In 1914 Miracle gave a corrected yield of 26.70 bushels, as compared with
an average check-plat yield, which was Fultz, of 32.98 bushels per acre. In
all these cases, the crops were planted at the same time, in the same field,
with the same preparation of soil and the same rate of seeding.
In 1914 a farmer brought in a variety of wheat which he said was sold to
him as Marvelous, and which I imagined and still believe is the same as Mirada
It was reported as giving a full yield with a li^t seeding; say, 2 pecks. I
planted a plat of this at the rate of 6 x)ecks per acre and one at the rate of 2
I)ecks per acre, the corrected yield being 31.17 bushels for the 6 pecks per
acre rate of seeding and 24.46 for the 2 pecks rate of seeding.
I do not see that Miracle or Marvelous stooled any more than a standard
variety of wheat, such as Fulcaster or other varieties. Certainly, in aU cases
where we have tested these varieties with the proclaimed stooling characto^
the thicker seeding has given decidedly the heavier yield,
TESTS IN PENNSYLVANIA.
The Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station sowed the
Stoner (Miracle) wheat at two rates in the fall of 1912. The yields
in 1913 are given in Bulletin 125 of that station, and are as follows:
stoner (Miracle) wheat.
Actual yield.
CcrrectedyteW.
Grain.
Straw.
Grain.
Straw.
Seeded at-
2 bushels per nore
Biukdt.
33.6
28.6
Pomnit.
4,665
3,350
Btkdt.
S0.8
25.5
4,4:3
1 bushel per pcre
3;4if
The increased yield of 5 bushels resulting from the sowing of 1
6ushel more of seed is certainly worth the increased expense for seed.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ALASKA AND STONEB, OE MIRACLE/ WHEATS. 27
Regarding subsequent tests made of this variety by the Pennsylva-
nia Agricultural Experiment Station, the following extract from a
letter received from Charles F. Noll, assistant professor of experi-
mental agronomy, is self-explanatory:
Replying to your letter of May 28 in regard to Miracle wheat, we seeded
tbis variety in 1914 only at the rate of 2 bushels per acre, which Is our usual
Rite of seeding the variety testing plats. I have averaged the yields of our
named varieties for the years 1913-14, and find that Miracle gave us a yield
of 32.5 bushels of grain and 3,772 pounds of straw per acre. In yield of
grain for these two years, it has ranked eighth, and fifth In yield of straw.
For our conditions it is a good variety of wheat, but there is notliing remark-
able about its productiveness or its tillering.
TESTS IN INDIANA.
The Miracle wheat under the name of Marvelous has been tested
by the Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station at Lafayette, Ind.,
and the results secured are given in the following extract from a
letter from C. O. Cromer, associate in crops at that place :
Last year (1914) was the only year in which we have secured any data
on thiB wheat (Marvelous). The other years that we sowed it the winter
was too severe for it In looking up our records I find that in comparison
with the Michigan Amber, the variety which we have used as our check for
a number of years, the Marvelous wheat stands as follows: The Michigan
Amber at 3 peeks per acre produced 10.9 bushels. The Marvelous produced
4.8 bushels. The Michigan Amber at 6 pecks per acre produced practically
the same as the Michigan Amber at 3 pecks, while the Marvelous at 6 pecks
produced 5.5 bushels. The spring survival of the Michigan Amber was 85
per cent; that of the Marvelous was 45 per cent A much larger percentage
of the Marvelous wheat lodged than was true of the Michigan Amber. The
strmw of the Marvelous is a little stiffer, however, as a rule. The Michigan
Amber, according to our data of last year, was on the average 4 Inches taller
than the Marvelous wheat and ripened two days earlier.
CONCLUSIONS.
The reader should remember these facts about the branch-headed
wheat known as Alaska, Seven-Headed, Mummy, Egyptian, or by
some other name: (1) That it has been used in this country very
often as a means of deceiving people and very seldom as a farm
crop ; (2) that it has failed to produce even fair yields when tried
in many parts of the country, and has never been known to pro-
duce extra(M*dinary yields; (3) that it is not as good a milling wheat
as many other widely-grown varieties, some of which are much
better adapted to any given location; (4) that the branched head
is not a sign of superior yielding power.
St<mer wheat does not differ essentially in value from many other
wheats now being widely grown in the eastern half of the United
States. It is not as good as some and is somewhat better than others.
The class of wheat (soft red winter) to which it belongs is adapted
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
28 BULLETIN 357, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUBE.
to the eastern United States, but the variety itself is only of average
value. It is not adapted to dry lands. ,
The claims made by the originator of Stoner (Miracle) wheat
and by those who have exploited it are not substantiated by the ex-
perimental results reported above.
It was claimed that it would outyield any other variety anywhere.
In the tests it has never outyielded anywhere all other varieties with
which compared, and many other varieties have surpassed it in
yield.
It was claimed that it tillered more freely than other varieties.
The tests show that other commonly grown varieties have exceeded it
in number of culms to the plant produced wherever grown in com-
parative tests.
It was claimed that 20 or 30 pounds of seed per acre were sufli-
cient for maximum yields. The tests show that better yields are ob-
tained from it when sown at higher rates to the acre.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PUBUCATIONS OF U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELAT-
ING TO CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS.
AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION.
Cereal Investigations at Nephl, Utah, Substation. (Department Bulletin 30.)
CfaresX Experiments at Dickinson, North Dakota. (Department Bulletin 33.)
Cereal Experiments at Willistou Substation. (Department Bulletin 270.)
Cereal Investigations on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm. (Department
Bulletin 297.)
Cereal Experiments in Maryland and Virginia. (Department Bulletin 336.)
Hard Wheats Winning Their Way. (Separate 649 from Y. B. 1914.)
FOR SALE BT THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS.
Experiments with Wheat, Oats, and Barley in South Dakota. (Department
Bulletin 39.) Price, 10 cents.
Improvement of the Wheat Crop in California. (Bureau of Plant Industry
Bulietin 178.) Price, 10 cents.
Cooperative Grain Investigations at McPherson, Kansas, 1904r-1909. (Bureau
of Plant Industry Bulletin 240.) Price, 5 cents.
(Tereal Experiments In the Texas Panhandle. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulle-
tin 283.) Price, 10 cents.
Dry-land Grains for Western North and South Dakota. (Bureau of Plant
Industry Circular 59.) Price, 5 cents.
Dry-land Grains In the Great Basin. (Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 61.)
Price, 5 cents.
ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS FUBUCATION MAT BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFHCE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT
5 CENTS PER COPY
V
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digiti
zed by Google
fj /* ' ' '
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 358
CoQtribiition from the Biireaa of Entomology
« L. O. HOWABD, Chief
Washington, D. C.
PROFESSIONAL PAPER
AprU 12, 1916
STUDIES OF THE
MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL IN
THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY
By
R. W. HOWE, Entomological Assistant, Southern Udd Crop
Insect Investigations
CONTENTS
Page
Introdoctioii 1
LoniivUr of Adtat Weevils 3
Food PUota of the Weevil ...... 8
Feeding Hablta on Cotton Leaves and
Terminals II
Sexof Adults . .......... 12
Period From Emergence to Ovlposltlon . 12
Period From First Feeding on Squares
10 Or^Mwitlon . . . . , 13
FecnndlCj 13
OripoBhlOD Period 23
Sate of Ovlposltlon 24
Pags
Maximam Number of Eggs Per Daj . . 24
Period from Deposition of Last Egg to
Death 24
Activity of Females in Different Parts
of the Day . 25
Cessation of Ovlposltlon by Hibernated
Weevils 26
Total Develoiiraentai Period 26
Effect of Size of S«aare on Weevil De-
velopment 80
Generations •■• 80
Sammary 31
WASHINGTON
GOTERNMENT PBINTING OFFICK
1916
r
Digitized by
Google
I
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 358
L. O. HOWARD, Oiler
WashiBStoD, D. C.
PROFESSIONAL PAPER
April 12, 1916
STUDIES OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL
IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY.
By R. W. Howe.
Entomological AMsUtaru. Southern Field Crop Insect Investigations.
CONTENTS.
I'age.
Introductkm 1
Longerity of adult weevib 3
Food plants of the weeTil 8
Feeding habits on cotton leaves and terminals. 11
Sex of adults 12
Period from emergence to oviposition 12
Period from first feeding on squares to ovipo-
sitkm. 13
Fecundity 13
Oviposition period 23
Page.
Rate of oviposiiion 24
Maximum number of eggs per day 24
Period from deposition of last egg to death.. . 24
Activity of females in different parts of tho
day
25
Cessation of oviposition by hibernated weevils. 26
Total developmental period 26
Effect of size of square on weevil development . 30
Generations 3o
Summary 31
INTRODUCTION.
Shortly after 1892, when the Mexican cotton-boll weevil {Antho-
7wmu8 grarhdis Boh.) invaded Texas on its northward and eastward
journey and its extreme importance was seen, complete data were
secured on the various biological fimctions. In recent years, how-
ever, numerous observations have shown that, imder new climatic
and other environmental conditions to which the weevil has been
subjected in its spread, changes have been taking place in many of
these fimctions. In addition, a new variety of the boll weevil has
been foimd breeding in a wild cotton (Thurberia thespesioides) occur-
ring in the moimtain ranges of southeastern Arizona, and this weevil
(which has been described as AntTwnomus grandis ihurheriae Pierce)
has been foimd to possess habits which differ in many ways from
those of its near relative on cultivated cotton. Consetjuently, it has
been necessary to repeat many studies under both the old and the
new conditions and to include the new variety. In this way the
Note.— This bulletin is of interest to entomologists in the cotton belt.
23022*— Bull. 35»-16 1
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
2 BULLETIN 358, XJ. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTr^E.
extent and trend of the variations may be determined and a more
definite knowledge of what to expect in the future may be obtained.
As every phase of the control of the weevil is based upon biological
facts, life-history studies have a very direct economic bearing upon
the boll-weevil problem.
During 1913, 1914, and 1915 the writer conducted a number of
studies on the biology of the weevil at the Delta Boll Weevil Labo-
ratory at Tallulah,* La. The present paper deals largely with the
results of these two years* observations, but before detailing these
it is probably best to review very briefly the times and conditions
imder which the similar studies have been conducted.
The earliest work was that at Victoria, Tex., in 1902 and 1903,
the results being published early in 1904.* This was followed by
similar investigations at the same place during 1904, and the results
of these studies were included in a bulletin issued in 1905.'
During 1910 similar investigations were conducted at TaUolah,
La., and the results were published in 1911.*
Then, in 1912, these studies and such others bs had been made
elsewhere were brought together in a lai^e bulletin issued in 1912.*
Dming 1913 another series of studies was conducted at Vii^caia,
Tex., to check those which had been made at the same place 10
years earlier. It was found that the weevils had made a number of
important changes in their life history, principal among these being
a much greater adaptability to plants other than cotton as food.
The biology of the Arizona Thurberia weevil was also studied, imd
this variety was hybridized with the Texas cotton weevils. Tlie
results of these studies are included in three papers."
In 1914 the life history and habits of the Arizona weevil were
studied under natural conditions in the mountains near Tucson,
Ariz. These studies are discussed in two papers.^
1 The writer wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to Mr. E. K. Bynum for assistance in tbe wcrk d
1916.
« Hunter, W. D., and Hinds, W. E. The Mexican Cotton BoU WeevIL V. 6, Dept. Agr. Bur. Ent
BuL 45, 116 p., 16 pi., 6 fig., 1004.
» Hunter, W. D., and Hinds, W. E. The Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil, r. S. I>»pt. Agr. Bur. Eat.
Bui. 51. 181 p., 23 pi., 8 fig., 1905.
* Cushman, R. A. Studies in the biology of the boU weevil in the Mississippi Delta regioo of Loorciaitt.
/n Jour. Econ. Ent., v. 4, no. 5, 1911. p. 432-448.
» Hunter, W. D., and Pierce, W. D. Mexican Cotton BoU Weevil. IT. 8. Dept Agr. Bar. Ent. BuL U4,
188 p., 22 pi., 34 flg., 1912.
• Coad, B. R., and Pierce, W. D. Studies of the Arisona Thurberia w«evfl on cotton in Texas. Pnx-.
Wash. Ent. Soc., v. 16, no. 1. p. 23-28. 1914.
Coad, B. R. Feeding habits of the boU weevil on plants other than oottoo. U. S. Dept. Agr. Jour.
Agr. Res., v. 2, no. 3, p. 235-245. 1914.
Coad, B. R. Recent studies of tbe Mexicnn C^itton Boa WeevO. U. 8. Dnpi. Agr. BoL 3S1.34 pL, 1 fig.
1915.
7 Coad. B. R. Relation of the Aritona Wild Cotton WeevU to Cotton Planting in tbe Arid West. l\ a
Dept. Agr. Bui. 233, 12 p., 4 pi. 1915.
Coad. B. R. Studies on the Biology of the Arizona Wild Cotton WeeviL V. 8. Dept Agr. But M4,
23 p., 2 pi, 1 flg. 1916.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
COTTON BOLL WEEVIL IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 3
Thua it is seen that these studies embrace a wide range of time
and conditions. In fact, the conditions of humidity, rainfall, tem-
perature, altitude, soil, etc., include practically all extremes found
in the cotton belt.
The various breeding series of 1914 and 1915 were conducted in a
large insectary located at the Delta Laboratory, Delta, La. (fig. 1).
This was provided with screen sides to furnish free air circulation,
and the curtains were so arranged that the direct sunshine did not
reach any of the breeding cages. Practically all of the breeding
Fig. 1.— Insectary at the laboratory at Delta, La., for studies on the boll weevil. (Origuial.)
work was done in glass tumblers partially filled with moist sand and
covered with a double thickness of cheesecloth.
LONGEVITY OF ADULT WEEVILS.
A considerable number of observations were made on the adidt
longevity on different foods. The data secured are separated by
s<»asons.
SEASONS OF 191S AND 1914.
Table I gives the observations made during the seasons of 1913
unA 1914. The maximum record of longevity in 1914 was made by
a first-generation female fed on cotton squares. Tliis female emerged
July 13 and died October 28, with a total life of 107 days. The
maximum length of life of male weevils fed on cotton squares was
100 days; this individual emerging July 14 and dying October 22.
The average longevity was 9.8 days on cotton leaves, 10.5 days on
cotton boUs, and 46.3 days on cotton squares.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BULLETIN 358, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTURE.
Table I. — Duration of life of boll weevils. Observations of 191S-14. *
YABIETT GBANDIS WITHOUT NORMAL FOOD.
Aver-
Maxl-
Seeaon and period.
Food.
No. of
weevils.
Weevil
da>'8.
age
lon-
gevity.
mum
lon-
gevity.
Remarks.
1913.
Daps.
Dayn.
Sept 24 to Oct 7....
Hibiscus leaves..
4
24
6.0
13
In paper bags on plants.
Sept. 24 to Oct. 10...
Hibiscus boUs...
4
25
6.3
16
Do,
Do
Hibiscus leaves,
flowers, and
4
46
11.5
16
Do.
bolls.
Sept. 24 to Oct. 9....
Okra buds and
fruit.
8
44
5.5
15
Do.
Sept. 24 to Oct. 12. . .
Okra fruit
8
75
9.4
18.
Do.
Sept. 24 to Oct. 8....
Okra leaves
4
26
6.5
14
Do.
Sept. 24 to Oct. 10...
Thurberia leaves
4
42
10.5
16
Do.
Sept. 24 to Oct. 4....
Thurberia tips
and buds.
4
34
8.5
10
Do.
Sept. 24 to Oct. 8....
Thurberia
squares.
ilvaceous plants..
4
29
7.3
14
Do.
Total longevltj' on m
44
345
7.8
IS
VARIETY ORANDLS WITH NORMAL FOOD.
1914.
Aug. A to—
July 15 to Aug. 1
June 3 to Oct. 28
June 13 to Oct. 28...
Total on normnl food
Cotton leaves...
Cotton bolls
Cotton squares.
do
40
390
9.8
17
20
210
10.5
16
24
1,106
46
107
24
1,118
46.6
100
106
2,824
26.1
107
In glass tumblers.
Do.
Females In glass tumbkvs.
Males In glass tumbleis.
In the abnormal food studies the weevils Uved an average of 6
days on Hibiscus leaves; 11. 5* days on Hibiscus leaves, flowers, and
fruit; 6.25 days on Hibiscus tips; 6.5 days on okra leaves; 9.4 dap
on okra fruit; 11 days on okra leaves, flowers, and fruit; 10.5 days
on Thurberia leaves; 8.5 days on Thurberia tips and buds, and 7.3
days on Thurberia squares. These records are all low, probably due
to the experimental methods, as the weevils were all placed upon the
food in paper bags and later observations show that the method
apparently causes an early death.
SEASON OF 1916.
The studies of 1915 compare the longevity of ffrandis weevils on
moist sand with no food, on moist sand with okra and Hibiscus, on
moist sand with different parts of the cotton, and also thurberiaef on
moist sand with okra, with cotton bolls, and with cotton squares.
The species of Hibiscus used were H. mUitaris and H, moscheuias.
Tlie results are given in Table II.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
COTTON BOLL WEEVIL IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY.
Table II. — Duration of life of boll weevils. Observations of 1915.
VABDETT QBANDIS WITHOUT NORMAL FOOD.
Date.
June 9..
JuzmS..
Time 29.
Sept. 8..
Aug. 13.
Substance pro-
vided.
No food.
do..
do.
do.
do.
Total without food.
July 2...
July 22..
Aug. 13.
Aug. 2....
Aug. 13...
Aug. 2^27.
Sept.9-...
July 28.-..
July 28.
Aug. 25.
Ju1t28....
Uo
Aug. 18
;:::}
Yotrngokra fruit
.....do
Okra bloom and
bud.
Okra fruit..
.do.
.do.
do.
Hibiscus leaves.
:};
-Hibiscus blooms
Hibiscus buds...
Hibiscus bolls.. -
Total on malvaoeous
plants other than
OOttOD
136
70
148
162
Daps.
5.4
440
22
75
00
123
131
36
156
18
185
531
f
Dyt
40
10
2.0
2.25
3. 15 10
3.24
3.67
4.361 12
8.0
7.5
7.5
&8
10.9
7.6
Femalee.
167
Dapt.
4,0
5.67
2.4
2.75
3.45
353
75
65
164
155
0)
3.88
4.5
3.9
4.9
7.6
6.9
11.7
12.9
0)
559 8.1
Dps
15
Dps
40
15
20
Both
Daps.
2.9
5.48
2.20
2.50
3.30
40
39
3.49
Notes on weevils.
4.1
4.1
6.4
7.6
7.2
10.3
11.9
6.1
4.9
4.5
4.6
Hibernated wee-
vils.
Collected in field.
Hibernated.
Bred.
Do.
Do.
Bred from squares
collected in field.
Do.
Bred from squares
and fed on blooms
until Aug. 7.
Collected in field.
Bred weevils.
Field coUected.
Do.
CoUected in field.
Not sexed. Not
included in aver-
ages by sexes.
Do.
Do.
Do.
VABIETT OBANDES WITH NORMAL FOOD.
May 15
June 12
JuDe7
Jane 21
Aug. 9
Sept. 17....
Cottoo leaves...
....do
-■^^
57
38
«0
269
258
9.47
6.73
6.80
40
17
17
38
40
39
401
259
332
10.55
6.25
8.61
27
15
32
.0
17
32
9.91
6.60
7.66
Hibernated.
Bred.
Do.
Total on cotton leaves. .
135
1,067
7.9
40
117
992
8.48
32
40
8.17
Junes
June9
Julys.
Aug. 11
Se^.7
jCotton termhials
do
do
do
28
14
13
20
468
232
142
259
16.70
16.60
10.90
13.00
43
32
31
31
28
15
11
19
627
282
159
187
22.40
18.80
14.50
9.84
42
43
31
45
43
43
31
45
19.55
17.72
12.54
11.44
fField collected:
\ probably hiber-
l nated.
Bred.
Do.
Do.
Total
miiu
on cotton ter-
ils
75
17
~Tl
1,101
345
729
197
14.68
43
73
1,255
17.19
45
45
15.92
W;.: :.>*'«'»»»-• •
20.3
66.27
39.40
75
83
67
17
13
6
723
42.53
82
~81
59
82
31.41
Do.
JnlyW.'.'.I'l j„
762
167
58.62
33.30
83
59
62.13
36.40
\Bred. First gen-
/ eration.
\Bred. Second gen-
/ eration.
Total on cotton squares.
16
243
926
57.88
83
18
929
51.61
81
83
54.56
Total
cotU
all ffrandis on
m
3,439
14.15
83
22.5
3,899
17.33
81
83
15 68
15.68
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
6 BULLETIN 358, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Table II . — Duration of life of boll weevils. ObHrvations of 1915 — Gontmaed.
VABIETT THURBEBIAB.
Date.
Aug. 30. . . .
Mays
Substance pro-
vided.
July 15...
July 18...
Sept. 29..
July 17...
Sept. 22..
July 27...
Sept. 29..
Okra fruit..
Cotton leaves.
do
\FIr8t generation
/ pn squares.
Second genera-
tion on squares
cotton bolls
(seco
f tio
VOnc
Total all thurheriae on
cotton
ICales.
163
647
350
1,136
250
531
Days.
20.4
X
58.82
70.0
71.0
4L7
53.1
2,914 60.71
104
Females.
10
129
616
Datft.
16.1
478
392
2,755
>
o .
St
I
61.6
66.8
47.8
43.6
57.40 89
X
78
Both
sexes.
fi^
o .
DvM Day 9.
^^39 18w3
97 60.14
68.7
45.5
48.6
59.05
Notes on weerik.
Removed from
boUs coUect«d in
Arizona Mar. 1,
1915.
From Ttanrtwrta
bcdls coUeded in
Arizotsa Mar. 1,
1915.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
t Weevils not sexed.
The grandis males averaged 3.24 days with no food; 7.6 days on
okra and Hibiscus; 7.9 days on cotton leaves; 14.68 davs on cotton
terminals; 20.3 days on cotton bolls, and 57.88 days on cotton
squares. The average longevity of male grandis on parts of the cotton
plant was 14.15 days.
The thurheriae males averaged 20.4 days on okra fruit^; 62.3 days
on cotton leaves, 53.1 dajrs on cotton bolls, and 63 days on cotton
squares. The average longevity of thurberiae male^ on parts of the
cotton plant was 60.71 days.
The grandis females averaged 3.88 days with no food; 8.1 dayB on
okra and Hibiscus; 8.48 days on cotton leaves; 17.19 days on cotton
terminals; 42.53 days on cotton bolls, and 51.61 days on cotton
squares. The average longevity of female grandis on parts of the
cotton plants was 17.33 days.
The thurheriae females averaged 16.1 days on okra fruit; 61.6 days
on cotton leaves; 43.6 days on cotton bolls, and 60.2 days on cotton
squares. The average of female thurheriae on parts of the cotUm
plant was 57.4 days.
A comparison of the longevity of the two varieties on okra fruity
cotton leaves, cotton bolls, and cotton squares is shown in Table HI.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
COTTON BOLL WEEVIL IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 7
Table III. — Comparative longevity of ArUhonomu9 grandis and A. g, thurheriae.
Food.
Average
longevftY
ofgrand^.
Avence
longevity
ofthur-
beriae.
0km fruit
Dor«.
6.4
8.17
31.41
64. £6
Daps.
18.3
Gottonleaves
62.04
Cotum bolls
48.6
Ootton s<xQ>nis - . r . , . - , . - , - ,
61.4
Average longevlt"/ Irrespective of food
1413
63.2
The longevity of thurheriae is greater in every instance than that of
gravdis, and the average longevity irrespective of food is nearly forty
days greater for the thurheriae weevils.
The maximum longevity obtained in the 1915 experiments is 104
days, this record being made by a male thurheriae feeding on cotton
squares.
The maximum longevity with no food was 40 days; on okra and
Hibiscus 39 days; on cotton leaves 97 days; on cotton bolls 82 days;
on cotton terminals 45 days, and on cotton squares 104 days.
The comparison of the longevity by sexes is shown in Table IV.
Here it is seen that in grandis the females exceeded the males on every
food except cotton squares while in the thurheriae variety the males
lived the longer in each case. The observations relating to grandis
are in accord with the earlier records, which stated that the females
exhibited greater hardihood on abnormal foods, but that the relation
was reversed with normal food.
Table IV. — Comparison of longevity of the boll weevil by sexes. Observations of 1915.
VARIXTT GRANDIS.
Males.
Females.
Food.
Weevil
days.
Longev-
ity.
Number.
Weevil
days.
Longev-
ity.
None
136
70
135
75
17
16
440
531
1,067
1,101
345
926
Days.
3.24
7.60
7.90
14.68
20.30
67.88
01
69
117
73
17
18
863
559
992
1,255
723
929
Days.
3 88
^vaeeous plants
8.10
Oottonleav^
8 48
CDtton tArrnin^is ... ,,..,,...
17.19
Cotton bolls
42.53
Cotton sqn^rw . .
51.61
Total grandis
449
4,410
9.82
385
4,811
12.50
VARIETT THX7RBERUE.
Oba.
8
16
10
22
163
997
631
1,388_
20.4
62.3
53.1
63.0
8
10
9
29
129
616
392
1.747
16.1
Cotton leaves
61.6
Cotton bolls
43.6
Cotton aqrwres ....
60.2
Total thnrberiae
56
3,077
54.9
56
2,884 1 51.5
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
8 BULLETIN 358, IT. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE.
The longevity records of 1914 and 1915 added to those previously
obtained show that 6,119 weevils fed on water averaged 9.9 days;
308 weevils fed on cotton averaged 8.6 days; 542 weevils fed on mal-
vaceous plants averaged 9 days; 146 weevils fed on cotton foliage
averaged 24.3 days and 534 weevils fed on cotton squares averaged
54.2 days. The most interesting features of the recent investigations
on longevity are the greater adaptability of grandis for abnormal food
plants and the very great longevity of thurheriae on any food. In
view of this trend displayed by grandis and the adaptations which
have already been made by tkurberiae it seems reasonable to expect
that grandis will continue to acquire greater hardihood when offered
only abnormal foods.
Field cage studies, — For comparison with the laboratory tests of
longevity, several experiments were conducted in field cages. Large
cages covered with 16-mesh screen were placed over growing cotton
plants and the first hibernated weevils found in the field in the spring
were placed in them. Six cages in all were started on dates ranging
from May 12 to June 19. These cages were watched for the cessation
of weevil injury to the plants. However, the greater part of the new
weevUs died almost immediately after installation and the latest
date on which a weevil was observed alive was July 22. It is apparent
that the conditions are very abnormal in these cages, owing to the
effect upon the light, temperature, humidity, etc. In fact, the plants
themselves make a very abnormal growth when caged. A few obser-
vations were made during this period to determine the difference in
temperature inside and outside these cages and they indicated a
slightly higher daily maximum inside the cage than outside. The
observations generally indicate that the conditions are very abnormal
in these cages and that there is serious danger of error in drawing
conclusions based only on such observations.
FOOD PLANTS OF THE WEEVIL,
During the early investigations on the boll weevil many attempts
were made to find the weevUs feeding or breeding on any plant other
than cotton but they were unifonnly unsuccessful. In fact, the first
record of a cotton boU weevil feeding in nature on any plant other
than cotton was in 1913, when one individual was found at Victoria,
Tex., eating a bloom of Hibiscus syriacus. Observations since that
time have shown a number of cases of the weevils feeding on plants
closely related to cotton. The most important of these seem to be
okra and the various wild species of Hibiscus.
OTcra, — Okra is found very closely associated with cotton in many
parts of the cotton belt. In fact, the plants are usually scattered
through the cotton fields or are in the small garden patches adjoining
cotton. Consequently there is a very good opportxmity for the
weevils to attack this plant.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
COTTON BOLL WEEVIL IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 9
During 1915 a number of okra plants were examined for weevils
with the following results: On September 10 a few plants were
examined at Inverness, Miss. Three open blooms were found and
five boll weevils were in them, one blossom containing three. On
September 29 and 30 a total of 122 okra plants were examined between
Tallulah and Mound, La. These plants had 114 open blooms but
the only weevil found was on the fruit. This individual was watched
for about five minutes and in this time it made no attempt to feed.
Several additional records of the weevil on'okra were made during
the season on the plants growing at the laboratory and also in the
field. Nearly all of these weevils were in the blooms and, where
feeding was found, it was confined to the petals and stamens. No
evidence of breeding in the buds or fruit in nature was secured.
Laboratory studies were also made upon the feeding in captivity
and the possibility of breeding in the buds or fruit of okra. Sixty-
nine pairs of weevils were mated on okra buds and small fruit and
given only this food until death. Eleven eggs were deposited nor-
mally and three externally, but the larvae failed to survive on this
food. The weevils fed quite freely on Jthese foods and also on okra
blooms. In fact, the greatest amount of feeding was on the immature
boll at the base of the bloom. Occasionally this small boll would be
riddled with feeding punctures.
One cage test was conducted in the attempt, to produce some'wh^
the conditions which would exist if cotton planting w^re suddenly
stopped and only okra left for food. For this purpose a large cage
was erected in the laboratory yard over a row of growing cotton
pUmts and a row of okra (fig. 2). On August 27, 100 weevils, 50
males and 50 females, collected from cotton in the field were placed
in the cage. Daily observations on the relative number of weevils on
cotton and okra were made for 10 days. During this time 294 obser-
vations were made of weevils on cotton, while they were found on
the okra only 16 times. , '
On September 6 the cotton plants were carefully removed from the
cage and only the growing okra left for the weevils. On September
7 six weevils were feeding on the okra and on September 8 seven
weevils were located, one feeding on a leaf and three feeding on the
bloom. On September 9 three examinations were made and from
3 to 6 weevils, one of which was feeding on a bloom, were found on
the okra each time. After that date the weevils were found on the
okra only at irregular intervals and on September 19 no live weevils
were found in the cage. At this time all the okra fruit was closely
examined for egg punctures but none were found. However, to make
sure that none were overlooked, all the fruit was placed on moist sand
in a breeding cage and saved for some time, after which the contents
were examined but no signs of larval work were found.
23922^— Bull. 368—16 2
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
10
BULLETIN 358, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTURE.
Hibiscus. — Two species of Hibiscus are found commonly around
Tallulah, La., viz, militaris and moscheiUos. One plant of Hibiscus
lasiocarjms was found but does not seem to be common. H. mUitam
and H. moscheutos are found principally in low, moist pbvces such as
Fio. 2.— One of the cages coataJning cotton and okra plants, Delta, La. Photograpbed at time ol intro-
duction of boll weevils. (Original.)
the bayou banks, in roadside ditches, and in swamp land^ 'where they
grow to considerable size and fruit throughout most of tho summer.
No weevils were found on these, but practically all of the plants
noted were some distance from cotton.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
COTTON BOLL WEEVIL IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. H
One plant of H, mUitaris was transplanted to the laboratory yard
and a number of adult weevils were found feeding in the blooms
during the season. The feeding wiis apparently confined to the
stamens and petals.
In addition to these field observations laboratory studies were
conducted in an attempt to rear weevils in Hibiscus buds as was done
at Victoria, Tex., in 1913. In connection with these attempts,
some interesting feeding records were secured.
Thirty-two weevils that were fed with Hibiscus blooms only were
noted to feed freely on the petals, and four cases of feeding on the
immature boll at the base of the bloom were also noted.
Four weevils were fed on Hibiscus buds alone; they fed sparingly
but deposited no ^gs.
In an experiment where 127 weevils were placed in breeding jars
with fresh Hibiscus fruits, considerable feeding was noted and 5 eggs
were deposited, 4 externally and 1 normally. The eggs deposited
externally were placed in incisions in the Hibiscus bolls and saved
on moist sand, but later examinations of these bolls showed no sign
cl larval work.
Other plartis. — On September 4 two weevils were found on the
fofiage of cultivated zinnia growing at the laboratory.
]Barly in the spring hibernated weevils were confined in breeding
eiges with blooms of violet, peach, pear, and osage-orange and left
wsSSL death, but no sign of feeding was found.
Wbile the weevils were not fotmd breeding on the various mal-
plants and the laboratory attempt to get them to do so gave
re results, the increasing adaptability of the weevil to them as
quite evident.
FEEDING HABITS ON COTTON LEAVES AND TERMINALS.
Jb, connection with the studies on the longevity of the weevils on
L leaves and terminals as already reported, a number of interest-
{ observations were made on the character and extent of the feeding.
ily the weevils apparently never feed upon the leaves, and the
fawliiiC on the terminals is largely limited to the time before the
fitgt squares appear in the spring.
Cotton leaves. — Eighty pairs of weevils were placed in breeding
cages on cotton leaves during the season and observations were made
on a total of 747 weevil days. During this time the weevils fed 128
days on the leaf tissue alone, 30 days on the stem alone, and 211 days
on both stem and leaf tissue; in other words, 34.7 per cent of the
feeding was on leaf tissue, 8.1 per cent on stem, and 57.2 per cent on
both leaf and stem. The feeding of grandis on the leaf tissue usually
consisted of a limited niunber of small punctm-es but that of thurheriae
was much more voracious. The latter would frequently devoxir
almost the entire leaf in a day.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
12
BULLETIN 358, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Cotton terminals. — Seventy-five pairs of weevils were fed on cotton
terminals during the season and observations were made on a total of
1,920 weevil days. Feeding was observed on 1,226 weevil days.
On 616 days the weevils fed on the stem alone, or 50.2 per cent of aD
feeding was on this part. On 602 days, or 49.1 per cent of the feeding
days, the feeding was on both the stem and bud, while the bud alone
was attacked on only 8 days, or 0.7 per cent of the feeding days.
The preference of the weevil for the stem in these two series was
quite marked. This may be due to the mechanical stimulus presented
by the shape of the stem which will allow punctures more or less like
those made in the squares and bolls.
Table V. — Relative proportions of the sexe$ of boll weevils. Obser cations of 1915.
Variety and description of material.
Male.
Female.
Number.
Percent.
Number.
Percent.
Grandit:
Hibernated weevils
439
1,591
55.00
51.59
360
1.493
4£lOO
Bred weevils
48.41
Tothl grandit
2,030
52.28
1,853
47. n
TkurbeHat,
Bred Irom cotton squares
71
4
55.98
4a 00
56
6
44.02
Bred from cotton bolls
60.00
Total thurberiae
75
64.74
62
45.35
Hybrids:
Male thurberiae and female grandis
52
50
50.49
44.25
51
63
49. a
Male grandu and female lhurbeTi<u
55. 7S
Total h ybrids
102
47.22
114
51 7S
Total and average of all weevils
2,2J7
5Z10
2,029
47.90
SEX OP ADULTS,
A considerable number of the weevils handled during the season
were sexed, and Table V shows the ratio of the sexes.
Of the hibernated grandis material, 439 were males and 360 were
females, or 55 per cent males and 45 per cent females. Of the thur-
ieriae weevils extracted from Thurberia bolls, 54.74 per cent were
males and 45.26 per cent were females. Of the 214 sexed hybrid
weevils bred during the season 47.22 per cent were males and 52.78
per cent were females. These last figures are in accordance with the
observations in 1913 that there was a larger percentage of females in
variety thurberiae and the hybrids than in tha variety grandis,
PERIOD FROM EMERGENCE TO OYIPOSITION.
In the series of typical grandis females the period from emergence
to oviposition when fed on squares varied from 2 to 16 dajrs with an
average of 6.6 days. Fourteen females emerging in late June
averaged 5.9 days from emergence to oviposition and 5 females
emerging in late July and early August averaged 8.8 days from
emergence to oviposition. Thus it is shown that temperature has a
Digiti
zed by Google
COTTON BOLL WEEVIL IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 13
direct influence on the length of time elapsing between emergence
and oviposition. Ten typical tJmrberias emerging in late July and
early August averaged 6.8 days from emergence to oviposition. These
periods ranged from 3 to 10 days. Grandis females in Texas in 1913
averaged 6.1 days and ttmrberiae females 4 days. At Tallulah in
1910, 34 females averaged 6.35 days before oviposition.
PERIOD FROM FIRST FEEDING ON SQUARES TO OVIPOSITION.
The period from first feeding on squares after emergence from
hibernation to egg deposition was observed only with typical iTiuV'-
heriae females and with crosses of grandis and ihurberiae. With
typical ihurberiae emerging in June it ranged from 10 to 18 days with
an average of 13.3 days, while male ihurberiae mated with female
grandis varied from 3 to 10 days with an average of 7 days. With
female ihurberiae mated with male grandis the period varied from 9
to 18 days with an average of 12 days. Female ihurberiae mated
with male grandis in Texas in 1913 averaged 13.5 days in May and
June and 3 days in early September, while hibernated grandis
males averaged 4.2 days in early May. These records seem to indi-
cate that the period is several days longer for ihurberiae than for
grandis.
FECUNDITY.
In connection with the various breeding series conducted during
1915 a considerable amoxmt of information on the fecundity of the
females of various types was secured.
Fecundiiy of hibernated grandis females. — Questions have fre-
quently been raised concerning whether or not it is necessary for a
female to be fertilized in the fall to pass the winter safely and also as
to whether or not it is necessary for the females to be fertilized in the
spring before deposition can start. Two series of females were
tested to determine their exact condition upon emergence from
hibernation in the spring. One series consisted of isolated females
which were collected immediately after emergence started and which
were not offered an opportunity for copulation after that time, while
m the other series males were left with the females throughout their
life. Of course there is a possibility that some of these females may
have been fertilized during the time between emergence and collec-
tion but this is very slight as the emergence had just started and they
had had very little time in which to copulate. Earlier studies have
shown that either square or boll food is necessary before the female
can be succe^ssfully fertilized and there were extremely few squares
present in the field before the time of collection of these weevils,
consequently it seems safe to assume that at least the majority of
these females had not been fertilized in the spring. Both series were
given cotton squares for food and oviposition.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
14
BULLETIN 3r)8, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
t
a
"^3
1
P.
biS 9 » A (
!i5S
t o *<
5 > «
Eli
i-*=?
'^B-*"^
J»iO Ok SiO-^tD ^ ^wdt«-«
gS5e§S!o8|§t;2|Sg§gS
^
00 t^
« <•• c* ■«! W "^
SS;:§2S5?J?S®S§25SSi5
eo^b.MC<)roe<«oe^O'-£C<*Me<9co«eo
rt > ci.c-2
sl5
.■^o«o .«o» w ■^ r* «o oc •© OS
'2 *- 5 •« iS
rt c 'S
"SI 2S
ok.-^M^ro^O'^oO'^^wdmtowdooo
s^ss
ooo
i;s
c««ao
cow
§?g
•ooo»^'V^'Vcoecwc>»«»o«eo«co^^'^
cooo
wo>»floo»c»cjg^22i2**'ffl*''*SIiS**
^ 5 3 3 33 3*3 "3 3 33 §3 •3 3 335
< •-» "-s •-, 1^ 1^ ^ 1^ 1^ H, H, "< 1^ ■< OC •-» H» H* "< •<
33333333 3 3 333 •333333
?-<»^'<H
o»'^«c<r«c-««<cot»OJ^«oh»eot»M5»>»«»-oot^
o »o — •-ac^cO'^.-Mr-.o»ec«'^«o t^co
ci %= c4 ^ — -i »-■ ci oi 'co^ 'c«i 'ciui^c*e6
S"'2i^§:;2feS^g$2§?§?2s;*^a5;
COOOOOO©©^0000^0^»M»i^r-i
«~ .
il
:3(o«o
»;9^
^s-
s
I
o
T3
I
"*SS*^S2222'»SS5sa2S8^'«
= 33333333 39 3 Bo^^ 3 333
coMe<«cc<^oe<icoc4e^>o^e4r>.eooQOQaoe»
§§§§g§§§§gg9§§siiigi
^OOOOOOOOOOOO'^'^OOOOO
h
I
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
COTTON BOLL WEEVIL IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY.
15
1
1
I
i
<
ilidl
lit
lira's
III
III
s
A *ii4 v4 fM |i4 v4 «-l
o»e«^3»^^
'S3-
5i®SS3t;
eoo«^^--
SoSSB'=
«e4iOQOOO
^•4«<o<^
ass^
00«0-<4^
=>2a
8S8
'11
s;S9
;SS
S28§i§§i
^**2S3a'^S
S^9§SS§$8
^coeookOt«e«oo
ssssssss
QoooQooa»i-«co^
CO to CO <0 CO 00 aO 00
I
cooeo<H^to(Do»e4a»oe«cooioe4t«to<«
g2?5Sa^S8S'*S'*?38J:;a2Sa8^a;S*S
CO •* •O « « « « CO M M CO N CO t- •* C« ^ »0 »0 »0 to lO »0 CO »«
5l§ I
c«»>.oooe'*«eo'#»ocoi«»-«te.^o»"*c«totoo>*»^eooo
3
sii»i
IW
!•
s?S588ss^*asj5S*gg5a«^sg8ss5?!5
o«i4a»o^e«'<4iooio«^oc9SC«>Ha»e««DO«^e^coc90o
?585l2S«^S»*S^*SSS2-^;3S^ffiSSS3Io
aS{:9SS^^3tl389Sqi^9:S^2SSr2^:$g^2^
QOOC
r«00
S'l':
g5*«g^
I^S^
l§J^2
S^9§i§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§|§||§
ii
IP
::::::: h<1*S
1
« 3
I
s
•9
I
5
|2<sas<Spfa2ai<§afa |aaaaisaaaa«
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
16 BULLETIN 358, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
From the results of these two series, shown in Tables VI and VII,
it develops that all of the 25 isolated females deposited ^gs, although
4 of them deposited less than 10 eggs each, whereas of the 20 fertilized
females only 3 individuals deposited less than 10 eggs. The average
ovipodition period was 34.5 days for the isolated females and 40
days for females with the males. The average eggs for the Isolated
females was 41.2 with a maximum of 129, while for the females with
males the average was 69.8 with a maximum of 157. However, it
is seen that the isolated females averaged 5 eggs deposited externally
while the females with males averaged only 0.45. Earlier studies'
have shown that practically all eggs deposited externally are infertile,
which would indicate a lack of fertility on the part of isolated females.
The average eggs per day for the isolated females ranged from 0.1
to 3.1 with a general average of 1.03, whereas for the females with
males it ranged from 0.6 to 5.6 with an average of 2.05 ^gs, thus
proving the greater fecundity of the females with males.
The latest date of cessation of oviposition, August 23, was the
same in both series, but the average date for the isolated females
was 7 days later than that of the females with males. All eggs secured
in both series were retained and as many adults as possible were
reared. It is seen that 17.25 per cent of the e^s from the isolated
females produced adults, while 14.46 per cent of those from the
females with males produced adults. However, the eggs from every
female in the series with males produced some adults, while those
from 4 females in the isolated series failed to produce any.
From these observations it seems quite evident that at least a
very high percentage of the females emerging in the spring are more
or less fertile, but that their fecundity is considerably increased by
later copulations.
Fecundity of first-generation grandis females. — ^The weevils used in
this series were the first weevils bred during the season of 1915, the
earliest emerging June 20. Thirteen pairs were mated and placed
with cotton squares. (Table VIIT.)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
COTTON BOLL WEEVIL IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY.
17
Tabus VIII. — Fecundity of first-generation females of ArUJumomus grandis on cotton
squares.
Dateovt-
positlon
Degan.
Dateovi-
position
e^ed.
Ovlposi-
tion
period.
Eggs deposited.
Date female emerged.
Total.
Per day.
Maxi-
mum per
day.
inn«?0.
June 26
do
Sept. 7
Aug. 4
Aug. 29
July 28
July 20
July 14
Aug. 15
Aug. 25
Aug. 27
Aug. 31
Aug. 26
July 28
Aug. 23
Day$.
74
40
62
31
25
19
54
66
62
65
62
33
50
198
197
91
67
80
66
191
160
142
107
HI
110
204
2.5
4.93
1.5
1.8
3.7
3.5
3.5
2.4
2.3
1.6
1.8
3.3
3.5
8
Do
10
Do
June 29
June 28
June 26
...do
7
Do..::::::::::::::::::: : : :
5
Yone 21
9
Do
11
Do
June 23
June 27
...do
8
Do
8
Do :
12
Do
June 28
June 26
-do...
6
Do..
6
Do
7
Do
...do
10
Total
650
50
74
19
1,723
132.6
204
67
2.7
4.9
1.5
MaxixDTim
12
mnimmn
5
The total number of eggs deposited by each female ranged from
57 to 204 with an average of 132.5. The average number of eggs
per female per day was 2.7 and the maximum was 12. The oviposi-
tion period varied from 19 to 74 days with an average of 50 days.
Fecundity of second generation grandis females, — ^Five pairs of
weevils emerging from the first generation series were mated and
placed with cotton squares during the last of July and the first of
August (Table IX.)
Table IX. — Fecundity of second-generation females of Anthonomus grandis on cotton
squares.
. Date female emerged.
Date
ovipo-
sition
began.
Date
ovipo-
sition
ended.
Ovipo-
sition
period.
Eggs deposited.
Total.
Per day.
Maxi-
mum per
day.
July 16..
Aug. 13.
July 16.
July 2».
Ai]«.9..
Total.
Average
Maximum. .
IflniDUim...
July 23
Aug. 18
July 27
Aug. 2
Aug. 17
July 29
Seut. 4
Sept. 5
Aug. 28
Days.
18
40
35
13
13
42
93
175
24
1.9
2.3
2.3
5.0
1.6
113
22.6
40
7
347
176
13
3.1
5.0
1.6
10
6
10
4
The total nmnber of eggs per female ranged from 13 to 175 with an
average of 69.4. The niunber of eggs per female per day varied from
1.6 to 5.0 and the maximum number was 10. The oviposition period
ranged from 7 to 40 days with an average of 22.6 days.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
18
BULLETIN 358, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE.
Fecundity of hibernated thurheriae females. — ^The weevils used in this
series were hibernated individuak extracted from cells in Thurberia
bolls collected in Arizona on March 1, 1915. Nineteen pairs were
mated on cotton squares on June 18. (Table X.)
Table X. — Fecundity of hibernated females of Anthonomus grandis thwrberiae on cotton
squares.
Date
ovlpo-
sition
began.
Date
ovipo-
sition
ended.
Ovipo-
sltion
period.
Eggs deposited.
DateinstaUed.
TotaL
Per day.
Maxf.
nuixn per
day.
Jntift is_ , . .
June 29
June 28
July 6
Aug. 8
Aug. 2
July 25
Aug. 7
Sept. 4
Aug. 16
July 17
Aug. 25
Aug. 18
July 29
July 20
Sept. 9
Aug. 3
Aug. 2
Aug. 20
Aug. 27
Aug. 14
Aug. 2
Aug. 6
36
21
38
66
49
19
59
47
27
20
74
34
32
51
58
54
29
39
46
82
9
109
90
49
26
76
47
54
5
58
54
62
46
67
09
73
57
1.1
2.3
.4
2.9
1.4
1.0
1.4
1.3
1.0
2.0
.25
.8
L6
L9
.9
LO
1.3
2.5
1.5
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
June 29
...do
Do
Do
June 28
July 3
...do
Do
Do
Do
July 1
June 28
July 1
July 2
'to '
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
July 2
July 6
June 29
Do
Do
4
Total
794
41.79
74.00
19.00
1,(»8
k2
109
5
Average
1.3
Z9
.23
7
Minimum
The total eggs per female ranged from 5 to 109, with an average of
56.2. The average eggs per female per day was 1.3, while the maxi-
mum was 7. The oviposition period varied from 19 to 74 days, with
an average of 41.79 days.
Fecundity of first-generation thurheriae females. — ^Ten pairs of the
progeny of the hibernated thurheriae reared in cotton squares were
mated on cotton squares. (Table XI.)
Table XI.- Fecundity of first-generation females of Anthonomus grandis thurheriae on
cotton squares.
Date installed.
July 17..
July 18..
Do..
Do..
Do..
Aug. 4..
July 19..
July 22. .
July 24..
Aug. 4..
Total.
Average
ICaximum..
Minimum. . .
Date ovi-
position
July 24
July 28
July 24
July 25
July 25
Aug. 10
July 29
July 25
Aug. 3
Aug. 7
Date ovi-
position
ended.
Sept. 1
Aug. 24
Sept. 20
Sept. 9
Aug. 28
Sept. 5
Sept. 22
Aug. 3
Aug. 26
Aug. 25
Ovipo-
sition
period.
40
28
59
47
35
27
25
10
24
19
314
31.4
59
10
Eggs deposited.
Total.
72
37
39
16
12
27
11
7
6
18
244
24.4
72
6
Per day.
1.8
L3
.7
.3
.3
LO
.8
.7
.3
LO
L4
L8
.3
Maxi-
mom per
day.
Digiti
zed by Google
COTTON BOLL WEEVIL IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY.
19
The number of eggs per female ranged from 6 to 72, with an average
of 24.4, while the average per female per day was 1.4 and the maxi-
mum per day was 5. The oviposition period ranged from 10 to 59
days, with an average of 3 1 .4 days.
From this and the preceding series the greatly reduced fecundity
of ihwrheriae under the artificial condition prevailing at the Tallulah
laboratory is quite evident.
Fecundity of bred grandis Jemales mated with male thirheriae. — ^Late
in June 12 newly emerged female grandis of the first generation were
mated with hibernated male thurberiae on cotton squares. (Table
xn.)
Tablb XII. — Fecundity of bred females of ArUhonomus grandU maud with male A. g.
thurberiae on cotton gquares.
Date Installed.
DateoTi-
posHion
began.
Date ovi-
position
ended.
Ovipo-
sition
period.
Eggs deposited.
Total.
Per day.
Maxi-
mum per
day.
June 22.
Jiily27..
Juab 22.
July 27..
Jane 23.
July 291.
Joiie22..
July 27-.
June 22.
July 27..
Jiiim23..
Do..
Do..
Total..
Average..
June 29
Aug. 2
July 2
Aug. 4
June 28
Aug. 1
June 28
Aug. 5
June 30
Aug. 3
June 28
July 1
June 28
July 7
Sept. 8
Jiiay 28
Aug. 31
July 10
Aug. 28
July 7
Sept.
July
Sept.
July
Aug.
Aug.
9
38
27
28
13
28
10
37
14
48
6
38
44
35
134
124
10
29
100
31
87
32
87
13
113
100
3.0
3.6
4.6
.7
2.2
3.6
3.1
2.4
2.3
1.8
2.2
3.0
3.8
7
0
8
2
7
8
5
6
5
6
6
7
15
312
26
48
6
870
72.6
166
13
2.8
4.6
.7
15
1 A complete record was not secured from this female owing to its escape on August 30, and consequently
tbe l^iuree are not included in the totals and averages.
The total eggs per female varied from 13 to 166, with an average of
72.5, and the average per female per day was 2.8. The oviposition
period ranged from 6 to 48 dajrs, with an average of 26 days.
The hybrid progeny reared from these eggs were mated on cotton
squares and laid fertile eggs.
Fecundity of female thurberiae mxUed with m^le grandis, — In June
1 8 hibernated females of the variety thurberiae were mated with an
equal munber of male grandis on cotton squares. The detailed
rc^ts are shown in Table XIII.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
20
BULLETIN 358, IT. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE.
Table XIII. — Fecundity of hibernated female Anthonomus grandis thurberiae mated
with male A. grandis on cotton squares.
Date
oviposl-
tion
began.
Date
oviposl-
tion
ended.
Ovipod-
tlon
period.
Eggs deposited.
Date installed.
Total.
Per day.
Maxi-
mum
per day.
June 19
Do
July 3
June 28
July 2
June 28
June 29
...do
Sept. 7
Sept. 3
Aug. 13
Aug. 6
Sept. 2
Aug. 3
Aug. 4
July 24
Aug. 22
Aug. 21
Aug. 20
July 28
Aug. 2
Aug. 11
Aug. 24
Aug. 4
Aug. 2
July 24
68
43
40
66
36
33
20
64
45
47
27
36
45
55
32
36
27
31
77
133
48
72
65
47
81
59
40
51
30
77
n
47
32
35
24
a6
1.1
8.1
1.2
LI
L8
L4
L5
LI
.9
LI
LI
2.2
1.6
.9
LO
1.0
.9
3
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
July 3
July 6
June 30
July 7
July 6
July 2
June 28
...do....
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
July 1
July 4
Jun.» 28
...do
Do
Do
Do
Total
777
43.2
68
20
970
. 54
133
24
AvfTagp
1.3
3.1
.5
Maxjinuni
8
HinfniuTn
The total eggs per female ranged from 24 to 133, with an average
of 54, and the general average per day was 1.3 ^gs. The oviposition
period varied from 20 to 68 days and averaged 43.2 days.
The progeny of this cross were, also mated and produced fertile
Fecundity of bred grandis females on cotton hoUs. — Eighteen pairs of
bred grandis weevils were placed with cotton bolls and furnished
only this food until death. Seven of these females died without
depositing a single egg. The activities of the remaining 11 are shown
m Table XIV.
Table XFV. — Fecundity of hredfemaUs of Anthonomus grandis on cotton boUs.
Oviposltion-
Total
eggs.
Eggs per day.
Date installed.
Started.
Ended.
Period.
ICaxf.
mum.
July 9
Do
July 18
July 19
July 14
July 28
July 16
July 12
July 23
Aug. 7
Aug. 6
July 30
July 26
Aug. 3
July 26
Sept. 7
Aug. 22
Sept. 6
Sept. 10
Aug. 7
Aug. 17
Sept. 16
Aug. 17
Sept. 16
6
45
26
52
61
16
11
43
19
22
5
8
17
18
17
24
5
2
5
2
8
a3
.6
.4
.5
.8
.4
.3
.2
.01
.01
.4
1
2
Do
2
Do
2
Do
2
Do
3
July 16
3
July 24
1
Do
2
Do
Do
2
Total
317
29
61
6
101
9
24
2
Average
.3
.5
.01
Maximum
1
3
Minimum
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
COTTON BOLL WEEVIL IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY.
21
The total ^gs per female varied from 2 to 24, with an average of
only 9, and the average per day was only 0.3. The oviposition period
ranged from 6 to 61 days, with an average of 29 days.
These results indicate the great diflBculty with which oviposition is
performed when only bolls are offered for food, but at least a large
percentage of the eggs deposited were fertile, as 20 adults were reared
from them.
Fecundity of hibernated ihurheriae females on cotton bolls. — Nine
pairs of thurberiaeweeviia were extracted from their hibernation cells
in Thurberia bolls on July 27 and placed with cotton bolls at once.
They were offered only this food untU death. The results are given
in Table XV.
Table XV. — Fecundity of hibernated Anthonomus grandis thiwheriae on cotton holh.
Date
ovlpo-
aitfon
began.
Date
ovlpo-
8itfon
ended.
Ovipo-
sition
period.
Eggs deposited—
Maxi>
I>ttt«iii^aUed.
Nor-
mally.
Extern
naUy.
Total.
^.
July 37
Aug. 11
July 38
Aug. 15
July 38
Aug. 4
July 38
Aug. 4
Aug. 18
July 30
Sept. 18
Sept. 6
Aug. 38
Aug. 30
Aug. 18
Sept. 34
Aug. 16
Sept. 0
July 30
^•39
41
14
34
15
69
13
33
1
1
1
1
6
3
1
4
1
03
1
1
8
5
3
1
1
1
63
3
3
14
7
a
5
3
1
7
Do
1
Do
1
Do.>
3
July 37
3
Do
Do
3
Do
1
Do
1
Total
304
35.6
69
1
11
1.3
4
74
9.3
63
1
85
10.6
63
1
A wra^
7
1 This female escaped Aug. 30, and consequently is not included in the averages.
One of these females escaped, and consequently only eight are
considered in the averages. These eight deposited a total of only
85 eggs, and 74, or 89.4 per cent of these were deposited extemaUy.
It is striking that every female that deposited any eggs laid one or
more externally. , This is positive evidence of the unsuitabihty of
bolls as food for these weevils.
The average total eggs per female was 10.6 and the average num-
ber deposited normaUy was only 1.3. These eggs were fertile, how-
ever, as several adults were reared from them.
Fecundity of grandis females on cotton boUs and squares on aJiemaie
days. — In addition to the foregoing studies on the effect of cotton
bolls on the deposition of females another series was conducted in
which each female was offered squares and bolls on alternate days.
These females were bred individuals, which were fed squares until
normal deposition started. Consequently this series does not show
the effect of the boll food upon the fecundity of the females, but
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
22
BULLETIN 368, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGBICULTUBE.
simply shows the relative effect of the bolls and squares upon the ^
act of oviposition. Table XVI shows the activity of nine females
treated in this manner.
Table XVI. — Fecundity of females of Anthonomus grandis on cotton squares and cotton
bolls on alternate days.
Eggs deposited in squares.
Eggs deposited in bolls.
Total.
MaxI-
mum
per day.
Average
per day.
TotaL
Maxi-
mum
per day.
Average
per day.
10
21
24
21
5
40
25
23
4
37
41
2
8
11
11
0.36
1.28
2.00
6.26
.28
2.42
1.36
1.54
.16
1.42
1.52
16
6
5
6
8
19
16
11
1
21
12
2
2
1
3
3
3
5
2
1
4
8
0.58
.12
.50
1.50
.46
1.16
.86
.74
.12
.80
.68
251
11
1.21
121
5
.50
From this it is seen that the average e^s per female per day was
1.21 on cotton squares and 0.59 on bolls. Consequently the greater
suitability of the square for deposition is quite evident.
Summary of aU fecundity observations on cotton squares, — ^Table
XVII gives a brief summary of the foregoing studies on fecundity
when the females were with males throughout life and were fed
cotton squares. Here it is seen that the three series containing ttur-
herias females gave the lowest average of total eggs per female, and
that the first-generation grandis gave the highest. The average e^s
per female in aU series was 68.2 and the average per day was 1.8.
Table XVII. — Fecundity of all boll weevils on cotton squares: Summary,
Source.
Hibernated ffrandis
First generation grandis
Second generation grandis
Hibernated thurberiae
First generation thurberiae
Female grandis and male thurberiae.
Female thurberiae and male grandis,.
Total
Average.
Number
Average
1
20
60.85
13
132.54
5
69.4
19 56.2
10 24. 4
12 72.5
18
54
Average
oviposi-
periDd. Average.
E^Kgs per day.
Dtt$s.
34.6
50
22.6
41.79
31.4
26
43.2
37.7
2.1
2.7
3.1
1.3
3.5
2.8
1.3
1.8
Maxi-
12
12
10
7
5
U
8
The averages are ail surprisingly low, the lowest on record for a
season for the boll weevil, in fact. In 1902 to 1904, at Victoria, Tex..
the females averaged 89 eggs each at the rate of 2.8 per day, while at
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
COTTON BOLL WEEVIL IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY.
23
the same place in 1913 they averaged 212 eggs each at the rate of 5.9
per day. That this year's low record is not due to the difference in
localities is shown by the fact that at Tallulah in 1910 the weevils
averaged 208 eggs per female, at the rate of 5.5 eggs per day. The
low records of 1915 may have been due to the extremely hot, dry
weather prevailing during the period when most of the observations
were made.
OVIPOSITION PERIOD.
The oviposition period of 122 females was observed diu'ing 1915.
The results are shown in Table XVIII.
Table XVIII. — Oviposition period of the boll weevil on cotton squares.
Season.
Number
of
females.
Period.
Source of weevils.
Maxi-
mum.
Mini-
mum.
Hibernated grandis
xr^y-jiiT^e
20
25
13
5
10
10
12
18
65
77
74
40
74
59
48
68
1
15
19
7
19
10
6
20
34 5
Hibernated grundU unfertilked in
June-August
40.0
sprbtg.
First fxoentkm ffnmdU
June-September
do
50.0
22 6
lUbtrDBiedtkuiiieriae
do
41.79
Ftat emtmioDthurberiae
July-September
June-September
do
31.4
Male ^urberiae and female ^ron<f/«
MBltffrmadu and female thurbniae
26.0
44.3
May-September
Total
122
Weighted average
38.2
1*- rSl____ ^
77
Minimum
1
The table shows that the oviposition period ranged from 1 to 77
days, with an average of 38.2 days for all females. The first genera-
tion grandis had the longest average period and the second generation
grandis the lowest. There is no great difference between the length
of the oviposition periods of grandis and thurberiae.
A seri^ of 8 thurheriae females on cotton bolls averaged 25.5 days,
with a maximum of 59 days and a minimum of 1 day, while a series
of 1 1 grandis females on cotton boUs averaged 29 days, with a maxi-
mum of 61 days and a minimum of 6 days.
Observations of 32 females on cotton squares at Tallulah in 1914
showed an average oviposition period of 34.4 days, a maximum period
of 80 days and a minimum period of 10 days. The average oviposi-
tion at Tallulah in 1910 was 34.44 days, and the average period in
Texas in 1913 was 35.8 days. All records of female oviposition
periods average several days less than the 1915 record of 38.2 days
at Tallulah. Thus it is seen that if there is any tendency toward a
change in the length of the oviposition period of the weevil it is in
the nature of an increase rather than a decrease.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
24 BULLETIN 358, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTURE.
RATE OF OVIPOSinON.
The rate of oviposition by thirds of the period is shown in Table
XIX. From this it is seen that the general average eggs per female
per day was the same in the first and second thirds, while in the last
it was lower.
Table XIX. — Rate of oviposition of the boll weevil obtained in all experiments.^
Num-
ber
of fe-
males.
Season.
Rate of oviposition.
First third
of period.
of period.
Lastthiid
of period.
Total
eggs-
505
578
152
133
407
397
289
Daily
avg.
Total
DaUy
avg.
Total
«ggs.
DaUy
avg.
Hibernated ^raiid{«
19
13
5
10
19
18
13
May to Aug...
June to Sept..
July to Sept...
....do
June to Sept..
do
2.3
2.7
4.2
1.3
1.6
1.5
2.7
504
692
122
65
379
373
392
2.2
3.2
3.3
.6
1.4
1.4
3.5
387
453
77
46
282
108
275
L7
First ceDeratlon ffrcifkilA
2.0
Second generation (|rraiufi«
1.9
First s^eration tHurbtriae
.4
mhvmAtedtkurberiae
Ualegnndit and female thwberiae. .
1.0
.8
....do
2.3
Total
2,461
"2*i'
2,527
"ii"
1,718
Average
1.4
1 Owing to the fact that the oviposition periods were rarely exactly divisible by 3 it was firequeotly
necessary to allow a difference of a day on one or more of the periods. For this reason the divisors used in
computing the final average were sli|^tly different, and consequeotlv the same average per day was secured
in the first and second period, though the total eggs were slightly higher in the second period.
MAXIMUM NUMBER OF EGGS PER DAT.
The maximum number of eggs deposited by a female in a day was
15, this number being deposited on July 17 by a grandis female
fertilized by a ihurheriae male. This maximum is much lower than
the maxima of previous years. The maxima of the various series
carried through this year varied from 5 to 15 ^gs.
The record for maximum eggs per day was made at Tallulah in
1914 when a first generation female laid 27 eggs. The maximum
number of eggs in a day before this time was 26, this record being
made by a female at Victoria, Tex., in 1913.
PERIOD FROM DEPOSITION OF LAST EGG TO DEATH.
The number of days from the deposition of the last egg to the death
of the female varied from 54 days to death on the same day as the
last deposition. The average of the 120 weevils observed during
the season was 5.8 days. Typical grandis averaged 4.4 days to death,
the periods of the individuals varying from none to 13 days. Typical
thurheriae averaged 9.7 days, the periods varying from none to 54.
Female grandis mated with male ihurheriae averaged 2.3 days, the
periods varying from none to six, while female thurheriae mated with
male grandis averaged 6.2 days, the period varying from none to 24
days.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
COTTON BOLL WEEVIL IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY.
25
This period in the 1914 studies varied from 22 days to death on the
same day that the last ^g was deposited, with an average of 3.4
days. Death on the last day of deposition was observed five times
during the season.
AcnvrrY of females in different parts of the day.
Early in August, 1914, two tests were conducted to determine the
e^4aying activity of the females during the different parts of the
day. Nine actively depositing females were used in each test. The
results are shown in Table XX.
Table XX. — Periodic division of oviposition of boll weevils,
FIRST test: AUGUST 4 AND &.
Period.
Length of period.
Total
Percent-
age of
total ovi-
position
in each
period.
Maxi-
miun
tempera-
ture.
Pacini
Morning...
Aftecnooo..
Evening...
Night
5 a.m. to 9 a.m..
9 a. m. to 1 p. m .
Ip. m. to 5p.m.
5p. m. to8p. m.
8p. m. to5a.m.
Percent.
12.8
37.6
23.2
18.4
8.0
77
86
90
85
76
SECOND test: august 7 AND 8.
Dawn
Homing...
Aflernooo.
Evening...
Night
5a. m. to 9 a.m..
9 a. m. tolp. m.
1p.m. to 5 p.m.
5p. m. to8p. m.
8 p.m. to 5 a. m.
72
81
80
75
summary: both tests.
Dawn
Homing...
Aitemoon..
Evening
Nl^t
I 5 a. m. to 9 a. m..
I 9a. m. tolp. m.
Ip. m. to5p. m.
5p.m. to 8 p.m.
I 8p. m. to5a. m.
24
11.3
74
34.7
68
31.9
33
15.5
14
6.6
77
86
90
85
75
From this table it is seen that in the first test the greatest activity-
was exhibited in the morning period and the afternoon period ranked
second, while in the second test the afternoon period was highest and
the morning period was second. In both cases the night was the
low^t of all.
The only other test of this sort which has been conducted was at
Tallulah during 1910 when it was found that the afternoon period
ranked first and the evening period was second. However, this test
was conducted dining July and the one this year was in August, so
the results are not strictly comparable owing to differences in the light
and temperature conditions during the various periods.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
26
BULLETIN 358, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGBICULTURE.
CESSATION OF OVIPOSITION BY HIBERNATED WEEVILS.
Observations on the date of cessation of oviposition were made with
45 hibernated females collected in the field early in the season and fed
on cotton squares. As shown in Table XXI the dates ranged from
Jmie 9 to August 23 and the average date of cessation in both series
was July 17. All the females excepting two laid eggs on June 20 or
later and a majority laid eggs well along in July. Since these females
were nearly all selected from the first to appear in the spring it is
certain that the later emerged adults would continue to oviposit con-
siderably longer in the fall. Thus the futility of late planting of
cotton to escape boll weevil attack is seen.
Table XXI. — Dates of cessation of oviposition of first hibernated females of the boll
weevil.
With males throu^out life.
Date collected.
May 26
Do.
Do.
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do,
Do
Do.
Do
June 17
Date
stopped
ovipos-
iting.
Aug. 3
June 0
June 26
June 29
July 5
June 28
June 18
July 19
July 10
July 12
July 8
July 31
June 23
July 31
Females isolated
from males in
spring.
Date
col-
lected.
Junel
..do...
..do...
..do...
..do...
..do...
..do...
..do...
..do...
..do...
..do...
..do...
..do...
..do...
Date
stopped
ovipos-
iting.
June 29
July 10
Aug. 22
July 19
July 21
June 28
July 8
July 19
June 30
Aug. 4
July 4
July 30
Aug. 17
July 17
With males throughout life.
Date collected.
June 17
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Earliest date stopped .
Latest dat« stopped . .
Average date stepped
Date
stopped
ovipos-
iting.
Aug. 23
July 18
July 14
June 20
Aug. 4
Aug. 6
June 9
Aug. 23
July 13
Females isolated
from males ta
spring.
Date
col-
lected.
Date
stopped
)vipo»-
lt£g.
.do....
.do..
.do....
.do..
.do....
.do....
.do....
.do....
.do....
.do....
.do....
July 15
Aug. 13
July 3
Aug. 23
July 17
June 36
Aug. 20
July 23
July 34
July S
July 7
June 36
Aug. 28
July 20
TOTAL DEVELOPMENTAL PERIOD.
Observations of 1914^ — The time required from egg deposition to
adult emergence was observed with all weevils bred in the various
scries until September 5. The maximum developmental period of
any weevil was 20 days and the minimum period was 1 1 days. The
results are tabulated according to season and generation in Table
XXII.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
COTTON BOLL WEEVIL IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY.
27
Table XXll.— Toted developmental period of the boll weevil: Obiervation$ of 1914.
Nature of
weevils.
Larval food.
Period of ovipo-
sitlon.
i^
t
1
-<
•
1
-<
1
<
tkm.
Do,
Cotton squares.
do
do
Jmie2-Jii]y2
Jime23-Jmie30.
July 1-5
8
2
11
14
50
104
40
33
16
5
44
31
170
200
753
1,475
598
495
245
72
Dvs
14.7
15.5
15.5
14.3
15.1
14.1
15
15
15.3
14.5
7
8
18
16
41
92
34
25
26
15
110
45
260
230
608
1,303
509
375
384
232
16
14.9
14.4
14.7
14.2
15
15
14.8
15.5
10
5
29
80
91
196
74
58
42
20
154
76
439
430
1,356
2,778
1,107
870
629
304
15.4
15.2
15.2
go.
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
July 8-12
July 13-20.
July 21-31
Aug. 1-^
Aug.fr-11
Aug. 12-31
Sept. 1-15
14.8
14.9
14.2
15
15
15
15.2
l^oCal
275
4,039
14.7
270
3,950
14.6
545
7,989
14.6+
do
do
do
July 1^21
July 22-26
July 27-51
Aug. 2-10
Aug. 11-24
ThWgW€ratton
Do
Do
20
21
14
14
9
279
305
204
208
127
14
14.5
14.6
14.9
14.1
17
30
13
22
11
242
436
187
330
164
14.2
14.5
14.4
15
15
37
51
27
36
20
521
741
391
538
291
14.1
14.5
14,5
Do
do
15
Do
do
14.6
TtoW
78
1,123
14.4
93
1,350
14.6
171
2,5W2
14.5
do
do
Aug. 2-10
Aug. 11-23
y^ath genem-
tion.
Do
14
22
211
312
15.1
14.2
18
29
266
416
14.8
14.3
32
51
477
728
14.9
14.3
Total
36
523
14,5
47
682
14.5
83
1,205
14.5
do
Sept. 2-^
Fifth genantion.
5
72
14.5
6
86
14.3
11
158
14.4
Total
397
5,801
14.6
423
6,187
14.6
820
11,988
14.6
During the entire season 397 males and 423 females were bred.
The average developmental period for both sexes was 14.6 days.
Weevils bred later than September required a much longer develop-
mental period but no positive record was kept of these weevils.
OhservdHons of 1915, — The total developmental periods of all
weevils observed during 1915 is detailed in Table XXIII.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
28
BULLETIN 358, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Table XXIII. — Total developmentcU period of the boll weevil: Observations of 1915.
ORANDIS WEEVILS.
Larval food.
Ovlposition
period.
Males.
Females.
t
>
2.826
2,457
1,368
'224
324
•
Source of weevils.
li
I!
Ii
h
R
f
<
Hibernated weevils....
Do
First generation
Second generation
Omwiit bred weevils..
Cotton squares
do
do
do
Cotton bolls...
Junel-Aug.23..
June 2- Aug. 23..
June26-Sept.7..
July 23-Sept. 5. .
July 12-^pt. 16.
97
91
44
6
7
1,383
1,264
629
93
115
14.3
13.9
14.3
15.6
16.4
105
87
54
9
13
1,443 13.7
1,193 13.7
739 13.7
131 14.6
209 16.1
202
178
98
15
20
14
13.8
14
14.9
16.2
Total
245 ^-diu
14.2
268
3,715
"•
513
7,199
14
1
■
THURBERIAX WEEVILS.
Weevilsextracted from
bolls.
First generation
Extracted from bolls. . .
Cotton squares
do
Cotton bolls. . .
June28-Sept.9..
July 24-Sept. 20.
July 28-Sept. 24.
55
16
4
792
234
57
14.4
14.6
14.3
49
7
6
1
70914.47
9513.6
9716.3
104 1,501 14. 4S
23 32914.3
10 15415.4
«
Total
75
1,083
14.4
62
90114.5
137
1,98414.48
Male graniU by female
thwberiae.
Male thwberiae by fe-
male ^rsTU^i^.
Total of all vor
rieties.
Cotton squares
do.
June2H-Sept. 7..
June2H-Sept.l9.
1915
689
726
5,982
13.78
14.0
14.2
63 827
51
19
6,162
13.13
14.1
13.9
1,516
1,445
12,124
13.42
14
14
The average total period for both sexes in both squares and bolls
was 14 days. The developmental period in bolls is seen to be greater
than in squares with both grandis and thurberiae weevils. In cotton
boUs the grandis weevils averaged 16.2 days and the thurberiae weevils
averaged 15.4 days.
The total developmental period for females is slightly shorter than
for the males, which agrees with the observations at Victoria, Tex.,
in 1913. The average developmental period is apparently a day or
more shorter at Tallulah than at Victoria in the same season. There
seems to be no difference of note in the records for the various years.
In addition to these studies an experiment was conducted to
determine the relative length of the developmental period in squares
and bolls when the eggs were deposited by the same female. For
this purpose 1 1 pairs of bred grandis were mated on cotton squares
until they started normal deposition; then they were given squares
and boUs on alternate days and the eggs deposited in them were saved
for adult emergence. The comparison of the results is shown in
Table XXIV.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
COTTON BOLL WEKVIL IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY.
29
I
•sjinpB Snpnpaid
p^uaoidoiaAeci
SAepiJAMAl
•pwqtw>x
1
pouad
tmaoraAi
1«)iiaindopAa(i
-s^vpnAaeM
•pojqfB^ox
-poiiod
sindofOAi
Iv|U9mdo[aAaa
•8X«p UA09j|i
•pwqi9V>X
*pd)f8odap 889e i«(Oj,
SS$8
sag
IxkOOO
ssz
t4^
eotooo
§S«
•o to
3SS^
5$g^
eo •«'»M
b:«tf
s;
<0 <D to « 0O<» <0 ^ ^ -^ CI
-s)inp« Smonpojd
saSa jO asiriiiaojafi
•au iv^aamdo
-laAap aggjaAv
•pojqiBV)»L
•pouad
pnaamdoidAaG
•s^«p nAaajw
•pajqis^ox
-
'poijad
ie)uamao]aAaa
•s^«p KAaaAV
-N eo «o eo w I"- ■v w
tooeooi
5SS&
3=
•pajqi«iox
it
t* «ceo
■♦Vwoico
S52So?
^cOf-iC4eo
gS5
c4aa
2S5;5^ui8?58V?5
Digiti
zed by Google
30 BULLETIN 358, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Here it is seen that the weevils reared from squares averaged 15
dajrs while those from bolls averaged 16.7 days. The comparative
percentages of eggs producing adults are also interesting. Of those
laid in squares, 12.1 per cent produced adults while 33.1 per cent
of those in bolls produced adults. This is undoubtedly due to the
fact that some of the squares were too small to feed the larvae to
maturity and also to the fact that when two or more ^gs hatch in
the same square the shortage of food usually results fatally to both.
The greater deposition in the squares is very marked.
EFFECT OF SIZE OF SQUARE ON WEEVIL DEVELOPMENT.
In July, 1915, an experiment was conducted to determine the
effect of the size of the cotton square on the weevil developmental
period. An abundance of clean squares was placed in a large wire
cage with fertile females and left for one day. The squares con-
taining single ^gs were separated into lots of 50 squares each; one
lot being small squares, one medium-sized, and the third large. The
small squares produced one weevil in 14 days, the medium-sized
squares produced 20 weevils in an average of 14.1 da3rs, and the
large squares produced 18 weevils in an average of 14.5 days. While
the number of weevils reared is too small to make the results con-
clusive, it seems that the length of the developmental period is
directly proportional to the amoimt of food available. This appears
quite probable in view of the fact that the developmental period is
always considerably longer in cotton bolls than in cotton squares.
The small squares seemed not to furnish sufficient food for the weevil
development as only one weevil was able to reach maturity in the 50
tested.
GENERATIONS.
One scries of weevils was carried through the season of 1914 to
determine the maximum number of generations possible in cotton
squares in one year. For starting the series hibernated females were
collected immediately after emergence in the spring and placed with
males on cotton squares. The first eggs of these females were saved
and the progeny reared. The first adults to mature from these were
mated and their first eggs secured. This procedure was followed
through the season, and the results are shown in Table XXV. Be-
tween the first of June and the first of November these weevils were
carried through seven generations, the first and only weevil of the
seventh generation emerging November 1. This individual was very
weak and died in a few days, but as the cold weather at this time
had stopped all breeding in the field it was evident that the limit of
the breeding season had been reached.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
COTTON BOLL WEEVIL IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 31
Table XXV. — Number of generations of the boll weevil: Maximum series on squares.
Qeneratlon.
Date.
Period
from
maturity
to
maturity.
First generatloii:
Eggs laid
Gttieration mature.
Seoond generation:
Eggs laid
GeneraUon mature.
Third generation:
Eggs laid
Generation mature.
Fourth generation:
Eggs laid
Generation mature
Fifth generation:
Eggs laid
Generation mature
^xth generation:
Eggslaid
Generation mature
Seventh generation:
Eggslaid
Generation mature
June 1.
Days.
June 22
June 23
July 9
18
July 16
July 28
20
Aug. 2
Aug. 18
22
Sept. 2
Sept. 17
31
Sept. 18
Oct. 8
22
Oct. 13
Nov. 1
24
At Victoria in 1913 the weevils were carried through the same pro-
cedure and the same number of generations secured. However, the
first hibernated females at Victoria were secured over a month earlier
than those at Tallulah and the breeding continued a few dajrs longer
in the fall. In other words, the generations were sufBciently shorter
at Tallulah to allow the same number to be produced in more than a
month less than at Victoria.
SUMMARY.
In northern Louisiana the average longevity of the boll weevil
adults on cotton squares was 54.56 days; on bolls 31.41 days; on
cotton leaves 8.17, and on okra fruit 5.4, the average for these diflFer-
ent classes of foods being 14.13 days.
The females live somewhat longer than the males, there being an
average of 12.5 days for females and 9.82 for males.
A number of weevils were found feeding in okra blooms in the
field but attempts to cause them to breed in okra fruit in the labor-
atory were unsuccessful. A number of eggs were deposited but they
failed to hatch.
The lai^est number of eggs deposited by the first generation wee-
vils was 204, the average being 132. The daily maximum varied
from 5 to 12. Second generation weevils showed somewhat less
fecimdity, the maximum oviposition being 175 eggs and the average
69.4.
The average period of oviposition was 38.2 days, the range being
1 to 77 days.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
32 BULLETIN 358, TJ. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
The greatest activity of the weevil in depositing eggs was found
to be between the hours of 9 a. m. and 1 p. m., but certain numbers
of eggs were deposited at all times of the day and during the night.
The average period from oviposition to the emergence of the adult
was practically 14 days for each of the five generations.
Seven complete generations were developed at Tallulah during the
season.
ADDITIONAL COPIES
OP THIS PUBUCATION MAT BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTINO OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT
5 CENTS PER COPY
Digiti
zed by Google
^AJ: sr9
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 359
^0»irtribiitlon froB Um OfBce of Markets and Raral OrgftBlsalloB ^
CHARI.RS J. BRAND, CUef.
WaflUnfton, D. C.
PROFESSIONAL PAPER.
March 30, 1916
COMPARATIVE SPINNING TESTS OF THE DIFFER-
ENT GRADES OF ARIZONA-EGYPTIAN WITH SEA
ISLAND AND SAKELLARIDIS EGYPTIAN COTTONS.
By Frsd Tatlob, CoiUm TttSknologiii and William S. Dban, A^mUxf^ tn <:ioiUm
Testing. i „,^
CONTENTS.
mtrodoctiop .«»»»....»..««««»«. ......
Pnrposeofthespiimixigtests
Ifechaidcal conditions
QnOe, ftaple, and price oonqMffisons.
Wtate oompaiisoos
TbosQb strength compariions
Page.
1
3
2
FN*.
Bleaoblng, dyeing, and mercerising v. U
Difficulties in introdaclng a new variety of
cotton 16
Ckimparative spinning tests of Uie crop of
1913-14 17
Summary 18
INTRODUCTION.
The introduction and development of long-staple cotton in the
Salt River Valley of Arizona is described fully in previous bulletins
published by the United States Department of Agriculture.* With
these publications available, the purpose of this bulletin will be to
deal exclusively with the adaptability of this cotton for manufactur-
ing purposes.
Not until the last few years has the production of Arizona-Egyptian
cotton been sufficient in quantity to interest the manufacturer
materially. The estimated production figures are as follows: In 1912,
280 bales; in 1913, 2,200 bales; in 1914, 6,187 bales. On account of
abnormal conditions, the acreage for 1915 was reduc^ed approximately
50 per cent with a corresponding reduction in the yield. Information,
however, is at hand, which indicates an increase in acreage for the
season of 1916.
1 See Bureau <rf Plant Industry Bulletin No. 128, "Egyptian Cotton In the Southwestern United States;"
Department Bulletin No. 38, '<Seed Selection of Egyptian Cotton;" Department Bulletin No. 832: "Corn-
amity Culture of Egyptian Cotton in the United States/' and the list of publications given on the last
pa0» of this bulletin. For grade factors see Department Bulletin No. 311, " The Handling and Marketing
oftbe Arltooa-Egyptian Cotton of the Saft River Valley."
KoTB.— This bulletin is of Interest to the growers, cotton merchants, manufitcturers and dealers in
ArtMoa-Egyptian, Sea Island, and SakeUaridis Egyptian cottons and cotton yarns.
28023*~BulL 8fi»-16 1
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
2 BULLETIN 359, Xr.~5. xngTAPTMBlffT OP^ AOBICULTCTRE.
PURPOSE OF TBDB SPINNING TESTS.
Because of the remarkable increase in the production of this cotton,
it has seemed advisable to accumulate reliable data relative to the
character of Arizona-Egyptian cotton for manufacturing purposes.
This cotton closely resembles the Sakellaridis E^gyptian cotton m
color, character, and length of fiber and in many respects compare
favorably with the Sea Island cotton of Georgia and Florida. Spin-
ning tests have been conducted by the Department of Agriculture to
develop information along the following lines: First, the different
grades of Arizona-Egyptian cotton were compared with each other
as to their spinning qualities, viz, waste, tensile strength, bleaching,
mercerization, dyeing and finishing qualities; and, second, the
Arizona-Egyptian cotton was compared with Sakellaridis Egyptian
and Sea Island cottons.
As these cottons can be substituted for each other to some extent
in the manufacture of certain classes of goods, it is believed that
reliable spinning tests will prove of general interest in bringing out
the individual merits of these varieties.
Tests * were conducted on the 1914 crop during the summer of 1915
on the following lots of cotton, namely, four bales of Arizona-E^3rptian
cotton — one of each of the grades, Extra, Choice, Standard, and
Medium; three bales of Sakellaridis Egyptian cotton, shipped from
Alexandria, Egypt, marked MERR, CONN, and EDM, of the grades
Good, Fully Good Fair, and Fair; and two bales of Sea Island cotton
shipped from Blackshear, Ga., of the grades Fancy and Elxtra Choice.
The bales of Sea Island cotton originated no doubt in the interior
and were slightly different in character from the longer length staples
of Sea Island cottons grown on the islands and the coast. One
hundred pounds of each of these bales were used in making the tests.
MECHANICAL CONDITIONS.
In each test the cotton was opened and left standing overnight
before being fed into the first machine. The machines were kept in
good working order and sufficient time was taken between each run
to dean them thoroughly. Total weights were taken immediately
before and after the cotton was fed into the opener, finisher^ cards
and combers, respectively. Each kind of cotton up to the slubb^
was run through the same machines and subjected to practically the
same speeds, settings, drafts, etc. In the manufacture of yam, num-
bers lO's, 20's, 30's, 40's, 50's, 60's, 80's and lOO's, from each kind of
cotton, the same weight of lap and sliver was used up to the slubber.
This was done in order to have the cleaning machinery operate under
^ Throogh the oourtesy of Mr. WflUam K Hatch, Presideiit, these tests were oondocted at the New
Bedford Textile School, New Bedford, Mass., nxider the supervisicm of Mr. Fred Taylor. Mr. W. S. Dean
was directly in charge of the work, assisted by Messrs. J. J. W. Cooper and T. C. Adams.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
COMFABAnrr VPTttSnKQ TfiSl^S.
3
exactly the same conditions for each kind of cotton used, so that the
waste percentages might be comparable.
The different lots of cotton were run on the same fly or roving
frames and spinning frames throughout for the different numbers of
jam; that is, all cotton gomg into any certain number of yam was
subjected to the treatment of the same machines, and, where possible,
the different lots were placed and run simultaneously through each
Table I gives the respective drafts used in these machines.
Tablr I. — Drc^ uud in the manvfactwre of each number of yam.
Num-
bers.
Slabber.
First
interme*
dkte.
Second
intenne-
diato.
Jack
frame.
Spinning
frame.
ICs...
20's...
ao's...
^O's...
50^8...
AD'S...
80's...
loo's...
8.68
4
4
4.5
4
4
4.17
4.5
5
5.80
5.5
6.36
8
n.o
8.26
10
10
10
10
10
6
6.42
7
7.12
7
7.25
While the cotton was being manufactured, the humidity condi-
tions were kept as nearly constant as possible. Records were taken
houriy and the humidifiers were regulated accordingly. Records
were taken also every thirty minutes during the time the tensile
strength tests were being conducted. The desired point of relative
hmnidity was 55 per cent in the raw cotton and picker rooms, 55 to 60
per cent in the card room, 60 to 65 per cent in the spinning room,
and 65 per cent in the yam-testing room. Moisture tests were made
also on samples of cotton selected from each place in the processes
whCTe the stock was weighed, and it was f oxmd that the differences
in the percentages of moisture were comparatively small.
The spinning qualities of the different lot« of cotton were judged in
the following manner:
A broken end on a spinning frame was not pieced up imtil deter-
niinations were made as to the causes of the breakage. All ends
breaking down, xmless due to some mechanical defect, were charged
agunst the particular grades or lots in which they occurred, and nota-
tions were made as to the amount of fly waste from the different lots.
There was no conclusive evidence of superiority in any one lot over
&Dy other in spinning. In a number of cases, the bobbins of each lot
filled up on the spinning frames without an end breaking down.
GjEtADE, STAPLE, AND PRICE COMPARISONa
In order to understand better the comparative relations between
^lots of cotton to be used, samples were presented to a committee of
eotton specialists of the Office of Markets and Rural Organization. It
^88 thought that, judging from the general appearance of the different
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
4 BULLETIN 359, U. 8. DBPABTMBNT OF AQBIOULTUBE.
cottons from the standpoint of grade, the following compansoDS
would be fair:
Extra Arizona-Egyptian to be compared with Fancy Sea IslaDd.
Choice Arizona-Egyptian to be compared with Extra Choice Sea Island, also against
Good Sakellaridis Egyptian.
Standard ArizonarEgyptian to be compared with FuUy Good Fair Sakellaiidis
Egyptian.
Medium Arizona-Egyptian to be compared with Fair Sakellaridis Egyptian.
This committee estimated the length of staple as shown in Table U.
Table II. — Length of staple of cotton used in the tests.
Sea Island.
Sakellaridis Bgyptfan.
Grade.
InctuB.
Grade.
Inches.
Grade.
Inches.
Extra
1
Fancy
IS
Good
Fully good &lr....
Fair.
il
Choice
Extra Choice
Standanl
U^lnm
Individual fibers of these cottons were also measm*ed by the pro-
jection device originated by Dr. N. A. Cobb of this department, and
it was f omid that the ratio of lengths between the estimated lengths
and the actual measurements was relatively uniform.
Samples of this cotton were sent to certain reputable cotton bro-
kers who deal in staple cotton to ascertain the comparative com-
mercial value of each bale on the same day. Data were given these
brokers regarding the origin of each bale of cotton, so that all factors
influencing the commercial value could be considered. Table HI
shows the result of this inquiry.
Table III. — Price per pound qf cotton used in the tests.
Arizona-Egyptian.
Sea Island.
Sakellaridis Egyptian.
Grade.
Price per
pound.
Grade.
Price per
pound.
Grade.
Price per
pOUDd.
Extra
10.21
.aoi
.19i
.18
Fancy
";Si
Good
Fully good ftUr....
Fair.
Choice.
Extra chotoe
Standard
U^iMtn.
WASTE COMPARISONS.
The results obtained from the tests, already described, to deter-
mine the amoxmt of waste in each kind and variety of cotton are
shown in Table IV. This table gives the waate percentages based on
the amount of cotton fed into each machine. The tare on the bales
of cotton was not included in any case.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
OOMPABATIVE SPINNING TESTS. 5
Tablb IV. — Waste percentages based on net atnount of cotton fed into each machine.
Kind of waste.
Arls>na>Egyptian.
Sea Island.
Sakellaridis Egyp-
tian.
Kaddncs.
Extra.
Choice.
Stand-
ard.
Me-
dium.
Fancy.
Extra
dMice.
Good.
5
Fair.
OpenfT.....
Visible:
Opener^motesand fly.
Total visible
Invfelble
0.26
.312
.687
0.187
.25
.662
0.376
.26
.937
0.376
.187
.749
0.319
.510
.765
0.312
.312
.625
0.621
.260
.911
0.314
.251
1.067
0.189
.757
.567
1.249
.937
.999
1.562
.6
1.311
.6
1.594
1.531
1.249
.937
1.692
l.«43
1.632
1.444
1.513
.946
Total visible and
invisible
3.186
.999
3.062
1.811
3.126
2.186
2.736
3.076
2.460
Visible:
Dust room
Finisfatf....
.067
.674
.068
.617
.068
.646
.068
.761
.137
.617
.067
.636
.077
.850
.009
1.111
.07
Total visible
Invisible
1.053
.741
.134
.686
«.411
.614
.341
.819
.341
.764
.602
.267
.927
.640
1.180
.069
1.122
.140
Total visible and
invisible
.876
.274
.966
1.160
.764
.869
1.467
1.249
1.262
VisIUe:
Flat strippingB
Cylinder and d<rfler
Owb
3.233
1
.709
3.832
1.179
1.081
3.906
1.252
1.031
3.674
1.216
1.216
6.203
1.009
.856
6.702
1.140
.926
3.925
1.373
1.275
4.804
1.562
1.651
4.706
1.47
Total visible
Invisible
1.837
6.002
.384
6.042
.368
6.188
.442
6.006
.988
7,127
a. 213
7.768
0.427
6.673
1.472
7.907
0.369
8.012
1.397
Total visible and
invisible
6.386
6.410
6.630
6.994
6.914
7.341
8.046
7.53S
9.409
Visible
C^ben...
11.127
a. 867
11.764
.110
12.811
O.088
12.406
a. 093
13.676
.756
14.529
a. 2
15.981
a. 822
16.362
.436
16.406
Invisible
0.257
Total visible and
Invisible
10.260
11.874
12.723
12.313
14.431
14.329
15.150
16.797
16. 151
a Invisible gain, not loss, as result of weather conditions.
There seems to be no significant relationship between the grade of
Arizona-Egyptian cotton and the percentage of waste or between the
variety of cotton and the amount of waste discarded, when the per-
centage of waste is considered at any of the individual processes of
manufacture. Arizona-Egyptian cotton, however, shows more uni-
fonnity in this respect than any other, with the Sea Island second.
By referring to Table V which represents the total amoxmt of waste
taken from the different processes computed on the original amount
fed into the opener, it will be noticed that there seems to be some
oniformity of relationship between the percentages of waste and
the different grades of Arizona-Egyptian cotton, ascending in order
of grade, as follows: Extra, 17.69 per cent; choice, 18.56 per cent;
standard, 20 per cent; and medium, 20.90 per cent. The average
percentage of waste of each variety is, Arizona-Egyptian cotton, 19.28 ;
Sea Island, 23.23; and SakeUaridis, 26.57.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
6 BULLETIN 359, V. &. DEPABTMENT OF AGHICULTUBE.
Table V. — Total vmble and invisible ivasu,
CPerovitagw based on the origtnal amoant of cotton fed into the opener.)
Arisona-Egyptian.
Sea Island.
Sakellaridis Egyptian.
Madilnes.
Extra.
Choice.
Stand-
ard.
Me-
Fancy.
Extra
choice.
Oood.
IS:
Pair.
Pickers
3.05
5.22
9.42
1.27
6.32
10.97
2.99
6.47
11.54
2.95
6.83
n.i2
8.86
6.65
12.91
8.04
7.12
12.89
4.17
7.72
13.47
4.29
7.22
14.87
3.69
Cards
9.06
Combers
15.22
Total
17.60
18.56
20.00
20.90
23.42
23.05
25.36
26.38
27.97
Judging from the general appearance and grade of Arizona-E^gyp-
tian cotton against similar grades of the other cottons (see comparisons
on p. 4) the spinning values, as shown by the amount of waste dis-
carded in the manufacturing processes, apparently, are not evident in
the raw cotton. The grades, as previously arranged for comparison,
seem to be equal in value, but when subjected to the manufacturing
p^cesses, the cottons prove to be decidedly unequal, the difference
being in favor of the Arizona-Egyptian cotton as follows :
Extra Arizona-Egyptian shows 5.73 per cent less waste than Fancy Sea Island.
Choice Arizona-Egyptian shows 4.49 per cent less waste than extra choice Sea Island.
Choice Arizona-Egyptian shows 6.80 per cent less waste than good Sakellaridis
Egyptian.
Standard Arizona-Egjrptian shows 6.38 per cent less waste than fully good fair
Sakellaridis Egyptian.
Medium Arizona-Egyptian shows 7.07 per cent less waste than fair Sakellaridis
Egyptian.
Choice Arizona-Egyptian is the only individual bale of cotton that
is compared with both Sea Island and Sakellaridis cotton. The Ari-
zona-Egyptian shows 4.49 per cent less waste than the Sea Island,
and the Sea Island shows 2.31 per cent less waste than the Sakellari-
dis. These figures indicate very clearly that of the three lots tested
the Arizona-Egyptian was considerably less wasty than Sea Island,
and Sea Island considerably less than the Sakellaridis. Figure 1 rep-
resents graphically these waste percentages.
By referring again to the relative prices of these different cotUHis,
as given in Table III, it will be seen that there was a relation between
the prices and the grades, but there was no relation whatever between
the prices of the different lots of cotton and the percentages of waste
discarded from each lot in the manufacturing processes.'
Rather a reverse condition was demonstrated, that is, the Arizona-
Egyptian cotton that was represented as being of least value in cents
per pound was in reality the cotton that discarded the least waste in
the manufacturing processes. This comparison of equivalent grades
(see p. 4) will be found in Table VI.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
GOMPABATIVE SPINNING TESTS. 7
Tablb YI.— iVtcet of the differeTU grades of each lot of cotton in comparison toith the
percentages of waste discarded.
(Baks vnm«ed m groaps aoeoiding to the ftpp««t grad« relatira
Arizona
Sea
fancy.
Arkona
choke.
Sea
Island
extra
choioe.
Sakel-
laridfs
good*
Arlsona
stand-
ard.
Sakel-
laiidls
Arisona
me-
dium.
Sakel-
laridis
fair.
Priee of cotton
10.21
17.00
ia21i
33.42
f0.2(H
18.50
f0.20i
23.05
10. 2U
25.30
20.00
10.20}
26.88
10.18
20.00
I0.10i
27.07
Pen»ntae» of waste
It should be borne in mind that all the cotton represented as waste
is not actually lost, but the greater part of it is reworked in the
manufacture of cheaper goods.
/tmaaom^ £9p>ip7M^
Olft# /aL4AfO
^kVimuAmpt9 £wnRrA^^ \
i
•o
1
sk
V4lfO
/
^
Ij
M
Jj
9
Ml
/
_JI1
f
i
A
/
^
M
/
ri
.nfi^Si
f
h
;&•
r::^
V
^-^
g^
CM
...
t t
t f t t
t t ^ t
M./^
Sas
^^
f*>6»
M. JlAf
Aam
Hxm
M«a
46dA
MJ^
^tt
//.«#
ma^m
/^
t^
jum
ISi^
^C A/«
JU>«^
HX/S
0soa
/r«/T
^«#
^^^
//-»/
JMJ0
MC0
MM0
' mm
M04»
^^m
«>W
M^^
mrsr
Am
mm
,f!*f-
-^-J
Fig. 1.— Progressive waste percentages of Arizona-Egyptian, Sea Island, and SakeUaridis Egyptian
cottons.
TENSILE STRENGTH COMPARISONS.
In order to ascertain the difference in tensile strength between the
grades of Arizona-Egyptian cotton and between Arizona-Egyptian,
Sakdlaridis Egyptian, and Sea-Island cottons, there were manu-
factured from each of these the following numbers of yam: lO^s,
20's, 30's, 40'8, SO's, 60^8, 80*s, and lOO's. The sUght variations in
the numbers of yam were standardized on a weight basis. A portion
of this cotton yam was spun with two twist constants,* viz, 3.25 and
3.80.
> Multiply tbe square root of the number of yam by the constant to find the turns per inch of twist inserted
in tlie yam while spinning.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
8 BULLETIN 359, TJ. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE.
Table VII. — Average breaking strerwth of single threads arranged in order, for comparison
accorcnng to grade relations.
[With twist per todi
as indicated by the twist constant.]
Num-
beraof
yam.
Extra
Ari-
xona.
Fancy
Sea^
Island.
Choice
Ari-
lona.
Extra
choice
Sea
Island.
Good
Sakel-
laridis.
Stand-
ard
Ari-
sona.
Sakel-
laridis.
Medl-
um
Ari-
xona.
Fair
Sakel-
laiid^
3.80
30*8
eO'8
loo's
lOO's
14.88
4.29
11.54
2.09
1.77
15.36
4.53
12.02
2.23
2.02
16.13
3.88
10.86
2.01
1.82
14.99
4.50
11.43
2.14
1.92
15.87
4.35
11.91
2.03
2.00
14.96
4.18
11.85
2.13
1.94
16.31
4.60
12.25
2.16
1.78
14.54
4.10
12.06
2.02
1.92
14.93
3.80
4.2S
3.25
12.01
3.80
1.98
3.25
1.69
Average
••"
7.23
6.74
7.00
7.23 1
7.01
7.22
6.93
6.97
Table No. VII gives the results obtained from a single thread-
testing machine. The table is arranged for comparing the different
yams with the various kinds of cotton according to grade. The
results here seem to be somewhat in favor of the SakeUaridis-Egyptian
cotton^ with Sea Island coining second; but where extra choice Sea
Island is compared with good Sakellaridis, out of five numbers of
yam produced, the Sea Island is stronger than the Sakellaridis in
t\\ro cases.
The single-thread tests ^ were made more for the purpose of ascer-
taining the relative uniformity in the strength of the different yams
than for the average breaking strength. From this point of view
there was no decided difference between the cottons tested.
The tensile strength of the yam was obtained in the laboratory at
Washington by reeling off skeins of 120 yards each from the various
grades and kinds of cotton. These skeins were placed on racks in
order to keep them separate and untangled. A power yam tester
was used, the downward stroke of the traverse moving at the rate of
approximately 12 inches per minute. The humidity was kept as
nearly constant as possible by taking records with a sling psychrom-
eter every half hour and regulating the humidifier in the testing
room. The desired point of relative humidity was 65 per cent. The
skeins were taken one at a time in rotation from the different racks
and broken. They were then weighed and the results recorded.
This operation was repeated, usually 24 times, until the average
breaking strengths shown in Tables VIII and IX were ascertained.
From these tables it will be seen that there is no significant relation-
ship between the breaking strength of the different grades of Ari-
zona-Egyptian cotton.'
1 All slngle-tliread tests were made at the New Bedford Textile School, New Bedford, Mass., bj
William Smith, principal In charge of the carding and spinnhig department of this school, who also ftir
nished generous assistance throughout all these tests.
« See Bureau of Plant Industry Circular No. ua
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
COMPARATIVE SPINNING TESTS. 9
Tablb VIII. — Average breaking strength in pounds per skein ofltO yards of the different
numbers of yam.
[With twist per inch ol 3.25 times the square root of namber of yam.]
Ariaona-Egyptian.
Sea Island.
Sakellaridis Egyptian.
Numbers of yarn.
Extra.
Choice.
Stand-
ard.
Medl-
urn.
Fancy.
Extra
choice.
Good.
Fully
Fair.
10^
352.66
166.93
100.09
66.42
50.49
25.34
17.07
332.29
162.78
96.54
67.34
49.22
25.23
17.89
329.60
163.90
96.88
70.11
48.34
23.87
17.96
314.37
160.09
95.89
68.18
48.62
23.66
17.34
306.06
163.53
101.78
74.44
63.56
27.45
20.25
320.14
164.29
97.65
71.56
50.27
25.25
18.78
341.99
168.54
98.88
71.25
51.84
24.97
18.14
330.43
166.10
100.41
72.19
60.79
24.26
18.66
301.24
»•«
160.18
Wb.
96.44
ID'S
69.57
80*8
48.78
SKs
23.66
WO^
15.24
Average breakingstrengUi.
111.28
107.33
107.24
104.02
106.73
106.83 1 110.80
108.96
102.16
T^LB IX. — Average breaking strength in pounds per skein of 120 yards of the different
nurribers of yam.
[With twist per inch of 3.8 times the square root of number of yam.]
Arizona^Egyptian.
Sea Island.
Sakellaridis Egyptian.
Numbers of yam.
Extra.
Choice.
Stand-
ard.
Medi-
um.
Fancy.
Extra
choice.
Good.
Fully
good
lair.
Fair.
Vs
96.29
73.43
48.30
39.63
24.42
17.82
93.66
70.13
49.00
39.11
24.15
18.00
96.40
70.12
48.03
39.45
23.62
17.81
96.11
67.21
47.78
39.06
23.38
17. ?3
99.39
72.70
60.98
41.93
28.26
20.24
100.74
70.17
47.96
38.78
24.41
18.48
102.11
73.04
62.39
41.25
25.14
18.08
98.43
72.23
48.89
39.49
24.33
18.61
95.51
4ff$
68.72
STs
48.41
Ws
39.09
Ws
23.02
VWa
16.82
Average breaking strength.
£0.31
49.01
49.24
48.46
51.92
60.09
62.00
60.33
48.59
The same figures are used in Tables X and XI as were used in Tables
Vni and IX, respectively. The latter tables, however, are designed
to show the comparison in breaking strength between the diflferent
gj^es of the same variety of cotton, while the former tables show
the comparison between the nearest equivalent grades of the different
varieties of cotton. There is no uniformity in regard to the supe-
riority of one of these lots of cotton over the other, considering the
same number of yam from the different lots. For instance, in Table
X, of the four comparisons made with No. lO's yarn, Arizona-
Egyptian was stronger than either of the other yams for two of the
comparisons, and Sakellaridis was stronger than the other yarns for
the other two comparisons. Sea Island cotton for this number was
apparently weaker than either, but by comparing 80's and lOO's
yams, the conditions were practically reversed; that is, the Sea
Island proved to be the strongest.
23923**— BuU. 369—16 2
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
10
BULLETIN 369, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGWCULTUBE.
Table X. — Average breaking itrength in pounds per skein of ISO yards of the different
numbers of yam arranged to show comparison according to grade relations.
[With twist per indi of 3.26 times the square root of the number of yam.]
Nombers of yam.
Extra
Ari-
zona.
Fancy
Sea
Island.
Choice
Ari-
rona.
Extra
choice
Sea
Island.
Good
Sakel-
laridis.
Stand-
ard Ari-
zona.
Sak-el-
laridis.
Me-
dium
Ari-
zona.
Fair
8ake(-
laridis.
10*8
352.66
166.93
100.09
66.42
50.49
25.34
17.07
306.08
163. .53
101.78
74.44
53.56
27.45
20.25
332.29
162.78
96.54
67.34
49.22
25.23
17.89
320.14
164.29
97.55
71.56
60.27
25.25
18.78
341.99.
168.54
98.88
71.25
51.84
21.97
18.14
329.60
163.90
96.88
70.11
48.34
23.87
17.96
330.43
166.10
100.41
72.19
60.79
24.26
18.56
314.37
160.09
05.89
68-18
48.62
23.66
17.34
301. M
20's
160.18
30*8
96.44
40*8
69.57
go's
48.78
go's
23.66
100*8
16.34
Average breaking strength.
111.28
106.73
107.33 1 106.83 { 110.80 || 107.24
108.96
1 104.00
108.16
Table XI. — Average breaking strength in pounds per skein of 120 yards of the different
numbers of yam arranged to show comparison according to grade relations,
[With twist per inch of 3.8 times the square root of the number of yam.]
Numbers of yam.
Extra
Ari-
zona.
Fancy
Sea
Island.
Choice
Arl-
zona.
Extra
choice
Sea
Island.
Good
Sakel-
laridis.
Stand-
ard Ari-
zona.
Fully
Sakel-
laridis.
Me-
dium
Ari-
zona.
Pair
Sakel-
buridto.
30's
98.29
73.43
48.30
3q. (3
24.42
17.82
99.39
72.70
60.98
41.03
2^'^. 26
20.24
93.66
• 70.13
49.00
39.11
24.15
18.00
100.74
70.17
47.96
38.78
24.41
18.48
102.11
73.04
62.39
41.25
25.14
18.08
96.40
70.12
48.03
39.45
23.62
17.81
98.43
72.23
48.89
39.49
21. 33
18.61
96.11
67.21
47.78
39.06
23.38
17.23
05.51
40's
68.72
fiO's
48.41
60*8
39.09
80's
23.02
lOO'S
16.82
Average breaking strength
50.31
51.92 j
49.01
50.09
52.00 ;| 49.24
50.33
48-46 1 48.S9
A careful analysis of these tensile strength tables discloses the
fact that if comparisons of each kind of cotton and each number
of yam are made, the yarns manufactured from the Sakellaridis
Epjyptian cotton were proportionately stronger in the greatest num-
bor of cases, the yarns made from the Sea Island ranked second,
while those made from Arizona-Egyptian cotton were lowest in ten-
sile strength. There were, however, considerable variations, showing
that first one kind of cotton and then another was superior in breaking
strength on the different numbers of yarn. These variations might be
taken as indications that each different kind of cotton is best adapted
to certain numbers of yam. It seems more probable, however, that
these small differences would exist naturally in the manufacture of
any two lots of cotton of even the same kind. The average of the
tensUe strength of aU the different numbers of yarn with 3.25 as
twist constant compared according to the grade arrangements given
in Table X shows that in two cases out of four Arizona-Egyptian
is the strongest, and in two cases Sakellaridis is the strongest. The
average tensile strength of aU the different numbers of yam with
twist constant of 3.80 as shown in Table XI shows that Sea Island is
strongest in one case and Sakellaridis in three cases.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
COMPARATIVE SPINNING TESTS. 11
Referring again to page 6, it may be seen that the comparisons
between the three grades of Arizona^Egyptian and Sakellaridis
Egyptian show that the average differences in waste cotton were 6.80
per cent, 6^8 pet cent, and 7.07 per cent, respectively, in favor of
the Arizona-E^rptian. In the comparisons of the two grades of Sea
Island cotton with Arizona-Egjrptian there were differences of 4.49
per cent and 5.73 per cent, respectively, in favor of the Arizona-
Egyptian.
The tensile strength of the yams made from the different cottons is
affected by the percentage of waste discarded. Therefore, where the
differences in waste are so evident, in order to make a more com-
prehensive determination as to the comparative tensile strength, it
would seem advisable to remove the same amount of waste from
each kind of cotton.
BLEACHING, DYEING, AND MERCERIZING.
Investigations were made to ascertain the relative values of
Arizona^Egyptian, Sea Island, and SakeUaridis cottons as to their
bleaching, dyeing, and mercerizing quahties. These tests * were
made upon both loose cotton and yams. The following numerical
designations arbitrarily represent the different grades and kinds of
cotton. For example, 1 to 4 represents Arizona-Egyptian, 5 to 6,
Sea Island, and 7 to 9, Sakellaridis.
Number. Orade. Kind.
1 Extra Arizona-Egyptian.
2 Choice Do.
3 Standard Do.
4 Medium Do.
6 Fancy Sea Island.
6 Extra choice Do.
7 Good. Sakellaridis Egyptian.
8 Fully good fair Do.
9 Fair Do.
BLEACHING LOOSE COTTON.
The different methods used in bleaching will be referred to as
methods (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), (f), (A), and (B).
Method (a). — ^The cotton was bleached by treating it, without
scouring, with a solution, obtained by the electrolysis of salt, con-
taining 0.5 grams of chlorine per liter. In the future this solution
win be designated as ''electroUtic chlorine."
Method (6). — ^The cotton was scoured in a solution containing 1
gram of soda ash in each 10 cubic centimeters; then bleached as in (a).
Method (c). — ^The cotton was treated with 2 per cent acetic acid
and bleached as in (a).
> These taste were made at the New Bedlord Textile School in the laboratory of the department of
^MDietry, by Everett H. Hinckley, professor in charge of this department.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
12
BULLETIN 359, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE.
Finally all the samples were blued with 0.001 per cent of blue violet
acid dye.
These three methods represent the usual means taken to obtain
white cotton for spinning, except that the quaijtity of bleaching
agent used was reduced in order to magnify any variations in the
results obtained.
Method (d). — ^The cotton was boiled two hours in a 10 per cent
solution of soda ash and bleached cold in electrolitic chlorine con-
taining 2 grains of chlorine per liter.
Method (e). — ^The cotton was treated as in (d) except that a
chloride lime solution, contaioing 8 grains of chlorine per liter was
used for the bleaching agent.
Method (/). — ^The cotton was treated as in (d) except that an
alkaline solution of sodium peroxide equivalent to 15 grains of
chlorine per liter was used.
After bleaching, all the samples were blued as in processes (a),
(b), and (c). The above concentrations of bleaching agent represent
those used in commercial practice to obtain equal bleaching results.
Method (A). — ^The cotton was treated cold for two hours in a
2-degree Twaddle solution of bleaching powder, containing 5.82
grams of chlorine per liter; rinsed with cold water; soured with 2
per cent solution of acetic acid; rinsed and antichlored in a 2 i>er cent
solution of sodiiun bisulphite 30 minutes; then finally rinsed and
blued in water containing 1 gram of '*Vat Blue" in each 13 J liters.
Method (B). — The cotton was treated as in method (A), except
that a solution of electrolized salt, containing 2.87 grains per liter
of available chlorine was used as a bleaching agent.
Laboratory samples of the cottons were bleached by methods (a),
(b), and (c). The Arizona-Egyptian cotton bleached more easily
than did the SakeUaridis, and very closely resembled the Sea Island
in this respect.
Samples were also bleached of each of the cottons by methods
(d), (e), and (f). The results obtained by these tests were negative,
as the treatment was sufficiently severe to have produced the same
white on all of them.
Finally, 2-pound lots were treated according to method (B),
and the results obtained matched against a series of standard whites.
Table XII shows the results of this comparison.
Table XII. — Bleached cotton of the respective grades and lots matched against a series of
standard whites.
Arizona-Egyptian.
Sea Island.
SakeUaridis.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Set
3
7
8
8
3
8
3
7
8
6
3
8
8
7
S
7
3
Standard
f
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
COMPAKATIVB SPINNING TESTS.
18
The above standards consist of set No. 1, a range of yellow tints;
set No. 2, a range of blue tints; and set No. 3, a range of red tints.
The better the bleach obtained, the less yellow woidd be apparent,
b^ce such samples would find their match in set No. 2 or No. 3. In
eadi set there were 10 standards, varying with regular increasing
intensity of tint, the higher numbers having the highest color.
Bmce from the above tables it will be seen that the Arizona-Egyptian
in case of samples No. 1 and No. 4 gave shades equal to the true
Egyptian, and in the case of samples No. 2 and No. 3 gave shades
equal to the best obtained on the Sea Island.
BLEACHINO YARNS.
Yams made from the cotton designated No. 1 to 9 (p. 11) were
used in the bleaching tests. The bleaching of these yarns was carried
on according to methods (A) and (B). The whites obtained were
matched against the standards with the results given in Table XIII.
This table shows that with either method of bleaching, better whites
were obtained with the Arizona-Egyptian and Sea Island than with
the SakeUaridis.
Table Xlll.— Bleached yams
matched against
a series of standard whites.
Method.
Arizona-Egyptian.
Sea Island.
Sakellaridis.
1
2
3
4
6
6
7
8
0
(A)
Set
3
7
3
6
3
7
3
6
3
7
3
6
3
7
3
6
3
7
3
6
8
7
3
6
8
6
3
4
3
6
3
4
3
Standard
0
(B)
Set A..
Standard
3
4
In the laboratory tests, the deviations in the numbers were stand-
ardized on the basis of the average number of the gray, the bleached,
and the mercerized, respectively. When the tensile strength of the
gray yam was compared with the results obtained in the laboratory,
yam from the same bobbins was used in each case. From these
bobbins 60 yards instead of 120 yards per skein were used. (See foot-
note 1, p. 8.)
The tensile strength of 80/2 yams of each of the nine kinds was
taken before and after bleaching with methods (A) and (B). The
results of these tests are shown in Table XIV,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
14 BULLETIN 359, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AQMCULTUBE.
Table XIV. — Tensile strength before and after bleaching.
Oray.
Bleach A.
BkachB.
Sample number.
Num-
ber of
yam.
Tensile strength.
Num-
ber of
yam.
Num-
ber of
yarn.
Tensile streogth.
Pounds
per skein
(60
yards).
Oimnm
sS^e
thread.
Pounds
per skein
(60
yards).
Ounces
s£^
thread.
Pounds
per skein
(60
yards).
OuDoai
s£S«
thread.
1
42.3
42.3
?d
42.3
42.3
42.3
42.3
42.3
87.9
34.8
36.2
34.3
38.2
35.1
87.7
86.0
82.5
8.7
8.5
8.2
7.9
9.0
8.4
8.4
8.6
8.2
46.4
46.4
46.4
46.4
46.4
46.4
46.4
46.4
46.4
31.1
26.7
28.8
28.5
29.7
27.2
81.7
83.8
28.3
7.0
7.3
7.1
7.1
6.9
6.7
7.4
8.3
7.8
47.0
47.0
47.0
47.0
47.0
47.0
47.0
47.0
47.0
34.6
8.3
2 ,
33.0
31.0
88.8
28.0
87.0
29.5
84.0
8.4
8.9
8.7
7.0
8.2
8.8
7.9
Ayerage 1-0
42.3
42.3
42.3
42.3
85.8
85.8
36.6
35.4
8.4
8.3
8.7
8.4
46.4
46.4
46.4
46.4
29.5
28.8
28.4
81.3
7.8
7.1
6.8
7.8
47.0
47.0
47.0
47.0
83.2
32.0
83.4
33.5
8.3
Average 1-4
8.4
AverafreS-C
7.9
Average 7-9
8.3
A comparison of the figures in Table XTV shows that the Arizona-
Egyptian cotton was slightly weaker in the gray than the average
of all, and that the Sea Island was stronger than the average of all.
When bleached according to method (A) the Arizona-Egyptian was
also weaker than the average and the Sakellaridis stronger. When
bleached according to method (B) the Arizona-I^ptian was the
weakest and the Sea Island the strongest. These deviations firom
the average strength, however, are not greater than the variations
found between the several tests on the same yam. Hence, this table
of averages does not indicate a very seripus variation in the strength.
DYEING.
Samples of the yams were bleached according to method (B), but
not blued. These samples were dyed pink and blue by the methods
given below for direct and basic dyes. The results of these tests
indicated no appreciable dij0ference in the dying values of the nine
cottons tested. The two methods are as follows :
Direct dyes. — ^The yams were dyed in a bath containing a 0.1 per
cent bcnzo rhoduline red B, 5 per cent of salt, and a 0.5 per cent
soluble oil. The volume of dye bath equaled 25 times the weight of
the goods. The goods entered the dye bath cold, and the temperar-
ture was raised to the boiling point in 30 minutes. They were boiled
15 minutes and allowed to cool in the bath 15 minutes. The light
blue was dyed in the same manner, except that a 0.1 per cent benzo
fast blue B N was used instead of the benzo rhoduline red B.
Bdsic dyes. — ^The goods were mordanted in a solution containing
0.015 of a gram of tannic acid in each 100 cc. The goods were entered
cold; the temperature of the bath was raised to 190® in 45 minutes;
it then was allowed to cool over night, rinsed and treated cold for
15 minutes in a bath containing 0.01 of a gram of tartar emetic.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
OOMPABATIVB SPINNING TESTS.
15
The pinks were dyed in a bath containing 0.05 per cent of rhodu-
line red B, 0.5 per cent of acetic acid, cooled 30 minutes, then raised
to 140^ during 30 minutes. The blues were dyed in the same manner
as the pink, except that 0.05 per cent of methylene blue B B was
used.
BfEBCERIZING.
Samples of each of the nine kinds of yams (60/2) were singed and
mercerized collectively at one of the mills of New Bedford, Mass.,
and subsequently tested for their tensile strength and degree of
mercerization. The tensile strength and the numbers of the yam
of all nine samples were taken before and after mercerization. The
results are shown in Table XV.
Table XV. — Tensile strength before and after merceriaUion.
Koniber of sample.
Qny yam.
Nomber
of yam.
Tensfle strength.
Pounds
per skein
(60
yards).
Ounces
per •
sniffle
thread.
l^noerlted yam.
Number
of yam.
Tensile strength.
Pounds
per skein
(60
yards).
Ounces
sin trie
thread.
2
«
4
6
6
7
8
»
Avvnge 1-9.
ArofageM.
Average 5-6.
Avenge 7-9.
31.6
31.6
31.6
31.6
31.6
31.6
31.6
31.6
31.6
48.5
48.0
49.3
49.0
51.0
48.9
51.4
51.5
51.3
11.6
10.9
11.7
11.8
11.6
12.1
12.3
12.1
33.6
33.6
33.6
33.6
33.6
33.6
33.6
33.6
33.6
57.5
59.9
56.8
56.9
60.4
57.0
59.8
59.4
56.5
16.5
16.7
17.2
16.4
17.9
18.4
18.3
18.1
17.3
31.6
31.6
31.6
31.6
50.0
48.9
50.0
51.4
11.8
11.5
12.2
33.6
33.6
33.6
33.6
58.2
57.8
68.7
58.6
17.4
16.7
18.2
17.9
It will be noticed in Table XV that the mercerized samples 1-4,
inclusive, show a lower breaking strength than samples 5-6 or 7-9.
The yams were tested for degree of mercerization by dyeing them
in 1 per cent benzo purpnrin 4B, 10 per cent salt, 1 per cent soluble
oQ for 30 minutes at 160®, volume of bath equal to 100 times the
weight of goods treated. In order to determine the degree of mer-
cerization, samples of mercerized Egyptian yam were dyed in the
same baths after dyeing the samples 1-9. These exhaust skeins
furnished a means of measuring the degree of mercerization, for the
better mercerized samples of cotton absorb more dyestuff and con-
sequently leave less in the dye bath.
Table XVX represents a set of standards obtained by dyeing mer-
cerized Egyptian yam with the following percentages of dyestuff
salt and soluble oil by method given above, benzo purpurin 4B being
Tised as the dyestuff.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
16 BULLETIN 369, XT. B. DEPABTMENT OP AGRICULTXJEE,
Table XVI.— Jl set of color standards.
Standard No
1
2
8
4
5
«
7
8
g
Dye per cent
5
20
2
4.5
20
2
4
20
2
3.5
20
2
3
20
2
2.6
20
2
2
10
1
1.5
10
1
1
Salt percent ,...,.
10
Soluble oU per cent
1
fltftndflrd No
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Dye per cent
0.9
10
1
0.8
10
1
0.7
10
1
0.6
10
1
0.5
10
1
0.4
10
1
0.3
10
1
0.2
10
1
0.1
Salt per cent
10
SohiSle oil per cent
1
Standard No
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
20
27
Dye per cent
0.09
10
1
0.06
10
1
0.07
10
1
0.00
10
1
0.05
10
1
0.04
10
1
0.03
10
1
0.02
10
1
O.QI
Salt per cent
10
Soluble oil per cent
1
By matching the samples of yam dyed in the exhaust baths
against the above standards the results shown in Table XVII were
obtained. ,
Table XVII. — Mercerized yams matched against color standards for degree ofmerceruation.
Arlrona-Egyptian.
Sea Island.
SakeUaridis.
Yam samples
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0
l£atGhed standards
17+
17
17+
17
16
17-
16-
14+
15—
From Table XVII it wiU be seen that the Arizona-Egyptian cotton
samples 1-4 gave better results in mercerizing than any of the others,
the nearest approach to it being that of sample 6, Sea Island cotton.
These laboratory tests show that after bleaching; dyeing and
mercerizing, the Arizona-Egyptian and Sea Island cottons were
practically equal to each other and were slightly superior to the
Sakellaridis Egyptian in their bleaching and mercerization properties;
that they were fully the equal in dyeing properties, possibly ranging
slightly in favor of the Sea Island and Sakellaridis in tensile strength.
DIFFICULTIES IN INTRODUCING A NEW VARIETY OF COTTON.
The manufacturer usually secm'es a contract for goods before they
are manufactured, but when offering a fabric or yam for sale, manu*
factm'ed from a new kind of cotton, diflSculties frequently are met
with from the buyer or converter who, when placing a contract or
an order for fine goods, specifies the kind of cotton required, that is,
American, Egyptian, or Sea Island. In a large number of instances
on cloth orders, the warp required is of American cotton and the
filling Egyptian, or vice versa. The grade of cotton used is, of course.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
COMPARATIVE SPINNING TESTS. 17
&( the discretion of the manufacturer, provided he meets the require-
ments of contract as to the strength and quaUty. Manufacturers
who have experimented with the Arizona-Egyptian cotton have
found that it is l^s wasty than other cottons and that it can be
utilized satisfactorily as a substitute for most purposes; but so long
as the manufacturer meets his contract, the amount of waste dis-
ciutted in the manufacturing processes is not primarily of interest to
the converter or consumer. In fact, manufacturers are reluctant to
change while their business is on a profitable basis. However, on
certain classes of goods, mixtures of two different cottons are made to
advantage. Because the Arizona-Egyptian is a heavy bodied cotton,
it is entirely possible that the entire amount produced can be utilized
advantageously if mixed properly with these other cottons in the
manufacturing processes. Manufacturers claim that the sooner this
cotton comes on the market in large quantities, the easier will it be
to place it on a competitive basis with other long-staple cottons of
shnilar qualities.
COMPARATIVE SPINNING TESTS MADE FROM THE CROP OF 1913-14.
Previous to the tests made in the summer of 1915, there were
similar tests conducted in the summer of 1914 on cotton of the 1913
crop.^ These preliminary tests were made on about 35 pounds of
eadi grade of Arizona-Egyptian cotton and were run in comparison
with a lap of Sakellaridis Egyptian and a lap of Sea Island cotton
which had been run through the pickers in a cotton mill. There was
not available a sufficient quantity of Arizona-Egyptian cotton to
make these tests conclusive^ nor were the SakeUaridis Egyptian nor
tiie Sea Island cotton procured in the raw condition. It was assumed
that the laps of the SakeUaridis and the Sea Island cottons had lost
their usual amount of waste through the pickers and contained the
average amount of waste usually present in cottons of their class
when ready to be started into the cards. From this point on, the
different lots were run imder the same mechanical conditions without
change in speeds or settings. The length of staple of the three lots
was approximately equal.
The percentages of waste for the five grades of Arizona-Egyptian
cotton, based on the net amount of cotton fed to the pickers, were as
foDows:
Percent.
Fancy 16. 38
Extra *. 16. 35
Choice 17. 44
Standard. * 23. 99
Medium 24.35
1 These teets were oondooted at the New Bedford Textile School by Mr. Fred Taylor.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
18 BULLETIN 359, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGBICULTURE.
The percentages of waste discarded by the cards and combers for
the Arizona-Egyptian, Sakellaridis Egyptian, and Sea Island cottons,
based on the amount of cotton fed into the cards instead of pickerSi
were ad follows:
Arizona-Egyptian: Percent.
Fancy 14.15
Extra 15.86
Choice 16. 16
Standard 2L48
Medium 2L 38
Average Arizona-Egyptian 17. 70
Sea Island 19. 03
SakellaridiB Egyptian 17. 54
These tests do not seem to indicate very definitely which variety
of cotton would be the best, when judged from the standpoint of
percentage of waste discarded in the manufacturing processes.
The average size of the yam produced from the three lots of cotton
was lOO's. The average tensile strength for the three lots was as
foUows:
Founds
perskein.
Arizona-Egyptian 20. 02
Sea Island 19. 06
Sakellaridis Egyptian 19. 70
There seem to be no conclusions as to the superiority of any vari-
ety of cotton that can be satisfactorily drawn from the comparison
of the tensile strength of these three lots.
The principal points of interest wherein these preliminary tests
coincide with the results of the tests on the crop of 1914-15 are as
foUows: (1) The total amoimt of waste discarded in the manufactur-
ing processes of the different grades of Arizona-Egyptian cotton bears
some relation to the grades; (2) the tensile strength figures do not
indicate definitely that one lot is superior to another.
A comparison of the results of the tests made on cotton of the 1913-
14 and 1914-15 seasons shows that there is. such a discrepancy in the
amount of waste discarded from the same kind of cotton tiiat the
results of neither test can be accepted as absolutely conclusive.
SUMMARY.
The relative waste discarded in the manufacturing processes of
the four grades of Arizona-Egyptian cotton tested was as follows:
Extra, 17.69 per cent; Choice, 18.56 per cent; Standard, 20 per cent;
Medium, 20.90 per cent.
These tests show that with respect to grade the four bales of Arizona-
Egyptian cotton were proportionately less wasty than the two bales
of Sea Island of Georgia, and the two bales of Sea Island were pro-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
COMPARATIVE SPINNING TESTS.
19
portionately less wasty than the three bales of Sakellaridis from
Alexandria, Egypt.
There was no relation in the price of the diflferent kinds of cotton to
the percentages of waste discarded in the manufacturing processes.
The reverse condition developed, namely, Arizona-Egyptian cotton
was estimated to be lower in commercial value than Sea Island, and
Sea Island to be lower than Sakellaridis, when comparing equivalent
grades.
There was no significant relationship between the tensile strength
of the respective grades of Arizona-Egyptian cotton.
The difference in the tensile strength of yam made from the three
44i^jxam
djt^r^ods
Mxrmt ^9^cy
Meofu^f^^f^
C9-
26-
^f!M«!SB£.
»^-
7^
ammnVFT —
e»-
9f—
m9r4\ ^/^
^ mt97m^
IT-
PfifceffiM^
Jtfx^o
/^faci^y>¥m ^o
ao
eo
BO
Fig. 2.— Coa^M^ison of the prices of raw cotton, waste discarded in the manufiacturing processes, and the
tensile strength of the yam in pounds i>er skein of 120 yards each for Arixona-Egyptian, Sea Island, and
SakeUairidis Egsrptian cottons.
(The figores at the left indicate the cents per pound for the price, percentage for the waste, and pounds
per skein for the breaking strength.)
kinds of cotton was practically negligible. Considerable deviation
occurred varying slightly in favor of first one kind and then another,
but, as a whole, resulting somewhat in favor of the Sakellaridis
Egyptian cotton, with the Sea Island coming second. However, the
tensile strength for the highest numbers of yam was in favor of the
Sea Island cottoij.
Figure 2 presents graphically the comparative prices of the three
kinds of cottoA, the percentages of waste of each kind discarded in
the manufacturing processes, and the tensile strengths of the yam
made from them. The graph is arranged for comparing the grades
that are practically equivalent. The table at the bottom of this
graph gives the figures referred to which are taken from previous
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
20 BULLETIN 359, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
tables and placed here for ready reference. The figures on the left-
hand margux indicate cents per pound for the price, percentage for
the waste, and pounds per skein for the breaking strength. Number
80's yam was taken for the comparison. The graph shows that
there is no significant relationship between the prices of the dijBEerent
cottons and the percentages of waste and tensile strength. It shows
that our domestic cottons are equal to, and in most respects superior
to, imported cottons. It indicates also the preferences of manufac-
turers which must be changed in order to introduce satisfactorily any
new cotton.
The laboratory test indicated that after bleaching, dyeing, and
mercerizing, the Arizona-Egyptian and Sea Island cottons were
practically equal to each other and were slightly superior to the
Sakellaridis in their bleaching and mercerizing properties; that they
were fully equal to each other in dyeing properties; and in tensile
strength the advantage was shghtly in favor of the Sea Island and
Sakellaridis. The finished grey and mercerized yams were com-
paratively equal in luster; however, the yellow color was a httle more
evident in the Arizona-Egyptian than in the Sakellaridis, which in
turn was somewhat more yellow than the Sea Island. The difference
in color was more apparent between the Arizona and the Sakellaridis
than between the Sea Island and Sakellaridis.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PUBUCATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGBICUL-
TUBE RELATING TO THE SUBJECT.
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY PUBUCATIONS.
BuUetin 128, l^yptian Cotton in the Southwestern United States. By T. H. Kearney
and W. A. Peterson.
Bulletin 156, A Study of Diversity in Egyptian Cotton. By O. F. Cook, Argyle
McLachlan, and A. M. Meade.
Bulletin 200, Breeding New Types of Egyptian Cotton. By T. H. Kearney.
Bulletin 210, Hindi Cotton in Egypt. By O. F. Cook.
Bulletin 249, The Branching Habits of Egyptian Cotton. By Argyle McLachlan.
Bulletin 256, Heredity and Cotton Breeding. By O. F. Cook.
Circular 29, Experiments with Egyptian Cotton in 1908. By T. H. Kearney and
W. A. Peterson.
Circular 66, Cotton Selection on the Farm by the Characters of the Stalks, Leaves,
and Bolls. By O. F. Cook.
Circular 110, Miscellaneous'Papers — Preparation of Land for Egyptian Cotton in Salt
RivOT Valley, Arizona, By E. W. Hudson. Fibers from Different Pickings of
Egyptian Cotton. By T. H. Kearney.
Circular 111, Durango Cotton in the Imperial Valley. By O. F. Cook.
Circular 112, Egyptian Cotton as Affected by Soil Variations. By T. H. Kearney.
Circular 121, Miscellaneous Papers — ^The Culture of Durango Cotton in the Imperial
Valley. By Argyle McLachlan. Methods of Securing Self -Pollination in Cotton.
By R. M. Meade.
Circular 123, Egyptian Cotton Culture in the Southwest. By Carl S. Scofield.
Circular 132, Miscellaneous Papears— Cotton Farming in the Southwest. By O. F.
Cook.
Document 717, January 9, 1912, Suggestions on Growing Egyptian Cotton in the
Southwest. By C. S. Scofield.
MISCELLANEOUS DEPARTMENT PUBUCATIONa
Bulletin 38, Seed Selection of Egyptian Cotton. By T. H. Kearney.
Bulletin 121, Spinning Tests of Upland Long-Staple Cottons. By Fred Taylor and
WeUs A. Sherman.
BuUetin 146, Economic Conditions in the Sea Island Cotton Industry. By W. R.
Meadows.
Bulletin 233, Relation of the Arizona Wild Cotton Weevil to Cotton Planting in the
Arid West. By B. R. Coad.
Bulletin 311, The Handling and Marketing of the Arizona-Egyptian Cotton of the
Salt River Valley. By J. G. Martin.
Bulletin 332, Community Culture of Egyptian Cotton in the United States. By
C. 8. Scofield, T. H. Kearney, C. J. Brand, O. F. Cook, and W. T.' Swingle.
Fanners* Bulletin 577, Growing Egyptian Cotton in the Salt River Valley, Arizona.
By E. W. Hudson.
Yearbook Separate 579, Cotton Improvement on a Commimity Basis. By O. F.
Cook. (Yearbook, 1911.)
Federal Horticultural Board — Rules and Regulations. Governing the Importation of
Cotton lint into the United States.
21
WASHINGTON : OOYBBNMBNT PRINTING OFFICB : If 16
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ADDITIONAL COPIES
OP THIS PUBUCATION MAT BE PROCUEED FROM
THE 8UPERINTENDBNT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVEBNMEMT FRINTINO OFHCS
WASHINOTON, D. C.
AT
5 CENTS PER COPY
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 360
Contribation from the Bureau of Plant Indoftiy
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief
Washington, D. C.
PROFESSIONAL PAPER
June 17, 19ie
MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS
IN THE NORTHWEST
By
JAMES R. WEIR, Forest Pathologist, Office of
Investigations in Forest Pathology
CONTENTS
Page
Inirodactlon « 1
General Nature of the Mistletoe Injury . 2
Result of Infection on the Branches . . 13
Result of Infection on the Trunk ... 20
Relatloo of Mistletoe Injury to Fungous
Attack 25
General Suppression and Fungous Attack 27
Selatioa of MfsOetoe Injury to Insects . 28
Pag©
Influence of Mistletoe Injury on the Seed
Production of the Host 30
Host Affinities in Relation to SUvicul-
ture 31
Suggestions for Control . 33
Summary 37
literature Cited 39
j>.^)\
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1916
UNTTEO STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 360
C—tillwrtion from the Borean of Plant ladnitry
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chtaf
Waaliiiigtoii, D. C.
PROFESSIONAL PAPER
Jane 17, 1916
MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS IN THE
NORTHWESTo^
By James R. Weib,
Fcreat Pathologist , Office of Invutigationa in Forest Pathology.
CONTENTS.
Page.
Intiodiictloii 1
QeDflcal nature of the misUetoeix^ory t
Remit of infection on the branches 13
Result of infection on the trunk 10
Rdatton of mi&tletoe injury to fungoos at-
tack 26
GfPBcal niippwMion and fongoos attack 37
Page.
Relation of mistletoe injury to insects 28
Influence of mistletoe injury on the seed pro-
duction of the host 30
Host affinities in relation to silviculture 31
Suggestions for oontrol 33
Summary 37
Literature cited 39
INTRODUCTION.
It is not generally known that the injury by the mistletoes to
coniferous trees in the northwestern United States is such as to
assume in many regions the nature of a serious forest problem.
The aim of this bulletin is to point out some of the direct and
indirect results of this injury. The species of trees most subject to
injury are Larix ocddervtcdis (western larch), Pinus ponderosa
(western yellow pine), Pinua contorta (lodgepole pine), and
PseudoUuga taxifolia (Douglas fir). Each of these trees is attacked
by a particular species of mistletoe of the genus Razoumofskya
(Aroeuthobium). With a few exceptions, these species very rarely
occur in nature on any other than their common hosts. In the
order of the above-named hosts they are Razowmofakya laricis Piper
(PI. I, fig. 1), R. campylopoda (Engelm.) Piper (PI. II, fig. 2),
R. americana (Nutt) Kuntze (PL I, fig. 2), and R, douglasii (En-
gelm.) Kuntze (PL II, fig. 1).
I Thanks are due Mr. E. E. Hubert for assistance in the preparation of the graphs and
a nnmber of the other illustrations used in this bulletin.
24182«— Bull. 360—16 1 1
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
2 BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGKICULTUBE.
GENERAL NATURE OF THE MISTLETOE INJURY.
The general nature of the injury to forest growth by these para-
sites principally consists sooner or later in a localization and gradual
reduction of the assimilatory leaf surface of the host As will be
shown, this is caused by various burl and broom formations on tiie
trunks and branches. The reduction of the leaf surface causes a
falling oflf of the annual increment. During the progress of a study
on the larch mistletoe in the Whitman National Forest, Oreg., in the
summer of 1913, many data on the retardation of growth of its host
by this parasite were assembled. More recently, in the lodgepole and
yellow pine belt of eastern Washington and northern Idaho, the study
was continued on these species, and at frequent intervals on the larch
and Douglas fir in the Missoula region of Montana. The method of
investigation was as follows: Borings from heavily infected (burled
and broomed) and uninfected trees were taken with a Mattison
increment borer at 4| feet from the ground, at which point the
trees were calipered. With practice the eccentricity of growth due to
slope, unequal crown development, injuries, etc, may be very skill-
fully judged, so that it is possible to strike the pith of trees within
the range of the borer with a fair degree of accuracy. In order to
determine as nearly as possible the average radius, in the more doubt-
ful cases three borings were taken. On steep slopes the eccentricity of
trees may be more accurately judged than on flat land, through the
knowledge that more rapid growth takes place on the downhill side
of the tree. Height was computed with the Klaussner height meas-
urer. Trees of the same species were selected as near as possible from
the same type of stand and of the same general age class and the same
soil conditions. Only dominant trees free from serious wounds and
other possible causes of deterioration were recorded. Finding that
the effects of the mistletoe on the increment of the host could be read
from the last 40 years' growth of the age classes and conditions of
infection selected. Table I was prepared.
Table I. — The retardation of growth of forest trees caused by nUstletoe^ for iO
years, 1874 to 191S, inclusive.
Basis
berof
trees).
Awa^e.
Host and condition.
Ageclaas.
Height.
Diameter
breast
hi^.
Total
aniraal
growth.
Pinus contorts:
Infected
50
50
50
50
80
80
40
40
Yeon.
65
60
100
100
144
144
VJ
97
FeeL
35.2
48.5
49.5
77.2
63.0
115.0
62.0
73.0
/fiefttf.
6.3
7.8
18.2
22.2
11.5
19.6
17. S
22.3
0.93
Uninfected
2.93
Pinus ponderosa:
Infected
l.M
Uninfected
5.33
Larix occldentalis;
Infected
1.28
Uninfected
2.154
2.175
3.38
Pmiidotsuga taxifolia:
Infected
Uninfected
Digitized by VjOOQIC
MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS.
3
The results in Table I, although based on a relatively small number
of trees, prove quite conclusively the effects of mistletoe on the
growth of its host. They are graphically shown by the accompany-
ing series of illustrations (figs. 1 to 4).
A glance at these graphs shows that although there is considerable
fluctuation in growth, the line of the iminfected rarely falls below
that of the infected trees.
These results are not at all surprising when the nature of mistletoe
injury is thoroughly appreciated. In a heavily infected region,
where all species and ages are more or less involved, dead, dying, or
/e^
/aso /3SS
Pig. 1. — Graphs showing the average annual growth (In Inches) for 40 years (1874
to 191^ InclnslTe) of 50 trees of lodgepole pine heavily infected with mistletoe,
compared with 50 uninfected trees of the same species for the same period. A,
Heavily Infected trees: Average-age class, 65 years; average height, 35.2 feet;
average diameter, breast high, 6.3 Inches. B, Uninfected trees : Average-age class,
60 years ; average height, 48.5 feet ; average diameter, breast high, 7.8 inches.
weakened mistletoe trees, hastened in their decline by the inroads of
fungi and insects, are a conmion sight. If these trees are carefully
examined with respect to the average possible growth for the region,
it will be found, as Table I shows, that most of them have died or
have become irrevocably weakened or suppressed at a time when rapid
or a normal growth should be taking place. This has been found
to be true in all regions visited in the Northwest where excessive
mistletoe infection is common. Infected trees of immature years,
pole size and younger, may linger along indefinitely if secondary
agents do not appear and may reach an advanced age, but may not
attain a merchantable size. Heavily infected and, as a result of this
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
4 BULLETIN 360, V. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGBICULTURE.
infection, badly stunted yellow pine, larch, Douglas fir, and lodge-
pole pine growing in the open and on otherwise good sites often
measure less than 6 inches at the stump, but show ages ranging from
100 to 200 years or more. Young seedlings, if not killed outright
within a comparatively short time after infection, usually show a
A5?V
49as
/aso /ass
/900
/SOS
: i___i _____ 71 :...
Z-U—-l{-—\ l\ t--
^_]____TL.__f_l /- "LL :
§^__L.._lL..I.L... /I 1_J__ Zf
\Z-\—t\i i— -— -J^h-
):Z \.. I ZL J J [
1" ::___[:._ r:
IZ I -i\.
VJ /^o E- A. X J
S aj9 -J
^ OS \ l\r
^t ^7 ^f ^/r 7^ 7'^n
o/ - _ _ _ JL __ _ :i.
/SAff /S/&
FiQ. 2. — Graphs showing the average annual growth (In inches) for 40 years (1874
to 1913, inclusive) of 50 trees of yellow pine heavily infected with mistletoe, com-
pared with 50 uninfected trees of the same species for the same period. A., heavily
Infected trees : Average-age class, 100 years ; average height, 49.5 feet ; average
diameter, breast high, 18.2 inches. B, Uninfected trees: Average-age class, 100
years ; average height, 77.2 feet ; average diameter, breast high, 22 inches.
marked falling off of the foliar surface of the parts uninfected and
finally succumb to the attack (fig. 5). Very frequently young in-
fected seedlings develop into ball-like brooms.
Table II shows the youngest age class of five hosts at which mistle-
toe infection has been found to occur and the locality where the
observations were made.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS. 6
Table II. — The youngest age clMS of mistletoe infection on five different hosts.
Host.
Younftest
age at
which
Infection
is known
to occur.
Locality where obsen'atlons
were made.
Pssadot^ga t axlfolla .
Do
Larix occidentalis
Do
Do
Do
Pinas contorts
Do
. Do
Poms ponderc»a
Do
Do
Tsuga het«rophylIa
Clark Fork Valley. Mont.i
Blue Mountains, Orep.
Priest Hiver Valley, Idaho.
Blue Mountains, Oreg.
Missoula, Mont.
Sullivan Lake, Wash.
Spokane Kiver, Wash.
Blue Mountains^ Oreg.
Coeur d' Alene, Idaho.
Spokane River, Wash.
Blue Mountains Oreg.
Coeur d' Alene, Idaho.
Clearwater River, Idaho.
1 Valleys of the so-called Bitterroot and Missoula Rivers.
There is no reason >rhy a seedling should not become infected
during its first year if seeds should happen to be favorably located
upon it. Seeds falling at the base of terminal buds of yellow-pine
branches have been known to eflfect an entrance in the succeeding
fs:^
/eso
zees
/S90 /^9S
/900
/SOS
/S/O /S/3
Fig. 3. — Graphs showing the average annual growth (in inches) for 40 years (1874 to
1913. Inclusive) of 80 trees of western larch heavily infected with mistletoe, com-
pared with 80 uninfected trees of the same species for the same period. A, Heavily
infected trees : Average-age class, 144 years ; average height, 63 feet ; average diam-
eter, breast high, 11.5 inches. B, Uninfected trees : Average-ago class, 144 years ;
average height, 115 feet ; average diameter, breast high, 19.5 inches.
season ''s growth within the year. All infections of firs and spruces
have been found on trees ranging from 50 to 150 years. They
occurred principally on the branches, resulting in large brooms, so
that nothing could be determined as to the probable age of the hosts
when infection took place.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
6 BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
No evidence is at hand to show that the primary sinker of these
parasites can penetrate other than the more tender epidermis of
young parts of the host. Germinating mistletoe seeds located on
the smooth bark of the Douglas fir or on the irregularities of older
stems of yellow pine or larch have never been observed, even after
a protracted contact of the disk of the hypocotyl with the surface
of the branch, to penetrate the bark. Kemoving the exhausted
hypocotyl and carefully examining the point where the disk was
attached, a barely perceptible pit or indentation is sometimes visible.
^074
/aao
/6SO /ass
Fia. 4. — Graphs showing the average annual growth (In inches) for 40 years (1874
to 1913, Inclusive) of 40 trees of Douglas fir heavily infected with mistletoe, com-
pared with 40 uninfected trees of the same species for the same period. A, Heavily
infected trees: Average-age class, 97 years; average height, 62 feet; average di-
ameter, breast high, 17.3 inches. B, Uninfected trees : Average-age class, 97 years ;
average height, 73 feet ; average diameter, breast high, 22.2 inches.
possibly indicating the presence of a solvent, which, however, is
ineffective upon more mature bark. There is as yet no proof to sup-
port the theory of the presence of a digestive substance which
enables the sinker to penetrate the bark more readily. If this were
true, infection could possibly occur on older tissues, provided they
were not too thick and the food supply in the seed did not become
exhausted. As it is, mechanical force, supported by the nonmov-
able position of the seed, and irregularities of the stems, such as
leaf scales, exits of leaf traces, and leaf sheaths, particularly at
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS. 7
the nodes and the basal scales of the terminal buds, are the chief
factors in the penetration of the primary root.
The occurrence of mistletoe plants on the thick-barked branches of
old trees or on the main trunk are the result of earlier infection,
when the bark was thinner. What appears to be a recent infection
on the older parts of trees is often merely a retarded or suppressed
condition of an earlier in-
fection which has ex-
pended most of its energy
in the production of a sub-
cortical stroma and later
breaks through the bark.
Periods of suppression and
dominance are frequently
noticeable in all mistle-
toes, a condition noted to
be in several instances di-
rectly referable to the
state of vigor of the host.
An excessive flow of resin
sometimes appears in the
second and third year of
the life of a new infection
on larch and yellow pine,
which, if not fatal to the
young plants, may seri-
ously retard their growth
for years. Until infection
by actual inoculation,
using natural methods, is
attained, all statements of
the ability of the parasite
to effect an entrance in
old-barked branches or
trunks can not be accepted
and must be considered
faulty observation. The
writer has never succeeded in causing the infection of branches at any
point older than four years. The ease of infection is found to be
more or less in proportion to the decrease in age of the branches
tested. This was proved in the case of yellow pine by inserting
seeds at regular intervals in the axils of the leaf sheaths of young
branches, from the terminal bud to the tenth intemode. The results
of this experiment are shown in Table III.
Fig. 5. — Four-year-old yellow-pine seedlings killed by
mistletoe. Note the hypertrophy of the stem at
the point of infection and the shortening of the
needles. The two seedlings on the right were
killed principally by having the wood and cambium
In the swelling infiltrated with pitch. The para-
site killed the seedling on the left by invading the
terminal shoot.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
8 BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGEICULTURB.
Table III. — Inoculation of Razoumofskya campylopoda on Pinua ponderosii,
made in November^ 1911,
[x— Inoculation effective; 0— Inoculation not effective.]
Age of part of branch tested.
Seeds
sown on
eacfain-
ternode.
Results In November, 1914 , on branch —
No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5,
Season's growth
1 year
2years
3years
4years
5years
6 years
7 years
8 years
Dyears
10 years
A study of Table III shows that the branches were infected in
three out of the five test cases on the youngest and last intemode on
which the seeds were placed. Infection occurred on two of the five
tested branches on that part 1 year old at the time of sowing^ one
infection only being on the 2-year-old portion. Infection did not
take place on the older parts of the branches. A tree never be-
comes too old for infection to occur on its youngest branches. Sup-
pressed trees may escape, owing to the fact that slowness of growth
and more rapid formation of thick bark lessens the chance of infec-
tion; also shortness of twig growth gives less opportunity. The
demand for a fair amount of light is also a factor in such a case,
not, however, for the stages of germination and penetration of the
primary root, but for the subsequent development of the aerial parts.
Mature trees becoming infected on tender branches may not suffer
any appreciable injury, but in time the decline of the tree is surely
hastened, since the gradually increasing hypertrophy of the branches,
the breakages, and the thinning out of the foliage of the tree as a
whole cause it to be greatly weakened. Almost always the result of
a heavy infection on the trunk and branches of some conifers is the
death of the upper portion of the crown,^ causing staghead (fig. 6),
1 The dying back of the crown of trees, commonly known as spiketop, or staghead. Is
attributed to various causes ; as many, In fact, as the varied conditions under which trees
grow. One of the most common theories is that on opening up a stand the admission of
light to the trunk and lower crown deflects the transpiration current to the older brancli
orders or, as with some species, promotes the formation of a secondary crown on the
main trunk. This stimulated foliar activity below reduces the water supply at the top
of the crown ; consequently the topmost branches die back. This is exactly what happens
in the case of mistletoes. The extra crown development below, by brooming, starves out
the crown above, resulting In its death. Mtlnch (Sllva, December, 1911, pp. 415-416)
claims to have found a parasitic Aseomycete which causes staghead in the oak of Europe
by attacking the bork and outer wood of the main shoots. The writer has found a
wood-destroying fungus which attacks the upper crown branches of the chestnut In
southern Indiana and causes their death. The " pencil rot," which seems to be fre-
quently the cause of staghead in the western red cedar, Is another example of fungi at-
tacking the crown of trees. Lightning Is a common cause of staghead; also injury by
insects.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 360, U. S. Dept. of AgrlcuKure.
Plate I.
Fia. 1.— Branch of Larix occidentalis Infected with Razoumofskya laricis.
The stamlnate and piaUllate plants are iu close juxtaposition, the former at tlie end of the twig.
FiQ. 2.— Razoumofskya Americana on Pinus contorta.
stamlnate and pifltillate plants; long trailing form.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 360, U. S. Dept. of Acriculture.
PLATE II.
Fig. 1 .— Razoumofskya douqlasii on Pseudotsuqa taxifolia.
Btaminate plants, slightly less than natural size.
FiQ. 2.— Razoumofskya campylopoda on Pinus ponderosa.
The staminate and pistillate plants are crrowing close together on the same branch, a very
oommon condition lor all species, but not generally known.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 360, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Plate III.
FiQ. 1.— An Open Stand of Yellow Pine Heavily Infected with Razoumofskya
CAMPYLOPODA.
Note thatsome of the trecj are dead and that others hiive very thin fuliHge, The strueture of
the dead brtwms is plainly nhown. Some of the trees bear'burla on the main trunk. The
young growth is seriously infected with mistletoe.
FiQ. 2.— A Heavy General Infection of a 1 S-Vear-Old Yellow Pine by Razou-
mofskya CAMPYLOPODA, RESULTING IN A DISTORTED AND OPEN CONDITION OF THE
Crown without Pronounced Brooming.
The natural excurrent growth of the main trunk ia entirely changed.
uigiiizea oy v.
roogle
Bui. 360, U. S. Oept. of Agricultura.
Plate IV.
Fig. 1.— Needles of Douglas Fir from a Normal Branch (at the Right) and
OF A Mistletoe Broom on the Same Tree, Showing the Difference in Size.
FiQ. 2.— Yellow Pine at the Head of a Canyon, Showinq Mistletoe Infection.
Note that the heavleflt Infection occurs on the immediate edge of the canyon and that the
intensity of the infection decreases as the distance from the brow of the canyon increases;
also that the upper crowns of the infected trees are becoming very thin.
uigiTizea oy vjv^v/'v iv^
MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS.
or in some cases the entire tree may succumb (fig. 7 and PI. Ill, fig.
1.) In many parts of the Whitman National Forest, wherever the
heaviest infection of yellow pine occurs the percentage of dead or
spiketopped trees reaches a comparatively high figure.
In a report to Supervisor Ireland, Eanger Smith, in referring to
the seriousness of the infection of yellow pine in the vicinity of
Susanville, Whitman National Forest, states that since 1907, the
year in which the mistletoe damage in the region first received at-
tention, the infection
of all age classes has
been growing worse,
probably 40 per cent
of the stand now be-
ing infected. Of the
more mature stand,
approximately twice
as many trees near
the station as were
noted in 1907 have
since died. Ranger
Smith further states
that for a most pro-
nounced general in-
fection of ^11 species
the drainage basin of
the South Burnt
River particularly
illustrates the devas-
tating effects of mis-
tletoes. "Almost
every yellow pine
from seedlings up
and Douglas fir above
sapling size is heavily
infected and most of
the mature timber
shows great retarda-
tion of growth and is now adding little or no increment. This
infection covers a large part of the best yellow-pine sites in the
yellow-pine belt of this watershed." This region was not visited by
the writer, but to judge from studies in other parts of the same
forest Ranger Smith's observations are undoubtedly correct.
In order to determine the relative amounts of different species
cut as snags on the W. H. Eccles Lumber Co. sale (Whitman Na-
24182'— BuU. 360—16 2
Fig. 6. — Douglas flr, showing the death of the upper por-
tion of the crown caused by Razoumofakya douglasii.
The tree to the right with the series of Immense brooms
also has a dead top. A large broom had split off from
the trunk of the tree on the left. All the young growth
in the vicinity of these trees Is seriously Infected.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
10
BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
tional Forest), the following figures were assembled by Mr. T. J.
Starker, covering a period of 28 days of cutting :
Western larch 556
Western yellow pine 1, 221
Douglas fir 422
Total 2, 199
It must not be assumed that the death of these trees resulted
from mistletoe. It is doubtful whether the death of even a small
percentage of them, with
the exception of the larch,
can be so referred. A more
conservative statement
would be that mistletoe had
a large share in their death
by causing spiketop, the
brooming of branches, and
the formation of burls on
the trunk. These are com-
mon forms of mistletoe in-
jury for all three species in
this region and lead up to
serious insect infestation,
of which more is said later.
That mistletoes are capable
of actually causing the
death of their hosts is first
shown by their effects on
young growth from three
to eight years old. In a
heavily infected but very
open stand of yellow pine
on the bench lands of the
Spokane River, Wash. (PI.
Ill, fig. 1), an attempt was
made to ascertain the
amount of injury resulting
to the seedlings of an aver-
age sample acre, which included in its area nine semimature and
heavily infected trees in all stages of suppression. The acre was
divided into plats and all young growth counted and examined as
to infection and the condition of the infection. The number of
seedlings and small growth below 8 feet in height totaled 480, which
is an excellent reproduction for this region. Just a little more than
half of this number, or 245, were found to be infected, representing
every possible type of infection on stem and branch. It is not to be
expected that these seedlings would ever grow up to form merchant-
FiG. 7. — Douglas fir killed by mistletoe. Note the
total absence of normal branches. The structure
of the brooms Is here plainly shown. Note the
straight trunk of the larch in the background. It
is uninfected by mistletoe and still retains its
original branches.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS.
11
able trees. Considering the severity of the infection, they could
not be expected to attain near the size of their parents shown in
Plate III, figure 1, and from which they received the mistletoe.
Of the 245 infected seedlings, 49 were dead. An examination
of the root system of each
seedling showed it to be well
developed. In the absence
of any other deteriorating
influence except an occa-
sional needle infested by
Chionaspis pint folia Fitch,
the death of these seedlings
must be ascribed to the lux-
uriant growth of mistletoe
which they had supported
(fig. 5). In most cases the
tufts of mistletoe had fallen
away. The bark of the
large jhisiform swellings
was usually ruptured and
both the wood and bast tis-
sues were so heavily infil-
trated with pitch that the
passage of food materials
between the crown and the
roots was wholly impossible,
resulting in death. In this
respect there is a parallel
between this type of mistle-
toe injury to seedlings and
that resulting from the
perennial mycelium of some
caulicolus Peridermiums.
A further study of the large trees shown in Plate III, figure 1, is
illuminating. Two of them, the right and the left in the figure, are
dead. Scarcely a single normal branch is to be seen, but instead are
numerous large gnarled and distorted brooms. These trees measured
on an average 9.3 inches in diameter at 4^ feet from the ground, and
increment borings showed the age of each to be 190 years. This is
far below the diameter of normal trees of the same age for the
region. A careful search for secondary causes of injury resulted
negatively. The trees were absolutely sound. Lightning injury,
which sometimes causes spiketop in yellow pine and other conifers
and which sometimes is erroneously attributed to mistletoe, was not
present. With the evidence in hand, it is safe to state that the trees
Fig. 8. — A group of Douglas flrs with their entire
lower crowns developed Into brooms by Razou-
mofskya douf/lasii. Note the sparse foliage of
the upper crowns and the young brooms In the
tree on the right, showing how the parasite
travels upward. The branches between the
brooms have died from lack of nourishment.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
12 BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUBE.
were killed by the parasite. The other trees in the figure show
various stages of suppression and an abnormal thinness of foliage.
The tree on the extreme right shows midway on its trunk a typical
mistletoe trunk burl.
It is often disputed that mistletoe is a cause of spiketop or that
it is totally unknown for some species. The first and heaviest seat of
infection in nearly all trees of economic importance is in the lower
part of the crown (figs. 6 and 8). This is not necessarily a result of
the seeds of the parasite falling first on the lower branches, but is
rather the result of the fact that the main shoot continues for a time
to grow in height, and the crown may attain its normal height be-
fore the effects of the parasite become dominant. The mistletoe
spreads upward from the lowermost branches, with the result that
the more recently formed branches are continually being infected.
That these infections may not cause a brooming of the branches in
the beginning is abundantly shown by the entire absence of any
brooming on yoimg infected branches of several host species. This,
however, is only the first stage in the hypertrophy of the branch.
After the lapse of several years, typical brooms are formed. With
the increasing hypertrophy of the lower portion of the crown, food
materials are more and more appropriated at this point. The result
is a drain on the resources of the entire tree to support the brooms.
Materials traveling upward from the roots are likewise utilized by
the broomed branches, with the result that the upper portion of the
crown starves and in cases of severe infection finally dies (figs. 5, 6,
7, and 8). Spiketop is an almost universal condition in heavily
infected larch. The tendency to form spiketop in this species, how-
ever, is greatly augmented by the brittleness of its branches. Douglas
fir probably comes next in order of frequency of dead tops resulting
from the growth of mistletoes. The condition is common for yellow
pine in all regions where observations have been made by the writer
and is reported to be of frequent occurrence by correspondents in
Utah and Wyoming. Lowland and mountain hemlocks, when heavily
infected, quite conmionly exhibit dead tops. An unusual case of
heavy infection of the former species was studied in the St. Joe
National Forest. Practically every tree in the entire stand was dead
in the top (fig. 9). Lodgepole pine is less affected in this manner
than any other conifer so far studied by the writer except spruce
and fir. The last-named species are so seldom infected, however,
that they would not enter into the discussion.
There can be little doubt that spiketop is very often the result
of heavy mistletoe infection, but varies in degree for the several
hosts. This condition is of importance, since the proportion of
snags in the stand is thereby increased, which may promote injury
by fungi and insects; it also increases danger from lightning fires.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS.
13
With the conclusion of this general statement of mistletoe injury
a more detailed discussion of the various types of infection will
now be taken up.
RESULT OF INFECTION ON THE BRANCHES.
One of the first effects of infection, either of stem or branch, is
the formation of a fusiform swelling (fig. 10). Sometimes this
swelling is very pronounced and may resemble the enlargements
caused by some species
of Peridermium (fig.
11). The swelling is
the first stage of the
future hypertrophy
commonly known as
witches'-brooms. The
absence of any pro-
nounced brooming
from early infections
has led some observers
to the conclusion that
brooms are never pro-
duced on some conifers.
Any change from the
normal branching is
here considered a
broom. Still it is not
necessary to draw such
sharp lines, as the
brooms produced by all
mistletoes of the geniis
in question are quite
typical. It may re-
quire several years for
the broom to form. If
young trees are gen-
erally infected they
sometimes assume an open, ragged appearance, which to the casual
observer would not be considered a broom (PI. Ill, fig. 2). Never-
theless, the tree is no longer excurrent. A similar condition is
sometimes noted in more mature larches, where the infection is so
generally distributed throughout the entire crown that no typical
brooms are produced for years. Heavily infected branches of old
trees of all species are seldom without brooming of some kind, and
in most cases typical brooms are formed. The mistletoe plant may
die out entirely on very old brooms, especially those of yellow pine
•
t
L
v:--M3s
^^E^BIHii^ .SBI
Fig. 9. — Western hemlock {Teuga heterophylla) infected
by Razoumofakya taugensis. These trees do not possess
a single normal branch. All are broomed. The trees in
the background are spike topped. The tree in the fore-
ground has had its growth in height arrested by an
immense terminal broom.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
14
BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE.
Fig. 10. — Young, first infections of Razoumojakya cam-
pylopoda on western yellow pine {Pinua ponderoBO).
(fig. 12), but the stimulus to abnormal branching may continue.
Brooms are formed on all hosts attacked by this genus of mistletoe.
Those of the yellow
pine, owing to their
loosely branched con-
dition (fig. 12), are
sometimes not as con-
spicuous as those pro-
duced on Douglas fir
(figs. 6, 7, and 13),
larch (fig. 14), hem-
lock (fig. 9), or lodge-
pole pine.
In all the regions
where the yellow-pine
mistletoe has been ob-
served in the States of
Washington, Oregon,
Idaho, Montana, and
South Dakota, broom-
ing is a common result
of the growth of the
parasite on this tree.
Correspondents in Wy-
oming, Utah, and Colorado report that old infected trees are seldom
without them. MacDougal (8)^ refers to the excessive brooming of
yellow pine by mis-
tletoe in the South-
west. Meinecke (10)
refers to the very
conspicuous brooms
on Jeffrey pine,
sugar pine, yellow
pine, lodgepole pine,
and Douglas fir.
The old brooms of
the Douglas fir, be-
cause of the long,
trailing, willowlike
branches of the
lower portion of the
broom, are more con-
spicuous than those of other conifers (fig. 13). They sometimes
attain an immense size, often including the entire crown (fig. G). In
1 Kcferenco Is made by number to " Literature cited," p. 39.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Fig. 11. — A larch branch, showing the result of a first Infec-
tion at its base by Razoumojahya laricis, Ihls is the be-
ginning of a burl at this point, which will spread to the
main trunk.
MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS.
15
most cases brooms are initiated on the Douglas fir soon after infec-
tion. Young seedlings frequently die in the top, owing to the forma-
tion of a lateral broom midway on the stem. In the heavily infected
regions of Montana, especially in the Clark Fork (Bitterrootand Mis-
soula Rivers) drainage, brooming of the Douglas fir is so universal
and of such extent that scarcely a single infected tree is free from
brooms of some type (figs. « and 7). The structure of these brooms
is very plainly shown if the tree succumbs to the parasite, as it often
does (fig. 7). The formation of brooms invariably results from mis-
tletoe infection on
the western larch.
They may be situ-
ated on any part of
the branch or at its
base (fig. 14). In
the latter case the
entire branch even-
tually dies or is
broken off by the
wind, and its place is
usually taken by a
series of short,
scrubby secondary
branches forming a
trunk broom. This
broom eventually
dies, leaving a large
knotty burl of seri-
ous consequence not
only to the life of the
tree but greatly decreasing its value for lumber. Excessive brooming
is a common feature wherever infected larch occurs and is the chief
cause of injury to the species. In some localities in the Blue Moun-
tains of Oregon and parts of Idaho and Montana, where this mistletoe
is common, a normally formed larch is seldom found. Instead of the
symmetrical, conical crown so characteristic of the normal tree, the
crown develops under the influence of the parasite into a denuded
spike, bearing only a few ragged branches. When it is recalled that
practically every larch in these regions, from pole size up, is more or
less infected and seldom attains a normal size, in many cases being
killed outright, some notion may be had of the seriousness of the
effects of the parasite on its host.
■^
1 ^-M^^K^
B^SZ^^^^^BmMMp'v^J^..^ t^*S*i Mk
1
sj!
Wm^'^- ■
W^^
1
: -^i^'
W^Im
^
^^^■^ ml
^^ ... ^
i
'-'- jHt
■^^^^W^-^
^^fc^fc-^'
Fw. 12. — Typical broom on yellow pine caused by Razou-
mofakpa catnpylopoda. Note that the end of the branch
la dead.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
16
BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE.
The brooming of the branches of the lodgepole pine by mistletoe is
as characteristic as for the other hosts mentioned. Frequently the
entire tree is involved,
but more often only
the lower branches. A
few instances have
been noted where the
parasite hung in long
festoons from the sev-
eral infected branches
, . -.v ''"■■;...•'>.■ ;,
ir., . , ..
V^HiimI^^^^p
\JS ,: " *. #-Jfw:f '
«-!^gK
KnB^STP-TJHffirifjMgT
':i.-m-''-i
^^Ev^^ii^^^P '^"^^DBlHSMlalKL
Lv Kt'^^^SS^H
/■3r^^tttMB^^*^ V^ ^'<i
irHr9'*^^^^l
SftSk ' "^^mH
V^ ^^^P^^i" * 'i' '' ^' ^ -^^ '
Klw^^^I
J^M
%^^ ^ ^ ' r ; ;;'?
^ f '
1
FiQ. 13. — Typical broom of the weeping-willow type on Doug-
las flr caused by Razoumofakya douglaaii. Note the long,
flowing branches. Sometimes these branches are 8 to 10
feet long.
without any particular hypertrophy of the
branch as a whole. This condition is more apt
to occur in dense stands. Observations by the
writer on Picea engelmanni^ P. Tnariana^
Abies grand 18^ A, lasiocarpa^ A. concolor^ A,
mdgnifica^ Tsuga heterophylla^ T. merten-
sianOf Pinus monticola^ P, alhicaulis^ P. flexi-
lis^ P. attenuata^ and other conifers show that
brooming of the branches is a common phe-
nomenon attending mistletoe infection of
these species.
The weight of these brooms on many coni-
fers is frequently sufficient under stress of
winds and rain to cause the branches to split
from the trunk, or to break farther out if the brooms are located far
out from the trunk. This very commonly occurs in the case of
FiQ. 14. — Typical brooms of old
infections on western larch
caused by Razoumofakya lari-
cis. Very few of the origi-
nal branches remain, and
they are heavily broomed and
covered with lichens. The
old branches are replaced by
short scrubby secondary
branches. Note that two of
the original branches still re-
main, but are dead.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
\
MISTLETOE INJUBY TO CONIFERS.
17
yellow pine and Douglas fir (fig. 15) and is the rule for larch. The
stunting effect of these brooms on the trees as a whole was in one
instance very interestingly shown by the fact that a middle-aged
Douglas fir increased the radial dimensions of its annual rings after
the removal by the wind of an immense broom located midway on
the trunk. The weight of the brooms on some conifers is very often
greatly increased by the accumulation of dead needles, lichens, etc.
(fig. 14). When loaded with snow or saturated with moisture the
brooms are more
easily broken off by
high winds. The
ground around the
base of heavily in-
fected larches is very
frequently littered
with brooms broken
off in this manner,
often insuring the
death of the tree in
case of ground fires.
During the early
part of October,
1914, an unusually
heavy fall of soft
snow occurred locally
over a small area
around Missoula,
Mont. The snow ac-
cumulated in such
quantities on the mis-
tletoe brooms of the
larches and Douglas
firs throughout the
area that the ground around the more heavily infected trees was piled
high with fallen brooms.
The foliage of old and mature mistletoe brooms is usually not
as long lived as that of normal branches of uninfected trees. This
is not true in the case of young well-nourished brooms. It has
been observed to any extent only in old brooms which have begun
to tax the food supply of the tree or the branch on which they are
located. In the course of one year it was determined that 655 more
needles fell from a small but mature broom on a Douglas fir than
from a normal branch of a neighboring uninfected tree of the same
species. The number of needles falling from the broom totaled
24182*— BuU. 300—16 3
Fig. 15. — Fallen brooms split from the trunk of a Douglas
flr and piled about the base of the tree — a serious fire
menace.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
18 BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
976, from the branch 321. On very old brooms of the western larch
it is often noticed that the needles begin to turn yellow some time
before those on the branches of miinfected trees. Exactly the re-
verse may occur in the case of recently formed brooms, owing to
the larger amount of newly stored food materials in the swelling
on the main branch and the branches of the brooms. That the
broom may be the cause of a great localization of food substances
is indicated by the fact that in heavily infected Douglas fir and
larch the last part of the tree to succumb is usually the smaller and
younger brooms of the tree. Frequently trees of these species are
noticed with only a single small broom living, the rest of the branches
being apparently dead ; likewise the old and exhausted brooms- The
increase in the number of needles on the broom due to the multi-
plication of its branches is usually at the expense of the needle de-
velopment on the normal parts of the tree. For this reason an
excess of food materials for the tree as a whole does not take place.
The foliage beyond the broom becomes thin and, in most cases,
the end of the branch dies (figs. 12 and 14). The food materials
are entirely stored and appropriated by the broom itself. The
phenomenon is analogous to the formation of spiketop of the main
trunk.
That brooms do not always necessarily mean an increase in foliar
surface for the host, since we have seen that parts of the branches
not supporting brooms frequently die, is shown by a comparison of
the needles of old brooms with those of normal branches either of
the same tree or of uninfected trees. Such a study was made in the
case of the Douglas fir. It was found that the needles of the brooms
on the trees studied were uniformly a little less than one-half as long
as the leaves of the normal branches (PI. IV, fig. 1). Neither were
they as thick or as broad. By compensation it would be possible to
determine approximately the actual foliar surface of a given broom
and compare it with that of a given normal branch of the same
whorl and of the same age. This difference in the size of the needles
was found to hold good only in thecaseof old, mature brooms of trees
which were beginning to be suppressed. Young brooms, especially
on young trees from 10 to 20 years old, often have abnormally long
needles on the still upright branches, but this condition is not long
maintained. Soon these branches begin to droop, the broom be-
comes denser, the needles disappear from the center outward, and
they are often sparingly distributed along the stems but more densely
assembled on the last few years' growth (fig. 13). With continued
suppression of the Douglas fir and exhaustion of the broom, a new
type of branching often appears. The long trailing, weeping- willow-
like branches cease to elongate and the cortical stroma of the parasite
is enabled to catch up with the terminal bud and kill it. The branch
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS.
19
ceases to grow in length and instead forms abnormally abundant
lateral branches. The terminal buds of these are likewise overtaken
by the parasite, resulting in additional lateral branches, and so on,
until a type of dichotomous branching results. This is more notice-
able in the compact type of broom than in the long, trailing type, but
is quite common in both, especially on exposed and wind-swept areas.
A very interesting hypertrophy of the foliage spurs is often
shown by the brooms
of the larch. The
spurs are frequently
abnormally large
and may be four or
five times as long as
those of normal
branches (fig. 16).
On such spurs the
needles are usually
shorter and spar-
ingly clustered.
Eventually the para-
site enters the spur
and kills it. Not in-
frequently a mistle-
toe plant is found
growing out at the
apex of the spur or
from its side, caus-
ing great distortion
and the total disap-
pearance of the nee-
dles, and eventually
the death of the spur.
The reduction of Fio. IC— Abnormal foliar spurs of the western larch caused
foliage bv the thin- ^^ Rasoumofakya laricis. Note their size as compared
^ ^ with normal spurs.
nmg and shortenmg
of the needles of the trees as a whole, and of the brooms sooner or
later, is characteristic of mistletoe infection on all hosts.
The food material, which undoubtedly is accumulated in the
brooms, seems to be entirely appropriated at these points and does
not serve the host as a whole. The support of the excessive number
of branches is necessary, but the parasite itself undoubtedly appro-
priates a large share at the expense of the healthy branches. The
yellow-pine mistletoe has been observed to become more luxuriant
and to develop abnormally long stems on swellings which had been
lacerated or gnawed by rodents. Evidently the accumulation of
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
20
BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
extra food materials in the healing tissues at this point exercised a
beneficial influence on the parasite.
The actual nutritive relation between these parasites and their
hosts is not at present well understood. The constant removal of
all the needles of six lodgepole pines 8 to 12 years old on which
large clumps of mistletoe were attached has not in the second year of
the experiment resulted in the death of either the host or parasite.
The controls, viz, six young pines of the same age, stripped of their
needles but bearing no mistletoe plants, have died. This experi-
ment indicates a possible transfer between the host and parasite not
only of water and inorganic salts, but of or-
ganic food materials as well. However it
may be interpreted, it seems that the pines
were kept alive temporarily by the mistletoe.
Probably it is a mutual subsistence on stored
materials. It must be remembered that the
whole tendency of the activities of these mis-
tletoes {Razoumofakya spp.) is to reduce the
life functions of the host to their lowest
point, and this is the fact that should be of
chief concern to the forester.
RESULT OF INFECTION ON THE TRUNK.
Another form of mistletoe injury results
when infections occur during the early life
of the tree, with the formation of burls on
the trunk. No case is on record of any mem-
ber of the genus Kazoumofskya effecting an
entrance to its host through the mature cor-
tex. If apparently recent infections on old
parts of trees are carefully examined, the
mistletoe plant will be found to have per-
sisted from the time when the branch or
trunk was young. Until it is proved by
actual inoculation that the parasite is able to penetrate the mature
cortex with its outside covering, commonly called the bark, the fore-
going statements must remain valid.
Burls on the trunk caused by mistletoe are very common for
some hosts, but vary in frequency on others. In point of frequency
the western larch is most seriously affected by this kind of injury.
Two types of burls occur on this tree, determined by the nature of
the original infection. If the infection occurs at the base of a
branch (fig. 11) and travels to the main trunk, a basal branch burl
results, giving rise to a broom, which later dies, leaving a great burl,
often of large proportions. If infection occurs directly on the main
tiunk the beginning of a trunk burl is immediately initiated. With
Fig. 17. — Area on the main
trunk of a yellow pine
infected by Razoumofakya
campylopoda. The rough.
Irregular bark Indicates the
location of the burl tis-
sues. A few short mlstie-
toe plants not visible in
the Illustration were pres-
ent.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS. 21
the increasing age of the host the burl tissues radiate outward in a
fan-shaped area when viewed in cross section and soon leave an open
wound, through the death of the central part of the infected wood.
These two types of burl are so common on larch in mistletoe regions
that the quality of the wood is seriously injured, resulting in a
large amount of cull. In the several regions studied by the writer
mistletoe burls on yellow pine are frequent. In one section of the
city park at Coeur d'Alene, Idaho, are 30 or 40 large, old yellow
pines. About half of the trees have mistletoe burls on the first
Fig. 18. — Cross section of a mistletoe burl on tlie yellow pine shown in figure 17.
(The tape shows feet in tenths.)
log length and in most cases the parasite is still living in them,
with a few scattering short aerial parts. Similar conditions pre-
vail throughout the Spokane Biver Valley and around Coeur d'Alene
Lake. Mistletoe burls on old yellow pine may or may not be con-
spicuous. Frequently there is no pronounced swelling (fig. 17) and
sometimes the only means of detecting the diseased condition is by
ihe presence of the mistletoe or an unusual roughness of the bark.
A section through the tree at this point, however, shows the curly
grain .and the old roots of the parasite extending to the point of
original infection (fig. 18). These burls are often very conspicu-
uigiiizea oy vjv^v^jv iv^
22
BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ous, large barrel-shaped swellings, from which pitch usually exudes
in large quantities. Infection on one side of the tree generally re-
sults in the type of burl shown in
figure 19.
Burl formations resulting from
mistletoe are a common feature
Fig. 19, — Common type of burl on yellow
pine caused by Razoumofakya campylo-
poda. The tree is 3 feet in diameter at
tills point.
on western hemlock wherever the
parasite occurs in quantity. The
same is true for the mountain
hemlock. In the Marble Creek
region of the St. Joe National
Forest mistletoe burls on the
hemlock are of frequent occur-
rence. Allen (1, p. 20-21) writes
of this type of injury as follows:
"If, however, the plant gets
foothold on the leading shoot, a
burl follows which persists
throughout the life of the tree
and not only ruins a log, but ren-
ders the tree apt to be broken by
the wind." Infection on the main
trunk of lodgepole pine is often
attended by long fusiform swell-
ings as the parasite progresses
from the original point of in-
fection. This mav continue until
Fig. 20. — Main stem of a lodgepole pine in-
fected by Razoumofskffa americana. Note
the spread of the parasite from the original
point of infection. The bark at this point
very frequently dies, lenTinj; an open wound.
(Photographed by George O. Iledgcock.)
the bark becomes so hard that the plants can not push up through
it and the spread of the parasite ceases (fig. 20). The parts
lOOgk
uigiiizea oy ''
MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS.
23
infected, however, may continue to produce aerial branches of the
mistletoe to a very advanced age. True mistletoe burls are probably
of less frequent occurrence on Douglas fir than on any other economic
tree species. Burls do occur, however, with sufficient frequency to be
characteristic of mistletoe infection on the trunk of this tree. Large
elongated mistletoe burls, including the entire circumference of the
trunk, occasionally occur in heavily infected trees in many parts
of Idaho and Montana (fig. 21). More frequently there is a series
Fio. 21. — Large mistletoe burl on Douglas fir
caused by Rasoumofskya douglasii. This
burl is approximately 10 feet long and 2
feet In diameter at its widest part
Fig. 22. — A Douglas flr, showing numer-
ous burls caused by Razoumofakya
dougUiaii, The branches are hearlly
broomed. A high degree of infection,
but a common condition, is shown.
of individual burls, more or less confluent, on one trunk (fig. 22),
each burl representing the seat of an old infection, from which the
aerial parts of the parasite have long since disappeared. Longitu-
dinal and cross sections through these burls show the characteristic
fan-shaped areas of infection (fig. 23). In numerous cases the burls
originate from infections at the base of branches. If the branch
dies or is broken off, an open wound is formed in the center of the
burl. Very peculiar swellings or small burls frequently occur on
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
24
BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the branches of brooms. These are sometimes so numerous as to
cause the branch to resemble a chain of spherical balls. Mistletoe
infection on the trunks of spruces in the East often results in the
formation of burls; also on the western fii-s. It can be safely stated
that swellings and distortions of the main trunk which persist
throughout the life of the tree are a characteristic feature of mistle-
toe infection on most conifers of economic importance.
The spread of the burl tissues tangentially and longitudinally,
which, as previously indicated, are frequently inhabited by the
FiQ. 23. — Cross section of one of the burls on the Douglas flr shown in figure 22, This
section does not pass through the point showing the age at which the infection first
occurred. (The tape shows feet in tenths.)
parasite until a very advanced age,^ results, as is the case with most
species, in cutting off the transporting tissues and hastens the de-
cline of the tree (figs. 20, 23, and 24). The bark and wood of the
^ Meinecke, in 1912 (9, p. 38), records the age of a mistletoe plant (PJutradendron
juniperinum lihocedri Engelm.) at approximately 230 years. Species of the genus Raxou-
mofskya are likewise capable of maintaining themselves to a Tory advanced age. One
Instance recorded by the writer may be cited of Razoumofskya campylopoda, A cross sec-
tion through a mistletoe burl of this species, 3 feet from the ground, on yellow pine — a po-
sition precluding any but an original infection at an age when the bark was thin — showed
that the parasite had continuously lived In the burl tissues for 340 years. The old roots,
now dead except those immediately next the cambium, could be readily traced to the point
of original Infection The age of the tree at this point was three years. The burl bore a
single fertile aerial branch of the mistletoe. The greater mass of the cortical stroma
was entirely without aerial parts, indicating the remarkable condition of parasitism first
pointed out by Melnecke for Phoradendron juniperinum libocedri.
Digiti
zed by Google
MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS.
25
outer central area of the burl die soon after the death of the cor-
tex, especially in burls on the larch, and open wounds are formed,
inviting the attack of forest-tree insects and wood-destroying fungi
(fig. 24). The abnormal thickness and the soft, spongy consistency
of the inner bark of mistletoe-infected branches are attractive to
various gnawing animals; they are also an index of the storage of
food materials at tliis point (fig. 25).
Fig. 24. — Cross section of a burl on a western larch caused by Razouniofskya laricis.
Diameter of burl, 2 feet. Note the presence of borers and fungi. The check ap-
peared in seasoning.
RELATION OF MISTLETOE INJURY TO FUNGOUS ATTACK.
Some very interesting data have recently been assembled by the
writer on the relation of mistletoe burls to fungous attack. From
cutting areas on the dry bench lands of northern Idaho, 540 mistle-
toe-infected living larches were examined. Out of 600 mistletoe
burls found on these trees, 278 were inhabited by serious wood-
destroying fungi and other unimportant species. According to
frequency of occurrence the most important of these fungi are
Tramjetes pirn (Brot.) Fr., Forties laricia (Jacq.) Murr., Polyporxis
8tUpkiireu8 Fr. (four occurrences at 20 feet up on the trunk, a very
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
26
BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE.
unusual habitat), Trametes seridlia Fr., and Lemitea sepiaria Fr.
Fames pinicola Fr. was found rotting the heartwood of living trees
in three different cases and had entered its host through mistletoe
burls 10 feet from the ground. Polyporus volvatus Pk. occurs fre-
quently on the burls of larch and yellow pine. Several species of
Thelephoraceae were collected from the mistletoe burls, chief of which
were Sterewm sulcatum Burt,
Corticium, herkeleyi Cooke,
C. galactinum (Fr.) Burt,
and Peniophora suhsul-
phurea (Karst) Burt. Ceror
tostomsUa pUifera (Fr.)
Wint., the bluing fungus,
appeared occasionally in the
dead wood of the burls.
Trametes pirn affected 80
per cent of all burls attacked
by fungi. Since the most
advanced stages of decay
were always at the burl or in
its near vicinity, it was as-
sumed that the fungi had en-
tered at this point. The de-
cay at or in the burl tissues
was in most cases not con-
nected with the decay which
is often present in other
parts of the trunk. The
breakage of old branches
possessing heartwood,
through the accumulation of
brooms at their outer ex-
tremities, is likewise a means
of fungi entering the tree.
Not infrequently F omes
larids enters its host by this
means. Mistletoe burls on Douglas fir are known to become infected
with Trametes pinL A mistletoe burl on Alpine fir was found to be
inhabited in one instance by Pholiota adiposa Fr. Meinecke (10, p.
58) refers to the mistletoe cankers of Ahies concolor as offering an
easy entrance to germinating spores of EchinodontiuTn tinctoriuiru
Burls on yellow pine, owing to their resinous condition, are seldom
attacked by wood-destroying fungi. The bluing fungus, however,
has been found by the writer in the distorted tissues of mistletoe
burls on living yellow pine.
Fig. 25. — The soft spongy cortex of a mistletoe
infection on lodgepole pine gnawed by rodents.
This is a very common type of injury In mistle-
toe-infected trees.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS. 27
GENERAL SUPPRESSION AND FUNGOUS ATTACK.
Aside from the fact that fungous enemies enter these conifers
through broken branches, lesions, and burls caused by mistletoe,
heavily infected trees are, owing to their weakened condition, more
susceptible to fungous attack on any part — roots, trunks, or leaves.
In the lake region of Idaho the larch of all ages and conditions is
at present suffering from an epidemic of a needle disease, Hypoder-
meUa larids Tub. It is observed that in practically every instance
the needles of very old mistletoe brooms are first attacked, whereas
those of the uninfected trees of particular age classes or exposures
may ward it off for a longer period.^ It is a common observation
that in regions of heavy mistletoe infection (and nowhere is it better
shown than in the forests of eastern and central Oregon and many
parts of Idaho and Montana) many heavily infected trees are in
a dead and dying condition. If these trees are carefully examined
with reference to average healthy growth for the region, it will be
found that they have died prematurely.
It has already been indicated that mistletoe is capable of causing
the death of its host in some instances. The whole tendency of the
parasite is to reduce the life fimctions of its host to the lowest point,
and if death does not result from this cause alone the way is opened
to various secondary agents, which may or may not attack vigorously
growing trees. The gradual thinning out of the foliage of heavily
infected trees and the appropriation by the brooms of much of the
elaborated food materials must necessarily result in an unbalanced
relation between the crown and the root system. Consequently, there
may be a dearth of food materials for the latter, wholly inadequate
to support its present extent It may be naturally inferred that this
results in the suppression of the roots or a dying off of the more
extended members of the system. A close examination of a hundred
or more windfalls of heavily infected Douglas fir, yellow pine, and
larch in the regions above mentioned shows quite clearly that the
horizontal and brace roots of these trees in most cases were badly
decayed. Since few windfalls of the heavily uninfected trees of
the same average age and size were observed in the same region,
it may be inferred that a possible relation existed between the sup-
pressing effects of the mistletoe and the decay in the roots. Anml'
laria meUea (Vahl.) Qu61. was definitely associated with some of
the decay in the roots. In most cases, however, owing to the absence
of fruiting stages, the cause of the rot in the fallen trees could not
be determined.
^ Hypodermella laricis was first named and described by Von Tubcuf on the European
larch {TAirix europaea). This Is the first note of Its occurrence In North America. The
fongos, characterized by its four clavate spores to nn ascus, is very destructive and Is the
caose of considerable damage in the larch forests of the northwestern United States and
Canada.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
28 BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
It is a well-known fact that wounds heal quickly in young or in
strongly growing trees, principally due to the protection afforded by
an abundant flow of resin. It may be assumed that trees having their
life functions brought to a low ebb by excessive mistletoe infections,
with resulting decrease in annual increment, will not be able to heal
or protect their wounds as quickly as normal trees ; hence, are more
liable to infection. This may be one of the reasons why so many
open burls are formed on infected larches. These open burls are
seldom, if ever, healed, although the parasite in its tissues has long
since died. There is a slight increase in the number of resin passages
in early burl formations, but this is entirely offset by the early dying
out of the bark of the burl exposing the wood. It is an observed fact,
experimentally proved by the writer, that strongly suppressed yellow
pine, larch, and Douglas fir do not as readily form traumatic wood
or exude the normal quantity of resin on being wounded on any part
as do normal, healthy trees. Such a tardy reaction to injury does not
afford a ready antisepsis against the entrance of fungi which may
attack these trees. Since turpentine orcharding is becoming more
extensively practiced in the West it would be an interesting experi-
ment to determine the relative flow of pitch from trees strongly sup-
pressed by mistletoe and from those in a high state of health.
RELATION OF MISTLETOE INJURY TO INSECTS.
In the same manner that burls and other types of mistletoe injury
on some conifers are open doors to fungi, they are foimd to afford
a ready means of entrance for some species of forest-tree insects
which do not in this region habitually attack vigorous unwounded
trees. Old mistletoe burls on larches are almost invariably attacked
by borers (figs. 23 and 24), and burls on yellow pine are, in the ex-
perience of the writer, quite as frequently infested by bark and wood
boring beetles. In this connection a very curious and interesting phe-
nomenon often occurs on young yellow pines from 10 to 20 years
of age. An infection by mistletoe will have occurred, completely
enveloping the trunk some 2 or 3 feet from the groimd. The parasite
having advanced somewhat each way from the point of original
infection, the intervening space is attacked by Dendroctonus valens
Lee. The combined influence of the beetle and mistletoe results in the
complete infiltration with resin of the space between the two edges
of the advancing mistletoe, so that the cambium dries out and dies.
Strange to state, this does not always kill the tree. The crown goes
on manufacturing food materials, being supplied with water through
the inner wood of the girdled area. The elaborated food not being
able to travel downward, since the cambial tissues of the entire cir-
cumference of the stem have been destroyed, is stored just above the
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS.
29
girdled area and initiates an abnormal swelling (fig. 26). The swell-
ing continues to increase in size and weight, likewise all members of
the crown, so that eventually the slender stem below can no longer
support the overdeveloped crown and is broken down by the wind.
A specimen in the laboratory shows the number of rings of the stem
at the girdled area at the time it was cut to be eight, with a diameter
of 1 inch. The swelling just above and within the same intemode
showed 15 rings, with a diameter of 3 inches. The same phenomenon
is sometimes produced in yel-
low pine by Periderndum, fXa-
mentosum Pk. When it is re-
called that the cambium and
the outer wood of the girdled
area are actually dead, the
length of time the crown con-
tinues alive is really remark-
able.
In point of general insect at-
tack it has been noted that the
beginning of an infestation
may start with trees badly
suppressed by mistletoe. The
fact that trees heavily sup-
pressed by mistletoe have a
weak flow of sap causes them
to be first selected by certain
forest-tree insects. For this
reason mistletoe areas form
centers from which infesta-
tions may spread. Again, nu-
merous infestations may start
simultaneously over a wide
territory, owing to the weak-
ening of the trees by these par-
asites instead of from a few
detached areas, as is often the
case. This has been f oimd par-
ticularly true in the case of yellow pine and the red turpentine beetle
mentioned above. In all regions of heavy mistletoe infection of the
Douglas fir, Dendroctonus pseudotsuga Hopk. is usually very abun-
dant. This was the rule in the Whitman National Forest, Oreg., and
though the numerous dead trees of this species in the forest were
undoubtedly the result of an immediate attack by the beetles, their
^ork was hastened, it seemed, by the serious mistletoe suppression
which was exhibited by most of the dead trees. During the season
Fio. 26. — A young yellow pine, showing com-
plete girdling of the stem by a combined at-
tack of mistletoe and insects. The cambium
Is destroyed, but the crown remains alive and
continues to elaborate food materials, which
are stored just aboye the girdled area.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
so
BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
of 1914, a large number of badly suppressed Douglas firs on the foot-
hills bordermg the Clark Fork (Missoula River) Valley have died
from a combined attack of mistletoe and beetles. Most of these trees,
which supported scarcely a single normal branch, had the bark of
limbs and trunk almost entirely removed by woodpeckers in their
search for the beetle before the leaves were entirely dead. The few
uninfected Douglas firs of the same region have not been attacked by
the beetles.
The branches of large mistletoe brooms on yellow pine and Doug-
las fir from which the parasite has entirely disappeared are very
Fig. 27. — Seats of original mistletoe infection on two living branches (in center and at
left) of mistletoe brooms on yellow pine infested with bark beetles. No other part of
the broom or tree was attacked. Main stem of young living yellow pine (at right)
attacked by bark beetles at the seat of nn old mistletoe Infection.
frequently found infested with bark beetles (fig. 27), while the trunk
and normal branches of the trees are entirely free from attack.
INFLUENCE OF MISTLETOE INJURY ON THE SEED PRODUCTION
OF THE HOST.
Germination tests of seeds of yellow pine taken from mistletoe-
infected trees show that the percentage of germination is consid-
erably lower than is the case with seeds taken from normal trees
(12, p. 7). Experiments conducted by the writer with seeds taken
from cones produced on very old mistletoe brooms of Douglas fir,
larch, and lodgepole pine showed a germination on an average of
10 per cent below that of seed taken from uninfected branches of
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS. 31
the same trees. Given the general average percentages of germina-
tion of 30 for the former and 40 for the latter, it seems that either
from exhaustion of stored materials or tendencies toward abnormal
seed production in general the uninfected branch, though suppressed,
is still capable of producing a higher quality of seed than the broom.
Whether this would be true in the case of young, vigorous brooms
is doubtful. Seeds from the uninfected branches of the same
strongly suppressed trees used in the above experiment gave a gen-
eral average of 15 per cent below that of seeds taken from vigorous
uninfected trees of the same age, species, and habitat. The per-
centage of 65 for the iminf ected and 40 for the infected shows quite
clearly that suppression by mistletoe causes a serious falling off in
the quality of the seed of its host.
The experiment was conducted in the following manner. Col-
lections of cones were made from each of five strongly suppressed
and five uninfected trees of all three species. This included one col-
lection from the brooms, one from the uninfected branches of each
of the suppressed, and one collection from each of the uninfected
trees; in all, 45 different collections. One hundred seeds were ex-
tracted from ieach collection and germinated in sand at an average
temperature of 35® C. Counts were made at different intervals dur-
ing the progress of the test, which was continued for 90 days. Con-
siderable difficulty was experienced in procuring the required num-
ber of seeds for all conditions, owing to the sterility of the cones
on the old brooms. With the increasing age of the broom the seed
production falls off, until, as it is with most species, no cones are
produced at all. Seeds from recently formed brooms were not tested.
It is supposed that they would show a higher percentage of germi-
nation. The cones on badly suppressed trees are very often aborted,
with shriveled, undeveloped sporophylls, and are frequently infested
by cone beetles and cone worms. Seeds, if produced in such cones,
are usually below the normal size. A study of microtome sections
of the staminate flowers from heavily infected lodgepole pine showed
that there was a reduction in the number of pollen mother cells. The
staminate flowers when compared with those of normal trees of the
same age and condition were found to be uniformly smaller. The
sporophylls on the more fertile or convex side of the young pistil-
late cones very frequently bore only one ovule (megasporangium),
a condition not observed in cones from healthy trees.
HOST AFFINITIES IN RELATION TO SILVICULTURE.
For practical purposes the following statements on the host re-
quirements of the mistletoes of coniferous trees will be found to
be of some interest with regard to the silvicultural management of
forests.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
32 BULLETIN ZeO, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Razowmofskya douglasu (Engelm.) Kuntze is of economic impor-
tance only on the Douglas fir. The afiinities of the very small and rare
forms of Razoumofskya on spruce and fir,^ described by Engelmann
(6, p. 253) under the name of ArcettthoMum douglasn var. micrch
carpv/m for the former host and A. dougl/mi var. abietinwnv (3, v. 2, p.
106) for the latter, are not definitely established. In point of time of
blooming and seed maturity, it coincides with that of Razoumofskya
douglasii for northern regions, and their form and color are quite
similar, especially the color of the staminate flowers. These small
plants, together with the Douglas fir mistletoe, are the only mem-
bers of the genus exhibiting a pronounced color of the lobes, which
are a bright, deep purple. Until cross-inoculation experiments are
perfected, these particularly small mistletoes on spruce and fir may
be considered wholly unimportant from a silvicultural standpoint
For the sake of convenience, they may be placed with the Douglas
fir mistletoe and the whole designated as the PseudotsugorAhies-
Picea group, characterized by their small size and colored flowers.
Razoumofskya larids Piper, the most universally distributed and
probably the most injurious of the entire genus, is associated with
the western larch. This species in a single instance has been col-
lected by the writer on lodgepole pine near Missoula, Mont. It is
a significant fact that this infection is not vigorous and appears to
be dying out. /?. aTnericana (Nutt.) Kuntze is more strictly asso-
ciated with the lodgepole pine, but is the cause of serious damage to
the jack pine {Pinus hanksiana) where these two species approach
each other in Canada. R. tsugensis Eosend., as far as observations
in the field have gone, is confined to the hemlocks.
The remaining species of importance may be divided into two main
groups, a fact that has not been heretofore set forth, viz, those associ-
ated with the soft or white pines and those attacking the hard yellow
pines. It seems that the members of one group are not in a single in-
stance associated with the hosts of the opposite group. The former
group includes the following species and hosts : Razoumofskya divaH-
cata (Engelm.) Co^'ille on the nut or piiion pines, P, edvlis and P.
monophylla (6,p.253) ; R. eyanocaj*pa A.^els. on P. fleadUs (4, p. 146),
P, albicauliSj and P, monti-cola. Pinu9 morUicola has not been previ-
ously reported as a host for these parasites. Pinus strohiformis^ the
Mexican white pine, is reported (11, p. 65) as the only host of R. blur-
meri (A. Nels.) Standley. The second group may be included by the
two- form species: R, campylopoda (Engelm.) Piper and R. crypto-
poda ( Engelm. ) Coville. The former is principally injurious to Pinus
ponderosa^ but is common on P, attenuata (7, p. 366; 13) and P.
Jeffrey i (10, p. 38). The latter is likewise an injurious parasite on
^Ahie% concolor is also host for Phoradendron holleanum (Seem.) Eichl. (5, p. 193).
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MISTLETOE INJUBY TO CONIPEBS. 33
P. ponderoscu, but occurs on P. jeffreyi (5, p. 192), P. oHzomca (2,
p. 243), and P. mayriana (2, p. 243). R. ca/mpylopoda has recently
been collected by the writer near Coeur d'Alene, Idaho, on P. contortcu
Sparingly distributed throughout the Northwest are some large forms
of Razoumofskya on Abies. Plants collected by the writer on Ahiea
grandis and A, concolor are apparently the same as that described by
Engelmann (3, v. 2, p. 106) on the former host under the name
Arcev^hohium oecidentale var. abietinum. Although it would prob-
ably be better on morphological grounds to refer this form to
R. campylopoda (Engelm.) Piper, as Engelmann's Arcetithobiu/m
oecidentale is now named, owing to its seeming dose affinity to
the genus Abies and the absence of cross-inoculation data it could
well be raised to specific rank. These mistletoes in point of mor-
phology are in great contrast with the small forms on Abies previ-
ously mentioned. They may be considered typical of a group of
large forms occurring only on Abies.
From the foregoing, it seems i>ossible that the members of the genus
Bazoumofskya may be arranged in a series of natural groups accord-
ing to their host relationships. It is also interesting to note that the
largest, the longest lived (both cortical and aerial parts), and the
most strictly parasitic forms are associated with the hard or yellow
pines. These pines exhibit anatomically a high differentiation. This
may throw some light on the nutrient relation of some mistletoes
to their hosts; also their family peculiarities.
SUGGESTIONS FOR CONTROL.
It is clear from the foregoing pages that the damage to forest
growth by the mistletoes of coniferous trees in the Northwest is of
sufficient importance to receive the attention of every forester. Steps
should be taken in all logging operations, where local problems of
economy do not interfere, to make a beginning of the eradication of
mistletoe by marking every infected tree for cutting. In some cases it
would seem advisable to introduce into the contract a special clause
dealing wholly with mistletoe-infected trees. The most injurious of
the mistletoes of the genus Razoumofskya on coniferous trees, as indi-
cated, are in the main confined to their own particular hosts or to spe-
cial groups; hence, it is not adrisable to establish in mistletoe regions
pure stands of a species much subject to attack. In this respect the
problem of the control of mistletoe is similar to that of forest-tree
fungi. Mistletoes being light-loving plants, close stands should be
maintained as much as possible on all exposed parts of the forest.
For the same reason rims of canyons and all exposed areas, such as
the borders of bench lands, natural parks, shores of lakeS; etc., should
be protected with species which are not usually subject to the ravages
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
34 BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPAETMENT OF AGEICXJLTUEE.
of mistletoes ( PI. IV, fig. 2 ) . In this class would fall the firs, spruces,
arbor vitaes, cedars, junipers, and yews. If this can not be done,
owing to certain requirements by these species on soil and climate, the
stand should be composed of as many different species as possible.
Aside from reasons already set forth, isolated seed trees heavily
or even slightly infected by mistletoe should not be retained. The
vigor of the parasite on the parent tree will become greater, owing
to its response to open and well-lighted conditions. Reproduction
under the tree and in its near vicinity, if of the same species, will
readily become infected. The same will be true of seed plats. The
force developed within the mature seed capsule of these mistletoes
and exerted in the expulsion of the seed is a factor of great signifi-
cance for the spread of the parasite. It has been demonstrated in
the case of one species that this force is sufficient, starting at an
elevation of 8 feet on the level, to carry the seed a distance of over
66 feet. In addition to the forcible expulsion of its seeds by the
parasite, strong wind is an important factor in seed dissemination.
In one instance seeds of the larch mistletoe were collected in number
from the roof of a cabin one-fourth of a mile away from the nearest
infected tree. This is not at all extraordinary, in view of the fact
that the larches of the region are very tall and are heavily infected
in the crown. Also strong winds are frequent during the period of
seed maturity. Birds and animals play a minor role in the distri-
bution of the seeds of these mistletoes.^ In the present instance,
however, the seeds adhered to the substratum in the usual and nor-
mal manner and could not have been transported in such numbers
by any other means than strong wind.
In view of the fact that strong air currents are factors in the dis-
semination of the seeds, some consideration should be given to the
topography and prevailing winds of a region where mistletoe
abounds, as influencing the selection of seed plats (if such methods
are employed), the placing of strip cuttings, and even of nursery
and transplant beds. On a previous page, the tender age at which
coniferous seedlings are liable to infection by mistletoe is indicated,
so that the above statement regarding nursery sites is not merely a
conjecture. Since considerable time elapses between the actual
penetration of the primary sinker and the time the infection becomes
conspicuous, three years in some instances, it is quite possible for
* In Bulletin 317 of the U. 8. Department of Agriculture, page 24, the writer pub-
lished a footnote on the rAle of birds and animals In the distribution of the seeds of these
mistletoes. Since this publication was issued additional observations show that the seeds
are probably more widely distributed by this means than was formerly believed. A rumor
has been long extant that grouse feed upon the mistletoes. This has recently been yerlfled
by the writer by finding in the crop of a grouse the mature seeds and plants of the
Douglas fir and larch mistletoes. Mr. Donald Morrison, an old, experienced hunter resid-
ing in the mountains near Missoula, states that grouse in the late fall, with the coming
of the winter snows, make a practice of congregating in the dense houselike brooms of
the Douglas fir mistletoe. Mr. Morrison states quite positively that these birds feed upon
the plants and mature seeds of these parasites when other forms of food become scarce.
Digiti
zed by Google
MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS. 35
Toung infections on nursery stock to escape detection. Accordingly,
young infected seedlings may become a means of distributing and
establishing the parasite in plantations generally, not only locally
but to far distant regions, when growing stock is shipped either for
experimental purposes or for permanent plantings. That this is
possible is shown by the discovery in the planting areas near Wal-
lace, Idaho (Coeur d'Alene National Forest), of a yellow-pine
seedling showing a very recent infection of mistletoe. Since the
plantings were made on a widely denuded area and no yellow-pine
mistletoe is as yet known to occur in the immediate region, it seems
that the seedling must have become infected while at the home
nursery at Boulder, Mont, where this mistletoe occurs. In view of
the fact that there is a very grave danger of transporting agents
injurious to forest growth, either fungous diseases or mistletoe, by
sending nursery stock to distant parts of the country, the need of
strict sanitation in the neighborhood of forest-tree nurseries can not
be overemphasized. Whenever new nursery sites are planned in or
near forests, a close pathological survey should be made of the
surroundings, and trees diseased or suppressed from any cause what-
ever should be cut out. This should be done also where nurseries
are already established.
The influence of the physical type on the severity of attack should
receive considerable attention in any plan of management of forests
in mistletoe regions. Forest Assistant Gilkey, in a report on the
western larch of the Whitman National Forest, states that " a total
of several hundred trees in various parts of the forest shows 79 per
cent of the larch to be attacked on the dry-slope type, with only 27
per cent on the more moist sites." The writer's own investigation in
the same forest shows an even greater difference between the moist-
valley type and the more exposed slopes, which was 87 per cent for
the latter and 15 per cent for the former. The severity of the infec-
tion on yellow pine and Douglas fir in other regions likewise shows
wide extremes as influenced by elevation and exposure. Mr. E. E.
Hubert, of the Laboratory of Forest Pathology, reports from ex-
tensive observations during a reconnoissance of the lodgepole pine
in the Big Hole Valley, Mont., that the most favorable sites for
mistletoe are exposed dry ridges and south slopes, where the infec-
tion ranges from 50 to 70 per cent of the stand. In the valley type
the percentage of infection was much lower.
In view of the fact that all economic species so far observed are
subject to attack at any age, it is hardly possible to establish an age
at which infection becomes so serious as to interfere with the mer-
chantability of the host. In regions of heavy mistletoe infection it
would be quite impossible, for the reason that there is a much greater
chance for all age classes to become infected. In numerous in-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
36 BULLETIN 3eO, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
stances, however, it is noted that in some regions Douglas fir, larch,
and lodgepole pine first become conspicuously infected at sapling or
pole size ; that is, it has required several years for earlier infections
to become prominent In any case, the matter turns on the time of
life at which a tree becomes infected. If seriously infected before
pole size is reached, the whole tree will in all probability be a cull
and a menace to the forest. If infected during or after pole age, the
tree may furnish some merchantable material, but will mature far in
advance of uninfected trees of the region. Trees infected during
early maturity may not be seriously influenced by the parasite ex-
cept that their life fimctions may be slightly changed by brooming
and breakage of branches, thus hastening the period of decline.
Cutting old and suppressed mistletoe trees is, of course, a saving in
several ways, not only to the future forest, but it is getting the best
out of a rapidly declining forest capital. Their destruction, how-
ever, does not mean that a great advance is being made in eradicating
the mistletoe from the region. It simply lessens the chance of infec-
tion for a time. Cutting the old and merchantable infected trees and
leaving the younger unmerchantable but infected growth will not
answer the purpose of control in regions of heavy infection. Very
frequently the removal of only the more merchantable mistletoe
trees causes the parasite on the trees that are left to develop more
vigorously. Nimierous observations show that infected trees of
various ages succumb very rapidly to the parasite after a certain
percentage of the stand has been cut out. For this reason marking
the most seriously infected trees for cutting, with the prospect of
the least infected reaching a normal maturity or a state of high mer-
chantability, should in many regions be discontinued. The only
plan left, then, in many regional units of infection is to practice
heavier marking than hitherto employed, or, better still, clean cut-
ting. It is believed that a close survey of the forests of each district
will result in the discovery that there are units or centers of great
infection either for one species of mistletoe or for different species.
Instances of great regional infection for the Northwest have al-
ready been indicated. Strange to say, in some cases these centers
of infection are quite sharply defined. It seems entirely possible
that if these regions were carefully studied and mapped as to the
possible environmental factors governing the vertical and horizontal
distribution of the parasite, much practical knowledge would re-
sult. If the region should be accessible, the sales policy could be
modified, with strong emphasis on the control of the mistletoe, and
the knowledge already gained from a detailed study of the region
should be available for future forest management. It must be re-
membered that the great injury now exhibited by forest growth is'
the accumulation of many years of unhindered activity by these
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MISTLETOE INJURY TO CONIFERS. 37
mistletoes. Through a proper appreciation of the need of adopting
amtrol measures in all sales areas where the percentage of infection
is high and in all replanting projects in mistletoe regions, with the
free-use privileges of mistletoed trees and the cutting of all infected
growth in the vicinity of forest-improvement stations, a good be-
ginning could be made toward the eradication or the lessening of
the ravages of these parasites.
SUMMARY.
The conifers in the Northwest most subject to injury by mistle-
toes of the genus Razoimiofskya are Larix occidentalism Pimis con^
iortcLf Paeudotsuga taxifolia^ and Pinus ponderoscu In the order
of the above-named hosts the mistletoes most responsible for the
greatest damage are Razoumofskya laricis^ R. americana^ R. doug-
lasii^ and R. campylopodd.
The general nature of the injury by these mistletoes is expressed
in a gradual reduction of the leaf surface of the host, which causes
a great reduction of growth in height and diameter.
New infections take place only through the agency of a germinat-
ing seed, which reaches the point of infection through the natural
expelling force of the seed capsule, which may be made more effec-
tive in point of distance traveled by the aid of strong winds, by
falling from branches above after they have been loosened from
their original resting place by rains, and by animal life.
Trees of all age classes are liable to infection provided the mistle-
toe seeds fall on parts of the host not yet protected by the mature
cortex. The parasite may spread from the original point of infec-
tion into older cortical tissues, which are not liable to infection
from without. The spread of the cortical stroma in the reverse
direction from th^ line of growth of the branch may continue until
the outer cortex becomes too thick for the aerial shoots to penetrate
it After this, the cortical roots become suppressed and eventually
die, or they may become wholly parasitic.
Excessive mistletoe infection of the lower branches of a tree may
cause the upper portion of the crown to die, giving rise to the phe-
nomenon commonly called staghead or spiketop. Severe infection
throughout the entire crown often results in the death of the tree.
Young seedlings from 3 to 6 years old are often killed within a com-
paratively short time after infection.
Infection on the branches in practically all cases causes the forma-
tion of large brooms, which seriously interfere with the life function
of the tree. The same is true in the case of infection on the trunk,
whereby burls are formed.
The weakening effect of the formation of burls and brooms by
mistletoe on forest trees is often responsible for serious depredations
by fungi and forest-tree insects.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
38 BULLETIN 360, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
In point of quality and quantity the seed-producing capacity of
trees suppressed by mistletoe is far below that of normal uninfected
trees.
Mistletoe can be controlled. It is suggested that a beginning ma '
be made in its eradication or in the reduction of the ravages causes
by these parasites by working along the lines indicated in the last
section of this bulletin.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
/J
iv LITERATURE CITED.
j.(l) Allen, E. T.
1902. Western hemlock. ^U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Forestry Bull. 33, 55 p.,
5 fig., 13 pi.
(2) Blumeb, J. C.
1910. Mistletoe in the Southwest In Plant World, v. 13, no. 10. p.
240-246.
(3) Bbeweb, W. H., and Watson, Sereno.
1876-1880. Botany. [Geological Survey of California.] 2 v. Cam-
bridge, Mass.
(4) Coulter, J. M.
[1909.] New Manual of Botany of the Central Rocky Mountains . . .
646 p. New York.
(5) CovnxE, P. V.
1893. Botany of the Death Valley expedition . . . /n Contrib. U. S.
Nat. Herb., v. 4, 363 p., 21 pi., 1 map.
(6) Engelmann, Geobge.
1887. Loranthacese. In Report upon United States Geographical Surveys
West of the One-Hundredth Meridian, v. 6, Botany, p. 251-254.
(7) Jepson, W. L.
1901. A Flora of Western Middle California. 625 p. Berkeley, Cal.
(8) MacDougal, D. T.
1899. Seed dissemination and distribution of Razoumofskya robusta
(Engelm.) Kuntze. In Minn. Bot. Studies, s. 2, pt. 2, p. 169-173,
1 fig., pi. 15-16.
Meinecke, E. p.
(9) 1912. Parasitism of Phoradendron Juniperinum libocedri Engelm. In
Proc. Soc. Amer. Foresters, v. 7, no. 1, p. 35-41, pi. 1-e.
(10) 1914. Forest tree diseases common in California and Nevada. 67 p.,
24 pi. Washington, D. C. Published by the U. S. Dept. Agr.,
Forest Service.
(11) Nelson, Aven.
1913. Contributions from the Rocky Mountain Herbarium. XIII. In
Bot. Gaz., V. 56, no. 1, p. 63-71.
(12) Pearson, G. A.
1912. The influence of age and condition of the tree upon seed produc-
tion in western yellow pine. U. S. Dept. Agr., Forest Serv. Cir.
196, 11 p.
(13) Pierce, G. J.
1905. The dissemination and germination of Arceuthobium occidentale
Eng. In Ann. Bot., v. 19, no. 73, p. 99-113, pi. 3-4.
» 39
O
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ADDITIONAL COPIES
or THIS PUBUCATION MAT BB PBOCURSD FBOM
THE SUPEBINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVEBNMENT PBINTINO OFTICB
VA8HINOTON, D. C.
AT
15 CENTS PER COPY
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
^/.J: ^^/
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 361
Condflwtioii ftom the BniMiii of Animal Indutiy
A. D. MELVIN, Chief
Washington, D. C.
PROFESSIONAL PAPER
June 29, 1916
COMPARISON OF THE BACTERUL COUNT OF MILK
WITH THE SEDIMENT OR DIRT TEST.
By H. C. Campbell, /
Expert in MUk Eygienej Pathological Division. f ., *
CONTENTS.
UdUtj of the sediment test.. .
Object of the work
Outline of experiment
Mefhod of collecting samples.
Details of the experiments
Page.
1
2
2
3
3
Details of the experiments— Continaed:
Comparisons with miflltered market milk ft
Comparisons with filtered mUk 5
Conclusions .' 6
Beferonoes to literature 6
UTILITY OP THE SEDIMENT TEST.
The sediment or dirt test has been used for some time as a means
of detecting visible dirt in milk. It was first applied in Europe to
grade the milk as it arrived at the milk-receiving stations. After
the milk had passed through the cotton disks they were cut in two,
one part being kept for reference and the other mailed to the pro-
ducer. In this manner it was foimd to be valuable in inducing the
farmer to produce cleaner milk.
During the past few years the sediment test has gained great favor
among milk inspectors in this country. They say it has been of great
value, as they can actually show the farmer when his milk is insanitary
and in this way better fix a standard of prices at the milk-receiving
stations. Until recently the grading of milk and cream at receiving
stations was based entirely upon such tests as those for per cent of
fat, acidity, odor, etc. No test was used whereby any information
could be gained regarding the sanitary conditions under which the
milk waai produced.
Since the discovery of the sediment or dirt test the grading or
judging of milk at receiving stations has been of two kinds, chemical
and hygienic. It has been the opinion of inspectors that when milk
contained sediment or dirt it was insanitary, but until the discovery
26062*— Bun. 361— 16
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
2 BULLETIN 361, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGBICULTURE.
of the sediment test they never had a means of quickly determining
the exact amoimt. It has also been a fact long and fairly well estab-
lished that milk containing sediment or visible dirt, such as manure,
hair, etc., was produced imder insanitary conditions, but when th^e
ingredients were not present in the milk no field inspector could
determine its purity.
Upon the adoption of the sediment test as a means of detecting
insanitary milk at the milk-receiving stations, the producers un-
doubtedly began to use methods calculated to remove the visible
dirt. Such methods have been resorted to as straining the milk
through cotton, cheesecloth, and Canton flannel to prevent the
detection of visible dirt at the station by the field inspector. These
methods have so changed the value of the sediment test as a means
of judging pure milk that when no sediment or visible dirt can be
detected it is often almost impossible to state whether the milk is
produced under sanitary conditions or not. In order to determine
whether the sediment test could be wholly rehed upon as a means
of detecting insanitary milk at milk-receiving stations, an experiment
was conducted with this purpose in view.
OBJECT OF THE WORK.
The object of this experiment was to prove whether milk contam-
ing little or no visible dirt, as often occurs when filtered through
certain substances by gravity, was free from a large nimaber of bac-
teria. It was decided that by comparing the bacterial count with
the sediment test (also when milk was filtered through various
utensils) certain information could be obtained regarding this point.
OUTIJNE OF EXPERIMENT.
Briefly, the experiment was conducted as follows:
Three of what we considered the most practical sediment-test
apparatuses were used, namely, the .Gerber, the Wizzard, and the
Lorenz. The Gerber apparatus was selected because it represents
a gravity method. The average length of time required for one
pint of milk to pass through the disk by this method was 15 minutes.
The Wizzard was selected as a pressure type which could be easily car-
ried for field work and attached to the milk bottle without removing
the milk. By this method the time required for the milk to pas>
through the disk was about two minutes; its disadvantage was that
when the pressure was applied there was no means of holding the
apparatus securely to the bottle. The Lorenz apparatus was se-
lected as a pressing type in which the milk is placed in the metal
tMmtainer and the pressure applied. The time reqidred by this
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digiti
zed by Google
Bui. 361, U. S. D*pt. of AgricuKura.
Plate I
Fia 1.— Cotton Disks Showing Four Degrees of Sediment from Milk.
FiQ. 2.— Comparison of Disks in Pairs Resulting from Three
Kinds of Sediment Tests.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BACTEKIAL COUNT OF MILK AND DIRT TEST. 3
method was also about two minutes, and we found it to be the most
satisfactory for field work.
Fifty samples of milk were collected on the railroad station plat-
fonn from milk cans as they arrived from various farmers throughout
the section. Upon arrival at the laboratory the temperature was
taken and a bacterial coimt made. After preparing plates each
sample was passed through one of Gerber's sediment tubes. The
sediment disks were kept and compared with the bacterial count.
A similar comparison was also made with the Wizzard and Lorenz
apparatuses, using 50 samples in each case.
After 50 sfi^nples had been tested with each apparatus, 20 samples
were filtered through 4 pieces of cheesecloth, 20 through one thick-
ness of absorbent cotton, and 20 through one of Canton flannel.
Each of these samples was then subjected to the sediment test and
a bacterial coimt made in each case; this was done to determine
the effect that straining the milk would have upon the test. We
abo made a comparison of the filtered samples with the bacterial
count after passing them through the cotton disks used in the Lorenz
apparatus.
The writer wishes to thank Dr. John R. Mohler, assistant chief of
the Bureau of Animal Industry; Dr. Louis A. Klein, dean of the
veterinary school, University of Pennsylvania; and Dr. C. J. Marshall,
State veterinarian of Pennsylvania, for many valuable suggestions
in the work.
METHOD OF COLLECTING SAMPLES.
The milk in the can was thoroughly shaken and 1 pint taken as a
sample. The sediment in this kind of sample would, in our opinion,
represent the amount of dirt contained in an ordinary bottle of milk.
A few inspectors believe that the sample should be collected from
the bottom of the cans before shaking, but it seems to us that this
may at times be unfair to the producer.
DETAILS OF THE EXPERIMENTS*
In our experiments the character and quantity of sediment upon
the cotton disks is represented by the words "good," "fair,'' "me-
dium," and "bad." (PI. I, fig. 1.) This gives four classifications,
which we considered suflicient for all practical purposes. These
classifications are illustrated in Plate I.
COMPABISONS WITH UNFIL'mED MABKET MILK.
Table 1 shows the laboratory results obtained by comparing the
bacterial count with the Gerber sediment test on 10 average samples
out of 50.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
4 BULLETIN 361, U. S. DEPAETMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Tablb 1. — Comparison oj bacterial count with Gerber sediment test {unfiltered market milk).
Sample No.
Bacteria
per cubic
centimeter.
1
Character ;
of sediment. '
Sample No.
Bacteria r\,»r^M»r
1
2,690,000
1,812,000
1,637,000
186,000
643,000
Fair.
Medium. |
Good. '
Bad.
Medium.
6
1,206,000
lOS.OOO
2 ■'3, 000
1,803,000
319,000
Fair.
2
7
Bad.
3
8
Good,
4
9
Fair.
6
10
Medium.
In these results it will be seen that some samples had a high bac-
terial count, yet tested ''good" or ''fair'' with the sediment test,
while others which had a low bacterial count tested "mediumV or
"bad.''
Plate I, figure 2 (upper), shows two of the samples — No. 7 and No. 1.
No. 7, having a large amoimt of sediment and classed as "bad," has
a low bacterial count, whUe the other, No. 1, is classed as "fair," and
has a high bacterial count.
Table 2 shows the tabulated results obtained by comparing the
bacterial count with the Wizzard sediment test on 10 average sam-
ples out of the 50.
Table 2. — Comparison of bacterial count with Wizzard sedim^ent test {unfiltered market
milk).
Sample No.
Bacteria
per cubic
centimeter.
Character
of sediment.
Bacteria
1 Sample No. per cubic
centimeter.
Character
ofsedlment.
1
2,131,000
622,000
1,391,000
812,000
377,000
Fair.
Good.
Do.
Bad.
Do.
1 i
6 246.000
Dad.
2
7
3,658,000
Fair.
3
8
4,102,000
2,688,000
243,000
Good
4
9
Fair.
5
10
Bad.
It will be seen here that a greater difference occurred than in the
preceding table.
Plate I, figiu'e 2 (middle) shows disk No. 8, classed as "good," con-
taming 4,102,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter, while disk No, 10,
classed as "bad," contained only 243,000 per cubic centimeter.
Table 3 shows the tabulated results obtained by comparing the
bacterial coimt with the Lorenz sediment test on 10 average samples
out of 50.
Table 3. — Comparison of bacterial coutu with Lorenz sedimeru test (unfiltered market
milk).
Sample No.
Bacteria
per cubic
centimeter.
Cliaracter
ofsedlment.
Sample No.
Bacteria
per cubic
centimeter.
Charactw
ofsedlment.
1
768,000
HOOO
63,000
67,000
34,000
Fair.
Good.
Bad.
Da
Do.
6
48,000
27,000
7,200
329,000
4d,000
Fair.
2
7
Do.
3
g
Do.
4
9
Do.
5
10
Good
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BACTEBIAL COUNT OF MILK AND DIBT TEST. 5
This table, like the others, shows considerable variations; No. 1,
which had a bacterial count of 768,000, tested *'.fair*' by the sediment
test, and No. 8, which has a count of 7,200, tested ''bad.*' These
disks are shown in Plate II Gower).
COMPABISONS WITH FILTERED MILK.
After comparing the bacterial count with the various sediment tests
of unfiltered market milk, it was decided to make a comparison after
the milk was filtered through such substances as are frequently used
as strainers by farmers to remove dirt. Twenty samples were filtered
through 4-ply cheesecloth and the Lorenz disks compared with the
bacterial count.
The table below shows the results obtained from 10 average samples
out of 20,- filtering through cheesecloth.
Table 4. — Comparison of bacterial count with Lorenz sediment test (milk filtered through
dieesecloth).
Sample No.
Bacteria
per cubic
oenUmeter.
Character
of sediment.
Sample No.
Bacteria
per cubic
centimeter.
of .sediment.
1
109,000
• 67,000
46,000
24.000
639,000
Good.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
6
33,000
84,000
83,000
54,000
316,000
Ck>od.
2
7
Do.
8
8
Da
4
9
Do.
5
10
Da
Twenty samples were filtered through one ply of Canton flannel
and the bacterial count compared with the Lorenz disks. Table 5
shows the results obtained from 10 average samples out of 20.
Table 5. — Comparison of bacterial count with Lorenz sediment test {milk filtered through
1-ply CaMon flannel).
Sample No.
Bacteria
per cubic
centimeter.
Character
of sediment.
Sample No.
Bacteria
per cubic
centimeter.
Character
of sediment.
1
78,000
31,000
41,000
108,000
18,000
Good.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
ft
19,400
316,000
129,000
149,000
119,000
Good.
2
7
Do.
3
g
Do.
4
9
Do.
b
10
Do.
Twenty samples were filtered through 1-ply ordinary absorbent
cotton, covered above and below with 1-ply cheesecloth. The Lorenz
disks were compared with the bacterial count, as in the preceding
table. Table 6 shows the results obtained from 10 average samples
out of 20.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
6 BULLETIN 3«1, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AQRICULTUEE.
Table 6. — Comparison of haetenal count with Lorem udimtnt test {milk filtered through
I'ply absorbent cotton and cheesecloth).
Sample No.
Bacteria
per cubic
centimeter.
1
Character
of sediment. ,
Sample No.
Bacteria
per cubic
centimeter.
Character
of sediment.
760,000
67,000
31,400
42,000
61,300
Oood.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
6
67,000
362,000
471,000
48,000
191,000
Good.
7
Do.
8
Do.
9
Do.
10
Do.
In every instance in which the milk was filtered throv^h any sub-
stances to remove visible dirt the disks were classed as good.
It would seem from the results shown in the last three tables that
if milk is strained before applying tiie sedim^it test the latter is of
little, if any, value in estimating visible dirt.
CONCLUSIONa
1. The writer considers the Lorenz apparatus the most convenient
and practical for demonstrating dirt in milk.
2. The quantity of sediment or visible dirt pres^it on the disk is no
criterion as to the kind or number of bacteria contained in the milk.
3. The various sediment tests are applicable only in roughly esti-
mating the quantity of sediment in imstrained milk, and can not be
used solely as a means of determining the hygenic conditions under
which it was produced.
4. If milk is strained through the substances mentioned, the sedi-
ment testers are of little value in estimating the degree of contami-
nation.
REFERENCES TO LITERATURE.
New and Improved Tests of Dairy Products. S. M. Babcockand B.H. Farrington,
Wisconsm Station Bulletin No. 196, pp. 3-13.
The Milk Sediment Test and Its Application. A. 0. Baer, Wisconflin Agdcultural
Experiment Station, Circular of Information No. 41.
Experiment with Fliegel's Apparatus for Determining Dirt in Milk. J. Klein,
Milchw. Centbl. 1. (1905), No. 7, pp. 305-307.
Comparison of Bacteria in Strained and Unstrained Samples of Milk. H. W. Conn
and W. A. Stocking, Storrs Agricultiual Experiment Station Bulletin, 1903-1905.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PUBUCATIONS OF U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE RELATING
TO BACTERIAL CONTENT OF MILK«
AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRmUTION.
A Bacteriological Study of Retail Ice Cream (Department Bulletin 303).
The Present Status of the Pasteurization of Milk (Department Bulletin 342).
Care of Food in the Home (Farmers' Bulletin 375).
The Care of Milk and its Use in the Home (Farmers' Bulletin 413).
Bacteria in Milk (Farmers' Bulletin 490).
Ploduction of Clean Milk (Fanners' Bulletin 602).
FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING
OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C
The Alcohol Test in Relation to Milk (Department Bulletin 202). Price, 5 cents.
Pasteurizing Milk in Bottles and Bottling Hot Milk Pasteurized in Bulk (Department
Bulletin 240). Price, 5 cents.
Relation of Bacteria to the Flavors of Cheddar Cheese (Bureau of Animal Industry
Bulletin 62). Price, 5 cents.
The Bacteria of Pasteurized and Unpasteurized Milk under Laboratory Conditions
(Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 73). Price, 5 cents.
The Milking Machine as a Factor in Dairying, Preliminary Report: 1, Practical Studies
of a Milking Machine; 2, Bacteriological Studies of a Milking Machine (Bureau of
Animal Industry Bulletin 92). Price, 15 cents.
The Bacteriology of Cheddar Cheese (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 150) . Price,
10 cents.
Methods of Classifying the Lactic-acid Bacteria (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin
154). Price, 5 cents.
A Study of the Bacteria Which Survive Pasteurization (Bureau of Animal Industry
Bulletin 161). Price, 10 cents.
Bacteria in Milk (Separate 444 from Yearbook 1907). Price, 5 cents.
7
ADDITIONAL COPIES
Of THIS PUBUCATION MAT BK PROCX7BED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OP DOCUMENTS
OOVKENMENT PRINTINO OPFICB
WASEXNOTON, D. C.
AT
5 CENTS PER COPY
WASHINGTON : OOVBRNMBNT PRINTING OFFICE : 1916
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
/?/.
3&Z
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 362
Contrlbatioii from the Office of Markets and Rural Organizaflon
CHARLES J. BRAND, Chief
Washington, D. C.
May 6, 1916
A SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS FOR
PRIMARY GRAIN ELEVATORS
By
JOHN R. HUMPHREY, Assistant in Market Busbess Practtce
and W. H. KERR, Investigator in Marlcet Buaness Practice
CONTENTS
Page
latrodaction , 1
Tjpea of Elevator Accoanting Systems . 2
Office Equipment 2
Taking an Inventory 3
Auditing the Books 3
Hedging . 4
laanraace of Elevators 4
Page
Descrlptloa of the Office of Markets and
Rural Organization Grain Elerator Ac-
counting System 4
Instructions for Operating the System . 8
Conclusion 19
Blank Forms Nob. 1 to 15, following . . 20
WASHINGTON
CKIVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
191S
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 362
CwCrilHitlon fkwa the OIBce or Markttto «Ml Raral OfSBBlntlmi
CHARLES J. BRAND. GUef
Washington, D. C. T May e» 1916
A SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS FOR PRIMARY GRAD^
ELEVATORS.
By John R. Humphrbt, AsnitaM in Market Business Practice, and W. H. Kbrb,
Investigator in Market Business Practice,
Page.
IntrodactkD 1
Types of elevator aocoontfng systems. 2
OfDoe eqaipment 2
Taktng en InTentory 3
Aodltiiig the books. 3
Hedstns. 4
iOfelevBtors 4
CONTENTS.
Page.
Descriptiosi of the Office of Markets and
Rural Organization grain elevator account-
ing system 4
Instructions for operating the system 8
Conclusion 19
Blank forms Nos. 1 to 15, foUowhig 20
INTBODUCnON.
The rapid growth of the business of primary grain elevators
has emphasized the importance of adequate accoxmting systems.
It has been realized that the adoption of a uniform system suffi-
ciently comprehensive to accommodate itself to the conditions pre-
vailing in the grain-producing States would be a step in advance.
This bulletin describes a grain elevator accounting system which
has been devised by the Office of Markets and Rural Organizations
and which is now being used by representative elevators in all of
the leading graiu-produciog States.
In drawing up the various forms comprising this system reference
has been made to many other systems now in operation. A first-
hand study of conditions existing in the elevator business has hke-
wise had a bearing on the final form of this system.
KoTK.— This bulletin is intended for all primary grain elevators throughout the United States. It con-
telns eofdes <rf fbnns and a description of their uses for a system of accounts which is being recommended
by the Office of Markets and Rural Organisation, United States Department of Agriculture, as a uniform
k fbr primary grain elevators.
2S740*— BnU. 362—16 1
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
2 BULLETIN 362, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
TYPES OF ELEVATOR ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS.
Investigations in respect to accounting in grain elevators have
established the fact that no system has been generally accepted as
standard. The idea of double-entry bookkeeping, while existing
in a thorough sense in only a limited number of elevators, is followed
more or less vaguely in aU, and for that reason there is found every
variation in type from patented systems to mere handbook entries
kept in memorandum form for the benefit of the manager.
All the systems of bookkeeping now existing in elevators may be
classified under three general headings: Complete double-entry
systems kept in the elevator; incomplete systems, consisting of
reports and memoranda kept in the elevator; and complete systems
of reports made up at the elevator and sent to some outside agency
where the records of the company are kept.
Of the three, the first should prove the most satisfactory for the
reason that, although the third system may furnish definite infor-
mation, the details of that information are not, as a rule, within
easy reach of the men who are most interested in them.
The benefits to be derived from a complete double-entry system
of bookkeeping, so constructed that it can be adopted by all ele-
vators, are: First, the possibiUty of distributing and interchanging
valuable statistics among elevators; second, the training of managers
and bookkeepers, so that they will obtain a cumulative knowledge
of elevator accoimting, thus making it easier to procure competent
help in these lines; third, the individual benefit derived by each
elevator from knowing its financial and business condition with
accuracy at short notice; and, fourth, the benefit to future buying
in being able to ascertain the average net cost per bushel of operating
an elevator.
OFFICE EQUIPMENT.
No system of accoimts can be efi&cient unless it is properly handled.
Office equipment is one of the important factors relating to the
success of office work. An elevator office should be equipped witii
fireproof safes or a vault in which all valuable records of the com-
pany should be kept. It should have proper filing devices and suffi-
cient furniture, including a standard bookkeeper's desk, to make
thorough work possible. When the business of an elevator is large
enough to justify the employment of a bookkeeper, such trained help
should be secured, as, in most instances, the elevator manager is
either without the knowledge or the time to perform the duties of a
bookkeeper.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ACCOUNTS FOE PRIMARY GRAIN ELEVATORS. 3
TAKING AN INVENTORY.
At the end of the business year or at the '* cut-off," an inventory
should be taken. This should be an actual physical inventory, taken
either by measurement of the grain in the bins or by running it out
of the bins and through a hopper or automatic scale, thus getting
actual weights. The practice of taking estimated inventories by
reference to the reports accumulated during the year's business is
dangerous and, in most cases, absolutely inaccurate. The average
platform scale has a weighing error of from 3 to 15 pounds per 60-
bushel load. This weighing error accumulating during a whole year
sometimes amoimts to a shortage or '* overage" of hundreds of
bushels. By taking inventories from grain reports, the elevator may,
after five or six years, find itself with a book grain stock out of all
proportion to the actual grain on hand at the time of inventory.
By taking an actual inventory, the shrinkage or ^* overage" of each
khxd of grain is accounted for within the year to which it applies,
and, if abnormal, can be checked up easily if an actual inventory has
been taken the season before.
AUDITING THE BOOKS.
One of the features in elevator bookkeeping upon which great
stress should be laid and to which an important position should be
assigned is the auditing of the books as soon as the inventory has
been taken. The custom prevailing among farmers' elevators of
having internal audit committees furnished from the board of direc- -
tors or the stockholders is commendable only to the extent of its
usefulness in keeping the directorate in close touch with the business
of the elevator. The positive value of such an audit, in so far as it
is able to detect errors of principle or even clerical errors, is negligible,
since, as a rule, the men making the audit are not especially trained
for such work and use very little time to complete their reports. It
should be apparent, then, that it is good business practice to seciu'e
the services of a certified pubhc accoimtant who has had sufficient
practice in elevator accounting to be able to give vital information
and advice to the manager and directors of the elevator. Internal
audit committees may work in conjunction with such an auditor,
thus shortening the period of his labors as well as benefiting them-
selves by contact with him. The item of cost in connection with the
hiring of pubhc accountants has been the deterrent factor which, to a
great extent, has kept the farmers' elevators in the past from avaihng
themselves of such services. ^ By banding together, several elevator
companies might give an accountant steady employment throughout
the year and secxu-e his services at a greatly reduced rate.*
i For farther dJscassion of aaditlng, see U. 8. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 178— OooperativB
Organisation Business Methods.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
4 BULLBTIN 302^ U. S. DEPABTMBNT OF A6BI0ULTUBB,
BEDGISG.
As a protection or insurance against loss from price fluctuations
between the time of purchase and the time the grain is sold, an eleva-
tor may hedge its holdings. When grain is taken into the eleva-
tor it can be immediately protected by its sale for futiire deUvery.
When the grain is sold the hedge is thken up; that is, a purchase for
future delivery is made. If the price of cash wheat has fallen in the
meantime, the loss is counterbalanced by the profit on the hedge, as
the future price will have decreased with the cash price. In this
manner an elevator protects itself against loss by the drop in the
price and waives the profit which might be made in ease the price
increased. Doing business in this way eliminates all chance of large
losses or gains in the fluctuations in prices which take place from the
time the farmer is paid for his deliveries imtil sales are made.
Dealing in futures should be allowed only where actual grain is
hedged. Conmiission firms generally will accept orders for purchases
or sales of futures in small quantities, say lots of 1 ,000 or 2,000 bushels.
The commission firm then assembles its various orders and secures
trades in larger lots.
INSURANCE OF ELEVATORS.
The practice of insuring against fire is a well-established principle
in respect to all property, but carelessness in keeping insurance which
is sufficient to cover total loss has proven disastrous in many instances.
. Owing to the marked fluctuation in the amount of grain on hand
during the shipping season, grain elevators particidarly are likely
to be underinsured. For convenience, it is advisable to insure build-
ings and contents under separate policies. The policy covering
buildings seldom varies in amoimt during the year, but that covering
grain may be subject to change. Some managers in small towns
where no insurance agent is stationed have protected their grain
stock by insuring for maximum capacity. Others make arrange-
ments with the agent allowing for changes on notice, and thus effect
a saving in premiums paid.
DESCRIPTION OF THE OFHCE OF MARKETS AND RURAL ORGANIZATION
GRAIN ELEVATOR ACCOUNTING SYSTEM.
As this bulletin is intended to be sufficiently complete to enable an
elevator company to install the system as devised by the Office of
Markets and Rural Organization, a detailed description of the forms
comprising it is essential.
The complete system includes 16 forms, as follows:
Form No. 1 — Cash, journal, purchase and sales record.
Form No. 2 — Record of grain receipts.
Form No. 3 — Record of grain purchases.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ACCOUNTS FOB PBIMABY QBAIN ELEVAXOBS. 5
Form No. 4 — Record of grain shipments and sales.
Form No. 5 — ^Record of hedges.
Form No. 6 — ^Record of sales to arrive.
Form No. 7 — ^Patronage ledger. (For cooperative elevators.)
Form No. 8 — Grain and merchandise report.
Form No. 9 — ^Manager's report.
Form No. 10 — Grain check.
Form No. 11— Scale ticket.
Form No. 12 — Storage ticket.
Form No. 13— Sales ticket.
Form No. 14 — Cash receipt.
Form No. 15 — Cost analysin.
For convenience of discussion, the description of the foregoing
forms will be taken up in respect to the order of their use.
SCALE TICKET.
Form No. 11 (see p. 26) represents the scale ticket adopted under
this system, but it is not essential that this exact form should be
used, as any scale ticket which records gross, tare, and net, and gross,
dockage, and net of the load, together with designations as to the
owner and kind of grain, will be satisfactory.
STORAGE TICKET.
In order that all grain may be accounted for properly upon receipt
by the elevator, the adoption of the storage ticket as a means of
recording bushels and pounds received is strongly recommended.
Form No. 12 (see p. 27) represents such a ticket. Upon this ticket
are recorded the gross, dockage, and net of all the loads which have
been hauled in any one day by a single owner, as previously recorded
on scale tickets. Storage tickets should be made up at the close of
business each day. Both scale and storage tickets shoiild be num-
bered consecutively and printed in duplicate.
For convenience in referring to the data entered on storage tickets
it is advisable to file the tickets alphabetically imder two headings,
denoting "stored grain'* and ''purchased grain.'' By this system of
filing, each patron's sales are kept together and settlement may be
effected easily in the case of unsold grain through reference to this
file. A small card file containing a card for each patron may be
found of assistance in listing number^ of storage tickets and for
furnishing other information for checking up the storage-ticket files.
RECORD OF GRAIN RECEIPTS..
After having registered aU the receipts of grain on storage tickets
under the names of their respective owners, entry should be made
on'the record of grain receipts (Form No. 2, facing p. 20), where the
date, storage-ticket number, the kind, grade, and bushels of grain are
noted.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
% BULLETIN 362, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE.
GBAIN CHECK.
In buying the grain a special grain check should be used (Form
No. 10; see p. 25), upon which are recorded, in addition to the infor-
mation usually contained in a check, the number of bushels and kind
of grain, together with the purchase price, minus any deductions for
storage or accounts receivable, and the resultant amount of the check.
Regular checks should be used for all expense and general items.
RECORD OP GRAIN PURCHASB8.
These checks, being numbered consecutively, are entered according
to number upon the record of grain purchases (Form No. 3, facing
p. 20), where the net bushels, storage, and cost of grain are recorded
in detail.
RECORD OF GRAIN SHIPMENTS AND SALES.
Shipments from the elevator are recorded upon the record of grain
shipments and sales. (Form No. 4, facing p. 20.) Here the date
of shipment, the party to whom the grain is consigned, the car number,
and shipper's weight are recorded. As soon as the shipment has
been sold and the returns have been received the date of sale, price
received, destination grade, and proceeds received for the grain are
entered.
RECORD OF HEDGES.
A record of hedges (Form No. 5: see p. 21) is a form designed to
record the transactions in futures bought and sold. The columns
designated "Purchase and sales accounts" are used to record profits
or losses on hedges, the '^Remarks" column being used to designate
the broker through whom the profit or loss is incurred.
RECORD OF SALES TO ARRIVE.
A considerable number of elevators selling grain "to arrive" have
no form upon which the transactions can be recorded. Form No. 6
(see p. 21) represents a record of sales to arrive. A brief study of this
form will be suflRcient to demonstrate its usefulness. It has no part
in the accounting system except as a memorandum of shipments
made against contracts, but this is important in itself.
MANAGER'S REPORT.
Some elevators which are not doing sufficient business to warrant
the hiring of a bookkeeper and in which the elevator manager is un-
able to keep the book& have found it convenient to secure the services
of a bookkeeper employed either in a bank or some store of the town
in which they are located. For such elevators a manager's report
(Form No. 9; see p. 24) has been provided. Upon this report the
manager records all the transactions in receipts and purchasee of
grain and incloses duplicates of sales tickets covering sales of mer-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ACCOUNTS FOR PRIMARY GRAIN ELEVATORS. 7
chandise and of receipts for cash. From this form the bookkeeper,
although not employed in the elevator, is able to keep the system
of records in a satisfactory maimer. The records of disbursements
covering incidental items in most cases are controlled by the secre-
tary or treasurer, and the bookkeeper should look to him for records
of this type.
PATRONAGE LEDGER.
In a few States cooperative laws have been enacted enabling coop-
erative organizations to distribute dividends upon a patronage basis,
and for elevators operating imder this law a patronage ledger has
been devised (Form No. 7; see p. 22), upon which are recorded the
individual purchases and sales of merchandise under the name of
each customer.
GRAIN AND MERCHANDISE REPORT.
At the end of the year, just before balancing the books, an inven-
tory of all merchandise on hand should be taken. Form No. 8, grain
and merchandise report (see p. 23), has been provided with suitable
headings so that the amoimts of grain and merchandise on hand can
be recorded. This form serves a valuable purpose in giving the value
of net and stored grain on hand at date, from which comparisons can
be made showing the amount of stored grain sold.
CASH, JOURNAL, PURCHASE. AND SALES RECORD.
Previously it has been usual to provide a cashbook, journal, and
daybook under separate forms in elevator systems. In the system
herein described these books, together with a record of purchases,
have been incorporated into one form (Form No. 1, facing p. 20),
called the cash, journal, purchase, and sales record. As all the forms
comprising this system, with the exception of reports and the patron-
age ledger, are uniform in size and in loose-leaf form, they may be con-
tained in one binder (and the consolidation of four books under one
form is a further condensation of the work) . Ih the cash, journal, pur-
chase, and sales record are recorded all regular cashbook entries, such
as receipts of money and disbursements through checks, together with
an journal entries and records of local sales of merchandise. Pur-
chases of material such as flour, coal, etc., are recorded under '^Mer-
chandise purchases," giving pounds and amount.
SALES TICKET.
All the local sales of merchandise are originally entered upon the
sales ticket (Form No. 13; see p. 28), and these sales tickets are made
up in pads of 50 originals and duplicates, numbered consecutively.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
8 BULLETIN 362, U. S. DEPABTMBNT OF AGBICrLTUEE.
CASH RECEIPT.
All receipts of money other than checks are recorded upon a cash
receipt (Form No. 14; see p. 29). It is quite essential that such a
receipt be used, as the practice of receiving scrip or coin without
making a record of the transaction at the time of receipt often leads
to discrepancies which are difficult to accoimt for later.
COST ANALYSIS.
A feature of this system and one upon which considerable empha-
sis should be laid is a cost analysis (Form No. 15A; see p. 30), by
which the relative amoimts of grain handled and the actual and rela-
tive cost per bushel are determined. Upon this form a determina-
tion of the percentage of cost in handling merchandise is also woriced
out. The value of knowing the ratio of costs in the operation of a
business is a well-established essential in many commercial enter-
prises, and it is no less important to the successful operation of grain
elevators.
In conjunction with this system any double-entry, loose-leaf ledger
accommodating general accoimts and accoimts receivable may bo
used. To be assured of the correctness of entries, it is advisable that
a trial balance be taken from the ledger at the end of each month.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR OPERATING THE SYSTEBi.
RECORD OF GRAIN RECEIPTS.
The record of grain receipts (Form No. 2, facing p. 20) is a consecu-
tive record of the receipts of grain as shown on the storage tickets.
Having entered the storage tickets consecutively for the period of a
month, distributing the grain under the proper columns and record-
ing it under gross, dockage, and net, in bushels and pounds, we may
at the end of the month total this form to arrive at the total grain
receipts for the period. The totals of the record of grain receipts are
then carried to the grain, report opposite the words '* Receipts this
period." As the business progresses from month to month, each
month's total should be kept separate; and, at the same time, a total
shoidd be drawn down, including the current month and the previous
months of the current year. This total is also carried to the grain
report opposite the words *'Gh'oss on hand." Under this system all
grain is considered as theoretically stored regardless of whether it
is purchased at the time of delivery or actually held in storage.
This method is followed because it insures the proper accoimting for
every bushel of grain which comes into the elevator.
RECORD OF GRAIN PURCHASES.
The record of grain purchases (Form No. 3, facmg p. 20) is a record
of the net bushels and value of the grain purchased, together with
storage which has accrued on the grain up to the time of purchase.
Digiti
zed by Google
ACCOUNTS FOB PKIMABY GRAIN ELEVATORS. 9
Both the bushels and value of all grain recorded on this form shoidd
be totaled on dates to agree with the totals of the record of grain
receipts. Like the record of grain receipts, the record of grain
purchases should be totaled monthly. The totals showing the
amoimt purchased for the year are carried to the grain report opposite
'* Gross purchased." The total amount of all checks issued for
grain in any month shoidd be carried to the cash, jotimal, purchase,
and sales record and there entered in the "bank withdrawals" column
in one amount. The total cost of the various grains is then carried
to the debit of the ''grain accounts" in the "general ledger" column
of the same form, this constituting a consohdated cash entry for all
the taransactions in grain purchases for the month. Where storage
charges are represented, they should be credited to the "storage
accotmt" in the "general ledger" column, and in such cases the
cost of grain should equal the amoimt of the check plus the storage
charges, because the storage chaises are deducted from the grain
cost in order to arrive at the amount of the check.
RECORD OP GRAIN SHIPMENTS AND SALES.
The record of grain shipments and sales (Form No. 4, facing p. 20)
carries a record of all cars shipped and the net returns from each
shipment. The proceeds from each variety of grain should be
totaled and posted at the end of the month to the credit of "grain
accounts" in the general ledger. The items in the "net proceeds"
column should be posted to the debit of the grain commission accounts
represented in the "shipped to" column. The monthly totals of
bushels from this form shoidd be carried to the grain report oppo-
site "Shipments and sales." In the operation of this form it will
be found that some of the shipments for any month will be still
Standing out as grain in transit at the end of the month. Before
beginning a new month, the 1st of April, for instance, it would be
necessary to make an entry for the month of March as follows:
"Total March returns on February shipments"; opposite this
would be set down in total the net returns of all February shipments
which had been received during March. In order to avoid confu-
sion, however, reference should be made to February entries for
posting to the individual "commission accounts." By this method
the total returns on all grain will have been posted to the proper
"commission accounts" by individual postings. Although we post
only totals to the credit of the "grain accounts," the total returns
on each kind of grain shipped during the previous month and returned
during the current month can be added in with the March shipments
and returns in order to arrive at the total amoimt of returns for the
month of March. This same method will apply if a car shipped in
February should not bring returns xmtil April, as the February entry
26749^— BuU. 362—16 2
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
10 BULLETIN 3e2, U. S. DBPAETMBNT OF AGBICULTURE.
would show that the car was still standing out through the month
of March.
RECORD OF HEDGES.
A record of hedges (Form No. 6; see p. 21) is essential to the
proper hedging of grain, and this account should be kept up to date.
On this form columns have been provided giving all the necessary
information for keeping the accounting record of grain hedges.
Profit or loss on hedges should be posted to the generlil ledger to
the debit or credit of the ''commission accoimt" represented and
to the debit or credit of ''profit and loss on hedges," as the case may
be. It may be considered that any profit or loss on hedging could
as properly be charged or credited to the grain against which it
apphes, but, as it is important to know just how much the hedging
of grain costs, it is much better to carry a "profit and loss on hedges"
account imtil the end of the year, when this account may be written
off to the several grain accoimts if desired.
RBCX>RD OF SALES TO ARRTVE.
Under the description of the system (p. 6) will be found sufficient
information regarding this form (Form No- 6; see p. 21), for, as it
is only an auxiliary record for memorandum use, it has very little
to do with the operation of the system.
PATRONAGE LEDGER.
At convenient periods dtiring the year reference should be made
to the grain checks and to the sales tickets, and the amount of
merchandise recorded thereon, both in piurchases and sales, should
be posted to the patronage ledger (Form No. 7; see p. 22), under the
accoimt of the customer with whom the transaction was held. It is
essential only that this material be compiled by the end of the year,
so that proper reference may be made to it as the basis for paying
patronage dividends. Each customer's account is totaled and the
rate of dividend per bushel or per poimd is entered in the upper
right-hand corner. Using this ledger as a basis, checks for the amount
to which each customer is entitled can be made out, and dividends
distributed accordingly. This form is intended for use in cooperative
elevators.
GRAIN REPORT.
The grain report (Form No. 8; see p. 23) is designed to keep the
manager and directorate in close touch with the condition of their
grain stock at the end of any month, or, in fact, at any time at which
additions of the various entries on the grain forms may be made.
Assxmiing that an elevator starts its CTirrent year with a certain
balance of grain on hand, as shown by the inventory, at the end of the
first month, by adding "receipts this period" to "balance last
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ACCOUNTS FOR PRIMARY GRAIN ELEVATORS. 11
report," the result will be ''gross on hand." By deducting from this
the "shipments and sales," the difference will be the ''net on
hand." It is always important for a manager to know whether
the grain which he has on hand belongs to the elevator in whole
or in part, or is partly or entirely stored grain. By subtracting the
gross amoimt of bushels of grain purchased from the gross receipts
the total amount stored at date will be shown. Shoidd this be
greater than the net on hand, it will indicate that some grain which
has been stored has been sold without being purchased from the
owner of the grain — in other words, that there has been an amoimt
of stored grain sold. Should the total stored at date be less than
the net on hand, then the difference between the two would be the
amoimt of purchased grain on hand.
MERCHANDISE REPORT.
The merchandise report (Form No. 8; see p. 23) serves merely as an
mventory, giving the total on hand at the last inventory, purchases,
sales, and net on hand, which should agree, allowing for proper
deductions or additions, with the actual inventory.
CASH, JOURNAL, PURCHASE, AND SALES RECORD.
The cash, journal, purchase, and sales record (Form No. 1), facing
p. 20) differs from ordinary books of first entry in that both the
debit and credit entries, which are to be posted later to the ledger,
are of necessity entered on this form before it can be balanced.
The debit columns of this form are designated as follows:
Date.
Folio.
Caah.
Bank depoedta.
General ledger.
Accounts receivable ledger.
Hard coal (lbs , amount ).
Soft coal (lbs , amount ).
There are also provided columns in blank which may be used to
suit the convenience and requirements of the individual elevator.
The credit columns comprise the following:
Check number.
Folio.
Bank withdrawals.
General ledger.
Accounts receivable ledger.
Salee ticket number.
Hard coal (lbs , amount ....)*
Soft coal (lbs , amount ....).
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
12 BULLETIN 362, V. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
There are also blank columns to be used as desired.
A column is provided between the debit and credit sides, marked
''Items/' in which are written all items and an explanation of them.
Debit Columns.
In order that an accurate check may be had upon the amoimt of
money received so that an identical amount may be deposited each
day, all cash receipts of whatever nature shoidd be entered in the
"cash" colunm. These entries are footed daily and represent the
amount of the deposit and are not carried forward during the month,
all deposits being set down in the "bank deposits" colunm as the
deposit is made.
BANK DEPOSITS.
In some instances where drafts are drawn directly against com-
mission companies by the bank the money is not received at the
elevator, and in such cases the deposit of drafts may be made directly
into the "bank deposits" colunm. In this way the "bank deposits"
colunm woidd include the total receipts at the elevator plus all
receipts of drafts at the bank, and the total of this colimiXL carried
forward during the month should equal the sum of the deposits in the
bank pass book.
GENERAL LEDGER.
The "general ledger" column is provided for entry of all items to
accounts in the general ledger for which no special colxmms are pro-
vided, and postings shoidd be made in detail from this colimim to
accoimts in the general ledger.
ACCOUNTS RECEIVABLE LEDGER.
The accoimts receivable ledger carries items for all local accounts*
receivable, and items in this colunm are posted in detail to accounts
in the accounts receivable ledger.
MERCHANDISE PURCHASES.
Under the heading " Merchandise purchases" will be found columns
designated "hard coal," "soft coal," etc., in pounds and amounts. All
purchases of merchandise of this character are entered in their proper
columns under this heading, and the totals only are posted at the
end of the month to their respective accounts in the general ledger.
Credit Columns.
The '* check number" column acconmiodates the niunbers of all
checks drawn for expense and general accounts other than grain
checks. The "bank withdrawals" colunm records the amounts of
these checks. In this colunm is also entered the total of the grain
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ACCOUNTS FOB PRIMABY GBAIN ELEVAT0B8. 18
checks drawn during the month. The '^ general ledger" and *'ao-
connts receivable" columns serve the same pmposes on the credit
as were explained on the debit side.
LOCAL SALES OF MERCHANDISE AND GRAIN.
As all the sale tickets are numbered consecutively, their numbers are
listed in the ''sales ticket number" colimm, and the merchandise in
pounds and amount is entered in the proper coliunn to the credit of the
accoimt to which it belongs, such as * * hard coal, " * ' soft coal, " ' ' floiu-, "
etc. These columns are totaled at the end of the month and the
totals only are posted to the accoimts in the general ledger. Only the
items which are posted from the general ledger, accounts receivable
ledger, and the miscellaneous columns are listed in detail, all other
columns, both debit and credit, being posted as totals. At the be-
ginning of the month the first entry to be made on this form is ''cash
balance," and this should be set down in the "bank deposits" column
as an amount carried forward. Because of the fact that every debit
has a corresponding credit, the two sides of this form shoidd always
be in balance, but the fact that we have carried forward the cash bal-
ance, which appears on one side only, must be taken into considera-
tion. In order that the form should foot and prove correctly, it
should always be out of balance by the exact amount of the cash
entry at the beginning of the month.
THE LEDGER.
The ledger should be divided into two general divisions — one car
rying general accounts and the other accounts receivable — and may be
designated imder the headings "General ledger" and "Accounts re-
ceivable ledger." In the general ledger will be found such accounts
as: (1) Cash, which is the monthly balance as shown by the cashbook;
(2) "accoimts receivable control" accoimt, to which are posted debit
and credit totals in the "accounts receivable" columns in the cash,
journal, purchase, and sales record, the individual items having been
posted previously to the accounts receivable ledger. This account
serves as a proof of the correctness of such individual postings.
(3) Bills receivable, including all promissory notes, time notes, bills
of exchange, or acceptances receivable.
It has been the practice in some elevator accounting systems to
show a subdivision of expense in the journal, but the small number
of items of this character is much better taken care of through a
subdivision of the ledger accounts. An ordinary ledger page jnay
be ruled by the bookkeeper into seven or eight columns, and, as
entries to expense in most cases are debit items, no credit columns
need be provided. When credits occur they should be posted in red
ink and deducted in the addition of the items in the colimm. The
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
14 BULLBinr 382, V. S. DEPABTMBKT OF AGWCTTI-TUEE.
several columns of the expense account may be headed "Salaries;"
"Telephone, tel^raph, and electric light;" ''Taxes;" ''Gasoline;"
"Repairs;" and "Miscellaneous," or similar headings suitable to the
nature of the expenses incurred.
An accoimt shoidd be provided showmg the capital stock outstand-
ing or the portion of the net capital which is used or is available for
the working of the business.
Separate accoimts should be opened for each kind of grain handled,
showmg the amoimt and value of grain pmrchased on the debit, and
the amoimt and value of grain sold on the credit. At the end of the
year, by crediting these accounts with the inventory of the kind of
grain specified, the net profit on each kind of graia may be deter-
mined. In the case of local sales of grain, it is advisable to open
separate accoimts so that a clear record may be kept of the amount
of grain sold locally, as wdl as in car lots. These local sales accounts
should be closed into the general grain accounts at the end of the year.
During the course of a shipping season a considerable number of
claims will arise against railroads for losses of grain in transit. Two
accounts should be opened to accommodate this condition: A debit
account — claims against railroads for leakage in transit, and a credit
account — ^loss and recovery on grain leakage in transit. These
accounts operate after the following manner: When a car is reported
short a certain number of bushels under that recorded by the elevator's
automatic scale, a charge is put through against the raiboad respon-
sible in the first-named account, and a corresponding credit is carried
to the latter account. When recovery is received by remittance
from the railroad company, the company is credited with the amount
of the check. If the check does not cover the full amoimt of the
claim, and no further action is to be taken looking toward its collec-
tion, then a journal entry for the remainder should be passed, credit-
ing the account of the railroad in the claims account and debiting
loss and recovery on grain leakage in transit. This latter account
constitutes an income account and may be written oflF direct to profit
and loss; or if the composition of the accoimt is known, the specific
items applying to certain kinds of grain may be credited to the grain
accounts.
The following entries in the cash, journal, purchase, and sales
record will serve to illustrate the method of accounting for loss and
recovery on grain leakage in transit. When the grain is reported lost,
the first entry to be made is as follows:
Debit claims (B. & M. Railroad) 26.00
Credit loss and recovery on grain leakage in transit 25. 00
After n^otiations with the railroad, assume that settlement by
an allowance of $15.00 is received by check. Entry would' then be
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ACCOUNTS FOB PRIMARY GRAIN ELEVATORS. 15
made of the check showing '*Cash debit $15.00," and ''B. & M.
Raih-oad credit $15.00.'' This leaves a credit of $26 to the account
for loss and recovery on grain leakage in transit, and a debit to the
railroad of $10.
Considering that the transaction has been definitely settled, and
that no further recovery can be made, the following journal entry
shotdd be passed:
Debit lofls and recovery on grain leakage in transit 10. 00
Credit claims B. AM. Railroad 10.00
This simply closes the railroad accoxmt, arid leaves a balance in the
loss and recovery on grain leakage in transit representing the true
amoimt of recovery.
THE COST ANALYSIS.
The cost analysis (Form No. 15A; see p. 30) has been provided to
famish information. affecting the unit and relative cost of handling
grain and merchandise. The method of operation is as follows:
Opposite *' Bushels of grain handled" should be set down, first,
the total of all grain taken into the elevator, this amoimt being ex-
tended under the different kinds of grain as shown by the footings
of the record of grain receipts, the total grain taken in being 100 per
cent. The relative percentage of each kind of grain is then set down
opposite the per cent mark under the column designated. On the
same line should be added the value of coal and merchandise sales.
After taking out an amount which woidd seem to be sufficient for
the selling of merchandise, the different kinds of expense applying
generally to all kinds of grain and merchandise, such as salary, in-
surance, interest, power, and repairs, are then prorated according to
the grain percentages. This amoimt will be, necessarily, more or
less of an estimate, but a manager, by keeping accoimt of the time
spent on coal and merchandise sales in the space of a month, can
arrive at a fair basis for the division of salaries. Insiurance, interest,
repairs, and miscellaneous, relating to merchandise, are contained
in a few items and can be easUy ascertained.
Such items as '^ Power, operating" apply only to grain. '*Com
shelling — direct labor" includes only that labor which has been pro-
cured especially for corn shelling, and would not include the mana-
ger's or assistant manager's time, as their wages are prorated xmder
"Salaries." Car cooperage should be distributed according to the
amoimts of grain received, except in cases where an accoxmt has been
kept in the ledger showing the exact amount of cooperage against
each kind of grain.
After having prorated the different expense items, the addition of
these gives the gross expense. Returns from storage and returns
from dockage sold are then set down under the kinds of grain which
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
16 BULLETIN 8«2, tJ. 8. DEPABTMBNT OP AGRICXJLTUBE.
have furnished these returns, and subtracted. Any returns from
cobs sold are subtracted from cob com. The net expense is then
ascertained from these subtractions.
The net unit expense is determined by dividing the amount of ex-
pense by the number of bushels handled. I%ice in the operation of
an elevator there are other items of exp^ise which are more or less
fixed; and not within the control of the manager^ it is necessary to
take these into accoimt as a further consideration in arriving at the
total cost of op^ation.
Bad debts in most cases will be prorated between sales of coal and
sales ci other merchandise.
Depreciation shoidd be distributed against the elevator on the same
basis as other charges after having deducted a proper amoimt for
depreciation of coal sheds, warehouses, etc.
Shrinkage and scale loss should be distributed according to the
amount of loss on each commodity as shown in the ledger accounts.
Other losses and charges, which wOl include such losses as uncollected
claims against railroads for leakage in transit, therefore, will be
directly chargeable against the kind of grain or merchaiidise upon
which the loss occurred.
After having prorated the above charges, addition should be made
of these amounts to the net expense, and this will give the total cost
of operation. The total cost of operation being 100 per cent, the per
cent of cost of operation on each kind of grain and merchandise will
be determined as being the relative percentage of each to the total.
The net unit cost of operation is determined by dividing the amoimt
of costs of operation by the number of bushels handled in the case of
grain or by dividing the amoimt of cost of operation by the value
of the goods sold when determining the net unit cost of operation for
merchandise. The net unit cost of operation would be in terms of
cents and decimals of a cent per bushel on grain, and in the case of
sales of coal and other merchandise, it would be represented by a cer-
tain percentage, as, for instance, 6 per cent of the gross sales.
BALANCmG CASH WTTH THE BANK.
To determine the correctness of the cash transactions for Uie
month the following method will be foimd simple and adequate:
(1) Determine whether the '^bank deposits'* colimm agrees witli
the bank pass book as to individual deposits. Be sure that it is cor-
rectly footed.
(2) Sort the returned vouchers, arranging them consecutivelj.
Compare them with the entries in the "bank withdrawals'' column
and ascertain which, if any, are missing. List the numbers and
amounts of all outstanding checks for the next month's reference.
Outstanding checks may be listed either on an adding-machine tape
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ACCOUNTS FOR PBIMABY QBAIK ELEVATORS. 17
or by writing them into the cashbook. The difference between the
''baak deposits" and ''bank withdrawals" columns, pins the total of
oatstandhig checks, should equal the balance as shown in the bank
pass book. No error, however small, should be ignored in balancing
cash with the bank.
RBSERYB ACCOUNTS.
RESBRYB FOR DEPRECIATION ACCOUNT.
In order to show the true condition of the plant a reserve for
depreciation accoimt is essential. To this accoimt should be credited
annually a certain percentage of the money invested in the plant,
and an equal amoimt should be written off profit and loss.^
RESERVE FOR BAD DEBTS ACCOUNT.
During the operation of a business where credit is given to a large
number of customers there is likely to be a loss on account of \mcol-
lectible debts. This amount may be small one year and large another.
For that reason it is well to set aside a sufficient amount of capital
from the yearly profits to offset such losses. To effect this, "reserve
for bad debts'* should be credited and ''profit and loss" debited with
an amotmt which experience would dictate is sufficient to take care
of the imoolleotible debts of the company.
While many elevator companies make a practice of furnishing
supplies to members and others on credit, all suppUes, if possible,
should be handled on a strictly cash basis. Any system of extending
unprotected credit requires a large capital and often results in con-
siderable loss.
RBSERYE FOR SINKINO FUND.
In some States, notably South Dakota, where the cooperative law
IB in operation, a statutory regulation requires that a certain per-
centage of the capital invested be set aside each year in a reserve for
sinking fxmd, so that the company wiU be in a position to retire its
capital stock at the end of a given period. Companies operating
under such conditions should set up a reserve for sinking fimd in
accordance with the requirements of their State laws.
Where the custom of hedging grain prevails, an account should be
opened designated *' profit and loss on hedging.'* To this should bo
debited or credited the losses or gains incident to the hedging of grain,
the opposite entry being made to the commission accoimt handling
the business.
1 For further explanation of reserve for depreciation see U. 8. Department o f Agricoltore Bulletin No.
178, "Cooperative Organisation Business Methods.'*
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
18 BULLETIN 362; U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
To determine the profit and loss for the year, all income accounts
should be credited and all expense accounts debited to this account.
When the amount of profit has been ascertained, dividends may be
declared and paid, and the remainder transferred to the surplus
account.
After the books have been dosed for the year, any errors discovered
aflFecting the previous year's business should be entered in the account
affected and carried to the opposite side of the surplus account, the
profit and loss account being reserved for the current year's business.
The individual needs and the peculiar conditions surrounding
elevators in different parts of the United States may require other
accounts besides those discussed above, and if such is the case,
accounts covering these special requirements may be opened along
the same general lines as those previously discussed.
The following balance sheet is submitted as a guide in the arrange-
ment of assets and liabiUties. Other asset and liability accounts
may appear on the books of an elevator and in such case should be
included.
statement.
Balance Sheet, Year Ending
ASSETS.
Cash $287.50
Accounts receivable $3, 208. 00
Lees reserve for bad debts 400. 00
2,808.00
Notes receivable 325. 00
Plant and real estate 9, 500. 00
Less reserve for depreciation 1,300. 00
8,200.00
Grain commission accounts 800. 00
Inventory:
Wheat 1, 458. 00
Com 395. 00
Oats 536. 00
Rye 28. 00
Barley 106. 50
Hard coal 281. 00
Soft coal 354. 00
Other merchandise (supplies) 2, 976. 70
6,135.20
18,615.70
LIABILrriES.
Accounts payable 876. 55
Notes payable 4, 200. 00
Capital paid in 8, 950. 00
Surplus 4,589.15
18,615.70
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
AOCOUUTTS FOB PRIMABY QBAIN ELEVATORS^ 19
UFPLY ACCOUNTS SETTLED WITH GRAIN.
When requests are received from patrons to deduct from the
amount due for grain sold the amount which they may owe the com-
pany for supplies purchased, two grain checks should be issued. The
first check should contain the total number of bushels and kind of
grain being purchased, together with the balance due the patron
after deducting the amount of his account from the full value of the
grain.
A second cheek should then be made without reference to bushels
of grain, and marked ''For a/c receivable,'' in the full amoimt de-
ducted from the previous check. This check is then indorsed over to
the elevator by the patron and both checks are entered in the record
of grain purchases, the first check going to the patron and the second
being deposited to the account of the elevator as cash received. By
this means both sides of the transaction have been carried out through
the only proper medium of settUng accounts, which is cash.
For the convenience of those interested in the system described
in this bulletin and for those who desire to have the system printed,
the Office of Markets and Rural Organization has provided printer's
copy of the several forms for free distribution.
All elevators installing the system of accounts may refer to this
office any questions regarding its installation or operation.
A sectional post transfer binder has been found convenient and
adequate for binding the accoimting forms. The standard size is,
length over all, 15 J inches, width lOJ inches, posts five-sixteenth inch
in diameter and 7 inches from center to center.
CONCLUSION.
The foregoing pages outline very briefly certain information regard-
ing operating grain elevators, and in particular describe the methods
used in operating a system of grain-elevator accounting devised to
accommodate the various requirements in primary elevators through-
out the United States. The adoption of a uniform system of account-
ing for primary elevators should be of benefit both to the companies
and to the men employed by them as managers, but the simple keep-
ing of the records is not sufficient. To obtain benefits commensurate
with the opportunities open in this field the manager and directors of
the elevators possessing such an accoimting system should make use
of all the information which it is able to fimiish. In order that the
management of the elevator may be fully advised, not only as to the
condition of the business, but as to the economic advantage of the
method of doing business which is being pursued, it is advisable that
in every case proper attention should be paid to ascertaining the
costs as provided for in the ''cost analysis" included with this sys-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
20
BULLETIN 362, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGMOULTUBE.
th«^
tern. If the information thus obtained is made available to
stockholders and other interested parties, and they are
assured that the business of the elevator is being handled in a
petent manner and that details and statistics r^arding it cai
furnished at any time, it vnH tend to strengthen the financial posi
of the company with those who extend credit to elevators durinj
season of crop movements.
In some of the forms that follow, sample entries are Inserted In Italics. '
entries do not represent actoal transactions; they are given merely to show hoi
forms are to be used.
AND]
todUur
Hank
wilh-
67
100
16
Hi
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
^L AND PU4
^ts and Uurol Oi|
j Hank 1
' with-
draM-ab). 1
^^ ^^'
I
;
'mount.
1
Lbs.
Amofunt.
1
■ 1
1
Lbs.
Amoont.
' ' 1
1
1
I....!
1
1
1
1
t
!-.:
t
!....;
l....l
i
1
...J
1
' !
; ^
to
.
67
i 1 ' : '....
1 1 .....'' '....
1
1
' ! .,
1
I
1. 1 1
1
II
.. . . 1-
1
tt
SO
00
so
10
00
00
25
..
1
1
,,
1
m
..
1
1 '''
15
110
i SO
! S,0W
t
,,
t
1
1
1
■i 1
I - - - .
'
•i J .
i '
•♦ 1
ii
•• 1
1
1
''
■^ 1
t
i 1....
1
,^ i
1 !
...J
.. 1
■::i::i::
-ii :
(
1
....i
-4
■■
.
!
.J ;-r-
1
1
,
■ 'i
t
' S,616
9S\
1
V
1
_«
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ACCOUNTS FOB PBIMABY GRAIN ELEVATORS.
21
.1
I
6
8
I
I
it
I
4
i
«
Q
8 I
I
8
OQ
0k
I
I
^ !
I
6
I
B
t
00
I
I
Pi
I
3
I
14
4 ^i
4 ^
5 SS
-*11
ll
5 « SJ
^ §
00 2 *2
S I
^ s
ft
I i I
! !ij ! S^
5
U
i
I
2
I
Q
5S ^
I
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
22
BULLETIN ;Hi2, T. S. DKPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
3-0
Si
0e;
Q
1-3
o
§
o
a
1
— .-
3
--
—
1
-;--
—
'
-
-
S2 § s
S
s
3
ll
§ 2
c
•r.
—
"a
^ ?s 1; S S 1 S
—
—
-
::
—
---
1
-
a)
—
?;
i \ ^ \ .
<V* fj
- 1
1 :;.
■ 2
--
1 '}
6
1
-
^
1 1 1
i 1
?? S 28
is
6^
§
§
«
;♦
5
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ACCOUNTS FOB PRIMARY GRAIN £L£VATOB&
23
i
B
i
00
B
t
o
ll
O OS
I
8
1
&
i
o
I
0)
I r
I
4 4
« s ^
1 1 ^
I 1 I § S
^ 5
s ^
1 1
I § § ? i I s
i i ^ i
or, <«« -< *3
I i
« 9
I
1
5
0 a I § I I
1 J I I I 1
o S ^ o o ti
I
09
Is
I
f
s
-a
>
•a
>
2?
B
i
1
Digitizec^ by VjOOQ IC
24
BULLKTIX 3(32, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Z 6
2
O
OS
>
^ I
.a Qo
I a
^ 1
T3
O
I.
u
o
x: 3 '
I
.9
I
2
.3
■§1
12-
o
a:>
Digitized by VjOOQIC
ACCOXTNTS FOB PBIMAKT GBAIX ELEVATORS.
25
^
i
I
6
P 1
2 I
« 1
s
m
o
1
®
I"
J3
o
1
>
.a
•I
*<
—
4
^
1
1
1
1
•<
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
26 BULLETIN 362, U. 8. DEPAETMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
WAREHOUSE SCALE TICKET.
Office of Markets and Rural Organization, Grain System Form Noi 11.
No.
., 191
Co.
At.
This ticket ia not a storage ticket and is not negotiable. Is must be exchanged on
day of issue for a lawful storage ticket or cash check.
Owner
Driver On.
Ofif.
Load of .
Grade Dockage Lbs *
Signed Agent.
Exchanged for Check No , Storage Ticket No
Pounds.
Bushels.
Oroas.
Tare,
Net.
Oroea.
Dodnige.
Net.
Digitized by VjQOQ1C__
ACCOUNTS FOB PBIUABY GRAIN ELEVATOBS.
27
O
2;
PS
o
>
H
ci ?R
§
5
-•I
6)^ ^
S S S3
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
28
BULLETIN 362, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
OfBoe of Markets and Rural Organization, Grain System Form No. 13.
SALES TICKET
Of
At
Sold to
Date
Hard Coal.
Gross
Tare
Net
Total hard coal
1
i
Soft Coal.
Gross
Tare
Net
Total soft coal
Miscellaneous.
Total nuscellaneous
Total sales
Digitized by VjOOQIC^
ACrCOTJKTS FOB PBIMABY OKAIN ELEVATORS.
29
Office yt llarkBti and Raral OigMihatVin, Onln Syitom Form No. 14.
CASH RECEIPT
By
Received from Date,
For—
No
.-...., 191..
Amount.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
80
BULLETIN 362, U. 8. DEPABTMENT OP AGBICULTUBE.
I
s
>*
5
§ 1
^1
I
O
IP
I
a
8l
PS
I
3
l|««
22 ' 8 5
g S^ 28
> 85
S ^t^
^s s s s 13 ?;^
Jj 5 .3 *, ^ ^ *,
^s s s$ § S ^ 4^3
•• •J *-l ■>-.*♦ <
**! •» •»
S««$ :33%io
^ I?
^ to •«
s^
t^-s srsg 5 55 2^s §
g
5 ^:t?s ^5 ^ s g *-
JsS;!'^ IS858S5
^ |2-!?55 5
^:: 5 ^S^
SS§S Ss ^ ^$ %S§
^iS-S^^ 5S§|s^5
^1
sg^ss^ q.§s;!$%
|il^^ 5^^|^5
^sssssss^s^^^
I iisii^assj?!^-
!■=
^8 8
^ 8
8 8
8 ^
5 ^ ••
8 55
8 8%
^ 5
8 8 8%
Sl^^
gf
I
t^l
. 5
^5
•
?5
I?
II
ll
J O
II
•I ^11
ll ! §1
a|a 11 : ill ^ it
II til
I
o
21
Digiti
zed by Google
ADDITIOXAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBUCATION MAY BE PROCT.TRED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCXn«ENTS
OOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT
10 CENTS PER COPY
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
^/.3: 3^ J-
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 363
Conlribntioii ftom the Bonan of Entomology
L. O. HOWARD. CMef
Wasldii^ii, D. C.
PROFESSIONAL PAPER.
May S, 1916.
THE PINK CORN- WORM:
AN DfSECT DESTRUCTIVE TO CORN IN THE/OEtB,.
By P. H. Chittbndbn, In Charge of Truck Crop and Stored Product Insect Init^tAiona,
Intiodiiotlon
Nature of injury
Description
The moth
The egg
The young larva
The full-grown larva..
The pupa
Theeoooon
Distribution
Records of li^ury
CONTENTS. -^ 0 ^
Page. Page/
History and literature ' '* 4?
Associated insects.
Natural enemies
Methods of control
Carbon bisulphid
Directions for use..
Precautions
Other remedies
Summary.
14
15
15
16
16
17
18
18
Bibliography 19
Fig. 1.— The pink corn-worm (Batraekedra rilepi): Full-
grown larva, lateral view. Enlarged. (Original.)
INTRODUCTION.
For nearly three-fourths of a century the larva of a small moth (Bo-
tnwAe^iranZej/iWals.), commonly known as the pink corn-worm (fig. 1),
has been f oimd in com m the
field and in store as well as in
blasted cotton bolls. It was
not, however, imtil the year
1914 that this species was
recognized as a pest. Dur-
ing November and December of that year complaints were made of
damage by the pink corn-worm to com in cribs. The number of
complaints was enormous and the damage in Mississippi was so
widespread that much alarm was felt in infested districts. The
correspondence, which will presently be quoted, shows plainly the
extent of the insect's ravages as also the fear that entire crops
NoTB.—This bulletin points out the increashig menace of this insect, which has never been considered
a serious enemy of grain, but now assumes nearly the same importance as the Angoumois grain moth and is
much more troublesome than the £ur(^>ean grain moth. It also recommends methods of control. It
wHl prove of interest to formers in the region extending from South Carolina westward to central Texas,
southward to southern Texas, and northward to Ancansas and Tennessee.
»427*-Bull. 363—16 1
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
2 BULLETIN 363, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE.
of com in the principal regions infested might be lost. While the
insect confined its attacks largely to Mississippi, it was also observed
in injurious numbers in Arkansas, Alabama, Texas, and Louisiana.
Singularly, the species was not described until the year 1882, when
Lord Walsingham gave it the name of Batra^ihedra rUeyi, but it now
assumes nearly the same importance as the Angoumois grain moth'
and is much more troublesome now than the Ehiropean grain moth.'
The species sufficiently resembles the latter to have been mistaken
for it by Glover and others, and its work has been compared to that
of the former. Li reality it bears some resemblance to both species
in appearance and habits.
The pink corn-worm was first brought to the writer's attenticm
in ripening ears of com from Texas in 1894 (Chittenden, 1897).*
From the fact that the larvsB first seen were feeding on the busies
and the species was not then identified as feeding natiu^ally on the
kernels of com, it was for convenience called the corn-husk moth,
and this name might have been retained had not the insect devel-
oped later into a destructive grain-feeding species. The names
pink corn-worm, pink worm, and red corn-worm are now in general
use in the South.
NATURE OF INJURY.
Li material received from Baton Rouge, La., and Beeville, Tex.,
in 1895, the little rose-colored larvae were noticed by the writer
chiefly between the husks, which were fresh and succulent, and on
these they were feeding. A few moths were afterwards reared
from the husked ear. The Texas sending afforded a fair opportunity
for the study of the work of the species. One undeveloped ear
harbored numbers of the larvs which had gnawed into every part
of it from the outer husk to the dwarfed ear within.
The inj\u*ed grains when examined individually have somewhat Uie
appearance of being infested by the Indian-meal moth (Plodia inter-
puncteUa Hbn.) but not by the Angoumois grain moth. The larve
evidently begin to feed on the grains while the latter are still **in the
milk'' or very soon afterwards, beginning at their insertion and work-
ing outward toward the crown. The embryo and surroimding parts
are hollowed out and the seed envelope is often eaten away about the
base or '*tip" of the seed. An astonishing amoxmt of frass is defVel-
oped which is neither eaten a second time nor packed tightly within
the kernel, as is evidently the case with the Angoumois moth larva,
but the particles, being loosely joined by webbing, fill the interstices
between the kernels. (PI. I.) Usually a single larva inhabits a
kernel but frequently the interior of a grain is completely devoured,
so that the only part remaining is the thin outer integument inclosing
a varying amoimt of accumulated frass. Doubtless this is the work
1 Sitotroga cereaUUa Zell. > Tirua graneOa L. * See Bibliography, p. Id.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE PINK COEN-WOBM. 8
of more than one caterpillar. It will be noted that the caterpillar
does not confine itself, as does the Angoumois moth, to the kernel or
any part of it, but attacks seed, husk, and cob aUke.
While no positive statement can be made as to the cause of the sud-
den increase of the pink corn-worm, it may, perhaps, be due to the
fact that cotton is not cultivated on so large a scale or so imiversally
as in the past, and possibly it may be due to the destruction of the
bolls by plowing them under as a remedy against the boll weevil. These
practices would natiu^ally have the effect of driving the moths to
deposit their eggs on com, and this acquired taste of the larvse might
in time be transmitted to their descendants. There can be no doubt
that when com is left too long in the field the ears are more easily
penetrated by the insects. Often, too, if they are permitted to remain
there over long they become moist, and if stored in this condition
injury by the pink corn-worm and other insects is greatly hastened.
Still another practice favors the multiphcation of the moth, namely,
storing com too long in the husk. The layers of husks just under the
outer sheath are frequently badly eaten at about the middle, only the
longitudinal veins being rejected. On one fully developed ear nearly
every kernel was infested and the ear was so completely enveloped in
frass and webbing as to be useless for any purpose. Every ear in
which this species was found lodged had been first attacked by the
com-ear worm (HeliotMs ohsoleta Fab.). (PI. I.)
DESCRIPTION.
THE MOTH.
Batrachedra rileyi belongs to the same lepidopterous superf amily *
as the Angoumois and European grain moths, but to a different
family.' From either of the others this species may be easily dis-
tinguished by its smaller size and by its remarkably slender hind-
wings and their correspondingly long fringes. The forewings are
banded and feebly mottled with yellow, reddish-brown, and black.
The antennae are white, annulated with fuscous, and the legs are
banded with fuscous. (See fig. 2.)
The wings measure, when expanded from tip to tip, a Uttle less
than half an inch (9-11 mm.).
The moths are very active on their feet and when at rest fold
their forewings closely together with their tips *' cocked up" after
the manner of many other tineids and related moths.
Following is the original description by Walsingham:^
Head chestnut-brown; palpi widely divergent, whitish, with an oblique pale
brown mark on each side near the end of the second joint, and two or three brownish
1 Superfamily Tlneina.
< Family Elachistldae.
« Walsingham, Lord.— Notes on Ttneidae of North America. In Trans. Amer. Enl. Soc., v. 10, p. 198-
190,1882.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
4 BULLETIN 363, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTURE.
spota on the sides of the apical joint. Antennce with white and fuscous annulationa;
the basal joint elongate, chestnut brown. Fore-wings chestnut-brown, slightly
shaded with fuscous towards the costal margin; a whitish ochreous streak at the base of
the dorsal margin, followed by two or three other smaller ones along the dorsal nuungin
(in some specimens these are obsolete); above the dorsal margin are two oblique
whitish ochreous streaks, the first before the middle, the second before the anal
angle. A similar streak from the costal margin immediately before the apex is out-
wardly margined by a streak of black scales, the apex and apical margin being alao
black; there is also a faint fuscous streak running downwards through the cilia below
the apex. On the cell are two elongate patches of black scales, one immediately
before the middle of the wing, the other halfway between this and the base. Fringes
grey, with a slight yellowish tinge. Hind wings pale greyish. Hind tibite greyish
white, outwardly fuscous; hind tarsi whitish, with a wide fuscous band followed by
two fuscous spots on their outer sides. Expanse 11 mlllim.
Fio. 2.— The pink oorn-worm: Moth, showing head covered with scales; below,
at left, head showing eyes at side; below, at right, hind leg. ICoth modi en-
laiged, head and leg more enlarged. (Original)
THE EGG.
The eggs of this species resemble considerably those of the Angou-
mois grain moth (Sitotroga cerealeUa). They have been found
deposited on dry com husks and in such locations are much flat-
tened on the surface, differing in this respect from those of Sitotroga.
The egg may be described as follows:
Flattened oval; widest near the middle; truncate at one end and narrowed at the
other, with the surface strongly wrinkled, forming coarse, irregular, ridgelike longi-
tudinal Knes. As would naturally be expected in a species so much smaller than
the Angoumois moth the egg is much smaller, and instead of being red it is pearly
white throughout with a perceptible iridescence.
Measurement: Length, 0.4 mm.; width, 0.1 mm.
The eggs are deposited singly or in groups up to three or four.
Since they are nearly colorless, not pinkish like those of the Angou-
mois moth, they are quite difficult to locate with the imaided eye.
The egg is illustrated by figures 3 and 4.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 363, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Plate I.
Work of the Corn-Ear Worm and the Pink Corn-Worm.
Corn ears phowinjtr primary injnrj'liy com -oar worm ( IMioUth ob^rUeta) nt top.
and additioiuil injury by pink corn- worm {Batrachedra rUeyi)^ especially on
right ear. (Original.)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 363, U. S. Dept. of Afirriculture.
Plate II.
Cocoon of the Pink Corn-Worm on Section of Dry Corn Husk, Showing a
Pupa near Top and Two Overlapping near Middle; Also Location of One
or Two Others at Left. (Original.)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE PINK CORN-WORM.
THE YOUNG LAHVA.
The larva when first hatched is nearly white, but soon becomes
pinkish. The head and thoracic plate are darker. It is at this time
about 1 mm. in length and quite slender.
Fio. 3.— The pink corn-worm: Eggs, highly magnified. (Original.)
THE FULL-GROWN LARVA.
When full grown the larva of this species bears some resemblance
to that of the Indian-meal moth (Plodia inter punctella). It is, how-
ever, considerably smaller and more slender, and is
somewhat flattened by comparison. It may be de-
scribed as follows:
Wlien fully extended it is about eight times as long as wide.
Head quite narrow, in contour nearly identical with that of
Plodia; of the same pale brown color, with sutures well marked,
and appendages and mouth-parts still darker. Thoracic plate
nearly one-third wider than head, well divided at middle; light
brown dorsally and dark brown at sides. Thorax and dorsum
sparsely covered with concolorous piliferous tubercles with incon-
spicuous hairs. Body entirely pale cameous or pinkish; lower
surface showing slight cameous tint in first two thoracic joints and
Anal plate quite small, about the same color as the head. Legs
Fio. 4.— The pink
com- worm: Egg,
highly magnified.
(Original.)
along the sides.
whitish
1.2 mm.
and rather short. Prolegs consisting of five pairs. Length, 8 mm.; width,
The full-grown larva is illustrated in figures 1 and 5.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
6
BULLETIN 363, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTURE.
The arrangement or pattern of the pmk color is shown in figure 5.
It appears to be distinctive.
THE PUPA.
Somewhat robust, about three times as long as wide; head subtruncately rotinded
at apex; eyes large, black, passing under the basal joints of antennae, showing plainly
at the sides and from the back; wing-cases and antennal cases reaching nearly to
penultimate segment; segments well-defined, last segment with rounded area near
middle and terminating with several short, delicate bristles curved at extreme apices
like minute hooks; color yellowish brown.
Length, about 4.5 mm.; width, 1.5 mm.
Figure 6 shows the ventral view of the pupa at the left and the
ventral view in outline at the right.
THE GOCOON.
The larva spins rather copiously and when fully mature it makes a
cocoon of silk, coated somewhat irregularly on the outer surface with
frass and other accumulations. A cocoon before
the writer measures 7 mm. in length and 2.8 nun.
in width, being subcylindrical and a little larger at
the end where the head rests than at the anal end.
The cocoons vary considerably in appearance, some
being much flattened as shown in Plate II. The
one described was deposited on a dry husk and
partakes of the faded gray color of the latter.
DISTRIBUTION.
As has already been stated, this species has thus
far been found most abundantly in Mississippi but
it inhabits all of the States bordering on the Gulf,
as also Arkansas, Tennessee, South Carolina, and
Georgia. (Fig. 7.) The southernmost point from
which it has been reported is Brownsville, Tex., and
it.is without doubt present in Mexico. The most
northern point is in Tennessee. The species is also
' found in Hawaii and may be native to the Orient^
although we have no record of this. The probabili-
ties are that it is not indigenous to Hawaii but may be to Mexico and
our Gulf States.
RECORDS OF INJURY.
The reports which follow are not verbatim but they give a very
good idea of the nature of injury in different localities and the opin-
ions of practical growers in regard to losses and danger of future
injuries.
INJURY DURING 1914.
November 9, 1914, Mr. W. B. Thomasson, jr., Murfreesboro, Ark,,
sent many ears of old, musty com, badly injured by the pink com-
FiG. 5.— The pink corn-
worm: FuIl-gro^Ti lar-
va, dontal view. En-
larged. (Original.)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE PINK COBN-WOEM.
worm as evidenced by abundant webbed-up excrement. He stated
that this species, together with the rice weevil, whose presence was
shown by characteristic holes in the com, was at that time destroying
all com in the crib throughout the country, and that if not prevented
from so doing the ''worms'' would destroy all the com there.
November 28, Mr. R. W. Hamed, entomologist, Mississippi Agri-
cultural and Mechanical College, Agricultural College, Miss., sent
specimens of com which were badly infested with this small pink
larva. Rewrote:
During the past few weeks we have received dozens of complaints from correspond-
ents in regard to the damage caused by these insects. Some claim that practically
all of their com has been consumed by these small ''pink worms.'' Many who claim
to have raised com for years state that they have never before seen anything of this
kind. Although I have received dozens of samples of these insects I have so far
been able to rear only one adult or moth, and
I have noticed only one kind of larva. They
are these little pink larvse that make webs
wherever they go. In some cases they eat
the entire grains.
In order to furnish you with an idea as to
what farmers in Mississippi think about the
pink corn-worm I quote from a few letters
on file as they come to me:
Mr. W. M. Taylor, Kilmichael, Miss.,
wrote , " I am sending specimens of small pink
worms which are doing considerable damage
in this section to stored com."
Geoi^ge M. Bates, Union, Miss., wrote,
"There is a small worm of a reddish color
eating up the com in the bins. I want to
know the origin of this worm and what rem-
edy to use to stop its work. "
J. H. Kice, Sardis, Miss., wrote, **I have
inspected and find a small red worm in
every ear of com. * * * It seems to be
eating the com severely. I have looked at several other places around Sardis and find
them in every place . ' '
C. S. Tindall, Winona, Miss., wrote, "I am sending some pink worms found in my
com. Every ear has from 1 to 50 worms and the com that has been in the bam
longest seems toorst infested. The recent cold weather did not kill them on the com in
the fields."
Jason N. McColl, McCoU, Miss., wrote, **Am inclosing small box of worms which
are very numerous in everyone's com in this section. "
L. P. Bell, West, Miss., wrote, "We find a small pihk-colored worm in our com.
TTiey enter the grain at the little end next to the cob and eat up the grains. Some farmers
report that cribs of com have been destroyed in places. Investigation shows that they
are in all cribs of com in more or less quantities and the farmers are becoming very
uneagy for fear the entire com crop will be devoured. They appear to be worse in
damaged com but are found in sound ears too. "
G.C.Tucker, Tyro, Miss., wrote « « « "I am sending an ear of com. You will
see how it is damaged . My entire crop is infested with this insect; in fact, it is almost
half ruined. I want to crib my corn at once but an afraid to do so in the condition it
is in."
Fio. 6.— The pink oom-worm: Pupa, yentral
view at right, lateral view at left Enlarged.
(Original.)
Digiti
zed by Google
8
BULLETIN 363, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
M. D. DosB, DoflBville, MisB., wrote, ''I am sending an ear of com which has aome
kind of a worm in it that is eating it up. It is a very small pink-looking worm. I have
heard a great many people in this community talking about this worm in their com.
Please tell me what it is and how to get rid of the same. "
W. H. EUard, Kosciusko, Miss., wrote, "Would like to know what to do for my com.
I find a small pink worm about the size of a large needle. They seem to work from top
to butt. Would like to know what to do to destroy them at once. I have 600 bushels
infested this way. ' '
W. L. Synnott, Embry, Miss., wrote, **The com in this section is infested with a
small pink worm which seems to be doing considerable damage. *'
J. B. Harris, Stewart, Miss., wrote * « * "I am sending you an ear of com
infested with a worm that I am informed is destroying entire cribs of com in aome
sections. Practically all of the com in this section is more or less infested."
Fio. 7.— Map showing dlstributfon of the pink oom-wonn in the United States.
(Original.)
L. L. Wilson, Ethel, Miss., wrote, ** There is a little red worm eating my com — doing
a lot of damage."
J. W. Johnson, Rio, Miss., wrote, **I am sending you specimens of worms that are
eating up everybody's com in this country."
On December 8, Mr. Hamed again wrote in regard to. this species,
furnishing the following notes concerning correspondence duiing
November:
* * * **From the large number of letters that I have received this pest ia un-
doubtedly most serious in Attala County and the counties immediately joining it.
There can be no doubt that this insect is causing an immense amount of damage in
this State at the present time. The farmers have become excited about it and nxany
have called me over the long-distance telephone and every mail brings in letters in
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE PINK COKN-WOBM. 9
regard to it. We find the ears infested in the fields as well as in the cribs. I am sure
^lat they work on sound cobs.
Mr. L. P. Bell, West, Miss., whose letter has just been quoted in
brief, wrote:
Investigation shows that they are in all cribs of com * * * the farmers are
becoming uneasy about the crop. They appear to be worst in damaged com but are
foiind in sound ears too.
Mr. Thos. H. Jones, who has been working imder the writer's
direction, makes practically the same statement, and Mr. J. B. Grar-
rett. Assistant Director of the North Louisiana Experiment Station,
Calhoim, La., imder date of November 24, 1915, wrote as follows:
It would appear from my observation, which of course is rather limited, that the
"pink corn-worm" is found in ears of com most frequently where they have been
previously injured by bollworms, birds, etc., hiu I have seen them in ears which were
perfectly sound and showed no signs of other injury.
We must accept this as the truth in spite of the fact that the writer
and several others have never seen any infested ear of com which
was not first attacked, if ever so lightly, at the tip of the husk by the
boUworm or some other insect, giving ample opportunity for the moth
of this species to deposit her eggs.
On December 2 Mr. W. H. Home wrote from Laurel, Miss., that
his community was thrown into considerable confusion by the dis-
covery of a Uttle pink oom-worm which was doing damage to many
cribs of corn. As the pest seemed to be comparatively new he was
desirous of any information that would enable the growers to stem
its ravages. He desired also a personal visit from an agent of the
department. •
The Bureau of Entomology received later, through Hon. T. U.
Sisson, a commimication from Mr. W. B. Rainey, Hesterville, Miss.,
stating that there was a httle worm known as the "pink worm'' in
that country eating the com after it was cribbed. Information in
regard to some remedy was m gently requested. The statement that
the insect formed a web at the little end of the ear, and from there
proceeded downward eating and webbing, left no doubt that this was
the species in question.
On December 5 Mr. R. P. Wright, wrote from Carthage, Miss.,
amply describing this insect, saying that it threatened to destroy tho
com in that vicinity, and that numbers were imbedded in almost
every ear of corn, which they ate most voraciously.
INJURY DURING 1915.
During January, 1915, ears of com showing average infestation
of the pink corn-worm were received from Mr. K. H. Diggs, Lexing-
ton, Miss.; there were three varieties of com taken from five different
cribs. The com was planted between April 5 and May 10, and har-
26427**~Bull. 363—16 2
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
10 BULLETIN 363, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE.
vested in October flud November. Mr. Diggs reported that he found
the worst damage in immature or imperfect ears where the boUwonn
or birds had attacked the ear.
During the last days of December, and on January 1, this species
was reared from different lots of com received from Mississippi.
One of these locaUties is Sardis; another is Batesville. The material
was received about November 19.
Twenty ears of com were received on January 7 from Mr. Thos. H,
Jones, of the Bureau of Entomology, Baton Rouge, La.; all were
imperfect, every ear having been injured and much stunted by the
corn-ear worm (Helioihis ohsoleta). The larval forms of Batm^hedra
rileyi were crawling over the husks of the com in great numbers,
as also on the inside of the bags, seeking a suitable spot for pupa-
tion. There were approximately 400 larvae of various sizes. The
larvae worked on the underside of the grain, especially in the decaying
grains or parts of the ears, but the actual damage resulting in this
instance was not great. Pup» were also found in various places —
in the husks, beneath the hollow grain, in the cob, and among the
castings on the ear. Mr. Jones wrote as follows:
Larvse were common in undeveloped and poorly formed ears of yellow flint com in
a field at Baton Rouge, on January 2. The valuable ears had been pulled from the
stalks in the fall, the stalks at present being dead and brown and, for the most part,
still standing. The larvae were found beneath the husk, working on the surface of Ihe
cob among the remains of the kernels, many of which have never matured.
January 29, Mr. J. J. W. Smith, Waterford, Marshall Coimty, Miss.,
sent three ears of com badly infested with the little worms. They
were described as doing much damage to the com.
They go from one end to the other in the heart of the com. Shucking the com out
is the best and safest way to save the com. Cold weather does hot seem to have any
eftect on them while the shuck is on the com. But when the com is shucked and
knocked about it helps the com and does not give the worms such a good chance.
February 1, Mr. W. T. McDonald, Bailey, Miss., sent specimens
working in corn ears injured by the corn-ear worm, with the state-
ment—
we attribute the heavy infestation of the worms this season to the extreme dry weather
while the com was making. I find on my place that the com worst hurt by the
drought is worst infested by the ** worms." * * * I have never had any experi-
ence with the pest prior to the present season, and I may be in error.
Similar complaints were also received of injury to com from various
other localities, as foUows: Brownsville, Tex., reported by M. M.
High; Lawrence, Union, Saltillo, Harris, Louin, Battlefield, Chimky,
Coila, Beach, and Thyatira, Miss.; Fayette, Ala., and Scott, Ark.
The insect has been reported by Prof. J. M. Beal, Agricultural Col-
lege, Miss., to have attacked Kafir com. During November of 1915
complaint of injury by this species was made at Quitman, Miss.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE PINK COEN-WOEM. 11
January 16, 1915, Mr. C. E. Smith collected in the field at Baton
Houge, La., and sent to the writer several cobs of com in the husk.
The cobs were poorly formed, most of them having few developed
grains, and they showed old work of the com stalk-borer (Diatraea
Sdccharalis Fab.) and of the corn-ear worm. A nimxber of adults of the
xice weevil (Calandra oryza L.) were present in the husks, and adults
of Caihartua gemeUatus Duv. were abundant in the same situation.
The pink corn-worm was f oimd among the leaves of the husk, in
the kernels, and in the cob itself. Larvae of various sizes were present,
but were ^oaostly nearly full-grown, judging from some that were
observed in silken cocoons in all locations where larvae were observed.
It was difficult in this case to estimate how much feeding had been,
•done on the husks, kernels, and cobs by the Batrachedra larvae
because of the injury by, and the presence of, other insects. Larvae
of Cathartus gemellatua and of Sitotroga cereaXeUa were also present
and may have caused some injury. It seems, however, that a part
of the silk and most of the small pellets are due to the work of the
Batrachedra larvae and that some of the cavities in the kernels were
due to them.
Messrs. Thos. H. Jones and C. E. Smith found the pink corn-worm
in various sizes, some apparently full-grown, working on ears of
sweet com, in company with several other species. In some ears
they were working where the husk was still green and in some cases
where the husk had begun to dry. The larvae followed attack by
other insects, or where from some other cause a portion of the ear
had become exposed as from injury by birds, and ** nipping oflf'' of
the tips by a horse, etc. In many cases the ears in which they were
working were in bad condition, being so injured as to be of little value.
At Baton Rouge, La., on July 24, 1915, moths were placed in a jar
containing yellow commeal with a piece of sponge moistened in
sweetened water, the jar being placed in the insectary. The first
moth, coming from eggs laid by moths placed in the jar at this date,
was noted on September 30. The time taken for the development
would indicate, when compared with the rate of growth on other
substances, that commeal is not a particularly good food for the
larvae. It will be noted here that it was possible to rear this insect
in commeal in experiments conducted at Washington. Another
point should be made, namely, that infestation in Louisiana has not
been anywhere near as severe as in Mississippi, and that most of the
com ears received from the latter State were in exceedingly bad
condition.
EABLIER RECORDS.
From correspondents of the Bureau of Entomology we have had
this species from Colquitt, Perry, and Atlanta, Ga., and New Orleans,
La., in cotton bolls.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
12 BULLETIN 363, U. S. DEPAETMENT OF AGRICULTUBE.
In September of 1894 and again in November, 1895, specimens in
the several stages, together with ears of com in which the insect was
living, were kindly sent the writer by Mr. E. A. Schwarz, who gathered
them in the field at Baton Bonge, La., and Beeville, Tex., respec-
tively.
June 6, 1909, Mr. D. K. McMillan sent some of this species feeding
in the seed-heads of sorghum from Eingsville, Tex. About the same
time he sent specimens of what he described as "pink larvae, " com-
mon under the shuck on com ears, from Santa Maria, Tex. Later he
sent more material from Eingsville, Tex., from which six adults were
found on Jime 25, three on July 10, one on July 12, and more on
July 13, 16, and 26. On Jime 20 he found this species working in com
in the husk at Beeville, Tex. November 9 of the same year the larva
was again found in the heads of sorghum.
During 1912 specimens were received from Mr. M. M. High, Bureau
of Entomology. On February 16 they were found working on corn.
Seven living larvae were placed in cornmeal and all died in two days.
During 1913 this species was received in dasheens (Cdoectsia sp.)
from Mr. R. A. Young, Brooksville, Fla. The adults issued Decem-
ber 3 and continued to issue from the dry conns.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
Our early literature bearing on the biology of this moth, if we ex-
cept line notices and brief mention,* is contained in the accounts of
Townend Glover. In his first two entomological reports (Glover,
1855, 1856) its habits are described and the insect in its several stages
figured. In the first article the species is treated under the name
of "grain moth (Tinm?)"; in the second as the "com worm
(HeliotTies'i).'* Afterwards ia his Manuscript Notes from My
Journal, or Entomological Index (Glover, 1877) the same writer
refers to this species as Tinea graneUa, throwing the responsibility of
its previous determination as '^IleliothesV^ upon D. J. B[rowne]. He
found it in the cornfields of South Carolina and Gteoigia in September
and says: ^*It infests the cornfields, where it is sheltered by the
husks, and burrows between the grains, upon which it feeds, some-
what in the manner of the Angoumois moth, except that the kemeb
are more irregularly eaten,'' and that ''these worms also appear to
attack com out of the field as well as in.'' Beyond this statement
the writer is not aware that the insect has ever been mentioned as
occurring in the granary, but from personal experience several years
ago it was learned that it feeds upon the ripened com and is per-
fectly capable of living indoors and that it imquestionably does so.
Whether it is possible for the species to breed ah ovo in stored, i. e.,
1 In the American Entomologist for May, 1880 (v. 3, p. 129), and again on page 121 of the appendix of
the Fourth Report of the United States Entomological Commission, Incldeiital mention is made of thk
species with the comment that, according to Chambers, it is a new species of Lavenia.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE PINK COBN-WOEM. 13
dry, grain, it was at that time impossible to say. Glover also men-
tioned the occmrence of the insect in cotton bolb that had previously
been pierced by the bollworm or split open by the rot.
In an article on the cowpea-pod weevil (Chalcodermus deaeus Boh.)
the writer (Chittenden, 1904) mentioned the fact that the holes left
in. the pods affected by this weevil, which were formed by cracking
or otherwise, led to secondary infestation by other insects. Among
those reared during that year from cowpea was the species under
consideration.
In a paper by Mr. E. S. Tucker published in 1911 (Tucker, 1911)
mention of this species is made as follows: "Larvae of this moth were
frequently foimd in fallen bolls associated with and without Araecerus
fasciculatas or its work. The larva is supposed to feed on insect
remains." Again in the same article Mr. Tucker notes the finding
of the same species at Alexandria, La., September 18, 1908, ''in
cornstalks infested by Araecerus fascictilatus, or where the latter
had worked and left, and decay had begun," * * * "particu-
larly in rotting, rain-soaked stalks"; the adults maturing in the
breeding cage October 22-29. Mr. Tucker also reports that he found
it '' in green cornstalks, and sometimes in ear tips injured by the com
worm, Hdiothis ohsoleta Fab., at same place, August 2, 1909," and
that ''Mr. J. D. Mitchell submitted pupal cases taken from Araecerus
cavities, in cornstalks at Victoria, Tex., March 7, 1909."
In his article on insects which affect the cotton plant. Dr. L. O.
Howard (Howard, 1896) mentions this species in connection with
its occurrence in yoimg cotton bolls, and states that there was a gen-
eral behef among planters that the species acts independently of
cotton-worm damage. He added:
ThiB statement, however, has not yet been satisfactorily substantiated so far as it
refers to the bolls. In the young squares, however, the active little reddish larva of
this Batrachedra is very often found as unquestionably an original inhabitant, and it
undoubtedly frequently causes quite an extensive shedding of the squares. This,
however, occurs only in the spring, at a time when there is a surplus of bloom and when
many squares can be spared without great reduction of the crop. lAter in the season
the BatiBchedra larva is found boring in the unopened flower hc^s of various weeds.
The following year the writer (Chittenden, 1897) published some
notes on this species, identifying Glover's corn-feeding tineid as
Batrdchedra rUeyi.
In 1909 Mr. Otto H. Swezey (1909) repeats Walsingham's descrip-
tion and states that the larva was f oimd in Hawaii feeding in various
situations, most frequently on dead vegetable matter or refuse sub-
stances, and that therefore it was not particularly injurious. The
larva was observed feeding beneath leaf -sheaths of dead cane; also in
"borered'' cane stalks in places where the leaves were dirty and
sticky from the attack of aphides or leafhoppers. It was also found
working in the tassels and very numerous in sweet-com ears, feeding
Digiti
zed by Google
14 BULLETIN 363, U. S. DEPAKTMENT OP AGRICULTUBE.
on the ''silks/' inner husks, pith, and other parts of the cob; also in
ears of field com, eating into the kernels and cobs. At another time
he observed it on a large woody twining bean vine, feeding on dying
leaves and ripening pods, especially where there was an acciunulation
of webs and frass, or where other insects had been at work. Among
other food plants he mentioned lantana, palm leaves, and the dead
leaves of Pandanus, banana, and ' ' various other plants. ' ' On banana
the larv8B fed in the bunch on the dead or injured fruit and on the
skin of the ripened fruit which they sometimes pimctured, even eating
into the fruit within.
ASSOCIATED INSECTS.
It has already been reported that this species usually follows tlie
attack of the corn-ear worm (Hdiothis ohsoleta Fab. [PL I]), which,
is true of most other forms of stored-grain insects in the South. At
about the same time the rice weevil (Calandra oryza L.) enters the
com but does not seem to work with the same rapidity as does the
species in question. Later, in all probability, another species which
is quite common, the square-necked grain beetle (Cathartus gemeHatus
Duv.) enters the ears and causes considerable damage both in the
field and in store. This same insect is often found associated with
the pink corn-worm in cotton bolls, and breeds in the same. The rice
weevil occasionally enters cotton bolls, especially when they are on 'the
ground, but does not breed in them, inerely entering them for shelter
or for hibernation. The Angoumois grain moth (Sitotroga cerealeUa
Zell.) also breeds in com with the species under consideration but thiu
far has not been found in many instances. It was observed at Agri-
cultural (College, Miss., in a sending dated November 28. The sor-
ghum midge (Contarinia sorghicola Coq.) was also found associated
with the pink corn-worm in soi^hum seed from Brownsville, Tex.,
collected by A. K. McMillan, Nov. 9, 1909. A common moth {[NolaJ
Nigetia sorghiella RiJey) was found in the same lot with the sorghum
midge and it is probable that in this case the pink corn-worm fol-
lowed attack of the Nigetia moth.
Among other associated insects are the foreign graui beetle
{Cathartus advena Walt.) and the coffee-bean weevil (Araeceru^
fasciculatus DeG.). The former is of comparatively little economic
importance, feeding for the most part on stale grain, fruits, and other
stored material, being naturally of a scavenging nature. Neverthe-
less, it has been quite troublesome during the past two years. The
latter attacks coffee beans, mace, dried figs, and various othOT dried
articles of conmierce, and is also found somewhat commonly in
diseased cotton bolls. A small ortalid fly (Euxesta anonae Fab.)
was reared January 29, 1914, from dasheen (Goloc(ma sp.) affected
with the pink corn-worm. This last species is without doubt a natural
feeder on dasheen, but no record of its habits is available.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE PINK COBN-WOBM. 15
To show how severe is the injury wrought by the pink corn-worm,
an ear of com which has been infested only about 10 months is shown
in Plate III. The larvae w^e swarming under the husk, which has
been removed to show the extensive webbing and injury to the
kernels. For comparison with this is shown another ear of com
(PI. IV) which was infested originally by the Angoumois grain moth
and afterwards by the Indian-meal moth and rice weevil. At the
time the photograph was made the Indian-meal moth had escaped,
leaving its webbing. The latter ear weighs about twice as much as
the f ormOT. The ear in Plate III was the best that could be found
out of eight infested by the pink corn-worm, while that in Plate IV
was picked at random to show the holes made by the Angoumois
grain moth in escaping from the kernels and the extensive and pecul-
iar webbing of the Indian-meal moth. In Plate III the pink corn-
worm was still working in numbers, but in Plate IV neither of the
moths mentioned could be found in any stage. While the ear in
Plate rV had been held in store for two years, that in Plate III had
been stored only 10 months.
NATURAL ENEMIES.
For some tmexplained reason this insect appears to have few
natural enemies, <wily one parasite having been reared. It is more
than probable, however, that some predaceous insects, as well as bats
and nocturnal birds, attack the moth when in flight in the fields and
about the infested cribs. From larvae received from Mr. E. A.
Schwarz in cotton bolls gathered at Virginia Point, Tex., December,
1878, an ichnexmion parasite issued March 3, 1879, and was identified
^Pimpla sp. (U. S. D. A. No. 1041 P.°).
METHOD^ OF CONTROL.
e
Bulletin No. 363, D. S. Dept. of Agric. ®
i
CORRECTIOM SLIP.
Page 15. first paragraph under "Methods of
control", second line, for increased
read ^decreased." (Typographical error.) k
il
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
16 BULLETIN 363, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The additional handling incident to the husking process is also of
benefit, as many of the larvss are dislodged thereby, and the husked
ears afford little concealment for pupation and for the feeding of
the larv8B.
The best ears when dry could be saved to a considerable extent
by placing them in an isolated weevil-and-mouse-proof fumigator
such as a metal crib, to be made as nearly air-tight as possible.
CABBON BISULPHID.
In the South, where the pink corn-worm is so injurious, bisulphid
of carbon is the best remedy and has already been used for its control.
Carbon bisulphid, or bisulphid of carbon (CS,), is a heavy liquid,
colorless when pure, and is one of the standard chemicals for the
control of insects injurious to stored products. Its value lies in the
fact that it is extremely volatile, passing into the open air as a heavy
gas which settles to the bottom of receptacles in which the liquid is
exposed and, by replacing the air, causes suffocation. It is much
used against the Angoumois grain moth and various other insects
injurious to com and other cereals. It is less poisonous to human
beings than hydrocyanic-acid gas and, while there is danger from
fire owing to its inflammabiUty, with a reasonable amount of care
this chemical may be cheaply and effectively applied to almost any
stored product infested by insects.
It is more effective at a high temperature, 76° to 90° F. proving
the best for its use. It is less effective under 70°, and not efficient as
low as 50° F.
DIRECTIONS FOR USE.
Since carbon bisulphid is extremely volatile, it is best evaporated
in flat vessels — ^milk pans, pie tins, and cheap plates serving this
purpose admirably. An average application is 2 or 3 pounds to 1,000
cubic feet of air space, or 1 pound to 100 bushels. Less may be \ised,
but it has been found that in a structure which can not be made
positively air-tight it is necessary to use this amount to insure
success. The liquid is poured into the evaporators, a half pint or
more in each, and, as the gas is heavier than air, the evaporators are
then placed in the higher parts of the bin or fumigator. Evaporating
pans are frequently set on the top of the grain, allowing the gas to
penetrate to the bottom, or, in the case of shelled com, a perforated
tube, such as a drive-well point, may be thrust into the grain and the
requisite amount of the liquid poured therein.
When the gas is used in open bins or other receptacles the surface
of the grain should be covered with heavy tarpaulin or canvas. The
bin should be kept closed as tightly as possible for about 36 hours;
this will not destroy the germinating power of the seed. With grains
not desired for planting the bins may be allowed to remain closed as
long as the gas evaporates.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 363, U, S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Plate III.
Ear of Corn from which the Husk has been Removed to Show Severe
Injury by the Pink Corn-Worm. (Original,)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 363, U. S. Dept. of A^rriculture.
Plate IV.
Corn Ear Showing Infestation by the Anqoumois Grain
Moth (Sitotroqa cerealella) and Afterwards by
THE Indian-Meal Moth (Plodia interpunctella).
(Original.)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE PINK CORN-WORM. 17
The pink corn-worm and associated insect pests which have been
mentioned enter the seed of grain in the field, so that treatment is
most effective if made as soon as possible after harvest.
In the case of small quantities of seed a tight barrel may be used as
a receptacle. One or two ounces of carbon bisulphid may be placed
in a small saucer or pie tin upon the top of the grain and the top of
the barrel covered with heavy cloths or oilcloth.
In the fumigation of a large building at least two, and preferably
three, men should assist in the operation. The building should be
tightly closed and the pans or containers for the liquid distributed
about the building. Then, as far as possible, the work should be
begun in the lower parts of the building, working toward the top.
After the cubic capacity of the building and of the separate rooms
has been computed, the requisite quantity should be divided among
the pans in each room, about one pan to each 100 square feet of floor
space being used. After the liquid has been pomred into the pan
the room should be left at once and the other parts of the building
treated in the same manner. While the gas is not immediately fatal,
it is well not to inhale too much of it, since nausea and severe headache
are likely to result. After the building has been treated in the manner
mentioned, exit should be made promptly and the doors tightly
closed.
At the end of the period of exposure doors and windows should be
opened wide so that the gas may escape. One or two hours should
then elapse before work is resumed in the building. A slight odor
may still linger in the poorly ventilated comers of rooms but there
will be no danger to occupants from the gas, and the odor will gradu-
ally disappear with ventilation.
PRBCAXmONS.
Particular attention must be called to the danger from fire due to
the presence of carbon bisulphid in the air, and special reference
should be made to it in connection with the treatment of buildings.
The danger of bringing a lighted cigar or other lights, such as a
lantern, into the presence of the gas must always be borne in mind,
since in at least one case an explosion of considerable violence was
caused by such carelessness.
The application should always be made in daylight, as no arti-
ficial light of any kind is allowable. Even electric lights may not be
used, since there is always danger from the sparks caused by tiuning
them on and off. Electric and other motors and steam pipes should
be turned off, that no danger may result from the sparks or heat.
Owners of adjoining premises should be warned as to the charac-
ter of the work that is being done and the need for care if vapor
should penetrate their rooms to any extent.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
18 BULLETIN 363, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGBICULTURE.
It would bo an added measure of safety if a watchmaa WOTe
kept on guard on the premises from the time the application is
made until ventilation is complete. It would also be well to place
large *' DANGER'' signs on the doors.
OTHER REMEDIES.
Among other remedial measures storage of com in large bulk is
recommended, since the surface layers of shelled com or other grain
are most exposed to infestation while the lower portions are not so
apt to be injured, if at all. The larvae could penetrate corn in the
ear to a considerable depth, but, as their life is short, this is probably
seldom done. The moths are imable to do so. Agitation applied to
a mass of grain is also destructive to the moths, since they are unable
to extricate themselves and perish in the attempt. Cold storage
may be employed for valuable seed com, and naphthalene balls may
be used for the same purpose. The most scrupulous cleanliness
should always be observed, much injury due to stored grain insects
being directly traceable to disregard of this. Old grain and refuse
material containing sweepings of grain, dust, dirt, and rubbish in
general should not be allowed to accumulate and serve as breeding
places for injiu-ious insects.
In conclusion, it should be stated that promptness is absolutely
necessary for the control of the pink corn-worm and that bisulphid
of carbon can not be profitably used in open cribs, so that if this
insect continues its ravages it may be necessary to construct special
fimiigating buildings and to store the com in tighter receptacles than
the cribs and bins now used.
SUMMARY.
1. The so-called pink corn- worm is not a true worm, but the cater-
pillar or larva of a minute moth known as Batrachedra rileyi,
2. Attack on com begins in the field and continues after the com
has been stored. When the stored product is husked, the infested
ears show injury by accumulations of webbing and frass or excre-
mentitious matter. A careful inspection discloses the *'pink worm."
3. The eggs are deposited in the field where the tips of the com
ears are more or less open, due to the attack of the corn-ear worm.
After the latter has departed the pink corn-worm continues the
injury and by its work makes it easy for other insects and water to
enter the ears, which eventually are ruined.
4. From the cob or between the rows of grains the worm pene-
trates the kernels at the tip or point of attachment, works into the
embryo or '"germ," which it destroys, then outward to the crown.
5. Unlike the Angoumois grain moth and the rice weevil, which
are usually to be found working in the same fields and f i^equently in
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
THE PINK CORN- WORM. 19
the same ears, this "worm" does not confine itself to the kernel, but
attacks kernel, husk, and cob alike.
6. Also, imlike most other grain pests, it appears to be confined
among cereals to com and soi^hum, although it attacks, but does
not seriously injure, cotton bolls which are more or less open, and
some other plants.
7. While thus far it has proved most injurious in Mississippi, it
ranges from South Carolina westward to central Texas, southward
to tropical Texas, and northward to Arkansas and Tennessee.
8. During the years 1914-15 the pink corn-worm was reported to
have occasioned very considerable injury, and much alarm was felt
because of its abundance in the regions mentioned. Previously,
although known to attack com, it has never been considered a serious
enemy of grain.
9. Naturally it can not be foretold when, if ever, such an outbreak
will recur.
10. As a preventive of injury, com should be left in the field no
longer than is absolutely necessary for drying it; the husks should
then be removed as soon as possible, the poorest of the infested ears
destroyed promptly or fed to swine or poultry, and the best ears
fumigated with carbon bisulphid according to the directions given
on previous pages.
1 1. The bins or cribs should be kept scrupulously clean, and should
be fumigated before new material is stored in them.
12. Cooperation among com growers of as large a territory as
possible where the species occurs should be secured, that future losses
may be prevented.
BIBUOGRAPHY.
1855. Glover, Townbnd. Insects injurious and beneficial to vegetation. In Rpt.
Comr. Patents f. 1854, p. 59-87.
A half-page general aoooant with spedal reference to the ooonrrenoe of the species in com.
Mention as the "grain moth ( TineA f)." " lATvae attack com out of the field as well as ta/' p.
65-66, pi. 4.
1856. Glover, Townend. Insects. In Rpt. Ck>mr. Patents f. 1855, p. 64-121.
An account of the same general character as the preceding and with particular reference to
occurrence of larvie in diseased cotton bolls. Mention as " Heliothes t" p. 08, pi. 9, fig. 3.
1877. Glover, Townend. Manuscript Notes from My Journal, 103 p. Washington,
D. C.
Mention as Tinea granelia, '* l[arva] injures maixe; found ta old cotton bolls; prob for seed,"
p. 73.
1878. Glover, Townend. Manuscript Notes from My Journal. Cotton. 2 p.,
22 pi.
A lithographic plate showing the moth, larva, pupa, cocoon, and work of larva in kernel
of com.
1882-83. Walsingham, Lord. Notes on Tineidse of North America. In Trans.
Amer. Ent. Soc., v. 10, p. 165-204.
Original description. "Bred from rotten ootton-bolb." Notes on larval habits of genus,
which is naturally scavenging.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
20 BULLETIN 363, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTXJBE.
1896. Howard, L. O. The insects which affect the cotton plant in the United States.
In U. S. Dept. Agr. Office Expt. Stas. Bui. 33, p. 317-360, pi. 4, fig. 9-29.
Also U. S. Dept. Agr. Fanners' Bui. 47.
Note on ooourrence of larvie in cotton bolls and young squares; in lattor stated to be "unquee-
tionably an original inhabitant/' p. 348.
1897. Chtttendbn, F. H. Some little-known insects affecting stored vegetable
products. U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Ent. Bui. 8, n. s., 45 p., 10 ^,
Quotations from published writings, with what seems to be the first public recognition oi
this species as an enemy of stored corn and as the " Tinea gmneOa ' ' of Glover.
1904. Chittenden, F. H. The cowpea-pod weevil (Chalcodermus aeneua B6bi,). In
U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Ent. Bui. 44, p. 39-43, fig. 13-16.
Mention as having been reared with Batnckedra riUfl Wals. in cowpeas.
L909. SwEZET, Otto H. The Hawaiian sugar cane bud moth (Ereunetis flavistriata).
Hawaiian Sugar Planters* Assoc. Div. Ent. Bui. 6, 40 p., 4 pi.
Qnoted description; larva beneath lea^sheaves of sugar cane; in sweet com ears^ feeding on
''silks/' inner husks, and pith; eating kernels of com on cobs; in dead leaves of Pandanus,
banana, and other plants. Life history in brief.
1911. Tucker, E. S. Random notes on entomological field work. In Canad. Ent.,
V. 43, no. 1, p. 22-32.
Occurrence of larva in cotton bolls with AraecenufaaciexiUUtu, in cornstalks infested by same,
in green cornstalks, and in tips of ears injured by HeUothU obtoUta.
ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PT7BUCATION MAT BE PBOCX7KKD FBOM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUifENlfl
OOVSRNMENT PRDTriNO OFFICE
WASBmaTON, D. C.
AT
10 CENTS PER COPY
WASHINOTON : GOVBRNMEXT PRIXTIXO OFFICE : 1»1«
Digiti
zed by Google
/9aj.' 3 if,
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLCTIN No, 364
Contribotlon from the FotmC Senrlce,
HENBT 8. GRATES, Foraaler
Washington, D. C.
Aprfl 15, 1916
FOREST CONSERVATION FOR STATES IN THE
SOUTHERN PINE REGION.
/ -^ /
By J. GiBViN Peters, ChieJ of State Cooperatidjf^-
■J*'-
CONTENTS.
Page.
The sltaatkm summed up 1
What the lumber industry means to the
wmtham pine States 3
Forest fires 4
Unrestcioted grazing 7
Forest management .<v.
State-owned forests T
Legislation
How the Federal Qovemment will aid.
Literature
tPa^B.
- • ^8.
v-^ '8
9
13
14
THE SITUATION SUMMED UP.
A situation confronts the States of the southern pine region — Vir-
ginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama,
Misissippi, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, and Missouri — which, unless
met and controlled by adequate legislation, threatens seriously to
affect their future development and prosperity. The situation arises
from the removal of the pine and hardwood forests without proper
provision for restocking those cut-over areas, valuable chiefly for the
growing of timber, and from the destruction by fire of the young
trees and other vegetation on watersheds of important rivers, which
carries with it increased erosion, the silting up of stream channels,
and danger from floods.
If cutting continues at the present rate without provision being
made for new timber crops, southern yellow pine will in the course
of time cease to be an important commercial resource of the South.
It is now one of the chief sources of wealth, but it is probable that
NoTB. — ^The bulletin points out the essential elements in the various forest problems
that confront the States in the southern pine region, shows how these problems are inter-
related, and forms a basis on which may be founded a plan for solrfng them — matters
of great importance to lumbermen, farmers, and all others interested directly or indirectly
in the conservation of the timber resources of that region.
25987«— Bull. 364—16
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
2 BULLETIN 8C4, U. B. DBPARTKENT OP AGBIOULTUBB.
the annual cut has already reached the high point If pine is to
continue to play an important part in ocmunerce and indu^ry in the
South, steps will have to be taken now to protect cut-over areas from
fire and unrestricted grazing, and to manage them in/i way to insure
continuous production.
Investigations have shown that the removal of the forest ground
cover by repeated fires has increased the amount of soil washed into
such streams as the James, Eoanoke, Wateree, Savannah, Alabama,
Pearl, Red, Arkansas, Trinity, Brazos,- and Colorado (of Texas).
Great sums of money are spent annually in dredging work to remove
sand bars from the rivers of this region. Bare ground from which
rain nms off as quickly as it falls also increases the danger from
floods; and floods in the Southern States have in the past caused
millions of dollars damage to property and the loss of many lives.
Watershed protection will not of itself prevent floods, but it will
lessen their frequency and seriousness; and it will prevent excessive
erosion over the whole area covered.
The solution of feuch problems as these is necessary to the future
welfare of the whole community, and experience has demonstrated
beyond question that they can be solved satisfactorily only through
public action. Adequate forest legislation would involve in each
State:
(1) A nonpartisan department of forestry.
(2) A technically trained forester as State forester.
(3) A forest fire protective system.
(4) Cooperation with private owners and towns in preparing
plans for the management of timberlands and woodlots and for
commercial and shade tree planting.
(5) State-owned forests by gift or purchase.
(6) An adequate appropriation of funds.
Besides the steps just outlined, each State might well make an
examination of its own lands (if it possesses any), and withdraw
from sale those chiefly valuable for timber production, setting them
aside as State forests. Measures might also be taken to restrict the
rimning at large of live stock.
The southern pine States lie in a region especially favorable to
the rapid growth of desirable tree species and offer an exceptional
opportunity for the practice of forestry. Virginia, North Carolina,
and Texas already have adopted forest policies, but their combined
yearly appropriations for putting them into effect amount to less
than $20,000.
At the request of each of the States in the southern pine region,
except Georgia, and in cooperation with them, the Forest Service
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
F0BB8T COlfrSEEVATION TBf SOUTHEBN PTITB RBGIOlf. S
has mtniB studies of their forest c(H^ditions and reports have been
prepared and, in most cases, published either by the State or by the
Service.*
WHAT THE LUMBER INDUSTRY MEANS TO THE SOUTHERN PINE
STATES.
The manufacture of lumber and other timber products ranks first
among the industries of Alabama, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Vir-
ginia. It ranks second among the industries of Florida, Georgia,
Louisiana, and South Carolina, third among those of North Carolina
and Texas, and sixth among those of Missouri. Something like
16,000 sawmills operate in these States, and a large number of addi-
tional establishments manufacture coopierage stock, veneers, and
other forest products. These plants employ some 830,000 persons,
or about one-third of all the workers engaged in the various indus-
tries. The average annual lumber cut in the region amounts to
about 19,500,000,000 board feet, of which approximately three-
fourths is yellow pine. Assuming an average value for the liunber
of $14 per thousand feet, the total value of the annual cut would
amount to nearly $275,000,000. About a quarter of this sum repre-
sents the value of the stumpage from which the lumber is manu-
factured ; the greater part of the remainder is paid out in the form
of wages to residents of the region.
The amount of standing timber in the southern pine region has
been estimated by the Bureau of Corporations and the Forest Serv-
ice as 675,000,000,000 board feet, of which 385,000,000,000 feet is
yeUow pine, 40,000,000,000 feet cypress, and the remainder prin-
cipally hardwoods. At the present rate of cutting this amount will
last scarcely more than 35 years. Should there remain no commer-
cial bodies of yellow pine or prospect of any, after the present stands
are exhausted, the resultant loss to the people of the Southern States
in business and wages will be very seriously felt
The naval-stores industry, which is one of the most important in
the South and which depends upon yellow pine as a source of supply
1 " Forest Conditions In Virginia and Proposed Measures for Forest Protection," by W.
W. Ashe, HoQse Doc. No. V, Comma nicatlon from the Governor, 1910 ;
" Forest Conditions in Western North Carolina," by J. S. Holmes, Bull. No. 23, N. C.
Geol. and Econ. Surv., 1911 ;
"Forest Conditions in South Carolina," by W. M. Moore, Bull. No. 1, State Dept. of
Agric, Com. and Ind., 1910:
''Condition of Cut-over Longleaf Pine Lands in Mississippi," by J. S. Holmes and
J. H. Foster, Circ. 149, U. S. Dept. Agric. For. Ser.. 1908 : „ . . , „ „
*' Forest Conditions of Southwestern Mississippi,'* by J. S. Holmes and J. H. Foster,
Bull. No. 6, Miss. State Geol. Surv., 1908; ,.,-„« ^ .
" Forest Conditions of Mississippi," by C. B. Dunston, Bull. No. 7. Miss. State Geol.
Surv., 1910 ;
" Forest Conditions in Louisiana," by J. H. Foster, Bull. No. 114, U. S. Dept. Agric,
"Forest Resources of Texas," by William L. Bray, Bull. No. 47. U. S. Dept Agric.
"A Forest Policy for Texas," by J. G. Peters, San Antonio Express, Jan. 17,^1915 ;
" The Forest Resources of Arkansas," by Samuel J. Record, Circular of State Land
" Forest Conditions of the Ozark Region of Missouri." by Samuel J. Record, Bull. No.
89, University of Missouri, Agrtc Exp. Sta., 1910.
Digiti
zed by Google
4 BULLETIN 904, IT. 8. DBPABTMBHT 09P AGSICULTUBB.
for ttkipentine and rosin, has an annual output yalued at np^rioA-
mately $80,000,000. This industry, too, must either cease to exist or
else move its operations to other portions of the country, unless
provision is made now for a future supply of tis^ber suitable ior
turpentining. • i
FOREST FIRES.
The chief obstacle in the way of the conservatioii of the region^
timber supply is forest fires. These kill many trees of merchantable
size, destroy young trees and seedlings which otherwise would form
the basis for new timber crops, consume the ground cover and soil
humus, leaving the earth bare and subject to erosion, and sc»netimea
destroy human life.
As long ago as 1879, according to figures gathered for the entire
region in the Tenth Census, 729 fires burned more than 5,000,000
acres, causing a money loss in salable products and improvements
of $2,250,000. This estimate was undoubtedly low at tiie time that it
was made, since conditions were not favorable for gathering com-
plete figures.
While no other attempt has been made to obtain figures for the
entire region, the present annual loss is unquestionably much greater,
since the construction of railroads, the development of lumbering,
and the practice of brush burning have gone on steadily. North
Carolina is the only State in the southern pine region for which data
on the present damage from fire are available. During the five-year
period from 1909 to 1913 the average number of fires reported per
year in North Carolina was 633; the average area burned about
415,000 acres, and the average loss as follows:
Value of timber destroyed $100, 000
Value of young growth destroyed 204. 000
Value of forest products destroyed . 218, 000
Value of Improvements destroyed 66, 000
Total damage $648, 000
Number of lives lost 2
Cost to private Individuals to fight fire $19, 000
Concerning the value of young growth destroyed the State For-
ester of North Caroline says:
The growing realization of the value of unmerchantable young growth Is
perhaps the chief reason for the apparently high money loss. Whereas In
1911, the first year any general estimate was placed on destroyed young growth,
the loss from this one cause amounted to only 25 per cent of the total damage.
In 1912 It comprised 33 per cent, while In 1913 It has Increased to 45 pw cent
of the total estimated damage. An Instance of the growing recognition of the
destructlveness of woods fires comes from Transylvania Ck>unty. A farmer
there claimed $800 reduction in the tax valuation of his place because 900
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
FOEEST CONSBBTATION TS SOUTHEBlfT FINE REOIOIT. 5
acref^ had been burnt over. This reduction was granted by the county com-
missioners. The county therefore lost several dollars in taxes every year
from that one fire, besides the much more serious loss sustained by the farmer.
In North Carolina the destruction of mature timber is only a small part of
the fire damage, because the usual surface ihres, unless occurring late in the
spring, do not kill the larger trees. For this reason the value of the reproduc-
tion and young growth destroyed necessarily assumes large proportions.
And further concerning the total loss:
Tiie very serious annual loss from forest fires can perhaps best be brought
out by a comparison. The average loss from fires in North Carolina for the past
five years has been about $650,000 a year. This is equivalent to a tax levy of
S6 cents on the $100 on all the land in the State, or a tax of 13 cents on the
$100 on all property, real and personal, now listed for taxation. How qulcltly
would this fire tax be done away with if it came in the form of a regular tax
levy ! Yet the fire tax is paid year after year by the people of North Carolina
without a murmur. One or two per cent of the amount lost, if properly spent
by the State, would reduce the fire damage one-half the first year, and not only
save much valuable property belonging to our citizens, but insure the future
well-being of the State.
With the North Carolina figures as a basis, the average yearly
damage from forest fires in all of the States of the southern pine
region may be estimated as 3,500,000 acres burned over, with a money
loss of $6,500,000. If to this were added the losses from soil deteri-
oration and floods, the damage would be far greater.
Damage to the forests in this region is confined principally to the
young growth. This is especially noticeable on the cut-over long-
leaf pine lands, which are burned over every spring and fall and
so kept in a practically barren and waste condition. Except on the
bottom lands, damage of this character prevails in all the forests and
is generally severe.
Some of the cut-over lands will undoubtedly be devoted to agri-
culture, but in the meantime fire and erosion are robbing them of
valuable chemical and physical elements. Should they be kept in
trees as a means of retaining their fertility vmtil demanded for culti-
vation, their value will cei-tainly be higher than if they are allowed
to deteriorate through neglect. This is especially true of the less
valuable agricultural areas.
In many places the disposal of cut-over pine lands for farming
purposes will go on very slowly. A merchantable crop of longleaf
pine trees for pulpwood can be grown naturally in 30 years if pro-
tected from fire. Commercial shortleaf and loblolly pines can
be grown in even a shorter time. Consequently, a real opportunity
is presented of utilizing the cut-over areas profitably while awaiting
the time for their agricultural development.
Besides the cut-over lands suitable for agriculture, there are large
areas valuable chiefly for the production of timber. Land shouldt
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
% BTJLLBTnr mi, V. 8. PBPAB'tMBKT &W JkOBWVLTOVB.
and will eventually, be put to its most profitable use — real farming
land to agriculture, real forest land to timber culture. For the
present, however, all land which is not actually under cultivation or
needed for pasture purposes should be in timber, as a means of main-
taining productiveness and of conserving the fertiKty of such parts
of it as will eventually be put to agricultural use.
The exclusion of fire from cut-over areas will practically insure
new stands of timber in place of the old. Little or no planting will
be necessary. The abundant reproduction of yellow pine wherever
the young growth has escaped the ravages of fire is evidence that
yellow pine will reproduce itself naturally if only given a chance.
The protection of cut-over lands from fire will, of course, entail an
expenditure, the full burden of which most private owners of timber-
land will hardly feel themselves in a position to bear on account of
the long time element involved in growing future crops of timber.
This is the situation in practically all the large forest areas in the
United States, and many of the individual States are recognizing the
public interest involved by assisting in the protection of such lands.
Another and very important reason for State aid in forest fire pro-
tection, and one which is especially strong in the southern pine
region, is the danger from floods, which is greatly increased by the
destruction of the forest cover on the watersheds of streams. Losses
from floods along the Southern Appalachian streams alone during
the ten years preceding 1908 aggregated more than $35,000,000.*
Floods, erosion, and soil washing are together a serious menace to
the steady development and continued prosperity of the southern
States. Control of forest fires is one means of removing their cause.
Forest fires occur in the southern pine region, because there is little
or no public sentiment against them. They are accepted as inevitable
and as imcontrollable. This, however, is just the opposite of the
truth. Experience elsewhere has demonstrated that most fires can be
prevented ; with prompt action all fires can be controlled. The prob-
lem is largely one of education ; public opinion must be focused upon
the subject The fact must be constantly reiterated that forest fij;^
can be prevented with a little care, and that, unless they are pre-
vented, the welfare of every citizen of the State is aflPected. Educa-
tion of this kind can only be effectively carried on through organized
effort on the part of the State. The value of a protective force patrol-
ling the woods, warning persons against the careless use of fire and
securing their good will and cooperation in preventing and extin-
guishing fires, has been demonstrated over and over again by a
prompt and impressive decrease in fire loss in every State where it
has been tried. The States in the southern pine region have all
^ Preliminary R«port of the Inland Waterways Commission, 1908, page 522.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
FOBEST CONSEBYATION Ilf 80X7THEBN PINB BBQIOK. 7
passed punitive laws against setting fires. What are needed now are
laws providing for the establishment of a protective system and
funds to maintain it Virginia, North Carolina, and Texas have
recently enacted such legislation. It will be to the lasting advantage
of the other States in the region to follow the example of these three.*
Closely related to forest fires is the destruction of timber by in-
sects, since the damage done by fire affords entrance for the beetle
into the timber, while trees damaged by insects are particularly liable
to destruction by fire. Although not generally recognized, insect
attacks may cause widespread and serious damage to pine timber in
the South. Since 1902 the southern pine beetle has been more or less
active in the Southern States from Virginia to Texas, and in sogtne
localities has killed a large amoimt of timber. It is not within the
scope of this bulletin to discuss insect depredations, but any State
which plans to inaugurate a forest policy should communicate with
the Bureau of Entomology, Department of Agriculture, Washing-
ton, D. C, for advice regarding the beet means of preventing injury
to timber from this source.
UNRESTRICTED GRAZING.
Wherever stock is permitted to run at large, it is the general prac-
tice to fire the woods once or twice a year in the belief that this im-
proves the forage. Fires set for this purpose cause great damage to
the young growth and do not make the grass any better. As a matter
of fact, continued burning reduces the vitality of the better grasses,
which are then replaced by less desirable ones. More than this, if
fires were kept out new grass would actually make better growth,
partly as a result of receiving protection from the older grasses ; and
often a mixture of new and old grass makes much more satisfactory
feed for cattle than new grass alone.
Damage to the forest, especially in the longleaf pine region, is
caused by hogs devouring pine seeds and tearing up pine seedlings
for their tender roots. The amount of such damage, when the whole
region is taken into account, is really large and must be reckoned
with.
The grazing problem can be solved in large measure by impressing
upon the farmers and landowners the fact that in the long run the
forage is injured instead of being improved by fire in the woods every
year and by making the most of local laws which prohibit stock
being run at large. The best and surest means, however, of putting
an end to the damage to woods and forage is a State-wide law com-
pelling the inclosure of stock.
* Virginia^ chap. 195, laws 1914 ; North Carolina, chop. 243, public laws, 1915 ; Tezaa,
chap. 141. laws, 1916.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
8 BULxxnir 804^ xr. s. rspABncsHPT of aobioultusb.
ftȣST MANAGEMENT.
With a few exceptions, no attempt is made in the southern pine
region to manage private forests for continuous production. Nor is
this done in the United States generally. Present economic condi-
tions make necessary the lumbering of the larger holdings on a big
scale. This means a large annual cut accompanied by rapid deple-
tion of the merchantable timber supply. Even where curtailment
might otherwise be possible, it is frequently prevented by a heavily
bonded indebtedness, on which the necessary payments must be made
with the proceeds from the annual cut of timber. Nowhere is this
more often the case than in th« southern pine region. The farmer
also often sacrifices his woodlot to meet indebtedness. Yet even
where it is possible for the lumberman or farmer to cut his timber
only as the market and his personal needs may require, he iisually
does the cutting without reference to a future crop of timber on the
same land.
To meet this problem the States of the southern pine region need
to investigate economic conditions in the lumbering and farming dis-
tricts, with the idea of giving advice to private owners as to how far
the practice of forestry may pay in dollars and cents. Assistance
^ould also be offered in the planting of trees on waste areas mnd in
the prairie regions and in dbiade-tree planting in towns and dtiea
It is customary for the owner or town to pay the agent's field ex-
penses, while the State pays his salary. All States with forestrjf
departeients have provided for work of this character.
STATE-OWNED FORESTS.
Large areas of true forest land should be owned by the State, since
it is better able than the private owner to hold the land for con-
tinuous timber production and for stream-flow protection. Public
ownership, furthermore, guarantees a permanent administration of
the properties. The stability of the lumber industry may thus be
assured, and with it, steady employment for the wage earner. The
educational effect of public forests as demonstration areas is very
important and may be productive of excellent results. Public forests
can also be used as recreation grounds by the people of the State,
and may eventually become an attraction for tourists and pleasure
seekers from other parts of the country. They also afford range and
breeding ground for game. Through revenue from timber sales and
other privileges they should become self supporting. In some cases
suflScient revenues should be derived from them to go to the support
of other State activities as well.
Nearly every State which has given serious attention to its forest
problems has provided for the establishment of publicly owned for-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
TOBBST CONSERVATION IN BOX7THEEN PINE BBGION. 0
estfi. Those now having State fcureste are Connecticut, Indiana,
Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, New Hampshire,
Kfew Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Vermont, and
Wisconsin. The number of State forests is approximately 150 and
their aggregate area 3,700,000 acres. New York has 1,800,000 acres,
Pennsylvania 1,000,000, Wisconsin 400,000 acres, and Michigan
277,000 acres. At a recent election the people of Minnesota approved
an amendment to the constitution permitting the State to set aside
as State forests all lands now owned by it which are chiefly valuable
for the production of timber, amounting to about a million acres.
Practically all of these State forests have been established through
purchase, although in the West some were set aside from lands
already owned by the States. New York has spent approximately
$4,075,000 and Pennsylvania $2,250,000 in buying lands for State
forests. Pennsylvania has paid about $2.25 an acre for the same
land, cut over and burned, which it sold years ago, when covered
with timber, for about 27 cents an acre. These lands are now esti-
mated to be worth $6 an acre.
The Federal Gk)vemment, under the terms of the so-called Weeks
law, has also adopted this policy as regards lands situated on the
forested watersheds of navigable streams and has appropriated
$11,000,000 for purchases.
It is probable that the States in the southern pine region have
disposed of nearly all their timber holdings. Just how much of
such land, which can be used most profitably for growing timber,
remains in the ownership of the States should be determined as soon
at practicable and steps taken to withdraw it from sale and set it
aside as State forests. In addition, these States should gradually
acquire, through purchase or gift, other bodies of true forest land,
especially in regions like the Southern Appalachians, the pine hills,
and the Edwards Plateau in Texas. When lands are taken over by
a State provision should be made to reimburse the counties and the
townships for loss of tax revenue. Some States pay a tax on the
same basis as if such lands were privately owned ; others pay a fixed
charge of a few cents an acre. The Federal Government gives
counties in which National Forests are situated 25 per cent of the
gross revenues, and an additional 10 per cent is used, in cooperation
with the localities concerned, for the construction of public roads.
LEGISLATION.
A consistent and comprehensive forest policy can be carried out
only through a forestry department and a State forester. Such
departments are urgently needed and earnestly recommended. They
have been established in only three States in the southern pine re-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
10 BULLETIN 864, U. 8. DEPABTMENT OF AOBIOT7LTT7BB.
gion — Virginia, North Carolina, and Texas. Louisiana has provided
by law for a forestry department under the State Conservation Com-
mission, but for lack of funds it has never been organized. Alabama
endeavored to establish a forestry commission, but the law author-
izing it was declared unconstitutional on account of an error in the
procedure of enactment.
Thirty States have established forestry departments. Some have
placed them imder departments already established, namely, the
board of agriculture in Colorado and Vermont; agricultual experi-
ment station in Connecticut, Kansas, and Ohio; geological survey
in North Carolina and Virginia ; agricultural and mechanical college
in Texas; State school of forestry in North Dakota; State land de-
partment in Idaho, Montana, and South Dakota; and forest, fish,
and game department in Tennessee and West Virginia. New and
separate organizations have been created as forestry boards or com-
missions by California, Indiana, Kentucky, Maryland, Minnesota,
New Hampshire, Oregon, Pennsylvania, and Washington. New
Jersey, New York, and Wisconsin have consolidated their forestry
departments with so-called allied departments into conservation com-
missions, and, similarly, Michigan has put the forestry work under
a public-domain commission. Maine, Massachusetts, and Khode
Island have given control to a forest commissioner or State forester,
who, as in the case of the board or other organization, is directly
responsible to the governor or the legislature.
Whatever the character of the organization may be, the best
results will be obtained by keeping it free from politics. If a single
officer directs it, his tenure of office should be permanent and he
should be removable only for cause. If a new and separate board is
organized, it should be nonpartisan and the members should receive
no compensation other than necessary traveling expenses. The ex
officio membership of the board should comprise officials who are
removed from politics as far as possible, such as the president of the
State University, director of the State forest school or agricultural
experiment station, and the State geologist. Appointees to the board
might be chosen, as in some States, upon the recommendation of
organizations interested in the advancement of forestry in the State,
such as conservation, forestry, agricultural, lumbermen's, or timber
owners' associations.
The State forester should be chosen solely for his fitness for the
position and should be a technically trained forester of experience.
If he is to work under the direction of a board he should be appointed
by the board.
The forestry department should be authorized especially to or-
ganize a forest-fire protective system; to cooperate with private
owners and towns; to acquire lands for State forest purposes; and
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
rOBSBT OOVBSRVATIO^ TN WVTHXRV PINE BEGION. 11
to make forest investigations. A reascmably adequate appropriation
of ftiilds will be required to carry on the work.
As an example of a law which provides for these features may be
cited that which was recently passed by the Legislature of Texas.
This measure is brief and simple. The Texas Forestry Association
-was organized by a number of public-spirited citizens especially to
do educational work on its behalf, and the press throughout the
State gave very generously of space in both news and editorial
colimms for the same purpose. The law follows :
An act authorizing ^e board of directors of the Agrlcalttiral and Mechanical
GoUege to appoint a State forester, prescribing his qualifications, duties, and
salary, providing for a system of forest protection, management, and replace-
ment, and declaring an emergency.
Be it enacted by the Legislature of the Btate of Texas:
Section 1. That there shall be appointed by the board of directors of the
Agricultural and Mechanical CoUege of Texas a State forester, who shall
be a technically trained forester of not less than two years' experience In pro-
fessional forestry work. His compensation shall be fixed by said board at not
to exceed $3,000 per annum, and he shaU be aUowed reasonable traveUng and
field expenses incurred in the performance of his official duties. He shall,
under the general supervision of said board, have direction of aU forest inter-
ests and all matters pertaining to forestry within the Jurisdiction of the State.
He shall appoint, subject to the approval and confirmation of said board, sofA
.assistants and employees as may be necessary in executing the duties of his
office and the purposes of said board, the compensation of such assistants and
employees to be fixed by the said board. He shaU take such action as may be
deemed necessary by said board to prevent and extinguish forest fires, shaU
enforce all laws pertaining to the protection of forest and woodlands, and
prosecute for any violation of such laws; collect data relative to forest con-
ditions, and to cooperate with landowners as described in section 2 of this
act He shaU prepare for said board annually a report on the progress and
condition of State forestry work, and reconunend therein plans for improv-
ing the State system of forest protection, management and replacement
Sec. 2. That the State forester shall, upon request, under the sanction of the
board of directors, and whenever he deems it essential to the best interests of
the people of the State, cooperate with coxmties, towns, corporations, or indi-
viduals In pr^)aring plans for the protection, management, and replacement of
trees, woodlots, and timber tracts, under an agreement that the parties obtain-
ing such assistance pay at least the fi^d expenses of the men employed in
preparing said plans.
Sec. 3. That the governor of the State Is authorized, upon the recommenda-
tion of the board of directors, to accept gifts of land to the State, same to be
held, protected, and administered by said board as State forests, and to be
used so as to demonstrate the practical utility of timber culture and water
conservation, and as refuges for game. Such gifts must be absolute, except for
the reservation of all mineral and mining rights over and under said lands,
and a stipulation that they shall be administered as State forests.
The board of directors shall have the power to pundiase lands in the name
of the State, suitable chiefly for the production of timber, as State forests,
using for such purposes any q;)ectal appropriation or any surplus money not
otherwise appropriated, which may be standing to the credit of the State
forestry fund.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
12 BtJLLBTIH 96i, V. 6. DEPABTMEITr OF AGBIOULTUBB.
Tbe attorney general of the State is directed to see that all deed^ V^ the
State of lands mentioned in this s^tion are properly executed before the gift
is accepted or pasrment of the purchase money is made.
Sec. 4. That all moneys received from the sale of wood, timber, minerals, or
other products from the State forests, and penalties for trespassing thereon,
shall be paid into the State treasury, and shall constitntfi a State forestry
fund, and the moneys in said fund are hereby appn^riated for purposes of
forestry in general, under the direction of the board of directors.
Sec. 6. That for the maintenance, use, and extension of the work under the
board of directors, and for forest-fire protection, there is hereby appropriated
the sum of $10,000 annually out of any moneys in the State treasury not other-
wise appropriated, to be placed to the credit of the State forestry fund.
Sec 6. That the board of directors may cooperate with the Federal Forest
Senrice under such terms as may seem desirable.
Sec. 7. That all acts or parts of acts inconsistent with the provisions of this
act are hereby repealed.
The above law as originally drafted also contained in section 3 the
following:
Said State forests shall be subject to county taxes assessed on the same basis
as are private lands, to be paid out of any moneys in the State treasury not
otherwise appropriated.
But this paragraph was struck out by the legislature since it is
unconstitutional for the State to pay taxea
HOW THE FEDERAL GOYERNMENT WILL AID.
The Federal Government oflFers aid in forestry to States along
three different lines: (1) Demonstration work at State experiment
stations, (2) farm woodlot management under the Smith-Lever law,
and (3) fire protection under the Weeks law.
State experiment stations prepared to handle the work can secure
cooperative assistance in investigating the proper methods of forest
management, nursery practice, tree planting, and the like.
In connection with farm woodlot improvement the Forest Service
is planning to get in direct touch with the farmer through the exten-
sion work of the United States Department of Agriculture and the
States. 'ITiis work has recently received a tremendous impetus
through the passage of the Smith-Lever law. Under its terms a
Federal appropriation is made each year to further agricultural ex-
tension work in the States through the medium of the extension
staff of the State agricultural college. To avail itself of the funds
provided by this law a State must appropriate for this particular
line of work an amount equal to that made available by the Federal
Government. The law makes possible much cooperative work be-
tween the Federal Government and State agricultural colleges
through inspection and practical field demonstrations by agents of
the United States Department of Agriculture. Cooperative projects
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
FOREST CON8EBVATION IN SOUTHERN PINE REGION. 13
can bfe proposed by the State, but mtist be approved by the Depart-
ment. Since woodlot management is to a large extent a farm prob-
lem, the aim is to acquaint the county field agents of the State exten-
sion service with the essential principles of woodlot management in
order that they may show the farmer how to manage his woodlands.
Such projects hare already been conducted in Tennessee and Indiana.
Of most immediate concern to a State which is just organizing its
forest work is the Federal cooperaticm which can be secured in fire
protection. Under the Weeks law the sum of $100,000 was appropri-
ated for the fiscal year 1916 for allotment to the States, to be ex-
pended in protecting the watersheds of navigable streams, provided
the State establidies by law a system of fire protection and piakes
an appropriation therefor, and provided further, that the State ex-
pends at least as much as the Federal Government. This cooperation
has been in effect for nearly five years, and the results secured in con-
serving our natural resources have far exceeded the anticipation of
its most enthusiastic supporters. The States which are receiving
funds imder the law are : Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massa-
chusetts, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia,
West Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky, Texas, Michigan, Wis-
consin, Minnesota, South Dakota, Montana, Idaho, Oregon, and
Washington, 21 in all. The remaining States in the southern pine
region should not let the opportunity pass for securing cooperation
of this character in keeping down their forest-fire losses.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PUBUCATIONS OF UNITED STATES DEPABTBfENT OF AGRICUL-
TURE RELATING TO THE CONSERVATION OF FORESTS.
AVAILABLB FOB FRBB DISTBIBUTION.
Forest Planting in the Eastern United States. (I>^;)artment Bulletin 158.)
The Northern Hardwood Forest: Its Composition, Qrowth, and Managemcait
(Department Bulletin 285.)
Shortleaf Pine: Its Economic Importance and Forest Management (Depart-
ment Bulletin 80S.)
Primer of Forestry. (Farmers* Bulletin 178.)
Primer of Forestry. Part 2— Practical Forestry. (Farmers' Bulletin 85a)
The Profession of Forestry, (Forestry Circular 207.)
FOB SALE BT THE SUPBBINTENDENT OF DOCUMBNTS.
Forest Planting in Western Kansas. (Forestry Bulletin 52.) Price, 10 centa
Working Plan for Forest Lands in Berkeley County, South Carolina. (Forestry
Bulletin 56.) Price, 10 cents.
The Natural Replacement of White Pine on Old Fields in New England.
(Forestry Bulletin 63.) Price, 10 cents.
Advice for Forest Planters in Oklahoma and Adjacent Regions. (Forestry
Bulletin 65, revised.) Price, 5 centa
Working Plan for Forest I^ands in Central Alabama. (Forestry Bulletin 68.)
Price, 10 cents.
The Forests of Alaska. (Forestry Bulletin 81.) Price, 25 cents.
Protection of Forests from Fire. (Forestry Bulletin 82.) Price, 15 cents.
The Crater National Forest: Its Resources and their Conservatioa (Forestry
BuUetin 100.) Price, 10 cents.
Forest Planting in Western Kansas. (Forestry Circular 161.) Price, 5 centa
The Status of Forestry in the United States. (Forestry Circular 167.) Price,
5 cents.
Forest Planting in the Northeastern and Lake States. (Forestry Circular 195.)
Price, 5 cents.
Assistance to Private Owners in the Practice of Forestry. (Forestry Circular
202.) Price, 5 cents.
14
Digiti
zed by Google
ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBUCATION MAT BE PROCUKED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OP DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT
ft CENTS PER COPY
V
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digiti
zed by Google
// /.3: d6>^'
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 365
Joliit Contribation from the Bureau of Plant Industrr, WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief,
and the Bureau of Animal Industry, A. D. MELTIN, Chief
Washington, D. C.
PROFESSIONAL PAPER
September 8, 1916
LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK
By
C. DWIGHT MARSH and A. B. CLAWSON, Physiologists, Poisonous Plant
Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, and HADLEIGH MARSH,
Veterinary Inspector, Bureau of Animal Industry
CONTENTS
Introdoctory: Page
Hlatorical Summary and Review of
Literature 1
The Alkaloids of Derphiniuma ... 8
Losses from Larkspur Poisoning . . 11
Common Nnmes of LarkNpurs ... 13
Spedcs of Delphinium Concerned in
Larkspur Poisoning 14
Detection of Larkspur Species In
Stomach Contents IS
Experimental Work:
The SiaUon at Mount Carlwn, Colo. . 28
The Station at Greycllff, Mont. . . 29
Experimental Feeding of Cattle . . 29
Poisoning of Horses by Larkspur . . 52
Experimental Feeding of Slieep . . 55
Results and Conclusions: Paga
Animals AITected by Larkspur Poison-
ing 59
Symptoms of Larkspur Poisoning . 61
The Toxic Dose of Larkspur ... 66
Post-mortem Features of Larkspur
Poisoning 73
Toxicity of Different. Parts of the
Plant 74
Age of Plants Affecting Toxicity . . 75
Treatment of Cases of Larkspur
Poisoning . 77
Methods of PreTentlon 82
General Summary 84
Uteraturc Cited in this Paper .... 87
Index to Species of Plants 91
Index to Experimental Feeding of Animals 9 1
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1916
Digiti
zed by Google
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICOLTUBE
BULLETIN No. 365
Iflfait CMftribntlMi frMB Ike Bmntm of PIkbI iMtaetiy.
Wm. A. Taylor, CUeC and the Boieen ef
AidBud UkduaUjf A. D. Mehrla, Chief
Washington, D. C
PROFESSIONAL PAPER
September 8, 1916
LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK.
By O. DwiQHT Mabsh and A. B. Clawbon, PhysiologUtSt Poisonous Plant
Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, and Hadleioh Mabsh^ Veterinary
Inspector, Bureau of Animal Industry.
CONTENTS.
Introddctory: Page.
Historical summary and review of litera-
ture 1
The alkaloids of delphiniums 8
Losses from larkspur poisoning 11
Common names of larkspurs 18
BpedfdS of delphinium concerned in lark-
spur poisoning 14
Detection of larkspur species in stomach
contents. 16
Bjqmimental work:
The station at Mount Carbon, Colo 28
The station at QreycUCr, Mont 29
Experimental feeding of cattle 29
Poisoning of horses by larkspur 52
Experimental feeding of sheep 65
Results and conclusions; Page.
Animals ailected by larkspur poisoning.. 59
Symptoms of larkspur poisoning. 61
The toxic dose of larkspur 66
Post-mortem features of larkspur poison-
hig 73
Toxicity of different parts of the plant. . . 74
Age of plants albcting toxicity 76
Treatment of cases of larkspur poisoning. 77
Methods of prevention. 82
General summary 84
Literature cited in this paper 87
Index to species of plants 91
Index toexperinuotal feeding of animals... 91
PART I^INTRODUCrORY.
HISTORICAL SUMMART AND REVIEW OF UTBRATURB.
There is somewhat extensive literature in regard to the larkspurs.
In this summary and review only the more important and significant
publications are noted, with especial reference to those that treat of
the poisoning of domestic animala
The larkspurs have been known from very ancient times as
poisonous and medicinal plants. Under the, names (rTa<l>ls dypla of
Dioscorides and Hippocrates, kyporkpti (rTa<t>ls of Nicander, Astaphis
agria or Staphda of Pliny, and Herha pedicvlaria of Scribonius
Largus, was probably recognized the species Delphimv/n^ staphiaagria
L. Under the name Consolida regalia were probably included several
species. The question of the identity of the ^)ecies noted by the
ancients is discussed in some detail by Huth, 1895, pages 325 and
326.1
^ Full titles of articles referred to in the text are given in the list of literature at the
end of the paper.
2e87e«— BuU. 865^16 1
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
2 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGMCULTUEB.
Pliny speaks of the use of the powdered seeds to destroy parasitic
insects on the head and other parts of the body, and this has been its
principal use up to the present time, although it has been recom-
mended as a remedy for various ills. As an insecticide the seeds of
Delphimum staphysagria or " stavesacre '' have been much used, but
other species have served the same purpose. The leaves, stems, and
roots have had little medicinal use, and very little has been published
in regard to their poisonous properties besides the investigations on
American species. Pliny states that the flowers when ground up
serve as a remedy for snake bite. Dioscorides says that the herb
paralyzes scorpions when put upon them. Watt, 1890, page 65, says
that the root is applied to kill maggots in the wounds of goats.
Froggatt, 1900, page 181, recommends larkspur as an insect barrier
in gardens. He says that locusts readily eat the leaves and flowers
and are killed by them.
Outside of America very little has been published in regard to the
poisonous effect of larkspur on the higher animals. Delafond, 1843,
page 173, makes the statement that Delphimum consolida L. is poi-
sonous to sheep. His evidence does not seem to be extensive, and
apparently is based upon the fact that he found sheep dead and, on
examination, discovered that they had been eating Delphiniwni conr
solidcu- Gerlach, 1845, page 125, says that DelpJdmwm consolida has
been considered poisonous, but incorrectly, and states that he has fed
sheep for several days with the plant and that they ate it readily
but received no harm. Dammann, 1886, page 840, quotes Delafond,
saying that sheep eat Delphmmm consaUda freely and that whoi
they eat much are poisoned, and states the results of Gerlach. He
also quotes Beier, 1845, who tells of horses poisoned by an extract
of seeds of DelpJdrdwm staphysagria in beer. Watt, 1890, page 64,
says that the dew from the leaves of Delpfdnium hrimonicauiiiv Royl
falling on grass is said to poison cattle and horses. He also says,
1890, page 69, that the leaves oi DelpMrdwm vestitwm are poisonous
to goats. Macgregor, 1908, page 502, gives details of the poisoning
of a horse by Delphinium.
From this brief review of the subject it appears that there is little
definite evidence that domestic animals in Europe and Asia have
been poisoned by larkspurs. Most of the statements are of a general
character, no specific instances being given, and they are not based
upon personal experiences of the authors. Statements to the effect
that animals are poisoned by dew falling from the plants, as in the
case of DelpMmum hrunonianum^ must be dismissed as purely imagi-
native. It would seem, therefore, that in Europe and Asia not only
is there no loss of domestic animals by larkspur, but also that there
are hardly any reliable records of individual cases of poisoning.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LABKSPUB POISONING OP LIVE STOCK. 3
•
It is in North America that practically all the losses of domestic
animals from tiiis plant have occurred, and even here the published
records are brief and of comparatively recent date. Complaints of
losses came, by letter, to' the United States Department of Agricul-
culture many years ago, and newspaper reports of losses have not
been imcommon. Philip Miller, in 1760, says of a larkspur, which
must be Delphinium ex<dtaium Alton : " This plant grows naturally
in most parts of North America, where, when the cattle happen to
feed upon the leaves, it occasions great disorders in them." There
seems to have been no other published statement of the poisoning of
cattle imtil the paper by Aven Nelson, 1896, page 79, who said that
DelpMmwnh geyeri Greene is " frequently greedily eaten by hungry
cattle with fatal results, caused by bloating." Earlier, in 1889,
Irish, page 25, reported the feeding of cattle upon larkspur with no
results. Wilcox, in 1897, published his paper on the poisoning of
sheep by larkspur, and this was republished in the Fifteenth Annual
Eeport of the Bureau of Animal Industry, 1898. He says, pages
39 to 43, that from a band of 2,000 yearling lambs, about 50 died
and between 500 and 600 showed signs of sickness. Autopsies were
made up<m the dead animals, and in the stomach contents were found
the stems, leaves, and roots of DelpJUnium memiesii D. C.^ An ex-
amination was made of the range over which the sheep had been
passing and it was found that the larkspur grew in considerable
abimdance, and there was evidence that the sheep had been feeding
almost exclusively where there was a large quantity of larkspur.
Not only that, but it was clear that they had eaten freely of the
plant. An examination showed that the plants broke off readily
above the root and the inference was that the grazing had been
largely of the upper part of the plant, very little of the root having
been consumed. After a careful inspecticMi of the other plants upon
the rang^ the conclusion was reached that there was no other plant
which could be responsible for these cases. Wilcox sums up the
results in the following words:
Thns the post-mortem condition of the sheep, the finding of larkspur in the
stomachs of the dead sheep, and the evidence from the field ^work. that the
larkspur had been eaten by them seemed to indicate conclnslvely that the
larkspur was the cause of the trouble.
He then gives in some detail the symptoms of larkspur poison-
ing in sheep, which correspond very closely with the observations
of other authors upon larkspur poisoning. In order to make the
work more conclusive, extracts of larkspur were made upon the range
of Mr. Vestal, at Bigtimber, Mont. The chloroform extract of 25
grams of the dried plant was fed to a lamb, producing symptoms of
1 This is probably incorrectly determined and should be Delphinium hioolor.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
4 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGEICULTUBE.
#
poisoning in 30 minutes and death in 2 hours. A second lamb was
given, hypodermically, one dram of the chloroform extract, and a
third lamb received in a similar manner one dram of benzol extract.
Both of these animftls showed symptoms of poisoning in 15 minutes,
but later recovered after having received, hypodermically, doses of
atropine with inhalations of ammonia.
Knowles, in 1897, in the " First Annual Report of the Board of
Sheep Commissioners of Montana," speaks of the losses of both cattle
and sheep and recommends as remedies anmionia, alcohol, atropine,
digitalis, and nux vomica. He says that the most serious losses are
among sheep. This article was issued apparently as a circular of
the Montana State veterinarian's office in advance of- the publica-
tion of the report of the sheep commissioners.
Chesnut, in his three publications of 1898, speaks of Delphinium
tricome Michx., D, geyeri Greene, D. memiedi D. C, D. recwrvatv/m
Greene, Z>. scoputoram Gray, and Z>. troUUfolmnb Gray as poisonous
to stock. Macoim, 1898, states in the Report on the Poison Weed of
the Rocky Mountain Foothills that he examined the stomach con-
tents of cattle that had died in the neighborhood of Calgary, making
also an investigation of the plants of the region where the animals
had died, and came to the conclusion that without doubt the deaths
were caused by eating Delphirdum scopulorum Gray. Willing,
1899, states that a number of sheep are supposed to have died from
larkspur poisoning in the Cypress Hills district. In Bulletin No.
2 of the Government of the Northwest Territories, 1900, larkspur
is discussed and the experience of Prof. Macoun is referred to, .with
quotations from Wilcox, 1897.
Wilcox, 1899, discusses the tall larkspur as a poisonous plant for
cattle in Montana. He describes the locations in which the plant
.grows, giving a general description of the plant itself, and states
that the principal losses of cattle occur in the spring, ^fter late
snowstorms, when the larkspur is the only plant which appears above
the snow. He does not think that any very large number of cattle
are poisoned in any single year, but that the sum total of the loss
is a rather serious matter, and recommends that the cattle be kept
away from the larkspur areas, especially after spring snowstorms.
In 1901 was published Chesnut and Wilcox's Stock-Poiscming
Plants of Montana. This bulletin discusses in c(Hxsiderable detail
Delphirdum glceucwm Wats, and D. hioolor Nutt. as poisonous plants,
and details are given of the experimental feeding of these plants to
rabbits and sheep. A series of experiments was made, using ex-
tracts of tall larkspur, identified as DeHphirmmh glaucwm. These
extracts were made in water and alcohol. In one of the experiments
the expressed juice of the plant before flowering was fed directly
into the stomach of a sheep. Symptoms of poisoning were noticed,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LARKSPUR POISONING OP LIVE STOCK. 6
although the anhnal recovered rather quickly. After expressing the
watery material from the plant the alcohol extract of the residue was
fed to a sheep. Symptoms of the effect of the alcohol were notedj
but by comparison with a dieck which received the same amount of
:ilcohol, it was decided that some of the symptoms were diaracter-
istic of larkspur poisoning. Two other experiments were made in
which it was believed by the authors thajb the antidote used, potassium
permanganate, overcame the effect of the poison. The discussion of
tall larkspur is summarized as follows, page 73 :
The taU larkspur is a plant widely distributed in Montana, occurring, as a
rule, in well-defined areas, especially on mountain ranges.
It has for several years been suspected of poisoning cattle, especially after
snowstorms in spring and autunm.
Our observations show that the plant is scAnetimes eaten by cattle with
fatal results. Extracts of the leaves of young plants, when fed to rabbits,
.produce alarming symptoms, and the same was true in one case when fed to
sheep.
Exp^ments on cattle and one sheep indicated that permanganate of potash
is an effective antidote when given in the first stages of poisoning.
Cattle should be kept away from patches of larlcspur, especially during snow-
storms.
The following summary is given of the discussion in regard to
purple larkspur, page 80 :
The purple larkspur is a plant which is widely distributed in Montana, espe-
ciaUy on foothills and mountains, where its deep-blue fiowers are conspicuous
over wide areas in springtime. For a number of years it has been considered
fatal to sheep and occasionally to other stock and this view has been confirmed
by our investigations. She^ are more often poisoned by purple larkspur than
are other domestic animals. Our observations during the past few years have
shown a striking variation in the appetite of sheep with reference to this point.
Our experiments indicate that both the leaves and roots of young plants are
poisonous and that the plant is most dangerous during the early stages of growth
before flowering.
The previous experience of one of us has shown that atropine is the best
antidote for counteracting the physiological effect of this plant. Permanga-
nate of potash and sulphate of aluminum should be administered as a chemical
antidote.
Bessey, 1902, says that there have been serious losses in western
Nebraska from DelpMmum nelsonii Greene, and that the losses occur
before the flowering of the plant. Slade, 1903, speaks briefly of
Delphinium, the statements apparently being largely compiled from
the work of Wilcox. Blankinship, 1903, describes briefly the tall
and the low larkspurs. He says that larkspur frequently causes
bloat, and gives other symptoms of poisoning, stating that cattle are
mainly affected, sheep more rarely. He advises keeping stock away
from ranges where low larkspur is abundant, especially during the
early spring, and states that it is feasible to dig up the tall larkspur
over limited areas.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
6 BULLETIN 3e5, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGWOULTUBB.
S. B. Nelson, in 1906, performed a series of experiments, feeding
DelpMrdurrv mensiesU D. C. and D. simplex Doug. Eight experiments
were made with DelpMmum memieaiij consisting of the direct feed-
ing of both mature and immature plants, and of hypodermic injec-
tions of alcoholic and chloroform extracts. As much as 26 pounds
of this plant, gathered in full bloom, was fed and apparently 3
pounds and 10 ounces of DelpMmum simplex. All of these experi-
ments were without results and he reached the definite conclusion
that DelpTdfdum memiesii is not poisonous to sheep and therefore
that they may be allowed to graz^ where this plant grows in abun-
dance without any fear of loss.
Glover, 1906, gives a somewhat extended description of the lark-
spurs as poisonous plants. He finds that five species of larkspur
are abundant in Colorado — DelpMrdum nelsomi Greene, D. elonga-
tum Rydb., D. geyeri Greene, D. harheyi Huth, and D. penardii
Huth. He made an attempt to get exact information from the
stockmen of Colorado in regard to their losses and the remedies
used, and summarized the results obtained from the circulars sent
out. He describes in some detail the appearance of the larkspurs, the
symptoms of poisoning, and discusses the best methods of treatment.
He says:
From the reports in other Western States, especially Montana, it would seem
that the purple larkspur which Is more generally eaten by sheep is the more
disastrous of the two. In this State It is quite the reverse. The taU larkspur
is more abundant and the major part of the mortality is among: cattle.
It would seem from this that Dr. Glover does not question the
fact that sheep may be poisoned by eating larkspur. The same thing
is indicated by his gi^g the sjrmptoms of larkspur poisoning in
sheep, page 23. He summarizes the conclusions obtained in regard
to larkspur poisoning, as follows, page 18 :
First. At least 18 species, and several varieties of larkspur, have been found
KTOwing in the State. Four CTOwlng in the greatest abundance are known to
contain an active poison in sufficient quantities to be dangerous to live stock.
Second. Death is produced as a result of the presence of an active poison,
and not from " bloat," as many stoclnnen have claimed.
Third. The toxic principle of larkspur has not yet been determined for these
species, but is probably delphinin and allied alkaloids present in other species
that have not been fully studied.
Fourth. The plant loses its toxic qualities as it approaches the flowering sea-
son and finally becomes harmless.
Fifth. Two species, because of their abundance, are doing most of the damage,
i. e., tall larkspur {Delphinium elongatum) and purple larkspur {Delphinium
nelsonH),
Sixth. Stockmen generally have little knowledge of the identity, poisonous
nature, or satisfactory remedy for larkspur.
Seventh. Considering the enormous loss and the fact that larkspur is usually
found in circumscribed areas, it would seem feasible, in many localities at
least, to undertake its eradication by the grubbing hoe.
Digitized by VjOQQ IC
LABKSPUB POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 7
Eighth. By ayoiding the areas where larkspur abounds during the months of
April, May, and June the loss can be reduced to the mfnifnuin.
Ninth. In potassium permanganate and atropin sulphate, respectively, we
have a chemical and physiological antidote of real practical value. Stimulants*
are indicated. Tapping should be done with trocar and cannula high up on the
left side, after first making slight incision on the skin with a knife. In case of
extreme distention this operation should not be delayed. The value of bleeding
is questionable. All measures which tend to depress the animal, sudi as
forcible exercise, tobacco, aconite, etc, are positively harmfuL If on sloping
ground, the head should be turned up the hill.
Crawford, 1907, quotes preceding authors in regard to the effect
of larkspur upon stock, but adds nothing to what has been written
before. Pammel, 1910, page 44, states that " cattle and sheep are
most susceptible, although horses frequently suffer."
Preceding the publication of the present general report on the
larkspur investigation, there was issued in 1913 Farmers' BuUetin
531, entitled "Larkspur or Poison Weed," which gave some of the
practical results of the work. In 1915 Hall and Yates recapitulate
the results of this bulletin, applying them to the larkspurs of
California.
It will be seen from the foregoing tJiat up to the time when the
detailed experiments of larkspur poisoning were undertaken by the
Bureau of Plant Industry, a very definite body of evidence had been
accumulated indicating that American larkspurs were poisonous to
domestic animals, especially cattle and sheep, causing heavy annual
losses in the mountain ranges. There was a fair amount of agree-
ment in the descriptions of the symptoms of poisoning. The reme-
dial measures recommended were very largely those worked out by
Wilcox, and by Chestnut and Wilcox in their Montana work. There
were, however, several questions with regard to the poisoning which
for practical purposes had to be decided. In the published observa-
tions and in the statements made by stockmen, the reports were
somewhat contradictory with regard t6 which part of the plant is
most poisonous, although there was a general agreement that the
principal losses occur in the spring. It seemed necessary to deter-
mine at what time of the year and under what conditions these plants
are poisonous, to determine whether the tall larkspurs and the low
larkspurs are equally poisonous, to describe in somewhat greater
detail the symptoms of poisoning and pathological results, and to
make further and more detailed experiments upon the possibilities
of using remedial measures to lessen the losses. There were also open
questions concerning the best method of handling stock so as to pre-
vent poisoning.
It may be noted that practically all accounts of larkspur poisoning
of stock in the United States relate to the mountainous regions of
the West As will be seen later in this paper, there is no reason to
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
8
BULLETIN 365, U. 8. DBPABTMENT OF AGKICULTURE.
think that the eastern species are not poisonous, but conditions of
grazing are so different in the East that cattle do not come in con-
tact with the plant to any extent. Recently specific accounts have
come to this office of the poisoning of cows by Delphinium tricame
in West Virginia.
For ocmvenience of reference, there is given below a list of the ^)ecie8
of Delphinium that are said to be poisonous to stock in the United
States. This list is compiled from the literature of the subject, from
office correspondence, and from personal interviews with stockmen,
and no attempt has been made to edit it critically from the standpoint
of the systematist. So far as specimens have come to the office of
Poisonous Plant Investigations they have been determined by bot-
anists of the Bureau of Plant Industry, but published statements have
been taken at their face value.
Delphinium multiflorum Rydb.
Delphinium ocddentale Wats.
Delphinium recurvatum Greene.
Delphiniwn robustum Rydb.
Delphinium sapeUonia CkU.
Delphinium scaposum Greene.
Delphinium acopulorum Gray.
Delphinium simplex Dougf.
Delphinium treHeasei Bush.
Delphiniwn tricome Michz.
Delphinium troUiifolium Gray.
Delphinium virescens Nutt, D. penar-
dii Huth.
Delphinium andersonii Gray.
Delphinium barbeyi Huth.
Delphinium hicolor Nutt
Delphinium califomicum T. & G.
Delphinium carolinianum Walt
Delphinium conaolida L.
Delphinium cucuUatum A. Nels.
Delphinium elongatum Rydb.
Delphinium exaltatum Ait
Delphinium geyeri Greene.
Delphinium glaucum Wats.
Delphinium heaperium Gray.
Delphinium macrophyllum Wooton.
Delphinium memiesii D. C, D. nelsonii
' Greene.
THE ALKALOmS OF DELPmNIUMS.
Most of the laboratory work on the poisonous properties of the
Delphiniums has been done in Europe on the seeds of Delphinium
staphisagria^ inasmuch as the seeds of this plant have been used
since ancient times as a parasiticide and to some extent for medicinal
purposes.
The analysis of the seeds of Delphinium staphisagria shows that
they contain four alkaloids, namely, delphinin or delphin, del-
phinoidin, delphisin, and staphisagrin. The chemical composition
of these alkaloids has been given somewhat differently by investi-
gators. Marquis, 1877, who claimed to have first obtained the pure
alkaloids, gives the formulas as follows :
Delphinin, CaH»NO«. 1 Delphisin, OnHMN,04.
Delphinoidin, C4sH«N,Or. | Staphisagrin, CaHaiNOft.
The most characteristic and important alkaloids are delphinin
and staphisagrin, and of the two, delphinin has been investigated the
more thoroughly and is the more powerful alkaloid. The results
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LAEK8PUE POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 9
obtfldned by the various authors who have investigated the physio-
logical action of delphinin have been somewhat contradictory,
although the principal symptoms obtained in poisoned animals seem
to be quite constant. The cause of some of the discrepancies is
probably due to the fact that all the preparations of delphinin used
in the various experiments have not been identical. A large variety
of animals have been used in the physiological experimentation, in-
cluding mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish, although
most of the experiments were performed on frogs and dogs.
Orfila in 1817 gives the following summary of conclusions :
First. That stavesacre is not absorbed, and that its deleterious properties de-
pend on the local Irritation it produces and the sympathetic lesion of the
nervous system.
Second. That the part soluble In water Is most active; so likewise the local
effects of Its administration are more severe when It is moistened before being
applied to the ceUular texture.
In 1843 he obtained the following symptoms with delphinin in
dogs : For about two hours, nausea and attempts to vomit ; then great
agitation for some minutes, the dog soon becoming weak and finally
lying motionless on its side; slight convulsive movements of the
muscles of the legs and lower jaw, followed by death after two or
three hours. The organs of sight and hearing remained normal until
death. The autopsy showed the mucous membrane of the stomach
to be slightly inflamed; the left ventricle contained dax*k-colored
Wood, and the lungs were more" solid than normal.
Falck and Rorig in 1861 obtained in cats and dogs vomiting, ex-
cessive salivation, diarrhea, imeasiness, staggering gait, convulsions,
difficult breathing, followed by death from asphyxiation and heart
paralysis. The autopsies showed congestion of the mucous mem-
branes which had come in contact with the poison, the heart and
great veins gorged with blood, and the lungs covered with ecchymotic
spots. Later author#do not vary much in regard to the general
symptoms. Van Praag and TumbuU note in addition a diuretic
effect.
Cayrade, 1869, states his conclusions as follows :
1. The delphinin acts upon the spinal cord, causing depression and making
it lose its excito-motor power.
2. The effects are gradual and are felt from below upward, the reflex power
being lost progressively, first in the lower limbs, then in the upper limbs, and,
finally, in the head.
3. The voluntary movements continue after the loss of the reflex movements
and become Incoordinate before their disappearance.
4. The facts observed In the study of normal reflex movements and during
the poisoning of the cord by delphinin justify the belief that the nerve cells
of the gray matter may lose their power of direct reaction and yet permit the
passage of the reflex current
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
10 BULLETIN 365, U. 8. DEPABTMENT OF AGBICULTURE.
5. The delphinin seems to act successively and with a paralyzing effect upon
the general sensitiveness, the reflex power, the respiration, and the coordina-
tion of movements. Its favorite place of predilection is the nervous system
and it has no influence on the muscular system.
According to most authors convulsions come on in the later stages
of the poisoning, with intervals in which the animal is in a comatose
condition. Characteristic of Delphinium poisoning are the muscular
tremblings which start in the abdominal muscles and pass over the
body. Although most of the authors agree in general on the symp-
toms and the anatomical lesions exhibited by animals poisoned by
delphinin, there is some disagreement as to the way the poison acts
in bringing about the observed results. Several authors have com-
pared delphinin to veratrin, and some have compared it to curare,
while most of them find that its action is similar to that of its near
relative aconitin. It certainly is true that the action of delphinin
on experimental animals, as givei\ by most authors, corresponds
very closely with the recognized action of aconitin. The principal
difference seems to be that delphinin has a direct depressing action
on the vasomotor centers of the cord (Boehm and Serck) and that it
does not paralyze the heart muscles to any extent (Schiller). Some
of the earlier authors attributed the paralysis of Delphinium poison-
ing to a paralyzing action on the muscles similar to that caused by
veratrin, but it has been established that delphinin exerts its essen-
tial action on the nervous system rather than directly on the muscles.
Rabuteau and some others advance the theory that the paralysis
is due, as in the case of curare poisoning, to the paralysis of the
motor end organs rather than to a depression of the nerve centers;
while Boehm and Serck describe experiments which show that the
preparation of delphinin used by them acted on the motor nerve
centers rather than on the end organs.
The chlorid of the alkaloids in the American Delphiniums has
been separated by Lohmann and put upon ^he market by Merck
under the name of Delphocurarine, with the idea that it may be
used as a drug instead of curare. This has been discussed in some
detail by Heyl, 1903.
Authors seem to agree that the slowing of the respiratory move-
ments and the final asphyxiation are due to depression of the re-
spiratory centers in the medulla oblongata and the afferent vagus
fibers. Boehm and Serck, 1876, show that death is delayed by using
artificial respiration, indicating that asphyxiation is the immediate
cause of death rather than the stopping of the heart. They also
found that immediately after injections of delphinin, both pulse
rate and blood pressure fell, due to the stimulaticm of the vagus.
This is followed by a rise due to paralysis of the vagus through con-
tinued action of the poison. If the dose is repeated or if the original
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ULBKSPUB POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 11
dose is large, the pulse rate and pressure rapidly fall again and the
heart stops in diastole.
Hahn, in concluding his article in 1882, gives the following rSsum6 :
The delphln, after having caused a local Irritation, which is not very in-
tense in the first stages, manifests its action on the respiration (slowing of the
respiratory movements, death by asphyxiation), on the organs of circulation
(slowing of the beatings of the heart, lowering of the blood pressure, stopping
of the heart in diastole), on the spinal cord (loss of the excito-motor power
of the spinal cord, rapidly progressive general anesthesia, convulsions, and
paralysis) ; moreover, the muscles are the seat of intense fibrUlar shocks.
In its toxic effects delphin then very much resembles the alkaloids of aconite,
as one would expect from the botanical relationships; it is distinguished by
its energetic action on the nerves supplying the muscles, an action. which
aconitin does not possess except in a feeble degree.
Keller and Volker in 1913 report the separation from Z>. ajacis
of two alkaloids, ajacin and ajaconin. The formula! for ajacin
is given as CigHjiNO^HgO and of ajaconin as CnHzgNO^. The
properties of these alkaloids are given, but apparently no experi-
ments were made to test their effect upon animals.
In 1913 Loy, Heyl, and Hepner made a report of analytical work
on Wyoming larkspurs. They isolated an alkaloid in an impure form
and made quantitative determinations in D: nelsordi^ D. glaucwm^ and
Z>. geyeri. ITiey state that of these three species, apparently D. geyeri
is the most poisonous. • They find in Z>. nelsonii that the seed contains
of the crude alkaloid 1.27, the flower 0.79, the pod 0.60, the root 0.48,
the leaf 0.34. In D. glaucum they find in the root 1.79, in the flower
0.77 and in the leaf 0.62. In D, geyeri, they find in the leaf and stem
1.15 and in the root 0.93.
As is noted later, page 77, the apparent greater toxicity of D.
geyeH may possibly be explained by the age of the plant.
A review of the laboratory work on the poisonous principles of the
Delphiniums brings us to the general conclusion that we have in
these plants a poisonous principle similar in its action to that of
aconitin. The poison is a local irritant causing strong convulsions
in the animals as well as pain and nausea. Its systemic action is on
the nervous system, depressing the respiratory and vasomotor centers,
and paralyzing the motor centers in the cord. The immediate cause
of death, then, is asphyxiation; the heart action also is weak and
stops about as soon as respiration ceases.
In the summing up of the work of the field experimentation on the
Delphiniums, it will be noted that these symptoms agree quite fully
with those noted in animals poisoned by feeding upon the plants at
the Mount Carbon station.
LOSSES FROM LABKSPUB POISONING.
It is very difficult to get anything like exact statistical reports of
the loses caused by larkspur poisoning. In many localities all cases
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
12 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGMCULTUBE,
of poisoning are attributed to this plant, although the stockmen may
have a very indefinite idea of what larkspur really is. In other
cases, where they have learned that some other poisonous plant hs£
been responsible for the death of ammals, larkspur losses, without
any doubt, are overlooked. Grenerally speaking, however, so far as
the reported larkspur poisoning refers to the summer ranges in the
mountains, considerable reliance can be put upon the facts presented
This is generally true where the losses refer to cattte rather than to
sheep.
The reports of Wilcox, 1897, and Chesnut and Wilcox, 1901, give
some details with regard to losses of sheep in Montana, Wilcox
stating that out of one band of 2,000 yearling lambs, 102 died. The
authors, also, have been told by Mr. L. W. Bailey, of Casper, Wyo,
that in the Big Horn region in 1908, 7,000 sheep were lost Mr. Jeff.
Crawford, of Casper, stated that in 1907, in the months of April,
May, and June, he lost 23 per cent of his sheep. Both Mr. Bailey
and Mr. Crawford supposed that the sheep died from larkspur
poisoning. As is indicated eleswhere in this report, however, the
authors very much doubt whether larkq)ur is ever the cause of
fatalities in the case of sheep, so that in discussing larkspur losses it
is felt that the sheep losses can be ignored.
More complete reports of losses have been made from the State of
Colorado than from any other region, largely, without doubt, be-
cause the experiment work of the Department of Agriculture upon
the larkspurs has been mainly centered in that State. Glover,
1906, estimated that the annual losses among the Colorado cattle
herds amounts to $40,000. A few concrete examples collected by the
authors will give a more definite idea of what this loss means in in-
dividual cases:
Mr. Hartman, of Crystal Creek, Colo., reports that in 1884 or
1885, on the Curecanti, out of 500 head of cattle, 35 died within 5
hours. Mr. Creighton, of Crystal Creek, stated that out of one
herd of 3,000, 200 died; and out of another of 5,000, 200 died, while
from a herd of 6,000, 196 died. The latter fact was not an estimate,
but was carefully tallied by one of the stockmen. In 1908, in Wadi-
ington Gulch, Gunnison County, Colo., 12 head of cattle were found
dead. In the same year in a gulch at the upper part of Red Creek
in the same county, 22 head of cattle died betTveen 2 o'clock Satur-
day, June 27, and 2 o'clock Sunday, June 28. In this case nearly all
of the cattle belonged to one man. In District No. 4 of the TJncom-
pahgre National Forest, in the spring of 1909, according to the re-
port of Supervisor Spencer, 100 cattle died. Near Axial, Colo., in
1908, Mr. lies lost 200 head of cattle. In the same year in an area of
six or seven square miles near Axial, 25 head of cattle died out of
a total of 800. One man in Del Norte, Colo., was reported by the
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LABKSPUB POISONING OP LIVE STOCK. 13
forest supervisor as having lost 15 per cent of all his cattle. On the
Fishlake National Forest in 1915, it was estimated by the forest
supervisor that there was a total loss of cattle amounting to $15,000,
one man losing 48 out of a total of 400 head.
An attempt has been made from reports that have been sent in
from the various grazing areas to get an idea of the percentage of
cattle losses. These percentages can not be considered as very re-
liable, the estimates made varying from 3 to 7 per cent. A con-
siderable number of the persons reporting make an estimate of 5
per cent. This is a very heavy toll to take of the stockmen, and it
is probable that with the exception of the losses from loco poisoning,
there is no one cause of loss that draws upon the herds so heavily
as larkspur poisoning.
The specific examples which have been given have been largely
from Colorado, but losses occur in most of the summer ranges in
the mountain regicms of the West, and it is probable that the ap-
parently greater losses from Colorado are due in part to the more
complete reports and in part, perhaps, to the fact that in Colorado
there is a larger extent of valuable summer range than in the other
States. The reports of losses in the United States come from all
the mountain regions between Mexico and the Canadian line and
from the Rocky Mountains on the east to the coast ranges on the
west. Similar losses have been reported from the Canadian ranges.
The major part of these losses occur in May, June, and early July.
COMMON NAMES OF LARKSPURS.
In Europe a number of common names have been applied to the
larkspurs, names derived either from the morphology of the plant
or its assumed characteristics. Perhaps the most common name is
" stavesacre," a corruption of Staphysagria. In England they are
also known as "dolphin flower," " king's consound," " knight's spur,"
" staggerveed," and "lousewort." In Germany the common names
are " Rittersporn," "Lerchen Klaue," and "Horn Kummel." In
France, " pieds d'alouette," " herbe Sainte-Athalie," " fleur d'amour,"
are among the more common names.
In the western United States larkspurs are commonly known as
" poison," " poison weed," and " cow poison," while in parts of New
Mexico the term "peco" is used. In the mountain ranges of the
West the larkspurs are generally known and accurately distinguished
by the men who handle stock. Before the plants blossom, however,
some confuse Delphinium and Geranium, and more fail to dis-
tinguish between Delphinium and Aconitum. The leaves of the
aconites resemble the larkspur so closely that, inasmuch as they
grow in the same localities, it is not strange that they are not always
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
14 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPAETMENT OF AGEIOULTUBE.
recognized as different plants. The flowers of larkspur and aconite
are so different, however, that few fail to recognize the difference
after flowering.
SPECIES OF DELPHINIUM CONCERNED IN LARKSPUR POISONING.
The classification of the species of Delphinium is in a somewhat
unsatisfactory condition, and until a thorough revision of this g^ius
has been made it is hardly possible to speak authoritatively in re-
gard to the distribution of the various species. Generally speaking,
we find two great groups, the tall and the low larkspurs. The tall
larkspurs embrace the species that are more or less closely related to
the old species Delphhdwm scopvlorum Gray. The form that has
been used in tlie experimental work in Colorado is known provi-
sionally as DelpJUmum barbeyi Huth, and grows at an elevation of
8,000 feet and higher. Delphinium robuatum Rydb., with which a
single feeding experiment was carried on, is also a tall larkspur.
The tall larkspur used in the feeding experiment at the Greycliff
station was Delphimwm (nicuUatvnrb A. Nels., which is common in
the mountains of Montana. The species of low larkspur used at
the Mount Carbon station was DelpMniwrn memiesU D. C, of which
the name Delphirdu/m neUorm Greene, is a sjmonym, while that fed
in Montana was DelpJdrdum bicolor Nutt. The tall larkspurs grow
throughout the season, maturing in the late summer while the low
larkspurs mature and die early in July. Although experimental
work has not been carried on by the authors in any other States than
Colorado and Montana, there is every reason to think that the plants
found in other localities have the same properties and produce the
same effects as the larkspurs of Colorado.
From the fact that the low larkspur dies early in July, cases of
poisoning from this plant occur mainly in the month of June, and it
is commonly thought by the stockmen that the plant ceases to be
poisonous when it blossoms; but as shown elsewhere in this report,
it is probable that it is poisonous during its whole life. The fact
that fewer cases of poisoning occur when the plant is in flower is
probably because at that time nutrient grasses are more abundant
and the animals eat less of the larkspur. The tall larkspurs are also
poisonous early in the season and these poisonous properties, as
shown elsewhere, may continue until the maturity of the plant
The cases of poisoning which occur in other States are due to species
which correspond in general with the tall and low larkspurs of
Colorado.
Delphinium babbitt Huth.
Delphifdum barbeyi (PI. I) is a perennial, growing from buds at
the apex of a long woody root. The stems are pubescent and more
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LABKSPUE POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 15
or less viscid. The leaves are large and deeply cleft into about
five segments, and these segments are more or less deeply incised.
The leaf segments are oblong or obovate-cuneate. The blue-violet
flowers are in a dense termiiial raceme, the pedicels bemg longer
than the spurs. The ovaries are bluish.
DelpMniwrn, harheyi has a lower limit of altitude of about 8,000
feet, growing from that point nearly to the timber line. It grows
best in damp valleys and canyons, where it may form dense masses.
It is found in the mountains of Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah, and
perhaps in the adjoining States to the north and south. It starts
growth early in the spring and at the Mount Carbon station attains
a height of from 1 to 2 feet by the month of June, forming succu-
lent bunches much more prominent than the grass, and doubtless
somewhat attractive to grazing animals. The plant grows to a
height of from 3 to 7 feet, the blossoms appearing about the 1st of
July and the seeds the latter part of the month. The exact time of
flowering varies, of course, with the season and the altitude. All
vegetation at the Mount Carbon station was from one to two weeks
earlier in 1910 than in 1909, and at Kebler Pass, 1,000 feet higher
than the station, flowering plants were collected for feeding as late
as the middle of August. The seeds are shed very soon after being
matured, and the plant begins to dry up, the stems and leaves
gradually becoming brown and dry.
Delphiniuk cucullatum a. Nels.
Delphimuni cucuUaSnmh (PL II, fig. 1) resembles Delphirdum har-
heyi very closely in its habit and occurrence. The stems are gla-
brous and the leaves divided into three to seven segments. The
terminal racemes are closely flowered. The sepals are bluish-white,
the petals violet, and the ovaries white. The general appearance of
the flowers is bluish-gray, this coloration appearing to be constant
for the species. Near the Greycliff station the plants blossomed the
last of July.
D. cucuUaium is found in Montana, Wyoming, Idaho, and as far
south as central Utah.
Delphinium bobustum Rydb.
DelpJdmurrb rohvstum is a perennial occurring in the mouiitains
from Montana to New Mexico and grows in the same general way as
Delphinium harheyi. The stems are puberulent but not viscid. The
leaves are divided into five to seven segments, which are long and
twice cleft into linear lobes. It has the same general habits as
Delphirdwm harheyi^ but does not confine itself so closely to the
canyons and is readily distinguished from harheyi by the form o£
the leaves.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
16 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGMCULTURE.
Delphinium icsNziEsn D. O.
DelpJdmum memiedi (PL II, fig. 2, and Pis. Ill and XIII) is
a perennial, growing from a cluster of small tuberous roots from
which the stem is easily detached. Tlie stem is slender, simple, and
puberulent. The leaves are deeply cleft into segments which are
linear in form. The flowers are deep violet-blue in color, on slender
pedicels, and arranged in a loose raceme.* There inay be as few
as four to six flowers, but they are more numerous on thrifty plants
growing in favorable locations.
Delphirdurri memiem grows at altitudes of from 4,000 to 12,000
feet. It is found on open hillsides and in parks, growing in great
abundance. The picture of Pass Creek Park (PI. Ill) gives an
idea of the number of plants found in that locality. When they were
in blossom the surface of Pass Creek Park as seen from a neighbor-
ing hill presented a uniform blue appearance. In June, 1908, Su-
pervisor Kreutzer, of the Gunnison National Forest, with -the senior
author, picked and counted 1,340 of the plants in blossom on a square
rod near Crystal Creek, Gimnison County.
Delphinium memiesii is widely distributed, being found from
the Rocky Mountains to California and Oregon, and from Alberta
to New Mexico. It appears soon after the snow has melted, and at
high altitudes the plants may be found growing in immediate prox-
imity to snow banks. It grows to a foot in height and the blossoms
appear about the middle of May, the time of blossoming varying with
the advancement of the season and the altitude. The seeds, which
are formed the last of June, are immediately shed and the plant dies
down and disappears. After the first week in July the plant is very
rare except at the highest altitudes at which it grows.
Delphinium bicolob Nutt
Delphimwm hicolor is a perennial growing from long fibrous
fascicled roots. The stem is glabrous or pubescent, and the leaves
deeply cut into linear lobes. The rather stout stem is short, not ex-
ceeding 12 or 15 inches in height. The raceme has a few flowers much
larger than those of Delphinium m^miesU and of a deep violet-Uue
color. It is one of the most beautiful of the American larkspurs.
It grows at a lower altitude than Delphimwm memiesn and, so far
as observed, never in such dense masses. Its range is given as from
Washington and Oregon to South Dakota. It is the common low
larkspur in Montana, and like D. m^miesii, blossoms about the
middle of May and disappears early in July.
DETECnOK OF LARKSPUB SPEOBS IN STOMACH 00NTBNT&
In connection with these studies cases of poisoning not infre-
quently occur in which the cause of death can not be determined
• Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 365. U. S. D«pt. of Agriculture.
Plate I.
FiQ. 1.— Tall Larkspur (Delphinium barbeyi Huth) before FLowERiNa
Fia 2.— Tall Larkspur (Delphinium barbeyi Huth) in Full Bloom.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 365, U. S. Dept. of Afl:ricultur«.
Plate II.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 365.
U. S. Dept. of Agrieuftura.
Plate III.
1
M-
1
1
-ML.
1
1
-
.1
MM' ''**■"'' *^"
•
t
■flsc'C;:^
1
p
flL^ '-'v^I^i , *-'* ;,,» "-SV
v^^S^^^^H
<
^
\ '^11
CQ
z
i
N
Z
III
z
z
o
<
Q.
O
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
But. 365, U. S. Dept of Agriculture.
Plate II.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 365. U. S. Dept. o\
F Agricurtur*.
Plate III.
M^MMjP^:^
k-„H . ^,
% 1. ■:
1
1
1.
i
■■*;•■.. i'
* ■.
/I
•I
i-^i.-'
kP^^I
^^
^9
A
^^^1
1 M
.'
s-l^ 1
. V . V t4
■*' V y^ jB
- -4
-I
CQ
UJ
a
<
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LABKSPUB POISONING OF UVB STOCK. 17
from the readily available evidence, and recourse must be had to
a study of the contents of the rumen. On account of the maceration
of the plants most of the material is unrecognizable on macroscopic
examination, the leaves especially being almost disintegrated. Fre-
quently, however, stems of grasses and other plants retain their
structure sufficiently to show some characteristic features, the fibro-
vascular bundles in many cases being more or less intact when the
looser tissues have been disintegrated.
As the poisoning due to DelpJmdum harbeyi was being investi-
gated, an attempt was made to determine whether the stomachs of
the poisoned animals contained this plant, by comparing sections
of steins found in the rumen with sections of stems of DelpMnium
harbeyi. In this way it was foimd possible to determine whether
an animal had eaten larkspur, and this method was successfully
applied in a number of cases where portions of stomach contents
had been preserved in formalin. This work led to the sectioning
of steins of other species of Delphinium in order to discover whether
it was possible to differentiate between the species by stem sections,
especially since in the region where the station was located two
species of larkspur occur. This work is here recorded, not in any
sense as a complete study of the stem anatomy of the genus, but
as a few interesting facts brought out by a compariscm of cross
sections of stems of a number of species of Delphinium.
In looking up the literature of this genus, no anatomical work was
found on the American species. A number of articles have been
published both in Europe and America on the anatomy of the Ranun-
culacese as a whole and of some of the other genera, but those deal-
ing with Delphinium in detail are few and are European. In 1885
Albert Meyer published an article on the systematic anatomy of the
Kanimculacese, in which he grouped the genera according to anatomi-
cal characters, and also differentiated many of the species, giving a
key based on anatomical characters. His work was on the char-
acters shown by cross-sections of stems. Paul Mari6, 1885, pub-
lished an extensive paper on the histological structure of the Ranun-
culacese. In this work the detailed anatomy of all parts of the plant
is described for a number of species in each genus, and the dis-
tinguishing characters of the family and of the different genera
are discussed. The only article which is devoted solely to the anat-
<Mny of Delphinium is that of Lenfant, 1897, on the genus Delphin-
ium in a series of contributions to the anatcnny of the Banunculacese.
The histological structure of four species (two of which, ajcuns and
conaolida^ have been introduced into the United States) is studied
for all parts of the plant and for various stages of growth.
26876^— Bull. 365—16 2
Digitized by VjOOQIC
18 BULLETIN 366, U. 8. DEPAKTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The present work includes the following 29 species of EKJ-
phinium: Z>. ajdda L., D. andersondi Gray (National Herbariuri?
.No. 419245) , Z>. hwrbeyi Huth, D. hicolor Nutt, D. hlochmamruB Greene
(National Herbarium No. 2060), Z>. (xilifarrdcmri T. & G. (Nv
tional Herbarium No. 419726), D. cardinale Hook (National Her-
barium No. 1928), D. caroUniarw/m Walt (National Herbarium Na
442717), Z>. con8olida^ L., D. cucidlatv/m Aven Nelson, D. decorum
F. & M. (National Herbarium No. 1939), Z>. depauperatum Nutt
(National Herbarium No. 529204), Z>. gerwrmfoliwnb Rydb. (Na-
tional Herbariiun No. 245524) , Z>. geyeri Greene, Z>. glaucwm Wats^
D. memiesU D. C. (National Herbarium No. 333235), Z>. nuduxwie
T. & G. (National Herbarium No. 612398), D. occidentale Wats.
(National Herbarium No. 506615), Z>. recurvatum Greene, />.
robustwm Rydb., Z>. sapelloms Ckll., D. scaposv/m Greene, Z>. scopu-
lorum Gray (National Herbarium No. 284530), D. simplex DougL
(National Herbarium No. 226416), Z>. tricome Michx., D. troUUfo-
Uv/m Gray, Z>. variegatum Gray (National Herbarium No. 342458),
D. vanegatium apiculatum Greene (National Herbarium No. 1887),
and Z>. virescens Nutt.
ITiese species were used, partly because they are the species which
have been met in the field work on poisonous plants, and partly be-
cause they were convenient to obtain for comparison. The specimens
of harbeyi and menziedi were from fresh specimens which were fixed
and embedded in the field, from specimens preserved in alcohol, and
from dried specimens. The sections of sapellonis and cucuUatum
were from dried plants sent in from the field. The remaining speci-
mens were from the United States National Herbarium, the Economic
Herbarium of the Bureau of Plant Industry, and from the collecticm
of Mr. Ivar Tidestrom. In addition to these species of Delphinium,
stem sections were made of two species of Aconitum, for the purpose
of comparison, since the two genera are very similar in structure, and
since the two occur side by side in the field and both are suspected of
poisoning stock.
In preparing the dried herbarium material for sectioning it was
treated with 2 per cent sodium hydroxid solution for 24 hours, or
until the tissues were softened and swollen, then washed thoroughly
in water, and put in a 10 per cent glycerin solution, the glycerin being
gradually concentrated through a period of several days. The sec-
tions were then cut in pith with a hand microtome, and stained with
safranin. Perfect sections are not always obtained by using this
method, but for the purpose of the identification of stems in field
work it is preferable in most cases to embedding.
Comparison of the diifferent species was based solely on the char-
acters appearing in the cross sections of stems. For each species
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LABKSPUB POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 19
cross sections of the main stem of the plant were made without refer-
ence to any particular point in the stem. In the case of Delphirdum
barheyi and D. memiesii and Acordtvmfi hakeri^ sections were made
from the subterranean portion of the stem, the petiole, and the
peduncle. A photomicrograph was made of a portion of a section of
a stem of each species, all the photographs being magnified 65
diameters.
The sections of course showed certain characteristics typical of the
Banunculacese, the most noticeable being the form and disposition of
the fibrovascular bimdles. The bundles are of the closed collateral
type and are isolated, being separated by wide medullary rays. The
xylem mass has in cross section a somewhat V-shaped appearance, the
arms of the V partially inclosing the cambium and phloem. There
is no interfascicular cambium. This type of bundle is common to
the Ranunculaceas, but is found almost nowhere else among the dicot-
yledons (Solereder, 1908, p. 18, and Jeliiffe, 1899, p. 339). Another
feature of the bundle peculiar to the Kanunculaceae among dicotyle-
dons is that the phloem consists only of sieve tubes and companion
cells, with no phloem parenchyma (Strasburger, 1908, p. 113).
These facts in regard to the fibrovascular bundles serve to differen-
tiate the EanunculacecB from other dicotyledons, but are also points
of resemblance to some of the monocotyledons. Therefore in identi-
fying larkspurs in the stomach contents of poisoned cattle it Was
necessary to differentiate carefully from some of the grasses when
only fragments of the stem could be obtained.
The. genus Delphinium has a characteristic stem structure, as shown
by cross sections. Vesqjie, 1881, page 28, says that it is impossible to
distinguish anatomically the genera of the Ranunculacese, but that
certain groups of genera can be recognized, and he places Aconitimi
and Delphinimn in one group. Myer, 1885, page 46, in his key, gives
means of distinguishing both Delphinium and Aconitum, the latter
being differentiated from Delphinium by the presence of a complete
ring of sclerenchyma outside the fibrovascular bundles.
In cross section the external circumference of a Delphinium stem
is either approximately circular or approaching an octagonal shape,
and the stem is hollow. It is covered externally by a layer of epi-
dermal cells whose outside walls form a thickened cuticle. The epi-
dermis usually bears unicellular hairs of varying shape, size, and
number, and is pierced by simple stomata. Beneath the epidermis
there is a layer of hypodermaJL cells similar to those of the epidermis
but without, thickened walls. Inside the hypodermis there are two
to five rows of cortical parenchyma cells, bearing chlorophyll, and
arranged loosely with intercellular spaces. In one species it was
possible to distinguish an endodermis,. but as a rule the endodermis
can not be distinguished from the other cells of the pericycle. The
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
20 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPAKTMENT OF AGEICULTUEE.
pericycle consists of a ring of sclerenchymatous tissue between the
cortex and the phloem portion of the fibrovascular bundles, and is
composed of the bast fibers of the bundles and the interfascicular
sclerenchyma. The cells of the pericycle have thickened walls, es-
pecially in the case of the bast fibers, the cells of which are also
smaller than those of the mterfascicular sclerenchyma. Inside the
pericycle are the phloem and xylem porticms of the fibrovascular
bundles, the bimdles being separated by the medullary rays, which
are as wide as the bundles, and the cell-walls of which are some-
times thickened so that they are not distinctly marked off from the
pericycle. The medullary rays are continuous with the medullary
portion of the stem, m which there is a medullary lacuna of varying
size.
The fibrovascular bundles are of the closed collateral type, ar-
ranged in a single circle, just inside the cortex. In this description
the bast fibers are considered as part of the fibrovascular bundle.
The group of bast fibers seen in cross section varies from a wedge
shape to a somewhat circular shape, and is usually not sharply de-
fined from the interfascicular portion of the pericycle. It partially
incloses the phloem and cambium, while the curved outer border of
the xylem partially incloses the cambiimi on the inner side. The
phloem consists of sieve tubes and small companion cells. The
cambium is composed of several rows of small thin-walled cells,
elongated tangentially, lying in a curved line, with the convexity
toward the xylem. Between and surrounding the tubes of the xylem
proper is a varying amount of xylem parenchyma.
Classified according to cross sections of sj;ems, the 29 species of
Delphinium examined fall into six groups, as follows :
Group 1. DelphirUum barheyi, D, caUforrUoum, D. cucuUatum, D, geranH-
folium, D. glaucunif D. occidentalCf D. robustumt D, sapdlonis, D, scopularwn,
D, troliifolium.
Group 2. Detphinium anderaonii, D. bicolor, D, decorum^ D, depauperatum,
D. menziesiiy D. nudicaule, D. tricome.
Group 3. Delphinium hlochm^nnWy D. cardinale.
Group 4. Delphinium caroliniawum, D. recurvatum, D, simplex, D. wiriegatum,
D, variegatum apiculatum.
Group 5. Delphinium geyeri, D. scapoaum, D. virescens.
Group 6. Delphinium ajaciSy D, consolida.
These six groups may be combined in three main sections. Section
I includes only group 1, which comprises all the species which are
commonly known as tall or giant larkspurs. Section II includes
groups 2, 3, 4, and 5, and in general represents those species known
as low larkspurs. Section III consists of group 6, the European
consolida group.
Delphirdimi harheyi has been taken as the type of group 1.
Figure 1, J., is a diagram of a cross section of a stem D. barheyi^
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LABKSPUB POISONING OF LIVE STOCK.
21
with only part of the bundles drawn in ; B is a diagram of a typical
fibrovascular bundle of group 1. In DelyTdrdwrn harbeyi (PL IV,
/WSMUAf?)^ j^j4ClMfi4
\Af£DCAUAI
CXM^TTX
>*5et?K2i^
Af£DUU/4
Fio. 1. — A. Diagram of crosa-Bection of stem of group 1.
vascular bundle of group 1.
B, Diagram of flbro-
fig. 1) the stem is large, with a large medullary lacima. The outer
circumference is roughly octagonal. The bundles are about 32 in
/Google
uigiTized by'
22 BULLETIN 365, XT. S. DBPABTMBNT OF AQRIOULTUBE.
number, and rather small in proportion to the diameter of the stem,
those at the angles being a little larger than the others. The cross
sections of the xylem and the bast are about the same in size, both
being somewhat circular in form. The horns of the bast mass and
the xylem mass nearly inclose the lens-shaped phloem. There are
only a few rows of icylem parenchyma at the inner end of the xylem.
The walls of the cells of the pericycle are not very greatly thickened.
The bast fibers of the bundles lying between the angles of the octagcMi
are separated from the cortex by one or two rows of cells continuous
with the interfascicular sclerenchyma.
As a type of the second group, Delphdmum memiesU has been
used (PI. IV, fig. 2). The stem is much smaller than that of
Delphirdum harbeyi and has a medullary lacuna much smaller
in proportion to the diameter of the stem. The circiunference of
the stem is practically circular. The bundles are about 24 in num-
ber, of two sizes arranged alternately. The fibrovascular bundle
exhibits in cross section a form quite distinct from that of group 1.
The bundle is longer and narrower, the bast being wedge-shaped
with the larger end situated externally. The phloem portion of
the bundle is open laterally, the inner boundary of the bast and
the outer line of the xylem being only slightly curved. The xylem
proper is small in extent, but there is a large amoimt of xyl^n
parenchyma extending toward the medullary lacima.
Group 3 is represented by Delphimwm cardinaHe (PI. V, fig. 1),
and in type of stem structure can not be diifferentiated from group
2. The group 2 type is here exhibited on a larger scale, with a bast
larger in amount, and more sharply differentiated from the inter-
fascicular sclerenchjmia, and composed of thicker-walled cells, and
with a stouter structure all the way through.
In group 4, typified by Delphirdum recurvatum, (PL VI, fig. 1),
we have a stem structure which may be considered as intermediate
between the true low larkspur type of group 2, and the taller forms
represented in group 5. The general form of fibrovascular bundle
corresponds to that of group 2, but the stem is more compact in
structure, the bundles longer and arranged more closely, and the
alternate large and small bimdle arrangement less prominent.
For the fifth group, Delphirdum geyeri was used as the type (PL
V, fig. 2, and fig. 3, A and B). The medullary lacuna of the stem
is very small and the external circumference approaches the octago-
nal. The bundles are about 30 in number, those at the angles
being slightly larger than the others. The cells of all the tissues of
the stem are relatively small and numerous. The fibrovascular
bundle is similar in the form of cross section to that of group 2, but
is larger and much elongated, the bast in particular being very ex-
tensive. The bast is oblong to wedge-shaped, and composed of very
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LABKSPUB POISONING OF LIVE STOCK.
28
small, heavy-walled cells. The xylem proper is small in amount,
generally curved at the outer boundary more than is the case in
^Xe/XMJ./^AY lAICC/A^
ccwr/FX
/^£J9/CyVZ^
xyz^Af iv-^ —
AfSOUUA
Fio. 2. — A. Diagram of croBS-section of stem of group 2. B. Diagram of
flbro-TaBcuIar bundle of group 2.
group 2. The xylem parenchyma extends some distance inward from
the xylem.
Digiti
zed by Google
24 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPABTMENT OP AGBICULTTTBE.
Group 6 is represented by Delphinium ajaeis (PL VI, fig. 2, and
fig. 4, A and B). The stem is circular and has a relatively small
medullary lacuna. The bundles are about 46 in number and are of
two sizes, the large and small arranged alternately. This is the cmly
group in which it was possible to distinguish a row of endodermal
cells. All the cell walls are much thickened, which is a distinguish-
ing characteristic of this group. The shape of the fibrovascular
bimdles is quite characteristic. The bast is wedge-shaped, composed
of cells whose walls are so thickened that the lumen is reduced almost
to a point. The phloem is small and completely inclosed by the
bast and xylem. The xylem mass is larger than the bast, elcxigated,
and includes a large amount of xylem parenchyma.
Delphinium consolida is similar to />. ajaeis^ but the bundles are
less numerous, the cell walls in the pericycle are thickened still
further, and part of the cells of the cortical parenchyma have thick-
ened walls.
Any of the species which were examined could be quite easily
placed in one of the above groups, but within the groups the work
thus far done has not revealed sufficiently characteristic differences
in stem structure to make identification of species possible. Vesque,
1881, page 29, says that while it is impossible to distinguish genera
by anatomical characters, it is easy to distinguish species, but he
uses different characters to differentiate the species, such as the struc-
ture of the petiole, the development of palisade cells, and the dis-
tribution of stomata in the leaf. On the other hand, the present
work is based on stem characters, which serve to differentiate be-
tween genera in the family Ranunculacese, and in this case between
groups of species in the genus, but not between individual species.
An exception to this is group 6, of which we have only two species
in America, and these two can be distinguished by the anatomy of
the stem. These two are European species which have been intro-
duced into the United States, and are described anatomically by
Lenfant (1897, pp. 26-27, PL VII) and Marie (1885, pp. 117-118,
PL VI). The specimens of ajdcia and consolida from the Na-
tional Herbarium which were examined had evidently been mis-
named, one for the other, as was discovered by comparing cross sec-
tions of the stems with the descriptions and figures of Mari6 and
Lenfant
Sections were also made of two species of Aconitum, A. hakeri
Greene (PL VI, fig. 3 ; and fig. 5, A and 5) and an unidentified species
from California, in order to compare them with and to differentiate
them from the tall larkspurs. The cross section of the stem shows a
structure similar to that of the tall larkspurs, but it can be easily
distinguished by the lack of a medullary lacuna, and by the complete
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 365. U. S Dept. of Agriculture.
Plate IV.
Fig. 1.— Cross Section of Stem of Delphinium barbeyl
Fig. 2.— Cross Section of Stem of Delphinium menziesii.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 365, U. S. D«pt. of Agriculture.
Plate V.
m-'--
Fig. 1 .—Cross Section of Stem of Delphinium cardinale.
FiQ. 2.— Cross Section of Stem of Delphinium qeyeri.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 365, U. S. D«pt. of Agricuftur*.
Plate VI.
Fig. 1.— Cross Section of'Stem of Delphinium recurvatum.
Fig. 2.— Cross Section of Stem of Delphinium ajaci^
ixMm
Fia 3.— CR068 Section of Stem of Aconitum bakeri.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 365, U. S. Dept. of AgricuHur*.
Plate VIL
j/BB^^^^Mm
■■1
^
M
■HI
H
^1
^^1
^^v^ ^^
MMJ^I
^HH^^H
^^^^^^^^^H
^B ""'"TBfl
^^H
^H^L^^^^^I
^^^^^^H
^^^^^^ .AkAa^M^^^^^^^I
^H
^^■^H
^^^^^^H
^K^^^^^^^^^^^^l
^^^H
^^^^^^H
^^^^^^^^H
l^^l^
■
■1
■■
Fig. 1 .—Station at Mount Carbon, Colo.
kt
.
^
^MM'SiS
iiHii
^S
^2*^m*5
^Jj^I
^r^i^jh
^^^^^ET^^l
^m
j^^^
-*^
■w
^QJ^M^I
Ji
Fig. 2.— Station at Greycliff, Mont.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LABKSPUB POISONING OF LIVE STOCK.
25
ring of sclerenchjmia outside the bast fibers. As is shown in the dia-
gram (fig. 5), the circumference of the stem is circular, with the
/yy3oo£^/?Af^
CC^PTEfC
v^5<?t>tX^
Af£XkALl>1
-A, Diagram of cross-section of stem of group 5.
gram of flbro-vascular bundle of group 5.
B, DU-
exception that at two points the cortex is thickened. The bundles are
of about the same size, and about 30 in number arranged in a single
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
26
BULLETIN 365, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AQEICULTUBE.
circle. The pericycle is similar to that of Delphinium, but is dis-
^tinguished by the fact that there are several layers of thick-walled
Afjax/io^^y" i^cdv^
COPT/OU, /-
C/tlAfS/(/M
CO^TTX
/^E^^cyOL^
xyzeAf 1 — —
5
^
Fio. 4. — A, Diagram of crofis-sectlon of stem of group 6. B. Diagram
of flbro-yaBcuIar bundle of group 6
cells continuous with the interfascicular sclerenchyma, separating
the bast from the cortex. The cross section of tiie fibrovascular
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LABKSPUB POISONING OP LIVE STOCK.
27
bundle is siinilar in size and shape to that of the Delphinium group 1.
The bast is smaller and crescent-shaped, while the xylem is long and
AfeXXAU,^
/yyioo£^/PAf^ ^
xvz^^
co^r/rx
/!V5w:yOL^
/^jsoauA
Fig. 6. — A. Diagram of cross-section of stem of Aconltum. B, Diagram of
flbro-yascular bundle of Aconltum.
pointed. The outer border of the xylem is only slightly curved and
does not inclose the phloem.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
28 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
As a result of the study of the stem structure of 30 species of
Delphinium and 2 species of Aconitum it has been found po^ible,
by an examination of cross sections of the stems, to distinguish be-
tween Delphinium and Aconitum and between six groups of specie
in the genus Delphinium. This has been put to practical xsee
in the examination of the contents of the rumen of poisoned cattle,
by which means it has been possible to determine whether the animal
had eaten Delphinium, and to which group of species the plant
eaten belonged.
PART II.— EXPERIMENTAL WORK.
THE STATION AT MOUNT CARBON, COLO.
The station for the detailed study of larkspur poisoning was
located four miles north of Mount Carbon village, in Gunnispn
County, Colo. (PL VII, fig. 1). Through cooperation with the Forest
Service, a ranger's station, including a cabin, bam, corrals, and
pastures, was provided for the experimental work. This station was
in the Ohio Creek Valley at an elevation of about 9,000 feet, in a
region where DelphArdum harheyi and Delphdmwm memiesii were
extremely abundant. In this region, also, losses which are attributed
to larkspur occur every year to a greater or less extent, and in some
years the losses have been very heavy. This station was selected, too,
because it was a favorable location from which studies could be made
upon a number of other plants supposed to be poisonous. It was in-
tended, however, that the principal experimental work should be
upon these two species of larkspur. The station was equipi>ed with
the necessary laboratory facilities, and arrangements were made for
cattle and horses for experimental purposes, the work being in-
augurated on June 10, 1909, and continuing through that summer
untU October 1. In 1910 and 1911 it was resumed about the middle
of May, and continued untU nearly ttie 1st of October. During
these seasons experimental work was conducted upon cattle, horses,
and sheep. Acknowledgment should be made to the Forest Service
not only for the assistance rendered by equipping the station, but for
the continual help of the officers of the Service during the progress
of the experimental work. It is desired also to acknowledge the
assistance rendered by the stockmen who had cattle upon the Castle
Creek and Anthracite ranges. Through the courtesy of these men a
large number of cattle were loaned for the experimental work, and
thus much material assistance was rendered. While the experimental
work was going on the force kept in close touch with the men con-
trolling the cattle upon the ranges, and one or more members of the
station force accompanied the stockmen during the time the cattle
were driven from the Castle Creek range to the Anthracite range,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LARKSPUR POISONING OP LIVE STOCK. 29
in order to be present at the times when larkspur poisoning was
deemed most likely to occur. The location of the station was most
favorable, not only because of the abundance of larkspurs in the
immediate vicinity, but because it was located in the immediate
neighborhood of the summer ranges of the cattle, so that a most
intimate knowledge of range conditions could be gained.
THE STATION AT GRETCLIFF» MONT.
In 1912 and 1913 the field experimental work in poisonous plants
was carried on at Greycliff, Mont. (PL VII, fig. 2). An old sheep-
shearing plant was loaned for the purpose by the owner, Ole Birke-
land, and the necessary repairs were provided by the Forest Service,
including fitting up the house for use as office, laboratory, and dining
hall, necessary repairs to the bam, and construction of fences and
corrals.
While experimental work was to be undertaken on a number of
poisonous plants, this location was considered especially favorable
for the study of the effects of feeding Delphinium cucuUatv/m and
DelpJdnivm hicolor. The main industry in this region is sheep
grazing, and it was considered an especially favorable point to study
the effect of the Montana species of larkspur on sheep. Here, as in
Colorado, the stockmen of the neighborhood showed most helpful
interest in the work and assisted materially by loaning sheep and
cattle for experimental work.
BXFBBIMENTAL FEEDING OF DELPHINIUM BARBETI TO CATTLE IN IHf.
In 1909, 42 experiments were conducted of feeding DelpJmdum
baarbeyi to cattle on 26 different animals. Table I gives a sum-
marized statement of these feeding experiments. The work was not
commenced until the last of June and definite results were not ob-
tained until the last of July. Of these 42 cases 22 were poisoned.
As the season progressed it was evident that larger quantities of
the plants were necessary to produce toxic effects than had been
supposed at the beginning of the experiments, and this fact doubt-
less explains the failure to produce poisoning in the earlier experi-
ments. The summarized results in regard to symptoms and treat-
ment are given later in this paper. Following are a few typical
cases given in some detail.
Case 92.
This case was interesting as being the first one in which there
were definite symptoms of poisoning. Case 92 was a cow weighing
about 990 pounds which had been used for experimental purposes
with DeT/pMniwrn memiem without any effect. On June 30 she
ate 30 pounds of leaves and stems of Delphinium barbeyi. On the
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
30
BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AOBICULrUKB.
I
**?; M
ii
o o o
E «^ o 3 ©
; -^ rote « QC
'gco^-oisss 8e5 S;;
OC iCC* co^^
3 ^ S^S SS S ?S^ 2
s
•5
t
n
I
u
« :
* OS'S
< <
11
I
ft
o
I
I
s
S
II
Sod
d S d
i^
IS'
:^g5
"O 05
f c
1^
t» ©-3
ill
I
1
21 uldi^ci^^ S 9 se-^
? S
i1
< :
-<•<■<
< o
^>/3 trj r«o lO us
IS) s^s dris s;ss 9
oEgssssgg II &g iisssa 5: a ass- xg gag s
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LABKSPUB POISONING OF LIVE STOCK.
31
•S 5 "2 "S* -^
8^ Is a Fa^"" ^ a
ii
r
i IS
289
m i3
€•§
;il i8iJ Idi
3! S
■«!■«! ■«!■«!
,^ ^^'O «<^ tS "O^t
t
§i iig gi§ i§ i i§
§s IIS Sii Ss 8 «S
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
82 BULLETIN 366, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
morning of July 1 it was noticed that she staggered as she walked,
her hind legs appearing stiff. She gave evidence also of some ab-
dominal pain. This peculiar stiffness in gait omtinued tJirougfa
the day of July 1 and was still noticeable on the morning of July
2. No other pronounced symptoms of poisoning were noticed.
Case 605.
Case 605 was a yearling heifer loaned for experimental purposes
by Mr. J. H. Eilebrecht. She was estimated to weigh about 460
pounds.
During July 30 and 31 she received 35 pounds of Delphinium hear-
beyij the material including stems, leaves, and some flowers and
seeds. This material was chopped up and mixed with chopped hay
in order that the animal might eat it more readily. She was fed at 5
p. m. on July 31 and was apparently entirely normal. At 5.30 it was
noticed that she appeared somewhat weak upon her hind legs when
forced to walk about the corral. She soon fell, her fore legs giving
away first, and she was unable to get up. She moaned as though
in pain. Several times she tried to get up but apparently did not
have sufficient strength. Her pulse at this time was 60, her tempera-
ture 102.2° F. There was no evidence of bloating. At 6 p. m.
respiration was 70 and rather irregular. The pulse was slower tiian
when observed before. At 6.11 she suddenly got upon 'her fe^
and walked away. She was weak and staggered but otherwise
seemed all right No further symptoms were noticed during that
evening.
It was noticed that during this illness she urinated rather freely.
She appeared well on the morning of August 1 and the feeding
was resumed, giving her as before stems and leaves of Delphinium
harbeyi with some flowers and seed, the material being cut up and
fed with hay. During the forenoon she ate 12 pounds of this
material. At 1.15 p. m. while walking about in the corral slie
suddenly fell and was unable to rise. The pulse was 68, respira-
tion 68 and somewhat irregular. She was constipated and moaned
as though in pain. At 1.25 her temperature was 102.3. At 1.30
she suddenly got upon her feet, ran around the corral, and fell
down again. At 1.45 her pulse was 60 and respiration 45. At 1.50
she got upon her feet. She stumbled as she attempted to rise, but
did not go down again. When started up she stumbled and fell
upon her knees, but was able again to get upon her feet As she
-stood, the abdominal muscles contracted as if she were in great
pain and there was also spasmodic twitching of the muscles of the
shoulders.
She remained on her feet after this time and as she appeared
normal the feeding was resumed at 3 p. m. She ate 9^ pounds. At
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 365, U. S. D«pt. of Agriculture.
Plate VIII.
Fia 1.— Case 603 at 4.45 p. m.,
AuQUST 21, 1909.
Fia 2.-CA8E 603 at 4.54 P. M.,
August 21, 1909.
FiQ. 3.— Case 603 at 4.54H p. m.,
August 21, 1909.
Fig. 4.— Case 603 at 4.54H p. m.,
August 21, 1909.
Fig. 6.— Case 603 at 4.54»4 p. m.,
August 21, 1909.
Fkj. 6.— Case 603 at 4.58 p. m.,
August 21, 1909.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 365, U. S. D«pt. of Agriculturt.
Plate IX.
Fia 1.— Case 603 at 4.68H p. m.,
AUQU8T 21, 1909.
FiQ. 2.— Case 603 at 4.59 p. u^
August 21, 1909.
Fia 3.— Case 603 at 5.15 p. m.,
August 21, 1909.
^^^ ^*^
» «F» s
^*
t'^y-^B^^H
Fig. 4.— Case 603 at 5.1 5M p. m.,
August 21, 1909.
FIG.5.-CASE 603 AT 5.15Ji P. M.,
August 21, 1909.
Fia 6.— Case 603 at 5.16 p. m.,
August 21, 1909.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 365, U. S. Dept of Agricufturt.
Plate X.
miL..^'
^^ k.
1 •;■'. •-. ,
-zfl^^^B^Hi
Fio.1.— Case 117 Showingt Hind Legs
Braced Apart in the Effort to
Remain Standing.
Fig. 2.— Case 117, August 15, Stag-
gering.
FiQ. 3.— Case 117, August 16, Remaining
ON Its Feet with Great Difficulty.
Fig. 4.— Case 117, August 1 5, in the
Act of Backing in the Manner Char-
acteristic OF Larkspur PoisoNiNa
. - ■= f"£
3M .~^
^
Fig. 5.— Case 117, August 15, Just
Before FALUNa
Fig. 6.— Case 1 1 7, August 1 5, Falling
IN THE Manner Typical of Larkspur
Poisoning.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Plate XI.
Fig. 1.— Case 117, August 15, Just
After an Attempt to Rise.
■.^^m^
.AsE 1 1 7, August 15, 9,10 a. m.,
Attempting to Rise,
Fig. 3.~Case 1 1 7, August 1 5, 9.35 a. m.,
Again Attempting to Rise.
Fig. 4.— Case 1 1 7, August 1 5, 1 0 a, m.,
Unable to Move.
Fiq. 5. -Case 1 1 7, August 1 5, 1 2.05 p. m.
Fig. 6.— Case 1 1 7, August 1 7, After
Recovering from Poisoning.
Digiti
zed by Google
LARKSPUR POISONING OP LIVE STOCK. 33
»
6.50 p. m. she was found down again and unable to rise. She was
moaning as if in pain. At 7.20 her pulse was 65, and at 10.45 it was
60 and somewhat stronger. She remained down during the night
unable to rise, but at 6.45 a. m., on the following morning, she got
upon her feet, moved about anji although she fell, was able to rise
again. A little later, however, she stumbled and fell and could not
rise, but at 8.15 a. m. she was again upon her feet and eating as
though hungry. At 10.15 a. m. she appeared quite well, with the ex-
ception of some weakness, and was turned back into the pasture with
the other animals.
During the first of this series of illnesses she was given a drench
of potassium permanganate, the treatment being repeated in the
evening. There seemed to be no reason, however, to think that this
had any definite effect. She was also given hypodermically an in-
jection of 25 grains of caffein sodio-benzoate at 10.45 in the evening.
There was no evidence that this produced any effect. This case was
particularly interesting because of the successive illnesses produced
by renewed feeding of the Delphiniy/m harheyi.
Case 603.
Case 603 was a yearling heifer, weighing about 550 pounds, which
was loaned to the station for experimental purposes by Mr. O. E.
Wiseman. From August 2 to August 4 she received 34 pounds of
Delphinium harheyi^ including stems, leaves, flowers, and buds. This
was mixed with hay and corn chop in order that it might be eaten
with greater readiness.' No effects were noticed until the afternoon
of August 4. She was apparently well at 4.30. At 6.50 she was
found lying flat on her side and at first was supposed to be dead.
She was breathing, however, and soon kicked a little. A dose of 1
grain of atropin was administered subcutaneously. She was raised
up so that she lay upon her be^y with her head off the ground. In
this position she held her head around by her side as if in pain. At
6.55 respiration was 24 and the pulse between 75 and 80 and weak.
At this time she was given a drench of potassium permanganate. At
7.03 respiration was 23 and temperature 101.2° F. At 7.15 a hypo-
dermic injection of 30 grains of caffein sodio-benzoate was given.
At 7.30 the temperature was 101.3° F. At 7.45 she attempted to get
upon her ^feet but was unable. At 8.20 respiration was 22, pulse
about 90 and not very strong. At 9.10 she was upon her feet and
from this time showed no further symptoms of poisoning.
She was brought into the corrals for further feeding on August 18.
Between August 19 and August 22 she ate 95.75 pounds of Del-
phirdum harheyi^ the material including stems and leaves. At 4.35
on August 22 she was found lying with her head turned to the right
of the body. She got up, staggered about and fell, but lay with head
26876°— Bull. 365—16 3
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
34 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
erect. At 4.54 she began to walk about uneasily, staggering, and
finally fell, going down upon her forefeet first, with her head ex-
tended upon the ground.
Plate VIII, figure 1, shows her attitude while lying down at 4.45,
and figures 2, 3, 4, and 5 shbw successive attitudes taken by the
animal during the minute from 4.54 to 4.55 ; figure 2 shows her with
arched back and lowered head, in the attitude she took while stag-
gering about the corral; figure 3, taken immediately after, shows
very nearly the same attitude; while figure 4 shows her after
coming down upon her fore legs, with head extended upon the
ground in an attitude which is very characteristic of animals
poisoned by larkspur; figure 6 shows her again upon her feet at 4.58.
At 4.58 she commenced to stagger, and was upon the ground at
5 o'clock. Plate VIII, figure 6, and Plate IX, figures 1 and 2, show
her successive attitudes in this process. She arose again at 5.14, but
fell almost immediately. Plate IX, figures 3, 4, 5, and 6, show her
attitudes at this time, and it will be noticed that they are com-
parable with the two preceding series, r These four pictures were
taken within less than a minute. At 5.26 she was again upon
her feet, but at 5.30 commenced to stagger, backing around the
corral in a way that was found to be characteristic of larkspur-
poisoning cases. She attempted to defecate, moving her head up
and down as if in great distress, and then fell down again. She was
upon her feet again at 5.44, but at 5.53 fell. Her respiration at this
time was 30. At 6 o'clock she was again upon her feet, but moved
her head up and down, stepping about uneasily, backing as before.
She staggered somewhat, reminding one very much of the actions
of a drunken man. At 6.04 she lay down, but at 6.07 got up with
no apparent difficulty and began picking up hay in the corrals. At
6.15 she showed uneasiness, moving her head up and down. Then
she lay down again. During this Wtter time she went down volun-
tarily and was evidently improving, for during the earlier stages
of the poisoning she was entirely unable to get upon her feet after
falling. At 7.15 she seemed normal, and no further sjonptoms of
poisoning were noticed.
During this case of poisoning there was an interval of two hours
from the time the animal first fell until the time when she was able
to remain standing.
Case 117.
Case 117 was a steer weighing about 620 pounds. On August 13
he was fed stems, leaves, and flowers, and a few seed pods of
Delphiniwm harheyi^ receiving 32.25 pounds.
On the morning of August 14, at 8.30, it was noticed that he
was acting in a somewhat abnormal manner. When walking he kept
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LARKSPUR POISONING OP LIVE STOCK. 35
upon his feet with difficulty, his legs being too weak to hold him up.
Some of the time when standing he would tremble, and at times
he would place his legs wide apart as if to keep from falling over.
This was particularly noticeable as he walked down hill. Some-
times in walking he would stagger to one side or the other. It was
noticed that he urinated quite frequently but the quantity was not
great. At 10.30 he seemed to be stronger upon his legs and no
marked change was noticed during the rest of the day. Several
times he was found lying down but was able to get up without much
difficulty.
As showing his weakness it was noticed that when he swung his
head aroimd to brush off flies the movement would cause a loss of
balance so that he would stagger and almost fall.
Plate X, figures 1, 2, 3, and 4, show some of the attitudes assumed
by him during the day. When first seen on the morning of August
15, between 6 and 7 o'clock, his condition did not seem to be changed
from that noticed on the preceding day. He was upon his feet and
moving about a little. At 8.15 he seemed much weaker. He was
down and made no effort to get up. Even with assistance, he was
unable to raise the fore part of the body. Plate X, figures 5 and 6,
show his attitude at this time; in figure 5 he was trying to hold
himself upon his feet while in figure 6 he was falling again. At
8.25 he was given a drench of potassium permanganate. His heart
action was very weak at this time and it was with great difficulty
that his pulse could be detected. ResJ)iration seemed normal, al-
though his breathing apparently caused pain. At 8.30 he was given
subcutaneously 1 grain of atropin dissolved in camphor water. '
A little after this he tried to get up but was unable. He could
not get his forequarters off the ground, but did succeed in moving
himself around. Plate XI, figure 1, shows him just as he had fallen
back after an attempt to get upon his feet. During the rest of
the day he made several attempts to get up but was generally
unable to raise his hindquarters from the ground. It was evident
that he was in constant pain and this forced him to attempt to
change his position. At 9.55 a. m. his pulse was about 95, his
respiration 36. The pupils were very much dilated from this time
on, probably from the influence of the atropin. There were spas-
modic contractions of the abdominal muscles.
Plate XI, figure 2, shows the animal attempting to get up at
9.10; figure 3 shows him at 9.35 when he was attempting without
success to get up. The abdominal pain was apparently very severe.
At 10.30 he was given subcutaneously 25 grains of caffein sodio-
benzoate. At 10.40 his temperature was 102.4° F. Plate XI, figure
4, shows his attitude at 10 a. m. and figure 5 shows him at 12.05, noon.
At 2.45 he seemed weaker than at any preceding time and the pulse
was hardly perceptible. He was given 1 grain of atropin in cam-
uigiiizea oy >^jOOQLC
36 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGKICULTUBE.
phor jjvater. At 3.25 the pulse was fairly strong. At 4.25 he Tery
nearly succeeded in getting upon his feet. The muscles of the shoul-
ders and flanks were trembling much of the time.
As he was much constipated, feces being discharged only once dur-
ing the day, he was given at 6 p. m. 12 ounces of Epsom salt as a
drench. At 9.10 p. m. he appeared very much brighter than at any
time during the day. Trembling was not so pronoimced and the pain
was less. He breathed normally, held his head from the ground
and took notice of what was passing around him. He was not seen
again until the morning of August 16. At 6.45 a. m. on August 16
he got up, ate a little hay and drank water. During the forenoon
of August 16 he lay down most of the time but occasicnially got up
and walked from place to place. The improvement continued during
the afternoon and night. He still staggered when walking and re-
mained upon his feet only a few minutes, but could get up and down
at wilL On the morning of August 17 there was still some trembling
of the surface muscles of the shoulders. Plate XI, figure 6,, was
taken at 7.25 a. p. on August 17 when he appeared fairly normal.
He was driven back into the pasture still showing weakness,
trembling, and staggering when hurried, but after this his recovery
was rapid and complete.
EXPERDIENTAL FEEDING OF DELPHDOUM BABBETI TO CATTLE IN l»lt.
The experimental feeding of Delpkmium barbeyi in 1909 had
indicated somewhat clearly the symptoms of poisoning and the
dosage so that the work of 1910 was largely directed to experiments
with various remedies. The discussion of these remedies is taken up
later in this paper. Table II gives a summary of the experimental
feeding of Delphinium barbeyi to cattle during this second summer.
Forty-three feeding experiments were conducted on 24 different
animals. Following is a detailed description of some of the more
typical cases.
Case 612.
Case 612 was a yearling heifer loaned for experimental purposes
and weighing about 500 pounds. From July 2 to July 5 she received
76.5 pounds of Delphinium barbeyi^ including leaves, stems, and
flowers. At 4.15 p. m. on July 5, as the animal had apparently felt
no effect from the feeding, an attempt was made to run her about the
corral. After being run about a few times she began to tremble,
her legs giving out, and she fell and was unable to rise. Bespiration
was 60 and irregular and the pulse 160 and weak. At 4.20 she fell
over upon her side, the surface muscles contracting spasmodically.
At 4.24 the pulse was 100 and rather weak. At 4.27 she was given
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 37
subcutaneously one-half grain of atropin. At 4.29 the pulse was be-
tween 95 and 100, respiration 46 and slower and deeper than when
noticed before. At 4.38 respiration was 60 and irregular. At 4.40
the pulse was 75 to 80. At 4.51 respiration ^was 40 and the pulse 94.
At 5.01 she suddenly got up without any apparent effort and walked
the length of the corral. She stood for a moment, trembling vio-
lently, then fell, going over upon her left side. At 5.30 an attempt
was made to get her upon her feet, when she began to vomit. She
was held up for about ten minutes, imtil it was evident that there was
no regurgitated material in the lungs or trachea. At 5.55 she at-
tempted to get upon her feet, but was imable. At 6.10 she was given
a hypodermic injection of one-fourth grain atropin, and at 6.30 she
was given hypodermically 10 cubic centimeters of undiluted whisky.
At 6.45 she lay with head extended, eyes partly closed, lips apart,
muscles of the flanks twitching, with rapid breathing, and was ap-
parently about to die. At 6.55 she was given a second dose of 10
cubic centimeters of undiluted whisky. At 7.10 her head was raised
and she was able to keep it erect. At this time she attempted to get
up and made another attempt at 7.12. At 7.22 she got up, went the
length of the corral and walked about nervously. There was still
some twitching* of the muscles of the body. From this time on she
seemed to improve in condition, and showed no other symptoms of
poisoning. There seemed to be no doubt that in this case the injec-
tion of whisky had bridged over a period of weakness which other-
wise might have ended fatally.
Case 118.
Case 118 was a yearling steer bom August 9, 1909, whose estimated
weight was 300 pounds. He received July 7, 18.25 pounds of Del-
pMmvmi harheyi including stems, leaves, and blossoms. This was
given in three feedings, one at 9.15 a. m., one at 9.40 a^ m., and one
at 2.40 p. m. At 3.55 he was found down and unable to get up,
apparently from weakness. At 4 p. m. the pulse was 70 and rather
weak, respiration 72. At 4.09 respiration was 100 and pulse 75.
Saliva was running from his mouth. At 4.28 the pulse was 60. At
5.01 there were a few spasmodic contractions of the legs, but nothing
that could be considered as convulsions. During these spasmodic
contractions he went over on his left side and remained there. Res-
piration was §4. During this time he had made several unsuccessful
attempts to rise. There was some belching of gas from the stomach.
Two subcutaneous injections of atropin were given, the quantity
given being one-half grain in all. The respiration became more and
more shallow and soon stopped entirely. An attempt was made to
stimulate it by inhalation of ammonia, but it was unsuccessful.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
38
BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
I*
oS,|
I
I ss iii& (S s s s s (S (S ss ss
9* o
• ^ I-
U 2
loto r*
Is SSJ SdS'3 ;! 3 ^ SS 2 g Sg 3S
I
s i ^^
c
3
■s-s
I
a
I
i
3t
0
t.-a
9
|-s.i«a
Ia1«
b
II
<S
€^
p
•33
•=•2
91
5l
Co
ill II
il
9p Jl
%
(U
I
9
•^^s
d
3 3 • 9 3 • 3
I I 1 If 1 I
I S § 9a 9 I §9 II
a>«w 00 ootDio ao Nig .^ »j
1 1
II
I
s ;^3^
t
Hi ii i
9 9?
Ok ooi
1^ *e<
SS5 g ^ S55 J5S s ^ ^^
II I §§§§§§§§ '§§ § § §§
S 01(0 tcSo^S to 3 « (0« S <0 S<0 So 1-4 3 SS
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LABKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK.
39
^ SSI
J^ ^4^,Q-»*!o-f*,0
S I I'sSI&'iS
«i^ i^^S aSS^SI i isgSS^s
I
i
I
111 HI
3 S S'd 3 S S
1 ^ ^ S'd ^1
37;
Hi
I3li| |1|a
col's cJ «i
5 155*131 55 1155^1 5lil
Js! s's'sS a"
3 SSI a|s ^sg?^^ R iSSSgsa
§ i§§ §11 §§§§§§ % iiisiii
§ §§§ s'i§ §§§iii s §§§§i^§
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
40 BULLETIN 365, V. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE.
Fifty cubic centimeters of alcohol was given subcutaneously aboat
the time respiration stopped, but this was evidently too late. The
pulse could be felt for about three minutes after respiration had
stopped.
An autopsy was made on the morning of July 8. The heart was
found to be in diastole with petechiae upon its walls. The mucous
membranes of the larynx and trachea were inflamed and the lungs
congested. The walls of the first stomach were congested near the
esophageal opening. The walls of the second and third stcnnach were
strongly congested at the cardiac end. The duodenum was c<H)gested.
the jejunum slightly congested. The ileum was slightly congested
throughout its length. There was congestion in the upper part of
the cecum. The walls of the rectimi near the anus were extruded and
inflamed. The kidneys were congested. It was noticeable in this
animal that while there was mucus in the trachea and bronchi there
had been no actual vomiting.
Case 610.
' Case 610 was a yearling heifer weighing about 500 poimds which
was loaned by the Castle Creek stockmen. She was fed leaves, stems,
and flowers of DelpMrdum barbeyi on July 13, being fed at 9, 9.30,
and 10 a. m., eating altogether 20 pounds. At 11.40 she became
uneasy and soon went down, and by the time the observer could
obtain assistance from the laboratory she was found on her left side,
flat upon the ground.
She was immediately given a subcutaneous injection of physos-
tigmin salicylate three-fourths grain, pilocarpin hydrochlorid 1^
grains, and strychnin sulphate one-half grain. At 11.45 respira-
tion was 80 and pulse 64. A picture was taken at 11.49, which shows
her lying flat upon the ground (PL XII, fig. 1). At this time there
was some trembling and some salivation and she was kicking about
as though in pain. At 11.45 the pulse was 76, respiration 60 and
shallow. At 12.11 the pulse was 75. At 12 o'clock a small amount
of feces was passed and more at 12.12. There was a further passage
at 12.35. From 12 until about 12.30 considerable gas was expelled
from the stomach. At 12.30 she was able to raise herself upon her
belly. At 12.35 the pulse was 72. It was noticed that there was
considerable secretion during this time from the lachrymal glands.
By 1.40 considerable gas had accumulated in the rumen, and as she
did not seem to be able to relieve herself by expelling it per os, the
trocar was thrust into the rumen. This relieved the pressure and
the breathing became easier. The animal lay at this time with her
head around to her side in the position shown in Plate XII, figure 2.
From 12.30 on it was noticed that she perspired quite freely. This
was probably due to the effect of the remedy pilocarpin. At 2
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 365, U. S. D«pt. of Agricultur*.
Plate XII.
Fig. 1 .—Case 61 0 at 1 1 .49 a. m., July 1 3. FiQ. 2.— Case 61 Oat 1 1 .49}<j a. m., July 1 3.
HHjfi
gjS^S^'PNB|
^^^^9
^^^^ MmH
ss
^VlB^^k£jiv ^'^S^^H^^^^^I
1^^^^^^^"
i^H@
^^^^^^■BiK^ -^ "
i^^^I^^R^SsumH
i^^HBi^
f ,v ;^'' ,'^'/ : "^^^^
^^^^^^^E
s2^-5jfs»:>- ^ , %--.f -v5Sj^B
HI^HH
itofe-.^vt;i-.i--^>-:^MBa
Fia 3.— Case 61 2 at 1 .1 8 p. m., August 7. Fig. 4,— Case 61 2 at 1 .30 p. m., August 7.
Fig. 5.— Case 61 2 at 1 .37 p. m., August 7. Fia 6.— Case 61 2 at 1 .47 p. m., August 7.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 365, U. S. D«pt. of Agricultur*.
Plate XIII.
FiQ. 1 .—Case 82 at 3.20 p. m.
Fig. 2.— Case 82 at 3.24 p. m.
FiQ. 3.— Case 82 at 3.27 p. m.
FiQ. 4.— Case 82 at 3.56 p. m.
FiQ. 5.— Case 82 at 3.56 p. m., After
F ALU NO.
Fig. 6.— Case 82 at 3.59 p. m.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LABKSPUB POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 41
o'clock her respiration was 85, deeper and much more regular than
before the gas was allowed to escape from the stomach. At 4.06 the
pulse was 80 and apparently weaker, respiration 44. At 4.15 as
she seemed to be growing weaker she was given a hypodermic in-
jection of 20 cubic centimeters of whisky. At 4.20 respiration was
40. At 4.25 the pulse was 100 and stronger. While, during the
afternoon she had seemed stupid, paying very little attention even
to the flies which were aroimd her in great numbers, at 4.52 she
became sufficiently lively to attempt to get rid of the flies. There
was still some twitching of the muscles of the flanks. At 5.43 the
pulse was 86 and respiration 28. At 6.40 respiration was 24. She
continued down until 8.03 when she was able to get upon her feet.
At 8.06 she arched her back with her hind feet apart and trembled
all over. She fell down, going over on her side. The pulse was 90
and weak, the respiration seemed normal. At 8.33 she was able
to get up again. She had urinated very little and apparently there
had been very little urination for a considerable time before her
illness. She was also very much constipated. ' During the night of
July 13 considerable urine was passed and some feces. On the morn-
ing of July 14 she was still weak and was kept in the corrals until
J\ily 15, when she was turned out as recovered.
Case 612.
Case 612 was brought in for further experimental work on August
1. During August .6 and the forenoon of August 7 she received 25.5
pounds of seeds and seed stems of Delphirdwm harheyi. At 1.05 p. m.
August 7 she was found lying down, but when approached walked
away apparently in good condition. At 1.07 her back was arched,
she began to tremble, backing around the corral in an uneasy manner,
and soon fell, going down upon the forelegs and lying upon the
belly. At 1.10 when disturbed there was some muscular twitching
of the shoulders. She remained upon her feet until 1.18, when she
began to tremble and went down. She lay upon her right side flat
upon the ground. Plate XII, figure 3, shows her position at this
time. She was rolled over and placed with head erect. At 1.23 her
pulse was 80 and weak, respiration 92, and fairly regular. At 1.26
she was given hypodermically physostigmin salicylate, 1 grain;
pilocarpin hydrochlorid, 2 grains; and strychnin sulphate, one-half
grain.
Plate Xn, figure 4, shows her position at 1.30. She had made
several unsuccessful attempts to get upon her feet, but at 1.37 was
able to get up. Plate XII, figure 5, shows her in the act of rising.
She walked across the corral but at 1.38 stumbled and fell again,
going over upon her side. At 1.23 respiration was 143. She was
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
42 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBIGULTURE.
ezpeUing some gas from the stomach. At 1.42 the pulse was ItO.
At 1.46 the pulse was 104. At 1.47 she raised herself without mudi
effort. Plate XII, figure 6, shows her at this time. At 1.52 she was
trembling, her back was arched, and she was stepping about uneasily.
There was considerable salivation, and there was and had been for
some time dribbling of urine. At 1.55 the trembling was very much
decreased. She walked with a stiff gait and at 2.04 seemed to be over
the attack. No further symptoms were noted.
EXPERIMENTAL FEEDING OF DELPHINIUM BARBETl TO CATTLE IN 1»1L
Because DelpMrdtiTn menziesii disappears about the first of July,
the station work in the early part of the seasons of 1909 and 1910
was very largely concentrated on this plaijt, and most of the work
on Delphirdum harheyi was done after the plant was in blossom. As
the season in 1911 was about two weeks later than in tSlO^ Delp?unium
harheyi in the middle of July in 1911 was in about the same stage of
development as at the first of July in 1910. In addition to confirming
the work of the preceding seasons on symptoms and remedies, especial
attention was paid to the poisonous effects of the plant inats early
stages. Two experiments were made of feeding the dried plant, as it
was desirable to determine whether the plant lost its pois<Hious
properties by drying.
Twenty-six feeding experiments were conducted on 22 different
animals, and the greater poisonous effect of feeding the larkspur
within a short period of time was much more clearly brought out
than in the preceding seasons.
The experimental work with remedies made it possible to dd^r-
mine quite definitely the quantities of physostigmin, piloearpin,
and strychnin which could be used to the best advantage.
Table III shows the results of the feeding in a summarized form
and they are discussed later in the paper. None of the cases are given
in detail, since the feeding experiments were conducted in the same
maimer as in the preceding years and the general results were the
same.
EXPERIMENTAL FEEDING OF DELPHINIUM MENZIESH TO CATTLE IN l»Ot.
During the season of 1909, nine experiments were made of feed-
ing Delphirdum memiesii, the experiments commencing on June 24
and continuing until July 25. Part of the material used was col-
lected around the station, and was to a large extent mature, the
plant being in flower and in some cases containing seeds; the re-
mainder was obtained at Kebler Pass, and consisted of small plants
before flowering. The whole plants, including roots, stems, and
flowers, were fed to some animals, while' in other cases only the
tops were fed, and in still others the roots ground up with grain.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LABKSPUK POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 43
It is commonly believed by stockmen tl^at the root of this plant
is the most poisonous, and it is generally supposed that the plant pro-
duces more cases of poisoning after a rain, because at that time the
groimd is soft and the animals can pull up the plant by the roots
and thus get the part in which the poison is supposed to be con-
centrated.
Table IV gives a summary of these experimental feedings.
Experiments were made by feeding the roots alone, the animals
used being Nos. 92 and 117. Number 92 in two days ate a quantity
equivalent to 2.04 poimds per 1,000 pounds of weight, while No. 117
in one day ate 2.1 poimds per 1,000 poimds. The greatest quantity
fed at any time was to No. 115, which betwe^i July 10 and July 12
received 100.7 pounds of tops, seeds, and flowers per 1,000 pounds of
weight The greatest quantity of the whole plant that was fed, in-
cluding not only tops but roots, was given to No. 97, which re-
ceived on July 25 21.2 pounds per 1,000 pounds of weight No. 91
received 5 pounds on July 2 and 3, and again on July 16 received
21.2 pounds. In none of the cases of feeding DelpTdnium memiesii
was there any evidence of toxic effect, although the plant was fed
at different stages, part of it before flowering, part after flowering,
and even after seed had commenced to form, and attempts were
made to find out whether cHQe part of the plant was n^ore poisonous
than another.
If it were particularly poisonous it seemed that the feeding in a
single day of 21.2 pounds per 1,000 i)ounds of weight would have
produced some effect It is true, however, that animals upon the
range, when hungry, will sometimes eat enormous quantities of a
given plant and it seemed necessary to conduct further experiments
in order to demonstrate conclusively whether this plant can poison
or not So far as the experiments of 1909 only were concerned, it
appeared probable that the plant was not poisonous, or if poisonous
at all would do harm only under exceptional circumstances.
BXPERIMBNTAL FEEDING OF DBLPHIMIUM MENZIESn TO CATTLE IN ItlO.
In 1910, 14 feeding experiments of Delphdm'u^ memiem to cattle
were carried on with 11 different animals. Of these experiments 9
produced illness and 3 death. The result of these experiments showed
that the failure to produce poisoning in 1909 was not due to a lack
of toxicity in the plant but to feeding it in too small quantities.
Doubtless similar results would have been produced in 1909 had the
experiments been continued for a longer time. Table V gives a
summary of the feeding experiments with Delphdmum menziedi to
cattle in 1910.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPABXMEKT OF AGBlCtJLTUBE.
IS
SI a
83
1
< o
^2
S
dd d
ddo
S ^ SS f S I
I
S f
A S
^J
a]
3 :3
^
^ ^
>» ^
2
•§ ^
^ Ji
1 s
s s
1 1
9 S
< <
t^ i;5 ^ 2sa s :2a 8 jsss5
S :;!
9 S $
i^ii § § s§ § § §
O V (D w <D
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
lABKSPUK POISONING OF LIVE STOCK.
45
a
I
a I s
ft5
3
^;
M
z
M
eo
U3
'I'
««
C<1
s
s
s
ga
^
p3
I
■ 'J
Ip
^ 6
sis
I I I
-J
j^sT?
S' g' g' :S'Sg'2
^ -< ^ :<* <
lO
•c
$ ^
n
s::
^
M
«
s §
g
li
g
<D <D V tp <0 <0
I
is
t
&.
(i
^
^
^
e
<
h
111
4
^-3 it;
511!
•as
I
i'l
».
s
-.J
I8
If
§9
11 =
m
^•oogggoooc
5 -3
2 §
S a fe ^- i5
ii§li
to GQ ea 00 (0 eo
§ :S5 : : :2
§ § g ►^x'^ >»x>» >»
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
II
ii nn i gi ? ill §
1
SI'I
1
§ £§
§ § §
6-1
120
115
115
92
fv?l
632
633
631
t>35
014
iii
i
i §'§'
^ ^ §'
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LABKSPUB POISONING OF LIVE STOCK.
45
I
» M Z M
S g g §83 S
§ -
PS
i 1^
•2 is
s I s
s <s g
2 <5
llj 1^^^ '
^':|
2 i
9 i i
< < <
S:: ;n
s § g §s
3 I s is §
*4
t ^
a.
9
Q.
^
^
^
•«
g
9
^
s
§1
I
Pi
< a.
"So£
^ 1
i
^
SISJ
'2'S
s 5
§ I
1 •« "
PI
ggflg I
S o o q o o
n so 09 CO QQ n
3 §§33 .••33'3 3
.2228882S2S
I
T^ f^ O* ^^ Ot '^ ^^ ^^ 0> Oi
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
46
BULLETIN 365, U. 6. DEPAETMENT OF AGEICtTLTUBE.
I
I
^&& i & i
S5
I*,
ill
i
li
■If
S & &
a a
SS §S i g 8$ ^ 3
s &
§
: : s
ill
I
fa.
I
1
i
1
■<
0.'3 p.
•i
ll
I ll i
c«io CO c<
I
1
I I
"1
3^1
m
I
I
§
"1 S "
iW
1
1 1
i a-
4 li I? Ill's
S
OS
III I I I I I 11 I ; I t
I
I§ §§ g § § § § §§ § § I
g
a,
5*9
ilSjiSSa 2 Si 1155
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LAEKSPUB POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 47
A few of the typical cases will be noticed in detail, as follow^:
Case 117.
Case 117 was fed on flowering tops of Delphinium memiesii from
June 7 to June 9, receiving, all told, 79.5 ppunds, or about one-
eleventh of its weight. At 9.25 p. m. June 9, when disturbed, he
attempted to walk and fell down, recovering himself with little
effort Other than this there were at this time no symptoms of
poisoning. He was observed up to 10.30 p. m. and at that time
seemed to be fairly well. On the morning of June 10 he was found
dead. He lay upon the left side with his head lower than the rest
of the body. Some of the contents of the stomach had flowed from
the mouth and nostrils. The heart was in diastole, both sides being
filled with blood. The pericardial fluid was slightly bloody and ^
abundant. The external walls of tlie ventricles showed petechiae.
The lungs were congested. The fluids o^ the pleural and peritoneal
cavities were also slightly bloody. The trachea contained some of
the contents of the rumen. The inner wall of the trachea was con-
gested and this condition e2ctended into the bronchi. The inner wall
of the first stomach was inflamed beneath the mucous membrane,
the inflammation being especially deep at the cardiac end of the
stomach. The same condition of the wall beneath the mucous mem-
brane was found in the second stomach at the cardiac end. The
inner wall of the fourth stomach was also inflamed at th^ cardiac
end. The duodenum was not inflamed near th^ stomach but there
were deep spots of inflammation near the entrance of the bile duct.
More or less congestion was found throughout the ileum, this being
so deep in some spots as to show through from the outside of the
intestine. The left kidney was congested. The brain was congested,
probably due in part to the fact that the head was lower than the
body. The immediate cause of death was asphyxiation, resulting,
partly at least, from the introduction of the contents of the stomach
into the trachea, although it seems probable that this was accom-
panied by respiratory paralysis.
Case 82.
Case 82 was an old cow weighing about 1,000 pounds. From
June 11 to June 14 she ate 116.5 pounds of Delphimum memiesii
in flower. It was noticed on the morning of June 14 that she was
much constipated. She showed no other symptoms of poisoning un-
til 3.20 p. m. of that day, when she was found down. She was able,
however, to get upon her feet, but went down again immediately.
At 8.26 she was given hypodermically physostigmin salicylate,
IJ grains; pUocarpin hydrochlorid, 3 grains; and strychnin sul-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
48 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPABIMENT OF AGEICULTUEE.
fate, 1 grain. At 3.28 the respiration was 22. Figures 1, 2, and
3 of Plate XIII show her attitudes at various times between 3-20
and 3.28. She got upon her feet again at 3.28. At 3.30 she trem-
bled, arched her back, and fell, rising again at 3.33. At 3.35 she
fell, but was upon her feet again at 3.36. Respiration at 3.43 was
42. There was considerable salivation at this time. At 3.56 she
began stepping about uneasily with her Jiead down, and, trembling
violently, she staggered and fell. Plate XIII, figure 4, shows
her attitude just before she fell, while figure 5 shows her position
after she was down, and figure 6 shows her attitude as she was
attempting to get up at 3.59. At 4 o'clock her pulse was 112 and
rather weak. At 4.01 the pulse was 94. At 4.25 she defecated,
probably as the result of the dose of physostigmin salicylate. At
this time she showed considerable intestinal discomfort. She con-
tinued lying down, but apparently feeling quite comfortable from
evening until night. At 5.45 a. m., June 15, she was found in the
ditch in the corral with water flowing about her. She was thor-
oughly chilled and constantly trembling, and there seemed to be
little probability that she would live. Apparently she must have
risen upon her jfeet during the night, fallen into the ditch, and was
unable to get out. The water was turned off and she was given alco-
hol in hot water as a drench. Half an hour later she was given a
drench of whisky. Soon after this she attempted to get up^ and
at about 9 o'clock was on her feet. After getting up she urinated
copiously. It seemed probable in this case that defecation produced
by the physostigmin resulted in relief from the immediate ^mptoms
of larkspur poisoning, and that the alcohol bridged over a period of
weakness, due in part to the chill and in part to the effect of the
larkspur poisoning. Without the dose of alcohol she would in all
probability have died.
Case 113
Case 113 was a steer weighing about 900 poimds. Between Jtine
20 and June 22 he received 56 pounds of Delphimwm memiesii tops,
which included flowers and seeds, the full amount being about one-
sixteenth of his weight. At 9.30 p. m. June 22 he was f oimd lying
in the corral in a normal manner, but when disturbed he was unable
to rise. At 9.35 he attempted to get up, fell over on his side, and was
imable to raise himself again. He was given, hypodermically, physo-
stigmin salicylate, IJ grains; pilocarpin hydrochlorid, -3 grains;
and strychnin sulphate, 1 grain. The pulse at this time was 72 and
rather weak. Eespiration was 16 and fairly deep. While down he
was making violent attempts to rise, kicking and lifting his head
rather high and then falling back. This action seemed to be more
pronounced after the remedy was given, and it was a question
Digiti
zed by Google
LABK8PUB POISONING OP LIVE STOCK. 49
Trhether it was not partly caused by the peristaltic action resulting
from physostigmin salicylate. At 10 p. m. the pulse seemed slightly
stronger. He was evidently in pain, as he groaned a great deal of
the time. At 11.20 it was foimd that he had moved himself quite a
little distance in the corral and passed a small amount of hard
feces. At 11.30 he got upon his feet and walked about the corral.
His gait, however, was stiff, the stiffness being particularly notice-
able in the hind legs. At 11.44 he passed a considerable amount of
feces and acted as though he wished to eat. As he appeared to be
very much better at this time, he was left for the night, and was
found in good condition at 7 a. m. June 23. He was turned into the
pasture at 8.30. In the afternoon of this day he was found in a
clump of aspens in the pasture and was driven out. He went about
100 yards in a slow trot, going down a side hill, and fell. This was
at 3.55. At 4.05 he began to vomit. His pulse was about 85 and
weak. At 4.12 respiration had ceased. The pulse was perceptible
for about three minutes, stoppmg at 4.15. The animal was slightly
bloated at first and began bloating rapidly when down. A consider-
able amount of material from the rumen had been vomited. At the
autopsy the heart was found in diastole. The outer walls were
slightly inflamed. Both ventricles were dilated and full of blood.
The veins imder the skin were congested. The nares, larynx, and
trachea were full of the material vomited from the stomach, and this
material had also extended into the bronchi. The walls of the fourth
stomach were greatly inflamed, and the walls of the duodenum, jeju-
num, ileiun, and rectum were slightly inflamed. A microscopic ex-
amination was made of the contents of the stomach, and it was found
that Delphimum barheyi was present. It seems probable that the
animal, after recovering from the poisoning by Delphimum memiesii
had commenced to eat the Delphiniy/m barbeyi, which was fairly
abundant in the pasture, and that his death was caused by this dose
of the tall larkspur.
Case 600.
Case 609 was a yearling heifer weighing about 500 pounds, loaned
to the station for experimental purposes. Feeding was commenced
at 7.05 a. m. on June 26, the material being tops of DelpMniwm,
memiesU^ which at this time was mature and included seeds. On
June 26 and 27 she ate 43.75 pounds. The material on June 27
contained flowers as well as seed. Distinct symptoms of poisoning
were observed early on the morning of June 28. Before that it had
been thought that she was somewhat imeasy, but the symptoms were
not positive. At 4.55 a. m. she got up and walked a few steps, trem-
bled, and fell, but at 5 she got upon her feet and after this tiine was
able to stand. She was down only about five minutes. During the
26876**— Bull. 365—16 i
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
50 • BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICXJLTUBE.
day she ate about 7J pounds of DelpMmum memiesiL At 4 p. m,
she appeared uneasy. There was occasional forcible expiration aod
much constipation. After a time her uneasiness seemed to subskk
and she began to ruminate and appeared hungry. At 5 p. dl ^
was run around the corral, with no result. Feeding was renewed
at 5.15 p. m., and during the evening she received 18.75 pounds rf
DelpJmdunb memiesii^ including the seeds. At 9.30 p. m- she wis
found with her back arched, but appeared fairly welL At lOi^
p. m. she stood with her tail between her legs and her head ratkr
low. The impression was that the poison was taking effect. S»
started to run about the corral, stumbled and partly fell, but recov-
ered herself, then fell and could not rise. The observer w^it to tk
laboratory to get a remedy and on returning found her upon he*
feet, and she remained upon her •feet even after running around the
corral. She was left again at about 11.40. During all the time iie|
was watched she was uneasy. She occasionally would expel gi^
rather yiolently, and once she moaned. She was evidently very un-
comfortable, but not very sick. At 12.10 midnight she was cm ber
feet, but moved around the corral slowly. She began to back uu-
easily with her head low, and fell and, although making violent
efforts to rise, was unable to do so. At 12.15 she was given subcu-
taneously physostigmin salicylate, 1 grain; pilocarpin hydro
chlorid, 2 grains; and strychnin sulphate, 1 grain. She was in gr^i
pain, breathed noisily, and occasionally expelled gas from her
stomach. She would stretch her legs out rigidly and kick violently,
moaning all the time. At 12.40 she passed a little hard feces. At
12.45 her respiration was 40 and continued at about that rate. She
perspired copiously and acted like an animal in a violent attack of
colic. At 1.25 she raised her head, making efforts to rise, but fell
back, striking her head violently upon the ground. This was re
peated at 1.30. From this time she seemed to be somewhat easier,
although the change was rather gradual. She lay upon her side
breathing noisily. Her legs much of the time were stiff, but tk
movements were not so convulsive and apparently her pain was less
During the most violent spasms of pain she was given a little am-
monia inhaled from saturated cotton. At about 2 a. m. after several
violent efforts she succeeded in getting upon her feet, staggered across
the corral, but did not fall. She was watched at intervals during
the rest of the night and was upon her feet all the time. She was
given a little hay and corn meal in the morning and hay at no<HL
On the following day she appeared to be entirely recovered.
EXPERnHEKTAL FEEDING OF DELPHINIUM ROBUSTUM TO GATTLEL
The species of larkspur which has been identified as Delphdnim
Tohvstwm and which is quite different from DelphiniuTrt barbeyiBui
DelpMrmwi memiesii of the Mount Carbon station is abundant in
Digiti
zed by Google
LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK; 51
parts of the Cochetopa and Uncompahgre National Forests. It Is
more nearly related to the DelpMniuTrb harheyi than to Delpfdrdtun
memiesuy and should be classed as one of the tall larkspurs. The
entire feeding experiment with this plant was carried on at the ranch
of A. J. Hack, of Parlins, Colo. Two animals, Nos. 629 and 630, were
used for feeding.
The feeding began at 7.15 a. m. on August 22. 1910. No. 630 ate
very little of the larkspur and was not affected by it. No. 629, weigh-
ing about 500 pounds, ate on August 22 about 20 pounds, which in-
cluded leaves, steins, flowers, and seeds. No effect was produced, and
at 6 a. m. on August 23 she seemed to be all right with the exception
of constipation, but at 10.35 she was found down on her side and
unable to rise. She struggled when approached, but was unable to
raise herself even upon her belly. At 10.40 respiration was 32 and
somewhat irregular. There was some trembling of the muscles of
the sides and some salivation. At 10 :45 the pulse was 80 and weak.
At 11.10 respiration was 50, very irregular and shallow. At 11.34 she
arose without any marked difficulty, but at 11.37, after being run
about, she went down again, trembling before she fell. With assist-
ance she got upon her feet and started to run, but fell again. She
was up again at 11.42 and during the rest of the day seemed to be
all right. In the evening she was given more of the Delphiniwnh
Tohustwm^ it being estimated that she ate about 8 pounds. On the
morning of August 24 she was found down and unable to rise. A
little later she arose with some difficulty, but fell, getting upon her
feet again at 6.35, when she immediately fell and was imable to rise.
At 6.40 she got up and walked away. She started to run and fell,
but immediately got upon her feet, only to fall again, trembling as
she fell. At 6.45 she got upon her feet and walked about in a normal
manner. She was seen frequently during the forenoon and seemed
to be all right, with the exception of some constipation.
It will be noticed that the symptoms as recorded are exactly com-
parable with those found in the cases of poisoning by Delphimum
harheyi and Delphinium memiesU,
EXPERIMENTAL FEEDING OF DELPHINIUM CUCULLATUM TO CATTLE.
During the summer of 1912, at the Greycliff station, DelpMmum
cucuUatum was fed experimentally to six head of. cattle with resulting
symptoms of poisoning in four, none of the cases resulting fatally.
One was only slightly sick and received no remedy. The second was
treated with arecoline with no apparent good results, but recovered
after treatment with magnesium sulphate, a glycerin enema, and a
hypodermic injection of whisky. The others were treated in the rou-
tine way worked out at Mount Carbon with physostigmin and pilo-
carpin and recovered. The symptoms were strictly comparable with
those produced by the other species of Delphinium and it does not
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
52
BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTUBE,
seem necessary to give the history of the cases in detail. In the dis-
cussion later in this paper the minor points of difference will be
brought out Table VI gives the summary of these feedmg
experiments.
Table VI. — Summary of feeding experiments upon cattle with Delphinimm
cucuUatum,
No. of
animal.
Weljihtof
animaL
Amount
of plant
fed.
Date of feeding.
Partof];aantfiMLr
660.
653.
654.
652.
653.
651.
Pound*.
650:t
700±
600d:
600±
700±
550i:
Pound*.
12.5
18.5
21
24.5
2.5
17.6
1912.
June 28-29
JuneSO-Jolyl..
Jtily23
August 8-9
August 30-31 —
S€ptemb«r3
Leaves and stems.
Do.
Leaves, stems, and flowers.
Leaves, stems, flowers, and s«eds.
Leaves, stems, and seed.
Do.
No. of
aL
Time sick unto able
to stand.
Remedy used.
Result.
Amount
fed to 1,000
pounds of
animal
weight.
Location CroB
which plam
fed was
ohtainad.
690.,
653..
654..
652.
653.
651.
Slifi^tly sick; not down
18 hours, 40 minutes. . .
4 hours. 16 minutes,
first attack; 20 hours,
30 minutes, second
attack.
25 minutes, first at-
tack; 14 hours, sec-
ond attack.
Areoolln, strychnin,
magnesium sulphate,
glycerin, and whisky.
Phywstigmln, pOocar-
pin, strychnin, linseed
OH.
Physostlgmbi, pilocar-
pine and strydmin.
R(
.....do.
.do.
.do..
Pounds.
22.7
20.4
35
Cabin oonaL
Do.
Do.
49
3.5
31.8
Do.
Do.
Do.
POISONING OF HORSES BT LARKSPUR.
Apparently there are no accounts of the poisoning of horses by
larkspur. Among the stockmen it is a general belief that horses
are not poisoned by this plant and can be grazed with impunity in
localities where cattle are certain to suffer from the poison. Id
some localities in the Sierras where many cattle have been lost
within limited areas, the ground has been fenced in and success-
fully used for pasturing horses. Although the belief is general
that horses are not poisoned by larkspur, it does not follow that they
can not be. Accordingly the following experiments were under-
taken with cases 72 and 78.
Case 72.
Case 72 was a horse about 4 years old which had been used in
previous feeding experiments. During July 9 and 10 he ate 11
pounds of leaves and stems of DelpMniwrn harbeyi without any
effect. Another experiment was made, commencing on the mominir
of August 24 and continuing imtil September 4. During this time
he ate 192 pounds, or, on the basis of 1,000 pounds of weight, 274.3
pounds. The feeding was then interrupted on account of storms.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LABKSPUK POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 53
but was resumed on September 9. From this time imtil September
14 he ate 78.25 pounds of DelphMdwrn harheyi. The material fed
in these later experiments was mature and dry. No effect resulted
from the larkspur feeding except that part of the time the horse
seemed sleepy and lifeless. It should be noted that this feeding
was rather late in the season, when, as shown elsewhere, the lark-
spur is only slightly toxic.
Case 78.
Case 78 was a horse wdghing about 600 pounds, which had already
been used at Hugo in the loco experiments. An attempt was made
early in July to feed it both DelpMnium harheyi and Delphinium
memiem^ but without any effect. On August 23 it was brought
into the corrals in order to try a prolonged feeding experiment
with Delpldrdvmh harbeyL The material given was collected in
Kebler Pass and consisted of tops, including the fruit The
animal was fed from August 24 to September 2, inclusive. During
this time it ate 16&J pounds, or, in the ratio of its weight, the quan-
tity eaten was as 1 to 3.6.. No effect of the feeding was noticed
until September 2. Between 10 and 11 o'clock of the morning of
September 2 it was noticed that the action of the hind legs was
stiff and that the animal acted as if he did not have complete control
of his legs. There was some trembling of the muscles of the flanks
and twitching of the muscles of the lips and nostrils. The ab-
dominal muscles contracted as though in pain. In walking he
straddled with his hind legs and appeared weak behind. He was
constantly moving about, apparently from pain. The back was
arched up, and he was very much constipated. At 11.25 he was
given some hay and commenced to eat it, but while eating stepped
about uneasily as though in pain. At 12.15 he was found down, but
was started up and got upon his feet without any difficulty, although
his movements after rising were somewhat uncertain. After rising
he kept walking about, evidently feeling very imcomfortable. He
lay down again at 12.25. His respiration at this time was 78. Fig-
ures 1, 2, 3, and 4 of Plate XIV show various attitudes assumed
during his illness ; figure 1 shows clearly the discomfort under which
the animal was laboring; figure 2 shows him after he lay down;
figure 3 shows his attitude at 1.08, when he was most severely ill;
and figure 4 shows him a little later than this when he was upon
his feet but still feeling great discomfort. At 1.55 he was lying
down again, and when started and run around the corral he moved
readily, showing little tendency to stagger or to fall. At 3 p. m.
he was found standing in the corrftl, his lips no longer trembling,
and he no longer had a tendency to walk about uneasily as earlier in
the day. His gait was slow, however, and he was sleepy. At this
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
54
BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
time evidence of pain was less marked. No further pronounced
symptoms appeared during the day of September 2.
On the morning of September 3 he still exhibited soiqp trembling
of the muscles of the hind legs and of the flanks and his gait ^owed
the same symptoms of stiffness as seen on the preceding day, but
during the day his condition improved. On this day he ate 6 pounds
of leaves, stems, and seeds. On the morning of Sept^nber 4 he
appeared to be in good condition. The feeding was resumed, and he
ate about 12 pounds of Delpldnium barheyi. During the latter part
of the forenoon and in the afternoon he again diowed distinct symp-
toms of poisoning. The back was arched much of the time and he
straddled in walking. There was distinct evidence of abdominal
pain. During much of the time he exhibited trembling in the sup^-
ficial muscles. Sometimes in lying down he would groan, evidently
being in severe pain. Gradually, however, he recovered, and on the
morning of September 5 appeared to be again in normal condition.
He was fed again, from September 9 to September 14, receiving
fresh material of Delphinium iarbeyi collected at Kebler Pass.
During this time he ate 126.75 pounds. There were no distinct evi-
dences of poisoning from this feeding, although he appeared some-
what dull.
The results of these experiments seemed to prove conclusively that
horses can be poisoned with larkspur and that they have the same
general symptoms as cattle. Table VII gives the summary of these
feeding experiments.
Table VII. — Summary of feeding experiments upon horses with DelpMnium
barbeyi, 1909,
No. of
animal.
Weight of
animal.
Amomit
of plant
ied.
I>at« of feeding.
Part of plant fed.
72
78
72
78
78
72
78,
Pounds.
700
600
700
600
600
700
600
Pound*.
11
168.5
192
6
12
78.25
126.75
1912.
July 9-10
Aug.24-dept.2..
Aug.24-Sept.4..
8ept.3
Sept.4
Sept. 9-14
....do
Leaves and stems.
Leaves, stems, and seed.
Da
no.
Do.
Seed and seed stems.
Leaves and stems.
No. of
animal.
Time sick until able to
stand.
Remedy used.
Result.
Amoimt
fed to 1,000
pounds of
animal
weight.
Location from
which plant
lied was
ohtaiDed.
72.
78.,
72.
78.
78.,
72.
78.
Sick, but able to stand .
Recovery.
Sick, but able to stand.
do
Recovery..
.....do.....
Pounds.
15.7
280.8
274.3
10
20
111.8
21L2
Near station.
Kebler Pass
mostly.
Da
Kebler Pass.
Da
Da
Da
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 55
For our purpose it did not seem necessary to carry on any further
oxperimentation with horses as there is no reason to think that they
are ever poisoned upon the range. Observation of horses on the
range and in pastures containing larkspurs showed that these animals
do not eat the larkspur early in the season. In the fall after the
tall larkspur has become dry, horses, like cattle, seem to have a fond-
ness for the larkspur leaves, although they do not eat them so
greedily as do the cattle. Inasmuch as the larkspur at this time is
not poisonous, no harm results from this feeding.
BXPBROfENtAL FEEDING OF DELPmNIUM BARBETI TO SHEEP IN 1919.
Five experiments were carried on of feeding Delphinium barbeyi
to sheep. These experiments were commenced June 3 and continued
until July 17. Three of the animals, Nos. 118, 104, and 114, were fed
tops of the plant, including the leaves and stems. The other two,
Nos. 108 and 116, were fed tops, including the leaves, stems, and
flowers. Table VIII gives a summary of these experimental feedings.
Case 118, weighing 97 pounds, was fed 67.75 pounds between June
3 and July 22 without any results. Case 104, weighing 90 pounds,
was fed 68 pounds between June 23 and July 5 without any injurious
results. Case 114, weighing 65 pounds, received 31.75 pounds be-
tween June 23 and July 5 without results. Case 108, weighing 94
pounds, was fed 104 pounds between July 6 and July 17, or 10 pounds
more than its own weight, without being poisoned. Case 116, weigh-
ing 93 pounds, received 121 pounds between July 6 and July 17, or
28 pounds more than its own weight, without being affected.
Thus of these 5 sheep, eating from 48.8 to 130.1 pounds, on a basis
of 100 pounds average weight, none were injuriously affected by the
plant.
EXPEBIMENTAL FEEDING OF DELPHINIUM BARBEYI TO SHEEP IN 1911.
In 1911 two experiments were made of feeding Delphimum har-
heyi to sheep. Although the general results of the work of 1910 were
conclusive, it seemed best to feed' some of the plant at the early
stages of its growth in order to make sure that it was not poisonous
at that time.
Sheep 134, weighing 140 poimds, was fed from June 19 to June
25, 49 pounds of the leaves and stems of Delphinium barbeyi before
blossoming. This was at the rate of 35 pounds per 100 pounds of
weight of the animal.
Sheep 135, weighing 136 pounds, between the same dates, was fed
37 pounds of the same material, 6t 27.2 pounds per hundredweight
of the animal.
Neither of these sheep showed any effects from the feeding, and in-
asmuch as the amoimt fed, relative to the weight of the animal, was
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
56
BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGBICULTUKE.
SO much larger than that necessary to poison cattle, it was deemed
conclusive evidence that the plant at this stage is not poisonous to
sheep.
Table VIII. — Summary of feeding experiments upon sheep with De^phkikwm
barb^i, 1910 and 1911.
No. of
animal.
Weight of
animal.
Amount
ofplant
Date of feeding.
Partofi^antfed.
Amount
IMtoiOO
pounds
oTanimal
weight.
nil* II
118
Pounds.
-07
00
65
04
03
140
136
Pounds.
67.76
68
8L76
104
121
40
87
1010.
June 3-22
June23-July6.
do
I.,MyM fm<] stems
Po«n^
60.9
75.S
48.8
nao
130.1
35
27.2
Ttmt ate-
104
.... .do... .......... •••••....•.
^
114
do
i£
108
116
July 6-17
do
Leaves, stems, and floweis. . . .
do
%,
134
1011.
June 17-26
do
I.iea'^'wi and stems.
1&^
135
do
EXPESniENTAL FEEDING OF DELPHINnJM MENZIBSn TO SHEEP IN VSfgL
Four sheep weighing approximately 100 pounds each were fed
various quantities of Delphinium memiesii. Table IX gives a sum-
mary of these experimental feedings.
Sheep 113 was fed 32.75 pounds of roots, the feeding continuing
from June 2 to June 13. On June 13 the available supply of roots for
feeding was exhausted and the sheep was given the tops, including
leaves and flowers. This feeding was continued through June 22,
the animal having received, altogether, 50.25 pounds of this material.
Sheep 125 was fed 111.75 pounds of tops, including leaves, stems, and
flowers, the feeding continuing from June 2 to June 16. Sheep 119
was fed from June 15 to June 26, the material being the entire top,
including leaves, stems, flowers, and seeds. During this time the ani-
mal ate 101 pounds, or very nearly its own weight. During the
same period, June 15 to June 26, sheep 123 was fed 73.75 pounds of
the same material.
The DelpMrdum memiesii fed to sheep 113 during the first experi-
ments of root feeding was collected near the camp. All the rest of
the material fed to the sheep was collected at Pass Creek Park and
was of fairly mature plants. The feeding of this plant to sheep pro-
duced no injurious effect whatever. The animals did not even lose
much in weight, and that little could be accoimted for by reason of
confinement and the fact that they were being fed but a single
variety of plant.
It should be added that sheep 160 ate in one day, on the basis of
100 pounds of weight, 5.98 pounds, and sheep 177, 6.9 pounds. In
the experiments of 1910 and 1911 sheep 118 ate in one day 6.7 pounds:
sheep 114, 6.5 pounds; sheep 135. 7.4 pounds; sheep 134, 7.8 pounds:
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Plate XIV.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 365. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Plate XV.
JUPP^^I^^^^ ^a^^^^^l
^B^ '"'*^
l^^^^K^^^^^^^mJ^M^-^ ' ' - *• ■ ■■ ■A-'^'''" -*,
Fig. 1.— Sheep Feeding Upon Delphinium menziesii.
FiQ. 2.— Another View of Sheep Feeding Upon Delphinium menziesii.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LARKSPUR POISONING OP LIVE STOCK.
67
Bheep 108, 11.7 pounds, and sheep 116, 15.6 pounds. Inasmuch as
the toxic dose for cattle, as is shown later, is from 8 per cent and
iipward of the animal's weight, the sheep ate, relatively to their
weight, from 2 to 5 times as much as is necessary to poison cattle
without harmful results.
Tabub IX. — Summary of feeding experiments upon sheep u)ith Delphinium
menziesii, 1910.
No, of
animal.
Amount
of plant
Date of
feeding.
Part of plant fed.
Amount
fed to 100
pounds of
animal
weight.
LocaUon
from
which plant
fed was
obtained.
125
113
Pounds.
100
100
100
106
90
Pounds.
111.75
32.75
50.25
101
73.75
June 2-10.,..
June 3-13....
June 13-22...
June 15-26...
do
Leaves, stems, and flowers
Roots
Pounds.
11L75
32.75
50.25
95.8
8L9
Pass Creek.
Near station
113
119
123
Leaves, stems, and flowers
Leaves, stems, flowers, and seed.
Leaves, stems, and flowers
Do.
Pass Greek.
Do.
EXPERIMENTAL HERDING OF SHEEP UPON DELPmNIUM lIENZIESn.
Delphirdimi memiesii was particularly abundant in Pass Creek
Park, near the Mount Carbon Station. When the plant was in blos-
som the whole park seemed to be colored purple. Plate XV, figures
1 and 2, show sheep feeding and give a good idea of the abimdance
of the plant in the park. It was thought desirable to try an experi-
ment of close herding a bunch of sheep upon the larkspur. If Del-
phmium memiesii would poison sheep upon the range, symptoms
ought to be developed by such close herding, for if they ate freely
it would be evident that a much larger quantity would be eaten than
under any ordinary circumstances that would prevail in range feed-
ing. Accordingly, on June 14, 19 sheep were taken from the station
to Pass Creek Park and were kept until the afternoon of June 17.
During the day they were herded upon the larkspur area, and cor-
ralled at night in an old cabin. Most of them ate very freely of
the Delphirdurrb memiesii. Notes taken in regard to the individual
sheep show that five may be considered to have eaten only a little.
All the rest, however, ate a considerable quantity. They were not
allowed to stray from the larkspur patch, and the feeding while
they were herded resulted in clearing swaths running through the
larkspur area where most of the plants had been eaten. During this
time they ate very freely, apparently relishing the taste of the lark-
spur. Plate XV, figures 1 and*2, which were snapshots taken during
the feeding, show how readily they took to the plant. The sheep
were watched very closely f of possible symptoms of larkspur poison-
ing. No such symptoms, however, developed. All were brought
back to the camp on June 17 not only none the worse for their ex-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
58 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
perience but apparently, if anything, benefited by the opportunity
of free pasturing. During the summer the band of sheep was cor-
ralled nights in a small pasture which during the month of June was
almost entirely covered with DelpMniwm, jnenziesii. All of this plant
was eaten out with the other plants growing in the pasture and
no injurious effect was produced upon any of the sheep.
These experiments, in conjunction with the corral feeding experi-
ments, seemed to the station force to prove conclusively that sheep
can eat DelpMrdv/m barbeyi and Delphiruvm memieaii with im-
punity, and that fto fear of poisoning need- be entertained from
pasturing sheep on a range containing these plants.
EXPERIMENTAL FEEDING OF DELPmNIUM ANDERSONH TO SHEEP IN 191L
Inasmuch as the belief is very common among the sheepmen of
California and Oregon that sheep are poisoned by eating the roots of
Delphinium cmdersorm^ two experiments were made of feeding the
roots of this plant The material was collected at McDowell's
Creek, near Lakeview, Oreg., on June 24, 1911, and forwarded to the
station at Mount Carbon. As it is somewhat diflicult to make sheep
eat the roots of the plant, and as the quantity was limited, it was
decided to administer the material in the form of a drench. The
roots after being washed were groimd fine and mixed with enou^
water to permit of their administration. Two animals were used.
Sheep 155, weighing 131 pounds, was brought in for experiment
on August 9. At 11.30 a. m. on August 11 it was ^ven 200 grams
of dried roots and on August 12 at 11 a. m. and 2.30 p. m. it was
given the same amount. It thus received 1.3 pounds of the roots.
Inasmuch as these had been air dried it would be equivalent to at
least twice that amount of fresh roots.
Sheep 136, weighing 153 pounds, was brought in for feeding on
August 13. At 10.30 a. m. on August 14 it was given 200 grams of
the roots. The same quantity was administered at 2.20 p. m., 4.45
p. m., and 7.45 p. m., and 150 grams were given at 9.45 p. m. Thus,
this animal received between 10.30 a. m. and 9.45 p. m. 2.1 pounds
of dried roots. This would be equivalent to at least 4.2 pounds of
fresh material. It is highly improbable that the sheep upon the
range, grazing upon larkspur, would obtain anything like tJiis
amount of larkspur roots, so that this experiment in conjuncticm
with the experimental work of feeding roots of other larkspurs at
Mount Carbon seems to be fairly conclusive that sheep are not
poisoned by eating roots of Delphirdv/m andersordi. Table X gives
the results of this experimental feeding.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LARKSPUR POISONING OP LIVE STOCK.
59
Table X. — Summary of feeding experiments upon sheep with Delphinium
anderaonii, 1911.
No. of animal.
Weight of
ftn|mfti —
Amount
of nlant
Date of
feeding.
Part of
plant
fed.
Amount
fed to 100
pounds
of animal
weight.
Location
from which
plant fed wai
obtained.
Before.
After.
155
Pounds
131
153
Pounds.
126
149
Pounds.
U.3
12.1
1911.
Aug. 11-12
Aug. 14
Roots..
...do...
Pounds,
1
L4
McDowella
136
Creek,
Oreg.
Do.
» Dry weight.
■XPERIMENTAL FEEDING OF DELFHINIUM BICOLOR TO SHEEP IN 1912.
The preceding experiments of feeding DelphirduTih haarheyi^ D.
mensfiesiiy and D. andersordi with negative results rendered it ex-
tremely probable that none of the species of larkspurs are poisonous
to sheep. It was assumed that probably Delphimtmi bicolor^ the
Montana low larkspur, would be harmless. In the summer of 1912
two sheep were fed upon this plant, Table XI, giving the details.
No symptoms of poisoning occurred In eithei* case, although they
received much more than it is at all probable they could obtain
when grazing.
Table XI. — Summary of feeding experiments upon sheep with Ifelphinium
hicolor, 1912.
No. of
animftl.
Weight of
animal.
Amount of
plant fed.
Date of feed-
ing.
Part of plant fed.
Amount
fed to 100
pounds
of animal
weight.
Location from
fed was ob-
tahied.
160
177
Pounds.
93
61-48
Pounds.
23.6
ie.6
June23-July2
July 5-12
Leaves, stems, firuit, and
some flowers.
Leaves, stems, and fruit
Pounds.
25.54
32.35
Geo. Hughes's.
Do.
PART III.— RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS,
ANDfALS AFFECTED BT LARKSPUR POISONING.
Cattle. — ^The experimental work resulted in the confirmation of
the general opinion of the poisonous effect of the larkspurs upon
cattle.
Horses. — ^Horses may be poisoned by larkspur, but they do not
voluntarily eat enough of the plants to harm them. They eat more
or less of it when grazing, but there is no evidence that they are ever
poisoned by it under ordinary range conditions.
Sheep. — As the result of the feeding experiments with DelpMnium
barbeyi and Delphinium memiesu at the Mount Carbon station, the
definite conclusion was reached that these two plants do not have
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
60 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
any poisonous effect upon sheep. Not only were no poisonous effects
produced by close feeding upon the plant but the animals did not
lose weight and seemed to thrive upon larkspur as a fodder. In-
quiry among the stockmen of the Gimnison and neighboring stock
ranges brought out the fact that there is a g^ieral belief amcMig
them that larkspur is never poisonous to sheep. Sheep have been
grazed upon the range not many miles from the Mount Carbon
station for many years and there are ho records of losses frcnn lark-
spur poisoning. Inasmuch as the feeding of Delphinmm ander-
sonii and Delphinium hicolor was also without result it seems prob-
able that all species of larkspur are harmless so far as sheep are
ccoicemed. These results are in harmcmy with those reached by
S. B. Nelson, in Washington, but apparently distinctly contradict
the work of Wilcox, in Montana (1897).
A careful examination of Wilcox's original paper shows that the
evidence in regard to larkspur poisoning in Montana is hardly con-
clusive. He finds that a certain number of sheep died and that these
animals had been eating larkspur, but* it does not follow, of course,
that larkspur was the cause of the fatal results, and, with the ex-
ception of giving extracts to three lambs, no experimental evidence
of larkspur poisoning is adduced. It may be considered possible
that the symptoms noted from the extracts might be explained in other
ways. It should be noted, however, that the detailed symptoms of
larkspur poisoning of sheep, as given by Dr. Wilcox, correspond
very closely with the symptoms as given by other authors and with
those noted at the Mount Carbon station.
A visit was made to the locality in Montana where this sheep
poisoning had taken place, and conversation with the owners of the
sheep showed that not only were they very skeptical in regard to
the alleged fact that larkspur is the cause of the death of the sheep,
as described by Dr. Wilcox, but also that they and other sheepm^
of the neighborhood did not consider the larkspurs poisonoils to
sheep. The results of the work at Mount Carbon and at Greydiff
seem to indicate that, in all probability, larkspurs need not be feared
by sheep owners. In California and Oregon there is among tiie
sheepmen a belief, widespread ftnd persistently adhered to, that
many sheep are lost in the spring from eating larkspur roots. This
belief applies, apparently, to DelpMmum cmderaomi. This species
has a stout stem and grows in a loose soil, so that grazing animals
can pull up the roots. It seemed possible that sheep might be
poisoned in this way in California and Oregon, even if they were
not harmed in Colorado. The experimental feeding of the roots of
DelpTmdvm andersorm (p. 58), taken with the other results of
feeding sheep, makes it probable that the sheepmen are mistaken in
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LARKSPUB POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 61
their idea that the roots of DeJ/phirdwrn cmden^orm are poisonous
to sheep.
The somewhat suprising result of the feeding work upon larkspur,
lowing that of two animals so similar in their physical organiza-
tion as cattle and sheep one is poisoned and the other not affected
has, of course, some physiological explanation. Just what this is
has not been determined experimentally. It has been shown, how-
ever, that sheep excrete the alkaloid in their urine, Qrud it may be,
perhaps, assumed that they excrete with sufl^cient rapidity to remove
the poisonous principle before toxic symptoms appear. It should
be noted in this connection that there is still a possibility that the
alkaloid might be given experimentally in a quantity so great that
the excreting powers of the sheep would be unable to remove it in
time to prevent intoxication. It is intended later to complete this
experimental study. The experiments do show conclusively, how-
ever, that quantities, relatively to the size of the animals, several
times as great as those necessary to poison cattle do not affect sheep,
and that sheep on the range are for all practical purposes immune to
larkspur poisoning.
If it is true, as we think it is, that sheep can feed upon the lark-
spur, not only with impunity, but with actual benefit to themselves,
it would appear possible that on ranges where heavy losses of cattle
have taken place because of larkspur poisoning sheep can graze with
no loss. The question may be raised whether certain ranges could
not be profitably changed from cattle ranges to sheep ranges on thi&
account or whether it might not be possible, inasmuch as the losses
of cattle from larkspur poisoning are largely confined to the earlier
part of the season,, to graze sheep upon the range during the early
part of June or until they had eaten off the low larkspur and then
admit cattle.
SECORDED STMPTOMS OF LARKSPUR POISONING.
Hahn, in his general article on Delphinium in the Dictionnaire
Encyclop6dique des Sciences Medicales, quotes Orfila. He states
that tiie symptoms of poisoning by Delphinium are nausea, vertigo,
weakness, and convulsions, followed by death. Falck and Rorig,
1852, state the symptoms as nausea, salivation, restlessness, convul-
sions, and death produced by asphyxia and paralysis of the heart.
The symptoms as quoted by these two authors may be considered as
typical of those reported by investigators of the European Delphin-
iums.
Macgregor, in 1908, in telling of the symptoms of poisoning in a
horse says that it became dull, its pulse was weak, and there was
excessive salivation and deglutition, with attempts at vomiting.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
62 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGRICULTTJKE.
Knowles, in 1897, in detailing the symptoms, says that the animils
stray about, become dull, and when started go on a straight line
until an obstacle is met, then fall. They rarely bloat There is s
dribbling of saliva and a champing of the jaws. Wilcox, in 1S% ^
states tiiat the symptoms of larkspur poisoning resemble those of
aconite poisoning. The first signs are a general stiffness and a
straddling, noted especially in the hind legs. The stiffness become
more pronounced until walking is very difficult and evidently pain-
ful. Soon there are manifested involuntary twitchings of the mus-
cles of the legs and sides of the body. There is a loss of control and
coordination of the muscles. Ordinarily there is no increase in
the quantity of the saliva, no champing of the jaws or attempts at
swallowing. At first the pulse is less frequent and the respiratory
movements are lessened, while the temperature is lowered. Toward
the last the respiration is very rapid. The air in the lungs is not
renewed and the animal dies of asphyxia or suffocation. In the
latter cases the involuntary movements become more frequent and
more severe. All four legs tremble and shake violently. The mus-
cles of the body contract spasmodically until tiie animal totters
over and dies in violent spasms.
In Cheaiut and Wilcox, 1901, the symptoms are stated practical!}
like those already detailed by Wilcox. They say that the animal gen-
erally falls and gets on its feet a number of times, while the muscle
of the sides and legs quiver spasmodically. This quivering of the
muscles is considered a very characteristic symptom. There is i
slight increase in the quantity of saliva and the animal dies in vio-
lent convulsions. The symptoms of poisoning from the low and the
tall larkspurs are practically the same.
In comparing the symptoms as detailed by these authors it is
noticed that there is a good measure of general agreement, and we
can say that the characteristic symptoms of Delphinium poisoning
are nausea, weakness, excessive salivation, twitching of the muscles
of the sides and legs, and convulsions.
It may be added that the reports of the symptoms of lark^ur
poisoning as given by stockmen all through the region where lark-
spur is abimdant agree very well with those detailed above by tiicse
authors. It is said by many of the stockmen that when a poisoaed
animal is started suddenly it runs a short distance, then falls; it
may pick itself up and run a little farther, but eventually it falls
and dies. Some of them state that poisoned animals frotli at the
mouth, and most of them agree that the animals die in spawns.
STMPTOMS OF LARKSPUR POISONING OBSERVED IN THE EXPERIMENTAL WOIL
In the animals fed experimentally in the corrals the first indicaticn
of the poisonous effect of larkspur was that they no longer cared to
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LARKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 63
eat, and became uneasy, stepping about as though uncomfortable.
As the animal walks about the corral the gait becomes " stiff " and
the hind legs are ordinarily spread somewhat widely apart, as
though it were bracing itself against falling. It walks uncertainly,
staggering more or less. If the poison is suflScient in quantity, after
moving a short distance the animal falls. In falling it ordinarily
goes down very suddenly, the legs sometimes appearing to crumple
up. The forelegs give out first, and the animal goes down, fre-
quently with the head extended and the chin lying upoiit the ground;
then goes completely down. In the less acute cases the animal goes
down and lies with the head erect. If the case is acute, it will fall
over upon its side, lying flat upon the ground, sometimes moving the
head up and down.
If frightened in this position, the animal may kick violently.
Usually it is impossible for it to get upon its feet again immediately
after falling, and after making two or three more or less violent
attempts it gives up absolutely. In a short time it will usually get
up and may move about. Soon it commences to step about uneasily,
ordinarily backing, the back arches up, the head is held low, it
trembles, and, after one or more attempts to save itself from falling,
goes down as before. This may be repeated a considerable number
of times. The pictures show quite well the attitudes assumed by
the animals under these circumstances.
When the poisoning has a fatal result the animal may lie for some
time with labored breathing before it dies. If it recovers, as the
effect of the poison passes off it stands upon its feet longer each time
after falling, and eventually walks off, very much as if nothing were
the matter. In cases of mild poisoning it sometimes happens that
the animal falls, and when it gets upon its feet walks off apparently
perfectly well. If under such circumstance it is hurried, it will go
down again, with the same symptoms as before.
On the range commonly the first symptom noted is the falling of
the animal; it goes down suddenly and generally is unable to rise
immediately. Sometimes, if cattle which are apparently all right
are driven hurriedly for a few minutes, individuals will fall. The
same thing was noticed in the experimental animals; some that had
shown no preceding symptoms would suddenly fall after being run
about the corral.
The symptoms of poisoning from Delphinium harbeyi^ D. memi-
e8»ij D. rohvstv/m^ D, hicolor^ and D. cucuUaium were so nearly iden-
tical that they could not be distinguished. The time of complete
prostration, by which is meant the time during which an animal is
unable to continue standing upon its feet, varies in accordance with
the acuteness of the attack. In the cases in 1909, which were all of
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
64 BULLETIN 366, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE.
Ddphirdum barbeyi poisoning, the average time of the j^ninntlg ex-
perimented upon was 3 hours and 25 minutes; the shortest time wis
a half hour, and the longest 13 hours. Of the animals poisoned by
Delphinium barbeyi in 1910 the shortest was 16 minutes and (lie
longest 15 hours and 16 minutes. The average of the 17 cases ob-
served was 2 hours and 7 minutes. In 1911 there were 11 cases of
animals made sick by Delphinium barbeyi. Of these the shwte^
period was 13 minute and the longest 23 hours, with an average of
9 hours and 38 minutes.
Of 6 cases of Delphinium mensdeaii in 1910 the shortest period
was 5 minutes and the longest period 2 hours and 45 minutes, with
an average of 1 hour and 7 minutes.
In the single case of Delphiniwm robustwm which was observed
in the Cochetopa Forest, the animal was down during its first at-
tack for 1 hour and 7 minutes, and during the second attack (m
th6 succeeding day it was down 40 minutes.
In the case of cattle poisoned by Delphinium cucuUatum at Grey-
clijff, one was not down at all, and, of the others, one was down
18 hours and 40 minutes, while each of the reniaining two had two
attacks, the second in both cases being very prolonged. No. 654
was down in the second attack 20 hours and 30 minutes.
In almost all cases the evidence was clear that the animals were
nauseated. They frequently moved the head back and forth, some-
times shaking it from side to side, these movements clearly indi-
cating a condition of nausea. As the sick animals lay upon the
ground, there was often belching of gas at frequent intervals, caused
by this condition of nausea. In the cases where vomiting actuaUy
took place, the animals were almost sure to die. Of all the exi)eri-
mental animals observed at Mount Carbon, only (me that vomited
survived. In all the animals that vomited and died, more or less
of the contents of the rumen were found in the trachea and bron-
chial tubes.
The movements of the head also indicated in most cases more or
less abdominal pain. Frequently this pain was evidently very se-
vere. The animals were always constipated, sometimes severely so,
and without doubt this constipation was connected with the ab-
dominal pain.
Temperatures were taken in a considerable number of cases, both
in 1909 and in 1910. These temperatures varied from 101.2° to
102.6° F. There is evidence from this that temperatures, so far as
observed, were practically normal. It has been stated by s'xne
authors that the temperature at the beginning of the attack is lower.
From the observations of the Mount Carbon experimental animals
there was no reason to think that larkspur poisoning caused any
change whatever in the temperature.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LARKSPUB POISONING OF LiVE STOCK. • 65
The rate of respiration was noted in a large number of the cases
in both years. In general it ran very high. The highest noted was
123, in the case of No. 604, a yearling heifer. Generally speaking,
however, it did not go above 60 to 70. In the case of No. 604, the
respiration was noted at various periods between 3.15 and 4.22 p. m.,
the rates observed being 100, 123, 103, 58, 60. Iji the case of No.
610, in 1910, between 11.45 a. m. and 6.40 p. m., the numbers indi-
cating the rapidity of respiration were 80, 60, 60, 85, 44, 40, 28, 24.
These two cases may be considered as typical of the general course
of respiration in cases of poisoning. Generally speaking, the respi-
ration was highest and shallow at the most acute stage of the attack
and gradually diminished and became deeper as the effects of the
poisoning passed off. In nearly all cases, however, even if the
animal had apparently entirely recovered, the rate of respiration was
still qjoite high.
The pulse also was noted in a considerable number of cases, and
this, as would be expected, was also rapid. The highest observed
was 150 in the case of No. 618. Generally speaking, in the acute
cases, the pulse ran well toward 100 and was very weak and, as the
effect of the poison passed off, would progressively become slower
and stronger. In some few cases tiie pulse during the stage of
pK>isoning was rather low, as, for example, in case of No. 113 in 1909,
where the pulse was 50. It immediately, however, went up to 74.
Salivation was not present in all cases, but it was noted in a num-
ber of the sick animals. Of the 22 cases sick at the station from eat-
ing DelpTdruum harbeyi in 1910, 9 showed more or less marked sali-
vation. It was not a universal symptom but was a common one.
Of course, the administration of the remedy physostigmin and pilo-
carpin increased the salivation, but this symptom was noted before
the administration of the remedy, and' in cases where no remedy was
given.
It is stated by some authors that in larkspur poisoning there is a
loss of control of the muscles and that the animals die in violent
spasms. This was hardly true of the experimental animals at Mount
Carbon. There were involuntary contractions of many of the muscles
of the body. These contractions were particularly pronounced in
some cases in the muscles around the mouth and nose, which con-
tracted so as to produce a condition of continuous movement of the
muzzle. In one or two cases this movement extended to the mandible.
The muscles of the shoulders, flanks, and hips contracted spasmodic-
ally, and sometimes there appeared to be a muscular trembling over
the whole surface of the body. This trembling was much more marked
when the animals were standing than when they were down. When
down, some of the animals kicked about to some extent, but there
26876'— BuU. 865—16 5
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
66 BULl-ETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
did not appear to be a lack of coordination, and the movements of
the animals, while perhaps they might be described as convulsTe.
could hardly be considered as the movements of violent spasms or
convulsions. When the animals attempted to rise, the diflSculty, ap-
parently, was weakness rather than a lack of coordination of iht
muscles, and the kicking of the animals appeared to be due to volun-
tary attempts to rise rather than to involuntary and spasmodic coo-
tractions of the muscles of the legs. It did not seem to the observers
that the animals could be said to have convulsions or spasms.
Bloating occurred in some of the cases, but was not a conunon
sjonptom. In the cases where it was noticed, it seemed to come
as one of the later results of the poison. The bloating doubtless adds
much discomfort to the animal, and if it lies with the head lower
than the rest of the body, may cause death. It is a matter of com-
mon knowledge that when animals die of larkspur poisoning upon
the range they bloat very quickly, and it seems probable that death
may in some cases be immediately caused by the mechanical effects
of the bloating.
Recovery from larkspur poisoning is ordinarily very rapid. The
animal, after becoming well enough to rise^ soon walks away, in a
short time begins to eat, and after two or three days shows no effeds
of the poisoning. Some stockmen believe that cattle do not thrive
after being poisoned by larkspur, but from the experimental work
it appeared that no permanent injury was caused. Several of the
animals were fed upon the- larkspur repeatedly in the same season
with no bad results in their condition, except the loss of flesh during
the days when the experiments were being carried on. In these
experiments of using animals repeatedly they were poisoned as
readily the second and third times as the first, or, in other words,
there is no evidence from the experimental work of acquired toler-
ation ; on the other hand, they were no more susceptible to the effects
of the poison because of the repeated feedings.
THE TOXIC DOSE OF LARKSPUR.
It was important for practical purposes to determine how much
larkspur was necessary to produce poisonous effects. The woric of
the firet season alone did not give very definite indications of the
quantity of larkspur necessary to produce poisoning, but taken in
conjunction with the work of the succeeding seasons, seems to give
results that are quite exact.
From the accompanying charts (see figs. 6 to 12) one^can see the
toxic dose of larkspur, this being reduced to a imiform scale for
animals weighing 1,000 pounds. They show the quantities of lark-
spur necessary vto produce the poisoning, the dates of the experi-
ments, and the length of time during which the plant was fed. The
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LABKSPUE POISONING OF LIVE STOCK,
67
figures indicate the number of the animal in each case. The letter S
indicates that the animal was fed seeds, and the letter L that leaves
were used.
At fir^ glance these charts do not seem to be very instructive. It
will be seen that the quantities of Delphinium harheyi necessary to
j(/Af£ Ji>cy k^
30 S /O IS 20 ZF so '
9-9 t* /9 Z* 29 3 B f3 /8 \
/90
/ao
/TO
/60
/so
^
-K
^
6aa
\I30
& 70
60
so
40
so
BO
f.
%
IT
'TK
%
f
<
r
fim
^
■
•
S7
/iP
s
^
^
■}
Of
4«
%
f
f
t
9Z
£tXT^
•
z
•
Fio. 6. — Chart of feeding of Delphinium harheyi to cattle experimentally poisoned In
1900, showing dates, quantities fed, and duration of feeding. • indicates plant
collected near station ; X indicates plant collected at Kefoler Pass about 1,000 feet
higher than the station; those marked L received leaves and stems; those marked
S received seeds and the pods and stems bearing them ; all the others received the
whole top of the plant. The short horizontal line indicates duration of feeding.
The weights of plant are given per thousand pounds of animal.
produce poisoning in 1909 varied from 30 pounds in the case of No.
92 to 188 in the case of No. 604. In 1910 the quantities varied
from 30.4 pounds in the case of No. 98 to 280.8 pounds in the case
of No. 625, while with the DelpMniwm memiesii the quantities varied
from 62.2 pounds in the case of No. 113 to 116.5 pounds in the case of
No. 82. In 1911 only Delphiniv/m harheyi was fed and the quantity
necessary to produce poisoning varied from 34.7 potmds in the case
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
68
BTTLLBTIN 366, tJ. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGBIOTTLTtTEB.
of No. 635 to 93.3 pounds in the case of No. 643. The averages of
these cases, however, are very striking. The cases of 1909 averaged
-TTTTaTSF
^.iijn^
- ^»M.^*M^^
S A> is 20 ZS' 30 S iO iS 20 2S 30 ^ ^9 JiTVc^ ^ |
230
270
260
260
240
290
«f
'
ZcO
2/0
200
/90
K//0
/OO
90
BO
70
60
SO
-•
■
^
J07
f^
«
»
^
V
««
5
-
.^
^
-1
tt
*?
s*
iie
••
^/
^
€09
€iO
S
36
^
Fia. 7. — Chart of feeding of Delphinium harheyi to cattle experimentally palsraed Ii
1910, showing dates, quantities fed, and duration of feeding. • Indicates plaat
collected near station ; X Indicates plant collected at Kebler Pass about 1,000 feet
higher than the station ; those marked L received leavte and stems ; those marked 8
received seeds and the pods and stems bearing them ; all the others received the
whole top of the plant. The short horizontal line indicates duration of feeding.
The weights of plant are given per thousand pounds of animal.
02 pounds; the Delphinium harheyi cases of 1910 averaged 100.4
pounds, while the DelpJmdum memiedi feeding of 1910 averaged
Digiti
zed by Google
' LAEKSPtm POISONING OP LIVE STOCK.
69
TITTm
. ■'
. itf i
S/0fS8O2590St0/Se0ES30SfO \
too
^ 90
\ ^
1 ^
-SSf-
y
—A
**:
//5'
2
€38
tf J7
7
6 «f
6f€
^i 40
30
H CItff
Pia. 8. — Chart of feeding Delphinium harheyi to cattle
ezperlmentally poisoned In 1911, showing the dates,
quantities fed, and duration of feeding. # indicates
plants collected near station ; X indicates plants col-
lected at Kebler Pass about 1,000 feet higher thau the
station ; those marked L received leaves ; the others
were fed the whole top of the plant.
95.8 pounds. The cases of 1911, all being, of Delphdrdum barheyi
poisoning, averaged 63.3 pounds.
It was the impression among the observers at the station during the
first two seasons that about one-tenth the weight of the animal was
the toxic dose, and it
is certainly rather
remarkable that the
averages come so*
close to that quan-
tity. A careful study
of the cases of the
three seasons, how-
ever, shows not only
that in the average
case this is an over-
estimate, but that
there are two factors
which profoundly
modify the quantity
necessary to produce
poisoning in indi-
vidual cases. One
factor, the seasonal variation in the toxicity of the plants,. is dis-
cussed imder a special heading on page 75. The second factor is the
length of time during which the plant was fed. This is indicated in
charts 11 to 14, and it will be noted that in general the size of the
toxic dose increases
with the time during
which the animal is
fed. This is shown
in a striking way in
the animals poisoned
by Delphinium 6ar-
beyi m 1909. After
tabulating the num-
ber of days of feed-
ing and the quanti-
ties fed, and making
averages of the cases,
it was found that of
the animals poisoned
by 1 day's feeding,
the average quantity was 53.2 pounds; of those poisoned by 2 days'
feeding, 82.1 pounds; of 3 days' feeding, 133.7 pounds, and of 4
days' feeding, 160.1 pounds. The averages for tiie other two years
show the same thing but not so clearly, as the seasonal variation in
uigiTized by VjOOQ IC
■^■■"
"~j
-8
» J
f *
0 i
y 10 /s I
V a
S 30 i
r ^
0 A
S I
Hf
^ ""
(M
'
JT
•9
m
k ^
It?
'V
-^
4P
1 *
\ 60
W
SO
,
Pig. 9. — Chart of feeding of Delphinium menzteaU to cattle
- experimentally poisoned in 1910, showing dates, quanti-
ties fed, and duration of feeding. The short horizontal
Ihie indicates duration of feeding. The weights of plant
are given per thousand pounds of animal.
70
BULLETIN 365, tJ. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
S 90 i
r fO tS 20 25 90 A
— AiMuii^ »-«5^;f — 1
/20
K tfO
^ 50
90
•
•
•
„
*
Fig. 10. — Chart of feeding of Delphinium harheyi to cattle
experimentally poisoned In 1909 based on weekly aver-
ages. The weights of plant are given per thousand
pounds of animal.
toxicity plays a more important part in those years. The average
toxic dose for 1 day's feeding in 1910 was 54.9 pounds, and in 1911
it was 69.5 pounds. It thus appears that, in the general average of
cases, cattle weighing
1,000 pounds will be
poisoned if they »t
as much as 60 pounds
*in one day. This
quantity varies, how-
ever, within wide
limits, in one case
being as low as 30
pounds, and at the
other extreme as
high as 93.3 pK>un(]s.
A tabulation of
the quantities eaten
the first day by ani-
mals poisoned in 1
3, or 4 days shows that few exceeded the toxic limit; of 15 cases
in 1909, No. 115 ate 37 pounds, No. 98 ate 58.16 pounds, and No, 112
ate 56.5 pounds. Of 15 cases in 1910, No. 612 ate 43 pounds, No. 610
ate 36 pounds, and
No. 121 ate 38
pounds, while in
1911, of 6 cases, No.
639 ate 62.2 pounds
and No. 647 ate 46
pounds. It will be
noticed that only one
of these exceeded the
average quantity
which poisons in 1
day's feeding, but
that all exceeded the
minimum.
While some of the
differences in the
toxic dose can be ex-
plained by seasonal
differences in the plants and the duration of feeding, many r^nained
unexplained. These differences, under apparently the same condi-
tions, are shown in cases 637, 646, 639, 647, and 640 of 1911. All these
animals were fed between July 25 and July 31, with the following
/ i
r M> fS » tS 90 i
r A
•
1 //o
\
*
^so
•
•
'
...
SO
U
Fig. 11. — Chart of feeding;, of Delphinium harhtyi to cat-
tle experimentally poisoned In 1910 based on wedclj
averages. The welgrbts of plant are given per thou-
sand pounds of animal.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LAEKSPUB POISONING OP LIVE STOCK.
71
results: No. 637 was poisoned in 1 day by 51 pounds per 1,000 pounds
of weight; No. 646, by 40 pounds; No. 640, by 90 pounds; No. 639
was poisoned in 2 days by 91.1 pounds ; and No. 647, by 81.1 pounds.
These differences are made more striking when we find that No.. 639
ate 62.2 pounds the first day, and No. 647 ate 46 pounds. All these
animals were of approximately the same age, treated in the same
way with larkspur gathered from the same place, and all were fed
witiiin 6 days. The difference may be due in part to the condition of
the animals when receiving the plant, for it is reasonable to assume
that the rapidity of absorption may be affected by the condition of
the i^limentary canal and its contents. The condition of the excreting
glands, too, may profoundly modify the toxic effect of the plants.
Other minor factors doubtless come into play, which may be grouped
together under the
general term " the
varying susceptibil-
ity of the individual."
In this connection
it may be noted that
apparently rumina-
tion did not neces-
sarily precede intoxi-
cation. While com-
plete notes were not
kept on this subject,
it was definitely
known that some of
the animals which
were poisoned in a short time did not ruminate at all. The minimimi
toxic dose, then, is about 30 pounds, and the average of the three
seasons about 84 pounds, with a maximum of 280 pounds. This
maximum, of course, would run to infinity late in the season. In the
practical handling of cattle it is dangerous for an animal to eat more
than 3 per cent of its weight in one day, although it may eat two or
three times as much before showing signs of intoxication.
The figures, as given above, in regard to the toxic dose apply to
DelpMmum harbeyi and Delphvrmmb memiesiij and it is interesting
also to note that the quantity necessary to produce poisoning in the
case of Delphimum memiesu does not differ materially from the
quantity in the case of DelpTrndwrrb harheyi. In the single experi-
ment with DelpJmdum robustum 40 pounds per 1,000 pounds of
weight of the animal produced poisonous effects. Inasmuch as this
feeding was rather late in the season, this single experiment would
indicate that Delphimwnb robustuTn might be rather more poisonous
than the two species experimented vith at Mount Carbon. It is
r\
^TTt
i
\ ^
p «
?; *
2 A
r A
9 A
s\
? Ii
f ^
0 4
^H> 1
5 so
30
•
'
•
'
•
•
• '
Fig. 12. — Chart of feeding Delphinium harheyi to cattle
experimentally poisoned in 1911, based on weekly aver-
ages. The weights of plant are given per thousand
pounds of animal.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
72 BULLETIN 365, XT. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE.
not safe, however, to draw any definite inference in regard to this.
The toxic dose in the experiments with Delphirdum cuctdlatum
varied from 22.7 pomids to 49 pomids. This apparently indicate s
greater toxicity for this species than for the Colorado larkspurs.
The experiments were few in nmnber, however, and all taken during
the time of probable maximum toxicity of the plant, and it seems
likely that a wider experience would show greater conformity to
the standard of the Colorado plants.
It is somewhat surprising to notice how great a quantity of laxk-
spur must be eaten in most cases before poisonous eflPects are pro-
duced, and this fact may perhaps be the explanation of the cases
which are frequently recorded of the passing of succeeding herds
of animals over the same poisoned area, some being poisoned and
others going without any harm whatever. It seems very probable
that the animals showing the symptoms of poisoning may have come
to these areas when particularly hungry and that individuals on
this account may have eaten large quantities of the poisonous weed.
It is well known that a ruminant when very hungry will eat enor-
mous amounts of material which attracts it. It is also well known
that imder these conditions animals are more apt to take the plants
which are most prominent, and if the larkspurs were more con-
ppicuous than other forage plants it is very probable that the animal
under such conditions would eat an unusual quantity and c<mse-
quently suffer. The practical inference from this is that in handling
cattle care should be taken not to drive them over a supposed poison-
ous area when they are particularly hungry. On this account it
would doubtless be better to make the drive over such an area in
the afternoon rather than in the morning. It will be noted, too, that
the quantity which may be poisonous varies within very wide limits,
and that an animal may suffer from eating not more than 25 or 30
pounds. Perhaps special emphasis should be placed upon the fact
that the toxic dose is quite large. The larkspurs are not violently
poisonous plants and may be eaten in quite large quantities with no
bad results. Because a region contains some larkspurs it is not
necessarily a dangerous locality for grazing. The region is dan-
gerous only when the plants are present in considerable numbers
or when there is a lack of other forage so that the cattle eat the lai^-
spur in large quantities. DelpJdnium memiesU in some localities is
so scattered that it can do no harm. This is true of areas in southern
Utah. While Delphinium hicolor^ the low larkspur which is charac-
teristic of the region about the experiment station at Gtreycliff, un-
doubtedly has the same poisonous properties as the other larkspurs,
it does not grow in that region in sufficient abundance to cause any
harm. It occurs in scattered groups of a few plants and it would
be impossible for cattle to get enough in grazing to produce intoxica-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LABKSPUB P0I90KING OF LIVE STOCK. 73
tion. In fact, from what is known of the distribution of Delphirdum
hicolor it seems probable to the« authors that this species is of no
economic importance in causing losses of stock. It* certainly does
not poison sheep and it is highly improbable that it ever grows in
sufficient abundance to be dangerous to cattle.
POST-MOBTEH FEATURES OF LARKSPUR POISdNIXa
During the season of 1909 three autopsies were made upon the
station experimental animals and three upoA others that were sup-
posed to have died of larkspur poisoning. In 1910 nine autopsies
were made on animals that died at the station, and in 1911 three.
Generally speaking, as has been noted elsewhere, if animals found
dead upon the range are lying upon uneven ground, the head will be
found lower than the rest of the body. This was true also of the
animals that died in the corrals, and is probably explained by the
fact that as the animals throw themselves about they get their heads
lower and are unable to turn themselves back.
Generally, too, the animal dying upon the range is found very
much bloated. It is very difficult to determine the post-mortem
condition of range animals, as it is seldom possible to make autopsies
immediately after death, and as the number of animals autopsied
at the station was small the facts observed can not be supposed
to demonstrate conclusively the detailed conditions of larkspur
poisoning.
In nearly all cases the heart was found in diastole and filled
with blood. Commonly, the walls of the heart were more or less
congested and frequently with petechise. The peripheral veins and
venous system of the abdomen were found congested. In stripping
the skin from the animal it was usual to find the veins immediately
beneath the skin very much swollen. The lungs were congested,
and the kidneys acutely congested. There was generally a hyper-
emic condition of the central nervous system, as would be expected
from the general condition of the circulatory organs. Commonly
the inner walls of the trachea and sometimes of the bronchi were
very deeply congested. Inflammation was almost invariably present
in the rumen near the esophageal opening. In some cases the walls
of the second and third stomach were inflamed and in practically
all cases the pyloric end of the fourth stomach. This inflammation
extended in greater or less degree through the duodemmi, jejunum,
and ileum. In three cases the colon was inflamed. In five cases the
wall of the cecum was inflamed, and in most cases the walls of the
rectum.
To summarize the noticeable points brought out by the post-
mortem examinations of these animals, there was marked inflam-
mation in all parts of the alimentary canal, marked congestion of
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
74 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUEE.
the kidneys, and distinct congestion of the walls of the heart, asso-
ciated with a general congestion ot the peripheral circulation.
TOXICTTT OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE PLANT.
In the course of the experiments careful notes were made with
regard to the part of the plant fed to the animals. Some animals
were fed leaves and stems; others leaves, stems, and flowers; others
the tops with the seed; and, in the case of Delphinium menziem
and DelpJdrmmi a/nderaonii^ some were fed the roots alone.
There is a widespread belief among the stockmen of Colorado
that the roots of Delpfdrdy/m memiesii are much more poisonous
than other parts of the plant. It is said that cattle are much more
, likely to be poisoned after a rain, when they can pull up the plants
by the roots and devour a large quantity of the latter. In the
summer of 1909 special attention was paid to the feeding of roots
to the cattle. Two animals — ^Nos. 92 and 117 — were fed roots alone
of DelpJuniv/m memiem. No. 92, in 2 days, ate an equivalent of
2.47 pounds per 1,000 pounds of weight, and No. 117, in 1 day, ate
2.1 pounds of roots without any symptoms of poisoning. These
quantities, to be sure, were not very large ; but it is highly improb-
able that an animal upon the range would ever be able to consume
as much. The stem of DelpMrdum menziesii is quite brittle and,
while it is Entirely possible to pull up the roots by the steins while
the soil is moist, the larger part of them, as was proved by experi-
ment, will break, and it is improbable that cattle in their grazing
will get any considerable number of roots. These experiments
would seem to prove that the roots of DelpMrduTn memiem are not
violently toxic. The roots of DelpJdmAjmi harbeyi are long and
tough and are never pulled up by stock, so that for grazing they need
not be considered. The feeding experiments with Delphirdwm men-
ziedi throughout the season of 1910 were of the whole plant, and
there was no reason to think that the roots were especially toxic.
In the experimental feeding of the roots of DelpMrdum,^ cmdersonii^
given in detail on page 58, only sheep were used, so no results were
reached as to the comparative toxicity of different parts of the plant,
as there is no evidence that sheep are poisoned by any part of the
plant. The experiment was significant as indicating that in all
probability sheep are not injured by the roots of this plant.
The charts (figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10) for the feeding of both Del-
phirdit/m harbeyi and DelpMmum memiesii show quite clearly the
greater toxicity of the seeds. It will be noticed from the charts that
in the feeding of plants at the time when seeds were present a smaller
quantity was necessary in order to produce symptoms of poisoning.
In this connection, the case of heifer No. 633 is especially interesting.
This animal was found dead in the pasture September 2, 1911.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
lABKSPTTR POISONING OP LIVE STOCK. 75
Although Delphirmmi harheyi was common in the pasture, no trouble
had been experienced from this source, probably because there was
an abundance of good feed. Moreover, none of the experimentally
fed animals had been poisoned since August 8, on account of the
diminished toxicity of the plants. The autopsy showed that No. 633
had died of asphyxia, as it had vomited, and the stomach contents
were found in the larjmx and trachea. As the animal had been dead
for two or three days, the autopsy was unsatisfactory, but, so far
as it could be made, showed conditions typical of larkspur poisoning.
A careful examination of the contents of the rumen demonstrated
the presence of a large amount of stems and seeds of DelpMrmim
harheyi. This, then, was clearly a case of larkspur poisoning in
which the seeds were the most important factor, for it was too late
in the season for the leaves to produce poisoning.
AGE OF PLANTS AS AFFECTING TOXICITT.
From a careful examination of the charts for the feeding of
DelpMnium, harheyi and Delphinium memiesii certain factb are
brought out quite clearly in regard to seasonal changes in toxicity.
If an average curve were made for the charts of Delphirdum harheyi
feedmg in 1909, 1910, and 1911 (figs. 6, 7, 8, 10, and 11), it would be
found that the quantity necessary to produce poisoning increases pro-
gressively from the first of the season until the time when seeds are
formed in the plants. Taking into account the length of time
during which the plant was given in individual cases, the appar-
ently aberrant cases of very large quantities in these years are easily
explained, as, in those cases, by reason of the prolonged feeding,
there was more or less elimination of the poison.
It is a striking fact that the smallest quantity needed to produce
poisoning was in the earliest cases. It seems quite clear that Del-
pMrdum harheyi progressively loses toxicity after blossoming until
the time when the seeds are formed. At this time the leaves and
stems are not particularly toxic and if the seeds were disregarded,
the curve would indicate diminished toxicity from early in the
season until the middle or last of August, at which time on the Colo-
rado ranges the plant becomes perfectly harmless.
As a matter of fact, stock on the range do not eat the seeds of
Delphinium harheyi to any extent, so that the fact that the seeds are
especially toxic has little practical bearing so far as the stockmen are
concerned. It may be stated as a general fact that after the middle
or latter part of August, depending upon the season, Delphhdumi
harheyi ceases to be poisonous, and under ordinary range conditions
in Colorado few cases of poisoning occur after the middle of July.
Not only does it cease to be injurious, but it has been noticed that
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
76 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTUBE.
late in the season during the month of September the leaves of Del-
phvrdum harbeyi are eaten by stoek with great apparent eagerness. -
Before the season is concluded, where a range is grazed with any
thoroughness, nearly all the leaves of DelpMmum harbeyi will be
stripped from the stems by the grazing cattle and eaten with no re-
sulting harm.
The chart- for Delphimum memiem^ figure 9, determined by the
experiments of 1910, would seem to indicate that the quantity neces-
sary to poison stock grows smaller as the season progresses. This
probably is explained by the fact that in the latter part of June
many of the plants have formed seed and that these seed pods were
eaten by the cattle. If the plant has greater toxicity in the latter
part of the season than in the earlier, as this chart would seem to in-
dicate, it is doubtless explained in this way, for the seeds are formed
in Delphinium memiesii while the leaves are still more or less green
and doubtless attractive to a grazing animal.
The principal inferences from these facts in regard to the variation
of toxicity with the age of the plant may be summed up as follows:
First, DelpMnivan memiesii is poisonous during the whole period
of the life of the plant Immediately upon the formation of the
seed, the plant withers and disappears^ so that it no longer is a
factor in poisoning. If Delphinium memiesii does more harm in
the early season than in the latter period of its existence, it must be
due to the fact that, because of the poorer feed earlier. in the season,
cattle may eat more of it than they do later when the grasses have
sprung up.
Second, Delphinium harbeyi in Colorado is poisonous from early
spring until the middle or last of August, its toxicity after blossom-
ing gradually diminishing until it entirely disappears and the plant
can be eaten with impunity by cattle. It would appear that it is
vastly more toxic early in the season and without doubt it is in the
month of June that the most harm is done by this plant. The fact
of the great toxicity of the seeds has little practical importance be-
cause cattle rarely feed upon them. So far as inferences may be
drawn from a somewhat limited experience it would appear that
Delphimwm cucullaimn varies in its toxicity as does DelphAn^jim
harheyi.
Investigations in the Sierras, where the common larkspiir is Del-
pMrdum glaucu/m^ show a somewhat different condition from that
noted in Colorado. Here the snowfall is very heavy and the snow
does not disappear in some localities until very late in the season,
making the period of blossoming late. Larkspurs may be in blossc»n
as late as September, and the period of possible poisoning of cattle
is extended tixrough nearly the whole grazing season.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LAEKSPUB POISONING OP LIVE STOCK. 77
It should be borne in mind also that in any given region, climatic
conditions vary. In a dry, hot season the larkspurs will rip^n
earlier, while in a cold, wet season the time of blossoming and form-
ing of seed may be much delayed.
Referring to the work of Loy, Heyl, and Hepner, which is noticed
on page 11, it will be seen that their results in regard to the toxicity
of different parts of the plant correspond fairly well to the results
obtained in the field experimentation. It may be noted that the
large content of alkaloid in the leaf and stem of Delphimum geyeri
as compared with the other species may be accounted for by the fact
that the plant was collected early in the season before blossoming,
at the time when it might be expected to be more toxic, while the
Delpldrdwm, glaxucum was collected at the full maturity of the plant
and very likely at a time when the toxicity was beginning to diminish.
ANTIDOTAL TREATMENT OF CASES OF LARKSPUB POISONING.
The early treatment of larkspur poisoning at the Mount Cdrbon
station was based upon the recommendations in the literature of the
subject. Wilcox, 1897, page 45, recommends the use of atropin
sulphate, stating that he had had good results with sheep in Montana.
Chesnut and Wilcox, 1901, pages 72 and 80, recommend atropin for
counteracting the physiological effects, and suggest that alcoholic
stimulants and ammonia can be used to advantage. They recommend
also permanganate of potassium and sulphate of aluminium. Craw-
ford, 1907, pages 9 and 10, states that poisoning takes place more
quickly when elimination is interfered with, as, for example, by tieing
the ureter of the animal experimented upon. It seemed best, therefore,
in the experimental work at Mount Carbon to make trial of atropin,
potassium permanganate, and caffein sodio-benzoate. The latter .
substance was used partly because it is a heart stimulant and partly
because it is a diuretic, on the assumption that stimulation of the
kidneys might aid in the elimination of the poison. In several cases
during the first season's work at Mount Carbon these remedies were
used, and while aU of the animals to which the remedies were given
recovered, there was reason to think that none of the remedial meas-
ures were especially effective. On comparison of the animals treated
with those not treated, it could not be shown that there were any
advantageous effects from the administration of these remedies.
Reference may be made here to the experiments detailed in pages
41 to 43 of United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 125,
"Zygadenus, or Death Camas," in which it is shown that good re-
sults can not be reasonably expected from an antidotal remedy like
potassium permanganate, given per os to a ruminant, inasmuch as
the antidote is not likely to come in contact with any considerable
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
78 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMEKT OF AGBICULTUBE.
quantity of the poisonous substance unless it is given in many doses
repeated at very frequent intervals.
It was noticed early in the work of 1909 that all the poisoned
animals were very consti^)ated, and the question was raised whether
the removal of this condition, might not either prevent the poiscming
or predispose the animals to recovery. Cowboys upon the range
have remarked that whenever animals commence to defecate recov-
ery is assured. Therefore if the animals were so treated as to keep
up a free movement of the bowels, it might be possible to prevent
the poisonous action of the larkspur. To test this, No. 602 was
brought into the corral on September 8, 1909, for experimental feed-
ing. Feeding of DelpMrdum harheyi was commenced on September
9, using the leaves, stems, and fruit of material that had been col-
lected at Kebler Pass. Although this material was mature, it was
green and fresh. Feeding was continued to September 16. During
this time the animal, which weighed about 450 pounds, ate 388.25
pounds of the plant, or, on the basis of 1,000 pounds of weight,
862.8 pounds. On September 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, and 16 she re-
ceived 4 ounces of magnesium sulphate in the drinking water. In
spite of the large quantity of larkspur eaten the animal showed not
the slightest eflfect of poisoning. The bowels were l^ept rather more
loose than normal. Inasmuch as the general results of tfie experi-
mental work show that the larkspur as it grows older loses much
of its toxicity, the question was raised whether the failure to poison
this animal was not due to the fact that the larkspur was old and
had perhaps lost some of its poisonous properties. In order to test
this No. 112 was brought into the corrals on September 15, and feed-
ing was commenced on September 16 of material obtained from the
same place as that fed to No. 602. She was fed during September
16 and 17 79^ pounds, or, on the basis of 1,000 pounds of weight,
130 pounds. At 5.35 p. m. on September 17 she was found down in
the corrals. At 5.38 she was disgorging material from the rum^,
this material consisting of larkspur and water, part of it passing
up through the nostrils and interfering with her breathing. At
5.42 she was raised up in order that the trachea might be less likely
to be filled with the vomited material. She was hardly able to hold
up her head. There was some twitching of the flank muscles and
the muscles of the forelegs. Respiration at this time was very slow
and shallow. The pulse could not be found at all. At 5.48 she was
dead. This animal during the feeding was very much constipated.
She received larkspur from the same localities as that fed to No.
602, and the material was in practically the same condition. It
should be noted, too, that not only did No. 602 receive a much larger
total quantity of larkspur, but the daily feeding also was very much
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LABKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 79
larger. On one day this animal received almost twice as much as
was given to No. 112 on the second day when it became ill.
While these two cases can not be considered as furnishing positive
proof that the administration of magnesium sulphate will prevent
the action of larkspur, the results were very significant.
In connection with this case, comparisons may be made with some
others. No. 606, a heifer, weighing about 450 pounds, bel(mging to
Otis Mooi^e, was fed, between August 28 and September 6, 195 pounds
of DelpJumwm harheyi^ or, on the basis of 1,000 pounds of ^veight,
434^ pounds. Part of this material was collected at Kebler Pass
and was green. A smaller part, about 50 pounds, was collected near
the station and was older and drier. This feeding was of leaves and
stems without the seeds. She was given 4 ounces of magnesium
sulphate in the drinking water on August 30 and September 3. No
poisonous effects were noticed.
At the same time, August 28 and 29, No. 605 was fed 29^ poimds,
or, on the basis of 1,000 pounds weight, 66.5 pounds, and became sick.
The material fed was of stems and seeds of DelpJmdum harbeyi.
It should be borne in mind, however, in comparing Nos. 605 and 606,
that. the seeds are more toxic than the leaves and stems, as has been
shown elsewhere, and that it is possible the result in the case of No.
605 may have been caused by the larger number of seeds in the
feeding.
With this, however, may be compared No. 98, which, between Sep-
tember 18 and 25, received 357.25 pounds, or, on the basis of 1,000
pounds' weight, 776.6 pounds of DelpMmwm harbeyi, collected at
Kebler Pass. This material included not only stems and leaves, but
the seeds. The animal ate a very large proportion of its own weight
of larkspur. Four ounces of magnesium sulphate in its drinking
water were given every day between September 18 and 25, inclusive,
the effect of this being to keep the action of the bowels in very nearly
a normal condition. The animal was not affected at all by the poison-
ous material eaten.
Summing up these cases, then, it would appear that it is very prob-
able that the injurious effects of larkspur eating might not appear
if means were taken to produce free movement of the bowels in the
animals feeding upon the plant, and it indicates also that if some
remedy could be used which, in the beginning of the poisoning, would
quickly stimulate the intestinal excretion it might serve to save the
lives of the animals.
Inasmuch as the work of 1909 at the Mount Carbon station brought
out very clearly the fact that one of the most prominent symptoms
connected with larkspur poisoning was constipation, and also showed
very clearly that death resulted primarily from respiratory paralysis.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
80 BULLETIN 365, V. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICXn-TtTEE.
in planning for the remedial work of 1910 it seemed wise to use sub-
stances which would probably counteract these most pronounced
symptoms. It was at first thought that scwne combination might
be made with barium chlorid, using the barium chlorid for the pur-
pose of getting a quick evacuation of the intestines, combining with
it caffein or digitalis to relieve the depressing eflfect which barium
has upon the heart and adding strychnin to serve as a respiratory
stimulant. Tablets were prepared of various combinations for the
summer's work.
One case of Delphiruum memiem poisoning was treated with
barium chlorid, caffein, sodio-benzoate, and strychnin nitrate, and
died. One case of Delphinmrn harheyi was treated with the same
combination and died. It was not clear, therefore, that there were
any beneficial results from this treatment, and as it was found diffi-
cult to handle the combination without hot water for solution it was
abandoned as impracticable for field use.
A hypodermic injection was used of physostigmin salicylate,
pilocarpin hydrochlorid, and strychnin sulphate. This combina-
tion dissolves very readily and can be used in a comparatively small
amount of water. The treatment was used in 32 cases of larkspur
poisoning with a total of 4 deaths. One fatal case was known to
be due to an overdose of strychnin and two received too small a
dose of physostigmin. One case died, apparently, in spite of the
remedy. Fifteen were allowed to go without treatment, and of
these 6 died. This seems to make a good showing for the remedy,
although, of course, too much stress must not be put on the statisti-
cal results of a comparatively small number of cases. It is pre-
sumed that probably a larger proportion of range animals would
die than of corral-fed cases, for the latter, even if no remedy was
given, are cared for and put in a favorable position for recovery.
Excluding the animal killed by strychiiin and the 2 receiving
too small a dose, there was only 1 death in 29 treated cases; in
other words, there was 96.54 per cent of recoveries. While this per-
centage might not hold in a larger number of cases, there is good
reason to believe that most cases of larkspur poisoning may be cured
if this treatment can be applied promptly.
In comparing the effects obtained in the different cases it was
found that the best results in animals weighing 500 to 600 pounds
were reached by using the following formula of this remedy :
Physostigmin saUcylate 1 grain.
Pilocarpin hydrochlorid 2 grains.
Strychnin sulphate } grain.
As much as 1 grain of strychnin was used in some cases, but
it seems probable that this is too much. There was little doubt that
an overdose was given to No. 613, a fatal case of Delphinium harheyi
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LABKSPUR POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 81
poisoning in 1910, as there were distinct symptoms of strychnin
poisoning. Smaller doses were tried with some of the cases of 1911,
but they ^ere less effective and the two fatal cases in this season,
when this remedy was used, are considered as due to the use of an
insufficient amoimt of the remedy. It^ is possible that a heavier
dosage of physostigmin salicylate and pilocarpin hydrochlorid
might be used, but experience seemed to show that the pain connected
with the more rapid action of this remedy more than counterbalanced
its advantage. The results of the summers of 1910 and 1911 ap-
peared to show quite conclusively that the hypodermic injection of
this combination would aid in the recovery of most animals. The at-
tempt was made to use arecolin in place of the physostigmin and
pilocarpin but the results were very unsatisfactory.
It was found that a distinct benefit resulted from the use of hypo-
dermic injections of 20 cubic centimeters or more of whisky or a»
corresponding amount of 50 per cent alcohol. This stimulant was
given to tide over a time when the animal might otherwise collapse.
It was not found desirable to give the whisky in all cases but only
as the symptoms seemed to demand it.
In passing, perhaps a word should be said in regard to the ordi-
nary remedy of bleeding used among the stockmen for larkspur ^
poisoning. This was not attempted in the station work, because there
seemed to be no good reason for the proceeding. It is barely possible
that at the critical stage of larkspur poisoning, with the heart about
to stop, bleeding might stimulate it to further action. It was not
found, however, in the station experiments that the symptoms at any
time definitely indicated this as a desirable measure. Indiscriminate
bleeding for larkspur poisoning is probably worse than useless and
does much more harm than good. Among stockmen the claim is
frequently made that 50 per cent of the sick cases may be saved by
bleeding. It may be questioned whether this number might not re-
cover without any treatment. Dr. Sanford, of Gunnison, Colo., a
physician of long and successful experience in a stock country, states
that he has bled a large number of animals poisoned by larkspur and
has no evidence of beneficial results.
Bleeding is the common remedy used by stock people for many of
the ills affecting their animals, and is considered especially effica-
cious in cases of illness resulting from eating poisonous plants.
While it did not seem worth while to test it out in the larkspur
poisoning of cattle, it was used experimentally with sheep poisoned
by Zygadenus (death camas), as stated in Bulletin 125, with no
benefit.
Summarizing, then, the work of the station upon remedies, no defi-
nite advantageous results were obtained with potasaum permanga-
26876^— Bull. 865—16 6
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
8^ BULLETIN 366, U. B. DEPABTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
U iM^Cj atropin, or the combination of barium cUorid with caffein,
V liodio-benzoate and strychnin. The combination of physostigmin
telicylate, pilocarpin hydrocUorid, and strychnin sulphate, used
V h5rpodermically5 and supplemented as symptoms demand by hypo-
dermic injections of whisky or dilute alcohol, would seem in the ma-
JOTity of cases to produce beneficial effects. These remedies can be
easily administered by stockmen upon the range, as they can be car-
ried in solution in small compass and administered by the hypo-
dermic syringe, with the use of which most stockmen are familiar.
It can not be too strongly stated that when cattle fall from larkspur
poisoning no attempt should be made to get them upon their feet, or,
if they get upon their feet themselves, care must be taken that they
should not be hurried under any circumstances. Many of the ani-
mals when poisoned, if allowed to lie quietly with no other attention
than to be turned so that the head will be higher than the rest of
the body, will recover.
As has been stated elsewhere, bloating seldom occurs in cases of
larkspur poisoning. If it does, it should be relieved by paunching,
and every stockman should be provided with a trocar to i)erf orm this
operation.
BfETHODS OF PREVENTING LARKSPUR POISONING.
It is recognized that under ordinary range conditions many cases
of larkspur poisoning occur which can not be prevented. The cattle
are not under direct observation and may not be seen for weeks or
months, and the first intimation of trouble is when the rider, in going
over the range, finds bodies of animals that may have died long
before. There is no opportunity to apply a remedy. It is possible,
however, to save m^piy cattle by proper handling in accordance with
the conditions of the ranges upon which they are grazed.
From the fact that the low larkspur dies early in July and ceases
to be a factor in poisoning, it is very evident that if the cattle can be
kept away from this plant until about July 1 there probably will be
no fatalities. This has been recognized very generally by the stock-
men. In some localities on the western slope of the Rocky Moun-
tains in Colorado " riding for poison " is a regular business among
the stockmen during the month of June. By this " riding " the cattle
are kept below the poisonous area until after the plants blossom. In
some localities, also, through the instrumentality of the Forest Serv-
ice, drift fences have been erected for the same purposes.
There seems to be no question that if cattle can be kept away fnwn
the areas of low larkspur until the plant matures there Mil be no
losses, but if they are permitted to graze freely upon these areas loss
is almost certain to occur. These losses, of course, will be greater
Digiti
zed by Google
LABKSPT7B POISONING OF LIVE STOCK. 83
when the grasses are less conspicuous. Just so far as the larkspur
is more evident than other forms of forage plants, it is sure to be
eaten in larger quantities and will produce correspcmdingly greater
harm.
The tall larkspur is especially dangerous in Colorado during the
months of May and June. After it springs up in the early part of
the season it grows in large tufts of rather attractive appearance
and extends above the forage plants. It is at this time that it is most
likely to be eaten by cattle. In narrow valleys where the larkspur is
qidte abundant, if cattle collect in the early part of the season to
graze, they are almost certain to take a C(xisiderable quantity of the
larkspur with more or less losses resulting. It is entirely feasible
in inany of these small canyons to clear out the major part of the
larkspur and thus prevent poisoning, and it is definitely recom-
mended that in such restricted areas the plant be dug out.
Experimental work carried out upon the range has shown that
the larkspur can be killed by cutting the root 2 or 8 inches below
the surface of the ground, and this has been done by the Forest Service
in some localities on a somewhat large scale. Complete eradication
of the plant, however, is impossible, and in many places it is eco-
nomically unprofitable to dig it out. In some valleys it is so scat-
tered among the wUlows that it is difficult to approach it, and on
some ranges it is distributed so widely and in places so difficult of
access that the expenditure of labor necessary to destroy the plant
would exceed the value of the range. The practicability of digging
out larkspur on any range depends upon the characteristics of that
particular range, and can not be decided without a careful exanuna-
tion of local conditions.
It was found, while investigating the conditions of larkspur poi-
soning in the Sierras, that in many especially harmful regions the
heavy growth of larkspur is confined to particular valleys, or, in
some cases, to a very limited area in a valley. Some of these val-
leys can be easily fenced oflf and used for horses rather than for cat-
tle, and the small isolated areas can be cleared of most of the larkspur
at a small expenditure of time and money.
When cattle are driven hurriedly from one range to another they
are much more apt to become poisoned, as it is well known that
hungry cattle when hurried along will eat the most conspicuous
plants, and under such circumstances quite large losses may occur.
It is evident, then, that in handling cattle in areas where the tall
larkspur is abundant, particularly early in the season, great care
should be taken that they should not come upon these areas when
they are especially hungry. The subject of the proper handling of
range animals in order to avoid poisoning is treated more specifically
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
84 BULLETIN 365, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
in Farmers' Bulletin No. 720, Prevwation of tx>s6e6 of Live Stock
from Plant Poisoning.
After the plant has matured, as has been shown elsewhere, its
toxicity diminishes, and cattle, finding at the saAie time an abun-
dance of other more attractive feed, eat very much less of the larkspur
so that the danger of poiscming is very slight, and in the fall, after
the plant begins to dry, cattle may and do eat it in large quantities
with impunity.
It is generally considered by stockmen that poisoning is more
likely to occur immediately after a rain, or even when the plants are
wet with dew. There seems to be no reasonable explanation of the
supposed fact of the greater toidcity of the plant when wet. It
seems possible, however, when cattle are feeding hastily in a larkspur
area after a rain, that rather than thrust their heads and faces into
the wet grass they may eat more of the higheF plants; in this way
they would consume more of the larkspur and consequently become
poisoned. Cattle, too, in the time of a storm gather togetlier in the
valleys and under trees where larkspur is very abundant, and doubt-
less eat more of it on this account.
Probably, also, when cattle are handled upon a supposed poisonous
area it would aid somewhat in preventing loss if pains were taken
to make sure that none of them were constipated. This probably
could be accomplished, where cattle are watered at specific places,
by the use of a small amount of magnesium sulphate or sodium
sulphate in the drinking water.
GENERAL SUMMARY.
1. The larkspurs from very ancient times have been recognized as
poisonous plants, but complaints of stock poisoning by these plants
have been confined almost entirely to the mountain ranges of western
North America, where heavy losses have been reported, especially
among cattle.
2. It is rarely possible to recognize macroscopically larkspur ma-
terial in the stomach contents of cattle. By means of microscopic
sections of stems, however, not only can Delphinium be distinguished
from other plants but groups of the genus can be distinguished from
each other. The genus falls into six different types of stem struc-
ture.
3. Experimental feeding of larkspur was carried on for three
seasons at Mount Carbon, in Gunnison County, Colo. In this work
four species of Delphinium were used which have been identified as
Delphinitmi harbeyi^ Z>. memiesii^ D. andersonii^ and D. robustwru
A large number of animals were used in this work, including horses,
cattle, and sheep. Similar feeding experiments were conducted
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LAKKSPUR POISONING OP LIVE STOCK. 85
during one season at Greycliflf, Mont., on Delphirmmi cucuUatum
and D, bicolor.
4. These experiments showed that the larkspurs are poisonous to
cattle and horses but not to sheep. Horses, however, in pastures or
upon the range do not eat enough of the plants to produce any ill
effects, so that losses of stock from larkspur poisoning are confined
to cattle.
5. The low larkspurs are poisonous during the whole life of the
plants, but inasmuch as they disappear early in July, cases of poison-
ing are confined to the months of May and June.
6. The tall larkspurs live through the summer season, appearing
in early spring. They are most poisonous in their early stages. After
blossoming the toxicity gradually diminishes and disappears and the
plant dries up, although the seeds are very toxic. Most of the cases
of poisoning in Colorado occur in May and June, with sporadic
cases in July. In other localities where the larkspurs blossom later
poisoning may occur as late as August or even September.
7. While definite feeding experiments have been performed upon
only a few species of larkspur, it may be assumed, from the knowledge
of plant poisoning upon the ranges, that other species have the same
properties as those experimented upon and that feeding upon them
produces the same results.
8. The experimental work and the autopsies showed a clearly de-
fined line of symptoms and certain definite pathological results.
9. The feeding showed that there was no marked difference in
toxicity between the different species of larkspurs and that the quan-
tity necessary to produce effects varied within rather wide limits, but
that, generally speaking, a quantity equal to at least 3 per cent of the
weight of the animal was necessary to produce poisoning.
10. From somewhat extensive experimental work on antidotes it
was found that beneficial results could be obtained by using, hypo-
dermically, injections of physpstigmin salicylate, pilocarpin hydro-
chlorid, and strychnin sulphate, followed by hypodermic injections
of whisky when needed.
11. Poisoning upon the range may be prevented in some cases by
digging up the tall larkspur when the greater number of plants is
confined to comparatively limited areas. In other cases the handling
of the cattle in such a way that they will not have an opportunity to
feed upon the larkspur may prevent losses. In the case of Del-
pldniwm rnemieaii it is desirable that the cattle should be kept away
from the ranges where this plant grows in abundance until about the
1st of July, when the plant dies. D. harheyi loses its toxicity after
blossoming, so that a range with this plant is safe for cattle in the
late summer and fall. It should be remembered, however, that local
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
V^ 86 BXTLLETIN 365. U. S. DEPAETMENT OF AGEIOULTUBB.
^>^. and climatic conditions may delay the time of blossoming, so that
■ '*5>7 no arbitrary date can be given when a' range is safe. Z>. hicolor
\^^\ probably never grows in sufficient quantities to be dangerous as a
poisonous plant. Inasmuch as the experimental work seems to show
quite conclusively that sheep may feed upon larkspurs with entire
impunity it is desirable in some cases, where there is an especial
abundance of larkspur, to use the ranges for sheep rather than for
cattle or to combine sheep grazing and cattle grazing in such a man-
ner as to keep the areas of low larkspur eaten down by the sheep.
■.n'-iJ
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LITERATURE CITED IN TfflS PAPER,
BsssET, G. E.
19Q2. A preliminary account of the plants of Nebraska wliich are reputed
to be poisonous, or are suspected of being so. Nebraska State
Board of Agriculture, 16th Annual Report, 1901, pp. 95-129.
BsncB.
1845. No title. Landwirtschaftliche Zeitung. Cited in Dammann. 1886,
p. 841.
BlANKINSHIP, J. W.
1908. The loco and some other poisonous plants in Montana. Montana
Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 45, pp. 98-95, 100. 101,
fig. 6.
BoKHK, R., and Sebck, Julius.
1876. Beitrftge zur Kenntniss der Alkaloide der Stephanskorner (Del-
phinium staphysagria). Archlv fUr experimentelle Pathologie und,
Pharmakologle, Bd. 5, pp. 311-328.
Caybade, P.
1860. Sur Taction physiologique de la delphine. Journal de TAnatomie et
de la Physiologie, ann. 6, pp. 317-32a
Chesnut, V. K.
1898. Principal poisonous plants of the United States. U. S. Department
of Agriculture, Division of Botany, Bulletin 20, pp. 23-26, fig. 9.
1898a. Thirty poisonous plants of the United States. U. S. Department
of Agriculture, Farmers* Bulletin 86, pp. 11-13," fig. 6,
1899. Preliminary catalogue of plants poisonous to stock. U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, 15th Annual
Report, 1898, pp. 400-401.
Chesnut, V. K., and Wilcox, E. V.
1901. The stock-poisoning plants of Montana ; a preliminary report. U. S.
Department of Agriculture, Division of Botany, Bulletin 26, pp.
65-80. pis. 2-5.
C&AWFOBD, A. C.
1907. The larkspurs as poisonous plants. U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 111, pp. 5-12, pi. 1.
Daicmann, Cabl.
1886. Die Gesundheitspflege der landwirtschaftlichen Haussttugethiere.
Berlin, pp. 840-841, 1072.
Delafond, 0.
1843. Trait§ sur la maladie de sang des bStes ft laine, Paris, pp. 172-174,
191, 194, 199.
DiOSCOSIDES.
De materia medica. Lib. 4, cap. 166.
Fafxjk, p. C, and ROrio, C.
1852. Das Delphinin und das Pflanzengenus Delphinium. Archlv ffir
physiologische Heilkunde, Jahrg. 11, pp. 528-546.
87
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
88 BULLETIN 366, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE.
Fboggatt, W. W.
1900. Plague locusts. Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales, v. 11,
p. 181.
Gerlach, a.
1845. Die Blutseuche der Schafe in Rttckslcht der Ursachen, der An-
steckungsftthigkeit und der Vorbauung. Magazin ftir die ge-
sammte Thierhellkunde, Jahrg. 11, p. 125.
Glover, G. H.
1906. Larkspur and other poisonous plants. CJolorado Agricultural Ex-
periment Station, Bulletin 113, pp. 10-19, pi. 1-3.
Hahn, L.
[1882.] Dlctionnalre encyclopMique des sciences mMicales,vt. 26, pp. 523-543.
Hall, H. M., and Yates, H. S.
1915. Stock-poisoning plants of California. California Agricultural Ex-
periment Station, Bulletin 249.
llEYL, Geobge.
1903. Ueber Feinde der Haustiere in der Pflanzenwelt und ein glftiges
Prinzip einiger Delphiniumarten (Delphocurarin). Sdddeutscher
Apotheker Zeltung. Band 43, Nos. 28, 29, 30.
HUTH, B.
1895. Monographie der Gattung Delphinium. Botanische Jahrbtlcher
[Engler's], Bd. 20, pp. 322-499, pi. e-8.
Ibish, p. H.
1889. Plants poisonous to stock. Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station,
Bulletin 3, pp. 2&-26.
Jelliffe, S. B.
1899. Plant histology. Rusby, H. H., and JellifPe, S. B. Morphology and
histology of plants. New York. pt. 2, p. 339.
Knowi£s, M. B.
1897. Larkspur poisoning of sheep and cattle. First Annual Report of the
Board of Sheep Commissioners of Montana, pp. 27-28.
Knowles, M. E., and Starz, E.
[1897.] Larkspur poisoning of cattle and sheep. Montana State Veteri-
narian's Office, Circular 1.
Lenfant, C.
1897. Contribution k I'anatomie des renonculac^s : le genre delphinium.
Archives de rinstltut Botanique de TUniversit^ de Ll^ge, v. 1,
70 p.. 11 pi.
Lot, S. K., Heyl, F. W., and Hepner, F. E.
1913. Analysis of some Wyoming larkspurs, I. Twenty-third Annual Re-
port, University of Wyoming Agricultural EJxperlment Station,
pp. 73-79.
Macgbeoor, a.
1908. Delphinium poisoning in a cart mare. Veterinary Journal, London,
V. 64 (n. s. V. 15), p. 502.
Macoun, John.
1898. Report on the "poison-weed" of the Rocky Mountain foothills.
Northwest Territories, Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 1, pp.
17-18.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LAKKSPTTR POISONING OP LIVE STOCK. 89
MABiti, Paul.
1885. Recherches sur la structure des renonculac^es. Annales des Sciences
^Natorelles. Botanique, s. 6, t. 20, i^. 5-180, 8 pi.
MABQms.
1877. Ueber die Alkaloide des Delphinium staphisagria. Mitgetheilt von
Dragendorff. Archiv ftir experimentelle Pathologle und Pharma-
kologie, Bd. 7, pp. 55-80.
Metes, Albert.
1885. Ranunculaceen. Wlgand, Albert. Botanlsche Hef te. Marburg. Hefte
1, pp. 3-50, pL 1.
MnxEB, Philip.
1760. Figures of the most beautiful, useful, and uncommon plants de-
• scribed in The Gardeners Dictionary. London, v. 2, p. 167, pi.
ecu.
Nelson, Aven.
1896. First report on the flora of Wyoming. Wyoming Agricultural Bx-
periment Station, Bulletin 28, p. 79.
Nelson, S. B.
1906. Feeding wild plants to sheep. Washington Agricultural Eiperi-
ment Station, Bulletin 73, pp. 4-5, 46-51, 2 fig.
NiCANDER.
Theriaca. Line 943.
Obfila, M. J. B.
1817. General system of toxicology. Abridged and partly translated from
the French by Joseph J. Nancrede. Philadelphia, pp. 222-223.
1843. Traits de toxicologie. Paris, ed. 4, t. 2, pp. 120-122.
Pakicel, L. H.
1910. Manual of poisonous plants. Cedar Rapids, Iowa. [pt. 1], pp. 44,
45. 108, 109.
PuNius Sectjndus, C.
Historia naturalis. Lib. 23, cap. 13. (Bibliotheca Classica Latina, v. 7,
1830.)
Van Pbaao, J. L.
1854. Delphinin. Toxikologisch-pharmakodynamische Studien. Archiv
ftir pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie [Virchow], Bd. 6,
pp. 385-408. 435-457.
Rabitteau, a.
1874. Contribution a Tfitud^ des effets de la delphine. Comptes Rendus
des Stances et M6molres de la Soci^t6 de Biologie [Paris], t 26
(s. 6, t 1), pp. 286-291.
SCBIBONIUS LaBQUS.
De compositionibus medicamentonim. Gap. 166.
Slade, H. B.
1903. Some conditions of stock poisoning in Idaho. Idaho Agricultural
Experiment Station, Bulletin 37, pp. 159-190, 2 pi., 3 fig.
Solebedeb, Hans.
1908. Systematic anatomy of the dicotyledons. Translated by L. A.
Boodle and F. E. Fritsch. Revised by D. H. Scott 2 v., Oxford.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
90 BULLBlUfr 365, U. 8, DEPARTMENT OP AGBICTTLTITRE.
Stbasbubcoeb, Bduabd; Noll, Fbitz; Schenok, Hkinbich; and Kabstcv,
Qbobgk.
1908. Text-book of botany. 8d finglish edition revised with 8th German
edition by W. H. Lang. London.
TuBNBULL, Alexander.
1838. On the medical properties of the natural order Rannnculaces.
Philadelpliia. pp. 48-58, 72
Vesqtte, Julien.
1881. De Vanatomie des tissues appliqn^e a la classification des plantes.
Nouvelles Archives du Museum d'Histoire naturelle, s. 2, t 4,
p. 28.
Watt, Gbobgs.
1890. Dictionary of the economic prodncts of India. London and Gal-
cutta. F. 3, pp. 64-71.
Wilcox, E. V.
1897. Larkspur poisoning of sheep. Montana Agricultural Experiment
Station, Bulletin 15, pp. 37-«l, 3 pi.
1899. Cattle ppisoning by the tall larkspur. Montana Agricultural Ex-
periment Station, Bulletin 22, pp. 45-47.
WnxiNQ, T. N.
1900. Northwest Territories, Department of Agriculture, Annual Rq;>ort,
1899, p. 40.
1900. Noxious weeds and how to destroy them. Northwest. Territories,
Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 2, p. 27.
Digiti
zed by Google
INDEX TO SPECIES OP PLANTS-
Fag6.
Aoonitum bakeri Greene (Plate
VI, fig. 8; text fig. 5) 19,24
AstaphU agria 1
ConaoUda regalU 1
DelpMnium ajaois Ij. {Fl&teWI,
fig. 2; text fig. 4) 11,17,18,20,24
DdphirUum andenofUi Qray 8,
18.20,58.60,74,84
DelpMnium barbeyi Huth (Plate
I ; Plate IV, fig. 1 ; text fig. 1). e.
14, 15, 17, 18, 19. 20, 21, 28.
29-42, 44, 49. 52^56. 59, 68,
65, 67-71, 74-76, 78-80, 84, 85
DelpMnium bicolor Nutt 8,
4. 14. 16, 18, 20, 29, 59, 60, 63, 72, 85, 86
DelpMnium hlochmam/MB Greene. 18, 20
DelpMnium brunonianum RoyL. 2
DeljpMnium calif onUcum T. & G. 8,
18,20
DelpMnium oardinale Hook
• ( Plate V, fig. 1 ) 18, 20, 22
DelpMnium caroUnianum Walt- 8,
18,20
Delphinium coMoUda L 2,
8,17,18,20,24
DapMnium cuouttatum A. Nels.
(Plate II, fig. 1) 8.
14,15,18,20,29.51,63,72
DelpMnium decorum F. & M 18. 20
DelpMnium depauperatum'SutU 18,20
Delp?vinium elongatum Rydb 6,8
DelpMnium ewaltatum Alton 3,8
DelpMnium geranUfoUum Rydb. 18. 20
Delphinium geyeri Greene
(Plate V, fig. 2; text fig. 3).. 3.
4, 6, 8, 11, 18, 20, 22. 77
Page. ,
Delphinium glaucum Wats 4, 8, 11
18,20j76,77
Delphinium hesperium Gray 8
Delphinium macrophyllum
Wooton 8
Delphinium memieHi ' D. O.
(Plate II, fig. 2; Plate III;
Plate IV, fig. 2; text fig. 2) — 8,4.6,
14, 16, 18, 19. 20. 22. 28, 29, 42-50.
56-58, 59. 63.69,74-76,80,84,85
Delphinium muUiflorum Rydb.. 8
Delphinium nelsonii Greene 5. 6,
8, 11, 14
Delphinium nudicaule T. & G_ 18. 20
Delphinium ocddentale Wats. 8, 18, 20
DelpMnium penardii Huth 8
Delphinium recurvatum Greene
(Plate VI, fig. 1) 4, 8, 18, 20, 22
Delphinium robustum Rydb 8. 14.
15,18,20,50,63,71,84
Delphinium, Mpellonis CMl 18,20
Delphinium acaposum Greene. 8, 18, 20
Delphinium acopulorum Gray.. 4,8t
14,18,20
Delphinium Hmpleof Doug.. 6, 8, 18. 20
DelpMnium staphisagria L 1, 2. 8
Delphinium treleasei Bush 8
Delphinium tricome Michx. 4. 8. 18. 20
Delphinium troUiifolium Gray.. 4. 8.
•18.20
Delphinium variegatum Gray 18,20
Delphinium variegatum apUmla-
tum Greene 18.20
Delphinium virescens Nutt 8. 18, 20
Delphinium vestitum 2
Herba pedicularia 1
8taphis agria 1
INDEX TO EXPERIMENTAL FEEDING OF ANIMALS.
Page.
Oattle {Delphinium barbeyi—
Plates VIII-XIII) 29-42,
44 64. 67—71 78—79
Cattle (D. ououUatum)^^ 51-52! 64. 72
CatUe (D. menaiesH) 42-43,
45-50, 64. 69, 74
Cattle (D. robuMtum) 50-51,64
Page.
Horses (D. barbeyi — ^P late
XIV) 52-55
Sheep (D. andersonH) 58-59,74
Sheep (D. barbeyi) 55-56
Sheep (D. bicolor) 59
Sheep (D. menziesO—FlSite XV) 56-^
91
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBUCi.nON MAT BE PBOCUEEO FBOM
THJE SUPESINTENDENT OF DOCUlfSNTS
. aOVKRNlCXNT pruvtino omcE
WASHINOTON, D. C.
AT
25 CENTS PER COPY
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
rt A t^/ ^ G> ^
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 366
CMtribotiMi frwn the Ofllce of BAarketo and Rani Orfu-
Isatkm. CHABLES J. BBAND, CUcT.
Washiiigtoii, D. C
PROFESSIONAL PAPER
April 24, 1916.
MANUFACTURING TESTS OP COTTON FUMIGATED
WITH HYDROCYANIC- ACID GAS.
By WnxiAH S. Dean, A%%i%tant in Cotton Testing,
CONTENTS.
Introdoction
Stock of cotton
Methods of comparison .
Waste percoitages
Moistare tests ,
Spinning qualities
Tensile strength
Single thread test
Chemical laboratory tests. .
Bleaching of raw cotton ,.\^....
Description of further test
Test for i»re8enoe of hydrocyanic add .
Bleaching of yams.
8
9
9
10
Dyeing of yams 10
Direct dyes j- 11
Basic dyes 11
Mercerising of yams 11
Conclusion 12
INTRODUCtlON.
The spinning tests herein described were suggested by a joint com-
mittee of cotton manufacturers and officials of the Federal Horticul-
tural Board, who met and discussed plans of preventing the intro-
duction into the United States of the pink boll worm^ with the im-
portations of foreign-grown cotton. As hydrocyanic-acid gas had
been found by that Board to be a practicable and successful fumi-
gating agent ^ in the destruction of these pests, even though the larvae
were In the center of a compressed bale of cotton, it was decided that
manufacturing tests should be made to determine whether the fumi-
gation by this agent would cause any injury to the cotton fibers.
SPINNING TESTS.
The manufacturing tests were conducted by the United States
Department of Agriculture, under the direct supervisicm of the Office
of Markets and Rural Organization. Through the courtesy of the
president and manager the tests were made at the New Bedford
^ Banter, W. D., The Pink Boll Worm. Unnumbered publication. U. S. Department of
Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology, August, 1014.
* For a description of this method of fumigation see U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Federal Horticultural Board. Service and regulatory announcement No. 21, 1915.
NoTB.~Th]8 bulletin should be of Interest to manufacturers and dealers in foreign-grown cotton and
•otton yams, also hidirectly of interest to the domestic producers, mamifoctarers, and dealers in all staple
cottons.
269330— Bull. 366—16
Digiti
zed by Google
2 BULLETIN 366, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICXJLTU
Textile School, New Bedford, Mass., on two separate lot
a portion of each lot having been fumigated with hydn
gas under the supervision of the Federal Horticultural
each lot the fumigated cotton was compared with no
cotton of the same lot.
The principal points taken into consideration during t
tests to determine whether the fibers were injured by the
were (1) the percentage of waste, (2) the spinning qualii
tensile strength of the yarn. During the laboratory tests
ing points were considered: (4) The bleaching properl
the cotton and yam, (5) the dyeing properties of the
yarn, and (0) the mercerizing properties of the yarn.
In addition to the manufacturing tests, made by the
of Agriculture, a number of manufacturing firms that n
foreign-grown cotton conducted tests in order to ascerti
the fumigation of cotton with hydrocyanic-acid gas p]
mental to their product. These tests were conducted in
with officials of the Department of Agriculture.
Several manufacturing companies also sent yarns to
which were tested in the yarn testing laboratory of the
of Agriculture for tensile strength. Two of these firm
plete reports which included the comparative waste pei
fumigated and nonfumigated cotton ns found by them.
STOCK OF COTTON.
In the tests conducted by the Department of Agricult
lot consisted of two 50- pound samples, one taken from i
bale and one from a nonfumigated bale. Both bales we
laridis Egyptian cotton 1| inch in length of staple. Th
bale was fumigated with hydrocyanic-acid gas on at le
ferent occasions in a vacuum of 27 inches. The amoun
c^^anide emplo^^ed varied from 3 to 10 ounces per 10(
of chamber space with exposures ranging from thirt}' mi
hour. The volume of gas which penetrated this bale w
times as much as that ordinarily used in accordance wii
lations prescribed by the Federal Horticultural Board,
fumigated cotton referred to in this publication was
hydrocyanic-acid gas in the presence of a 20-inch vaci
ounces of sodium cyanide per 100 cubic feet of chambei
an exposure of one-half hour. The second lot consisted
samples from each of six bales of Sakellaridis Egyptia
1^ inches in length of staple.
Three of the bales were fumigated and three bales
fumigated. In the selection of the fumigated and nc
cotton a careful comparison Avas made of grade and sta
to secure equal values.
Digitized by
Googk
MANUFACTURING TESTS OF COTTON. 3
A few samples of fumigated and nonfumigated PeruTian and
Chinese cottons were secured from the mills and chemical laboratory
tests were made on these cottons m the department of chemistry and
dyeing of the New Bedford Textile School.
METHODS OF COMPARISON.
Each bale was given a mark so that it could not readily be identi-
fied while in the manufacturing processes as to whether it had been
fumigated. The fumigated and nonfumigated cottons of each lot
were opened and left standing overnight. They were run through
the machines under the same conditions of speeds and settings, and
where possible the fumigated and nonfumigated portions of each lot
were placed side by side on the same machine, advancing together
through the various processes of manufacture. Between each run the
machines were cleaned thoroughly. Total weights were taken before
and after the cotton was fed into the opener, finisher, cards, and
combers respectively. Kecords of humidity were taken hourly and
the humidifiers regulated accordingly, keeping the relative humidity
as nearly uniform as possible for the respective lots.
WASTE PERCENTibGES.
Table I gives the comparative waste percentages of the fumigated
and nonfumigated cotton.
Lots No. 1 and No. 2 represent respectively the l^-inch staple and
the l^-inch staple, fumigated and nonfumigated cotton given sepa-
rately, which were tested at the New Bedford Textile School, New
Bedford, Mass. Lots No. 3 and No. 4 represent a digest of the
reports received from the two manufacturing firms.
Table I. — M^asie percentages.
[Based on net weight of cotton fed Into each machine.]
Lot No. 1.
Lot No. 2.
Lot No. 3.
Lot No. 4.
Kind of waste.
Fumi-
gated.
Non-
fumi-
gated.
Fumi-
gated.
Non-
fumi-
gated.
Fumi-
gated.
Non-
fumi-
gated.
Fumi-
gated.
Non-
fumi-
gated.
Opmer:
0.67
1.06
0.25
1.50
0.46
.87
a33
A7
Motesandfly
L45
1.47
Total Tisible
1.73
2.53
1.75
1.75
L33 1-00
0.65
.83
.53
.55
L45
.05
1.47
Invisible
.28
.62
.03
Total visible and invisible..
4.26
3.60
1.62 1 L62
1.48
LOS
L60 1 L50
Ftalsher:
Visiblfr-
Dust room
.14
1.43
.14
.96
.09
no
Motesandfly
.74 .65
.47
.48
.
Total visible
1.57
1.14
LIO
.13
.83 .74
.18 .04
.78
1.15
.63
.61
.47
.03
.48
Invisible
.03
Total visible and invisible. .
1.43
1.23 1 1.01 1 .78
1.93
L24 1 .60
:51
1 Invisible gain, not loss, as a result of weather conditions.
Digiti
zed by Google
BULLETIN 366, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Tabu: I. — Wcwfe percentages — Ck)ntiDued.
Lot No. 1.
Lot No. 2.
Lot No. 3.
LotNa4.
Kind of waste.
Fumi-
gated.
Non-
fomi-
gated.
Fumi-
gated.
Non-
fuml-
gated.
Fumi*
gated.
Non-
fami-
gatod.
Fumi-
gated.
Neo-
fumi-
gated.
CBids:
VWble-
Flat stripping
3.26
.93
1.72
3.49
1.02
1.01
4.59
1.33
1.01
4.44
1.36
1.22
6.44
1.05
3,26
5.92
.90
2.25
3.67
.26
L85
&«1
Cylinder and doffer strippings
Motes and fly
.51
Total visible
5.91
1.09
6.52
2.03
6.93
.50
7.02
.27
10.75
.91
9.07
2.22
6.78
.09
7.97
Invisible
.19
Total visible and invisible . .
7.00
7.56
7.43
7.29
11.66
1L29
5w87
&16
Comber:
Visible
11.68
12.21
13.55
.31
13.62
19.48
L27
ia.88
.10
16.10
.15
15.2?
Invisible
1.61
Total visible and invisible
11.68
12.21
13.86
13.62
20.75
18.98
16.25
16u94
The figures given in Table I are based on the net weight of stock
fed into each machine. It will be observed that there is no de-
cided indication of the superiority of either the fumigated or non-
fumigated cotton. The percentages of waste fluctuate considerably,
without being consistently in favor of either the fumigated or the
nonfumigated stock. Similar differences would be expected to exist
in the comparisons of any two bales of cotton selected for equal
value.
Table II gives the total percentages of visible and invisible waste
discarded by the respective waste-cleaning machines. The percent-
ages here given are based on the net weight of cotton fed into "the
opener picker.
Table II. — Visible, invisible, and total waste percentages.
[Based on net weight of cotton fed into the opener picker.]
Lot No. 1
Lot No. 2.
Lot No. 3.
Lot No. 4.
Kind of waste.
Fumi-
gated.
Nan-
fumi-
gated.
Fumi-
gated.
N<H1-
fnmi-
gated.
Fumi-
gated.
Non-
fumi-
gated.
Fumi-
gated.
NOD-
fumi-
gated.
Total visible and invisible waste
pickers
5.62
6.61
10.25
4.60
7.20
10.76
2.61
7.23
12.50
2.30
7.12
12.32
3.39
11.28
10.62
2.31
11.03
16.46
2.00
5.75
14.97
2.00
Total visible and invisible waste
cards
8.00
Total visible and Invisible waste
combera
15.25
Grand total visible and invisi-
ble waste.
23.48
22.65
22.34
21.83
25.29
29.80
22.72
25. 2S
There is no evidence of injury to the cotton indicated by the re-
sults of the visible and invisible percentages of waste discarded. In
fact, Table II shows that in every case, except lot No. 3, the grand
total waste discarded from the fumigated cotton was less than that
discarded from the nonfumigated cotton. Should the results have
been the reverse — that is, in favor of the nonfumigated cotton to the
, Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MANUFACTURING TESTS OK COTTON. 5
same extent — the effects of the fumigation might have been seriously
que^oned. However, since the two tests at the textile school do not
disclose any material difference between these lots it is assumed that
the differences shown by the mill tests are the result of technicalities.
MOISTURE TESTS.
The results of these tests were substantiated by moisture tests
of the fumigated and nonfumigated cotton at the textile 8cho(^,
shown in Table III. The results of these tests indicate that the
fumigation had no appreciable effect on the absorptive properties
of the cotton.
Table III. — Percentages of moisture in the cotton while in the manufacturing
processes.
Lot No. 2.
Differ-
ODoe.
Prooess.
Fumi-
gated.
Nonfu-
migated.
Fed into opener
8.10
8.00
6.55
7.08
7.76
7.66
7.60
7.13
+0.84
FinlMh^ \pq>
+0.48
Card sliver.'.
-1.06
Comber sliver
^.06
SPINNING QUALITIES.
The numbers of yam made at the textile school to ascertain the
spinning qualities were 40's and 50's from the l^-inch cotton and
lO's, 20's, 80's, 40's, 50's, 60's, 80's, and lOO's from the IJ-inch cot-
ton. Qose observations were made by the men who actually were
running the machines and also by those supervising the work and
no difference was observed in the general spinning qualities.
TENSILE STRENGTH.
In order to ascertain the tensile strength comparisons of the dif-
ferent lots of fumigated and nonfumigated cotton, a number of bob-
bins of the different numbers of yam were sent from the textile
school and the mills to the laboratory of the Office of Markets and
Rural Organization of the Department of Agriculture for test
purposes.
These tests were made by reeling off, in skeins of 120 yards each,
the same numbers of yam made from the different lots. The skeins
were placed on racks* in order to keep them separate and to avoid
tangling, after which they were removed one at a time in rotation
and broken with a power yam-tester, the downward stroke of the
traverser moving at the rate of approximately 12 inches per minute.
Hourly humidity records were taken arid the humidifier was regu-
^ Method originated by Dr. N. A. Cobb, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of
Agriculture.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BULLETIN 366, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
lated accordingly in order to maintain as nearly as possible a cc»-
stant relative humidity of 65 per cent.
Table IV gives the results of the tensile-strength tests.
Lots Nos. 1 and 2, respectively, represent the two lots of IJ-ineh
and l^-inch Egyptian cotton manufactured at the textile school,
while Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 represent five lots of cotton, each manu-
factured by a different representative manufacturing company. The
small variations in the various numbers of yam were standardized
for comparison. The differences in tensile strength, in some in-
stances, were in. favor of the fumigated and, in some instances, in
favor of the nonfumigated cotton.
Table IV. — Tensile strength comparUons.
(Made in Yam Testing Laboratory of the United States Department of Agriculture.)
Number
yam.
of
Lot No. L Lot No. 2. Lot No. 3. Lot No. 4. Lot No. 5. Lot No. 6. Lot No. 7.
Breaking
strength m
poimds per
skein of 120
yards.
Brealdng
strength m
pounds per
skein of 120
yards.
Breaking
strength fii
pounds per
skein of 120
yards.
Breaking
strength m
pounds per
skein of 120
yards.
Bi
[tr<
poun(
ehi
yards.
strength
pounds per
skein of 120
irealdnff
>engthm
pounds per
skein of 120
yards.
breaking
-eogthin
skein ofS
yards.
1
15's.
20'8.
22's.
40's.
50's.
55^8.
76'8.
8D's.
t4's.
302.11
39.08
27.28
37.56
27.35
26.45
28.05
303.0
102.30
106.45
10&481QZ.7i
115.38 115l a
27.51
*a32
28.20
'7."66
24.88
20.05
Table V. — Tensile strength comparisons.
[Made by two representative cotton mills.]
Number of yarn.
Lot No. 3— Break-
ing strength in
pounds per skein
of 120 yards.
Lot No. 4— Brew-
ing strength in
pounds per skein
of 120 yards.
Fumi-
gated.
Nonfu-
migated.
Fumi-
gated.
Noofo-
mlgated.
27's
114.8
112.8
67's
30.25
aail
1
It will be observed that in lot No. 3 the fumigated cotton produced
the stronger yarn ; in lot No. 4 the reverse was true.
SINGLE-THREAD TEST.
In addition to the tests shown in Table IV several tests were made
with a single-thread testing machine.^ The results of these tests ar«
* These strength tests were made by William Smith, professor in charKe of the cnrdln;
and spinning depnrtment of the New B^'dford Textile School, New Bedford,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MANUFACTURING TESTS OF COTTON. 7
shown in Table A'l. The results of the single-thread tests are re-
corded in ounces, while the tensile strength in pounds per skein of
the yaxn taken from the same bobbins from which the single-thread
tests were made is also given. In all cases where the skein tests are
given in connection with ^e single-thread tests, the yai'n was taken
from the same bobbins.
Table VI. — Single-thread test,
[Made at the New Bedford Textile School.]
Number
of yarn.
Lot No. 1.
Lot No. 2.
Fumi-
gated.
Non-
fumi-
gated.
Fumi-
gated.
Non-
fumi-
gated.
Omiioes i)w single thread . .
Poiindsper skein 60 yards.
Ounoes per sinEle thread. .
Pounds per skein 60 yards
Ounces per single thread . .
Pounds per skem 60 yards
40»s
40's
JO'S
80's
60's2-ply.
60's2-ply.
6.48
49.3
5.53
46.9
14.80
66.25
16.58
58.20
15.10
56.50
16.41
60.50
The single-thread tests, judged from the comparative uniformity
of breaks, did not disclose any superiority, either in the yams made
from the fumigated or from the nonfumigated cotton.
Two of the mills reported their findings as to the tensile strength
of the cotton yarns they manufactured. These results are shown in
Table V, under lots No. 3 and No. 4.
CHEMICAL LABORATORY TESTS.
Investigations also were made in the laboratory of the New Bed-
ford Textile School ^ to ascertain whether cotton treated with hydro-
cyanic-acid ^s lost any of its bleaching, dyeing, or mercerizing
value. The following numerical designations represent the cottcm
and cotton yarns used in these laboratory tests:
KIND OF COTTON.
Sample No. 1. l^-lnch Sakellaridls Egyptian — fumigated.
la. li-lDch Sakellaridls Egyptian — nonfumigated.
2. 1^-lnch Sakellaridls Egyptian— fumigated.
2a. 11-inch Sakellaridls Egyptian — nonfumigated.
8. Peruvian cotton, from center of bale — fumigated.
9. Peruvian cotton, from outside of bale — fumigated.
10. Peruvian cotton, from center of bale — nonfumigated.
11. Peruvian cotton, from outside of bale — nonfumigated.
12. Peruvian cotton, from center of bale — fumigated.
13. Peruvian cotton, from outside of bale — fumigated.
14. Peruvian cotton, from center of bale — nonfumigated.
15. Peruvian cotton, from outside of bale — nonfumigated.
Samples 1 and la, respectively, represent the fumigated and non-
fumigated l^-inch Sakellaridls Egyptian cotton, the two bales from
* These tests were made by Everett Hinckley, professor In charge of the department of
chemistry and dyeing, New Bedford Textile School, New Bedford, Mass.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
8 BULLETIN
which these samples were taken being previously i-eferred to as lot
No. 1. In a like manner 2 and 2a represent the l^-inch fumigated
and nonfumigated cotton previously referred to as lot Na 2. Sam-
ples 8 to 15, inclusive, were selected from Peruvian cotton reorived
from a manufacturing company. The cotton in samples 1, 2, 8, 9,
12, and 13 was fumigated with hydrocyanic-acid gas.
BLEACmNG OF RAW COTTON.
Samples of Nos. 2 and 2a were bleached by treating as follows: *
Method a. Not scoured. Bleached with a solution obtained by the
electrolysis of salt containing 0.5 gram of chlorine per liter. In
future this solution will be designated as " electrolytic chlorine."
Method h. Scoured in a solution C(mtaining 1 gram of soda ash
in each 10 cc. then bleached as in a.
Method c. Treated with 2 per cent acetic acid and bleached as in a.
Finally all the samples were blued with 0.001 per cent of blue-
violet acid dye.
Methods (z, &, and c are the usual processes for obtaining white
cotton for spinning except that the usual quantity of bleaching agent
used was reduced in these tests in order to magnify any variati<Mi in
the results obtained. No differences in the results of any of the
methods on the two samples were apparent, which indicates fumi-
gating the cotton with hydrocyanic-acid gas had no appreciable effect
upon the bleaching qualities of the cotton used in any of the tests.
To test the effect of fumigation on the various bleaching agents
commonly used the following tests were carried out on samples No. 3,
2a, and 8 to 15, inclusive:
Method d. The cotton was boiled two hours in a 10 per cent sdiu-
tion of soda ash and bleached cold in ^ electrolytic chlcmne'' ccmtain-
ing 2 grams of chlorine per liter.
Method e. The cotton was treated as in c? except that ddoride of
lime solution containing 8 grams of chlorine per liter was used as the
bleaching ag^it
Method /. The cottcm was treated as in c? except that an alkidine
soluti(m of sodium peroxide equivalent to 15 grams of chlorine per
liter was used. After bleaching all of the samples were blued as in
methods a^ &, and c.
The concentrations of bleaching agent are similar to those used
in practice to obtain equal bleadiing value. Close examinations were
made of the samples by constructing a sample sheet with the differ-
ent samples placed thereon for comparison. This comparison gave
no indication that fumigation of cotton alters the bleaching value.
All of these tests were carried out on aU of the samples of cott(»i.
To confirm these results, five 1-pound samples of Nos. 2 and 2a
were treated by method d^ the following details being observed in
connection with the bleaching : After scouring, the cotton was rinsed
Digiti
zed by Google
MANUFACTURING TESTS OF COTTON. 9
30 minutes in cold water, squeezed, and treated 2.5 hours cold with
" electrolytic chlorine," 1.46 grams of chlorine per liter ; was rinsed
well, treated 30 minutes in a 5 per cent solution bisulphite of soda,
cold; was rinsed well, and blued with a soluticm ccMitaining three-
fourths of a gram vat blue in 10 liters of water.
Samples 10, 11, 14, and 15 were combined into one lot, samples
8 and 9 into a second lot, and samples 12 and 13 into a third lot, and
each lot was bleadied by the method outlined in the previous para-
graph for samples Nos. 2 and 2a.
By comparison of these samples it was evident that there was as
much difference in bleaching quality between the two bales of noa-
fomigated cotton as there was between the bales of fumigated and
ronfumigated cotton of the same quality.
DESCRIPTION or FURTHER TEST.
Samples of fumigated and nonfumigated Chinese cotton which
had been both bleached and blued by a representative cotton mill
were submitted for examination. As a result of the bluing process,
the sample of fumigated cotton was a more intense blue than the sam-
ple of nonfumigated cotton. * On receipt, tests were made on these
samples for iron to ascertain if there had been a formaticm of Prus-
sian blue, due to the presence of hydrocyanic acid in the fumigated
cotton, which would cause the intensifying of the color of the cottcm.
Negative results were obtained. The bluing matter was extracted
with water until the samples were practically the same color. These
water extracts were of different depths of blue. The deepest extract
was then diluted until both were of the same diade of blue. The
extracted cotton samples were treated again in their respective solu-
tions. The resultant samples were of the same color.
From the above results the conclusion was reached that the in-
creased depth of blue on the fumigated sample was because it had
been treated with a greater quantity of bluing and not because of the
presence of hydrocyanic acid or because of any chemical change in
the fiber such as the formation of hydrocellulose.
TEST FOR THE PRESENCE OF HTDROCTANIC ACm.
Small specimens from each of the following samples, 2, 2a, and
8 to 15 inclusive, were tested for the presence of hydrocyanic acid as
follows :
The sample was covered with a solution of 10 c. c. of distilled
water, 5 drops concentrated sulphuric acid, 5 c. c. 2/normal ferrous
sulphate and 6 c. c. normal sodium hydroxide heated nearly to a boil,
then 5 c. c 6/normal hydrochloric acid were added.
These tests gave no blue coloration which indicated the absence
of hydrocyanic acid in all of the samples at the time of treatment.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
10
BULLETIN 366, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
BLEACHING OF YARNS.
The material used in these bleaching tests consisted of yam made
from the following samples of cotton : 1 and la, 2 and 2a. Samples
1 and 2 had been fumigated, and samples la and 2a were n<Hifinni-
gated.
All four samples were treated as follows: Boiled for two hours in
10 per cent solution of soda ash at atmospheric pressure, rinsed imtil
free from alkali, then divided into two lots, each lot containing <me-
half of each of the above four samples. One lot was bleached by
method A, the other by method B, as follows:
Method A. Treated cold for two hours in a 2° twaddle soluticMi of
bleaching powder, containing 5.82 grams of chlorine per liter, rinsed
with cold water, soured with 2 per cent solution of acetic acid,
rinsed and antichlored in a 2 per cent solution of sodium bisulphite
30 minutes, then finally rinsed and blued in water containing 1 gram
of vat blue in each 13 J liters.
Method B. Treated as in method A, except that a solution of elec-
trolized salt containing 2.87 grams per liter of available chlorine
was used as the bleaching agent
The tensile strength and the number of the yam of all four samples
were taken before and after treatment'with bleach A and bleach B
with the results as shown in Table VII.
Table VII. — Tensile strength of yams before and after bleaching.
Grey.
Bleach A.
Bleach B.
Sample
No.
No. of
yam.
Skein
breakage,
60 yards.
Single-
thread
breakage.
No. of
yam.
Skein
60yaras!
Single-
thread
No. of
yam.
Skein
60yir£.'
Single-
ttaread
hreakage.
1
26.4
26.4
41.5
41.5
44.8
45.7
42.4
43.2
10.9
10.9
9.8
9.8
29.2
29.2
47.2
47.2
36.8
39.4
27.7
29.3
8.7
8.9
7.9
8.0
29.4
29.4
46.5
46.5
44.1
43.8
34.6
39.0
ia4
la
9:7
2
&9
2a
9.1
In this table the tensile strength ^ is given in pounds for the skein
breaks and in oimces for the single-thread breaks. The skeins were
taken from the same bobbins of which the single threads were tested.
From the comparisons of these figures it will be seen that the dif-
ferences in Strength between the fumigated and nonfumigated cotton
are so small that it would be unsafe to say that these yams contained
in them any substance such as acids that would reduce the tensile
strength of the yam by releasing the bleaching agent too rapidly.
DYEING OF TARNS.
Portions from all of the four samples of yams, namely, 1, la, 2,
and 2a, were bleached according to method A and method B, except
that they were not blued. Instead some of the portions were dyed
pink and some were dyed blue with both direct and basic dyes.
' See footnote, p. 6.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MANUFACTURING TESTS OF COTTON.
11
DIRFXT DYES.
Method of application. — Dyed in a bath containing 0.1 per cent
benzo rhoduline red B, 5 per cent of salt, 0.5 per cent soluble oil.
Volume of dye bath equals 25 times the weight of the goods. The
goods were entered into the dye bath cold and temperature raised to
a boil in 30 minutes, boiled 15 minutes, and allowed to cool in the
bath 15 minutes. To obtain the light blue the goods were dyed in
the same manner, except 0.1 per cent benzo fast blue BN was used
instead of the benzo rhoduline red B.
BASIC DYES.
Method of appUcation, — Mordanted in a solution containing 0.015
of a gram of tannic acid in each 100 cc. The goods were entered
into the dye bath cold and temperature raised to 190° in 45 minutes,
then allowed to cool overnight, rinsed and treated cold for 16 min-
utes in a bath containing 0.01 of a gram of tartar emetic.
The pinks were dyed in a bath containing 0.05 per cent of rhoduline
red B, 0.5 per cent of aqetic acid, cold 30 minutes, then raised to 140"^
during 30 minutes. The blues were dyed as the pinks, except that
0.05 per cent of methylene blue BB was used.
Xo practical difference was seen between the whites obtained on
samples 1 and la or on 2 and 2a., respectively, where the same bleach-
ing agent was used. Nor could it be seen that the fumigation had
made the cotton either more easy to dye or more diflScult to dye with
direct or basic dyes.
MERCERIZING OF YARNS.
Samples of yarn made of each of the above four cottons, namely,
1, la, 2, and 2a, were mercerized by commercial methods at one of
the mills in New Bedford, Mass., and these samples were subsequently
tested for their tensile strength and degree of mercerization. In
Table VlII the results of the average number of the yam and tensile
strengths,^ ascertained before and after mercerization, are shown.
Table VITI. — Tensile-strength tests of natural gray and mercerized yams.
Natural rray.
Mercerized.
Sample.
No. of
yarn.
Strength
in
pounds
per skein
of 60
yards.
Strength
in
ounces
sfogle
thread.
No. of
yam.
Strength
in
pounds
per skein
of 60
yards.
Strength
in
ounces
sfiSo
thread.
1
20.84
20.84
30.5
30.5
58.6
59.9
56.0
56.5
13.8
13.9
15.0
15.3
22.0
22.0
30.7
30.7
70.0
71.2
66.0
68.1
20.2
U.
21.0
2
19.9
a*..
20.2
* Soe footnote, p. 0.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
12
BULLETIN 366, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
From Table VIII it will be seen that the gain in tensile strength
due to mereerization is a trifle greater for the nonfumigated than for
the fumigated cotton.
The tests for the degree of mereerization were made by dy^ng
samples of the fumigated and nonfumigated mercerized yams in 1
per cent benzo purpurin 4 B, 10 per cent salt, 1 per cent soluble oil,
30 minutes at 160°, volume of bath equal to 100 times the weight of
goods treated. The same weight samples of mercerized Egyptian
yam were dyed in the same bath after dyeing the fumigated and
nonfumigated samples. These exhaust skeins f umi^ed a means of
measuring the degree of mercerizaticm, for the better mercerized
samples absorb more dyestuff and consequently leave less in the dye
bath. In order to ascertain more accurately the degree of mereeriza-
tion, a sheet of samples was prepared by dyeing mercerized Egyptian
cotton with the percentages of dyestuffs shown in Table IX. Salt
and soluble oil was used as in method given above, benzo purpurin
4 B being used as the dyestuff.
Table IX.— i4 set of color standards.
Standard No . .
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Dye, per cent
5
20
2
4.5
20
2
4
20
2
3.5
20
2
3
20
2
2.5
20
2
2
10
1
1.5
10
1
1 .
Salt, per cent
10
SoluMfi oil. Dar cent
1
Standard No
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Dva. Bw cent.
0.9
10
1
0.8
10
1
0.7
10
1
0.6
10
1
a5
10
1
a4
10
1
0.3
10
1
a2
10
1
ai
Salt, per cent
10
SoIuIHa oil. DOT cant
1
Standard No
19
20
21
22
23
34
25
26
27
Dye, per cent
0.09
10
1
0.08
10
1
0.07
10
1
0.08
10
1
ao5
10
1
0.04
10
1
0.03
10
1
aoa
10
1
(L9L
SaJt, per cent
10
Soluble oil, per cent
1
The samples of colored yams obtained by dyeing in the exhaust
bath were matched against the standards, and it was found that
cotton No. 2a (nonfumigated l^-inch Egyptian cotton) dyed a lighter
shade, indicating a greater degree of mereerization than cotton No. 2
(fumigated l^-inch Egyptian cotton) . But results from lots 1 and la
fumigated and nonfumigated, respectively, were practically identical.
CONCLUSION.
The results of these tests indicate that the fumigation of cotton
with hydrocyanic-acid gas does not affect, to any material extent,
the percentages of waste, spinning qualities, tensile strength, bleach-
^^Sy dyeing, or mercerizing properties of the cotton.
WASHINGTON : GOVEBNMBNT PRINTING OFnCB*. !«•
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBUCATION MAT BK PROCURED rROlI
THB SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTDf 0 OITXCE
WASHINOTON, D. C
AT
5 CENTS PER COPY
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
'/ A o <' ^? Q> y
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 367
Contrtbation from the Bureau of Plant Indostrf
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief
Washington, D. C.
PROFESSIONAL PAPER
June 23, 1916
CARRYING CAPACITY OF
GRAZING RANGES IN SOUTHERN
ARIZONA
By
E. O. WOOTON, Agriculturist, Office of Farm Management
CONTENTS
Introduetloa
Climatic CondiUons
Character and Distribution of Forage . .
Nature and Rate of the Recovery . . .
Carrying Ca{iacity
The Most Important Factor Governing
Possible Improvement of the Range
Page
1
6
9
16
18
22
Page
Hay-CattIng Operations 23
Grazing Experiments 28
Miscellaneous Notes 3S
Future InvcHtlgations 36
Summary and Concluslona 36
List of PublicaUons Relating to this Sub-
ject 40
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
isie
uigiTizea oy ''
ioogle
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 367
CoBtrlbatioii fk-om the Baraaa of Plant IndaMrj
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief
Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER June 23, 1916
CARRYING CAPACITY OF GRAZING RANGES IN
SOUTHERN ARIZONA.
By E. O. WooTON, Agriculturist, Office of Farm Management,
CONTENTS.
Introdiictioii 1
Climatic oonditions 6
Character and distribatlon of forage 9
Nature and rate of the recovery 16
Carrying capacity IS
The most important Ihctor governing possible
improvement of the range 22
Page. Page
Hay-cutting operations 23
Grazing experiments 28
Miscellaneous notes 33
Future investigations 36
Summary and conclusions 36
List of publications relating to this subject . . 40
INTRODUCTION.
This bulletin presents the results of several years' experimentation
and measurements leading to the determination of the carrying
capacity of certain kinds of stock ranges in southern Arizona. The
climatic and soil conditions under which the experiments have been
carried on are those of the lower foothills and the sloping belt of
grassland 8 or 10 miles wide which surround all the mountains of
that region. The altitudinal variations are between 2,800 and 5,500
feet. All the area studied has been under control and observation
for 11 years. Forty-nine sections which were badly run down by
overstocking at the beginning of the study have been under a condi-
tion of complete rest from stock. Approximately nine additional
sections (the most productive part of the area) have been grazed
according to the judgment of four men who are acquainted with the
region. Three of these men have been in the business of raising
cattle; the fourth has had a few head of horses and burros in his
pastures. The policy of each of the cattle raisers has been to stock
his area as heavily as it would bear, allowing a small margin for
slow improvement. The nicety of adjustment of the various factors
involved in such a plan has depended upon each man's judgment
of what was the best thing to do under all circumstances. By this
arrangement the pastured area inside the fence has been subjected
28465»— Bull. 367—16 1 ^ t
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
2 BULLETIN 367, U. S. DEPAKTMENT OP AGRICULTUBE.
to as nearly the same treatment as the adjacent unfenced range
received as was possible mider the circumstances. When these ex-
periments were begun in 1903 the problems which presented them-
selves for solution were as follows : *
(1) To demonstrate that under proper treatment run-down and overstocked
ranges will recover, a statement of fact that wcs very much doubted by stock-
men when the experiments were begun.
(2) To ascertain how long a time is necessary to get appreciable and com-
plete recovery, and what methods of management will produce such results.
(3) To carry on reseeding and introduction experiments in the hope of
increasing the total quantity of feed.
(4) To measure as accurately as possible the carrying capacity of a known
representative area.
Kesults have already been published * relating to the first three of
these questions. The present bulletin presents the data on carrying
capacity which have been obtained so far. The methods of making
collections originally established ' have been continued. Hay-cutting
operations have been carried on for five years, and records of the
number of "animal-days'" feed* used on measured areas of the
reserve have been obtained by recording the number of stock on
given areas for a period of seven years. From the hay-cutting rec-
ords and the estimates based upon the collections an estimate of the
carrying capacity is made, and this is compared with the actual
results obtained from the pasturing records. Some additional mis-
cellaneous observations relating to the project are included.
The generalizations presented here apply strictly to the area in-
dicated on the map. They could be applied without modification to
exactly similar localities and conditions. They doubtless present a
statement of conditions closely similar to those on many other parts
of the southwestern arid grazing land ; they will be usable with but
slight modification over most of southern Arizona, and to some ex-
tent in Xew Mexico and western Texas.
Three maps of the area studied are given for the better under-
standing of the region. One of these (fig. 1) presents the main re-
lief features of the reserve, being based upon the Patagonia quad-
rangle of the United States Geological Survey contour map of the
Santa Rita Mountain region. Another is an outline map (fig. 2)
that shows where collections of material were made. The small
letters (without accent) refer to the spring collections made in the
years 1903 to 1908, inclusive. The accented small letters refer to the
1 See Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 67, preface. ♦ •
« See Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletins 67, 117, and 177.
* See Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 67, p. 24 et seq.
* As u«ed in this bulletin, an " animal-day's " feed equals the teed necessary for one
mature animal, cow, steer, bull, horse, or burro, for one day. Calves or colts when Six,
months old are counted as mature animals, but are not counted at all before that time.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
GRAZING RANGES IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA. 3
fall collections of the same years. Figures without circles show the
location of spring collections and those in circles show the locations
at which fall collections were made during the years 1912 to 1914,
inclusive.
R£LiEF MAP
or
US.
RANGt RLSERVt
Fig. 1. — Belief map of the Santa Rita Range Reaervi*, Ariz.,
immediately surrounding It.
and some of the territory
The plant-distribution map (fig. 3) is designed to put on record
an approximation to the present distribution of the principal groups
or associations of forage plants upon the reserve. Its use will be
appreciated in the future study of the reserve if different ad just-
Digitized by
Google
4 BULLETIN 367, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ments of the plant associations take place as the result of any partic-
ular kind of treatment. It does not rest upon accurate surveys, but
is the best approximation which could be compiled by continued ob-
FiG. 2. — Outline map of the Santa Rita RanRo Reserve, Aria., showing where quadrat
collections have been made and where hay has been cut. The small letters refer to
collections made from lOOO to 190R, inclusive, the unaccented letters indicating spring
and the accented letters fall collections. Likewise, the small figures refer to col-
lections made from 1912 to 1014, inclusive, the figures without circles indicating collec-
tions made In the spring and figures In circles fall collections. The shaded areas show
where hay has been cut. The capital letters are introduced for convenience in reference.
servations and study made while riding over the reserve in all di-
rections twice a year for the past three years. It is not a strictly
ecological map, though some of its areas approximate the plant zones
of the region. There is no doubt that the natural distribution
Digiti
zed by Google
GRAZING RANGES IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA. 5
areas of certain species, and probably of the associations, had been
much displaced by the previous grazing conditions to which the
Fig. 3. — Map of the Santa Rita Ran^e Reserve, Ariz., showIn.i?thepresent distribution of the
principal forage-plant associations : No. 1, The six-weeks-grass association. No. 2. The
black-grama association. No. 3. The crowfoot-grama association. No. 4. The needle-
grass association. No. 5. The oak belt. No. 6. The forested area. Those parts of
the reserve upon which the mesquite (Prosopis velutina), the cat's-claw (Acacia grcgnii),
and other shrubs or low trees occur, more or loss abundantly, are Indicated by dots
(No. 7) on the map. In the same way, the crosses (No. 8) and the check marks
<No. 9) show where the tree cactus iOpuntia spinosior) and the cholla {Opuntia
fulgida) are important members of the plant associations (PI. I, fig. 2).
region had been subjected, and that under the protection of the fence
these plants have been and are still readjusting themselves to the
normal ecologic conditions. Maps of this kind made at various in-
uigiTizea oy v_iv^v^>^i\^
6
BULLETIN 367, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
tervals should show something of the changes taking place, and the
more accurately they can be drawn the more valuable will be the in-
formation obtainable from such a series.
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.
The importance of those factors known as climatic conditions do
not need to be argued, especially in relation to the arid grazing
lands, where the whole crop of forage is so patently dependent upon
them. The peculiarities of the seasons upon the Santa Rita Bange
Reserve have already been discussed by Dr. Griffiths,^ who calls par-
ticular attention to the two growing seasons and shows that they
depend upon the amount and distribution of rainfall.
,. '9?9 19.1.9 IfiU
j! 1 : J f 1 n 1 1 M M 5 n ? n s s s n 5 5 1 nr n 1 FF n
d .1
t
-^^ -+- n it
/n\ ^ M
t t - R\ /'l
i x -i^A itt^
. ^ 1^ % XX A, ill
^5 J ^v.fi'^'^ i t A ^^^ J. t-^ I
> ^-j ZN^ "^11^ J ^^ )>i Co^: 2
L2ii 1 1913 1914
A 1 L I
\ \ H»C CART ^~— £
v\ '^ r
' % it ~t\ ^ tji 1
! % XX •* E3 a i^i \>>^
,' J \ h » \^ A i} \ '^
. J L 1 i^^'-l\ 7 JjLL *. ^Z j?
.J ^J :m\-'^ ^-^^ .i±^^^^i.l ± .
Fig. 4. — Curves showing the variations In the total monthly precipitation at two stations
on the Santa Rita Range Reservie, Ariz., through a period of six years.
The spring growing season is dependent upon the rain of the
previous fall and winter, taken with what may fall in the spring
proper. In April and May, and in at least a part, if not all, of
June, there usually occurs a period of dry weather, during which
most growth ceases and the spring annuals dry up. July, August,
September, and sometimes part of October constitute the summer
growing season, since it is during this period that the greater part
of the rain falls and, the temperature being high, rapid growth
occurs.
Records of the rainfall by months at McCleary's house have been
kept since July 1, 1901. In June of 1909 a rain gauge was placed
at MacBeath's house and the records from both these stations are
given in Table I. A comparison of the two records by months is
shown in the diagram (fig. 4).
1 See Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 67, pp. 38-44.
uigiiizea oy 's^jOOQ IC
GRAZING RANGES IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA. 7
Table I. — Precipitation, in inches, at MacBeath^s place and at McCleary*s place,
Santa Rita Range Reserve, Ariz,, by months, 1909 to 19H, inclusive,^
hacbeath's place.
Month.
Jannaiy..
February.
Mftrch.
Ap
i&.:
June.
July
August
September..
October
November. .
December..
Total.
1909
0.85
6.45
4.90
2.17
0
1.03
1.36
1910
1.69
0
.13
0
0
.57
4.64
8.94
1.02
.26
1.43
.18
13.86
1911
1.40
2.03
.26
.18
.38
2.04
5.03
2.96
3.79
2.27
.04
1.83
1912
22.23
0
.70
5.18
.62
.24
.27
5.89
8.60
.70
.99
0
1.88
19.66
1913
1914
0.93
3.71
.60
.23
.40
.42
5.15
4.58
1.94
.58
8.33
.82
22.60
0.60
.75
1.29
0
.05
8.44
4.09
6.48
4.08
3.45
2.56
7.39
Average,
0.92
1.44
1.49
.20
.^1
1.27
5.21
4.48
2.28
1.29
1.90
2.16
84.18 I
22.80
mccleary's place.
Jamiary
Februaiy...
March......
April
}^7
June
July
August
September..
October
November. .
December..
Total.
0.28
1.71
1.15
0
a86
0.37
1.22
0
2.06
.58
2.98
.55
1.98
.81
.21
8.64
.62
1.00
0
0
.38
.65
.30
0
0
0
.16
.20
.60
.08
.30
.09
1.51
.56
.86
1.55
6.40
6.10
8.40
a63
8.64
5.03
7.03
4.41
1.17
8.49
8.51
3.74
8.21
.51
1.55
0
.67
1.21
0
.26
1.95
1.55
.02
3.11
1.12
1.55
.10
.10
8.11
8.40
1.40
.16
1.91
.48
.83
6.67
22.94
15.20
2a 56
19.88
18.00
26.80
0.73
1.23
1.39
.22
.17
.91
6.20
8.89
1.19
1.15
1.56
1.91
20.55
» The obeervations recorded in this table were not made by rej^Iar United States
Weather Bureau observers, though United States standard rain gauges were used. The
readlnirs were made with the standard measuring stick between 6 and 8 o'clock the morning
after the rainfall occurred.
A study of these data shows that the average annual rainfall at
MacBeath's (elevation about 5,000 feet) has been about 11 per cent
greater for 5^ years than at McCleary's (elevation about 4,000 feet),
although the two stations are only about 3 miles apart on a straight
line. They also show that the precipitation by months at McCleary's
has been greater than at MacBeath's 26 out of the 66 months of the
record.
For 1914 records were obtained at Mr. Robinson's camp (eleva-
tion about 4,500 feet) that are valuable for comparison with the
others. Records for the last four months of 1914 were also made at
Rosemont (elevation, 5,000 feet), 9 miles away as the crow flies, on
the other side of the mountain range. It is impossible to present
the daily records for these different stations in any sort of diagram
that could be printed here, but a study of the records by days brings
out one or two generalizations which are of some importance.
The first and most noticeable of these is the exceedingly restricted
areas over which the rain falls at any one time. It must be under-
stood that the most of the rain that falls in the region, particularly
that of the so-called rainy season of summer, comes as local showers
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
8 BULLETIN 367, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
covering small areas. This general truth may be recognized any
summer, since it is often possible to see several separate showers
falling at the same time in different directions from the observer.
Another fact brought out by a study of the records is that, while
the showers do not occur at the same time at the three stations, rain
at one station is usually preceded or followed by rain at the others.
In other words, while each shower is small in extent of area covered,
the single shower is only one of many occurring in a period of time
extending over several days, which ultimately fall on most of the
area. The daily differences disappear when the monthly and annual
totals are made up, and other facts appear when these are plotted
as curves. By this method the seasonal character of the distribution
for each station is shown, and the averages for a period of years
bring out the difference due to elevation.
One further consideration must be kept in mind. The stations at
which rainfall records have been obtained are all in the edge of the
mountains, at elevations of 4,000 to 5,000 feet. The records obtained
at MacBeath's are about typical for the upper edge of the pastured
areas; those from McCleary's for the lower edge, which is at the
same time the upper edge of the recovery pasture. The lowest part
of the recovery pasture is about 8 miles from the mountains, toward
the middle of a wide bolson, or basin, and 1,000 feet lower in alti-
tude. It therefore does not get the same amount of rainfall as that
received at McCleary's, the nearest station. The only other station
from which we have records bearing upon the problem is that of
Tucson, 30-odd miles to the north and 600 feet still lower down.
What may be called the normal annual precipitation at McCleary's
is about 17 or 18 inches. This amount falls upon about 16 sections
(28 per cent) of the reserve. About 10 sections (17 per cent) of the
reserve, most of which is pastured, gets about a 20-inch normal
rainfall. Assuming that it is fair to interpolate between the normals
for McCleary's and Tucson on the basis of altitude, we have 82 sec-
tions (55 per cent) of the reserve receiving a normal of something
like 12 to 14 inches. Besides these general differences in precipita-
tion, we have an increasing degree of annual fluctuation in amount
of precipitation ; a greater amount of evaporation, due to increased
temperature; poorer soil protection by vegetation; and longer peri-
ods of desiccation as we go from the mountains toward the middle
of the basin. All these factors are registered in the vegetation, both
in its character and its quantity, and the summation of these dif-
feiences affects most profoundly the carrying capacity of this region
for stock. . Snow in quantity, depending largely upon the elevation,
occurs at rather rare intervals in the winter, but lies on the ground for
only a short time. One of the heaviest snows for a numb^* of years is
shown in Plate I, figure 1.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 367, U. S. D«pt. of AgricuHur*.
Plate I.
Fia 1 .—View in the Oak Belt on the Santa Rita Range Reserve, Showing an
Occasional Winter Condition.
Such snows arc quile infrequeut and last but a few days at most.
FiQ. 2.— A Dense Stand of Chollas (Opuntia fulgida) in the Northeastern
Part of the Reserve
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 367, U. S. Dept. of Agricultur*.
Plate II.
FiQ. 1 .—A Very Dense Stand of the Six-Weeks Grasses on the Santa Rita
Range Reserve.
Fig. 2.— The General Appearance of the Best of the Black Grama Association
ON THE Reserve.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
GRAZING RANGES IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA. 9
CHARACTER AND DISTRIBUTION OF FORAGE.
Attention has already been directed to the variation in the average
annual precipitation that occurs on different parts of the Santa Rita
fiange Reserve and its relation to the forage crop produced.
Protection from stock has allowed the plants of the greater part of
the range to assume something like a normal adjustment among
themselves and to the climatic conditions, and this adjustment has re-
sulted in certain tolerably well-marked groupings of species of plants
that cover areas of considerable size. Such assemblages of species,
which have similar climatic and soil requirements and live together
in a given area, are here called plant associations, and five of the
principal associations are named. An attempt to map somewhat
roughly the area covered by each, in order that the relative impor-
tance and productivity of each may be readily grasped, is shown in
figure 3.
A more detailed description of these associations follows, in which
the writer has attempted to give some idea of the character of the
forage which they produce. Each association (except one) is desig-
nated by the name of its most important and most abundant grass.
This species is not always the most noticeable or largest plant of its
distribution area, but is the most important forage plant.
Plant associations selected upon this economic basis can hardly be
exj>ected to be the typical ecologic associations of the region, and a
map setting forth these ideas is not an ecological map in the generally
accepted sense. As a matter of fact, the major part of the attention
is directed to the subdivisions of the grass zone of the region, and the
areas represented are not of equal rank from an ecological standpoint.
However, the economic consideration is of first importance here, and
with these explanations the descriptions of what had better be called
associations of forage plants may be taken up.
THE SIX-WEEKS-GRASS ASSOCIATION.
The dominant species of the six-weeks-grass association (Xo. 1 in
fig. 3) are Aristida hramoides and Bauteloua ariatidoides^ short-
season annuals, as is indicated by the common name. (PI. II, fig. 1.)
A grass that is usually referred to under the first name, but may be
another specie, makes a growth during the late spring before the
early-summer dry spell, if there be sufficient spring rainfall, though
tliis growth is often quite scanty.^ During the summer-growing
I>eriod these grasses make surprisingly rapid growth and are very
numerous on most of the bare ground at nearly any level on the
reserve. They grow as thickly as they can stand, the stronger crowd-
ing out the weak, and all mature seed whether the season or the con-
ditions be such as will produce a growth of a foot or only a few
28465''--Bun. 367—16 2
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
10 BULLETIN 367, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTURE.
inches. The certainty of producing a crop of seeds and the ability
of these seeds to endure desiccation and to plant themselves are
factors which probably account for the distribution of these grasses.
They are easily crowded out by even the least aggressive of the
perennials, yet they occur as scattered individuals among nearly all
the other grasses almost any season, though tliis habit is not so well
shown by the Bouteloua as by the Aristida. Wherever, for any
reason, the perennial grasses are killed out these grasses occupy the
ground for the short summer growing season.
The six- weeks grasses now occupy at least six or seven sections of
the reserve as an almost pure stand, while they form a very imjxir-
tant part of the assemblage here referred to as the black-grama
association (No. 2 in fig. 3) and the crowfoot-grama association
(No. 3 in fig. 3), especially along the boundaries of these areas.
It is difficult to say definitely in many places just where the six-
weeks grasses cease to dominate the association, and there is cer-
tainly no such well-marked boundary line between this association
and those adjacent to it as is suggested by the more or less arbitrary
divisions made in this bulletin. When the range reserve was first
inclosed, this association was of greater extent than any other grass
association in the reserve. It has been replaced primarily by the
crowfoot-grama association from above, but the black-grama asso-
ciation has also crowded in from below, and the latter, while much
slower in its encroachments and much more easily checked by graz-
ing, may in the end dominate both the others if the area be protected
for a sufficient time, especially if fire be prevented.
Considered as a forage crop and from the standpoint of their eco-
nomic importance, the grasses of this association are not of great
value. They produce a light crop of forage; the crop lasts but a
short time and loses feeding value rapidly, being almost valueless
by the middle of the winter; and for some reason (probably because
the plants pull up easily and thus get dirt in the animals' mouths)
stock do not eat them while at their best, unless there is nothing else
to be had. However, the growth of spring annuals is usually heaviest
on this area, and they add considerable good feed to the total annual
crop.
THE BLACK-GRAMA ASSOCIATION.
Across the northwest confer of the reserve and extending along
much of the west side is an area in which the most conspicuous
grass is what is called "black grama " in this region (No. 2 in fig. 3).
The grass in question is not a member of the genus Bouteloua, which
contains what are usually called gramas, its scientific name being
MuhJenhergia porteH (PL II, fig. 2). Its importance in the early
days of the stock business in this region has been discussed by
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
GRAZING RANGES IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA. 11
Griffiths ^ and Thornber ^. Certain characteristics of this grass need
further emphasis, however, since by virtue of them it offers possi-
bilities not shown by many other grasses of the region. It endures
great extremes of temperature and dryness; it gi*ows upon some of
the poorest and driest of the gravelly mesa soils; it occurs at alti-
tudes ranging from about 2,000 to over 4,000 feet ; it is excellent feed ;
its stems are perennial and die back but a short way at the tip each
winter, thus furnishing feed at any time in the year. These are its
good points. It must be remembered that its growth is very slow,
dependent entirely upon the water supply of a very dry region;
that its seeding habits are poor, and that conditions for germination
are poor even when viable seeds are produced ; that it is easy to over-
estimate the carrying capacity of a previously unstocked range of this
kind of grass, because the growth present is that of several seasons.
These are the bad points. This grass usually occurs under the
bushes and may be found sparsely scattered over all the mesa country
in such protection. It certainly will not bear any degree of over-
stocking, but it is at least doubtful if students of grazing conditions
(the writer included) are warranted in treating this grass as not
worthy of much consideration, as has been very largely their habit
hitherto.
The way that this grass (probably the best feed of its distribution
area) has managed to persist in a region which has been thoroughly
denuded of everything in the way of stock feed isof itself noteworthy.
And observations in the reserve have demonstrated clearly that under
protection from animals it is capable of dominating areas where it
was thought to be almost a negligible factor. When the fence was
first built it was hard to find any large plants of this species,^ and
they were always under bushes. After 11 years of protection it is
fairly common all over the reserve below the 3,800-foot contour,
and, while the old plants are more apt to occur in the bushes, their
presence there is not universal nor due to the necessity of shade or
protection, but probably because such situations are more favorable
for the germination of the seeds. Within the past four years, since
seed plants have become tolerably numerous, the species has spread
quite rapidly in the northwestern quarter of the reserve and has put
a considerable crop of good feed on an area that previously pro-
duced a very small crop of poor feed. And there is little doubt that
under protection this plant will come to dominate much of the re-
serve, especially that part of it where the other perennial grasses
grow but poorly. The spread and development of this plant under
protection is strongly corroborative of the claims made for it by the
* See Barean of Plant Industry Bulletin 177, p. 17.
'See Arizona Experiment Station Bulletin 65. p. 279.
< See Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 177, PL IV, fig. 1.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
12 BULLETIN 367, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
older stockmen of the region, claims that have seemed to the writer
at times very hard to believe and very easy to discount at a high rate.
It is not intended to imply by what has been said that the black
grama is the dominant plant of the area here called by its ijame. The
area in question is largely covered by large shrubs, such as mesquite,
cat's-claw, palo verde, and cacti of various kinds. Besides these, there
are the spring and summer annuals occurring in greater or less pro-
fusion according to the season. The writer has not seen the abun-
dance of Atriplex elegans mentioned by Griffiths* in the region,
nor some of the other species referred to, but the amount of grass in
that region has increased considerably. Besides the annuals, crow-
foot grama has spread as far north as the north fence and is pushing
westward.
Along the west fence, on the broken, gravelly ridges, considerable
wire grama {Bouteloua eriopoda)^ some Dasychloa pulchella^ and
less six- weeks grass occur associated with the black grama. The wire
grama is very much like the black grama in its habits as a plant and
its value as forage, and the treatment which would suit the one would
satisfy the other. The two together, if given a chance, would doubt-
less put a crop of forage on much of southeastern Arizona that is
now quite barren, but a number of years of protection would be
necessary to produce this result. This grass association now fur-
nishes the most of the available forage over approximately seven
sections of the reserve, an area on which it was very unimportant 11
years ago.
THE CROWFOOT-GRAMA ASSOCIATION.
The crowfoot-grama association is the most important association
now occupying any part of the area studied, mainly because it occu-
pies more than half of it (No. 3 in fig. 3). It now covers about 31
of the 58 sections under fence and is still slowly extending its borders
west and north. It is also important as furnishing an amount of
forage that is about an average of the production of all the differwit
forage-producing belts or zones of the region. It thus becomes an
approximate measuring rod for the estimation of carrying capacity
for the region.
The association consists mainly of grasses, of which crowfoot
grama {Bouteloua rothrockH) is the most conspicuous and cei'tainly
the most abundant, though by no means the only one (PL III, fig. 1).
At all levels except the very lowest may be found more or less of
Bouteloua fliformis^ which is also an important component of the
needle-grass association; and three of the needle grasses {AriMida
divaricata, A. scahra^ and A. calif ornica) also occur in greater or
less abundance in this association. Along the upper side of the
1 See Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 67, p. 20, plats A and B ; p. 28, plats A% B',
and C.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
GRAZING RANGES IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA. 13
area and extending into the needle-grass area, Texas curly-mesquite
grass {UilaHa cenckroides) and Heteropogon contortua are com-
mon, forming almost pure stands of small extent (PL III, fig.
2). The wire grama {Boutelaua eriopoda) also contributes con-
siderable to the forage crop of this association, but has its own
distribution limits; it frequently covers areas of a few square yards
to the complete exclusion of everything else. Besides the grasses,
there are various other herbaceous annuals and perennials that ap-
pear either in the spring or summer and add to the total crop.
There is a scattering growth of shrubs like mesquite, cat's-claw, desert
willow, etc., over most of the crowfoot grama area, thickest along
the arroyos and toward the west and north, but usually not heavy
enough to in any way affect the growth of the grass. These add an
amount of feed of which we have no measurements, because they
were not obtainable with any degree of accuracy. Prickly pears
and chollas are quite abundant in pJaces, but a heavy crop of grass
tends to kill them out, probably because of occasional fires which
sweep the grassed area.
Earlier reports have shown the rate at which this association took
possession of the upper part of the reserve, and photographs show very
clearly how well the grass has grown. Pictures recently taken indi-
cate that the grass is even thicker and larger now, and observations
show very definitely that within five years the boundary of the
crowfoot-grama area has moved westward more than a mile at the
south end of the reserve, and about 2 miles to the northwest along
the Tucson road. In the north-central part of the reserve the char-
acteristic plants of this association are now more numerous than
those of the six-weeks-grass association clear to the north fence,
though much black grama, six-weeks grass, bushes, and cacti occur
here, and there is also considerable bare ground in the region. AVhat
will ultimately dominate does not yet appear, but the important
factor is the aggressiveness of both the black-grama and the crow-
foot-grama grasses. It has taken a long time for this improvement
and spread to show, because there were few seed plants to start
with, and germination conditions are so severe that only a few new
plants were established each year, or at even longer intervals.
THE NEEDLE-GBASS ASSOCIATION.
The needle-grass association is the assemblage of plants which
forms the grass belt along the foothills, covering approximately
nine sections of the area under fence (No. 4 in fig. 3). It is not
clearly mailed off from the crowfoot-grama association, there being
more or less overlapping both ways. The line on the map which
separates the ' two areas is as nearly where the crowfoot grama ceases to
be the most important grass and the needle grasses assume that ira-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
14 BULLETIN 367, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
portance as the writer was able to locate it. It may be undesirable
from some standpoints to try to separate these associations, but to
do so has seemed to give a little clearer conception of the condi-
tions existing on the reserve, even though the crowfoot grama will
go higher and the needle grasses do go considerably lower and not-
withstanding the fact that other grasses occur freely in both asso-
ciations and seem to link the two.
The needle-grass association consists of a number of important
perennial grasses, of which AHstida divaricaia and what is probably
A. scahra are the most abundant (PI. IV, fig. 1), hence the name
here suggested. The next most important grass is Bouteloua fll-
fomiis^ which frequently makes up from one-fourth to one-third
of the assemblage. Toward the upper limit of the belt this grass is
apt to be replaced by B, chondrosioides. Hairy grama {Bouteloua
hirsuta) also occurs on the rockier hills, and Texas curly mesquite
{Hilaria cenchroides) is not uncommon at the lower side of the
zone.
Wherever the needle-grass association is entirely killed out the
six-weeks grasses and annuals first take the ground, and then the
short-lived perennial gramas appear in abundance before the longer
lived perennial Aristidas become established. As the greater part
of this belt that is inclosed is grazed by cattle and horses, the various
conditions mentioned may be found at different places in the differ-
ent pastures. TVTierever the stock congregate most the six-weeks
grasses and annuals abound. Where this condition of local over-
grazing is relieved some step in the sequence of complete replace-
ment of the association occurs.
Additional perennial grasses in this association are Texan timothy
{Lycurus pfileoides)^ tall, or side-oats, grama (Bouteloua curtipen-
dida). Eragrostis lugens^ Elionurus harhiculmis^ and Trachypogon
monfufari^ while numerous spring and summer herbaceous annuals
and perennials add considerable to the forage crop. The lower
limit of these needle grasses is not the limit of the association, since
they are common in patches in the crowfoot-grama association and
follow down the dry watercourses, or arroyos, to the very lowest
parts of the inclosed area. In many places in the crowfoot-grama
association they may constitute as much as 25 per cent of the forage
present on the ground. Whether or not they will gradually crowd
downhill and finally replace the crowfoot-grama association remains
to be seen, but at present the writer believes they require a little
more water than the crowfoot grama and will hardly be able to en-
tirely replace that association as it now exists on the reserve, no
matter how long the area may be protected. No data are available
relative to the crop of spring feed upon this area, but it is doubtless
of no great importance except where overgrazing has occurred.
Digiti
zed by Google
GRAZING RANGES IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA. 16
THE OAK BELT.
About one section of the land in the MacBeath inclosure lies in
the zone of the oaks (No. 5 in fig. 3). The forage in this area is
composed mainly of the grasses of the needle-grass association (No.
4 in fig. 3), with a diminution of the amount of perennial species
of Aristida and an increase of Bcmteloua chondrosioides^ B. hirsuta^
Elionurus, Trachypogon, and others. The oak trees are distinctive
of the zone, and the young ones afford considerable feed as browse,
as do a number of the other shrubs and some perennial herbs (PI.
IV, fig. 2). The precipitation of this belt is greater than that of
any of the others, and there is no doubt that, including the browse
and spring growth, the area produces more feed than the lower
levels, though complete figures are not available to demonstrate how
much more. This fact must be kept in mind in the comparison of
the records of animal-days' feed produced on the MacBeath inclosure.
THE PLOWED AREAS.
In the summer of 1912 it was decided to plow areas of an acre
in extent in different parts of the reserve and determine as far as
possible the sequence and rate of the return of the plants after they
had been completely killed out. The effects of the change in the soil
conditions were also considered. Late in September, areas were se-
lected, measured, and plowed. One acre was chosen in the be§t o|
the crowfoot-gi-ama area near the south gate (at H, fig. 2),fa^n(J
another in the six- weeks grass area where rayless goldem^od {U<^
coma hartwegU) was very abundant, near tlie southwest comer. of
the reserve (at I, fig. 2). Collections as nearly representative as po^^
sible were made on these areas (Nos. 15 and 16, fig. 2) before the
plowing was done, and the hay on the acre (near H, fig. 2) was put
and weighed.^ The plowing on the area (near I, fig. 2) was.pQp;:ly
done, so that the plants of Isocoma were not all killed, and itjw^s
plowed again more thoroughly and deeper (about 4 inchj^) ittJ?^-
cember, 1913. At this later date another acre was plowed n^art the
gate (at H, fig. 2), the intention being to get a larger number of
collections for comparison. Collections have been made on each
of these plowed areas each year, and other collections have also
been made on the unplowed land beside the plowed area near the
gate. These collections (Nos. 16, 25, and 43, fig. 2) indicate the pro-
duction of forage on the unplowed land, the average total produc-
tion for the three years being approximately 1,018 pounds of herb-
age per acre, of which 601 pounds, or nearly 60 per cent, is grass.
Of this grass 570 pounds, or 56 per cent of the total herbage, is
perennial grass. Comparing these results with others derived from
» See record In Table IV, for 1912 : Felix, 1 acre— 750 pounda.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
16 BULLETIN 367, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
collections (Nos. 28 and 42, fig. 2) made on the area plowed in
1912 and those (Nos. 39 and 41, fig. 2) made on the area plowed in
1913 gives an average total production of 797 pounds per acre, of
which 389 pounds, or less than 50 per cent, is grass, and of this
grass 164 pounds, or slightly more than 25 per cent of the total
herbage, is perennial grass. A spring collection on this area (No.
33, fig. 2) made the second spring afiti piu\\uig biiuu.-, im it-ai
spring plants at all and no grass growing. The plants collected
were all small, green, and growing, or rather waiting for more water
to continue their growth. They were all species that belong to the
summer rather than the spring growth. On the unplowed ground
near by the small spring annuals, Plantago, Gilia, Caucalis. Filago,
etc., were very small and all dried up at this time and, except for a
few Gilia flocossa^ were none of them growing on the plowed land.
The difference was doubtless due to the condition of moisture of
the surface soil which existed at the tipie of germination, the amount
of available moisture in the soil, and the depth of planting required
by the different seeds. The grasses will almost certainly take pos-
session of these plowed areas in a shorter time than they would on
an overstocked range, since the plants all about the area will fur-
nish plenty of seeds, and the soil's ability to catch and hold water
has been increased considerably by the plowing. As the soil settles
and grows more compact the smaller spring annuals may be expected
to become abundant. The plowed area near the southwest corner
(at I, fig. 2) produced a much smaller amount of available feed which
was largely composed of annual grasses even before plowing. The
average amount of feed as shown by the collections made in 1913
and 1914 is of the same order of magnitude as that of the unplowed
ground', but has a smaller proportion of grass of any kind and
almost no perennial grass. The rate at which this area will be
invaded by the Isocoma will be of some importance. No seedlings
of this species were found on the plowed land in September, 1914,
though special search was made for them. Tiiere were numerous
seeding plants in the vicinity and a few of them on the plowed
area itself.
NATURE AND RATE OF THE RECOVERY.
A comparison of the condition of the fenced area as described by
Griffiths at the time of its inclosure in 1903 ^ with its condition in
1914, as given in this bulletin, brings out some interesting generaliza-
tions as to the nature and degree of recovery that may be expected
upon overstocked and eaten-down ranges in this region when
properly cared for. In 1903 the grasses were to be found in any-
thing like a thick stand only as far north and west as a line con-
1 See Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 67.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. i67, U. S. Dtpt. of Agrieultur*.
Plate Ml.
FiQ. 1 .—The Crowfoot Grama Association in a Typical Form on the Santa
Rita Range Reserve.
Fio. 2.— A Patch of Heteropoqon contortus on the Reserve, Showing the
Habit, Size, and Density of This Grass as It Grows in the Crowfoot Grama
Association.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 367. U. S. Dtpt. of Agrlcultura.
Plate IV.
.^-* \
^
^
--
E»r^-
5r^
h-.
^r^..^
itf^li^
^L
r
^--w
wm
"^.j^B
i
1
^^^B
f irr ..
^^
o.-..fl
FiQ. 1.— A Characteristic Display of the Needle Grass Association under
Complete Protection on the Santa Rita Range Reserve.
Fio. 2.— Grazing Conditions in the Oak Belt on the Reserve.
Digiti
zed by Google
Bui. 367, U. S. Dtpt. of Agrieultur*.
Plate V.
FiQ. 1 .—Conditions in the Southwest Corner of the Santa Rita Range
Reserve in 1903.
The layleis goldeniod is just beginning to occupy bore ground. (Compare with fig. 2. )
FiQ. 2.— Conditions in the Southwest Corner of the Reserve in 1913.
The groond is almost completely covered with vegetation. Note the large amount of grass
in the association; in 1914 a considerable part of the goldenrod was dead as the result of
crowding by the grass. (Compare with fig. 1. )
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 1(1, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Plate VI.
FiQ. 1— An Almost Pure Stand of Deer-Grass (Epicampes rigens) on the Sandy
Soil of One of the Larger Arroyos on the Santa Rita Range Reserve.
This Krass Is comimm in such situations.
Fig. 2.— An Arroyo Filled with Mesquite, Cat's-Claw, and Other Shrubs on
THE Reserve.
Digiti
zed by Google
GRAZING BANGES IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA. 17
necting C and I on the map (fig. 2). It was difficult to find any
black grama in the field.^ In 1914 the perennial grasses had pushed
northwestward along the Tucson road at least 1^ miles, if not 2
miles, farther than they extended about five years before, and were
established about 1 mile farther west along the south side of the
field. The crowfoot grama has reached the north fence, not as 9^
pure stand, but as the most important element of a well-developed
though not yet complete grass association. In this same area the
black grama is now abundant and spreading. Along the west fence
is an area where the black and wire gramas are becoming abundant
and important. In the southwest corner is an area of a section or
more where ray less goldenrod {Isocoma hartwegii) showed a scat-
tering growth in 1903.^ This same area is now thickly covered with
large mature 'plants of this species (PI. V, figs. 1 and 2), a large
number of which are dying, probably as the result of the encroach-
ment of the grasses which are gradually taking possession of the
area.' The rayless goldenrod is of no value as a forage plant and
it is customary to think and speak of it as a range weed and a
nuisance. But it certainly protects the soil from erosion, retards
run-off, and furnishes conditions favorable to the germination of
the grass seeds. The grasses will probably eventually crowd it out.
One of the most noticeable features of the grass-covered area of
the reserve is the prevalence of spots a few square y^irds in extent
covered by an almost pure stand of some long-lived perennial grass.
This habit is more or less characteristic of the black grama {Mufden-
hergia porteH)^ but especially true of the wire grama {Bouteloua
eriopoda)^ and of a coarse grass called Heteropogon contortus (PI.
Ill, fig. 2). The two first named are valuable forage plants; the last
is usually considered undesirable.
Measurements show what is very plain to simple observation, that
the Heteropogon puts a relatively large crop of feed on the ground.
But this feed is almost valueless while green because the animals do
not like it, and the grass is usually avoided in the hay cutting because
of the large, sharp seeds that hurt the mouths of the animals. In
1914 about 100 pounds of this grass was cut and cured just before it
commenced to seed. It made a very good quality of hay, which was
eaten by one of the work horses with relish and in preference to old
grama hay of the previous season. It would seem that this grass
may have a possibility as a hay crop, if cut at the proper time. It is
a long-lived, strong-rooted perennial that spreads by rootstocks and
grows about 2 feet high.
» See Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 177, PI. IV, fig. 1, photographed in November,
1902.
« See Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 177, PI. IV, fig. 2, photographed In June, 1903.
•Tire comparatire data here given are supported by the testimony of Mr. W. B.
McCleary, who has known this range for the past 15 years and who drove over a large
part of it with the writer In September, 1914, for the purpose of making comparlsona.
28465**— BuU. 367—16 3 ^ ,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
18 BULLETIir 367, U, S. DEPARTM:ENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Along the arroyos several grasses have taken possession, and the
crop of feed they put on the margins of these dry watercourses is
probably sufficient to render this broken land as productive of feed
as the smoother areas (PL VI, fig. 1). jH|
There is no doubt that the prediction made by Griffiths, that ffie*
mesquites and other shrubs would increase in size and number, is
slowly coming true within the protected area (PL VI, fig. 2, and PL
VIII, fig. 1). The only retardation they have received has been from
the occasional fires, some of which have been severe enough to com-
pletely kill plants 10 to 12 feet high, though usually only the smaller
bushes are killed back to the ground.
Along with the information relative to the general character of
the changes taking place on a protected area, some data have been
obtained as to the rate at which these changes take place.
The spring annuals and the six-weeks grasses occupy the bare land
at once wherever there is sufficient rainfall. The recovery of the
short-lived perennials was quite well advanced on this reserv^e after
about three years' complete protection, and the area covered by them
has certainly doubled in size in seven years' time. It has taken at
least seven or eight years to bring about a condition favorable for
the increase of the black grama, and this increase will doubtless con-
tinue for another 10 years before reaching its maximum. Yet much
of the land, where this j^lant normally grows, would doubtless pro-
duce a crop of this grass where practically no forage grows now if
it were given a period of complete rest for a few years and very
light stocking for a number of years more. On the areas that have
been carrying stock the recovery has been much less rapid, thou^
very noticeable improvement has occurred.
CARRYING CAPACITY.
The method of making quadrat measurements, established by
Griffiths,^ has been continued by the writer since he has been con-
nected with the work. The detailed reports of these records for the
years 1U0:3 to 1008 and 1U12 to 1914, inclusive, are on file in the
Office of Farm Management.
There is good reason to think that the areas now occupied by the
crowfoot-grama and needle-grass associations, at least in that part
of the reserve where these associations meet, has about reached its
normal productivity under complete protection. Some further re-
i:)lacement and substitution of species may take place, but no marked
change in the total productivity is to be looked for. As nearly as
thr -"'tp'- * ■ :^ ^'^ to judge, this condition has existed, on the area
mentioned, for the past three or four years.
^ Reported in detail in Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 67, p. 25 et seq.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
GRAZING RANGES IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA.
19
Assuming these conclusions to be correct we find in our results
from quadrat collections data of sufficient accuracy for making esti-
mates of the normal productivity and, therefore, the normal carrying
capacity of ranges of this character. With these as a basis, still fur-
ther generalizations relative to other forage-plant associations are
also possible, since they may be derived from the ratios of produc-
tivity of the different areas as shown by the collections.
Table II. — Average summer production of forage in certain parts of the Santa
Rita Range Reserve, Ariz., as computed from the quadrat measurements m^ide
m 191i to 1914, inclusive.
Number
of col-
lections
used.
Total
herbage.
AU grasses.
Perennial grasses.
All perennial
plants.
Name of plant
aasodation.
Weight
per
acre
pro-
duced.
Wel^it
per
acre.
Part of
total.
Weight
per
acre.
Part of
total.
Wdght
per
acre.
Part (if
total.
Needle grass
11
23
Pounds.
1,343
,1,045
Pound*.
1,067
»72
Percent.
86
93
Pounds.
1,010
864
Percent.
81
83
Pounds.
1,082
932
Percent,
87
Crowfoot grama
89
Table II brings out an approximation to the relative produc-
tivity of the crowfoot-grama and needle-grass associations for three
years, the former producing about 1,000 pounds of herbage per acre
and the latter about 20 per cent more. This comparison may be a little
unfair to the needle-grass association, since most of that area has
been subjected to grazing, while the other has not. Another condi-
tion making against the accuracy of the comparison lies in the loca-
tions where collections were made. The 11 collections in the needle-
grass association were mostly made near the lower edge of the area,
where the effects due to the presence of stock are most noticeable. Of
the 23 collections in the crowfoot-grama area, 18 are from the better
parts of the area and only 3 are near its poorer boundaries. Thus
the productivity of the needle-grass area as given is probably slightly
below the average and that of the crowfoot grama is almost certainly
a little above the average for its total area. They show nearly
similar compositions, i. e., approximately 90 per cent of grasses, about
80 per cent of perennial grasses, and close to 90 per cent of peren-
nials of all kinds.
Spring collections made in these areas have added very little to
their total annual productions, though this would certainly be in fa-
vor of the needle-grass area, where no such collections have been
made recently. Only seven spring collections have been made in the
crowfoot-grama area, and they show a spring growth varying from
12 to 682 pounds per acre, the average of the seven being 178 pounds.
Five of these collections, which were made after the summer growth
began, show that the spring growth then constituted but a small
part (from less than 5 per cent to about 33 per cent — 77 per cent in
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
20
BULLETIN 367, U. S. DEPARTMEKT OF AGRICULTURE.
one collection) of the total vegetation on the area. In every case
there was considerable perennial grass, never more than partly
grown at the time of collection, thus increasing the apparent pro-
portion of the spring growth. Estimates of the average productivity
of the black-grama and six-weeks-grass areas, as made from the
quadrat collections, would not be comparable with the results given
in the table, mainly because neither of those areas has yet reached a
state of normal productivity, and also because recent collections from
these areas are not numerous enough to give fair averages. The only
fall collection made recently in the black-grama area plainly gives
too high a total production (1,210 pounds per acre) for an average
annual productivity of that area. Another difficulty was encoun-
tered in making this collection, which applies to collections of wire
grama also. These grasses do not die completely back to the ground
in the winter ; hence, it becomes very difficult to collect the growth of
a single year, being absolutely sure that none of the growth of pre-
vious seasons has been included.
It will be very evident to the reader that the hay-cutting records
are not directly comparable with the collections made on the quad-
rats. On the mowed areas the herbage obtained is only that part
which can be cut by a mowing machine and picked up by a rake. On
the quadrats every bit of vegetation above the surface of the ground
was very carefully collected and weighed to an accuracy of 0.2 gram,
a limit of accuracy which reduces to 1 pound of dried feed per acre.
A number of collections were made on areas before they were mown
and others on undisturbed areas besides the mown ones. While the
number of these comparisons is not large enough to give a ratio
which may be considered exact, the comparisons are at least quite
suggestive. They are mostly easily seen in Table III.
Table III. — Comparison of the total production of herbage per acre, <w calcu-
latcd from quadrat measurements, xcith the actual amounts of hay obtained
from measured areas embracing or beside the quadrats, on the Santa Rita
Range Reserve, Ariz.
Location of cutting.
Plat B, first cuttlnj?, near Proctor's camp (1.4 acres).
Plat C, second cutting, near old liavstack (1 acre)
Ruelas in 1913 '.
Felix lnl912 .*
Felix inl914
Plowed acre near gate.
Average..
Data from quadrats.
Quadrat
No.
Total
herbage In
pounds
per acre.
1,372
»677
S23
948
876
1,609
1,044
Pounds of
hay from
lacre.
1,037
1621
554
750
794
750
734
Percentage
oftoUl
production
obtained
by hay-
cutttag
operations.
74.8
76.9
67.3
79.1
90.6
40.6
71.5
» The area was mowed the previous sea.son, but no data were obtained. The cc^ection represents tba
same growth as the hay cut, however, and they are therefore comparable.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
GRAZING BANGES IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA. 21
Following is an attempt to estimate the total production on the
faiced area. As computed from recent quadrat collections, the
crowfoot-grama association produces about 1,045 pounds of summer
forage and 178 pounds of spring forage per year, a total of 1,223
pounds per acre. The needle-grass association produces 1,243 pounds
of summer growth and fully as much spring growth as the crowfoot-
grama area, a total of 1,421 pounds at least. The productivity indi-
cated by the single collection for the black-grama area, 1,217 pounds,
is certainly more than an average, and the total annual production
for the area is certainly not over 1,000 pounds per acre. The average
production, as computed from the four spring and two summer col-
lections from the six- weeks-grass area, is 871 poimds per acre. The
remainder of the area does not produce over 400 pounds of forage
per acre, if that much. A weighted average of the above figures,
using round numbers, is as follows : Thirty-one sections of the first-
named association at 1,200 pounds, 10 sections of the second at 1,400
pounds, 7 sections of the third at 1,000 pounds, 6 sections of the
fourth at 800 pounds, and 4 sections of the last at 400 pounds. This
accoimts for the whole of the fenced area and gives an average pro-
duction of 1,110 pounds of forage per acre.
An average of the total production of forage, as shown by the col-
lections made in 1903,^ 1904,^ 1905,^ 1907,^ 1908,^ 1912,^ and 1914,^
shows an average production of 1,160 pounds per acre. Thus two
methods of computation reach practically the same result, which, in
round numbers, may be taken at 1,100 pounds per acre as represent-
ing about normal pl-oductivity for this region.
If the figure representing average summer production on the
crowfoot-grama area (1,045 pounds per acre), this being the area
where all the hay cutting has been done, be compared with the
average hay production (640 pounds per acre),^ it is seen that the
haying methods get roughly 60 per cent of the annual growth.
Stock will gather a crop more closely than the mower, but not so
closely aS th^ quadrat collections were made. Thej'^ probably do get
from 75 to 80 per cent of the crop produced each season on the open
range, and this includes the spring as well as the summer growth
wherever the range is stocked to the limit.
It is equally true that even as close collecting as the haying opera-
tions make, at a time no more unfavorable to the plants than when
the hay is cut, ultimately results in a marked reduction of the total
amount of feed produced. (See Table V for effect of repeated
1 See Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 177, p. 19.
* Totals obtained from averages of all spring and summer collections during these years
on file tn the Office of Farm Management.
* See Table IV, showing average weight of hay per acre. Table III gives actual com-
parisons on a few selected areas. The average result Is probably too great.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
22 BULLETIN 367, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
cutting, p. 25.) Hence, in order to maintain productivity and pre-
vent losses of stock in bad years, the range must be stocked at less
than 60 per cent of its average productivity.
Assuming that a steer eats the equivalent of 80 poiinds of dry
forage per day, he will need about 11,000 pounds of forage in a
year. If the average annual production of the grassed area is 1,100
pounds of dry forage per acre, then assuming that it is safe to put
on enough stock to eat half of that amoimt annually, the average
carrying capacity will be 20 acres per head per year if the range
is to be maintained at its highest productivity.
THE MOST IMPORTANT FACTOR GOVERNING POSSIBLE IMPROVE-
MENT OF THE RANGE.
If it were possible to get a given area completely set in the best
forage plants that would grow in the region, the productivity of the
area would vary with the supply of water available to these plants
during each growing season. All useless plants on such an area
only waste the water which is so valuable for the production of
feed. All run-off is complete loss of this precious moisture. It
would seem to be desirable for a stockman to work toward the ideal
condition as far as it is economically possible.
This is what the farmer in a humid region does, and he is able
to modify and control the conditions on his farm only because the
value of the product warrants the expense of its production. The
stockman in the range country, whether his range be inclosed or
open, is governed by the same principle, and on the open range he
has the added uncertainty as to whether he himself will benefit bj'
any labor he may expend in improving " his " range.
When it is remembered that much of the range lana rents for 3
to 10 cents an acre per year without a fence, and that it requires
from 15 to 50 acres to carry one cow through the year, one can ap-
preciate how much may be expended economically upon the improve-
ment of such land. It thus becomes apparent that the possibility of
improvement rests entirely on a proper kind of management, and
the possibility of the application of that management rests upon
control. Yet there is a crop growing on this land and the cow has
nothing to do but gather it. And if a man can get control of enough
land, even of the poorest, and can get enough cows and other appur-
tenances of the business (PI. VII, fig. 3), the output of meat animals,
hides, wool, etc., will furnish him with a living. He may have to
ride all over from 1 to 10 townships, but that is only an incident of
the business.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ORAZINQ RANGES IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA. 23
HAY-CUTTING OPERATIONS.
STATEMENT OF CONDITIONS AND METHODS.
For the past five seasons — 1910-1914, inclusive — ^hay cutting has
been done in the protected area of the reserve and more or less com-
plete records have been obtained. It must be kept in mind that hay
cutting is possible over only a part of the protected area, and all of
the hay cutting has been done upon selected areas where the condi-
tions were the most favorable of any to be found in the field. Con-
sidered as a hay crop to be harvested, the forage produced on the
reserve is at best so light as to raise some doubt as to the advisability
of cutting it. And the conditions imder which the work must be
done are very unfavorable. Of the whole reserve, as indicated on
the map, not over 20 sections of the ungrazed area receive enough
summer rainfall to produce forage in sufficient quantity to be worth
the cutting. And over much of this area the ground is too rocky or
steep or broken or bushy to be mown. No water is available at any
place inside the large field.
It follows that to do any hay cutting at all one must select an area
of good grass land that is fairly level and free from rocks, bushes,
and cacti. To this place must be brought the men, machinery, tools,
wagons, etc., necessary for the work, and all the camp equipment and
food necessary for the crew, both men and animals. Water for all
camp purposes and all the animals, as well as grain feed, must be
hauled to the camp, usually a distance of several miles. In nearly
every case this outfit and crew have been brought from 15 to 20 miles,
and most of the hay has been hauled the same distance (PL VII,
figs. 1 and 2). And the roads of the region are nowhere very good
for heavy hauling. It was impossible to bale the hay, on several oc-
casions, because no baler was available. In a few cases the only
available method of weighing the hay was by steelyards, and nearly
all of the weighing was done, a bale at a time, on a small platform
scale. In some of the larger cuttings the weight reported as the
total is computed from- the total number of bales and the average
weight per bale of 15 to 25 bales actually weighed. The stacked hay
was measured in all cases except two and the weight computed from
the volume, which was obtained by the F O W L^ rule and a weight
factor to be explained later. The areas cut over were always quite
irregular, but their acreage was obtained with a fair degree of ac-
curacy in nearly every case. With these difficulties to be overcome,
and the expenses entailed being limited by the economic possibili-
ties of the situation alone, the records given in Table IV are submitted.
1 See Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 131, entitled ** Measuring Hay in Ricks or
Stacks." p. 20.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
24
BULLETIN 367, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Table IV. — Record of all hay-cutting operations, Santa Rita Range Reserve,
Ariz., 1910 to 1914, inclusive.
Year and
operator.
1010. 1
FeUx....
Ruelas..
Do...
Proctor.
Do...
Do..
Brown.
19U.
Ruelas..
Do....
Do....
Proctor.
Do....
Do.
Do.
Nicholson
Brandt...
1012.
Proctor..
Do
Do
Do
Felix....
Do
Lanter-
bach.
1013.
Ruelas...
Proctor..
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
1914.
Ruelas..
Do
Felix...
Proctor..
Do....
Do....
Total
Aver-
age.
Total
area.
Aeret.
MO
31
6.3
13
1
1.4
1
20.0
12
33.5
1
1.4
1
2L5
1
112
13.3
1.4
1
1
9.S
21.9
14.4
28.6
6.9
114.2
1.4
1
26.9
652.8
Weight of bay.
Total. Per acre.
Pounds.
1,030
11,480
3,360
6,834
760
1,482
621
«6.000
17,240
463
060
441
14,802
750
81,000
«3,000
241
322
6,556
15,596
6,^6
Poundt.
604
696
1,046
1,475
672
1,086
640
371
634
486
760
1,087
521
90,717
526
309
12.853
290,894
«600
614
463
602
441
688
750
723
«600
654
406
241
712
4M
704
376
309
478
Remarks.
A single representative acre, measured; hay weighed.
Do.
A single representative acre, measured; hay weighed; old grass.
Do.
A single representative acre, measured; hay weighed; burned
over.
Measured acre (plat A) near middle fence; hay weighed; first
time cut.
A single selected acre, measured; hay weighed.
Hay all baled and weighed
Do.
Hay stacked and measured; weight computed hj F O W L
rule.*
Measured acre (plat A) near middle fence; second time cut.
Measured area (plat B) near Proctor's camp; weighed hav; first
time cut.
Measured area (plat C) near old haystack; weighed hay: out over
in previous year.
Part of hay spoiled by continuous rain; total weight not ot>>
tained.
Hay stacked, not measured.
Hay stacked and measured; weight computed by F O W L
rule.*
Measured acre (plat A) near middle fence; third time cut.
Measured area (plat B) near Proctor's camp; second time cat.
Measured area (plat C) near old haystack; third time cut.
Hay stacked for six months.
Measured acre; hay weighed; first time cut.
Hay baled, 1,800 bales; average weight of 25 bales— 45 pounds:
total weight computed.
Estimate based on weight of one load of loose bay.
Measured area; hay baled and weighed.
Measured area (plat B) near Proctor's camp; third time cot;
hay baled and weighed.
Measured acre (plat A) near middle fence; fourth time cot; hay
baled and weighed.
Measured area (plat C) near old haystack; fourth time cut; hay
baled and weighed.
Measured area; nay baled and weighed.
Do. ^^
Do.
Hay spoiled while waiting to be baled.
Hay hauled in loose, not weighed.
Measured area: hay oaled and bales counted; weight based on
average of 65 bales weighed.
Measured area (plat B) near Proctor's camp; hay baled and
weighed.
Measured area (plat C) near old haystack; hay baled wnd
weighed.
Measured area; hay baled and weighed.
» Measurements for 1910 made by Mr. H. 11. Jobson.
« About.
» F-0.31, 0-over, W- width, Z-length of stack; 800 cubic feet of hay, stacked less than 30 days, -1 ton.
* Estimated.
losing all estimates as to weights and acreages, the average pro-
duction per acre for five years has been G40 pounds of hay per acre.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
GRAZING RANGES IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA.
25
Using the figures of only those instances in which the actual area
is known and the total weight is also known gives an average
of 558 pounds per acre. A comparison of these two figures would
seem to indicate that probably some of the estimates were too high^
thus increasing the average output of hay per acre for all cuttings.
But a careful examination of the details of the records shows that it
has so happened that all the records which show no element of esti-
mate in them, except four, which are for small areas and therefore
have little weight in the averages, are obtained from areas that have
been mowed year after year for three to five years in succession, while
many of the records which depend in any degree upon some one or
more estimated factors are obtained from areas of medium to rather
large size which were being cut for the first time. The hay from
the latter kind of areas always contains a certain percentage of old
grass which did not grow during the season that the hay was cut;
hence, estimates of average production from such areas alone must be
in excess of the average seasonal production. That estimates made
from records of comparatively small areas which have been mown
several years in succession must be somewhat under the average pro-
duction will be seen by an examination of Table V, in which com-
parisons are given of the weight of hay cut from the same areas in
successive years.
Table V. — Comparison of the weights of hay cut on separate plats in successive
years on the Santa Rita Range Reserve, Ariz,
Plat A, near middle fence,
lacre.
Plat B, near Proctor's
hay camp, 1.4 acres.
Plat C, near old hay-
stack, lacre.
Number of cutting.
Year.
Yield
per
acre.
Yearly
de-
crease
In
produc-
tion.
Year.
Yield
per
acre.
Yearly
de-
crease
In
produc-
tion.
Year.
Yield
per
acre.
crease
in
produc-
tion.
Fint time
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
Lb»,
1,036
789
463
241
Peret.
"'25.8'
39.8
47.7
1911
1912
1913
1914
Lbs.
1,037
692
496
376
Peret.
'33.' 3"
28.3
24.2
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
Us,
441
322
309
Peret.
Rtn»of>d thne ..... r .... .
ThW tlrn^
15.3
Fourth time
26.9
Fifth time
4.0
Total decreaae in
productivity...
4 years.
795
76.7
4 years.
661
63.7
4 years.
212
40.6
> Plat C was cut hi 1910 along with the rest of the area, but the weight of hay on this particular acre was
noi obtained separately.
From Table V it will be seen that continued cutting of the grass^
year after year in succession, causes a gradual but marked decease
of the crop, ranging in quantity from 4 per cent to nearly 50 per
cent of the previous year's growth, the average annual decrease
being about 25 per cent. The average total decrease in production on
the three plats for a period of four years is 64 per cent of the crop
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
26
lU LLETIX 367, T. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
of the first year. Since the first cutting always contains some old
gi'ass, the actual reduction of forage due to repeated cutting is less
than the amount indicat<»d, but is certainly quite large.
Evidence not quite so conclusive is shown by the cuttings made by
Mr. Proctor on the larger areas, probably less conclusive because it
has been his habit to cut over some ground each year that had not
been mowed l>efore. Records for 11>11 on the 29.9 acres were not
obtained, because considerable of the hay was spoiled by rain. The
average production in 191*2 of 21.5 acres (most of which had been
mowed the two previous seasons) was ()HH pounds per acre. In 1013,
9.8 acres of this same land gave ()G9 poimds per acre, while 21.0
acres, part of which had not lx»en cut previously, gave 712 pounds
per acre. Early in June, 1914, a fire burned all the old grass in the
legion Pro(*tor usually cuts, so there was no old grass to be had thnt
season. The average production on the 26.88 acres that he cut that
year was 47.S pounds per acre, which is about 100 pounds per aci^e
lower than the general average. Doubtless this was the result of the
fire, wliidi was more than normally effective because growth of the
grass had already begun when it occurred. The records for the
thi-ee years sliow a decline in productivity, which is doubtless at-
tributable to continued cutting.
The only other factor which might influence these results would
he the seasonal rainfall. From what has already been said about the
'* si)otted '' character of the rainfall, it follows that our records t^iken
only a few miles away do not tell the actual facts with regard to the
amonnt of water that fell upon these areas during the different
growing s(»asons. But since the total seasonal rainfall on each plat
was pr()l)al)ly closely parallel to the records obtained at MacBeath's
and at McCleary's. it is well to compare these figures for the dif-
ferent ycais ninler consideration. Since it is the seasonal rainfall
only that affe('t> the amonnt of forage here considered, it will be im-
]>()rtant to note the records of precipitation for June, July, August,
and Sei)teml)er, in the years 1910-1914, inclusive, as shown in
Table VI.
Tai:i K VI. — ("onifKifison of suwnicr rninfoU records at two points <m the Santa
Rita Rnum Ucavrvi, Ariz., IVIO to 19llf, inclusive.
McTleary's hoiist'.
M&cBMth's bouae.
Month.
1910
1911
1912
1913
1.46
3.5,S
3.51
.67
1914
1910
1011
1012
1013
1014
June
o.r>9
5.10
4.41
.51
1.51
8.40
1.17
1.56
0..5fl
8. ♦12
3.49
0
1.^
4.99
3.79
1.21
0.57
4.64
3.94
1.02
2.04
6.05
2.06
3.70
a27
&80
8.00
.70
a42
5.15
4.50
L04
8.44
July
4 09
Aupiist
6.4S
September
4.08
ToUl
10.71
12.64
12.67
9.22
11.54
10.17
13.84
10.55
12.10
18.00
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
GRAZING RANGES IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA. 27
It is thus shown that while the growing season began a little earlier
in 1911 and in 1914, there was sufficient rainfall each summer to pro-
duce the normal crop. But there is no continuous diminution of the
precipitation from the first of the period to the last of it. In fact,
1914 was the rainiest year of the five, though all the plats show the
least production during that year.
THE WEIGHT OF ARIZONA RANGE-GRASS HAT IN THE STACK.
The method used for the measurement of hay in stacks is to com-
pute the volume of the stack and divide this result by the volume which
weighs a ton of the given kind of hay. In computing the weight
of Arizona range-grass in the stack, no data for obtaining this
volume were available. In 1912, however, an opportunity for a single
record was offered. That fall the press of other work made it necessary
for Proctor to stack his hay and bale it later. The hay from 22J
acres was stacked and measured. In March, 1913, the stack was
measured again and the hay was baled and weighed. Using the
FOWL rule for computing the two volumes of the stack and
dividing each by the total weight of the hay, it was found that of the
newly stacked hay 861 cubic feet weighed 1 ton, while only 657 cubic
feet of the old hay weighed as much. Since the first measurement
was made when the hay was first stacked, it was assumed that 800
cubic feet of hay in the stack standing less than 30 days would
weigh approximately 1 ton, and this factor was used in our com-
putations. So far as the writer has been able to learn, this is the
first record of definite measurements for the actual weight of Arizona
range-grass hay in the stack.
THE COST OF MAKING RANGE HAT ON THE SANTA BFTA RESERVE.
Only one set of records as to the cost of making range hay on this
reserve has been obtained. In 1914 an area of 114.2 acres was mown
which yielded 45.36 tons of hay. The crew required for the work
was 8 men, a cook, and 6 horses. The machinery equipment
consisted of 2 mowing machines, one 1-horse rake, one 2-horse
buck rake, a baler, and 2 wagons, with the necessary harness, water
barrels, and hand tools. The wages paid the men ranged from
75 cents to $1.25 per day and board, each man furnishing his own
bedding. Allowing 25 cents a day per man for food, the total cost
for food was $35. The grain and provisions came from the farm of
the operator. The horse work done was as follows: 24 horse-days
mowing, 12 horse-days raking, 20 horse-days bringing the hay to
the baler, 20 horse-days baling, and 6 horse-days coming to the
reserve, besides the necessary trips for water (3 miles and return for
a load). The work required 12 man-days for the mowing, 12 man-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
28 BULLETIN 367, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
days raking, 10 man-days with the buck rake, and 95^ man-days for
the baling. The total expense for man labor was $122.35. Allow-
ing 50 cents per day for a horse's work and his feed (which is about
fair for the character of the teams and the amount of grain fed in
this work), the horse work cost $41. Besides the regular provisions,
2i young beef worth probably $25 was killed and the meat used. The
total cost of putting up 45 tons of hay was approximately $225, or
$5 per ton. Two men, 8 horses, and 2 wagons were kept busy for 16
days hauling 40 tons of this hay to the home of the operator about 18
miles away, thus adding $2.40 more per ton to the cost of the hay.
This allows nothing for depreciation en machinery, which should be
quite heavy considering the character of the work. Some of this hay
was sold at the baler before weighing, at the rate of $5 for 30 bales.
The hay sold gave the operator about 50 cents per ton as net gain
besides paying him $1.25 per day as wages and $1 a day per team for
his animals, both of which prices are to be considered as good pay
in the region for the character of the work performed.
GRAZING EXPERIMENTS.
The most instructive data so far obtained upon this reserve are
those which have resulted from the actual carrying of stock on
measured areas. Records have been kept as to the movement of stock
on the pastures of four individuals for several years. From these
records it is possible to compile: (1) The actual number of days'
feed for one mature animal that each pasture has furnished each
month, (2) the average number of animals carried by each pasture
for each month and each year, and (3) the apparent carrying capacity
of the areas for each year. These data have been summarized in
Table VII and are visualized in figure 5.
The pastures have been handled independently by the users and
according to the judgment of each man as to his own best method.
The custom of the region (which had been followed by some of
these men before, and continued by three of them since the area was
placed under control) is to stock as heavily as the range will carry
all the time.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
QBAZING RANGES IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA.
29
Tabub VIL — Stock grazed on individual pastures on the Santa Bita Range
Reserve, Ariz., 1908 to 1914, inclusive,
FELIZ RUELAS, OPERATOR.
Year.
1908
1909
1910
5.
Bs
H
I!
1911
08
II
1912
flg CO
1913
3t
1914
OS «
6-"
II
January
Fabniarr
Ifareh
^::::::::
June
July
August
September...
October
November...
December —
4,500
2,743
150
2,709
2,652
3,397
4,660
6,937
6,250
3,876
1,686
3,150
3,400
2,100
1,876
2,044
2,352
2,604
2,052
2,833
2,002
1,086
4,496
2.250
2,69
2,730
2,821
2,697
2,436
3,172
3,360
3.274
2,820
899
1,165
1,350
1,775
1,350
1,846
2,170
1,960
2,170
2,100
1,855
1,050
899
1,371
1,710
1,763
2,214
2,604
2,904
2,688
3,548
4,554
4,290
1,080
1,116
1,116
1,506
1,581
2,135
1.860
1,860
1,464
1,333
1,290
990
1.140
1,178
1,298
1,740
2,533
3,016
3,348
Total....
Acres per head'
7,243 119
40,791 112
29.897 82
26,133 71 '21,866
60
28,378 78
21,189
60
62
43
43
32
38
38
42
68
81
101
108
6.3
8.6
13.0
14.8
17.8
13.7
68
18.3
CHARLES A. PROCTOR, OPERATOR.
Janoary —
February..
March
.\prll
liay
June
July
August
September.
October....
November.,
December..
Total.
Acres per head
8,760
1,085
1.798
1,230
3.401
2.430
3,108
16,802 I 78
2L6
3,122
2,700
3,641
2,473
2,695
3,971
6,328
2,110
2,055
2,166
2,494
2,256
35,009
2,077
1,760
1,874
2,200
3,689
4,756
4,263
1,457
1,410
1,495
1,920
1,984
96 128,894 77
17.3
21.9
1,856
1,792
2,719
4,179
3,999
4.650
6,239
4,261
4,197
3,653
3,210
2,845
42,600
110
14.5
3,510
3,306
3,794
4,171
6,131
6,641
7,168
2,852
2,588
2,663
2.754
2.708
47,286
129
13.0
3,680
3,479
4,279
6.328
6,102
4,770
4,944
3,004
2,926
3,863
4,110
4,490
50,975
119
125
138
177
212
159
160
97
97
126
137
145
141
12.1
w. B. macbeath, operator
January....
February..
March
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October....
November..
December..
Total.... 40,023 100
Acres per head
2,083
2,320
3,050
3,409
3,660
4,290
4,163
3,948
3,240
8,418
3.247
3,205
67
80
98
113
118
143
134
127
108
110
108
103
1&3
3,874
3,747
4,686
4,906
6,192
4,990
6,040
4,470
4,247
4,340
3.630
3,705
2,826 146
1L6
3,729
3,316
3,736
4.840
6.628
6,417
6,325
6,786
4,565
4,557
4,485
4,828
58,212 159
120
107
121
161
181
214
204
187
157
147
149
156
10.6
5,278
4,872
5.747
6.921
7,216
7,033
6,449
4,375
3,300
2,656
1,946
2,139
67,932 169
10.2
2,045
2,576
3,714
3,510
4,253
4.890
6,526
2,866
2.454
1.608
1,654
1,674
36,769 100
18.8
2,150
2,397
3,249
6,613
4,429
6,626
8,494
6,167
3,494
3,031
6,366
7,302
67,317 157
12.0
7,292
6,182
7,693
8,396
9,020
8,785
8,029
3,221
9,150
1,565
1,200
2,128
72,661 179
236
221
248
279
291
293
259
104
65
60
40
60
9.5
1 Theflguresln the Une" Acres per head ''show the average number of acres of land necessary to carry one
mature animal one year. This result Is found by dividing the total acreage by the average number of
animals pastured.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
30
BULLETIN 361, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Tablb VII. — Stock grazed on individual paaturet on the Santa Rita Range
Reserve, Ariz., 1908 to 1914, inclusive — Ck>ntinued.
W. B. McCLEARY, OPERATOR.
Month.
Year.
1908
II
1909
1910
3l
|S
1911
IB
1912
1913
or
6-"
II
51
I'll
So 3"^
'I.
S4
January....
Febroary..
March
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Total....
Acres per head
230
210
238
210
209
216
226
240
237
271
260
271
290
246
250
270
240
248
302
278
600
233
289
367
168
234
356
352
405
438
442
445
450
368
380
399
465
364
430
496
527
510
527
434
492
527
480
470
434
394
403
420
429
470
510
583
570
589
510
432
345
344
442
414
430
380
603
561
402
563
485
493
4S8
474
403
394
403
390
248
375
398
405
306
2S4
16
17
13
13
13
13
8
12
13
13
10
9
2,81^
3,613 10
4,437
12
5,722 15
5,744 16
5,462 15
4,567
U
103.1
80.2
65.6
50.9
50.5
53.2
63.5
Since the fenced area available to each man is relatively small, and
since each of them has just as much right to the use of the open
range outside his fence as anyone, it has been their custom to watch
the condition of the feed outside their pastures and the conditicm of
their stock at all times and to carry their stock on the outside feed
just as much of the time as possible. This policy causes them to turn
out stock as soon as the feed outside warrants it, a procedure that
results beneficially for the fenced pastures, because it allows the
plants inside the fence to grow to the best advantage during the
growing season. The control given by the fence makes it possible
to save this feed until the outside feed is mostly eaten, when the
stock can be brought inside on good grass. This method of treat-
ment throws the greater part of the burden upon the outside range
and tends to build up the carrying capacity of the inclosed area.
Under such a method, if the fenced area is stockied to its full
capacity, but not overstocked, the carrying capacity derived from
the numbers actually carried is probably a little in excess of what
might be expected from the same land if stocked to its legitimate
limit all the time. For this reason the carrying capacity indicated
in Table VII and the diagram (fig. 5) may be a little too large.
But this conclusion is not true if for any reason the pastures have
not been stocked to their limit, or if they have been overstocked,
either of which conditions may have arisen.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
GfiAZING BANGES IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA.
31
To understand these possibilities it is only necessary to call atten-
tion to two or three factors which would affect the result. If for
any reason a pasture were understocked there would be excess feed
on it, but the figures for average monthly and yearly numbers car-
ried, as well as the average carrying capacity, would be lowered.
Such a condition might arise if the stock-water supply should
diminish or fail, a condition that did obtain for some time on the
Kuelas place during 1913 and part of 1914.
If, because of exceptionally high prices, a man should sell a large
part of his stock and not restock at once, or if, for any reason, he
should be forced to sell or was unable to buy whenever his pasture
warranted it, the number of animals on the pasture would be less
PWOCTQW
>%Ol.CAWY
:k
'r£C^^&^!^
4
A^-;
Fig. 5. — Cmres showing Tarlatlons In the rate of stocking on those parts of the reserve
that have carried stock for the past six years. The curves numbered 1 show the
average number of mature animals (cattle, horses, or burros) carried on each pasture,
by months, for the full period. Curves numbered 2 show the same data by years.
Curves numbered 3 show the average carrying capacity in acres per head per year for
each pasture during the period of observation. Curves numbered 3 rest upon the
assumption that the pastures have been stocked to their legitimate limit each year.
than it could carry, and all the figures relating to numbers carried
and carrying capacity would again be below what the feed in the
pasture might warrant.
Again, if the user should overestimate the capacity of his range
and put on more stock than it could properly carry, the result would
be an increase in all the figures, at least for a time, and a noticeable
drop at a later period. Seasonal climatic variations of marked degree
also would tend to decrease all values if unfavorable and to increase
them if favorable to the growth of forage, though such variations
would tend to counteract each other during a series of years.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
82 BULLETIN 3(57, U. 8. DEPABTMENT OP AGEICULTUBE.
There can be no question that the productivity of the areas whicli
have been pastured is normally greater than the average for the
whole inclosed area, because these pastures lie in that part of the
grassed land which gets the most water. (See p. 8.)
The forage-distribution map (fig. 3) shows a small patch of six-
weeks grass in each of the pastures, a condition which would seem
to indicate that these pastures may be somewhat overstocked. The
general opinion of the various men is that their pastures have im-
proved under protection, and these poorly grassed areas may be the
remnants of larger areas that are being gradually replaced, though
more slowly than on the completely protected area.
In the opinion of the writer, the pastured areas have not deterio-
rated noticeably since July, 1911, nor have they materially improved.
He believes that during that time they have been kept at about
uniform productivity, but slightly below their maxima. The result
of this is to make the carrying capacity appear a very little larger
in figure 5 and in Table VII than it actually is.
The above remarks apply with most force to the MacBeath pasture,
less so to the Proctor pasture, and hardly at all to the Ruelas pasture.
It should be understood that McCleary has not been running cattle
upon his pasture. He has had it lightly and about uniformly
stocked with horses and burros. These animals have been on the
land continuously with little or no shifting, and the range which
was unable to carry stock at the rate of 29 acres per head in the
earlier days of the experiments^ is now not noticeably different
from the completely protected area lying immediately north of it
It is hardly possible to tell by the condition of the grass that there
is any stock on this area. From such data it is perfectly certain
that 50 acres per head per year is considerably under the caYrying
capacity of such range pasture.^
It is almost certain that stocking heavier than 53 animals per sec-
tion ( 12 acres per head per year) on the MacBeath place and between
45 and 50 animals per section (13 or 14 acres per head per year) on
the Proctor place is not warranted by the present condition of these
pastures, under their present form of management. It is more
difficult to get an estimate for the Ruelas place, because other im-
portant but as yet unmeasured factora enter the problem. From
the standpoint of feed alone, the Ruelas pasture will doubtless carr}'
as much per section as the MacBeath place, but for some time past
the supply of stock water has been insufficient for all the stock which
the pasture would carry.
» See Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 177, p. 21.
» The horses on this area have very lljfht work and little of It. They are always fed a
small amount of grain whenever they are worked; at other times all their feed Is the
native grass grown on the area.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 367, U. S. D«pt of Agricultur*.
Plate VII.
Fig. 1— Baling Hay on the Santa Rita Range Reserve in September, 1914.
Fig. 2.— Baled Hay on the Reserve Ready to be Hauled to a Farm in the
Valley, 25 Miles Away.
FiQ. 3.— One of the Watering Places in MacBeath's Pasture, on the Reserve.
uigiTized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 367, U. S. D«pt. of Agrieulturt.
Plate VIII.
p#
f
H^
SP ■■" '■ ^ 1ri
w'*^?^^ ■. • 'i
HLv.:. 'JEK
mm
^^^^^^T^. * - '^w^lu^^ki
lE^v'v t>^
IK....:-^
iM'm
1:
» /v^BBB^I^^^^^I
ir-
I^^^^^^Bfe^T^^^^^Ml/^
i
i^- . . ^ ^
Ik^hhI
^
Ph«^ if;.
KliBi
»:
.^^ .r -m^l ^
^^!T
FiQ. 1.— A Dense Growth of Mesquite Bushes in Stone Cabin Canyon, on the
Santa Rita Range Reserve.
Some Btoolfl of eaccaton (Sporobt^us wrigktii) are shown near the center of the picture. This
grass tarlves where other graeses are killed by the shade.
Fig. 2.— a Single Medium-Sized Mesquite Bush on the Reserve, Showing Its
Crop of Beans on the Ground.
The dried beans from this bush weighed 1(^ pounds. These beans are very nutritioua and
are eaten freely by all kinds of stock.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 367, U. S. D«pt. of Agrieultur*.
Plate IX.
Fig. 1.— Conditions in an Arroyo, Showing how the Grass Retards Erosion
AND Helps to Fill in Washed Places on the Santa Rita Range Reserve.
Hundreds of places may be found on the reserre where different stages of this process of
leveling up are In progress.
Fig. 2.— The Boundary Fence between the McCleary (Left) and MacBeath
(Right) Pastures in May, 1914, Showing the Extent to Which the Forage
on These Pastures is Fed off Each Season.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 367, U. S. D«pt. of Agricultur*.
Plate X.
FiQ. 1.— An Open Spot amonq the Mesquite Bushes on the Santa Rita Ranqe
Reserve.
A good stand of grass has been obtained by persistent sowing. (Compare with fig. 2.)
Fig, 2.— a Similar Open Spot, Showing the Beginning of the Growth of Grass.
No results were obtained on this spot (which \a less than 100 vards from the other) for aeTeral
seasons, though seeds were scattered each year. (Compare with fig. L)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
GRAZING RANGES IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA. 33
If allowance is made for the facts (1) that these pastured areas
produce more feed than other parts of the area under observation,
(2) that they are carrying more under the present form of manage-
ment than they would if an average number of animals were kept
on them continuously, and (3) that there is some indication that they
are slightly overstocked, it is seen that the results obtained from the
pasturing experiments are in reasonably close agreement with the
average for the whole reserve derived by other means and presented
elsewhere in this bulletin. (See p. 21 et seq.)
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.
The effects of fire. — The complete protection of the reserve for a
number of years has resulted in a rather heavy crop of dry grass,
which bums readily, especially in the dry, hot weather of May or
June, just before the summer rains begin. Several such fires have
occurred, due to lightning, carelessness of passera, or incendiarism.
The only serious damage they do is to bum off the fence posts and
let the fences fall. These fires are always extinguished as quickly
as possible after they start, but sometimes considerable areas have
been burned over. Attention has been called to the effect on the
mesquite bushes. The spines of tiie cacti are usually singed off, and
some of the stems blistered, and a few are killed. Opv/rvtia spinosior
seems to suffer more seriously than any of the other species. In
Jime, 1914, occurred one of the largest and hottest fires, which
burned over about four sections of the heaviest grass. Along the
arroyos where the grass was highest and thickest the mesquite
bushes were killed completely in several places, and many were
killed back to stumps. The following growing season on the burned
area there was a much larger proportion of annuals in the summer
collections and a particularly noticeable abundance of one grass,
Bouteloua parryi^ which has not been observed in any abundance
recently. It was common in many parts of the reserve in the earlier
years of the experiment. Whether or not the burn was responsible
for these occurrences the writer is unable to say. The fire was doubt-
less responsible for a noticeable decrease in the hay crop obtained on
part of the burned area this season.^ Of the grasses, Bouteloua
erippoda and Heteropogon contortus suffered most, though old stools
of Aristida divaricata also showed retardation and some killing.
The mesquite hean crop. — ^An important part of the forage of this
region is furnished by the herbage and flowers of the cat's-claw
{Acacia greggii) and the mesquite {Prosopis velutina)^ as well as by
beans of the latter. Two measurements were made of the crop of
mesquite beans from medium-sized trees in 1914. The blossoming
1 See Table IV, p. 24 : Proctor's records for 1914.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
34 BULLETIN 367, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
season of 1914 seemed to be very favorable, but very few trees set
fruit. The data as to measurements are as follows :
One tree about 1 mile nearly east of the location marked I on the map (fig.
2), 9 feet high, with a spread of 10 feet, produced as second crop lOf pounds
of dried beans (PI. VIII, fig. 2). Another tree near McCleary's house, 9 feet
high and with a spread of about 14 feet, produced 10 pounds of dry beans as
a first crop. Probably 60 per cent of the trees on the reserve are as large or
larger than the two measured.
Erosion retarded. — ^The process of leveling the land by the action
of water, assisted by the growth of vegetation, has been going on
ever since the stock were put out of the reserve and the plants com-
menced to reestablish themselves. It has been carried to completion
in some of the shallower arroyos, and the bottoms of the watercourses
are entirely covered with plants. The larger arroyos still have well-
raat'ked sandy channels where nothing but coarse annual weeds grow,
but the grasses are rounding off the banks of such channels and
gradually diminishing their width, while in many places they pre-
vent further erosion by growing directly in the narrow cut and
helping to hold whatever earth may be washed in bv the run-off
(PL IX, fig. 1).
Seed sowing. — Numerous attempts at reseeding have been made on
this range reserve and elsewhere, the results of which have been
reported in previous bulletins.* Most of the attempts have resulted
negatively. Particularly is this true with reference to introduced
species, although these have been selected with the best judgment ob-
tainable as to the requirements of the region and the possible adap-
tiveness of the species tried. It by no means follows that nothing
will ever be found that will suit the conditions, and there is believed
to be good reason for expecting that some valuable finds of this kind
will be made in regions not yet carefully explored with these desires
in mind.
The alfilaria, previously reported as seeming to take hold, has
since been entirely crowded out by the native perennial grasses.
Several annuals that gave some promise have also given way to the
native perennials.
Trials of Sudan grass were made at three different places on the
reservation in 1914— near MacBeath's house, near McCleary's, and
in the large field on the plowed ground (near H, fig. 2). The seeds
germinated well at each place, but the young seedlings were not able
to bear the dry weather that occurred after the first rains. Plants
at MacBeath's which were watered during the first dry spell made
a good growth (about 3 feet) and produced some seed. Plants
^ See Bureau of Plant Industry bulletins as follows : No. h, reporting results on a small
rauRo near Tucson; No. 67, giving later results on the same area; No. 117, treating of
metnods and results of reseeding in general ; No. 177, treating of results on this range.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
GRAZING RANGES IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA. 35
that were not watered grew about 3 inches high or less. It is very
doubtful if a crop of this grass can be grown without irrigation,
even on that part of the reserve that receives most water.
Not so unsatisfactory, however, are the results obtained by scat-
tering seeds of the native grasses upon the bare spots, even where
the soil conditions are not good. For a number of years it has been
the habit of Mr. McCleary to scatter seeds of the local native grasses
upon bare spots in his pastures. Since hay cutting has been going
on, it has been possible to get seeds in some quantity at the hay baler,
and he has taken advantage of this means and has each year scat-
tered seeds in considerable quantity. Many gravelly slopes that
ijvould otherwise have remained bare are now grassed as the result
of this treatment. (PL X, fig. 1.) Other things being equal, this
method will get results in the course of two or three years that would
occur much more slowly without scattering the seeds over the groimd,
though diflSculty in getting germination sometimes occurs. (PI. X,
fig. 2.) This method of reestablishing the native species is very
inexpensive and seemingly warrants the time and effort.
Experiments with sheep. — After the large field had been under
fence for a number of yeai-s and the crowfoot-grama area had shown
considerable improvement, an arrangement was made to try feeding
off with sheep that part of it lying north of Box Canyon. A supply
of water was developed in the canyon and a small band of sheep
(about 1,200 head) was put on the area in the early spring. They
stayed on the reserve about 60 days and were under the care of a
Mexican herder, just as sheep are handled on the open range. While
there was apparently an abundance of feed for such a band, the ani-
mals did not improve. As the dry spring and early summer weather
began the water supply gave out and it was necessary to move the
sheep. The next spring another trial was made in the same way.
A small band was put on the reserve. These sheep were in very
much weakened condition when they went on the reserve, but they
did not recover as it was hoped they would on the abundant dry
feed to which they were taken. They were on the reserve from
February 22 to May 16, and lambed during the 30 days beginning
March 18. In May, as they were leaving the reserve because of fail-
ure of the water supply, there were 440 ewes and 260 lambs in the
band, and they were all in very poor condition.
The results of these experiments indicate that the grass of this
region is not good feed for sheep, because it is too dry at the time
of year when sheep need succulent feed to produce milk for the lambs.
Dry feed at lambing time and while the lambs are young is unfavor-
able to the business in several ways, even though there is an abundance
of the feed. Since the perennial grasses have dominated most of the
better part of the reserve, the production of spring annuals has
decreased quite markedly, and the spring feed for sheep ^is not as
uigiiizea oy >^jOOQ IC
36 BULLETIX .367, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
good as formerly. The <|uantity of feed produced, however, has
increased very much, and the change in kind has shown quite cou-
chisively what every stockman a heady knew, i. e., that the region
is l)etter adapted to cattle and horses than it is to sheep. The grazing
of these small l)ands of sheep on the range reserve did not affect the
range in any way detrimentally in the short time they were there.
It was hardly possihle to see where they had been running except
al)out the led grounds, though the herder's camp was not moved
while he was on the reserve.
FUTURE INVESTIGATIONS.
Summarizing the data so far collected on the Santa Rita Range
Reserve has not only shown the resiilts obtained, but has pointed out
several lines along which further data should be collected by con-
tinuing work in progress, and it has also suggested some new lines of
investigation.
Besides keeping watch on the rate of spread of the various grass
associations mentioned in this bulletin, it is very desirable to devise
some way of measuring the productivity of the black-grama asso-
ciation more accurately than has heretofore been possible. Special
attention should be paid to its rate of spread in the northwest comer
of tlie leserve. The question of whether it will supplant the crowfoot-
grama association at tlie lower levels is one of great importance, as is
tlie time it will take for the black-grama association to cover any
given area.
Seme accurate measurements as to the rate of spread of the long-
lived i)erennial grasses like Ilctcropoffori cantortus and Boufeloua
irij)fnl(f are desirable, as are more data on the productivity of the six-
weeks-giass areas. Tlie rate of recovery and factors affecting it on
the i)lowe(l areas should be studied carefully. Some seeding experi-
ments witli tlie local species should be tried in the extreme north-
e<i.sterTi corner where these grasses have been very largely killed out.
Assuming that that part of the recovery pasture lying east of the
Helvetia road has about leached its normal productivity, it would
seem to he wiK' to establish an exi)eriment to determine just what
the carrying capacity of this ai'ea is, by gi^azing off the forage crop
with a definite number of animals that ai*e kept on it all the time,
this number to be based u[)(m estimates already obtained from
([uadrat measurements and hay-cutting records.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.
The conditions under which the series of experiments of which
this bulletin is a report of progress were carried on are set forth
in the introduction. An attempt is here made to summarize the
results so far obtained, those reported in previous bulletins being
included for the sake of completeness.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
GBAZING RANGES IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA. 37
Recovery. — ^It is the unanimous opinion of all who know the region
that the carrjdng capacity of the completely protected area has im-
proved very much over its condition at the banning of the experi-
ments. There is likewise no doubt that the carrying capacity of the
inclosed areas under stock is now greater than that of the adjacent
unfenced land of similar character.
lia^te of recovery. — Previous publications relative to this project
have stated that recovery of that part of the reserve inside the large
field and lying above the 3,500-foot contour occurred in marked
degree in about three years after inclosure. The improvement in that
area since that time has continued, but the increase in productivity
has been growing less and less each year, indicating that that part of
the reserve has now about completely recovered. The area of in-
creased productivity has been gradually spreading until all parts of
the inclosure are now more or less improved. In the opinion of the
present writer, that part of the reserve below the 3,200- foot contour
may be expected to continue to improve for a number of years more,
under protection, and the recovery experiment should be continued
at least until such time as complete recovery of this area is obtained.
Some definite answers are now available as to the time necessary
for recovery under different conditions. Three years of complete
protection gave about three- fourths of complete recovery for the area
where crowfoot grama is the dominant grass, at levels of about 3,500
to 4,000 feet, where an annual rainfall of 15 to 18 inches occurs. One
inclosed ^pasture of this type having an area of 794 acres, which has
been stored with horses and burros at the average rate of about 11
head per section, recovered somewhat more slowly than the com-
pletely protected area beside it and at the same level, but after 11
years protection is now not appreciably different in carrying capacity
from the completely protected area, a condition which has obtained
on this pasture for the last two or three years. This would indicate
that this pasture recovered under light stocking in about double the
time required for the completely protected area. Areas at higher
levels might be expected to do at least as well if not better under
similar treatment.
Three other areas, 1,065, 1,695, and 1,889 acres in extent, respec-
tively, which have been judiciously pastured with approximately
all the cattle they could carry, are known to show better productivity
than adjacent unprotected grazing land of the same character;
and by their users these areas are believed to have materially
increased in carrying capacity under this kind of treatment within
a period of 11 years. Table VII and the curves in figure 5 show a
gradual increase in numbers carried on the two larger areas. Hence,
if these pastures have been stocked to their proper limit all the time
and the condition of the pastures has not declined, the curves indi-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
38 BULLETIN 367, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGBICULTTJRE.
cate approximately the increase in carrying capacity under the
treatment imposed. The factor of occasional insufficiency of stock
water has interfered with the stocking of the other pasture and
modified the results. In general, therefore, it may be said that, other
things being equal, the rate of recovery in this region varies with
the available moisture. With complete protection the better part
of this range recovered rapidly at first, large gains being made in
the first two or three years, and approached complete recovery in 10
or 12 years. The poorer parts of the range are much improvcKi after
11 years' protectipn, but are probably not yet completely recovered.
Light stocking of the better part of the range with horses (approxi-
mately one-third of the stock it could carry) doubtless retarded the
rate of recovery, but after eight or nine years this animal factor was
negligible. Heavy stocking with cattle has not prevented but has
retarded recovery, so that after 11 years the grazed areas are but
partially recovered, though their carrying capacity has increased not
less than 30 per cent and possibly more in that time.
Reseeding operations. — Practically all attempts to introduce new
species of forage plants or to increase the relative abundance of
particular endemic species beyond their natural importance in the
plant associations of the region have resulted negatively. In a few
cases introduced plants like alfilaria or some aggressive annuals
have seemed to promise some returns, but in the course of a few
j^ears the native perennials have crowded them out. By far the
greater nimriber of the species tried have given nothing but negative
results from the first.^ The scattering of seeds of the local native
species upon bare ground has proved to be well worth the trouble,
since the practice has resulted in the more rapid recovery of such
areas. This procedure has also put a crop of grass upon some soils
where it was predicted that nothing would grow. The policy of
scattering the seeds of the best grasses of a region on the denuded
areas is to be recommended to stockmen generally wherever the seeds
can be had in any quantity at relatively small expense, as is always
the case where range hay is baled. On areas of large size which have
been denuded of their best native grasses a seemingly large expense is
warranted in order to get seeding plants of such grasses established
on the area. Generally speaking, the seeds of native species of this
region do not need to be covered, since they are mostly able to buiy
themselves deep enough to cause germination, at least under favor-
able climatic conditions.
Carrying capacity. — An attempt is here made to work out an
expression representing the average carrying capacity of the whole
range reserve, in the belief that this result will apply to a large part
1 See Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletins 117, p. 22 ; 177, p. 12.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
GRAZING RANGES IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA. 89
of southern Arizona and possibly to an even larger area. Records
of four kinds have been obtained.
(1) Collections of everything growing upon small measured areas
(quadrats) have been made for a number of years in representative
parts of the range reserve, and from the weights of the dry material
collected the total productivity in terms of pounds of forage per
acre has been calculated. These records extend over a period of nine
years. From each year's collections an average for the year has been
obtained. From these yearly averages something is learned of the rate
of improvement of the pasture, and from an average of all records
is obtained an approximate value of the average total annual pro-
ductivity, which is about 1,160 pounds per acre. This figure is
obtained by a method that denudes the ground. Stock always get
less than this amount.
(2) Records of hay cutting on part of the reserve have been
obtained for the past five years on areas varying from 1 to 114 acres.
The total area for all seasons from which measurements were
obtained was 492^ acres. The average amount of hay obtained is
640 pounds per acre. Three areas, each about an acre in extent,
which had the hay cut off for four years in succession, lost in produc-
tivity from one-half to three-fourths of what they produced at the
start, as the result of continued cutting. The average production
of hay on this land is about 70 per cent of the productivity shown
by the quadrat collections made on and beside the areas cut over;
hence, it is argued that stocking on the basis of an estimated produc-
tion of more than one-half of the total productivity as obtained from
the quadrat measurements would be unwise, since such a policy
would tend to lower the carrying capacity below what would be
maintenance capacity for the area under stock.
(3) A map is submitted, showing the approximate distribution
of the different forage-plant associations of the reserve, and descrip-
tions of the details and possibilities of each are presented. From
the quadrat measurements the approximate productivity of each
association is obtained. From these figures and the areas of each
association a weighted average expression representing the average
productivity of the whole reserve is derived. This number, 1,110
pounds per acre, is closely comparable with that obtained as the
average of the quadrat measurements alone. Assimiing the value
of 1,100 pounds per acre as an average total productivity and 50
per cent of that amount as maintenance capacity for the range,
then, if the average animal eats the equivalent of 30 poimds of dry
feed per day he will need 11,000 pounds in a year, and it will take 10
acres of land to furnish that amount at full productivity, and 20
acres of land at maintenance capacity. Thus we have an average
value for carrying capacity equal to 20 acres per head per year, or
32 head per section, for the reserve.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
40 BULLETIN 367, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUEE.
(4) Eecords of animal-days' feed consumed for a period of five'
years on about 16 per cent of the best part of the reserve show exactly
what this land can do under a certain kind of management- Tlio
type of management used tends to nuike the carrying capacity for
this area appear high. The pastured area naturally has the highest
carrying capacity of any part of the reserve. The area has probably
been slightly overstocked recently. All three of these factors tend
to increase the apparent carrying capacity of the area under stocL
The figure representing average carrying capacity for 7^ sections
(one-eighth of the whole reserve) which have been stocked with
cattle is 14.1 acres per head per year, or 45-(- head per section. This
carrying capacity, for the reasons stated, is considerably above that
for the whole range. Just how much too high it is would be very
hard to tell. P^igures obtained on one of the pastures show that
stocking at the average rate of 58 acres per head per 3^ear, or 11
head per section, is considerably below^ the limit of maintenance
capacity, since the pasture so stocked is now not noticeably different
m condition from adjacent land which has had no stock on it for
11 years.
MisceUane(ym data, — Miscellaneous notes on the effects of fii-e, the
effect of protection on the minor relief features of the area, some
results of seed sowing, the results of a small amount of sheep grazing,
etc.. are added, and a few suggestions as to the character of future
work are made.
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS RELATING TO THIS SUBJECT.
Ran^e Iniprovometir in Arizona. By David Griffiths. Bur. Plant Indus. BuL
4. 1i:M>l.
Range Investigations in Arizona. By David Griffiths. Bur. Plant Indus. BuL
G7. 1904.
The Reseedin^^ t>f Depleted Range and Native Pastures. By David Griffiths.
Tiiir. Plant Indus. Rul. 117. 1907.
A I'rorefted Stork Ujin;re in Arizona. By David Griffiths. Bur. Plant Indus.
lUd. 177. 1010.
The Grazing Ranges of Arizona. By J. J. Thornber, Bui. Ariz. Exp. Sta. ^
1910.
ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS FUBLICATIOX MAY BE PROCXJEED FROIC
THE PUPERIXTENDEXT OF DOCCMEKTS
GOVERNMENT PRlXTtNG OFFICE
WASmXGTON, D. C.
AT
15 CENTS PER COPY
Digiti
zed by Google
if/, d: 3 iB
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 368
GMtribirtlMi frMi Um BvM« •r PluillBd«li7
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chtor
WasUngton, D. €. PROFESSIONAL PAPER March 6, 1916
BROWN-ROT OF PRUNES AND CHERRIES IN THE
PACIFIC NORTHWEST,
By Obarlks Bbooks and D. F. Fibhbb, Offif» of Fru/U^Diteau InvejittgatUfnBj /
f .- ■ -i r "v
CONTBNTB. ' ^ ^t
IntrodQOtkm 1 SominaryftxidoondusionforpniibB^r^V.^.,. ft-
BkMMzn intoetlon of prmies 8 Blossom Inltetkm of dMrrias.....^.." ^.. ' 9
Sptmyjngexpgriinsnts 4 Brown-rot of chcrrte 1«....\.... 9
Ftuttrotofpnmes 6 Summary and conclusion for ofaarrks 10
INTRODUCTION.
For several years the growers of the lower Coliunbia and Willam-
ette Valleys have had severe losses of their prunes and cherries.
Among the causes have been a failure of the trees to set a full crop
and a lack of keeping quality in the harvested fruit due to brown-rot.
Occasional midsummer outbreaks of brown-rot have also occurred.
In the spring of 1914 Mr. M. B. Waite, Pathologist in Charge of
Fruit-Disease Investigations, examined some diseased prune blossoms
from Vancouver, Wash., and was in correspondence with the growers
concerning the cause of the prune trouble. He has furnished the
following manuscript note covering these investigations:
With a letter dated April 18, 1914, from Mr. Chapin A. Mills, Vancouver, Clarke
County, Wash., addreesed to the Department of Agriculture, spedmens of spurs and
twigs of the Italian prune (Frunxia domestica)y with dead and dying blossoms, were
received, with an inquiry as to the cause and remedy for the Jl)ad conditioft of the
bloooms, the dropping of the bloom and young fruit, and the widespread fsd^ure of
the crop to ''set" or hold its fruit. A few days later a similar set of specimens was
received from the same district, and a number of inquiries, without specimens, reached
us from Washington, Oregon, and California, including the Sacramento and Santa
Clara Valleys, as to the cause of the failure of the prunes to set their fruit.
NoTi.— This bulletin is intended jMrticolarly for the benefit of prune and cherry growers of western
WtahinctoD and Oregon, but isof interest to growers of these firnlts in other seottone of the United States.
It iialsoof sdentifio interest to plant pathologists in general.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
2 BULLETIN 368, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
A microscopic examination of the blighting bloflBoma showed tkem to be infected
with the ordinary brown-rot fungus, which for the present may be designated by the
name Sclerotmia dnerea. The specimens showed that the conidial or *' Monilia ' ' ifffm
of the fungus had attacked the bloom in various stages, killing some of the buds before
they had 6pened, often penetrating the entire flower and extending down the pediceb.
Some of the blossoms had set their fruit, and the young prune had Bt&rted to devdop
before the flower was completely killed. In some cases the young fruits were pene-
trated; in others they were not yet occupied by the fungus, which had partly killed
the flower and spread down the pedicel. The conidial form of the fungus was fruiting
abundantly over most of the surface of the diseased organs.
An extended correspondence was carried on with the growers during the spring and
summer of 1914, in which it was developed that the prunes in that section had been
dropping quite badly for several years from causes unknown to the orchardists; that
rather cool, rainy weather occurred during blossoming time in 1914 — not severe, heavy
rains, but continuotis damp weather. The prunes "made a good setting, but imme-
diately seemed to stop their growth, and the 'husk' gradually dried and adhered to
the prune, finally all falling o£f . '' Naturally, the possibility of control of the fungous
trouble by early spraying was suggested in the correepondence.
Notwithstanding this very definite evidence that the specimens of pnme blossoms
received were killed by the brown-rot fungus, it was suggested as not safe to at once
conclude that the whole trouble of nonsetting of prunes was due to this fungus» since
the same rainy weather which would favor the brown-rot fungus would also interfere
with the pollination and fertiliTation of the fruit. Nutrition factors and general tem-
perature conditions would also be concerned in the problem of prune dropping. It
seemed hardly probable that the brown-vot fungus could be charged with idl the diffi-
culties, including those of the Sacramento and Santa Clara Valleys in California.
Subsequently, from specimens of partly ripe cherries received from Mr. A. W.
Moody, of Vancouver, Wash., with a letter dated July 11, 1914, a serious trouble with
the ripening cherries was also identified as caused by the brown-rot fungus.
The brown-rot fungus is well known to be widely distributed on the Pacific coast in
the more hiimid sections near the ocean. It has been studied and figured by the
pathologists of California and Oregon, but always on the ripening fruit. The writer
saw it on ripe prunes at Vancouver, Wash., in September, 1907, in the district from
which these specimens came. The blossom-blight phase of this disease appears not
to have attracted attention as a disease of prunes and other stone fruits on the Pacific
coast.
BLOSSOM INFECTION OF PRUNES.
Blossom infection of brown-rot on cherries in New York was
reported by Arthur* as early as 1885, and a blossom blight of peaches
m Delaware was described by Smith ^ a few years later.
In the summer of 1913 the junior writer obtained information in
regard to a peculiar and severe early drop of prunes in Clarke County,
Wash., the effecta reported being very similar to those of the Monilia
blossom blight of the peach as he had observed it in the East. The
following summer he made a visit to the section mentioned to study
the pnme situation. The data collected showed that the prune
orchards had again suffered from a severe blossom blight and that the
i Arthur, J. C. Hotting of (dierries and plums. In N. Y. State Agr. Exp. Sta.»4th Ann. Rpt.. Iflt,
p.2»-285. 1886.
> Smith, Enrin F. Peach rot and peach blight. In Jour. Myool. , vol. 6, no. 8, p. 138-194. 1889.
Peach blight, /n Jour. Myool. v. 7, no. 1, p. 36-88,2 pi. 1801.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BBOWN-BOT OF PRUNES AND CHEBRIES. 3
conditioiis were such as to indicate that the brown-rot organism was
an important factor in the case.
In the spring of 1915 the prune orchards in the vicinity of Van-
couver, Wash., were kept imder close observation, and a record was
made of orchard and weather conditions. March 28 and 30 were fair
days, but with these exceptions it rained ahnost continuously from
March 24 to April 8. The trees were in full bloom on March 28, and
on April 5 the blossoms were falling. On the latter date there was no
evidence of typical blossom blight as it usually occurs in eastern sec-
tions, but many of the calyx cups were turning brown on the imder
side where drops of water had himg, and the margins of the sepals were
often similarly affected. On April 8 some of the yoimg fruit was turn-
ing yellow and dropping, apparently from lack of fertilization of the
blossoms. At this time the browning of the calyxes had become much
more serious, involving in some cases more than three-fourths of the
crop of the unsprayed trees. It was much more abimdant on the
lower than on the upper branches and seemed to be as common on
the fertilized as on the unfertilized fruit. In some cases the brown-
ing spread down the pedicel, the fruit often tinning back on its stem;
in others it involved most of the calyx, the young fruit separating
readily from it. (PL I, figs. 4, 5, and 6.) The latter condition was
more cormnon on the fertilized blossoms. When placed in a moist
chamber, the affected fruit developed an abimdant growth of Monilia,
the conidial stage of Sderotinia cinerea (Bon.) Wor.*
On April 12 a heavy drop was taking place, both of the unfertilized
and the fertilized but infected fruit. At this time the fertilized fruit
could be readily distinguished from the apparently unfertilized by
its enlarged ovary, its lengthened pedicel, and its darker green color.
The brown-rot fungus produces two distinct types of spores — one,
the Monilia or summer form, which gives the characteristic mouse-
colored appearance to the rotting fruit; the other, the mature or
perfect stage, in which the spores are borne on the upper surface of
cup-shaped fruiting bodies, known as apothecia, that develop from
the mummied prunes.
On April 2 apothecia were evident under the trees on the diseased
prunes of previous seasons. By April 8 they had developed in lai^e
numbers, 30 to 40 clusters often being found on the ground under one
tree. (PI. I, fig. 3.) On the latter date many of the apothecia had
shed their spores, and by April 12 they were disappearing. Most of
th3 apothecia came from prunes near the surface of the soil, and while
some had imusually long stalks none could be found coming from a
greater depth than 3 or 4 inches.
1 Matheny, W. A. A oomparlson of the American bzo^m-rot fongtis with SeUrotinia frueOgena and
5. dn^rea of Europe. /»Bot. Qas.,T.66,llo.6,p.418-432,0flg. 1018.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
4 BULLETIN 368, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
A comparison of the time of the development of the apothecia with
the dates of infection on the pnmes furnishes strong evidence that
the apothecia were the source of infection. Further evidence of this
may be found in the fact that Monilia could not be found in fruitiag
condition on cankered limbs, although a very careful search was
made. The fact that the disease was much worse on the lower limbs
tlian in the tops of the trees might be taken as further evidence that
the infection was from below, but moisture conditions may have been
of importance in producing this difference. It was also found that in
orchards where early spring plowing and cultivation were practiced
there was little or no calyx infection of brown-rot. While soil varia-
tions and the effects of culture upon the general vigor of the tree must
not be lost sight of, there is little doubt that the deterrent effect of the
cultivation upon the development of the apothecia was of direct value
in the prevention of the disease.
The wind is probably the important agent in spreading the s]>ores
of the fungus. Insects may be concerned to some extent in this dis-
tribution, but are of greater importance on account of the punctures
they produce on the fruit, these injuries furnishing an entrance point
for the fungus. Among the insects, the fruit-tree leaf syneta (Syneta
aUnda Leconte) is probably of importance, as it was present in great
numbers during the early part of the season, feeding on both fruit
and foliage and causing much damage.
SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS.
Further evidence of the importance of the blossom infection was
obtained from the spraying experiments of the season of 1915. The
work was carried on in the orchards of A. W. Moody, at Felida,
Wash. The first spraying was made on March 17, when the buds
were beginning to swell, a second on March 24, when the cluster buds
were open and the blossoms showing white, and a third on April 8,
when the petals were practically all off. The first application was
made with 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture; the later ones with 8-8-50
self-boiled lime-sulphur. No spreader or sticker was added in
any of these applications. At the time of the third spraying but
Uttle evidence of the second could be found on the trees. The two
weeks of almost constant rain had apparently washed most of it off.
It was evident that something should have been added to the fungi-
cides to increase their adhesive qualities. It was also evident from
the time the infections appeared that better results would have been
secured if the second and third applications had been nearer together.
The heavy infection described, which had taken place previous to
the third spraying, made it plain that it was then too late to secure
the best results. Notes taken May 10 to 15, however, showed that
the spraying had saved a considerable percentage of the crop. At that
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 368, U. S. D«pt. of Agriculture.
Plate I.
Cherries and Prunes Affected with Brown-Rot.
Fio. L— Black Republican cherries affected with brown-rot, collected at Salem. Orepr., April
13, 1916. Fio. 2.— Same as figure 1, but not affected with brown-rot. Fio. 3,— Italian prune
mammy bearing five apothecia, collected at Felida, Wash., April 9, 1915. This prune was
buried to a depth of about 2 inches and the apothecial cups were borne just above the
surface of the soil. Fio. 4.— Italian prunes affected wllh bro\vn-rot, collected at Felida,
Wash., April 9, 1915. Fio. 6.— Same as figure 4, but not affected with brown-rot. Fig. t).—
Same as Dgure 5, but these are blossoms that were yellow and apparently unpollinated.
Note the small size of the ovaries in comparison with those of figures -l and 6. All the pho-
tographs reproduced above were taken from specimens that had been preserved in formalin.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 368, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Plate II.
1. 1
4
*e-A. ^4
^^^^K-
^
f^
>.
MJ
^
F^
m
v^^ ^^fe
1
M^^B^
1 jj
' J
20
ll
r^ )Jm ^^^
bi_^
H
LJ
kii^id^'Qi^Cfl
Italian Prunes Affected with Brown-Rot.
Photographed when the fruit was beginning to color, August 11, 1915.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BEOWN-BOT OF PRUNES AND 0HEREIE8. 5
time the number of fruit spurs that had home blossoms and the
number of prunes still remaining were counted on representative
branches from the various plats. The results obtained are shown in
Table I.
TabiaB I. — Prune spraying experiments at Felida^ Wash., in March and April. 1915.
Plat.
Sprayings.
Prunes per
4,000 spurs.
Plat.
Sprayings.
Prunes per
4,000spur8.
No. 2
No.3
First , saoond, and third . .
First and second
Beoood
393
243
309
No.9
No. 10
No. «
First and third
None
143
09
No.7
....do .. .
86
These results show that the sprayed trees had retained from two
to five times as much of their fruit as the unsprayed ones. A com-
parison of the set of fruit on the different sprayed plats would indicate
that the second spraying was the most important one, but that the
third was also very valuable. A study of the final crop from the
orchard, as given later, shows that the average yield on the nine
plats that received an appUcation of self-boiled Ume-sulphiu*, either
in the second or third spraying or both, was more than two and a
half times as great as that from plats 6, 10, and 11, which received
no early spraying.
If an adhesive had been added to the fungicide in the second
application, there is little doubt that the results would have been
much more striking, for, as already mentioned, much of this spray
had been washed off by rains before the third application was made,
thus leaving but poor protection during the most critical period of
infection.
The above data show very conclusively that the blossom bUght
was an important factor in the poor set of fruit obtained in 1915.
Observations on the calyx browning and on the fruit drop in several
different sections of southwestern Washington and also in the orchards
near Salem, Oreg., indicated that the conditions described for Van-
couver were of general occurrence in the prune orchards of the lower
Columbia and Willamette Valleys.
FRUTT ROT OP PRUNES.
The orchard observations were continued throughout the summer,
and records were kept of weather conditions and the prevalence of
disease. Frequent showers occurred during the last three weeks
of May, but the weather during the latter part of the smnmer was
comparatively dry, the rainfall being considerably below the average
for the season.
The occurrence of brown-rot w^ noted on some of the plats in
the latter part of May, but th^!«e was no serious outbreak at any
time during the simmier.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
6 BULLETIN 368, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGBICULTUBE.
The spraying experiments were continued throughout the season.
In addition to the dormant spray of March 17, the bud spray of
March 24, and the calyx spray of April 8, a fourth application w&s
made May 1 to 4, a fifth May 29, a sixth June 14, and a seyeath
August 6, about a month before harvest.
The following spray materials were used:
Fl. Bordeaux mixture, 4-4-50.
F2. Same as Fl, but with 2 pounds of resin-fishoil soap added.
F3. Self-boiled lime-sulphur, 8-^-50.
F4. Same as F3, but witii 2 pounds of resin-fishoil soap added.
F5. Same as F3, but with three-fourths pound of dry powdered azBenate of le^i
added.
F6. Commercial lime-sulphur, 1} to 50.
F7. (Commercial lime-sulphur, 1 to 50.
F8. Same as F6, but with 2 gaUons of flour paste added.
The flour paste was made by boiling 1 pound of flour in 1 gallim
of water about half an hour, until a thick paste was formed. Hie
resin-fishoil soap was purchased on the market in the East. It can
not be readily obtained on the Pacific slope, but may be made up
as follows:
Resin 5 pounds.
Potash lye, such as is sold for washing purposes 1 pound.
Fish oil 1 pint.
Water 5 gallo
The resin is dissolved in the oil by heating in a lai^ kettle. After
this has partially cooled, the potash is added, the mixture being
slowly stirred and carefully watched to prevent its boiling over.
A part of the water is now added and the boiling continued till the
mixture will dissolve in cold water. This will require about one
hour. The remainder of the water is then slowly added and the
mixture thoroughly stirred. The resin-fishoil soap was found very
valuable in making the spray adhere to the fruit. It can not be
used with commercial lime-sulphur.
It was found that the fruit was covered better when a driving
type of nozzle was used. None of the sprays used caused' any
injury. The second orchard adjoined the fibret. . The trees were
yoimger and had borne but a very light crop the previous year.
Apothecia were of rare occurrence in this orchard in the spring.
The prunes were harvested September 7 to 10. A count was made
of the entire prune crop of the five trees of each plat. A crate of
sound fruit was packed from each of the more important plats,
tho packed samples being stored in a noncooled orchard warehouse
\mtil September 14 and then shipped by express to Wenatchee,
Wash. The figures in the last column of Table II show the percentage
of brown-rot that had developed 12 days after harvesting.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BBOWN-BOT OF PBUNE8 AND CHERRIES. 7
Tablb II. — Spraying for bn>um^rot of prunes at Felida, Wdih., during the season of
1915.
Sprayings."
Yield
(numb«r
of
pruiMs).
Brown-rot (per
cent).
PlAt.
Ist.
2d.
3d.
4tlL
8th.
eth.
7th.
At har-
vest.
After 12
days'
storage.
Pint ofdhftrd^
No.l
Fl
Fl
Fl
Fl
Fl
F3
F3
F3
F3
F3
"F3'
F4
F4
F4
F4
F4
F4
F4
F4
F4
723
1,410
1,036
1.761
3,582
1,150
1,985
2.911
1,608
720
493
2,582
S684
«519
1,804
2,392
4,391
5,633
6,295
4,673
0.27
.78
.48
1.08
.19
8.39
.15
.28
.12
.28
2.43
.27
No.2
2
ho.3
0
Ko.4
F4
F4
15
No. 5
F4
1
No.6
41
No.7
F3
F3
* F3*
F4
F3
F3
F4
F4
F3
F3
F4
F4
F5
F2
Fl
F6
FT
F2
F8
F4
F4
F3
F3
F4
F4
F5
F2
Fl
F6
F7
F2
F8
F4
8
No. 8
8
No.9
Fl
8
No. 10
No. 11
No. 12
Fl
Fl
Fl
Fl
Fl
Fl
Fl
Fl
Fl
'Fd'
F5
Fl
Fl
F5
F2
Fl
F6
FT
F2
F8
F4
2
No. 13
No. 14
1.15
.28
1.05
4.16
4.67
3.29
5.35
No. 15
12
No.l«
0
No. 17
51
No. 18
25
No. 19
87
No. 20
Fl
95
1 The symbols, Fl, F2, etc., refer to the spray formula used, as explained on p. 6.
* Fruit shriveled from an unknown cause.
The favorable effect of the early appUcations on the yield has
already been discussed. The amount of brown-rot at harvest time
was not large on any of the plats, but in the first orchard there
was more than nine times as much on plat 6, which was xmsprayed,
as the average amount on the nine plats which received boUi early
and late apphcations of self-boiled lime-sulphur, the former having
3.39 per cent of brown-rot, the latter 0.36 per cent. In the second
orchard, plat 20, which received no late spray, had nearly twice as
much brown-rot as plat 19, which received late appUcations with
the above fungicide. The contrasts on the stored fruit were still
more striking, because of the larger amounts of the disease. The
prunes from the xmsprayed plat of the first orchard had developed
41 per cent of brown-rot, while the average from the sprayed trees
mentioned above was 5 per cent. In the case of the second orchard,
the tmsprayed fruit had 95 per cent of brown-rot, while that which
received a late sprajring with self-boiled Ume-sulphur had 37 per
cent and that sprayed with commercial lime-sulphur 25 per cent.
In some of the neighboring orchards where no sprayings were
made, more than three-fourths of the crop was affected with brown-
rot at harvest time (PL II). In such cases the fruit that was har-
vested was handled with great difficulty, as it would scarcely be in
a usable condition if allowed to stand over night at the drier.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
8 BULLETIN 368, U. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
It is evident that spraying is not only of great value in securing a
yield, but also in the harvesting operations, and that if the fresh
prunes are to be marketed it is absolutely indispensable.
In the sununer of 1915 the rainfall at Portland, Qr^., 15 miles
distant, was below the average and very decidedly so in March,
April, and September, the months in which the most critical periods
of infection apparently occur. It is the nimiber of damp days
rather than the inches of rainfall that actually determines the oppor-
tunity for infection, but in this respect also the season of 1915 was
not imusually favorable to the disease. It seems probable, therefore,
that spraying and other remedial measures would be of even greater
importance in other years than the results in 1915 show for that
season.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION FOR PRUNES.
The above observations and results indicate that in such seasons as
that of 1915 the brown-rot problem is one of great importance t^ the
prune industry in the more humid sections of the Northwest. It has
been shown that the apothecia which develop from the fallen primes
are the probable source of the blossom infection. FaU plowing and
early spring cultivation ahead of the blossoming period have appar-
ently helped to prevent the disease by interfering with the devel-
opment of the apothecia.
The early applications of spray were wtished off, showing the
importance of the addition of a sticker, but even with rather unsatis-
factory conditions spraying has given fairly good results. The plats
given both early and late sprayings with self-boiled lime-sulphur set
from two to five times as much fruit as the unsprayed ones, gave two
and a half times as large a yield, and had one-ninth as much brown-
rot on the harvested and one-eighth as much on the stored prunes.
Self-boiled hme-sulphur and Bordeaux mixture have both given good
results, but the former has seemed somewhat more satisfactory.
Bailey has also reported good results from the use of these fungicides
on primes.*
The sticking and spreading qualities are greatly improved by the
addition of 2 pounds of resin-fishoil soap to each 50 gallons of the
mixture.
Several years' results will be necessary as a basis for any final
recommendations, but in so far as the season of 1915 was typical the
following schedule of spraying may be suggested:
The first application just before the blossoms open.
A second just after the petals have fallen.
A third three to four weeks later, just' after the husks have fallen.
A fourth about four weeks before harvesting.
I Bafley, F. D. Experimental tpnying of prunes for control of brown-rot. Tn Oreg. A^. Kxp. 8la^
ad Blen. Crop Pest and Hort. Rpt. 1913-14, p. 241-244. 1915.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 368, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Plate III.
Immature Royal Ann Cherries Affected with Brown-Rot.
Photographed May 25, 1915.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BEOWN-KOT OP PRUNES AND CHEBEIES. 9
The first and fourth applications have been especially important
the past season.
BLOSSOM INFECTION OF CHERRIEa
Observations made near Vancouver, Wash., on April 8 and in the
vicinity of Salem, Oreg., on April 13 showed that there had been
a blossom infecticm of cherries similar to that already described
on prunes (PL I, figs. 1 and 2). On the latter date Monilia was
fruiting luxuriantly on the blighted cherries. It appeared that
most of the infection had taken place after the petals had fallen and
before the fruit had had a chance to push through the husk. Black
Republican cherries seemed especially badly infected. Estimates
made on April 13 indicated that on this variety fully 90 per cent of
the blossoms were infected with Monilia, and in many orchards of
other varieties at least 75 per cent were similarly infected. A grower
near Felida, Wash., sprayed some of his cherry trees while they were
in full bloom, using lime-sulphur solution dUuted 1 to 30. He delayed
the spraying of the others until the calyx browning had begun to
appear and then applied the same spray he had used earlier. Counts
made on April 8 of representative branches from each lot of trees
showed 9 per cent of infected fruit in the former case and over 40 per
cent in the latter. Spraying trees in full bloom is not to be recom-
mended, but the results show the value of early spraying,
BROWN-ROT OF CHERRIES.
Spraying experiments for the control of brown-rot on the fruit
were carried on in the orchard of L. T. Reynolds, of Salem, Oreg.
The work was begun late in the season. The first application was
made on May 7 and 8, when the fruit had begun to color, and a second
on June 1, when the fruit was approaching maturity. The latter
application was delayed for nearly a week on account of rain.
Plat 1 received Bordeaux mixture, 2-4-50, plus 2 poimds of resin-
fishoil soap; plat 2, commercial lime-sulphur, 1 to 50; plat 3, self-
boUed lime-sulphur, 8-8-50, plus 2 pounds of resin-fishoil soap; and
plat 4 was unsprayed.
No iQJury resulted from the use of any of the fxmgicides. The
Royal Ann cherries were picked on June 17 and the Black Repub-
licans on June 24. A regular 10-pound box of soimd cherries was
packed from each plat and placed in. cold storage at 40*^ F. imtil
June 27, and the fruit was then shipped by express to Wenatchee,
Wash. Notes on the Royal Anns were taken on July 2 and on the
Black Republicans on July 6. The former were thus in cold storage
at 40® F. for 10 days and at air temperature for 6 days, the latter in
cold storage for 3 days and at air temperature for 10 days. Table
III gives the results obtained.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
10
BULLETIN 368, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGRICULTUKB.
Tablk III. — Spraying cherries for the control of hrovm-rot at Salem, Oreg,, during the
season of 1915.
Treatmant^lfaoy.
Brown^ot (per cent).
Plat.
RojralAiui.
Black RepubUcan.
At
picking.
After
storage.
At
picking.
AfUr
stangp.
No.l
Bofde&ux mixture
0.17
11
0.03
.05
.07
.03
7
No. 2
T/linfH?nlphur
s
No. 3
Self-boiled lime^ulphur
.25
.67
14
55
2
No. 4
UnsDrftTed.
18
There was not enough brown-rot evident on any of the plats at
picking time to make the contrasts of any great interest. (PL HI.)
After the severe storage tests the effects of spraying were more evi-
dent, the fruit from the self-boiled hme-sulphur plat having only one-
fourth as much brown-rot as that from the unsprayed plat in the case
of the Royal Anns and one-ninth as much in the case of the Black
Republicans. With the Royal Anns better results were secured with
Bordeaux mixture than with the self-boiled hme-sulphur. The
sprayed fruit held up much better at the local canneries than the
unsprayed fruit.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION FOR CHERRIEa
While the work on cherries has not been carried out as fully as was
desired, it seems evident that the Monilia blossom blight was the
cause of serious losses in the Willamette Valley in the season of 1915
aud the brown-rot of the fruit the cause of considerable loss at the
canneries and heavy losses in the shipping of fresh fruit. No early
sprayings were made, and therefore no results were obtained on the
effect of spraying upon the blossom infection. The brown-rot at the
canneries and in storage has been greatly reduced by late applica-
tions of Bordeaux mixture and self-boiled lime-sulphur. It seems
probable that a treatment for cherries similar to that outlined for
prunes would give satisfactory control of both the blossom infection
and the later brown-rot attacks on the fruit.
WASHINGTON .' OOVBBNMINT PBINTINO OVFICI : ml
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
^ /.3: 3 if
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 369
fhMi tbe BoiMa or Ckentatry
CASL L. ALSBEBG,Chi«r
Washiiigfoii, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER Maj 26, 1916
BACTERIA IN COMMERCIAL BOTTLED WATERS^
By Maud Mason Obst, Bacteriological Chemist. 't\ "/ :»'
f .^
CONTENTS. \ ^^'
Examination of oommerdal bottled watan.r ~ 4
- ■ ■ .^s:,,^ • -
Page.
Introdiietloin 1
fflgntflffanoe of bacteria in potable waters 2
iDspectioii of spring* 3
\^ N^^TH^^
Conclusions >i^.....,' ;-; ^^
Tabulated data *:^ "^' 7 _. '
INTRODUCTION.
During the last six years from 1 to 17 samples of bottled waters
from each of 110 American springs and from 57 sources in foreign
countries have been examined in the Bacteriological Laboratory of
the Bureau of Chemistry.* A comparative study of the results
obtained should, therefore, contribute toward the formation of an
opinion as to the freedom from contamination which we have a right
to expect and to demand in the case of this product. These bacterio-
logical analyses have been brought together aud tabulated; and the
results of this study have been considered to determine whether the
standard adopted by the United States Pubhc Health Service* for
water on trains could be fairly appUed to bottled waters, or whether
some other standard would be more just.
A questionnaire was also sent out to a number of bacteriologists
who have been associated with sanitary and allied problems. This
questionnaire was arranged primarily to learn the attitude of a
widely distributed group of workers in regard to bacterial tolerance
in bottled waters. Of the 49 correspondents who have rephed, 8
had not worked upon water sufficiently to feel competent to express
any opinion. The remaining 41 repUes are summarized as follows:
Eight (19.8 per cent) stated that to them the term "bottled water'*
implied an imwritten guaranty of absolute purity;" five (12.1 per
1 Examinations were made by various members of the Bacteriological Laboratory, Including Dr. Geo. W.
Stiles, Minnie Jenkins, Carleton Bates, Ruth C. Qreathouse, and the author.
Th0 author wishes to acknowledge the valuable assistance rendered by Dr. Charles Thom in the prepa-
FBtioo of this paper.
• U.S. Public Health Reports, 1914, p. 2069. (Not more than one out of five 10 oc portions shall show gas.)
a0614*— Bun. 309-16
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
2 BULLETIN 369, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
cent) desired no rigid st.andard; only one desired a standard of no
B. coli in 10 cc quantities; thirty-five (85.4 per cent) desired to applv
the Hygienic Laboratory standard or one more rigid; eight (19.8 per
cent) would tolerate no B. coli in bottled waters; one of the five bac-
teriologists desiring no rigid standard considered water to be suspi-
cious if three 10 cc portions show B. coli.
We have a right to demand that bottled water shall first of all be
dean. Whatever other qualities it may claim or offer are secondaiy
to cleanliness. In a study, therefore, of the bacteria found, we have
a right to consider them not only as possible evidences of danger to
health but as indices of conditions in the bottling room for which
the operator is clearly responsible.
SIGNIFICANCE OF BACTERU IN POTABLE WATERS.
It is imderstood that natural waters may contain bacteria which
multiply in the presence of very small amounts of organic matter.
Bacteriologists who have worked with distilled water are familiar
with the micrococci which multiply rapidly therein when the per-
centage of organic material is extremely low. The pr^ence, there-
fore, of a large nimiber of organisms in waters which have been
bottled for several days or weeks has little significance unless the
characters of these organisms are more or less definitely known.
The presence of B. coli in large numbers in waters is imiversally
considered as an indication of the possible presence of its dangerous
associates. The conditions under which waters are bottled and
held and the mineral substances present may, in some cases, exert
influences upon the multiplication of B. coli differing slightly from
the effect of surface or well waters in nature. Preliminary studies
in this laboratory indicate an immediate decrease instead of any
possible increase of B. coli in freshly inoculated bottles of certain
spring waters.* Houston * found that B. coli disappeared in stored
water from the River Lea. Dunham' observed that distilled water
enriched with either hay infusion or nutrient broth (1 cc in 1 liter)
and inoculated with over 20,000 B. coli showed a marked reduction
of the total number of B, coli at the end of 24 hours. He also reported
that sterile water inoculated with pollution from ordinary soil does
not show an appreciable number of B. coli.
It may, therefore, be assimied that bottled waters in which B. coli
.are foimd in appreciable numbers contained approximately all of
those B. coli (il not more) when they left the springs or bottling
» Browne, W. W. (Jour. Infect. DIs., v. 17, No. 1, 1915, pp. 72-78) finds multiplication of B. coli fn stored
water, but an analysis of his experiments shows that the water used was so enriched as to be no koger
comparable to stored spring waters.
* Houston, Reports on Research Work, Metropolitan Water Board, London, 1907.
s Dunham, E. K., Value of bacteriological examination of water from a sanitary point of view, Jour.
Amer. Chem. Soc., v. 19, No. 8, 1897, p. 691.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BACTERIA IN COMMERCIAL BOTTLED WATERS. 3
houses. It is reasonable also to assiime that when people pay
from 2 cents to $30 per gallon for bottled water they expect to ob-
tain a pure, or at least a safe water. Whipple * has defined a " pure '^
water as one which is "free from bacteria or other organisms which
are liable to cause disease, and also free from B. coli. "
INSPECTION OF SPRINGS.
The ultimate test of the fitness of a particular water for sale lies in
its condition at the spring. When contaminations are found in the
bottled article, the determination of responsibility for the condition
found calls for inspection at every stage of its handling. Such
inspections of springs have been made from time to time, usually
resulting in locating the source of trouble. The results of the
inspection of three springs are included in Tables I, II, and III.
These illustrate certain typical sources of pollution. In spring No.
1, insufficient coverings over the spring evidently permitted the
entrance of a rotten lemon or orange, containing the mold PeniciUium
italicum, a short time previous to the collection of these samples.
This mold can not exist long in water, and is practically never f oimd
except on decaying citrus fruits. The actual inspection of this
spring and statements by the people of the vicinity disclosed the
fact that freshets would cause the water in the creek flowing past
to back through a swimming pool and into the spring. Inadequate
care was also apparent in the method of cleaning and rinsing the
bottles before they were filled. These bottles, as were those used
at spring No. 3, were rinsed with polluted water just before filling.
(See Table III.) The water in spring No. 2 was imdoubtedly grossly
polluted at times from the creek which flowed past. A culture of
B. parcUyphosus B was obtained from a shipment of bottled water
from this spring four months prior to the inspection.
It is not always possible, however, to locate the source of contami-
nation at the spring even by several inspections. One such spring
is still under observation. This spring is on high land well removed
from farm buildings and large streams of surface water. Its water
is highly mineralized and at its source contains B. coli in 1 cc or
0.1 cc quantities. It is said that the water is boiled and the bottles
sterilized before the bottling; yet 88 out of 96 bottles purchased at
retail stores have been found to contain B. coli in 10 cc quantities,
and 64 out of 96 in 1 cc quantities. The B. coli found were identified
in all instances as belonging to the communis and communior groups.
Evidently the survey has been incomplete in some essential point.
Naturally carbonated waters occasionally contain large numbers
of organisms. In general, however, artificially carbonated waters
» Whipple, Geo. C, Value of piire and wholesome water, Biol, studies of the pupils of W. T. Sedgwick,
June, 1906.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
4 BULLETIN 369, U. S. DEPARTB£ENT OF AGRICULTXJBE.
were found to contain no B. coli in 10 cc quantities and very low
total counts at both temperatures of incubation. The total counts
very seldom were above 50 per cc, and often were less than 10 per cc.
In certain instances legal actions have been brought against com-
panies preparing and selling bottled waters when the waters examined
have contained an excessive number of organisms, induding B. cdi
These companies having been thus impressed with the necessity of pro-
ducing a clean commercial product have responded by placing on the
market later consignments from which no B. coli were isolated in 1 Dec
quantities from 12 or more bottles. Repeated examinations of water
from many springs have failed to show any B. coli in 10 cc quantities.
EXAMINATION OF COMMERCIAL BOTTLED WATERS.
The methods employed in making these bacterial examinations
were those prescribed from year to year by the committee on water
analysis of the American Public Health Association. The high-
temperature counts have always been made on plain agar after
incubation at 37*^ C; but the earlier low-temperature incubations
were made on agar at 25*^ C, instead of on gelatin at 20** C, as
during the last two years. Dextrose broth, lactose bile, and lactose
broth have been used at different times for the preliminary tests for
B. coli; but in nearly every instance, when reported present, B. cdi
have been isolated. Many of these have been verified by testing
special dextrose cultures with methyl red, as recommended by Ck^k
and Lubs.* A summary of all these examinations follows:
Of 110 domestic springs (see Table IV) —
47 (43 per cent) contained no B. coli in 10 cc quantities.
63 (57 per cent) contained B. coli in 10 cc quantities.
61 (55 per cent) contained B. coli in 5 cc quantities.
59 (53 per cent) contained B. coli in 1 cc quantities.^
49 (44 per cent) contained B. coli in 0.1 cc quantities.
31 (28 per cent) contained B. coli in 0.01 cc quantities.
10 (9 per cent) contained B. coli in 0.001 cc quantities.'
Sixty-nine (62 per cent) gave counts of less than 100 per cc on one
or more bottles after incubation at S?*' C. for two days.
Eighteen (16 per cent) gave average counts of less than 100 per cc
on six or more bottles at 37° C.
Fourteen (12 per cent) gave no counts of less than 1,000 per cc on
six or more individual bottles.
The highest average count on all samples from any one spring
was 191,238.
1 Clark and Lobs, The differentiation of bacteria of the Colon-aerogenes family by the nse of faidicators
Jour. Infecst. Dia., v. 17, No. 1, 1916, p. 160.
> Any potable water supply containing B,coU tnl cc quantities is considered suspicions by health
departments and is at once taivestigated.
s Water containing B.coUia 0.001 cc quantities is too suggestiye of dilute sewage to be aooepCed by
anyone.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BACTERIA IN COMMERCIAL BOTTLED WATERS. 5
Of 57 foreign springs (see Table V) —
29 (51 per cent) contained no B. coli in 10 cc quantttieB.
28 (49 per cent) contained B, coli in 10 cc quantities.
25 (45 per cent) contained B. coli in 5 cc quantities.
21 (37 per cent) contained B. coli in 1 cc quantities.'
16 (28 per cent) contained B. coli in 0.1 cc quantities.
8 (14 per cent) contained B. coli in 0.01 cc quantities.
2 (3 per cent) contained B, coli in 0.001 cc quantities.'
Forty (70 per cent) gave counts of less than 100 on one or more
bottles after incubation for two days at 37*^ C.
Twenty-five (44 per cent) gave average counts of less than 100
per cc at 37*" C.
The highest count shown at 37** C. was 37,000 per cc. This sample
gave an average count of 16,000 per cc, and B, coli were found in one-
third of the bottles examined in 5 cc quantities.
Two imported waters bearing on their labels the words "bacterio-
l<^cally pure" gave the following results:
Sample No. 1 ; six bottles examined —
Lowest number of oiganisms per cc developing on gelatin at 20^ C 700
Average number of oiganisms per cc developing on gelatin at 20^ 0 2, 450
Lowest number or organisms per cc developing on agar at 37^ C 300
Average number of oiganisms per cc developing on agar at 37^ C 1, 250
4 bottles contained B. coli in 10 cc quantities.
4 bottles contained B. coli in 5 cc quantities.
4 bottles contained B. coli in 1 cc quantities.
2 bottles contained B. coli in 0.1 cc quantities.
Sample No. 2; seven bottles examined —
Lowest number of oiganisms per cc developing on gelatin at 20^ G 120
Average niunber of oiganisms per cc developing on gelatin at 20^ C 9, 410
Lowest number of oiganisms per cc developing on agar at 37^ 0 40
Average number of organisms per cc developing on agar at 37^ C 482
6 bottles contained B, coli in 10 cc quantities.
5 bottles contained B. coli in 5 cc. quantities.
5 bottles contained B. coli in 1 cc quantitiei.
5 bottles contained B. coli in 0.1 cc quantities.
3 bottles- contained B, coli in 0.01 cc quantities.
Among the organisms which have been isolated from the above
samples are: B. coliy B. cloac«, B. mycoides, B. paraiyphosus B, B,
aerogeneSy B. auranHacus, M. citreiLS, B. marUimum, B. ovale, B. pro-
digiosus, B. fluorescens liquefadenSy B. fluorescens nonrliquefacienSf
B. sviiilis, and long-chain streptococci.
Molds of the genera Trichoderma, Penicillium, Cladosporium,
Citromyces, Fusarium, Actinomyces, and Sporotrichum were identi-
1 Any potable water supply oontatohig B. coU hx I oo quantities Is considered suspicious by health
departments and is at once investigated.
s Water oootainlng BiCoUin. 0.001 oo quantities is too suggestive of dilute sewage to be aooepted by
anyone*
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
6 BULLETIN 369, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
fied.* Without attaching too much significance to the occurrence
of any of these forms, it may be remarked that Actinomyces and
Sporotrichum are both large ill-defined groups, some of whose mem-
bers are pathogenic to man as well as to other animals. A large num-
ber of spores of a species of Actinomyces culturally resembling the
pathogenic form were found in one imported water. Similarly,
Sporotrichum in large numbers was found in another water as taken
in the market and as taken directly from the spring three months
later. While proving nothing, such observations do not add to the
attractiveness of such waters. The other genera listed are r^ularly
found in soil and in decaying vegetable matter. Sufficient to say,
they are not indicative of cleanliness.
CONCLUSIONS.
Bottled water for table use should either be actually sterile or should
comply with a strict standard as to the number of B. coli tolerated.
No water should be permitted to be sold which is contaminated at
the source in any manner.
Inspection of springs and bottling establishments together with
the analysis of official samples indicates that ignorance of proper
precautions, carelessness, and neglect, are fully as large factors in the
contaminations found as are impurities actually present in the springs.
The numbers of B. coli in official samples collected in the market
may be safely assumed to be less rather than greater than the num-
bers in the freshly bottled stock.
The data as summarized show the need of improvement in the
bacteriological condition of many of the brands of bottled water to
be found in the market. Careful consideration of cases to which spe-
cial study has been given shows that there are some springs used for
the production of commercial bottled waters which should not be so
used. It is evident that the presence of serious and unremovable
contamination should shut the water of a spring permanently from
the market. Such contamination could easily be ascertained before
a water business is established. In other cases, the contaminations
found are clearly those of manipulation. Before a person undertakes
to operate a water business he should be prepared both in equip-
ment and in operating knowledge to turn out a product free from
contamination. This is demonstrated to be commercially possible,
without burdensome restrictions, by the number of firms already mar-
keting water free from contamination. It is equally evident in the
ability of other firms to produce clean water after the need of doing
so has been emphasized by court action.
1 IdentificatJoDs were made by Dr. Charles Thorn, of the Bureau of Chemistry.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BACTERIA IN COMMERCIAL BOTTLED WATERS. 7
The results clearly show that bottled waters can be made to con-
form to the requirements of the United States Public Health Service
for drinking water furnished upon trains; that is, that not more than
one 10 cc sample out of five should show the presence of B. coli.
TABULATED DATA.
Table I. — Results of the hacUriological examination of water collected from spring No. 1.
DMOription of sample.
'<Ckaii " bottle rinsed with 100 cc ster-
ile water
Do
" Dirty " bottle rinsed with 100 oc ster-
ile water
Do
16 caps rinsed with 70 cc sterile water. .
Water used for washing and rinsing
bottles
Do
Water from bottling spring
I>o
Water from creek 100 feet from bot-
tling spring
Water from swimming pool, after use
b7 25pe<9le
Water from swimming pool, after use
by 170 people
12 bottles collected after inspection;
avecBge results
C<danie8 of organisms per cc de-
veloping after—
2days*in-
cut^tion
on nutrient
agar at
37»C.
1,000,000
000,000
700,000
1,000,000
4,800
790,000
940,000
3,000
4,500
410,000
126,000
4 days' incubati<m on
nutrient gelatin at
20»C.
Total
count.
1,400,000
540,000
1,100,000
1,400,000
700
400,000
1,000,000
48,000
38,000
900,000
152,400
Liquefl-
ers.
17.000
800
120,000
59,000
18
18,000
90,000
1,000
1,000
10,000
5,150
Smallest quantity In which
were found—
B.coli.
At time
of oolleo-
tion.
cc.
0.1
.1
.01
.01
1.0
.1
fi
.01
.01
.001
«.001
Molds.
2 days
after col-
lection.
oc.
0.01
1.0
.001
.001
5.0
.01
.1
(»)
.001
0.001
.001
.001
> No B. edi were present in 10 cc quantities.
> This determination was made at the time the sample was recei\'ed at the laboratory.
Table II. — Results of the bacteriological examination of water collected from spring No. ^.
Description of sample.
Colonies of organisms per cc de-
veloping after—
2 days' in-
culmtion
on nutrient
agar at
37*C.
4 days' incubation on
nutrient gelatin at
20" C.
Total
count.
Llquefl-
ers.
Smallest quantity in which
were found—
B.colL
At time
of coUeo.
tion.
2 days
after col-
lection.
Molds.
•< dean'' bottle rinsed with 100 cc ster-
ile water
Do
12 caps rinsed with 100 cc sterile water . .
Water from bottling spring
Do
Water from creek 6 feet from bottling
sprtog
Do
10 bottles collected after inspection;
avenge results ,
280,000
300,000
870
137,000
117,000
310,000
297,000
2,220
800,000
500,000
1,100
110,000
85,000
800
33,000
100
2,000
1,100
111
2,282
I
CC.
0.1
1.0
5.0
1.0
1.0
.001
.001
«.l
cc.
1.0
1.0
5.0
.1
.1
.0001
.0001
0.001
> Liqaefied. * This determination was made at the time the sample was received at the laboratory.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
8 BULLETIN 369, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTURE.
Table III. — Results of the bacteriological examination of water coUectedJrom spring No. S.
veIo|Mng after—
Smalkst qoanUty in whidi
DcsoriptioQ of sample.
2day8'in.
cubation
CD nutrient
4 days' incubation on
nutrient gelatin at
B.coU.
Molds.
Total
count.
Liquefl-
ers.
At time
ofooUeo-
tkm.
3 days
after ool-
lectioo.
"Clean'' bottle rinsed with lOOoostei^
llewater
2,700
37,000
1,000
1,700
14
8
330
110
170
10,100
3,700
40,000
2,100
1,500
4
8
390
170
3,100
33,500
110
3,300
30
40
0
0
190
60
0
313
ce.
LO
.01
i
lao
LO
«.01
ec.
LO
.01
i
10.0
&0
ct.
« Dirty " botde rinsed with 100 oc ster^
llewater
Water used for washing and rinsing
bottles .T....7 \T!Tr..
Do
Water from bottling spring
Do r. T
Water from receiving tank from spring .
Do 7 .".... T.
Water from feeding tank for bottlhig. .
6 botUes ooUected" before Inspection;
average results
1 No B. eoli
* This determinat
present In 10 oo quantities.
uon was made at the time the sample was received at the Uboiatocy.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BACTEBIA IN COMMBBCUL BOTTLED WATBBS.
I
5 II
11^
a
I
I
ooo oooe«oooooooo
oooooo^oooooe^
oooooo
I
I
■3
I
oe«o ooo*oooooe4eQO«>coooocoieooooo«ooo^oo
8
3
oe«to ooooooi^oeoQOi-i<0QOi^ooo««DOOoo^t«oooeftO^
oe«» ooe9eooo-«-o«o-H0 9i-4000ieMooooeM!0 000«o«
Oe«<a OOe0k0OO'4<C0<0O^C«C«i-iOO<-4iCC«OOOO«^OOO«C«QD
«n OOeowa
Okoo oo•«•!000•Ae««oe9^^>c^-«o^»oc«oooo«»eoooo»<<ro»
'8 00*W5
S
h
I
I*
I
o
I
So
4*
■<
Is
li
^'^^^J <=8S8«§"=*5g|«g2|g8ga|g^
I
§§§ "§§r§si§§§§§i§§§§§§
f-4>^<0 *-i*-i-« to fxeooo^
>-§8|®I5§S§'^
I
i*i °Riri8iii8-g2808»||
i§§ -°i§r§§i§§§§§§§§§§§§
83" S'g S'-'sa^-ia •-"'»5g i-gsijj-saga
sif|°s||8g
!§§§§§§§§!
Ill
?5*S
ooo «oe««o>s^*0O^Q*^*fiSS'^^^
9228S3'«S28SSS'"2S2!?::««8^S
eoci^ ,^^,He<9e4<-4^.^e4«eo<0'<a<eOi-ic«eo^c«»H.>4MC«eo^»H>^^eo-««
^c%ci v««c:«;a;sssssss^ssss^s:ss9!S)»SiSS8sssis
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
10 BULLETIN 369, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGBICtTLTUBE.
-2
O
\
S
I
I
a
I
I
I
I
i
8
§
I
93
i
t
I
8
8
oeooooooooooooooooooo>-40oe-^oo-^ooooeo
O M •♦ O O « O © O O « O O O O O O O lO t-i ^ «0 O -^ •^ -H O O flO o o o o o o
f-4C«»^ooeocoooooe«-400*-ioo»oc««cooe<«i4C«oo<DOOOoe«o
»OCOCOOO^<OOOOC4^
ioo5ee««0'*^eo^«oo«oOiH«oo'*"*
aoeo>ooo««oooc4t^«^«^^i-400r^e<t«>»9>oe«>^e«00«oo
OC0»COO'«t0OOOC«00>i4i-4«<-4OOQ0C«a0*Ot«tA>-«C«OO«O
I'
4?^
I
2
I
s
i§g§gssss§ii§i
0> <0 w w« r^ ^^ vO r» w 99
^ -^QO' CO i-T oTg
eocTcf •
"SglSSS
§iir
liiS
S*S2
§r
§-§§
a'
** O
Is
>
^
5
•a
a
8RR8SSS^8888S
CO t^ '•■ ooo
^ii§«i
§i§rirs2
§§§§-§§§§§
go®
2j t^ M to « « ® ej «c w jr x -^ ^ « -H <o « g c* og ^ ^ « -^ « «o « « « o «o « g 2
I J So.
•*coco^»-tc«i-n-i-«e<«cowc«i-
SSKSSS$?€!$79$^39SSS;S28S&S3SS3SZSS&SS
Digitized byCjOOQlC
BAOTEBIA IN COMMERCIAL BOTTLED WATERS.
11
S
8
d
I
a
o
o ^oooooovooooooooooooooooooeooooo«ooooooo^o
o •♦oeoowoooeoooeoooooooooooooooooo-^Oj^ooo-^oooo
o «oeocoe<to<x>e«oo«ooooooi-4 00 00oeoooooc40<gc«ooc«e<oo«
o ««-o«o«oe«
O00OfiOO«e«OO^^OQ0OOOOO<DOOOO»^O2«OO9e0O^»
te>oe4oocio«oo<o
qoooogce
oo<-4*ooao
ooe«oao
^OOOt<-OAt^OO0»«O<-4f
to«oc«oo»oe300co
ooc«>ooao
ooe«oooi-*oooa»OQQt* •oa»^oc4<-i
CO a» "3 •-••H
2 «88'-§§88S|5
e<<c«ocoQ>-4
!=§■
'la'sis^ss^s^i'ssss^g
jD oc'Vtosjef efcf<D*«'
§§§§§§
'§§i§§ii^§^§§§§§§§i§
'gg§§?ilig«il
s
sisi
« -.- ff -
>||»S|2"||'=S'='
§s§S°i
§ §s§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§
'§§!§§§§§§§§§
8 a'-e e"- s'g's sr
o» QcoooaoMoe«to«De«e««o<or^aoe4<o<os'-><0^<><>5**0^Q*0!S::2S
o<o^cooo«o«oe«>oe«oo-
M «»H««i-^^««eoc»«^
R freP3Sggr:g£^8s88S«*SSo8«8SgS3Eg$si88§2§§
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
12 BULLETIN 369, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
I
•3
5
A.
I
2
ooooooooooooooooeoooooooooooooooooo
ooooooooooe«ooooooooooooooocooe«oooooo
ooooeooe«ooe«oooe«ooooooooo-«oioo^oooOi-40
Qooooeocioo-<«iooo-«ooeoooo^020ioo^oo*4oe«o
oooooooe«oo^ooo-«o^eooeo^oe»oioor«oo<Hoe«o
oooooo&cieo^ooo^ocio^oo^eoo^
etDOt«oo<Hoe<o
:§
S
1^
<
1^
1^
*goo^«gc»«og«o©g2g§
8§2§isiS'iissai§i§
'8?"=
§sg8|a'
-§'
IS2§S§2-|s|§ss"SiSSS28S"2l
S
«'e<'
t^ €<* oTrf^
I
2|«oog|oo||e.g||0-g
e§S§§i§8-§§8ili8S§
n
§§
'§gP88«
§§§§§!
2i§
llil
C4io»o«<oie^
•8'
123
Oli
'«eo^ie«t««00»
ssssssssis3'^dasia*2J9is;88i8s3S3S3s
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BACTKBIA IN COMMEBCIAIi BOTTLBD WAIEBS.
13
OOOO^OOOi^OOOOOOOOOOOOO
oooo«^ooeo<HO*-«ooooc«oooooo
ooooeo<Ho»ocoe««oeoo«ooocooo«
oe«<0ooooc«oe«cooo^
o«i4o<0oo<H<Hao«oe«<oo^*-«ocooeo^ooe«
oio*4t«>oo^«H«ecoc<<ooe«e«o«ooeo^ooe«
»H ^04 ^
§«^8®| iJ5*'8|2«'8S2|$8S*
§SS8§
§§isr§^§§§§sii§
!o -^^
si§2S§§ssrgg22gi»s
s§ •i*i§i'"-"§iir''"8
§8
§1
8|||88|S§|8|§§Si
t^McoeovH^^Ok
eoe««o«oeo^c4co^ioe»Me«^
a«s
«S:SS$^9999$^998a3SSSS&
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PUBUCATIONS OF U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTURE RELATING TO
BACTERIOLOGICAL STUDIES.
AVAILABLE FOB FBEE DISTBIBUTION.
Bacteriological Study of Retail Ice Cream. (Department Bulletin 303.)
Bacteriological Studies of Soils of Truckee-Carson Irrigation Project. (Bureau of
Plant Industry Bulletin 211.)
Bacteria in Milk. (Farmers' Bulletin 490.)
FOB SALE BY THE SUPEBINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS.
Relation of Bacteria to Flavors of Cheddar Cheese. (Bureau of Animal Industry
Bulletin 62. ) Price, 5 cents.
Bacteria of Pasteurized and Unpasteurized Milk Under Laboratory Conditions.
(Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 73.) Price, 5 cents.
Bacteriology of Commercially Pasteurized and Raw Market Milk. (Bureau of Animal
Industry Bulletin 126.) Price, 15 cents.
Bacteriology of Cheddar Cheese. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 150.) Price,
10 cents.
Methods of Classifying Lactic-Acid Bacteria. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin !
154.) Price, 5 cents.
Study of Bacteria which Survive Pasteuirization. (Bureau of Animal Industry
Bulletin 161.) Price, 10 cents.
Bacillus Necrophorus and Its Economic Importance. (Bureau of Animal Industry
Circular 91.) Price, 5 cents. ;
Review of Investigations in Soil Bacteriology. (OflSce of Experiment Stations
Bulletin 194.) Price, 15 cents.
Effect of Copper upon Water Bacteria. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 100, i
Part VII.) Price, 6 cents. [
Miscellaneous Papers: Testing Cultures of Nodule-forming Bacteria. {In Bureau ci
Plant Industry Circular 120.) Price, 5 cents.
14
WASHINGTON : GOVBBNMINT PBINTING OPriCB .* 1916
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBUCATION MAY BE PROCUBED IKOlf
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
OOYERNMENT PRINTINO OFHCE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT
6 CENTS PER COPY
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 370
ContribaUon tmm OflDce of Public Boailfl and Rnrml Engineerlag
LOGAN WALLER PAGE, Director
Washington, D. C.
PROFESSIONAL PAPER
July 20, 1916
THE RESULTS OF PHYSICAL TESTS
OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK
By
PREVOST HUBBARD, Chemical Engineer, and FRANK H.
JACKSON, Jr., Assnstant Testing Engineer
CONTENTS
Page
Introdaction 1
Agencies Causlns Road Deterioration . . 2
Factors Infioendng the Selection of Rock
for Road Buildinff 2
Physical Properties of Road-Buildlnc Rock 3
Variations in Results of Tests fi
Page
Interpretation of Results of Physical
Tests .9
Table IV.— Geographical Distribution of
Samples Tested 12
Table V.— Results of Physical Tests of
Road-Building Rock 13
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
19U
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 370
OMiMlMliMfrMBOflleeorPnbflcRoMlflUid
LOGAN WALLEB PAOB^DIrMtor
WaahingtoB, D. C.
PROFESSIONAL PAPER
July 20, 1916
THE RESULTS OF PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-
BUH^DING ROCK.
By Pb£vo8t Hubbabd, Chemical Engineer, and Frank H. Jackson, Jr., As9i9t€Mt
Testing Engineer.
CONTENTS.
Page.
Introduction ^ 1
Agencies causing road deterioration 2
Factors influencing the selection of
rock for road building 2
Physical properties of road-buildlng
rock 3
Variations in results of tests 5
9
Page.
Interpretation of results of physical
tests
Table IV. — Geographical distribution
of samples tested 12
Table V. — Results of physical tests of
road-building rock 18
INTRODUCTION.
The purpose of this bulletin is to furnish highway engineers with
the results of physical t^ts of road-building rock made in the labo- '
ratories of the United States Office of Public Soads and Rural En-
gineering to January 1, 1916. It is proposed to revise this bulletin
from time to time, so that additional data secured by the office may
become promptly available. Detailed descriptions of the methods
of determining the physical properties of road-building rocks have
been given in a recent publication by Jackson.^ Interpretation of
the results of these tests has, however, been reserved for publication
with the tabulated data here given. It should be noted that Bul-
letins Nos. 347 and 370 therefore constitute a complete revision of
Office of Public Roads Bulletin No. 44, by Albert T. Goldbeck and
Frank H. Jackson, Jr., which was published in 1912. As a matter
of interest it may be stated that since January 1, 1912, approximately
1,350 additional samples have been classified and tested, raising the
total number from the United States and Canada to about 3,650.
31698*
^ United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 847.
-Bun.37<>-10 1
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
2 BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEFABTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
AGENCIES CAUSING ROAD DETERIORATION.
Roa(^ may deteriorate from both external and internal causes.
The destructive agencies may be classified as mechanical, chemical,
and physical, but in some respects it is more convenient to consider
deterioration as being due to the effect of (1) traffic, (2) climatic am-
ditions, and (3) faulty construction. The first two are external
agencies and the latter is internal.
Traffic. — ^Traffic divides itself into two classes, (a) horse-drawn
vehicles and (b) self-propelled or motor-driven vehicles. In the
former the impact of horses' feet tends to disturb the position of indi-
vidual fragments of rock in the wearing course and also to fracture
the rock. At the same time wheels, especially steel-tired wheels,
not only exert an abrasive action which grinds away the rock sur-
faces, but tend to crush the fragments of rock in proportion to the
load per unit width of tire.
Automobile traffic exerts a severe shearing action upon the road
surface which tends to loosen the individual fragments and, ulti-
mately, to remove them from the road. Where chains or armored
tires are used, considerable abrasion may also result, especially under
those conditions which favor slipping or skidding.
Climatic agencies. — So far as the rock itself is concerned, climatic
or weather conditions are not important destructive agencies. While
it is true that rain and surface waters gradually dissolve or react
with certain rock-forming minerals, the action is so slow as to be
practically negligible as a source of deterioration during the life of a
road. Frost may cause some deterioration in the more porous types
of rock, but both rain and frost are more destructive to the road
structure than to the rock of which it is built. Wind also is a negli-
gible factor so far as the rock is concerned.
Faulty construction. — Faulty construction may result in rapid
deterioration of the road proper, due to a number of causes, such as
poor drainage, lack of proper consolidation, the use of the wrong
size or wrong grading of broken stone, etc. Destruction or disinte-
gration of the fragments of rock may also be hastened by these errors
in construction.
FACTORS INFLUENaNG THE SELECnON OF ROCK FOR ROAD
BUILDING.
In accordance with the preceding discussicm it is evident that
from the standpoint of destructive agencies traffic conditions are the
most important factors to be considered in the selection of rock for
road building. Availability as well as relative cost are also impor-
tant factors in so far as ultimate economy is concerned, but need not
be considered in this bulletin. In addition, the type of road to be
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF HOAD-BUILDING BOCK. 3
constructed is a most important consideration, and in general the se-
lection of rock should be based upon the character and volume of
traffic as related to the type of road in which it is to be used.
The more commcm types of road in which stone is used are:
1. Water-bound broken-stone roads, as macadam, maintained as
such.
2. Water-bound macadam roads maintained with dust palliatives.
3. Water-bound macadam roads with bituminous carpet.
4. Bituminous broken-stone roads with a seal coat of bituminous
material constructed according to the penetration method.
5. Bituminous concrete roads with a seal coat of bituminous
material.
6. Bituminous omcrete roads without a seal coat of bituminous
material.
7. Portland cement concrete roads with a coarse aggregate of
broken stone.
8. Stone-block pavements.
The destructive effect of traffic, both with respect to character and
volume, varies to a considerable extent for the different types of
road.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK,
The success or failure of a rock for road building depends largely
upon the extent to which it will resist the destructive influences of
traffic. The three most important physical properties are hardness,
toughness, and binding power. Hardness is the resistance which
the rock offers to the displacement of its surface particles by abra-
sion; toughness is the resistance which it offers to fracture imder
impact; and binding power is the ability which the dust from the
rock possesses, or develops by contact with water, of binding the
large rock fragments together. In order to approximate as closely
as possible in the laboratory the destructive effects produced by the
various agencies which have been mentioned, certain physical tests
have been developed. Brief descriptions of these tests are as follows :
HARDNESS TB8T.
Hardness is determined by subjecting a cylindrical rock core 25
mm. in diameter, drilled from the specimen to be examined, to the
abrasive action of quartz sand fed upon a revolving steel disk. The
end of the specimen is worn away in inverse ratio to its hardness
and the amount of loss is expressed in the form of a coefficient as
follows :
Coefficient of hardness = 20 —1/3 w, where w equals the loss in
weight after 1,000 revolutions of the disk.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGMCULTURB.
TOUGHNESS TEST.
Toughness is determined by subjecting a cylindrical test spec
25 by 25 millimeters (1 by 1 inch) in size to the impact produce ^^|fH
the fall of a 2-kilogram (4.4-pound) hammer upon a steel pli
whose lower end is spherical and rests upon the test piece,
energy of the blow delivered is increased by increasing the heij
fall of the hammer 1 centimeter (0.39 inch) after each blow,
height of blow in centimeters at failure of the specimen is call*
toughness.
DEVAL ABRASION TEST.
A test devised by the French for measuring the combined ac
of abrasion and impact is as follows: Five kilograms (11 poi
of freshly broken rock between 2 and 2 J inches in size is tested
special form of cylinder so mounted on a frame that the
rotation of the cylinder is inclined at an angle of 30° with the
of the cylinder itself. The fragments of rock forming the chJtv
are thus thrown from end to end twice during each revolution, o
ing them to strike and rub against each other and the sides of
cylinder. After 10,000 revolutions the resulting material is sc
through a t*ff-inch sieve and the weight of the material passing is i
to calculate the per cent of wear. The French coefficient of wea
calculated from the per cent of wear as follows:
40
"Per cent wear*
French coefficient of wear=
CEMENTING-VALUE TEST.
To determine the binding power, or cementing value, as it is usu;
called, 500 grams (1.1 pounds) of the material to be tested is crui
to pea size and ground with water in a ball mill until it has the
sistency of a stiflF dough. It is then molded into cylindrical briquel
25 by 25 millimeters (1 by 1 inch) in size, which, after thorough d
ing, are tested to destruction in a special form of impact machj
A 1-kilogram (2.2-pound) hammer falls through a constant hei
of 1 centimeter (0.39 inch) upon an intervening plunger, which
turn rests upon the test piece. By means of a suitable arrangem^os
graphic record of the number of blows required to destroy the
men is obtained. The number of blows producing failure is
the cementing value of the material.
SPECIFIC GRAVmr— WEIGHT FEB CUBIC FOOT— WATBB ABSOBPTION.
The specific gravity, weight per cubic foot, and the water absoi
tion in pounds per cubic foot are obtained on samples of rock wi
are tested to determine their road-building qualitie& The W(
Digiti
zed by Google
|::::::hij^;.:i:!;::3:::::iuiiii^uj:::::;h:::::!:::!:H:::E
Miigni
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
25
th<
wK
eni
fal
hei
tor
of
of
sp€
rot
of
are
ing
cyl
thr
to i
cab
1
call
to I
sist<
251
ing
A 1
of:
tun
gi-a
mei
the
T
tion
are
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OP BOAD-BTHLDINa BOOK. 6
per cubic foot is calculated from the specific gravity of the material
obtained on a 10-gram sample by the usual displacement method.
The gain in weight of this fragment after four days' continuous
immersion in water is used to calculate the water absorption in
pounds per cubic foot of the solid rock.
VARIATIONS IN RESULTS OF TESTS. ^
Because of the fact that the various rock families, when subjected
to the tests outlined above, give results which are more or less dis-
tinctive of a group or type, these results can best be discussed in many
cases collectively. There are 14 families of rock which are more
or less commonly used in macadam-road construction. The varia-
tions which have been found to exist in the three principal tests for
each of these are shown in graphic form in the accompanying chart.
The values of the tests are arranged as abscissae, with the zero points
to the left and the values numerically increasing toward the right.
The ordinates or vertical lines represent the percentages of the total
number of samples having values corresponding to the abscissae on
which they are plotted. The figures in parentheses in the upper
right-hand comer of each block represent the total number of de-
terminations from which these percentages were calculated.
TRAP-ROCK GROUP.
The first six rock families, Andesite, Basalt^ Diabase^ Diorite^
Gabhro, and RhyoUte^ comprise the well-known group of road-build-
ing rocks commonly known as "trap." They are all of igneous origin,
but are denser and finer grained than the granites, possessing as a
rule a peculiar interlocking crystalline structure which imparts to
them their distinguishing characteristic — ^high toughness. Thus, by
referring to the chart, it will be noted that the average toughness of
all the traps, with the exception of gabbro, which runs somewhat
lower, is about 18. This is a considerably higher average than that
shown by any of the other types or groups. The same relationship
holds true in the abrasion test, the average French coefficient of wear
running from about 13 to 15. Comparatively slight variations in
hardness are noted for any family or for the group as a whole, the
average hardness for which is about 18. The binding power of the
.traps, as determined by test, varies through wide limits, depending
largely (mi the degree of weathering they have undergone, as shown
by Lord.* The specific gravity of this group averages about 2.9,
giving an average weight per cubic foot of 180 pounds. Individual
samples are seldom less than 2.7 nor more than S.2 specific gravity.
Water absorption may vary from a few hundredths of 1 per cent to
over 7 per cent.
^ United States Department of Agriculture BuUetin No. 34a
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
6 BULLETIN 3^0, U. 8. DEPABTMENT OP AGBICULTUBE.
GRANmS.
Granite, the tjrpical rather coarse-grained igneous rock, is charac-
terized by low toughness and high hardness. The average value for
the former, as will be seen from the chart, is about 8, while that for
the latter runs as high as for the trap group, about 18.5. The abra-
sion test develops an average French coefficient of wear of about 11,
somewhat lower than for the trap-rock group. Cementing values
made on granites run low, as has been demonstrated by experience,
the only exceptions being very highly weathered material which
usually shows low toughness and resistance jto wear. The specific
gravity of the granites averages close to 2.7 and is seldom less than
2.6 or more than 2.8. The weight per cubic foot, therefore, averages
168 pounds, and may ordinarily vary from 163 to 175 pounds. Water
absorption has been found to run from about 0.04 to 3 per cent.
LIMBSTONES AND DOLOIOTES.
The limestones and dolomites^ or magnesium limestones, are un-
doubtedly the most widely used road-building rock. It will be seen
from the chart that they run much lower in hardness, toughness, and
resistance to wear than do the traps or granites. The average French
coefficient of wear is about 8, toughness 7, and hardness 15. The
cementing values are usually good, about 75 per cent of all samples
tested running over 25. The specific gravity of the limestones and
dolomites averages close to 2.7, about that of the granites, and is sel-
dom less than 2.6 or more than 2.85. In general, the weight per cubic
food will run from 160 to 178 pounds, with an average of about 168
pounds for the limestcmes and 170 pounds for the dolomite. Absorp-
tion may vary from a few hundredths of 1 per cent to over 13 percent
SANDSTONES.
The sandstones are characterized by wide variations in the results
of all tests. In fact, the highest and lowest values obtained for all sam-
ples tested have, with one exception, been upon sandstone. The aver-
age French coefficient of wear is about 12, average toughness about 10,
and average hardness about 16. The cementing value of sandstones
varies widely, depending upon their composition. Thus certain
varieties of feldspathic sandstone somewhat resembling trap rock in
appearance almost invariably show high binding value in the labora-.
tory. Their specific gravity also varies between wide limits, but
usually lies between 2.4 and 2.8, with an average of 2.62. The weight
per cubic foot therefore varies from 150 to 175 pounds and averages
164 pounds. Absorption runs from a few hundredths of 1 per cent
to about 2 per cent.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
MABBLI AND QUABTZITB.
Marble and quartzite are the two families of nonfoliated meta^
morphic rocks corresponding to limestone and sandstone, respec^
tively. While in some respects it is convenient to consider marble
with the limestone and dolomite group, it will be seen from the chart
that the average toughness of marble, about 5, is lower, and that the
average hardness, which is less than 14, is also somewhat lower.
Marbles usually show good cementing value tests with about the same
range as the limestones and dolomitea For those samples tested, the
si>ecific gravity ordinarily falls between 2.7 and 2.9 and the weight
per cubic foot averages 173 pounds, which is somewhat higher than
the average for either limestone or dolomite. As would therefore be
expected, the maximum absorption is less, being imder 2.5 per cent
Quartzites show an average toughness of 15, as c<Hnpared with 10
for the sandstones. The coefficient of hardness is also higher and
for the samples tested shows a much smaller range of values than for
the sandstones. The quartzites invariably show a low cementing
value. Their specific gravity from tests made usually lies between
2.6 and 2.8 and their average weight per cubic foot is about 167
pounds. Their water absorption runs from a few hundredths of
1 per cent to nearly 3 per cent.
6NBI88 AND SCHIST.
Both gneiss and schist belong to the foliated metamorphic type
of rocks. The former is in reality a metamorphosed granite and
therefore cbows physical properties similar to the granites. The
average French coefficient of wear for the gneiss samples is about 9,
being somewhat lower than for the granites, while their average
hardn^s and toughness is about the same. Their specific gravity,
weight per cubic foot, and absorption are approximately the same
as for granite.
The schists show an average French coefficient of wear of about 12.
Their average hardness is about 17.5 and their toughness averages 11,
the latter being higher than for gneiss. It should be noted, however,
that the toughness test for both gneiss and schist is made perpen-
dicular to the plane of foliation. If taken horizontal to the plane
of foliation much lower results would be obtained, as failure would
then occur along these natural lines of cleavage. The specific gravity
of schists usually lies between 2.65 and 2.90 and the average weight
per cubic foot is about 181 pound& Water absorption is seldom oyer
2 per cent for this family.
With the exception of the highly altered varieties, both gneisses
and schists show a rather low cementing value.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
8
BULLETIN 370, U. 8. DEPABTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE.
CHBBT.
Chert is a very hard material, but frequently diows a low resist-
ance to wear, owing to its tendency to fracture al<Mig lines which
have developed as shrinkage cracks in the rock structure. For this
reason it is extremely difficult to test for toughness. The cementing
value of pure chert is usuaUy low, but some highly weathered deposits
develop in service good cementing value, especially if a high-binding
clay is associated with it. Comparatively few samples which have
been submitted for examination have been found suitable for all tests.
Of those examined, however, the French coefficient of wear has
usually been found to lie between 2 and 8, with an average of 5;
toughness between 7 and 2G, with an average of 16 ; and the hardness
coefficient between 19 and 20. Specific gravity usually lies between
2.4 and 2.65 and the average weight per cubic foot is about 160
pounds. Water absorption may nm from a few tenths of 1 per cent
to over 8 per cent.
SHALE AND SLATE.
Shales and slates are highly laminated rocks that tend to break
into flat plates not suitable for road-building purposes. They are
seldom used in road construction, except perhaps as a filling for sub-
foundations. They vary greatly in nearly all of their physical
properties.
RARE ROAD-BUILDING ROCKS.
A comparatively few samples of a number of families of rocks
which are occasionally used in road building have been examined in
the laboratories of the United States Office of Public Roads and
Rural P^ngineering. They need not be considered in detail, but the
usual ranges as well as the averages of results of the more important
physical tests of these rocks are given in Table I.
Tahle I. — The rare road-huilding rocks.
Num-
ber of
sam-
ples.
Name.
Amphlbolite.
Eolopite
Epidositd
Felsite
Peridotlte....
Serpentine...
Trachyte
Syenite
French coefficient
of wear.
Ordinary
range.
11.3-26.7
12. 7-22. 7
10.0-18.7
11.9-21.3
7.6-13.2
2.6-14.2
11.6-23.6
7.0-18.7
Aver-
age.
16.7
16.1
13.0
15.8
10.3
10.1
16.2
13.1
Ordinary
rango.
13-40
14-28
10-23
9-12
11-21
21-34
8-22
Aver-
age.
Hardnen.
Ordinary
ranga.
16.6-19.0
18.4-19.3
17.0-19.6
lS.S-16.6
18.8-ia6
17.7-19.1
17.3-19.2
Aver-
17.5
18.5
l&O
18.7
l&O
18.4
18.1
18.1
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHTSICAL TESTS OF KOAD-BUILDING BOGS. 9
SLAG&
Many slag varieties resemble in certain outward respects the com-
mon road-bnilding rocks. However, in general, they are more porous
and glassy, and vary so greatly in physical properties that with ref-
erence to flieir physical characteristics from the standpoint of road
construction they can not well be considered as a single class with
definite limits or general average numerical values.
INTERPRETATIONS OF RESULTS OF PHYSICAL TESTS.
The results of physical tests are only of value in predetermining
the suitability of a rock for a given type of road under given condi-
tions when the behavior of other rocks, having the same general
physical characteristics, is known. Much investigation is still neces-
sary to accurately correlate laboratory tests with service results, but
in this connection certain facts have been determined from experi-
ence, which may be briefly discussed under the different types of
roads.
As the amount of traffic to which a road is or will be subjected is
a most important consideration, and as the terms light, moderate,
and heavy are commonly used in describing the amoimt of traffic,
such terms should be defined. For the purpose of comparison it has
been assumed that traffic of less than 100 vehicles per day is light,
between 100 and 250 moderate, and over 250 heavy.
WATER*BOUND MACADAM BOADS.
The ideal rock for the construction of a water-bound macadam
road resists the wear of traffic to which it is subjected to just that
extent which will supply a sufficient amount of cementitious rock
dust to bind or hold the larger fragments in place. It is generally
admitted that the ordinary macadam road is not well suited to any
considerable amount of automobile traffic, because such traffic rap-
idly removes the binder without producing fresh material to take its
place.
Cementing value is a necessary quality for rocks used in macadam
road construction. As determined by test, cementing values below
25 are called low; from 26 to 75, average, and above 75, high. In
general, the cementing value should run above 25. For rocks which
show a low French coefficient of wear, however, a relatively high
cementing value is more necessary than for those which have a high
French coefficient . Interpretation of results of the cementing value
test is subject to a nimiber of influencing considerations. For in-
stance, it has been found that certain feldspathic varieties of sand-
stone give excellent results in this test, while experience has shown
that they do not bind well when used in the wearing course of
macadam roads. In the case also of certain varieties of the trap
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
10
BULLETIN 3*10, U. S. DEPAltTMEKT 6F AGB10ULl*UfiE.
group low results are frequently shown by laboratory tests for rocks
which bind quite satisfactorily upon the road, provided traffic is suf-
ficiently heavy to supply the requisite amount of fine material. Cer-
tain granites, gneisses, and schists which are not suitable for use as
binding material give good results in this test. In such cases it is
usually found that the highly altered nature of the material reduces
its toughness and resistance to wear to such an extent as to condemn
it for use.
Experience has shown that in general the following table of limit-
ing values for the French coefficient of wear, toughness, and hardness
may be used in determining the suitability of a rock for the con-
struction of the wearing course of a macadam road :
Table II. — lAmiting values of physical tests of rock for water-hound macadam
road construction.
Character of traffic.
Limits of tests.
French ooefflclent of wear.
Toughness.
Hardness.
Mght
5-8^ f 5-8 ow oentwear^ -
*-•
10-18
Over 18
10-17
Moderate
^15«B (2,7-o per cent wear)
O^erU
Heavy
Over 15«(l6ss tnan 2 7 Deroent wear)
Otw17
With relation to the limitations for hardness it may be noted that
as a result of comparing hardness and toughness tests of some 3,000
samples, the authors* have shown that when any given value for
toughness falls within certain limits which define the suitability of
the material for macadam road construction under given traffic
conditions, the corresponding value for hardness will fall within
similar limits for hardness. In this connection it will be seen, in
Table II, that a maximum limit for hardness is only given in the
case of light traffic. It has been found that the great majority of
samples having a French coefficient of wear of from 5 to 8 and a
hardness of over 17 are granites, quartzites, and hard sandst<Mies,
which' are unsuited for use in the wearing course of water-bound
macadam roads due to their lack of binding power.
BrruMiNous boads.
For broken-stone roads which are maintained with dust palliatives,
the same limits for French coefficient of wear and toughness should
hold as for ordinary macadam roads.
In bituminous work observations indicate that in some cases it is
advantageous to use a rock of relatively high absorption rather than
one with low absorptive qualities, owing to a better adhesion of the
bituminous material by a partial surface impregnation of the rock.
1 Relation Between the Properties of Hardness and TooghnesB of Road-Building Boek,
Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. V, No. 10, D-3.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHTSIOAL TESTS OF BOAD-BUILDING BOCK.
11
While the binding or cementing value of a rock is a most impor-
tant c(Hisideration from the standpoint of ordinary macadam con-
struction, the same is not true of broken-stone roads which are car-
peted or constructed with an adhesive bituminous material. The
French coefficient of wear is also of relatively less impwtance, ow-
ing to the fact that the fine mineral particles produced by the
abrasion of traffic combine, or should combine, with the bituminous
material to form a mastic which is held in place and protects the
underlying rock from abrasion so long as by proper maintenance it
is kept intact. The toughness of the rock is of more importance, as
the shock of impact is to a considerable extent transmitted through
the seal coat and may cause the underlying fragments to shatter.
It would, therefore, seem that the minimum toughness of a rock for
use in the construction of a bitimiinous broken-stone road or a
broken-stone road with a bitiuninous-mat surface should, for light
traffic, be no less than for ordinary macadam subjected to the same
class of traffic. For moderate and heavy traffic, however, the same
minimum toughness should prove sufficient, owing to the cushioning
effect of the bituminous matrix. No maximum limit of toughness
need be considered for any traffic
In the case of bituminous concrete roads, where the broken stone
and bituminous material are mixed prior to laying and consolidation,
it generally appears advisable to set a minimimi toughn^s of 6 or 7
for light-traffic roads, instead of 5, in order to insure that the frag-
ments of rock which have been coated with bitumen shall not be
fractured under the roller during consolidation; and 12 or 13 for
moderate and heavy traffic, instead of 10 and 19, as in the case of
water-bound macadam roads.
Bearing in mind the fact that availability, cost, and various local
conditions may often modify the selection of proper limits. Table III
may be used as a general guide for minimum limits of French co-
efficient of wear and toughness in connection with bituminous broken-
stone roada
Table III.-
-Minimum limits of physical tests of rock for hituminous-road
construction.
Light to moderate traffic.
Moderate to heavy traffic.
Type of road.
French coefficient of
wear.
Toughness.
French coefficient of
wear.
Toughness.
Brolran stone with bitominoos
carpet.
Bituminous broken stone with
seal coat.
Bituminous oonerete with or
witlioutaeaiooat.
5- (not over 8 per cent
wear).
7- (not over 6.7 per
cent wear).
} «
7
f7-(not over 6.7 per
\ cent wear).
10- (not over 4 per
cent wear).
} -
13
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
12 BULLETIN ZiO, V. S. DE^Alt^MENT OP AGBICULTUBE.
PORTLAND CBMBNT CONCRBTB AND 8TONB BLOCK.
The moet desirable limitations for broken stone to be used as coarse
SLggregBib in Portland cement concrete wearing surfaces has not as
yet been ascertained. In general, however, it would seem that the
low limit for hardness should be no less than the hardness of the
mortar which binds the rock fragments together. At the present
time a minimum hardness of 12 for moderate and 16 for heavy traffic
would appear reasonable. In consideration of the type of traffic to
which concrete roads are subjected, a minimum toughness of 8 is
suggested.
Stone blocks are usually manufactured from granite or sandstone,
although other rocks may also be used. Specifications for granite
block adopted in 1914 by the American Society of Municipal Improve-
ments ^ call for a toughness of not less than 9 and a crushing strength
of not less than 20,000 pounds per square inch. It would appear wise
to also require that the hardness be not less than 16.
APPENDIX.
The results of all of the physical tests made on rock samples in the
laboratory of the Office of Public Boads and Rural Engineering
from the date of its installation in 1902 up to January 1, 1916, are
included in Table V, together with the results obtained by Logan
Waller Page for the Massadiusetts State Highway Commission
previous to 1902.
The rocks are classified according to their location, so that this
table shows the availability and character of the materials, as far as
they have been tested, throughout the United States.
Table IV shows the niunber of samples of material tested in the
different States.
Table IV. — Oeographical distribution of samples tested.
State.
Number
of
samples
tested.
«^
Number
of
samples
tes^d.
State.
Numb*
of
ffamnlm
Alabama..... .
29
3
14
101
21
43
30
9
167
9
122
151
23
11
41
7
72
116
Massachusetts
179
84
16
11
83
4
11
22
72
136
137
138
50
14
599
38
20
South Dakota.
11
Arlcoiift.
Mlohlg^^n
61
MftiT^ta . ,
Texas
61
Onllfnmif^.^
ntAh .
U
Colorado
Mi^i..;:::::::::::
Vermont
a
Connecticut..
MnptaT?a
Vinrtnla
401
Delaware
Nebraska
WMhingtAn , ,
2U
Florida
New Hampshire
New Jersey
WestVfrglnJa.
Wlsoonsfai
139
GeorgU
139
Mah"
New York
Wvomlnif . . .
8
Illinois
North Carolina
Ohio
<>^nada
Indiana.
3.«
Iowa
oviftbnma
Fanf^ati
Oregon
Porto Rico
13
Kentucky
Pennsyivanla
Cuba
4
Rhode Island
Total
Maine
South Carolina
8,«?l
Mfuyfaiid
» Proceedings of the 1914 Convention of the American Society of Municipal Improve-
ments, p. 611.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHT8I0AL TBST8 OF BOAD-BUILmNQ BOOK.
li
It
m
i
w
^•SS«
OMO M ^ Ok <D «6 M <e t^ ^ 90 ^j ^ q6 Oi 1^ t<I Ok ^ ,^id <D M C^ •<«• '^ ^ lO
|a3§SSSS§§i§§l§SS§§§S§S3S2§§§S
iiiiiliiiigsss§g§iiiii|iiiiii
13
sa|
»sa
•HIOO
*^d^
x$eoci
;?;3S
hJ^-^
8
I
3CJ
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
14
BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
a
o
1
ft
ft.
£
CO
ft.
5
9
E-t
I!
wo
^2 t. .
pi
f
o
¥
ai:55«a 8r:85!RS5:*
0» <-• »c « r^ ^^ oe y X or' ^_^ ^^r^^ oi
.Sr>coaor^<£'<f<iOC<*c«C4ccc>40io
r
a.
•-I rHvHCi ^(-le*
.g '^ «r 'C -^ »o c: I*: lo I- r- M5 to lb o
i§
:^ D n *
> C> «3 « ^
® sJ * aJ
5 o© o
<n S «
; ^ U. E<^ U^ r/i
:|
III
|-;g|i«|lisl ;1.
fea£8S2SS§2«S89-»J5gS~a
s?s*saass** • 8252:5
^9iooacaor>.oo^ MO lOctaDOA
OaOM>e««^OiOao»«tQ«B-«(DO'«Oac-^
r>. r«r^<ooioe«eo*OioakO'«-H ^ tf>io ^ go
^e4^eoceeee«iOoa6*o«-«ot^e«*4*4eoc«
SS5gS55558S5SSS2S2S:=:;S
o «-J»4 * '^ci ••••••
SS5SSSSfSgSIS!;3SS£ES
?8
.•11 :■§
; o o do ooddddddd^bedd
! TJ -d -o -d TJ Tj -d "d rj t3 "O "d -d ^ -d "d -o "S
3iili§iil§il§§§§ili
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF KOAD-BUILDING BOCK.
15
ass«aas;«'55ssg58||g8;||g||asg5'-sass5g82jg5;3assa|28«2s
■f^^mw^^ ^eir^C*w^w* «i4*i4^M ^r4«i4i-i«H .-« M ^ i-i ^ CO ^ ^ f^ CO C« OH ^ ^ vHACO
o«o«oeo >-4tooor«o«r««oeor««r« o»eoe«e«M»a»'«e4C« o«eoc«r«co «)<oeQt^»«t»>-4e<«r«»«aoc>«^coio
c6t^t^<£ ^^aSoScic^ <£f6c^itSoi aSfdt^ ^^cit^aSci t^tSoi'^i-^ ^_^^_^d»ciS 06 aSaS ^^ti<:iS 06 ccaSiiSt^fjS ci^
G«o»i<-oor« <«>o»c«c>«oa»a»e<« oko»^a»>-40^ oocoe»eoc«e«o«r« «r««iQO^^OkooiQOt»eo>-«'«oo«io
id t<^ 06 c> e4 ^^06 to ^^ ud o> »<^ •<> t^ ^^^ ^^ od ^ ^ to od ^_eS od «d c> CO od t^ <d ^^e4 e r4 m c> V e> to
«o-4t»ao 00 M» ««'<«• 1-4 00 CO ^c«oo-40»«oo i^ooaor«oo»eo^ e«r««»«oaoo^»*coMooioioeQt»'<9*t^
cltde4eoV^'^e4ioc4'^ic«e4^coc4'«adVe4'<«7 CO ^•dcoe6'^c4c4 cocoas ^Vc4e4e4^ r<^^ .
Zy Z. Z^ fL ^ 4
i
I I
?li
I
•as
•3
f*4 :wQo
iiiiiiilliliilri
Iss iia^^
U%
'O'Ot
:sill|6|
St.
V^*^
C3 S
2
o
2^2
2 „
IIB2
c-SisS
8 :&SS
■S'S
XI "O ^J 'CJ t^ ^J 'CJ *CJ t^ ^J ''CCJ ''O t^ ''O ''O ''O t^ ''O ^J ^0 ^J t^ '
;0Q : »
n
Jilij
qOCcqCoq 'Cxn
I
ft
j
Scot:r^^i^aot*'^>oco(OiQ*<
<l^9Cles[eQe9c9e$Mmc«oDe««Qc
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
14
BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTCBB. ^
a
o
1
I
O
8
c3
t3
©•
5
H
f!
WO
Oh O
S:::S*a 8t:8^SS5!«
o» ^ »c ac 1-^ ^ oe y « or' I- (3>
«c>«o»c«<»»-o>-f'«>wor*c«i^
•5SIS22SESSS2S22
feags2ss§2«889'*j:3S*a
SS*a35a52*» • 8252*:
r<>OkiO<oacaor««0'^ coo •owoctoo*
2h li i^ 2^ 2^ li 2h i^ ^ '-^./-vSS '^ ^-v2 ^ * ^ *
oaoioe«^'^OM»aor«io«^«oo^03c^
t» r» r» <o o lO caeo iO *o Ok o ^ «^ »i4 MS « ^ oo
2§S?lll£§§22Sii5SSS
^6660666666660^6606
•S^.S-S-S'S^'S
3i§il§iiiiiii§iiiig
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING BOCK.
15
ass«aaj5«55S2|5§||g8;||g||asg2'-2agS55g82jg5sa«5«3a|28«ss
£ ^ ££ £
c«o«oco «-iiooor«e«»*tocor««»* o»eoe«c«>oo»'«e«o«
a£ r<: r<r o» ^^06 oj Ok 0(5 c» «o od <d o^ a6 o t^ _^e4 r>r o(J 0(5 tJ (o od ^ r>^ ^_
^^ »H 1^ »-• CV* *H ^^ 1^ »H li^ ^^ •H »H »H t-i •H ffSH wH t-i ^^ fH li^ pi^ ^^ »H C^
o«coe«t^co aO(Ocor«t»r««^c«r«t^ooc9'«eo>o
^o» 00 00 00 00 ___(>• aOaOooaoact»QOakt»oo^i*QOoIok
e«akt»oor« <«>o»e<«e<«oo»o»e<« o»o»^o»>-40^ oo«oa»QOC«c«e<«»« ot^ouao^-vokooioer^eOf-i^ootoio
•d r^ od c5 c4 ^_^oi6 •« ^I « of ^i to 1^ ^^^ t«i 06 ^ g5 «5 06 ^^ci od «rf d eo od r'i «d ^^ci c5 •H « c5 •* o
«o^t>'ao ooio««^-40oeo ^Cioo«HO»«oo r«QOoor«o0»«o^ e4»*<or«oaoo^»«eoMooioioeot»'<9*t^
e4iOc4e«5V^'*c4«dc4"*«o«e4^foe4'«<«od'*e«'*^eo'«<'»deoeoVc4c4^eoeo .
w w C/ C^ iQ
I I
14
2
s
III
lil
I
i^^^iQ^ c
I
•I
teQ.:3HH0-Cr.-r«
o;3«p«i^
5
111 si
ill
£u$<
%^
2J-S
li
fi|all|l;|:|4i^|ii2
I
!^
Ml
: 3 cic^ W £3 £a c^c^^o 3 W 5 c^
S865c
JJ.CJ
aao«D0Q*-4O
sliii'iisiitssil
pt^9eo^r^•-^^-ao^-^lOeo(0>Q•o<poe
4Scoc)^eQeS8SN^SSe««ortS^S
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
16
BULLETIN 370, U. 8. DEPABTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
a
o
1
4S
ft,
8
i
o
o
.8
5
ft.
4
t§
o
■S u
'rs
o
8
■I
ft:
I
>
H
•-4
»
li
li
Oof
^ o
1^-
S$SS37$g^3S;$gSgS2e^^SS9;;a2S3§§S§S3S||
eo'^Ok t««^u3e><io a»«D i-^oooQ^ok
ScSSSs -'S'^*s''2;:s«s
lo^rco o»o«o»t» •-"« r*i-eoQCO»io«» o « o» 'T ao et o r- ■>•• '^ 'T
<d o» 90 Old « od lb cj ^cQ ad e4 •^ e>< r^ id t«' ^ c4 ci c» 9» e4 9» ^ ^ V ^ o^ e$ «{ ad 0
io ^ ^ <r c4 V t ^ CO ^ o V CO m ro ci «d cj ^ CO cQ ci e4 r<| c4 (d <d c< ad ci c< c4 ^ ^
i?j::S5S8S§
IP
-iSSSSsSS SSsS^SSSSSSSSSS SSSSHSS
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OP ROAD-BUILDTNG ROOK.
17
toOOOl^
ssr:
•oeoeooo le «h
,^ ,-1 *H t-i w«-« C*'-' C
to CO CO t^ «^ «i4 CO r« Ok 00 o to o 00 o» «o eo lO Ok ^ lO
t^ CO wa «3 lo »<^ Ob c4 '^ otf t^ ^ id eo ^ vH «$ ej »<^ <d lo
eoo<o^aO(oeoc4emor«t»f^cO'<«>iO'<«'C9C«ioeo
•d CO d ci 1^ id ^ ej 00 -^ iQ 01$ 00 e> cj e>3 «5 CO e4 «d r<:
d 'd *id«i *•* *e<lco * * d e>3 ci d .4 ^' cd <d
2SSSJIS§S§I«SSSSS§§SS3
111
I.
00
?i
I
M
.IT
III
0\
•o-og^i?
31693*— Bull. 370—16 2
?282SSoSS^§SSS§gS*S$2|
ss»;38 ssass
«^Sa2253a'0*'*«*2*
nioiooooco otoooeoe^f^^meocookio
id o5 0^ od o5 06 -_^o6 06 «5 o^ 1^ od 0(5 «d oo -! <d «d(
OMoococoo^eoo f«ooo»^^eo co^eo
»«o«<«>ioOeo«4«t» aookf^^M»0 loeoi^
tddddedej-^'d^^^^-^ddodcd^^idd^ d
^VVv4PO«W 00 00 00 00 R* ob do Ok (O o« Ok ob ^j
RhO
;lil
iS-<
'O'O^^'O
d do*
%i
4 .O3o-<fi
55*9 000 o^ -g
' 1 1
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
18
BULLETIN 370, U. 8. DEPABTMENT OF AGBICULTTJBE.
a
o
1
4
•2i
ft;
^
5
•2
a
a
o
1
H
P
w
o
u
>
u
n
II
li
III
Pn o
r^^rc^cralSSS's-^^sSSaS^^Rft
acs;«a2 as 3s
^^.^^..^^....^^.^^^^t^ i>I r^ <d oif t^ ^_^^; orf ^^o(! 1-^ ttf r<r oi ^^ic c<
e<«4De<«to^«(X)(X>^o«-i«-i«-i^ookC«r«'«c«aoc>«
c4e4clc4cle4»^^coe4c<lclc4c4c4«4cl^e4M3i4f-i
4 r:SSS9;S^e;S$2SSaS^& Q%
4^ SSSSsSSisSissSSSS s§
a.
§
-<Q-<
I
QpQpQtZiQ
oHoc
C -
©•o ...
»J C O O O ® ©
I. ~
fH (^ C9 d) IQ QO t-<CI«Hr4 1^00 •^P^
sas'-ssgEsss**
a sas 22<*n
1^ «0 C« fimO O <0 CO OO CO c«
e4e4cle>le4co«>eoc«^id
SSeSSi^SS^giSS
SoSSSSSSS^S^S
L/ o o o_g o o o c .
;fc "O "o -o "d tj -o "O "d ■«
isiigggiiii
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF BOAD-BUILDING BOOK.
19
Sa5aS'5S2a2_JsSISS8S2SS
o«^rH <oooaot»ak^<ocoi^e«t^oor«io<0
aoe«r« t»eooe4oc<<ooeooooc«a»eo
»^ »H *H i^»H »H 1^ •^ 1^ »M »H yi^ «i4 ^H ^H vH *^ *i4
ao^'«oeoa»r»coao <o »ii« c< c« eo oo o <o
o6 r-i lo ^ o t'i ^ w c5 _,_^cl CO »^ oJ 00 00 o6 o»
I0^«0-«0>i4 0<0t« ^ 00 «0 "«' 00 to O CI
^ lO d CO CO •« -4 1-i ei ^^lo cl lo 'T ^ '^ lo ^
29^12 s;i;ss::sss:ss^2Si So SIS
oioiSio
!5^SoS^SgS§o^»JJf28RSl2?2?2
J9
Si
pq :Hon
o o o o o o
^£2> :
Ilia
Upl^ilillii
il§^sisslisili§lsiis
e«osfi*<>
SSSo
CO flOtDCOCO
..^^.^^.^^..^^^Mi e4 o6 cj
Ok«OCO cicoot*
e4 MJ d ^e4 -^ eo « ^_^
CO r^ i>i ,„^ • eo d ,^
S8 Se<;:;SS
^^*H 1-1 ^_^«H *i4 1H «H t-l
O ci
1^11111.1
'Sl'O
ill
. I
5
o3
AaoAaocsc9?4*t>oo
8« e^ ^iQ^oi
^«e r«ak^^ «
IOM» l^t^CIC
>-^»^ 00 ^^-^ uj <d a» ^_ ^ ^^
a» cocoeook oooM^
^ ^^eg 00 1^ o6 ,^t^ «o "0 1^
CI oo»io«o »«a»t«c9
od ^eo "^ "rf -^ ^lo CI r<: CI
d ^ci • • • I
ih
S..
8S
pass
•^ S Ir 3I!;S 2 "<ca is? js 2
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
20
a
o
S
ft;
ft.
<3 I
S §
2 1
to i
I
o
5
•s.
I
»
BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
I:;S*28 2*22* 58t:*S5*2S23S251l2aS;a?5S8 2S2S222S:
SI
fe2
«5a
C c- *
P- o
§
i:r« «Da»u3co^(0 oa^oo^oi^o^ «sokO*ookao •C'^ r«a»i<-o>0'^
l"OO^OI'-«'»
sSg-2S3l5 2*5S!2S 2S2r!S2r35-SSfcK!«35So3Sf2?2S5f2eeSSSS
.a --^
0 0&.2--
-0*0
2
ili
.OJD
1^ J E »
§ cr Si^'C49 o-H-a^^ A pr P p-o-n'O'OT: P Pr co-o—
Soffl^;»H
ttjffi lowJSKpaWH
'*->0e30000000r' <3>r^ e o o o o ti.; w
pSMffiPQO
t^ d_J g d d d d d do odd d d d d P P d d d d d d poo
S "^ >'5 '^. '^. '^. '^. "^ "^ "^ "^ "^ "^ "^ ''^ ''^ "^ "^ . ''^ ''^ ''^ . "^ . . "^ ''^
Si
00 C
53
§•§'§■§'§
III
III!
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING BOCK. 21
■0»«r«iOioe9iOt<»oe»*<oooaD o
*^ieioooooio>-«<o<oo>-4coaoiocoao«DcoeoMC9i-4«-icooocot^*ooi*ii«cei-4eQ^*mOcoc9^ooooakco»ot»coaoco«
^4«-« ^i* «.4«.4v4 fN f^ f^ IM 1^ IM f-l
«oe«eeie»«^e««oe«a»t^«oioiHao(Oi-4r«akcoa»a»^okeot»oo<Dao«o«DfN^iO'<«>«ooak«o^t«i-i*H«)t»«-^'«aoci g
a
"8
&
?ll
^1
II
sal
noRn
£0
on mon
So
.2£.S£.2
pQCpacw
:oA^
555555-2555555 05 055 ooooooooooooodddddddddddddd
•O TJ TJ ■« -O "d •« -O "d •© "O "O "O "O "O •© "O "O "O -O "O •© "O "O •« •« •« -O •© -O -O "O -O "O -O "O "O "O "O -o "^ -^ ^ -^ -^
dddoooodood'sdd'^ddee-^-^-S'^dddd-S-Sd-S-Sooooo
do
sssssssssssssssssssssssssssiSiisSSsssSsisisSsssssssssi
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
22
!
ft;
CO J;
-^ 3
.^ O
'X3
8
ft;
I
H
5
BULLETIN 370, U. S. DBPABTMENT OP AGRICULTURE.
ti
li
n^
to CO to 00 00^
r«> ic CO CO CO CO e r» lo o o r«o i> «o ao eo o« lO oo i^ o M co or^o*ooco le e«
^,,t>« Q«J •^ o(J ot5 1^ lO orf c«! oJ oi ^...^ oJ ^..^ oi f^ o» orf »o r>i od 0» o» oi ,^^
QOOkOkO lOt-iQOOso^^Oiec'wt^aio a» t« eo a> C4 pi ca Tr t» o -^ co <» -^i » o Xi
•d MJ kfj eij ^,.,^,,^''3 eor^c«*a(f»o««^t£jQO''5oi«d ^^^,,«,^^,,^o<5 ad»o«05D»o*0'^r^«i~GJo^Voeo
OiQOQO^ co«»MMOi3oa^^ooo*4i» u><D(eacito<Dr>kOt-ii'-ieoaam-io*o
|?5S^S2 ?§SS5^SSS^_S?;S fiSg5g?s?;3JeSfega®s:gsg
.SiTi^tOv t£ i;^ ^ t^ c5 ^ ^^ a5 t~>'^r« f- cOfOtD to x«& isocio @ «p CD ^ <c 9 ts
^5
= S £
Sptc
" o
5
gddcdddd
3'^'O'O'OXJ'O'O
555
-<-<'< :< :<
cm
:?ix5
22
. S d d c d d d d
£ g : : ^ : . ! ! :
CSS
m
"S :5 : : o^ £ ® 3 3
U .CD . .S^SCSr^fi.
H
c o
lsss§i§siiiiilS'§lsSIS8il§i§iiiiiillsii
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF BOAD-BUILDINQ BOCK.
28
R«5!a85^ss;:22ss»_8*»^
ciaSeit^ti ^,^^^06 06^^06 060606^
Oft >-4(0<oo^fHa»^o>oo»QOc^«e^«
e6 ^^co •J -4 Ok M^ Ok ^ r«* »<^ od otf d t^ ^ ^ e4
e^ c4io-«>o«^oo^ry«iQt^e«aoo»^
^ ^.^ eo rf •• d -^ irf mS iO 'T •♦ rf irf ei t| jrf
civici
If
4on
Pi : :p3p:
000
I'S'S'
1^
illlSPililiii^s^s
^ooor^OkcitD
JS
«oes^«o»es«
9s**a«
«o«HOioer«e«ooi
^ fH fH *i4 «>1 ^4 ^4 ^
«{c^e>IV^«4e>lr^V
^»sgS3?sess
I±5qS
Jl!
Jil
I^S'S
lltfS^^
J1<
« : :m.3
ill
IP
^^llll
§§iiiii§§
Sfe&3**2_28feSJ3
So 0
«C9C^ ^ (OOC<4DaO
«J •< e^ ^.^^oJ ^d irf '^ «< '^
•O « 00 00 O 01 CO 09 <«• «0 O 00
«0«o9r«ooov^i-4C«r« '^
ssssssssss^^s ^
•4e4cl *
36
1^4
U'-S'S'S
i-8-3
3^'0^ I
i
, III
•5 -'aaS : * •
m :popq : : :
i^s|li§§i§
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
24
BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGBICULTURE.
ft.
c3
8
o
a
? o
O
V.
I
If
ri
^1
CO*
roOe>«o
•-4ioor«o»0kQexoo^»arooo>o»o«4C«ot^c>«r^oi^e<«r«^*ot»io ex
o « ^ CO od ^^-"p q6 1^ ri «> ^ •« «> •* QO « io io CO » c
!l
i-^--
10^
MS**
5
I
i
sSS99%$?:2?8S^$^S9^s;& JSS S;SSS3SoS!::£S9SgSS3l3
a
5^1 !-§•§'
S5 : "5
ccoooooo
^•c ^ xJ j« -^ "C "C — "Cts 73 -o t;
o .0 -u
fe-oj
ISS
2
If
O OSTPQ
€•§^1
5S^
•eili
!•§•§
mono
>< «o M u) to to «> g> io cor« A ^ o
!isiliil§§iliiiiilii§i^li
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDINQ ROCK.
25
««iOOi«r*gieokaoa»4Dt«iook^io«^«ao^^i^^ioor««9oo»«io<o0»r« « t»(0(0<o uaooco <o^<oao
•as
a»i^coe««^oo-40k««ookeoc9or«aoonMOioe<«eot»eo9»u»coioaoooeo<^ »« oooO'V Oior^ oe«o«
CO *6 <o mS CO 00 00 e4 e^ iO <o ca m iQ m ^ ra Ok Ok ^ '^ Ok eo (-^ o '^ CO V V ^ o CO lo ^ ^- <^ ^^
okaor»e«e««e«^M»^eoc«aoak0^i^«iec«<oc«r<>r«9»eQi-iQOMt>-r«io^r<>ak^r«i-iaoot^co«^o«oc«-<«'aooo
iOl^ckoa6■^^c6^^0kO»ak«oa6^^^«dM$^!u5u5«dt^«dloa6odQ6r<^»o^^afta6c5>^a6^^^«^^«de4c>a£r<^r^o
oo *i4 ^ Ok Ob t- oe CO 00 flo CO
^ i6 ^ 00'^ e4 e4o lo ^
^ Ok M» r* o O M CO t^ M lO o« o 00 oo Ok u) to o c« c« 00 r« o r« lO r« '« 00 o ^ o o CO «o GO «o o 00
■^ <^ -^ i6 Ok « ^^ i6 ^^ r^ <d >6 <o (d <<^ -^ ^ lo r^ u5 ^ •« CO 2^ <« a6 uS CO e4 <^ r^ ^ u9 lO »o CO '^
' ' ' '^ ' *«6eed&^cie4f-4eoe4«Ne<c^«4 *p4e<e<eo^e6t^e4>4<^eo>Jclcl»4«H ' ' co e4 m$ i-4 i-i ^ co 'ci * * "
I
if
^^^^ J O^ OP o o B o^ o^^ o o o o o o o
iSil^ll
lliigiliiliiiiiiiiiiigliigiiliiiiggiiliiiiiii^iiii
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
26
BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPABTMENT OP AGBICULTUBE.
a
i
^
S
:s
-^
ft,
8
O
8
o
o
-§
§ i
€ g
2 \
I i
t5
o*
5
ft;
H
5
If
a
ill
P^ o
^ o
§
'A
i
i
Sg3S5S?5S8352S2S§S?SS5SS88
tCixgctorox) a»kO00«Dt<>a09OC«o*A
0» !>• CO t^ »o r>- eocooo»^ot^cce*oceo
ak<^^o»^ror^t^a»e4o6t^^<i5t^a6Q6t4c4ao
^••"••eortO^ooweoOi-ieoaoMr^t-i-twt-
•^^cO'«»^c»5»ow3^coK5u5^»OM5'r'rr<i^'r
I
5SSSSSf2SgSSi3S;23f2SE?SS
.5
Jooooo^g^ooogoooo^
« o o o o o
C -3 XT TJ -O -3
•S2f
Q-1
Hill
CO .ucqm:
• aa'oo^ loooo
p
13
a. o o o o o
. •nS'O'a'O'a'O
^W-<
:ps.»^
g^iigiiiiliiigsiigii
SlS;?S$S2«S9^g;?;;
Meoooca oocoe«aoo>H
^c5 ri ^ ^ ,_j* •rf «tf eo ^ ^
P4 ,14 *4
SS?3S3f?Sf2f:SSS
! O 05 O OS
|g§il§ii§jliSI
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OP ROAD-BUILDING BOCK. 27
QOt»aoor»Qoair*QOoaiooi^i^ io<o<0<o(ocoo*^r*i>4a»aft t«o*ooaifHOi^toao«oooaoo
oo Ma <o 00 o ■<«• 00 r« e«i
ooaot^eoiOM»o^«HOeQ^e«oo eoi^eoak««oooeoooo «oe^ooi-4eor«ac«<oe4'«ocoi-ieoeoooooO'««o
*H ^4 1^ Vi^ iH ti4 f^ «>4 *H vH f^ f^ ^4 *H C^vH f^ *H vH ^^ 1^ fH vH (^ *N P4 P4 ^^Si^ ^4 ^ ^4 tH fH vH «>4 ^H ^4 yim-l ^14 ^i* vH f^ ^4 ^14 i>| f^
Mi^e«e«eo«eooeoeoeo«ooioe«iaoooco^co>-4eo^eoc« ioe*o«i4 «)O«i-ioO0»t^t^«aooi^or^aoooc^oei^o«oo
^^ <pJ ^ QO ^ •-« o 06 od (-i oj e» eS vH •« ^I oj m5 otf r<^ eS e> c> «4 ^^d o» ^i ^ ^r<^ c4 od od cj V Ok Ok «c> 1^ to ^^ «D e4 <d Ok ^
f^*^ l^fHlM 1-1 1-4 «^,^,^>7«-,H 1-4 1-1^ »i< *i4
«-<r«OkOki«it^oooo*oi^>oe<«4Deoi-4oo^w<DeQa»r«M» oo'voto e«ookiot^4D«-ic«oookOt«oc«r*iO<o*f4 0coc« •
I<$06c4^edc«$eo^^e4^^^cda6><5^r^^i^^e4coc^^^c4^e4c4^^><5ed^<«c^ad^ VM5<d«dM5«d V<d^^MJ(^cii^ 5
^83S;^:$S?SSSSS;S8SSS;!:S?:SSSS^SS^S3SS$fS:SS$S!$Ss:^SoSSSS^^S^$S8SSs^ «
• o^ o o o oiS og 6 e o Q o o o o o S d'S _ _ _ _
a :g ::: :i :| :::::::: '.•3 :'p :: : :&§ :g :g§g : :g : :3
« :P
o o o p»j-g e^j o !
it
i
t!
ip^^o
i|ilili||i|ll|^lliiiliiWi|iiiilii
lliS§llsisliiiilili§S§§ll§l§si§l§§lili§i§pii§iipiii
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
28
BULLETIN 370, U. 8. DEPABTMENT OF AOBICULTUBB.
l
S
a
CO
1^
cs
o
6*
>
I
1
tql
€lS3
'I
t=r
i
'A
r> 9 90090 ^atao^ti7't'a»*a*at^t^ao*an>at-^c*-^^t^t^to*o*^e**fi0 90i»G»
r»oc4r>«fiQQo>o^«'^c«n-<t'e>i«D«oe^<«cOQO^C4«DL'3QCicenoaaa<^aor*'«ot^9
$SS£S^$^Si3^S^^3§S$$SSSS$Sl^SSSSSS«SSSi2Sg§^?!
O O C
tax) o'
II
II
'I
If
^o.goojodiooood
.Si ;^ : :t2 : :5
i
if
I d ooo o5'<i K
So
ilf
^ii-
11
II
UOQ
111
Pi
Iti
123
UK
iliii^iiiiiiiiiiiiiisiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK. 29
^akioaooow4aot*oo^e^akt*t«<D»K^<Doo»ie«»io»^r*t«Okooao ook«« ^
r*^«cooo^»^oo
»i«oo oo^e«^Okcoioooooe«r«»cookr«i«akc«t^o<oc4t^t^r«c«P49)oo coooo csr*e««oooo^coa»o
•o«4*oakaoe<»t^«oco»M»«io*ooe«e««<oo<ooo»i4 0occiidC«OM»o»oot^>o^coe>«i»mt^oa»eoa»QO r«»o
•o^ioi^^ioao»o»ioe«^e«e«^cor«c«t^o<oo^t>*r»coc4<ooaoo^o<oooeoeoa»ocoe«it^M»cooook c<<o
■4 <^ e^ e^ CO ej fH CO ej V V CO ei CO -^ -^ !>: !>: ad o -^ -^ 00 e4 ei e<S -^ icS V c6 -^ lo -^ -^ 09 m -^ CO t>: CO
SS3SSSS3S3SSSSSS3SSSS3SSSS3S$3SSS9l3?3S$SSf;sr:?SSSS
Digiti
zed by Google
80
BULLETIN 370, V. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
I
e
►?
^
I
I
C<5
g^
4S
I
H
•J
n
<
i\
51
8993XSSIi;SaXS&S»B9
I!
i!
ii
00 «j t^ o CO CI «4 fo le <e e4 ^ -. atf r^ <e m' od «S orf i«^ (^ Mi
O
^1.
a,
I
5|
c 8
C.3 -o :C : cEfgf ■ • •5o ©a
o
M^ooi^ooooobbod
•5 O'O'O^'dTJ'O'OTJ'O'OTJTJ
Q
■p
ii
•sll
<5
il
ill
S9SI$SSSSISSSS
•0 M lOfO jg t« •;«'«•» M <«•
0»Maoc9eo>-4«ooi<«eo
c4^id ^ o^ atf ^ « VW W
» cse<ie««oeo<o«o
i^^^il
iii§§!iiiii
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHT8ICAL TESTS OP BOAD-BUILDING BOC^.
81
Br- SO».-«;s;
Q»F40F4«t«t«^t*Q« QaofOao«-]-4*Ok«k«»Ok«OQio
23"
00 <d V id V V ^,,.^^..,,^,^^ eo <d t<^ « t>: oi e^ e^ id id MJ ^ ^ id e4 h^ 1^ id CO <d 0(5 Mi ^^^ c6 t>r CO <d V
^»4c0^tH '"4i-S • • * 'f^ • • • '^^^^ '^^,4 'oj • • • '^ • • '^rir^
3SgSSS|g|g|SggSgggS§gg§SgSggg|SggSg|g|ggS
iiS§ililllP^iiiiiiiii§iii§llili^liil^iii
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
32
BULLETIN 370, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
a
o
1
p
►?
8
§
8
o
5 5^
'X3
<^
3
8
i
I
>
H
1-4
A
<
O
P
S a
III
0
Cm O
i
o
U
•C 3> « •O 0> « 5C
r<i ^ ec c* :c I - rt
^«)xor<«o
or 3r «»- I- I-.
'^'* S ^ ^ ZS 2
ci pi ri o oe -< lO
e* -^ « « I - « M
> to '£• "* O "t '^
83
2|
■St? |s
n2
a:5Sr25S?JaS33SaSS85a8S5-'SS£22S
t^ »^r*'*i^OQ — jj-^xcj — c<«or*i^ior^^o»o^ao
00 ocoi>.^^-*«aco*'»t^eot^r>.oc^ai»i-.QO«ac
»^^o<o«o»o«^^'*o»o •OiOOC4 0kr>-ak«-ic«*ao'<«>io
•o lo "* ** c^ « c4 ei eo ei « c* ^^eo CO ^ • « o "* CO ^ CO CO ^
d
0CP4C^e^c^i«csr>>ao:f>t«:f>QiciQC4aoc<ic«C4p«C4aeiQC«
sis
i
miiiii
3 oz; o
^S2_ - -
oooooooooooooo o o o
•o -d -o -o "O -o ■« -o -d -o tJ -o -o -o "O "O -d
llill
a1
§'S'§€-S
llSlllllt
.l|lii|l|liifl|lil
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING BOCK.
33
aoi^r«o^4 ^loaor**-!^ M oooo •o«oc«oor»eeeoooot^ao oo»e4a» to ci u» oo lO oo lo o t^
w !L/w WW w WW
^»r^eoooeo'«c«^or««-4oeooM9<ecie4r««^o«^eoioa»oa»e»fHa»t^t>*M90t^<o^^^t^<0'<«>r^<ot^
•«0;5ar;e4aio6c3rf'^g6o5r:;S:^;^;i»^S9J5S2Sri;iS5aS»«^*^;^
cooc»'«oeocq^O"40oa»ie'<#r»<e<et>*ci<er«c«cooocii^aoa»«4««4t^oaoo<oa»eo<ooooeoc«i0^i-i
"* ■ ■££ "£ ' ' £ ~ - • • •
I
1
sSiS3SS2S8SS_SJS§J2ISBS|8i23S§3a£s3S3SsS£SSS
■8
is .
® ®
"S'w
4Ja^'a6
P
-9
25ooo§S§5w
lilll
§•§•0 i'S'^ K.o.§.§x>/d'0'C|
^•S-8'
•O'd'O'O'cj'O
l-S||-S'S
rill
•d-o-J
i-S-S
SI
1
I
Is
SSSs
w|h
aum-K
::f :ll||fflr|3|
I
3
I
al^^
!
iiiiiiiiliir='r^ii^iiiliiilllliiliiiiliiiiiiii
31693*'— BulL 370—16 3
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
34
a
o
t
s
c5
8
I
5?;
•~ a
•a
■§
5
S
I
n
<
BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTUKE.
9*3
IJ
a"
ill
f=a
o
15
ss
r4<cgo»coQ»QCDoeoe«wc«ooak o:#a» to
•-•w t-<
r* ao CO X X, f
_o X o X >': x
ona»iooo^>-iotociioiQC<iec>oi-4aoMAO»eoo«&e«'<«>e>«a»aOQO^oe>«^a»'<f<aaomm
oe4^cJnoccoa6^fC^i-^«6r4c<e6eo<£a6cco>ofiO'X«e^O'^ooe4ak<;£od-^«^
oOdci^ookaocicD-<raboeQOaoioo^M300<oooc«io*^a»aooaeQ<^<^»«t«xo
^eQa^tcm-^p«nci«9c4*-<e9cir;|aodeQC<^«6'<^c<C<c<e4^«6irc<0«Oec^«4e6M
s:22t?SR^^^ ?;S^^SS;2Sf3$S3SSS8::SSS)§^S22?:S3S$9?3$
"2 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ « ^ ^^^ ^ ,-1 ^ ^ ^ ^ ,1^ •N ^ .IN »-« f^ f-» t^ t^ rH tH »-HM -^ »H »M 11 1^ »* Il S S S
illll
III
J= O
2 3
-P-2
*5
CMDd
ill i» .
t^ r ? s s §■«.
l4
s!l
'l-S-S-S
II
.§2
i:
3
f
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING EOCK.
35
»*'"asaS-»««£3»S3»«aSa»Sg assess 8Sol^3*^8S2aa23S!32*-S?52?3
oooaoe«ooo^eotoo«4<e«D<eao^ee<oOiOOeoe«»««e«eoc«^oe«it^eoi«><ot<-e«»^eo<Me«M»M»oa»c«o
«eoc«»Mco»c«»^ioe«Oeor«OMvoc«io^<o<e«M(eao-«oaoooe«goooa»ooo»aoeoaoc«oo<ooocsao«»c«co«4
«6o<c«e6eQe«e4c«c«^e4e4>4e4e4e4cJeic6«4e4i-Sf4e4^^i4ei«4e4e4i4e4«4«4,4«4«4c4keeee<«9c4weoMo6eoM
^ o ^ ^
s
la
ilat
am
c2"c
ail
:5Ja5
Is
Hi
.ss
■5 ~
o
fflO
M
^6
o j-ga : '.OS ■
111
1^
i'd'a'd'O'd'd'd'd'd'0'0
•S'O'S'O'O'S'O'
:•§•§■§ 1
I
'o^'O'U'OO'U'U
•§•§
!N^
itmmiimmumimmimumimmiimm
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
86
BULLETIN 370, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
•2
a
i
8
ft;
o
a
to
£
>^
1
ft:
n
<
Eh
1
CM
jo<No-j^g^gj553352gi2S2^«822 SSftS^
fs
§1
^J3 .
IP
•So
^«i«r«r«««oicaot>*r>>eMC>it««tf>
•oo r>>aoeow
CO c«i wi CO JO ^^oc CM ^^^^^o»<b^i>!t>^«bid^^t^»^d^«ri>it^«
c«a»coo>ao OC.-I C4 CO to r» lo f-4 o t>»eoo»r»t^c«i^o
ci ^ r^ o ** ^^yf to ^^^^^^'^ « eo wi "O « r^ „^«d •>«' «o C4 ci to •«> <o
f """^ """"^ "^
I ^^
:j5 ;
®2
^ „,■—.-. S ■'^ £j 4> H ci ?Q .
^ .- .laii^*5|||i|
"c5 OS s^ o:j ; i.l^-- ^ B-^ ^ffi
lifers
oe«aoaoiO-«
oeo^«iNC«eo
ff RS5
S78S^3
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAJ>-BUILDING BOCK.
37
S«ca2^SSSS^
^Okr*ooo»oooot«
».,_.^_.^__ ^_0> 00 00 Oft Ok 00 00 00 00 ^
7>{^*>|P«^^<>^7>*H ^14 fH <^ *i4 A fH p4 «H ^
o6i-iid-^^«4i-4
oo^aoooaoMr*o<o<er«t»^>«o««DC«i«^ eoe>«OfHO«4i«oooo^<MOeoe«^e^'-«rH^e»ao
e«e^^^«e^^^Ok«o•o^<d^eo^akMVfH^^o6^_laoake4ooooo>C2««w
^»4,^ »4,HfH»4M*H^ r^ fH d tH fH 27^ Cl pi^ «M»4 fH »4 ^ Cl^ >^ ^ fH C^ C^ ^ M tH *^
ai^i^v^M»ooo^«<ot^ao^i««ao^r*ooo»ecsooe»coc« «o*«eoooaor«ooi«*ocse4oe»ior«aoiOfH
o rl 04 CO CO M Ok •« id Q ^ c« M -^ e4 C4 cs c« c« CO cs -^t CO e« iH c^ e4 ^^-^ M •<# CO -^ -^ ee ^
S SSS) ss sss
SSi:sa^SSg(
£.2 .2
J®^
I- ■ *
ca
Sill ill ill^«ls|i|
<o O O O ^ V
I . . . .d .
^ g &igiii
SS|Ssgpgp|Rsf|-S5=s|ssss82s|g||||||2aaaaas8ss2gs
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
38
a
o
i
P
^
ft,
8
1
^
•§
1
B
d
o
u
2
I
f7
s S
">
8
6*
5
BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTURE,
^« 89 ^^ znn 8 as
^1
m
^
^
O
1»
5^
s s s
SSf!
SdSS So So ^^f^So fS.
"CO Jo?3
It
I
:oQ :mq;;<q :o
d d ofitO dodddddd&<
K : : : : : i : : :k
|g|S^&8gS||SSgg|Sgg?§SS35JS|n2§S2SSg5:S5*|SS'
S S
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING BOCK. 39
S S««« S »SS
8S« a
*538
>aoroo»o-«^^e«^^i«e«<ooooiOio^e»e«^«i-4ve^t«ao«oio«eoooc«oe»ior»ooioa»a»r«e4Kdioao
>ioa»i^ioeot^e»eoooao^eookioa»i»QO<otoa»f-ior^io<et^oo«<-4t>.«DMi-ia»«oao<or*a»t^QO<-ioake>«oa»
pc<e«e«e««Dc9*-4eo^c4c«c«c«c4^-^e6<D'^flecicir4cde<e4<4^e4t-«r4e4'^cor4e4e4i4^^^F^
iq! 9S9;3 ^ S SSS 3&S9S SS SSSSSS
!
<?%^,p;_Ho
o c5
g S : i^ "^^ ►»
I
OOCQPhU
?^Oft
« T3 "O -o -d -o -o tJ -d -d -o •« -d -o "O -o "o "O "O "d -d "O -o TJ
oooo e o
o o o o p p p
I
iJIJrf
illi
I
qbS'gfiOP
(2a |!
Jllttllllill
28$g22||-8a||||Ǥpp|||-SS5g||i|||S|eS5S|2g|g||2-|
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
40
a
o
1
s
•?
g CO
5
CO
s
^
s
^
•I
H
•J
n
<
BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTUHE,
BO
ill
SI o
n
I
SS 88''
32"
Si 2h sl ^ li^ ''■'''-^sS si * ti ^ * * ^ ^ *^ *** • *^ d ^ "^ ""^ "^ ^ ^ '^ ""^ ** zi ^ ^ 5h *
^ c4 e^ c4 c4 ^-^- e4 cS -^i c4 '^ '^ -^ '^ ^ c4 Mj e4 e6 e4 •« CO c4 id eo e4 od 'w <^ CO CO c« ct -iT
SS9
a;3?5{s
S$9
SSS3
s8r-S
•32US 2
fJSSo
SS33
ssss
Sf2S
I
1^3
^ O t'sS t
6ol|?
til
3
II
OOOOOOOc
' ® P ® -2 *— o •
O) W aU ^- .^ W V W W W W W CO • « "-^ 5' .S "^M (A •- .0 « O
-< :&h : :«<<«<noo :::::: :qo :ooao2QKa
13
11
III
2
s^;^?:
g c>:3^^^^^ J?^^5^ ®55^^^^55555^^^5^^5
H ^3 ^5 ^3 "^ ^J "O ^3 w •^ ^3 ^3 ^5 ^3 "O "O^O ^3 ^3 ^3 ^3 ^3 ^0^3 'w'O '
S :? : : i i !|
Ph .03 >
B
u
T3^TJ^^TJT3'0TJ
iilliliiiiiiiiiiii
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OP ROAD-BUILDING BOCK.
41
Mt^Moo floooor^co oie e^>o <h «ooeoooOioeoaoioieor-4r«i-ieo-<«<ooao»ocot^eoc«aoco
vi^vi^A^^^SH a a p^ j;^*^ ^H ;-«»;;<»»-HH J^T'ir^M C*w^ rH »^ r^ *H ^H *i4 ^4 ^14 p4 •-4 t-4 <^ *i4 •-4 ^H iM»i4«^P^ .^1^1^
r^ r^ id i>^ id cl ^ '^ od a» crS ^ i-l Ok t^ od Ok 00 1>^ c{ e4 »4 m io «{ e< od ^^ r^ ^ «$ e4 o» 10 «> ^ ^_^M ^ id c^
e«r«e«<eekcce»t^t^<-4r«r«^coe^«De«e»r«ofte^tot^iot«e^io»i4<oeeoe«c«(oeor« eeo<oooM3a»<o»oocif-4
siiliiiliisii§li§§gisiill
S^S^Sr^^^
3 1« ^• i-i QO o *4 e
Digiti
zed by Google
42
1
C
^
5
8
8
5
,c
3
O
B
S
5
1
cc
'Z,
'XI
^^
6
RT
w
L>
o
;§
2
5
i
I
H
Eh
BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE.
II
u
a"
•Sis
St) «
§1
^ S 3 *
B
aJ
»4i-J • • • • * '(oe4e6 "t-i '•h ' ' *^^«6 ' *f4
•I'giHSSSSSigSSSSSSSBSSsSSSSSSSSSSISSSS
sp_
^^-
|o2
!SJ
«i2
if ^ 3 o o o o o 6 o o
C3 "^ 0*0 "O "O "CO ^ "O "O '
g?^& :
■a d
II
liiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiliiiiiiiliiliiiiil
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAI>-BUILDINQ BOCK.
48
a5lS5igS::3*SJ5g*5i2g9
^ lo g cog) e^ «g <« <«• jg e« g g 00 lo le
t^e4r>oo»«iec«aoo o-^ooeotp
ci • 'od " * 'rJiM 'c^ ' * '•HO*
ss^fssssnsss^ssfsf^ss
o
CD
525
s^ :|g :s€ ;l ;s£ itt
iiiilliiiiiPII
«f* ioco-«o-«oto
«-££»:
cocot^cot^ioio«<«oa»
<(5 CO •M 1-4 c4 <o* oi is: ,4 V <x!
eoc<it^aoakoc<9co^«-i>o
«c> c* C0 1-! ■* «5 V w3 «; o' '•«*
*^ s ^
o 9 o
a c g o
<D « »
ci g 9
p p o
II
2:3SSS89$S
eo^ieeo o»ao
S £
>00»«CO 00*0
•-4<Di-4co<Daoco*o
Ok oc « CO t^ r» cio«<
Vo(5<tfoio(5coVi<S
gsgggssg
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
44
BULI.RTIN STO, V. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGMCULTUBE.
■H
a
t
c
^
5
o
5
§
2
^
*^
1
PS
o
.S^
Wj
b
OJ
-^
s
g
o
2
t4
m
e2
C «9
r^
^ -si
Co*
it
$»s&s&„sa:t;!;gs_;$ssss9$!33$s
« •« c* c« CO 00 lO uxo-^r^o jHoooktO^ «f*io^
D'^'TO ga
«r C4 •^ o >o CO r« ^r^«o^M3 «t^«0ooe« eot^t^Ok
« ''5 V e< V r^ i>J ^^«tf m <c to uj ^„.oJ '•«'•« cj rf ^-^^-^S •^ ^ '^
cocctc>o<-i«oroo»«act^^«-iaoaO'«-«c«coeoaciiec«eot«
!9^£8SaffiS8?SJS&3 28SSS?3f25SS5S
^3
g
ft.
:£a :S :^S^a :al :>S iSs
R*§S
c6a6tDr<^
«o>o«oo
§§§!
I
9
isi
11^
5o >
^
:n
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF BOAI>-BUILDING EOCK.
45
£8
■"SSr -
(d >^ -^ <« lO lO *H eo d «# mS
833S33SSSS2
CO
-<
OS
n
H
2;
S<S'S'§
•§|.§'"
i«i4
:S5 :«^,S :-< :
lliiiiiiiii
5i.e.c«/
00 1^ <0 ^—.t^OQ t^ QQ QD ^^00 ^^00 1*" 00 CO t»»
r4 *^ *H O^ vH ^i^ *H iM J^^^ii {^^^14 ^4 ^4 iM r4
^•IT'CT
<Dcoa»t^e«»«cooot>>a»eo-«>^aoou30»-ooooo
MMOO»eoaoioe<oocoooie««D<oooo»^ot^t^-
eo CO -^ i^c< >J M ej «« MS 2 ci CO CO <««o cj CO -^ '^ M CO
^ £
33SSonSoo«3SSSSSSSSwwSf^S
13
:.--^5
>W :«!ya.o<:o'rj5
::4n
Hl^
> o o o o H P o
Td-q'O'd'C'CJ'q
:4
^€
eo CO eo eo ;^ O ;H 5
issas
iiiS
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
46
BULLETIN 370, V. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AORICULTUEIE.
i
cS
8
O >:
09
a.
q:
C3
u
C/^
•-»
t^
■J
^
w
c«*
:<!;
a- a
n
_2y'^g2|g3J^_gSS^__g^5298c5SSS?__5, 1^2
S;i?giS«USSS S52 SiS5222i5S8Sft J5S £532
12
^^,^3C t-x X xt-t'^t-ad^_^a6«o6^
4 »i^ «4 ^ •M ^ VH liN ^ ^ •M ;~V^ «H ^
do*
Sx o
'^
^
.§
5
n
<
o
aoc<i0>aot^oxc<9ao^eoroao^ioieooao ootot^cor* ooosk m» ce <«• t« o •« r« r^ *Q c«
4 S3S22S22S 2*3^^3 8IJ8Jo2S5a::Sa ss^^^^gs^?:
.a x?^cJj«XQcab o?x3
o o o «
is:
•s
O O k. <
i^;?^
■0-3 ««
Is
II Nl
PI si
mil
oc5a-<o-<
li
I
<o?
fl :: :'H ::::::::::::::: :g :::: :
oooo»oooooooooooooho o£js o o o o o
5 :::=:::::::::::: :fe : :a5 :::: :
- • • - - • :S«S«
li
(^^4^4^114^114^4 r.4fHiM C^ d 04 C4 ^4 ^ ^O IQ lO V I09 V^OtCV
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF BO AD-BUILDING BOCK. 47
53^ S^Sc409
S;2S SSS3S
1< o
'^riO oot«>ioooco
iM<H C0IO40Q0 a» o» <o eo 1-4 lo e« t^
~rSH fH C^I^-^ ^^ i5 iM ^^C^^^^^ C^^ ^ ^ iM »^ 1-1 1-«
<o e« •M o «o o o ^ ^ CD <D r» eo »« lo o ^ o •-4 e>« « M3 1>> o CO «o o CO o t« <D CO o
s«=:28j5a52sa«^^8SJ8S8sag;s*tida8asg;i88a
•Qto«>«-«e»ioiO(0i-4e«»^t^eoiAt»o«oaciooo<o««i4cocot>>ict>>C9So»MO»
eec«eoe«^pHe«iMc4e4«-4^0k^>Me<«^^^i-4^e<«^'eoe6i-««-«i-4C4«Hi-4i-4i-«
6 6-2 oooooCooooooddoddododHrjddddd
•tj"© g'O'O'O'O'O g'd'O'O'O'O'O'd'O'd'd'O'O'O'O'O fi ©•o-O'd'O'd
Hill,-
mm
-S|||||||||^
823*223
00 -<9< t^ «D '« t» 00 OO «0 lO le
eoo6cia6o^^idt>^r<Ie4
»i4 t-* ,.4,^1-1 ^
o» 00 e« t« a» -« r« Ok CO -« c«
e«^co^eococj«e>idide9
8- I
3i
2
O) V) Q 4}
iiifl
J d d § b d 6 cj _
3'd'oS'O'O'oS'O
■II
I
5So
Si • • -
II
Eh
iliiiii^^^i
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
48
a
o
1
S
^
a.
S
cS
8
o
1 i
'^
ft;
I
>
H
e2
BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AQBICULTUBE.
1
li
go 9
S!l
^
^
■SSd
GO CO «• »o o ac eo r^QOWMOo
« r-^ r>^ r>^ 30 »o * ^^<d oc « » r^ 06 ^
1-4 eot«toot>>cie4 ooooeo «»-iaooec«
_ ^« -_^»«^ iO -^ t^ a6 c* <d -^ad Q^ 0* oJ -^_-^ »rf « "O "O
oi c<i ic ^^rt ^ ro ci w wj
mJ ^« !>." V lo « »-; « pi r^ el c< t^ ri ^ e4 « ^-^^ erf «rf erf ■• e4 c4 ■•
•i
s
1 :^a
mil
jC o d o d d d d
g5
o a
> !ddj@%doJ^dodddddndd
:w(m5
ill
iiiliii3iiii§i5SgiS||gggi|S|ggpss8SSis
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF BOAI>-BUILDING BOOK.
49
00 t«>e«e«t»ioao oe9C«^eoiMt«^oo»«ooe«oe«QOt»QOoo»o» r-tw^c*r^99f^*ocotoc9
^^t^ 'tis <d «(5 Ok «} ^ -^.^i*^^*'^ a6a5aScit^*6t^ei6a6^t6t^96ei6'^aSf6t^o6t^ -^ -. -».^-..-...^«rf ^icit^ciSoSaitdaSoS
^«4io«oieot«eoo»oooocooooa»oeeoo»eoe««eo»«co«o oo»«t»^c«aot»eoakQOe«QOoooo»^ooaot^OiH
r4»i4lH*H f-4 iM v^ ,M iM i-4 *4 *4 <H <-< S^ ,M ^ i-« iH ^ ,H iM CV CQ »4 ;;) iM v4 iM Cl *4
^^e4e4e4eQ^eo«c4^'^coide4ee4V*dc6e4e<J^m»^»-:e<J^iae<Je<Je4e4«d>d«$c4e4co^'4e<ide<Je<e4c4^'oi
^3 SSS§S§§SSS§S§§SSS§s§SSIS3§SSS§SIS SSiiSSi^^^^
'.DOQO^
3**— BuU. 370—16 4
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
50
"3
o
ft,
8
.§
ft.
t3
2
o
.8
I
.9
H
<
BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTURE.
|i
a 8
t:2
III
!l
aoc2r-'»-«<r*o>t*2eO''^a'OQO"2
»« r«io<ot«oot«oe3«o«oa»^
^'•"®-i'»fc««M'*--«o^^«o«Dac',ooe«it>-'*ooo>-raOifte<«oio^e«ic«'*ioe«
e c>^ '^ei ^ * * 'c<
■2o
•>5
SRr2isi^[^s$?3gss^s*2sSs28i||siisigiisss$s
«o «o « »>. So «o « » o» -* -r »H ^ i-i i-i ^i-4^ee*4io55<K<0<5*4<o mm f^
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING BOCK.
51
£ £ 8 Si
;S*J5«
• a'-s 3 a^« a««^r.o t^ aa8ssss-»sa s
z^ia:alz^ c^
fl ^.
tot^^t^« <D -^r-co CO (Ocootoeoixr^ocie^ ao co*ocoeoeo»oO'«^oo im
^ ^ ;3 ^ ,M 2r^^r^7>{7'^7^^7v^ j;^^ iM (-1 (7«{;<^;v4 ^^sh 3 (-1 1^ t^ t^
C/C«/«.?l.^ ^ a«^ ^
-cT^tr
•-«ieo>o«Dt«<p-«e>ieot^<ocoaoc<iooaot»oaoe<«a»eoeoo»o*#t«iHi-4e«coe<«t»t«iM ockakt^»««ie«-4«
eoc6r4eogi^«eMcic4eoioe^'e>«M-^e4'4io*de4c4<o«dc4-^cd^<«<^<deo«;j^ ^
o • • c* £ - 1
§g§iii§g§iBi§iii§i9i§§i§iiiiiiiiisi§ipiip§pi
h> 9^ 00 0000^ w '^'^ CO CO CD t» CD <0 (O d C0r»Q094 ^^^Ht« 00 00
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
52
1
^
O
3
BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
|2
a d
^ o-««r-r-«iO90O o»*e*e>o ^«aoQoao^
QOOO ^c
c
c
5
■^^4
1-fi
3
5
C ^
5 -/^
s
5
JLI
It
^^S''
a
*v « gk lO a ra 7« ..^ o ^ m ^ ^ O e^O P« lO CO eo X K ic r« M " CO !<• '« O Ok o to ^ ^ GC « Ok cm
S e6c*
I
5 d d d_2 d J5
s o ■
ACQ
3 9-
in
n
tffii
aa :cra2osQo9oaan-<ho<<oAo»<ii:o
Si
I
a
??'S'8|
« O
&3n
|£S:||5|^-b::|l|gg||||
c<oc«>«>««tf o'3<o C4C4I4 c«l*F» c«e«io ^
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF BOAD-BUILDING BOCK.
53
£ £££ £ £ £££
££ £ cSS^ £££
MOO ot^QO^ oc^eoudeot^eo aor.c4ioeor«eoio^eoe>«eoie«ooaci<0»o
oJ Qo _^^_oJ Q«5 00 a» _. a» oS a» G^ ^i oi V _^__t:- o5 06 e4 oi c^ oJ e4 1>; a6 od t^ t^
^^t-t^^;~>»H»Hf-H-»;;Vi«f^^Hf-«»^»^ '7>J7>J7V^ »H fH ^ fH fH *H (H 1-4 iH 1-4 v4 f-l ^4 f-l ^H 1-4 (-1 ^
^ t<I r^ »« QiS od of ^ a> 0
ioooo<-4e>«ie lo^ ooeoooootHr^eo t>>ie*eo^t^o^o»eo ^f-teoaoc4C4coe«e<iciC9^»«^ot»o m
J^ SS S JS J5 5^ '-^'-^ S2 /-nJS S *** I^ *** "** ^ * .^** • ^ ^ * ""^ "^ ^ "^ Ih -^^ ''^ S3 ** ti
^e«o»«eo^ <Dc« oioot^okoo^co oc4aiioeoor^aoio«o a»oot«*eeoo»QO^«o«aoe«t«o«o<H eo
M e4 p4 c4 c^ e<(,,.^^^e^ cj^^e4 06 Q^ c4 o Ok V <<«> ,^«rf V cj ^ CD r^ e4 cd V e^ ^^cQ wi c4 e4 e4 V CO e4 « 10 •($
sss::ss^ s ^sssssssi^s; S3$;?S9S!^$^SSS$t3SSSS:SS;^:2SoSSgl:S^S99:;^^;::
:^ .^ . . . .^e, . .^
8SS;8SS S SsgSf^^S^SoS S@?S@SSor23333@SS3SSi23333SSSSSSSS
■Se^a-e'
•§€
H
apq
35
ao
5&.
Apq
WcoO
is
on
islpf
'S'S'Si
•9'cj^'3'9'S
3;^
OSOQ
•O^^
'i^l
'O'O^'O'O
p>
S §0 o d do 6 6 6 >y6
^ 8'O'O'O'cj'd'O'O'cj g-o
CO '.O
^1:1
li
■S^
Ml
ill
esss
nil
AMU
:^z.ZA
IPIiiiiiliiliiipsiiiiBllliiigigiyiis^^iiiiiiiil
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
54
BULLETIN 370, U. 8. DEPABTMENT OF AOBTCULTURE.
1
C
»?
a
I
o
o
I
n
2
1
5
O
cc
w
E
-w
o
o
Sk
<p
c
2
*'5
II
is
an
CO*
Ch o
IP
1^
oo<poe<iQ
S85JtS
co^3Si/>e4i-«eo7e?SS*ot^SoSSeoeoee
^t^ior«*Q-«»«r«co 9 oc«QOOi-4«or.<Dt^coaoQt«t^Qi
OCJQOO^V
9«gOk<;4r««
coeoe«^iooe«e«eo«oaaooo<Dtow»4eoe«««
M3co9ieQO<«>o»<etocoaot^akcioao^OeecDC«oo
^ e*s S oi tft (B « 1-^ <-<'-"-•
§i§ISiSISSSSsSH§Ss§l
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OP ROAD-BUILDING ROCK.
55
S ilSS^SSSa ^$ ggSSFlF^'^^S^S SgS^S^£;KS9:SS^SS3;9S8^SS
M9ao eoiocoaot«eocicoe«iMOOacioeot«eooo«o *^ »«io o e« e« e« t« t» t» ok oo co o o oo t^ co<oc9C«oa»
«iN<>i^ ^4 »4 «M 1^ «H ^4 1-4 t-4 liN ^ iM f-l ^4 ^^ ^4 ^^NH ^7^7V4 ^^S-l »4 *4 1-4 ^4 l>4 f-l ;7S>4 S iM *4 iH *4 ^^Nm f-l i-« •-• yt «H
_^e4 r<I lO lo 0(1 -^cQ 10 ^^ e4 _^^ o ^^ 4^ Old ^^^ Ok <e ^ oi V o ^ r^ ^ ^ t^ ej 0f6 06 MJ Ok e< od oi «5 ^^ ^^MJ oi o»
iHt»aoc«t^ Oi-4<oco loOiOOio t« eo lo '« co t^ oo <o «
^ci$ •«> i*! t«i V ^...^ t-i 10 e<J ^^ei 'T id «5 V ^^«d •» «d #0 V oi oi o» "O
C««CO<0aOOQOi-4^iOO»QOeO Oe4^*-4«-i 1-4 04 0 CO P
o(5o6e>id<<ruj«d<<rc4'^^MJc4^^aiV<^t^a6co^>di6 §
§§§§SSS§S§§S§iSSSSSSS§SSSSSS S§§B§SSSSIu§SSSs§SSS
:£5x>^kl
iUll
iWlllpli^llllUlll
illii?! ill iailllillsg;
IPiiiiliiiiiililiiiiii^^^i^iii^iiiiiiiiiiiilliisi
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
56
i
s
^
ft,
8
1
ft;
5
s S
2
p
3
3
1
s
a.
1
n
<
Eh
1
o
3
o
BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGBICULTUBE.
1^
it
git
1°
«>»o^oce»sr»«a>io<PO<-«M ^o»oeooo cit*rt'*-*i^cO'*«t^wih-«ac»aDC>
s ' * "J wicit^ ' ' ' f-i f4 J 1-4 »c 1-4 ■ '\Q *M * *i-4J * '^^ei *«<-*
§
ii8Si§Bi§ll^§>'^si§iiis§iilgii§lsiii§ii!
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OP BOAI>-BUILDING BOCK.
57
ssss^fssss;^
»« a» ^ oo lO o eo ^ « «o
«-« ^4 v^ ^7^4 ^ ^ *H
oS o t^ eo e4 t^t^ CO ^ <^
ssss s^sss
Ml
lii-s-S'
JS-3
i%\
«■
3||
^^
iii^siiiii
s;sass:s§sssss2^;::ssss§S9S^:s;!:^^!;:83SSS^§ss^^
e^oo oaoaoao«t^aoc«t«e«co»«oe«to»^ e«o oooeoooe>«eoo<o«oo
•^'^C*C^<»H *H r-4 ^4 *H ^4 f-l *H iH ^4 t-« «-4 f^ C^»^ "^ C^T< f-«pM»^ fH
^ «d irf od _^i» i-J bi c5 _^_rf ,^o» •« «d o c> a» ^i t^ © C5 oS » ,^r>i 'rf -^ ,_-,,,_^
e4 «tf i^ ^ ^^^ oi id -^ ^^..^^ei ^^-^ e4 « « <• ^ »d id «c5 CO -^ •* ^^id o5 oJ ^...^^.^^..^
§SS§§§SilS§§§S§§§§§§Sii§§SSSSiS§SSS I
el ie 'M is^ isSse • ises?
S 08^ S tf O'S «0 gS O O O OQQ
=3
.-<«
Ig§iislil§iillliiiliilil$i3iilsii§
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
58
BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ft,
8
8
^ I
w o
<
'M
P
t ?•'
P. O
^r
R*8SSia5SS§582§25
lO'* oc !>. ■* r* X ec CO e<i !>. «e CO o
oo »ii< « CO «D ao <e « «^ !>. 's- « CO
N O « M <e O «^ ^'^^rCOOi-HO
aef ^ o oi -H i>r «? oi '^ c<< CO *iJ ■^ 00
o o ct 'V o r» <o ,rOr»ox(00
■*■ rf ■^ ^ co' irf '^ ^^•^ o> «e cs •« oJ "rf
c cl -^ ' * * ci * * ^ * ci * ' CO -H
•sSSSSriSl^SSSSSSSS
o a
ii o _
"5 o o P » orS o o
.6 : :oC
^ fl s
ill
^ d "S d d B
eS o 3 "
?555
CkE-Jf
•:S_§S2S58-'8a''
aa'^^'ssass ass
aD>oaki»OOOao-<vr OkCiOt
i»i»xco ^oookfO eO'»eO'»i
i * S ^-^ C> •^ C> ^-^-^ oi 0» oJ
$jsi«
ocxeix atxoocc «r^coci
*U ^ tc H ^e6 CO « CO ^^ e4 V ^
»J *c4 'c4 *e<ie<ie4«^M3e<«>i4.-4
K5SSSR??SSnf2S?fS5§
lllill
p0-<C3OW
. . J..
«j O O O ©♦*♦* C*i
^ o g p d d d d^-i^
III i i^l
oqSh
•ill :
?l
li.
z££kZ
1%^HMbB%^1
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING BOOK.
59
2;SS999S;:o(;§9^Sa$||S:SS9Ss^S$|S:SSo33^^SSS3!oSo9$^98^SS
oj rf oJ J o «* ,,^^«^^d rf o» ci «tf o< d ^c5 «tf od <5 «c5 1^ «o od -^ct «6 -^otf _,,__ 06 d oi o5 0^
o»o<-<ici»c4 a»ooa»«okO oo^^«oooF^^ak c«ak 10 ooooixokr^ ooF^eoa>^«ec•o
1
«SJ • • • ■<4^e4 • • • •Ae^A -aici «- ' '•i ^
S§SSS§SS§E§§§SKSB§g|S^§s§§SS&SSSSSIilSiilSISiH «
II;
!'§€
I
ll'.
\U
il
III"
doooooooo-goooooooooo
J
il4 1
Digitized by VjOOQIC
60
BULLETIN STO, U. S. DEPABTMENT OP AGBICULTUBE.
1
K
^
ft,
8
c3
Eei*
ss;«ss'~ss;gss|!!;sc3!;sss^af:s:ss3:s3S!$ass!;°s{;
piii « o od »J »o o »o o o «o ^ e4 » cj c^ ,_^r>i «d X 2 *|^ • <i<5 jd i^
|uss2S22s22£^2iSSs§2S§2SSS2SS£§2s§S§S2§
c*
2
8
^
•J
n
<
,!OOOOt,'OOOOCCOOOOOOOOO
Si
I*
npqn£p£3o$
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF BOAD-BUILDING BOOK.
61
<0 *o <D CO r^ r^ (D eo ^^ed ai5 ^^ <d «(S M3 wa <o ic « «d ^ i4 «J «j ^- ^- •'^ >^ t>^ ^> ^.^ocS t^ ^^o(S otf ^_^<d
■o CO C4 e^ t» CI io oo oo <«>oocico^o0iocit«»400toak<-iok ooio»oaoooo>oociaftooeo«e0kok>oi-4oo»^oooo
1
occoocat^ocsoo eoco^«•ocor*c^o^F^eo«r»«ol>•cooo okt^c«oot«'«e^oo»i-4coe^>ookC«QOt««oc9t^e»r» m
€^<re6VeceQec«>«5 _^e<eQCOMCQ^M<»Mc4io^fd«oeoc4^ -.e4^^e4e4eoe4e4raci^e<i'4< "m
^ ^rf
S§liSSSSIS§SSSSilSI§l§S§SSI§SS§SS§SSISSSSSSI§SSSs§l
"OJ'O
l^^l
2 « a
il
cot/} -so
U^
O O O O O Q_Q o_o o_o k "g
^tl
iliiiiiigiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliil^iiiiiS^iliBiillliiil
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
62
BULLETIN 370, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
a
•>
5
li
2^1^^^^'^n^nc; s^e9ut:s;2Se;igie;s8saag8S989S* sa
•^■*>opot-«Daot^'
4«otp r«akgoo»*ooo«OQOOkt«M«eiQr«*Qt«oor«k3«aoe|j«a
n^^pMfosco9^»»30«to«oioo<roc^o>oc<90«eooo«oc«o*-4r>»e»(D^ookiac«
§^ggiiiypliiiii§iPiiil§iilglili§IS§
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK. 63
QOoor«^t«io eocoao>or»tooO'^OAeoeoeo«oair«c<«^om^«HOt«c«t«eooa»coeoeoeot«e^oc«eoc9e4r«
I'^i-* *-4 .H ^4 ^4 .H C^{7^^4 1^ i^ i^ ^^ *^ *^ iHi^pHpH t-) (H f^ pH (H pH ^i^ pH v^ *H p^ ^4 (H fH »>« f^ pH *H f^ *H *H ^H iH ^H (H ^H pH pH
e« o ^ '* ^ r* t* r* « 10 «o ^ o -H 10 o» Pi^ .H o» eo o o »^ 00 -^ t^ t* •© o» « GO «e eo <o « ^ • tH ■* CO »>• Ok eo '•«
r«a»o>>i4^
oc5ec«e•^e«1-4^^cocoeoe<^"*^^«dwj»o^e4d"^c4ec«*e4^^coe6•o^I•4.4^^e4eoe^5c^"^ ^
^ -4
gg§Sgg§3§Sg§SSSS|S|S|gg||SSgSgggSSg2ggggSgg|SSSg||
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
64
HUI.LKTIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
r3
o
i
9
I
.8
o
I
^
I S\
I
5
^S2::gss^g3Ss:^g9a2s^^%ss^gss^lS|^ssa:oS^S9ss
t>-«9»ocoa» ooowc^ajr^oocje* *o»«<<>iooookOk ookOno«*CT^^»^t»»or»
G O 41
(X. o
*»ii
,.4 ^.H v-l^ ^N>^i-Ii-I>H.hM A ^*H »-« ^4 ^ >ii« ^4 iH >H «i4 <-4 (H t^ i-l o4 1^ ^4 1-4
1/^ c4 ^ c^ c4 CO c4 r4 ^ e>i c^ 04 e«i e^ ^ c« e4 CO •<> lO cj ^ ^ e4 c4 iQ 00 ci ci *o e^ w» CO c4 eo CO eo ci ^
Sao jT c4 e4 e4 • • *
-s'-^SiSiSu SSSSuiE2§SS§SSII§IS§§SSS§§mili
«0 O B^
> fl 3 q
i2i8SSss|isggii|ite$§ssssgig|ss22s|gss
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF KOAJ>BUILDING BOOK.
65
?:SS22S|ss$;ss'^sSo3SSSSSS9ss89&s3SS^srsss9:;;ss{!3;;g9§gs^'-s@s^22S
r<-coeoe«e« ootoeoooe«okio«ot»ooooi ve40oroeiC4«ooioi»ioi»«^«o ^oof«eor«eo^eo»o^<Deot«ofteo
•d «D r<^ r<r od ^^ofd ^^ ^^ r<^ M oi r^ to lo CO *4 lo «d 00 '^ >o M3 ^C lo to *Q <o ad <o >>^ od 00 00 <0(difi«Dt>^o6ioo6o6oat^o6o6t^^
o*omoOi-4«oco«'«eeece<<o*-«<-itoO'«««w3e«i-4t»u3ooaooo to c<9eoioeow»ioc^oo^otoo^t«oot«o»aoooo
coe<co«oe6^e4eoc6e«^Vc6id^e6«dVide«v''^'«oV<»eoV -^« -.e4e4e4eo^Me4«d<r
SS^SoSS«gSf:?3S3$S;?SSg3s;S£;SS^^s:sa9S 9^9SSSS2;!;3^S8a^?:SS^8S!S!9
SiSSisSSSSSSSISSSSSSiiiiiisS li§SlulSS§§l§ss§iS§S
SieQS**— Bull. 370-16 5
liillliiilli
.^, y -r • - - -: :^: ^^ - -: - y M
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
66
d
o
I
I-
8
15
£
o
s
1
<
5
<
QQ
ft5
>
H
9
BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPABTMENT OP AQBICULTUBE.
d t> *
IS
1^1
•3
!5
1-*
1==
Oixig6«Jooa»odadr>^>dodado>cta>a(Sa>or<^ae!^o!ak9»oOkC«eco ^,_^«d «5 r^ >h '^ cj ca o
•) CO 00 CO c« o» r^ Ok^eo^aoooeor^
r V eo '«•' 00 e< •» ^^«p e< « eo c4 -i CO eo
O
S3SSS2Sl^Sa§3SS§S$S^5^S2SSS5aat:S5$SSS$SSSS2
l^=
1 1* t* t^ « '3 f- r* '^ I - '^ X y: r~ I- X N «5 so to !r <o f- 1>- » ® r- © 1^ b- b- f» r- 1>» r- • «e w «D «
a ... .g ::::::: :j
oooooooooooooo«oooocjooooooo o-So
:::::::: t :::;;: ^ :;; ;| :;::::::■£ :
H
tite
2-9
i-d-o'
'€^€€
:«Sx;3tf:
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OP BOAD-BUILDING ROCK. 67
S38'*:3a«aa8'^S»««SI2S«S****S«*aS3;:3«^««''«S25«S~S*;5S'-«
tOQOeoioeoeo<oc«oo«or«'«or«r«eococ«eoe«o»«0'«c<9r^eoeocoocoioo»ot>iC<ior«aO(or«t>.coiooo»ocooO'^
adadodM3cdotfadaio6o6a6aidcde<5r<^coe4e4adc4a»coV««dQ(Ir«:'«r^a6r^c4«e(d'««Deoio«
00 r« ^ "«< CO o oo "«< «oooo<D^(0 t^^mo ^ooaoe«oooocQ«D'«i<^«OiOooiO'«t»oo c4^«-4^c^cot«^QO
rf t^ o <rf c«5 « e^ o<5 e< od b4 « orf e^ ^...^^...^^^ocJ c4 irf ^»rf « od ^
I
• e<f-« 'elelcir-J '^4 ^ ' ' '^ ^ ' ' ' '-^
000 00
I?'
li
m
III
|l
^sS^^g^ Jpg'S? • 'SsSS • •50S -ri : ; : : :|§ J&l :
;H:;SiS :S»^S^i
S:§|^g§gS8§SgSSSSgSSgSt?8^SSgSSSS?SSS55S8ggg2SSS5r::!92g5§SS?g
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
68
■2
i
8
8
■3
•2
CI
3
c
M
3
O
Q
^
u
S
J,
^
CO
V2;
"S
<
>
J
.'=^
>>
lo
CO
V
'A
^
A.
g
tH
1
5
t
1
>
BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE.
S **
£3
a
CO®
n
SS_g?lS3S3gg5S?a9l$8a35SSS53a"St:552!;>2SSJ5SSgSS*»
coe*S'^MC^c4c4Mcic4ei^c^^c4c^e4c4c4W«r««ciG^t^.-;-<s:-i'*cic4-^* ^^■^ e^ 09 V to
^3 t>
P
■8.
a
a a «
nil
a c a
§.g§
If
iES^
cr3 «i
^1
3 £5
I
igSiiSi
llflllllli
si
CO
Digitized by
(^(^r^cs]c
PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK.
69
25:S5SS8S5S«aSS2S§^a^Sfe53SS??aaa§S|SSas§5gS;?S&R88?55S85SS
3co«««>ee«>oo<»3 ^ggjgt* 5;j |5«59SSS®*3S*2«'-"'»^82SSJSSSS5SJ3 "
t»<peooo»ioo«HoOF^ooto^F^r^eoeocoaiMc4r^ioco<o^aoa»(0>or^c9t«oe<ieo>ooakCiaoc<ior^i-«>oeoa>o
•««eo•o•-4eoo«'«oo■ooo<oeoooookw^'«<OF^lOQOaoe9ao^•vHaoF^ocl^oo«r«o«-«lOOOeoo^•«-«to«Ol«•F^o A
SSSSS8£^,SS9S^3^22SS2^88SSIS28S^?;;s:3^ ^
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
70
!
>5
I
O
^1
1
00
/.
->
1?
>
•IS
hJ
J=^
>^
b
en
•/.
:§
g
Ph
o
"i^
►^
g
g»
s
J
6*
5
I
BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
t3 «5
CO®
3
_:2S§8S§r55&8^SSS8SS222S88SSSS855^822S58SS3
522'-aaS2S«*'«
QCx>ot^t^or^QCioo»oococQi»oa»eoocit«Ocoi»a»ior»OeQeo>oooeOiOf«f«oo
kogor<-e«vr^tot«Octa»coOQCeoio*^>-«Or«^aot»w»Ow»c«<o^'^
_,^o ^Ici«t^t^<o<o«f(0■^xo•^a'^a»oo<6loa6^^a6oa6o6eoo^^
aoc4c«io-«m^-vt«^r<-cio-vcoinvo»iooo>H«ooot«oc«eo^*o«oeoiOico>o
,^ec id CO « «5 w « « « « e4 e4 ^ « ^ M ^ '•' e< r^ •© m5 •^ eo lO ^ eo ^ eo »o CO CO ^ e4 •^ «
Ic-'
CO***'* »-s * *^»-Si-;r4 * 'wivi • • • • '^ "^
f
H ^ a
§&§
"5 (t- o
lis
^^ r^o
:^1
Qj eO ®
iSc3
SI,
Joooo^oooooSsOooJooooooooohoo
laiiig§g$iii§iiisiiiisiii§giigilii
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK, 71
ao<ocicoc^oooke«<«>
sssas^s^'^'-as^s^sas^^ga^s^sssa asss*^ s« •-•aa
eo«ro CO ooioaOQOeooio^ eoQOO»i^09fHMe«r<.eoMOkM004Dio(oco eo«o<-iooo»t» «ooeor»eoo»e
-rigt-o * -^M$««^io ^^e4r^O •(3^^«e«o^^ tD'^i'^Sr^ CO 1^06 aic>o«5 Ok ^r«!r^od^^a6 069060$ od
ciio«'<r«o e«.He>«ooo<«><o«9oaoMeOieuda»e<iw»co oootoa»«u»<«>«ooor^Okok«oc«-«P4MookP4oocQe«io
*oco'<paoio eoo<oo<oeooor<-or^<«>r^a»c4e«aou»»-«eo« <0(<*QOt^ooetM«ooooioc4a»«'«aoiO'«w»«p40oeom
*oi(Sco«4^^e6e4e4<»e6cofoe4^«ocoeo<^e6<»co^c4e4e4^coe4c6eo'«re4ei5e4cl>4clc^^ g
^ I I
*«-4<»e4c< • • *cor4<H 'eo-i *^^ * *^ *He4i4 '.4 ^^<^ • * * '^ * ^
if
£3
ii
o o o M o o o ei H P<otQ o h o o S o o o o J 'hoax's
R^oooooSooooooodoo d'
^ :::: :^ ::::::::: : :^a^5
000000
J< -O •© "O "d "O « •© "O "d "O -O "O "O ns "O "O T3 "O
O O O O O O C
•ffiQf
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
72
BULLETIN 3*70, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE.
c
c
c
►?
<2
o
o
t2
-9 >
s
•a
>
5
=1
CO?'
i2
ft' w>
fr, o
3
5
C<5
ioc^mc?^^«ci^?wc5jcMS^5SSZ5
)'Ccoxt»a»t««D'«iO'X)Ot«c<oa»t«ioc>ii-iic
vH p^^p^^pi^^ ^ ,^ ,H »i4 1^ «« 1-^ f-l a>4 ^ »«
O^XcCMpHOftCCMOiOOWOCCWeOOOiOO*
x^ c o> -r ec c^ X d 1^ '^" lO -r x' .t ^ oi -r C X l^
«oxe»SQO^^f-ioco»i^«-««ao^i'Ofeoesoi>»o
• ri a X Oi X c» f 7< 'O C r^ e»3 lo -r o» o> t£ <» o> ^^
M X X lO CS C»< X X CS O •- m »0 'O X X X X uj ^
.a
Ills
"•■^^ g o o
B '"■'-'. yi o r o*^*^.
3o>S
aasi
_ c c o o o o .
ill
O O^ O
?SS*S; 2SS:::S
2238*'' 2223
ot5 06 to a6 t^I o(5 ^oS oi5 lo o6 ^^.^
•^ ^* '^ '^ "^ "^ S**^ ** "^ ^^ ^^ m
«H »« ^4 v4 *-4 f>4 «i« ^4 ^H
^ e4 e4 e4 CO CO CO C4 CO <«■ ^ e4 -W>
<* e £
gSS||R ggSglg
5 «
Ji
"52
9_Q O 02
iii§|ps§||§s
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING BOCK. 73
8 «8S«aS£SS8'-SSS8&Sa3Sa
s
5S aa s sasa»'-"»s«"»a''a*"aa
o too 00 f-4io a»«oi-4 0«eot«aor*aor-ie«
eo vi^io ao o o <o a» e« 00 CO CO ^ M t* M <o «D o 1^ i>i« iQ o 00 o
aSaSwacl^a^^Q^^igeoeo^^e<3a6ao«Dt^<<ra6c$c«S«H
eo^«oe«o»^a»^e«t<>(00oooaoo<oco^e«ooe4 0o»io
'^We4o6c(^^c6e4«6.-;ooe6e4'4c6<«<«c(idcle4^e4e4
£ see
Si
a
13
;&i
•S3 i'S.SSliliii 1 is is^ss
<: o^a fe o^o'< e c o ti: c; .S <;
OkCOlDlD <D00a»'<riHfl» o^io«co
S3* S55'*«S
e«oo^ cct^okcoioci a»oo^r*oo
oo<«<ooe«ieoa»ioot«e« i-io»aor«coe«'<ro»
fJ ^ 06 e4 o CO eo i«i t^ e>i «5 ,^016 i«i e4 « t^ i«i «-5 CO
cS»^a6coc<SoMJMieoe«,^MiMJeoc«idM5eoci ^
tfl
tilli
llllfli
&>>lib
.^d^.^g'Sg.
2S
.«2 . .
■a 2 £^■^•1
m
uh
Jill
tUi^.
pa
co^o^eoc«>o9oo«PQO*Hco>oaa»^coQO<«i
co«<6oociQO<-iC4>25a5»^cOf-4^co9
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
74
5
C5
:-^
CQ
^
o
<
M
^
H
U*
S
O
CO
5
S
t
*!:>
BULLETIN 370, U. 8. DEPABTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
IS
^SSSSS
oioor^Ok
d c> o» cc o r-i
a»
1^
2S??$«^
1
■s§
M ^ eg .c ao
AigqP^cq
<o a» S « M 8 ^^«? S e«
•oo«oiooa» •«••«•
S
r^ t-^ lo kc ai <(5 _^_. '^ «d d
QCCSt-.ace^MQi5QOMQO
i^2
W ^m' ^M' \^ ^»/ ^M^ V^ (V "ffi^ ^ ^
Scu
o o o o o o g«o o o
8r;«QeMro2fiea»gse«
*^o»ooo»o»o «D
^ ^e4 o» Ok o o of i>^ «o M ^
r« co^«-«a>oooe<iQO^ie
c< ^^c6 ^ •« ej «e id wS id MJ ei
c5« p^co
s$f::ssf:ssssss
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OP ROAD-BUILDING BOCK. 75
■eooooao^eov^o lOOO
oc« 00 «poo»oo»ceo»fooo ^meo ^(ocooor«e«t^oor*
^M r^ f-< F^ ri4 ^M f-< »^ J^^JT**^ " ir^C^r^T'C^^ '^ iT'CT'C^ '^V^ ^^ fH fH •M f^ ^H iM »-« J7*JJ^^ •^ '^ JT*^ "^ "^ '^ "^ '^ "^ "^ '^
^ ^: ^ ^ id «5 id c^ od e4 <4 ^c« ^ c> r^ tC •«! ^^^'«i •«! e4 V ^ V id ^ V e< c4 CO V ad ui o' o( id V «$ .^..^^.^
O '^ OO o ooo o o
w O
B § o d d da d d tAS dddd-Si^sobOXC^
ftft : : : :w : iww : : : iwls : iJla
•O'O'OtJ'O'OTSTJ
ttOQ
P^U
: : i :l : iafi • : • Jl^B : :ls5 :
ill I
lillii3iP§iii§s§iii§i§i§||iii|§gii|§iiiiiiii|gg|
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
76
8
a
o
S ^
<
1^
p
5
s
i:
5
»
•J
m
t3
BULLETIN 370, V. R. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE.
c5f
11
HO
•sly
p o e
Pu o
<3"
^r
i
■s
•a^
«<• m -^ ■« tD ^ CO o» -^ 00 Ob ^ U3 00 00 «p le ao eo CO loah^
o o t-^ w M y -y '^! ■*' c»i irf irf M if^ ~i V »«■ o5 o d ^^.^^.^^ •^* co V ^_^^ MJoa»r<^io^ •rf'^
oo«fo<3COir*Or*OI
^t^ «> M) ord kS I-! ^ o(S i>^ 01$ r^ o CO V CO CO ad to cd V •-< «D t^
m5 V ■*' V "«<' ci «o tri -^
t^cOf-iaotoa»iooioa»c<iQcoorocoa»<oioc4oe<«kO
^s:5!SSg!?ESg5sgSS?SgSS|gSS5SSgSSSSS9a8gS SS
CO
■a-^c
•^c.q
SQUW
52
ee ■ ■
wo
5 3 • ©
si
las,
,^^^^i^^e,3C4F«i-4*-ieccoco>Si«o>o<
III
5Sll|i
-2S ' «
5^^ *C.
rt ^' r^ ' -5 §
aa^«£>5 :HEw{2E:ti^^S«u
Digitized byCjOOQlC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF BOAD-BUILDING BOCK.
77
SS33:'°SSS3SSS$3S!£68S9SS!;K5S
coflOMdMoooco e<ir^t^coor«C9r^iOt^ C4 co e>< oo <o i-i «
■o*oeoioio«oioo»>o
c» «d »<^ Ok a5 Ok f-4 Ok £
e«akao«»«a»C4<oco
4 1^ CO IP 1-4 16 <6 <d a» ^^
SSSSSSfS^S
g^sggmgs
IPI
.1
/iiiijIiiiiiiJil
ill I ' • -^t •••'••■ ■Sf^^'°.'°.§r'- !8 :
, a : :.a
1=^^ : :^
tiiiiiiiigl
^35S'*2S^2S2g|
ass • *-8 15"
0OO>O» ^ dCI o<o
ciOki-ii-it^ioaociCKOOcoci
r^e4e6^-^M5ioo»<6eoeoci<>
11
:o- ■ Jilll
O O O -
J ^'O'O'O'O'O'O
^•or^iHfXC
I
I
I
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
78
a
o
1
ft,
8
t3
8
is
o
o
a.
cS
5
CO
'>3
t§
5
J
5
>
C
BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
1?
CO®
§1
W
I
5z
<D«o oo<ot«ao
9 « « lO ^ »^ M
xio^t^c>«a» OkoctQ >ooeiooo»»««ooc«
23*-
•o o •o o ^ w « o»c>« a»iO eo o ^ r^ « ^ «oo«-« ^O ioeo Wi-« ooen« o»^-
o (^ c^i 00 Oft ^ Ok o» '-^ to a» Cj «o Ok ^ '^ r>I o b^ o ^ >0 o6 u3 C9 1>^ cj 00 m CO '^
ooooc>«oe>«««-<i-ieoooc>«e^iO'«"#oecoc<»t^ooo^t*woeoi-«o»oo»oo«
c6M5e4icS^ej-^'^C4«^e6e4^c<5c4c>i'^w9^C4o6^C4e6c4co-^c6e4c4'^
1
SSS:;S!:;;;S^»S»S99;;S^9S3S;S»SSS88933S
-;Mcr c^o" X ir'3r:ic«o»c»o»o«o»OQOac»OQOC^ooi-i««eo^iO»o»o»OiooOt-«t^
5 'a
i c
= 2
I-SS
3.^
^y^li
ill
I
•d a
il"
§ _ _
^^•§•8
:m*
•00
c g'd^'d'O'O'S'O'S^'g'd
oo :k
iii
S8SSS
5s2?S*'5?5SS!5S!5^Ii
Digitized by VjOOQIC
PHYSICAL TESTS OP ROAI>-BUILDING ROCK. 79
ee o t«cooooo o <oeo coeo40 0(oeoa»aoeoaoeoao<«<c« eo
oah»ot«eoocooaoe«t«<-4c«r*coc«fHC4*^^<Dooc4oOfHOoo^o» o a» t* >o oo i» ■<•• (H ^ iO'<4i(0^
■< -^ ei r4 ci rf eo irf CO ei r<i »4 -^ o6 eo « ^ "^ « "^ o4 o4 c< e< o4 «tf -^ irf o4 _ ^eo e<j e4 c«j »d -^ i>: «d t«: ^
^ • • •••••••• ■ t •••••••••••••••••••••••• • t •••••••• p
SSS§§§l§§§§2S§SSS§IS2SSis§S§§SsS§S§S£iSISSSSISI
a
>
•^ "O ^ ^ "O T3 "O ^ ^ "O "O "CO "CJ "O TJ "O "O "O ^ TJ "O "O "O "O "O "O TJ "O ^ "O TJ '
255555 ®555555oo^ o S
I
5 o
;aj
^S1
^5s
5f5C!f5 _
^5l
Bill
it q
I
f| |1 111 illi'slill J j|1
siisiiiiiii5ii§ssiiiiiiiiie||iii||iiiiii|||iiig
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
80
o
f
8
i
8
5
^
^
"w
•-I
/,
K
c
L>
2i
si
a
s
>5
-a
I
>
H
•J
<
BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
S3 ^
88
»4 If
;i4 o
-4 «00 O 3 OOr^OOOkOOO Oa» Ot»CQ OakCo<D«0<0*0t0CoaC^4C«C0i0r»
g;: «a "^222
a2«
1-1 oao t-«30 oi^oa»e<«r«c«a»eoe«eooeoc«>or«oeooe<«xt>.co«s xc4t«»o
_r^ ->5i-I _-»!»rf •^ uji-I'^'o t-^«oi'^« •^ Qi6 «c a! C3 CO «d Ok e4 r^ adt-^u-^Vr-^tfJoir^rt
to ^ <o 00 (O to >o »o co^<-i«ooeoio>^e«(^aoo»io^ lO o^c«<e<«<»oetoo<s^a
o» otf o» d •rf e*j 36 o» ^^o» ^i e4 ^ jj oJ ^^ o» o4 H cl *rf ^ *rf i4 ^^od ^^ri « "«r irf id t^ ^i ^i « V td «
CO X c« i» « Ok to c< eot^cocoi»^iOC<aoo»iOke«e«« r» r«<«<e«ct'«coeoeo«Dr^OkCQ
V -^ '<«•' CO c4 C4 V V ^-^ ko CO cd c4 V uj V e4 c4 c4 id od «^ r<^ ^^^ ^^«d « A (>^ r<^ td id id <o od r^ o
5 ^ ^ • '^ ^*
Ill
I'uSSIuSSslil'^'ilgSISZSsSSSSISSSSSSSSSSiSSS
3-a
i1
i2-c.iia5i|
&
III
od§<3oododS^38c>5o232
*ii 3
?£2'
saw
;=;n;a
3 -3 "^ -o -o -o T3 Mr^js'O'C'O'O'O'a'rJ'O'd'd'O'O'O'O'O'd'd'O'O'O'O'OTJ'O'd-O'O'O'O
::S :s
if
15
£§v^
J ^^^0^0
^.2 3
lid"!
X X -*. -T '
s
SgS
c 3 o
S
a ^
00,
o o §
Digitized by VjOOQIC
PHYSICAL TESTS OP ROAD-BUILDING ROCK.
81
a5S§J:^SSo8S55a8S25S?35SS*8??8gS8a5S8^*-'^a*SS5;5;2?5^a:2'^aS8
<o<o^oae«<oc«o» oo «oo'«'«ieao t«ooo(>ooa»«sDa»
«a»t»oio o>ot«t«o<«<eoeoiotoe4tf»ooao«Hoeoooe4QOooooaoco r* tf»c«oco<-ie4 eo r^ cc o r» <o oo <o
ad t- r-i otf «d ^^»rf lor^IxSeoi^SoxSi/JaiiOeotdtdtdooto^cootor^QOC^ ^_^«d ^_,-^,-^«o 06 oi ^ r>i »ri ,^00 t>i ^ 06 » co o«5 oo
gi « t-^ oi ^,^0^ «5 ^ C5 o6 ,^^^t^ ric5Qcwwoe«5o6idcoo6o'^eo»r^'<S'rioe»9gMioc5»orio»oioe4c4o6t^c4o5'*^
^ ci id •* ^^■^ "^ CO e6 ^
^^^^»d»deO're6e6eoc4^^;w-^•eoo61-5■*•do6o»^ic5e4eot^e6Mld"^r'^S•9c«9« j
• • • -^ '^^ CJ.H • • '^ • -^ • • -^ 04 'r^ .
SSS^S3f3SSS§f:S^S3f!S^i3SoSSSf!sgS^f2^SS^SoSSSS3SSSSSSf;$!S^SgS
is §5
llllllal
d o '^
•^•©^•o d dn^ %>J4 ca-d S SJ
^S •C
ge
illf
eri J- a»
gl' g S S
o.d
111
M
§
II
OQQQi
n,
M
^5
81 d,
fllll||1|l|jf||
§§gg§iiiiiiisi§§iiiliiiliii^iliiilgii§iiglsiiiisg§
31693*'— Bull. 370—16 6
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
82
BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
o
1
c
►?
8
i 1
I 2
s «
^
ts
f
A
a
i:
I
ft!
I
if
n
an
a ^ ?
||g^
||l
aert8«w«$»o2^«SS3>-?«S»-8e?W'*88«Sco^5SSt*SSt^8SS5S
S22 8::5
__f- 30 1^ ^_^ ^ 3i vjD c*: « - - « c4 -r <o t-^ t» i>^ X 3(5 «5 X <6 « f^ oD oo X
i5c:5SI2SE5Slcf:3S3Sr?2SaC55J2£5^5SS;;??5S5!S5o8Sga9aS
— -^ C<« -^Wl-t-iH
^ tjS yj (j6 i, «:tf i, ^ i^ .* o t- '^ I'S 'S da x X (ft ^ o X » r» t- 1^ oc oi X t- 00 1>» w r>- w « S <o «i o
I
ill
Oi ft' 0J 4j
s c 3 d
0090
O ;i O .5 * i S '"
:S o o J'i a o 6 d*5J £ J o"3 6 6 6
1^
fc<^< :<!
fwo - .sTOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO^OOOOC — ^
If
5ii
£5§la
Kb R^ *
^i
5h
s^^;;^?
- « d P
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHT8ICAL TBBTS OF BOAI>-BUILDING BOOK. 83
aoc«e« eoe4toooocieior«0'<<<o^o»<«<oor«eo^oo-<r <ocot» M»too<oo t^Maoooa»e>«t«aoeoieu30*-«o
»o w 06 ^.oo oc 16 » CO j^ 00 00 00 00 1^ «j t"^ GO 00 i>i q6 o ^i id h^ ^,,00
tOMcoiet^oooeoeo «ot^a»ooo<DMa»ooooe«a»t^i» •«i<f-4<«i 4oie<D ooct<«ic«<ot^o0r«t»c«^ ooo
^^ ^..^^^ »o » oi ^ o» eo o ao c5 _^ io © ^i e4 « ^i 1^ © ►^ 06 •♦ 52 06 ^^r^ CO wi -^o 00 » ^
I
i-S-S
l-^lli
•§>§
cJoSn^psSoA
o
1-^
.2®2
aiQiQ 0*0*0^
§i8
(2^
55
Ss
'iSoSmS^
g
iSS'S'
Mil!'.
-g-s-s
lees
I
Sib'-
.^Jiillllllftl-
^•8^
e£g£g££5oKl£
I
nil.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
82
BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
o
8
^"
.§
I..
o
ft.
il
to -1:
I 2
I
1
ft5
I
>
iff
55 c
O O •
13
&, o
U,
.,ii
*.a
*e38«Se42»«0'jrSSK»'^«3»»-SrtN'^88«2eOf-«5«Sr-.Slot*e5wfeS
^ 31 ce -X « - '^ M •* « t» i'^ 1^ ac ae 'j6 30 « <0 1'i o6 a6 QC o6 t-i lO •* 00 »o « or X y^
<ec4oi<'.do>a6i'^*otpi^c«Jt<^g6j6'^ai3Ct^
e4 0'r^^'«i!^^^^c0'r0 0a6«'ro6'r 36o£^_^
S^^M-•rooe4^t^dmO'■£^•-•S^«^'^'vo6oc9'«raN^MS^f-4^^SSeo(S9{l'v
-NP-I CMM ^W-H,-
I
sSiasn'2?:sf2.^^r!^f?s^7»xSSS7g;2j^r2ssioSfesSr:ssg3SS
2 c3
m
Ol Oi f>!) O
c z =; Q
o c o o
III!
19
5 o o^ S S o o o 3f-M £ J o'S o o d d _
t^5
a b- X k.
•<WcQ
3
.2
•(90 ' '^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOttOOOOOO*^
• • *'^^- :5
3 : :pp5 iPii
Digitized by VjOOQIC
PHYSICAL TBBTS OF BOAI>-BUILDING BOOK.
83
t«o*je«oo (0<oi-400o»r«a»oo«r-i«ak
•'^ «^ ^ ^-J5 * *'^ ^ '^ '**•'**•**' *^ '^ * *^ *^ '^ *^ ''' *^ >-v* *^ •*
i* r^ f-4 vH fH ^7^^ fH fH fH (I fH f-4 ^4 vH fH f-l 1-1 1-1 <H
^ •« o» ol "* oi CO o 00 c> _^co io © i«i c4 « !«; ri o ri 00 "♦ js 00 .^«^ eg »o ^^O oo » ^^c5 w
iO«-4coo^(eoc«t^ o«»*oiH«oo»*o^t«F4A^oo^ m^^o ooe>«o oco<0'«oooo<o>-
^eo e4 ^ e» -^ o ^ M eo ^^eo e4 m IP CO c« ic lO CO M» -^ go (^ M ,^e4 90 e« CO ci c« '<r «9 m to
i^oooa» 0-4
i CO «0 f-4 1^ ,^«0 'T •
fl
wA ' i-ici * '^ ' • 'f-J ' ' '^ ' *e4 ' Ji-i ' * 'wiwA ' 'wi ?
i§S§SS§S§SSSSSiSS2§§SSSSSss s§S§S§SisSSI§§§§SSS§SSS
?
'd'S'd'O'S'd'd'O'O'd'
3 : -g
gee
III
llllll'
I
e£eoeoo3fiet*
p;aQO
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
84
BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUKE.
d
o
1
K
-?
I
t3
C3
ft;
v.
O
5 V
CQ J.
•^ 2
s 3
'X3
o
8
I
i
ft;
H
m
-•J
^1
1^
C «9
11
Co®
tf
fli
§
t-
S2S8S22SSSg22gJ2gS2SS5«SSr:2l5l::aS5«So*^22S5::5
o t-- to to o c<i o ra r^ r^ 90 ox ccoDioiAOO^<-40toe«eo«oe«co d^^iococtco
so -^ or r-^ oc X ^ ^ X * t-^ „,,.^^^oi f-^ocpixorc«©^oc. oscooixxxotcoa ^^x ^ ci ■* o o ac
ct'X0)t-iOiO'«vocor^'«re<«o>ccr^o<-<^*>«ocooc4Ot^'4>K)io^ioo<sa»a»oCir>-ioioec>o
PH iM .M .^ rH>^«-irH<M »i^ ,M*-4^H ^4 iM ^4 *-« f-4 rH r^ ^H .M i-H •-« ^- i-^
•«>v40«Ht«o>Aiftgcu3tAmr'>cr:i-i^^cou30xi««oa>^oOf-i«oaoco>o«-4r^^io»oc4eoio
I
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ,-, ^ ^ ^ ..H^ -1 -H .-I ,M ri^ ,^ ,-« ^ ,-1 iM ^^ r^.H^,-»«^rHWi^.-l t-l-^ .M
I
S5
111
btca 5
>i 2
9S _Q
2 : : : : :3
^£§
oz.t;--^ w
111
oooo^ocio'-r.iioo
CUSV^»1.|
i9.2 3
SB'S J J :
Is E'^S-i'^f S § of 1^ Js g g
ill.
:5> :=:::::::: :|g :8 :
I
illlll
1^
5=i:^^;==:c.c^;:;^C
«Ci»ooaooCxc<(5r>.r-'«fiO»-xx cfr^ojSci'4'OOe-. xSiTOQ-^iCi/: jccsi-— .w^too— 1
Digitized by VjOOQIC
PHYSICAL TESTS OP BOAI>-BUILDING BOCK. 85
^'^Obioeo eoeoeotOiP ooeoooo « u) t» m C4 M oo »-« oo oo co «D lO to lo lOfoakm^toOtotocooco o^c«cot»
0^ o i<d (x^ Ok ^^t^ !«• r^ 00 00 'oc « 06 06 ^^■•^ «0a6a6a6^aSo»i^o6o6r^i>lior<^ ^^00 o6r^odo6»ood«M5«o»ot5 _^o6 o» ao -«r cd
■oco o»ci<^t«otoc«a»^c«co>oeo<-ia»oaoi-i>oot« oo»-«<«< oba»eooo«caft 000 a»^co>oa»eoa»^oo
__^irf oi _«::••-« »o <D «5 1"^ 1^ ■<»«> r^ 1-* «6 e4 ^ « 06 J «o 06 o t^ ,,^1-* ^ o ^^w
^r>i -"^ ^^e« « ^i <D « »o eo 06 e4 16 eo ci J- oi o lo eo CO e^ ^ c4 ^^eo « eo ^^w »rf
<OiO O Oft O 00 1« CO t« 'V to
8 S^c;2S^^^9g;{389^^a SS^SS3^^^SSS1^SSS8^S$3^SSS8 SSg;S:SS33S§S?3
o d o o d e«S d d d d d d do* d d 50 d d d S)d'i^d 6060696696666066 6 6 66 6 6 6'Si6 q
l:^^
}it«GQ(oe4cic3udQQ«og»e«««Di-i^c<cs>HC«c!
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
86
BULLETIN 370, U. 8. DEPABTMENT OP AGBICULTUBE.
i
8
••*
ft;
o
o
IS
o
2
2
1
>
H
•J
n
e2
wo
CO*
:s;S$9^«$Soa7i3^^:sssssgi9dss**ss^^^::&sss^£^SS
M Ok v' <D OO le O 9 to? "W* t« lO *4 -9 fo •oo*<D«f*^2'** '*'**^''^'* ""^ ^^^•O«0iO
e e"
onoc
e>«i>^i4r<^qic>9oao>^'^ociox«daCQOgodkaiat^o«^«Pon<S(Sr^M
^1
5<5
■jSiiHSSSSSSSiiSSiiiMISiSSSSiiSGSSSSSiis^^^
Digitized by
Google
PHYSICAL TESTS OP ROAI^-BUiLDING BOCK. 87
• lO Ok 1^ ^ «0 (<• r« CO C« <0 »« »« <D <0 Ok O Q 00 ^
cooome e«eoi-4t<>o«o«oc>«co^<oc9eoco«ooaoeoe9eocococ«ooc«oeoaot^eoi>>ooor»oao^c«aooOM»
^^ ^^ *^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^f^ P^ ^4 ^1^ ^^ ^4 ^4 fM4 ^4 ^4 ^4^4 ^4 ^4 ^^ ^4 y^ fM^ y^ ^^ ^^ ^^ yM4 y^ fi^ ^^4 yM4 rH W^ W^ WMw^ W^ W^ fii^fa^yi^ V^ ^^
...
.QQ
•S^3'§'§'§'S'§'§'§'§'§'§'§'§'§'§'S>§'S'§'§ « §•§-§•§ •§•§•§ -§5 •§•§.§
«:r
1
o
:m;4 in : : :^
•§>§3'§<S'S Sgq'O'o
!•§!'
illl^
liiiPiggiiiig§iii§ii§|iiii|i§ii§||||iiiii
fSMSSgg
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
88
BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
o
o
8
a
8
o
tS
o
O
H
If
11
a o s
JJJS_
PS,
I
I
y.
1^
+ + + +
« jc ,^00 X oi ,^ ^»- I - t - o *-o aj 00 r~ «5 1-^ oc c «:* t-^ oc (o •H r-^ ac ot5 't t^ oc o6 t«I ^,^i>^ V ^«oc oc ^
■-«1-I l-^?*^ r-IPH^^l-11-l^^^-.i^ t^ ^^ (^ .^ ^.^ PH T-l A fiN VN C^ ^4 fiN «^
ci ^4 r^ ?4 e^ ^_^(b lO h^ e^ ?4 r^ c^ cs cs 94 CO U9 e«t m c^ <<3 ^^n CO e^ '4 CO eo e« M
j
.2 y * Jii-»-i-^;:-ii-i-'ji'.i~i-i~i-.afci-!X'i-.''^i-QCi-i-.';r_>-aCt^t>-«»«o^h-«Oi>-0*D«0
3
o
a.
I
CQOC
® -
c o
J $ ** d d 5 ±: o d d d d d d d d d
^s ■ ■
4i
a
I ills 2^ if
i
..J
•Sj-93.= o3;*|.2f :§^^.:2S* -.^'i^a'
S5,
^3*
JSJ«M-fX«ooo>0't<«eo®aai-^occc»3CfflO««)
Digitized by VjOOQIC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF BOAI>-BUILDING EOCK.
89
SS«S2'-gS|g|8^|§||R§|§2gSS;:§a»«S««2S55SSSSSSS8S8SSS§|2
ss sj^sa
gg Mr«tHC| <o^
eoa»j5«o» aa;3'-<*'*»sas5;:s5S§ as^ss^asas* aa***"
«<oooaooo aoioooo^eo«ocoooo«^t^ C«r«t<-oo»eoa»c«ocoe9 «eo«-ioo
_ «6 «o »o «6 06 ^_ M ^; t<i 00 06 «D 10 1^ 06 06 06 06 r>; ^^^; ^i 06 06 1^ iO 06 06 ^^ 06 w ^06
■4C«QOoooot««eoo>o>a»(oC4oo<ot«>'^c<t^oak<o^
ior>i^^o6»«o6i-Je50o6oJ^oco"<»:o6^o6coe^^
e«oo»c«^t^<ooo ««0'«io^aoa»^t>>ooooQO^QO
^ci o> 06 06 r«^ gr tfa ^ ^— "J ■o^t^o>ot^goc4«-«-«»cao&oS^
DOb<-4i>.r«fH»-4ioiO'«<aaQOC«o*ot>>oooo(Oioo»e9
o eo *d c« ci c« c4 e4 '^ 00 ca ee M e4 CO CO CO e< 10 CO <«: o« CO ^
CO i-i -^ M CO t>> «o ^ «o «e OO CO *H oi c« »-i M ^ a» r« »-i M CO
^00 c4 ei c4 ei 1-4 t-t CO ^^c« c4 o« ei cj •-« «« eo CO CO c« ^ ^ ^ 00
fH^eoMS *r^i-leo ci ,-S * * * *^ ih ' *ci * *
jB^tJtJtJ i
^s
<i-<a
;^|iii
2^^^\2^^^^^\2^\2 5*5 :3^5\2\2\2 "2^.2^
3T5^T3t3^'OT3T5T5^^
H.043 o o o p p-a p o p M P7i pppppppa
a ;a i i i i is i : i5 iil i : i i i i il
l^ll||^2-s«Pi'idi|ill?li
:HQC^pqpL4m
I-
illlsilillwSllalltStf 15 iiislsls-ft llllsll
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
90
BULLETIN 370, U. 8. DEPABTMENT OP AGBICTTLTUBE.
a
o
1
^
•^
'5
1
-a
I
I
H
a?
w C
J: .
5 ^
cS
o
^1
2 ;^.
o
H
O
S
00
P>* o
frS^^
o
•So
|25
as|8E5f:|«5f!5:SS88J;SSS55lSRSo&«SSR«SsS85;S2aeR
oo M >o(oao«ooQOOO«ato»>o 2SS^^^*^8S^*^Se3 r^a»ocor«r«aftc«ao
1-i •vc>««r-i-»ot>.coO'»t>.*c« t^iOcocoOMaooco^Oeot^M tOffOC«c«r«eo«0coo
oi ^.^ CO « CO "O r>^ CO c4 ^ ^'^^*'/-N£i^2S^^SSS^*^*^S^'^^'^*^'^°'^^'^^*'^'^
<e o «6 A c^ » A o o oo t-^ Qfo o Ok Qo <o o r>^ ^ Ok ^ e4 Mi 00 ^ «• ^..e^ t<^ lo ^^^^ r<^ »4
pi -^ i4 •<: c« '<iii <« CO CO <« mS <« <« <« e4 « eo c« e4 ^ 94 CO M e4 CO o ^^e4 e4 ^^ ^_^i4 14 ej H ej «» e« ^
a,
5SZ2i3SS2£S§S2S2§S2S2SS22S2aSaSS£SSSSS2SiS
i
It,
I
4*
iiiriiiiiliiiiiiiirJi'Wilii
lasQ :^ffla^«<<n^P^ :i-jfe
go,$fooaoooooo«)OOOo ©3 o o o*» p o o p p 3 6
I :"§S " " ■ " " ^ - - -^ ^ -
•§<3-8€€€€€'
O'.crj
.Digiti
zed by Google
PHYSICAL TESTS OF EOAI>-BUILDING BOOK.
91
.++
«'^— *sias!;8S2as;*agsasas3sss8*2§«s«««'-asssj?as§sii8s:j
S SS «oj»|»«- oOfHoook •ooooo^oji'-ocor-io^ «ej gig
o «eooo
eor* ot<>io-<rao»
2ji25i;:s«j:22--^sasssasaaaa2^
o^ CO oo^^a»e4ioa»coeo^ioo»iOM9io-<r^«c«c9to>oc««eoiH^t<>-<ro^e«oeoiOeoQO«-«M»t<->i^ObQOoo
MO o M9oe«ooeoo^<DOOC«^i-icooM^^«aoc«oodka»aoo«ioo«<oa»oooooor««eo*H<oioo»o»
"""" I
^ -5 • • • c4 r^
fllliiillilililllilllillliililliilliiiliiliiiiiiiil
Digiti
zed by Google
92
BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTUBE.
o
'1
c
•?
1
^
s
^
ftl
^
•n
^
2
a
.9
(,)
y
5
u
2
^.
cc
o
'^j
H
^
s
^-^
L)
w
r/1
:§
I
J
J: .
OS «
ftfl
Hi
■p
£■3
1
6
i
2222S|?^g2SS'^a*2SSSa«2'-S*-§3*»*<»S
at i-^i-^ y i-i-'ci X '3d,,«^o>,,,^'--«- » r^I ^^«J <ji5 or5 r>^ ^_^i>I «e 0(5 1^ f-i r>r oJ
o>rcotot>-<xc>ioa»ix>or>-eMCmMi«c>ii^tor3Mo»c4^oto<oeoe<«
I
^ i> or. I- I- cc « * •- ''* 'T '£ tc r- «: X QC I- at X «D « oc r- f- oe ac I-. t>. Ih. hi
I
■"^ '■£ cj'r
ooc-o'iiooo
oooooo„ _
r .;i -c -o "o -3 -o -d •= "O
5®
II?
000 s c5
. . . .^-o
« . . . :c<"<
££8?i4i£>i^
C-^L^l^^C-^l^L^
0 o i>» 1-^ •«9« lo e
55*852
«e4ac«ao
9SSSSS
SSS?!§
^-
3T3 |-!
3SS|
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF EOAD-BUILDINQ BOCK. 93
<"N <-<k <-<k *->M-N
w o o c^
»o «d to «d "rf 1^ io eg r^ 1^ « e<l r^ ^^c5 V irf e4 ^_^^ irf 1-4 «o i-J ^_^«rf « ^
^•^ W S^ ^
ooocoa»ioioto>o^ooot>>eoeoQOioQO<o«ooe
^a6 (o<di-^Oka»to<<^<eaiS^^V^ujt>r(d(d(dM5o
o»aS^a6^^oS^^^•o»4^e4cl•l^t<5a6^•Hcloft^^^^e6u»oSdo^:•Ol-4rHa^uj^^
1
I
2=:
2
I
o
1
ill
J'
OOSGi
lip
Itlll4
QQM
_ddo*
j
o'cf o' o'B^'J
■O'O'O'O'O'O'O
? H-g dp 6 o'
StD^'OTJ
'l.
■o "O "O ^ -g*© "O "d
l^-g-O'b'OTD'O'dT
5B (; :^ !S 9 S S X fi 9 :S SS !f2 £: t* *^ °c !S Ej 0 :x ;s S ffi £) S 1^ *>() 0^ SP l:: S t^ 00 ^ °o Q 1-1 c5 9 9 9 s lO ?4 ^ ^ to <» c
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
94
o
a
►?
e
8
^
o
V en
0>
I
45
I
5
H
•J
5
-5
BULLETIN 370, U. 8. DEPABTMENT OP AGMCULTUBE.
Z3i 3
o - *<
X - 5
tfrocsaD mc4 o> raoc ^ranoCQO lo ^f *•• c^ to c^ o >o A ^ o oo v^h vih C4 eo c<« (-^ co « *o oo <c o
c^ c4 9C oi ,_^«o •oaiJod--iop»o-*'v,^rt»^c-!aJoac4irf ^^a; ■'40^r>^r<^>^o6a(5obakOOideo^
iSii0 50«5«iiO»0'j5wS tD«i-w5»o'Ct?5?c®<c«5cDS«««5«c«o«5®eow«>«^S3i^2^e«D<5
5 cn = --^
33
-OX) S-o
2 5^
5£|
I
« « .
a C at
Q o i
ill
3 il ia I : : M ia ::^
t>d
OOOOOOCOoOCiOOfcOO
•^ .^ -4 1-1 .^ .^ * ■<-• V fQ »Q -Q ^ O'CO
" ■ • • "b - -
^[^cc C5 > U U * ^
o o P o o o c ^ rj OT* -iStE: o ?; o^^
.2
•§!'§•§
^ccl^SJ
® ^ ■ C c3 O 3
^s§s
Digitized byVjOOQlC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF BOAD-BUILDING BOCK.
95
5SSIp:8S2a8SSS8S8S!58Sg«5l*8«'8S:^^SSSS5!5SS8 asf
fHOko-^ c«eaoi-4i-4r«r»M9esic«e9^ acoooo<oc4c<»«t«-<rcooo»co«o«»o^«ioco*-ii>4
c« e 00 1-4 1-4 r« r» M9 es! c« eo ^
^^^^ ^fH rHf-4<-4fH«H
ooooevoo oooMeoM ^ot^^eo c>«w>eo<ow>ooooot^^i-4eoa»iococooot^ototoako
^ -J w irf ^o6 o» 00 to r>r ^o» o<J id r^ «d od ^-J rf ^i «d od i-I © t*: rf o6 g t- ^ !^ «^ eo ^" o f- O c*i S' ?2 •:•
^vHv-4vi4^7S-4t^»H^i-i;7SHf-li>4r4«-«tH{;S-« ,-<^»iHt^ ^,M,-«^^^tH ,i^^^,-|
ooeoa»<oc9eoooooM»^c4«o^«-«^c«ooM^ioc< le ^C4>o^oot«> ^ ior«icc« Oicor«
Oke«fH«-4ioo>-4 0 0c«aoeoioc<«o<oc««a»Qoe>io» eo co^Meo<-it^ e« coiotoi^ ooicm
e4«<u5t^«ci«oorf^^V^*ciiV^e4«oo'V^«rf-^^cl«dt^22e^^orf^iood2»^^«'w«
§S§SS§§§l§§SSS§SS§ISiSIS§ISSSS§S§S§SSS§l§§
oQoacp :
fc-& S fertiBBf^^ a 3 o^»xsg4S'aCS5'9^^B 'BH 'S 'flea's
iggliiliiiliiiiiilllliililiiliiiiiiiiiiil
aoe«r«oo
COCOOiO
CO t"^ to 0(5 ♦»
1
ci'^M'co
F» CO <(5 <o
lilt
si
jO Pi
»M Im o ^
sis?
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
96
a
o
=1
-5
BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
S2S ;t8S22Z5-'«3'^3g^2S?i^S2^2S225:8J;«22 8*S:*S2
S2
«-«ao t<>ooo «DO«a»^coe*«<0 aor«ot««^^iooOie eoiO'^
S2**»S
COQOI»
r «r V ^ .M »o ^1 o» ® -»■' -»■ ci ^ CO ■««■ »o « CO c«» c^* 0 -f- ic ,^oJ co •
N VN f-« ^^^ «H •^ •^ «H f-« a^ «4 ^«-« •^ «4 «4 f-« VN *-4 ^4 ^4 VN ^ r^w
^oJ « c o «^
ft;
5 I
5 I
2 I
'Q CO
K> CO
V ST
o
o
o
^
PQ
c.2s ss
c V S
t2
aoi» o^*rtA<^<cs>i»M>^OO<&roo0ki->Xeo>^e>*«Ot«<vaOiOiO«aOioooc««OC<««r^eo
^o <«iOcoo»<&^^xx^ooXi~ifv«ot«e>*a)«Di>>i*^«ioao«fiN^43cooeDO»>Qnc«ak
Hs
o
1 =
5Sr2?3Si-?%c5<DU^&2Si5c<?J^oIc«Ro«'*»i<©»o<6»cor-ooooSo^oi^».oS
Kcm'm ' ' e* M i-i ^ -H i-< w '^^ '*«'*' • 1-J ei -H ,-; i-< ^ ^ ^ CO ■* V "c*
^- c^« o ic '^ 'S ■'■ •- ri n r« c-i r Tin /: X r /- miox o x x »ccsmc«c^ mp^wic »c»ci«oc>»e« x o
•§
6 5 o
2
li
T3-5
a
i
^§ -
<^ 9 o
2
o o
93 ■
j:e
J- g c c o
I ...... C g •• •
o «■ o o . o cq o o o
• "3 . • o t ^ c3 • • •
■a 'S^t-?-^^
2^
5 OCT
2 —
oSoooSoooo
iiiiililllli'H
II
a o
gft.
2na
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK. 97
io^o»t^«or«>oco»«c)
•<r«oacoooo oooior^Ok
OkncoM
c«t« eoooQOt«t^^kO>or««ioQOt&r« eoa»o>ot«»Q^
«or. c«9c»i^»oo»o«»oNt^'«»r-*«seo^c«e«©r-«oc«r^cet^oooooo^ior*eoa>eo^i^»r^t-QOeo^c«io
SSS8SnS2SoS?3«2S2g85;K?8S»?S8ajJ^S$8gRK$S§S^S8SSSS^2o?gg8SSS^ I"
§SS5l3SS§SS§§S§522S£SSSSS5IS§2SSi§£§SS§S§llliS22SS£2 I
■♦ o « ^ « « ^• »* » "* 00 « ■^ 1^5 ^ M c» ■* 00 »Q 00 p » "2 ?C O g» o « o> ac CO » « -; © 5; »:- ac JO o »
§liii2iiiii5§iiisisi5i§iisiiissEii§i§§§ilii2iisii5i
81693^— BuU. 370-16
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
98
BULLETIN 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
t
s
a.
<J
a:
03 i)
^8o
lilJ
t;Ssr:sS?J'c5'«S8= -»"'= ',;'^Si5S"^8»2282a2aaS8SI3gS8
*''222'***22S*''' n'5^a'^ooor*»^o»»oeoi^r*io««2«or»««o«'*'«»'»oo
CO »o «^ »2 « i^' lo »o QC o» QC ol ^_^Q0 3ifxa»»o«d«Wai£o>^koe4cl^c9eoM9VcJiO'^eQ<r^o
<^ ^ oj Ob t^ ^ ^' ^^'T t< » o (o (c V !>•' 1^' ^ '^ t^ *4 a >^ ^co>ou3 4i$ao*or<S^ ^•o^^M
•^ ^H ^H <-« ^H C< W "^ W •-< M C* iT^^ ^^ ^N »H »H
<^ CO CO "^ w cc rt w — »o •"T c4 c«i -4 e4 -^ •-* ,_^cc w M5 w ■^ ec wj o ^^ r* «rf ^^ t^ lO
Kc4 *-4»-Jc>J— *•-«'■• '^T^ * • • '^ • 'pj ' C4 -^ '-r M cj to cf CO c* C4 CO CQ ci i-i cj *«■ "co
^$;cr!r;.5.^i':i^?25'5-s s^s'^^a {'^{3ffji^^ssgs?s5sssssf2gj2ss§
^ .5
^ CO
,s o
*^ ^
CO
'§
>
m
-<
c
B^J
^ >> U vJ t
:-7 o o c <
© O O 3 O -^ O O Q,Ci,Q.>
"3^
? CO c% o ;o o (O 00 >-4 CO oC ^ «-4 -H ^ -H '^ u5 o «0 CO « « Solo «o «o « «o « « <o <D <o <o <D « « «DIUC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PHYSICAL TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING BOCK.
99
^^
SS gg58 ! ^SSS^SSSS-^gR §S5|2225§S5S5
oeoco
OOOCD
ss
sss
I
5
O
o
(K4Q
•sad
SSooS
SSS2&^SgSSz:^
Sf2§g
^5
1:9
.000
11:
lis
oddddddddddd
2 -CJ TJ TJ "O ■« 73 -O T3 TJ TJ -O
0.
• : g ; ; ; ; 08
m
g^iigiig^iii
C4 00 00 QO CD «e ^^t>I 06 06 QC OC
8
•-i^QOCieQeo QOC<^-^ *^
OJ -j «o CO "«* d ^^o q6 » i>i P
^^"* eo lo CO C9 •-« ^^c4 ci cj es
eo "O ■* 00 lo o c« 00 .-
c5 *»4-<<
SSSSKKggSSSoSSo
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
100
BULLETIK 370, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ft.
1
I
I
;5
2
n
4!>2
5f
|i
9^ O
Mi
11^
a
5
.1:2;
82g3|!J^S8^?55?g5S5::g$S2§Sg?g555j:gc!S$§2§Sg52j§S§SSS
12 S 2 0>««C^O>j5iOeOe02<0«0»jHO«©oO^CO«CO^b-0»^N^200«--;;«
***^»^ c<'^ooo>»oooooooco«»Hoocso«oooooe«iooeoo»ec««e«ooot»ooeo«^a»
WW <OC4'«
J2 S 2^ 2 Jh *^ ^ 2h -^2 ^*-'->^-^*^ *^ 2 2 S ^ ^ ""^ '^ *^ '-^'*' -'-v'-^^-v^^
«o to C) t-4 00 1-1 r^ fH o CO lo a» («• «o 00 00 o •« o a» io« w«oo
c4 e4 c4 eo e* •© eo w ,^e* ^.^^_^^^»o «3 « rt ec ec CO ec c4 w ,^« ,,.^^
^g88S225S§5t:5S8£5aSE;?;8S§^gJ:22S22gSS;3SSf2S§
iSSSSSSSSSSSSsSSSSS^SSsSSSSSSiSSSSSSSS
if
{Ex:
' o 5 a,
o<i
^ :;:::: c; 05- -^- * S £ g 2 ^5
■ goooooo^ 8*®*3^x oj^^S^^^Qoo 66
^^5 :5^5 : : : : : 'C^s-soS '0|f=--:3'3 . . . .
,<;<;q .<joqq : : : : : ;^fc<;o*s<; :s-^m^x'^« ' ' ' '
O
*2 ,2,2i255,2 555555 55 o 000000000000000 9XL 6 6 6 6
"S ..:.:.:::::::::!!: — ! — r ••••• -S-s ••• •
PI
d5PQ»5id
8|
§6 a SI'S
C © 3 0) ^ •
a'
III.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
rr/. J; 07/
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 371
Contributioii f^om tke Ofllce of Markets and Rural Organfn-
tloB, CHARLES J. BRAND, Chief.
Washington, D. C. T May 23, 1916
PATRONAGE DIVIDENDS IN COOPERATIVE GRAIN
COMPANIES.
By John R. Humphrey, A%%\%tant in Market Business Practice^ an^ W. H.
Kebr, Investigator vn Market Business Practice. \ '^\ <
CONTENTS.
Page.
Introdoctioii 1
Cooperative arganisation in relation to pat-
ronage dividend payments 2
Aooounting and business practice in relation
to patronage dividend payments 4
Desirability of standardization of ac'
counting records 4
Diversity of conditions and methods of
distribution 5
Page.
Aooounting and business practice in relation
to patronage dividend payments— Contd.
Patronage dividend records 5
Basis of distribution 5
Tlie patronage ledger 6
County unit or district requirements 8
INTRODUCTION.
The by-laws of a great many cooperative associations provide for
the payment of dividends to their patrons prorated in direct ratio
to the amount of business carried on between the organization and
the individual members. In a great majority of those organizations
these provisions have not yet been put into effect.
The principle of patronage dividends has been understood by stu-
dents of cooperation from the beginning, but has only lately been
making itself felt among the rank and file of the great body of
intending cooperators of America. The organization of farmers'
elevators, having had its origin at a time when cooperation on the
North American continent had not been the subject of much study,
quite naturally sought the lines of least resistance. It is natural,
then, since the corporation law was well founded and in successful
/
Note. — This bulletin should be of interest to farmers* cooperative grain elevators and
warehouses, and to members of these companies. It should be of interest to farmers and
others who are forming new cooperative grain elevators and warehouses.
33285"— Bull. 371—16
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
2 BULLETIN 371, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
operation, that the vast majority of these organizations were chart-
ered under this law.
The central idea of these farmers was that of pure cooperation,
as evidenced by the insertion of cooperative clauses in the by-laws
of many of these companies, but the vehicle throu^ which coopera-
tion was to be carried out was not provided for by law, except in a
few instances, and fundamentally was not intended to carry out the
purposes for which the farmers then sought to use it. Later, when
laws were passed providing for the distribution of dividends upon a
cooperative basis, apathy on the part of the management of the ele-
vators and obstacles contingent upon their organization as corpora-
tions delayed the readjustment of these companies to the new condi-
tions. The organization of a new cooperative company where co-
operative laws are in effect is a simple matter in comparison with
the readjustment of a company which has been in business for several
years, has accumulated a surplus, and taken on business relations of
a complex nature.
It is not diflScult in itself to provide a means of paying patronage
dividends when conditions regarding the organization of an associa-
tion have been prearranged for that purpose. The difficulties which
confront the majority of cooperative elevators at the present mcnnent
are matters of organization or reorganization rather than of method-
Where the organization has been perfected under some modem co-
operative law, the adjustment to a patronage dividend basis is prac-
tically automatic. If there are difficulties, they are encountered in
providing a method of distribution which shall be at the same time
economical and efficient.
It is in the older organizations, founded under the corporation law,
that the greater difficulties arise. The cooperative laws of the State
under whose jurisdiction the elevator is operated, usually provide the
conditions under which new organizations may be formed and old
ones converted to the provisions of the cooperation statute.
COOPERATIVE ORGANIZATION IN RELATION TO PATRONAGE
DIVIDEND PAYMENTS.
In discussing the relation of cooperative elevator organization to
patronage dividend payments, elevator companies may be grouped
under several heads or classes. Treating these progressively from
the earlier types to the more complex later organizations, we ^ould
first consider the single community elevator company organized as a
corporation. It should be understood that the method of adaptaticm
to the patronage dividend basis applies only to such elevators as are
properly under the jurisdiction of a cooperative law.
In the case of old organizations, it may be stated g^ierally that it
is safe to reorganize a corporate company under conditions which will
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
DIVroENDS IN COOPERATIVE GRAIN COMPANIES. 3
satisfy its debts and distribute its surplus to the stockholders, thus
reducing the organization to the relative basis upon which it began
business. The distribution of the surplus to the corporation stock-
holders before reorganizing is important, since it is held under the
corporation law that the earned surplus is held for the benefit of the
stockholders. Aside from this procedure, the company should comply
with the provisions of law peculiar to the State in which it is located,
so that it may transact its business legally as a cooperative concern.
The single elevators organized from the beginning under the co-
operative law constitute the second class. This class also will include
the elevators just described after their reorganization.
A third class may be designated as the county unit plan, such as
is found operating in Kansas under the control of the Farmers'
Union. Under this arrangement, all the elevators belonging to a
county union are banded together as one cooperative association and
transact business as a imit. In order to keep a close check upon the
business under the varying conditions of management in the several
elevators represented, it has been found advisable to keep the records
of the company in such a manner as to show the individual earning
percentage of each elevator.
As these records are kept in a general office, the distribution of
the patronage dividend payments from the controlling office is
possible and may be provided for either by paying a uniform rate
to all the patrons or by varying the rate according to the percentage
of profit in each of the elevators.
The companies of the fourth class are in many particulars similar
to those of the third class or county unit plan, but are organized on
a greatly extended scale.^ In addition to the activities usual to
primary elevators these companies have entered the terminal market
upon the same basis as a commission company, holding member-
ships on boards of trade and doing an extensive commission busi-
ness. Such companies have not been able to pay a patronage divi-
dend, although specifically organized with the privilege of doing so.
The inability to pay patronage dividends when operating as a
commission company has been due to the existence of the commission
rule commonly applied between members in the various boards of
trade and chambers of commerce. This rule, prohibiting as it does
the returning of any part of a trader's profits to the shippers upon
the ground that such would constitute a rebate, practically pre-
cludes the possibility of paying patronage dividends. Where all
earnings and net profits are figured upon the whole business trans-
acted by the company as a unit it is impracticable, under this rule,
to divide the profits upon any but a stock dividend basis.
1 Companies operating under tbe foarth class are at present conflned to tbe Canadian
Northwest.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
4 BULLETIN 371, U. 6. DEPARTMENT OF AQBICULTUEE.
Under the fifth division may be considered the companies whkh
are similar to those operating under division four where all the
profits are retained in the locals, or pooled in the general treasury
to be prorated according to the business of tiie patrons, but with
this difference — ^that the companies themselves do not enter upon
any business except that properly belonging to primary elevators.
In order to secure the benefits of trading on the board of trade a
company organized explicitly for that pur{>ose mi^t be employed-
All the stock in such a corporation could then be owned either by
the several stockholders of the primary elevator company or by the
elevator company itself if so autiiorized under the law.
The profits accruing to such a company in the first place could
be distributed to the individual stockholders, or in the second case
could be paid into the general treasury of the primary elevator com-
pany and there prorated to tiie several locals according to the amount
of business each had transacted. Under present conditions of the
market any plan of organization which attempts the distribution
of patronage dividends which in any way embrace profits accruing
to the organization on the boards of trade doubtless would meet
with opposition.
ACCOUNTING AND BUSINESS PRACTICE IN RELATION TO
PATRONAGE DIVIDEND PAYMENTS.
Business methods employed to effect the complete distribution of
profits derived from the transaction of business in cooperative com-
panies and societies are at present in the experimental state. The
newness of the application of thoroughgoing cooperative methods
has not given time for an extended study of those business and ac-
counting requisites necessary for the scientific operation of the
business. In privately operated elevators the same need* has not
been felt for accurate records and improved business methods as has
arisen since cooperative methods of transacting the business of agri-
cultural marketing organizations became general. Because each
member of a cooperative organization is in fact an interested partner,
and to some extent feels a personal responsibility for the success of
the association, it has become imperative in such societies or com-
panies that their methods of operation and systems of accounts be
clear, comprehensive, and at the same time easily understood.
DESIRABILITY OF STANDARDIZATION OF ACCOUNTING RECORDS.
Progress in cooperative methods of handling grain has been so
rapid that in many cases the business has outgrown the methods
which were borrowed from other lines of operation. Systems of
accounts and plans of operation have been tried which oft^i were
not suited to the needs of the business. For every reason it would
seem the part of wisdom for leaders in the movement to work to-
uigiTized by
Google
DIVIDENDS IN COOPERATIVE GRAIN COMPANIES. 5
ward the standardization of the operation of cooperative marketing
organizations/ and especially should they unite on a uniform system
of accounting records.
DIVERSITY OF CONDITIONS AND METHODS OF DISTRIBUTION.
The methods of distribution of dividends, however, must be modi-
fied to fit the varying conditions under which elevators operate. The
cooperative principle of marketing is applied to the single com-
munity and to areas embracing counties and even districts of several
counties each. Any method of doing business which contemplates
the management of these organizations must be as varied as the
business with which it is used. In dealing with such methods or
systems the general classes of enterprises previously outlined will
be considered, but since few elevator organizations are able to conduct
their business under exactly the conditions of any of the groups cited,
it is probable that a determination of profits on a pro rata basis
necessarily will be a combination of some of the plans described.
PATRONAGE DIVIDEND RECORDS.
The method of accounting in a single cooperative elevator is not
unlike that which would be employed in any other single elevator,
except that certain records must be kept which will show the total
business transacted betweien the elevator and each of its patrons.
This total includes the business conducted by the elevator of both
purchasing and selling. For the single elevator the simplest method
of accounting for the business transactions can be obtained through
the use of what may be called the patronage ledger. This ledger is
so arranged as to receive the tabulation of bushels and pounds of
each kind of grain purchased and of the selling value of all com-
modities of merchandise sold. The record of grain purchased may
be obtained from the stubs of the checks given in payment for grain,
and the amount of sale of each kind of merchandise may be simi-
larly obtained from the duplicates of the sales tickets. In this
ledger the requisite number of sheets is assigned to each customer,
so that at the end of the year the total business transacted with each
patron is recorded under his name.
BASIS OF DISTRIBUTION.
When the books of record of the company have been closed for
the year and the profit determined a certain percentage on the capi-
tal stock outstanding can be paid as a dividend. After deducting
this percentage from the total amount of profit a determinaticm can
be made of the amount of money still on hand available for distri-
1 Kerr, W. H., and NahstoU, O. A. : Cooperative organiiatlon basiness methods, U. 8.
Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 178. 1915.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
6 BULLETIN 371, U. B. DBPAETMENT OP AGBICULTUBE.
bution as a patronage dividend, and this, may be distributed accord-
ingly, allotting a certain amount per bushel to the transaction in
grain and a certain percentage of the value of the goods sold to the
merchandise transaction. It should be the practice of cooperative
organizations to set aside all reserves and additions to surplus before
paying either the stock or patronage dividends.^
Considerable difference of opinion has arisen regarding the proper
basis for distribution of patronage dividends on transactions in
grain. It has been held by certain managers and boards of directors
that the value of grain purchased should be the basis for distribu-
tion, but investigations by the OflSce of Markets and Bural Oi^ani-
zation show that distribution should be made on the basis of quantity
handled.
In handling grain the management of an elevator usually deter-
mines upon a certain net margin between the purchasing and selling
value which it assumes will yield sufficient revenue to carry on the
business. Almost without exception this margin is the same on all
varieties of grain. It must be apparent, therefore, that, sinocf' this
margin yields whatever profit accrues to the elevator, it would not
be equitable to pay a patron hauling oats at 38 cents a bushel a
smaller patronage dividend on the same number of bushels than
might accrue to a patron hauling wheat at $1.10. If the value of
the grain determined the profit, a value basis could be established
for determining patronage dividends ; but the fact that two patrons
hauling the same kind of grain at different times of the year under
conditions of price fluctuation would receive varying amounts of
money for the same number of bushels of the same commodity
shows that this is not the proper basis for patronage dividend
distribution.
THE PATRONAGE LEDGER.'
In attempting to consider the application of cooperative account-
ing methods to the county unit or district plan, a transition is made
from a very simple plan of organization to one of greater com-
plexity and to a plan which in its accounting requirements makes
demands for an extension of the idea contained in the patronage
ledger. Throughout the consideration of accounting requisites for
cooperative elevators, the patronage ledger will always remain the
basis to be relied on for data. As the complexity of organization
increases, however, the patronage ledger takes on a new form and
develops into a comprehensive filing system. The patronage ledger
1 Bassett, C. B., Moomaw, Clarence W., and Kerr, W. H. : Cooperative Marketing and
Financing of Marketing Associations, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Yearbook, 1914.
Bee p. 196.
■ Humphrey, John R., and Kerr, W. H. : A System of Accounts for Farmers* Cooperative
Cllevators, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 236. 1915. See p. 10.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
DIVIDENDS IN COOPEBATIVE GRAIN COMPANIES. 7
in book form becomes too cumbersome to be economically feasible
for daily use under these more complex conditions.
In the coimty plan several elevators are grouped together into a
single unit, with the control centering in a general office supervised
by a general manager. As any system of accounts devised for this
type of organization should aim to minimize the work of each local
manager, all accounting, except such as is required for the recording
of sales of merchandise to local patrons, is recorded in the central
office. In this case a system of grain-purchase tickets will take the
place of the patronage ledger. Each station manager will record
upon a suitable ticket all the grain received from a certain patron
during a business day. At the end of the day these tickets will be
forwarded to the central office, together with the report of all the
business transactions of the day. At the central office these grain-
purchase tickets should be alphabetized by the names of the patrons.
If the grain has been received and not paid for, such tickets are filed
according to number in another compartment of the filing drawer, to
be uemoved to the alphabetical file upon notice that the grain has been
purchased. By this method of filing it becomes possible, through the
use of an adding machine, to arrive at the business transacted with
each of the patrons during any period by simply adding together the
totals of the tickets registered under each name. In the case of sales
of merchandise, a similar filing system should be used, each of the
patron's purchases being filed under his name. At the end of the
year the bookkeeper would be able to record on his patronage ledger,
under the name of each patron, the total transactions of both kinds of
business occurring during the year. It has been customary under
the county-unit plan to keep the business of each elevator separate
and apart from that of any other belonging to the group. For this
reason the profit derived from the business of each of these elevators
also can be determined.
Although it is usual to consider the profits of the organization as
a whole when distributing patronage dividends under this arrange-
ment, a condition sometimes has arisen which has been the subject
of considerable discussion. By keeping each elevator's business en-
tirely separate, in some instances the patrons of the different elevators
have been paid their pro rata share of the profits of the elevator with
which they did business. In some cases different elevators operating
at a less relative cost per bushel have been able to pay a higher per
bushel dividend than others in the same group. The following ques-
tion has then arisen : Inasmuch as each patron is contributing to the
prosperity of the county organization on a per bushel basis, from
which it is assumed the same margin of profit has been taken, would
it not be more equitable if the gross profits of the organization were
pooled, the entire expenses deducted, and each patron paid his equal
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
8 BULLETIK 3tl, U. S. DEPABTMENT OP AGBICULTUEE.
pro rata share of the entire net profit, thus equalizing the rate of
j)ayment per bushel to each patron? The solution of this question
rests upon the point of view which the cooperators maintain in rela-
tion to the purposes of cooperation. If they look upon the subject
from a broad standpoint and consider themselves as members of the
county organization first and of their local organization last, then
they will feel that the rate of dividend payments should be equalized
according to the transactions of the organization as a county unit
On the other hand, if the organization is not so closely united in
sentiment nor in actuality, but is rather a group of organization:^
banded together for the mutual benefit of the separate elevators and
not for an equal rate of benefit to the patrons, each patron wiU de-
pend upon the prosperity of his local for the rate of return per
bushel on his grain. His other transactions with the company would
be on the same principle.
COUNTY UNrr OB DISTRICT REQUIREBIENTS.
For accounting purposes the methods of doing business in the
fourth and fifth classes of companies which operate elevators or
warehouses exclusively would fall under three heads, two of which
are operative imder the county-unit plan. These may be defined as
follows: Groups of elevators where the profits are determined for
each elevator; groups of elevators where the profits are pooled in the
treasury of the general organization; and groups of elevators ship-
ping to a terminal elevator belonging to the company, where the
grain is held for future sale and where grain from various elevators
is mixed in the process of selling, thus losing the carload identity
of the different original shipments.^ Under the third group two
divisions may be found. The first, wherein the various elevators
ship all their grain to the terminal warehouse, and the second com-
prising those which ship partially to the terminal warehouse and
sell the remainder of their output independently to outside parties.
Accounting methods suitable for the first two groups would be
practically identical with those used under the county-imit plan
except that the idea would have to be extended in accordance with
the increased number of elevators participating. In considering
the third group, there is the possibility of a difference of opinion
over the basis of distribution, as previously cited — whether it should
be upon an equal pro rata division of the net profits, considering
the profits as belonging to the entire organization, or whettier each
elevator should receive back its pro rata share of the whole net
^The Farmers* Union operates terminal warehoases at variouB points In the CanadUn
Northwest which would fall under this plan.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
DIVIDElSrDS IN COOPERATIVE GBAIN COMPANIES. 9
profit, this to be distributed among its patrons. Independent sales
fall outside the discussion of proration of general profits, because
the profits from these accrue entirely to the elevator making the
sale. If profits are pooled and the expenses of all the elevators
participating are also shared on a common basis, the method of
finding the rate for the division of the profits is merely a matter
of dividing the profits by the number of bushels of grain handled
by the entire group of elevators. If, on the other hand, the varying
rates of expense incidental to operation in the different elevators
and the various advantages in selling which have occurred during
the year are taken into consideration, the division of profits then
becomes much more complicated.
By compiling a formula which takes into consideration all the
factors which go to make up the rate of profit, the amount of profit
for each elevator can be determined, and this will allow a distribu-
tion of profits on varying rates to the patrons of the different ele-
' vators in accordance with the economic advantage of each separate
station.
For purposes of illustration it will be assumed that in a certain
organization there are five elevators, each operating on a different
rate of expense, all shipping to the central organization, which, act-
ing as their agent, disposes of the grain through its terminal ware-
house. In such a case each elevator must keep its own books, so that
it will know the amount of expense incurred and the number of
bushels handled. At the end of the year, when the central organiza-
tion has determined the total amount of profit, settlements will be
made with the various locals according to the following table,* from
which it will be seen that the average cost of operation per bushel
is $0.03.
Bushels
handled.
Elevator
expense.
Share of
profit for
each ele-
vator.
Individual
expense
per
bushel.
Elevator A
500
500
1,200
2,400
600
$25
30
40
40
21
$40
36
116
272
67
$0.05
Eleyator B
.06
Elevator C
.0333
Elevator D
.0167
"E^vBXar E
.036
6,200
166
620
The figures in this table are determined by the use of a formula
which is derived from the combination of various items which
must be taken into consideration when transacting the business
under this arrangement. Before setting down the formula, the
» Th€se flgnres are not taken from any firm, but are used merely for illustration.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
10 BULLETIN 371, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
meaning of the various letters comprising it are explained as
follows :
(e) Individual expense*.
(c) Cost of handling at each elevator per bushel.
(ac) Average cost of handling per bushel for the totaL
(&) Number of bushels handled.
(p) Average profit ner bushel for the total.
(ip) Individual pront for each elevator.
From this it will l)e seen that r=^ and p— {c—ac)Xh=ip. In
other words, assuming in the above table that the average profit
per bushel for the total was 10 cents, the formula in figures for
each elevator, taking elevator A as an example, would be -^^=0.05,
which is the per bushel cost of operating. The average cost is
sW\7=0.03.
The formula for individual profit in figures would be as follows:
0.10— (0.05— 0.03) X^*)00=40.00, which is the individual share of
profit belonging to elevator A. The profit belonging to each of
the other elevators is determined in a similar manner, and tiie
total profit thus determined will be found to equal $520, which is
10 cents per bushel on 5,200 bushels.
In order to adjust a plan of accounting and business practice to the
needs of a large organization, it will be well to have a business and
accounting expert go over carefully the present methods of business
and make recommendations. This will mean the organization of
an office staff competent to perform the work connected with the
management of the business. The plans outlined in this bulletin,
if put in operation under competent control, should insure the
equitable distribution among the patrons of the earnings of elevator
and warehouse companies.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
PUBLICATIONS OF U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING
TO COOPERATIVE MARKETING.
AVAILABLE .FOB FBEE DISTBIBUTION.
Cooperative Organization Business Methods 1915 (Department Bulletin 178).
A System of Accounts for Farmers' Cooperative Elevators 1915 (Department
bulletin 236).
A System of Accounts for Primary Grain Elevators 1916 (Department Bulletin
362).
Grain Farming in the Com Belt with Live Stock as a Side Line 1916 (Farm-
ers' Bulletin 704).
Cooperative Marketing and Financing of Marketing Associations (Separate
637 from Yearbook 1914).
Lumber Accounting and Opening the Books In Primary Grain Elevators 1916
(Markets Document 2).
FOB SALE BT THE SUPEBINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS.
Grain Movement in the Great Lakes Region 1910 (Bureau of Statistics Bulletin
81). Price, 10 cents.
Marketing Grain and Live Stock In the Pacific Coast Region 1911 (Bureau
of Statistics Bulletin 89). Price, 10 cents.
11
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
ADDITIONAL COPIES
or THIS PUBUCATION MAT BS PROCUBXO FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFPICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT
5 CENTS PER COPY
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
/^/. ?.' ^71
UNITED STATES DEPABTHENT OF AGRICDLTUBE
BULLETIN No. 372
CoBtribalioii fkom the Bureau of Plant ladafltry
WM. A. TAYLOB.CIiler
Washington, D. C^
May 16, 1916
COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION OF THYMOL FROM
HORSEMINT (MONARDA PUNCTATA).
By S. C. Hood,
Scioklific AuMtanl^ Drug-Plant and Poisonous-Plant InvestigcHoks/
CONTENTS.
Page.
Introductloa 1
Cultural methods for horsemint 3
Plaatingthewed 3
Soils 3
Cultivation and fertilizers 4
Paje.
Harvesting '. ^ 5
DistillaUon 6
Extraction of the thymol 8
Yield per acre 10
Commercial prospects 10
INTRODUCTION.
It has long been known that thymol is present in considerable
quantity in the oil distilled from horsemint (Monarda punctata),
but so far as the writer had been able to learn no attempt has been
made to cultivate this plant for the commercial production of thymol.
In 1907 horsemint was observed to occur in abundance as a common
weed on the sandy lands of central Florida, and the preliminary
examinations of the oil from the wild plants which were made at
that time seemed to indicate that a promising commercial source of
thymol could, be developed by bringing this plant imder cultivation
and selecting for propagation types of plants best suited for oil pro-
duction.
The leaf area of the wild plants is rather small, and the herb when
harvested consists mainly of woody stems which yield httle or no
oil. The fresh entire herb gathered in Putnam and Volusia Coimties,
Fla., yielded from 0.12 to 0.20 per cent of oil, although in some
samples the yield feU far below these figures, owing to the excessive
proportion of stems. The content of total phenols in these oils
ranged from 56 to 62 per cent, and it was found that the phenols
consisted almost entirely of thymol.
38116*— BulL 37^-16
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
2 BULLETIN 372, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The first problem, therefore, seemed to be to increase the leaf
area and thus increase the yield of oil per acre. Accordingly, in 1910
a small plat of ground was set with plants grown from a mixed c(d-
lection of seeds secured from wild plants in Volusia County. Of the
first year's growth from this plat, 196 pounds of herb was distilled and
yielded 0.17 per cent of oil. In the second year the yield of oil from
plants grown on the same plat was 0.24 per cent. The content of
total phenols in the oils was found to be 64 per cent.
A large number of variations in the plants were noted in 1910, and
from these about sixty individual plants showing the various forms
were selected for seed purposes. The seed from these plants was sown
in 1911, but the resulting plants were not true to type. It was noted,
however, that the variations fell into two genertd classes — dark and
light plants — and that to a large extent these variations came true
to type. The dark plants had much darker leaves, more serrate,
and with a pronounced red color in the stems and branches. The
light plants had larger leaves, fighter green in color, and with fittle
or no red color in the stems and branches. There was also a greater
tendency to the production of leaves in the light than in the dark
type. From 34 tests which were made to show the relative yield of
oil of these two types of plants the following average yieldb of oil
were obtained: From the dark type, 0.40 per cent of oil, which
contained 66 per cent of phenols; from the Ught type, 0.42 per c^it
of oil, with 69 per cent of phenols. The specific gravity, as well as
the percentages of oil and of phenols in the oil, was found to be higher
in the plants of the fight type. Future seed selection was therefore
carried on with this type.
In 1912 a fvu'ther comparison was made between the light and dark
forms and the results obtained were still more marked, but owing
to weather conditions all samples showed a low yield of oil. The aver-
age of 36 tests was as follows: Dark type, 0.31 per cent of oil, which
contained 65 per cent of phenols; light type, 0.40 per cent of oil,
which contained 68 per cent of phenols. By continuing the selection
of the light type of plants the yield of oil has been gradually increased,
and in 1914 the herb from a plat of two-thirds of an acre yielded 0.44
per cent of oil, which contained 72 per cent of phenols, while in 1915
the average was 0.42 per cent of oil, containing 74 per cent of phenok.
During these years selection was also made to increase the size of
the plants in order that the tonnage of herb per acre might be in-
creased. This was also successful and a considerably increased yield
was noted year by year. It is befieved that at the present time the
selection has been carried far enough to warrant the use of the im-
proved form for the commercial production of thymol in the United
States.*
I The department has no supply o( selected seed or plants of horsemint available for distribution.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
COMMEECIAL PBODUCTION OF THYMOL FROM HORSEMINT. 3
CULTURAL METHODS FOR HORSEMINT.
PLANTING THE SEED.
The seed of horsemint matures in the Southeastern States during
August and September and is ready to be gathered as soon as the
calyx is dry and has assmned a dark-brown color. If left too long
the largest and best seed will be lost and only the inferior seed
will remain for collection. The seed can readily be gathered by
hand by stripping off the entire heads, together with such leaves
or bracts as remain on the stem. This material should be spread
on a cloth or tight floor and as soon as it is thoroughly dry the seeds
can be removed by rubbing through a sieve having 12 to 16 meshes
to the inch, common window screening being about the right size.
Further sifting and very gentle winnowing will remove most of the
foreign material.
In the extreme Southeastern States, where the winters are free
from severe frosts and snow, the best results are secured by planting
the seed about the first of November in a oarefuUy prepared seed bed.
In order to avoid too thick sowing it is advisable to mix the seed with
dry sand and sow the mixtvu^e evenly on the seed bed. A bed of 15
square feet will provide enough plants for an acre if properly planted.
After the seed has been sown, a layer of fine soil about one-eighth
of an inch thick should be sifted over it and the bed well shaded by
doth. A good form of seed bed is that used by market gardeners
in the South for raising celery plants. The soil should bo kept
moist, and as soon as the plants begin to come up the cloth should
be removed. The seed will germinate in from six to ten days, and at
two months from sowing the plants should be 2 inches high and ready
for transplanting to the fields. If this work is done following a rain
and the soil is in good condition no watering is necessary.
SOILS.^
Horsemint occurs wild on light sandy soils and under cultivation
has given the best results on this type of soil. It is essentially a
lime-loving plant and its culture has not been successful on soils
which were strongly acid, nor on heavy clays or low land where
the drainage was poor or the amoxmt of moisture excessive. The
best results have been secured on rich, well-drained sandy loam,
underlain with marl or clay at a depth of from 2 to 3 feet. Consid-
ering all the factors involved in the commercial production of this
plant, it probably would be advisable to make plantings on light
sands, such as the high pine hinds of the Southeastern States. Horse-
mint occasionally occurs wild in dry fields on sandy soils from south-
em New York to Florida and westward to Wisconsin, Kansas, and
Texas. It probably would thrive under cultivation wherever it is
found growing wild, although its profitable production will depend
upon local economic conditions.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
4 BULLETIN 372, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGKICULTURE.
cvlhtation and fbbtilizbbs.
The plants should be set in the field in rows 3 feet apart and about
18 inches to 2 feet apart in the row. This will permit the use of horse
cultivation as soon as the plants have become established in the field.
The usual cultivation should be given until the plants are large
enough to shade the groxmd and thus prevent the growth of weeds
which might injure the crop at harvest time.
In 1912 a series of fertilizer experiments was carried out on 36
plats. It was fou^d that although certain special methods of treat-
ment had a marked effect on the percentage of yield of oil and of
thymol in the oil, the greatest yield was obtained by promoting the
growth of the plant and thus securing the largest possible yield of
herb per acre.
Acid phosphate gave more herb and a higher percentage of oil
than did bone black, and calculated on the yield of thymol per acre
the ratio was as 2 to 1 in favor of the acid phosphate. Nitrate of
soda did not give as satisfactory results as sulphate of anmionia.
The use of an oiganic source of nitrogen in the complete formula did
not give as good results as when all the nitrogen was applied in the
form of sulphate of ammonia. There was a slight difference in favor
of the application of the potash in the form of sulphate. The best
results were obtained by the use of a complete fertilizer having the
following analysis: Nitrogen, 4 per cent; phosphoric acid, 6 per cent;
potash, 10 per cent. With this fertilizer made from sulphate of
ammonia, acid phosphate, and sulphate of potash^ 600 pounds per
acre should be sufficient to produce a good crop, and less could be
used on land having a fair d^ee of fertility.
It has been found advisable to make the application of fertilizer
after the plants have bet^ome established in the field, but care should
be taken to prevent injury to the leaves by the fertilizer.
The average composition of a number of samples of horsemint
made both before and after distillation is shown in Table I, the results
being calculated on the basis of dry material.
Table I. — Composition of horsemint before and after distillation.
1
Time of analysis. Ash.
!
Nitrogen,
as am-
monia.
Fhos-
phorio
acid, as
Potash,
asKsO.
Before distillation
Per cent.
7.73
8.17
Percent.
1.46
1.33
PereenL
ass
PereenL
3.38
2.12
After distillation
Taking as a basis the average composition of the herb before
distillation and allowing 25 per cent as the average quantity of dry
matter, the quantity found in a large number of determinations, it
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION OF THYMOL FROM H0R8EMINT. 5
appears that a crop of 10,000 pounds will remove from one acre of
land the foDowing quantities of nutrient materials: Nitrogen, as
ammonia, 38.5 pounds; phosphoric acid, as P3O5, 14.5 pounds; and
potash, as KjO, 59.5 poimds. The materials removed from the soil
could be replaced by the use of 800 pounds per acre of fertilizer hav-
ing the following composition: Nitrogen, as ammonia, 4.81 per cent;
phosphoric acid, as PaOg, 1.81 per cent; and potash, as E^^O, 7.43 per
cent.
Since some disposal must be made of the distilled herb it is probable
that this material if returned to the soil would restore most of the
nutrient materials removed and at the same time add vegetable
matter to the land. It is advisable, however, to compost this
material and to apply it to the field only after it is well decomposed.
The exhausted material has been found to contain an average of 50
per cent of water; and if proper allowance is made for the water
content a ton of this material would yield the following quantities of
nutrient materials: Nitrogen, as ammonia, 13.3 poimds; phosphoric
acid, as P^Os, 5.4 pounds; and potash, as K3O, 21.2 pounds.
HARVESTING.
In harvesting the crop excellent results were secured by the use
of a 1 -horse mowing machine, which was made adaptable for the
purpose by placing shoes under each end of the cutting bar, so that
the plants were cut about 6 inches above the ground. As soon as
it is cut the herb should be gathered and hauled to the distilling
plant, since it has been found that by allowing the plants to dry in
the field there is considerable loss of oil. A large loss of leaves also
results, owing to their rapid drying and shattering off in handling.
Care must be taken in harvesting that the rooted layers about the
plant are not torn loose; otherwise, a large percentage of the plants
left in the field wiU die. The lower branches of the plant which
spring from the stems near its base grow downward and strike root
by natural layerage, and since in a large number of cases the old
root dies after the first year the plant is perpetuated by these layers.
In light soils these roots are easily torn loose and the death of the
plant results. On this account the use of a rake for getting up the
cut herb is undesirable, and forks should be used for that purpose.
Considerable work, extending over a period of several years, has
been done in order to determine the proper time for harvesting the
herb and abo to ascertain the yield of oil and thymol at the different
stages of growth. In 1911, 16 tests were made with plants in the
budded stage and a like number with plants in full flower, to determine
the percentage of yield of oil and thymol in these two stages. The
average yield was as follows: In the budded stage, 0.36 per cent of
oil, with 64 per cent of total phenols; from the plants in full flower.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
6 BULLETIN 372, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE.
0.33 per cent, with 67 per cent of phenols. In order to gath^
further data on this point tests were made in 1912 with plants in
various stages of growth harvested from measured areas. The
results obtained are summarized in Table II, which also shows the
same results reduced to the basis of yield per acre.
Table II. — Yield of oil and total phenols from Tiorsemint at different stages of growth.
Weight
of herb
distilled.
Actual yield.
Yield per acre.
stage of growth.
Oil.
Total
phenols.
Herb.
OiL
Phfloois.
Plants Just beginning to send up flower
stalks ....
Pound*.
453
506
1,403
352
Percent.
a34
.30
.24
.18
Percent.
72
76
74
74
Pounds.
9,090
10,590
10.000
8,500
Pounds.
32.94
ZL77
24
15.30
P0U9i9.
23.05
Budded stage
24.14
Full flower.
18.48
FloWfMTSf^mn ..
10l82
From these results it wiU be seen that the highest yield of phenols
is secured in the budded stage and that the loss is very rapid as the
flowering period advances. Since, however, the difference is but
slight between the first and second stages, it is advisable with a
lai^e acreage to begin hM^esting about the time the flower stalks
begin to shoot up; otherwise, it may not be possible to harvest part
of the area until the flowering stage is well advanced, and thus loss
will result.
DISTILLATION.
Distillation of the horsemint herb is carried on by the usual
methods in practice for distilling such volatile oils as peppermint
and spearmint. A retort made of wood, galvanized iron, or boiler
iron is used to contain the herb. This retort is connected to a con-
denser by a pipe of proper size from the top of the retort. The
condenser may be of the worm type, such as is used in the distillation
of turpentine, or of the tubular type, with flues similar in arrange-
ment to a vertical boileri Steam from a boiler is admitted to the
retort at the bottom and passing through the herb enters the con-
denser, where the mixed vapors of steam and oil are cooled by a
water jacket. The mixture of water and oil flowing from the con-
denser should be collected in a receptacle having a side tube entering
the container at the bottom and bent up so that the outlet is only about
2 inches below the top of the container. This will allow the water
to be discharged through the side tube, while the oil is retained as a
layer on top. It has been found advisable to retain the water which
flows from the oil receiver, in order to recover the oil dissolved in it,
since this recovered oil is very rich in thymol.
In 1911, 4 gallons of this water was allowed to stand for several
days until it was perfectly clear and all the oil globules were removed.
When redistilled a yield of 0. 1 14 per cent of oil was secured, containing
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
COMMEKCIAL PRODUCTION OP THYMOL FROM HORSEMINT. 7
95 per cent of total phenols. In 1912 a total of about 35 gallons of
water was distilled and a yield of 0.05 per cent of oil was secured,
having 98 per cent of phenols. The quantity of oil which is dissolved
in the water under the usual methods of distillation is strikingly
shown by the results for 1914, which are summarized in Table III.
Table III. — Qtumtity of oil recovered from the water as compared with that obtained
from horsemint.
Weight of herb.
441 pounds..
896 pounds..
308 pounds..
on from
the herb.
Poundi.
1.6
1.8
1.2
Oil
recovered
from the
wato*.
Poundf,
0.20
.19
.12
For the year 1914 the oil recovered from the water contained 90 per
cent of phenols.
From these results it will be seen that the redistillation of this water
is practicable and will add about one-seventh to the quantity of oil
secured from the herb. This redistillation can readily be accom-
plished by collecting the water in a suitable receptacle, and when a
sufficient quantity has accumulated it can be nm into the retort
and distilled in the same manner as the herb, or the water secured
can each time be added to the next charge of herb and distilled with it.
By passing the fresh herb through a fodder cutter or shredder it
is possible to distill a lai^er quantity at a time, but it in no way hastens
the distillation process; oti the contrary, it hinders somewhat the
unloading of the material if it is removed from the top of the retort.
If the retort is emptied from the bottom, as is customary in the larger
distillation plants, it is practicable to cut the herb, since it much
facilitates the diunping. These are points which the distiller must
decide according to his special conditions and the scale of his opera-
tions.
The size and munber of the retorts used will depend upon the quan-
tity of material to be distilled during the season. If the herb is cut
before distillation, about 100 pounds can be contained in each 7 cubic
feet of retort space. A retort 6 feet in diameter and 8 feet high would
contain about 3,200 pounds of the cut herb, or about half that quan-
tity of the whole herb.
As soon as it is distilled the oil should be freed from water in a
separatory funnel and shaken with a small quantity of anhydrous
calciimi chlorid to remove the last traces of water and to prevent
turbidity. It can then be stored until wanted for refining. It is
preferable to use glass containers if the oil is to be stored for any
length of time, since contact with iron or tin will darken the oil and
make the refining more difficult.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
8 BULLETIN 372, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTURE.
EXTRACTION OF THE THYMOL.
The oil of horsemint distilled from plants grown in Florida con-
sists of phenols to the extent of 70 to 80 per cent, and these phenols
consist almost entirely of thymol, there being present also very small
quantities of carvacrol. The nonphenol portion of the oil consists
largely of cymene, which acts as a solvent for the thymol and pre-
vents complete crystallization. It is therefore necessary to separate
these two compoimds as a preliminary step in the extraction of the
thymol.
Since the two main constituents have a widely different boiling
point, cymene boiling at 175*^ to 176*^ C. and thymol at 232** C. under
normal pressure, almost complete separation can be secured by frac-
tional distillation. The method devised for the separation is as fol-
lows: The crude oil is distilled in a proper retort of copper, which is
fitted with an efficient fractionation column, the one used in these
experiments with the best results being the Hempel form. Dis-
tillation is carried on slowly and the portion of the oil coming over
below 215** C. is set aside. The temperature is then raised slightly
and the fraction distilling over between 215® and 240** C. is secured.
The residue in the retort is a thick, tarlike mass and so far as known
is of no value.
Practically all the thymol is now contained in the second fraction,
which consists of a rather heavy, slightly yellow liquid. The quan-
tity of thymol contained in the first fraction should not be large if the
process has been carried on carefully, but may run as high as 25 to
30 per cent. This fraction is now redistilled under the same condi-
tions as before, and the second fraction secured between 215** and
240** C. is placed with the first one secured at this temperature and
the residue discarded.
The total fractions secured between 215** and 240** C. are allowed
to cool in a shallow container and a small crystal of thymol is added
to start crystallization. Within a few minutes a heavy crop of
crystals will be secmred. After standing over night the crystals
are separated from the mother liquor by means of a centrifuge,
and the crystals are washed with water while the centrifuge is run-
ning at full speed and then dried by continued running of the c«i-
trifuge for three to five minutes.
If cooled in a freezing mixture or by setting in a cold place, the
mother Uquor will deposit another crop of crystals, but if a very large
quantity of mother liquor is present it indicates that a considerable
portion of the lower boiling fractions was not removed. It should,
therefore, again be distilled in the same manner as before and the
fraction secured between 215° and 240** C. should be treated in the
manner previously described.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION OF THYMOL FROM HORSEMINT. 9
A sample of 28 pounds of horsemint oil, showing on assay 72
per cent of total phenols, was worked up by this process and 18
pounds of pure thymol was manufactured from it, which is equal
to a commercial yifeld of 64.3 per cent of thymol from the oil. When
made by this process a perfectly white crystalline product was
secured; 15 pounds of thymol made by this process in 1916 was
sold to the trade at a high price. Should a slightly yellow product
be secured a second distillation would be required. It has been
found, however, that with ordinary care a high-grade product will
result from the first distillation. By this process three residues are
secured in small quantities, the lower boiling fraction consisting
largely of cymene, the mother liquor from the last crystallization of
phenols, and the tarlike residue remaining in the retort after the last
fraction has been removed. Work is at present under way looking
to the utilization of these residues.
In order to provide an inexpensive and practical apparatus for
the extraction of thymol from the oil on a moderate scale, the follow-
ing apparatus has been devised:
(1) A flask 12 inches in diameter and 16 inches high, made of about 30-ounce copper.
The top is brought to a short neck 3 inches in diameter and reenforced by a brass
band half an inch wide and one-quarter inch thick, turned edgewise to form a ring
and brazed to the neck, forming a flange. The seam in the flask must be brazed,
since the temperature of the boiling oil is above the melting point of solder.
(2) A column 22 inches long of 3-inch thin-walled brass or copper tubing. The
lower end is fitted with a brass ring of the same size and in the same manner as the
neck of the flask and with it forming a flange joint. In the lower end of the column
jfl brazed a brass or copper disk, set at an angle of about 30^. The top of the tube is
covered with a cap, brazed on, and in the center is set a piece of three-fourths inch
brass tubing, about 1 inch long, forming a neck, into which a cork can be fitted.
About 4 inches below the top a dde tube of 1-inch brass tubing is brazed in a slight
angle downward. This tube should be about 20 inches long and at the free end
should have an elbow which just fits into the end of the condenser.
The condenser is of copper, 4^ inches in diameter and about 20
inches long, and consists of an outer cylinder with a head at each
end. Rmming through from one head to the other are seven quar-
ter-inch tubes of copper or block tin. A side tube at the bottom
and one at the top serve for the inlet and outlet of the cooling water,
which moves from the bottom upward about the flues. To each
end is soldered a brass collar 2 by 2 inches, which serves as a chamber
about the ends of the flues. This sHps over the enlarged end of the
delivery tube at the top to form a fairly tight joint, while over the
bottom collar is placed a funnel-shaped nozzle to collect and deUver
as one stream the liquids which run down the flues. The entire
condenser can be made with soldered joints, since the water jacket .
will prevent melting. A complete condenser can be bought from
dealers in chemical and pharmaceutical apparatus or can be made
at small expense by any good coppersmith.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
10 BULLETIN 372, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The apparatus should be set up with the flask supported over a
good flame which can be easily regulated, such as that from a large
oil biUTier or from a gas or gasoline burner. The condenser is sup-
ported in a vertical position and the bottom side tube connected with
a supply of cold water. The column is filled to within 1 or 2 inches
of the side tube with glass beads one-half inch in diameter or with
small unpainted baked clay or glass marbles. The hole in the top
of the column is fitted with a tight cork, through the center of which
a tube is placed just large enough to admit a common chemical ther-
mometer graduated in centigrade degrees, with the scale reading from
100 to 300. This thermometer should be placed through the cork so
that the bulb is just opposite the side tube. The flask is then filled
a httle more than half full of the horsemint oil and the joint between
the flask and the column made tight with a leather gasket and clamp,
or it may be secured by the use of a groimd-joint brass union, one
half of which is brazed to the neck of the flask and the other half to
the column. This does away with the use of the gasket, which must
be frequently renewed.
An apparatus of the size described will take 15 poimds of oil at a
charge and in a day work up 75 to 100 pounds of oil. The cost of
construction would be about $50.
YIELD PER ACRE.
During the past five years areas up to 1 acre in extent have been
grown on various soils and as far as possible imder actual commer-
cial conditions. The results thus far secured show that an average
of 20 pounds of oil per acre from first-year plantings may be regarded
as a fair crop, although the test areas have sometimes shown a greater
quantity. In succeeding years the yield should be at least 30 pounds
of oil per acre, and under good conditions 40 poimds may be expected.
Assuming the average phenol content of the oil to be 70 per cent, a
figure which is somewhat below the average found for five years, and
using the process of manufacture previously described, there may be
expected for the first year a yield of 12.86 pounds of pure thymol per
acre and for the succeeding years, 19.29 pounds per acre. Taking
$2 per pound as the average price of thymol for a period of years,
there would be a gross return per acre the first year of $25.72 and for
each succeeding year, $38.58. In addition to this there should doubt-
less be added a small amount for the value of the residues, which at
the present time has not been determined.
COMMERCUL PROSPECTS.
For many years the commercial source of thymol has been chiefly
the oil of CaruTn ajowan derived from ajowan seed, which is grown
in the region of northern India and shipped to northern Europe, where
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION OF THYMOL FROM HORSEMIXT. 11
the thymol is extracted. Thymol is extensively used in medicine
and serves as an antiseptic. It is used internally for the treatment
of certain conditions and is the basis of a number of important phar-
maceutical compoimds.
The importation of thymol for the 10 years 1906 to 1915, inclusive,
as compiled from the weekly report of '* Imports for consumption"
in the Oil, Paint, and Drug Reporter, is shown in Table IV.
Table IV. — Importation of thymol for 10 years, 1906 to 1915, inclusive.
Year.
Imports.
; Year.
1
Imports.
1906
Pounds.
2,983
4,753
5,010
10,336
3,352
1
1
1911
P(mnd9,
3,676
1907
1912
2,930
1908
1913
6,620
1900
1914
IS, 048
1010
: 1915
2,031
From these figures it would seem that the annual consumption of
thymol in the United States is suflSciently great to warrant a small
industry for its production when carried on in connection with the
distillation of other volatile oils.
The estimates of the cost of production summarized in Table V
are based on the conditions existing in central Florida, where actual
field tests have been made for several years. Such items as land
rent, taxes, etc., are not included, nor has any allowance been made
for depreciation, upkeep, or interest on the distilling plant, since it is
doubtful whether the profits are suflScient to warrant the starting
of an independent industry in thymol production if all the costs of
equipment for the year are to be charged to this item alone.
Table V. — Estimates of cost per acre for producing horsemint.
Expenses.
First
year.
Each suc-
ceeding
year.
Oiowlng plants In seed bed
11
Pfft-lngl^f^
3
3
Pli^itfTiglnflAlH...,,
Vt^^it^r
8
2
6
8
Cultivation
1
Harvesting and distilling
10
Total.
23 i
19
In these estimates it has been assumed that the residues on remov-
ing the thymol from the oil will at least pay the cost of manufacture.
It has been determined that a plantation of horsemint will not need
to be replanted oftener than once in five years, and under average
soil conditions it is possible that it will continue to give a full yield
for a still longer time. Consideration shoidd also be given te the
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
12 BULLETIN 372, V. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
fact that after the first year a material reduction can be made in the^'
cost for fertilizers if the distilled herb after being well decomposed
is returned to the soil, since, as has been previously stated, this wiE
restore much of the nutrient materials removed by the crop. The
estimated returns show that a profit of about $16 per acre may be
expected as an average for a 5-year period.
It has been shown that horsemint can be grown on the lighter types
of soil at comparatively little expense, and as the cost of transporta-
tion for the finished product, thymol, is very low, it would seem that
the production of this crop might be profitable when grovm in con-
nection with other oil-yielding plants for which a distilling apparatus
is required.
ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBLICATION MAT BE PROCUHED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCXnfENTS
GOVERNMENT PBINTINO OFHCB
WASHINGTON, D. C
AT
5 GENTS PER COPY
A
WASHINGTON : 0«TMkNMINT PRINTING OWWICM I ItU
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 373
Contrflnitloii from the Office of PnbDc Roads mnd Rnral Ensineerlng
LOGAN WALLER PAGE, TUfedor
Washington, D. C.
PROFESSIONAL PAPER
August 25, 1916
BRICK ROADS
By
VERNON M. PEIRCE, Chief of Construction, and
CHARLES H. MOOREFIELD, Senior Highway Engineer
CONTENTS
iBtrodiiciloii .
The Raw MaterUIa ....
The Manufacture
Page
. . . . 1
. . . . 2
, . . . S
« Monolithic " Brick Pavementa
Cost of Briek Pavements ....
Maintenance for Brick Pavementa .
Page
. . 21
. . 22
. . 24
Physical Characterlsticfl . .
. . . . 4
. . . . 6
. . 26
TesUns the Brick
Appendix A
. . 26
CoostnicUon .......
. . . . 8
Appendix B * •
. . 34
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PMNTINQ OFFICE
1916
zedbyi^OOQle
Digitized by
'8'
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 373
GoBtribeCloB Amb Um OSm of PaMe R«kte mad BunU
EngbMerinf, LOGAN WALLBB PAGE, Diractor.
Wafihingtoii^D.C.
August 25, 1916
BRICK ROADS.'
By Vernon M. Peibce, Chief of Construction, and Chables H. Moorefield,
Senior Highway Engineer.
CONTESTS.
Introdoctlon
The raw materials
The manufacture
Physical characteristics .
Testing the brick
Construction
Page.
1
2
8
4
6
8
" Monolithic " brick pavements
Cost of brick pavements
Blaintenance for brick pavements
Conclusion
Appendix A
Appendix B
Page.
21
22
24
25
26
84
INTRODUCmON.
A clay product closely resembling our present-day brick was among
the earliest materials used for paving streets and roads. The
first brick pavement constructed in this country, however, dates back
no further than 1872, and to Charleston, W. Va., belongs the dis-
tinction of having been the first American city to employ brick for
paving.
For a number of years after being introduced into this country
the use of paving brick was principally confined to city streets, and,
owing to the frequent inferiority in the quality of the brick and lack
of care in construction, very few of the early pavements proved satis-
factory. Even now, after the experience of 40 years has demon-
strated that it is entirely practicable to construct satisfactory brick
pavements when proper care is exercised, and that much waste
results from the use of poor materials or faulty construction, in-
stances can frequently be found where comparatively new brick
pavements have wholly or partially failed from causes which might
easily have been prevented. (See PI. I and PI. II.)
Country roads paved with vitrified brick are becoming quite com-
mon in many of our States. The principal advantages which brick
1 A revision of Department Bulletin 246, entitled " VitriOed Brick Pavements for Country
aoads."
I
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
2 BULLETIN 373, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE.
roads possess may be stated briefly, as follows: (1) They are durable
under practically all traffic conditions; (2) they afford easy traction
and moderately good foothold for horses; and (3) they are easily
maintained and kept clean.
The principal disadvantage is the high first cost. The defects
which frequently result from lack of uniformity in the quality of
the brick or from poor construction are usually to be traced indi-
rectly to an effort to reduce the first cost or to a popular feeling that
local materials should be used, even when of inferior quality.
This bulletin purposes to furnish information relating to the con-
struction of brick roads and to supply suggestions for aiding engi-
neers in preparing specifications under which such work may be satis-
factorily performed. One of the most essential features of the con-
struction of brick pavements is the selection of the brick, since the
success or failure of such pavements depends to a large extent on the
character of the material used. In order that the significance of the
varying physical characteristics observed in brick manufactured
under different conditions may be more readily understood, a brief
discussion of the raw materials and processes used in the manufacture
of brick will be given.
THE RAW MATERIALS.
Paving brick are made from shales and fire clays. The " lesn or
less refractory varieties of these materials, which are found in the
carboniferous deposits broadly distributed throughout the United
States, are best adapted for this purpose.
Shales frequently occur in such quantity and are so located that
they may be readily excavated by means of a steam shovel or other
mechanical device. Occasionally the deposits are comparatively thin
and underlie other material, making it necessary that they be mined.
Fire clays are usually found interstratified with coal deposits which
may or may not be workable, and must, therefore, generally be
mined. The principal difference between fire clays and shales, in so
far as the manufacture of brick is concerned, is essentially a differ-
ence of color in the finished product. The shales always contain iron
in some form, and brick made of shale are usually red. Fire clays
are free from iron and should produce a light-colored brick. Some
low-grade fire clays, however, may be darkened by certain firing
conditions too complicated to be discussed in detail here.
Shales and fire clays as they occur in nature are not always well
suited for use in the manufacture of paving brick, but must fre-
quently be subjected to some modifying treatment before being used.
In general, deposits of these materials occur in layers or strata, and
the different strata are almost always slightly dissimilar in both
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BRICK ROADS. 3
physical and chemical composition. By carefully mixing the mate-
rials from different strata or from different parts of the bank, there-
fore, a resulting material of the desired character may usually be
obtained. But it not infrequently happens that in order to secure
the best results sand or surface clay must be added in an amount
depending on the relative " leanness" or " fatness" ^ of the material
used. In this connection it m^y be noted, also, that a chemical
analysis of a given fire clay or shale does not necessarily indicate its
fitness or unfitness for paving brick. The reason for this is that the
quality of the brick after "firing" is no less dependent on the physi-
cal arrangement of the minerals than on the chemical composition of
the material.
THE MANUFACTURE.
The general processes of manufacture are the same for both fire
clays and shale. The raw material in either case is crushed to com-
paratively small fragments and conveyed by some convenient means
to a grinding machine, known in the industry as a dry pan. Briefly,
this machine consists of a solid iron plate, approximately 5 feet in
diameter, surroimded by a perforated iron surface about 2 feet wide.
Outside the perforated surface is a rim some 15 inches in height
which serves to prevent the material from escaping otherwise than
through the perforations. Upon the solid plate rest two massive
crushers or mullers, each weighing from 2^ to 3 tona The pan is
revolved rapidly, causing the mullers to rotate by friction. The ma-
terial is groimd between the mullers and the plate and thrown out
by centrifugal force toward the rim, where it escapes through the
perforated surface into an elevator, by means of which it is conveyed
to the screens.
The particles too large to pass the screens, which should not exceed
three-sixteenths inch in mesh, are returned to the dry pan, while the
screened material is passed to the mixing machine or pug mill by
means of conveyers. In the pug mill, water is admixed with the clay
to form a stiff mud, which is fed continuously into the brick ma-
chine proper.
The brick machine is an extremely heavy mechanism. It con-
sists essentially of an auger or propeller conveyer, a tapering barrel,
and the die or former. The material is forced by means of the auger
conveyer into the tapering barrel, which terminates in the die, and
issues from the die in a solid column under heavy pressure. For
" side-cut " brick this column is approximately 4J inches by 10 inches
in cross section, and the brick are formed by cutting through the
column, by means of an automatic device, at intervals of about 3i
* " Leanness " and " fatness *' refer respectiyely to the lesser or greater amonnt of
silicate present in the material.
Digiti
zed by Google
4 BULLETIN 373, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
inches. For " end-cut " brick the column has a cross section approxi-
mately 4 inches by 4J inches and is cut into sections about 10 inches
long.
In order that the successive courses in a brick pavement may be
uniformly spaced, it is necessary that suitable lugs be formed on the
brick either at the time they are cut, or later by means of re-press
molds. Special shapes, such as nose brick for use next to car tracks,
and hillside block, which have one side thicker than the ottier and
which are used on steep grades in order to give the pavement a
rough surface, may be made either by special die or special re-press
molds.
The next step in the process of manufacture consists in drying the
brick. In a properly systematized plant the brick are stacked upon
drier cars as they leave the presses in such manner as to permit a
free circulation of air between them. The loaded cars are imme-
diately run into a tunnel drier, the temperature of which is main-
tained at about 100° F. at the entering end. As cars containing
" green " brick enter one end of the tunnel, which is usually more
than 100 feet long, other cars containing dry brick are being removed
at the opposite end. Air circulation in the drier is effected by means
of fans or high stacks. During drying the brick lose an amount of
moisture equivalent to from 15 to 20 per cent of their own weight.
The brick leave the drier ready for burning, which is the last and
undoubtedly the most important step in the process of manufacture.
Upon the burning depends largely the quality of the finished product,
and it requires the greatest skill so to regulate the temperatures and
firing periods as to obtain the best results from a given material.
Experience alone can demonstrate the manner in which the burning
must be modified in order to suit varying sets of conditions. The
kilns in which the burning is done are made of brick and are provided
with numerous furnaces. The brick are placed in the kilns so as to
permit a free circulation of the gases of combustion and the heated air.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS.
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS.
Paving brick should be uniform in size, reasonably perfect in shape,
free from ragging due to friction in the die, and from deep kiln
marks caused by impressions from overlying brick in burning. They
should be tough in order to resist crushing, hard in order to resist
abrasion, and uniformly graded in order that the pavement may wear
evenly. Each brick should be homogeneous in texture and free from
objectionable laminations or seams. Fire cracks, caused by too rapid
firing, should be limited in number and extent, and the entire brick
should be vitrified and should contain neither unfused nor glassy
spots.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BBICK ROADS. 5
COLOR.
The color is a valuable guide in inspecting brick from the same
plant, but it is of little importance when the brick to be compared
are from different factories. For brick manufactured from a partic-
ular raw material the color indicates, in a measure, the temperature
to which they have been subjected, provided they have been burned
under identical conditions. Ordinarily, the darker the color the
higher the temperature, and, presumably, the better the brick. The
surface color of brick may be very misleading, however, and the color
of the interior should be used in making comparisons.
SPECIFIC GRAVITT.
The specific gravity of paving brick was formerly considered of
importance in judging their fitness for use in pavements. But it has
since been generally conceded that a knowledge of the specific gravity
is of comparatively little value. The specific gravity of shale brick
is ordinarily between 2.20 and 2.40, and of fire-clay brick between
2.10 and 2.25.
ABSORPTION. '
The absorptive power of brick, like their color, is a matter of very
slight importance, except for comparing specimens manufactured
under identical conditions. It is true that the porosity of the brick
increases with the power of absorption, but it is very doubtful if any
paving brick possessing an objectionably high absorptive power could
pass even a very casual inspection. In other words, a high degree of
porosity always manifests itself in other ways more clearly than in
the ability of the brick to absorb water.
CRUSHING STRENGTH.
The crushing strength of good paving brick varies from 10,000
pounds to 20,000 pounds per square inch when the load is applied
uniformly over the entire top surface of the te^ ^ecimen, and may
be much greater if the area over which the load is applied is less than
that of the top surface. Since paving brick in use are seldom required
to withstand a pressure of more than about 2,000 pounds per square
inch, and since inferior brick may possess relatively very high resist-
ance to crushing, a knowledge of the crushing strength is clearly of
little value in comparing the relative excellence of different makes of
brick. It is, therefore, usually considered unnecessary to specify a
definite requirement as to the crushing strength of paving brick.
TESTING THE BRICK.
Definite methods of testing paving brick have been in general use
for only a comparatively few years and have only recently undergone
a pronounced change. The object of all tests is to determine whether
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
6 BULLETIN 373, U. S. DEPAKTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE.
or not a given quality of brick is suitable for use in constructing
pavements and to furnish a basis for comparing different classes of
brick. The methods have, therefore, been repeatedly changed, not
only in order to make the results obtained indicate more definitely
the quality of the brick, but also with a view to establishing uniform-
ity, so that results obtained in different laboratories may be intelli-
gently compared. A discussion of the most important tests follows
in more or less detail.
FIELD TEST.
The general appearance of a paving brick is, to an experience
eye, a valuable indication of its quality and will frequently suggest
the advisability of applying routine tests to some particular part of
a shipment. Unfortunately the knowledge gained from experience
with one kind of brick can not be safely relied upon in inspecting
other brick made by a different process or from a different class of
raw material. A further limitation to this method of testing lies
in the fact that the results obtained do not admit of numerical evalu-
ation, and can not, therefore, be very accurately described. Tliis
test is nevertheless valuable, and since no apparatus other than a
hand hammer is needed, it can always be employed.
The test consists simply in making a careful inspection of the
brick individually and collectively. The size is tested by making
measurements, the shape by arranging a number of brick in the order
in which they are intended to be placed, and the quality by an exam-
ination of both the exterior and interior of a number of samples.
TRANSVERSE TEST.
The transverse strength of a brick is determined by supporting it
upon two knife edges and applying a load on the opposite side and
midway between the supports by means of a third knife edge. The
load is gradually increased until rupture occurs, and the result of
SPl
the test is expressed in terms of the ratio nra' called the modulus
of rupture. In the above ratio P represents the breaking load in
poimds, while Z, &, and d represent, respectively, the distance between
supports, the breadth of the specimen, and the depth of the speci-
men, all measured in inches.
The modulus of rupture for good paving brick usually lies between
2,000 and 3,000 pounds per square inch, and frequently varies con-
siderably even with carefully selected specimens which have been
manufactured under identical conditions.
RATTLER OR ABRASION TEST.
The rattler or abrasion test is imdoubtedly the most important of
the tests made on paving brick at present. In making this test the
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BMCK ROADS. 7
specimen brick are subjected to destructive influences very similar to
those encountered in actual service, and the results obtained, there-
fore, indicate very closely the effect which traffic may be expected to
produce on a pavement constructed of similar brick. The methods
of making the test, of which there were formerly a great many, have
undergone repeated changes in order that service conditions may be
more nearly approached, and also in an effort to bring about uni-
formity, so that the results obtained may be of the greatest possible
scientific value. The method which is now proposed by the sub-
committee on paving brick of the American Society for Testing
Materials may be briefly described as follows:
The apparatus necessary for making the test, ordinarily called
the rattler, consists of a 14-sided barrel of regular polygonal cross
section supported on a suitable frame and fitted with the necessary
driving mechanism. The staves, each of which forms a side of the
barrel, are made of 6-inch 15.5-pound structural steel channels 27j
inches long. These staves are double bolted to the cast-iron heads
of the barrel, which are provided with slotted flanges for holding
the bolts. Cast-iron wear plates are bolted to the inside of the
barrel heads. The inside diameter of the barrel is 28f inches.
In this barrel is placed what is known as the abrasive charge.
This charge consists of two sizes of cast-iron spheres having respec-
tive diameters of 3f inches and 1| inches and weighing, respectively,
7.5 pounds and 0.95 pound when new. Ten of the larger spheres are
used, and the number of the smaller spheres is made such that the
weight of the entire charge will approximate 300 pounds. The indi-
vidual larger spheres are discarded whenever their weight falls to
7 pounds or less and the smaller spheres when they become sufficiently
worn by usage to pass through a circular opening having a diameter
of 15 inches.
The test is made by placing a charge of 10 dry brick in the barrel,
together with the abrasive charge, and then revolving the barrel 1,800
times. The number of revolutions per minute is not permitted to fall
below 29^ nor to exceed 30J, and the operation is made continuous
from start to finish.
The results of the test are reckoned in terms of the loss in weight
sustained by the brick, and this loss is expressed as a percentage of
tile original weight of the brick tested. In determining the loss in
weight, no piece of brick which weighs less than 1 pound is considered
as having withstood the test.
Good paving brick will ordinarily lose from 18 per cent to 24 per
cent of their original weight in the rattler test, and specifications con-
cerning this loss should be prepared with a view to the character of
the traffic for which the pavement is designed.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
8 BULLETIN 373, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTUEE.
It is also advisable to require a minimum as well as a maximum
percentage of loss which any specified sample of the brick may sus-
tain. This is done in order to insure against too much variation
between the softest acceptable brick and the hardest brick which may
be supplied.
CONSTRUCTION.
PREPARING THE ROADBED.
In forming a. roadbed upon which a brick pavement is to be con-
structed, the essential features to be considered are (1) thorough
drainage, (2) firmness, (3) uniformity in grade and cross section,
and (4) adequate shoulders.
Thorough drainage can be secured for any particular road only by
means of a careful study of the local conditions which affect the
accumulation and " run-off " of both the surface and ground water.
These conditions vary considerably even in the same locality, and no
set of rules can be given which would cover all cases. For example,
the material composing the roadbed may be springy, and in this case
tile underdrains will probably be necessary. On the other hand,
extremely flat topography may make it necessary to elevate the grade
considerably above the surrounding land. The nature of the soil, the
topography, and the rainfall must all be considered if a system of
drainage is to be planned properly.
The second requirement, firmness, can be secured only after the
road has been properly drained. Soils which readily absorb moisture
can not be properly drained in wet weather and should not be per-
mitted to form a part of the subgrade. In order that the subgrade
may be unyielding, it is also necessary that the roadbed be thoroughly
compacted. In forming embankments the material should be put
down in layers not over 8 inches thick, and each layer should be
thoroughly rolled. In excavation care should be exercised, if the
material is earth, not to permit plows or scrapers to penetrate below
the subgrade. The subgrade in both excavation and embankment
should be brought to its final shape by means of fine grading with
picks and shovels and rolling.
When completed the subgrade should be uniform in grade and
cross section; otherwise the foundation must be made unnecessarily^
thick where depressions occur, in order that its grade and cross
section may be uniform and its thickness not less at any point than
that required. The subgrade should be repeatedly rolled and re-
shaped until the desired shape is secured. If curbs are constructed
independent of the base they should be set before the final finishing,
in order that they may be made to serve as a guide for this work.
The shoulders should never be less than 4 feet wide and should
consist of some material which compacts readily under the roller and
Digiti
zed by Google
BBICK BOADS. 9
does not readily absorb water. Not infrequently one of the shoulders
is made sufficiently wide to form an earth roadway parallel to the
brick pavement. Such an arrangement serves to relieve the pave-
ment of considerable traffic during favorable seasons and also affords
seine advantage to horse-drawn traffic. The general method of con-
structing shoulders for brick roads is not essentially different from
that employed for other types of pavements.
CURBING.
Brick pavements, as generally constructed, should be supplied with
strong, durable curbing, both on the sides and at the ends. Otherwise
the marginal brick will soon become displaced by the action of
traffic, and their displacement will, of course, expose the brick next
adjoining, so that deterioration might eventually spread over the
entire pavement. Properly constructed curbing, on the other hand,
will hold the pavement as in a frame and enable the brick to present
their combined resistance to the destructive influences of traffic.
Satisfactory curbs may be constructed of stone, Portland cement
concrete, or vitrified clay shapes made especially for this purpose.
Wood has also been used for curbs to a limited extent, but when
it is considered that the life of a brick pavement under ordinary
conditions should far exceed the life of any wood curb which might
be devised, the economy of employing a more durable material is
readily apparent.
Stone curbing may be made from any hard, tough stone which is
sufficiently homogeneous and free from seams to admit being quar-
ried into blocks not less than 4 feet long, 5 inches thick, and 18
inches deep. On account of their ordinarily homogeneous struc-
ture, granite and sandstone are probably more used for curbs than
any other kind of stone.
All stone curbing should be hauled, distributed, and set before the
subgrade is completed. The individual blocks should be not less
than about 4 feet long, except at closures, and should ordinarily have
a depth of from 16 to 24 inches, depending on soil conditions and on
whether the curb is to project above the surface, forming one side
of the gutter. The neat thickness need never be greater than 8
inches and, where the traffic conditions are not severe and the quality
of the stone is good, a thickness of 6 inches will ordinarily prove
satisfactory. Stone curb should always be set on a firm bed of
gravel, slag, or broken stone, not less than 3 inches thick, or on
unusually firm earth, and should be provided with a backing of the
same material on the shoulder or sidewalk side. Figure 1 shows a
typical stone curb in place.
Where suitable stone is not readily available or when from any
cause the cost of stone curbing would prove excessive, a curb con-
40065**— Bull. 37a— 16 2
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
10
BULLETIN 313, U. S. DtiPAETMENT OF AGEICULTUBE.
structed of Portland cement concrete may frequently be advan-
tageously used. Concrete curbs may be constructed alone or in com-
bination with either a concrete gutter or a concrete foundation.
When constructed alone they should have approximately the same
cross-sectional dimensions as stone curbs and should be constructed
in sections about 8 to 10 feet in length. Figures 2, 3, and 4 show the
three common types of concrete curbs.
Vitrified clay curbing should be set in much the same manner as
that described for stone curbing. The principal additional require-
ment is that, since vitrified clay is a lighter material than stone and
the curb sections are ordinarily shorter, the bedding must be made
correspondingly more secure in order to prevent displacement.
'-M^?'^^^''^^^' SM/SL M s/ro/f€N jrcwc ^;;^': '^^^y^;'^:-]^^
Fig. 1. — Proper method of constructing stone curb.
Several sections of brick pavement in which curbs were altogetlier
omitted were constructed during 1915 in the State of Illinois. The
methods employed in constructing these pavements, which are desig-
nated " monolitliic," are described on page 21.
THE FOUNDATION OR BASE.
A firm, unyielding foundation is one of the most essential features
of a brick pavement. This fact can be more readily appreciated
when it is considered that the surface of a brick pavement is made up
of small individual blocks, any one of which might be easily forced
down, causing unevenness in tlie surface, if the foundation were poor;
and since the ability of the pavement to resist wear depends very
largely on the smoothness of the surface, every reasonable precaution
should be taken to prevent any unevenness from developing. The
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BBICK ROADS.
11
fact that more brick pavements have failed on account of defective
foundations than from any other cause should never be lost sight of
by those planning and supervising this class of work. Plate I
diows typical illustrations of what is likely to occur whenever this
feature of the work is neglected. Both of the roads here illustrated
were comparatively new, but failed when subjected to heavy motor-
truck traffic. The one shown in Plate I, figure 1, had a rolled gravel
foundation constructed under inadequate specifications and poor in-
spection, while in the other case a 4-inch concrete foundation was
specified, but an inspection made after failure revealed that the con-
crete was of an inferior quality and that its thickness was generally
less than that required by the specifications.
The proper type of foundation or base depends largely on the
material composing the subgrade and the character of traffic for
FiQ. 2. — Concrete curb and gutter combined.
OPRRK MM
which the road is designed. Where the traffic is comparatively light
and the subgrade is composed of some firm material which does not
readily absorb water, a very satisfactory base may be constructed of
broken stone. Where the traffic is comparatively heavy or where the
material composing the subgrade is at all unstable, a monolithic con-
crete base should be used. Bases consisting of a course of brick laid
flat upon a previously compacted layer of gravel or broken stone have
sometimes been used, and pavements constructed upon bases of this
kind, ordinarily called "double-layer" pavements, have in general
proved satisfactory. At the present time, however, such bases can
rarely be constructed at less cost than the more durable concrete bases,
and they will therefore be given no further consideration here.
Broken-stone bases should be from 6 to 8 inches thick after com-
pacting and should be constructed in two or more courses just as in
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
12
BULLETIN 373, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the case of first-class macadam roads. The stone should be durable,
and should be graded in size between certain reasonable, fixed limits.
It should be uniformly spread on the road, either from dumping
boards bv means of shovels or from wagons especially designed to
spread the material as it is being diunped. Where whole loads are
dumped in one place and then spread out to the required depth, it is
very difficult to obtain uniform density. Usually those spots where
the loads are dumped are more densely compacted than the rest of
the base, and this lack of uniformity very soon manifests itself by
producing unevenness in the surface of the pavement The bn^en
stone should be compacted in the usual manner by rolling with a
-hj''m,''n>^/.Wjjfr'/^^m.M//jrM'^^^^
Fic. .'{. Making provision for expansion cushion.
power roller weighing not less than about 10 tons, and sufficient
si;one screenings and coarse sand to fill the voids should be spread
and flushed into the base while the rolling is in progress. When
complete the base should present a surface uniform in grade and
cross section and parallel to the proposed surface of the finished
pavement.
Concrete bases are unquestionably better adapted for brick pave-
ments than any other type. They are practically monolithic in form,
nearly impervious to water, and possess a relatively high crushing
strength. All of these qualities may be obtained with a relatively
" lean " concrete if the subgrade has been properly prepared. Under
ordinary circumstances a satisfactory base may be constructed of
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 373. U. S. Oept. of Agricultur*.
Plate I.
FlQ.
1.— Failure of Brick Road near Zanesville, Ohio, Due to
Gravel Foundation and 11 -Ton Motor-Truck Traffic.
Defective
OPRRE laOM
Fia 2.— Failure of Brick Road near Mansfield, Ohio, Due to Defective Con-
struction and Heavy Motor-Truck Traffic.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 373. U. S. Dept. of Agricultur*.
Plate II.
OPRRE ISIM
FiQ. 1.— Brick Road on Sand Foundation, Hillsboro County, Fla.
Settlement along left curb might have been avoided by better preparation of the foundation
and by use of Portland cement grout for filling the joints.
OPRRE UI77
FiQ. 2.— Brick Road at Orlando, Fla., Showinq Displacement of Marginal
Brick Due to Absence of Curb.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BRICK EOABS. 18
concrete composed of 1 part of Portland cement, 3 parts of sand, and
from 5 to 7 parts of broken stone or screened gravel.
The sand should be clean and well graded in size, and the stone or
gravel should conform to the usual requirements for coarse aggregate
to be used in concrete construction.
Brick pavements have in some cases been constructed with the sub-
grade as a foundation, and where the materials composing the
subgrade posses considerable supporting power imder all weather
conditions to which the road is subjected, this method may prove
fairly satisfactory. Perhaps the most notable examples of brick roads
constructed in this way are to be found in the peninsular section of
Florida, where the soil is composed essentially of sand and where
there is no danger of upheaval due to frost action. At best, this
method of construction could hardly prove satisfactory for any ordi-
nary soil conditions above the thirty-fifth parallel of latitude, and even
below that latitude it should necessarily be confined to localities
where the soil is composed of sand, gravel, or some other material
W
■^
llisand bedding. Joints filled with Portland cement gnout.
Crovwjtol. '^^
Slope of ehoulders at leMt I tol2.
Fia. 4. — ^Typical section for a brick road.
which does not lose its stability when wet. Sand is the only material
of this kind which is at all widely distributed. The precautions most
necesary to observe in preparing sand foundations may be briefly
described as follows:
(1) The road should be so graded and drained as absolutely to
prevent the foundation from becoming saturated with either storm or
ground water after the brick are laid.
(2) The entire roadway should be thoroughly saturated with water
while it is being compacted, and a roller weighing not less than 10
tons should be used for compacting. Dry sand can not usually be
compacted by rolling.
(3) Adequate stone or concrete curbs should always be provided.
At present wooden boards are being used in lieu of curbs for many
of the Florida roads, and in some cases this substitution can perhaps
be justified by the immediate necessity for improving a large mileage
of roads without suddenly increasing taxation to an unwarranted
burden. On the other hand it seems very doubtful if any conmiimity
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
14 BULLETIN 373, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGBICULTITEE.
which can not afford proper construction in the beginning should
select such an expensive type of surface for their roads.
(4) The material composing the foundation should be of a uniform
character and free from vegetable matter of any kind. After the
curbs are set, the foundation should be rerolled and reshaped until it
is firm and unyielding and conforms to the required grade and cross-
section. In order to accomplish this final shaping, the sand must be
kept moist, and it is usually necessary to provide a pipe line al(mg
the work to supply water for sprinkling the foundation.
Plate II, figure 1, shows how a brick road on a sand foundation
has settled under the action of traffic. This settling would probably
not have occurred if the above precautions had all been observed at the
time' of construction, though the fact that sand, instead of Portland
cement grout, was used for filling the joints was no doubt a con-
tributing weakness.
BEDDING.
Since it is practically impossible to construct an absolutely smooth
base, and since there is always a slight variation in the size of paving
brick, owing to differences in the amount of shrinkage at the time of
burning, it is necessary to provide an adjustable bedding of some
kind between the base and the brick in order to secure an even sur-
face and a uniform bearing for the brick. Until recently sand has
been almost exclusively used for this purpose and has in general
proved satisfactory. The objections which have been advanced
against the sand bedding are, first, that it may become saturated
with water, which upon freezing might damage the pavement;
second, that a gradual movement of the sand may occur under the
jarring action of traffic and in this way the surface of the pavement
may eventually become distorted; and, third, that the use of some
material for the bedding which would bond the brick to the base
would enable the pavement to distribute concentrated loads over a
greater area of the subgrade than where a sand cushion is used. It
has also been claimed that the sand bedding, by separating the brick
from the base, is responsible for much of the noise produced by
traffic over brick pavements. In order to overcome these objections
some engineers are now providing that the bedding shall be con-
structed of a dry mixture of sand and Portland cement instead of
sand alone. This mixture, which is called "dry mortar," becomes
wet when the brick are sprinkled just prior to grouting, and upon
hardening forms a partial bond between the base and the bricL
When such a bond is formed the bedding is not disturbed by tike
jarring action of traffic and is also partially impervious to water.
The dry mortar bedding is at present employed only where the base
is made of concrete, and its use has by no means become general,
even with the concrete base.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BBICK ROADS. 15
The proper thickness for the bedding depends, of course, upon the
extent of the inequalities in the brick and the foundation. In the
past, 2 inches has been the most usual thickness, but as the accuracy
secured in constructing the base has increased, and as the size of
paying brick has become more nearly uniform, the necessary thick-
ness for the bedding has naturally diminished. At present a thick-
ness of 1^ inches is considered conservative where the bedding con-
sists of sand alone, but where dry mortar is employed the inequalities
should be so reduced that a thickness of 1 inch will be sufficient,
because it is cheaper to make the surface of the base uniform than
to supply the additional dry mortar which would otherwise be
required.
Sand bedding should consist of moderately clean sand and be free
from pebbles. If dirt or vegetable matter is present, it will soon be
leached out and cause unevenness to develop in the pavement, while
I)ebbles prevent the brick from securing a uniform bearing and ulti-
mately produce the same result. It is also important that the sand
should be dry when spread, especially if it is fine, because a compara-
tively small amount of moisture increases the volume of fine sand
considerably, and moisture when present is not, as a rule, uniformly
distributed. Even if it were uniformly distributed at the start, some
spots would dry out more rapidly than others while the spreading
was under way, and a lack of uniformity would thus be produced in
the bedding.
In forming the bedding the sand is uniformly spread over the base
to a depth slightly in excess of that desired, and is then smoothed off
by drawing over it a template shaped to conform with the cross sec-
tion of the finished pavement. The length of the template is ordi-
narily made equal to the width of the pavement where this is less
than about 25 feet, and equal to half the width for wider pavements.
Timber guides may be laid in the same direction as the pavement for
the template to slide on, or the curbs may be made to serve as guides
where this is convenient.
After the bedding material is spread and uniformly " struck off "
with the template to a depth slightly in excess of that required, it
should be thoroughly compacted by rolling with a hand roller weigh-
ing from 300 to 400 pounds, and any depressions which form should
be corrected. This is necessary in order to secure uniform density
and to prevent unequal settlement of the surface.
If a dry mortar bedding is to be employed, the sand used should be
clean and the manner of spreading and compacting the bedding
should be practically the same as for sand alone. The proportion in
which the sand and cement should be mixed is a subject regarding
which there is more or less imoertainty at present. One part of
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
16 BULLETIN 373, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE.
cement to five parts of sand is probably the most usual proporticm.
The mixing is generally done in a mechanical mixer, and the material
is spread and compacted just in advance of the brick layers. It is
of course essential that the bedding be kept dry until after the brick
are laid.
HANDLING AND LAYING THE BRICK.
The brick may all be hauled and piled at convenient intervals
along the sides of the roadway before grading is begun, or, if more
convenient, they may be delivered as needed on the work. Hauling
over the finished pavement with wagons imtil it is complete and
opened to traffic should be avoided. If the brick are delivered on the
work as needed, they should l)e unloaded from the wagons outside of
the curb and carricKl to the pavers, either by hand or in wheelbar-
rows. Plank trackways should also be provided over the newly laid
pavenient for the wheelbarrows when they are used.
The brick should in all cases be uniformly piled by hand on the new
pavement conveniently close for the pavers, and each brick should be
so placed that the regular operation of picking it up and placing it in
the pavement will bring the best edge up. This method of handling
the brick requires somewhat more labor than the common method of
dumping them from wheelbarrows, but it eliminates to a great extent
the practice of picking out and turning over chipped or kiln-marked
brick after the pavement is laid. This is very objectionable on ac-
count of the disarrangement of the sand cushion, which is frequently
occasioned.
The brick should be laid on edge and in uniform courses, running
at right Angles to the line of the pavement, except at intersections;
and in order to '' break the joints " each alternate course should begin
with a half brick. In laying the brick the pavers stand on the pave-
ment already laid and, be ning at the curb each time, carry across
as many courses together as they can conveniently reach. The courses
should be kept straight and close together, and, if necessary, each
block of 8 or 10 courses may be driven back by means of a light
sledge and a piece of straight timber approximately 2 by 4 inches by
5 or 6 feet long, though no heavy driving should be permitted. The
brick should also be laid close together in the courses.
After the brick are laid the pavement should be carefully inspected,
for the purpose of detecting soft or otherwise defective brick. AGs-
shapen or broken brick may be detected by the eye alone, and the soft
brick by sprinkling the pavement with water. The soft brick appear
comparatively dry while the water is being applied and compara-
tively wet after the sprinkling is stopped. All defective brick should
of course be replaced by others which meet the requirements of the
specifications.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 373, U. S. D«pt. of Agriculture.
Plate III.
Id
Z
I
>
<
I
X
o
m
^•
3
o
oc
O
c
s
z
i
0.
U 9 J- ; 6:1 -.
OPRRE 0114
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 373, U. S. D«pt of Agriculture.
Plate IV.
FiQ. 1 .—Fine Qradinq.
Fig. 2.— Rolling.
PREPARING THE SUBGRADE FOR A BRICK ROAD-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BMCK ROADS. 17
While there are a number of cases where brick have been laid flat
and have made fairly satisfactory pavements for light traffic, there
are probably very few cases where this practice has proved really
economical in the long run.
TBUING THE SURFACE.
After the pavement has been laid and all defective brick have
been replaced to the satisfaction of the engineer, the next step is to
sweep the surface clean, and smooth out all inequalities by means of
ramming and rolling. The rolling should be done with a power
roller weighing from 3 to 5 tons, and the pavement should ordi-
narily be rolled in both longitudinal and diagonal directions. The
longitudinal rolling should be done first, and should begin at the
curbs and progress toward the crown. The roller should pass at
least twice over every part of the pavement in each direction. In
order to neutralize any tendency which the brick may have to careen
under the roller, the number of forward trips over any part of the
pavement should equal the number of trips backward over the same
part.
In places where it is impracticable to use the roller for truing the
surface — such, for example, as along the curbs or concrete gutters
or around manholes^ — ^the brick should be brought to a true surface
by means of ramming. For this purpose a wooden rammer loaded
with lead and weighing from 80 to 100 pounds may be used. The
blows of the rammer should not fall directly upon the brick, but
should be transmitted through a 2-inch board laid parallel to the
curb.
After the pavement has been trued up, as described above, it
should be inspected again for broken or otherwise damaged brick,
and also for those which have settled excessively, owing to some
lack of uniformity in the bedding. All defects should be corrected,
and the areas disturbed in making the corrections should be brought
to a true surface by tamping or rolling. When the work of truing
the surface is finished, the brick should be evenly bedded, but the
amount of bedding material forced up into the joints should be
inappreciable. If this is not the case, it is evidence that either the
bedding has been poorly prepared or the rolling has been excessive.
Fn^LING THE JOINTS.
In order to keep the brick in proper position and protect the
edges from chipping it is necessary to fill the joints with some suit-
able material before the road is opened to traffic. The materiate
which have in the past been most commonly used for this purpose
are sand, various bituminous preparations, and a grout made of equal
parts of Portland cement and fine sand mixed with water.
40065**— BuU. 373—16 3
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
18 BULLETIN 373, U. S. DEPABTMENT OP AGBICULTUBE.
Sand is the least expensive of these materials, but there are
several very serious objections to its use as a joint filler: (1) It does
not protect the edges of the brick; (2) it is easily disturbed in clean-
ing the pavement and is likely to be washed out by rain on steep
grades; (3) it does not entirely prevent water from penetrating
through to the foundation ; and (4) it does not bond the individual
brick together and so enable them to present a concerted resistance
to traffic.
The bituminous fillers vary considerably in quality and efficiency,
but all are more or less unsatisfactory. One of the principal objec-
tions to their use is based on their tendency to run out of the joints
into the gutters during warm weather and to crack and spall out
during cold weather. This tendency can, of course, be partially over-
come by exercising proper care in selecting the materials. It should
also be noted in their favor that brick pavements, the joints of which
have been filled with bituminous preparations, are ordinarily less
noisy than those in which a Portland cement grout filler has been
used. The grout filler is unquestionably very much superior from
a standpoint cf durability, however, and the excessive noise under
traffic which has been frequently observed in connection with its
use can be largely eliminated by the use of proper bituminous ex-
pansion cushions along the curbs. It is, therefore, reconmi^nded as
better adapted for filling the joints in brick pavements than any
other material which has been commonly used for that purpose.
When the joints of a brick pavement are properly filled witii
Portland cement grout the individual brick are firmly bonded to-
gether and, since the material composing the joints scarcely wears
more rapidly than the brick, the edges of the brick are well pro-
tected.
When the pavement is constructed on a foundation other than con-
crete the advantages of using the grout filler are especially evident
because of the protection thus afforded the foundation.
A satisfactory method for mixing and applying the grout filler
by hand may be described as follows: Grout boxes, constructed
in such manner that when resting on a level platform one corner
will be lower than the others, should first be provided. A suitable
design for such boxes is shown in Plate III. The number of boxes
required depends on the width of the pavement; ordinarily one
box to each 10 feet of width will be found sufficient. The grout,
which should be put on in two applications, is prepared in batches
each of which consist of a quantity of cement not exceeding one sack,
a like amoimt of fine, clean sand, and water. The sand and cement
should first be thoroughly mixed dry and sufficient water then added
to produce a liquid mixture. The consistency of the mixture for the
first application should be approximately the same as that of ordi-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BRICK BOADS. 19
nary cream and for the second application it should be somewhat
thicker. Mechanical mixers have also been satisfactorily used
for mixing and spreading the grout, and where the amount of work
to be done is sufficient to warrant such an initial outlay, they are
usually economical.
The pavement should be cleaned and thoroughly sprinkled as a
preliminary to making the first application of grout, and it should
be kept moist by gentle sprinkling while this application is being
made. The grout should be swept into the joints inmiediately after
it is removed from the boxes and spread upon the pavement. For
this purpose a coarse rattan or fiber push broom should be used in
the first application and a squeegee in the second application. The
squeegee is usually made by clamping a piece of four-ply rubber
belting or some other similar material, about 6 by 20 inches in size,
between two pieces of board and attaching a suitable handle. The
grout in the boxes should be continually stirred until the last of it
is removed, otherwise a separation of the sand and cement will
almost certainly occur.
The first application should proceed sufficiently far in advance
of the second for the grout of the first application to settle, but not
to take its initial set before the second application is made. Usually
both applications are made by the same crew of laborers. They
simply turn back after having covered the allowable distance with
the first application and, mixing the grout in the same boxes, bring
up the second application. The second application of grout should
completely fill the joints flush with the top of the brick.
PROTECTING THE PAVEMENT.
After the joints are filled as described above and the grout has
taken its initial set, the entire surface should be covered to a depth
of approximately 1 inch with sand or fine earth. This is done to
protect the pavement from the weather and to keep it in a moist
condition while the grout is hardening. If necessary, in order to
keep the covering moist, it should be occasionally sprinkled for
several days after it is spread.
The covering should be permitted to remain on the surface for
at least 10 days, and during this period the pavement should be kept
entirely closed to traffic. If the weather is unfavorable, the length
of time during which traffic is kept off the road should be increased.
EXPANSION CUSHIONS.
It has been customary in the past to provide both longitudinal and
transverse bituminous expansion cushions in grout-filled brick pave-
ments, but recent practice has demonstrated that the transverse
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
20 BULLETIN 3*73, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUKE.
cushions may be advantageously omitted if proper longitudinal
cushions are provided. The principal objection to the use of trans-
verse expansion cushions is based on the fact that the material com-
posing the cushions frequently softens during warm weather and
runs out toward the curb, thus leaving the edges of the adjoining
brick exposed to destructive impact from the wheels of passing
vehicles. Even if the cushion consists of a material which does n<^
run in warm weather, it is necessarily softer than the brick, and the
natural result is still the development of unevenness in its immediate
vicinity. No such objection can exist concerning longitudinal ex-
pansion cushions if they are placed adjacent to the curbs and con-
structed of proper material. They not only furnish a means for the
pavement to expand and contract with changes in temperature, but
they also eliminate to a large extent the disagreeable rumbling which
has been so frequently associated with grout-filled brick pavements.
The bitimiinous material of which the expansion cushions are made
should be such as to remain firm in summer and not to become brittle
in winter. It should also possess the quality of durability. In order
to insure that any given material is suited for such a purpose, it is
usually considered necessary to prescribe certain laboratory require-
ments to which it must conform, and examples of these, which have
been found to give good results, are contained in the section entitled
"Typical specifications." (Cf. p. 26 et seq.)
Expansion cushions should be provided for at the time the brick
are laid. This may be done by placing a board of the required thick-
ness on edge adjacent to each curb, as shown in figure 3. Small iron
wedges, such as are shown in this figure, may be inserted between the
curb and the board at the time the board is set. These wedges may
be readily loosened and removed after the brick have been laid and
grouted, and may consequently be made to facilitate the removal of
the board which provides space for the bitimiinous filler. If pre-
ferred, a bituminous felt board may be satisfactorily substituted for
the poured cushion just described.
The proper thickness for expansion cushions is a matter concerning
which much difference of opinion exists among highway engineers.
Some engineers advocate a minimum thickness of 1 inch, while others
claim to have secured their best results by using expansion cushions
having a minimum thickness as low as three-eighths inch for very
narrow pavements. It is generally agreed that the thickness of the
cushion should vary with the width of the pavement. The following
^luggestions for proportioning the cushion are offered as being fairly
representative of the best practice.
Digiti
zed by Google
Bui. 373. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Plate V.
^^^' Wl^ m
\
i
.^
•
'^^^^mlBk
Ki:
^ *
UJ
s
m
UJ
V-
Q
UJ
X
£2
CM
o
uT
%
I
o
UJ
I
o
<
o
<
I-
z
liJ
GC
liJ
0.
2
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 373, U. S. Dept of AgrleuKure.
Plate VI.
Fig. 1.— Spreadinq Sand Cushion.
FiQ. 2.— Rolling Sand Cushion.
EXPERIMENTAL ROAD AT CHEVY CHASE, MD.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bu!. 373, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
OPRHE 9327
Fig. 1.— Laying the Brick.
OPRRE 9229
Fig. 2.— Rolling the Pavement.
EXPERIMENTAL ROAD AT CHEVY CHASE, MD.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 373, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Plate VIII.
' I ' ■ ■-' '
^iii
jA^
t^^Kiii
E
ik«p-^i)ai
Ri.|u » r ^ji
i -»--
mm^^"^^ V ^iM^^^^^^H
Jig. 1 .—Filling the Joints, First Coat,
OPRRC 9229
OPRRC Mat
FiQ. 2.— Filling the Joints, Second Coat.
EXPERIMENTAL ROAD AT CHEVY CHASE, MD.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 373, U. S. Dept of AgricuHure.
Plate IX.
OPRRE 9130
FiQ. 1.— Finished Brick Pavement Protected by Sand Covering.
Fig. 2.— Showing Properly Filled Grout Joints.
EXPERIMENTAL ROAD AT CHEVY CHASE, MD.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 373, U. S. Dept. of Acricufturt.
Plate X.
Fig, 1.— Experimental Road at Chevy Chase, Md.
Fmished pavement in service.
OPRRt »M7
FiQ. 2.— Grout-Filled Brick Pavement, Having Longitudinal Joints in Center
AND Occasional Transverse Joints Filled with Soft Filler,
Unsightly appearance at right caused by widening roadway.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 373, U, S. D*>pt. of Agriculture.
Plate XL
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Bui. 373. U. S. Dept of Agriculture.
Plate XII.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BRICK ROADS. 21
Table 1. — Ratio of thickness of cushions to width of roadway.
Width of roadway
(feet).
Thick-
ness of
cushion
(inches).
aOorless
1
20 to 30
30 to 40
Over 40
Plates IV to VIII, and Plate IX, figure 1, show the various steps
in the construction of a brick pavement Plate IX, figure 2, and
Plate X, figure 1, show the finished pavement as it should appear,
and Plate X, figure 2, shows the advantage possessed by grout-filled
joints over joints filled with a soft material. The partial or total
failures shown in Plates I, II, and XI are intended to emphasize the
importance of employing proper methods, materials, and workman-
ship in brick-pavement construction.
"MONOLITHIC" BRICK PAVEMENTS.
During the year 1915 several sections of brick road were con-
structed in the vicinity of Paris, 111., in accordance with an imusual
method which offers at least partial promise of showing advantages
not possessed by the common methods of construction now in use.
The novel features of this work are: (1) The brick are laid upon a
green concrete base with no intervening bedding other than a very
thin layer of dry mortar spread by means of a specially designed
templet; (2) no curbs are employed ; (3) the construction of the base,
the laying of the brick, and the grouting all proceed sufficiently close
together to make the pavement practically a monolith, from which
fact this type of brick pavement has been designated "monolithic."
The advantages which the new type of brick pavement appears to
possess may be briefly enumerated as follows :
(1) Economy in cost of construction. In addition to the saving in
materials and labor effected by omitting the curbs, sand bedding,
and expansion joints the labor cost can probably be somewhat further
reduced by having the construction of the concrete base and the
laying of the brick carried on under the same organization. The
reduction in the time during which it is necessary to keep the high-
way closed to traffic, while the improvement is being made, is also
an indirect economy.
(2) The elimination of the sand bedding would appear to be of
advantage from a construction standpoint, because it is liable to be
disturbed and to cause trouble in case of a heavy rain during con-
struction. Sometimes, even after the pavement is completed, the
sand is disturbed by water getting in between the brick and the base
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
22 BULLETIN 373, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE.
through poorly grouted joints, or otherwise. Also, when a sand
bedding is used, the joints between the brick are nearly always
partially filled by sand being pushed up into them when the brick
are rolled, and the effectiveness of the grout may be thereby greatly
reduced.
(3) If the pavement continues to act as a monolith, the pressure
on the subgrade, due to concentrated loads on the surface, will
be much better distributed for, the same depth of brick and base
than if the two were separated and able to act independently.
The two principal objections to this type which suggest themselves
at present are :
(1) The difference in the coefficients of expansion of brick and
concrete may eventually cause a separation of the two materials,
and as there is no adjustable bedding between them, any relative
movement might result in shattering the bond between the brick and
the grout. The only warrant for this apprehension at present,
however, is in theory and not in fact.
(2) WTienever it becomes necessary to renew or repair the surface
of the pavement, it will probably be necessary to renew the base
also.
Until sufficient time has elapsed to show how this new type of
pavement will be affected by changing temperatures and increasing
age, no specific recommendations can be made concerning its adop-
tion. But the indications are certainly sufficiently promising to
warrant a careful watch being kept on these pavements and to en-
courage the undertaking of further experiments.
COST OF BRICK PAVEMENTS.
The cost of brick pavements varies widely and is affected by so
many influences that it is difficult to attempt to derive a general
expression showing the relation between probable cost and local con-
ditions. The prices of brick, as also the prices of the various mate-
rials entering into the foundation, vary greatly according to the
locality and the freight rate. The cost and efficiency of labor is also
far from being constant. Furthermore, the material composing the
subgrade and the method of preparing it may exert a marked influ-
ence on the cost of the pavement. The following statements regarding
cost, then, must be considered as representing average conditions, and
care must be exercised in applying them to special cases. They are
intended as a guide in preparing estimates of probable cost.
The grading is usually paid for by the cubic yard, and the cost, of
course, varies with the character of the soil and the necessary amount
of excavation. In light, easily loosened soils, grading may usually
be done at from 25 to 40 cents per cubic yard. In hard earth con-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BRICK ROADS. 23
taining more or less loose rock the cost per cubic yard generally runs
from 40 to 75 cents, while grading in solid rock may sometimes cost
as much as $1.50 per cubic yard. The cost of the rough grading
should be considered entirely apart from the cost of the pavement.
The cost of shaping and rolling the subgrade after the rough grad-
ing is completed will ordinarily vary from 3 to 5 cents per square
yard. This cost should be included with the other items which make
up the cost of the pavement.
Tte cost of the curbs varies with the character of the material
used. Stone curbs ordinarily cost from 25 to 75 cents per linear foot,
while curbs made of Portland cement concrete cost, as a rule, from 20
to 50 cents per linear foot. The higher prices for the concrete curbs
apply principally to special cases requiring extra form work or con-
siderable extra material.
The cost of the foundation depends largely on the cost of the
materials with which it is constructed. Gravel or broken stone can
usually be spread and rolled at from 5 to 7 cents per square yard,
while the cost of these materials, delivered, varies from $0.60 to $2
per cubic yard. Mixing and placing concrete usually costs from 35
to 75 cente per cubic yard, according to the amount of work to be
done and the methods employed, and the cost of the materials,
delivered, ordinarily varies from $2.50 to $4.50 per cubic yard of
concrete.
The cost of paving brick at the kiln varies from about $13 to $16
I)er thousand. Estimating 40 brick to the square yard, each 1,000
brick cover approximately 25 square yards, which makes the cost at
the kiln per square yard of pavement vary from 55 cents to about 65
cents. These figures mean very little, unless the kiln is located con-
veniently near where the brick are to be used, for freight charges not
infrequently amount to more than the cost of the brick.
The amount of joint filler required varies of course with the thick-
ness of the joints. If grout is used as a filler, it is customary to
estimate about 1 barrel of cement to each 25 square yards of pave-
ment. If a bituminous filler is used, not more than about 1 gallon
of bitumen should be required for each square yard of pavement.
A force consisting of one paver and five laborers should place on an
average about 220 square yards of brick per 10-hour day; while
supervision, rolling, and incidental expenses are ordinarily equivalent
to the cost of hiring about three and one-half additional laborers.
If C = cost of cement per barrel, S =^cost of sand per cubic yard,
A = cost of coarse aggregate per cubic yard, B = cost of paving
bricks per 1,000, and L = cost of labor per hour, with all materials
considered delivered on the work and all costs expressed in cents, then
the probable cost of constructing a brick pavement, including the
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
24 BULLETIN 373, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE.
subgrade, a 6-inch concrete foundation, and suitable curbs, may be
estimated by substituting in the formula:
CJost per square yard = 1^ L + .213 0 + .188 S + .167 A + .040 B.
The cost as estimated from this formula should usually be increased
by about 10 per cent to allow for wear on tools and machinery and
to guard against unforeseen contingencies. If it is desired to use a
different thickness of foundation, it is safe to assume that each inch
subtracted or added to the thickness of the foundation will make a
corresponding difference of from 8 to 12 cents in the cost per square
yard.
MAINTENANCE OF BRICK PAVEMENTS.
If brick pavements are properly constructed at the start, the work
of maintaining them is very sli^t. Under the closest inspection,
however, some inferior material is likely to become incorporated
either in the foundation or in the surface, and it is therefore very
important that a brick pavement be very carefully watched for the
first few years of its life to see that no unevenness develops either
because of defective brick having been used in the surface or because
of insuflScient support from the foundation at any point. Whenever
any unevenness develops, it should be immediately rectified. Other-
wise the pavement will become irregularly worn in the vicinity of the
defects, and expensive repairs will eventually be necessary.
Not infrequently weak spots develop in broken stone or gravel
foundations, owing to surface water finding its way through joints
in the pavement which have not been properly filled with grout.
Careful observation of the joints should therefore constitute a part
of the early maintenance work, and any defective joints discovered
should be immediately remedied. Where the foundation is con-
structed of concrete, however, slight defects in the joints seldom
result in any very serious damage.
If care is exercised to correct all defects which appear within the
first few years of the life of a well-constructed brick pavement, the
work of maintaining the pavement proper should thereafter, except
for cleaning, be almost negligible for a considerable period. The
shoulders and drainage structures, of course, need occasional atten-
tion, just as in the case of any other pavement, but if they are
properly constructed at the start repairs will usually be very slight
The life of a well-constructed brick pavement can not be estimated
with any great degree of exactness, first, because the traflSc condi-
tions are constantly changing, and, second, because no brick pave-
ment which has been constructed in accordance with the best modern
practice has yet worn out. Such measurements as have been made
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BEICK ROADS. 25
of the amounts of wear sustained by given pavements during com-
paratively long periods of years have not been sufficient to warrant
any very definite conclusions as to the probable terms of service,
though they indicate that good paving brick wear very slowly under
ordinary traffic. It is evident that in order to secure the full benefit
of this excellent resistance to wear the surface of the pavement must
not be permitted to become uneven because of the failure of a brick
here and there.
CONCLUSION.
Before concluding this discussion of brick pavements, it would
seem desirable to emphasize the importance of proper engineering
supervision. In the past many communities have expended large
sums in efforts to improve their public highways without first having
secured the services of some one competent to plan and direct the
work. The results have usually been very unsatisfactory under such
circumstances and have frequently served to discourage further
effort. One of the mistakes most commonly observed consists in
constructing some expensive type of pavement on a road where the
location is faulty or the grades are impracticable. Not infrequently
sharp angles in the alignment or abrupt changes in the grade,
which might be easily and inexpensively remedied by an experienced
engineer, are left to impede traffic throughout the life of a costly
and perhaps durable pavement.
Even in constructing common earth roads it is doubtful economy
to dispense with the services of a competent engineer, and if any
omsiderable quantity of work is to be done, such services should
certainly be secured. Since brick pavements are probably more ex-
pensive to construct than any other type of pavement at present
used for country roads, it is all the more important that their con-
struction should be carefully planned and well executed.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
APPENDIX A.
Typical Specifications for Constructing Brick Roads.
SPECIFICATIONS ^ FOR GRADING AND SURFACING WITH BRICK THE
ROAD.
Location, — ^The work referred to in these specifications is to be done on the
road, beginning at and extending in a
direction tlirough . to , a
distance of miles.
Work to be done, — ^The contractor shall do all clearing and grubbing, make
all excavations and embankments, do all shaping and surfacing, (construct all
drainage structures and other appertaining structures),* move all obstructions
in the line of the work, and, unless otherwise provided in these specifications,
shall furnish all equipment, materials, and labor for the same. In short, the
contractor shall construct said road in strict accordance with the plans and
specifications and shall leave the work in a neat and finished condition.
PLANS AND DRAWINGS.
The plans, profiles, cross sections, and drawings on file in the office of
at show the location, profile, de-
tails, and dimensions of the work which is to be done. The work shall be
constructed according to the above-mentioned plans, profiles, cross sections,
and drawings, which shall be recognized as a part of these specifications. Any
variation therefrom which may be required by the exigencies of construction
will in all cases be determined by the engineer. On aU drawings, figured
dimensions are to govern in cases of discrepancies between scale and figures.
GKADING.
Grading shall include the moving of all earth, stone, and any other material
that may be encountered, all filling, borrowing, trimming, picking down, shaping,
sloping, and all other work that may be necessary to bring the road and sub-
grade to the required grade, alignment, and cross section, the clearing out of
waterways and old culverts, the excavation of all necessary drainage and outlet
ditches, the grading of a proper connection with all intersecting highways, the
grubbing up and clearing away of all trees, stumps, and boulders within the
lines of the Improvement, and the removal of any muck, soft clay, or spongy
material which will not compact under the roller, so as to make a firm, unyield-
ing subgrade.
All trees, stumps, and roots within the limit of the improvement shaU be
grubbed up so that no part of them shall be within six (6) inches of the surface
of the ground or within eighteen (18) inches of the surface of the subgrade
» These speciflcationB are substantially those prepared In the fall of 1918 by the Office of
Public Roads for a project of considerable magnitude.
*The clause in parentheses should be omitted if plans and specifications for drainage
structures are not included.
26
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BBICK ROADS. 27
Embankments shall be formed of good, sound earth and carried up full width.
The earth shall be deposited In layers not more than one (1) foot in thickness,
and each layer shall be rolled until thoroughly compacted with a roller weigh-
ing not less than ten (10) tons. All existing slopes and surfaces of embank-
ments shall be plowed or scarified where additional fill is to be made, in order
that the old and new material may bond together. When sufficient material
is not available within the fence lines to complete the embankments, suitable
borrow pits, from which the contractor must obtain the necessary material,
will be designated by the engineer. If there is more material taken from the
cuts than is required to construct the embanltments as shown on the plans, the
excess material shall be used in uniformly widening the embankments or shall
be deposited where the engineer may direct. Where embankments are formed
of stone the material shall be carefully placed, so that all large stones shall be
well distributed and the interstices shall be completely filled with small stone,
earth, sand, or gravel, so as to form a solid embankment
During the work of grading, the sides of the road shall be kept lower than the
center and the surface maintained in condition for adequate drainage.
The grading of any portion of the road shall be complete before any surfacing
material is placed on that portion ; and where the plans do not call for any sub-
stantial change In the grade of any existing section of the road the surface shall
be completely scarified to a depth of three (3) inches or more before the sub-
grade is prepared.
SUBOBADB.
The subgrade, or that portion of the road upon which the base for the brick
roadway is to be laid, shall consist of good, sound earth brought to the proper
^evation, alignment, and cross section, and shall be rolled until firm and hard.
The rolling shall be done with a roller of the macadam type, weighing not less
than ten (10) tons and not more than fifteen (15) tons. Should earth be en-
countered which will not compact by rolling, so as to be firm and hard, it shall
be removed and suitable material put in its place, and that portion of the sub-
grade shall be again rolled. When the rolling is completed the surface of the
subgrade shall conform to the cross section shown on the plans, and shall have
the proper elevation and alignment, and shall be so maintained until the con-
crete base is in place.
MATERIALS.
Cement, — ^The cement for use in this work shall meet the requirements of the
United States Government specifications for Portland cement as published in
Circular No. 33, United States Bureau of Standards, issued May 1, 1912.
All cement shall be held at least ten (10) days after sampling before it is used
in any part of the work. If the cement satisfactorily passes all tests that may
be made within that time, it may be used, and the twenty-eight (28) day test
will not be insisted upon; but if it should fail to pass satisfactorily any test
made within that time, then the cement shall not be used until it has satis-
factorily passed all tests, including the twenty-eight (28) day test All cement
shall be delivered on the work in cloth or paper bags, containing ninety-four
(94) pounds, net weight, and this amount of cement shall be considered as
having a volume of one (1) cubic foot In order to allow ample time for
inspecting and testing, the cement shall be stored in a suitable weather-tight
building, having the fioor blocked or raised from the ground, and shall be so
stored as to permit of easy access for inspection, and so that each carload ship-
ment may be readily identified.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
28 BULLETIN 373, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTUBE.
Sand, — ^The sand for use as fine aggregate In all concrete or dry mortar
shall be composed of particles of hard, durable stone and not more than three
(3) per cent, by weight, of clay or silt No clay, however, will be permitted
if it occurs as a coating on the sand grains. The grains shall be of such sizes
that all will pass a one-fourth (i) inch mesh screen, that not more than
twenty (20) per cent will pass a No. 50 sieve, and that not more than sixty
(00) per cent nor less than twenty (20) per cent will be retained on a No. 20
sieve. The sand shall be of such quality that a mortar made in the propor-
tion of one (1) part of cement to three (3) parts of the sand, according to
standard methods, when tested at any age not exceeding twenty-eight (28)
days, will have a tensile strength of at least one hundred (100) per cent of
that developed In mortar of the same proportions made of the same cement
and standard Ottawa sand. The cement used in these tests shall be from an
accepted shipment of that proposed for use with the sand.
The sand for sand bedding shall be composed of particles of hard, durable
stone and not more than five (5) per cent, by weight, of clay, loam, or silt
The sizes of the grains shall be such that all will pass a one-fourth (1) inch
mesh screen and not more than fifty (50) per cent will pass a No. 30 sieve.
Stone screenings will not be accepted for use in the sand bedding.
The sand for the grout filler shall be composed of quartz grains and not
more than one (1) per cent, by weight, of clay or silt The grains shall be of
such size that all will pass a No. 20 sieve and that not more than forty (40)
per cent will pass a No. 50 sieve. The sand shall be of such quality that a mor-
tar made in the proportion of one (1) part of cement to three (3) parts of the
sand, according to standard methods, when tested at any age not exceeding
twenty-eight (28) days, will have a tensile strength of not less than seventy-
five (75) per cent of that developed In mortar of the same proportions made of
the same cement and standard Ottawa sand. The cement used in these tests
shall be from an accepted shipment of that proposed for use with the sand.
OraveL — ^The gravel for use in the concrete base shall be composed of hard,
sound, durable particles of stone and not more than three (3) per cent, by
weight, of clay or silt No clay, however, will be permitted If it occurs as a
coating on the particles of stone or as lumps more than one (1) inch in diame-
ter. The particles of stone shall be graded in size between those retained on a
screen having circular openings one-fourth (i) Inch in diameter, or a one-
fourth (i) inch mesh screen, and those passing a screen having circular open-
ings two (2) inches in diameter. Not more than seventy-five (75) per cent
of the particles shall pass and not more than seventy-five (75) per cent shall
be retained on a screen having circular openings three-fourths (f) inch hi
diametCT.
The gravel for use in the concrete curbs shall be composed of hard, sound,
durable particles of stone, thoroughly clean and graded in size between those
retained on a screen having circular openings one-fourth (i) inch in diameter,
or a one-fourth (J) inch mesh screen, and those passing a screen having cir-
cular openings one (1) inch in diameter. Not less than forty (40) per cent
shall he retained on and not less than twenty (20) per cent shall pass a one-
half (i) inch mesh screen.
Crushed stone. — ^The crushed stone for use in the concrete base shall be clean,
sound, and durable, and shall be composed of all that part of the product of the
crusher which is retained on a screen having circular openings one-fourth (i)
inch in diameter, or a one-fourth (i) inch mesh screen, and which passes a
screen having circular openings two (2) inches in diameter. A sample of the
stone, when subjected to the physical tests as described in the United States
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BSICK B0AD6. 29
I>^[Murtment of Agriculture Bulletin No. 347, shall satisfactorily meet the follow-
ing requirements:
Hardness not less than ten (10), toughness not less than five (5), and per
cent of wear not more than twelve (12).*
The crushed stone for use in the concrete curb shall be clean, sound, and
durable, and shall be composed of all that part of the product of the crusher
which is retained on a screen having circular openings one-fourth (i) inch in
diameter, or a one-fourth (J) inch mesh screen, and which passes a screen hav-
ing circular openings one and one-fourth (1^) inches in diameter. A sample of
the stone, when subjected to the physical tests as described in the United States
Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 347, shall satisfactorily meet the follow-
ing requirements:
Hardness not less than twelve (12), toughness not less than six (6), and per
cent of wear not more than ten (10).*
Slag. — ^The slag for use in the concrete base shall be steel-furnace slag, broken
to such sizes that all of the particles will pass a screen having circular openings
two (2) inches in diameter and will be retained on a screen having circular
openings one-fourth (i) inch in diameter, or a one-fourth (i) inch mesh screen.
Not more than -seventy-five (75) per cent of the particles shall pass and not
more than seventy-five (75) per cent shall be retained on a screen having cir-
cular openings three-fourths (|) inch in diameter.
The material shall be reasonably uniform in character, and a sample, when
subjected to the physical tests, as described in United States Department of
Agriculture Bulletin No. 847, shall satisfactorily meet the following require-
ments:
Specific gravity not less than two and one-tenth (2.1), hardness not less
than fifteen (15), toughness not less than five (5), and per cent of wear not
more than fifteen (15).
Water. — ^The water used in the mixing of concrete or grout shall be tree from
oil, acid, alkali, or vegetable matter, and fairly free from clay or silt
Brick. — ^The brick shall be standard wire-cut lug or re-pressed paving block.
The standard size of brick shall be three and one-half (3^) inches in width,
four (4) inches in depth, and eight and one-half (81) inches in length. The
brick shall not vary from these dimensions more than one-eighth (i) inch in
width and depth and not more than one-half (|) inch in length, and in brick
of the same shipment the maximum width or depth shall not vary from the
minimnm width or depth more than one-eighth (i) inch. All brick must
be thoroughly annealed, regular in size and shape, and evenly burned. When
broken they shall show a dense, stonelike body, free from lime, air pockets,
cracks, and pronounced laminations. No surface of any brick shall have kiln
marks more than three-sixteenths (A) inch in depth or cracks more than three-
eighths (g) inch in depth, and the wearing surface of the brick shall not have
kiln mar1» more than one-sixteenth (^ ) inch in depth and shall be free from
cracks. The brick shall have not less than four (4) and not more than six (6)
lugs, all on one side of the brick, such that when the brick are properly laid in
.place in the pavement the joints between them will be not less than one-eighth
(I) nor more than one-fourtlt (i) inch in width. The name or trade-mark
of the manufacturer, if shown on the briclc, must be recessed and not raised. .
If the edges of the brick are rounded, the radius shall not exceed one-eighth
(}) inch.
The brick must not l>e chipped in such a manner that the wearing surface
is not intact or that the lower or bearing surface is reduced in area more
^ The yalnee g^ven for hardness, tonghness, and per cent of wear are intended to exclude
nnsatlsfactory stone, but in communities where better stone is readily available the require-
ments should be made more rigid.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
30 BULLETIN 373, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
than ten (10) per cent; but chipped brick, if otherwise satisfactory, may be
used in obtaining the half briclc for breaking courses and the necessary pieces
of brick for closures. The brick shall not be salt glazed or otherwise arti-
ficially glazed. Not less than five (5) samples of ten (10) brick each will
be selected from each kiln or shipment and subjected to the rattler test recom-
mended to the American Society for Testing Materials by its subcommittee on
paving brick; one sample from what appears to be the softest brick, which
shall not lose of its weight more than twenty-four (24) per cent; one sample
from what appears to be the hardest brick, which shall not lose of its weight
less than sixteen (16) per cent or more than twenty-four (24) per cent; and
three samples representing an average of the kiln or shipment, which shall
not lose of their weight more than twenty-two (22) per cent: Provided, houh
ever J That if the softest brick lose less than twenty-four (24) per cent, the
permissible minimum loss of the hardest brick will be reduced a like amount
If the kiln or shipment of brick should fall to meet the above requirements —
and It Is fair to assume that It would meet them If not more than ten (10)
per cent were culled — ^then the contractor may, at his option, regrade the bride
When the regradlng Is complete the kiln or shipment will be resampled and
retested as under the original conditions, and If It falls to meet any of the
above requirements it will be finally and definitely rejected. Sampling will
be done at the factory prior to shipment or from cars when placed on siding
at destination, and brick satisfactorily passing the rattler test will not be
rejected as a whole, but will be subject to such culling as may be necessary
to meet all of the above requirements. The brick shall be carefully unloaded
from cars and wagons by hand and neatly piled along the work In such manner
that they will be clean and in proper condition to be laid in the pavement
when desired.
Bituminous filler for expansion cushion, — ^The bituminous filler for the ex-
pansion cushion between the brick pavement and the curb shall be a blown-oU
asphalt. It shall be soluble in chemically pure carbon dlsulphlde to at least
ninety-nine (99) per cent, and when tested by the cube method, as described
in United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 314, its melting point
shall not be less than ninety (90) degrees centigrade and not more than one hun-
dred and ten (110) degrees centigrade. The penetration at zero (0) d^rees
centigrade of a No. 2 needle acting one (1) minute under a weight of two hun-
dred (200) grams shall be not less than two (2) millimeters. The penetration
at forty-six (46) degrees centigrade of a No. 2 needle acting five (5) seconds
under a weight of fifty (50) grams shall not exceed ten (10) millimeters.
CONSTRUCTION.
Concrete Jxise, — ^Upon the subgrade prepared as herein specified shall be
laid a concrete base of the 'width and thickness shown on the plans. The sub-
grade shall be wet but not muddy when the concrete is placed upon it The
concrete shall be composed of the following materials, by volume: One (1)
part of cement, three (3) parts of sand, and five (5) parts of gravel, crushed.
stone, or crushed slag, and sufficient water to form a quaky mass, and shall
be thoroughly mixed In a machine mixer of the batch type so constructed and
operate<l that the thorough mixing of the materials will be assured. The con-
crete shall be so delivered to Its place on the subgrade as not to cause or permit
any separation of the materials. Wheelbarrows or other devices used for
measuring the materials shall be of uniform capacity. The concrete shall
l>e deposited in place immediately after it is mixed and shall be well compacted
as fast as it is placed. The top surface shall be smoothed by troweling with
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BRICK ROADS. 31
shovels or by some other means approved by the engineer, and when completed
shall not vary more than one-half (i) inch from the proper shape and grade,
as shown on the plans and profiles. The concrete base shall be kept wet by
sprinkling with water during the first four (4) days after it is laid. No hauling
over it or rolling or tamping of brick upon it will be permitted for seven (7)
days after It is placed, and during this time it shall be properly protected from
injury. Concrete shall not be mixed when the temperature of any of the ma-
terials Is less than thirty-five (35) degrees Fahrenheit. Concrete shall not
be used after it has begun to show evidence of setting, and no concrete which
has once set shall be used as material for mixing a new batch.
Curb8. — Concrete curbs shall be built on the base as shown on the plans. The
concrete shall be composed of the following materials, by volume: One (1) part
of cement, one and one-half (li) parts of sand, three (3) parts of gravel or
crushed stone, and water. The materials shall be thoroughly mixed in a ma-
chine mixer of the batch type or by hand. If the mixing is done by hand. It
shall be done upon a water-tight platform with raised edges, in such manner
as to insure thorough mixing of the materials and to meet the approval of the
engineer. The concrete for the curb shall be placed upon the base before the
concrete of either the curb or the base has taken its initial set, and care shall
be taken, such as roughening the concrete of the base and tamping the concrete
of the curb, to insure that the curb will be firmly bonded to the base. The
concrete shall be well tamped and spaded along the forms, so that when they
are removed there will be no open and porous places on the sides of the curb.
The top surface of the curb shall be floated or troweled to a smooth finish. The
forms for the curb shall be smooth, clean, free from warp, and of sufficient
strength to resist springing out of shape. They shall be well staked and
braced, and the top edges shall be at the same height and set true to line.
To protect the curb from drying out too rapidly it shall, within twelve (12)
hours after it is placed, be covered with gunny cloth, which shall be kept wet
for five (5) days.
Sand heddfng} — ^Upon the base shall be spread a bedding of sand such that it
will have a uniform depth of approximately one and one-half (11) inches when
compacted. The base shall be thoroughly clean at the time the hedding is
spread. The bedding shall be carefully shaped to a true cross section of the
roadway by means of a template having a steel-faced edge, and so fitted as to
be readily drawn on the curb. After the bedding is so shaped, it shall be rolled
with a hand roller until the material composing it is well compacted. The
depressions formed by rolling shall be filled and the surface of the bedding
trued up with the template and rolled again. This operation of filling depres-
sions, truing up with template, and rolling shall be repeated as often as is
necessary to secure a well-compacted bedding true to grade and to the required
cross section. The rolling shall be done with a hand roller not less than twenty-
four (24) inches in diameter, not less than twenty-four (24) Inches in width,
and weighing not less than ten (10) pounds per inch of width.
Laying brick. — Upon the bedding, prepared as above described, the brick
shall be laid on edge from curb to curb in straight courses at right angles to
the curb, with the lug sides all in the same direction. The brick shall be laid
so that the lugs of the brick in one course will touch the brick In the adjoining
» If a dry-mortap bedding is to be UBed substitiite the following :
Dry-mortar heading. — Upon the base shall be spread a dry-mortar bedding composed of
1 part of Portland cement to 6 parts of sand thoroughly mixed. The dry mortar shall be
spread In such quantity as to give an average depth of approximately 1 inch when com-
pacted. The base shall be thoroughly clean at the time the bedding Is spread, etc.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
32 BULLETIN 373, U. S. DEPAETMENT OF AGBIOULTTJEE.
course, and the joints between the ends of the brick shall not exceed one-eigfatb
(i) inch in width. Joints shall be broken by starting each alternate coorse
with a half briclc Nothing but whole brick shall be used, excepting the half
brick for starting alternate courses and pieces of brick for closures, and do
piece of brick less than two (2) inches in length shall be used for making a
closure. The cutting and trimming of brick shall be done by experienced men,
and proper care shall be taken not to check or fracture the part to be used, and
the ends of the part used shall be square with its top and sides.
The brick shall be carried to the bricklayers on pallets or in clamps and not
wheeled in barrows. The bricldayers laying the brick shall stand on the brick
already laid and shall not in any manner disturb the bedding. No heavy driv-
ing will be permitted to straighten courses, and in making closures the pieces
of brick shall be so cut that they may be laid in place without driving. Brick
shall be laid with the best edge up. Batting for closures shall progress with
the laying.
After the brick are laid they will be carefully inspected, and all those whi<^
are soft, cracked, glazed, spalled, overburned, or otherwise imperfect will be
marked by the Inspector. The contractor shall at once remove such brick from
the pavement with flat-nosed tongs, without disturbing the bedding, and shall
replace them with approved brick. Kiln-marked and slightly chipped brick,
if not otherwise defective, may be turned over and, if the reverse edge is
smooth, may remain in the pavement.
If more than one kind of brick or the brick from more than one plant is fur-
nished for the work, each particular kind or make shall be laid in a separate
section.
Rolling brick. — ^After the brick have been laid and after all objectionable
brick have been removed from the pavement they shall be brought to a true sur-
face by means of rolling. The rolling shall be done with a motor or steam
tandem roller weighing not less than three (3) and not more than five (5)
tons. The pavement shall be rolled in longitudinal and diagonal directions.
The longitudinal rolling shall begin at the curbs and progress toward the center
of the pavement The pavement shall then be thoroughly rolled diagonally at
an angle of forty -five (45) degrees with the curb. When this rolling has been
completed the brick will again be inspected, and all that are broken or dam-
aged shall be removed from the pavement and replaced with approved brick.
If necessary to secure a uniform surface the brick shall then be again rolled,
the roller moving diagonally across the pavement at right angles to the first
diagonal rolling. To prevent the brick from being left careened the roller
shall in all cases cover exactly the same area in making its backward trip as
was covered in its forward trip, and shall proceed at a very slow rate of
speed until the entire pavement has received the first rolling. In no event
shall the rolling be done when the bedding is in a condition such that the sand
or dry mortar will flow up into the joints more than three-eighths (|) inch.
Filling the joints. — ^After the brick have been rolled as above specified the
joints between them shall be filled with a grout containing equal parts of c^nent
and sand. The grout shall be mixed in a mechanical batch mixer or by hand in
batches containing not more than one sack of cement Hand mixing shall be
done in a box about five (5) feet long, thirty (30) inches wide, and fourteen
(14) Inches deep, resting on legs of different lengths, so that the mixture
will readily flow to the lowest corner of the box. The sand and cement shall
be thoroughly mixed dry. Sufficient clean water shall then be admixed to
produce a grout of a consistency about equal to that of ordinary cream for
the first application and of a slightly thicker consistency for subsequent applica-
tions. From the time the water is added to the mixture until all of the
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BBIGK BOADS. 33
grout is removed from the box, the mixture must be constantly well stirred
with mortar hoea The grout shall be removed from the box with scoop shovels
and applied to the brick in front of men supplied with push brooms* who shall
rapidly sweep it lengthwise of the brick into the joints until the joints are
. practically filled. After the first application lias been made and the grout
has settled into the joints, and before initial set has taken place, the unfilled
portion of the joints shall be filled with the thicker grout, and, if necessary,
refilled until the joints remain full to the top. After this has been done the
pavement shall be finished to a smooth surface, free from any surplus grout,
with a squeegee, which shall be worked over the brick at an angle of about
forty-five (45) degrees with the curb. The pavement shall have been thoroughly
sprinkled before the first application of grout is made, and shall be kept moist
by means of gentle sprinkling until the grout is spread. The top surface, sides,
and ends of the brick shall be thoroughly clean at the time the work of filling
the joints is done.
Immediately after the grout has taken its initial set the pavement shall be
covered with a one (1) inch layer of sand or earth. This layer, immediately
after it is placed on the pavement, shall be thoroughly wet by sprinkling and
shall be kept wet by sprinkling for at least the five (5) following days. It shall
remain on the pavement for at least ten (10) days and shall be removed before
traffic is permitted upon the pavement. During this period of ten (10) days or
longer, as the engineer may require on account of weather conditions, no traffic
shall be allowed upon and no materials shall be placed upon the pavement
Expansion otuhUm,^ — An expansion cushion four (4) inches in depth and of
the thickness indicated on the plans shall be constructed along each curb as
follows : Suitable provision for the cushion shall be made at the time the brick
are laid by setting boards of the proper width and thickness on edge in proper
position along the curb. After the brick have been laid, rolled, and grouted,
and the grout has well set, the boards shall be carefully removed, so as not to
damage the curb or the brick pavement, and the spaces which they occupied
shall be filled with blown-oil asphalt heated to a temperature of not less than
three hundred (900) degrees Fahrenheit and not more than four himdred (400)
degrees Fahrenheit.
ALTERNATE SPECIFICATIONS.
BEPABATB OONCBBTE CX7BBS.
Where the plans call for concrete curbs separate from the foundation they
shall be constructed before the subgrade is finally completed and sliall have
tlie cross section shown on the plans. Such curbs shall be constructed in sec-
tions not less than six (6) feet and not more than twelve (12) feet in length
and Shan be true to grade and alignment
The specification already given for concrete curbs constructed in combination
with the foundation shall also apply to curbs constructed separate from the
foundation as regards proportioning, mixing, and placing the concrete, con-
structing the forms, and all other features of construction which are not covered
on the plans or in this specification.
STONE CUBBS.
Where stone curbs are required, they shall be hauled and set before the
subgrade is finally completed. The curbs shall be set true to line and grade
^ Instead of making a ponred joint, as above described, the cushion may be constracted
of some of the specially prepared expansion-Joint materials, subject to the approval of the
engineer as to the material and method of oonstniction.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
34 BULLETIN 373, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE.
and shall be securely bedded in broken stone, gravel, or firm earth. In pre-
paring the trenches for the curbs great care shall be exercised to see that the
material upon which the curb is to be set is well compacted, firm, and hard.
Stone curbing shall be quarried from hard, tough^ homogeneous stone. The
individual bloclcs shall have the cross section shown on the plans and shall,
be not less than four (4) feet in length. Each bloclc shall be free from seams
and all other imperfections and shall be neatly dressed and finished on all
exposed faces.
APPENDIX R
Method for Inspecting and Testing Paving Brick.^
The quality and acceptability of paving briclc, in the absence of other special
tests mutually agreed upon in advance by the seller on the one side and the
buyer on the other side, shall be determined by the following procedure, viz :
(1) TJie rattler test, for the purpose of determining whether the material as
a whole possesses to a sufficient degree, strength, toughness, and hardness ;
(2) Visual inspection, for the purpose of determining whether the physical
properties of the material as to dimensions, accuracy and uniformity of shape
and color are in general satisfactory, and for the purpose of culling out from
the shipment individually imperfect or unsatisfactory brick.
The acceptance of paving brick as satisfactorily meeting one of these tests
shall not be construed as in any way waiving the other.
SECTION 1.— THE RATTLEB TEST.
THE SELECTION OF 8A1CPLES FOB TEST.
Item 1. Place of sampling. — In general where a shipment of brick involving a
quantity of less than 100,000 is under consideration, the sampling may be done
either at the brick factory prior to shipment, or on cars at their destination, or
on the street when delivered ready for use. When the quantity under consider-
ation exceeds 100,000, the sampling shall be done at the factory prior to ship-
ment. Brick accepted as the result of tests prior to shipment shall not be
liable to subsequent rejection as a whole, but are subject to such culling as is
provided for under Section II (Visual Inspection).
Item 2. Method of selecting samples. — In general the buyer shall select his
own samples from the material which the seller promises to furnish. The
seller shall have the right to be present during the selection of a sample
The sampler shall endeavor, to the best of his Judgment, to select brick repre-
senting the average of the lot. No samples shall include brick which would
be rejected by visual insi)ectlon as provided In Section II, except that where
controversy arises, whole tests may be selected to determine the admissibility
of certain types or portions of the lot having a characteristic appearance In
common. In cases where prolonged controversy occurs between buyer and
seller, and samples selected by each party fall to show reasonable concurrence,
then both parties shall unite in the selection of a disinterested person to select
the samples, and both parties shall be bound by the results of samples thus
selected.
Item 3. Number of samples per lot. — In general one sample of 10 bri<*
shall be tested for every 10,000 brick contained In the lot under consideration,
^ Recommended by enbcommittee on paving brick of the American Society for Testing
Materials.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BBICK B0AD6. 35
bot where the total quantity exceeds 100,000, the number of samples tested
may be fewer than 1 per 10,000, provided that they shall be distributed as
uniformly as practicable over the entire lot
Item 4. Shipment of samples, — Samples which must be transported long
distances by freight or express must be carefully put up in packages holding
not more than 12 briclc each. When more than six brick are shippeil in one
package, it must be so arranged as to carry two parallel rows of brick side
by side, and these rows must be separated by a partition. In event of some
of the brick being cracked or broken in transit, the sample shall be disqualified
if there are not remaining 10 sound undamaged brick.
Item 5. Storage and care of samples, — Samples must be carefully handled
to avoid breakage or injury. They must be kept dry so far as practicable. If
wet when received, or known to have been immersed or subjected to recent
prolonged wetting, they shall be dried for at' least six hours in a temperature
of 100° F. before testing.
THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE BATTLER.
Item 6. The machine shall be of good mechanical construction, self-con-
tained, and shall conform to the following details of materials and dimensions,
and shall consist of barrel, frame, and driving mechanism as herein described.
Accompanying these specifications is a complete drawing (PI. XII) of a
rattler which will meet the requirements, and to which reference should be
made.
Item 7. The barrel. — ^The barrel of the machine shall be made up of the
heads and head liners and staves and stave liners.
The heads may be cast In one piece with the trunnions, which shall be 2i
inches in diameter and shall have a bearing 6 inches in length, or they may
be cast with heavy hubs, which shall be bored out for 2 A -inch shafts, and shall
be keyseated for two keys, each ^ inch by f inch and spaced 90° apart. The
shaft shall be a snug fit, and when keyed shall be entirely free from lost motion.
The distance from the end of the shaft or trunnion to the inside face of the
head shall be 15f inches in the head for the driving end of the rattler and
111 inches long for the other head, and the distance from the face of the hubs
to the Inside face of the heads shall be 5i inches.
The heads shall be not less than f inch nor more than i Inch thick. In out-
line each head shall be a regular 14-slded polygon Inscribed In a circle 28f
inches in diameter. Each head shall be provided with flanges not less than
f Inch thick and extending outward 2^ inches from the inside face of the head
to afford a means of fastening the staves. The surface of the flanges of the
head must be smooth and must give a true and uniform bearing for the staves.
To secure the desired true and uniform bearing the surfaces of the flanges of
the head must be either ground or machined. The flanges shall be slotted on
the outer edge so as to provide for two f-lnch bolts at each end of each stave,
said slots to be II inch wide and 2| inches center to center. Each slot shall
be provided with a recess for the bolt head, which shall act to prevent the turn-
ing of the same. Between each two slots there shall be a brace f inch thick
extending down the outward side of the head not less than 2 Inches.
There shall be for each head a cast-Iron head liner 1 Inch In thickness and
conforming to the outline of the head, but inscribed in a circle 28i Inches In
diameter. This head liner shall be fastened to the head by seven |-lnch cap
screws through the head from the outside. Whenever these head liners become
worn down i Inch below their Initial surface level at any point of their surface
they must be replaced with new ones. The metal of these head liners shall be
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
S6 BULLETIN 373, XT. S. DEPAHTMENT OP AGBICITLTUBE.
hard machinery - iroD and should contain not less than 1 per cent of combined
carbon.
The staves shall be made of ©-inch medium steel structural channels 27i
inches long and weiring 15.5 pounds per linear foot The staves shall have
two holes it inch in diameter, drilled in each end, the center line of the holes
being 1 inch from the end and 1| inches either way from the longitudinal center
line. The spaces between the staves shall be as uniform as practicable, but
must not exceed A inch.
The interior or flat side of each stave shall be protected by a liner | in<di
thicic by 5i inches wide by 19} inches long. The liner shall consist of medium
steel plate and shall be riveted to the channel by three i-inch rivets, one of
which shall be on the center line both ways and the other two on the longitu-
dinal center line and spaced 7 finches from the center each way. The rivet
holes shall be countersunk on the face of the liner and the rivets shall be
driven hot and chipped off flush with the surface of the liners. These liners
shall be inspected from time to time, and if found loose shall be at once re-
riveted.
Any test at the expiration of which a stave liner Is found detached from the
stave or seriously out of position shall be rejected. When a new rattler in
which a complete set of new staves is furnished is first put into operation, it
shall be charged with 400 pounds of shot of the same sizes, and in the same pro-
portions as provided in Item 9, and shall then be run for 18,000 revolutions at
the usual prescribed rate of speed. The shot shall then be removed and a
standard shot charge inserted, after which the rattler may be charged with
brick for a test
No stave shall be used for more than 70 consecutive tests without renewing
its lining. Two of the 14 staves shall be removed and rellned at a time, in suc^
a way that of each pair one falls upon one side of the barrel and the other upon
the opposite side, and also so that the staves changed shall be consecutive, but
not contiguous ; for example, 1 and 8, 8 and 10, 5 and 12, 7 and 14, 2 and 9, 4
and 11, 6 and 13, etc., to the end that the interior of the barrel at all times
shall present the same relative condition of repair. The changes in the staves
should be made at the time when the shot charges are being corrected, and the
record must show the number of charges run since the last pair of newly lined
staves was placed in position.
The staves when bolted to the heads shall form a barrel 20 inches long, inside
measurement, between head liners. The liners of the staves must be so placed
as to drop between the head liners. The staves shall be bolted tightly to the
heads by four f-inch bolts, and each bolt shall be provided with a lock nut and
shall be inspected at not less frequent intervals than every' fifth test, and all
nuts shall be kept tight A record shall be made after each inspection showing
in what condition the bolts were found.
Item. 8. The frame and driving mechanism. — ^The barrel shall be mounted on
a cast-iron frame of sufficient strength and rigidity to support it without undue
vibration. It shall rest on a rigid foundation with or without the interposition
of wooden plates and shall be fastened thereto by bolts at not less than four
points.
It shall be driven by gearing whose ratio of driver to driven is not less than
one to four. The countershaft upon which the driving pinion Is mounted shall
not be less than lit inches in diameter, with bearings not less than 6 inches in
length. If a belt drive is used, the pulley shall not be less than 18 inches in
diameter and 6i inches in face. A belt at least 6 inches in width, properly
adjusted to avoid unnecessary slipping, should be used.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BRICK ROADS. 37
ITBK 9. T?ie abrasive charge, — ^The abrasive charge shall consist of cast-Iron
spheres of two sizes. When new, the larger spheres shall be 3.75 Inches In
diameter and shall weigh approximately 7.5 pounds (3.40 kilos) each. Ten
spheres of this size shall be used.
These shall be weighed separately after each 10 tests, and if the weight of
any large sphere falls to 7 pounds (3.175 kilos), It shall be discarded and a new
one substituted, provided, however, that all of the large spheres shall not be
discarded and substituted by new ones at any single time, and that so far as
possible the large spheres shall compose a graduated series in various stages
of wear.
When new, the smaller sized spheres shall be 1.875 inches in diameter and
shall weigh approximately 0.95 pound (0.43 kilo) each. In general the number
of small spheres in a charge shall not fall below 245 nor exceed 260. The col-
lective weight of the large and small spheres shall be as nearly as possible 300
pounds. No small sphere shall be retained in use after it has been worn down
so that it will pass a circular hole 1.75 inches in diameter, drilled in an iron
plate I inch In thickness, or weigh less than 0.75 pound (0.34 kilo). Further,
the small spheres shall be tested by passing them over the above plate, or shall
be weighed after every 10 tests, and any which pass through the plate or fall
below the specified weight shall be replaced by new spheres; and provided
further, that all of the small ^heres shall not be rejected and replaced by new
ones at any one time, and that so far as possible the small spheres shall compose
fi graduated series in various stages of wear. At any time that any sphere Is
found to be broken or defective It shall at once be replaced.
The iron composing these spheres shall have a chemical composition within
the following limits:
Combined carbon, not less than 2.50 per cent
Graphitic carbon, not more than 0.25 per cent
Silicon, not more than 1 per cent
Manganese, not more than 0.50 per cent
Phosphorus, not more than 0.25 per cent
Sulphur, not more than 0.08 per cent
For each new batch of spheres used the chemical analysis must be furnished
by the maker or be obtained by the user before introducing into the charge, and
unless the analysis meets the above specifications the batch of spheres shall be
rejected.
THE OPERATION OF THE TEST.
Item 10. The brick charge, — ^The number of brick per test shall be 10 for all
bricks of so-called "block size," whose dimensions fall between from 8 to 9
inches in length, 3 to 31 inches in breadth, and 3} inches to 4i Inches in thlck-
ness.1 No brick should be selected as a part of a regular test that would be
rejected by any other requirements of the specifications under which the pur-
chase is made.
ITEK 11. Speed and duration of revolution, — ^The rattler shall be rotated at a
uniform rate of not less than 29^ nor more than 3(H revolutions per minute,
and 1,800 revolutions shall constitute the test A counting machine shall be
attached to the rattler for counting the revolutions. A margin of not to exceed
10 revolutions will be allowed for stopping. Only one start and stop per test
is generally acceptable. If from accidental causes the rattler Is stopped and
started more than once during a test and the loss exceeds the maximum -per-
^ Where brick of larger or smaller sizes than the dimensions given above for blocks are
to be tested, the same number of bricks per charge should be used, but allowance for the
difference in siie should be made in setting the limits for average and maximum rattler loss.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
38 BULLETIN 373^ U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AOBICULTUBE.
missible under the specifications, the test shall be disqualified and another
made.
Item 12. Th^ scales. — ^The scales must have a capacity of not less than 900
pounds and must be sensitive to one-half of an ounce and must be tested by a
standard test weight at intervals of not less than every 10 tests.
Item 13. The results. — ^The loss shall be calculated in percentage of the
initial weight of the brick composing the charge. In weighing the rattled brick
any piece weighing less than 1 pound shall be rejected.
Item 14. The records, — ^A complete and continuous record shall be k^t of
tlie operation of all rattlers working under these specifications. This record
shall contain the following data concerning each test made :
1. The name of the person, firm, or corporation furnishing each sample tested.
2. The name of the. maker of the brick represented in each sample tested.
3. The name of the street or contract which the sample represented.
4. The brands or marks upon the bricks by which they were identified.
5. The number of bricks furnished.
6. The date on which they were received for test
7. The date on which they were tested.
8. The drying treatment given before testing, if any.
9. The length, breadth, and thickness of the bricks.
10. The collective weight of the 10 large spherical shot used in making the
test at the time of their last standardization.
11. The number and collective weight of the small spherical shot used in
making the test at the time of their last standardization.
12. The total weight of the shot charge after its last standardization.
13. Certificate of the operator that he examined the condition of the mac^ilne
as to staves, liners, and any other parts affecting the barrel and found them
right at the beginning of the test
14. Certificate of the operator of the number of charges tested since the last
standardization of shot charge.
15. The time of the beginning and ending of each test and the numb^ of
revolutions made by the barrel during the test as shown by the indicator.
16. Certificate of the operator as to number of stops and starts made in each
test.
17. The initial collective weight of the 10 brick composing the charge and
their collective weight after rattling.
18. The loss calculated in per cents of the initial weight ; and the calculation
itself.
19. The number of broken brick and remarks upon the portions which were
Included In the final weighing.
20. General remarks ujwn the test and any irregularities occurring in its
execution.
21. The date upon which the test was made.
22. The location of the rattler and name of the owner.
23. The certificate of the operator that the test was made under specifications
of the American Society for Testing Materials and that the record is a true
record.
24. The signature of the operator or person responsible for the test
25. The serial number of the test
In event of more than one copy of the record of any test being required, they
may be furnished on separate sheets and marked duplicates, but the original
record shall always be preserved intact and complete.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
BBICK ROADS. 39
ACCEPTANCE AND BEJSCTION OF MATERIAL.
Item 15. Basis of acceptance or rejection, — Paving brick shall not be judged
for acceptance or rejection by the results of individual tests, but by the average
of not less than five tests. Where a lot of brick fails to meet the required
average it sliall be optional with the buyer whether the brick shall be definitely
rejected or whether they may be regraded and ar portion selected for further
test as provided in item 16.
Item 16. Range of fluctuation, — Some fluctuation in the results of the rattler
test, both on account of variation in the brick and in the machine used in
testing, are unavoidable, and a reasonable allowance for such fluctuations should
be made wherever the standard may be fixed.
In any lot of paving brick, if the loss on a test comimted upon its initial
weight exceeds the standard loss by more than 2 per cent, then the portion
of the lot represented by that test shall at once be resampled and three more
tests executed upon it, and if any of these three tests shall again exceed by
more than 2 per cent the required standard, then that portion of the lot shall
be rejected.
If in any lot of brick two or more tests exceed the permissible maximum,
then the buyer may, at his option, reject the entire lot, even though the average
of all the tests executed may be within the required limits.
Item 17. Fixing of standards, — ^The percentage of loss which may be taken
as the standard will not be fixed in these regulations, and shall remain within
the province of the contracting parties. For the information of the public the
following scale of average losses is given, representing what may be expected
of tests executed under the foregoing specifications :
General
average
loss.
MAximum
permissible
loss.
For brick suitable for lieavy traffic. . .
For brick suitable for medium traffic.
For brick suitable for light traffic
Percent.
22
24
26
Percent.
24
26
28
Which of these grades should be specified in any given district and for any
given purpose is a matter wholly within the province of the buyer, and should
be governed by the kind and amount of traffic to be carried, and the quality*
of leaving brick available.
Item 18. Culling and retesting. — ^Where under items 15 and 16 a lot or
portion of a lot of brick is rejected, either by reason of failure to show a low
enough average test or because of tests above the permissible maximum, the
buyer may at his option permit the seller to regrade the rejected brick, sep-
arating out that portion which- he considers at fault and retaining that which
he considers good. When the regrading is complete the good portion shall
be then resampled and retested, under the original conditions, and if it fails
again either in average or in permissible maximum, then the buyer may
definitely and finally reject the entire lot or portion under test
Item 19. Payment of cost of testing, — ^Unless otherwise specified, the cost
of testing the material as delivered or prepared for d^very, up to the pre-
scribed number of tests for valid acceptance or rejection of the lot, shall be
paid by the buyer. (See also item 23.) The cost of testing extra samples
made necessary by the failure of the whole lot or any portion of it shall be
paid by the seller, whether the material is finally accepted or rejected.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
40 BULLETIN 373, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGMCULTUBE.
SECTION IL— VISUAL INSPECTION.
It shall be the right of the buyer to inspect the brick, subsequent to their
delivery at the place of use, and pri<nr to or during laying, to cull out and
reject upon the following grounds:
Item 20. All brick which are broken in two or chipped in such a manner that
neither wearing surface remains substantially iptact, or that the lower or bear-
ing surface is reduced in area by more than one-fifth. Where brick are rejected
upon this ground, it shall be the duty of the purchaser to use th^n so Car as
practicable in obtaining the necessary half brid^ for breaking courses and
making closures, instead of breaking otherwise whole and sound bricd^ for this
purpose.
Item 21. All brick which are cracked in such a degree as to produce defects
such as defined in item 20, either from shocks received in shipment and handling
or from defective conditions of manufacture, especially in drying, burning, or
cooling, unless such cracks are plainly superficial and not such as to peroeptibty
weaken the resistance of the brid^ to its conditions of use.
Item 22. All brick which are so offsize, or so misshapen, bent, twisted, or
kiln marked that they will not form a proper surface as defined by the paving
specifications, or align with other brick without making joints other than those
permitted in the paving specifications.
Item 23. All brick which are obviously too soft and too poorly vitrified to
endure street wear. When any disagreement arises between buyer and seller
under this item, it shall be the right of the buyer to make two or more rattler
tests of the brick which he wishes to exclude, as provided in item 2, and if in
either or both tests tlie brick fall beyond the maximum rattler losses permitted
under the specifications, then all brick having the same objectionable aiH[>earance
may be excluded, and the seller must pay for the cost of the test But if under
such procedure the brick which have been tested as objectionable shall pass the
rattler test, both tests falling within the permitted maximum, then the buyer can
not exclude the class of material represented by this test and he shall pay tor
the cost of the test
Item 24, All bricks which differ so markedly in color from the tjrpe or av^age
of the shipment as to make the resultant pavement checkered or disagreeably
mottled in appearance. This item shall not be held to apply to the normal varia-
tions in color which may occur in the product of one plant among brick which
will meet the rattler test as referred to in items 15, 16, and 17, but shall apply
only to differences of color which imply differences in the material of which the
brick are made, or extreme differences in manufacture.
ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBUCATION MAT BE PROCURED FROM
TEX SUPERINnNDENT OF DOCUMEKTS
OOVBEinCENT PRINTINO OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT
16 CENTS PBB COPY
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
^A J.- S7f
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 374
CMlribirttoii flmn tb* Bwasa of Plut ladaatrr
WM. A. TAVLOB. CMaf
Wadiingtoii, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER October 17, 1916
THE INTRINSIC VALUES OF GRAIN, COTTONSEED.
FLOUR, AND SIMILAR PRODUCTS, BASED ON THE
DRY-MATTER CONTENT.
By E. G. BosBKBR, AxtMUxnX in Grain Standardization^
CONTENTS.
* 1
Page.
Introdnotloii 1
Comparatlv* values on a dry-matter basis ... 2
Method of dotermJnine comparative values on
a dry-matter basis 4
Advantage of buying and selling on a dry-
matter baals 6
Page.
Other factors to be oonsldered 6
Relation of redncticn of moisture content to
fihrinkace in weight. 7
Explanation of tables. 8
INTRODUCTION.
Grain, cottonseed, flour, and other vegetable products are composed
of dry matter and water. All vegetable matter contains a consider-
able percentage of water even when it is thoroughly air dried. The
proportion of water to dry matter in the grains or cottonseed varies
in each case with the season of the year, the sections of the country
in which they are grown, and the way these products are handled and
stored after being harvested. The minimum and maximum limits
of the moisture content vary somewhat with each kind of grain, cot-
tonseed, and their manufactured products, but are usually within the
range of 10 to 30 per cent. New com, however, frequently exceeds
30 per cent in moisture, while the small grains and cottonseed when
' thoroughly air dry sometimes test less than 10 per cent in moisture.
The water contained in these products, even when they are in an
air-dry condition, is not considered as having any food or feeding
value. Any additional moisture that it might be necessary or desir-
able to add to air-dry grain, flour, etc., to put it in proper condition
for feeding, manufacturing, baking, etc., can be added as water at
the proper time at a much less cost than to purchase it at the
prices for which the products sell.
41645*— Boll. 874—16 1
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
2 BULLETIN 374, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTITRB.
COMPARATIVE VALUES ON A DRY-MATTER BASIS.
Other things being equal, different lots of grain, cottonseed, flour,
meal, etc., have an intrinsic value to the consumer, such as the live-
stock feeder, the manufacturers of com products, the cottonseed
crusher, the miller of wheat, and the baker, in proportion to the
amount of dry matter contained in each lot. The grain, cottonseed,
and flour which contains the least moisture of course contains the
greatest amount of dry matter (fig. 1) and not only has the highest
intrinsic value on account of this high dry-matter content, but it is
also of greater value because of its better keeping quahties while in
storage. Enormous quantities of grain and cottonseed are severely
damaged by molds and fermentation each year because they contain
a moisture content that is too high for safe storage or transportation.
As the moisture content increases, both the risk of spoilage and the
^/t^t^ cr^/Ti.o^£?^ o^ co^r^, c-^rnof^-mm^o o^ sS-/awj.^/9 /"i^o/M/'C'r:^
Fio. 1.— DLigrara lllii?tmtliig the ftmonnt of dry matter contained fn five carloads of grain, cottonseed,
etc., when these products test 20 per cent in moisture and when they test 12 per cent in moisture and
s'.^owir.g t!iat two-fiftlis of a carload more dry matter is present when the moisture test shows 12 pv
cent than when the test shows 20 per cent.
damage from fermentation when these products spoil are accelerated
with each additional per cent of moisture.^
The value of a low moisture content in grain has been recognized
by the trade for many years, as is evidenced by the rules governing
the grading of grain, which specified that the grain to receive ono of
the higher grades must bo " dry''; for a lower grade '' reasonably dry*'
was sufficient, and the lowest grades allowed ''damp" or "wet"
grain. These quoted terms, of course, are very indefinite and allow
too much elasticity in their interpretation by the various interested
parties. In comparatively recent years these indefinite terms have
been converted into definite percentages as appUed to certain grades.
The Grain Dealers' National Association was the first grain organiza-
tion to place the factor of moisture in the grading of grain on a per-
centage basis. In 1906 this association adopted grade rules defining
» For the results of experiments to determine the relation of different moisture contents to deterioratlaa
in com, see Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 55, "American Export Corn (Mai^) in Europe/' by
J. D. Shanahan, C. £. Leigh ty, and E. O. Boemer; also U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin 48,
entitled "The Shrinkage of Shelled Com while in Cars in Transit," by J. W. T. Duvel and Laurel DovaL
uigiTized by
Googk
IKTBINBIO VALtJES BASED ON DBY-MATTEB CONTENT.
definite maximiun limits of moisture for the various grades of com.
These grades were adopted by many of the State grain-inspection
departments and grain exchanges and resulted in the wide adoption of
the quick method for the determination of the moisture content of
grain which was devised in the Department of Agriculture.* In 1914,
the Department of Agriculture promulgated grades for commercial
com and fixed definite maximum limits of moisture which each of the
six nimierical grades might contain.* These grades have been
adopted and are now in force in most of the corn markets in the
United States. The pure-food la^vs in some States also have certain
regulations dealing with the amount of moisture which grain and
flour may contain in order to enter the State.
'It
/V*s^
A/^^
j\f9e ^^,o
r
^/.sS
/oao ^u^/^^i^sS o^ aa/^/^
^>*?>- /^>-^7-7~^/?' — i-&^.
.> ~Vj3\
T / T.OO
TOO.OO
B^G.OO
■»• /r.oo
/ 7,00
'^^.00
- '-^G.yo
Tvy.^ ^js^r" ^/i/'^S' Tv/^ i<4i.u£ /Ay c^/\rr>sr /'jea? ^u^/tei,
Fio. 2.~ Diagram showing tlie wnount of dry matter and of water contained in 1,000 bushels of corn testing
the maximum percsntnge in moisture allowed in the six numerical grades for commercial com and also
the comparative value of the dry matter in 1,000 bushels of each grade when No. 3 com is worth 70 cents
per bushel.
When a unit of weight of grain, cottonseed, etc., which contains
excess moisture dries out natmrally or is artificially dried to a lower
moisture content, some of the water is lost but all of the dry matter is
retained, and as only the dry matter is considered as having any value
the total value will be the same after drjdng that it was before drying.
The weight , however , will have been reduced through the loss in moisture .
Figure 2 shows the comparative values by grades of the dry matter
contained in a carload of 1,000 bushels of com testing the maximum
limits in moisture allowed in the Government grades for commercial
com when No. 3 corn is considered as being worth 70 cents per bushel.
I For a description of this method and the apparatus used with it, see Bureau of Plant Industry Circular
72, eoUtled "A Moisture Tester for Grain and Other Substances and How to Use It," by J. W. T. DuveL
< For an explanation of the rules for grading, see Department of Agricoltore Bulletin 168, entitled
"Ondes for Commercial Com,'' by J. W. T. Dixyel.
uigiTized by VjOOQIC
BULLETIN 374, U. B. DEPARTMENT OF AGKICULTTTRB.
vav'^z-^
kV>^ T'^^Z^
*^m
Ta/a
i
METHOD OF DETERMINING COMPARATIVE TALUES ON A DST-MATnSR
BASIS.
The comparative values given in Tables 11 to XII, inclusive, are
based on the dry matter contained in a unit of weight. The water
contained is not considered as having any intrinsic value; therefore
the whole value for any imit of weight is credited to the dry matter
which it contains.
r ^^^^^^=i The method of arriv-
^^^^^-=^ ing at comparative
values of the dry matr
ter contained in a unit
of weight, when every-
thing but moisture is
considered as being
equal, is explained in
the solution of the fol-
lowing problem :
Example. — If the dry
matter in a unit of weight
(bushel, 100 pounds, etc.)
of any grain, cottonseed,
or similar product testing
10 per cent in moisture is
worth $1.20, what ia the
value of the dry matter in
a similar unit of weight of
the same product whidi
testa 16 per cent in mois-
ture?
A unit of weight of
grain, cottonseed, or
similar product test-
ing 10 per cent in
moisture contains 90
per cent of dry matter
and 10 per cent of
water. If the 90 per
cent which is dry mat-
ter is worth S1.20, tlieu each 1 per cent of the dry rbatter is w^orth
1/90 of SI. 20, or 1.3o33 4- cents, and the dry matter in a similar
unit testing 16 per cent in moisture and therefore having 84 per cent
of dry matter is worth 84 X 1.3333 + cents, or $1.12. This is graph-
ically illustrated in figure 3.
If it is desired to extend any one of Tables II to XII, inclusive, so as
to ascertain the comparative value of a unit which contains either
more or less moisture than any unit shown in the table, it is only
necessary to calculate the percentage of dry matter contained in this
^
Fig. 3.— Diigrnm iriivtr:itir..:; t!ie rompiradre valuer cf tht dry mat-
tor Li tA(i l-l.a.,:iol units of wljeat testing 10 aiid 16 i»cr cent in
m')lstiire, resi.cciivolv, busod on a busliei of wheat tesliiig 10 per
cent in moisture being worth $1.20.
uigiTizea oy ''
nirrBnirsio talubs based on dby-matteb content. 5
unit and multiply it by the value of each 1 per cent of dry matter
ahown in the right-hand column in the table.
BxampU. — If a bushel of No. 3 com testing 17.5 per cent in moisture is worth 80
cents, what is the comparative value ot a bushel of com testing 26 per cent in moisture?
Table XI shows comparative values for \mits containing from 12 to
24 per cent of moistiu^ content only, based on even money for a tmit
testing 17.6 per cent in moisture. Com testing 26 per cent in mois-
ture contains 74 per cent of dry matter and as each 1 per cent of
dry matter is worth in this instance 0.9697 cents, as is shown in the
right-hand coliunn of the table, the 74 per cent of dry matter is worth
74 X 0.9697 cents, or 71.76 cents. Therefore, if a bushol of No. 3
com testing 17.5 per cent in moisture is worth 80 cents, the compara-
tive intrinsic value of a bushel of com testing 26 per cent in moisture
is 71.76 cents. The comparative value of a imit testing lower in
moisture than the minimxun shown in the table may be determined
in a similar manner.
If it is desired to extend any one of Tables II to XII, inclusive, so
as to ascertain the comparative value of any imit, the value of which
is over $1.20 but less than $2.00, such value can be found by divid-
ing the given value into two parts, one of which wUl be an even
dollar and the other the fraction of the doUar, and finding the com-
parative value for each. The comparative value for the whole will
then be the sum of these two results.
Example. — If a unit weight of grain, cottonseed, or flour testing 12 per cent in mois-
ture is worth $1.90, what is the comparative value of a similar unit testing 16 per cent
in moisture?
Proceeding as explained above, it will be seen from Table IV
that the comparative value for the $1 part will be 95.45 cents, and
the comparative value for the 90-cent part will bo 85.91 cents; there-
fore, the comparative value for the whole wUl be (95.45 + 85.91 =
181.36 cents) $1.81.
Similar results can be obtained by moving the decimal point one
or two places to the left, as may be necessary, and considering the
figures given in these tables as dollars and cents instead of cents
and fractions of a cent. According to this method, it is seen in Table
IV that by moving the decimal point one place to the left, 19 cents
in the 12 per cent moisture column becomes $1.90, and the compara-
tive value in the 16 per cent moisture column will be $1.81, which is
the same result as that obtained by the first method.
It will be noted in Tables 11 to XII, inclusive, that the diflFerence in
value for each 1 per cent of dry matter increases in direct propor-
tion to the increase in the price, so that as the price of the product
increases, the difference in value for each 1 per cent of dry matter
or of moisture becomes of more material importance to the producer
and consumer of the products under consideration.
Digiti
zed by Google
0 BULLETIN 874, U. S. DEPAETMENT OF AQBIGULTUSB.
ADVANTAGE OF BUYING AND SELLING ON A DRT-MATTER BASIS.
Buying and selling gi*ain, flour, and cottonseed on the basis of
their comparative intrinsic values depending on the amount of dry
matter contained in a unit of weight is not only fair to the cansumer
of these agricultural products but also gives the producer an incen-
tive-for putting them on the market in a dry condition.
Much of the grain and cottonseed is sold from the farm m^^y
as grain or cottonseed, and no premium is paid for these products
when dehvered with a lower moisture content than the average for
the crop. The result of buying such products from the farm^ on
this basis is that it puts a premium on poor fanning, in that it pays the
farmer to sell as much water as possible at grain or cottonseed prices.
When a farmer in selling to the coimtry elevator or other buyer
dehvers grain or cottonseed which contains less moisture than the
average for the crop, he is entitled to a price which is higher than
the average price for the crop, because grain or cottonseed which
tests low in moisture has a higher intrinsic value than grain or
cottonseed which tests hig:h in moisture. By paying the farmer
what his products are worth on the dry-matter basis when he de-
livers grain or cottonseed which contains a moisture content lower
than the average for the crop, a premium is put on good farming and
the result should be, with grain at least, that the farmer will have
an incentive to grow an early-maturing grain which will dry out
sufficiently on the farm to be in a marketable condition, soon after
harvesting. He will also have an incentive to store his grain and
cottonseed on the farm in well-ventilated cribs and warehouses,
which will facilitate natural drying and at, the same time protect
these products from rain and snow and thereby prevent much of
the deterioration from molds, fermentation, etc., that now occurs
in many cases.
OTHER FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED.
The relation of the moisture and dry-matter contents to the in-
trinsic worth of grains makes Tables II to XII, inclusive, valuable in
applying the factor of moisture content in the fixing of grades and
also as a basis for fixing market values. In these tables, only the
factors of moisture and dry matter were considered in calculating
the relative values of grain on a dry-matter basis ; but, while these
factors are fundamental and the basis is an excellent one from which
to figure intrinsic values, other factors and circumstances affecting
these values must still be considered in computing markot values,
among which, for grain at least, can be mentioned: (1) The relative
quantity of damp and therefore undesirable grain in the grain-
producing States that have a surplus, or in territory contiguous to
any given grain market, and the relative quantity of the ^market
receipts that is upon inspection placed in each grade; (2) the wdl-
uigiiizea oy 's^jOOQLC
raTBINSIO VALUES BASED ON DKY-MATTEB CONTENT. 7
known tendency of damp grain to deteriorate in storage and in
transit and the accelerated risk from such deterioration as the moisture
content increases; (3) conditions relative to supply and demand at
the time the grain is marketed and the relative capacity of the grain
markets to absorb it or dispose of it in a damp condition at a profit;
(4) weather conditions at the time of mari^eting and future weather
conditions as affecting the condition and carrying capacity of the
grain; (5) consideration of the fact that when grain must be artifi-
cially dried after being deUvered to market, there is a certain extra
charge for putting it through the drier and for freight on the water
that must be handled; and (6) that when grain is artificially dried
there is always a slight 'invisible loss" in weight in the drying
process. Many of these factors are of equal importance with reference
to the buying and selling of cottonseed, flour, and other products.
It will therefore be seen that unless these products are purchased
for immediate consumption, the relative values as given in Tables
II to XTT, inclusive, can not be literally applied as showing final
market values, premiums, and discounts; and it was not intended
that they should be so applied.
RELATION OF REDUCTION OF MOISTURE CONTENT TO SHRINKAGE IN
WEIGHT.
Grain, and especially com, frequently gets into commerce with a
moisture content too high to receive one of the higher grades or to
remain sound while in storage or during transportation. This is
especially true in a year in which there is more than the usual amount
of rainfall during the growing and harvest seasons. This condition
has been partially met by the trade by the introduction of machines
for artificially removing the excess moisture from the grain. These
grain driers, as they are termed, are extensively used, and increas-
ingly large amounts of grain are artificially dried by them each year.
Whether grain dries naturally or is artificiaUy dried, the percentage
of shrinkage in weight is always greater than the difference in the
percentage of moisture content before and after drying, as shown by
the moisture tester, unless all of the moisture is dried out when the
shrinkage and the reduction in moisture are equal. For instance, if
com having an original moisture content of 23 per cent is dried so
that it tests only 14 per cent, the moisture content is reduced by
9 per cent. The shrinkage in weight, however, is 10.46 per cent,
as is shown in Table I.
When the original moisture content and the moisture content after
drying are known, the shrinkage can be determined from Table I.
The reason for the difference in the percentage of shrinkage and
the reduction of the moisture content is fully explained in Bureau of
Plant Industry Circular No. 32.*
I 8m Duvel, J. W. T. MoJftort oontont and shrinkage in grain. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bar. Plant Indus,
dr. 82, 1909, p. 4-7.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
8 BULLETIN ^, V. B. DBPABTMBKT 09 AGBICtTLTCrSE.
The formula for finding the percentage of shrinkage correspoiuliDg
to any reduction in moisture content is as follows:
/rPercentage ofi f Percentage ofi \ r-o * <
100-( dry matter :{ dry "*«e4 * ' ^^ * "^ H SS^
\l mfter drying] i bcrforedryingJ / slirmica^.
Example, — Find the percentage of shrinkage when wheat has been dried bom IS
per cent mouture content to 12 per cent moiatajre content.
Solvtion: 10a-(88 : 82 :: 1€X) : x)x^l00-93.18)» which eqtials 6.82.
In this case the moisture content was reduced by 6 per e«ttt and
the shrinkage in weight was 6.82 per cent.
When tt^ original weight and the moisture content before and
after diying are known and it is desired to find the final weightj or.
in other words, the weight of the dried material, it can be obtamea
by the formula —
after drying) I b^oredryingj ^weight/ We^jhl.
Example, — If 2,000 pounds of p^n containing 18 per cent of moisture has been dried
and the grain tested 12 per cent oi mmsCnie after drying, what is the wedgiit ci ^m
grain after drying?
Applying the above f ormida gives —
(SS : 82 :: 2,000 : x) =(164000^-88), which equals 1,863.(J.
Therefore, the grain after drying weighed 1,863.6 pounds.
EXPLANATION OP TABLES.
Table I shows the percentage of shrinkage in weight correspond-
ing to definite reductions in the moisture content.
Tables II to XII, inclusive, show the comparative values on a dry-
matter basis of grain, cottonseed, and otner products containing
various percentages of moisture.
Tables II to lA, inclusive, are applicable to all grains, cottonseed,
flour, and similar products, and mve the comparative values for the
dry matter in a \mit containing from 10 to 24 per cent of moisture.
These tables are based on even money for the units containing 10 to
17 per cent of moisture, respectively.
Tables X and XI are more particularly applicable to shelled com
and give the comparative values for the dry matter in a imit con-
taining from 12 to 24 per cent of moisture. These tables are based
on ex en money for units containing the maximum moisture allowed
in the Government grades for No. 2 and No. 3 com, respectiveljr.
Table XII gives the comparative values, by grades, of a unit of
com containing the maximum moisture allowed in each of the six
numerical grades established bjr the Government.
Tables snowing the comparative values of a unit of weight of grain
on a dry-matter oasis when applied to com are anplicabfe to shelled
com only. In ear com, the cobs at the time of narvest test higher
in moisture than the kernels, but during storage the cobs dry oat
faster than the kernels and contain less moisture than the kernels
when the com is in an air-dry condition.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
INTBIirSIO VALUES BASED OK DKY-MATTEE CONTENT. 9
TabIiB I. — Percentage of shrinkage in weight of grain, cottonseed, flour, eAc., when
the loss in moisture ana the original moisture content are known.
Original moisture content (percent).
LosBinmob-
ture.
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
16
16
17
18
19
20
31
P.d.
P.ct.
P.d.
P.ct} P.d.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.CL
Iproent
1.07
1.09
1.10
1.11 1.12
1.14
1.15
1.16
1.18
1.19
1.20
1.22
1.23
1.35
2p*recot....
2.13
2.16 2.17
3.I9I 3.22
2.20 2.22
3.25
3.27
3.30
2.32
2.36
2.38
3.41
3.44
3,47
Sperc?nt
3.16
3. 26 3. 30
8.33
8.77
3.41
8.45
3.49
3.53
3.57
3.61
3.66
4 percent
4.17
4.21 4.25
4.30 4.35
4.39
4.44
4.49
4.54
4,60
4.65
4.70
4.7C
4.83
ftperc^nt
6.15
6.21 6.26
6.32 6.3S
6.43
6.49
6.66
6.62
6.68
6.76
6.81
6.»i
6.95
^percent —
6.12
6.18 6.25
6.31 6.38
6.45
6.52
6.59
6.67
6.74
6.82
6.ro
6.9S
7.06
7 per cent
7.07
7.14 7.22
7.29 7.37
7.45
7.53
7.61
7.69
7.78
7.86
7.95
8.04
8.14
8p2ro2nt —
8.00
8.08 8.16
8.25 8.33
8.42
8.51
8.60
8.69
8.79
a89
8.9fl
9.09
9.19
9p?rceiit
9.00 9.09
9.18 9.28
9.37
9.47
9.57
9.68
9.78
9.8fl
10.0(1
10.11
10.23
10p3rcjnt
' 10.00
10.10 10.20
10.31
10.42
10.53
10.64
10.75
10.87
10.99
11.11
11.23
11 per cent
11.00 11.11
11.22
11.34
11.46
11.58
11. 7C
11.83
11.96
12.09
12.23
12p3rcent
I
12.00
12.12
18.00
12.21
13.13
14.00
12.37
13.26
14.11
12.50
13.40
14.28
12.63
13.54
14.43
12.7
13.68
14.58
12.90
13.83
14.74
13.04
13.98
14.89
13.19
13 percent....
1
14.13
14p?rcont
'
1
15.06
15p'*rcent....
1
16.00
15.15
16.00
15.31
16.16
17.00
15.46
16.33
17.17
18.00
16.62
16.49
17. a5
18.18
19.00
15.79
16.67
17.52
18.37
19.19
15.96
16 per cent....
1
16.84
17 percent... .
;
17.71
18 percent....
.;...!
18.56
19 per cent
::::::i::::.:
19.39
20 percent....
1
20.00
20.20
21 percent. . . .
1
21.00
1
1
22
23 I 24
26
26
27
28
29
30
31
83
33
34
36
P.et.
P.ct. P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.\p.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.ct.
P.CL
1 per cent —
1.26
1.28 1.30
1.31
1.33 1.35
1.37
1.39, 1.4L
1.43
1.46
1.47
1.49
1.51
Spercent —
2.50: 2.53! 2.56
3.701 3.75! 8.80
2.eo\
2.63 2.67
2.70
2.74 2.78
2.82i 2.86
2.90
2.94
2.98
3 per cent
8.85
3.90 8.95
4.00
4.05! 4.11
4.17 4.22
4.28
4.35
4.41
4peroent —
4.88 4.9r 5.00
6.06
6. 13 6. 19
6.26
6.33 6.40
6.48 6.55
6.63
6.71
6.80
S percent
6.02 6.10 6.17
6.25
6.33 6.41
6.49
6.58 6.67
6.76 6.86
6.94
7.04
7.14
« per cent
7.14 7.23 7.32 7.41
7.50 7.59
7.69
7.79 7.89
8.001 8.11! 8.22
8.33
8.45
7p3rcent
8.23 8.33: 8.43 8.51
8.64 8.75
&86
a97 9.09
9.211 9.331 9.46
9.59
9.72
8 per cent
9.30 9.41! 9.52 9.64
9.76 9.8^
10.00
10.13 10.26
IO.39I 10.53 10.67
10.81! 10.96
9 per cent
10. 3 1
10.46; 10..=)9 10.71
10.81
10.97
11.11 11.2. 11.39 11.541 11.69 11.84
12.00
12.16
10 pr cent
11.36
11.49i 11.63 11.76
11.90
12.05
12.19 12.34 12.50 12.66! 12.82 12.99
13.16
13.33
llpTcent
12.38
12.50
12. 6 J
12.79
12. 9 J
13.09
13.25 13.41 13.58 13. 75! 13.92, 14.10
14.28
14.47
12 percent
13. ai
13.48
13.64
13.79
13.9.
14.12
14.28 14.46 14.63 14.811 15.00
15.19
15.38
15..^
13pTcent
14.28
11.44
14.61
U.77
lt.9t
15. 12
15.29 15.48 15.66 15.85 16.05
16.25
16. 15
16.07
14 per cent
15.22
15.38
15.55
15.73
15.91
16.09
16.28 16,47 16.67 16.87 17.07
17.28
17.50
17.72
15 p rcL'nt
16.13
16.30
16. t8
16.67
16.85
17.04
17.21 17.44 17.65 17.86 18.07
18.29
18.52
18.75
Ifipircnt
17.02
17.201 17.39
17.58
17.78
17.98
18.18 18.39 18.60 18.82 19.05
19.28
19.51
19.75
17 pore nt
17.8^
18.08, 18.28
18. t8
18.68
18.89
19.10! 19.32 19.54 19.77 20.00
20.24
20.48
20.73
18 percent
18.75
18. 95, 19. 1 J
19.33
19. r>6
19.78
20.00
20.22 20.45 20.69 20.93
21.18
21.43
21.69
19p rcent
19.59
19.79 20.00
20.1^1
2). 13
20.65
20.88
21.11 21.35 21.59 21.84
22.09
22.35
22.62
20 per cent
20.11
20.62 20.83
21. 03
21.28
21.50
21.74
21.98 22.22 22.47! 22.73
22.99
23.25
23.53
21pTcent
21.21
21.43 21.6'>
21.87
22.10
22.31
22.58
22.83 23.08
23.33 23.59
23.86
24.14
24.42
22 per cent
22. OJ
22. 221 22. 45
22.68
22.92
23.16
23.40
23.65 23.91
24.17 24.44
21.72
25.00
25.29
23p^cent
23.00 23.23
23.47
23.71
23.96
21.21
21.47 21.73
25.00 25.27
25.55
25.84
26.14
24 per cent
2i.00
24.24
24.49
21.74
25.00
25.26 25.53
25.8I; 26.09
26.37
26.67
26.97
26pircent
1
25.00
25.25
25.51
25.77
26.0} 26.31
26.59
26.88
27.17
27.47
27.78
26 per cent ....
t
26.00
26.26
27.00
26.53
27.27
28.00
26.80 27.08
27.55! 27.83
28. 281 28. o7
29.00. 20.29
27.37
28.12
28.86
29.59
30.30
31.00
27.66
28.42
29.17
29.90
30.61
31.31
32.00
27.96
28.72
29.47
30.21
30.93
31.63
32.32
33.00
28.26
29.03
29.79
30.53
31.25
31.96
32.65
33.33
28.57
27 p rCw-nt. ...
1
29.35
28 per cent ....
30.11
29 per cent ....
1
30.85
80 per cent ....
. .
30.00
31.58
31 percent....
1 1
32.29
32 per cent ....
.... |.... ..
1
1
32.99
83 per cent
1 1
1
1
33.67
34 per cent
1 1
1
1
3J.00
34.34
85 IMT cent . . .
!
1
1
35.00
1
1
1
41645*»— Bull. 374—16 2
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
10
BULLETIN 974, U. a DBPABTMBNT OF AGSICULTUBB.
Table II. — Comparative value^ an a dry-matter basis, of grain, cottonseed, JUmr, etc,
showing the price per unit of weight (btishel, 100 pounds, etc.), from 1 cent to ^l.SO, and
the difference in value for each unit testinifrom 10 to 24 per cent in moisture when the
price for a unit testing 10 per cent in moisture is in even cents.
Uoistuie content (p«r cent) and relative value per unit of measure.
Valoeof
eachl
.
percent
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
ao
21
23
23
34
of dry
matter.
as.
c:».
013.
c:t.
CU.
CU.
c:t.
a*.
CU.
CU.
CU.
CU.
cr*.
CU,
C7*.
ante.
1
0.99
0.9S
0.97
0.95
a 94
0.93
0.92
0.91
0.90
0.89
0.R8
0.87
a85
a84
a 01111+
2
1.W
1.95
1.91
1.91
1.89
1.87
1.84
1.83
L80
1.78
1.75
L73
1.71
L«9
8
2.9?
i9J
2.90
2.87
2.83
2. SO
2.77
2.73
2.70
2.67
2.63
2.60
i57
2.68
.05333+
4
3.95
3.91
3.87
3.82
3.78
3.73
3.69
8.64
3.60
3.55
a5i
3.47
3.42
a38
.04444+
6
4.94
4.8d
4.83
4.78
4.72
4.67
4.61
4.55
4.50
4.44
4.39
4.33
4.28
4.22
.055»+
6
5.9a
5.87
6.8-)
5.73
6.67
5.60
5.53
5.47
6.40
6.33
5.27
5.20
5.13
5.07
.00087—
7
6.92
6.84
6.77
6.09
6.61
6.63
6.45
6.38
6.30
6.22
6.14
6.07
6.99
6.91
.07778-
8
7.91
7.82
7.73
7.64
7.55
7.47
7.38
7.29
7.20
7.11
7.02
6.93
6.84
6.75
.08SS0-
»
8.91
8.81
8.70
8.60
8.50
8.40
&30
8.20
8.10
8.00
7.90
7.80
7.70
7.60
.lOOOO-
10
9.8J
9.78
9.67
9.55
9.44
9.33
9.22
9.11
9.00
8.80
8.78
8.67
8.55
8.44
.1U11+
11
10. 8S
10.75
10.63
10.51
10.39
10.27
10.14
10.02
9.90
9.78
9.65
9.53
9.41
0.29
.12323+
V2
11.87
11.73
11.60
11.47
11.33
11.20
11.07
10.91
10.80
10.67
ia53
ia40
10.27
10.13
.13333+
n
12. H5
12.71
12.57
12.4'^
12.2^
12.13
11.99
11.84! 11.70
11.55
11.41
11.27
11.12
ia98
.14444+
111 l:i.8»
13.69
13.5;
13. 3S
13. 22
13.07
12.91
12.75! 12.60
12.44
12.29
12. 13
11.98
11.82
.L5&5^
lo
14.8.;
14. C7
14.50
14.33
14.17
14.00
13.83
13.67
13.50
13.33
13.17
13.00
12.83
12.67
.16667-
16
15.82
15.64
15.47
15.29
15.11
14.93
14.75
14.58
14.40
14.22
14.04
13.87
13.60
13.61
.17778-
17
IC. SI
16.02
16. 4 J
16.24
16.05
15.87
15.68
15.49
15.30
15.11
14.92
14.73
14.54
14.35
.18889-
IH
17. 9i}
17.00
17 40
17.20
17.00
16.80
16.60
16.40
16.20
16.00
15.80
15.60
15.40
15.20
.30000-
1I>
IH. 79
IS.r.S, 18.37
18.15
17.94
17. 73
17.52
17.31
17.10
16.89
16.68
16.47
16.26
16.04
.21111 +
20
19.7b
19.55 19.31
19.11
18.89
18. C7
18.44
18.22
18.00
17.78
17.55
17.33
17.11
16.80
.23223+
SI
20.77
20.53 2a 30
20.07
19.83
19.60
19.37
19.13
18.90
18.67
18.43
18.20
17.97
17.73
.a3»s+
«i
21.75
21.51 21.27
21.02
20.78
20.53
20.29
20.04
19.80
19.55
19.31
19.07
18.82
1R..S8
.M444+
2i
2*2.74
22.49 22.23
21.98
21.72
21.47
21.21
20.95
20.70
20.44
20.19
19.93
19.68
19.42
.23665+
21
2:i.7^
23.47 23.20
22 93
22.67
22.40
22.13
21.87
21.60
21.3.t
21.07
20.80
20.63
30.27
.aOGt7-
2o
24.72
24.44 21.17
25.42' 25.13
23. S9
23.61
23.33
23.05
22.78
22.50
22.22
21.94
21.67
2L39
2LU
.2777S—
26
25.71
21.84
21.55
24.27
23.98
23.69
23.40
23.11
22.82
22.53
22.24
2L95
.38889-
27
2^.70
2*;. 4)
26.10
2,5.80
25. .5<)
25.20
21.90
21.60
24.30
24.00
23.70
23.40
23.10
22.80
.30000—
2H
27. r,i)
27. 3S
27. 07
26.7.5
26.44
28.13
25.82
25.51
2.5.20
24.89
24.58
24.27
23.95
^64
.31111+
2U
•2^. CA
2S. 35
2S.03
27.71
27.39
27.07
26.74
26.42
26.10
25.78
25.45
25.13
24.81
24.49
80
29. G7
29.33
29.00
28.67
28.33
28.00
27.67
27.33
27.00
26.67
26.33
26.00
25.67
20.33
.33333+
81
.30. 6-
30.31 29.97
29.6?
29.2^
28.93
28.59
28.24
27.90
27.55
27.21
26.87
28.52
26.18
.34444+
8-2 , .'U.ni
31.23 30.91
30. 5 -t
30. 22
20. S7
29.51
29.15
28. .80
28 44
28.09
27.73
27.38
27.02
.S556S+
8S
32. n {
3-. 27
31. Th)
31.5'.
31.17
30. .80
30. 43
30.07
29.70
29. .33
28.9;^
28.60
28.23
27.87
.38667-
8t
3{.r.i
3 J. 21
32. 87
32.4'j
.32.11
31.73
31. X5
30. 98
30.6*1
30.22
29.84
29.47
29.09
28.71
.37778—
85
34. Gl
31.22
33.83
33.41
33.05
32.67
32.28
31.89
31.60
31.11
30.72
3a 33
29.94
29.65
.38^9-
S6
.3.5. ro
35.20
34. SO
34.40
34.00
3.3.60
3.3.20
32.80
32.40
32.00
31.60
31.20
3a 80
3a 40
.40000-
87
3<i. .'.9
36. H
35.77
35. 35
.34.91
34. 5 J
34.12
33.71
33. .30
32.89
32.48
32.07
31.65
31.24
.4U11+
oS
37. .'.*<
37. 15
36.7?
36. .S I
35. 83
3.5.47
35. 04
31.62
34.20
33.78
33. .35
32.93
32.51
32.09
.4222+
Rlf
:\<. .'i7
3H. U
37. 70
37.27
36. Si
36. 1 1
35.97
35. 5 i
35. 10
34.67
34.23
33.80
33. .37
32.93
.43333+
40
39.55
39.11 38.67
38.22
37.78
37.3.J
36.89
36.44
36.00
35.55
35.11
34.67
34.22
33.78
.44444+
41
40.51
40.00 39.63
39. H
38.72
38.27
37. 81
37.35
36.93
36,44
35.99
35.53
35.08
34-62
.45555+
42
41.:);
41. O:' 40. Tnl
40. n
39.67
39. 20
38. 7.1
38.271
37.80
37.33
36.87
36.40
35.91
35.47
.46667-
4;
u.r.i
42. o» 41.57
41.(1)
40.61
40. n
39. r^
39.18
38. .70
38,22
37.74
37.27
36.79
36.31
.47778-
41
4'.. .',l! 43.(i»l 42. :<
42 01
41.55
41.07
40. 5^
40. (Y)
39.60
39.11
38,62
38.13
37.64
37.15
.«<$«)»-
4.^
44.501 44, OJ
43.50
43.0)
42. 5J
42.00
41.50
41.00
40.50
4a 00
39.60
39.00
38.50
38.00
.50000-
48
4.'.. 49! 44.9"^
41.47
43.95 43.41
42.9^.
42.42
41.91
41.40
4a 89
40.38
39.87
39.35
38. S4
.51U1+
47
4«i. 4<' 4.5. ir>
45.4 V Ai.uV 44. .39
4.1. 87
4^34
42. K2
42.30
41.78
41.25
40.73
40.21
39.69
.52222+
4S
47. 17i 46. 9 ;
46. 4-) 45. \7\ 45. 3 »
44. M
44.27
43. 73
43.20
42.67
42.13
41.60
41.07
441.53
.63333+
4',»
4^.4.51 17.'»1
47.37 4r..s>' 46.2'
4.5. 7 1
4.5. 19
44.64
44.10
4.3.55
43.01
42.47
41.92
41. .38
.54444+
&0
4y.4-l| 48,v'>J
50.43 49.87
48.33 47.7^ij 47.22
46.07
46.11
45.65
45.00
44.44
43.89
43.33
42.78
42.22
.56S5&+
61
49. .30
4^. 73 48. 17
47.60
47.03
46.47
45.90
45.33
44.77
44.20
43.63
43.07
.56687—
f>2 r.1.42 5). SI
r^). 27
4:».6^' 49.11
4^. 5 ;
47. 95
47. 3H
46.Sil
46. 22
45.64
45.07
44.49
4R.91
.577T^v-
6'J .72 4ll 51.^:
51.2:
5 ».<■.»! 5). 05 49. J:
4-;. s>
4S.29
47. 70
47.11
46.52
45.93
45. 34
44.75
.5<W«S9-
fit! r»;.40 5'?. ^1
52.2)
51 6 1 .51. 0»
50. 10
49. sO
49. '»0
48. 60
48.00
47.40
46.80
46.-0
4--. 60
.60000-
65 64.39 53.7.>
53.17
52.55 51.91
51.33
50.72
50.11
49.50
48.89
48.28
47.67
47.05
46.44
.61111+
68 5.5. 3T 54.7-»
.54. 13
53.51 52.89
52.27
51.61
51.02
50.40
49.78
49.15
4a 53
47.91
47.29
.62332+
57 r>fi.37 fv"). ?■
.55. 1 )
54. 17 5i. S.
.53. 20
52. 57
51. 93
51.-0
5*1.67
an. 03
49.40
4'<.77
48.13
.61333+
68, 57.351 56.71
.56. 07
5.5. 42! 54. 7-' 64. 13
5 ^. 49
52. 84
62.20
51.55
50.91
50.27
49.62
48.98
.64444+
69 .'>s.34| 57. r.)
.57. 0 '.
56. :is; 5.5.7'' ,5.-). 07
54.41
53. 75
53.10
.52.44
61.79
61.13
50.48
49.82
.65655+
601
69.331
68.671
55.00
67.331
56.671
56.001
65.33
54.67
64.00
63.33
62.67
62.00J
51.33
6a or
.66067-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
nmtniBio valxtes based ok dby-matteb ooktent.
11
Table II. — CompcaraHve value, on a dry-maUer basis, of grairij cottonseed, flour, etc,,
Mhowing the price per unit of weight {bushel, 100 pounds, etc.), from 1 cent to fl.20, ana
the difference in value for each unit testing from 10 to 24 per cent in moisture when the
price for a unit testing 10 per cent in moisture is in even cents — Continued.
Molstiire content (pw cent) and relative value per unit of measure.
10
11
13
18
14
15
16
17
18
19
ao
21
22 23
Value of
eachl
percent
of dry
matter.
Or.
ei
64
M
CI
6S
M
70
71
7S
7S
74
76
76
77
78
79
80
81
88
83
84
84
8«
87
88
91
92
Of.
60.32
61.31
62.30
63.29
6128
6&.27
66.26
67.24
68.23
60.22
70.21
71.20
72.19
73.18
74.17
75.16
76.14
77.13
78.12
79.11
80.10
8L09
82.06
83.07
84.05
85.04
86.03
87.02
88.01
89.00
89.99
90.98
91.97
98.95
93.94
94.93
95.92
96.91
97.90
96.89
99.88
100.87
101.85
102.
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
1091
104
10&103.83
106)101.82103.64
1104.62
1105.60
» 106. 58
.55
59.64
60.62
61.60
62. 5H
63.55
64.53
65.51
66.49
67.47
68.44
60.42
70.40
71.38
72.35
73.33
74.31
75.29
76.27
77.24
78.22
79.20
80.18
81.15
82.1
83.11
84.09
85.07
86.04
87.02
88.00
88.98
89.95
90.9:i
91.91
92.89
93.87
94.84
95.82
96.80
97.78
98.75
99.73
100,71
69
102.67
58.97
59.93
60.90
61.87
62.83
63.80
64.77
65.73
66.70
67.67
68.63
69.60
70.57
71.53
72.50
73.47
74.43
75.40
76.37
77.33
78.30
79.27
80.23
81.20
82.17
83.13
84.10
85.07
86. Oi
87.00
87.97
88.9)
89.90
90.87
91.83
02.80
93.77
94.73
95.70
96.67
CU,
58.29
59.24
60.20
61.15
62.11
63.07
64.02
64.98
65.93
66.89
67.84
68.80
69.75
70.71
71.67
72.62
73.58
74.53
75.49
76.44
77.40
78.35
79.31
80.27
8L22
82.18
83.13
84.09
85.04
86.00
86.96
87.91
88.87
89.82
9a 78
91.73
92.09
93.64
9t.60
95.55
84101.
97.63
98.60
99.57
100.53
101.501100.33
96.51
97.47
98.42
99.38
CU,
57.61
58.55
59.60
60.44
6L39
62.83
63.28
64.22
65.17
66.11
67.06
68:00
68.94
69.89
70.83
71.78
72.72
73.67
74.61
75.55
76.50
77.44
78.39
79.33
80.28
81.22
82.17
83.11
84.05
85.00
85.94
86.89
87.83
88.78
89.72
90.67
91.61
92.55
93.50
94.44
95.39
96.33
97.28
98.22
99.17
eta.
56.93
57 87
58.
59.73
60.67
61.60
62.53
63.
64.
65.33
CU.
56.25
57.18
58.10
59.02
59.94
60.87
61.79
62.
63.63
64.55
107 105.81
168106.80
100 107. 79
UO 106.
8107.i
102.47101.
103.43
101.40
105.37
106.33
.29)100.11
102. 24.101. 05
iai.20il02.00
104.15
105.11
111
112
113
114
L63
>^ 109. 51
1110.49
J 111. 47
115^113. 72(112. 44
116114.71
109.77108.fi
lia 75 1
111.74 1
112.731
106. 0:
107.30
108.27
109. 2}
110.20108.
11L17
102.94
103.89
66.27
67.20
68.
69.07
70.00
70.93
71.87
72.80
73.73
74.67
75.60
76.53
77.47
78.40
79.33
80.27
81.20
82.13
83.07
84.00
84.93
85.87
86.80
87.73
88.67
89.60
90.53
91.47
92.40
93.33
94.27
95.20
96.13
97.07
98.00
98.93
99.8;
100.80
101. 7.i
102.67
65.48
66.40
67.32
68.24
69.17
70.09
71.01
71.93
72.85
73.78
74.70
75.62
76.54
77.47
78.39
79.31
80.23
81.15
82.08
83.00
83.92
81.81
85.77
86.69
87.61
88. 5T
89. 45
90. 3S
91. 30
92.22
93.14
W.07
95! 91
96.83
97.75
9S.68
99.00
100.52
101.44
Ctt.
55.58
56.49
57.40
58.31
59.22
60.13
61.04
61.95
62.87
63.78
64.69
65.60
66.51
67.42
68.33
69.24
70.15
71.07
71.98
72.89
73.80
74.71
75.62
76.53
77.44
7^35
79.27
80.18
81.09
82.00
82.91
83.82
84.73
85.64
86.55
87.47
88.38
89.29
90.20
91.11
92.02
92.93
93.84
94.75
95.67
96.58
97.49
98.40
99.31
100.22
CU.
54.90
55.80
56.70
57. GO
58.50
59.40
60.30
61.20
62.10
63.00
63.90
64.80
65.70
66.60
67.50
68.40
69.30
70.20
71.10
72.00
72.90
73.80
74.70
75.60
76.60
77.40
78.30
79.20
80.10
81.00
81.90
82.80
83.70
84.60
85.50
86.40
87. 30
88.20
89.10
90.00
90.90
91.80
92.70
93.60
94.50
95.40
96.30
97.20
98.10
99.00
CU.
54.22
55.11
56.00
56.89
57.78
58.67
59.55
60.44
61.33
62.22
63.11
64.00
64.89
65.71
66.67
67.55
68.44
69.33
70.22
7L11
72.00
72.89
73.78
74.67
75.55
76.44
77.33
78.22
79.11
80.00
80.89
81.78
82.67
83.55
84.44
85.33
86.22
87.11
88.00
CU.
53.54
54.42
55.30
56.18
57.05
57.93
58.81
59.69
60.57
61.44
62.32
63.20
64.08
64.95
65.83
66.71
67.59
68.47
60.34
70.22
71.10
71.98
72.85
73.73
74.61
75.49
76.37
77.24
78.12
79.00
79.88
80.75
8r.63
82.51
83.39
84.27
85.14
86.02
86.90
87.78
88.65
80.53
90.41
01.20
92.17
CU.
62.87
53.73
62.
53.04
19
CU.
51.61
52.35
54.601 53.901 53.20
64.04
54.89
55.47
60.33
89.78
90.67
91.55
92.44
93.33
94.22| a3.04
95.111 93.92
9f..00 94.80
96. 89" 95. 6S
97.78, 96.55
104.8
83
107.02105.78
72
103.60102.37
106.^
107. €
108. €
113.42112.13
115.70114.40113.10
107
115.03
117
118116.69^115.38^114.
119117.68116.35
ISO 118. 67 117. 33
107. 9S
;.93
109.89
110.84 109.
lll.SOJUO.
112.75111.
113.711112.
116. 00(114. 67|113.
104. 5{
105.47
106.401
103.29
104.21
105. 13
107.331106.05
101. 13
102.04
102.95
103.8:
101 78
105.69
99.
100.
101.
102.
103. 50, 102. 22 lOa
98.67
99.55
100.44
101.33
104.
108. 271106. 98
109. 20(107. 90, 106. 601105.
Iiai3 108.82.
111.07109.74;
112.00110.67
M07.51
1108.42
r 109. 33
3.111
4.001
57.20
58.07
58.93
59.80
6a 67
61.53
62.40
63.27
64.13
65.00
65.87
66.73
67.60
68.47
69.33
70.20
71.07
71.93
72.80
73.67
7153
75.40
76.27
77.13
78.00
78.87
79.73
80.60
81.47
82.33
83.20
81.07
84.91
85.80
86.6;
87.53
88.40
89.27
90.13
91.00
91.87
92.
93.60
94.1
95.33
96.20
97.07
97.93
98.80
99.67
54.75
65.61
56.47
57.32
58.
59.03
59.89
60.74
61.60
62.45
63.31
64.17
65.02
65.88
66.73
67.59
68.44
69.30
70.15
71.01
71.87
72.72
73.58
7143
75.29
76.14
77.00
77.85
78.71
79.57
80.42
81.28
82.13
8?. 99
Si. 84
84.70
85.55
86.41
87.27
88.12
88.98
89.83
90.09
91. 54
92.40
93.25
94.11
94.97
95. S2
96.68
97.53
98.39
40' 103. 1 11 101. 821 100. 53! 99. 24
30' 104. 00 102. 70 101. 40100. 10
20; 101 891 103. 58 102. 27 100. 95
lO; 105. 7* 104. 45 103. 13 101. 81
00, 106. 67^ 105. 33, 104. 00 102. 67
55.73
56.58
57.42
58.27
69.11
6a95
60.80
61.64
62.49
63.33
6118
65.02
65.87
66.71
67.55
68.40
69.24
7a 09
7a 93
7L78
72.62
73.47
7131
75.15
76.00
7a 84
77.69
78 53
79. 3«
80.22
81.07
81.91
82.75
83. tW
84.44
85.29
86. H
86.98
87.82
88.67
89.51
9().35l
91. 2U
92.04
92. S9
93.73
91 5S
95.42
96.27
97.11
97.9.5
98.80
99.64
100.49
101.33
Cents.
0.67778-
.68889-
.70000-
.71111+
.72222+
.73333+
.74444+
.75555+
.76667-
.77778-
.78889-
.80000-
.81111+
.82222+
.83333+
.84444+
.85555+
.86667-
.87778-
.90000-
.91111+
.92222+
.93333+
.94444+
.95555+
.96667-
.97778-
.98889-
1. 00000-
1.01111+
1.02222+
1.03333+
1.04444+
1.05555+
1.06667-
1.07778-
L0HS89-
1.10000-
1. 11111+
1.12222+
1.13333+
1. 14444+
1.15555+
1. 16667-
1.17778-
1. 1SS89-
1.20000-
1.21111+
1.22222+
1.23333+
1. 24444+
1.25555+
1.26667-
L27778-
1.28889-
1.30000-
1.31111+
1. 32222+
1.33333+
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
12
BULLETIN 874, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AORIGXTLTUBB.
Table III. — Comparatu^ value, on a dry-matter basis, of graitij oolUmaeed, flour, «fc.,
ahntpinrf the price per unit of weight {bushel, 100 pounds, etc,), from 1 cent to flJtO,
and the drjfn'mre in \Hibiefor each unit testin'f from 10 to t4 per cent in mouture iahen
the price Jor a unit testinj 11 per cent in moisture is in even cents.
lifoisture content (per cent) and relstlTe ▼mine per aait of nmrare.
Value of
Mchl
percent
10
11
_
Cuf.
13
nr*.
18
14
16
le
17
IS
19
91
n
»
»
at
o/dry
matter.
a 9.
a*.
a».
cu.
CU.
CU.
CU.
CU.
CU.
CU.
CU.
CU.
CMt.
1.01
1
0. l*'.»
0 9S
0.97
0.9.5
0.94
0.93
0.92
0.91
a90
0.89
0.88
0.M
asb
0.0112»4-
2.<r.>
2
1.9h
1.95 1.93
1.91
1.89
1.86
1.84
1.82
1.80
1.77
1.76
1.73
L71
.02247+
3. «U
R
2.97
2. 93 2. \n)
2. H*l
2.83
2.80
2.76
2.73
2.70
2.66
2.63
2.59
2L56I .033n-
4.(>4
4
3. 95
3.91 3 H«>i 3. K2
3.77
3.73
3.W
3.64
3.69
3.65
3.50
3.46
8.41
.04494+
6.06
&
4. 94
4. 89 4. 8.i
4.77
4.72
4.06
4.61
4.65
4.49
4.44
4.38
4.32
4.27] .0561^
COT
«
5.93
5. 86 6. 80
6.73
5.«6
6.59
5.63
5.46
6.39
5.32
5.26
5.19
&12
.08741+
7 OH
7
6,9-'
6 Ml 6.76
6.6.S
6.61
«.53
6.45
6.37
6.29
6.21
6.13
6.06
&98
.07866+
8 t»
N
7,91
7. 8i 7. 73
7.64
7. 55
7.46
7.37
7.28
7.19
7.10
7.01
6.92
6.83
.06969-
P. ;o
9
H *M>
8 W) 8. 70
8. 59
8.49
8.39
8.29
8.19
8 09
7.99
7.89
7.79
7.68
.10112+
10.11
10
9. m
9.77| 9.66
9. 5,->
9.44
9.3.
9.21
9.10
8.99
8.88
8.76
8.65
&54
.112IS-
11.12
11
10 R7
10. 75' 10 63
10. 50
10.38
10.26
10.13
10.01
9.80
9.76
9.64
9.52
9.39
.123B9+
IJ. !3
I'>
11.S.S
11.73; 11.59 n.46| 11.3
11.19
11. »>
10 9.'
10.79
10.65
10.62
10.39
ia25
.13483+
n. 15
M
IJ.K".
12.71 l.'..56l 12. 4l' 12.27
12. '2
11.98
11.83
11.68
11.64
11.39
11.26
ILlS
.14607-
14. 16
14
13 84
13 68' 13. 53i 13.37' 13.21
13 05
12.90
12.74
12.58
12.43
12.27
12.11
1L96
.15730+
lo.l7
10. 14. SJ
14.66 14.49J 14.32
14.16
13.99
13.82
13.65
13.48
13.31
13.15
12.98
12L81
.10854-
16. IS
10 15.8?
15.64 15.46 15. ?S
15. 10
14.92
14.74
14.56
14.38
14.20
14.02
13.84
13.66
.17977+
17. I'J
Hi 16. S;
16.62 16.43! 16.23
16.04
15.8.5
15.661 15.47
15 28
15.09
14.90
14.71
14.62
.19101+
IS. JO
IN: 17. S«)
17.59. 17.39
17. 19
16 99
16.79
16. .58. 16 38
16 18
15 98
15.77
15.67
16.37
.20225-
19 'J 1
!!♦
IS. 79
IS. 57' IS. 3i>
18.14
17 93
17.7.
17.501 17.29
17.08
16.86
16.66
16.44
16.22
.2134ft+
20.-J
0()
19.77
19. 5.jj 19.3-
19. 10
18.88
18.65
18.43
18.20
17.98
17.75
17.53
17.80
17.08
.22478-
21. ?3
21
20. 76
20. 53' 20. 29
20. 05
19.8^?
19. 58
19.3.5
19.11
18.88
18.64
18.40
18.17
17.93
.28985+
22. _'.'■,
•J "J
21.7.S
21.50; 21. .;6
21.01
20. 7t.
20. 5.
20.27
20.0
19.77
19.53
19.28
19.03
18.79
.24719+
2;}. J6
"I.i
2J. 7 1
22. 4S| 22. 22
21.97
21. 71
21.45
21.19
20 93
20.67
20.41
20.16
19.90
19.64
.25843-
2I.J7
'2{
23. 73
23. 46| 23. 19
'22. 9-'
22. 65
22 3s
2-2.11
21 84
21.57
21.30
21.03
20.76
2a49
.26906+
2o.^S
-."»
24. 7J
24. 441 24. 16
23. S8
23. 59
23.31
23.03
22. 75
22. 47
22.19
21.91
21.63
2L35
.28080-
or, 29
26
2."). 7'
25.41
25. rj
24. 83
24.54
04 or^
23. 95
23. 66
23.37
23.08
22.79
22.49
72.9a
.29218+
27. "so
271 1'6. 7'>
L'rt. 39
'26. (ni
25. '/9
25. 4S
25! 18
24. 8S
24. 57
24. 27
23.97
23.66
23.36
23.06
.80337
'2S.M
2h! -j: f,s
•J7. 37
27.0/,
26! 74
20. 43
26. 1 1
25.8*1
25. 4S
25.17
24 8.5
24.64
24. 22
23.91
.31461-
:••.». 3 J
20 1 I'S 6.
LS.3:.
2^. 0_
27.711 27.37
27.01
26.7-'
26.3'
26.07
25. 74
25.41
26.09
24.76
.32684+
30.31
»0| l''>. (>,
1.'9. 3j
28. 'J J
'J8. 65
28.3.
27. 98
27.64
27. 30
26.97
'26.63
26.29
26.95
25. C2
.387l».
31.3.^
81 30 6-.
30. 30
29. 0'>
29. 6"
29. 26
28. 9'
28. .56
28.21
27.86
27.5
27.17
26. r
26.47
.84831+
3 . ;ui
n-» 3i.».}
31. J S
3i>. 'J
3.1. .V.
30.-0
29 81
29. 4S
29. \2
28. 76
28. 40
28. 04
27.68
27.32
.35»65
3.5 :?:
3;{| 3 '. 0 :
32. >'6
31. H.
31.5:
31.15
30 77
30. 40
3o.0:i
29. 66| 29. 9
28 92
28.65
28. IS
.37079-
31 .IS
:u :',V6j
33. 23
3 J. S.'.
3.'. 47
3-', 09
31.71
31. 3-'
30.94
30.5<>i 30.18
29 80
29.41
29.03
.38 02+
3.J. J'J
85' 31.G1
1
31.21
33. > 2
33.43
33. 03
32. 64
32. Jo 31.85
31.46J 31.07
30.67
3a 28
29.89
.893^
3f) 40
nfi' 3-. r,'>
35. 10
31.79
34.3s
33 OS
33. 57
.33.17 32.76
3?. 36' 31.95
31.55
31.14
3a 74
.40449+
37 11
«7 :«•,.. -,v| 3(5. 17l 3.') 7.-,, 3.). 34: 31.U
31. 5' 1
34 o*.*! 33.6,
33. -6j 3 '.84
3 ■. 43
32.01
31.69
.41673
3S V.
:js 37.o7| 37. i:.! 3f.. 7
3t>.L'V. 35 8.
3V 44
35 () i ;■;« 58
31 16, 33 73
33 30
3i.88
32.45
.42697-
■i't AA
:i\y 3v.'><,' 3,S. I J 37 Gs
37.L'5l 36 8
36 37
35 93' 3-) 40
35.061 31.6
34.18
33.74
33.30
.43».0+
40. \:,
•10: 3'J. 5.".
39.10 38.6.-,
38. 2UJ 37. 75
37.30
36. 85j 35. 40
35. 9.5| 3o. 50
36. 8,5' 36 30
35.06
34.61
34.16
.44944-
41.^0
4l' 40.51
40. Os' 30. 6
39.16 38.70
38.23
37.77 37.3!
35.93
35.47
35.01
.46067+
4... 47
4-': 4i.:.i 41. "<o 40 :,s' 40. n; ;;'.•. 6 «
3 J, 17
3S. 70 3S. '22
37.7.51 37. IS
36 81 36.34
35.86
.47191
43. IS
4;1 4 .:, 1 4:.iu' 4i..v,
41.071 4i>. 5S
40. If)
3 J. 6_' 39. U
38.6.5! 3S 17
37.68 37. '20
36.72
.48316-
44. ID
4 4, 43. .V)| 4',.0;j 4_'. .".J
42.(»Jj 41.53
41.05
40.54, 40.0;
3). 5,5{ 39.06
38. 54* 38. 07
37.57
.49438+
45. :.o
i.i 41.1'.* Mi. 'J'J -13.4s
12.9V 42.47
41.07
41.46 40.95
40. 45^ 39. 94
41.25 40.83
39.44
38.93
3&43
.50662-
46. r,?
46 45. 4.S 11.9'. 14.47,
43.03 43.4^
42. 90
42.38' 41.85
40.3!
39.80
39.28
.51685+
47. .V!
4 7 4^.. 47[ 4:),!il! 4,-.. I'
41.S'. 41.31;
43. S> 43.30
42.77
42.25I 41.72
41. 10
40.66
4a 13
.52809-
4S .i \
4S 4 7. 4iij 4ii. 'J.'i 4i'i. 3s
45,. SI, 45,31
44. 7.i 44.2-'
45 70 4.5. H
43. 0
43. 14i 42.61
42. 07
41.63
40.99
.53932+
4'.<. .'•..-,
41)
4s. 4.-)' 47. '.m| 47.3.-.
46. S V 46 25
41.5^1 44.041 43.49
42. 94
42.39
41.84
.58056+
6U. .Hi
50
49. J 1
48. 8S 48.3.
47.75, 47.19
40.63 46.07
45. 50
44. 94. 44. 38
43.82
43.26
42.70
.56180-
61. r,7
51
r>0. 43
40 S.', 40.28
48.7:1 48. 1:;
47. .56 46. W
46.4'
45.84 4.5.27
44.70
44.12
43,65
.573©+
6-'. -.>>
;rj
:;1.4 1 50. ,v{ .V ).::.■>
4.'. 66 40 fis 4S. 4:.; 47.9.
47. 3J
46 74 46 16
45.57
44.90
44.40
.58427-
^t. .VJ
6;;| :..'. 4')i ^i.sil 51.21
50.62 .5n. Oj 40. 43I 4S. 83 48.23
47.64 47.04
46.45
45.85
46.26
.59650+
6^. 61
f>»i .5.-5. 3t| 5J. 7'.t: .SJ. ISi :>l..',7 .30.07; 50. 3f.i 49.75 4'.). 14
48.54
47 93
47.32
46.72
46.11
.00674+
60.GJ
50
51.38
53. 7(i 53. 15 52. 53
51.91 51.2«.> 50.67. 50.06
49.44
48.8-
48.20
47.68
46.97
.61798-
66.63
M
55.37
54.74 54.11 53.48
52.8.5 52.24 51. 5o' 50.97
50.34
49.71
49.08
48.45
47.82
.02021+
67. 64
67
56. 36
.5.').7J| 55. 0« 54.44 5.3.80! .W. 16! 52. 52| 51.88
51.24
50.59
49.95
49.31
4467
.64046-
68.6,^
6S
57. 35
56. 70 56. 04 55. 39 54. 74! 54. 09| 53. 44 52. 79 52. 13
51.48 50.83
60.18
49.53
.65168+
69.66
69
58.34
57.67 57. Oil 56.3.5 5,5.681 5.5.021 54.36 53. 70i 53.03
52.371 61.71
61.04
60.38
.00W+
60.67
«0
59.33i
58.65i
57.98
67.30
56.63'
55.95
55.28
64.61<
63.93
53.2©'
62.581
51.91
51.241
.07416-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
INTBIKSIO VALUES BASED ON DBT-MATTEB CONTENT.
13
Table III. — Comparative value^ on a dry-matter basisy of grainy cottonseedy flour, ete.,
ihovnng the price per unit of weight (hushely 100 pourwfe, etc.)y frcm. 1 cent to fl,tO^
and the difference \n value for each unit testirig from 10 to 24 per cent in moisture when
the price for a unit testing 11 per cent in moisture is in even cents — Continued.
Moisture content (per cent) and relatlYe value per unit of measure.
Value Of
eachl
10
11
12
13 14
15
16
17
18
19
ao
21
22
23
24
percent
of dry
matter.
cu.
a».
cu.
CU.
CU.
Ct9.
CU.
CU.
CU.
CU.
CU.
CU.
CU.
CU.
CU.
Cenu,
6i.68
61
60.3'
59.63
58.94
58.26
bl.hl
56.8:)
56.20
55.52
64.83
64.14
63.46
62.77
62.09
a 68539+
62.70
62
6 .30
60.6.
59.91
59.21
68.52
57.82
67.12
56.43
56.73
65.03
6134
63.64
52.94
.69663-
63.7.
^
62. j9
6.. 58
60.87
60.17
59.46
58.75
58.04
67.34
66.63
65.92
55.21
64.50
63.80
.70786+
64. r2
64
63.28
62.56
61.84
61.12
60.40
59.68
58.97
68.-25
67.53
56.81
66.09
55.37
5165
.n910+
65.73
66
64.27
63.54
62.81
62.08
61.36
60.62
59.89
69.16
6&43
67.70
6a 97
6a 24
66.50
.73084-
66.74
66
65.26
64.52
63.77
63.03
62.29
61.55
60.81
60.07
59.32
58.58
67.84
67.10
5a36
.74167+
67.75
67
66.25
65.49
64.74
63.99
63.24
62.48
61.73
60.98
60.22
59.47
68.72
67.97
57.21
.76281-
68.76
68
67.23
66.47
66.71
64.94
64.18
63.41
62.65
61.89
61.12
60.36
59.59
68.83
68.07
.76404+
60.77
69
68.22
67.45
66.67
65.90
65.12
64.35
63.67
62.80
62.02
61.25
60.47
69.70
58.92
.77528
70.79
70
60.21
68.43
67.64
66.85
66.07
66.28
64.49
63.71
62.92
62.13
01.35
60.56
59.77
.78652-
71.80
71
70.20
69.40
68.61
67.81
67.01
66.21
65.41
64.62
63.82
63.02
62.22
61.43
6a 63
.79776+
72.81
72
71.19
70.38
69.67
68.76
67.95
67.15
66.34
65.53
64.72
63.91
63.10
62.29
61.48
.80899-
73.82
7S
72.18
71.36
70.54
69. 72
68 90
68.08
67.26
66.44
65.62
64.80
63.98
63.16
62.34
.82022+
74.83
74
73.17
T2. 34
71.50
70.67
69.84
60.01
68.18
67.35
66.52
65.68
64.85
64.02
63.19
.83146
76.84
76
74.16
73.31
72.47
71.63
70.79
69.94
69.10
68.26
67.42
66.57
65.73
6189
6104
.84270-
76.85
76
75.14
74.29
73.44
72.68
71.73
70.88
70.02
69.17
68.31
67.46
6a 61
65.75
64.90
.85393+
77.86
77
76.13
75. 27
74.40
73.64
72.67
71.81
70.94
70.08
69.21
68.36
67.48
66.62
65.76
.86517-
78.88
78
77.12
76.25
75.37
74.49
73.62
72.74
71.86
70.99
70.11
69.23
68.36
67.48
6a 61
.87640+
79.89
79
78.11
77. 22
76.34
75.45
74.56
73.67
72.79
71.90
71.01
70.12
69.23
68.35
67.46
.88764
80.90
80
79.10
78.20
77.30
76.40
75.61
74.61
73.71
72.81
71.91
71.01
7a 11
69.21
68.31
.89888-
81.91
81
80.09
79.18
78.27
77.36
76.45
75.54
74.63
73.72
72.81
71.90
70.99
70.08
69.17
.91011+
8J.9J
82
81.08
80.16
79.24
78.31
77.39
76.47
75.65
74.63
73.71
72.79
71.86
70.94
70 02
.92135-
83.93
88
82.07
81.13
80. .0
79.27
78.34
77.40
76.47
75.54
74.61
73.67
72.74
71.81
70 88
.93268+
S4.94
84
83.06
8.:. 11
81.17
80.22
79.28
78.34
77.39
76.45
75.50
7156
73.62
72.67
71.73
.94382
85.95
86
84.04
83.09
82.13
81.18
80.-22
79.27
78.31
77.36
7a 40
75.45
7149
73.54
72.58
86.97
86
85.03
84.07
83.10
82.13
81.17
80.20
79.23
78.27
77.30
7a 34
75.37
7140
73.44
.98629+
87.98
87
86.02
85.01
81.07
83.09
82.11
81.13
80.16
79.18
78.-0
77.22
7a 25
75.27
7129
.97753-
88.99
88
87,01
86.0
85.03
8^1.04
83.05
82.07
81.08
80.09
79.10
78.11
77.12
7a 13
75.14
.98876+
9a 00
89
88.00
87.00
86.00
ax 00
84.00
83.00
82.00
81.00
80.00
79.00
78.00
77.00
7a 00
1.00000
91.01
90
88.99
87.98
86.96
85.95
84.94
83.93
82.92
81.91
80.90
79.89
78.87
77.86
7a 85
1.01123+
92.02
91
89.98
88.95
87.93
86.91
85.89
84.86
83.84
82.82
81.80
80.77
79.75
78.73
77.71
1.02247+
93.03
92
90.97
Sy.wJ
88. 10
87.86
86.83
85.80
84.76
83.73
82.70
81.66
80.63
79.59
78.56
1.03371-
94.04
99
91.95
90. 9i
89.86
88.82
87.77
86.73
85.68
84.64
83.59
82.55
81.50
80.46
79.41
1.04494+
95.06
94
9J.94
91.89
90.83
89.77
88.72
87.66
86.61
85.55
84.49
83.44
82.38
81.32
80.27
1.05618-
96.07
95
93.93
92.86
91.80
90.73
80.66
88.59
87.63
86.46
85.39
81 3:^
83.26
82.19
81.12
1.06741+
97.08
96
94.92
93.84
92.76
91.68
90.61
89.53
88.45
87.37
8a 29
85.21
84.13
83.06
81.98
1.07885+
98.09
97
95. 91
94.8
93.73
92.64
91.55
90.46
89.37
88.28
87.19
86.10
85.01
83.92
82.83
1.08989-
99.10
98
9*). 90
95.80
94.70
93.69
92.49
91.39
90.29
89.19
88.09
86.99
85.89
84.79
83.68
1. 10112+
100.11
99
97. «)
96.77
95.66
94.55
93.43
92. 32
91.21
90.10
88.99
87.88
86.76
85.65
8154
1. 11236-
101. L-
100
9^87
97.75
96.63
95.60
94.38
93.26
92.13
91.01
89.89
88.79
87.64
86.52
85,39
1.12359+
102.13
101
99.86
98.73
97.59
96.46
95.32
94.19
93.06
91.92
90.79
89.65
88.52
87.38
8a 25
1.13483+
103.15
102
100.80
99.71
98. t^^
97.41
96.27
95. 12
03.98
92.83
91.68
90.54
89.39
88.25
87.10
1.14607-
104.16
10.)
101.84
100. 6.S
9U.53
98.37
97.21
96.05
94.90
93.74
92.58
91.43
90.27
89.11
87.95
1. 15730+
105.17
101
lOi. 83
101. 66
100.491 99.32
98.16
96.99
95.8.:
94.65
93.48
92.31
91.15
89.98
88.81
1.16854-
106.18
lOo
103.8.
10^.64
iOl. 46|10a 28
99.10
97.92
96.74
96.56
94.38
93.20
92.02
90 84
89.66
1.17977+
107.19
106
104.81
103.6-
102.4.31101.23
100.04
98.85
97.66
96.47
95.28
94.09
92.90
91.71
90.52
1.19101+
108. lO
li»7
105.80,104.59
103. 3'J lOi. 19
100.99
99.79
98.58
97.38
96.18
94.98
93.77
92.57
91.37
1.20225-
109.21
108
106. 791105. 57
101.35a03.14
101. 93
100.72
99.50
98.29
97.08
95.88
9165
93.4*
92.22
1.21348+
1102--
109
107. 771 106. 5->
.105.3
IW.IO
102.88
101.65
100.43
99.20
97.98
96.75
95.53
94.30
93.08
1. 22472-
llL2a
110
108.76107.53
106.29
105.05
103.8-
102.68
101.35
loan
98.88
97.64
9a 40
95.17
93.93
1.23505+
112.25
111
109.75108.50
107.26
106.01
104.76
103.52
102.27
101.02
99.77
98.53
97.28
9a 03
94.79
1.24719+
113.16
112
lia 74^109. 48
108.22
106.97
105.71
104.45
103.19
101.93
10a67
99.41
98.16
96.90
95.64
1.25843-
114.27
li;<
111.73110.46
109.19
107. 92
106.65
105.38
104.11
102.84
101.67
100.31
99.03
97.76
96.49
1. 26066 J-
116.28
114
112.72111.44
110. 16
108.88
107.59
106.31
105.03
103.75
102. 47
101. 19
99.91
98.63
97.35
1.28090-
U6.2«
116
113.71112.41
111. 12
109.83
108.54
107.25
105.95
10166
103.37
102.08
100.79
99.49
98.20
1.29213+
117. 3C
116
114.70113.39
112.09
11079
109.48
108.18
106.88
106.57
10127
102.97
101.66
10036
99.06
1.30337
11&31
117
116.68114.37
113.06
111.74
110 43
109.11
107.80
106.48
105. 17; 108. 85
102.54
101.22
99.91
1.31461-
119.3^
118
116.67115.34
114.02
112.70
111.37
110.04
10a72
107.39
10a0710174
103.41
102.09
100.76
1.32584+
12a 34
121. 8£
119
117.66116.3.
114.99
113.65
112.31
110 98
109.64
lo&ao
lOa 971105. 63
104.29
102.96
101.62
1.33708-
126
11&6S
117.30
115.95
114.61
113.26
111.91
11056
109.21
107.86
10a62
ioai7
103.82
102.47
1.84831+
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
14
BULLETIN 374, U. B. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
Tablb IV. — Comparative value, on a dry-matter basis y of grain, cottonseed, flour, etc.,
showing the price per unit of weight (bushel, 100 pounds, etc.), from 1 cent to fl.tO,
and the difference in value for each unit testing from 10 to 24 per cent in moisture when
the price for a unit testing It per cent in moisture is in even cents.
Moisture oonUnt (ptr orat) and rtlatlTt yahi* p6r imlt of measure.
Value of
eaefal
pecorat
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
10
30
31
22
23
24
of dry
matter.
cu.
as.
eta.
Ctt.
Ctt.
Ctt.
Cts.
Ct$.
Cte.
Oa.
Ctt.
Ctt.
Cts.
Ctt.
Ctt.
Ofltt.
1.02
1.01
1
0.99
0.9S
0.96
0.95
0.94
0.93
0.92
0.91
0.90
0.80
0.87
0.86
aam6+
2.(M
2.02
2
1.98
1.95
1.93
1.01
1.89
1.86
1.84
1.82
1.79
L77
L75
1.73
.02^3—
3.07
3.03
8
2.96
2.93
2.90
2.86
2.83
2.79
2.76
273
269
266
262
2.59
.03409
4.09
4.04
4
3.95
3.91
3.86
a82
a 77
a73
a68
a 64
a59
a54
a6o
3.45
.04545+
5.11
6.06
5
4.94
4.89
4.83
4.77
4.72
4.66
4.60
4.54
4.49
4.43
4.87
4.32
.06682-
C14
6.07
6
6.93
6.86
5.79
5.73
a66
5.59
a 62
a 45
a39
as2
a25
a 18
.06S1S4-
7.16
7.08
7
6.92
6.84
a 76
6.68
a60
6.52
6.44
a 36
a28
a20
a 12
ao4
.079S4+
a 18
8.09
8
7.91
7.82
7.73
7.64
7.54
7.45
7.86
7.27
7.18
7.09
7.00
6.91
.09091-
9.20
9.10
9
8.90
a79
a 69
a69
a 49
a39
a28
a 18
ao8
7.98
7.87
7.77
.10227+
10.23
10.11
10
0.89
9.77
9.66
9.64
9.43
9.82
9.20
9.09
a98
a86
a75
&64
.11364-
11.25
11.12
11
10.87
10.75
10.62
10.60
10.37
10.25
10.12
10.00
9.87
9.75
9.62
9.50
.12S00-
12.27
12.14
12
11.86
11.73
11.59
11.45
11.32
11.18
11.04
10.91
10.77
la 64
laeo
ia30
.13636+
13.29
13.15
13
12.85
12.70
12.56
12 41
12 26
1211
11.97
11.82
11.67
11.52
11.37
11.23
.14773-
14.32
11.16
11
13.84
13.68
13.52
13.36
13.20
ia04
12 89
1273
1257
1241
1225
1209
.15909
15.34
15.17
15
14.83
14. 6G
14.49
14.32
14.15
iao8
la 81
ia64
la 46
la 29
iai2
12 95
.17015+
lfi.3«
16.18
16
15.82
15.64
15.45
15.27
15.09
14.91
14.73
14.54
14.36
14.18
14.00
ia83
.181S2-
17.39
17.19
17
16.81
16.61
16.42
16.23
16.03
15.84
15.65
ia45
ia26
iao7
14,87
14.68
.198184-
18.41
18.20
18
17.79
17.59
17. 38
17.18
16.98
16.77
16.57
ia36
iai6
ia95
ia75
ia54
.20454+
19.43
19.21
19
18.78
18.57
ia35
iai4
17.92
17.70
17.49
17.27
17.06
ia84
ia62
ia4i
.31591-
30.45
20.23
80
19.77
19.64
19.32
19.09
ia86
ia64
ia4i
iai8
17.96
17.73
17.50
17.27
.22727+
21.48
21.24
«1
20.76
20.52
20.28
20.04
19.81
19.57
19.33
19.09
lass
la 61
la 37
iai4
.23864-
22.60
22.25
22
21.75
21.50
21.25
21.00
20.75
20.50
21.25
20.00
19.75
19.50
19.25
19.00
.25000
23.52
23.26
«3
22.74
2Z48
22.21
21.95
21.69
21.43
21.17
20.91
20.65
20.39
20.12
19.86
.36136+
21.54
24.27
24
23.73
23.45
23,18
22 91
2264
22.36
22 09
21.82
21.54
21.27
21.00
2a 73
.272r3-
25.57
25.28
25
24.71
24.43
24.15
23.86
23.68
2a 29
2a 01
2273
2244
2216
21.87
21.59
.28109
2«.59
26.29
26
25.70
25.41
25.11
21.82
24.62
24.23
23.93
23.64
23.34
2a 04
2275
22L45
.20645+
27.61
27.31
27
26. f 9
26.39
26. 08
25.77
25.47
25.16
24.85
24.54
24.24
2a 93
2a 62
2a 32
.30682-
28.61
28.32
2S
27. r.8
27.36
27.04
26.73
26.41
26.09
25.77
25.45
25.14
24.82
24.50
24.18
.31S1S+
29.6ft
29.33
29
28. 67
28.34
28.01
27. 68
27.35
27.02
2«.69
26.36
26.03
25.70
25.37
2a 04
.32064+
30.68
30.34
80
29.66
29.32
2a 98
2a61
2a 29
27.95
27.61
27.27
2a 93
2a 69
26.25
2a 91
.34091-
31.70
31.35
81
30.6,5
30.20
29.94
29.59
29.24
28.89
28.53
2a 18
27.83
27.48
27.12
2a 77
.35237+
32.73
32.36
8-2
31.61
31.27
30.91
30.54
30.18
29.82
29.45
29.09
2a 73
2a 36
2a 00
27.64
.36364-
33.75
33.37
83
32.62
32.25
31.87
31.50
31.12
30.75
30.37
30.00
29.62
29.25
2a 87
2a 50
.37500
34.77
31.39
84
33.61
3:^.23
32. 8 J
32 45
32 07
31.68
31.29
30.91
30.52
30.14
29.75
29.36
.3S636+
35.79
35.40
85
34. f^
31.20
33.81
33.41
33.01
3261
32 22
31.82
31.42
31.02
30.62
3a 23
.39773—
36.82
36.41
8ft
35. 59
35.18 34.77
34.36
3a 95
3a54
33.14
32 73
8232
31.91
3L50
31.09
.40909
37. 8 J
37.42
87' 36.68
36.l6i 35.74
35. ,32
34.9)
34.48
34.06
3a 64
33.21
3279
3237
31. 95
.42r)45+
3H. nt^
38.43
8S' 37.57
37.141 36.70
36. 27
35.84
35.41
34.98
34.64
34.11
3a68
3a 25
32 82
.43182-
39. 8y
39.44
891 38. 5<i
38.111 37.67
37.23
36.78
36.34
a5.90
35. 45
aioi
31.57
34.12
3a 68
.44318+
40.91
40.45
40 39.54
39.09
3a 63
3a 18
37.73
37.27
36.82
3a 36
35.91
3a 45
35.00
34.54
.45454+
41.93
41.40
41 40.53
40.07
39.60
39.14
38.67
3a 20
37.74
37.27
3a 81
8a34
35.87
3a 41
.46591-
42. 95
42.48
42 41.r)2
41.041 4). 571 40.00
39.61
39.14
38.66
3a 18
37.70
37.23
36.75
36.27
.47727+
43. US
43. 19
431 42.51
42.02 41.5;i
41.01
40.56
40.07
39.58
39.09
38.60
3a 11
37.62
37.14
.48Sr4-
45.00
44.50
44i 43.50
43.0'i: 42.50
42 00
41.50
41.00
40.50
40.00
?9.50
.?9.00
38.50
3a 00
.50000
46.02
45.51
45
44. 49
43.98
43.46
42 95
4244
41.93
41. 42
40.91
40.40
39.89
39.37
3a 86
.51136+
47.04
46.52
46
45.48
44. 9."
44.43
43.91
4a 39
42 86
4234
41.82
41.29
40.77
4a 25
39.73
.5373-
48.071 47.53
47
46.46
45.93
45.40
44. 86
44.33
4a 79
4a 26
42 73
4219
41.66
41.12
4a 59
.63409
49.0y| 48.54
4S
47. 45
46.91
46. ?X,
45. 82
4.5.27
44.73
44.18
4a 64
4a 09
42 54
4200
41. 45
.54545+
50. Ui 49.56
49
48. 41
47. 80
47. ?A
46.77
46.22
45.66
45. 10
44.54
4a 99
4a 43
4287
42 .".2
.55682-
51.14
50.57
60
49.43
48. 80
48.29
47.73
47.16
46.59
46.02
45.45
44.89
44.32
4a 75
43.18
.56S18+
5116
51.58
61
50.42
49.81
49. 26
48.68
4a 10
47.52
46.94
4a 36
4a 78
4a 20
44.62
44.04
.57954+
6.3.18
52.59
62
51.41
50. 82' 5'). 2:^1 49. f-4
49.04
48.45
47.86
47.27
4a 68
4a 09
4a 60
44.91
.59091-
54. 2«)
53.60
63
52. 40
51.79 51.19
.50.59
49.99
49.39
48. 78
4a 18
47.58
46.98
4a 37
45.77
.60237+
55.23
54.61
54
5:}. 3V)
52.77! 52. 1 r
51.51
50. 93
5«). 32
49.70
49.09
4S.48
47.86
47.25
46.64
.61364-
56.25
55.62
65
54.37
53. 75l 53. 12
52 50
61.87
51.25
50.62
50.00
49.37
4a 75
4a 12
47.50
.62500—
67.27
56.64
66
55.36
51.73; 51.09
53. 45
52 82
5218
51.54
50.91
60.27
49.64
49.00
4a 36
.63636+
68.29
57.65
67
56. 35
55. 70 1 55 0»-
51.41
53. 76
5a 11
52. 47
51.82
61.17
50.52
49.87
49.23
.64773-
69.32
58.66
68
57.31
6*^.fS
56. 02
5.5. 36
51. 70
54.04
63. .39
52 73
52 07
51.41
50.75
5a 09
.6599
60.34
59.67
60.68
69
58. 33
87.66
6«'. 99
66.32
5.5.65
54.98
51.31
6a 64
52 96
62 29
61.62
5a 95
.67045+
61.3ti
«0
69.32
6a 64
67.95
67.27
66.60
65.91
65.23
64.64
5a 86
63.18
5250<
51.82
.681X2-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
nrTBiirsio values based on dby-matteb content.
15
Tablb IV. — Comparative value, an a drv-matter basis, of grain, cottonseed, flour, etc.,
showing the price per unit of weight (hishel, 100 pounds, etc.), from 1 cent to $l,tO,
and the difference in value for each unit testing from 10 to 24 per cent in moisture when
the pice for a uniJt testing H per cent in moisture is in even cento— Oontinued.
Molstare content (per cent) and relative value per unit of measure.
10
11 13 13 14 15
1« 17 18 19 20 21
22
23
34
Value of
each]
percent
of dry
matter.
Of.
62.39
63.41
64.43
65.45
66.48
67.50
6&52
60l54
7a 57
71.50
72.61
73.64
74.66
75.68
76.70
77.73
78.75
79.77
80.79
8L82
88.84
83.86
81.80
85.01
87.95
88.98
90.00
91.02
93.04
98.07
94.09
96.11
96.14
97.16
Ct$,
61.69
62.70
63.71
64.73
66.74
66.75
67.76
68.77
69.78
70.79
71.81
72.82
73.83
74.84
75.85
76.86
77.87
78.89
79.90
80.91
81.92
82.93
83.94
84.95
85.96
86.96
87.99
89.00
90.01
9L02
92.08
03.04
94.06
96.07
96.08
98.18 97.09
99.20 98.10
100.23 99.11
101.25
100.12
103.2710L14
108.29102.
104.32
105.34
106.36
107.39
15
103.
104.17
105.
106.
107.20
21
108.41
109.43108.
110.45109.23
111.48110.
112.50
118.64
U9.66
34
111.25
as.
61
62
68
•4
66
66
67
68
69
70
71
7«
78
74
76
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
88
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
•8
94
96
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
108
104
106
106
107
108
109
110 108.
Cts.
60.31
61.29
62.28
63.27
64.26
65.25
66.34
67.23
68.21
69.20
70.19
71.18
72.17
73.16
74.15
75.14
76.12
77.11
78.10
79.09
80.08
81.07
82.06
83.04
84.03
86.03
86.01
87.00
87.99
8&98
89.96
90.95
91.94
92.93
93.92
94.91
96.90
96.89
97.87
98.86
99.86
100.84
101.83
102.82
103.81
104.79
106.78
106.77
107.76
75
as.
59.61
60.59
61.57
62.54
63.52
64l50
65.48
66.45
67.43
68.41
70.36
71.34
72.32
73.29
74.27
76.25
76.23
77.20
78.18
79.16
80.14
81.11
82.09
83.07
84.04
85.02
86.00
86.98
87.95
80.91
90.89
01.86
92.84
93.82
94.79
95.77
96.76
97.73
98.70
99.68
100.66
101.64
102.61
108.59
104.57
105.54
106.52
107.60
a$,
58.92
59.88
60.85
61.82
62.78
63.75
64.71
65.68
66.65
67.61
68.58
69.54
70.51
71.48
72.44
73.41
74.37
75.34
76.31
77.27
78.24
79.20
80.17
81.13
82.10
83.07
84. C3
85.00
85.96
86.93
87.90
88. M5
89.83
90.79
91.76
92.73
93.69
94
95^62
96.59
97.56
9a 52
99.49
100.45
101.42
ioe.38
103.35
104.32
105.28
106.25
03.
58.23
59.18
60.14
61.09
62.04
63.00
63.95
61.91
65.86
66.82
67.77
68.73
69.68
70.64
71.59
72.64
73.50
74.46
75.41
76.36
77.32
78.27
79.23
80.18
81.14
82.09
83.04
84.00
81.95
85.91
87.82
88.77
89.73
90.68
91.64
92.59
93. M
94.50
95.45
96.41
97.36
98.32
99.27
100.23
101.18
102.14
103.09
104.04
Os.
57.53
58.48
59.42
60.36
6L31
63.35
63.19
64.14
65.08
66.02
66.97
67.91
68.85
69.79
70.74
71.68
72.62
73.57
74.51
76.45
76.40
77.34
78.28
79.23
80.17
81.11
82.06
83.00
83.94
84.89
85.83
86.77
87.72
88.66
89.60
90.54
91.49
92.43
93.37
94.32
95.26
96.20
97.15
98.09
99.03
100.92
101.86
102.81
as.
50.84
57.77
58.70
59.64
60.57
61.50
63.43
63.36
64.29
65.28
66.16
67.09
68.02
68.95
69.89
70. at
7L75
72.68
73.61
74.54
75.48
76.41
77.34
78.27
79.20
80.14
81.07
82.00
82.93
83.86
84.79
85.73
86.66
87.59
88.53
89.45
90.39
91.32
92.25
98.18
94.11
95.04
95.98
96.91
97.84
at.
56.15
57.07
57.99
58.91
59.83
60.75
61.67
62.59
63.51
64.43
65.35
66.27
67.19
68.11
69.03
69.95
70.87
71.79
72.72
73.64
74.56
75.48
76.40
77.32
78.24
79.16
80.08
81.00
81.92
82.84
83.76
84.68
85.60
86.52
87.44
88.36
89.28
90.20
91.12
93.04
93.97
93.89
94.81
95.73
96.65
106.00103.75
98.77
99.70
100.64
101.57
102.50101.
97.67
98.49
99.41
100.33
25
a».
55.45
56.36
67.27
68.18
59.09
60.00
60.91
61.82
62.73
63.64
64.54
65.45
66.36
67.27
68.18
69.09
70.00
70.91
71.82
72.73
73.64
74.54
75.45
76.36
77.27
78.18
79.09
80.00
80.91
81.82
82.73
83.64
84.54
85.45
86.36
87.27
88.18
89.09
90.00
90.91
91.82
92.73
93.64
94.54
95.45
96.36
97.27
98.18
99.00
100.00
11^.62111
114.54
115.57
116.59115.29
U7.61
36
113.27
114.28
116.31
.32
111
112
118
114
109.74
110.73
111.71
112.70111.
108.48107.
109.45
110.43
41
.21
108.18
109.15
110.11
116 113. 69 112. 39 IIL 08
105.96104.69
106.91
107.86
108.82
109.77
106.64
106.
107.52
108.47
103.43
101.36
58|105.29
106.23
107.16
102.17
108.09101.
104.01
104.93
105.85
H17.
U18.33
130.68119.34
12L70130.8S
133L73131.
lie
117
114.68113.36113.04
115.67
114.34
113,01
118116.66115.32113.98
.86
119117.66
18011&64
116.2^114
117.27
.94
115.91
110.73
111.68
113.64
113.59113.
114.54
109.41
110.35
111. 29 109.
24
113.181111.821110.
10&09
109.02
95
110.89
106.77
107.69
108.61
109.53
1.45
100.91
.82
102.73
103.64
104.54
105.45
106.^
107.27
108.18
as.
54.76
55.66
56.56
57.45
58.35
59.25
60.15
61.04
61.94
62.84
63.74
64.64
65.53
66.43
67.33
6&23
69.12
70.02
70.92
71.82
72.71
73.61
74.51
75.41
76.31
77.20
7a 10
79.00
79.90
80.79
81.69
82.59
83.49
84.39
85.28
86.18
87.08
87.98
8a 87
89.77
90.67
91.57
92.46
93.36
94.26
95.16
96.06
96.95
97.85
9a 75
99.66
100.54
101.44
102.34
108.24
104.14
105.03
105.93
106.83
at.
54.07
54.95
55.84
56.73
67.61
5a 50
59.39
60.27
61.16
63.04
63.82
64.70
65.59
66.48
67.36
6a 25
69.14
70.02
70.91
71.79
72,68
73.57
74.45
75.34
76.23
77.11
7a 00
7a 89
79.77
80.66
81.54
82.43
83.32
84.20
85.09
85.98
86.86
87.75
8a 64
89.52
90.41
91.29
92.18
93.07
93.05
94.84
95.73
96.61
97.50
9a 39
90.27
100.16
101.04
10L93
at.
53.37
54.35
55.12
56.00
56.87
57.75
5a 62
59.50
60.37
61.25
62.12
63.00
63.87
64.75
65.62
66.50
67.37
6a 25
69.12
70.00
70.87
71.75
72.62
73.50
74.87
75.26
76.12
77.00
77.87
7a 75
79.62
80.50
81.37
82.25
83.12
84.00
84.87
85.75
86.62
87.50
8a 37
89.25
90.12
91.00
91.87
92.75
93.62
fM.50
95.37
96.25
97.12
9a 00
98.87
99.75
100.62
at.
62.68
53.54
54.41
55.27
66.14
57.00
67.86
5a 73
59.59
6a 45
61.32
62.18
63.04
63.91
64.77
65.64
66.50
67.36
6a 23
69.09
69.95
7a 82
71.68
72.54
73.41
74.27
75.14
76.00
7a 86
77.73
7a 59
7a 45
8a 32
81.18
82.04
82.91
83.77
84.64
85.50
86.36
87.23
Ra09
88.96
89.82
90.68
91.54
92.41
93.2/
94.14
95.00
95.86
96.73
97.59
9a
99.32
109. 09107.7310a 36
102.8210L50
103.70
104.59
105.48
102.37
103.25
104.12
105.00
ioai8
101.04
101.
102.
103.64
CtfUt.
a 60318+
.70454+
.71591-
.72727+
.73864-
.75000
.76136+
.77273—
.78409
.79645+
.80682-
.81818+
.82954+
.84091-
.85227+
.86364-
.87500
.88636+
.80773-
.90909
.92045+
.93182-
.94318+
.95454+
.96591-
.97727+
.98864-
1.00000
1.01136+
1.02273-
1.03409
1.04545+
1.05682-
1.06818+
L 07954+
1.00091-
1.10227+
1. 11364-
1.12500
1.13636+
1. 14773-
1.15909
1. 17015+
1. 18182-
1. 19318+
1.20454+
1.21591-
1.22727+
1.23864-
1.25000
1.26136+
1.27273—
1.28409
1.29545+
L306«3-
1.31818+
1.32954+
1.34001-
1.36227+
L 36364-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
16
BUIXBTIH 374, U. 8. DEPASTMSNT OV AGBICULTUSS.
Table V. — Comparative vaJut, on a dry-matter km», of groin, eottonmedy flour , A.,
ihowing the prtce per unit ofveigki {ouehelj 100 pounds, etc,), from 1 cent to ^l.fO,
and the Ml'erence in value for each unit testing from 10 to 24 per cent in moittwre when
the price/or a unit testing IS per cent in moisture is in even cents:
Moisture oootoit (per oenl) and relatlTe rahie per onit of measore.
Value
oleadi
ipercert
10
11
13
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
30
31
32
33
24
ofdiy
matter.
CIS.
Cl9.
cu.
CU.
Of.
Of.
Of.
Of.
Of.
Of.
Of.
CU.
Of.
Of.
CU.
Oaft.
1.03
1.02
1.01
1
0.99
0.96
6i96
0.06
0.94
0.93
0.93
0.91
0.96
0.88
0.87
aamN-
».07
2.06
2.02
t
1.96
1.95
1.93
1.91
1.88
1.86
1.84
1.83
1.79
1-77
1.75
.aoHB—
J. 10
3.07
8.03
t
2.96
1.93
3.90
3.86
3.83
3.79
2.76
3.72
3.60
3.65
2.63
.QOMOf
4.14
4.00
4.06
4
t.95
3.91
t.86
S.82
8.77
t.72
t.6S
t.6t
t.59
t.54
8.40
ft. 17
6.11
5.06
6
4.94
4.86
4.83
4.77
4.71
4.65
4.60
4.54
4w48
4.43
4.37
!aF7f^f
€.»
6.14
e.07
<
5.93
5.86
5.79
5.72
5.65
5.56
5.52
f.45
5.36
5.31
5.M
.a8BB0f
7.34
7.16
7.06
1
6.93
6.84
6.76
6.68
6.60
6.52
6.44
6.36
6.27
6.19
6.11
QBOl^
•.27
8.18
8. OB
8
7.91
7.81
7.72
7.63
7.54
7.45
7.36
7.26
7.17
7.06
6.90
ioRVf
t.31
9.21
9.10
•
8.90
8.7S
t.69
8.59
8.48
8.38
a28
8.17
8.07
7.96
7.88
ia34
10.23
10.U
1«
9.88
9.77
t.65
9.54
9.42
9.31
t.l9
9.06
8.96
8.81
8.73
llMOM-
11.36
11.25
11.13
11
10.87
ia75
10.63
10.49
10.37
16.24
10.11
9.99
0.86
9.7J
9. a
.ia6««-
12.41
12.27
12.14
It
11.86
11.72
11.69
11.45
11.31
11.17
11.03
10.89
10.76
ia62
10.46
.07»f
13.45
13.30
13.15
It
12.86
12.70
12.65
12.40
12.25
12.10
11.96
11.80
11.65
11.50
11.36
.MHt4-
14.48
14.32
14.16
14
13.84
13.68
13.62
13.36
13.19
13.03
12.87
12.71
12.55
13.39
12.31
15.53
15.34
15.17
15
14.83
14.65
14.48
14.31
14.14
13.96
13.79
13.63
13.45
13.27
13.10
ilZMH-
1«.5&
16.37
16.18
1€
15.82
15.63
15.45
15.26
15. od
14.90
14.71
14.53
14.34
14.16
13.06
.MH-
17.59
17.30
17.19
n
16.80
16.61
16.41
16.22
16.01
15.83
15.63
15.44
15.24
15.04
14.85
.19640^
1».«2
18.41
18.21
19
17.79
17.59
17.38
17.17
16.96
16.76
16.55
16.34
16.14
15.99
15.71
19. »
19.44
19.22
It
18.78
18.66
18.34
18.13
17.91
17.69
17.47
17.25
17.03
16.83
16.01
'.2189
20.00
20.40
20.23
tt
19.77
19.64
19.31
19.06
18.85
18.62
18.39
18.16
17.«i
17.76
17.47
.23660f
21.72
21.48
21.24
SI
20.76
20.52
20.27
20.03
19.79
19.55
19.31
19.07
18.83
18.60
18,31
.xno-
22.78
22.50
22.25
2i
21.75
21.49
21.24
20.99
20.73
20.48
20.23
19.9fl
19.73
19.47
19.33
.26987+
23.79
23.53
23.26
St
22.73
22.47
22.21
21.94
21.68
21.41
kl. 15
20.88
20.62
30.36
20.66
.2007-
24.83
24.55
24.27
24
23. ?2
23.45
23.17
22.90
22.62
22.34
22.07
21.70
21.62
21.24
30.96
.278004-
25.86
25.57
25.29
25
24.71
24.42
24.14
23.85
33.56
23.28
22.99
22.70
22.41
23.13
21.84
.28J30-
26.90
2ft. 60
26.30
2t
25.70
25.40
25.10
24.80
24.50
24.21
23.91
23.61
23.31
33w0l
23.71
.3V0
27.9}
27. fi2
27.31
27
26.69
26.38
26.07
25.76
25.45
26.14
24.83
24.63
24.21
23.90
23.56
.3ieM4-
2S.W
28.64
28.32
2J^
27.68
27.36
27.03
26.71
26.39
26.07
25.75
25.42
25.10
24.78
24.46
.32184-
30.00
29.67
29.33
2tt
28.67
28.33
28.00
27.67
27.33
27.00
26.67
26.33
26.00
25.67
25.33
.33333+
ai.03
30.69
30.34
^
29.65
29.31
28.96
28.62
28.28
27.93
27.60
27.24
26.96
26w55
26.21
.3446»-
32.07
31.71
31.36
81
30. C4
30.29
29.93
29.57
29.22
28.80
2J».50
28.15
27.79
27.44
27.68
.3563»+
33.10
32.7.i
32.37
82
31.63
31.26
30.90
30.53
30.16
29.79
29.42
29.06
28.66
28.33
27.96
.36783-
34.14
3:i.7t'.
33.38
8t
32.62
32. 24
31.86
31.48
31.10
30.72
30.34
29.96
29.59
20.21
28.83
.37031
3.x ir
34.78
34.39
84
33.61
33.22
33.83
32.44
32.04
31.65
31.26
30.87
30.48
3a 00
29.70
.36080+
36.21
35.80
3n.P3
36.41
t^
34.60
34.19
33.79
33.39
32.99
32.69
32.18
31.78
31.38
3a 90
30.57
.40330-
37.24
tJ
35.58
35.17
34.76
34.34
33.93
33.52
33.10
32.69
32.27
31.86
S1.4S
.41370+
38.2SJ
37. iCi
37.42
87
36.57
36.15
35.71^
35.30
34.87
34.45
34.02
33. CO
33.17
32.76
32.33
.43630-
39.31
3V.S7
3H.44
ns
37.5<>
37.13
36. no
36.25
35.81
35. :«
34.94
34.50
34.07
33.63
3.3.10
.43670+
m.M
m 9f>
39. 43
8»
3H.5A
38.10
37.<i5
37.21
36.76
3'?. 31
35.86
35.41
34.96
34.52
34.07
.44827+
41. S^
40. 9J
40.46
40
39.54
39.08
38.62
38.16
37.70
37.24
36.78
36.32
35.86
35.40
84.94
.45077
42.41
41.04
41.47
41
40.53
40.06
39.58
39.11
38.64
38.17
37.70
37.23
36.78
36.29
35.81
.47126+
43.4'>
4J. '♦'•.
42.48
42
41.52
42.50
41.03
40.55
40.07
39.59
39.10
38.62
38.14
37.65
37.17
36-60
.«a76~
44. 4,S
43. {»
43.49
4.1
42 01
41.. 52
41.02
40.53
40.03
39.54
39.04
38.55
38.06
37.56
.40435+
45.521 45. O:
44.51
44
4.3.40
42.1'9
4>.48
41.98
41.47
40.96
40.46
39.96
39.45
38.94
38.44
.50675-
46.^
46.03
45.52
45
44.48
43.96
43.45
42.93
42.41
41.90
41.38
40.86
4a 34
39.83
30.31
.51724+
47.58
47.06
46.53
4«
«.47
44.94
44.41
43.88
43.35
42.83
42.30
41.77
41.24
40.71
40.18
.»873+
4S.62
4S.0S
47.54
47
46.41
45. 92
45. .38
44. S4
44.30
43.76
43.22
42.68
42.14
41.60
41.06
.540»-
49. a5
49.10
48. .-Vo
4»
47.4.5
46.90
46. .34
45.79
45.24
44.69
44.14
43.58
43.03
42.48
41.98
.55172+
6().^9
50.13
49.50
49
48.44
47. K7
47.31
46.75
46. 1»
45.62
46.06
44.49
43.93
43.37
42.80
.56323-
61.72
51.15
50.57
60
49.42
48.85
48.27
47.70
47.13
46.56
46.98
46.40
44.83
44.25
43.68
.574n+
62. 76
52. 17
61.59
61
50.41
49. a3
49.24
48.65
48.07
47.48
46.90
46.31
45.72
45.14
44.55
.5W2I—
53.79
53.19
52.60
62
51.40
50.80
50.21
40.61
40.01
48.41
47.82
47.22
46.62
46.02
45.42
.50770+
5*. S3
54. 2-2
53. 61
63
52.39
51.78
51.17
50.66
49.95
49.34
48.73
48.13
47.52
46.91
46.30
.60019+
55. Sf.
S.'i. 24
54.62
64
53.38
52.76
52.14
51.62
60.90
60.27
49.65
40.03
48.41
47.79
47.17
.63060—
66.90
56.26
56.63
55
64.37
53.73
53.10
52.47
61.84
51.21
60.67
49.94
40.31
48.68
48.01
.63218+
57.93
57.29
66.64
56
55.36
54. n
54.07
65. a^
53.42
52.78
53.14
51.40
50.85
50.21
40.56
48.93
.64*18-
h».9i\
58.31
67.66
67
66.34
55.69
54.38
53.72
53.07
62.41
51.76
51.10
60.45
49.70
.65517+
60. Oft
59.33
58.67
68
67.33
66.67
66.00
55. .33
54.67
64.00
63.33
52.67
52.00
51.33
50.67
.60667-
61. a3
60.36
69.68
6»
68.32
67.64
66.96
56.29
66.61
54.93
64.25
53.57
52.90
52.22
51.54
.67V16
62.07
61.38
60.69
69
59.31
68.621
57.93
57.241
56.55
55.80i
L56.17
54. 4^
53.79
5S.101
53.411
.68065+
Oigiti
zed by Google^
nPTKINSIO VALUES BASED OK DBT-MATTEK CONTENT.
17
Table V. — Comparative value, on a dry-matter basis ^ of grain, cottonseed, flour, etc.,
showing the price jper unit of weight {bushel, 100 pounds, etc.), from 1 cent to jfl.tOf
arid the difference tn value for each unit testing from 10 to 24 per cent in moisture when
the price for a unit testing IS per cent in mouture is in even cents — Continued.
Moisture content (per cent) and rehtlTe TBlne per nnft of measure.
Value
ofeaeh
1 per cent
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
of dry
matter.
Of.
Of.
Of.
CU.
a».
a».
CU.
as.
Of.
Of.
Of.
Ct».
Ct9.
CU.
CU.
CmU.
03. U)
62.40
61.70
61
60.30
60.60
68.90
68.19
67.49
66.79
66.09
65.39
64.69
63.90
63.29
0. 70115-
M.U
63. 4i
62.71
6S
61.29
6a 67
6a 84
6a 15
68.44
67. 7i
67.01
66.30
65.68
54.87
64.16
.71204+
63.17
64.45
63.72
6S
6^28
61.66
60.83
6a 10
6a 38
68.66
67.93
67.21
66.48
65.76
65.03
.?2414-
M.21
6>.47
64.73
64
63.26
62.53
61.79
61.06
6a 32
6a 69
68.85
68.11
67.38
66.64
65.91
.73563+
67.24
66.49
65.75
66
64.25
63.61
62.76
62.01
61.26
60.62
6a 77
M.02
68.28
67.63
66.78
.74713-
68.27
67.62
66.76
6i
66.24
64.48
63.72
62.96
62.21
61.45
6a 09
6a 93
6a 17
58.41
57.66
.75862
60.31
68.54
67.77
67
66.23
65.46
64.69
63.92
63.15
6a 38
61.61
60.84
60.07
69.30
68.53
.77011+
70.34
69.53
68.78
68
67.22
6G.44
65.66
64.87
64.00
63.31
62.63
61.75
60.96
60.18
60.40
.78161-
71. 3S
70.58
69.79
6t
63.21
67.41
66.62
66.83
65.03
64.24
63.45
62.65
61.86
.61.07
60.27
.79310+
72. 4J
71.61
70.80
70
69.19
68.39
67.69
66.78
65.98
65.17
64.37
63.56
62.76
61.96
61.15
.80460-
73.45
72.63
71.81
71
7a 18
6a 37
68.66
67.73
66.92
06.10
65.29
64.47
63.65
62.84
62.02
.81609+
74. 4S
73. Go
72.83
n
71.17
7a 34
69.62
68.60
67.86
67.03
66.21
65.38
64.56
63.72
63.90
.80759-
75.62
74. GS
73.84
7t
72.16
71.32
70.48
6a 64
68.80
67.96
67.13
66.29
65.45
64.61
63.77
.83908
78.65
75.70
74.85
74
73.15
72.30
71.45
70.60
60.75
68.90
68.04
67.19
66.34
66.40
64.64
.85057+
77.69
76.72
75.86
76
74.14
73.27
72.41
71.66
70.69
69.83
68.96
68.10
67.24
66.38
65.52
.88207-
78.62
77.75
76.87
76
75.13
74.25
73.38
72.60
71.63
7a 76
6a 88
69.01
68.14
67.26
66.39
.87366+
79. Go
7S.77
77.88
77
76.11
75.23
74.34
73.46
72.57
71.69
70.80
6a 92
69.03
68.15
67.26
.88505-
80.69
79.79
7S.90
78
77.10
7G.21
75.31
74.41
73.52
72.62
71.72
7a 83
6a 93
69.03
68.14
.89055+
81.72
80.81
79.91
7t
78.09
77.18
76.27
75.37
74.48
73.65
72.64
71.73
70.83
60.92
69.01
.90R04+
82.76
81.84
80.92
86
79.08
78.16
77.24
76.32
75.40
74.48
73.56
72.64
71.72
70.80
09.88
.91954
83.79
82.86
81.93
81
8a07
7a 14
78,21
77.27
76.34
75.41
74.48
73.55
72.62
71.69
70.76
.93103+
84.83
8i.S8
82.94
82
81.06
sail
79.17
78.23
77.29
76.34
75.40
74.46
73.62
72.57
71.63
.94253-
85. 8G
84.91
83.95
88
82.04
81.09
80.14
79.18
78.23
77.27
76.32
75.37
74.41
73.46
72.50
.95402+
8i^.90
8-). 03
84.%
84
83.01
82.07
81.10
80. i;
7a 17
78.21
77.24
7a 28
75.31
74.34
73.38
.96552-
87.93
86.95
85.9S
Si
84.02
83.04
82.07
81.09
80.11
79.14
75.16
77.18
76.21
76.23
74.25
.97701+
8S.90
87.98
85.99
86
85.01
84.02
83.03 82.04
81.06
8a07
79.08! 78.09
77.10? 78.11
75.13
.98850+
90.00
ffX(X>
88.00
87
86.00
85.00
84.00 83.00
82-00
81.00
saoo
79.00
78. 0(^
n.oo
76.00
1.00000
91.03
90.02
89.01
88
80.99
85.98
84.96, 83.95
82.94
81.93
80.92
T9.91
78.90
n.88
76.87
1.01149+
92.07
91.0'>
90.02
89
87.98
86.95
85.93' 84.91
83.89
82,86
81.84
80.82
79.79
78.77
n.75
1.02300-
93.10
92.07
91. OJ
90
88.96
87.93
86.90 85.86
84.83
83.79
82.76
81.72
80.69
79.65
78.62
1.034(8+
94.14
93.09
92.05
91
89.96
88.91
87.86 88.82
85.77
84.73
83.68
82. C3
81.59
80.54
79.50
1.04600-
95.17
94.11
93.0J
9i
90.94
89.88
88.83 87.77
86.71
8.5. 65
84.(0
83.54
82. 48
81.42
80.37
1.03747+
9(V.21
95.14
04.07
96
91.93
90.85
89.80 88.73
87.66
86.59
85.52
84.45
83.38
82.31
81.24
i.o:goo-
97.24
9>.liJ
95. OS
94
92.92
91.84
90.7t5 89.68
88.60
87.52
86.44
85.36
84.27
83.19
82.11
1.08046-
98.27
97.18
96.09
9«
93.91
92.81
91.72 90.63
89.54
88.45
87.36
86.26
85.17
84.08
82.99
1.09195+
90.31
98.21
97.10
96
94.90
93.79
92.69 91.69
90.48
89.38
88.28
87.17
86.07
84.96
83.86
1.10345-
100.34
93. iJ
98.11
97
95. KS
91.77
93.65 92.54
91.42
90.31
89.19
88.08
86.96 85.85
84.73
1.11494+
101.3.VI(X).25
99.13
98
9G.87
95.75
94.62 93.49
92.37
91.24
90.11
88.99
87.86
86.73
85.61
1.12644-
l{>2.4i;iOl.27
100.14
09
97.81
96.72
95.59 94.45
93.31
92.17
91.03
89.90
88.76
87.62
86.48
1. 13793+
103.45 102.30
101. 15
100
98.85
97.70
96.55 95.40
94.25
93.10
91.95
90.80
89.65
88.50
87.35
1. 14942+
im.4s'in3.32
102. IG
101
99.84
98.68
97.52 96.36
95.19
94.03
92.87
91.71
90.55
89.39
88.23
1.16092-
las. .5.' 104. 34' 103. 17
lOi'lOO.KJ
99. G5
98.48 97.31
96.14
94-96
93.79
92.62
91.45
90.27
89.10
1.17J41 +
10i.5o 103.37104.18
10*101. 82' 100. r>3
99.45 98.26
97. OS
95.90
94.71
93.53
92.34
91.16
89.98
1. 18391-
107.50106.39 105.19
104 102.SO'l01.r)i:i00.4l| 99.22
98.02
96.8a
95. (>3
94.44
93.24
92.04
90.85
1. 19540+
108. eC^107. 41 106.21
105 103. 79j 102. 59^101. 38; 100. 17
98.96
97.76
96.55
95.34
94.14
92.93
91.72
1.20690-
109. 6cW 44 107.22
106'l04.7R
103.56' 102. 34' 101. 13
99.91
98.69
97.47
96.25
95.03
93.82
92.60
1.21840-
110. 09 109. 4^)1108. 23
lO; 105.77
KH. 54. 103. 3 1102.08', 100. 85
99.62
98.39
97.16
95.93
94.70
93..47
1.22988+
111. 721110. 48 109.24
108 10 ). 7t'.
105.52104 27 103.031 101. 79
100.55
99.31
98.07
96.83
95.59
94.34
1. 24i:i8-
112.7(1
lll.50ill0.25
109,107.75
106.49 105.24 103.99
102.73
101.48
100.23
98.98
97.72
96.47
95.22
1. 252H7+
113.79
112.53
111.26
116[108.73
111 109.72
107.47 106. 21 '104.94
1(B. 45 107. 17" 105. 90
103.68
102.41
101. 15
99.88
98.62
97.36
96.09
1.26437-
114.83
113.55
112.27
104.62
^03.34
102.07
100.79
99.52
98.24
96.96
1.27586+
115. SO
114.57
113.29
11«^110.71
109.42'108.14 106.8.V105.56
104.28102.99 101.70
100.41 99.13
97.84
1. 28736-
116.90
115.60
114.30
116.111.70
110. 40' 109. 10 107. SO 106. 50
105.21 103.91 102.61
101.31100.01
98.71
1.298S5
117.93
116.62
115.31
114!lI2.69
111.381ia07,10S.76'107.45
106.14: 104. 83i 103. 52
102.21100.90
99.58
1.310i4+
118.96
117.64
116.32
116
113.68
112.36 111.03 109. 71^108. 39
107.07
105.75
104.42
103.10101.78
100.46
1.321S4-
120.00
118.67
117.31
116
114.67
113.33112.00110.67
109.33
108.00
106.67
105.33
104.00102.67
101.33
1.33333+
121.03
119.69
118.34
117
115.65
114.31J112. 96 111.62
lia28
108.93
107.59
106.24
104.90103.55
102.21
1.34483-
122.07
120.71
119.36
118,116.64
115. 291113. a3 112.57
111.22
109.86
108.50
107.151 105. 79 104.44
103.08
1. 36632+
123.10
121.73
120.37
119
117.63
116.26
114. 901 113. 53
112.16
iia79
109.42
108.06
106.60 105. 32! 103. 95
1.36782-
124.14
122.78
121.38
120
118.62
117.24
116. 8« 114. 48
113.10
111.72
lia34
108.96
107.69,106.211104.83
1.37a31
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
18
BITLLETIK 374, U. S. DEPABTMENT OP AGBICTJLTUBE.
Table VI. — Comparative valtUy on a dry-matter basis, of grainy cottonseed, floury etc^
showing the price per unit of weight (mishel, 100 pounds, etc.), from 1 cent to flSO,
and the difference %n value for each unit testing from 10 to 1 4 per cent in moisture v^ieh
the price for a unit testing 14 per cent in mcistvre is in even cents.
Moisture oonteiit (per cent) and relative vahie per unit of measure.
Value
of each
1 per cent
10
11
12
18
14
15
16
17
18
19
30
21
22
23
24
of dry
msUa.
CU.
CU.
Ct9.
CU.
CU.
CU.
CU.
CU.
CU.
CU.
CU.
CU.
CU.
CU.
as.
CnU.
1.05
1.03
1.02
1.01
1
0.99
0.98
0.96
0.95
0.94
0.93
0.92
a 91
0.80
a88
a 01168-
2.09
2.07
2.05
2.02
8
1.98
1.95
1.93
1.91
1.88
1.86
1.84
1.81
1.70
L77
.02835+
3.14
3.10
8.07
8.03
S
2.96
2.03
2.89
2.86
2.82
2.79
2.75
2.72
2.68
2.65
.08488+
4.18
4.14
4.09
4.06
4
3.95
3.91
3.86
3.81
8.77
8.72
3.67
3.63
3.58
8.53
.0461+
5.23
5.17
5.12
5.06
6
4.94
4.88
4.82
4.77
4.71
4.65
4.59
4.63
4.48
4.42
.05814-
e.28
6.21
6.14
6.07
6
5.93
5.86
5.79
5.72
5.65
5.58
5.61
5.44
5.37
6.30
.00977-
7.32
7.24
7.16
7.08
7
6.92
6.84
6.75
6.67
6.59
6.51
6.43
6.35
6.27
6.18
.08139+
8.37
8.28
8.18
8.09
8
7.91
7.81
7.72
7.63
7.63
7.44
7.35
7.25
7.16
7.07
.0«02+
9.42
9.31
9.21
9.10
»
8.89
8.79
8.68
8.58
8.48
8.37
8.27
8.16
8.06
7.95
.10465+
10.46
10.35
10.23
iai2
10
9.88
9.77
9.65
9.53
9.42
9.30
9.19
9.07
8.95
8.84
.11638-
11.51
11.88
11.26
11.18
11
10.87
10.74
10.62
10.49
10.36 10.23
10.10
0.08
0.85
9.72
.12791-
12.56
12.42
12.28
12.14
12
11.86
11.72
11.68
11.44
11.30
11.16
11.02 10.881
10.74
laeo
.13J£3^
13.60
13.45
13.30
13.15
18
12.85
12.70
12.55
12.39
12.24
12.09
11.94
11.79
11.64
11.49
.15116+
14. 6.")
14.49
14.32
14.16
14
13.84
13.67
13.61
13.35
13.181 13.021
12.86 12.70
12.63
1Z37
.16279
15.70
15.52
15.35
16.17
16
14.82
14.65
14.48 14.30
14.13 13.95
18.78, 13.60
14.70 14.51
13.43
18.25
. 17442-
16.74
16.56
16.87
16.19
16
15.81
15.63
15.44 15.26
15.07 14.88
14.32
14.14
.19006-
17.79
17.69
17.39
17.20
17
16.80
16.60
16.41 16.21
16.01; 15.81
15.61 15.42
15.22
15.02
.19767+
18.84
18.63
18.42
18.21
18
17.79
17.58
17.37 17.16
16.95! 16.74
16.53 16.82
16.12
15.91
.20330+
19.88
19.66
19.44
19.22
19
18.78
18.56
18.34 18.12
17.89, 17.67
17.45 17.23
17.01
16.79
20.93
20.70
20.46
20.23
SO
19.77
19.53
19.30
19.07
18.84 18.60
18.37 18.14
17.91
17.67
.23256-
21.98
21.73
21.49
21.24
t1
20.76
20.61
20.27
20.02
19.78 19.53
19.29 19.05
18.80
18.56
.2M419-
23.02
22.77
22.51
22.25
22
21.74
21.49
21.23
20.98
20.72 20.46
20.21 19.95
19.70
19.44
.25581+
24.07
23.80
23.53
23.27
23
22.73
22.46
22.20
21.93
21.66 21.39
21.13 20.86
20.59
20.32
.26744+
25.12
24.84
24.56
24.28
24
23.72
23.44
23.16
22.88
22.60; 22.32
22.05 21.77
21:49
21.21
.27907-
26.16
25.87
25.58
25.29
26
24.71
24.42
24.13 23.84
23.55| 23.26
22.96 22.67
23.88 23.58
22.38
22.09
.29070-
r.2i
26.91
26.60
26.30
26
25.70
25.39
25.09 24.79
24.49 24.18
23.28
22.98
.30232+
28.25
27.94
27.63
27.31
27
26.08
26.37
26.06 25.74
2.5.431 25.12
24.80, 24.49
24.17
23.86
.313^5+
29.30
28.98
28.66
28.32
28
27.67
27.35
27.02 26.70
26.37
26.05
25.72 25.39
25.07
24.74
.32558+
30.35
30.01
29.67
29.34
29
28.66
28.32
27.99 27.65
28.95 28.60
27.31
26.98
26.64 26.30
25.96
25.63
.337^1-
81.39
31.05
30.70
30.35
80
29.65
29.30
28.26
27.91
27.56 27.21
28.86
26.51
.34884-
82.44
32.08
81.72
31.36
81
30.64
30.28
29.92 29.56
29.20
28.84
28.481 28.11
27.75
27.39
.360464
83.49
33.12
32.74
32.37
82
31.63
31.25
30.88 30.51
30.14
29.77
29.39 29.02
28.65
28.28
.37a09-t
84.53
34.15
33.77
33.38
mi
32.62
32.23
31.85
31.46
31.08
30.70
30.311 29.93
29.55
29.16
.38372
85.58
35.19
34.79
34.39
84
33.60
33.21
32.81
32.42
32.02
31.63
31.23 30.84
30.44
3a Oft
.30S35-
36.63
36.22
35.81
35.41
86
34.59
34.19
33.78
83.37
32.96
32.60
32. 15j 31.74
3f:34
3a 93
.40698-
87.67
37.25
36.84
36.42
86
35.58
35.16
34.74
34.32
33.91
33.49
33.07 32.6'
32.23
31.81
.41S604
88.72
38.29
37.80
37.43
87
30.57
36.14
35.71
35. 2s
34.85
34.42
33.99, 33.66
33.13
32.70
.43023^
89.77
39.32
38.88
38.44
88
37.56
37. 12
36.67
36.23
35.79
35.35
34.9li 34. 4G
34.02
33.58
.441S6
40.81
40.36
39.91
39.45
89
38.56
38.09
37.64
37.19
36.73
36.28
35.82
35.37
34.92
34.46
.45349-
41.86
41.39
40.93
40.46
40
39.53
39.07
38.00
38.14
37.67
37.21
36.74
36.28
35.81
35.35
-46512-
42.91
42.43
41.95
41.48
41
40.52
40.05
39.57
39.09
38.61
38.14
37.66
87.18
36.71
86.23
.47674-»
43.95
43.46
42.981 42.49
42
41.61
41.02
40.53
40.05 39.56
39.07
38.58
38.09
37.60
37.12
.4SS37-i
45.00
44.. 50
44.00| 43.50
43
42.50
42.00
41.50
41.00 40.50
40.00
39.50' 39.00
38.50
38.00
.50000
46. Oo
45.53
45.02
44.51
41
43.49
42.98
42. 4G
41.95
41.441 40.93
40.42, 39.91
39.39
38.88
.61163-
47.09
46.57
46.05
46.52
45
44.48
43.95
43.43
42.91
42.38
41.86
41.34
40.81
40.29
39.77
.52325-t
48.14
47.60
47.07
46.53
46
45.46
44.93
44.39
43.86
43.32
42.79
42.25
41.72
41.18
4a 65
.534884
49.18
48.64
48.09
47.55
47
46.45
45.91
45.86
44.81
44.27
43.72
43.17
42.63
42.08
41.53
.5465H
60.23
49.67
49.12
48.56
48
47.44
46.88
46.32
45.77
45.21
44.65
44.09
43.53
42.98
42.42
.55814-
51.28
50. -^l
50.14
49.57
49
48.43
47.86
47.29
46.72
46.15
45.58
45.01
44.44
43.87
43.30
.56877-
62.32
51.74
51.16
50.58
60
49.42
48.84
48.25
47.67
47.09
46.51
45.93
45.35
44.77
44.18
.5S130H
53.37
52.78
52.18
51.59
61
50.41
49.81
49.22
48.63
48.03
47.44
46.85
46.25
45.66
45.07
.503Q2H
64.42
53.81
53.21
52 60
62
51.39
50.79
50.18
49.58, 48.98! 48.37
47.77
47.16
40.56
45.95
.60465H
55.46
54.85
54.23
53.62
63
52.38
51.77
51.15
50.53
49.92 49.30
48.69
48.07
47.45
46.84
.61638-
66.51
55.88
56.26
54.63
61
53.37
52.74
52.12
51.49
60.86
50.23
49.60
48.98
48.35
47.72
.62791-
67.66
56.92
56.28
55.64
66
66
64.30
63.72
63.08
52.44
51.80
61.16
50.52
49.88
49.24
48.60
.639S8H
58.60
67.95
57.30
56.65
55.35
64.70
54.05
53.39
52.74
52.09
51.44
50.79
60.14
«>.49
.65U6H
69.65
5&99
58.32
67.66
67
56.34
55.67
55.01
54.35
53.68
53.02
52.36
51.70
51.03
6a37
.66279
60.70
60.02
59.35
68.67
68
57.32
56.65
55.98
55.30
54.63
63.95
53.28
52.60
51.03
51.25
.67443-
61.74
61.06
60.37
69.69
69
58.31
57.63
56.94
56.26
65.57
64.88
64.20
53.51
62.82
52.14
.68606-
62.79
62.09
61.39
60.7©
60
59.30
68.60
57.91
67.21
66.51
55.81
65.11
54. 4i
63.72
53.02
.607674
Digiti
zed by Google
I^TKil4HlC YALUES BASRD OK DSY-MATTEB COlfrTEKT.
19
Table YI. — Comparative vahUy an a drp-matter haii$y of grtntn, eotionseed, Jhur, etc,,
thawing the price per unit of wtvjM {huaikei, lOO^poundif etc,), from t cent to flM^
€nd the difference %n vahiefor each unit testing from 10 to £4 per cent in moisture when
the price for a unit testing 14 per cent m moisture is in even cents— Cositjnued,
Uobture content (per ecnfe) md lelatfr* Talne per oKtt of i
10 U 12 13 14 15 M 17
10
SI 22 23 24
Value
of each
1 pr cent
of dry
matter.
Ctt.
63.84
04.88
05.93
e&.98
m.02
60.07
30.12
71.16
72.21
Z3.25
94.30
75.36
70.39
77.44
7a^
79.63
80.58
81.63
82.67
83.72
84.77
83.81
86.86
87.91
8&9d
9000
91.05
82.09
93.14
04.18
95.23
9*k28
97.32
9S.37
99.42
Ct9.
63.13
64.16
65.20
66.23
67.27
OS-.-lO
69.34
70.37
71.41
72.44
73.48
74.51
76.65
76.58
77.62
78.65
79
80.72
81.75
82.79
83.82
84.86
85.89
86.63
87.96
Cts. Ctt.
62.42.61.71
63.44
64.46
65.49
66.51
67.53
68.56
69.58
70.60
71.63
72.66
73.67
74.70
75.72
76^74
77.77
78.79
79 81
80.84
81.86
82.88
83.91
84.93
85.96
86.98
89.00 88.00 87.00
90.08
91.07
92.
93.14
89.02
90-05
91.07
92.09
94.17
9o.21
9fi.24
97.28
98.31
93.12
94.14
96.16
9«.1R
97.21
100.46 99.35 98.23
101.51 100.38 99.26 98.13
102.56 101. 42*100. 27
103. 60^102. 45'101. 30
62.72
63.73
64.74
66.76
66.77
67.78
68.79
60.80
70.81
71.82
72.84
73.86
74.86
76.87
76.88
77.89
78.91
79.92
80.93
81.94
82.95
83.96
84.98
85.90
Of.
6
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
7S
74
75
70
77
78
79
80
81
82
88.01
89.02
90.03
91.05
92. OG
93.07
94.08
95.09
96.10
97.12
09.14
100.15
101. 65103. 49 102. 32 101. 16
105. 70 104. 521103. 35 102. 17
106. 74 105. 56.104. 37 103. 19
107. 79^106. 591106. 39 104. 20
108.84*107.63106.421106 21
109. 88il08.66jl07. 44 106.22
lia 931109. 70 108. 40 107. 23
111.^110. 731109. 49 108. 24
lU.02illl.77 110.51 109.25
111.53110.27
112. 56 lU. 28
114.071112.80
115.12*113.84
11016|114.8T
;.91
;.9i
.98
f.Ol
115.1
117.211
118.25ill6.S
119.30 117. S
ia>.35|119.0
131.39120.
122.44121.
125.49122.
124.63123
1SS.68124.
05 118.
08119.
58112.29
60113.30
63114.31
65 116.32
67jll6.34
70117.35
72 118. 36
74 119. 3
77120.S8
79121.39
Cf.
6029
61.28
62.27
63.26
64.24
65.23
66.22
67.21
68.20
69tl8
7017
71.16
72.15
73.14
74.13
76.12
76.10
77.09
78.08
79.07
80.06
81.05
8,; 82.03
96 91.88
93. K7
90. S'6
97.85
98.84
83.02
84.01
85.00
85.99
86.98
87.90
88.95
89.04
90.93
91.92
92.91
98
9^
100
101
loe
lo;
101
106
Cf,
59c 58
60.56
61.63
62.51
63.49
64.46
65u44
66.42
67.39
6&37
69.35
70.32
71.30
72.28
73.25
74.23
76.21
76.19
77.16
78.14
79.12
80.09
81.07
82.0.5
83.02
84.00
84.98
85.95
86.93
87.91
88.88
89.86
90.84
91.81
92.79
93.7
94.74
95.
96.
97.67
Ct9.
6&87
69.84
6080
61.77
62.73
Oft.
6&16
69.12
6007
61.02
61.98
Oft.
57.45
68.39
59.34
6028
6L22
63.70 62.93 62.16
64.69 63.88; 63.10
65.63 64.841 64.05
66.59 65.79, 64.99
67.60,66.74166.93
CtM.
56.74
67.67
68.60
69.63
60^46
61.39
62.32
63.26
64.18
66.12
68.52 67.70' 66.87 66.05
69.49, 68.65 67.8X1 66.98
70^45 69.60 6^76 67.91
71.42 70.66 69.70, 6S.84
72.38, 7L61, 7a 64 69.77
73.35
74.31
75.28
72.46' 71.68
73.42, 72.62
74.37| 73.46
76.24 75.32 74.41
77.21 76.28, 76.35
78.17'
79.14
80.10
81.07
83.03
77.231 76.29
78.19, 77.23
79.14; 78.17
80.09 79.11
81.05. 80.06
70 701
71.63
72 56
73.49
74.42
75.35
76.28
77.21
78.14
79.07
83.00 82.00 81.00 80.00
83.961 82.95i 81.941 80.93
ot no oo €\%\ on i.>o 01 cd
84.93
85.89
86.86
83.91 82. SS
84.86; 83.82
85.811 84.
87.82 86.77! 85.71
88.79 87.72i 86. Go
89. 75 88. 67i 87. 59
90.721 89.63' i^^.5%
91.6SI 90.581 89.48
92. e."?! 91.53 90.42
93.G2j 92.49t 91.36
94. .'5S 93.441 92.30
95.65; 94.39' 93.24
96.51 95.351 94.18
82 98.
81 99.
80100.
79101.
78102.
106104.
\\rt 105.
108,106.
109!l07.
1101108.
I * I
6."^ 97.48 96.
63 9S.44I 97.
m 99.411 98.
68100.371 99.
56101.34 100.
81.86
82.79
83.72
84.65
85.68
86.51
87.44
88.37
89.30
90.2'.
91.16
92.09
93.02
Cts.
66. a
66. 96
67.87
58.79
69.71
60.63
61.56
62.46
63.38
64.30
6^.22
66.14
67.06
67.98
68.89
69.81
70.73
71.65
72.57
73.49
74.41
75.32
76.24
77.16
78.08
79.00
79.92
80.84
81.75
82.67
83.59
84
8.^43
80.35
87.27
CU.
56.32
56.23
57. M
58.05
58.16
59.86
60.77
61.6:
62.68
63.49
64.39
66.30
66.21
67.11
68.02
68.93
69.84
70.74
71.65
72.56
73.46
74.37
75.28
76.18
n.09
78.00
78.91
79.81
80.72
81.63
82.63
83.44
84.3.^
85-25
86.16
88.19 87.07
89.10 87.98
90.02 88.88
90.94 89.79
91.86 90.70
30 95.
2h 96.
21! 97.
16. 97.
12i 98.891 97.67i 96,
93.95
94.88
95.81
111
112
113
114
115
116
in
lis
119
1*20
77'103.
76104.
74 105.
73 106.
72107.
71108.
70,109.
TkSIIO.
67111.
06,112.
6.'5n3.
64 114.
63!ll5.
62; 116.
60117.
53102.30101.
51103.27 102.
49104.23 102.
46105.20103.
44106.16,104
07' 99.
02100.
98 101.
93102.
S8.103.
42 107.
39108.
37 109.
35110.
32 110.
I
30111,
28 112,
2o 113.
23114
21.115.
13' 106. 84 104.
09 106. 79' 105.
06 107.74(106.
02 108.70^107.
99.109.65,108.
Os'lIOGOlOO.
92111.56110.
88,112.51 111.
85 113.46112.
81:114.42113.
84; 98. 6W 97.
78i 99. 5^1 98.
72100.46) 9«J.
66101.39100.
60102.32.101.
.■^5103,26101.
49104.18 102.
43106. 12 10^
37106.05 104.
31.106.98105.
26107.91106.
20 108. M 107.
14 109. 77 lOS.
08110 70109.
02,111.63110.
78 91.60
70 92. 51
6l| 93.42
53I 94.32
45 95.23
37, 96.14
29! 97.05
21 97.95
13! 98.86
05 90.
at..
54.61
55.51
56.41
57.30
58.20
59.09
69.99
60.88
61.78
62.67
63.57
64.46
65.36
66.26
67.16
68.06
68.94
69.84
70.73
71.63
72.62
73.42
74.31
75.21
76.10
77.00
77.89
78.79
79.68
80.58
81.48
82.37
83.27
84.16
85.06
85.96
86.85
87.74
88.64
89.53
90.43
91.32
92.22
93.12
94.01
94.91
95.80
96.70
97.59
98.49
96100.
88 101.
80 102,
72 103.
64 104
I I
67 99.38
5vS100.28
49 101
39102.07
30102.96
Ct9.
53.91
54.79{
65. «
56.56
57.44
68.32
69.21
60.09
60.98
61.86
62.74
63.63
64.51
65.39
66.28
67.16
68.06
68.93
69.81
70.70
n.68
72.46
73.36
74.21
76.12
76.00
76.88
7
78.65
79.63
80.42
81.30
82. 18
83.07
83.95
84.84
85.72
86.60
87.49
88.37
80.25
90.14
91.02
91.91
92.79
93.6
94.56
9.-. 44
96.32
97.21
98.09
98.98
99.86
100.74
101.63
56105.
48 10»-..
3910:
31 107.
23108.84 107. 44ilG6. 05
21 103.86
11104.75
02 105.65
93106.65
102.61
103.39
104. i8
105.16
On/t.
0 70930+
.72003
.73256-
.74419-
.76681+
.76744+
.77907—
.79070-
.80332+
.81395+
.83568+
.83721-
.84884-
.86046+
.87309+
.88372
.80535-
.90608-
.91860+
.93023+
.94186
.96349-
.96612-
.97674+
.98837+
1.00600
1.0U63-
1.02325+
1.03488+
1.04651+
1.06814-
1.06977-
1.08139+
1.00302+
1.10466+
1.11628-
1. 12791-
1.13953+
1. 15116+
L 16279
1.17441-
1.18606-
1. 19767+
1.20930+
1.22096
1.23256-
1. 24419-
1.25681+
1. 26744+
1.27907-
1.29070-
1.30233+
1.31396+
1.32658+
1.33721-
1.84884-
1.36046+
1.37200+
1.38373
L39635-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
20
BULUSTIir 374, U. 8. DEPABTliENT OF AGBICULTUBB.
Tablb VII. — Comparative value y on a dry-matter b€ttis, of grainy cottonseed, flatir, ete^
ehowing the price per unit of weight (fiuehel, 100 pounde, etc,), from 1 cent to fl.tO^
and the difference xn value for each unit testing from JO to 24 per cent in moisture idben
the price for a unit testing 15 per cent in moisture is in even cents.
Molstare oootent (per cent) and relative taIdo per ontt of meanire.
Value of
eacfalper
cent of
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
dry
matter.
a*.
CU,
Of.
Of.
CU,
Of.
Cf.
eta.
CU,
CU,
CU.
CU.
Of.
CU.
CU.
Ce9t9,
1.06
1.05
1.03
1.02
1.01
1
0.99
0.98
0.96
0.95
0.94
0.93
0.92
0.90
0.89
0L0117O+
3.12
2.09
2.07
2.05
2.02
t
1.98
1.96
1.93
1.9)
1.88
1.86
1.83
1.81
1.79
.02363-
S.18
3.14
8.10
8.07
8.03
t
2.96
2.98
X89
2.86
2.82
2.79
2.75
2.72
2.68
.03599+
4.23
4.19
4.14
4.09
4.05
4
3.95
8.90
3.86
8.81
3.76
3.72
3.67
3.62
3.58
.04706-
S.29
5.23
6.18
6.12
6.06
6
4.94
4.88
4.82
4.76
4.70
4.65
4.69
4.63
4.47
.05882+
«.85
6.28
6.21
6.14
6.07
«
5.93
6.86
6.79
6.72
6.65
6.68
6.61
5.43
6.36
.07050-
7.41
7.33
7.26
7.16
7.08
7
6.92
6.83
6.76
6.67
6.69
6.60
6.42
6.34
0.26
.08235+
8.47
8.38
8.28
8.19
8.09
8
7.91
7.81
7.72
7.62
7.63
7.43
7.34
7.25
7.15
.00413-
0.53
9.42
9.32
9.21
9.10
•
8.89
8.79
8.68
8.68
8.47
a 36
8.26
a 16
a 05
.10588+
10.50
10.47
10.35
10.23
10.12
10
9.88
9.76
9.65
9.63
9.41
9.29
9.18
9.06
a94
.11706-
11.65
11.52
11.89
11.26
11.13
11
10.87
10.74
10.61
10.48
10.35
10.22
10.09
9.96
9.83
.12041+
12.71
12.56
12.42
12.28
12.14
IS
11.86
11.72
11.68
11.43
11.29
11.15
11.01
10.87
10.73
.1:118-
13.76
13.61
13.46
13.30
13.15
IS
12.85
12.70
12. .•>4
12.39
12.23
12.08
11.93
1L78
11.62
.15291+
14.82
14.66
14.49
14.33
14.16
14
13.83
13.67
13.60
13.34
13.18
13.01
12.85
13.68
12.52
13.411
.16470+
U.8S
16.70
16.63
15.35
16.18
16
14.82
14.66
14.47
14.29
14.12
13.M
13. 7C
13.69
.17047
16.94
16.75
16.66
16.38
16.19
le
15.81
15.62
15.43
15.2-
15.0^
14.87
14.68
14.49
14.30
.18823+
laoo
17.80
17.60
17.40
17.21
17
16.80
16.60
16.40
16.23
16.00
16.80
15.60
15.40
15 20
.2)000
19.06
1&85
18.63
18.42
18.21
18
17.79
17.68
17.36
17.15
16.94
16.73
16.62
laso
16.00
.21170+
20.12
19.89
19.67
19.45
19.22
1»
18.78
18.65
18.33
18.10
17.88
17.66
17.43
17.21
16 99
.22368-
21.18
20.9)
20.70
20.47
20.23
80
19.76
19.63
19.29
19. OC
18.82
1&60
18.35
iai2
17.88
.23530+
22.23
21.99
21.74
21.49
21. 2*5
81
21.75
20.50
23.20
20.01
19. 7f
19.52
19.27
19.02
ia77
.21706-
23.20
23.03
22.78
22.52
22. 2€
n
21.74
21.48
21.22
20. 9<.
21.70
23.45
20.19
19.93
19.67
.2:^883+
21.35
24.08
23.81
23.64
23.27
2S
22.73
22.46
22.19
21.92
21.65
21.38
21.11
20.83
20.50
.27069-
25.41
25.13
2«.85
21.56
24.28
84
23.72
23.43
23.15
22.87
22.69
22.30
22.02
21.74
21.46
.2S23S+
26.47
26.18
25.88
25.69
25.29
86
24.71
24.41
21.12
23.82
23.53
23.23
22.9)
22.65
22.35
.29112-
27.53
27.22
26,92
26.61
26.30
80
25.69
25.89
25.08
24.78
24.47
24.16
23. ST
23.65
23.25
.30668+
28.59
28.27
27.95
27.63
27.32
87
26.68
26.36
26.05
25.73
23.41
r^.oo
24.75^
24.46
34.14
.317»5-
29.65
29.32
28.99
28.66
28.33
88
27.67
27.34
27.01
2«.f8
2*\35
2 -.02
25.69
25.36
25 03
.32941+
80.71
30.36
30.02
29.68
29.34
89
28.66
28.32
27.98
27. f 3
27.29
2^.95
2fi.61
2<*.27
25 98
.31118-
81.76
81.41
31.06
30.70
30.35
80
29.65
29.29
28.94
28.59
2&23
27.8^
27.53
27.18
36.82
.35294+
82.82
32.46
32.09
31.73
31.36
81
30.63
30.27
29.90
20.64
20.18
28.81
28.45
2a 08
27.72
.36470+
83.88
33.60
33.13
32.75
32.38
88
31.62
81.26
30.87
80.49
30.12
29.74
29. 3(
2^99
28 61
.3."t.l7
84.94
34.65
34.16
33.78
33.39
88
32.61
32.22
31.83
81.45
31.06
30.67
30.28
29.^9
29.50
.3SS23+
36.00
35. f4)
35.20
34.80
34.40
84
33.60
33.20
32.80
32.40
32.00
81.60
31.21
80.80
30 40
.40000
87.06
36.65
36.23
35.82
35.41
86
34.59
84.18
33.76
33.35
32.9)
32.53
32.12
3L70
31.39
.41170+
38.12
37.69
37.27
36.85
36.42
80
35.68
85.15
34.73
84.30
33.88
83.46
33.03
82.61
32.19
.423S3-
39.18
38.74
38.30
37. 87
37.43
87
36.56
36.13
35.69
35.28
34.82
34.39
83.95
33.52
33.08
.43639+
40.23
39.79
39.34
38.89
38.45
88
37.56
87.10
36.66
36.21
86.76
36.32
34.87
34.42
33.96
.44706-
41.29
40.83
40.38
39.92
39.46
80
38.64
38.08
37.02
37. 16
36.70
36.25
36.79
35.33
84.87
.46882+
42.35
41.88
41.41
40.94
40.47
40
39.63
39.06
38.59
88.12
37.65
37.18
86.71
36.2^
36.76
.47060-
43.41
4^93
42.45
41.96
41.48
41
40.52
40.03
39.55
89.07
38.59
38.10
87.62
37.14
36.68
.48235+
44.47
43. 9S
43.48
42.99
42.49
48
41.61
41.01
40.62
40. Oi
39.58
39.03
38.54
3a06
87 55
.49412-
45.63
46.02
44.52
44.01
43.50
48
42.49
41.99
41.48
40.98
40.47
89.96
39.46
3a 96
3a 45
.5f^88+
46.59
46.07
45.55
45.03
44.52
44
43.48
42.96
42.45
41.93
41.41
40.89
40.38
39.86
39 31
.51765—
47.65
47.12
46.59
46. 0€
45.53
45
44.47
43.94
43.41
42.88
42.35
4L82
41.29
40.76
40.23
.52041+
48.71
4a 16
47.62
47.08
46.64
40
46.46
44.92
44.38
43.83
43.29
42.76
42.21
41.67
41.13
.54118-
49.76
49.21
48.66
48.10
47.55
47
46.46
45.89
45.34
44.79
44.23
43.68
43.13
42.58
42 02
.55294+
60.82
60.26
49.69
49.13
48.56
48
47.43
46.87
46.30
45.74
45.18
44.61
44.06
43.48
42 92
.60470+
51.88
51.30
50.73
50.16
49.58
40
48.42
47.85
47.27
46.69
46.12
46.64
44.96
44.39
43 81
.57047
62.94
62.86
61.76
61.18
50.69
60
49.41
48.82
48.23
47.65
47.06
46.47
4^88
46.20
44.70
.68823+
64.00
53.40
52.80
62.20
61.60
61
50.40
49.80
49.20
48.60
48.00
47.40
46.80
4^20
45.60
.60000
65.06
64.45
53.83
63.22
52.61
68
61.39
50.78
50.16
49.55
48.94
48.33
47.72
47.10
46.49
.61170+
66.12
55.49
54.87
64.2,5
53.62
68
62.38
51.75
51.13
50.50
49.88
49.26
4a 63
4a 01
47.39
.02363-
67.18
56.54
55.90
55.27
54.63
64
53.36
52.73
52.09
51.46
50.82
60.19
49.55
4a 92
4a 28
.63520+
68.23
67.69
56.94
66.29
55.65
66
64.35
63.70
63.06
52.41
5L76
6L12
60.47
49.82
49.18
.04700-
69.29
58.63
67.98
67.82
56.66
60
65.84
64.68
64.02
53.36
52.70
6X06
6L89
60.73
60.07
.05888+
60.35
69.68
69.01
68.34
67.67
67
56.33
66.66
64.99
54.32
63.65
62.08
62.31
61.63
60.96
.07050-
61.41
60.73
60.06
69.36
68.68
68
57.32
56.63
55.95
55.27
54.59
63.90
63.22
62.64
61.86
.08235+
62.47
61.78
61.08
60.89
69.69
6»
68.31
57.61
56.92
66.22
56.53
54.83
64.14
6a 45
62.76
.60413-
68.68
62.82
62.13
61.41
60.70
00
69.29
68.59
57.88
57.18
56.47
55.76
65.06
64.35
63.06
.70688+
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
IKTBIK8I0 VALUES BASED OK DBY-MATTEK CONTENT.
21
Table VII. — Oomparative value j on a dry^matter basis ^ of grain, cottonseedf Jlowt, etc.,
Stowing the price per unit of weight (bushel, 100 pouruls, etc.), from 1 cent to fl.tO,
mid the difference in value for each unit iesHrigfrom 10 to tA per cent in moisture when
the price for a unit testing 15 per cent in moisture is in even anto— Continued.
Moisture oootent (per cent) and relatiro Ttdae per unit of measnre.
10
Of.
<M.59
65. G5
C7.7fi
68w82
7B.94
7Z00
73. (X
74.12
75.18
7«u2S
77.29
7».41
».47
81.53
82.50
83.65
S1.71
85.7*»
8n.83
87.88
8R.9i
90.00
W.O^
92.12
«i.lS
94.2?
95.29
9«.85
97.41
98.47
99.33
100.59
102.71
ias.7«=
lf>4.82
105.88
11 12 13 14 15 1« 17
18 19 20
21 22 23 24
Value of
eadilper
cent of
dry
matter.
Of.
63.87
64.92
65.96
67.01
68.06
60.10
70.15
71.20
72.25
73.29
74.84
75.89
76.43
77.48
78.58
79.58
80.62
81.67
82.72
83.76
81.81
85. »
8fi.r)
87.95
89.00
00.06
91.00
02.14
93.19
94.23
95.28
96.33
97.38
9a 42
99.47
CU.
63.15
64.19
65.22
66.26
67.29
68.33
69.36
70.40
71.43
72.47
73.50
74.54
75.58
76.61
77.65
78.68
79.72
80.75
81.79
82.82
8t.89
85.93
8^.96
88.00
89.03
90.07
91.10
92.14
93.18
91.21
95.25
9<^.2S
97.32
98.35
Oft.
62.43
63.46
64.48
66.50
66.63
67.65
68.58
69.60
70.62
71.66
72.67
73.69
74.72
75.74
76.76
77.79
78.81
79.83
80.8*^
81,
82.9^
83.93
81.95
85.98
87.00
88.02
89.05
90.07
91.09
92.12
93.14
94. IP
95.
96.21
97.23
100.52 99.39 98.20
101.56100.42 99.28
102.61101.46100.30
103.66102.49101.33
104. 701103. 631102. 3£
106.91
108w00
ine.06
110.12
111.
105.75104.561103.3?
106. 80(105. 60 104. 40
107. 85 106.631 105. 42
108.99107.67 106.45
18|109.W 108.70 107. 4
112.23 110.9^
113.291112.08
114.
115.41
U6.47
109.74
110.78109.
351113. 08)111. 81
11Z85
113.88
13.
IU.13
115.18
in. 53
iia
119.65
130.71
121.76
59117.
116.22
27
II8.32I1I6.
119.36
120.41
122.
123.
124.91
126.
127.
8212L
88122.
120.09
121. 13
122.16
00^121.60123.20
124.23
46
50
123.55
125.65
10&49
1.52
110.54
lll.5f.
112.59
114.92113.61
115.95
99
118.02
119. OC
114.63
115.6*
116. 6S
117.
Cti,
61.72
62.73
63.74
64.75
65.76
66.78
67.79
68.80
69.81
70.
71.83
72.86
73.86
74.87
75.88
76.89
77.90
7S.92
79.93
80.94
81.95
82.96
83.98
84.99
86.00
87.01
88.02
89.03
90.05
91.06
92.07
93.08
94.09
95.10
96.12
97.13
98.14
99.15
100.16
101. 18
102.19
103.20
104.21
105.22
106.23
107.2^
108. »
109.27
110.2s
111.29
112.30
113.32
114.33
115.34
116.35
118.7?
119.75
12a 78 119.
12L 80 120,
122. 82 121
Cts.
61
62
6S
•4
6i
M
67
68
69
70
71
7«
7S
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
9S
96
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
118
114
115
117. 36
lia38
1.39
1.40
.41
60.28
61.27
62.26
63.25
64.23
65.22
66.21
67.20
68.19
09.18
70.16
71.15
72.14
73.13
74.12
75.11
76.09
77.08
78.07
79.06
80.05
81.03
82.02
83.01
84.00
84.99
85.98
86.96
87.95
88.94
89.93
90.92
91.91
92.
93.88
Of.
59.56
60.54
6L52
62.49
63.47
64.45
65.42
66.40
67.38
68.35
69.33
70.30
71.28
72. 2f
73.23
74.21
75.19
76,16
77.14
78.12
79.09
80.07
81.05
82.02
83.00
83.98
84.95
85.93
86.90
87.88
88. »«
89.83
90.81
91.79
92.71;
Cto.
58.85
69.81
60.78
61.74
62.70
63.67
64.63
65.60
66. 56
67.53
68.49
69.46
70.42
71.89
72.35
73.32
74.28
75.25
76.21
77.18
78.14
79.10
80.07
81.03
82.00
82. 9f
83.93
84.89
85.86
86.82
87.79
88.75
89.72
90. €8
91. C5
87
94.
95! 86
96.85
97.83
98.82
99.81
100.80
101.79
lf«.78
103.76
104.75
105.74
106.73
107.72
108.71
93.74 92.61
9t.72 93.58
95.69
96.67
97.66
98.62
99.60
100.68
101.55
102,53
103.50
104.48
105.46
106.43
107.41
91.54
95.60
96.47
97.43
98.40
99.36
100.33
101.29
102. 2*
103. 2i
104. 1&
105.1
106.12
Cti.
58.13
59.08
60.03
60,99
6L94
6189
63.86
64.80
65,76
66.70
67.66
68.61
69.66
70,62
71.47
72,42
73.38
74.33
75.28
76.23
77.19
78.14
79.09
80.05
81.00
81.95
82.90
83.86
84.81
85.76
86.72
87.67
88.62
89.58
90.53
91.48
92.43
CU.
57,41
58.36
59.29
60.23
61.18
62.12
63.06
64.00
64.94
66.88
66.82
67.76
68.70
69.65
70.59
71.53
72.47
73.41
74.35
75.29
76.23
77.18
78.12
79.06
80.00
80.94
81.88
82.82
83.76
84.70
85.65
86.69
87.53
88.47
89.41
90.35
91.29
93.39 92.23
109.69108.38107.08
10. 68 109. 36 108. a-
111.67
!12.66
113.65
110.34 109.01
111.32109.98
112.29110.94
116114.63
117 115.62
118116.61
119117.60
118.59
120
113.27
114.25
116.22113.83
116.20
117. 18
111.90
112.87
114.80
116.76
94.34
95.29
96.2^
97.21
98.15
99.10
100.06
101. 01
101.96
102.92
103. 87
104.82
105.78
106.73
107.68
108,63
109.69
110.54
111.49
112.45
113.40
114.36
93.18
94.12
95.0^
96.00
96.9
97. 8S
9S.82
101.66
Cti.
56.69
57.62
68.55
59.48
60.41
61.84
62.27
63.2'>
64.13
65.06
65.99
66.92
67.85
68.78
69.70
70.63
71.56
72.49
73.42
74.35
75.28
76.21
77.14
78,07
79,00
79.9:^
80,86
81.79
82.72
83.66
84.58
85.50
86.43
87.36
88.29
89.22
90.16
91.08
92.01
92.94
93.87
9^.80
95.73
9*'. 66
97.59
CU.
55. 9d
56.89
57.81
68.73
59.65
60.56
61.48
62.40
63.32
64.23
65.15
66.07
66.99
67.91
66.82
69.74
70.66
71.66
72.49
73.41
CU
56. 2f
66. If
67.07
67.9<l
58.88
58.79
60.69
61.60
62.5^
63.41
64.82
65.22
66.13
67.03
67.94
68.85
69.75
70.66
71.56
72.47
74.88 73.38
76,25 74.28
76,16
77.08
78wOO
78.92
79.83
80.75
81.67
99.76 98.52
lOaTO 99.45
100.38
102. 59] 101. 3*
103.63102.23
104. 47 103. 16
105.41104.09
106.35 105.02
107.29105.95
108. 23 106. 88
109. WlOl. 81
110.12|108,74
111,06109.67
112.00^110.60
112.94 111.63
83.51
84.42
86.34
86.26
87.18
88.09
89.01
89.93
90.85
91.76
92.68
93.60
91.62
95. 43
96.35
97.27
9-^19
99.11
1^02
100.94
75.19
76.09
77.00
77.90
78.81
79.72
80.62
81.53
82.43
83.34
81.25
85.16
86.06
CU.
54.54
56.43
56.33
57.22
58.12
69.01
50.90
60.80
61.09
62.59
63.48
64.38
65.27
66.16
67.06
67.95
68.85
69.74
70.63
71.58
72.42
73.32
74.21
75.10
76.00
76.89
77.79
,78.68
79.58
80.47
81.36
82.26
83.15
84.05
84.94
86.9^
87.87
88.
89.68
90.59
91.40
92.40
93.80
94.21
95.12
96.02
96.93
97,83
98.74
10L86100.
102.78;10L
103.69102.
104.61103.
105.53104.
106.45105.
107,86106.
108. 28 106.
100. 20 107.
110.12108.
I
85.83
86.73
87.62
88.62
89.41
90.30
91.90
92.09
92.99
93.88
94.78
95.67
96
97.46
99.65 98.35
OenU,
0. 71766-
.72941+
.74118-
.752944-
.76470+
.77647
.78823+
.80000
.81176+
.82358-
.84706-
.85882+
.87059-
.39412-
.90586+
.91765+
.91941+
.94118-
.96294+
.96470+
.97647
.98823+
1.00000
1.01176+
1.02353-
1.03629+
1.04706-
1.05882+
1.07089—
1.06235+
1.09412-
1,10588+
1. 11765-
1.12941+
1. 14118-
1.16294+
1.16470+
1.17647
1.18823+
1.30000
1.21176+
1.22353-
1.23529+
1.24706-
1,25883+
1.27059-
1.28235+
1.29412-
55 99.25
46100.14
86101.03
27I1OI.93
18102.82
08103.72
99104.01
89105.60 1.
80106.40
70107.29 1.
30588+
31765-
32941+
34118-
36294+
36470+
37647
38838+
40000
41176+
Digiti
zed by Google
22
BULLBTIlf 874, U. S. DEPABTMENT OP AGBI0ULTX7KB.
Tablb VIII. — Comparative valuer on a dry-matter basis, of grain, cottonseed, flour, etc.
showiTUf the frice per unit of weight (bushel, 100 pounds, etc.), from 1 cent to T^l.tO, cm
the difference in value for each unit testing from 10 to 24 per cent in moisture uhen <Ae
price for a unit testing 16 per cent in moisture is in even cents.
Moistare content (per cent) and relative value per unit of measure.
Value of
eacfal
percent
10
11
13
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
31
22
23
3i
of dry
matter.
CU.
CU,
CU.
Ctt,
CU,
CU,
Oto.
CU,
CU,
CU,
CU,
Ot.
CU,
CU.
CU.
Cena.
1.07
1.06
1.05
1.03
1.02
1.01
1
aoo
ao7
ao6
ao6
ao4
ao3
ao2
.90
aoiiocM-
^14
2.12
^00
3.07
2.06
2.02
2
1.98
1.05
1.03
1.00
1.88
1.86
1.83
1.81
.02381-
8.21
3.18
8.14
8.11
8.07
8.03
8
2.00
2.03
2.80
2.86
3.82
3.78
2.76
3.71
.a36n+
4.28
4.24
4.10
4.14
4.00
4.05
4
8.06
3.00
3.86
3.81
8.76
8.71
a67
ao2
.0470-
6.36
6.30
6.34
6.18
6.13
6.06
6
4.04
4.88
4.82
4.76
4.70
4.64
4.68
4.52
.05053+
«.48
6.36
6.28
6.21
6.14
6.07
«
6.03
6.86
6.78
6.71
5.64
6.67
5.60
a 43
.07143-
7.60
7.42
7.33
7.25
7.17
7.08
7
6.02
6.83
a76
a67
a68
a60
a42
a 33
.06333+
8.67
8.48
8.38
8.28
8.10
8.00
8
7.00
7.81
7.71
7.62
7.63
7.48
7.83
7.34
.09524-
0.64
9.63
0.43
0.32
0.21
0.11
•
8.80
8.7^
8.68
8.57
8.46
a36
a26
a 14
.ion4+
10.71
10.69
10.48
10.36
10.24
la 12
10
0.88
a76
a64
a63
a4o
a 28
a 17
9.06
.11906-
11.78
11.66
11.62
11.30
11.28
11.18
11
ia87
ia74
ia6i
ia48
ia34
ia3i
iao8
a 96
.13095+
13.86
12.71
12.67
12.43
12.28
12.14
12
11.86
11.71
11.67
11.43
11.28
11.14
11.00
ia86
.14286-
13.03
13.77
13.62
13.46
13.31
13.16
IS
12.84
12.69
12.63
13.38
12.23
12.07
11.02
11.76
.15476+
15.00
14.83
14.67
14.50
14.33
14.17
14
13.83
13.67
13.63
18.33
13,17
13.00
12.83
12.67
.16667-
16.07
15.89
16.71
16.63
16.36
16.18
n
14.82
14.64
14.46
14.38
14.11
13.08
13.75
13.57
.17857+
17.14
16.06
16.76
16.67
16.38
16.10
le
16.81
16.62
16.43
16.24
16.06
14.86
14.67
14.4S
.19048-
18.21
18.01
17.81
17.61
17.40
17.20
17
16.80
16.59
laso
laio
16.00
16.78
15.58
16.38
,2C23S
10.28
19.07
18.86
18.64
18.13
18.21
18
17.73
17.57
17.36
17.14
iao8
ia7i
ia5(
1628
.21428+
20.36
20.13
19.90
10.68
10.45
10.23
19
18.77
18.65
13.32
18.00
17.87
17.64
17.42
17.19
.22619
21.43
21.19
20.95
20.71
30.47
30.24
20
19. 7C
ia62
ia28
iao6
18,81
ia57
lass
18.09
.2»09+
22.60
22.25
22.00
21.75
21.50
21.25
21
2a 75
20.60
20.25
saoo
ia75
ia6o
ia25
19.00
.35000
23,57
23.31
23.05
22.78
22.62
22.26
22
21.74
21.47
21.21
2a 06
20.69
20.43
2a 17
ia90
.26190+
24.64
24.37
24.09
23.82
23.55
23.27
28
22.73
22.45
23.18
21.00
21.63
31.36
21.08
20.81
.273S1-
25.71
25.43
25.14
24.86
24.67
24.28
24
23.71
23.43
23.14
22.86
22.67
22.28
22.00
21.71
.2?ii71+
26.78
26.49
26.19
25.89
26.59
26.30
2§
24.70
24.40
24.11
23.81
23.61
33.21
22.92
23.62
.29762-
27.86
27. ££
27.24
36.93
26.62
26.31
20
25.60
26.38
26.07
24.76
24.46
24.14
2a 83
23.52
.30953+
28.93
2S.61
28.28
27.96
27.64
27.32
27
26. 6S
2a 36
26.03
25.71
26.39
25.07
24.76
24.43
. 32K3-
30.00
29.67
29.33
29.00
28.67
28.33
28
27.67
27.33
27.00
2a 67
2a 33
2a 00
2a 67
25.33
..'«333+
31. C7
3\73
3\38
30. C3
29.69
29.34
29
2^.65
2^.31
27.06
27.62
27.27
26.93
2a 5J^
26.24
.34^24-
32.14
31.78
31.43
31.07
30.71
30.36
80
29.64
20.28
38.03
2a 67
28.21
37.86
27. 6C
27.14
.35n4+
33.21
32.84
32.48
32.11
31.74
31.37
81
3a 63
30.26
20.89
20.62
30.16
3a78
2a 42
28.05
.38906-
34.28
33.9^
33.62
33.14
32.76
32.38
82
31.62
31.24
30.86
30.48
30.00
30.71
20.33
2a 95
.3Scfi5+
35.36
34.96
34.57
34.18
33.78
33.39
88
32.61
32.21
31.82
31.43
31.03
8a 64
3a 25
29.86
.39286-
36.43
36.(2
35.62
35.21
34.81
34.40
84
33.50
33.19
32.78
32.88
31.08
81.67
81.17
30.70
.40476+
87.60
37.08
36.67
36.25
35.83
35.42
86
84.68
34.17
33.75
83.33
32.02
82.60
32.08
31.67
.41667-
3S.57
33.14
37.71
37.28
36.86
36.43
86
36.67
36.14
34.71
34.28
33.86
38.48
3a OO
32.57
.43857+
39.64
39.20
3S.76
38.32
37.88
37.44
87
36.56
3a 12
35.63
36.24
84.80
34.36
8a 02
33.48
.440 8-
40.71
40.26
39.81
39.36
38.90
38.46
88
37.55
37.09
3a 64
3a 10
35.74
36.28
84.83
34.38
.45233
41.78
41.32
40.86
40.39
39.93
39.46
89
38.53
38.07
37.61
37.14
36.68
36.21
8a 75
36.28
.46^-28+
42.86
42.38
41.90
41.43
40.95
40.48
40
30-52
39.05
38.57
3a 00
37.62
37.14
3667
36.19
.47619
43.93
43.44
42.95
42.46
41.97
41.40
41
40.51
4a 02
30.53
80.05
3a 66
8a 07
37.68
37.09
.48809+
45.00
44.50
44.00
43.50
43.00
42.50
42
41.50
41.00
40.50
4a 00
30.60
30.00
3a50
88.00
.60000
46.07
45.66
46.06
44.53
44.02
43.51
48
42.49
41.97
41.46
40.95
40.44
30.03
30.42
88.90
.51190+
47.14
46.62
46.09
45.57
45.06
44.52
44
43.48
42.95
42.43
41.00
41.38
40.86
4a 33
89.81
.62381-
48.21
47.68
47.14
46.61
46.07
45.53
46
44.46
43.93
43.39
42.86
42.32
41.78
41.25
4a 71
.63571+
49.2S
48.74
48.19
47.64
47.09
46.56
46
46.45
44.90
44.36
43.81
43.36
42.71
42.17
41.62
.54762-
60.36
49.80
49.24
48.68
4a 12
47.56
47
46.44
45.88
45.32
44.76
44.30
4a 64
43. OS
42.52
.65053+
61.43
50.86
60.28
49.71
49.14
48.57
48
47.43
46.86
4a 28
46.71
45.14
44.67
44.00
4a 43
.57143-
62.50
51.92
51.33
60.75
5a 17
49.58
49
48.42
47.83
47.25
4a 67
4a 08
4a 60
44.92
44.33
.58333+
63.57
62.98
62.38
61.78
61.19
60.69
60
4a 40
48.81
48.21
47.62
47.02
4a 43
4a 83
4a 24
.50634-
64.64
64.03
63.43
62.82
52.21
61.61
61
60.39
4a 78
4a 18
48.67
47.06
47.86
4a 75
4a 14
.60n4+
66.71
65.09
64.48
53.86
53.24
52.62
52
51. as
50.76
5a 14
4a 52
4a 00
4a 28
47.67
47.06
.61906-
66.78
56.15
56.52
54.89
54.26
53.63
58
62.37
51.74
51.11
5a 48
4a 84
40.21
4a 58
47.95
.63005+
67.86
57.21
66.67
55.93
55. 2h
54.64
54
53.36
52.71
52.07
51.43
60.78
6a 14
4960
4a 86
.64386-
58.93
68.27
67.62
56.96
56.31
66.65
55
54.3^
53.60
53.03
62.38
61.73
61.07
6a 42
49.78
.65476+
60.00
69.33
58.67
58.00
67. a3
56.67
56
65.33
64.67
54.00
53.33
52.67
62.00
51.83
50.67
.66667-
61.07
60.39
59.71
69.03
58.36
57. 6S
57
66. 32
65.64
64.96
54.28
53.61
52.93
62.25
51.67
.67857+
62.14
61. 4:
60.76
60.07
69.38
58.69
58
57.31
56.62
65.93
55.24
64.65
6a 86
6a 17
63.48
.60048—
63.21
62.51
61.81
61.11
60.40
59.70
59
68.30
57.59
6a 89
56.10
65.40
64.78
64.08
63.38
• 70338
64.28
63.67i
62.86
62.14
61 43
6a 71
60
6a 28
68.67
67.861
67.141
6a 43
66.71
6&0(>
54.»
.71438+
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
IKTEINSIC VALUES BASED ON imY-MATTEB COHTENT.
23
Tablb VIII. — Comparative value^ on a dry-matter basisy of grain, eottonseed, flour, etc.,
showing the price per unit of weight (humtl, 100 pounds, etc.), from 1 cent to fl.tO, and
the difference in value for each unit testing from 10 to 24 per cent in moisture when the
price for a unit testing 16 pa- cent in moisture is in even e^to— Continued.
Moisture content (pv cent) And relatire Talue per onli o£ meacure.
Value of
eachl
10
11
13
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
per cent
of dry
matter.
Of.
eta.
CU,
at.
eta.
eta.
Cts.
eta.
eta.
eu.
eta.
eta.
CU.
eu.
eta.
eenta.
6S.36
64.63
63.90
63.18
62.46
61.73
61
60.27
59.55
68.83
68. C»
67.37
56.64
66.92
65.19
0. 72619
W.43
65.00
64.96
64.31
63.47
62.74
62
61,26
6a 52
69.78
§9.06
68.31
67.67
66.83
56.00
.73809+
67.60
66.75
66.00
65.25
64.50
63.75
6a
62.26
6L50
60.76
60.00
69.25
68.50
67.75
67.00
.76000
68w67
67.81
67.05
66.28
66.53
64.76
64
63.24
6X47
61.71
60.96
60.19
69.43
68.67
67.90
.76190+
«0.64
68.87
68.09
67.32
66.65
65.77
65
64.23
63.46
62.68
61.00
61.13
60.36
69.68
68.81
-77381-
7a 71
69.93
69.14
68.36
67.57
66.78
66
65b 21
64.43
63.64
62.86
62.67
61.28
60.60
69.71
.78571+
71. 7S
70.99
70.19
•9.39
68.60
67.80
67
64.20
6&40
64.61
63.81
63.01
62.31
61.42
60.63
.79762-
72.86
72.05
71.24
70.43
69.62
68.81
68
67.19
66.38
65.67
64.76
63.95
63.14
62.33
61.53
.80952+
73.93
73.11
72.28
71.46
70.64
60.82
69
68.18
67.36
66.53
65.71
64.89
64.07
63.25
62.43
.82143-
76.00
74.17
73.33
72.50
71.67
70.83
70
69.17
6&33
67.50
66.67
66.83
66.00
64,17
63.33
.83333+
76.07
75.23
74.38
73.63
72.69
71.84
71
7a 15
69.31
68.46
67.62
66.77
66.93
66.08
64.34
.84524-
77.14
76.28
75.43
74.57
73.71
72.86
74
71.14
70.28
69.43
68.67
67.71
66.86
66.00
66.14
.85714+
78.21
77.34
76.48
75.61
74.74
73.87
19
72.13
7L26
70.39
60.62
68.65
67.78
66.92
66.05
.86905-
79.28
78.40
77.52
76.64
75.76
74.88
74
73.12
72.24
71.36
70.48
60. :9
68.71
67.83
66.96
.88095+
80.36
79.46
78.57
77.68
76.78
76.89
76
74.11
73.21
72.32
71.43
70.53
69.64
68.75
67.86
.89286-
81.43
80.52
79.62
78.71
77.81
76.90
76
75.09
74.19
73.28
72.38
71.48
70.57
60.67
68.76
.90476+
82.50
81.68
80.67
79.75
78.83
77.92
77
76.03
75wl7
74.25
73.33
72. '«2
71.60
70. .^4^
60.67
.91607-
83.57
82.64
81.71
80.78
79.86
78.93
78
77. 07
76.14
75.21
74.2s
73.36
72.43
71.50
70.57
.92857+
84.64
83.70
82.76
81.82
80.88
79.94
76
78.06
77.12
76.18
75.2-*
74. 30
73.36
72.42
71.48
.94048-
86.71
84.76
83.81
82.86
81.90
80.95
89
79.05
78.09
77.14
76.19
75.24
74.28
73.33
72.38
.95238
86.78
85.82
84.86
83.89
82.98
81.96
81
80.03
79.07
78.11
77.14
76.18
75.21
74.25
73.28
.96428+
87.86
86.88
85.90
84.93
83.95
82.98
82
81.02
80.06
79.07
78. C9
77.12
76.14
75.17
74.19
.97619
88.93
87.94
86.95
85.96
84.97
83.99
m
82. 01
81.02
80.03
79.06
78.06
77.07
76.08
76.09
.98819+
W.0O
89.00
88.00
87.00
86.00
85.00
84
83.00
82.00
81.00
80.00
79.00
78.00
77.00
76.00
1.00000
OL07
90.06
89.06
88.03
87.02
86.01
86
83.99
82.97
81.96
80.95
79.94
78.93
77.92
76.90
1.01190+
92.14
91.12
90.09
89.07
88.05
87.02
86
S4.98
83.95
82.93
81. 9n
80.88
79.86
78.83
77.81
1.02381-
03.21
92.18
91.14
90.11
80.07
88.03
87
85. D6
84.93
83.89
82. 86
81.82
80.78
79.75
78.71
1.03571+
»4.28
93.24
92.19
91.14
90. C9
80.05
88
86. 95
85.90
84.86
83.81
82.76
81.71
80.67
79.62
1.04762-
96.36
94.30
93.24
92.18
91.12
90.06
89
87. 94
86. SS
85. 82
84.76
83. 70
82.64
81. 68
80.52
1. 06962+
06.43
96.36
94,28
93.21
92.14
91.07
90
&i.93
87.86
86.78
85.71
84.64
83.57
82.50
81.43
1. 07143-
07.50
96.42
95.33
94.25
93.17
92.08
91
89.92
88. R3
87.75
86.67
85. 58
84.50
83.42
82.33
1.08333+
08.67
97.48
96.38
95.2^
9^.19
93.09
92
9;). 90
89. hi
88.71
87.62
86. i2
85.43
84.33
83.24
1. 09624-
99.64
98.63
97. 43
96.32
95.21
94.11
93
91. .S9
9 ). 78
89.68
8R.67
87.46
86.36
85. 25
84.14
1. 10714+
100.71
99. .'9
9K.4S
97. 36
96.24
9:.. 12
94
92. as
91.76
93.64
89. f 2
88.40
87. 2^^
86.17
85.05
1. 11905-
101.78
100.66
99.62
98.39
97.26
90.13
96
93. b7
92.74
91.61
90.48
89.34
8^.21
87.08
85.95
1. 13096+
1C2.86
101.71
100.57
99.43
98.2^
97.14
96
94..%
93.71
92.57
91. i3
90.28
89.14
88.00
86.86
1. 14286-
108.03
1()2.77
101.62100.46
99.31
98.15
97
95. S4
94.69
93. 63
92. 3S
91.23
90.07
8S.92
87.76
1. 15476+
105.00
103.8-^
102. 67; 101. 60
100. 33
99.17
98
96. S3
95.67
94.50
93. 33
92.17
91.00
89. 83
88.07
1. 16667-
106.07
104.89
103.71 102. o3'l01.36'100. 18
99
97. S2
96.64
95. 46
94.2
93.11
91.93
90.75
89.57
1. 17857+
107.14
106.95
104. 76 lo:i. 67
1102. 38i 101. 19
100
98.81
97.62
96.43
95.2^
01. 05
92. b6
91.67
90.48
1. 19048-
108.21
107.01
105. 811104. 61
103.40102.2^
101
99. m
98.59
97.39
96.19
9-1.99
93.78
92.58
91.38
1.20238
109.28ll0S.0T
\m. 86;ior.. r>4lio4. 43103. 21
10-2
100.73
99.67
9S.36
97.14
95. 93
9-1.71
93.50
92.28
1.21428+
lia36!lU9.13
107. 90! IfX). 6S: 1 05. 4f>' 104. 2.'^
103
101. 77' UX). To
90. ?2
9S.r?
90.87
95.64
94.42
93.19
1.22619
111.43 110.19
10S.9ri'J07.7l!lor».47!l06.24
104|in2.7610l.o2'H».2^
99.05
97.81
96. 57
95.33
94.09
1.23S09+
112. 6C
111.26
110.00
108. 75 107. 50 106. 25
106:103. 76jl02. 50 101. 25
100. OC
9S.75
97.50
96.25
95.00
1.25000
113.57
112.31
111.0.?
109. 78 1 OS. .52' 107. 26
106104.74 103.47102.21
100.95
99.69
9^.43
97.17
95.00
1.26190+
114.64
113.37
ll2.0«)!ll').S'2;100.5:>;l'>^.27
1071 10.5. 73 HM. 46)103. IS
101.901100.6.1
99.36
98. C^
96.81
1.27381-
115.7lill4.43
I13.14|lll.Sr,iilo.57!l00.2S
108 106.71 lO.*^. 43104. 14
102.80 101.67
100.2-1
99.00
97.71
1.2S671+
116.7?
115. 4<)
114. 19 1! 2. 8M
111.5^
110.3'
lO9'lO7.7niH)6.40il0.5.11
103.81 1>'»2.51
101.21
99.92
98.62
1.29762-
117.86
\ll6.b[
116.24 113.93
112.61
111.31
llO10S.G9|107.38106.07
104.76|103.45
102.14
100.83
99.52
1. 30962+
118. 9S
117.61
116.28 114. 9f
113. 6^
112.32
111109.6^108.36107.03
105.71104.39
103.07
101.75
100.43
1.32143-
12a oc
H18.67
117.3311 16. Of
IP. 67
1 13. 3,?
112 no G7il09.33;lOS.0^V.n6.67'l0.^.33
104 0^!l02. 67,101. 33
1.33333+
121. W
119.73
118.3Slll7.05
ll.'i.6«J
1114.34
113 111. Ci
110.31|10S.96,107.62;UKi.27
1 11. 2S'109. 93 108.57,107.21
1{W.93[103.58|102.24
1.34^24-
122.1^
120. 7J«
119.4?
!llS.07
llG.71'Ur.?f
114 1 12. 6i
10.^86Il04.6C
103.14
1. 35714+
123.21
121. 8^
120.4?
119.11
117.74 116.37
1151113.03
116lll4.62
112.26 110.89 109.52 108.15
106. 7S
105.42
104. OS
1.36905-
134. 2f
»122.9f
) 121. 52
120.14
118.76! 17. 3f=
113.24 111. 86'llO. 48 109. OC
107.71
106.3.''
104. 9S
1.38096+
125. »
n23.9f
) 122. 57
121. 1«
119.78|llS.3r
117!n5.61
114. 2l!ll2. 82111. 43 110. a^
l(i.H.64
107.25;105.8«
1.39286-
126.4;
J 125. 05
im.K
122.21
120.81
WQ.'fr
118116.5^
115. 191113. 78, 112. as 110.9.^
100.571108.17:106.76
110.50 109.0s! 107. 67
1.40476+
127. 5(
)I126.0J
n24.67
123.2,'
121.8.*^
120.'«2
119117.5?
120118.67
116.17 114. 76lll3. 331111.92
1. 41667-
138.67127.1^
125.71
124.2?
122. 8C
121.43
117.14115.71I114.2SI112.8C
111.43 110.00 108.57
L 42867+
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
24
BULLETIN 874, TJ. B. DEPAKTMENT OP AOBIOULTUBB.
Tablb IX. — Comparative valuer on a dry-matter basiSy of grain, eotUmseedf flour, etc,
fhowinq the price per unit of weight (btuhel, 100 pounds, etc.), from 1 cent to fl.tO, and
the difference in value for each unit testirig from 10 to 24 per cent in moisture when the
price for a unit testing 17 per cent in moisture is in even cents.
Moistare oootent (per cent) and relative yalue per unit of mcasore.
Vahieof
eachl
percent
10
11
12
18
14
16
16
17
18
19
20*
31
23
23
24
of dry
matt«r.
CU.
Ct$.
Ctt.
CU.
CU,
CU.
CU.
CU.
CU.
CU,
CU.
CU,
CU.
CU.
CU.
Ct^U.
1.08
1.07
1.06
1.06
1.04
1.02
1.01
1
a99
0.9S
a96
a95
a94
a93
.91
a 01306-
3.17
2.14
2.13
2.10
2.07
2.05
3.02
%
1.98
1.96
1.94
1.90
1.88
1.85
1.83
.02410-
3.2S
8.22
3.18
8.14
8.11
8.07
8.08
t
3.96
3.93
2.89
3.86
2.{Q
2.78
3.76
.09614+
4.34
4.20
4.24
4.19
4.14
4.10
4.06
4
3.96
a90
3.86
asi
a76
a7i
8.66
.04819+
5.42
6.36
6.30
6.24
6.18
6.12
6.06
6
4.94
4.88
4.83
4.76
4.70
4.64
4.68
.06024
fi.51
6.43
0.36
6.39
6.23
0.14
6.07
«
6.93
6.85
6.78
6.71
a64
a57
6.49
.07229—
7. BO
7.51
7.42
7.34
7.36
7.17
7.06
7
6.91
6.83
6.76
6.66
6.58
6.49
6.41
.08434-
8.07
8.58
8.48
&38
8.39
&19
aoo
8
7.90
7.81
7.71
7.61
7.53
7.43
7.83
.0063H+
9.70
9.65
O.M
9.43
9.33
9.22
9.11
9
a89
a 78
a67
a56
a46
a35
a 34
.10648+
ia84
10.72
laoo
ia48
ia86
ia24
iai3
10
9.88
9.76
9.64
a6S
9.40
a38
9.16
.12018+
11.03
11.79
11.66
11.63
11.40
11.36
11.18
11
ia87
ia73
ia60
ia47
ia34
laso
10.07
.13353
13.01
12,87
12.72
12.58
12.43
12.29
12.14
1«
11.86
11.71
11.67
11.43
11.38
11.13
laoo
.14458-
14.10
13.94
13.78
13.63
13,47
13.81
iai6
It
12.84
13.60
13.63
13.87
13.33
13.06
11.90
.15663-
15.18
15.01
14.84
14.67
14.60
14.34
14.17
14
ia83
ia66
ia49
ia33
13.16
13.99
13.82
.16867+
10.36
16.06
15.90
15.72
16.64
16.36
16.18
16
14.82
14.64
14.46
14.38
14.10
13.91
13.73
.18073+
17.35
17.16
16.96
16.77
16.68
16.38
16.19
16
15.81
16.61
ia43
16.33
16.04
14.84
14.66
.19277+
18.43
ia23
18.02
17.82
17.61
17.41
17.30
17
16.79
16.60
16.33
iai8
ia97
ia77
16.67
.20483-
19.52
19.30
19.08
18.87
ia65
18.43
ia22
18
17.78
17.67
17.85
17.13
ia9i
laTO
16.48
.31687-
20.60
2a 37
20.14
19.91
19.69
19.46
19.23
19
ia77
ia64
lasi
iao8
17.86
17.63
17.40
.23891+
21.69
21.44
21.20
20.96
3a 72
3a 48
30.24
W
19.76
19.63
19.38
10.08
ia79
ia65
lasi
.34006+
22.77
22.52
22.26
22.01
21.76
31.60
21.25
31
3a 76
30.49
3a 34
ia9o
19.73
ia48
19.23
.35301+
23.85
23.60
23.32
23.06
22.79
22.53
33.36
22
21.73
21.47
31.30
30.94
30.67
3a4i
30.14
.26506
24.94
24.66
24.38
24.11
33.83
23.55
33.28
28
32.7?
22.44
32.17
31.89
31.61
31.34
31.06
.37711-
26.02
25.73
25.45
25.16
34.87
24.68
34.29
24
23.71
23.42
33.13
32.84
32.55
32.28
21.98
.29916-
27.11
26.81
26.50
26.20
35.90
25,60
25.30
26
24.70
24.40
34.10
33.79
23.49
33.19
22.80
.30130+
28.19
27.88
27.57
27.25
26.94
26,63
26.31
28
26.09
25.37
36.06
34.76
24.43
34.12
23.81
.31336+
29.28
28.95
28.63
2a 30
27.97
27.66
27,82
27
26.67
26,35
36.02
36.70
25.37
25.05
24.72
.32530+
30.36
30.02
29.69
29.35
29.01
28.67
2a 34
28
27.66
27.32
2a 99
36.65
2a 31
25.97
25.64
.33736-
31.45
31.10
30.75
30.40
30.05
29.70
29.35
29
28.65
2a 30
37.95
27.60
27.25
36.90
26.55
.34940-
32.53
32.17
31.81
31.44
31.08
30.72
3a36
80
29.64
29.28
3a 91
2a 66
2a 19
37.83
27.47
.36144+
33.61
33.24
32.87
32.49
32.12
31.75
31.37
81
3a63
3a25
29.88
29.60
29.13
3a 76
3a 38
.37349+
34.70
34.31
33.93
33.54
33.16
32.77
32.38
82
31.61
31.23
30.84
80.46
30.07
39.69
29.30
.38654+
35.78
35.38
34.99
34.59
34.19
33.79
33.40
88
32.60
32.20
31.81
31.41
81.01
80.61
30.22
.39759
36.87
36.46
36.05
35.64
35.23
34.82
34.41
84
33.59
33.18
32.77
82.36
31.96
31.54
31.13
.40964-
37.95
37.53
37.11
36.69
36.26
35.84
35.42
85
34.58
34.16
33.73
88.31
32.89
32.47
82.05
.42169-
39.03
38.60
38.17
37.73
37.30
36.87
36.43
86
35.56
35.13
84.70
84.36
83.83
33.40
32.96
.48373+
40.12
39.67
39.23
38.78
38.34
37.89
37.44
87
36.55
36.11
85.66
35.22
84.77
84.32
33.88
.44578+
41.20
40.75
40.29
39.83
39.37
3S. 91
3a 46
88
37.64
37.08
36.63
86.17
86.71
35.25
«.79
.45783+
42.29
41.82
41.35
4a 88
4a 41
39.94
39.47
89
3a 53
38.06
87.69
37. 12
36.65
36.18
35.71
.46068-
43.37
42.89
42.41
41.93
41.44
4a 96
40.48
40
39.52
3a 04
3a 55
38.07
37.69
37,11
36.63
.48193-
44.46
43.96
43.47
42.97
42.48
41.99
41.49
41
4a 60
4a 01
39.53
39.02
3a 53
3a 03
87.64
.49307+
45.54
45.03
44.53
44.02
43.52
43.01
42.50
42
41.49
4a 99
4a 48
39.97
39.47
3a 96
88.46
.50602+
46.63
46.11
45.59
45.07
44.55
44.03
43.52
48
42.48
41.96
41.44
4a 93
4a 41
39.89
39.37
.51807+
47.71
47.18
46.65
46.12
46.59
45.06
44.53
44
43.47
42.94
42.41
41.88
41.35
4a 82
40.20
.63013
48.79
48.25
47.71
47.17
46.63
46.08
46.54
46
44.46
43.91
43.37
42.83
42.29
4L75
41.20
.64317-
49.88
49.32
48.77
48.22
47.66
47.11
46.55
46
46.45
44.89
44.34
43.78
4a 23
42.67
42.12
.55433-
50.96
50.40
49.83
49.26
48.70
4a 13
47.56
47
46.43
45.87
45.30
44.73
44.17
4a 00
43.03
.56636+
52.05
51.47
50.89
50.31
49.73
4a 16
4a 58
48
47.42
46.84
46.26
45.69
45.11
44.53
43. 9^
.57831+
53.13
52.54
61.95
51.36
60.77
50.18
49.59
49
4a 41
47.82
47.23
4a 64
46.05
45.46
44.87
.590M+
54.22
53.61
63.01
62.41
61,81
61.20
6a 60
60
49.40
4a 79
4a 19
47.69
4a 99
4a 38
45.78
.603a-
55.30
54.60
64.07
63.46
52.84
52.23
61.61
61
60.38
4a 77
4a 16
4a 64
47.93
47.31
46.70
.61446-
66.38
65.76
65.13
64.51
53.88
53.25
52.63
62
61.37
50.75
50.12
4a 49
4a 87
4a 24
47.61
.63661-
57.47
56.83
66.19
55.55
M.91
M.28
53.64
68
52.36
51.72
51.08
50.44
4a 81
4a 17
48.63
.63866+
58.55
67.90
67.25
56.60
55.95
65.30
54.66
M
53.35
52.70
62.06
61.40
60.75
6a 10
49.44
.66009+
59.61
68.97
68.31
67.65
66.99
66.32
55.66
66
54.34
53.67
63.01
52.35
61.60
61.08
60.86
.66366
60.72
6a 06
60.37
58.70
58.02
67.35
56,67
66
56.33
64,65
63.98
53.30
62.63
61.95
61.38
.67470-
61.81
01.12
60.43
69.75
59.06
5a 37
57.69
67
56.31
55.63
64.94
54.25
63.57
62.88
63.10
.68678-
62.89
62.1fl
61.49
60.79
60.09
59.40
5a 70
68
67.30
66.60
65; 90
65.30
W.50
6a 81
53.11
.60879+
63.97
63.26
62. 5S
61.84
61.13
60.42
59.71
69
5a 29
57.58
66.87
56.16
65.44
64.73
64.02
.71084+
05. OQ
64.34
63.61
62.80
62.17
61.44
60.72
60
59.28
6a 65
67.83
67.11
66.38
66.66
64.94
.72389+
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
nrTRINSIC VALXTES BASED ON DBT-MATTEE OOMTEin'.
25
Tabus IX. — Comparative value^ on a dry-matter basis^ of graiUy cottonseed^ fiovx^ etc.,
Mhowina the price per unit of weight (bttshelf 100 pounds^ etc.) ^ from 1 cent to fJ,£0, and
the difference in value for each unit testing from 10 to 24 p^ cent in moisture v)hen the
price JOT a unit testing 17 per cent in moisture is in even cents — Continued.
Moisture content (per cent) and relative value per unit of measure.
10
U 12 13 14
15
16
17 18 10
20
22 23 24
Value of
each 1
percent
of dry
matter.
cu.
M.14
67.23
6S.31
61.40
70.48
71.5:
7X65
73.73
74.83
75w9G
Cts.
65.41
66. 48
67.65 66. 79166.64
68L63
6t.70
CU.
64.67
65.73
67.85
68.91
Ct».
63.94
64.99
67.08
6&13
CU.
63.20
64.24
65.28
66.31
67.85
CU,
62.47
CU.
61.73
63.49 62.75
64.52 63.76
65.54
66.57
64.77
65.78
7a 77
71.84
72.91
73.99
75.06
60.97
71.04
73.16
74.22
68.38
69 42
72.10J 71.281 70146
71.49
72.63
69.18
7a 23
72.32
73.37
67.50 66.79
68.61
69.64
70.66
67.81
6&82
69.83
71.69 7a84
76.99 76.13
78.07 77.20
79.16 78.28 77.40 76.52
8a24 79.35
8L32 8a42
75.28
76.34
78.46
74.42
75.47
77.57
82.41
83.49
84.58
85.66
86.75
87.83
88.91
9a 00
91.06
92.17
93.25
94.34
93.42
96.51
97.59
98.6'
99.76
10aH4
101.93
103.01
104.10
106.18
106.26
107.35
108.43
8L49
82L57
83.64
84.71
85.78
80.85
87.93
89.00
90.07
9L14
92.22
03.29
94.36
96.43
96.51
97.68
9a 65
99.72
KM. 79
10L87
102.94
104.01
106.08
106.16
107.23
73.67
74.60
75.64
76.67
77.71
7&75
79.78
82. 70| 81. 76| 80. 82
81.85
82.89
79.62 78.61
8a58 79.66
8L64
83.76
84.82
8a 71
82.81
83.85
83.93
84.96
88.00{ 87.001 86! 00
87.04
88.07
85.88
86.94
89.06
9a 12
84.90
85.93
88.05
89.10
91.18
92.24
93.30
90.14
91.19
92.24
94.36 93.29
95.42
96.48
97.54
98.60
99.66
10a72
101.78
102.84
103.00
104.96
10a02
94.34
95.38
96.43
97.48
9a 53
99.58
89.11
9a 14
91.18
92.22
93.25
94.29
95.32
0a36
97.40
98.43
72.71
73.73
74.76
75.78
76.81
77.83
78.85
79.88
80.90
81.93
82.95
83.97
85.00
86.02
87.05
88.07
89.10 88.05
90.12 89.06
71.85
72.87
73.88
74.80
75.90
76.91
77.93
78.94
79.95
Sa96
81.97
82.99
84.00
85.01
86.02
87.03
91.14
92.17
03.19
90.07
91.06
92.09
94.22 93.11
95.24 94.12
96.26 95.13
97.29 96.14
CU.
61
•2
6t
64
66
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
78
74
76
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
88
»4
86
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
CU.
6a 26
61.25
62.24
63.23
64.22
65.20
66.19
67.18
68.17
69.16
59.53
6a 51
6L48
62.46
63.43
64.41
66.88
6a 36
67.34
68.31
Cts.
CU.
58.79^ 68.06^ 57.32
59.76 69.01
6a 72 59.96 59.20
61.69
62.66
CU.
6a 91
6L87
6a 14
6L08
63.61
64.58
65.54
easo
67.47 6a 63 65.78
62.82
63.77
64.72
65.67
62.02
62.96
63.90
64.84
69.29 68.43 67.58 66.721
7a26 69.40 68.53 67.0B
72.12^ 71.24 7a36 69.48^ 68.60
72.22 71.32
74.101 73.19 72.29
7a 14
7L13
75.08 74.17
7a 07
75.14
77.06 7a 12
100.63 99.47
101.67 lOa 50
102. 72 101. 54
103. 77' 102. 58
104. 82 103. 61
611109.
109.52
110.
111.69{lia
112.77111.
113.S5|ll2.d0
108.30
>.37
44
.52
107.08105.87
108.14 10a 91
109.20107.96
lia 26 109.01
U1.321ia06
114. W
116.02114.
117. U
118.191iaSS|115.
119. 28(117. 95
113.66
73
115.81
112.38
113. 45
114.50|ll3.
l5:
iiaes
120.36119.02117.69
121. 45{l2a 10 118. 75
122.63(121.17119.81
120.87
121.93
122L24
124.70123.31
125.78
126.87
127.
129. 0^127.
13ai2
124.38
126.46
53
60
128.67
9512a
122.99
124.05
125.11
12a 17
127.23
111.11
112.16
20
111.25
115.30
98.31
99.34
100.36
101.38
102.41
97.16
9a 17
99.18
100.19
101.20
104.65
105.60
106.72
107.76
108.79
109.83
lia 87
111.90
112.94
113.97
103.43
104.46
105.
loa
107.53
102.22
103.23
4S|104.24
60|l05. 25
I0a26
95
96
97
99
99
100
101
102
103
104
103. 55 107. 28
100.58106.20
lia 60 109. 30
111. 63! lia 31
112.65111.32
lia 35 115. 01
117. 40 lia 05
118. 44 rl 17. 08
Ua 49 118. 12
120.54 lia 16
121. 59 120. 19
122.64,121.23
123.60122.26
124. 73! 123. 30
125.78il24.34
113.67
114. 70
115.72
lia75
117. 77
112.34
113.35
114.36
115.37
lia38
106
19
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
118.79117.40
119.82118.41
120.84 119.42
121. 87 120. 43
122.801 121. 44
7a 05
70.03
8a02
81.01
82.00
82.00
83.08
84.06
85.05
86.04
87.93
8a 91
89.90
9a 89
91.88
92.87
93.85
04.84
95.83
96.82
97.81
9&79
99.78
100.77
101.76
102.751
105103.73102.47
77.10
7a 07
79.05
80.02
81.00
81.98
82.95
83.93
84.90
85.88
8a 86
87.83
8a 81
8a 78
9a 76
91.73
92.71
93.69
94.66
05.64
96.61
97.59
9a 57
99.54
100.52
101.49
73.25
74.22
7a 18
7a 14
77.11
7a 07
79.04
80.00
80.96
81.93
82.80
83.85
84.82
85.78
8a 75
87.71
8a 67
89.64
Oa60
01.57
02.53
03.40
04.46
05.42
0a38
07.35
08.31
90.28
100.24
10L20
7a 43
71.38
72,34
7a 20
74.24
7a 10
7a 14
77.10
7a 05
7a 00
7a 05
saoo
81.85
82.81
83.76
84.71
8a 66
8a 61
87.56
8&62
89.47
0a42
01.37
0X32
0a28
04.23
oai8
96.13
07. OS
oao:^
oao9
oao4
60.54
7a 48
7L4?
72.36
73.30
74. W
7a 18
7a 12
77.06
7a 00
78.94
70.86
80.82
81.76
82,70
83.64
84.58
85.52
8a 46
87.40
aa34
80.28
00.22
01.16
02.10
03. (M
93.97
94.91
95.85
96.70
97.73
9a 67
104.72103.44
lOa 71104.4210a
ioa70|ioa4o
107.691106.3:
ioa67
noaoo
L65jl09.30107.95
>.28ioaoi
116114.60
117 lia 59
118 lia 58
119117.
120:lia 551117.
102. 17
13
104.10
10a06
107.35|10a02
100.89 99.61
101.84 lOa 65
102. 79 101.
103.75102.43
104.7010a 37
100.66
lia
111.64
112. 63 111. 251100.88
lia61U2.231ia84
108.32
100.
lia
CU.
5a 50
57.52
5a45
69.37
60.30
61.23
62.16
6a 08
64.01
64.94
65.87
6a 79
67.72
6a 65
69.56
7a 50
71.43
72.36
7X99
74.22
7a 14
7a 07
77.00
77.93
7a 85
79.78
8a 71
81.64
8X57
8X49
84.42
8a 35
8a 28
87.20
8X13
89.06
80.00
00.01
01.84
0X77
03.70
04.63
95.55
96.48
97.41
9X34
90. 2U
1.19
101.12
102.06
40100.
105.65104.31
lOa 601106. 25 103.
107.55!lOaiO
10X501107.13
10X4610X07
CU.
55.85
66.77
67.60
58.60
60.52
60.43
61.85
62.26
63.18
64.10
65.01
66.06
66.84
67.76
68.67
60.50
70.50
71.42
72.34
73.25
74.17
75.06
76.00
7a 01
77.83
78.75
70.66
80.58
81.40
82.41
83.32
84.24
85.16
86.07
86.00
87.00
88.82
80.73
00.65
01.57
02.48
93.40
94.31
95.23
96.14
97.06
97.96
98.89
90.81
100.72
101.64
102.55
103.47
104.38
11X20111.
114.1811X
ua 16 IIX
11X41109.01
111.361 100. 96
11X31110.89
70(11X26111.83
661114.22,11X77
102.9:
00
104.83
106.76
106.60106.30
107.61106.22
lux 54 107. 13
109.47108.05
110.40108.06
111.32100.88
CtJUtt.
a 73404-
.74600-
.75904-
.77108+
.78313+
.70518
.80723-
.81028-
.83132+
.84337+
.85542+
.85747-
.87952-
.89157-
.90361+
.91566+
.92771
.93976-
.95181-
.96385+
.97590+
.98795+
1. 00000
1.01205-
L 02410-
1.03614+
1.04819+
1.06024
1.07229-
1.06434-
1.00638+
1.10843+
1. 12048+
1.13253
1. 14458-
1.15663-
1. 16867+
1. 18072+
1.10277+
L 20482-
1. 21687-
1.22891+
1.24096+
1. 25301+
1.26506
1.27711-
1. 28016-
L 30120+
1. 31325+
1.32530+
1.33735-
L 34040-
1. 36144+
L 37340+
1.38554+
1.39759
1.40901-
1.42160-
L 43373+
1.44578+
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
26
BULLBTIH 374, U. 8, DEPABTMEKT OF AGBICULTUKB.
Tablb X. — CompariJ^ve vahUf on a dry-matUr basis, of grainy cottonseed, JUnar, etc^
showing the pnce per unit of weight {bushel, 100 pounas, etc.), from 1 cent to flJOani
the dijference in value for each unit testing from It to H per cent in moisture when tks
price for a unit testing 15i per cent in moisture (maximum moisture allowed in No, i
com, U, 8. grade) is in even cents.
Hoistor* oonUnt (p«r oant) and relatfve value per unit of moasoro.
VataM
of each
13
13
14
15
16.5
16
17
18
19
20
21
23
23
34
of dry
mattflr.
Cts.
C/».
Ct*.
Ct*.
Cto.
CU.
Cts.
Ct».
Of.
Ctt.
Of.
Of.
CU.
Ctt.
Oott.
1.04
1.03
1.02
1.00
1
aoo
a98
a97
a96
aos
a93
a92
a 91
aoo
a 01188+
2.08
2.06
2.03
2.01
2
1.99
1.96
L94
1.92
1.89
1.87
1.85
1.82
1.80
.023«>7>
3.13
8.00
3.06
8.02
S
2.98
2.95
2.91
2.87
2.84
2.80
2.7t
2.73
2.70
.att50+
4.16
4.12
4.07
4.02
4
3.98
8.93
3.88
a83
3.79
a 74
aoo
a64
aoo
.04734—
6.21
6.16
6.09
6.03
6
4.97
4.91
4.85
4.79
4.73
4.67
4.61
4.66
4.50
.05917+
ft. 25
6.18
6.11
6.03
6
6.96
6.89
6.83
a75
aos
a 61
a64
a 47
a4o
.onoa+
7.29
7.21
7.12
7.04
7
6.96
6.87
6.79
a7i
a63
a54
a46
a38
a29
.0S2K4
&33
a24
a 14
&06
8
7.95
7.86
7.76
7.67
7.67
7.48
7.38
7.29
7.19
.09467+
9.37
9.27
9.16
9.06
9
8.95
a84
a73
a63
a62
a 41
a 31
a20
ao9
.10651-
ia4i
ia29
iai8
iao6
10
9.94
9.82
9.70
9.58
9.47
9.35
9.23
9.11
a99
.11SM+
11.45
11.82
11.19
11.06
11
ia93
laso
ia67
ia64
ia4i
ia28
iai6
iao2
9.80
.13018-
12.60
12.36
12.21
12.07
12
11.93
11.79
11.64
11.60
1L36
11.22
11.08
ia93
ia79
.14301+
13.54
13.38
13.23
13.08
18
12.92
12.77
12.61
12.46
12.31
12.15
12.00
11.85
11.69
.ld3S»—
14.68
14.41
14.25
14.06
14
13.92
13.76
13.58
ia42
ia25
13.09
12.92
12.78
12.59
.16568
15.62
16.44
16.20
15.09
16
14.91
14.73
14.55
14.38
14.20
14.02
ia8i
13.67
ia49
.17751+
16.66
16.47
16.28
16.09
16
16.90
lS.90
15.72
16.53
16.34
16.15
14.96
14.77
14.58
14.39
.18035—
17.70
17.60
17.30
17.10
17
16.70
16.50
ia29
16.09
ia89
laao
ia49
ia29
.20US+
18.74
18.63
18.33
18.11
18
17.89
17.68
17.47
17.25
17.04
16.83
laei
ia40
iai9
.21302-
19.79
19.66
19.34
19.11
1»
18.89
18.66
ia44
ia2i
17.99
17.76
17.64
17.31
17.09
.23485+
20.83
30.60
2a 36
2a 12
20
19.88
19.64
19.41
19.17
ia93
laTO
ia46
ia22
17.99
.23669-
21.87
31.62
21.37
21.12
21
20.87
20.63
20.38
20.13
19.88
19.63
19.38
10.14
ia89
.24853
22.91
2^66
22.39
22.13
22
21.87
21.61
21.36
21.00
20.83
2a 67
3a 31
2a 06
19.79
.36035+
23.06
23.68
23.41
23.14
28
22.86
22.69
22.32
22.05
21.77
21.60
2144
2L23
2a 96
3a 60
.27219—
24.99
24.71
24.42
24.14
24
23.86
23.57
23.29
23.00
22.72
22.15
21.87
21.68
.28402+
26.03
26.74
25.44
26.16
26
24.85
24.66
24.36
23.96
33.67
33.37
23.08
23.78
23.48
.39586—
27.08
26.77
26.46
?6.15
26
25.84
25.64
26.33
24.92
24.61
34.31
24.00
3a 09
2X38
.30769+
28.12
27.80
27.48
27.16
27
26.84
26.52
26.20
26.88
25.66
25.24
24.92
34.00
24.28
.31953-
29.16
28.83
28.50
28.16
28
27.83
27.50
27.17
26.84
26.61
36.18
25.86
8a 61
25.18
.33136
30.20
29.86
29.51
29.17
29
28.83128.481
28.14
27.80
27.45
37.11
2a 77
3a 43
3a 08
.34319+
31.24
30.89
30.63
30.18
SO
29.82
29.47
29.11
2a 76
2&40
2a 06
37.60
37.34
2a 98
.35503-
32.28
81.92
31.65
31.18
81
30.82
30.46
30.08
29.71
29.35
2a 98
2a 61
2a 25
37.88
.36686+
33.32
32.95
32.57
32.19
82
31.81
31.43
31.05
30.67
30.30
29.92
39.54
39.16
2a 78
.37«7l>-
34.37
33.98
33.58
33.19
88
32.80
32.41
32.02
31.63
31.24
30.85
3a 46
30.07
29.68
.39053+
35.41
35.01
34.60
34.20
84
33.80
33.40
32.99
32.59
32.19
31.79
31.38
3a 98
80.68
.40237-
36.45
36.03
36.62
35.21
85
34.79
31.38
33.96
33.55
33.14
32.73
33.31
31.89
31.48
.41430+
37.49
37.06
36.61
36.21
88
35.79
35.36
3 ♦.93
34.51
34.08
33.66
3a 23
33.80
32.38
.42608+
38.53
38.09
37.06
37.22
87
36.78
36 31
35.90
35.47
35.03
84.50
34.15
33.71
33.28
.43787-
89.57
39.12
38.67
38.22
88
37.77
37.32
36.87
36.42
35.98
35.53
35:08
34.63
31.18
.44970+
40.61
40.15
39.69
39.23
89
38.77
38.31
37.85
37.38
36.92
36.46
36.00
35.64
35.08
.461M—
41.66
41.18
40.71
4a 24
40
39.76
30.29
38.82
3a 34
37.87
37.40
3a 92
3a 46
36.98
.47337+
42.70
42.21
41.73
41.24
41
4a 76
4a 27
39.79
39.30
38.82
3a 33
37.85
37.36
3a 87
.48531-
43.74
43.24
42.74
42.25
42
41. 75! 41. 25
40.76
40.26
39.76
39.27
3a 77
8a27
37.77
.49704 +
44.78
44.27
43.76
43.25
48
42.74
42.24
41.73
41.22
40.71
40.20
39.69
30.18
3a 67
.50887+
45.82
45.30
44.78
44.26
44
43.74
43.2?
42.70
42.18
41.66
41.14
4a 61
4a 09
39.57
.52071
46.8ti
46.33
45.80
45.26
45
44.73
44.20
43.67
43.13
42.60
42.07
41.54
41.00
4a 47
.53254+
47.90
47.36
46.82
46.27
48
45.73
45.18
44.64
44.00
43.65
43.01
42.46
41.92
41.87
.54438-
48. 9.'»
48.39
47.83
47.28
47
46.72
46.16
45.61
45.0^
44.50
43.94
43.38
42.83
42.37
.55631+
49.99
49.42
48.85
48.28
48
47.72
47.15
46.58
46.01
46.44
44.87
44.31
4a 74
43.17
.56805—
51.03
50.45
49.87
49.29
49
48.71
48.13
47.55
46.97! 46.39
45.81
45.23
44.65
44.07
.57988+
62.07
61.48
50.89
50.30
50
49.70
49.11
4a 52
47.93
47.34
46.74
4a 15
4a 66
44.97
.59173—
63.11
52.61
51.90
51.30
51
50.70
50.09
40.49
4a 89
4a 38
47.68
47.08
4a 47
4a 87
.O0S&5
64.15
53.54
52.92
52. 3i
52
51.69
51.08; 50.46
49.81
49.23
4a 61
4a OO
47.38
4a 77
.61538+
65.19
64.57
53.94
53.31
58
62.69
62.06
51. 43
50.80
50.18
49.55
4a 92
4a 29
47.67
.62723—
66.24
66.60
64.96
54.32
54
63,68
53.04
52.40
51.76
51.12
50.48
49.84
49.21
4a 57
.63905+
67.28
66.63
66.98
65.32
55
64.67
54.02
53.37
62.72
52.07
51.42
5a 77
50.12
49.47
.65069-
58.32
67.66
56.99
56.33
56
66.67
55.00
54.34
63.68
53.02
62.35
61.69
51.03
5a87
.66273+
69.36
68.60
58.01
67.34
57
66.66
65.99
55.31
54.64
63.96
63.29
62.61
51.94
51.27
.67456-
60.40
60.71
50.03
58.34
58
57.66
66.97
56.28
55.60
54.91
54.22
53.64
52.85
52.16
.68639
61.44
60.74
60.05
60.35
59
58.65
57.95
67.26
66.55
65.86
66.16
64.46
6a 76
63.06
.69823+
63.48
61.77
61.06
6a 35
60
59.64
68.93
6a 22
67.51
66.80
66.09
65.38
64,67
63.96
.71006-
Digiti
zed by Google
MTTEINSIC VALUES BASED ON DRY-MATTER CONTEIIT.
27
Table X. — Comparative value y <m a dry-matter basis ^ of grainy cottonseed y floury etc,.
Mhowirig the price per unit of weight {bushel, 100 pounJsy etc.) y from 1 cent to fl.iO cma
the difference in value for each unit testing from 12 to £4 per cent in moisture when the
pricefbr a unit testing 15i per cent in moisture (maximum moisture allowed in No. t
corny U. 8. grade) is in even cents — Continued.
Moisture cwntMit (per cent) and relative value per unit of measure.
Value
of each
1 per cent
U
13
14
15
15.5
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
of dry
matter.
cu.
Ct4.
a*.
CV«.
Cts.
CU.
Cts.
Cts.
as.
Cts.
Cts.
as.
CU.
Cu.
CCTUS.
63.53
62.80
62.08
61.36
61
60.64
59.92
59.19
58.47
57.75
67.03 56.311
55.58
64.86
a 72189+
61.57
63.83
63.10
62.37
62
61.03
60.90
60.10
59.43
68.70
57.96 57.231
56.50
55.76
.73373-
65.61
64.86
64.12
63.37
6.1
62.63
61.88
61.13
60.39
59.64
58.90
58.15
67.41
66.66
.74556+
66.65
6.5.89
65. 14
64.38
61
63.62
62.86
62.11
61.35
60.59
59.83
59.08
58,32
57.56
.75740-
67.69
66.92
66.15
65.38
65
64.61
63.85
63.08
62.31
61.54
60.77
60.00
69.23
68.46
.76023
68.73
67.95
67.17
66.39
66
65.61
64.83
64.05
63.26
62.48
61.70
60.92
60.14
59.36
.78106+
69.77
68.98
68.19
67.40
6;
66.60
65.81
65.02
64.22
63.43
62.64! 61.851
61.05
60.26
.79290-
70.8?
70.01
69.21
68.40
68
67.60
66.79
65.99
65.18
64.38
63.57
62.77
61.96
61.16
.80473+
71.86
71. Ot
70.22
69.41
61)
68. .-)9
67.77
66.9t5
66.14
65. 32
64.51
63.69
62.87
62.06
.81657-
72.90
72.07
71.34
70.41
70
69.58
68.76
67.93
67.10
66.27
66.44
64.61
63.79
62.96
.82840+
73. 9 J
73.10
72.20
71.42
71
70. 5S
69.74
68.90
68.06
67.22
66.38
65.51
61.70
63.86
.84024-
74. 9S
74. 13
73.2.S
72.42
7-2
71.57
70. 72
69.87
69.02
6S.16
67.31
66.40
65. CI
64.76
.85207+
76.02
75.16
74.29
73.43
73
72.57
71.70
70.84
69.97
69.11
68.25
67. 3S
66.52
65.66
.88390+
77.0ft
76. 19
75.31
74.44
74
73.50
72.69
71.81
70.93
70.00
69.18
68.31
67. 43
66.56
.87574-
78.11
77.22
76.33
75.44
75
74.55
73.67
72.78
71.89
71.00
70.12
09.23
68.34
67.45
.88757+
79.15
78.25
77.35
76.45
76
75.55
74.65
73.75
72.85
71.95
n.o5
70.15
69.25
68.35
.89941-
80.19
79. 2S
78.37. 77.45
77
76. 54
7.5. o;V 74.72
73. 81
72.90
71.99' 71.08
7a 16
69.25
.91134+
81. 2'^
m.3i
79.3s; 78.40
78
77.54
76. or 75. C9
74.77
73.85
72.921 72.00
71. OS
7a 15
.92308-
82.27
81.34
80.40. 79.47
79
7H. r>:i
77.00! 70.00
75. 73
74.79
73.86: 72.92
71.99
71.05
.93401+
83.31
82.37
81.421 80.47
80
79.53
78.58| 77.63
76.68
75.74
74.79
73.84
72.90
71.95
.94674+
84.3.'
83.40
82.44' 81.48
81
80. 52
79.56
78.60
77.64
76.69
75.73
74.77
73.81
72. a5
.05858-
K.4ii
81.42
83.45 82.48
8-2
81.51
8;i.54
79.57
78.60
77.03
76.66
75. CO
74.72
73. 75
.97041 +
86.4*
8.5. 45
84.47 83.49
83
82. 51
81.53
80.54
79. 56
78.58
77.60
76.61
75.63
74.65
.9822.5-
87.4^
80.48
85.49 81.. 'iO
84
83. 50
82.51
81.51
80.52
79.53
78. .53
77.51
76. 54
75. 55
.9^08+
88.52
87.51
86.51 85.50
85
84.50
83.49
82.48
81.48
80.47
79.47
78.46
77.45
76.45
1.00592-
89.56
88.51
87.5.T 86.51
86
85. 49
R1.47
S3. 4.';
82.44
81.42
80.40
79.3.S
78.37
77.351 1.0177.5+ |
90. C)
89. 57
fvS.5t 87.51
87
80. 4H
H.->.4.5i 81.42
a3. 39
82.37
81.34
80.31
79. 2s
78.25
79.15
L 02958+
91.01
9). CO
89. -»0 8^52
8H
87. 4S
8*i.44 8.5.40
81.35
83.31
82. 27| 81. 23
80.19
1.04142
92. n>
91. C:^
90..'^^; 89. .'■>3
89
8.8.47
87.42] 80.37
8.5.31
81. 2(
83.21' 82.15
81.10
80.05
1.05325+
93.73
92.66
91.60 90.5-3
90
80.47
88.40 87.34
j
80.27
85.21
84.14
83.08
82.01
80.95
1.06509-
W.77
93. CO
92.61 91.54
01
90.46
89. 38' 88. 31
87.23
86.15
8,5.08
84.00
82.92
81.84
1.07C92+
9.>. 81
91.72
93. <« 92. .54
9^2
91.45
90.37t 89.2^
8S.19
87.10
80.01 84.92
s;}.g3
82-74
1.08.870-
96. F,-,
91.05 9;}. .5.-)
931 9-45
91.35' 90.2'
89. 15
8S. 0.-
80.95 85.8,-
81.74
83.64
1. 10059+
97.80
9-'!! 7s'
9.5.67 91.. V)
91 0,J.4!
92.33. 91.22
90.11
as. 90
87.88 8C.77
S-). CO
84.54
1.11243-
98.931 97.81| 96.69 95. 5<)
95 94.44
93.31! 92.19
91.06
89.94
88.82 87.69
1
86.57
85.44
1.12428
99.97 98.81; 97.70 9fi.57
96 9.5.43
94. 29' 93. If
92.02
90.80
89.75' 88.61
87.48
86.34
1. 13009+
101.021 90. ST, 9^.71^ 97.57 fH\ %. 4;'>
1 95 28 91.13
92. OS' 91.8:»
90.09 89. .54
8.S.39' 87.24
1. 14793-
1 )2. 0 IfX). 9V 99. 74) 9^. 5^ 98 97. 42
i 9) 20, 95.10
93.94i 92. 7h
91.02 90.40
89.30| 88.14
1. 1.-97C+
i')3. 10101.9'. im.Ti;; oo.ro 91 os.^i y; 21! 9f>.07
91.90. 9:i.7.';
92.5r», 91.38
90.21 89.04
1. 171(50-
104. 14 102. 9C 101. 77 100. 59 100^ 90. 41 98. 22; 97. 04
95.86 94.67
93.49; 92.31
91.12 89.94
1. 183 13+
105. IS 103.90 102. 70 101. fin 101 100.40 90 21 98.01
95.82 9.5.62
94.43 9.3.23
92.03! 90.84
1.19,527-
1 >V 22 100. 0 mi. HI 102.(V.| l(52lOI.40i;)t).19 9H. IN
97.77 90.57
9.K30 9-1.15 92.95 91.74
1.20^10
107. 2:3 m\ o.-i 10'. sr; 10:5. 01 1 10.5 102. :i9 101. 17 m. o:,! 9s. 73 97. 51
9<).20 95. 0^ 93. SO' 92.01
1.21 '■93+
ITS. 31 107.0^ 10-,. S.-. 101. ni i:>4 laa^sr 2.151 fX). 921 90.09 9S.4(
97.23 9<J.IK> 94.77 93.5^
1. 23077-
109. 35|10i 11 100. 8C 105. G2
105 104. 38 103. 13 101. SO 100. 05, 99. 41
98.10 96.92, 95.68 94.44
1.24260+
110.39Wl4'l07.8x'l06.0n
III
106 105. 3? 101. 12 102. 8^101. 01 100. 3f
99.10 97. R5' 90. .^.9 9,5.34
1.25444-
111.43 110.1G10i9U07.(»;;
107 1(X. 37 10.5. 10 lOo. Si,102. 57 101. 3^; 100. 03 98. 77 97. 50 9v). 24
1. 2W.27+
112.47 111.19 1K>.92 10S.G'
10H 107. ;i ; 105. OS 104. 8 1(J3. 53 102. 2,M(H). 97. 99. 09. 98. 41 97. 1 1
1.27S11-
113.51 112.22110.9'. raO^
100 lOS. ;'^ 107. OG 105. 77.1'M. 48 103. IV 101. 90 l(Xl 01, 90. 32 9S. C3
1.2K994
114.5:.113.25lll.9:il0.6:.
1 10 109. 35 108. 05 106. 74 105, 44,104. 14 , 102. 84 101. 54 100. 24 98. 93
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1.30177+
115.6r!ll4.2s'll2.9-!ll!.f.<^
111 110. 34 1(X). 03 107. 72 106. 40 10.5. m* 103. 77 102. 40 101. 15' 99. 83
1.31361-
110.61 115.31 1U.9',11J.G, i 113 111. 3:. 1 10. 01 rxoO 107.30 lUi. 0.' lOJ. 71 Itti.SS 102. (K'-lOv). 7:{
, 1.32.M4+
117. 0-^ 116. 3^1 115.0'lli;5.07l 112,112. .'« 110. iX) 109. G<; 108..TJ 100.yM05.04 104.31,102.97 101. Tk]
, 1.33728-
lis. 72a 17. 37.110. 0J|1H.07| 114 113.32 111. IN 110.(3 1*)9.2S 1)7.9:? l(V). 5»^ 105. 2:5103. K^ 102. S?,
1.31911+
119. 761118. 40 117. 01 115. OS
120.8o'll9.43118.0rjll6.09
115,114. 32,112. 90 HI. GO lia 24,108. SM07. 51100. 15,104- 7l\103. 43
ill
1.36095-
116 115. 31 113. 94 112. 57 HI. 19 109. 82 108. 4 5* 107. 08* 10,5. 7c'l04. 33
1.37278+
121.iM12a46119.tt;U7.69
117 116.31 114.92113.54 112.15110.77 109. as 108.00100.61
1C5.23
1.38461+
122. 89 121. 49 120. 09, 118. 70
118 117. 30 115. 90 114. 51 113. 11 111. 72 110. 32 108. 92,107. 5r
ICO. 13
1.39645-
123.93 122.52 121. 11 '119.70
119 1 18. 29 116. 89 115. 48 114. 071 12. C-- 111.2' 109. 8^ 108.4-'
107. n
1.40828+
124. 97 123. 55 122L 13.12a 71
120 lift. 29 117. 87 116. 45 115. 03 113. 61 112. 19 lia 77 109. 3£
107.93
1.42012-
Digiti
zed by Google
28
BULLBTUr 874, U. 8. DBPABTMENT OF AOBIOULTUBB.
Tablb XI. — ComparaHve vahUf <ma dn-matUr basis, cf qrain^ ooUonseed^JUmty sU^
showing the price per unit of weight {hmnel, 100 pounds, etc.)^from 1 cent to fl.tO^ emd
the difference in value for each unit testing from It to 24 per cent in moisture when tks
price for a unit testing 17i per cent in mouture (maximum moisture allowed in No. J
com, U, S, grade) is xn even cents.
Hoistur* cootont (per otnt) and relative taIim per unit o( mMourt.
Value
oCeach
iper^
cent of
13
13
14
16
16
17
17.5
18
10
20
21
22
23
24
dry
mait«r.
CU.
Ctt.
Of.
CU.
Of.
CU.
CU.
CU.
Of.
Of.
CU.
CU.
Ctt.
CU.
Ctnu.
1.07
1.06
1.04
L03
1.02
1.01
1
a99
a98
a97
aw
a94
ao3
a92
a 01212 +
2.13
2.11
2.08
2.06
2.04
2.01
t
1.99
1.96
1.94
1.91
Lft
1.87
LS4
.03424 +
3.20
3.16
3.13
3.09
3.05
8.02
8
2.98
2.94
2.91
2.87
2.84
2.80
2.76
.09636+
4.27
4.22
4.17
4.12
4.07
4.02
4
3.97
8.93
8.88
3.83
8.78
8.78
3.6S
.04848 +
6.33
6.27
5.21
5.15
5.09
5.03
6
4.97
4.91
4.85
4.79
4.7J
4.67
4.61
.06061 —
«.40
6.33
6.25
6.18
6.11
6.04
•
5.96
5.80
5.82
5.74
5.67
5.60
5.53
.0737*—
7.47
7.38
7.30
7.21
7.13
7.04
7
6.96
6.87
6.79
a 70
6.62
a53
a 46
.084S6—
8.63
8.44
8.34
8.24
8.14
8.05
8
7.95
7.85
7.76
7.66
7.66
7.47
7.37
.006b7-
0.60
0.49
9.3H
9.27
9.16
9.05
•
8.94
8.84
8.73
8.62
8.61
8.40
8.29
.109(9
10.67
10.64
10.42
10.30
10.18
iao6
10
9.94
9.82
9.70
9.57
9.45
0.33
0.21
.12121+
11.73
11.60
11.47
11.33
11.20
11.07
11
ia93
ia80
ia67
ia53
la 40
ia27
la 13
.18338+
12.80
12.66
12.51
12.36
12.22
12.07
12
11.93
11.78
11.64
1L49
11.84
1L20
1L05
.14&r6+
13.87
13.71
13.55
13.39
13.23
13.08
18
12.92
12.76
12.60
12.45
12.29
12.13
11.97
. 16757+
14.93
14.76
14.59
14. 2
14.25
11.0S
14
13.91
13.74
13.58
13.41
13.24
13.07
12.90
.10970-
16.00
15.82
15.6.
15.45
15.27
15.09
16
14.91
14.73
14.54
14.36
14.18
14.00
13.82
.18183-
17.07
16.87
16.68
16.48
16.29
16.10
16
15.90
15.71
16.51
15.32
15.13
14.93
14.74
.19394—
18.13
17.93
17.72
17.51
17.31
17.10
17
16.90
16.69
16.48
16.28
iao7
15.87
15.66
.30606
19.20
18.18
18.76
18.54
18.33
18.11
18
17.89
17.67
17.45
17.24
17.02
1&80
ia58
.2l8i8+
20.27
20.04
19L80
19.67
19.34
19.11
19
18.88
18.65
18.42
18.10
17.96
17.73
17.50
.23000+
21.33
21-09
20.85
20.60
20.36
20.12
20
19.88
19.64
19.30
19.15
18.91
18.67
18.42
.24242+
22.40
22.14
21.89
21.63
21.88
21.13
21
20.87
2a 62
2a 36
2aii
19.85
19.60
19.34
.25454+
23.47
23.20
22. b3
22.67
22.40
22.13
22
21.87
21.60
21.33
21.07
2a 80
20.53
2a 27
.36667-
24. £3
24.26
23.97
23.70
23.42
23.14
28
22.86
22.58
22.30
22.02
21.74
21.47
21.19
.27879-
25.60
25.31
25.02
24.73
24.44
24.14
24
23.85
23.56
23.27
22.98
22.69
22.40
22.11
.29001—
26.67
26.36
26.06
25.76
25.45
25.15
26
24.85
24.54
24.24
23.94
23.64
23.33
23.03
.30303
27.73
27.42
27.10
26.79
26.47
26.16
20
25.84
25.53
25.21
24.90
24.58
24.27
23.95
.31515+
28.80
28.47
28.14
27.82
27.49
27.16
27
26.84
26.51
26.18
25.85
25.53
25.20
24.87
.32727+
29.87
20.^3
20.19
28.85
28.51
28.17
28
27.83
27.49
27.15
2a 81
26.47
2a 13
25.79
.33«09+
30.03
30.68
80.23
29.88
29.53
29.17
29
28.82
28.47
28.12
27.77
27.42
27.07
2a 71
.35151 +
82.00
31.64
31.27
30.91
3a 54
8ai8
80
29.82
29.45
29.09
28.73
28.36
28.00
27.64
.36364—
33.07
32.69
82.31
31.94
31. £6
31.19
81
80.81
3a 44
30.06
29.68
29.31
28.93
28.56
.37576—
34.13
33.74
33.36
32.97
32.58
32.19
82
31.81
31.42
31.03
30.64
80.25
20.87
29.48
.387S8-
36.20
34.80
84. 'lO
34.00
33.60
33.20
88
82.80
82.40
32.00
31.60
81.20
3a 80
30.40
.40000
36.27
35.85
35. 44
35.03
34.62
34.20
.84
33.79
33.38
32.97
32.f6
32.14
31.73
81.32
.41212+
37.33
36.91
36.48
36.06
35.64
35.21
86
34.79
34.36
33.94
33.51
83.09
32.67
82.24
.42434+
38.40
37.96
37. f 3
87.09
86.65
86.22
88
3.'i.78
35.34
34.91
84.47
84.04
83.60
33.16
.43636+
39.47
39.02
38./. 7
38.12
37.67
37.22
87
36.77
36.33
85.88
85.43
34.08
34.53
34.08
.448^8+
4C.63
40.07
39.61
39. 15
38.69
38.23
88
37.77
37.31
86.85
86.39
85.93
85.47
85.00
.46060+
41.60
41.13
40.65
40.18
39.71
39.24
80
88.76
88.29
37.82
37.34
8a 87
86.40
35.03
.47273—
42.67
42.18
41.70
41.21
40.73
40.24
40
39.76
39.27
88.79
88.30
37.82
87.33
3a85
.48485-
48.73
43.24
42.74
42.24
41.74
41.25
41
40.75
40.25
89.70
80.26
88.76
88.27
87.77
.40697-
44.80
44.29
43.78
43.27
42.76
42.25
42
41.74
41.24
4a 73
40.22
39.71
89.20
88.60
.509(9
46.87
45.34
44.82
44.30
43.78
43.26
48
42.74
42.22
41.70
41.17
4a 65
40.18
89.61
.52121 +
46.93
46.40
45.87
45.33
44.80
44.27
44
43.73
43.20
42.67
42.13
41.60
41.07
4a 53
.53333+
48.00
47.45
46.91
46.36
45.82
45.27
46
44.73
44.18
43.64
43.00
42.54
42.00
41.45
.54545+
49.07
48.51
48.95
47.39
46.83
46.28
46
45.72
45.16
44.60
44.05
43.40
42.98
42.87
.55757+
60.13
49.56
48.99
48.42
47.85
47.28
47
46.71
46.14
46.68
45.01
44.44
43.87
43.80
.56970—
61.20
50.62
50.04
49.45
48.87
48.29
48
47.71
47.13
46.54
46.96
45.38
44.8^
44.22
.58182—
62.27
61.67
51.08
50.48
49.89
49.30
49
48.70
48.11
47.51
46.92
4a 33
45.73
45.14
.50394—
63.33
62.73
52.12
61.51
6a 91
5a 30
60
49.70
49.09
48.48
47.88
47.27
4a 67
4a 06
.60606
54.40
63.78
63.16
52.54
51.93
51.31
61
50.60
5a 07
48.45
48.84
48.22
47.60
4a 98
.61818+
66.47
54.84
54.20
58.57
52.94
52.31
62
51.68
51.05
5a 42
49.79
49.16
48.53
47.90
.63080+
56.53
56.89
55.25
54.60
53.96
53.32
68
52.68
52.04
51.39
5a 75
5a 11
49.4?
48.82
.64242+
57.60
56.94
56.29
55.63
54.98
54.33
64
53.67
53.02
52.36
51.71
51.06
5a 40
49.74
.65454+
68.67
58.00
57.83
56.67
56.00
55.33
66
54.67
54.00
53.38
62.67
52.00
51.33
5a 67
.66667-
69.78
50.05
58.37
67.70
57.02
56.34
68
55.66
54.96
54.80
58.62
52.04
52.27
61.50
.67HT9—
60.80
oau
59.42
58.73
68.04
57.34
67
56.65
55.96
56.27
54.58
53.89
53.20
52.51
.00091—
61.87
61.16
60.46
59.76
69.05
58.35
68
67.66
56.94
5a 24
56.54
54.84
54.13
63.43
.70803
62.03
62.22
61.60
60.79
6a 07
59.36
69
58.64
67.93
57.21
5a 50
55.78
65.07
54.85
.71516+
64.00
63.27
62.54
6L82
6L00
ea36
60
59.64
58.91
58.18
£7.45
5a 73
5a 00
65.37
.72727+
Digiti
zed by Google
nSTBnSBIC VALUES BASED ON DBT-MATTEB CONTEITT.
29
TTable XL — Comparative value ^ on a dry-matter basis, of grain, cottonseed, flottr, etc.,
shovAng the price per unit of weight {bushel, 100 pounds, etc.), from 1 cent to fl.tO, and
the difference in value for each unit testing from It to H per cent in moisture when the
price for a unit testing i7J per cent in moisture {maximum moisture allowed in No. S
com, U. S. grade) is xn even cents — Continued.
Molstan content (per otnt) and rtlatlTB Tain* per unit of nuasnrt.
I
13 14
15
10
17
17.5
18
19
ao
34
Value
ofeach
Iper
cent of
dry
matter.
Of.
64.33
Of.
63. £1
Of.
05.07^
66.13 65.38^64.63
67.20 66.44
68.27
69.33
Of.
CtM.
65.67
67.491 66.71
7a 40
71.47
72.53
73.60
74.67
75.73
76.80
77.87
78.93
8a 00
81.07
82.13
83.20
84.27
85.33
86.40
87.47
88.53
89.60
9a 67
91.73
92.80
93.87
94.90
96.00
97.07
9f<.n
99.20
100.27
10L33
68.54
69.60
7a 65
71.71
72.76
73.82
74.87
75.93
76.98
78.04
79.09
80.14
81.20
82.25
83.31
84.36
85.42
86.47
87.53
8S.£8
89. &1
90.69
91.74
92. «0
93.85
94.91
95.96
97.02
9S.o:
99.13
loais
64.91
65.94
66.97
68.00
69.03
7a 06
71.09
72.12
78.15
74.18
75.21
76.24
77.27
78.30
79.33
8a 36
81.39
82.42
83.45
84.48
85.51
86.54
87.57
88.60
9').69| 89.63
90.67
91.70
92.73
62.86 63.11
63.88 63.13
67.76
68.80
69.84
7a 88
71.93
72.97
74.01
75. Of
76.10
77.14
78.18
79.22
8a 27
81.31
82.35
83.39
84.44
85.48
86. r2
87.^6
88.60
80.65
91.73
92.77
93.82
94.86
95.9*1
96.94
97 09
99.03
102. 401101. 24 lOa 07
1(0.47 102.29101.11
105.60
ioa67
107.73
10H.80
109.87
iia93
112.00
103.34
104.40
105.45
102.10
103.20
104.24
106.51105.28
107.56106.33
108. 62 107. 37
109.67,108.41
Ua 73,109. 46
113. 07 111. 78 lia 50
114.13 112.84 111.54
115.20 113. 89ill2. 58
116.27 114.94113.62
117.33 lia 00 114.67
118.40
119.47
120. 53
117.05
18.11
19.16
12l.6'>tl2a22
122.67121.27
123.73
124.80
125.87
126.93
128.0012a
122.33
123.38
124.44
125.49
54
15.71
lia 75
117.79
118. S4
119.88
12a 92
121.96
123.00
124 05
12S.09
64,
65.16
6a 18
67.20
68.22
69.24
7a 25
71.27
72.29
73.31
74.33
75.34
7a 36
77.38
78.40
79.42
80.43
81.45
82.47
83.49
84.51
85.53
8a 54
87.66
89.60
90.62
91.64
CtM,
61.37
62.37
63.38
64.30
65.39
6a 40
67.40
68.41
69.42
7a 42
71.43
52.44
73.44
74.45
75.45
7a 46
77.47
78.47
79.48
80.48
81.49
82.50
83.50
84.51
85.51
8a 52
87.53
8S.63
89.54
90.54
Of.
60.63
61.62
62.62
63.61
64.61
65.60
6a t9
68| 67.69
6a58
69.57
Ct».
61
62
6S
<M
66
•7
Of.
69.89
6a 87
61.86
62.84
63.82
Of.
59.15
60.12
61.09
62.06
63.03
93.76
94.79
95. 82
9a 85
97.88
98.91
99.94
100.97
102.00
92.65 91.65
93.67 92.56
94.09
95.71
9a 73
97.74
9S.76
99.78
100.80
93.56
94.67
95.57
9a 58
97.59
99.60
103.031 101. 82 100.60
104. 061102. 841101. 61
105. 09(103. 851102. 62
10ai2'l(M.S7 103.62
107. 15lia5.89104.63
lOS.li>10a91 105.64
109.21
lia 24
111.27
107.93
108.94
109.96
112.30 lia 98
113.33112.00
114.36
115.39
ia42
113.02
114.03
115.05
117.45ilia07
118,48117.
119.51
12a 51
121. 57
122.60
123.63
118.11
119.13
12a 14
121. 16
122.18
106.64
107.65
108. 6.=^
109.66
lia67
111.67
112.68
113. 6S
114.69
115. 70
lia 70
117.71
118.71
70
71
It
7S
74
76
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
88
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
98
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
64.80 64.00
7a 57
71.66
72.56
73.55
74.54
75.54
7a 63
77.63
78.62
79.51
8a 51
81.50
82.50
83.49
84.48
85.48
86.47
87.47
83.46
89.45
90.45
91.44
92.44
93.43
94.42
95.42
9a 41
97.41
98.40
99.39
65.78
6a 76
67.74
68.73
69.71
7a 60
71.67
72.65
73.64
74.62
75.60
7a 58
77.56
78.54
79.63
80.51
81.49
82.47
83.45
84.44
85.42
8a 40
87.38
88.36
89.84
90.33
91.31
92.29
93.27
94.25
95.24
96.22
97.20
98.18
lOlloadO 99.16
102,101.38 lOa 14
10:j 102.37 101.13
1041103. 37| 102. 11
64.97
65.94
6a 91
67.88
68.85
69.82
7a 79
71.76
72.73
73.70
74.6;
75.64
7a 60
77.58
78.54
79.61
80.48
81.45
82.42
83.39
84.36
85.33
8a 30
87.27
88.24
89.21
90.18
91.15
92.12
93.09
94.06
95.03
96.00
9a 9'
Cte.
58.41
5a 37
60.33
61.28
62.24
63.20
64.161
65.11
6a 07
67.03
67.99
68.94
60.90
7a 86
71.82
72.77
73.73
74.69
75.65
7a 61
77.66
78.62
79.48
35
1061104. 36)103. 09 101. 82 100. 54
1061105.36104.07
107 106. a5 105. 05
121
117
lo. II 118
la 72^ 119
12a 73 120
07.34,106.04
108.3^ 107.02
109.33108.00
lia 33
11.32
112.31
113.31
97.94
9S.91
99.88
100.85
82.
83.31
84.27
85.22
8a 18
87.14
83.10
89.05
90.01
90.97
91.93
92.88
93,84
94.80
95.76
9a 71
97.6:
98.63
99.59
102.791101.50
103,761102.46
104.73 103.42
105.70104.37
106.67105.33
108.98107.64
109.96ilOS.60
lia94 109.68
111.93 lia 54
114.30112.91111.51
116115.30
lia 29
117.28
118.28
119.27
113.89
114. 87
115.86
uas^
117.82
112.48
113.45
114.42
115.39
lia 86
106.29
107. 2:,
108.21
109.16
lia 12
111.08
112.04
112.99
113.95
114.91
Of.
67.6:
58.62
59.66
60.51
6L45
62.40
63.34
64.29
65.24
66. IS
67.13
68.07
69.02
69.96
7a 91
71.85
72.80
73.74
74.69
75.64
7a 68
77.63
78.47
CU,
5a 93
67.87
58.80
59.73
6a 67
6L60
62.53
63.47
64.40
65.33
6a 27
67.20
63.13
69.07
7a 00
CU,
6ai9
57.11
58.04
58.96
59.88
6a 80
61.72
62.64
63.66
64.48
65.40
6a 33
67.25
68.17
69.09
7a 93] 7a 01
71.87 7a 93
8a44 79.42
81.39 80.36
81.31
82.26
83.20
84.14
85.09
8a o'
8a 98
87.93
8S.8:
89.82
90.76
91.71
92.6;
93. 6'
94.54 93.33
95.49
9a 4^
97.3*?
98.33
99.27
100.22
101.16
102.11
103.05
104.00
104.94
105.89
ira8^
107. 7f
108.73
72.80
73.73
74.67
75.60
7a 63
77.47
78.40
79.33
8a 27
8L20
8X13
83.07
84.00
84.93
85.87
8a 80
87.73
83.67
8a60
90.63
91.47
92.40
94.27
95.20
96.13
97.07
93.00
98.93
99.87
100.80
71.85
72.77
73.70
74.62
75.64
7a 46
77.38
78.30
79.22
8a 14
81.07
81.99
82.91
83.83
84.75
86.67
8a 69
87.51
88.44
£9.36
90.28
91.20
92.12
93.0'
93.96
94.88
95.80
96.73
97. a-
98.67
99.40
I01.73jl0a41
102.67101.33
103.60.102.25
104. 531103. 17
105.471104.10
ica40105.02
107.33105.94
Cent*.
a 73939+
.76161+
.76364-
.77576-
.78788-
.80000
.81212+
.82^24+
.83636+
.84848+
.86060+
.87273-
.88485-
.89607-
.90909
.93121+
.93333+
.94545+
.96767+
109.6710a27lI0a86
lia 62
111.56 lia
112.51
ioa2o
13
111.07
113.45 112. 00 lia 54
107.78
108.70
109.62
.98182-
.99C94-
l.OCG'6
1.01818+
1.03030+
1.04242+
1.06464+
1.0(XG7-
1.07879-
1.09091-
1.10303
1.11515+.
1.12727+
1. 13939+
1.15151+
1.16364-
1. 17576-
1. 18788-
1.20000
1. 21212+
1.22424+
1.23636+
1.24<i4S+
1. 26060+
1.27273-
1.28485-
1. 29*.97-
1.3C0(9
1.32121 +
1.33333+
1.34545+
1.35757+
1.36970-
1.38182-
1.39394-
1.40606
1.41813+
1.43030+
1.4^242+
1.45454+
uigiiizea oy 'v_jv>'v/'v lv^
80
BULLBTIK ^i, V. B. DEPARTMENT OP AGBICTJLTURE.
Tablb XII. — Oomparative value of com on a dry-maUer (ons, $hovnng the price per tanU
of toeight (btishell 100 pounds, etc.), from 40 cents to $/, cmd the dij^erence xn valwi
for eaA unit testing the maximum moisture allowed in the six numerical grades when
the price for any ffxven grade is in even cents.
For No. 1 com, U. 8. grade.
For No. 2 com, U. 8. grade.
Moisture content (per cent) and
Value of
eachl
percent
of dry
Moisture content (per cent) and rela-
Value of
relatlTe Talue per unit of measure.
tive value per unit of weight.
each 1
per cent
ci dry
14.0
15.5
17.5
19.5
21.6
23.0
matter.
14.0
15.6
17.6
10.6
21.6
23.0
matter.
«t.
Cti.
CU.
CU.
Cte.
Ct9.
Cents.
CU.
CU.
CU.
CU.
CU.
CU.
Cem».
40
30.30
88.37
87.44
36.61
35.81
0.46512-
40.71
40
30.05
38.11
37.16
86.45
a 47337+
41
40.28
80.33
8838
37.42
36.71
.47674+
41.73
41
40.03
30. OC
38.09
87.36
.48521—
42
41.27
40.20
30.31
38.34
37.60
.48837+
42.74
42
41.00
40.01
80.02
88.27
.49704+
43
42.25
41.25
40.25
80.25
88.50
.60000
43.76
46
41.08
40.06
80.05
30.18
.50887+
41
43.23
42.21
41.10
40.16
80.30
.61163-
44.78
44
42.06
4L02
40.87
4a 09
.63071
45
44.21
43.17
42.12
41.07
•40.29
.62325+
46.80
45
43.03
42.87
41.80
41.00
.53254+
46
45.20
41.13
43.06
41.00
41.18
.63488+
46.82
46
44.01
43.82
42.73
41.02
.6i:3S-
47
40. IS
45.00
43.00
4Z00
42.08
.64651+
47.83
47
45.80
44.77
43.66
42.83
.6JC21+
48
47.16
46.05
44.93
43.81
42.08
.65814-
48.85
48
46.86
45.73
44.60
43.74
.668^-
49
48.14
47.00
45.87
44.73
43.87
.66077-
40.87
49
47.84
46.68
45.52
44.65
.57968+
60
40.13
47.06
46.80
45.64
44.77
.68130+
50.80
50
48w82
47.63
46.45
45.66
.50172-
51
50.11
48.92
47.74
46.65
45.66
.59302+
51.00
51
40.70
48.58
47.38
46.47
.60355
52
51.09
40.88
48.67
47.46
46.56
.60165+
6102
52
50.77
40.64
48.31
47.88
.61538+
53
52.07
60,81
40.61
48.38
47.46
.61628-
53. W
5S
61.74
60.40
40.21
48.23
.62^2-
54
63. OC
51.80
60.65
40.20
48.35
.62701-
51.96
54
62.72
51.44
60.16
40.21
.63905+
55
54.04
52.76
51.48
50.20
40.24
.63053+
55.08
55
63.70
62.40
51.09
50.12
.65089-
56
55.02
53.72
5Z42
51.12
60.14
.65116+
66.00
66
64.67
63.35
62.02
61.03
.60372+
67
56.00
61.68
63.35
52.03
51.03
.66270
58.01
57
55.65
64.30
52.05
61.91
.67456-
58
56.09
55.64
61.20
52.01
51.03
.67442-
50.03
58
56.63
65.25
63.88
62.85
.6SG39
50
57.07
66.60
66.23
63.85
62.82
.68606-
60.06
59
67.60
66.21
64.81
63.76
.69822+
60
58.05
67.56
66.16
54.77
63.72
.69767+
61.06
60
68.58
67.16
65.74
64.67
.71006-
61
50.04
68.52
67.10
65.68
64.62
.70930+
62.08
61
50.66
68.11
56.67
65.68
.72180+
62
60.02
60.48
58.03
56.50
55.61
.72003
63.10
62
60.62
60.06
57.60
66.60
.73373-
63
61.00
60.44
58.07
67.50
66.41
.73266-
64.12
6S
61.51
60.02
68.53
67.41
.74556+
64
62.88
61.30
59.01
68.42
67.30
.74410-
66.14
61
62.48
60.07
50.46
58.32
.75740-
65
63.87
62.35
60.84
50.33
58.20
.75581+
66.16
65
63.46
61.02
60.38
50.23
.76023
66
64.85
63.31
61.78
60.24
59.00
.76744+
67.17
66
61.44
62.87
61.31
60.14
.78100+
67
65.83
61.27
62.71
61.16
50.00
.77907-
68.10
67
65.41
63.83
62.24
61.05
.79293-
68
66.81
65.23
63.65
62.07
60.88
.79070-
69.21
68
66.30
64.78
63.17
61.96
.80173+
60
67.80
66.10
64.50
62.08
61.78
.80232+
70.22
69
67.37
65.73
64.10
62.87
.81667-
70
68.78
67.15
66.62
63.89
62.67
.81305+
71.24
70
68.34
66.60
65.03
63.70
.82840+
71
69. 7f
68.11
66.46
61.81
63.67
.82558+
72.26
71
60.32
67.64
66.06
64.70
.81021-
72
70. 71
69.07
67.30
65.72
61.46
.83721-
73.28
72
70.20
68.60
66.80
65.61
.85307+
78
71.73
70.03
68.33
66.63
65.36
.81881-
71.20
78
71.27
60.54
67.82
66.62
.86390+
74
72.71
70.99
60.27
67.55
66.25
.86046+
75.31
74
72.25
70.60
68.74
67.43
.87574-
75
73.69
71.05
70.20
6&46
67.15
.87200+
76.33
75
73.22
71.45
69.67
6&34
.©757+
70
74.67
72.91
71.11
69.37
68.05
.88372
77.35
76
74.20
72.40
70.60
60.25
.80011-
77
75.f><^
73.87
72.07
70. ^i
68.04
.80535-
78.37
77
75.18
73.35
71.53
70.16
.91121+
78
7r>. r !
74.82
73.01
71.20
69.84
.90098-
79.38
78
76.15
71.31
72.46
71.08
.92308-
79
77.62
75.78
73.05
72.11
70.73
.01860+
80.40
79
77.13
75.26
73.30
71.00
.93491+
80
78.60
76.74
74.88
73.02
71.63
.03023+
81.42
80
7a 11
76.21
74.32
72.00
.04674+
81
79.59
77.70
76.82
73.01
72.52
.01186
82.44
81
70.08
77.16
76.25
73.81
.95S5S—
82
80.67
78.66
76.75
74.85
73.42
.05340-
83.45
82
80. Of.
78.12
76.18
74.72
.97011+
83
Sl.S.'i
79. 62
77.69
75.76
74.31
.06512-
81.47
88
81.03
70.07
77.11
75.63
.93225—
84
82.53
80.68
78.63
76.67
75.21
.07674+
85.40
84
82.01
80.02
7&03
76.64
.99108+
85
83.52
81.54
70.56
77.50
76.10
.08837+
86.51
85
82.00
80.08
78.06
77.45
1.00502—
86
84.50
82.50
80.50
78 50
77.00
1.00000
87.53
86
83.06
81.03
70.80
78.37
1.017^+
87
85.48
83.46 81.41
79.41
77.89
1.01163-
88.64
87i 81.01
82.88
80.82
79. 2S
L02958+
88
80.46
^.42) 82.37
80.32
78.79
1.02325+
80.56
88 a'i.92
83.83
81.75
80.19
L 04142
89
87.46
85.38
83.31
81.24
79.68
1.03488+
00.58
891 86.80
84.70
82.68
81.10
L053K+
90
88.43
86.34
84.24
82.15
80.58
1.04651+
01.60
90* 87.87
85.74
83.61
82.01
1.O650O-
91
89.41
87.30
85.18
83. 0('.
81.48
1.05814-
02.61
91
88.85
86.60
81.64
82.02
1.07602+
92
00.30
88.25
86.12
83.98
82.37
1. Of 977-
03.63
92
89.82
87.61
85.47
83.83
L 08876—
98
01.38
80.21
87.05
81.89
83.27
1.08130+
04.65
98
00.80
88.60
86.40
84.74
1.10059+
91
02.36
00.17
87.00
85.80
84.16
1.09302+
05.67
01
01.77
80.55
87.32
85.66
1.11248-
95
03.34
01.13
88.02
86.71
86.06
1. 10465+
06.60
95
02.75
00.50
88.25
86.67
1.13126
96
04.3a
92.09
89.86
87.63
85.05
1.11628-
07.70
96
03.73
01.45
80.18
87.48
1.13609+
97
95.31
93.05
00.80
88.54
86.85
1.12701-
08.72
97
91.70
02.41
00.11
88.39
L 14793-
96
06.29
94.01
01.73
89.45
87.74
1.13053+
00.74
98
95.68
03.36
01.04
80.30
1.15076+
99
07.27
91.07
02.67
00.37
88.64
1. 16116+
100.76
99
06.66
01.31
01.07
90.21
1.17160—
100
08.25
05.03
93.60
0L28
80.63
1.16279
101.77
100
07.63
05.27
02.00
9Lia
L 18348+
uigiTized by
Googk
IKTBnrSIO TALTTBS BASED OK DBT-HCATTER CONTENT.
31
Tablb XII. — Comparative value of com on a dry-matter basis y showing the price per vsiit
of weight (btuhelf 100 poundsy etc.) y from 40 cents to fly and the differenee \n value
JOT each unity testing the maximum moisture allowed in the six numerical gradesy when
the price for any given grade is in even cents — Continued.
For No. 4 com, U. 8. grade.
Value
of«ach
Moistizre content (per cent) and rel-
Value
of each
tiv« yaluo Dcr nnitof mMsort .
ative value per unit oi measure.
1 per cent
of dry
1 per cent
of dry
14.0
15.5
17.6
19.6
21.6
23.0
matter.
14.0
15.5
17.6
19.5
21.5
23.0
matter.
Ct9.
Cts.
CU.
CU.
Cts.
at.
ant».
Cts.
CU.
Cf9.
as.
Cts.
Cts,
Cents.
41.70
40.97
40
39.03
38.06
37.33
a 48485-
42.73
4L99
40.99
40
39.01
38.26
a 49689+
42.74
41.99
41
40.01
39.01
38.27
.49697-
43.80
43.04
42.02
41
39.98
39.22
.50932-
43.78
43.02
42
4a 98
39.96
39. 2(^
.60909
44.87
44.09
43.04
42
4a 96
40.17
.62174-
44.8?
44.04
48
41.96
4a 91
40.13
.62121+
45.94
45.14
44.07
48
41.93
41.13
.63416+
45.87
45.07
44
42.93
41.87
41.07
.53333+
47.01
46.19
45.09
44
42.91
42.09
.64668+
46.91
46.09
45
43.91
42.82
42.00
.64546+
48.07
47.24
4a 12
46
43.88
43.04
.559m-
47.95
47.11
46
44.88
43.77
42.93
.65757+
49; 14
4a 28
47.14
46
44.86
44.00
.57143-
48.99
48.14
47
45.86
44.72
43.87
.56970-
60.21
49.33
48,17
47
45.83
44.96
.58385
60.04
49.16
48
46.84
45.67
44.80
.58182-
61.28
50.38
49.19
48
4a 81
45.91
.596-7+
51.08
50.19
4»
47.81
46.62
45.73
.69394-
52.35
5L43
60.22
49
47.78
4a 87
.60869+
52.12
51.21
50
48.79
47 57
46.67
.60606
53.42
6Z48
51.24
60
48.76
47.83
.62112-
53.16
52.24
61
49.761
48.53
47.60
.61818+
54.48
53.53
52.27
61
49.73
48.78
.63354
54.20
53.26
62
5a 74
49. 48
48.53
.63030+
65.55
54.-58
63.29
62
50.71
49.74
.64596+
65.26
54.28
63
51.71
50.43
49.47
.64242+
66.6.'
55.63
54.3->
68
61.68
50.69
.658:i8+
66.29
65.31
64
62.69
51.38
60.40
.65454+
67.69
56.68
65.34
64
52.66
51.65
.67081-
57.33
56.33
56
53.67
52.33
51.83
.66667-
58.76
57.73
68.37
66
63.63
52.61
.68323—
58.37
57.36
66
54.64
53.28
62.27
.67879-
59.83
58.78
57.39
66
54.61
53.56
.69565+
59.42
58.38
67
55.6:
54.24
63.20
.69091-
60.89
59.83
58.42
67
55.58
54.52
.70807+
6a 46
59.41
68
56.59
55.19
64.13
.70303
61.96
60.88
69.44
68
56.56
55.48
.7:050-
61.50
60.43
6»
57.57
50.14
65.07
. 71515+
63.03
61.93
60.46
69
57.53
56.43
.73292-
62.54
61.45
«0
5S.54
57.09
66.00
.72727+
64,10
62.98
61.49
60
58.51
57.39
.74534+
63.59
62.48
«1
59. 5J
58.04
56.93
. 73939+
65.17
64.03
62.51
61
59.48
58.35
. 75776+
64.63
63.50
62
60.50
53 99
57.87
.75151 +
66.23
65.08
63.54
62
60.46
59.30
.7r019-
65.67
64.53
63
61.47
59.94
58.80
.76364-
67.30
66.13
64.56
68
6L43
60.26
.78261-
G6.71
65.55
<»
62.45
6a 90
59.73
. 77576-
68.37
67.18
65.59
64
62.41
61.22
.79503+
67.76
06.57
65
63.42
61.85
60.67
.78788—
69.44
68.23
66.6^
65
63.38
62.17
.80745+
OS. 80
67.60
66
61.40
62.80
61.60
.80000
70.51
6a28
67.64
66
64.36
63.13
.81987+
69.84
68.62
07
65.37
63. 75
62.53
.81212+
71.58
7a 33
68.66
67
65..^3
64.09
.83230-
70.88
69.65
68
66.35
64.70
63.47
. 82424+
72.64
71.38
69.69
68
66.31
05.04
.84472
71.93
70.67
69
07.33
65.65
64.40
.83636+
73. n
7J.43
70.71
69
67.28
6a 00
.85n4 +
72.97
71.70
70^ 68.30
66.60
6.5.33
.84848+
74.78
73,48
71.74
70
68.26
66.96
.86956+
74,01
?i.72
71
60.28
07.56
60.27
.86060+
75.85
74.53
72.76
71
69.23
07.91
.8*5 W-
75.05
73. 74
72
7a 25
68.5!
67.20
.87273-
76.92
75. 58
73.79
72
70.21
68.87
.89141-
76.10
74.77
73
71.23
C9.46
68.13
.88485-
77.99
76.63
74.81
73
7L19
09.83
.90083+
77.14
75.79
74
72.21
7a 41
69.07
.89697-
79.05
77.68
75.84
74
72.16
7a 78
.91925+
78.18
76.82
75
73.18
71.36
7a 00
.90909
80.12
78.73
76.80
75
73.14
71.74
.93168-
79.22
77.84
76
74.16
72.31
7a 93
.92121 +
81.19
79. 78
77. 89
76
74.11
72. GO
. 94410-
80.27
78.87
77
75. Hi
73.27
71.87
.93333+
8:.26
80.82
78.9'
77
75.00
73. or,
.95052+
81.31
79. S9
7S
76.11
74.22
72.80
.94545+
83.33
81.87
79.94
78
76. m
74.01
.96894+
82.35
80.91
79
77.08
75.17
73.73
.95757+
84.40
82. 9J
80.96
79
77.04
75.56
.98137-
83.30
81.94
80
78. OG
78.12
74.67
.96070- 85.46
83.97
81.90
80
78.01
7a 5"
.99379-
84.44
82.96
81
79. 04
77.07
75.60
.98\s2-t 86.5.3
85.0
83.01
81
78. VO
77. 40
1.00621 +
85.48
83.99
82
80 01
78. 0 •
70.53
.99304-
87.60
86.07
84.04' 82
79. 90
78.43
1.0:S63+
86.5-
a=>.oi
8:;
80.90
78.97
77.47
1.00606
88.67
87.12
85. 00
83
80.04
7a 39
1.03105+
87.56
80.04
84
81.90
79.93
78.40
1.01818+
89.74
88.17
86.03
84
81.91
80.35
1.04348-
88.00
87.06
85
82.94
80. as
79.33
1. 03030+
90.81
89.22
87.11
85
82.89
81.30
1.05.590
89. Go
8S.0&
86
8.3. 91
81.83
8'). 27
1.04J42+
91.87
90.27
88.14
86
S3. &*>
82.26
1.06832+
90.69
89.11
87
84. SO
82.78
81.20
1.05454+
92.94
91.32
^^.lc
87
84.84
83.22
1.0«;074+
91.73
90.13
8S
85.87
83.73
82.13
1.00067-
94.01
92.37
90.19
88
85.81
84.17
1.09317-
92.77
91.10
89
86.84
84.68
83.07
1. 07879—
95.08
93.42
91.21
89
86.79
85.13
1. 10559
03 K
92.18
90
87.8:
85.64
84.00
1.09091-
96.15
94.47
92.23
90
87.76
86.00
1.11801 +
94.80
93,21
01
8a 70
8(5. 50
84. 03
1.10303
97.22
95.5
93. 20
91
88.74
S7.0-1
1. 1.''043+
95.90
94.23
92
89.77
87.54
85. 87
1.11515+
98.28
96.57
94.2.S
92
S9. 71
H8 00
1. 14286-
96.94
95.25
08
90.74
88.49
86.80
1. 12727+
09.35
97.62
95.31
93
90.69
88.06
1. 15528-
97.99
90.28
»4
91.?:
89.44
87.73
1. 13939+
100.42
98.67
96.33
94
91.66
89.91
1. 16770+
99 03
97.30
o;>
92.70
90.39
88.67
1.15151 +
101.49
99.71
97.36
05
92 64
90.8^
1.18012+
100.07
98.33
96
93. C7
91.34
89.00
1.16364-
102.56
100.77
98. 3M
9f
93.61
91,83
1. 19255-
101.11
99U35
07
94.65
92.30
90.53
1. 17576-
103.63
101.82
99.41
97
94.59
92.78
1.20497-
102.16
.oa37
OS
95.02
93.25
91.47
1. 18788-
104.69
102.87
100.43
98
95.56
93.74
1.21739+
103.20
101.40
99
96.60
94.20
92.40
1.20000-
106.76
103.92
101.46
99
9a 54
94.69
1.22981+
104.24
102.42
100
97.57
95.15
93.33
1.21212+
103.83
104.97
1C2.48
100
97.51
95.65
1.24224-
uigiTizea oy ''
ioogle
82
BULLETIN 374, U. 8. DEPABTMENT OF AGBIOULTUBS.
Tablb XII. — CompcaraUve value of corn an a dry*matUr basis, shotoing the price pervsdt
of weight (bushelf 100 pcmnde, etc,), from 40 cents to fl, and the difference in vaiue for
each unit testing the maximum moisture allowed in the six numerical grades when the price
for any given grade is in even cents — Gontiiiued.
For No. 5 corn, U. 8. grade.
Mobtnre content (per cent) and rela-
Value of
eachl
percent
of dry
MolstuTeoantent(peroent)andreli^
Value of
tive value per unit of measure.
tive value per unit of measure.
eachl
percent
of dry
14.0
15.5
17.5
19.5
31.5
23.0
matter.
14.0
16.6
17.6
19.5
3L6
38.0
matter.
Ct*.
Cts.
CU,
Ct».
Ct9.
Ctt.
Cema.
CU.
Ct».
Ct9.
CU.
CU,
CU,
Cenu,
43. R2
43.06
42.04
41.02
40
89.33
a50955+
44.67
43.90
42.86
41.83
4a 78
46
a 51948
44.93
44.13
43.09
42.04
41
4a 33
.53239+
45.79
44.99
43.93
43.86
41.80
41
.633^7-
46.01
45.21
44.14
43.0^
42
41.30
.53503+
46.91
46.09
45.00
43.91
43.82
42
.54545+
47.11
46.29
45.19
44.09
4S
42.18
.54777
48.02
47.19
4a 07
44.95
43.84
46
.65844+
48. ao
47.36
46.24
45.12
44
43.16
.56061-
49.14
48.28
47.14
4a 00
44.86
44
.57143-
49.30
48.44
47.29
46.15
46
44.14
.57336-
5a 36
49.38
4&21
47.04
45.88
46
.58441+
M.39
49.51
48.84
47.17
46
45.13
.58609-
61.38
50.48
49.38
4&09
4a 90
46
.59740+
51.49
5a 59
49.39
48.20
47
46.10
.50872+
53.49
51.58
saso
49.14
47.91
47
.61039-
62.58
51.67
50.44
49.22
48
47.06
.61146+
53.61
62.05
51.43
6a 18
48.98
48
.63338 —
53.08
52.74
51.50
50 25
49
4a 06
..63430+
64.73
58.77
53.60
61.23
49.96
40
.63636+
54.78
53.82
52.55
51.27
60
49.04
.63694+
66.84
54.87
63.57
53.27
6a 97
66
.64035
55.87
54.90
53.60
52.30
61
50.02
.64968+
56.96
55.97
54.64
53.33
51.99
61
.66334-
56.97
55.97
54.65
53.32
62
51.01
.66243
58.08
57.06
65.71
64.36
63. m
62
.67532+
58.06
57.05
55.70
54.35
6S
51.99
.67516-
59.19
58.16
5a 78
65.41
54.08
68
.68831+
50.16
58.13
56.75
55.37
64
52.97
.68790-
oasi
59.36
57.86
6a 46
65.06
64
.70130-
6a25
59.20
57.80
56.40
66
53.95
.70064-
61.43
6a 36
68.93
67.60
6a 07
66
.71438+
61.35
60.28
68.85
57.43
6«
54.93
.71337+
63.64
61.45
6a 00
68.54
67.09
66
.73737+
62.44
61.36
59.90
58.45
67
55.91
.73611+
63.66
62.55
6L07
60.59
68.11
67
.74036-
63.54
62.43
60.95
50.48
68
56.89
.73885+
64.78
63.65
63.14
60.64
69.18
68
.75325-
64.64
63.51
62.01
6a 50
69
57.87
.75159+
65.90
64.75
63.31
6L68
6a 16
66
.76633+
65.73
64.58
63.06
61.53
60
58. »)
.76483+
67.01
65.84
64.38
63.73
61.17
60
.77938
66.83
65.66
64.11
62.55
61
59.83
.77'07-
68.13
66.94
65.36
63.77
62.19
61
.79221—
67.92
66.74
65.16
63.58
02
6a 81
.78981-
60.35
68.04
6a 43
64.83
63.21
62
.80519+
69.02
67.81
66.21
64.60
6S
61.80
.80255-
7a 36
60.14
67.50
65.86
64.23
66
.81818+
7a 11
68.89
67.26
65.63
M
62.78
.81529-
7L48
70 23
68.57
6a 91
66.35
64
.83117-
71.21
60.97
68.31
66.65
•6
63.76
.82802+
73.60
71.83
60.64
67.96
6a 27'
66
.84415+
.72,30
71.04
69.36
67.68
66
64.74
.84076+
73.71
72.43
70 71
69.00
67.28, 6«
.85714+
73.40
72.12
70.41
68.71
67
65.72
.85350+
74.83
73.52
71.78
7004
68.30
67
.87013-
74.50
73.20
71.46
69.73
68
66.70
.86624+
75.95
74.62
72.86
71.09
09.32
68
.88312-
76.50
74.27
72.51
7a 76
69
67.68
.87898
77.06
75.72
73.93
72.14
7a 34
69
.89610+
76.60
75.35
73.57
71.78
70
68.66
.89172-
78.18
7a 82
75.00
73.18
71.36
70
.90909
77.78
76.43
74.62
72.81
71
69.64
.9(M4e-
79.30
77.91
76.07
74.33
72.38
71
.92308-
78.88
77.50
75.67
73.83
72
7a 62
.91730-
80.41
79.01
77.14
75.27
73.40
72
.93506+
79.97
78.68
76.72
74.86
78
71.60
.92994-
81.53
80.11
78.21
7a 32
74.43
76
.94805+
81.07
79.65
77.77
75.88
74
72.58
.94267+
83.65
81.21
79.28
77.36
75.44
f74
.96104-
82.16
80.73
78.82
76.91
76
73.57
.95541+
83.77
82.30
8a 36
78.41
7a 46
76
.97403+
83.26
81.81
79.87
77.94
76
74.55
.96815+
84.88
83.40
81.43
79.45
77.48i 76
.98701+
84.36
82.88
80.92
78.96
77
75.63
.98089+
86.00
84.50
82.50
80.50
7a50i 77
1. 00000
85.45
83.96
81.97
79.99
78
76.51
.99363
87.12
8,5.60
83.57
81.54
79.531 78
L 01399-
86.55
85.04
83.02
81.01
79
77.49
1.00637-
88.23
8a 69
84.64
82.50
8a64| 79
1.02597+
87.64
86.11
84.08
82.04
80
78.47
1.01911-
89.35
87.79
85.71
83.64
81.56* 80
1.03896+
88.74
87.19
85.13
83.06
81
79.45
1.03185-
90.47
88.89
8a 78
84.68
83.58 81
1.05195-
89.83
88.27
86.18
84.09
82
80.43
1.04458+
91.58
89.99
87.86
85.73
83.60 82
1.06493+
90.93
89.34
87.23
85.11
m
81.41
1.05732+
92.70
91.08
88.93
8a 77
84.63 88
i.ori-93+
92.02
90.42
88.28
86.14
84
82.39
1.07006+
93.82
92.18
90.00
87.82
85.64, 84
L 09091-
93.12
91.50
89.33
87.16
85
83.37
1.08280+
94.93
93.28
91.07
88.86
8a65' 86
L 10390-
94.22
92.57
90.38
88.19
86
84.36
1.09554 +
96.05
94.38
92.14
89.91
87.67, 86
L 11688+
95.31
93.65
91. 4.3
89.22
87
85.34
1. 10828-
97.17
95.47
93.21
90.95
88.69
C
1.13987
96.41
94.73
92.48
90.24
88
86.32
1. 12102-
98.28
96.57
94.28
92.00
89.71
88
1.14386-
97.50
95.80
93.53
91.27
89
87.30
1.13376-
99.40
97.67
95.36
93.04
9a 73
89
L 15684+
98.60
96.88
94.58
92.29
90
88.28
1.14650-
100 52
98.77
9a 43
94.09
91.76
tfo
1.16883+
99.69
97.95
95.64
93.32
•1
89.26
1.15923+
101.64
99.86
97.50
95.14
93.77
91
1.18182-
100.79
99.03
96.69
94.34
92
90.24
1. 17197+
102.75
100.96
98.57
96.18
93.79
02
L 19480+
101.88
100.11
97.74
95.37
96
91.22
1. 18471+
103.87102.06
99.64
97.28
94.81
99
La0779+
108.98
101. 18
98.79
96.39
•4
92.20
1. 19745+
104.99103.15
106.lollO4.25
100 71
98.27
95.83
•4
1.23078 —
104.08
102.26
99. 8(
97.42
96
93.18
1.21019
101.78
99.32
9a 86
96
1.23377-
105.17
103.34
100.89
98.44
96
94.16
1.22293-
107.32105.35
102.8610036
97.87
96
1,34675+
106.27
104.41
101.94
99.47
97
95.15
1.23567-
108.34 106.45
103.93101.41
98.89
97
1.35974
107.36
105.49
102.99
100.50
98
96.13
1.24841-
109.45107.54
105.00102.45
99.91
98
108.46
106.57
104.04
101.52
99
97.11
1.26115-
110 57108.64
I0a07103.50
loaos
9»
1.38571+
109.55
107.64
105.09
102.56
100
98.09
1.27388+
111.69109.74
107.14104.54
101.96 100
1.39870+
WASHINGTON :
OOYBBNMBNT PEINTINO OmOi :
uigiiizea oy v_jv_/v_7pi lv^
19U
/^/.3: 3 7r
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 375
Otatrifc wtipn fr— i the OMce of MArkateandRwalOrgMiSmiM
CHARLES J. BRAND. ChM
Washington^D.C.
An^iist 9, 1916
DISADVANTAGES OF SELLmG COTTON m THE
SEED.
By Charles F. Crbswell, Scientific AstUkttU, • ^
CONTENTS.
K'^V^^M.
Introduction
Hethod of investigation
Oattorns from seed cotton at gins
Cooversion of seed-ooiton price to tbe equiva-
lent 1 int-cotton price
Elements that determine tbe price of seed
cottoo
Variations in prices of identical grade of lint
cotton wben sold unginned
Page.
1
3
'©»4e.
Prices received for the lowest and MgbQst
grade bales in the same market during the
same week
Irregularities in prices received for the lint
content of seed cotton
Prices received for lint cotton compared with
equivalent lint prices of seed cotton. 14
A study ofconditions in a specific locality... 16
Conclusions 18
10
12
INTRODUCTION.
The practice of selling cotton in the seed, while not as prevalent
as in the ^arly days of cotton production, is stiU preferred by many
producers and constitutes an important factor in the marketing of
the cotton crop.
In regions where cotton is not grown in sufficient quantities to
attract regular buyers, the custom of marketing imginned cotton
enables the producer to make a ready-cash sale of any amount of seed
cotton that he may bring to the gin. However, in most markets,
practically the only advantage accruing to the farmers, as a class, is
the saving of the time of men and teams that otherwise would be spent
awaiting their turns at the gins and in selling the baled lint cotton.
1 This investigation was planned by Wells A. Sherman, Specialist in Market Surveys, and'snpervised
by Fred Taylor, Cotton Technologist. The ginning was done by George E. Oaus, Laboratory Aid, and the
samples were graded by David C. Griffith, Investigator in Cotton Marketing, and Robert W. Murray,
Ibrmerly Assistant in Cotton Marketing.
Note.— This bulletin should be of Interest to cotton producers, ginners, and buyers generally.
41644'— Bull. 375—16 1
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
2 BULLETIN 375^ V. B. DEPABTMENT OP AGRICULTUBE.
On the other hand, in some primary markets there is an advantage
to the producer who sells baled cotton to the local merchants, as
many of them allow the full market price and sometimes a premium
in order to coUect accounts, to sell goods, and to gain the good will of
the farmer. The producer who sells in the seed can not take advan-
tage of such circumstances, as the merchants usually do not buy seed
cotton.
The sale of unginned cotton is encouraged by many ginners, who
operate in close association with the oil-mill companies.* The ginner
in buying allows for all the uncertain elements of the business, and
in making an offer, aims to secure a profit in addition to his r^ular
ginning charge.
The ginner usually separates his seed cotton into about three grades,
but without regard to variety, character, or length of staple — a
practice which necessarily results in a mixture of the different grades
and the different lengths of staple which are produced in a com-
mimity. Sooner or later this condition will be discovered by dis-
criminating buyers and can not fail to reflect on the local market
to the detriment of the cotton producer.
This method of marketing also has a retarding influence on efforts
for the improvement in varieties. It is difficult, if not impossible,
for the grower to obtain from the ginner his own seed for planting;
and the farmer is encouraged to improve his product with the sole
object of increasing the yield of seed cotton per acre. Grade and
staple are given so little consideration by the buyer of seed cotton
that these quahties frequently are treated with indifference by the
grower and little attention is given to improvement in the quality of
the fiber. The better cotton, when sold in the seed, brings so small
a premium over the lower grades that it does not warrant the extra
care necessary to its production, and the grower is thus encouraged
to bring to market inferior cotton which often contains an excess of
trash, dirt, and moisture.
The Bureau of Crop Estimates of the United States Department of
Agriculture in January, 1916, estimated, from reports of their corre-
spondents and agents, the percentages of cotton sold in the seed in
the several cotton-producing States. These percentages have heea
apphed to the Census Bureau figures of cotton production for the
growth years 1912 to 1915, inclusive, for the purpose of estimating the
total number of bales sold in the seed in the several States during
these years. Table I is presented to show these estimates.
1 See Sherman, Wells A., Taylor, Fred, and Brand, Charles J.: Studies of Primary Cotton Market
Conditions In Oklahoma. U. S. Department of Agricoltare, Bollettn 36. 1913.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
DISADVANTAGES OF SELLING COTTON IN THE SEED. 3
Table I. — Estimated percerUaaes of total crop and calculated number of bales of cotton
sola in the seed in the several States.
state.
Percent-
age.
1915
1914
1913
1912
Virginia
North Carolina.
South Carolina.
Georgia..
Flor^.
Alabama...
Mississippi. .
Louisiana...
Texas
Arkansas...
Tennessee..
Missouri
Oklahoma..
Total.
BaU$.
10,000
81,000
23,000
30,000
25,000
41,000
28,000
13,000
184,000
103,000
118,000
42,000
230,000
Bales.
15,000
107,000
31,000
54,000
41,000
60,000
37,000
18,000
263,000
130,000
149,000
71,000
456,000
Bales,
15,000
92,000
28,000
47,000
30,000
50,000
38,000
17^000
226,000
13^000
147:000
57^000
312,000
Bales.
15,000
100,000
24,000
36,000
26,000
53,000
80,000
15,000
279,000
100,000
107^000
48,000
372,000
937,000
1,441,000
1,203,000
1,206,000
Percentage of crop.
8.5
9.1
8.6
9.0
The high price of cotton seed during the 1915 season probably gave
some stimulus to the practice of selling cotton unginned. The esti-
mates given in Table I, therefore, are probably higher than would
have been made had the cotton-seed prices been at the level ruling
during recent years when production was greater. As the high per-
centages for 1915 have been applied to the census figures for 1912,
1913, and 1914, the estimates for these years are probably somewhat
greater than the actual facts. This is especiaUy true for 1914, when
an unusually small quantity was sold in the seed, because much
cotton was held by producers on account of the low prices resulting
from the European war. The high percentage shown in Florida is
because most of the Sea Island crop was sold in the seed. The prac-
tice of selling cotton imginned is shown to be most prevalent in r^ons
of scanty production and in the newer cotton-producing sections.
The purpose of this bulletin is to set forth the results of an investi-
gation which was conducted in Oklahoma during the season of
1913-14, in order to obtain reliable information as to the relative
advantages and disadvantages accruing to the farmer who sells his
imginned cotton directly to the gumer instead of having his product
custom-ginned and marketing the seed and the baled lint cotton
separately.
METHOD OF INVESTIGATION.
For the purposes of this investigation, nine representative seed-
cotton markets were selected, in each of which the best man available
for the work was appointed as a representative of the Department of
Agriculture to obtain each week several 10-pound samples of seed
cotton from loads sold by different farmers. With each sample was
seoured a record of the seller's name, date and place of sale, and price
per hundred pounds. These samples were packed tightly into cloth
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
4 BXTLLETIK 3t6, U. S. DBPABTMENT OF AOBICULTUBE.
sacks and mailed to Oklahoma City, wliere the small sacks wero
packed into large mail bags and remailed to Washington, D. C. In
the following spring this cotton was subjected to a himiidifying proc-
ess, making it approximately equal in moisture contemt to the average
load of commercial seed cotton, after which 8 pounds of each sample
were carefully weighed and ginned on a small 10-eaw gin. The seed
and lint were then weighed separately and the percentages of seed,
lint, and trash calculated. In this way samples representing 881
loads of seed cotton were ginned and carefully graded.
This investigation was planned so that the results would reflect
as accurately as possible the exact conditions prevailing in the
seed-cotton markets. Every precaution was exercised to secure
samples and information representative of actual conditions. It
is believed that the small 10-saw gin yielded on the higher grades
as good a quality of cotton, but, on the lower grades, about one-
half grade below that actually produced from the siune loads when
handled by the modem gins of Oklahoma with their various clean-
ing attachments. On being discharged from the gin, the seed from
these samples was run over a screen and in cleanliness was approx-
imately equal to the average Oklahoma outturn. After ginning,
5 ounces of lint were taken as representative of each load of seed
cotton and graded according to the Official Cotton Grades ^ f ormerfy
issued by this department.
While these results will show probably a slightly poorer quality
of cotton in the lower grades than was obtained by the ginner from
the actual loads, all of the samples were ginned wiUi the same equ^
ment, weighed <m the same scales, and subjected to the same treatment
throughout, and therefore they should furnish comparable data.
The poorer quality of lint obtained by the use of the small gin tends
to make conservative the comparisons, wiiich are drawn later in this
bulletin, between prices paid for lint and prices paid for seed cotton.
OUTTURNS FROM SEED COTTON AT GINS.
When seed cotton reaches the gin it contains varying proportions
of lint, seed, and trash.^ The proportions of lint and seed depend
on the variety planted, the soil, and the climatic and cultural con-
ditions \mder which the cotton is grown. The trash varies in amount
with climatic conditions and the care with which the cotton is picked
and handled. The process of ginning separates the seed cotton
into its three parts — lint, seed, and trash. Some of the trash,
however, always remains in both the lint and the seed.
Table II shows the nimiber of samples of each grade obtained
from 795 samples of seed cotton representing as many loads. Eighty-
> These grades w«re superseded on Dec 15, 1914, by the Official Coiton Standards of the United States,
s The word ''trash," as used throughout this bulletin, includes all foreign matter, sodh as leaf, hnOi,
dirt, etc.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
DISADVANTAGES OP SELLING COTTON IN TfiE SEED. 5
six samples, which were classed as "sandy'* or "diisty," have been
omitted from this table, but all other samples collected have been
included. The percentages of lint, seed, and trash shown are the
average results from the samples yielding each grade. In commer-
cial practice, the reported lint outturn includes an increased weight
on account of bagging and ties. Therefore, these lint percentages
have been increased- proportionately to make due allowance for
such gain in weight.
Table II. — Average percentageSy according to grade, of lint, seed, and trash found in seed
cotton.
Grade.
Below Good Ordinary..
«food Ordinary
strict Good Ordinary. .
Low Middling
Strict LowMiddling...
Middling
Strict liiddUng
OoodMiddliitt
Strict GoodlSddling.
Summary.
Number
of loads
sampled.
41
47
81
138
195
156
75
49
13
795
Percentages of—
Lint.i
30.38
30.86
31.40
81.53
31.55
32.03
81.67
31.34
31. ao
31.52
Seed.
02.78
63.51
64.69
65.13
65.02
65.65
66.22
67.16
66.94
65.20
Trash.
8.13
G.99
5.29
4.73
4.83
3.73
3.50
2.88
3.23
4.67
1 In this and following tables, the percentages include the actual lint outturn plus an allowance for
bagging and ties.
The average lint outturn of these 795 samples is shown as 31.52
per cent and the average of the 881 samples collected, including
those classed as ''dusty" or *'sandy/* was foimd to be 31.48 per
cent. The average seed and trash outturns from the 795 'samples in
Table II are shown as 65.20 per cent and 4.67 per cent, respectively,
and the averages of the 881 samples were 64.7 per cent and 5.2 per
cent, respectively. The commercial outturn was reported on 38
of these samples from Coyle, Okla., and averaged 31.79 per cent,
as against the lO-saw gin outturn of 31.52 per cent from the same
samples. It may be concluded, therefore, that the average lint out-
turn, including tare during the 1913-14 season for the districts in
Oklahoma covered by this survey, was approximately 31.5 per cent.
As the trash content is one of the determining factors in judging
the value of lint cotton, it will be seen that the percentages of trash
as given do not fully cover the trash content of the seed cotton, for
much trash remains in the lint in the lower grades, the amount
gradually decreasing tmtil, in the higher grades, comparatively little
is found. Therefore, it is evident that as the grade improves, the
proportions of lint and seed increase and the proportion of trash
decreases.
From Table III it is apparent that the lint, seed, and trash con-
tents of seed cotton have wide extremes in each of the different
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
6
BULLETLBT 3*76, U. S. DBPABTMENT OF AGBICTJLTUBS.
markets. The miTiiniiim ranges in lint percentages shown are for
the markets from which a comparatively small number of sampke
were collected. If a large number of samples had been obtained in
all markets, it is evident that the range of variation would have been
found to be even greater than here given.
Table III. — Extreme variations in lint, seed, and trash percentages from samples obtained
in specified towns in Oklahoma.
Num-
ber of
loads
sam-
pled.
Lint percentage.
Seed percentage.
Trash percentage.
Market.
H!gb.
Low.
varia-
tion.
High.
Low.
Range
of
varia-
tion.
High.
Low.
Range
of
varia-
tion.
Anftdarko
21
38
85
55
119
143
202
100
U8
P. cent,
33.9
36.2
38.3
88.6
86.4
36.3
38.4
37.0
37.4
P. cent.
27.3
29.6
27.0
27.2
25.7
24.3
25.1
26.5
29.4
P. cent.
6.6
6.6
11.3
11.4
10.7
12.0
13.3
10.5
8.0
P. cent.
66.5
70.6
69.5
66.9
71.4
72.3
71.9
60.7
70.2
P. cent.
51.9
53.8
52.3
58.3
61.2
48.1
52.8
44.8
58.6
P. cent.
14.6
16.8
17.2
8.6
10.2
24.2
19.1
24.9
11.6
P,cent.
21.9
15.7
20.6
11.9
14.2
23.2
17.0
25.4
10.9
P. cent.
3,0
P.eenf.
IS. 9
Coyle
14 8
Crescent
^4
Crowder
11.5
F«Mft«"..,
ts.s
iringfl^her
32 5
Sbawneo '.
16.3
Tahlequah
34.5
Weleetka
9.8
Oklahoma
881
38.6
24.3
14.3
72.3
44.8
27.5
25.4
.2
35.3
CONVERSION OF SEED-COTTON PRICE TO THE EQUIVALENT LINT-
COTTON PRICE.
For the purpose of making a compariscm between the prices
obtained for the lint cont^it of the different loads add a further
comparison of the prices for seed cotton with prices obtained for
lint, the pnce paid for seed cotton has been converted into its equiv-
alent price per pound of baled lint cotton. The method of deter-
mining this price may be illustrated thus:
On September 13, 1913, a load of seed cotton was sold in Shawnee
at $4 per 100 pounds, the outturns of which were 30 per cent lint, 68
per cent seed, and 2 per cent trash. Allowing the prevailing price
of $20 per ton or 1 cent per pound for the seed, the 30 pounds of
lint in each hundred pounds of seed cotton brought $4, less the value
of the seed, 68 cents, or $3.32. As it requires about 22 pounds of
bagging and ties to cover 478 pounds of lint, 0.046 of a pound of
bagging and ties is required to wrap each pound of cotton, and it
would take 1.38 poimds of tare to bale these 30 pounds of lint. This
tare would bring the same price as the lint, making tiie selling weight
of lint and tare equal to 31.38 poimds. The ginning and baling
charge of $3.60 per bale, or 70 Qents per hundred pounds, is figured
on the gross weight. The 31.38 pounds gross weight of cotton would
cost for ginning and baling at the rate of 70 cents per hundred pounds,
or 22 cents, which added to $3.32, the original cost of tfie 30 pounds
of lint, gives $3.54 as the total cost to the ginner of 31.38 pounds of
baled lint, or 11.28 cents per poimd. Therefore, in this particular
uigiTized by
Google
DISADVANTAGES OF SELLING COTTON IN THE SEED. 7
case, it may be considered that the ginner paid to the farmer for the
cotton an equivalent of 11.28 cents per pound for the bale. Such
prices are hereafter referred to as the ''equivalent lint prices.'^
ELEMENTS THAT DETERMINE THE PRICE OF SEED COTTON.
The wide variations in the percentages of seed, lint, and trash as
brought out by Table III and the inabiUty of the ginner or producer
to determine accurately these proportions or the quality of the lint
or seed before the cotton is ginned, make it impossible for the ginner
to figure a just price to be paid for each load, and the best he can
do under the circumstances is to consider the current lint and seed
prices and to take the average hnt, seed, and trash contents of his
commimity as a basis for reaching the price to be paid for the un-
ginned cotton. This condition has resulted in dealing on a system
of averages, and the ginner often determines on a certain price
which he offers for all seed cotton with little r^ard for quality.
However, if a superficial examination of the load shows it to be
much worse than the average in trash or moisture content, a lower
price is offered. In fixing this price the buyer is naturally careful
to guard against any losses that may be incurred on account of the
uncertainties involved and to figure safely his own profit. An
examination of the records shows many cases where, in the same
market, on the same day, the same price per hundred poimds was
paid for all imginned cotton, with apparently an utter disregard for
quality, the ginner apparently expecting to overcome any losses on
tiie poorer loads by gains on the better ones. In nearly aU collec-
tions of samples made during this survey the range in price paid for
seed cotton on any one day was comparatively small, and many
instances are shown where the load containing the best lint sold for
a lower comparative price than did the load which yielded the
poorest lint.
Tables IV and V are presented to bring out inconsistencies with
respect to quality between equivalent lint prices resulting from a
fixed seed-cotton price in a given market. Detailed statements are
given of two collections of samples of seed cotton, each load of which
was grown and sold by a different producer. The cotton in the first
lot, represented by Table IV, was sold at $4.50 per 100 poimds, in
Tahlequah, on October 2, and each load of the second lot, repre-
sented by Table V, at $4 per 100 pounds, in Anadarko, on November
10, 1913.
In Table IV, the quality ranges from Strict Low Middling light
tinged to Good Middling; the lint outturn varies 6.8 per cent; the
seed outturn, 6.4 per cent; the trash outturn, 2.1 per oent; and the
equivalent lint price, 2.14 cents per poimd; yet each of these 10
loads brought the producers $4.50 per 100 poimds. In Table V, the
quality ranges from below Good Ordinary to Strict Low Middling;
uigiTized by VjOOQIC
8
BULLETIN 375, U. S. PEPABTMBNT OF AQBIOULTUBS.
the lint outturn varies 4.4 per cent; the seed outturn, 11.6 per cent;
the trash outturn, 12.9 per cent; and the equivalent Unt price, 1.64
cents per pound; yet these loads brought uniformly $4 per 100 pounds.
INCONSISnSNCIES IN THE EQUIVALENT UNT PRICES^ RESULTINO FROM A VIXED
SEED-COTTON PRICE.
Table IY,—^eed cotton $ald at f4M per 100 pounds on Oct. 2, 191S
a
Grade.
Peroentage of—
EqnhTBlent
lint price
perpocmd.
Lint.
Seed.
Tnsh.
One load o^-
S, T., \f . ll^t thigAd
Pereau.
31.0
30.6
81.8
32.3
80.2
34.5
37.0
32.7
34.5
32.4
Percent.
67.2
68.4
66.4
66.4
69.7.
65.6
63.3
67.6
66.8
67.0
Pereem.
3.2
2.3
3.2
2.7
1.2
2.0
Gem.
13.07
L. M.....Tr.
13.15
L. M
12.76
S. L. M
12.67
8. L. M
13.28
8. L. M
11.84
M
11.14
M
12.38
8. M
11.83
G. M
12.51
Table Y.—Seed cotton sold at f4 per 100 pounds on Nov. 10, 1913.^
Grade.
Percentage of—
Lint.
Seed.
Trash.
Percent.
Percent.
PerctuL
29.2
56.3
15.8
30.4
66.5
4.4
29.6
54.9
16.8
30.6
50.3
11.4
33.1
58.7
9.7
32.5
60.5
8.4
32.8
63.5
5.6
32.4
65.1
3.9
33.6
59.6
8.3
33.1
62.7
5.7
Equivalent
lint price
per pound.
One load of—
O
S.G.O
8.G.O
L.M
L.M
8. L. M. spotted
8. L. M. spotted
8. L. M. spotted
8. L.M
8.L.M
Cenu.
12.46
1L66
12.36
11.82
11.01
U.14
11.11
11.03
10.84
10.90
< For the method of determining "equivalent lint prices" see page 6.
< In these and following taMes the initials of the different grades have been used. 8ee Table II for ftiU-
grade terms. "O/' meaning Ordinary, has been used to denote cotton which was below Good Ordlnaiy
m quality.
A mere glance at these tables will show that wide variations in
quaUties and outturns of seed cotton exist in the same market on the
same day. These variations result in marked inconsistencies in
equivalent lint prices when a uniform price is paid for seed cotton
regardless of its quality. In Table IV, a Strict Low Middling and
a Low Middling brought the two highest equivalent lint prices and
a Middling and a Strict Middling brought the two lowest prices,
while a Grood Middling, the best bale, brought just above the aver-
age. In Table V, the seed cotton producing the lowest grade and
lowest lint outturn brought for its lint content more per pound than
any other load, while the two best loads brought the two lowest
equivalent Unt prices. The load which produced a bale below Good
Ordinary in grade brought an equivalent of 12.48 cents and the
Strict Low Middling 10.84 cents, a difference of 1.64 cents per pound,
uigiTizea oy >^jOOQlC
DI8ADVANTAGEB OP SELLING COTTON IN THE SEED.
9
or $8.20 per bale. According to New Orleans spot quotations on
that day, the Strict Low Middling bale was worth 2.44 cents per
pound more than the other bale, but brought 1.64 cents less, making
a total discrepancy of 4.08 cents per pound, or $20.40 per bale.
Since only 10 loads were sampled in each of these collections, it
is imlikely that the widest ranges of grades, outturns, or equivalent
lint prices which actually occurred are disclosed by the tables pre-
sented. Gross injustices can be expected in any market at any time
when the same price is paid for practically all unginned cotton regard-
less of its quaUty and its percentages of seed, lint, and trash. The
custom of averaging seed-cotton prices results in undue hardships on
farmers who market carefully handled cotton from varieties produc-
ing superior lint and in many cases results in a direct premium to
farmers who sell inferior seed cotton.
VARIATIONS IN PRICES OF IDENTICAL GRADE OF UNT COTTON WHEN
SOLD UNGINNED.
The custom of selling seed cotton resulted in wide variations
between the prices received for the same quality of lint cotton in
the same market during the same week, and Table VI has been
prepared to show these differences. Such loads as produced below
Good Ordinary, sandy, or dusty cotton have been excluded, but the
comparisons include all grades and all of the localities from which
seed-cotton samples were obtained. Only such variations as exceeded
$10 per 500-po\md bale have been given.
Table VI. — Difference in prices paid for lint of a given grade when sold in the seed in
the same market during the same week.
Karket.
Grade.
Week
ending—
Number
of
loads.
Equivalent lint price per
pound.
Estimated
difference
in price
between
bales.
Highest.
Lowest.
Differ-
ence.
}i^\r\f^tA\t^T
0.0
Nov. 22
Nov. 1
Dec. 27
Dec. 20
Jan. 17
Nov. 22
Nov. 1
Dec. 6
Dec. 27
Oct. 25
Dec. 6
Nov. 16
Oct. 25
Oct. 11
Dec. 13
Oct. 11
Nov. 16
Oct. 11
Oct. 18
Sept. 13
Oct. 4
Oct. 25
Sept. 13
Sept. 20
Oct. 18
2
2
Cent*.
9.66
1L53
9.32
7.41
7.71
U.49
10.70
8.93
1L28
13.23
11.72
14.47
11.05
1L27
10.08
13.55
10,95
15.56
11.07
14.18
12.76
12.68
12.75
12.72
11.59
Cent9.
4.44
8.71
4.98
6.18
6.19
7.76
8.56
4.44
7.91
10.15
9.28
12.22
8.89
8.18
8.05
U.31
&79
10.61
9.01
10.82
10.69
10.34
10.57
8.65
9.49
Cenu,
6.21
2.82
4.34
2.23
2.52
3.73
2.14
4.49
3.37
3.08
2.44
2.25
2.16
8.09
2.03
2.24
2.16
4.95
2.06
8.36
2.07
2.34
2.18
4.07
2.10
S26.05
Shawnee
O.O
14.10
Tahleouah
G.O
2L70
WeleeCka
G.O
11.15
Do
G.O
12.60
Anadarko
L.M
18.65
KiDgflHh«r.
L.M
10.70
Shawnee
L.M
22.45
Crowder
L.M. spotted.
s.l.mT.
B.L.M
8. L.M
S.L.M
S.L.M
8. L.M. spotted
16.85
Crescent
Crowder
HaakeU
Kingflaher
Shawnee
Crowder
K*ngfi8h«*r^
15.40
12.20
n.2s
10.80
15.45
10.15
11.20
Weleetka
M
10.80
Kingfisher ,..
8.M
8.M
24.75
10.30
ShftWTiAe....
8.M
16.80
SS:::::::::::::::::
Do
8.M
S.M
O.M
10.35
U.70
10.90
Do ..
G.M
20.35
Kingfisher
S.O.M
10.50
41644^— Bull. 375—16 2
Digiti
zed by Google
10 BULLETIN 376, U. 8. DEPABTMBNT OP AGRICULrUBE.
These data furnish comparisons between loads of seed cotton
yielding identical quality of lint, which were sold in the same market
during the same week. One comparison showed a price Yariation
between bales of $26.05; 4 showed variations of from $20 to $25;
5 from $15 to $20; and 16 from $10 to $16. The maximum vari-
ation shown is 5.21 cents per pound between two Good Ordinary
loads sold in Kingfisher during the week of November 22. By
comparing the price of 9.66 cents obtained for one bale with the
port quotations for this grade, and allowing for freight and other
charges incident to delivery, it appears that even the higher priced
bale was not overvalued. It follows, therefore, that the seller of
the lower priced bale received for the lint content of his load at
least $26.05 less than was his just due according to spot quotations at
New Orleans.
When it is considered that this survey extended over a period of
nearly 4J months and covered 9 different markets, but that an
aggregate of only 881 loads was sampled and that the maximum
collection in any one market per week was only 20 samples, it is
apparent that but a small number of samples would fall on the same
grade during the same week in the same market. In Table VI
only 4 cases are shown where the number of comparable bales is
more than 5. It may be assimied, therefore, that these samples in
most cases do not represent the widest variations in the seed-cotton
markets, and that in many instances the variations in equivalent
lint prices exceed $10 per load for seed cotton containing lint of
equal commercial value.
PRICES RECEIVED FOR THE LOWEST AND HIGHEST GRADE BALES IN
THE SAME MARKET DURING THE SAME WEEK.
In 40 of the 84 collections made during this survey, the load con-
taining the bale of lowest quality brought more for its lint content
than did the load containing the bale of highest quaHty. Table VII
is presented to bring out these 40 comparisons. The number of loa<b
sampled and the lowest and highest grade bales produced from the
loacb of each collection, with their respective equivalent lint prices,
are shown.
Table VII shows that in Anadarko a bale below Good Ordinary in
grade brought 12.48 cents against 10.87 cents for a Strict Low
Middling bale. In Coyle, two Low Middling bales averaged 13.73
cents against a Strict Good l^fiddling 12.69 cents. In Crescent, a bale
below Good Ordinary brought 9 cents against a Strict Low Middling
one at 8.57 cents. In Crowder, a Good Ordinary bale brought 12.16
cents, while a Low Middling spotted bale brought 10.50 cents per
poimd.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
DIOADVAiriAOBS OF SELLTfTa OOTTON IK THK SSBD.
11
Table VII. — Comparisons between prices paid for the lowest and highest grads loads in
the same market during the same week.
Week
ending—
Number
of loads
sampled.
l/owest grade bale.
Highest grade bale.
larket.
Grade.
Equivalent
Itat price
per pound.
Grade.
Equivalent
lint price
per pound.
Ainyt^rko. ,
Nov. 16
Nov. 22
Oct. 4
Nov. 8
Nov. 29
...do....
10
11
20
3
11
3
9
9
10
11
8
10
9
10
8
6
5
6
19
14
14
11
9
8
20
11
20
10
10
9
10
10
10
11
9
6
19
13
6
9
o
C€fU9.
12.48
11.05
13.73
11.81
9.00
12.16
9.40
13.13
13.20
13.20
13.72
13.31
13.48
11.09
12.03
8.34
11.86
13.44
13.38
10.10
11.49
10.10
8.52
8.37
11.28
12.53
10.64
9.18
13.96
13.96
12.63
11.21
ia58
9.10
7.03
6.87
11.44
9.79
4.49
5.68
8.L.M.1
M
Cenu.
10.87
Do
S. L. M.sandyi...
L, M.» .
9.38
Coyle
S.G.M..:
M. spotted
s.lTm
L.M. spotted
8. M. blue
S.M.i
12.69
Creecent
L.M. sandy
o
11.24
Do
8.67
Crowder
G.O
10.50
Do
Dec. 20
Sept 20
Sept. 27
Oct. 4
Oct. 11
Oct. 18
Nov. 8
Nov. 29
Dec. 6
Deo. 13
Sept. 20
Sept. 27
Oct. 11
Oct. 26
Nov. 1
Nov. 8
Nov. 23
Dec. 6
Sept. 13
Sept. 27
Oct. 26
Nov. 22
Oct. 4
Oct. 26
Nov. 1
Nov. 16
Nov. 32
Dec. 13
Deo. 30
Jan. 3
Nov. 1
Nov. 15
Dec. 27
Jan. 17
8.G.O
S.L.M.i
L.M
8.29
HaskeD
12.68
Do
G. M.i . .
13 19
Do
8. G.O
S.G.O.»
G.O
S.G.M
8. M.» . . .
12.54
Do
12 85
Do
S M
O.M*. 'light tinged.'
G.M. light tinged.
G. m..!!T...T?....
12.84
Do
o
11 84
Do
G.O
9.48
Do
o.»
10.33
Do
8. G.O. dusty....
M. sandy
5.86
Kln^sher
11.14
s.l.mT
G.M
11.40
Do
S.G.O
8.L.M.»
0
S.G.M.i
S.M
12.89
Do
10.05
Do
8.M
10.50
Do
o
S.G.M
S.M
9.62
Do
o
7.75
Do
0
G.M.»
8.02
(BQlAwnee
M
8.G.M.1
G.M.i
10.56
Do
L.M.i
11.91
Do
o.»
O.M
S.L.M.oflooloredi
G.M
10.45
Do
S.G.O.i
L.M.»
8.71
Tahlequah
Do
12.61
S.G.O
S, G. 0. dusty
G.O
M.i
10.84
Do
S. L.M. spotted..
11.86
Do
11.01
Do
S.G.O.i
0
G.M. spotted
9.89
Do
7.86
Do
0
8. L.M. spotted..
L. M.....1T.
6.38
Do
o.»
6.81
Weleetka
8.G.0.»
S.G.O.»
0.1
G.M
10.13
Do
G.M. spotted
S.Q.CXJ.
S. L.M. spotted...
9.78
Do
3.94
Do
o.»
4.97
1 Average equivalent lint price of 2 or more bales of the same grade is giv^
Of 13 comparisons made in Haskell, 9 are shown where the lowest
quality bale brougbt a higher price than the highest quahty bale. A
Strict Good Ordinary brought 13.20 cents, while a Strict Good
Middling brought 12.54 cents; and two bales below Good Ordinary
averaged 12.03 cents against one grading Strict Middling at 10.33
cents per pound.
In Kingfisher, 13 comparisons showed 8 cases where the lowest
quality bale brought a higher price than the highest quality bale. A
Strict Good Ordinary brought 13.38 cents, while two Strict Good
Middling bales averaged 12.89 cents; and a bale below Good Ordinary
in grade brought 10.10 cents, against a Strict Good Middling at 9.62
cents per pound.
In Tahlequah, 11 collections were made, 8 of which showed the
lowest grade bale had sold for more than the highest bale. A Strict
Good Ordinary brought 13.96 cents against two Middling bales which
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
12 BULLETIN 375, U. 8. DEPABTMENT OP AGEICULTTJRE.
averaged 10.84 cents; and a bale below Good Ordinary 9.10 cents
against a Middling 7.85 cents per pound.
Of 12 comparisons made in Weleetka, 4 showed tbe poorest bale to
have brought more per pound than did the best bale. Two Strict
Good Ordinary bales averaged 11.44 cents, against a Good Middling
10.13 cents per pound.
A further analysis of the data concerning these -84 coUections
showed that in 29 comparisons the lowest equivalent lint price repre-
sented a bale of higher quality than the one actually selling at the
highest price, and in 14 additional cases the quality of the bales
represented by the lowest and highest prices was identical.
It is quite evident from these facts that the selling of imginned
cotton in actual practice is attended by great xmcertainty and fre-
quently with much injustice to those who produce the higher grades
of cotton.
IRREGULARITIES IN PRICES RECEIVED FOR THE LINT CONTENT OF
SEED COTTON.
Table VIII is presented to show with respect to grade the incon-
sistencies between equivalent lint prices of cotton sold unginned in
the same market during the same week. Only such comparisons
are included in this table as show discrepancies in price over $16 per
bale.
This investigation afforded data from which 84 comparisons could
be made between loads sold during the same week in the same
market. The extreme discrepancies in price in 34 cases were mose
than $15 per bale; in 32 cases were from $10 to $15; and in 18
instances were imder $10. In these comparisons ranges firom 96
cents to $30.35 per bale occurred. The widest variation occurred in
Haskell during the week of November 8, when, of 9 loads sampled, a
bale below Good Ordinary brought an equivalent of 13.48 cents,
while a Strict Good Ordinary brought an equivalent of only 9,29
cents per poxmd. The lower grade bale brought 4.19 cents more per
poxmd, while it was worth 1.88 cents per pound less, making a total
discrepancy of 6.07 cents per poxmd or $30.35 between the bales.
The least variation found was 95 cents per bale in Crescent on
November 8, when only 2 loads were sampled.
The most noteworthy facts brought out by this table are the wide
discrepancies that occmred between the amounts secured by different
farmers for loads of seed cotton, the frequency with which low-grade
bales sold for more than did higher grades, and the wide variations
between prices.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
DI8ADVANTAGB8 OF BEIXINQ COTTOK IN THE SEED.
8
•5
^
1
It
•I
ill
m
og ^
m
11
i!
o
311
WS.8.
Ill
I
S3S8» SS8S
.S{3^Ss?SgSSSS)33^aS^S88S$8S8^SS;«^^$^ 88Si:C
Rt^ ^4 ai4 ^4 ^4 ^4 ^ w4
^iSn^oas
od
I
ooriJ'^^aoS^dSaijoSas
aQi-JafdiJiJ!4aQaQaQdQQddcQdaDadd»4i4i-)Sh4Sdi4doQS odadOoQ
^5?giqiJ58Sc35?S8CS^?o2PS5:8&S??8S88858n 88SF1
ad
Id
S'do
o
iasod
lii
olio
6*^6
>id-
:s(o
OiJcdOiJaidOcQOaQddOcDddaQOOcQCQQQOOOOoQCDaQ OOi^O
,.^,_4f^i-^ f^ ,,^ w^ n ,_4 f^ r4 C^ f^ rM ^4 ^ rN v4
i:^
^8'
•s U i^ U M i !| : i^ i ! : i i Ml : ! i ii i I i I i I
|p |ft|p5ppss|Ap ippppftppf ftftp«|«« Sftftp
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
14
BULLETIN 375, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
PRICES RECEIVED FOR LINT COTTON COMPARED WITH EQUIVALENT
LINT PRICES OF SEED COTTON.
PRICES IN SAME MARKET DURING SAME WEEK.
During the progress of this inyestigation, an additional survey
was made of conditions attending the sale of lint cotton, which re-
sulted in the accumulation of data on the sale of 4,533 bales, which
may be considered fairly representative of the entire season and the
entire cotton area of Oklahoma. There were 14 instances in which
both lint and seed-cotton samples were collected in the same market
during the same week. Table IX is presented to show these 14
collections and to compare the prices obtained in marketing cotton
by the two methods.
The differences in average selling price per pound have been
reached by subtracting the average equivalent lint prices from the
average prices of lint cotton without regard to grade. The diflfer-
ences in value on account of grade have been figured on the basis of
New Orleans spot quotations. In 3 comparisons, the average value
of the lint sold in the seed was found to exceed the average value of
the lint sold in the bale, but in all other cases the average value of
that sold in the bale was greater. A weighted average of the diff^*-
ences in average value shows that the cotton represented by the
lint collections was worth 15 points more than that represented by
the seed-cotton collections. If the small gin had turned out as
good a quality as that produced by comimercial gins, it is probable
that the cotton sold in the seed would have appeared approximately
equal in value to that sold in the bale, and this difference of 16 points
would not have appeared.
Table IX. — Comparison between prices received for ginned and unginned cotton in the
same market dvxing the same week.
Number
of
bales
sampled.
Average
llnr
price
per
poimd.
Number
of
loads
sampled.
AVMBge
eauiva-
IMt
price
pa-
pound.
Difler-
enoein
average
selling
price
I>ound.
Differ-
ence
in
average
value
pound.
Estimated loGS-
Week
endings
Per
pound.
Pec
bala.
Sept. 13
60
60
49
49
60
60
44
62
87
48
47
82
83
22
Cenu.
12.79
12.96
18.22
13.41
12.66
12.04
12.05
12.24
11.71
1L21
1L85
11.86
10.67
10.76
20
19
11
18
18
18
20
20
10
10
10
11
10
10
Cem,
1L67
10.76
12.22
12.34
10.12
ia67
10.80
10.54
10.22
8.67
11.44
9.47
&60
7.61
Cents,
L12
2.20
LOO
L07
2.64
L87
L25
1.70
1.49
2.54
1.00
2.89
2.17
8.15
Cents,
ao8
1.06
.02
.18
.82
.06
.11
.48
l.U
.81
.62
.46
.06
1.30
Ceius.
LOO
2.26
.96
.89
2.22
L81
L14
L22
L60
2.28
•.71
LOS
2.09
3.64
$5.45
Sept. 20
1L30
Sept. 27
4.90
Oct. 4
4.45
Oct. U
ILIO
Oct. 18
6w55
Oct. 26
5.70
Nov. 1
6.10
Nov. 8
8.00
Nov. 15
ILIS
Nov. 15
tslif
Nov. 22
9.66
Nov. 22
UI.45
Nov. 29
it!?!
SummAry
683
12.07
205
10.56
»1.67
.15
L52
7.59
1 Indicates particular figures in favor of seed cotton; all others in fttvor of lint cotton,
s Indicates a gain: all other extensions represent losses.
t The summarized difference in average selUng price has been reached by weighting by the number of
loads.
Digitized by
Googk
DIBADVAHTAOES OF 8ELLINQ COTTON IK THB SEED.
15
It will be noticed that, of the 14 cxHnparisoiis, 1 shows a gain of
$3.55 per bale by selling the cotton nnginned and 13 show a loss
ranging from $4.45 to $17.70. The 205 samples-of seed cotton show
an average loss of 1.52 cents per pound of lint or $7.59 per bale.
A comparison between primary prices of individual bales and
equivalent lint prices of individual loads in the same market during
the same week showed that wide price variations occurred. One
bale of Middling sold for 13.25 cents against one load yielding the
same grade at an equivalent lint price of 9.98 cents. One bale of
Low Middling sold for 12 cents, while one load of the same grade
brought an equivalent of 7.56 cents. A Low Middling bale sold for
12.30 cents in contrast with a Strict Low Middling load at 8.18
cents. Three bales of Strict Low Middling sold at an average of
12.25 cents, while three loads of the same grade brought an average
equivalent of 9.93 cents.
VmCMS FOR BACH GRADB IN7SING SSASON THBOUGHOOT STAIS.
Table X is presented in order to compare for the entire season
the average prices received for the several grades of cotton wh^i
sold in the bale with the average prices received when sold in the
seed. Only the white grades have been included in this comparison.
The custom in the Oklahoma primary markets of classing no cotton
above Good Middling has been followed and all Good Middling and
better samples have been grouped together as Good Middling.
Table X. — Comparison by grades^ between prices secured for cotton when sold unainned
and when sold in the bale, during the entire season in the markets represented.
Cotton sold in bales.
Estimated loss br
selling unginned.
QfttdA.
Number
of bales
sampled.
PrkMper
poimd.
Number
of loads
sampled.
Price of
seed
cotton.
Equiva-
lent lint
price.
Per
I>ound.
Per
bale.
O.O
152
364
504
665
661
314
342
CM*.
«.47
10.30
11.25
11.09
12.63
13.01
13.04
46
73
108
141
HI
57
51
S3. 04
3.48
3.84
3.96
4.01
4.04
4.03
SS.56
0.74
10.90
11.27
11.25
11.53
11.52
CtoiA.
0.91
.65
.35
.72
1.88
1.48
1.52
14.55
g.O. O
8.25
L.M
1.76
8.L.M
8.60
M
6.90
aM
7.40
O.M
7.60
It will be observed that the prices of cotton sold both before and
after ginning increased in a general w^y as the grade improved.
This was due in a large measure to the fact that most of the high grade
bales were sold while the prices were relatively high and most of the
low grade bales were sold while the prices were relatively low. How-
ever, as the proportion of the different grades of cotton sold in the
seed should vary throughout the season, as they do in cotton sold in
the bale, the figures are comparable for the entire season.
ioogle
uigiiizea oy ''
16
BULLETIN 375, U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE.
The losses by selling in the seed range from 35 points, or $1.75 p^
bale for Low Middling, to 152 points, or $7.60 per bale for Good
MiddUng. Selling the cotton unginned caused an aggregate loss of
$2,716.20 on the 586 loads here represented, or an average loss of
$4.63 for each bale. Thus it is shown that the producer who sells his
cotton unginned lost on each grade, and that the losses on the higher
grades exceeded those on the lower grades.
PRICES FOR EACH MONTH DURING SEASON THROUCUOUT STATE.
Table XI has been prepared in order to compare the prices obtained
for cotton by the two systems of marketing, during each month and
throughout the season. Twenty-nine lint samples of extra staple
have been omitted from this table, but the remaining 4,504 bales and
the 881 loads sampled have been considered. The number of samples
of both lint and seed cotton for each month, the average prices
secured for lint and seed cotton, the average equivalent lint prices
and the estimated losses per pound and per bale are shown.
Table XI. — ComparvKm, bv months y between prices secured for cotton when sold unginned
and when sold in the bale during the entire season in the markets represented.
Cotton sold in bAlas.'
Number
of bales
sampled.
Average
price per
pound.
Cotton aold in seed.
Number
of loads
sampled.
ArefBge
price
per 100
pounds.
Avecage
equiva-
lent lint
price per
pound.
Estimated loss br
Pec
pound.
Perbala.
September.
October
November-
December..
January....
5S5
1,873
1,607
333
106
Cenu.
13.12
12.46
10.05
9.74
8.16
104
815
253
182
27
14.08
4.00
3.66
2.84
2.62
Omis.
11.62
U.60
0.04
7.60
6.68
Omis,
1.50
.77
1.01
2.05
1.48
$7.59
S.8S
6. OS
10. 2S
7.40
Summary.
4,504
11.70
881
3.62
ia20
IL21
i6.0t
1 These figures have been reached by weighting the losses by the number of loads sampled in eadi numth.
A loss is shown for each month ranging from an average of $3.85
per bale in October to $10.25 per bale in December. The average
baled lint price for the entire season is shown as 11.70 cents and the
average equivalent lint price for the entire season as 10.20 cents.
There occurred an average loss of 1.21 cents per poimd or $6.06 per
bale.
A STUDY OF CONDITIONS IN A SPECIFIC LOCAUTT.
In order to determine the prices paid for seed cotton and to com*
pare the prices paid for Triumph cotton with the prices paid for other
varieties, the town of Crowder was chosen, as activities in that
locality had resulted in a large percentage of production of Mebane's
Triumph cotton. Each week an equal number of samples of Triumph
and other varieties of seed cotton were collected simultaneously.
The Triumph samples were taken from loads belonging to fann^s
who were well known as producers of this variety, while the other
uigiiizea oy ^
BISADVAKTAOES OP SELLING COTTON IN THE SEED.
17
samples were taken indiscriminately and may include some Triumph
eotton.
These collections were made between November 22 and January
19 and resulted in the accumulation of 27 Triumph and 28 other
samples, a comparison of which is shown in Table XTT. As the first
part of the season was not coveredy the average grade of both lots
was below that of the season, but this fact does not affect the com-
parison during the period under consideration.
Table XII. — Comparison between Triumph and other seed-cotton sales in Crovxjkr, Okla.
Varieties.
Number
oflowis
sampled.
Approxi-
mate
grade
Lint out-
turn.
Seed out-
turn.
Trash
outturn.
Seed cot-
ton price
per 100
pounds.
Equiva-
lent lint
price p«r
pound.
Trfnnmli
27
28
L.M....
8.G.O..
Percent.
33.1
Percent.
63.5
64.2
Percent.
3.6
4.2
S3. 67
3.13
Cent9.
9.53
other...:;.......:..:.;::...;:.
8.23
flHTnmary „ . . , .
55
33.7
63.9
3.9
3.39
8.86
Table XII shows that Triimiph had a distinct advantage over the
miscellaneous varieties commonly grown in tliis neighborhood.
The quality is shown to be a full grade higher, which is probably
explained by the fact that it was produced by more careful growers.
The lint outturn was 1.3 per cent greater and the price paid for the
unginned cotton 54 cents per hundred pounds more. The average
prices paid for the unginned cotton were: For Triumph $3.67, and
for other varieties $3.13 per hundred pounds, which, when converted
to the equivalent baled lint prices, are 9.52 cents and 8.23 cents per
pound, respectively, a difference in favor of Triimiph of 1.29 cents
per poimd. After allowing 50 points for difference in grade, 0.79
cent per pound, or $3.96 per bale more was paid by the ginners for
Triumph than for other cotton.
No statistics were obtained on prices paid for lint cotton in this
immediate vicinity, but the prices paid for these 56 loads when
expressed in equivalent baled-cotton prices show an average of 8.86
cents per pound for this cotton, about half of which was Triumph,
careftilly picked and handled. Comparing this average with the
average lint price of 9.87 cents throughout the State during this
period as determined by the survey of lint cotton sales, it is found
that on each pound of cotton sold unginned in this market the grow-
ers sustained an average loss of 1.01 cents, and on each bale an aver-
age loss of $6.05. It is evident that the producers of this section,
both as individuals and as a community, would profit by having
their cotton custom ginned, thereby eliminating the various uncer-
tain factors that exist when cotton is sold in the seed and reaping the
benefit of the high percentage of outturn of lint and low percentage
of trash, and the good character of their cotton. The activities in
uigiTizea oy ^
18 BULLETIN 375, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AOBICULTUBE.
the interest of pure seed, improved culture, and careful picking
should be extended to include the encouragement of custom ginning
and a knowledge of the quality and value of cotton before marketing.
The facts brought out by the study of the situation at Crowder are
published because it is bdieved that they are typical of conditions
in many other localities where cotton is sold in the seed and where
efforts to improve the product of the community are being made.
CONCLUSIONS.
The wide variations in the lint, seed, and trash proportions of seed
cotton, together with the impracticability of determining accurately
these percentages and the quality of the cotton before it is ginned,
make it impossible for the ginner justly to discriminate between the
value of individual loads. The uncertainties thus involved cause
buyers to base their prices on the average outturns and average grades
of the particular community and the current lint and seed prices.
This practice results in variations between the prices paid for the
lint content of diflFerent loads of seed cotton. Wide differences in
prices have been shown to exist between the lint content of loads in
each market and between loads in the different markets investigated.
Where lint and seed cotton are sold in the same market there is also
an inequality between prices paid for lint cotton and for the lint con-
tent of seed cotton. In some instances, individual farmers have
received more for their product in the seed than they would have
received by selling in' the bale; however, in most cases, and in the
aggregate, a loss has been shown on each grade during each month
and throughout the entire season by selling cotton in the seed.
Therefore this method of marketing cotton as a jgeneral practice,
can not be condemned too strongly, and both the farmer and ginner
are advised for the common good of all to encourage custom ginning,
so that it may be possible to sell each bale on its Merits.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
SELECTED PUBUCATIONS OF U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGMCULTURE
RELATmG TO COTTON.
AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION.
The Classification and Grading of Cotton. (Farmeis* Bulletin 591.)
Studies of Primary Market Conditions in Oklahoma. (Department Bulletin 36.)
The Relation of Cotton Buying to Cotton Growing. (Department Bulletin 60.)
Cotton Warehouses: Storage Facilities Now Available in the South. (Department
Bulletin 216.)
Cotton Warehouse Construction. (Department Bulletin 277.)
Custom Ginning as a Factor in Cotton-seed Deterioration. (Department Bulletin
288.)
Cotton Improvement on a Community Basis. (Yearbook Separate 579.)
Improved Methods of Handling and Marketing Cotton. (Yearbook Separate 605.)
Cotton Selection on the Farm by the Characters of the Stalks, Leaves, and Bolls.
(Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 66.)
FOR SALE BY SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,
WASHINGTON, D. C.
Local Adjustment of Cotton Varieties. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 159.)
Price, 10 cents.
Danger in Judging Cotton Varieties by Lint Percentages. (Bureau of Plant Indus-
try Circular 11.) Price, 5 cents.
Results of Cotton Experiments in 1911. ^Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 96.)
Price, 5 cents.
Behavior of Seed Cotton in Farm Storage. (Bureau of Plant Industry Circular
123~B.) Price, 5 cents.
ADDITIONAL COPIES
or TmS PUBUCATION MAY BE PB0CI7BED FBOM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OP DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTINO OPFICB
WASHINOTON, D. C.
AT
5 CENTS PER COPY
V
19
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
/
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
AX DDE Eflfl baa
f V\ V'V'l
Bdby
G(
Digitized by
Goog
AiiiU_
AX DOE 5afl bED
■Pigitized by
Go^
Digitized by
Goog
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11