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BURMA 


BV 

MAX  AND  BERTHA  FERRARS 


LONDON 
SAMPSON     LOW,     MARSTON     AND    COMPANY 

LIMITED 

igoo 


London : 

Printed  by   William  Clmues  and  Sons,  Limited, 

Stamford  Street  and  Charing  Cross. 

Blocks  by  the  Swan  Jingraving  Co.,  London. 


2       BURMAN    GOLD-EMBROIDERED    SCREEN    (KALAGA). 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

PAGR 

Burma  a  distinct  type — Previous  isolation — Influence  of  BuddViism — Current  misconcep- 
tions about  Burma — Sketch  of  history     .........  i 

CHAPTER   n. 

CHILDHOOD. 

Infancy — Early  influences — Children's  games — School  teaching — Toi^^ciii     .  .         .         6 

CHAPTER    in. 

ADOLESCENCE. 

Thami-u  fete  —  Universal  monastic  novitiate  —  (Buddhist  institutions — The  Yahdii — 
Thciiitkainot  —  Kyaiiiig  —  Ecclesiastical  architecture  —  Decadence  —  Zedi — Ancient 
remains  (I'agan) — Images — Scriptures — Temple  accessories — The  Bo  tree — Inferior 
religious  orders — Brahmans — Payadyun — Religious  worship — Principles  of  Budd- 
hism)— Return  to  secular  life .  ..........        14 

b 


1105985 


VI 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER    IV. 

MANHOOD   AND   OCCUPATION. 
Agriculture— Home  industn- — Manners  and  Customs — Settlements — Climate 


rAGE 

48 


CPiAPTER   V. 

TRADES   AND   PROP'ESSIONS. 

Oil-pressing— Palm  and  cane  sugar  growing — Fruit  and  \egetable  gardening— Fishery— 
The  chase  — Potter)- — Brick  and  tiles — Plaster-work — Stone-cutting — Cordage — Silk 
weaving— Umbrellas — Lacquer-work — Foot-gear — Metallurgy — Implements — Orna- 
ments— Coins — Alchemy — Forest  and  timber — Carpentry— Carving — Painting  and 
design —  Inscriptions  and  writing — Literature —  Medicine— Dealers —Transport — 
Boats  and  carts — Travel        .......... 

CHAPTER    VI. 

ALIEN    RACES. 
Shan — Kardn — Chin — Chimpaw — Chinese — Natives  of  India — European 


83 


142 


CHAPTER    VII. 
POLITICAI.. 
Chronic  wars — Brigandage — Village  system — Native  administration — British  administra- 


tion— Royalty — History 


163 


ClI.M'Th'.R    \'III. 

I'AC.KANTS    AND    IKnl.lCS. 
The  drama — Music — Games — Festivals — Nat  worship  -Pilgrimages — The  great  shrines  .      173 

CHAPTER    IX. 
Age  and  mortality — Funeral  Observances — Tombs         .......     192 


APPENDICES. 


A.  Chronolog)  of  Burm.i     .......... 

n.  Slnicturc  of  the  Burmese  language — Methoil  of  transliter.ition    . 

C.  Notes  on  Hunnese  music,  by  Mr.  P.  A.  Mariano       ..... 

D.  Statistical     Area — Population — Fiscal  items — Crime— Iiiipurts  and  exports 

E.  Measures-Time  and  calendar— Length— Capacity     WeightMoney 
Kx.iniples  of  music  .......... 


201 
208 
210 
21 1 
213 
216 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


Full-page  illustrations  are  denoted  by  thick  type.  Illustrations  with  *  prefixed  are  by 
Bertha  Ferrars  (the  late  Mrs.  LI.  W.  Lewis),  by  whom  also  all  the  plates  were  developed.  The 
remainder  are  by  Max  Ferrars,  with  the  exception  of  No.  104.  The  subjects  of  illustrations 
marked  J  are  in  the  Town  Museum,  Freiburg  in  Baden. 


1.  Royal  Throne Frontispiece 

2.  Burman     gold -embroidered     screen 

{kdl<li(d) V 

3.  Sunset  on  the  coast I 

4.  Estuary  of  the  Sahveen      ....  i 

5.  Landing-stage  in  the  tidal  region      .  2 

6.  Ruins  of  city  gate,  Pagdn.      ...  2 

7.  JAncient  gate,  with    figures  of  /lin- 

dya-miti  and  kcinnayd    ....  3 

8.  Anainia  Payui,  Pagan 3 

9.  Burman  General    going  out   to    war 

(appliqui'  work) 4 

10.  Burman  picture  of  the  fall  of  Manda- 

lay 4 

11.  The  national  emblem  of  Burma  .      .  5 

12.  Baby's  bath 6 

13.  *The  rattan  cradle  (/o/!'A)     ...  6 

14.  *  Burman  mother  and  infant  ...  7 

15.  Mudlarks 7 

16.  The  first  step 8 

17.  The  wooden  cradle  (saiini^bdi!)    .      .  8 

18.  Young  children's  toys 9 

19.  Gaines  in  the  water 9 

20.  Toy  carts 10 

21.  Peg-tops  ((6' /«-/(?«/!■) 10 

22.  Interior  of  village  monastic  school    .  10 

23.  Marbles  {gon-hnyin) 11 

24.  Racing  toy  boats 11 

25.  Ga.xne  oi  SI /oppy it 12 

26.  Children's  cycle  race    .            ...  12 

27.  Village  lay  school 13 

38.   Kite-Hying 13 


29. 


31. 

32. 
33' 
34- 
35. 

36. 

37- 
38- 
39- 
40. 

41- 

42. 
43- 

44- 
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46. 
47- 
48. 

49- 
50. 

51- 
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53- 
54- 


Novices  making  the  round  for  daily 
food 

*  Tiiaiin-!i  arrayed  for  her  fete     . 

Shinliiuni^  arrayed  for  his  fete     . 

Shi)ilaung  pageant  (Burma  Proper). 

..S/f/«/(f««^'- pageant  (Pegu) 

Shinldung  pageant  (Pegu) 

Shinldiing  praying  for  acceptance 
(Pegu)  ■      •      • 

Shinldung  praying  for  acceptance 
(Burma) 

Shinldung  renewing  his  prayer   . 

Goyin  making  obeisance  .... 

Painting  of  Shinldung  fete 

Goyin  receiving  higher  instruc- 
tion        

Yahdn  on  the  round  for  sun  . 

Buddhist  Recluse 

Goyin  praying  for  admission  to  the 
Thinga 

Ancient  thein  at  Pagdn      .... 

Yahdn  assembled  for  dedication  of 
thein 

Illuminated  Kambawd       .... 

Sun  sent  by  the  kviiung/agd  . 

Temple  over  the  water — Yethein 

Forest  kyaung 

Village  kyaung 

Kyaung  at  the  capital 

Palace  kyaung 

Sadaw  in  his  study 

Yahdn  installed  as  Poiniyi     . 


14 
14 
'5 
15 
16 
16 

17 

•7 
18 
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'9 
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21 


23 

23 
24 
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24 

25 


VIU 


LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


55- 
56. 

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60. 
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6+. 
65. 
66. 
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70. 


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PAGE 

\Viissaung  c-xvlV^ 25 

Yahdn  passing  the  streets      ...  26 

Yahdn  on  his  journey 26 

Aged  _)'rt//<i«  carried  on  _)■/«     ...  27 

Temple  Hill 27 

Decadent  kyaung 28 

Ornamentation  of  kyaiing      ...  28 

XDayin  ornament 29 

X  Detail  of  eaves  and  gable     ...  29 

.Ancient  thciii  and  modem  pyatthat  30 

Limestone  rock  on  the  .Xtar.'in     .      .  30 

Bitaka-taik.  Thatiin 31 

Sliiuc-hinaivdaiu  Paya,  Pegu.      .      .  31 

iVut  with  images  of  the  Buddha       .  32 

Thadyd  Payd  at  Thaton  ....  32 
Ruins   at    Pagan.     Temples   raised 

by  ancient  kings 32 

Terra-cotta  figures  at  ThadyA  PayA, 

Thaton 33 

Bmi'di  PayA,  Pagdn 33 

Cawda'drbalin  PayA,  Pag;in   ...  34 

Kyaun_i(  at  Atiaiida  PayA       ...  34 

Example  of  keyed  vault  at  Pagiin     .  35 

Modern  false  arch,  Amayapoya  .      .  35 
Image  of  the  Buddha  encircled  b\ 

Jicus 36 

Image  of  the  Buddha  on /W///    .      .  36 

Tagi'mdaing  with  keiiiiiayA    .      •      .  37 

Tagi'indaing  with  hiiillui  ....  37 

Symbol  of  Myimmo-dauHg    ...  38 

Pawdi  tree 38 

Daiilc/ia  yat/u' 39 

*Cavc-shrine  near   .Maulmain   [k'a- 

y&ii  kfi) 39 

Pot/iiidaw 40 

Mlthila  at  worship 40 

Yathe  before  his  cave 40 

Milliila  (III  ihc  round  for  sun       .      .  41 

.Soothsayer 41 

PayA  siiH-kan 42 

YaliAii   reciting  the  precepts  {tayA- 

hoxo) 42 

Elders  keeping  duty-day  {Abo-saiing)  42 
I'ainily  of  a  liurman  notable  at  the 

shrine 43 

Modern  religious  subject  ....  43 
Family  of  a  Burinan  notable  leaving 

the  shrine 44 

ThadyA  prince  and    princess   doing 


97- 
98. 

99- 
00. 
01. 

02. 

03- 
o|. 


homage    to    the    Buddha     in    a 
prc\-ious    incarnation    isliu'ccawA 

work ' 44 

Worshippers  on  the  temple  platform  44 

Temple  ~aydl 45 

Decadent  kyaung 45 

Ceremony  oiyczetcha      ....  46 
Goyiii  praying  for  leave  to  return  to 

secular  life 47 

Ploughing  for  net  cultivation     .      .  48 

\'iew  of  /« 48 

Outlook  over  mi.xed  forms  of  culti- 
vation (Burma)  [authorship  un- 
known]       49 

Hill-people    making   their   cultiva- 
tion-clearing ijaiingya)       ...  49 
The  rice-plant  in  the  car      ...  ;o 
Outlook  over  the  area  of  vyet  culti- 
vation (Pegu) 50 

l'loiiyhii\i^  in  the  dry  zone     ...  51 

Elephant-plough 51 

Ruti'alocs  trampling  down  the  clods  52 

Driving  home  tile  buH'aloL's  .      .      .  52 

Putting  out  the  rice-plants    ...  52 

Buffaloes  in  their  pen      ....  53 

Child  riding  bufialo  out  to  work      .  53 

Water-scoop  {ka-hitwc)  ....  54 

Ciittin^  the  crop  in  tlu-  gioal  plain.  54 

Cutting  the  rice-crop  in  the  Kwin   .  54 

'I'reading  out  the  grain    ....  55 

Cleaning  rice  with  the  hand-pounder  55 

Cleaning  rice  with  the  hand-mill     .  56 

Winnowing  grain  in  the  wind    .  56 

Cutting  giant-bamboo  {wabo)    .      .  57 

Rearing  the  posts  of  the  Tc'/^Z     .      .  57 

Lashing  the  roof-jjoles     ....  58 

Plaiting  wall-mats 58 

Binding  llie  thatch 59 

Plaiting  lloor-mats 59 

Cleaning  and  sijinning  cotton  60 

The  weaving-loom 60 

L.iying  out  the  warp 61 

Burmese  carving  of  weaving-loom  .  61 

•Burmese  silk  cloth  patterns      .      .  62 

The  spring 62 

Fetching  water  at  the  stream  62 

Sewing  ilolh (13 

X'illage  well fi^ 

Carrying  home  the  water-pots    .      .  64 


LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


IX 


138.  Stand  for  the  drinking-water     . 

139.  Bathing-place    on    the    river-bank 

(Pagan) 

140.  ^'etching  in  fuel     .... 

141.  Getting  fire  by  the  native  method 

142.  The  cooking-place 

143.  The  family  meal  (old  style)  . 

144.  The  family  meal  (new  style) 

145.  Betel  {kun) 

146.  Tea  {Icpptyy^} 

147.  Belle  at  her  toilet. 

148.  *Village  belle 

149.  The  suitor's  visit   .... 

150.  Marriage  ceremon\'    . 

151.  The  ideal  and  the  real     . 

152.  Tattooing  {togwiii) 

153.  The  Challenge      .... 

154.  An  "original  "       .... 

155.  Pleasure-party  by  boat    . 

156.  Pleasure-party  by  cart     . 

157.  Domestic  flower-stand  {Nyai/ng-ye-fl) 

158.  Wayside  water-stand  in  the  city 

159.  Children  at  the  river-side 

160.  Chinlon  game  {applique  \\ox\C) 

161.  Children's  boat-tubs  at  flood-time 

162.  Carving  of  ("/;/«/(?«  player 

163.  The  Pabya  shrine 

164.  Forest  zaydt  and  water-stand 

165.  Receiving  a  visitor 

166.  Village  chevaitx-dc-fyisc  . 

167.  Approach  to  the  village  . 

168.  Village  causeway  in  the  tidal  region 

169.  Village  river-front 

170.  Riding  buffaloes  in  flood-time 

171.  The  village  dogs  .... 

172.  *The  taicktl-  (one-fourth  natural 

173.  Village  scene  in  the  dry  season 

174.  -South-west  monsoon  clouds  . 

175.  The  floods  in  the  lowland  forest 

176.  Village  environs  in  the  floods 

177.  Village  scene  in  the  high  flood 

178.  Scene  in  the  plains  at  flood-tim 

179.  The  Irawadi  at  Prome    . 

180.  Fire  in  the  temple  precincts  . 

181.  Brick-makers 

182.  Oil-mill 

183.  Pe  and  ta)t  palms 

184.  Cleaning  rice  wholesale  . 

1 85.  Cane-crushing  mill     . 


I'ACH 

64 

186. 

187. 

64 

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f^s 

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7' 

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7' 

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11 

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11 

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Si 

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231- 

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232. 

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233 

Boiling  down  the  cane-juice. 
Turning  rollers  for  cane-mill 
Collecting  jack-fruit   . 
Fruit-stall  in  July  (Tenaserim) 
Rod  net  (pai/hii^uii)  . 
Swing  net  {yay^wlii)   . 
Wicker  fish-trap  (Jimyihi) 
Dabbing  with  fly  . 
Caging  fish  singly  {saiiiii^-/i>j 
Caging  fish  in  company  . 
Fish  weir  and  trap     . 
The  Irawadi  at  Nyaung-u    . 
Sluice  of  lagoon  fishery  [hi)  . 
Shore  net   .  .... 

Sea-fishermen's  huts  . 
Pounding  iijjapi    .... 
Setting  nets  for  deer  . 

Kainabi  dog 

Hill-man  (Kariii)  with  crossbow 

Trap  for  tiger 

Forest  stream 

Bringing  in  roe-deer  {dyi) 
Measuring  the  panther    . 
*The  hamadryad  .... 
Pottery — patting  the  ware  into  s 

Lathe  pottery 

Fancy  pottery  (Shan) 
Kiln  for  patted  wares 

Pottery  shop 

Limestone  rocks   . 

Limekiln 

Plasterer's  scaffold  on  zcdi  . 
Sculpturing  marble  images  . 

Rope-walk 

Hill-people  twisting  rope 
Umbrella  makers. 
Lacquer-ware  manufacture  . 
Scoring  rings  on  lacquer-ware 
Etched  design  on  lacquer  {Hri. 

pyittai(iig) 

Lacquer-ware  dealer  . 
Sandal-makers      .... 
Brass-image  founders 
Burman  horse-furniture  . 
Burman  blacksmith  (old  style) 
Burman  blacksmith  (new  stylet 

Swordsmith 

Canopy  of  great  sedi  {It) . 
Mountain  cascade 


ape 


PACE 

86 
86 

87 
87 


90 
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K'-P- 


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104 
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105 
106 
106 
107 
107 


LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


234.  Washing  for  gold 

235.  Villaj;e  silversmith 

236.  *Silver  plate 

237.  Town  silversmith 

238.  Silver  coins  of  the  Arakdn   Kings, 

half  the  size  of  the  originals    .      . 

239.  Gold-beaters 

240.  Alchemists 

241.  *  Gold  jewellery 

242.  Uetile  below  the  great  rapid  of  tin- 

Salwcen 

243.  Teak-tree  out  of  leaf  (March)    . 

244.  Mixed   hill-crop   of  rice,   sesamiiin 

and  leak,  in  September 
24;.   Kluc  of  factory  disused  ten  years     . 

246.  Scene  on  the  Sal  ween  river. 

247.  The   great    rapid    of    the    Sahvecn 

{halji) 

248.  Vortex  of  the  great  rapid 

249.  Delile  below  the  last  rapids  of  the 

Salwecn 

250.  Manj,'rove  jungle 

251.  Evergreen-forest  brook    .... 

252.  Riparian  forest 

253.  Upper  waters  of  river      .... 

254.  Forest  stream  in  the  pine  region 

255.  Girdling  the  tree 

2j6.  Neaped  logs  on  the  Salween  river  . 

257.  Kelhng  the  tree 

258.  Dragging  the  log 

259.  Pushing    the    logs    off    the   shoals 

(aiiii)() 

260.  Launching  nea])ed  logs   .... 

261.  Timber  salver's  hut 

262.  Rope-station  on  the  Salween  Uyo- 

litiii) 

263.  Binding  the  logs  into  rafts    . 

264.  Timber-raft 

265.  Sawing  up  the  logs 

266.  Sorting  logs  at  the  sea-port. 

267.  Hurman  carpenters 

268.  Burman  turner 

269.  Itunnan  wood-carver 

J70.  Carxcd  scene  from  zAi     .... 
371.   Itunnan  painter  at  work. 

271.  Mural  decuralidii  in  an  ancient  thein 

273.  'Carved  clepliant-lusk     .... 

274.  I'alm-leaf  MS. 

17$.  Copyist  .11  uiiik 


PAGE 

108 

276 

loS 

108 

109 

277 

109 

278 

1 10 

279 

T  10 

280 

1  10 

281. 

282. 

1  1  1 

283. 

I  1  1 

284 

285. 

112 

286 

I  I  0 

287 

\\f 

288 

289 

113 

290 

"3 

291 

292 

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•'5 

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"5 

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1 1(1 

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><7 

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3'i 

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3'3 

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3'5 

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123 

3.6 

'23 

317 

'23 

3>« 

124 

319 

124 

320 

,  Burman  cut  on  type-metal.  The 
lord  of  Hell  receives  his  steward's 
account  of  the  pains  inflicted  on 
sinners 

Burman  apothecary   . 

Shampooing  \a-liueik) 

Horoscope  on  palm-leaf . 

Kotliciui-yoii 

Children's  bazar    .... 

Preparing  Taiuthalln  offerings 

Burman  carrier     .... 

Bazar  scene,  Pegu     . 

Pedlars 

Toy  and  flower  stalls  at  the  slir 

Country  sale-depot 

Rolling  cheroots    .... 

Laung-gS  poling  up-stream  . 

PiVti/ciiVii  iIlmIci  .... 

Bazdr  scene,  Burma  Proper. 

Cloth  bazdr 

Night  bazar 

Laungzat  sailing  up-stream . 

Rough-hewing  the  boat-hull . 

Opening  out  the  boat-hull     . 

Boat-builder's  yard  i^Pegu^i    . 

L(ii/>/i;-L;ii  poling  ;ig.iinsl  a  r.i|)id 

Peingaw  sailing  up-stream  . 

Lauiii;:ii/  poling  up-stre.im  . 

Laiiiii;;~ilt  loading 

Shipping-port  on  the  Irawadi 

Burman  sea-going  craft  {kattii) 

Bullock-cart,  Pegu 

Burman  cartwrights   . 

Buffalo-cart 

Tyreing  the  wheel 

Pleasure-cart,  Burma  Proper 

Bullock-carts,  Burma  Proper 

Burman  ponies      .... 

Wayside  rest-house  {sayiil)  . 

Country  bridge     .... 

Royal  bridge 

Travelling  with  elephants 

Ti>wn     environs     in     the     ihy 
(Nyaung-u) 

Carved  ligme  of.Aiuuul.i 

Kerry  station 

Shan  camp  in  the  loul.uuls  . 

.Sh.iii  Imlldik  c.irav.in 

Shan  village  on  the  Salween 


125 

26 

126 

127 

27 

28 


128 
129 
129 
130 
130 

130 
"31 
131 
132 
132 

'j2 

'33 
'33 
■34 
'34 
'34 
'35 
'35 
'36 
136 
136 
'37 
'37 
'38 
'38 
'38 
'39 
'39 
140 
140 
140 

141 
141 
141 
142 
'42 
142 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


XI 


321. 
322. 
323- 
32+ 
325- 
326. 

327- 
328. 

329- 
330. 
331. 
332. 
333- 
334. 
335- 
336. 
337- 
338- 
339- 
340. 

341- 
342- 

343- 
344- 
345- 

346. 
347- 
348. 
349- 
350. 
351- 
352. 
353- 
354- 
355- 
356. 
357- 
358. 

359' 
360. 

36.. 
362. 

363. 
364- 
365. 
366. 

367. 


I'AGE 

Shan  carrier  caravan       ....      143 

Shan  shinlAung ftle 143 

Shan  blacksmiths 144 

Shan  iiiiaj;c  (if  llic  lliid<lh:i   .  .       144 

Shans  preparing  their  rice-fields  144 

Kyaington  Shans I45 

Shan-Chinesc 1 45 

Kardii  foot-bridge 146 

Karen  ferry-rafts  on  the  Sahvccn  .  146 
Shan  method  of  threshing     .  \4^ 

Kardn  village 147 

Kardn  mother  and  babe.  .  .  .  147 
Karens  bringing  elephants  to  market  1 4cS 
Kardns  going  out  to  work  .  .  .  14S 
Shan  village  environs  148 

Karens  sowing  their  crop  .  .  •  149 
Kardn  crop-watcher's  hut  .  .  .  149 
Kardns  cutting  their  crop  .      .      150 

Karen  woman  cooking     .  .      .      1 50 

Shan  camp  in  the  frontier  hills  .  150 

Karen  liquor-still 151 

Karen    hiding   coin    in    a   growing 

bamboo 

Karen  spring-spear  [liyaii)    . 
Karen  hunters  bringing  in  wild  pig 
Karens   threshing  corn  on  the  hill- 
side      

Kar^n  with  decoy-cock    .... 
Decoy-cock  in  the  circle  of  snares . 

Karen  hoop-game 

Karen  woman  weaving    .... 

Karen  spearman 

Karen  maidens 

Karen  girls  fetching  water    . 
Karen  bronze  drum  (Juisi)    . 

Karen  grave 

Buffalo  led  to  water  by  Karen  child 
Red  Karens — Kiii tiiiii    .... 

Chins 

Kachin — Chimpaw 

Taungthu 

Hovels  of  the  Indian  immigrants    . 

Chinese  shoemakers 

Karen  tree-ladder  (Evergreen  forest) 

Manipuris 

The  Chetti 

Bringing  the  paddy  to  the  rice-mills 
Foreshore  at  the  factories     . 
South  of  India  fisherman 


368. 

369- 
370. 

371- 
372. 
373- 
374- 
375- 
376. 
377- 
378. 
379- 
380. 
381. 
382. 
383. 
384. 
385. 

386. 
387. 


389- 
393- 
39'- 
392- 
393- 
394- 
395- 
396. 
397- 
398. 
399- 
400. 
4or. 
402. 

403- 
404. 
405. 
406. 
407. 
408. 
409. 
410. 
41  1. 
412. 

413- 
414. 


urt 


ng 


ind 


European  type  of  house  . 
Harbour  scene 
Headman  mustering  his  villagers 
Burman  outpost  stockade 
Village  elders  in  conclave 
Burman  official  receiving  apjjlicants 
Official  passing  the  street 
Burman  judge  proceeding  to  C 
Judge  presiding  in  Court 
The  city  gate  (pya-o) 
The  palace  gardens    . 
*Royal  maid  of  honour  {apyodi 
Palace  front  and  spire     . 
*Burman  Princess 
Royal  insignia       .... 
Ancient  capital.  Sagging 
JCarved  figure  of  itat 
Temples  raised    by  a  modern 
itlie  Kntliodaiu) .... 

*  Figures  oi  Ryainina  (embroidery) 

The  city  moat 

The  Burmese  drama  {zappzve) 

band 

The  characters  in  the  play   . 
The  Burman  ballet  {Jian-pwc) 
The  Burman  ballet  Uum-pwc) 

*  Marionette  varieties. 
Marionette  play    .... 

*  Marionette  princess. 
Boys'  boxing-match  . 
Pony-racing 

*  Marionette  varieties. 
Bullock  racing       .... 
The  boat-race  goal  {pi'ii) 

Cock-fighting 

Chiii/oi!  game 

Slashing  cocoanuts  iOnk6ti. 

Chess 

Dominoes 

Pasi't  game 

Angaloii  gambling     . 

Chinlon  game 

Chinese  dice  (iiidaung)    . 
Burman  juggler     .... 
*The  charmer  approaching  the  s 
*The  hamadryad  captured   . 
Snake-charmer's  performance 
New-YearytVf,  Payd-yc-cho  . 
Water-throwing  at  New- Year 


PAGE 
161 
162 
163 

■  63 
164 
164 
165 
165 
166 
166 
167 
167 
16S 
1 68 
i6y 
169 
170 

171 
171 
172 

173 
173 
174 
174 
174 
'75 
175 
176 
176 
176 
177 
177 
178 
178 
178 
'79 
179 
180 
iSo 
I  So 
181 
181 
182 
182 
183 
'83 
184 


Xll 


LIST  OF  ILLl  STRATIOXS 


PAGE 

415.  Ransom  procession  at  New-Year    .  184 

416.  New-Year  tug-of-war 185 

},\-;.  Sunlditng  TX  Thadindyut  {q%\\\3\    .  1S5 

418.  Sn II hi  101^  at  TliddiiidYiU  ksU\a\    .  186 

419.  Fire-balloons  at  ThadindyiU     .      .  186 

420.  River  illuminations  at  ThadindyiU .  187 

421.  Mazes  at  ThadindyiU      .      .      .      ■  187 

422.  Tazdiiiigmon  festival 187 

423.  Propitiating   the   local    Nats    {iiak- 

kazA) 18S 

424.  Shrine   of  the    house-genius — Min 

Magayi  nat 18S 

425.  Propitiating  the  «rt/ Bodaw.      .      .  1S9 

426.  Propitiating   the   iiats   of    the    five 

planets 189 

427.  Pilgrims  with  their  belongings  .      .  190 

428.  Shwc-Dagon  Pay  A,  Rangoon          .  190 

429.  Kyaittiyo  Paya 190 

430.  Canoes  racing 191 

431.  Decorating  the  thebonzedi    .      .      .  192 

432.  A  daughter  praying  her  parents  to 

itobo-sat 192 

433.  Painting  of  Kyaittiyo  pilgrimage     .  193 

434.  Home-devotions  of  the  aged      .  193 


435- 
436. 

437- 
43S. 

439- 
440. 
441. 
442. 
443- 
444- 
445- 
446. 

447- 
44S. 

449- 
450. 

45'- 


45^- 
453- 
454- 
455- 


PAGE 

The  veteran 194 

Entertaining  the  funeral  guests.      .  194 

The  bier  leaving  the  house   .            .  195 

FunefaJaf  a  wealthy  Rurnian    .      .  195 

The  bkr  reaching  the  cemetery       .  196 

The  funeral  pyre 196 

Cineraria  on  sacred  ground  .      .  197 

The  last  stage 197 

Bier  oi  poitdyi 198 

Cinerarium  oi ya/nin 198 

Poiidyibyan 199 

Cinerarium  of  King  Mindon  Min  199 

*  Vale .' 200 

Image   found    in    a    cave    near   an 

ancient  Tal;iing  town    ....  201 

Malia-inyaininiiiii  image       .      .      .  202 

Chida-tvyd 203 

Copper    image    discovered   in   the 
foundations   of  MahA-myammuni , 

A.u.  1784 206 

Burmese  letterpress  (newspaper)     .  208 

Saddik 209 

The  Burmese  harp  and  dulcimer     .  211 

Hiiiilia-%\i!L-ped  weight  of  brass .      .  215 


>-w-w-i>.v^c>ri^:vV^-«BEBSBEB^B^SgEiiSgaaB^8aa6g8^^ 


SUNSET    ON    THE    COAST. 


7' 


CHAPTER    I 

INTRO  D  UCTOR  Y 

Burma  remained  in 
isolation  throughout  the 
longest  period  of  her 
history.  One  result  of 
this  was  that  her  type 
grew  more  and  more 
distinct.  The  isolation 
of  Burma  was  due  to 
her  geographicil  posi- 
tion, not  to  tin:  preju- 
dice which  animates 
other  Mongolian  states. 
Burma  is  shut  away  in 

a  coign  of  the  earth  between  mountain  wastes  and  the  ocean.  The  kindred 
nations  settled  within  the  same  natural  confines,  one  after  another  came  under 
the  sway  of  Burma.  They  fought  among  themselves  and  the\'  traded  among 
themselves  ;  the  wars  and  the  commerce  of  the  greater  world  beyond  affected 
them  little.  No  base  of  attack  was  near  enough  to  Burma  for  the  ancient 
conditions  of  warfare.  On  the  west  the  seas  were  too  wide  for  the  transport 
of  armies  ;  on  the  east  serried  ranges  of  hills  blocked  the  eftbrts  of  China  to 
push  her  way  to  the  coast.  Burma  possessed  no  staples  of  trade  to  encourage 
li 


4.     ESTUARY    OF   THE    SALWEEN. 


BURMA 


LANDING-STAGE     IN     THE     TIDAL 
REGION. 


enterprise  of  the  peaceable  sort.  Left 
entirely  to  her  own  resources,  she  de- 
veloped her  character  in  independence. 
It  preserves  a  large  measure  of  its 
original  freshness  and  charm. 

Detached  though  Burma  lay  from  the 
contact  of  other  civilisation,  the  seed-corn 
of  a  spiritual  influence  was  brought  to  her 
shore  from  afar,  and  took  root  and  spread 
until  it  pervaded  her  whole  life.  The  one 
extraneous  influence  under  which  she  fell 
proved  of  a  paramount  order.  But  the 
inspiration  of  Buddhism  was  broadly 
human,  not  racial.  Every  people  might 
take  its  message  to  heart  in  their  own 
individual  wa}-.  The  restraints  it  enjoined 
and  the  ideals  it  held  up  became  the 
occasions  for  Burma  to  unfold  her  own 
inmost  nature.  The  abounding  treasury 
of  Buddhist  legend  furnished  the  subjects  to  exercise  her  poetic  fancy.  In  the 
fifth  century,  A.D.,  long  after  Buddhism  had  declined  at  its  .source  in  India,  and 
when  it  only  prevailed  in  Ce}don,  its  real  progress  began  among  the  people  who 
were  to  give  it  an  enduring  home.  Buddhism  is  popularly  credited  with  five 
hundred  millions  of  adherents.  But  the  seven  millions  of  Burma  and  i^crhaps 
a  twentieth  of  that  number  in 
Ceylon,  together  with  the  half 
million  Jains  of  India,  are  the 
practical  Buddhists  of  the  world. 
With  the  rest  the  profession  has 
sunk  to  an  cmpt)'  name,  as  in 
China  and  Japan,  or  it  is  lax,  as 
in  Siam,  or  it  is  utterly  trans- 
formed, as  in  Tibet. 

The  phrase  J-'iirt/ier  India 
gives  point  to  a  wide  miscon- 
ception. Tile  surprise  of  so 
many  persons  on  finding  liial 
the  Burmans  have  no  cas/c-  \.o 
take  the  commonest  instance — 
betrays  the   notion  that  Burma  g    ruins  of  city  gate,  paqan. 


INTROni^CTORy 


is  part  (jf  India.  The  phrase  ludo-Cliiiia  is 
also  misleading  unless  in  respect  of  geo- 
graphy. In  respect  of  climate,  flora  and 
fauna,  b'uillirr  India  is  not  inapplicable.  A 
probable  Indo-Aryan  admixture  exists  in  the 
north-east  (Arakiin).  But  Burma  Proper 
and  Pegu  are  as  distinct  from  India  as  Tibet 
itself. 

The  original  Burman  tribes  are  con- 
jectured to  have  pushed  their  way  south 
fidiii  the  mountains  of  Tibet.  They  divided 
into  three  principal  branches,  Arakan  {Ra- 
iding, Y'akdiiig)  on  the  west,  Paung  on  the 
east,  and  Burma  {Baiitd),  which  attained  to 
the  chief  position,  in  the  middle,  on  the 
northern  Irawadi  {li-ya  wadi).  Nothing  is 
known  of  the  early  history  of  these  nations. 
But  it  is  certain  that  in  looo  A.D.  Burma 
was  a  large  and  powerful  kingdom,  with  its 
seat  at  Pagan.  About  that  time  the  first 
historical  conquest  of  the  lower  Irawadi  was 
effected.  From  the  fact  that  the  country  was  not  permanently  subdued  it  may 
be  inferred  that  the  power  of  the  Mun  or  Peguan  race  (later  called  Takiing) 
was  not  greatly  inferior  to  that  of  the  Burman.  The  Muns,  from  the  affinities 
of  their  language,  are  conjectured  to  be  of  i\.nnamitic  origin.  There  is  mention 
of  the  Pagan  kingdom  independently  of  the  Burman  chronicles,  and  there  is 
above  all  the  evidence  of  the  ruins  of  Pagan,  probably  the  mightiest  of  their 
kind.      They  testify  to  the   power    of   the   kingdom    and   the   influence   of  the 


7.     ANCIENT   GATE,    VvlTH    FIGURES    OF 
THADYA-MIN    AND    KEINNAYA. 


AMANDA    PAYA.    PAGAN 


4  BURMA 

religion  which  actuated  the  kings  to  build  temples  on  such  a  scale.  In 
1300  A.D.  the  power  of  the  Pagan  kingdom  had  spent  itself,  in  a  great  degree 
owing,  as  the  Burmans  believe,  to  the  drain  of  the  temple-building.  But  the 
force  of  the  religion  was  unabated.  Burma  fell  a  prey  to  Shan  invaders,  who 
snatched  the  dominion   for  nearly  two  hundred  years   but   failed  to  consolidate 


9.      BURMAN    GENERAL    GOING    OUT    TO    WAR    (APPLIQUE    WORk 

it,  splitting  up  into  principalities  like  those  of  their  native  hills.  The  weakness 
of  Burma  allowed  the  Mun  power  to  develop.  The  sixteenth  century  saw  the 
rise  of  Pegu  and  the  establishment  of  a  shifting  empire  over  Burma,  h'xhausted 
by  wars,  Pegu  in  turn  declined  and  lay  at  the  mercy  of  Siam  (Yodaya)  when 
Paung  (Taitng-iigii)  came  to  the  rescue.  In  the  seventeenth  century  the  Paung- 
Peguan  dynasty  brought  the  Mun  empire  to  its  zenith,  from  which  it  waned  in 
the  eighteenth.  Towards  the  middle  of  the  latter  century  the  Burmans  under 
Alaung  Paya  rose  against  the  Mun  garrisons,  overthrew  Pegu  and  finally 
established  the  empire  of  Burma.  Arak;ln  was  incorporated  ;  Siam  was 
subjugated  anil  niailc  tribu- 
tary for  a  time.  The  empire 
directed  its  ambition  to  the 
west.  Manipur  was  overrun 
and  the  Arakanese  pretensions 
in  Chittagong  were  revived, 
which  produced  friction  with 
the  British  power  in  India. 
Burman  dominion  had  been  a 
career  of  unbroken  conquest 
in  ihe  memory  of  the  then 
generation  ;  the  nation  believed 
itself  invincible.  In  the  elation 
of  their  prowess  at  iiome  they  10.    burman  picture  of  the  fall  or  mandalay. 


IKTROnrCTORY  5 

failed  to  form  a  conception  o[  the  power  of  nations  beyond  the  sea.  The 
Burmans  had  no  intelHgence  branch  in  the  shape  of  a  sea-borne  trade  of  their 
own.  So  they  provoked  a  trial  of  strength,  and  after  a  struggle,  which  they 
made  a  long  and  well-nigh  desperate  one  for  their  well-equipped  opponents, 
succumbed.  Burman  empire  was  over,  the  ancient  kingdom  only  remained. 
The  people  had  learned  the  lesson,  but  not  so  their  rulers,  who  suffered  affairs 
to  come  to  a  thrice-repeated  crisis.     (See  CHRONOLOGY,  1825,  1852,  1885.) 


11.     THE     NATIONAL    EMBLEM    OF    BURMA 


BABY S    BATH 


CHAPTER    II 

CHILDHOOD 

The  cradle  and  the  flower-stand 
are  the  two  things  that  strike  one 
in  every  Burman  dwelling  b\'  the 
care  bestowed  on  them.  The 
plainest  cradle  has  a  turned  rail 
and  a  carved  headpiece  (p.  8). 
The  cradle  swings  by  ropes  to 
which  the  mosquito  curtain  is  tied. 
The  bed  is  made  of  a  cotton 
mattress  and  a  few  plies  of  cloth. 
The  infant  is  swaddled  while  its 
mother  is  K^ing  in,  and  for  a 
week  or  two  later  according  to 
the  season  of  the  year.  After 
that  it  wears  only  necklets  and 
bangles.  The  first  clothes  the  chikl  gets  are  for  grantl  occasions,  after  it 
has  learned  to  run  about  and  take  care  of  itself.  When  the  mother  has 
recovered,  she  takes  her  babe  with  her  wherever  she  goes,  and  if  a  wood  or 
cane  cradle  is  not  handy  she  slings  the  infant  in  a  plain  hammock  of  cloth 
(No.  284).  The  Burmans  do  not  carry  their  young  children  in  a  sling  on  the  back 
like  the  hill  people,  but  on  the  hip  as  soon  as  they  can  sit  up  (Nos.  327,  424). 
When  the  babe  is  hard)'  enough  to  go  without  covering,  it  spends  its  waking 
hours  on  a  smooth   mat  spread  over  a  springy    bamboo  floor  which  somewhat 


^Vr  ■  '•Xr^il---'*-' 

"^ 

^I^P^                la^^Ultfi^^^^^v 

.„.„,..„ 

13.  THE  RATTAN  CRADLE  PAKET  . 


INFANCY 


7 


tempers  Nature's  discipline  of  knocks 
and  bumps,  as  compared  with  the  bare 
hard  ground  of  the  Indian  hut.  Never- 
theless the  young  Burman's  converse  with 
his  environment  is  unrestricted  enough. 
By  the  time  he  is  a  year  old  he  may  be 
trusted  to  himself  on  a  flimsy  platform 
many  feet  off  the  ground  or  over  the 
water.  There  arc  few  things  in  the  way 
of  the  child  that  it  may  not  handle.  The 
very  cheroot  its  mother  is  smoking  is  a 
covctctl  j)la\tliing.  The  daily  bath  at 
the  rivcr-sidc  or  well  has  familiarised  the 
child  with  another  element.  It  may  rush 
out  into  the  first  tropical  shower  and 
splash  to  its  heart's  content  with  its  older 
])laymates  in  the  first  tepid  puddle.  The 
Burman's  regular  exclamation  of  wonder 
or  fear  is  "  mother  !  " — amt. 

When  the  child  is  a  few  months  old, 
and    entertained    with    tea   and    sweets  to 

witness  the  ceremony  of  piercing  the  ears  and   giving  a  name.     The  Burmans 

have  no  patronymics.     The  name  is  chosen 

from  a  set  of  current  euphemisms  proper  to 

the   days  of   the  week   and    their    planets, 

according    to    the    star  presiding  over   the 

day  of  birth.     The   fancy  of  the    parents 

and  the  prognostics  of  the  soothsayer  unite 

to  decide  the  choice.     Names  are  single  or 

are  compounded  from  two  series  (in  Ara- 

kan  from  three).     Common  names,  begin- 
ning   with     the    "  Sunday-son,"    are    On, 

Kyaw,   San,  Shwe,  Po,  Tha,   Dun.     Men's 

and    women's  names    are    taken   from  the 

same  sets  ;  only  the  courtesy-prefixes  differ 

(p.  74).     The  needle-hole  made  in  the  lobe 

of    the    ear    on    the    naming-day    is    ex- 
panded  by  means    of    plugs    and    rolls    ot 

bast.      In    the    course  of  a    few  years    the 

lobe  takes  a  plug  one-half  to  three-quarters  15.    mudlarks. 


14.      BURMAN     MOTHER    AND     INFANT. 


relatives  and  friends  are  assembk 


BURMA 


16.     THE    FIRST    STEP. 

third  )'car.  Nevertheless  they  begin 
take  it.  The  illusion  prevails 
that  the  earlier  they  do  so  the 
stronger  they  will  be.  It  is  a 
chief  source  of  infant  sickness 
and  mortality,  and  of  the  small- 
ness  of  the  families  reared.  A 
curious  feature  of  Burman  soci- 
ality is  the  promiscuous  suckling 
of  infants  in  the  circle  of  relatives 
and  friends. 

Children's  heads  arc  shaved 
in  more  or  less  fanciful  ways  up 
to  the  ages  of  ten  or  twelve,  after 
which  the  hair  is  allowed  to  grow 
long. 

The  road-fronts  of  the  houses 
are  always  peopled  with  children. 
Children  arc  ecjuals  antl  are  free 
to  roam  through  the  neighijours' 
houses  and  plots,  where  they  arc 
kindly  noticed.  Atlults  take  in- 
terest in  their  games,  and  make 
kites  and  reels,  boats,  carts  and 
other     simple     toys     for      them. 


of  ati  inch  thick.  This  cus- 
tom is  on  the  decline,  and 
the  ears  of  boys  are  not  so 
generally  pierced  as  they 
used  to  be.  The  >iaddung  or 
women's  ear-plug  of  gold  is 
being  replaced  by  the  nagdt 
with  its  slender  stem  ( No.  24 1 ). 
With  eldest-born  girls  the  fete 
is  frequently  deferred  until 
they  are  tweh'e  or  fourteen, 
and  is  then  celebrated  with  all 
the  more  splendour  (p.  14). 

Burman  children  are  not 

weaned    until    the    second   or 

to  receive  solid   food  as  soon  as  the\'  will 


17.     THE    WOODEN    CRADLE    (SAUNGBAN). 


CllllJ)Rlu\  \S    GAMES 


18,      YOUNG    CHILDREN'S    TOYS. 


Manufactured  toys  arc 
the  most  noticeable 
wares  in  the  sale- 
booths.  A  universal 
toy  is  the  seed  from 
the  giant  pod  of  the 
do  creeper  (No.  251). 
Like  marbles  with  us, 
the  seeds — gon-knyifi 
— are  the  prizes  of 
the  game.  In  Sanger- 
mano's  time  (1783- 
1 806)     these     games 

used    to    be    played    by    adults.       A    characteristic    boys'    game    is    sitoppylt 

(No.    25).     Lots    are  cast  for    riders   and   horses.     A  ball  or  bundle  is  thrown 

from    rider    to    rider    till    a    player    misses    the    catch,    when    all    the    riders 

dismount  and    scramble   with    the  horses  for  the  ball.     The    one    who    secures 

it    becomes    or    remains    a    rider    as    the    case    may    be.     Boys    run    races  for 

their  own  sport    and    that   of  their 

elders,    and    race    their    toy    boats. 

They    fight   duels  with   their  kites, 

each  flier   seeking  to  saw  through 

his    opponent's   kite-line,  for  which 

purpose  a  length  of  string  has  been 

roughened    with  sand    or    pounded 

glass.       The  peg-top  is  a  favoiu'ite 

toy.       That     it    is    indigenous    is 

proved    by  certain  proverbial    say- 
ings.    Burman  boys  are  more  like 

our  own    and    take    to    European 

games     more    kindly     than    other 

Asiatics   (cf.  p.    69).       The    toy  of 

the     day    is     the     tricycle,    which 

parents    will    pinch    themselves    to 

provide  for  their  children,  and  which 

the  happy  possessors  of  will  make 

the    common    property  of  all    their 

playmates.   Where  children  awaken 

such  genuine  interest,    punishment 

is   rarely   called    for   and    is    ne\er 
C 


19.      GAMES    IN    THE    WATER. 


ro 


BURMA 


20.     TOY    CART. 


of  a  savage  description. 
Children  have  pretty  man- 
ners ;  they  are  respectful  to 
their  elders  without  shyness 
or  cringing. 

Children  grow  up  among 
the  implements  they  will  use 
in  after  life.  Wooden  mills 
for  husking  rice,  tilt-hammers 
and  mortars  for  pounding, 
cotton-seeders  with  geared 
rollers,  spinning-A\heels,  wea- 
ving-looms and  other  simple 
machines  are  in  every  house- 
hold ;  besides  agricultural  implements,  carts  and  boats,  all  of  which  are  made 
or  kept  in  repair  by  the  inmates  {cf.  p.  120).  The  workshops  of  artizans  of  every 
class  are  open  to  view,  and  the  processes  are  obvious  to  every  passer-by.  The 
interest  aroused  in  children  is  more  diversified  than  in  cold  countries  with  their 
more  secluded  life.  From  mimicking  the  occupations  of  adults  children  learn 
to  take  part  and  soon  begin  to  like  a  real  share  in  them.  Their  trade 
begins  with  make-believe  wares,  then  come  scraps  of  house  and  garden  produce 
till  it  develops  into  a  source  of  pocket-money  and  training  in  business 
(Nos.  281,  431).  The  years  of  tutelage  merge  into  the  age  of  responsibility 
without  abrupt  transition.  The  intelligence  which  the  school-teacher  proceeds 
to  build  on  has  insensibly  developed  under  conditions  more  than  commonly 
favourable,  which  may  help 
to  account  for  the  precocity 
of  Burman  school-children 
uniler  good  teaching. 

From  the  ages  of  eight 
to  ten,  boys  begin  attending 
the  school  of  the  Buddhist 
monastery  {kyauiig),  where 
they  are  taught  free  by  the 
recluse  (fu)idyi)  or  by  his 
sojourner  recluses  {npazlif). 
The  spelling-book  is  chanted 
in  a  chorus  led  by  a  senior 
IHiijil,  and  is  copied  out  with 
a  white  ste.ilite  jjencil  on   a 


21.     PEG-TOPS    (dYIN   PAUK). 


s 


SCITOOTJNG 


I  I 


23.     MARBLES    (GON-HNYIN). 


loriL,'  wooden  slate 
blackened  with  soot 
and  rice-water  ithiin- 
I>d>/).  The  Ikirmcse 
v\ord-building  is  ex- 
cee(hn;^dy  reL,ailar  and 
in  the  main  phonetic 
(See  appendix  B). 
Reading  is  acquired 
in  one  term,  without 
much  effort  on  the 
part  of  pupil  or 
teacher.  The  Burmans  have  a  pure  decimal  notation  in  which  the  bugbears 
eleven  and  twelve  are  unrepresented.  The  Burmese  eleven  is  literally  "  onety- 
one."  Children  can  count  up  to  hundreds  before  they  come  to  school 
and  can  reckon  up  sums  mentally.  In  arithmetic  they  are  taught  the 
multiplication-table  and  a  few  rules  of  thumb  (Ih'diii).  In  addition  to  the 
five  Buddhist  commandments  (p.  i6)  and  the  objects  of  contemplation  (p.  43), 
which  the  children  learn  in  their  homes,  they  chant  passages  from  the  Ptili 
scriptures  in  the  school  chorus  and  get  other  precepts  by  rote  :  such  as  the 
category  of  duties  to  parents,  teachers  and  elders,  vie,  reverence,  support, 
mutual  affection  (pari'ik).  They  are  taught  the  value  of  learning  as  an  inalienable 
possession,  together  with  many  precepts  from  the  Lawkamti  and  Miugala-tlwt ; 
the  conquests  of  the  inner  and  outer  \nox\6s  Ativhi-amigdyln,  Apyhi-aungdyln,  the 
story  of  the  Buddha  (see  The  Light  of  Asia)  and  the  legendary  cosmogony. 

As  the  result  of  this  Buddhist  system  of  schools,  nearly  half  of  the  male 
and  about  3  per  cent,  of  the  female  population,  can  read  and  write,  as  compared 
with    9    and  0"3  per  cent,  for  men  and  women   respectively   in   Bengal.      The 


24.     RACING    TOY    BOATS. 


12 


BURMA 


25.     GAME    OF    SITOPPYIT. 


Bunnan  average  stands  inidwa}'  between 
those  of  Ireland  and  Austria  on  the  one 
hand,  and  Italy  and  Spain  on  the  other. 
(Report  of  the  Census  of  1891.) 

The  boys  at  the  monastery-school 
{kyaiuig-tha)  do  the  domestic  work  — 
sweep  the  floors  and  enclosures,  attend 
ajjon  the  recluses,  and  help  in  collecting 
the  dail\-  food.  Some  scholars  live  at 
the  kyauiii:;,  others  ha\-e  the  morning  meal 
there,  others  again  have  their  meals  at 
home.  The  recluse  exacts  no  deference 
from  his  scholar,  but  nevertheless  receives 
from  all  lay  persons  a  spontaneous  homage 
identical  with  that  accorded  to  royal  per- 
sonages. In  the  kyauiig  the  lads  acquire 
the  good  breeding  of  their  country,  for 
it  is  among  the  recluses  that  the  elite  of 
the  race  is  to  be  sought.  In  the  stage  next  to  be  described,  the  lad  completes 
this  training,  by  himself  sharing  in  the  deference  paid  to  the  yellow  robe,  which 
he  assumes  for  a  season  as  novice.  The  monastery-schools  are  open  all  the 
year,  but  have  a  large  attendance  only  in  the  rains'  season  or  iivF. 

Besides  the  monastic  public  schools  there  are  private  schools  kept  by 
laymen  and  occasionally  also  by  women,  in  which  girls  as  well  as  boys  are 
taught.  The  subjects  and  methods  are  the  same,  but  more  time  is  given  to 
aritiimetic.  The  rules  of  thumb  of  the  Indian  bcdiii  are  being  superseiletl  b\' 
modern  arithmetic,  by  help  of  the  vernacular  manual  prepared  1)\-  the  missionary 
Stilson.  A  small  fee  is 
paid  the  lay  teacher  in 
money  or  in  kind.  Out  of 
hours,  the  lay-school  ])upils 
are  of  use  at  their  homes, 
minding  their  little  brothers 
and  sisters. 

The  training  begun  in 
youth  is  never  broken  olf. 
Study  is  a  chief  occupa- 
tion (jf  middle  and  advanced 
age.  The  teacher— jvyvf — 
clerical  or  lay,  is  reverenced,  jg    cycle  race 


TA  rr GOING 


27.      VILLAGE     LAY     SCHOOL- 


iicxt    to  a   parent,   with    a    lifc- 

loiiLj  devotion. 

Before    or    after   the    mon- 
astic novitiate,   it   is  the  custom 

for  the    Burman    hids     to    have 

themselves    tattooed    from    the 

waist   to    the    knee    (No.     152). 

Not    to    submit    to    this    ordeal 

is     to    incur     the     reproach     of 

cowardice.     The  tattooing  is  an 

intricate  pattern  of  animals  and 

tracery.      Owing   to    the   extent 
of  surface    involved,    the    pro- 

\     cess    is    most    painful.       It 
\   occupies   days    or  weeks, 

according  to  the  fortitude  of  the  subject,  who  is   drugged  with  opium 
for    the  occasion.     The  instrument  has  a  handle  weighted  at  the  butt,  anti  a 

long  point  \  of  bronze,  split  like  a  ruling-pen.  It  is  worked  with  great  rapidity. 
The  pigment  \  is  a  kind  of  lamp-black  of  the  consistence  of  ink.  It  shows 
bluish  black    \^   through  the  brown  skin.       When   a  Burman   tucks    up    his 

loin-cloth,  as  he  \  always  does  for  work  or  exercise  {kaddiing-chaik),  he  looks 
as  if  he  had  black  \  knee-breeches.  As  plain  as  the  contrast  is  to  the  eye, 
ordinary  photographic  -  plates  fail  to  render  it.  In  No.  153  it  appears  fully. 
On  other  parts  of  the  body  >  the  men  frequently  have  horoscopes  and  cabalistic 
diagrams    tattooed   with    ver-  milion  {sc-nt.  No.   162)   for  luck  and    bravado. 

The  Shan  practice  of  letting  in  gold  and  silver  discs  the  size  of  two-penny 

pieces — beneath  the  skin — is  some  times   imitated   by   Burmans  as  a   charm 

against  sword-cuts  and  bullets  {dabyi ;  titenabbyi).       The   Arakanese,   who    re- 

pudiate the  custom  of  togi^'iii,  ascribe  it  to  a  Burman  King,  who  endeavoured 
to  disguise  his  leprosy  ,_  _  in  this  way. 


28.      KITE-FLYING. 


IfWHilHHH 

■■ 

|p.\aaB||p;j«^;';?t-:.-=^^_^j^^ 

^ 

w^ 

J^Ssrj^^?^^ 

7      MffijMH  "-■'— -iF^*,  '     '  "Sttw5L ^^  ■  13S^? 

i,        Br*jS^~"~^iBL''^"''  '    '    ."ilti^ljfc JT^lfe' .^^ ■■*' — 

^^^^^6 

^^^^F 

-^ 

Km  ^     ''*' " 

jW^BpcM^^^^P 

c^^ 

'•i* 

29.      NOVICES    MAKING    THE    ROUND    FOR    DAILY    FOOD. 


CHAPTER    III 


ADOLESCENCE 


Between  the  ages  of  ten  and  .sixteen 
Burman  lad.s  enter  upon  the  monastic 
novitiate,  an  occasion  celebrated  with  a 
brilliant  fete.  The  adoption  of  a  religious 
life  by  girls  is  much  less  general,  even  for 
the  short  time  it  is  embraced  by  the 
youths  ;  and  when  it  is  adopted,  there  is 
no  ceremony.  But  a  holiday  answering  to 
that  of  the  boy's  novitiate  is  held  in  honour 
of  the  girl,  especially  when  she  is  the  first- 
born child — tliami-u.  In  her  case  the  ear- 
boring  ceremony,  if  not  the  piercing  itself, 
is  deferred  to  the  age  of  ten  or  twelve.    The 

-      _     _^  child,  eiiuippcd   in   lONal  attire,  or  an   imita- 

j^K.  '-       -  tion    of   it,    and   wearing    a    ([ueen's    crown 

Ult-r  .- _  i      {sihoif),  is  the  centre  of  a  great  gathering  of 

relatives  ami    friends,  who    are    entertained 

with  music  and  plaws. 

The  lad  who  li.is  pre]jared  to  renounce  the  world  for  a  season,  or  it  may 

be  for  life,  is  called  s/iiii/<iii>ij^.     The  shiiilduns^  festivals  usher  in   the  religious 

or    lentcn    season — iva,    June    to    September       the    season    of   rain    in    Hali.ir, 


30.     THAMIU    ARRAYED    FOR    HER    FETE. 


MONA  STIC  NO  VITIA  TE 


15 


31.     SHINLAUNQ    ARRAYED    FOR    HIS    FETE. 


tlic  Ikjitic  of  the  Buddha.  In 
(irdcr  to  accentuate  the  re- 
nunciation of  the  world  which 
the  lad  is  makintf,  he  i.s  ar- 
rayed and  attended  hke  a 
]irincc  and  makes  a  royal 
progres.s  on  horseback  or  in 
a  chariot  to  the  monastery. 
Attendants  bear  gilt  um- 
brellas over  him,  and  a 
retinue  of  relatives  and 
friends  carry  his  parHkaya 
and  offerings  for  the  use  of 
the  monastery.  The  par- 
eikaya  are  the  eight  cliattels, 
to  the  possession  of  which  the  regular  recluse  {yahdn)  is  restricted.  They 
consist  of  the  tliiiigd)i  or  monastic  yellow  robes,  viz.,  the  loin-cloth  (thiiiibding), 
upper  cloth  {egazi),  wrapper  (tkingdn-dyi),  and  red  girdle  [kahdii)  ;  a  needle  {at), 
wherewith  to  piece  his  clothing  together,  a  hard-baked  black  earthen  pot 
{thalh'it)  in  which  to  collect  the  morning  dole  of  food,  a  filter  (yczi't)  to  strain 
the  drinking  water  clear  of  living  things,  and  a  razor  {thindon-dd)  to  shave  the 
head  and  face  (excepting  the  eyebrows).  The  garments  are  of  plain  cloth, 
without  any  cut,  but  torn  into  strips  and  joined  up  again  (by  the  donors)  in 
commemoration  of  the  primitive  rule  of  piecing  the  garments  together  from 
rags,  as  well  as  to  deprive  the  cloth  of  value.  The  cloth  is  mostly  cotton, 
but  silk  and  wool  are  also  offered.  The  stuffs  are  dyed  a  bright  ochre,  with 
chips  of  Jack-wood.  By  repeated  washings  the  colour  deepens  to  tan.  These 
varying  shades  produce  a  picturesque  effect.  The  recluse  customarily  also 
receives  sandals  to  wear,  a  deer-skin  to  sit  and  sleep  upon,  a  broom  to  sweep 
his  dwelling  with,  and  a  large  palm-leaf  fan,  both  for  a  shelter  from  the  sun 
and  a  screen  from  the  sight 
of  womankind.  The  t/iaori/ 
is  slung  in  a  yellow  cotton 
net,  and  has  a  lacquerwork 
stand  and  cover.  In  respect  of 
chattels,  however,  these  primi- 
tive tokens  of  privation  have 
sunk  to  a  form.  The  recluses 
have  many  changes  of  raiment 
and  the  use  of  spacious  dwellings  32.    shinlaung  pageant  (burma  proper). 


i6 


BTRMA 
In    all    other    respects  they   rigidly  observe  the  rule    of 


with   good    furniture 
their  hfe. 

At  the  kvcviiig,  or  b\-  another  usage  at  the  home  of  the  candidate,  whither 
the    recluse    has    been    invited    to    preach,   the    lad    will    pras"  for   reception    as 


33.      SHINLAUNl.     l,'.uLAf4l        lEGU 

probationer  of  the  tliiiiga — the  assembly  of  devoted  seekers  after  righteousness 
— presenting  his  parcikaya  at  the  same  time.  In  response,  the  recluse  will 
recite  the  ordinances  of  reception.  I'irst,  he  will  intjuire  about  the  bodily 
integrity  of  the  candidate,  the  consent  of  his  parents,  his  freedom  from  debt 
and  other  bonds.  Then  he  will  recapitulate  the  rule  of  the  novice's  Hfe,  who, 
besides  the  five  commandments  binding  on  all  men,  must  observe  five  additional 
injunctions  {thild).  The  cardinal  precepts  of  the  Buddha  are  (i)  to  respect  every 
form  of  life ;  (2)  to  respect  the  property  of  others  ;  and  (3)  their  wives  and  children  ; 


34.      SHINLAUNG    PAGEANT    iPEQU). 


(4)  to  respect  truth  ;  anrl  (5)  sobriety.  The  additional  rules  arc — to  eschew  sexu- 
ality, frequent  meals,  games,  gold  and  silver,  finer\'  and  worldliness.  The  recluse 
should  meekly  fix  his  gaze  on  the  earth  not  more  th.ui  "a  four-span  j-oke " 
in  front,      lie  takes  food  in  tin-  lonnnnn  onl)-.     Tlie  novice  gives  his  hours  to 


Nn\Trf,]TF 


'7 


35,      SHINLAUNG    PRAYING     FOR    ACCEPTANCE    (PEGu). 


alkndancc    upon     his     pre- 
ceptor, to  contemplation  and 
sober  study.     His  preceptor 
receives  voluntary  confession 
of  faults,  without  question- 
ing, prescribes  penances,  and 
is  to  his  disciple  as  a  parent. 
I  laving    acquiesced    in    the 
rule  of  life,  the  candidate  is 
aihnonished    to  divest  him- 
self   of    worldly    state    and 
personal     adornment,     and 
after     that     to     renew     his 
prayer  for  admission. 
The  sliiiilihiug\\\(ix\  retires  to  be  divested  of  his  grandeur.      His  long  hair— 
the  pride  of  the  Hurman— is  cut  close  to  the  roots  with  scissors  and  preserved  by 
his  female  relatives.     His  head  is  shaved  by  a  male  relative.     The  same  day,  or 
later,  after  bathing,  the  candidate  will  present  himself  clad   in  a  plain  loin-cloth, 
,  offering  his  robes  and  the  rest  of  the  parcikaya  for  acceptance  as  before.     The 
recluse  will  now  accept  the  robes  on  behalf  of  the  Assembly,   and  tleliver  them 
to  the    candidate,  who  retires  to  robe  himself.      Invested  with  the  th'nigdn,  he 
returns  as   accepted    probationer,  to    make   obeisance  (shiko)  to    his    instructor. 
The  novice  takes  no  vow  and  owes  no  formal  obedience.     Like  the  full  member 
of   the    Assembly,    he    is    always    free    to    abandon    the   religious    rule    of    life 
{/u-twi't— to  become   a   layman  again).     The  goyiii  {inauiig-yiii,  Pali   saiiiaucra, 
" chinthaniauc")  or   "gentle-brother,"  as  the   novice  is  designated,   discontinues 
the   use  of  his  secular  name, 
in   lieu  of  which   he   receives 
from  his  preceptor  a  Pali  title 
{bivb),  chosen  in  the  same  wa\' 
as  the  secular  name  from  one 
of  seven  sets.     Thus   Maung 
Shwe  Ni,  Brother  Golden-red, 
becomes     0     Alawka,     Sage 
Above-the-world. 

The  whole  male  popula- 
tion of  the  village  are  free  of 
the  monastery.  The  recluse 
and  his  novices  have  with- 
drawn from  participation  in 
D 


SHINLAUNG     PRAYING     FOR     ACCEPTANCE    (BURMA). 


i8 


BURMA 


37.      SHINLAUNG    RENEWING     HIS    PRAYER. 


the  world,  but  not  from  observa- 
tion by  the  world.  Great  as  is 
the  homage  accorded  to  him  by 
the  laity,  a  recluse  who  should 
disgrace  his  cloth — a  thing  almost 
unknown  —  would  be  promptly 
unfrocked  by  them. 

For  their  sustenance  the 
novices  and  regular  recluses  de- 
pend upon  alms.  They  receive 
these  in  kind  and  according  to 
daily  need.  Their  appeal  is  mute. 
The  morning  after  his  reception 
the  novice  with  his  brethren  will 
halt  in  front  of  his  own  parents'  house  and  the  houses  of  the  neighbours  to 
receive  such  dole  of  food  as  is  offered  (No.  29).  He  will  not  look  to  right  or 
left,  but  keep  his  eyes  rooted  on  the  ground,  making  no  sign  beyond  raising  the 
cover  of  his  alms-bowl.  The  recluse  ma\-  not  ask  for  anything  whatever,  nor 
even  express  a  predilection.  The  food,  ripe  or  ready-cooked,  as  the  case  may 
be.  is  doled  indiscriminately  into  the  titabcit  from  the  east  side,  usually  by  a 
woman  of  the  house.  A  woman  should  not  stand  in  the  shadow  of  a  recluse,  of 
a  shrine,  zedi,  temple  or  image.  She  should  not  occupy  an  upper  floor  when  a 
recluse  happens  to  be  beneath,  nor  enter  a  T/wiii.  nor  occupy  a  higher  place  with 
respect  to  men  (p.  72).  Food  given  in  a  religious  spirit,  as  above  described,  is 
called  siiii.  The  recluses  when  collecting  siai  are  generally  followed  by  a  couple  of 
scholars  bearing  a  yoke  and  basket 
to  receive  larger  offerings  on  be- 
half of  the  monastery  (No.  41). 

Th(jse  j)robationers  who  re- 
main in  the  monastery  for  several 
years — reckoned  b}-  Lents  {iva) — 
and  who  aspire  to  full  membcrshiji 
of  the  Assembly,  read  with  the 
recluse  Pali  texts  of  the  Tripitaka, 
and  the  commentaries  on  tlu-se, 
and  commit  portions,  sometimes 
whole  books  of  the  canon,  lo 
memory.  Recluses  of  standing 
and  also  laymen  take-  \y.\rX  in  these 
exercises.  ,'<    (,ovin  making  uulisance 


lUmniffST   INS Tf 77 ■  TfONS 


19 


39.      PAINTING    OF    SHINLAUNQ    FETE. 


riic  constituted  daily 
routine  of  the  njfjnastery 
takes  no  account  of  recrea- 
tion. In  practice  there  is  a 
wide  margin  of  leisure.  But 
the  wearer  of  the  yellow 
robe  is  not  seen  at  play. 
Arithmetical  puzzles  are  the 
nearest  approach  to  a  game. 
On  the  other  hand,  the 
cheerfulness  of  the  race 
suffers  no  restraint.  There 
is  decorum,  without  austerity  or  sanctimonj'.  The  severest  penance  laid  upon 
the  novice  is  temporary  relegation  to  the  secular  state  (Icin-byan)  for  such  faults 
as  lying,  theft,  or  killing  anything.  Cruelty  to  an  animal  is  punished  with 
caning. 

The  yaJidn  exercise  no  exclusive  functicjn  beyond  that  of  admitting 
candidates  to  the  novitiate  and  the  full  membership  of  their  Assembly.  The 
affairs  of  the  Buddhist  Church  are  initiated  and  conducted  by  the  laity.  The 
recluses  merely  add,  by  their  presence,  to  the  religious  distinction  of  an  occasion. 
At  the  shrine  the  recluse  is  like  any  other  pilgrim  ;  he  never  is  a  ministrant 
or  priest.  Neither  is  there  any  altar.  The  only  material  objects  to  which 
sanctity  pertains  are  the  relics  of  the  Buddha.  The  members  of  the  Assembly 
know  no  distinctions  of  men,  racial  or  social.  As  regards  the  temporal  power, 
of  whatever  origin,  the  recluse  should  be  absolutely  passive,  neither  contravening 
the  laws  nor  invoking  them  when  he  suffers  wrong.  The  recluse  neither 
denounces  nor  harbours 
the  criminal,  a  neutral 
attitude  of  which  crimi- 
nals are  not  slow  to  take 
advantage. 

When  admitted  to 
full  membership  of  the 
Assembly  instituted  by 
the  Buddha  (T/iiiigil 
Pali  Saitg/ia ),  the  novice 
becomes  Yahdn  ( Yahdn- 
daw,  Rahdii,  Ara/iaii). 
which  signifies  perfected, 
one    advanced    a   stasre  40.  goyin  receiving  higher  instruction 


20 


BURMA 


YAHAN    ON    THE    ROUND    FOR    SUN. 


towards  the  higher  spiritual  condition  of 
Ayalidt  and  Aydttapo.  The  primitive  ap- 
pellation is  Beikkit  (Pali  Pikku).  one 
dependent  on  alms.  The  spiritual  state 
preceding  Yahdn,  that  of  the  man  so 
imbued  with  the  spirit  of  the  Buddha's 
teaching  as  to  desire  membership  of  his 
Assembl)-,  is  called  Tliawtapaii.  The  can- 
didate for  full  membership  must  possess 
the  qualifications  for  the  degree  of  goyln, 
in  addition  to  a  knowledge  of  the  rule 
of  life  of  the  yaltdn  and  a  modicum  of 
religious  learning.  Most  ya/idii  are  tig^- 
byn — pure  from  youth — that  is,  have  passed 
direct  from  their  \'outhful  novitiate  to 
full  membership.  Men  of  any  condition 
may  be  recei\ed,  and  at  any  age  above 
twenty,   if  free  from  debt  and   other  ties, 

but  must  undergo  a  fresh  probation.      Over  and  above  the  precepts  observed  by 

the  goyiti,  the  yakdu  observes  one  hundred  detailed   injunctions.      He  must  not 

merely  respect  life,  but  also  the  means  to  life.     He  may  not  wantonl\-  injure  a 

blade  of  grass.     Cleanliness  is  particularly  enjoined.     A  notable  injunction  is  not 

to  lay  up  any  store  of  food.     He  must 

not  use   a  raised  sleeping-place,  though 

by  day  he  reclines  on  the  couches  pre- 
sented   to    the    monastery.      The  ya//d)i 

sweeps  his  dwelling,  draws  water,  washes 

his    clothing,   and    so    forth,   when   there 

are  not  gtyi'ii  or  lay-disciples  to  perform 

these   services    for    him.      Otherwise    his 

occupations  are   onlv  those  of  teaching, 

study,  and  contcni])lation.      In    T.i-nt  the 

ya/idii    remains    indoors    from    sunset    to 

sunrise.  At  this  season  he  also  frequently 

selects  a  forest  retreat  for  contemjjlation 

in  the  early  morning  hours  {n'lissaiii/g). 

The  yahdn    practises    confession    U)   his 

brethren  of  the  Assembly,  all   of  whom 

are  etiuals,  but  who  defer  to  one  another, 

according  to  seniority,  which  is  reckoned  42.   buddhist  recluse. 


n ( 'nnifisr  rxs /y / v ' rn ).vs 


21 


44.      ANCIENT    THEIN    AT    PAGAN 


not  by  age,  but  by  the 
number  of  lenten  seasons 
they  have  belonged  to  the 
Assembly.  Vigils  and  re- 
striction of  night  rest  are 
not  practised.  The  rule  of 
life  of  the  yaltdn  is  laid 
down  in  the  Wini  (I'iiiaya 
lutaka),  one  of  the  three 
divisions  ("  baskets  ";  of 
the  Buddhist  scriptures.  A 
kauilmwd,  or  breviary  of 
scripture,  relating  to  mem- 
bership of  the  Assembly,  illuminated  with  lacquer  on  copper  or  ivory  leaves,  is 
read  by  turns  by  the  five  members  of  the  conclave  assembled  for  the  reception 
of  the  new  member.  This  solemnity  is  undertaken  in  the  t/ieiii,  a  i^>nt  set  apart 
for  the  Tliingd  alone.  No  lay  persons  enter  the  precincts,  but  they  may  be 
spectators  from  a  distance.  The  new  yaltdii  is  called  Upaziti,  sojourner  recluse, 
or  assistant  to  the  Upyize,  or  Poiidyi,  Kiiidyi  (incumbent)  of  the  monastery.  In 
1891  there  were  \'>y,6\T^  pondyi,  6,668  sojourner  )vr/^'?'«,  and  13,500  probationers 
in  the  monasteries  of  Burma,  which  numbered  15,371,  in  a  13uddhist  population 
of  about  seven  millions. 

The  dedication  of  the  site  for  building  such  a  thciit  (Pali  si  ma)  is  preceded 
by  the  solemnity  of  thciu-thamot.  Ground  so  dedicated  can  never  be  alienated 
to  any  other  use.  In  this  respect  the  tlicin  is  more  sacred  than  the  temples  in 
general.  After  the  site  has  been  levelled,  it  is  surrounded  with  a  trench,  into 
which  water  is  led.  In  the  centre  a  small  well  is  sunk  {aU'-dzviii).  The  yaluhi, 
not  less  than  twenty-four  in 
number,  assemble  on  the 
spot,  over  which  a  gay 
pavilion  {jiiandat)  has  been 
erected,  and  wait  for  the 
water  from  the  trench  to 
percolate  to  the  well.  When 
this  occurs,  the  site  is  said 
to  have  "  taken  "  (auiig). 
Otherwise  it  must  be  re- 
jected. The  yalidri  gather 
round  the  well  and  intone 
scriptural    passages   from   a  45.    yahan  assembled  for  dedication  of  thein. 


22 


BURMA 


kainbawd.  The  laity  assembled  outside  the  precincts  let  off  rockets  and  guns 
in  celebration  of  the  event.  Finally,  the  ceremony  of  yezetclia.  the  pouring 
of  water  (No.  lOO),  is  performed  b\-  the  grantor  of  the  site — as  at  every  other 


46.      ILLUMINATED    KAMBAWA. 


religious  dedication — to  signify  that  the  propert\-  has  been  dedicated  for  ever. 
The  precincts  of  the  tlieiii  are  marked  by  low  boundary  pillars,  mostly  of 
Sagaing  marble,  set  in  the  trench,  which  is  then  filled  in.  A  different  form  of 
tJiehi  is  the  yc-thein,  which  is  built  over  the  water  to  effect  its  isolation. 

Although  the  yahdii,  as  already  stated,  may  not  ask  for  anything,  he  may 
decline  what  is  offered.  He  signifies  this  by  inverting  his  tliabcit  {thabeit- 
htiiauk).  The  action  has  become  a  symbol  for  excommunication.  The  yaltdn 
might  assemble  in  the  tlwiu  and  perform  tliabcit-Innank  against  a  la_\-man  for 
heinous  wickedness.  His  house  would 
be  passed  by  in  collecting  snii  and  all 
offerings  tendered  by  him  refused.  The 
practice  has  become  obsolete  ;  it  is  said 
to  have  no  warrant  in  the  scriptures,  and 
to  be  contrary  to  their  s[)irit. 

\\'hcre  the  people  are  very  prosperous 
and  thej'rt/M//  are  not  many,  the  collecting 
oi sun  in  the  streets  has  sunk  to  a  formality 
observed  by  the  novices  only,  who  on  re- 
turn to  the  monastery  empty  their  ihabcit 
to  the  dogs.  But  in  other  circumstances 
the  sojourner  yaltdn.  novices  aiul  scholais 
live  on  the  sun.  An  ordinance  f)f  the 
liuddha  dispenses  the  ya/idu  from  collect- 
ing liis  food  friim  liousL-  to  hmisc  if  there 
be  ])ious  people  who  proffer  him  his  sus- 
tenance at  his  abode.  The  founder  of 
the  monastery  {Kyaung-tagd),  who  numin-  ,,.   ^^^  3,^^  g,  ^^e  kvaunotaoa. 


BUDDH/sT  fh\STrri  "rroxs 


23 


49.      FOREST    KYAUNQ. 


atcs  the  incuinl)t;iU,  regularly 
undertakes  the  .siqjport  of  tlie 
poiidyi,  and  frcquentl}-  of  his 
sojourner  yalidn  as  well.  The 
f(-)(jd,  which  is  the  best  of  its 
kind,  is  brought  every  morning 
by  the  daughters  and  yfjung 
children  of  the  su])|)ortcr,  or,  in 
the  case  of  joint  su]5port,  by 
children  of  the  leading  families 
in  turn.  An  ornamented  vessel 
is  used,  having  a  tall  finial  to 
the  cover  {ot).  The  supplies 
are  received  by  the  lay  scholars 
or  the  novices,  and  by  them  served  to  the  valiaii.  The  principal  meal  is 
taken  shortly  before  noon,  for  no  food  may  be  eaten  after  that  hour  till  the 
following  sunrise.  Water  may  be  drunk  and  betel  chewed  at  any  time. 
Tobacco-smoking  is  discountenanced,  especially  in  Burma  Proper,  where  the 
religious  views  are  strictest.  Burma  furnishes  the  standard  both  for  scholarship 
and  practice,  and  trains  most  of  the  incumbents  of  the  monasteries  of  Pegu. 
Scholars  and  novices  may  prepare  food  at  the  monastery  from  raw  supplies. 
These  the  jw/'rt'w  may  not  even  handle.  Hired  labour  (kappiza  dayaka)  may 
be  attached  to  the  monastery  by  the 
supporter  for  the  preparation  of  footl 
and  other  services.  In  some  cases 
lands  have  been  dedicated  for  the 
maintenance  of  monasteries  and  tem- 
ples. But  the  yahdn  have  no  concern 
with  their  administration.  Supplies 
of  raiment,  chattels  and  food  are 
dedicated  to  the  use  of  the  recluses 
when  the  distinction  of  their  presence 
is  solicited,  especially  at  shiulaung 
fetes  and  funerals.  The  annual  pro- 
vision of  raiment  (katciii  thiitgaii) 
is  made  between  the  months  of 
Thadindyut  and  Tasduiiginon.  The 
ofiferings  of  necessaries  are  supple- 
mented by  accessories  of  every  sort 
— books  and  writing  materials,  mats,  50.   village  kyaung. 


BURMA 


KYAUNG    AT    THE    CAPITAL. 


carpets,  cushions,  luuulker- 
chiefs,  tables,  chairs,  betel- 
boxes  and  spittoons,  glass- 
ware and  crockeiy,  lamps, 
chandeliers,  clocks,  knicknacks 
and  furniture,  always  to  the 
exclusion  of  gold  and  silver. 
Gilt  wares  are  permissible. 

The  strict  yahdii  sliould 
prepare  his  shelter  for  himself, 
in  an  unfrequented  place.  But 
by  the  dispensation  already 
referred  to,  he  may  avail 
himself  of  a  solitary  dwelling  proffered  for  his  use,  anil  this  is  invariabh-  the 
case.  Not  merely  are  these  schools  numerous,  but  they  are  the  most  spacious, 
substantial,  and  ornate  edifices  in  the  land.  Many  of  them  are  of  palatial  size 
and  appointments.  The  Burman  finds  nothing  too  good  or  too  beautiful  for 
those  who  subject  themselves  to  the  restraint  of  the  recluse.  The  recluse 
on  his  part  is  conventionally  oblivious  of  the  magnificence  that  surrounds  him. 
It  is  not  for  him  to  deprecate.  The  religious  merit  of  the  work,  which  furnishes 
the  motive  of  the  founder,  is  proportioned  to  the  outlay  u[jon  it.  l'"rom  the 
bamboo  kyaniig  in  the  forest  costing  a  hunth'ed  rupees  or  less,  individuals  spend 
up  to  lunidreiis  of  thousands  on  the  palatial  monasteries  of  the  towns  (cf.  p.  75). 

When  the  incumljcnt  of  a  monastery  removes  or  dies,  tlic  senior  sojourner 
(iipazin)  may  receive  his  place  as  pondyi.  Otherwise  an  iipaziii  is  invitcil  from 
elsewhere,  or  the  poudyi  of  another  kymiug  is  prevailed  upon  to  move.  The 
upasii!  who  lias  become  pondyi  defers  to  his  preceptor  as  before.  Every 
monastery  has  a  titular 
Pali  appellation,  such 
as  Tliila-ekkaya  kyamig, 
Lctter-(}f-the-La\\  mon- 
astery. 

There  is  no  hier- 
archy in  the  AssembI)- 
of  yalidii.  But  it  com- 
monly ha|)pens  that  a 
number  of  monasteries 
recognise  a  venerable 
teacher  as  referee  upon 
matters    of   scholarship 


S2.     PALACE    KYAUNG. 


53.      SADAW    IN    HIS    STUDY- 


Vfo  face  p.  24. 


liunniiisr  ixsi  1 1 1  ■  i  ions 


25 


aiul  doctriiu'.  Siicli  a  L^roup  is  tailed  li'iiiii,^',  anil  its  president  gaiiig-uk,  his 
deputy  gaiiig-daiik.  In  the  same  way  a  <4"n)up  lecoynisc  a  Saddtv — Sayd-daw, 
or  chief  teacher.      The   whole   body  attain   defer  to   a  chief  Saddiv,   usually  the 


64,      YAHAN     INSTALLED    AS    PONDYI. 


yahd)i  who  has  been  religious  instructor  to  the   King  during  his  novitiate,  and 
who  is  called  Thatlianabdiug. 

In  reaction  against  the  comfort  with  which  the  lait\-  endow  the  monasteries, 
the  yalidii  [periodically  repair  to  country  retreats  for  ten  or  twenty  days  at  a 
time,  either  singly  or  in  camps  of  many,  for  the  sake  of  cultivating  primitive 
use.  Here  each  yalidii  has  a  dwelling  of  the  narrowest  compass  and  makes 
shift  with  the  mere  chattels  ordained  in  the  canon.  But  the  laity,  ever  ready 
to  minister  to  the  yahdn,  convert  these  camps   into  centres  of  festivity  for  the 


26 


BURMA 


56.      YAHAN     PASSING    THE    STREETS. 


whole  countr\'-side.  The 
camp  is  laid  out  in  the  rice- 
fields  after  harvest,  in  the 
form  of  a  square,  with  a 
pavilion  in  the  middle  for 
the  ya/iciii  to  meet  and 
jiractise  confession  {dba-pyc). 
There  are  a  few  ya/idii  who 
do  not  settle  in  a  kyninig,  but 
wander  from  place  to  place, 
in  the  primitive  way,  the 
people  providing  them  with 
temporary  shelter. 

T\\cya/idii  make  journeys 
to  the  seats  of  learning  and  the  kyanngs  of  their  former  teachers,  and  make 
pilgrimages  to  shrines.  A  few  travel  as  far  as  Ce\'lon  and  Buddha  Gaya  in 
Bahar.  On  such  journeys  the  yalidn  is  accompanied  by  a  scholar  or  attendant 
deputed  by  the  kyaiiiigtagd  to  carrj-  provisions  and  money,  which  the  yn/idii 
may  not  handle.  When  not  collecting  their  snii,  the  ra/idii  go  abroad  with 
attendants  and  carry  umbrellas,  or  suffer  such  to  be  carried  over  them,  and 
wear  sandals.  The  yahdn  allow  themselves 
to  be  driven  in  ox  and  buffalo  carts  ;  but  do 
not  drive  or  mount  an  animal  or  avail  them- 
selves of  horse-draught.  The}-  travel  by  boat, 
steamer,  and  rail.  Aged  yahdn  are  carried  on 
a  litter  {yin,  laazu). 

The  kyaung,  primaril}-  a  shelter  fur  the 
yahdn,  has,  in  virtue  of  his  occupation,  come  to 
be  a  school.  It  is  at  first  established  on  the 
outskirts  of  a  settlement  or  at  some  distance 
away  from  it.  Secular  buildings  are  not 
erected  within  the  shadow  of  a  religious 
building.  liul  the  growth  of  towns  brings 
the  houses  up  to  the  precincts  (paraicihi)  of 
the  kyaung,  which  stands  within  a  liberal  en- 
closure, planteil  with  fruit-trees.  The  kyaung 
as  such  has  no  particular  style.  The  super- 
]iosed  roofs  and  decorated  spires  (pyatthat)  of 
the  votive  kyaung  are  emblems  of  secular 
state,  added  to  confer  distinction.  q^,   ^^^han  on  ms  journey 


/:CCL/:S/,1S77(\J/.    /!(  V/./VAY/.V 


27 


58.      AGED    YAHAN    CARRIED    ON    YIN. 


The  majority  of  the 
/n'aiu/i^s  anil  buildings  of 
I?unna  are  constructed  on 
piles.  The  country  at  large 
is  iiKiuiitainous.  Tlie  Hurman 
race  monoi)olises  the  flat 
lands  in  the  basin  of  the 
upper  Irawaili  —  "  the  nar- 
rows" (j-hiyd) — in  the  same 
way  as  the  Shan  races  do  in 
the  sphere  of  theii'  influence 
and  the  Mun  (or  Tal.iing) 
race  in  the  south  (Pegu). 
The  quasi-aboriginal  races  occupy  the  hill-land  and  mountains.  The  plains- 
dweller  .settles  as  near  as  he  can  to  the  natural  waterways  with  which  Burma  is 
abundantly  provided.  In  the  drought  the  rivers  recede  to  great  distances  from 
their  flood-level  margins.  In  order  to  be  close  to  the  channels,  the  houses  have 
to  be  on  high  piles.  The  races  of  Burma  adhere  to  their  practice  of  pile- 
building  even  on  elevated  sites,  such  as  those  of  the  temples.  The  Burman 
wood  architecture  appears  to  have  developed  through  the  exigencies  of  pile- 
building  and  under  the  influence,  as  regards  decoration,  of  an  e.xotic  masonr\^ 
style.  The  Burman  style  possesses  a  naive  charm  recalling  the  art  of  the  "  ages 
of  faith "  in  Western  Europe.  It  has  a  certain  resemblance  to  the  wooden 
church-building  of  Norway.  The  style  was  in  full  vigour  up  to  the  middle  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  Since  that  time  novelties  of  type  and  manufacture  have 
crowded  in  faster  than  they  could  be  assimilated  into  the  indigenous  arts,  on 
which  they  are  foisted 
crudely  (Nos.  60,  99). 

The  affinities  of 
Burman  art  above  re- 
ferred to,  to  the  art  of 
mediaeval  Europe,  are 
extrinsic  only.  The 
"  aspiring  "  character  of 
the  florid  ornament,  the 
quaint  figures  in  their 
labyrinths  of  tracery, 
recall  the  crocketed 
niches  and  fantastic 
gargoyles         of        the 


59       TEMPLE    HILL. 


28 


BURMA 


60.      DECADENT    KYAUNG. 


Gothic,  especially  in  the  richness  of  the 
oisembic.  But  the  Burman  decoration  does 
not  strike  the  eye  as  an  efflorescence  of  the 
structure  so  much  as  an  overlaying  of  it. 
The  grandest  work  produces  the  effect  of 
an  elaborate  model  rather  than  a  monu- 
mental achievement.  The  perspicuity  of 
the  play  of  forces  operating  in  the  structure, 
out  of  which  the  poetry  of  Gothic  archi- 
tecture flows,  has  a  parallel  in  the  Burman 
boat-building.  But  the  effort  which  the  land 
architecture  incorporates,  to  interpret  a 
masonry  style  in  wood,  was  naturally  pro- 
ductive of  incongruities,  despite  the  fact 
that  the  masonry  was  itself  an  interpreta- 
tion of  still  earlier  wood  building.  The 
outward  incongruities  haxe  been  mitigated 
in  the  unique  st\-le  in  which  the  genius  of 
Burma    has    found    expression.       The    stiff 

and    monotonous  feather-ornament  of  the   Hindu  gable  (No.  74)  has  developed 

into  the  Burman  flamboyant  decoration.     The    bold    finial   is  the  sole  element 

of  the  original   which    has  been   preserved   literall}-  (No.  62).       The  graduated 

ornament  oi  \.hc  pyatt/iat.  soaring  above  the 

verdure,    recalls    the    proportions    of  some 

budding  head-ofbloom — a  case  in  point  of 

the  theory  of   the  sources  of  architectural 

types,    in     the     insensible    .suggestions    of 

natural     objects,     expressed     li\'     llerberl 

SiJcncer.     {Essays,    vol.   ii.)     Through    the 

Burman  treatment  types  other  than  archi- 
tectural, which  Burma  has  borrowed,  ac- 
quire a  new  and  distinctive  interest. 

When     a    kyamii^,    or    an\-     work     of 

public   utilit}-,  has   been   undertaken  in-  liie 

])eoi)le  of   a  village    jointly,    it    is   kept    in 

good      re])air.        But    when     it     has     been 

carried  out    at    the  cust  uf  an   indi\-idual 

and    this    applies    to    most    of    the     public 

works — the  rei)airs  arc  left  to  the  founder 

anil    to    his    family,   who    have    frequently  ei.   ornamentation  of  kvaun^ 


^ 

^^B  gf^' '  — ' 

^'^t^ 

Rim^ 

\ 

wfm  mWM^ 

ECCf. F.SrAST/CAL    B(  11. /i/.VGS 


29 


62.      DAYIN    ORNA- 
MENT. 


cxliaustcd  tlicir  resources  in  tlie  huiklinf^  of  it.  In  the 
moist  region  the  effects  of  rain  and  vegetation  combine  to 
dilapidate  i)uil(lings  in  less  than  a  lifetime.  The  stone- 
grey  and  lichen-covered  wood  attains  the  distinction  of  age 
before  its  time.  In  llu-  dry  zone  of  Hurina  Proper  fires  are 
\  er\-  fret]uent.  Few  examples  of  wood  architecture  of  over 
a  century  old  exist  anywhere.  It  is  scarcely  possible  to 
trace  the  steps  by  which  the  present  style  developed  from 
the  Indian  models. 

As  distinguished  from  the  kyaiing,  tlwiii,  and  other 
wood  buildings,  the  Zedi,  which  are  such  a  prominent 
feature  of  Burma  and  Siam,  are  of  masonry.  In  Arakan 
they  are  of  hewn  stone ;  elsewhere  they  arc  of  brick- 
plastered  with  lime.  It  is  a  point  of  honour  with  the 
Buddhists  of  those  countries  to  crown  every  eminence  with 
a  ::cdi.  The  chief  zedi  of  a  place — Paya-dyi — is  on  the 
highest  ground  in  the  vicinity,  and  is  cared  for  by  the 
public.  The  subsidiary  zedi,  the  wut,  tazdung,  and  other 
accessories  which  cluster  around  the  Paya-dyi,  are  the  work 
of  private  individuals.  Old  and  new  are  huddled  in  chaotic 
profusion.  Many  erec- 
tions are  ruinous  and 
disregarded.  But  so 
long  as  a  vestige  of 
the  original  structure 
remains,  it  monopo- 
lises the  site.  The 
development  of  the 
conical  zedi  may  be 
traced,  step  by  step, 
from  the  ancient  tem- 
ple. Originally,  zedi 
are  shrines  for  relics 
of  the  Buddha  —  the 
Indian  S/npa.  top, 
dagaba,  dagoba,  of 
which  last  "  pagoda  " 
The  vast   majoi  itv    of 


IS    a  transposition. 

zedi    only    pretend    to     symbolize     actual 

shrines.     The  shrines  of  reputed  relics  are 


63.   DETAIL  OF  EAVES  AND  GABLE. 


.^.o 


BCRMA 


4 


*»•► 


»»:. 


1^'  -  ^'-^ 


ANCIENT    THEIN     AND     MODERN     PYATTHAT. 


visited  by  pilgrims  from  distances 
of  months'  journeys.  The  earliest 
relics  cherished  are  said  to  have 
been  the  pai-cikaya  of  Gawdama 
Buddha.  Symbols  of  the  sacred 
tlialh'it  are  placed  about  the  zcdi. 
Later,  the  remains  of  the  Buddha 
were  venerated.  Bones,  teeth, 
and  hairs  are  thus  enshrined. 
Those  reputed  relics  which  can 
be  exhibited,  such  as  the  teeth 
(I\hohaung  in  Arakan,  Anurad- 
hapura  in  Ceylon),  are  of  man}' 
times  the  human  proportions.  The 
legend  ascribes  colossal  stature  to 

the  Buddha.      He  did  not  tread  the  earth,  but  floated  above  it ;  his  alms-bowl 

did   not   rest  upon  his  hands,   but  remained   suspended    in    the  air  (cf.   p.   36). 

In   its  later  form,  the  zcdi  consists  of  a  jn-ramitlal  or  polygonal  base  {paiidt-chi), 

with  niches  {hlaiiig-gn)  for  images  of  the   Buddha.     This  part  is  the  rudiment 

of   the    original    four-square    temple.       It    is    represented    in    all    stages    of    its 

decrement  (Xos.  66,  97;.     Above    the    base  come  tapering    courses  {pvissagait), 

after  these  the  bell-shaped  body  {/,-au//g/a/a/g- 

/>(»/)  separated  by  three  mouldings  {/xTi>-:i<a///g) 

from  the  thabcit-lunauk  (inverted  alms-bowl). 

Then    follow    seven    heavy   bead-rolls    (paiiiig 

kuH-hiiil/oii)  surmounted  by  the  lotus  {kj<i-/(ii/, 

sa/dnng-lnui),    out    of    which    issues    the    bull) 

{iigcrpyd'i^'-bi'i,    pciit-hnc-daiing).      The   canopy 

(//,  umbrella.  No.  232)  is  a  metal  construction 

of  graduated  bands  one  above  the  other,  rich!)- 

embossed    antl    ornamented.       To    the    lower 

etiges  of   these  bands   small    bells  are    hung, 

which   have  vanes  to  their  clappers   to   make 

them  tinkle  in  the  wind.       The  //  ternn'nales  in 

.1  long  finial   bearing  a  vane  i/nigc-iininiiu!)  ami 

at  the  apex  a  silver  orb  studded  with   jewels 

{sciiiibii).     On  lesser  ,:rt//  a  glass  ball  (ir  bottle 

caps  the  finial.     The  //  is  always  gilt,  the  cone 

gcneralK'  whitewashed.     In  wealth}'  towns  the 

cone  of   the    Piiyi'idyl  is   gilt    from  crown   to 


^ftfl^H^^T^RT^^ff 

LIML^,  K.NL     I. Lie.  I, 


N      MIL     AlAKAN 


.1  NCI  EN  7  ■  REM  A I  A  \V 


31 


66.      BITAKA-TAIK,    THATON. 


plalfdiin  {la)ndiilliiiliu).  Unliku 
Uk'  ancient  temples  witli  their  stairs 
ami  corridors,  the  later  zcdi  is  a 
solid  mass  of  brick  and  earth, 
])lastered  over.  The  summit  is 
inaccessil)Ie,  except  by  means  of 
scafifoldintj  (iiyau.  No.  217).  Zedi 
arc  commonly  spoken  of  as  Payd, 
in  the  same  way  as  are  the  images 
of  the  Buddha,  for  which  the  dis- 
tinctive term  is  sindu. 

In  addition  to  the  sedi,  the 
thein,  and  kymiiig,  there  are  three 
other  classes  of  religious  edifices, 
the  tasdniiff,  loiit,  and  zaydt.  All  these  may  be  decorated  in  the  palatial  style 
and  are  mostly  of  wood.  But  a  public  well  or  a  roadside  water-stand,  the  portal 
of  a  bridge  or  a  wharf  may  likewise  be  surmounted  by  the  royal  pyatthat  in 
virtue  of  the  religious  distinction  which  attaches  to  every  work  dedicated  to 
public  use  by  private  bounty.  Nothing  adds  so  much  to  the  picturesqueness  of 
Burma.  The  temple  zaydt  (No.  98)  is  intended  for  sojourners  in  the  precincts  on 
duty  days.  The  iviit  differs  from  the  zaydt  in  having  a  dais  for  images  of  the 
Buddha.  The  tazdm/g  is  only  for  the 
reception  of  images. 

The  ancient  remains  arc  almost  en- 
tirely confined  to  the  dry  zone  of  Burma 
Proper,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  in 
That6n  and  in  Arakan.  Those  at  That6n, 
dating  from  about  looo  A.D.,  have  square 
bases  built  of  huge  laterite  blocks  in  the 
Indian  style.  The  ornament  is  deeply 
hewn  into  the  stone.  Above  the  laterite 
base  is  brick  and  plaster  work  of  later 
date.  Apart  from  the  destructive  influence 
of  the  climate,  and  of  the  rank  vegetation 
the  climate  favours,  a  further  reason  of 
the  scarcity  of  ancient  monuments  and 
inscriptions  is  the  over-building  of  the 
shrines,  by  which  the  original  work  is  lost  '   /, 

to  view.  ' ■  -"--^ "  ''*" 

Where    we     say    "countless     as     the  e?    shwe-hmawdaw  paya,  pegu. 


BC'RMA 


WUT    WITH     IMAGES    OF    THE    BUDDHA 


stars,"  the  Biirman  says 
"countless  as  tlic  tem- 
ples of  Pagan."  The 
remains  at  Pagan  are  all 
ecclesiastical  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  city  gates 
and  ramparts  (No.  6). 
The  temple  enclosures 
are  now  ploughed,  but 
no  building  is  cleared 
nor  is  an)-  of  the  old 
material  utilised.  The 
Pagan  monuments  are  of  brick  laid  in  cla}-  and  gcnerall)-  lime-plastered. 
Alany  have  been  wrecked  by  treasure-hunters.  A  few  of  the  principal  temples 
onl)-  are  kept  in  repair.  Pagan  is  said  to  have  been  exhausted  by  the  temple- 
building  of  its  kings,  who,  besides  e.xacting  labour  from  their  subjects,  must 
have  imported  skilled  labour.  An  old  saying  is  "the  temple  is  finished  and 
the  country  is  ruined."  The  temple  remains  occupy  an  area  of  several  thousand 
acres,  in  many  places  with  just  room  for  roads  between  the  walls  of  the  en- 
closures.    The  style  of  the  Pagan  buildings  is  Indian.     It  has  been  suggested 

that    the    Hindu    type    of    work    and    possibly      ^ 

Buddhism  itself  reached  Pagan  by  way  of 
Annam  :  the  Mun  or  Peguan  race,  from  whom 
the  Burmans  adopted  Buddhism,  having  a 
language  of  Annam  type.  The  great  ruins  at 
Angkor  Wat,  two  hundred  miles  east  of  Bankok. 
have  been  compared  to  the  ruins  of  Pag;in. 
(See  'rhroiii^Ii  the  Buffer  State,  by  Surgeon-Major 
McGregor,  1896.)  Such  a  route  as  this  would 
help  to  account  for  certain  features  of  Hurmau 
architecture  foreign  to  India,  the  superposed 
roofs,  and  everted  gable-ends.  The  hulian 
types  may  have  reached  Burma  b\-  this  circuit 
as  well  as  by  the  direct  route. 

The  ancient  temples  of  Pag.in  consist  of 
brick  corridors,  one  within  the  other,  with  vaulted 
pent  roofs  of  masonry  springing  from  the  outer 
or  lower  wall  to  the  inner  or  liigher.  The 
section  of  the  vault  is  like  that  of  a  Gothic  flying 
buttress.     In  the  centre  of  all  are  colossal  images  59.   thadya  paya  at  thaton 


A  NCI II  NT   RF.MAINS,    I' AG  AN 


33 


TERRACOTTA    FIGURES   AT    THADYA    PAYA 
THATON. 


(if  the  lUuklha,  set  against  the  ccjkimn 
which  supports  the  dome  or  Hindu  cone. 
The  later  domes  are  pure  vaults  without 
central  support.  In  these  ancient  tem- 
ples the  conical  zcdi  now  so  typical  of 
Burma  forms  the  finial  only,  held  like  a 
jewel,  by  four  cus|)s.  The  lowermost 
ixjrtion  of  this  structure  resembles  an 
inverted  thabcit,  the  name  of  the 
homologous  part  of  the  modern  zedi. 
Possibly  this  forms  the  actual  reliquary 
or  is  the  symbol  of  the  same. 

An  example  of  direct  imitation  of 
Indian  monuments  is  the  Baivdt  Payd. 
It  takes  its  name   from  the  Ro  tree   at 

Buddha  Gaya  in  Bahar,  and  is  a  florid  reproduction  of  the  stitpa  there.     It  was 

built  by  King  Zeyathinka  about  1220  A.D. 

The  temple   named   after  Ananda,   the  chief  disciple  of  the  Buddha,  was 

built    by    King    Kyansitthu    about    1080    A.D.      Both    the    temple  (No.   8)  and 

the    thein    and    kyauiig  adjoining  (Nos.    64,   74)   are  in  full  preservation.     The 

gigantic  lattice  gates  of  the  inner  temple  are  of  teak-wood  and  probably  coeval 

with  the  masonr}'. 

The    most    imposing    of    the    ancient 

monuments  and  the  one  which   marks  the 

best  period  of  the    Pagan    architecture    is 

Thappyinnyu  Paya,  built  by  King  Alaung 

Sitthu,    about    iioo    A.D.    (No.    "Jl).       Its 

height  is  two  hundred  feet  or  more. 

In    the    mural    decorations    at   Pagan 

the  Indian  character  is  as  marked  as  in  the 

buildings  themselves.     India  has  evidently 

furnished  the  subjects  of  the  Burman  de- 
signer and  trained  his  style  (Nos.  272,  94). 
The    Burman  bricklayers  had  at  one 

time    lost    the    art    of   arch-building.       A 

pointed  arch  like  the  Gothic  is  used  in  the 

temples  of  ancient  Pagan  (Nos.  75,  76). 

The    images    of  the    Buddha   {siiidii) 

are  the  principal  features  of  the  interior  of 

the  ancient  temples,  the  true  character  of 
F 


I 

^ 

At 

A 

m 

■^^^^^^BPrr7r7[nb||ft^^^^^^^H 

y  iHiipp 

Wip3(   ^     f^»    ."^^B^^B 

l-S^-..  '. 

■■#y^^W 

kn.:-  . 

.Jb^iaiij^yaii 

72.      BAWDI    PAYA.    PAGAN. 


34  BURMA 

wiiich  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  zcdi.     The  images  are  of  sandstone  in  Araki'in, 
where,  moreover,  the   Hindu  caste-mark  between  the  brows  itikd)  is  not  omitted 


73-     THAPPYINNYU    PAYA.    PAGAN 


as  it  common!)-  is  in  Burma.  In  Burma  Proper  and  Pegu  good  stone  is  scarce, 
and  the  large  immo\'able  images  are  built  of  brick  and  plaster  and  finished  in 
fine  white  lime.  Movable  images,  up  to  several  tons  weight,  are  hewn  in  the 
marble  of  Sagaing,  the  freestone  of  Taung-u  (opposite  Pagan),  and  are  cast  in 
brass.      Lighter    images  are  made    of  wood   or  of   lacquer    {iiiaii-Pajd).      The 


74,   KYAUNG  AT  ANANDA  PAYA. 


postures    arc    the    cross-legged,   seated   in  ccinlcnipl.itinn   {/iiilivhioii'i-),  the  erect 
posture    (inayyattaw),    ]ire.nliiiig    or    ierci\iiig    alms,    and    the  reclining  posture 


IMAGES,  sciarriRES 


35 


(/jtr?ii!>^-da'a').  In  the  sittint^  fij^iirc  the 
garl)  is  ('itlici'  the  array  <if  the  |)rince  before 
he  became  the  Buddha  or  his  subsequent 
garb  of  recluse.  In  the  standin<(  and 
recliniiit;  images  the  garb  is  ahvaj-s  that 
of  the  recluse.  The  mound  on  the  head 
represents  the  residue  of  hair,  as  cut  off 
with  his  sword  by  the  prince  when  he  fled 
from  the  palace.  According  to  the  legend 
the  hair  grew  no  more.  The  pose  of  the 
conventional  figure  is  the  Indian  one  with 
its  rigid  symmetry.  The  fingers  and  toes 
are  parallel  and  of  equal  length.  The 
lobe  of  the  ear  reaches  to  the  shoulder. 
Of  late,  under  the  stimulus  of  western  art- 
products,  the  figure  is  beginning  to  be 
75    1,   .  Li     I   I    _••-  realistically     treated,     especially     in     the 

drapery,  which  is  now  modelled  into 
natural  folds  in  relief,  instead  of  being  conventionally  mapped  on  the  flat. 
Builders  vie  with  each  other  in  the  size  they  give  the  figure.  The  recumbent 
images  attain  a  length  of  fifty  cubits.  The  image  is  set  on  a  throne  [balhi) 
which  is  a  conventionalised  lotus  in  form,  and  is  surmounted  by  floral  tracery 
which  symbolizes  the  sacred  Bo  tree.  Images  of  the  Buddha  are  reverently 
handled  and  are  spoken  of  in  honorific  terms — tlie  sacred couittciiancc,  the  venerable 
form.  There  may  be  no  bargaining  about  the  purchase  ipuzaiv)  from  the  maker. 
The  images  are  only  placed  in  the  temples  or  on  the  image-dais  of  the  kyautig 


76        MODERN     FALSE     ARCH,     AMAYAPOYA 


BURMA 


IMAGE    OF    THE    BUDDHA    ENCIHOLED    BY 
FICUS. 


(ot-dcitlid),  where,  after  dedication,  they 
cease  to  be  private  propert}-.  The  sole 
\irtiie  of  these  symbols  lies  in  the  pious 
intention  with  which  they  are  dedicated. 
The  figure  of  the  disciple  Ananda  is 
frequently  placed  in  the  houses  or  taken 
on  journe\-s  (No.  316). 

Besides  the  reputed  relics  of  the 
Buddha,  the  miraculous  foot-prints  which 
legend  assigns  to  him  on  rocks  in  Burma 
and  Arakan  are  venerated  {Chidaiv-yd). 
Every  Burman  knows  that  Gawdama 
never  travelled  out  of  Bahar  and  was  in  all 
respects  as  other  men  ;  the  licence  of  the 
legend  is  a  poetic  one.  Models  of  these 
foot-prints  are  placed  in  the  temple 
precincts.  Here  conventionalit\-  reaches 
the  extreme  ;  the  sole  is  laid  out  with 
rule     and      compass      and      the     surface 

mapped  into  diagrams  of  cabalistic  import  (No.  450). 

The   Buddhist  scriptures  should  be  deposited   in  masonry  temples  {Bitcrka- 

taik.  No.  66).       These  exist  in  a  few  places, 

but  in  general  the  scriptures  are  kept  in  special 

chests    {saddik)    in    the    kyaiings   (No.    453). 

The    Shan-Tar6k    (p.    146)    place   saddik   in 

their    houses,  and   take  pride  in  the  volume 

of    manuscripts    these    contain.       The    com- 
plete   Pali  text,  together   with    the    patristic 

commentaries  and  glosses,   written  on  palm- 
leaf   would    occupy   a   space    of  perhaps  one 

luinrlred   cubic    feet.      The  text  alone    would 

cover     about    one     thousantl    five     hundred 

(juarto    pages    of    pica    tj-pe.      Onl)-    a     few 

kyanngs     possess     the    com[)!ete     Tripitaka. 

Besides  the  scriptures,  other  ancient  writings 

are    treasured,    such    as    the    kyan::a  of  cos- 
mogony (see  Sangermano),  the  Zdt  literature 

■ — the    legcndar)'    lives    of    the     Buddh.i     in 

previous  states  of  existence,  embellished  with 

romance  of  recent  date.  7b.    image  of  the  buddha  on  balin. 


TEMPLE  ACCESSORIES 


i7 


79       TAGUNDAING 
WITH     KEINNAYA. 


(    . 

T 


The  tall  flag-staff  (taguiidaiiig)  is  the  most  striking;  (jf  the  temple- 
accessories.  It  consists  (jf  a  decorated  spar,  sixty  to  eighty  feet  hiijh,  from 
which    floats   a   long    streamer.       The    head    of  the    [jole  is  ornamented   with   a| 

mythical   animal,  generally  the  h'uitha 

{/iau.::a,  a  fantastic   figure  of  the  Rrah- 

many    duck)  or    else   the  kcinuaya,  a 

monster  with  the  body  of  a  woman  in 

princely  array  and  the  wings  and  legs 

of   a   bird.       The   butt  of  the  tagi'ni- 

*  S'  daing,    instead    of    being    planted   in 

"^j/  the  ground,  is  frequently  set  between 

piles    which    are    carved    into    figures 

of    the     mythical     thadyA     fp.     i86, 

No.    7).       The    pole    is    held     up    by 

transverse  bars  passing  through  it  and 

the  piles. 

Colossal  lions    (cliintlie.    No.    56) 

of    the     Burmese    conventional    type 

guard   the   temple   approaches — mon- 
sters  differing  as  much  in  their  way 

from   the  prototype  as  the  lions  of  our 

own  heraldry. 

Stands    shaped    like    a    balhi    or 

throne,  on  which   flowers  and  fruit  are 

oftered,    are    placed    on     the    temple 

platforms. 

'  Great    bells    are    hung    at    every 

shrine   (No.    97).      The    votary   takes 

the  deer-antler  ofif  the  bar  and  strikes 

first  the   ground    and    then    the    bell. 

This  is  to  call  to  witness  beings  both 

under  the  earth   and  above  the  earth 

and   make   them   participators   in    the 

merit  of  the    act    of    worship.       The 

Burman  bell  has  noble  proportions 
and  is  hung  by  metal  clasps  of  rich  design,  figuring  the  mythical  dragon 
{nagd.  No.  47).  "  The  tone  of  the  bells  is  not  rich,  owing  partly  to  the  form, 
partly  to  flaws  in  casting.  The  greatest  bell  in  Burma  is  that  cast  by  the 
Emperor  Bodaw  Paya,  on  the  European  model,  in  1790,  for  the  temple  he 
began   at   Mingun.      It    is    said    to  weigh    eighty-eight    tons.       A    historic    bell 


80       TAGUNDAING     WITH 
HINTHA 


BURMA 


* 

■"'.w 

i/' 
( 

^     JL. 

' ' '  ^'- 1  '^ff''^SS^/' 

d 

i 

^^'^'^mnLv 

ii 

', » - 

W      \ 

^           t  a 

m 

^ 

"'Tfililfll 

81.      SYMBOL    OF    MYIMMO- DAUNG. 


of  the  lUirman  type  is  the  one  cast  for 
the  Sh\ve-Dag6n  Paj-a  b)-  the  Emperor 
Sinbyu  Shin  in  1775.  which  weighs  forty- 
one  tons. 

According  to  the  Burman  cosmogony 
the  world  consists  of  four  great  islands, 
North,  South,  East  and  West,  surrounded 
by  the  ocean.  Burma  and  the  known 
countries  are  situated  in  the  south  island. 
In  the  centre  of  all  rises  Mount  RIeru 
i ]\Iyinnno-daung).  This  centre  of  the 
universe  is  symbolized  b}-  a  conventional 
tower  provided  with  niches  or  caverns  for 
m}-thical  inhabitants  of  every  sort,  Nat, 
Zaicdyi  (sorcerers),  Bihc  (ogres),  monsters 
half  human  and  half  brute,  and  dragons 
(No.  392).  The  symbol  o{ Myinimo-daiuig, 
made  of  bamboo,  with  paper  and  tinsel,  is 
In  substantial  masonry  it  is  a  frequent  adjunct 


a  feature  of  various  festivals 
of  the  temples. 

The  Bo  tree  (Bau'di-biii),  together  with  the  rest  of  ihe  fens  family,  is  sacred 
to  the  Hindu.  The  Bo  is  a  variety  of  the 
pipal  {Jictis  rc/igiosa),  a  deciduous  ficiis  with 
long  copper-coloured  acumina  to  the  leaves. 
It  is  sacred  to  the  Buddhists  because  it  was 
while  resting  under  the  shade  of  a  Bo  tree  at 
Gaya  in  Bah;ir,  600  years  before  Christ,  that 
(iawdama  realised  the  vanity  of  the  ceremonial 
and  ascetic  systems,  resisted  temptation,  and 
attained  to  supreme  enlightenment,  which,  as 
Buddha,  it  became  his  mission  to  impart  to 
mankind.  "  The  Bo  tree  is  to  Budtlhists  what 
the  Cross  is  to  Christians  "  (Bigandct).  The 
original  Malid-bodi  was  piously  teiuletl  while 
Buddhism  flourished  in  India,  and  trees 
propagated  from  it  were  planted  by  Buddhist 
pilgrims.  Such  a  tree  is  the  historical  Bo 
tree  at  Anuradhapiira  in  Ceylon,  planted  in 
245  K.c.  and  still  flourishing.  Young  jslants 
cultivated  from  this  tree  are  brought  home  to  „^    bawdi  tree 


INFI'-RfOR    RlifJGIOUS   ORD/tRS 


39 


lUirma  by  pilj^rims.  Drit.-d  and  gilt  leaves  arc 
also  brought  as  relics.  The  seeds  of  the  tropical 
fin/s  sjjccies  germinate  in  the  fork  of  some  other 
ircc  (ir  in  a  crann_\-  of  masonry  and  flourish  in 
such  mould  as  they  find.  The  roots  develop 
thick  bands  whicii  tlislodgc  the  masonry,  but, 
interlacing  in  all  directions,  liokl  the  loose 
material  together  wliilc  the  tree  lives  ;  or  else, 
when  the  host  is  another  tree,  strangle  it  and 
take  its  place  (Nos.  ■/■j,  245,  321). 

The  yahdii  are  not  the  only  religious  celi- 
bates of  Burma.  Several  other  classes  follow 
this  way  of  life,  observing  many  or  few  rules, 
according  to  their  own  choice.  Nearest  to  the 
yahdn  are  the  yatlu:  They  depend  chiefly  on 
alms,  but  cultivate  gardens  for  themselves. 
Their  appeal  for  alms  is  mute,  they  accept  them 
in  money  as  well  as  in  kind,  and  they  lay  up 
a  store  for  actual  needs.  They  take  food  in  the 
L,_    LMjiLiiA  ,ATHE,  forenoou  only.     The  j';?//;!/,  who  are  few  in  num- 

ber,  live  in   forest  caves  or  in   derelict  shrines, 

and  shift  for    themselves,  singly  or    in    small    colonies.       The    majority    study, 

though    they    do    not    teach  ;    some    are 

illiterate.       They   receive    a    certain    de- 
ference   from    the    laity,  and  themselves 

defer  to  the  yahdn.     The  yath^  are  the 

subject  of  harmless  satire  and  burlesque  in 

the  plays  ;   the  yahdn   never.     The  robe 

is  like  that  of  the  yahdn,  but  dyed  tan 

instead  of  yellow.      Yatlu'  mostly  shave 

the  head,  but   there  is  a  class  who  wear 

the   hair   long.      Certain    of  them   use   a 

headgear  called  dantcha,  which  forms  a 

receptacle  for  an  image  of  the   Buddha. 

Some    are    addicted    to    mild    forms     of 

occultism  such  as   alchemy   (p.  in)  and 

devising  cabalistic  diagrams   for  charms 

and   tattoo-marks.      These  practices   are 

under  the    ban   of   Buddhism.       Preten- 
sions   to    occult    powers,    such    as    have  84.   cave-shrine  near  maulmain. 


40 


BURMA 


85.      POTHUDAW. 


been  brought  into  a  pseudo-connection 
with  Buddhism  by  certain  western 
neophytes  of  tlie  Tibetan  cult,  are  un- 
heard of  in  Burma,  which  is  the  strong- 
hold of  primiti\-e  tradition. 

Pot/indaic  observe  fewer  thila  than 
yathc.  They  make  their  appeal  with  a 
gong  of  triangular  shape  {kyizi,  Nos, 
22,  86),  which  spins  on  the  string  it 
hangs  by,  and  emits  a  high  and  sus- 
tained throbbing  note.  PSt/iiidaw  eat 
in  the  forenoon  onl}-.  They  accept 
alms  in  money  and  in  kiiul,  for  which 
they  carry  baskets  with  a  shoulder- 
)'oke.  The)-  wear  a  white  robe,  shave 
the  head,  and  pluck  out  the  beard. 
Pot/iiida-iC  shift  for  themselves  in  stijii/s 
about  the  temples  and  seldom  remain 
long  in  one  place. 

Mtthild  are  female  celibates  who 
observe  a  rule  parallel  to  that  of  the  PothudiXiK}.  They  shave  the  head.  Their 
robe  is  like  that  of  the  other  celibates  with  the  addition  of  a  jacket.  The  cloth 
is  dyed  a  faint  red.  Both  they  and  the  pothudaw  are  generally  individuals  who 
have  lost  their  family  ties.  In  some  places  Ijainigs  are  jirovided  for  iiut/iilti, 
where  they  keep  schools  for  girls.  A  few  are  possessed  of  learning.  Mithild 
are  about  as  numerous  as  potluidan',  and  both  together  are  about  one-tenth 
to  one-twentieth  as  numerous  as  ya/idii,  and  several  times  more  so  than 
yaM.  There  is  no  class  of 
female  recluses  answering 
to  yahdii. 

Payadyihi  form  colonies 
in  the  vicinities  of  the  prin- 
cijjal  shrines  and  of  the 
cemeteries  of  large  towns. 
They  are  the  descendants 
of  tcm])le  slaves,  the  con- 
dition to  which  captives  in 
war  were  reduced  both  by 
the  Burman  and  the  Tailing 
races  iluring  their  incessant  ,■  i.    mlthila  ai  wdushu' 


PAYADYUN 


41 


88.      METHILA    ON    THE    ROUND    FOR    SUN. 


Apart  from  this  and  the  serfdom 
referred  to  at  \i.  32,  slavery  has  only  played 
a  subordinate  role  in  Burma  within  historic 
times.  The  payadyihi.  and  they  alone,  arc 
treated  as  outcasts  b}-  both  of  these  [jopula- 
tions.  They  beg  for  alms  and  also  appro- 
priate the  offerings  brought  to  the  shrines  in 
profusion  at  festivals.  Their  right  to  beg  is 
admitted,  although  they  frequently  accumu- 
late money  and  build  fine  houses. 

Lepers  {anfi)  in  many  cases  quit  their 
families  of  their  own  accord  and  settle  in  the 
payadyihi  colony.  In  some  places  they  were 
compelled  to  do  so.  The  settlements  have 
tluis  acquired  the  semblance  of  leper  colonies. 
There  are  a  few  countiy  villages  of  this 
character.  Indigent  lepers  beg  for  alms.  In 
1 89 1  there  were  6,000  lepers  in   Burma,  the 

highest  ratio  in  the  Indian   Empire.     There  are  now  four  leper  asylums.     Casual 

mendicancy  is  almost  unknown  in  Burma. 

The  Burman  and   Brahman  soothsayers  (p.   158)  are  regular  frequenters  of 

the    shrines.       The    Burman    astrologer    {bedi'ii-saya)    casts    horoscopes    on    the 

Brahman  model  (No.  279)  and  designates 

the  days  auspicious  for  undertakings.      He 

takes  his  name  from  proficiency  in  reckon- 
ing, and  is  consulted  about  business  calcu- 
lations that  cannot  be  done  mentally. 

The     Buddhist     duty-days     {ubot-nc, 

thadiii)  follow  the  quarters   of  the  moon. 

They  are  kept  regularly  during  lent.     On 

these   days   the  pious  laity  of  both  sexes 

and    sedate    years    observe    the    rule    of 

pot/ntdaio    and    mct/iila    from    sunrise    to 

sunrise    {ubot-saniig).     They    adopt    sober 

attire,  or  else  white  cotton  clothing,  which 

is  considered  the  plainest  of  any.     In  the 

forenoon  men  and  women  separately  repair 

to  the  temple  rest-houses,  whither  food  for 

the  morning  meal,  which  has  been  collected 

the  previous  evening  from  religious  donors  89.   soothsayer. 


42 


BURMA 


(Paj'd  sini-kau).  or  pri- 
vately prepared,  is  con- 
veyed. The  day  is  de- 
voted to  contemplation, 
and  the  night  is  passed 
at  the  zaydt.  Those  who 
keep  the  duty-day  present 
offerings  at  the  zedi  and 
the  adjoining  kyaiing.  At 
either  of  these  places  a 
va/idii  is  invited  to  re- 
hearse the  precepts,  which 
the  lait}'  chant  verse  by 
verse  after  his  lead  {th/la-kaii).  Passages  from  other  scriptures  are  added,  with 
their  interpretations.  This  is  called  Taya-haw — the  preaching  of  the  Law.  The 
great  Alun  King,  Yazadiyit  of  Pegu,  in  the  year  1400  A.D.,  is  reported  to  have 
been  so  impressed  by  the  preaching  of  a  yahdii  that  he  abandoned  a  campaign 
on  which  he  had  embarked.  More  than  once  in  Burman  history  the  peaceful 
contest  of  building  rival  temples  has  been  substituted  for  battle  by  opposing 
armies. 

The  Buddha  has  passed  out  of  existence.  While  existent,  all  that  the 
Buddha  could  accomplish  for  aiiv  being  was  the  human  service  of  showing  him 
the  way  to  work  out  deliverance  by  individual  eftbrt.  Self-reliance  is  the 
cardinal  principle.  There  is  none  to  hear  prayer.  The  true  significance  of  the 
popular  worshi[)  is  not  apprehended  unless  this  be  borne  in  mind.  No  \irtuc 
can  suri)ass  that  of  the  Inestim- 
able Master  {Myassiva  Paya) 
who  fulfilled  the  Law  and 
be<iucathed  it  to  men.  To 
cultivate  the  memory  of  his 
tran.scendent  merit  is  itself 
meritorious  in  the  first  degree. 
Such  is  the  i)ersonal  side  of  the 
cult,  to  which  the  effigies  of  the 
founder  appeal.  Before  the 
images  of  the  l^uddha  are  \tcx- 
fcjrmed  the  gestures  of  homage, 
and  are  placed  offerings  .sym- 
bolical of  veneration  —  tapers 
lighted    at    the    shrine,    flowers 


91.     YAHAN    RECITING    THE    PRECEPTS    (TAYAHAW). 


s 

e; 


PRINCIPLES  OF  BrnDHlSM 


43 


93.      FAMILY     OF     A     BURMAN     NOTABLE 
AT    THE    SHRINE. 


and  fruit,  s^(jkl-lctif  laid  on  the  image  and  its 
throne.  No  southern  —  that  i.s,  primitive 
Buddhist  (see  Rhys  Davids,  Buddhism) — ■ 
lodges  petitions  with  an  image,  as  is  the 
practice  in  countries  where  Buddhism  is 
choked  by  fresh  growth  of  the  pagan  ideas 
which  it  had  arisen  against.  The  Tibetan 
expedients  are  unheard  of.  Certain  Buddhists 
in  Burma,  called  Paraindt,  dispense  with 
images.  The  mechanical  aid  to  contempla- 
tion is  the  string  of  one  hundred  and  eight 
beads  {badi).  Even  the  13uddhism  of  the 
common  herd  is  no  mere  veneer,  covering  a 
substratum  of  the  ancient  animism  (p.  i86). 
The  precepts  of  Buddhism  are  household 
words.  The  ideas  and  language  of  the  race 
are  pervaded  by  it.  The  personal  aspect  just 
described  does  not  so  engross  the  votary  that 
he  misses  the  doctrine  of  the  Master.  At  the 
shrine  the  worshipper  dwells  on  the  three 
Buddha,  the  Law,  the  As.skmbly,  and  the 
The  BUDDIIA  (the  Sage)  was  the  supremely- 


gerns  (tharanagon  thoiidui) — the 
other  categories  of  the  scheme, 
enlightened  one,  filled  with  compassion  for  the  subjects  of  kanna,  who  extended 
to  the  universe  the  enlightenment  that  was  the  means  of  his  own  emancipation. 
The  Law  {Taya,  Tayanid,  Sanskr.  Dhaniia,  Pali  Daiinna). — By  an  impersonal 
cosmic  process,  sin  works  suffering  and  virtue  effects  deliverance.  Re-incarnation 
is  the  legacy  of  sin  and  continues  until  the  merit  {hithd),  accumulated  in  successive 
births  {bawd),  outweighs  the  demerit  {akntho).  Transmigration  does  not  involve 
transference    of    personality    with    consciousness    of    preceding   states,    but    the 


94.     MODERN    RELIGIOUS    SUBJECT 


44 


BURMA 


FAMILY    OF    A    BURMAN    NOTABLE    LEAVING   THE 
SHRINE. 


continuity  of  an  individual 
moral  account  (Kati,  Pali 
Kamiiia,  Sanskr.  Kaniia)  ; 
although  the  Buddha  enlight- 
ened his  disciples  about  the 
pre\-ious  identities  of  himself, 
of  many  other  individuals  and 
even  lower  creatures.  Re- 
incarnation provides  the  scope 
for  atoning  the  injustices  of 
individual  lives,  without  de- 
barring the  salvation  of  any. 
The  slowness  of  the  process 
b}-  which  vast  results  are 
achieved  conforms  to  the 
analog)-  of  nature,  which  does  not  create,  but  evolves.  The  doctrine  of  kau  is, 
in  fact,  an  adiunbration  of  the  principle  of  persistence  of  force.  But  instead  of 
regarding  the  results  of  actions  in  a  given  phase  of  existence  as  being  separately 
dissipated,  as  modern  science  would  imply,  they  are  thought  of  as  combined 
to  form  the  starting-points  of  fresh  phases  of  individual  existence,  until  final 
equilibrium  is  attained  {Nirvdnd).  As  a  flame  results  from  the  concurrence 
of  given  antecedent  conditions,  continues  to  burn  while  they  are  maintained, 
and  is  extinguished  upon  their  dispersion,  yet  not  without  bequeathing  results 
of  its  own,  so  it  is  with  sentiency,  which  continually  becomes  the  source  of 
fresh  desires,  of  temptation,  sin,  ami  consequent  suiTering.  For  the  avoidance 
of  sin,  the  five  cardinal  precepts 
arc  given,  and  precept  within 
precept  up  to  the  minute  rule  of 
life  of  the  yahdii.  At  the  root 
of  all  evil  lies  Ta-hiid  (Sanskr. 
trisktia,  thirst,  concupiscence). 
From  this  fundamental  evil 
proceed  the  forms  Lai^-'ba, 
Daivtha,  Maioha  (greed,  pas- 
sion, ignorance),  in  the  abstract, 
absence  of  contentment,  absence 
of  self-control,  absence  of  en- 
lightenment.    With  the  extinc- 

.  ,•  1,-    1         1        •  •    ^  98.     THADYA     PRINCE     AND     PRINCESS     DOING 

tion   of  selfish  desire,  vn-tuous  ^^^  ^^^^^^  ,^  ^  previous  incarnation- 

conducl     ensues,     others     arc  (shwezawa  work  p.  i2i). 


HOMAGE      TO 
-WETHANDAYA 


s 


PRfNC/PLHS   OF  IUrj)nnrsM 


45 


regarded   as    oneself,  they   arc   loveil   and   are  succoured,   and    by   such  actions 
the  conseciucnccs  of  sin   are  atoned  for.     As  im[)crfcctions  are  corrected  by  self- 


08.      TEMPLE     ZAYAT. 


discipline,  crimes  are  expiated  by  the  pains  of  hell  (ngaye).  For  the  perception 
of  the  great  aim,  that  is,  extirpation  of  desire  and  all  that  desire  entails,  there  are 
given  the  principles  Aneissa,  Dokka,  Andtta  (change,  trouble,  dependence),  which 


DECADENT    KYAUNG 


the  pious  ponder  as  they  tell  their  beads,  and  which  may  be  paraphrased  as  the 
impennanence  of  all  things,  the  struggle  which  the  "  unpitying  rush  of  changes  " 
involves    and    the    Jielplessness   of  the   event,  which   is  "  at   the  mercy  of   blind 


46 


BURMA 


forces."  Tlic  only  certain  good  within  the  control  of  man  is  the  conduct  of 
his  own  acts.  The  final  annihilation  of  desire,  attained  in  the  course 
of  lives  upon  lives  of  self-discipline,  ushers  in  the  serene  state  of  Nirvana 
{Neippan,  Pali  lYiMd//).  in  which  the  subject  of  karma  is  no  longer  chained 
to  forms  of  existence  by  any  debt  of  sin.  At  death  is  then  attained  the  perfect 
condition  Pari-nirvana,  of  which  A7;-tw««  was  the  apprehension  in  life  (Exposition 
of  Sadaw  U  Wuziyama,  of  Thila-ekkaya  kyauiig).  The  spiritual  stages  to 
Nirvana  are  Ayahdt  and  Aydttapo.  But  it  is  not  claimed  for  the  holiest  living 
recluse,  much    less    bv  himself  that    one    of   these  stasres    has    been    attained. 


100.     CEREMONY    OF    YEZETCHA    p.  22). 


Devotion  to  the  ideal  is  the  utmost.  The  third  of  the  gems  is  the  A.SSK.MliLY, 
"the  spiritual  family  "  of  the  Buddha,  or  communion  of  those  who  adopt  to  the 
full  the  aids  towards  holj-  life  inculcated  by  him  and  who  perpetuate  his  doctrine 
and  e.xample.  Nevertheless,  life  in  the  world,  though  unfa\c)urable  to  attain- 
ment of  holiness,  in  nowise  debars  it. 

The  Law  of  Gawdama  Buddha  is  to  last  for  a  period  of  five  thousand  \'ears, 
one  half  of  which  has  elapsed.  It  is  then  to  be  superseded  by  the  law  of  a  new 
Buddha.  The  meta])hysics  of  Gawtlama  are  studied  b_\-  few  (see  RliN's  Daviils, 
Btiddliisiii.  and  Iluxle)',  Romanes  Lecture),  but  Ihanks  to  the  network  of  schools, 
with  which  Buddhism  has  overspread  Burma,  its  practical  features  are  within  the 
knowledge  of  all. 


ADOLESCENCE 


47 


Such  is  the  life  that  opens  to  every  liunnan  ;  such  are  the  scenes  and  the 
ideas  in  which  he  ma}-  grow  up  and  hve  and  die  without  having  taken  part  in 
the  world  longer  than  the  years  of  chiidhooil.  But  if,  as  hap[)ens  in  ninety-nine 
cases  out  of  a  liundred,  the  novice  of  tlie  Assembly  returns  to  the  world, 
he  first  takes  lea\'e  of  his  poiulyi  and  surrenders  the  fareikaya  he  brought  as 
probationer. 


;iilillil 


101.      GOYIN     PRAYING    FOR     LEAVE    TO    RETURN    TO    SECULAR    LIF^. 


102.     PLOUGHING    FOR    WET    CULTIVATION. 

CHAPTER    IV 

MAXHOOD    AXD    OCCUPATION 

The  cultivation  of  the  low- 
lands provides  the  occupa- 
tion and  livelihood  of  one 
out  of  every  two  Burmans. 
There  is  little  untlulating 
land  or  steppe.  The  hills 
as  a  rule  rise  abruptl)-  from 
the  alluvial  plains.  On 
these  latter  the  bulk  of 
the  population  is  settled. 
l'"<ir  the  wet  form  of  rice- 
cultivation,  which  alone 
qiN'es  regular  crops  anil  is 
therefore  called  permanent  culli\ati<in,  as  opposed  to  tcrniiirra  (p.  147),  the 
land  must  be  lightly  flooded  for  a  good  part  of  the  season  ;  the  crop  must 
not  be  submerged  after  the  ear  has  formed  nor  for  any  lengthened  period 
beforehand.  The  land  must  not  be  so  porous  as  to  let  the  rain-water  drain 
away  when  the  sub.soil  water  sinks.  The  patch  of  fields  favoured  by  the  floods 
of  one  season  may  be    drowned  or  be  left    dr)'    the    following    year    owing    to 


103.     VIEW    OF    IN. 


ACRfcri/rckE 


49 


104.      OUTLOOK     OVER     MIXED     FORMS     OF     CULTIVATION 


tliL'  vagaries  of  the  rivers.  A 
good  season  is  one  in  which  a 
large  proportion  of  the  fields 
have  water  enough  for  an 
early  start  and  in  which  the 
rainfall  is  stead)',  not  leaving 
the  surface  to  dry  up  by  a 
long  break  in  the  rain  nor 
deluging  the  soil  at  other 
times.  All  the  alluvial  land 
of  favourable  elevation  and 
quality  is  laid  out  in  level 
rice-fields.  Where  the  rainfall 
is  ample — fifty  inches  and  up- 
wards— portions  of  the  diluvial  land  with  tenacious  soil  can  be  utilised  in 
the  same  way  by  merely  saving  the  surface-water.  In  regions  of  lighter 
rainfall,  in  a  few  favoured  localities,  such  land  is  brought  under  rice  by  help 
of  irrigation  and  if  need  be  by  terracing  as  well.  The  rice-fields  are  bordered 
by  low  turfy  mounds  (kasin)  about  a  cubit  high,  to  keep  in  the  water.  These 
regular  rice-lands  form  one-tenth  or  less  of  the  gross  area  of  the  country,  the 
rest  being  practically  irreclaimable,  chiefly 
mountain,  waste.  The  waste  areas  of  the 
alluvial  plains  (kivin)  are  flooded  from  three 
to  ten  feet  deep  in  the  rains.  They  are 
clothed  with  elephant-grass  {kaiiig)  studded 
through  with  silk-cotton  trees  and  a  few 
other  species.  The  lowest  levels  in  the  kitnii 
form  shallow  lagoons  (/«,  No.  103)  which  dry 
up  in  the  hot  season.  Dry-season  crops — 
sugar-cane  (which  is  also  grown  on  the  wet 
system),  maize,  lentils,  and  vegetables  for  a 
limited  market — are  obtained  in  the  kaing. 

Burma  has  become  the  rice-mart  of  the 
world.  Since  the  development  of  this  trade 
the  price  of  the  staple  export  has  more 
than  quadrupled,  producing  in  the  lower 
country  a  prosperity  which  has  no  parallel 
in  respect  of  its  equal  diffusion.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  this  development  of  the  wealth 
of  Feeu  has  been  favoured   bv  the  uphea\al 


105.      HILL-PEOPLE     MAKING    THEIR 
CULTIVATION    CLEARING. 


H 


50 


BURMA 


of  the  delta  of  the  Irawadi,  b}-  which  fresh  silt-beds  are  raised  to  the  cultivation 
level.  The  town  of  Thaton,  now  sixteen  miles  from  the  coast  and  without  a  sea 
approach,  was,  in  historic  times,  a  port.  Ships  came  up  to  Tenaserim  in  the 
south,  the  ancient  emporium  of  trade  across  the  Peninsula  to  Siam,  and  to 
Akauttaung  in  the  north,  and  probably  to  Pegu.  A  mass 
of  precise  data  on  this  subject  was  collected  by  the  late 
Mr.  John  Merrifield,  who  came  to  the  conclusion  that 
Tenaserim  had  risen  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  in  the  course 
of  the  last  300  years.  In  1S93-94  eight  and  a  half  million 
acres  were  cropped  in  Burma.  The  export  of  rice  was 
one  and  a  half  million  tons,  worth  nearly  ;£■  1 1 ,000,000 
in  Europe.  The  local  consumption  is  about  the  same. 
Fallow  lands  were  estimated  at  two  to  three  million  acres 
and  arable  waste  at  twenty  millions,  out  of  a  gross  area 
of  one  hundred  and  ten  millions.  In  1S72  a  considerable 
firm  failed  over  the  enterprise  of  bringing  a  few  thousand 
acres  of  reputed  arable  waste  at  Kayasu  under  cultiva- 
tion ;  the  crops  got  so  much  water  that  they  rotted. 
The  area  has  lain  waste  ever  since.  Most  of  the  w-aste 
land  granted  to  companies  has  been  resumed,  on  account 
of  their  failure  to  satisfy  the  condition  of  utilising  the 
land.  The  conditions  which  render  land  suitable  for  wet 
cultivation  are  less  simple  than  they  appear  at  the  first 
glance.  It  is  possible  that  the  estimate  of  the  arable  waste 
is  much  too  high. 

Where  the  fields  depend  on  the  surface-water  for  their 
supply,  a  margin  of  fallow  has  to  be  left ;  where  the\'  get 
a  deposit  of  river-silt  it  is  unnecessarj'.  If  manure  is 
plentiful  it  is  taken  out  on  the  fields.  But  this  is  seldom 
the  case  because  the  cattle  are  so  much  at  large.  On 
the  outskirts  of  the  rice-fields,  which  are  dispersed  in 
groups  throughout  the  kiK.'in,  fallow  land  may  readily 
relapse  into  waste.  The  depopulation  of  Pegu  (Chro- 
nology, 1570,  1 591-1740)  threw  great  areas  out  of  cultiva- 
tion. Anyone  was  free  to  reclaim  waste,  and  is  so  .still. 
In  Burma  Proper,  where  good  land  is  much  scarcer  than 
in  Pegu,  proprietors  are  fixed  on  the  soil  in  many  places  by  royal  grants 
{cha-mye,  bobabaing).     There  were  also  royal  demesne  lands  leased  to  tenants. 

In  the  dry  zone  of  Burma  Proper,  rice  cultivation  is  impracticable  except 
where   rivers  flood  their  margins  or  where  facilities   for  irrigation  exist.     Rice 


106.     THE    RICE    PLANT    IN 
THE    EAR. 


I)RY  CULTIVATION 


5' 


IINQ    IN    THE    DRY    ZONE. 


is  ;i  luxury  in  that  region, 
and  a  part  of  the  require- 
ment is  imported  from  Pcfju. 
Crops  of  sorghum  and  millet 
{pyaung,  hi),  sesamum  (hnari) 
and  various  pulses  {pe),  as  well 
as  cotton  (tt'cf),  are  obtained 
on  the  better  sort  of  soil, 
during  the  light  rains,  from 
July  to  September.  The  dry 
soil  is  too  hard  for  ploughing 
even  when  moistened  by  such 
rain  as  falls.  It  is  scraped 
up  with  harrows  instead.  Four 
oxen  are  yoked  abreast  and 
the  driver  rides  on  the  beam  of  the  harrow  to  give  it  weight. 

The  wet  or  staple  cultivation  of  the  whole  country  begins  between  June  and 
August,  as  soon  as  the  grass-sod  which  has  formed  on  the  rice-fields  in  the 
by-season — and  which  has  served  for  pasture  in  the  interval — has  got  thoroughly 
water-logged.  The  soil  is  then  turned,  about  six  inches  deep,  with  a  wooden 
plough  (tk,  Nos.  I02,  119)  bearing  a  shoe  of  bronze  or  iron.  Where  elephants 
are  available  a  large  ton  is  used  which  does  the  work  of  four  ploughs.  The 
clods  left  by  the  plough  are  broken  fine,  and  the  wet  soil  worked  into  slush 
by  herds  of  bufi'aloes  driven  round  and  round  in  the  fields.  If  there  are 
not  enough  cattle,  the  plough-clods  are  worked  down  with  harrows  drawn  by 
buffaloes  or  oxen  (No.  325).  A  rotary  implement  is  coming  into  use  to  prepare 
the  clods  for  the  harrow  (No.  168).  There  is  very  little  open  grass-land  in 
the  moist  region.  Unless 
the  scrub  which  springs  up 
is  cut,  the  land  soon  re- 
lapses into  jungle. 

For  the  above  opera- 
tions cattle  are  needful  to 
the  cultivator,  though  he 
makes  little  use  of  the 
manure  and  does  not  use 
the  milk  at  all.  The  cattle 
are  only  used  for  draught, 
and  very  little  care  is  be- 
stowed on  breeding.   Oxen 


109.      ELEPHANT    PLOUGH. 


0- 


fiC'RMA 


110.     BUFFALOES    TRAMPLING     DOWN    THE    CLODS, 


are  wortli  twenty  to  forty 
rupees  a  head,  buffaloes 
t\vent}-five  to  fifty.  The 
latter  are  heavier  and  more 
powerful,  and  better  able  to 
work  in  the  wet  and  to 
forage  for  themselves,  but 
they  are  subject  to  many 
distempers,  of  which  the 
worst  is  anthrax.  The 
noses  of  the  draught-cattle 
are  pierced  and  a  thin  rope 
rove  through  which  is  spliced 
at  the  back  of  the  horns. 
During  a  great  part  of  the  year  there  is  no  work  for  the  buffaloes,  as  they 
arc  of  little  service  for  wheel-draught  ;  then  they  are  left  to  roam  at  large. 
They  frequent  the  streams  and  lagoons,  where  they  are  followed  by  egrets  and 
crows,  which  pick  the  worms  out  of  the  mud  as  the  buffaloes  turn  over  in  their 
wallow.  While  crops  are  standing,  cattle  have  to  bo  kept  in  pens  at  night,  and 
herds  have  to  watch  them  by  da}'.  This  work  is  done  by  children  from  twelve 
years  upwards.  The  buffalo-pen  is  made  near  the  house,  if  possible  in  a 
water-logged  spot  where  the  animals  can  wallow  in  the  mud,  which  protects 
them  from  the  bites  of  gad-flies  and  mosquitoes.  Where  there  is  no  wallow, 
smoky  fires  have  to  be  made  to  keep  the  insects  awa)-.  In  certain  localities 
of  the  delta  cattle  have  to  be  protected  with  curtains.  In  the  arid  region 
fodder  has  to  be  grown  for  the  cattle,  but  goats  find  pasture  and  are  kept 
for  their  milk  :  the)-  are 
worth  five  to  twenty  ru- 
pees a  head. 

The  rice-fields  first 
ploughed  and  ready  are 
sown  broad-cast  for  nur- 
series (fiyo-giii).  A  month 
later,  when  the  rice-jjlants 
are  about  a  foot  high,  they 
are  taken  u|)  and  trans- 
planted into  the  prcpari'd 
fields,  a  span  apart.  The 
roots  are  simply  pressed 
down    into    the   soft   slush  m.    driving  home  the  buffaloes. 


s 


WET   CUL  Tll'A  TION 


53 


113       BUFFALOES    IN    THEIR    PEN 


with  the  fingers  or  with 
a  forked  stick.  The 
acre  produces  thirty 
to  eighty  bushels  of 
:;rain,  according  to  soil 
and  season.  The  ripe 
corn  stands  three  to 
five  feet  high,  and  so 
thick  as  to  keep  down 
tares.  Unlike  hill-rice 
(p.  149,  No.  244), which 
requires  several  heavy 
weedings  in  the  sea- 
son, the  wet  rice-fields  need  no  care  beyond  that  of  regulating  the  water- 
supply.  Where  there  is  drainage  for  the  water,  it  is  allowed  to  stand  only 
a  few  inches  high  on  the  ground.  As  the  grain  ripens,  the  soil  is  allowed  to 
dry.  If  there  is  a  head  of  water  available  during  the  rains,  channels  are  led  to 
the  fields  to  keep  the  supply  equal.  If  the  supply  is  near  and  only  at  a 
slightly  lower  level  than  the  fields,  the  effects  of  drought  are  counteracted  by 
various  devices  such  as  the  ka-hnvk  (No.  115).  Running  water  at  too  low  a 
level  to  la)'  on  to  the  fields  is  utilized  by  help  of  a  bamboo  water-wheel  (yit), 
or  if  the  water  be  still,  the  wheel  is  driven  by  ox-gear.  In  some  parts,  rice 
is  planted  on  the  river  banks  as  the  floods  begin  to  subside  {iiiavin). 

The  varieties  of  rice,  of  which  there  are  many,  suited  to  diff'erent  soils  and 
modes  of  cultivation,  take  from  three  to  five  months  to  mature.  The  harvest 
of  the  crops  is  from  October  to  December,  according  to  the  variety  and  time 
of  planting  out.  When  the  grain  turns  yellow,  flights  of  parakeets  and  other 
birds  descend  on  the  crops,  from  which  they  have  to  be  scared  till  reaping-time. 
Bamboo  clappers  are 
worked  by  bast  lines 
in  a  radius  of  a  hun- 
dred yards  from  the 
watcher's  hut.  Where 
there  is  an  abundance 
of  pasture  for  cattle, 
the  stubble  is  left  very 
high  and  is  burned 
where  it  stands,  to 
manure  the  ground. 
But  if   straw  is  needed  „,^   ^^,^^  ,,^,,3  ^^^„^„  „^^  ^„  ^„,^ 


54 


BURMA 


for  fodder  the  corn  is  cut  close 
to  the  ground,  having  first  been 
laid  by  pressing  it  down  with 
bamboos,  which  makes  it  easier. 
For  reaping  the  villagers  co- 
operate. But  in  the  plains  of 
the  delta,  where  cultivation  has 
extended  so  greatly,  there  is 
not  labour  enough  on  the  spot 
to  reap  the  crop.  Harvest 
labourers  come  down  from  Bur- 
ma Proper  and  also  large  num- 
...,  .  ^.  bers    from    the    south    of    India 

(p.  159).  In  the  plains  reapers 
get  their  two  meals  and  a  quarter  of  a  bushel  of  grain  a  day  or  the  equivalent 
in  money  (p.  56).  In  the  hills  a  reaper  gets  a  bushel  a  day  for  his  labour.  The 
common  wages  of  daily  labour  are  about  half  a  rupee  in  Pegu,  and  a  quarter 
less  in  Burma  Proper.  Before  1850,  when  the  export  trade  began,  wages 
were  only  half  as  much. 

The  sheaves  are  left  to  dry  for  a  da)-  in  the  sun  and  then  gathered  into 
garbs.  These  are  piled  on  a  dry  field  into  a  circular  heap  some  three  feet  high, 
and  broad  enough  for  a  herd  of  buffaloes  to  tramp  round  upon  and  tread  the 
grain  off  the  ear,  to  which  it  is  attached  by  a  slender  petiole.  Another  way  is 
to  pile  the  garbs  in  a  high  crescent-shaped  heap,  rountl  the  central  space  of 
which  four  to  si.x  head  of  cattle  are  made  to  travel  abreast  and  tread  the  garbs 
which  are  cast  down  from  above.  The  grain  keeps  best  in  the  husk  and  is 
stored  in  bins  of  bamboo  wattle  smeared  with  clay  [sabaji,  Nos.  119,  120). 

The  covering  of  the  rice-grain  is  a  strong  adherent  husk  like  that  of  barley, 
but  without  any  beard.     Rice  in  the  husk  is  called  Salid  (Engl,  paddy).     Under 


118.  CUTTING  THE  CROP  IN  THE  GREAT  PLAIN.' 


^  ^^.__mM^[:M 


CLEANING    THE   GRAIN 


55 


the  coarse  yellow  husk  is  a  shell  of  Ijran,  and  beneath  that  a  delicate  white 
pellicle.  The  two  outer  coverings  have  to  l)e  removed  and  the  inner  one 
preserved.  "  Cargo  rice,"  which  forms  the  bulk  of  the  mill  produce,  is  three 
parts  rice,  simply  husked,  and  one  part  paddy.     The  mi.xture  bears  the  transport 


118.      TREADING     OUT    THE     GRAIN. 


better    than    white    rice.     Burmans    clean    the    rice    according    to    daily    need. 

This    is    done    either    by   simple    pounding  or  by  first  husking  the  grain   in   a 

wooden   mill  (kycissoii),  and  then  pounding  it  to  get  off  the  bran.     The  mortar 

is  of  hard  wood,  with  a  hard  wood  pounder  as  heavy  as  the  arm  can  wield  ;  or 

else    the    pounder    is    mounted    in  a    tilting-beam    for    foot-power.       Chaff  and 

bran    are  separately  winnowed  out  with  sieves  and    trays  {sagdw)  of  bamboo, 

and  in  exposed  places  by  the  help  of  the  wind  also.     For  wholesale  husking, 

the    native    mill    is    composed    of    two    strong    wicker-work    c\-linders    made 

solid    with  clay,   in    which    are 

embedded    upright    staves    of 

hard    wood     (Nos.     127,    184). 

As  the    mill  wears   down,  tlie 

layers    of    wood    keep    above 

the    clay    like    the    layers    of 

enamel  in  a  herbivore's  tooth, 

maintaining    a    rough     surface 

for   work.      In   the  early  daj-s 

of  the  export  trade,   rice  was 

husked    for    shipping    in    this 

way.       The   separation    of   the 

chaff   is    done  with  a  machine 

copied  from  our  farmyard  win-      i^^^^^ ^-^ 

newer,  and   now  manufactured  119    cleaning  rice  with  the  hand-pounder. 


56 


ni'A'.u.i 


120.      CLEANING    RICE    WITH    THE    HAND-MILL. 


in  eveiy  town  (rulidt). 
A  basket  {i/iii)  of 
cleaned  rice  {sail )  costs 
three  to  four  rupees, 
and  lasts  a  man  about 
a  month.  The  loss  of 
volume  in  cleaning  is 
about  twenty-five  per 
cent.,  and  the  cost  of 
the  unhusked  grain 
about  one-third  of 
that  of  rice.  For 
cakes  and  sweets,  rice  is  ground  with  water  in  the  Indian  stone  hand-mill.  After 
first  soaking,  it  is  passed  through  the  mill  repeatedh-  until  it  forms  a  creamy 

fluid,  which  is  strained  and  used  while  fresh.     W'heaten  bread  is  a  novelty. 

The  houses  in  Burma  are  mostly  built  of   bamboo.      The   giant  bamboo 

{ivabo),  a  denizen  of  the  evergreen  hills,  is  cultivated   in   the  plains  for  house- 
posts  and  masts  and  side-buoys  of  boats.     Its  culms  attain  a  height  of  eighty 

feet  and  a  girth  at  the  butt  of  two  feet.     Every  bamboo  jungle   supplies  the 

rest  of  the  material  for  the  house.     No   tools    are   needed    for    bamboo  work, 

but  the  universal    da — a  sabre,  trimmer,  chopper,  according  to   its  proportions 

(No.  231).     With  the  da  the  bamboos  arc   hewn,  split  open  and  slit  into  withs 

{/mi)  for  lashing.     Thin-walled  bamboos  are 

opened  out  into  broad  planks  for  the  walls 

of  the  houses   {taydii).     Stout   thick-walletl 

bamboos  are  shaped  into  narrow  planks  for 

flooring,    or    the    floor    is    laid    of    round 

bamboos   laced    dow'n   at   intervals.     Loose 

planks  of  wood    are  becoming  general    for 

floors,    even    in    houses    built    of    bamboo 

(p.    119).       Every  Burman   can    handle  the 

d(i,  but  not  so  expertly  as  the  hill  people. 

The  house-jjosts,  floor-girders,  and  principal 

frames,  are  frequently  of  timber,  and  outlast 

several    relays   of   the   bamboo-work,  which 

decays  in  a  few  seasons.     The  inducement 

to    keep  a   material    clean    and    neat   which 

lias  soon  to  be  rejilaced  is  not   great,  and 

engenders  negligent   habits.      In  the  bettei' 

houses  bamboo  is  only  u.sed  fur  the  w.dling         ,21.   winnowing  grain  in  the  wind. 


iforsE-nrii.nfNG 


57 


and  the  roof-rafters.  Straight 
trees  are  selected  for  posts,  and 
are  either  left  plain,  or  the 
sajjwood  is  dressed  (jff,  or  they 
arc  dubbed  octai^onal  ;  the 
timbers  are  rough-hewn  with 
the  dd.  Posts  of  hard  and 
duralale  wood  ipyinkado)  are 
also  squared,  and  the  scantlings 
for  the  timbers  cut  with  the 
saw.  A  special  significance 
attaches  to  the  ])osts  of  the 
house.  It  is  thought  unlucky 
122.   CUTTING  GIANT  BAMBOO  (wABoi.  if  birds  alight  On  thcm  before 

they  are  roofed  in.  Sham  bows 
and  arrows  are  set  at  the  heads  of  the  posts  to  scare  them  (lnigciniiia>ta).  Besides 
the  miniature  bow-and-arrow  stuck  in  bazar  goods  to  scare  crows,  this  is  the 
only  form  in  which  the  long-bow  and  arrow  survive  in  Burma  ;  in  practice, 
arrows  are  used  with  a  crossbow  (No.  204J  and  pellets  with  the  plain  bow  (le), 
and  that  not  extensi\'ely.  Another  curious  custom  is  the  one  of  laying  a  piece 
of  cloth  between  the  head  of  the  jjost  and  the  wall-plate  as  a  propitiation 
to  the  nat  of  the  tree  (p.  1S7).  Before  the  large  posts  of  temples  are  reared, 
their  heads  are  hung  with  offerings,  \\hich  the  workpeople  afterwards  share 
among  themselves.  The  front  bays  of  the  house  have  a  floor  only  a  few  feet 
off  the  ground  (kyaiinaiig) — unless  where  the  flood-levels  require  it  to  be  higher 
— making  a  verandah,  the  com- 
mon or  unenclosed  portion  of 
the  house,  free  to  strangers. 
The  back  bays  have  a  floor 
about  four  cubits  off  the  ground 
or  above  the  lower  floor.  A 
bamboo  or  wooden  ladder  con- 
nects the  floors.  The  upper 
floor  is  enclosed  all  round,  and 
has  one  or  two  bays  partitioned 
oft".  A  pent-roof  covers  the 
cooking-place  and  grain-bin, 
where  the  rice-pounders  and 
implements  are  stored  as  well  ; 
or    else    there    is    a    shed    for 


123-      REARING    THE    POSTS    OF    THE,  WUT. 


BURMA 


124.   LASHING  THE  ROOF  POLES. 


these  (No.  i6).  Frequently 
the  water-stand  is  a  separate 
erection,  opening  into  one  of 
the  lower  bays.  There  are 
several  kinds  of  roof-thatch, 
of  which  the  commonest  is 
thckkc\  a  broad-leaved  grass, 
bound  on  sticks  of  split  bam- 
boo. The  leaf  of  the  dant 
palm  makes  the  best  thatch. 
The  large  leathery  leaf  of  the 
/«  tree  is  also  used.  A  roofing 
material  called  ivagdt  is  made 
of  bamboo  shingles,  of  which 
strips  are  held  together  b_\-  three  or  four  wattles,  handy  for  t}'ing  to  the  rafters. 
This  material  is  less  inflammable  than  tlickkc.  Tiles  and  modern  wooden  shingles 
can  only  be  used  on  strong  roof-frames.  Floor-mats  of  the  stoutest  kind  are 
plaited  of  the  outer  silicious  rind  of  the  bamboo  (hni-dyaiK.').  Common  mats  are 
l)laited  of  the  inner  fibre  split  into  withes,  one  half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
broad,  and  about  one-twentieth  in  thickness.  Finer  and  more  pliable  mats  are 
made  of  the  reed  thabdw.  The  finest  of  all  are  made  of  the  outer  skin  of  the 
thin  ]ilant.      Thiiiibjii  is  the  universal  sleeping-mat. 

The  cloth  used  in  Burma  is  now,  for  the  most  part,  imported,  as  are  also  the 
cotton  yarns,  both  plain  and  coloured.  Nevertheless,  the  domestic  cloth  industry 
continues  to  flourish  in  the  villages.  Native  textile  cotton  (ftw)  is  of  two 
varieties,  one  white,  the  other  dun.  The  cotton,  after  being  cullcil  from  the 
])lants,  is  seeded  between  wooden  rollers.  The  fibre,  caked  together  b_\'  the 
rollers,  is  scutched  by  flicking  it  off  the  string  of  a  bow  into  a  basket,  where 
the  fibres  disperse  again. 
It  is  then  worked  be- 
tween the  palms  into 
flakes  convenient  for  the 
spinner  {Jmiitg-hiigin). 
The  plain  spindle,  com- 
mon everywhere  in 
India,  is  ob.solete  in 
]5urma  where  even  the 
hill-peoi)le  use  thewheel 
{yii).  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  stuff  for  the  125.    plaiting  wall  mats 


WE  A  VfNG 


59 


126       BINDING    THE    THATCH. 


recluses'  robes,  cloth  is  not  dyed 
in  the  piece,  but  in  the  yarn. 
Dyes  used  for  cotton  are  also 
chiefly  imported,  but  the  in- 
digenous dyes  continue  to  be 
used  for  silk.  The  Burmans 
excel  in  yellows,  oranges,  deep 
reds,  and  rich  deep  greens, 
which  they  harmonise  with  beau- 
tiful effect.  Their  clear  blues 
and  purples  are  indifferent. 
Except  in  a  few  localities,  where 
weaving  is  a  speciality,  the  men 
take  no  share  in  the  industry 
beyond  constructing  the  looms.  Women  spin  and  dye  the  yarn  and  weave 
the  cloth.  The  lath  of  the  loom  {Ickka)  is  of  graceful  outline — often  elaborately 
carved — and  is  furnished  with  two  ornamented  metal  pins,  with  loose  metal  rings, 
that  jangle  at  each  swing  of  the  beam,  and  proclaim  the  industry  of  the  )-oung 
woman,  to  whom  this  business  chiefly  falls.  Hence  it  comes  that  the  loom  is  a 
favourite  rendezvous.  The  same  applies  to  other  occupations  of  the  girls,  such 
as  rice-cleaning,  when  the  suitor  will  take  a  turn  at  the  heavy  part  of  the  work 
and  lounge  while  the  sifting  goes  on.  Common  patterns  of  cloth  are  tartans, 
for  which  two  or  three  shuttle-spools  are  required.  The  plainest  cloth  woven 
is  at  least  shot  with  a  colour  different  to  that  of  the  warp.  The  intricacy  of 
a  pattern  is  denoted  by  the  number  of  spools.  Scroll  patterns  (c/ieik)  in  silk  are 
called  luii-tayd  (hundred-spool).  The  warp  is  a  cubit  wide  and  about  twenty 
cubits  long,  which  makes  a  man's 
loin-cloth  (paso).  The  piece  is 
doubled  and  its  edges  sewn 
together  along  one  side  ;  the  turn 
of  the  cloth  serves  as  a  bag  or 
wallet,  according  as  the  piece 
is  draped  ;  it  has  no  lining.  The 
paso  is  hitched  round  the  loins 
and  girt  long  or  short,  according 
to  fancy,  without  the  help  of  a 
belt  ;  but  elastic  belts  are  now 
coming  in.  The  slack  is  worn 
in  a  bunch  in  front  {kabdinigza) 
or  is  thrown  over  the  shoulder. 


127.      PLAITING    FLOOR-MATS 


P-   66). 


6o 


BURMA 


128.      CLEANING     AND     SPINNING     COTTON 


For  work  and  exercise  the  paso  is  girt 
into  the  narrowest  compass  {kaddiiiii^- 
chaik.  No.  407).  The  women's  cloth 
— tamcin — is  only  three  cubits  long. 
To  the  upper  edge  of  the  figured  silk 
is  joined  a  strip  of  plain  dark-coloured 
cotton  or  velvet.  To  the  lower  edge  is 
joined  a  piece  striped  with  the  colours 
of  the  centre-piece,  to  that  again  a  .strip 
of  red  silk  shot  with  white,  and  it  is 
lined  with  calico.  The  tamcin  overlaps  very  little  (No.s.  136,  137).  Paid  and 
taniehi  are  the  distinctive  national  dress.  Both  are  in  process  of  being  super- 
seded by  the  more  convenient /(wci^r/,  except  for  ^^Wr?  occasions^(No.  34).  The 
londyi  is  an  endless  cloth,  generally  of  red  tartan,  about  equal  to  two  tamcin. 
worn  like  the  Malay  sdroiig.  Men  wear  their  long  hair  in  a  top-knot,  and 
frequently  use  no  head-dress.  For  gala  they  wear  a  fillet  of  white  muslin 
round  the  temples  tied  in  a  knot,  of  which  the  long  ends  stand  up  ipazun-hnyat). 
Bright-coloured  figured  silk  kerchiefs  (gaung-haung)  are  worn  in  the  same  wa\'.  But 
more  generally  hair  and  kerchief  are  wound  up  together  upon  the  head.  Women 
wear  nothing  on  the  head  except  flowers  and  jewels.  They  wear  kerchiefs 
{jnva)  over  their  shoulders,  of  the  same  kind  as  the  men's  gaimgbaung.  These 
kerchiefs  were  at  first  of  bright  Chinese  embroidery,  but  are  now  damask 
silk  prints  from  Europe.  The  fashicsn  of  their  patterns  and  colours  changes. 
Jackets  were  not  an  invariable  part  of  the  Burman  costume,  but  arc  now 
universal.  The  older  jjattern  of  men's  white  muslin  jacket  {taiiig-ma-tliciti 
iiiji,  Nos.  374,  389),  and  women's 
white  muslin,  or  coloured  and 
gold-figured  gauze  jackets  (Jess/ic- 
inji.  No.  379),  are  of  Indian 
type.  They  are  now  superseded 
by  the  more  convenient  kado 
iuji,  of  Shan-Chinese  type,  worn 
by  both  men  and  women  (Nos. 
115,  288).  Over-jackets  of  im- 
ported woollens  have  also  be- 
come general.  A  wrap  or 
blanket  of  heavy  cotton  clcHh. 
or  of  imjjortcd  broad-cloth  {sa/i//g, 
No.  184),  completes  the  outfit. 
No    kind    ol    wool    is   iiuligi'nnus  ,29.    thei  weaving  loom 


CLOTHING 


6i 


130.      LAYING    OUT    THE    WARP. 


(ir  IS  spun  or  woven  m 
I'liirnia.  C;esar  Frederick 
in  1 569  mentions  woollen 
cloth  among  the  goods 
brought  to  Burma,  T'/V?  Ara- 
kiui.  Web  vests  for  l)oys 
and  men,  of  luiropcan 
manufacture,  are  becoming 
general.  The  use  of  shoes 
of  the  European  shape  is 
bringing  in  the  use  of  socks 
and  stockings.  The  ad- 
dition of  a  European  shirt 
under  the  I-5urman  jacket 
makes  up  the  incongruous  kit  atTected  by  the  modern  office  clerks.  With  the 
increased  use  of  body-linen  have  come  the  Indian  washermen.  The  coloured 
stufts  are  washed  by  the  Burman  women.  The  native  dyes  wash  well,  especially 
the  silk  dyes.  An  alkali-earth  (sappya)  is  found  in  Burma,  but  soap  is  of  modern 
introduction,  and  is  now  sold  in  every  bazar.  Needles  used  to  be  brought  to 
Burma  from  China,  as  well  as  scissors,  though  the  latter  are  also  fashioned  in 
Burma  ;  at  present  both  are  imported  from  Europe.  Burmans  work  the  needle 
from  them,  like  other  Asiatics.  The  work  is  pinned  to  a  cushion  at  the  head 
of  a  post  planted  on  the  work-bo.x.  The  use  of  the  thimble  was  unknown  until 
tailors  came  over  from  India,  but  is  now  general.  The  bulk  of  the  tailoring  is 
in  the  hands  of  immigrants  from  China  ;  but  their  prejudice  against  the  sewing- 
machine  is  helping  to  transfer  the 
business  to  the  Burman  women. 
Nearly  every  well-to-do  family  in 
the  towns  has  its  sewing-machine. 
At  sunrise  the  women  start 
with  their  water-pots  for  the  da}''s 
supply,  and  again  before  they  cook 
the  evening  meal,  which  finishes 
the  day's  work.  On  the  morning 
errand  the}-  do  the  most  of  their 
washing.  In  the  evening  they 
carry  a  spare  cloth  to  change  for 
the  one  the\'  bathe  in,  which  they 
wasli  and  coil  into  a  pad  to  put 
between  the  head   and   the  water-  13,     Burmese  carving  qf  weaving  loom 


62 


BURMA 


put.  The  Burmans  bathe  in  tlie  morning 
or  evening,  and  not  in  the  heat  of  tlie  day. 
I\Ien  and  women  bathe  in  their  clothes  and 
at  the  same  jilaces. 

Burmans  will  travel  far  to  a  source 
of  good  drinking  water.  It  is  storetl  in 
porous  earthen  pots  with  covers,  in  which 
it  settles  and  cools  over-night.  Rain-water 
is  saved  for  other  uses  and  stored  in 
large  glazed  jars  {sin-6).  A  cocoanut  ladle 
is  used  for  dipping  the  water  out,  to  avoid 
disturbing  the  sediment.  In  the  rainy 
season  the  river  water  bears  a  heav_\-  silt 
and  has  to  stand  for  hours.  Spring  water 
is  scarce  owing  to  the  distance  of  the  Bur- 
man  settlements  from  the  hills.  Tiie 
ordinar\-  sources  are  rivers,  wells,  and  tanks. 
In  the  moist  region  the  subsoil  water  comes 
up  to,  or  near  the  surface  during  the  rains,  and  in  the  drought  sinks  twenty 
or  thirty  feet.  In  the  dr\-  zone  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  dig  one  hundred 
feet    for  water.      Wells    are    generally    fenced    and    protected    from    return    and 


13?.      BURMESE    SILK    CLOTH     PATTERNS 


■         .      7,        '     ■ 

.-i^*^mi 

■  '  -       J,     •  W*       } 

fSt^H  ;  :"^f-.v'WS'«?35r.. "  ■-. 

^^i^^t'W:jt;f>.;..-  ^^mmBmwm 

W      mL"^ 

133.     THE    SPRING. 


DOMESTIC    WORK 


63 


surface  water.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  tlie 
water  is  brackish.  Siiallow  tanks  with  built-up 
earthen  borders  are  made  to  store  the  rain- 
water for  drinking,  anil,  unlike  the  tanks  in  India, 
these  are  kept  free  from  contamination.  There 
is  always  a  separate  stand  for  the  pots  of  drinking- 
water,  either  in  the  house  itself,  or  within  reaching 
distance,  with  a  roof  of  its  own.  The  domestic 
shrine  and  flower-stand  {iiyaiiug  yc-o  r^in)  is  fre- 
([uently  associated  with  the  water-stand.  Apart 
from  the  advantage  of  keeping  away  the  drip. 
the  isolation  of  the  water-stand  is  so  marked  as 
to  suggest  a  religious  intention — possibly  of  for- 
gotten animistic  imjiort  —  in  addition  to  the 
obvious  one  of  a  boon  to  the  traveller,  in  virtue 
of  which  the  water-stand  is  frequently  decorated 
in  the  Buddhistic  religious  style  (No.  158).  As 
already  noted,  dwelling-houses  are  not  fit  places 
for  images  of  the  Buddha,  but  only  temples.  In 
the  houses,  the  Buddha  is  venerated  by  keeping 
his  sacred  tree  green  in  the  flower-vases  on  the 
iiyaniig  ve-o  zin,  which  is  often  richly  decorated. 
The  shrine  takes  its  name  from  the  fiats,  but  the 

plants    actually   used    are    such  as  keep  green   longest  in  the   shade,  especially 

the  aloe    (^iiiot).     The    observance    has    \-ery   possibly  been    transferred    from  a 

pre-buddhistic  one  (No.  157). 

The  native  method  of  getting 

fire  is  shown  in  Xo.  141.     Except 

in  the  great  plains,  there  is  enough 

waste  land  about  the  settlements, 

bearing  trees  and  scrub  where  dry 

faggots   may  be  collected.      Logs 

of  dry  timber  are  dragged  in,  and 

firewood   for  cooking  split  off   as 

required,  or    billets  are  carted  in 

and  stored  against  the  rain\-  season. 

In  the  cold  season,  fires  are  often 

made  on  the  ground    in  front  of 

the    houses,    for    the    inmates    to 

sit     around.       But     in      general,  ise.   village  well 


135.     SEWING    CLOTH. 


64 


n['RMA 


137.      CARRYING    HOME     THE    WATER-POTS. 


fuel  is  required  only  for 
cooking  anil  in  manufac- 
tures. 

Rice  is  the  staple  of 
ev^ery  meal,  except  in  the 
dry  zone.  The  millet  and 
sorghum  which  there  take 
the  place  of  rice  are  cooked 
in  the  same  way  but  need 
longer  boiling.  "  A  rice- 
boiling  "  (ta-o-dj'i't)  is  the 
common  phrase  for  an  in- 
terval of  about  twenty 
minutes.  After  washing 
in  several  waters,  rice  is 
put  to  boil  in  an  earthen 
pot  with  enough  water  to 

cover  it,  and  boiled  till  the  grains  are  quite  clear.    The  rice-water  is  poured  oft',  and 

the  rice  is  put  back  on  the  fire  to  steam.    Rice  is  cooked  fresh  for  every  meal  and 

is  eaten  hot.    A  relish  is  made  to  eat  with  the  rice,  consisting  of  a  watery  stew  of 

fresh    greens  or    of   pulse.     The    fat    used    is 

sesamum  oil  (/iiiaii-.':/).    This  curry  is  seasoned 

with  turmeric  (sa/zzc/n),  capsicum  {^tigayotthi— 

chilli),   and    either    salt-fish   or    ngapi  (p.  92). 

I-'resh  fish,  prawns,  or  meat  are  added  if  avail- 
able.    In  default  of  cultivated  vegetables,  wild 

greens  of  all  sorts,  bamboo-shoots  and  sprout- 
ing leaves,  are  used.    Pickles  of  lime  and  other 

fruits  are  used  as  separate  relishes.     There  are 

two  meals  in  the  day,  both  of  the  same  nature. 

The    morning    meal    is   eaten    at   about   nine 

o'clock,    the    other    before    dark.      Meals    are 

taken    by    the   household    in    common.       The 

housewife  or  daughter  gets  mats   read}'  in  the 

kyanniiiig  and  places  in  the  centre  a  byat — a 

large,   dec]),  wooden   ])lattcr,    lac(|uered   red — 

into  which  she  turns  out  the  cooked  rice  (la)iihi). 

In  the  middle  of  the  rice  is  set  a  bowl  with  the 

curry  and  a  spoon.     The  family  siiual   rounel 

^  -r  I  111  '■'^       STAND    FOR    THE     DRINKING- 

the  byat,  or  if  a  large  household  round  se\eral.  water 


/)<h\//-S7'/C    WORK 


65 


140.      FETCHING    IN     FUEL. 


[11  the  villa^'cs  the  pas.siiij^  ira- 
\'cllei'  is  invitctl  to  j(jin  in  the 
nual.  l'',veryon(,'  in  turn  ladles 
L^ravy  from  the  bowl  on  the  rice 
in  front  of  him  and  mixes  and 
eats  it  with  his  fingers.  Before 
and  after  eating,  mouth  and  fin- 
gers are  rinsed.  After  the  meal 
a  drink  of  water  is  taken.  Fruit 
is  eaten  after  meals  and  at  odd 
times.  The  importation  of  delf 
Crocker}'  and  enamelled  ware  has 
been  going  on  for  a  long  time. 

Betel  {kuii)  is  taken  at  all 
times  except  at  meals,  and  to- 
bacco is  smoked  by  men,  women,  and  children  (No.  21).  The  betel-box  plays 
the  same  part  in  Burman  sociality  as  the  snuft"-box  still  does  in  parts  of  Europe. 
The  chew  of  betel  is  made  up  of  the  fresh  leaf  of  the  betel-vine  (knit-yuct.  No.  409) 
smeared  with  moist  slaked  lime  {ton)  anil  folded  over  slices  of  the  nut  of  the 
areca  or  betel  palm.  Dried  tobacco-leaf,  cutch  and  spices — cinnamon  and  cloves 
— are  frequently  added.  "  A  betel-chewing  "  is  a  common  phrase  for  about  a 
quarter  of  an  hour.  Old  people  who  have  lost  their  teeth  pound  up  the  betel 
in  a  small  brass  mortar  {kun-dyeik)  for  chewing.  The  spittoon  {tnc-gan)  is 
indispensable. 

The  native  tea  is  prepared  by  hill-tribes  of  the  North.  It  is  either  in  clr)- 
balls  the  size  of  a  fist  isin-chi) 
or  loose  {Icppetchaiik),  or  is 
pickled  {leppckkan).  The  dry 
tea  is  infused  in  the  Chinese 
fashion  {/cpptjye,  No.  146). 

When  the  platters  have  been 
rinsed  after  the  evening  meal 
and  the  tables  put  by — sabt^'c"- 
hinauk — which  gives  the  name 
to  the  hour,  the  day's  work  is 
over  and  the  young  women 
smarten  themselves  up  to  receive 
their  beaux.  The  chief  toilet- 
requisite  is  the  face-powder  (Jliaii- 
a'X',^^)— the  cream-coloured  bark 
K 


141.      GETTING    FIRE    BY    THE    NATIVE    METHOD 


66 


BTRMA 


of   a  tree    of  the   dr\-    zone,   ground 
into  a  paste  with  water  on  a  special 


142.     THE    COOKING-PLACE 


Stone.  It  is  perfumed  by  grinding 
sandal-wood  with  it.  The  paste  is 
smeared  on  the  face  and  left  to  dry, 
after  which  the  excess  is  rubbed  off. 
For  great  occasions  the  paste  is  left 
on  over-night.  But  ordinarily  the 
face  is  "  freshed  "  with  water  {jnyc-Jina- 
tliit)  on  rising  in  the  morning.  The 
Burmans  admire  white  teeth  and 
polish  them  with  charcoal  on  a  soft 
stick.  The  old  style  of  women's  hair- 
dress  was  like  the  early  chignon 
fashion  of  about  1867  in  Europe.  The 
sadou  in  this  form  is  seen  in  Nos. 
30,  381.  About  18S0  a  new  fashion 
was  set  by  the  palace,  which  now  prevails.  Tresses  of  false  hair  are  much 
used  by  the  women.  Flowers  in  the  hair  and  jewellery  complete  the  toilet, 
which,  like  that  of  the  actors  in  the  pwi:,  is  performed  in  view  of  everyone. 
The  men's  toilet  consists  in  combing  their  long  hair  (No.  127).  They  take 
pride  in  the  size  of  their  top-knot  {yaitng)  and  rarely  eke  it  out  with  false 
hair  in  the  way  the  women  do.  The  heavy  knot  works  loose,  so  that  combing 
and  knotting  up  go  on  jierpetually.  The  hair  of  both  sexes  is  coarse  and 
straight  and  jet  black.  Children's  hair  gets  fox_\-  from  alternate  exposure  to 
rain  and  sun.  The  hair  is 
smoothed  with  cocoanut  oil  anil 
washed  with  soap-nut  once  or 
twice  a  month.  At  other  times 
the  Burmans  are  concerned  to 
avoid  wetting  their  hair.  The 
native  wooden  combs  are  coarse, 
but  the  Chinese  tooth  comb  is 
beginning  to  serve  a  useful  pur- 
pose. Burmans  turn  grey  at  fort\- 
to  fifty  years  of  age  and  are 
white  at  sixty  to  seventy.  Bald- 
ness is  rare.  Aged  men  still 
wear  their  little  top-knot.  The 
men's    faces    are    smooth,    maiiv  143    the  family  meal   old  stvLE). 


THF  ron.F/r 


67 


144.     THE     FAMILY    MEAL    (NEW     STYLE). 


having  no  trace  of  beard  till 
thirty.  The  beard  is  sparse  and 
is  not  shaved  but  plucked  out 
with  tweezers.  (The  yahdn  of 
iUirma  likewise  use  tweezers  for 
the  beard.)  When  there  is  a  ])as- 
sable  moustache,  towards  middle 
life,  it  is  allowed  to  t^n'ow.  The 
hair  on  a  mole  is  cultivated  — 
sometimes  a  single  long  hair  — 
for  luck.  Besides  the  sandal- 
wood perfume  just  mentioned, 
there  is  the  perfumed  wood  kala- 
niH.  Sandal-oil  and  attar  of  roses 
have  long  been  imported  from 
India.  Scented  waters  are  made  from  various  flowers  and  an  oil  is  obtained 
from  kaddt-ngmi.  Scents  imported  from  Europe  have  become  a  regular  toilet 
article.  The  shoulders  and  arms  of  those  who  habitually  wear  jackets  and 
do  not  labour  in  the  open  are  brunette  ;  face  and  hands  are  darker,  much 
like  the  complexion  of  the  sun-browned  Levantine,  but  of  a  yellower  tint 
than  his.  Regular  exposure  browns  the  skin  to  a  copper  hue,  and  where 
exposure  is  severe  to  a  brown-black,  but  not  so  opaque  a  black  as  that  of 
India  or  Africa.  The  colour  lightens 
again  on  avoidance  of  exposure. 
Women's  and  children's  complexions 
are  fairer  ;  the  new-born  are  no  darker 
than  in  Europe.  As  a  rule  the  Bur- 
man  is  darker  and  slenderer,  with  a 
more  oval  face  ;  the  Talaing  fairer 
and  more  thick-set,  with  a  broader 
face.  The  gloss  of  the  skin  helps  to 
exaggerate  the  light  and  shade  in 
photographs  and  make  the  complexion 
appear  too  dark.  The  ordinary  stature 
of  the  men  is  from  five  feet  three 
inches  to  five  feet  six  inches,  and  of 
the  women  from  four  feet  nine  inches 
to  five  feet.  The  people  are  of  a 
moderately  spare  habit. 


Having  made  her  evening  toilet, 


145.      BETEL    .KUN) 


68 


lURMA 


the  girl  takes  some  light  work, 
such  as  cotton  to  roll  for  the 
wheel  for  the  hour  of  Iiibyo- 
Idc,  as  the  dusk  of  evening  is 
called,  literally  the  time  of  the 
"  bachelors'  round."  The  young 
men  are  expected  to  make  short 
calls  only,  so  as  not  to  keep  the 
old  people  up  late.  B}-  "  old 
men's  sleeping  time,"  as  the  hour 
after  the  short  twilight  is  called, 
they  must  have  left,  so  as  to 
relieve  the  duenna,  who,  if  not 
in  sight,  is  always  in  waiting  for 
the  girls  to  come  up  into  the 
house  for  the  night.  Courtship 
has  quite  a  language  of  its  own  in  which  the  suitor  needs  to  be  proficient. 
Young  people  of  fashion  are  referred  to  as  kdla-tlid.  kd/a-thaiiii —\<\As  and  girls 
"of  the  period,"  who  cultivate  smartness  in  their  sjieech.  bearing  and  dress. 
The  suitor  brings  presents  of  flowers  and  fruit  and  ornaments.  Oranges,  e.vpen- 
sively  stored  one  b}-  one,  long  past  the  season,  are  for  this  sole  purpose.     Car\ed 


TEA       LEPPEYYE,. 


<Fmi — 

".     _                                                                                         1 

T3>  v^f 

'    J:  **          *■ 

\  ^^tiT"'      \V 

147       BELLE    AT    HER    TOILET. 


M8       VILLAGE     BELLE. 


coi'K  rsiiir 


69 


149.     THE    SUITOR  S    VISIT. 


wurk  -  boxes,  loum  -  latli.s,  mirror- 
.stands  are  often  the  lover's  handi- 
work. Not  the  least  of  the  lover's 
offcrins^s  is  poetry.  If  he  be  a 
scholar,  lie  will  sinjf  or  recite  to  his 
mistress  verses  of  his  own  in  praise 
of  her  charms.  But  there  are  cur- 
rent ditties  to  the  fancy  of  every 
one.  The  imagery  which  is  the 
main  feature  of  these  odes,  is  bor- 
I'owctl  from  every  source  of  beauty, 
blossom  and  flower,  dewdrop  and 
pearl,  planet  and  star.  Burmese 
metre  is  largely  eked  out  with 
euphonic  particles  ;  at  other  times 
the  diction  is  so  compressed  as  to  make  the  sense  most  difficult  for  a  foreigner 
to  grasp. 

Marriages  of  affection  are  general.  Romantic  attachments  are  frequent  in 
real  life,  as  they  are  the  rule  in  the  play.  The  frequency  of  the  mere  marriage 
of  convenience  is  not  greater  in  Burma  than  in  England  or  America.  In  this 
respect  there  is  no  parallel  to  the  customs  of  the  hill-tribes  of  Burma,  the 
neighbouring  Asiatic  civilisations  or  even  the  Latin  races  of  Europe.  Their 
mutual  qualities,  physical,  moral,  and  material,  are  for  the  most  part  known  to 
the  parties  from  childhood.  Burmans  evince  an  openness  and  frankness 
amounting  to  joviality,  not  to  be  met  with  in  other  parts  of  Asia.  They  indulge 
a  much  freer  play  of  feature  and  yet  greater  freedom  in  the  modulation  of 
the  voice.  The  term  for  betrothal — saydn-pc,  earnest-money — testifies  to 
the  original  purchase  of  the  bride.  In  modern  usage,  however,  the  saydii  is 
merely  a  share  of  the  cost 
of  outfit,  according  to 
means.  It  takes  the  form 
of  a  silk  tamein  or  a  piece 
of  jewellery  for  the  girl, 
and  is  brought  by  the  latl 
when  he  comes  with  his 
parents  to  ask  the  con- 
sent of  the  girl's  parents 
to  the  marriage.  Where 
parents  oppose,  runawa)' 
matches       ate       frequent.  ,50.   marriage  ceremony. 


70 


f!['/^.VA 


151       THE    IDEAL    AND    THE    REAL- 


They  are  generally  condoned.  Burmans  do 
not  wait  to  make  mone}'  in  order  to  marry, 
but  marr}-  in  order  to  make  money.  Girls 
marry  from  the  age  of  about  t\vent\-,  and  men 
about  t\vent}'-five.  The  marriage  is  a  quiet 
aft'air.  A  day  is  fixed,  when  the  lad  and  his 
parents  repair  to  the  home  of  the  girl,  whither 
some  of  the  elders  of  the  village  {lildyi)  have 
been  invited  for  \\itness.  The  father  of  the 
kul  addresses  the  parents  of  the  girl  in  this 
wise :  "  Seeing  that  our  children  love  each 
other,  we  pray  you  let  your  daughter  be  as 
our  daughter  and  our  son  as  your  son  "  {ekkan). 
The  girl's  parents  express  their  ])leasure  and 
approval,  and  according  to  one  usage,  the 
couple  thereupon  join  hands  {lettat),  which 
means  marriage  ;  but  the  joining-bf-hands  is 
as  a  rule  figurative.  After  this  the  lad  goes 
and  fetches  his  bedding,  curtain,  and  clothes 
and  places  them  in  the  house  in  token  of  re- 
ception into  the  family.  In  conclusion,  the 
parties  and  tlic  witnesses  eat  pickled  tea  together.  When  one  or  both  parties 
are  strangers  in  the  place,  friends  undertake  the  part  of  parents  and  the  elders 
make  inquiries  as  to  blood-relationship  and  pre-existing  ties.  Kinship  closer 
than  first-cousin  and  the  corresponding  step-relation.ships  are  re.spected  — except 
by  royalty  (p.  170).  Sometimes  marriages  are  of  a  more  festive  description 
{iiiingala).  Astrologers  are 
called  in  and  company  en- 
tertained as  at  the  iidbauk 
mingala.  Other  unions, 
again,  are  b)-  mere  mutual 
agreement,  without  formah- 
tics  of  any  kind.  Hy  time- 
honoured  custom  the  iad^ 
of  the  village  claim  the 
right  to  pelt  the  house  of 
the  new-married  pair  at 
night  (gi'-pyit).  and  it  is  usual 
to  buy  them  off.  New 
cou|j1cs  mostly  start  life   in 


152.     TATTOOING    .TOOWIN'    (iC'' P.  13'. 


MARIUACE 


153.     THE    CHALLENGE 
{secf.   177). 


tlic  young  wife's  home,  the  lad  working  f(jr  her  parents. 
As  family  comes  and  other  daughters  marry,  the  elder 
pairs  are  established  in  liouses  of  their  own.  Married 
people  are  designated  ^/«-«'««;/^''- -householders.  Marriage 
makes  no  difference  in  the  names  and  their  prefixes. 
Iweryone  marries  in  Burma  ;  the  census  of  1891  gave 
1,306,722  husbands  to  1,307,292  wives.  The  same  census 
gave  102  females  to  100  males  of  the  Burman  (so  classed 
as  BuddhistJ  population.  (In  Banna  prostitution  is  con- 
fined to  the  large  towns.) 

A  famih'  of  seven  is  considered  large.  The  average 
number  of  house-occupants  is  5.5.  The  cost  of  living  of 
a  Burman  village  household  is  100  to  200  Rs.  a  year.  In 
the  towns  the  well-to-do  spend  600  to  1000  Rs.  and  more, 
and  at  the  present  day  keep  a  servant  or  two  for  the 
rough  work,  generally  natives  of  India.  Such  accumula- 
tions of  wealth  as  are  made  by  individuals  in  India  and 
other  countries  with  a  plutocracy  and  a  proletariate  are 
not  ])aralleled  among  the  Burmans.  Nevertheless  in- 
dividuals   amass    tens    of  thousands    of   rupees,  which    for 

the    most    part    they   spend    on    works    of 

religious  merit.     Monogamy  is  the  received 

and    almost    universal    practice    in    Burma. 

Second-wives  are  taken  by  a   proijortion   of 

the    officials    and    men    of    wealth.       Hence 

it    comes    that    the    Burmans    wonder    more 

at    the    moderation    of    Europeans    than    at 

such    license  as  they  indulge.     This  license 

is  not  nearly  so  great  as  in   India,  but  it  is 

more    open,    corresponding    to    the    higher 

status    of  the    women    of  Burma,   and    thus 

it    provokes    more    scandal    in    comparison. 

Unions  of  this  sort  among  the  Burmans  are 

b)'   mere    mutual  consent.     A    separate    es- 
tablishment   in    a    different    quarter    of   the 

town    is    maintained  for    the  second  wife  or 

concubine     {iiiaja-iigf).       Her    chiklrcn    are 

under  no  disability,  but  she  is  not  acknow- 
ledged    by    the    first,    and     generally    older, 

wife   {jiiayaji),  whose    husband's    love  she  is  154.    an  "original' 


72  nrRMA 

said  to  have  stole?/.  The  vast  majority  of  couples  go  through  hfe  faithfully 
and  helpfull}-.  The  best  influences  of  regular  family  life  are  de\eloped.  The 
dissolutions  of  marriage  which  take  place  are  chiefly  on  account  of  incompati- 


155,      PLEASURE    PARTY    BY    BOAT- 


bility.  Sometimes  the  husband  and  wife  merely  drift  apart.  Such  a  separa- 
tion, when  of  long  standing,  is  accepted  and  the  parties  are  free  to  marry  again. 
In  acute  and  irreconcilable  differences  the  parties  appl)-  to  the  elders  of  the 
place  for  divorce.  It  becomes  the  elders'  duty  to  make  three  efforts  to  dis- 
suade the  couple  from  their  purpose,  h'ailing  in  these,  the)-  pronounce  separation 
{kzi'd  byi).  Pickled  tea  is  eaten,  as  in  the  case  of  the  marriage.  The  bo\-s  of 
the  union  go  with  the  father,  the  girls  with  the  mother.  Common  goods  are 
divided  equally  ;  her  dower  and  the  proceeds  of  her  independent  trade  and 
investments  are  at  the  woman's  own  disposal  from  first  to  last.  When  she 
can  manage — as  she  often  contrives  to  do-  the  mother  keeps  and  provitlcs  for 
all  her  children,  but  they  retain  a  lien  on  the  father's  support.  There  is  no 
woman  so  well  able  to  shift  for  herself  as  the  woman  of  Burma.  Her  in- 
dependent  status    would 

seem  to  be  the  corollary 

of  hei  independent  ability 

to    manage    for    herself 

Nowhere  else  is  the  wife 

more  prized  ;  nowhere  is 

woman    better     able    ti  ■ 

make    terms    with    man. 

Although  undci-  the  Hin- 
du code  of  Mani'i  which 

the    Burmans    nominally 

follow,      the      status      of 

woman  is  onK  llu-  liidi.m  iss.    pleasure  party  by  cart. 


S7\1T('S   (>/■'    ir().U/:.V 


73 


DOMESTIC    FLOWER   STAND 
INYAUNQ-YE-O), 


zone  of  commerce  is  neutral 
transacting  the  bulk  of  the  retail  trade. 
In  certain  localities  women  do  the  lighter 
part  of  the  out-door  work,  and  in  the 
poorer  districts  of  the  dry  zone  they  share 
in  the  heavy  labour.  Women  are  accorded 
precedence  among  men  according  to  the 
standing  they  have  acquired  by  marriage 
or  by  their  independent  efforts.  The 
Kyaungam4—t\i&  woman  who  has  founded 
and  who  supports  a  school  —  enjoys  a 
deference  on  all  sides  proportioned  to 
the  munificence  of  her  gift.  Women  mix 
freely  among  men  but  are  never  jostled  by 
them.  At  great  gatherings  men  and 
women  group  apart.  The  Burman  women 
are  smart  at  repartee,  and  hold  their  own 
in  the  perpetual  banter  that  goes  on 
between  the  sexes. 
L 


one,  no  disability  of  a  practical  kind  exists 
for  her.  But  it  is  the  aspiration  of  every 
woman  to  transmigrate  as  a  man  in  the 
next  phase  of  existence  {baiva,  p.  43). 
As  the  state  of  a  man  is  thought  a  more 
desirable  one,  .so  it  is  inferred  that  her 
life  in  the  previous  incarnation  has  brought 
the  woman's  state  upon  her.  How  deep 
and  tender  is  the  poetry  which  the  idea 
of  transmigration  weaves  into  the  life  of 
the  Buddhist  may  be  judged  from  the 
example  at  the  close  of  Chapter  XXIII. 
of  The  Soul  of  a  People.  Orphans  arc 
adopted  by  relatives,  and  in  default  of 
such,  never  fail  to  find  foster-parents.  The 
division  of  labour  between  the  sexes  is 
the  common  one  of  out-door  and  in-door. 
Wherever  circumstances  permit,  women 
are  relieved  of  hardship  ;  the  sheltered 
places  in  boats  and  carts  belong  to  the 
women  and  children.  The  great  middle 
women    embark    in    wholesale    trade,    besides 


158.      WAYSIDE    WATER-STAND    IN    THE    CITY. 


74 


B[ -R.M.I 


159       CHILDREN    AT    THE    RIVER    SIDE. 


Every  stranger, 
man  or  woman,  is  ad- 
dressed K' inbya — sir, 
madam.  There  is  a 
courteous  address  for 
nearly  every  relation 
in  life.  Children,  in 
speaking  to  their 
parents,  grandparents, 
uncles,  and  aunts,  say 
Shin  and  Dm^.' — lord, 
lady  ;  wife  to  husband, 
Shin ;  husband  to  wife,  Byo,  Bya — terms  of  endearment  ;  younger  brother 
or  sister  to  elder.  Go,  Maung-dyi ;  elder  brother  to  younger  Maitiig ;  brothers 
to  sisters.  Ma.  Maioig  and  Ma  (brother  and  sister)  have  become  the 
ordinary  prefixes  to  names,  answering  to  our  Mr.,  Mrs.,  Miss.  These  are  used 
even  by  parents  to  their  grown-up  children.  To  inferiors  and  in  disparage- 
ment, the  plain  tiga,  i//i\  mi  are  used.  Middle-aged  men  are  given  the 
address  Go,  and  old  men  that  of  6^  (uncle),  which  is  also  the  prefix  to  the  bivi!' 
of  the  j'rt/M//.  Great  regard  is  conveyed  by  the  address  5«)'^— teacher,  master. 
The  honorific  word  for  wife  is  gaddw,  thus — sayd-gaddzv,  min-gaddw.  To 
royalty  the  addresses  were  Godaic — royal  self ;  AsMii-Payd — -lord  of  lords  ; 
Poii-daic-dyi — of  great  glor\-.  These  titles  came  to  be  used  for  mini.stcrs 
and  governors,  as  more  euphemistic  ones  were  devised  for  the  kings.  The 
same  addresses  are  accorded  by  courtesy  to  the  yaliaii,  who  on  their  j^art 
address  the  layman  as  Taga,  Tagddaic — supporter,  great  founder.  The 
layman  refers  to  himself  as  tabyi-daiv — the  honoured  disciple.  In  other 
relations  of  life  other 
periphrases  are  used  for 
the  pronouns  of  the  first 
and  second  persons.  The 
I^lain  /  and  you  —  nga, 
iiiii,  are  only  used  in  dis- 
paragement. Thus  the 
current  ])hrase  for  /  is 
tyiaiok—  the  humble  ser- 
vant. ( injr  women,  tyiiii- 
iiia.)  In        addressing 

superiors,    the    [ihrase    is 
tyunddiv,      Payd-tyunddiv 


160.      CHINLON    GAME   (APPLIQUE    WORK,    y.    179). 


MANNERS  AND    CUSTOMS 


75 


161.      CHILDREN   S     TUBS     AT     FLOOD    IIML 


— the  slave,  his  lord- 
ship's humble  servant. 
There  are  special  hono- 
rific terms  for  the  com- 
ing and  going,  eating 
and  sleeping  of  royalty 
and  of  the  yakdu.  The 
most  coveted  titles  or 
appellations  are  those 
of  kyaung-laga,  Paya- 
iagd  —  founder  of  a 
school,  founder  of  a 
temple.  The  first  of  these  is  given  by  courtesy  to  persons  of  venerable 
age.  The  great  increase  of  prosperity  has  given  a  corresponding  impetus 
to  the  founding  of  such  works,  so  that  the  tagd  are  more  numerous  than 
ever  before.  The  ])rivate  foundations  are  on  a  scale  of  unprecedented  mag- 
nificence. At  no  period  has  Buddhism  shone  through- 
out the  land  in  such  resplendence  as  now.  Personal 
titles  and  badges  {salwk,  No.  31)  used  to  be  given  by 
the  kings.  Small  dignities  and  offices  have  been 
hereditary  in  many  places.  Nevertheless,  no  aristocracy 
has  developed.  One 
of  these  titles  was 
Thakiti  (master, 
lord),  now  assumed 
by  all  Europeans, 
in  the  same  way  as 
"sahib"  in  India. 
Despite  the  punc- 
tilio in  address, 
are  imusual  between  equals. 
After  absence,  a  mere  "  Here  you  are 
again  "  and  an  inquiry'  about  health  —  nia- 
e-ld  ?  At  departure,  "I'm  off,"  "You're 
off" — t/nva  daw  nit.  There  is  nothing 
answering  to  the  established  saldiu  or  to 
our  "  Good  day,"  "  Good-bye."  The  ver- 
bal salutation  to  the  yahdii.  after  obeisance, 
is  Godai^'-iiiya  thdppdyd pyippa-e  Id — is  your 
grace    duly    provided    with    the    canonical 


CARVING     OF     CHINLON 
PLAYER. 


greetmgs 


THE    PABYA    SHRINE. 


76 


/ 


Br/^.i/.i 


5^;^ 


164        FOHEbT     ZANAT     Af^D    VVATLfi-brANU 


requirements  ?  To  which  the 
yaluiit  cordially  responds, 
pyippa,  pyippn.  tagadaiv — that 
I  am,  my  valued  supporter ! 
Just  as  salutations  are  ordin- 
;iril_\-  omitted,  so  thanks  are 
only  expressed  for  special 
fa\ours.  The  sense  of  obliga- 
tion is  conveyed  by  adopting 
Courteous  forms  of  speech,  in 
which  the  particle  ha  always 
figures.  The  set  forms  of 
please  and  thank  you  are  thus 
dispensed  with.  Where,  how- 
ever, a  disparity  of  age  and  position  exist,  every  act  of  the  superior  becomes 
by  courtesy  a  boon.  A  Burman  is  disconcerted  by  a  simple  present,  as  well 
as  by  bakshish  and  payments  above  the  stipulation,  which  he  is  particular  to 
make  beforehand.  But  when  approaching  a  superior  with  a  request,  the  inferior 
bears  an  offering  of  courtesy,  generally  fruit.  The  inferior  makes  sJiiko  both 
on  approaching  and  taking  lea\e.  A  Burman  tiocs  not  stand,  in  the  jirescncc 
of  his  superior,  but  squats  down.  When  he  has  occasion  to  pass  close  to 
his  superior,  he  does  not  walk  erect  but  crouches.  B}-  well-bred  Burmans 
the  gestures  of  respect  are  performed  in  a  very  graceful  manner.  E\-er\-  liurman, 
the  yalidii  not  excepted,  on  ascending  the  krainieiiig  of  a  Imusc  removes  his 
sandals  or  shoes.  As  we  Westerns  respect  the  roof  that  our  host  has  pro- 
vided by  doffing  our  head-gear,  so  ICasterns  respect  theTf^'c;-  that  is  provided 
an  observance  of  a  practical 
nature  where  the  floor  serves 
both  for  seat  and  table.  In 
an  analogous  way  to  our 
greeting  with  the  hat,  the 
Oriental  shows  respect  b\- 
slipping  the  sandals  even  out- 
side the  house.  Still  more 
courteous  is  the  practice  of 
washing  the  feet  before  en- 
tering a  house  or  kyaiiiig. 
Jiurmans  always  contrive  to 
sit  so  as  to  hide  the  soles  of 
the    feet     or     to     turn     tiicin  ,e5     receiving  a  visitor 


MANNERS  AND    CUSTOMS 


77 


166.      VILLAGE    CHEVAUX    DE   FRISE. 


away  from  the  conipany.  In  a 
similar  spirit  of  courtesy  a  rider  dis- 
iiKiiiiits  and  unibreilas  are  closed. 
Among  acts  of  discourtesy  few  are 
accounted  so  grave  by  the  ]5urmans 
as  that  of  awakening  a  sleeper.  The 
reluctance  to  disturb  a  sleeper  is 
connected  with  the  belief  that  the 
siiirit  {leipfyyci)  leaves  the  body  during 
sleep  (p.  197).  It  is  looked  u])on  as 
a  weakness  to  show  resentment  and 
temper  (daict/m.  p.  44).  A  visitor 
in  a  house  is  offered  a  new  mat  to 
sit  upon,  water  to  drink,  betel  to 
cliew,  and  a  spittoon.  If  it  be  meal- 
time he  is  invited  to  partake  ;  other- 
wise he  is  asked  if  he  has  had  food,  and  refreshment  is  brought.  y\lthougli 
the  quota  of  leisure  that  falls  to  everyone  is  greater  in  Burma  than  anywhere 
else,  owing  to  the  wide-spread  prosperity  of  the  inhabitants,  there  is  perhaps  no 
country  in  which  every  man,  woman,  anil  child  is  less  exempt  from  business 
concern.  Thus  it  happens  that  after  a  few  commonplaces,  conversation  inevitably 
turns  to  business — prices,  harvests,  prospects.  Next  in  interest  come  the  festival 
programmes,  the  local  celebrities  and  their  doings.  In  every  house  there  are 
scales  and  weights,  and  the  household  is  engaged  in  occasional  or  regular  trade. 
Accounts  in  money  and  kind  are  current  between  neighbours.  Whatever  spare 
produce  remains  is  exposed 
for  sale. 

The  villages  either  ha\e 
a  quick  fence  of  impenetrable 
thorny  bamboo  {iiiyitrn'a),  or  a 
hedge  of  cactus  and  briar,  or 
bamboo  chcvaux-di'-frisc.  In 
some  parts  they  are  open.  The 
old  towns  {inyS)  had  ramparts 
and  stockades  (Nos.  6,  371, 
387).  The  highest  sites  about 
the  village  are  for  the  zedi,  the 
Payd-myeox  sacred  ground,  the 
ne.xt  best  are  for  the  kyaung. 
Then  comes  the   enclosure  of  ,6?    approach  to  the  village 


If   &.  f-t* 

^K^K                              mm 

r              ' 

nCRMA 


168,      VILLAGE    CAUSEWAY    IN    THE    TIDAL    REGION. 


the  village  head-man  or 
other  functionary,  and 
round  about,  the  houses 
of  the  villagers  in  more 
or  less  regular  rows. 
The  village  streets  are 
broad  and  in  some 
places  the  houses  are 
well-spaced,  with  plots 
of  fruit-trees  and  vege- 
table -  gardens  between 
and  at  the  back.  No 
care  is  bestowed  on  the 
roads  except  in  a  few  ri\erain  localities,  and  tidal  regions  where  embanked  roads 
and  brick  causeways  are  necessary.  Trees  are  planted  in  front  of  the  houses — 
cocoanut  and  betel  palms,  giant  bamboo,  the  evergreens,  tamarind,  mango,  and 
jack,  for  their  fruit  and  shade  ;  gangaz^^  saga,  and  padduk  for  their  shade  and 
scented  flowers  ;  inesali,  zi.  and  seweraX  fiais  species.  The  screw-pine  and  various 
ornamental  shrubs  are  cultivated  —  tarossaga  (fraiigipani.  No.  92),  sbiiiaya, 
gardenias,  and  roses.  Paliiia  Christi  (castor-oil  plant)  is  common  for  hedges. 
Plants  cultivated  by  Europeans  in  the  tropics — crotons,  begonias,  caladiums, 
balsams — are  spreading  everywhere.  Pot-gardening  is  becoming  a  feature  of 
the  villages  and  even  of  the  raft-houses  and  boats. 

Well  received  as  the  .stranger  is  by  the  people  of  the  village,  he  has  to 
brave  the  displeasure  of  the  village  curs.  The  dogs  are  the  scavengers  of  the 
.settlements,  together  with  the  crows  and  the  myriads  of  ants.  The  termites 
("white  ants")  account  for  the  dry  vegetable  refuse,  hut  thev  also  invade  the 
dwellings  and  destroj-  dry  wood,  mats,  and  thatch.  Cats  attach  themselves  to 
houses  in  the  same  way  as  dogs.     A  peculiarity  of  the  domestic  cat  of  Burma  is 


169.     VILLAGE    RIVER-FRONT. 


.S7f  /■  TL  liM/iX  7\S\    SE,lSONS 


79 


171.     THE    VILLAGE    DOGS- 


the  kinkcil  tail.  Wild  animals  are  often  kept 
as  [jets,  and  fetch  ijjodd  prices.  Monkeys, 
deer,  porcuj^ines,  otters,  are  occasionally 
tamed.  Cage-birds  are  in  many  houses  (No. 
404)  ;  doves,  minas,  and  parakeets  are  the 
coiniiionest.  The  [jrinciiJal  singing  bird  is  the 
bulbul,  but  it  is  not  a  cage-bird.  Poultry  is 
kept  for  the  sake  of  fighting-cocks  or  for  fancy. 
The  wild  peacock  is  caught  young  and  kept  ; 
it  is  generally  a  savage  bird.  The  peacock 
and  the  hare  are  the  national  emblems  of 
Burma  (Nos.  2,  7,  1 1). 

The  houses  and  boats  are  infested  vvitli 
rats  and  cockroaches.  The  latter  have  an 
enemy  in  tlie  /(rz/Z/A  a  large  lizard  of  the  same 
tribe  as  the  little  gecko,  which  catches  flies  in 
the  houses  throughout  the  tropics  of  Asia. 
This  animal  is  remarkable  for  its  loud  cry, 
whence  its  name  (see  The  Shadow  of  the 
Pagoda).  What  w  ith  the  cawing  of  crows,  barking  of  dogs,  croaking  of  frogs, 
chatter  of  sparrows,  knid  hum  of  cicadas,  squeaking  of  rats — an  interval  of  real 
stillness  by  day  or  night  is  a  boon  in  Burma,  when  the  quiet  does  not  merely 
serve  to  bring  out  the  ominous  "  ping "  of  the  mosquito.  In  addition  to  this 
perennial  pest  come  the  flights  of  insects  at  dusk,  as  the  rainy  season  approaches. 
The  "  bombardier  "  comes  with  them,  a  beetle  which  raises  a  blister  wherever  it 
touches,  and  which  is  a  danger  to  eyesight.  But  one  of  the  most  charming 
effects  of  the  country  is  produced  by  the  myriads  of  fireflies  with  their  rhythmical 
illumination  of  the  river 
sedges  at  night. 

The  seasons  of  Bur- 
ma— and  Further  India 
at  large — are  three  ;  the 
rainy,  or  south-west  mon- 
soon, the  cool,  or  north- 
east monsoon,  and  the 
hot  season.  The  rains 
last,  roughly  speaking, 
from  May  to  September 
{Kason,  Nayon,  Wazo, 
Wagdimg,       Tawthalin, 


172,      THE    TAUK-TE    (ONE-FOURTH     NATURAL    SIZE). 


8o 


Bl'RM.l 


173.      VILLAGE    SCENE    IN    THE    DRY    SEASON. 


see  Appendix  E),  with 
.1  fall  of  fifty  to  two 
hundred  inches  accord- 
ing to  locality,  and  with 
.shade  temperatures  of 
75  to  88^  F.  The  cool 
dr\'  season  is  from  No- 
vember to  February 
{Naddzv,  Pyat/io,  Tahod- 
li'^),  with  rare  showers 
and  shade  temperatures 
ranging  from  50  to  80" 
in  the  twenty-four  hours. 
The  cool  season  is  most  pronounced  in  the  inland  and  northern  regions,  less 
so  in  the  south  and  the  neighbourhood  of  the  sea.  At  elevations  of  four 
thousand  feet  winter-night  frosts  occur.  The  hot  months  are  March  and  April 
{Tabdung.  Tagi't),  with  occasional  showers,  and  shade  temperatures  of  80-95', 
and  90-105",  according  to  locality,  in  the  course  of  the  day.  There  is  always  a 
considerable  fall  of  temperature  at  night  in  Burma.  October  {Thadhidyut — 
Tazdungiiuhi)  frequently  has  the  character  of  the  hot  months.  The  regions 
which  have  the  lowest  temperatures  in  the  cool  seasons  have  the  highest  in  the 
hot  season.  But  the  greater  heat  of  the  dr\-  zone  is  relatively  not  so  trying  as 
is  a  lesser  heat  in  an  atmosphere  saturated  with  moisture,  which  impedes  the 
cooling  of  the  body  by  evaporation.  As  the  heat  attains  its  climax,  cloiuls  begin 
to  gather.  The  rains  break,  often  quite  abruptly,  with  \iolcnt  thunderstorms. 
Nevertheless,  lightning-stroke  is  uncommon.  Mail  is  \cr\-  rare.  \\\c\\  before 
the  rains  set  in,  the  great  rivers 
Irawadi  and  Salween  begin  to 
swell,  owing,  as  it  is  believed,  to 
the  melting  of  Himalayan  snows 
in  which  they  have  their  sources. 
The  high  floods  of  these  rivers, 
however,  coincide  with  the  heavy 
rainfall  in  Burma.  Towards  the 
beginning  of  July  the  rivers  and 
tributaries  have  risen  ten  to  twenty 
feet,  submerging  their  hanks  .iiiil 
flooding  the  low-lands.  The  iia- 
wadi  at  Mantlala)-,  where  it  is 
aljout    Iwi)   miles  wide,  rises   thirt)'  u-t.    southwest  monsoon  clouds. 


4 


SEASONS  AND   CLfMATI- 


8i 


176.      VILLAGE    ENVIRONS    IN    THE    FLOODS 


feet.  The  Sal- 
wcen,  above  the 
rapids,  with  a  width 
of  a  quarter  of  a 
mile,  rises  fifty  feet. 
The  hifjh  level  is 
maintained,  with 
lluctuat  ions,  till 
September.  The 
water  in  the  main 
channels  is  turbid 
and  heavy  with 
yellow  silt,  but  it 
clears  itself  in  the  grass-grown  Kii.<in.  Alany  a  cart-track  of  the  dry  weather 
becomes  a  creek  passable  by  deep-laden  boats.  The  whole  aspect  of  the  country 
and  mode  of  life  are  changed  ;  the  villages  of  the  Delta  are  accessible  by 
water,  and  many  stand  in  water.  At  this  season  the  heavy  traffic  of  the 
country  proceeds.  In  some  places  the  rise  is  so  great  and  so  variable  that 
the  people  depend  on  their  boats,  and  every  child  has  a  tub  of  its  own 
(Nos.  159,  161).  Such  a  village  is  Sanyue  on  the  Myimmaka  (Myit-iiia-ka), 
the  river  that  denies  its  tribute  to  the  great  Irawadi,  and  delivers  the  waters 
of  the  Yoma  straight  to  the  sea  (see  map,  and  moinakd,  p.    115). 

The  rise  of  the  spring-tides  above  mean  low-water  level  on  the  coast  of 
Burma  is  sixteen  to  eighteen  feet.  In  certain  estuaries  of  the  Martaban  Gulf, 
dangerous  bores  are  produced.  In  the  Delta,  which  is  a  network  of  creeks,  and 
in  Arakan,  the  facilities  afforded  for  traffic  by  the  tidal  currents  are  unequalled. 

The  abatement  of  the  monsoon  rains,  in  the  course  of  September,  like  the 
break    of  the   monsoon,    is 

attended      w-ith      thunder-     I  ~  1 

storms.     The   surface   soon  ' 

dries  and  the  sub-soil  water  | 
begins  to  sink,  leaving  but 
little  marsh  land  (In^'ct).  As 
the  hot  season  advances, 
the  trees  and  bamboos  of 
the  dry  forest  lose  their 
leaves,  and  the  grasses 
wither,  cox'cring  the  soil 
with  an  inflammable  layer. 
In  the  open,  the  heavy  dews 
M 


177.     VILLAGE    SCENE    IN    THE    HIGH    FLOOD 


82 


BrR}fA 


keep  tlie  pasture  green  till 
March.  By  April  the  ele- 
phant-grass in  the  Kwiii  is 
dry  and  ready  to  burn  like 
a  prairie.  Camp  fires  and 
cultivation  fires  spread,  or 
the  stump  of  a  burning 
cheroot  starts  the  fire,  which 
runs  through  the  kai)ig  and 
the  bamboo  forest  till  it  is 
stopped  b\-  a  broad  water- 
course. In  the  hot  weather 
the  thatch  and  bamboo  of 
the  houses  are  as  dry  as  tinder,  and  \'illage  fires  are  frequent.  A  hook  and 
flapper  on  long  bamboo  poles  are  provided  at  every  house  to  tear  off"  the  thatch 
antl  beat  out  the  fire  (No.  431).  Water-pots  are  set  along  the  roof-ridges,  so 
that  they  only  need  to  be  overturned.  But  if  a  high  wind  is  blowing,  the 
burning  thatch  is  carried  across  streets  and  creeks.  The  people  can  only  save 
their  movables  and  accept  the  situation,  which  they  do  with  characteristic  good 
humour.  The  religious  buildings  being  more  substantial,  there  is  a  better 
chance  of  extinguishing  them  when  on  fire.  Religious  merit  is  to  be  gained  by 
the  effort ;  the  whole  village  turns  out  with  waterpots  to  tiuench  the  flames  and 
slake   the  embers. 


178.      SCENE    IN    THE    PLAINS    AT    FLOOD-TIME. 


179       THE     IRAWADI    AT    PROME. 


181.      BRICK-MAKERS. 


CHAPTER    V 

TRADES  AND   PROFESSIONS 

Most  artizans  in  the  rural 
settlements  are  cultivators 
as  well,  pl)'ing  their  special 
trade  in  the  by-season.  The 
home  industries  continue  to 
be  practised  in  the  seaport 
towns,  where  certain  of  them, 
such  as  rice-cleaning,  are  con- 
ducted wholesale  (No.  184). 
The  largest  plant  used  in 
the  country  villages  is  the 
oil-mill  {shon).  The  cooking- 
oil  of  Burma  is  pressed  from 
the  seed  of  sesamum  {/iiiait), 
a  black  grain  resembling 
rape.  It  is  not  so  delicate  as  olive  oil,  but  is  used  for  adulterating  the  latter. 
Oil-cake  is  used  for  fodder.  The  mill  consists  of  a  great  mortar  made  of  the 
trunk  of  some  hard-timbered  tree  with  a  pestle  of  the  same.     Htiaii  is  grown  as 


1C2.    OIL-MILL. 


84 


BURMA 


a  secondary  crop  in  the  hills,  a  dry-weather 
crop  in  the  X-eiv';/,  and  a  full  crop  in  the  dr\- 
zone.  The  care  of  the  tdri  palm,  the  jilant- 
ing  and  milling  of  sugar-cane,  the  care  of 
orchards  and  the  raising  of  vegetables  are 
occupations  of  a  special  kind.  The  tan  and 
pc  palms,  which  yield  the  palm-wine  or  juice, 
propagate  naturallj'.  The  tan  grows  about 
a  foot  a  year,  and  attains  a  height  of  eighty 
to  a  hundred  feet  (No.  167).  It  fruits  at 
fifteen  to  twenty  years.  Tan  palms  are 
common  on  the  temple-lands  and  other 
well -drained  and  uncultivated  clearings. 
The  curved  flower-stalks  of  the  tan  are 
cut  through,  and  to  their  stumps  earthen 
pots  are  slung  to  receive  the  juice  that 
exudes.  A  gallon  or  more  is  collected 
from  a  tree  in  twenty-four  hours.  Palm- 
juice  is  also  obtained  from  the/r,  the  dried 
leaves  of  which  are  used  for  writing  on. 
The  tree  takes  about  fifty  >-ears  to  mature  : 
then   it  flowers  for  the  first  time,  fruits  and 

dies  ;    its    gigantic    licad   of   bloom   is  cut   off  at    the  base  and  the  juice   flows 

for   .some    montlis.      The    dani    jialm    is    tapped  in  the    same  way   as   the  ta)i. 

Fresh   juice    of   all    three    palms    is    sweet,    and    before    fermentation    sets    in, 

it   may  be  drunk  even    by  the 

yahan.     When  boiled  fresh,  the 

juice  yields    a    sugar  (tannyct). 

The  collecting   ])ots  are  boiled 

out   daily,   by  which   the  yeast 

that  forms  is  destroyed.     This 

boiling    is    omitted    when    the 

liquor  is  intended  for  a  bever- 
age.    In  that  case  a  decoction 

of  the    nut   of  panga  or    other 

astringent  is  added,  which  helps 

to    arrest    fermentation     at    tlir 

vinous   stage.       Otherwise  acid 

fermcntatidu  is  complete  with- 
in     lu  ent\-f<)ur     hoiu's.       h"er-  is-i    cleaning  rice  wholesale 


183,      PE    AND    TAN    PALMS 


SUGAR 


«5 


■ir  ■'SJBi- 


m 


185.     CANE-CRUSHING    MILL, 


mcnlcd  /aii-yc  (Idri, 
palm -wine)  lias  the 
alcoholic  strength  of 
small  beer.  Most  of 
the  juice  is  boiled  down 
for  the  sake  of  the 
sugar.  Drinkers  of  tdri 
are  few  among  the  Bur- 
mans.  Women  are  uni- 
versally abstainers.  The 
Hurmans  do  not  brew 
or  distil  liquor  of  any 
kind,  but  in  some  places 
they  make  a  drink  called  sl'-ye  by  adding  to  /ail  an  infusion  of  herbs  of  weak 
narcotic  properties. 

In  parts  of  the  kiciit,  too  lieavily  flooded  for  rice-cultivation,  certain 
varieties  of  sugar-cane  (kyaii)  thrive.  These  have  been  introduced  from 
India  within  the  last  fifty  years  and  have  proved  a  means  of  extending 
cultivation.  On  dry  soil  a  thin  variety  of  sugar-cane  with  a  dark  rind  is 
cultivated,  principalh-  by  .Shan  settlers.  Sugar-cane  is  cut  in  November ; 
cane  tops  are  kept  staiuling  in  water  till  the  soil  has  been  turned  and  thc_\- 
can  be  put  out  for  the  ne.xt  crop.  A  great  deal  of  sugar-cane  is  eaten  like 
fruit.  Cane-juice  is  pressed  out  in  wooden  mills  between  rollers  accuratel\- 
turned  and  geared  by  cogs  or  spiral  teeth  (No.  iS/j.  In  an  adjacent  shed 
is  an  earthen  furnace  for  boiling  the  juice,  which  is  on  a  much  larger 
scale  than  the  palm-juice  boiling. 
Earthen  pots  have  been  super- 
seded by  cast-iron  cauldrons,  at 
first  of  Shan  manufacture,  but 
now  imported  from  Europe. 
The  crushed  stalks  of  the  cane 
furnish  a  large  part  of  the  fuel. 
When  the  syrup  has  thickened 
it  is  poured  into  flat  moulds 
to  solidify.  The  product  is 
hard  and  of  a  light  brown 
colour  {kyaiitagd).  It  is  eaten 
plain  and  is  used  for  baking 
sweetmeats  ;  none  of  it  goes  to 
refineries.       Almost    the  whole  ise.    boiling  down  the  cane-juice. 


86 


BURMA 


187.     TURNING    ROLLERS    FOR    THE    CANE-MILL. 


oiit-tuni  is  bought  up  by 
Chinese  settlers  for  distilHng 
spirits  (p.  156). 

Of  the  edible  wild  fruits  of 
Burma,  after  the  wild  mango 
the  chief  is  kanazo.  There  are 
man\-  less  succulent  kinds  of 
wild  fruit,  for  the  most  part 
acid  and  astringent.  The  culti- 
vated fruit-trees  need  to  be 
protected  from  cattle  till  high 
above  the  ground.  But  so 
rapid  is  the  growth  that  in  two 
to  fi\-e  3'ears  the  trees  are  es- 
tablished.      Tamarind,     mango 

and  jack  are  the  commonest  fruit   trees  and  need  little  care  ;  thc\-  arc  wayside 

trees    in    the    villages.     Clumps    are  planted    in    the  kyauiig  enclosures  and  at 

camping-places  {sakdn)  for  their  shade.     In  the 

dry  zone  the  tamarind   attains   the  proportions 

of  our  oak  (No.   309),  as  does  the  mango  in  the 

moist    regions   (No.   304).     A    congener   of  the 

mango,  the  viaydn,  is  also  planted.  The  jack- 
tree  attains  moderate  size,  but,  although  ever- 
green, its    shade  is  light.     The  cocoanut    palm 

{oil)  has  to  be  artificially  germinated  by  watering 

the  nut  for  several  wrecks  before  planting,  for  it 

rots  if  left  to  soak.     It  needs  fencing  for  some 

years  and  does  not  bear  for  ten  to  fifteen,  which 

is  a  com[)arativcly  long  time  for  labour  to  await 

its  return  in  the  tropics.     Burma  grows  only  a 

small  proportion  of  the  cocoanuts  she  requires  ; 

the    rest    are    imported    from     India    and    the 

Nicobar    Islands.     Dry  cocoanuts  cost  one-halt 

to  one  anna,  and   green    nuts   as   much  as  two 

annas  each.       The  water  of  the  green  nut  is  a 

refreshing    beverage,  freciuently  offered    tw   the 

yaluiit   and    in    hospitality   to  strangers.      The 

betel-palm     {kiiii,    areca)    is    more    extensively 

propagated.     Limes,  citron  and   ])umel(),  jujube 

and   guava,   cashew   and   bad   .ue   pl.mted   about  "^^    collecting  jack-fruit. 


FRUIJ'S,    VEGET.IBLF.S,   I'l.OWIiRS 


S 


/ 


IliUII-blALL    IN   JULY    (TENASEBIM). 


the  villages.  They  de- 
mand little  or  no  care. 
Fruit-trees  on  which 
proper  care  is  bestowed 
are  the  custard -apple, 
orange,  mangosteen  and 
diirian,  the  first  of  these 
in  the  dry  region,  the 
latter  three  in  the  moist 
south.  The  durian 
{liuyiii)  requires  about 
the  same  expenditure 
of  labour  before  it  bears  as  the  cocoanut  ;  but  the  fruit  is  prized  above  all  others. 
Its  cultivation  has  been  so  much  extended  of  late  that  average  durians  in  the 
season  cost  only  about  double  the  price  of  green  cocoa  nuts.  Thirty  years 
ago  both  durian  and  mangosteen  used  to  cost  two  and  three  times  as  much 
as  now.  The  limits  of  durian  and  mangosteen  are  17°  N.  and  95'  E.  Only 
a  small  part  of  the  habitat  of  both  trees  is  included  in  Burma.  Oranges,  like 
all  fruit  trees  in  Burma,  are  grown  from  seed.  The  custard-apple  is  planted 
on  terraced  hillsides.  It  gives  to  the  Irawadi  at  Prome  a  character  which 
recalls  the  vineyards  of  the  Rhine.  The  fruit  of  Burma,  however,  as  of  the 
tropics  at  large,  is  the  plantain  or  banana  {hngeppydiv-tlii).  Many  varieties 
are  cultivated,  some  of  them  very  delicate.  The  plantain  is  propagated  from 
suckers  ;  after  fruiting  in  the  second  year,  the  plant  dies.  The  papaya  {thiuibdw- 
tht,  Nos.  407,  435)  was  introduced  over  sixty  years  ago  and  has  spread  every- 
where. Of  sweet  fruits  there  remain  the  pine-apple,  which  is  cultivated  in  the 
light  shade  of  the  orciiards 
of  jack,  and  the  water- 
melon, grown  in  vegetable 
gardens  together  with  cu- 
cumbers and  vegetable 
marrows.  The  walnut  and 
chestnut  flourish  in  the 
north.  The  vine  bears 
there  also,  but  cannot  be 
accounted  a  Burma  fruit. 
Other  nuts  are  the  cashew 
kernel  and  the  ground-nut 
{i)iyc-bc)  ;  both  have  to  be 
roasted.       The    kernels    of  190.   rod  net  (paittagun). 


88 


BURMA 


jack  and  several  other  fruits  are 
roasted  and  eaten.  Vegetables 
are  regularly  cultivated  in  the 
vicinity  of  large  towns.  In  the 
villages  very  little  trouble  is 
taken  with  them.  A  bush  or 
so  of  capsicum  and  a  few 
plants  of  brinjal  or  tomato  arc 
set  ;  pumpkins  and  gourds  are 
trained  ever  the  roof  or  on 
arbours  in  front  (Nos.  1 26,  414). 
The  market  \egetables  are 
onions  and  garlic,  many  kinds 
191.   SWING  NET    YAGwiNi,  ^f     \^^^^^^    frgsh     and    dried, 

various  tubers,  yams,  "  sweet-potato,"  pumpkins,  marrows,  gourds,  brinjals 
and  tomatoes,  c/iitJil'diii/g,  kyeppauiig  and  kycinmauk.  Green  maize  is  used  as 
a  vegetable.  The  cultivation  of  maize  would  admit  of  great  extension  in  the 
/•U'///  if  there  were  a  market  for  the  grain.  Green  shoots  culled  from  all  sorts 
of  wild  herbs  and  trees  are  brought  to  market.  The  most  substantial  of  these 
are  bambcjo  shoots  ;  they  turn  red  b}-  boiling  as  shellfish  do.  l^lack  pepper 
and  cardamom  occur  wild  in  Hurma  and  are  also  cultivated,  but  not  extensively. 
Turmeric  and  ginger  arc  culti\-ated,  as  well  as  anise,  caraway  and  coriander. 
Cinnamon  and  cloves  are  imported.  Nutmeg  is  native  to  the  evergreen  forests 
of  the  south.  luHopcan  \-egetables,  raised  b\-  Chinese  gardeners,  are  offered 
for  sale  in  the  markets  of  large  towns.     Potatoes  are  imported  from  India  and 


have    been    grown   with  success   in  the  Shan  and    Taung-ngu  hi 


Muropcan 


flowers  have  spread  ever>'where.  Cut  flowers  arc  sold  in  the  markets  for  toilet 
use.  The  rose  has  been 
cultivated  in  Burma  for 
ages  and  is  the  flower 
mcst  prized.  No  grafting 
is  practised  nor  are  any 
of  the  garden  \arieties 
known.  The  real  flor.d 
wealth  of  Burma  —  its 
orchids  {tliikkicabdii)  — 
the  peoiilc  are  only  begin- 
ning to  iliscover  owing  to 
the  interest  taken  in  them 
by  strangers. 


102       FISH-TRAP      HMYON  . 


FLSIfERY 


89 


r 

SET '  ^ 

1 

i 

n, 

1 

7'  '         -, .  ^-$gSHM| 

r^i^jjjI^B 

1 

IHI 

■^H 

E^S 

- '.-  -  -v«^9^^^^^^m^^ 

I^H 

193.      DABBING    WITH     FLY 


Next  to  the  rice- 
iinlustiy  the  (greatest  in- 
dustry of  J5urnia  is  tlie 
catching  and  ciiringof  fish. 
Unhke  the  rice,  tlie  fisli 
is  entirel)'  for  local  con- 
sum[jtion.  The  fisherman 
gets  his  living  by  taking 
life,  contrary  to  the  car- 
dinal injunction  of  the 
Huddha  —  "  let  him  not 
destroy,  or  cause  to  be 
destroyed,  any  life  at  all, 
or    sanction    the    acts    of 

those    who    do    so."       The   subterfuge   which    the    specious    resort    to    in    using 

animal    food,    namely,  that    they    had    no  share  in  the   act   of  taking   life,  was 

thus    provided    against    by   the    Buddha    in    the   form    of   his   injunction.      The 

Burman  is  a  kind  master  to  his  animals,  but  much  cruel  suffering  results  from 

neglect  of  injuries,  such   as   da-cvAs.  often    inflicted    in   temper.     The    merit    of 

putting  a  suffering  creature  out  of  pain  is  not  recognised    or    is  denied.     The 

reluctance    to    take   life  is    operative    in    preventing    the    people  at    large    from 

obtaining    other    animal    food    than    fish. 

But    such    is    the    craving    for    flesh    that 

the    Burmans    will    consume    that    of    ani- 
mals   dead    from    natural    causes    and    of 

many  animals  commonly  rejected  for  food. 

The   Burmans  do  not   eat  the  flesh  of  the 

monkey,  dog,  parrot  and  crow.     The  ways 

of  taking  fish  are  legion.     Hooks  are  used 

with    bait    and    also    to    mount    a    fly    for 

dabbing  {ban  laik).     A  contrivance  to    be 

seen  along  the  banks  of  every  river  is  the 

hinyon,  a  cage    trap  with    falling  door  for 

large  fish.      Fish-spearing   is  practised  by 

day  and  also  by  torch-light  at  night.     On 

the  largest  scale,  fish  are  taken  by  drawing 

off  the  water  from  the  flat  lagoons  which 

form  in  the  depressions  of  the  kiviii    {in, 

p.   49).     Screens   of  bamboo    or  reeds  are 

set  in  the  channels   while    the    floods    are 
N 


194.      CAGING    FISH     SINGLY      SAUNG-TO;. 


90 


BURMA 


draining  oft'.  When  the  weather  is  clear  enough  for  the  work  of  curing,  the 
residue  of  water  is  run  out  and  the  fish  are  taken.  Where  the  channels  do  not 
drain  the  ///  of  its  water,  the  fish  are  taken  by  men  who  advance  close  abreast 
up  the  length  of  the  lagoon  with  conical  cages  which  thc>-  thrust  to  the  bottom 


;.V^^ 

^--**«j*i 

195       CAGING     FISH     IN    COMPANY. 


at  every  step,  taking  out  the  fish  they  catch  by  an  opening  at  the  top  i^snu)ig-td). 
But  the  water  in  some  lagoons  remains  too  deep  for  this  plan,  anil  then  tiigauiisj 
are  made.  These  are  enclosures  along  the  margins  of  the  lagoons  into  which 
the  fish  are  enticed  b)-  the  shelter  of  green  boughs  laid  on  the  surface  of  the 
water.  Small  fish  are  caught  with  the  casting-net  (kiiii).  Hea\\-  nets  for  ri\-cr 
and  sea  fishing  are  made  oi  paissan  twine,  a  kind  of  jute,  tanned  with  cutch 
or  madmua  bark.  Light  nets  are  made  of  cotton  twine.  Drop-nets  with  floats 
of  bamboo  or  paic  are  used  in  the  big  rivers,  the  estuaries,  and  nn  the  coast. 
This  class  of  fishing  is  getting 
into  the  hands  of  settlers  from 
India.  Enormous  quantities  of 
small  fry  are  taken  in  the  estu- 
aries in  large  funnel-shaped 
traps  called  daiiilii,  which  are 
anchored  in  the  tidal  currents. 
The  shark  liibe  (iigiiiiidn)  arc 
common  on  the  coast.  The  fish 
most  jMized  in  liurma  is  iigi- 
thaldiik'  [ki/sij),  but  there  arc 
many  kinds  of  excellent  fish. 
Large  fish  are  slit,  saUeil  and 
sun-dried.  The  eggs  of  the  tur- 
tle are  collected  on  the  lajing- 


I'JG        nSH     WEIF!     AND    TRAP. 


FISHERY 


91 


Hi 

||r 

ggi 

^■^jSjm^^BU 

■-•■nJi. 

1 

198,      SLUICE    OF     LAGOON     FISHERY    !IN) 


banks.       iJucks'   and    fowls'   eggs 
arc  also  eaten. 

Small  fry  and  the  bony  fish 
are  made  into  the  Peguan  con- 
diment iii^apj — pressed  fish.  The 
process  is  essentially  the  same  as 
that  of  anchovy  paste  manufacture, 
but  is  conducted  in  a  much  rougher 
way.  The  fish  after  being  taken 
are  spread  out  in  the  sun  and 
then  pounded  in  a  mortar,  again 
sunned  and  again  pounded  with 
about  a  quarter  their  weight  of 
salt.  Fermentation  is  not  uni- 
formh'  arrested  at  the  proper  stage,  so  that  the  product  becomes  contaminated 
with  putrescence.  According  as  the  compound  remains  moist  or  dry  it  is  made 
into  balls,  moukled  into  bricks,  or  stored  in  jars,  Ngapi  is  sent  to  Burma 
Proper  and  the  Shan  States  in  enormous  quantities.  Fresh  fish,  dried  fish, 
and  ngapi  are  much  the  same  in  price,  one  half  to  one  rupee  the  viss 
(3.65  lbs.)  according  to  quality.  Ngaclihi  is  a  crude  and  unwholesome  pickle 
made  by  putting  fish  to  ferment  with  boiled  and  salted  rice. 

Salt  used  to  be  obtained  from  sea-water  and  from  brine  wells  in  the 
interior,  before  the  import  of  salt  began.  The  manufacture  still  drags  on,  as 
the  local  salt  is  better  for  curing  purposes.  At  spring-tides,  sea-water  in  the 
estuaries  is  let  into  shallow  pans  like  rice-fields,  or  it  is  raised  with  the  Ka-hnwe. 
After  the  brine  has  been  concentrated  by  evaporation  in  the  heat  of  the  sun,  it  is 
boiled  down  in  spherical  earthen  pots,  which  are  built  with  clay  into  a  vault  over 
a  furnace.  Iron  caul- 
drons like  those  in 
No.  186  are  supersed- 
ing the  earthen  pots, 
and  the  round  cauldron 
is  in  its  turn  being  re- 
placed by  a  flat  iron 
pan. 

The  chase,  so  far 
from  forming  the  diver- 
sion of  princes  and 
satraps,  remains  to  the 
Z'rtw/(?//J"  of  the  villages  199    shore  net 


BURMA 


200.      SEA-FISHERMENS    HUTS 


to  ckc  their  li\ing 
by.  The  typical 
reprobate  who  is 
reclaimed  in  Bud- 
dhist legend  is 
the  hunter  {moso). 
The  religious 
stigma  would  pro- 
bably be  less 
severe  if  the  scope 
of  the  chase  were 
not    so    restricted 

as  it  is.  In  the  forests  of  Burma,  with  their  dense  cover,  forage  for  herbivores 
is  scarce  at  certain  seasons,  so  that  game  cannot  multiply  extensively.  Such 
game  as  there  is  has  a  wide  beat,  and  is  hard  to  find  owing  to  the  vast  prepon- 
derance of  forest  land  over  clearing.  For  the  same  reason,  the  game  that  forages 
in  the  cultivation  or  on  its  borders  has  a  limited  field  in  Burma.  In  the  plains 
near  the  sea  there  is  a  closer  approach  to  the  conditions  of  shikar  in  India,  and 
the  chase  becomes  more  of  a  recognised  occupation.  There  are  four  species  of 
deer:  the  sat  [sdnibar  of  India),  the  dayc  (porcine  deer),  r/j'/ (barking  deer,  roe), 
and  a  beautiful  s])ecies  peculiar  to  the  Eastern  Peninsula,  the  tliauihi  (brow- 
antlered  deer),  which  h.is  the  form  and  stature  of  our  red  deer.  I'liainin  are 
found  in  the  plains  on  the  coast  of  Pegu,  and  again  in  the  north-west  of  Burma 
Proper.  On  dark  nights  these  deer  are  hunted  with  the  iiii-oii.  A  lantern  is 
prepared,  with  three  sides  dark.  The  flare  is  directed  towards  the  deer,  which 
are  so  dazed  by  it  that  they  may  be  approached  up  to  striking  distance.  The 
herd  is  deceived  at  the  same  time  by  the  tinkling  of  cow-bells.  Smaller  deer, 
dnyc  and  dyi,  are  caught 
with  nets  in  the  plains 
of  the  coast.  Hunters 
watch  at  their  haunts 
for  them  to  break  cover 
and  come  out  into  the 
cane-fields  or  other  cul- 
tivation. A  stout  net, 
a  couple  of  yards  wiile, 
.stiffened  at  intervals 
with  bamboo  uprights, 
is  run  across  the  line 
of   retreat,   opposite   to  201.    pounding   ngapi. 


THE  CHASE 


93 


BBBM^ 

! 

^^^ 

^.                    •■^^^-  . 

^R 

WK^^ 

JI^Bid  ...r-           "jaiu33^^H 

raHMui^H 

flMHBil^i'*' 

t^HH 

miH 

Hv'' 

■**'*^S2£«ti£i.      '   -^sli^^^ 

^^^^^p 

HBH; 

■'>wHgS|^WPP 

Hi 

1^ 

202.      SETTING    NETS    FOR    DEER. 


whicli  a  second 
party  is  in  hiding 
with  dogs.  At  a 
sign,  the  dogs  are 
slipped  and  the 
deer  chased  head- 
long into  the  nets, 
where  they  are 
c  a  u  g  li  t  or  cut 
down  before  they 
can    get    clear. 

Sat  and  tliaiiiin,  which  would  clear  the  net  at  a  hoiiiul,  are  coursed  with  grey- 
hounds of  local  breed  {Kaiiidl>i)  when  they  have  ventured  far  enough  into  the 
open.  The  Burmans  have  been  acquainted  with  firearms  since  the  fourteenth 
century  of  our  era.  Saltpetre  they  obtained  by  percolating  with  water  the 
droppings  of  bats  accumulated  in  caves,  and  boiling  down  the  lye  ;  it  was  also 
obtained  from  certain  marshes  ;  sulphur  probably  came  from  China.  The  old 
flint-lock  is  still  a  favourite,  because  the  ammunition  is  easy  to  procure.  Weapons 
were  bad,  and  the  iiioso  is  a  poor  marksman  ;  but  he  manages  to  approach  very 
near  to  his  quarr\'.  Cross-bows,  snares,  and  traps  for  game  are  used  by  the  hill 
people,  in  default  of  firearms.  Such  venison  as  is  obtained  is  hurried  off  to  the 
nearest  market  town,  where  it  is  retailed  fresh.  If  it  cannot  be  thus  disposed 
of,  it  is  cut  into  strips  and  sun-dried.  Next  to  deer,  the  chief  quarry  is  the 
wild  pig.  Wild  buffaloes  ("bison,"  huniiig)  frequent  the  forests.  In  a  few 
localities  a  wild  ox  is  found  {saiuff),  A  wild  goat  lives  in  some  of  the  rocky 
limestone  hills.  The  hare  and 
the  partridge  are  common  in  the 
open  country  of  the  dry  zone 
and  the  plateau-land  of  the  hills. 
Peacocks  are  not  uncommon  in 
some  localities,  but  are  nowhere 
so  abundant  as  in  India.  A 
silver  pheasant  {fit)  is  common 
in  the  bamboo  forests.  The 
great  argus  occurs  in  the  ex- 
treme south.  Wild  or  jungle 
fowl  {tm^<-(ivet)  are  common  in 
all  the  dry  forests.  Deco}'-birds 
are  used  for  snaring  these,  and 
also  the  ring-doves  {liyo).    Ducks, 


94 


BURMA 


204.      HILL   MAN    WITH    CROSSBOW. 


geese  and  teal  are  abundant  in  some 
places,  as  are  pigeons  of  many  kinds, 
including  the  large  "  imperial "  pigeon. 
Hut  the  onl\-  game  to  be  counteil  upon  in 
Burma  is  the  snipe  {ziiiyiny.').  which  fre- 
quents the  rice-fields.  The  Burman  does 
not  attempt  this  game,  nor  does  he  shoot 
at  an>-  bird  on  the  wing  or  running  game. 
Pelicans  are  shot  for  the  sake  of  the  crest 
and  neck  feathers,  adjutant-birds  for  the 
marabout  feathers.  The  cruel  chase  of 
the  egret  (byaing)  for  aigrettes  is  con- 
ducted by  aliens.  Other  notable  birds  of 
Burma  are  the  hornbill,  with  its  noisy 
flight,  the  pewit  (tititii),  and  the  king- 
fisher, hunted  by  the  Chinese  for  its 
plumage.  There  are  no  rapacious  birds 
of  dangerous  size.  Carrion  is  speedily 
disposed  of  by  vultures  and  crows.  (For  the  birds  of  Burma  see  the  systematic 
work  by  Eugene  W.  Oates.)  Herbivorous  wild  animals  being  scarce,  the  beasts 
which  prey  on  them  are  particularly  scarce,  and  their  depredations  cm  men  and 
cattle  are  of  much  less  significance  than  in  India.  The  annual  casualties  in  the 
population  of  Burma  from  these  causes  are  about  one  hundred,  of  which  thirty 
are  ascribed  to  snake-bite.  An  old  tiger  (X'jv?),  past  hunting  deer  and  pig,  or  a 
tigress  with  cubs,  makes  a  forest  track  insecure  from  time  to  time.  The  tiger 
is  sometimes  shot  from  a  tree  over  the  kill,  or  a  .spring-gun  is  set  or  a  trap 
constructed.  A  feature  of  the 
trap  in  the  illustration  is  a  par- 
tition as  stout  as  its  walls,  to 
protect  the  dog  used  as  the 
bait,  frt)m  the  tiger.  I'.mlhcrs 
or  leopards  {kyatldt)  occasion- 
ally take  calves,  goats,  pigs, 
and  dogs  from  the  villages. 
These  beasts  are  easier  to  trap 
than  tigers,  which  are  shy  of 
dwellings  and  everything  arti- 
ficial. A  crocodile  (iiiijdiiiig) 
sometimes  makes  a  reach  f)f 
river  unsafe  for  swimmers,  and  ^„^    ^-rap  kor  hcer 


in/J)  .INlMAf.S 


95 


then  till-  batliinj^f-placcs  havi:  to  be  staked  in. 
Wild  elephants  make  a  road  dangerous  at  times. 
I'llephants  are  captured  by  pit-falls.  Decoys  are 
also  used  in  various  ways  ;  small  animals  arc 
detached  from  the  herd  by  their  means  and  then 
kept  going  until  they  are  worn  out,  and  can  be 
tethered  and  hobbled  for  taming.  The  breaking 
in  is  accomplished  by  pinning  the  elephant  be- 
tween trees  or  stout  posts  where  it  cannot  lie 
down,  keeping  it  underfed,  and  giving  food  as 
the  reward  of  docility.  Young  elephants  born  in 
captivity — as  occasionally  happens — are  broken 
in,  in  the  .same  way,  about  the  si.xth  year,  when 
half  grown.  The  stock  is  replenished  from  Siam, 
where  the  wild  herds  are  larger,  and  the  business 
nf  catching  is  more  developed,  and  where  also 
elephants  breed  more  frequently  in  captivity. 
The  elephant-breakers  and  trainers  are  Shans, 
and  the  words  of  command  Shan.  Rhinoceroses 
(kyaii)  may  be  found  about  the  sources  of  streams 
in  the  evergreen  hills  ;  occasional  tracks  are 
seen.  A  tapir  occurs  in  the  forests  of  Tenaserim. 
Wild  dogs  {canis  nitilans)  occur  in  a  few  localities.  There  is  no  wolf  fo.x,  or 
hyiena,  and  no  jackal  east  of  Arakan.  There  is  a  larger  and  a  smaller  black 
bear  {ivhviiii),  very  rarely  en- 
countered, and  not  aggres- 
sive. There  are  several 
species  of  wild  cat  {taic- 
dj'diing)  large  and  small,  and 
a  few  species  of  weasel.  A 
small  porcupine  is  found 
(/>yii).  The  huge  bamboo- 
rat  (/>ii'i}  is  dug  out  of  its 
burrow  by  the  hill  people. 
There  are  many  tribes  of 
monkeys  and  gibbons  ;  the 
weird  cry  of  the  latter  is  the 
characteristic  sound  of  the 
evergreen  forest.  Squirrels 
are    the    only    wild    animals 


207        BRINGING     IN     RUE    DLhl-l      D.I 


208.      MEASURING    THE    PANTHER. 


96 


BURMA 


one  commonly  notices.  A  great  lizard  {put), 
weighing  twenty  to  forty  pounds,  infests 
hollow  trees  ;  it  is  shot  and  eaten  b\-  the 
Burmans,  and  its  skin  used  for  sandals. 
Most  of  the  \enomous  snakes  of  India  are 
common  to  Burma,  excepting  the  small  and 
deadly  krait.  The  formidable  hamadryad 
is  added,  but  there  are  no  fully  established 
cases  of  the  pursuit  of  man  which  is  attri- 
buted to  this  snake.  The  casualties  due  to 
snake-bite  are  chiefly  among  the  reapers. 
The  gigantic  [n'thon  is  not  dangerous  to 
man.  Scorpions  and  centipedes  are  com- 
mon enough,  but  their  stings  and  bites  are 
not  often  serious. 

Good  clay  for  potterj'  is  only  found  in 
certain  localities,  and  from  these  the  manu- 
factures are  sent  to  great  distances  by 
water.  Clay  almost  stone-hard  and  lateritc 
are  pounded  with  a  tilt-hammer,  screened, 
and  worked  up  in  certain  proportions  with 
water  and  sand,  by  treading  with  the  feet. 
The  best  and  strongest  pots  for  cooking  are  not  turned  on  the  lathe  but  patted 
into  shape  b\-  hand.  These  are  but  slight!}-  porous  and  of  a  hard  consistence. 
The  lathe  pottcr\-  is  very  porous  when  not  glazed.  A  salt  glaze  is  used  for 
jars  to  store  oil.  For  ornamental  work,  lead  glazes,  coloured  with  vitriols,  are 
employed.  .\t  the  potteries, 
immense  reverberating  kilns 
are  built  for  firing  the  pots. 
Smaller  kilns  are  fired  all 
round  or  are  excavated  under- 
ground on  the  plan  of  the  lime- 
kiln.    Wood  is  the  fuel  used. 

Stone  for  building  is  scarce, 
except  in  Arakan.  Masonry  is 
reserved  for  the  rA-di.  Of  late, 
owing  to  a  fresh  impulse  from 
India,  masonry  has  again  come 
into  greater  use.  I'-verywhere 
in     the     inhabited     plains     one  yio     pottery    patting  the  ware  into  shape. 


209.    the  hamadryad. 


POTTf-RY  AND    IIRICK 


97 


211        LATHE     POTTERY. 


coines  upon  bricks,  and  on  nearly  every 
lull  bricks  bear  evidence  that  at  some 
time  a  rjcdi  had  crowned  the  top.  In  the 
moist  region  the  disintegrating  effect  of 
the  vegetation  is  such  that  frequently  no 
indication  remains  of  the  form  of  the 
(jriginal  structure.  The  use  of  brick 
doubtless  came  in  with  the  early  ]iud- 
dhist  architecture  exemplified  at  Pagan. 
The  brick-fields  are  on  the  confines  of 
the  rice-fields,  and  of  the  same  character 
as  to  soil,  a  light  loam.  The  work  begins 
in  November  after  the  ground  has  dried. 
The  surface  soil  is  rejected  and  the  earth 
dug  with  mattocks  a  yard  or  two  deep. 
The  clods  are  soaked  in  water  and  trod- 
den into  a  doughy  mass  with  an  ad- 
mixture of  rice  husk.  Ihe  bricks  are 
moulded  direct  on  the  ground,  which  has  been  smoothed  beforehand,  and  are 
left  to  dry  in  the  sun  (No.  i8i).  Before  stacking  the  dried  bricks,  the  lower  or 
rough  edge  is  trimmed  with  a  da.  The  commonest  size  of  brick  is  12"  x  6"  x  li". 
A  burn  consists  of  ten  thousand  bricks  and  sells  for  about  forty-five  rupees.  In 
the  dry  zone  brick  has  always  been  used 
for  house-building  to  some  extent,  un- 
less when  prohibited  by  the  government. 
In  the  south  the  brick-work  is  in- 
variably plastered  over  with  iiigade  to 
prevent  the  cla\-  mortar  from  washing 
out.  Now^  that  brickla\-ing  in  Pegu 
has  passed  into  the  hands  of  masons 
from  India,  lime-mortar  is  usual. 

The  limestone  rocks  which  are  a 
feature  of  the  Eastern  Peninsula,  rise 
abruptly  from  the  plains  to  heights  of 
one  to  three  thousand  feet  (No.  107). 
They  are  honeycombed  with  fissures 
which  facilitate  quarrying.  During  the 
floods  boats  can  approach  and  be  loaded 
with  the  stone.  Lime  is  used  for  white- 
wash, plaster,  mortar,  and  for  chewing 
O 


212.      FANCY    POTTERY   (SHAN  . 


98 


I1['R3/.I 


213.      KILN    FOR    PATTED    WARES. 


with  betel.  The  limestone  rocks 
abountl  in  caves,  many  of  which 
have  been  incrusted  with 
images,  and  transformed  into 
temples  and  shrines  (No.  84), 
but  the  rock  is  not  hewn.  The 
Ume  is  packed  in  baskets  of 
leaf  and  bamboo-wicker,  a  stone 
or  two  in  weight  ;  it  sells  at 
the  kiln  for  one  and  a  half  to 
two  rupees  a  hundredweight. 
The  tenacity  of  the  Burman  lime- 
plaster  is  very  great.  Strength 
is  obtained  b)'  liberal  use  of 
lime,  and  in  the  better  class  of 
work  by  the  addition  of  glue  and  palm  sugar.  Hair  and  fibre  are  not  added. 
For  the  first  layers,  coarse  sand  is  mixed  with  the  lime,  for  the  finishing  layers, 
fine  sand.  The  decoration  of  the  work  is  only  roughly  indicated  in  the  masonry. 
The  relief  of  the  ornament  is  high,  and  the  thickness  of  the  stucco  very  con- 
siderable in  parts.  The  stucco  is  frequently  gilt,  on  cedi  and  images.  The 
gold-size  {thissi.  p.  loi)  is  applied  direct  to  the  plaster,  which,  however,  in  time, 
furnishes  a  soil  for  lichen,  causing  the  gold  to  scale  oft'. 

Although  stone  is  not  quarried  in  sufiicient  abuntlance  for  building  except  in 
Arakan,  good  stone  for  car\ing  images  is  fouml  in  several  places.  The  most 
notable  of  these  is  Taung-u,  on  the  Irawadi,  opposite  Pagan.  More  important 
than  the  red  sandstone  in- 
dustry of  Taung-u  is  the 
industry  at  Sagaing,  0]iposite 
Ava,  on  the  Irawadi,  where 
a  beautiful  white  marble  is 
quarried.  The  heavy  blocks 
arc  hewn  in  the  rough  at  the 
quarry  and  transported  to  the 
site  of  erection  to  be  finished. 
The  subjects  are  cliiefly  tlu' 
conventional  images  of  tlu- 
Huddh.i,  from  a  pound  in 
weight  to  several  tons  (No. 
218). 

riu:     cordage    u.sed     in  2,4    pottery  shop. 


STONE,    PLASTER.    Sff.K 


99 


215       LIMESTONE    ROCKS- 


Burma  is  twisted  from 
the  bast  of  the  slimv  tree 
{j/(?;'«///« varieties).  For 
guys,  stays,  and  stand- 
ing rigging  of  boats, 
rattan  is  employed. 
Split  rattan  is  used  for 
strong  ties,  and  withs 
of  split  bamboo  ihni) 
for  common  tics.  The 
shaiv  rope  is  three  and 
four  stranded,  and  is 
twisted  with  native  gear 
very  like  that  of  our  own  rope-walks.  A  long  and  even  four-stranded  rope  is 
made  by  three  men.  This  furnishes  a  good  example  of  mechanical  advance- 
ment when  compared  with  the  method  of  the  hill-people,  who  require  si.x  men 
to  twist  a  much  shorter  rope  of  the  same  number  of  strands  (p.  loi).  .Shaw 
rope  is  smooth,  but  has  not  the  flexibility  of  cocoanut-fibre  and  manila-fibre 
ropes,  which  are  now  imported.  Fine  cotton  yarn  is  twisted  into  cord  for  making 
nets.     A  coarse  jute  fibre  (paissan)  is  also  twisted  for  net-making. 

Silk-culture  is  under  the  ban  of  Buddhism  for  the  same  reason  as  fishery. 
The  greater  part  of  the  silk  yarn  used  is  brought  from  China,  but  a  good 
deal  is  produced  locally  by  the  Zabciu  or  Yabciii,  a  people  speaking  Burmese 
and  resembling  the  Burmans  in  most  respects,  but  despised  by  the  latter. 
They  are  settled  along  the  foot  of  the  Pegu  Yoma  hill-range,  on  its  eastern 
and  western  slopes.  They  make  clearings  in  the  forest  (taiiiigya)  and  plant  the 
mulberry.  They  prepare  a  yellow  silk  yarn  which,  coarse  and  knotty  as  it  is,  is 
preferred  for  the  best  class 
of  Burman  silk  cloths 
{Iwitaya,  p.  62).  The 
raw  silk  fetches  thirty- 
five  to  forty  rupees  a 
viss.  It  is  a  perfect 
washing  silk  in  all  its 
dyes  and  wears  a  life- 
time. In  a  few  localities, 
silk-weaving  is  a  special 
industry  practised  by 
men  as  well  as  women. 
Settlers     from     Manipur  216,    limekiln. 


lOO 


BCRMA 


217       PLASTERERS   SCAFFOLD    ON    ZEDL 


{Kathe)  excel  in  this  work  and  foi'm 
colonies  for  the  industr\-.  Attempts  have 
been  made  in  Europe  to  imitate  the  scroll- 
patterns  on  the  Jacquard  loom,  as  well  as 
to  print  them.  But  the  imitations  fall  too 
far  short  of  the  original,  which  is  nearh-  the 
same  front  and  back.  The  best  liin-tajii 
silks  cost  ten  to  fifteen  rupees  the  square 
foot,  which  makes  two  hundred  to  three 
hundred  rupees  for  the  paso.  Only  an 
inch  or  two  a  day  can  be  woven.  Italian 
methods  of  carding,  dyeing,  and  finishing 
silk,  were  introduced  by  the  late  King, 
Mind6n  Min,  and  have  helped  to  develop 
an  important  industiy  in  Mandalay.  Stripe 
and  tartan  patterns  are  woven  in  this  way, 
chiefl}'  from  China  silk.  Fine  texture  and 
delicate  tints  are  aimed  at,  rather  than 
rich    colour    and     design.       The    paso    of 

twenty  cubits,  one  cubit  wide,  costs  ten  to  twenty  rupees. 

The  Barman  umbrella  (//)  is  on  the  Chinese  model — a  bamboo  frame  with 

paper  cover.     The  Chinese  umbrella  has  a  thin  paper  cover,  the  Burman  has 

bast-paper,  which  outlasts  several  of  the  other.     But  the  Chinese  umbrellas  are 

cheaper,   better  waterproofed,  and   sun-j^roof.     The  Burman  ti  is  waterproofed 

by    occasional    oiling    with    crude    petroleum.      A    waterproof  size   made    from 

the  fruit  of  the  ti'  is  used  for 

fixing  the  paper  to   the  ribs 

and    the    cotton    twines    that 

connect  them.     The  reil,  the 

gilt  and  the  white  umbrellas 

are  emblems   of  state.     The 

first  two  denote  official  rank. 

according      to     the     number 

assigned.       Such     umbrellas 

have   stems  of  turned  wood, 

six    to   eight    feet    long,    to 

allow  of   the  //  being   borne 

over  the  officer  on  horseback 

or    in    his    chariot,  by  atten- 
dants on   foot  (No.  375).        1  lie  218.     SCULPTURING    MARBLE    IMAGES. 


LACOUER    ir.lh'/t 


lOI 


219.      ROPE-WALK- 


iniicr  side  is  brightly  de- 
corated with  floss  sili<s. 
Gilt  umbrellas  {s/n^'e-di)  are 
dedicated  in  t\\Q kyatciig,h\it 
are  not  actually  used.  The 
white  umbrella  {tibyit)  is 
the  emblem  of  sovereignty, 
rhe  tibyji  is  set  above  the 
images  of  the  Buddha  and 
above  the  remains  of  the 
yahdn,  who  are  assumed  at 
their  death  to  enter  upon  a 
higher  spiritual  stage.  The 
metal  canopy  surmounting  the  zedi  is  a  conventionalised  //  (No.  232).  Of  late, 
European  umbrellas  have  become  a  staple  import  of  Burma. 

Lacquer-ware  vessels  and  utensils — light,  durable,  and  watertight — are 
made  with  the  help  of  tliissi,  the  exudation  of  the  bark  of  Mdanorrluva 
usitatissiiua,  a  common  tree  of  the  /«  forest.  The  gum  blackens  to  jet 
on  exposure  to  the  air.  It  dries  slower  than  the  "Japan  black  "  of  commerce, 
but  is  much  tougher  ;  it  sells  for  two  to  three  rupees  a  viss.  T/iissi  is  applied 
to  wood  turnery  and  bamboo  wickerwork,  either  plain  or  with  pigments, 
generally  with  vermilion.  The  commonest  lacquer  goods  are  platters  {byai 
and  dauug/an),  which  are  turned  of  teak  or  yainauc  wood  and  given  two  or 
three  coats  of  tliissi.  After  the  platters,  the  principal  article  of  lacquer- 
ware  is  the  betel-box  (kmi-it).  Coarse  lacquering  is  done  everywhere  in 
the  dry  region,  but  the  betel- 
box  industry  is  jieculiar  to 
Pagan.  The  advantage  of 
lacquer-ware  and  of  a  deej) 
cover  for  the  betel-box,  is  to 
keep  the  green  leaf  fresh. 
At  first  sight  it  appears  in- 
credible that  these  exact 
cylindrical  boxes  with  their 
trays  and  covers,  fitting  as  if 
each  piece  had  been  turned 
out  of  the  block,  should  start 
from  a  wicker-work  frame. 
Yet  so  it  is  ;  the  models  are 
plaited   so  true  that  the   rest  220.    hill-people  twisting  rope 


I02 


in 'KM. 4 


221       UMBRELLA    MAKERS, 


of  the  work  can  be  done  on  a  lathe. 
To  prepare  the  wicker  for  lacquering, 
it  is  first  given  a  "  rough-stufling  " 
of  fine  clay  to  fill  the  interstices. 
The  work  is  then  painted  with  t/iissi, 
which  penetrates  and  toughens  the 
cla)-  and  binds  the  fibres  of  the 
wicker.  When  the  t/iissi  has  set, 
which  takes  several  days,  the  work 
is  put  on  the  chuck  of  a  bow-lathe 
and  ground  smooth  with  a  fibrous 
stone — a  petrifaction-product.  \'ar- 
nishing  and  grinding  are  repeated 
till  the  surface  is  smooth,  colour 
being  added  to  the  later  coats. 
Then  a  coat  of  contrasted  colour  is  given,  and  when  the  varnish  is  about  half 
set,  the  pattern  is  chipped  with  a  metal  st\-le  through  the  fresh  layer  to  the 
hard  lacquer  beneath.  After  the  work  has  hardened,  the  patterns  are  em- 
bellished b\-  scoring  rings  through  the  layers,  with  a  tool  like  a  carpenter's 
gouge,  so  as  to  bring  out  the  underlying  contrasts.  The  patterns  are  ara- 
besques and  conventionalized  figures.*  Subject  designs  are  also  executed 
(No.  224).  Finally  the  lacquer  is  polished  with  buffs  of  graduated  fineness.  A 
peculiarity  of  thissi  is  that  it  sets  hardest  in  a  moist  atmosphere.  Every  manu- 
facturer has  an  underground  cellar — a  thing  almost  unknown  in  Burma — for  the 
wares  to  harden  in.  Pagan,  the  centre  of  the  industr\-,  is  at  the  same  time  the 
driest  locality  of  the  dry  zone.  The  finest  lacquer,  which  is  only  made  by  a  few 
highly-skilled  workmen,  is  so  elastic  that  th^■  lips  of  a  cup  may  be  bmugiit  to 
meet  without  the  ware 
cracking.  As  much  as 
twenty-five  rupees  is 
paid  for  a  cup  of  such 
quality.  The  ordinary 
ware  has  not  the  tenth 
part  of  this  clasticit\-, 
and  sells  for  one  to  ten 
rupees  a  box.  The 
deep  cover  of  the  betel- 
bo.x     is     the    traveller's 

ordinary     dnnkmg-cup.  222    lacquer-ware  manufacture 

.See  the  ciul-papeis  of  llir  biiulinj;  nf  ihis  xoluiiic. 


Mli  rAIJJ'RCiY 


lO.^, 


223.      SCORING    RINGS    ON    LACQUER   WARE. 


Thissi  al.so  forms  the  vehicle  of 
a  putty,  with  which  a  mosaic 
of  many-coloured  mirror-glass 
i.s  cemented  together.  This  is 
used  for  the  thrones  and  other 
appointments  of  the  palaces, 
temples,  and  kyaiiiig.  Whole 
ceilings  and  walls  are  orna- 
mented in  this  way  (t/iayd). 
The  mosaic  is  set  off  with  gilt 
mouldings.  The  work,  though 
often  tawdiy,  is  sometimes  rich 
and  impressive,  both  as  to  de- 
sign and  colour  (Frontispiece). 
Foot-gear  used  to  be  of  the  nature  of  luxury  in  Burma.  In  houses  and 
boats  people  always  go  barefoot.  But  in  many  parts  of  the  dry  zone  the  thorny 
weeds  make  sandals  a  necessity.  The  common  material  is  raw  buffalo-hide, 
covered  on  top  with  woollen  cloth  and  having  cloth-covered  straps.  The 
straps  come  from  the  sides,  near  the  hollow  of  the  foot,  and  arch  over  to  the 
spot  where  the  toe-post  of  the  Indian  patten  is  set.  Tanned  leather  slippers 
of  European  shape  made  by  Chinese  are  now  ousting  the  Burman  sandal  and 
wood  patten. 

Most  of  the  well-known  metals  are  found  in  Burma.  Before  the  importation 
of  pig,  bar,  and  sheet  metals,  and  of  metal  manufactures  from  the  West  began, 
Lawa  settlers  from  Zimme  (Chiengmai,  Tyiu-iiuii)  practised  the  smelting  of 
iron,  copper,  tin,  zinc,  and  lead.  These 
industries  have  disappeared.  Metal 
goods  used  to  come  in  from  the  Shan 
States  and  China,  but  the  principal 
manufacture  was  carried  on  by  Bur- 
mans  and  Tahiings.  Even  at  present, 
the  only  heavy  metal  goods  imported 
are  iron  cauldrons,  anvils,  sledge-ham- 
mers, and  vices — besides  machinery. 
Saws,  files,  chisels,  augers,  hinges  and 
locks,  nails  and  screws,  dies  and  taps, 
pocket-knives  and  fancy  metal  goods, 
are  imported.  Bells  for  the  temple 
precincts     were,     until     recently,     the  ,   .,^^„ 

'^  _  -  224.      ETCHED    DESIGN    ON    LACQUER    (HNGEP- 

heaviest  castings  made,  but  of  late  a  pyittaung!. 


I04 


JU'RMA 


rivalry  has  sprung  up  between  the  towns  in  casting  large  images.  For  the  best 
bells,  a  bronze  consisting  of  four  parts  copper  to  two  of  tin  is  used.  The  alloy 
is  enriched — as  they  fancy — by  pious  donors  who  cast  silver  into  the  melting- 
pot.     Ordinary  bells  are  made  of  brass  :    images  also  are   cast  in  brass.     The 


225.      LACQUER-WARE    DEALER, 


226.      SANDAL-MAKER. 


alloy  consists  of  about  70  per  cent,  copper  to  20  of  zinc,  and  10  of  lead.  The 
image  or  bell  is  moilclled  in  wax  as  thick  as  the  metal  is  intended  to  be, 
upon  a  core  of  clay.  A  shell  of  clay  is  plastcretl  over  the  wa.\  with  the  needful 
supports  between  the  clay  surfaces  at  intervals.  When  the  cla\-  has  dried,  the 
mould  is  heated  and  the  vva.x  run  out,  ready  for  casting.  The  crucibles  are  of 
clay,  of  about  two  hun- 
dredweight capacity, 
and  are  heatetl  b\'  a 
forge-blast.  The  Bur- 
man  castings  are  sel- 
dom sound,  and  never 
so  fine  and  clean  as 
tho.se  of  the  .Shans. 
Though  the  bells  are 
defective  in  tone,  the 
kyizi  (Nos.  28,86)  and 
the    round,    h.'iinmered  227.    brass  image  founders. 


IRONWORK 


'05 


228.      BURMAN     HORSE-FURNITURE. 


gongs  (inamti^)  have  very  sonorous 
qualities.  Copper  and  brass  uten- 
sils arc  not  used  by  the  Burmans 
for  cooking,  but  brass  is  used  for 
fruit  -  platters,  water  -  cujis  and 
bowls,  betcl-boxes  and  spittoons, 
mortars,  scales  and  weights,  cow- 
bells, and  furniture  for  horse  and 
bullock  harness. 

The  import  of  iron  and  steel 
began  centuries  ago,  neverthele.ss 
blades  of  Shan  steel  and  manu- 
facture are  still  accounted  the 
best.  With  the  exception  of  Shan 
settlers,    the    Burmans    were    the 

only  blacksmiths    of  the  country  till    the   Chinese    blacksmiths    arrived.      The 

hill-people    depended    for    their    chief   implement  and  their  weapons  upon    the 

dominant  races.     The  Burman  forge  is  the  same  as  the  Shan,  on  a  bigger  .scale. 

The  hearth  is  at  the  ground-level,  with  a  pit   in   fnmt,  to  enable  the  smith  to 

stand  up  to   his  work  if   needful.       He  does  most  of   it  sitting    on    a    peculiar 

round-backed  seat  to  the  right  of  the  blast.     The  anvil  is  like  a  hammer-head, 

set  upright  in    a  block  of  wood.     There   is   a    trough  shaped  like  a  canoe  for 

quenching  the  work  and  the  tools.     The  hammers  are  from  one  to  five  pounds, 

the  pincers  of  the  universal  pattern. 

There  are  the  ordinary  punches  and 

sets.     The  blast  is   on  the   plan  of 

the   bamboo  blast   in    No.    235,   but 

has  large  cylinders  of  palm  trunks 

in      which     pistons,     packed     with 

feathers,    are     worked     alternately. 

The  Chinese  blacksmith  had  already 

aodpted    the    European    anvil    and 

heavy    sledge-hammer    for    forging 

iron  axles  and    tyres,  anchors    and 

grapnels.     These    the    Burman    has 

adopted    in    turn.     The    bench-vice 

is    also    universal.      The   Chinaman 

adheres    to    his    horizontal    wooden 

bo.x-blast,  fitted  with  valves   like  a 

double-action    pump,    whereas    the 
P 


22U        BURMAN     BLACKbMiTh 


ic6 


JU'RM.l 


BURMAN     BLACKSMITH     '.NEW     STYLE 


B  u  1'  m  a  n  has 
copied  the  leather 
double-bellows 
from  the  steam- 
mill  workshops. 

Making  das 
is  the  blacksmith's 
principal  busi- 
ness. For  the 
uses  to  which  the 
Rurman  puts  his 
clir.  lie  is  not  likely 
to  be  oft'ered  a 
better  implement. 
The  d<i  is  a  blade 
twelve  to  twenty- 
four  inches  long, 
somewhat  curved 
back  from  the 
edge,  with  the  weight  towards  the  point,  and  fixed  by  a  tang  into  a  long  handle 
of  cane  or  bamboo,  iron-bound  or  whipped  to  jirevent  splitting.  The  dn  must 
not  vibrate  in  the  haft,  and  is  for  that  reason  not  riveted  through,  so  that  w  hen  it 
works  loose  it  can  be  dri\en  tight  again.  Unless  when  both  hands  are  used,  the 
haft  is  grijiped  near  the  blade.  Held  in  this  way,  the  balance  of  the  da  is 
different  to  that  of  any  other  implement  or  weapon.  It  requires  knack  to  use 
the  da  effectively.  The  long,  slender,  pointed  dd  is  the  fighting  weapon  (dakct:). 
and  is  all  of  steel,  with  a  cane  handle.  A  shorter  da/'wi;  with  or  without  a 
point,  is  the  universal  implement.  Short  blunt-ended  (/as  are  used  for  heavy 
work  {datiid).  These 
are  only  faced  with 
steel.  A  light  paring 
knife  is  called  daiiidnk. 
There  are  dagger 
knives,  but  they  are 
Shan  rather  than  Rur- 
man implements  {daiii- 
ydiiiig).  The  Rurman 
and  Shan  smiths  use 
a  steel  scraper  set  in 
a   cross-handle,    some-  231    swordsmith. 


GOi.n  ANn  snj'Fk 


\o-. 


232.      CANOPY    OF    GREAT 
ZEDI    (Tl). 


thing  like  a  spokc-sliavc  {(iaiiiir-dyaik),  for  the  mugh 
shaping  of  the  blades  after  forging,  to  save  tlieir  files. 
The  blacksmiths  make  the  axes  of  the  country  also. 
The  old  Burman  axe  consists  of  a  long-handled 
wooden  mallet  with  an  inm  tip  like  a  small  spade. 
The  smiths  also  make  spear-heads  for  the  hill-peo]:>le, 
iron  shoes  for  ploughs,  mattocks  and  hoes,  tires  and 
axles  of  carts,  dee  nails  for  boats,  nippers  for  sugar- 
cane and  betel- nut,  and  other  tools.  They  do  repairs 
of  locks  and  fire-arms.  A  special  class  of  iron-work 
is  making  //  for  zedi.  The  tinsmith's  trade  was  un- 
known in  Burma  until  fifty  years  ago.  In  Pegu  it  is 
still  in  Indian  hands  ;  but  in  Mandalay  the  Burman 
tinsmiths  are  unequalled. 

Argentiferous  galena  is  found  in  Burma,  but  the 
ore  barely  repays  working  for  the  sake  of  the  lead. 
The  silver  used  in  Burma  and  mcst  of  the  gold  is 
imported  from  China,  India,  and  Europe.  A  dozen 
villages  in  different  parts  of  Burma  get  a  living  by 
sifting  the  sand  of  streams  which  bear  gold.  A  broad 
thin  wooden  dish  shaped  like  a  flat  cone  is  filled  with 
sand  and  gravel,  and  worked  at  the  water-level  with 

a     rotarj'     move-     

ment,  by  which 
the  lighter  mate- 
rial is  driven  out 
centrifugally.  The 
dish   is  filled  and 


refilled,  and  after  seven  or  eight  hours'  work 
as  many  grains  weight  of  gold  flakes  will 
have  accumulated  in  the  depression  at  the 
centre.  The  out-turn  of  a  steady  worker  is 
three  to  five  tikals  of  gold  in  the  season. 

The  stock  in  trade  of  the  gold  and  silver 
worker  consists  of  a  bamboo  blast,  clay  cru- 
cibles, blowpipe,  solder  and  flux,  aquafortis 
and  mercury,  hammers,  punches  and  anvils  ot 
bronze  and  iron,  wire-plate  and  beading-plate. 
Bullion  is  furnished  by  the  customer,  who 
pays  from  one  half  up  to  the  full  weight,  in 


MOUNTAIN    CASCADE. 


io8 


BURMA 


234.      WASHING    FOR    GOLD. 


silver,  of  the  work,  for  work- 
manship. The  fineness  of  the 
gold  used  is  from  eighteen  to 
twenty-two  and  a  half  carats. 
Copper  is  the  allo\'  for  gold 
(four  to  sixteen  yiic  of  copper 
to  the  kyat  or  tikal).  Silver 
is  used  of  rupee  fineness  (four 
yiic  of  alloy  to  the  kyat)  up  to 
pure  metal  {daze).  The  inter- 
mediate fineness  of  sterling 
silver  is  the  most  usual. 
Silver  is  alloyed  with  copper 
and  with  zinc.  With  the  few 
implements  named  above,  plate  for  display  and  ornaments  for  women's  wear  are 
fashioned,  of  beautiful  design  and  considerable  finish.  Chasing  and  i-cpoiisst' 
ornament  are  used  for  the  gold  and  silver  plate,  filigree  and  beading  for  the 
gold  ornaments.  Those  who  can  afford  it,  serve  drinking-water  to  their  guests 
in  a  large  silver  bowl  (pala)  holding  a  gallon  or  so,  with  a  small  pala  floating 
on  the  water.  Other  objects  of  luxur)'  are  silver  lime-boxes,  betel-boxes,  hafts 
and  scabbards  of  sabres.  Broad  zones  of  rcpoiissc-woxV  are  relicveti  by  fillets 
antl  headings.  The  plain  vessel  having  been  hammered  into  shape  is  filled  with 
a  tough  lac.  This  affords  a  ductile 
matrix,  yielding  where  the  chaser 
is  applied  and  supporting  the  relief 
portions.  The  first  step  is  to  out- 
line the  work  with  a  bronze  punch, 
after  which  the  lac  is  melted  out  and 
the  metal  annealed.  Lac  is  poured 
in  again,  and  a  stage  of  relief 
raised.  By  successive  annealings 
the  full  relief  is  obtained.*  The 
figure  designs  are  the  signs  of  the 
zodiac,  episodes  from  zal,  antl 
mjlhical  animals.  Women  fre- 
([uenlly  carry  some  thousands  of 
rupees  worth  of  gold   in   the  form 


235.     VILLAGE   SILVERSMITH, 


*  The  ligurc'  to  tin.-  k-t't  in  \u.  237  is  (hi  'rii.i  l!;iii  nl  M.uilin.iiii,  llir  .silMMSinilli  wlui 
designed  and  executed  the  tools  used  for  the  sides  ot  this  \oIumu-.  Ihi-  li,ul<  is  hon>  llie  co\er 
of  ;i  KainbaiL'A. 


I 


COLD    .\ND   SILVER 


109 


237-     TOWN    SILVERSMITH- 


of  plain  gold  t>anglc.s  {lek- 
kauk),  and  their  ear-plugs 
consist  of  a  roll  of  sheet- 
gold  coiled  to  the  thickness 
of  a  finger.  The  Burmans 
admire  a  red-yellow  gold 
with  dull  surface.  They 
enhance  the  effect  by  a 
red  colouring  of  the  inter- 
stices of  the  work,  in  the 
same  way  as  the  Chinese 
do.  Neck  ornaments  (bay^) 
are  of  several  kinds.  The 
commonest  one  used  to  be 
the  thick  roll  of  gold  fili- 
gree, worn  in  front  of  the 
neck.  This  is  now  replaced 
by  bayi:  of  several  chains, 
for  the  most  part  jewelled. 
On  the  breast  is  worn  the 
broad  dalizdn,  also  formerly 
of  filigree,  but  now  of 
jewels  and  pearls.  Strings 
of  real  and  imitation  pearls 
are  worn  ;  jewelled  pins 
Rings  are  worn  on  the  fingers 
The  last  two  are 


and  gold  or  jewelled  combs  are  worn  in  the  hair. 

and  gold  filigree  buttons  of  the  Chinese  type  on  the  jackets, 

the  only  ornaments  now  worn  by  men.      Anklets  are  worn  by  children. 

Gold  and  silver  coinage  on  a  European  model  was  adopted  by  the  kings  of 
Burma  about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century — the  "  peacock  "  coins,  struck 
from  dies  engraved  in  Paris.  Rough  coins  of  lead  used  to  circulate.  The  coins 
shown  in  No.  238  are  those  of  Arakan  kings  from  1500  to  1750  A.D.,  from  the 
collection   of  the  late   Mr.   C.   H.  White.      Before  the  introduction  of  coinage. 


238.      SILVER    COINS    OF    THE    ARAKAN    KINGS. 


I  lO 


BC'RMA 


lOLD    BEATEFV 


circulates  in  Burma  is  three 
times  the  vaUie  of  the  lowest 
Indian  coin.  Notes  have  no 
circulation  as  }-et  among  the 
Burmans,  although  they  now 
bear  their  figures  of  value  in 
Burmese. 

Rubies  and  sapphires  {kyanin- 
myaf)  are  separated  from  the 
sand  and  gravel  of  certain  locali- 
ties, notably  Mog6k,  in  the 
same  way  as  gold  is.  Ilard  gems 
are  cut  with  gem-dust  on  a  Imri- 
zontal  wheel  driven  by  a  fl)-- 
wheel  and  treadle  in  a  regular 
lathe-stand.  Rock-crystal  is  cut 
in  this  way  and  also  on  a  hone. 
Jade  is  found  at  Mogaung  ami 
i.s  expiMted  to  China.  Amber  is 
found  at  Bamiiw. 

Gold-leaf  is  used  in  enor- 
mous cjuantities  for  gilding  zedi 
and  images.  Only  ])ure  gold  is 
used.  The  paper  for  separating 
the    gold-leaf    in    the    book     in 


gold  and  siher  bullion  were  used 
for  exchange,  as  they  still  are  in 
the  Shan  States.  Chinese  gold  is 
current  in  the  form  of  foil  with  the 
market  stamp  of  fineness.  It  can 
be  conveniently  cut  v\'ith  scissors 
and  weighed.  Travellers  often 
carr\'  their  bullion  in  this  form. 
Silver  is  used  b}-  the  Shans  in  the 
form  of  ingots  which  have  to  be 
hew  n  and  assayed  when  making  a 
purchase.  The  standard  for  com- 
moilities,  wages  and  rent  is  silver, 
the  fluctuation  being  referred  to 
the    sjold.       The    lowest    coin    that 


240       ALCHEMISTS 


241-      GOLD    JEWELLERY- 


ITo/acc  p. 


TIMniiR 


I  I  I 


which  it  is  hammered  is  obtained  from  bam- 
boo-fibre. 

In  JUirma  tlic  idea  still  prevails  that 
gold  may  be  compounded  from  baser  metals 
or  the  (fuantity  of  fine  gold  augmented 
by  their  means.  Alchemists  are  found  in 
every  town,  who  experiment  in  the  hope 
of  success  or  practise  on  dupes  who  furnish 
the  gold  that  is  to  be  increased.  A  furnace 
and  blast  is  the  chief  appliance  of  the 
laboratory,  and  the  potent  agent  relied 
upon  is  mercury.  Ingredients  of  every  sort, 
animal,  vegetable  and  mineral,  are  experi- 
mented with,  under  the  influence  of  charms 
and  cabalistic  forms,  whence  the  name 
f  o  r      a  1  c  h  c  m  \' , 


242.      DEFILE    BELOW    THE    QREAT    RAPID 
OF    THE     SALWEEN, 


ekkaya-td.  The 
business  is  un- 
der the  ban  of 
religion,  not  a- 
lone  as  being  actuatetl  by  greed  [laicba,  p.  44), 
but  because  primitive  Buddhism  eschews  every 
thing  mystical  and  occult.  The  operations  are 
carried  on  at  night  for  secrecy.  Reputed  adepts 
are  found  among  the  class  of  recluses  called  yatlie, 
who  from  their  life  in  the  wilds  are  supposed  to 
penetrate  the  arcana  of  nature. 

Wood-work  was  greatly  restricted  until  better 
tools  were  imported.  Planks  and  scantling  used 
to  be  laboriously  prepared  for  boat-building  and 
for  palaces,  religious  edifices,  and  the  houses  of 
the  great.  Excepting  the  inner  gates  of  the 
masonry  temples,  wood-work  over  a  century  old  is 
scarce.  But  before  the  Burmans  possessed  the 
means  of  turning  their  timber  to  account  for  them- 
selves the  country  had  become  noted  for  its  stock 
of  teak.  Burma  possesses  many  valuable  woods, 
but  the  pre-eminence  of  teak  is  such  that  for 
general  purposes  timber  had  come  to  mean  always 
teak    timber.       Teak     possesses     the     advantages 


.  i-H 


n-  - 


teak-tree  out  of  leaf 
(march). 


I  12 


BURMA 


of  beiriCT  nearly  all  heart-wood,  having 
considerable  strength,  with  moderate  hard- 
ness and  weight,  working  easily  with  axe, 
saw  and  chisel,  taking  nails,  and  above 
all,  not  rusting  nails  or  iron  in  contact 
with  it.  It  has  a  serviceable  brown  colour 
and  an  odour  by  which  it  may  always  be 
distinguished,  due  to  the  presence  of  an 
oil  which  repels  the  attacks  of  insects, 
notably  of  the  termites,  and  which  pro- 
tects it  from  decay.  Teak  is  in  short  the 
prince  of  eastern  woods.  At  the  end  of 
the  eighteenth  century  teak  was  already 
being  worked  out  of  the  Burma  forests 
and   brought    to    port 


where    the  foreign 


244.      MIXED    HILL-CROP    OF    RICE,    SESAMUM. 
AND    TEAK.    IN    SEPTEMBER   (p.   149  , 


shippers 
had  estab- 
lished saw- 
pits  for  squaring  the  logs.  The  steel  pit-saws 
found  their  way  into  trade  and  gave  an  impetus 
to  wood  architecture,  of  which  the  ecclesiastical 
buildings  of  Burma  are  the  chief  examples. 
Timber-traders  started  building  teak  ships  in 
Burma,  employing  Chinese  carpenters.  This 
business  has  been  abandoned,  but  lighters  are 
still  built. 

The  teak-tree  {fectotta  grandis)  occurs  in 
patches  of  the  drj'  mixed  forest,  the  forest  namely 
of  which  the  jirincipal  element  is  a  deciduous 
bamboo,  with  timber  trees  of  fifty  or  more  de- 
ciduous species  scattered  through  it.  Of  these 
species  about  half  a  dozen  produce  serviceable 
timber.  The  bamboo-stools  send  up  their  culms 
to  heights  of  forty  and  sixty  feet  in  the  course  of 
a  few  weeks,  before  their  branch  lets  and  leaves 
appear.  By  means  of  this  the  bamboo  has  thi' 
advantage  over  all  other  vegetation.  The  seed- 
lings of  trees  have  to  struggle  up  under  its  cover. 
At  intervals  of  twent_\'  In  tliirt)-  )'ears  the  bamboo 
species  flower,  to  grow  again  from  seed.      Then   is 


FLUE  OF  FACTORY  DISUSED 
TEN  YEARS. 


TYPES   OF  FORIiST 


I  I 


247.      THE    GREAT     RAPID     OF    THE     SALWEEN     (HATJi' 


the  chance  for  the  timber- 
trees.  A  seecUing  teak- 
tree  may  originate  a  clump 
of  young  teak  on  the 
natural  clearing,  just  as 
happens  on  cultivation 
clearings  (taimgya,  p.  149). 
Sometimes  a  mixture  of 
trees  in  its  turn  suppresses 
the  young  bamboo.  So 
far  from  forming  vegetable 
mould  on  the  surface,  the 
great  crisp  leaves  of  teak 
(No.  355)  provide  rich  fuel  to  the  forest  fires  which  burn  every  season  and  kill 
the  struggling  seedlings  of  trees.  The  bark  of  teak  has  about  an  eighth  of  an 
inch  of  a  loose  corky  layer  which  protects  the  quick  against  scorching.  The 
bare  soil  is  exposed  to  severe  erosion  by  rain.  It  is  only  where  contributions 
of  a  better  kind  than  its  own  are  made  to  the  soil  that  teak  flourishes.  Its 
occurrence  is  limited  to  patches  of  the  dry  forest  zone,  in  which  drainage  and 
other  factors  not  yet  understood  concur  in  a  favourable  way.  Teak  plantations 
are  easy  to  start  and  the  young  trees  are  very  promising.  But  they  begin  to 
languish  and  to  seed  prematurely  when  planted  pure,  as  they  mostly  are.  Teak 
attains  its  full  height  early,  before  commencing  to  flower,  which  it  does  in 
its  axes  of  growth.  Where  the  bloom  drops  off,  no  further  straight  length  is 
grown.  The  stock  of  teak  is  in  the  main  mature  and  over-mature.  It  is  the 
savings  which  the  mixed  forest  has  accumulated  of  this  imi)erishable  wood,  and 
is  not  supported  by  relays  of 
younger  generations  in  due 
proportion.  Much  even  of 
the  apparently  rising  stock 
is  exhausted  in  vigour  and 
is  stationary  ;  a  tree  crippled 
in  vigour  may  never  attain 
a  girth  of  five  feet.  The 
blanks  made  by  working  out 
the  teak  are  naturally  filled 
up  by  the  more  numerous 
competing  species.  Teak 
seedlings  in  open  situations 
grow  twenty  to  thirty  feet 
Q 


^■■jj^^^^^ 

1 

^^^^^^IkiN^ 

i 

^     ^ 

i^^ 

*l 

4 

^^^^ -^^wa*^--  - 

^191 

.^jflH 

248.      VORTEX    OF    THE    GREAT    RAPID. 


114 


BURMA 


CEFILE    BELC 


.AST      RAPID    OF     THE     SALWEEN 


hii;h  in  a  few  seasons  and 
get  clear  of  the  forest  fires. 
But  those  struggling  under 
cover  are  cut  back  by  fire 
every  year.  A  vigorous 
tree  attains  a  marketable 
size  of  seven  to  eight  feet 
girth  in  sixty  to  eighty 
\'ears  ;  trees  of  ten  to 
twelve  feet  girth  are  com- 
mon on  good  sites.  Trees 
may  attain  a  height  of 
sixty  feet  in  t\\ent_\-  years. 
The  boles  of  the  full-grown  trees  range  from  twenty-five  to  seventy-five  feet  and 
are  mostly  straight  and  round. 

The  character  of  the  dry  mixed  forest  is  determined  by  the  prevailing 
bamboo,  one  of  seven  or  eight  species.  The  mixed  forest  constitutes  a  vegetal 
zone  skirting  the  kwin,  chiefly  on  sandstone  slopes  and  hills,  up  to  one  thousand 
feet  elevation.  The  timber  tree  most  abundantly  interspersed  in  the  bamboo  is 
pyiiikado,  an  "iron-wood"  suitable  for  house-posts,  sleepers,  and  rough  work. 
The  most  valuable  timber  tree  after  teak,  but  even  more  sparingly  distributed, 
\s  paddtik,  an  excellent  wood  for  carriage-building  ;  it  has  a  rich  red  colour.  In 
the  driest  type  of  mi.xed  forest  the  cutch-tree  is  common  {sliA).  The  sandstone 
soil  is  interrupted  by  great  stretches  of  "  latcrite,"  noted  for  its  barrenness.  It  is 
not  devoid  of  vegetation,  but  the  forest  which  occupies  these  areas  is  open  and 
stunted,  with  frecjuent  blanks.  It  is  called  ijuiaiiii:;  from  the  prevailing  /;/,  the 
only  gregarious  forest  tree 
of  Burma,  excepting  the 
trees  of  the  littoral  and  the 
pine  of  the  high  altitudes. 
This  forest  contains  several 
congeners  of  the  sal  of 
India.  Below  the  forests 
of  the  sandstone  and  late- 
rite  comes  the  kiviu,  witli 
its  prevailing  Icppaii  and 
paiik  trees  (p.  49).  In  the 
water-logged  spots,  and  on 
the  fringes  of  permanent 
lagoons,     is     the     paludal  .  ,u    manoko.l  .. 


251        EVERGREEN     FOREST    BROOK 


Vl\'  /ace  />.   114. 


1 


TYI'I-S    Ol'    I'ORI'ST 


115 


252.      RIPARIAN!    FOREST. 


forest  (yagaliii:;  taiv)  and  marshland  (hwet). 
Towards  the  sea  the  river-sides  of  the  kivin 
are  bordered  with  laiiu'i  and  pinll'-lcauazo,  the 
evergreen  monotony  of  which  is  only  broken 
by  the  dam  {Nfpa),  a  palm  with  immense 
fronds  somewhat  like  the  cocoanut,  but  not 
developing  a  stem.  The  mud-banks  of  the 
tidal  estuaries  are  overgrown  with  mangrove 
{hyfi).  Above  the  brackish  water,  the  riparian 
tree  is  the  willow  {indniakd),  the  tree  that 
"  denies  its  homage  to  the  rain."  For  when 
by  grace  of  heaven  trees  put  forth  their 
leaves,  the  willow  sheds  its  own,  and  in  the 
drought  when  all  the  rest  are  bare,  the  saucy 
tree  breaks  into  leaf.  Between  the  willow  at 
the  water's  edge  and  the  kivin  or  the  hill- 
slope,  as  the  case  may  be,  comes  a  narrow 
band  of  riparian  forest  with  a  frequent  under- 
growth of  cane-brake.  This  is  the  habitat  of 
several  useful  timber  trees,  thingdii,  pyiiiiina, 

ka-iiyiu  (the  wood-oil  tree).     These  trees  and  their  associates  follow  the  banks 

of  the  small    feeders   into    the    hill-regions,  or    form    an    inter-mixture    in    the 

forest  of  evergreen  trees  which  occupies  the  soles  of  ravines,  abounding  in  lianas 

and   epiphytic  plants,  with  an  undergrowth  of  miisaceic.     Above  this  forest  or 

the  kzviii,  as  the  case  may  be,  comes  the  zone  of  dry  forest  already  described. 

Above  the  dry  forest  zone,  but 

also  at  lower  levels  where  the 

soil    is    volcanic    (trap),    comes 

the  hill  evergreen  forest.     Here 

trees  are  in  the  ascendant,  except 

for  occasional  patches  of  giant 

bamboo  {tvabo.  No.  123).     The 

trees  are  of  innumerable  species, 

of  spongy  and  worthless  timber, 

with    a    sprinkling    of    ka-iiyin, 

kaiing-hinfi,  ta?tiig-pei?i-/iiu\  and 

thingdn,    and    in    the    extreme 

South,  gaiigaiv.  The  under- 
growth consists  of  )'oung  trees, 

with     palms,    pandanuses    and  253.   upper  waters  of  river    ^july). 


ii6 


BURMA 


FuKtbT     STREAM     IN     THE     PINE     REGION 


other  large  endogenous  plants.  The  shade 
is  dense,  so  that  grasses  do  not  grow,  but 
owing  to  the  absence  of  forest  fires,  there 
is  mould  on  the  surface.  The  trees  are  of 
great  height,  commonly  one  hundred  feet 
clear  bole  (No.  362),  and  often  are  of  enor- 
mous girth.  The  natural  rotation  is  short 
owing  to  early  decay,  and  the  bulk  of  the 
trees  are  slender.  Above  this  "  tropical  " 
evergreen  forest,  as  it  is  named  by  its 
explorer,  Kurz,  at  the  altitude  of  three  to 
four  thousand  feet,  according  to  latitude, 
comes  a  zone  of  stunted  evergreen  trees, 
among  which  oak  species  are  conspicuous. 
Mulberry,  raspberry,  briar,  and  other  shrubs 
of  the  temperate  zone  grow  wild,  and  a 
decided  change  of  climate  is  experienced. 
One  to  several  thousand  feet  above  this 
zone    is    the    region    of    the    pine    [piiiiis 


kliasya,  tinvtl.  No.  340),  up  to  ten  thousand 
feet,  the  greatest  altitude  of  the  Burma  hills. 
The  ])ine  forest  has  an  undergrowth  of  sac- 
charum.  \Mien  this  burns  the  fire  runs  up 
the  resinous  stems,  and  kills  extensive  areas  of 
forest.  The  timber  is  good  and  attains  great 
size,  but  is  too  unfavourably  situated  for  trans- 
port. The  forest  types  are  not  in  all  cases 
sharply  defined,  but  merge  into  each  other. 

The  specific  gravity  of  green  teak  is  about 
1-2,  and  of  dry  teak  about  0-8.  The  best 
way  to  get  it  dry  for  floating  is  to  ring  or 
"girdle"  tlic  trees.  The  bark  and  shallow 
sap-wood  are  cut  through  with  the  axe  ;  the 
leaves  wither  and  the  tree  dies.  In  two  or 
three  seasons  the  timber  is  light  enough  to 
float,  and  meanwhile  it  is  not  ex])osed  to  the 
danger  of  being  burned  or  overseen  in  the 
undergrowth  as  it  might  be  if  felled  in  onier 
to  season.  i'he  tree  is  eventually  felled  at  the 
level  of   tile  girdle,  but    if   buttressed    or   un- 


2S5.     GIRDLING    THE    TREE, 


•n 


TIMliliRWOKK 


117 


257-      FELLING    THE    TREE 


sound  is  felled  much  hi<^hcr.  As  timber 
gets  scarce,  the  woodmen  are  glad  to  work 
out  the  stem-pieces  left  in  this  way,  maybe 
fifty  years  before.  If  felled  green,  the  teak 
throws  out  powerful  suckers  from  the  stool 
which  grow  six  to  ten  feet  in  a  season  and 
get  clear  of  the  forest  fires.  In  sixty  years 
they  produce  marketable  timber.  After 
felling,  the  trees  are  cut  into  suitable  logs 
for  dragging.  The  latter  is  the  most  ardu- 
ous part  of  the  busines.s.  From  the  stump 
to  the  nearest  floating-stream  may  be  a  mile 
or  two  of  heavy  country.  The  teak  to  be 
worked  out  of  the  forests  is  too  sparsely 
distributed  for  roads  or  machinery  to  pay. 
Elephant  power  is  the  most  valuable  adjunct 
for  the  work.  The  rainy  season,  when 
brooks  and  streams  are  full,  the  ground 
moist  and  slippery,  antl  the  weather  cool  for 
the  animals  to  work,  is  the  time  chosen  for 
dragging.  The  corners  of  the  log  are  cut  away  at  one  end,  and  a  drag-hole  made 
for  the  elephant  chain  and  the  subsequent  raft-ties,  at  eacli  end.  The  dragging- 
paths  get  worn  into  troughs  in  which  water  lodges  and  facilitates  the  work. 
Every  brook  on  the  way  is  utilized,  for  though  too  scanty  to  float  the  log  it 
lightens  the  labour.  The  elephants  are  worked  a  few  hours  in  the  morning  and 
a  few  in  the  evening  and  turned  loose  at  other  times,  with  the  fore-feet  hobbled, 
to  forage  for  themselves.  The  Karens  keep  their  elephants  in  excellent  con- 
dition ;  such  casualties 
as  thej'  have  are  due  to 
anthrax,  which  spreads 
from  the  buffaloes,  and 
to  other  epidemics.  In 
the  timber-yards  at  the 
seaports,  on  the  other 
hand,  in  spite  of  grain 
and  green  feeding  and 
other  care,  the  animals 
are  \\'orn  out  in  a 
few  years.  Elephants 
are    heavy  enough    for 


253.      DRAGGING    THE    LOG. 


ii8 


BURMA 


259.      PUSHING    THE    LOGS    OFF    THE    SHOALS 


timber-work  at  eit;hteen 
years,  and  are  at  their 
prime  from  thirty  to  sixty. 
Females  and  tuskless 
males  {liaiiig)  are  worth 
one  thousand  to  two  thou- 
sand rupees  ;  tuskers  from 
one  tliousand  five  hundred 
to  four  thousand.  Tuskers 
are  of  use  for  manoeuvring 
the  logs  in  the  shallow 
streams  and  getting  them 
off  shoals.  The  logs  are 
last  freshets  of  the  season 


not  launched  into  the  main  stream  or  river  until  the 
have  gone  down,  for  fear  of  the  timber  becoming  unmanageable.  The  logs  are 
allowed  to  drift  singly  as  far  as  the  deep  water,  where  they  are  stopped  by  a 
boom,  for  sorting  and  rafting  to  port.  On  the  Irawadi  and  Sittaung  the  main 
water-course  is  available  for  rafting,  but  on  the  Salween,  only  the  last  si.xty 
miles  below  the  rapids.  The  Salween  tears  its  rugged  course  through  the  lime- 
stone mountains  which  occupy  the  centre  of  the  Eastern  Peninsula,  traversing 
some  ten  degrees  of  latitude  and  tapping  teak  localities  on  a  good  part  of  its 
way.  Deep  tranquil  stretches  alternate  with  furious  rapids,  the  violence  of 
which  may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that  teak  logs  are  often  shivered  in  splinters. 
The  foresters  stamp  the  timber  all  over 
with  their  property-marks.  They  have 
ti)  bide  their  time  until  the  logs  reach  the 
rope-station  or  boom  {kyoddii)  and  can 
be  sorted.  In  the  south-west  monsoon 
tlie  logs  have  to  be  salved  one  by  one 
by  men  in  canoes.  The  dee]>water  raft 
consists  of  five  to  ten  tiers  of  as  many 
logs  each,  securely  bound  with  rattan  by 
the  drag-holes  to  cross-poles,  and  linked 
with  the  same  material.  The  raft  is 
manned  by  four  or  five  men,  and  is  often 
several  weeks  on  its  journey.  It  may  not 
have  to  bring  up  until  it  reaches  tidal 
waters,  when  it  is  easily  moored.  Hiit 
where  the  raft  has  to  be  stopped  against 
the    full    force    of  a    three    to    five    knot 


260.     LAUNCHING    NEAPED    LOGS. 


■^ 


CARPENTRY 


119 


262.      ROPE-STATION    ON    THE    SALWEEN    (KYODAN), 


current,  a  remarkable  device 
is  employetl.  Two  ten-foot 
handspikes,  with  a  shoulder 
two  feet  above  the  point, 
have  moorintj-rattans  from 
each  end  of  the  raft,  one 
hundred  feet  long  and  an 
inch  thick,  bent  on  to  them. 
One  of  these  is  sent  ashore 
from  the  forward  end  of  the 
raft  and  worked  like  a  plough 
in  the  bank,  going  deeper 
as  the  raft  slews  round  and 
the  tension  increases,  and  so 
stopping  its  way  b>'  degrees.  If  the  first  attempt  fails  a  second  is  made  from 
the  other  end  of  the  raft,  which  is  then  the  forward  one.  Arrived  in  port  the 
logs  are  dragged  up  the  mud-banks  by  elephants.  But  when  the  path  is 
blocked,  a  powerful  elephant  sometimes  carries  a  log  bodily.  The  whole  of  the 
operations  of  bringing  the  timber  to  market  are  combined  by  a  timber-broker 
(forester,  tliigganug). 

Teak  cuts  readily,  though  it  blunts  the  tools  very  soon.  There  is  little 
waste.  Sawn  planks  are  displacing  bamboo  for  the  better-class  houses.  Sawyers 
earn  from  one-half  to  one  rupee  a  day.  The  indigenous  carpenter's  tools  were  a 
small  adze  {ptgot).  chisels  and  gouges  {sank),  awls  (/«;/),  and  a  rough  saw  {hlwa), 
besides  da  and  axe  {paussein).  The  Burman  adopted  the  Chinese  plane  (jntc- 
baw,  "  selecting-shave ")  with  the  Chinese  straddle  bench.  The  English 
carpenter's  rule  is  also  general.  When  the  impulse  to  good  house-building 
was  given  by  the  production  of  cheap  planks,  the  immigrants  from   China  got 

the  whole  of  the  work.      ,__ 

The  Burmans  have  be- 
gun to  oust  them  from 
the  heavy  carpentering 
and  from  the  joinery  as 
well.  Ordinary  Burman 
carpenters  earn  |  rupee 
a  day,  the  better  work- 
men I  to  I J  rupees  a 
day,  compared  with  the 
Chinaman's  li  rupees. 
The  wood-work   is   left 


'nM^'m 


263.     BINDING    THE    LOGS    INTO    RAFTS. 


120 


PURMA 


264.      TIMBER-RAFT 


plain  or  is  oiled  \vith 
crude  petroleum.  A 
wooden  house  of  the 
modern  Burman  pattern 
costs  from  three  hun- 
dred rupees  upwards  ; 
a  bamboo  house  only 
twenty  to  sixty. 

The  Burman  turn- 
ing-lathe is  of  the  usual 
primiti\'e  t)-pe  ;  two 
poppets  sliding  in  a 
bed,  with  centres  to  hold  the  work,  nnuid  which  a  cord  passes  from  the  simple 
treadle-bar  to  a  spring)-  lath  or  bamboo  overhead.  But  of  late,  mandril-lathes 
have  been  constructed  after  models  in  the  steam-mill  workshops  (Xo.  187). 
Mechanical  construction  has  great  attractions  for  the  Burman,  and  is  stimulated 
by  the  high  wages  of  labour.  The  foremen  sawyers  at  the  steam-mills  are 
Burmans,  the  other  hands  natives  of  India.  Menders  of  clocks  and  sewing- 
machines  are  in  all  the  towns.  An  engine-crecter,  who  had  set  up  machinery 
in  most  countries  of  Europe  and  Asia,  said  he  had  nowhere  met  the  same 
natural  aptitude  for  handling  machinery  as  in  Burma  (cf.  p.  10). 

The  floral  wood-carving  of  Burma  is  remarkable  for  its  freedom  and 
spontaneity.  Rich  as  the  floral  tracer}-  is,  the  animal  grotesques  are  laboured 
and  deficient  in  fanc\-.  The  carving  is  done  in  teak-wood  when  it  is  meant  for 
fixtures;  otherwise,  jw/«(?«(' is  preferrctl.  The  tools  employed  are  chisel,  gouge, 
and  mallet.  The  design  is  traceil  on  the  wood  with  charcoal,  gouged  out  in  the 
rough  and  finished  with  sharj)  fine  tools,  using  the  mallet  for  every  stroke. 
Teak-wood  and  yanumi 
have  a  coarse  grain,  in 
which  fine  detail  cannot  be 
rendered.  Small  and  deli- 
cately elaborated  figures 
are  carved  in  sandal-wood 
anil  also  in  i\ory.  Whole 
tusks  are  carved  over  with 
figures  of  the  Buddha 
and  are  dedicated  in  the 
Lydiiiii^s.  In  some  of  these 
the  figures  are  modelled 
in  a  single  piece  umli-r  an  266.    sawing  up  the  logs. 


s 


PAINTING   AND    PP.  SIC  A 


\T 


I  2  T 


267.      BURMAN    CARPENTERS. 


arbour  of  tracery,  which  entirely 
cnclo.ses  them.  Ivory  haft.s  and 
.scabbards  of  daggers  and  sabres 
are  ornamented  in  tlie  same  waj-. 
The  ivory  carving  is  not  polished. 
The  conventional  fiat  design, 
painting  and  embroidery  exhibit 
affinities  to  the  Indian  decoration 
of  the  ancient  tem])les  (Nos.  94, 
2/2).  The  anachronisms  and 
other  naiveties  of  our  medijeval 
designers  are  paralleled  in  modern 
Burma  ;  witness  the  introduction 
of  British  officers  with  their  field- 
glasses  in  the  design  of  the  Prince  of  Pagan  destroying  the  monster  at  Hngep- 
pyittaung  (No.  224).  The  medium  used  for  painting  is  a  coarse  tempera.  From 
the  labels  attached  to  European  goods,  many  of  which  are  excellent  in  design 
and  colour,  lessons  in  colouring  and  perspective  have  been  learned.  P'rom 
photographs,  ideas  of  accuracy  have  been  gathered,  and  from  illustrated  news- 
papers, ideas  of  composition.  Neither  carver  nor  designer  ever  uses  a  model. 
The  painter  of  No.  433  confessed  that  he  had  not  seen  the  place  himself;  he  had 
it  described  to  him.  In  pure  design  with- 
out colour,  the  sln^'czaiva  work  is  the  best. 
It  is  a  kind  of  tirawing  in  lacquer,  which 
appears  black  on  a  gold  ground  (No.  96). 
Of  late  the  Burmans  have  attempted  cuts 
on  type-metal  for  illustrations  of  books 
(No.  276).  They  are  executed  with  chisel 
and  punch  ;  the  graver  is  unknown. 

Ancient  inscriptions  are  rare  in  Burma, 
although  the  tliamding,  or  depository  for 
slabs  recording  the  circumstances  of  reli- 
gious foundations,  is  a  recognised  institu- 
tion. In  many  of  the  tliamding  at  Pagan 
may  be  seen  the  ancient  Pali  square  cha- 
racter, of  which  the  Burmese  round  character 
is  a  development.  The  square  character  is 
preserved  in  the  kaiiibaivd  (No.  46).  The 
late  King  Mindon  Min  caused  the  whole 
of  the  Pali  text  of  the  Tripitaka  to  be 
R 


268.      BURMAN    TURNER, 


12  2 


BURMA 


269.      BURMAN    WOOD-CARVER. 


engraved  on  729  marble 
slabs,  4  feet  by  3  feet. 
These,  set  under  as  many 
stuccocanopies,  areknown 
as  the  Kuthoda'iC  or  Law- 
kaiiia-yaaiii  —  the  royal 
work  of  merit  (No.  385). 
riiLV  constitute  the  most 
important  of  the  King's 
religious  foundations.  A 
number  of  years  were 
spent  by  a  committee  of 
learned  yalidii  in  editing 
the  text.  Certain  por- 
tions have  since  been 
transferred  to  type,  and 
in  time  the  whole  of  this  text  will  be  available  in  print.  The  development  of 
the  round  Burmese  character  out  of  the  sijuare  Pali  was  fa\-ouretl  h_\-  tlie  nature 
of  the  material  used  for  writing  on — the  leaf  of  the  pc  palm.  The  fan-leaf  is 
s])lit  into  its  segments,  which  are  piled,  and  dried  under  i)ressure.  Then  the}- 
are  trimmed  even,  and  puncheil  with  holes  to  file  Iheni  \ix.  The  leaf  is  ruled 
with  turmeric,  and  the  writing  is  done  with  ;i 
shar[)  steel  style,  which  scratches  through  the 
hard  epidermis  to  the  spongy  laj'er  under- 
neath ;  both  sides  are  written  on.  The  trans- 
verse strokes  tear  the  fibre  more,  and  leave  a 
])lainer  mark,  which  leads  to  a  minimising  of 
longitudinal  strokes.  When  the  writing  is 
complete,  the  wooden  covers  are  lacquered, 
the  edges  of  the  leaves  gilt,  and  their  faces 
oiled  with  crude  brown  petroleum,  which  both 
preserves  the  material  and  brings  out  the 
writing.  The  oiling  is  repeated  from  time  to 
time.  The  leaves  become  tiark  and  friable  in 
fifty  years,  and  the  writing  hard  to  decipher. 
Manuscripts  over  two  humlred  )-cars  old  arc 
scarce.  Copyists  are  ]iaitl  one  rupee  per  ///;■<? 
of  ten  leaves,  the  work  of  a  da)-  or  two, 
accortiing  to  their  expertiicss.  Until  rag-paper 
began  to   be   imported,  the   i)apir  in  use  was  270    carved  scene  from  zat. 


fNSCRirrrONS   and    WRfTfNG 


123 


til. it    m.itlc    Iroiii    till-    iiiiKT    h.uk-laycr    of    the    sckkit-biii,    tlic    same    tliat    the 
umbrellas  arc  covered  with  (  vc-sckkii).      The  tree   is  common   in   the   iiKJuntains 


271.      BURMAN    PAINTER    AT    WORK. 


272.      MURAL    DECORATION     IN    AN    ANCIENT 
THEIN. 


273.      CARVED    ELEPHANT- 
TUSK. 


on  the  eastern  border.  The  bast  is  frayed  out  hi  water  and  the  pulp  spread 
on  muslin  trays  to  dry.  It  is  soft  and  strong,  but  uneven.  It  was  used  for 
writing  on,  in  its  natural  cream  colour,  with  a  reed  pen  and   Chinese  ink,  and 


124 


BURMA 


still  is  used  by  the  Shnns  for  their  sacred  MSS.  The  Hurmans  use  the  paper 
chief!}'  in  the  form  of  stiff  tablets  (parabak),  blackened,  like  the  tidvtbou.  for 
writing'  on  with  a  steatite  pencil.  Burmese  t)-pe  was  cut  (No.  452)  and  the  first 
printing-plant  sef  up  in  Burma  by  the  American  Baptist  Mission.     At  present 


V 


274.      PALM-LEAF     MS. 


there  are  a  number  of  printing  establishments  owned  by  Burmans.  from  which 
quite  a  literature  of  their  religious  works  has  issued.  At  first  the  Buddhists  of 
Burma  considered  jirint  not  good  enough  for  the  scripture  canon.  Modernised 
legends  of  the  Buddha  in  his  previous  incarnations  (zat)  are  beginning  to  form  the 
foundation  of  a  romance-literature  of  indigenous  type.  Newspapers  have  not 
yet  taken  a  firm  hold,  even  in  the  large  towns;  but  news  travels  very  fast  in 
the  ordinary  way.  especially  news  about  the  prices  of  goods.  This  western  art 
has  not  contributed  to  the  spread  of  western  knowledge  in  the  wa}'  that  might 
be  expected.  The  Yaw  Mindyi,  a  minister  of  the  late  King  Mindon  Min, 
made  a  most  i)raiseworthy  effort  to  popu- 
larise western  ideas  in  a  series  of  MS. 
treatises.  A  native  undertaking  upon  a 
grand  scale — nothing  less  than  a  Burmese 
cncyclopaiilia — was  on  foot  in  the  sixties, 
but  fell  through  for  want  of  organised  sup- 
port. In  Japan,  an  analogous  enterprise 
was  successful.  What  ai)plies  to  concerted 
action  in  matters  like  the  above,  applies 
equall)-  to  political  combination.  P'evv  Bur- 
mans,  oven  after  years  of  schooling,  learn 
enough  to  read  an  English  newspaper  with 
profit.  To  this  day  there  is  no  l?urmese 
manual  for  the  stuily  of  l-'.nglish.  The 
scholars  learn  only  enough  of  the  language 
to  procure  them  employment  as  accoimtants 
anil  copyists.  Similarly,  there  arc  few 
English  who  can  understand  a  Burmese 
ncvvspa|)er. 

Dealers,    with     the    exception    of    the  275.   copyist  at  work. 


MEDTCTNE 


•25 


OOOTOWOSC 


KDlCcBdi  t«»>nEta^»^1  A  )n^x  jt<^8'«^'^<9 


w^r$=. 


276.    the  lord  of  hell  receives  his 
steward's   account   of  the    pains 

INFLICTED    ON    SINNERS    iP.    12l\ 


dealer  in  medicine,  who  is  at  the  same  time 
tlie  ])h_\'sician,  ilo  not  receive  the  title  saya — 
teacher,  doctor — which  is  accorded  to  every 
master  workman.  The  physician  {scthaiua 
strr(r)  makes  no  chartje  for  his  advice,  but  only 
for  his  medicines.  There  is,  however,  a  school 
of  doctors  who  oppose  the  use  of  drugs,  and 
rely  upon  the  regulation  of  diet  and  on  sham- 
[iooing  ;  they  make  their  charge  for  the  latter 
operation.  Ague  (intermittent  fever,  pya-iia) 
is  the  commonest  complaint  in  Burma,  which 
no  one  escapes.  The  remittent  form  of  malarial 
fever  is  also  common.  Attacks  may  be  light 
and  pass  away  of  themselves,  or  they  may  be 
severe  and  protracted.  Malaria  is  the  chief 
cause  of  mortality.  The  common  treatment  is 
to  encourage  sweating.  Aperients  are  not  re- 
sorted to  if  it  can  be  helped,  as  the  l^urmese 
drugs  are  drastic.  In  severe  cases  the  head  is 
shaved.  Quinine  was  at  one  time  making  its 
way  in  the  bazars  ;  but  soon  adulteration 
began  to  be  practised,  and  it  lost  repute.  The 
scheme     of 


selling  the  Government  quinine  at  the  post 
offices  may  be  effectual  in  rehabilitating  the 
medicine.  Santonin  worm-tablets  likewise 
had  a  great  reputation  until  adulteration 
began.  Rheumatism  is  common  in  Burma. 
It  is  treated  by  shampooing  {a-/nicik),  which 
in  this  complaint  is  most  efficacious.  A-lincik 
is  a  kneading  of  the  muscles  and  nervous 
plexuses  ;  massage,  in  the  sense  of  rubbing, 
is  not  practised.  The  expert  shampooers 
possess  an  empirical  knowledge  of  the  inter- 
dependences in  the  nervo-muscular  system 
which  is  remarkable.  An  attack  of  lum- 
bago, which  would  cripple  one  for  da\-s,  is 
cured  in  half  an  hour.  Vapour  baths,  over 
the  water  of  hot  springs,  are  also  resorted  to. 
Heart-burn  and  colic  are  common  ailments. 


277.     BURMAN    apothecary. 


126 


BURMA 


D\-sentery  is  much  less  frequent  in  natives 
than  in  European  residents.  Consiimi^tion 
and  pneumonia  are  rare,  but  coughs  and 
bronchitis  are  common.  Cancer  is  not  un- 
known. Measles  and  chicken-pox  follow  a 
mild  course.  Scarlet  fever  does  not  occur, 
nor  does  typhus.  It  is  uncertain  whether 
t\phoid  fever  existed  in  Burma  or  has  been 
introduced  ;  it  is  rare  among  the  natives,  but 
attacks  Europeans  in  a  bad  form.  \'encrcal 
diseases  lurk  in  the  towns.  (Eor  leprosy,  see 
p.  41.)  Diarrhoea  and  cholera  recrudesce 
ever)-  hot  season.  There  arc  no  records  of 
other  pestilence.  Small-j)ox  rages  in  severe 
epiilemics,  but  with  grcath'  diminished  inci- 
dence where  vaccination  has  been  acceptctl. 
Nati\c  jjractitioners  were  acquainted  with  in- 
oculation. In  introducing  voluntary  \-accina- 
tion  the  British  Government  has  met  with 
great  success.  The  introduction  of  this 
measure  exemplifies  how  grotesque  the  arguments  may  be  that  prevail  upun 
the  people.  The  alleged  motive  of  the  government  was  too  improbable  ;  .^o 
wiseacres  cast  about  for  another.  W'iiat  more  likely  than  a  dream  of  the  Queen 
of  England — that  a  child  existed  in  Burma  who  would  overthrow  her  dominion  I 
This  chilli  coukl  not  be  known,  but  it  would  be  reached  and  removed  by  the 
plan  of  poi.soning  the  blood  of  the  whole  generation.      It  was  many  years  before 


.-'  /  b.'l'bM  AMPUUI  Nu 


279.     HOROSCOPE    ON    PALM   LEAF, 


the  myth  was  dispelled.  In  1.S94,  when  small-pox  was  known  to  be  approaching 
from  Karcnni,  the  Karen  (n.it-wor.shipping)  village  of  Bilin-M6waing  among 
others,  consisting  of  sixty  souls,  submitted  to  vaccination.  The  lymph  look  in 
all  but  sixteen  cases.     .Six  months  later  small-pox  rc.iched  tiir  locality.     Twelve 


MEDICINE 


127 


280.      KOTHENA    YON    I]' 


of  the  unsuccessfully  vaccinated 
caught  tlie  disease,  and  ten  oi 
them  died.  None  of  the  forty- 
four  were  attacked.  Tliese 
statistics  could  be  multiplied. 
The  medicine  -  dealers  keep 
many  of  the  crude  commercial 
drugs,  besides  simples  of  their 
own  collecting.  Of  the  former, 
the  principal  are  aloes,  jalap, 
croton-seed,  senna,  bitter  barks, 
catechu,  opium,  camphor,  ginger, 
cardamom  and  other  aromatics. 
The  medicinal  use  of  castor-oil 

is  not  known,  though  the  plant  is  common.      Spirits  are  now  used  medicinally. 

Many  of  the  vegetable  remedies  are  almost  inert  (see  The  Burmese,  lo/tat  do  they 

kiunv  of  medicine'?  by  Dr.  D.  H.  Cullimore).      But  there  is  one  that  deserves  to 

be  known,  namely,  the  Shan  remedy  for  tape-worm,  tossc,  which  is  both  effectu;d 

and   mild.      Among  the  mineral  drugs  are  mercurj-,  calomel,  sulphur,  blue  ,ind 

green  vitriols,  aium,  salammonaic,  nitre.      There  is  a  whole  category  of  su]iposi- 

titious  remedies,  tiger's  gall,  rhinoceros'  blood,  ant-eater's  scales,  and  so  forth  ; 

they  are  charred  before  being  made  up.      Allied  to  this  class  of  remedies  is  th;it 

of  charms,  the  vendors  of  which  (nat-wives  —  nakkaddiv)  trade  on  the  superstition 

that  disease  is  caused  by  demons.     Every  patient  will  be  as  particular  to  mention 

his  .star  as  to  describe  his  complaint.      He  will  be  advised  to  avoid  certain  classes 

of   remedies    on    certain    days. 

The   "  Sunday  son  "    must    not 

purge    on    Friila\%    and    so  on. 

In  times  of  epidemic  and  panic, 

thi'bonzedi  are  erected  at  every 

house,   as   they    likewise  are  in 

cases    of    sickness    (No.    43 1). 

They  are  merely  of  sand,  hekl 

together    with    circles    of    bast. 

Sometimes  they  are  erected  to 

avert  calamity  declared    to    be 

impending  in  a  sliwcpe-ldu'dza. 

a  message  on  gold  foil  dropped 

from     heaven     by     a     Thadyd 

(p.  186).     Images  are  dedicated  281.   chiudrens  bazar  ,p.  w. 


128 


BrR^rA 


I 


282.      PREPARING    TAWTHALIN    OFFERINGS 


at  tlie  temples  in  the  same 
spirit.  TliHwiizedi  are  erected 
on  the  day  of  a  sick  person's 
phmet,  and  decorated  witli 
flags  according  to  the  years 
of  age.  Here  Buddhism, 
which  knows  of  no  vicarious 
merit  (or  demerit),  is  tainted 
b\-  a  survi\-al  of  animism 
(p.  1 88).  The  merit  of  the 
act  is  intended  to  cancel  the 
demerit  of  some  troubled 
spirit  which  is  seeking  to 
possess  the  botly  of  the  suf- 
ferer. Offerings  are  likewise  set  apart  for  the  troubled  spirit  in  the  forest,  to 
divert  him  from  the  sick  person.  When  an  epidemic  of  cholera  occurs,  the 
whole  village  sets  up  a  din  at  sunset  with  iiamboo  sticks,  to  frighten  the  demons 
away.  But  many  minds  are  averse  to  such  superstitions,  and  they  seek  for 
natural  explanations.  They  ascribe  disease  to  states  of  the  blood,  to  "  heats  " 
and  "vapours."  The  cooling  qualities  of  nitre  are  extolled  for  the  one,  and 
the  cordial  effects  of  spice  for  the  other.  Dietetic  questions  interest  every- 
bod}-,  and  everyone  has  his  or  her  pet  nostrum.  Very  little  operative  surgery  is 
attempted  as  compared  with  India  and  China — merely  the  opening  of  abscesses 
and  setting  of  bones.  Hare-lip  and  cleft  palate,  anil  the  cognate  deformities, 
ai)pear  to  be  frequent.  The  dressings  applied  to  wounds  and  sores  are  chicfl\- 
turmeric,  slaked  lime,  w?w-lea\-cs. 
Successful  lithotomies  and  othrr 
major  operations,  and  tlie  boon 
of  chloi'oform,  have  s])read  the 
fame  of  western  surgery  in  a 
vastly  wider  ciicle  than  it  can 
reach  itself  The  sick  are  ten- 
derly nursed  b\-  the  Burmaiis. 
and  never  abandoned  in  panic 
fear  as  hajipens  in  ei)ideini(,> 
among  the  hill-tribes.  There 
are  inw  greater  sources  of  re- 
ligious merit  than  ministering  to 
the  sick.  During  the  ijuerperiuni. 
the  Burinan   custom   is  to  main-  aas.    burman  carrier. 


284.      BAZAR    SCENE,    PEGU. 


\To  face  p,  12S. 


ILLUMINANTS 


I  29 


'm   '       1"^^'-'    -«-'.;  #iiX>***   t-ii'-. ="*»^-^  i_>;^v»*  Fv,.  ■'■'««»* 


^'\C^'*^^^s— 


tain  a  fire  of  billets  on  a 
special  liearth  as  big  as  the 
couch,  and  placed  alongside 
of  it,  for  five  or  seven  days. 
The  antiseptic  property  of 
the  smoke  may  be  of  value, 
but  the  relaxing  effect  of  the 
artificial  heat  is  believed  to  be 
a  reason  why  the  Burman 
women  are  so  much  less  hardy 
in  this  particular  than  the 
neighbouring  races.  The  hos- 
285^   PEDLARS.  P't^il    "*"    thc    Lady    Dufferin 

F"und  is  helping  to  spread  a 
more  enlightened  practice.  The  ratio  of  insane  in  the  population  is  about  a 
quarter  of  that  of  Western  Europe  and  America,  but  is  double  that  of  India. 

Almost  the  only  dealer  who  hawks  his  goods  in  the  street  is  the  seller 
of  oil  (h)!i^uzi.  No.  282).  He  uses  a  light  spring  yoke  of  the  wood  of  the 
5/-tree,  the  heavier  form  of  which  is  seen  in  No.  283.  By  its  springiness  the 
yoke  maintains  the  load  at  an  even  level,  thus  saving  waste  of  work.  As  much 
as  a  hundredweight  is  carried  for  long  distances.  In  merely  shifting  goods  at 
warehouses,  carriers  will  move  two  hundredweight.  They  earn  six  to  twelve 
annas  a  day.  The  only  vegetable  oil  used  for  burning  is  the  oil  or  resin  of 
the  ka-nyiii  (No.  362).  Chips  are  soaked  in  the  wood-oil  and  made  up  into 
torches  (mtdaiug)  with  leaves  of  the  pandanus.  The  oil  is  obtained  by  hewing 
deep  recesses  into  the  butts  of  the  trees  for  it  to  collect  in.  and  firing  these  from 
time  to  time  to  induce  a  fresh 
flow.  In  the  valley  of  the 
Irawadi,  the  crude  earth-oil 
from  the  wells  at  Yen^in- 
dyaung  is  burned  in  open 
lamps.  This  is  the  earliest 
petroleum  known  to  com- 
merce, under  the  name  "  Ran- 
goon oil."  In  recent  years 
petroleum  has  also  been  found 
in  Arakiin.  The  out-turn 
from  the  Burma  oilwells  in 
1894-95  was  nearly  eleven 
million  gallons,  valued  at 
S 


286.      TOY    AND    FLOWER    STALLS. 


i;o 


Bl'RJLrl 


V 


287.     COUNTRY    SALE-DEPOT 


about  one  million 
rupees.  At  pre- 
sent both  wood- 
oil  and  crude 
earth-oil  are  being 
superseded  by 
kerosene.  The 
crude  earth-oil  is 
used  for  preserv- 
ing woodwork. 
But  its  place  is 
being  taken  by 
the  residues  from  the  local  refineries,  now  established  in  Rangoon.*  Travelling 
pedlars  hawk  the  silk  goods  of  Burma  Proper  and  all  sorts  of  fancy  nicknacks 
from  the  sea-ports  to  the  villages  of  the  interior.  The  approaches  to  the 
temples  are  favourite  resorts  of  stall-keepers  of  all  sorts  of  wares,  especial!}- 
of  wax-tapers,  plain  and  moulded,  gold  leaf  coloured  paper  flags  and  flowers  for 
the  votaries  to  decorate  the  shrines  with,  and  to_\'s  wherewith  to  gladden  the 
hearts  of  children — an  act  of  merit  befitting  the  shrine  of  religion  in  this  cheerful 
land.  In  sad  contrast  to  the  gaiety  of  the  booths  is  the  spectacle  of  the  lepers 
who  beg  for  alms.  The  prominence  of  these  unfortunates  at  such  jjlaces  creates 
a  disproportionate  impression  of  their  numbers,  high  as  these  are  (p.  41).  The 
offerings  dedicated  on  the  occasions  of  S/iiii/diii/ii'  fitrs.  festivals,  and  funerals, 
make  the  trades  of  manufacturing  and  ilistributing  the  requisites  of  the  kvain.^i^ 
ver)'  important  ones.  The  wares  collected  in  the  pora/cayii  shop  used  to  be 
representative  of  the  manu- 
factures of  Burma.  But  of 
late,  imported  goods — crock- 
ery, glassware,  lamps  and 
clocks — have  become  a  re- 
gular part  of  the  Ayaiiiig 
furniture,  and  are  offered  in 
meaningless  jirofusion.  This 
has  helped  to  bring  the  par- 
I'ikara  trade  into  the  iiands 
of  foreigners. 

Every  year,  after  the 
floods  have  subsided.  Bur- 
man    dealers    establish    dry-  aee.   rolling  ohlkuoic, 

*  Sec  The  Occurrence  of  Petroleum  in  Burma,  b)-  Ur.  F.  Noctling. 


i 


I 


MERCHANDTZn   AND   DEALERS 


i^^i 


290       PAREIKAYA    DEALER. 


weather  sale-booths  {taivz^,  ftjr  trade 
with  the  hill-people,  at  central  points 
as  far  from  the  towns  as  canoes  can 
navigate  the  stream.  They  sell  dried 
fish  and  ngapi,  salt,  oil,  pease,  sugar, 
spices  and  tobacco,  pottery  and  crock- 
ery, plain  and  coloured  yarns,  needles, 
thread,  cloth  of  every  sort,  elastic  belts, 
under-vests,  matches,  tapers  and  soap, 
kerosene  oil,  pencils,  pens,  ink  and 
paper,  playing-cards,  beads,  spectacles, 
mirrors  and  fancy  articles  from  Europe, 
besides  biscuits,  sardines,  and  con- 
densed milk.  All  these  wares  are  sold 
in  the  larger  villages  as  well.  Sale- 
booths  are  set  up  at  every  festival, 
chiefly  for  refreshments.  But  there 
is  nothing  correspontling  to  the  fairs  of  India  and  the  West. 

Both  men  and  women  smoke  tobacco.  Children  begin  at  four  or  five 
(No.  2i).  The  Burman  cheroot  (scleik)  is  a  roll  five  to  eight  inches  long  and 
an  inch  thick,  consisting  of  chopped  tobacco-leaf  and  the  pith  of  the  tobacco 
stem,  with  a  wrapper  made  of  the  inner  skin  of  the  spathe  of  the  betel  palm,  or 
the  spathe  of  maize,  or  else  the  leaves  of  pauk,  thandt  or  bainbwc,  which  are 
smoothed  on  a  hot  stone.  The  Burman  exquisite  toys  with  this  cheroot  much 
as  the  Japanese  does  with  the  fan.  The  fan  is  not  affected  by  men  or  women  in 
Burma.  Good  cheroots  are  also  rolled  of  plain  tobacco-leaf,  in  the  Indian  way  ; 
they  are  very  strong.  Unlike  the 
Shans,  Karens  and  Chinese,  with 
their  pipes,  and  the  natives  of 
India  with  their  hookah,  the  Bur- 
man sticks  to  the  cheroot.  To- 
bacco is  grown  on  the  silt  banks 
left  drj'  b}-  the  rivers  (Nos.  191, 
264)  ;  but  the  bulk  is  imported 
from  the  South  of  India.  A  deli- 
cate "  birds-eye  "  tobacco  is  pre- 
pared by  the  Karens  and  Shans 
on  the  North-East  ;  it  is  sliredded 
green,  and  does  not  keep  well. 
At  intervals  on  the  main  lines  of  291-   bazar  scene,  burma  proper. 


M2 


flCRMA 


traffic  are  refreshment-booths,  where  fruit, 
sweetmeats,  and  tea  are  sold.  Meals  can 
be  taken  in  •  the  markets  of  the  towns. 
In  the  villages  casual  travellers  enjo}-  the 
hospitalit}'  of  the  people.  In  the  after- 
noon the  markets  are  closed  ;  low  tables 
•ire  set  in  the  roads,  where  cheroots,  fruit, 
and  sweetmeats  are  sold  in  the  evening. 
Some  of  these  refreshments  are  prepared 
iin  the  spot,  such  as  the  inon/ebzcc.  a  wafer 
l)aked  in  the  flame  of  a  fire,  in  which  it 
rises  to  an  immense  size. 

The  wholesale  trade  of  Burma  is  con- 
ducted by  brokers  {pu'ha)  who  receive  a 
Lommission.  Wealthy  men  operate  with 
their  own  capital,  others  find  investors  and 
mone\--lenders  to  advance  funds,  some 
form  partnerships  and  small  companies  to  divide  profits.  Producers  frequently 
bring  their  grain  direct  to  the  mills  ;  but  the  bulk  of  the  grain  is  bought  up  b)- 
the  native  brokers  to  the  order  of  the  exporters,  most  of  whom  never  visit  the 
interior.  The  interest  on  mone\-  is  one  to  six  per  cent,  per  mensem.  What  is 
not  hoarded  in  the  form  of  plate  and  ornaments  is  ])ut  into  trade  or  is  put 
out  to  interest.  Mone\'-lending  is  not  a  special  business  because  everybody 
practises  it.  Appalling  as  is  the  rate  of  interest— the  measure  of  risk — such 
hard  bargains  are  not  driven  as   in  India.     Debtors  when  sold  up  can  nowhere 


292,      CLOTH     BAZAR 


make  a  new  start  so  well  as  in  Burma 
but  banking  has  been  made  a 
regular  branch  of  business  by 
the  Chettis  from  India  (No.  364), 
who  \rAy  as  much  as  one  per 
cent,  per  month  on  deposits 
and  charge  one  and  a  half  per 
cent,  on  loans  fully  secured, 
luiropcan  banks  and  inxcst- 
ments  with  their  high  security 
and  low  rates  of  interest  do  not 
attract  Burman  capital. 

The  carrying  business  is 
mainly  by  water,  for  which  Bur- 
ma possesses    unrivalled   facili- 


Brokcrs  do  banking  in  a  small  way  ; 


293.     NIGHT    BAZAR, 


BOAT-BUILDING 


295.      ROUGH-HEWING   THE    BOAT-HULL- 


tics,  especially  in  the  floods.  The 
buiklint,r  of  boats  is  the  art  that 
most  of  all  exercised  the  con- 
structive skill  of  the  people.  The 
type  of  Burman  boat,  small  and 
large,  is  the  laiiiig.  It  differs 
greatly  from  the  ordinary  dug- 
out of  the  Shans  and  others,  and, 
if  it  implies  a  waste  of  timber 
as  compared  with  the  built-up 
craft,  it  still  produces  from  a 
given  log  a  hull  of  more  than 
double  the  capacity  of  the  dug- 
out. It  bears  bumping  against 
rocks  and  snags  better  even  than  the  dug-out,  because  the  grain  is  nowhere 
cross.  The  wood  preferred  for  hulls  is  thiiigdn,  which  is  tough  and  durable, 
steams  well,  and  grows  near  the  water.  A  sound  straight  tree  of  four  to 
twenty  feet  girth  and  fifteen  to  seventy-five  feet  length  is  felled  and  hewn 
into  a  rough  cylinder.  A  narrow  groove,  about  one-tenth  of  the  girth,  but 
not  less  than  si.v  inches  wide,  is  sunk  along  the  flattest  aspect  of  the  log  for 
about  seven-eighths  of  the  length.  The  ends  are  left  solid,  and  the  groove 
is  cut  down  for  two-thirds  of  the  thickness  of  the  log.  Through  this 
groove  the  log  is  hollowed  out  into  a  shell  having  a  section  like  the  letter  C. 
The  tool  used  (kyetfaiiiig)  is  a  solid  chisel  of  several  pounds  weight,  lashed  with 
rattan  to  a  tee-headed  handle,  made  from  a  branch,  which  allows  of  the  tool 
being  set  at  various  angles  and  every  part  of  the  interior  being  reached, 
while  keeping  clear  of  the  edges  of  the  groove.  Lightened  of  more  than  half  its 
mass,  the  log  is  dragged 
to  the  water  and  floated 
to  the  builder's  yard. 
Here  the  rough  hull  is 
adzed  true  outside. 
Circles  of  holes  are 
bored  through,  at  inter- 
vals, for  a  guide,  antl 
the  shell  is  hollowed  tn 
a  uniform  thickness  with 
the  kyettaiing  and  other 
special  tools.  Then  the 
holes    are    plugged    up 


296.      0PEN1N' 


HIT    THE    BOAT-HULL 


134 


BURMA 


297.       BOAT-BUILDER  S    YARD     PEGU  . 


and  the  luill  filled  witli 
water.  When  the  wood 
is  waterlogged,  the  hull 
is  emptied  and  a  slow 
fire  made  under  its 
whole  length.  The 
ctiges  of  the  original 
slot,  which  now  blend 
into  stem  and  stern  and 
only  remain  vertical 
amidships,  are  gripped 
b}-  two  rows  of  wooden 
vee's  lashed  by  green  creepers,  wet  ropes,  or  iron  chains,  to  long  le\'ers  that 
have  the  bottom  of  the  boat  for  fulcrum.  From  the  power-ends  of  the  levers, 
ropes  are  belayed  to  two  bamboo  rails  pegged  to  the  ground  on  each  side.  As 
the  heat  takes  effect,  and  the  hull  opens  out,  its  symmetry  is  careful!)-  watched 
until  the  originally  vertical  edges  of  the  slot  are  horizontal.  The  beam  is  now 
double  what  it  was  and  the  displacement  several  times  greater.  The  opening 
out  is  allowed  to  go  somewhat  beyond  the  intended  beam,  and  recesses  are  cut 
for  the  stout  thwarts  ( pagdn-byin).  These  are  then  put  in  place,  and  the  shell 
allowed  to  close  upon  them.  The  levers  are  left  in  position  till  the  wood  is 
(luite  rigid.  The  ca]iacit}-  of  the  boat  is  further  increased  b}-  building  on  sides 
above  the  solid  hull.  These  consist  of  long  seamless  ])lanks,  stiftened  bj- 
mouldings  and  ribs,  and  in  the  case  of  cargo-boats  by  an  upper  tier  of  thwarts  ; 
the  join  is  luted  from  the  outer  side  with  bee-dammar  (pnmiyct).  Such  boats 
are  built  of  a  capacity  of  ten  to  fort\'  tons.  The  rounded  solid  hull  (laiiiig-go)  is 
the  most  serviceable  for  the  rivers  of  Burma,  on  account  of  the  ease  of  getting 
it  off  shoals  ;  the  boat  can  be  worked  about  in  ever\-  direction  till   it  wears  a 


208,     LAUNGGO    POLIN 


c 


1 


CANOES  AND   BOATS 


135 


clianncl  in  the  sand  or  mud.  But 
it  cannot  sail  near  tlie  wind,  and 
it  makes  great  leeway.  Only  a 
square-sail  is  carried.  The  prow  of 
the  boat  is  solid  and  the  bulk-head 
above  is  ornamented  with  carving. 
The  still  more  ornamented  poop 
has  to  be  built  w\-)  in  the  large 
boats,  to  get  the  full  sweep  of 
curve  that  is  obtained  in  a  single 
piece  in  the  canoe  {lanug).  The 
boat  has  a  good  deal  of  buoyancy 
even  when  full  of  water.  The 
lau)tg-gd  is  rather  crank,  a  defect 
w  hich  is  obviated  by  the  use  of  bam- 
boo side-buoys  {baic-wa.  No.  176). 
Thiugdii  hulls  last  twenty  to  thirty 
\'ears  ;  the  canoe  is  used  up  to  the 
last  stump.  When  past  repair  it 
is  sawn  asunder  and  boards  nailed 
across  the  sound  pieces.  A  tub  of 
this  kind  is  a  treasure  to  a  child  (No.  161).  The  anchor  (kyaiik)  used  to  be 
a  wood  fork  weighted  with  stone  ;  the  European  pattern  is  now  general.  The 
laiuig-go  is  rowed  with  the  stream  only,  by  three  or  four  sweep-oars  ;  it  is  poled 
up-stream.  The  boatman  thrusts  his  pole  from  the  hollow  above  the  collar- 
bone. Thus  the  hands  are  free  to  hold  the  body  down  to  the  rail,  and  every 
muscle  of  the  body  is  called  into  service.  No.  2S9  shows  the  "  tiger "  style 
of  poHng,  No.  29S  the 
"scorpion"  style.  The 
crew  of  the  lauiig-go 
consists  of  three  to 
five  men  ;  they  get 
their  food  and  a  stipu- 
lated sum  for  the  trip, 
which  comes  to  twelve 
to  sixteen  annas  per 
working  day.  Cargo 
boats  cost  from  1,000 
to  3,000  rupees,  chiefly 
for     the      solid      hull.  301     laung-zat  loading. 


LAUNG-ZAT    POLING    UP-STREAM 


[^6 


BURMA 


302.      SHIPPING-PORT    ON    THE    IRAWADI. 


Canoes  cost  from  twenty  to 
one  hundred   rupees.     Since 
ship-building    was     started, 
boats  of   greater  dimensions 
than    could    be  built   solid — 
eighty  to  one  hundred    tons 
-have  been  built  of  teak  on 
the  carvel    method    {zat-hle). 
But    the  lines  of  the  laung- 
go  are  rigidly  adhered  to.     A 
hull    exactly   simulating    the 
solid  hull   is  built  with  stout 
ribs  and  sheathing  ;  then  the 
sides  are  added — a  most  re- 
markable example  of  conservatism  of  type.     These  two  classes  of  boats  carry 
most    of  the  rice  to  port.      In   Burma  Proper,  where    timber    does    not    attain 
such  size  as  in  the  moist  region,  canoes  only  are  made  on   the  laiing-go  plan  ; 
the  larger  boats  ha\-c  alwa\-s  been  built  up.      In  these  the  hmi/g-gd  type  is  also 
simulated,  but  not  so  closely  (laiiJtg-.-:dt.  Nos.   294,   300).     The  narrow  bottom 
is  flat  and  is  fixed  to  the  side-j^lanks  of  the  lower  hull  by  ribs.     The  planks  are 
two    to    three    inches    thick    and    ten    to   twelve   inches    broad  ;    they  are    held 
together  by  nails  driven  obliqueh-  from  recesses  near  the  seams,  which  are  luted 
with    dammar,    and    are    strengthened    with    ribs.      The    upper    side-planks    are 
attached  as  in  the  laiiiig-go.     Poop  and  prow  are  strengthened  by  iron  dee-nails 
along  the  seams.    The  ca])acity  of  such  boats  ranges  from  twent\-  to  one  hundred 
and   fifty  tons,  and  the\'  cost   from  500  to  5,000  rupees.     The  crew  consists  of 
from  five  to  twenty  men.      They  only  sail  before  the  wind  and  carry  an  immense 
expanse  of  sail,  to  stem 
the    current    of    the    Ira- 
wadi,  which  runs  four  to 
five    knots    in    the    rains. 
The    course  of   the    ri\er 
and    the    prevailing  wind 
arc  in  their  faxour.     Dur- 
ing the   rains  these  crafl 
make     two     tri])s,    nortli 
and  south,  and   lie  !>)•   in 
the   dry  weatlier.      They 
convey    the    produce    of 
Pegu  to  Burma  Proper, 


I  LA  OOING    CRAFT    .KATTLi 


s 


BOATS   AND    BOATMEN 


^11 


.AlirwRIGHTS. 


iii^api,  dried  fish,  salt  and 
rice,  besides  iinported  goods. 
They  bring  down  the  manu- 
factures of  the  North— cutch, 
lactjuer,  images,  and  parci- 
kaya  wares.  They  have  to 
endure  a  formidable  compe- 
tition from  the  river  steamers. 
In  its  existing  form,  the  boat 
of  Burma  presents  no  near 
affinity  to  the  boats  of  neigh- 
bouring peoples.  The  types 
of  architecture  which  the 
Burmans  borrowed  from 
India  they  have  treated  in  a  distinctive  way  which  gives  them  independent 
interest.  But  the  art  which  culminates  in  the  stately  ship  of  the  Irawadi  is 
purely  their  own  achievement.  The  work  derives  unity  from  the  noble  balance 
of  the  masses  and  life  from  the  spirited  sweep  of  the  curves.  The  severity  of 
line  is  relieved  by  plastic  incident  in  the  rich  carving.  The  structure  itself  is 
patent  and  not  concealed  (with  the  exception  noted),  and  the  decoration  goes 
hand  in  hand  with  it.  Besides  their  own  type  of  boat,  the  Shan  type  (No.  320) 
has  been  developed  into  a  large  craft  for  carrying  earth-oil  in  bulk — the  peiiigdio. 
Two  long,  partially-hollowed  teak  logs  form  the  sides  of  the  lower  hull,  with 
several  thick  planks  intervening,  for  the  flat  bottom.  Two  planks  above 
complete  the  sides,  all  held  together  by  nails  and  ribs  as  in  the  lantigzdt. 
There  are  outrigged  bamboo  galleries  for  the  crew  to  row  and  pole,  which  allow 
of  the  deck-house  being 
carried  from  end  to  end, 
providing  accommodation 
for  several  families.  The 
rig  is  the  same  as  in  the 
laitngzdt.  In  tidal  and  salt 
waters,  boats  have  to  be 
beached  once  a  month  to 
bream  the  bottoms  and  de- 
stroy the  teredo.  The  rest 
of  the  woodwork  and  tackle 
is  protected  with  earth-oil. 
The  boats  of  Arakan  are 
on  Indian  lines.  There  is 
T 


306.      BUFFALO-CART- 


ivs 


BURMA 


307.     TYREING    THE    WHEEL. 


a  shallow  dug-out  bottom 
with  three  or  four  side- 
plank.s  built  up  from  it.  The 
[jlanks  are  held  together  b\- 
cane  lacing,  w  ith  a  caulking 
of  grass.  They  are  very 
crank,  but  are  good  sea- 
boats,  nevertheless.  The 
only  decoration  is  a  rough 
crocodile's  head  at  the  bow. 
The  boat  population  of 
Burma  in  1891  was  nearly 
84,000.  or  about  i  •  5  per 
cent,  of  the  wIkjIc  population — "  greatl_\-  in  excess  of  the  proportion  borne  to 
the  total  by  the  maritime  population  of  the  most  maritime  nation  in  the  world  " 
(Census  report,  p.  34).  The  onl\-  sea-going  craft  are  the  few  score  kattit,  small 
junks  of  twenty  to  sixty  tons,  manned  by  five  or  six  Talaiiigs.  They  venture 
as  far  to  sea  as  the  Nicobars,  where  the\-  ship  cocoanuts  in  the  fine  or  north- 
east monsoon.  The  rest  of  the  year  they  lie  by.  The  kattii  are  built  at  Dawe 
("  Tavoy  "),  and  cost  from  one  to  two  thousand  rupees.  They  carry  a  compass 
of  European  make  for  use  in  thick  weather  ;  but  the  navigation  is  empirical. 

The  cart-building  exemplifies  the  Burman  love  of  curves.  In  Burma  Proper 
the  root-wood  of  sha  (cutch)  is  dug  out  for  the  sake  of  the  bent  timber.  In 
Pegu  curved  branches  of  thitigdii  arc  used  for  the  body.  For  wheels,  solid  discs 
of  kaiitig-hinu  and  otiier  woods  were  used  in  Pegu,  where  timber  grows  large 
(No.  306).  In  the  North  the  solid  wheel  is  still  made  up  of  three  pieces,  held 
together  by  mortices  and 
tenons  (Nos.  301,  309).  Pa- 
dditk  is  tlic  wood  j^rcferred 
for  these  wheels.  They  have 
a  very  long  box  for  the  axle, 
which  is  of  paiii^d  wood  ;  the 
axle-box  is  hooped  with  rat- 
tan. Since  the  introduction 
of  spokes  and  iron  tyres,  skill 
has  been  concentrated  on  the 
wheel ;  the  body  of  the  cart 
preserves  its  local  type.  The 
Burman  lias  proved  the  best 
wheelwright  of  the  East,  botli  aoe.    pleasure-cart,  burma  proper. 


<. 


CARTS  AND   ROADS 


'39 


310       BURMAN    PONIES. 


for  heavy  wheels  aiul  the  h'ght 
spider  wheels  he  uses  in  pleasure 
and  racing- carts.  The  Burrnan 
employs  a  very  long  hub  to 
stead)-  the  wheel,  which  is  as 
)'et  unprovided  with  turned 
axles  and  boxes.  Padduk  and 
pyiiikado  wood  are  used  for 
hubs,  with  plain  iron  bushes 
at  the  ends.  Teak  is  used  for 
spokes  and  felloes.  The  axle 
is  of  imported  round  bar  iron, 
with  plain  linch-pins  ;  the  end 
of  the  wooden  axle-bed  forms 
the  shoulder.  The  bar-iron  for  tyres  is  likewise  imported.  Imported  springs 
are  coming  into  use  in  the  light  carts.  European  vehicles  built  by  Chinese 
are  used  by  well-to-do  Burmans  in  the  towns  ;  they  exemplif)'  to  the  natives  a 
novel  departure  in  luxury,  in  which  not  splendour,  but  comfort  is  the  standard. 

The  countr)'  roads  are  merely  the  tracks  made  by  the  carts.  As  the 
bullocks  travel  in  the  line  of  the  wheels,  the  road  is  passable  until  the  ruts 
are  so  deep  that  the  axle-bed  scrapes  the  mound  in  the  centre.  Then  the 
track  is  abandoned  for  one  to  the  right  or  left.  The  same  thing  happens  when 
the  road  is  too  heavy  or  when  a  tree  falls  over  it.  In  the  rice  country  the 
grain  is  carted  across  the  fields.  But  in  the  dry  zone  a  roadway  is  left 
between  the  fences  of  the  fields,  as  is  also  the  case  in  the  eastern  hill-plateaux. 
A  few  state  roads  (w/«/c?;/)  following  the  high  ground  used  to  be  kept  clear, 
but  the  only  regular  road-making  was  done  near  to  the  capital.  Cart-tracks  do 
not  penetrate  the  hill  dis- 
tricts to  any  distance. 

The  Burman  pony  is 
small  —  eleven  to  thirteen 
hands — but  is  said  to  have 
the  best  constitution  and 
the  greatest  endurance  of 
any  breed.  In  Pegu,  with 
its  damp  climate,  the  breed 
does  not  flourish  so  well  as 
in  the  North.  The  ponies 
exported  from  Pegu  are 
brought     down     from     the  311.   wayside  rest-house. 


140 


BURMA 


3rj        COUNTFi-i      BRIDGE 


Shan  hills,  where  alone  breed- 
ing is  a  regular  business.  The 
Shan  pony  is  stouter  than  the 
Burman,  but  not  so  hardy. 
The  Burmans  train  their  ponies 
to  amble  at  a  forced  pace  by 
sawing  the  bit  as  they  urge 
them  on  ;  their  ponies'  mouths 
become  hard  in  consequence. 
Ponies  used  to  be  worth  twenty 
to  fifty  rupees,  but  now  many 
times  more.  Arab  stud-horses 
have  recently  been  introduced 
b}-  the  British  Government. 
Ponies  were  used  for  riding  only,  doubtless  owing  to  the  want  of  roads  and 
vehicles  good  enough  for  quick  draught.  Little  or  no  leather  is  used  in  the 
Burman  saddle  and  accoutrements.  The  seat  is  a  thick  pad  stuffed  with 
cotton,  with  a  hollow  to  leave  the  backbone  free.  The  girth  and  stirrup 
holders  are  cotton  web,  the  bridle  and  crupper  are  of  thick  cotton  rope,  plaited 
over  with  red  cotton  yarn  ;  the  stirrups  are  of  brass,  the  plain  bit  is  iron  (No.  228). 
The  Biu-mans  hog  their  ponies'  manes,  Ijut  they  admire  a  long  natural  tail. 
\'cry  few  animals  are  left  entire. 

Travel  is  made  easy  in  Burma.  There  are  rest-houses  {zaydt)  for  travellers 
at  every  tow  n  and  village  and  at  every  stage  on  the  road.  Both  these  and  the 
needful  foot-britlges  Uada)  arc  provided  from  religious  motives.  The  foot- 
traveller  will  get  a  lift  on  his  way  by  cart  or  boat,  and  will  take  an  oar  or  a  hand 
at  a  job  in  return  ;  those  who  can  affortl  it  pay  their  wa\-.  The  Burman  is  a 
poor  linguist,  and  is  wholly  engrossed  with  the  language  and  ways  of  his  own 
people.  The  aliens  on 
his  soil  and  the  neigh- 
bouring races  meet  the 
Burman  half  wa>-, 
saving  him  the  need  of 
learning  languages  and 
adopting  from  liim  their 
notions  of  culture  and 
fashion,  i'.ncountering, 
as  he  docs,  within  the 
limits  of  his  travels,  a 
material    welfare    little  3,^    „^^^^  ^^^^^^ 


H'Srs^MMMM^HnBiiK''*^ 

ftn.jggaili-,  -   ,,.3™ 

1 

Ifi,^^^' ', 

!2 


TRA  VEL 


14' 


inferior  to  his  own-  not  pcnclraliny  as  far  as  China  or  India,  where  he  might 
witness  the  dire  struggle  for  existence  which  has  disciphned  the  races  about  to 
comi)ete  for  his  soil — the   Burman    fails   to    realise  how  enviable  is  the   lot  he 


315.     TOWN     ENVIRONS    IN    THE     DRY     ZONE 


316.      CARVED    FIGURE 
OF   ANANDA  (p.   35). 


now  enjoys  and  to  recognise  the  nature  of  the  influences  \\  hich  may  effect  the 
decline  of  his  prosperity.  Great  as  are  the  facilities  for  travel  from  the  native 
point  of  view,  to  F.uropeans  the  discomfort  of  travel,  once  off  the  lines  of  rail 
and  steamer,  is  so  considerable  that  few  who  can  avoid  it  visit  the  interior. 


1^^ 

^^•.^ 

'1  ^fllTlliTTi  f J^g: 

317.      FERRY    STATION. 


318.      SHAN     CAMP     IN     THE     LOWLANDS. 


CHAPTER    VI 

AI.IF.X  RACES 

Uxi-lKi.  the  homo- 
geneous ]iopul;itions  of 
the  West  and  tlie  I'ar 
luist,  most  Asiatics  Hvc 
in  tlic  presence  of  races 
alien  to  them.scl\-es. 
The  Bnrman  and  the 
Mun  races,  distinct 
members  of  tlie  Mon- 
golian family,  who 
struggled  for  the  supre- 
macy for  over  a  thou- 
sand }-ears,have  become 
fused,  as  did  the  Normans  and  Saxons.  Such  blemls  of  different  varieties 
of  the  same  human  family  are  believed  to  produce  the  best  races.  The  Mun 
(Peguan,  Talaing)  language  survives  in  a  few  localities,  but  elsewhere  the 
Tal.iings  no  longer  maintain  any  separateness,  in  name  or  sentiment.  Unless 
where  there  is  occasion  to  em])li;isize  the  tlistinclion,  the  Tahiings  are  here 
comprehended    under  the  name   of    I  Unman.       Rut  there  are   races  on  the  soil 


319.     SHAN    BULLOCK    CARAVAN. 


SHANS 


143 


S? 


111'. 


4^; 


321.     SHAN    CARRIER    CARAVAN. 


which,  though  they 
frcc|uently  intermarry 
with  the  others,  never- 
theless, in  the  main, 
continue  distinct.  The 
Shans  arc  the  most 
important  of  these. 
They  contested  the 
mastery  with  the  Hur- 
mans  and  Tah'iings, 
and  secured  it,  too,  in 
the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries  ; 
subseciuently  they  were  reduced  to  tributaries.  The  Shans  are  broken  up  into 
a  number  of  principahties,  of  which  forty  acknowledged  the  suzerainty  of  Burma, 
while  others  are  under  that  of  China  and  Siam.  The  principalities  are  further 
split  U])  into  chieftaincies.  The  area  of  the  forty  states  is  about  40,000  square 
miles.  The  name  S/tr//i  is  believed  to  be  merely  the  French  way  of  spelling 
S/m//  ("Sciam  ;"  <?  in/d;/).  Shan  is  the  Burmese  name  for  the  northern  branch 
of  the  great  race  that  calls  itself  I'a'f  (free-men).  The  southern  or  "  Siamese" 
branch  the  Burmans  call  YoJajd,  the  name  of  its  ancient  capital  above  Bangkok 
{Baiigaiik).  The  relations  between  Siam  and  Burma  are  at  present  very  slight. 
The  northern  Shans  who  trade  to  Burma  and  who  settle  there  divide  into  two 
branches,  the  Yun,  who  wear  their  hair  short  like  the  Siamese,  and  to  whom  the 
Uzimbok  are  allied,  and  the  Y6n,  or  Mune  Shans,  who  wear  their  long  hair 
in  a  top-knot  like  the  Burmans  ;  they  are  the  most  warlike,  and  their  role 
in  Burma  is  the  most  considerable.  The  stature  of  the  Shans  is  somewhat 
less  than  that  of  the 
Burmans  ;  they  are 
of  a  lighter  com- 
plexion, and  of  a 
more  pronounced 

Mongolian  t\-pe.  A 
large  proportion  are 
pock-marked.  The 
men  tattoo  in  the 
same  way  as  the 
Burmans,  but  much 
higher  up  the  body 
and   lower  down   the 


322.     SHAN    SHINLAUNQ    FETE. 


144 


BCRMA 


323.      SHAN    BLACKSMITHS. 


oiled-silk  cover,  or  else  a  stift'  kaiudiik 
spathes.  The  jacket  is  of  the  Chinese  type,  but  quilted, 
and  with  the  margins  scolloped.  The  women  wear  a 
/(Uiiein  or  londyi.  For  gala  the  Shans  get  themselves 
up  like  Ikirmans.  The  Hurmans,  on  their  part,  ai.lopt 
Shan  pants  and  kaiudiik  for  journeys.  In  his  own 
countr)-  the  Shan  occupies  the  lowlands,  as  the  Burman 
and  Talaing  do  in  theirs.  The  more  aborigin.d  tribes, 
such  as  the  Kacln'n.  are  confined  to  the  hills,  where  the)- 
are  practically  indei)endent.  l^\en  the  peaceful  Karens 
of  the  Shan  hills  rarely  see  the  tax-gatherer,  who,  at 
the  most,  levies  a  few  cotton  blankets  or  tikals  of  wax. 
The  chiefs  {Szcabwa)  of  the  principalities  imitate  the 
state  of  the  Burman  kings,  with  palace  fyattltat  ami 
other  insignia  of  sovereignty.  One  white  umbrella  is 
their  prerogative.  Dependent  on  the  chiefs  are  the 
nobles  (aiiuil),  the  hereditary  go\ernors  of  \arious 
degrees,  iityoza,  t/ianiddl,  lieiu,  and  \illage  licadnicn 
{puki').  The  common  peoi)le  are  bound  lo  the  soil  in 
a  kind  of  serfilom,  until  they  can  bu)-  themselves  free. 
This  co.sts  seventy-five  rupees  ;  then  the  man  is  e.xempl 
from  taxation  and  coivcc.  A  man's  laboia-  belongs  lo 
anyone  who  will  keep  him  and  pa)-  the  abo\e  sum  on 
his  behalf  ;  the  serviuidu  wliicji  this  in\i)lves  is  generally 
of  a  mild  description.  llie  character  developed  under 
such  conditions  contrasts  unfavourabh'  with  that  whicli 


legs,  and  have  more  saii  on  the 
rest  of  the  surface.  Dabyi  and 
ihciiahbyi  are  universal.  Both 
sexes  chew  betel  inordinateh". 
The  Shan  men  are  recognised  b)- 
their  Chinese  pantaloons.  These 
are  ver\-  wide,  and  are  hitched 
about  the  waist  in  the  same  way 
as  a  loincloth,  without  the  help 
of  a  belt  ;  they  can  be  worn  long 
or  short,  and  tucked  up  as  close 
as  kaddttng-cliaik.  Both  men 
and  women  wear  a  huge  hat  of 
soft  straw  plait  (kaiiiduk)  with  an 
of  bamboo 


SHAN    IMAGE    OF    THE 
BUDDHA, 


c 


S//,1XS 


145 


326.      KYAINGTON    SHANS- 


thc  democratic  despotism  of 
Burma  has  nurtured.  Respect 
for  age,  life,  property,  and  honour 
are  less.  Though  Buddhism  is 
diligently  observed  in  externals, 
it  is  less  ojicrative  than  in  Burma, 
even  the  yahdn  being  la.x.  The 
ancient  animistic  cult  is  practised 
in  the  shadow  of  the  Buddhist 
temples.  There  is  less  education, 
especially  of  women,  who,  more- 
over, marry — or  rather  are  given 
in  marriage  —  before  maturit}-. 
On  the  other  hand,  their  harder 
circumstances  and  greater  pressure  of  population  have  produced  in  the  Shans 
habits  of  greater  industry,  and  of  greater  neatness  and  order  in  their  belongings 
than  the  Burmans  evince.  Though  they  are  addicted  to  gambling,  the  Shans  are 
a  canny  race.  The  first  mark  of  their  settlements  is  the  fencing  in  of  every  plot. 
But  they  are  great  gardeners,  and  have  better  occasion  for  fences  than  the 
Burmans.  With  less  freedom  and  elbow-room,  not  having  extensive  alluvial 
plains  in  their  country,  the  Shans  are  driven  to  the  expedients  of  terracing  and 
irrigating  the  soles  of  the  mountain  valleys  and  favourable  parts  of  the  undulating 
land.  B)-  these  means  the\-  render  areas  available  for  permanent  (wet)  cultiva- 
tion of  rice,  which  would  otherwise  only  give  a  taniigya  crop  once  in  ten  years. 
In  some  places  they  get  two  crops  a  year.  The  Shans  breed  cattle  extensively, 
and  breed  very  fine  ponies. 
They  are  the  best  metallur- 
gists of  the  north  of  the 
Peninsula.  They  excel  the 
Hurmans  in  cane  and  bamboo 
work,  but  are  inferior  to  them 
in  woodwork.  The  Shan 
canoes  on  the  Salween  are 
of  teak,  merely  dug  out 
(No.  320).  The  Shans  are 
expert  boatmen  and  tim- 
ber raftsmen.  The  ferryman 
stands  on  one  foot  on  the 
poop  of  the  canoe  with  a 
long-handled  paddle,  which 
U 


327.        SHAN-CHINESE. 


146 


Bl'R.lf.l 


328.      KAREN    FOOT-BRIDGE 


he  works  with  the  free  foot  and 
with  both  hands — not  a  muscle  of 
the  body  idle  (No.  193).  But  it  is 
as  caravan  traders  that  the  Shans 
chiefly  figure  in  Burma.  They 
carry  produce  and  wares  between 
the  emporiums  of  Burma,  and  the 
land-locked  areas  of  their  own  and 
contiguous  territories.  On  their 
homeward  journey  they  take  salt, 
salt  fish,  and  ngapi.  and  the  general 

III. 


class  of  goods  named  at  p. 
The  caravans  bring  down  to- 
l)acco,  lac,  ground-nuts,  tlianakkii. 
garlic,  and  seeds.  The  carriers' 
kit    is    of  the   lightest  ;    each  man 

has  his  rice  sup[)]y  in  a  cloth  roll  tied  about  his  waist.       The  goods  arc  carried 

either    by    men    or  by  pack-bullocks.       The    men    travel  about  fifteen  miles  a 

day,  and  carry  about  eighty  pounds  weight.     The  bullock-caravans  travel   about 

ten  miles,  and  the  animals  carry  about  two  hundredweight,  including  gear.     The 

bullocks  are  turned  loose  to  forage  for  themselves  in  the  afternoon.      The  Shans 

celebrate  the  same  Buddhist  festivals  as  the  I^urmans,  and   in   much  the   same 

way.     Their  funeral  observances  are  alike. 

The   Uzimbok   arc  a  branch  of  the    Tai   fainii)-,  who  migrate  to  Burma  and 

settle  on  second-rate  land  which  thc\-  finil   idle,  and  which   the>-  improve.     They 

are  a  steady  and  law-abiding 

people.     'J"hc\- dress  like  the 

Burmans,  but  the  men  wear 

their  hair  in  a  very  peculiar 

fashion,      cut       moderately 

short  at  the    sides,   like   the 

Siamese,  and  cropped  short 

from    the    forehead    to    the 

crown,    where    it    stands    up 

like  a  bru.sh.     Other  Sh.ms 

to   be    met   with    in   Burma, 

having  di.stinctive  dress  and 

customs,  are  the  Kyaingt6n 

Shans   and    the    SlianlarOk 

(bhan-Chinese).     1  hey  come  329.   karen  ferry  rakts  on  the  salween 


I 


K\IR/{NS 


147 


331.      KAREN    VILLAGE. 


in  small  numbers,  chiefly  as  pilgrims  to  the 
lURldhist  shrines,  of  which  the  chief  is  the 
Shwe  Dagon,  in  Rangoon  (p.  188). 

The  Karens  are  the  most  important  hill- 
race  of  the  country,  and  best  exemplify  the 
mode  of  life  of  the  quasi-aboriginal  tribes, 
whom  Burmans,  Talaings,  and  Shans  have 
kept  out  of  the  plain-land.  The  "  white 
Karens,"  Sghaw  {Sghrraw)  and  Two,  occupy 
the  mountains  between  Burma  and  Siam. 
They  have  colonies  in  mountains  far  to  the 
east  and  west,  and  have  also  spread  into 
the  plains  adjoining.  They  call  themselves 
/uti^aiiydio  (Bg/irraffaujd'u'),  and  call  the 
Burmans  Baydii'.  The  Burmans  call  them 
Kayiii,  and  familiarly  Tlia-ugc-dyin — play- 
mate, in  much  the  same  way  as  we  say 
"Jack  Burman"  and  "John  Chinaman."  The 
Karens  get  their  living  by  making  hill-forest 
clearings  (tauiigya),  on  which  they  raise  one 
crop,  and  remove  to  fresh  sites  every  season. 
On  the  fringe  of  the  mountain  tracts  the 
Karens  are  more  or  less  Burmanized,  and 
practise  Buddhism,  being  attracted  by  the 
prestige  of  the  religion,  with  its  great  festi- 
vals in  which  everyone  is  free  to  share — 
especially  now  that  they  can  mingle  in  the 
towns  without  fear  of  their  quondam  oppres- 
sors. The  barbarous  togzc///,  which  the 
Burmans  themselves  are  beginning  to  dis- 
use, is  one  of  the  first  marks  of  the  contact 
of  the  Karen  with  the  dominant  race.  The 
Karens  settled  in  the  lowlands  are  known  as 
Talaing-Kayin,  and  Bama-Kayi'n.  The  men 
speak  Burmese,  and  dress  like  Burmans. 
The  Karen  is  noted  for  truthfulness  and 
chastity.  The  former  characteristic  is  pro- 
bably to  be  accounted  for  by  absence  of 
coercive  regime,  their  society  being,  as  Mac- 
pherson   says  of  the   Khonds,    pervaded   by 


332.      KAREN    MOTHER    AND    BABE. 


148 


BURMA 


333.      KARENS     BRINGING     ELEPHANTS    TO     MARKET. 


"  a   spirit   of  equality, 
and  governed  by  the 
moral  influence  of  its 
natural    heads   alone." 
(Herbert     Spencer, 
Principles  of  Sociology, 
Vol.  I.,  p.  407.)     The 
chief  of   these    elders 
is    called    Sawke ;    he 
gives  his  name  to  the 
village.     The  faults  of 
the    Karens   are   their 
dirt,  their  addiction   to  drink,  and  a   degree  of  superstition  so  extreme  that  a 
motherless  infant  is  refused  adoption  for  fear  of  turning  the  wrath  of  a  vengeful 
demon  upon   the  foster-mother.      In    epidemics    of  cholera   and  small-pox  the 
Karens  abandon  their  villages  in  panic   fear.      The   Karens  are  shorter  but  of 
stouter  build  than  the  Burmans  and  Talaings,  and  of  much  fairer  complexion. 
But  their  name  of  "  white  "  Karen  is  derived   from  their  clothing.     \'er}'  charac- 
teristic is  their  short  upper  arm.     Young  people  of  sj)lendid  physique  may  be 
seen  ;  but  the  conditions  of  life  are  so  hard,  and  malaria  is  so  iirevalcnt   in  the 
forests,  that  the  population  remains  station- 
ary— h)-  the  census  of  1 89 1,  633,600.     The 
toilsome   Karen   finds   lightness  of  heart  in 
the  li([uor  he  brews,  a  remarkable  contrast 
to    the    vivacious    and     abstinent    Burman. 
The  contrast  is   borne    out    in    the    drears- 
wail  of  the  Karen  music  and  the  bright  and 
exuberant  cadences  of  the  Burmese.     Karen 
children    grow     independent     \ery    young 
(No.   355),  and    begin  their  heavy  outdoor 
labour     soon.        ICarly    physical     exertion 
possibly    accounts    for    the    second    moral 
quality  noted  above.      The  hill-cullivation 
is  greatly  at  the  mercy  of  the  seasons,  from 
burning-time  in  ^■\])ril  to  harvest  in  October. 
The  hardship  is  aggravateil  by  a  sujiersti- 
tion  of  divination-bones  {Kycyyo)  which  often 
taboocs  the   most  eligible   sites.     Scarcely 
have    the    crops    been    garnered    than    the 
clearing  of  a  fresh  site  for  the  village  begin.s. 


334.     KARENS    GOING    OUT   TO    WORK. 


'k4;'^^^;,i 


■<, 


I 


/^J/^/:NS 


'49 


336       KARENS    SOWING    THEIR    CROPS 


The  [)rimitivc  Karens  in 
the  remote  hills  build 
(jne  or  more  huge  bamboo 
barracks,  partitioned  off 
for  the  different  families. 
Those  more  in  contact 
with  civilization  build 
separate  huts.  When  the 
new  settlement  is  com- 
plete, the  Karens,  both 
men  and  women,  carouse. 
From  February  to  April 
each  household  is  hard  at 
work  clearing  its  cultivation-plot  of  four  to  eight  acres  of  forest  on  the  hill-side. 
Bamboo  forest  is  preferred  ;  occasional  trees  of  large  size  are  killed  by  ringing,  or 
are  lopped  to  get  ritl  of  their  shade  ;  many  trees  are  felled  (No.  105).  The  lumber 
is  left  to  dry  for  burning,  till  the  rain  clouds  begin  to  gather.  Sometimes  an 
unexpected  break  of  the  monsoon  prevents  the  burning  and  renders  the  whf>le 
labour  futile.  After  the  first  burn,  the  residue  is  stacked  against  the  standing 
trees  and  burned  again.  When  the  rains  have  set  in,  the  seed  is  sown.  A  man 
goes  in  advance  and  makes  rows  of  shallow  holes  with  a  hoe  mounted  on  a  long 
and  tapering  bamboo  staff ;  the  free  or  wide  end  is  furnished  with  openings  in 
the  side,  which  cause  the  bamboo  to  emit  a  musical  note  at  each  stroke. 
Women  with  seed-bags  follow  ;  they  put  in  the  rice  and  the  secondary  crops 
{/man,  cotton,  and,  in  a  few  localities,  teak-seed  for  the  government,  No.  244),  in 
alternate  rows,  and  close  the  soil.  Watchers'  huts  are  built,  and  the  birds  scared 
till  the  seed  has  sprouted. 
TVom  that  time  till  the  crop  is  |iW5^ 
thick  it  has  to  be  assiduously 
weeded.  If  the  cultivator  falls 
sick  for  a  fortnight  the  weeds 
gain  ground,  and  he  cannot 
come  up  with  the  work  again. 
The  clearings  have  to  be  fencetl 
to  protect  them  against  deer 
and  pigs,  and  the  rats  have  to 
be  kept  down  by  lines  of  traps 
which  often  e.xtend  for  miles. 
In  years  of  bamboo  seeding 
(p.    112)   the   rats    multiply  to  337    karen  crop  watchers  hut 


I50 


BURMA 


such  an  extent  that  they  destroy 
w  hole  crops  and  stocks  of  com 
and  produce  famine.  Towards 
harvest  time  birds  have  to  be 
scared  again.  The  rice  crop  is 
generally  ripe  before  the  last 
rains  fall.  A  chance  break  is 
taken  advantage  of  to  cut,  dry, 
and  thresh  the  corn,  which  is 
got  under  cover  in  a  bin  on  the 
tauiigxa,  ox  piiuzo,  as  it  is  called 
when  done  with.  The  secon- 
dary crops  ri]3en  later.  Cucum- 
bers, pumpkins,  marrows,  brin- 
jals,  and  other  coarse  vegetables, 
and  .sometimes  tomatoes,  are  sown  on  the  margins  and  along  the  pathways.  In 
a  good  season  the  Karens  get  about  double  the  quantity  of  grain  they  need  for 
living.  The  whole  of  the  secondary  crop  is  for  trade.  In  the  moist  ravines 
they  cultivate   the  betel-palm  ant!    betcl-\ine,   and  they   have   taken  to  orange 


I 


338.      KARENS    CUTTING    THEIR    CROP. 


1 


gardening  at  the  foot  of  the  hills.  They 
honey  by  climbing  high  trees  (No.  362)  ; 
bamboo  spikes  into  the  wood.  The  only 
honey  of  J^urma  is  wild  ;  but  bees  fre- 
quent the  limestone  caves  to  such  a 
degree  that  in  some  places  the  right  to 
collect  honey  and  wax  in  them  is  farmed 
out.  Honey  sells  for  ten  annas  and  wax 
for  two  and  a  half  rupees  a  viss.  The 
staple  food  of  the  Karens  is  rice.  Thc\- 
make  a  curry  in  the  Burman  way  ;  with 
it  they  eat  ngapi,  salt  fi.sh  or  fresh  fish,  or 
the  flesh  of  jiig  and  deer,  especially  the 
"  small  deer  "  they  trap  at  the  taiiiigya. 
They  keep  goats,  poultr_\-  and  jiigs,  which 
latter  are  the  scavengers  of  the  villages. 
Hut  the  chief  purpose  for  which  these 
animals  arc  bred  is  to  be  killcil  and 
offered  to  the  vats,  who  have  to  be  pro- 
pitiated on  all  occasions.  At  every  vil- 
lage site  and  clearing  for  cultivation    a 


also  collect  the  wild  betel-vine  antl 
the  tree-ladder    is    made   h\  driving 


339.     KAREN    WOMAN    COOKING. 


KARENS 


151 


1  H^H 

l^^^^^l 

ll 

l^H 

I! 

if 

"e.-jl^^^^^^^^^^^H 

i23? 

Hj^I^ 

sl^^^^ 

^^^^Bf^^  1 -v -'^«^^ 

^^ 

341.      KAREN    LIQUOR-STILL. 


miniature  bamboo  hut  is  made  (tA-lhli, 
No.  '^I'J),  and  furni.shed  with  uten.sils  or 
s)'mbols  of  .such.  The  joints  of  bamboo 
piled  against  the  horizontal  bar  repre- 
sent vessels  for  the  blood  of  the  offer- 
ing ;  the  whole  offering  is  really  appro- 
priated by  the  votaries.  The  ya/idn 
have  persuaded  the  Karens  under  their 
influence  to  discontinue  keeping  animals, 
so  as  to  be  out  of  temptation  to  sacri- 
fice to  nats.  The  Karen  idea  of  nat  is 
exclusively  an  evil  spirit,  whereas  the 
Burmans  have  the  conception  of  tliadyd 
and  byaniind,  beings  of  a  transfigured 
human  nature  ;  by  them  iiat  is  chiefly 
used  in  this  sense  (p.  186).  The  Karens 
also  offer  to  the  nats  the  liquor  they  brew 

{kaiDig),  which  is  distilled  from  a  wnit  made   by  setting  boiled  rice  to  ferment. 

The  drinking  of  this  offering  at  the  shrine  is  accompanied  by  saltatory  move- 
ments.   What  the  Karens  can  save,  the)'  invest  in  purchase  of  elephants  (No.  l^l). 

Owing  to  the  transient  nature  of  the  hill-settlements  the  paths  do  not  get  well 

enough  worn  for  pack-oxen.     The  elephant  is 

the  only  beast  of  burden  available  to  them  ;  an 

elephant  can  carry  five  to  ten  hundredweight 

in  the  hills  (No.  314).     A  small  village  clubs 

together  to  buy  an  elephant  to  carry  in  the 

corn  and  take  the  secondary  crops  to  market  ; 

well-to-do    villages    own     several    elephants. 

Individuals  who  own  a  couple  are  accounted 

wealthy,  but  some  own  as   many  as  twenty. 

They  hire  the  animals  out  for  carrying  pro- 
duce   or  for  timber-work,   or   engage  in  this 

business  on  their  own  account.     Their  spare 

cash  the  Karens  bury  in  the  earth  or  hide  in 

growing  bamboos.       The  point   of  the  da  is 

struck  into  a  green  culm  so  as  to  open  a  slit. 

The   rupees   are   dropped   in,  the    dd    pulled 

out,  and  not  a  trace  remains.       Karens   are 

good  workers  in  bamboo  and  cane,  and  are 

excellent    woodmen.       They    are    expert     in 


KAREN    HIDING    COIN     IN    A    GROWING 
BAMBOO, 


BTRMA 


■ 

^if^r?^^  •' 

H 

I^^^WI 

1 

i Lift SL' ' '  ti^ilHH 

1 

343.      KAREN    SPRING-SPEAR    IDYAN  ) 


making  traps  and 
snares  for  animals, 
whose  habits  they 
observe  closely,  and 
whose  calls  they 
mimic.  Squirrels  are 
their  principal  quarry. 
For  deer  they  set  a 
spring-spear  called 
t/j'an  at  a  salt-lick. 
This  is  a  source  of 
danger  to  travellers, 
who  have  to  be  on  their  guard  for  the  warning  sign  set  at  the  approaches  to  the 
(/van.  They  keep  commtm  wild  cocks  and  pheasant  cocks,  as  well  as  doves,  for 
decoys.  The  decoy-cock  is  tied  b)-  the  leg  to  a  post  in  the  centre  of  a  circle  of 
snares  ;  when  a  wild  bird  hears  him  crow  and  comes  to  fight  he  is  caught. 
The  chief  game  of  Karen  children  is  transfixing  bamboo  hoops  as  they  bound 
past,  a  practice  for  spearing  running  game.  The  Karens  use  a  cross-bow 
(No.  204),  with  simple,  and  occasionally  also  with  poisoned  arrows.  All  the 
Karen  utensils  are  of  home  manufacture,  w  ith  the  significant  excei)tion  of  the 
dd  and  axe,  their  chief  implements,  which  are  made  by  Shans  antl  Burmans. 
They  even  make  rough  pottery  when  at  a  distance  from  the  market.  The 
women  spin,  dye,  and  weave  their  own  yarn  ;  but  they  are  beginning  to  use  the 
ready-dyed  yarn  that  is  imported.  Every  member  of  a  Karen  household 
labours  for  the  common  fund.  Young  Karens  do  not  marrv  till  mature — 
twenty  to  twenty-four.  Marriages  are  arranged  by  the  ciders  ;  but,  if  a  ])air 
mate  of  their  own  choice,  the  lad  has  to  give  a  buft'alo  or  its  value  to  the  girl's 
parents.  Unlike  the 
marriages  of  the  civi- 
lised races  of  the 
country,  the  Karen 
marriage  is  a  great  fes- 
tivity. Karen  unmar- 
ried women  wear  onlj'  a 
long  smock  {thiuddiiig) 
of  plain  white.  Married 
women  wear  a  blue 
embroidered  smock 
over  a  figured  loin- 
cloth.   Men  and  women  344.   karen  hunters  brinqino  in  wild  pig. 


A'.  /  A'/^NS 


Do 


^^mb^.^^ 


346       KAREN    WITH    DECOY-COCK. 


labour  out-of-doors  till  about  sixty.  The 
oldest  women  who  can  move,  make  their  daily 
iuuniL-y  for  water,  which  is  fetched  and  stored 
in  joints  of  the  giant  bamboo.  Old  men 
occupy  themselves  with  plaiting  mats  and 
baskets,  and  repairing  gear.  None  are  idle. 
The  Karens  are  acquainted  with  the  medicinal 
virtues  of  many  plants,  such  as  bitter  barks  for 
aL;"ue.  But  all  sickness  and  misfortunes  are 
ascribed  to  the  nats.  Offerings  and  charms 
are  relied  on  more  than  medicines.  When  a 
person  dies,  the  body  is  treated  with  great 
respect,  and  every  kind  of  offering  is  made  to 
propitiate  the  spirit.  The  corpse  is  cremated, 
and  the  bones  are  buried  at  a  place  devoted 
to  this  use  (ayo-daung),  often  at  a  distance, 
owing  to  the  migrations  of  villages.  Here  a 
shrine  is  erected,  consisting  of  a  miniature  hut, 
upon  which  a  rude  carving  of  a  bird  always 
figures.      This  symbolizes  a  mythical  creature 

which  conveys  the  spirit  over  rivers  and  chasms  on  its  wanderings.       For  .some 

time  after  a  death,  cotton  threads  are  stretched  beside  the  footbridges  for  the 

spirit  to  pass  by  on,  without  meeting  the  living.      A  shrine  similar  to  that  at  the 

ayodaung  is  made  at  a  place   where   two  roads   cross,   and  at  each  shrine  the 

clothing  of  the  deceased,  and  sometimes  new  clothing  and  utensils,  are  dedicated. 

It  is  at  funerals  that  the  dreary  Karen  music  is  chiefly  heard.    The  tones  are  ver\' 

widely  contrasted.    The  dirge 

is  accompanied  bj'  the  notes 

of  the  pdzi,  a  great  drum  of 

bronze,    cast    in     the    Shan 

countr)-.    in    a    single    piece, 

though  the  metal  is  only  the 

eighth  of  an  inch  thick.     The 

pazi  is  struck  on  the  end  with 

a    padded    hammer    for    the 

deep  fundamental    tone,   and 

flicked    on    the    side   with    a 

stick  to  bring  out  harmonics 

an  octave  or  two  higher. 
The    Karcnni,  or 
X 


Red 


347-      DECOY-COCK    IN    THE    CIRCLE    OF    SNARES 


154 


BURMA 


348.     KAREtj    HijL'i 


Karens,"  have  a  lan- 
euage  of  Karen  struc- 
ture,  but  the  people 
recall  the  truculent 
Kachi'n  much  more 
than  the  mikl  Karen. 
They  inhabit  a 
plateau  about  half 
the  size  of  Wales, 
lying  between  the 
northern  limit  of  the 
White  Karens  and 
I'he  Kiiranii  are  darker-skinned  than 
clothing  ;  the  men  wear 
The  women  wear 


the  southern  limit  of  Shans  and  Kachins. 

the  Karens.     They  use  red  and  black  colours  in  their 

short  pants,  sleeveless  Shan  jackets,  and  a  red  gaiiiig-ba/tiig. 

a  black  cloth,  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  the  Siamese  women  ;  they  do  most 

of  the  labour,  even  the  tilling  of  the  rice-fields,  which  are  on   the   Shan  model ; 

but  laiii/gyci   is  practised  also.     They  brew  a  liquor  from  millet-corn,  which  the 

men  always  carry  in  their  gourd.     The  villages  are  permanent,  situated  on  points 

of  vantage,  and  are  stockaded.     Feuds  between  villages  are  chronic  and  form  the 

chief  concern  of  the  male   population.       Such  of  the  Karenni   as  settle  in  the 

lowlands  atiopt  the  Shan  civilisation  and  dress. 

The  Chins  are  belie\ed  by  some  to  rej)rescnt  the  stock  from  wliiih  the 
Burman  tribes  originated,  and  to  ha\'e  descended  into  the  valley  of  the  Irawadi 
from  the  plateau  of  Tibet,  with  the  inhabitants  of  which  the  Burmans  and 
Chins  possess  linguistic  affinities  not  shared  by  other  races  of  the  Peninsula. 
The  Chins  are  the  hill-people 
of  the  mountains  west  of  the 
Irawadi  and  its  great  tributary 
the  Chindwin.  The  tribes  are 
many  and  diverse.  Towards 
the  .south  and  on  the  borders 
of  the  plains  they  are  Bur- 
manised  in  a  great  measure, 
and  have  tlrojjped  their  primi- 
tive characteristics,  notably 
their  language.  Thcjcall  them- 
selves Aslid.  The  black  tat- 
tooing of  the  women's  faces, 
which  is  the  most  distinctive  of  349.   karen  woman  weaving 


CHIN,  (///.]/ r.  I  ir 


'55 


KAREN'    MAIDENS 


their  customs,  is  obsolete  in  many  i)l,ices  ;  it 
is  said  to  have  originated  in  the  fear  of  tlie 
women  being  carried  off  by  tlie  [jlainsmen. 
The  southern  Chin  men  dress  like  the  Bur- 
mans,  but  more  scantily  ;  the  women  wear  a 
black  tJiindding  with  embroidery  round  the 
middle  and  a  black  gainig-bauug.  The  culti- 
vation is  like  that  of  the  Karens,  but  exhibits 
improvements  upon  it.  The  more  gentle 
hill-slopes  are  chosen  and  are  ploughed  ; 
and  several  crops  are  raised  on  the  site  in- 
stead of  only  one.  Where  the  acacia  abounds, 
the  Chins  practise  cutch-boiling.  The  heart- 
wood  is  hacked  to  chijis,  which  are  boiled 
and  strained  and  the  decoction  concentrated 
in  iron  cauldrons. 

The  Chimpaw  tribes,  also  called  Kachin, 
are  numerous.  They  are  the  hill-people  of 
the  Upper  Irawadi  and  adjoining  country.  (See  Mr.  George's  account,  Census 
Report  1891.)  They  cut  tauiigya  like  the  other  hill-people.  The  Chimpaw  have 
the  defects  of  the  Karens  without  their  virtues.  But  they  have  held  their  own 
against  their  more  civilised  aggressors  from  the  time  of  Shan  dominion  onwards, 
with  greater  determination  and  success  than  any  hill-people  of  the  Peninsula. 

Taungthu  means  hill-man  ;  but  the  I'ace   to  which  the  Burmans  give  this 
name  has   its  nucleus  in  tlie  Thaton   plain,  where   it  musters   30,000.      There  is 

a    lesser    nucleus,    also    called  

Thaton,  in  the  Shan  country 
which,  according  to  the  latest 
researches,  was  colonised  from 
Thaton  in  Pegu  and  not  vice 
versa  as  had  been  supposed. 
The  Taungthus  have  main- 
tained themselves  distinct  from 
the  Muns  (TaLiing),  the  masters 
of  Pegu,  for  five  hundred  years 
or  more.  The  men  dress  like 
Shans.  The  women  wear  a 
black  thiiidding  and  loitdyi 
much  like  the  Chin,  but  with 
red    trimming    instead    of   em-  352.    karen  girls  fetching  water. 


IS6 


lU'RMA 


353       KAREN    BRONZE    DRUM     .PAZI 


broidery  and  with  red  silk 
tassels  to  the  ganiig-baung. 
The  Taungthus  are  expert 
craftsmen  in  all  the  arts  of 
the  Peninsula.  They  are 
strict  Buddhists  and  build 
magnificent  kymiitgs  in  the 
prevailing  wood  style  ;  these 
exliibit  a  noticeable  pecu- 
liarity in  their  stone  fences. 

The  Chinese  used  to 
come  to  Bamaw  from  Yunnan 
by  way  of  Momeit,  which  was 
the  route  followed  both  b}- 
trade  and  by  invading  armies,  at  the  terminus  of  i\hich  Chinese  have  been 
settled  for  long.  But  the}'  have  not  spread  in  Burma  from  that  centre.  The 
peaceable  invasion  of  Chinese  comes  by  wa_\-  of  Canton,  Singapore,  and  the 
Burma  ports.  In  1891  the  Chinese  in  Burma  numbered  37,000.  The  Buddhism 
of  the  Chinese  is  a  mere  name.  Although  they  follow  their  own  mode  of  life 
in  all  particulars,  the  Chinese  are  in  better  touch  with  the  Burmans  than  an}- 
other  foreigners.  Besides  the  trades  already  noticed — carpenter,  blacksmith, 
tailor,  shoemaker,  market-gardener — the  Chinese  get  plenty  of  custom  as  pork- 
butchers.  They  are  getting  the  parcikaya  trade  of  Pegu  into  their  hands,  and 
a    great    deal  of  the  brokerage   and  , 

wholesale  trade  also.  Thc}-  ha\e 
developed  the  trade  in  hides  and 
horns.  They  import  Chinese  pro- 
visions and  manufactures  on  a  large 
.scale.  Banking  and  insurance  are 
conducted  by  Chinese  firms.  They 
run  steamers  of  their  own.  Their 
prestige  is  very  great.  The  agricul- 
tural ChinaiTian  and  the  Chinese 
coolie  have  not  appeared  in  Burma 
as  yet.  Significant  as  the  above 
activities  are,  the  most  conspicuous 
rdle  of  the  recent  Chinese  immigrant 
is  thc  distilling  and  vending  of  spirits. 
The  Cliinese  hold  all  the  licences  for 
the  sale  of  opium  ;    for  which  Ithey 


I 


1 


364.      KAREN    GRAVE. 


'5 


* 


ciiixjisi-: 


>/ 


pay  enormous  sums.  Secret  agents  freely 
provide  opportunities  for  lads  to  establish  the 
craving  for  the  drug,  the  retail  price  of  which 
is  double  its  weight  in  silver.  No  Burinan 
has  ever  taken  an  opium  farm.  Opium-eater 
{beinza)  is  the  worst  thing  a  Burman  can  say 
of  a  man.  The  people  deplore  beyond  every- 
thing the  maintenance  of  facilities  for  the 
spread  of  this  vice,  almost  unknown  before, 
a  capital  offence  in  fact.  Most  of  the  Chinese 
settlers  have  Burman  wives,  to  whom  they 
give  a  life  of  perfect  ease  (p.  i6i).  The  China- 
Burman  half-breeds,  issuing  as  they  do  from 
distinct  varieties  of  the  same  human  group, 
may  be  expected  to  unite  the  best  qualities 
of  the  parent  stocks  (the  reverse  of  which 
holds  for  the  Aryan-Burman).  This  mixed 
race  is  believed  to  have  a  great  future  in  Bur- 
ma.    The  sons  are  brought  up  as  Chinamen, 

356-      RED    KARENS— KARENNI  ,  ,  i  n  ti  1 

the  daughters  as  Burmans.     But  the  men  are 
not  suffered  to  wear  the  plaited  qnciw  of  the  pure  Chinese  ;  they  merely  coil  the 


■ 

- 

\ 

^    ^"' 

^ 

»--.;r^ 

9 

^^^KL~             "  xr  ^ 

V  'g^t^<e:*^^!^SI^K^L 

^^^^HIHK' '  4^*\.  '  iK\ 

L^^ 

^^^^^MS» '              It 

w 

■1^--. 

,    .          -          ■=?r**: 

i^^ 

i 

^w* 

s 

IPI 

^k- 

^ 

t5. 

'"m 

358.     KACHIN— CHIMPAW. 


1^8 


BURMA 


hair  round  the  unshaved  part.  The  half-Chinese  have  nothing  to  say  to  opium. 
The  only  other  visitors  from  the  confines  of  China  are  the  Panthay  muleteers 
and  the  Mainthas. 


I 


i 


359.     TAUNGTHU 


360.     HOVELS    OF    THE    INDIAN    IMMIGRANTS. 


]^rahnians  (Poii-luia)  were  patronised  by  the  kings  of  Burma  as  astrologers 
and  calendar-makers.  Those  settled  in  Burma  came  at  difterent  times  from 
different  parts  of  India,  but  principalh-  from  IManijJur.  They  stricth-  guard 
their  caste,  though  their  language 
is  l^urmcse  and  they  dress  as 
]^urmans,  except  for  tlie  avoid- 
ance of  silk  and  coloured  stuffs  by 
the  men.  They  study  and  teach 
Sanskrit  after  the  Burman  mode. 
The\-  teach  arithmetic  b\-  rule  of 
thumb  and  frequent  the  shrines, 
where  they  cast  horoscopes  and 
tell  fortunes  (pp.  41,  126).  Al- 
though they  have  no  religious 
community  with  the  Buddliists, 
they  arc  included  in  the  Ikiddhist 
category  of  venerable  |)ersons. 

The  Sinhalese  yahdii  are   in 
full   communion    with    the    villniii  sei     Chinese  shoemakers 


362.      KAREN    TREE    LADDER 


[  To  J'itcr  p.    11,-S 


I 

I 


i 


NATIVES   OF  INDIA 


159 


of  Burma.  Sojourner  jv?////«  from  Ceylon  arc  always  in  Burma.  A.  k\/f  yahdn 
from  l^urma  make  the  pilt^rimage  to  the  A'c  tree  at  Anuradhapura  in  their 
compan\'. 

The    Intlian    immigrants    to    Burma    are    mostly    harvest    labourers.       The 


363.      MANIPURIS. 


majority  return  home  at  the  end  of  the  season,  but  an  increasing  proportion 
find  work  in  the  seaports  or  are  absorbed  in  the  callings  in  which  natives  of 
India  have  established  themselves.  In  this  way  their  numbers  steadily  increase. 
In  1 89 1  there  were  nearly  half  a  million,  in  a  total  population  of  seven  and 
three  quarter  millions.  There  is  evidence  that  Indian  traders  formed  a  large 
body,  even  in  Burma  Proper,  in  the 
eighteenth  century.  Musulman  butchers 
are  mentioned  in  the  middle  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  But  the  influx  which 
has  given  an  Indian  complexion  to  the 
ports  of  Burma  is  a  feature  of  the  last 
fifty  years.  The  Indian  settlers  have 
now  the  chief  share  in  the  river  fishing, 
ferry  and  passenger  boat-traffic,  brick- 
making  and  brick-laying,  peddling,  por- 
terage, and  general  unskilled  or  "  cooly  " 
work  of  Pegu.  Trades  which  they  have 
introduced  are  the  butchers',  bakers', 
dairymen's,  washermen's,  tinsmiths', 
hack-carriage  drivers',  and  the  vendors 
of  imported  wares.      The  Indian  trader  364.   the  chetti 


i6o 


in -R. If  A 


365.     BRINi- 


of  ev^ery  class  and  caste,  with 
his  foreign  connection  and 
longer  experience,  has  an  in- 
calculable advantage  over  the 
untravelied  Burman.  Begin- 
ning with  a  lower  standard  of 
comfort  than  the  Burman — 
squatting  on  the  bare  soil 
where  the  poorest  Burman 
makes  a  floor,  wearing  cotton 
where  the  other  wears  silk, 
and  bein,L;"  able  to  improve 
his  original  condition  upon 
half  the  return  that  the  Bur- 
man expects  for  his  work — 
the  Indian  immigrant  finds  land  worth  his  labour  which  the  Burman  leaves 
waste.  The  influx  of  races  whose  religion  it  is  to  multiph-,  without  regard  to 
the  prospect  of  subsistence,  must  speedily  result  in  lowering  the  scale  of  life  for 
everyone  in  Burma — a  country  of  which  it  may  now  be  said  that  "  a  large  share 
of  the  happiness  of  each  individual  is  derived  from  the  consciousness  of  the 
well-being  of  other  individuals."  (Herbert  Spencer,  Principles  of  Ethics,  Vol.  I., 
p.  297.)  Commencing  by  hiring  the  cheap  Indian  labour  to  reap  his  corn,  then 
to  plough  and  till  his  fields,  the  while  emulating  his  neighbours  in  superfluous 
works,  the  Burman  is  apt  to  end  by  becoming  the  debtor  of  his  servant,  and 
mortgaging  to  him  his  lands.  It  seems  to  man\-  that  there  is  no  escape  for  the 
Burman  from  the  Indian  flood  that  now  menaces  his  countr\-.  But  up  to  the 
present  no  class  of  Indians  has  attempted  to  deal  with  land  subject  to  the 
vicissitudes  of  the  Burman 
riverain  soil.  It  is  unlikely 
that  people  of  less  versa- 
tility and  resource  will  esta- 
blish themselves  there.  In 
1879,  when  the  vagaries  of 
the  Irawadi  had  submergeil 
the  cultivation  on  the  Pan- 
hlaing  creek  some  twelve 
feet,  and  the  eaves  <jf  the 
houses  were  under  water, 
the  cattle  were  saved  in 
hasty    ])latfornis    made    in 


■■^^JQ^iP^  ' 


■i*>«.aiLa^ 


306.   FORESHOHt  Al  THL  FACTORIES 


< 


ALIEN   RACES 


i6i 


trees.  All  that  the  villagers  asked  for  (and  of  course  got)  was  exemption  from 
land-tax.  Another  hopeful  feature  is  that  the  Burman  is  not  devoid  of  the 
quality  of  self-criticism.  With  the  Indian  retail  trader  comes  also  the  wholesale 
merchant — Persian,  Parsi,  Surati,  Chetti  and  Bania.  And  the  Burmans  at  large 
accept  the  situation,  never  dreaming  that  by  travelling  abroad  and  seeing  for 
themselves  how  other  nations  manage  and  how  they  fare,  they  might  learn  to 
conduct  their  own  business,  and  help  to  save  Burma  from  sinking  to  the  level  of 
proletariate  countries.  Natives  of  India  and  China  have  learned  so  much  in 
their  capacities  of  assistants  to  European  merchants  that  they  are  getting  the 
retail  trade  in  European  goods  to  themselves.  Even  as  importers,  with  their 
agents  in  Europe,  they  are  making  themselves  independent  of  the  European 
merchant  in  the  East.     The  European  spheres  of  activity  on  which    Burmans 


368-      EUROPEAN    TYPE    OF    HOUSE. 


have  entered  are  saw-mill  enterprise  and  the  profession  of  advocacy,  in  which 
latter  they  have  attained  a  high  standing. 

To  the  Burman,  the  native  of  India  is  the  foreigner /(?/•  t'-ra'/Av/r^ — KalA — 
and  shares  the  disrepute  that  a  stay-at-home  people  commonly  accord  to  the 
foreigner,  especially  when  he  is  a  needy  one.  To  them  he  is  the  dog  that  eats 
the  crumbs  which  fall  from  his  table  {"  Kwe-Kald !  ").  While  the  Chinaman, 
despite  his  uncouthness  and  uncanny  parasitic  trade,  is  considered  an  eligible 
man,  Kald-mayd — nigger's-wife — is  a  term  of  reproach.  The  Kald  half-breeds 
are  called  Zerbddi.  They  appear  to  possess  fewer  good  qualities  than  either 
of  the  pure  races.  The  Euro-Burman  half-breeds  are  called  Bayiudyi — Catholics, 
literally,  adherents  of  the  Great  Prince,  the  Pope.  The  temporal  power  would 
appear  to  be  the  tenet  on  which  the  earh'  Portuguese  Christians  laid  the 
most  stress. 

Europeans  are  the  only  remaining  foreigners  whom  the  Burmans  encounter, 
excepting  a  few  Armenians,  Jews  and  Malays.  Armenians  were  beginning  to  pla\- 
Y 


l62 


BURMA 


a  role  under  the  kings  of  Burma,  w  ho  farmed  out  customs  and  taxes  to  them. 
Symes,  writing  in  iSoo,  mentions  that  there  were  then  one  hundred  luiropeans  in 
Rangoon.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  merchants  and  masters  of  ships,  the 
European  standard  at  that  time  was  not  a  good  one.  At  present  the  authority 
of  the  handful  of  British  in  Burma  ramifies  into  the  old  native  channels  of 
government  b\'  which  the  mass  of  the  population  is  reached. 


i 


369.     HARBOUR    SCENE. 


370.      HEADMAN    MUSTERING     HIS    VILLAGERS. 


CHAPTER    VII 


POLITICAL 


With  alien  races  planted  on  his  soil  antl  the  watchful  rivalry  of  the  Talaing 
to  contend  with,  the  Burman  had  hourly  need  to  guard  his  cami).  Besides  the 
enemies  without,  and  their  potential  allies  within,  brigand  bands  of  his  own 
race  had  to  be  held  in  check.  The  chronic  wars  of  Burman  and  Talaing  (Mun), 
who  were  separated  by  no  natural  frontier, 
have  left  their  record  in  the  stockaded 
villages  between  Prome  and  Mimbu,  a  no- 
man's-land  in  which  soldiers  were  impressed 
to  fight,  now  on  this  side,  now  on  that,  and 
where,  on  being  disbanded,  they  continuetl 
the  plunder  by  which  the  armies  subsistetl 
in  war.  The  traditions  of  brigandage  and 
the  exploits  of  noted  leaders  are  remem- 
bered, and  such  enterprises  are  still  a  resort 
of  the  vaurici/s  of  a  village  or  country-side 
when  they  perceive  their  chance — dainyd- 
taik  sadya  !  These  brigands  (dauiyd,  gang- 
robbers,  dacoits)  lay  their  plans  to  surprise 
a  village  while  the  men  are  away  at  work 
or  endeavour  to  create  a  panic  by  a  night 
attack  and  so  obtain  their  booty  without  risk 
of  an  encounter.     An  occasional  gang  might  37,    burman  outpost  sTockAOE. 


164 


BURMA 


372.      VILLAGE    ELDERS    IN    CONCLAVE 


disperse  as  quickly  as  it  was  re- 
cruited or  else  it  might  develop 
into  a  band  under  a  regular 
leader  {Bo)  and  become  the 
scourge  of  the  countiy,  rapidly 
attacking  points  separated  by 
days'  jounie\-s.  Against  such 
bands  the  \illagers  combine 
and  keep  guard  ;  torches  are 
ready  for  night  alarms.  But 
when  the  brigands  are  too 
strong,  the  villagers  have  no 
choice  but  to  enter  into  league 
with  them  and  pay  blackmail 
if   they  would    not    experience 

the    horrors    of  barbarous   war.      At    present    brigandage    is    of  very    sporadic 

occurrence.     Travellers  are  perfectly  safe. 

Throughout  Burma  every  man  was  liable  to  serve  in  war.      He  would  have 

his  own  sabre  and  pike  and  would  be  provided  with  musket  and  ammunition,  but 

no  further   accoutrements.      Latterl)-   the    king's    body-guards    wore    a  sort   of 

uniform   (No.    9).       Cannon    are   mentioned    as    early  as    1350,  and   a  century 

later,  matchlocks  were  in  use.     Cssar  Frederick   in    1569  speaks  of  pikes  and 

aniuebuscs  and  good  cannon.     When  dis- 

bandetl,    the    soldiers    had    to    surrcntier 

their  muskets,  but    numbers  were  smug- 
gled away,  to  add    to    the  rigour  of  the 

guerilla    waged     by    brigands    and     the 

severit)'  of  the  villagers'  retaliation. 

The  military  leader  is  called  Bo  ;  the 

civil  governor    or    minister    of   the    king, 

Wuti,   which    means    a    burden    or    trust. 

The  former  might  be  a  young  man,  the 

latter   but  rarely  so.     Age  and   influence 

are  almost  synonymous  in  Burma.      If  the 

elders — headmen,  litdyi — are  agreed  upon 

a    thing,  it    is    done.     The  village  elders 

represent  the  fundamental  substratum  of 

government    in    Burma.       Thej-   are   con- 
sulted ijy  the  officials  on  matters  affecting 

.,  1  1  .  1        -r  rr     ■     ,  3'3      BURMAN    OFFICIAL    RECEIVING 

the    people,    who.se    natural,    if   unofhcial,  applicants. 


VILLAGE   SYSTEM 


•65 


374.      OFFICIAL    PASSING    THE    STREET. 


representatives  they  arc, 
attaining  their  position 
jjy  the  tacit  suffrages 
of  the  public.  Their 
position  is  not  defined 
nor  are  tlieir  numbers 
fixed  in  any  way.  In- 
fluence is  naturally 
centred  in  a  few  of  the 
ablest,  but  these  are  not 
permitted  to  usurp  it 
for  themselves.  The 
loyalty  of  the  villagers  rests  on  the  reciprocal  regard  of  the  elders  for  the 
sentiments  of  the  community  ;  the  ludyis,  though  they  moderate  popular 
feeling,  never  take  an  unpopular  course.  The  affairs  which  they  manage  are 
the  local  festivals  and  the  religious  undertakings  in  which  the  public  life  of 
the  country  centres  and  in  which  conflicting  aims  have  to  be  conciliated.  The 
laying  out  of  ordinary  irrigation  channels  and  other  village  works  are  arranged 
by  the  Ifldyis.  They  witness  marriages  and  divorces,  and  generally  regulate 
the  social  life  of  the  people.  A  tacit  agreement,  parallel  to  that  between  the 
villagers  and  their  headmen,  bound  the  king  and  the  people,  whose  sentiments 
were  reflected  by  officials  drawn  from  their  midst. 

If,  not  content  with  the  consideration  accruing  through  age  and  natural 
gifts  for  leadership,  and  with  managing  a  business  of  his  own,  our  Burman 
aspired  to  a  public  career,  he  might  enter  official  life  by  attaching  himself  to 
the  suite  of  some  functionary.  This  he  would  do  at  first  in  a  menial  capacity, 
and,  as  he  found  favour,  he  might  become  secretary,  deput)',  and  eventually 
attain  to  the  chief  dig- 
nities. A  scion  of 
royalty  just  out  of  his 
teens  would  be  given 
a  town  or  province  to 
live  on  (iiiyoza),  as  well 
as  to  govern  b}-  the 
help  of  deputies  and 
advisers.  But  a  son  of 
the  people  would  be 
gray  before  he  climbed 
to  such  a  position.  The 
iiiyoza  had   to  remit   a  a/s    burman  judge  pRoctbuiNG  to  court 


1 66 


BCRM.l 


JUDGE     PRESIDIKG     IN     COURT     ,VON   . 


fixed  annual  revenue  to  the 
treasury,  and  he  retained  such 
excess  as  he  could  raise  for 
liimself.  Even  more  cynical 
than  the  appellation  of  iiiyoza, 
but  nevertheless  officially  ac- 
cepted, is  that  of  his  deputy, 
t/iuU't/ianttji.  or  bloodsucker. 
The  revenue  exactions  were 
variable,  and  were  levied  with 
little  regularity  ;  outl\-ing  locali- 
ties escaped  altogether.  The 
people  of  such  places  were  al- 
most without  ostensible  govern- 
ment. The  3-rupee  household  tax  of  1862  had  advanced  to  10  Rs.  in  1886 
{Tliathaiiieda).  There  were  also  special  imposts  and  special  exemptions.  The 
original  style  and  address  of  the  kings  came  to  be  adopted  by  his  deputies,  as 
more  high-sounding  titles  were  devised  for  him.  Every  officer  is  now  adilressed 
Payti  and  spoken  of  as  iiiin,  which  means  ruler,  prince.  The  full  st\le  of  high 
officials  used  to  occupy  several  lines  of  a  document  ;  there  were  the  traditional  titles 
of  the  office  and  territor)-,  the  prerogatives 
granted  by  the  king,  conspicuous  among 
which  were  the  number  of  red  and  goUl 
umbrellas  allotted  to  the  rank,  and  the 
executive  powers,  such  as  dabaing,  holder 
of  the  sword.  The  last-named  symbol  was 
borne  before  the  officer  as  arbiter  of  life. 
The  lower  grades  of  office  were,  and  in 
many  places  still  are,  hereditary,  cspcciallv 
that  of  thadyi,  the  appointed  headman  who 
levies  the  taxes  from  the  people  (literal!)- 
the  poor,  sinyctlid).  The  Burmese  corre- 
lative of  official  is  significant  ;  no  matter 
how  wealthy  he  be,  one  who  holds  no  office 
is  a  "poor"  man — at  the  merc\-  of  the 
asoya.  If  the  rapacity  of  an  official  under 
the  old  rJffiiiie  grew  intolerable,  he  incurred 
the  risk  of  a.ssassination,  without  much 
likelihootl  f)f  being  avenged  by  the  central 
authority.      The    religious   aversion    to    be  377.  the  city  gate  (pya-o). 


N.-1  71 1  /■:    (^O I  'ERNMENT 


16; 


378      THE    PALACE    GARDENS 


the  cause  of  suffcrinL,'  and 
death,  and  the  discredit  re- 
flected on  officialdom  by  its 
methods,  lead  the  best  ele- 
ments of  the  population  to 
shun  office,  as  a  touching  of 
pitch.  The  dearth  of  ability 
and  character  in  the  govern- 
ing classes  leaves  the  governed 
without  efficient  protection. 
The  religious  motive  further 
operates  in  withholding  in- 
formation    about     criminals. 

A  pregnant    category   is    that    of   the    "  five    enemies  "—Fire,  Water,  Robbers, 

Rulers,   Ill-wishers.     The    governors    and    deputies  who  acted    as  judges  heard 

causes   at    the  yon,   an  open    shed    in    a    public    place.      But    every   cause    was 

presented  in  the  first  instance  at  the  house  of  the 

official,  and  it  is  contrary  to  accepted  ideas  of  polite- 
ness to  approach  a  superior  empty-handed,  even  on 

a  mere  visit  of  courtesy.     The  pros  and  cons  of  the 

case  were    understood  before    the    regular    hearing. 

At  the  hearing,  the  advocates  of  the  parties  {aslie-ne) 

publicly  presented  their  pleas  and  the  evidence  was 

recorded.     The  Burmese  form  of  oath  is  to  take  the 

kyanza  in  the  hands,  a  book  of  imprecations  which 

the  witness  invokes  on  his  head  if  he  should  speak 

falsely.     The  judge  or  judges  intimated  their  finding 

to  their  clerks  {sayc),  who  recorded  it  in  official  style 

and    read    it    out.      The    punishments    awarded    to 

criminals  and  the  condition  of  prisoners  were  much 

like  those  prevailing  in  Europe  at  the  time  of  the 

Renaissance.     Every  judgment    of   importance  was 

registered    in    the    Hluttaw   or    chancellery    at    the 

capital,  presided    over    by  the    four  chief   ministers 

(  Wimdyf),  through  whom  all  ro\'al  commands  to  the 

governors  of  provinces  issued.     There  was  no  regular 

system    of    appeals.      The    Hindu    code    of    Mani'i 

served  as  a  body  of  law,  and  statutes  were  decreed 

by  the  kings  ;  but  tonsan  (custom)  supplied  standards 

of  a  more  practical  and  stable  nature. 


ROYAL     MAID     OF     HONOUR 
(APYODAW). 


1 68 


nVRMA 


380.      PALACE    FRONT    AND    SPIRE. 


The  Briti.sh  administration 
preserves  the  native  official 
machinery,  from  the  tliadyi  to 
the  niyook,  augmenting  the 
numbers  so  as  to  reach  every 
part  of  the  area  and  curtail- 
ing the  powers.  Under  native 
regime  even  tliadyis  might  be 
dabaing.  The  new  regime  takes 
account  of  the  village  liidyis 
for  the  sake  of  their  moral 
influence  ;  of  late  they  have 
been  invested  with  power  to 
compose  differences  up  to  small 
amounts,  and  man)-  of  the  more 

prominent  are  honorary  magistrates.     Independent  spirit  is  on  the  increase  ;  the 

officials  have    to    reckon  with  a  new  temper    in    the   people.      Nevertheless,  in 

municipal  matters  the  supineness  and  complaisance  of  the  native  members  are 

calculated  to  stultify  the  position  accorded  to  them.  Road-making  and  sanita- 
tion do  not  arouse  their  interest,  and  the  local  excise,  the  matter  they  long  to 

deal  with,  is  excluded   from  their  jurisdiction 

(ef.  p.  157).     The  thadyi  personally  measures 

the  fields,  collects  the  land-tax  and  poll-tax 

from  house  to  house,  in  such  a  circle  as  he 

can    make    the  circuit    of  twice  a  )-ear,  and 

receives    commission    on    the    amount.      lie 

reports    on    matters    within    his    circle.      As 

man)'  revenue-circles  as  a  nati\e  magistrate 

can     personally    control    are    united    into    a 

township,   under  a   iiiyook,   who   al   the  same 

time   sujicrvises    the    co-ordinate    grades    of 

police  distributed  in  the  township.      He  ])ub- 

licly  tries  criininal  and  civil  cases,  inuler  his 

powers  as  magistrate,  by  codes   of  law  and 

procedure    accessible    to    everybod)'.     These 

codes    form    the    most    valuable    models    of 

system,  in  the  vernacular,  up  to  the  present. 

By    their    help    both    judges    and    advocates 

have    trained    themselves    in    law.      Five    to 

eight    townships,    according    to    facilities    for  381.    burman  princess. 


BA'/T/S//  AIUffKISTRA  TION 


i6g 


382.      ROYAL    INSIGNIA. 


supervision,  are  combined  into  a  district  under 
a  I'Airopean  magistrate,  the  Deputy  Commis- 
sioner, who  has  a  European  officer  for  district 
superintendent  of  poh'ce,  commanding  an 
average  force  of  four  hundred  constables.  At 
tlie  district  headquarters  are  a  police-depot, 
treasury,  jail  and  hospital,  besides  courthouses 
and  offices.  The  district  officer  hears  appeals 
from  the  viyooks,  and  tries  all  offences  except 
the  gravest,  and  heavy  civil  suits.  This 
organisation  is  the  backbone  of  the  civil  govern- 
ment, the  'Commission.'  There  are  thirty-four 
such  districts,  and  four  hundred  native  magis- 
trates, on  salaries  of  one  hundred  to  eight 
hundred  rupees  a  month,  besides  one  hundred 
and  twenty-five  native  honorary  magistrates. 
The  success  of  this  economical  administration, 
organised  by  Sir  Arthur  Phayre,  in  ensuring 
the  safety  of  life  and  property  and  the  fulfil- 
ment of  contracts  has  given  a  new  value  to 
enterprise  and  thrift.     The  British  garrison  of 

Burma  consists  of  four  thousand   European   and  ten   thousand    Indian   regular 

troops.     (See  Appendix  D.) 

To  return  to  native  Burma — In  the  centre  of  the  capital,  and  by  euphemism 

of  creation,  rises  the  pyatthat  which  canopies  the  principal  throne  in  the  great 

hall  of  audience,  where  envoys  and  tributary  princes  used  to  be  received.     Here 

also  the  princes  of  his  own 

blood  and  the  high  officers 

of  state  paid  court   to   the 

king     on    gaddiy.<-iie,     days 

when    they  begged  pardon 

of  the  king  for  their  .short- 
comings. The  throne  (No.  i) 

is   ascended    by  a  stair   at 

the  back,  leading  from  the 

council-room  of   the  king's 

cabinet  of  palace  ministers. 

who  were    the    medium    of 

communication      with     the 

Hluttaiv.       On    such    occa- 
Z 


383       ANCIENT    CAPITAL.    SAGAING. 


I/O 


BURMA 


sions  the  king  appeared  in  the  ro\-al  insignia,  which  otherwise  only  figure  as 
emblems  of  state.  The  insignia  in  the  illustration  are  surmounted  by  a  queen's 
crown  (sUmi).  The  shape  of  a  king's  crown  is  seen  in  Nos.  151  and  425.  There 
being  but  a  single  palace  and  thousands  of  kyaimgs  and  temples,  the  palace 
appears  to  resemble  a  kyaung.  But  the  converse  is  the  fact  ;  the  kyaiiiig  it 
is  which  in  virtue  of  its  religious  character  shares  the 
distinction  of  the  palace.  The  most  recent  style  adopted 
by  the  l^urman  sovereigns  was  Shin-BayUi — Lord  of 
Lords.  A  chief  title  was  Siiibyu  Sliin — Lord  of  the 
White  Elephant.  Every  subject  prostrated  himself  in 
the  presence  of  the  king,  with  face  averted  from  the 
eft'ulgence  of  the  royal  countenance.  An  official  called 
tliaiidai^'cin  used  to  repeat  aloud  the  words  uttered  by 
the  king.  The  ensign  betokening  the  presence  of  the 
king  and  of  the  chief  queen  {viihaya)  is  the  tibyu  (p.  loi). 
Two  to  eight  were  borne  according  to  the  solemnity  of  the 
occasion.  The  chief  queens  were  frequently  half-sisters 
of  the  kings.  Eor  all  the  royal  acts,  the  lying,  rising, 
eating,  speaking,  there  are  euphemisms  proper  to  the 
occasion  ;  one  of  the  most  current  of  these  is  sinvezettaiv 
— the  golden  foot.  At  his  demise  the  sovereign  is  said 
to  migrate  to  the  abode  of  iiats  or  delectable  lantl  ;  the 
staff  of  his  t'lbyu  was  broken.  The  ]inra]:>hernalia  of  the 
king's  service  were  elaborate  ;  but  in  his  attitude  to 
the  yahdii  he  comported  himself  as  an  ordinary  man. 
The  Royal  White  1-Llephant  was  maintained  in  great 
pom])  ;  it  ate  and  ilrank  out  of  golden  vessels  ami  had 
a  retinue  for  its  service.  An  elephant  really  white — 
])rijbabl)'  an  albino — was  captured  in  1805,  but  was 
pampered  so  that  it  died.  A  second  was  captinetl  in 
1806  which  lived  for  fifty  yeans.  Other  "white  ele- 
l^hants "  kept  for  state  have  enjoj-cd  their  reputation 
in  virtue  of  possessing  certain  assumed  criteria  of  the 
"  white  "  variety,  as  to  the  number  of  the  toes,  direction 
of  the  tail-tuft  and  other  distinctions,  without  regard  to  the  coloin-  of  the  skin. 
Change  of  ca|)ital  at  the  accession  of  a  new  sovereign  was  characteristic  of 
Hurman  em])ire,  e\'eii  wlini  there  was  no  change  of  dynast)- or  other  political 
convulsion.  I'-vents  of  the  latter  kind  were  no  doubt  the  original  reasons  of 
such  changes.  Next  to  Pagan,  Sagi'iing,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Irawadi. 
facing  the  flat  and   now  desolate  site  of  Ava,  is  the  most    impressive  of   the 


384      CARVED    FIGURE    OF 
NAT. 


kOVALTY,   HISTORY 


171 


385.     TEMPLES    RAISED    BY    A    MODERN    KING    (THE    KUTHODAW. 
1>.   122)- 


historic  centres  of  J^urman 
dominion.  Sagaing  was 
abandoned  for  the  last 
time  in  1776  for  a  new 
capital  at  Amayap6ya 
{A  inarapnra — City  of  Im- 
mortals) half-way  between 
Ava  {Iiiwa)  and  the 
modern  capital  Mandale, 
which  was  founded  in 
1857,  after  the  accession 
of  King  Mind6n  Min. 
The  most  ancient  capital 
is  Tagaung,  one  hundred 

miles    north    of   Mandale.     Other    capitals    were    Shwebo,    Myinzaing,  Pannya. 

The  capitals    of  the  Talaing    dominion  were  Thaton,  Pegu,  and    Prome  ij^n'). 

Rangoon  (  Yaugoji),  at  the  meeting  point  of  five  navigable  channels,  and  with 

anchorage   for  the   largest    ships,   has    out-distanced    all    competitors    since    the 

modern  development  of  commerce. 

For  the  histor\'  of  Burma  the  only  avail- 
able   source    is    the    official    chronicle    kept    b\- 

command  of    the  kings — ntalia-yazai^'iii.      The 

first  part  is  occupied  with  the  legendary  origin 

of  the  race  from   the  cloud-dwellers — Byaiiuna 

(the  Burman    form    of  Braliina).*     The  names 

and    doings    of  legendary    persons    follow,  and 

lines  of  legendary  kings.     The  earliest  historical 

facts  which    emerge   are    the    founding   of   Ta- 
gaung,  and    incidents  relating    to    the    Buddha 

and  the  councils  of  his  church  in  India.     It  is 

believed  by  Phayre  that  the  Savanna  Bhiiini  of 

ancient  Indian  books  refers  to  Thaton,  and  that 

under  Clirysc  ChersoHCsns  Ptolemy  refers  to  the 

Eastern   Peninsula  of  Asia.     We  do  not  reach 

a  connected  histoiy  till  the  founding  of  Pagan 

about  100  A.D.     From  that  epoch  onwards  the 

history    of    the    peninsula,    until    the    Burman 

■r>  ■  1-J     i       I  1      il.  J  i  r  386-      FIGURES    OF    BYAMMA 

Empire  was   consolidated  and   the    dynasty  of  (embroidery) 

*  The    name    is    also    written   My  am  ma,    but    cuininunly    proiumiiced     Bamd,    of  which 
■'  Burnia(h)  "  and  "  Birma  "  are  curniptions. 


Alaung  Paya  established  in  1754,  is  the  involved  account  of  the  struggles 
for  master)'  of  its  three  imperial  races,  the  Burman,  the  Mun,  and  the  Shan.* 
As  alread}-  stated  in  the  Introduction,  the  isolation  of  the  valley  of  the  Irawadi 
from  the  neighbouring  civilisations  by  great  natural  barriers,  favoured  the 
development  of  an  independent  and  distinct  civilisation.  The  disappearance 
of  those  barriers  it  is  that  now  exposes  Burma  to  the  sudden  competition  of 
races  inured  to  worse  conditions. 

*  See  Appendix  A,  Chronology. 


■!8/.      THE     CITY     MOAT 


388.  THE  BURMESE  DRAMA  (ZAPPWE)  AND  BAND. 


CHAPTER    VIII 


PAGEANTS  AND   FROLICS 

Play-acting  (pivi)  is  the  great  entertainment  of  Burma.  The  palace  is  the 
invariable  scene,  and  its  inmates  the  characters.  The/:t'(^  is  the  readiest  illustra- 
tion of  the  ways  of  royalty,  the  traditions  of  which  it  adheres  to  more  tenaciously 
than  did  royalty  itself.  Hero  and  heroine  are  prince  and  princess,  and  their  retinue 
courtiers.  The  countryman  figures  as  jester  or  clown.  The  king  is  consistently 
idealised,  and  his  deputies  travestied.  The  name/w^  is  applied  to  any  kind  of 
festivity  ;  the  distinctive  term  for  play-acting  is  zappivL  The  play  may  be  pro- 
duced by  men  and  women  actors 
or  marionettes  {jotthe).  Zat  sig- 
nifies the  history  of  an  incarnation 
of  the  Buddha  ;  in  various  of  his 
births  he  is  a  prince,  as,  for  in- 
stance, in  Wethandaya,  the  most 
popular  and  poetical  of  the  Zat, 
which  has  been  translated  into 
English  by  Mr.  L.  A.  Goss.  The 
legend,  or  an  episode  from  the 
same,  furnishes  the  thread  on 
which  the  romance  of  the  play  is 
strung.  The  central  interest  is 
the  love  of  prince  and  princess  ; 
the    stories    are    brought    up    to  339,   the  characters  in  the  play. 


174 


BURMA 


390,     THE    BURMAN    BALLET    (HAN-PWE'. 


date  in  tlie  most 
fantastic  way. 
The  course  of  love 
is  interrupteci  by 
all  manner  of  vi- 
cissitudes —  some 
grotesque,  others 
of  genuine  pathos, 
to  which  the 
sentiment  of  the 
music  is  exqui- 
sitel}-  adapted. 
The  modulation  of  the  vocal  expression  is  much  more  subtle  and  intense  than 
the  expression  of  the  features.  Gesture  is  restricted  to  the  conventional  postures 
of  the  dance.  The  street  or  other  ojien  space  is  swept  clear  for  the  performance 
and  laid  with  mats  in  the  centre.  A  pavilion  roof  of  bamboo  is  erected 
and  covered  with  mats  or  thatch  to  keep  off  the  sun  by  daj-  and  the  dew  by 
night ;  it  is  open  at  the  sides.  A  space,  twent\-  to  thirt\'  feet  wide,  is  kept 
for  the  actors  and  musicians.  The  masks  which  will  be  worn  in  certain  parts 
are  hung  out.  Actors  and  actresses  make  up  in  public.  There  is  a  water-jar 
for  the  common  use  of  actors  and  audience  :  both  light  their  cheroots  at 
the  same  lamps  or  torches.  The  spectators  squat  round  the  actors'  circle, 
women  and  children  in  front,  men  standing  behintl.  For  the  marionettes 
or  yotthe  a  stage  is  erected.  The  entertainment  goes  on  all  night,  fre- 
quently several  nights  in  succession.  The  action  of  the  plaj-  is  slow,  the 
dialogue  is  sung  and  spun  out,  with  interludes  of  dancing  and  posturing,  to  the 
accompaniment  of  the  music.  There  are  breaks  of  spoken  dialogue  when  the 
music  stops,  and  the 
clowns  indulge  in  banter 
and  set  conuntlrums.  The 
topical  allusions  arc  of  a 
pungent  description  ;  the 
Sluice  of  coarseness  is  on 
a  level  with  the  taste  of 
our  Klizabethan  ])ublic. 
The  slightness  of  the  dis- 
tinctions of  words  makes 
the  resources  of  double 
entendre  es])ccially  rich, 
mo.st      of     all     wlien      a  391    the  burman  ballet  (hanpwe). 


4     li 

I, 

(^ 

^ 

K 

1 

r  -i-H 

m 

lii? 

i^ 

li^^3i 

|FEVJkB^@ 

M 

i- 

HK^9l!@i^H 

T\f7^^ 

^  ¥^' 

■^^^  X^-t3r^ 

■^J,:^:l 

■i\. 

.:l 

'■  :,'i-^.:if^ 

i^'' 

.'•3- 

\ 

■J.     :    .   -" -■ 

iim 

Till    Kiiii;,    Queen,  Miiiislers  am/  Ike  Court  Fool.      The  King  decrees  the  batiishment  of  the  Triiice :  the 
jester  indulges  in  caustic  asides. 


The  Prince  and  his  attendant  travel  through  the  Jorest,    xvhere  they  meet  loill!  all  manner  oj  ad'.'cntures 
and  are  beset  by  ogres  (bilii). 


The  ogres  bring  dragons  (naga)  to  attack  the  Prince,  zuho  is  saz'ed  by  the  interposition  of  the  genius  (nat) 
of  the  forest. 

392-      MARIONETTE    VARIETIES.  [To  face  p.   174. 


i 


DRAMA    AND    HfCSlC 


'75 


393.      MARIONETTE     PLAY. 


foreigner,  preferably 
from  Europe,  is  brought 
on  the  scene.  Pcals  of 
laughter  proclaim  these 
interhides  from  afar. 
The  troupe  of  four  to 
eight  actors  and  ac- 
tresses are  paid  thirty 
to  sixty  rupees  a  night, 
according  to  their  cele- 
brity and  the  distance 
they  come.  The  cost 
of  the  whole  entertainment,  which  everybody  is  free  to  attend,  is  defrayed  by 
the  household  that  gives  the  pivi}.  Occasions  for  prvc  are  sitinldung  fetes  and 
other  domestic  events,  such  as  the  completion  of  a  new  house,  or  the  dedica- 
tion of  a  kyaung.  At  general  festivals  subscription  pwt  are  organised  and  are 
free  to  every  one.  The  actors  of  the  .zappzvc  are  professional,  but  in  the  /laii- 
p7i't  or  j'ei)i-piot,  the  performers  are  amateurs  ;  this  is  already  implied  by  the 
large  number  of  performers.  One  or  two  dozen  young  girls  of  ten  to  fifteen 
years  go  through  the  postures  of  the  Burman  dance  in  time  to  music,  all  dressed 
uniformly  as  princesses  or  in  some  other  fancy  costume.  This  entertainment 
is  given  by  day  ;  it  is  the  most  beautiful 
sight  in  the  country.  The  simultaneity  of 
the  movements  even  to  the  tip  of  a  finger, 
is  as  perfect  as  in  the  best-trained  ballet.  In 
the  yottlic-pwc  the  marionettes  arc  made  to 
perform  wonderful  evolutions  by  means  of 
their  strings. 

Burmese  music  is  probably  the  most 
highly  developed  of  any  except  that  of 
Europe.  There  is  no  musical  notation.  The 
subject  deserves  to  be  studied  thoroughly  by 
help  of  the  phonograph  ;  the  phonograph 
records  prepared  for  this  work  were  unfortu- 
nately all  broken  in  transit,  but  through  the 
courtesy  of  Mr.  P.  A.  Mariano  it  has  been 
possible  to  append  a  score  which  faithfull)- 
reproduces  the  music  (Appendix  C).  In 
Burmese  music,  just  as  in  Shan,  the  character 
of  the  language  is  markedly  reflected.     (See  334.   marionette  princess. 


1/6 


BURMA 


Herbert  Spencer,  Tlie  Origin  and  Function  of  Mnsic^  The  simplest  Burman 
instruments  are  the  harp  (saung)  and  the  dulcimer  ipatala).  The  harp  has 
a  boat-shaped  body  of  wood,  with  a  skin  stretched  over  it  for  sounding-board. 
The  thirteen  strings  are  of  silk,  strengthened  with  varnish.  The  staves  of  the 
patala  are  of  drj-  bamboo  (No.  454).     These  two  instruments  are  not  loud  ;  they 


395.      BOYS'    BOXING   MATCH, 


are  used  to  accompany  the  voice,  as  we  use  a  harp  or  guitar,  and  also  by 
themselves.  The  loud  band  (saing-di),  which  gives  so  much  character  to  the 
/7i.'i\  is  composed  of  clarions,  gongs  and  drums.  The  clarion  (hue)  is  a  loud  and 
strident  instrument,  the  effect  of  which  is  enhanced  by  the  second  clarion. 
These  are  supported  by  gamuts  of  tuned  gongs  (18)  and  drums  (22)  in  circles 
(kji-ivaing  and  saing-tcaing).  There  are  two  tenor  drums  and  a  bass  drum 
(bondyi).  Time  is  accentuated  by  cxmbals  and  clappers.  The  tone  of  the 
gongs  is  so  round  and  bright  that  it  ma\-  be  mistaken  for  a  piano ;  the 
flourishes  played  on  the  kri-70(ii?tg  would  imply  considerable  execution  in  a 
j)ianist.     Drums  are  struck  with  the  fingers,  gongs  with  padded  sticks. 

Boxing-matches 
are  the  simplest  of  the 
contests  which,  after 
plays  and  pageants, 
form  the  chief  po])ular 
diversions.  The  spec- 
tators sit  and  stand  in 
a  wide  circle.  At  one 
side  is  a  raised  platform 
for  the  judges.  No 
women  arc  present. 
The  challenger  exe- 
cutes   a   defiant   dance 


398.     PONY-RACINQ 


Ci'iil!nit<\i  liu'ti!   .A''.    V'- 


Arrived  wilh  the  King    to  whose  court   lie  is  imnis/ieii,   the  Prince  refuses  to  he  solaced  for  the  loss  of 
his  Princess. 


P 

1 

• 

-If- 

m 

1          ^^' 

W^^^^^^^m  ^■bbDI 

9^^^^^^ 

ftv^i^w»Li^^*w' 

The  Prince  in  despair   quits   the  court  and  sojourns  'vith  a  hermit  (yathe),   7vho  directs  him  to  the  abode 
of  a  por.oerful  maiiician   (za«dyi)  lo  break  the  spell  of  the  Ring's  displeasure. 


■■■? 

"i  j,^ 

KM 

1     1 

i 

1 

i 

p 

M 

m 

m 

m 

7V;c  sorcerer   by   his  mag'ic  brings    the  Princess  to  the  Prince,   upon    which    the  pair,  return  home,  to   be 
received  with  hotiour. 

397.      MARIONETTE    VARIETIES.  {To /tier  p.   \^(>. 


BOX/A'G,    RALTNG 


1 1 


in  the  ling  and  slaps  his 
arm  (lciiniiduiio;-kat)  to 
the  exclamation  of  ydiik- 
kya  !  batliA  ! — man  that 
you  are  and  son  of  a 
man  !  (No.  153).  When 
some  one  steps  into  the 
ring  to  take  up  the  chal- 
lenge, the  pair  are  con- 
ducted by  seconds  to  the 
judges,  who  decide  if  the)' 
398.    BULLOCK  RACING.  ^^c  fairly  matchcd  ;    they 

then  stand  aside  to  await  their  turn.  Every  kind  of  attack  is  fair  except 
pulling  hair  and  biting  ;  a  cap  is  tied  on  the  head  to  keej)  the  long  hair  from 
coming  loose.  The  first  trace  of  blood  betokens  defeat,  but  matches  arc  ver)' 
frequently  drawn.  This  may  be  the  reason  why  there  is  no  betting.  Powerful 
seconds  are  on  the  alert  to  separate  the  combatants  if  they  show  temper.  But 
the  absence  of  temper,  despite  the  severity  of  the  contest,  is  its  conspicuous 
feature.  The  frank  dispositions  of  Burman  and  Talaing  appear  to  splendid 
advantage.  The  high  spirits  of  the  victor  overflow  in  chivalrous  deprecation  of 
his  prowess — "  the  merest  fluke  in  the  world  !  "  That  among  such  a  people 
the  sense  of  personal  honour  is  keen  goes  without  saying.  Abuse  is  not  so 
cheap  as  in  India.  The  vendetta  is  unknow  n.  Fatal  quarrels  occasionally  arise 
from  jealousy;  the  old  national  justice  put  the  law  into  the  hand  of  a  betrayed 
husband. 

Pony-racing  is  the  sport  of  the  North,  as  boat-racing  is  that  of  Pegu  with 
its  network  of  channels.  The  races  are  run  in  heats  of  twos,  like  all  races 
in  Burma.  There  are  small  stakes  for  the  owners,  but  betting  is  the  soul 
of  the  sport.      In  this  the  women  freely  participate.      The  course  is  flat,  half 


399.     THE    BOAT-RACE    GOAL    (PAN). 


2     A 


178 


lU-RMA 


a    mile   to  a  mile.      Popular  diversions,  common    to  Burmans  and    Europeans, 
are  the  race  meetings,  with  their  kindred  accompaniments. 

The  boat-races  are  held  at  the  Tliadiii-dyitt  festival  (p.  184).  Racing- 
canoes  are  forty  to  sixty  feet  long  and  only  wide  enough  for  one  man  ;  they  are 
lacquered  inside  and  out  (Xo.  430).     The  canoe  is  paddled  b)-  a  crew  of  eight  to 


COCk-FIGHTlNG. 


twenty.  Competing  crews  generally  belong  to  diftcrent  villages,  which  causes 
excitement  to  run  high  and  heavy  wagers  to  be  laid.  The  goal  is  a  boat  moored 
in  the  river,  athwart  of  which  is  fixed  a  long  bamboo  {p(i)i).  From  end  to  end  of  the 
latter  runs  a  loose  rattan,  ])rojecting  a  hand-breadth  at  each  end.  The  bow-hands 
make  a  dash  for  this  rattan,  and  the  boat  that  secures  it  is  the  winner.  Burmans 
are  excellent  swimmers,  which  tlie\-  need  to  be  for  these  races,  as  the  canoes 
are  commonly  swamped  at  the  goal  ;  but  they  have  no  swimming  contests. 

Bullock  racing  is  a  favourite  sport  in  parts  of  southern  Pegu.  Some 
trouble  is  taken  with  breeding  the  animals  anti  training  them  to  trot  fast.  In 
the  race  the)'  go  at  a  gallop  over  a  course  of  about  half  a  mile. 


401.     CHINLON    GAME 


s 


A'.IC/iS.    GAMES 


1/9 


^i 

;:r^'rt'^ 

403.     CHESS. 


Slashing  cocoanuts  iojikot) 
i.s  a  favourite  sport  in  tlic 
Xorth.  A  green  cocoanut  i.s 
balanced  on  the  top  of  another, 
and  has  to  be  severed  in  two 
across  the  grain  at  a  blow  of 
the  sabre.  This  requires  both 
power  and  knack.  The  vil- 
lagers bet  on  who  will  sever 
the  greatest  number  without 
a  miss. 

Cock-fighting  is  con- 
demned by  the  popular  re- 
ligion, together  with  every- 
Nevertheless,  the  people  are 
A  large  long-legged 


thing  that  causes  pain  or  inflames  the  passions 

greatly  addicted   to   it  ;   they  bet  heavily  on  their  birds 

fowl  of  the  Shanghai  type   is  bred   for  fighting.      The   Takiings   in  the  South 

are  fond  of  making  bulls  fight,  especially  bull  buffaloes. 

The  every-day  outdoor  sport  of  Burma  is  the  cldnlou  game.  A  light 
springy  ball  is  made  of  five  interlacing  circles  of  split  rattan,  four  or  five 
in  a  tier,  with  large  open  interspaces.  The  object  is  to  keep  the  ball  up,  and 
the  only  rule  is  that  the  ball  may  not  be  touched  with  the  hand.  The  nearest 
player  advances  to  meet  it,  and  if  he  be  a  tyro,  he  is  content  to  kick  the  ball  up  ; 
there  are  no  turns.  A  good  player  will  send  the  ball  into  the  air  again  and 
again  with  decreasing  force  till  he  allows  it  to  alight  in  the  hollow  of  his 
shoulder.  Thence  he  lets  it  roll 
down  the  back  of  the  arm  and 
jerks  it  off  at  the  elbow  to  catch 
it  on  the  knee,  and,  changing  his 
foot  like  a  flash,  strikes  the  ball 
high  from  the  back,  with  the 
opposite  sole,  for  another  player 
to  vary  the  performance  in  as 
original  a  way  as  he  can  (Nos.  i6o, 
162).  The  game  implies  a  perfect 
command  of  every  muscle.  Players 
are  not  at  their  best  till  twenty- 
five  or  thirty.  There  can  be  no 
winning  in  this  game,  which  is 
played  for  the  pure  love  of  skill.  404    dominoes. 


i8o 


nCRMA 


Chess,  dominoes, /'(?oi7V,  and 
cards,  are  the  intellectual  games. 
Chess    (sippayiii  —  '  war-lord  ') 
was  probabl}-  introduced  from 
China    in    ancient    times.       It 
differs  in  some  points  from  the 
game    played    in    Europe,   but 
agrees    with    that    played    by 
Chinese  settlers  in  Burma.    The 
pieces  are  King,  Geiiei'al [m  lieu 
of  our  Queen),  two  Elephants 
(in    lieu  of   our    Bishops),  two 
Horsemen,  two  Chariots  (\n  lieu 
of  our  Castles  or  Rooks),  and 
eight     Soldiers.       The     King 
moves   as  in   our   game.     The   General  moves  one  square  at  a  time  diagonally, 
the  Elephant  moves    as  the  General,  plus    one  square  forwards,  the   Horseman 
moves  as  our  Knight,  the  Chariot  moves  as  our  Rook,  the  Soldiers  move  as  our 
Pawns.     The  pieces  are  set  up  very  differently  to  ours  : — 


405.     PASIT    GAME. 


Churiots  at  Rook  sqrs. 
King         „  K2. 
Onoral    ..   K-!. 


Horsemen  at  OB  and  KKt3  sqrs. 
Elephants   .,   KB3  and  (^2 

-Soldiers       ..l!^,''-^;fll    ^ 


Like  other  definite  contests,  the    game  of  chess    is  plascd    for    iiKmc)-,   unle.ss 

at  funeral  gatherings,  where  games  are  played  to  pass  the  time,  without  stakes. 

The  Burmese  dominoes  (thoin- 

bonpt)  are  made  of  black  wood, 

with    brass    nails    for    points. 

They  are  held   like  cards,  and 

are  played  down  in  the  same 

way,  not  set  as  dominoes  are 

with    us.       Pasteboard    cards 

(pc)  from  luirope  are  common, 

and  arc  to  be  fmmd    in   i\i.ry 

sale  depot.      Tiie  staid  elders 

alone  of  lay  peo])le,   take  no 

part    in   an\-  sort  of  gambling. 

Venial  as  .gambling  is  looked 

upon    in    general,   eardplayer 

(pi-cha)  is  a  term  of  clis])aragc- 


40e       ANQALON     GAMBLING 


GAMES   AND   SHOWS 


i8i 


408.      CHINESE    DICE    (NIDAUNQ). 


incnt  associalcd  wilh  sot  (ayet- 
tliaitk),  next  after  which  is  beinrja 
—opium-eater.  Women  do  not 
often  play  chess  or  cards  ;  they 
have  a  game  called  paslt  (beetle- 
fight),  somewhat  resembling  back- 
gammon. 

Games  of  pure  liazard  are  in 
great  favour,  especially  at  festival 
times.  Chinese  and  Shan  .settlers 
start  gambling-dens  for  the  dis- 
solute youth,  with  Chinese  dice 
(Nidaiiiig,  .Ingaloii.  No.  406),  and 
the  thirty-six  animal  lottery  (//, 
thonse-chatckkajing  karsa),  symbols 
intelligible  to  every  nation  and  the  meanest  capacity.  For  angaloii  there  is  a 
paper  or  cloth  with  compartments  for  si.x  different  figures  of  animals  on  which 
money  is  staked,  corresponding  to  similar  figures  on  a  wooden  cuIjc,  which  is 
shaken  in  a  box. 

The  showmen  in  Burma  are  the  conjuror  and  the  snake-charmer.  The 
Burman  juggler  {myet-lilb  sayd)  makes  no  pretence  of  occult  powers,  not  even 
to  children.  His  name  implies  that  his  movements  "elude  the  eye;"  but  his 
legerdemain  does  not  attain  to  the  art  of  the  Indian  and  Chinese  jugglers. 
The  snake-charmer,  on  the  other  hand  {alatnbc  sayd),  pretends  to  be  protected 
by  magic.  He  is  tattooed  all  over  with  snakes  ;  he  has  slits  at  the  side  of  his 
tongue  which  he  shows,  and  in  other  ways  he  plays  upon  credulity.  It  has  been 
alleged  that  the  snake-men 
inoculate  themselves  with  the 
venom, but  this  is  not  authenti- 
cated, though  it  is  known  from 
the  experiments  of  Ferrier 
and  his  predecessors  that  im- 
munity can  be  produced  in 
this  way.  The  cobra  {luuye- 
hauk)  is  exhibited,  but  only 
when  the  hamadryad  {ugaii- 
bok),  a  much  larger  species  of 
the  same  family,  cannot  be 
procured  (p.  96).  The  snakes 
are  exhibited  in  their  natural 


l82 


BURMA 


410.     THE    CHARMER    APPROACHING 
THE    SNAKE. 


State  ;  the  fascination  of  the  sliow  is  the 
danger.  But  as  soon  as  the  snake  is  un- 
molested it  gHdes  away  harmlessly  ;  no  one 
feels  any  apprehension  from  its  proximity 
the  moment  the  showman  ceases  to  tease 
the  snake.  A  cobra  is  easy  to  find,  but  it 
may  take  months  to  discover  a  hamadryad. 
The  creature  is  tracked  by  the  trail  it  leaves 
in  the  sand  of  a  dry  stream  or  the  dust  of  a 
road  to  the  j^lace  where  it  is  watching  its 
eggs.  At  this  time,  if  ever,  the  snake  is 
aggressive.  But  like  the  rest  of  the  cobra 
family,  its  movements  are  comparativeh-  slow  ; 
the  charmer's  hand  is  quicker,  the  snake  is 
captured  and  consigned  to  the  basket  before 
it  can  strike.  After  that  it  is  handled  with 
impunity.  There  is  no  sort  of  training  ;  the 
charmers  say  that  the  snake  may  be  shown 
the  same  day  that  it  is  caught.  When  the 
snake  is  set  at  large,  it  appears  to  be  bluffed 


by  the  performer,  and  made  to  execute  feints 
of  attack  corresponding  to  the  feints  of  the 
charmer,  who  keeps  time  to  music,  and  so 
creates  the  impression  tliat  the  snake  is 
swaying — "dancing" — to  the  sound.  The 
snakes  are  difficult  to  feed  and  keep  in  con- 
dition. They  are  let  go  after  a  month  or 
two,  in  the  hope  of  catching  them  again  ;  the 
charmer  vows  to  release  the  snake  after  a 
definite  term,  and  has  a  superstition  that  if 
he  keeps  faith  the  snake  will  not  hurt  him. 

The  Burmese  festivals  have  been  de- 
scribed as  being  confined  to  a  single  one, 
which  begins  in  A])ril  and  goes  on  to  llu' 
following  March.  ]5ut  that  is  an  exaggera- 
tion. There  arc  two  regular  carnivals  of  a 
week  or  ten  days  each,  and  several  others  of 
a  cou]i]e  of  days'  duration,  besides  occasional 
festivities  to  celebrate  the  cf)m))letion  of  r:ciii 
and   temples, — and    last,  but    not    least,  the 


411,     THE    HAMADRVAD    CAPTURED. 


NEW-YEAR   FESTIVAL 


■83 


412.      SNAKE-CHARMERS    PERFORMANCE 


cremation  of  tlic  jahdii.  Burmese 
New- Year — moon-change  at  Tagil 
— falls  in  April,  as  the  sun  enters 
the  sign  of  Aries.  The  calendar 
has  been  regulated  on  the  Brah- 
man model  with  intercalary  days 
and  months  (Appendix  E).  New- 
Year  marks  the  greatest  crisis  in 
the  seasons  ;  the  heat  has  reached 
its  climax,  to  fall  abruptly  at  the 
break  of  the  south-west  monsoon. 
Now  is  the  time  of  drought  ;  many 
of  the  wells  are  empty,  and  water 
has  to  be  fetched  from  a  distance.  There  is  no  greater  luxury  than  abundance 
of  water  at  this  season  ;  water  is  the  most  seasonable  offering,  and  great 
supplies  are  stored  in  the  jars  at  the  kyaungs.  In  a  symbolic  spirit,  water 
is  poured  over  the  images  of  the  Buddha.  But  the  great  feature  of  the 
New-Year  festival  is  the  burlesque  of  these  libations.  In  the  true  spirit  of 
the  carnival,  the  women  douse  the  men,  and  the  men  douse  the  women,  all 
regardless  of  their  festal  attire.  The  young  women  in  particular  wait  in 
ambush  for  the  gallants,  perhaps  to  be  caught  in  a  second  ambush  by  some 
urchin.  The  liberty  of  water-throwing  lasts  for  the  days  of  akyo,  akjd,  akydt, 
and  ah't,  the  stages  of  the  journey  which  a  tliadyd  makes  from  heaven  to 
earth  to  see  the  works  of  men  if  they  be  good.  The  legend  is  probably 
derived  from  the  Hindu  myth  of  the  rain-god  Indra,  to  whom  water  is  offered 
at  the  season  of  his  e.xpected  descent.  A  religious  feature  of  the  festival  is 
the  ransom  of  cattle.  An  animal  kept  for  slaughter  by  the  Indian  Musulman 
butcher  is  borrowed  and 
gaily  decked  out,  with  its 
horns  gilded.  It  is  led 
round  the  village  or  quar- 
ter of  the  town,  followed 
by  a  festive  throng,  and 
contributions  are  gather- 
ed until  the  price  of  the 
animal  is  made  up,  when 
it  is  set  free  at  the 
kyaung  to  be  an  evidence 
of  goodwill  to  all  things 

hVing.  .,  I   ,       NEW-YEAR    FETE    (PAYA-YE-CHO). 


1 84 


BURMA 


4M        WATER-THROWING     AT     NEW-YEAR. 


Party  feeling,  which  often  runs 
high  between  the  quarters  of  a 
village,  with  their  rival  kyaiing 
and  zcdi,  finds  an  outlet  at  Tagi't 
in  the  tug-of-war  {liin-swc).  As 
the  superstitious  whistle  for  the 
wind,  so  do  the\-  expect  to  tug 
in  the  monsoon  by  this  means,  at 
the  season  when  everything  is 
panting  for  rain. 

After  Tagi'i,  the  next  festival 
season  is  Ifrtw — in  June  —  the 
commencement  of  the  Buddhist 
Lent.  This  season  is  signalised 
b>-  the  Shiiildiiiig  fih's,  described  in  Chapter  III.  During  Lent  there  is  no 
regular  festival. 

The  great  festival  of  Thadliidyi'it  celebrates  the  close  of  Lent.  It  falls  in 
October,  when  the  rains  are  gcnerallj-  over,  and  is  the  one  for  which  the  most 
extensive  jireparations  are  made.  Every  festival  is  signalised  by  the  offerings 
made  \.o  \.\\e.  yahdti.  WwX  now  the\- arc  literallj'  "poured"  in  profusion,  as  the 
word  implies  (siiii-ldiiiig).  Yazaiiid — paths  fenced  with  bamboo  trellis,  such  as 
those  prepared  for  the  progress  of  royalty — are  got  ready  along  the  chief 
thoroughfare.  Through  these  on  the  morning  of  the  great  day  the  yalidii 
defile  in  endless  procession.  As  man}-  as  a  thousand  yaJidn  may  be  invited 
to  receive  the  Thadindyut  offerings  in  a  large  town.  The  offerings  are  poured 
into  the  alms-bowls  by  the  laity  ;  .scholars  arc  stationed  at  intervals  to  relieve 
the  yahdn  of  their  loads  of  offerings.  After  the  yahdii  come  pothudaw  and 
mctliild.  Both  ends  of 
the  yazatiid  are  deco- 
rated with  arches  of 
bamboo  and  tinsel. 
About  these  arcgrouped 
life-siz.c  figures  of  my- 
thical import — dragons 
to  guard  the  entrance, 
|3rinccs  and  princesses 
of  the  uats  to  take  part 
in  the  honour  done  to 
the  ThhigA  (No.  151). 
In    the    evenings    fire-  4,5,   ransom  procession  at  new  year. 


FF.srrvAr.s 


■  85 


balloons  arc  sent  off,  and  the  rivers  are  illuminalctl  witli  rafts  carryint;  lamjis 
which  are  set  aihift.  Lab}-rinths  of  bamboo  arc  erected  round  the  .vv//,  wliich 
entertain  the  children  and  especially  the  hill-people,  who  j)i(|iic  themselves,  not 


416.     NEW-YEAR    TUG-OF-WAR. 


without  reason,  on  their  sense  of  locality.  These  labyrinths  are  called  ]Vi)igabd, 
after  the  mountain  maze,  to  which  Prince  Wethandaya  was  banished  by  his 
father,  in  the  zat  legend. 

Tazdung-inon  is  the  next  festival  after  1  hadiiidyut  ;  it  is  kept  in  Pegu, 
but  not  in  Burma  Proper.  At  this  season  Buddhists  commemorate  the  miraculous 
journey  of  Gawdama  Buddha  to  the  iiat  country  after  the  death  of  his  mother,  to 
impart  to  her  the  enlightenment  which 
had  come  to  him  on  earth,  and  by  means 
of  which  he  had  attained  peace.  Spires  of 
bamboo-work  and  tinsel — the  tazdiuig-daing 
— are  built  twenty  to  fifty  feet  high,  as 
symbols  of  the  stair  by  which  Gawdama 
ascended.  These  are  carried  round  the 
place  with  music,  and  are  finally  dedicated 
at  the  zcdi  (No.  422).  In  the  interval 
between  Tarjdiiiig-iiion  and  Tliadindyut  the 
katJiii-t/iiiigdn  are  dedicated,  and  the  iiiatho- 
thingdn  are  woven.  The  katciii-thhigdn  is 
the  annual  supply  of  the  primitive  parci- 
kaya,  and  is  of  a  nominal  character,  owing 
to  the  profusion  of  offerings  at  other  times. 
The  viatho-tliingdn  is  a  cloth  wherewith 
to  deck  the  images  of  the  Buddha  and  the 
paling  of  the  ,"('(//  (Nos.  429,  449).  It  is 
the  offering  of  the  women  who  weave   it. 


SUNLAUNG    AT    THADINDYUT 
FESTIVAL. 


2    B 


1 86 


m^RMA 


418.      SUNLAUNG    AT    THADINDYUT    FESTIVAL 


and,  in  order  to  possess  its  proper 
value,  should  be  completed  in  a 
day  and  a  night.  This  is  the 
only  approach  to  a  vigil.  The 
texture  is  loose,  and  broad  bands 
of  tinsel  are  shot  through  to  make 
up  the  woof  faster. 

TaiL't/ialhi  is  a  minor  festival, 
falling  in  Lent,  and  observed  only 
in  Pegu.  The  Taivt/ia/in  offer- 
ings are  distinguished  by  being 
in  thousands,  one  thousand  little 
cakes,  one  thousand  plantains,  and 
so  on  (No.  282).  The  number  one 
thousand  is  said  to  be  symbolical 
of  the  thousand  gdta  or  stanzas  of  the  Wetliandaya  zat,  the  legend  of  Gawdama 
Buddha's  last  incarnation  but  one,  closely  prefiguring  the  final  incarnation. 

The  above  are  the  Buddhist  festivals,  which  are  celebrated  by  the  whole 
population  together,  with  all  the  eclat  they  can  give  them.  The  only  other 
recurring  observances  of  a  religious  character  have  nothing  to  do  with 
Buddhism,  and  are  rejected  by  all  earnest  and  enlightened  Buddhists.  These 
obscr\'ances,  if  not  furtively  conducted,  as  is  often  the  case,  are  kept  by 
individuals  only,  or  by  households  at  a  time  ;  they  have  sufficient  in  common 
with  the  iial  worship  of  the  hill  tribes,  to  show  what  the  original  Burman 
and  Talaing  worship  may  have  been.  Unlike  tlie  Karen,  who  knows  only 
of  evil  nats,  the  Burman  has  both  good  and  evil  spirits.  The  former  belong 
to  the  land  of  the  r.at  ro- 
mance, the  latter  arc  chiefly 
the  survival  of  the  primiti\c 
paganism.  In  the  Burman 
cosmogony,  iiat-yua  is  the 
delectable  land  to  which,  by 
a  courtesy  analogous  to  the 
German  "  liocli-  "  and  "  libclist- 
sc'lig,"  the  kings  are  said 
to  migrate  at  tiicir  demise. 
A  higher  order  than  iiat  is 
lliadyA  anil  tliadyA-iniii,  and 
above  these  the  highest  order 
of  being,  byamiiiA,  the  cloud- 


419       FIRE   BALLOONS    AT    THADINDYUT. 


ANIMISM 


1S7 


dwellers  to  whom  the  Bur- 
mans  pretend  to  owe  their 
origin.  These  ethereal  beings 
are  subject  to  the  law  of 
karma,  and  re-birth.  They 
have  to  attain  nirvAiia  like 
men,  through  virtue.  Under 
"  gods  "  in  the  Pali  scriptures 
are  to  be  understood  such 
beings  as  these.  Together 
with  men  they  form  the 
group  t/iadciazvd  —  rational 
beings — to  whom  the  mes- 
sage of  the  Buddha  is  de- 
livered. (See  Stevenson, 
Lexicon,  pp.  603,  788.)  The 
higher  orders  of  existence 
are  not  to  be  confounded 
with  the  higher  religious 
states,  ayahdt, aydttapo,  which 
are  attained  by  the  "  noble 
path"  alone  (p.  46).  In 
this  fairyland,  situated  in 
the  Huiun\.<i'iuia  taw  (Hima- 
layas) and  its  clouds,  the 
poetry  of  the  people  centres. 
(See  Tlic  Soul  of  a  People, 
Chapter  XXI.)  As  the 
heavens  are  indwelt  b}' 
ethereal  beings,  so  also 
eveiything  on  earth  has  its 
presiding  genius.  The 
heavenly  genii  are  benefi- 
cent, the  terrestrial  ones 
friendly  or  malign.  The 
nats  of  the  mountains  in- 
spire awe,  and  their  protec- 
tion is  invoked  against  wild 
beasts  and  other  dangers  to 
travellers.      A   nat   is    pro- 


420.      RIVER    ILLUMINATIONS    AT    THADINDYUT. 


421.      MAZES    AT    THADINDYUT. 


422.     TAZAUNGMON     FESTIVAL. 


1 88 


nrRMA 


423.     PROPITIATING 


-„CAL    NATS    I.NAKKAZA). 


pitiated     by    offerings     at     a 
shrine,  almost  ahva\-s  in  minia- 
ture.    Only  fruit,  flowers,  and 
music    are    offered    by    Bud- 
dhists.     A   special    genius   is 
assigned    to    the    dwelling  — 
eiu-diviii  Mill  Magayi  nat,  in 
whose    little    shrine    a    cocoa- 
nut    is    offered.       The    nut   is 
replaced    as    the    water    dries 
up,   which    it   is    assumed    the 
iiat    has    drunk.       There    are 
iials  who  preside  over  countries, 
U  Mind\'i  and   U   Mindya  for 
Burma,  U  Yindyi  for  Pegu,  Bodaw  and  his  sons  for  Thaton,  and  other  local  iiats. 
These  iiats  are  propitiated   by  such  offerings  as  a  crown,  or  by  standing  guard 
before  their  images,  upon  undertaking   a  journey,  entering  on   a  race  or  other 
contest.      The  five   iiats  of   the   firmament  have   a  special  cult  associated  with 
that    of  the    eight    planets,    with    which    the    Buddha    and    eight  yalidiida    are 
mixed  up.     The  local  nats  are  most  commonly  jiropitiateil   in  pyatho  (December), 
the    harvest  month.     The  visitations  of  malign    spirits    are  attributed  to  what 
the    Burmans    call    unripe    (asciii)    deaths.       Such    are    deaths    from    lightning- 
stroke,   accidents   of  all  sorts,  child-bed,  cholera,   antl   whatever  is  violent  and 
sudden.    The  normal  re-incarnation  of  the  karma  of  such  is  immature  ;  they  haunt 
localities  as  ghosts  Uasc),  and  seek 
the  bodies  of  the  living  for  hosts, 
thereby causingsickness.   Slaughter 
in  battle  accounts  for  an  epidemic 
visitation    of    this    kind,    and    the 
epidemic  again  entails  ei)idcniics. 
Pilgrimages  tothc  great  shrines 
are  made  in  the  ilrj-  months,  espe- 
cially at  times  of  full  moon.     The 
most  sacred  shrine  of  the  Peninsula 
and  the  perennial  resort  of  pilgrims 
is  the  zcdi  on  the  site  of  the  an- 
cient Mun  village  Dag6n,  renamed 
\'ang6n    (Rangoon).     The    legend 
declares  that  the  original  founders 
of  the  shrine  dcpositeil  eight    hairs 


MlilNE    OF    THE    HOUSE-GENIUS— MIN 
MAQAYI    NAT. 


SHR/N/{S  AND  P  fLC  RI M  AC  US 


189 


of  the  Buddha  there.  The  shrine 
now  known  as  Skive- Dagdii  Pay  a 
(S/ncc-ti  goii)  was  built  over  by 
the  Emperor  Sinbyu  Shin  in  1775 
and  brought  to  its  present  height 
of  about  three  hundred  feet  above 
the  platform.  It  stands  at  the 
extremity  of  the  southernmost 
sjuir  of  the  I'egu  Y6ma,  and 
occupies  a  commanding  position 
over  the  port  of  Rangoon,  asserting 
the  Burman  character  of  the  place 
above  the  masts  of  ships  that 
dwarf  everything  else.  The  pre- 
sent canopy  was  dedicated  by 
King  Mindun  Min  in  1S71  at  the  cost  of  half  a  million  of  rupees.  It  is  not 
gilt  in  the  ordinary  way  but  plated  with  gold  foil.  The  cone  of  the  .nedi  itself 
is  gilt  from  the  peak  to  the  platform.  Such  a  gilding  costs  three  hundred 
thousand  rupees  and  lasts  fifteen  to  twenty  years  in  the  climate  of  Rangoon. 
Till  the  Shwe-Dagon  Paya  was  brought  to  its  present  height  by  the  Burman 
conquerors,  the  zedi  at  the  Mun  capital  Pegu  had  been  the  greatest  in  the 
land,  though  not  the  most  sacred  as  a  reliquary.  This  is  Shwe-hiiidwdaiv 
Payd,  also  about  three  hundred  feet  high  from  platform  to  summit  (No.  67).  Its 
site  is  not  so  favourable  as  that  of  its  rival,  nevertheless  the  zedi  is  a  noble  object. 
After  the  Shive-Dagon  Paya  the  next  greatest  shrine  is  the  Maha-myaiiniiiiui 
at  Amayap6ya  (No.  449).  This  colossal  image  of  the  Buddha  weighs  several 
tons,  and  it  was  brought  over  the  Arakan  mountains  by  the  Burman  conquerors. 
The  head  was  damaged  when  the  tazduns:  over  the  image  was  burned  down  in 


lUPITIATING      1  HL 


426,      PROPITIATING    THE    NATS    OF    THE    FIVE    PLANETS. 


igo 


BURMA 


1884,  and  has  had  to  be  replaced.  The 
body  of  the  image  is  encrusted  with  gold 
which  the  pilgrims  affix  ;  by  a  miraculous 
quality  of  the  image  the  gold  leaf  is  said 
to  adhere  without  the  usual  size.  Next  in 
celebrity  to  this  image  is  the  Slnve-zettaw, 
a  sacred  footprint  on  the  rock,  west  of 
Mimbu  on  the  Irawadi  (cf.  p.  36).  Only 
the  site  of  the  original  footprint  on  the  hill 
is  shown.  The  rock  which  bore  it  clove 
asunder,  according  to  the  legend,  in  con- 
sccjuence  of  a  profanation.  A  model  of 
the  original  occupies  a  tazdung  beneath. 
The  fourth  great  resort  of  pilgrims  is 
Kyaittiyo  Payd,  which  is  belie\'ed  to  en- 
shrine two  hairs  of  the  Buddha.  It  is 
erected  on  a  boulder  which  overhangs  the 
peak  of  a  mountain  three  thousand  six 
hundred  feet  high,  looking  out  on  the  plains 
of  the  Sittaung  river.  The  legend  tells  how  this  boulder — which  is  not  a 
rocking-stone — in  days  of  greater  piety  used  to  float  free  above  the  summit. 
There  are  those  who  argue  that  even  now  a  fine  thread  can  be  drawn 
between  the  boulder  and    the  rock.     About  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago 


PILGRIMS    WITH    THEIR 
BELONGINGS. 


428,     SHWE  OAQON    PAYA,    RANGOON. 


429       KVAITTIYO    PAYA. 


yi'o  /ac€  ^.  190. 


SHRINES  AND   PILGRIMAGES 


191 


a  Karen  frcjm  tliis  neighbourhood  was  taktni  prisoner  in  tlie  wars  and  carried 
to  Ava,  where  he  eventually  became  yaltaii.  One  night  he  dreamt  that  in  the 
cavity  of  a  rock,  on  a  hill  near  his  home,  were  two  hairs  of  the  Buddha 
which  had  been  deposited  by  Ottara  and  Sawnase,  the  missionary  yahdn 
who  brought  Buddhism  to  Pegu  ;  they  died  and  attained  pari-nirvana  at  this 
place,  and  were  buried  at  the  foot  of  the  hill.  The  Karen  was  allowed  to  travel 
to  the  spot,  where  he  found  what  he  had  seen  in  his  dream  ;  a  zedi  was  built 
there,  which  is  now  a  famous  resort  of  pilgrims — Kotlima  yon  (No.  280). 


430.     CANOES    RACING 


431.      DECORATING    THE    THEBONZEDI    (p.  127\ 


CHAPTER    IX 

AGE    AND    MORTALITY 

The  men  and  women  of  the 
tropics  age  and  die  sooner  than 
those  of  temperate  cUmates. 
One  meets  reputed  centen- 
arians in  Burma,  but  it  is  rarely 
that  the  olil  people  can  prove 
their  age,  unless  the)-  are  able 
to  connect  their  year  of  liirth 
with  some  historical  e\'ent. 
Ninety  years  is  a  vcxy  great 
age  for  a  native  of  Burma  to 
attain.  W'luii  ]iarcnts  are  past 
their  ])rime  their  children  pray 
them  to  iiol'o-siif,  which  means 
th.it  they  shouUl  be  at  the  chil- 
dren's charge  for  the  remainder  of  their  lives,  as  the  children  had  first  been  at 
their  parents'.  The  turning-point  is  not  marked  by  any  formality,  but  a  child 
aijproaching  jjarents  on  a  solemn  occasion  adopts  the  gesture  of  veneration.  Ihe 
aged  are  not  idle  ;  they  presi-rve  a  gre.it  elasticity  of  mind  and  interest  in  things; 


432.     A    DAUGHILK    II.AilHi,    MLR    PARENTS   TO    NOBO  SAT. 


AGE   AND   MORTALITY 


'93 


433.      PAINTING    OF    KYAITTIYO    PILGRIMAGE. 


they  study  their  re- 
ligious books,  occupy 
themselves  with  their 
grandchildren,  teach 
them  and  tell  them 
stories,  and  make  toys 
for  them.  They  do 
the  light  repairs  of 
the  house  and  gear, 
and  when  they  are 
too  old  to  go  on  pil- 
grimages with  the 
others  they  keep  the  house  and  tell  their  beads  alone.  The  veteran  can 
still  halt  to  the  shrine  on  duty-days.  Every  old  man  is  by  courtesy  Itidyi, 
and  every  old  woman  amkdyt  The  old  people  wear  plainer  clothing  than 
the  young,  and,  according  to  old  Burman  fashion,  less  of  it.  The  human  dignity 
of  the  aged  is  of  a  kind  that  apparel  cannot  add  to.  Steeped  in  the  spirit  of 
Buddhism,  the  aged  never  yield  to  anger.  Wanting  neither  for  necessaries  nor 
honour,  the  pathos  of  their  serene  old  age  is  purely  that  of  years.  A  peaceful 
end  is  their  lot.     (See  The  S mil  of  a  People,  p.  330.) 

And  now  our  Burman  is  equipped  for  the  final  stage.  To  the  dead  of 
whatever  degree  royal  honours  are  accorded.  The  body  is  spoken  of  as  aldung\ 
"  that  which  is  about  to  be,"  to  be  something  of  a  higher  nature,  namely, 
as  the  dead  are  spoken  of  in  German  as 
"  blessed."  The  corpse  is  laid  under  a 
white  or  royal  canopy,  upon  a  temporary 
bier,  for  one  or  several  days.  The  body 
is  swathed  in  grave-clothes,  the  thumbs 
and  great  toes  tied  together  with  strips  of 
white  cotton  cloth,  and  in  the  mouth  is 
put  a  gold  or  silver  piece  for  kacioga — 
ferry-hire.  While  the  body  is  lying  in 
state,  the  catafalque  (ilald)  is  being  pre- 
pared for  carrying  the  bier  to  the  cemetery. 
The  dald  is  a  tall  erection  of  bamboo  ant! 
paper,  eniling  in  a  royal  pyatthat,  gaj- 
with  colours  and  tinsel.  The  corpse  is 
laid  in  a  cofifin  similarly  decorated,  which 
is  placed  in  or  over  the  sarcophagus - 
shaped  part  of  the  dala.  Above  the  cofifin 
2  C 


434.      HOME    DEVOTIONS    OF    THE    AGED. 


194 


BCRMA 


floats  a  paso  or  tameiii.  according  to  the  sex 
of  the  deceased.  Figures  of  winged  kciii- 
)uiya  support  the  coflnn.  All  these  prepara- 
tions are  costly,  but  they  are  never  omitted 
(except  in  the  case  of  unripe  deaths),  for  if 
the  famih'  of  the  deceased  have  not  the 
means  the  neighbours  contribute.  While  the 
(lala  is  preparing,  the  relatives  and  neigh- 
bours are  entertained  in  a  pavilion  erected 
in  front  of  the  house.  Music,  games,  and 
ptcc  are  provided  by  day  and  by  night  to 
help  them  to  pass  the  time.  The  Burman 
\\'ord  for  funeral  is  iiiat/id,  a  sorrowing  ;  and 
the  mourning  of  the  relativ^es  is  open  and 
loud.  Death  is  spoken  of  with  bated  breath 
anei  true  solemnity.  It  is  not  baldlj-  stated 
that  a  person  is  dead,  but  that  their  life  has 
ended.  The  dead  are  borne  in  tender 
memor)'.  Nevertheless  the  incidents  of  the 
funeral  are  so  inconsistent  with  mourning  that  they  receive  point  in  a  fable. 
The  python  snake  with  its  gigantic  size  and  forbidding  aspect  looks  the  king 
of  venomous  reptiles.  And  such,  according  to  the  satire,  the  python  used 
to  be.  So  potent  was  his  venom  that  if  he  bit  so  much  as  the  track  of  a 
creature  it  must  die.  On  one  occasion  the  serpent  bit  the  foot-print  of  a  man 
who  had  angered  him,  and  crept  to  the  village  to  enjoy  his  revenge.  ]5ut 
he  found  nothing  there  to  betoken  sorrow.  Music  was  playing  and  the  people 
were  dancing.  This  mortified  him  .so  that  he  climbed  a  lofty  tree  and  spat  all 
his  venom  forth.  The  preparation  of  the  catafalque  and  the  entertainment  of 
the  funeral  guests  are  costly,  but  the  offerings  to  Xhc  yn/uiii  a.rc  the  chief  expense. 
These  are  what  give  dis- 
tinction to  the  funeral. 
As  many  jakdii  of  the 
place  and  the  surround- 
ing country  as  the  family 
can  afford  to  present 
offerings  to,  are  invited  to 
precede  the  cortege  to  the 
cemetery.  The  offerings 
are  all  of  identical  nature 
and  value.     In  the  illus-  438.   entertaining  the  funehal  guests 


FUNERAL    OBSJ-R  VANCJiS 


'95 


tratioii  Xo.  438. 
lliLTc  arc  forty, 
which  cost  nine 
rupees  each.  It 
is  an  lion  our  to 
receive  a  share  of 
the  offering  to  bear 
with  the  funeral, 
which  the  women  of 
the  neighbourhood 
carry.  The  whole 
village  turns  out  in 
gala  costume  ;  Lu- 
dyis  of  the  high- 
est standing  follow 
the  humblest 
funeral.  Even  the 
437.   THE  BIER  LEAVING  THE  HOUSE.  rclativcs    liavc    no 

badge  of  mourning  in  their  apparel.  At  great  funerals,  processions  of  white- 
robed  bearers  of  the  offerings  are  arranged,  and  other  demonstrations.  At 
noon  on  the  day  of  the  funeral  the  young  men  of  the  quarter  raise  the 
catafalque,  which  they  bear  on  their  shoulders.  The  women  place  the  offerings 
on  their  heads,  and  those  who  have  nothing  to  carry  make  believe  to  drag 
the  bier  by  long  streamers  of  white  cloth,  from  both  ends.  The  bearers  follow 
their  movements  with  grotesque  dancing,  allowing  the  bier  sometimes  to 
advance,  sometimes  to  recede,  as  if  its  possession  were  being  contested.  Where 
the  roads  are  good  enough,  the  bier  is  erected  on  a  platform  borne  on  wheels. 
The  Talaings  permit  no 
backward  movement  of 
the  bier,  which  they 
consider  unluck\-  ;  they 
object  to  the  bearing  of 
a  corpse  from  outside 
through  the  village  or 
town.  At  the  base  of 
the  catafalque  are  borne 
champions  who  posture 
in  defiant  attitudes. 
The  funeral  procession 
is  preceded  by  a   band 


438       FUNERAL    OF    A    WEALTHY    BURMAN. 


196 


BURMA 


playing  music  as  florid  in  its  \va\-  as  is  the  decoration  of  the  bier.  At  tlie 
cemetery  the  pyre  has  been  parti}'  prepared  ;  it  is  reser\'ed  for  the  relatives  to 
complete  it  by  carr\'ing  hea\\-  billets  and  putting  thcin  in  place.  The  coffin  is 
taken  down  from  the  catafalque  and  brought  to  the  p\re,  with  the  head  to 
the  West — the  direction  of  the    sacred    Bo  tree.       The  ga>-  catafalque    is  cast 


439.     THE    BIER    REACHING    THE    CEMETERY. 

on  the  ground  and  allowed  to  tlecay.  Before  laying  the  coffin  on  the  wood, 
it  is  swayed  to  and  from  the  pyre  seven  times,  in  obeisance  before  the  Bo 
tree.  While  this  is  done  a  sabre  is  held  up  with  the  edge  facing  the  coffin  ;  the 
signification  of  this  is  obscure.  The  co\er  is  now  removed,  and  the  coffin  turnetl 
o\-cr  on  the  i^yre  and  lifted  away.  Fuel  is  heaped  on  the  corpse  and  the  fire 
kinilled.  The  relatives  assemble  before  the  yahdn  who  have  come  to  the 
cemetery  and  the  ceremony  o{ yezctcha  is  performed  in  respect  of  the  offerings 
dedicated,  which  have  meanwhile  been  conveyed  to  the  kyaniig.  All  except  the 
relatives  return.  When  the  pile  is  consumed,  the  fragments  of  bones  are 
collected  in  a  vessel  and  brought  to  the  house  of  the  deceased.  Here  thej"  are 
venerated  for  several  months,  after  which  the}-  are  deposited  in  sacred  ground 
{payd- ntye) .  Those  who  can  afford  it  build  a  cinerarium  {nyo-o.  Nos.  441,  442). 
In  the  case  of  earth 
burial,  which  is  resorletl 
to  where  fuel  is  scarce 
or  costly,  the  seven 
obeisances  are  the  same  ; 
the  coffin  is  opened  at 
the  grave  (which  is  about 
two  cubits  deep),  and 
the  grave-clothes  are 
loo.scned.  The  corpse, 
if  that  of  a  man,  is  in- 
clined towards  the  left,  440    the  funeral  pyre 


PONDYIBYAN 


197 


CINERARIA  ON  SACRED  GROUND 


if  of  a  woman,  tcnvards  tlie 
right.  After  the  coffin  has 
been  lowered  the  relatives 
and  friends  throw  on  the 
earth.  The  chief  mourner 
waves  a  kerchief  and  calls 
on  the  spirit  to  return  (leippya- 
kaiv)  ;  tlic  kerchief  is  de- 
posited where  the  corpse  had 
lain  in  the  dwelling  for  seven 
days.  Regular  funerals  are 
held  when  a  person  has  died 
a  death  that  is  looked  upon 

as  natural.     In  the  case  of  violent  and  other  "  unripe"  deaths  the  body  is  buried 

in  haste  without  any  obsequies  (p.  188). 

Incongruous  as  are  certain  of  the  customs  observed  at  lay-people's  funerals, 

it  is  at  the  funerals  of  the  solemn  recluses  that  the  boisterous  Burman  practices 

reach  their  climax.     When  the   incumbent  of  a  kyming  dies  (much  less  pomp 

is  displayed  at  the  funeral  of  a  sojourner),  the  body  is  embalmed,  so  as  to  allow 

of  several  months  being  devoted  to  the  preparations  for  the  funeral.     The  corpse 

is  swathed    like    a    mumm)'   and   laid   in  a  solid   dug-out  coffin  of   hard    wood. 

Mercury  is  poured  in    at   the    mouth    and 

honey    is    applied    externally.     A    support 

for   the   coffin    is   made   in    the    form   of   a 

nagd,  raising  its  head  and  fiery  tongue   to 

guard  its  trust.     Upon  the  coffin  rests  an 

effigy  of  the  deceased.     Beneath  the  iiaga 

is  a  throne  {balhi),  decorated  with  gilding 

and  colours.  Sometimes  the  whole  struc- 
ture is  of  glass  mosaic  {thdyo),  and  subse- 
quently forms  part  of  the  catafalque.     Such 

elaborate  dald  are  not  burned,  but  brought 

back  to  the  kyaung,  where  they  are  kept, 

but  not  used  again.      Over  all  is  a  royal 

canopy     of    corresponding     magnificence, 

with  the  tihyii  or  royal  ensign  at  the  four 

corners.     Thus  the  coffin  lies    in    state    in 

the    kyaung,    or    in    a    special    building,    it 

may   be    during    the    whole    rains,    while 

the     kyaungtaga     is     occupied     with     the  442    the  last  stage. 


198 


BURMA 


443.      BIER    OF    PONDYI. 


preparations  for  the  grand  funeral  cere- 
mon\-.  which  is  called pondyi-byan — the  trans- 
lation of  the  yahdii.  The  expenses  are 
frequently  shared  and  public  contributions 
flow  in.  The  catafalque  is  of  the  same  de- 
sign as  the  ordinary  dald,  but  of  several  times 
greater  dimensions — fifty  to  sixt\-  feet  high 
to  the  //  of  the  pyattliat.  It  is  solidly  con- 
structed and  braced  and  strengthened  in  every 
direction.  At  the  present  day  the  catafalque 
is  mostly  erected  on  a  stout  platform  on 
wheels.  A  long  cable  proceeds  from  each 
end  of  the  carriage  to  draw  it  by  and  enable 
it  to  be  controlled  where  the  road  descends. 
It  is  difficult  to  mancEUvre  at  the  turns  of  the 
streets  and  under  the  telegraph-wires,  although 
the  latter  are  carried  on  special  posts  where 
they  cross  the  approaches  to  cemeteries.  The 
pyattliat  often  fails  to  reach  its  destination  in 

its  original  perfection  ;  nevertheless  it  stands  out  brilliantl_\-  in  the  grand  display, 

in  which  it  is  frequently  preceded  and  followed 

by   subsidiary  pyattliat   erected    over   carriages 

which  bear  the  largest  ofiferings  to  the  kyaungs. 

The   Myimmo  Daung  with  its  denizens  (p.  38) 

is  built  up  on  another  carriage,  others  are  bright 

with  iiats  and  t/iadyd,  immense  paper  models  of 

boats,  ships,   and   steamers,  and   similar  freaks 

of  the  Tliadindyiit  carnival.     Life-size  models  of 

white  elephants,  caparisoned  with  red  and  tinsel, 

move  in  the  procession.     Uniform  costumes  are 

got  ready,  and  scores  of  young  men  are  drilled 

for  their  j^arts  in  the  corti'ge.     The  day  is  fixed 

long  beforehand,  and  people  throng  in  from  all 

the  neighbouring  villages  in  their  finest  clothes. 

The  streets  are  lined  with  gay  booths,  pici'  arc 

being  acted,  ami  bands  arc  playing.     At  noon 

the  great  catafahiue  begins  its  progress  to  the 

cemetery,  drawn  by  the  ijcople,   preceded  ami 

followed  by  regiments  of  masqueraders,  endless 

lines  of  women  carrying   ofiferings,    and   sight-  444    cinerarium  of  yahan 


CONCL  USION 


'99 


446.      PONDYIBYAN. 


seers.  If  the  idea  be  to  conjure  up  the  greatest 
possible  contrast  to  the  life  of  the  man  who  is  being 
honoured,  the  object  could  not  be  more  completely- 
attained.  When  the  bier  has  reached  the  cemetery, 
the  coffin  is  not  set  on  a  pyre  like  that  of  the  lay- 
man, but  is  burned  in  the  catafalque,  for  which 
purpose  the  latter  has  been  filled  with  combustibles. 
The  fire  is  not  lighted  in  the  common  way  ;  it  is 
kindled  from  a  distance  by  means  of  rocket.s.  These 
are  contributed  by  different  villages  or  quarters  of 
the  town.  Each  of  them  backs  their  rocket  for  the 
honour  of  starting  the  fire.  In  Burma  Proper  the 
great  rockets  are  sent  through  the  air,  guided  by 
rattans  to  the  catafalque.  But  it  is  one  thing  to 
reach  and  another  to  kindle.  The  Talaing  rockets, 
with  the  trunks  of  hard  trees,  hooped  with  iron,  for 
barrels,  and  mounted  on  stout  carriages,  are  merely 
aimed  at  the  catafalque.  It  frequently  happens 
that  none  of  them  hits  the  mark  ;  then  the  fire  is 
kindled  by  hand.  But  the  rocket  that  went  nearest 
has  won  the  day  ;  great  sums  of  money  change 
hands,  and  as  they  return  home,  some  people's 
spirits  are 


higher 


than 


ever,  while  everybody  else  puts  the  best 
face  upon  it.  Tk  poiidyi-byaii  kanng-dl- — 
it  was  a  glorious  poudyi-byaii,  and  the 
kyauugtaga  will  be  congratulated  upon  it 
as  long  as  he  lives.  It  is  as  though 
feelings  held  in  life-long  repression  had 
regained  the  field  and  were  asserting  their 
sway  over  the  passive  embodiment  of  the 
restraining  power.  Extremes  meet  ;  and 
herein  the  secret  may  lie  of  the  spell 
Buddhism  exerts  over  Burma,  in  her 
serious  mood. 

The  Burmans  are  wont  to  mark  the 
course  of  life  into  five  stages — first  to  get 
health,  then  to  get  learning,   then   family. 


446.     CINERARIUM    OF    KING    MINDON    MIN. 


200 


Bl'RMA 


then  substance,  then  Kiitlio.  First  the  free  and  happ\-  child  Hving  a  life  of 
nature.  Then  the  schoolboy  and  student  opening  the  stores  of  traditional 
wisdom.  Then  the  gallant,  absorbed  in  arts  of  pleasing ;  the  escapade  of 
marriage  as  the  event  frequently  proves  ;  the  coming  of  family  and  settling 
down  to  work.  Then  the  staid  man  of  substance,  precise  in  expression,  versed 
in  ancient  lore  and  heard  in  the  council  of  the  village  conclave.  Lastly,  his 
ambitions  satisfied,  founder  or  co-founder  of  temple  or  school,  he  relinquishes 
his  work  to  his  children,  and  spends  the  evening  of  life  in  kindly  intercourse, 
in  study  and  devotion  to  his  religion. 


APPENDICES 


APPENDIX   A. 


B.C. 
lOOO. 

865. 


691. 

623. 


58S. 


543- 

523. 
443- 


250. 


241. 


CHRONOLOGY. 

Compiled  from  Spearman's  Gazetteer  of  Britisli  Burma  and  Pliayre's  History  of  Burma. 

Legendary  origin  of  the  Burman  kingdom.     Fovtnding  of  Tag.iung  by  Abhi  Yaza  (Raja), 

a  conquered  Sakya  king  of  Kapilavastu  ("  Kapilawi'it "). 
Era  of  King  Kawza  begins.     Thirty-two  kings  follow,  ending  with  Binnaka  Yaza. 
King  Kan  Yaza-dyi  is  established  at   Kal<5  on  the  Chindwin. 

His  son  Umidiisitta  migrates  to   Kyauppadaung  in  Arakdn 

and  establishes  the  Arakdn  Kingdom.     King  Kan  Y'aza-nge 

is  established  in  Tagdung. 
Era  of  King  Kawza  closes.    Era  of  Bodaw  Yiizana,  grandfather 

of  Gawdama,  begins. 
Birth  of  Gawdama,  afterwards  the  Buddha,  according  to  the 

legend ;    according    to    modern    researches,   sixty    to    one 

hundred  and  thirty-one  years  later. 
Chinese  irruption   into   Burma.      King  driven  south  to  Male. 

Tripartition  of  kingdom.     Prince  Doza  Yaza  of  Kapilavastu 

marries   the   chief  widow   of   the  king   and  founds    old   or 

northern  Pagrin.     Seventeen  reigns  follow,  up  to  443  B.C. 
Gawdama   quits   the   palace   and    enters    on    his    mission    as 

Buddha.     Miraculous  visit  of  the  Buddha  and  five  hundred 

yahdn  to  Sagaing.     Changes  in  the  earth  prophesied — the 

formation    of    the    Bo-u    lake,    the    rise    of    Popa    mount 

(volcanic),  the  retreat  of  the  sea   from    Thaydkittaya  near 

Prome,  and  the  spread  of  Buddhism. 
Demise  of  Gawdama  Buddha.     Era  of  Gawdama  begins  (lasts 

till  82  a.d).     First  Buddhist  council. 
King  Ajutasatra  collects  the  relics  of  the  Buddha. 
Two    Burman    kingdoms,  Tagaung    and     Pyu    (Pye,    Pruni, 

Prome  ?)     Prince  Labadutra  of  Tagdung   hunts   the  great 

boar,  which  he  kills  at  Wettokyun  near  Prome. 
Second  Buddhist  council. 
King   Asoka  {Asdwka  min)  of  Pattaliputra  distributes  the  relics  of  the  Buddha.     The 

king's  son  Mahinda  goes  as  missionary  jYz/;(f//  to  Ceylon.     Cf  6ttara  and  U  Sawnasd 

missionary  ^a/;rf«  to  Burma. 
Third  Buddhist  council. 
2    D 


448.  IMAGE  FOUND  IN  A 
CAVE  NEAR  AN  ANCIENT 
TALAING    TOWN. 


<;?o/ 


202 


APPENDICES 


B.C. 
150. 

114. 

2 

.\.D. 

82. 

104. 

128. 
400. 


I  160. 
1167. 


1204. 
1284. 

1300. 


Legendary-  visit  of  Gawdama  to  Arak^n  (!)     The  Malia-inyaminuiii  image  modelled  from 

the  Buddha,  and  cast  by  King  Sandathuria. 
The  Tepa  dynasty  begins. 
The  Buddhist  Scriptures  brought  to  China. 

New  era  of  Pyu  King  Thamilndayit.     (Lasts  till  638.) 

The  Muns  destroy  'J'hayekittaya.     King  Thamunda\  it  dri\  en  north,  where  he  establishes 

New  Pagdn.     Eighteen  reigns  follow. 
Rise  of  Magadu  in  Martaban  {Mottama). 

The  missionarj-jrt/;!!//  Buddhagosha  ft-om  Ceylon  brings  the  Buddhist  scriptures  to  Pegu 

and  reforms  the  religious  practice  (see  Phayre,  p.  31). 
410.  Chinese  pilgrim  Fa  Hian  visits  Ceylon. 
450.   Burma  invaded  by  Shan  Chinese  (Tarok — Tartar?) 
518.  Chinese  pilgrim  Chun  Yun  visits  Ceylon. 
552.  Buddhism  introduced  into  Japan. 
629.  Chinese  pilgrim  Hiouen  Sung  visits  Ceylon  :  slays  till 

648. 
638.  Era  and  dynasty  of  King  Pupasaw— the  present  era. 
Accession  of  King  Pyinbya,  to  whom  nine  of  the  temples 

at  Pagdn  are  ascribed. 
Siam  {Yodayd)  converted  to  Buddhism. 
800.   Irruption  of  Shans  into  Burma.     (Date  earlier  .'     Pres- 
sure  of  Chinese   on  the  N.E.   the    probable    cause, 
Phayre,  p.   12.)     King  Saw  Vahan  introduced  itOi^A 
worship. 
1017.  Accession    of     King    .Andwyata     Minsaw    the    Great. 
Abolishes  nat^A  worship.     Builds  temples  at  Pagdn. 
Invades    China  to  procure  the    Buddhist   scriptures 
and  sacred   tooth-relic.     A   model  of  the  relic  pro- 
cured    and     deposited     in     the    Slnvczh^on  PayA, 
Nyaung-O.     Invades  Arakdn  and  endeavours  to  take 
the  MaliA-inyaiiDiiinii  image.   Invades  I'egu,  captures 
Thaton  and  brings  away  the  Buddhist  scriptures  to 
Pagdn.     Takes  Tenaserim  from  Siam. 
10S5.  Southern    provinces    rebel,    but   re-subjugated.      King 
Kyansitthu  of  Pagdn  builds  Anaiuia  PayA  and  Shwc 
Kii  PiiyA.     Establishes  relations  with  the  Buddhists 
of    Ceylon.       Repairs   the   shrines    at     lioddhagaya 
through  the  agency  of  the  King  of  Arakdn. 
King  Kyansitthu  of  l'ag:in  murdered  by  his  son  after  reigning  sevenly-lixe  years. 
Accession  of  King  Narapati  Sitthu  the  (jteal.     Empire  established  over  all  the  kingdoms 
except    Arakdn.     Embassy   sent  to  the   King   of  Ceylon,  who  deputes  five  yaliAii  to 
teach  Buddhism  in  Burma.     Curii'dawhaliii  PayA  built. 
Burma   invaded    from    India.     Burman  sovereign   deposed— A'l/AJ-yiyv?    min.     Cambodia 
and  Arayamana  invaded  from  Ceylon. 
Burma  invaded  by  China  and  tribute  demanded.      King  Narashihepade  driven  south 
and  pursued  to  TarOk-hmaw  before  Prome,  whence  he  fled  to  Pathdin — Paiok-pye-min. 
Pagdn  referred  to  by  Marco  Polo  as  the  capital  of  a  great  kingdom. 
Burma  invaded  by  Shans.     King  Kyawzwa  of  Pagdn  made  a  recluse.     Chin.i  inlcrferes 


im 

>*« 

1 

:H^\ 

■"w  ..-..-Ml* 

'^^m^MmtL. 

•■        ■'                  '•v 

449-      MAHA    MYAMMUNI     IMAGE. 


APPENDICES 


203 


^,-g5S^PS«>, 


.._-J- 


on  behalf  of  Burma    and    licsicgos    Myinzaing,  but  without   effect.     Pagdn    kingdom 

parcelled    out    among    Shan    leaders.      Siam    recovers   Tenaserim.      Pegu   recovers 

independence.     Promu,  Taung-ngu  (Paung),  Myinzaing,  Pinya,  Sagding,  Thayct  assert 

independence.     Pag<4n  dynasty  continues  in  name  only.     Shan  dynasty  of  Beinnaka 

established  in  Burma  Proper. 
1306.  King    Zaw-aw    Thin    Hmaing    of    Pegu    recaptures 

Tenaserim   from    .Siam.      Foundation    of  chronic 

hostility  between  Pegu  and  Siam. 
1330.  Tenaserim    recovered    and   Pegu  made   tributary  by 

Siam  (.Siamese  accounts). 
1348.  King  Sinbyu  Shin  of  Pegu.     First  mention  of  cannon. 

The  Mun  have  fire-arms. 
1364.  Inwa  ("  Ava,"  Raiaiiapoya — city  of  gems)  founded  by 

Shan-Burman  King  Rahula  (Thado  Minbya). 
1385.  Accession   of    King    Yazadiyit   the    Great,    of  Pegu. 

War  with  Burma.     Chinese  interfere  on  behalf  of 

latter.    Arakdn  supports  Burma.     Peace  concluded, 

1421,  on  the  basis  that  Prome  is  Burman  territory. 
1423.   Death  of  King  Yazadiyit  of  Pegu. 
1438.  The  calendar  adjusted  by  moving  the  date  back  two 

years.     Nicolo  d'  Conti,   traveller  from   Italy,  de- 
scribes Thaton  as  a  seapoit.    Other  travellers  from 

the  West  about  this  period — Ludovico  Barthema 

of    Bologna,    Hieronimo    Adorno,     Hieronimo    dc 

San  Stefano  and  the  Russian,  Athanasius  Nitikin. 
1444.  Chinese  invasion  of  Burma  repelled  by   King  Mon 

hnyin  Mintara. 
1454.  Ali   Khan  usurps  the  kingdom  of  Arakan.     Burman 

kingdom    at    a    low   ebb  ;    weakened   by    Mongol 

inroads    from   the    North.       Military   adventurers 

from  Europe  in  the  service  of  the  rival  kingdoms. 
1505.  Shan  Swabwa  of  tjnaung  overthrows  the  Shan-Burman  king  of  Ava  and  establishes  a 

new  dynasty. 
1530.  Five  independent  kingdoms— Ava  (Shan),   Promc  (Shan-Burman >,  Taung-ngu  (Paung), 

Pegu  (Mun)  and  Arakan.     Taung-ngu  begins  to  rise  in  power. 
Thohambwa  succeeds  to  the  kingdom  of  Ava.     Massacres  of  ya/id/t  and  plunder  of  st-t// 

take  place.     The  king  assassinated,  1542. 
Travellers  of  the  period — Ruy  Nunes  d'Alcunha,   151 1.     Giovanni  de  Sylvcira  (.ArakAn). 

Antonio  Carrea  (treats  with  the  King  of  Pegu  on  behalf  of  Portugal,   1519).     Odoardo 

Barbessa  (reports  the  King  of  Pegoi  to  be  very  powerful,    1520).     Cajsar   Frederick. 

Ralph  Fitch.    (See  Jardine,  introduction  to  Sangermano's  '  Burmese  Empire.')    Soldiers 

of    fortune — Caspar   d'    Cruz,    Boniface    Uamien,    Giovanni     Cayero    and     Ferdinand 

Mendez  Pinto. 
1540.  Martabdn  (Mottama)  besieged  by  Siam. 
1550.  King  Tabi'n  Shwe-ti  of  Pegu  advances  on  Ava,  but  is  repulsed  by  a  confederation  of  the 

Shans.   Pagin  is  occupied  and  the  other  Burman  kingdoms  subjugated.    Siam  recovers 

Tenaserim.     Nawratha  (afterwards  called  BuyOi-aauiig— next  to  the  king)  leads  an 

e.xpedition  against   Siam  with  assistance  of  the   Portuguese  adventurers,  Seixas  and 

Cayero,  who  bring  five  hundred  Portuguese  soldiers. 


CHIDAVV-  VA 


204  APPEXDICES 

A.D. 

1550.  Bayi'n-naung  (brother-in-law  of  the  last  king)  succeeds,  under  the  title  of  Sinbyu- 
mva  Shin.  Thamein  Taw,  representative  of  the  ancient  Mun  dynasty,  is  beheaded. 
Expedition  to  and  capture  of  Ava.  Advance  to  Zimmfe.  Shan  states  subjugated, 
excepting  Theinni.  Advance  on  Laos,  as  fiir  as  the  Mekong.  1562,  Siam  invaded 
and  the  capital  Ayodaya  captured.  Tenascrim  recovered  from  Siam.  1575.  the  Shan 
states  re-subjugated.  Troops  sent  to  the  aid  of  the  King  of  Ceylon.  Zenith  of  Mun 
empire. 

1570.  I'egu  exhausted  and  depopulated.  In  his  old  age  the  emperor  becomes  fanatical,  compels 
foreigners  to  embrace  Buddhism  (the  solitary  example  of  the  kind)  and  to  respect 
animal  life.  Mahomedan  butchers  mentioned  at  this  period.  1581,  preparations  for 
invading  Arakdn  inten-upted  by  the  death  of  the  emperor. 

1 581.  Yuwa  Yaza  (crown  prince)  succeeds. 

1 59 1.  Nanda  Bavin  succeeds  to  the  empire  of  Pegu.  Successful  expedition  against  .\\\. 
Advance  against  Siam  "  with  5000  elephants  and  300,000  men."  ,'\y6daya  besieged 
without  success,  and  again  in  1593.  Pegu  drained  of  men  and  resources.  The 
emperor  gives  way  to  senseless  savagery  ;  immolates  his  relatives  (witnessed  by 
Gaspari  Balbi,  of  Venice).  Massacres  of  the  people  ordered  and  persecution  of 
the  yahdn.  Taung-ngxi  and  .\rak;in  league  against  the  emperor.  The  Siamese 
invader  is  acclaimed. 

1596.  The  Arakanese  advance  as  far  as  Thallyi'n  ("Syriam").  Sack  of  I'egti.  Fabulous 
accounts  of  its  wealth.  Independence  of  Ava  re-established.  Taung-ngu  attacked  by 
I'rome  while  engaged  in  repulsing  the  Siamese.  Siam  recovers  Tenascrim  and  besieges 
Martaban.  Philip  de  Brito — a  Portugiacse  ship-boy  who  grew  up  in  the  palace  at 
Arakan — deserts  the  Arakanese  and  seizes  Syriam  for  the  Portug-uese.  1600,  Philip 
de  Brito  recovers  Yamcthin  for  Taung-ngu. 

1607.  Ava  re-subjugates  Prome  and  ^i5io)  Taung-ngu  also,  and  obtains  the  tooth-relic  of  the 
Buddha.     Travellers  at  this  period,  the  Jesuit  Boves,  Faria  y  Souza. 

1615.  De    Brito  captures  Taung-ngu  but  is  attacked  and  defeated   by  the  King  of  Ava  and 

is  tortured  to  death.     De  Brito's  Portug^iese  comrades  are  sent  to  Ava. 
Maha   Damma  Yaza   of  Taung-ngu    reconstitutes  the  empire,  with  his  capital  at  Ava. 
The  help  of  Portuguese  galleons  obtained  by  sea.    The  Siamese  ally  with  the  Portuguese. 
Envoys  sent  to  Burma  from  the  Emperor  Jehangi'r  and  the  governor  of  Bengal. 

1616.  The   Englishman  Samuel  dies  in    Burma  ;  his   property  seized  but  afterwards  restored. 

The   English   invited  to    settle.     English  factories  at  Syriam,    I'rome,  Ava,    Bamdw. 
Disputes  of  English  and  Dutch  settlers.     Both  compelled  to  withdraw. 

1632.  The  Mun  Emperor  Thado  Damma  Yaza  on  the  throne,  with  the  capital  at  Ava  ;  a  good 
and  wise  ruler.     Builds  Kauiiii-limAdiiw  PayA,  below  Sagging. 

1648.  Bintale  succeeds,  and  is  succeeded  by  Maha  Payawa  Damma  Yaza. 

1658.  An  invasion  from  China  repulsed  with  difficulty. 

1661.  The  Kingdom  of  .'\va  usurped  by  Prome. 

The  pirate  Gonzales  appears  in  Arak:in.  Bengal  in  a  disorganized  state,  of  which  Arakdn 
takes  advantage,  and  with  the  help  of  (kinzales  advances  as  far  as  Lakimpilr,  but  is 
driven  back  to  Chittagong.  Cionzales  turns  the  Arakanese  fleet  against  Arakan  and 
commits  shocking  atrocities.  The  Viceroy  of  Goa  leagues  with  the  pirate,  who  never- 
theless IS  .eventually  beaten. 

1664.  The  y\rakanesc  advance  into  Bengal  as  far  as  Dakka. 

1672.  Accession  of  Emperor  Thiyi  Payawa  Maha  Damma  Yaza  of  I'cgu. 

1687.  Haindyi  Island  ("  Negrais ")  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pathein  River  is  taken  by  Captain 
Weldon  (British)  on  behalf  of  the  Siamese.    At  the  bidding  of  the  East  India  Compaiu 


APPENDICES  205 

A.D. 

the    Siamese    Governor  of  Mergui  expels   Rritish  traders  ("interlopers");   seventeen 

British  massacred  in  the  scuffle  that  took   place.     The  British  fall  into  disrepute.     A 

French  mission  follows. 
1688.  The  Governor  of  Pegu  sends  a  letter  to  the  Governor  of  Madras  asking  for  British  traders 

to  settle  in  Pegu. 
1695.  The  Burman  Government  confiscates  the  goods  of  Adrian  Tilburj-,  an  Englishman  who 

died  in  Burma  ;  and  the  ship  SS.  Antony  and  Nicholas.    Messrs.  Fleetwood  and  .Sealy 

deputed  by  the  Madras  Government  to  recover  the  above,  in  1697.     Messrs.  Bowycar 

and  Alison  deputed  on  the  same  duty  in  1709. 
1698.  Accession    of   Kmperor    Sinbyu    .Shin    Dipata.       Non-Iiuddhist    foreigners  treated    with 

contempt,  but  not  molested. 
1720.  First  Catholic  mission. 

'733-  Accession  of  Emperor  Sinbyu  Shin  Uipata  II. 
[738.  Manipiiris  advance  as  far  as  Sagging  and  destroy  temples  there. 
1740.  Pegu-Burman  Empire  again  disintegrating.     Pegu  exhausted  by  imposts  ;  even  the  looms 

are   taxed.      The  condition  of  the  people   wretched.      The    Muns   rise   against   the 

Taung-ngii-Peguan  dynasty,  march  north  and  capture  the  Emperor  Kaungthit. 
The  East  India  Company  have  an  agent  in   Pegu. 
1746.  A  Gwe  Shan  becomes  King  of  Pegu,  but  abdicates.     Binnya  Dala  elected  in  his  place. 
1750.  The  Muns  under  the  Yuwa  Yaza  (crown-prince)  and  Dalaban  march  north  in  great  force, 

with  the  co-operation  of  renegade  Dutch  and  native  Portuguese. 
[752.  Ava  destroyed,  the  king  taken  to  Pegu  (where  he  was  e.xecuted  two  years  later  on  a  charge 
of  conspiracy). 

1754.  Aungzaya  of  Mosobo  (later  Shwebo),  afterwards  called  Aliung  Paya,  rallies  the  Burmans 

to  rise  against  the  Mun  garrisons,  which  are  dispersed.  The  Burmans  march  on  Pegu, 
take  the  city  and  capture  the  emperor.  Rangoon  ( yizz/^w; — the  end  of  the  strife)  is 
founded  and  Burman  empire  proclaimed  under  Aldung  Paya. 

1755.  Embassy  of  Captain  George   Baker  to   Burma.     See  his  journal  (Oriental   Repertory, 

London,  Dalrymple,  1791).  The  Emperor  AlAung  Paya  sends  a  golden  letter  for 
delivery  to  King  George  III.,  but  it  is  intercepted. 

1756.  Murder  of  Bishop  Nerini. 

1757.  Rising  of  Muns.     Fresh  Campaign,   in  which   Pegu  is   finally   subjugated.     The   name 

Talaing — the   vanquished — given   to   the    Mun    race.      Dalaban,   the    Mun    general, 
afterwards  called  Nawratha,  enters  the  service  of  the  Burman  Emperor  on  honourable 
terms. 
The  crew  of  the  French  ship  Galatec  are  seized. 

1758.  Manipur  is  subdued.     A  rebellion  of  the  TaWings  is  suppressed. 

[759.  The  British  settlers  at  Negrais  are  massacred  at  the  instigation  of  the  French. 
Siam  is  invaded  and  siege  laid  to  Ayodaya,  without  success. 

1760.  Death  of  Alaung  Paya.     His  eldest  son  Naungdawdyi  succeeds,  under  his  father's  will 

that  his  three  sons  should  reign  in  succession.  Palace  intrigues.  The  capital  changed 
from  Shwebo  to  Sagging. 

1 76 1.  Captain  Alves  deputed  on  a  mission  to  the  Burman  Emperor. 

1763.  The  Emperor  Sinbyushin  succeeds  his  brother  Naungdawdyi.     The  capital  changed  to 
Shwebo. 

1765.  Manipur,  now  the  ally  of  the  British,  is  overrun  by  Burma. 

1766.  Burman  expedition  against  Zimme.     Tenaserim  is  recaptured,  Siam  invaded  under  the 

command  of  Dalaban,  Ayodaya  destroyed  and  the  country  laid  under  tribute.  The 
Siamese  defence  conducted  with  the  help  of  a  British  privateer. 


2o6 


APPEhWICES 


1767.  The  Chinese  invade  Burma  with  50,000  men.     Their  army  is  repulsed  and  destroyed. 
1769.  The  Chinese  invade  Burma  and  are  repulsed  again.      Their  soldiers  permitted  to  return 

disarmed. 
1771.  Siam  throws  off  the  Burman  yoke  and  recovers  Tenaserim.   A  force  is  despatched  against 

Siam,  of  which  the  Talaing  brigade  mutinies  and  invests  Rangoon.      Failing  to  take 

the  place  they  retreat  to  Martaban. 

1774.  An  expedition  is  sent  against  Martaban,  consisting  of  20,000  men  and  twenty-four  guns, 

which  reduces  the  place. 

1775.  The  Emperor  Sinbyu  Shin  visits  Rangoon.     Judicial  murder  of  the  last  Peguan  Emperor 

Binnya  Dala.     The  Shiuc  Dagon  PayA  is  built  over,  to  its  present  dimensions,  and 

decorated  with  a  magnificent  //.    Siam  invaded 
again,  without  efi'ect.     Manipiir  overrun  again. 
1776.   Emperor  Sinbyu  Shin  succeeded  by  his  sun  Singu 
Min.     Capital  changed  to  Sagaing. 

1751.  Emperor  Singu  IVIin  dies.  Succeeded  by  Maung 
Maung,  son  of  Emperor  Xaungdawdyi,  contrary 
to  the  will  of  Aldung  Paya,  under  which  his  own 
third  son  Maung  Waing  was  designated.  Maung 
Waing  captures  the  palace,  murders  his  nephew, 
and  assumes  the  empire  under  the  title  of  Bodaw 
Paya  (also  called  Badon  Min,  Sinbyu-mya  Shin, 
and  Mantaya-dyi).  Commits  fearful  atrocities 
against  his  opponents  at  Paunga,  where  he  des- 
troys the  whole  of  the  inhabitants,  yahdii  in- 
cluded. Capital  changed  from  Sagging  to 
Amayapoya  (City  of  Immortals). 

1752.  Rebellion  of  the  Taldings  in  Rangoon  suppressed. 
Surgeon  W.  Hunter  visits  Burma. 

1753.  Father  .Sangermano  lands  in  Burma.  (Remained 
till  1806.     See  his  work  llii  lyiintiesc-  Empire.) 

1754.  Arak.in  invaded  and  subdued. 
The  Maha-myainmuni'www^'^  brought  to  -Vmayajjoya 

{cf.  l!.c.  150  and  A.I).  1017). 
Arakanese    take  refuge  in   British   Chittagong  and 
from  thence  harass  the  Burmans. 
17X5.  I'^.xpedition     made      against     Junkseyloii,     witlunit 

success. 

1786.  Siam  invaded  without  success. 
1787.  Invasion  from  Siam  repulsed. 
1790.  Tenaserim  recaptured  from  Siam. 

1793.  Punitive  expedition  sent  against  the  Arakanese  refugees  in  Chittagong. 
1795.  Captain  Michael  .Symes  (sec  his  work)  sent  on  a  mission  to  the  luiipcror  of  Burm.i  by  the 
Governor-General  of  India.  Burma  contends  for  an  envoy  from  the  King  of  Engi.uid. 
on  the  precedent  of  the  envoy  (Lord  Macartney)  sent  to  the  em|)ire  of  China.  Efforts 
to  negotiate  a  commercial  treaty  unsuccessful.  Suljseinanl  en\oys — Captain  Co.\, 
1803,  Lieut.  Canning,  181 1. 
1803.  The  Amayap6ya  gniiiii  of  Burman  yaluin  in   Ceylon,  protests  against  the  mlnision  of 

caste  ideas  in  the  Thiiiiid  there. 
1811.  The  filibuster  Chin  Byan  overruns  Arakdn  from  the  b.ise  of  Hrilish  Chilt.igong. 


451.  COPPER  IMAGE  DISCOVERED 
IN  THE  FOUNDATIONS  OF  MAHA- 
MYAMMUNI.    1784. 


APPENDICES  207 

A.D. 

1813.  BuniKvn  embassy  to  tlic  Governor-General  of  India. 

Adoniram  Judson  lands  in  Burma. 
1817.  The  Burnian  government  intrigues  with  the  Mahrattas. 
1819.  The  Emperor  Bodaw  Paya  is  succeeded  by  his  grandson  Badyidaw.     Capital  changed  to 

Ava,    1823.      Troubles    with   Munipur  ;    the    Rdja   erects    a   royal  pyatthat   over   his 

residence.     The  British  arm  the  Manipiiris. 
1823.  Outrage   committed    by    the    Burman    government    on    the    British   outpost  at  -Shahpilri 

Island,  at   Naf,  Arakan.     Burma  warned  Ijy  the  British   that   war   may  ensue.     The 

Burmans  in  reply  advance  to  Kachdr. 
1824  (5th   March).     British  declare  war  and  land   their  forces.      Burman  resistance   broken, 

not   without   aid   of  the  Taldings,  on   the  fall  of  the  able   General  Maha    Bandula 

(24th  April,  1825).    Cost  to  British,  4000  men  and  ^5,000,000.    Arakan,  Martaban  and 

Tenaserim   provinces   annexed.      Indemnity  of  1,000,000  rupees  imposed  on  Burma, 

and  a  treaty  of  commerce  exacted. 
1827.  Talking  rising  in  Rangoon. 

Mission  of  Captain  Crawfurd  to  Ava  (see  his  work). 
1829.   Inroads  made    on   British  territory  by   Burman  brigands,  from  the  base  of  Martaban. 

Martaban  government  bound  down  by  British  to  restrain  Burman  subjects. 
1837.   King  Badyidaw  deposed  and  his  son  Thayawadi  Min  proclaimed  king  in  Burma.    Capital, 

Kyaummyaung  and  later  Amayapoya.     The  reign  disfigured  by  barbarities.      1 841,  the 

king  visits  Rangoon. 
1845.   King  Thayawadi  deposed  and  his  son  Pagdn  Min  proclaimed.       Massacres  at  the  palace. 

185 1.  Extortions   practised  by  the  government  of  Rangoon,  and  the   British  traders  Lewis  and 

Sheppard  ill-treated. 

1852.  Second   British   war,  which  lasts  nearly  twelve  months.     Pegu  annexed  ;  British  Burma 

Commission  organised  by  Colonel  (afterwards  -Sir)  Arthur  Phayre,  the  first  Chief 
Commissioner.     Brigandage  becomes  rife,  but  is  suppressed  by  degrees. 

1S53.   King  Pagdn  Min  deposed  and  his  son  Mindon  Min  proclaimed  in  Burma. 

1857.  The  Burman  capital  changed  to  Mandalay. 

1862.  A  fresh  commercial  treaty  with  Burma  negotiated  by  Colonel  Phayre. 

1866.  The  rebellion  headed  by  the  Myingon-Myingondaing  princes,  quelled,  with  the  assistance 
of  the  British. 

1872.   Embassy  of  the  King  of  Burma  to  the  Oueen  of  England. 

1878.  Death  of  King  Mindon  Min.  Accession  of  his  son  Thibaw  Min.  The  young  king  a  puppet 
in  the  hands  of  evil  ministers.     Massacres  at  the  palace. 

1884.  Massacres  in  the  jail  and  atrocities  at  the  palace.  Disorganization  of  the  state.  Approaches 
made  by  the  Burman  government  to  the  French.  Third  British  war.  Burman  resist- 
ance nominal  only.  The  Burman  government  overthrown,  the  king  deported  and  the 
country  incorporated  in  the  Indian  Empire. 

1885-86.  Local  outbreaks  of  resistance  and  general  revival  of  brigandage,  which  are  gradually 
suppressed. 


208 


APPENDICES 


APPENDIX    B. 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  BURMESE  LANGUAGE- 
TRANSLITERATION. 


-MODE  OF 


c«5c\)(§8(^« 


c(>l>3:u^q^&>-3>}0-^>3X<i^»»^-.9X|/i^n^(t 


«-l-»V*»*-<**8'' 


The  Burmese  alphabet  is  a  model  of  classification.  The  vowels  and  consonants  form  separate 
orders,  with  sub-orders.  The  force  of  each  letter  is  conveyed  in  its  name.  The  name  consists 
of  two  parts,  the  generic  and  the  specific.  The  latter  describes  the  form  of  the  letter  by  its 
resemblance  to  some  familiar  object  :  for  instance  ta-sindii — elephant-fetter  ta  (oo).  Sentences 
are  punctuated,  but  the  words  are  written — from  left  to  right — without  separation.  The  horizontal 
line  of  characters  consists  mainly  of  the  consonants,  the  characters  added  abo\c  and  below 
the  line  denote  the  vowels.     The  Burmese  is  all  Burmese  just  as  German  is  all  German.     The 

meaning  of  a  compound  word  is  as 
obvious  as  the  meaning  of  diinli-sichtig 
is  in  (ierman  and  traiis-parcns  is  in 
Latin.  A  new  root  which  one  has 
learned  in  its  function  of  substantive 
may  be  used  as  verb  and  adjective 
upon  one  unvarying  model.  The  forms 
of  speech  have  tended  to  preserve  related 
ideas  in  the  same  categories  as  the 
terms  expressing  the  ideas.  The  Bur- 
man  has  no  equivalents  for  our  "  herb, 
shrub,  tree."  He  speaks  of  "grain- 
plants,  creeper-plants,  timber-plants." 
The  root  idea  is  conveyed  by  a  mono- 
syllable. The  disuse  of  mute  consonants 
in  the  spoken  language  greatly  reduces 
the  number  of  available  coinl)inations 
of  sounds  by  which  to  differciuiate 
monosyllables.  A  tonic  system  of 
\  owels  and  tlie  aspiration  of  labial  and 
dental  as  well  as  liquid  consonants, 
help  to  multiply  the  possible  combina- 
tions. Context  comes  to  the  aid  of  these 
subtle  distinctions.  I'refixes  and  suHixes 
of  universal  application  indicate  the 
parts  of  speech  in  their  syntax  and  their  inflexions.  The  numeral  affixes  proper  to  various 
classes  of  objects  are  of  a  curious  prolixity .  Just  as  we  sa)  piiir,  coKplc,  l>niii\  so  one  of 
twenty  or  more  different  affixes  has  to  be  em])loyed  with  the  lunnljer.  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  object.  .Secondary  meanings  are  obtained  by  a  free  compouniling  of  words.  The  language 
possesses  terms  for  ideas  of  much  subtlety  and  complexity  ;  but  metaphysical  terms  are 
imported  from  the  Pali,  the  language  of  Buddhist  philosophy.  The  pronunciation  of  the  I'ali  is 
adapted  to  that  of  the  Burmese.  Thus  Savtaiifia  becomes  Chinthamaiu'.  Sanskrit,  wliich  is 
studied  by  few,  presents  still  greater  difficulties  to  the  Hurman.  The  word  for  Sanskrit  is 
corrupted  into    rhiiilltaknyi'il.       The  terseness  of  I  he  l.myuage  appears  in  its  pro\  erbs.      For 


oaaraopSsii 


^^\ 


umjct      (I:3*i»>o^Sjj»ifx-^>gc^ 


:8  (f^-wx^vAj^jti  cffsS-oC 
6  *«  c^-^  xiV«  «»5.  @ Y  "* 


452.      BURMESE    LETTERPRESS    iNEWSPAPER.    p.    124 


APPENDICES 


209 


instance,  Kwi'-hlr  konln  poii  iita-la  "  Thu  dog-flea  may  juni|)  but  it  raises  no  dust."  Seven 
syllables  as  compared  with  the  ten  of  the  almost  monosyllabic  Knglish.  In  the  above  sentence 
the  order  of  ideas  is  much  the  same  as  our  own.  But  as  a  rule  the  order  is  the  opposite. 
"  Fetch  hither  water  to  c|uench  the  fire  "  is  mi  thappo  yc  yugi,  literally,  "  fire  to  quench,  water 
fetch  hither."  The  ideas  are  expressed  in  order  of  their  practical  importance.  The  checked 
mutes  of  the  Burmese  language  give  it  an  abruptness  which  is  reflected  in  the  staccato  of  the 
Burmese  music.  But  Burmese  possesses  sonorous  qualities  also,  for  instance,  Shwe  Saiidaw 
PayA,  Shwe  Zigon  Paya. 

The  sounds  of    the    letters  used  in  this  work  for  transliterating   Burmese  words    are    as 
follows  : — 


Vowcl-ioiiiuls. 


a,  e,  1,  0,  II, 

c 

ni 

ail 

aw 

ei 

Consonants 


IS  in  Italian 
,,     English  bell  {h\\\.  long  in  quantity) 
„  „        aisle 

„  „        cow 

„  „        caiv 

„        eight 
„      English,  including  the  ///. 


Few  Burmans  can  pronounce 


and  generally  substitute  y  for  it  in  the  Pali  words.  All 
final  consonants  are  mute.  They  are  not  wholly  suppressed  as  they  are  in  French,  but  are 
merely  checked  in  pronunciation.  The  Burmese  for  iteinon  is  written  iiat  in  this  work,  because 
it  is  too  inconvenient  to  indicate  the  checked  mute 
by  such  a  form  as  >iaK  The  final  n  should, 
strictly  speaking,  be  always  followed  by  a  g  or  a 
suggestion  of  g,  thus  dagong  or  dagoii'-'  instead  of 
dagoii.  But  to  write  it  in  this  way  is  inconvenient 
in  many  of  the  combinations.  This  should  accord- 
ingly be  borne  in  mind.  The  combinative  changes 
on  the  other  hand  which  consonants  undergo  in 
certain  positions  have  been  incorporated  in  the 
spelling  and  not  left  to  the  reader  to  fonn.  Instead 
of  the  curient  form  sit-bayiii  (chess),  which  correctly 
renders  the  Burmese  spelling  of  the  word,  the  form 
sippayin  is  used,  which  renders  the  actual  pronun- 
ciation. The  letter  /•  combined  with  y  has  a 
varying  force  according  to  its  position.  Thus  'kya 
is  pronounced  just  as  written,  but  in  the  duplicated 
form  icya-kya,  the  pronunciation  is  tya-dya.  Theri' 
are  a  few  exceptions  such  as  kak-kyi  (scissors) 
pronounced  as  spelled.  When  the  k  is  aspirated, 
its  combination  with  y  gives  tsh  (English  cii)  and 
dsh  (English  j).  Kyaung  (a  monastery)  is  pro- 
nounced as  written.  In  the  compound  taw-kyauiig 
it  is  pronounced  taw-dyaiing  i)a  forest  monastery). 
But  when  it  is  the  aspirated  /",  tazv-'l^yaiing  makes 
taw-chaung  (a  forest  stream).     The  modulation  ot 

the  voice  differentiates  it  ftirther,  thus  taw-dyai'iiig,  with  the  second  syllable  rounded  up  sharply 
(wild  cat).     In  deliberate  utterance  certain  of  these  modifications  disappear  again  ;  just  as  w'e 
pronounce  the  article  difterently  in  deliberate  and  in  rapid  utterance.    Ka  in  duplication  becomes 
2    E 


453.      SADAIK     p.    35  . 


2IO  APPENDICES 

ka-ga,pa  becomes /rt-^(r,  ta  becomes  ta-da.  Burmese  words  used  within  the  English  text  have 
been  inflected  in  the  English  way  only  when  the\'  have  some  currency  in  English,  such  as  Shan, 
Shaits.  A  ftirther  difierence  is  made  by  the  rising  tone  corresponding  to  the  rising  modulation  of 
English  speech  in  asking  a  question,  and  the  falling  one  in  answering.  The  former  has  a  parallel 
in  the  Swedish  ;  the  pronunciation  of  the  Burmese  iiivtitila  recalls  that  of  the  Swedish  Upsala. 
On  the  other  hand  our  interrogative  modulation  of  voice  has  no  signitication  in  Burmese.  The 
question  is  formed  by  the  use  of  the  interrogative  particles,  la,  le.  There  are  three  quantities. 
VVd  means  bamboo  ;  wa  means  cotton  :  lua  means  stout.  Only  the  most  salient  of  these 
distinctions  have  been  embodied  in  the  transliteration.  Besides  quantity,  emphasis  (stress) 
plays  an  important  part.  For  instance,  pdla  means  cardamom  ;  paid  means  a  bowl.  Where 
the  stress  lies  on  a  diphthong,  the  accent  has  been  placed  on  the  first  vowel,  for  typographical 
reasons.  The  accent  '  is  used  to  express  emphasis  in  the  case  of  vowels  which  are  stressed  but 
are  not  long.  The  pronunciation  of  Burmese  depends  a  great  deal  on  the  correct  intervals  or 
'•rests."  These  are  partly  indicated  by  the  conjoining  of  the  syllables,  the  hyphening  and  the 
separation.  For  instance  Sinbyii-mya  Sliin  forms  a  single  phrase,  but  the  syllables  ha\e  not  all 
the  same  degree  of  cohesion.  The  h\phen  has  to  be  used  in  many  cases  where  there  is  no  rest, 
to  simphfy  the  reading  and  to  preserve  the  right  associations  of  consonants,  such  as  in 
Pon-hnA,  ka-iiyiit.  Finally  the  cadence  of  speech  is  most  distinctive.  The  intervals 
favoured  in  Burmese  music  and  the  tones  on  which  the  ])hrases  begin  and  end  indicate 
certain  of  its  features  (.Appendix  C). 


APPENDIX    C. 


NOTE  ON    nURMKSE  MUSIC,  nv  Mk.   P.  .V.   MAKIAXO. 

Thk  fundamental  pitch-note  of  Burmese  music  corresponds  to  our  .A-naUu.il.  Tlnee  kinds 
of  scales  are  used.  The  first  is  the  Doric  scale  consisting  of  the  1st,  2nd,  5th,  6th,  and  8th 
intervals  of  the  diatonic  scale.  The  second  is  the  diatonic  scale  :  in  the  Burmese  diatonic  scale, 
however,  the  7th  is  tuned  flat  by  about  a  (juarter  tone.  An  instrument  tuned  in  this  way  may 
sound  out  of  tune  to  a  good  European  ear,  but  most  ears  will  scarcely  perceive  tlie  difference. 
There  are  no  flats  or  sharps  in  the  Burmese  gamut.  Nevertheless  changes  of  key  are  not 
infrequent  in  their  melodies.  These  invariably  proceed  from  the  tonic  to  the  sub-dominant,  but 
without  the  introduction  of  the  7th  flat,  as  there  is  no  regular  system  of  counterpoint.  Here 
the  advantage  of  tuning  the  7th  somewhat  flat  is  apparent,  for  it  does  duty  as  the  4th  interval 
of  the  new  key.  .V  change  from  tonic  to  dominant  sometimes  also  takes  place.  The  third 
scale  is  a  kind  of  minor  ;  it  consists  of  the  same  notes  as  the  major  diatonic  scale,  but  it 
begins  and  ends  with  the  third  interval.     Strict  time  is  observed  ;  two-four  is  the  usual  time. 

Pure  Burmese  melodies  are  beautiful  in  themselves.  But  on  account  of  the  jjrcponderance 
of  grace-notes  Unoidcnti-,  aicacialiini,  iippogiatiita)  Europeans  lind  it  dilticult  to  catch  Burniese 
tunes.  Not  being  able  to  eliminate  the  grace-notes  from  the  simple  theme,  they  do  not  appre- 
ciate genuine  airs  so  much  as  they  do  the  medley  of  catches  of  European  and  Indian  music 
which  is  becoming  the  fashion.  The  "  Kayd-llian  "  now  played  by  the  regimental  bands  as  the 
Burmese  National  Anthem,  is  an  example  of  this  kind.  It  is  made  up  of  bits  of  bugle-calls 
(AVijvf  =  bugle)  and  snatches  of  a  polka. 


APPENDICES 


2IT 


The  Burmans  do  iiol  appreciate  singing  in  a  luu  pitch.  Ihc}  clo  not  admire  men's  voices 
in  the  baritone  or  the  bass.  A-natnral  is  considered  the  standard  pitch  for  men's  and  D- 
natural  for  women's  voices.  The  Wgher  the  tenor  the  more  it  is  admired.  Their  ideal  singer 
is  a  tenor  approaching  a  contraho.  On  the  other  hand  a  soprano  voice  is  less  admired  than 
a  contralto.  The  propensity  is  to  cultivate  high  voices  in  the  men  and  low  voices  in  the 
women.  Tlic  professional  singers  arc  true  artists  and  are  able  to  command  the  feelings  of 
their  hearers.  The  ngo-ciyiii  Z//,?;/— weeping  song— invariably  brings  tears  to  the  eyes  of  the 
hearers.  The  love  songs  are  full  of  pathos.  An  indispensable  scene  in  all  the  operas  is  the 
separation  and  meeting  again  of  the  lovers,  h  is  the  most  interesting  pari  of  the  play  and  is 
eagerly  awaited  by  the  play-goers. 
The  best  songs  are  sung  in  these 
scenes  and  the  best  talents  of  the 
performers  called  into  play.  The 
Burman  is  readily  excited  by  music  ; 
the 'dancing  songs  never  f;til  to  set 
his  hands  and  legs  going.  There  is 
a  style  of  martial  music  played  at 
boxing-matches,  races,  and  grand 
tugs-of-war  which  excites  the  Bur- 
mans  to  action.  The  performance  of 
a  complete  Burmese  band  is  a  study 
in  itself.  Considering  that  the  mu- 
sicians play  without  a  score,  the 
harmony  and  strict  time  they  observe 
are  truly  wonderful. 

A  few  specimens  of  genuine 
Burmese  music  are  appended  (pp. 
216-220).  No.  I  is  a  song  in  the 
major  scale,  with  harp  accompaniment.  The  first  twenty  bars  constitute  the  usual  prelude  to  music 
of  this  kind.  The  tendency  of  the  Burmese  musician  is  to  repeat  the  vocal  part  as  an  interlude, 
with  all  the  variations  and  embellishments  he  can  add.  The  last  four  bars  are  also  usually 
played  as  a  symphony  at  the  end  of  each  verse.  The  prelude  and  symphony  are  not  peculiar 
to  this  song  but  are  played  with  all  songs  of  the  same  description.  No.  2  is  a  specimen  of  another 
style,  more  suited  for  an  orchestra.  Nos.  3  and  4  are  examples  in  the  minor  scale.  Both  are 
very  ancient.  No.  3  is  called  Nan-tlicin  yodaya.  It  used  to  be  played  on  the  entrance  of  the 
king  to  the  Audience  Hall  and  is  the  true  national  anthem  of  the  Burmans.  Its  beauty  and 
grandeur  need  no  comment.     No.  4  is  a  popular  lullaby. 

It  is  a  matter  for  great  regret  that  the  beautiful  music  which  the  Burmans  unquestionably 
possess  is  being  forgotten.  The  modern  tendency  is  to  imitate  European  and  Indian  themes, 
and  the  time  is  not  distant  when  genuine  Burmese  music  will  be  a  thing  of  the  past. 


454       THE     BURMESE    HARP    AND     DULCIMER   IP.   176. 


2  I  2 


APPENDICES 


APPENDIX    D. 


STATISTICAL. 

Area. 

Burma  Proper  and  Pegu,  square  miles     .....      171  »43*^ 
Shan  States 40,000 

Total 211.430  =  135. 315, 200acres. 

Area  cropped,  I S93 8,435,000  acres. 

Population  ix  1S91. 

Burmans  and  Talaings  I  ""'*^;''     3.030.797| 6,129,182 

'^    1,  females,  3,098,3851 

(Incriase  since  1881.  22J  per  cent.      Mean  annual  dcalh-r.ite  37.) 

Shans 206,794 

Karens 633,657 

Chins 95.571 

Chimpaws  (Kachin  ?  more)    .........  2,200 

Chinese 37>407 

Natives  of  India  ...........  432,639 

Europeans  (including  4000  troops).          .......  12,491 

Eurasians    ............  6,978 

Others 167,134 

Total 7,722,053 

Fiscal. 

In  1796  the  special  impost  of  33'3  tik.ils  of  tine  silver  per  house  look  three  years  to  collect. 
;tncl  procUiced  the  eipiivalcnt  of  about  nine  million  rupees.  The  purchasiny-power  of  nione\'  lias 
declined  50  to  60  per  cent,  since  tliat  time,  apart  from  depreciation  of  silver. 

In  1894  the  gross  revenue  of  Burma  was  nearly  sixty  million  rupees,  of  which  Pegu 
contributed  nearly  fifty  millions.  This  disproportion  is  decreasing.  The  expenditure  was  forty- 
tivc  millions,  of  which  twenty-six  were  allotted  to  Pcgti.  The  incidence  of  direct  taxation  (land 
and  capitation  taxes,  which  produce  about  one-half  of  the  revenue)  is  four  rupees  per  head  of 
population  ;  which,  with  an  average  of  5  ■  5  inhabitants,  conies  to  twenty-two  rupees  per  house. 


Criminal  (1894-5,  -^  year  ok  i 

Convictions  for  murder  (40  per  cent,  above  1893-4) 
,,  ,,    child  murder  .... 

,,  ,,    hurt    ...... 


Suicides 


rape   . 
rol>l)er\' 
theft    .' 


0\V    I'RICES). 


261 

Nil 

2.53' 

67 

773 
S.791 

AV/(?) 


APPENDICES 


213 


COMMKRCIAL. 

In  1894-95  nciiily  one  ;ind  ;i  luilf  million  Ions  of  rice  (75,000,000  quartt-rs),  worth  about 
eleven  millions  stcrlinij  in  luirope,  and  200,000  tons  (of  50  cnbic  feet)  of  teak  tiinber,  valued  at 
fourteen  million  rupees,  were  ex[)<)rleil.  'I'lie  local  consuniptioii  of  rice  may  amount  to  about 
the  same  as  the  export. 

The  \alues  of  staple  items  of  the  sea-borne  trade  of  1893-94,  cxcliish'C  of  liadr  'with  liiilia, 
are  subjoined,  in  lakhs  of  rupees. 


iMrORTS. 


KXPORTS. 


Apparel  . 

•    17-54 

Leather  . 

3-4''' 

Paint      .      . 

2-14 

Foreign  goods  re 

Beads       . 

.      1-89 

Lif|uor   . 

25- 

Paper     .      . 

2-70 

exported 

3-94 

Candles    . 

•    4'9y 

Machinery  . 

■4-54 

Provisions    . 

41-80 

Caoutchouc     . 

9-08 

Clocks  and  w 

atches   •.13 

Matches    (safety 

.Salt  .      .      . 

10-02 

Cutch   .      .      . 

24-3' 

Coal   .      . 

■     3-42 

only)  . 

7-74 

.Silk  :  raw    . 

28-81 

Hides  (and  horns 

'1      7-85 

Cotton  yarn 

•   31-55 

Metals  : 

manufactured 

56-70 

Jade      .      .      . 

4-34 

Cotton  piece 

goods  : 

brass  . 

1-66 

Spices     . 

2-97 

Paraffin 

5-07 

grey 

.    io'66 

copper  :   har. 

■05 

.Sugar     .      . 

9-51 

Provisions . 

3-66 

white 

•    51-09 

wrought. 

•85 

Tea  .      .      . 

1-23 

Rice  :  in  husk 

3-65 

colon  re 

1     .   54-7I 

gold    .      .      . 

-42 

Tobacco 

2-62 

cleaned 

5^5-30 

hosiery 

■        -95 

iron     . 

21-86 

Toys  and  game 

Rubies,  about . 

0-50 

thread  . 

•     4-f'3 

lead     .      .      . 

-25 

(playing-card 

,?)i-38 

Sesamum  seed 

14-20 

Ctockery. 

•     7-13 

silver  . 

8-89 

Umbrellas    . 

6- 19 

Silver  and  gold 

!    ■■53 

Drugs 

■     2-17 

steel    . 

I  -27 

Woodwork  . 

1-58 

Teak  timber    . 

42-70 

Dyes  .      . 

I  •  1 0 

tinand  tia-|ilate     '66 

Woollens     . 

23-42 

Tobacco     . 

1-07 

Fruits 

■     4-23 

zinc     . 

-54 

M  iscellaneous 

22-88 

Miscellaneous. 

18-70 

Glass-ware 

■     3-49 

others 

-54 

Hardware 

.    I6-04 

Oils  (kerosene). 

9 '02 

Total      .      . 

527-98 

Total    .      .      . 

731-90 

DEVEI.OPiMENT   of   .SE,\-B0RNE    IRAIlE. 


Years 


181 1 


182:; 


i8;o 


1840 


■S54 


Number  of  ships 

20 

1               56 

140 

Tonnage  .... 

5,400 

82,000 

86,000 

Value  of  e.vports,*  Rs. 

/ 1  Coasting  trade 
1    with  Calcutta 

1 
/ 

300 ,  OCX) 

Value  of  imports,*  Rs. 

1 

Years     .      .      . 

1866-7 

1876-7 

883-4 

1887-8 

1893-4 

Number  of  ships 

2,500 

Tonnage  .... 

1,300,000 

Value  of  exports,*  Rs, 

23,140,620 

55. 166,540 

87 

202,560 

89,135,440 

114,058,201 

Value  of  imports,*  Rs. 

25,553,850 

47,094,040 

73 

134,510 

101,351,450 

98,504,075 

To  all  countries. 


214 


APPENDICES 


APPENDIX    E. 


MEASURES. 

TlMK. 


,•  10  fillips  (karat!) 


Obsolete  i    ^^r" 
I  DO  bizaiia 

(:o  h  oil  IS 

30  daj'S  . 

12  moaths 


=  I  byan 

—  I  bizana. 

=  1  hour  (nay!). 
=  I  day  (wi'l. 
=  I  month  (la). 

—  I  year  (/in:/). 


Since  the  introchiclion  of  clocks  and  watches  the  old  da)  of  sixty  imvi  has  become  obsolete 
and  the  day  of  twenty-four  hours  uni\ersal.  The  days  of  the  week  are  named  after  the  sun, 
moon,  and  planets,  correspondingly  to  our  own.  The  month  is  di\  ided  into  the  waxing  {/aadin 
and  the  waning  {/a/n'itirc7ci)  moon  of  fifteen  days  each,  alternately  with  months  of  fifteen 
days  waxing  and  fourteen  days  waning.  .Seven  years  in  every  nineteen  admit  an  intercalar 
month  of  thirty  days.     In  leap  vears  the  month    U\ht>  is  repeated  under  the  name  DiUiva 

The  months  correspond  more  or  less  with  our  months,  as  follows  : — 
I.   Kasou .      .    30  days,  .\pril  to  May. 


2.  Nayin       .   29 

3.  irazf  .      .   30 

4.  iVAgaiitig.   29 

5.  Tau't/ia/in   30 

6.  Thadifidyiil  29 


May  to  June. 
June  to  July. 
July  to  August. 
.\Mgusl  to  September. 
.September  to  October. 


7- 

Tazaungmdn 

30  days. 

October  to  Xovember. 

8. 

NaJtiw  . 

29     - 

November  to  December. 

9- 

Pvd/ho    .      . 

30     .• 

December  to  January. 

10. 

■JUMwl-      . 

29     ,. 

January  to  Februarw 

1 1. 

Tabaiiiig 

30     .. 

February  to  Marcli. 

12. 

Tagii 

29     ., 

March  to  .Ajiiil. 

The   present    era    {//uiiiayil)    commenced 
Burmese  vear  1261-62. 


in    638    A.n.     Thus    the   year    1900  .\.I1.  is  the 


Lkncth. 

4  grains  of  rice  =  l  fmger-brcadih  (/cZ/a/hi/).  6  grains  =  i  lliunib  (iucli.  /,-iiiiiin]. 

8  //«'/       .      •      =  '  'iiai/c  (breadth  of  jialni  with  thumb 

extended,  6  inches).  2  iiiai/;    =  I  />!•  (foot,  12  inches.  30'5  cm.). 

12  /hi/      .      .      =1  tort  (span,  9  inches). 

2  /wa       .      .      =  I  daiiiig  (cuhit,  18  inches).  4  Jaiiiig  =  I  /i.'an  (spear,  failiom,  (1  feet). 

7  dauiix  •      .      =  I  /a. 
500 /<i    .  •      = //ja/a-(/w/«  (one  mile,  1609' 33 /«<■/;«). 

1000  /a   .  .     =1  doing. 

6400  /a    .      .      .      =1  yiizana  (obsolete). 

L'AI'.VCIIV. 

litres. 

\  zaii (sixty-fourlh).  i  piiu      ...     0-567 

4  za/i =■  I  by!        (sixteenth)     .  2  quarts 

zbyi =  izayS/     (eighth) I  gallon  .      .      .      .     4  543 

2  zay6/ =1  seit        (quarter)         .      .  .2  gallons 

Z  jctV =1  g^vi      (half) 4 

1  gwi =   I  (//«         (basket) S       ,,       .       .       .  36-346 


APPENDICES 


215 


The   dill    is    the    unit    by    wliicli    grain    is   sold.       It    used    to    vary   locally,    but    is    now 
standardised  to  the   liritish  imperial  btishel.     Litjiiids  are  sold  by  weight,  not  by  capacity. 
A  bushel  of  rice  in  the  lursk  weighs  46  lbs. 
,,     cleaned  ,,         60    ,, 


\Viai;M  r. 

2  kinyiu'  (seed  of  Alinis  prtxatoritts)  —   I  yuhiyl 

\yuedyi =  I  pidyi    (sixteenth) 

zfidyi =1  /«;/(/)'/ (eighth)  . 

2  mtiiiyi  (2.J  miigalc)      .      .      .      .  =  I  iiial      (quarter) 

4  mat,  or  8  mtUiyi,  or  10  inu^iili-  .  =   I  l;yat      (likal) 

100  kyai =1  ic-i//ta   (viss) 

10  lieMa =1  i:oft     (/cuieltase) 

20     ,, =  2  iwet      (kiceniias!:) 

100     ,, =  ac/tiin  layii 


MONRV. 


Grains.    Gr 

;iinines. 

•       3"99 

0-53 

■    "S-gs 

1-06 

•     3' -96 

2"  12 

•     63'9i 

4-24 

•  255-64 

16-96 

lbs. 

Kilo. 

■       3-652 

1-696 

•     36-52 

365-; 


(copper)    3  pie* 
t2  pie. 


{fiaing) 


(silver) 


2  annas  . 

4  annas  or  2  inu 

5  annas  or  2  mai 
16  annas  or  4  mn/ 


=  I  pice     ilal'vd). 

=  I  anna   (A',  sixteenth). 

=  I  iiiu      (two-anna  piece,  eighth). 

=  I  Ditit     (four-anna  piece,  quarter) 

=  J  rupee  {'i^iimu,  5  mtigali')     . 

=  I  lupee  (kyat) 


465.      HINTHA-SHAPED 
WEIGHT   OF   BRASS. 


Grains, 


22-5 

45 

90 

180 


Grammes. 


'•43 


IIS 


.\lthough  the  rupee  is  called  /i:yi!t,  it  weighs  only  a  tola  and  not  a  tikal,  which 
/•/(;/  used  in  weighing  goods.     The  tola  is  the  Indian  postal  unit  of  weight. 

*  Single  pie  do  not  circulate  in  fJurnia, 


alter  is  the 


2l6 


SPECIMENS  OE  BURMESE  MUSIC 


No.   I.     AiidaiUe  cantabile. 
Harp. 


1'.    A.    M.\RIANO. 


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0 


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BURMESE   MUSIC 


2  I  ■ 


Voice. 


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No.  2.     Aiiddiitf  iiiai'sloso. 


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BURMESE   MUSIC 


219 


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No.  3.     Modeiato  maestoso. 
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INDEX 

(/«  'a'liich  the  G/ossiiiy  /i  incoypoyatcd). 


Abuse,  177 

Accoutrements,  military,  164 

Address,  forms  of,  74 

Adulteration,  125 

Advocacy,  161 

Advocates,  aslu'-iu,  167 

Age,  influence  of.  164 

Aged,  the,  6;,  75,  153,  192,  193 

Ague,  125 

Akauttaung,  50 

Akiitho,  43 

AUvnhe  Say  a,  snake-charmer,  181 

Al^ung  Fayii,  172,  205 

Alchemy,  ekkaya-to,  iio 

Alcohol,  ayet,  84,  86,  14S,  156 

"  Alligator,"  see  Crocodile 

Alluvium,  48 

Aloe,  mot,  63,  127 

Altar,  a  misnomer,  19 

X\ma,kyauttchin,  127 

A  mat,  noble,  144 

Amayapoya,  171,  206 

Amber,  bay  in,  1 10 

"  Amc  /"  7 

Ame,  game,  venison,  93 

Amedyi,  193 

Ananda,  image  of,  36 

Aiiandij  Paya,  33 

Anatfa,  dependence,  45 

Andwyata,  King,  202 

Anchor,  kyaitk,  135 

Ancient  remains,  31-33 

Aneissa,  change,  45 

Aiigalon,  181 

Anger,  da^utha,  44,  77,  193 


.Angkor  Wat,  32 
Animal  food,  15,  89,  91 

■ life,  i;,  89,  91 

Animals,  wild,  79,  92 
Animation,  9,  69,  148 
Animism,  128,  145,  186 
Anise,  saboii-saha,  I'iiiipiiu'tla  iiiiisui/i.  88 
.\nnam,  3 
Ants,  78 
./////,  leper.  41 
.Anuradhapiira,  38,  i  59 
Any  a,  27 
Apothecary,  [25 
Appeals,  167,  169 
A pplique-w'oxV,  9 
Aquafortis,  thcldwdaka 
Arab  stud-horses,  140 

Arakan,     Yakding,    Rakaiiig,    3,    13,    36,    98, 
129 

■ boat,  137 

Arch-building,  33 
Architecture,  27-33 
Area,  212 

Argus  (giganteus),  93 
Aristocracy,  absence  of,  7; 

,  Shan,  144 

Arithmetic,  11,  19,  41 

Armenians,  161 

Arnold,  Sir  E.,  1 1 

Art,  28,  120,  121.  137 

Artizans,  83 

Asho,  Chin,  154 

Assassination,  166 

Assembly  of  Yahan,  Thinga,  19,  43,  46.  184 

.Astrologer,  Bcdin  saya,  \\,  70,  158 


222 


INDEX 


Audience,  hall  of.  169 

••Ava,"  Inwa,  170 

Awza,  custard  apple,  Anona  rcliciilala^  87 

Axe,  ^iti/ssfi/i,  107 

Aviihdt,  Ayattiipo.  20,  46,  1 87 

Ayctthaitk,  sot,  181 

Ayo-o,  cinerarium,  196 

Badi,  rosar)-,  43,  193 

Bael,  see  Dssliif 

Bahdr,  12,  26,  36,  3S 

Baker,  G.,  205 

Bakers,  56,  159 

Baliii,  throne,  35,  37,  197 

Ball-games,  9,  179 

Ballet,  haii-pU'i,  175 

Bama,  "Burma,"  3.  171 

Bamdw,  Bamo,  156 

Bamboo,  nuA,  56,  77,  88,  112,  149 

,  hiding  coin  in,  151 

,  giant,  sec  Wabo 

rat,  see  P^ui 

Banana,  see  Plantain 

Band,  musical,  176 

Bandicoot,  miis  baiuUcoola 

Bangle,  see  Lekkaiik 

Banking,  132,  156 

Banknotes,  no 

Barking-deer,  see  Roe 

Bath,  daily,  7,  61,  62 

Bdtha,  culture,  cult 

Batua,  re-birth.  43,  73 

Baw,  pure  silver,  108 

Ra7udi-biii,    sacred  Bo   tree,   Ficiis   rcligiosa, 

35.  38,  196 
Bawdi  Payd,  Pagiin.  33 
Bayi,  necklace,  109 
Baylndyi,  161 

Bazdr,  night,  132  (see  Market) 
Beads,  badi,  rosary,  43,  193 
Bean,  see  Pease,  Pi 
Bear,  Wewtin,  Helarctos  viij/nyaii/fs,  95 
Beard,  67 
Bed.  6,  20,  58 
liediii,  reckoning,  11 

sayd,  astrologer,  41 

Begging,  41 

licikkii,  liikkii,  one  depeiulent  im  ulms,  20 

Peiii,  opium,  126,  156 

Beinza,  opium-eater,  157 


Beiltlta,  viss.  2 1 5 

Bells,  kauiig-hiiitii^,  37,  40,  104 

Betel,  see  Kim 

box,  kiin-i/,  65.  101 

Betrothal,  69 

Betting,  177,  iSo 

Bier,  funeral,  193 

Bigandet.  Bishop.  38 

Bilii,  ogre,  38 

Binding  of  volume,  designs  for,  102,  loS 

Birds,  cage,  79 

,  scaring,  53,  150 

,  wild,  93,  94 

Biscuits,  moil,  131 
Bison,  see  Buffalo 
Bitaka,  Buddhist  scriptures,  21,  36 

— taik,  35 

Blackmail,  164 

Blacksmith,  pabc,  105 

Blanket,  saiiiii;,  60 

Blast,  forge,  105 

Bo  tree,  sacred,  see  Bawdi 

Bo,  captain,  164 

Boat,  /;/,-,  133-137 

■ building,  133-137 

,  children's,  81,  135  (No.  24) 

races,  lilc-bwc,  178 

Bombardier  beetle,  79 
Book-chests,  35 

• blocks,  engraved,  121 

Books,  35,  122-124 

Bores,  river,  di,  81 

Bow  (and  arrow),  U,  57 

Bowl,  see  PaU 

Boxing,  li'ppohwc,  176 

Boys,  their  spirit,  9 

Brahman,  Poii-hiid,  15S 

Bran,  P'cue,  55 

Brass,  kyi,  104-105 

ViVcaA,  paiiii^-iiioii,  56 

Bribery,  167 

Brick,  (it,  97 

Bricklayer,  33,  97,  159 

Bridge,  /add.  31,  140 

Brigand,  i/aiiiyd,  1(^13 

Brinjdl,  kaydii,  So/aiiiim  iiiclolongciux,  88 

British,  Iiiga/fit,  126,  162,  16S 

Broker, /rc^'iTrt,  132 

Bronze,  104 

Brow-antlered  deer,  see  P/iaiiiiii 


INDEX 


Riuldha,  tlio,  35,  36,  38,  43,  46,  89,    [73,  185, 

186,  201 

,  footprints  of  the,  36,  190 

,  (".aya,  26,  33,  38 

,  relics  of  the,  19,  29,  1 89-191 

,  story  of  the,  1 1,  34,  38 

Buddhism,   2,   15,  42-46,  89,  92,  99,  rii,  128, 

145,  147,    166,    183,   186,    191,  193,   199,  200, 

201 
Buffalo,  li(i\  lios  ami,  51,  152 

-,  wild,  sec  I'viiiiiii; 

BuU-liyhting^,  179 
Bullock-caravan,  146 

races,  178 

"  Burma,"  Boiiia,  3,  I7t 
Butchers,  Mahoniniedan.  159 
Rwi,  17 

Bwet,  marshland,  8r,  115 
Byaimna,  151,  171,  1 8C1 
Bynt,  platter,  64.  101 

Cabinet,  the  king's,  byadaik-,  169 

Cactus,  see  Sliazaiiiig 

Ctesar  Frederick,  61,  203 

Calendar,  pyckkatlriii,  2 1 3 

Calomel,  pnM  sa-c/io.  1  27 

Camp,  see  Sn/cdii 

Camphor, /(H'r'/',  127 

Candle,  pnydiiiiii-i/ii/ii!;\  1 3 1 

Cane,  kyeiii,  calamus  sp.,  99,  115.  118 

Canidit,  absence  of,  95 

Canoe,  laiiiig,  hie,  1 33 

dug-out,  145 

Capital,  132 

Capitals,  Burman,  169-171 

Capsicum,  chili,  iigayok-thi,  88 

Caravans,  146 

Caraway,  sa-hiiii'it,  Caniiii  carvi,  88 

Card-games,  pi,  1 80 

Cardamom  {elalciia) pdla,  88 

Cargo-rice,  55 

Carnival,  182 

Curpenler,  lel/iamd,  112,  iig 

Carrying  trade,  132 

Cart,  kli,  72,  138 

,  toy,  9 

Carving, pa/!-l//,  120  (Nos.6i-63,  157,  269-273) 
Cashew,  see  Tliiho-tliayet 
Caste,  2,  19,  41 
Castings,  104 


Castor-oil,  see  Paliiia  Cliristi 

Cat,  78 

— ,  wild,  taw-dydiiiiif,  95,  209 

Catafalque,  dald,  193 

Catechu,  see  Slid 

Cattle,  5  I 

breeding,  145 

,  ransom  of,  183 

Cauldrons,  85,  91 
Causeways,  78 
Caves,  39,  93,  98,  I  50 
Celibates,  other  \.\r,\n  yalid)i.  39 

,  female,  40 

Cellar,  102 

Cemetery,  196 

Centenarians,  192 

Centipedes,  kin,  96 

Cereals,  51 

Ceylon,  1  Inlio,  38,  166 

Chancellery,  Illtitta-:^',  167 

Chase,  91,  152 

Chasing,  108 

Cheerfulness,  9,  69,  82,  130,  14S 

Chcik,  59,  99 

Cheroot,  sclcik.  131 

Chess,  sippayiii,  i  So 

Chetti,  132,  161 

C/icvaux-de-fiist',  thaiinii-dyo,  77,  163 

Cliidaw-yd,  36,  igo 

Chiefs,  Shan,  144 

Children,  interest  taken  in,  8,  130,  193 

,  status  of,  71 

Chimbdung,  Hibiscus  sabdai  iffa,  88 
Chimpilw,  144,  155 
Chill,  mosquito,  6,  79 
Chin  tribes,  154 

China,  I,  61,  86,  100,   105,   107,   no,  112,  119, 
123,  139,  141,  143,  155.  156,  15S,  i6[,  180,  181 
Chindwin  River,  i  54 
Chiiiloii  game,  179 
Chinthc,  lion,  tigure  of,  37 
Chittagong,  4 
Chivalry,  177 
Cholera,  kala-na,  126,  128 
Chronicles,  171,  201-7 
Cluyse  Chcrsoncsus,  171 
Cicada,  79 
Cigar,  see  Cheroot 
Cinerarium,  ayo-o,  196 
City  ramparts,  77 


224 


INDEX 


Clarion,  hne,  176  ! 

Clay  manufacture,  96 

Cleanliness,  7,  20,  56,  61 

Clerk,  save,  61,  167 

Climate,  79,  116 

Clocks,  24,  120,  130,  213 

Cloth,  manufacture,  59.  99 

Clothing,  6,  59 

Clowns,  173,  174 

Cobra,  inyw^-haiik.  Xaja  tripudiaii.t,  iSi 

Cock-fightinjj,  179 

Cocoa-nut.  On,  Cocos  niicifera.  \  38 

Cocoa-nuts,  slashing,  oii-kot.  179 

Codes  of  law,  168 

Coffin,  193 

Coinage,  109,  214 

Colic,  WHH-kait,  125 

Combination,  political.  124 

Commandments,  the  five  Buddhist,  11,  16.  89 

Commission,  the,  16) 

Company,  entertainment  of,  8.  14,  77,  175,  194 

Compass,  mariner's,  138 

Competition,  unfair  to  Burma,  141,  172 

Complexion,  67 

Concubinage,  7  1 

Concupiscence,  44 

Condiments,  64,  91 

Confession,  17,  20,  26 

Conservatism  of  types,  136,  188 

Contemplation,  Buddhist  objects  of,  1  i,  43 

Contentment,  44 

Conventionalization.  35,  102 

Conversation,  77 

Cooking,  64 

Coolies,  Indian,  159 

Copyist,  122 

Cordage,  98 

Coriander,  nnniiuii,  Coriainlniiit  siitix'uni.  88 

Corr^c,  144 

Cosmogony,  11,  35.  38 

Costume,  59,  60 

Cotton,  see  Wa 

C<.i\y^\\,  chitiiiig-so,  126 

Court,  _V(>//,  167 

observances,  169 

Courtesy,  74,  76,  I93 
Courtship,  65,  68 
Covetousness,  see  I.awlm 
Cradle,  6 
Crawfurd,  Jolin,  206 


Credulity,  126 

Creeks,  tidal,  81 

Cremation,  183,  196,  199 

Crews,  boats",  135,  136 

Criminals,  19,  167,  212 

Crocker)',  65,  131 

Croc6dile,  mijdiing,  Crocodihis  porcsus,  94 

Crops,  dry,  49,  84 

,  wet,  51,  145 

Crossbow,  57,  93,  94.  152 

Croton,  kaiiako,  127 

Crow,  gy'igan,  Corviis  iiiso/i'us,  \ 

■ spleiidiiis,  ,'  94 

macrorhyncus.  J 

Crown,  royal,  taraptt,  170 
Cruelty  to  animals,  19,  89 
Cuckold,  177 
Cullimore,  D.  H,,  127 
Cultivation,  hill,  148 

,  garden,  84-88 

• — •,  plain,  48-54 

,  terrace,  145 

Currency,  109,  214 
Curry,  64 
Curtain,  6,  70 
Curves,  135,  138 
Custard-apple,  see  Awza 
Custom,  Ionian,  167 
Cutch,  see  Slut 

Dil,  sabre,  etc.,  56,  106,  152 

DAbaing,  166 

Ddby't,  13,  144 

Ddgnha,  Dagoba,  sec  Zciii 

Deling,  league,  214 

Dammar, /««//>'(■/,  iiidwe,  134 

Diimyd.  brigand,  163 

Dance,  151,  1 7-1,   i75 

Dangers  to  Burma,  141,  161,  172 

Daiii,  iXipii  fill  til  tins,  58,  84,  115 

Daiinglan,  byal  on  tripod,  loi,  144 

Daulcliii  yatlte,  39 

Davids,  Rhys,  43,  46 

Dawt,  "Tavoy,"  138 

Dawtlui,  anger,  44,  77.  193 

ZPrtW/'Ornament,  28 

Dead,  honour  accorded  to  the,  U)4 

Dealers,  124,  129-131 

Death-rate,  212 

Death,  "  unripe,"  sudden,  18S,  194,  197 


INDEX 


225 


Debt,  132 

Decadence,  27 

Decoys,  152 

Deer,  92,  149 

Deformities,  raS 

Delta,  50,  81 

Demesne-lands,  50 

Democracy,  145,  165 

Demons,  12S,  i_)8,  153,  186 

Depopulation,  50,  204,  205 

Deputy  Commissioner,  169 

Design,  102,  loS,  121 

Despotism,  145 

Dew,  81 

Dharma,  43 

Diarrhoea,  wnn-kya,  126 

Dice,  titdaiing;  181 

Diet,  125 

Dilapidation  of  buildings,  29,  31,  39 

Diluvium,  48 

Din,  bushel,  56 

Dinga,  coin,  109,  215 

Disease,  r<7«;i,'"('>  '-5 

Distinctive  type,  i 

District  officer,  169 

Divorce,  72 

Do  creeper,  Entada  scandcns,  9 

Dog,  22,  78,  93 

,  wild,  Cniiis  nitilaits.  95 

Dokka,  trouble,  45 
Dominoes,  iltomboiipc,  180 
Dove,  dyo,  Tiirti/r  sp.,  79,  93,  152 
Dragon,  nagd.  38,  47 
Drama,  173 
Drinking-water,  IV,  61 
Drought,  81,  183 
Drugs,  127 
Drtim,  bflii,  176 
Dry  zone,  29,  50 
Duck,  see  Teal 
Duenna,  68 
Dufferin,  Lady,  129 
Dulii,  rheumatism,  125 
Dulcimer, /r7/(?/(?,  176 
Durian,  see  Dnyiii 
Duty-day,  ubo-iu\  31,  41,  193 
Duyiii,  Diirio  zibctliiiiiis,  87 
Dyeing,  15,  59 

Dy'i,  roe-deer,  Cciiiiiliis  aniens,  92 
— -  (adj.  kyi,  gyi),  great,  old 
2   G 


Dysentcr)-,  llnuc-pa  uiiin-kya,  126 

Ear-plug,  see  Nadaung 
Ears,  piercing  of,  7,  14 
Earth-burial,  196 
Earth-oil,  see  Petroleum 
Education,  children's,  10 

,  general,  1 1 

-,  higher.  18,  124 


Egret,  paddy-bird,  byaing,  Hcrodias  alba,  94 
Elders,  village,  see  Liidyi 

,  respect  towards,  9,  11,  12,  75,  164,  192 

Elephant,  Sin,  Elcplias  indicns,  51,95,  117,  151 
Emblems,  national,  5,  79 

of  stale,  100,  170 

Encyclopitdia,  Burmese,  124 

Enemies,  the  five,  167 

English,  Ingalcit,  119,  124 

Engraved  blocks  for  books,  121 

Enlightenment,  43 

Enterprise,  169 

Entertainments,  8,  14,  75,  77,  165,  175,  194 

Environment,  children's  unhindered  converse 

with,  7 
Epidemics,  127,  188 
Era,  201,  213 
Euphemism,  74,  170 
Europeans,  9,  71,  88,  141,  161,  168 
Evergreen  forest,  1 1 5 
Excise,  168 
Excommunication,  22 
Export,  50,  III,  132,  212 
E-ya-wadi,  see  "  Irawad    ' 
E)ebrows,  15 

Face-powder,  see  Thanakk/) 

Fairs,  absence  of,  131 

Fairy-land,  187 

Fallows,  50 

Family  life,  8,  71.  72 

Fan,_y<7/,  15,  131 

Fashion,  68,  140 

Female  education,  i  r 

Fences,  77,  145,  156 

Ferrier,  181 

Ferry,  kado,  141,  145 

Festivals,  182 

Ficus    species,  nyaung,  38,  78  ;    E.  rcligiosa. 

sacred  Bo  tree,  which  see 
Fielding,  H.,  73.  187,  193 


226 


LYDEX 


Filter,  _)'d-2-/V,  15 

Fire,  mode  of  getting,  63 

Firearms,  93,  107,  164,  203 

Fire-flies,  79 

Fires,  29,  82 

Fish,  64,  89,  131,  146,  150 

,  catching,  89 

,  curing,  90 

Flagstaff's,  tagi'indaiiig,  yj 

Floods,  80,  133,  160 

Floor,  6,  56 

Flour,  hmoii.  56 

Flower-stand,  iiY'tuiig-yco,  6,  63 

Flowers,  66,  68,' 88 

Fodder,  52,  53 

Food,  64 

Foot-gear,  76,  103 

Footprints  of  the  Buddha.  35 

Ford,  shiki'i 

Forester,  t/iiggaiiiig,  118,  119 

Forests,  Si,  92,  112,  114,  119 

Forge,  105 

Fort,  tti/,  77,  164 

Fortune-tellers,  41,  158 

Frangipani,  /arossagd,  78 

Frank  disposition,  69,  177 

Frederick,  CKsar,  61,  209 

Freebooters,  163 

French.  "  lyhtt/ill."'  205.  207 

Fruit.  78,  86 

Fuel.  63 

Funeral,  viatltd,  146,  153,  180,  193-199 

Furniture.  23 

Further  India,  2 

Gaddw-iic,  169 

Gaiitg,  congregation  oi yalidii,  25 

Gallantr),  73 

Gambling,  14;,  177,  i8r,  199 

Game,  ainc.  92 

Games,  adults',  179-181 

,  children's,  8,  11,  19,  152 

Gangaw,  Afcsiia  fcrrca,  78,  115 

Ganja,  scjaiik 

Gardenia,  78 

Gardening,  78,  88,  145,  156 

Garlic,  .lyv///////,  Alliiiiii  salivnin,  88 

Garrison,  lirilish.  169 

Gaiiiigbainig,  head-cloth.  60 

Gawdama,  sec  Buddha 


Ga-iudawbaHn  Payi,  33 
Gaya  in  Bahar,  33,  38 
Gems,  1 10 

.  the  three  sacred,  43 

Geographical  position,  i 

Ghost,  lasl\  1 88 

(iibbons,  95 

Gilding,  98,  no,  122,  1S9 

G\x\^er,jiitnciii,  Zingiber  ojficinah-.  88 

Girdle,  kabdn,  1 5 

Glass,  mosaic,  107 

ware,  24,  1 30 

Goal,  race,  pan.  1 78 

Goat,  w ild,  capiicornis  sitmatrcnsis.  93 

Gold,  shwc,  1 07- 1 1 1 

and  silver  workers,  107 

beaters,  1 10 

Gon-hnyin,  marbles,  9 

Gong,  inaung,  kyi:i^  40,  104,  176 

Good  breeding,  12 

Goss,  L.  A.,  173 

Gothic,  affinities  to,  27 

Gourd,  Bn.  Lagcnaiia  viili^uris,  88 

Government,  165-170 

Governor,  Wiiii,  164 

Goyin,  monastic  probationer,  1 7 

Grafting,  unknown,  87,  88 

Grain,  storage  of,  54,  57 

Grass-land,  51 

Greetings,  75 

Gregarious  trees,  114 

Ground-nut,  see  Myebc 

(iuava,  see  Malagd 

Guests,  8,  14,  77,  175,  199 

Gun,  thcndt,  13,  93,  144 

Gyl,  see  Dyt 

Haii,,  80 

Haindyi,  "  Ncgrais"  1. 

Hair,  8,  17,  66 

Half-breeds,  157,  161 

Hamadryad,  ngan,  Op/iiopliagi/s  c/aps,()6,  181 

ilaii-p',uc,  175 

\\AX(i,yon,  Lcpiis ptgiiciisis.  93 

Harness,  ponies',  140 

H  arp,  saiiiig,  1 76 

Harrow,  /on,  51 

Harvest,  53,  150 

labour,  54,  1 59 

Hawkers,  129,  130 


INDEX 


227 


Hazard,  181 
Head,  shaving  of,  8,  17 
Head-gear,  60 
Headman,  liidy'i^  164. 
Heart-burn, //w/^rfAz/rr,  125 
Hell,  iigayl,  45  (No.  276) 
Hereditary  office,  75,  166 
Hermit,  see  WUlu' 
Hides  and  horns,  156 
Hierarchy,  absence  of,  20,  24 
Hill-forest  soil,  1 13 

people,  107 

Hilsa,  ngathahiiik,  Cliipca  paUisnh,  go 

Himalayas,  Himawiiiila-taiv,  80,  187 

Hindu  types  of  work,  32,  33 

Hhttlui,  37 

History,  3-5,  143,  171,  201-207 

Hlultaiv,  Chancellery,  167 

Hmyoii,  89 

Hiiaii,  til-seed,  Sesaiiniiii  hidiciim,  51,  64,  83, 

•49 
Hue,  clarion,  176 
Hiigemniaiia,  30,  57 
/////,  bamboo  withs,  56 
Home  industries,  83 
Honey,  pya-ye,  1 50 

Hornbill,  aiikcliiti,  ffiviiranis  />//iyi-i>.\\  94 
Horoscope,  41,  1 58 
Horse,  see  Pony 

Hospitality,  8,  14,  65,  77,  132,  140,  175,  194 
Hospitals,  129,  169 
House-building,  56 
House-posts,  57 
Humour,  174,  175 
Hunter,  92,  152 
Hunter,  W.,  206 
Huxley,  T.,  46 

Ideal,  and  the  real,  70 
Ignorance,  maw/ia,  44 
Igviana,  see  Pii/ 
Illuminations,  185 
Images,  30,  34,  63,  98,  120,  127 

,  signification  of,  35,  42 

Imitation-goods,   101 

Immigrants,  54,61,  141,  159 

Implements,  see  Tools 

Imports,  58,99,  103,  105,  130,  139,  152,  161,  212 

///,  Dipterocarpiis  tiirbnititiis,  58,  1 14 

I II,  j hi/,  49,  89,  90 


Incomes,  71 

Incongruities,  199 

IndatHg,  III  forest,  1 14 

Independence,  early,  7,  148 

India,  32,  33,  71,  97.   107,  114,   121,  131,  141. 

1 59-161 
Indo-China,  3 

Iiidyhi,  /'rii/ncmr  .Si(i>ii,-iisis,  1 1 4 
Infancy,  6 
Influence,  164 
Inoculation,  kyaiitio,  126 
Insanity,  129 
Inscriptions,  31,  121 
Insects,  79 

Insignia,  royal.  inalika-tazA,  170 
Instruments,  musical,  176 
Insurance,  156 
Interest  on  money,  132 
Investments,  132 
Inwa,  "Ava" 

Irawadi,  E-ya-wadi ,  3,  27,  80,  87,  118,  136 
Iron,  than  (cast,  thwin-thaii),  103-105,  139 
Iron-wood,  see  Pyiiikado 
Irrigation,  49,  145 
Isolation  of  Burma,  i,  172 
Ivory,  120 

Jack,  see  Pciii-hni 
"  Jack  Burman,"  147 
Jackal,  kwc-a,  95 
Jacket,  iiiji,  60,  144 
Jade,  no,  213 
Jains,  2 
Japan,  124 
Jealousy,  72,  177 
Jews,  161 
Juggler,  181 
Jungle,  51,  92 
Jungle-fowl,  see  TaiL'-dyet 

Kachin,  see  Chinipaw 

Kadat-iigdii,  Cananga  odorata,  67 

Kaddung-chaik,  13,60,  144 

Ka-hnwl',  53,  91 

Kaiiig.  siiccliiiniin  spoii/iiiu-iim,  49,  82,  116 

Kald.  native  of  India,  161 

Kd/a,  period,  68 

Kaluga,  cloth  screen,  i 

A'<SAr-«(/,  cholera,  126,  128 

Kamdbi  dog,  93 


228 


INDEX 


Kaniduk,  144 

A'</«//5<77<;'(r,brcviar>- of  scripture,  21.  22,  loS,  121 

Kan,  44 

Kanazv,  Baccaiirca  sapiila,  86 

Ka-iiyitt,  Diptcrocarpus  alatiis  and  Ictvis,  115, 

129 
Karens,  117,  147 

,  red,  Karcnn'i,  153 

Karma,  44,  187 

Katein  thingdii,  23,  185 

Kathi',  see  Manipiir 

Kattu,  junk,  138 

Kaiing-hmii.  Parasltorca  stellata.  115.  138 

Kazin,  49 

Keiiiiiayd,  syren,  37,  194 

Kerosene,  yciiduzi,  1 30 

Kin,  scorpion,  centipede,  96 

King,  titles  and  state  of,  165,  166.  170 

Kingfisher, /f/Vz/y///,  Alccdo  sp.,  94 

Kites,  boy's,  9 

Knife,  t/d.  106 

Kotluna  yon,  191 

Krait,  absence  of  the,  96 

Kun,  betel  nut,  areca  cali-chn,  65,  77 

,  leaf,  chavica  hftlc,  86,  1 50 

Knu-it,  betel-box,  65,  101 

Kurz,  S.,  116 

Kutlio,  religious  merit,  24,  43,  82,  200 

Kuthodaxu,  122 

Kwet,  215 

Ktuin,  49,  82,  84,  85,  88,  89,  114.  r  15 

Kyd,  see  Tiger 

Kyaikanii,  Anilierst 

Kyaington  Shan,  146 

Kyaittiyo  I'aya,  190 

Kyan,  sugar-cane,  Sacchanim  officinanim,  49, 

85 
Kyann^injr,  57,64 
Kyansa,  oath-book,  167 

,  sacred  work,  36 

Kyat,  tikal,  214 

Kyauk,  stone,  rock,  135 

Kyank-na,  small-pox,  126 

Kyaiim;,  aljode  of  yalidn,  school,  mimaslery, 

10,  24 
KyauHi^ama,  foundress  of  a  school,  73,  197 
A^rt«//;f/rt/,'(J,  founder  of  a  school,  22,  74,  75,  197 
Kyeisson,  rice-mill,  55 
Kyiinmaiik,  .\ephcliiim  hypuUnca,  88 
Kyippaiini;,  Cliavanasia  csculcnia,  88 


Kyct/aiing,  133 

A'yi^iuiini;,  1 76 

Kyhi,  triangular  gong,  40,  104 

A'y/in,  see  Tyi'in 

Labour,  hired,  54,  159 

Lac,  cheik,  146 

Lacquer- ware,  101,  121 

Ladd,  \ulture,  Pscudogiyps  bcngalrnsis,  94 

Lamps,  24,  130 

JLami'i,  Sonni'ra/ia  acida,  1 1 5 

Landing-stage,  /add.  No.  5 

Language,  structure  of.  11.  140,  208 

Laterite,  1 1 4 

Lathe,  96,  102,  120 

Lanng,  canoe,  133 

Laiing-go,  cargo-boat,  1 34 

Laung-sdt.  cargo-boat,  136 

Law,  the  Buddhist,  Dliarma,  43 

,  state.  Tayd.  167,  168 

Lawd,  103 

Lawba.  covetousness.  44,  11 1 

Lead,  ke,  107 

Learning,  20,  23 

Leather,  103 

Leimntaw,  see  Orange 

Lcin-byan,  19 

Lcippya,  77,  197 

Leisure,  19,  77 

Lckkaiik,  bangle,  108 

Lent,  20,  41,  184 

Leopard,  see  Panther 

Lepers,  41.  130 

Lippan,    silk-cotton   tree,  liondnix   malabari- 

iiini,  49,  1 14  (No.  170) 
Ltppi!/,  tea,  Canultia  tliea,  65,  70,  72 
Life,  duration  of,  192 
• — — ,  the  five  stages  of,  200 
Light  of  Asia,  ii 
Lightning,  80 
Lime,  limestone.  Ion,  97 
Limes,  lliandiayd,  Citrn.i  nu-dita,  86 
Linguist,  the  Burman  a  poor,  124,  140 
Lion,  figure  of,  chiniM,  37 
Liquor,  84,  86,  148,  151,  156 
Literature,  36,  124 
Living,  cost  of,  71 
Locks,  103,  107 
Lundyi,  60 
Loom,  59 


INDEX 


229 


Love,  69,  174 

Li(,  millet.  I'diiinnn  pif^fialiiiii.  51,  64 

I.t),  iii;in 

Liidyt,  village  elder,  70,  72,  164,  200 

LiigoW,  lad 

Luii.swe,  tug-of-wai',  1S4 

Litntayd,  59,  99 

LAtivct,  17,  47 

Luxury,  1 39 

Lying-in,  6 

Lying-in-slatc,  197 

Mddnimi,  Di!/hiTi;in  i^/iaiai,  D.  ovata,  90 

Mady'i,  tamarind,  TniiiiDiiu/i/s  iiidica.  78,  86 

Magistrates,  168,  169 

Mahahodi,  38 

Malut-mynimniiiii,  1 89 

MahA-yazaunii.  history,  171 

Maintha,  158 

Maize,  see  Pyaiiii:^-liu 

MalagA,  gua\'a,  P.sidiiiin  giiava,  86 

Malaria,  125 

Malay,  Raski't,  16  r 

Malikataza,  170 

Man,  lu 

Mandalay,  107,  171,  207 

Maiidat,  pavilion,  21,  174,  194 

Mango,  see  Thay^t 

Mangosteen,  see  Ming  At 

Mangrove,  byu,  Rhizophoia  sp..  1 1  5 

Manipi'ir,  4,  99,  158,  205-207 

Manners  and  customs,  65-75 

,  children's,  10 

Maiiii,  laws  of,  167 

Manure,  50 

Manuscripts,  122,  124 

Marabout,  Lcptoplilos  gigantciis,  94 

Marble,  34 

Marbles,  9 

Marco  Polo,  202 

Mariano,  P.  A.,  175,  210 

Marionettes,  175 

^Llrkets,  131 

Marriage,  69,  145,  152 

Marrow, /«/()«,  Bciiicosa  urifera,  87 

Masks,  174 

Masonry,  96 

Mat  ho  thiiigdn,  185 

Mats,  pya,  58 

Mawka,  ignorance,  44 


Mawlamyaing,  "Maulmain,  Moulmein" 
Maydii,  Boiiea  oppositifolia,  86 
Maytii  crop,  53 
Maze,  •wingnba,  185 
Meals,  64,  150 
Measles,  wett/ict,  1  26 
Measures,  213 
Meat,  amethii,  64,  89 
Mechanical  constriiclioii,  120 
Medicine,  125 

Melon,  water, /(/)"",  Ciliiillns  Tiilgans.  87 
Mendicancy,  its  rarity,  41 
Merchandize,  131,  137,  146 
Mercury, /rt^(?,  107,  r97 

Merit,  see  KAtho ;  vicarious,  unknown  to  Bud- 
dhism, 42,  1 28 
Merritield,  J.,  50 
Metallurgy,  103,  145 
Metals  and  metal  goods,  103 
Metaphysics,  46 

Mithild,  female  celibates,  40,  184 
Mizali,  Cassia  Jlorida,  78 
Ml,  see  Fire 
M'ldaing,  torch,  129 
Midwifery,  129 
Mijaiing,  see  Crocodile 
Military  service,  164 
Milk,  condensed,  131 
Millet,  see  Lu 
Mills,  161 
Mimbu,  163,  190 
Mill,  prince,  ruler,  166 
Mina,  t/ia/ika,  Acridollicrcs  ciilahes,  79 
Mind,  elasticity  of,  192 
Mindon  Min,  King,  100,  121,  171,  207 
Mingala,  festivity,  70 
Miiigalathot,  1 1 
Mingiin  Paya,  38 

MiiigAt,  mangosteen,  Garcinia  inangostana,  87 
Minister  of  State,  164 
Mini  an,  139 
Miii-Magayi  Nat,  18S 
Misery,  45 

Mission,  American,  124 
Monialta,  Satix  tetraspcnna,  1 1 5 
Monaster)-,  see  Kyaung 
Moneylender,  132 
Mongolian  characters,  r.  143 
Monk,  see  Yalidii 
Monkey,  inyaiik,  79,  95 


INDEX 


Monogamy,  71 
Monsoons,  80,  81 
Months,  79,  213 
Mortality,  125,  193.  21 1 

,  infant,  S 

Mosaic,  glass,  103 

Mosquito,  see  Cliiii 

Mottama,  "  Martaban  " 

Mountains,  A7//«^,  116 

Mourning,  194..  195 

Mil,  215 

Mudlarks,  7 

Mulberry',  poza,  Morns  iiidica,  99,  1 16 

Mun  iTalaing,  Peguan),  3,   4,   67,    138,    142, 

147,  155.  '63,  172,  '95,  202-207 
Mund  Shan,  143 
Mural  decoration,  ancient.  33 
Musacea,  113 
Music,  Burnian,  174,  175,  196,  2[o,  211 

,  Karen,  153 

Musulmans,  159 

Myammd,  171 

Mycbc,  ground-nut,  Aracliis  liypogaa,  87 

Myeik,  Beik,  "  Mcr^iii  " 

Myimmaka,  81 

Myimino  Daiiiig,  38,  19S 

Myiii-'u.'d,  thorin  bamboo,  Raiiibiisa  striita,  77 

Myo,  city,  77 

Myook,  township  magistrate,  168 

Myoza.  governor,  144,  165,  166 

Mysticism,  1 1 1 

Mywr,  see  Snake 

Na,  illness,  pain 

Nabaiik  minimal  a,  ear-boring,  7,  14 

Nadiiiing,  A'aj;ii/,  ear-plug,  8,  109 

A'a^rf,  dragon,  38,  197,  202  (No.  47) 

Naivety  in  art,  121 

Nakkai/iiw,  Natwife.  127 

Names,  7,  17,  71 

Naiiatthi,  ])ine-apple,  Auiiimssn  snIiTix.  87 

Narapati  Sitthu,  King,  33,  202 

Nat,  38,  57,  150,  170,  185.  186.  188 

,  shrine,  Karen,  i;i 

Navigation,  138 
Necklace,  see  Jiiiyi 
Needles,  15,  61,  131 
Neighbourliness,  77 
Ncippaii,  Nii-vdna,  44 
Nets.  90,  92 


New-year,  183 
Nga-cMii.  91 

KKaph  64,  91,  92,  131,  137.  146,  150 

Ngayc,  hell,  45  (No,  276) 

Ngebyii,  20 

Ngwe,  see  Silver,  Money 

Nicobar  Is.,  Oii-dyiin,  86,  138 

Nitianiig,  dice 

Nhn,  ifiuiid,  Millcttia  sp.,  128 

A'irvdiia,  44,  187 

Nitre,  )'<?«^<''///,  127 

A'obosdf,  192 

Noise,  incessant,  79 

Norway,  wood  churches  of,  27 

Notation,  1 1 

,  musical,  175 

Notes,  bank,  1 10 

Novices,  monastic,  15-17 

Nutmeg,  zadcippo,  Myristica  longifolia,  88 

Nyaungdon,  '"  Vandoon  " 

Nynung-yeozhi,  flower-stand,  6,  63 

Gates,  E.,  94 

Oath,  form  of,  167 

Obeisance,  s/iiko,  17,  192 

Occultism,  1 1 1 

Oftcrings,  r;,  25,42,  183-185,  188,  193,  198 

Officials,  71,  78,  100,  165-167 

Oil,  cooking,  64 

mill,  83 

Old  age,  192 

On,  cocoa-nut,  Cocos  luuijtia,  78,  86 

Onion, gyt//tui/-/ii,  Al/iiini  ctpa,  88 

OiikSt,  179 

Opium,  i5c/V/,  14,  127,  156,  157,  181 

Opium-eater,  bcinza,  157,  181 

Orange,  Icimiinnu,  Citrus  tuiraiitiinn,  68,  87, 

150 
Orchids,  tliikkwabdii,  88 
Ornamentation,  architectural.  28 
Ornaments,  108 
Orphans,  73 

Ossliit,  baijl.  Ai'^l,-  iiianiiflos,  86 
OJ,  23 

Ol-ticillui,  36 
Ottara,  191.  201 
Otter. /^'l^'/.  Liilra  iiair,  79 
Over-building  of  shrines,  31 
Ox,  wild,  see  \iiiii_i; 
Oxen,  /I'ci'ii,  Jios  iiidiciis,  51,  138,  178 


INDEX 


23' 


Pabya  shrine,  75 

Padiiuk,    Picrocarpiis   hi</uiis.    78,    ri4,    13S, 

'39 
Taddy,  34 
Pagdn,  ancient  reni:iins  of,  3,  32,  33,  101.  170, 

171 
"  Pagoda,"  see  Da_i(olia 
Pain,  iia 

Pake/,  cane  cradle,  6 
Paid,  bowl,  io8 
Pdla,  see  Cardamom 
Palace,  103,  169 
Pali,  18,  35,  121,  122,  208 
Palm-leaf  MSS..  122 
Palm-wine,  84 

Pah)ia  Christ i,  castor-oil  plant,  78,  t27 
Pandanus,  129  (No.  207) 
PaiigA,  Terminalia  tomeiitella,  84,  139 
Pan-hlaing  creek,  160 
Pantaloons,  144,  154 
Panthay,  1 58 

Panther,  kyathit.  fclis  pardiis,  94 
Papaya,  Caiica papaya,  Ihiinhawtht.  87 
Paper,  sekkii,  100,  122 
Parabeik,  124 
Paraiiidt,  43 
Paraun'en,  26 
Pareik.  1 1 

Pareikaya,  13,  15,  130,  137,  156 
Parents,  11,  192 
Pari-nirvdna,  46,  191 
Partridge,  ka,  Fraitcoliniis  sinensis.  93 
Party  feeling,  17S,  184 
Pasit,  181 
Paso,  59,  100 
Pasture,  51,  82 
Patala,  dulcimer,  176 
Pathein,  "  Bassein  " 
Pathos,  174,  211 
Pauk,  B 11  tea  superba,  1 14 
Paung,  3,  4 
PayA,  29,  74,  167 
Payaiiyun,  temple  slave,  40 
Payd-inye,  77,  196 
Payd-siin-kaii,  42 
Pdzi,  153 

Pe  palm,  Corypha  iiiiibiaciilifeia,  84,  1  22 
Pe,  playing-cards,  180 
Pc,  weight,  215 
Peacock,  daiiiig,  Pavo  iiiiiticus,  79,  93 


I'case,  Pe,  Pisum  sativum,  dolichos  lablab, 

— ,  -my it,  Psoplioeaipiis  letragoiiolobiis, 
— ,  -liiiiniywe,  Jrie/iosaiit/iiis  aiiguinea 
— ,  -nyaiiHg-iii,  Cainwallia  gladiata, 
— ,  -pazi'tn,  Cyanopsis  psoralioides, 
— ,  -yiiidyaii,  Cajainis  indicus,  51,  88 

Peg-top,  9 

Pegu,  depopulation  of,  50 

,  ponies,  139 

,  wealth  of,  49,  71,  75,  77,  141,  160 

Peguan,  see  Mun 

Peingdw,  137 

Pein-hni,  jack,  Aytocarpus  integrifolia,  78,  86 

Pelican,  wtiinbo,  Pelicaniis  philippensis,  94 

Penance,  17 

Pepper,  hngayokkaung.  Piper  nigrum,  88 

Perfumes,  67 

Persian  wheel,  53 

Pet  animals,  79 

Petroleum,  >'^;/rf«,  120,  122,  130,  137 

Phayre,  Sir  Arthur,  169,  201,  207 

Pheasant,  see  Yit 

Phonetic  spelling,  1 1 

Phonograph,  175 

Photography,  121 

Pickles,  64,  9 1 

Picturesqueness  of  Burma,  31 

I'ig,  149 

,  wild,  tawiL'ct,  sits  cristatus,  93 

Pigeon,  imperial,  Carpop/iaga  irnea,  94 

Pile-building,  27 

Pilgrimages,  30,  188,  193 

Pine,  see  Tinyii 

Pine-apple,  see  Nanatth'i 

Pinle  kaiiazo,  Heriteria  littoralis,  1 1 5 

Pipe,  sedan,  131 

Plainlands,  48 

Planks,  III,  119 

Plantain,    hngeppydw-tki,  Afusa  paradisiaca, 

87 
Plaster,  ingadi,  97,  98 
Platter,  see  Byat 
Play-acting, /jc/<»,  173 
Play,  characters  in,  173 
Play,  children's,  8-1 1,  19 
Plough,  /.?,  52 

Plover,  tititu,  Sarcograintna  atrochinalis,  94 
Plutocracy,  absence  of,  71 
Poetry,  2,37,69,  73.  173 
VoXxzt,  yasaiuut,  168 


INDEX 


Poling  boats,  135 

Political  combination.  124 

Polygamy.  71 

Poiidyi,  incumbent  oi kyaiuig,  10,  2\ 

Pondyi-byaii,  197 

Pony,  Jiiyiii,  139,  145 

Pony  race,  myinbwe,  177 

Popular  feeling,  165 

worship.  42 

Population,  50,  138,  145,  160,  204.  211 

Porcine  deer,  dnyc,  Cer^'us  porciiius,  92 

Porcupine,  pyu,  Hystrix  bcngalensis,  79 

Posts,  house,  57 

Pot-gardening,  7S 

Potato,  tuyaiik-ii.  SoltDiiim  ii(bcit>sii>n.  SS 

Pothiidaw,  40,  184 

Pottery,  96 

Poultr)-,  150 

Prawn, /<75/?«,  64 

Prayer,  42 

Presents,  68,  76,  167 

Prices,  rise  of,  49,  54 

Priest,  Buddhist,  a  misnomer,  19 

Prince,  167,  173 

Print,  122,  124 

Prisoners,  167 

Proletariate,  absence  of,  7 1 

Prome,  Pye,  87,  163 

Property,  security  of,  169 

Prosperity,  general,  49,  71,  75,  77,  141,  160 

Prostitution,  71 

Public  works,  28,  140 

Puerperium,  129 

Pulse,  see  Pease 

Pumelo,  see  Tiicgaw 

Pumpkin,  Slnue-payoii,  Cincitbita  mosclnUa.  88 

Punctilio,  74 

Punishment,  9,  19,  167 

Puiiiiyct,  dammar,  134 

Punzo,  150 

Put,  iguana,  96 

Puzzles,  arithmetical,  19 

/'a//,  baml)oo-rat,  K/iicomys  siima/iriisis.  95 

Pwi,  play,  drama,  festivity,  172,  198 

Pwiza,  broker,  132 

Pya,  mat,  58 

Pydtia,  ague,  fever,  125 

Pya-pyass^,  mnn'mc,  125 

Pyulllial,  graduated  spire,  22,  28,  144,  169,  193 

Pyauiig,  wild  buffalo,  Gavinis  gatinis,  93 


Pyaungb^,  maize,  Zea  mays,  49,  S8 
Pyaung-gauk,  Aiuiropogon  sorghum,  51,  64 
Pyc,  "  Prome  " 

Pyiiiimn.  LiXgcrstrociiiia _flos  regitme,  1 1 5 
Pyiukado.  ironwood,  Xylia  dolabriformis,  57, 

"4.  139 
Pyre,  funeral,  196 
Python,  Sabajt,  Python  ri-ticuhitus.  96,  f94 

(JUARRIES,  97,  98 
Oueen,  M'tbayA.  170 
Ouinine,/r<?-/r(7j'j-c',  adulteration  of,  125 

Races,  alien,  142 

Racing,  177 

Rafts,  118 

Rainfall,  49,  80 

Rains,  action  on  soil,  113 

Rakding,  Yakding,  see  Arakdn 

Ramparts,  77 

Rangoon,  Yangon,  171,  189 

Rangoon  oil,  129 

Ransom  procession,  1S3 

Rapacity,  official,  166 

Raspberry,  116 

Rat,  tuH,  Mus  dccumana,  79,  1 49 

Rattan,  see  Cane 

Razor,  thindoii-dA.  15 

Reading,  1 1 

Realism,  34 

Reaping,  53 

Rc-birth,  43,  73 

Recluse,  see  Yahdu 

Recreation,  19 

Refreshment,  131,  132 

Regimen,  125 

Re-incarnation,  43,  73 

Relics,  sacred,  19,  29,  188 

Religion,  thAtluiiid,  bdthd,  2,  15,  42-46,  89,  92, 

99,111,  128,145,166,179.183,  186,  191,  193, 

199,  200 
Remains,  ancient,  31-33 
Remedies,  superstitious  and  other,  127 
Rendezvous,  59 
Repartee,  73 
Pcpouss^,  108 
Resourcefulness,  160 
Revenue,  slate,  166,  168,  212 
Rlieumatism,  (/«/<;,  125 
Rhinoceros,  kyiiii  (A',  soiidaicus),  95 


%fi 


INDEX 


Rice,  sabd,  sail,  Orysd  xa/iva,  53,  54 

,  cleaning,  55,  83 

,  cooking,  64 

,  export,  49,  212 

,  land,  48 

Riverbank  cultivation,  inayln,  53 
VJivers,  yc-chauiii(,  myil,  80 

,  vagaries  of,  49,  160 

Roads,  laii^  139 

Robes,  monastic,  1 5 

Rockets,  198 

Roe,  dyi,  Ccrvulits  aureus,  92 

Romance,  37,  69,  173 

Rope,  kyo,  98 

Rosary,  43 

Rose,  hiniizi,  Rosa  ci'ntifolia,  78,  88 

Rowing,   135 

Royalty,  74,  172 

Ruby,  kyauk-ni,  1 10 

Ruins  of  Pagan,  3.  31-33 

Sabd.,  rice  in  husk,  paddy.  54 
Sabajl,  grain-bin,  54 

,  see  Python 

Sabre,  da,  106 

Saccharum,  see  Kaiiig 

Sadiiik,  book-chest,  36 

Saddiv,  25 

Saddle,  kon-hni,  1 40 

Safety,  public,  164 

Saga,  language 

Sagd,  Michclia  chainpaca,  78 

SagAing,  34,98.  17°.  i/i 

Sails,  135,  136 

Saing,  wild-ox,  Gavanis  soiidaiciis,  93 

Saingdi,  music  band,  176 

Sakdn,  camping-ground,  86 

Sdl,  S/iorca  rabusta,  114 

Salammoniac,  sawctfha.  127 

Sale-booths,  9,  131 

Sah,  j-<z,  64,  91,  131,  146.  150 

Saltpetre,  j'fTwsf///,  93 

Salutations,  75 

Salcce,  75 

Salween,  fkan-huin,  80,  81,  iiS,  145 

Sainancra,  ij 

Sdmbar,  sat,  Cennis  Aristotelii,  92 

San,  cleaned  rice,  56 

Sandalwood,   120 

Sandstone,  98,  114 
2    H 


Sangermano,  K.,  9,  36 

Sanskrit,  "  J'/iiii/hakayJit,"  158,  208 

Santonin,  adulteration  of,  125 

Sa-invln,  turmeric,  Curcuma  longa,  64 

Sanyufe,  81 

Sapphire,  nila,  iio 

Sappy  a,  soap,  61 

Sardines,  iigd-ditta,  131 

Satthapn,    screw-pine,     Paiidainis     odoratis- 

siiniis,  78 
Sauiig,  harp,  176 
Saungbdn,  wood  cradle,  6 
Savanna  Hliuini,  171 

Saw,  hlwa,  1 12,  119 
Sawke,  Kardn  headman,  148 

Saw-mills,  161 

Sayd,  teacher  (title),  12,  74,  125 

Saye,  clerk,  167 

Scholarship,  23 

Schooling,  9,  12,  18 

Scorpion,  kin,  96 

Screw-pine,  see  Satlliapi't 

Scriptures,  21,  36 

Seasons  of  the  year,  79 

Sejank,  ganja 

Sekkubin,  Broiissonctlia  papyri/era,  123 

Self-control,  44 

criticism,  161 

reliance,  42 

Sent,  13,  144 

Senna,  pwcgaing.  1 2  7 

Sennaya,  78 

Serfdom,  Shan,  144 

Sericulture,  99 

Service,  military,  164 

Sesamum,  see  Hnan 

Sethama,  physician,  apothecary,  125 
Sewing,  61 

machine,  61,  120 

S/ui,    cutch.    Acacia    catechu,    65,    114,    138, 

155 

Shampooing,  (7-/(«tvX',  125 

Shan,  4,  85,  105,  107,  123,  133.  '37,   140,   142- 

147,  154,  172,  181 
Shan-Chinese,  146 

,  Kyaington,  146 

;  Uzimbok,  146 

Shark,  ngamdn,  Carcharias  gangeticus,  90 

Shaving,  8,  17 

Shaw,  Sterculia  sp.,  99 


2  34 


IXDEX 


Shasaung,  Euphorbia  nerifolia, 
, tiivulia. 


.  pyatthat.  E.  aiiliqiioniin. 


77 


Shikar,  ami-  laik.  92 

S/iiko.  obeisance,  17.  192 

Shiii-Bayiii.  King,  170 

Shingles,  roofing,  58 

S/iiii/auiig,  14,  130,  175,  1 85 

Shipbuilding,  1 1 2 

Shoes,  see  Foot-gear 

Showmen,  181 

Shrines,  29,  188-191 

S/iwe,  see  Gold 

Shwebo,  171 

S/nvi-  Dagoii  Pay  A.  38,  147.  188 

Shwedi  {shioc-ti),  gilt  umbrella,  15 

Shwc-limawdaw  PayA.  189 

Shwe-pe-hl'waza.  127 

ShiuezaiuA,  121 

Shwe-settaw,  sacred  footprint,  36,  170,    190 

Shwc-ZigoJi  PayA.  202 

.Siam.  Yoiiayti,  4,  95,  143 

Siboii,  queen's  crown,  14,  170 

.Sick,  care  of,  128 

Siddartha,  "  Theiddat"  see  Buddha 

Silk,  /(',  60,  98 

Silk-cotton,  see  Lcppaii 

Silver,  ngiuc,  107,  108 

Sin,  44 

Sin,  see  Elejjhant 

Sinbyti,  white  elephant,  170 

Siiibyil   S/iiii,   Lord    of  the   White    Klephanl, 

170,  205 
Sindit,  Image,  30,  33 
Singing,  r  74.  211 
Sinhalese,  138 
Siny^t/uj,  poor  man,  166 
Sippayln,  chess,  180,  194 
Siloppyil,  game,  9 
Sittaung  or  I'aunglaung  R..  \  iS 
Silt'cu,-,  Ak\  ab 
Slate,  lliiinboii,  \  \ 
Slavery,  144 
Slaves,  temple,  40 
Sleep,  20,  77 

.Small-pox,  Xjrt//^'-«(7,  126,  143 
,Snake-channer,  A  lam/ii'-sayd,  181,  182 
,Snakes,  myivd,  96 
Snares  for  game,  93,  152 
.Snipe,  ziityaw,  Gatlinago  sp.,  94 


Soap,  sappy  a.  61,  131 

Social  life,  see  Entertainment 

Soil,  97,  113,  114,  I '5 

Sojourner  recluse,  see  I  'pazin 

Soldiery,  163,  164 

Soothsayer,  7,  41,  158 

Soul  of  a  People,  73,  187,  193 

Spearman,  H.  R.,  30i 

Spectacles,  131 

Spelling,  10 

Spencer,  Herbert,  28.  148,  176 

Spice,  65.  88,  127 

Spindle,  Spinning,  58 

Spirits,  156 

Spittoon,  see  Tiilgan 

Squirrel,  shin.  96,  152 

Statistics,  211-213 

Stature,  67 

Steamers,  river,  137 

Steatite,  10,  124 

Steel,  than-mani,   105 

Stevenson.  R.  C,  187 

Stilson's  arithmetic,  12 

Stockade,  tat.  77,  163 

Stone,  34,  96 

,  precious,  kyaiik-inyat.  no 

Straw,  53 

Streets,  78 

Stucco,  98 

Stiipa,  see  Zedi 

Suckling,  promiscuous,  S 

Suffering,  44 

Sugar,  cane,  kyaitt<ti;A.  85 

,  palm,  taiiiiyt't,  84 

Suicide,  212 

Suitors  at  law,  167 

Sulphur,  kail.  93,  127 

Sim,  food  charitably  given.  18,  22,  41 

laiiiig,  1 84 

Superstition.     41,     ,7.     126,     127.     148, 

184 
Surgery,  1  28 

SuhxbuHi.  Shan  cliief.  [44 
Swaddling-clothes,  6 
Sweetmeats.  7,  56,  85 

.Sweet  potato,  Kaziiii-i).  /uilala.t  edn/is,  88 
Swimming,  178 
.Sword,  dA,  lof) 
Symes,  Michael,  20() 
"  Syriam, "  Phallyiii,  204 


182, 


INDEX 


235 


TABI.K.rS,  pani/ic'ik,  1 24 

Tai^A,  religious  founder,  2::.  74,  75 

Tajfiung,  171 

Tairihidatiii:;,  temple  tiag-staff,  37 

ra-h>i4,  /ri.s/iiKi,  thirst,  concupiscence,  44 

Tiii',  143 

Talking,  see  Mun 

Tamarind,  sec  Madyi 

Tamein.  60 

Tamiii,  cooked  rice,  64 

Tan  palm,  Boiiissiis JlabclliJ'onnis,  84 

Tantnthdyl,  "  Tenaserim,"  50 

Tanks,  63 

Tape-worm  remedy,  Aw/,  127 

Tapir,  tarashu,  Tapiius  malnyniiiis,  95 

Tari,  84 

Tarossagd,  see  Frangipani 

Tasi\  ghost,  188 

Tat,  fort,  stockade,  77,  169 

Tattooing, /4'r<v///,  13,  143,  147,  154 

Tai/ktc,  Gecko  gut  tat  us,  79 

Taung-ngu,  4,  88 

Tauiig  Pcin-hnc,  Artocarpus  cliaplaslia.  1  15 

Taungthu,  155 

Taung-u,  34,  98 

Taung-ya,  48,  99,  105,  113.  145.  [47.  149 

Tawdyaung,  Thayetmyo 

Taw-dyct,  jungle  fowl,  Galtns fcnugiiicus.  93 

Tawtlialin  festival,  186 

Taxes,  akun,  akduk.  166 

Tayd-Iiaw,  preaching,  42 

Tazduiig,  31,  189 

Tazdung-mon  festival,  185 

Te,  Diospyros  buymaniiica,  100 

Tea,  see  LeppH 

Teak,  tyiin  (kyiiii),  Tcctona  grandis,  iii,  116, 

139 

,  export,  212 

,  habitat  of,  113 

Teal,  sissali,  94 

Teeth,  66 

Temperature,  80 

Temple  approaches,  stall-keepers  at,  130 

building,  4,  31 

hill,  29 

,  Pagdn,  31-33 

slaves,  40 

Tenaserim,  Tantnt/niyi,  once  a  port,  50 
Teredo  navalis,  137 
Termites,  cha,  78 


Terracing  of  slopes,  49,  145 

Thahdu',  58 

Thabdit,  alms-bowl,  15,  30 

hmauk,  22,  30,  33 

Thadda'wd,  rational  beings,  187 

Thadlii,  Sabbath,  41 

'1  hadiiidyut,  festival  of,  178,  184 

TliadyA  (iitiu),  transfigTircd  being,  37,  127,  i;i, 

183,  186 
Thadyd  Payd,   Thaton,  31 
Tliadyl  {T/iaji),  166,  168 
Thagayit,  era,  213 
Tltakin,  master,  75 
ThaUylu,  "  Syriam  " 
Thamding,  121 

Thamiu,  Cennis  Eldi,  brow-antlered  deer,  92 
Thami-u,  14 

Thandkkd,  Cordi'a  sp.  (?),  face  powder,  6;,  146 
Thandawzlii,  170 
Thandive,  ''  Sandoway  " 
Thanlwiii,  "  Salween  " 
Thatch,  58 
ThathamSda,  i66 
Thdthana,  religion 
Thathatiabaing,  25 
Thaton,  31,  50,  155 
Thaii'tapaii,  20 
Thdyawadi.  "  Thurrawaddy  '' 
T/iayet,  mango,  Maiigifera  iiidica,  78,  86 
Tliayo,  coloured  mirror-glass  mosaic,  103,  197 
Thebonzedi,  \n.j,  128 
Thein,  18,  21 
Thein-thamot,  2 1 
Thekke,  thatching-grass,  Imperata  ty/iudrica, 

58 
Thenabbyi,  13,  144 
Thilw-thayef,  cashew,  Auacardium  occidentale, 

86,  87 
Thikkd,  Pentace  Bunnanica 
Thikkado,  Cedrela  Toona 
Thila,  Commandments,  16,  20 

kait,  42 

Thimble,  61 

Thiinboii,  slate,  1 1 

Thill,  tliiiubyii,  Maianta  dicliotoina,  38 

Thiiidaing,  152,  155 

Thiiigd,  assembly  oi yalidii,  16,  19,  46,  184 

Thiiigdn,  monastic  yellow  robe,  15 

,  Hopea  odorata,  115,  133,  135 

T/iissi,  Melanonha-ti  usitatissima,  98,  101-103 


236 


INDEX 


Thiyya,  Shorea  obtusa,  1 14 

Thomboji  pe,  dominoes,  180 

Threshing,  54.  118,  245,  330 

Throne  {ya::a)baliii,  34,  103,  169 

Thunderstorms,  80 

Thwcthdtittyi,  1 66 

77,  canopy,  umbrella.  30.  100.  107 

— ,  letter)-,  181 

—,byit,  144,  170,  189,  197 

Tibet,  3,43,  134 

Tidal  area,  78,  81 

bore,  di,  81 

Tiger,  kyd,  Felis  tigiis,  94 
Tika,  34 
Tikal,  214 
Ti'1-seed,  see  Hiiaii 
Timber,  1 1 1 

rafting,  1 1 8 

work,  1 1 6 

Time,  measures  of.  64,  6;.  68.  213 
Tin,  klmapyii,  103 

smith,  thambyii-saya,  107 

Tiny  It,  pine.  Piiiiis  kliasya,  1 16 

Titles,  74 

Tobacco,  sc,  Kicotiana  tabaciiiii.  7.  65.  131,  14C 

Toddy-palm,  see  Ta)i 

Toi^icin,  see  Tattooin<f 

Toilet,  60,  65 

Tola.  215 

Tomato, kavdii-cliiii, Lycopiisiciim  csciilciiliiiii, 

88 
Tombs,  196 
TSn,  harrow,  51 

,  lime,  65,  97 

Toman,  custom.  167 

Tools,   10.51.56,57,    103,   ro5,   107,   iM,    III). 

'21,  '33 
Tooth-relic,  sacred.  30 
Top.  9 

Torch,  midaiiig,  129 
Tdsst',  tape-worm  remedy.  127 
Toy-sellers,  130 
Toys,  children's,  8-1 1 
Trade,  73,  77,  129,  159,  161,  212 

,  children's,  10 

,  wholesale,  132 

Traffic,  81 
Transliteration.  20S 
Transmigration,  43.  73 
'i'rapp  soil,  115 


Traps,  92.  152 

Travel.  140 

Trees,  ornamental,  78 

,  timber,  114 

Tricycle,  boy's,  9 

Tyipitaka.  18,  36.  121.  i::2 

Trisltiia,  see  'fa-ltiiA 

Titt'gij)!.  spittoon.  65.  77 

Tiicg(i7u,  pumelo.  Citrus  dccuinaini.  86 

Tug-of-war,  i///i-suu;  184 

Tuimeric,  si7iiwi/i,  122.  128 

Turnery,  10 1,  120 

Type,  printing,  124 

Type  of  Burma,  a  distinct  one.  I 

C'i>i>/u\  duty-day.  41 

Umbrella,  see  7/,  /ibyii 

Unfrocking,  i8 

Uniform,  164 

Universe,  centre  of,  38 

Lpaziii,  sojourner  Vdiida,  10.  21 

Upheaval,  50 

Upyize,  incumbent  o(  kyau/ig.  10,  21 

Utensils,  loi,  105 

I  ztDiliok.  1 46 

Vacci.n'atiox,  ;/7iw-/!T<7 /(■//(',  126.  127 

Varnish,  loi 

X'egetablcs,  78.  88,  1 50 

Vendetta,  unknown,  177 

\'encration.  gesture  of,  192 

V'enereal,  litbyo-na,  126 

Venison,  aiiu/iui,  93 

\'ermin.  79 

Versatility,  160 

\"igil,  2 1, '186 

Milage  sites,  77 

system,  165 

Vinaya,  see  IViiii 

Virtue,  44 

Visitors,  77 

Viss,  215 

Vitriol,  blue,  dotta,  127 

Vivacity,  9,  69,  148 

Voice,  modulation  of  tin-,  174,  210 

X'ulluro.  see  Lodd 

iy,t,  stout,  208 

/(■(/,  cotton,  Gossypiiiiii  lurbiiccKiit.  51,  58,  12S 

,  Lenten  season.  20 


INDEX 


237 


WA,  bamboo,  Rambusa  sp.,  56,  114,  149 

U'd/'O,  Biiiiibiiiit  i;ii(aiihui,  56 

IVni^d/,  58 

Wages,  54,  119,  129,  135 

Walnut,  thitc/id,  Jiigitiiis  rcgia,  87 

Wars,  chronic,  1,  162,  171 

Washing,  61,  159 

Waste-land,  49,  50,  212 

Watches,  213 

Water-feast,  Tagi'i-la  pwl\  183 

stand,  31,  63 

subsoil,  62,  81 

supply,  daily,  61 

transport,  132 

'^a.x,  pay  dung,  104,  144,  150 

Wealth,  widespread,  49,  71,  75,  77,  141,  160 

Weaning,  8 

Weaving,  59,  99,  152 

Weights,  77,  214 

Wells,  oil,  petroleum,  129 

,  \v3Xer,ye-dwui,  62 

West,  influence  of  the,  35,  124 

Wcthaiidayd,  173,  185,  186 

Wheat,  jdn-saba,  56 

Whccls,^  13S 

White  elephant,  sinbyn,  170 

Wicker.  loi 

Willow,  115 

IViiigabd,  maze,  1 85 

IVi'iii,  Viiinya  Bitaka,  2  r 

Women,  status  of,  18,  72 

Woodwork,  iii,  119,  120,  145 

Worship,  42 

Writing,  1 1,  121-124 

Witii,  wiiiufyi,  minister,  governor,  164 

IViin-kya,  diarrhoea,  1 26 

IVi/ssiiuitg,  20,  25 

IVu/,  21,  31 

Wuziyama,  Sadaw  I',  46 

Yabeiti,  99 
Yagding  taw,  1 1 5 


Yahdn,  follower  of  the  perfect  rule,  "  monk, 
"recluse,"  19,  22,  46,  74,  loi,  170,  184,  197 
Yakdiiig;,  Rakding,  see  Arakdn 
Yam,  inyiiiik-H,  Dioscorea  sp.,  88 
Yamani,  Giiulina  arborca,  120 
Yanbyd,  "  Ramree  " 
Yangon,  "Rangoon,''  171,  188 
YatJu',  hermit,  39,  1 1 1 
"  Yaukkyd-bdthdJ''  177 
Yauiig,  top-knot,  60,  143 
Yaw  Mindyi,  124 
Yii::a,  Raja,  King,  201 
Yazadiyit,  king,  42,  203 
Yazamd,  184 
Ycinpwi,  175 
Yendii,  see  Petroleum 
YendndyauDg,  129 
Yesekku,  100,  123 
Yetheiii,  11 
Yezctclta,  22,  196 
Yit,  silver  pheasant,  Gcititiciis  liiicatus,  93 

,  wheel,  53,  58 

Yodayd,  Siam,  4,  143 

Yoke,  spring,  tabo,  129 

Ydiita,  back-bone,  central  mountain  range,  81, 

99 
Yon,  court-house 
Yon  Shan,  143 

Yotth^-pwi,  marionettes,  173,  175 
Yn^,  214 
Yun  Shan,  143 

Zabt'in,  99 

Zapp-djc  {Zdt-pwe),  173 

Zdl,  36,  109,  124,  173 

Zawdyi,  sorcerer,  38 

Zaydt,  rest-house,  31,  42,  140 

Zedi,  29,  98 

Zerbddi,  Indo-Burman  half-breed,  161 

Zetton,  rotary  harrow,  51 

Zi,  Zisiphus  JKJuba,  78,  129 

Zimme,  Chiengmai,  103 


LONDON: 
PRINTf:r>  BY  WILLIAM  CLOWKS  AND  SONS,  Limited, 

STAMFOKI)   STREET    AND    CHAKISG    CKOSS. 


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