MONTANA STATE LIBRARY
3 0864 1002 4398 2
SBUS8SSS-
BULL MOUNTAINS COAL FIELD STUDY
Progress Report, 1973
Research Conducted by:
MONTANA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
vironment and Information Division
and
CONSOLIDATION COAL COMPANY
MONTANA STATE LIBRARY
930 East Lynda/e Avenue
Helena, Montana 59601
igy
July 30, 1973
f? V. S
7^73
Prepared by:
Gary L. Dusek, Environmental Planning Ecologist
and
Steve McCann, Research Assistant for Nongame
Animals
3c
MONTANA STATE LIBRARY
930 East Lyndale Avenue
TJfflLE OF CONTENTS He!etia' M°"tana 59601
Page
Introduction .............. 1
Study Area . . a . 1
Location , 1
Physiography . 3
Climate 3
Vegetation 3
Phases of Study 5
General Wildlife Ecology Study 5
Mule Deer 5
Elk 13
Turkeys 17
Rest-Rotation Grazing Study. 22
Range Use by Cattle 23
Wildlife 25
Grazing Management Plan 25
Revegetation Studies 27
Vegetation Analysis 27
Wildlife 31
Nongame Mammal Inventory 32
Species Account 33
Test Pit Nongame Mammal Survey 36
Discussion 38
Appendix 4-2
Literature Cited 51
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2013
http://archive.org/details/bullmountainscoa1973duse
INTRODUCTION
Wildlife, both game and nongame species, is a product of and dependent upon
its environment. One might easily conclude that any sudden disturbance or altera-
tion of the natural environment would have a detrimental impact upon this resource.
With the advent of coal development by surface mining in southeastern Montana,
many questions arise concerning the impact upon resident wildlife occupying this
portion of the state as well as on the total environment. Questions include:
Once an area is mined, can habitat conditions needed to maintain stable, exploit-
able and diverse wildlife populations be achieved through reclamation? Should an
area which includes critically important habitat be considered for surface mining?
and, How can any destruction or enhancement of habitat values through surface
mining and subsequent reclamation occur or be adequately measured?
Ecological data concerning strip mined lands and wildlife are generally
lacking. Studies such as those of Brewer (1958), Vertz (i960) and Karr (1968)
entail mostly studies of song birds and small mammals on land with little or no
reclamation, and they're confined to the midwest states. Knife River Coal Company
in western North Dakota terms some of its reclaimed spoils as wildlife management
areas (Gwynn, 1966), but the specific details are lacking.
The present study was undertaken in the Bull Mountains by the Montana Depart-
ment of Fish and Game in cooperation with Consolidation Coal Company. The study
includes the following overall objectives: (l) To determine the impact of present
and future surface mining upon the wildlife resource in this area, (2) To insure
that wildlife habitat values receive full recognition in any surface reclamation
efforts following mining, and (3) To investigate possible modifications or innova-
tions in the reclamation process to avoid unnecessary loss of wildlife habitat.
Goals attempted during this initial report period were to inventory and gain
basic ecological data on game species and nongame mammals, determine vegetation
types occurring in the area and their relative use by wildlife, and identify areas
for a more comprehensive study of various ecological aspects.
STUDY AREA
Location
The Bull Mountains (Figure l), in southeastern Montana, lie south of the
Musselshell River primarily in Musselshell County with small portions in Yellowstone
and Golden Valley Counties. The area is used largely for livestock production,
with some of the more gentle terrain, primarily around the periphery and in the
lower drainages, presently under cultivation. Approximately 86,000 acres of com-
mercial timber occur in the region also (U. S. Department of Interior, B.L.M. ,
1973).
_ o
-2-
Physiography
The area, consisting of two levels or plateaus with a difference in elevation
of approximately 500 feet, forms the divide between the Musselshell drainage to
the north and the Yellowstone to the south (Gieseker, 1939). The higher level,
consisting of scoria-capped mesas, has a mayi'mum elevation of 4.700 feet above sea
level. The lower level, a dissected plateau, has a maximum elevation of 4.200
feet. High cliffs and rimrocks formed from sandstones of the Fort Union formation
border many of the lower drainages. Other substrata include siltstones and shales.
The Mammoth-Rehder coal seam lies underneath (Figure l). Soils of the area are
characterized by loams of the Bainville series in the uplands and loams of the
Jordan series on the valley slopes.
Climate
Gieseker (1939) has described the climate as semiarid, characterized by
comparatively low rainfall, great temperature extremes and relatively low humidity.
Climatological data were taken from data recorded at Roundup (U.S. Department of
Commerce, 1972-73). Monthly data are shown in Appendix Table 15.
Average temperatures during January, 1972 were below normal as compared to
near normal temperatures during January, 1973. Average temperatures during
February of both years were slightly above normal. The spring of 1972 was charac-
terized by above normal temperatures, especially during March. During summer,
June and August were characterized by above normal average temperatures as compared
to below normal during July. Below normal average temperatures were reported dur-
ing the period of September, 1972 through December, 1972.
The area received 13.2 inches of moisture during 1972 as compared to a
normal of 10.93 inches. April, May, July and August were the wettest months,
and total precipitation was far above normal (Appendix Table 15). Precipitation,
in the form of snow, during January and February, 1973 was far below normal.
Vegetation
Seven different vegetation types occur in the Bull Mountains. Types were
quantitatively sampled by a canopy coverage method similar to that described by
Daubenmire (1959), but the data will not appear until a later report. The follow-
ing description of vegetation types is only qualitative. Plant taxa collected and
identified during the spring and summer of 1972 are listed in Appendix Table 16.
Common and scientific names of plants were from Booth (1950) and Booth and Wright
(1959).
Grassland Type
This type occurred in open parks on plateaus and ridges and in drainage
bottoms. Many of these areas, apparently under cultivation at one time, have
since reverted back to native range vegetation. Grasses occurring on this type
included cheatgrass (Bromus spp.), blue grama (Boutelqua gracilis) , western
wheatgrass (Agropyron smithii) and green needlegrass (Stipa viridula) . Broom
snakeweed (Gutierrezia sjrothrae), a forb, thrived on many sites. Other forbs
-3-
commonly observed included common dandelion (Taraxicum officinale) , common
salsify (Tragopogon dubius) and yarrow (Achillea millefolium) . Shrubs, sparsely
scattered, included skunkbush sumac (Rhus trilobata) , silver sagebrush (Artemisia
cana) , snowberry ( Symphor icarpos spp.) and wild rose (Rosa spp.).
Cropland Type
This type included cereal grains and summerfallow occurring primarily on
plateaus, drainage bottoms and gentle slopes.
Hay Meadow Type
This, like the cropland type, represented an agricultural disturbance and
occurred on the same type of slope as the cropland type. Domestic grasses occurred
on many of the meadows and a combination of alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and grasses
in others. Broom snakeweed occurred in many of the meadows.
Sagebrush-Grassland Type
This type represented various degrees of association and dominance between
sagebrush, grasses and forbs. Silver sagebrush prevailed over much of the study
area, but big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) occurred in the southern portion
of Musselshell County and in Yellowstone County.
Deciduous Shrub Type
Several subtypes were identified but not distinguished during this initial
report. Shrubs occurring in this type included skunkbush sumac, snowberry,
chokecherry (Prunus virginiana) . currant (Ribes spp.) and wild rose.
Ponderosa Pine-Bunchgrass Type
Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) . the only species of timber known to occur
in the Bull Mountains, and bluebunch wheatgrass (Agropyron spicatum) appeared to
be the major species in this type. These sites included broken parks and timbered
areas where the tree canopy was open enough to allow a substantial cover of under-
story vegetation. Shrubs, including skunkbush sumac, silver sagebrush, Rocky
Mountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum) and common juniper ( J. communis) were
found throughout this type.
Ponderosa Pine Type
This consisted of homogeneous stands of ponderosa pine where the dense canopy
of timber prevented development of understory vegetation. These stands of timber
occurred primarily on north-facing slopes.
-I-
PHASES OF STUDY
The present study has been divided into four separate phases. Included are
a general wildlife ecology study, a rest-rotation grazing study on property
owned and leased by Consolidation Coal Company (Consol), a revegetation study
at Consol 's test pit in the Bull Mountains, and a nongame mammal inventory. All
data, except from the revegetation study at the test pit, were considered pre-
mining data.
General Wildlife Ecology Study
The purpose of this phase was to determine specific habitat requirements
of game species in the Bull Mountains, to use the data for determining whether
or not certain areas should be mined, and to suggest how mined areas can be re-
claimed to fulfill requirements of game animals.
Mule deer (Odoco ileus hemionus) , elk (Cervis canadensis) and Merriam's
turkey (Meleagris gallopavo merriami ) were the most commonly observed game species
in foothill areas where mining will most likely occur. A few sharp-tailed grouse
(Pedioecetes phasianellus) and pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) were also ob-
served in these areas. White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginiana) and ring-
necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) were associated with the tree and shrub
vegetation along the Musselshell River bottom although whitetails were occasionally
observed in the foothills adjacent to the river. Only the first three species
mentioned will be discussed in any detail.
Animals, when observed either from a fixed-wing aircraft or from the ground,
were classified as to sex and whether adult or young. The vegetation type and
class of slope the animal occupied were noted as well as its location to the
nearest section. Rumens, collected for the purpose of studying food habits of
mule deer, were analyzed by a method similar to that used by Wilkins (1957) and
others. Feeding sites, areas of recent use by feeding animals, were examined
shortly after being vacated during summer and winter to gain food habit data for
these two seasons. One bite on a plant constituted one instance of u^e. Results
from this method as well as rumens were tabulated by the aggregate percentage
method (Martin et al, 194-6).
Mule Deer
Distribution and Range Use
Mule deer were observed throughout the entire Bull Mountains area, but
appeared to be concentrated in certain areas as shown in Figure 2. Areas of con-
centration did not change appreciably from one season to another, suggesting that
mule deer in this area were nonmigratory. Any seasonal shifts appeared to be
associated with changes in preferences for vegetation types and various classes
of slope. This was similar to findings in other areas of eastern Montana (Mackie,
1970; Dusek, 1971; and Knapp, 1972).
-5-
-6-
Average group sizes of mule deer varied from 6.3 animals per group during
winter to 2.0 animals during summer. Average group sizes during spring and fall
were intermediate to those of winter and summer.
Aerial and ground data have been combined in the following analysis. Range
use data were based on 318$ observations.
Use of Vegetation Types
Since observations of mule deer were associated with periods of activity
such as feeding, use of the timbered types may have been underestimated. When
alarmed or after periods of feeding, deer used timbered types for escape cover
and many were observed bedding in these types.
Winter: During the winter of 1971-72, 66 percent of the observations of
mule deer were in the ponderosa pine-bunchgrass type (Table l). This winter
was characterized by greater amounts of precipitation, in the form of snow, and
colder temperatures as compared to the succeeding winter of 1972-73 (Appendix
Table 15). During the mild winter of 1972-73, 23 percent of the observations
were in the ponderosa pine-bunchgrass type. Twenty-one percent were in the
grassland type during the winter of 1972-73 as compared to 13 percent the previous
winter (Table l). The percentage of observations in the hay meadow, sagebrush-
grassland and deciduous shrub types during 1972-73 was twice that recorded during
the winter of 1971-72. Use of vegetation types by mule deer during winter in the
Bull Mountains was similar to that observed by Martinka (1968) and Knapp (1972).
Spring: The grassland and ponderosa pine-bunchgrass types received 30 and
27 percent, respectively, of the use by mule deer during this season in 1972
(Table l). The cropland and hay meadow types each accounted for 16 percent of
the observations. Use of these two types appeared to correspond with early spring
greenup when such areas become attractive to deer.
Summer: During this season the grassland type was most important and
reached its highest annual use accounting for 38 percent of the seasonal observa-
tions. The ponderosa pine-bunchgrass type was second in importance, with 23
percent of the observations (Table l). Observations in the deciduous shrub type
increased to 11 percent as compared to 1 percent during spring. The cropland
type was not used as heavily during summer as compared to spring, since it
accounted for only 5 percent of the seasonal observations. Many drainage bottoms
dominated by the grassland type were heavily grazed by livestock during this
season. For the most part, deer appeared to avoid these areas because most ob-
servations of deer in the grassland type were in areas where a lush growth of
vegetation occurred.
Fall: During this season 28 percent of the observations of mule deer were
in the grassland type, followed by the hay meadow type with 23 percent. The
deciduous shrub type accounted for 16 percent of the observations, representing
an increase over summer for this type. The cropland type accounted for 1A percent
of the seasonal observations, also representing an increase over summer observa-
tions (Table l).
-7-
Table 1. Seasonal use of vegetation types by mule deer as determined from
ground and aerial data combined based on 3,185 observations.
Vegetation Type
Season
Winter, 1972 (268)^
Spring, 1972 (850)
Summer, 1972 (565)
Fall, 1972 (788)
Winter, 1972-73 (7U)
ra
o
•X} <D
pM Ph
32/
2
tr
i
to C
° 5
0 i
66
27
23
13
23
TD
H
ra
13
30
38
28
21
Td <D cd
ra
ft
S3 « SW
cd
o
O-ri M
I*
u
PM PM
O
o
tr3/
16
5
Li
1
o
ro
S
7
16
13
23
19
i
x
ra
p
u
CD
^
uo a)
CO C5
8
9
6
17
m
o
-rs X!
•H pi
O H
<D .2
(=) CO
6
1
11
16
17
i/ Sample size for respective season.
^Percent of seasonal observations.
^Trace - less than one percent of seasonal observations
Use of Slopes
Winter; Sixty-four and 34- percent of the observations of mule deer occurred
on sidehills during the winters of 1971-72 and 1972-73, respectively (Table 2).
Here again, differences between the two winters, mentioned previously, may have
influenced use by deer of the various classes of slope. During the mild winter
of 1972-73, a greater percentage of mule deer occupied coulee bottoms, coulee
heads and plateaus than during the previous winter when depths of snow in many
of these areas may have precluded use by deer. Loveless (1967) concluded that
snow depths of 20-24- inches precluded the use of an area by deer.
Spring; Forty-one and 26 percent of the observations occurred on sidehills
and creek bottoms, respectively. The increase in observations on creek bottoms,
from winter to spring of 1972, corresponded with increased use of hay meadow and
cropland types during the spring greenup.
Summer; The greatest number of observations during this season, 31 percent,
occurred in coulee bottoms. This corresponded with the percentage of deer ob-
served in the grassland type when forbs were most important in the diet. Even
though use of coulee bottoms was higher than during any other season, deer were
seldom observed in coulee and creek bottoms where heavy grazing by livestock
occurred. Deer appeared to prefer areas where livestock grazing was light or
absent. Twenty-five and 16 percent of the observations occurred on sidehills
and creek bottoms, respectively.
-8-
Table 2. Seasonal use of the various classes of slope by mule deer as determined
from ground and aerial data combined based on 3,185 observations.
Class of Slope
Coulee
Creek
Coulee
Season
Sidehill
Bottom
Bottom
Ridge
Plateau
Head
Winter, 1972 (268)^/
6^1/
6
8
9
13
Spring, 1972 (850)
4-1
8
26
11
H
1
Summer, 1972 (565)
25
31
16
7
U
7
Fall, 1972 (788)
20
18
17
9
28
9
Winter, 1972-73 (7U)
3A
16
9
9
22
10
-'Sample size for a respective season.
^/Percentage of seasonal observations.
Fall: Plateaus accounted for 28 percent of the observations during the fall
of 1972, which appeared to correspond with use of the hay meadow and cropland
types (Tables 1 and 2). Sidehills, coulee bottoms and creek bottoms constituted
20, 18 and 17 percent of the seasonal observations, respectively.
Use of Exposures
During both winters, more than 60 percent of the observations associated
with some degree of slope occurred on southerly exposures. These exposures
receive greater amounts of sunlight during this season than do northerly exposures
and large accumulations of snow generally do not occur in these areas. Shrubby
vegetation, the major item in the diet of mule deer during this season, appeared
more abundant on southerly exposures as compared to northerly exposures, which
are dominated by timber. During other seasons there was no observed preference
for exposures during periods of activity.
Food Habits
Food habits during winter and summer were estimated by the use of feeding
site examinations. Sample sizes were small, but trends in seasonal food habits
were apparent. Data for the two winters were combined. Rumen samples from
hunter-killed deer were used to estimate food habits during fall. Four browse
utilization transects, read in the spring and fall, aided in determining relative
use and periods of use for what were considered the key browse species in the
Bull Mountains.
-9-
Winter; Browse and forbs accounted for 89 and 10 percent of the diet, re-
spectively, as determined from 9 feeding site examinations which included 1,252
instances of use. Browse attained its highest seasonal usage during this season
(Table 3). Silver sagebrush, which accounted for 34- percent of the diet during
this season, was the most important item. Skunkbush sumac and common juniper
followed and accounted for 25 and 12 percent of the diet, respectively. Silver
sagebrush did not appear to be utilized as heavily in the sagebrush-grassland
type as it did in areas such as the ponderosa pine-bunchgrass type where sagebrush
plants were sparsely scattered and mixed with other shrubs used by mule deer
during winter. Soap-weed (Yucca glauca) , which remained green throughout the
winter, was the most important forb and constituted 3 percent of the diet.
Use of grasses by mule deer during winter was negligible.
Data from browse utilization transects indicated that the annual leader
growth of sagebrush and skunkbush sumac was used primarily during winter with
little or no use in other seasons. The average leader use on silver sagebrush
varied from 4-3 to 52 percent when transects were read following the winter of
1971-72. In November, 1972, the leader use on this plant amounted to less than
2 percent. For skunkbush sumac, average leader use varied from 13 to 30 percent
following the winter of 1971-72 and averaged 3 percent in November, 1972. In
general, silver sagebrush plants appeared in fair condition with only moderate
hedging, but many skunkbush sumac plants were severely hedged.
An average leader use of 58 percent was recorded for one transect on green
rabbitbrush ( Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus) and 90 percent for a transect on rubber
rabbitbrush (C. nauseosus) following the winter of 1971-72. These two plants
were very limited in distribution and probably important to mule deer only in
specific locations. The same two transects were again read in November, 1972, and
the average leader use was 30 and 39 percent, respectively. This indicated that
the two species were used during both fall and winter, but some of the use may be
attributed to livestock.
Summer: Food habits for this season were based on 5 feeding sites which
included 118 instances of use. Forbs comprised the most important forage class
in the diet, 69 percent, followed by browse, which constituted 28 percent. The
most abundant forb was common salsify which constituted 54- percent. Other forbs
in the diet included wild lettuce (Lactuca serriola) and yellow sweetclover
(Melilotus officinalis) (Table 3). Deciduous shrubs made up the rest of the diet
with leaves of golden currant (Ribes aureum) and skunkbush sumac accounting for
11 and 9 percent, respectively. Others are shown in Table 3. There was no use
recorded on the grass forage class during this season.
Fall; Food habits during this season were based on three rumen samples
collected during October and November of 1972. Use of browse by mule deer, 4-6
percent by volume, indicated an increase in the use of this forage class from
summer (Table 3). Snowberry, which was the most important item during this season,
accounted for 4-2 percent of the diet. Other shrubs making up 1 percent or more of
the diet during this season included skunkbush sumac and wild rose. Forbs ac-
counted for 4-3 percent of the seasonal diet. Canadian thistle (Cirsium arvense)
was the most abundant, accounting for 18 percent. The grass forage class accounted
for 12 percent of the volume of the 3 rumens.
-10-
Table 3. Seasonal food habits of mule deer as determined from feeding site
examinations and rumen samples.
Winter
Summer
Fall
9 sites
5 sites
3 rumens
Taxa
(1282)1/
(118)
Browse
Artemisia cana
55/3^/
— / —
33/tr
Juniperus communis
33/12
— / —
__/-
Juniperus horizontalis
ll/ll
_./--
— / —
Pinus ponderosa
22/ 6
— / —
— / —
Populus deltoides
-/-
-/-
33/tr
Prunus virginiana
— / —
20/ 1
— / —
Rhus trilobata
55/25
20/ 9
67/ 1
Ribes aureum
__/--
20/11
— / —
Rosa spp.
n/ K i
20/ 5
100/ 2
Symphoricarpos spp.
ll/tr3/
20/ 2
100/4.2
Unknown shrubs
ll/tr
— /—
67/ 1
Total Browse
100/89
40/28
100/4.6
Forhs
Artemisia frigida
Artemisia ludoviciana
Aster spp.
Chrysopsis villosa
Cirsium arvense
Eriogonum spp.
Guttierezia sarothrae
Lactuca serriola
LEGUMIN0SAE
Melilotus officinalis
Solidago spp.
Tragopogon dubius
Yucca glauca
Unknown forhs
Total Forhs
Grasses
Total Grasses
33/ 2
__/__
__/__
22/ 1
/
/
11/ 2
__/__
33/ 1
ll/tr
/ —
— / —
11/1
— / —
33/18
— / —
33/tr
22/tr
— / —
— / —
— / —
4-0/ 4
— / —
22/1
— / —
67/ 1
— / —
40/11
67/tr
22/tr
— / —
— / —
ll/tr
80/54
— / —
22/ 3
— / —
— / —
— /~
— /—
100/23
67/10
80/69
100/43
22/tr
_/_
100/12
22/tr
-_/--
100/12
2/The number of instances of use
^/Frequency (percent occurrence among feeding sites or rumens) /per cent of seasonal
diet
2/tr - percent of seasonal diet is less than .5 percent
-11-
Population Characteristics
Based on 90 observations of mule deer during January and February of 1972,
a fawn: adult ratio of 55:100 was calculated (Table 4). Sex of adults was not
readily determined during late February, so a fawn: doe ratio was not available.
Aerial data did not closely agree with that from the ground, perhaps because
deer observed from the air were difficult to classify to age during this time of
year. The fawn: adult ratio from 635 ground observations during spring of 1972
was 34-: 100 indicating a substantial decrease in the number of fawns per adult
from winter to spring. Two dead fawns were found in the area following the winter
of 1971-72. Examination of marrow in the femur indicated that both suffered from
malnutrition (Greer, 1969). The winter of 1971-72 was considered severe, and
forage conditions may not have met the growth and metabolic requirements of fawns.
Since livestock were left on the range in many areas, interspecific competition
for forage may have been a contributing factor.
During the summer of 1972 newly born fawns were not readily observable until
the middle of August, so fawn: doe and fawn: adult ratios were not calculated for
this period. During the fall of 1972 fawn: doe and fawn: adult ratios, based on
306 ground observations, were 34:100 and 27:100, respectively (Table 4). Data
from 442 aerial observations closely agreed with data from ground observations;
i.e., 32:100 and 24:100, respectively. These ratios did not change appreciably
during the winter of 1972-73 when the fawn: doe and fawn: adult ratios from ground
observations, based on a sample size of 275 deer, were 32:100 and 26:100, respec-
tively. Respective ratios from aerial observations during this season, based on
a sample size of 4-39 deer, were 29:100 and 24:100.
From examining the data in Table 4-, one can compare the two fawn crops.
The fawn: adult ratios during the fall of 1972 and winter of 1972-73 never did
approach the respective figure for the previous fawn crop at its lowest level
during the spring of 1972.
Table 4-. Population characteristics of mule deer as determined from 1691 ground
observations from January, 1972 - February, 1973.
Adults
CO
0)
cd
fa
to
0
rH
1
•
H
o
&
r-\
cd
-P
O
EH
CO
a
fa
•
rH
O
B
Sex &
Age
r-i
cd
-P
o
Eh
Fawns:
100
Females
Fawns:
100
Adults
Winter, 1972
43
3
10
56
31
3
90
—
55:100
(Jan. & Feb.)
Spring, 1972
155
55
216
426
144
65
635
-
34:100
Summer, 1972
240
126
1
367
18
-
385
-
-
Fall, 1972
193
48
-
241
65
-
306
34:100
27:100
Winter, 1972-73
174-
27
10
211
55
9
275
32:100
26:100
-12-
Elk
Residents in the Bull Mountains first reported seeing elk during the 1950' s.
Since elk were never transplanted to the area, there are several opinions con-
cerning the origin of the population.
Until the present time, there has teen no legal hunting of elk in this area.
A special archery season is scheduled for the fall of 1973 on property controlled
by Consolidation Coal Company.
Distribution and Range Use
Distribution and range use are based on 200 observations of elk during the
report period. The sample size is small, but some trends are apparent. More
data are necessary to draw any far-reaching conclusions.
Data from ground and aerial observations combined, indicated that three to
four herd segments of resident elk occur in the area. Mackie (1970) felt there
was an interchange of animals between herd segments in the Missouri breaks, an
area similar to the Bull Mountains in topography and vegetation. The same situa-
tion may occur in the Bull Mountains, but quantitative data are limited. The
distribution of all observations of elk for the report period appears in Figure 3.
Composition and distribution of herd segments varied throughout the year.
During the period of January through April, 1972, cows and calves were observed
in groups varying from 7 to 12 animals per group. Bull groups, never observed
with cow/calf groups during this period, varied from one to six. From May through
August, all animals observed were solitary. Bulls were first observed with cow/
calf groups during fall, when groups varied in size from 2 to 22 and contained
from 1 to 3 bulls. All observations of elk were in precipitous terrain, primarily
above 4,000 feet, throughout the year — except during the fall breeding season when
several observations were below this elevation, primarily in the upper ends of
major drainages.
Use of Vegetation Types
Spring: During spring, 1972, J+7 percent of the observations of elk occurred
in the grassland type as compared to the hay meadow and sagebrush-grassland types
which accounted for 28 and 22 percent, respectively (Table 5). Only 3 percent
of the observations occurred in the ponderosa pine-bunchgrass type during this
season. These observations may not accurately reflect the role that timbered
types play in the daily activities of elk, because all observations were obtained
during early morning and evening hours when elk were active. ELk were more dif-
ficult to observe in the timber, but were often observed using timber as escape
cover when alarmed by the observer.
Summer: Only two observations of elk were made from June through August,
1972. One occurred in the grassland type and the other in the ponderosa pine-
bunchgrass type. Data for this season were obviously too scanty to draw any con-
clusions. Mackie (1970) found that greatest usage during summer occurred on
timbered types in the Missouri breaks.
-13-
-u-
Fall; During fall, 1972, when 117 observations were obtained, 30 percent
occurred in the hay meadow type (Table 5). The grassland and ponderosa pine-
bunchgrass types accounted for 21 and 19 percent of the observations, respectively.
This was the only season when observations were made on all vegetation types
(Table 5).
Winter: All 4-5 observations recorded during winter, 1972-73 occurred in
the grassland type, primarily in open parks. Mackie (1970 ) found western wheat-
grass to be the most important item in the diet in the Missouri breaks during
winter. This species of grass occurs in the grassland type in the Bull Mountains.
Table 5. Seasonal use of vegetation types by elk as determined from ground and
aerial data combined based on 198 observations.
Vegetation Type
Season
Ponderosa
Pine-
Bunchgrass
Grass-
land
Crop-
land
Hay
Meadow
Sagebrush-
Grassland
Deciduous
Shrub
Spring, 1972 (36)3/
Fall, 1972 (117)
Winter, 1972-73 U-5)
19
47
21
100
12
28
30
22
7
10
^Sample size for a respective season.
^-/Percent of seasonal observations.
Use of Slopes
Spring: During spring, 1972, UA percent of the observations occurred in
coulee heads, most of which were surrounded by precipitous terrain including rim-
rocks and steep timbered slopes. Plateaus and sidehills accounted for 28 and 22
percent of the observations, respectively (Table 6). Use of plateaus by elk during
this season corresponded with use of the hay meadow type.
Fall: Coulee heads, which accounted for 38 percent of the observations during
fall, 1972, provided the most important slope class used by elk. Twenty-seven
percent of the observations occurred in coulee bottoms which exhibited their
highest annual use. This was the only time of year that elk were observed in creek
bottoms when 19 percent of the observations occurred on this class of slope
(Table 6).
Winter: Forty-nine percent of the observations occurred on sidehills during
the winter of 1972-73 when this class of slope received its greatest seasonal
usage by elk. Ridges and coulee heads accounted for 2U and 20 percent of the use,
respectively (Table 6) .
-15-
Table 6. Percent use by season of the various classes of slope by elk as
determined by ground and aerial observations combined.
Season
Sidehill
Spring, 1972 (36)V ZllI
Fall, 1972 (117) 11
Winter, 1972 (4-5) 4-9
Coulee
Bottom
6
27
2
Class of Slope
Creek
Bottom
19
Ridge
Plateau
Coulee
Head
21
28
1
4-
38
20
1/ Sample size for a respective season.
•^/Percentage of seasonal observations.
Population Characteristics
During the fall of 1972, elk were more readily classified to sex and age
than during other seasons. One hundred seventeen animals, the largest seasonal
sample size, were classified. With the larger sample size, cow: calf and adult:
calf ratios should more reliably reflect conditions in the population. During
other seasons, sample sizes were smaller, calves were not readily observable,
and animals were generally more difficult to classify.
Cow: calf and adult: calf ratios during fall, 1972, were 100:4-1 and 100:33,
respectively (Table 7). The adult: calf ratio was perhaps overestimated, because
very few spike or yearling bulls were observed during this season. Most of the
bulls accompanying harems were mature bulls with a few raghorn bulls present.
Coop (1971), in the Little Belt Mountains, reported a drop in the number of ob-
servations of yearling bulls from July through mid-October while observations of
older bulls increased. During the present study, only two observations of spike
bulls were made during the fall of 1972, both during late October and November.
The calf: cow ratio obtained during the report period was comparable to the
ratio of 38:100 reported for the East Boulder Plateau in the Beartooth Mountains
(Knapp, 1973). A calf: cow ratio of 57:100 was reported for both the Missouri
breaks and the Little Belt Mountains (Mackie, 1970 and Coop, 1971) . Elk have
never been legally hunted in the Bull Mountains as opposed to the other three
areas mentioned.
Table 7. Population characteristics of elk as determined from 117 observations
from the air and ground combined during the fall of 1972.
Adults
Season
Fern.
Males
Total
Calves
Total
Calves : Cow
Calves : Adult
Fall, 1972
71
17
88
29
117
41:100
33:100
-16-
Turkeys
According to records of the Department of Fish and Game, turkeys were intro-
duced in the Bull Mountains in 1958 with a release of 54- "birds. The first group
of 18 was released south of the community of Musselshell in the Hawk Creek
vicinity during February and the second group of 36 was released near the town
of Musselshell in December. The first hunting season on turkeys in the area, a
1-day season, occurred in 1962. Since 1967, seasons have lasted 2 to 3 weeks,
coinciding with those on deer. Until the present time there has been no spring
gobbler season in the Bull Mountains. Ranchers in the area have become possessive
with turkeys as well as with other game species. For this reason, and because
most of the land is privately owned, access for the purpose of hunting is limited.
Distribution and Range Use
Since their introduction, the distribution of turkeys has expanded from the
Hawk Creek area westward to the Goulding Creek area (Figure 4-) . Twenty-four
birds were trapped and marked in the upper end of East Parrot Creek during
February, 1972. Each bird was marked with a poncho-type marker similar to that
described by Pyrah (1970) as well as one metal and one colored plastic legband.
Most relocated birds had lost the ponchos by early fall.
All marked turkeys were relocated several times in the area where marked
until the large wintering flock broke up into smaller groups in late March and
early April of 1972. Since that time, eight definite relocations were obtained.
Of these, 2 were observed within 2 miles of the trap site, 5 were observed 5 to 8
miles away, and 1, in February, 1973, was relocated in the Hark Creek area, 16
airline miles away from the trap site. Although the bird which moved 16 airline
miles was a female, age was undeterminable, because the individually marked poncho
was missing. In the Long Pines of southeastern Montana, the longest direct air-
line movement reported by Jonas (1966) was 14.5 miles by a yearling male. It was
determined during that study that annual movement for juveniles was greater than
for any other age class.
During winter, turkeys appeared to be confined in close proximity to major
drainages in the Bull Mountains. With the breakup of large wintering flocks
during spring, birds tended to disperse throughout the foothills. This situation
continued throughout the summer period. During fall, birds again drifted toward
the major drainages.
Use of Vegetation Types
Use of vegetation types is based on observations of 992 turkeys during the
report period.
Winter: During the winters of 1971-72 and 1972-73, 55 and 50 percent of the
observations, respectively, occurred in farmsteads or feedlots. Use of these
areas, which occurred primarily in the early morning and evening hours, was
supplemented by use in other vegetation types during the middle of the day.
-17-
Roosting areas for lairds using farmsteads and f eedlots were in close proximity
to these areas. When disturbed, turkeys used timbered types for escape cover.
Forty-five percent of the observations during the winter of 1971-72 were in the
ponderosa pine-bunchgrass type as compared to 7 percent the following winter.
During the mild winter of 1972-73, 21 and 18 percent of the use occurred in the
cropland, primarily stubble- and grassland types, respectively (Table 8). In
the Long Pines, Jonas (1966) reported 73 percent of the observations during
winter occurred in a deciduous tree-shrub type in drainage bottoms. This or
even a similar type does not occur in the Bull Mountains.
Spring: During spring, 1972, the grassland type accounted for 77 percent
of the seasonal usage. The remaining observations during this season occurred
primarily in the ponderosa pine-bunchgrass and sagebrush-grassland types (Table 8).
As mentioned previously, turkeys used timbered types for escape cover when
alarmed.
Summer: Forty-two percent of the observations during the 1972 season
occurred in the grassland type, followed by the hay meadow type with 39 percent.
Other types used, as shown in Table 8, included the ponderosa pine-bunchgrass,
sagebrush-grassland, ponderosa pine and deciduous shrub types. These findings
are similar to those of Jonas (1966) in the Long Pines.
Fall: During this season the grassland type, which accounted for 40 percent
of the observations, was again used more than any other type. The hay meadow and
cropland types, which accounted for 27 and 22 percent of the observations,
respectively, were also important (Table 8). Stubble from recently harvested
grain accounted for all the use in the cropland type.
Table 8. Percent use of vegetation types by turkeys as determined from 992
ground observations.
Vegetation Type
Season
CO
o
&
T3 CD
a
to
o
•■a a>
PL, P-,
to
CO
cd
I
o
Tj
H
CO
CO
cd
U
a
Winter:
1971-72 (207)
1972-73 (254)
Spring:
1972 (274)
Summer:
1972 (108)
Fall:
1972 (U9)
1/
tr2/
3
45^/
7
17
11
11
18
77
42
40
-a
ft
o
21
22
o
K cd
«S CD
4
tr
39
27
i
■8
^S
-3
CO u
CO o
CO
o
CD ,2
O CO
T3
CO
CD
to
r^
55
50
4
5
-LT
1/ Sample size for a respective season
2/ Percent of seasonal observations
3/ Tr - trace - less than one percent of seasonal observations
4/ Not a vegetation type but rather an artificial situation
.19-
Use of Slopes
Winter; Creek bottoms accounted for the greatest seasonal use during both
winters, accounting for 4-8 and 75 percent of the observations for the winters
of 1971-72 and 1972-73, respectively (Table 9). Sidehills received the second
greatest use accounting for 45 and 18 percent of observations for the respective
years. Coulee bottoms received 7 percent of the use during both years with no
use recorded on the remaining three classes of slope.
Spring; During spring, 1972, creek bottoms and sidehills accounted for 37
and 35 percent of the usage, respectively. Seventeen, 6 and 4 percent of the
observations occurred in coulee bottoms, ridges and plateaus (Table 9). During
this season, decreased use of oreek bottoms, as compared to winter, and greater
usage of other classes of slope corresponded with the breakup and dispersal of
large wintering flocks.
Summer; During summer, 1972, all classes of slope were used (Table 9) .
Coulee bottoms, which accounted for 35 percent of the observations, received the
greatest seasonal use. Sidehills, creek bottoms and coulee heads received 26,
19 and 10 percent of the use, respectively.
Fall; Coulee bottoms again received the greatest use, accounting for 38
percent of the seasonal observations. Use of this class of slope corresponded
with use by turkeys of the grassland type during both summer and fall. Creek
bottoms and plateaus accounted for 19 and 17 percent, respectively, of the
seasonal use. Sidehills and ridges each accounted for 13 percent of the observa-
tions.
Table 9. Percent use of the various classes of slope by turkeys as determined
from 992 ground observations.
Coulee
Creek
Season
Sidehill
Bottom
Bottom
Winter; /
1971-72 (207)^
452/
7
48
1972-73 (254)
18
7
75
Spring;
1972 (274)
35
17
37
Summer;
1972 (108)
26
35
19
Fall:
1972 (149)
13
38
19
Class of Slope
Ridge Plateau
Coulee
Head
6
6
13
4
4
17
10
1/
2/
Sample size for a respective season
Percent of seasonal observations
-20-
Flocking
During the report period, 853 turkeys were observed in gobbler, hen, brood,
mixed and courtship flocks (Table 10). Data for the two winters were combined.
Winter; Most of the birds observed during this season were in mixed flocks
consisting of individuals of all age classes and both sexes. During winter, when
this type of flocking was most prominent, mixed flocks averaged 63 birds per
flock. Smaller groups of males, or gobbler flocks, averaged eight in number.
Jonas (1966) determined that hens seldom formed flocks. During the present study-
only one flock of 10 hens was observed during winter.
Spring; During spring, 1972, composition of flocks reflected breeding
activities. The mixed flocks of 4.0 birds during March broke up into courtship
flocks, averaging six birds, in early April. The number of males per courtship
flock varied from one to six, and for females one to eight. The average number
of males per gobbler flock was two, which was somewhat less than the figure re-
ported for winter (Table 10). Jonas (1966) found no evidence of yearling males
breeding during the study in the Long Pines. Watts and Stokes (1971) determined,
for the Rio Grande turkey (M. gallopavo intermedia) in Texas, that dominant males
within dominant sibling groups do most of the breeding.
Summer: During summer, 1972, brood flocks and gobbler flocks were most
prominent. Brood flocks, which were often composed of more than 1 brood,
averaged 16 birds per flock. Jonas (1966) and Watts and Stokes (1971) reported
that individual broods combined to form larger brood flocks during their respec-
tive studies. Males, never observed with broods during this season, occurred in
gobbler flocks averaging four birds per flock.
Fall; Turkeys of both sexes and all age classes were banding together
during this season to form mixed flocks which averaged 15 birds. Several brood
flocks were also observed (Table 10). Gobbler flocks averaged seven birds per
flock which represented an increase over summer.
Table 10. Seasonal flocking of 853 turkeys during the report period.
Winter^/(331)^ Spring 1972(265) Summer 1972(108) Fall 1972 (U9)
No.
F1A
Avg.
No.
Fl.
Avg.
No.
Fl.
Avg.
No.
Fl.
Avg.
Gobbler
67
8
8
37
17
2
29
7
A
15
2
7
Hen
10
1
10
29
12
2
2
2
1
-
-
-
Brood
-
—
-
-
-
-
64
U
16
IS
u
11
Mixed
254.
U
63
120
3
40
13
3
4-
89
6
15
Courtship
—
—
—
79
U
6
—
—
—
—
—
—
1/Data for the two winters were combined
2/Sample size for a respective season
-21-
Population Characteristics
Twenty-five broods, which included 104 poults, were observed from July
through September, 1972. Average brood size was 4-. 2 poults (Table 11). Ac-
cording to department records the same figure was 5.0 in 1970. During 1972, the
average number of poults per adult female and average number of poults per adult
were 4.0 and 1.4, respectively. The respective figures reported in 1970 were
4.7 and 2.1.
The nesting and incubation period for turkeys in the Long Pines occurred
throughout the latter part of April and the first 3 weeks in May (Jonas 1966).
Precipitation in the Bull Mountains during this period in 1972 was above normal
(Appendix Table 15) and included several periods of extremely heavy rains. Some
nests probably were destroyed and renesting attempts may have occurred. This
assumption is based on observations of vast differences in size of poults between
broods or within a brood flock during the period of July through September.
Data from the Long Pines (Jonas, 1966) suggested that turkeys in that area
exhibited an annual mortality rate of greater than 50 percent whether the popula-
tion was hunted or not. A similar situation occurred in the Bull Mountains
when 56 percent of the turkeys observed from July through September, 1972, were
birds of the year.
Table 11. Population data for turkeys covering the period of July-September,
1972, based on 186 observations.
Period
No.
Broods
25
No.
Young
104-
Avg.
Brood
Size
4.2
Adults
Young:
Adult F.
Young:
Covered
M.
45
F. Total
27 72
Adult
July-
Sept., 1972
4.0:1
1.4:1
Rest-Rotation Grazing Study
A study of livestock/wildlife relationships will be conducted on surface
acreage owned and leased by Consolidation Coal Company (Consol) which is located
on Fattig Creek in Musselshell County (Figure l). This phase of study was under-
taken with the following objectives: to study the effects of systematic grazing
on range quality and habitat use by wildlife in the Bull Mountains; to determine
how such a program may be implemented to aid in reclamation of spoil material re-
sulting from surface mining in the area; and to develop criteria that may aid in
successful reclamation as it concerns wildlife in future mining operations.
-22-
To date, information on a species by species "basis concerning the effects of
systematic grazing on wildlife is generally lacking. Gjersing (1971) stresses
the importance of increased vegetational cover, as a result of rest-rotation
grazing, upon production of waterfowl in northcentral Montana. It has also been
suggested that systematic grazing practices can keep interspecific competition
between mule deer and cattle at a minimum (Dusek, 1971).
At the present time no systematic grazing programs are in operation in the
portion of the Bull Mountains occurring in Musselshell County. One reason for
this is that public lands, administered by the Bureau of Land Management, occur
only in a few small and isolated tracts, making it impractical for consideration
of allotment management programs in this area. On the other hand, in northern
Yellowstone County, where public lands occur in larger blocks, 7 allotments in-
volving 23,000 acres are presently under rest-rotation grazing systems (U.S.
Department of Interior, B.L.M. , 1973). Even with this in mind, the vast majority
of surface acreage in the Bull Mountains is under no management program at all.
Year-long grazing is a common practice on privately owned lands with the Consol
unit no exception. Many drainage bottoms appeared to have been overgrazed during
the summer of 1972. In addition to having little or no available forage for
wildlife, many of these areas are infested with broom snakeweed, considered to
be an invader on overgrazed lands. This species has little or no known value to
livestock or wildlife as forage. Its presence might suggest a long history of
overgrazing in the area.
Range Use by Cattle
Occurrence of cattle on the various vegetation types and slopes was recorded
from late spring through the summer of 1972 on the Consol unit. Data for this
period are shown in Tables 12 and 13.
Range use by livestock was not quantitatively studied during the winter of
1972-73. When cattle were removed from the Consol unit in the fall of 1972,
horses were pastured during winter where cattle had spent the previous spring,
summer and fall.
Use of Vegetation Types
During late spring, 1972, the grassland and sagebrush-grassland types each
received 38 percent of the use (Table 12). The ponderosa pine-bunchgrass type,
the only other type where observations were recorded during this season, accounted
for 24- percent of the seasonal use.
The ponderosa pine-bunchgrass and grassland types accounted for /$ and U0
percent of the observations, respectively, during summer, 1972. The sagebrush-
grassland type accounted for 10 percent of the observations. Minor use was re-
corded on the deciduous shrub type (Table 12).
-23-
Table 12. Percent of seasonal use of vegetation types by cattle on Consol's
Ranch in the Bull Mountains.
Vegetation Type
Season
Spring, 1972 (112)2/
Summer, 1972 (l8l)
Ponderosa Sagebrush-
Ponderosa Pine- Grass- Hay Grass- Deciduous
Pine Bunchgrass land Meadow land Shrub
21&
AS
33
4-0
38
10
^ Seasonal sample size
2/Percent of seasonal observations
Table 13. Percent of seasonal use of the various classes of slope on Consol's
Ranch.
Slope
Season
Coulee Coulee
Sidehill Bottom Ridge Plateau Head
Spring, 1972 ( 112)1/ 39^/ 60
Summer, 1972 (l8l) U U9
1
3
i/Seasonal sample size
^Percent of seasonal observations
Use of Slopes
Shortly after being placed on the area during spring, 1972, 60 percent of
the cattle observations occurred on coulee bottoms. Firebaugh (1969) and Dusek
(1971) reported that cattle tended to concentrate in drainage bottoms when first
placed on a grazing unit. Creek bottoms on this unit were fenced separately and
used as special use pastures, which precluded any determination of preferences
for creek bottoms on the Consol unit. Thirty-nine percent of the observations
occurred on sidehills, mostly on gentle slopes just adjacent to coulee bottoms.
-24.-
During summer, all classes of slope were used "by cattle. Use of coulee
bottoms, 4-9 percent, decreased from spring (Table 13). Forty-one percent occurred
on sidehills. Mino use was recorded for coulee heads, ridges and plateaus. Most
pastures in the unit were grazed continuously throughout the spring, summer and
fall with only one pasture not containing any cattle until mid-summer. Exhaustion
of forage in coulee bottoms during spring and early summer may have forced cattle
into rougher terrain.
Wildlife
Mule deer, elk and turkeys all occurred on the Consol unit (Figures 2, 3
and 4.) with mule deer being observed most often. This unit lies in some of the
more rugged terrain in the Bull Mountains characterized by great extremes in
elevation and many steep timbered slopes. This may have influenced use of vegeta-
tion types and slopes by wildlife. Data for mule deer classified in this unit
(Appendix Tables 17 and 18) can be compared with that from the entire Bull Mountains
(Tables 1 and 2). Data on turkeys and elk were too scanty to allow any comparisons
to be made.
On the Consol unit, use of the Ponderosa Pine-Bunchgrass Type, during
spring, summer and fall, 1972, when data was sufficient to make comparisons,
was greater than in the entire Bull Mountains area (Table 1 and Appendix
Table 17). The Cropland Type did not occur in the Consol unit in contrast to
the rest of the Bull Mountains.
Use of the various classes of slope by mule deer was similar in both
areas except that sidehills received greater usage on the Consol Unit than
did coulee bottoms during summer as opposed to data from the entire Bull Moun-
tains (Table 2 and Appendix Table 18) . Coulee heads also appeared to receive
greater use on the Consol unit.
Grazing Management Plan
The principles of rest-rotation grazing have been outlined by Hormay
(1970). Technical assistance for the Consol unit was provided by the Soil
Conservation Service. This included a range survey to determine stocking
rates and a plan for a three pasture rest-rotation system to be implemented
during the spring of 1976 when the next lease period begins. Separate plans
were drawn up for pastures in the unit not included in the three pasture
system. A six month grazing season will commence May 1, 1976 and end Novem-
ber 1 with livestock being absent for the rest of the year.
During the first year, pasture A (Figure 5) will be grazed from May 1
to approximately August 1 or until the tame of seed ripening in pasture B.
Then pasture B will be grazed from approximately August 1 until November 1
for seed trampling. Unit C will not will not be grazed for the entire season
-25-
CONSOL UNIT:
GRAZING SCHEDULE
1976
-k K *- UNIT BOUNDARY
'"•""" ■"<""*
GRAZE
REST
Scale
3 ml let
Figure 5. Map of Consol unit showing treatment pastures (left) and grazing
schedule for first year of rest-rotation grazing system (right).
NOV. 1
-26-
to allow for seedling establishment, accumulation of litter, etc. Each pasture
will receive each of the three treatments during the 3-year cycle.
Transects will be placed for the purpose of determining vegetational trends
under the system. Mule deer are presently being marked and trapped in the Consol
unit to determine range use habits in relation to use of the area by livestock.
Revegetation Studies
During the report period, this phase of study was conducted at Consolidation
Coal Company's test pit (Figures 1 and 6). Permits for surface mining were
awarded by the Montana Department of State Lands to three mining companies that
supply coal to Roundup and adjacent areas. Mining, which includes 7 to 12 acres,
is presently in progress on each of these sites, but no seeding was attempted
during the report period.
Stripping operations began at Consol' s test pit, located approximately 4-. 5
miles southeast of Roundup, in early August, 1971. Overburden was stripped from
approximately 6 acres of the Mammoth coal seam, although the total area affected
included about 12 acres. Preparation of the seed bed and seeding were conducted
by the Montana Agricultural Experiment Station (MAES) during the first half of
May, 1972.
The purpose of the project was two-fold: i.e., to test burn the 39,000 tons
of coal from the pit and determine the burning qualities, and to use the site as
a test of reclamation procedures.
To test various mixtures of soil and degrees of slope, reclamation plots
consisted of two ridges of spoil material west of the pit (Figures 6 and 7).
The ridges consist of slopes varying from approximately 1.25:1 to those that are
nearly level. Part of the spoils ridges were covered with a layer of topsoil,
while the remaining spoils were covered with various mixtures of substrata in-
cluding sandstone, shale and a combination of the two. According to the MAES,
the entire area was seeded, primarily by hand, with one basic mixture and
fertilized aerially with one chemical mixture.
Vegetational Analysis
During July, 1972, 15 permanent vegetational analysis stations were placed
on the various mixtures of soil and degrees of slope. Each transect was analyzed
by a canopy coverage method similar to that described by Daubenmire (1959) • On
each site, vegetation within each of 20 2x5 decimeter plots was analyzed along
a 100-foot transect line with each plot spaced 5 feet apart. Results are shown
in Table L4. Due to their phenology when transects were read, wheatgrasses
( Agropyron spp. ) and ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) were not distinguishable and
were therefore combined in the following analysis. The same is true for alfalfa
and yellow sweet clover.
-27-
1
•H
O
m
03
03
<D
&
<D
!>
•H
P
O
<D
<X
03
<r>
u
ba
o
Xi
03
0)
-p
•H
ft
-P
03
<D
P
03
O
03
PS
o
o
o
<D
•H
-28-
Figure 7. Two spoils ridges (top) and pit and south highwall (bottom) at
Consol's test pit prior to seeding.
-29-
CO
co
CD
■P
»H
CO
OHHCM
O. „cn
H
• •
On
to
!
CO
H
-p
• e
•H
U"N
CO
•
CM
UA
rH
CV
1
ca
«H
CO
• •
-P
IT\
•H
CV
CO
•
■H
in
CO
CO
-p
rH
«H
d
CO
xj
co
H
CO
CO
CO
t-i
res
co
xi
CO
CO
p>
•H
T3
CO
S
CV
CD
O CO
-P 0)
TO +3
2 CO
CO m
H
TO
•H
tt»
O
-P
CO
•H
ftW
o
E-i
!>
& o
rH
«\ TO
O t3
3
cti
O O Q O
o cv vD cv
tH
SO. cv
£"3^
o o o o
O CV -vftO
CVsf H W H
o
■00
vO
I I I
CO en o
en rH
CV I
o
o
-p -p
o o
in o
00
o o p o
o
CV
a
o o o o o o o
cv -<*■ cv ^ cv cv o
H
en rH
o o
CV -4
•p
"V.
o
CV
u
•p
I I I I
i i u cv u
in
so
■ I — I ■
H
to
CV
o
-<H-^
I I
CV
--P
o
CV
o
»n
I I I to I I I
o
o
HvDiHeniHiHvOrHHen^O
h" u~ ti U £ t* -<t f-T tn u
->tH-<ti>gNg^oo-<i-enjo
r-4t>tHmCVCVOCViH-<rO
CV
CV
in
£0
to
CV
in
to
4
HHst^O
u u u
-p -p .-p
o o o
CV CV -<i
I I I I
I I
I I I I
I I 1
HHvO C-
33£
to
CO
to en
in o
O O
o o
to
o
o to
H CN
•8
S.
-a
ro o
PQ C£
in
fr
cvl cn|
-30-
Soil Mixture
Topsoiled areas, regardless of slope, contained the greatest canopy of
living vegetation and the smallest percentage of bare ground as compared to
shaled areas where the results were the opposite (Table 14.) • Sandstone and
sandstone-shale were intermediate to topsoil and shale as far as canopy of
living vegetation was concerned.
In addition to having the greatest vegetational canopy, topsoiled areas
exhibited the greatest diversity of plant species. Many of these also occurred
on native range in the area (Table 14). Other types of soil, sandstone, shale
and sandstone-shale, contained only those species that were seeded on the site.
Species included in the seed mixture are shown in Appendix Table 19, but many
were not apparent during the first growing season. Wheatgrasses and ryegrass,
both of which were seeded, were the most abundant on all types of soil, decreasing
in abundance, respectively, from topsoiled to shaled sites. Sudan grass ( Sorghum
sudan ens e) . an introduced annual, was found on all soil mixtures except shale
and showed the same order of decreasing abundance (Table 14-). Alfalfa and yellow
sweet clover were also most abundant on topsoiled areas. Shrubs, all of which
occurred at a level of less than .5 percent, were found only on topsoiled areas.
The data presented represent only the first growing season after seeding
and no far-reaching conclusions can be drawn at this time. However, this data
should strengthen preconceived opinions about the advantages of using topsoil
in reclamation attempts for a rapid recovery of vegetational cover. The data
also indicated that chemical fertilizer may not be the necessary ingredient for
reestablishing vegetation, but that perhaps other factors such as proper soil
structure, porosity and the presence of organic material are more important.
Slope
When data were combined according to slope, with no regard to soil mixture,
areas varying in gradient from 2.5:1-3:1 had the greatest canopy of living
vegetation (Table 14-). Gradients of 1.25:1-2:1 had the least. Accumulation of
rock was greater on the steeper slopes. Steeper slopes also exhibited gully
erosion resulting from runoff after heavy rains following seeding. As mentioned
previously, this data was collected only after the first growing season; more
information is necessary before definite conclusions can be drawn.
Wildlife
The only game species observed on the disturbed area during the report period
was mule deer. Tracks, pellet groups and observations of deer occurred primarily
on topsoiled areas during the period of September, 1972 through mid- January, 1973.
Presence of deer on the site was not noticeable during other periods. Saltbush
(Atriplex sop.) appeared to be the species fed upon by deer on the site. This
species, not observed on native range in the Bull Mountains, occurred at a level
-31-
less than .5 percent canopy when transects were read in July, 1972. Exhaustion
of palatable parts of these plants may have made the area unattractive to deer
during late winter. Fences were constructed around the perimeter of the area
to exclude livestock. However, livestock were often observed within the exclosure
and some use on saltbush may be attributed to livestock.
NONGAME MAMMAL INVENTORY
Nongame mammals represent an important natural resource in Musselshell
County. Besides the economic importance of furbearers, other species offer much
in the way of aesthetic, recreational and ecological values. Some specific
small mammal species may be used as an index of quality and quantity of vegeta-
tional cover in the study area. Since small mammals, like larger vertebrates,
show preferences for varying habitat according to individual species, a region
having considerable physiographical variation should have an abundant and diversi-
fied mammal fauna as opposed to an area having a limited variation. This di-
versity was indicated and is illustrated by studying the following data and range
maps of the various nongame mammals found in the study area (Appendix Figures 11
and 12).
The small mammals accounted for in the following descriptions and range
maps were captured in a continuing study of the area. Fifty-five sites (Appendix
Figure 11) were trapped in Musselshell County since 1970 with each site consisting
of 5 lines of 100 snap traps placed 10 feet apart. The traps were left on the
grid line for two consecutive nights. At the end of the second night, population
counts were calculated according to Zippin's formula (1958):
Y -Y
xl 2
N = Total population
Yt= First night's catch
Yp= Second night's catch
Through experimentation, little difference was determined between the three
night exposure method and Zippin's method (Smith, 1966). Trapping according to
this method resulted in 55,000 trap night exposures, but no correction for sprung
traps in catch/effort calculations were made (Nelson and Clark, 1973).
Snap traps were baited with rolled oats or a mixture of peanut butter and
rolled oats. The larger nongame mammals were trapped with steel jawed traps
placed according to a best set method, not a census method. These were baited
with the necessary lure to draw the animal into the trap. Each mammal was identi-
fied by skull and pelage characteristics (Hall and Kelson, 1959; Hoffman and
Pattie, 1969; Larrison, 1967; and Booth, 1961). Representative animals from each
site were preserved in a study collection.
-32-
Species Account
Common Deer Mouse
The deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus osgoodii) is the most abundant small
mammal in Musselshell County. It is recognized by white feet, buff brown top,
white underneath, bicolored tail and large visible ears.
This species is found in a wide variety of habitats and occupies the entire
study area. Trap data indicated this species is most commonly found in the open
sagebrush-grassland habitat, although its presence has been established in the
ponderosa pine-grassland areas of the county.
Habitat requirements include a fairly open canopy of vegetation with an
abundant amount of seeds for food, although insects and berries are sometimes used
(Martin, et al, 1951). Census data obtained since 1970 indicate that when the
vegetational canopy of an area increases to a certain undetermined factor, deer
mice may disappear. They are sometimes replaced by Microtus species which exhibit
different food preferences (Martin, et al, 1951), and a canopy dense enough to
formulate runways (ingles, 1967; Maser and Storm, 1970).
A population study of deer mice has been in progress since the fall of 1970
in Musselshell County. A population decline was noted from 4-5 to U mice per 1,000
linear feet from 1970 to 1972, respectively (Figure 8). The reason or reasons
for this drop in population are not clear at this time. Possible explanations
include: (A) increased mortality rate, (B) decreased litter size, (C) hormonal
factors, and (D) variables influencing movement (King, 1968).
Meadow Vole
The partial interrelationship between this species and deer mice has pre-
viously been described.
Meadow voles (Microtus pennsylvani cus insperatus) are medium sized mice with
a smooth, slick, dark brown fur. The tail is bicolored and considered to be very
short when compared with the tails of other mice.
In Musselshell County, the vole appeared to occupy areas of good ground cover
and residual vegetation. Trap data indicated migration to areas that appeared
to have an increased canopy of vegetation. The Musselshell River appears to be
the distribution separation between meadow voles and prairie voles. However,
both species appear sympatrically together along the river bottom (Appendix
Figure 11, Maps 1 and 2).
Prairie Vole
This species is very similar to the meadow vole, although the fur is not as
slick and differences occur in the teeth (Hoffman and Pattie, 1968). Trap data
indicated this vole occupies only the area along and north of the Musselshell
River (Appendix Figure 11, Map 2). The interrelationship between prairie voles
-33-
<S on
u
e a-
CB ON
[x. rH
o o q o o
LTN. -d" N% OJ rH
^aa^ jeautT 000T Jad 80TUJ J° sJaqwnK ux uoT}B-[ndoa
-P
O
o
©
to
H
©
co
CO
.3
cP k%
CO
CD
■H c-
tl on
•P
Q.r-1
co
•H
to
ft
cd
f-i
-P
rH t\J
r-\ C*~
-p
rt ON
o
•H
u
CD
4) <\J
(X
E Cn-
E On
3 M
CO
c
o
&
10
0)
O
K
CO
1
-O
C<^
•H C~-
S
CO
U On
u
P. r-l
co
a
CD
.H rH
O
r-l CN-
(0 ON
pt. r-l
i
&
CD
T3
L
<U r-i
«H
E ON
o
3 rH
CO
T3
§
£
b0
C rH
•H Cn-
a
t. ON
o
O, r-l
•H
to
-P
t
r-l O
o
l-l CN-
ft
to
CD
-34-
(Microtus ochrogaster haydeni) and deer mice, along with the sympatric relation-
ship with meadow voles, has been previously mentioned.
Least Chipmunk
The least chipmunk (Eutamias minimus pallidas) is a small chipmunk which
inhabits the ponderosa pine area of Musselshell County (Appendix Figure 11, Map 3).
It is characterized by a general grayish color, brownish dark dorsal stripes and
buffy sides. The color of trapped specimens ranged from a sagebrush gray for
animals obtained in the sagebrush-grassland-park areas to a more reddish brown
color for animals obtained in the ponderosa pine areas.
Yellow-bellied Marmot
The yellow-bellied marmot (Marmot a flaviventris nosophora) is a large rodent
with grizzled gray upper parts, black and white face and yellow intermixed through-
out. The marmot's range, indicated by trap and sight data, appeared to be limited
to areas which provided large amounts of rocky cover (Appendix Figure 12, Map 4-).
Richardson 's_Ground Squirrel
The medium-sized, unstriped Richardson's ground squirrel (Spermophilus
richardsonii richardsonii) is buff colored with a black-tipped tail. The range
of this animal, which included primarily grasslands, appeared to increase due
to observations of new colonies noticed within the study area (Appendix Figure 12,
Map 5).
Northern Pocket Gopher
The northern pocket gopher (Thomomys talpoides bullatus ) seems to occupy
areas of Musselshell County which provide suitable food and burrowing habitat.
An indication of their presence is an earthen plugged mound.
The animal ranges in color from a dark brown to buff and contains very little
white on the ventral side. The fossorial front paws are tipped with long claws
and the eyes are very small.
Ord's Kangroo Rat
This species has a characteristically large head, small ears, large hind
legs and a long tail with a white tuft of hair at the end. They are dark tan
on the dorsal side and white ventrally. The tail is brownish gray with lateral
white stripes and a ventral dark band tapers to a point near the tip. Ord's
kangroo rats (Dipodomys ordii terrosus) prefer sandy soils (Larrison, 1967) and
inhabit a range indicated by Map 6, Appendix Figure 12.
-35-
Eastern Cottontail Rabbit
The eastern cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus si mi lis) has not been
previously documented as occupying the study area (Hoffman and Pattie, 1968;
Hoffman, et al, 1969). This easily identified species has been both trapped
and sighted over a range that consists of the entire study area during the report
period.
White-tailed Jackrabbit
This species, which is hrown dor sally and white ventrally during summer
and white except for dark ear tips during winter, maintains a range occupying
part of the Bull Mountains. The white- tailed jackrabbit (Lepus towns endii
campanius ) has been frequently sighted or trapped in sagebrush- grassland areas,
but is not usually found in the forested areas (Appendix Figure 12, Map 7).
Others
Nongame mammals for which data were insufficient to formulate a range
included the following rodents: thir teen-lined ground squirrel (Spermophilus
tridecemlineatus) : black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus): olive-
backed pocket mouse (Perognathus fasciatus) : beaver (Castor canadensis) : bushy-
tailed woodrat (Neotoma cinera) : sagebrush vole (Lagurus curtatus): muskrat
(Ondata ziebethicus) ; and porcupine (Erethizon dors a turn) .
Carnivores included: coyote (Canis latrans): red fox (Vulpes vulpes):
raccoon (Procyon lotor): long-tailed weasel (Mustela f renata) : mink (Mustela
vison) ; badger (Taxidea taxus) ; striped skunk (Mephit i s mephitis) ; and bobcat
(Lynx rufus) .
Test Pit Nongame Mammal Survey
The area encompassed by Consolidation Coal Company's test pit is currently
being censused, both summer and winter, for nongame mammal activity.
The same census method, described previously, was used on the five trap
line sites (Figure 9) . Line sites A and E were located on the undisturbed perim-
eter of the area, and lines B, C and D were placed to encompass the entire dis-
turbed area. Small mammal census trapping before, during and after mining activity
is being continued in the area to determine movements and activities of animals
related to revegetation studies.
The 1970 fall census data, obtained before mining, indicated the same
number of deer mice as the surrounding area (Figure 8).
Data obtained during mining indicated an increase of 2 mice per 1,000 linear
feet in sites A and E. This increase is perhaps due to some migration of deer
-36-
Figure 9. Winter study (numbered) areas and summer (lettered) census lines.
-37-
mice from the mining area since the population in lines B, C and D was completely
eliminated due to mining.
Census data after mining in 1972 indicated a normal population, as compared
with the surrounding areas, in sites A and E (Figure 8). Lines B and D contained
one-half the population of lines A and E. All deer mice trapped on B and D were
adult males which indicated a partial re establishment of population in these areas
(King, 1968). No specimens were trapped in 1972 on line C.
Ih order to study small mammal activity during winter, the test pit area
(Figure 9) was divided into 26 sections. The time for each of 10 visits was
determined by the amount of fresh snow that had fallen the night before. The
activity of different nongame mammals was determined by fresh tracks in the new
snow. One set of tracks entering a given area was considered to be one instance
of usage by one of the animals.
White-tailed jackrabbits, coyotes and deer mice were the only nongame
animals evident in the area during the winter of 1972-73. The number of instances
of use by each species, according to test pit numbered areas, is shown in Figure 10.
The data indicate a selectivity for topsoiled areas by the three species. The
areas of heavy use were topsoiled areas, except for areas 23, 24- and 25, which
received some instances of use. This use did not penetrate the areas to any extent,
but was maintained near the perimeter on the south and east sides. This can be
explained further by the fact that both areas 23 and 24 were bordered on the south
and east by rocky outcrops which may have provided protection for the animals
during winter.
DISCUSSION
The area overlying the Mammoth-Rehder coal bed as well as adjacent areas is
characterized by greater extremes in elevation, more rugged terrain, and a greater
interspersion of timbered and nontimbered types than outlying areas of the Bull
Mountains. Since suitable wildlife habitat includes proper interspersion of such
habitat requirements as food, cover, water and security, the area mentioned would
probably best meet the habitat requirements of resident wildlife in this region.
Based on this premise, it is understandable that the distribution of mule deer,
elk and Merriam's turkey occurred primarily in this area as illustrated in
Figures 2, 3 and 4.
A deficiency or absence of one or more habitat requirements would serve as
a limiting factor to wildlife populations. For example, the absence of a deciduous
tree-shrub type in drainage bottoms, the key winter habitat for turkeys in the
Long Pines (Jonas, 1966), may somewhat limit turkeys in the Bull Mountains. This
may be one reason for the heavy use of and/or dependence upon feedlots and farm-
steads during winter. MacDonald and Jantzen (1967) indicated that cultivated
areas are a good source of feed for turkeys in areas that are heavily overgrazed
in portions of New Mexico.
-38-
0B
a*
O-j
CO
(D
■8
-P
•H
Ph
C3
■P
0>
Ui
■P
«
G
T3
o
4)
*
u
03
QJ
•H
X)
o
g <r
"" sai
loads >pazi|?in
^r~ r*> r* *-< "" ©
saDuejsuj jo jaqiunN
CD
(X
0}
i?
Q)
tQ
o
0)
o
§
01
en
o
&
fe
-39-
All observations of elk during the report period were in areas where numbers
of cattle were few or absent. During all periods of the year, except during fall,
elk occupied areas of rugged terrain where use by cattle may have been limited.
In the Missouri breaks Mackie (1970) reported an opportunity for direct and in-
tensive interaction between elk and cattle during early spring and fall when food
habits of both classes of animals were similar.
Because mule deer are not as adaptive in their feeding habits as elk, they
must depend upon certain kinds of forage throughout the year to maintain the herd
in a healthy condition. This includes not only quantity, but quality of forage
as well. Based on the low fawn: doe ratios obtained during the report period,
these conditions apparently are not being realized. Since deer and cattle both
preferred drainage bottoms during summer, heavy grazing by livestock appeared to
limit areas used by deer, and consequently, the availability of forage. During
this time of year forbs, primarily common salsify, were the most important in
the diet of mule deer. During winter when browse was the most important forage
class in the diet of deer, silver sagebrush was the most important single item
followed by skunkbush sumac. Silver sagebrush is considered a staple in the
diet of mule deer during this period in eastern Montana, since its use does not
normally exceed its abundance as opposed to rubber rabbitbrush which is a pre-
ferred item (Dusek, 1971) . Due to its limited abundance and distribution in the
Bull Mountains, the latter species is of little or no importance to mule deer.
Skunkbush sumac is used during late summer and fall in eastern Montana (Mackie,
1970 and Knapp, 1972) but is normally not considered to be of any importance
during winter. A lack of an adequate harvest of deer due to limited access to
the area by hunters would definitely have to be considered a key factor contribut-
ing to low fawn: doe ratios.
The material discussed above tends to substantiate the need for intensive
study of the effects of rest-rotation grazing upon wildlife populations in the
Bull Mountains. Findings from such a study may provide needed information to
help solve wildlife problems in areas where livestock production is the major
land use.
Based on present knowledge of reclamation in eastern Montana, it is difficult
to project the long-term effect of strip mining upon wildlife in the Bull Mountains,
Any disturbance of surface acreage including critical wildlife habitat would be
detrimental, at least temporarily. If the area mined could not be reclaimed to
meet all disturbed habitat requirements, the damage definitely would be permanent.
Jonas (1966) described suitable habitat for turkeys as those areas which
include proper inter spersion of ponderosa pine with nonforested types, rugged
terrain and a food supply. Present knowledge of reclamation practices does not
guarantee any specific arrangement of plant communities. If it were possible,
microclimatic and edaphic conditions, of which plant communities are believed to
be a result, would have to be created before a vegetational cover could be estab-
lished. Topographical patterns are also important in providing security for
wildlife as well as influencing growth and arrangement of vegetational cover. If
the steep precipitous terrain, where most elk were observed, were mined, the sub-
sequent reclamation may allow these areas to become more accessible to livestock
which could, in some cases, be detrimental to elk and/or mule deer.
-40-
This report contains only the preliminary findings for which this study was
initiated. More data, especially in the area of reclamation, are necessary
before any specific techniques or innovations in the reclamation process can be
recommended. For the present, any area considered to be of critical importance
to wildlife should not be mined until it is demonstrated that such areas can be
successfully reclaimed to their former condition.
-a-
APPMDIX
Table 15. CI imato logical data gathered by the Department of Commerce for
Roundup, Montana, covering the period January, 1972 - February, 1973.
Temperature
Precipitation
Month
Average
Departure
from Normal
Average
Departure
from Normal
January:
1972
1973
17.3
26.7
- 6.4
.2
.58
.06
.29
- .26
February:
1972
1973
29.5
26.7
3.0
.2
.27
tr
- .05
- .32
March:
1972
43.0
9.3
.29
- .27
April:
1972
46.3
.6
1.64
.89
May:
1972
56.0
.2
3.00
1.20
June:
1972
68.4
5.2
.61
-1.92
July:
1972
68.0
- 4.1
1.50
.29
August:
1972
71.4
1.6
3.06
2.09
September:
1972
52.3
- 7.3
.81
- .15
October:
1972
41.8
- 7.4
.91
.09
November:
1972
31.7
- 4.4
tr
- .36
December:
1972
15.8
-13.2
.53
.17
-43-
Table 16. List of plant species collected in the Bull Mountains during spring
and summer, 1972.
Mono cots
Family
Genus
Sp_
ecies
Common Name
Symbol
Gramineae
Agropyron
k.
smithii
Western Wheatgrass
Agsm
Koeleria
K.
cristata
Junegrass
Kocr
Phleum
P.
prat ens e
Timothy
Phpr
Poa
P.
secunda
Sandburg Bluegrass
Pose
Stipa
S.
viridula
Green Needlegrass
Stvi
Liliaceae
Allium
A.
textile
Onion
Alte
Calochortus
c.
gunnisoni
Mariposa Lily
Cagu
Fritillaria
F9
pudica
Yellow Bell
Frpu
Leucocrinum
L.
montanum
Mountain Star Lily
Lemo
Smilacina
S.
stellata
Starry False Solomon's
Seal
Smst
Zygodenus
z.
paniculatus
Foothill Death Camas
Zypa
Dicots
Compo sitae
Achillea
Antennaria
Artemisia
Arnica
Aster
Balsamorrhiza
Chrysopsis
Chrysothamnus
Ecinaceae
Erigeron
Gutierrezia
Helianthus
Hymenoxys
Liatris
Microseris
Ratibida
Senecio
Solidago
Taraxicum
A. millefolium
A. rosea
A. frigida
A. ludoviciana
A. tridentata
A. sororia
B. sagittata
C. villosa
C. nauseosus
E. pallida
E. humilus
G. sarothrae
H. annuus
H. nuttallii
H. acaulis
L. punctata
M. cuspidata
R. columnifera
S. serra
S. canadensis
S. missouriensis
T. officinale
Yarrow
Rose Pussytoes
Fringed Sagewort
Cud-leaf Sagewort
Big Sagebrush
Arnica
Arrowleaf Balsamroot
Golden Aster
Rubber Rabbitbrush
Purple Conef lower
Erigeron
Broom Snakeweed
Common Sunflower
Nuttall Sunflower
Dotted Blazingstar
Prairie Coneflower
Groundsel
Canada Goldenrod
Goldenrod
Common Dandelion
Acmi
Anro
Arfr
Arlu
Artr
Arso
ASTER
Basa
Chvi
Chna
Ecpa
Erhu
Gusa
Hean
Henu
Hyac
Lipu
Micu
Raco
Sese
Soca
Somi
Taof
Chenopodiaceae Eurotia
E. lanata
Winterfat
Eula
-U-
Table 16 Continued. List of plant species collected in the Bull Mountains during
spring and summer, 1972.
Family
Genus
Sp
ecies
Common Name
Symbol
Boraginaceae
Cryptanthe
c.
bradburiana
Miner's Candle
Crbr
Lappula
L.
redowskii
Western Sticktight
Lare
Lithospermum
L.
incisum
Narrowleaf Gromwell
Liin
Labiatae
Monarda
M.
fistulosa
Horse Mint
Mofi
Ranunculaceae
Anemone
A.
patens
Pasque Flower
Anpa
Delphinium
D.
bicolor
Low Larkspur
Debi
Ranunculus
R.
glaberimus
Sagebrush Buttercup
Ragl
Polemoniaceae
Phlox
P.
hoodii
Hood's Phlox
Phho
Plantagina c eae
Plantago
P.
purshii
Woolly Plantain
Plpu
Rosaceae
Frageria
F.
virginiana
Virginia Strawberry
Frvi
Geum
G.
triflorum
Prairiesmoke
Getr
Prunus
P.
virginiana
Chokecherry
Prvi
Rosa
R.
arkansana
Prairie Rose
Roar
Itobelliferae
Lomatium
L.
cous
Mountain Lomatium
Loco
L.
f o eniculaceum
Lofo
Primulaceae
Dodecatheon
D.
conjugens
Shootingstar
Do co
Anacardiaceae
Rhus
R.
trilobata
Skunkbush Sumac
Rhtr
Saxifragaceae
Ribes
R.
aureum
Golden Currant
Riau
Leguminosae
Astragalus
A.
gilviflorus
Three-leaved Milkvetch
Asgi
A.
pectinatus
Narrowleaf Poisonvetch Aspe
Glycyrrhiza
G.
lepidota
Wild Licorice
Glle
Lupinus
L.
argent eus
Silvery Lupine
Luar
Oxytropis
0.
besseyi
Bessey Pointvetch
Oxbe
0.
sericea
White Point loco
Oxse
Petalostemon
P.
purpureum
Purple Prairie Clover
Pepu
Psoralea
P.
argophylla
Silverleaf Scurfpea
Psar
P.
esculent a
Breadroot Scurfpea
Pses
Thermopsis
T.
rhombifloia
Prairie Thermopsis
Thrh
Vicia
V.
americana
American Vetch
Viam
Polygonaceae
Erigonum
E.
ovafolium
Oval-leaf Buckwheat
Erov
Onagraceae
Oenothera
0.
albicaulis
Whitestem Evening
Primrose
Oeal
Gaura
G.
coccinea
Scarlet Gaura
Gaco
-4.5-
Table 16 Continued (2). List of plant species collected in the Bull Mountains
during spring and summer, 1972.
Family
Genus
Sp_
ecies
Common Name
Symbol
Malvaceae
Sphaeralcea
S.
coccinea
Scarlet Globemallow
Spco
Violaceae
Viola
V.
nuttalli
Nuttall Violet
Vinu
Caryophyllaceae
Cerastium
c.
arvense
Field Chickweed
Cear
Scrophulariaceae
Castilleja
c.
s ess if lor a
Indian Paintbrush
Case
Or tho carpus
0.
luteus
Yellow Owl Clover
Orlu
Penstemon
p.
albidus
White Penstemon
Peal
p.
eriantherus
Fuzzytongue Penstemon
Peer
p.
nitidus
Waxleaf Penstemon
Peni
Papavaraceae
Argemone
A.
intermedia
Prickly Poppy
Arin
-46-
Table 17. Percent use of vegetation types occurring on the Consol unit by mule
deer as determined by ground and aerial observations combined.
Vegetation Type
Ponderosa
Ponderosa Pine- Hay Sagebrush- Deciduous
Season Pine Grassland Grassland Meadow Grassland Shrub
Spring, 1972 (63)^/ 5^/
Summer, 1972 (65) 3
Fall, 1972 U9)
i/ Seasonal sample size
^/Percentage of seasonal observations
52
19
3
16
5
35
35
12
2
12
16
71
12
—
—
Table 18. Percent use of the various classes of slope on the Consol unit by mule
deer as determined by ground and aerial observations combined.
c
slope
Coulee
Creek
Bottom
Bottom
Coulee
Season Sidehill Bottom Bottom Ridge Plateau Head
Spring, 1972 (63)^ 57^/ 13 3 6 H 6
Summer, 1972 (65) 28 17 5 17 21 12
Fall, 1972 U9) 8 10 18 6 33 24
-'Seasonal sample size
^/Percentage of seasonal observations
-47-
Table 19. Species list for mixture seeded at Consol's test pit.
Grasses Forbs
Western wheatgrass Yellow sweetclover
Pubescent wheatgrass Cicer milkvetch
Streambank wheatgrass Fourwing saltbush
Crested wheatgrass Goldenrod
Tall wheatgrass Onion
Field brome
Smooth brome
Sudan grass
Orchard grass
Barnyard grass
Ryegrass
Canada bluegrass
Prairie sandreed grass
Alkali grass
Green needlegrass
Cheyenne winter wheat
Trees and Shrubs
Ponderosa pine
Skunkbush sumac
Silver sagebrush
-48-
c
o
ts
o
s
-J
r
Q.
eg
.CO
Ph
c
o
N
•H
a
+3
n
2
"
XJ
•H
fn
li
•P
tf
CO
B
■H
s
73
nj
0)
■p
•H
CO
Ph
CO
H
H
CD
•H
-49-
\\l\ l\li
-50-
(0
I
a
o
•H
-p
g
•H
CQ
•H
o
a
CD
•H
&4
Literature Cited
Booth, E. S. I960. The mammals. W. C. Brown Co., Iowa. 203 p.
Booth, W. E. 1950. Flora of Montana, Part I — conifers and monocots. Res. Found.,
Mont. St. Coll., Bozeman. 232 p.
and J. C. Wright. 1959. Flora of Montana, Part II — dicotyledons.
Mont. St. Coll., Bozeman. 305 p.
Brewer, R. 1958. Breeding bird populations on strip-mined land in Perry County,
Illinois. Ecology 39(3): 543-545.
Coop, K. J. 1971. Habitat use, distribution, movement and associated behavior
of elk, Little Belt Mountains, Montana. Uhpubl. M.S. Thesis. 61 p.
Dusek, G. L. 1971. Range relationships of mule deer in the prairie habitat,
northcentral Montana. Uhpubl. M.S. Thesis, Mont. St. Univ., Bozeman. 63 p.
Gieseker, L. F. 1939. Soils of Musselshell County. Mont. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull.
No. 374, Bozeman. 51 p.
Gjersing, F. M. 1971. A study of waterfowl production on two rest-rotation
grazing units in northcentral Montana, Uhpubl. M.S. Thesis, Mont. St. Univ.,
Bozeman. 42 p.
Greer, K. R. 1969. Femur marrow reveals the condition of game animals. Mont.
Dept. of Fish & Game, Game Res. Sec. 9 p.
Gwynn, T. A. 1966. Reclaiming strip-mined land by establishing game management
areas. Prog. Rept., Knife River Coal Co. 26 p.
Hall, E. R. and K. R. Kelson. 1959. The mammals of North America. Ronald Press
Co., New York. 1083 p.
Hoffman, R. S. and D. L. Pattie. 1968. A guide to Montana mammals. Univ. of
Mont. Print., Missoula. 133 p.
et al. 1969. The distribution of some mammals in Montana — I. Mammals
other than bats. Jour. Mamm. 50 (3): 579-604.
Hormay, A. L. 1970. Principles of rest-rotation grazing and multiple use land
management. U.S. Dept. of Int. Bull. 26 p.
Ingles, L. G. 1967. Mammals of the pacific states. Stanford Univ. Press,
Stanford. 506 p.
Jonas, R. 1966. Merriam's turkey in southeastern Montana. Mont. Dept. of Fish
& Game, Tech. Bull. No. 3. 36 p.
-51-
Karr, J. R. 1968. Habitat and avian diversity on strip-mined land in eastcentral
Illinois. The Condor, 70:348-357.
King, J. A. et al. 1968. Biology of Peromyscus (Rodentia). Spec. Publ. No. 2,
Am. Soc. of Mamm. 593 p.
Knapp, S. J. 1972. Range use of mule deer prior to initiation of rest-rotation
grazing for cattle on the Ft. Howes Ranger District, Custer National Forest,
Montana. Uhpubl. M.S. Thesis, Mont. St. Univ., Bozeman. 50 p.
. 1973. Summer biology of elk on the East Boulder Plateau, Beartooth
Mountains. Final Rept. Mont. Dept. of Fish & Game, E & I Division. 21 p.
Larrison, E. J. 1967. Guide to Idaho mammals. Ida. Acad, of Sci. 166 p.
Loveless, C. M. 1967. Ecological characteristics of a mule deer winter range.
Col. Dept. of Game, Fish and Parks, Publ. No. 20. 124- p.
MacDonald, D. and R. A. Jantzen. 1967. Management of the Merriam's turkey. The
Wild Turkey and its Management, The Wildl. Soc. 4-93-534-.
Mackie, R. J. 1970. Range ecology and relations of mule deer, elk and cattle
in the Missouri River breaks. Wildl. Mono. No. 20. 77 p.
Martin, A. C. , R. N. Gensch and C. P. Brown. 1946. Alternative methods in upland
game bird food analysis. Jour. Wildl. Mgt. 10(l):8-12.
____, et al. 1951. American wildlife and plants, a guide to wildlife
food habits. Dover Press, New York. 500 p.
Martinka, C. J. 1968. Habitat relationships of whitetailed and mule deer in
northern Montana. Jour. Wildl. Mgt. 32(3) :558-565.
Maser, C. and R. M. Storm. 1970. A key to Microtinae of the Pacific Northwest.
Ore. St. Univ., Corvallis. 162 p.
Nelson, L. and F. W. Clark. 1973. Correction for sprung traps in catch/effort
calculations of trapping results. Jour. Mamm. 54 ( l) : 295-298.
Pyrah, D. 1970. Poncho markers for game birds. Jour. Wildl. Mgt. 34(2) : 466-467.
Smith, R. L. 1966. Ecology and field biology. Harper and Row, New York. 686 p.
U. S. Dept. of Comm. 1972-73. Climatological data with comparative data, Roundup,
Montana.
U. S. Dept. of Int., B.L.M. 1973. Bull Mountains and Buffalo Creek— land use
recommendations.
•52-
Vertz, B. J. I960. Notes on the ecology of mammals of a strip-mined area in
southern Illinois. Trans. 111. Acad. Sci. p. 134--139.
Watts, C. R. and A. W. Stokes. 1971. The social order of turkeys. Sci. Am.
224(6): 112-118.
Zippin, C. 1958. The removal method of population estimation. Jour. Wildl.
Mgt. 22:325-339.
-53-
PAMPHUT BINDER-
ZZ^Z Syracuse, N. Y.
^Z^Z Stockton, Calif.
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11