The business hen (the latest hatch)

THE BUSINESS HEN

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THE BUSINESS HEN

( THE LATEST HATCH )

HERBERT W. COLLINGWOOD ;
EDITOR 7 #0

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ASSISTED BY

PROF. JAMES E. RICE PROF. F. H. STONEBURN
PROF. C. A. ROGERS GEO. A. COSGROVE

C. S. GREENE A. F. HUNTER

F. Q. WHITE F. T. FINCH

W. W. HIGGINS JESSIE F. CLGSE

AND MANY OTHERS

PUBLISHED BY
“THE RURAL PUBLISHING COMPANY
NEW YORK

{

CoPpYRIGHT, 1910,
By THEr RvurAL PUBLISHING Co.
All rights reserved.

©clA278044

FOREWORD

There’s lots of folks that love a horse
About as well as they know how.

We ain’t all built alike—of course
There’s them that do just love a cow
Above their wives. Some folks will sleep
When hogs or horses have the talk,

But start a word edgeways on sheep
And see the way their tongues will walk.
And some folks sit up half the night
To paint the virtues of a hog,
And I know folks uncommon bright,
Who rub their love thick on a dog.
I have, *s now I do rejoice
No quarrel with my fellow men,
But of all animals my choice
Forever is—the Business Hen.
She may not average quite so strong
As sheep or hog or horse or cow,
But then she rolls her eggs along
And pays her bills—that suits me now.
I’m not the one to fight or knock
When others claim big things—but then
My mind is made up like a rock;
You can’t fool se—I love the hen.

INTRODUCTION

It is now nearly twenty years since the first edition of “The
Business Hen” was published. That book was prepared in order to
answer thousands of questions which were asked by readers of
Tue Ruray New-YorKer. ‘The original volume was crude and
imperfect, yet it met with a large sale, chiefly because it was practi-
cal and gave the everyday experiences of working hen men. The
questions continued to come, and we found as the years went by
that poultry culture was developing rapidly. Many new ideas were
being developed, and continued years of experience gave a vast
amount of new and useful information. Six years ago we issued a
new edition of the book which was called “A New Brood.” With
the help of expert poultry teachers and successful hen men the book
was greatly improved in every way and many thousands were sold.
The edition was soon exhausted, yet though many new poultry books
have been published, there were still calls for ““The Business Hen.”,
We found that the poultry business was still developing. Study and
experience were constantly changing some of the old ideas, and the
questions still continue to come. We have therefore prepared this
new volume which we call “The Latest Hatch.” We started its
preparation with the ambition to get together the most useful poultry
book in the language. ‘The reader must decide for himself how
far this ambition has been gratified. We have read all the poultry
books we could find. Most of them seemed to us to be published
for certain definite objects—to tell some “great story,” to exploit
some personal views or to advertise either the book itself, some
breeder’s stock or some manufactured article. “The Business Hen”
does none of these things. We have purposely avoided all reference
to big stories in the book, for those things do far more harm than
good to the beginner in poultry, and there is no such thing as a con-
cealed advertisement to be found in this volume. We have simply
tried to tell in simple language which all can understand how to
breed, hatch, raise and handle the hen that is capable of feeding the
family or rolling a mortgage away upon her eggs. ‘That is what
we conceive the “Business Hen” to be, and we have tried to hold

INTRODUCTION.

fast to the subject. As we have stated, the original book grew
out of an effort to answer thousands of poultry questions which were
asked by our readers. ‘These questions have become more numerous
than ever, and in “The Latest Hatch” they have been grouped and
classified for answer. Our plan has been to go to some expert with
each group of questions and let him cover them in a concise and

practical chapter. Thus the chapter on “Incubation,” by Mr. Finch,
is, we believe, the most useful discussion of the subject ever given
in condensed form. In like manner the chapter on “Brooding,” by F.
Q. White, is the boiled-down experience of a life spent in the chicken
yard. The entire book has been prepared in this way. The chapter
on “The Business Hen House,” by Professor Rogers and the chap-
ters by Professor Rice and Professor Stoneburn, in fact the entire
book, form a solid foundation for the study of poultry culture. Our
effort has been to give facts and state principles clearly. No man
can give another “instinct” or that peculiar quality which makes the
successful hen man. We realize that no one can obtain this quality
from the printed page. The reader must understand that he must
develop that for himself, and if he will do it he will find no better
friend on the farm than our little servant in feathers, “The Business
Hen.”

Chapter I.
Chapter II.
Chapter IIT.
Chapter IV.
Chapter V.
Chapter VI.
Chapter VII.
Chapter VIII.
Chapter IX.
Chapter X.
Chapter XI.
Chapter XII.
Chapter XIII.
Chapter XIV.
Chapter XV.
Chapter XVI.
Chapter XVII.
Chapter XVIII.
Chapter XIX.
Chapter XX.
Chapter XXI,

CONTENTS

PAGE
ThéewBysitess “Breeds ni. (lV. a 8 Oe 9
What Ws an Eee ucuties wat doe aie ae oe 14
Hatcinn gine Pee Yoo. cn ak sks tee ee eee 24
BroOainge : sehen ei tk utp ei ieee: ae 40
Tie Past: SurMies lod oe be eg any ee ae 50
The, Basiness’ Henhotise.. siveo... 2670s. SA 56
Diseases ‘or POuleryice . 54s. Lead) Gem nae bee 68
Feeding the Business Penis + Woe tens eel epee
Breeding the Business Hen................ 92
A Connecticut Man’s Experience........... 108
Marketing Boos. o. uiitics esi 1o Ube ae eeaai eee 116
Killing and Marketing Poultry............. 121
A Woman's ensi. + iy dloskioas fs Renee 126
The Poultry “Systems” Discussed.......... 131
Side*Lanes in Poultice .stce eos ee ee 136
Homemade Poultry Devices................ 143
Powiry in lacie: Pistks rire ceceeess os oe 154
Companions ‘of thegitems os ss figs Pew tea'd 163
A Bit Pamily of Roasters....00,.. 2... nase 169
All Sorte*ef Hen Methods: ..:.. 0.05 173
Oude amends ; sca. vst + vies o:5,0 ao 180

CHAPTER T.
THE BUSINESS BREEDS.

No man can succeed with poultry unless he is “half hen with
feathers growing on his back.” This means that such a man must
love the business and also love and understand a hen, otherwise he
can not gain that “instinct” which is the foundation of all success -
in handling animals. We recognize this at the beginning, and there- —
fore do not attempt to lay down any cast-iron rules for poultry
keeping. A man who gains this hen instinct can make a success
with any breed of poultry. To such a man, any breed, no matter
what, is the best business breed, but as a rule any man will do his
best with a breed which possesses temperament and action not unlike
his own. There is much human nature in a hen, and a man may
well look for this quality in his feathered friend, just the same as
in his human companions. That is why we would not pretend to
select a breed of poultry for a stranger, nor would we lay down
any definite advice regarding this point. All that we can fairly do
is to give the simple characteristics of the various business breeds
or types, leaving the reader to study the hen himself and make his
own choice. The wisdom of this will be recognized by anyone who
remembers that there will be as great difference in profit between
two flocks of the same breed as there will be between two flocks of
different breeds. There may be mutual exchange of character
between a man and his flock of hens, and possibly that is one reason
why some men grow better when they become hen keepers, while
some flocks grow poorer through association with men.

» The average man will not care so much where the breed comes
from or for its fancy points of feather and shape, as for its general
characteristics, and whether it is adapted to his temperament and
condition. This book is not for the fancier or for the men who
pay most attention to feathers, comb and feet, but rather for plain
people who do not want to keep hens so much as to have hens keep
them. For such purpose we may roughly class the business breeds
for profit and quality under four heads—the Mediterranean or ner-
vous, non-sitting breeds; the American breeds, those originated or
made up in this country to suit local or special conditions; the
Asiatics, which represent a large, heavy type of birds, useful mainly

10 THE BUSINESS HEN.

as meat producers or for crossing upon other breeds, and the Euro-
peans or breeds native of Europe and Great Britain, which combine
to some extent the good quality of the three other classes.

The Leghorn is the best example of the non-sitting class. This
is a small nervous high-strung hen with a very large comb. The
Leghorn without question is the best breed for those who want an
abundance of large white eggs, and are willing to hatch the chickens
very largely in incubators. In our own experience the Black
Minorca, which resembles the Leghorn in many respects, lays a
larger white egg, but we find this breed is not as hardy as the Leg-
horn. In fact, it is quite tender in a damp climate and requires on
the whole considerable more food. The Black Minorca with us
stands confinement better than the Leghorn, but does not mature
as early. There were originally two distinct types of the Leghorn,
the Brown and White. We have found the Browns rather smaller
than the Whites. The young greatly resembling young partridges.
The Brown lays a smaller egg, except in a few families which have
been selected or bred with a view to increasing the size of the egg.
The Brown is probably hardier than the White, does not appear to
be so nervous, will stand confinement better, and the average speci-
men will probably lay a few more eggs than the Whites. The
Browns, however, are very difficult to breed true to color, and
they do not make as good a carcass when dressed. The White Leg-
horn may be said to represent in the poultry world about what the
Jersey cow does in the dairy—nervous, active, small in size, but great
in production. Some of the most successful poultry plants in the
country use the White Leghorn exclusively. The objections to Leg-
horns are the small size in some families, the large comb which
makes them tender in Winter and in some places the fact that the
hens rarely sit, so that an incubator must be used. This, however,
is not much of an objection in modern poultry keeping where the
incubator is considered a necessity anyway. The White Leghorn
hen is not only a most excellent layer, but her brother, the cockerel,
makes a good broiler, growing rapidly, and when properly fed and
handled giving a good proportion of breast meat. One argument in
favor of the Leghorn is their small size, which will enable one in
a town lot or in a back yard to keep a good number of them in one
house. From our experience, however, we should prefer the Wyan-
dottes or Light Brahmas in such situations, since they are tamer
and will stand confinement better. As a rule, the eggs from the
Leghorn are very fertile, and the hens mature rapidly when given
good care. There are several other breeds which are put in this "
class, but the Leghorn is typical of the lot.

THE BUSINESS. BREEDS, 11

)

Of the American breeds the three most prominent are Plymouth
Rock, Wyandotte, and Rhode Island Red. These are all ‘‘made”
breeds, originated by crossing two or more breeds and carefully
selecting through several generations until a definite type has been
fixed. The history of the Rhode Island Red gives us a good instance
of this. For a good many years certain farmers in Rhode Island
selected red fowl out of their flocks. ‘The reasons they gave for
doing this was that they believed these red birds were particularly
hardy. At that time there was much foreign shipping from the ports
of Rhode Island, and the sea captains brought home fowls from
other countries. ‘These birds came from Europe and Asia, and the
result of bringing them over and mixing them with Rhode Island
flocks was the production of what was practically a new breed.
Through the selection of these red birds, naturally when picking by
color many different types of birds were brought out, but finally
it was decided to select not only by color, but for definite form,
shape and other characteristics. The result was an ideal hen, and
by holding to this ideal in the selection of birds the Rhode Island
Red breed, as we have it now, was brought out. This breed is very
popular in many places. It is probably the best Winter layer of any
of the American breeds. The hens are good sitters, mature early,
and are quiet and good-natured under confinement. ‘They make a
good carcass, and are greatly prized for their color. ‘This color,
however, is not as well fixed as in the case of the Plymouth Rock
and the Wyandotte, and those who breed Rhode Island Reds are
still obliged to reject a fair number of their birds each year for this
reason. The Plymouth Rock is an older breed than the Rhode Island
Red, sttpposed to have resulted from crossing the old Dominique
and the Java with the Brahmas. It is also claimed that Game blood
was used. The breed now, however, is thoroughly fixed. Originally
the Plymouth Rocks were barred or speckled, but of late years half
a dozen colors have appeared such as White and Buff. It is not
claimed that the colors particularly improve the quality or value
of the bird, although without question new blood of other breeds
was used with the original Plymouth Rock to produce the new
colors. The Wyandotte is also a “made” breed, produced by crossing
two or more other breeds. As between the Plymouth Rock and the
Wyandotte there is much argument as to which is the better bird. It
would be easy to find a single flock of one breed which is better
than another flock of the other breed, but this would be due more
to the care in selection of the owner than to the natural qualities
of the breeds. Generally speaking, the Plymouth Rock is a larger
bird than the Wyandotte, and also lays a larger egg of a more dis-

)

12 THE BUSINESS HEN.

tinct color. While some flocks of Plymouth Rock will lay more
eggs than the Wyandotte, the two breeds are probably about equal
in this respect. ‘The Plymouth Rock as a rule will average larger
than the Wyandotte, although it is claimed for the better class of
Wyandottes they are of somewhat better shape and that when
dressed for market they have fewer dark pin feathers and also show
clear, yellow skin. The Wyandottes also, as a rule, being smaller
birds, will mature quicker than the Rocks. Good arguments can be
made for all three of the leading American breeds, so that it is
largely a question of the man behind them rather than the birds
themselves. A new breed known as Buckeye has now appeared.
These Buckeyes are said to have been made by crossing a Pea
Comb Rhode Island Red with an Indian Game. ‘They are very
much like the Rhode Island Red fowl, except in the under color, but
for practical purposes the Buckeyes are much like the Reds, and
very useful as general purpose fowls. One feature of this American
breed is the fact that, with the exception of the Reds, they are bred
in various colors and also various forms of comb, both single and
rose comb being found.

The Asiatic breeds are very much larger and less active than
either the Mediterranean or the Americans. ‘The most prominent
example of this class in this country is the Light Brahma, a very
old breed which has been kept true to type. With us the Light
Brahma is a very useful breed. ‘They are very slow, very quiet in
disposition, and well adapted to a cold country or to limited space.
They stand confinement well and are exceedingly good birds to have
upon a lawn, as they present a beautiful appearance, and will not
do much damage in a garden. We have seen them lying down in
the shade under the lawn trees very much like a flock of sheep.
The comb is small, the legs are well feathered and the hens seem
to be well dressed in fur for Winter. We find it harder to keep
Brahmas free from vermin than the lighter and _ thin-feathered
breeds, and they cannot be fed safely on food that would be suitable
for a Leghorn. When given too much corn, they fatten and stop
laying. With us Brahmas rank as good layers, some families being
quite equal to the smaller American birds. They grow rapidly when
young and fatten easily. At broiler size they are rather skinny and
bony, but for roasters they greatly excel. We think there is likely
to be a revival of interest in Brahmas in coming years. They have
been crowded out by the smaller breeds, but they are likely to come
back in popular demand. The Light Brahma has been used in devel-
oping many of the newer breeds. The Columbian Wyandotte has the
white color and black neck marking of the Brahma without the

THE BUSINESS BREEDS, 13

feathered legs. The Cochins, like the Brahmas, have yellow legs and
skin and are slow, good-natured birds. The Cochins are not as
good layers as the Brahmas. ‘They are very clumsy, and with us
are heavier eaters and not as profitable. ‘The Langshan is a large
black bird not so heavily feathered on the leg as the Brahma, and
more active than that breed, quite desirable where a black, heavy
breed is wanted.

The great majority of what we call business hens will belong
to one of the above named breeds. Still there are other breeds
which demand attention. In recent years the Orpingtons have gained
many friends. Originally an English breed, they have been well
tested in America and greatly liked by some breeders. Like the
American breeds, the Orpingtons were “made” by mixing the blood
of several breeds. In most cases when a new breed is developed some
of the Asiatics were used, and probably the Langshans are partly
responsible for the Orpingtons. ‘They are classed as fine layers and
with a good carcass, but they lack the yellow skin so prominent in
the American breeds. ‘The Dorking is a very old English breed,
large and well shaped. ‘They are fair layers, excellent mothers, and
probably the finest of all as table fowls, but not as hardy as others.
Games have a reputation as fighters and are not much used as
business birds, as we use the term. The hens lay fairly well and
the flesh of the Game is excellent. In some districts where the hens
run on a wide range purebred Games are crossed with Leghorns or
other breeds. Such half-bred Games are good layers, very active
and with enough of the fighting spirit to protect themselves against
vermin. A hen with Game blood has been known to face a hawk
and give it a gocd battle in defense of her brood of chicks. As we
have stated, every breed can be used to produce the true business
hen, if the man back of her knows his business. ‘These various
breeds, or most of them, appear in various colors. For example,
the Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes, originally speckled, are now
to be found in white and buff. The new colors are usually produced
by breeding in some outside blood and then selecting carefully for
atype. There is little in the color of the plumage to indicate any
superiority. The color is barely skin deep, but each variety has its
admirers, and all are capable of becoming the “Business Hen.”

CHAPTER II.
WHAT IS AN EGG?

The egg is the first stage in the production of birds. Its func-
tion primarily is to produce offspring, secondarily to furnish food
for man. - The hen, therefore, fulfills dual purposes which, in a
measure, are antagonistic in their requirements. The demand of
nature is that the hen shall produce eggs that possess all the quali-
ties of life and nutrition necessary to produce strong chickens; the
demand of man is that she shall furnish eggs good to hatch and
to eat and lots of them. In order to satisfy the commercial
requirements of man the hen often is compelled to sacrifice the
higher demands of nature. It becomes a vital question, therefore,
for every poultryman to decide to what extent he can force heavy
laying without sacrificing the fertility of the eggs or the vitality
of the chickens. It is well, then, that we inquire what an egg is and
how it is formed.

HOW THE EGG IS MADE.—The first stage in the develop-
ment of the egg is the formation of the “yolk.” The “ovary” or
“egg cluster,’ which forms a part of the muscular tissue on the
left side of the spine, contains many yolks in various stages of
development, depending upon the condition of the hen, from the
full-sized ripe yolk ready to be detached, to the microscopic cells
so small that they cannot be discerned by the naked eye. Within
this ovarian tissue is the power to develop countless other yolks
not yet apparent. The number of these yolks or “ova,” which may
be developed, is not a fixed quantity, certainly not exactly 600, as
is frequently stated. The number of eggs which a hen will lay
depends upon the inherited tendency of each hen to reproduce, and
upon her vigor and vitality to withstand the heavy drain upon
her system. The ovary of certain hens is absolutely sterile.
Others have the power to produce a few eggs in short litters,
while some have an ovary so strong and reproductive that they lay
almost without cessation, and continue to do so for years. The
egg-laying power is a matter of inheritance. It is a question of
selection and breeding and of stimulating the ovaries to activity
by proper feeding.

WHAT IS AN EGG? 15

The cut (from Duval’s “Embryology’) shows the ovary and
oviduct of a hen; (1) is the ovary; (2) is the yolk held within
the ovisac or follicle (5). When the yolk is fully ripe,/it bursts
from the follicle and drops into the neck of the oviduct (3). Here

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EGG ORGANS OF A HEN. Fie. 1.

we see a wise provision of nature. In order to prevent rupture
of blood vessels where the follicle opens, there is a suture mark
around the entire surface, where the blood: vessels meet, but do
not cross (4). If, for any reason, the follicle is ruptured before

16 THE BUSINESS HEN.

it is matured, through rough handling of the fowl or because of
weakness due to debility, a slight clot of blood may escape. This
remains on the surface of the yolk or mingles with the white,
which leads the consumer to suspect an egg which is perfectly
fresh to have been slightly incubated. Occasionally, when hens are
in perfect laying condition, two yolks will ripen and burst their
follicles at the same time, and be encased within the same shell,
producing a double yolked egg. It is perfectly apparent, then, that
if the yolk is the first part of the egg to be formed, all the condi-
tions for its development must be met, or the hen cannot make a
perfect egg. The activity of development of the ovary depends
first upon good health. The hen in the best laying condition is in
the best health. Reproduction is a question of nerve strength,
which is dependent upon physical vigor. The over-fat hen does not
lay well, because over-fatness is an indication of physical weakness,
which ends in debility. A poor hen cannot lay because there is no
surplus fat with which to make the egg. Analysis of the dry
matter of an egg shows it to be more than one-half fat. Unless
the fowl can supply the available fat, the yolk cannot develop.
Therefore, it will be found that the hens in their best laying condi-
tion will have a little surplus fat in their bodies.

When the yolk has entered the oviduct it is quickly passed
along where the albumen or “white” is deposited (10). During the
passage it is pushed forward by the contraction of the muscles of
the oviduct, which, being twisted and convoluted, gives the yolk a
turning motion as it advances, so that the albumen is: deposited in
several layers. These layers may be seen by examining carefully
a hard-boiled egg. The twisting motion of the yolk in its passage
causes a special deposit of albumen to form twisted, string-like
fibres on two sides of the yolk. These are called the “chalaze”
Fig. 3-1. They cause the yolk to swing in the watery albumen like a
hammock. This tends to prevent injury to the yolk by any jarring
or jolting which the egg may receive. Whatever way the egg is
turned, the yolk quickly assumes its natural position. The yolk,
containing a large amount of fat, is lighter than the albumen, there-
fore has a tendency to float upward toward the surface, which,
during incubation, allows the young germ of life, which is on the ©
surface of the lightest portion of the yolk, to float in the warmest
portion of the egg, which is in contact with the body of the incubat-
ing hen.

The yolk is covered by the “vitelline’ membrane (11). The
yellow liquid within the membrane is called the “vitellus,” which

WHAT IS AN EGG? 17

is used, for the most part, to nourish the young chicken just before
and for several days after it hatches. The color of/the yolk
depends upon the kind of food fed. Yellow corn and/green food
produce a deep colored yolk, while oats, wheat and buckwheat pro-
duce a light yellow, due to the absence of coloring pigments in the
grain. One of the first signs of weakened vitality in hens is a
tenderness of the vitelline membrane, which often ruptures when
eggs are roughly handled. This allows the vitellus to escape and
mingle with the white. The yolks, therefore, of perfectly fresh
eggs, from such hens, are likely to rupture even when the egg is
carefully broken. Keeping eggs weakens the vitelline membrane.
Just under the vitelline membrane, and at the surface of the
yolk, is the “germinal vesicle” (12), the vital life principle of the
egg. Without fecundation by the male no life would be developed
in the germinal vesicle, and the egg would be infertile. If fecunda-
tion should take place and the hen should not be in vigorous con-
dition, life would not necessarily be developed. Infertility is due
quite as much to lack of vital force of the hen, because of close
confinement, excessive laying or improper feeding, as to any fault
of the male. Fecundation probably cannot take place until the yolk
has burst from the tough skin of the follicle (6) and has entered
the oviduct (9). Here/it comes in contact with the “spermatozoa”
of the male, which there swarm and live for several weeks, growing
less numerous and less active with age. The spermatozoa pene-
trates the vitelline membrane, unite with the germinal vesicle and
life is begun. If the eggs should be retained for any considerable
time, which often happens, the body heat will start the process of
incubation, which will continue until the egg is placed in a tempera-
ture too cold for development. Eggs which are not fertile will,
therefore, continue, without danger of incubation, in a temperature
that would ailow life to develop within a fertile egg. é
After the albumen has been secreted in the part of the oviduct
indicated (9), it is pushed along to a point where the shell mem-
brane is formed. This is supposed to be somewhere at or between
13-14, after which another membrane is added. Then the egg
passes to position marked (15), where the glands secrete a liquid
which contains carbonate of lime and other mineral matters. The
hardening process is completed frequently while the hen is on the
nest. A color pigment is sometimes secreted with the shell-making
liquid, which gives to eggs their characteristic colors. The color
of the shell is largely an individual characteristic, and remains prac-
tically constant with the individual, except that the egg shell grad-
ually fades in color toward the end of the laying period. This is

1s THE BUSINESS HEN.

particularly noticeable in comparing the first and the last eggs laid
by turkeys. The shell-making fluid appears to be secreted by tiny
ducts, which leave their impression by numerous fine depressions or
pores in the egg shell, which can be easily seen upon close inspec-
tion. The importance of providing mineral matter in the form of
cracked oyster shell, mortar and bone, is seen in the fact that if the
hen lacks these materials or through debility cannot assimilate them,
her eggs will be soft-shelled. Naturally, when the egg production
has drained her system of this material, her appetite craves it, and
if it is not otherwise supplied, she will instinctively eat the egg
shells. This is the most common cause of egg eating.

When the egg rests in the “cloaca,” (5), before being laid, it
is covered with a secretion that assists in the depositing of the egg,
which, when dry, gives the shell its natural fresh appearance, and
which, undoubtedly, has much to do with controlling the evapora-
tion of the contents of the egg. Therefore eggs for hatching should
not be washed unless it be to remove dirt which would materially
stop the pores in the shell. This oily coating is particularly apparent
on duck eggs.

It is to be doubted whether a hen can voluntarily stop the forma-
tion of an egg up to the point of its completion. But she can
retain the egg at will for considerable time thereafter. It is per-
fectly certain, however, that improper feeding, neglect, fright, or
any condition that interferes with digestion or peace of mind will
stop the process of egg making in any of its stages. Frequently
the white is deposited without yolk or shell. It is very common
to find eggs devoid of shell, and occasionally a yolk will be laid
without shell or albumen. It is not uncommon to find an egg with
white and shell complete without the yolk. In rare instances a
perfect egg has been found within an egg. This is brought about
by the completed egg being forced back by injury through the
portion of the oviduct where additional albumen is secreted and then
returned to the place where a new shell is deposited. When the egg
evaporates, the outer membrane continues to adhere to the
shell, while the inner membrane follows the contents of the egg
as it shrinks in size, thus forming the air space, which is usually
at the large end of the egg, occasionally on the side and rarely on
the small end.

SHAPE, SIZE AND COLOR OF EGGS.—The shape of the
egg is determined by the form of the mold in which it is cast,
which differs with breeds, varieties and even with individuals of
the same strain. The form of egg peculiar to an individual remains

WHAT IS AN EGG? 19

Practically constant, so much so that one can pick out an egg from
certain hens from a large flock with quite a degree of certainty,
purely by the shape of the egg. The groups of eggs shown on
next page, Fig. 2, show this point very accurately./ The eggs
marked (a) were laid by hen No. 56; those at (b) by hen No. 148,
both White Wyandottes; those at (c) by hen No. 70; those at (d)
by hen No. 75, both Single Comb White Leghorns; those at (e)
were laid by a White Plymouth Rock; those at (f) by a Barred
Plymouth Rock. It will be seen that each hen has a type of egg
which is peculiarly her own, differing only ‘slightly from day to
day, except in a case of abnormality due to some unusual condition.
The eggs marked a, b, c and d were picked out of a large tray full
of eggs which were laid by different hens. The selection was made
strictly upon their shape and color, without looking at the number
of the hen, which is marked on the large end of the egg when it is
gathered. The peculiar characteristics distinguishing the egg were
so marked that scarcely any error was made guessing the identity
of the hen that laid them. The eggs marked (a) were distinguish-
able by their large size, extreme length, and rich, uniform light
brown color; eggs marked (b) by their perfect egg shape, large
‘size and dark brown color; eggs marked (c) by their long, thin
form with a tendency to a slight ridge in the center; eggs marked
(d) by their almost abnormal roundness; eggs marked (e) by the
- peculiar wart-like excrescence on the small end of each egg.
ABNORMAL EGGS.—Abnormal eggs are due either to injury
to the fowl while the egg is being formed or to faulty nutrition.
Various types of abnormal eggs are shown in the cut (c) and (1) are
too long; (m), (e) and (0) too round; (k) is wedge shaped; (0)
has a decided ridge at the center; (f) and (q) are flattened on one
side; those marked (j) are elliptical; (1) are almost cylindrical; (a)
is drawn out at the point; (p) are eggs with rough, weak shells;
(g) is as round as a marble and about the size of a hickory nut;
(h) is about the same size, but elongated; those marked (r) repre-
sent the two extremes in size, a double yolked egg and a diminutive
but perfect shaped egg. These small eggs are nearly always devoid
of yolks. It does not follow that a hen that lays a diminutive egg
has laid similar eggs previously or that she will do so again.
Eggs marked (g), in the cut, were all laid by the Single Comb
White Leghorn hen No. 85; those eggs marked (h), were laid
by the Single Comb White Leghorn hen No. 82, the two normal eggs
in each case being laid a few days after the abnormal. The abnor-
mality, however, may continue. One hen laid seven diminutive
eggs continuously and then stopped laying. Of the five eggs marked

20 THE BUSINESS HEN. afr

TYPES OF EGGS. Fia, 2.

WIIAT IS AN EGG? | 21

(a), Fig. 2, the first two eggs which are perfect and normal were
followed by the abnormal long-drawn-out egg which was/so weak
at the point that it scarcely retained the egg contents. os two -
or three days following the other two eggs were iy) ‘which were
perfectly normal and sound.

TIME REQUIRED TO MAKE AN EGG—Just how long it
takes for each part of the egg to be secreted is not known. The
whole process is supposed to take about eighteen hours. Consider-
able time is taken for the shell to be deposited ‘and to harden. Two
eggs can be under way in the oviduct at the same time. When the
hen is not laying the oviduct is shrunken’ and not more than one-
fifth its natural size. Like all secretory organs, the oviduct enlarges
when it is active. In this one respect it may be compared to the
udder of a cow “fresh in milk” and one “gone dry.’ The oviduct
when stretched out and congested is normally a little over twenty
inches long.

EGG MAKING AN EXHAUSTIVE PROCESS.—The develop-
ment of an egg is more elaborate and more exhaustive than a
simple secretion like that of milk-making. It is both a reproductive
and a secretory process. The perfect egg contains the materials
and the life to form a new animal, a shell to protect it during
subsequent development, and the food to nourish it for several days
after it is born. A good hen is expected to lay, that is, in reality,
to give birth to about 150 offspring in a year, which is equivalent
to about five times her own weight. This is a heavy drain upon
her system. Something of its immediate effect will be seen by the
fact ascertained by one of our students (Henry Jennings) that a
hen’s temperature immediately after laying is from two to three
degrees higher than normal, the normal being about 106.

COMPOSITION OF THE EGG.—The composition of the egg
remains practically constant. This is true even under different
systems of feeding. Careful observations of two Plymouth
Rock hens was made and the eggs analyzed after they had been fed
about three months on radically different rations. Pen No. 1 was
fed largely on protein-rich foods; pen No. 2 was fed largely on
foods deficient in protein, the former being a ration for making
muscle and the latter for making fat. Nevertheless the eggs from
the two pens remained practically identical in composition. This
illustrates one of the highest laws of nature; namely, that the
animal will sacrifice its own bodily strength in an effort to make a
perfect offspring, which is a necessary provision to insure the per-
petuation of the species. There is little difference in the composition

22 THE BUSINESS TEN.

of eggs from different breeds, or between light-shelled and dark-
shelled eggs.

There is a difference between hens that are well fed and those
that are improperly fed, as shown in their fertility, the strength of
the germs and the vitality of the chickens. The chemist may not
be able to find the difference in the composition of the eggs, but the
difference is there, nevertheless. Hens that are closely confined to
limited quarters where they do not get exercise nor have access to
sunshine and fresh air, even though well fed, are almost certain to
produce eggs low in fertility and weak in vitality. Over-fat hens
and very poor hens, if they lay at all, are certain to produce eggs
which are almost devoid of the life-giving principles.

While forced feeding of highly stimulating foods during Fall
and Winter might result in a condition of nerve ‘exhaustion during
the hatching season and would naturally result in less fertile eggs,
it does not follow that just because hens do not lay during the Fall
and Winter they will give more fertile eggs during the Spring.
Most frequently the hens that do not lay during the Winter have
not been properly cared for, they being either too fat from over-
feeding or improper feeding, or too poor because under-fed. The
fowl that lays the most fertile eggs is the one that is in the best
health. She may be the hen that has laid regularly for a long
period of time. To get fertile eggs, open-air exercise and plenty
of meat and green food are necessary.

FERTILITY.—The proportion of males to females in the breed-
ing flock depends upon the breed, also upon the individual. One
vigorous, active, prepotent male will give greater fertility than three
or four sluggish males. I have known almost perfect fertility with
36 White Leghorn females to one male and have seen almost abso-
lute sterility where one male ran with eight females. Other con-
ditions being equal, the Mediterranean class (Leghorns, Minorcas,
etc.) can usually be mated, 20 to 25 hens to one male; the American
class (Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Javas, etc.), 15 to 20 females
to one male; Asiatic (Cochins, Brahmas, etc.), 8 to 12 females to
one male. Where fowls are kept in flocks which require two males
(for instance, 40 or 50 Leghorn females), it is better to allow only
one of the males at a time with the flock. The other one should be
kept in a coop with plenty of water, grit and food containing an
abundance of meat. Two males running together in the same flock
dissipate too much of their energy in fighting. This is particularly.
true if they are in limited quarters. Very good results, however,
are obtained by allowing one male to 25 females where fowls run
together in flocks of several hundred on unlimited range.

WHAT IS AN ECC? 93

EGG TYPE A BREED CHARACTERISTIC.—The shape,
size and color of the egg being comparatively constant with indi-
viduals, it is evident that like other characteristics, they can be
transmitted from one. generation to another, and therefore by
selecting only eggs of a certain size, shape and color for hatching,
their characteristics become fixed so that a strain of hens will be
developed which will lay eggs of the desired type with great
regularity. This has been demonstrated where, for years, only
eges have been used that weighed two ounces or more, of perfect
shape and pure white color, for hatching. Each year the per-
centage of hatchable eggs astonishingly increased, and the number
of eggs which would have to be thrown out because of not fulfilling
the requirements, materially decreased. The result is that the
average size and beauty of the egg has materially increased year
by year. This principle also has been strikingly illustrated on a
farm where the person who took charge of the hens believed that
round eggs would hatch pullets and long eggs slightly wrinkled
at the small end, would hatch cockerels. For years she would
select the roundest eggs for hatching, with the result that year
by year the eggs became rounder and rounder, until they were
abnormally so and it became almost a trade mark of the eggs from
this farm. Of course the per cent of pullets continued as usual.
Mother Nature could not be thwarted thus. The sex of an egg can-
not be determined by shape or other external conditions.

It is well to select only perfectly shaped eggs, uniform in color,
of good texture and firm shell, neither over large nor very small,
because they will be more likely to produce chickens that lay
similar eggs, which look better and therefore sell for a higher price
and which also hatch more satisfactorily.

KEEPING EGGS FOR HATCHING—Keeping eggs weakens
their vitality. If they are held at too low a temperature the chill-
ing injures them. If they are kept in too warm a temperature,
development begins. Just what temperature is best for holding eggs
for hatching is not known. It appears to be between 45 and 55
degrees Fahrenheit. Eggs evaporate moisture very rapidly if kept
in a very dry room. Therefore they should be kept from a direct
draft of air. They should be turned daily in order to prevent the
yolks rising to the surface and adhering to the shell, in which case
the vitelline membrane may become ruptured when the egg is
turned. Eggs should prove fertile within three or four days
after the male has been introduced to the flock. They should be
fertile with the second egg after copulation takes place and may be
fertile with the first egg.

CHAPTER III.
HATCHING THE EGG.

Inasmuch as strong, vigorous chicks are not always the result
obtained from properly incubated eggs, it will readily be seen that
successful chicken hatching does not depend entirely on the methods
of incubation. The production of perfect baby chicks necessitates
care and consideration further back than the development of the
embryo. ‘The selection of strong, fully matured breeding stock, well
mated, properly fed and housed, has as much, if not more, to do
with the production of strong offspring as proper incubation. Egys
from hens that have been laying heavily all Winter, or that have
not had a sufficient amount of green food, can hardly be expected
to hatch well. Eggs from hens fed a forcing ration will not produce
as strong chicks as those from hens allowed to take a more natural
course. The egg provides the nourishment on which the embryo
grows, and it must contain the proper material to produce desirable
chicks by any system of hatching. It is just as essential that we
feed our breeders for strong germ production as it is to feed our
layers for heavy egg production.

SELECTING EGGS.—A great deal of improvement can be made
in the flock, as well as bettering the hatches, by carefully selecting the
eggs for incubation. ‘Take out all the ill-shaped eggs as well as
those with thin, porous, or coarse shells. On close examination, the
shells of some eggs will be found very thin and wrinkly at the little
end. Such eggs are often broken during incubation. It is well to
sound each egg as they are selected, by tapping two together. In
this way one will soon be able to tell those with weak or cracked
shells. Eggs with defective shells are sometimes selected by testing,
but this method takes some time and is not considered worth while.
If possible, set the eggs from each breed separate, for the eggs from
some classes of fowls hatch earlier than others. ‘The Leghorn eggs,
if fresh, will hatch earlier than those from heavier breeds, and con-
sequently some of the younger chicks will be trampled on or even
prevented from breaking out of the shell. For a good, even hatch
set eggs as near of an age as possible, the fresher the better.

“* KEEPING EGGS.—Eggs should be set as soon as possible after
they are laid. It has been found that eggs set the same day they are laid

HATCHING THE EGG. 25

will hatch from 18 to 20 hours earlier than those kept two weeks.
I believe that eggs kept over one week before setting lose hatching
power, but experiments have been tried at the Department of Poultry
Husbandry, Cornell University, which show that eggs can be kept
two weeks under proper conditions, and still hatch well. If they
are to be kept more than two or three days, it is best to turn them
once a day. The eggs can be turned satisfactorily by packing them
in a common egg crate and turning it each day as a new lot of eggs
is packed. As soon as the eggs are gathered they should be placed
in a cool place, preferably 50° F., or as near that as possible. The
air of the room in which they are kept should be just moist enough
to prevent evaporation of the egg contents. In cold weather, the
eggs intended for incubation purposes should be gathered several
times a day to prevent chilling. However, eggs containing strong
germs will hatch after being subject to a very low temperature. I
recently set 30 eggs which had been in cold storage two weeks, and
hatched 16 apparently strong and healthy chicks. The eggs you wish
to incubate should be clean, but not washed unless just before set-
ting, and if washed, the water should never be allowed to soak in.

SHIPPING EGGS.—Nature has so perfectly constructed the egg
that it will stand considerable rough handling without injury, if
properly packed. Good hatches can be obtained from eggs shipped
a long distance, if the shipper understands packing them. A light,
well-constructed box or basket should be used. First, place a layer
of excelsior in the bottom and around the sides of the basket. Then
roll each egg, first in soft paper and then in excelsior. See that
they are well covered and do not touch each other in the basket.
After a layer has been packed, place a layer of excelsior over them.
Put as many layers of eggs on top of these as you wish, but be care-
ful to pack them with a layer of excelsior between the layers. After
all the eggs are in the basket, place a good layer of excelsior over
them, and sew a stout cloth cover over the top. A large, conspicu-
ous label marked “Eggs For Hatching. Handle With Care” should
be fastened on the basket. ‘The shipper’s and consignee’s name and
address should be plainly written on a shipping tag and securely
fastened to the handle. Never ship other than strictly fresh eggs.
Sometimes eggs going only a short distance are delayed several days
on the road. After receiving eggs for hatching, they should be
allowed to stand three or four hours before starting to incubate.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO—Just beneath the vitel-
line membrane in the upper surface of the yolk of all eggs is found the
life germ. The yolk floats in a dense mass of albumen, called the cha-
laza, which is in the form of cords or a hammock, The chalaza keeps

28 THE BUSINESS HEN.

the life germ near the surface of heat, and also protects the growing
embryo from injury. Although the life germ exists in all eggs, it
will not develop without the introduction of the male element. ‘The
germ is fertilized while in the oviduct, and a certain stage of devel-
opment is reached before the egg is laid. After the egg leaves the
body development is retarded unless kept at the proper temperature.
Occasionally a freshly laid egg is found to contain a partly developed
embryo. In such a case the egg has doubtless been delayed for some
time in its passage through the oviduct, and development continues
until the egg is laid. As soon as the egg becomes heated to the
proper temperature, either by contact with the hen’s body or by other
means, the germ again resumes its course of development, and if
kept under the proper conditions of moisture and ventilation, it will
continue to grow. It was formerly supposed that the germ cell con-
tained a very small chick and that the process of development was
simply enlargement. It has later been found that the germ cell
contains no organs, and that its only function is to reproduce other
cells like itself, these in turn having the same power of reproduction.
This reproduction takes place through division; each cell becomes
divided into two, each enlarging to the size of the original cell, and
with the same functions. The fertile egg germ can be determined
before incubation only by breaking the egg in a saucer. The fertile
germ has a clear outer rim or circle with little white dots in the
center, while an infertile germ is whitish in appearance and lacks the
clear outer rim. After about 24 hours of incubation, blood vessels
may be seen and the heart commences to beat about the twenty-
seventh hour, and it commences to pulsate about the fortieth hour.
The network of blood vessels continue to grow until they form a
complete membrane lining the shell membrane. ‘This is called the
allantois, and its function is to take up the oxygen which penetrates
the shell through the pores, thereby performing the duties which
are to be performed by the lungs about the nineteenth day. The
embryo appears about the second day of incubation. The eye, head,
neck, heart and wings are about the first to be distinguishable. The
heart may be located the third day, and the embryo which has been
lying mouth downward, is turned on its left side. On the fourth
day the legs appear; and the lungs begin to be formed on the fifth,
but are inactive until the nineteenth day. Up to the sixth day, the
embryo has been lying very still, but soon shows signs of voluntary
motion. From that time on the different parts of the body, including
the bill, legs, and wings, take their form, but are soft until the ninth
day, when bone begins to form. During the remaining days the
yolk becomes thinner, the rapidly growing embryo drawing very

PareING THE EGG. | 2%

heavily upon it for nourishment. By the nineteenth day the chick
is fully formed and the yolk should be nearly all taken into the body.
Very soon the chick should break through the air cell and use its
lungs both to breathe and utter sounds, and by holding the egg to a
tester the chick may be seen pushing through. After the air cell has
entirely disappeared the shell will soon yield to the interior force
and the chicken will begin life in a new world.

DISTINGUISHING THE SEX.—There is no means by which
we can distinguish the sex before incubation. Neither is there any
method of mating that will govern the sex, notwithstanding the fact
that many claim that sex is indicated by the shape of the egg, such as
round eggs for pullets, or that the air cell, which has a base parallel
to the width of the egg, will produce a cockerel, while those which
vary from this position will produce pullets.

POSITION OF EGG.—The position of the egg during incuba-
tion has some influence on the development of the embryo. If the
small end is up, the head of the chick will develop in this end and
the chick will be unable to free itself. In natural incubation an egg
with the small end up is very rarely found. As the air space increases
in size, the center of gravity lowers. In this way the large end is
kept uppermost at different angles.

NATURAL VS. ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION.—Both meth-
ods of incubation have their points of merit and demerit. The meth-
ods that should be used can only be satisfactorily decided by weighing
the advantages and disadvantages of each system as they would be
realized if employed by you. “A good hen is, all things considered,
a better incubator than man has yet invented.” The old hen will
very often hatch all the fertile eggs given her with very little trouble
to the owner, but we must consider that all hens are not good sit-
ters. Also, it is hard to find enough hens to cover the eggs, if a.
large number are to be set at a time. Often the owner has to search
the country for broody hens. It is often difficult to make them sit
‘in their new quarters. ‘There is also great danger of breaking eggs
in the nest and smearing the remaining eggs. The filthy condition
draws lice and the hen is very often driven from the nest, leaving
the eggs to spoil before the trouble is noticed. It is very difficult
to get sitters early in the season, especially if the Winter is severe,
for the laying season will be delayed somewhat, and a late broody
season will be the consequence. Yet in spite of all these difficulties
we cannot get around the fact that hen-hatched chickens have every
reason to be perfect, as far as incubation is concerned. To be certain
that the process of incubation is not at fault is enough to make us
decide in favor of the hen when only a few chickens are to be raised

28 THE BUSINESS HEN.

each season. The proof of the real value of artificial incubation in
hatching large numbers of chickens lies not only in its growing popu-
larity, but in the great advantages and remarkable results obtained,
if properly handled. To be able to incubate eggs at any time, and
in large numbers, is one of the great advantages which does not
apply equally to hens. One incubator holding 300 eggs will do more
work with less trouble than 20 hens. It is possible with machines,
to hatch enough chickens in two hatches to replenish the stock and
have chickens to sell. By starting the hatch early, it is possible to
get out chickens before the other fellow’s hens are ready to sit,
and in this way have the surplus cockerels on the market when they
bring the best price. Artificial incubation also makes it possible to
develop practically non-sitting strains. By breaking up the sitters
we are gradually doing away with the broody instinct. It is said that
in Egypt, where hatching in ovens has been practiced for centuries,
the hens have entirely lost their desire to incubate. Next to these
valuable factors we must consider the cleanliness of incubators. With
proper precautions, artificially hatched chickens are absolutely free
from lice, while it is almost impossible to find a broody hen that
isn’t lousy, the insects are sure to get on the small chickens just
when they need vitality most, causing great mortality and unthrifti-
ness. Along with the advantages of artificial incubation comes the
disappointments due to carelessness and improper management, such
as overheating the eggs, lack of moisture or improper handling.
There are also unjust insurance restrictions. Insurance companies
refuse to admit that a building is safer with a modern incubator in it
than with the common portable house lamps.

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION.—Before installing incubators,
one must consider that the operator is not relieved to any great
extent. The work becomes more exacting than with hens; the
results depending very much upon the operator’s good sense, and a
great amount of careful, regular attention, even with the best of incu-
bators. Do not invest any money in a cheaply constructed machine.
There are a great many good machines on the market; in fact most of
the low-grade machines have been forced off the market or improved.
When it comes to capacity, consider a long time before purchasing
a small machine. Nearly all incubator firms manufacture small
machines, not because they possess any special merit, but because
some people demand a small one or none. There are no great ad-
vantages in buying a 60 or 65-egg incubator for the following
reasons: First, a lamp that will heat a machine of smaller size will
also heat one of a much larger capacity. Second, the small machines
lack air capacity and are more easily affected by outside temperature,

HATCHING THE EGG. 29

Third, by the time the second test has been made there are not
enough eggs left to pay for the oil consumed and time spent in
caring for them, and the chickens hatched would get lost in a
fair-sized brooder. Incubators holding from 100 to 250 eggs are
most commonly used, but a 400-egg capacity incubator will produce
just as good results, with not a great deal more oil, and only a
little more labor. Some machines will work well and hatch a good
per cent of chickens under certain good conditions. The machine to
buy, however, is the one that will bring out all the healthy chicks
possible, almost anywhere and at any time with the least possible
care. The value of a machine should not be measured by flashy
advertisements but by the results.

WHAT TO EXPECT OF AN INCUBATOR. —The novice very
often expects too much of his machine, and is ready to condemn it
when a few unhatched eggs are found on the trays after the hatch is
completed. The fault-finder must stop to consider that when hens
hatch all the eggs they are usually set on one hen’s eggs, very oiten
stealing their nests and sitting on their own eggs. These same re-
sults may be obtained in an incubator if one will go to the trouble of
using trap nests and setting the eggs from each individual hen, sepa-
rate from the others in pedigree trays. In this way it will be
found that many hens lay strictly hatchable eggs, while the eggs
from other individuals will be nearly all infertile or nearly all fertile,
but too weak to hatch. Then remember that the eggs usually set in
an incubator are a collection from the whole flock, and on a much
larger scale than those set under a hen, and consequently the number
of unhatched eggs would increase accordingly. We think very little
of finding two, three, or four unhatched eggs under a hen, but the
Same per cent of unhatched eggs in an incubator seems destructive.

INCUBATOR CELLARS.—Owing to fire insurance restrictions,
it is best to operate incubators in a building set aside from the others.
They may bé run above ground with some success, but generally
best results are obtained under the conditions existing in a well-
ventilated, partly-submerged room. It is much easier to keep an
even temperature in such a room than above ground, and in warm
weather is much cooler. An ideal incubator cellar should have a
very high ceiling, from nine to 10 feet being a good height. ‘The
distance from the floor to the top of the ground should be about
six feet, making the room about four feet above ground. The
windows should be about seven feet from the floor. To afford air
and water drainage, erect the building on sloping ground, having
the lower end of the room above ground and the end in the slope
almost entirely submerged. Plenty of windows are essential, and if

30 THE BUSINESS HEN.

made to drop down from the top they will afford good ventilation
as well as light. The windows may be shaded on bright days if the
sunlight affects the temperature.

DISINFECTING.—Each time before putting in the eggs, the
machine should be thoroughly cleaned, disinfected and aired. The
lamp should be started and the machine kept closed for a day or so,
then the incubator doors should be opened until it is well dried out
and odorless. To disinfect properly, remove all diaphragms and
trays, give them a good washing or spraying with some good disin-
fectant and put them out in the sun to dry. Then spray the inside
of the machine in the same way. Leave the trays and diaphragms
out until the machine is thoroughly dry. Caution: Never use
kerosene oil in an incubator. If the operator is not careful, about
as much harm can be done by disinfecting as without it. An oily
machine, or the odor from a strong disinfectant, is fatal to embryo
chicks. Nevertheless, it is essential to use some disinfectant. There
are several good liquids, but a weak solution of creolin, or five per
cent solution of carbolic acid which is one part carbolic acid to 19
parts water, will kill all bad odors and is also a germicide. The
necessity of using only thoroughly disinfected machines is shown by
experiments tried by Dr. Jones, of the New York State Veterinary
College, Cornell University, in which it was found that the germs
of white diarrhcea reached the incubator from the egg shell. There
is also some danger of lice reaching the machine in the same way.

REGULATING.—The operator must remember that he is to do
the thinking. Most machines are self-regulating to some extent, but
a severe change in the weather will be likely to change the tempera-
ture in the machine unless the operator looks after the lamp flame.
The thumb screw attached to the regulator should be screwed down
until the temperature is kept at the proper degree, with the disk
raised a third of an inch above the heater. After the machine is
regulated it will be necessary to change the regulator only slightly,
except in rare instances. The less you change the thumb screw after
once it is regulated to run with slight variations at the proper degree,
the better hatch you will get. Remember that raising the disk over
the heater lowers the temperature and lowering it raises the tem-
perature. Never put the eggs into the machine until it is correctly
regulated,

FILLING THE TRAYS.—After the machine is heated and reg-
ulated to the proper temperature and thoroughly dried, remove the
egg trays and fill them with the selected eggs. The trays may be filled
full if necessary, but it is not wise to place the eggs on top of each

HATCHING THE EGG. 31

other. Before putting the eggs in the machine see that the ventilators
are arranged according to directions sent out with the machine. After
the trays are placed keep the machine closed until the next day,
when turning should commence.

CLEANING AND OPERATING LAMP.—The lamp should be
filled once a day, each morning preferred. When filled in the morning
_ the operator has time to get the flame regulated before leaving for the

night. Otherwise the flame may run up and smoke the heater after
being newly trimmed, especially if a new wick is used. The lamp
should never be filled quite full. The charred portion of the wick
is easily removed by drawing a burnt match or a knife across the
wick tube. Never cut away the unburnt portions of the wick. This
method of trimming makes it harder to get an even flame and uses
up the wick very soon. After the wick has been trimmed turn it
down and clean the wick tube and other parts of the burner. This
can be done with a knife or piece of sandpaper and then wiped off
with a cloth. The burner should always be kept bright and the
screen around the wick tube should be kept free from dirt. Always
wipe the lamp thoroughly before replacing. It is best to keep a
comparatively low flame at first until the operator becomes accus-
tomed to the work. The flame will always increase instead of dimin-
ish after the wick is trimmed. After the operator becomes familiar
with the lamp, the flame should be run high enough to keep disk
‘slightly raised over the heater during the day. Then if the night is
cold you have an extra supply of heat ready to be used. Otherwise
the temperature in the machine will lower. The flame should never
flicker. If it does there is something wrong, and the operator may
look for a broken isinglass in the heater or a disarranged screen in
the burner, or perhaps a draught. Use only high-grade oil in incu-
bator lamps.

THERMOMETER.—Always use the make of thermometer sent
out with the machine you are using. It is well to test the thermome-
tereach season. This can be done by placing a doctor’s thermometer in
a basin of warm water with the one you intend to use. The water
should register at least 100° F. and the thermometer should be held
upright with the bulb submerged. If the incubator thermometer
registers incorrectly, the difference may be marked on the metal part
_of the thermometer or on a tag fastened to it. Be sure your ther-
mometer rests in the proper position in the machine according to
directions sent out by the incubator manufacturers. In case the
mercury becomes separated, take hold at the top of the thermometer
and swing the bulb end downward with a jerk until the mercury
comes together,

32 THE BUSINESS HEN.

TEMPERATURE.—With machines where the thermometer hangs
above the eggs it is advisable to keep the temperature as near 10214°
the first week as possible, 103° the second week, with a gradual
increase to 104° after the nineteenth day. In machines using a con-
tact thermometer, 102° is sufficient for the first week, 103° the second,
witn a gradual increase to 104° at the latter end of the third week.
The temperature should be allowed to increase gradually to the proper
degree, and should be kept as near there as possible. However, a slight
variation may be expected, and without injuring the eggs. Good
hatches have been obtained when the mercury has run up to 110° F.
for a short time. There is more danger of injury from a high tem-
perature at the beginning of incubation than toward the last, owing
to the very delicate blood vessels which are being formed the first
few days, and are very easily injured by excessive heat. For best
results, the.temperature should never exceed 106°F., and this only at
hatching time. In case the mercury rises to 106° at any other time
than at hatching, it would be better to take out the lamp or open the
door for a while than to chance the regulator. The temperature will
always drop on opening the machine door to remove the trays, and
will remain low for some time after the eggs are replaced, but do not
change the regulator, as the mercury will reach the proper degree
in due time. At hatching time the operator should watch the ther-
mometer carefully. The heat from the chicks will usually raise the
temperature to 104° if there are enough eggs containing live chicks.
If not, the lamp flame should be turned up a little. When the
chicks start to break through the shell, the temperature will very
often rise to extreme height. If the chicks seem to be suffering from
the excessive heat, the lamp flame should be turned down until the
temperature lowers somewhat. If the heat still remains too high,
the lamp may be removed for a time. Very often the heat will
remain high with the lamp out for several hours. If the chickens
pant when the temperature is only 105° there is no need to worry,
as this will not injure them. As soon as the hatch has passed its
best and the number of chicks hatched per minute is gradually de-
creasing, the temperature will drop, sometimes very rapidly. This
is a critical period, and the operator should be on hand to turn up
the flame. Sometimes it is necessary to turn the thumb screw until
the disk drops down on the heater. Otherwise the mercury will
drop down to 100° F. or a little lower, and the chickens that are a
little late in pipping, will be unable to hatch.

MOISTURE AND VENTILATION.—Correct moisture, evap-
oration, circulation, and ventilation are the very important factors of
incubation 2nd all are too closely linked together to be considered

HATCHING THE EGG. * 33

apart from each other. Proper ventilation is as necessary as moisture,
but we cannot have excessive circulation without too much evaporation.
Too great a change of air absorbs the moisture in the egg too rapidly
for successful development of the embryo. The result of incubation
under such conditions would be a few small, weak chickens and a
large per cent of unhatched eggs. Yet a deficient supply of air
would be disastrous. Evaporation of the egg contents should be
greatest toward the latter part of incubation, with a small amount
of evaporation at first. To obtain these conditions we must have very
little ventilation the first few days. This makes it plain that moisture
is as necessary at the beginning as at the close of the incubation
period. Eggs will stand a great amount of moisture and hatch well.
The best of hatches will be accompanied by more or less moisture on
the glass and door of the incubator. Very often the glass will be
so wet that it will be impossible to read the thermometer for some
time. Evaporation of the hen’s egg will be about 16 per cent of its
weight before incubation, but the amount of evaporation varies so
much that it is hardly possible to determine just how much evapora-
tion should take place. However, the amount of moisture, ventila-
tion, and cooling necessary for correct evaporation can be deter-
mined to some extent by noting the size of the air cells and testing
the eggs. Most incubator companies send complete directions for
supplying moisture and operating the ventilators. Follow these
directions closely. Only operators with thorough understanding
of incubation and its laws should depart from the rules laid down
by the manufacturers. However, there is no set of rules that will
fit the needs of incubation in every locality without some altera-
tions; but the general principles should always be followed. A
general plan is to keep the ventilation restricted for the first few
days of incubation, and gradually increase it from day to day there-
after. There are good machines in which ventilation is controlled
by the machine itself. With these, there is no need for worry on
the part of the operator as long as he does not tamper with the
ventilators. It is generally considered advisable where the ventila-
tion is controlled by slides, to close the ventilators at pipping time
and leave them so until the hatch is completed. As moisture helps
to control evaporation, it is just as essential when the eggs are
first put into the machine, and we are trying to prevent more than
a gradual amount of evaporation taking place, as it is at a later
stage of development. When using a sand tray machine keep the
sand wet at all times from start until finish. If hatching in cold
weather, use warm water to replenish the supply. If you are
using a non-moisture machine you must consider the weather

34 ’ THE BUSINESS HEN.

conditions and the humidity of the air in the room your incubator
is in, before supplying moisture. If it is a very dry place it is
best to keep the floor of the room wet. Or if in a living room,
place pans of water under the machine. Use water in the machine
only as a last resort.

TURNING THE EGGS.—The objects in turning eggs during in-
cubation, are, first, to keep the germ from drying fast to the shell,
also to equalize the heat units by changing the position on the
tray, it being impossible to supply the same amount of heat to
each egg on the tray at the same time. Operators vary in opinion
as to the proper time to commence turning, but the writer’s rule
is to turn the second day of incubation, and continue turning, twice
daily up to the nineteenth day, and as near 12 hours apart as possi-
ble. As the most important factor in turning eggs is to keep the
germ from drying to the shell we only do them justice by giving
them a good thorough rolling around. Do not be particular about
turning them just half way over, as old operators believed. If
there is a tendency to dry in the shell a careful half way turn
would be of little value. Shuffle them around on the tray with the
palms of the hand as though you were mixing up dominoes, avoid-
ing sudden jerks. If there is only one tray in the machine write
“Morning” one one end of the tray and “Night” on the other.
Then see that the end marked “Morning” is out at morning turn-
ing and the reverse at night. If there are two trays change them
from one side of the machine to the other in the morning and
change ends at night. In this way you are aiding in distribution
of equal heat units to all the eggs in the machine.

THE NECESSITY OF COOLING.—There is some disagreement
among authorities as to the proper value of cooling eggs during
incubation, although it may be possible to secure fair hatches
in some incubators without paying much attention to airing. In
most cases it is a great deal better to use a good common sense
system of cooling. In natural incubation eggs receive more or less
cooling. The hen, if allowed her liberty, in most instances remains
on the nest for the first few days and then leaves her nest for a
very short time each day, early in the incubation period, increasing
the length of time off the nest as the hatch advances. The number
of times the hen leaves the nest varies with individual hens and
the weather conditions. We are led to believe that the hen leaves
the nest not only in search of food and recreation, but to aid in
the development of the chick within the shell. The result of the
proper amount of airing would be the giving off of bad odors
which would naturally collect and the taking in of a new supply

HATCHING THE EGG. 35

of fresh air which would assist in evaporating the egg contents.
As the ventilation the eggs receive in artificial incubation is crude
compared to natural methods, it is all the more necessary that a
system of airing be followed out as near to the natural process
as possible.

COOLING DIRECTIONS.—As the eggs receive sufficient cooling
the first week during the process of turning, it is not advisable to give
it further attention until the seventh day, especially in cold weather.
It would be impossible to form a set of rules for cocling which
could be satisfactorily used with all machines, and under the various
weather conditions. The length of time to cool must rest very
much with the operator’s good judgment. Never use your watch,
as this system is too mechanical to meet the changing conditions.
The most satisfactory way is to go entirely by feeling of the eggs
and the number of days they have been incubating. When properly
cooled they will feel quite cool, but not void of warmth when
brought in contact with the face or eye. The first few days after
extra cooling is commenced, it will take only a few minutes,
perhaps three or five or even 10 to cool them properly. The length
of time will increase as the development of the embryo progresses.
By the end of the second week of incubation the live embryo will
supply such an amount of animal heat that it will take some min-
utes to cool them sufficiently, and toward the eighteenth day if it
is warm weather the operator will be almost afraid to leave them
out so long. Very often in warm weather it will take from 30 to 60
minutes to cool them properly. If the weather is cold, the hatch
would be ruined by such treatment. Always consider the tempera-
ture of the room and never expose eggs long in a very cold room
while they are undergoing the process of incubation. There can
be some dependence placed on the size of the air cells at different
periods of incubation. Although the size of the air cell in two
certain eggs may differ greatly at the same period of incubation
and under the same condition, a degree of uniformity will be found
if a number are examined. By testing the eggs at frequent inter-
vals that are being incubated by a hen, it is possible to get a good
idea about the size of the air cell; compare these with those in the
incubator if set at the same time. If, after cooling for a week
or more, the eggs in the machine show air cells much larger than
those under the hen, and you have been following the incubator
directions in regard to moisture and ventilation, you may feel quite
certain that you have cooled them too much and the egg contents
have dried down too rapidly; if much smaller, you should air
them longer. The eggs can be successfully cooled on top of the

36 THE BUSINESS HEN.

machine or by dropping the doors down and leaving the eggs in
unless you are using an incubator containing a sand tray. With
such a machine it is best to put the egg tray on top and close the
doors unless it is very warm weather. A number of trays of eggs
can be cooled at the same time by taking them out or dropping the
doors down before commencing to turn the eggs, if you are sure
you can finish turning them before they are too cool. To be sure
no mistake is made, you should try only two or three machines at
a time, at first, and increase the number as the eggs take more
cooling. In this way a great amount of time can be saved, espe-
cially if you are handling several hundred eggs. If only two or
three machines are set at a time, cool only these at a time unless
you are very familiar with your work and can handle several
batches of eggs without an error.

TESTING EGGS.—To learn the per cent of fertility and strength
of the germs is not the only object in testing eggs. By removing
the infertile and dead germs there is more room for the strong
germs and the machine is more easily kept free from bad odors.
The infertile eggs may be used for cooking purposes. Unless a
dark room is handy, it is best to do the testing in the evening.
Never allow draughts in the room while the testing is being done.
If it is cold, the eggs should be kept covered, and the work done
as rapidly as possible. Eggs may be satisfactorily tested in sunlight
by hanging a dark cloth over the window with a round hole cut in
it a little smaller than an ordinary egg. If a large number of eggs
are to be tested care should be exercised in locating the tester. If not
at the proper height it will become tiresome to hold the arm extended
toward the tester. It may be found convenient to have the tray of eggs
at the left of the tester, and in front of the operator. There should be
an empty tray at the right on which to put the eggs which prove satis-
factory. There should also be two small baskets handy, one for
infertile, and one for dead germs. The person doing the testing
should stand a little to one side of the tester so that the right hand
is directly in front of it. In this way it is much easier for the
eyes if looking directly into the light. Take three eggs at a time
with the left hand and pass them to the right one at a time. Hold
them before the tester in the right hand, large end up. As the eggs
are tested, hold the good ones in the hand and place those con-
taining dead germs or that are infertile in their proper place. As
each handful is tested place the good ones on the empty tray
and take three more with the left hand. In this way a great
many eggs can be successfully tested in a short time without
breaking them. The first test should be made the seventh day.

HATCHING THE EGG. 37

White eggs may be tested the fourth or fifth day, but there are
generally weak germs which do not die until the sixth or seventh
day, and if testing is done earlier, these remain until the second
test. At first test an infertile egg is distinguished by a small dark
spot with spider-like veins branching from it in different direc-
tions. This is the embryo. Ii the embryo is living, it will be mov-
able. A small stationary dark spot, without the blood vessels, is a
dead germ, stuck to the shell. Other indications of the dead germ
are blood rings. These indicate a hemorrhage. A dead embryo
sometimes floats about in the white of the egg. If the egg con-
tents appear cloudy, with no indications of life, the germ has started
and died. Perfectly clear eggs are infertile. With proper condi-
tions of moisture and ventilation, the air cell in the large end of
the egg will not be much larger than in an unincubated egg, if the
testing is done on the seventh day or before. The usual time for
the second test is on or about the fourteenth day of incubation.

By this time the embryo should be so far developed that the space
between the air cell and the embryo should be very firm and dis-
tinct, the air cell being much larger than at first test. The
embryo will very often move about when held to the light. If
only partial development has taken place and the division between
the air cell and the chick is very dim, the egg is usually worth-
less. The above drawings were made from eggs which had just
completed the first seven days of incubation. Nos.1, 2 and 3 rep-
resent live germs. Nos. 4, 5 and 6 represent dead germs. No. 1
shows a weak germ, with a few blood vessels branching from it;
the rest of the egg being very clear and the lowest end of the yolk
is easily seen in the small end of the egg. No. 2 shows a strong
germ with a net work of blood vessels surrounding it. No. 3 is
the same egg turned half way around. The germ is not visible.
No. 4 shows a dead germ stuck to the shell with a blood ring
around it, the blood settled in this way from the burst vessels.
No. 5 represents an egg which once had life. A blood clot is visible
near the air_cell. No 6 shows a floating dead germ and blood

38 THE BUSINESS HEN,

clot, also a misplaced air cell. Eggs with air cells in such a posi-
tion often hatch.

THE HATCH.—Before the chick commences to pip the shell,
the operator should arrange the ventilators according to direc-
tions, also arrange the trays so the chicks will drop into the
nursery as they come toward the light. If pedigree trays are to
be used, they should be placed the eighteenth day, after which the
machine should be kept closed until the hatch is finished. If the
warm air is allowed to escape, the cold air rushes in chilling the
chicks. As soon as the hatch is completed, the egg trays should
be removed and the ventilators opened full width. After the
chickens have dried off thoroughly, the door can be fastened
open about a half inch at the top unless the weather is too cold.
The chickens should remain in the nursery until the afternoon
of the twenty-second day, then they can be removed to the
brooder. The trays, nursery drawers, if any, and the felt or burlap
diaphragm should be removed and given a thorough scraping and
then scrubbed with a stiff brush, using warm water or hot svap
and water. The disinfectant may be mixed in this or supplied
later with a spray pump. After disinfecting, the removable parts
should be placed in the sun to dry. If more hatching is to be done
the lamp may be left in and the eggs may be put on the trays
as soon as the machine is thoroughly dried and aired. If no more
eggs are to be incubated, close the machine and empty the oil
out of the lamp. This will prevent the evaporation of oil into the
heater, causing the lamp to smoke badly when relighted.

NATURAL INCUBATION.—Not all hens make good sitters.
Nervous or ugly hens will make poor work of hatching and will doubt-
less trample on some of the chicks before they are strong enough
to get out of the way. The best sitters are generally of the
general-purpose breeds. The hen, if allowed to choose her nesting
place, will often find some secluded spot in a heavy growth of
grass or weeds. Under such conditions perfect hatches are often
obtained, and it is customary to make the conditions as near as
possible like those. A piece of sod placed in the nest can easily
be shaped to conform with the hen’s body. This should be covered
with leaves, hay or short straw. The nest should not be placed
where the hen will have to fly to and from it, and should not be
so deep that she will have to jump down on the eggs when
returning; but deep enough to prevent the young chicks from
leaving the nest. Sitters should be placed where the other hens
cannot lay to them. If many are to be set at a time, it is best

HATCHING THE EGG. 39

to use a separate building or pen if one is available. If not, sev-
eral small coops can be constructed with run-ways attached. These
coops should contain a large, roomy nest, also a place for the hen
to dust in during stormy weather; and they should be high, afford-
ing plenty of air space. A common board roof is better than tin
or tar paper, for such a coop, as it does not draw heat so easily.
Before setting the hen, give her a good thorough dusting with lice
powder, then sift some powder into the nest. The hen should be
allowed to sit on china eggs for a few days before putting good
eggs under her, especially if she is moved from her usual resting
place. Do not use rotten eggs to start the hen with; they are
easily broken and are more or less filthy, at best. The eggs may
be tested the seventh day, and all clear eggs and dead germs
removed. In this way one hen will often cover two hen’s eggs, and
the other may be broken up or given a fresh lot of eggs,

CHAPTER IV.
BROODING.

“Dwelling on, with anxiety.”—Webster.

The rock that wrecks more poultrymen than all else, is raising
the necessary young stock. In other words, more people get dis-
couraged, give it up and go out of the business because they cannot
raise enough chicks to keep their flock up as it should. The trouble
is not in hatching the eggs, but in rearing the chick after it is
hatched. There are a good many incubators made that will, if given
good fertile eggs, hatch a large per cent of strong chicks. We never
worry over the hatching part. The machines.are in a cellar where
there is a fairly even temperature, and they are bunched so it is
easy to care for them. But after the hatching come entirely different
circumstances. The chicks are taken to small brooders that are

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SMALL OUTDOOR BROODER.

scattered around an acre of land, or else taken to the long pipe
brooder-house, and now their troubles commence.

In the small outdoor brooder we have instead of the even tem-
perature of the incubator cellar, a variation, 50° to 75° between noon
and midnight, and we have to guard against getting them too hot
and weakening the chicks or having them get chilled, which is still
worse for them.

The small outdoor brooder is an ideal way to raise healthy
chicks, if anyone has time to attend to them properly. The great
trouble is, it takes so many brooders and so much running around
to care for many chicks that way, and in stormy weather it is almost
out of the question to give the chicks the proper care. Anyone down
on his knees behind one of these little brooders in a driving rain-

BROODING. 41

storm trying to fix the lamp, knows what trouble means. Now the
other extreme is the long pipe brooder-house, which is the easiest
way to care for little chicks, for you can work inside, storms cease
to worry, and the temperature is more even; the chicks are not likely
to get chilled, and they are together where you can care for them
handily. But because the chicks are together there is much greater
danger of disease spreading among them.

The runs soon get foul, and unless the surface soil is changed
in the runs some way they become a menace, and in a few years a
brooder house is “to let’; some one has gone out of the business,
or else there is a fire and an expensive plant goes up in smoke. These
are the extremes, and I would advise neither of them for the best
results. We come naturally to the colony house brooder, as some-
thing large enough to accommodate 150 to 200 chicks, where the
caretaker can get inside and so care for them during severe storms,

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yet not so large that they cannot be readily moved to new ground
each year. The colony-house brooder system has been very care-
fully worked out at Cornell University, which has given us the
Cornell A type brooder.

When Prof. James E. Rice took charge of the poultry depart-
ment at Cornell he carried with him the idea of the gasoline-heated
colony-house brooder which they had been building and using on
their plant at Yorktown. Mr. White is still using one of the houses
built when Prof. Rice was on the farm, and has the best of success
rearing chicks in them. There are certain necessities which must be
provided the chick in the brooder which we never worry about when
the hen is caring for them. First is heat from some source, either
steam, hot water, hot air, or from their own bodies, as in the tiny
fireless brooders. The proper temperature for the baby chick is from
_90 to 100 degrees, and the brooder that will always give 100° at its

42 THE BUSINESS HEN.

warmest place is right in this particular. Along with the right tem-
perature must be fresh air, which should be supplied freely, but never
must cold air or a draft be allowed to strike the chicken. Plenty
of exercise must be provided, which can be done by feeding in the
fine litter on the floor of the brooder so the little fellows must
scratch for their living. Chicks running with the hen get too much

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exercise unless the hen is confined part of each day. But the average
brooder caretaker seems to think that as long as the chick eats
well and does not “holler” he is all right; then when the chick goes
off his feet, he will lay it to the brooder, forgetting that no brooder
can know more than the one caring for it.

Some advantages of this Cornell gasoline-heated colony brooder
house are that it gives plenty of pure air, without drafts; provides

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Give le held haater

SIDE VIEW BROODER-HOUSE, Fic.8 SECTIONAL VIEW. Fria. 9.

proper temperature, plenty of sunlight, a place for the chicks to
exercise, and is roomy for the attendant. The building is eight feet
square inside, side walls two feet, and is six feet from floor to top
of ridge board. When intended to be movable, it should be set
on sills 2x12-inch, beveled at the ends to be used as runners, The
four floor joists are 2x4’s, halved into the runners, making a strong

BROODING. 43

frame that will hold its shape when hauled. A double floor is best,
the first being of rough material laid diagonally as a brace. On this
is put building paper, and the top floor of matched dressed lumber
is laid on this. Studding, 2x2 inch, is toe-nailed to floor flush with
edge and plates are nailed to top of the studding.
Figs. 8 and 9 (from Cornell Bulletin, 277) show sectional
—and side views of this brooder-house, and Figs. 10 and 12 give
vertical and ground plans of the gasoline heater, the same letters
applying to both cuts. A is the burner box; B a standard Dangier
lamp burner No. 154; C, pipe connecting burner and outside supply

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pipe; D, drip pan to carry outside any escaping gasoline, or when
fire goes out unexpectedly; E is door in front of burner box, covered
with wire cloth to admit air, draft being prevented by tin shield
inside. Air also enters through holes in bottom of rear end of
burner. F is chamber above heater box, where air entering by four
one-fourth-inch holes at inside end is warmed by contact and sent
through perforated tin of chick guard. G is floor collar fitting over
collar of chamber F. H is chick guard, fitting over collar, G, protect-
ing chicks from hot steam, I, and giving entrance for fresh air under
hover. I is stem connecting with radiator, K. L, is tin diaphragm
with thick layer of asbestos on top, supported three-fourths inch

44 THE BUSINESS HEN.

above bottom of radiator, and extending within three-fourths inch
of its outer rim. M is outlet to radiator. N connection between
outlet and vent pipe, P. O is sheet of tin nailed to rear wall of
house, through which vent pipe passes. Q is guard to prevent hover
from resting on radiator. R is gasoline tank; §, filler plug; T, filler
cap, and U outlet connecting with supply pipe, C.

The method of feeding the chick in the brooder makes less dif-
ference than the care with which that feeding is done, also the kind
of feed fed is not of as much importance as the condition of the
feed. You cannot exercise too much care in feeding. Never feed
any sour, mouldy or musty feed. Nearly all the trouble among
brooder chicks comes from this cause. Either the feed dealer has
ground up some feed that has started to spoil, or the feed has heated
after it was ground, and, although not bad enough to be readily
detected, it will cause indigestion and finally death to the chick.

_ To start the baby chick there is nothing finer than bread dried
in the oven, ground fine and, mixed with hard-boiled eggs, run shells
and all through a meat chopper; a few onions, also chopped fine,
is very good to add to this. In a few days we begin mixing chick
feed with this, gradually adding more until we are only feeding the
chick feed for the grain ration entirely, then at three weeks old
begin to add more wheat and cracked corn to the chick feed, and
so in a short time you have switched them on wheat and cracked
corn in equal parts without making any abrupt change in their feed.
This is one of the secrets of success in feeding, to give the greatest
possible variety of feed all the time and never make an abrupt change
in the feed. In feeding the soft feed or mash, follow much the
same plan, starting with clear, flaky bran in cake tins and switching
gradually over to the regular ration of mixed dry mash, and also
changing from the cake tins to deeper basins until you can use the
big outdoor hoppers that only have to be filled once a week, and
where the chicks run whenever they want to and help themselves.
Grit is best furnished by having the floor of the brooder covered
with nice sharp sand, which should be renewed every time the
brooder is cleaned. Later, when the chicks are fed on the range,
the grit should be scattered over the range; this is a much better
way than small hoppers in the brooder. For green feed there is
nothing better than fine chopped onions and lettuce for early; later
on a clover sod placed in the brooder is greatly relished. But we
should get the little chicks out on the grass just as soon as it is
possible. The weather and temperature will change this rule, but
we like to get them out on the ground when one week old; at least
for an hour at the middle of the day, and just as soon as they can

}

BROODING. 45

be trusted to go inside if they feel cold at all, they can be let out
in the morning and not shut up until night. Another necessity for
little chicks is plenty of fresh water always before them. The water
basins should never be allowed to become dirty or dry. If the chicks
become thirsty because their basins are dry, you are in for trouble,
for when water is given they will pile up around the basins, and a
lot of drenched little chicks will result, which may cause chills and
heavy loss.

Some partisans of the long pipe brooder-house system claim
that you can raise the chicks there until three weeks old and then
place them out in fireless brooders on the range where they can
develop. This is all right in theory, and although all poultrymen
admit a chick has very little brains, yet they have a wonderful home
instinct and, if possible to get around it, should not be moved from
one brooder to another. It is much better to move the brooder,
chicks and all, than to try to move the chicks to new quarters while
they are small. Great loss has frequently occurred after moving
chicks to new quarters by their huddling on account of fright at the
strangeness of their new quarters.

The many diseases of chicks should not come under the head
of brooding, although they are all part of the anxiety of the poultry-
man, and many of them occur only during the early or “brooder
stage” of the chick’s life, and are nearly all caused by some neglect
or blunder of the one running the brooder. Neither should vermin
come in this chapter, although they are the torment of the poultry-
man’s life, especially during the brooding season, and must always
be taken account of when figuring on the season’s work. ‘The old
saying, “Not every egg becomes a chicken,” is true, and with the
best of care “not every chicken becomes a hen or even a rooster.”
The awful loss among brooder chicks is responsible for a new busi-
ness called the “baby chick” trade. There are lots of poultrymen
who have ample capacity in their incubators for all their needs if
they could only raise a fair proportion of the chicks hatched. But
as the season advances and they figure up their mortality, in despera-
ation they send to some hatchery and buy baby chicks by the thou-
sand in order to come somewhere near the number of birds they
need to fill their houses. Of course there is a demand for these
baby chicks from people who have no incubators, but that this is
small can be reasoned, because anyone going into the poultry busi-
ness extensively will have his own incubators, as the hatching is the
easiest part of the business. |

Some years ago it took a whole lot of nerve to pack a lot of
freshly hatched chickens in a box and ship them away by express..

46 THE BUSINESS HEN.

and if the one who first tried it was very familiar with the express
companies’ methods how surprised he must havé been to find the
chicks had arrived safely at their destination! From some such
small experiment has grown the new business, that of selling and
shipping baby chicks or “day olds” as they are sometimes called.
This business is done by large hatcheries, in mammoth incubators
and on an immense scale. There are men with their incubator
capacity of many thousands of eggs who make a business of hatching
and shipping baby chicks all over the country. Many smaller breeders
are advertising eggs for hatching and baby chicks at the same time,
counting on hatching the eggs they can’t sell for others to hatch.
This is no business for the amateur to start, as only an expert with
the incubators can be sure of “good hatches,” and there is no money
in anything but the best of hatches from vigorous stock, for one has
to get a reputation for strong vitality in the chicks if he would sell
twice in the same néighborhood. It takes lots of nerve for a lover
of chickens to take a hundred of the little downy balls and pack
them in a flat box, nail down the cover and leave them to the tender
mercies of the express company. Yet there are thousands shipped
every day throughout the hatching season. Baby chicks must be
shipped direct from the incubators before they have been fed. We
commonly use a box with sides about five inches high and large
enough to hold 100 or more chicks, first spreading some muslin or
burlap over the bottom of the box, on which we spread a good
layer of cotton and then fold back the cloth on which we then place
the baby chicks just enough so they will not pile up on each other,
then back over the chicks goes the cloth, to be again covered with
cotton and after folding back again over the cotton the box is ready
for the cover to be nailed on. Some shippers use feathers instead
of cotton, and it is wonderful how they will stand transportation if
rightly packed.

A CONNECTICUT MAN’S OUTFIT.

If the average poultryman would spend as much for a chick
raising outfit adapted to natural methods, as he does for equipment
based on artificial methods, he would get considerably better
results, and at the same time reduce the cost for labor and feed
materially. When I first began raising chickens I was not able
to find that anybody had put much thought into the problem of
raising chicks with a minimum of attention. The outfit illustrated
at Figs. 13-14 is the product evolved through experience, and after
several season’s use I cannot suggest any material modification. In
round numbers I have in one year raised to broiler size or beyond,

BROODING. 4?

700 chicks out of 1,000 hatched. So far as I could see practically
all that loss was due to lack of inherited vigor.

Given a good chick to start with, the problem is to protect
from vermin and storms, and at the same time maintain favorable
environment. The latter requirement means frequent change to
fresh ground and my “chickery” is designed to provide this with
_a minimum of labor. Everything is so that it is only necessary
to lift slightly on the end away from the coop and drag as far as
may be desired. On rainy days an old sack is thrown over the
open part of the top, so the storm danger is practically eliminated.

By running the eggs under the hen for nineteen days and then
shifting to the incubator to hatch, the little fellows have a couple
of days to get on their pins, safe from lice or being trodden under-
foot. ‘Then I take them out, grease their heads, put about a dozen
under a hen, and keep them in the “chickery” for three weeks.
When they are about a week old I grease their heads again, and

SMALL CHICK HOUSE. Fria. 13. WITH YARD ATTACHED. Fra. 14,

then make a final application when they are given free range.
For three weeks they seem perfectly contented in their confine-
ment, but after that they grow restless, and do better running free.

These outfits are 7 feet long over all, 2 feet wide and 20 inches
high. The chicks are fed commercial chick feed by means of an
automatic device made of wire screens. By pecking at this they
work out just what they need but no more. The slatted partition
lets the chicks into the feeding compartment, but keeps the hen
out. The saving in feed at 2%4 cents a pound is no small item
of advantage. The water can hangs from above, the same as the
feeder. The hen can reach it to drink all she pleases, but she
cannot tip it over, or scratch it full of dirt. Beef scrap is supplied
after the first week, in a little hopper tacked to the corner post,
opposite the feeder. The old hen is fed principally on whole corn.

With these outfits it is not necessary to go near the little
chicks oftener than once a day in good weather. Any attention
may be given after dark as well as at any other time. I have

48 THE BUSINESS HEN.

frequently gone out in the evening, moved the chicks to fresh
ground, filled up the water tanks and feeders, thrown in some whole
corn for the old hen’s breakfast, and then returned thirty-six hours
later to find everything all right. But best of all, the feed 1s right
there waiting the moment the chicks wake up in the morning,
and that is several hours earlier than a good many people realize.
System and the right equipment make it possible to raise first-class
chickens without much interference with the regular daily routine.

HOMEMADE BROODER.—“The material required is an
empty one-pound coffee can, a two-pound coffee can, a piece of gal-
vanized sheet iron 24x36 inches, with a hole in center that wiil just
fit the one-pound can, 85 feet of seven-eights-inch matched pine and
six feet of one-half-inch pine. Make the four sides of the box nine
inches high; that will just take in the sheet iron; put strips 7x1
inch inside the box two inches below top edge, for the sheet iron to

HOMEMADE BROODER. Fie, 15.

rest on. Take the one-pound can and cut slits a half inch apart all
around the top edge; cut just down to where the bulge in the tin is
(about one-half inch), put the slit part through the sheet iron and
bend the slit pieces down flat on the iron. The bulge prevents the
can from going through the iron, and if the slit pieces are ham-
mered down tight it makes nearly an air-tight job, but to make sure
that no fumes from the lamp get above the sheet iron it is better
to solder it tight. Place the iron in the box and nail strips on top
of iron, pressing it down tight on the under strips. Nail a floor of
24-inch stuff on top of box, cutting a hole in center the size of the
two-pound coffee can; slit the can like the other, bend the pieces
out and nail on top of floor, but first punch the top of can full of
t4-inch holes to let the hot air out. ‘Then bore five or six half-inch
holes on the two ends through sides of box between sheet iron and
floor of brooder to let in air; also four holes in each end of box

BROODING. 49

one inch in diameter near bottom edge to let in air for lamp. The
rest is plain carpenter work. Take a piece nine inches wide, length
of box, and nail or screw on back end, letting it come down only an
inch or so below the edge of box. Then nail on sides, using two
2x2-inch posts 30 inches long to hold up front end. I line the hover
part with 14-inch pine 6% inches wide, nailing on strips at top and
bottom edge one-half inch square, so that it makes a half-inch air
space on ends and back.

“The hover cover of 7£-inch stuff rests on this lining and is not
fastened, can be lifted out to clean out brooder, and as chicks get
old enough is removed entirely. To the front of hover cover are
tacked strips of cloth two inches wide, reaching the floor. Some
of these cloth strips can be turned up on top of cover to let out hot
air on warm days. On front part of sides bore holes as shown in
figure, and make a sliding cover so as to close or open these holes.
The amount of air entering the half-inch holes above sheet iron
and passing over chicks is governed by these ventilators. ‘The front
half of roof is screwed to sides and front and middle bar. The back
half is loose and projects three inches under front part; can be
lifted up as shown by dotted lines, then by lifting hover cover the
floor can be easily cleaned.”

CHAPTER V.
THE FIRST SUMMER.

The business hen should make her start early in the year.
Hatch as early as possible and get the chick well on its way before
hot weather comes on. You want the pullets to begin laying early,
while the old hens are moulting. This means 200 days or more of
growth, and this growth must be rapid and steady if you expect
the pullet to attend to business early. If the early part of the
season is warm the chicks will be weaned at eight to 10 weeks
old. Then the old hen deserts them, or they leave the brooder
and must shift for themselves. The growth they make during this
“first Summer’ determines most of their usefulness. We should give
the pullets free range, within reasonable limits. We find an apple
orchard with reasonably low trees a good place for the pullets to
make their growth. They will occupy the brooder or colony
house for a time, but finally, as they gain size and strength, will
fly up and roost in the trees. They do no harm, but benefit them-
selves in this way, and we permit them to stay in the trees until
late Summer or early Fall, when they are put into the Winter
houses. It is something of a job to catch these tree roosters, but
the free life through the Summer does them good. If the pullets
are kept free from lice and given what they want of pure water
and clean food they will pretty much take care of themselves, and
be the better for doing it. The great point is to keep them con-
tented and growing steadily, with plenty of exercise. The old
plan of feeding is now giving way to the modern method of keep-
ing a hopper of “dry mash” constantly before them, so that they
can help themselves at will. A feeding outfit used in Minnesota
is shown at Fig. 18. A “dry mash” is a mixture of grains or
dried meat—much like the old wet mash with the water left out.
There is some controversy as to the value of dry mash in unlimited
quantities for laying stock, but it seems to be demonstrated that for
young birds the dry food is superior. It is a more economical way
of feeding—saving much labor and time. One method of dry
mash feeding is described by A. F. Hunter.

He uses a commercial dry mash mixture already mixed, but if
a man is raising chickens on a large scale he may mix his own dry

THE PIRS E SUMMER. 51

mash. A good mixture is recommended by the Maine Experiment
Station. This consists of 200 pounds of wheat bran, 100 pounds
cornmeal, 100 pounds middlings, 100 pounds gluten meal or brewers’
grains, 100 pounds linseed meal and 100 pounds of beef scrap.
These materials are spread on the floor in layers, one above the
other, and thoroughly mixed with a shovel or hoe. Smaller
amounts in the same proportion can be mixed in the same way.
Mr. Hunter thinks this dry mash is too forcing for some breeds, at
least, and he would recommend leaving out the linseed meal from
the mixture. The commercial feeds often contain small quantities
of buckwheat, some sunflower seed and Kaffir corn, all of which
add to the variety, and that pleases the birds. This dry mash is
fed to the young birds in a hopper, such as is described in the
picture, Fig. 16. One picture shows the hopper complete, and the
other with the top taken off, so that it may be filled. The roof is
made of a good quality of roofing paper, and as shown in the pic-

DRY MASH HOPPER. Fie. 16. WITH COVER REMOVED. Fre. 17.

ture, projects four inches beyond the edges of the trough, and this
protects the grain from a driving rain. This hopper can be made
of any desired size. The one shown in the picture holds about half
a bushel of grain on each side. The slats, through which the hens
put their heads to feed, are made of lath, and there is a slanting
lip made of a planed lath along the front of the trough, which pre-
vents the grain being thrown out when the birds are feeding. Such
a hopper will provide a dry mash for about 50 birds, and require
filling once a week, so there is little labor required in caring for the
birds. In some systems of colony feeding the water supply is pro-
.vided by filling a barrel with water with a faucet draining into a
small pan. The faucet is arranged so that it drops slowly, drop by
drop. This provides water enough for the chicks and can be regu-
lated properly, and the barrel, if covered, will hold pure water
enough for a week’s supply. In this system little labor is required,
and the chicks grow rapidly and well. Under Mr. Hunter’s system
the cockerels are leit with the pullets until the former weigh about

52 THE BUSINESS HEN.

3% pounds; that is, for Plymouth Rocks or Wyandottes. At this
weight the cockerels are taken out and shut up for fattening. We
would rather remove the cockerels earlier and fatten them from the
time they can be separated from the pullets.

It is understood that the pullets alone are to be fed in this way.
It would not pay to handle the young cockerels in like manner.
They should be sold as soon as a profitable buyer can be found,
or eaten at home. As soon as they can be detected, separate them
from the pullets and put them in a small covered pen by them-
selves. With the pullets, the object is to force them to make bone
and muscle without too much fat, while the cockerels are not to
be kept any longer than is necessary. Running at large, they will
worry and fight and eat their heads off without growing fat enough
to sell. Cooped up and stuffed with a fattening ration they can be
sold as squab broilers or as larger birds. There is a good demand
for squab broilers, weighing from 12 to 14 ounces each.

MINNESOTA HOPPER. Fic. 18. FATTENING COOP. Fa. 19.

It requires considerable skill to pick a squab broiler nicely.
The skin is tender and the appearance of the bird adds much to
its value. A broiler with the skin torn in pieces would be rejected
by many buyers. Skillful pickers of larger birds frequently give
up in disgust after trying to pick the broilers. Only those with
yellow skin and legs are desired, and, of course, they must be plump
and well shaped. These little birds are deprived of food for at least
12 hours before killing, so as to have the crop empty; hang the
chickens by both feet and bleed them by opening the mouth and
with a sharp knife cutting the main artery at the base of the tongue.
Draw all the blood quickly, pull out the large wing and tail feathers
first, then the smaller feathers and finally the pin feathers.

The greatest care must be taken in picking the wings and
breast, for there the skin tears easily. As soon as the feathers are
off throw the little bird in ice water, as this cools it quickly and
prevents discoloring. When ready for shipment take them from
the ice water and pack in pounded ice. Squab broilers are a luxury,

THE FIRST. SUMMER. 53

high priced at that, and like the production of fancy strawberries
or apples, certified milk or any other form of luxurious food,
require special knack and “instinct” to do the work properly.
Unless a man can master come of these qualities he would better
let the birds grow larger and sell as large broilers or roasters.

Cockerels fed well until they weigh about two pounds often
make very profitable brothers to the business hen—far more so
than when they are permitted to run at large. One cause of loss
on some poultry farms is the failure to handle the cockerels prop-
erly. Where they are wanted for breeders, of course, they should
not be handled in this way, but given free range and fed like the
pullets, but the great majority of them should be put by themselves
as soon as they are recognized and fed a fattening ration. A good
mixture is four parts by weight of cornmeal, two parts wheat mid-
dlings and one part beef scraps. This is wetted with skim-milk
into a soft mush or porridge, wet enough to run from the spoon.
When cockerels are fed all they will eat of this, with plenty of
water and kept quietly in the shade, they will grow fast and give
soft, sweet meat, far superior to that of the skinny bird, which runs
at large. Anyone who has ever tasted the flesh of “milk fed”
poultry will appreciate such meat, and this plan of separating the
cockerels early and feeding them this porridge may well be prac-
ticed even by those who have but a small flock.

Some poultrymen who follow the colony plan—that is, hens in
small houses scattered over a large field—winter the pullets in the
housés, which serve as brooders early in the season. A cheap and
sensible house of this character is shown in the illustrations, Figs.
20-21-22-23, and thus described by C. M. Gallup, with whom it
originated. Early in the season the little chicks can be brooded in
such a house and later a flock of matured pullets wintered in it.

“In addition to the advantages common to all colony houses,
this design has several all its own. The space beneath the floor
provides shade from the hot sun, shelter from storms and protec-
tion against hawks. The absence of a foundation or underpinning
leaves nothing to harbor rats. Then the weight of the structure
makes moving to fresh ground a very simple matter. One horse
will drag it any distance, and for a matter of a few hundred feet
it can be kedged along with a chain and a crowbar. Ample ventila-
tion at night is provided by the cloth screen, which slides in
grooves. If birds are to be confined during the day, a wire screen
is desirable. The depth of the house makes cleaning with a hoe
easy, so that the lack of headroom is no objection. I use this house
for an outdoor brooder shed early in the season, a roosting coop

54 THE BUSINESS HEN.

later on, and then do the culling and leave the pullets right where
they feel at home. Then there is no break in the continuity of
their lives just as they are ready to lay.

“The house is seven feet long by five feet deep, three feet high
at the rear, with a pitch of three inches per foot to the roof. The
frame is of ordinary hardwood boards, 3x7% inches, assembled as

FRAME OF HOUSE. Fic. 20. REAR VIEW. Fic. 21.

shown by the picture. The sills are 2x6 inches, and the flooring is
%-inch stuff, laid parallel to the ends of the house. The sheathing
is 7-16-inch Southern pine, tongued and grooved. This is nailed
vertically on the ends, and horizontally over front, top and back.
This makes the whole thing remarkably rigid for its weight, and
there is no tendency for the house to rack when it is moved or
propped up. The patent roofing, which covers the top, ends and
rear, makes it wind-tight and dry. Battened down with lath, this
covering lasts for a good many years. The materials used in build-
ing this house cost almost exactly six dollars three years ago.
Experience developed the interesting fact that the hens were just
as ready and willing to lav in a nest outside the house, as one

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Soe Vez
Se" iba gape nae

AS LAYING HOUSE. Fra. 22. AS BROODER HOUSE, Fie. 23.

within, so that makes a further saving of floor space possible. The
perches are simply light horses, which are taken outside for spray-
ing, and to make cleaning out easy. The size of this house makes
it just right for a breeding pen. Of unmated females, it will house
25 without much crowding. In growing capons, I have wintered
35 or 40 in it and had them do well.”

THE FIRST SUMMER. 55

The lighter and more active breeds of cockerels may be fattened
in a pen, but the heavier breeds will make quicker growth in a
fattening crate. The Minnesota Experiment Station recommends
a crate such as is shown at Fig. 19, and described as follows:

“The fattening crate is quite easily constructed and will last for
years if properly made. It is usually six feet long, 16 inches wide,
18 inches high, and is divided into three equal-sized compartments,
each holding from four to six birds, as the case may be. The slats
or laths, which are usually 1% inches wide, are placed 1% inches
apart at the ends, sides and top of the crate, but those in front are
placed vertically and are two inches apart, giving the birds plenty
of room to put their heads through to eat from the trough. The
.floor of the crate is made of slats, which run lengthwise and are
placed one inch apart, leaving a one-inch space on either side
_ between the first lath and the sides of the crate. The crate should
stand on short legs or trestles to allow for convenience in cleaning
out the droppings which fall to the floor. The trough is made
the full length of the crate, and should be about three or four
inches deep.”

At this station the pens for fattening cockerels are made movable.
The roosting coop for such a pen is three feet wide, six feet long,
two feet high at back and three feet in front. The yard is made
of two hurdles of wire netting 12 feet long and 18 inches high and
one six feet wide. A large hurdle covers the top. ‘This outfit will
hold 25 to 50 cockerels and is moved around from day to day.

CHAPTER VI.
THE BUSINESS HENHOUSE.

The writer of this chapter wishes to describe the construction of
a poultry building which is comfortable, inexpensive, and simple in
design, and to include in this discussion the principles to be con-
sidered when designing poultry houses. It is, of course, impossible
to meet all conditions or suit all tastes in one type of house.
Familiarity with the principles of poultry-house construction, how-
ever, makes it possible for one to mould this type of house, or any -
other, into a type more suitable to his tastes and convenience, and
to climatic conditions.

It is of prime importance that the house be located in a con-
venient, accessible place, one protected from the cold Winter winds,
and at the same time exposed to warmth of the morning and mid-day
sun. A southern or southeastern slope, because of the more direct
exposure to the sun’s rays, is consequently more desirable. Such
a slope, furthermore, is drier, often making it possible for the fowls
to get on to dry ground several weeks earlier in the Spring and later
in the Fall. Sunshine, dryness, warmth and accessibility are the
influential factors in locating the site of the house.

In the construction of the “Business Henhouse” illustrated in
Fig. 24, a rectangular enclosure is staked out 16 feet wide and 32
feet long, with the long side running as near east and west as the
slope of the land and the nearness of other buildings will allow. A
trench about 12 inches wide is next dug around the edge of this
enclosure, the outer edge of the trench being about three inches out-
side of the 16x32 foot enclosure. In ordinary soils this trench should
be about 30 inches deep, but in sandy or gravelly soils it need not
exceed one foot in depth. The trench should then be filled with
cobblestones or coarse gravel to within four inches of the ground
‘level. In this manner a well-drained bottom is prepared for the
foundation wall of the house, and prevents its heaving and cracking
by frost. A cement wall six inches thick makes an excellent founda-
tion for the building. This wall should be at least six inches above
the ground so as to turn surface wash aside and to make a raised
floor possible. If the ground is uneven the wall will need to be
higher in places to bring the top edge level. The outer edge of this

57

THE BUSINESS HENHOUSE.

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58 THE BUSINESS HEN.

top should coincide with the original outline of the proposed build-
ing. All is now ready for the floor.

In Fig. 25 details of the roost and nest arrangements are
given. K is the roost; M, droppings board; B, nests, and N, drop
door to nests. At the rear is a wire-screened jail for broody
hens, and in front is the shield O, protecting the roosts from drafts.
Fig. 26 from the center front shows arrangement of cloth curtain

oe
CENTER FRONT. Fic. 26. END VIEW. Fie. 27.
and small exit for hens, and one end of the house, with place for
feed hopper, water pan and outer door is shown at Fig. 27.

The warmth and dryness of the house greatly depends upon the
construction of the floor. The average soil is sufficiently heavy to
retain enough moisture to make the house damp and exceedingiy
dangerous to the fowls’ health during certain seasons of the year.
This condition can be forestalled by filling in with cobblestones,
gravel or cinders, The level of the floor should be raised above that

THE BUSINESS HENHOUSE. 59

of the ground outside, even if the dirt floor is to be used. ‘The
cement floor, however, is preferable to either the wooden or earth
floor, since it is so much more easily cleaned and freed from rats,
mice and vermin. Moreover, it is dry when properly constructed.
To make it so, fill in the space between the foundation walls to
within two inches of the top level with stones and gravel. The
last two inches can then be filled with concrete similar to that used
in the wall. If the mixture is made rather watery, the top can be
troweled off smooth and level, making it unnecessary to add a
finishing or wearing surface of richer and finer material. A good
thickness of tarred paper laid beneath the layer of concrete helps to
keep moisture from coming up into the floor. A well-drained floor,
however, will be dry without this precaution.

The framework of this house can be constructed from two by
four-inch timbers, as illustrated in Fig. 24. If the roof is very
flat the rafters should be of heavier material.

One thickness of tight matched boards is sufficient covering for
any part of the building. In localities where the temperature goes
below zero for weeks at a time, the extra protection of a roofing
paper, on the side exposed to the cold winds, is desirable. ‘The house
can be made still warmer by covering the inside studding with
unmatched boards, or fine mesh wire, and filling the air space with
straw. ‘The inside boards should be far enough apart to allow cir-
culation of air in the space between the walls, or it would be even
colder than the single matching. Unfortunately, such a wall fur-
nishes an excellent hiding and breeding place for mice and vermin,
and is, consequently, advised in extremely cold climates only.

The sides should be built low in order to lessen the amount of
air which the fowls will have to warm. For this reas6n also the
house is often ceiled with either matched boards or straw, sup-
ported loosely by boards or poultry wire. When used, the ceiling
extends from the front plate to the rafters opposite, thence down
to the rear plate. Although a ceiling adds to the expense of the
house, it does make the house warmer in the Winter and cooler in
the Summer by virtue of the fact that the air space above holds the
cold coming through the roof in the Winter, and the heat in the
Summer. When using either kind of ceiling openings should be
made in each end of the peak in order to allow a slight circulation
of air in both Winter and Summer, otherwise the extreme outside
heat, or cold, will eventually penetrate this air space and make the
ceiling as hot or cold as the roof. The amount of ventilation given
this chamber should, of course, be greater in the Summer than in
the Winter.

60 THE BUSINESS HEN.

A ceiling is more appropriate in a gable or combination-roof
house than in a shed-roof house. The shed-type house is rarely
ceiled unless very wide and very high in front. The shed-type roof,
however, has the advantage of being easy to construct. It turns all
the water to the back and gives a high front exposure to the sun’s
heat. It does not make as attractive a building as the combination
or gable. The combination style utilizes a lower rear wall and a
higher front exposure than the gable. In this way it economizes on
both lumber and cubic feet air space. Both these types require that
the rafters be securely tied to prevent the weight of the roof from
spreading the plates. The tie beams should be near the peak unless
the roof is ceiled.

Undoubtedly, the most economical covering for the roof is a
good grade of roofing paper or tin on a tight board surface. Such
roofing material makes it possible to use a flat pitched roof. If
the roof is shingled instead, the pitch or slope must be at least one-
third, or 30 degrees, thus increasing the air space of the house, and
unless the roofing boards are tight, making a looser and colder roof.
Such construction makes the inside ceiling more necessary.

Probably most important of all is the front of the house where
the glass windows and other openings are placed. All the openings
are placed on the one side, so that by keeping the other three sides
tightly closed a draft is prevented from passing through the open
front and out through the opening on the other side, or vice versa.
The glass windows should be large, and placed vertically extending
from a few inches above the floor to a point six or seven feet higher.
This position of the windows allows the sun’s rays to reach every
part of the floor from front to back, thereby keeping the house
brighter, drier and healthier. The windows can be opened by slid-
ing to one side, or by swinging outward from hinges placed at the
top or bottom of the sash, but when arranged as in Fig. 24 the
separate sash are fastened together and hinged at the side to open
like a door. Enough blank wall space should be left at the side of
the window to allow it to open fully against the wall where it will
not be broken. The window opening should be covered with poultry
mesh wire, so as to prevent the fowls escaping when the windows are
open. This wire can best be put on the window studding and be
cased in by the siding. The size of the windows to be used should
provide about one square foot of glass for every 10 to 16 square feet
of floor space. The “business henhouse” has one square foot to
every 12.8 square feet floor space. Each window has three sash of
six 8x10-inch lights fastened together and hinged to swing back
against the wall.

THE BUSINESS HENHOUSE. 61

An additional window covered with cloth is used for ventilating
this house. The size of this window should be varied according to
climatic conditions, and should be placed where it will allow the
least amount of draft to reach the fowls, especially while roosting.
The window in the “business henhouse” is 3x4 feet in size, and
placed near one end of each pen. ‘There is also a shield between
this window and the perches. ‘The curtain frame is covered with
light muslin and hinged at the top to swing up and fasten to the
ceiling. ‘The opening is covered with mosquito mesh wire which
serves to turn the storm and wind better than poultry mesh wire,
and makes it unnecessary to drop the cloth curtain except on very
cold nights or during prolonged storms. ‘This ventilating window
should be placed at least three feet above the floor in order that the
incoming air may be broken up and distributed before reaching the
fowls on the floor.

For Summer, additional ventilation is necessary. It is well to
have a small trap door in the back of the pen which can be opened
as soon as the hot weather comes and closed tightly in the Fall to
remain so all Winter. If perches are piaced in the rear of the pen a
shield should be placed in front of this opening to prevent the air
blowing on to the roosting fowls.

INTERIOR ARRANGEMENT.

When considering the comfort of the fowls and the convenience
of the caretaker, the interior arrangement of the pen is nearly as
important as the construction of the building. The warmest part of
the building should be selected for the perches. It is even advisable
in very coid climates to give them the additional protection of double
walls and a cloth curtain in front. The arrangement of the roosts
in the “business henhouse” is such that the fowls of the adjoining
pens are next to the same partition where each flock can be of mutual
assistance in providing warmth. ‘The perches are placed high enough
to make their removal unnecessary when cleaning the droppings
platform. All the perches must be of the same height, or the fowls
will fight for the higher warmer ones. Each fowl should be allowed
from six to eight inches linear perch room. ‘The droppings platform,
on the other hand, may have a slight forward pitch. This will keep
the fowls from squatting on it at night, as well as facilitating clean-
ing. Usually at one end of this platform a small space is parti-
tioned off by a wire screen and fitted with a hardware cloth, or slat-
bottom frame to be used for breaking up sitters. The slatted bottom
can be removed when cleaning or when the cocp is used for an extra
cock bird or injured fowl.

62 THE BUSINESS HEN.

When droppings platforms are used, which is advisable, they
make an excellent cover for the nests. However, the nests are fre-
quently built on the side wall and a separate slanting cover put over
them. If placed under the droppings board as shown in Fig. 25,
the nests are made in the form of a frame with a bottom of wood or
quarter-inch mesh hardware cloth. Each nest should be about 14
inches square and six to eight inches deep. A hinged door covering
the, front darkens the nests and makes them seem secluded to the
fowls. They are entered from the enclosed runway behind which
has an opening at either end. These openings can be closed with
small sliding doors and the broody hens and pullets kept from roost-
ing in the nests at night.

Each pen should be further equipped with a dry mash, self-
feeding hopper, a water pan, and with a grain supply can in case the
pen is distant from the feed barn. The feed hopper and water pan
may be placed on a raised platform from 15 to 18 inches above the
floor both to give greater floor space and to prevent the litter from
being kicked into the feed and water when the fowls work in the
litter. These devices should be arranged in the most convenient
places left vacant after the doors and perches and nests are located.
The entire back wall or side wall can be used for these purposes in
the “business henhouse.” No obstruction should be placed along
the front wall because the passageway to adjoining pens is so close
to it. Many would wish to put a box or form in front of the win-
dows to be filled with dust-bath material. This would not be advan-
tageous in the “business henhouse.” ‘The box should be put at the
rear or on one side.

The partitions between pens in open front houses should be solid
from the floor to the ceiling. Wire partitions endanger the fowls to
drafts. Half board partitions finished with cloth to the ceiling are
sometimes used, but the partition near the roosting chamber should
always be of tight boards. The door between pens is located in the
most convenient place with reference to the roosts and nests and
feed hoppers. It is placed in about the center of the partition when
the roosts are along the rear side, but in houses arranged like the
“business henhouse” with the perches along the partition wall, the
door can best be placed near the front. With the door in this posi-
tion there is little chance of a draft between pens. All partition
doors and exits should have a six-inch threshold to hold the litter
in the pens. This description of the “business henhouse,” and the
principles upon which it is based apply to many other styles of
buildings and make it possible for one to alter the size or style of
this house to their own desire or requirements.

THE BUSINESS \HENHOUSE. 63

The “business henhouse” is designed for flocks of about one
hundred fowls. The two pens make it possible to separate the old
from the young, or the better from the poorer ones. For smaller
flocks the same design can be used with shorter measurements. This
style also enables the construction of a long house with a number
of pens.

REMODELING HOUSES OF FAULTY CONSTRUCTION.

It is quite as possible also to use these principles in remodeling —
an old house or fitting up an unused barn or outbuilding into a com-
fortable poultry house. Occasionally after building. a house of
approved design it is found to be too cold or dark, or poorly ven-
tilated and damp. At such times a slight alteration or addition will
often remedy this condition and make the house desirable instead of
dangerous.

A frequent mistake is to build a house with high walls back and
front and without ceiling, making it very spacious and cold. It is
a simple matter to spike 2x4-inch supports to the side walls. and
with cross beams to construct a ceiling about 6%4 feet above the
floor. ‘This ceiling can be covered with tight-fitting boards, or with
straw 18 inches thick, supported by poultry mesh wire or by loosely
joined boards. In either case, there should be a small ventilating
door to this air space above in each end of the house.

A less serious error is to use an alley-way. It is an expensive
- luxury, occupying valuable space which cannot be used by the fowls
for exercise, but has to be warmed up by them. Such an alley-way
can easily be torn out and the pens arranged as suggested in the
“business henhouse.” Practically, the only advantage of an alley-
way house is its cleaner appearance and separate entrance for exhibit-
ing stock to visitors. As such pens are generally arranged they do
not expedite work even in long houses. It is also a fallacy to believe
that the fowls are frightened more when fed directly in the pen than
from the alley-way. They soon become accustomed to the feeder,
and can be watched more closely to discover any sick or poor ones
which would be hidden from the alley.

Probably, the most faulty construction in the old types of houses
is the lack of proper ventilation. In those styles ventilation was
possible only when the door was opened and closed by the feeder, or
through small exit doors. Such houses cannot accommodate their
full capacity of fowls, and the moisture given off in the fowls’
breath is retained in the pen, making it damp, and in the Winter
frosty. This moisture-laden air should have a chance to escape and
drier, pure air take its place. Such a condition can be provided by
substituting a porous cloth curtain in place of a glass window, or

64 THE BUSINESS HEN.

if there is too little glass area already, by cutting an opening in
the front of the house and fitting in a cloth curtain similar to the
one in the “business henhouse.” This opening should provide about
one square foot of cloth to about 16 to 20 square feet of floor space.
Under normal conditions this ventilation will keep the house dry and
the air pure. Other methods of ventilation have been found less
satisfactory, and in some instances, the more expensive systems do
not work at all, due to the slight difference in temperature of the
air inside and outside. When fresh air is abundant, a larger num-
ber of fowls can be kept in the same pen with safety. The working
rule is four square feet of floor space per fowl.

During extremely cold weather even the cloth window does not
always prevent the frost from collecting on the walls. The frost
will usually be found in houses where the fowls are roosting at the
back or coldest side, where the moisture in their breath striking
against the cold wall is condensed and frozen before it is removed.
To relieve this condition tightly enclose the roosting chamber on
the back and top by ceiling from the droppings platform up the rear
studding and under the rafters, leaving a space so that the air can
circulate between the rafters and entirely about this chamber as rep-
resented in Fig. 25. The circulation of air within this space caused
by the warmth of the fowls roosting nearby carries off and dis-
tributes the cold before it penetrates to the inner boards. In this
way the air within the roosting chamber, moist with breath, is
allowed to pass off before being condensed and frozen. It is occasion-
ally necessary, however, to enclose this chamber on the front with a
cloth curtain hanging several inches in front of the perches to allow
sufficient air to enter and give the fowls opportunity to get down
to the floor early in the morning. Such a curtain must be used
judiciously, since there is much danger of overheating and weaken-
ing the fowls if it is dropped on warm nights.

Dampness in a house also comes through the floor. Ground
floors which are not raised on the inside or filled in with sand, or
concrete floors constructed without under drainage, allow the mois-
ture to rise through them and into the house. The dirt floor can be
remedied by filling in with sand or by building a concrete floor if
found to be necessary. The dampness in an improperly drained
concrete floor can be temporarily lessened by covering it with an
inch or two of sand. When concrete floors are laid in early Winter,
their drying can be hastened by covering them with sand. This will.
also help protect them from freezing. In these and similar ways a
cold, damp and disagreeable house can be made warm, dry and
comfortable.

Ee BO SUN ESS HENIOUS E. 65
COLONY HOUSES VS. LONG HOUSES.

The design of the “business henhouse” is adaptable to either the
single pen colony house or a long house with several pens. Usually
the farmers’ small flock requires but a small house with two pens.
Larger houses or more of them, however, are necessary for the
occasional farmer or poultryman who keeps several hundred mature
fowls. It is the custom among such poultrymen either to scatter
their flocks in colony houses or to keep them in one or two long
houses. Each system has advantages and some disadvantages.

The colony house system allows the fowls greater freedom.
They can go in all directions from their house, whereas in the long
house they are usually restricted to one side, and frequently to a
narrow patch leading away from their pens. A hen always wishes to
get on the other side of the fence, and for this reason, if no other,
do away with fences as much as possible and instead run the fowls
together in large outdoor flocks, or in colonies far enough apart so
that they do not mix easily. Fences are very expensive and a
nuisance in every way.

There is less chance of disease spreading from colony to colony ©
than from pen to pen in a long house. And because of the greater
freedom and the lesser contamination of the ground around a colony
house fowls get diseased less frequently. It is generally accepted
that fowls kept in small flocks give greater returns both in the num-
ber and the hatching power of the eggs produced. For these reasons
the colony system should be used for the breeding stock. The long
house system on the other hand, minimises the time and labor needed
in feeding and caring for the fowls, thereby enabling one to person-
ally manage a much larger plant. All of the work is done indoor
and under shelter, and because of the compactness of the plant many
labor-saving devices, such as the overhead feed car, can be used
advantageously. The long house also can be built much more
economically than the colony houses of the same capacity, for in
bringing two colony houses together one end of each house is saved.
For this reason, too, the long house is less exposed and is conse-
quently warmer.

Perhaps the greatest objection to the long house is the probable
contamination of the ground in front of the pens, unless the land be
very sandy. This condition can be prevented by using the double
yard system, with one yard in front and one in back. ‘These yards
can be used alternately, and one yard be cultivated and cropped while
the cther is used by the fowls. In this way contamination is pre-
vented, and in addition the valuable fertilizer from these fowls,
otherwise lost, is turned into excellent crops. A consideration of

66 THE BUSINESS HEN.

the advantages of each system leads to a natural combination of
the two methods, a combination which at present is practiced too
seldom. ‘This combination would make use of the colony houses for
the breeding stock only, and of the long houses for the bulk of the
stock kept primarily for egg production. This practice would pro-
vide the breeding stock in colony houses with conditions conducive
to the production of strong eggs capable of hatching out vigorous

Uses, = LAYING HOUSE. Fia. 28

chicks, and on the other hand it would enable the poultryman to
care for large numbers of laying hens in the long house with the
least amount of labor and expense.

The “New York State Model Laying House,” in use at
Cornell University, is shown at Fig. 28. This is a good illustra-
tion of the shed-type, fresh-air house. The back and ends, as well
as the roof, are covered with paper to make the house tighter.
There is a Summer ventilator above the glass windows and a

| Li ie

A TWO-FAMILY HOUSE, Fia. 29.

covered dust wallow just inside the lower sash. This house can be
used singly or in series.

Fig, 29 illustrates a two-pen colony breeding house, built by
D. J. Lambert, Apponaug, R. I. The shape of this house makes it
economical. The fowls roost next to the partition between pens.
The opening in front is covered by a frame of cloth, which swings
open against the side,

THE BUSINESS HENHOUSE. ; 67

A MAKESHIFT HOUSE.—Some good hen records are made
in cheap houses not built on scientific lines. Such a house is de-
scribed below. In such cases it is not so much the house as the
man who knows by instinct how to make the hens comfortable.

“What results would you expect from 75 hens wintered in a
coop of this cost? I had 75 May-hatched pullets to winter. I built
a coop 12x18 feet, inside measurement. The material was sod for
the sides; the roof was straw, covered with corn fodder; the floor,
Nature’s deodorizer, natural earth. I first selected a well-sheltered
location, then proceeded by setting three crotches, each crotch set
three feet deep. This for the peak of my roof. Next I set ordinary
six-foot fence posts on side four feet apart, two feet deep, leaving
sides of coop four feet high, plenty high enough for sides of any
coop. Then I spiked poles on to those fence posts on top, and
nailed on small poles on sides of posts; laid poles in those centet
crotches, then laid poles from post plates to crotch poles for rafters,

Ci oh
, ies
——— Mie Os

SOD AND POLE HOUSE. Fria. 30

and my frame was complete. I put in a window frame of plank on
south side 2x8 feet, covered same with muslin curtain (no glass) ;
but door in east end. I cut sod and sodded up sides; put a little
brush crosswise of rafter poles, covered with straw and shingled
with corn fodder. The foundation of my coop is raised slightly so
water runs away from it, which is very important. So my labor and
all would amount to about $12. I put pullets in coop in December
and they soon began laying. In January, February, March and April
I averaged close to five dozen eggs per day. My income was a little
better than $1 per day clear of feed; and they have continued lay-
ing well all Summer till molting this Fall. Now they are mostly
through the molt and are going right into the egg producing busi-
ness again.”

CHAPTER VII.
DISEASES OF POULTRY.

It is unquestionably true that a large number of the failures in
poultry enterprises are due directly to disease and that these diseases
are, as a rule, not of a communicable nature, but rather the result
of mismanagement, unskilled feeding, and too little attention to gen-
eral sanitation. Any system of feeding and care which does not
keep the fowls active, bright-eyed, of keen appetite, slick in appear-
ance, and of hard flesh, is fundamentally wrong. It is by careful
housing, feeding and management that the diseases described in the
following paragraphs may be prevented. One must recognize that
disease is a sign that proper care and sanitation have not been prac-
ticed and must take immediate steps to rectify these conditions.
The individual treatment of fowls is expensive and unsatisfactory,
for after the fowl is cured it usually takes a little longer time to
get her back into laying condition. The preventive method of treat-
ment is the safest and most economical.

For this reason importance should be attached to sanitation.
The pens should be thoroughly sprayed with a disinfecting solu-
tion or whitewashed at least twice a year. It is advisable to spray
the perches and nest boxes frequently during warm weather. As
soon as the litter becomes damp or filthy, replace it. Use the drop-
pings board underneath the perches and remove the droppings at
least once a week, always sprinkling coal ashes or land plaster on the
clean boards and again over the droppings once or twice between
cleanings. This practice not only keeps the pen cleaner and sweeter,
but makes it easier to clean the droppings board and greatly increases
the value of the manure because it absorbs the liquid and retains
the nitrogen. Provide a dust wallow in which the fowls can remove
the scurf from their bodies and fight their body lice. For disin-
fecting with whitewash, the addition of one pint of crude carbolic
acid to every two gallons of the mixture makes it much more effec-
tive in destroying both animal parasites and bacteria. For spraying,
a solution of three parts kerosene and one part crude carbolic acid,
gives excellent results.

BLACK HEAD is a disease common and fatal to young turkeys
and quite serious among chickens. It is usually recognized in the

DISEASES OF POULTRY. 69

turkey by the stunted growth and emaciated condition of the body.
Internal examination usually discloses large, discolored diseased
areas on the liver and greatly enlarger ceca (blind intestines). Ili
recognized in time and careful, sanitary conditions of feeding and
brooding are provided, many of the afflicted chicks can be saved.
Sour skim-milk has been found quite effective in checking the
disease. After one experience with the disease, it will be readily
conceded that the preventive method is most satisfactory. In hatch-
ing, use incubators or strong, disease-free hens, and wash the eggs in
95 per cent alcohol before setting. Furthermore, since the disease
commonly spreads through ground infection, the newly hatched
brood should be taken to ground not commonly used by either
turkeys or hens. Here they should be brooded in carefully disin-
fected quarters and their coops frequently moved to fresh places. If
hens are used to brood the chicks, strong, healthy individuals, show-
ing no evidence of having had the disease, should be chosen. Should
the hen have the disease, it may be transmitted to the young. The
older chickens should not be encouraged to join with the later
_ hatches while feeding, but should be fed elsewhere and their place
of feeding changed from time to time, to prevent contamination.

BLEEDING FROM THE COMB.—In cold weather it is not
uncommon, especially among large comb breeds, for a laying pullet
to bleed to death from an injury or a crack on the comb. The
blood being started from either of these causes continues to flow,
both on account of frequent shaking of the head and because of the
slow coagulation of blood on a very cold day. If this flow is not
speedily stopped, the loss of blood and consequent exhaustion, to-
gether with the cold, overcome the fowl. As soon as this condition
is noticed, remove the fowl and wash the comb in warm water.
This is usually sufficient to stop the flow of blood, but if not, touch
a styptic pencil or a hot iron to the wound. Before returning the
fowl to the pen, grease the comb with vaseline.

BLINDNESS.—There are at least three causes for blindness
in fowls: 1, accident; 2, the effects of another disease; and 3, a
parasite. When accidental, the fowl is usually blind in one eye only.
There is no economic treatment. ‘The inflamed part should be bathed
in a weak solution of boracic acid and greased with vaseline in order
to effect a speedy healing of the sore. The most common form of
blindness closely follows or accompanies another disease. When due
to roup a swelling among the tissues of the eye, caused by the hard-
ening of the mucus secretions of the head and eyes, destroys the
sight. When roup has progressed to this stage, there is little profit
in treating it. ‘There is also an eye worm or parasite which infects

70 THE BUSINESS HEN.

poultry, causing inflammation of the eye and occasional blindness.
This parasite can be removed by surgical means only. The wound
should be bathed with a weak solution of boracic acid and kept
greased with vaseline until healed.

BUMBLEFOOT.—Bumblefoot is a term commonly applied
to the condition when an injury has resulted in the formation of pus
in the fleshy part of the foot. The injury may be received in various
ways, such as dropping or falling from a high perch on to a bare,
cement floor, or scratching on a floor of cinders. The formation of
pus causes a swelling and wears down the tissues until it breaks
forth either at the upper or lower surface. A scab forms over this
opening, but the continued formation of pus repeatedly forces open
the wound. y

For treatment, remove the scab or lance the swollen area and
thoroughly clean and disinfect the cavity with a dilute solution of
carbolic acid or hydrogen peroxide. Keep the sore well greased
with carbolated vaseline until healed.

CHICKEN POX.—Although in cold climates chicken pox is
almost unknown, it is all too common in the Southern States. It
is easily recognized by yellowish, wartlike sores which appear on
the face and head and inside the mouth. Often, if only local, these
sores spontaneously dry up and disappear, but if they extend to
other portions of the body, the fowl becomes emaciated and dies
from exhaustion. Dr. D. E. Salmon in “Diseases of Poultry,”
advises feeding sulphur and applying a sulphur ointment to the
nodules twice a day. Others have successfully checked the disease,
greasing the sores with carbolated vaseline or with glycerine, con-
taining two per cent. of carbolic acid. The disease is communicable
and necessitates thorough disinfection. See communicable diseases.

CHOLERA.—It is a common error for the layman to think
that every disease among his fowls, which manifests itself by a
looseness of the bowels, a yellowish discharge, and a pale or yellow
color about the face and head, is cholera. As a matter of fact, this
disease is common only in the warm climates and is rare elsewhere.
It is communicable and very destructive. Fowls often die within
a few days after being exposed to the disease, even before they are
suspected of being stricken. In other cases it takes on a chronic
form, It requires a bacteriological examination definitely to recog-
nize the disease. Scientists have failed to find a cure for it.
Thorough disinfection of the entire plant and a rigid separation of
the exposed from the non-exposed flocks should be practiced. See
communicable diseases.

DISEASES OR POULELRY. 71

COLDS.—The first indication of a cold is a snuffling or a
rattling in the throat. Usually the secretions which cause this
sound have but little, if any, perceptible odor. A cold is due to
exposure to conditions under which the body has difficulty in keep-
ing its normal temperature. Common among such conditions are
crowding at night by young stock, which have outgrown their quar-
ters, contact with damp floors and filthy houses, and especially,
exposure to draughts which blow on the fowls while they are work-
ing or roosting. The obvious treatment is to correct those conditions
which have induced the cold, to disinfect the drinking water and,
in severe cases, to spray the perches as suggested in the treatment
of roup.

CROP COMPACTION.—Crop compaction is usually a ciog-
ging of the outlet of the crop by twisted grass or rough grain.
Occasionally the ration contains too much middlings, or other sticky
foods, fed either dry or moist, which, under certain conditions,
bake together and clog the passageway. In a vain effort to satisfy
the increased appetite, the fowl distends its crop with food. In a
few days, unless the obstruction is removed, the fowl shows signs
of weakness and eventually dies of starvation. A common way of
removing the contents of the crop is to give several teaspoonfuls
of castor oil, at the same time massaging the crop till the contents
soften. ‘Then hold the fowl by the feet and gradually work the
_ contents of the crop out through the mouth. Sometimes crop com-
paction cannot be relieved ,in this way. It is then necessary to cut
into the crop. After the contents are thoroughly removed, the crop
should be carefully washed with a weak solution of boracic acid
and the edges of the wound drawn together and sewed once or
twice with silk thread. If an operation is necessary, it should be
made before the fowl has become badly weakened from the lack
of food.

COMMUNICABLE DISEASES.—There are a number of com-
municable diseases, such as cholera and diphtheretic roup, which
are very difficult to treat successfully. In fact, it is almost useless
to attempt a cure of the stricken fowl. The most that can be done
is to keep the mortality as low as possible by the rigid culling and
burning up of diseased individuals, and the thorough disinfection of
their pens, and especially of the eating and drinking utensils. It
is frequently to the owner’s advantage, unless the stock be highly
prized, to kill and burn every individual showing symptoms of the
disease and to dispose of the healthy ones of the flock on the public
market. ‘This practice is especially advisable when there are several
flocks in houses well scattered. This radical practice, together with

72 THE BUSINESS HEN.

thorough disinfection of the pens where the disease has not yet
appeared, will prevent the spread of the disease throughout the
plant. One of the best reasons for such wholesale disposal of the
stock is that many communicable diseases are carried in a dormant
state in the partially cured individual until conditions are right for
another outbreak. When all stock is sold and the houses care-
fully disinfected, new stock can be put into these quarters without
fear of a recurrence of the disease unless it be brought in through
a bird purchased elsewhere, or through fowls exposed to the disease
at a poultry show. The houses occupied by diseased fowls should
not be used again until carefully disinfected. All other fowls should
be kept off the ground on which the diseased fowls ranged until
the following Spring, at which time the ground should be cultivated.
Chickens hatched from these fowls, before or at the time of their
sickness, can be brooded on separate land with safety and be used
to refill those houses emptied by the disease.

DIARRHCG£A.—Diarrhcea in some form accompanies and is a
symptom of many common communicable diseases. Because of this
fact, the layman interprets diarrhoea as the indication of a dangerous
disease. As a matter of fact, diarrhcea is more often the result of
indigestion. It is caused by over-consumption of rich, highly stimu-
lating foods, by tainted meat, musty grain, green or milky grain in
the stalk, irregular feeding of green foods in the Winter, excessive
amounts of green cut bone, or a stale or irregular supply of water.
It may also follow the sudden, radical changes in diet. The extent
of the trouble is limited only by the amount of unwholesome food
eaten. The best treatment of such diarrhcea is to remove the irritant
or to shut in the fowls from it, giving them a regulating ration.
They will soon readjust themselves. Diarrhoea frequently follows a
change to hot weather, which quickly taints meat and other foods
which the fowls pick up, and, in addition, makes the process of
digestion more sluggish. At such times the fowls have great diff-
culty in readjusting themselves, even when their rations are better
balanced. It then becomes necessary to provide food in a form
which will be quickly and easily digested and assimilated. This
ration should be composed of fresh and finely ground grains, mois-
tened with buttermilk or sour skim-milk. One such feeding should
be given daily, in addition to their regular ration. Clabbered or
sour skim-milk is also valuable for drinking. They should have
fresh water all the time. General cleanliness and occasional disin-
fection is advised at such times. Diarrhcea brought about by the
presence of a communicable disease cannot be treated in this way.
See communicable diseases, :

DISBASES OF POULTRY. 73

BLOODY EGGS.—Objection is always raised to eggs con-
taining blood spots. They are not due to deterioration of the eggs
or to disease, as many people conjecture. However, since there is
this aversion to using such eggs, it is well to check their produc-
tion. The presence of the blood is due to a hemorrhage of the blood
vessels in the glands of the oviduct. The hemorrhage is the result
of fright, injury, or forced feeding, which overworks the blood
vessels carrying supplies to the organs of secretion. Blood spots
are usually found in the albumen, since the glands secreting this
material are delicately responsive to forced feeding. If the fowls
are producing bloody eggs in numbers, the rich meat materials
should be decreased and green food increased. Exercise should be
encouraged and disturbing conditions eliminated. Occasionally an
individual hen, through weakness or disease, will produce bloody
eggs regularly. Such a fowl should be removed from the pen and
fed carefully until her body regains its normal condition.

EGG-BOUND.—Pullets, producing their first eggs, and over-fat,
weak or injured hens, often become egg-bound. The most common
symptoms of this trouble are frequent trips to the nest and much
squatting and straining. In extreme cases the fowl will crawl
along with her body upright and her tail dragging. Fowls in this
condition usually die from exhaustion unless relief is speedily given.
It is advisable to remove the afflicted bird to a quiet place and
inject sweet oil into the cloaca and oviduct. ‘This will relieve the
_ fever in these organs, encourage proper secretions and assist the
fowl in laying her egg normally. Unwise forcing of pullets to
early egg production and breeding for large-sized eggs are the com-
mon causes among pullets. When this trouble is prevalent among
mature fowls, it should be taken as an indication of low physical
vigor and attention given to feeding well balanced rations in a way
which will encourage exercise and regulation of diet.

EGG EATING HABIT.—An accident is very often accountable
for starting the vice of eating eggs. ‘he accident occurs when a
heavy fowl drops on to an egg in a deep nest, or in flying out of
the nest, especially when frightened, kicks an egg against the side
of the box. The first hen to observe the broken egg eats the con-
tents and begins scratching in the nesting material for more. Another
egg is broken, as a result, and the habit started. Such accidents
occur more commonly when the egg shells are weak and easily
broken. At this time, also, the fowl is most eager for the egg and
its shell, since her body is deficient in shell-forming materials. The
habit is seldom acquired when the body health is good. This
absence of shell-forming secretions is not necessarily due to the

74 THE BUSINESS HEN.

absence of lime and other minerals in the ration, although without
lime in the form of oyster shells or lime grits, this cessation of the
shell-forming secretions would result. But this condition is fre-
quently the result also of over-feeding and consequent lack of exer-
cise, which disorganizes the organs of secretion and produces gen-
eral weakness and debility. The obvious treatment is to correct the
method of feeding and to provide sufficient mineral and animal food
to supply the body needs. The use of china eggs or eggs filled with
red pepper and mustard is not highly recommended, although occa-
sionally they are effective. In extreme cases a special nest box can
be used. Such a nest is made by padding the center and edges of a
box about a foot square and eight inches deep, and loosely fastening
over the top a burlap sack with a hole in the center. The egg rolls
into the box beneath as soon as laid. When using this box, place it
in the position occupied by the regular nest.

AN EGG WITHIN AN EGG.—Several instances have been
reported of finding within an apparently normal egg a second fully
formed egg. The production of such abnormal eggs is due to injury,
to fright or to paralysis of the muscles of the oviduct, which sends
back up the oviduct an egg, ready to be laid. In due course the egg
again starts down the oviduct and stimulates a secretion of albu-
men and later of calcareous materials, which enclose the original
egg in another layer of albumen and put a shell around the whole.
Such an egg rarely has a yolk in the second formation, unless, by
chance, a yolk sac emptied its contents into the oviduct at the time
the first egg was forced back.

EGG WITH TWO YOLKS.—There are two possible explana-
tions for the formation of double yolked eggs. The usual one is
that during a period of heavy production two yolks sacs deposit their
yolks in the oviduct at so nearly the same time that both are encased
in the same albumen and shell. The more feasible explanation is
that the two yolks are originally contained in the same yolk sac and
consequently are deposited in the oviduct at the same time. This
theory is supported by embryologists, who have found the two yolks
enclosed in one sac in microscopical sections of the ovary. If incu-
bated, double yolked eggs, as a rule, do not hatch.

FATTY DEGENERATION.—When over-fed fowls become
fat, sl*ggish and inactive, a general breaking down of their body
tissues gradually takes place. This is called fatty degeneration.
With the heavier varieties this condition is commonly indicated by
the accumulation of fat'in a large bunch under the abdomen, causing
their fluff to hang low # In so debilitated a condition, the fowl is
unable to produce the greatest possible number of eggs and those

DISEASES OF POULTRY. 75

eggs, which are produced lack, when incubated, the strength to
develop normal, healthy, livable chicks. Soft shelled eggs and egg
eating habits may well be feared in such a state of health. Fowls
which have broken down under forced feeding or over-feeding can-
not entirely recover their normal condition, but judicious feeding on
wholesome grains, with plenty of green food and exercise will in
a great measure restore their health.

FEATIGER PULLING.—One of the most distressing and
unmanageable vices of fowls is feather pulling. It starts through
fighting or accidents and continues for lack of sufficient mineral and
animal fool. The vice spreads rapidly among the fowls in a flock.
It is seldom acquired in properly managed flocks. This vice is the
result of erroneous methods of feeding and management, similar to
the conditions which encourage egg eating. Give the fowls as much’
liberty and freedom as possible. Increase the amount of animal food
in the ration. If the pens are small, it sometimes becomes necessary
to change the fowls to a different house, or to harness their bills
with feather pulling bits, which prevent them from getting a grip
on the feather.

FROSTED COMBS AND WATTLES.—On extremely cold
nights, unless warm roosting places are provided, the fowls’ combs
and wattles will get frosted. The resulting pain stops the hens from
laying, and, in severe cases, even kills them. When frosted, these
appendages swell up and turn to a purple color. The frosted parts
should be thawed out with ice or snow and greased with vaseline.
It is often well to cut away the frosted parts entirely, using a hot
iron to heal the wound.

GAPES.—The frequent gasping for breath by chickens suffering
with parasitic worms in the windpipe is called gapes and the worm,
the gape worm. The difficulty of eating, combined with the weaken-
ing effect of the parasites, stunts the growth of the chickens. Its
feathers become soiled, torn and ruffled for lack of proper nourish-
ment. The worms and their eggs are coughed up by the chickens
on to their food or into the drinking water, where other chickens
consume them. In this way the parasite is transmitted. A common
treatment of the individual is to thrust a twisted horsehair or stiff
thread, saturated in turpentine, down its windpipe. The turpentine
loosens and kills the worms. ‘Those which are not withdrawn with
the horsehair are coughed out. A second method of treatment,
somewhat more dangerous, but easier and quicker, is to place about
25 chickens in a box covered with burlap and to surcharge the air
with the fumes of burning tobacco stems. The fumes can be sup-
plied through an opening in the bottom of the box, this opening

76 THE BUSINESS HEN.

being fitted over a firebox containing the burning stems. The
chickens should be removed as soon as they show signs of exhaus-
tion. The fumes overcome or even kill the worms. Their hold on
the windpipe is relaxed and they are coughed up. Ground on which
chickens suffering with gapes have ranged becomes infected and
should not be used in succeeding years. The trouble can be mini-
mized by practicing rigid disinfection and cleanliness in the coops,
yards and eating places. Feeding strong onions or garlic, chopped
and mixed with other food and fed before the worms gain a foot-
hold, is beneficial in keeping down the growth and development of
the parasite. Early hatching also is advised. Keeping the chicks
on a board floor—away from all soil, will prevent the trouble.

GOING LIGHT.—This is a term commonly applied to a bac-
terial disease which interferes with the assimilation of the food and
allows the body to starve to death. The symptom is a gradual loss
of flesh, which results eventually, in weakness, debility and starva-
tion. The disease, although communicable, spreads slowly. Fowls
thus afflicted should be destroyed and their pens disinfected. Strict
cleanliness will aid in warding off further outbreaks.

LEG WEAKNESS.—There are two different kinds of leg
weakness. One is rheumatism, caused by dampness and insufficient
ventilation in the pen. This form is remedied by correcting the
method of housing and ventilating. The other form is due to over-
feeding and lack of exercise. This combination of mismanagement
makes the fowls over-fat and heavy and their muscles, at the same
time, become soft and flabby. Their physical condition is such that
a marked increase in humidity or any extra demand made on their
body debilitates and partially paralyzes their legs. Cleanliness, more
careful methods of feeding and increased range will overcome this
weakness.

LICE.—There are many kinds of lice which are common among
domestic fowls. They have the same general characteristics, how-
ever, and all are combated in the same way. Lice may remain on
the body of the fowl both day and night. They are also commonly
found on the perches and nest boxes. This necessitates treating
both the fowls and the perches. A very effective spray for the
perches is a solution of one part crude carbolic acid and three parts
kerosene. It can be applied with a brush or, preferably, with a
pump and spray, which will force the mixture into the cracks and
crevices, where the lice accumulate. The fowls can be treated by
dusting a fine powder into their feathers. The dust fills up the
breathing pores on the body of the louse and suffocates it. Such a
powder is more effective if it contains a drying and burning ingred-

DiseIses OF rOURTEY. v7

ient, or one giving off fumes. R. C. Lawry, while an assistant in
the: Department of Poultry Husbandry at the New York State
College of Agriculture at Cornell University, formulated an exceed-
ingly effective homemade lice powder. It is prepared as follows:
One-fourth pint of crude carbolic acid, mixed with three-fourths
pint gasoline is thoroughly stirred into 214 pounds plaster of paris.
The whole is forced through a sieve to break up the lumps. It is
then allowed to dry in the air and when dry is tightly bottled. The
stock mixture remains effective indefinitely. To apply this powder,
make nail holes in the top of a tin can and use the can as a shaker.
The fowl should be held by the legs with its head down. In this
position the feathers fall away from the body and readily receive
the powder, making it easy to work it down to the skin, by ruffling
the feathers with the hand. ‘This treatment is especially recom-
mended for setting hens. ‘Ten days later the dusting should be
repeated in order to destroy the lice which are hatched out after
the first application. It is not often necessary to dust every indi-
vidual of an entire pen of fowls. ‘The economical way to keep a
pen free from lice is to spray the perches when necessary and to
provide a dust wallow of coal ashes, land plaster or road dust, in
which the fowls can wallow and kill body lice. This dust wallow
should be in a warm, dry part of the pen, so as to attract the fowls
to it. A small amount of this material can be scattered on and under
’ the perches, and this part of the pen kept freer from lice.

LIMBER NECK.—The general paralysis of the muscles of a
fowl, especially those in the neck, produces a condition known as
limber neck. The fowl is unable to lift its head from the ground and,
in fact, has very little power of locomotion. ‘The cause is usually
directly attributable to ptomaine poisoning, resulting from eating
decomposed meat or flesh. The disease is consequently confined,
usually, to the warmer months of the year and is most prevalent
in the Southern States. The disease is not necessarily fatal nor is it
communicable. Relief quickly follows any treatment which speedily
flushes the digestive system. ‘The usual doses are Epsom salts or
one grain of calomel. Recovery has followed the use of a simple
tonic known as the Douglas Mixture, which can be used to advan-
tage in all digestive troubles. A stock solution of the Douglass
Mixture is made by dissolving one-half pound sulphate of iron in
a gallon of water and adding one-half ounce sulphuric acid. The
clear liquid is used in the proportion of oné pint to a pail of water.

During the warm months all dead or dying fowls or animals
should be removed from the yards or pens at once and no tainted or
fly-blown meat given to them.

78 THE BUSINESS HEN,

MITES.—The mite is another external parasite of the fowl,
which sucks the blood at night and returns to the perch before
morning, remaining there during the day. It is only when mites
have accumulated in large numbers and are unable to get enough
blood during the night that they remain on the fowl during the day.
The most common variety is red, and when these gather in numbers,
they make a reddish black spot. The mite is killed by the direct
application of a burning solution. They withstand ordinary sprays
better than lice can. However, the solution of one-fourth pint
crude carbolic acid and three-fourths pint kerosene has been found
very destructive.

ROUP.—The term roup is used to cover several distinct diseases
of the throat and head, some of which are very dangerous and difh-
cult to cure, while others are comparatively simple. The most com-
mon form of roup is an exaggerated cold, which causes a fevered
condition and stimulates the nasal secretions. These secretions have
a strong, pungent odor. They stop up the nasal passages, producing
a rattling sound when the fowl breathes. Many times this sound is
heard when the secretions are not noticeable in either the nasal or
throat passages. In such instances, look for a soiled place under
the bow of the wing, where the fowl often puts its-head. The odor
alone, however, is sufficient indication of the disease. The cause
of this kind of roup is exposure for a prolonged period to those
conditions and surroundings which produce colds. It is thought
that this disease is not communicable from one fowl to another, but
spreads because conditions are favorable to the development of the
disease in many individuals. If the disease is allowed to run its
course, the fevered condition hardens the nasal secretions into a
cheesy substance which accumulates in the tissues of the head, caus-
ing the eyes or other parts of the face, to bulge out. When this stage
is reached, the irritation and fever becomes so great that the fowl
soon dies from weakness and exhaustion. It is quite useless to
attempt to cure at an advanced stage. Treatment should be given
during the earlier stages. It is obvious that the first step is to rectify
those conditions which encourage the disease. In addition to making
the pens clean and dry, the following simple remedies can be used:
One ounce permanganate of potash in three pints of water; use one
pint of this stock solution in every three or four pints of drinking
water. This will serve to disinfect the mouth and throat. It can
also be administered, in its undiluted form, as a head dip To do
this, grasp the legs and wings of the fowl in one hand and the
back of its head in the other. Thrust the bill into the solution
nearly to the eyes and hold it there long enough so that the fowl

DISEASES*Or POULPRY. 79

will draw in some of the solution while striving to breathe. Fifteen
to twenty seconds is usually long enough. This cuts and loosens
the accumulated mucus so that the fowl can shake it out. Another
simple but very effective and wholesale treatment of roup is to
paint or spray the perches with any coal tar product which gives off
penetrating fumes. These fumes are breathed by the fowls all night
and during this long period are effective in loosening up the nasal
secretions and in checking the disease. Such treatment will serve
also to check cankerous and diphtheretic roup, which are communi-
cable forms of this disease, but, in most instances, it fails to effect
a cure of either. The disease germs of these forms of roup develop
more rapidly and are not so dependent upon damp and unsanitary
conditions. The germ is usually introduced through newly pur-
chased fowls or through exposure to the disease at public exhibi-
tions or competitions. Cankerous roup is accompanied by and takes
its name from the sores in the mouth and on the head. 5 treat-
ment, see communicable diseases.

SCALY LEGS.—The term scaly leg is applied to a condition of
the fowl’s shanks, in which the scales have become roughened,
swollen and filthy. A small parasite, working underneath the scales
on the shank, causes this roughness. ‘The parasite spreads by
crawling along the perch until it reaches another fowl. A simple
treatment is to soften the shanks in warm water and carefully
remove the filth from underneath the scales. This should be fol-
lowed by a thorough washing with five per cent carbolic acid, which
kills the parasite. ‘The shank should then be well greased with
carbolated vaseline to keep the wound soft and clean until it heals.

VENT GLEET—A communicable disease which affects the
cloaca or vent is called vent gleet. This disease greatly irritates and
inflames the vent, producing a sense of fullness and causing the fowl
to attempt frequent voidings. A diarrhcea and a mucous discharge
from the vent accompany this condition. The fluff becomes soiled
and looks filthy. This discharge has a strong, offensive odor. If
not treated at once, ulcers develop on the skin near the vent and
the inflammation extends into the oviduct. At this stage the disease
becomes critical. For treatment, the male should be removed from
the pen until the trouble ceases, since he is mainly responsible for
spreading the disease. ‘The afflicted fowl should also be taken to
quiet surroundings, where it can receive medical treatment. The
principle on which a cure is effected is to cleanse the vent and fluff
daily with warm water, to which a few drops of carbolic acid are
added, following with an injection of sweet oil or a greasing with
vaseline. This also should contain a few drops of carbolic acid. ,

80 THE BUSINESS HEN.

The afflicted bird should be kept in a warm, protected place and fed
on soft, nourishing foods, until it is strong enough to return to the
pen.

VERTIGO.—Congestion of the brain is readily recognized by
the giddy actions of the fowl and a habit of bending the head as
far backward as possible. The bird assumes this attitude when
frightened in order to relieve the sudden blood pressure on the brain.
The disease is usually found among over-fat, plethoric fowls. It is
one of the evils resulting from over-feeding. Irritation from worms
in the intestines will also produce it. A few such cases should warn
the feeder to exercise greater care in his method of feeding and
the kinds of food provided. For individual treatment, Dr. D. E.
Salmon suggests cooling the head of the fowl with ice until it is
thoroughly chilled and giving one dose of either thirty grains of
Epsom salts or one and one-half grains of calomel. In case the
congestion is caused by intestinal parasites, treat to remove the
cause.

WHITE DIARRHOEA IN CHICKENS.—The term white
diarrhcea is used indiscriminately to apply to a large number of
chicken diseases and troubles, including indigestion, pneumonia,
coccidiosis, bacillary white diarrhcea, aspergilosis, and others, all of
which produce very similar external symptoms, prominent among
which is some form of diarrhcea. These diseases result from various
causes. Some of them are produced directly by specific organisms,
whereas others are the result of erroneous feeding and brooding, or
are due partially to the careless selection and management of the
breeding stock. The method of incubation also may be responsible
for some weakness. Very little can be done to cure chickens suffer-
ing with this disease. The sick ones should be removed and burned,
the brooders and feeding places kept sanitary, and the chickens
given wholesome, nourishing food, free from much rich material.
Clabbered milk is destructive to certain bacteria and should be fed
liberally. A few crystals of potassium permanganate dropped into
the drinking water free it from germs and make it an internal
disinfectant. The preventive treatment is the best safeguard against
these diseases and troubles. Exercise the greatest care in selecting
the breeding stock, choosing strong, vigorous, healthy yearling or
two-year-old fowls. Use a method of feeding which will force them
to exercise while obtaining their food. This practice, in connection
with feeding a variety ration of hard grains and succulent food,
will do more than anything else toward keeping their bodies in a
normal, healthy condition. Eggs from such fowls will produce
strong, able chickens, capable of living and growing under ordinary

DISEASES OF POULTRY. 81

conditions. It is comparatively easy to raise a large percentage of
chickens from strong, healthy stock, but even a good feeder has
great difficulty in rearing weak chicks. Practice thorough sanitation
while the chicks are young more than at any other time. Feed
liberally, but do not allow food to accumulate in the brooder. Make
the chicks clean it up between each feeding. In this way the ordi-
nary chick troubles, commonly called white diarrhoea, will be
avoided. Such a practice, however, does not entirely prevent the
ravages of all. This is especially true of bacillary white diarrhea,
which is, apparently, born with the chick and is usually fatal within
the first two or three weeks. ‘The only practical treatment of such
a disease is to replace the breeding stock with disease-free indi-
viduals. Unfortunately, it requires a bacteriological examination to
determine the presence of this and similar diseases, making it impos-
sible for the layman to diagnose the trouble. In such instances he
should seek the aid of his State college of veterinary science.

WORMS.—There are a large number of species of parasitic
worms found in the digestive organs of the fowl. The most com-
mon of these are the round worm, the tape worm, and a small worm,
which bores into the walls of the gizzard. Fowls infected with
worms become stupid and indifferent, and subject to sudden fits of
wakefulness. Their appetite often becomes poor and their bodies
_show emaciation. Such symptoms are sometimes accompanied by a
slight diarrhoea. For positive evidence, post mortem a dead fowl
and examine the digestive tract. A dose of two teaspoontfuls of
essence of turpentine is generally sufficient to dispose of the parasites.
Powdered areca nut, in doses of 30 to 40 grains, is advocated by
Zurn. Dr. Salmon advises mixing a teaspoonful of powdered pome-
granate root bark in the food for 50 fowls, following with a purga-
tive dose of two teaspoonfuls of castor oil.

CHAPTER VIII.
FEEDING THE BUSINESS HEN.

The poultryman has frequently been referred to as a manufac-
turer, with laying hens and growing stock for machines, the various
poultry feeds the raw material, and eggs and meat the finished pro-
duct. Obviously his profits will depend largely on two things :—the
use of raw material of the right l:ind and in the right condition, and
of efficient machines especially adapted to a definite purpose. It is
difficult to say which of these factors is the more important. Cer-
tain it is that no machine can do its best work with unsuitable raw
material, nor can a poor machine use to advantage the best of
material. There is ample reason, therefore, for the poultryman to
study carefully how to feed his birds to get the best results, and
how to breed stock that will satisfactorily respond to proper feeding
by economically producing eggs or meat. Birds lacking in vigor and
vitality are never profitable, and therefore, should be discarded by
the commercial poultryman. Every effort should be exerted to
secure stock possessing great vigor of constitution and the ability
to consume, assimilate and convert a large amount of food into the
special product. Attention to this point is as much a characteristic
of a successful feeder as is a knowledge of feeds and the compound-
ing of rations.

For some years the columns of our poultry publications have
teemed with the expressions “balanced rations,” “nutritive ratio,”
“scientific feeding;” and as a result much confusion exists in the
minds of those who have had no opportunity to study the matter
carefully. Some poultrymen seem to think that a knowledge of the
principles of feeding will enable one to determine absolutely the
amount and character of the ration which will exactly meet the
requirements of a flock of birds of a given number and weight. As
a matter of fact, but few scientific experiments in poultry feeding
have been conducted, and our knowledge of the subject is based
largely upon the work of successful poultry feeders, and upon cer-
tain conclusions drawn from experiments conducted with other
domestic animals. Under existing conditions, therefore, we must
content ourselves with a knowledge of the chemical composition of
various feeding stuffs suitable for poultry, and so be able to make

FEEDING THE BUSINESS HEN. 83

up rations from the available materials which will approximate
those used by successful feeders who are operating under conditions
similar to our own. Such information will not only enable us to
use to best advantage the feeding stuffs produced locally, but it will
help us to determine what materials should be purchased to make
the ration complete. In the limits of a single chapter it is impossible
to discuss at any length the principles of nutrition and feeding. But
for a better understanding of our subject it is necessary that a few
of the important points be briefly stated.

COMPOSITION OF FEEDS.—The chemist can readily analyze
our various feeding stuffs and accurately determine their chemical
composition. He finds a large number of substances, but for con-
venience these are placed in five groups, viz., water, ash, protein,
carbohydrates, and ether extract. Every feed contains a certain
amount of necessary moisture varying from eight to 90 per cent of
the total weight. It is the most abundant constituent of the animal
body and must be supplied abundantly, but because it can be easily
and cheaply furnished in other ways it need not be considered in
the feed. The roots of plants derive from the soil certain mineral
matter, which, though comparatively small in amount, is absolutely
essential to the ration. This ash, so called because it is the residue
after the complete burning of the food, is largely used in the skeleton
of the animal, and is present in every portion of the body. With-
out a sufficient supply of this material no animal can long retain
health. In the protein group are placed any ingredients of plant
or animal in which nitrogen is present. Common examples are white
of egg and lean meat. Protein has been aptly described as a “flesh-
former, a machine maker, the repairer of wear and tear.” It is evi-
dent from the above that no other group is more important. The
carbohydrates are almost exclusively vegetable products. They con-
tain sugar, starch, gums, and other substances. Included is the
crude fibre or skeleton of plants, and the nitrogen-free extract. The
materials extracted from feeding stuffs by ether, such as fat, resin
and wax are placed in the ether extract or fat group. The functions
of fat and carbohydrates in animal nutrition are the production of
muscular energy and heat, and the formation of body fat.

It is evident that the value of food is determined by the amount
digested, not by the amount eaten. While the scientists can tell us
the chemical composition of food they cannot, without resorting to
digestion experiments, inform us just how much of the material
can be actually used by the animal. To conduct such experiments
complicated apparatus is required, but briefly stated the food given
and the wastes thrown off by the animal are weighed and analyzed,

84 THE BUSINESS HEN.

the difference being the amount digested or the digestible nutrients.
Unfortunately there have been but few digestion: experiments con-
ducted with fowls, so for the present we must depend upon the
results secured from other domestic animals. For convenience, the
table on next page gives both the chemical composition and the
percentage of digestible nutrients of the various feeding stuffs used
in poultry feeding.

When a ration is compounded in such a manner as to supply
the animal with a sufficient amount of each group of digestible
nutrients it may be called a balanced ration. The aim of every
feeder should be to use a ration that furnishes enough of each group
of nutrients fully to meet the requirements of the animal, but with-
out an excess which might be wasted.

Investigators have endeavored to ascertain the amount of diges-
tidle nutrients and the proportion of the different groups required
in rations intended for specific purposes, and as a result of this work
we have a series of feeding standards for most domestic animals.
Though far from being perfect as yet these standards are extremely
valuable as they furnish a definite starting point. A ration com-
pounded theoretically by the use of these tables may not work out
well in practice, but using it as a basis the feeder can make such
changes as experience and observation warrant or economy dictates.

The relative proportion of the various nutrients in a ration is
termed the nutritive ratio. ‘This is easily ascertained by the use of
the accompanying table, and is expressed by the proportion of
protein to all the non-nitrogenous digestible materials reckoned in
terms of carbohydrates. For instance, in 100 pounds of wheat are
found the following digestible nutrients: Protein, 10.2 pounds;
carbohydrates, 69.2 pounds; ether extract, 1.7 pounds. As each
pound of ether extract has 214 times the heating value of the car-
bohydrates, the first step in ascertaining the nutritive ratio is to
multiply the amount of ether extract by 214, and thus reduce it to
its carbohydrate equivalent. This product added to the amount of
carbohydrates present gives the carbohydrate value of all the diges-
tible nutrients in the ration aside from the protein. The sum thus
secured is divided by the amount of protein present, and the result
expresses the relative proportion of these two classes of nutrients
present in the ration, or the nutritive ratio. Taking the figures
quoted above and following this rule we get the following:

1,7 2.25= 3.8
3.8-++69.2 —73.0
73.0+-10.2 = 7.1

85

ANALYSIS OF FEED STUFFS.

FEEDS.

AVERAGE COMPOSITION AND DIGESTIBILITY.

Compiled from various authorities.

PERCENTAGE
DIGESTIBLE
NUTRIENTS.

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* There is a wide variation in the composition of commercial beef scrap. In thirty
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samples of “‘meat meals and beef scraps’’ recently analyz

eultural Experiment Station

with an average of 49.38.

86 THE BUSINESS HEN,

Therefore there is one part of protein to 7.1 parts of carbohydrates,
and the nutritive ratio of wheat is 1 to 7.1. For convenience this is
usually written 1:7.1.

The nutritive ratio of a mixed ration is found by adding the
amounts of nutrients of the various classes in the various feeds used,
and proceeding as above. Rations having a nutritive ratio of 1:5.5
or under are called narrow; between this and 1:8 are called medium,
and over the latter are termed wide. Some years ago the New York
Experiment Station determined certain feeding standards for poul-
try, indicating the average quantities of dry matter and the various
digestible nutrients required by some classes of fowls under certain
conditions. Portions of these standards follow:

Rations for Chicks.—Digestible nutrients per day for each 100
pounds live weight.

Total
Dry Pro- Carbohy- Nutri-
Matter Ash tein drates Fat tive
lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. ratio

For the first 2 weeks....... i AO.d: 6. 2.0 WB ED ae
From 2to 4 weeks of age.. 9.6 I 2.2 6.2 5
From 4 to 6 weeks of age.. 8.6 6 2.0 5.6 4 1:3.3
From 6 to 8 weeks of age.. 7.4 5 1.6 4.9 4
From 8 to 10 weeks of age.. 6.4 a) 1.2 4.4 3
From 10 to 12 weeks of age.. 5.4 4 1.0 3.7 3 1:4.4

Rations for Laying Hens.—Digestible nutrients per day for each
100 pounds live weight.

Total
Dry Pro- Carbohy- Nutri-
Matter Ash tein drates Fat tive
lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. Ibs. ratio.

Hens of 5 to 8 lbs. weight. 3.30 .20 65 2.25 .20 1:4.2
Hens of 3 to 5 lbs. weight. 5.50 30 = 1.00 3.75 Ba 1:4.6

Attention is again drawn to the fact that these standards are an
aid to intelligent feeding, but must not be considered absolute rules.
Aside from the chemical composition of the ration there are many
factors to be considered, such as the mechanical condition of the
various feeding stuffs used, their palatability, comparative cost, etc.

In discussing the essentials of the ideal poultry ration, Doctor
Brigham says that it should contain the four groups of supplies
that the birds naturally secure when at liberty on ample range, viz.,
grains, grubs, greens, grits. When poultry keepers learn to include
all of these in the bill of fare of their fowls we will have fewer com-
plaints of unsatisfactory results. An examination of the feeding
methods of successful poultrymen will demonstrate that in every case
representative feeding stuffs from each of the above groups are
included in the ration.

FEEDING THE BUSINESS HEN. 87

In the first group, the grains, are included the various seeds and
grains and their by-products. Fed in various ways, whole, cracked
and ground, they form the major portion of the feed required by all
classes of poultry. The grains most commonly used by poultrymen
in the eastern part of the United States are corn, wheat, barley and
oats. Buckwheat, Kaffr corn and sunflower seeds, usually in com-
paratively small quantities, are frequently added for variety. Corn
is the cheapest of the grains and as a result it is frequently fed too
freely. Carefully used it is an economical feed. Wheat is commonly
considered the best grain for poultry, and it may be fed liberally
when the price warrants. Shrunken and broken wheat are as valu-
able as plump wheat for poultry feeding, but so-called wheat screen-
ings which consist largely of weed seeds, light oats and other wastes,
are not desirable. Barley is an excellent feed and makes a fair sub-
stitute for wheat. Oats are especially valuable, and in some form
should appear in the rations of both growing and laying stock. Some
object to the use of oats on account of the hulls, but experienced
poultrymen feed them liberally with excellent results. Buckwheat
is useful as a feed for layers, and can be used to special advantage
at the time the pullets are being matured. Sunflower seeds contain a
very high percentage of crude fiber, but may be fed sparingly at all
times, and more liberally during the molting season.

Of the innumerable by-products the best are wheat bran, wheat
middlings, linseed meal and gluten meal. Pea meal and peanut meal
are worthy of careful trial, though both are hard to secure in some
localities and the cost is frequently prohibitive. Green food is very
important, not because of its nutritive value alone, which is com-
paratively slight, but on account of its tonic influence on the diges-
tive system. A regular and liberal supply of succulent feed seems
to be an essential part of the ration for all ages.

During the growing season the green food may be easily sup-
plied by allowing the birds access to growing grass ‘or young grain.
If this is not convenient, rape, Swiss chard or other similar crops
may be grown. ‘The various roots and vegetables may be used dur-
ing the Winter season, but everything considered, mangolds are
probably the most satisfactory. Of late many poultrymen have
adopted the use of sprouted oats, and the results seem to be excel-
lent. Oats are spread on trays to the depth of one to two inches and
kept damp and warm, ~ The result is a very rapid growth of tender,
succulent sprouts. When the latter reach the height of four to six
inches the matted mass is fed to the birds, a block 6x10 inches in
size daily being sufficient for 100 hens. It is advisable to use new,
heavy oats for this purpose, as they germinate better than old grain.

88 THE BUSINESS HEN.

For feeding young chicks wheat may be sprouted in the same manner
and the danger from oat hulls is thus eliminated. Dry lawn clip-
pings, clover and Alfalfa hay are excellent Winter feeds. They
may be used dry, or if preferred, soaked or steamed. When on
range poultry pick up much animal food in the form of insects of
various kinds, but under ordinary conditions the amount is too small
to give the best results. The deficiency may be met by supplying
animal food of some other kind. Such foods are highly nitrogenous
and are an essential part of the ration. It has been clearly demon-
strated that protein from animal sources is much more valuable in
poultry feeding than that of vegetable origin. In fact it is doubtful
whether the latter can successfully be substituted for the former.

The animal foods most in use are beef scrap, meat meal, milk
in various forms and desiccated and fresh fish. Both beef scrap
and animal meal vary widely in composition, and for protection the
poultryman should use brands sold under a guaranteed analysis.
Milk in any form may be fed freely, either separately or mixed
with the mash. It.seems to have a practical feeding value much
greater than indicated by its chemical analysis. The same is true
of fish, though many hesitate to use fish because it has been charged
with giving an undesirable flavor to the eggs. Fresh fish should be
boiled before feeding, and in no case should any be used that is
not absolutely sweet.

Under the head of grits may be grouped the gravel and other
substances used by the birds as grinding materials; the oyster shells
commonly used to supply carbonate of lime for the egg shells and
the bone, which helps build the skeleton. This group, especially
the bone, is frequently overlooked. As has been previously stated,
the ash constituents of the food are very important, and since the
bulk of the feeding stuffs have a low ash content, green bone,
cracked bone or bone meal should be used to add the necessary
phosphate of lime, especially in the ration for growing stock. It is
a good practice to keep grit, shell, bone and charcoal in hoppers
where the birds can have access to them at all times. Fowls should
also be given a limited amount of salt, from one-quarter to one-half
pound being added to each 100 pounds of mash.

When planning a system of poultry feeding consideration must
be given to two important points: First, the cost of the ration, and
second, the amount of labor involved in feeding it. At this point
the individual poultryman must decide for himself and adopt the
ration and feeding system that best meets his needs under the pecu-
liar conditions surrounding his plant. It is conceivable that a ration
might be adopted which would give an unusually heavy egg produc-

FEEDING THE BUSINESS HEN. 89

tion but costing so much that the resulting profit would be small.
On the other hand a complicated system of feeding might require
so much labor that comparatively few birds could be cared for by
one man. Under these conditions the profit per hen might be large,
but the aggregate income altogether too small. As a commercial
proposition the net profit per bird is not as important as the net profit
per man.

Occasionally a poultryman will feed whole grain exciusively, but
the general rule is to supply a portion of the grain food in the form
of mash, a mixture of various ground grains and by-products. This
is fed either wet or dry. A great difference of opinion exists among
poutrymen as to the relative merits of these two methods, but it is
generally held that wet mash, properly fed, will produce a better
egg yield, while dry mash feeding is easier and safer. ‘The latter
system is in more general use on commercial poultry farms at pres-
ent. The beginner will appreciate the fact that definite directions as —
to the amount to feed a given lot of birds can be stated when dry
mash feeding is followed.

The Maine Agricultural Experiment Station method of feeding
laying hens has received great publicity and been widely adopted. At
this Station the stock consists of Barred Plymouth Rocks housed in
curtain-front buildings. The feeding is as follows :—

Dry mash is kept in open hoppers before the birds at all times.
Also grit, oyster shell, cracked bone and charcoal. Green food,
either mangolds or sprouted oats, is supplied, and five pounds of
cut clover hay is fed dry daily to each 100 birds. Early in the
morning for each 100 hens, four quarts of whole corn is scattered
in the litter, and at 10 o’clock they are fed two quarts of oats and
two quarts of wheat.

The dry mash was formerly made up as follows: 200 pounds
wheat bran, 100 pounds cornmeal, 100 pounds wheat middlings, 100
pounds gluten or brewers’ grain, 100 pounds linseed meal, 100 pounds
beef scrap.

Thousands of poultrymen used this formula, many with satis-
factory results, while others found it too concentrated and made
changes as dictated by their judgment. The Station has recently
made some changes in the mixture. Pullets are brought into the
laying house in September, and during that month the mash is
made up of: 300 pounds bran, 100 pounds cornmeal, 100 pounds
middlings, 100 pounds beef scrap. For October the mash contains:
200 pounds bran, 100 pounds cornmeal, 100 pounds middlings, 100
pounds gluten meal, 100 pounds beef scrap. For November 50
pounds of linseed meal is added to the above. For December the

90 THE BUSINESS HEN,

October mixture is used again. Thereafter this amount of linseed
is added on alternate months.

The Station claims for this revised system of feeding that it
maintains the vitality of the stock and induces an even egg produc-
tion during the Winter months.

On a New England farm, where 1,000 Buff Plymouth Rocks are
kept, a system has been evolved that has given good satisfaction
and enabled the owner to show a handsome profit annually. The
stock is kept under the double yard system, having access to grow-
ing green food at all times. Dry mash, beef scraps, grit, shell and
charcoal are constantly kept in hoppers before the birds. At 3 P. M.
daily 10 quarts of grain are fed to each 100 birds. This mixture
consists of equal parts by weight of corn, wheat and oats. Twice
weekly the birds are fed boiled vegetables in troughs, all they will
eat in a half hour.

The basis of the mash is the above grain mixture ground. To
each 100 pounds of this mixture is added five pounds linseed meal,
10 pounds blood meal and 20 pounds Alfalfa meal.

On another successful egg farm using Rhode Island Reds, dry
mash, shell, grit and bone are constantly supplied in hoppers, and
green food is furnished in liberal amounts. To each 100 hens three
quarts of a grain mixture is fed in the morning and three quarts
of coarse cracked corn at night. The grain mixture is made up
of seven parts, by measure, of wheat, seven parts of oats, four parts
of fine cracked corn.

The mash mixture contains 200 pounds bran, 100 pounds mid-
dlings, 100 pounds gluten, 100 pounds ground oats, 100 pounds meat
meal. A good mash mixture that has given satisfactory results for
years consists of 200 pounds bran, 200 pounds cornmeal, 200 pounds
ground oats, 100 pounds middlings. Beef scrap may be added to
this, or fed separately in hoppers.

Any of the above mixtures would make a good wet mash. In
feeding wet mash great care should be exercised to make the mix-
ture the proper consistency, moist and crumbly, but never sloppy.

For best results, wet mash should be fed just before the birds
go to roost. The whole grain may be fed in the morning—or
thrown into the litter after the birds have gone to roost; a green
food given at noon and at night all the mash they will clean up
quickly. This system of feeding keeps the birds active all day and
sends them to roost with full crops.

A study of the above rations serves to emphasize the fact that
there is no one best ration for laying hens. Within reasonable
limits the exact proportions of the different foods does not seem

FEEDING THE BUSINESS HEN. 91

to make a great difference, but in every case we find included in
satisfactory rations the four groups of feed stuffs already discussed—
grains, grubs, greens, grits.

There is no gain from supplying a mere maintenance ration.
Profit can be secured only from that part of the ration which the
fowl can assimilate in addition to her own bodily needs. Rapid
growth and heavy egg production can be secured only by heavy
feeding. ‘The fattening of market poultry should be given more
attention. A large proportion of our market stock is sold in poor
condition, to the detriment of producer and consumer alike. A
comparatively short period of confinement in a comfortable pen with
liberal feeding of corn in some form, and beef scraps, will greatly
improve the condition of fowls and chickens intended for market.
Of course the best way to finish market stock is crate fattening.
The birds are placed in small compartments in crates, kept quiet
and comfortable, and for about three weeks are fed twice daily,
either in troughs or by the use of the cramming machine.

At the Ontario Agricultural College the following ration proved
an economical producer of yellow flesh: five pounds cornmeal, four
pounds middlings, one pound oat meal, one pound animal meal. A
professional fattener in New York uses equal parts by weight of
cornmeal, ground oats and ground barley. For best results these
materials must be ground exceedingly fine. Milk, either sour or
buttermilk, is used to reduce the mixture to a creamy consistency.
In the absence of milk, water may be used, in which case a small
amount of animal meal should be added to increase the amount of
protein.

CHAPTER IX.
BREEDING THE BUSINESS HEN.

WHAT BREEDING CAN AND CANNOT DO.—AIl improve-
ment of the domestic fowl is the result of careful selection and mat-
ing, combined with improved methods of feeding and care. When
once secured superior quality of egg production, growth of flesh or
high exhibition points are difficult to maintain. ‘The natural ten-
dency is downward rather than upward. High standards of excel-
lence are sustained and improved only by the guiding hand of man.
Left to shift by. themselves it is safe to predict that most of our so-
called breeds or varieties of poultry would gradually revert back to
a few primitive races. Careful breeding alone, important though it
is, will not insure permanent improvement. No amount of good
breeding for size or prolificacy will take the place of good feeding
and care, or can ever overcome the evil influences of improper
methods of rearing. Good feeding and good breeding are twin sis-
ters in the improvement of the domestic fowl. One is as important
as the other, and one is indispensable to the other. Many flocks of
good purebred poultry have been blamed for poor egg yield which
was due to improper methods of feeding, housing and care, and the
breeder paid the penalty. If we would produce good layers of large
high-quality eggs, we must rear large healthy stock. Our business
hen machine must be well built. She must be grown under fresh
air, free range conditions and judicious liberal feeding. The busi-
ness hen must be bred for business. She must fulfill the following
qualifications : She must be of good size, hardy, attractive, an
economical producer of eggs and flesh, and must be especially
adapted to the specific purpose for which she is kept.

CONSTITUTIONAL VIGOR.—Whatever may be the object
in breeding, whether for exhibition, for egg production or flesh, the
first consideration is strong vigorous stock. ‘This is especially true
in breeding for egg production. In view of the great importance of
breeding poultry for increased egg production, and the consequent
demands upon the fowl for greater physical strength to withstand
the heavy strain upon the system, it is of prime importance to know
to what extent constitutional vigor influences the egg-laying quali-
ties of fowls, the fertility and hatching power of their eggs and the

BREEDING THE BUSINESS HEN. 93

development of their offspring. The modern heavy-laying fowl
probably performs the greatest feat of digestion, assimilation and
reproduction of any of our domesticated animals. She is our great-
est transformer of food into a finished product. She is our best
condenser of raw materials. ‘This point is clearly emphasized by
Dr. W. H. Jordan, of the New York State Experiment Station at
' Geneva, who compared a Leghorn fowl, weighing 34% pounds and
laying 200 eggs per year, weighing 25 pounds, with a Jersey cow,
weighing one thousand pounds and giving in a year 7,000 pounds
of milk containing 14 per cent solids. He stated that “If you take
the dry matter of the hen and compare it with the dry matter in
the eggs she lays in a year, there will be 5% times as much dry
matter in the eggs as in her whole body. The weight of the dry
‘matter in the cow’s body to the weight of the dry matter in the
milk will be as one to two and nine-tenths. In other words, based
upon dry matter, the hen does twice as well as the cow. I suspect
the hen is the most efficient transformer of raw material into the
finished product that there is on the farm. Her physiological activity
is something remarkable. So in that particular the hen stands in a
class by herself.”

A good fowl is expected to average 135 to 150 eggs per year.
Three of the Cornell Poultry Department flocks this year averaged
152, 156 and 175 eggs per hen respectively, an average of 161 eggs
per hen. Several hens have laid more than 200 eggs each, and one
laid 240 eggs. ‘These hens averaged 3% pounds each in weight,
and laid five times their weight in eggs. This is, in fact, quite sim-
ilar, though not entirely comparable, to the giving birth of an off-
spring every other day during the year. To do this requires not only
an inherited tendency to large production, but also an inherited
constitutional vigor to withstand the great physical strain. Repro-
duction, presumably, is the most exhausting physical function. In
view of the enormous work of digestion, growth and production
which a hen is expected to perform during her short life of two or
three years, it must be apparent that the most important factor in
breeding poultry is not the breed or variety, or the high scoring
qualities of the individual as an exhibition fowl, or the number of
eggs its ancestors have laid that determines its value, important
though they are, but rather the good health, natural stamina and
the constitutional vigor of the fowls to be mated, and their ability
to eat, digest and assimilate large quantities of food.

‘ CONSTITUTION AND VITALITY.—A factor quite as
important as determining whether or not constitutional vigor influ-
ences the function of reproduction, is to learn whether there are

94 THE BUSINESS HEN,

physical differences which distinguish the constitutionally strong
from the constitutionally weak fowls, and if so, whether they can be
easily distinguished by physical characteristics which can be used as a
basis on which to select strong fowls for breeding purposes. In
order to determine whether or not physical strength or weakness
influences production, fertility and hatching power of eggs, and
growth of chickens, and if so, whether there are physical characteris-
tics by which these weaknesses may be recognized in the selection of
breeders, a large number of experiments have been conducted by
the Poultry Department of the New York State College of Agricul-
ture at Cornell University, the results of which show that there are
great differences in the number of eggs laid, their fertility and hatch-
ing power, and the vigor of chickens from fowls that have strong
constitutions as compared with those of low vitality. These differ--
ences amounted to a dozen and more eggs a year per hen in favor of
the hens of strong constitution. Seven-months-old pullets from
hens of high vitality weighed from one-half to one pound more than
pullets of the same age and variety and method of hatching and
rearing that were hatched from eggs laid by stock of low vitality.
The method by which the flocks were selected was based on the
theory that strong fowls differ from weak fowls in type, action and
various other physical characters. Among the points to be observed
in selecting fowls with reference to their constitutional vigor are
the following: A fowl’s actions are a splendid indication of its
health. This is especially true as regards the appetite. Fowls that
are strong, vigorous and active usually are good feeders. Generally
among fowls of the same variety the heaviest eaters are the heaviest
layers. Fowls that are in the best physical condition generally are
off the perches first in the morning and go to roost last at night.
Hens of low vitality are much upon the roosts during the day and
are inclined to stand around listlessly. Crowing is an excellent
character to indicate vigor and vitality, and should always be used
in selecting males for breeding purposes. It indicates physical
strength and masculinity. Gallantry on the part of the male in
calling the hens to eat choice morsels of food is also a character of
considerable importance. Courage as contrasted with fear is also
a good indication of constitutional vigor. Fear and physical weak-
ness usually go together.

Type is next in importance to the action of the fowl as an indi-
cation of constitutional vigor. ‘The body of the vigorous fowl is
broad, deep and blocky, as contrasted with the long, thin, slender
type. The difference is primarily in the length of the joints and
the size of the bone and muscles. There is a correlation between

BREEDING ith BUSINESS: HEN. 95

the parts of a fowl, so that these are associated together as indica-
sions of high or low vitality. For example, a fowl of pronounced
low vitality is likely to have a long, flat, narrow head, long, thin,
flat beak, long, thin neck, long, slender body, long, thin thighs and
shanks, and long toes. Pale, thin, cold shanks are an almost infalli-
ble indication of lack of vitality. The fowl of pronounced strong
vitality is more likely to have a short, thick, curved beak, round full
head, large comb, short, stocky neck, short, thick, deep body, short,
heavy thighs and shanks. The eye is a mirror of the health, reflect-
ing vitality and life. It should be round and full. Sunken eyes and
drooping eyelids indicate low vitality. ‘The plumage of the fowl
also indicates its vitality. In fowls of low vitality the plumage is
likely to be ruffled, dry, lusterless and broken and not fully developed.
‘Chickens of low vitality are slow to feather. The way a fowl carries
the tail and wings is a good indication of its vigor. Sick fowls
nearly always carry the tail drooping. This is particularly true in
the case of young chickens. The luster of the plumage is dependent
to a large extent upon proper nourishment and the oiling of the
plumage from the oil glands, which, in the fowl of low vitality, do
not contain sufficient oil for the purpose. The breast and keel of
the fowl of strong vitality are usually full and meaty and the fluff
plump and full. This is one of the first places to examine in select-
ing fowls for low vitality. Depth and width of the body indicate
a large capacity to digest and assimilate food. Both characters are
applicable in selecting fowls of any age. Selection for breeding
purposes should be continuous: from the egg, the chick and chicken,
the cockerel and pullet, and mature stock. We should eliminate
weakness wherever we see it.

BREEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION.—The business hen
must be bred to lay more eggs of better quality and to lay them at
the time when they will bring the highest price at the lowest pos-
sible cost for food and care. Improvement must, therefore, be
made in quantity, quality and cost. Trap nests supply the only cer-
tain way of breeding from the highest producers. Trap nests, how-
ever, are not to be recommended except for persons who can give
special attention to the breeding of pedigree stock. It costs in the
neighborhood of 50 cents per year per hen for labor in trap-nesting
and keeping the records. There are a few things the poultryman or
farmer can do without trap-nesting that will be likely to enable him
to improve the ege producing qualities of his flock.

(1) Pick out the pullets of the same age that lay first. Chick-
ens, like all animal kind, show early in life the characteristics that
dominate later. A careful study of the individual records of hens

96 THE BUSINESS HEN.

indicates that the earliest producing pullets are likely to be the most
prolific.

(2) Breed from the hens that lay best in the Fall and early
Winter. It has been found that only the best layers are likely to
lay in the Fall and early Winter when conditions are most favorable
for egg production. This season, then, is the time of the year in
which to select and mark the fowls for breeding. The most unfavor-
able season to make the selection is in the Spring, when both the
high and low-producing fowls are laying, and when it is difficult to
distinguish one from the other. By selecting for breeding the fowls
that lay in the Fall and Winter, we not only are more likely to get
the highest producers, but also those that have a tendency to lay the
largest proportion of their eggs when they are the highest in price.

(3) Breed only from hens of good size. A small hen cannot
lay as many large eggs as a large hen can without undue physical
exertion. ‘The size of the hen must be kept in proportion to the
size and number of eggs she lays. We cannot afford to overload
our hens any more than we should overload an engine. This does
not imply that the largest hens are necessarily the most prolific, but
it is intended to emphasize the necessity of having large, vigorous
stock, capable of digesting and assimilating a large amount of food
in order to produce a large number of large-sized eggs.

(4) Breed from the hens that moult late in the Fall and also
show evidence of physical strength. Late moulting, when coupled
with constitutional vigor, indicates that the fowl had continued to
lay late into the Fall of the year. Experiments at Cornell have
shown that the highest producers are likely to moult late. The fact
that fowls are in good health and moult late is not only a good indi-
cation of high production, but indicates that the fowl is not likely to
lay many, if any, eggs during the remainder of the Winter and,
therefore, is likely to be in the best possible physical condition to lay
large perfect hatchable eggs during the hatching season.

(5) Select egg-type fowls for breeding. While it is a disputed
point as to whether or not there is such a type, poultrymen who are
close observers are pretty well agreed on the type of certain indi-
viduals which they have come to recognize as their best producers.
These characters may not be precisely the same with all varieties.
Each breeder must become thoroughly familiar with his variety.
There are many methods, more or less reliable, for telling a hen
that is laying from a hen that is not laying at a given time. How-
ever, in these days when complete and careful records are being
kept for the year, the so-called systems are of limited value in deter-
mining the largest producers. The shape of the hen’s body, size

BREEDING THE BUSINESS HEN. 97

and color of her comb change from time to time during the year,
which interferes with any method of selecting fowls of the “egg
type.” ‘The egg type is not yet scientifically proven, even though
good poultrymen learn to select with considerable accuracy the indi-
viduals that are most likely to give the best results. The differences
in productive capacity undoubtedly accompany and are the result
of a difference in body type. Good type, however, does not mean
body type alone. High productive power apparently is dependent not
only upon the inheritance of the function of egg production, but also
of the body best suited to large production, and also upon a highly-
developed nervous organization and strong powers of digestion, any
one of which, or all four of which factors presumably may be
inherited by the individual. The body type can in a measure be
determined by physical examination. The nervous force is indicated
by the action, intelligence and bright eye. Strong digestion and
assimilation are shown in the appetite and ability to handle food.
Constitutional vigor by type, action, color and size of comb, shanks,
etc. When all these qualities are combined in an individual we get
the highest producing fowl.

(6) Constitution vigor. Only individuals showing characters
of strong constitutional vigor should be retained for breeders.

(7) Use-hens instead of pullets for breeding, thus increasing
the size of the chick and improving its vigor, and at the same time
developing the tendency to breed for longevity of the race.

BREEDING FOR LONGEVITY.—We must breed a long-lived
hen, a long distance hen, one that can keep up the process of good
egg production for a period of two or three years and remain strong
and hardy. -There are long-lived families of hens just as there are
long-lived families of humans. The tendency of long life appears
to be a hereditary character. The tendency of modern poultry breed-
ing on many of the large poultry farms has been to shorten the
normal life of the race of the domestic fowl. ‘This has been brought
about in a variety of ways, chief of which is the breeding fron
cockerels and pullets instead of cocks and hens. ‘This is because
pullets lay the largest number of eggs during the first six months of
their laying year, which is the last six months of their first year
from the shell. While they are doing this they are also expected to
increase in size. They are then not in a’proper physical condition to
produce eggs for breeding as compared with hens that are kept under
similar environmental conditions. Close confinement, forced feed-
ing and early maturity have also contributed to shorten the normal
life and lower the vitality of the fowl.

AGE AS A FACTOR IN BREEDING—A good male should
be used until a stronger and superior individual can be found. ‘The

98 THE BUSINESS HEN.

age of usefulness of a male will depend more upon his inherited
vitality and physical characters than on any particular breed or stated
age. Males of the large breeds frequently become heavy and clumsy.
A White Leghorn male, now nine years old, is known to be a
valuable breeder still. Two or three years, however, usually is the
limit of profitable usefulness. Under-sized cockerels should never
be used. Maturity and full development are essential. Strong,
large, early-hatched cockerels are as a rule as desirable as old males,
except that they have not been tried and their power of reproducing
desirable characters has not been proven. A male’s value is two-
fold: his ability to produce fertility and his power to reproduce his
own desirable qualities. Males that excel in one quality do not
always in both. It is generally a good practice to keep a male if he
remains active until you can get a better one. Breed from mature
stock. Fowls two or three years old which have robust constitu-
tions are more desirable for breeders than younger stock, either
male or female. Professor Atwood, of the West Virginia Experi-
ment Station, proved in six experiments where he compared eggs
for hatching from hens and pullets, that the former not only laid
larger eggs that produced larger chickens, but also gave the best
results in fertility and hatching power, and that these differences
were apparent for many weeks after hatching, in size and health of
chickens. Hens have the advantage of having had an opportunity
to prove themselves. The breeder has had an opportunity to observe
and eliminate during the two or three years of observation the
weaker and less attractive, poorer developed, less productive and
improperly marked fowls. Two-year-old hens lay less eggs during
the Winter season than do those that are one year old (pullet year),
and fherefore, other conditions being equal, should have greater
vitality and hence should transmit more vigor to the chicks. Hens
that have not laid freely during the early Winter, other conditions
being equal, are more likely to produce a larger supply of hatchable
eggs at the right time for hatching. It does not follow that just
because hens do not lay during the Winter that their eggs will be
more hatchable. They may fail to lay because improperly fed or
housed and in that event the eggs would be likely to be less hatch-
able. Hens having reached maturity are more likely to throw their
energy into eggs of larger size. The size of the eggs, other things
being equal, determines the size of the chicks. By increasing the
natural length of life of productiveness of the domestic fowl we
decrease the liability to mortality in rearing, chickens having been
bred to inherit a tendency to live. By breeding fowls to lay a rea-
sonable number of eggs for two or three years in succession we
vastly decrease the number of chickens to be reared each year to

BREEDING THE BUSINESS HEN. 99

renew the flock. It is better to do this than to breed an excessively
high-producing, short-lived fowl.

BREED TO IMPROVE THE QUALITY OF THE EGGS.—
The business hen must be bred to lay eggs that will bring the high-
est price. These should be of large size, weighing two to 244 ounces
each, uniform egg shape, uniform light or dark brown or white in
color. Such eggs bring from five to 10 cents per dozen more than
eggs irregular in shape and size and differing in color. This would
make a net difference of 50 to 75 cents per year in the selling value
of the eggs per hen. The greatest improvement in breeding poultry
lies in the direction of improving the quality rather than in increas-
ing the quality of eggs. Improving the quality of eggs as to color
and shape may be brought about entirely by selecting eggs of the
right type for hatching. It costs no more to produce eggs of the
right color and shape than it does to produce eggs of irregular
shape and color, so far as cost of food and care are concerned.
Improvement in the quality of eggs may be brought about by observ-
ing the law that every hen is born to lay an egg of given size, shape
and color, and to continue to lay eggs of similar type during her
natural life, with the exception that there is a tendency for the eggs
to grow slightly larger as the hen grows older. ‘The next step is to
apply the law of inheritance, i. e.: that “similar tends to produce
similar,’ which means that, generally speaking, the color, shape and
size of the egg is likely to be transmitted from parent to offspring.
By using only eggs for hatching that are perfect in size, shape and
color for a few years, the quality can be radically changed in these
respects. In many instances this will mean an increase in the selling
quality of the eggs as much as 15 to 20 per cent. This is the easiest
way to increase the income from poultry.

BREEDING FOR MEAT PRODUCTION.—This is easier than
breeding for egg production and fancy points. The first essentials
for meat production are a strong constitution, a good appetite, a
meat producing stock. The selection of these qualities calls for a
tendency to increased longevity. Developing the true meat type will
have a tendency to build up instead of break down the natural physi-
cal qualities of the animal. Experience and experiments indicate
that in developing superior meat qualities in the general purpose or
meat type fowl there is a tendency to reduce egg production. This
results in reducing the number of offspring to be secured from the
highest type of meat fowl, and constitutes a serious difficulty in the
profitable breeding of fowls for meat production. In breeding for
meat type, it is comparatively easy to select from among a large
number of individuals those that grow most rapidly and reach in

100 THE BUSINESS HEN.

the shortest length of time the desired weight for any given purpose.
By selecting individuals that best meet the requirements as to type
and quick growth, great improvement can be made in the meat quali-
ties of our fowls. By a close study of type and careful selection of
individuals for breeding, great gain can be made in developing a
type that will give the least possible loss in dressing.

KEEP PUREBRED POULTRY.—The chief advantage of
keeping purebred poultry as compared to common or graded stock
is to be found in the many advantages resulting from the uniformity
in the stock and its products. These advantages will be treated
separately. Pure breeds can be bred more successfully because more
satisfactory results can be secured in feeding purebred poultry for
egg production because they are similar in their tastes, habits, pro-
lificacy, and character of growth. This uniformity in type is most
likely to be found in pure breeds. Where only one distinct type of
fowls is fed in a flock, better results can be secured from it, because
each fowl will be more likely to be fed according to its particular
needs. The heavier and slower and more phlegmatic types are, such
as Brahmas and Cochins, etc., the more likely they are to be over-
fed when fed on similar food and given similar care as the more
active, sprightly, prolific types of fowls. Better results can be secured
in feeding purebred fowls for meat production. Where there are
several types in one flock growthy fowls will be disturbed by the
active, noisy fowls. ‘This is extremely marked where the four
extremes of type are allowed to run together; the slow, clumsy,
good-natured Asiatics (Brahmas, Cochins, etc.), the strong, active
Americans (Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, etc.), the strong, asser-
tive precocious Mediterraneans (Leghorns, Minorcas, etc.), and the
active, quarrelsome Games.

No ration can be fed or any system of care practiced which will
exactly suit the four extreme types in one flock. Uniformity in
habit and type of the fowl in the pure breeds will enable rations to
be fed which will more likely produce similar results and more
satisfactory growth. There is a great difference in the way various
individuals make use of food. Some have a tendency to produce
growth, others fat, and still others to produce eggs. Purebreds are
more uniform in appearance when bred for market. Uniformity in
appearance of dressed poultry has much to do with the selling price.
A consignment of dressed poultry, some large, others small, some
with feathered shanks, others clean, some with yellow skin, others
white, some with black shins, others with yellow or pink, some with
long thin bodies, others with rounded, plump bodies, makes a motley
bunch which no one wants at a fair price. Purebred fowls lay eggs

BREEDING THE BUSINESS HEN. | 101

more uniform in color, shape and size. Uniformity in the appearance
of eggs as well as their eating quality determines their selling value.
A crate containing large and small eggs, light and dark brown,
pink, cream-colored and white eggs, roundish, long and elliptical
shaped eggs, have the appearance of being ordinary, picked-up store
eggs, and therefore will bring the lowest possible price. A crate of
all brown, or all white, or all cream-colored eggs, uniform also in
size and shape, have the earmarks of quality and bring the highest
possible price. Eggs from the pure breed, other things being equal,
are likely to give better results in hatching. Better results in hatch-
ing can be secured where there is uniformity in type and characteris-
tics of the body of the fowls. Big and little eggs do not get the
same degree of heat in the incubator, because the larger eggs, being
higher up, are in the warmer stratum of air. A person can learn
how to handle a certain machine to hatch eggs from a certain breed,
but he cannot run the machine to meet all sizes, shapes and condi-
tions of eggs at one time. When fowls of different types and char-
acters are crossed, it seems reasonable to believe that misfits would
be produced. For instance, a chick which should have a thin shell,
may be born in a thick shell. A chick inheriting the large body of
the father may be inclosed in the small shell produced by the small
mother. The shells evaporate very rapidly. ‘The more differences
there are in the types of the breeding flock, the greater will be the
variation.

Purebred fowls have greater power of transmitting their quali-
ties to their offspring. Purebred fowls should have the advantage of
the developing influence of generations of intelligent feeding, mat-
ing and care, and therefore ordinarily will have greater prolificacy,
and more profitable growth because they are further removed from
the wild type, which is limited to a few distinct varieties for the
most part of small size and not suited to the demands of the market.
Pure breeding carries with it the decided advantage of breeding more
true to a given standard and for a special purpose type, so that there
will be greater certainty of producing value in the offspring, when
such value is possessed by the parents. A pure breed, because more
valuable and attractive, will be given more and better care, because
the owner places greater value on it and takes pride in it. The
market value of fowls for breeding is far greater than the value to
eat or for eggs.

THE NUMBER OF VARIETIES TO KEEP.—One variety
is all that should be kept at first for commercial egg or meat pro-
duction. Any one variety, produced in its perfection, will furnish
business enough for men of the best executive ability and business

102 THE BUSINESS HEN.

capacity. The more fowls of a single breed that are kept, the more
the poultryman becomes an authority and popular headquarters for
that particular breed. Where one breed is kept, the danger of fowls
becoming mixed and valuable breed qualities lost, is eliminated.
After a poultryman has the business thoroughly established with
one breed, he may, perhaps, with profit, keep a second breed if it is
to supply a different kind of product for market. Two breeds, one
a distinctive egg producing fowl and the other a pronounced meat
type fowl, frequently can be kept to advantage on the same farm,
where both breeds are kept separate and pure and are bred in large
enough quantities to supply large markets. Where the poultryman is
to make a business of exhibiting poultry, and advertising extensively
eggs and stock for sale for breeding purposes, it may be desirable to
keep several varieties, but this would never apply where a stock is
kept for commercial purposes.

CROSSING.—The crossing of two pure breeds in most instances
is a mistake. It frequently has been done in the belief that some-
thing was to be gained in vigor, size and egg yield. Careful records
of the results of crosses indicate that while the size of chickens may
be increased by crossing with a male larger than the hens, or that
egg production may be increased by crossing the poorer layers with
a male from the egg-laying breed, the gain in weight or egg yield
generally is not equal to the weight or the egg yield of the pure
breed, which was used to increase the size or egg production. In
other words, better results generally will be obtained, if the pure
breed which best meets our needs for any given purpose is bred pure
and only the best individuals are used for breeding. In an experi-
ment at the New York State College of Agriculture, where Single
Comb White Leghorns and Barred Plymouth Rocks were compared
with their crosses, it was found that the Leghorns were far superior
as egg producers to the Rocks or either of their crosses and that the
Rocks were superior to the Leghorns or either of their crosses for
quick growth and size as meat fowls, and that nothing was gained in
health or vigor in either cross as compared to the pure breeds, as
shown by the following table:

White Rock on Leghorn

Leghorn. Leghorn. Rock. on Rock.
Wertie Caan fo TOtdl:...ck&eccetese 94.7 83.2 84.2 90.
Weight of chicks at 7 months...... 8.42 4.35 5.05 3.75
res: DIOAUCO, |.» ike: sin cieceee snes is 175 146 124 144

Even if anything could be gained in egg yield or weight by cross-
ing, it would be questionable if it would not be better in the long
run to keep a pure breed because of the necessity in crossing of
purchasing or breeding two pure breeds each year in order to make

BREEDING THE/ BUSINESS HEN. 103

the crosses, and the necessity which this practice would require of
providing separate pens and yards for all three or four classes of
fowls, i. e., for the crosses and each of the pure breeds. Moreover,
all the arguments advanced for keeping pure breeds apply as reasons
why we should not cross our fowls. In one year by crossing two
pure breeds, we destroy the constructive work of generations of
careful breeding in developing them to their present state of per-
fection of type and performance, and it would require 2 decade of
the same careful selection and mating to breed up to the former
perfection the two pure breeds from the crosses. Why this destruc-
tive waste of energy? A person who appreciates uniformity of type
of body and of egg, who has any conception of the intrinsic value
of the quality of transmitting these qualities to the offspring finds
little inducement in cross breeding. If new life and vigor is to be
considered, it is far. better to get this by introducing new blood of
the same variety. ‘The appearance alone of a flock of cross-bred
fowls when compared with the pure breeds from which they came
should be sufficient argument to cause a breeder to hesitate to resort
to crossing. This is particularly true in the second or third genera-
tion. One could not take pride in looking at, much less in showing
a cross-bred flock of various sizes, shapes and colors. If we could
see more dollars in the crosses than in the pure breeds, we might
be able to overlook appearances, but in this instance both profit and
_ beauty are to be gained by breeding the pure breeds.

GRADING UP THE FLOCK.—Grading up the flock may be
desirable unless a pure breed is to be kept. It is not usually to be
recommended because it is so easy to secure pure-bred stock and
eggs. A superior male of the breed desired, when crossed by com-
mon stock or a mixed breed, is likely to quickly and very materially
improve the quality of the offspring. The continued use of the pure-
bred males of the same variety would result in three or four gen-
erations in the production of a flock which to all appearances would
be equal to the pure breed, except in breeding qualities. Generally,
however, time and money will be saved by commencing with a pure
breed. There is always more or less uncertainty as to the result to
be obtained in grading up a flock. When this method of improving
a flock is tried, males of the same breed and similar line of breeding
should be used, if possible, each year. When purebred males can
be secured in most neighborhoods at approximately market prices
for killing, there is no excuse for anyone having mongrel poultry.
Grading offers the easiest and cheapest way to get uniformity and
superior quality of meat or eggs where one has common mongrel
stock, and with proper selection of females most closely resembling

104 THE BUSINESS HEN.

the purebred male used each year, surprising improvement in quality
and a proportionate increase in profits may be expected.

MONGRELS AND BARNYARD FOWLS.—They are the last
resort in the poultry business. They are better than none, but they
are to modern poultry husbandry what cider apples are to the choicest
modern varieties. Why begin 50 years behind the times in getting a
start? Why not begin where the other fellow leaves off, up-to-date,
by securing a small start by the purchase of a few eggs or chickens
of a good modern farm run on pure breed principles, and thus get
the full value of the food and care which you give to your poultry,
or at least by grading up with a purebred male? All pure breeds are
not superior necessarily just because they are pure breeds. There
are many blue-blooded aristocrats in the poultry world who travel
on their shape and dote on their pedigree and who, like some
humans, so far as any honest work is concerned, take it for granted
that the world owes them a living. The old adage should be
applied in the breeding of the “business hen,” “to prove all things
and hold fast to that which is good.”

NUMBER OF FEMALES TO ONE MALE.—The number of
females which can safely be allowed to one male depends more
upon the natural reproductive power of the male and female than
upon the breed. In general more males are required with the heavy
breeds. The safe rule, other conditions being equal as to health,
size and season, is one male to eight or 10 females for Brahmas,
Cochins, etc., one male to 15 or 20 females for Plymouth Rocks,
White Wyandottes, etc., and one male to 20 or 25 females for Leg-
horns, Hamburgs, etc.

LENGTH OF FECUNDATION.—Eggs are likely to be fer-
tile after a male has been in the flock from seven to 10 days, depend-
ing upon the condition of the male and females, and the number in
the pen, etc. If mating should take place soon after an egg has been
laid, the next egg to be laid probably will prove fertile. Eggs may
remain fertile for three or four weeks after the male has been
removed from the flock, but it is generally not safe to use the eggs
for hatching after the male has been removed one week. When
exchanging males in the flock, it is better not to use the eggs for
hatching until two or three weeks. The male last with the flock will
be more likely to dominate in fertilizing the egg.

EXCHANGING THE MALES IN THE BREEDING PENS.
—The practice of keeping two males for each flock, only one of
which is permitted to run with the flock, has several decided advan-
tages. Twice as many hens can be kept in one flock. The males
have an opportunity to recuperate as compared with letting two or

BREEDING THE BUSINESS HEN. 105

more males run together with the flock; it prevents fighting which
may result in permanent injury and impaired action. It also elimin-
ates fear on the part of either or both, which would interfere with
their digestion and, therefore, with their good health and efficiency.
Where a large number of breeders are kept and small pens of
special matings are not necessary, the most satisfactory method is to
allow all the breeders to run together on a large common range.
The flocks have a tendency to separate into natural groups, one male
with each. By this means serious injury from fighting does not
occur, because of the opportunity for the more timid males to get
away. ‘This system insures the largest influence of the strongest
and best individuals and provides an opportunity for natural selection.

INFLUENCE OF MALES ON EGG PRODUCTION.—Ex-
periments tried at Cornell and the New York Experiment Station
at Geneva indicate that the male does not influence the productivity
of the flock with which he runs. Therefore, except in the cases of
breeding flocks, the males would be a disadvantage instead of an
advantage, especially if more than one were in a breeding pen. ‘This
is due to the injuries caused by fighting. ‘The space required by
males in flocks for commercial egg production could be better utilized
by hens. Males in the flock during warm weather would be a detri-
ment on account of producing fertile eggs, which are known to have
poorer keeping qualities.

INFLUENCE OF PREVIOUS IMPREGNATION.—Whatever
‘may be true of the influence of previous impregnation on the future
offspring, it may be put down as not true of poultry beyond the
short life of the spermatozoons, which would not extent beyond a
few weeks with fowls and a season with turkeys. ‘Therefore, it
would be perfectly safe to breed, after a few weeks absence from
a male, from hens of any variety that have been previously mated
to a different variety with a certainty of knowing that no effects of
the previous mating will appear in the offspring. There being no
complete connection between the fertilized egg and the hen and
because the life of the male germs is known to be short, it is
impossible that his influence should continue indefinitely.

CARE OF THE MALES DURING THE NON-BREEDING
SEASON.—There are three ways of handling males during the non-
breeding season. The first is to keep them confined in small separate
coops by themselves. This is expensive as to labor and equipment
and does not permit of sufficient exercise. The second is to allow
the males to run with the flock all year. Except for the disad-
vantage of producing fertile eggs during the hot weather, this is the
most economical and best method, so far as the welfare and well-

106 THE BUSINESS HEN.

being of the hens and males are concerned. The third practice is to
remove all males from the flocks during the Summer and keep them
in a flock by themselves, far removed from the hens to prevent fight-
ing. If a large range with numerous feeding and watering places is
provided and if the males are watched at first to prevent serious
injury from fighting, the plan works well. It is of utmost import-
ance that whatever system may be practiced, the males must not be
allowed to become frightened, because this and the lack of proper
feeding and wholesome surroundings will certainly lower the vitality.

CONTROLLING SEX.—No one, so far as the writer knows,
has yet solved the mystery of controlling the sex in breeding poul-
try. Many theories have been advanced, the chief of which is the
one that the shape of the egg may be used as an indication of the
sex. For instance, long eggs will be more likely to produce cock-
erels, and round ones pullets. The claim that mating young males
and old hens will result in producing more pullets and that old
males mated to pullets will produce more cockerels has been tried
repeatedly without establishing the claim. It has been claimed that
the season of hatching influences or determines the sex, the general
belief being that the early hatches appear to contain a larger propor-
tion of pullets than do the late hatches. All these and other theories
of sex control have abundant verification in specific instances where
they have proved true, but in as many other instances the reverse
has been true.

HOW TO INTRODUCE NEW BLOOD.—If one has a choice
strain of fowls and desires to bring in new blood, it is better to
take two years to do it. This’is done in order to test the results
on a few individuals before trying it on all the breeding flock.
Serious results from the introduction of impure blood may thus be
avoided. It is better to purchase a few superior hens and mate them
with your best males or to secure superior males and mate with a
few of your best females and study the offspring for a year, and
then, if they are satisfactory, to use them by mating with the balance
of the flock.

IN-BREEDING.—There is little danger from in-breeding where
a large number of fowls of the same variety are kept if reasonable
care is exercised each year in selecting only vigorous breeders. If
it becomes desirable to introduce new blood, the rule should be not
to do so just because it is new blood, but because it is superior and
not simply equal to your own in vigor and other qualities. The com-
mon notion that it is necessary each year to exchange males tends
to keep the flock only equal to the average of those who are con-
cerned, and prevents improvement that might be secured by develop-
ing a superior strain by judicious line breeding,

BREEDING THE BUSINESS HEN. 107

LINE BREEDING.—This term applies to the practice of keep-
ing separate strains or matings on the same farm, always going
systematically to one line for the males and to the other line for
the females, these two lines having been started by mating the best
male which forms the male line to the best female which forms the
female line, and thereafter to continue mating the male offspring of
the male line to the female offspring of the female line, or the orig-
inal male to his daughter or the female to the son, and each genera-
tion to continue to systematically mate from these male and female
lines, which will tend to produce in each generation a line having a
larger and larger proportion of the blood of the original female on
the one side and a line having a larger and larger proportion of the
original male on the other, and an intermediate line may be kept, if
-so desired, that will contain one-half of each line. Line breeding
is a type of systematic in-breeding and is practiced in order to inten-
sify and fix certain qualities and to avoid as far as possible the evil
results of close indiscriminate in-breeding.

GETTING A START WITH PUREBRED POULTRY.—
When one already has poultry and desires to change the variety, the
cheapest way to get a new flock is by the purchase of breeding stock
in the Fall of the year, when breeders must sell hens to make room
for pullets. This method has the advantage of providing hens
instead of pullets for breeders the following Spring, and to purchase
the stock when it is at its worst, at the close of the laying and
moulting season, hence to note lack of vigor and faulty feathering,
etc. Each hen should be counted on with good care to produce
during the -214 to three months laying season at least 45 to 50 eggs,
30 of which probably could be used for hatching. These, at the
regular prices of eggs for hatching, should pay for the hen and
male and there should be left the stock and a good margin of profit
on the investment. If a start is made in the Spring, the high prices
charged for breeding stock generally makes it desirable to purchase
eggs or day-old chicks, the last in particular if a large number are
to be reared. More chances are taken in purchasing the eggs as to
their infertility, weak vitality and the uncertainty of incubating and
brooding. However, when the business has already been established
and the element of time in making the change is less important, the
purchase of eggs or day-old chicks from a well-known reliable
breeder enables one to get a start with the least possible outlay.

CHAPTER X.
A CONNECTICUT MAN’S EXPERIENCE.

Mr. Geo. A. Cosgrove, of Connecticut, gives the following state-
ment of personal experience with hens:

Some years ago a prominent magazine published an article in
which was expressed the thought that there comes a time in the life
of very many men, especially in the cities, when there is an ever-
deepening cloud overshadowing their lives, which colors all their
thoughts, and which cannot be shaken off. It persistently intrudes
itself into all their pleasures, and is not absent from their daily
tasks. And the shadow deepens as the years roll on. That shadow
is caused by the question “What shall I do when increasing age
causes me to lose my situation; how shall 1 support my family when
I lose my job?” And the question will not be put down, but con-
stantly recurs and demands to be answered. As the weeks and
months roll by the man never loses consciousness of the fact that
any day the time may come when it must be answered. Honest,
sober, industrious men, city born and bred, who know nothing what-
ever about country life, or how to perform the labor necessary on a
farm, still read with mingled hope and fear the advertisements of
cheap farms for sale, and wonder if they could make a living for
themselves and their families on a farm, and it is for the encourage-
ment of such men that this chapter is written. Success or failure
will depend largely upon the attitude towards the undertaking which
his wife and family assume. If they realize fully the situation, and
know that it is almost their only chance to make a living; if they are
willing for a time to deny themselves city comforts and luxuries; if
the wife will loyally support the efforts and labors of the husband,
and not add to his burdens by fault-finding and worse than useless
regrets; if they will put themselves in sympathy with nature and
enjoy the varying seasons, and “bird and bee and flower;” if they
will appreciate at its true worth the independence and safety of the
farm, then indeed may they hope to succeed in their farm life, for
there is nothing in the farm labor that cannot be quickly learned by
any man who has brains enough to be a good mechanic. The writer
speaks from the standpoint of personal experience, for he moved out
of New York when 57 years of age, broken in health, with no boys

A CONNECTICUT MAN’S EXPERIENCE. 109

to help, and absolutely without farm experience, and bought a run-
down farm in northeast Connecticut. Now, after 15 years have
elapsed, the only regret is that we did not leave the city 10 years
sooner. In these 15 years health has been regained, the value of the
farm trebled, and a few dollars laid away for “old age.” Of course
we have made many mistakes; 1f we could begin again and have
the benefit of present experience to commence with, far greater suc-
cess from the money standpoint could be achieved. But there are
other successes than financial ones; the building up and beautifying
of a home, acquiring the respect and esteem of one’s neighbors and
townsmen, as evidenced by being called to public service in the State;
the strengthening of one’s own character, which the independence of
farm life greatly promotes, all these are successes of more value to a
true man than a few added dollars.

A city man buying a farm has usually a very indefinite idea of
what he is going to do with it. Somehow he expects the farm is
going to provide a living for himself and family, but just exactly
how he really does not know. Of course he expects to have a garden,
raise his own potatoes and with cow and chickens contrive to get a
living. So he drifts along for a few years without “getting any-
where.” It is far better to have a definite plan, to decide on what
you would like to do, what you feel best fitted to undertake. ‘Then
before concluding the purchase, go over the farm very carefully and
‘see if it is fitted for the carrying out of the plan you have in mind.
What are the facilities for getting the product to market after you
have raised it, and is the soil suitable? J have seen land on the
very top of a round hill that was so wet as to be unfit to cultivate.
Note particularly the distance to the nearest grain store, also to the
express office. It makes a big difference whether you must spend
five or six hours on the road once or twice a week, or one or two
hours. The water supply, both for home and in pasture, should also
be carefully looked after, and whether it tails or not in a dry time.
The wood lot, from which to obtain fuel, should consist of not less
than 20 acres. No one thing on a farm contributes more to the com-
fort and happiness of the farmer’s wife than plenty of properly pre-
pared and dry fuel. Many an otherwise good farmer fails entirely
to consider what an unnecessary annoyance it is to his wife to have
the wood split in such large pieces that it will not kindle readily.
Keep always a stock of old rails or dead wood from the forest, split
into pieces not larger in diameter than your finger, for kindling wood.
Wood should always be cut a year before using, so that it will have
time to get the sap dried out, but if it is not possible to do this, the
seasoning may be hastened by cutting down the trees before the

110 THE BUSINESS HEN.

leaves fall and letting the trees lie for a few weeks before they are
cut into lengths. The leaves will draw nearly all the sap out of the
wood.

Two of the things most frequently thought of by the city man
as a means of getting a living on a farm, are fruit raising and
poultry keeping. The two can be very easily joined together. To
the high-growing berries like blackberries and raspberries, tied
to stakes driven into the ground, poultry do very little damage, as
nearly all the fruit is set high enough to be out of their reach.
The strawberry patch must be fenced so that poultry cannot get
at it. One or two acres of good land devoted to raspberries and
blackberries will produce enough to support, in the country, an
ordinary family. Of course, it is supposed that the farmer raises
his own potatoes, his milk, butter, eggs, poultry, etc., so that he
has very much less to buy than when living in the city. The berry
patch is an ideal place to raise the growing chicks; they help to
keep down the weeds, while the cultivating of the ground fur-
nishes them with worms and bugs, and the plants furnish shade
and shelter from hawks and crows . Suppose a man has decided
to go into poultry, eggs, and berries as a means of getting a living
on a farm. He finds that he can ship in the evening the berries
picked that day, and that they will arrive at his city market next
morning early, and that the cost of express service is not so high
as to reduce his profit unduly. Now he is ready to look into the
poultry part of his undertaking. Does his market pay a premium
for white eggs, or are brown eggs preferred? White eggs sell for
most in New York; in Boston brown eggs bring the highest price.
All the small breeds, the Leghorns, Andalusians, Anconas, also the
- larger Minorcas, lay white eggs. The American breeds, Plymouth
Rocks, Wyandottes, R. I. Reds, lay mainly brown eggs. But the
color, especially of Wyandottes and R. I. Red eggs, varies a good
deal, shading all the way from a dark brown to nearly white. For
a year there has been an effort under way at Storrs College to
produce a strain of White Wyandottes that would lay white eggs,
the object being to produce a fowl that would overcome the objec-
tions to the Leghorns, viz., their small size, high flying, and the
fact that they do not lay well in Winter when eggs are highest.
Any of the American breeds will average twice the size of ordinary
Leghorns, and are better Winter layers. The Leghorns are non-
sitters, and an incubator becomes a necessity unless birds of some
other breed are bought to do the sitting. In fact if hundreds of
early chicks are to be hatched, one or more incubators are a
necessity, no matter what breed is kept. Many prefer nowadays
to buy the chicks already hatched, which can be done in any quan-

A CONNECTICUT MAN’S EXPERIENCE. 111

tity at a cost usually of from 10 to 15 cents apiece. This does
away with the cost of incubators, eliminates the problem of what
incubator to buy, and where to put it, and on the whole the cost
of the chicks is not very much greater than it would cost to pro-
duce them at home. Of course the above applies only to the pro-
ducer of market eggs and poultry; the poultry fancier, who is try-
ing to produce high-class breeding stock must hatch his own eggs.

Having settled the question as to which breed he is going to
keep, and whether it is the production of fancy stock, or simply
market eggs and poultry, the next question that arises is the loca-
tion of the poultry houses. Nearness to the water supply, whether.
it is a well or brook, is an important consideration when one has
to carry water 365 days in the year. By all means avoid a damp
or low situation; the top of a high and breezy hill is better than
a low place where the cold and damp air settles at night. A
gravelly or sandy soil is much better than a rich dark loam; the
latter absorbs the droppings and becomes in time an ill-smelling,
disease-breeding place. Don’t forget that the fowl’s nose is only
a foot from the ground. If the fowls are to be kept in yards and
on level land, arrange the houses so as to have two yards to each
house, that one may be plowed and a crop of some kind grown
to take the foulness out of the soil, while the other yard is being
used. Rye is the quickest to grow, and hardest for the hens to
kill out, when they are turned into that yard, which they should
be as soon as the rye is three inches high.

Housing is one of the biggest problems to settle, but the chap-
ter devoted to that subject in this book is very complete, and the
novice should be able to select from the many plans something
that would suit both his taste and his pocketbook. The writer built
houses 10 feet square on the ground, setting the houses 10 feet
apart. Then by roofing over the space between the houses and
boarding up the back, and making a wire netting front, a scratch-
ing shed was made for each house. There is a wire netting door
in the front of each shed, and the coop door opens into the scratch-
ing shed. These houses and sheds may be added to from year
to year as the increasing number of fowls require. These houses
will accommodate 25 to 30 fowls each, and the cost for material,
including windows and roofing, is about $18. Material for scratch-
ing sheds would add about $6. The only foundations of these
houses are wide chestnut boards sunk into the earth, and project-
ing above the ground about eight inches. The sills of the houses
rest on the edge of these boards, and the siding comes down about
two inches below the sills, overlapping the joint where the sills

112 THE BUSINESS HEN,

rest on the chestnut boards. Pine boards sunk in the earth would
rot in a year, but chestnut will last indefinitely. In my case they
have been in use a dozen years and are still serviceable. The
earth is banked up against the boards outside so that water runs
away from the coops. These chestnut foundation boards keep the
frost and moisture out of the coops, and the earth floor inside is
perfectly dry at all times, and never freezes in the coldest Winter,
although the door is always kept wide open except during driving
snowstorms, or on coldest nights. A dry earth floor in the poultry
houses is much better than a board floor; it makes a dust bath in
which all the fowls can wallow at the same time if they desire,
and by scraping off the top earth and scattering it an inch deep
on the droppings boards under the roost, it makes a good absorb-
ent for the manure, and the surface of the floor is cleaned at the
same time. It is the practice of the writer to put one or two
wagon loads of sifted earth in each house in the Fall, using the
driest earth to be obtained.

It is impossible to imagine all the mistakes a novice may
make, and caution against each one. A letter recently received
from a lady asking instruction, says: “I let the hen set six weeks
and she didn’t hatch out a chick.” Now with an egg tester she
could have told in seven days whether the eggs had any chance to
hatch or not, and in any case it was useless to let the hen sit
more than three weeks. The chick will begin to pick at things
the first day it is hatched, but that must not be taken as an indi-
cation that it is hungry; the yolk of the egg which the chick’s body
surrounded before it kicked itself out of the shell, furnishes all
the nutrition the chick needs for three or four days, so that very
little food should be given for the first few days, and only what
will be eaten up in five minutes, but it should be given five or six
times a day for the first week. It does not make a great deal of
difference what is fed; any of the advertised chick feeds if fresh
and sweet, hard-boiled egg mixed with bread crumbs, or rolled
oats, and all chopped fine; and I have raised every chick feeding
nothing but coarse cracked corn taken out of the horse’s feed bin.
But in this case the hen and chicks were down at my barn, and
the hen balanced the ration by scratching in the manure pile. ,

Brooding the chicks is a most important matter; it is very easy
to spoil a lot of chicks, either in the hatching or brooding. Brood-
ers without artificial heat are coming into use more and more.
These are made to conserve the natural heat of the chicks by
blankets or covers over the chicks, additional covers being used
on extra cold nights, A sufficient number of chicks, 25 to 50, must

A CONNECTICUT MAN’S EXPERIENCE. 113

be kept together to generate enough heat. Where two or three
chicks would freeze in such a brooder, 25 or 30 would be quite
comfortable. These brooders must be used in a house, or well
covered shed, where they will be protected from storms and winds.
I took a common soap box, cut a hole, 3x4 inches, in one side
near the bottom, made a light frame that would just drop in the
box, and nailed a small cleat an inch from the top edge of box
on each end for the frame to rest on; tacked a piece of muslin
to each end of the frame, the muslin being longer than the frame,
so that it would sag down in the middle; filled the box with hay,
and put 23 chicks a day old on the hay. The muslin “sheet” rested
on the chicks, and two or three thicknesses of old carpet was laid
on the sheet for “blankets.” Three half-inch holes were bored in
each end for ventilation. The chicks using this box as their
brooder, lived and thrived better than those kept in heated brood-
ers. They were put in about the middle of April when water
would freeze at night. The box was kept in a 6xS8-foot house and
the chicks had the run of the floor. For the first week or two
it is necessary to push the chicks back into the box after feeding
until they learn to go in themselves. When the chicks are large
enough to run outdoors it is a good practice to scatter oats thickly
on the ground where they run, and spade them under. As soon
as the green shoots show above ground, dig a little hole so as to
expose the white rootlets of the oats, and the chicks will work
and scratch among them all day, eating the whole thing, oats,
roots and sprouts, and it is a most excellent feed for them.

As the chicks get to broiler size the cockerels may be culled
out and sent to market, and the earlier this is done the better the
price obtained will be. Two things are to be carefully guarded
against; one is lice, the other is colds, which may run into roup,
the dread of all poultrymen. “Blue ointment,’ mercurial ointment,
which can be cheaply obtained at any drug store, is a specific
against lice. If chicks are running with hens, take a piece twice
the size of a pea and rub under the hen’s wings, and along on her
body where she has stripped the feathers off to line her nest, and
to bring her bare skin in contact with the eggs while sitting; also
in the hollow spot just above the vent, and in the feathers below
the vent. Do this just at night and the chicks and hen will be
free from lice for weeks. Observe if there are little bunches of
“nits” at the base of the feathers below the vent; if so lard or
grease of any kind will kill them. Look out for colds, especially
when the Fall rains come. When you notice that the chicks have
wet nostrils, put in their drinking water permanganate of potash,

114 THE BUSINESS HEN.

enough to give the water a strong wine color; say a teaspoonful
of the crystals to cight or 10 quarts of water. Keep doing it until
there are no more wet nostrils. The above two recipes are worth
a hundred dollars to anyone going into the poultry business.

I do not think it wise for a man who is new to the poultry
business to attempt to raise a large number of birds the first year;
better go slow and learn the business by handling only 100 or 200
the first Winter. To get 200 good pullets, at least 500 chicks must
be hatched, and it will only be with good luck that one who hatches
500 chicks will find himself in the Fall in possession of 200 good
pullets. The poor pullets should be culled out as well as the sur-
plus cockerels, and the most profitable time to dispose of the latter
is as soon as they weigh one and a half to two pounds each, and
earlier than that if the market will accept them. As to how
many fowls one should keep when the business has been learned,
that will depend on the man. Almy with the help of a boy cares
for 2,000 R. I. Reds, Tillinghast with one man cares for 3,000 White
Leghorns; both of these men using the colony system; that is,
detached houses holding about 50 birds each scattered over many
acres of ground. Mr. Tillinghast uses large hoppers holding a
week’s supply of wheat screenings to which the fowls have ac-
cess at all times, and each day when the eggs are gathered suffi-
cient beef scraps for a day are put where the fowls can get them.
It is not a pleasant job on a rainy afternoon to drive over 100
acres back and forth among the houses gathering eggs, etc., but
this colony system with free range for the fowls on grassland is
undoubtedly the healthiest for the fowls, and the system most
likely to endure. Some men can keep 2,000 hens successfully in
one house, but I would not advise any novice to attempt it until
he had served an apprenticeship to some one who was successfully
doing it. But it must be remembered that caring for 2,000 hens
is not the really difficult part; where the expert part of the busi-
ness comes in, is in raising the young stock to renew this flock
from year to year. The agricultural colleges in many of the States
give a short course of five or six weeks in poultry keeping both
in Winter and Summer, which it is very advisable for one who
wishes to learn the business to attend.

How much can a man reasonably expect to make per year,
keeping poultry? is a question frequently asked. Selling eggs and
poultry at market prices only, a man can figure safely on $1 a
year from each hen. Mine have netted me from $1.50 to $2 per
hen for years, but part of that has come from sale of eggs for
hatching and cockerels for breeders.

EPCONNECTICUT MAN'S EXPERIENCE. 115

The man who has other farm work to do, who raises corn,
potatoes, oats or rye or barley. or buckwheat for his fowls,’ who
has cows to milk, and other “chores” to do, will find 500 head
of poultry about as many as he will have time to care for, in addi-
tion to the 500 young chicks being raised to replace the old stock.
I have three yards, each containing about an acre, devoted en-
tirely to poultry. They are located on the south slope of a hill.
In the north yard are nine houses; here are kept the two-year-old
hens; in the middle yard are kept the yearlings; in the south
yard the young chicks and growing stock. The largest part of
this south lot is planted with corn for shade and shelter for the
chicks. A strip about 30 feet wide by 3060 feet long is left bare,
and on this strip oats are thickly scattered, then turned under by
the cultivator. This is done so that the young sprouts will make
green feed for the chicks. This season I have planted on this
strip at different times, oats, barley, rye and buckwheat, and the
chicks have not allowed anything to get two inches high. It has
been replanted six times and the chicks, about 260 in number, have
not only eaten that strip bare, but have eaten all the lower corn
blades off for quite a distance into the corn. Of course the young
chicks are not allowed in the corn lot until the corn is six inches
high; then if they are supplied with grass or other green food for
awhile they will not damage the corn enough to amount to any-
thing, and in a couple of weeks the corn is too large to be hurt.
From present indications there will be 200 bushels of ears on this
part of one acre, and it is the fourth year of corn on the same
ground. In the Fall when most of the hens are molting and the
egg output is low, the two-year-old hens are shipped alive to the
New York market, their houses cleaned out and the year-old hens
put in the north yard, and the middle yard houses made ready to
receive the laying pullets.: Shipping the old fowls alive to the
New York market is much the best way to dispose of them, as
the price obtained is usuaily just as much per pound for the live
birds as for dressed ones, and sometimes it is more; the reason
being the large Jewish trade, which buys all their fowls alive. Six
substantial shipping coops holding from 12 to 20 fowls each, can
be bought for $5, and as the express companies return the empties
for 10 or 15 cents, they may be used many times. The first Sum-
mer on a farm is likely to be for the city man the busiest season
he ever knew, and it is not wise to undertake to do too much, or
too many things with the result that none of them is well done,
and he must expect to work harder and more hours than he ever
did before, but there is a joy, a satisfaction, a happiness in it.

CHAPTER XI.
MARKETING EGGS.

The easiest money to be made in the poultry business is in mar-
keting the products. A successful poultryman must be a good
salesman. The extra money that may be secured by selling eggs
to a special trade at an advanced price is almost clear gain. It
should be 25 to 30 per cent additional above the profit in selling »
at the highest wholesale price. The margin will vary from one
cent per dozen in small towns to five to 10 cents per dozen in large
cities. It is not an easy matter to secure this high-class trade.
Like everything else worth while, it requires years of effort and
painstaking care. A poultryman must grow into his trade. High
price is simply the premium paid for confidence in the goods. It is
a just reward for a good reputation. Any neat and careful poul-
tryman, however, should find no difficulty in raising his price two
cents per dozen above the highest market in his neighborhood.
As his customers become educated up to good eggs the price can
be increased. The first essential in working up a special market
is the ability to produce and deliver the goods. To do this three
things are absolutely necessary; good eggs, an attractive package
and regular delivery every week in the year. One is just as
important as the other.

GOOD EGGS.—There is a great difference in eggs. They
must, first of all, be new laid, that is to say, not over one week
old. If they are gathered regularly each day and placed in a cool,
dry, clean room, they should suit the requirements of the most
delicate taste. Daily or twice a week shipments are necessary
with a private family trade, and would greatly increase the labor
of handling and keeping of accounts as well as multiplying express
charges. On the whole “eggs is eggs” when they go to or leave
the average country store. A good farmer’s good egg sells for no
more than the poor farmer’s poor egg when they once get into the
class of ordinary “store-gathered” eggs, because they are in bad
company. It is a positive injustice to the hens that laid the eggs,
to the man who grew the grain to produce them, and to the one
who gathers them thus to sell good eggs for the lowest possible
price. The element of uncertainty as to just what is covered by

MARKETING EGGS. — 117

‘the ege shell exaggerates the real difference in quality and mag-
nifies the premium paid for guaranteed fresh eggs. In other words,
people are willing to pay an extra price rather than take any
chances. While the general quality of market eggs has consid-
erably increased in some respects of late years, due to the more
systematic method in handling of eggs by large dealers, the feature
of age, which has much to do with quality, remains the same.

The eggs should be of large size. The customer who pays
a good price is entitled to eggs that weigh not less than two
ounces each. Eggs under two ounces should be sold to a special
customer at a somewhat reduced rate. Small or medium eggs
always suffer by contrast with large ones, but when placed in a
crate by themselves they will show off to better advantage, and as
they have the same quality of freshness and neatness as the other
eggs, they should command a premium above the general market.
The best and finest grade of eggs should weigh two and one-
quarter ounces each. Good eggs should also be uniform in color,
and the color should suit the fancy of the customer. The New
York City market requires a pure white egg. Boston has a de-
cided preference for a dark brown egg. Other things being equal,
a difference of at least two cents per dozen will be paid just on
account of color in these and other markets. It is a common
practice now to assort and ship eggs according to the color require-
ments of the respective markets. Uniformity of grade counts for
as much in the selling of eggs as it does in marketing fruit. One
would not expect to ship red, green and russet apples of large,
medium and small size in the same barrel. Yet it is a rule, not an
exception, to find all kinds of eggs, big ones and little ones, long
ones and round ones, eggs with brown, white, speckled or cream-
colored shells in the same crate when they leave the farm. The
very fact that they are mixed in colors and in sizes brands them
as “common eggs’ in the eyes of the purchaser. They give the
impression of not having come from any particular place or any
special breed, but from anywhere and everywhere; just “picked
up” eggs. This is a serious handicap. In order to produce the
highest priced eggs, one must keep purebred fowls, not because
their eggs are any better to eat, but because they are better to look
at. Here is where appearances count.

Cleanliness is a necessity in selling eggs. A dirty egg is a
disgrace. It may be fresh, but no one will believe it. There
are many degrees of cleanliness; spotlessly clean, clean, “tolerably
clean” and dirty. Eggs as they come from the nest are usually
“tolerably clean.” They are never spotlessly clean until each egg

118 THE BUSINESS HEN.

has been carefully inspected and the faintest trace of stain or dirt
removed. Much can be done to keep eggs from becoming soiled,
which will save a large amount of labor. Dirty hen houses and
yards cause dirty feet, which make dirty eggs. Clean nests will
help to keep the eggs clean. Bright oat straw is one of the most
desirable nest materials. Sawdust or clover hay and some other
materials are likely to stain the shells, When cleaning eggs,
both dry and damp cloths should be at hand. Sapolio or baking
soda are good to scour off a stain. A little sal soda in water
will remove dirt more quickly. Vinegar and water will do the
same thing. One should use as little water as possible. Washed
eggs lose their natural finish and will not keep as well. Very dirty
eggs, however, should be put in water for a few minutes to soften
the material but not long enough to permit the water to be
absorbed by the shell. Otherwise the color and flavor of the eggs
will be impaired. All eggs should be perfectly dry when placed
in the crates, and covered so that dust cannot settle on them.
This cleaning operation is not expensive when done systematically.
One cent per dozen for grading, cleaning and packing eggs, both
for market and for hatching, is a liberal allowance. At this price,
the person who does the work should make good wages.

The quality of fancy eggs must be good as to flavor, firmness
of white and color of yolk. Care therefore must be taken in the
feeding of fowls to have plenty of green food and a certain amount
of corn, both of which give to the dull yolks a deep yellow color.
Very pale yolks, which are certain to follow prolonged feeding
without the foods mentioned, are likely to be looked upon with
suspicion by particular customers. It is true that excessive feeding
of laying hens upon foods which have a very pungent odor, such
as onions, will affect the flavor of the eggs. Both turnips and
cabbage, however, can be fed with perfect safety in limited quan-
tities, especially if fowls are well supplied with other foods.

THE PACKAGE.—A good article is worthy of a neat package.
Appearances count for much in catching the eye or pleasing the
palate. If eggs go to market in a neatly made, well varnished,
carefully stenciled crate, the customer has reason to expect that the
same care used in packing the eggs has been exercised in pro-
ducing and gathering them, and in this he usually is not mistaken.
Good serviceable egg crates can be made with very slight expense.
Most farmers should be able to make them. It is the most profit-
able kind of rainy day work. The crates which are used to ship
eggs by express from the Cornell University poultry plant have a
capacity of multiples of three dozen; that is, three dozen, six

MARKETING EGGS. 119

dozen, nine dozen, 12 dozen, 15 dozen or 30 dozen. Regular com-
mercial egg crates are purchased for five to 10 cents each with
fillers. The best ends are used to form the ends of the new
crates of various sizes. Three-eighths-inch Georgia pine ceiling
is used for sides and top, which is nailed with two-inch finishing
nails. The bottoms are made from the best of the material taken
from the sides of the egg crates. Narrow cleats are placed on the
- sides for handles, and upon the top of the cover to make it solid.
two three-inch strap hinges and a hasp are placed on the cover.
The whole box is then sandpapered if necessary, covered with
hard oil finish, which makes a much neater looking package,
easier to keep clean than one which is painted. The name of the
farm or of the proprietor, with the home address and the products
shipped, should then be stenciled on the top of the package, also
upon the sides where room will permit. The Cornell stencil is in
two parts. With the first part a large white egg, ten inches long,
is painted upon the box. When this is dry another stencil is used
to print the words, “Cornell University, College of Agriculture,
Poultry Products, Ithaca, N. Y. Quality Guaranteed.” A neat
stencil on any package is a splendid advertisement, and makes the
chances of loss of crates in transit very much less. As a finish-
ing touch we purchase little brass padlocks; with duplicate keys.
They cost 1274 cents each and they are money makers, not so
much because they prevent stealing eggs, but because the wealthy
customer is willing to pay at least a cent a dozen just for the sake
of having his neighbor see that he gets eggs direct from the farm
by express each week with a padlock on the box. Actual experi-
ence in working up a large private family trade in and about New
York City proves that the “best advertiser is a pleased customer.”
To illustrate, one family that has purchased eggs for many years,
referred a friend who became a regular customer, who, in turn,
wanted the assertion sent to another friend: Another string of
customers was started by a wealthy man visiting the farm and
finding a person packing eggs for the private family trade. He
asked why he could not have eggs sent to him also. He became
pne of the best customers and through his friendship four others
were secured. Farmers who take Summer boarders, or those who
sell produce to Summer hotels, have excellent opportunities for
finding city customers for eggs. The private family trade, how-
ever, is not without its disadvantages. One of these is that there
are a multitude of details in looking after a large number of com-
paratively small shipments ranging from six to 15 dozen. ‘This
makes a good deal of bookkeeping. Families are likely to leave

120 THE BUSINESS HEN.

the city at certain times during the year which necessarily inter-
rupts the general output of eggs. However, some customers con-
tinue to have eggs shipped to their Summer resort, where, if neces-
sary, they are willing to pay double express charge. The most
serious difficulties have been the breakage by express companies.
Usually they make good the loss after much correspondence and
delay.

REGULARITY OF SHIPMENT.—The people who pay high
prices must have their eggs on time, rain or shine. They usually
want the same number per week the year round. One’s capacity,
therefore, to cater to this trade is somewhat measured by the num-
ber of eggs which he can produce during the months of greatest
scarcity; namely October, November and December. It will be
found, however, that customers are very obliging and stay over
these periods with a somewhat diminished supply. In order to
discourage excessive. egg eating during the period of scarcity the
prices should be made according to the law of supply and demand.
While these prices are not as high, perhaps, as some are getting,
one should be well pleased with the results, but should be always
looking for higher prices. A good scale of prices is 30 cents per dozen
for April, May, June and July; 40 cents for August and September;
45 cents for October and November; 50 cents for December and
January; 40 cents for February and March. The customer, in
every case, should pay the express charges and return the empty
box. There is less trouble from breakage where the customer who
is on the spot is personally responsible for settling with the ex-
press company for damage. These prices, however, net about
seven to eight cents per dozen by the year more than the highest
wholesale market quotation for nearby fancy white eggs. During
the Spring months, when most eggs are laid, a large trade in eggs
for hatching takes care of most of the surplus. At the end of a
hatching season the Summer hotel trade will handle any surplus
which one may have at about 25 cents per dozen. Whatever the
system of marketing, the problem of regularity of supply through-
out the year is the hardest to meet, and in a measure it remains
unsolved. With the best of care one cannot expect to get more
than 10 to 15 eggs per day per 100 hens in large numbers during the
months of October, November and December, and not over 20 to
30 per cent from early-hatched pullets. It is true that individual
flocks should do much better than this for a time, but if there are
many flocks, some of the others will not be laying as well.

CHAPTER XII. |
KILLING AND MARKETING POULTRY.
STICKING AND BLEEDING IN THE MOUTH —This

method may be used for either dry picking or scalding. Hang fowl
from ceiling by cord, loop or wire attached to the shanks, or hold
in the hands while sitting. Seize the head in the left hand, back
of the head in the palm of the hand, palm upward, the thumb and
first finger of left hand pressing firmly back of the eye, but not on
neck, which would retard bleeding. With the right hand run the
blade of the sticking knife into the throat until the large artery on
the left side of the throat is severed. Always bleed before sticking.
It gives better drainage of blood and less delay before plucking
feathers. Then quickly insert the blade into the slit of the roof of
the mouth and plunge it backward into the brain directly back of the
eye. When the brain is hit there will be a violent muscular con-
vulsion or quiver, which is usually accompanied by a characteristic
squawk. Give the knife a quick, sharp twist and withdraw it. The
feathers will then loosen. Pluck a few from the breast, careful to
note whether the sticking is perfect, then begin picking rapidly. If
the bleeding has not been complete the blood will follow the feathers
and cause the skin to be spotted and red. ‘The success of dry pick-
ing lies in getting the “right bleed” and the “right stick.” If the
knife plunges too low, it enters the bones of the neck; if too high,
it enters the hollow space in the head. The lobes of the brain, which
are located directly in the rear of the eye, must be hit in order to
produce paralysis of the nervous system, when death quickly follows
from the profuse bleeding while the fowl is still (supposedly)
unconscious.

DRY PICKING.—This method usually requires more time and
skill and leaves the skin in a more natural and attractive condition
than -scalding. ‘Therefore, fowls shou!d bring, and usually do bring,
a higher price. ‘The feathers are left in a better condition for dry-
ing. Rapid work is only acquired through long practice. Begin
picking immediately after the sticking has produced the muscular
contraction of the skin, which loosens the feathers. Pick with both
hands. “Rough” pick breast and body feathers first, then wing and
tail feathers. The quill feathers of wing and tail should be pulled

122 THE BUSINESS HEN,

before close “ruffing” is completed and kept separate from the body
feathers. As far as possible, the white and colored feathers should
be kept separate. Avoid pulling too many feathers at one time to
prevent tearing the skin. Give a rolling motion to pull a full hand-
ful of feathers, as you would remove a porous plaster from yourself.
Tearing is most likely to occur on either side of the breast and on
the neck. Rough pick the entire fowl before pin-feathering. Dampen
the fingers occasionally. It helps to make the feathers stick to the
hand. Use a stub knife before pin-feathering; avoid hard rubbing,
it is liable to loosen and scarf skin; avoid rough handling; tender
fowls are easily injured; keep tools, clothes, tables and everything
that comes in contact with the fowl scrupulously clean to prevent
infection and thus improve the keeping quality. Throw fowl, when
finished, into water about 60 degrees temperature for about one hour
to remove animal heat; then place in ice water or cracked ice to
chill; cold, dry air is vastly to be preferred for cooling and chilling.
Poultry dressed by any method looks better and keeps longer if it
does not touch water. When animal heat is removed, sponge the
carcass clean, fold wings on back, tie feet together and hang in a
cool room to dry. Discoloration is likely to occur, especially about
the vent, if carcass is allowed to remain long without removing ani-
mal heat. Quick picking means quick thinking. It is the mind
that pushes the fingers. “Say nothing and keep picking” is a good
motto for the picking room. Ease of picking depends upon season,
age and breed. It costs three, four or five cents for killing and dry
picking fowls. One hundred to 200 fowls are picked a day by an
expert picker.

SCALDING.—This is the most rapid way of removing the
feathers where the methods are right and the picking room con-
veniently arranged. ‘There is slightly less loss in dressed weight
by the scalding process than by dry picking, due to the absorption
of a small amount of water by the body in the plumping process.
The skin shows the fat more prominently because the hot plunge
brings the fat to the surface, and the chilling process which follows,
sets it at the surface, thus making the fowl look in better condition
of fatness. The danger in the scalding method lies in not getting
the water the correct temperature or leaving the body submerged
too long. If too hot, the skin is cooked and the thin scarf skin
peels off, which causes the flesh to look bruised. If not enough
heat is applied, the feathers stick and, as a result, the skin is liable
to become torn. The temperature of the water should be about 180
to 190 degrees. Immerse the entire body except the head, its append-
ages and the shanks. These parts change color and the skin peels if

KILLING AND MARKETING POULTRY. 123

scalded. Move the body forward from head to tail through the water
and withdraw frequently to prevent the water penetrating through
the feathers to the skin. The feathers rather than the skin should
be scalded. When the skin contracts see that the feathers stand
out from the body. Remove from the water and pick rapidly, but
carefully, and avoid rubbing. Remove animal heat in water at 60
degrees. Then submerge in ice water or cracked ice. To plump
fowls, plunge an instant in water 160 to 170 degrees. This shrinks
the skin, which gives a plumper appearance and brings fat to sur-
face. If possible, place in cold, dry air to chill. Sew up all tears.
Singe with alcohol flame to remove hairs.

SHAPING.—This is done to keep the body in compact and
attractive form. All such special preparations produce a good
impression on a prospective purchaser who believes, and justly, that
a poultryman who would take so much pains to prepare poultry
attractively would be equally particular to produce good quality by
proper feeding and breeding.

FASTING.—AII poultry intended for a slaughter should be
fasted for 24 hours before killing. This is required by law in some
States. Water should always be supplied during the fasting period.
By this treatment the crop and intestines are emptied, which helps
to prevent decomposition of food materials within the body and
therefore adds to the keeping quality and also avoids danger of
tainted flesh, which might result if poultry were not drawn at time
of killing.

GRADING.—It is important to select and pack poultry in such
manner that it will be most attractive to the purchaser, and best
meet the demands of a special trade. It pays to carefully grade all
stock and sell it graded by itself. Poor quality stock suffers by
contrast with medium or good quality. Each grade should be uni-
form in size, shape, color of skin and shanks, age and quality of
fatness.

THE PACKAGE.—We should aim so to prepare fowls in pack-
ages for shipment that they will be most attractive to the pur-
chaser, and arrive in the best possible condition. The package fre-
quently sells the product. Indicate clearly the contents of the
package as to kind of poultry, number, weight and quality. It
should also bear the brand of the shipper as a guarantee of good
faith. Boxes should be made to ship different sizes of fowls as fol-
lows: Each box or barrel should be lined with paper before pack-
ing. This helps to prevent evaporation or injury to the product
from rough handling. Special parchment paper should be purchased
for the purpose. Clean rye or wheat straw may be used to advantage

124 THE BUSINESS HEN.

in large boxes or barrels. For packing boxes for cold storage or
Winter shipment, the fowls should be laid in one or two tiers.
For the latter, back down, head toward the center and folded under
the body, legs pressed down and tied to the body. This helps to
protect the breast from injury. In warm weather, make a layer of
cracked ice, and place second layer of chickens, reversing the order
so that the backs of the fowls shall be uppermost, rumps to the center.

PACKING IN BARRELS.—Make hole for drainage, place layer
of ice, lay fowls backs up, feet toward middle, cover with ice, fill
in center with cracked ice, and cover barrel with burlap. This pro-
tects the breast and keeps the package coldest on outside. The vents
of the fowls will thus be covered with ice and the iced water will
drain toward outside of barrel.

A FEW SELLING NOTES.

The first requisite in shipping poultry to a large market is to
have something worth selling, and the next is to know a commission
man who is worthy of selling it. Such a man is found through
experience, either one’s own or that of a neighbor, and, when found,
he is worth sticking to. He will appreciate this, and in 10 years
more money will have been made than by scattering the shipments
about.

In New York City and other sections having a considerable
Hebrew population, there is a steady demand for live poultry, which
must be slaughtered under the supervision of their official butchers.
This trade is heaviest just before the Jewish holidays, chief of which
are Hebrew New Year, Feast of Tabernacles, Feast of Laws and
the Passover, the last named occurring in Spring. ‘These feasts are
movable, and the exact date for any year can be learned from deal-
ers in live poultry. Special care should be taken not to crowd coops
of live poultry, as otherwise the loss from trampling and suffocation
may be heavy.

The farmer is usually most interested in the Fall and Winter
poultry markets. He has something to sell at Thanksgiving time, and
disposes of the remainder for later holiday trade. At Thanksgiving
the weather is usually cool enough to make dry packing safe. If
more than a very small quantity is sent, it is better to sort the poul-
try, putting hen and tom turkeys in separate packages, and culls in
another. Barrels or boxes of moderate size may be used. Very
heavy packages are more likely to be smashed in handling.

In small towns, where the receiver sells direct to the consumer,
receipts as late as the day before a holiday may be handled to advan-
tage, but poultry for New York Thanksgiving trade should be on

KILLING AND MARKETING POULTRY. 125

hand not later than Monday of that week, as the retailers begin stock-
ing up then if the weather is favorable. Unless there is a scarcity,
late shipments are likely to meet a slack trade.

Most cities have laws regarding the handling of poultry, whether
it should be drawn or not, etc., and the shipper should learn from his
receiver what the law and custom of his market demands. Most
poultry sent to New York is undrawn, with head and feet on. The
crop must be removed unless empty, but all poultry should be kept
without food for several hours before killing.

Cold storage is the balance wheel of the egg and poultry trade,
keeping it going at a comparatively even gait the year around, pre-
venting the scarcity which causes prohibitive prices to all but the
wealthy, and the glutted market, with figures below cost of produc-
tion. The range of prices for a year will still show very high figures,
such as 60 cents a dozen for new-laid eggs and 35 cents for fresh-
killed poultry, yet there is no time when both eggs and poultry from
storage, not fresh, but palatable and reasonably wholesome, may not
be had at prices within reach of almost anyone. The scope of
refrigeration has been much enlarged by dry air processes, which
have made it possible to handle products that get musty under the
dampness of ordinary ice storage. There are still many losses from
improper handling, but good eggs properly stored may be kept for a
full year.

As abuses have sprung up in the cold storage business, it is evi-
dent that strict legislation regarding it is needed. No tainted or
otherwise unwholesome product, no matter how little damaged,
should be stored. Cold may arrest the decay, but investigation has
shown that chemical changes dangerous to health frequently take
place. Another abuse is the secret storage of large quantities of
foodstuffs, with the resulting monopoly and restraint of trade. The
law should compel a detailed report of the quantity of such products
held in storage. This would put the market on the basis of supply
and demand, instead of the present speculative basis, where large
quantities of foods are put away and held secretly until, by the con-
stantly repeated talk of scarcity, prices are materially advanced and
the goods doled out just fast enough to maintain these high prices.

CHAPTER XIII.
A WOMAN’S HENS.

It is said that a small army of women having an itching to
engage in the poultry business are seeking for light on the subject.
Some gleanings from the experience of a woman may help these
women to recognize their fitness or unfitness for the work.

The Arabs have a saying, “All sunshine makes the desert.” If
there were no clouds in the poultry keeper’s sky the bottom would
fall out of the poultry business. It is because profitable poultry
keeping is difficult that the comparatively few who have the ability
to overcome these difficulties are successful. A few chickens on a
farm will get much of their living from what would otherwise go
to waste. Increase in numbers requires skill in management, if
there is to be any profit. It is idle to suppose that this skill will
come without effort or that everyone making the effort will suc-
ceed in acquiring it.

Skill is “ability to perceive and perform.” It all depends on
the woman. She must perceive the business side, the hen side, her
own side. Particularly must she see herself as she is. Has she
health, perseverance, grit, gumption? No woman not in fair health
should undertake the entire charge of poultry. The frequent change
from indoor to outdoor dress is tiring and takes time. There is
temptation to go out just as she is. There is no surer foe to health
than draggled skirts and wet feet and ankles. Rubber boots, leggings
and bloomers are necessities. Fortunate is she, who, in stress of
weather, can say beseechingly to some trousered creature, “Go,”
and he goeth.

Has she perseverance? Poultry keeping means work every day.
Hens are like sheep, much attached to the person tending them and
distrustful of strangers. For this reason and because no one not
constantly tending them can possfbly know just what to do during
the breeding season, for best results one must be constantly on
the job.

Has she grit? It takes grit to do the dirty work. Cleaning
droppings board, coops and brooders may be disagreeable, but it is
not the dirtiest work; the dust boxes are responsible for that, An
energetic hen, she is the kind to have, can kick up a deal of dust.

A WOMAN’S HENS. 127

Multiply her by one or two hundred. If she is to have the dust, it
must be got in and after she has scattered it to the remotest corner
of the premises it must be got out. A vacuum cleaner, adapted to
this work, will be a boon. Whitewashing sounds clean. Then there
is that interesting job applying some sort of dope for the extermina-
tion of vermin; that is, you hope it is extermination, but it isn’t, and
you do it again and again.

Has she gumption? Great is gumption! It is both chart and
compass on an unsailed sea.

THE BUSINESS SIDE.—Too little attention is paid to the
business side of rural life. It is not a condition peculiar to poultry
keeping. One is told ad infinitum, that the poultry house must not
be damp; that the hens must have grit, but it is like hunting for a
pearl among oysters to find a practical business suggestion. Let the
beginner decide whether to cater to local trade, sell to the shipper
or do a possible shipping business. Having decided this point, study
the conditions to be met. What does the market call for that is
most profitable to produce? For example, the New York market
quotes fancy white eggs at a premium, but it does not follow that
white eggs are most profitable to produce. The white egg layer is
fastidious. Unless she has things quite to her liking she will not
fill the egg basket when prices are soaring. Then, again, the season
of highest prices may not be the season of greatest profit. If plump,
yellow-skinned, yellow-fleshed broilers and roasters are wanted, it is
folly to produce thin, white-fleshed, dingy skinned birds. It is a
mistake to sell raw-boned fowls. It costs more to produce frame
than it does to produce flesh. Why let the middleman add the cheap
flesh to your expensive frame and reap more profit from two to
four weeks’ feeding than you do from two to four months or longer,
or why sell inferior stuff at an inferior price. It is an advantage to
keep enough laying stock to fill a 30-dozen egg crate and have the
eggs reasonably fresh. The city market quotes hennery eggs at a
premium over gathered eggs. Why not gather that premium in for
yourself. Once you have found a reliable dealer, stick to him and
give him every reason to stick to you. ~

While on the subject of selling, just a word about eggs for
hatching and breeding stock. There are many persons who want to
get purebred stock for what the butcher would pay for them, and
eggs from purebred stock for the market price of eggs by the crate.
To many, visions of getting rich quick from the sale of eggs and
stock will prove a mirage. Business has a buying, as well as a sell-
ing side. Buy in large quantities whenever practicable. Buy in time.
Do not get out of supplies. Especially is this to be guarded against

128 THE BUSINESS HEN.

in care of little chickens; some are dainty in their tastes, and will
eat only certain kinds of food. If this is withheld they will starve
with plenty of other food before them. Another example of buying
right: Learn when eggs are likely to be cheapest and have your
water glass ready. Do not wait until it is time to use it, then find
your dealer hasn’t it in stock. Find out whether he is charging you
two prices; that is, twice the profit he should have; two to one, he is.
Look around and save that profit for yourself. To do so, perhaps
you will have to send away for it. Then when the howl is raised,
“Tome trade is what our town needs,’ be ready with your answer,
“Exactly, what the town needs, not what the country needs.” The
town has fattened on the country long enough.

THE HEN SIDE; HER BREEDING.—Shall she be purebred?
Better a good mongrel, or shall we say, grade, than a purebred with
all the stamina and get-up-and-dust bred out of her. A hen’s a hen,
however bred. Buy performance, not pedigree, and breed the same
way. What to feed, how much to feed, where and how and why?
These are questions to turn the hair white, at least, the hair will be
white before all are answered satisfactorily. There are many com-
binations of various foodstuffs that give good results. Just which
particular combination will suit each peculiar circumstance is some-
thing no mortal can tell. It seems certain the growing chick, the
laying hen, the fleshening fowl, need differing treatment. The grow-
ing chick needs to roam, the laying hen to exercise, the fleshening
fowl to be confined. Frame and flesh and eggs are built up by a
differently balanced ration, but to enter into this subject compre-
hensively is beyond the limits of this chapter.

HEN HOUSING.—The ideal house has yet to be built. Let the
novice be prepared to be dissatisfied. When that ideal house is built
the hens will roost high in it, and the nest boxes will not be little
stuffy ones, built in a row and stuck in under the droppings boards,
or in some other low-down place. Most beginners will have to make-
shift with what they have in the house line, and here is where the
average woman will beat the average man. This is how the small
boy puts it:

“At home it seems to be the rule

Pa never has the proper tool,

Or knack to fix things. For the stunt

That stumps ma, thouch, you'll have to hunt.
So when my things get out of fix,

Do I ask pa to mend ‘em? Nix!

But ma just grabs what's near at hand

And togs things up to bent the band.”

In like manner the hen house can be togged up; cloth windows
out of sugar sacks, cracks pasted up with strong paper; curtains to

¢
A

A WOMAN’S HENS. 129

enclose the roosts, of gunny sacks, covered with newspapers or paper
flour sacks sewed on with darning needle and twine. Any woman
who can handle a saw and drive a nail can make food hoppers. It
isn’t necessary to have expensive drinking fountains; a flat gallon
butter jar, costing eight cents, answers admirably. When there are
little chicks about, likely to drown, a stone in the middle provides
a means of escape. For wee chicks a granite pie dish with a stone
to weight it and keep the water from being soiled, answers every
purpose. No more 50-cent drinking fountains, thank you! If one
cannot have a separate breeding pen, and it is possible to buy eggs
for hatching from properly mated birds, it is well to do so and dis-
pense with chanticleer in your own flock. Do this by all means, as
soon as the hatching season is over; then if the hens are too cun-
ning for you, they will not be coming off a stolen nest with a batch
of late hatched chicks, and the infertile eggs will keep better during
the hot weather. The hen is the best mother, whether she or the
incubator does the hatching. A hen and a brooder makes a combina-
tion that suits the writer. As far as known, no one has invented an
automatic scratching attachment to the brooder, and a chick to thrive
its best needs to be scratched for.

The writer does some scratching on her own account; that is, she
digs in the garden and invites the chickens to a bug, worm and weed-
seed festival. The invitation is accepted with alacrity, and the
guests do ample justice to the viands. It is an open question as to
which receives the greater benefit, chickens or garden. Certain it is,
the gardener hen woman receives two benefits, aye, three, for dig-
ging in a garden comes near to being a panacea for the ills of the
flesh, and of the spirit. This garden includes mangles and cabbage
for the hens. A large patch of sweet corn is planted, and the chickens
allowed to harvest what is not used for the table. No weeds worth
mentioning grow in that corn; the chickens wallow in the mellow
earth in the shade they need so much during the hot weather. The
corn grows amazingly and so do the chickens. It is such a happy
combination that more corn and more chickens are planned for next
year. The brooders are set in the midst of this garden. “Horrors!”
did some one say? and in cleaning them the droopings are put on the
-corn. Poultry netting is put around such things as the chickens
might damage, the strawberries in fruiting season and tomatoes and
melons later. Part of this garden, which is large, is put to rye in the
Fall and to clover in the Spring, and the chickens are in clover sure
enough. The rye gives them shade before the corn is large enough.
The rye is cut for hay in time to give the clover a good chance to
Tow, fh

my

Py

fe

130 THE BUSINESS HEN.

A good-sized cart is a great convenience. The one the writer
uses has two wheels, 28 inches in diameter. The box is 37 inches
long, 20 wide and 8 inches depth. In this the droppings in boxes are
wheeled out and dust brought in. It can be loaded up with feed,
shells, charcoal, grit, etc. Alas! it will not carry water, but perhaps
it will if a discarded milkcan can be found. Much fun is made of
this little red wagon, but the owner laughingly declares she would
rather have it than an automobile. Its usefulness is not confined to
the poultry department; it carries the clothes basket, is indispensable
in gardening; in short its uses are legion, and make it possible for
one woman to accomplish many things. A mill to grind feed to
suit the varying needs of the flock and the household is another
helpful implement, sometimes on a hot day it takes something of
faith and hope as well as a strong right arm to make the wheels go
’round. Some day the mill will be changed from hand to motor
power. This hoping for better things is what gives zest to the
business, and enables one to resist the hard knocks that are reason-
ably sure to come.

CHAPTER XIV.
THE POULTRY “SYSTEMS” DISCUSSED.

Since the last edition of “The Business Hen” was published
there have appeared on the market numerous “systems” and secret
methods for conducting the poultry business. These systems, meth-
ods and secrets are practically all unpatented and unpatentable.
The fact that there have been sold hundreds of thousands of these
pamphlets and books shows that there is a great demand for poultry
information, but if each person who buys a book of secrets, sys-
tems or methods could produce the results claimed by the different
authors to be “easily obtained” the market for poultry and eggs
would be flooded, not only in the United States but also in foreign
countries; and the price of eggs and market poultry would surely
drop at least 50 per cent. The truth is, however, that the price of
eggs and market poultry has not been reduced but, on the con-
trary, it is gradually going higher, and there are no evident forces
in the field at the present time that can or will produce any great
change in the market prospects for the future. These facts prove
without any question that the numerous claims of the different
authors that they will or have revolutionized the poultry business,
and that by following their particular methods and instructions,
each hen can be made to produce from 150 to 280 eggs per year,
and return a net profit to her owner of from $6.41 to $120 are
extravagant claims which should not be taken seriously. Experi-
enced poultrymen occasionally find hints or suggestions in these
works which may be profitably applied to any system of poultry
keeping; but amateurs should be careful not to expect too much
from following the advice given.

There is one great principle taught by all of these different
“systems,” and that is it pays to be systematic in our work with
poultry, and remember the truth of the old saying that “a thing
worth doing at all is worth doing well.” Successful poultrymen
understand this rule, and amateurs must learn it before any great
degree of success can be attained. Fowls acquire a habit and cling
to it. Any attempt to change these habits always disturbs the
flock and reduces production for a time, so there should be a time
for all work, and everything done at its proper time each day.

132 THE BUSINESS HEN.

Poultry keeping is a science, and must be learned at least partly
by experience before sure results can be expected by the average
man or woman, so it is plainly evident that the numerous claims
by poultry writers and authors that big money can be easily made
from a flock of fowls by any inexperienced person in any location
is misleading, to say the least. It has been said that there is only
one way to do anything and that is the right way; but the fact
that several different methods are being used in conducting the
poultry business, and that they are equally successful proves that
a person may adopt any good system and that the chances for
success depend, not so much upon which system is adopted, as
how much skill, energy and perserverance are used in its appli-
cation.

In selecting a system, the novice or amateur poultryman or
woman should take into consideration these facts: That each one
was written primarily for the purpose of making money—not for
the person who bought the system, but for the person or persons
who wrote the works and put them on the market. Then, too, the
authors of some systems are also the manufacturers of a line of
poultry supplies without which it would appear their systems could
not be successfully applied, so the system becomes practically an
advertisement paid for by the purchaser instead of the seller.

One of the first, most valuable and most closely guarded
secrets is how to tell the laying hen without trap-nests. This secret
is sold by the different authors at from $1 to $10 each. It has also
been sold in a book of poultry secrets for 25 cents. It has been
known by some old poultrymen for over 30 years, so it can truth-
fully be called a secret no longer. It consists simply of taking the
hen in the left hand with the head at the left or under the left arm.
Then with the fingers of the right hand imbedded in the fluff the
ends of the pelvic bones between which the egg passes can be
plainly felt. The condition of these bones and their distance apart
determines the value of the bird. The ends of three fingers can
easily be placed between the bones of a good layer in laying condi-
tion, while, if there is only room for two fingers, the bird is just an
average layer. If there is room for but one finger, the bird is not
laying, and if she does not get into laying condition in at least
four to six weeks should be sold for market. Cocks and cockerels
are tested in the same way, and those showing the greatest space
between the ends of the pelvic bones should be kept for breeding
layers, provided they are good birds otherwise. This method saves
the labor involved in trap-nesting layers, as it takes but a few
minutes to test 100 hens. Then, too, as it is impossible to trap-nest

tae POULLRY | SV STEMS: DISCUSSED: 133

the males, much time and labor is lost each year by breeding from
inferior birds, unless this system is applied. While it is true that
accurate records can only be made with trap-nests, these records
are valuable to the average poultryman only for comparison, so
when the best layers can be selected for breeding without the use
of trap-nests as good results can be attained in building up a strain
of layers with one system as with the other; therefore the differ-
ence in the two systems is largely a question of time and expense
in their application.

The different systems which have found such a ready sale pre-
tend to teach a person how to produce fertile eggs, how to hatch
more chickens from them, how to raise the chickens without much
loss and how to produce eggs and broilers at the lowest cost when
prices are high. One writer tells us that he feeds his Leghorn hens
seven-eighths of an ounce of green cut bones each per day and that
the eggs are fertile and hatch well during the season. Another
writer, equally as notorious, states that this cannot be done. In
other words, excessive feeding of green cut bones during the Win-
ter and Spring weakens the vitality of the breeding stock to such
an extent that it is practically impossible to secure high average
hatches, although the fertility of the eggs may run as high as go
per cent. at the first test after being incubated about six days. After
this many germs die in the shell, and many of the young chickens
hatched will die before they are four weeks old. This is the expe-
rience of many poultrymen, and substantial evidence must be pro-
duced before a change of opinion can be expected.

The similarity of many systems is very marked, their difference
lying chiefly in the size and style of houses used or some difference
in the feeds used or manner of feeding; but there are several prin-
ciples which practically all agree cannot be overlooked on a suc-
cessful poultry plant. The first principle is cleanliness. Neither
chickens nor fowls will do their best unless their houses and yards are
kept clean. Clean litter must also be provided for the birds to
scratch in, as damp, dirty litter offers but little attraction to a well-
bred hen. Exercise is just as important for both fowls and chickens
as their food. The old method of feeding a warm morning mash
has been abolished, and the new systems advocate feeding the mash
at from noon to three P. M. ‘The first feed in the morning and
last feed at night is whole or cracked grains, usually a mixture
of corn, oats, wheat and buckwheat scattered in deep litter on the
floor. The fowls get plenty of exercise working for this grain on
the floor, and are ready for some green feed at noon, such as cab-
bage, cut clover or Alfalfa, sprouted oats or mangels. ‘Then early

134 THE BUSINESS HEN.

in the afternoon they will eat a good feed of mash. When forcing
hens to their greatest production of eggs, the mash contains from
one-fourth to one-half green cut bones or lean meat, while the rest
is made up of bran, ground oats, wheat middlings, cornmeal and
gluten feed. These ingredients are mixed into a crumbly mash
which is fed very dry. No oil meal should be used except during
the moulting season. This mash is made palatable enough so the
hens will eat heartily without eating too much, and go to roost with
full crops, the principle of this method of feeding being never to
feed a hen all she will eat except at the last feed in the day, given
about an hour before sunset.

Poultrymen all agree that beef scrap, lean meat or green cut
bones must be fed liberally if a large egg yield is expected. This
animal food may either be fed with the mash or kept by the hens all
the time in hoppers. The green cut bones and lean meat should be
fed with the mash, while ground beef scrap may be accessible to
the fowls at all times in open hoppers.

Another principle is to give the fowls plenty of fresh air with-
out drafts or undue exposure during inclement weather. This is
accomplished by means of muslin curtains, except in a few cases
where the windows are left open, allowing the fresh air to come in
unrestricted. It is possible to use the latter method successfully by
watching it closely and opening a part or all of the windows as
the weather may permit. Fresh air and sunshine are as indispensable
as the feed is for fowls or chickens, and worth more than all the
medicine in a drug store for keeping the flock in a healthy condi-
tion.

The systems of hatching and raising chickens are many and
varied. ‘To the experienced poultryman or woman it seems entirely
unnecessary to be told to run an incubator at 102 degrees the first
week, 103 degrees the second week and 103% degrees the third
week, yet this is about the extent of the system’s teachings. A close
study of all the principal systems on the market at the present time
has failed to reveal any valuable new features in regard to hatching
or rearing young chickens. Simple directions are usually given
which prove successful under favorable conditions.

Here is one of the best methods of feeding chickens in common
use. Begin feeding when about 36 hours old. The first feed is oat
flakes and bread crumbs, equal parts mixed with a little hard-boiled
egg chopped fine, shell and all. The bread should be dried and
ground fine before mixing. ‘This should be moistened slightly with
a little sweet milk and fed twice daily until the chicks are three
weeks old, gradually changing to a cheaper mash, such as is recom-

THE POULTRY SYSTEMS DISCUSSED. 135

mended for older birds. A very little fine sifted beef scrap is fed
after the first week, and green feed is fed every day after the chicks
are three days old. Commercial chick feed is scattered in clean
litter on the floor two or three times a day, just enough to keep
the chicks busy, but not enough to overfeed them. Great care must
be exercised not to feed chicks too much before they are four weeks
old, as they are more apt to overeat during this time than they are
later. Fresh water, grit and charcoal should always be accessible
after the little fellows have learned to eat. If grit is given before
any feed, sometimes chicks will eat too much and death will result.

The question of brooding chickens has been, perhaps, the most
difficult to solve, and there is yet much to learn before perfection
is reached. Chickens have been successfully raised in unheated
brooders, but many failures have been reported, especially during
cold weather. It would therefore be advisable to use unheated
brooders only during moderately warm weather. In using brooders
heated with a lamp, every precaution should be taken to maintain
an even temperature, as the fluctuations of the brooder temperature
cause a large share of the mortality with incubator chickens. Unless
a brooder can be regulated within five degrees, it cannot be expected
to produce the best results.

Chickens on free range can be fed all they will eat nice they are
a month old without much danger of overfeeding, while old hens,
after passing their first laying year, become over-fat very easily,
and they must be fed in such a manner that it will not be possible
for them to get in this condition.

Upon the number of hens kept in each flock depends, to a great
extent, the style of houses to build. ‘The systems recommend
keeping all the way from six to 1,500 hens in one flock. From 50
to 100 hens should be kept in each flock when a large number are to
be cared for during Winter weather, while in Summer Io or 15 of
these flocks may have free range together. While six hens may be
kept safely in a small house, and made to produce eggs in paying
quantities, it is not reasonable to expect them to produce fertile eggs
with strong germs while kept in close confinement. It requires much
more labor to care for the same number of hens in small flocks than
it does with large flocks, but it is a recognized fact that young
chickens should be kept in flocks of 50 or less for best results.

CHAPTER XV.
SIDE LINES IN POULTRY.

FARM CROPS WITH POULTRY.—Chicken men who go to
the country and locate on a farm often ask what crops they should
grow to best advantage in connection with the birds. In theory
one would think that it would pay a hen man to try to raise all
his grain, but as a rule this will not be found wise. If a man is
going into the chicken business he should plan to give most of his
time to it, make that his sole motive and make other crops side
issues. Probably corn, of all the grains, is best suited to the
chicken man. Chicken manure is well adapted to the growth of
this crop, and practically all poultry rations have corn for their
basis. The corn crop can be grown as easily as any other grain,
and will produce a larger amount of food to the acre than most
others. The chicken man should try to follow intensive farming,
that is, not try to cover too much ground, but to produce as much
as he possibly can from each acre. A crop of mangels or sugar
beets should also be grown on a hen farm. Some enormous
crops of roots can be produced with a little care, and they are of
immense value in feeding hens. On some chicken farms a good
crop of cabbage is found very useful, as chicken manure is par-
ticularly valuable for all crops which make large growth above
ground. The solid heads of cabbage can be sold, while the soft
heads can be kept for Winter feeding, and hung up by the roots
where the hens may jump and pick the cabbage to pieces. A
hen man should also have a fair crop of clover or Alfalfa, for by
cutting and feeding a well-cured crop of either he can save a large
proportion of his grain feed. Some poultrymen prefer to have a
truck or fruit crop in connection with their hens, and if they have
plenty of help, so that they can give time to it, this will pay. As
a rule, however, such crops require the greatest care just when
the young chickens need attention, and unless there is careful labor
at hand one crop or the other will suffer. That is why late matur-
ing crops like cabbage or clover are better suited to the hen man’s
care. He should of course have a good garden and keep his hens
out of it. If possible he should have a double system of yards,
so that the hens may be turned from one to the other at will.

SIDE SLINGS IN, POULTRY. 137

Our own plan has been to have yards on both sides of the house.
Early in Spring oats are sown on the south side of the house.
When it is up fairly well so as to make a feed for the hens the
birds are let in, while the other yard is closed. Then in this other
yard we can sow Dwarf Essex rape. By the time the birds have
eaten the oats down the rape has made a good growth; then the
hens may be turned back into the rape, and the first yard is
worked up again and seeded to Crimson clover and cow peas.
When these are large enough the hens may be turned in and the
other yard sown to buckwheat and Crimson clover. That in turn
gives place to rye. In this way a constant supply of green feed
may be grown for the hens, and the yards kept seeded and clean.
Tf the yards are small and the hens are inclined to scratch up and
destroy the growing crop this can be prevented by putting bricks
or planks along the sides of the yard and stretching wire netting
across the green crop. This will grow up through the wire netting
and enable the hens to reach it while ich cannot tear up the
roots with their feet.

HANDLING CHICKEN MANURE. cog a man wishes to
keep the business hen in a business-like way he must plan to make
every edge cut and save what he can. There is often considerable
loss in the way poultry manure is handled, largely through a failure
to understand certain things about this fertilizer. This manure
is quite rich in nitrogen, with less of potash and phosphoric acid
as compared with ordinary stable manure. It is worth four or
five times as much, pound for pound, and when properly handled is
a very valuable manure for all kinds of crops. The proper way
to handle it is to save as much of the ammonia as possible. This
ammonia will not be lost so long as the manure is kept perfectly
dry. For that reason the best plan is to use dry absorbents under
the roosts, and to clean off the droppings board frequently. Various
substances are used to dry the manure. Road dust collected in the
dry Summer and stored in barrels answers the purpose. Of late
years many poultrymen are using “floats,” which is the raw phos-
phate rock ground to a fine powder and not treated with sulphuric
acid. This makes a very good dust, and as it contains phosphoric
acid it adds to the value of the manure. Some years ago land plas-
ter or gypsum was the favorite material used for this purpose and
it is very useful. Some form of dust, however, should be scat-
tered each day under the perches, and before the droppings accum-
ulate heavily they should be scraped off and put in bins or barrels
in a dry shed. More of the dust is scattered over them as they
are stored. The result is that Spring will find them in dry hard

138 THE BUSINESS HEN.

chunks with little of the ammonia lost. Early in the Spring, before
the manure is needed, these chunks should be crushed and ground
as finely as possible. This can be done fairly well by putting the
chunks on a cement floor and smashing them with a heavy shovel
or a maul. As the chicken manure is richer in nitrogen than
any other fertilizing elements it can be used to advantage to make
a good mixture. The following mixture will prove very useful
for most crops; 400 pounds sifted hen manure, 200 pounds dis-
solved bone black, 100 pounds muriate of potash, and 150 pounds
of plaster and 100 pounds nitrate of soda. Such a mixture is
excellent for garden or small fruit crops. The crushed manure
must be sifted in,order to make a perfect mixture. If this is prop-
erly done it will give as good results as the great majority of
expensive brands. In many cases farmers do not care to.go to the
trouble of mixing the chemicals with the manure. In that case,
the chunks are crushed and the manure applied direct by hand,
usually in the hill or drill. Chicken manure is excellent for
corn, and will perhaps give better results on that crop than any
other. Some chicken men do not bother with saving and drying,
but clean out the houses at intervals and carry the manure direct
to the field, broadcasting it over the grass or grain. During the
Winter this gives good results where the soil has some living crop
like grass or corn growing on it. It would not be recommended
for bare fields which might be washed by floods. The one thing
not to do with hen manure is to mix lime or wood ashes with it.
This would be the worst thing you could do, since the lime will
liberate the ammonia. Some poultrymen use “kainit,’ a German
potash salt with the manure. This preserves it well, but leaves it
moist and sticky. After several years of use the runs or chicken
yards become very rich from the droppings and the constant work-
ing of the hens. When a chicken man has time for it it will pay
during late Fall or early Spring to take off the upper three or
four inches of these yards and spread them as he would any
manure or fertilizer in fields where crops are to be grown. A
good way to do this work is to take a small plow or horse culti-
vator and run over the surface of the yard; then with a scraper
scrape the earth into piles and shovel it into a wagon or a stone-
boat. When these yards are cleaned in this way dirt should be
brought in to take its place, and this can be left two years and
then taken out. An easier way to clean the yards is to change
them, that is, move the hens to another point, tear down the
fences, plow up the old yards and use them one year or more as
a garden. This soil will produce enormous crops of all garden

SIDE LINES IN OFOULTRY. 139

vegetables, and after growing such crops it will be fitted again for
a chicken yard. It has been well said that the business hen will
give a profit in the present and leave a blessing behind her. A
Connecticut Yankee will buy a bushel of Western corn, feed it to
his hens at a profit, and then by adding chemicals to the resulting
manure raise another bushel of corn.

HENS, TREES AND INSECTS.—tTree fruits, and especially
apples, make good partners for the business hen. Chicken manure is
excellent for apple trees, especially if wood ashes can also be used
—not, however, mixed with the manure. In many apple growing
sections hens are being selected as the best live stock to keep in the
orchards. In such cases the hens are usually kept in colony
houses—that is, small buildings scattered about the orchard. The
hens have a free range under this system. That means plenty of
exercise, a good pasturage and an abundance of insects. A hen
on the range will provide a large part of her food by picking
clover, grass and seeds, and hunting insects. During the laying
period such hens should be fed some grain, but eggs are produced
at much less cost in this way than when the hens are kept housed
or yarded with little chance at grass or insects. A man starting
in the hen business can sometimes buy a farm with a few level
acres, and the rest rough and hilly. Such farms are usually sold
at a low figure, because the rough part is not considered suitable
for crop production. ‘These are locations for the business hen to
make good. The flocks can be started near the farm buildings
and apple or peach trees planted on the hills. It is possible to make
fair and steady growth without high culture. A few furrows may
be plowed on either side of the tree rows, and this plowed space
worked several times during the season with a cultivator. Then
the trees are “mulched’; that is, manure, grass, weeds, fine brush
or anything that will rot, is piled around them. Chicken manure
or the litter used on the floor of the house makes a fine mulch for
these young trees. Efforts should be made to collect forest leaves,
Straw, crushed corncobs or any material of the sort to be used on
the henhouse floors and afterwards used for mulching these trees.
If the hen manure can be crushed or handled, as described else-
where in this book, it will make a better fertilizer for the trees.
In this way a good apple orchard may be developed as the flock is
growing, and in time, as the flock is enlarged, the orchard will
provide a good run for the hens.

Fruit trees are often planted in chicken yards. Apple and plum
do better in such situations than peach. The soil of such yards is
well manured, and the hens dig and dust around the trees. This

140 THE BUSINESS HEN.

means the highest manuring and cultivation. The hens also roost
in the trees, and the manure thus accumulated makes the soil very
rich. Apple and plum can stand this heavy manuring better than
peach. The tender growth of the latter is likely to winter-kill.

Aside from their work in orchards, hens are of great service
in destroying insects. One of the best “remedies” for onion mag-
got or asparagus beetle is a collection of hens with their little
chicks. The hens are put in coops which are scattered over the
onion field—the chicks being left free to run about. The little
chicks will clean out the maggots without scratching enough to
hurt the onions. They will also get many of the beetles on aspara-
gus. After some observation, we feel sure that both hens and
turkeys pick out the green worms in cabbage. There are several
reports from reliable people who have kept half grown chickens
enclosed in potato fields. These claim that the chicks cleaned up
the potato beetles so that there was no need of spraying. In our
own experience, we have not noticed that hens or ducks will eat
potato beetles, but they are useful in potato fields—that is, when
too young to do a full job of scratching. No full-grown hen
should be left at large in a garden, but a hen with chicks may be
cooped in it, for the little fellows will run out and get many
insects.

LAW OF THE HEN.—Some bitter neighborhood feuds
have been started by straying hens. When a man living in a small
place starts a good vegetable and flower garden, it becomes an
object of pride. It is impossible for a hen to scratch in a more
sensitive place than in this same pride, and when she comes
back day after day and tears up seeds or young plants, there
is a fall for somebody. The question of what can be done in
such cases comes up again and again. It is sometimes claimed
that a hen destroying a neighbor's garden becomes a wild bird
and can be shot. That is not so. You shoot such straying hens at
your own risk, but about all the owner can do at law is to bring
suit for the value of the hens. All you could sue him for would
be the value of crops destroyed. So that lawing is about the most
unsatisfactory part of a hen quarrel. A reasonable man will keep
his hens shut up if you go at him right. If he will not do so, the
treatment varies as to whether you are aggressive or diplomatic.
The fighting man generally shoots a few hens and carries them to
the neighbor’s property. This makes bad feeling, but the hens are
kept at home. The diplomatist makes the hens welcome—puts up
a little house and yard with nests, and entices the hens into it.
They will lay there and usually go home when night comes. You .

SIDE LINES INVPOULTRY. 141

get their eggs and the owner usually gets wise and shuts them up.
If you cannot get the owner to keep them at home,.you will have
to protect your plants with wire netting. A lively young dog can
be trained to drive the hens away. As a last result the suggestion
which follows might be taken:

A maiden lady owned a piece of ground,

And morn and eve in Summer she was found
Within her garden. But her neighbor kept,

A flock of hens, and while she worked or slept,
With busy feet they dug her finest seed.

In vain she chased them at her utmost speed,

And “shooed” and stoned them, quite undignified,
The while her neighbor laughed until he cried.

But women who can foil the wiles of men,

Will not be daunted by a Leghorn hen.

The hand that rocks the cradle, still can block
Man’s ridicule, and give his nerves a shock.

Our lady cried a bit—as was her right—

Then took some cards and on each one did write:
“Please keep your hens at home!” A seed of corn
She strung to each. With early break of dawn
Back came the hens; they gobbled grain and string,
Then back for home they started on the wing.
“Please keep,’ he scratched his head—his heart was hard,
From every mouth they dragged the lady’s card.
But shame cut through it like a knife, and hence
His hens no more flew oer the lady’s fence.

FITTING EXHIBITION BIRDS.—Preparing birds for exhi-
bition is an art in which a person must be thoroughly interested
and willing to work weeks, months and even years to accomplish
a certain object. The object in this case is to win the blue ribbon
at some of our large poultry shows. Competition is so keen and
close at the present time that the preparation for exhibition must
begin with a bird’s ancestors. Good breeding, which usually means
line breeding, is necessary to produce the best specimens. The
question is often asked if incubator chickens are as good for exhibi-
tion as those hatched by the natural method. In my experience, I
can see no difference when the birds are kept in houses of the same
size and in the same sized flocks. Fifty chickens in a brooder are
not as apt to develop into exhibition specimens as quickly or surely
as 10 chickens hatched and raised by a hen, provided both have
proper feed and care. As rule, the small flocks of 10 to 20 birds

142 THE BUSINESS HEN.

in a good-sized house with free range, develop into finer specimens
than those raised in larger flocks or in confinement. It is also
advisable to grow the birds near an orchard or cornfield, where
there is plenty of shade, as some varieties will not hold their proper
color when exposed too much to the sun. The birds should be
grown and developed just as fast as possible, with good feed and
care, without forcing. The feed does not vary much from that
recommended for the general flock, except that more hominy,
cornmeal and cracked corn are usually required to get young
stock in the proper condition. Old stock should be in full feather
and standard weight, without being over fat. Care should be taken
not to feed too much beef scrap during the conditioning period, as
it is likely to make the pullets lay too quickly. A pullet is usually
in the best condition for exhibition just when she reaches laying
maturity, and cockerels should be in full feather and up to standard
weight. Birds intended for exhibition should be handled and
trained for several weeks before the show, so they will learn to
pose in natural and attractive positions, instead 4 acting afraid and
sulky when approached by the judge.

Cocks and cockerels, and hens and svttess should be condi-
tioned in separate pens, to avoid injury to the feathers by each
other. The American Standard of Perfection is the guide used in
judging at all poultry shows. It describes all recognized breeds and
varieties, so that each exhibitor can become familiar with the
standard requirements of the breed or breeds he is handling.

About 10 days before the show, all white birds should be
washed, and again two or three days before showing. Colored
birds do not, as a rule, require washing. To wash a bird properly
requires a great deal of care and some experience. The process
is as follows: Provide two warm rooms, adjoining each other,
one heated to about 75 degrees for washing and the other heated
to 90 or 95 degrees for drying. The drying room should be fitted
with plenty of cloth-covered coops with open front, and set well
up off the floor. The washroom should be supplied with four
tubs, the first containing quite warm water for washing, the next
two contain slightly cooler water for rinsing, and the fourth con-
tains cooler water, blued just right for fine linen. Wash each
bird clean in the first tub with good white soap, being careful not to
muss or break any feathers. Then rinse thoroughly in the second
and third tubs, and dip in the blue water before placing in the
drying coops. Keep an even temperature in the drying room until
all the birds are dry, and then cool it off gradually,

GHAPTER: XVI.
HOMEMADE POULTRY DEVICES.

Here is a cut of a hen coop that I have found very conve-
nient in raising chicks with hens, to keep them from the hawks
when small. The cage in front of the common A ccop is made
of half-inch lumber and covered with 1%-inch poultry netting.
It is attached to each side of the coop with one nail so it will
easily fit any unevenness of the ground. Being light it can be
moved a little every day or two to give a clean spot and fresh
grass. The hen is confined in the coop, and, after the chicks
are old enough, the front of cage can be raised up on a brick so
they can run out. I let them stay in the coop nights after taking

: z >
= => 3s. ba — = ax ==
= ——— =

HAWK-PROOF COOP. Fie. 31. HANDY FEED HOPPER. Fia. 32.

the hen away till I want to put them in the Winter quarters.
They are easily shut in by pulling the brick out. G. W. S.
Vermont.

We devised and are using the hopper shown at Fig. 32 for
feeding fattening fowls of all ages. The front consists of two
strips two inches wide, with a space of three inches between. The
ends are made of thick boards six inches wide, seven inches high
at front and 10 inches at back. The lid consists of two boards
two inches and four inches wide respectively, the wider attached
to the narrow by means of hinges. A board two inches wide is
sufficient for the back, which is placed against one side of the
room in which the fowls are confined. On each side of front
space small nails are driven about two inches apart and in nearly
to the head. To prevent crowding and smaller fowls from creeping
in, wire clipped from baled straw is stretched across from one
nail to another in front space. The bottom is a separate piece
sawed to fit inside and on which the feed is placed. It may be

144 THE BUSINESS HEN.

made any length desired. One eight feet long is sufficient for
20 fowls, broiler size. J: Ga
Pennsylvania.

I make lice-proof roosts as follows. Get one-half-inch round
irons, stick through the floor into the ground far enough to be
firm, and on these the 2x4 stick for roost. Then make a cup of

(x)
me

xX

}

LICE-PROOF ROOST. Fia. 33. GATE DEVICE. Fa. 34.

tin and core to fit on the round iron, and fill cup with kerosene.

Fig. 33 shows how it is done. H. G.
Washington.

Fig. 34 shows a device I am using on partition doors in my hen
houses. As far as I know it is original. The door swings on pins
for hinges so it opens either way without the attendant stopping
to fasten or unfasten. The string passes between two spools over
the front end of the door. A brick makes about the right weight.

Connecticut. ro he

The Figs. 35-36 show a homemade gate that I find of consider-
able service around my poultry yards. I arranged this gate at first

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GATE CLOSED. Fia. 35, GATE OPEN. Fra. 36,
to allow my dog to have free access to the poultry runs, so that if
there was any disturbance night or day he could get there right

HOMEMADE POULTRY DEVICES. 145

away and see about it. I also found that I could use it to my
own advantage in passing through the gates with feed or water
pails in each hand. I take a rope about the size of a clothesline, or
what is better, three small ropes and braid them, the braided rope
will not chafe out so quickly as the single rope, then fasten to the
top of gate post. To the other end of rope I attach a block of
2x3 joist 12 or 15 inches long, and throw over the gate as shown.
This will close the gate, and dog or man can push it open, and pass
under the rope. In making the gate allow the upright near the
rope to extend up a few inches to keep the rope on, and bevel the
top part of gate where the rope passes over. It did not take over
five minutes to teach the dog to open the gate from either side.
Massachusetts. H. W. R.

Here is a picture, Fig. 37, of a drinking fountain that has
proved valuable to me. It is made from any jug. The jug should

USING A FRUIT CAN.
FiG. 37. Fie. 38.

have a rim around the top as this is what it rests on when inverted
on the frame or support. The support is triangular in shape and
is made to fit under the rim of the jug. I usually make the sup-
port out of some strips three inches wide and one inch thick.
There is a leg at each corner made of the same stuff. The legs
should be long enough to place the mouth of the jar about three
inches from the ground. In that case they will be six inches long
or perhaps a little longer. This is regulated by the depth of the
pan under the jug, the mouth of the jug should be aboxt a half
inch below the top of the pan, and the jug will keep that much
water in the pan until the jug is empty. I use gallon jugs, carry
them to the well two at a time and fill with a hose. They are
carried to the frame under which the pan is kept and inverted. The
jugs being white they will keep the water cooler than any other
thing I know of. W. Dz S.
Virginia.

146 THE BUSINESS HEN.

A good water fount for chicks can be made out of a Mason fruit
jar by taking the cover and putting a hole a half inch from the edge.
Solder a lip on. Then notch two pieces of board and nail slats to
sides to lay jar in. This is easily kept clean. A, Fig. 38, is top of
jar cover, B, hole in cover, C, lip to be soldered on.

A good way for town poultry" keepers to keep green feed
before the chickens at all times, without much labor, is to make
a frame of three-inch boards, the boards standing on edge and
cover with one-half-inch square mesh wire cloth or netting. This
can be made any size to suit, the one I have reference to is 6x4
feet. Take a piece of ground the size of frame and after spading
in a lot of manure rake it level, sow oats on it rather heavy,
and cover with good soil. Then put the frame over and let it
grow. The chickens will see that it does not grow above the wire.

Pennsylvania. G.-G)

We live out on this Western prairie, away from any good

source of supplies. I wanted something to feed and water my

CAN MADE USEFUL. HOW IT HANGS UP.
Fia. 39. Fic. 40.

chickers out of, that they couldn’t soil, and made it for them from
tomato and salmon cans. I opened the cans, when I wished to
use the contents, down the side and a few inches on either end,
then turned the opened piece of tin back and made a couple of
holes in it to hang up by. The birds cannot get into them and
they are very easily cleaned. Figs. 39-40 show how this is done.
North Dakota. Vv. EB

When the chicks are too small to feed in a trough, and you
want to put feed for them on a flat board, the old hen gets on and
scratches it to waste. Fasten a section of wire netting on to the
board, flat, and put on the feed as before, no matter whether it is
dry or wet. Next time the hen tries to scratch her body will
move instead of her feet.

To provide green food for chicks early in the season, get a
block 6x8 inches square, or 6x10 would be better; saw a notch in

HOMEMADE POULTRY DEVICES. 147

the upper side, three inches deep and three wide at one side, and
six at the other. Get a piece of light sleigh-shoe steel, about two
feet long, and get the smith to draw out one end to put a handle
on, punch a hole in the other, and grind, hammer or file to a sharp
edge a section of the steel wide enough to reach across the notch
in block and about six inches from end, with hole in it.. Bolt
the knife to block a little lower than bottom of notch. Bevel to
knife should be all on one side and away from block. When
grass gets long enough to cut with knife or grass hook, take some
of it, put in notch in block and feed it along with left hand, and
with the right hand on knife you can cut it as fine as you please.
When the bottom of notch gets worn away, insert a section of
stout hoop iron for knife to play down beside, so as to make clean cut.
Figs. 41-42 show how this is done.

When chicks get older and you want to give them weeds or
any kind of large leaves, tack some wire netting on a frame and

GRASS CUTTER. Fic. 41. _ TOP OF BLOCK. Fic. 42.

place it on the weeds to hold them down. The fowls can tear off
what they want as well as if plants were growing. They are very
fond of plantain leaves and clippings from too vigorous Dahlias.

When you have surplus sweet corn to give the chickens, drive
wire nails, five or six inches long, through a stout board, turn it
over and set the ears on these nails, and chicks will clean corn
all off without rolling it about in the dirt. O. H. L.

New Hampshire.

Flour barrels make excellent coops, roomy and cheap. A
little frame is made for the front, consisting of four pieces of
board, the uprights 6x24 inches, and two crosspieces, top and bot-
tom, 2x20 inches. Fasten frame to front of barrel by wire, leaving
opening for door. Fix so that a slide door, eight inches wide, can
be easily dropped in from the top. This door is made of one-half-
inch mesh cellar window wire, nailed or stapled to strips of wood.
This gives good ventilation and is absolutely vermin-proof. Cover

148 THE BUSINESS -HEN.

barrel with old tin roofing or spouting, so as to make rain-proof
and prevent the sun from warping it. Of course, a coat of paint
will add to its attractiveness, put is not necessary for practical pur-
poses. Runs of any size made of wire netting can be attached to
barrel, and with the netting over the top of runs the chicks are
safe from crows or the annoyance of grown chickens. Barrels
and runs can be readily moved on to fresh ground. The runs are
made substantial by the addition of a few stakes driven into the
ground to support the wire netting. Front and side views are
shown in Figs. 43-44. For feeding dry mash, we use a box two
inches deep at sides and three and one-half inches deep at ends,
seven inches wide, 42 inches long, inside measure. For feet, have
four pieces, one inch square and 12 inches long, Nail these to ends

BARREL COOP. Fria. 43. SIDE VIEW. Fra. 44.

of box, having top of three and one-half-inch ends, eight and one-

half inches high. For top have board five inches wide, nailed on

to cleat at each end of top, to prevent its slipping out of place.

This trough keeps the feed clean and chickens do not scratch

it out. A. E. F.
Pennsylvania.

In Fig. 45 is shown a scraper for cleaning the droppings
boards. The blade, indicated by arrow a, is made of three-six-
teenths or one-fourth inch sheet steel. The bottom edge is twenty-
four inches long and the top twenty-two inches. The width of
the blade is four inches. The handle is made of three-quarter inch
pipe and threaded on one end. A hole is bored near the top in
the centre of the blade. This is threaded with an ordinary tap

HOMEMADE POULTRY DEVICES. — 149

and the handle is then securely screwed in place. A scraper made
in this manner will last a lifetime, and prove to be a very practical
tool.

In running an egg farm there often is a good deal more young
stock in the Summer than there is house room for. Unless these
young pullets are trained to roost soon after they leave the brood-
ers, there will be trouble teaching them this accomplishment. A
standardized roost for temporary quarters has been found a great
convenience. Take some rough-backed young saplings, cutting a lot
of supports about two and one-half inches in diameter and 54 inches
long, drive in a four-inch spike 15 inches from each end and one in
the middle, leaving two inches of the spike to protrude for a sup-
port. Then set these poles at an angle of 45 degrees, against the
walis of any building to be used for temporary roosting place, and
put any convenient length poles on the spike in the supports for

DROPPINGS BOARD SCRAPER. TEMPORARY ROOST.
Fie. 45. Fia. 46.

roosts. They can be used year after year if kept in a dry place
when not in use. The cut, Fig. 46, shows this. Pe) Bi
Michigan.

One of the most provoking problems in poultry keeping is
the determination of the hens to lay in one nest. No matter
whether half a dozen other nests exactly alike in every respect
are right near that one, they will crowd and fight around one or
two nests, often smashing a couple of eggs, soiling the nest and
causing trouble all around. Last year I found a way to prevent
this. I made a frame out of 14-inch strips of pine boards, size
of frame 16x36 inches. Next I took a piece of galvanized poultry
netting 14-inch mesh, size 24x48 inches, stapling this to the frame,
turning the corners in. This forms a continuous nest, about 3 feet
long. After one hen has squatted down to lay the next one will
sit down close alongside of her, and I have had as many as ten
of them sitting in a row, as peaceful as it is possible for that
number of biddies to be. As soon as one hen is done and leaves,
the nearest one of the hens next to her will carefully roll that egg

150 THE BUSINESS HEN.

under herself, and most of the time the last hen or two will have
all the eggs under them. Two or three such nests will be suffi-
cient for fifty to sixty hens. One improvement I have lately added,
by making the frame out of old pieces of %-inch pipe, using
elbows for the corners. This way I can take the nest outside and
set fire to it. I believe anyone who has tried to keep the old
wooden nest boxes clean during hot weather, will appreciate the
improvement. Cc. H.
Illinois.

INSIDE HOUSE ARRANGEMENT.—“I enclose sketch of
sectional view of our henhouse, Fig. 47. A indicates an aisle three
feet wide running full length of building, which is 40 feet; B, scratch-
ing and roosting section; I, partition with studding eight inches apart

INSIDE HOUSE ARRANGEMENT. Fic. 47.

and covered with poultry netting; C, row of nests, each 15 inches
square, raised four inches off the floor. On these rests the droppings
board G, and above on brackets the two lines of roosts H. Board
E is hinged every four feet at the bottom, that it may be dropped
to facilitate cleaning’ and disinfecting the nest boxes. The hens,
being in the scratching pen, enter the nests from that side. The
doors, D, being separate for each nest, made of 1x3-inch pieces into
a square frame and covered with fine netting, are hinged at the
bottom and kept closed by a wooden button, except when gathering
the eggs from the alley. When a hen becomes broody she is given
her complement of eggs in the nest she has selected, and trespassers
are kept from troubling her by hanging on the hook F a lattice door
made of pieces of lath. The door D is then left open and the sitters

HOMEMADE POULTRY DEVICES. ‘181

exercise in the alley where food and water are at hand. We hatched
over three hundred chicks here last Spring and the plan worked
beautifully.” W. H. FISHER.
Ohio.
THE TRAP NEST.
It is generally conceded that trap-nesting is too expensive a
plan of selection for the average poultryman to use. On page 95

feos (ed
we Oe cee

= vee
sen

TRAP NEST OPEN. Fic. 48.

Prof. Rice states that it costs about 50 cents to trap-nest a hen
for a year and keep the necessary records. For the convenience
of those who wish to try the experiment the accompanying illus-
trations and notes by a practical poultryman are given:

ccc wees 2 Sethe Bees wey Q Gn ee es Soe brent

NEST

a ne:
Fl os

TRAP NEST SHUT. Fic. 49.

“The accompanying designs show a trap nest of my invention,
closed and open. Both cuts show a side view of the device. The
nest proper is in an outer box. This outer box may slide like a
drawer at under side of droppings board. The outer box may be
without bottom, thus saving lumber. Fig. 48 shows trap A open.
As the hen steps in at B her weight closes the trap A. Cis a

152 THE BUSINESS HEN.

catch or button that automatically operates when trap closes and
locks trap. D. D. D. are half-round hardwood mouldings, fastened
across trap and rear end of nest which revolve in half-inch holes
in outer box at F. F. E is a moulding across trap and projecting
enough to strike against sides of outer box, preventing trap from
closing too far in. The shoulders of this moulding E, as also
shoulders of catch C, may be provided with a piece of felt or
rubber, to lessen the noise of closing trap. Dimensions may vary
with size of fowls. Inside of nest may be about 11x11 inches and
four inches high. The device is very easily operated. A weight of
2% pounds at B, easily closes trap. After the hen has laid, she
will put her head through a hole that is cut at each G. G. After
egg is deposited, the hen has sufficient room in front of nest to
keep nest from fouling. Excepting nails, there is no hardware
about this device, as strap in which catch C plays, may be wood.”

MOVABLE POULTRY YARDS.

The essential features in poultry keeping are clean quarters,
grass and exercise; coops that are easy to clean, easy to feed and
not expensive to make. After many years of study and experiment
with all the different kinds of poultry houses I find the following plan
is the simplest and by far the best, except in the snowy period of
Winter, when the birds and yards can be placed in an open shed
facing south. The yards are built in sections four feet wide, two feet
high and 16 feet long. Fig. 50 shows the plan.

One or 20 sections can be placed end to end and the length of
the yard is only limited by your boundary or whatever else there is
to restrict you. A grass and clover field is the best, but when I
started my yards they were on corn stubble and a fine grassy yard
has grown without seeding in two years. The materials are kept in
all lumber yards. Six arbor laths 1x2x16 white pine finished and
free from knots and other weak spots, cost about 25 cents each,
will make the frame. The sides, ends and top can be made up of
plaster laths nailed one inch apart for small chickens and 1% to two
inches for adult fowls. Porch lattice strips are neater, better and a
little more expensive, but if painted would make a neater appear-
ance and be more lasting. The end section should be closed at the
ends with a sliding door to shut all birds in when moving yards;
intermediate sections are braced on the ends and left open otherwise.

The top of each section should have four feet closed with light
lumber or a sheet of galvanized iron which will furnish shade for
the fowls on warm days. For brooder yards these sections should
have the whole top covered with galvanized iron or light lumber and

HOMEMADE POULTRY DEVICES. 158"

it will save much loss from sudden showers, but make them light
enough to move easily. The roosting room should be four feet
square and two feet high with two roosts and open at the top like a
box. These coops are easy to move by just dragging them along.
They will hold 12 or 14 Leghorns and have roosting coops enough
to accommodate your flock. Laying houses are the same size with
four nests on each side opened at the top. These houses should be
closed at the evening feeding time to stop birds from roosting in
the house or nests. Dry mash hoppers are kept in another house of
the same pattern and each house should have one or more sections
between them.

These yards make ideal Leghorn yards (they are always in their
own place and not scratching at your neighbor's garden), which is
their greatest recommendation. I am a trucker and my neighbor’s
chickens do me more harm than all the bugs. Each morning a

A: SATA A ,PG TO OOO OEE. A=. 5

A areca baete oe ck ty ea Ame a
°
t

BAB-2.B-VA-VA-1-Z. VA ty x.

MOVABLE POULTRY YARD. Fia. 50.

little grain is thrown in the end section, and when all the birds are
in close the slide and then move each section over sideways till all
are on the clean grass, then move the end section, birds and all,
taking care not to pinch their toes, but they are usually too eager
for the new grass to get their toes pinched.

Roosting houses should have no bottom. Laying houses have
only wire netting on bottom of the nests to keep in the straw when
moving the house. The dry mash feeding house should have a
wood floor. Water, grit, shells and charcoal can be kept in tomato
cans or lard pails on the outside of the yards where the birds can
reach them easily by putting their heads through the slatted sides of
the yards, and the feeder can see at a glance if each pail is full.
The water, grit, etc., will always be free from droppings, which is
never the case when these utensils are kept inside a poultry house.
The ground will have grown up to grass in about two weeks’ time
when you can move the yards back to their original place and move
over daily, a task that will but take about two minutes per section.

CHAPTER XVII.
POULTRY IN LARGE FLOCKS.

The “colony plan” of poultry keeping, that is small houses scat-
tered over a wide area, has its advantages and its drawbacks. So
has the opposite plan of crowding large flocks of birds into one
building. As is stated in the following chapter by Dr. Buchanan
Burr, the plan of feeding a “dry mash” has given renewed opportunity
for large flock feeding. The statement which follows tells how it
is done.

As the object of most persons who engage in poultry raising is
to have a flock large enough to support the owner, and as most fail-
ures in the business arise from ignorance as to how to enlarge the
successful small plant, this chapter will endeavor to take the poultry-
man or poultrywoman who has arrived at this point safely over this
bridge. Assuming as the basis of this chapter that 1,000 laying hens
are needed to support the owner, it will be at once apparent that to
raise the 3,000 chicks yearly to keep up this number of healthy well-
developed egg machines, fireless brooders, lamp brooders, colony
brooders are out of the question, and we are forced by every reason
of economy and sanitation to build a proper brooder house with
heater and pipe system.

BROODING IN LARGE FLOCKS.—The pipe system brooder
house fell into disrepute some years ago for two reasons; first
because the pipes were put too low over the chicks, and second, the
heat was not run high enough. With four 1%-inch pipes from 12
inches to 14 inches from floor, run at a temperature on your heater
thermometer of 120° to 140°, the chicks will not only never feel
chilled but will be forced apart and found lying comfortably along
the edge of the flannel curtain which comes to within two inches of
the floor. The roof is the most expensive part of the building. My
own preference is for a two-story brooder house 21 feet wide by any
length needed to supply the necessities of the plant. This makes a
double house facing east and west, with pens three feet wide upstairs
and four feet wide downstairs. The baby chicks are taken to the
upstairs pens, not more than 50 in a pen, for 10 days. Then they are
sorted by size, and all defective ones killed, and the others taken to
the larger downstairs pens, where they have outdoor runs. The

POULTRY IN LARGE FLOCKS. 155

water pans for all pens are, upstairs, 614x1)4-inch galvanized iron
or agate pans, setting one-third in passage and two-thirds in pen, —
the pen portion being covered by having nailed to the board par-
titions one inch above the hole through which pan is pushed into
pen, a semi-circle of wood two inches smaller than pan, on the
edge of which finish nails are driven one inch apart, Fig. 51. By
this arrangement the chicks cannot get in the water to soil it anda
glance at each pan in going through the house tells where water ‘is
needed. ‘The pans can all be washed daily without going into the
pens. For the downstairs brooders a 10x2™%-inch pan can be used. I
find it a great advantage to cut the hole high enough to place a board
under the pan, coming out in the pen about three inches beyond the
pan. This keeps the pan above the sand and litter in the pen
and keeps the water cleaner. I said take the chicks from incubator
-as soon as dry to these pens, but they are not to be fed for 48 hours,
so in front of the flannel curtains in each hover I drop a board six

FEED TROUGHS

WITH TURNED IN
SIQES

SECTION OF HOUSE INTERIOR. Fra. 51.

inches wide in slots, converting the hover into a dark, warm pen
with clean, fresh, sharp sand on the floor, and there they stay warm
and quiet until the yolk is absorbed. ‘Then the front board is
removed, a little chick feed scattered on the floor, and they get their
first feed and drink. After another 24 hours the back board is
removed. For feeding chicks I use the“Burr” chick trough, keeping
mixed grain and dry mash in separate troughs before them all the
time. For small chicks a trough two feet long and 12 inches wide
with sides three inches high is ample. Take a 12-inch board two
feet long and bevel sides and ends to 45°. To these four beveled
sides nail half-inch strips three inches wide and you will have a
trough as shown in Fig. 54. By laying this trough on the floor and
piling the sand up against the sides and ends chicks 48 hours old
can run in and out of them easily. The object of the turned-in sides
is to prevent the chicks scratching feed all over the pens. By sifting
out with a flour sieve once a week, all the sand will be removed, and

156 THE BUSINESS HEN.

with a coarser sieve all the manure, and the feed remains always
clean. Once in two weeks the mash troughs may be dumped out
and the. contents scattered in the henyard, where it is eagerly
scratched over and eaten, so that no waste occurs. For the lower
section where chicks are 10 days old the same troughs are used,
only they are made three feet long, 16 inches wide and the sides
are five inches high, Fig. 55. Chicks of this age will scratch feed
out of the smaller troughs. These larger troughs are also used in
the colony houses up to three months of age, when they are replaced
with the “Burr” hen trough. By this system of feeding chicks are
only fed once a day, which is a great saving of labor, and there is
always feed for strong and weak with no danger of over-eating or
under-feeding. Once a day they should receive green feed, in Win-
ter beets run through a meat chopper or sprouted oats, with a quart
of swamp muck if it is obtainable to each pen twice a week. After
they are a week old a hopper of beef scrap should be kept filled in
each pen and grit, chick shell and ground bone kept before them all
the time. The dry mash used for chicks is the same as used for
the laying hens and the formula will be given later.

The great objection raised against the brooder house and in favor
of the colony system of brooders has been that the yards will get
foul, but with removable fences, fastened to the houses and to the
end posts 50 feet away; with simple L posts in between, all these
fences can be taken down in a few hours, the yards limed, plowed
and seeded to rape and fences replaced. After chicks are all out
of brooder house these yards may be plowed again and seeded to
White clover and lawn grass for the following Spring. With this
objection removed, there is no comparison either in economy or the
health of chicks raised between the two systems up to six weeks of
age, when your April-hatched layers are ready to be put in colony
houses, without heat, where they will remain until housed in laying
houses for the Winter.

STARTING A FLOCK.—As the line between profit and loss in
a large poultry plant lies between 100 and 145 eggs per hen per year,
it is very necessary that the individuals composing this flock should
each be healthy and to all appearance able to hold up their share of
the load, but more than that, the owner should know that the ances-
tors as far back as he can trace them have been Winter layers of
large eggs. The buying of day-old chicks, or of eggs for hatching,
except from known breeders without a guarantee that they are from
aged hens only and not from pullets’ eggs, is a very serious source
of loss and disappointment. ‘The safest and surest way is to raise
or buy enough yearling or two-year-old hens. These hens should be

POULIN WNi ARG E FLOCKS. 157

mated to healthy cockerels, say in February. Hold them back from
laying by a grain diet and plenty of exercise until this time. Keep
them in colony houses and their eggs will hatch chicks that want to
live and that when they mature will lay, and lay when eggs are high.
After your first year the close culling of your flock of yearlings
will give better and better breeders each year, and bred to cockerels
each year there is no danger of inbreeding. Any unusually good
cock bird can be kept for another year or two and bred to a special
pen of the best hens to tone up the grade of the whole flock.

HOUSING AND FEEDING.—It may be roughly stated that
the advent of dry mash before the hens all the time made possible
the keeping of large flocks together. Before that time with feeding
three times a day the active, hustling hen got more than her share
to the detriment of the less active members of the flock. Under pres-
ent conditions of feeding there is no limit to the size of a flock that
can be kept profitably except the element of labor. As 2,000 hens
can be easily cared for by one man and kept in perfect condition
all the time, so in a complete one-man plant 1,000 hens may be con-
sidered as a unit, leaving time enough for incubator and brooder
house work. It is of course an advantage where the farm is large
enough to pay to keep a man for this other work and to help with the
rough and heavy work on the poultry plant.

My own preference is for the two-story type of house with two
short roosts on each side of a central passage running at right
angles to the passage, 22 inches apart and 22 inches from the floor,
simple 2x2-inch with upper corners rounded, five feet long and sup-
ported on three-eighths-inch iron rods driven into floor and into hole
in roost. ‘This in a house 20 feet wide and 100 feet long gives 16
roosts between four-foot windows on each side of house, with a
passage along each side in front of nest boxes on the wall. ‘These
windows being 4x5 feet, with upper half muslin and lower half glass,
give perfect ventilation Winter and Summer. The downstairs part
being for feeding and watering and exercise, with 1,000 hens in
such a house each hen has four square feet, but in reality has the
freedom of 4,000 square feet, except that occupied by the other .999
hens.

A much less expensive house of the regular type can be built 18
feet wide and 100 feet long, 4% feet high in the rear and 6% feet in
front, shed roof with rear wall sheathed to plate, and roof sheathed
up six feet. Droppings boards are 2%4 feet from floor, four roosts
12 inches from droppings boards. ‘The front of this house could be
boarded up for two feet from the bottom and a foot from the top,
leaving three feet that could be closed in with 3x6-foot screens

158 THE BUSINESS HEN.

covered with unbleached muslin, with a 3x2-foot sash in between each
muslin screen. The muslin is closed on stormy days only and at
night in cold weather. Such a house would house 500 hens com-
fortably, where a two-story house of the same size would hold 1,000.
Either house should be faced a little to the south of southeast, as
this gives the most sun in Winter and the least in Summer. Any
laying house should be built on posts with a grade at top of sill of
18 inches above the average natural grade. Fill this 18 inches
in with dry dirt to top of sill. This makes the best floor. By keep-
ing this dirt loose it makes all the dust baths necessary. The top can
be raked off weekly and spread on the droppings boards. It will be
necessary to fill in about six inches of clear dry dirt in May and Sep-
tember; thus the house floor is renewed and never becomes foul. If it
can be placed in a field with say 150 feet front and back for yards
and a fence running from each end to make a front and back yard,
by plowing and sowing oats, millet, rape and Crimson clover in rota-
tion in each yard, you have continuous green feed from March
until December, which is both healthy and economical. Avoid plant-
ing fruit trees in either poultry or brooder yards, as the continuous
plowing necessary for health will ruin the trees before they are
large enough to be productive, and artificial shade is much better,
the cheapest way to make the latter being to tack two-inch mesh
wire on a frame 3x6 feet and nail on legs one foot long on one
side and 18 inches on the other. Cover with burlap or building
paper. The legs can be knocked off in the Fall and the screens
stored away. A crop of potatoes or corn can be taken alternately
from the front or back yards, following potatoes with rye and Crim-
son clover, and planting in rape and rye with the last cultivation of
the corn.

FEEDING FOR WINTER EGGS.—If you have culled out 500
or 1,000 of the best of those pullets we left in the colony houses
last May, when some of the combs begin to redden the last of Sep-
tember, put them in your laying house, leave them shut in for a
few days, until they feel at home, and the feeding and watering
problem now presents itself. For watering a large flock there is
nothing as convenient as one or more 10-foot lengths of five-inch
double-lipped galvanized iron eaves trough or gutter. Have the
plumber solder in two sloping ends, and near one end a piece of
¥%-inch brass pipe. I say brass pipe because it is even enough to
have a cork fit tight, whereas the galvanized iron pipe will leak.
Take two pieces of board three inches wide and the length of your
trough, and nail to two square end pieces, so that each board will
fit under one lip of trough to support it. Set this trough on a

POULTRY IN LARGE FLOCKS. 159

platform high enough above the floor to get a pail under the pipe
to empty it into, and build a running board on each side of it for
the hens to stand on when drinking, and you are fixed. In Winter
the trough can be emptied at night, and filled through the day at
intervals with hot water to keep ice melted. Put the pail under
the pipe, remove cork and brush out trough with a sink brush and
it is clean.

The object to be attained by feeding these hens is to keep them
healthy, make them eat egg-making food and drink clean water, so
as to produce the most clean eggs with high-colored yolks, and no
bad smell or flavor. If left to herself she would much rather spend
her time scratching in a manure pile or old wood pile for a bug or
two, eat turnips or onions, and not lay any more than she had to
until Spring. While the man does not live who can make a hen
lay, you can so feed her in the Fall that there is a super-supply of
protein, fat and mineral matter that will, against her inclination,

THE BURR HEN TROUGH. Fia. 52.

go to the development of the embryonic ovules, and as they grow
they cause a drain on her system which she locates as hunger, and
supplies, hence Winter eggs. This can only be done by confining her
in large yards and not letting her out of the house in the morning
until she has eaten her breakfast, giving food she is fond of to
encourage her to eat more than she otherwise would, and keeping
such a mixture before her as will develop the ovaries and the
albumen secreting glands. If these pullets are all April and early
May hatched, and are housed by October, go through your flock
on December first and cull out any immature, undeveloped pullet, in
fact every one that does not show a developed comb, and sell them
for roasters. I say developed, and not red comb, for some of the
April pullets that laid through October and November will be rest-
ing now, and the combs will not be so red. What I want to impress
on you is that any pullet in the flock that does not look like laying
on this date will be carried through the Winter at a loss, and would
better be disposed of now.

160 THE BUSINESS HEN.

After trying all the hoppers made and making many more, I
finally hit upon what is known as the “Burr” trough as the simplest
and most economical appliance for feeding.

To explain Fig. 53, if you take two pieces of half-inch board
six inches wide and eight feet long, and nail them together, you will
get a V trough six inches wide on one side and 6% inches on the
other. Take another piece of board six inches wide and rip it in
two, one piece being 234 inches wide and the other 3% inches. Nail
the first piece on the inner lip of the wide side, and the latter on the
top edge of the narrow side, and you have your trough; nail on the
ends and put on the top. The hens cannot waste any feed out of this
trough, cannot soil it, and yet it is always there before them. Ten

Fie. 54.

PRE ees Saher ec |

¢+-----99'--- =>

SECTION OF
BURR TROUGH.
Fia, 53. FOR LARGER CHICKS,
Fia. 565.

such troughs, half for grain and half for dry mash, are enough for
1,000 hens, and need be filled only once a day. Of course the grain
ration before them all the time applies only to Leghorns, who can-
not over-eat. With the heavier breeds the mash may be kept before
them all the time, and the grain fed in litter night and morning.
Even with the heavier breeds, grain troughs that can be closed
except at supper time are an advantage, as where all grain is fed in
litter many hens go to ped without enough supper, which means
less eggs.

For the grain ration almost any mixture of wheat, cracked
corn, with some buckwheat during Winter, will do. Watch the
troughs and mix your grain to suit the hens’ appetite, using more
of one or the other grain as they eat them more eagerly. For the

“POULTRY IN LARGE FLOCKS. 161

mash I use as a standard: 200 pounds bran, 100 pounds ground
oats or barley, 200 pounds coarse cornmeal, 100 pounds shredded
wheat (waste), 100 pounds middlings, 100 pounds best beef scrap
(with some bone in it), if not add 25 pounds granulated bone, 100
pounds clean sifted charcoal (granulated), no dust, 25 pounds salt.
Vary this by adding in Summer 50 pounds oil meal. This mash is
kept before them all the time. Sprouted oats are fed once a day,
all they will eat up readily, or alternately with mangels or sugar
beets run through a meat cutter. These they eat greedily, and where
green bone cannot be obtained I mix 25 pounds of beef scrap with
100 pounds of ground beets and feed it. The sprouted oats and
beets should be fed in flat troughs six feet long, 12 inches wide,ewith
three-inch sides; these when not in use can be hung .p. Of course
there is no egg-making food that can compare with green bone as
a maker of Winter eggs, and if it can be obtained even at three cents
per pound cut it is worth it. Feed every other day up to one pound
for every 30 hens, and reduce the percentage of beef scrap in the
mixture by one half. As the markets require in Winter eggs a
high-colored yolk it is necessary to feed three times a week cut
dry clover or Alfalfa. While sprouted oats will help it is very much
cheaper to produce this color with clover or Alfalfa; which they eat
greedily. Too much clover or Alfalfa will cut down yo r egg yield,
as they will eat too much of it in place of more nutritious food.
With dry airy houses, cleaned daily, with plenty of dry dirt on the
floors for absorbent and dust baths, with roosts and nest boxes gone
over carefully twice a year with crude petroleum and any coal-tar
insecticide, with this system of feeding only sweet clean grain,
there can be no question of your success, if you like hens, and if
you do not you would better leave them alone, for they have very
pronounced ideas of their own, and while if they trust you you can
coax them, you can never drive them, and a scared hen in a large
flock tells her story in the egg basket for several days.

The best cure for all poultry diseases is the ax, and burn the
remains. Much trouble is caused by curing(?) mild cases of roup
or canker and using these birds for breeders. It will take years to
eradicate a taint thus bred in. There is much, however, that can be
done in the way of prevention. By breeding only from healthy
mature stock, by proper hatching and good brooding the chick gets a
living start. White diarrhoea can be absolutely prevented by this
means, by thorough sterilizing of the incubators after each hatch,
and in cases where there is any suspicion of tuberculosis in the flock,
by dipping the eggs for hatching in a solution of corrosive sublimate
one part to 5,000 of water, All breeding hens should be carefully

162 THE BUSINESS HEN.

examined before putting them in the mating pens, as I have found
some of the best hens to look at infected with canker of the vent
which would infect every egg. Some apparently healthy hens have
at all times a strong roupy smell at the nostrils and should be killed
at once as, while immune themselves, they scatter roup germs which
are taken up and develop in the other hens who are not immune. In
every normal hatch there will be a few chicks that do not properly
absorb the yolk. They drag along, usually showing some signs of
indigestion; an examination of the abdomen shows a hard lump in
addition to the gizzard. Kill them at once as they drag along and
cost more to make broilers of even than they are worth. If the
brooder conditions are not correct and chicks get chilled and huddle,
the flock will show in a few days all the appearance of white
diarrhcea; they mope, drop their wings and huddle together. The
only thing to do is to separate the healthy ones and kill off all moping
chicks. When chicks learn that they can get warm by crowding,
the whole flock is doomed; therefore keep up high temperatures in
your brooder pipes so that as they snuggle together at bedtime, as
they always will, the heat will be uncomfortable, and before the
crowding can do any harm the flock separates for the night. Watch
every flock at bedtime and prevent any settling in corners, as they
will always go back to the spot they first settled in. This is also
another reason why flocks should never be more than 50 when
young, as the animal heat of a larger number will overheat some,
and an overheated chick is doomed. With chicks normally hatched
and brooded there is but one other serious trouble that can occur.
For want of a better term I call it secondary bacterial infection.
Unless the yards are disinfected, spaded up and seeded, after the
first lot have been removed to the colony houses, the next lot getting
out on the foul yards will, especially during a hot day following a
cold rainy spell, eat everything they can scratch up and become
infected with bacteria, and die like flies. ‘The intestines will be
filled with blood from infection, and unless you recognize the con-
dition you will think some one has poisoned the flock. There is no
cure; prevention is all; recognize the danger ahead and prevent it.
In feeding lawn clippings, and they are excellent feed for hens and
chicks, be sure that the fruit trees are not being sprayed with some
arsenical preparation or trouble will ensue. Good healthy stock, with
clean water, fresh air, clean feed, using the same horse sense in
caring for them that you would in any other business, and there is no
mystery or secret about the raising of poultry in large numbers.

CHAPTER XVI
COMPANIONS OF THE HEN.

DUCKS.—We do not offer advice to the extensive duck raiser
who keeps birds by the thousand, but to the farmer who keeps a
flock of reasonable size. If a man intend to make duck raising a
specialty, he should go to some large duck ranch and study the
business. The principal breeds are Pekin, Rouen, Cayuga, Muscovy,
Aylesbury and Indian Runner. The Pekin is the most popular bre>],
and is usually kept by farmers. The Indian Runner is the best
laying duck, ranking with the Leghorn among hens as an egg pro-
ducer. Ducks are usually hatched in incubators or under hens. For
the first few days they are fed much like young turkeys, on bread
crumbs and boiled eggs or rolled oats. After five days sand or gravel
is added to the food, and gradually meal and bran are substituted
for egg and bread—with later beef scraps, salt and abundance of
chopped green food. Ducks need shade—an orchard makes a good
place for them. Breeders should have a place to swim, but fattening
ducks should be kept from the water. Mr. G. A. McFetridge tells
how ducks are handled on a large duck ranch. With proper modi-
fication this plan will answer on a farm.

“Anyone who wishes to succeed at raising much have his ducks
in market at the age of 10 weeks. At that age they should, if prop-
erly cared for, average at least five pounds apiece. It is a good
plan to pick out your stock ducks, at the same time (10 weeks)
selecting the finest shaped and active ones. Arrange to have the
males at least one month older than the females, and keep them
separate. Give them a stronger feed, with about five per cent scrap;
they will require it. With the females it is different, for they do not
need a strong feed, but a light bulky feed. If they are picked out in
May at the age of 10 weeks and fed on strong feed they will start
to lay in September, which is too early; the middle of November
is about right. A good feed for them is something like this: By
measure, four parts of bran, four of middling or red dog, one of corn
chop, one-half part sand, and one-third of the whole amount of
some kind of filler. Use what is at hand, almost any green vegetable,
second crop clover and Alfalfa. This mixture makes a good light
feed, and if fed properly will give good results at this time when
muscle-forming is the main object.

164 THE BUSINESS HEN.

“By all means get them on a clover plot, keep visitors out and
keep them quiet. In case a clover plot is not obtainable, then man-
age to get some kind of greens for them to pick at; it will aid diges-
tion. Supposing they are selected by the 20th of May, then they
are fed the above feed judiciously up to September 20, then use
the same kind of mixture, but give them all they can get away with,
being careful not to overdo them, and you will find by October 20
they will be shed pretty well. The drakes, of course, are in a sep-
arate yard, and can be fed more corn chop and about 10 per cent
beef scrap after September 20.

“Suppose they have shed all their feathers, wings and tails, as
they will by October 20, and their Winter quarters are all in shape,
then comes the mating. ‘To every five ducks put one drake; you
can put 20 ducks and four drakes together safely, although I have
seen good results when mated up to 150 in each yard. I find it to
be a good plan to keep some extra drakes at the start and distribute
them among the rest; then by keeping track of your yards you may
find one or more yards that fail in fertility; a change of dralses
will be all that is required. After mating them, a more substantral
food can be fed, as follows: By measure, two parts bran, four parts
middlings, two parts corn chop, four parts whole corn, four parts
cut second crop clover, one part sand, one-half part oyster shell, 10
per cent of beef scrap (not counting clover). You will notice that
they will not eat near so much of that feed as they do when fed
the former, but it is a great egg output by increasing or diminishing
the whole corn and beef scrap.”

TURKEYS.—Many hen men and women have an ambition to
keep a few turkeys. In northern New York or in some other locali-
ties turkey raising on a large scale is carried on with much success.
The turkeys have a wide range, and on the clean, wind-swept hiils
are healthy and strong. In such places the business is often profit-
able, though blackhead and other diseases sometimes sweep off entire
flocks. Rhode Island was once a famous turkey country, but black-
head has nearly ruined the business in that State. These large
turkey raisers are often women, who seem specially adapted to hand-
ling these birds. They often give advice to beginners, and seem
puzzled to find that there is any great trouble about making the
little turks live. The fact is that until one gets the “instinct” turkey
raising is the most hazardous kind of poultry culture, for the little
things will persist in dying in spite of all your care. Our own experi-
ence as beginners may help others to start. ‘The two most popular
breeds of turkeys are Mammoth Bronze and White Holland. The
Bourbon Red is popular in some parts of the West, and is highly

COMPANIONS OF THE HEN. 165

praised as a hardy, handsome bird of medium size. he Bronze
turkeys are larger than the Whites, but we chose the latter because
they are more domestic and do not roam away as the Bronze do.
We have frequently had flocks of Bronze travel from distant points
to visit our Whites, while the latter have never failed to remain at
home. This is a good feature in a settled country where the farms
are small, for in such situations the Bronze birds become a nuisance
to the neighbors.

We bought a trio of birds—the gobbler not related to the hens.
Our observation is that this a surer than to buy eggs, although it
may seem a slow way to start with but two hens. The children
were afraid the turkeys would freeze when they insisted on flying
into the trees during the Winter, but it is their nature to prefer the
outside of a house. We drove’ them inside during cold storms,
though they went unwillingly. They were fed much the same as
the hens, but they were cleaner about their food and drirk. One
reason why many fail with turkeys is because they will not keep the
birds dry and clean.

Late in April we noticed the hens looking about in an uneasy
way, and wandering further from the house. We had been told to
let them find their own nests, but to tempt them if possible by leaving
barrels and boxes with clean straw near the henhouse. This failed to
tempt them, and we should not have found where they layed but for
the gobbler who waited for and thus betrayed them., One hen
climbed to the loft of the wood shed and began laying on a board.
The eggs would have rolled off, but we put a box with straw on the
board and put the eggs in it. The foolish bird came back, accepted
the nest and kept on laying. We left the eggs there as they accum-
ulated. ‘The other hen went along the fence by the side of a tree .
and made her nest there in the open. We kept these eggs-in the
house until the hen began sitting and then they were all put under
her. A box was fitted over the nest so as to give shelter. Between
them these hens laid 24 eggs and hatched out 19 turks. One died at
once.. The other 18 were given to one of the turkeys. The other,
after grieving a day or so, mated again and proceeded to lay another
clutch of about a dozen eggs. The season was so wet and unpromis-
ing that we did not set these later eggs.

It is said that a young turk will die if it run against a wet
blade of grass. They are remarkably tender, and wet weather usually
melts them down. We were also told that they would die if kept
in a coop. A neighbor had a good hatch, but the young birds died
rapidly. They seemed to become tired with chasing the hen. In the
morning they were draggled by the dew and fell behind, where they

166 THE BUSINESS (EEN.

were captured by cats or chilled. As the rain continued we put hen
and turks in a large coop, and kept them there except at intervals
when the sun came out. Then they had the run of a small yard.
For feed they were given chopped boiled egg and dry bread crumbs
with chopped onion. They had all they would eat clean of this four
times a day, and plenty of fresh water frequently changed. A cake
or biscuit made of horse feed (which on our farm is a ground mix-
ture of cornmeal, oats and wheat bran) crumbled up fine was
relished by the turks. ‘The old hen was fed a quantity of cracked
corn, and in a few weeks the little birds began to eat that also.
Rain continued, and we were obliged to keep the turks confined in
the coops until the latter part of June. We did not expect to save
any of them, judging from the advice we received and the experi-
ence of neighbors who let the young birds run with the old hen
through the wet grass, but out of the 18 put in the coop 15 were
alive in July. When the weather turned dry we let them follow
the old hen about the farm. Cats and vermin captured several, and
others died from various causes, and we ended the season with five
turkeys. This may seem like a poor record if we judged from the
stories of parties who claim to raise every turkey, but actual experi-
ence as reported to us shows that the great number of persons who
tried to raise turkeys on a small scale had a worse record even than
we did. Some of them lost every bird, while others raised only
one or two from a flock of three or four hens. Turkey raising evi-
dently requires greater care than chicken culture, and it appears as
if printed or spoken advice is of little help in learning how to raise
the birds. Personal experience alone can show how to do it. We
can do it much better another and drier season. In a general way
it must be remembered that the young turkey is more tender than
the average chicken. It is cleaner in its habits and requires clean
food and pure water. The old hens do not show good judgment in
caring for the turkeys, but will lead them through wet grass or
upon long journeys where the little things are quickly tired. We
should be careful to keep them in coops until the sun has thoroughly
dried the grass and watch the hens carefully so that they will not
wander too far away.

PIGEONS AND SQUABS.—We would not advise an amateur
to expect to make any fortune or even a living at producing squabs.
Probably as much money has been lost in the poultry business try-—
ing to make good on squab breeding as in any other department.
The stories told of the great success of a few people are very
plausible and have led many unfortunate men and women on to loss
and disappointment. Our advice would be to start with a few

COMPANIONS OF THE HEN 167

pairs of pigeons and not attempt to go into the business on a large-
scale unless experiments with a few pigeons indicate success. It is
often a desirable thing to have a few pairs of pigeons on the farm,
as squabs make delicate food for invalids and there is nothing bet-
ter in some cases of sickness. In a town yard these squabs can be
grown to advantage, but let no one expect to plunge into the busi-
ness at once and make a fortune out of it. Almost any room that
is fairly warm can be fixed up for pigeons. You must have a good
roof, no cracks or holes in the sides and a building that is strictly
rat proof. Rats will clean out the squabs if they ever get a taste of
them and can get near them. Allow about 250 square feet of floor
space for each 50 pairs of pigeons.

THE GUINEA FOWL.—There are two distinct varieties of.
Guineas, Pearl and White. There is no difference in their character-
istics save in their color. The Pearl variety should be bluish-gray in
color, each feather covered with white spots resembling pearls,
hence its name. It should be free from any white feathers in any
part of the plumage. The neck is covered with black hairs near the
head, and between that and the feathers is a soft down, of a light
brown color, that glistens in the sun. On the top of the head is a
horny spike that turns backward. The bill and legs are brown. The
White variety should be a pure white in plumage, with a yellow
orange or yellowish-white bill and legs, this being the only difference
between them and the Pearl variety. Some birds of the Pearl
variety have white feathers in the breast and wings, but are mon-
grels, being a cross between the two varieties. They are great forag-
ers, and will pick up enough bugs and injurious insects more than
to pay for themselves. They do not stand confinement well, and
will not lay more than one-half as many eggs as if allowed to run
at large. If fed regularly morning and night they will always be on
hand for their share. "They desire to roost in trees near the barn
at night, and are most excellent guards either night or day; anything
out of the usual astir, they will set up a great cry. They roost so
high that they are out of the way of thieves or wild animals. In
their wild state they wili fight and drive other fowls, but if used
kindly as other poultry, they will stay and feed with other fowls
without showing much of this pugnacious habit. The Guinea hen
is a Spring and Summer layer, and lays from 90 to 120 eggs yearly.
They like a secluded place to lay in. When their nests are found,
leave two or three eggs, or they will leave the nest for another place.
Better set their eggs under hens to hatch, as the Guinea does not
sit until too late in this latitude to have the young get grown before
Winter, Besides, if raised by common hens, they can be taken care

168 THE BUSINESS HEN.

of better, for they must be fed often, as the young eat but little at a
time. Fifteen to 17 eggs can be set under a good-sized hen, and
with good care all can be raised. Their eggs are small, but make up
in quality what is lost in size. Their meat is excellent, and has a
gamy flavor. The cocks can be distinguished by their screeching
noise, also by the spike on their heads being larger, and by hoidinz
their heads higher. ‘Their ear tubes are larger, and generally curl
in a sort of semi-circle toward the beak. ‘The hens make a noise
that sounds like “too quick,’ and seldom screech.

BANTAM BREEDING.—‘“Bantams need but little room, and
little feed. They are very attractive and useful, not merely pets, as
they are good layers of good-sized and rich eggs. I have used an
incubator for hatching, but prefer hens. Ii I have Bantams that I
can spare I use them, but usually common hens. If large hens are
used their nests should be in a low box six inches deep, the nest
made but little dishing, as the eggs will move more readily as the
hen steps among them. For this reason the fewer eggs under a
hen the better. The eggs are quite as likely to be fertile and
hatch as any larger breeds. A box should be placed over the hen
after she has been fed and watered each day. This not only secures
her from being disturbed, but prevents her from coming off many
times a day, as some will, each time endangering the eggs. I do not
find the chicks quite as hardy or as easy to raise as larger breeds
until feathered. They feather so young and fast that they need good
feed and care at this time. For a few days when first hatched, hard-
boiled eggs and bread crumbs chopped fine are best for them;
later cracked wheat, millet and ground beef scraps, and some whole
grain. For head and throat lice and around the little cluster of
feathers in front of the vent use a little grease. Fresh butter is
good; sweet cream is still better, and will not injure if used liberally
on turkeys or chickens. This will do little good, however, if the
hen has lice. This season I have taken a feather, and with a liquid
lice killer touched the hen under and above in many places. If
this is done in the morning when the chicks are a few days old, and
the hen in an open coop, so the chicks can get plenty of air, it will
not hurt them, but will rid both hen and chicks of lice for a long
time.”

CHAPTER XIX.
A BIG FAMILY OF ROASTERS.

One of the most successful poultry men in the country is
Henry D. Smith, of Massachusetts. Mr. Smith makes a specialty
of raising roasters, which are young birds large enough to stuff
and reast. He started in a very modest way and slowly increased
his business until he turned off from 5,000 to 7,000 roasters each
year. This required 400 hens, and Mr. Smith made the statement
publicly that one man could do all the work provided he had
everything fixed properly. When we asked him how this was
possible he made the following statement. The incubators have
a capacity of about 3,000 eggs and the brooder houses will accom-
modate from 2,500 to 3,000 little chicks. Of these about 1,800 will
live to a size large enough to enable them to go out to colony
houses, which are 6x8 feet and which will hold 50 chicks. Each
house has a feed hopper, a box for scraps, another for grit and
shells and a water vessel. Here is Mr. Smith’s programme:

“Allowing that we have saved a few cases of July eggs we
will now lay out the work for a year, beginning August 1. Get
up in the morning at six o’clock, feed the horse and the hens and
turn the eggs in the incubators before breakfast is ready. Feeding
the hens is done by taking sufficient grain in a bag on your shoulder
and going through one house of six pens and back through another
of the same size, and scattering said grain in the litter; then take
another bag with a dry mash and go through again, and put the
necessary amount in boxes provided for the purpose; time for both
trips 25 minutes; then turn the eggs, which will take from two to
three minutes to each machine. Eight machines will be sufficient
at the most, and they will not all be running all of the time. The
eges will have -to be tested twice to each hatch, time one hour,
and another hour will carry out a hatch of chickens and reset
the machine, which takes two hours to each machine, setting every
three weeks. Clean out the horse stall and curry the horse, when
breakfast should be ready. The water barrel should be placed in
the farm wagon and a hose led to it from the water system and
allowed to fill while some of the above chores were being done,
so that after breakfast, say from 7.45 to eight o’clock, you harness

170 THE BUSINESS HEN.

into the farm wagon, and after putting on what grain, scraps,
grit and shells you will need, start for the colony houses, which
have got your 400 pullets and several cockerels for the coming
season. The barrel being fitted with a two-inch molasses faucet it
does not take long to rinse out the water bucket (using a little
broom-corn brush), fill it and replace; then put in some grain,
scraps, grit and shells, where necessary. Speak to the horse and
pass to the next house and repeat, finishing each house on the one
trip, and this job will be all done by nine o’clock. This leaves
three hours before dinner and the only chore at noon is to feed
the horse. At 4.30 to five o’clock you will go through the hen
houses again with one bag of grain only, and pick up the eggs,
feed the horse, turn the eggs and fill and trim the incubator lamps.
I can turn the eggs and take care of the lamps to the eight machines
in less than 30 minutes, so that you will be ready for supper before
six o'clock, and this makes not over 10 hours of actual labor per
day. The above arrangement leaves six hours per day for the
next three weeks, in which time you can clean out the brooder
houses if you have not already done so, spread on the grass land
and fill up again with fresh sand. This will take four days, and
allowing for a few stormy days there will be ample time to clean
out and fill all of the empty colony houses before the brooder will
have to be started, also to clean off the droppings boards once a
week and spray the roosts, and give the hens some green stuff at
least twice a week.

“Now we will start one of the brooder houses and bring what
chicks you have hatched, and until you have more than one house
will hold, there will only be one fire to attend to, and the pens, as
fast as you are able to fill them with chicks. We will have the
grain room between the two brooders and to feed will take a
bucket of mixed grains and a small scoop; walk right along throw-
ing the proper amount according to age, number, etc., all over the
pen, and coming back pick up the dead ones, then take another
bucket of dry mash and scraps. Keep moving right along, throwing
this on to the feed board placed on the floor just beyond the pipes,
so the feed can be put on it easily. Then take a bag of cut clover
and go up through the pens, this time putting a little in each pen,
and opening the slides for the chicks to go out of doors on the
same trip. If your partitions are too high to walk over you will
have to have self-closing gates. You will remember that these are
all watered automatically, so that this takes care of the brooder
in the morning excepting shaking down the fire and putting on
some coal, and 20 minutes will take care as above of both brooder

A BIG FAMILY OF ROASTERS. 171

houses, 2,500 to 3,000 chicks, with no worry about the heat. After
all of the morning chores are done, say about 9.30, come back to
brooder and give the little chicks less than two weeks old a little
grain to scratch for, and sift your ashes, putting the screenings
back into the heater; time 15 minutes. You now have two hours
before it is time to feed the two kinds of grain again and fix the
fire at noon, and there are three hours in the afternoon before
beginning the night chores, with the exception of about five min-
utes at 2.30 to feed those smallest chicks, and about twice a week
give them a little grit and charcoal in boxes for the purpose within
reach of the walk. Clean out under the pipes about three times
while the chicks are in the brooder, time two hours each time, and
then have a thorough cleaning between each lot; time refilling
and all 20 hours.

“PREPARING FOR WINTER—The above figures are based
on both brooder houses being full, the work in the incubator cellar
begins to decrease and finally stops by October 15, so that there
will be nearly five hours daily on the average in which to clean
out and fill up the balance of the colony houses, clean and refill
the henhouses, whitewash (with a spray pump) and make the
necessary repairs for Winter, and haul into the barn cellar or some
suitable place 30 to 40 loads of sand to be used here and there
during the Winter. During the past month or so you have been
selling off the old hens as fast as they stop laying, and crowding
together the remaining ones, so as to empty the pens as fast as
possible, and as soon as ready pick your most forward pullets and
put into these pens. As soon as the incubators are set that are
required to fill the brooders, sell off all of the old hens and put
in the remainder of the pullets as soon as you can. Then as soon
as the chicks in the brooder are feathered out enough, say eight
to nine weeks old, they go out to the colony houses and as soon
as you see that one of the brooders will be empty, cleaned out
and refilled, in three weeks you start up the incubators again, this
time on the pullets’ eggs, throwing out the small ones.

“We will now begin November with practically all of the
odd jobs cleaned up. The incubators are getting started again as
fast as the pullets furnish the eggs, and the youngest chickens in
the brooder are about to pass the delicate age, so that three times
daily is all the care the brooder needs, which can be done in 20
mintites each time. The work in the brooder now decreases about
as fast as it increases in the incubator house, and the care of the
horse and hens remains about the same the year round, but the
work in the colony houses is gradually increasing all the time, for

172 DAE BUSINESS Ene Ne

by the last of November you will have nearly all of the first lot of
chickens (say 1,800 to 2,500) out in the colony houses, which
means about 1% hour as soon as you can get to it. The morning
chores will now take until about 10 o’clock, and 20 minutes at
noon, with 1144 hour at night, will leave about four hours per day
to do the regular chores, and this gives for the whole month about
100 hours, in which time is done the testing, carrying the chicks
to brooder, setting machine, cleaning off droppings boards, cleaning
out brooders, refilling with sand from the cellar, etc. The work
for December is practically the same as November, with the excep-
tion of the caponizing. By the first of January the brooder house
will be nearly full again, if not quite, with the incubators about
stopped, so that in January while there is a little more work in
the brooder there is less in the incubator house. The regular
amount of work remains about the same until more chickens go
out to the colony houses, and during February and the first of
March the remainder of the colony houses will be full, and as
they fill the brooder grows empty, and will take another hour per
day for the regular work, leaving only three hours per day for
the odd jobs. In the meantime the incubators have started again
for the last time. By the first of March the oldest pullets will
begin to lay and must be sold, and the second lot must be capon-
ized. The brooder is being filled for the last time, so that by April
1 the incubators are all done. The brooder house is full, as well as
the colony houses, but we will now gladiy devote two or three
hours per week to selling off the oldest birds as fast as they get
“ripe.” As soon as any of the colony houses are empty they are
cleaned out thoroughly and refilled again with chicks from the
brooder house.

“VACATION TIME.—By the middle of May the brooder house
is empty and the regular chores begin to decrease, and some time
in June the caponizing will be done, leaving just the hens and
colony houses to see to, and the money to take in. The brooder
houses may now be thoroughly cleaned and refilled ready for the
next season, and there will be many an hour between now and
August 1 to lie in the shade and make short pleasure trips, or
get a neighbor to do the few chores and stay away awhile. The
number of chickens raised for the 13 years that we have been here
is about as follows: 700, 1,000, 1,200, 1,500, 2,000, 2,500, 3,000, 4,200,
3,200, 4,200, 5,000, 5,100 and 5,200, and I have 3,400 on hand now
(January 25). I hope and expect to get a good 2,000 more before
this season is gone.”

CHAPTER, XX.
ALL SORTS OF HEN METHODS.

We have said that a true hen man can take any breed and evolve
the business hen. That is correct, and he will do it by studying the
hen and adapting her whims and needs to his conditions. There are
hundreds of ways of keeping hens. The methods may differ, but the
foundation principles are the same, viz., selecting a good ‘hen and
keeping her clean, healthy, contented and well fed. That is the
entire story. The majority of hen failures are due to a violation
of one of these principles. Sometimes it is the hen. People will
persist in breeding from birds which they know do not lay well and
which have been lazy scrubs for generations. ‘The flock is inbred
' year after year with no effort to select the best. The result is what
you might expect from selecting small seed potatoes from the pile
year after year. It is now known that most of the small potatoes
are all grown by certain definite hills. If you keep planting these
small potatoes you will grow more small ones, because that is the
habit and destiny of such tubers. When you pick the seed out of
the pile where all have been thrown together you never know what
you are getting, but the chances favor the poorest selection you could
make. When you select the best hills in the field, and use that seed,
you know what you have, and are breeding for improvement. It is
just the same with hens. A man who wants to improve his birds
should get an ideal hen in his mind and hunt through his flock for
it. Pick out the hens which come up to this ideal, and use them
for breeders with the best male bird you can afford. ‘There is not a
farm in this country where such practice could not be followed out,
or where it would not pay better than any ordinary farm operation.
Mr. Geo. A. Cosgrove gives sound advice to a would-be farmer, but
he does not tell us how he worked out this theory with such success.
Mr. Cosgrove took Wyandottes and followed the plan outlined above,
selecting the hens which came nearest his standard of what a busi-
ness Wyandotte ought to be. As a result he finally produced a bird
which attracted attention—first at home, then through the State, and
Gnally throughout the country. The same thing can be done with
any breed, or one can start with a flock of common barnyard scsubs
and by selection and good breeding turn out a uniform flock of
hens that will pay twice the profit the old ones did.

174 I SUR MEXOLS OME SS SHENG

But unless this superior hen is healthy and contented she will
not pay. Contentment in a hen is not based on any intellectual
experience but on comfort, cleanliness and good food. Some people
have a curious idea of what a “clean” henhouse is. Lice are respon-
sible for more failures with hens than those who make the failures
will admit. The man who can stay by a lousy henhouse until it is
actually clean deserves to succeed and usually will. The insects are
small and the cracks are large, and every hair’s breadth must be
covered. On a fruit farm where lime-sulphur is used for killing
the scale a hen man can hardly do better than soak the inside of the
henhouses with this odorous mess. ‘The profit on some hen farms is
largely eaten up by the young roosters when they are permitted to
run at large with the flock. These birds become a great nuisance.
They should be separated as soon as possible, shut up and fattened
rapidly and sold. Let them all go except the few needed for breeders.
As for feeding, probably the greatest mistake is made in the Fall just
aiter cold weather starts in. At this time the hens seldom lay, and
are profitless. ‘They are also deprived of most of the insects and .
green food which make a good share of their food as they range
about. With both pullets and old hens there will be a “drought” of
eggs for at least 60 or 75 days. No profit can be expected at this
time, yet these hens should be full fed in the most careful manner—
just as an athlete should be fed on strong food through the weeks
of his training. These hens will never pay if they are scrimped in
their food during the Fall and early Winter, yet the temptation is
great to neglect them then; in fact, this is one of the hardest things
for the beginner to learn. It will help to have a good flock of old
hens and fat young roosters to sell at this time. With money com-
ing in at this season it is not quite so hard to pay money out for
feeding the idle hens. During the Summer the idle hens may be left
on a ration that will merely keep them going, but when the Fall
comes and they go into their houses stuff them with good food.
These principles are understood by all successful hen men, and it is
interesting to see how they are applied under different condition.

A hen man in New Jersey has a small place on which he grows
vegetables and fruit. There is not enough land to follow the colony
plan of having small houses scattered over a large field, so he follows
a sort of hen soiling system. The hens are kept in small flocks of a
dozen or more—each flock in a small house with a light yard of wire
fence panels attached. No food is put inside the house or yard, but
in dishes outside—the hens putting their heads through the fence to
eat and drink. Every day or two the house and coop are pulled
on to fresh ground—usually sod. In this way the hens are always on

‘\

ALL SORTS OF HEN METHODS. 175

clean ground and always have good pasture. Many coops can be’
kept on an acre, and the manure is deposited evenly over the field.
Of course the labor of changing. the coops must be considered, but
this plan is well suited to a small farm where the land is needed for
fruit or vegetables. You can easily see how such a system would
fit the land for a crop. The hens will tear up weeds, burrow in the
soil and leave the manure behind them. ‘They are clean and con-
tented.

so they are in a California fruit orchard where much the same
plan is followed. In this case the houses and yards are on runners,
and are just about long enough to stretch from tree to tree in the
rows. After standing for a few days in one place they are hauled
one row ahead or back as desired by hitching a horse to the house.
Thus they travel back and forth through the orchard, working the
soil and leaving the manure near the trees. The orchard mentioned
is well filled with these movable houses, and the hens give a good
income and take good care of the trees. If such an orchard can be
seeded to rape and Crimson clover the hens will get one-third of
their living from such a green crop.

In great contrast with this is the way a farmer in North Dakota
winters his hens. In this cold country the hen cannot be contented
unless she be kept warm, and lumber may be too expensive to make
the business henhouse profitable. So this farmer puts up a frame-
work of poles and throws straw around and over it. Straw has no
commercial value out there, and it can be piled on four feet thick
if necessary. A door and windows are put in, and the hens are
literally stacked up against Winter in comfortable quarters. Such
hens when well fed and watered do well inside their straw houses,
and imagine that Summer has come in February. These stack
houses are also often made for cattle. The cows have the advantage
of the hens in the fact that they can and do turn in and eat up their
own house of straw. ‘The hens cannot do this, and if they leave the
house well filled with vermin it is an easy matter in that country to
burn down the old house and build another like it the next season.

Something of the same plan is followed by a farmer in Virginia,
near the opening to Chesapeake Bay. In this mild climate the hens
may run out all Winter. Crimson clover is seeded in late Summer
to serve as pasture for them. Little houses like army tents are made
by driving in poles and heaping hay or straw over them. The hens
live in these little houses and range on the clover, obtaining a good
share of their living from it, and giving a good supply of Winter
eggs at low cost. The reverse of this plan was followed for some
years by Mr. Hayward, of New Hampshire. He also had little

176 THE BUSINESS HEN.

tent-like houses, but his were well made of lumber, with solid back,
but a wire screen front. Pullets were put into these little houses in
the late Fall and kept there without removal or range for about a
year, when they were taken out and sold as hens to make room for
a new supply of pullets. Mr. Hayward did not hatch any stock
himself, but bought young birds in northern Vermont and brought
them to his farm. He kept 5,000 or’ more of these hens, and made a
good profit—buying all the grain and putting the hen manure on
an apple orchard. ‘The contrast between this plan of close confine-
ment and the Virginia plan of free range on green clover is great,
and shows how the business hen can be adapted to almost any con-
ditions.

This plan of close confinement is the principle employed in the -
so-called Philo system. ‘The idea is to hatch the chicks in the ordi-
nary way and raise them in a “heatless brooder;” that is, a box so
padded and protected that little if any heat will escape. Gentle
ventilation is provided, so that the animal heat of the chicks is
retained, and this is sufficient to keep them warm. Under Philo’s
“system” the birds are kept closely confined after they graduate from
this heatless brooder. ‘They are supposed to pass their entire life
in a cabinet somewhat smaller than a piano box. ‘Those we have
seen in their narrow quarters were of good size, but seemed listless
and dull. The plan might work with a few hens in a back yard, but
we do not consider it adapted for really business hen keeping. The
so-called “Corning” system is largely adapted from the excellent
methods worked out at the Maine Experiment Station. ‘The hens
are crowded close together in the houses, but are kept clean and given
good food and care. As one visitor remarked, “The hens are packed
so close that they seem to be piled up in heaps.” It is a special
method of forcing hens to high production, but it remains to be seen
whether this heavy forcing will give chicks strong enough to keep
up the vigor of the stock. The egg yield is said to be heavy, and
high prices are obtained, in some cases 60 cents or more per dozen
for table eggs. It is claimed that with these high prices the hens
give a profit of over $6 each. While such “systems” are interesting
as showing the possibilities of poultry keeping, it is a mistake to
present them as if anyone could follow out the plan and obtain
similar results. ‘That is impossible—as much so as it would be for
an average man to take the place of a great lawyer before a jury, or
for an untrained clerk to step right into a blacksmith’s shop and
shoe a horse. Let it be clearly understood that these various “sys-
tems” all have some merit, but that the chief reason why they are
talked about is not to benefit mankind, but to sell the “secret” con-

ALL SORTS OF HEN METHODS. tee

nected with the system, and usually this secret has been talked for
years. A very good statement of many principles of the Corning
system is given in Dr. Burr’s story of large henhouse in Chapter 17.

Some of the English farmers have a modification of the colony
system. They mount small poultry houses on wheels and haul them
from place to place in the grain fields. The hens pick up the scattered
grain and come back to the wagon houses to lay and to drink. In
this way the fields are well gleaned and a good supply of eggs
obtained. We have heard of a man who sailed down the Mississippi
River on a flatboat with an outfit of bees and ducks. The bees
hunted honey all the way along, while the ducks made their home on
the boat and got nearly their entire living as they went along. In
other cases vessels on the ocean have carried hens in coops somewhat
like those built for the Philo “system,” and had a supply of fresh
eggs for the entire voyage. Another strange experience was that of
a man who carried an outfit of baby chicks to Florida in the early
Fall. His theory was that these little chicks could be forced so as
to provide good-sized broilers for the great hotels, which do an
enormous business during the Winter. ‘The scheme did not work
properly, for during the short Winter days the baby chicks did not
grow as was expected. It would seem as if Florida would furnish
a wonderful opportunity for the business hen. The State is thronged
every Winter with thousands of visitors literally shaking money and
calling for good things to eat. And yet most of the chickens and
eggs served to them come out of cold storage houses at the North.
In Florida a remarkable remedy for hawks is advocated. Chickens
are fed strychnine in their food, or the poison is pasted on their
heads. The theory is that this poison will not kill the chickens,
while it zl destroy the hawks. ‘The belief in this remedy is quite
general throughout the State. ‘The explanation is a theory that both
the animals and plant are natives of India, and probably the animals
become wonted to it before they were domesticated. No doubt the
younger animals would be more immune than older ones. .

The “colony plan” has been worked out with variations in all the ©
corners of the country. In New England are several large farms
where the hens practically wait on themselves. ‘The feed is kept
in hoppers—either in the form of dry mash or with the different
grains in separate bins. ‘There is usually a brook or pond where
the hens range, and in Winter they often depend on snow for their
water supply. Some experiments have been tried in keeping hens in
small tents during the Winter—with grain fed in hoppers and snow
to “drink.” This would not suit the large-combed breeds like the
Leghorns, but the warmer clad breeds with small combs like R. I,

178 HeLa VE USHONES Ss elo lo yi)

Reds or Brahmas actually keep good natured under such treatment >
and lay eggs. In fact we think the great supply of market eggs in
the future will come from these large “hen ranches.” ‘These will not
’ produce the expensive Winter eggs, but will send out great quan-
tities of Summer eggs which can be held in cold storage or preserved
in water glass. Considering the low cost of production when things
are fixed so one man can care for over 1,000 hens, there is profit in
producing Summer eggs on the colony plan. The latest scheme is
to raise the chicks in scattered brooder houses, separate out the
roosters early, and then by changing the inside fixtures to use the
house for wintering the pullets.

The increased use of the colony plan or range system has
increased the peculiar disease known as “limberneck,” which is
described under the chapter on diseases. At one time the greater
number of our questions referred to colds or bowel troubles—now
they deal with blindness or the nervous trouble called “limberneck.”
The chief cause is eating putrid meat, and this the hens pick up on
the range. It may be some dead fowl or the carcass of some vermin
which they eat, but there is evidently serious trouble from it. All
such carcasses should be buried at once. Do not let them stay near
the yards and houses. We put them in deep holes by the side of
fruit trees or vines. It is a mistake to throw them on the manure
pile where the hens and other animals can get at them.

There are still many places where large flocks of hens are kept
in one house. In some cases such are very successful, but the general
tendency is to break up the flocks and separate them into smaller
houses. ‘The liability to diseases is greater when the hens are
crowded in close quarters, and the sick hen must be attended to at
once. She will show her condition in various ways, but when a hen
drops her feathers, puts her head down and mopes about it is time
to attend to her. Get her away from the rest at once. We have a
small room known as the hen hospital, where such sick hens are
taken. A barrel with clean straw at the bottom is a good hospital
bed: for a hen. She must be kept warm and dry, and in many cases
a few days of “rest” with food and some tonic like “Douglas Mix-
ture” in the water will revive her. Read the chapter on “Diseases”
and treat the hen as directed, but it seldom pays to try to dose an
ordinary hen. She is hardly worth it, and nine times out of 10 if
vied “8 and free from lice and permitted to ace dry she will not

“mope” or drop her feathers.

It cannot be repeated too often that in all Bias different methods
one of the hardest battles is that against vermin. We are often
asked how to destroy lice on the living hen. Mr. Cosgrove mentions

HLL SORGS. OF FEN METHODS. 179

one method, but it is often necessary to sift the hen’s feathers full
of powder. A good powder for this purpose is described under
“Diseases.” We hold the hen up by one leg and sift the powder
among her feathers by dusting it out of a pepper box or from a tin
can with holes punched through the top with a small nail. In
some cases the hens are put into a box hung like a revolving churn.
A handful of the powder is put in with them and the box turned
over and over. The hens flutter and are well dusted. Head lice
are harder to kill, and they often torture the chicks. A mixture of
sulphur and lard will get them.

Another question often asked about all these systems is how to
prevent loss from chicken thieves. This is a serious problem in
many localities near a large town or close to a well-travelled road.
In some cases electric alarms are connected with all doors and win-
dows, but these do not always work, and a bright thief can cut the
wires. A good dog is the best protection. He should be trained to
sleep by day and watch by night, and given full swing of the premises.
The doors of the yards should be built to swing on a weight so the
dog can make his way anywhere. The right kind of a dog will
prove a genuine uncle to the business hen. He should not be per-
mitted to make friends with everyone. A dog with a dash of bull
or bloodhound blood will be better than some good-natured breed.
A poultry keeper in New York had such a dog with a cross of
Cuban bloodhound. ‘This terrible animal was respected by every
chicken thief within 20 miles. Another man kept a large, good-
natured dog as chicken guard. Thieves stole the dog, carried him
away and “got acquainted with him.” When he came home his
master thought he would guard as before; but when the thieves came
back he welcomed them as friends.

CEUAD YT Wie pcxule
ODDS AND ENDS.

in thickly settled regions there is often great loss from cats.
Many so-called pet cats are little better than wild animals and unless
they are carefully watched they will do great damage to the young
chickens. A good shotgun and a marksman will do much to get
rid of these marauders, but it will usually make great trouble with
the neighbors if cats are killed in this way, because most people
will not admit that their pets would ever kill a chicken. We have
found it an excellent plan to cover the runs where the chickens are
confined with twine netting such as is used by fishermen. This is
cheaper than wire netting, lighter and easier to handle and can be
taken down with ease when the chickens are large enough and
packed away for the next season’s use. These nets are also a good
protection from hawks and a large pen can be protected in this way
at reasonable cost.

The poultryman must understand that dampness will be death
to his flock. He must try above all things to give the hen a dry
place in which she can scratch and dust, for a damp cold house will
be sure to bring’ on cases of rheumatism or colds. Special pains
should be taken to have the floor of the house well drained. In
case a dirt floor is used ditches should be dug around the house
and filled with stones. We know of one case where even this
precaution did not prevent damp floors as there was a heavy drip
from the eaves all along the house. This was overcome by running
a trough along the eaves so as to carry the water away to the end
of the house. This made all the difference between dampness and
dry floor.

It is now generally agreed by poultrymen that where fowls are
feeding heavily on a mixture of food an ample supply of charcoal is
necessary. We have tried the experiment again and again of taking
the charcoal away from the hens and we are thoroughly satisfied
that it is a necessity if we would have best results, especially in

ODDS AND ENDS. 181

Winter. When the hens are housed, we would keep the charcoal
constantly before them where they may help themselves to it from a
hopper and they will show that it is a necessity by the way they
clean it up.

The trouble from egg eating eiten becomes a nuisance, espe-
cially where hens are kept in close confinement. ‘The poultryman
sometimes finds the habit firmly fixed before he is aware of it. We
have found that some birds are confirmed egg-eaters. They are
smarter than the rest and know how to break the shell and get at
the contents. We have seen them wait until the egg was laid and
then deliberately break the egg and set the example of eating it. We
should never attempt to tarry with these hens, but kil] and eat them
at once. They are a nuisance in the flock and cannot well be cured.
Various plans are suggested for handling them, such as cutting off
the end of the beak so that they cannot strike the egg without
hurting themselves or of blowing out the contents of the egg and
filling it with a mixture of red pepper or some bitter substance.
The theory of this is that the hen will break such an egg, get one
taste of it and certainly conclude that she never did like eggs any
way. This is a pretty theory but will not work in practice. We
advise killing the confirmed egg-eaters, feeding an increased supply
of meat and grain food, making the hens work for their grain and
arranging the nest so that the eggs must be laid in the dark.

Hens sometimes become cannibals. Little chickens sometimes
turn upon one member of the flock, chase it about, peck it to death,
and then deliberately consume the body. We have known this to
happen in a number of cases. Full grown birds will in the same
way sometimes turn upon one of their members and peck it to death.
This trouble is generally started by some bruise or injury on the
victim. The blood starts and the other fowls peck at it curiously
and get a taste. If they have not been properly fed with meat
food this taste of blood appears to craze them and they will chase
the afflicted fowl about pecking at it, opening the wound and
weakening it until it dies. The best remedy is to feed meat and
take the wounded bird out of the flock as soon as found.

We are frequently asked what substance is best for use in the
dust boxes. The hen must have a chance to dust herself through
the Winter, for this is her method of taking a bath and she will
not get along well without it. A dry dirt floor raised above the

182 THE BUSINESS HEN.

surrounding ground so that dampness will not rise to the surface
will give the hen her choice, but it often happens that on concrete
or board floors dust boxes must be provided properly. Sifted coal
ashes will do as well as anything. The cinders should be sifted
out and the dry fine powder used. Do not use wood ashes. They
contain lime and will take the gloss off the plumage. A mixture
of coal ashes and floats or ground phosphate rock will make a
very good dust for the birds. Road dust taken up from the road
during a drought will work well. Coal ashes are also excellent for
use under the droppings board; they do not contain lime and will
not drive the ammonia away.

It frequently happens that all through the Summer as the chicks
grow up a number of them lose all their feathers and go about
naked except for a few wing feathers. We are frequently asked
the cause for this trouble. Most poultrymen have observed it.
It appears to be characteristic of some of the heavier breeds like the
American breeds or the Asiatics and various reasons have been
given for it. It is probably due more than anything else to a lack
of bodily vigor or ability to assimilate the food properly. Now
and then these naked chickens grow and clothe themselves properly
before the Winter, but as a rule they suffer when cold weather
comes and are not likely to thrive. As a matter of business it will
hardly pay to keep them.

The hen keeper must not only use his eyes but be trained to
use his ears as well, for he must be quick to distinguish the char-
acteristic rattle or sound of roup. During the season when roup ‘is
dangerous it will pay a hen man to go slowly at night after the hens
are on the roost and listen carefully for this roupy cry or sound.
Practice will enable him to distinguish it and whenever it is de-
tected his best plan is to take the afflicted bird out at once for
treatment. It is folly to let her remain in the house, also with the
little chicks. The hen man soon comes to know from the sound
which the chickens make whether they are happy or, ailing. In
fact the chicken is like a baby in making its wants known. We
know of a case where a man who was succeeding well as a hen
man found that he was losing his hearing and he quickly realized
what a loss this would be to him because he had come to depend
upon his ears in detecting disease or lack of food. His wife and
children came to the rescue and went with him at night listening to
the hens and chickens and acting-as ears for him. In this way he
was able to detect disease in spite of his defective hearing. This

ODDS AND ENDS. 183

picking out ailing hens or chickens before disease has a hard grip
on them is one of the tricks of the trade.

Every poultryman should keep a medicine chest. While we do
not approve of drugs or of dosing hens continually, there are a few
remedies which a good poultryman will always keep on hand. The
chapter on diseases gives simple methods of handling disease,
but in the medicine chest we would recommend the following. First
of all a sharp little ax and the inclination to use it even upon your
best hens when they become afflicted with an incurable disease.
After all the ax is the best agent for the help of the flock. Then
keep a good quantity of vaseline. It is excellent for frozen combs,
wounds, and many other things noted in the disease chapter. The
Douglas mixture as is noted in that chapter is made by dissolving
one-half pound sulphate of iron in a gallon of water and adding
one ounce sulphuric acid. The clear liquid is used in the proportion
of one pint to a pail of water, and is one of the best tonics to be
used. Also keep a package of ginger and a package of red pepper.
In many cases small quantities of this in the mash will act as a stim-
ulant and help the hens. Charcoal would hardly be called a medicine.
We regard it more as a food and you will need more than you
can get in the medicine chest. Fair quantities of chlorate of potash
and permanganate of potash are useful and are mentioned else-
where. A bottle of peroxide of hydrogen is very useful to apply
to wounds and stop the flow of blood. There should also be a
quantity of tincture of iron. Kerosene will of course be on hand
for the brooders and incubators and a quantity of carbolic acid
and gasoline with plaster of paris to be used in making lice pow-
der, which is described elsewhere.

The meat supply for the poultry flock often presents something
of a problem. Beef scraps are excellent, but they are high priced
and they will not keep properly for a long time. Many farmers can
obtain through the Winter various carcasses of horses, cows or
similar animals and they are able to grind or chop them up with
great benefit to the hen. During Winter when the weather is cold
the disposition of these carcasses is not difficult. We have known
cases where large chunks of the meat were hung up attached to a
string in the henhouse so that the hens were obliged to jump up and
peck at the meat, after the plan in which cabbage is usually fed. |
This gave the hen exercise and it was surprising to see how they
polished off the bones. In many cases the carcasses are chopped up |
and packed away in ice or snow, using barrels or boxes for the

184 THE: BUSINESS HEN.

package. In this frozen condition they will keep until late Spring
and are fed as above described, run through a bone cutter or
cooked in Kettles. We have heard of cases where such meat kept
reasonably well even in warm weather by packing it as soon as the
carcasses were cut up in layers of ground limestone. We do not
mean the burned lime, but the limestone crushed without the burn-
ing. With the meat entirely surrounded with this limestone it
remains sweet for a long time. Charcoal will keep the meat for
a reasonable time, but it makes it dirty and dries it out consider-
ably. Where there is a cooker on the place, the meat can be thor-
oughly boiled and jammed down into airtight packages of stone
or wood packed in solidly. It is done in much the same way that
sausages are kept in the country. Such meat can be kept for
several weeks at least. Where one is keeping a large flock the plan
of utilizing such carcasses in Winter is a good one whenever the
animals are not diseased but are killed, as many are, when they are
too old for work or when they meet with some accident. Some
years ago we gave an old mare to a poultryman who was to kill
her humanely and feed the meat to his hens. A month later we
found that the horse was still alive. She had been put in one end
of a house and acted as a stove, her bodily heat keeping up the
temperature. As the hen man put it, “A hen would get cold feet,
fly on to old Katie’s back, warm her feet and then go and lay
another egg.”

One of the most annoying things in poultry keeping is to have
a supply of rats with access to the feed house. It is often much
cheaper to buy a large supply of grain in the Fall, keep it and
feed it out through the Winter, but whenever this is done great
care must be taken to keep the feed dry and away from the rats.
It is often possible to save from 10 to 20 cents per hundred in
buying at the right time. If, however, the feed house is not rat
proof you will more than lose the money saved on the feed. All
feed houses of this kind should be raised above the ground from
18 inches to two feet at least and are better when perched upon
cement posts. Let the timber be put directly upon these posts,
and, in order to make doubly sure that the rats shall not enter, an
inverted tin pan may be placed at the top of the posts. Then
proceed to build in the ordinary way, making the steps of the door ~
movable, and never leave them against the building, except when
some one is in the house. Never under any circumstances permit
piles of rubbish to be placed anywhere near the building. Other-
wise the rats will run to the top of these piles and jump from

ae Ce ee ae

ODDS AND ENDS. 185

them into the house. They can only enter by crawling up the
sides of the posts, getting in through the steps or jumping from a pile
of rubbish. As we have stated they cannot climb the cement posts,
and if they are of wood the inverted pans will turn them back.
If you forget and leave the movable steps in place over night the
chances are that your house will be over-run by rats and that you
will lose a fair share of your grain.

A sheep kept in a henhouse has been found useful in keeping
down the supply of vermin. It is stated that the hens and roosts were
freer from lice when the sheep was on hand. The wool of the
sheep is oily and oil is death to lice. There seems to be no better
explanation of it.

Every poultry keeper should know how to make the lime-
sulphur wash. It is the great medicine for trees and will kill all
the lice it can reach. Take 40 pounds of stone lime, 20 pounds of
sulphur and five pounds caustic soda for 60 gallons of water, or
smaller proportions for less water. Slake the lime by pouring
water over it. Make a thin paste of the sulphur and pour it in
while the lime is slaking. Keep stirring. Dissolve the caustic soda
in water, pour into the lime water and keep stirring. It will make
a reddish brown liquid which may burn the fingers and eyes—but

it will kill the lice.

People who live in town often keep a small flock of hens and
some of them make great records. We find the larger breeds better
for this back-yard work and from choice would take Light Brahmas.
Good strains of this breed will lay well if properly handled, and they
stand confinement well. The hens are good sitters and the chicks
erow rapidly ,into a large carcass. R. I. Reds, Wyandottes and
Plymouth Rocks are all good for the back yard. We would rather
give such active breeds as Leghorns a chance for more range and a
larger yard. Some people keep a dozen hens in a piano box with
great success, but it is not safe to figure that because a dozen hens
pay a large profit each 2,000 will do equally well. Mr. S. D. Hainley,
of Pennsylvania, wrote us that he made his hens pay a profit of $4.68
each. When asked for the figures he gives them. They are correct,
but you must remember that Mr. Hainley is one of the men who are
“half hen.” His estimate of the value of good hen manure is right,
if you have a good garden of vegetables or fruit.

“You ask me how I made $4.68 a year per hen and what kind
they were? About the best way I can explain that is to give you

186 INEUE VEO SILNIBSS JSUBING

the account for that year, which was 1905, when I had 12 hens. In
January they laid 194 eggs which sold for $5.66. February they only
laid 126, for it was a very cold, stormy month all through. Cold,
stormy weather affects all live stock (human included). It seems
more severe on fowls for they do not have the body to hold the ani-
mal heat to keep them warm. If we do not protect them they will
fall off in the egg production, and as I have not the time nor inclina-
tion to do this, my chickens go without it. But these 126 eggs sold
for $3.67. In March they laid 267, sold for $6.70; April, 188, sold
for $3.92; May, 150, sold for $2.75; June, 98, sold for $1.64; July, 126,
sold for $2.10; August, 54, sold for 90 cents; September, 30, sold for
62 cents; October, 31, sold for 64 cents; November, 42, sold for
$1.05; December, 72, sold for $1.80. About the first of July I sold
tive hens so that left me seven to lay the rest of the year. I set 76
eggs and hatched out 55. You may think that was poor hatching,
and it certainly was, for I had six hens sitting on these eggs and
there was one old thing that went from one nest to another and
would fight the other hens off and break the eggs. From these 55
chicks I raised 48. A rat took the other seven when they were three
weeks old. The way I feed is to have a deep litter in which I
scatter all the grain they get, which is corn, oats, buckwheat, and at
the present time I have wheat screenings. ‘This is fed at night, and
as soon as they get off the roost they go to work. Whatever they
get they have to work for, for I have to work for everything I get
and I am going to apply that rule to everything on the place, for I
believe that work is the best cure for most ailments. I have not
had a sick chicken on the place for five years, for they have to
hustle for a living and that gives them a good hardy constitution.
The chicks when hatched are rugged and they start in to scratch for
a living, for they get no soft feed, no mashes for me. The chicks
have a grist mill of their own and nature does not supply feed of
this kind. I know it will make those fowls grow ‘faster that are
bred to it, but I believe it weakens the digestion and they grow soft
and weak so that they cannot put up a successful struggle against
the many diseases that attack them. I like to give them all the
green food I can, such as small potatoes (raw), beets, cabbage and
anything bulky and green that they will eat. I also have a green
bone cutter and they get bone three times a week in Summer or when
I can get it fresh, and in the Winter it is before them about all the
time. ‘These 48 chicks with what stock I sold in Fall brought me
$31.43; eggs, $33.45; total, $64.93. Eggs set were worth $1.58; feed,
$10.76. Dr. Burr says that the droppings are worth 30 cents a head

per year, %3.60; that would give me a grand total of $68.53; less

ODDS AND ENDS. 187

eggs and feed, $56.19, leaves an average of $4.6814 a year. This is
an average of 138 eggs per year. A dozen of these eggs weighed
29 ounces. ‘These chickens are Barred and White P. Rocks. All
stock and eggs are sold at market price. I never received over 35
cents for a dozen of eggs and not over 15 cents a pound for stock.
You may think that was an off year, but in 1907 a larger flock paid
me a net profit of $4.7714 each. This year I cannot count them
before they are hatched, but I am going to try to make them pay
me $5 apiece. But when I look at the price of feed, corn $1.10, oats
70 cents, wheat screenings $1.15 per bushel, it makes me smile but
it will show what is in me.”

To show how hens may sometimes be left to take care of them-
selves, we give the following little statement from Massachusetts.
We have had many statements from clerks and mechanics who
worked long hours and in Winter could only look after the hens at
night and morning. Yet by arranging their work systematically
they made the hens lay and developed a fine flock. In several such
cases these men were finally able to give up their town work and make
a good living from the flock which they developed from a few hens.

“T began 1907 with three mongrel old hens and 16 purebred R. I.
Red pullets. I could give the fowls no attention except at the two
ends of the day and on Sundays and holidays, for I worked all day
in the city, nine miles away; so they got no care by daylight during
the short Winter days. Before leaving for work each morning in
Winter there was the following hen work to see to: Open up the
henhouse, raise the window curtain and adjust the ventilator, fork
over the scratching litter, adding to it a little hay or dry leaves,
together with such grain as would tempt the hens to scratch, replen-
ish the feed hopper, give the hens some green food such as a turnip,
beet or cabbage to peck at, fill the drinking pail with warm water,
and leave hot mash in the feed pan. ‘This mash consisted of table
scraps and meal, shorts, middlings and ground oats, with beef scraps
or animal meal added, and the whole seasoned with a little salt.
Occasionally charcoal was added. Many of the hens learned to
come down from the roost and eat by lantern light; the others got
their mash co!d. On the south side of the henhouse was a glass-
covered run where the hens sunned themselves. ‘The run was
really an A-shaped coop made of old windows with the broken panes
replaced by tarred paper or shingles. During the Summer the hens
had the run of an inclosure which included a gravel bank and some
brushy hillside, and sometimes they were let out to forage in the
dooryard. .

188 HE BUSINESS LEN.

“T set the first hen on 10 R. I. Red eggs, January 22, in the cold
loft of the barn, but the nest-box was packed all around with excelsior.
Fach evening I took the hen off the nest and waited with the lantern
while she took food and water. On February 13 all 10 eggs had
hatched, but the temperature that day was five below zero and one
of the chicks got chilled and died. The remaining nine survived and
proved to be seven pullets and two cockerels. Though the loft floor
was strewn with gravel and hay, a place where water froze in a few
minutes was not suitable for young chicks or for the old hen either,
so I moved them outdoors into sheltered coop packed inside with
fine ashes and hay and banked up outside with coal ashes and snow.
The top of the coop was flat and was made of an old window hinged
to swing upward. Here the chicks got all the sun to be had, and
when they had outgrown this coop they were put into another and
larger one, made of old windows partly covered with bagging to
give shade. ‘They were fed commercial chick feeds, with other
ingredients added, such as beef scraps, millet, rape seed, hemp seed,
or chopped cabbage or onion. They seemed to grow visibly between
morning and night. The first cockerel crowed at 10 weeks of age.
The first pullet laid May 31 at three months 19 days; the second laid
June 5 at three months 24 days, and on June 8 three pullets laid. In
June this flock of seven February-hatched pullets laid 42 eggs, and
in July 69 eggs. At the close of the year my 19 hens had paid a
profit of $1.35 per hen.” OL jeies

During the Summer we receive many questions about preserv-
ing eggs. The hen does not distribute her favors evenly through-
out the year. She lays well from April to August and then takes
a vacation. Many a farm flock will not give an egg for four
months. The theory of preserving is to take a one-cent egg and
hold it so that 1t may be used when eggs are worth four cents or
more. Formerly eggs were packed in salt or in thick lime water
or wash. This kept them after a fashion but the salt eggs were
likely to taste, while the limed eggs had a brittle shell, which pre-
vented their use for some purposes. Commercial eggs are now
kept in cold storage, such handling having become a great business.
It is out of the question for a farmer to put up cold storage but
by using water glass he can hold the cheap eggs of May and June
until needed in Winter.

Water glass, or silicate of soda, can be bought at most drug
stores or from large manufacturers. It is a thick creamy liquid
which dissoives in water. The operation of preserving is simple.
Nine parts of water are put in a wood or stone vessel and one part

a

ODDS AND ENDS. 189

of the water glass poured in. It is better to boil the water thor-
oughly before using, letting it cool of course before mixing. Stir up
the solution thoroughly and cover with a lid which prevents evap-
oration and keeps out the dust. Put the package in a cold
cellar until it is wanted for use. Perfectly fresh eggs kept in this
solution will be good at the end of a year, but they must be sound
and fresh when put into the solution. You cannot expect it to
restore stale or spoiled specimens. . One pound of water glass prop-—
erly diluted with nine pounds of water will cover about 14 dozen
eggs. Put the eggs into the liquid gently so they will not crack
and then put on a wooden cover so as to keep them in the solution.
Dirty. eggs should be wiped clean before putting in. We have used
the same solution two years in succession, but it would be better to
start each year with a fresh supply, as the cost is not great. The
only change that you will note in such eggs is that the white or
albumen will appear more watery than it is in perfectly fresh eggs,
otherwise they resemble new-laid eggs in appearance after being
thoroughly rinsed and dried off. They can be used for all house-
hold purposes except it may be boiling in the shell. When boiled
they crack and they are likely to split if heated too suddenly and
again when boiled the interior does not look as inviting when
opened. For most cooking purposes, however, they are quite equal
to the fresh eggs and we have found that in cold weather these
eggs will keep well for two weeks after coming out of the solution.
We must understand, however, just what the limitations of this
process are. These eggs are not fresh and should never be offered
for sale as such. Some people have endeavord to do this by putting
up barrels of them when eggs were cheap and tried to sell them
through the Winter as fresh eggs. In every case they came to
grief and practically ruined their trade in actual fresh eggs, as their
customers had no confidence in them afterward. If commercial eggs -
are to be kept they would much better be put in cold storage.
The water glass method is an excellent one for household purposes
and where but a comparatively few dozen will be needed. With a
stock of fresh eggs preserved in April and May there will be a
supply for family use all through the Fall and Winter, but it must
be repeated over and over that there is no use putting a stale egg
into water glass. If you attempt this method make special prepara-
tions to have the eggs fresh. Some people do not gather the eggs
for several days and in such cases the egg may remain on the nest
under a sitting hen for two days or more. In that case such an
egg is about 15 per cent chicken and will prove a nuisance when
put into water glass. When eggs come to the city for sale they are

190 THEW BUSINESS EEN.

promptly candled, that is, passed before a powerful light so that the
candler can quickly tell their condition. This is a business by itself
and it would be impossible to deceive an expert, but some farmers
do not realize just what a stale egg is. We know of one case
where a man sent a quantity of eggs from the country guaranteeing
that they had all been candled and were fresh. The candler in the
city found a large proportion of them stale and so notified the
shipper. He still insisted that they had been candled, but when
asked how he candled them he said he stood inside of a barn and
held the eggs up to a knot hole and looked through them. That
might suit him but not the buyer. The best eggs for preserving
are those from pens where no male birds are kept.

The “rot” of the egg is due to bacteria, of which there are
several kinds. This has been proved by cultivating these bacteria
and putting them into perfectly fresh eggs. The rot developed rap-
idly just as cream will ripen when a “starter” is put into it. Some
of these bacteria are in the hen and enter the egg before it leaves
her. Many eggs are infected while in the nest before they are
taken up. In Connecticut nine different kinds of bacteria were taken
from one nest. This ought to show anyone the folly of letting the
nests become as filthy as some of them are. It has been found that
eggs contain most of these rot bacteria in late Summer. They are
most free from them in April and May and that is the best season
for taking eggs for preserving.

You will notice that the American and Asiatic breeds lay brown
eggs varying from light to very dark. ‘These breeds are well
feathered and are bred with very small combs so they will stand the
cold. The hens which lay white eggs are of a different type, ner-
vous, with thin feathering and large combs, and this large comb
is the special target for Jack Frost. The white egg is desirable
in most market but many poultrymen want a more rough and
ready breed than the Leghorn. They are after the “hen in fur,”
that is, one which can stand frost and still lay a white egg. Mr.
Cosgrove says in his chapter that the Connecticut Experiment Sta-
tion is trying to breed a Wyandotte strain of white egg layers. The
hen they are working on is not a pure Wyandotte but a mixture
of breeds. You will see that a Wyandotte, a “Rock” or a “Red”
can squat down on the nest and in this way keep her feet warm.
Her comb is small and she can put her head under her wing.
Thus she is fully protected by her warm feathers. A Leghorn
under the same conditions could not put her big ccmb in her
“pocket” and on a cold night in a colony house it would be frosted.

ODDS AND ENDS. 191

Thus what is wanted is the Leghorn’s ability to lay white eggs with -
the “fur” of the warmer breeds. It seems strange that in all the
attempts at breed making this idea has not been worked out before.
It is practical and the combination has already been made in
Connecticut. Of course, in “making” such a bird, blood of the Leg-
horn will be used to obtain the large white egg. Naturally the
breeders who are now breeding Leghorns with success will say that
this new breed is not needed. In their warm and comfortable houses
there is little danger from frosted combs. ‘They must remember,
however, that new conditions have made new methods necessary.
It has been frequently pointed out that the use of a dry mash in
feeding has more than doubled the size of the flock which one man
can control, while thick feathering and small comb will without
doubt cheapen the cost of housing hens in a cold country. The
“hen in fur” therefore has her place and it is worth while to try to
develop her, though, as a rule, cross-breeding is to be avoided. In
fact we may end this book, as we began it, by saying that there are
few, if any, cast iron rules in poultry keeping. The hen man must fol-
low certain general principles, yet he must win success if at all by
learning from the hen how to adapt his particular circumstances and
conditions to her needs or requirements.

a

PAGE

SYM AW REH COIS eRe hat cewtrh UB ites ea MERER Pai oe 168
Breeds, Crossing ............ 102
Breeding, Limitations of..... G2
Brooder House, Colony...... 40
House, Gasoline- Heated. 42
OWS y MWA Ze. ochny secon vores 41
rSHCTTS LTT RS oer a ear ae Ns tS 40
Chick Brocder, Homemade 438
IBD AGOVO UNE BAIA Alo era raasoe 4, 115
Embryo, Developing...... 25
Outmt, “Comvemients 4.) .\-1. 47
Chicks, Baby, Selling........ 46
TRS YeY0 bird) 2A aoe Aer RSS ea eu 112

In Broodez, Trouble with. 40
Chicken Thieves: .o.r......- 17Y
Chickens, Naked............. isu
Cockerels, Hattening......... o2
Combs, tn MAIR CERT Bay i)
Cosgrove, Geo. A., Experience of ue
IDMEAWEElNGeh Sia lo ere Mic ccs 72
NV TEE hacia create a ereme ble temeuenen cus &0
Diseases, Communicable...... Ti
Ducks ixeeping 2 Rye) eee siete 163
Dust Boxes, Material for..... 1$i
Heg Constituents of.......... 16
Distinguishing Sex in.... 27
JOR Teton, 25 eed oe) 73, 181

TENN GUILT ON eye 8 hy GON Ala ale 22
VOW MEIC ice heya cces sacuaieus 14
linia (Greve wag Ale cisio'sen Acie 17
Quality, Improving ....... 98
Shell, When Made....... 18
Time Required to Make... 21
Ae! ANIC aay Mee Ualtols tones 23
With Two Yolks........ 74
Walia Palos 74
Eggs, Abnormal........ Sais sit 19
BOO Gite eee setae 73
RES CIMA ROM sey sree roree rele 95
Hor Fancy Trade. Aleit WPAN)
For Hatching, Cooling. spine

For Hatching, Keeping. ees
Hor Hatching, Shipping... 25

Miarele timo soa. 5 Lee ee 116
Natural Incubation of.... 38
PA CKAa Se)! LOW a8 apie teeleliers 118
PMESSTAVAMIS) Leese cele srielscene 188
1 BoCay] Ri TRAN tenet Saal a Ace ton a 189

Selecting for Ilatching... 24
Shape, Size and (olor of. 18

MOSHIME i iiamsantoencte choiens: eleven e 36
CPST SN Mca anes oe Nivel Neji 34
Meenas, Je\biliines | A edo eo oO as 75
Weed Hopper, Hunter........ 51
Hopper, Minnesota....... 52
Migoisdal MISHAP EG SOW ibabieD 6c 160
Weeds, Analysis of........... 85
Gapes, Treatment for........ 65)
Gasoline Heater, Details of... 4a
Grits. NCCU OR ee ie ete ie 88
Guinea On AUS PAVESI Voi tae Gav aan 167
Hen, Egg Organs of.......... 15
MSS aI A ae ee ieo shine 82

1 Gra WNT DSB ioe WM NSH epes Neem clave AQUA 190
MDA W a KOE ee apse castes lone stent nents 140
Manure, Handling........ 138
Young, Caring: for......-. a0
1SranS) ausrtel Mebiine bh eines Gib bo 174
Bleeding from Comb..... 69

ABUT AON PAIR NENA Giciee cerRahou eI LORS)
181

CA MMUD AL cop aistalg bietete pierce

INDEX

PAGE
Df DEV EAE Sy a RANA baie 18
How Mechanic Kept acuretaees 187
In Back Yard....+...... 185
Kept by Woman........: 126
Selecting Thue ena Ae 173
With Bumble Foot....... 69
Henhouse, Business.......... 06
Dam pish: (eo bs Mee Sea 180
LITE LUT) eae iene hie ee 61
{ Saw Cie te ee 175
TNE AGOT MC ellat seas ae ee 29
Disinfecting ......... inion XO)
Lamp, Regulating BIHAR AH eH obs 31
Regulating Sia NERS aCe 30
Thermometer SCO EN 2 a 31
Temperature for......... ae)
Viertilapiim oii, ess esr eae 3
Kafiir Corn for Poultry.. 8
Tug Gl celitaes ab Shue) eles eae ee 76, 112
Limber aiNeck irik ae eae 7
Lime Sulphur for Vermin. 185
Lene ent y Breeding for...... 97
Mash, Dry, Liow Made and Ved 89
Meat 2 Geed ine: fone ss seis 99
: Foods for Epens 125 hs 88, 183
WV GUMe TOUR MIXON Gty kyo oboe a Se $8
MELEE S ORR Di, Seca 8 ba ee ae 18
Nest: .\ Difaoy tei hnek aye een a eae ie
Oats) “SprOuUtea s/o hoi ee eee 87
Pigeons and Squabs......... 163
Poultry, Breeds of........... a
Devices, Homemade...... 143
Diseasésn ian Oo 68
Dey) Pack me 2/2 Sesleri 122
Pattening Coop.......... 52
Witting for Hxhibition.... s41
(Greaclihne Od 6 eed coe 4 1038, 123
House; Burr Vee ee 155
House, Colony .«......... 6d
Houses Galt) sei 54
House, WMamee) voi eee 66
Howse Sods: Ween ee 67
Houses, Dampness in..., 64
Houses, Remodeling...... 638
In-Breeding ............ 106
In arse) Wocks) a ares 154
FU ON ee On er 121
Line Breeding .......... 107
Medicine Chest ......... 183
Packing) eo eee ee 122
Purebred! oy ns Seino tele 100
Sealing, ces oes en ae 122
Selling Notesiiais denice 12
SyStemis lice ae hye eee 182
With Chicken Pox....... 70
With Colds) ona sence: ml

With Crop Compaction... T1
With Farm Crops........ 136

Yard, Movable ......... 152
Rats, Damage from.......... 184
Roasters: Raisins oes s. seaeagene 169
Roosters, Care of.......5305. 105

Getting Rid of....... ... 174

Number Required........ 104.
Roup, Treatment for...... 78, 483m...
Sheep: in.) Henhouse. .... ccs 185"
Turkeys, Blackhead in....... 68

IGG INS ees Se eee Fees diia'\ el Oreos
VentiGileet fea sane dcsemictene erica 79
Vertigo, Catise of. )fi sane oie. 80

Worms in Powltry...-,r:2++: Of

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