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CALCUTTA JOURNAL 


OF 


NATURAL HISTORY: 


AND 


Miscellany 


OF THE 


ARTS AND SCIENCES 
Tn tndta, 


GEOLOGY AND ZOOLOGY, 


CONDUCTED 


BY JOHN M‘CLELLAND, F. L. 8. 


Member Royal Ratisbon Bot. Soc.; Corresponding Member of the Zoological and Entomological 
Societies of London ; Natural History and Philosophical Society of Belfast; Boston 
Society of Natural History, United States ; Junior Member and Secretary of 
a Committee for the Investigation of the Mineral Resources 
of India; Bengal Medical Service. 


BOTANY, 
BY W. GRIFFITH, F. L. 8. 


MEMB, IMP. ACAD. NAT. CURIOS.; ROYAL RATISBON SOC.; ROYAL ACAD. OF SCIENCES, TURIN ; 
CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND, AND 
ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON; ASSIST. SURGEON, MADRAS ESTAB, 


Late Officiating Supdt. H. Co.’s Bot. Garden, Calcutta. 
VOLUME VV. 


CALCUTTA: 
W.RIDSDALE, BISHOP’S COLLEGE PRESS. 


M.DCCC.XLV. 


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Fifth Volume of the Calcutta Journal of Natural History. 


4 


DEDICATED RESPECTFULLY TO 


THE HONORABLE THE COURT OF DIRECTORS 
OF THE EAST INDIA COMPANY. 


Contributors. 


J. H. BATTEN, ESQ., Bengal Civil Service. 

CAPTAIN J. CAMPBELL, Madras Army. 

W. GRIFFITH, ESQ., F. L. S.; Imp. Acad. Nat. Cur. 
at Bonn. ; Royal Ratisb. Bot. Soc. ; Royal Acad. of Scien- 
ces, Turin; Madras Medical Service. | 

CAPTAIN T. HUTTON, F. G. S. Bengal Army. 

T. LATTER, Lieutenant Bengal Army. 

J. M’7CLELLAND, F. L. 8. Bengal Medical Service. 

F. J. MOUAT, M. D., Bengal Medical Service, Prof. 
Mat. Medica, Medical College. 


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PREFACE TO THE FIFTH VOLUME. 


Ir becomes our duty again to return thanks to the sup- 
porters of this Journal. ‘The present volume contains a 
larger proportion of original matter, devoted to the investi- 
gation of natural productions before undescribed, than any 
of its predecessors. 

If upon this criterion, the value of the work is to be esti- 
mated, it will be found to have greatly improved. 

Since the publication of the last Volume, the Honorable 
the Court of Directors, always the munificent Patrons of 
Science, have become subscribers for 50 copies. 

During the past year, we have lost the services in India of 
two of our contributors, Mr. B. H. Hodgson, of the Civil Ser- 

vice, and Mr. David Liston, by their return to Europe. 
We have also to regret the loss of another of our contri- 
butors by death, Dr. J. G. Malcolmson, of whom a short 
notice will be found, p. 282. 

To compensate for these losses, we have been favoured 
with three new contributors,—promising supporters of the 
rising science of India. 

The departure of Mr. Griffith, late Officiating Superin- 
tendent of the H. Co.’s Botanic Garden, to Malacca, though 
a severe loss, considering the extent of his contributions 
during the past two years, will in no way interfere with his 
connection with the work, as Joint Editor, now essential to 
its character. 

Whatever may be thought of the practical applications 
of Natural History, they ought to assume a very important 
character in this country at the present crisis, whether we 
regard them as accessory to improved education, or as a 
means of improving the national resources. 


vl 


In our last Number, we referred to the employment of 
magnesian limestone,—a common mountain rock in certain 
parts of the country,—as a material for the production of 
Epsom Salt. We have since become acquainted with the 
fact, that in consequence of the comparatively high price of 
the imported article, Glauber Salt is largely introduced to 
India, crystallized in imitation of Epsom Salt, for which it is 
sold by wholesale, a circumstance which (although there 
may be nothing very dissimilar in the properties of the two 
articles) in our opinion, ought to weigh greatly in deter- 
mining the adoption of such measures as may be reason- 
ably suggested for improving the supply of such things from 
our own resources, were it for no other reason than to check 
such practices as the one adverted to. 

The question presents itself to us in a different point of 
view from that of its mere relation to medicine. 

Thus in the article Epsom Salt, its production here would 
improve the demand for sulphur, as well as the local con- 
sumption of nitre; while it would afford carbonate of mag- 
nesia, a more costly and portable article, which might thus 
probably become an export; at the same time it would pro- 
mote the demand for the impure native carbonate of soda, 
another natural production that might thus become much 
more valuable than it is at present. 

Again, to take another instance, and not a theoretical 
one, for the object has been tried ; we allude to the distilla- 
tion of oil of turpentine from the resin of Pinus longifolia, 
which constitutes extensive forests now useless in the hill 
provinces of this Presidency. It is we believe the Gunda 
Berosa of the Bazars. We do not know that it has ever 
yet been exported; but 12,000 tons of a corresponding 
article are annually imported into England from the United 
States. 

We have ascertained, that the resin of Pinus longifolia, 
affords on distillation one-eighth part of its weight of pure 


Vil 


oil of turpentine, leaving a residuum of seven parts of resin. 
The former, in addition to its demand as an article of medi- 
cine, is extensively used by house painters ; the latter is indis- 
pensable in the manufacture of hard yellow soap, which is 
made by boiling 9.75 cwt. of tallow with 3.25 cwt. of resin, 
and 2 cwt. of soda with a due proportion of water. 

Thus we see how one thing depends upon another, and how 
the manufacture of medicine on the spot (itself a great object), 
would promote other results of still greater importance. 

The same forests, (equal we should say to any even in 
Russia or America,) to which we should be thus directed 
for turpentine, would also be found to supply tar. 

Four-fifths of the tar employed in Great Britain comes 
from Russia, the remainder is imported equally from Sweden 
and the United States. England is therefore dependent on 
foreign nations for an article not only essential to, but charac- 
teristic of her navy, while exhaustless supplies may be had in 
her own Bengal provinces, from boundless pine forests, some 
of which approach to within twenty miles of Sylhet. 

Up to within the last three years, Isinglass, the various 
kinds of Gum Arabic, Myrrh, &c. together with glazed ear- 
then pottery, were annually imported from Europe to supply 
the public expenditure, and would probably have continued 
to be so furnished for the next half century, had not the 
Governor General in Council, as we understood, expressed a 
determination, without reference to the quarters from which 
such requisitions were made, to strike them out of the list 
of imported supplies. It was then found not only to be unne- 
cessary to import these articles from Europe, but that India 
herself was the source from whence Europe and other parts 
of the world had been supplied with some of them for centu- 
ries past. 

Let this principle be generally acted upon, and the 
same course be adopted with regard to Epsom Salts, and 
we are equally prepared to say, coal Coke, wrought Iron, Tar, 


Vlil 


Resin, Turpentine, and a hundred other articles which we 
have good reason to know may be had cheaper and better in 
India than any where else, and the effect will soon become 
perceptible on the productive resources and improvement of 
the country. 

The Palms of India, to which so large a proportion of the 
present volume is devoted, although constituting one of the 
chief features of the vegetation of this country, and contribut- 
ing so largely as they do to the shelter and employment of 
the native population, are as yet imperfectly known. 

How greatly this important family of plants may be made 
to contribute to the exports of the country, and comfort and 
wants of the people, when the properties and uses of the 
various species of which it is composed become fairly and 
fully known, we may infer from a few instances., 

Amongst those described by Mr. Griffith in the present 
volume, the Phenix sylvestris, Roxb., or Khujjoor, aftords a 
wholesome drink, ‘ palm wine,’ when fresh. Fermented, this 
becomes vinegar; fermented and distilled, arrack, an ardent 
spirit, which on redistillation becomes pure alcohol. The 
fresh juice boiled down affords 1-12th of its quantity of trea- 
cle, which again yields 4 of pure white sugar. Each tree 
yields during the cold season ten gallons of juice, from which 
eight pounds of sugar, or an equivalent proportion of spirit 
or vinegar is obtained. 

Besides this, the fibres of the leaves are wrought into 
mats and baskets. 

Another species, Sagus Konigsiz, Griff. affords sago, upon 
which a large proportion of the inhabitants of some of the 
Eastern Islands subsist; a third, Calamus Draco, Willd. 
affords the peculiar Balsam, Dragon’s Blood, an article of 
considerable commercial importance ; others, the Lecula pel- 
tata, Roxb. and L. Jenkinsii, Griff. afford covering for boats, 
dhoolies, and material for chattahs and umbrella-hats, which 
last are indispensable to the natives of Assam and other 


1X 


eastern parts of Bengal, where the periodical rains are heavy 
and incessant for seven or eight months of the year. 

From the fibres of Phenia farinifera, a kind of flour or 
meal is obtained, which on boiling becomes a kind of conjee, 
or sago, that might be rendered of the utmost importance 
in times of scarcity, while the leaflets are made into mats 
for sleeping upon, and the fibres of the petioles are made 
into baskets. 

Arenga saccharifera, a stately palm, the fibres of which 
afford material for cables and cordage, celebrated both for 
strength and resisting wet, while its juice is either drank as 
toddy or made into sugar. Its pith is used as sago, and the 
young albumen affords a well-known preserve. 

Caryota urens, another handsome species, has been known 
to yield above 100 pints of palm wine, or toddy, per diem. 
The pith or farinaceous parts of the old trees are equal to 
the best sago, and are either made into bread, or boiled into 
sruel. During a famine, adverted to by Dr. Roxburgh, the 
people suffered nothing as long as these trees lasted. 

Yet the distinguishing characters of the species composing 
this important and characteristic family of Indian plants, are 
only for the first time collected together, and made known in 
a connected shape. The number of new genera and species 
collected chiefly in the course of Mr. Griffith’s unimposing, 
but really useful and important services in Assam, the Mish- 
mee, Boutan, Khassya, and Himalaya Mountains, Affghanis- 
than, Burma, Tenasserim provinces, and the Straits, affords a 
gratifying instance of the successful exertion of one indivi- 
dual in the cause of science. 

It is not generally known that several of these palms 
contribute largely to the produce of sugar in Bengal; Dr. 
Roxburgh mentions in his time, the probable produce to 
be 100,000 mds. from these trees in Bengal alone; but the 
question has never we believe been examined either as to 
what the produce actually is, or how it might be improved. 
But while so much yet remains to be investigated relative 


x 


to the properties and uses, not merely of this particular 
family of plants, but the vegetable kingdom generally, it is a 
subject of deep regret, not on his own account so much 
as on that of the resources of India, that our colleague 
to whom so much is due, and from whom so much more is to 
be expected on this subject, should have occasion to return 
to a limited field in the Straits. 

We are indebted to Captain Campbell of the Madras 
Service, for a second valuable communication on the impor- 
tant manufacture of wrought Iron in India. In his first 
paper, Captain Campbell points out the expense of trans- 
mitting iron into the interior, adverting to the fact of an iron 
suspension bridge having cost 80 rupees a ton for carriage 
alone. On the other hand, it would seem from subsequent 
correspondence with Captain Campbell, that good wrought 
iron may be made in any part of India where ore and 
fuel are plentiful, for 38 rupees per ton, being less than 
half the above charge for transport alone. The practical 
importance of this subject requires no comment. Captain 
Campbell advocates the improvement of the native process 
of making wrought iron, rather than the introduction at 
once of the high blast furnace for the production of cast 
iron. 

On this point we must for the present submit to the re- 
commendation of Captain Campbell whether we will or not, 
for there are difficulties which, until the nature of the ores of 
the country become better known, must retard their employ- 
ment for the production of cast iron. These difficulties are 
only to be overcome by preliminary investigation on a small 
scale. In the mean-time it is satisfactory to know, from the 
papers of Captain Campbell, that good wrought iron may 
be produced from the native ores at the low rate above 
stated. J. M. 


Calcutta, January, 1845. 


THE 
CALCUTTA JOURNAL 


OF 


NATURAL HISTORY. 


The Palms of British East India. By W. GrirritH, Esq. 
F. L. S. Memb. Imp. Acad. Natur. Curios., Royal Ratis6. 
Botan. Soc., Asst. Surgeon, Madras Establishment. 


PALMIDAL.* 


DIAGNOSIS. 


Truncus lignosus, cylindricus, sepissime simplex. Folia 
vernatione plicata, coriacea, flabelliformia vel pinnata. 
Flores monoici, dioici, vel polygami, rarius hermaphroditi. 
Perianthium duplex, utrumque triphyllum. Stamina hypo- 
gyna, sepius 6, rarius indefinita, rarissime tria. Ovarium 
unicum, liberum, triloculare (raro 1-2-loculare), aut tria 


* Families to end in ide, and Subfamilies in ine. Report on Zool. 
Nomenclature—1842, p. 45. 

It is to be regretted that Dr. Lindley’s Nomenclaturet, which went so 
far as to reform the variation that marked the nomenclature of families, 
(even when there was no variation in the terminations of the supposed 
typical genera) stopped short of that general uniformity, obtainable by 
the adoption of the above rule, which is sufficiently prominent in most 
of the popular writings of Mr. Swainson. The value of that general 
uniformity will only be denied, I imagine, by those, who believe that 
there is one Natural Law for plants, another for animals. 


+ Introd. Nat. Syst. ed. 2nd 1836, 


VOL. V. NO. XVII. APRIL, 1844. B 


2 The Palms of British East India. 


unilocularia. Ovula sepissime solitaria, erecta, anatropa. 
Fructus solitarius vel triplex, baccatus vel drupaceus, sepius 
monospermus. Albumen corneum vel cartilagineum, soli- 
dum vel centro cavum, equabile vel plus minus ruminatum. 
Embryo monocotyledoneus, teres vel trochlearis, in foveola 
peripherica situs, plus minus vagus. 


DEscrIPTIo. 

Flores monoici vel dioici, vel polygamo-monoici dioicive, 
rarius hermaphroditi. 

Perianthium plus minus coriaceum, glumaceum, rarius co- 
loratum, persistens. Caly« trisepalus, sepalis distinctis vel 
plus minus coalitis. Corolla tripetala, petala sepalis subsi- 
milia, distincta vel plus minus coalita, zstivatione szepius 
valvata. 

Stamina hypogyna, vel ob cohesionem cum corolla quasi 
perigyna, sepissime 6, quorum tria sepalis, tria petalis op- 
posita, rarissime tria et tunc sepalis opposita, in paucis 
indefinita, floris foeminei sepius rudimentaria. Filamenta 
seepe basi monadelpha. <Anthere introrse, biloculares, lon- 
gitudinaliter dehiscentes. Pollen ellipticum v. ellipsoideo- 
sphericum, longitudinaliter rimatum, interdum echinulatum. 

Pistillum liberum, sepissime tricarpellare: carpella plus 
minus coalita, floris masculi rudimentaria. Ovarium unicum 
et sepissime triloculare, aut tria unilocularia. Ovula szpis- 
sime solitaria, anatropa, ascendentia. Stylz tot quot carpella, 
(interdum deficientes,) plus minus coaliti. Stigmata sim- 
plicia. 

Fructus baccatus vel fibroso-drupaceus, interdum trilobus, 
solitarius, et szpissime unilocularis, vel carpellis tribus 
fecundatis ternatus vel triplex, in tribu una squamis retrorsis 
loricatus, in altera putamine triporoso preeditus. Semen 
seepius solitarium, erectum. 

Albumen copiosum, cartilagineum vel corneum, ruminatum 
vel superficie foveolatum vel excavatum, solidum vel centro 
cavum. 


The Palms of British East India. 5) 


Embryo in lectulo proprio albuminis inclusus, szpius 
ab umbilico remotus dorsalis et papilla indicatus, teres v. 
trochlearis. Plumula inclusa egre conspicua, extremitate 
cotyledonea germinatione aucta et cavitatem, praexistentem 
vel liquefactione medii albuminis formatam, replente. 

Plantae lignescentes, perennes, haud raro monocarpice, 
gemma terminali crescentes. 

Radix palaris, mox evanida: radicule plurime cylindrice, 
simplices v. ramose, fibrillose, in molem conicam szpe 
exparte hypogzeam dense compacte. 

Truncus arboreus, simplex, rarissime dichotomus, szepe 
scandens, nudus et annulatus, vel basibus dilatatis semi- 
vaginantibus petiolorum earumve vaginarum cicatricibus sca- 
ber: in Nipa rhizoma. Folia sepius in coronam terminalem 
conferta, in scandentibus distantia ; vagénae spe in reticulum 
quasi solute, cum petiolo sepe armatz ; petioli in quibus- 
dam apice in flagello producti; daminae maxime, flabel- 
liformes vel pinnate, vernatione plicate, demum secundum 
venas secondarias longitudinaliter fissee, venis interdum 
filorum specie persistentibus ; pinne longitudinaliter venose, 
coriacez, indumento plerumque pannoso-tomentoso, aut le- 
pidoto, rariusve simpliciter piloso aut nullo. Inflorescentia 
terminalis vel axillaris, varia, seepius spadicosa. Spadix 
seepluS ramosus, nunc spatha una completa inclusus, nunc 
pluribus incompletis imbricatim plus minus tectus, nunc 
apice in flagellum extensus, vel abortivus flagelliformis. 
Flores parvi inconspicui, szepius glumaceo-coriacei, solitaril 
vel binati (ambobus masculis) vel ternati, (foemineo nempe 
inter duos masculos,) vel aggregati, in quibusdam in foveolis 
spadicis sub-immersi, in speciebus monoicis foeminei versus 
bases ramificationum, masculi versus apices siti. Fructus 
quandoque maximus.* 


* The characters are chiefly taken from the writings of Mr. Brown, and 
MM. Martius and Endlicher. 


4 The Palms of British East India. 


Sus-Famitta,—CALAMIN ~@&.* 


Ovarium squamosum vel strigosum. Fructus squamis 
retrorsis loricatus. 

Frutescentes et sepius scandentes, vel arboree. Foliorum 
vagine petiolique spinis plano-subulatis vel aculeis} sepis- 
sume armati; lamine pinnate (generis unict orbis novi fla- 
belliformes ), pinnis saepissime linearibus, margine et super- 
ficie saepius setigeris. Spathe (Ceratolobo excepto) plures 
incomplete. Inflorescentia spicato-vel racemoso-paniculata. 
Flores polygamo-monoici vel dioici, utriusque sexus valvati, 
tribracteatt, solitarit, vel binatt, ambobus masculis, vel altero 
femineo, altero neutro, vel masculo? Perianthium striato- 
venosum. Corolla indurata, saepe cuspidata. Stamina 6, 
raro 12, unius indefintta. Ovarium triloculare. Ovula so- 
litartia. Fructus soletarius, 1-3 spermus, squamis corneis lo- 
ricatus, saepius exsuccus. Albumen ruminatum, excavatum, 
vel aequabile. Embryo dorsalis vel prope basin seminis. 

Sub-familia e maxima parte gerontogea, perpaucis Ame- 
ricanis typi aberrantis hucusque detectis. Vita plerumque 
perennis, Sagi monocarpica. Limes borealis specierum In- 
dicarum 29° 30’. 

Usus.—Trunci paucarum arborescentium farina, Sagum 
dicta, locupletissimi: frutescentium graciliorum aliquarum 
prebent bacula, scandentium plurium viminibus et funibus 


* This name is here proposed, because Calamus appears to have the 
best claims to be considered the typical genus. Lepidocaryum moreover, 
which has hitherto given its name to the division, is not, I think, dis- 
tinct from Mauritia. The termination is in accordance with the practice 
of some Zoologists, and the Report of the British Association, the uni- 
versal adoption of which is highly desirable. 

+ The terms here applied to the armature of these plants are not to 
be taken in their strict sense, which is not properly applicable to the 
general Monocotyledonous structure. If the thorns are of considerable 
size I call them spines; if small, and especially if hooked, I call them 
aculei. 


The Palms of British East India. 5 


sunt quam maxime idonei. Foliis preparatis (Atup editis) 
tecta domorum struuntur. Fructus nonnullorum ob saporem 


acidum quesiti sunt. 


Fouia PINNATA. 


1. Zatacca.—lInflorescentia spicato-paniculata. Spece amen- 
tiformes ; bracteole villoso-paleacee. Flores binati. 
Seminis tegumentum baccatum. Albumen vertice ex- 
cavatum. Palme perennes, subacaules. Flagelli o. 

2. Sacus.*—Inflorescentia spicato-paniculata. Spice amenti- 
formes; bracteole villoso-paleacee. Flores binati. 
Albumen ruminatum. Palme arboreae, monocar- 
picae. Flagelli o. 

3. CaLamosacus.—Inflorescentia spicato-paniculata. Spicae 
amentiformes ; bracteolae villoso-paleaceae. Flores 
solitart ? Albumen ruminatum et vertice excava- 
tum. Palmz perennes, scandentes. Pinnae cu- 
neiformes, supra medium erosae. Ligula maxima, 
sursum scaphotdea. Petioli flagelliferi. 

4, Catamus.{+—Inflorescentia spicato-v. racemoso-paniculata. 
Spicae (interdum racemi) filiformes, masculae com- 
pressae, distichae. Flores solitaru. Bracteolae im- 
berbes, floris masculi in cupulam coaliti. Albumen 
superficie excavatum vel ruminatum. Palmeze peren- 
nes, sepius scandentes, et sepius, vel spadice vel 
petiolo extenso, flagellifere. 

5. Piecrocomra.—lInflorescentia racemoso-paniculata, ramis 
caudiformibus. Spathe distichae, wmbricatae, per- 
sistentes. Spicae filiformes. Flores solitaru. Fruc- 


* Raphia.—Inflorescentia spicato-paniculata (thyrsoidea). Spice com- 
press@, distiche. Bracteole imberbes. Flores solitaru. Cetera Sagi. 

¢ Ceratolobus*.—Inflorescentia racemoso-paniculata. Spatha unica, 
completa, siliqueformis, persistens. Palma perennis, fruticosa, calamosa, 
flagellifera. 


Fot1A FLABELLIFORMIA. 


Mauritia.— 
* Char : e Martio. 


6 The Palms of British East India. 


tus ramentaceo-hispidi. Albumen aequabile. Palme 
perennes, scandentes. Petioli flagelliferi. 

6. Evartssona.—Inflorescentia paniculata. Flores solitarii, 
terminales, bracteolis pluribus imbricantibus stipatt. 
Stamina indefinita. Albumen solidum, extus sulcis 
sex exaratum. Palma perennis, subacaulis. Fla- 
gelli o. 


CaLAMINE. 


Ovary covered with scales or stiff hairs. Fruit covered with imbricated scales. 
Spathes several incomplete. 


Flowers terminal with many imbricating 


Stamens indefinite... bractee. Albumen 6-grooved, eee. BKUGEISSONA. 


" 6 or 12, solitary, with two smooth bracteoles. 


Spikes compressed. Flowers distichous, 
; Albumen ruminate, atetece eeee RAPHIA. 
ie always six. 
Spikes round. Bracteoles woolly. 
Flowers in pairs. Seed berried. Albumen hollowed outatthe apex Zawacca. 
———_—_—__—- Seeddry. Albumenruminate, .... »» SaGus. 
Flowers solitary? Seeddry. Albumen hollowed out at ey apex 
and ruminate. Pinnz cuneiform, jagged, CaLamosaGus. 
Spikes filiform, male only compressed, 
distichous. Bracteoles without wool. 
Sexes almost always on different 
spikes. Flowers solitary. 
Spadix an expanded panicle, rarely confined by 
boat-shaped spathes. Spathes not persistent. Fruit 
with smooth scales. Albumen pitted on the sur- 
face or ruminate, .... piaets ae CALAMUS. 
Spadix with tail-shaped pendulous branches. mitt 
persistent, concealing the flowers. Fruits hispid. 
Albumen with an equal surface, not ruminate, ... PLEcTocomia. 
Spathe one complete, wwe eb ce coos cece .s+. CERATOLOBUS, 


ZALACCA. 


Rumph, Hb. Amboin. 5. p. 115. t. 57, f. 2. Reinwdt. Blume 
in Syst. Veget. ed. Schultes 7. pt. 2. p. 1333. Wall. Pl. Asiat. 
Rar. 3. t. 222—224. Martius Palmae. p. 200. t. 118. 119. 
123, 136 et 159, f. 2. Endl. Gen. Pl. p. 249. No. 1737. Cala- 
mus Zalacca. Gert. 2. p. 267. t. 139. 


The Palms of British East India. 7 


Cuar. Gen.—Spice teretes, amentiformes. Flores in 
gremio bracteolarum 2 villoso-paleacearum, masculi binati, 
foeminei solitarii vel neutro hinc adjecto binati. Stamina 6. 
Ovarium squamosum vel strigosissimum. Fructus 1-3-sper- 
mus. Semen baccatum. Albumen apice excavatum. Embryo 
basilaris. 


Hasitus.—Palmex subacaules, eflagellifere, cespitose. 
Foliorum vaginz petiolique spinis seriatis horride, pinne 
sepius fasciculate, directione varie, apice nutantes, in una 
stricte et ordine regulari alternantes. Spathze incompletae, 
scariosae, striate, varie fisse et lacere. Spadicis rami florigeri 
simplices vel ramosi. Spice sessiles spathis subincluse, vel 
pedicellate exserte. Bracteole in cupulam coalite, vel parte 
disrupta septiformi inter flores interposita quasi ternatae. 
Flores diotci, vel polygamo-monoict. Fructus saepius squa- 
marum apicibus longis retrofractis hispidi. Sapor seminis 
tegumenti actdissimus. 

Genus Sago proximum, discrepans habitu (Z. conferta 
quadantenus excepta,) semine baccato, et albumine vertice ex- 
cavato ceterum zquabili. Ad Calamum variis modis accedit. 

In sectiones 2 (artificiales) commode dividi potest; hee 
polygamo-monoica vel dioica ? Flori foemineo flos neuter hinc 
adjectus ; illa dioica flore foemineo solitario. 

Characteres auctorum citatorum ad Z. edulem et Blu- 
meanam tantum spectant. 

* Flores dioict, feminet solitariz. 

1. (1) Z. edulis, petiolis infra medium pinniferis, spinis 
robustis (fuscescentibus,) pinnis fasciculato-interruptis setoso- 
acuminatis margine spinuloso-setosis, spadicibus masculis 
nutantibus ramosis, ramis elongatis alternatim spicigeris, 
spicis sessilibus sepius distantibus quam spathe fere duplo 
brevioribus, fructibus hispidis obovato-pyriformibus vel ova- 
to-cuspidatis. 

Zalacca edulis. Reinwdt. Syst. Veget. ed. Schultes. 7. 
pt. 2. p. 1334.—Wall. Pl. Asiat. Rar. 3. p. 14. (sene charac- 


$8 The Paims of British East India. 


tere) t. 222-224, (sub nomine Z. Rumphii.) Z. Wallichiana. 
Mart. Palm. p. 201]. t. 118. 119. 1386.* Calamus Zalacca. 
Roxb. FI. Ind. 3. p. 773. 

Common in swampy places, Malacca, Tenasserim Provin- 
ces, Burmah. Sulak-koombar of Penang, according to speci- 
mens received from Mr. Lewes. Male specimens exist in the 
Botanic Garden. 


Descr.—A tufted short stemmed Palm. Leaves varying in size, 
in marshy shady places being 18-20 feet in length, in dryer places 
not exceeding 10-12 feet. Petiole for five or six feet from the base 
only bearing spines, which are large and generally palmate, the spines 
of the upper leaf-bearing part often solitary. Pinne interruptedly fas- 
ciculate, first ascending then curved downwards, oblong-spathulate, 
lanceolate, tapered into a long subulate bristle, 3-keeled above, mar- 
gins with distant sete. Length of the largest 16-18 inches, breadth 
4-5 inches. 

Spadices axillary, about 2 feet long, nodding, branched, cover- 
ed with scarious, split and lacerate spathes. Each branch and 
each spike suffulted by a spathe, the main ones being longer than 
the branches, the partial shorter than the spikes, which are about 
two inches long. Bractee rounded, short, striate. Bracteole dense- 
ly villous. 

Flowers (male) pink. Calyz tripartite below the middle. Seg- 
ments of the corolla oblong, mucronate, patent. 

Filaments white, adnate to the corolla as high up as the sinuses of 
its segments, then free, short, and stout. Anthers attached near the 
middle. Rudiment of female of three oblong processes. 

Female flowers not seen. Fruit, which is generally sparingly produ- 
ced, sessile, sub-ovate, with a stout conical point, of a reddish brown 
colour. The spadix in fruit is very ragged from the remains of the 
spathes, and if many fruits are developed is decidedly nutant. Seeds 
three, or by abortion two or even one. The shape varies with their 
number. The covering or coat is baccate, and is covered by a thin mem- 
brane, which belongs to the fruit. Albumen horny, with a pit at the 


* Gertner’s figure as well as that of Rumph. cited under the generic character, 
belong according to Martius (Palme p. 202) to his Z. Blumeana. 


The Palms of British East India. 9 


apex, the surface wrinkled and fuscescent from adhering tissue ; on 
one of the sides is a round umbilicus, to which the terminal cavity 
or pit will be found to point. Embryo basilar, the apex of the 
cotyledon reaching nearly to the lower part of the terminal cavity. 


The Malacca plant will probably be found different 
from Z. edulis, when sufficient attention has been paid to the 
female inflorescence, the shape and surface of the fruit, and 
structure of the seed.* 

Supposing that there be only one species, three varieties 
appear to be presented. 

Var. A. Spadices very long and attenuated almost into a 
flagellus, lower spathes large, distichously imbricate. Bran- 
ches of the spadix a good deal divided, their spikes or aments 
alternate, approximated but not confluent; their spathes 
about equal in length to their aments. 

B. Spikes (male) distant, half enclosed in ventricose spa- 
thes, equalling them in length. 

Koombar of Penang. 

C. Spadices (male) a good deal elongated without being 
attenuate, much branched, branches sometimes distant, some- 
times crowded, occasionally assuming the form of var. B; 
sometimes proliferous at the apex. The lower spathes of 
moderate size, spikes or aments twice as short as their 
spathes. 

Z. Wallichiana of the H. C. Botanic Garden. 


2. (2) Z. affinis, (n. sp.) petiolis a medio supra pinniferis, 
spinis longis gracilibus albis, pinnis interrupte fasciculatis 
spathulato-lanceolatis acuminatis apicem versus et margine 
setigeris, spadice masculo inferne ramoso spathis distichis 
imbricato, ramis abbreviatis quam spathe brevioribus, Spicis 


* It is doubtful whether the direction of the pit of the apex does 


not depend upon the shape of the seed, which depends again on the num- 
ber developed. 


C 


10 The Palms of British East India. 


ramorum congestis distichis, fructibus ovatis mammillato- 
cuspidatis (glabris.) 


Has.—Ching near Malacca, Emanuel Fernandez.* Salak 
Batool,} of the Malays of Malacca. 


Descr.t—The leaves are altogether smaller, and the stalk slenderer 
than in any of the other species : their length is twelve, thirteen feet : 
the pinnules being confined to the upper half or thereabout of the 
stalk. Spines very long, comparatively slender, and in irregular, in- 
completely transverse sets, the longest deflexed, the others spreading 
in various directions; those of the pinniferous portion solitary, and 
somewhat deflexed. Pinne interrupted, subascending, otherwise 
with the ordinary direction, those of each fasciculus rather crowded, 
often almost opposite, outline decidedly falcate, spathulato-lanceolate, 
acuminate,§ scarcely cirrhose, acumina with few sete, upper surface 
with three stout prominent veins ; under with about twelve, all much 
less prominent. 

The male Spadiz appears to be about one and half feet in length, 
it is imbricated with the usual scariose, mealy, variously split and 
lacerated spathes: the general form being subulate. The lower 
axes of inflorescence are branched, those above the middle simple. 
Spikes generally under an inch in length, (those of the branches 
crowded together) with about twelve rows of small flowers dis- 
posed in pairs, their lower halves immersed in the tomentum of the 
spikes. Bractes roundish-cordate, membranous, distinct, comparative- 
ly small, . Flowers two to each bracte, both male, separated from each 
other by a membranous vertical septum, (part of the bracteoles) pe- 
nicillate at the apex. A narrower, conduplicate, equally penicellate 
one on the outer side of each flower. || 


* An intelligent Portuguese of Malacca, now in my employ as collector. 

+ The meaning of which is true Salak. 

{ Specimens, two entire leaves, a male spadix, part of a female spadix in flower 
and two fruits. 

§ The uppermost are not uncommonly incised at the apex, when both margins 
bear the sete. This is also the case with Z. edulis. 

|| The bracteoles in this also appear to be originally united into a bilocular 
cupula, in one of which a flower exists, the arrangement described appears to be 
the result of pressure and distention. 


The Palms of British East India. 11 


Calyx tripartite nearly to the middle, segments oblong, concave. 
Corolla attenuate at the base, tripartite below the middle, segments 
oblong-lanceolate, acute. Stamens six, united to the corolla (and 
each other) to the base of the segments : filaments (free) very short, 
subulate. Anthers oblong. A rudiment of a Pistillum. 

Female inflorescence (in the specimen) about three inches long, 
suffulted by a much longer lacerated spathe, and also to a consi- 
derable degree covered by the spathelles, which are much longer than 
their respective spikes, much imbricated, and lacerated. The lower- 
most spikes appear to be three-four flowered, the uppermost one 
flowered, at the base of each, within the spathelle, is a broad close- 
clasping bracte. And round the base of each flower is also a deeper, 
more concave bracte and two bracteoles, the margins of which poste- 
riorly are united into a short cup with very villous margins; part of 
them distinct, forming a septum, and much less villous.* 

Flowers large, solitary, in bud ovate, with a hard thorny point. 
Calyx (of the bud) almost ovate, tridentate, afterwards split irregu- 
larly. Corolla a little longer than the calyx, tripartite to the middle, 
segments very pointed and pungent. 

Sterile stamina six, adnate to the corolla as high as the sinuses of 
the segments. 

Ovarium oblong, with retrorse scales ; parietes thick, succulent, 
3-celled. Ovules solitary, erect, anatropous. Style short. Stigmata 
3, connivent into a cone. 

Fruit ovate, two and half inches long, one and three-quarter 
broad, perhaps somewhat compressed, surrounded at the base by 
the corolla variously flattened out and split, apex distinctly mamil- 
late-cuspidate ; the scales very many, more highly imbricate than 
ordinarily, more pointed, furrowed along the centre, rich chesnut 
coloured, browner towards the margin, towards the base or where 
they become recurved on either side with a convexity more promi- 
nent than usual. (Pulp destroyed by insects.) Seeds one-three, 
small in comparison with the size of the fruit, being about nine 
lines long, seven broad, and five in thickness, oblong, plano-con- 
vex, umbilicate at the apex, black on the surface, without any lateral 
umbilicus, cavity or pit vertical. 


* But these parts seem to vary much, as also the length of calyx in Z. edulis. 


12 The Paims of British East India. 


3. (3) Z. secunda,* (n. sp.) petiolis—, spinis—, pinnis—, 
spadicibus masculis sub-nutantibus spathis undique vestitis, 
spicis pedicellatis exsertis secundis, pedicellis spathis vagi- 
nantibus imbricatis, bracteis (spicarum) distinctis supremis 


et infimis vaculs. 


Has.—In forests about Kujoo, Upper Assam. Mishmee 
Mountains on the lower ranges. 

Drscr.t—Spadices about two feet long slightly curved, closely 
imbricated with the scarious, striate, split spathes. Spikes stalked, 
exserted ; stalks nearly as long as the spathes, also covered with 
imbricating spathes, the uppermost of which resemble those of 
the flowers, except in not producing any villi. The spikes them- 
selves are two-half and three inches long, scarcely half an inch in 
diameter, the bracteze both of the apex and base. appearing to be 
empty. 

Bractee rounded distinct, on the outer side of each flower a tuft 
of hair. 

Flowers densely crowded, so that their disposition is not at first 
apparent, the buds depressed at the apex. 

Calyx tripartite to about the middle, scarious, striate, segments 
oblong, concave. Corolla (not seen expanded,) about the length of the 
calyx, divided not quite to the middle, the segments oblong, concave. 

Stamina united to the petals, as high as the base of the segments. 

Filaments (free) obsolete. Anthers oblong. 


I have no information regarding the leaves, but the habit 
was noted to be that of Z. edulis. 

This species in the character of the stalked spikes ap- 
proaches to Z. Blumeana, Martius. Dr. Martius however 
states, that his plant has the spadix alternately and distich- 
ously branched, that the pedicels are from one to two inches 
long, furnished at the base with a spathe. ‘The flowers 


* Placed here provisionally. 

+ The specimens consist of male spadices before the opening of the flowers, and 
a spadix without flowers from the Mishmee Hills. This last has the spikes slen- 
derer, often more exserted, and the villi more developed. 


The Paims of British East India. 13 


also are described as scarcely exserted, and the bractez as 
confluent at the base. 


I].— Flores polygamo-monoici, vel diorci, flort faemineo flos 
neuter adjectus. 


4, (4) Z. macrostachya, (n. sp.) pinnis interrupte fascicu- 
latis (fasciculis distantibus) lanceolato-spathulatis acuminatis- 
simis infra medium setoso-serratis, spadicibus elongatis apice 
nutante humifusis, spathis distantibus, spicis (faemineo-neu- 
tris) pedicellatis, ovario strigosissimo, fructibus irregulariter 
oblongo-ovatis cuspidato-rostratis hispidis. 


Has.—In marshy, exceedingly shady places, Ching near 
Malacca. Rungum of the Malays of Malacca. 


Drscr.—Habit of Z. edulis, like which it forms tufted plants. It is, 
however, a stouter species. Petioles stout, for seven or eight feet above 
the base not bearing pinne, but more highly armed than usual with the 
characteristic spines, the larger of which are in oblique, nearly com- 
plete verticils. Pinne more interruptedly fasciculate, their direction 
(always curved or nutant) however, and shape are much the same ; 
on the whole perhaps they are larger. 

Spadices very long, so much so in fact as to reach the ground, 
on which, and often immersed in water, which abounds in the locali- 
ties, the spikes of flowers will be found. Peduncles in the part 
not covered by the spathes covered with thick brown wool. Spathes 
of the usual nature, but much more distant; they are generally 
longer, except the lowermost, than the solitary amenta. Spikes 
three inches long, an inch nearly in diameter, stalked ; the stalks of 
the lowermost very long, and all provided with smaller spathes. 
Bractee rounded, tinged with pink. Bracteole at least of the herma- 
phrodite flower, rounded, distinct, villoso-ciliate. 

Flowers lilac-pink; in the axil of each bracte one large one 
female, and on one side of this a much smaller one, neuter. Calyx 
of the larger flower 3-partite to the middle, the segments oblong, 
concave, not very rigid. Petals united to their middle, (below which 


14 The Palms of British East India. 


they are white,) oblong, erect or nearly so, very rigid and almost 
siliceous. 

Stamina effete, the filaments united to the corolla high up. 

Ovarium oblong, very strigose with subulate erect hairs, towards 
the base covered with pointed fleshy scales, 3-celled, substance 
thick and fleshy. Ovulum one in each cell, erect, anatropous. Style 
short, 3-partite to the middle, branches irregularly ob-cuneate, stig- 
matic surfaces blood-coloured. 

The Smaller or neuter flowers* present a small rudiment of a pis- 
tillum, the stamina are reduced almost to the filaments, those oppo- 
site the petals being much larger. 

Fruit obliquely oblong-ovate, attenuated into a rostrum or cuspis, 
three inches long, one and a quarter in diameter, covered with scales 
with hispid recurved points. Pulp white, more spongy than in Z. 
edulis. Seeds large, more deeply furrowed than in Z. edulis: all 
those examined were abortive, not even presenting any albumen, 
though otherwise perfectly formed: the cavity was found filled with 
a fetid fluid; like those of Z. edulis they are covered with a fine 
membrane which belongs to the fruit, since it forms the septa round 
the barren ovula. 


The fruit is eaten like that of Salak Batool The petioles 
of the leaves when split are used for tying Artup (Nipa 
fruticans leaves) on, and are also made into baskets. 

This very distinct species will be at once recognised 
by its spadices, by the distant solitary spikes, not alto- 
gether exserted from the large scarious spathes, which re- 
semble those of Z. edulis. The fruit resembles in shape 
that of the same species, as represented in the Pl. Aszat. 
Rariores. 


5. (5) Z. glabrescens (n. sp.) pinnis continuis anguste- 
lanceolatis cirrhoso-acuminatis, spadice ramosissimo, spicis 
secundis (masculis et famineo-neutris) longe pedicellatis, 
bracteis latissimis undulatis villum parcum obtegentibus, 
ovario strigosissimo. 


* They appear to be irregular in situation, and not unfrequently wanting. 


The Palms of British East India. 15 


Has.—Penang, Mr. Lewes, who sent it to me under the 
name Salak. 


Descr.*—Petioles slender, trigonal even below the pinne, with 
appearances of having been armed with a simple row of spines on 
either face. Uppermost spines of the under face slightly curved 
upwards, short and stout, on the upper triangular part lower down 
is a row of larger solitary spines. Pinne not interrupted, narrow 
lanceolate, twenty and twenty-two inches long by two and a half 
broad, cirrhoso-acuminate, margins towards the apex with a few 
setigerous teeth, veins as in Z. edulis ; terminal part of the leaf bilobed, 
each lobe deeply four and five divided. 

Spadices much branched, less covered than in most of the other 
species by the primary spathes, the branches entirely covered with 
loosely sheathing spathes, generally with one terminal spike, some- 
times themselves branched, each branch bearing a spike. Young 
spikes or aments slender, owing to the broad shallow bractes look- 
ing as though they were annulate. Mature female-neuter ones stout, 
three-four inches long, with an obvious spiral arrangement. Bractes 
of apex, (which is attenuate cuspidate,) and base, empty, broad, 
margins undulate. Bracteole and septum large, shortly woolly at 
the points. No wool visible externally. 

Male spikes cylindrical, about the same length, but much smaller 
in diameter, wool very little developed. Bracteoles obsolete or 
nearly so. 

Male flowers in pairs, both of equal size, projecting very little 
beyond the bracteze. Calyx three-toothed, teeth rounded. Corolla 
tripartite nearly to the middle, tapering below, (a considerable part 
of this taper portion is torus, or rather internode,) segments broadish, 
oblong. 

Stamina united to the corolla as far as the base of the segments. 
Filaments (free) short. Anthers oblong. No rudiment of a Pistillum. 

Flowers of female neuter spikes in pairs, one large, and one small. 

Smaller flower neuter, longer and larger than the male flower, 
and more oblique, but otherwise much the same. Barren stamina 
six, united high up to the petals, filaments (free) of middling length, 


* Specimens, portion of a leaf and spadix in flower. 


16 The Palms of British East India. 


subulate. Anthers small effete. Within the attenuate base, an ordi- 
nary rudiment of the female. 

Female flowers large, also oblique. 

Calyx not quite divided to the middle, scarious, very striate, seg- 
ments oblong obtuse. Corolla (expanded not seen,) a little longer 
than the calyx, tripartite nearly to the middle, segments broad 
ovate. 

Barren stamina six, much like those of the neuter flower. 

Ovarium very densely strigose with erect stout hairs,* (of which 
the lower are the shorter,) ovate conical, with a stout neck similarly 
covered with hairs, 3-celled. Ovula solitary, erect, anatropous. 
Style stout, thicker than the neck of the ovarium, tripartite, seg- 
ments lanceolate, stigmatose inside. 


This species, would appear to approach Z. secunda in the 
branching of the spadix. It is the only species I am ac- 
quainted with in which the wool of the bracteoles is so 
little developed, as not to be visible externally. The spikes 
consequently have a smooth aspect. 


6. (6) Z. conferta(n. sp.) pinnis lineari-ensiformibus strictis 
margine setoso-spinescentibus, spicis (masculis vel feemineo- 
neutris) confertis, fructibus (confertis) turbinatis glaberrimis. 


Has.—In very shady wet places in the great forests of 
Malacca, as at Ching and Katawn, in flower and fruit most 
of the year. Assam Kaloobee, Assam Paiah of the Malays 
of Malacca. 


Descr.—Stout, less tufted than any of the others I have seen, 
forming an impenetrable jungle. 

Petioles 10-12 or 18-20 feet long, without pinne for about 
half their length, roundish but flattened above, stout, armed, ex- 
cept on upper flat part, with fasciculate, white, slender spines. 
Pinne regularly alternating, quite straight, almost ensiform, two feet 


* These hairs are flattened and a little dilated at base, upwards they become 
subulate and have a fibrous appearance. 


The Palms of British East India. 17 


long by two and a half inches broad, rigid, 3-carinate or veined above, 
subulate, acuminate ; margins and apex very bristly ; the upper pinne 
have bristles also on the three primary veins or carine of upper 
surface. 

Spadices about a span long, sometimes a foot long, crowded with 
cylindrical spikes about six inches long, 7-8 lines broad, among which 
occur spathes of the ordinary structure, but more lanceolate than 
usual. Spikes polygamous on different individuals. 

Male flowers in pairs, with the usual bracte and bracteoles, the 
last being exceedingly villous, and connate into a sort of bilocular 
cup. Calyx of 3 oblong sepals, distinct nearly from the base. Corol- 
la of 3 petals, hard, almost woody, about twice as long as the calyx. 
Stamens 6, united below to the corolla. Filaments short, robust, 
sanguineous. Anthers oblong-ovate, large. Rudiment of a Pis/il- 
lum not observed. 

Female-neuter spikes more lengthened, the bracteze more acuminate, 
each of these suffults two flowers, one smaller neuter, generally 
alternating in each series, the other larger female. Sepals oblong 
roundish. Corolla tripartite below the middle, segments acuminate. 
Rudiments of six subulate stamina. 

Ovarium, with the style, obturbinate, scaly, 3-celled. Ovula solita- 
ry. Style short, stout, with 3-acute, recurved branches, the inner 
surfaces of which are transversely lamellar. 

Fruits crowded into an irregular, formless mass sometimes of 
considerable size. Each is turbinate, the scales perfectly smooth, with 
irregular denticulate margins, and a waxy shining aspect. Colour 
a light tawny-greenish tint : mesocarp white, spongy-cellular. Seed 
broadly turbinate. Albumen adhering strongly to the pulp, which is 
thick and very sour. Embryo basilar. 


This species is distinguished even out of flower by the 
habit, direction of the pinne, bristly carine and slender short 
white spines. In flower or fruit it is at once known by the 
crowded thyrsiform spadices. 

I have not yet ascertained what Riatinckion is indicated 
by the two Malayan names, from which it is probable, at 

D 


18 The Palms of British East India. 


least so experience tells me, that there are two distinct spe- 
cies with this unusual inflorescence analogous to that of 
Eleis. 

I have specimens marked doubtfully Assam Paiah, in 
which the leaves are three feet long, sub-opposite, and 
closer together, with the central carina of the upper surface 
bristly above the middle, the spines of this are fuscescent. 
And I have others, marked also doubtfully, in which the 
pinne are much smaller, distinctly alternate and distant, 
with appearances of being interrupted, otherwise agree- 
ing with those described in Z. conferta. 


SAGUS. 


Rumph. Hb. Amb. 1. p. 72. t. 17. 18 (partim) Metroxy- 
lon. Rotth. Konig in Ann. Bot. 1. p. 193. pl. 4. Martius. 
Palme. p. 214, t. 102. 159. Endlicher. Gen. Pl. 250. No. 


1742. 


Cuar. Gen.—Spice teretes, amentiformes. Flores herma- 
phroditi, masculi, vel polygami, binati, bracteola villoso-pa- 
leacea utrinque stipati. Stamina 6. Ovarium squamis ob- 
tectum. Stylus (sepius) conico-triangularis, tridentatus. 
Fructus exsuccus, squamis loricatus, l-spermus. Albumen 
ruminatum. Embryo dorsalis. 


Hasitus.—Palme Archipelagico-Asiatice, monocarpi- 
cae, trunco robusto saepius elato, corona ampla terminali. 
Folia pinnata: vaginae et petioli spinis rectis saepius ar- 
mati; pinnee lineari-ensiformes. Inflorescentia terminalis, 
plerumque pyramidalis. Spathe plures, incomplete, inermes 
vel spinis rectis obsitae. Flores plerumque rubescentes. 
Ovaria (monente Jack) unius fere distincta, aliarum co- 


adunata. 


The Palms of British East India. 19 


A Zalacca, cui proxima, differt habitu, semine exsucco et 


albumine ruminato. 


7. (1) S. Konigiz, petiolis armatis, spadicibus iermibus, 
floribus exsertis hermaphroditis vel masculo et herma- 
phrodito, dentibus calycis cordato-rotundatis, stylo conico 
elongato. 

Metroxylon Sago. C. Konig. Annals of Botany. 1. 193. 
pl. 4. M. leve. Mart. Palm. 215. (excl. syn. Rumph. et 
Roxb.) Sagus Rumphii. Hort. Kew. 5. 281 ? 


Has.—Cultivated about Malacca, generally on the edges 
of Paddy swamps. Is very common about Rumbiya, between 
Malacca and Ayer Punnus, whence the name of the place. 


Descr.*—Panicle alternately branched, branches spreading, co- 
vered with appressed spathes. Spikes amentiform, alternately bracte- 
ate, about a span long, somewhat recurved, surrounded at the base 
by broad imbricating bractes. Peduncles included, bearing a bicarinate 
spathe with very woolly margins. Bracteole very woolly. 

Flowers, in pairs, one male, one female, subsessile, upper third 
exserted from the bractes and wool. 

Calyx infundibuliform, striate, attenuate at the base into a short 
pedicel, tridentate, margins of the teeth sub-membranaceous: the 
teeth themselves tinged with reddish brown. Corolla about one- 

“third longer than the calyx, striate, coriaceous, the exserted part 
reddish. 

Stamina of the male flower the largest. Filaments flat, broadly 
subulate, monadelphous to some distance upwards, united also to the 
corolla. Anthers large, attached high up their backs. Rudiment 
of a pistillum of three oblong bodies, precisely like very rudimentary 
carpel leaves. 

Hermaphrodite flower of each pair situated on the right (looking 
at the spike in front.) Stamens smaller than in the male, united to 
the corolla up to the base of its segments. Ovarium roundish- 
oblong, the upper half covered with a few large scales. The lower 


* Specimens of spadix just before expansion of the flowers. 


20 The Palms of British East India. 


half naked and very thin. In this part there are three ovula, 
ascending, anatropous, but it is difficult to ascertain whether 
the ovary is three-celled from its great tenuity. Style conical, 
3-gonal, tridentate at its apex, the teeth ovate, stigmatose on the 
inner surface. 


Fruit (very immature) between top-shaped and globose, pointed by 


the style, covered with scales of a green colour with ciliated edges. 
Seed (very immature) erect. 


This species was brought to me when at Malacca, with 
the name Rumbiya. No leaves came with it. It appears 
to differ sensibly from S. levis, Jack, in the pairs of flow- 
ers consisting of a male and a hermaphrodite, in the size 
and exsertion of the flowers, the coadunate ovaria and the 
comparatively long style. I may also mention that the com- 
mon Rumbiya of Malacca, which is I believe identical with 
this, has distinctly calamine spines on the petioles. 

From S. Rumphii,* Martius, it appears to differ chiefly 
in the spadices being smooth, and in the teeth of the calyx ; 
but taking the phrase “ spadicibus levibus” in what ap- 
pears to have been the general acceptation, it may be the 
S. Rumphii of Willdenow, the Hortus Kewensis, and 
Blume.+ 

Rumph’s figure of Sagus, Hb. Amb. 1. t. 17. quoted by 
all authors as S. Rumphii, gives a very fair idea of this 
species: the habit of these Palms is somewhat peculiar, and 
not like that of Cocos nucifera. 


8. (2) S. levis, inerme, floribus minutis villo obtectis her- 
maphroditis, ovariis tribus medio coherentibus, stylo nullo, 
fructu globoso vertice depressiusculo. 


* S. Rumphii, petiolis spadicibusque armatis, floribus exsertis masculo et feemi- 
neo, dentibus calycis ovatis acutis, staminibus floris feminei anantheris, fructu 
depresso globoso. 

S. Rumphii. Wild. Sp. Pl. 4. 404? Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3. 623? Sagus seu 
Palma farinaria. Rumph. 1. 72. t. 17. 18. Ham. Comm. Hb. Amb. in Mem. 
Wern. Soc. 5. 318. Metroxylon Rumphti. Mart. Palm. 214. t. 102. 159. 

7 In adnot: Mart. Palm, 210. 


The Palms of British East India, 21 


S. levis. Rumph. Hb. Amb. |. 76. fide Jack. Jack. 
Mal. Misc. Mem. 3rd in Hook. Comp. Bot. Mag. 1. p. 
266. Ham. Comm. in Hb. Amb. 5. 320. Sagus inermis. 
Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3. 623 ? 


Has.—Sumatra and Malacca, W. Jack. 


“This valuable Tree rises to the height of about twenty feet, and is 
generally surrounded by numerous smaller and younger plants which 
spring up around it after the manner of the Plantain (Musa 
sapientum). The stem, which is about as thick as that of the Cocoa- 
nut tree, is annulated by the vestiges of the fallen leaves, and the 
upper part is commonly invested with their withered sheaths. The 
leaves resemble those of the Cocoa, but grow more erect, and are 
much more persistent, so that the foliage has not the same tufted 
appearance, but has more of the graceful ascending curve of that of 
the Saguerus Rumphii: they are pinnate, unarmed; the leaflets 
linear, acute, carinate, and smooth. The tree is from fifteen to 
twenty years in coming to maturity, the fructification then appears, 
and it soon after decays and dies. ‘The inflorescence is terminal ; 
several spadices rise from the summit of the stem, enveloped in 
sheaths at their joints, and alternately branched. It is on these 
branches that the flowers and fruit are produced, and they are 
generally from five to eight inches in length. They are of a brown 
colour, and closely imbricated with broad scariose scales, within 
which is a quantity of dense ferruginous wool, in which the minute 
flowers are imbedded and completely concealed. Each scale supports 
two flowers, which are hermaphrodite, and scarcely larger than a 
grain of turnip-seed. The Perianth is six-leaved, of which three are 
interior, the leaflets nearly equal. Stamina six ; filaments very short ; 
anthers oblong, two-celled. Ovariathree, connected together in the 
middle, each monosporous. Style none. Stigma small. Fruit single, 
nearly globular, somewhat depressed at the summit, but with a short, 
acute, mucro or point in the centre ; it 1s covered with scales which 
are imbricated from the top to the bottom, and are shining, of a green- 
ish straw-colour, of a rhomboidal shape, and with a longitudinal furrow 
down their middle. Below the scales, the rind is of a spongy consis- 
tence, and the fruit contains a single seed, of rather an irregular 


22 The Palms of British East India. 


shape, and having the umbilicus situated laterally a little above the 
base of the fruit. The progress of the fruit to maturity is very slow, 
and is said, according to the best information I can obtain, to occupy 
about three years from the first appearing of the spadices to the final 
ripening of the fruit. During the period of inflorescence, the branches 
of the spadix are brown, and apparently quite bare. Afterwards a 
number of small green knobs appear above the brown scales, which 
go on enlarging, till they at length acquire the size of a small apple. 
But few fruit come to maturity on each branch. 

In habit and character this tree recedes considerable from the true 
Palme. Its propagation by radical shoots, exactly in the same 
manner as the common cultivated Plantain, is peculiar, and is not 
observed in the true Palms. The terminal inflorescence and death 
of the tree after fructification is another peculiarity. It is allied to 
Calamus by its retroversely imbricated fruit. 

This species of Sago is abundant in many parts of Sumatra and at 
Malacca, and is employed in the preparation of Sago for food. Con- 
siderable quantities are made at the Poggy Islands, lying off the west 
coast of Sumatra, where it in fact forms the principal food of the 
inhabitants. The Sago of Siak is remarkably fine, and is also, I 
believe, the produce of this species. At the Moluccas the spinous 
sort is considered superior to this, but I am doubtful whether it 
exists in Sumatra. For making the Sago, the tree must be cut be- 
fore fructification commences, as it then becomes hard and dry. 
The process of making it has been so often described, that it is need- 
less to repeat it here.”—W. Jack. loc. cit. 


CALAMOSAGUS. 


Cuar. Gen.—Spice teretes, amentiformes. Flores her- 
maphroditi, solitarii, villis semi-immersi. Stamina 6. Ovarium 
squamis obtectum, triloculare. Stydus subulatus, tridentatus. 
Fructus exsuccus, squamis loricatus. Semen vertice excava- 
tum. Albumen ruminatum. Embryo vagus. 

Palme scandentes, perennes, incole Peninsule Malayane. 
Folia pinnata; vagine petiolique aculets conicis rectis ar- 
mati: ligula maxima, part modo aculeata, sursum ventricoso- 


The Palms of British East India. 23 


scaphoidea et vaginam contiguam semi-amplectens ; pinne al- 
lerne, cuneale, inequilatere, a medio supra (vel margine ter- 
minali) erose, subtus glauce. nflorescentia Sagi vel Za- 
laccae. Spathe plures incomplete inermes. Bracteole in 
villos fere omnino solute. 

Genus foliis Caryote vel Wallichie, habitu quodammodo 
Calami, inflorescentia et semine Sagi et Zalacce, insigne 
forma et evolutione ligule. 

Character (posthac emendandus) haustus est, quoad flores, 
e C. laciniosa, quoad organa vegetationis e C. wallichiefolia. 
Huc verisimiliter referendus Calamus caryotoides, A. Cun- 
ningham. Martius, Palme. p. 212, et forsan Calamus rhom- 
boideus, Blume. Syst. Veget. ed. Schltes. 7. pt. 2. p. 1332. 


9. (1) C. daciniosus, (n.sp.) petiolo (partis lamelliferz) aculeis 
sparsis uncinatis armato, pinnis petiolulatis cuneato-obovatis 
medium supra varie et argute inciso-dentatis, spicis paten- 
tissimis palmaribus gracilibus, pedicellis spatha inclusis 
apicem supra vaginulam brevem ferentibus. 


Has.—In woods along the sea-shores of the Islands of the 
Mergui Archipelago, March 1835. Herb Mergui, No. 1104. 


Descr.*—Diccious? Flagelliferous, climbing to a great extent. 

Petiole angular above, below slightly convex and armed with scat- 
tered, hooked, short. thorns, white with a dark point. Pinne attached 
by distinct stalks, (which are much compressed, and about half inch 
long,) about seven inches long by three and half broad, plicate, be- 
low the middle distinctly cuneate and quite entire, above the mid- 
dle half-ovate and variously jagged, poimt prolonged into a long 
acumen, glaucous, coriaceous, the under surface with as many distinct 
veins as larger, incisions. 

Spadix much branched, covered with imbricated, smooth, spathes, 
with short, oblique, acute, suberect limbs. Branches axillary, very 
spreading, similarly covered with spathes from which the spjkes 


* Specimens consist of a portion of a leaf and of a spadix. 


24. The Palms of British East India. 


project. Spikes cylindrical, three or three and half inches long, three 
or four lines broad, having a woolly appearance; their pedicels are 
almost entirely enclosed. Bractee rounded, imbricating, lowermost 
empty ; wool appears altogether to take the place of bracteole. 
Flowers* solitary, half immersed in the wool, which is exceedingly 
dense. Calyx short, quite immersed in wool, with three broad, acute 
teeth. Corolla deeply tripartite, segments oblong, spreading, exserted. 
Stamina six, united to the corolla to the base of its segments. Fila- 
ments (free) broad, very short, united into a very short annulus. 
Anthers large, linear, subsagittate at the base. : 
Ovarium occupying the tube of the corolla, surrounded by the fila- 
ments, covered with toothed scales, after fecundation becoming quite 
exserted. Style subulate, rather long, minutely three-toothed at the 
apex. Fruit turbinate, apiculate, scales greenish with brownish mar- 
gins. Seed with a large, superior excavation filled with brown cellular 
substance.t Albumen horny, ruminate. Hmbryo vague, obconical. 


This species appears to be osculant between Calamus, 
Sagus, and Zalacca, having the habit of the former, the in- 
florescence of the second and in some measure the seed of 
the last genus, to which it also approaches, as does the suc- 
ceeding, through Zalacca glabrescens and secunda. 

I observe that a gummy matter has been secreted from 
wounds in the spadix. 


10. (2) C. wallichiefolius, (n.sp.) petiolo (partis lamelliferz) 
aculeis sparsis uncinatis armato, pinnis cuneato-obovatis 
medium supra obtuse dentatis et erosis, spicis spithameeis 
directione irregularibus, pedicellis paullo exsertis apice 
vagina ore lacera obtectis. 


* The flowers appear to be solitary, for they correspond with the central line of 
their bractes, and I have not seen any rudiment of others in the very dense wool 
surrounding the base of the flower. 


t My MSS. written on the spot say, ‘‘ Excavatio supera maxima, materie cellulosa 
brunnea repleta.’’ 


The Palms of British East India. 25 


Has.—Malacca, brought to me from a place called Kus- 
san, with the name Rotang Simote.* 


Descr,t—The leaves resemble those of the preceding, but the 
teeth and incisions are less deep and are obtuse, in which respect it 
presents the same difference from the preceding, that Caryota obtusi- 
dentata does from Caryota urens. The shape of the spadiz is much 
less like that of a genuine Sagus than that of the preceding, the 
branches are more slender, covered with long, smooth spathes with 
lacerated mouths. my; 

The spikes are a span long by four lines in diameter, though they 
seem very immature ; generally they are just exserted from the sheath, 
but occasionally the pedicel is lengthened ; the lateral pedicels are 
plano-convex, bearing a long spathe about the middle, reaching 
to the base of the spike. The Bractee are broad and longer than 
the very dense wool. 


Although very closely allied to the preceding, I have no 
doubt but that this species when better known will be 
found quite distinct. At present the differences are confin- 
ed to the obtuseness of the teeth of the pinne, the direction 


* I subjoin a description of the upper part of a specimen not in flower, sent 
with this name, from which part of the generic character has been taken. It ap- 
pears to differ from the above in the shape of the pinne which are sessile, and the 
smooth petioles. 

Stem slender, three-four lines in diameter. Sheaths in the exserted part about 
six inches long, armed with a few scattered conical prickles, generally split along 
the back into a rete, between the petiole and next sheath prolonged into a large 
ligula of the same coriaceous texture and similarly armed, in its upper two-third 
boat-shaped and closely half embracing the next sheath. Petiole two and a half 
feet long, young ones prolonged into a flagellus, below the pinne fifteen or seven- 
teen inches long, roundish, armed on the back with a few scattered prickles, these 
among the pinne are more hooked and ina single row. Pinne distant, the lower- 
most approximated, sessile, general shape distinctly cuneate, above the cuneate 
part generally inequilateral and eroso-dentate, of a thick substance, many veined, 
glaucous underneath, altogether much like some formsof Wallichia caryotoides ; 


upper ones more elongated, terminal sub-equilateral, bilobed below the middle, 
truncate, along which margin they are erose. 


t Specimens consist of a portion of a leaf and an immature spadix. 


E 


26 The Palms of British East India. 


and length of the spikes, and the large bracte on their 
pedicels. 

I have never seen living plants, my specimens were pro- 
cured by my Malay Collector from the interior of the Pro- 
vince of Malacca. 


CALAMUS. 


Linn. Gen. ed. 6. p. 173. Gaertn. fruct. et sem. 2. p. 267. 
t. 189. (excel. C. Zalacca.) Rexb. Fl. Ind. 3. p. ‘773. (excel. C. 
Zalacca.) Icones. 14. ¢. 28-29. Suppt. 5. t. 16. 17.18. Juss. 
Gen. Pl. p. 37. Syst. Veg. ed. Schultes. 7. Pt. 2. No. 1496. 
p. 1332. Martius Palm. p. 203. t. 112. 113. 116. fi 2. 3. 4 
128. 160. Endl. Gen. Pl. p. 249. No. 17386. Lam. Enc. 
Meth. t. 770 (excl. C. Zalacca.) 

Palmijuncus. Rumph. Hb. Amb. 5. p. 97—120. (excl. Pal- 
mijunco laevt) t. 51—56. 57, f. 1. 58. 

Tsjéru-tsjaral e¢ katu-tsjirel. Rheede, Hort. Mal. 12. t. 
64. 65. 

Demonorops. Blume in Syst. Veg. ed Schultes. . pt. 2. p. 
1333, obs. 1. Martius Palme. p. 198. t. 117 e¢ 125, f. 1. 
Endl. Gen. Pl. p. 249. No. 1740 (excl. syn. Rumphii ?) 


Cuar. Gen.—Spice (interdum racemi) filiformes (pani- 
culate.) Flores mono-dioici, (szepissime) solitarii, masculi 
bractea et cupula (bracteolis duabus coalitis) suffulti, faemz- 
nei tribracteati. Stamina 6. Ovarium squamis plus minus 
tectum. Fructus subexsuccus, squamis retrorsis loricatus, 
mono-raro dispermus. Albumen ruminatum vel superficie 
foveolatum. Embryo hilo approximatus. 


Hasitus.—Palmez perennes, caespitosae, frutescentes, vel 
arbusculoideae, erectae vel saepius scandentes. Caulis (saltem 
partis folufere) vaginis obtectus. Foliorum vagine varie arma- 
te spinis saepissime seriatis, (in una verticillatis,) plano-subula- 


The Palms of British East India. 27 


tis, colore saepe variegatis, interdum longissimis ; petioli spinis 
supradictis vel aculeis vario modo armatt, saepe apice extensi in 
flagellis subius aculeis palmatis uncinatis prehensilibus ; pinne 
alternantes regulari ordine, vel fasciculatae, lineares, vel linea- 
ri-lanceolate oblongaeve, in paucissimis cuneato-lanceolate, in 
paucis directione variae, saepius subulato-acuminatae, sepius 
hispidae setis subpungentibus secus margines et venas dispositis. 
Spadices axillares, plerumque diffusi, pedunculo saepius cum 
dorso vaginae contiguae cohaerente ideoque pseudo-extra-ax- 
ulari, saepius armati, saepe apice in flagello isto petiolorum 
simili extensi, vel abortientes omnino flagelliformes. Spathz 
extimae spinis, aculeis, vel setis varie armatae, vel plures 
deciduae infima persistente, vel omnes per anthesin persis- 
tentes plane vel cymbiformes, vel tubulose cum fructubus 
permanentes. Spice mascule sepe scorpicideae, compressae. 
Flores parvi inconspicui, masculi distichi. Styli rami plerum- 
que revolutt. 


Sect. I.—(Coleospathe) Scandentes vel erectae. Spadices 
diffusi. Spathe omnes persistentes, tubulose limbis parvis 
vel obsoletis. 

* Erectae. Flageth O. 

Species 1-4. 

** Saepius scandentes. Flagelliferae, vel spadice abor- 
tivo, vel fertilt apice extenso. 

Species 5-19. 

*,* Scandentes. Petiol flagelliferi. 

Species 20-21. 


Secr. Il.—(Piptospathe). Scandentes. Petioli saepius fla- 
gellifert. Spadices mutici, diffust. Spatha 1, (rarius 2,) 
anfima tantum per anthesin persistens, spathis ramorum 
omnino deciduis, 


Species 22-26. 


28 The Palms of British East India. 


Sect. If].—(Platyspathe.) Scandentes. Petioli flagelliferi 
(an semper ?). Spadices diffust. Spathze omnes per anthesin 


persistentes, planae, vaginis parvis vei obsoletis. 
Species 27-30. 


Sect. [V.—(Cymbospathe.) Scandentes vel erectae. Petiok 
saepius flagellifert. Spadices contracti. Spathe cymbi- 
formes, rostratae, diu persistentes, due externe alias in- 
volventes, vaginis obsoletis. 

Species 31-38. 
Demonorops. Blume, Martius. 


Src. V.?—Ceratolobus Blume. 


Genus intricatum, imperfecte cognitum, characteribus auc- 
torum plerumque inextricabilibus, forma partium fructifica- 
tionis, Cymbospathis forsan exceptis, potius quam vegeta- 
tionis meo sensu dividendum. 

Limites ambigui: Sago appropinquat tribus viis per Cala- 
mosagum, Raphiam, et Zalaccam; Plectocomie per Cym- 
bospathas ? 

Calamus secundiflorus, Pal. Beauv. Fl. d’Owar. Benin.* 
habitu, foliis Desmonci, floribus hermaphroditis, et statione 
geographica differt. 


Src. I.—(COLEOSPATHA®). 
* Erectae. Flageli O. 


11. (1.) C. castaneus, (n. sp.) humilis, spinis petiolorum 
plurimis valde ineequalibus parum seriatis, pinnis zequidistan- 
tibus (plurimis) linearibus (long. bipedalibus lat. uncialibus) 
vena centrali superne dentato-setigera centrali et lateralibus 
utrinque inferne setigeris, spadicibus sepius inermibus, mas- 


* 1, p. 15. t. 9.10. 


The Palms of British East India. 29 


culo supra-decomposito elongato apice pendulo-nutante fruc- 
tiis quasi ambitu flabelliformi, calyce bracteam triplo-supe- 
rante corollam subequante, staminibus distinctis, floribus 
femineis conico-oblongis, fructibus rotundis vel oblongis 
(castaneo-rubris,) cuspidatis. 


Has.—In thick jungles about Malacca, as at Pringitt, 
Ayer Punnus (Rhim.) Sent by Emanuel Fernandez with 
the name Rotang Chochoor. 


Descr.*—A Palm with a short erect or decumbent stem, forming 
thick tufts. Diameter of stem with sheaths three inches. Sheaths 
rather short, highly armed with spines, disposed in very long lines, 
the longest spines nearly two inches in length. Petioles channelled 
rather high up, three to five feet long before they bear pinne, 
angular rounded, armed, especially on upper side, with stout, very 
unequal spines. Margins of channelled part densely armed with bris- 
tles, disposed in short oblique lines. Pinniferous part nine-ten 
feet long, convex, trigonal, the convex side armed with stout soli- 
tary. distant spines pointing downwards, the upper angular part 
smooth, or armed about the middle with short teeth. Pinne very 
numerous, alternate, generally approximate, often nearly opposite, 
linear, two feet long, nine-ten lines broad, subulate-acuminate, above 
carinate by the prominent mid-vein, which bears bristles towards the 
point, below the bristles are confined to the central and a lateral 
vein on each side, in some the bristles are very long ; margins cutting 
from appressed bristle-teeth ; the apex which is strong, and very 
acuminate, hispid with bristles. 

Spadices axillary, peduncle in one specimen armed, as are likewise 
some of the spathes slightly, but generally unarmed, concealed by 
spathes, much branched, the male decompound. Spathes scarious, 
not much split, generally quite smooth ; limbs erect. 


* Specimens: entire of male plants, several portions of male and female spa- 
dices, and an entire ditto. in fruit. 


30 The Palms of British East India. 


Male spadix two-three feet long, branched, branches variously nutant 
or pendulous, slender. Flower bearing branches compound, spikes 
bifarious, lateral ones one inch long, terminal two-three inches, often 
scorpioid. Uppermost branches simple, or nearly so. 

Male spikes much flattened, quite distichous, bractez highly 
imbricated, roundish-cordate, amplectent. Concealed inside is a cup 
with two evident teeth posticously, where it is also bicarinate from 
pressure. Calyx long, sub-cylindrical, angular slightly (from pres- 
sure), with three, rather short, half-ovate, acute teeth. Corolla a 
little longer than the calyx, divided below the middle into three 
linear-lanceolate, somewhat spreading segments. Filaments united to 
each other and to the corolla up to the base of its segments : free, as 
long as or longer than the petals, points introflexed in bud. Anthers 
linear, exserted. Rudiment of the pistillum large, oblong, of three 
abortive carpels. 

Female spadiz rather broader than long, (especially in fruit,) 
in length about one foot, in breadth one and a half foot. Flower 
bearing branches simple, about six inches long, rather stout. Spathes 
less imbricating, because more distant than in the male, larger and 
more leathery. Flowers solitary, each with two unequal amplectent 
bracteoles, the outer of which, from not being appressed to the in- 
ner, leaves on one side a small niche. 

Calyx as in the male, but more cylindrical. Corolla scarcely 
longer than the calyx, of the same shape, divided below the middle 
into three linear-lanceolate, acute, erect segments. Stamina much 
developed, but included, and with effete anthers. 

Ovary attenuate at base, where it is smooth, at the apex attenuated 
into a stout, cylindrical, rather long style, divided nearly to middle 
into three, spreading or recurved branches, very pappillose inside, 
scales small with irregular margins. Ovula lodged in the smooth 
base. 

Fruit (immature) chocolate coloured, round or oblong, (seven lines 
long by five and half broad,) with a stout cuspis, the upper half of which 
is grey, one-celled. Scales small with pale edges, central furrows 
of scales much pronounced, and appearing to form as many continu- 
ous longitudinal furrows. Seed (very immature) plano-convex with 
a depression on the flat face ; tegument black, fleshy. 


The Palms of British East India. ol 


Var. A.—Upper angle of the petiole armed with short 
thorns, fruit oblong. 

B.—Upper angle of the petiole unarmed, fruit roundish. 

This species appears to vary a good deal, both as regards 
the arming of the petiole, the male spadix, which is not al- 
ways decompound, and the fruit. 

It may be at once known by the strong, very unequal, soli- 
tary spines of the petiole; the long linear pinne, which have 
a tendency to become red in drying; by the short, much 
compressed, scorpioid, red-brown male spikes, the flowers of 
which are very close together, and by the expanded flabelli- 
form shape of the fruit-bearing spadix. 

Fig. 2, t. 58 of Rumph.* gives a fair idea of its fruit, as 
does that of the end of the female spadix, fig. 1, t. 55, of 
the same part of the male spadix. 

It possibly may be C. ruber, Reinw. Martius Palme. 209. 


12. (2) C. collinus (n. sp.) pinnis (apicis) lineari-lanceolatis 
(long. 15-uncialibus, lat. 14-uncialibus) supra tricarinatis ca- 
rinis setigeris subtus levibus et glabris, pedunculo spadicis 
decompositi spathaque infima armato, calyce bracteam longe 
superante corollam subquante, fructibus oblongis apice 
mammillatis. 


Has.—Khasya hills, near Mahadeb, alt. 18-2000 feet, 
and Upper Assam. 


Descr.t—Petiole roundish, unarmed. Pinne alternate or nearly 
opposite, largest fourteen-fifteen inches long, nearly one and a half 
inch broad, linear-lanceolate, with a tendency to be spathulate, upper 
surface distinctly tricarinate, carinz setigerous, lower surface smooth ; 
margins bristly ciliate, especially towards apex, which appears to 
be obtuse. 


* Hb. Amb. 5. 


Tt Specimens: portion of the end of a leaf, an entire spadix in fruit, and a 
portion of another, 


32 The Palms of British East India. 


The entire specimen of the spadix is about twenty inches long,* 
branches distant, and with the exception of the lowermost, which 
has two branches, simple. Peduncle below the first spathe or branch 
rather compressed and armed with the usual form of spines, slen- 
der and deflexed. Above this the spadix presents no armature. 
Spathes smooth, except the lowest, the remains of which present 
spines, its tubular part about an inch long, limb lacerated and 
truncate. 

Spikes three-five inches long, flexuose. Bractee not very closely 
imbricating, with limbs shorter than usual and almost annular ; upper 
bracteole annular, under adnate behind to the spike and bicarinate. 
Fruit about twelve lines long, by seven in diameter, surrounded at 
the base by the calyx and corolla nearly equal in length, and much 
longer than their respective bractez, apex obtusely mammillate ; scales 
chesnut brown, very large, with pale membranous margins ; central 
furrow broad and well developed. Seed one. Albumen ruminate. 


This species appears to be closely allied to the succeed- 
ing, the terminal part of the leaf of that differs however 
in the pinne presenting only one’ carina above, and being 
smooth on both sides. Its spathes too are always much 
lacerated, whereas in this they appear to become truncate. 


13. (8) C. schizospathus, (n. sp.) pinnis equidistantibus li- 
neari-lanceolatis (long. bipedalibus lat. 14 uncialibus) supra 1- 
carinatis subtus secus venam mediam setigeris, spathis omni- 
bus inermibus primariis varie fissis et fibroso-laceris, ramis 
approximatis inferioribus decompositis, floribus distantibus, 
calyce bractea duplo longiore quam corolla duplo breviore, 
staminibus distinctis inclusis. 


Has.—Khasiya Hills; also Darjeeling, whence it was 
procured by the Seharunpore Collectors. 


Descr.t—Petiole triangular, under flat face armed with ternary 
or solitary stout deflexed spines, whitish with black points. 
* By this specimen it would approach the Piptospathx, but the spathes are 


evidently not deciduous, the tubular bases remaining. 
t+ Specimens; parts of leaves and male inflorescence. 


The Palms of British East India. 33 


Pinnules alternate, rather distant, largest two feet two inches long, 
one and a half inch broad, linear-lanceolate, coriaceous, subulato- 
acuminate, paler but not glaucous below; mid vein prominent above, 
below bearing towards the apex a few large bristles; margins with 
bristly teeth ; points as usual hispid. 

Spadix (entire?) one and a half or two feet long. Peduncle co- 
vered with spathes, with long, very lacerated, striate limbs. Branches 
approximated, suffulted by short lacerated split speathes, longer than 
the internodes, and distichously branched; the upper simple. 

Spikes four-five inches long, with a tendency to gyration, scarcely 
compressed. Bractee amplectent, also split, each concealing a short 
three-toothed cup, broadly-emarginate behind, anteriorly oblique. 
Flowers distichous, comparatively distant. Calyx oblong-ovate, 
longer by half than its bractea, with three, rather short, broad ovate, 
acute teeth, very striate. Corolla twice as long as calyx, divided 
almost to the base where it is attenuated, segments oblong lanceolate, 
sub-acute. Stamina shorter than the corolla. Filaments united to 
the corolla as far as the base of it segments, distinct, rather long, 
subulate, flattened, smooth. Anthers large, linear-oblong, about as 
long as the filament. Rudiments of the Pistillum of three narrow 
carpels scarcely at all united. 


This species is closely allied to the succeeding, from 
which it differs in the armature, which also appears to be 
of pale colour, the larger pinne green underneath, the split 
lacerated sheaths, and the flowers, which are less closely 
and strikingly bifarious than in any of the others of this 
section. 

It also approaches in its leaves to C. longisetus. 


14, (4) C. arborescens, (n. sp.) trunco erecto nudo 15-20 
pedali, pinnis squidistantibus lineari-lanceolatis (long. 13 
uncialibus lat. 1 uncialibus) subtus albidis, vena centrali 
utrinque setigera, spadicibus supra decompositis longe pen- 
dulis, spathis primariis armatis, calyce bracteze longitudine 
quam corolla triplo breviore, staminibus basi monadelphis. 

F 


o4 The Palms of British East India. 


Has.—Pegu. Revd. F. Carey. Male plant introduced 
into these Gardens in 1810, in which Buxoo informs me it 
has been called C. hostilis. 


Descr.—A very elegant Palm (in some cases stoloniferous,) 
forming at the base, apparently from off-sets, very thick leafy tufts 
from which arise elegant stems, fifteen-twenty feet high, 24 inches in 
diameter, annulated ; internodes seven inches long, green. Crown 
elegant, of ascending, gracefully curved leaves. 

Petioles for two or three feet from the base highly armed with large 
black flat spines, intermixed with small ones in oblique often nearly 
complete series, spreading in every direction; in the pinniferous 
part trigonal, covered with whitish scurf, armed underneath with 
nearly complete verticils of spines. Spines, solitary or in pairs, also 
exist on the upper angle towards the base of the pinniferous part. 
Pinne very spreading, alternate or often sub-opposite, rather dis- 
tant, linear-lanceolate, largest eighteen-twenty inches long, ten- 
eleven lines broad, acute, or acuminate into a cirrhose bristle, dark 
green, shining above, white below ; central vein above sub-carinate, 
from the middle upwards on both sides furnished with distant stout 
bristles, margins very bristly and pungent, as also are the points, 
which are sometimes bifid. 

Spadices about five feet long, pendulous ; much attenuated towards 
the apex, peduncles, where naked, smooth, compressed, greenish, 
shining. Spathes four-six inches long, tubular, clavate, with split 
erect limbs two-three inches long, often blackened, withered, armed 
with scattered spreading black spines, except the uppermost which 
are nearly or quite unarmed. Lower flowering branches often de- 
compound, 2-3 feet in length, upper simple, their spathes short, un- 
armed, split, blackened. Spikes five-six inches long, (younger ones 
rather flattened,) with a tendency to be gyrate; direction of flower- 
ing inverted. Bractee rather closely imbricated. 

Flowers rather large, greenish, oblique, surrounded at the base by 
a short cup concealed in the bracte, oblique in front, emarginate and 
sub-bicarinate behind. Calyx scarcely longer than the bracte, ovate, 
and 3-partite to the middle, not striate; segments slightly scurfy. 
Corolla three times longer than the calyx, down to which it is divided 


The Palms of British East India. 35 


into three oblong-lanceolate, acute, ascending segments: where 
it is enclosed in the calyx, fleshy. Stamina united to the corolla 
up to its segments. laments thence shortly monadelphous, (some- 
times two filaments are united to each other nearly to the anthers,) 
angular, smooth, as long as the corolla. Anthers linear, exserted. 

Rudiment of the pistillum long, angular, of three abortive car- 
pels united to the middle, often with bifid points. 

Female unknown. 


This is a very handsome species, and well marked by its 
erect stems, dark brown almost black spines, leaves, which 
are white underneath, and long, pendulous male spa- 
dices, with the primary spathes armed. I should have been 
inclined to refer it to Roxburgh’s C. erectus,* had the white- 


* I subjoin Roxburgh’s description of this species and of his C. humilis, pro- 
bably referrible to this section; also Martius’s character, etc. of C. scipionum. 

C. erectus. R. 

Shrubby, erect, no flagelli. Leaflets rather remote, equidistant, opposite and 
alternate, linear-lanceolar. Sines subverticelled. Spadix compound. Berries 
oblong. 

Sun-gotta, the vernacular name in Silhet, where it grows with an erect trunk, 
like the true palms, of about fifteen feet in height; when divested of the sheaths, 
from three to four inches in circumference ; and the joints from two to three inches 
long. The poorer natives use the seed as a substitute for areca. 

C. humilis, R. 

Shrubby, not scandent nor flagelliferous, Leaflets lanceolar, smooth, many- 
nerved. Spines few, but long and strong. 

A native of Chittagong. 

C. Scipionum: caudice robusto, articulis tripedalibus subulatis rutilis ni- 
tidis ; frondibus breviusculis, vaginis rhachibusque aculeatis, pinnis —— 
Spadice crasso decomposito, ramulis brevibus paucifloris ; baccis —— 

C. Scipionum, Lour. Flor. Cochinch. I. p. 210. No. 3. Edit. Willd. I. p. 260. 
Lam- Encyclop. VI. p. 304. No. 3. Rees. Cycl. No. 3. Schult. Syst. Veg. VIL. 2. 
p- 1326. No. 2, (exclusis synonymis Pluk., Rheed., Rumph.) Spreng. Syst. Veg. 
If p. 17. No.9, Arundo Rotang, Pis. Mant. p. 188. c. icone (fide Loureiri. ) 

Haec species scipiones suppeditat omnium elegantissimos, colore rutilo vel 
obscurius lutescente ac nitore insignes, unico plerumque articulo constantes. 

In syivis Peninsulae Malaianae ex utraque parte freti Malaccensis, unde 
abundanter in Sinas et in Europam exportatur: Loureiro. In Cochinchina 
dicitur ‘*‘ Hedtau.’’ Martius. 

This I imagine is the well known Malacca cane. The Plant does not appear 
to occur about Malacca itself, and I was informed that the canes are imported 
chiefly from Siak, on the opposite coast of Sumatra. 


> 


36 The Palms of British East India. 


ness of the under surface of the pinne been mentioned in his 
description. It is closely allied to the succeeding species. 


** Saepius scandentes. Flagelliferae vel spadice abortivo 
vel fertilis apice extenso. 


15. (5.) C. longisetus, (n. sp.) Subacaulis erectus, spinis peti- 
oli rectis (nigris) inferioribus seriatis, pinnis fasciculatis line- 
aribus (long. bipedalibus lat. 12 uncialibus) plurifariis supra 
nitentibus 1-carinatis, vena centrali subtus setas longissimas 
gerente, spadice decomposito longissimo nutanti-pendulo 
spathis primariis infimis armatis secondariis glabris abbre- 
viatis quasi truncatis, spicis rectiusculis compressis. 


Has.—Male Plant said to have been introduced from 
Pegu with C. arborescens. Flowers in the cold season. 


Drcr.*—A tufted stemless palm, with the habit of young specimens 
of C. arborescens. Leaves slightly arched, often with the blade 
turned edgeways, total length 11-12 feet. Petzoles armed throughout 
the lower naked part, which is about three and half to four feet 
in length, with seriate, unequal, flat spines, black from a white 
base. The vagina has them longer but less seriate, and presents 
also especially towards the margins lines of bristles. Towards the 
apex of the petiole the spines are solitary, and confined to the lower 
convex face. Pinne fasciculate, but from the fascicles not being 
distant, this is not so apparent at first sight as in some others, 
plurifarious, some crossing over the others, all are arched and 
nodding, two feet in length, one inch seven lines in breadth, co- 
riaceous, convex and shining above and with one carina, and oc- 
casionally a lateral bristle-bearing vein on each side, underneath the 
central vein presents very long bristles; margins setoso-dentate, 
apex hispid. 

Spadices very long, whip-shaped, nodding-pendulous, flagellus 
humifuse or trailing over the neighbouring shrubs, armed with the 
usual aculei. Branches pendulous, distant. Spathes with very long 


* The flowers are described from dried specimens. 


The Palms of British East India. 37 


sheaths, and lacerated scarious limbs, primary ones armed below with 
stout aculei like those of the spadix, above with a few slender 
straight spines, those of the branches truncate and unarmed. 

Spikes about six inches long and about two inches distant, dis- 
tichous. Bractee annular, amplectent, with scarcely any limb. Cup 
concealed by the bractea, oblique, emarginate behind, where it ad- 
heres to the spike. ‘ 

Flowers closely bifarious, oblique and curved. Calyzr a little 
longer than the bractea, with three, short, half ovate teeth. Corolla 
nearly three times longer, tube narrow, nearly as long as the calyx ; 
segments linear oblong. Stamina six, apparently* attached to the fa- 
aux, filaments about as long as the petals. Anthers deeply sagittate, 
versatile. Rudiment of a pistillum cylindrical, tripartite, nearly as 
long as the tube of the corolla. 


This species is closely related to C. arborescens, from 
young specimens of which it is scarcely distinguishable 
at first sight. —he armature is much the same, otherwise its 
pinne, which are never white underneath, and the flagelli- 
ferous spadix abundantly distinguish it. In these Gardens, 
it appears to have been always confounded with the above- 
mentioned species, so much so, that although it is very orna- 
mental and easily propagated by its off-sets, from which (as 
in C. arborescens,) its densely tufted appearance arises, 
there does not appear ever to have been more than one 
plant in the Garden. 

From the succeeding species, with which it agrees in the 
great length of the spadix, it is abundantly distinct. 


16. (6) C. ornatus,+ spinis (inferis) petioli pinniferi uncinatis 
(albis,) pinnis zquidistantibus lineari-lanceolatis (long. 2-23 
pedalibus lat. 23 uncialibus) supra 3-5 carinatis carina cen- 


* In reality only adhering as usual to the cohering parts of the corolla. 

+ There is another Malacca species found about Ching, which appears to ap- 
proach this. The following is a description from living specimens out of flower. 

A large climber. Sheaths green, armed on the dorsa with very broad deflexed 
seriate or solitary spines. Flagellus very long. Ligula distinct. Petiole near the 


38 The Palms of British East India. 


trali versus apicem setigera, spadice longissimo 16-18-pe- 
dali, spathis tubulosis longissimis armatis, ramis paucis (sub- 
quaternis) distantibus, spicis scorpioideo-reflexis. 

C. ornatus. Blume in Syst. Veg. ed. Schultes. 7. pt. 2. p. 
1326. Martius. Palm. p. 204. t. 116. fig. 2. 


Has.—In forests Malacca, ws about Durion Toongull, E. 
Fernandez. Malayan name, Rotang Suga Budak. 


Descr.*—A stout species, the diameter of the sheaths being about 
two inches. Sheaths swollen under the base of the petiole, armed with 
rather complete series of flat spines, rather short and much broader 
than usual. Naked lower part of the petiole about three feet long, 
somewhat flat, and channelled broadly towards the axil, much armed, 
the spines of the lower face resembling those of the vagine, but being 
smaller ; those of the upper face irregular subulate from a stout base ; 
of the pinniferous part, which is nine or ten feet long, and convex- 
trigonal, the under convex face is armed with stout hooked aculei. 
Pinne rather distant, large, linear-lanceolate, two or two and quarter 
feet long by two and a quarter inches broad, rather obtuse, general- 
ly bifid or bi-partite at the apex, underneath glaucescent: upper 
surface tricarinate, mid vein with stout pungent sete towards the 
apex, as have also the margins ; apex hispid. 

Spadiz of great length (sixteen to eighteen feet long) as usual ad- 
hering to the next sheath, of these the lowest one in the specimen is 
abortive, flagelliform, the one immediately above flower-bearing and 
produced into a long flagellus seven or eight feet long, armed with the 
usual aculei. It bears four branches, about two and half feet dis- 
tance from each other, the two lowest internodes are entirely covered 
by the long tubular sheaths, the two uppermost with the peduncle 
exposed for a few inches at the base, and there unarmed and plano- 
convex. 
base, armed with marginal, straight, distant solitary spines: otherwise armed along the 
dorsum, with a row of distant solitary hooked aculeie Pinnz alternate or sub-oppo- 
site, linear lanceolate, two feet long, two and half inches broad, acute, with five 
prominent bristle-bearing veins above. 


In dense forests, Ching. 
* Specimen ; an entire, flowering apex of a female plant in flower. 


The Palms of British East India. 39 


Spathes without limbs, those of the flagellus inconspicuous, all 
armed, the spines on the lower face being like those of the vagine 
but. smaller, the rest deflexed, not very strong, and subulate from 
a stout oblique base. 

Branches of the spadix erect, bases concealed in the orifices of the 
sheaths, bearing alternate, scorpioid, stout spikes, two to three inches 
in length. Spaces between the spikes occupied by short, lax, trun- 
cate, smooth spathes. 

Spikes stout, somewhat compressed. Flowers in bud distichous, 
but not flatly bifarious ; under each is a laxly sheathing bracte with 
a short limb with shortly ciliate margins ; outer bracteole obliquely 
cup-shaped, emarginate behind, inner with a conspicuous disk-like 
oval space on one side. 

Calyx of stout texture, oblong, ovate, suboblique, shortly three- 
toothed. Corolla ovate, tripartite below the middle ; segments ovate- 
lanceolate. Stamina six, large, effete, united as usual to the corolla, 
and above this monadelphous. Ovarium oblong obconical, with nu- 
merous rows of very minute scales. Style stout, conical, divided 
nearly to the base into three stout, lanceolate, inwardly stigmatic 
branches. Ovules solitary. 


A very well marked species, especially by its stature and 
inflorescence; it appears to be more nearly allied to C. 
schizospathus than any other. 


17. (7.) C. acanthospathus, (n. sp.) spinis petioli 
spadicis (6-pedalis) pedunculo basi compresso spinis et 
aculeis subulatis armato czterum inermi, spatha infima 


pinnis 


dorso carinata aculeis basi conicis sparsis valde armata reliquis 
parce armatis seu inermibus ecarinatis, ramis distantibus infi- 
mis compositis, fructubus elliptico-oblongis apice mammill- 
atis, (castaneis.) 


Has.—Khasiya Hills. 


Drsc.*—Spadix about six feet long, tapered at the end into a 
flagellus. Peduncle short, compressed, armed on the edges, and lower 


* Specimens (two) of entire fruit bearing spadices. 


40 The Palms of British East India. 


face with unequal, straight, subulate spines and prickles, those of the 
edges being the longest, otherwise in the parts not covered by 
the spathes unarmed. 

Spathes with obsolete limbs, lowest about a span long, compress- 
ed, keeled along the centre of the back, excepting the short erect half 
lanceolate limb, armed with straight prickles with conical bases. 
The other spathes are shorter, more clavate, without an obvious carina, 
and only slightly armed, or (as the uppermost) quite unarmed. 

Branches just exserted from the spathes, erect, a foot or a span 
distant, lowest about a span long, decompound. Spathes sheath- 
ing, rather lax, smooth, lowest about an inch long. Lower divisions 
compound, with several spreading spikes, with similar but much 
smaller sheathing spathes, uppermost internode often abortive as in 
certain Grasses. 

Fruits apparently terminating short stout stalks, suffulted by 
three annular amplectent bractes, and surrounded at the base by 
the spreading portion of the perianth, elliptic-oblong, with the 
mammilliform apex seven lines long, four broad, chesnut coloured. 
Scales with a broad shallow central furrow, and dark edges. Seed 
(apparently berried,) erect, convex on one face, and conspicu- 
ously areolate with foveole, on the other convex with a central 
umbilicus, from which the areolz seem to radiate. Albumen horny, 
cartilaginous, on a long section reniform, with as many stout enter- 
ing processes as join areole, that from the umbilicus much the 
largest and filled with a mass of cellular substance. Hméryo basilar. 


This species does not appear to me allied to any others I 
have met with. In the division and direction of the branches 
of the spadix, it approaches to the Piptospathe This and — 
the very frequent, conical aculei on the lower spathes seem 
to me its chief characteristics. 


18. (8) C. Royleanus, vaginarum spinis solitariis com- 
pressis petiolorum superioribus uncinatis, pinnis equidis- 
tantibus linearibus angustissimis (long. 10-11 uncialibus lati- 


The Palms of British East India. Al 


tudine uncialibus,) superne carinis 3 longe setosis, spadice 
nutante aculeato, spathis parce armatis, corolla calycem 
subzequante, fructibus pisiformibus cuspidatis (albis.) 


Has.—In the denser, moister parts of the jungles of Dehra 
Dhoon, chiefly towards the eastern extremity of the valley, 
as at Kurruck. 


Dercr.*—A small elegant species forming impenetrable patches. 

Sheaths bi-auriculate at their mouths, armed with solitary long 
subulate spines, less flat than usual. Petzole in the lower part armed 
with similar but smaller spines, in the pinniferous part these become 
aculei. Pinne numerous, approximated, often nearly opposite, linear, 
acute, ten or eleven inches long by half an inch broad, above tri- 
carinate, the carine bearing distant long bristles; margins with fre- 
quent short, appressed, bristle teeth. 

Spadix nodding or pendulous ? plano-convex where not concealed 
by the long, tubular, limbless, slightly armed spathes ; convex face 
armed with solitary aculei. Branches a span or foot distant, about a 
span long, expanded, owing to the very spreading spikes. Spaces 
between these covered with lax, truncate, submucronate smooth 
spathes. From above the apex of these arise the spikes, which are 
rather slender, two or three inches long, loaded with fruit. 

Fruit ((mmature) ovate-roundish, with a distinct cuspis, about 
the size of a large pea: scales white, rather large, with an indistinct 
central furrow, paler margins and brown points ; each is suffulted by 
a minute scale-shaped bracte and two minute bracteoles, of which 
the inner is the larger; by the calyx with a short cylindrical solid 
base, divided to the middle into three oblong segments, the corolla 
with three lanceolate segments equal in length to the calyx, and six 
stamina. | 


I am in considerable doubt regarding this species, which 
is that alluded to by Dr. Royle as agreeing with Roxburgh’s 


* Specimens; an entire young mutilated leaf, portions of perfect parts of 
leaves, and of a spadix in fruit. 
G 


42 The Palms of British East India. 


C. Rotang.* But it differs from Roxburgh’s drawing of that 
species in the arming of the petioles and sheaths, the spines 
being solitary and long, not mere aculei, in the shape of 
the leaves, which are more linear, in the corolla, which ap- 
pears to be of the same length as the calyx, and the fruit 
which is pisiform, not ovate. It cannot be referred to 
C. Pseudo-Rotang of Martius,+ because that is described 


* I[llustr. p. 396. 

+ C. Pseudo-Rotang, aculeis vaginarum et petiolorum albido-tomentosorum 
subulatis rectis, pinnis lineari-lanceolatis fasciculato-aggregatis, spathis aculeis 
reduncis armatis, baccis pisiformibus apice breviter rostratis.* 

C. Pseudo-Rotang. Mart. Palma. p. 209. t. 116. f. 6. 


Has.—Throughout India in wooded places. 


Martius, whose description I subjoin, states that this differs chiefly from C. 
Rotang by the broader fasciculate pinnz, the whitish tomentum of the petiole and 
the straight aculei, half an inch or an inch long, spreading or recurved, and the 
smaller, globose, shortly beaked fruits. It agrees in armature and fruit with C. 
Royleanus, from which it differs chiefly in the fasciculate pinne, and the tomen- 
tose petioles. This last character however is (perhaps) a doubtful one, and depen- 
dent on the degree of exposure of the part to external agencies. I am more- 
over in possession of a specimen I believe from Assam, which I am disposed to 
consider Roxburgh’s C. Rotang, in which, the younger petioles, and especially 
the sheaths, are covered with a brown tomentum. 

“‘ Calamus Pseudo-Rotang : caudice scandente ; frondium ecirrosarum pinnis 
lineari-lanceolatis, fasciculato—aggregatis, aculeis vaginarum rhachiumque al- 
bido-tomentosarum subulatis rectis, spatharum lororumque reduncis ; spadicibus 
composito-ramosis, abortivis loriformibus ; baccis globosis (magnitudine Pisi. ) 

Differt a Calamo Rotang praesertim pinnis fasciculatis latioribus, rhacheos to- 
mento albido-fuscidulo et aculeis rectis (unguem ad pollicem longis) patentibus vel 
reversis, baccis minoribus globosis, apice breviter rostratis. Squamae baccarum 
testaceo-lutescentes, imo margine exarido ferrugineae. Nucleus fere dimidiato- 
globosus, hinc convexus, leviter gyroso-tuberculatus, inde planiusculus atque in 
areolam profunde depressus. Embryo basilaris. Albumen cartilagineum ae- 
quabile. 

Crescit per vastam Indiae orientalis plagam, locis sylvestribus e. gr. in Coro- 
mandelia: ad Moalmyne in Martabania, ad fluvium Irawaddi, prope rupes Pin- 
gyi in Pegu.’’ Martius. 

I add Martius’s character, etc. of another Indian species of this intricate part of 
the genus. 

** Calamus Guruba, Hamilton : caudice scandente ; frondium ecirosarum pin- 
nis aequidistantibus concinnis linearibus acutis, rhachibus ferrugineo-villosis, 


@ Character e Martio. 


The Palms of British East India. 43 


as having the sheaths and petioles covered with white to- 
mentum, fasciculate pinnz and spathes armed with hooked 
spines. In fruit it appears to be similar. 

Under these circumstances, I have considered the species 
a distinct one. It is I believe the only species that extends 
so far north as to come within the limits of the Seharunpore 
and Dhoon Flora, and I have therefore dedicated it to a 
well-known investigator of that region. 


19. (9.) C. Roxburghi, vaginarum petiolorumqte glabro- 
rum aculeis parvis solitariis sparsis, petioli faciei inferioris 
uncinatis, pinnis zquidistantibus lineari-lanceolatis, spadice 
basi et flagello excepto inermi nutante, spatha infima parce 
aculeata, corolla calycem duplo superante, stylis sub-clavatis, 
fructibus oblongo-ovatis apice in cuspidem attenuatis (albis.)* 

C. Rotang. Roxburgh. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 77%. Icones. 14. 
t. 28. 


Has.—Bengal and the Coromandel Coast: flowers during 
the rains ; fruit ripens during the cold season; Roxburgh. 


«« Sans. Vetra, vetus. 

Beng. Bet, or Sanchi-bet. 

Root fibrous. Stem jointed, climbing to a vast extent, enveloped 
in the thorny sheaths of the leaves; with them it is about as thick 
as a man’s little finger ; when they are removed, it is in thickness, 
and every other respect, a common ratan. Leaves pinnate, from 
eighteen to thirty-six inches long. Leaflets opposite or alternate, 


aculeis rhachium spadicumque masculorum decompositorum reduncis, calycibus 
campanulatis trifidis, quam petala lanceolata duplo brevioribus ; loris ?—; 
baccis. i 

Species praecedenti et C. Rotang prae aliis affinis, sed villo rhachium et floribus 
minoribus facile distinctu. 

Prope Jelpigori in Indiae provincia Rungpaor, lat. bor. 26° 30', Aprili 1809, 
detexit Cl. Hamilton.’? Mart. Palm. p. 211. 


* Char. ex. Icone. Roxb. citata 


Av} The Palms of British East India. 


sessile, linear-lanceolate, armed in the margins with minute bristles 
pointing forward, and a few distinct, long, erect bristles on the upper 
surface, from six to twelve inches long. Sheaths cylindric, armed 
with numerous, strong, straight, compressed thorns. Petioles sheath- 
ing, the leaflet-bearing portion compressed, channelled, and armed 
with both straight and recurved thorns on the under side. Flagelli, 
one from the sheath of each leaf near its mouth, they are very long, 
slender, drooping or waving, and well armed, resembling the slender 
lash of a whip; many of Rumphius’s figures of these plants have 
such terminating the rib or rachis of the leaves. Matz. Calyx 
universal ; spathe none; partial many scattered. Spadix supra-de- 
compound, drooping, being the above-mentioned flagellus much en- 
larged, with numerous, partial, truncate spathes, with alternate, de- 
compound, bifarious, recurved spikes therefrom, the ramifications 
thereof recurved, bearg in two rows on their convex sides nu- 
merous minute greenish flowers. Perianth 3-parted, smaller than 
the corol, permanent. Corol 1-petalled. Tube imperforated. Border 
3-parted ; divisions oval, permanent. Filaments six, thick at the 
base, tapering, nearly as long as the corol and inserted on the mouth 
of its tube. Anthers incumbent. Germ none, but there is the rudi- 
ment of a 3-cleft stigma. Fremazze. Sheaths as in the male. 
Spadix decompound, perianth and corol as in the male. Filaments 
six, united at the base round the germ. Anthers arrow-shaped, 
abortive. Germ round. Style short, 3-cleft, divisions or stigmas re- 
curved. Berries round, of the size of a small gooseberry, imbricated 
backward with barky scales, 1-celled, 1-seeded, between the hark 
and the seed there is a considerable portion of whitish juicy pulp 
of a sharp acid taste. Seed solitary, marked with many irregular 
depressions and elevations, and on one side there is a large, deep, 
roundish pit, a little below it near the base is lodged the monocotyle- 


donous embryo.”” Roxburgh. . 


As none of the synonyms assigned usually to this species 
appear to have sufficient reference to it*, and as the figures 


* Thus Calamus petreus. Loureiro, is considered by Martius to be a distinct spe- 
cies: Tsjeru Tsjurel of Kheede is the C. gracilis of Roxburgh, Palmijuncus cal- 
apparius. Rumph, is the Calamus calapparius of Martius, and the Pheniscorpiurus, 
etc. of Plukenet is referred by Hamilton to his C. Heliotropium. 


The Palms of British East India. 45 


of Rheede* and Plukenet,} which represent two distinct 
species, have been always referred, except by Martius, to 
C. Rotang, a species founded on the Palmijuncus Calap- 
parius of Rumph. (now Calamus calapparius, Martius) ; it is 
perhaps advisable to abolish the name C. Rotang, which is 
besides a generic not a specific name, and the whole of the 
synonymy given by Willdenow and succeeding authors. 

The synonymy given by Dr. Martius{ is perhaps only cor- 
rect in the citation of Lamark’s figure, (t. 770 f. 1.) referred 
by Lamark to Loureiro’s C. scipionum. For Plukenet’s 
figure is cited by Hamilton under his C. Heliotropium, and 
Roxburgh’s drawing represents the fruit of his C. Rotang 
oblong-ovate, and white, not round with chesnut colour- 
ed scales as Martius§ describes it. This same drawing does 
not agree in the spathes with Lamark’s figure sufficiently 
well to convince me of their representing the same species. 

It is to be regretted that Roxburgh quoted Willdenow 
as the authority for this species, his definition not being 
in any way applicable to it, and being evidently drawn up 
from Palmijuncus calapparius of Rumph. none of whose fi- 
gures would Dr. Roxburgh quote. Of the Hb. Amboinense, 
the only figures that resemble the species under consideration 
are t. 53 (Palmijuncus albus,) which however is not of this 
section, and especially t. 55. f. 2. A. B. (Palmijuncus vimi- 
nalis,) which is of this section. 


20. (10) C. tenuis, vaginarum aculeis solitariis paucis recti- 
usculis, petioli (pinniferi) anguli superioris rectis faciei in- 
fere uncinatis, pinnis equidistantibus lineari-lanceolatis 
(long. pedalibus lat. 7-8 linealibus) supra nitentibus trica- 
rinatis (carinis setigeris) subtus secus venam centralem setu- 
losis, spadice nutante spathisque primariis parce aculeatis, 


* Hort. Malab. 12. t. 64. 65. ¢ Alm. t. 106. f. 1.2. Hb. Amb. V. p, 98. t. dl. 
t Palme. 209, § Op. cit. loc. cit. t. 116. f. viii. 


46 The Palms of British East India. 


spicis bifariis recurvato-patentibus sapius simplicibus flo- 
ribus binatis altero superoque pedicellato masculo, altero 
sessili foemineo, calyce urceolato breviter tridentato, stylis 
sub-ternis filiformibus longis patenti-revolutis. 

C. tenuis. Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 780. Icones. Suppt. 5. t. 18. 
(bona)—Mart. Palm. p. 212. 


Has.—Eastern Bengal as at Sillet; Assam, where it is 
known as the ‘‘ Bet” proper. Major Jenkins. Bandhari- 
bet of Chittagong. Roxburgh. 


Roxburgh says, “it is a beautiful, delicate species ; when divested 
of the sheaths of the leaves, and cleaned, it is not thicker than a 
common quill, and of the colour of the common ratan. Flowering 
time, the rainy season. 

«Stems simple, perennial, climbing to a great extent ; the extremi- 
ties inserted in the armed sheaths of the leaves, including these, it is 
scarcely so thick as a common ratan. Leaves oblong, equally pin- 
nate, nearly two feet long. Leaflets from twenty to thirty on each 
side, equi-distant, alternate, linear, polished, three-nerved ; margins, 
apices, and nerves bristly ; six inches long, and scarcely half an inch 
broad at the broadest part. Petioles armed. Flagelli from the 
sheaths, simple, armed, as in the other species. Spathes numerous, 
sheathing, sub-cylindric, one for each division of the spadix, even to 
the pairs of flowers. Spadices occupy the place of the flagelli on 
a few of the spathes, decompound ; primary branches, four, five, or 
six, remote, flexuose, with about half a dozen alternate, recurvate 
branches on each side. Hermaphrodite and male flowers in alternate 
pairs, the latter short-pedicelled. Matz. Calyx shorter than the 
corol, unequally 2-3-toothed, corol supported on a fleshy gib- 
bous receptacle, border 2 or 3-cleft. Filaments four, five, or six. 
Anthers sagittate. Hrrmaruropite. Calyx and corol equal, gib- 
bous, with a contracted, 3-toothed mouth. Filaments six, united in 
a ring round the lower half of the germ; anthers sagittate, large, 
and seemingly fertile. Germ ovate, 1-celled, containing three seeds 
attached to the bottom of the cell. Style scarcely any; stigma 
3-cleft ; segments rugose and recurvate.” Roxburgh. 


The Palms of British East India. AT 


I subjoin my own description of the leaves, and inflores- 
cence :*— 


Petiole in the pinniferous part with the upper angle armed with 
straight conical subulate prickles, the usual row of hooked ones 
along the centre of the under face, and similar ones about the 
margins often close to the pinne ; towards the apex it only presents 
the under central series. Pinne alternate, equidistant, linear lan- 
ceolate, acuminate, ten-twelve inches long, seven-eight lines broad; 
above with three carine bearing long bristles, underneath with 
shorter bristles along the mid vein; margins setoso-serrulate. 

Spadiz of considerable length. Branches just supra-axillary, very 
flexuose, about a span distant ; spaces between covered, except per- 
haps the lower two inches, by the tubular spathes, which are green, 
armed toward the upper ends with scattered curved prickles. The 
upper spathes appear to be the most armed. Naked parts of the spadix - 
also armed on one face with stout hooked aculei. The spathes (of 
the spikes,) rather laxly sheathing, subtruncate, sprinkled with brown 
scurf, margins ciliate. Spikes also supra-axillary, bi-farious, about two 
inches long, recurved spreading, also scurfy. 

Flowers distichous on the outside, on the inside tetrastichous, 
In pairs, the larger conical, sessile, female, the smaller ovate ob- 
long, shortly stalked, male, always on the upper or posterior side 
of the spike. Bractes like the spathes of the spikes, but less 
ciliate. Bracteole two, broad, the inner one on the inner side 
is bicarinate and emarginate, and to the centre of the bicarinate 
part the male flower corresponds, being adnate as it were to its 
base. Calyx of the female thickened at its base, whence its conical 
shape, of both sexes suburceolate with three short teeth, often 
divided to the middle. Corolla slightly longer than the calyx, 
divided below the middle into three erect, oblong, lanceolate seg- 
ments. Stamina as usual adnate to the corolla, then mona- 
delphous ; filaments (free) short ; anthers sagittate, of the female 
flower effete. Ovarium as long as the corolla, oblong, rather atte- 
nuate to the base where it is 3-celled, ovules erect. Style of three 


* From specimens communicated by Major Jenkins. 


48 The Palms of British East India. 


broadish immediately recurved segments, which are pappillose inside, 
and in the bud lanceolate and erect. 


This species is closely allied in the pinne to C. Royleanus 
and Roxburghii, especially to the former. An obvious differ- 
ence, however, exists in the small recurved deflexed spikes 
of this species. In the pairs of flowers, one hermaphrodite, 
and one male, it appears, so far as we know at present, 
to stand alone. The presence of the male may, however, 
judging from the similarity of the inner bracteola to those 
of certain other species, which appear discoid, be expected 
to occur in other instances. The minute examination of 
these bracteoles in order to ascertain whether there is a 
scar of a fallen flower becomes therefore necessary. So far 
as can be judged from Roxburgh’s short notice of C. monoi- 
cus,* it would appear to resemble that species closely. 


* C.monoicus. 

Monoicous, scandent. Leaflets numerous, alternate, lineari-lanceolate, polished, 
and bristly ; sheaths flagelliferous ; stamens monadelphous. 

Native place uncertain. It grows in the Botanic Garden to about the size of 
the common ratan, and differs from it only in being monoicous, the divisions of the 
corol lanceolate, and in the filaments being very completely united. Flowering 
time, the rainy season. 

It is needless to give a full description of this plant, which is exactly like C. 
Rotang, except in the above-mentioned circumstances. The male flowers are about 
as numerous as the female ones, generally one of each from each of the annular 
scales of the branches of the spadix. The common ratan (C. Rotang) I have 
always found completely dioicous; this must therefore be considered a distinct 
species.”’ 

C. monoicus. Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 783. Mart. Palm. p. 209. 


I subjoin Roxburgh’s description of C. polygamus, and three of Martius’s spe- 
cies, all which appear to me to belong to this part of this section. 


“°C. polygamus, R. 

Scandent. Spines sub-verticilled. Sheaoths flagelliferous. Inferior leaflets in 
remote fascicles of three or four, above single and alternate, or opposite, all linear, 
with a few bristles on the margins and nerves underneath. Male and hermaphro- 
dite flowers on the same supra-decompound spadix. 

Hoodoom Bet of the people of Chittagong, where it is indigenous, and a most 
extensive rambler; the general thickness when cleaned is that of a stout walking 


Theakis oOBaiehias Indio. 40 


21. (11) C. leptospadix, (n. sp.) spinis petioli (pinniferi) so- 
litarlis uncinatis ?, pinnis approximatis zequidistantibus line- 
aribus (long. 10 uncialibus lat. 4-5 linealibus,) supra carinis 
tribus setigeris subtus setulosis secus venam mediam, spadicis 
attenuati aculeati ramis filiformibus, spathis primariis acu- 
leatis secondariis lamina conspicua lanceolata, spicis sim- 
plicibus abbreviatis scorpioideis, bracteis apice pennicillatis, 
floribus oblongis, calyce corolla duplo breviore, fructibus 
globoso-turbinatis (albis.) 


cane. Its growth is exceeding slow, for in ten years it had acquired a stem of only 
five feet in length, and the leaves from ten to twelve more.”’ 

C. polygamus. Rozb. Fl. Ind. 3. p.780. Mart. Palm. p. 210. 

It appears to differ from C. monoicus in the lower pinne being fasciculate, and 
in the flowers being male and hermaphrodite, not male and female. 


** C. nitidus : caudice ; frondibus ecirrosis glabris nitidis, pinnis approai- 
matis aequidistantibus lineari-lanceolatis marginatis, aculeis rhacheos recurvis 
spar sis et confluentibus ; spadicibus foemineis compositis ; julis horsum vorsum 
Slexis, baccis (ovato-globosis, ) squamis fuscis. 

Pinnae spithamam longae, unguem latae, firmulae, venis statu sicco vix conspi- 
cuis, setulis non solum in margine latiusculo sed etiam in nervis utriusque faciei. 
Calamo tenui Roxb. multis modis affinis, sed diversus videtur praesertim sexus 
distributione. 

Crescit in Tenasserim, prope Tavoy, W. Gomez.’’ Martius. Palm. p. 211. 


C. concinnus :—frondium rhacht ferrugineo-tomentosa, subtus aculeis rectis 
reversis, pinnis sub-aequidistantibus concinnis lineari-lanceolatis ; spadicis (mo- 
noici?) compositt spathis aculets rectiusculis reversis ; baccis magnitudine. 
Pisi minoris, squamis fiavidis margine inferiore latius fuscidulo. 

Pinnae, quas vidi, fere sesquipedales, ultra pollicem latae. Juli fructiferi bi- 
pollicares, non nihil recurvi. In calycum fructiferorum uno eodemque per cujusvis 
seriei flores latere conspicitur spathella valde contracta, cujus basis cicatricula 
parva notatur, quam ob causam conjicio, huc flores masculos aut eorum rudimenta 
in florente spadice excidisse.”’ 


Has.—Tavoy. Wallich. Martius. Palm. p. 208, 


“*C. melanacanthos : caudice scandente ; frondibus ecirrosis, pinnis aequidis- 
tantibus concinnis lineari-lanceolatis acuminatis, margine nervisque tribus pri- 
mariis setis longiusculis nigricantibus ; aculeis antice nigris, vaginarum subver- 
ticillatis rectis, rhachium spadicum compositorum lororumque recurvis ; baccis 
oblongis octolinearibus, squamis pallide fuscis spadiceo-marginatis. 

Crescit in insula Pinang et in ora Tenasserim prope Chappedong: Wallich.”’ 
Martius. Palm. p. 211. t. 116. f. 13. 


H 


50 The Palms of British East India. 


Has.—Khasiya Hills, between Nunklow and Naogong, 
in flower and fruit, November 1835. Herb. Assam Depu- 
tation. In the same locality Areca gracilis, Wallichia cary- 
otoides, and Caryota urens were observed. 


Descr.*—Petiole (in the pinniferous portion) triangular, under 
surface rather convex, with scars of solitary spines or prickles, the 
two side faces somewhat channelled, and presenting especially to- 
wards the insertion of the leaves dark filamentous tomentum. Pinne 
many, crowded, regularly alternating, linear, very narrow, ten inches 
long, four four-and-half lines wide, subulato-acuminate, or even 
perhaps cirrhoso-acuminate, upper face with three bristle-bearing 
carinze, a few smaller ones on the midvein underneath: margins 
rough with very frequent ascending bristles. 

Male Spadizx apparently nodding, long, slender, distantly branch- 
ed, (in the parts not covered by the very long, narrow, tubu- 
lar spathes with largish lanceolar nearly unarmed limbs) fre- 
quently armed with short acute stout thorns, solitary, or in twos 
or threes. Branches filiform, a foot long, apparently secund, with 
frequent alternate, simple, bifarious, short, scorpioid recurved sim- 
ple spikes, each of which is suffulted by a spathe with a rather 
larger, lanceolate, acute, erect limb. The lowest branch in the 
specimens is inserted about an inch above the mouth of its spathe. 
Spikes about an inch long, nearly twice the length of the limbs 
of the spathes. 

Flowers distichous, oblong, with an amplectent bracte with a sub- 
lanceolate rather long limb, pennicillate at the apex. Inside this 
bracte is a short cup emarginate behind. Calyz oblong, divided nearly 
to the middle in three half-ovate segments. Corolla twice the length 
of the calyx, divided nearly to the base into three oblong-lanceolate 
rather obtuse segments. Stamina united to corolla to base of its 
segments ; filaments (free) long, subulate, about 3 shorter than the 
corolla. Anthers attached above the middle, linear sagittate, slight- 
ly mucronate, versatile. Pollen yellow, with one longitudinal furrow. 


* Specim: Portions of a leaf, of male spadix in flower, and female spadix in 
fruit. 


The Palms of British East India. ol 


The fruit spadix ends in a long flagellus armed as usual, the spikes 
appressed to the filiform branches. Fruit globoso-turbinate, apex 
cuspidate, looking rather downwards, scales rather lax, whitish, with 
conspicuous brown margins and points. Its base is surrounded 
by the flattened perianth, (the calyx with three oblong segments, 
the corolla with three segments a little longer and narrower,) and by 
two bracteole, of which the inner bears a disc on one side, 
and forms a cup; they do not appear to be pennicillate. Seed one, 
roundish, with a foveola on one side. Albumen solid with a pitted 
areolar surface, and a cavity corresponding to the foveola filled with 
the tegument, which is blackish-brown. Hmbryo basilar. 


The male spadix of this resembles in some respect that of 
C. palustris. 

In the leaves it approaches C. tenuis, Roxburgh: it is 
distinguished from all the others by the long filiform dis- 
tant branches of the spadix, the lanceolate rather large 
limbs of the primary, and especially of the secondary spathes, 
and the pennicillate bracteze, the cellular hairs or proces- 
ses forming the tufts of which are not altogether unlike the 
bodies forming the tufts at the ends of the leaves in certain 
mosses. 

Plukenet’s figure of Phenicoscorpiurus, etc. resembles 
this in many respects.* Hamilton} quotes the same figure 
for his C. Heliotropium, to which I should have referred 
this, had the relative lengths of the calyx and corolla 
agreed with Martius’s character of that species.t 


* Phytogr. t. 106. fig. 2. 

¢ Cat. Dried Plants, p. 90.—No. 877. 

t ‘‘C. Heliotropium Hamilton: caudice scandente ; frondium ecirrosarum 
pinnis equidistantibus concinnis lineari-lanceolatis acuminatis, aculeis rhachium 
spatharumque recurvis ; spadicibus masculis decompositis, calycibus urceolatis 
breviter dentatis, petala subequantibus ; loris 2—; baccis.— —. 

Frondium forma et verosimiliter caudice affinis est C. Rotang, sed differt spadi- 
cum masculorum julis laxioribus, spathellularum apparatu minore, calycibus multo 
longioribus, ore contracto breviter tridentatis. 

In Goyalpara, Indie Orientalis, Augusto, 1808, legit Hamilton.’ Martius. 
Palm. p. 211, 


52 The Palms of British East India. 


22. (12) C. fasciculatus, spinis vaginarum et petiolorum 
albido-furfuraceorum longis rectis subulatis fasciculatis vel 
solitariis, pinnis egregie fasciculatis subquadrifariis lineari- 
bus (long. 9-10 uncialibus lat. vix uncialibus), marginibus 
et carina centrali supra spinoso-setigeris subtus venis tri- 
bus setulosis et seepe furfuraceis, spadice aculeato, spathis 
infimis primariis bicarinatis secus carinas aculeatis superi- 
oribus ecarinatis aculeatioribus, spicis compositis, spiculis 
brevissimis scorpioideis, bracteolis distinctis, corolla calycem 
triplo superante, stylis clavatis reflexo-patentibus, fructibus 
oblongo-ovatis breve cuspidatis (albis), aloumine zequabili hine 
umbilicato. , 

C. fasciculatus. Roxb. Flor. Ind. 3. p. 779. Mart. 
Palm. p. 209. 


Has.—Bengal: (common about Calcutta in Bamboo jun- 
gles,) Cuttack, and many other places; Roxburgh says he 
never saw it to the southward of Ganjam. Bura-bet of the 
Bengalees. 

Flowers during the rains. 


Descr.—Grows in small thick tufts. Stems rather slender, and 
not very long: sheaths at first covered with white meal, afterwards 
smoother and green, armed with spreading strong flat spines, soli- 
tary or in short series. Petioles (pinniferous part) convex trigonal, 
covered with brownish white meal, as also are the bases of the spines, 
under flat face armed with long flat spreading very sharp spines ge- 
nerally fascicled, sometimes solitary, upper angle with solitary or bi- 
nary similar, but smaller ones. Piénne in fascicles of threes, occa- 
sionally four, all slightly arched, convex on the upper face, the 
lowest of each fascicle ascending patent, and crossing obliquely over 
the others, so that they are nearly tetrastichous. They are linear, 
eight or nine inches long, about one inch broad, upper surface with 
one carina armed, as also are the margins, with whitish thorny 
teeth: midvein underneath with a few bristles; under surface 
mottled. 


The Palms of British Kast India. 53 


Male Spadir several feet long, ending in a long flagellus, aculeate 
in the part not covered by the spathes. Lower spathes long, com- 
pressed, almost two-edged, owing to a dorsal and ventral carina, the 
former armed especially towards the apex with a few short subulate 
spines ; upper without carine armed with many aculei. Branches of 
the spadix adnate to the peduncle as high as the mouths of the 
spathes, thinly branched, slightly and distantly flexuose, upper half of 
the internodes covered with spathes with small acute limbs. Branch- 
lets bearing the spikes four or five inches long, generally slightly 
scorpioid. 

Spikes very short not exceeding half an inch in length, scorpioid, 
suffulted by broad short spathes, crowded with distichous flowers. 
Each male flower is suffulted by a scale-shaped bracte, amplectent, 
with comparatively very spreading oblong ovate limbs. Bracteole 
small, especially the inner one, not united into a cup! Calyz broad, 
angular, divided to the middle, segments half ovate, slightly keeled. 
Corolla three times the length of the calyx, broad, angular in bud, 
divided nearly to the base, segments oblong, spreading. Stamina six, 
as usual united among themselves and to the base of the corolla. 
' Filaments (free) ‘subulate, moderately long, anthers rather short, sa- 
gittate. Rudiment of the Pistil/um of three small bodies. 


I have not yet seen the female flowers or fruit. Accord- 
ing to Roxburgh’s figure they are very like those of his 
C. Rotang, (C. Roxburghii,) the chief difference represented 
being the greater length of the corolla in this species com- 
pared with that of the calyx. ‘The shape and colour of the 
fruit is exactly the same. Roxburgh represents the albu- 
men almost without ruminating processes, but with a con- 
spicuous lateral foveola or umbilicus. 

This species is easily distinguished from all the others by 
its habit, by the direction of the pinne in which respect it 
approaches to most Zalaccz, and by their spinous margins 
and keels. The male spikes are shorter and broader than 
in any other species I am acquainted with, and in the dis- 
tinctness of the bracteole it appears to be singular. 


oA The Palms of British East India. 


23. (13) C. gracilis, aculeis vaginarum et petiolorum soli- 
tariis sparsis, pinnis fasciculatis (fasciculis distantibus ternis 
suboppositis) lanceolatis (long. 3-5 uncialibus lat. subuncia- 
libus) cuspidato-acuminatissimis utrinque triveniis, venis 
setigeris, spadice subfiliformi spathisque aculeatis, ramis dis- 
tantibus, spicis paucis simplicibus obsolete scorpioideis, co- 
rolla calycem triplo excedente.* 

C. gracilis. Roxburgh. Flor. Ind. 3. p.'781. Icones Suppt. 
5. t. 16. Mart. Palm. p. 210. Tsjeru-tsjurel. Rheed. Hort. 
Mal. 12. t. 64. 


Has.—Chittagong. Mapoori Bet of the Hindoos of that 
district. 


‘“A native of the forests of Chittagong, where Mr. W. Roxburgh 
found it climbing over trees and bushes to a great extent, and in 
flower in the month of May. This species is uncommonly slender, 
when divested of the sheaths of the leaves and dry, scarcely as thick 
as acommon quill, in texture firm and elastic, covered with a smooth, 
straw-coloured crust as in the common ratan. 

Stems simple, perennial, climbing to a great extent ; all the tender 
or younger parts toward their extremities invested in the armed 
sheaths of the leaves, including these about as thick as a man’s little 
finger. Leaves alternate, recurved interruptedly pinnate, if I may 
be allowed to call a pinnated leaf so, which is destitute of smaller 
leaflets between the principal ones, from one to two feet long. 
Leaflets collected in three opposite bundles of from two to four pair 
each, with much more of the rachis left naked between them than 
the spaces they occupy, sessile, doubled backwardly at the base, 
linear-lanceolate, bristly, pointed, both surfaces lucid, three-nerv- 
ed; nerves on the upper side as well as the margins bristly, from 
three to five inches long, and less than one inch broad. Rib or 
rachis carinated along the upper side, when young covered with 
ferruginous dust, rounded underneath, and armed with recurved 
prickles. Flagelli or tendrils issue single as in the other species, 


* Character ex Icone Roxburghiana citata. 


The Palms of British East India. 55 


from near the mouths of the sheaths of the leaves; they are long, 
jointed, slender as a pack-thread, drooping, sheathed, armed with 
numerous, very sharp, recurved prickles. Maus. Spadix from the 
mouths of the sheaths or opposite sides of the flagelli compound, 
jointed ; joints approximate, sheathed ; ramifications recurved, bear- 
ing two rows of sessile flowers on their convex side. Calyz 1-leav- 
ed, tridentate, sitting on the joints of the rachis in a three-toothed 
cup, which may be called a lower or exterior calyx. Corol 3-part- 
ed, with the base fleshy, and partly impervious. Filaments six, 
thick at the base, and inserted on the mouth of the fleshy impervious 
tube of the corol. Anthers linear, incumbent. Pistillum, a small, 
three-toothed, abortive, style-like body is all that is to be found.” 
Roxburgh. 


24, (14) C. Mishmeensis, (n. sp.) petiolo (pinnifero) spinis 
solitariis longis uncinatis subtus armato et margine aculeato, 
pinnis fasciculatis (vel superioribus alternis) lineari-lanceo- 
latis (long. 15 uncialibus lat. 14 uncialibus) apice obtusis 
pennicillatis, supra venis 5 setigeris, subtus centrali tantum, 
spadice aculeato, spatha primaria infima ancipiti secus mar- 
gines aculeata, spicis simplicibus patentibus, fructibus clo- 
bosis (albis). 


Has.—At the foot of the Mishmee mountains near Tapan 
Gam’s village: in fruit, November 1837. 


Desc.*—Scandent. Petiole (in the pimniferous part) trigonal, lower 
face concave, armed along to middle with long hooked spines, with 
here and there, particularly about the margins, short aculei, these 
gradually disappear towards the apex of the leaf. Pinne fasciculate, 
with solitary ones interspersed, towards apex distantly alternate, li- 
near lanceolate, fifteen or sixteen inches long, one and a quarter broad, 
upper face with three keels, which bear bristles of good size; there 
are also two lateral veins (one on either side) with small bristles ; un- 
der surface with the midvein unequally bristly above the middle, mar- 
gins with spreading pungent bristles, apex obtuse, with the bristles so 
much developed and crowded as to be nearly pencilled. 


* Specimens: parts of aleaf, and spadix in fruit, fruits broken. 


56 The Palms of British East India. 


Spadiz in the exposed parts plano-convex, with strong short 
hooked thorns on the convex face. Spathes tubular lowest com- 
pressed, two-edged, with short teeth along the edges, upper ones not 
compressed, almost unarmed. Branches altogether exserted, being 
attached considerably above the mouths of the spathes, five inches 
long. Spikes simple, stout, 2-3 inches in length, arising from 
a knob just above the points of narrow spathes, which cover the 
internodes of the branches, and which have small acuminate limbs. 
Fruit subsessile, globose, as usual tribracteolate, surrounded at the 
base by the flattened calyx with oblong-ovate segments, and the 
corolla with ovate-lanceolate segments and 6 sterile stamens ; scales 
large white, with a brown margin and point. Seed one, dry, deeply 
pitted, with a deep umbilicus on one side. 


This species in the spadix is allied to C. tenuis, Roxburgh, 
but the flowers seem to be dioicous, judging from the re- 
mains, neither have the females the same form. The spikes 
also are rigid, very spreading, without any tendency to be 
recurved or deflexed. ‘The leaves are widely different, in 
situation resembling those of C. fasciculatus and gracilis, to 
which last it appears to be allied. 


(25.) 15. C. floribundus,* (n. sp.) spinis petioli (pinniferi) 
aculeatis solitariis longis uncinato-deflexis, pinnis fasciculatis 
lineari-lanceolatis (long. subpedalibus, lat. 11-12 linealibus) 


* C. pennicillatus, pinnis equidistantibus lanceolatis 7-9 veniis margine in- 
tegris (esetosis) apice setoso-pennicillatis. 
C. pennicillatus. Korb. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 781. Mart. Palm. p. 210. 


Hab.—Forests, Pinang. Mr. Wm. Roxburgh. 


I subjoin Roxburgh’s notice of this plant, which in the shape, venation and 
tufted points of the pinne, and especially their entire smooth margins, appears to 
present sufficient peculiarities to enable it to be identified. 

‘“‘Scandent. Leaflets thirty-four pair, regularly alternate except the terminal 
two, which are united, lanceolate, seven to nine-nerved; margins entire and 
smooth, a pencil of bristles from the apex of each. Sheaths flagelliferous. 

It is more slender than the common ratan, and less so than C. gracilis.’’ 


The Palms of British East India. 57 


supra carinis 3-5 setigeris, subtus setis paucis secus venam 
mediam, apice sepius obtusis vel bifidis, spadice aculeato 
supra-decomposito, spathis primariis 1-carinatis secus cari- 
nam spinis rectis longiusculis armatis czeterum crebre acu- 
leatis secondariis floccoso-ciliatis, corolla calycem duplo ex- 
cedente, styli ramis lanceolatis. 


Has.—Upper Assam, at the mouth of the Nao-Dihing 
River, and towards Jorhauth. Both Major Jenkins and Mr. © 
Masters have also sent it to me, so that it appears to be 
common. 


Descr.*—Sheaths armed with brown deflexed long plano-subulate 
spines, solitary or in short series, otherwise thickly covered with so- 
litary or seriate brown bristles. The base of the petiole appears si- 
milarly armed, the spines being perhaps confined to the edges ; it is 
in the pinniferous part convex-trigonal, the under face armed with 
unequal curved deflexed very strong spines (the longest an inch 
in length or more) also with short scattered prickles. Pinne 
fasciculate, with or without solitary ones interspersed, linear-lan- 
ceolate, 13-14 inches long, 11-12 lines broad, upper face with three 
or even five carinz all bearing bristles, under face with a few bristles 
on the midvein towards the apex; margins with ascending stout 
~ bristles ; apex obtuse, hispid, often bifid. 

Spadiz rather long, probably nutant, where exposed plano-convex, 
armed on convex face with hooked prickles. Spathes generally very 
long, with short limbs, irregularly armed with slender straight 
spines, and with many aculei. The lowest of the spathes sometimes 
a foot long, bicarinate, one carina running up the centre of the limb ; 
those next to it similarly 1-carinate ; carina in the uppermost obso- 
lete. The longer spines are confined to the carine.. Branches dis- 
tant, supra-decompound, lowermost deflexed, upper ascending, inter- 
nodes concealed by spathes with truncate margins more or less ci- 


* A specimen of the upper part of an axis, with the lower part of the base of 
the petioles, many specimens of portions of leaves, and male and female inflores- 
cences, the latter before the expansion of the flowers. 


38 The Palms of British East India. 


liate, and, in the young state especially, grey from whitish filamentous 
hairs. Branchlets which bear the spikes recurved or spreading, with 
short, acute, often mucronate spathes. Spikes attached midway be- 
tween these, short, scarcely more than half inch long, sub-scorpioid. 

Male flowers distichous, ovate: suffulted by a small bracte like- 
wise ciliate and generally pennicillate at the apex, and by two 
bracteoles less combined than usual, indeed sometimes nearly dis- 
tinct. Calyx divided to the middle, segments half-ovate. Corolla 
about twice the length of the calyx, divided almost nearly to the 
base, segments ovate-lanceolate, spreading. Stamina as usual united 
to base of corolla; filaments (free) long, subulate, flexuose in 
bud ; anthers obtusely sagittate, attached above the middle, versa- 
tile. Rudiment of a pistillum of three rather small distinct bodies. 

Female flowers on simply spiked more elongated branches. Spikes 
2-3-inches long, alternate, generally recurved, flexuose, pale fer- 
ruginous-tomentose. Flowers rather distant, suffulted by an am- 
plectent bracte with a short acuminate limb, and by two bracte- 
oles, of which the inner bears an incomplete disc on one side, 
and between this and the outer bracteole is a space as though 
there should be an additional flower. Calyx (in bud) ovate-coni- 
cal, a good deal longer than that of the male flower, divided to 
the middle. Corolla (in bud,) length of the calyx, otherwise as in 
the male, but the segments have thin margins. Stamina 6, mona- 
delphous ; filaments (free) short, flat ; anthers effete. Ovarium cylin- 
drical, 3-celled, shorter than the branches of the style, which are 
lanceolate and papillose. Ovules 3. 


This species seems to vary a good deal; among the 
specimens from the Nao Dihing, is a portion of a leaf, 
in which the spines are short, solitary, and the pinne 
two feet or more in length by thirteen lines broad, with 
only one keel on the upper face, and this is the only part 
besides the margins that bears bristles; the apex also is 
often subulate-acuminate. 

There were also specimens found among the dried plants 
of these Gardens, without name, but which are said to have 


The Palms of British East India. 59 


been prepared from plants growing a long time ago in the 
Gardens ; these, had the petioles been flagelliferous, I should 
have referred to C. latifolius. 

The inflorescence varies a good deal as to smoothness ; in 
some of the more advanced specimens, the margins of the 
bractes even are nearly smooth. 

It approaches especially by its inflorescence to C. lati- 
folius, but that plant has flagelliferous petioles. 


26. (16) C. énsignis, (n. sp.) aculeis vaginarum sparsis coni- 
co-subulatis, petiolorum infra pinnas dorsalibus uncinatis in- 
tra pinnas supra medium marginalibus superadditis, pinnis 
distanter et irregulariter alternis (senis cum terminali equila- 
terali profunde biloba) cuneato-lanceolatis vel obovatis sub- 
tus concavis glaucis apice obtusiusculo tantum setigeris. 


Has.—Malacca, E. Fernandez. Malayan name, Rotang 
Bhatioo. 


Descr.*—Stem slender, not thicker than a common quill, or in- 
cluding the sheaths about four lines in diameter. Sheaths about 
a span long, with a few scattered conical subulate prickles. Leaves 
19-20 inches long ; petiole below the pinne about 5 inches long, 
roundish, above triangular, armed throughout along the centre of 
under surface with small hooked prickles, and above the middle of 
the pinniferous part with similar ones along the margins; pinne 
irregularly and distantly alternate, five in number, exclusive of the 
terminal equilateral deeply bilobed one, cuneato-lanceolate, sessile, 
distinctly concave underneath with inflexed margins, glaucous-ca- 
rimate above, with many parallel veins and transverse venules, and 
a short obtuse point, which is the only part bearing bristles. Fla- 
gellus united to the sheaths high up, very slender (the longest about 
a foot long) armed with the ordinary prickles. 


*® 


* Specimens: an entire upper part of a stem, not in flower. 


60 The Palms of British East India. 


This appears to me a very distinct species, it may be 
taken perhaps as a passage to Ceratolobus. At first sight 
it is not altogether unlike C. gracilis of Roxburgh. 


*,* Scandentes. Petioli flagelliferi. 


27. (17) C. latifolius, spinis vaginarum subverticillatis, pe- 
tiolis aculeatis, pinnis fasciculatis lanceolatis (long. 16-unci- 
alibus lat. 3-uncialibus) 5-7 veniis supra convexis utrinque 
esetosis, spadice supra-decomposito spathisque aculeatis, co- 
rolla calycem triplo excedente.* 

C. latifolius. Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3. p. "775. Icones. Suppt. 5. 
t. 17. Mart. Palme. p. 208. 
Katu-tsjurel. Hort. Malab. xii. t. 65. fid. Roxb. MSS. 


“‘ Korak Bet of the natives of Chittagong, where it is indigenous, 
and runs over trees to an immense length. When freed from the 
sheaths of the leaves it is about as thick as a slender walking cane. 
Plants introduced by Mr. W. Roxburgh, in 1801, into the Botanic 
Garden, flowered for the first time in November and December 1809, 
when they had attained to the height of about forty feet. 

Spines numerous on the stems, sub-verticilled, very large, flat and 
divaricate. On the flagelli fascicled and recurved. Leaves alternate, 
pinnate, from six to twelve feet long including the whip or flagellus, 
which terminates the common petiole as in many of Rumphius’s 
figures ; and the leaf of his Palmijuncus equestris, vol. v. t. 56. is 
tolerably like that of my plant, but their size is very different. 
Leaves in seven or eight remote fascicles, of three or four each, 
broad-lanceolate, very erect, many-nerved, smooth on both sides ; 
with the margins triflingly spinous-dentate, and the upper surface 
always convex, from ten to eighteen inches long, and from three to 
six broad. Mauer. Spadixz supra-decompound ; all the divisions bi- 
farious. Flowers small, of a greenish yellow, each sitting in a cup 
composed of two concave sheathing bractes. Calyx 3-toothed. 
Corol 3-parted. Filaments six, inserted on the imperforated base of 


* Char: ex Icone Roxburghiana citata. 


The Palms of British East India. 61 


the corol. -Anthers incumbent. FPistillum none, a small 3-lobed 
gland occupies its place.” Roxburgh. 


I have no personal knowledge of this species: it appears 
to be allied to the succeeding, from which it differs by its 
fasciculate lanceolate pinnz. 


28. (18) C. palustris,* (n. sp.) aculeis petioli(pinniferi) faciei 
inferze uncinatis, pinnis remote fasciculatis lineari-lanceo- 
latis (long. pedalibus lat. 12 uncialibus) supra carinis 5 
quarum centrali parce setosa, spadice decomposito parce 
aculeato, ramis attenuatis filiformibus, spathis primariis 
aculeis rectis inequalibus secondariis fere inermibus, spicis 
scorpioideis distantibus, corolla calycem triplo excedente. 


Has.—In watery places, Pular, Province Mergui, Te- 
nasserim coast. Gathered in October 1834. 


Derscr.t—Dioicous, 6-7 feet high. 

Petiole trigonal, under nearly flat face armed with solitary broad 
claw-shaped aculei which are ternate towards the apex and in the 
flagellus. Pinne distantly fasciculate, with or without solitary ones 
interspersed, linear-lanceolate with a tendency to be spathulate, 


* I append to this section the two following species of Roxburgh, which may 
perhaps hereafter be identified by their vernacular names. 


C. extensus. R. 

Scandent. Leaves flagelliferous; Jeaflets alternate, remote, equi-distant, nar- 
row-lanceolar. Spines in belts, slender. Berries spherical. 

Deu-gullar the vernacular name in Silhet, where it is indigenous, and is of 
great extent, say two to three hundred yards ; when cleaned toward the base, it is 
not thicker than a man’s fore-finger, but as thick as the wrist towards the apex. 
The length of the joint is from six to twelve inches. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 777. 

C. quinquenervius. R. 

Scandent. Leaves flagelliferous ; leaflets few, remote, equi-distant, lanceolar, 
five-nerved. Spines distinct, few, short and strong ; spadix decompound. 

Hurnur-gullar the vernacular name in Silhet, where this species is found, run- 
ning over trees, to a great extent; the ratan when cleaned is about as thick as a 
man’s finger throughout, and the joints from six to eight inches long. FI. Ind. 
loc. cit. 

¢ Specimens; apex of a leaf, and also of a male spadix. 


62 The Palms of British East India. 


twelve inches long, one and three-quarters broad, five-keeled above, 
with two lateral veins also slightly prominent; a few bristles occa- 
sionally on mid-keel ; margins rough with appressed bristle-shaped 
teeth ; apex mucronate-cuspidate, smooth or somewhat hispid. 

Spadiz two and a half feet long, nodding or curved, slender, 
and thinly branched, where exposed plano-convex, convex face arm- 
ed with short aculei. Spathes 3-4 inches long with short half-ovate 
limbs, armed with scattered, irregular, straight or hooked aculei. 
Branches attached just opposite the ends of the spathes, about a 
span long, slender, slightly flexuose, their lowermost spathes empty. 
Spikes also inserted opposite the ends of their spathes, (which are 
lax, clavate, generally armed with a few minute prickles,) about an 
inch long, scorpioid. 

Flowers suffulted by an amplectent scale-shaped bracte, with a 
short acute spreading limb, and by a short, obscurely three-tooth- 
ed, rather large, oblong cup. Calyx short, stout, divided below 
the middle into three oblong, broad segments. Corolla three times 


Jn evidence of the numbers of species of this genus, I may mention that I 
have just received from Malacca a very distinct species of this section with the 
name Rotang Jarnang, which is the true name of C. Draco. 

This species is distinguishable at once by the very small numerous deciduous 
prickles of the sheaths, (the old sheaths are merely rough from their scars, ) 
the margins of the mouths of which are lacerate-fibrous. The petiole below the 
pinne is about a span long, armed with rather distant, stout, somewhat curved 
prickles, marginal ones being also found here and there: at its junction with 
the sheath very gibbous and transversely puckered; also among the pinne short 
hooked prickles occur along the dorsum, being continued into the slender flagel- 
lus. Pinne@ alternate or distantly sub-opposite, linear-lanceolate, candato-acu- 
minate, 10-11 inches long, 6!-7 lines broad, above |-carinate, carina and a lateral 
vein on both sides bristly. 

For this the name C. micracantha may be proposed. 


Another species of the same section sent from Malacca, without any name, 
presents green sheaths, with very few slightly curved white prickles. Total length 
including flagellus four feet, of the pinniferous part twenty-one inches. Petioles pin- 
niferous to the base, armed with a dorsal row of stout clawed prickles, which towards 
the apex become binate or ternate with scattered ones intermixed. Pinne@ alter- 
nating or fasciculate, lowermost with cartilaginous swollen insertions, and apparent- 
ly deflexed, linear-lanceolate, 5-7 inches long, 5-7,lines broad, without bristles on 
either side or with a very few on the carina above, acuminate with bristly points, 
apparently glaucous underneath. 

This appears quite distinct. 


The Palms of British East India. 63 


longer, divided nearly to the attenuate fleshy base into three oblong, 
ovate, erect, ascending segments. Stamina as usual united to corolla, 
above this very shortly monadelphous ; filaments (free) long, subu- 
late, introflexed in xstivation ; anthers large, linear-oblong, attach- 
ed above the middle. Pollen yellow. Pistillum rudimentary. 


In the diffuse, slender, spadix, this species approaches 
somewhat to C. leptospadix, but otherwise is abundantly dis- 
tinct. In its leaves, excepting the flagellus, it approaches 
nearest to C. floribundus, Mishmeensis, and latifolius. 


Sect. Il.—(PIPTOSPATH AS). 


29, (19) C. verticillaris, (n. sp.) aculeis vaginarum verti- 
cillatis, verticillis zonis vel ternatis, superioris spinis validis 
planis deflexis, inferiorum duarum setiformibus in annulum 
alte coalitis, petioli (flagelliferi) pinniferi aculeis subtus 
fasciculatis uncinatis, supra lineatis dentiformibus irregu- 
laribus, pinnis equidistantibus linearibus (long. 12-13 uncia- 
libus lat. uncialibus) supra carina setigera subtus venulis 
tribus setigeris, spadicis supra-decompositi erecti pedunculo 
inermi, spathis persistentioribus binis aculeis subulato-seti- 
formibus armatis, floribus minutis numerosissimis. 


Has.—The interior of Malacca, it was brought to me 
with the name Rotang Simote. 


Descr.*—Scandent. Stem with the sheaths about one inch and a 
half in diameter. Sheaths green, armed, generally at short inter- 
vals, with complete whorls of flat very sharp deflexed brown-pointed 
spines; the spaces between the strong spines filled with minute 
bristles. Under each of the above whorls are two others of very 


* Specimens ; an entire upper part of a male plant in flower: but with very 
few flowers remaining. 


64 The Palms of British East India. 


slender bristles united to each other high up so as to form a ring, these 
bristles, are firm and thorny, white below where united, above black. 
These two whorls have an ascending direction, and cross the whorl 
of deflexed stout spines. The spaces between the whorls generally 
choked with foreign bodies or occupied by ants. Pefttoles flagelli- 
ferous, part below the pinne 13-2 feet long, flattened, somewhat trian- 
gular, armed below with bands or lines (generally complete) of stout 
thorns, above of small bristles. In the pinniferous part, which 
is about six feet long, the under flattish face presents the usual 
clawed thorns, the upper angular face unequal incomplete bands of 
short tooth-shaped bristles confluent at the base. Pinne equidistant, 
generally regularly alternating, linear, about twelve or thirteen inches 
long, an inch broad, subulate-acuminate : above with a central bris- 
tle-bearing carina, below with three veins bearing bristles ; margins 
rough with bristly teeth. 

Spadiz about two feet long, or more, erect, axillary, adhering 
as usual to the next sheath; about three inches from the axilla 
presenting two spathes, which are somewhat two-keeled, and not 
very concave, armed on the back by lines of stout bristly prickles : 
the uppermost spathe is rather the largest, about a span long; the 
sheaths are of considerable length, similarly armed. The peduncle 
itself is unarmed. Branches ascending, naked at the base, 4-6 
inches long, much divided, divisions rather spreading suffulted by an 
inconspicuous short brownish spathe with a rather long lanceolate 
acute limb. Spikes very numerous, each scarcely more than an inch 
long, chesnut-red, each suffulted by a similar but smaller spathe. 

Flowers very numerous, about thirty-five to each spike, (of which 
there are about twelve to the lower divisions of the lower branches,) 
very minute, exactly distichous.. Bractea amplectent, with a short 
rather deflexed limb ; cup nearly entire, shorter than the bractea. 
Calyx cup-shaped of the same texture as the cup, three times longer 
than it, obscurely three-toothed. Corolla (in bud) twice as long 
as the calyx, depressed at the summit, divided to the base into 
three oblong segments. Stamina 6. A large oblong rudiment of a 
Pistillum.* 


* These parts in the specimen are generally destroyed by insects, and the calyx 
generally is also more persistent than the corolla. 


The Paims of British East India. 65 


This very remarkable species is evidently allied to C. mi- 
rabilis, Reinwdt.* to which indeed I should have referred 
it, had not Reinwardt described his plant as having the 
long peduncle of the pendulous spathe armed with distich- 
ous thorns. 

The armature of the sheaths is very curious, and is well 
characterised by Martius.¢ It is almost equally distinct by 
its exceedingly numerous minute flowers, and the great de- 
gree of branching of the spadix. 


30. (20) C. Draco, aculeis vaginarum rectis seriatis petio- 
lorum sparsis, pinnis zquidistantibus lineari-lanceolatis (long. 
13 pedalibus lat. 7-8 linealibus), spadicis decompositi erecti 
pedunculo aculeis seriatis armato, spathis coriaceis infima 
dorso seriebus crebris aculeorum intermediis secus centrum 
parce aculeatis summis inermibus, fructibus ovato-rotundis 
materie resinosa incrustatis. 

C. Draco. Willd. 2. p. 203. Syst. Veget. ed. Schultes. 7. 
pt. 2. p. 1323. Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 774. Martius. Palm. 
p. 211. Palmijuncus Draco. Rumph. Hb. Amb. 5. p. 114. 
Sef. 1. | 


Has.—A native of Sumatra and the Malay Islands. 
Flowering time March and April. Roxburgh. Penang, Mr. 
Lewes. Jarnang of the Malays of Penang. 


Descr.§—Young spadices imbricated with large coriaceous spathes 
whose margins towards the apex are recurved, almost woody in 
texture, outside they are ferruginous red, inside chesnut-red. The 
lowermost much armed with seriate very strong deflexed spines ; 
those next to this are slightly armed along the middle of their backs, 
the upper ones almost unarmed. Peduncle much armed with stout 
seriate or fasciculate thorns. 


* Mart. Palm. p. 213. ¢ Loc. cit. 
{ Char. part. e Roxburghio. 
} Specimens of young, and of fruit bearing mature spadices. 


K 


66 The Palms of British East India. 


Fruit bearing spadix nodding? nearly two feet long, without 
spathes, with two or three annular scars beneath that of the lowest 
branch ; peduncle short, armed: branches several, spreading, upper 
ones simple, lowermost branched, naked at the base. Spikes short, 
stout, flexuose, a squamiform bracte and two annular bracteoles un- 
der each fruit. 

These are ovate-round, on short, stout, stalks, surrounded at the 
base by the calyx, and the spreading or revolute linear-lanceolate 
petals, tipped at the point by the remains of the style. Scales with a 
narrow deep longitudinal furrow, naturally whitish, but incrusted with 
a rich blackish-red secretion, the best Dragon’s Blood of commerce. 
Seed generally one, sometimes two, in which case they are nearly 
hemispherical. Albumen much ruminate. Hmbryo basilar. 


I subjoin Roxburgh’s description of this plant. 


“ Trunk while the plants are young, erect, and then resembling an 
elegant, slender palm tree, armed with innumerable dark coloured, 
flattened, elastic spines, often disposed in oblique rows, with their 
bases united. By age they become scandent, and overrun trees to 
a great extent. Leaves pinnate, their sheaths and petioles armed as 
above described. Leaflets single, alternate, ensiform, margins re- 
motely armed with stiff, slender bristles, as are also the nerves ; 
from twelve to eighteen inches long and about three quarters of an 
inch broad. Spadix of the female hermaphrodite inserted by means 
of a short armed petiole on the mouth of the sheath opposite to the 
leaf, oblong, decompound, resembling a common oblong panicle. 
Spathes several, one to each of the four or five primary ramifications 
of the spadix, lanceolate, leathery ; all smooth except the exterior or 
lower one which is armed on the outside. Calyx of the female or ra- 
ther female hermaprodite. Perianth turbinate, ribbed ; mouth three- 
toothed, by the swelling of the germ it splits into three portions, 
and in this manner may be seen adhering with the corol to the ripe 
berries. Corol three-cleft ; divisions ovate-lanceolate, twice as long 
as the calyx, permanent. Filaments six, very broad, and inserted 
into the base of the corol. Anthers filiform, and seemingly abortive. 
Germ above, oval. Styles short. Stigma three-cleft ; divisions re- 


The Palms of British East India. 67 


volute, glandular on the inside. Berry round, pointed, of the size of 
a cherry.” 


The natural secretion of the fruit constitutes the best 
D’jurnang, or Dragon’s Blood ; a second and rather inferior 
kind is produced from the fruits, from which the natural se- 
cretion has been removed by heat and bruising. The third 
and most inferior appears to be the refuse of this last pro- 
cess. It is perhaps doubtful, whether this article is pro- 
cured from this plant by incisions. 

The above is taken from Rumph. who has a copious 
article on the subject.* Mr. Lewes informs me, that he long 
ago forwarded a full account of the preparation of this 
Dragon’s Blood to Dr. Wallich ; its true source not appear- 
ing to him to be generally known. 


31. (21) C. geniculatus, (n. sp.) aculeis petioli (flagelliferi) 
pinniferi subtus uncinatis semi-verticillatis supra sparsis denti- 
formibus, pinnis 2quidistantibus lineari-lanceolatis (long. 14- 
uncialibus lat. uncialibus) supra 1-carinatis (carina parce 
setosa) subtus venis 3 setigeris margine integerrimis, spadicis 
geniculati pedunculo bipedali compresso secus margines valide 
aculeato, spathis omnibus demum deciduis, fructibus rotun- 
dis rostratis (albis). 


Has.—Penang, Mr. Lewes. Rotang Dodoor of the Ma- 
lays of that Island. 


Drscr.t—Petiole (of pinniferous portion) obtusely trigonal, under- 
neath armed with hooked claws, upper angle here and there with 
small tooth shaped prickles. Pinne approximate, often sub-opposite, 
linear-lanceolate, 15-16 inches long, one broad, subulato-acuminate, 


* Hb. Amb. V. p. 114. 
t Specimens ; the S. portions of a leaf and 3 spadices with immature fruits. 


68 The Palms of British East India. 


with 3 veins prominent on the upper surface; of these the central 
bears a few bristles towards the apex, under surface with two lateral 
veins bristly, and also the central towards the apex ; margins except 
the point without bristles or teeth. | 

Spadix three feet long. Peduncle below the branches one foot and 
a half long, flattened, not two-edged, with scars of a row of stout 
marginal spines; above the branches unarmed, at the insertion of 
each branch swollen into knots. First scar of the spathes immediately 
under the lowest branch. Branches all naked at the base, lowermost 
aspan long, angular, stout. Spikes spreading, suffulted by lanceolate 
acute scarious bractes, stout, flexuose, 2-3 inches long : some of them 
present subulate abortive branches. 

Flowers subsessile at the flexures, suffulted by a scale-shaped 
annular bracte, and at the base surrounded by two annular alternat- 
ing bracteoles, the mner of which is almost cup-shaped. 

Fruit subglobose, cuspidate by base of the style, surrounded by the 
calyx, more or less split, and by the corolla much more split and 
tending to be lacerate ; its segments oblong, twice as long as those 
of the calyx; scales large, pale, yellowish white with a narrow cen- 
tral furrow and dark brown margins with whitish edges. Seed one, 
(immature. ) 


This species comes very close to the succeeding, and there 
is a similarity in the Malayan name which is suspicious. Ne- 
vertheless I have little doubt of its being quite distinct, espe- 
cially from the smooth margins of the leaves, a very unusual 
character, the flat, not two-edged peduncle armed strongly 
along the edges, the swollen nodes, the stout, rigid, very 
flexuose spikes, and the round fruit. 

The spikes call to mind by their flexures the spikes of 
some Rottbotliaceous grasses. 


32. (22) C. longipes, (n. sp.) aculeis vaginarum planis seriatis 
vel solitariis setis presertim versus margines interspersis, pe- 
tioli (flagelliferi) infra pinnas paucis subulatis inequalibus, 
inter pinnas uncinatis solitariis, pinnis zquidistantibus lineari- 


= eee eee 


a ee 


Se ea Se 


The Palms of British East India. 69 


lanceolatis (long. 14. uncialibus lat. uncialibus) supra venis 
tribus setigeris, spadicis decompositi elongati nutantis pe- 
dunculo bipedali ancipiti subinermi, spathis omnibus demum 
deciduis, fructibus oblongis styli basi cuspidatis basi calyce 
tantum circumcinctis. | 

Palmijuncus verus angustifolius. Rumph. Hb. Amb. 5. 
p. 105. t. 54. fig. 2. ? 


Has.—Malacca, C. Fernandez, sent with the name Ao- 


tang Dodow. 


Dzscr.*—Sheaths very much armed with stout flat spines, broader 
than usual, with bristles often intermixed, those along the margins, 
which are very bristly, slenderer but not longer. ‘The marginal ones 
of the base of petiole subulate-triangular, and rather longer than any 
of the others. Petiole at the base convex below, channelled broadly 
above, armed with long irregular spines, (which about a foot from the 
axil appear reduced to a marginal row of distant short straight teeth 
and another similar one along the centre of the lower face,) inclusive 
of flagellus about twelve feet long; pinniferous portion about seven 
feet; lower two feet naked, above the channelled part rather flat 
above, convex below. Between the pinne it is obtusely triangular, 
above unarmed, below armed with solitary distant short aculei. Pinne 
about fourteen inches long, about an inch broad, linear-lanceolate, 
subulato-acuminate, upper face with the central and two lateral veins 
sparingly bristly ; under smooth; margins and apex bristly. 

Spadix adhering to the next sheath as usual, throughout the 
lower two or two and half feet of its length naked, unarmed, or with 
a very few not very strong spines along the edges, compressed, dis- 
tinctly two-edged, marked with the annulus of the first spathe, 
which suffults the lowest branch of the spadix; surface irregularly 
sprinkled with brown chaffy matter. Fruit bearing part a little more 
than eighteen inches long, rather compressed, but not two-edged. 
Branches several, angular, themselves much divided, the lowermost 
4-5 inches apart: without suffulting spathes. Spikes varying in 


* Specimen ; apex of a fruit bearing plant, fully expanded leaf wanting. 


70 The Palms of British East India. 


length, lowermost of the lowest branches 4-5 inches long, spreading, 
angular. 

Fruits on shortish stalks, uppermost of each spike nearly sessile, 
spreading, oblong-ovate, length six lines, breadth three and a half, 
attenuated into a short mammilla terminated by the base of the 
style, surrounded at the base by one envelope! divided below the 
middle into three oblong segments, between this and the fruit itself 
is a short cup variously lacerated, and outside at the apex of the 
stalk, two bractes, the outer one subannuliform. Scales whitish, 
cartilaginous, with pale margins, the central furrows deep, and con- 
secutive. 


Seed (immature,) oblong. Adbumen ruminate. 


This is probably the plant of Rumphius, quoted by most 
authors as C. verus; it resembles it in the length of the 
spadices, the want of a spathe when in fruit, the distance of 
the annulus or cicatrix of this from the axilla, and its 
suffulting the lowest branch of the inflorescence. 

It is, as may be supposed, very closely allied to the C. 
platyacanthus of Martius,* from which however it differs in 
the very long two-edged peduncles of the spadix, the want 
of spathes when in fruit, in which points Martius’s plant 
differs from that of Rumph. 

It is the only one I have yet seen of this section in which 
all the spathes appear to be deciduous or in which the fruit 
is only surrounded by one envelope, the corolla being appa- 
rently for the most part deciduous. In this again it differs 
from Martius’s plant. 

From the preceding to which it is closely allied, it is 
known at once by the absence of the remarkable very long 
spines to the margins of the mouths of the sheaths, and by 
the spadix and fruits. 


33. (23) C. Hystriz, (n. sp.) aculeis vaginarum seriatis vel 
sparsis marginum longissimis spithameis vel pedalibus, petioli 


* Palm. p. 206. t. 160 f. i. ii. iii. 


The Palms of British East India. 71 


(flagelliferi) infra pinnas valde inzequalibus sparsis patentis- 
simis, inter pinnas subtus uncinatis supra minutis dentifor- 
mibus, pinnis zequidistantibus confertis linearibus (long. 16- 
uncialibus lat. 5-6 linealibus) supra carina et carinulis duabus 
setigeris, subtus venis 5 setosis, spadice decomposito erec- 
to, spatha crebre armata spinis marginum apicem versus 
longissimis, spicis florum feemineorum ascendenti-convergen- 
tibus fructuum patentibus, dentibus calycis villosis vel pen- 
nicillatis, fructibus oblongis albis. 


Has.—In forests. Ayer Punnus, Rhim; Province of Ma- 
lacca. Malayan name Rotang Sabote. 


Descr.*—Climbing to a great extent, flagelliferous, diameter of 
stem towards the flowering part 14 inch. Sheaths swollen at the 
insertion of the petiole, armed with strong large flat spines, distinct, 
or in the usual incomplete verticils, those of the margins of the 
mouth of the sheath exceedingly long, a span or a foot in length, 
and proportionally broader at the base. Petiole 1} to 13 foot 
long in its lower naked part; where it is rather angular, and various- 
ly armed. The spines of the margin one inch long, subulate, the 
others aculeiform, while the upper flatter face has small thorny teeth. 
Pinniferous part 5-6 feet long, rather angular, armed above along the 
centre with short straight teeth, below with solitary hooked thorns. 
These are as usual continued into the flagellus, which is very long. 
Pinne very numerous, generally approximate in pairs, linear, subu- 
lato-acuminate, 16 inches long, 6 lines wide, under face with 5 
bristle-bearing veins, the upper has the midvein carinate, one lateral 
one on either side sub-carinate, bearing bristles chiefly above the 
middle ; margins bristly, ciliate ; apex as usual hispid. 

Spadix 2 feet long, (exserted 2 feet,) peduncle adhering to the next 
sheath, in the young state so imbricated with spathes as to be subu- 
late ; of these spathes the lowermost 4 are armed, the armature gra- 
dually diminishing from the base upwards. In flower it has one 
spathe near the axilla, boat-shaped, 4-5 inches long, flattish or nearly 


* Specimens; entire specimens of plant with female flowers and fruit. 


72 The Palms of British East India. 


revolute at the apex, coriaceous, armed on the back with very 
strong broad spines, of which the uppermost along the margins 
are a good deal the longest, and awl-shaped from a flat base. 
Branches several, with the same ascending direction as the pedun- 
cle, naked at the base. Spikes 2-3 inches long, also ascending, slen- 
der, flexuose, ferrugineo-furfuraceous, suffulted at the base by an 
obscure squamiform bracte. 

Flowers solitary on short stalks, occupying the flexures, stalk 
furnished with one minute bracteole! Calyx short, cupshaped, ob- 
soletely three-toothed, teeth short, villous at the points. Corolla 
with a sub-globose base, twice as long as the calyx, divided to the 
middle ; segments half-lanceolate, spreading. Stamina adhering to 
corolla to the base of its segments ; anthers linear-sagittate, effete, on 
very short filaments. Ovarium ovate-roundish, covered with shortly 
ciliate scales, 3-celled at the base. Style divided to the base into 
three oblong-clavate segments, very lamellar, and papillose on the 
inner surface and sides. 

Fruit bearing spadix with or without the spathe. Spikes spreading, 
very flexuose. Stalks of the fruit spreading. Fruit surrounded at the 
base by the persistent envelopes, elliptic, shortly mammillate at the 
apex. Scales large, cartilaginous, appearing to the naked eye to have 
two lines down the centre, margins cartilaginous. Seed 1, oblong, 
erect. Tegument dark-brown, with the usual resiniferous pits, rather 
thick in some parts. Albumen horny, deeply ruminate. Embryo 
basilar. 


This species is closely allied to C. platyacanthos, Mart. 
from which, however, it is at once distinguishable by the 
enormously long spines of the margins of the mouths of the 
sheaths. The armature of the lowermost and most persis- 
tent spathe also differs in the analogous elongation of the 
spine of its apex. ‘The teeth of the calyx are moreover 
tufted with hairs, and the fruit of the same period of deve- 
lopment is oblong, not obovate as in the species alluded to. 
Martius also gives the spadices in his species as ‘ pedes 
nonnullos longi.”* 


* Palm. loc. cit. 


— 


The Palms of British East India. 73 


It appears to vary a good deal. I have specimens sent 
by E. Fernandez from Malacca, under the name Rotang 
Pusaisur, which is of smaller size, the spadix (with young 
fruit) not a foot in length, and the flowers with two bracteoles. 
But otherwise the plants are so much alike, and there ap- 
pears to be so great a tendency to vary in the length of the 
spadices, that I have thought it better to unite the two, par- 
ticularly as so little is yet known of the real value of the 
characters employed in the distinction of the species. 

The female spikes in flower resemble a good deal the 
same parts of C. leptopus ; and it is to be remarked that the 
lowermost spathe, though persistent for a long time, pre- 
sents scarcely any sheath. 

In the armature of the petioles it may be considered 
to approach in some degree to C. castaneus, the thorns 
in both being often or generally solitary, and very unequal in 
size. 

Rumph’s figure of Palmijuncus verus angustifolius* gives, 
with the exception of the want of the long spines, a good 
idea of this species in fruit. 


Sect. III.—(PLATYSPATH-.) 


Huic sectioni pertinet Katu-tsjurel, Rheede. Hort. Mal. 12. 
t. 65.; Roxburghio ad Calamum suum latifolium refertus. 


34, (24) C. leptopus, (n. sp.) spinis vaginarum seriatis, 
petiolorum (flagellifer :) partis inferioris nude seriatis, aculeis 
partis pinnifere uncinatis, pinnis equidistantibus lineari- 
lanceolatis (long. 15-16-uncialibus lat. 12-13-linealibus) cir- 
rhoso-acuminatis supra 1-carinatis sub-glabris subtus szepius 


* Herb. Amb. v. t. 54. f. 2. C. verus of most authors. C. platyacanthos. Mart. 
loc. cit. 


¢t This species may be distinguished as C. (Platyspatha) Rheedei, petiolis 
spadicibusque aculeatis, pinnis distanter fasciculatis lineari-lanceolatis. 


L 


74 The Palms of British East India. 


venis 3 setigeris, spadice nutante vel pendulo decomposito 
infra spathas spinis subulatis armato, spathis coriaceis in- 
fima spathiformi secus carinas duas armata reliquis planis 
inermibus, spicis ascendenti-convergentibus, floribus ob- 
longis. 


Has.—Malacca. Rotang Chinchin of the Malays. 


Drscr.*—Scandent ; diameter of the stem and sheaths about one 
inch. Sheaths about a span long, armed with fascicles of flat rather 
deflexed spines, shorter and stouter than usual; at the base of the 
petiole swollen transversely. Petiole in its lower naked part about 
two feet long, triangular, armed with similar and generally solitary 
but smaller spines, those of the margin subulate and slender : pinni- 
ferous part convex-trigonal, under convex-face armed with clawed 
prickles three or four together, upper unarmed or with smaller 
prickles. Pinne many, alternating, sometimes almost opposite, linear- 
lanceolate, 15-16 inches long, 12-13 lines broad, acuminated into a 
long cirrhose bristle, midvein prominent above and generally smooth, 
underneath with a few bristles, as have also two lateral veins : mar- 
gins bristly especially towards the point. 

Spadix (young) club-shaped, mature pendulous (?) ; peduncle 
about a foot long ; exserted part flattened, slender, about a span long, 
much armed chiefly along the edges with short stout spines in twos 
or threes ; alternately and distantly branched, each branch suffulted 
by a large leathery ascending spathe ; of these the outermost is spa- 
thiform, the margins revolute towards the apex, indistinctly bi-cari- 
nate, with stoutish solitary spines along the keels; the rest flat, un- 
armed, about aspanin length. Branches 2 or 3 times shorter than their 
spathes, nearly of the same direction with the spadix, with distichous 
slightly spreading ramifications. These (the spikes) are 14-3 inches 
long, distinctly flexuose : bearing at each flexure a scale-like amplec- 
tent bracte, and one flower. 

Flowers all pushed to the posticous side, on short stalks or nearly 
sessile, surrounded at the base by a short, somewhat 3-toothed cup, 


* Specimens: apex of a flower bearing stem of a female plant. 


The Palms of British East India. 15 


outside which is on the posticous side a larger bracte, and on the 
anticous side a smaller one. 

Calyx oblong-ovate, rather large, with three short stout acute teeth. 
Corolla in the part corresponding to the calyx ovate-ventricose, 3- 
partite a little below the middle (or to the calyx,) segments linear, 
acute, rather spreading. Stamina 6 ; filaments united to the corolla as | 
far as the base of its segments: thence free, short, broad, subulate 
ending in bristles ; anthers deficient. Ovarium ovate-oblong, densely 
covered with shortly ciliate-scales, 3-celled. Ovules solitary. Style 
very short, stout, divided nearly to its base into 3 branches which are 
subulate, spreading or almost recurved, rather longer than the petals, 
with an elevated line along the centre of their backs; inner face 
stigmatic. 


This species differs from C. platyspathus* abundantly. 
The petioles (not the spadices) are prolonged into flagelli, 


* C. platyspathus : scandens, aculeis vaginarum crebris subulatis rectis petioli 
rectis et reduncis, pinnis sparsis lineari-lanceolatis long. sub-pedalibus lat ; pol- 
licaribus pluriveniis plicatis subtus ferrugineo-tomentosulis, spadicis aculeis rec- 
tis abortivis loriformibus, spathis subinermibus, spicis abbreviatis confertis.* 

C. platyspathus, Mart. Palm. p. 210. 


Has.—Tavoy, Tennasserim Provinces. W. Gomez. 


I subjoin Martius’s character and description of this species :— 

** Calamus platyspathus : caudice scandente tenui ; frondibus ecirrosis ; pin- 
nis sparsis, terminalibus distinctis lineari-lanceolatis plurinerviis plicatis, sub- 
tus ferrugineo-tomentosulis, aculeis vaginarum crebris subulatis rectis, petioli 
rhacheosque rectis et aduncis ; spadicis masculi decompositi julis abbreviatis 
confertis, aculeis rectis ; spathis (primum clausis, dein expansis ?) planis, sub- 
inermibus ; loris aculeatis. 

Species distinctissima. Pinnae spithamam ad pedem longae, medio ultra polli- 
cemlatae. Spadix sesquipedalis, laxus, rhachi inferne ancipiti superne teretius- 
cula. Rami florigeri masculi quadripollicares et sursum breviores, primum, uti 
videtur, spathis membranaceis omnino involuti, quae tandem explanatae, dorso 
nervis binis nunc passim aculeatis nunc inermibus sunt percursae. Juli cujusvis 
rhacheos partialis secundo-convergentes, continent flores 7-11 parvulos, pariter in 
unum idemque latus conversos, quasi uti in racemo scorpioideo. Calyx campanu- 
latus, sinubus rotundatis in denticulos tres breves excisus pallidus. Corolla viridi- 
flava, petalis lanceolatis.’’ 


* Char, e Martio. 


76 The Palms of British East India. 


the spines of the sheaths are distinctly seriate, the pinnz 
neither plicate, nor tomentose underneath. 

It comes close to the preceding section, its young spadices 
having a strong resemblance to those of C. Draco. The 
mature spadices again resemble to some extent those of C. 
Hystrix, and there is moreover a tendency in the spathes to 
be deciduous. 


35. (25.) C. Mastersianus, (n. sp.) vaginarum spinis plano- 
subulatis sub-deflexis aculeis irregularibus interspersis, pe- 
tioli partis nudz dorsalibus et marginalibus aculeis intersper- 
sis, aculeis partis pinnifere dorsalibus cum vel absque mar- 
ginalibus, pinnis equidistantibus linearibus (long. 13-uncia- 
libus lat. 7-linealibus) cirrhoso-acuminatis, supra carina cen- 
trali et venula laterali utrinque setigera subtus vena centrali 
setulosa, spadice (flagellifero) aculeato masculo supra-decom- 
posito, spathis planis coriaceis extus glaucis infima bicarinata 
secus carinas aculeata, spicis feemineis distantibus patenti- 
bus, floribus conicis, corolla calyce paullo-longiore, fructi- 
bus pisiformibus cuspidato-rostratis (albidis), albumine sub- 
zequabili. 


Has.—Assam, No. 1201, of my Assam collections. Soon- 
dee-bet of the Assamese. The smallest bet of Assam; Ma- 
jor Jenkins. » 


Descr.*—Stem with the sheaths about half an inch in diameter. 
Sheaths armed with stout flat spines, somewhat deflexed, concave un- 
derneath, arising from a large sub-conical base, among these, except 
perhaps towards the apex of the sheaths, occur smaller prickles very 
irregular in size. Ligula very large, coriaceous. Pettole a good deal 
swollen at its insertion ; lower naked part 33-4 inches long, plano- 
convex, armed on the centre of the under face with a row of distant 
spines like those of the sheaths but smaller, along the margins with 


* Complete specimens of the female plant in flower and fruit, and portion of a 


male spadix. 3 


eS ee 


ee Te 


a —_—<— —  — — 


The Palms of British East India. res 


still smaller ones interspersed with small prickles. Pinniferous part 
(which is 3-4 feet long) armed with stout clawed prickles along the 
centre of the under face, a few others being added about the margins. 
Pinne equidistant, linear, about thirteen inches long, seven lines 
broad, cirhoso-acuminate, 1-carinate above ; carina and a lateral vein 
on either side bristly towards the apex, midvein of the under surface 
with a few smaller bristles : margins rough with minute bristle teeth. 

Male Spadir supra-decompound, more slender than the female ; 
Branches a span long. Spathes more membranous, especially about 
the limbs. Spikes scarcely more than an inch long, slender, very 
flexuose, spreading or recurved, sometimes scorpioid, arising from 
a cartilaginous base opposite the ends of their spathes. Bractea 
with an acute spreading limb. Cup very shallow, almost wanting 
anticously, posticously broadly emarginate and sub-bicarinate. 

Flowers oblong-ovate, exactly distichous. Calyx with a broad car- 
' tilaginous base, divided to the middle’ into three broad rather acute 
segments. Corolla about twice as long, in bud ovate-conical, divided 
almost to the attenuate base into three lanceolate-ovate segments. 
Stamina shortly monadelphous ; filaments (free) subulate, about half 
the length of the petals ; anthers ovate-sagittate, yellow. Rudiment 
of the Pzstillum large, of three oblong bodies like abortive carpel 
leaves. 

Female spadixz 5-6 feet long, decompound, nodding. Peduncle adnate 
to the next sheath, plano-convex, armed on the convex face, chiefly 
along centre, with broad hooked prickles, along the edges with 
spreading subulate middling sized spines, the armature is continued 
above this in the shape of hooked prickles which gradually encroach 
on the surface of the peduncle, so that the apex has the whole surface 
armed. A linear, coriaceous, entire or split spathe, brown inside, 
whitish outside, at the base of each branch ; the lowest about a foot 
long, bicarinate, carina armed except towards the apex with stoutish 
prickles, subulate from an oblique bulbous base. Remaining spathes 
diminishing in size gradually, all unarmed, sometimes split and lacera- 
ted, subsequently the tubular parts alone remain. Branches of the 
spadix longer a good deal than the internodes, bearing many filiform 
spreading, flexuose spikes, 2-4 inches in length, surrounded at the 
cartilaginous base by a whitish scale-shaped annular bracte. 


78 The Palms of British East India. 


Flowers distichous, rather distant, one at each flexure, of the shape 
of a sugar loaf, small, suffulted by a small annular scale-shaped 
bracte, and two minute bracteoles. Calyx oblong, conical, of a thick 
substance at the base, with three short sub-cordate mucronate teeth 
with whitish membranous margins. Corolla oblong-ovate, a little 
longer than the calyx, divided nearly to the middle ; segments erect 
rather obtuse. Stamina 6; filaments not adnate to the corolla, united 
into a cup surrounding the lower part of the ovarium, (free) very short ; 
anthers ovate-sagittate, effete. _Ovarium oblong-obovate, smooth at 
the base, where it is 3-celled, otherwise covered with scales. Style 
(common) scarcely any, the branches revolute from the base, subu- 
late, stigmatose inside. Ovula solitary. 

Fruits very numerous, of the size of a pea, surrounded at the base 
by the perianth, beaked by the hard persistent base of the style. 
Scales very numerous, minute, whitish with fuscous margins and 
points, which are incised. Seed baccate, erect, roundish-placenti- 
form. Tegument thin; pulp gelatinous, thick opposite the chalaza, 
and in a less degree on the opposite face. Raphe of two divergent 
whitish branches, terminating about the middle of the ventral face of 
the seed. Albumen cartilaginous, solid, surface slightly unequal ; op- 
posite the chalaza is a shallow foveola, and a smaller and shallower 
one on the opposite face : on a long section it appears pulley-shaped. 
Embyo basilar, conical. 


This appears to be a very distinct species, especially in 
its inflorescence. It has considerable affinities with Cala- 
mus tenuis, especially in the female spikes and flowers. I 
have dedicated it to my friend Mr. Masters, who is now in- 
vestigating the Flora of Assam with great success. 


36. (26) C. ramosissimus, (n. sp.) spinis pinnis 
spadicis supra-decompositi inermis pedunculo infra spathas 
ancipiti sursum teretiusculo areolato, spathis (terminalibus) 
membranaceis scaphiformibus, spicis gracillimis, floribus 
(masculis) numerosissimis, corolla calyce oblongo breviter 
tridentato duplo fere longiore. 


Has.— Uncertain. 


| 
1 


The Palms of British East India. thy 


Descr.*—Spadix unarmed, about two feet in length; pedun- 
cle flat and two-edged ; internodes long, compressed, not two-edged, 
pitted from pressure of the flowers in bud. Branches the length of 
the internodes of the spadix, lowest about nine inches long, spread- 
ing, extremely divided ; largest branchlets of lowest panicle about four 
inches long. The uppermost spathe two inches long, membranous, 
acute, smooth, boat-shaped. Spikes about an inch long, very slender, 
very flexuose with a scale-shaped bracte at each flexure: rachis 
triangular. Flowers extremely numerous, suffulted by the above bracte, 
and surrounded by a very shallow, oblique, oblong-ovate, cup, emar- 
ginate behind. Calyx oblong, with three very short rounded teeth. 
Corolla not quite twice the length of the calyx, divided nearly to 
the base; segments oblong, rather obtuse. Stamina 6, united to 
the corolla as far as the base of its segments ; filaments (free) long, 
subulate, flat ; anthers (included) obtusely sagittate. Rudiments of 
the Pistillum very long, nearly equalling the stamina, composed of 3 
subulate distinct bodies. 


This species approaches closely to C. Jenkinsianus from 
which it appears to be distinguished by the comparatively 
long internodes of the spadix, the lowest being distinctly 2- 
edged, by the very slender spikes, the obsolete cup, and ra- 
ther longer calyx. It is one of those which establishes some 
degree of affinity, at least in inflorescence, with certain Gra- 
minee. The male flowers, moreover, of this and many 
others are not altogether unlike the flowers of such grasses 
as Oryza and Blepharochloa. 


Secr. [V.—(CYMBOSPATH-.) 
D#&MoNOROPS AUCTORUM. 
* Gymnospathe ; spathis inermibus (semi-apertis et se- 
cundis. ) | 
37. (27) C. nutantiflorus, (n. sp.) spinis —, pinnis linearibus 
equidistantibus supra carina centrali et venis lateralibus 


* Specimen: a male spadix (entire?) with very few flowers, and one terminal 
spathe. 


SO The Palms of British East India. 


duabus setigeris, spathis inermibus acuminatissimis secundis, 
pedunculo spadicis (masculi) supra-decompositi inermi, ramis 
nutantibus dense ferrugineo-furfuraceis, spatharum (secunda- 
riarum) laminis majusculis, calycis dentibus obtusis villoso- 
penicillatis quam corolla sub-duplo brevioribus. 


Has.—Assam, Major Jenkins. 


Descr.*—Petiole in the pinniferous part armed with ternate 
prickles. Pinne equidistant, linear, about a foot long, five lines broad, 
upper surface with one central carina bearing small bristles, and 
a lateral vein on each side with long bristles ; under surface smooth ; 
margins with many appressed bristles. 

Spadices about two feet long. Peduncle unarmed, apparently united 
to the neighbouring sheath, compressed, about three inches long to 
the first flower-bearing branch, below which it presents one annulate 
scar. Spathes all pushed as it were to one side, the lowest about 
eighteen inches long, one-keeled along the centre, all very much 
acuminated, and considerably longer than the spadix, (the tips about 
level-topped) coriaceous, striate, chesnut coloured internally, exter- 
nally glaucescent, much flatter than in almost any other species of 
the section. Flower-bearing branches each suffulted by one of the 
above spathes, very much branched, 4-6 inches long, towards the 
time of expansion nodding and secund. 

Spikes like the branches sprinkled with dark coloured tomentum, 
about an inch long, very flexuose with a single flower at each 
flexure. 

Flowers distichous, sprinkled with tomentum. Bracte amplectent, 
with a short membranous limb, the margins more or less ciliate, and 
the apex often tufted. Cup bidentate, membranous, about three times 
shorter than the calyx: margins ciliate, and teeth tufted. Calyx 
oblong, very coriaceous and much striate, three-toothed; teeth 
obtuse, with tufts of brown wool. Corolla oblong, one-third longer 
than the calyx, divided almost to the base into three oblong obtuse 
segments. Stamina 6; filaments subulate, distinct, reddish ; anthers 


* Specimens: three male spadices, and a portion of a young leaf. 


The Palms of British East India. 81 


obtusely sagittate, about as long as the filament. A small 3-lobed 
rudiment of a pistillum. 


This remarkable species, for which I am indebted to Major 
Jenkins, appears to be an intermediate form between the 
true Cymbospathz and Platyspathe ; the majority of the cha- 
racters being those of the former section. 

It is closely allied to the succeeding, from which it is to be 
distinguished by the unarmed peduncle of the spadix, the un- 
armed spathes (the second one at least presents no spines,) 
the comparatively large limbs of the secondary spathes, and 
the nodding very scurfy branches. I take it to be one of 
the forms exhibiting a representation of Graminez, to some 
Andropogoneous forms of which it is at first sight not alto- 
gether unlike. 


** Acanthospathe ; spathis externis aculeis armatis. 
* Scandentes. Petiols flagelliferi. 

38. (28) C. Jenkinsianus, (n. sp.) vaginarum spinis longis 
planis deflexis setis multis interspersis, petioli partis nude 
dorsalibus et marginalibus crebris mediocribus, partis pinni- 
ferze inferioris marginalibus ventralibusque cum aculeis dor- 
salibus uncinatis, aculeis partis superioris ventralibus soli- 
tariis et dorsalibus palmatis, pinnis equidistantibus linea- 
ribus (long. bipedalibus lat. 6-7 linealibus) supra carina 
centrali et venis lateralibus 2 setigeris, vena media subtus 
parce setulosa, spadicis elongati decompositi pedunculo 
crebre armato, spathis sub-apertis extima subplana bicari- 
nata dorso spinas graciles deftexas interdum fere setiformes 
gerente, rostro sub-triplo breviore. 


Has.—Assam. Major Jenkins. 


Descr.*—Stem with the sheaths one inch and three quarters 
in diameter. Sheaths highly armed with long seriate flat brown 


* Specimens ; an entire upper part of a male plant in flower, and two or three 
female spadices in flower, (after fecundation. ) 


M 


82 The Palms of British East India. 


spines, broader, but less hard than usual, deflexed, except those of the 
margins which are ascending; rather long thorny bristles occur 
mixed with these or in distinct series. The edges of the larger 
spines irregular from adhering brownish tissue. Petiole transversely 
puckered at the base: naked part 5-6 inches long, armed on the 
back with stout deflexed brownish spines, solitary, or, as in: the 
lowest, in short series; numerous shorter and rather stronger as- 
cending ones along the margins, solitary or a few together. 

These are continued into the pinniferous part, which is angular 
above, convex below, while the back of the same is armed with short 
strong conical claw-shaped prickles, which upwards appear reduced 
into a central series. Flagellus long, armed with the usual claw- 
shaped aculei. Pinne alternate, linear, the largest in the specimens 
nearly two feet long, 8-9 lines broad,* cirrhoso-acuminate, above 
with a central carina bearing bristles, and with a lateral one on 
either side with very long and often stout bristles ; under surface with 
a bristle here and there on the midvein; margins rough with numer- 
ous appressed bristles. Young petiole covered with a brownish 
tomentum. 

Male spadizx 2-feet long, adnate to the contiguous sheath. Pedun- 
cle between the lowest spathe and the axilla about 2 inches long, 
very much armed with black spines; above the lowest spathe quite 
unarmed. Spathes open, level-topped ? not over-lapping, probably 
spreading, except perhaps tlie lowest, which is attached about 2 inches 
below the lowest branch. It is two feet long, linear-lanceolate, 
acuminate into a long beak, concave, scarcely boat-shaped, bicarinate 
on the back and armed with deflexed irregular rather slender black- 
ish spines. The other spathes (one to each branch of the spadix) 
gradually diminish in size upwards, they are leathery or chartace- 
ous, chesnut brown inside, glaucescent outside, unarmed except the 
second, which presents a few weak thorns along two obscure carine. 
Flower-bearing branches several, ascending, longer than the inter- 
nodes, decompound, much shorter than their spathes, except perhaps 
the uppermost. Spikes flexuose, more or less covered with rust 
coloured scurf; the lowest of each branch 3-4 flowered, the upper 
about 2-flowered. 


* The average size 14-16 inches long, 6-7 lines broad. 


: 
. 


The Paims of British East India. 83 


Flowers oblong, oblique, situated at the flexures, each suffulted by 
an amplectent ovate-acute generally ciliate bracte, and a cup with 
two pennicillate teeth next the axis. Calyx oblong, very stri- 
ate, shortly 3-toothed; teeth with short tufts of ferruginous hairs. 
Corolla rather more than twice the length of the calyx, divided 
nearly to the base; segments oblong, concave. Stamina 6 ; filaments 
subulate, fleshy, red, united by their bases to each other and to the 
petals. Anthers not seen, nor the rudiment of the Pistillum. 

Female spadiz about the same length: the lower part of the pe- 
duncle, however, is longer, and the armature as well as that of the 
outer spathe more slender, bristly and white ; the beak is also similar- 
ly armed. Flower-bearing branches flattened, so that the spikes are 
nearly bifarious. Spikes or more properly speaking racemes, 2-3 
inches long, flexuose, also scurfy. 

Flowers solitary at the flexures, the lowest on short stout stalks, 
the upper ones sessile. An amplectent acuminate blackish bracte (at 
the base of the stalk,) and two bracteoles to each flower : between the 
upper and larger, sometimes cup-shaped bracteole and that next it 
a gibbosity as though there should be another flower. Apex of the 
upper bracteole pennicillate. Calyx barrel-shaped with three obsolete 
teeth. Corolla rather more than twice as long, divided nearly to the 
base into three linear-lanceolate erect segments. Stamina 6 ; filaments 
united to the base of the corolla and each other into a cup, (free) 
short, very broad, without anthers. Ovarium roundish-oblong, cover- 
ed with scales, 3-celled. Ovules solitary. Style stout, with three 
rather long stout sub-recurved branches, lamellar, and pappillose 
inside. 

The young fruit bearing spadix unaltered ; fruits (very immature) 
roundish, about the size of a large pea, surrounded at the base by the 
persistent perianth, beaked by the base of the style ; scales numerous, 
fuscescent with pale irregular edges. Seed one. 


This species is closely allied to the preceding, and to 
C. ramosissimus; it is also one of the forms shewing Dzemo- 
norops not to be generically distinct from Calamus. Indeed 
this and the preceding species weaken greatly the distinctions 
between the two last sections, herein proposed, particularly 


84 The Palms of British East India. 


if, as I suspect, the spathes of this species are spreading. 
The upper part of the spadix might almost be mistaken for 
the same part of C. ramosissimus, and only differs from the 
same part of the section Platyspathz in the greater degree 
of contraction. 


39. (29) C. grandis, (n. sp.) aculeis petiolorum dorsalibus 
uncinatis cum marginalibus (infra pinnas) inzequalibus inter- 
dum spiniformibus, pinnis glaucescentibus lineari-lanceolatis 
(long. 18-20 uncialibus lat. 14 uncialibus) supra 1-carinatis, 
vena media utrinque et margine cum vel absque setis, spathze 
extimz spinis planis latis deflexis, rostro zquante, calyce 
subintegro margine ciliato, fructibus globosis. 


-Has.—Malacca. Sent by E. Fernandez under the names 
Rotang Sumamboo, and Rotang Chry ? 


Descr.*—A stout Palm, diameter of the stem (including the 
sheaths) about two inches. Sheaths armed with broad, flat, generally 
very obliquely seriate, dark brown or black, spreading, unequal 
spines. Leaves 15-16 feet-in length. Petiole swollen at its in- 
sertion, stout; in the lower two feet without pinne, plano-convex, 
armed along the centre of the convex face towards the base with 
a good many scattered rather deflexed small prickles ; these upwards 
become hooked; along the margins they present a few broad 
flat short thorns pointing downwards, and within the margins a 
number of still shorter, generally solitary, ascending thorns; the 
pinniferous part, which is 6-9 feet long, armed below with strong 
hooked prickles generally in threes, these are continued into the 
flagellus. Pinne alternate, equidistant, of a whitish glaucous 
aspect, linear-lanceolate, 18-20 inches in length, one inch and a 
quarter in breadth, acuminate at the apex into a long awl-shaped 
point, l-carimate above, without setz on either face or along the 
margins, or with the midvein setigerous on both sides, as well as 
the margins. 


* Specimen: an entire upper part of a male and female plant in flower, and 
several spadices in fruit. 


The Palms of British East India. 85 


Spadices axillary, erect, 14-15 inches long, including spathes ; 
peduncles adhering to the next sheath, free scarcely an inch long, 
much armed towards the summit with short prickles. Spathes 
several, coriaceous, more or less boat-shaped, one to each branch 
of the spadix. The outermost largest, bicarinate, and with the 
second and third entirely enclosing the others, armed on the back, 
especially the outermost, with flat ascending brown spines, tapered 
at the point (especially the outer) into a long flat beak, which is 
armed towards the base with a few thorns. The imner ones 
generally unarmed, all more or less covered with rust-coloured 
~ seurf. 

Male spadices 15-18 inches long, of which the beak forms one- 
half; branchesdecompound. Spikes short, scarcely exceeding half an 
inch in length, flexuose. Cup with the margins nearly entire, about 
three times shorter than the calyx. Calyx oblong, shortly 3-toothed, 
margins villous-ciliate. Corolla cylindric-oblong ; petals three,* ob- 
long, erect. Stamina 6; filaments blood coloured, lower halves united 
into a fleshy mass, (free) subulate ; anthers oblong-sagittate. Pollen 
1-3 plicate. Rudiment of the Pistillum deeply 3-lobed. 

Female spadix very stout with the internodes swollen at the cen- 
tre, and having a corky appearance, all sprinkled with rust-coloured 
scurf. Branches of the female spadix stout, ascending. Spikes short, 
stout, similarly scurfy, flexuose. Flowers on short stalks, the upper- 
most about sessile, with one bractea at the base, and two bracteoles, 
that close to the base of the flower almost cup-shaped, entire. 

Calyx barrel-shaped, almost entire, striate-veined ; margin fringed 
with reddish cellular processes. Corolla about 4 longer than the 
calyx, ventricose from the middle downwards, divided nearly to the 
base into 3 erect segments. Six rudimentary stamina line the lower 
half of the corolla. | Ovarium oblong, three-celled, covered with 
scales, continued into a stout short cylindrical style, with three 
long, revolute, horn-shaped branches, stigmatose on the inner 
face, which is also longitudinally furrowed. Ovuia solitary. 


* The internode is long ; the petals being distinct as far as the base of the rudi- 
mentary Pistillum. 

t+ A niche exists between this and the back of the second, (which is sub-bicari- 
nate) as though there should be another flower. 


86 The Palms of British East India. 


Fruits more exposed than the flowers, the spathes being gaping, 
and at length these falling off, quite exposed, surrounded at the base 
by the calyx and corolla, (the latter being generally split) terminat- 
ed by the persistent base of style about the size and shape of a large 
marble; scales light tawny colour with white edges, central furrow 
narrow, on either side of which the scale is more than usually gib- 
bous. Seed (immature) erect, the covering abounding with resin 
of a rich blood colour. Albumen horny-cartilaginous, very much 
ruminate. Embryo basilar. 


This seems to me distinct from Dzemonorops melano- 
chetes, Bl.* by the large leaves, the broad glaucous pinnze 
the large spines of the outer spathes, and their beaks equal- 
ling or exceeding them in length. 


40. (30) C. intermedius, (n. sp.) aculeis petiolorum dorsali- 
bus uncinatis, spinis et aculeis marginalibus inzequalibus infra 
pinnas superadditis, pinnis lineari-lanceolatis (long. 15-un- 
cialibus, lat. uncialibus) supra carina una cum vel absque 
setis et venis 2 lateralibus setigeris, subtus vena media seti- 
gera, spadicis pedunculo inermi, spathis externis spinis longis 
sracilibus deflexis armata, rostro longissimo. 


Has.—Malacca. Sent by E. Fernandez, with the name 
Rotang Chrysa. ? 


* C. Melanochates, spinis petioli dorsalibus lanceolato-subulatis aliis setifor- 
mibus marginalibus supra additis, pinnis equidistantibus linearibus (long: sub- 
pedalibus lat. 3-4-linealibus) secus venam mediam et margines setoso-aculeolatis, 
spadicis pedunculo (infra spathas) spinis armato, spathis breviter rostratis extimis 
spinis parvis armatis. * 

‘** Palmijuncus niger. Rumph. Hb. Amb. 5. p. 101. ¢.52. Calamus niger, Willd. 
Sp. Pl. 2. p. 203. Lam. Enc. 6. p. 306.’ Demonorops melanochetes. Bl. in 
Syst. Veg. ed. Schultes. 7. pt. 2. p. 1333. Mart. Palm. p. 198. t. 117, 125. f. 1. 


Has.—Penang. Wallich. 


The spathes in plate 125, the only one I have seen, are represented as partially 
open, in which respect it approaches C. nutantiflorus and Jenkinsianus. The 
pinne are said to be 3-4 feet long. 


* Char. e Martio. 


iN i i 


iE oe ee ee ee 


The Palms of British East India. 87 


Descr.*—Stature much the same as that of the preceding. Sheaths 
armed with black seriate flat spines. Petioles transversely puckered 
at the base; naked portion (below the pinne) about a foot long, 
plano-convex, armed on the back towards the base with scattered 
prickles; about a span from this, it has on the back solitary, rather 
long deflexed spines, and along the margins some stout deflexed 
spines, and more numerous, slender, ascending ones inside these. 
Pinniferous part three and a half to four feet in length, angu- 
lar with claw-shaped aculei along the lower convex surface. These 
are continued into the flagellus. Pinne rather distant, scat- 
tered, often opposite, linear-lanceolar, fifteen inches long, not ex- 
ceeding one in breadth, subulato-acuminate, glaucescent ?, above with 
a central carina with or without bristles and two lateral veins bear- 
ing a few long bristles; midvein underneath bristle-bearing as also 
are the margins. 

Spadix with an ovate body and a very long beak, twice as long as 
the body, the whole length being about eighteen inches. The pe- 
duncle unarmed ; about an inch long in its free exserted part. Outer 
spathe bicarinate, covered with very long deflexed, slender, subulate 
brownish thorns, as is also the very long and stout beak. The se- 
cond is thickly armed in a similar manner. The branches of the 
spadix flowers and fruit scarcely, if at all, distinguishable from the 
same parts of C. grandis. 


This species is distinguishable with difficulty from the 
preceding. ‘The stature appears to be smaller, and it pre- 
sents lateral veins with bristles. The chief distinction how- 
ever is in the armature of the spathes, the thorns of which 
are very slender, more deflexed, and much more numerous. 


* 


4}, (31) C. Lewistanus, (n. sp.) aculeis petiolorum dorsali- 
bus uncinatis, marginalibus (infra pinnas) inequalibus conico- 
subulatis seepius binatis vel ternatis superadditis, pinnis con- 


* Specimens : an entire upper part of a female plant with young fruit. 


88 The Palms of British East India. 


fertis linearibus (long. 13-15 uncialibus lat. 5-6 linealibus) 
supra carina una et venis 2 setigeris subtus setis nullis, 
spathe extime spinis planis subulatis gracilibus. 


Has.—Penang. Sent by Mr. Lewes, with the name 
Kichum. 


Descr.*—Less stout than the preceding, the diameter of the 
stem, including the sheaths, being scarcely more than an inch. 
Sheaths armed with solitary or seriate, long, flat, black spines ; mar- 
gins revolute. Petiole much swollen‘at the base, there armed with 
scattered, deflexed shortish thorns; below the pinne about a foot 
long, plano-convex, armed along the back with a few solitary 
hooked prickles, along the margins with short, conical-subulate, 
solitary, binate or ternate thorns. In the pinniferous parts obtusely 
triangular, armed along the convex lower face with hooked and soli- 
tary prickles upwards, gradually becoming palmate. Pinne equi- 
distant, approximated, linear, 13-15 inches long, 5-6 lines broad, 
bristle-pointed, upper surface with one carina and a lateral vein on 
either side setigerous; under, smooth; margins rough, with ap- 
pressed bristles. 

Spadices oblong, including the beak of the outer spathe 6-9 inches 
long; peduncle below the spathes armed with flat spines. Outer 
spathe bicarinate, armed with rather weak, deflexed, long black 
spines, often so slender as to become bristly. Second spathe with 
about two rows of slender thorns ; the rest unarmed. 

The spadix is scarcely distinguishable from that of the preced- 
ing, but in the specimen the branches are more slender, and less 
scurfy. 


This is extremely akin to the preceding species, the 
thorns however of the lower naked part of the petioles are 
different, those of the margins much shorter and fewer. 
The pinne also differ. 


* Specimens : an entire upper part of a female plant. 


The Palms of British East India. 89 


42. (32) C. angustifolius,* (n. sp.) spinis vaginarum paucis 
aculeis plurimis interspersis, aculeis petiolorum solitariis 
crebris sparsis, inter pinnas inferiores dorsalibus uncinatis 
ventralibus dentiformibus, pinnis confertis linearibus (long. 
8-10 uncialibus lat. 3-4 linealibus) carina et venis 2 la- 
teralibus utrinque setigeris, spathze extime aculeis istis va- 
ginarum similibus, rostro inermi dimidio breviore. 


Has.—Malacca Province. Malayan name, Rotang Ghit- 
tah. 


Descr.t—A rather more slender species than the preceding. 
Sheaths thickly armed with unequal, short, flat, scattered, solitary 
thorns. Leaves 5-5} feet in length. Pettole puckered transversely 
at the base; below the pinne 3-4 inches long, plano or concavo- 
convex, armed on both faces, especially the under, with scattered, un- 
equal, short, straight or curved thorns; in the pinniferous part 
angular-convex, lower face with hooked palmate prickles, upper with 
scattered small straight prickles. Pinne equidistant, very numerous, 
very narrow, 8-10 inches long, 3-4 lines broad, tapered into a long 
bristle, upper face with one central carina, and two lateral carinule 


* I am inclined to place near this a very distinct species of Calamus, lately re- 
ceived from my collector E. Fernandez, with the name Rotang Pajare, and which 
by it excessive armature and degree of fasciculation of the pinne, differs from all 
the others I have yet met with. The following is a description of it :— 

Stem with the sheaths about an inch in diameter. Sheaths with very oblique 
mouths, excessively armed with the usual seriate thorns, of which some series are 
very large, others much smaller, some almost bristle-shaped. The larger ones de- 
flexed ; general colour of the older ones blackish from a whitish base. Petiole 
below the pinne about 2 feet long, much channelled towards the base, much 
armed with stout, straight, unequal thorns, of these the lowermost are like those 
of the sheaths, and exist on the ventral surface; above they are stout, subulate, 
but much shorter, and are confined to the dorsum and margins. In the pinniferous 
part they are hooked, and confined to the same part, towards the flagellus they 
become palmate. Pinne very numerous in large sub-opposite distant fascicles, 
linear-lanceolate, 1 foot long, 8-9 lines broad, acuminate, with 5 bristle-bearing 
caring above, underneath smooth, apex generally bristle-tufted. Length of leaf 
exclusive of the Aagellus about 10-11 feet. 

t Specimens: a complete upper part of a male plant in flower. 


N 


90 The Palms of British East India. 


setigerous, under face with the same, or with the central only 
bearing a few bristles; margins bristly. Spadix (with the spathes) 
narrow oblong; peduncle rather slender, somewhat armed. Outer 
spathe with its beak, which is about half the length, about fourteen 
inches long, bicarinate, armed (except the beak) with thorns like those 
of the sheaths, the upper ones rather the longest. Beak quite flat 
with a tendency to become a cirrhus. Second spathe obsoletely 
bicarinate, with a very few small thorns about the middle of its back. 
Branches of the spadix pressed into a thick oblong mass; lower 
divisions decompound. 

Spikes slender, an inch long, very flexuose, with a single flower at 
each flexure, sprinkled with rust-coloured scurf. A small amplectent 
bracte, and a cup to each flower. Flowers 8-10 to each spike, small, 
oblique. Calyx oblong-cylindric, three times longer than the cup, 
with three small teeth. Corolla 3-times as long as the calyx, divided 
nearly to the base into three erect segments. Stamina six ; filaments 
united into a cup ; anthers linear-sagittate. Pollen yellow. A rudi- 
ment of a Pistillum hidden in the cup of the filaments. 


This is a very distinct species in all respects, as well 
by the armature of the sheaths and petioles and outer 
spathe, as by the narrow short pinne. 


** Erecte. Petioli foliorum superiorum tantum flagelliferi. 


43. (33) C. monticola, (n. sp.) spinis vaginarum longis sub- 
ulatis deflexis, petiolorum (superiorum) marginalibus in- 
equalibus et aculeis dorsalibus uncinatis, pinnis #quidis- 
tantibus linearibus (long. 10-18 uncialibus lat. 6-8 linealibus) 
supra carina et venis 2 lateralibus setigeris subtus glabris, 
spatha extima secus carinas duas spinis gracilibus deflexis 
armata. 


Has.—Subgregarious in thick Forests on Gonoong Mir- 
ing, an off-set of Mt. Ophir, at an altitude of 1500—2000 
feet. 


The Palms of Bittish East India. | 


Dzscr.*—Erect, about eight feet in height. Sheaths armed with 
long deflexed flat subulate black thorns, disposed in lines but in- 
dividually distinct ; surface dark brown from adhering scurf. Peti- 
oles of the upper leaves gibbous at the base, lower naked part about 
ten inches long, concavo-convex, armed with a dorsal row of stout 
hooked prickles, and along the margins with long generally deflexed 
spines, and within these towards the base short ascending ones ; 
these are extended into the flagellus; pinniferous part convex below 
and armed with hooked palmate prickles, which are continued into 
the flagellus, (which is about 14 foot long ;) above rounded-angular 
unarmed. Pinne alternate, equidistant, linear, 10-11 inches long, 
6-lines broad, subulato-acuminate, above with the central carina and 
2 lateral veins bristle bearing, underneath smooth, margins bristly. 
Lower leaves without flagelli. Petiole (of the pinniferous part) con- 
vex-trigonal, unarmed. Pinne alternate or often sub-opposite, linear, 
eighteen inches long, eight lines broad, otherwise like the others, 
except that the midvein below bears towards the apex numerous small 
bristles. 

Spadiz with its peduncle adhering to the next sheath, unarmed, co- 
vered with dark brown scurf. Spathes more open than in the others ; 
outer one 16-17 inches long, bicarinate, armed between and along 
the carine with weak, long, subulate, deflexed, flat, black spines ; the 
beak 9-10 inches long, erect, flat, sparingly armed except towards the 
apex, with long defiexed subulate bristles: its surface when young 
also covered with black scurf. Branches of the spadix 2-3 inches 
long, included, ascending, ferruginously scurfy. Spikes few flowered, 
stout, flexuose. 

Flowers on short stalks or sessile, bracteate, inner bracteole cup- 
shaped, and between it and the outer bracteole a niche. Calyx sub- 
cylindrical, minutely 3-toothed. Corolla scarcely twice as long as 
the calyx, divided nearly to the base into three erect segments. 
Sterile stamina 6. Ovarium oblong, covered with denticulate scales : 
3-celled. Ovules erect, solitary. Style three-partite nearly to the 
base ; branches revolute, stigmatose internally. 

Spathes of the fruit-bearing spadix opened out, or none. Fruit 
surrounded at the base by the flattened out, more or less split, pe- 


* Specimens: complete upper part of a female plant in flower and fruit. 


92 The Palms of British East India. 


rianth globose, shortly cuspidate by the style, of the size of an ordi- 
nary marble; scales tawny with a dark brown intro-marginal line : 
longitudinal furrows as it were continuous. Seed (immature,) erect ; 
tegument fleshy. 


*,* Chetospathe ; spathis externis setis barbatis. Folia 
suprema (floralta ?) tantum flagellifera. 


44, (34) C. calicarpus, (n. sp.) scandens? petiolis infra 
pinnas pedalibus spinis marginalibus longis et aculeis dor- 
salibus armatis, intra pinnas aculeis dorsalibus palmatis, pin- 
nis equidistantibus linearibus (long. 12-13 uncialibus lat. 4-5 
linearibus) supra carina 1 et venis 2 setigeris subtus vena 
centrali tantum setigera, calyce (fl: fsem :) oblongo-ovato bre- 
viter tridentato. 


Has.—Malacca, where the male appears to be known 
under the name Rotang Chochoor Minia, the female under 
that of Rotang Chochoor. 


Descr.*—Scandent? Diameter of the stem (with the sheaths) 
about one inch. Sheaths covered with rust-coloured scurf, and high- 
ly armed with very numerous, long, ascending, rather slender, very 
unequal spines, generally disposed in series. Petiole below the 
pinne about a foot long, channelled convex, armed towards the 
base, where it is not gibbous or puckered, with spines like those 
of the sheaths ; towards the pinne they become much fewer and are 
chiefly confined to the margin, those of the dorsum more or less 
aculeiform. In the pinniferous part which is 53-6 feet long, the 
prickles are confined to the lower convex surface, are hooked and 
generally ternate or palmate; these are continued into the flagellus. 
Pinne equidistant, approximate, very numerous, linear, 12-13 inches 
long, 4-5 lines broad, distinctly acuminated into a long bristle: up- 
per surface with the central carina and 2 lateral veins setigerous ; 
under surface with more numerous smaller bristles along the mid- 


* Specimens: entire upper parts of male and female plants in flower and fruit. 


The Palms of British East India. 93 


vein, the lateral veins with or without bristles ; margins with bristles. 
The leaves towards the apex of the stem small, with comparatively 
very long flagelli. 

Spadices with compressed shortly exserted peduncles bearded along 
the edges. Male spadices much branched, varying in length, in some 
15-16 inches long, in others also including the spathes scarcely 6, 
and then much more ovate. Outer spathe in the exposed part dense- 
ly covered with grey-brown, bristly hairs an inch or 13 inch long, 
these are continued up above the middle of the beak, the moderate 
apex of which is smooth. Second spathe bearded chiefly along the 
middle, as is also the third. Spikes flexuose, with some rust-coloured 
scurf, a single flower at each flexure, suffulted by a bracte and a cup. 

Flowers as usual oblique. Calyx nearly cylindrical, 3 times longer 
than the cup, with three short teeth. Corolla divided almost to the 
base, not quite twice as long as the calyx. Stamina 6, united among 
each other and to the base of the corolla; filaments subulate from 
a stout base ; anthers linear-sagittate. Rudiment of a Pistillum mi- 
nute, tripartite. 

Female spadices shorter, the upper ones not more than 4-6 inches 
long, branches generally simple. Flowers with 1 bractea and 2 brac- 
teole, a callous looking space on one side between the lower and ~ 
the uppermost almost cup-shaped bracteole. Calyx ovate, the teeth 
somewhat tufted at the points. Corolla 3-partite below the middle : 
ovate from the middle downwards, segments erect. Sterile stamens 6. 
Ovarium oblong-ovate, covered with scales, three-celled ; ovula soli- 
tary ; style stout, short with three long revolute inwardly stigmatic 
branches. Fruit exposed, globular, about the size of a large marble, 
mammillato-cuspidate, surrounded at the base by the persistent peri- 
anth ; scales tawny with a rather broad dark brown intromarginal 
line. Seed erect. Albumen deeply ruminate. Embryo basilar. 


45. (35) C. petiolaris, (nu. sp.) erectus, petiolorum parte 
nuda sub-7-pedali teretiuscula inferne spinis oblique seriatis 
armata superne aculeis dorsalibus uncinatis et marginalibus 
(paucis) dentiformibus vel omnino inermi, inter pinnas cum 
vel absque aculeis dorsalibus, pinnis confertis zequidistantibus 
linearibus (long. 15-17 uncialibus lat. 6-7 linealibus) supra 


94. The Palms of British East India. 


carina et venis 2 setigeris subtus vena centrali setulosa, 
cupula et calyce ovato-oblongo obsolete tridentato. 


Has.—Makicca. 


I have two forms of this, which may hereafter be found to 
be distinct, particularly as the characters of this section of 
Calamus would seem to depend in a considerable degree on 
the armature of the petioles. I subjoin descriptions of 


both. 


Var. A. Descr.*—Erect, armature of the sheaths the same as that 
of the preceding species. Petioles below the pinne very long, those of 
the apex of the stem alone produced into flagelli, of the pinniferous 
part about seven feet long, armed below the middle on the convex 
under face with rather small palmate hooked prickles. Pinne very 
numerous, approximate, linear, 15-17 inches long, 6-7 lines broad, 
acuminated into long bristles, upper surface with one carina bearing 
bristles towards the apex, and two lateral veins more bristly, under 
surface with many smaller bristles along the mid-vein; margins 
bristly. 

Upper flagelliferous leaves and inflorescence exactly like that of 
small specimens of the preceding. Spikes very flexuose, ferruginous- 
ly pubescent, one bractea and a cup to each flower. Calyx oblong 
with three minute teeth, sometimes ciliate. Corolla rather more 
than twice the length of the calyx, divided below the middle into 
three oblong segments. Stamina 6; filaments united to each other 
half way up, during flowering reflexed ; anthers linear-oblong. A 
three-lobed rudiment of a Pistillum. 

Var. B. Descr.t—Armature of the sheaths like that of C. calicar- 
pus. Petiole 7 feet in length to the lamina, which is about 44 feet long : 

* Specimens : a leaf and male inflorescence. 

t Specimens : an entire leaf and upper part of a male plant in flower. 

Under the name Rotang Kertong, I have two specimens of a male spadix of what 
appears an additional species of this section of Calamus. In this the spadix with 
the spathes is oblong, 19-20 inches long, the outer spathe obscurely bi-carinate 
with two rows of ascending flat spines about the carine, tapering into a long straight 


stout beak, armed along the margins with very slender spines. The flowers 
resemble those of C. petiolaris. 


The Palms of British East India. 95 


the upper ones only extended into flagelli ; below the pinnee sub-cylin- 
drical, armed in the lower 2 feet here and there with oblique nearly 
complete series of ascending short flat subulate thorns becoming 
gradually fewer upwards; 4 feet from the base quite unarmed ; as 
it is also among the pinne, where it is convex below, angular or bifa- 
cial above. Pinne@ as in the preceding. 

Inflorescence the same as in the preceding, but the spadices and the 
spikes are more tomentose, much longer, and the lowest spathe reaches 
to the axilla. Flowers much the same, but the calyx is cylindric- 
oblong with three acute teeth, the cup also has three acute teeth. 
Corolla divided nearly to the base, twice the length of the calyx. 


PLECTOCOMIA. 


Mart. et Blume in Syst. Veg. ed. Schultes. 7. pt. 2. p. 
1333. Mart. Palme. p. 199. t. 114. 116, f. 1 Endl. Gen. Pl. 
p. 249. No. 1738. 

Cuar. Gen.—Spice (vel racemi) filiformes (paniculate). 
Flores dioici, masculi bractea et bracteolis duabus (interdum 
obsoletis setiformibus) suffulti. Stamina 6. Ovarium squa- 
mis obtectum. Fructus exsuccus, 1-3-spermus, squamis re- 
trorsis loricatum. Albumen zquabile. Embryo basilaris. 


Hasitus—Palmae perennes, scandentes, habitu omnino Ca- 
lami. Petioliin flagellos extenst. Pedunculus spadicis spathis 
wmbricantibus omnino vestitus; rami florigeri caudiformes 
subfastigiati, secundi, pendult, spathis subdistichis persis- 
tentibus arcte imbricati, Spice in sinubus spatharum ab- 
scondite. Ovarium squamis (ciliatis fimbriatisve apice laci- 
niatis) tectum. Stylus tripartitus, ramis subulatis. Fructus 
globost. 

Genus a Calamo inflorescentia praesertim distinguendum. 
Discrepat etiam bracteis bracteolisque setaceis, fructus squa- 
mis fimbriatis apice productis, (qua nota ad Zalaccas quasdam 
accedit,) et albumine omnino equabili. 


96 The Palms of British East India. 


46. (1) P. elongata, pinnis lineari-lanceolatis (long. 2-3 pe- 
dalibus lat. 2-3 uncialibus), spathis (ramorum florig :) ambitu 
rotundatis, calycis cupuliformis dentibus brevibus mucronatis 
villoso-ciliatis, petalis oblongo-lanceolatis acutis, squamis 
(fructus) margine fimbriato-denticulatis. 

P. elongata, Mart. et Blume in Romer et Schultes Syst. 
Veget. 7. pt. 2. p. 13833, obs. 2. Martius. Palm. p. 199. t. 
114. 116. Calamus maximus. Reznw. auct. Marti. 


Has.—In forests near the sea-shore at Koondoor, Ma- 
lacca, and generally perhaps in the interior. Malayan name 
Rotang Oonar,* Rotang Dahown. : 


Descr.—A gigantic climbing species, very striking when in fruit 
from the massive pendulous rich brown spadices. Stem in the lower 
part almost as thick as a man’s leg. Sheaths of the leaves much 
armed, (especially along the margins of the mouth,) with stout spines 
of the usual characters. Leaves with the flagelli about 20 feet long. 
Petiole armed on the under face with fascicled subulate deflexed spines 
varying in number from two to four, these in the flagellus become 
more numerous, stronger and hooked prickles. Pinne distant, arched 
downwards, linear-lanceolate, tapering to both ends, very acuminate, 
the longest three feet in length, in breadth 2-3 inches coriaceous, 
pale-green above, glaucous below. | 

Spadiz axillary. Peduncle covered with imbricate sheathing 
spathes, the limbs short, slightly spreading. From the axilla of each 
of these rises a long (23 feet) pendulous tail-like branch imbricated 
with similar but smaller spathes. The branches are all secund. 
Spathes distichous, amplexicaul, nearly round, 1} inches broad, 
acute, coriaceous, brown, very concave: from the middle to the apex 
the outline is more angular.t 


* Oonar, Mr. Westerhout informs me, is the Malay appellation for the flagelli 
of these Palms. 


¢ Martius’s figures represent the spathes of the male and female alike; in the 
female specimens before me though the flowers are open, the spathes are so closely 
imbricated and so concave that the branches are strictly subulate in form. 


The Palms of British East India. 97 


Spikes (or panicles) rather shorter than the spathes, slender, slightly 
furfuraceous, many flowered: Lower divisions 2-3 flowered, upper 
1-flowered. Flowers of middling size, oblique, all pressed to one side 
if viewed anticously, if posticously distichous, suffulted by a short 
stout subulate bracteole. Male ; Calyx striate, angular, cup-shaped, 
divided to the middle into three short oblong teeth, each ending in a 
stout mucro. Corolla three times longer than the calyx, 3-partite to 
the base ; petals narrow-lanceolate, rather obtuse. Stamina six, almost 
entirely distinct from the corolla, the longest 3 shorter than the 
corolla. Filaments long, towards the base triangular and red, above 
filiform, white. Anthers twice the length of the filaments, linear, 
attached a little below the middle. A rudiment of the Pistillum. 

Female Spikes stouter, more ferruginous. lowers fewer, larger, 
distichous, lower on short stalks, the upper sessile. 

Calyx nearly round, with three teeth triangular in outline, mucro- 
nate as in the male, coriaceous, scarcely striate, margins of teeth 
villous. Corolla ventricose at the base, tripartite below the middle ; 
segments oblong-lanceolate, acute. Stamina 6, united to corolla 
as far as the base of its segments ; filaments subulate, flattened ; an- 
thers effete, much smaller than in the male flowers. Ovary round- 
ish-ovate, covered with exceedingly numerous reflexed scales ciliate 
fimbriate, with long multifid points. Ovula three, erect, anatropous, 
so close as to leave some doubt whether septa exist. Style short, 
stout, divided nearly to the base, branches rather longer than the 
corolla, subulate, inner faces stigmatose and canaliculate. 

Fruits crowded in the axille of the spathes, which are now more 
spread out and more indurated, generally 3-5 together, globular, 
about the size of a carbine bullet, surrounded at the base by the 
perianth ; terminated by the remains of the very short style; very 
hispid, or ramentaceous (each scale terminating in a fimbriate ramen- 
tum ;) incompletely 3-celled. Seeds (immature) 1-3, when three, 
convex-trigonal. Albumen solid. 


This species is of inferior value to most others, and is 
chiefly used for making baskets. 


47. (2) P. Assamica, (n. sp.) pinnis ———— spathis ———— 
calyce (fl. fem.) ad medium tripartito laciniis cuneato-rotun- 
Oo 


98 The Palms of British East India. 


datis, petalis e basi lineari acuminatissimis, fructibus glo- 
bosis, squamarum apicibus longis persistentibus fimbriatis- 
simis. 


Has.—Upper Assam. 


Descr.*—The specimens of the spadiz are larger, the branches 
very ferruginous, 2-335 feet long. Spathes 23-3 inches long, shape 
not ascertained from their being much lacerated and split, and part- 
ly deficient. 

Fruit (when dry,) of a rich ferruginous brown colour, 11-12 lines 
in diameter, surrounded at the base by a calyx of three ovate-oblong 
sepals and as many petals, which are very long and acuminate from 
a linear base, terminated by a style tripartite almost to the base 
with subulate connivent branches; one-celled, very villous from the 
highly ciliate, fimbriate, split, recurved points of the scales. Seed 
similar to that of the succeeding, but a little larger. Albumen 
cartilaginous, solid, its tissue radiating from the centre. Embryo 
basilar. 


I have under the succeeding species noted the differences 
by which this appears to be distinguishable. The fruit is 
a good deal like that of P. elongata, judging from Martius’ 
figure,+ but the scales are so fimbriate, that it has quite a 
woolly appearance. 


48. (3) P. Khasiyana, (n. sp.) pinnis ————— spathis ob- 
ovatis apicem versus obcuneatis, sepalis (fl. fem.) sub-dis- 
tinctis planis glabris, petalis e basi lanceolata acuminatis, 
fructibus rostrato-cuspidatis, squamarum fimbriatarum api- 
cibus deciduis. } 


Has.—Khasiya Hills. 


* Specimens of a spadix in fruit marked by Dr. Wallich as ‘‘ Zalacca, speci- 
mens received from Major Jenkins, March 1840, from Upper Assam.” 
+ Palme. loc. cit. 


The Palms of British East India. 99 


Descr.*—Spathes of the peduncle with erect oblong-lanceolate 
limbs. Flower-bearing branches 1-2 feet long, secund, pendulous. 
Spathes at base half amplectent, rather distant, distichous, laxly 
imbricated ; outline obovate, towards the apex broadly obcuneate, 
margins below this part incurved, (so that they are very concave,) 
two or three times longer than the spaces between them. Spikes 
concealed by the spathes, two or three times shorter than them, as 
usual furfuraceous, 3-7 flowered. 

Flowers distichous, large. Calyx flat, small, divided almost to 
the base into three triangular mucronate smooth teeth. Corolla di- 
vided almost to the base into three ascending, lanceolate, acuminate 
segments, four to four and a half lines long. Stamina six, with very 
broad, flattened, short filaments, and small effete anthers. Ovarium 
broadly globose, covered with exceedingly numerous, shortish, very 
fimbriate scales with multifid points, 3-celled. Style very short, 
stout, with three stout, subulate, spreading branches as long as 
the petals, channelled and stigmatic on their inner faces. 

Spathes of the fruit-bearing spadices spreading, rarely perfect, 
generally much lacerated or deficient. Fruit surrounded at the base 
by the calyx, and corolla now flattened out, apex attenuated into 
the style; rostrato-apiculate, otherwise round, about one inch in 
diameter, dark brown; scales very numerous, rather small, either 
nearly smooth, or with ciliate margins and recurved split fimbriate 
points ; when not much rubbed it has a woolly appearance. Seed 
covered with a rather thick, brown, cellular spongy substance. Al- 
bumen solid, horny, of cells radiating from the centre. Kmbryo 
of the ordinary shape, basilar. 


This would appear nearly allied to the preceding from 
which it differs in the smaller spathes, the very small calyx 
with minute triangular teeth, the broader petals, the brown, 
not rust-coloured fruit, which is smaller, and not by any 
means so villous, the points of the scales being less fimbriate 
and often deciduous. 


* Specimens of a female spadix in flower, and part of a spadix in fruit; the 
Jatter found among the collections here, without any note of its locality. 


100 The Palms of British East India. 


49. (4) P. Himalayana, (n. sp.) pinnis lineari-lanceolatis 
(long. 13 pedalibus lat. 1% uncialibus) 5-veniis, spathis 
cuneato-oblongis apicem versus late obcuneatis, floribus 
masculis setis tribus suffultis, calycis ultra medium tripartiti 
cupuliformis laciniis glabris in setam desinentibus. 


Has.—Sub-Himalayan ranges about Darjeling ; Collec- 
tors sent from the Saharunpore Garden. 


Descr.*—Pinniferous part of the petiole armed below with stout 
hooked prickles, confluent at the base, these are continued increased 
in number into the flagellus. Pine alternate, linear-lanceolate, 
very acuminate, 18 inches long, 13 broad, with 5 veins prominent 
on the upper surface, margins with short sub-appressed spinescent 
teeth ; from the great degree of conduplication of the base the pinne 
may almost be said to be petioled. 

Branches of the spadix about two feet long, covered with rust- 
coloured tomentum. Spathes almost stem-clasping, conduplicate, 
coriaceo-scarious, apex decidedly obcuneate in outline; they exceed 
in length by 4 the inter-spathal spaces. Spckes solitary, about 3 as 
long as the spathes, angular, fleXuose, densely rusty-fomentose. 

Flowers suffulted by three narrow bristle-pointed scarious bractes, 
sub-distichous. Calyx cup-shaped with three short rounded teeth 
ending in bristles. Corolla oblong and oblique, 4-5 times longer 
than the calyx; petals hard. Stamina 6, united at the base into a 
short cup; filaments stoutish, subulate; anthers large, linear-ob- 
long, obtusely sagittate. No rudiment of a female ? 


This may be the male of the preceding, but the appear- 
ance of the spathes, which are generally much the same in 
both sexes, and their shape, which is cuneate-oblong with 
straight edges in the oblong parts, and concave edges in 
the obéuneate part has induced me to attempt to charae- 
terise it as distinct. I may also remark that the plants of 


* Specimens consist of a portion of a leaf and male spadix. 


The Palms of British East India. 101 


the Khasiya Hills are generally distinct from those of the 
Himalayas. 

From P. elongata it differs essentially in the shape“of the 
spathes, in that of the calyx as well as in the smoothness 
of its margins, and perhaps in the flowers being tribrac- 
teolate. 


EUGEISSONA. 


Cuar. Gen.—Inflorescentia terminalis, paniculata. Flores 
dioici, terminales, (solitarii.) Stamina indefinita. Ovarium 
squamis obtectum. fructus exsuccus, |—spermus. Albu- 
men cartilagineo-corneum, sulcis sex exaratum. Embryo 
basilaris. 


Has.—Palma caespitosa, sub-acaulis. Folia pinnata; 
vaginae, et petioli infra pinnas spinis plano-subulatis ar- 
mate; pinne lineares, vena centralt cujusque paginae seti- 
gera. Panicule 4-6-pedales, erectae, aspectu triste brun- 
nescentes, spathis arctis undique imbricate. Spathae pri- 
mariae dorso spinose apice in flagellum rostrumve attenuate ; 
secundarie mutice secus carinam dorsalem parce spinose ; 
tertiarie inermes. Flores bractets pluribus arcte imbrican- 
tibus semi-immersi, maximi. Calyx membranaceo-chartaceus, 
trifidus. Corolla tripetala, petalis sub-linearibus longis spino- 
so-cuspidatis, floris foeminet infra medium carinam (stamina 
abortiva) apice pennicillatam exhibentibus. Antherae lineares, 
adnate. Styli tres, intus stigmatosi. Ovula solitaria, ana- 
tropa. Fructus ovatus, rostrato-mammillatus, ovi galline 
magnitudine, brunneus. Semen erectum exsuceum. 


50. (1) E. triste. 
Has.—In forests on the Hills about Ching, Malacca, very 


common. Common in Penang. Mr. Lewes. Malayan name, 
Bertam. 


102 The Palms of British East India. 


Derscr.—A stemless Palm growing in thick tufts, which are sur- 
rounded by the debris of the old leaves. eaves numerous, the 
outer ones spreading, fifteen-twenty feet in length. Petiole through- 
out the lower 7-10 feet, roundish, armed with brown, ascending, 
flat spines, between the pinne unarmed, triangular. Lamina in 
outline oblong-linear : pimne two or two and a half feet long, narrow, 
scarcely an inch wide, subulate acuminate, margins when dry much 
involute, the central vein prominent above, and furnished with dis- 
tant sete ; the old ones generally irregularly split at the point. 

Inflorescence terminal, paniculate. Panicles four-six feet long, in the 
lower part furnished with a few small leaves, the sheaths of which 
are much armed, gradually passing into the spathes, which are simi- 
larly armed and very acuminate, indeed often flagelliferous. 

Branches of the panicle flexuose, much imbricated with coriaceous, 
amplexicaul, brown bractes or spathes, slightly armed along the dor- 
sal carina, or (as the uppermost) unarmed. The lower branches two- 
three flowered, the upper one-flowered. 

Flowers dioicous, terminal, subsessile, very large, surrounded at 
the base by similar but smaller highly imbricate bractes. 

Male Calyx sub-cylindrical, altogether concealed by the bractes, 
membranaceo-chartaceous, trifid, teeth narrow, acute, with broad 
sinuses, venation the same as that of the innermost bracteze. Corolla 
3-petalled, exceedingly long, (about one and a half inch in length) ; 
petals oblong-linear, somewhat constricted opposite the throat of 
the calyx, indurated, striated, obliquely ascending, point oblique end- 
ing in a very sharp thorny acumen. Stamina indefinite ; filaments 
short ; anthers long, linear, adnate, of a lilac colour. No rudi- 
ment of a female observed. 

Female flowers rather longer than the male, otherwise similar. 
The petals opposite the mouth or opening of the calyx bear a 
tuft or pennicillus of abortive stamens, which runs down the petal 
in the shape of a keel. 

Ovarium oblong, covered densely with scales, of about the same 
length as the calyx, sub-trigonal at the apex, 3-celled. Ovula 
solitary, oblong, erect, anatropous. Styles three, oblong, flattish, 
sub-connivent, stigmatose on their inner faces. Fruit densely 
scaly, generally rough from the recurved points of the scales, dark 


The Palms of British East India. 103 


brown, ovate with a stout rostrum or point, terminated by the 
remains of the styles, surrounded at the base by the now divergent 
petals often thrown to one side, 1-celled, 1-seeded. Substance very 
thick at the base, consisting of rust-coloured spongy tissue inter- 
spersed with fibres, above thin consisting of fibres alone. Scales 
rough to the touch, lanceolate, with irregular margins, dark brown 
with paler edges. Seed large, covered with a brown membranaceo- 
cellular covering, surface with six furrows, of which the alternate 
ones are the largest and most complete, running into each other 
at both ends. These furrows are filled with the tissue surrounding 
the seed. Albumen equal, horny, cartilaginous, presenting on a trans- 
verse section the furrows above-mentioned. Hmbryo basilar. 


The leaves of this are I am told applied occasionally to 
the same purposes as those of Nipa fruticans. 

It appears to constitute a distinct genus by its inflores- 
cence, which is scarcely clearly explainable by the use of 
the terms ordinarily used in descriptions of Palms, by its in- 
definite stamina and the structure of the seed. No Indian 
genus of this sub-family, so far as I know, has more than 
six stamens: and the only approach to this genus in this 
respect takes place in Ruffia, which genus also has linear 
oblong cuspidate petals. 


(To be continued.) 


On the Manufacture of Bar Iron in India. By Captain J. 
CAMPBELL, Assistant Surveyor General, Madras Esta- 
blishment. 

No. 2. 

1. In my former paper on this subject, [ recommended an 
investigation of the principles of the simple, and long prac- 
tised Native method of smelting iron, on the principle, that 
as excellent iron is sometimes the result of their operations, 
the same must always be produced if the process admitted 
of proper regulation. From my increased experience on 


104 On the Manufacture of Bar Iron in India. 


this subject, I am now able to state, that the Native process 
is based upon the most correct seientific principles, and 
that the operation admits of being regulated with the most 
exact minuteness. 

2. Scientific men in India, where fuel and labour are 
so cheap, will find the investigation, although difficult, la- 
borious and very complicated, yet both interesting and gra- 
tifying, from the surprising and unexpected results which 
will be met with. Among these, which are not I believe 
known in Europe, I have found that the products of com- 
bustion in blast furnaces is neither carbonic acid, nor cor- 
bonic oxide, but a compound, containing I believe, nitrogen, 
as may be inferred from its very noxious qualities, it being 
capable of rendering a man insensible for several hours, 
when freely inhaled; and from the fact, that cyanide of 
potassium was found by Dr. Clark to be an occasional 
result in the English blast furnaces, I find also, that cast 
iron contains a gas, and that oxide of iron enters into its 
composition. | 

3. I recommend this subject more particularly to the 
attention of scientific men in India, because I conceive 
that among the better qualified scientific of Europe, few 
are likely to undertake the matter in a proper way, so as to 
produce results valuable in practice. Men of wealth will 
naturally prefer giving their attention to more seductive 
researches, and none but the wealthy could bear the requi- 
site expense, where charcoal sells for 40 rupees a ton. 

4. I have been surprised to find how much prejudice 
prevails among Europeans in India, regarding the quality 
of the iron produced by the Natives, and how little atten- 
tion has been given by any one to see if it is fit for use, and 
if it can be used cheaper than English iron. I may ask 
if those who have thought upon the subject, suppose that 
the Natives of India are such fools as to continue to prefer 
the use of their own iron, while they could buy cheaper 


On the Manufacture of Bar Iron in India. 105 


English iron; if it was fit for the purposes for which they 
require it. Is it not known that gram kettles, sugar boilers, 
and pans for Percottahs are manufactured in large quan- 
tities by the Natives from their own iron; while every 
workman knows, that the most superior iron is required 
for these purposes, and that to make the same quality 
practically termed, “ boiler plate,” in England, it is neces- 
sary to go to the expense of using wood charcoal in the 
refining process. Is it not known that 18,000 pagodas 
worth of Native iron are yearly carried from the district of 
Nuggar, in Mysore, on the Sea Coast, to Mangalore, and is 
it supposed that this trade could be profitable if really good 
English iron of equal quality was procurable at the Sea 
Coast? Even at Bombay the Native iron is so highly va- 
lued for boiler rivets, &c. that almost any price would be 
given for it, if a sufficient supply could be obtained, and 
yet I am told that the Native iron is “ bad bar iron;” that 
it is ‘ excessively red short;” that it is “ intractable under 
the hammer ;” “ that it is still to be proved that good mal- 
leable iron can be made from the Indian ores ;” “ that the 
Indian ores contain nickel, titanium, &c. the proper mode 
of separating which has not been discovered ;” ‘that the 
proper flux for the Indian ore has not yet been discovered ;” 
and other nonsense of the same kind. 

5. It is possible that some persons may have been de- 
ceived by the Natives, who know perfectly by the appear- 
ance of the slags the soft iron from the hard and steely ; 
and they preserve the former for their own use, and for 
those who deal regularly with them, and sell the latter to 
those who make occasional applications to them. But the 
greatest difficulty which a scientific enquirer has to overcome, 
is to avoid deceiving himself, in taking for granted imperfect 
results, without guarding against the causes of error. 

6. It is not easy to say, what would be the best method 
of introducing into India the manufacture of bar iron; for if 

P 


106 On the Manufacture of Bar Iron in India. 


an iron work was set up in the interior, it must necessarily 
be upon a small scale; and if on a large scale near the sea 
shore, it would be some time before the superior quality of 
its products could bear down the opposition from the cheap, 
but bad iron made in the English manufactories. 

7. In my last paper I remarked, that 1 thought it impro- 
bable that European capitalists would be able to make an 
iron work profitable in India; but I then supposed that the 
scale of the Native process might be much increased, and 
still worked with the same ease as the small furnaces; but 
I have now found that the problem is so complicated, and 
such nice regulation of all the principles is so absolutely 
requisite, that it is necessary to use clock-work to regulate 
the blast; and altogether, no idea of the mode of action 
could be formed, even if a furnace was examined while at 
work. 

8. It is not probable that “high blast” furnaces can be 
set to work with any chance of a profitable return in India, 


because the quantity of iron they produce—about 50 tons a- 


week—is too large to meet with a ready sale. In consequence 
of which, the capital sunk, before any returns came in, 
would be enormous; also the quantity of fuel they require— 
at least 100 tons a-week—would be difficult to procure, 
and would soon exhaust the thickest forest in the vicinity 
of a furnace of this kind.* 

9. Even an experienced practical man would find great 
difficulty in setting to work in India a “ high blast” furnace, 
from the total want of any information regarding the true 
theories upon which the operation of these furnaces de- 


* We have forests enough, and purposes enough in India for the employment of 
several such furnaces, provided the subject of internal improvement were once 
fairly taken up. We can do nothing however without cheap iron; and for this 
reason, we think Capt. Campbell would be profitably employed upon any terms. 
He should follow out his experiments, and make as much iron as he can. The 
result will be highly advantageous to the country.—Ebs. 


On the Manufacture of Bar Iron in India. 107 


pends; for some think, that cast iron is the first product 
from the ore, and others have published all kinds of wild 
conjectures on the subject. 

10. Mushet found no difficulty in managing the Indian ores 
in his experiments in the Tintern Abbey charcoal furnaces, 
but the blowing engine of this furnace had been already 
properly regulated, and it is probable that Mr. Heath failed 
in repeating the experiment in India from the want of a 
practical man to regulate the blast from the newly-erected 
engine; and it is probable, that a similar difficulty has been 
found in the experiments with coal, recommended by the 
Coal Committee of Calcutta.* 

11. Even supposing that the coal of Bengal could be 
brought into use in “high blast” furnaces, yet as the coal 
and iron ore are as dear as the English, the iron would 
cost the same price, and would not be better in quality. The 
cheapest English iron costs at Madras about 80 rupees 
per ton; but it will hardly stand punching a hole in it, and 
cannot be worked into any shape where bending is requi- 
site, for it breaks like a carrot when bent hot, beyond a 
right angle. Even iron which sells in England at from 13£ 
to 15£ a ton, and at Madras costs retail 160 rupees a ton, 
cannot be made into horse-shoenails, because it splits open 
while being worked to a point. 

12. Where charcoal is used for refining cast iron, as in 
making boiler plate and tin plate, the method becomes si- 
milar to the French or continental mode of operation, and 
the expense of the iron which could be made in ‘his manner 
in India, may be computed from the minute details given by 
Dr. Ure: 1753 pounds of charcoal and 287 pounds of ore 
give 135 pounds of cast iron, from which 100 of bar iron 
are obtained; 149 pounds more of charcoal having been 
used in the refining forge: thus for every 100 pounds of 


* These experiments have not yet been commenced. Captain Campbell could 
evidently do more single handed than is to be expected from any Committee. 


108 On the Manufacture of Bar Iron in India. 


bar iron, 3244 pounds of charcoal and 287 pounds of ore 
are used, and taking the value of charcoal at 2 annas for 
100 pounds, and the ore at 243 pounds for 1 anna, which is 
above the price in Southern India, we have 25 rupees a ton 
for bar iron; but in this the expense of labour for blowing 
and charging the furnace, and of the labour at the refining 
hearth and the forge hammer, are not included. However, 
the French furnaces are also too large, and their produce 
too great for an infant manufacture. 

13. Furnaces in which the ores of iron are reduced :at 
one operation to the malleable state, are called in England 
‘*bloomery furnaces.” Of these three kinds are known; viz. 
the simple furnace of the Natives of India; the Catalan 
forge; and the German steuch often. I have stated in my 
former paper, on the authority of Porter’s Chemistry of the 
Arts, that cast iron was generally made in these furnaces, but 
of this I have some doubt, and as I know from experience, 
that such furnaces can be advantageously used for making 
blooms of malleable iron, I shall consider them as belonging 
to this class. 

14, Bloomery furnaces present the advantage of being 
able to make any quantity of iron which may be required, 
with a very trifling outlay of capital. In the little Native 
furnaces, a few pounds is the result, and in the steuch often 
nearly a ton. The quality of the iron is also much superior 
to what can be made from cast iron, and I have reason to 
believe, that all the Danemora Swedish steel iron is made 
with these furnaces. 

15. Bloomery furnaces are without doubt the best adapted 
kind to an infant manufacture, and were used all over 
England before the wood fuel began to be scarce; and into 
India, the use of them on a large scale, might be successfully 
introduced, but the art of using them has been lost in Eng- 
land. Brongniart has spoken favorably of the Catalan 
forge, but as the persons who manage them are merely prac- 


On the Manufacture of Bar Iron in India. 109 


tical men, who know nothing of the principles of the opera- 
tion, it would not be easy to establish such furnaces -in 
India: although Mushet states, that they are used in Ame- 
rica, expending 10 tons of charcoal to make a ton of bar 
iron. 

16. Of the true principles of the action of bloomery fur- 
naces, nothing whatever seems to be known in Europe; 
Mushet appearing to think, that the primary produce is 
cast iron, which becomes refined afterwards by the blast. 
Dr. Ure seems to entertain the same opinion, but under the 
article ores in his Dictionary of Manufactures, he has record- 
ed a suggestion, pointing to the correct theory. Berthier 
(Traite Désessairs par le voie seche,) has also alluded to the 
correct theory, but has been misled by a fallacious experi- 
ment there stated. ‘Thenard (Traité de Chimie) remarks 
with the acuteness of a philosopher, ‘‘on sait que ioxide 
de fer se réduit au degré du rouge maissant par le gas hydro- 
gene ‘carboné et par le carboné; on sait également que la 
fonte ne se forme dans les hauts fourmeaux qua un trés haut 
degré de chaleur: il suit de 14 quelon doit pouvoir extraire 
le fer de certain minerais, sans étre obligé de le transformer 
on founte ;” and as he correctly remarks, this is the principle 
upon which the Catalan forges, and in fact all bloomery 
furnaces, work. Hardly half the quantity of charcoal is re- 
quired which is necessary for making cast iron, and a bloom- 
ery furnace properly managed, will even bear a charge of 
ore of double the weight of the charcoal; which is a larger 
charge than has ever been used in a high blast furnace, 
either with cold or hot blast. Mushet has published a paper 
upon the ‘‘ Manufacture of malleable iron directly from the 
ore, but it does not appear, that he knew the principle 
of his method was that upon which bloomery furnaces act, 
and he was therefore unable to make the blooms cheaper 
than cast iron. He states, that although the iron produced 
was of the finest quality, yet that he found from 24 cwt. to 


110 On the Manufacture of Bar Iron in India. 


25 cwt. were required to make a ton of bar iron, and that 
therefore nothing was gained, as the same could be done by 
refining and puddling cast iron. 

17. The expense of bar iron made in the Native bloom- 
eries is about 90 rupees a ton, and I have made an error 
in my former estimate, by not making a proper allowance for 
the waste in forging. It is certain, however, that from the 
number of men required to work them, the Natives do not 
earn two annas a day, because they gladly accept that pay- 
ment for working as common labourers. 

18. The Native bloomeries, from their small size, might 
be called portable furnaces, as they might be carried and 
worked with advantage in a waggon in the train of an army; 
and if the method of working them had been known at Jel- 
lalabad, they might have been the means of furnishing our 
beleaguered forces with the iron they required so much for 
tools. 

19. For the expenses of the German ‘“ steuch often,” as 
given in Porter’s Chemistry of the Arts: supposing the 
rough lump to be a “ bloom weighing 15 ewt.; and sup- 
posing this to yield when forged into bar iron 73 ewt., and 
supposing that the produce is only 25 per cent. of the ore, 
then 30 cwt. of ore will be required, which at 243 pounds 
for 1 anna, will be 83 rupees. As about 400 pounds of 
charcoal are used to make 100 pounds of bar iron, about 
30 cwt. of charcoal would be used; and at 100 pounds for 
2 annas, this will cost about 4} rupees; and supposing 8 
men for a whole day are required to work the furnace, the 
labour at 2 annas a day will cost 1 rupee; or 14 rupees for 
74 cwt.; or about 36 rupees a ton for finished bar iron; and as 
the iron made in these furnaces is of the finest quality, 
there can be no doubt that they are well suited for intro- 
ducing the manufacture into India. Although the product 
of the furnace from the ore is seldom above 35 per cent., 
yet the produce is really not less than in high blast furnaces, 


On the Manufacture of Bar Iron in India. 111 


because in them a portion of the product of the operation 
unites with the iron formed to make cast iron, which is 
again separated in the refining furnace in the form of 
‘finery cinder.” Besides, what are called the slags of 
bloomery furnaces are pure silicates of iron, or else pure 
fused oxide, according as the ore is silicious or not, and is 
fit for again smelting into cast iron in the high blast fur- 
nace, so that no loss really has taken place. 

20. The largest furnaces which J have yet tried are very 
much smaller than the “ steuch often,” yet from being better 
managed, expense is much the same—about 35 rupees a ton 
on the bar iron; but in larger furnaces, the expense will be 
very much less, and besides 3 of the whole expense is for 
men’s labour in blowing; also the estimate is based upon 
the equivalent quantity of charcoal, which in my furnaces 
is not used; the flame of the gases of the furnace being 
applied to carbonise green brush wood, and the flame from 
this again might be used to heat the boiler of the blowing 
engine. Instead of 12 hours being required as in the steuch 
often, to produce the result, in mine three hours is more 
than sufficient; and each furnace can thus be worked three 
times a day. I find also that these furnaces cost so little, 
that with all the apparatus, the capital sunk to make 500 
tons of bar iron a month need be only 25,000 rupees, and 
with 80,000 rupees more for a rolling mill, would give only 
10,000£, instead of 27,000£, as required by Dr. Ure’s esti- 
mate. A rough approximation to the expense of working 
these furnaces may be made, by estimating the cost in bar 
iron at sixteen times its weight in firewood. 

21. I have had as yet no opportunity of trying coal in 
bloomery furnaces, but I have no doubt it can be used, 
because the principles upon which these furnaces act, are 
applicable to any kind of carbon, and besides Dr. Ure 
alludes to the use of coke in the Catalonian forges. It is 
probable therefore that the coal of Bengal can be turned to 


112 On the Manufacture of Bar Iron in India. 


useful account in making bar iron, and I hope to be able 
to make public the result of experiments upon this subject. 

22. I have not had opportunities of ascertaining the ex- 
pense of drawing blooms into bar iron, but I know that 
even when forged with hand hammers, and the work very 
carelessly done, that the expense is not more than 30 rupees 
a ton; but in the little forges which I have used, the waste 
of metal is enormous, amounting to fully 50 per cent. on the 
weight of the forged blooms. ‘This great waste would be 
altogether avoided by using proper air furnaces, for heating 
the blooms and rough bars, and then it would be no greater 
than in the English works, which according to Dr. Ure, is 
only 12 per cent. at the utmost. 

23. Rolling mills and tilt hammers on the scale of the 
English works could hardly be used in an infant manufac- 
ture, but it is easy to construct a tilt hammer weighing one 
or two hundred weight in the head; to be worked by hand 
by coolies; and I have little doubt, the expense would be 
so small, as to bear a comparison with that of finished bar 
iron in the English works; for I find that when the bloom- 
ery furnaces are carefully regulated, that the blooms will 
bear drawing out into $ inch bar at one operation without 
cracking at all, and are fit for any purpose without the 
expense of three-fold re-heating and rolling out: operation 
requisite in the English works. 

24, The price of bar iron in the various part of India is 
very variable, and appears to depend more upon the local 
information of the Natives, and the number of their furnaces 
which have been established, and kept in work, rather than 
upon the supplies of fuel and ore, which occur in so many 
parts of the country. In Bengal, the navigable rivers afford 
the means of introducing English iron into the interior, but 
the quality is so much inferior to the Native iron that even 
in Boglipoor, the Native furnaces are still working profit- 
ably ; although I have shewn that they cannot sell their iron 


| 
| 
| 


| 


On the Manufacture of Bar Iron in India. 113 


for less than 9£ a ton. In the whole of the Northern 
Circars, | do not remember to have ever seen a piece of 
English bar iron, except at the sea ports; the supply used 
in that country being derived from the mountainous region 
which bounds it on the West. In Southern India, the 
price of iron is very variable. At Bangalore, the price is 
14 rupee for the maund of 25 pounds, while in Coimbatore 
the price is 2 rupees or 23 rupees for the same quantity. In 
the vicinity of both these places, Native smelters have been 
established for ages, but about Vellore, where the art of 
smelting has probably been partially lost during the wars 
of the Carnatic, English iron fetches from 2 rupees to 23 
rupees a maund, and good Native iron is not procurable ; 
probably because the whole supply which is made is fore- 
stalled, to make horse-shoes for the cavalry station of Arcot. 
In consequence, a considerable quantity of English iron is 
used for smith’s work, but further inland than this point, 
English iron only finds a sale for wheel tyres, for which 
purpose it can be used cheaper than Native iron. 

25. It is supposed by some that the quality of malleable 
iron produced is dependent upon the composition of the 
ore which is used, whence the remarks so commonly met 
with about steel ore, &c. With the pure ores of the per- 
oxide and magnetic oxide, this supposition is altogether 
groundless, for the quality of the iron produced solely de- 
pends upon the management of the smelting process. Even 
in the ores which contain sulphur, I conceive that it might 
be purified completely by roasting, and I have little doubt 
that excellent iron might be made from the English iron 


_ stones, if the oxide of iron was separated from the impuri- 
_ ties by washing. 


26. Magnetic iron ore abounds in the Salem district, in 
Mysore, and in Coimbatore, and may be either picked up in 
any quantity on the surface at a very trifling expense, or 


_can be separated from the “ friable ferruginous granite,” by 


| 
| 


Q. 


114 On the Manufacture of Bar Iron in India. 


beating and sifting, for about 2 rupees a ton. The iron 
sand is, however, the most universally diffused ore in India, 
and is found in almost every nullah South of the Toom- 
buddra; and as a single man can collect and wash a 
bullock load, or 200 pounds, in one day without much trou- 
ble, it may be procured in any quantity for about the same 
expense as the magnetic iron ore; and perhaps the cost 
might be much decreased, either by washing the sand by 
machinery, or by separating the pure ore from the silicious 
sand by electro-magnets. 

27. It is not easy to form a correct estimate of the ex- 
pense of firewood and charcoal, but I find that where wood 
is plentiful, it can be procured at | anna for 300 pounds, and 
charcoal at 2 annas for 100 pounds. But as a single man 
can cut and faggot 800 pounds of wood in a day, 14 rupee 
a ton would be more than the cost, including carriage for 
five miles; and if charcoal is required, the wood can be car- 
bonised at very little additional expense, if conical ovens 
of brick-work are employed. 

28. As a locality for a manufactory to supply the demand 
of the interior parts of India, along the Himalayas to Simla; 
in the Deyra-Dhoon in Candeish; the Mahabilishwur Hills ; 
the whole range of the Western Ghauts in Travancore, Coim- 
batore, Salem, North Arcot, Cuddapah along the Western 
verge of the Gundwana mountains; in Singboom and Bogli- 
poor; there is hardly a spot which would not answer for 
a manufactory of very considerable size. 

29. To open an export trade in iron for the supply of the 
English market, a manufactory would require to be orga- 
nised upon an extensive scale; and must be situated adja- 
cent to the sea shore, or near water carriage, to avoid the 
expense of inland carriage over the bad roads of India. As 
a locality for this purpose, Hoonoor on the Western Coast 
would perhaps answer, or Travancore, or Trincomallee,in 
Ceylon, where fuel is abundant; or in Cuttack where iron ore, 


Collections. 115 


wood, and coal abound. Either Tavoy or Mergui afford 
great advantages also; or perhaps the water carriage from 
Rajemal in Bengal, would admit of a large manufactory 
being established there. 


Collections. 

We have to acknowledge the following obliging communi- 
cations of plants. From Mrs. Skipwith, the lady of J. C. Skip- 
with, Esq. Judge of Tiperah, two well preserved collections 
from Churra Punjee, containing the following genera :— 

Acotyledons.—Lycopodium. ; 

Monocotyledons.—Burmannia. Anthericum. ‘Tradescantia, 
Aneilema. Pothos. Celoglossum, Habenaria (2), Anthogoni- 
um, Goodyera, Dendrobium (2). 

Dicotyledons.—Begonia. Polygonum. Daphine (2). Quer- 
cus (2). Impatiens(7). Hypericum, Camellia. Clematis. Drosera. 
Potentilla. Crotalaria, Smithia, Desmodium, Dalbergia, Pa- 
rochetus. Berberis. Sonnerila (2), Osbeckia (2), Oxyspora. 
Dipsacus. Thibaudia. Erigeron, Senecio Gnaphalium, Caca- 
lia. Ophiorhiza. Lobelia. Ligustrum. Pladera, Crawfurdia. 
Strobilanthes. Utricularia. Buddlea. Plectranthus, Scutel- 
laria, Colquhounia, Salvia. Cynoglossum. 

From Dr. Oxley, Senior Surgeon in the Straits, a small 
collection from Penang Hill. This does not contain any 
very noticeable plant, but in a larger collection (of 250 sp.) 
communicated by him to the late Mr. Voigt, we observed 
some remarkable plants, particularly an undescribed species 
of Dorianne, for which we propose the name D. Oxleyanus.* 


*Durio Oxleyanus, (n. sp.) foliis oblongis obtusis submuticis subtus 
pubescentibus, alabastris globosis, involucri foliolis rotundatis, calyce 
urceolato-breviter 4-dentato, petalis dorso subsericeis calyce paullo 
longioribus, antheris integris, ovario pilis stellatis stipitatis vestito, 
stylo brevi, stigmate subsimplici. 

Hazs.—Malacca. Dorianne Dahown of the Malays. 


116 Collections. 


Dr. Oxley has been long engaged in collecting the plants 
of the Straits, and has we believe in his possession, a collec- 
tion of 1000 or 1200 species. 

From the Rev. Mr. White, Chaplain of Singapore, an 
indefatigable collector, a few plants collected by him in 
Terra Australis, and a dried specimen (of a branch) of 
the tree producing that curious sort of Caoutchouc known by 
the name of Gutta Percha. This specimen enables us to 
refer the plant to Sapotez, which explains the statement of 
its fruit being edible. It has all the characters of a Chryso- 
phyllum. Mr. White has been also so obliging as to trans- 
mit living plants of this, and also of the true Camphor tree, 
the arrival of which is expected shortly. 

From Lieut. Munro, H. M. 39th Foot, who is already dis- 
tinguished by his investigations of the Flora of the Penin- 
sula of India, a small collection containing a Lycium from 
between Kurnal and Ferozepore, an Erodium from the 
Chumbul, and an undescribed Polanisia from Bhurtpore. 
The Erodium is particularly interesting from its being an 
Affehan form: the genus has not hitherto been met with 
in the plains of India. 

From J. P. Cathcart, Esq. of Purneah, a small collection 
containing an undescribed species of Utricularia. 

Government having ordered the formation of an Herbaria 
in the H. C. Botanic Gardens, which will be naturally open 


A large and handsome tree, the flowers are much smaller and relative- 
ly broader. 

The chief differences from Durio zibethinus regard the deep division 
of the ordinary scales whence stellate hairs result, the shortness of 
all the parts of the flower, the apparently simple anthers, which consist 
of a discoid horizontal connectivum with a marginal entire loculus. 
The fruit, I believe, is not eaten ; its spines are longer. 

I have a third species of the genus, the Dorianne Ootang: a fourth 
Dorianne, the Dorianne Dorianne of the Malays, is my Heteropyxis, a 
remarkable polypetalous genus of the same family.—W. G. 


| 
} 


i 
i] 


. 


| 
1 
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Collections. vs 


to the Public, we hope hereafter to be able to communicate to 

contributors the authentic names of any plants they may send 

tous. This we conceive is the least return we can offer. 
ZooLocy. 

We have been indebted in this department to the Rev. 
Mr. White, of Singapore, for a collection of Fish from New 
Holland, which will be noticed in our next number. We 
are also under many obligations to Capt. Phayre, Principal 
Assistant to the Commissioner of Arracan, for collections in 
the same class, from Sandoway on the Malay Coast, in 
which we find a new species of Murena distinguished by 
moveable articulated teeth in the front of the jaws, and two 
oblique rows of fixed teeth on the palate; it forms the 
type of a new genus Therodontis. Also for two new genera 
of the same order, having the heart situated far back behind 
the opening to the gills, forming the types of a newly distin- 
guished tribe of Apodal Fishes; we have named one Opii- 
cardia, the other Ophisiernon; both will appear in the next 
number, in our promised paper on the Apodal Fishes of 
Bengal. We have also to acknowledge our obligations for 
small collections in this class, to Dr. Campbell, of Dar- 
jeeling, and Capt. Guthrie, of the Engineers, which have 
been received some time since; all which we hope shortly 
to notice in detail. 


An inquiry into the distinctive characteristics of the Aboriginal Race of 
America, read at the Annual Meeting of the Boston Society of 
Natural History, Wedacsiay, 27th April, 1842. By Samuer 
GuorcEe Morton, om. p. 


At a meeting of the Boston Society of Natural History, held on 


| the 27th of April, it was unanimously 


Voted, That the thanks of the Society be presented to Dr. S. G. 
Morton, for his eloquent and instructive address, delivered before this 


118 Distinctive characteristics of the 


Society at its Anniversary meeting ; and that a copy be requested 
for publication. 

It was also 

Voted, ‘That the charge of procuring and publishing the same, be 
assigned to the Publishing Committee. 

When these votes were communicated to Dr. Morton, he immedi- 
ately complied with the request of the Society, and placed his ad- 
dress at the disposal of the Committee. 


To the Members of the Boston Society of Natural History. 

GENTLEMEN,—On receiving the highly flattering invitation to 
deliver your Annual Address, it occurred to me that nothing would 
be so appropriate as a review of the present state of Natural Science 
in this country: but having almost simultaneously received the Ad- 
dress of Mr. Teschemacher for the past year, I found it so full and 
satisfactory on this question as to leave little or nothing for further 
discussion. I have therefore been induced to seek another field 
of inquiry, and in so doing, have very naturally turned to a subject 
which has long occupied my leisure hours, and which, though fre- 
quently examined, may yet, I trust, be recurred to with pleasure and 
instruction. I propose to take a rapid glance at what I conceive to be 
the peculiar traits of the Aboriginal race of America, as embraced in 
five principal considerations, viz :—their organic, moral and intellec- 
tual characters ; their mode of interment and their maritime enter- 
prise ; and from these I shall venture to draw a few definite con- 
clusions. I am aware that it may appear presumptuous to attempt 
so wide a range within the brief limits of the present occasion, 
especially as some points can be touched only in the most general 
manner; but my object has been to dwell rather upon some of these 
which have hitherto received less attention than they obviously 
deserve, and which are intimately involved in the present inquiry. 
With this explanation I submit to your indulgent consideration the 
contents of the following memoir. ‘ S. G. Morton. 


ADDRESS. 
Anthropology, the Natural History of Man, is essentially a mo- 
dern science. At a time when the study of Nature in her other 
departments, had been prosecuted with equal zeal and success, this 


Aboriginal Race of America. Lig 


alone, the most important of them all, remained comparatively 
neglected and unknown; and of the various authors who have at- 
tempted its exposition during the past and present centuries, too 
many have been content with closet theories, in which facts are 
perverted to sustain some baseless conjecture. Hence it has been 
aptly remarked that Asia is the country of fables, Africa of monsters, 
and America of systems, to those who prefer hypothesis to truth. 

The intellectual genius of antiquity justly excites our admiration 
and homage; but in vain we search its records for the physical 
traits of some of the most celebrated nations of past time. It is 
even yet gravely disputed whether the ancient Egyptians belonged 
to the Caucasian race or to the Negro; and was it not for the light 
which now dawns upon us from their monuments and their tombs, 
this question might remain for ever undecided. The present age, 
however, is marked by a noble zeal for these inquiries, which are 
daily making man more conversant with the organic structure, the 
mental character, and the national affinities of the various and widely 
scattered tribes of the human family. 

Among these the aboriginal inhabitants of America claim our 
especial attention. ‘This vast theatre has been thronged, from im- 
memorial time, by numberless tribes which lived only to destroy 
and be in turn destroyed, without leaving a trace of their sojourn 
on the face of the earth. Contrasted with these were a few civi- 
lized communities, whose monuments awaken our surprise without 
unfolding their history ; and he who would unravel their mysteries 
may be compared, in the language of the poets, to a man standing 
by the stream of time, and striving to rescue from its waters the 
wrecked and shattered fragments which float onward to oblivion. 

It is not my present intention even to enumerate the many theo- 
ries which have been advanced in reference to the origin of the 
Amerigan nations ; although I may, in the sequel, inquire whether 
their genealogy can be traced to the Polynesians or Mongolians, 
Hindoos, Jews or Egyptians. Nor shall I attempt to analyse the 
views of certain philosophers who imagine that they have found not 
only a variety of races, but several species of men among the abori- 
gines of this continent. It is chiefly my intention to produce a few 
of the more strikingly characteristic traits of these people to sustain 


120 Distinctive characteristics of the 


the position that all the American nations, excepting the Eskimaux, 
are of one race, and that this race is peculiar, and distinct from 
all others. 

1. Physical Characteristics. It is an adage among travellers, 
that he who has seen one tribe of Indians, has seen all, so much do 
the individuals of this race resemble each other, notwithstanding 
their immense geographical distribution, and those differences of 
climate which embrace the extremes of heat and cold. The half- 
clad Fuegian, shrinking from his dreary winter, has the same charac- 
teristic lineaments, though in an exaggerated degree, as the Indians 
of the tropical plains; and these again resemble the tribes which 
inhabit the region west of the Rocky Mountains, those of the great 
valley of the Mississippi, and those again which skirt the Eskimaux 
on the North. All possess alike the long, lank, black hair, the 
brown or cinnamon colored skin, the heavy brow, the dull and sleepy 
eye, the full and compressed lips, and the salient but dilated nose. 
These, traits, moreover are equally common to the savage and 
civilized nations ; whether they inhabit the margins of rivers and 
feed on fish, or rove the forest and subsist on the spoils of the 
chase. 

It cannot be questioned that physical diversities do occur, equally 
singular and inexplicable, as seen in different shades of color, vary- 
ing from a fair tint to a complexion almost black ; and this too un- 
der circumstances in which climate can have little or no influence. 
So also in reference to stature, the differences are remarkable in en- 
tire tribes which, moreover, are geographically proximate to each 
other. ‘These facts, however, are mere exceptions to a general rule, 
and do not alter the peculiar physiognomy of the Indian, which is 
as undeviatingly characteristic as that of the Negro; for whether we 
see him in the athletic Charib or the stunted Chayma, in the dark 
Californian or the fair Borroa, he is an Indian still, and cannot be 
mistaken for a being of any other race. 

The same conformity of organization is not less obvious in the 
osteological structure of these people, as seen in the squared or 
rounded, head, the flattened or vertical occiput, the high cheek 
bones, the ponderous maxille, the large quadrangular orbits, and 
the low, receding forehead. I have had opportunity to compare 


Aboriginal Race of America. 121 


nearly four hundred crania, derived from tribes inhabiting almost 
every region of both Americas, and have been astonished to find how 
the preceding characters, in greater or less degree, pervade them all. 

This remark is equally applicable to the ancient and modern na- 
tions of our continent ; for the oldest skulls from the Peruvian ce- 
meteries, the tombs of Mexico and the mounds of our own country, 
are of the same type as the heads of the most savage existing tribes. 
Their physical organization proves the origin of one to have been 
equally the origin of all. The various civilized nations are to this 
day represented by their lineal descendants who inhabit their an- 
cestral seats, and differ in no exterior respect from the wild and un- 
cultivated Indians ; at the same time, in evidence of their lineage, 
Clavigero and other historians inform us, that the Mexicans and 
Peruvians yet possess a latent mental superiority which has not 
been subdued by three centuries of despotism. And again, with 
respect to the royal personages and other privileged classes, there is 
indubitable evidence that they were of the same native stock, and 
presented no distinctive attributes excepting those of a social or po- 
litical character. 

The observations of Molina and Humboldt are sometimes quoted 
in disproof of this pervading uniformity of physical characters. Mo- 
lina says that the difference between an inhabitant of Chili and a 
Peruvian is not less than between an Italian and a German; to 
which Humboldt adds, that the American race contains nations 
whose features differ as essentially from one another as those of the 
Circassians, Moors and Persians. But all these people are of one 
and the same race, and readily recognized as such, notwithstanding 
their differences of feature and complexion ; and the American na- 
tions present a precisely parallel case. 

I was at one time inclined to the opinion that the ancient Peru- 
vians, who inhabited the islands and confines of the Lake Titicaca, 
presented a congenital form of the head entirely different from that 
which characterizes the great American race; nor could I at first 
bring myself to believe that their wonderfully narrow and elongated 
crania, resulted solely from artificial compression applied to the 
rounded head of the Indian. That such, however, is the fact, 
has been indisputably proved by the recent investigations of M. 

R 


122 Distinctive characteristics of the 


D’Orbigny. ‘This distinguished naturalist passed many months on 
the table-land of the Andes, which embraces the region of these extra- 
ordinary people, and examined the desiccated remains of hundreds of 
individuals in the tombs where they have lain for centuries. M. 
D’Orbigny remarked that while many of the heads were deformed in 
the manner to which we have adverted, others differed in nothing 
from the usual conformation. It was also observed that the flat- 
tened skulls were uniformly those of men, while those of the women 
remained unaltered ; and again, that the most elongated heads were 
preserved in the largest and finest tombs, shewing that this cranial 
deformity was a mark of distinction. But to do away with any re- 
maining doubt on this subject, M. D’Orbigny ascertained that the 
descendants of these ancient Peruvians yet inhabit the land of their 
ancestors, and bear the name of Aymaras, which may have been 
their primitive designation; and lastly, the modern Aymaras re- 
semble the common Quichua or Peruvian Indians in every thing that 
relates to physical conformation, not even excepting the head, which, 
however, they have ceased to mould artificially. 

Submitted to the same anatomical test, the reputed giant and 
dwarf races of America prove to be the mere inventions of ignorance 
or imposition. A careful inspection of the remains of both, has 
fully satisfied me that the asserted gigantic form of some nations 
has been a hasty inference on the part of unpractised observers : 
while the so-called pygmies of the valley of the Mississippi were 
mere children, who, for reasons not wholly understood, were buried 
apart from the adult people of their tribe. 

Thus it is that the American Indian, from the southern extremity 
of the continent to the northern limit of his range, is the same ex- 
terior man. With somewhat variable stature and complexion, his 
distinctive features, though variously modified, are never effaced ; 
and he stands isolated from the rest of mankind, identified at a 
glance in every locality, and under every variety of circumstance ; 
and even his desiccated remains which have withstood the destroy- 
ing hand of time, preserve the primeval type of his race, except- 
ing only when art has interposed to pervert it. 

2. Moral Traits. These are, perhaps, as strongly marked as the 
physical characteristics of which we have just spoken ; but they have 


Aboriginal Race of America. 123 


been so often the subject of analysis as to claim only a passing 
notice on the present occasion. Among the most prominent of this 
series of mental operations is a sleepless caution, an untiring vi- 
gilance which presides over every action and masks every motive. 
The Indian says nothing and does nothing without its influence : 
it enables him to deceive others without being himself suspected ; 
it causes that proverbial taciturnity among strangers which changes 
to garrulity among the people of his own tribe; and it is the basis 
of that invincible firmness which teaches him to contend unrepin- 
ingly with every adverse circumstance, and even with death in its 
most hideous forms. 

The love of war is so general, so characteristic, that it scarcely 
calls for a comment or an illustration. One nation is in almost 
perpetual hostility with another, tribe against tribe, man against 
man; and with this ruling passion are linked a merciless revenge and 
an unsparing destructiveness. The Chickasaws have been known to 
make a stealthy march of 600 miles from their own hunting grounds, 
for the sole purpose of destroying an encampment of their enemies. 
The small island of Nantucket, which contains but a few square 
miles of barren sand, was inhabited at the advent of the European 
colonies by two Indian tribes, who sometimes engaged in hot and 
deadly feud with each other. But what is yet more remarkable, the 
miserable natives of Terra del Fuego, whose common privations have 
linked them for a time in peace and fellowship, become suddenly 
excited by the same inherent ferocity, and exert their puny efforts 
for mutual destruction. Of the destructive propensity of the Indian, 
which has long become a proverb, it is almost unnecessary to speak ; 
but we may advert to a forcible example from the narrative of a 
traveller who accompanied a trading party of northern Indians on 
a long journey, during which he declares that they killed every 
living creature that came within their reach; nor could they even 
pass a bird’s nest without slaying the young or destroying the eggs. 

That philosophic traveller, Dr. Von Martius, gives a graphic view 
of the present state of natural and civil rights among the American 
aborigines. Their sub-division, he remarks, into an almost countless 
multitude of greater and smaller groups, and their entire exclusion 
and excommunication with regard to each other, strike the eye 


124 Distinctive characteristics of the 


of the observer like the fragments of a vast ruin, to which the history 
of the other nations of the earth furnishes no analogy. ‘“‘ This dis- 
ruption of all the bands by which Society was anciently held to- 
gether, accompanied by a Babylonish confusion of tongues, the rude 
right of force, the never ending tacit warfare of all against all, 
springing from that very disrupture,—appear to me the most essential, 
and, as far as history is concerned, the most significant points in the 
civil condition of the aboriginal population of America.” 

It may be said that these features of the Indian character are 
common to all mankind in the savage state: this is generally true ; 
but in the American race they exist in a degree which will fairly 
challenge a comparison with similar traits in any existing people ; 
and if we consider also their habitual indolence and improvidence, 
their indifference to private property, and the vague simplicity of 
their religious observances,—which, for the most part, are devoid 
of the specious aid of idolatry—we must admit them to possess a 
peculiar and eccentric moral constitution. 

If we turn now to the demi-civilized nations, we find the dawn of 
refinement coupled with those barbarous usages which characterize 
the Indian in his savage state. We see the Mexicans, like the later 
Romans, encouraging the most bloody and cruel rites, and these too 
in the name of religion, in order to inculcate hatred of their enemies, 
familiarity with danger and contempt of death ; and the moral effect 
of this system is manifest in their valorous, though unsuccessful, 
resistance to their Spanish conquerors. 

Among the Peruvians, however, the case was different. The 
inhabitants had been subjugated to the Incas by a combined moral 
and physical influence. The Inca family were looked upon as beings 
of divine origin. They assumed to be the messengers of heaven, 
bearing rewards for the good, and punishment for the disobedient, 
conjoined with the arts of peace and various social institutions. 
History bears ample testimony that these specious pretences were 
employed first to captivate the fancy and then to enslave the man. 
The familiar adage that ‘‘ knowledge is power,’’ was as well under- 
stood by them as by us; learning was artfully restricted to a privi- 
leged class ; and the genius of the few soon controled the energies 
of the many. Thus the policy of the Incas inculcated in their sub- 


Aboriginal Race of America. 125 


jects an abject obedience which knew no limit. They endeavored 
to eradicate the feeling of individuality ; or in other words to unite 
the minds of the plebeian multitude in a common will which was 
that of their master. Thus when Pizarro made his first attack on 
the defenceless Peruvians in the presence of their Inca, the latter 
was borne in a throne on the shoulders of four men ; and we are told 
by Herrera that while the Spaniards spared the Sovereign, they 
aimed their deadly blows at his bearers: these, however, never 
shrunk from their sacred trust; but when one of their number fell, 
another immediately took his place ; and the historian declares that 
if the whole day had been spent in killing them, others would still 
have come forward to the passive support of their master. In fact 
what has been called the paternal government of the Incas was 
strictly such ; for their subjects were children, who neither thought 
nor acted except at the dictation of another. Thus it was that a 
people whose moral impulses are known to have differed in little or 
nothing from those of the barbarous tribes, were reduced, partly by 
persuasion, partly by force, to a state of effeminate vassalage not 
unlike that of the modern Hindoos. Like the latter, too, they made 
good soldiers in their native wars, not from any principle of valour, 
but from the sentiment of passive obedience to their superiors ; and 
hence when they saw their monarch bound and imprisoned by the 
Spaniards, their conventional courage at once forsook them ; and we 
behold the singular spectacle of an entire nation prostrated at a blow, 
like a strong man whose energies yield to a seemingly trivial but 
rankling wound. 

After the Inca power was destroyed, however, the dormant spirit 
of the people was again aroused in all the moral vehemence of their 
race, and the gentle and unoffending Peruvian was transformed into 
the wily and merciless savage.. Every one is familiar with the 
sequel. Resistance was too late to be availing, and the fetters to 
which they had confidingly submitted were soon riveted for ever. 

As we have already observed, the Incas depressed the moral 
energies of their subjects in order to secure their own power. This 
they effected by inculcating the arts of peace, prohibiting human 
sacrifices, and in a great measure avoiding capital punishments ; and 
blood was seldom spilt excepting on the subjugation of warlike and 


126 Distinctive characteristics of the 


refractory tribes. In these instances, however, the native ferocity of 
their race broke forth even in the bosom of the Incas ; for we are 
told by Garcilaso, the descendant and apologist of the Peruvian 
kings, that some of their wars were absolutely exterminating ; and 
among other examples he mentions that of the Inca Yupanqui 
against the province of Collao, in which whole districts were so 
completely depopulated that they had subsequently to be colonized 
from other parts of the empire: and in another instance the same 
unsparing despot destroyed twenty thousand Caranques, whose 
bodies he ordered to be thrown into an adjacent lake, which yet 
bears the name of the Sea of Blood. In like manner when Atahualpa 
contested the dominion with Guascar, he caused the latter, together 
with thirty of his brothers, to be put to death in cold blood, that 
nothing might impede his progress to the throne. 

We have thus endeavored to shew that the same moral traits 
characterize all the aboriginal nations of this continent, from the 
humanized Peruvian to the rudest savage of the Brazilian forest. 

3. Intellectual Faculties. It has often been remarked that the 
intellectual faculties are distributed with surprising equality among 
individuals of the same race who have been similarly educated, and 
subjected to the same moral and other influences: yet even among 
these, as in the physical man, we see the strong and the weak, with 
numberless intermediate gradations. This equality is infinitely more 
obvious in savage than in civilized communities, simply because in 
the former the condition of life is more equal; whence it happens 
that in contrast to a single master mind, the plebeian multitude are 
content to live and die in their primitive ignorance. 

This truth is obvious at every step of the present investigation ; 
for of the numberless hordes which have inhabited the American 
continent, a fractional portion only has left any trace of refinement. 
I venture here to repeat my matured conviction that as a race they 
are decidedly inferior to the Mongolian stock. They are not only 
averse to the restraints of education, but seem for the most part 
incapable of a continued process of reasoning on abstract subjects. 
Their minds seize with avidity on simple truths, while they reject 
whatever requires investigation or analysis. Their proximity for 
more than two centuries to European communities, has scarcely 


Aboriginal Race of America. 127 


effected an appreciable change in their manner of life; and as to 
their social condition, they are probably in most respects the same as 
at the primitive epoch of their existence. They have made no im- 
provement in the construction of their dwellings, except when direct- 
ed by Europeans who have become domiciliated among them ; for 
the Indian cabin or the Indian tent, from Terra del Fuego to the 
river St. Lawrence, is perhaps the humblest contrivance ever devised 
by man to screen himself from the elements. Nor is their mechani- 
cal ingenuity more conspicuous in the construction of their boats ; 
for these, as we shall endeavor to show in the sequel, have rarely 
been improved beyond the first rude conception. ‘Their imitative 
faculty is of a very humble grade, nor have they any predilection 
for the arts or sciences. The long annals of missionary labor and 
private benefaction, present few exceptions to this cheerless picture, 
which is sustained by the testimony of nearly all practical observers. 
Even in those instances in which the Indians have received the 
benefits of education, and remained for years in civilized society, 
they lose little or none of the innate love of their national usages, 
which they almost invariably resume when left to choose for them- 
selves. 

Such is the intellectual poverty of the barbarous tribes ; but 
contrasted with these, like an oasis in the desert, are the demi- 
. civilized nations of the new world; a people whose attainments in 
the arts and sciences are a riddle in the history of the human mind. 
The Peruvians in the south, the Mexicans in the north, and the 
Muyscas of Bogota between the two, formed these contemporary 
centres of civilization, each independent of the other, and each 
equally skirted by wild and savage hordes. The mind dwells with 
surprise and admiration on their cyclopean structures, which often 
rival those of Egypt in magnitude ;—on their temples, which embrace 
almost every principle in architecture except the arch alone ;—and on 
their statues and bas-reliefs which, notwithstanding some conven- 
tional imperfections, are far above the rudimentary state of the arts.* 


* I cannot omit the present occasion to express my admiration of the recent 
discoveries of Mr. Stephens among the ruined cities of Central America. The 
spirit, ability and success which characterize these investigations are an honor 
to that gentleman and to his country; and they will probably tend more than 


128 Distinctive characteristics of the 


J] have elsewhere ventured to designate these demi-civilized nations 
by the collective name of the Toltecan Family ; for although the 
Mexican annals date their civilization from a period long antecedent 
to the appearance of the Toltecas, yet the latter seem to have culti- 
vated the arts and sciences to a degree unknown to their predeces- 
sors. Besides, the various nations which at different times invaded 
and possessed themselves of Mexico, were characterized by the same 
fundamental language and the same physical traits, together with a 
strong analogy in their social institutions : and as the appearance of 
the Incas in Peru was nearly simultaneous with the dispersion of 
the Toltecas, in the year 1050 of our era, there is reasonable ground 
for the conjecture that the Mexicans and Peruvians were branches 
of the genuine Toltecan stock. We have alluded to a civilization 
antecedent to the appearance of the Incas, and which had already 
passed away when they assumed the government of the country. 
There are traditional and monumental evidences of this fact which 
can leave no doubt on the mind, although of its date we can form no 
just conception. It may have even preceded the Christian era, 
nor do we know of any positive reasons to the contrary. Chronolo- 
gy may be called the crutch of history; but with all its imperfec- 
tions it would be invaluable here, where no clue remains to unravel 
those mysterious records which excite our research but constantly 
elude our scrutiny. We may be permitted however, to repeat what 
is all-important to the present inquiry, that these Ancient Peruvians 
were the progenitors of the existing Aymara tribes of Peru, while 
these last are identified in every particular with the people of the 
great Inca race. All the monuments which these various nations 
have left behind them, over a space of three thousand miles, go also 
to prove a common origin, because, notwithstanding some minor dif- 
ferences, certain leading features pervade and characterize them all. 

Whether the hive of the civilized nations was, as some suppose, in 
the fabled region of Aztlan in the north, or whether, as the learned 


the labors of any other person to unravel the mysteries of American Archzo- 
logy. Similar in design to these are the researches of my distinguished friend 
the Chevalier Freidrichthal, the results of whose labors, though not yet given 


to the world, are replete with facts of the utmost importance to the present 
inquiry. 


Aboriginal Race of America. 129 


Cabrera has endeavoured to shew, their native seats were in Chiapas 
and Guatimala, we may not stop to inquire; but to them, and to 
them alone, we trace the monolithic gateways of Peru, the sculptures 
of Bogota, the ruined temples and pyramids of Mexico, and the 
mounds and fortifications of the valley of the Mississippi. 

Such was the Toltecan Family ; and it will now be inquired how 
it happens that so great a disparity should have existed in the intel- 
lectual character of the American nations, if they are all derived from 
a common stock, or in other words belong to the same race? How 
are we to reconcile the civilization of the one with the barbarism 
of the other? It is this question which has so much puzzled 
the philosophers of the past three centuries, and led them, in the face 
of facts, to insist on a plurality of races. We grant the seeming 
anomaly ; but however much it is opposed to general rule, it is not 
without ample analogies among the people of the old world. No 
stronger example need be adduced than that which presents itself in 
the great Arabian family ; for the Saracens who established their 
kingdom in Spain, whose history is replete with romance and refine- 
ment, whose colleges were the centres of genius and learning for 
several centuries, and whose arts and sciences have been blended with 
those of every subsequent age ;—these very Saracens belong not only 
to the same race but to the same family with the Bedouins of the 
desert ; those intractable barbarians who scorn all restraints which 
are not imposed by their own chief, and whose immemorial laws for- 
bid them to sow corn, to plant fruit trees or to build houses, in order 
that nothing may conflict with those roving and predatory habits 
which have continued unaltered through a period of three thousand 
years. | 

Other examples perhaps not less forcible, might be adduced in the 
families of the Mongolian race ; but without extending the compari- 
son, or attempting to investigate this singular intellectual disparity, 
we shall, for the present, at least, content ourselves with the facts as 
we find them. It is important, however, to remark, that these ci- 
vilized states do not stand isolated from their barbarous neighbours ; 
on the contrary they merge gradually into each other, so that some 
nations are with difficulty classed with either division, and rather form 
an intermediate link between the two. Such are the Araucanians, 

S 


130 Distinctive characteristics of the 


whose language and customs, and even whose arts, prove their direct 
affiliation with the Peruvians, although they far surpass the latter in 
sagacity and courage, at the same time that their social institutions 
present many features of intractable barbarism. So also the Aztec 
rulers of Mexico at the period of the Spanish invasion, exhibit, with 
their bloody sacrifices and multiform idolatry, a strong contrast to the 
gentler spirit of the Toltecas, who preceded them, and whose arts 
and ingenuity they had usurped. Still later in this intermediate 
series were the Natchez tribes of the Mississippi, who retained some 
traces of the refinement of their Mexican progenitors, mingled with 
many of the rudest traits of savage life. It is thus that we can yet 
trace all the gradations, link by link, which connect these extremes 
together, showing that although the civilization of these nations 
is fast becoming obsolete, although their arts and sciences have pass- 
ed away with a former generation, still the people remain in all other 
respects unchanged, although a variety of causes has long been 
urging them onward to deep degradation and rapid extinction. 
Strange as these intellectual revolutions may seem, we venture to 
assert that, all circumstances being considered, they are not greater 
than those which have taken place between the ancient and modern 
Greeks. If we had not incontestable evidence to prove the fact, who 
would believe that the ancestors of the Greeks of the present day 
were the very people who gave glory to the Age of Pericles! 

It may still be insisted that the religion and the arts of the Ameri- 
can nations point to Asia and Egypt; but it is obvious, as Humboldt 
and others have remarked, that these resemblances may have arisen 
from similar wants and impulses, acting on nations in many respects 
similarly circumstanced. ‘It would indeed be not only singular, but 
wonderful and unaccountable,” observes Dr. Caldwell, “‘if tribes and 
nations of men, possessed of similar attributes of mind and body, 
residing in similar climates and situations, influenced by similar 
states of society, and obliged to support themselves by similar means 
in similar pursuits,—it would form a problem altogether inexplicable, 
if nations thus situated did not contract habits and usages, and, 
instinctively modes of life and action, possessing towards each other 
many striking resemblances.” Here also we may draw an illustration 
from the old world; for notwithstanding the comparative proximity 


Aboriginal Race of America. 131 


of the Hindoos and Egyptians, and the evident analogies in their 
architecture, mythology and social institutions, there is now little 
reason to believe them cognate nations; and the resemblances to 
which we have adverted have probably arisen from mutual intercourse, 
independent of lineal affiliation. And so with the nations of America. 
The casual appearance of shipwrecked strangers would satisfactorily 
explain any sameness in the arts and usages of the one and the other, 
as well as those words which are often quoted in evidence of a com- 
mon origin of language, but which are so few in number as to be 
readily accounted for on the foregoing principle. 

The entire number of common words is said to be one hundred 
and four between the American languages and those of Asia and 
Australia; forty-three with those of Europe; and forty with those of 
Africa, making a total of one hundred and eighty seven words. But 
taking into account the mere coincidence by which some of these 
analogies may be reasonably explained, I would inquire, in the 
language of an ingenious author, whether these facts are sufficient to 
prove a connexion between four hundred dialects of America and 
the various languages of the old world? 

Even so late as the year 1833, a Japanese junk was wrecked on 
the north-west coast of America, and several of the crew escaped 
unhurt to the shore; and I have myself seen some porcelain vessels 
which were saved on that occasion. Such casualties may have 
occurred in the early periods of American history; and it requires 
no effort of the imagination to conceive the influence these persons 
might have exerted, in various respects, had they been introduced to 
the ancient courts of Peru and Mexico, They might have contribu- 
ted something to extend, or at least to modify, the arts and sciences 
of the people among whom they were thrown, and have added a 
few words to the national language. 

I am informed by my friend Mr. Townsend, who passed several 
months among the tribes of the Columbia river, that the Indians 
there have already adopted from the Canadian traders several French 
words, which they use with as much freedom as if they belonged 
to their own vocabulary. 

It follows of course from the preceding remarks, that we consider 
the American race to present the two extremes of intellectual charac- 


132 Distinctive characteristics of the 


ter: the one capable of a certain degree of civilization and refine- 
ment, independent of extraneous aids ; the other exhibiting an abase- 
ment which puts all mental culture at defiance. The one composed, 
as it were, of a handful of people whose superiority and consequent 
acquisitions have made them the prey of covetous destroyers ; the 
other a vast multitude of savage tribes whose very barbarism is 
working their destruction from within and without. The links that 
connect them partake of the fate of the extremes themselves ; and 
extinction appears to be the unhappy, but fast approaching doom of 
them all. 

4. Maritime Enterprise.—One of the most characteristic traits of 
all civilised and many barbarous communities, is the progress of 
maritime adventure. The Caucasian nations of every age present a 
striking illustration of this fact : their sails are spread on every ocean, 
and the fabled voyage of the Argonauts is but a type of their achieve- 
ments from remote antiquity to the present time. Hence their 
undisputed dominion of the sea, and their successful colonization of 
every quarter of the globe. The Mongolians and Malays, though 
active and predatory, and proverbially aquatic in their habits, are 
deficient in that mechanical invention which depends on a knowledge 
of mathematical principles ; while they seem also incapable of those 
mental combinations which are requisite to a perfect acquaintance 
with naval tactics. The Negro, whose observant and imitative 
powers enable him to acquire with ease the details of seamanship, 
readily becomes a mariner, but rarely a commander : and history is 
silent on the nautical prowess of his race. Far behind all these is 
the man of America. Savage or civilized, the sea for him has had 
few charms, and his navigation has been almost exclusively restricted 
to lakes and rivers. A canoe excavated from a single log, was the 
principal vessel in use in the new world at the period of its discovery. 
Even the predatory Charibs, who were originally derived from the 
forests of Guayana, possessed no other boat than this simple contri- 
vance, in which they seldom ventured out of sight of land; and 
never excepting in the tranquil periods of the tropical seas, when 
they sailed from shore to shore, the terror of the feebler natives of 
the surrounding islands. The canoes of the Arouacs of Cuba were 
not more ingeniously contrived than those of the ruder Charibs 


Aboriginal Race of America. 133 


which is the more surprising, since their island was the centre of a 
great archipelago, and their local position, therefore, in all respects 
calculated to develope any latent nautical propensities. When Cortez 
approached in his ships the Mexican harbor of Tobasco, he was 
astonished to find even there, the sea-port, as it were, of a mighty 
empire, the same primitive model in the many vessels that skimmed 
the sea before him. Let us follow this conqueror to the imperial city 
itself, surrounded by lakes, and possessed of warlike defences supe- 
rior to those of any other American people. The Spanish commander, 
foreseeing that to possess the lake would be to hold the keys of the 
city, had fifteen brigantines built at Tlascala; and these being 
subsequently taken to pieces, were borne on men’s shoulders to the 
lake of Mexico, and there re-constructed and launched. The war 
thus commenced as a naval contest; and the Spanish historians, 
while they eulogize the valour of the Mexicans, are constrained to 
admit the utter futility of their aquatic defences: for although the 
subjects of Montezuma, knowing and anticipating the nature of the 
attacks, came forth from the city in several thousand boats, these 
were so feebly constructed, and managed with so little dexterity, 
that in a few hours they were all destroyed, dispersed, or taken by 
the enemy. 

Turning from the Mexicans, we naturally look to the Peruvians 
for some further advances in nautical skill; but although their 
country was comparatively a narrow strip of land with an extended 
frontier on the ocean, we find even here the same primitive vessels 
and the same timid navigators. It is indeed questionable whether 
they ever designedly lost sight of land, nor does it appear that they 
made the sea subservient to their conquests. These were uniformly 
prosecuted by land, excepting perhaps those of the Incas, in their 
efforts to subdue the fierce islanders of Titicaca ; but even the partial 
pen of Garcilaso limits all these inventions to log canoes and rafts of 
reeds ; nor does it appear that the ingenuity of these people, so 
abundantly displayed on many other occasions, had ever added an 
improvement to the primeval germ of navigation. 

Nor are those tribes which depend almost wholly on fish for their 
daily subsistence, much better provided than the others. The 
Chenouks and other nations on the western coast of America, have 


134 Distinctive characteristics of the 


boats hewn with comparative ingenuity from a single plank, and 
compared to a butcher’s tray ; but in these frail vessels they keep 
cautiously within sight of land, and never venture on the water unless 
the weather is favourable to their enterprise. It is to be observed, 
however, that when the Indians are compelled to carry their boats 
across portages from river to river, they construct them of birch bark, 
and with a degree of ingenuity and adaptation much above their 
usual resources. ‘Thus boats that would carry nine men do not weigh 
over sixty pounds, and are therefore conveyed with ease to consi- 
derable distances. This is almost the only deviation from the log 
canoe, and is equally characteristic; for it is common among the 
interior Indians of both North and South America, and was noticed 
by De Solis in the Mexican provinces. 

Inferior in these respects to the other tribes are the Fuegians ; 
a people whom perpetual exposure and privation, and the influence 
of an inhospitable climate have reduced to a feeble intelligence,— the 
moral childhood of their race. Not even the stimulus of necessity 
has been able to excite that ingenuity which would so amply provide 
for all their wants ; and they starve amid the abundant stores of the 
ocean, because they possess no adequate means for obtaining them. 
The Falkland and Malouine islands in but fifty degrees of South 
latitude, South Georgia, New South Shetland, and some smaller 
islands in nearly the same parallel, were at their discovery, entirely 
uninhabited ; nor is there any evidence of their ever having been 
visited by any American tribe. Yet they possess seals and other 
marine animals in vast numbers, and in these and all other respects 
appear to be not less productive than the region inhabited by the 
Eskimaux. . 

It is generally supposed that nautical enterprise results from the 
necessity of the case, in nations proximate to, or surrounded by the 
sea. We have seen, however, that the natives of the islands of the 
Gulf of Mexico were exceptions to the rule; and we find another 
not less remarkable in the archipelago of Chiloe, on the coast of 
Chili. These islands are seen from the shore, and have a large 
Indian population which depends for subsistence on fish taken from 
the surrounding ocean; yet even so late as the close of the past 
century, after more than two hundred years of communication with 


Aboriginal Race of America. 135 


the Spaniards, their boats appear not to have been the least im- 
proved from their original model. The padre Gonzalez de Agueros, 
who resided many years among these islanders, describes their canoes 
as composed of five or six boards narrowed at the ends and lashed 
together with cords, the seams being filled with moss. They have 
sails, but neither keel nor deck; and in these frail and primitive 
vessels the inhabitants commit themselves to a tempestuous sea in 
search of their daily food. ‘The same miserable vessels are found in 
exclusive use in the yet more southern archipelago of Guaitecas, in 
which a spare population is distributed over eight hundred islands, 
and depends solely on the sea for subsistence. The mechanical 
ingenuity of these people, therefore, is not greater than that of the 
other Indians ; but from constant practice with their wretched boats, 
they have acquired a dexterity in the use of them unknown to any 
other tribe, and in some instances, under the direction of the Spani- 
ards, have become comparatively good sailors. 

De Azara mentions a curious fact in illustration of the present in- 
quiry. He declares that when his countrymen discovered the Rio 
de la Plata, they found its shores inhabited by two distinct Indian 
nations, the Charruas on the north, and the Patagonians on the 
south ; yet strange to say, these restless people had never commu- 
nicated with each other for war or for peace, for good or for evil, 
because they had neither boats or canoes in which to cross the river. 

The Indian is not defective in courage even on the water; but he 
lacks invention to construct better vessels, and tact to manage them. 
When he has been compelled to defend himself in his frail canoe, he 
has done so with the indomitable spirit of his race; yet with all 
their love of war and stratagem, I cannot find any account of a naval 
combat in which Europeans have borne no part. | 

The Payaguas Indians at one period took revenge on the Spani- 
ards by infesting the rivers of Paraguay in canoes which they ma- 
naged with much adroitness ; and darting from their lurking places, 
they intercepted the trading vessels going to and from Buenos 
Ayres, robbing them of their goods, and destroying their crews 
without mercy. Such was their success in these river piracies that 
it required years of war and stratagem on the part of the Spaniards 
to subdue them. 


156 Distinctive characteristics of the 


The only example of a naval contest that I have met with, is 
described by Dobrizhoffer to have taken place between the so-called 
Mamalukes of St. Paulo, in Brazil, and their enemies the Guaranies. 
The former were a banditti derived from the intermarriage of the 
dregs of Europeans of all nations with the surrounding Indians ; and 
assisted by two thousand of their native allies, they came forth to 
battle in three hundred boats. The Guaranies, on the other hand, 
had five ships armed with cannon. But it is obvious from this 
statement, that European vessels and European tactics gave the 
battle all its importance. It took place on the river Mborore, in 
Paraguay ; but after all, both parties finding themselves out of their 
element on the water, at length abandoned their vessels by mutual 
agreement, and fought to desperation on shore. 

It is said of the inhabitants of New Holland, that their only sub- 
stitute for a boat is a short and solid log, on which they place them- 
selves astride, and thus venture upon the water. Even this, the 
humblest of all human contrivances, was in use among the Indians 
of the Bay of Honduras, who had learned to balance themselves 
so dexterously standing upon a log, as to be able in this position to 
pursue their customary occupation of fishing in the adjacent sea. 

In fine, his long contact with European arts, has furnished the 
Indian with no additional means of contending with the watery 
element ; and his log canoe and boat of birch bark, are precisely the 
same as at the landing of Columbus. 

5. Manner of Interment. Veneration for the dead is a sentiment 
natural to man, whether civilized or savage; but the manner of 
expressing it, and of performing the rites of sepulture, differ widely 
in different nations. No offence excites greater exasperation in the 
breast of the Indian than the violation of the graves of his people ; 
and he has even been known to disinter the bones of his ancestors, 
and bear them with him to a great distance, when circumstances have 
compelled him to make a permanent change of residence. 

But the manner of inhumation is so different from that practised 
by the rest of mankind, and at the same time so prevalent among 
the American natives, as to constitute another means of identifying 
them as parts of a single and peculiar race. This practice consists 
in burying the dead in the sitting posture; the legs being flexed 


Aboriginal Race of America. 137 
against the abdomen, the arms also bent, and the chin supported on 
the palms of the hands. The natives of Patagonia, Brazil and 
Guayana ; the insular and other Charibs, the Florida tribes, the great 
chain of Lenape nations, the inhabitants of both sides of the Rocky 
mountains, and those also of Canada and the vast North-western 
region, all conform with occasional exceptions, to this conventional 
rite. So also with the demi-civilized communities from the most 
distant epochs; for the ancient Peruvians, to whom we have already 
so frequently referred, possessed this singular usage, as is verified by 
their numberless remains in the sepulchres of Titicaca, They did 
not, however, bury their dead, but placed them on the floors of their 
tombs, seated and sowed up in sacks. The later Peruvians of the 
Inca race followed the same custom, sometimes inhuming the body, 
at others placing it in a tower above ground. Garcilaso de la Vega 
informs us, that in the year 1560 he saw five embalmed bodies of the 
royal family, all of whom were seated in the Indian manner, with 
their hands crossed upon the breast, and their heads bent forward. 
So also the Mexicans from the most ancient time had adopted the same 
usage, which was equally the privilege of the king and his people. 
The most remarkable exception to the practice in question, is that in 
which the body is dissected before interment, the bones alone being 
deposited in the earth. This extraordinary rite has prevailed among 
various tribes from the southern to the northern extremity of their 
range, in Patagonia, Brazil, Florida and Missouri, and indeed in 
many intervening localities; but even in these instances the bones 
are often retained in their relative position by preserving the liga- 
ments, and then interred in the attitude of a person seated. An 
example among very many others is recorded by the Baron Hum- 
boldt, in his visit to a cavern-cemetery of the Atures Indians, at the 
sources of the Orinoco; wherein he found hundreds of skeletons 
preserved each in a separate basket, the bones being held together 
by their natural connexions, and the whole disposed in the conven- 


_ tional posture of which we are speaking. 


I am well aware that this practice has been noticed by some na- 
vigators among the Polynesian islands ; the instances, however, ap- 
pear so few as rather to form exceptions to the rule, like those of 
the Nassamones of northern Africa: but I have sought for it in vain 


ts 


138 Distinctive characteristics of the 


among the continental Asiatics, who, if they ever possessed it, would 
have yet preserved it among some at least of their numberless tribes. 

After this rapid view of the principal leading characteristics of the 
American race, let us now briefly inquire whether they denote an 
exotic origin; or whether there is not internal evidence that this 
race is as strictly aboriginal to America as the Mongolian is to Asia, 
or the Negro to Africa. 

And first, we turn to the Mongolian race, which, by a somewhat 
general consent is admitted to include the Polar nations, and among 


them the Eskimaux of our continent. It is a very prevalent opinion . 


that the latter people, who obviously belong to the Polar family of 
Asia, pass insensibly into the American race, and thus form the con- 
necting link between the two. But without repeating what has al- 
ready been said in reference to the Indian, we may briefly advert, for 
the purpose of comparison, to the widely different characteristics of 
the Eskimaux. These people are remarkable for a large and rather 
elongated head, which is low in front and projecting behind; the 
great width and flatness of the face is noted by all travellers: their 
eyes are small and black, the mouth small and round, and the nose 
is so diminutive and depressed, that on looking at a skull in profile 
the nasal bones are hardly seen. ‘Their complexion, moreover, is 
comparatively fair, and there is a tendency throughout life to fulness 
and obesity. The traveller Hearne, while in company with a tribe 
of northern Indians, mentions a circumstance which is at least cu- 
rious, because it shows the light in which the Eskimaux are regard- 
ed by their proximate neighbours on the south. He was the unwill- 
ing witness of a premeditated and unprovoked massacre of an entire 
encampment of Eskimaux, men, women, and children ; and it is cu- 
rious to remark that the aggressors apologised for their cruelty not 
only on the plea of ancient feud, but by asserting that their unof- 
fending victims were a people of different nature and origin from 
themselves, even.in respect to sexual conformation. 

The moral character of the Eskimaux differs from that of the In- 
dian chiefly in the absence of the courage, cunning, cruelty and im- 
providence so habitual in the red man, who, in turn, is inferior in 
mechanical ingenuity, and above all in aquatic exercises. The 
Eskimau, notwithstanding the intense cold of his climate, has been 


eS ee oe 


i ee ee gy oh ae 


Aboriginal Race of America. 139 


called an amphibious animal, so readily and equally does he adapt 
himself to the land or water. His boat is an evidence of mechanical 
skill, and the adroit manner in which he manages it is a proverb 
among mariners. The women are not less expert and enterprising 
than the men: each possesses a boat of peculiar and distinctive con- 
struction ; and Crantz informs us, that children of the tender age of 
seven or eight years commence the unassisted management of their 
little vessels. 

How strongly do these and other traits which might be enumerated, 
contrast with those of the Indian, and enforce an ethnographic 
dissimilarity which is confirmed at every step of the investigation ! 

Some writers, however, think they detect in the Fuegian a being 
whose similar physical condition has produced in him all the charac- 
teristics of the Eskimau ; but we confidently assert that the latter 
is vastly superior .both in his exterior organization and mental 
aptitude. In truth the two may be readily contrasted, but not easily 
compared. The Fuegian bears a coarse but striking resemblance to 
the race to which he belongs, and every feature of his character 
assists in fixing his identity. The extremes of cold, with their many 
attending privations, by brutifying the features and distorting the 
expression of the face, reduce man to a mere caricature, a repulsive 
perversion of his original type. Compare the Mongols of Central 
Asia. and China, with the Polar nations of Siberia. Compare also 
the Hottentot with the contiguous black tribes on the north; the 
Tasmanian negro with the proper New Hollanders; and lastly, the 
wretched Fuegian with the Indian beyond the Magellanic Strait ; and 
we find in every instance how much more the man of a cold and 
inhospitable clime is degraded, physically and intellectually, than 
his more fortunate but affiliated neighbor. The operation of these 
perverting causes through successive ages of time, has obscured but 
not obliterated those lineaments which, however modified, point to 
an aboriginal stock. 

Without attempting to enter the fathomless depths of philology, 
1 am bound to advert to the opinion of Mr. Gallatin, that all the 
nations from Cape Horn to the Arctic Ocean, have languages which 
possess “‘a distinct character common to all, and apparently differ- 
ing from those of the other continent with which we are acquainted ;” 


140 Distinctive characteristics of the 


an analogy, moreover, which is not of an indefinite kind, but consists 
for the most part in peculiar conjugational modes of modifying the 
verbs, by the insertion of syllables. ~ It has been insisted by some 
writers that this analogy proves the cognate relation of the Eski- 
maux and Indians. This, however is a mere postulate ; for from the 
evidence already adduced in respect to the ethnographic difference 
between these people, we have a right to infer that the resemblance 
in their respective languages has not been derived by the greater 
from the lesser source,—not by the Americans from the Eskimaux, 
but the reverse: for the Asiatics having arrived at various and 
distant periods, and in small parties, would naturally, if not unavoid- 
ably, adopt more or less of the language of the people among 
whom they settled, until their own dialects finally merged in those 
of the Chepewyan and other Indians who bound them on the 
south. 

The Eskimaux, it may be remarked, at the present time extend 
much further south, and are much more numerous on the western 
than on the eastern coast of America, being found as low down as 
Mount St. Elias; south of which, contrary to what is observed 
on the opposite side of the continent, they become more or less 
blended with the Indian tribes, and have imparted to the latter some 
portion of their mechanical ingenuity. This difference in the extent 
and influence of the western and eastern Eskimaux, is explained by 
the proximity of the former to Asia ; and a redundant population 
has even forced some of them back to the parent hive, whither they 
have carried a dialect derived from the cognate tribes of America. 
Such are the T’sutchchi, who thus form a link between the Polar na- 
tions of the two continents. 

It is a common opinion, also, that America has been peopled by 
the proper Mongols of central and eastern Asia; and volumes have 
been written on supposed affinities, physical, moral and intellectual, 
to sustain this hypothesis. We have already glanced at the Mon- 
golian features, as seen, though rudely and extravagantly deve- 
loped, in the Polar nations ; but there are some characters so preva- 
lent as to pervade all the ramifications of the great Mongolian stock, 
from the repulsive Calmuck to the polished and more delicately 
featured Chinese. These are the small, depressed, and seemingly 


Aboriginal Race of America. 141 


broken nose ; the oblique position of the eye, which is drawn up at 
the external angle ; the great width between the cheek bones, which 
are not only high but expanded laterally ; the arched and linear 
eyebrow ; and lastly, the complexion, which is invariably some shade 
of yellow or olive, and almost equally distant from the fair tint of the 
European and the red hue of the Indian. Without attempting a 
detailed comparison, we may briefly observe that the Mongolian, in 
his various localities, is distinguished for his imitative powers and 
mechanical ingenuity, and above all for his nautical skill, in which, 
as we have suggested, he holds a place next to the nations of the 
Caucasian race. In fine, we are constrained to believe that there 
is no more resemblance between the Indian and the Mongol in res- 
pect to arts, architecture, mental features and social usages, than 
exists between any other two distinct races of mankind. Mr. Rank- 
ing has written an elaborate treatise to prove that the Mongols, led 
by a descendant of Genghis Khan, conquered Peru and Mexico in 
the thirteenth century ; but in the whole range of English literature 
there cannot be found a work more replete with distorted facts and 
illogical reasoning. The author begins by the singular assertion 
that ‘“‘when Cuzco was founded by Manco Capac, none of the civi- 
lization introduced by the Peruvians and Mexicans was in existence ;” 
thus overlooking the cultivated tribes who preceded the Inca family, 
and disregarding also the various demicivilized nations which suc- 
cessively followed each other in Mexico, before that country fell 
under the rule of the Aztecs. Mr. Ranking introduces the Mongols 
im large ships, with all the appliances of war, not even excepting 
elephants ; and in order that the Tartar general may correspond to 
Manco Capac, he is made to enter Peru by the Lake Titicaca, up- 
wards of an hundred miles from the sea. Such statements may 
seem too absurd for sober discussion ; but they are not more so than 
various other subterfuges which have been resorted to in explana- 
tion of the precise manner in which the new world has been peopled 
from the old. 

But there is not a shadow of evidence that the Mongols ever 
reached America in ships excepting by mere accident ; and therefore 
their number must have always been too small, and too badly pro- 


142 Distinctive characteristics of the 


vided, to have dreamt of conquest in a country which has had a 
population of millions from immemorial time. : 

There is a third view of this question which remains to be noticed ; 
for, allowing that the Eskimaux and the cognate Polar nations are not 
the progenitors of the American race; and admitting also that the 
Mongols of central Asia could never have arrived in any requisite 
number by a direct voyage from one continent to the other, yet it is 
supposed by many learned men that these Mongols could have 
reached America by slow journeys from their own distant country ; 
and that their hieroglyphic charts delineate many of the incidents of 
their journey: but there is no positive evidence in regard to direc- 
tion and localities, although these, by a very general consent, are 
placed in the north and north-west. Cabrera, on the contrary, after 
the most patient research, aided by unusual facilities for investiga- 
tion, traces the primal seat of the civilized nations of America to 
southern Mexico, where the ruined cities of Copan, Uxmal and 
Palenque, point to an epoch seemingly much more remote than any 
antiquities contained in the present metropolis of that country. 

If we conventionally adopt the more prevalent opinion, and trace 
the Aztecs back to California or the strait, we have after all but a 
vague tradition of a handful of persons, who, for all we know to the 
contrary, may have been as indigenous to America as any people in 
it. The aborigines of this continent have always been of nomadic 
and migratory habits ; a fact which is amply illustrated in the tradi- 
tional history of Mexico itself. So also with the barbarous tribes ; 
for the Lenape, the Florida Indians, the Iroquois, the insular Charibs 
and many others, were intruding nations, who, driven by want, or 
impelled by an innate and restless activity, had deserted their own 
possessions to seize upon others which did not belong to them. 
These nations, like their more polished neighbors, were in the con- 
stant practice of recording the events of their battles and hunting 
excursions by hieroglyphic symbols, made, according to circumstances, 
on trees, skins or rocks; and this rude but expressive language of 
signs, has been justly regarded as the origin of the picture-writing of 
the Mexicans. ‘The difference between them,” observes Dr. Coates, 
‘“« does not appear greater than must necessarily exist between igno- 


Aboriginal Race of America. 143 


rant warriors and hunters in a simple form of society, and those of 
the members of a complicated state, possessed of property, and even, 
as described by Clavigero, of a species of science and literature.” 

This gradation of the ruder into the more perfect art of hierogly- 
phic writing, not only affords an additional argument for the unity of 
orgin of the American nations, but also constitutes another proof of the 
distinctness of their race; for this picture-writing, even in its most 
elaborate forms, bears no other than the most general resemblance to 
any exotic hieroglyphics, nor indeed has a real equivalent been 
detected between them. We may therefore be permitted to repeat 
our conviction that the annals of the Mexicans bear no indisputable 
evidence of immigration from Asia; but, on the other hand, that 
they are susceptible of as many different interpretations as there are 
theories to be supported. 

It is remarked by Dr. Coates, that the Mongolian theory, which 
we are now considering, is objectionable on account of its vastness. 
“To derive the population of the whole of the American continent 
from the north-western angle, requires the supposition of a continued 
chain of colonies during a long succession of ages, acquiring and 
using an immense diversity of languages, and pursuing each other 
along the huge ridge of the great American Andes, from Prince 
William’s Sound in the far north, to the extremity of Terra del 
Fuego, a distance of one hundred and fifteen degrees of latitude, or 
of eight thousand miles. This long succession of occurrences is 
absolutely necessary to the theory; which is thus lable to the 
difficulty of requiring two extensive hypotheses at once. Several 
hundred colonies must be imagined to have issued from the same 
point, all completely isolated, as their languages abundantly show, 
unconnected by peaceful intercourse, but urging each other by war 
and the destruction of the game, throughout a third part of the 
circumference of the globe. 

“The traces of such a series of human waves would be naturally 
looked for in a tendency to advance population in the north, from 
which they emanated, and where the pressure must have been great- 
est and the colonization of longest duration. Nothing like this is 
observed; the population of South America, and of Darien, Guati- 
mala and Mexico, being much greater in proportion than that of any 


144: Distinctive characteristics of the 


country farther north. The marks of early civilization, too, one of 
the most important proofs of long residence in a fixed spot, are all, 
as in the older world, in favor of the tropical climates.”* 

We may further inquire, how it happens that during the lapse of 
more than three hundred years since the discovery of America, there 
has not been an authenticated immigration from Asia? The long 
and desolating wars which have driven whole nations from the 
central to the northern parts of that continent, have not supplied a 
single colony to the New World. Nay, if such colonization had 
occurred within a thousand or two thousand years, would we not 
now possess more indubitable evidences of it in language, customs 
and the arts ? 

We propose in the next place, to make a very few observations in 
reference to the idea that America has been peopled by the Mazay 
race, which, in the ordinary classification, includes the Malays proper 
of the Indian Archipelago, and the Polynesians in all their number- 
less localities. These people, however, have so much of the Mongo- 
lian character, that nearly the same objections arise to both. The 
head of the Malay proper, is more like that of the Indian, because 
it not unfrequently presents something of the vertical form of the 
occiput; and the transverse diameter, as measured between the 
parietal bones, is also remarkably large. But excepting in these 
respects, the osteological developement coincides with that of the 
Mongolian ; while the whole category of objections which we have 
just urged against the latter people, is equally valid in respect to the 
whole Malay race. For independently of differences of organization, 
how great is the disparity in their arts and social institutions! So 
great, indeed, that to account for it, Dr. Lang, one of the most 
Ingenious supporters of the theory, insists on an intellectual dege- 
neracy, consequent to change of climate and circumstances. ‘‘ It is 
an easy and natural process,” says he, “‘for man to degenerate in 
the scale of civilization, as the Asiatics have evidently done in 
travelling to the northward and eastward. He has only to move 
forward a few hundred miles into the wilderness, and settle himself 


*On the Origin of the Indian Population of America. By B. H. Coartzs, 
M. D. 1834. 


Aboriginal Race of America. 145 


at a distance from all civilized men, and the process will advance 
with almost incredible celerity. For, whether he comes in contact 
with savages or not, in the dark recesses of the forest, his offspring 
will speedily arrive at a state of complete barbarism.” 

We confess our difficulty in imaging how the Polynesians, 
themselves a barbarous people, though possessing some of the at- 
tributes of civilized life, should become savages in the tropical re- 
gions of America, wherein the climate must be as congenial to their 
constitutions as their own, and the various other external circum- 
stances are calculated to foster rather than to depress the energies of 
a naturally active and intelligent people. But the general prevalence 
of easterly winds is adverse to the colonization of America from the 
islands of the Pacific ; for the nearest of these islands is one thousand 
eight hundred miles from the American coast ; and when we reflect on 
the many difficulties which the mere distance opposes to navigation 
in small vessels, and the absolute necessity for food and water for a 
long period of time, we feel compelled to believe that America has 
received very feeble if any accessions to its population from the 
Polynesian islands. Such voyages, if admitted, could only have been 
accidental ; for it is not to be supposed that these islanders would 
have attempted remote discoveries on the vast Pacific ocean in the very 
face of the trade winds; and a successful issue is among the least 
probable of human events. 

Even admitting that the Polynesians have accomplished all that 
the theory requires, how does it happen that on reaching the conti- 
nent of America, they should all at once have relinquished their 
intuitive fondness for the water, forgotten the construction of their 
boats, and become the most timid and helpless navigators in the 
world ? 

A comparison of languages, moreover, gives no support to the 
Polynesian hypothesis; for all the zeal and ingenuity which have 
been devoted to this inquiry, have tended only to disclose a complete 
philological disparity. 

The theories to which we have thus briefly adverted, would each 
derive the whole American population from a single source; but 
various others have been hazarded of a much more complex nature, 
by which the Indian nations are referred to a plurality of races, not 

U 


146 Distinctive characteristics of the 


even excepting the Caucasian. For example, the Peruvians, Muyscas 
and Mexicans, are by some advocates of this system, supposed to be 
Malays or Polynesians, and all the savage tribes Mongolians ; whence 
the civilization of the one and the barbarism of the other. But we 
insist that the origin of these two great divisions must have been the 
same, because all their ethnographic characters, not excepting the 
construction of their numberless languages, go to enforce an identity 
of race. 

Another doctrine which has had many disciples, (among whom 
was the late Lord Kingsborough, author of Mexican Antiquities) 
teaches that the whole American population is descended from the 
Jews, through the ten lost tribes which were carried away by 
Salmanazer, King of Assyria. Here again the differences of physi- 
cal organization should set this question at rest for ever; but in- 
dependently of these, can we suppose that people so tenacious as the 
Jews, of their literature, language, and religion, should not have 
preserved a solitary unequivocal memorial of either among the mul- 
titudinous tribes of this continent, if any direct affiliation had ever 
existed between them? In short, we coincide in opinion with a 
facetious author who sums up all the evidence of, the case with the 
conclusion, that “the Jewish theory cannot be true for the simple 
reason that it is impossible.” 

We feel assured that the same objection bears not less strongly 
on every other hypothesis which deduces any portion of the Ameri- 
can nations from a Caucasian source. In order to solve the problem 
of the origin of the monumenta of America, independently of any 
agency of the aboriginal race, an opinion has been advanced that 
they are the work of a branch of the great Cyclopean family of the old 
world, known by the various designations of the Shepherd Kings of 
Egypt, the Anakim of Syria, the Oscans of Etruria, and the Pelas- 
gians of Greece. These wandering masons, as they are also called, 
are supposed to have passed from Asia into America at a very early 
epoch of history, and to have built those more ancient monuments 
which are attributed to the Toltecan nation. This view, supported 
as it is by some striking resemblances, and especially in architectural 
decoration, leaves various important difficulties entirely unexplained : 
it necessarily presupposes a great influx of foreigners to account for 


Aboriginal Race of America. 14:7 


such numerous and gigantic remains of human ingenuity and effort, 
at the same time that no trace of this exotic family can be detected 
in the existing Indian population. They and their arts are equally 
eradicated ; and we can only conceive of the presence of these migra- 
tory strangers in small and isolated groups, which might have mo- 
dified the arts of an antecedent civilization, while they themselves 
were too few in number to transmit their lineaments to any abori- 
ginal community. 

Closely allied to this theory, is that of our ingenious countryman, 
Mr. Delafield, who derives the demi-civilized nations of America 
from “the Cuthites who built the monuments of Egypt and In- 
dostan.” He supposes them to have traversed all Asia to reach 
Behring’s Strait, and thus to have entered America at its northwest 
angle, whence they made their way by slow journeys to the central 
regions of the continent. Our objections to this theory will be 
found in what has been already stated ; and we may merely add, that 
the route by which the author conducts his pilgrim adventurers, 
appears to constitute the least plausible portion of his theory. Mr. 
Delafield supposes the barbarous tribes to be of a different stock, 
and refers them to the Mongolians of Asia; thus adopting the idea 
of a plurality of races. 

We shall lastly notice an imaginative classification which separates 
the aborigines of America into four species of men, exclusive of the 
Eskimaux. This curious but unphilosophical hypothesis has been 
advanced by Bory de St. Vincent, a French naturalist of distinction, 
who considers the civilized nations to be cognate with the Malays, 
and designates them by the collective name of the Neptunian species ; 
while to his three remaining species,—the Columbian, the American 
and the Patagonian, he assigns certain vague geographical limits, 
without establishing any distinctive characteristics of the people 
themselves. The system is so devoid of foundation in nature, so 
fanciful in all its details, as hardly to merit a serious analysis; and 
we have introduced it on the present occasion to illustrate the ex- 
travagance and the poverty of some of the hypotheses which have 
been resorted to in explanation of the problem before us. 

Once for all I repeat my conviction, that the study of physical 
conformation alone, excludes every branch of the Caucasian race 


148 Distinctive characteristics of the 


from any obvious participation in the peopling of this continent. If 
the Egyptians,* Hindoos, Phenicians or Gauls have ever, by accident 
or design, planted colonies in America, these must have been, sooner 
or later, dispersed and lost in the waves of a vast indigenous popula- 
tion. Such we know to have been the fact with the Northmen, 
whose repeated, though very partial settlements in the present New 
England States, from the tenth to the thirteenth centuries, are now 
matter of history ; yet, in the country itself, they have not left a 
single indisputable trace of their sojourn. 

In fine, our own conclusion, long ago deduced from a patient 
examination of the facts thus briefly and inadequately stated, is, that 
the American race is essentially separate and peculiar, whether we 
regard it in its physical, its moral, or its intellectual relations. To 
us there are no direct or obvious links between the people of the old 
world and the new; for even admitting the seeming analogies to 
which we have alluded, these are so few in number and evidently so 
casual as not to invalidate the main position: and even should it be 
hereafter shown, that the arts, sciences and religion of America, can 
be traced to an exotic source, I maintain that the organic characters 
of the people themselves, through all their endless ramifications of 
tribes and nations, prove them to belong to one and the same race, 
and that this race is distinct from all others. 

This idea may at first view seem incompatible with the history of 
man, as recorded in the Sacred Writings. Such, however, is not 


* With respect to the Egyptians and Hindoos as involved in this question, I 
can speak without reservation. ‘Through the kindness of an accomplished gentle- 
man and scholar, George R. Gliddon, Esq., late United States Consul at Cairo, 
I have received ninety heads of Egyptian mummies from the tombs of Abydus, 
Thebes and Memphis; and I unhesitatingly declare, that, with a very few ex- 
ceptions, which have a mixed character, and resemble the Coptic form, the con- 
formation throughout is that of the Caucasian race. In every instance in which 
the hair has been preserved, it is long, soft and curling, and indeed as silky as that 
of the most polished Europeans of the present time. I am now preparing, with 
the title of Crania 4gyptiaca, a brief exposition of the facts connected with these 
interesting relics of antiquity. 

I possess also about thirty crania of the Hindoos, among which there is not one 
that could be mistaken for an Indian skull. In fact there is an obvious contrast 
between them in all respects excepting the internal capacity, which is nearly the 
same in the Hindoo and Peruvian. 


Aboriginal Race of America. 149 


the fact. Where others can see nothing but chance, we can perceive 
a wise and obvious design, displayed in the original adaptation of the 
several races of men to those varied circumstances of climate and 
locality, which, while congenial to the one, are destructive to the 
other. The evidences of history and the Egyptian monuments go to 
prove that these races were as distinctly stamped three thousand 
five hundred years ago as they are now; and, in fact, that they are 
coeval with the primitive dispersion of our species. 


Bengal Isinglass. 


The following certificate relative to the quality of Bengal 
Isinglass, must be very gratifying to those who are interested 
in the introduction of new staple productions of this country. 
It would appear from the advices received on the subject by 
the last Mail, that the article from the first proved superior 
to what it was acknowledged to be by buyers, who seem to 
have been chiefly anxious to obtain it as cheap as possible. 

It may be unreasonable to blame them for this, although 
they have undoubtedly counteracted their own interests by 
depreciating the article below its fair value, as compared 
with the Isinglass of other countries. The samples sent 
into the market, though large, were only submitted experi- 
mentally in order to ascertain the quality of the article, and 
the unbiassed opinion of dealers and manufacturers as to its 
real value. Had the buyers and manufacturers received 
them in this light, and fairly and readily acknowledged 
the result in the first instance, it would have led at once to 
the necessary steps being taken in Bengal, where the experi- 
ments originated, in order to ascertain the nature and source 
of the supply. 

At present, this great practical object, like some others, 
seems likely to be allowed to stand over for a time until 
revived again by accident, and this merely for want of 


150 Bengal Isinglass. 


that attention to the fisheries of the country which their 
importance demands. 

The first essential step in the matter would be, a proper 
investigation of the habits of the Suleah fish, as to the period 
of its approach to, and departure from, particular points of 
the coast, the variations as to time and place of the shoals, 
and the certainty and extent to which fisheries for this 
species might be carried on. 


Messrs. J. CockBurn and Co. 


‘ Romford Brewery, Jan. 23, 1844. 
Drar Srrs,—I am much gratified in being able to report most 
favourably of the East India Isinglass our firm had of you, having 
found that it dissolves very freely in sours to a firm clear jelly, and 
makes capital finings, especially for brown and running Beers. I 
have tried it on our own, and found that the Beer was quite bright in 
eight hours after fining, and have no doubt but that if the quality is 
still kept to that already sent, it will in a great measure supersede 
the higher priced Isinglass. 
I am, Dear Sirs, 
Yours most sincerely, 
(Signed) H. Smiru, 
For Inp and Smiru. 
P.S.—I have given a portion to my brother to report upon, and 
his analysis was 95 @ 96 per cent. of gelatine, and 5 per cent. of 
animal fibre, insoluble in acids. 


On the above we may remark, that the quality may be 
still farther greatly improved, and never be inferior to that 
which has already been sent home from Bengal. 


THE 
CALCUTTA JOURNAL 


OF 


NATURAL HISTORY. 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. By J. McCuenianp, Bengal 
Medical Service. 


ARTEDI, the author whose classification of fishes formed 
the basis of the system proposed by Linneus in regard 
to these animals, distinguishes two great classes, cartilagi- 
nous and bony, as relates to the material of which the 
skeleton is composed. The cartilaginous are, as every body 
knows, the Sharks, Rais, Lampreys, &c. 

The fishes with bony skeletons being by far the most 


- numerous and diversified, are divided into three orders, 


according as the gills are supported by bony arches, and the 
fins by rays or spines. 

Linneus introduced another element into the princi- 
ple of their classification, founded on their peculiarities in 
regard to ventral fins, which simplified their arrangement 
greatly. The following are the brief expressive characters 
by which the great Swedish naturalist distinguished the class 
of fishes into six orders :— 

1. Apodal.Ventral fins, none. 

2. Jugular.—Gills bony, ventral fins placed before the 

pectorals. 

VOL. V. NO. XVIII. JULY, 1844. x 


152 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


3. Thoracie.—Gills bony, ventral fins placed directly un- 
der the throat. 
4. Abdominal.—Gills bony, ventral fins placed behind the 
throat. 
. Branchiostegius.—Gills without bones. 
6. Chondropterigius.—The skeleton cartilaginous. 


ey 


The number prefixed to each order is not here to be sup- 
posed as having any reference to its relative rank in regard 
to organization; the arrangement of Linnzus had for its 
object merely the convenience of students, and not the ar- 
rangement of Species according to their natural affinities. In 
order however, to render the series more natural, the Apodal 
fishes should stand 5th in accordance with the scale proposed 
by Cuvier, in which case the 6th order should then become 
1st in place of apodes, in accordance with the views of Mr. 
MacLeay and of Mr. Swainson. To render the series perfectly 
natural, the orders themselves would require revision, toge- 
ther with the families and genera of which they are composed. 

The object of the present paper is a revision merely of the 
Apodal order, founded on the results of an examination of 
Asiatic, but particularly of Bengal, species. 

The results will shew how highly essential such a revi- 
sion had become, and that it could not be any where better 
effected than upon the spot where such numerous undes- 
cribed and unknown forms of the peculiar animals in question 
occur. 

It may indeed have fallen into hands unfitted for the task, 
but the advantages of position, and the extensive assistance 
derived from friends who have supplied specimens from 
many distant places, more than counter-balance the author’s 
incapacity, as compared with the nature and object of the 
undertaking. 

The Apodal order in the Systema Nature of Linneus, 
consists of all bony fishes without ventral fins, as follows :— 


ee ee Se eee 


= oo pas ee 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 153 


1. Mureena. 5. Anarrhichas.* 9. Xiphias.* 

2. Gymnotus. 6. Ammodytes. 10. Sternoptyx.* 

3. Gymnothorax. 7. Ophidium. 11. Leptocephalus. 

4. Trichiurus.* 8. Stomateus.* 

The five genera marked with an asterisk are transferred 
to other orders by Cuvier, who introduces in their place, 
certain genera which were subsequently discovered. 

With regard to the original genera, as well as those which 
have been subsequently introduced, such only as are repre- 
sented by Indian species will be here noticed. 

In the Systema Nature as well as in the Régne Animal, 
the genera all stand unconnected. In the latter they are said 
to form but a single family, distinguished “ by their elongat- 
ed shape, thick soft skin, which almost renders their scales 
invisible. They have few bones, and no cecal appendages 
to the pyloris.” The following is the order in which they 
are placed by Cuvier. 


Orper. FamILy. Anguilla, Cuv. 
Conger, Cuv. 
Ophisurus, Lacep. 
Murena, Thunb. 
Sphagebranchus,* Bl. 
Monopterus,* Commers. 
Synbranchus, Bl. 
Alabes, Cuv. 

< Saccopharyux, Mitch. 
Gymnotus, Lacep. 

| Carapus, Cuv. 
Sternarchus, Schn. : 
Gymnarchus, Cuv. 
Leptocephalus, Penn. 
Ophidium, Linn. 
Ferasfer, Cuv. 

| Ammodytes, Lin. 


Maacorprerycil, } ANGUILLIFOR- 
APODES. MEs, Cuv. 


= 


=e Ves: 
These genera being all 
natives of Europe and Ame- 
rica have no Fast India 


species. 


—— 


The following is a brief notice of the genera as they stand 
in the Régne Animal :-— 

1. Anguilla, Cuv. Of this there are several species in 
the East, all which are distinct from those of Europe. 

2. Conger, Cuv. Of this genus there are no species in 
India. The one referred to it by Cuvier from Russell’s In- 
dian Fishes is quite distinct, and forms a separate genus. 


154 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


which is here named Murenesox, of which we have several 
species, occupying in India an equivalent place with the 
Congers of Europe. 

These three genera have the pectoral fins distinctly de- 
veloped, and the dorsal and anal united, as well as other 
common characters. It is proposed to distinguish them as 
a separate family, which is here named ANGUILLIDZ. 

3. Ophisurus. Of this genus there are several species in 
India. It possesses, in common with the genus Leptogna- 
thus of Mr. Swainson, the naked tail caused by the termina- 
tion of the dorsal and anal before they reach the end of 
that organ, for which reason it is proposed to form these 
genera into a family here named Opuisuripa, sufficiently 
distinguished from the first bythe interruption of the 
dorsal and anal, as already noticed, as well as by their small 
pectorals. 

Sphagebranchus imberbis, Laroach, Annal du Museum xiii. 
Mureena maculosa, Cuv. figured as Ophisurus ophis, Lacep. 
11, t. 6, f. 2, and Murznophis Colubrina, Lacep. V. t. 19, f. 
1, form a third genus, which is here named Ophithorax. It 
is distinguished by the smallness of the pectorals, and also 
belongs to the Ophisuride. 

4, The genus Murena,* it is also proposed to raise to the 
rank of a family, Mura@nipa. ‘The Bengal species present 
the palatines so compressed, that the teeth peculiar to these 
bones occupy the place of those of the vomer. Species in 
which the teeth of both palatines form a single row along the 
centre of the roof of the mouth, it is proposed to distinguish 
as a genus here named Lycodontis. 'Those in which there 
are separate ranges of palatine teeth, anteriorly, though they 
may be united posteriorly, it is ventured toname Therodoniis. 
Both these genera are distinguished by the articulation of 
long, scattered, conical teeth in front of the jaws to a move- 
able pedicle, by which means they are capable of being raised 
or retracted, according to circumstances. 


* Gymnothorux Bl. and Murenophis, Lacepede. 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 155 


5. The species described in Russell’s Indian Fishes, No. 
37, as Manti Bukram-paum, and referred by Cuvier to the 
genus Spagebranchus, Bl. belongs to the genus Dalophis 
of Rafinesque, which, as well as the genus Gymnomurena, 
Lacep., and Uropterygius concolor, Rippell’s fishes of the 
Red Sea,* belong to Murenide. 

The three families above noticed have the branchial aper- 
tures double, the heart situated between them, and the intes- 
tinal aperture at, or before the middle of the body ; it is here 
ventured to name them as a tribe, ANGUILLIFORMES. 

6. The following families are, on the contrary, distin- 
guished from them by the heart being placed behind the 
branchial apertures, and the intestinal aperture far behind 
the middle of the body; they are here, as a tribe, named 
OPHICARDIDES. For a time I felt disposed to fol- 
low the example of other writers in referring to Synbranchus, 
Monopterus, Sphagebranchus, and Apterichthes of the 
Régne Animal, certain Bengal species which have inconsi- 
derately been supposed to belong to those genera. 

7. The supposed genus Sphagebranchus has been a recep- 
tacle for species with or without pectoral, or indeed any, fins 
whatever. Some of the species referred to it belong to 
Ophisuride and Murenide, others will be found either to 
belong to the various genera of one or other of the above 
tribes, according as the intestinal aperture is at the middle 
of the body or further back towards the tail. That the genus 
Sphagebranchus is unnatural, no further evidence is neces- 
sary, than the number of very opposite forms that have been 
referred to it. The only Indian species that has been sup- 
posed to belong to it, is certainly a Dalophis of Mr. Swainson. 

8. The Apterichthes, are Sphagebranchi without fins. 
The only one I have seen described, is the Apterich. ceca, 
Laroach, Annal du Mus. xiii. t. 21, f. 6. It is here referred 


* This work contains numerous Indian species, and ought to be in every public 
Library. 


156 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


to the Gymnomurena of Lacepede, the intestinal aperture 
being stated to be before the middle. 

9. The genus Monopterus depends only on the MS. des- 
cription of a single specimen found by Commerson in the 
Straits of Sunda. The branchial apertures are said to be 
united under the throat in a transverse fissure divided in 
the middle by a partition, and the teeth are said to be like 
those of acard. In the Régne Animal it is said, there are 
six rays in each branchial membrane, and a species of Syn- 
branchus figured under another name, (Lacep. vol. V. xvii, 
3,) is supposed by Cuvier to be the species described by Com- 
merson. In the original description, (Lacep. vol. ii. p. 140,) 
it is said there are but three rays in the branchial membrane. 
Of four different genera inhabiting India, that which comes 
nearest to the description of Commerson’s species, has five 
rays in the branchial membrane, of a size not likely to allow 
of their being mistaken. 

I have been unable therefore to refer any species to 
the genus Monopterus, however I felt inclined to do so, 
because of the uncertainty of the characters assigned to it, 
and the number of genera presenting a very considerable 
diversity of structure, which almost equally approach it in 
appearance. 

10. Several Indian species have been referred to the genus 
Synbranchus, Bl. They are nevertheless, perfectly distinct 
from that genus. 

The Synbranchi properly so called, with a longitudinal 
fissure under the throat, are all natives of the coast of 
Guinea. One of them, Synbranchus immaculatus, is said to 
be found at Surinam and Tranquebar; on what authority 
the latter locality is stated by Lacepéde, does not appear. 
We may be pretty certain, however, that the Tranquebar 
species is either the Cuchia of Buchanan or the Dondoo- 
paum of Russell, since no species having a single longitudi- 
nal branchial aperture under the throat, has been found in 


Apodal Iishes of Bengal. 157 


India by any author. Thus the error of confounding our 
Indian species with the Synbranchz of Bloch, and Unibran- 
chapertura of Lacepede, would appear to have originated 
in a mistake regarding the locality of one of the species. 

Synbranchus is an Ophicardious genus, having a single lon- 
gitudial aperture under the throat, several rows of small blunt | 
conical teeth, and a blunt round muzzle without tubulated 
nostrils. They are said to be furnished with a long narrow 
natatory air-vessel. Their branchiz are not described fur- 
ther than that the membrane contains six strong rays. 

11. The remaining genera, with the exception of Alabes, are 
all composed of species which are foreign to India. Alabes, 
however, depends upon a small species of the Indian ocean, 
which differs from Synbranchus in the presence of pectoral 
fins. American and European genera, appear to be defi- 
cient in Ophicardious forms, which would seem to be chiefly 
confined to Africa and Asia. Whether from geographical 
or other causes, there seems, as far as relates to fishes, a 
much greater uniformity between India, the coast of Guinea, 
and the eastern coasts of China to the 30° N. Lat., than with 
any other corresponding tracts of the same extent. 

12. Synbranchus, Saccopharynx and Alabes are the only 
genera hitherto known in which we can, a prior, suppose 
the heart to be situated behind the branchial apertures; as 
they have not been examined with a view to this point, it 
remains to notice briefly the general peculiarities of several 
Bengal genera, here for the first time brought forward in 
which this peculiarity is most remarkable. 

First. PNeumprancuus. The intervals between the bran- 
chial arches are nearly obliterated. The place of pectinated 
branchial combs is supplied by means of a sack which opens 
into the mouth over the end of the first arch on either side, 
the body is cvoered with small imbricated scales, the teeth 
are placed in two rows, one on the palatines and the other on 
the maxillaries. 


158 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


Second. OpuicarpiA. The branchial arches are open 
and free, the gills are slightly pectinated, the teeth are dis- 
posed in a band on the palatines and another on the maxil- 
liaries, no scales. 

Third. Opuisternon. The gills are fully pectinated, the 
branchial membranes of both sides are united in one common 
cavity, the eyes are placed near the extremity of the muzzle, 
no scales. 

In these genera there are no teeth on the vomer, and the 
gills have bony arches, though not pectinated in some. In 
these respects, as well as in regard to the single branchial 
aperture under the throat, they correspond with Synbranchus, 
BI. with which they form one common family, SYNBRANCHID&. 

13. The next family to be noticed, is distinguished by the 
almost total absence of bony arches to the gills; these last are 
somewhat fan-shaped, from which circumstance the family is 
named PTyoBRANCHID&. 

Of this family I have as yet found but one genus, PTyo- 
BRANCHUS ; it is possessed of pectoral fins; the fins are all 
supported by rays as in ordinary fishes ; there are two aper- 
tures to the branchiz, and the palatines are compressed so 
as to form a single row of teeth on the roof of the mouth, cor- 
responding with those of the vomer in other genera, as alrea- 
dy pointed out in some of the Murenide. Hence the dis- 
position of the Apodal order will stand as follows :— 


ORDER APODES. 
Tribe. Family. Genus. 
‘fh Anguilla, Cuv. 
, Ancuinuipa, J. M. Conger, Cuv. 
Murenesox, J. M. 
Leptognathus Swains. 
Ophisurus, Lacep. 
Ophithorax, J. M. 
( Dalophis, Rafinesque. 
' Therodontis, J. M. 
Muranipe&, J. M. Murena, prop. (J. M.) 
| Lycodontis, J. M. 
| Gymnomurena, Lacep. 


ANGUILLIFOR- } OP#t8uRIDa, J. M. 
MES,J.M. % 


—e 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 159 


TRIBE. FamiI.y. GENUS. 
Alabes, Cuv. 
Ophicardia, J. M. 


S ihe cM Pneumabranchus, J. M. 
soil »1-M-4 Onhisternon, J. M. 


Synbranchus, Bloch. 
PryosrancHiD£,J.M. Ptyobranchus, J. M. 


American and European } 
groups are omitted. 


OPHICARDIDES, 
J. M. 


14. It will be necessary now to point out wherein the 
terms Anguillide, Murenide, and Synbranchide as here 
used, imply a different meaning from the sense in which 
they are employed by Mr. Swainson in his work on the classifi- 
cation of Fishes. The arrangement proposed by this author, 
differs from that of Linnzus in omitting the jugular and 
thoracic orders, and introducing cartilaginous and semi- 
cartilaginous fishes as two distinct orders in their place, 
thus making the spinous fishes the first, and the soft-finned 
the second order, placing Apodal fishes last. The Apodal 
fishes he disposes as follows :— 


Fami.y. GENUS. 


(Anguilla, Sw. 

1 Ophisoma, Sw. 
Ophisurus, Lacep. 
Leptognathus, Sw. 
Pterurus, Sw. 
Murena, Sw. 

B Nettastoma, Raf. 

. Pachyurus, Sw. 
Murena, Antiq. 
Dalophis, Raf. 
Ophiognathus,, (Saccopha- 

rynx), Harwood. 
| « Lchthyophis, Less. 


Alabes, Cuv. 
ORDER V— Le ect 


APODES, Sw Sphagebranchus, Bl. 
oo Monopterus, Commers. 


Synbranchus, Bl. 
Ophichthes, Sw. 


| No Bengal species known 


( Muranipe, Sw. 


SYNBRANCHIDA, Sw. 


STERNARCHIDA, of the first and third of 
PTEROMYZONIDZ, these proposed families, 
| Cvcnorreripa, and the second belongs 


to cartilaginous fishes. 


| 
| 
| 
| 
| Y 
) 
| 


160 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


Thus it will be seen, that the Murenide of Swainson not 
only embrace both the Murenide and Anguillide, but se- 
veral Ophicardious genera: for it must be observed that, 
Pterurus and Pachyurus, Swains. are genera founded upon 
an imperfect knowledge of two drawings of Ptyobranchus, 
derived by Mr. Gray from the Buchanan MSS.* and errone- 
ously named by him as two genera, Moringua and Rataboura. 

The Murenide of Swainson thus contain some species 
with, and some without bony arches to the gills; some spe- 
cies with, and some without pectoral fins; some with one, 
and others with two branchial apertures; some having the 
heart placed before, and some with that rather important 
organ behind the branchial apertures. It is consequently 
an unnatural family, composed of all varieties of form and 
structure, brought together without due regard to character 
and affinity. , 

Of the Synbranchide of.Swainson it is necessary ‘to ob- 
serve, that the genus Synbranchus of Bloch, is the only 
one having any reference to nature. It has already been 
shewn that the Sphagibranchi of Bloch, are an assemblage of 
species referable to several genera, and probably to more 
than one family. It is unnecessary to repeat what has been 
said above of the genus Monopterus. As to Ophichthes, 
Swainson, it is sufficient to say that it is intended for the 
Cuchia of Buchanan, although it makes the under-jaw shor- 
ter than the upper, the nostrils single, and the body without 
scales—characters any one of which it does not possess. The 
term Anguiline occurs in the text of Mr. Swainson as in- 
tending to imply a subdivision of Muraenide, not to be 
found in the Synopsis of his work. 


* Vid. Asiat. Res. Bengal, vol. xix. p. 221. 


4podal Fishes of Bengal. 161 


II.—On the characters of Apodal Fishes. 


1. For want of a due regard to the proper characters by 
which to distinguish the animals of this order, together 
with the great uniformity in external shape which they 
present, great maccuracies are to be found in the notices 
of naturalists regarding the identity and distribution of the 
species. : 

To obviate this, as well as to introduce more exactitude 
into our views and observations regarding them, the follow- 
ing remarks are brought together, as a summary of those 
characters which appear to be of most utility in the prac- 
tical examination and discrimination of these groups. 

In the order of fishes now under consideration, the ab- 
dominal fins, corresponding with the lower extremities, are 
wanting ; hence the name Apodal.* 

The absence of ventral or abdominal fins, is therefore an 
essential character of the Order, although other fins are 
frequently deficient in like manner. The pectoral fins are 
also wanting in two-thirds of the known species, the caudal 
fin is absent probably in one-tenth of the species; and some 
are without any fins whatever, unless we can allow a mere 
fold of the skin, unsupported by fin-rays, to be such. 
These membranous expansions are however, scarcely to be 
regarded as fins strictly speaking, any more than the analo- 
gous organs of the Manatus and other marine Mammalia, 
in which instead of rays, we find all the bones proper to 
limbs of quadrupeds. Indeed these finless fishes have 


* As the anterior extremities of other vertebrated animals are represented in 
fishes by the pectoral fins, so the posterior extremities are represented by the ven- 
trals. The functions of the posterior extremities are subject to fewer modifications 
than the anterior which, serve as hands, feet, or wings, according to the order of 
nature to which the animal belongs. Throughout the whole of the vertebrata, with 
the exception of fishes and marine mammalia, the functions of the posterior extre- 
mities are thesame. Hence we have one reason for coinciding with Mr. MacLeay, 
in regarding fishes as the most imperfect of vertebrata, Vid. vol. II, p. 263. 


162 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


been justly regarded as bearing a very near approximation 
to serpents. 

The fin-rays in this order, particularly those of the dorsal 
and anal fins, are generally composed of a single piece, 
neither jointed nor branched, but shaped like the bony 
spines of other fishes, from which they differ in always being 
soft, nevertheless the rays of the caudal fin when present, 
are frequently finely jointed and a little branched, as well as 
those of the pectorals. 

2. Branchial Apertures.—These organs which are con- 
stant throughout the class, are subject to many peculiarities. 
In cartilaginous fishes, they consist of several simple trans- 
verse fissures on each side. In fishes possessed of a bony 
skeleton, there is a single aperture on either side, and this is 
usually furnished with a bony frame-work, consisting of a pos- 
terior jamb which is fixed to, or forms a part of the bones 
of the shoulder, and a lid, consisting generally of one or 
more thin bony plates called opercula, which are connected 
by means of a hinge-like joint to the bones of the head. 
This apparatus peculiar to fishes, is highly characteristic 
of them, since there is nothing like it in any other class of 
animals. 

In the order now under review, the branchial apertures 
have lost the posterior jamb, as well as the bony plates form- 
ing the operculum, and these parts where they do exist at all. 
in this order, are found to do so only in a minute rudimental 
form. ‘The branchial apertures in Apodal fishes are therefore 
soft and contracted, and in some, they are both united in a 
single opening, of which there is no example in any other 
order. 

3. Branchial Rays.—The rays supporting a membran- 
ous valve situated beneath the operculum, called the bran- 
chial, or branchiostegal rays, are peculiar to fishes having 
a bony skeleton. They undergo a great many singular 
changes in the order now under review. In some they 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 163 


are very strong and bony, in others long, slender, and car- 
tilaginous; in others soft and thread-like, and so slender 
as to be scarcely perceptible. They are, however, as well 
as the operculum always present, but occasionally in so slight 
a degree, as to render their utility in the economy of some 
species very doubtful. 

4. Dentition—The teeth are generally disposed in rows 
and bands, except in one or two genera in which they are 
crowded. ‘They are disposed on either side of both jaws. 
The bones on which the teeth are situated are the palatines, 
maxillaries, intermaxillaries, lower maxilla, and vomer ; to- 
gether with the pharangeal bones connected with the last 
branchial arch. 

These bones undergo a great diversity of form, produc- 
ing corresponding changes in the distribution and situ- 
ation of the teeth ; the most important of which is, the con- 
traction of breadth in the palatines of Murenide. Generally 
throughout the order, wherever there is but a single row 
of teeth on the edge of the upper jaw, that row is planted 
on the maxillaries. The palatine teeth in such cases oc- 
cupy a position corresponding with those of the vomer in 
other orders. 

There are usually four clusters or rows of minute teeth, 
situated at the entrance of the cesophagus. The teeth are 
conical, rather short and obtuse in some; long, sharp and 
slender in others, and generally slightly hooked or recurved 
towards the points. 

In some, the vomer teeth are compressed; in others, 
conical. This last kind are sometimes fixed to a moveable 
pedicle, and are capable of being retracted or drawn flat down 
upon the jaws. This peculiarity, if it exists: in European 
species at all, has hitherto been overlooked by naturalists. 

5. Colour.—This is generally connected with the scales 
of fishes. The species composing the order now under 
review, have been generally supposed to present their scales 


164: Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


buried in the cells of a thick skin; but the truth is, some are 
totally without any traces of scales whatever ; some have re- 
gular imbricated scales as in ordinary fishes ; and others have 
scales with approximated edges, not imbricated as in ordi- 
nary fishes, but disposed in groups of a tessellated form. 
In all cases when present, the scales are minute ; the cuticle 
is thick and opaque, somewhat thicker than in other fishes. 

The colours of Apodal fishes in general are little diversi- 
fied, and whatever variation there is, runs for the most part 
through particular genera. There are no species presenting 
vivid colours, and there are perhaps no more than two or 
three colours observable in various shades throughout the 
order ; viz. dark olive-green, passing into black, and reddish, 
or yellowish-white. 

The lower parts of the body as far back as the intes- 
tinal aperture, are generally a dirty white ; and above dark 
olive-green is the prevailing colour ; sometimes the sides and 
upper parts are more or less distinctly marked and clouded 
with rings of these colours, occasionally obsure; sometimes 
they are marked with more distinct spots of dark, or blackish 
green on a lighter ground; more rarely these parts are mark- 
ed with small marbled specks ; and more rarely still, the body 
is dirty-whitish, with, or without dark spots. 

6. General form.—As regards their outward appearance 
there is little variety, and such as we do observe, seems to 
belong to, or run through particular genera. They are all 
extremely elongated, and more or less cylindric. The tail 
is generally more compressed than the body, and the anal 
and dorsal fins which have no immediate relation to any 
organs of the higher classes of vertebrate animals, are the 
most constant of all such appendages to the outward form 
in this order. On the other hand, the pectoral and caudal 
fins are frequently wanting; the ventrals are always wanting 
in this order, which gives them a naked uniform appearance, 
resembling the form of a serpent. 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 165 


This is particularly the case with certain genera, in which 
there is no appearance of any fins whatever, beyond a mere 
duplicature of the skin near the end of the tail. 

7. The head is very variable in its shape throughout this 
order; in some species it is depressed and triangular; in 
others conical; in others, narrow and high behind the eyes ; 
but in all the muzzle is narrow. The nostrils have two aper- 
tures on either side; one generally tubular placed near the 
extremity of the muzzle, the other generally placed far back, 
sometimes even behind the eyes. The eyes are always small, 
and placed laterally. The mouth is generally moderately 
cleft, but always extending back as far at least as the eyes. 
The intestinal aperture is variously placed according to the 
internal structure of these animals. 

8. Internal structure.—Having noticed briefly those parts 
which are best calculated to afford the means of distin- 
guishing the genera and species of this order, it remains to 
point out one or two circumstances of primary importance 
that have been overlooked in their structure, and which 
must in future exercise a great influence with regard to their 
general arrangement. 

First, as to the situation of the heart. In some we find 
this organ placed as in ordinary fishes near the gills, or at 
least no farther back than the branchial apertures.* In these 
the intestinal aperture is placed about the middle, or some- 
times before the middle of the body. In others, we find the 
heart placed considerably behind the branchial apertures, 
leaving a long thorax which carries the abdominal cavity far- 
ther back as in serpents, and places the intestinal aperture 
considerably behind the middle of the body, reducing pro- 
portionally the length of the tail. The East Indian species 


* Le cceur des poissons est situé dans une cavité particuliére, creusée dans 
langle que laissent entre’elles en arriére les deux ouies, ou fentes branchiales, &c. 
Cuvier Lecons d Anat. Comparée t. iv. p. 226. 


166 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


possessed of this peculiarity are without any air-vessel,* but 
they have all an extremely elongated liver, either extended 
to, or situated at the posterior extremity of the abdomen. 

The heart is enclosed within a strong serous membrane 
or pericardium, which is united externally to the parieties of 
the thorax, forming a partition between that cavity and the 
abdomen. The heart is fixed within the pericardium merely 
by the great blood vessels passing to and from it. It is of a short 
compact oval figure generally in Anguilliformes, but larger, 
more oblong and pointed at the extremities in Ophicardides. 
In the former the branchial vessels generally pass directly to 
and from the apex of the heart; in the latter they seem to 
pass with the great aortic and venous vessels which enter 
and emerge about the middle of the heart between that 
organ and the spine. The heart consists generally of a sin- 
gle ventricle and auricle. In some the ventricle appears to 
be double, as in Ophicardia Phayriana; in others the auricle 
performs the function likewise of a ventricle, transmitting 
a portion of the blood by the branchial arteries to the gills, 
as in those cases in which the branchial vessels emerge from 
the apex of the heart. 

9. With regard to the gills; in some these are fully de- 
veloped as in ordinary fishes, consisting of pectinated combs 
supported by smooth bony arches. In others, the gills re- 
taining their pectinated form, have lost the bony arches 
which ordinarily support them. In others, the bony arches 
are indeed found as naked symbols, but without function 
or use, having no gills strictly speaking, or peetinaiad bran- 
chial combs attached to them. 

Thus oscillating as it were between fishes and amphibia, 
they preserve the decided characteristics of the former, pre- 
senting at the same time, many decided relations to the latter. 
The want of pectinated gills is compensated for by means of 


* Cuvier assigns this organ to the genus Synbranchus, Bl. We do not however 
find it in any of the East India Ophicardians. 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 167 


a branchial sack of which there is no other example in the 
animal kingdom, and which seems to be a special provision 
by means of which, nature passes from the purely aquatic 
type, to animals adapted to the respiration of air. 

Affinities of Apodal Fishes.—The sequence of genera 
resulting from the Analysis of Indian species as far as it 
goes, corresponds nearly with that previously attained by 
Baron Cuvier, as may be seen on comparing the order as 
it stands p. 153, with our own results p. 158-59. 

The nine first genera of Cuvier’s list, p. 153, form the only 
portion of the order which we have been able to illustrate 
with Indian species. Two of the genera we have been 
unable to adopt, and to the remaining seven, we have ad- 
ded ten additional genera, the whole being separated into 
two tribes and five families, to which we have endeavoured 
to assign natural characters. 

Without referring to the general affinities of Fishes,* it 
will be sufficient on the present occasion to notice those of 
Apodal species merely. 

Commencing with the genus Anguilla, Cuv. we perceive 
a very great difference of form between the flat, triangular, 
depressed head, tessellated scales, and broad projecting 
lower jaw of Anguilla brevirostris, as compared with the 
naked skin, and compressed narrow head of Anguilla 
acutirostris which leads to the genus Conger, in which 
the head is narrow, and the jaws and fins more elongated, 
passing into the form of Murenesox. From this last the 
transition is easy and natural to the genus Leptognathus 
of Swainson, both these genera having elongated narrow 
pointed jaws. In the first, the dorsal fin attains its maxi- 
-mum development, having advanced in front of the pec- 


* On this subject the reader is referred to the letter of Mr. W. S. Macleay, vol. 
il. p. 263. It would be difficult to express the extent of our obligations to that 
great naturalist, for the rough outline in question. 

Z 


168 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


torals. In the second, that organ begins to lose a portion 
of its importance, and its connection with the anal by means 
of the caudal fin, becomes interrupted and broken off. This 
change exercises an important influence over the habits of 
these animals, and introduces another family, Ophisuride, of 
less rapacious habits than the last. 

It is composed of species which, from the absence of the 
caudal fin, are less capable of making the violent and sud- 
den spring essential to the more rapacious kinds, and for 
which they are so well adapted. 

Nothing can be more simple and complete than the tran- 
sition by which nature passes here from one extreme to 
another, in the organization and functions of animals. 

The change from Anguallde to Ophisuride, where these 
families approach each other by means of Murenesox and 
Leptognathus, affords an interesting instance of the ease 
with which the most opposite characters become blended 
together in the works of nature. The essential character of 
the family to which Leptognathus belongs, consists in the 
want of a caudal fin, but as it is still necessary to retain 
some function of the preceding genus to which its structure 
is allied, the extremities of the anal and dorsal are rendered 
broad and dilated, so as to compensate in this species for 
the imperfections of the family to which it belongs. 

Passing through the Ophisuride, we find the pectoral fins 
begin to diminish in size until they become barely percep- 
tible as in Sphagebranchus imberbis, and some other species 
of which we make the proposed genus Ophithorax. These 
last form a natural transition to the Murenide, in which there 
are no pectoral fins whatever. 

The first genus of Murenide affords some species 
evincing an affinity to the preceding family, by the absence 
of the caudal fin; and one of them, Dalophis, which leads 
us back again to the ordinary type, presents a repeti- 
tion of the increased development at the end of the dorsal 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 169 


and anal, thus tending once more to the restoration of the 
caudal fin, which we are thus led to expect as one of the 
characters of the remaining genera. 

Passing through this family we find the development of 
the vertical fins gradually diminish on the anterior parts 
of the body, until we arrive at the Gymnomarena of Lacep. 
in which the only fin they possess is confined to the extre- 
mity of the tail. 

We know how differently the structure of an animal 
may turn out to be on examination, from what we previous- 
ly expect to find it before hand. Not having met with 
any species of Alabes or of Saccopharynaz, it is with some 
doubt therefore, that we refer to them in this place. They 
are distinguished from all preceding fishes, by having but 
a single branchial aperture. Hence they appear to form a 
transition from the Anguilliform to the Ophicardian type: 
but which of the two tribes they really belong to, can only 
be determined by their further examination. The single 
branchial aperture indicates a form, leading either to, or from, 
the family Synbranchide from which it is distinguished by the 
presence of pectoral fins. In the order of affinities, the genus 
Ophisternon seems to succeed next after the American genus 
Saccopharyna, particularly if we may judge of the form of 
the body, and the situation of the eyes close to the end of 
the muzzle. In this genus the branchiz are fully developed, 
although provided with only one large external aperture. 
In the next genus Ophicardia, the pectinations of the 
branchiz become less marked ; both these genera are without 
scales. They are followed by Pneumabranchus, in which 
the gills are supplied with a peculiar sack on either side for 
the respiration of air. The external aperture leading to the 
gills in the last three genera, is transverse; in the two last, it 
' diverges internally on either side by a short passage to the 
branchiz. These genera are followed by Synbranchus, which 
is composed of species distinguished from them by a longi- 


170 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


tudinal opening to the branchiaz, but in which the gills appear — 


to be fully developed. 

This genus coming after, as it could not (in consequence 
of the longitudinal direction of the branchial aperture) come 
before Pneumabranchus, evinces a return of the affinities 
from the Amphibious character of that genus. This is still 
more perceptible in the succeeding genus Piyobranchus, in 
which the restoration of the pectoral fins evinces a return of 
the affinities from the Amphibious type to the ordinary cha- 
racter of fishes, still better marked by two branchial aper- 
tures, as well as two pectoral fins. 

Thus we observe in passing from one extremity of the 
order to the other, a regular succession of affinities leading 
from a short flat, to an elongated narrow head, and from 
thence to a prominent development of fins on the anterior 
parts of the body, with a corresponding deficiency behind; 
from thence we return again to the great development of fins 
behind, with a corresponding deficiency on the anterior 
parts, thus completing the circle of the first tribe. Recom- 
mencing again where we left off, we pass through species 
almost destitute of any fins whatever, and losing even the 
gills of fishes which become partially replaced by organs 
suited to amphibious respiration. Still led by the succes- 
sion of affinities, we are conducted back to the character- 
istic form of fishes, distinguished once more by fins and gills. 

The result is, that the affinities of Apodal fishes are 
circular throughout the order, as well as in each of the 


minor groups here proposed, and that they will be found to. 


afford numerous analogous, or corresponding points with the 
various other orders of fishes. 


III.—On the Classification of Apodal Fishes. 


The following is the manner in which we dispose of the 
classification of this order, founded on the characters of 
Indian species. 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 171 


Class Pisces. 


Ord.—MALOCOPTERIGIIL APODES, Zinn. 


Fishes of an elongated cylindric shape, with soft branchi- 
al apertures, smooth skin; covered with a thick mucus, with- 
out external bony spines, or ventral fins. Their skeleton 
presents little more than the bones of the head and spinal 
column, which last is greatly developed. ‘Their teeth are 
generally either numerous, or very prominent. The intestines 
are narrow, and short, without ceca. 

The nasal apertures are double on either side, and the 
two openings are placed wide apart: one being generally 
near the eyes, the other, which is mostly tubular, is near 
the end of the muzzle. 

The pores from which the mucus exudes, are situated 
along the muzzle and lateral line. 


1.—Tribe, ANGUILLIFORMES, J. M. 


The heart is situated between the branchial apertures, which are 
small, and placed one on either side. The stomach is a long blind 
sack, with the entrance to the intestine situated in front, near that of 
the cesophagus, where it is guarded by a strong valve. The vent is 
never behind the middle. The gills are pectinated, supported by 
bony arches. 


This tribe forms three Families, which include most of 
the European genera, and some which belong to India. 
They are distinguished by a short trunk, scarcely ex- 
ceeding half the length of the tail. 


I.—Family, Ancui.uipsé, J. M. 


Pectoral fins distinct. Dorsal and anal united with the 
caudal fin, so that the latter can only be distinguished from 


172 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


them by its finer rays, which are all articulated to two little 
bony pedicles. The tatl is compressed. 


Oxss.—The species of this Family are each furnished with 
an elongated natatory bladder, and teeth on the vomer, as 
well as palatines. 


1. Gen. Anguilla, Cuv. 

Jaws depressed. Dorsal commencing at a considerable 
distance behind the pectorals, teeth conical, short, and dis- 
posed in broad bands; anterior nasal apertures tubular. 


The Bengal species of this genus, are distinguished by small naked 
scales, disposed in a tessellated form, even on the fins. 


2. Gen. Conger, Cuv. 

Dorsal commencing at, or a little behind the pectorals. 
Head compressed, rostrum conical, soft and fleshy, present- 
_ing short tubular nasal apertures; teeth short and conical, 
disposed in broad bands. 


3. Gen. Murenesox J. M. 

Dorsal commencing before the pectorals ; jaws prolonged, 
narrow, and dilated at the apex. The upper-jaw longer than 
the lower. A row of long, prominent, distant teeth on the 
vomer. The palatine teeth disposed in short, oblique, single 
lines ; rostrum smooth and hard ; anterior nasal aperture con- 
sists of a fissure placed over the middle of the upper-jaw on 
either side. 


‘IL—Family, OruisuRID&, J. M. 


With small pectorals, and no caudal fin; the dorsal and 
anal terminating before they reach the end of the tail, which 
is thick and naked. : 


The anus is situated before the middle of the body; the 
tail is consequently much elongated. 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 173 


1. Gen. Leptognathus, Swainson. 

Pectoral fins conspicuous, jaws prolonged, attenuated and 
pointed, armed with sharp scattered teeth. Dorsal and anal 
expand towards the tail, where they terminate. 


2. Gen. Ophisurus, Lacep. 

Body little compressed ; rostrum conical ; upper-jaw long- 
er than the lower, anterior aperture of the nostrils tubular ; 
teeth round, mammillary and blunt, disposed in three broad 
bands above, and two on the lower-jaw. 


3. Gen. Ophithorax, J. M. 
Pectoral fins very small, so as to be scarcely perceptible ; 
body compressed. 


Il.— Family, Muraniva, J. M. 


Have no trace of pectoral fins ; the head is short, narrow 
and small; the palatines form a narrow arch behind the 
vomer, in which there is sometimes but a single row of teeth. 
The tail is long. 


1. Gen. Dalophis, KRatfin. 

Dorsal and anal terminate before they reach the end of 
the tail, which is naked. Upper-jaw much longer than the 
lower ; the eyes are placed near the muzzle, which is narrow. 


2. Gen. Murena, Prop. J. M. 

The dorsal commences behind the branchial apertures ; 
there is a single row of teeth on each jaw, together with 
a row on the palate. Tail compressed. 

Some have the palate smooth. 


3. Lycodoniis, J. M. 
Dorsal commencing before the branchial apertures. Tail 
compressed. ‘They have a single row of teeth on the palate, 


174 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


and two rows on either side of both jaws. The inner row, 
together with a few scattered prominent teeth at the apices 
of the jaws, sharp, hooked, moveable, and capable of being 
retracted. 


4. Therodontis, J. M. 

Dorsal commencing at the head, or nape. Tail compressed. 
A single row of sharp teeth on the maxillaries, and a double 
row of scattered pointed teeth on the centre of the palate, with 
a few scattered, prominent, retractile teeth at the apex of the 
upper and lower jaw. 


5. Gymnomurena, Lacep. 
Body and tail almost cylindric ; neither dorsal nor anal 
fins are perceptible, but the caudal is distinct. 


Il.—Tribe, OPHICARDIDES, J. M. 

The heart is situated behind the branchial apertures, and the 
intestinal outlet far back. The tail is consequently short. The 
trunk is long and cylindric ; the dorsal and anal fins when present, 
are placed far back on the latter third of the entire length. 


Two families of this tribe are already distinguished by 
their long trunk, and short tail. 


I.—Family, SYNBRANCHIDA, J. M. 


Fave but a single external opening situated under the 
throat, and leading to the gills, which are supported by bony 
arches. Two rows, or, in some, two broad bands of teeth on the 
edges of the upper, and one either side of the lower jaw. 


Their only fins consist of a duplicature of the skin un- 
supported by rays, forming an adipose dorsal and anal 
united at the end of the tail, which is compressed, and 
narrow, like the point of a two-edged sword. Branchial 
rays few in number, and short. 


. 
+ = 
a ee 


ni ee ee _— 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 175 


The stomach is a simple tube, having the pyloric orifice 
at the hinder, or opposite end from the cesophagus. The 
intestine is straight and continuous with the stomach, 
but narrower. 


1. Gen. OpHicarpia, J. M. 

Two broad bands of teeth on the upper, and one on the 
lower-jaw ; a single transverse opening under the throat, di- 
verging on either side to the gills, which consist of three 
slightly pectinate fleshy combs; no scales, five rays in each 
side of the branchial membrane. ‘There is but one species 
known, and this has no air-vessel. 


2. Gen. PNEUMABRANCHUS, J. M. 

A single transverse opening under the throat, diverging 
to the branchiz on either side, which have three short 
arches without pectinated combs, but provided with a bran- 
chial sack which opens over the firstarch. There are two rows 
of sharp hooked teeth in the upper, and one on the lower 
jaw ; and the body is covered with minute imbricated scales. 

Six strong bony rays on each side of the branchial mem- 
brane. 

There are three species known. In these no air-vessel has 
been observed. 


3. Gen. Synbranchus, Bl., Unibranchapertura, Lacep. 

There is a single longitudinal or round aperture under 
the throat, common to both branchie ; six strong rays in the 
branchial membrane; air-bladder long and narrow. The 
teeth are said to be blunt. 


4. Gen. OruisTEeRNon, J. M. : 
A single transverse opening under the throat, common 
to both branchiz, consisting of four fully developed combs 


on each side, without a central partition. Eyes very 
2A 


176 _ Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


small, and placed. almost at the end of the muzzle; teeth 
in broad bands; five cartilaginous branchial rays; no air- 
vessel, nor scales. 


Il. Family, PTyoprancuHipéA, J. M. 


Have two external openings leading to the gills, which 
are fan-shaped and pectinated, but aimost, if not quite un- 
supported by bony arches. About eleven slender, long bran- 
chialrays. Fins supported by short cartilaginous rays. 


But one genus known of this family. 


1. Gen. Prroprancuus, J. M. 

Body cylindric from the eyes almost to the caudal fin. 
Head small and conical; two small pectoral fins. The dorsal 
commences farther back than the anal, both are long, narrow, 
rounded, and connected to a very short square caudal, by 
means of a narrow raphe sunk in the tail. 

The liver is elongated; the stomach is a narrow blind 

sack, with the intestine given off in front, as in An- 
guilliformes. 'They have no air-vessel. 


Part 3.— Description of Species. 
ANGUILLA, Cvv. 


All the East Indian species of this genus I have seen, are 
distinguished from those of China and of Europe by a pecu- 
liar tessellated disposition of the scales. These are disposed 
in zigzag lines, traversing all parts of the body. The head 
is broader, but lower than the body. The lips thick and 
fleshy. The jaws flat, the lower jaw is the longer and 
broader of the two. In some, the dorsal occupies two- 
thirds of the back, in others it is shorter. The fin rays 
are slender, minutely articulated, and very finely branched. 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 177 


I 


Those of the caudal may be distinguished from the others 
by their being all fixed to two bony pedicles, whereas those 
of the dorsal and anal, have each a distinct pedicle to itself. 

They have a long thin air-vessel, two short lobes to the 
liver, and a stomach consisting of a capacious blind sack, 
with the intestine joined to it in front, where there is a strong 
valve. 


ANGUILLA BREVIROSTRIS. Pl. v. fig. 1. 


The dorsal occupies rather more than two-thirds of the entire length. 
The distance of the intestinal aperture from the muzzle, is equal to 
about 4-10ths of the entire length. The fin rays are, | 

P. 18: D. 290: A. 254: to the middle of the caudal. 

There are three close-set rows of conical hooked teeth forming a nar- 
row wedge-shaped band on either side of the jaws, spreading out in 
front. The middle row consists of larger teeth than the others. There 
is a wedge-shaped band of teeth on the vomer, the same as on the edges 
of the jaws. : 

Colour dark greenish brown above, and reddish yellow below. 

This Eel is generally found from 20 inches to 2 feet in length, and is 
not uncommon in the Calcutta market. 

Has.—Bengal and Arracan. 

It is probably, the species described by Dr. Buchanan as Murena 
anguilla, Lacep. It is certainly very distinct both from the common 
European species described and figured under that name, and the Chowloo 
Pamoo of Russell’s Indian Fishes, which was also supposed to be Murena 
anguilla of Lacepede. Now the European species is said to have about 
100 rays in the dorsal fin, while our Bengal species has 290. Again, 
it is different from Russell’s species, in which the dorsal commences a 
very short distance in front of the intestinal aperture, whereas it begins 
in the Bengal species at the anterior third of the body. 

Such mistakes on the part of Buchanan and Russell regarding the 
common species of India, are the best proof of the necessity that existed 
for the revision of those characters upon which the better discrimination 
of these animals depend. 


This Eel was brought to me under the Native name 
Bangoosh. The late Dr. Lumqua, a Chinese Physician who 
resided many years in Calcutta, assured me that a species 


178 _  Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


of Eel bearing this name afforded Isinglass. It could not 
however be this species, and I should doubt much whether 
Dr. Lumqua’s Bangoosh belong to the present order. 


2. ANGUILLA BICOLOR. Pl. vi. fig. 1. 


The dorsal occupies rather more than half the entire length, and com- 
mences exactly over the anus. The jaws are depresed, the upper rather 
shorter and narrower than the lower jaw. The breadth of the head 
about equal to that of the body. The distance from the base of the 
pectorals to the end of the nose, equal to one-third of the interval from 
the nose to the commencement of the caudal. The teeth are fine, like the 
pile of velvet, consisting of a broad band on either side of the jaws, 
and another on the vomer. The fin rays are. 

P. 18: D. 245: A. 221. 

The colour above, is dark olive-green or brown, and white below. 

One of the specimens examined was about 2 feet in length. 

Has.—Sandoway on the Malay coast, from whence it has been oblig- 
ingly forwarded to Calcutta by Captain Phayre, to whom we are indebt- 
ed for its discovery. 


This is perhaps the species named by Russell Chowloo 
Pamoo. It is still more distinct from the European species 
than the last; and the dorsal fin is situated much farther 
back than in the following species. 


3. ANGUILLA ARRACANA. PI. vi. fig. 2. 


Dorsal commences at a distance in front of the anal, equal to twice the 
depth of the body; the interval from the pectoral fins to the muzzle, is 
also equal to about two diameters of the body. The fin rays are:— 

P. 20: D. 275: A. 141. 

The head is depressed, but little wider than the body. The upper 
jaw is a little narrower and shorter than the lower. 

Colour mottled green, minutely dotted. 

Has.—Sandoway on the Malay Coast. 

We are indebted to the kindness and zeal of Capt. Phayre for this 
species, which is nearly allied to A. nebulosa. Length 12 inches, but it is 
probably found much larger. 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 179 


4, ANGUILLA NEBULOSA. Pl. v. fig. 2. 

The dorsal commences rather before the anterior third of the body, 
and at a distance in front of the anus equal to the interval from the 
base of the pectorals to the eyes ; the head is scarcely broader than the 
body. 

The fin rays are 

P. 20: D. 306: A. 248: to the middle of the caudal. 

There are 9 or 10 long slender rays in either branchial membrane. 

Colour green above variegated with darker shades: below white. 
Young individuals are not variegated. 

Has.—Bengal, and Sandoway, where it is met with generally about | 
20 inches to 2 feet in length. This species differs from 4. arracana 
chiefly in the dorsal being shorter, though it contains more numerous, 
and consequently finer, rays. 


5. ANGUILLA VARIEGATA. Pl. 9. fig. 7. 


The head is triangular and broader than the body, which is variegated 
with black irregular marks. The colour of the lower parts is white. 
Each pectoral fin contains 24 rays. 

Has.—Behar. 

This species is supposed by Buchanan (Gang. Fishes, p.23,) to be Mu- 
rena maculata, Lacép. ( Hist. des Poissons, p. 265, ) one of the fishes of the 
Nile. The fin rays of the Nilotic species as given by Lacepede are 
however as follows :— 

: P. 9: or thereabouts: D. 43: A. 36: C. 110. 

Now Buchanan gives 24 rays to each pectoral of the Gangetic species, 
and although the rays of the other fins were not ascertained by him, we 
may conclude from this fact, as well as from the excellent drawing Bucha- 
nan has left of the Gangetic species, that it is quite distinct from that of 
the Nile; the more particularly as we have not been able to identify a 
single species of the Ganges, with any of those of the Nile. The drawing 
has been copied into Hardwicke’s Illustrations of Indian Zoology by 
Mr. Gray, under the every way erroneous name of Murena bengalensis. 
Buchanan expressly states, that he found it only in the Ganges, where 
that river passes through Behar ; and I have never myself been able to 
find it in Bengal. The drawing here given, is from Buchanan’s collection. 

This species is nearly allied to that which is described, (Proc. Zool. 
Soc. 27th Nov. 1838,) in a paper on the Fishes of the Deccan, by Colonel 
Sykes, as Anguilla Elphinstonei. Indeed it may probably turn out to 
be the same, in which ease the latter name will have the priority of that 
which is here proposed. 


180 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


5. There is a remarkable species described by Buchanan, (Gangetic 
Fishes, p. 24,) as an inhabitant of the estuaries of the Ganges, under the 
name of Murena vamos, which I have never met with. The upper-jaw 
is much longer than the lower. The head is described as oval, and 
nearly twice as broad as the body; the eyes small and placed near 
(the crown?) “high up.” The body is slender, of a dirty brownish- 
green above; below, dingy white. There may be several other species 
of this genus in India, but these are all I have met with in the lower 
provinces. 


MURAINESOX, J. M. 

This genus is distinguished from the Congers of Europe, 
by its peculiar dentition, and long slender pointed jaws, hard 
lips, and the absence of tubular nasal apertures. The species 
occupy an equivalent place in the East, with the Congers of 
the Western world. 

They usually possess two or more rows of teeth on the 
edges of the jaws, besides a few scattered, prominent, coni- 
cal hooked teeth at the apex of each jaw, which is slightly 
dilated and rounded for their reception. There is also a 
notch in the upper-jaw behind the apex, for the reception of 
the cluster of large teeth at the apex of the lower jaw, which 
is shorter than the upper. 

The stomach is a blind sack with a very short intestine 
given off from it at the anterior extremity. The liver, though 
large, is short, and placed in front of the stomach, envelop- 
ing the pyloric valve. The air-vessel is almost a third of 
the entire length, tapering equally at either end to a round 
point. The heart is placed as in ordinary fishes, near the 
branchial apertures. There are twenty-one long and slender 
branchial rays, and four branchial combs, supported by slen- 
der bony arches on either side. There is a row of very 
prominent distant teeth along the middle of the vomer, sur- 
rounded by a compact row of very small close-set teeth. 


1. MURENESOX EXODENTATA. Pl. viii. fig. 4. 
This species is distinguished by a row of long, distant, conical teeth 
on the vomer, with a parallel row of small close-set palatine teeth 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 18] 


at each side, and an outer row of similar small teeth on the edge of 
the maxillaries. Between the maxillary and palatine row,,. there is a 
short narrow band of palatine teeth near the base of the upper jaw on 
each side. There are three rows of close conical teeth on each side of 
the lower jaw, the middle row more prominent than the others. There 
is a fourth row composed of prominent, strong, conical teeth directed 
obliquely outward from the external edge of the lower-jaw along its 
entire length, besides three or four large prominent conical teeth at the 
apex, which are slightly hooked. Thejaws are widely cleft and narrow ; 
somewhat dilated and round at the muzzle, which is without tubular 
nostrils. The intestinal aperture is situated at the middle of the 
body. The dorsal commences over the branchial apertures, which are 
situated a short distance in front of the pectorals. The pectorals are 
long and narrow, consisting of about fourteen rays. The lateral line 
consists of a double row of pores. There are about 269 rays in the 
dorsal, and 90 in the anal fin, to the middle of the caudal. 

The colour above is light bluish or lead grey; below white. The 
fins partake of the colours of the adjoining parts, with the addition of a 
darker tinge along the margins of the dorsal and anal. 


This description is derived from two fine specimens re- 
ceived in 1838, from my friend Capt. Richard Lloyd, then 
Officiating Marine Surveyor General, who obtained them 
in the Bay of Bengal, near the Islands on the Arracan 
Coast. ‘They were both of the same size, namely, four feet 
in length, and were called Bamboo Fish by the sailors, from 
their peculiar shape. 


2. MUR/ENESOX LANCEOLATA. PI. vi. fig. 3. 


This species has the jaws slender, and greatly prolonged like the 
last; the aperture of the mouth being equal in length to half the 
distance from the muzzle to the branchial apertures. The apex of the 
lower jaw is armed with a cluster of long radiating conical and slightly 
hooked teeth, for the reception of which there is a large corresponding 
semi-circular notch in the upper jaw. 

The distance from the muzzle to the fore part of the eye, is equal to a 
third of the distance from the former to the branchial aperture. There 
is a row of eight or ten long teeth, with lanceolate points on the vo- 
mer. Two rows of small teeth on the upper jaw, the inner one short 


182 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


and oblique, the outer terminating in front of the vomer; besides a 
row of small close-set teeth surrounding those of the vome; each side 
of lower jaw presents three rows of conical teeth. 

There are 305 rays in the dorsal fin, with a proportionately large num- 
ber in the anal; the pectorals are long and narrow, containing about 14 
rays. 

The anterior nasal aperture is situated behind the great notch in the 
upper jaw, and is slightly emarginated, but not tubular. The intestinal 
aperture is situated before the middle. 

Colour blue or brownish grey above, silvery white below, without 
distinct dark margins to the fins. 

Has.—Bengal. 


The specimen described is 2 feet and 4 inches in length. 


3. MURAINESOX HAMILTONTA. Pi. viii. fig. 3. 


Murena Bagio, Buch. 


The distance from the muzzle to the back part of the eyes, equal to 
one-third of the distance from the former to the branchial apertures. 
Pectoral fins short, six or eight tricuspid teeth on the vomer. 

The fin rays are 

P. 12: D. 260: A. 220. 


This species is noticed on the authority of Buchanan, 
whose drawing is here given. I have not met with it, although 
Buchanan remarks that it is found in the estuaries of the 
Ganges, and there can be little doubt of the species being 
more numerous than we imagine. 


4, MURAXNESOX BENGALENSIS. 


The distance from the muzzle to the back part of the eyes is equal to 
about a third of the interval from the muzzle to the branchial apertures. 
There are three to six or more tricuspid teeth on the vomer; and two 
rows of teeth on the sides of the lower jaw; the principal row is large, 
compressed and hooked, the outer row small and conical. The dorsal 
and anal fins are emarginated with black ; the fin rays are 

P. 15: D, 244: A. 202—Branchial rays 21. 
The intestinal aperture is considerably in front of the middle. 
Has.—Bengal. 


——e 


——— ee ee 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 183 


5. The Taleo paum of Dr. Russell, Indian Fishes, No. 36, 
vol. 1, is also no doubt a distinct species, which from its golden 
yellow colour, is inserted in the synopsis as Murenesox 
aurea. 


OPHISURUS, Lacép. 


The Indian species of this genus have a peculiar structure 
of the branchial rays hitherto unnoticed. Buchanan indeed 
remarks, (Gangetic Fishes, p. 19.) that no rays can be 
distinctly seen in the species of this country. ‘They are, 
however, very distinctly seen on dissection, and even in dried 
specimens, if the branchial membrane be distended, the ad- 
joining soft parts will shrink; in which condition the rays 
are brought into view, presenting a very beautiful structure 
of decussating curves. 

The teeth are round, disposed in three bands on the upper 
jaw ; the middle band on the vomer extends from the back 
part of the palate to the apex of the jaw, the others termi- 
nate obliquely against this, before they reach the apex. 

The gills consist of four double combs, supported by slen- 
der bony arches, the heart is situated between ‘the pec- 
torals ; the liver is large, and envelopes the cesophagus; the 
stomach is a large blind sack as in the genus Anguilla, Cuv. 
with the intestine given off at its anterior extremity, from 
whence it proceeds straight to the vent. 

An oval glandular organ occupies a cavity in the anterior 
part of the tail; but there is no prolongation of the intestine 
in these species beyond the intestinal aperture, as said by 
Cuvier to be the case with European species. 

The species of this country which I have met with, in 
addition to those noticed by Buchanan, are three. They are 
however most difficult to determine, and for this reason, no 
less than on account of their singular structure and form, 
they ought to be made the subject of special investiga- 
tion. 

2B 


184: Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


The result would be the establishment of several spe- 
cies, which we cannot now distinguish with certainty. It 
might also cast much additional light upon the order to 
which they belong. 


1. OPHISURUS ROSTRATUS, Buch. 


Distinguished by a very small perfectly conical head and round tail 
scarcely at all compressed. 

The pectorals are narrow and rather long, containing about 11 rays, 
the eyes are high and rather approximated together on the crown. 

Colour greenish-yellow above, yellowish-white below. 

This is a small species, an adult taken caught in the act of spawn- 
ing, not exceeding nine inches in length. 

Has.—Bengal. 


This species is figured in Buchanan’s drawings under 
the name here given. I have not met with it, but it is closely 
allied to Oph. minimus, from which it only differs in having a 
square muzzle. 


2. OPHISURUS VERMIFORMIS, Pl. xii. fig. 2. 


The distance from the point of the muzzle to the eyes, is equal to } of 
the distance from the eyes to the pectorals. The distance from the 
muzzle to the pectorals, is equal to the distance from the pectorals to 
the commencement of the dorsal, and to about 5, part of the entire 
length. The muzzle is long and narrow. There are 9 rays in each of 
the pectorals, these fins are long and narrow. ‘There are 22 rays in the 
branchial membrane. The muzzle is long and narrow. The body long 
and very slender, terminating in a sharp round pointed tail. The body 
is dotted with dark green above. The lateral line is marked with a 
few distant pores, like minute spots. 

Hazs.—Bengal. 


This is the smallest species of Ophisurus I have seen. It 
differs from O. hyala, Buch. in the spots on the lateral line © 
being more distant and minute. It is also a far more slen- 
der species. 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 185 


3. OPHISURUS MINIMUS, Pl. x. fig. 3. 

The distance from the point of the muzzle to the eyes, equal to 1-5 of 
the distance from the eyes to the pectorals. The distance from the 
muzzle to the branchial apertures, is equal to the distance from these to 
the commencement of the dorsal. 

The muzzle short and very narrow, the eyes are placed high, close to 
each other, and to the muzzle; the pectorals are rather long and nar- 
row, each contains about 12 rays. The branchial membrane contains 
about 24 rays on either side. The body is cylindric and strong, termi- 
nating in a tapering sharp-pointed tail. 

Colour above light green, minutely dotted along the back. 

Hazs.—Bengal. 


This species differs from O. vermiformis, in being of much 
more robust proportions; and from O. hyala, in the distance 
and size of the pores or spots on the lateral line, which in 
the former are barely perceptible. 


4, OPHISURUS CAUDATUS, Pl. xii. fig. 3. 


The head is small, the tail is thick and heavy. The distance from the 
base of the pectorals to the commencement of the dorsal, is only equal 
to half the distance from pectorals to the extremity of the snout. 

The distance from the pectorals to the end of the muzzle, is equal to 


hey of the entire length. The pectoral fins are narrow and pointed, 


each contains about 13 rays. 
Colour above dark green, below reddish yellow. The branchial rays 


are covered with a thick integument, so as to conceal their exactnumber. 


The remaining two, are Ophisurus harancha, and Ophi- 
surus Boro, Buch. 

These are figured in Hardwicke’s Illustrations, from copies 
of the MSS. drawings of Dr. Buchanan. 


LYCODONTIS, N. Gen. 


This genus is composed of such species of the Linnzean 
genus Murena as have the palatine teeth in a single row 
extending along the centre of the roof of the mouth, behind 
the vomer. The body is slightly compressed; and the dorsal 


186 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


commences in front of the branchial apertures; the front of 
each jaw is armed with long sharp articulated teeth, attached 
to a flexible pedicle ; they are capable of being retracted or 
raised according to circumstances. 


Synodontis, Cuv. among the Siluridz, is the only example known in the 
animal kingdom, in which the teeth are fixed to a flexible pedicle. It 
may be presumed therefore, that this peculiarity in the Murzenidz has 
never been pointed out. Buchanan, the only author who seems to 
_ have examined the Indian species of this family, overlooked altogether 
the peculiarity of their dentition. . 

Another peculiarity consists in the malar, nasal, and palatines being 
consolidated with the vomer, forming the anterior part of the upper 
jaw, from which the maxillaries and intermaxillaries are displaced, so 
as to form the sides, rather than the front, of the mouth. Here they 
give insertion to two rows of teeth, corresponding with those of the 
palatine bones in all other genera. 


1. LYCODONTIS LITERATA. Pi. vii. fig. 2. 


The head is compressed and narrow, raised abruptly over the eyes. 

The body is long and compressed, of uniform depth, and slender for its 
length. 

Colour, olive-green above, and all except the head uniformly marked 
with fine white irregular streaks, resembling a written character. The 
dorsal fin commences in front of the branchial apertures, the anal com- 
mences at the middle of the body. 

The jaws are narrow, of equal length and widely cleft, having two 
rows of teeth on the sides, the outer row terminating on either side 
below the eyes, the inner row is continued round the apex of the jaw at 
wider intervals, and together with three prominent hooked teeth, corres- 
ponding with those of the vomer near the apex, are retractile. 

There are 121 vertebrz, 334 rays in the dorsal, and 182 in the 
anal fin. 

Has.—Bengal. Itis a common fish in the Calcutta market. 


This species is usually met with about 12 to 18 inches in 
length. 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 187 


2. LYCODONTIS PUNCTATA. Pl. vii. fig. 3- 


The head is compressed, forehead raised abruptly over the eyes, 
and the lower jaw is shorter than the upper. The branchial aperture is 
placed on either side at a distance from the eyes, equal to twice the 
height of the head. The body is dark olive-green, mottled with round 
white spots which disappear in the adult state, first upon the body, and 
lastly on the fins. 

The outer small maxillary teeth, are continued round the apex of the 
jaws, one tooth occurring alternately at each interval between the large 
retractile teeth. 

There are 392 rays in the dorsal, and 190 inthe anal. The intestinal 
aperture is situated about the middle. 

Has.—Bengal. 


This species is common in the vicinity of Calcutta, and is 
generally found about a foot, or 18 inches in length. 


8. LYCODONTIS LONGICAUDATA, Pi. viii. fig. 2. 


Murenophis sathete, Buch. 


The ventral aperture is considerably before the middle of the body, 
the tail is consequently very long and slender. The head is conical, the 
jaws of equal length; body greenish-brown above, without spots; the fins 
_ darkish; the dorsal contains 484 pointed rays imbedded in fat, the anal 
394. There are 211 vertebra. 

Haz.—Bengal, where it attains a great size, the specimen described 
was upwards of 5 feet in length. 

The drawing here given is from Buchanan’s MSS. collection. 


This is one of the largest and most important fishes of 
the family in Bengal; the species are reckoned wholesome 
and good, and axe eaten by all classes of the native popu- 
lation. 


THAZRODONTIS, N. Gen. 


In this genus there are two distinct rows of teeth on the 
back part of the palate, behind the retractile teeth on the 
vomer near the apex of the upper jaw. The edges of both 


188 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


jaws are armed with a single row of prominent teeth; the 
crown is high and rounded. 


1. THHRODONTIS RETICULATA. Pl. vii. fig. 1. 


The crown is high and rounded, the body slightly compressed, the dor- 
sal commences at the branchial apertures, and the intestinal aperture is 
placed near the middle. Colour black, marked with white lines disposed 
in a pentangular form, dividing every part of the body and fins into 
large pentangular spots. 

Has.—Malay Coast, where it was obtained at Sandowy by Captain 
Phayre, Principal Assistant to the Commissioner of Arracan. 


The specimen obtained was 20 inches in length; it is one 
of the most striking and remarkable species of apodal fishes 
hitherto described. 

It is distinguished by the brilliant contrast in its colours, 
pure ivory black, subdivided by narrow snow-white lines, dis- 
posed in a pentangular manner over every part of the body, 
head, and fins, even on the sides and roof of the mouth. 


OPHICARDIDES,* N. Trib. 


The remaining species belong to a very distinct tribe from 
those just gone over, it may be necessary therefore to preface 
the description of them, by a few remarks on their general 
characters and peculiarities. 

The heart is situated far behind the branchial apertures, 
and not between, or close to these organs as in the last 
tribe, a peculiarity which of course must affect not only the 
arterial system of these animals, but every part of their struc- 
ture and even external form.} 

The effect of this altered position of the heart upon the 
external form of the present tribe, is to lengthen the body 


* For Etymology, see Gen. Ophicardia. 

+ I have already adverted to the circumstance of Mr. Walker having undertak- 
en an investigation of the comparative anatomy of the Cuchia. The field of inquiry 
will now be considerably widened, by the undescribed forms closely allied to, 
though differing essentially from that remarkable animal. The object proposed 
by Mr. Walker will thus assume an additional degree of interest and importance. 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 189 


by creating two long distinct cavities in the trunk, as 
in animals provided with lungs, instead of a single ca- 
vity as in other fishes. The abdomen being removed 
back to make way for a lengthened thorax, occupied only 
by the branchial arteries, oesophagus, and heart; the 
intestinal outlet is carried back to the latter third of the 
body. The tail is consequently short. ‘The membranous 
expansion representing the dorsal fin, advances a little in 
front of the ventral aperture. ‘There is no air-vessel in 
any of the species of Bengal, although Cuvier states, that 
in the genus Synbranchus, Bl., that organ is fully deve- 
loped. In some, the stomach is a cul-de-sac, with the 
intestine given off in front as in Angualliformes ; in others, 
it is continuous with the stomach, and together with that 
organ, forms a straight tube extending from the ceso- 
phagus to the vent. The liver is very long and narrow; 
in some, it is chiefly developed at the further extremity 
of the abdomen; in others it occupies the usual position 
behind the midrif; but notwithstanding such apparent 
transposition of this organ, its attachment to the lower 
surface of the midrif appears to be an universal condition 
in all animals ; and in this instance the difference is merely 
in the increased length of the capsular ligament. 

In all the species, the entrance to the cesophagus is guarded 
by two groups of very small, but sharp pharangeal teeth on 
either side. 

The gills undergo many singular modifications in this 
tribe. 

In some, they.are without bony arches; in others while 
bony arches are present, they are almost destitute of pectina- 
ted combs. In some, the gills on either side are contained in 
two distinct cavities; in others, both gills are contained in 
one common cavity. In some, the want of pectinated combs 
or gills, is supplied by a membranous sack, by which the func- 
tions of respiration are effected. 


190 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


The manner in which this function is performed in the 
genus ,Pneumabranchus, is as follows: the head is raised to 
the surface, and the muzzle projected sufficiently to emerge 
the apex of the jaws, slightly open at the end. The dilata- 
tion of the branchial sack on either side (which is provided 
with proper muscular apparatus for the purpose) then takes 
place, and this organ distended with air, the animal descends ; 
and after the lapse of some moments, the air gradually allow- 
ed to escape by the mouth, ascends in globules to the 
surface of the water. The animal then ascending again to 
repeat the same operation at certain intervals. 

The only genus of this tribe hitherto known, is Synbranchus, 
BI. or what Lacépede named Unibranchapertura. 

But although that genus is well characterised in the 


Régne Animal, the adjoining forms peculiar to the East re- | 


quired to be properly known and understood, before the 
peculiar characters of Synbranchus could be well appre- 
ciated. In this way we can account for the peculiarities of 
that genus not being more prominently brought forward 
by preceding writers, particularly the illustrious Cuvier. 
When ever we are led upon any occasion a little farther 
. than that great man has gone, we should ascribe it no less 
to the assistance we derive from the profound observations 
he has left for our guidance in the study of Fishes, than to 
the accidental circumstance of being more favourably plac- 
ed with regard to some peculiar object of investigation. 

Even with regard to Synbranchus, the few words express- 
ed in the Régne Animal, regarding the stomach and intes- 
tines of that genus, apply not only to it, but equally so to 
the other genera here described, although they were un- 
known to the illustrious author. 

I have been induced to make these remarks, lest the propo- 
sal of any changes in the classification of these animals, 
emanating from so obscure a quarter, might appear as either 
self-sufficient on my part, or to arise from an improper dis- 


SS a 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 191 


trust of the observations of others, who have gone before me, 
on the same subject. 


OpHIcaRD1A,* N. Gen. 


Of this genus but a single species has as yet been dis- 


covered, and for this we are indebted to Capt. A. P. Phayre, 
the principal civil officer at Sandoway, on the Arracan Coast. 
In gratitude for the kindness and liberality with which he 
has placed his collections at our disposal, as well as in jus- 
tice to the interest and importance of the discovery, we have 
dedicated the species to his name. 


1. OPHICARDIA PHYARIANA, Pl. xii. fiig. 1. 


In this singular species the intestinal aperture is placed at the post- 
erior fifth of the length. The head is short, raised and round, larger 
in diameter than the body, the adjoining portion of which is, towards 
the head, augmented ; the jaws are depressed, the upper jaw is rather 


_ more prominent than the lower, the muzzle is rounded, having two short 


tubular nostrils at the extremity. 

The body is not compressed, but is slightly conical from the head to 
near the vent ; the tail from thence becomes much compressed and very 
narrow. The tail is emarginated with an adipose duplicature of the skin 
like the blade of an oar. 

The outer band of teeth on the upper jaw expands in front on either 
side, without meeting the opposite corresponding band, thus leaving a 
narrow vacant space at the apex. There are three strong branchial 
arches, with slight fleshy very short pectinated gills, like the teeth of 


 asaw. 


There are five branchial rays on each side, the first larger and stronger 


than the others, and isolated from them, standing considerably in front. 


The branchial rays are strong and bony. 

There are no scales distinguishable in the skin, even with the micros- 
cope. 

The colour above is dusky-brown, minutely dotted with brownish- 


_ black, the lower parts are of a somewhat lighter shade. 


The length of the specimen is about 20 inches. 


pe | 
* Etym. ogtc, a Snake; and, kaooua, the heart. 
2C 


7 


192 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. — 


The stomach is an expansion of the cesophagus into a long spindle- 
shaped wide tube, tapering equally at either end, and contracting 
gradually behind into a narrow intestine, which again gradually ex- 
pands almost to the size of the stomach ; the whole, including the ceso- 
phagus being one continuous straight tube. There seems to be no pyloric 
valve, the contraction of the first portion of the intestine answering the 
purpose of one. 

The liver consists of a single elongated lobe of great length, commen- 
cing immediately behind the pericardium. It envelopes the lower surface 
of the stomach, and terminates about the middle of the abdomen. 

Has.—Sandoway on the Arracan Coast. As already remarked, we 
have been indebted to the zeal and kindness of Captain Phayre, Prin- 
cipal Assistant to the Commissioner of Arracan, for the only specimen 
hitherto found. 


PNEUMABRANCHUS srriarus. Pl. xiii. 


Unibranchapertura Cuchia, Buch. 


This species was first noticed by Buchanan Hamilton in 
his work on the Fishes of the Ganges, p. 16, who referred it 
to the genus Unibranchapertura of Lacépéde, or what is the 
same thing, Synbranchus, BI. 


The whole form of the animal, says Buchanan, having no vestige of 
a fin, resembles strongly a serpent. In stating it to be without any 
vestige of a fin, as well as devoid of scales, Buchanan proves that he 
examined it very carelessly. 

But there was no such thing as accurate observations in this parti- 
cular order of Fishes, prior at least to the publication of the Régne 
Animal. Even since then, from the great general sameness of these 
animals, different species and even genera have been described under 
the same name. 

The head is somewhat depressed and triangular, being rather broad- 
er than the body, while it becomes considerably narrower at the muz- 
zle ; the jaws are both precisely of the same length. The lips are soft, so 
as to allow of a little tube-like aperture being formed between them at 
the apex of the muzzle, which seems to be in some degree essential 
to the peculiar manner in which the functions of respiration are per- 
formed. The lower jaw is narrower at the apex than the upper, and the 
muzzle being raised to the surface of the water, the animal by laterally 


. 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 193 


contracting the fleshy lips of the upper jaw against the sides of the lower, 
is enabled to inhale, or supply the branchial sacks with air. This done, 
it descends, occasionally discharging a portion of the air which escapes 
in bubbles to the surface of the water until the sacks are collapsed, when 
after a time the animal again raises itself slowly to repeat the same 
operation. . 

One of the favourite positions of the animal is to remain floating 
perpendicularly with the muzzle at the surface. In this position it 
remains as if asleep, perfectly motionless for hours, like an inanimate 
object. From this position it sometimes sinks unconsciously to the bot- 
tom of the water; and, after discharging the air, as already described, 
again becomes lively, ascending to the surface, swimming and darting ac- 
tively for a time in a vertical position, and again becomes torpid as before. 

The colour of the upper parts is dark olive-green, with small round 
black spots dispersed equally over every part above the lateral line. 
The lower parts of the body are yellow, mottled with lighter and 
darker specks. 

The lateral line is white, and occasionally appears to be sunk, so as 
to form a channelin either side. There are two other short white lines, 
one extending from a few irregular little white streaks near the angle 
of the mouth, forms a slight bend over the branchial region, and extends 
a short way along the lower part of either side; the other commences 
with a slight reflex streak behind the eye, and extends a short way 
between the last described streak and the lateral line. 

The vent is placed at a distance of three-fourths of the entire length from 
the muzzle. The tail from thence becomes gradually compressed and 
narrow. For the first-third of its length, the upper margin of the tail 
is round, the remaining two-thirds of its length it is sharp-edged above, 
representing the dorsal, and for a little more than one-third below, re- 
presenting the anal fin; but these are little more than narrow fringes 
formed by the mere reflection of the skin in this situation. 

The body is covered on every part with fine oval imbricated naked 
scales, except the lateral line, which is without them. These scales are 
smooth, composed of radii and concentric lines parallel with the mar- 
gin. They are very perceptible to the naked eye in the living animal. 
They are I should think about half the size of the scales of the Euro- 
pean tench. They are oval, broader at the free end than the other ; their 
figure presents various degrees of obliquity, according to the part of the 
body on which they are placed, as in ordinary fishes. See figs. 3, 6. 

The teeth are conical, sharp and hooked; they consist of two rows 
on the upper jaw; the outer row placed on the intermaxillaries is com- 


194 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


posed of about 30 very fine sharp teeth, which at the apex form a cres- 
cent with those of the opposite side. The palatine teeth form an inner 
row. They are stronger, placed at’intervals from each other, short, 
hooked and sharp. Their number varies a little in different indivi- 
duals, but they are generally twelve or thirteen on either side. The 
lower jaw is furnished with a single row (about 20 in number) of 
precisely similar, but smaller teeth than those of the palatines; the 
edge of the jaw becomes broader in front at the symphysis, where the 
teeth become somewhat crowded. See fig. 2a. b. 

The gills have three strong, short bony arches; but no branchial 
combs, except a few thick fleshy points on the outside of the middle 
arch. The intervals between the branchial arches are nearly obli- 
terated by means of a membrane, in which there is only a narrow 
aperture behind each arch, as well as the opening in front of the first 
arch. See fig. 4. 

Over the end of the first arch, there is a narrow aperture leading into 
a moderate sized sack, which as well as the membrane between the 
branchial arches is lined with a fine net-work, consisting of the 
extreme branches of the branchial arteries and veins,. which form 
numerous little vascular tufts dispersed over every part of the in- 
ner surface of these organs. See fig. 5. 

These perform the office of gills, for effecting the aération of the 
blood through the medium of water as well as air. 

The animal is thus enabled to live for a time in either medium, al- 
though both are essential. 

A little behind the upper end of the third arch, there is a lunate group 
of fine sharp pharangeal teeth, at the entrance to the cesophagus as 
usual throughout apodal fishes, together with a row of similar teeth 
extending from the posterior horn of the above group on one side, to 
the corresponding portion of that of the opposite side, thus forming a 
strong armature of sharp hooked teeth, guarding the entrance to the 
throat. The great length of the cesophagus in ophicardious as com- 
pared with other species, renders the function of pharangeal teeth very 
important, in order to arrest the entrance of food until it is reduced to a 
state in which it is likely to afford least danger to the animal by caus- 
ing obstruction, which from the nature of the prey, would be hable 
to happen 

The diaphragm separating the cavities of the thorax and abdomen, 
is placed at a distance behind the branchial apertures greater than 
these are from the extremity of the muzzle, or equal to about one-third 
of the distance from the branchial apertures to the vent. The thorax is 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 195 


consequently equal to half the length of the abdominal cavity ; it con- 
tains the cesophagus, the heart, and aorta, together with the branchial 
arteries and veins. 

The abdomen is occupied for the first two-thirds of its length by the 
stomach and liver; the former in the left, the latter in the right side. 
The latter third of the cavity is occupied with two oval bodies placed 
on either side closely connected with the blood-vessels, which I sup- 
pose to be the kidneys, and the intestine together with the ovarium. I 
observe no valve or distinct separation between the stomach and intes- 
tine, but a gradual contraction from the former to the vent; both organs 
apparently forming a straight tube with the cesophagus, merely dilated 
for the stomach, and contracted from thence gradually to the vent. 

These observations must, however, be regarded as a mere cursory 
statement, intended to shew the general peculiarities of the species, and 
not be received as an exact description of its structure. 

I have had two live Cuchia by me now for a period of twelve months; 
they are still as well as when I first obtained them, though from an 
ignorance of their proper food, as well as a desire to know how long 
they are capable of existing without any, they had nothing to eat during 
that period to within the last few months, when some small fish and 
shrimps were put alive into the vessel. For some time they appeared 
to regard the strangers with indifference, when they became suddenly 
roused from their usual lethargy, and with a few sudden darts de- 
voured the whole of the shrimps. Some dead shrimps were afterwards 
introduced, but these as well as small fish both live and dead, the Cuchia 
evinced no appetite for; so that the prejudice of the natives against 
the Cuchia, as an article of food, spoken of by Buchanan, is not perhaps 
owing to the uncleanness of its habits. The Europeans are therefore 
perfectly right in eating it as an eel, whatever the natives of Bengal 
may think of the matter. This species seems to be very abundant 
throughout Bengal, as well as Assam; and generally, I should suppose 
in all the slow running streams and estuaries of the plains and coasts 
of India. 

I have found the number of vertebra in this genus to be about 150. 


f 


PNEUMABRANCHUS LEPROSUS. 


Specific character.—Body uniformly of a pale yellowish white both 
above and below, with irregular angular spots of various size dispersed 
here and there over the upper parts of the body. The narrow mem- 


196 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


branous expansion representing an adipose dorsal, commences almost 
as far forward as the vent. This species attains about 2 feet or upwards 
in length, and is of gross proportions. 

Has.—Bengal. 


PNEUMABRANCHUS ALBINUS. 


Colour uniformly orange yellow, with the exception of a livid ap- 
pearance about the muzzle, and a black half moon-like zone over the 
eye, without any appearance of distinct lateral or other lines. Pupils 
black, irides narrow and bright golden-yellow, surrounded by a livid 
zone. 

Has.—Bengal. 


This variety attains about 18 inches in length, and is of 
more slender form than either of the others. 

While these species are remarkable for the singular trans- 
formation of the gills, by means of which they are capable 
of existing either in water or air for a considerable period, 
those of the following genus are no less singular for the pe- 
culiar transposition of the eyes, and of the liver; two or- 
gans which are usually more constant in their position than 
any other. 


OPHISTERNON.* WN. Gen. 


The head is rounded slightly at the occiput, but depress- 
ed and elongated in front. ‘The eyes are remarkably small, 
and placed almost at the extremity of the muzzle. The 
body is elongated and cylindric, the tail is broad, as well as 
the adipose expansion forming the dorsal and anal fins; 
the former commences before the anus, the latter close be- 
hind that organ, and both meet to form a round caudal. 

The branchie of both sides are contained in a single 
cavity, to which there is one large transverse aperture 
placed under the throat. The gills consist of four single 


* Which means, the trunk is formed like that of a snake. 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 197 


branchial combs on either side, supported by bony arches. 
There are five or six short semi-cartilaginous rays in either 
side of the branchial membrane. The skin is soft and thin, 
without scales; there are two bands of teeth on either side 
of the upper jaw, and one on each side of the lower. The 
stomach and intestines form a straight tube, the former 
dilated, and the latter contracted into a very narrow tube, 
and then dilating again to form the rectum. 

The liver is situated on the right side at the hinder part 
of the abdomen, along with the rectum, and is of a long nar- 
row shape, connected however with the diaphragm by means 
of a very long capsular ligament. 

There is no air-vessel. 

The naked skin without any trace of scales, as well as the 
structure and peculiar form of the abdominal viscera, and of 
dentition, evince an intimate affinity between Ophicardia, 
and Ophisternon ; while the form of the branchial aperture 
and arches, proves them to be distinct genera. 


OPHISTERNON BENGALENSIS, Pi. xi. Fig. 1. 


The head is a little raised at the crown and depressed towards the 
eyes which are small, and placed on the muzzle before, and exter- 
nal to the posterior apertures of the nostrils. The muzzle is nar- 
row, long, and slightly recurved, the jaws are of equal length, the mem- 
branous expansions on the tail representing the dorsal and anal fins, are 
broad, the former advances in front of the anus, the latter commencing 
close behind that organ, and both united at the end of the tail. The 
lateral line is narrow, and situated high on the side. The body is cy- 
lindric, but rather larger before than behind. The middle of the tail is 
a little deeper than the body at the anus. 

There is a single large opening under the throat, communicating at 
once with the branchial combs on both sides, which are all contained in 
the same cavity without any partition; they are supported by bony 
arches. The anus is placed at the posterior 4th of the length. There 
are two bands of teeth on the upper jaw, the outer band on the 
maxillaries forming a crescent in front under the apex of the jaw, and 
becoming narrower from thence towards the corner of the mouth. The 


198 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


inner band on the palatines continues round the apex, and of equal 
breadth to the corners of the mouth. The lower jaw also presents a 
broad band of teeth on either side, broader at the symphisis than any- 
where else. There, are five short cartilaginous branchial rays, and the 
branchial combs are single upon each arch. | 

The stomach and intestines form one continuous straight tube ex- 
tending to the vent. The liver is straight, and long, occupying the 
whole length of the abdominal cavity on the right side of the intestines 
and stomach. Small detached glands seem to adhere to the latter at 
various intervals, which are perhaps equivalent to the spleen. 

There is no air vessel. 

Haz.—Bengal where it is rather common. Length 2 feet. 

The whole physiognomy of this animal is very distinct from that of 
the Cuchia, yet I have been unable to learn whether the natives 
make any distinction between them, nor do I find it, alluded to by Bu- 
chanan or any other author. 

Colour bluish black, or brown on every part of tke body, except a 
little dirty-white beneath the jaws. 


OPHISTERNON HEPATICUS, Pi. xi. fig. 2. 


The head is short and raised, the muzzle round and little depressed, 
the eyes very small, placed a little before the posterior openings 
of the nostrils. The jaws are short, the outer band of teeth on the 
upper jaw narrow, consisting almost of a single row of sharp hook- 
ed teeth on the sides, becoming broader in front, where it is recur- 
ved at the apex of the jaw. The palatine or inner band is broad 
at the apex, and becomes rather narrower towards the sides; of the 
jaw the lower maxilla also presents one broad band at either side, 
increasing in breadth towards the apex, where there is a narrow blank 
space in the middle free from teeth. The dorsal and anal fins are nar- 
row, as well as the tail, which is not so deep as the body. The body 
is cylindric, but of larger diameter at the head than at any other part. 

The heart is situated about twice the length of the head behind the 
branchial apertures. The stomach and intestines form one continuous 
straight tube with the cesophagus, the different divisions of which are 
only to be distinguished by their size. The stomach is at first rather wide, 
then becoming gradually narrower, contracts into a very narrow intes- 
tine, and then expands again into a rather wider intestine correspond- 
ing with the colon and rectum. The liver which in the last species was 
greatly elongated, in this presents the singular character of being 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 199 


developed entirely at the hinder part of the abdominal cavity, in close 
contact with the colon and rectum, supported however by means of a 
long capsular ligament to its usual attachment with the diaphragm on 
the right side. The skin is thin and smooth, without any trace of 
scales whatever. 


This new important species is a native of the Arracan 
Coast, where it was discovered by Captain Phayre, to whom 
I have been indebted for much kind and liberal assistance 
in the investigation of the fishes of this portion of the Bengal 
territories. We may still anticipate further discoveries in 
this quarter through the kind assistance of Captain Phayre, 
and several other distinguished public Officers employed on 
the same Coast from Chittagong to Mergui, who have al- 
ready evinced an enlightened regard for the investigation 
of the natural productions of the provinces intrusted to 
their care. Until these enquiries are brought to a close, 
it would be premature in this place to offer any further ge- 
neral observations on the affinities of the order. 


Il.—PTYOBRANCHIDAS, N.. Fam. 


Gills pectinated, fan-shaped, unsupported by bony arches, 
branchial apertures distinct, and placed in front of small 
pectorals. ‘Teeth on the centre of the palate; intestinal 
aperture situated about the latter third of the length. 


1.—PTYOBRANCHUS. N. Gen. 


Head small, with a narrow conical round muzzle, without 
tubular nostrils. They have a long cylindric body like a 
reed, terminating abruptly at the end of the tail; dorsal and 
anal narrow, supported by pointed rays, and connected with 
the caudal by means of a narrow raphe, more or less conspi- 
cuous in different species. é 
Oxss.—There are about eleven rays in the branchial mem- 
- brane, no air vessel. The maxillary and intermaxillary 

2D 


200 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


teeth form an interrupted row with the palatines. The 
lateral line is placed on the middle of the side. 

There are many species, in all which the dorsal commences 

behind the anal. 

The two first species of this remarkable genus, are the 
most singular forms of the tribe to which they belong. 
They are of plain colours, excessively simple shape, and 
great length in proportion to the diameter of the body. 
About six years ago I received one of them in a collection 
of fishes from Mr. Rose, who described it as very destruc- 
tive to the embankments thrown up against the Sea along 
the low coasts about Hidgelee and Cuttack. 

The remaining species are small, seldom exceeding from 
six inches to a foot in length, are of more showy colours, and 
common about Calcutta. Buchanan was acquainted with more 
than one species, and has left drawings of two, which seem to 
have fallen into the hands of Mr. Gray, who makes as many 
genera of them. He does this merely from characters derived 
from Buchanan’s drawings, which in this case happen to be 
deficient in those points selected as generic distinctions. 


1.—PTYOBRANCHUS ARUNDINACEUS. PI. x. fig. 1. 


The body is from twenty inches to two feet in length, and scarcely 
a to 4 of an inch in diameter. The intestinal aperture is placed at, 
or a little behind the latter third of the length, and the tail is of uni- 
form size and thickness with the body, to within about an inch of the 
end, when it becomes slightly compressed, and terminates in a thick 
wedge, with a very short square caudal fin. 

The anal fin commences at a distance behind the anus equal to its 
own length, the dorsal commences at the middle of the tail, and over 
the middle of the anal fin. Both dorsal and anal fin are low and 
rounded, each terminating in a narrow raphe, or line, which connects it 
with the caudal. The jaws.are of about equal size. 

The fin rays are, P: 10: D. 40: A. 40: caudal about 44. 

Colour dark olive-green above, greenish white below, and greyish on 
the sides. 

Has.—Bengal. 


‘ 


— ee 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 201 


2, PTYOBRANCHUS GUTHRIANUS. Pi. x. fig. 2. 


This species is elongated like the last, but the tail is not so clumsy, 
being a little more compressed, and terminating in an oval point. The 
pectorals are very small, but the other fins are a little more prominent 
than in the last species, and the rays in the narrow raphe connecting 
the dorsal and anal with the caudal, may be counted with care. 

The fin rays are, P. 11: D. 36: A. 44: C. 64 or, about 115 rays from 
the commencement of the dorsal to the middle of the caudal, and 143 
from commencement of the anal to the middle of the dorsal, including 
the rays of the narrow raphe connecting those fins with thecaudal, as 
nearly as I can ascertain. 

Colour dark brownish green, of a lighter shade below, but no white. 
Has.—Bengal. 


I have taken the opportunity of naming this species in 
honor of Captain C. 8S. Guthrie of the Bengal Engineers, for 
the service rendered by him to natural history, in the dis- 
covery of Cervus frontalus, described vol. iii. p. 401 of this 
Journal. | 


3. PTYOBRANCHUS ERYTHREUS. PI. ix. fig. 3. 


In this species the anal fin commences near the anus, and contains 50 
or more distinct rays before it slopes into a narrow radiated raphe, which 
connects it with the caudal. The dorsal contains about 40, and the caud- 
al 70 or 80 distinct rays, which in the narrow prolongations connect- 
ing these fins together, become so short as to render them difficult 
to count, particularly in specimens that have been in spirits. I 
have, however, counted about 134 from the commencement of the anal 
to the middle of the caudal, and 125 from thence to the commencement of 
the dorsal. 

The tail is compressed, and lanceolate at the point. The colour 
above is red, minutely speckled with black dots, below reddish white. 

Hazs.—Bengal. 


4, PTYOBRANCHUS MULTIDENTATA. Pi. ix. jig. 4. 


Tail thick and broad at the point, the rays of the raphe not distin- 
guishable. The fin rays are. 
D. 42: A. 36: C. 64. Colour red. 
Has.—Bengal. 


202 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


5. PTYOBRANCHUS PARVIDENTATA, PI. ix. fig. 5. 


Head small, tail slightly tapering and compressed, with a lanceolate 
caudal fin; only 4 teeth on the centre of the palate, forming a short row 
approaching close to the apex of the jaw. There are about 30 teeth on 
each side of the upper jaw. The fin rays are. 

P. 11: D. 31: A. 38: C. 60. 

Colour, purple above the lateral line, minutely dotted, and white 
below. 

Length 10 inches. 

Has.—Bengal. 


6. PTYOBRANCHUS GRACILIS. Pl. ix. fig. 6. 


Head very small, and the muzzle very narrow and pointed. Body 
slender ; 22 teeth on either side of the lower jaw, and 10 on the vomer. 
Tail narrow, compressed, and lanceolate. 

Has.—Bengal. 


ERRATA. 
For Anguilliformes, pp. 155, 158, 166, 171, 176, 


189, read ANGUILLIDES. 

For Lycodontis, pp. 154, 158, 173, 185, 186, 
187, and where ever it occurs in the pre- 
ceding pages, read StROPHIDON. 


IV.—Description of Plates. . 

Pl. V. Fig. 1. a. b. c. Anguilla brevirostris J. M. half the 
natural size. A, is a portion of the skin with 
the scales, natural size, shewing their shape 
and distribution ; b. teeth of the upper, and 
c. those of the lower jaw, natural size. 

Fig. 2. Anguilla nebulosa, J. M. half the natural size ; 
a. a portion of the skin showing the disposi- 
tion of the scales natural size. 

Pi. VI. Fig. 1. Anguilla bicolor, J. M. half size; a. teeth full 
size. 

2. Anguilla arracana, J. M. natural size; a. teeth 
full size. | 


Pl. VII. Fig. 1. 


Pl. VIII. Fig. 1. 


Pl. IX. Fig. 3. 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 203 


Therodontis reticulata, J. M. half size, with 
the disposition of the teeth represented full 
size. 


. Strophidon literata, J. M. natural size, with 


the disposition of the teeth enlarged. 


. Strophidon punctata, J. M. natural size, with 


the teeth somewhat enlarged. 

Strophidon maculata, J. M. or, Mureno- 
phis tile, Buch. from a drawing in the Bucha- 
nan collection, Bot. Gard. Calcutta. 


. Strophidon longicaudata, J. M. from a draw- 


ing in the Buchanan collection, marked by 
that author as Murenophis sathete. 
Murenesox Hamiltonii, J. M. from a drawing 
in the Buchanan collection, marked Mure@o- 
phis Bazt. 


. Murenesox exodontata, J. M. head and jaws 


natural size, and a reduced figure of the 
whole. 

Ptyobranchus erythreus, J. M. natural size, 
three figures, one representing the external 
form, another the internal struture, and a 
third the jaws and branchial rays enlarged ; a. 
a. branchial rays, i.i. the lower jaw separated 
at the symphisis ; 1.1. the hyoid bones, m.m. 
small opercula, b.b. the gills natural size, 
c. the branchial arteries, d. the heart, n.n. 
pericardium forming the diaphragm, e. the 
liver raised from its place to show the con- 
tinuation of the oesophagus; h. f. the sto- 
mach ; g. the intestine. 


. Ptyobranchus multidentata, J. M. natural 


size, with the teeth enlarged. 


. Ptyobranchus parvidentata, J. M. natural 


size, with the teeth enlarged. 


204: 


Pl. XI. Fig. }. 


Pl. XII. Fig. 1. 


Pl. XIL Fig. 


= i CO bo 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


. Ptyobranchus gracilis, J. M. natural size. 
. Anguilla variegata, J. M. from a drawing in 


Buchanan’s collection, a copy of which seems 
to have fallen into the hands of Mr. Gray, by 
whom it is given in Hardwicke’s illustrations 
of Indian Zoology, (without acknowledgment 
of the original source from whence it was 
derived) as Anguilla Bengalensis, although it 
is unknown in Bengal. 

Ptyobranchus arundinaceus,J.M. natural size, 
with the teeth l.a. magnified to about thrice 
the size of the jaws; 1.b. section of the body. 


. Ptyobranchus guthrianus, J. M. natural size, 


2.a. the teeth and jaws magnified to thrice 
the natural size ; 2.b. section of the body. 
Ophisurus minimus, J. M. natural size, 3. a. 
the teeth represented thrice the natural size, 
3.b. the section of the body, and 4 the lower 
surface of the head, showing the disposition 
of the branchial rays. 

Ophisternon bengalensis, J. M. natural size, 
a. the maxillary band of teeth, and c. the 
palatine band ; b. the teeth of the lower jaw. 


. Ophisternon hepaticus, J. M. half size, fig. 4, 


the teeth of both jaws a little more than na- 
tural size. 

Ophicardia phayriana, J. M. natural size, 
with 1.a. teeth of the upper jaw; c. the band 
of teeth on the lower; and 1.b. the bran- 
chial combs and rays natural size. 


. Ophisurus vermiformis, J. M. natural size. 
. Ophisurus caudatus, J. M. natural size. 
. Ophisurus harancha, Buch. natural size. 


Pneumabranchus striatus, J. M. natural size, 
with a figure representing the lower surface 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 205 


of the head and external branchial aperture, 
2. the jaws and teeth; a. the upper, b. the 
lower jaw; 3. a scale magnified ; 6. a portion 
of the skin taken from the lateral line which 
together with the scales on either side are 
magnified about twice the natural size ; 4. the 
outside of the branchial apparatus ; a. b. c. the 
arches of the gills; f. the branchial rays; 
g. the operculum magnified about twice ; 
5. inner view of the branchial apparatus ; a. b. 
c. the arches; d. entrance to the sack, e. h. 
pharangeal teeth ; 1.1.1. apertures between the 
branchial arches. 


Pl. XIV. Internal structure of Apodal Fishes. 


I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 
V. 


/; 


The stomach, intestine, and heart in the ge- 
nus Anguilla, Cuv. 

The stomach, and air vessel in the genus 
Murenesox, J. M. 

The stomach, intestines, and heart in Ophi- 
surus, Lacep. 

The same in the genus Strophidon, J. M. 
The same in the genus Pneumabranchus, 


J. M. 


. The same in Ophisternon, J. M. 
. The same in Ptyobranchus, J. M. 


the stomach ; 2, the intestine ; 3, the entrance 
to the throat ; 4, the anus, (5, Fig. V. and VI. 
the liver) ; 6, the heart marking its relative 
situation with the entrance of the throat. 

the heart magnified, showing A. the auri- 
cle, B. (and B. B. in some) the ventricle ; g. 
the descending, and b c. the ascending vena 
cava ; e. the ascending, and f. the descending 
aorta, d. c. B. Fig. V. the muscular portion 
of the ventrical, detached from the auricle, 


206 7 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


shewing 4, semilunar valves at c. communi- 
cating between the auricle A. and ventricle 
B. in the genus Pneumabranchus. 


V.—General Synopsis of Apodal Fishes. 


The following Synopsis shows the position of the Bengal 
species in the general classification of the fishes of this order, 
here rendered as complete in regard to foreign species, as 
the works of reference to which I have excess would admit 
of. It is however very imperfect, and can only be useful 
as bringing together all the well known and authentic spe- 
cies for the convenience of students. The species of Upper 
India, of the Mountain Provinces of Kemaon, Sekim, Nipal, 
Girwal, &c. have yet to be added to the list. This can now be 
done by any one commonly versed in such enquiries, although 
I may say without arrogance that no subject could be involv- 
ed in greater obscurity than this, when the present task was 
undertaken. Of 100 known species, it will be seen from the 
table of Geographical distribution, with which this paper is 
concluded, that 37 belong to Asia, 24 to Europe, 17 to Ameri- 
ca, and 17 to Africa. It will be seen however, that of the 3/7 
Asiatic species, 26 are peculiar to Bengal alone, and if we in- 
clude Arrakan as a portion of the Province, Bengal in that case 
affords one-third more species than all Europe, and twice as 
many as North and South America together. From the 
same table we also learn, that Apodal Fishes prevail most in 
variety as we approach the tropics. Thus, while North 
America has but six species, South America possesses eleven ; 
and while Great Britain has only six, the Mediterranean has 
also eleven; and the Nile contains but five species, while the 
lower Ganges contains twenty-six. 

The same table likewise shows that there are several 
genera, but no species common to Europe and Asia, while 
there is no genus common to Asia and America. 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 207 


Ord.—APODES. Linn. 
Tribe.—ANGUILLIDES, Nob. 


The anus is near the middle of the body. The heart situat- 
ed between the branchial apertures, which are double. Gulls 
pectinated, supported by bony arches. 


I, Fam.—ANGUILLIDA, Nob. 


Pectoral fins distinct; dorsal and anal fins united ; bran- 
chial rays slender. Two nostrils on either side, one before 
the eye, and the other near the end of the muzzle. 


I. Gen.—ANGUILLA, Cuv. 


Dorsal commencing far back behind the pectorals, teeth 
conical, sharp and disposed in bands. Anterior nostrils tubu- 
lar. 


ed, but depressed towards the jaws. 
Lower jaw longer than the upper, 
mouth slightly cleft with a narrow 
band of small teeth on each side 
of the jaws. Dorsal occupies more 
than two-thirds of the back, and the 
; anal more than half the length. 
- {.Has.—Europe. 


( Head convex at the crown, compress- 
f 


Yarr. Brit. Fishes, ii. 284. 


ANGUILLA ACUTIROSTRIS. BY 
Murena anguilla, Lacep. 11-284. | 


g Head rounded behind, but flattened 
before the eyes; jaws broad and 
blunt, lower jaw broader and 
longer, than the upper; mouth 
widely cleft, teeth forming a broad 

| band on either side of both jaws. 
Dorsal and anal fins broad. 

| Has.—Europe. 


ANGUILLA LATIROSTRIs, Yarr. 
British Fishes, ii. 298. 


Jaws widely cleft but narrow, lower 
ANGUILLA MEDIOROsTRIS, Yar. eee opp) Eeclorals 
td Fishes. i. 30). nearer to the head than in either 
yO 3 of the other species. 
Has.—Europe. 


ANGUILLA LONGICOLLA, Cuv. 


Lacep. ii, 3. f. 3. Dorsal and anal fins narrow. 


{ ie jaw longer than the lower. 
-Has.—Europe. 


Qs 


208 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


(Lower jaw narrower and consider- 
ably longer than the upper. Head 
narrow. ‘Two uniform rows of ob- 
tuse conical teeth on each side of 
both jaws, as well as on the vomer. 

ates Kester ane The interval from the branchial 
Gelasig Ge dis 2 apertures to the anus, is equal to 
ae i , co \ half the distance from the anus to 
: eee the end of the caudal, and to the 
whole distance from the extremity 
of the muzzle to the commencement 
of the dorsal ; 11 long slender carti- 
laginous branchial rays. 
Has.—Chusan and Ningpoo in China. 


( Three rows of obtuse short conical 
: teeth on each side of the upper 
| jaw, the middle row forming a cul- 
ANGUILLA stnENSIS, Nob. d minating ridge. <A broad band of 
Calcutia Journ. Nat. Hist. — | similar teeth on the vomer and on 
t. xxv. fi 2. | both sides of the lower jaw. 10 

+ very slender branchial rays. 

l Has.—Chusan and Ningpoo, China. 


Head flat, lower jaw longer than the 
ANGUILLA ELPHINSTONEI, Sykes. upper, colour dark green, blotched 
Proc. Zool. Soc. 27th Nov. 1838. with black. 

Hazs.— Western India. 


(Body clouded with dark irregular 
1 streaks. Dorsal commences before 
| the anterior-third of the body; the 
anal commences before the middle. 
ANGUILLA NEBULOSA, Nob. 4 The fin rays are, P.20: D. 306: A. 
i i Nee 248. Branchial rays long and slen- 
| der, 9 on eachside. Scales naked, and 
small, disposed in a tessellated form 

| not imbricated. Head narrow. 

| Has.—Bengal and Arracan. 


Anguilla Bengalensis, Gray Hard. gated, scales naked and tessellated. 
Itlust. Ind. Zool. t. xi. f. 7. Has.—Ganges at Behar. 


Dorsalcommences before the anterior 
third of the back, and the anal fin be- 
fore the middle ; colour above olive 
green, below yellowish white ; the 

fin rays are P. 18: D. 290: A. 240. 

Has.—Bengal and Arracan. 


ANGUILLA BREVIROSTRIS, Nob, 


ANGUILLA VARIEGATA, Nob. {ae flat and triangular, body vari- 
( 
| 

bs Vaufenls 4 


SS 


2 ee ee ee 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal, 209 


Dorsal begins near the middle of the 
back and occupies little more than 

| Pp 
| half the length. Head of about 


AncuiILLa BicoLtor, Nob. : equal breadth with the body. Teeth 
Chowloo Pamoo, Russell Ind. < like the pile of velvet. The fin 
Fishes? t. vi. f. 1. | rays are P. 18: D. 245: A. 221. 
Colour dark green above, below 

| white. 


| Has.—Arracan. 


Body clouded. Dorsal begins about 
two diameters of the body in front 
| of the anal. Head depressed, but 


Ancuiita annacana, Nob. = 4 jittle wider than the body. The fin 
Vi. f. 2. | rays are P. 20: D. 275: A. 141. 
| Has.—Sandoway on the Arracan 
Coast. 


II. Gen.—Concer, Cuv. 


Head conical, slightly depressed, muzzle round, with the 
upper jaw a little longer than the lower. Dorsal commenc- 
ing behind the pectoral fins ; anterior nostrils tubular. 


Head conical and depressed ; jaws 
furnished with strong teeth, form- 
ing a broad band on each side, 
hips fleshy; colour pale brown 
above, and white below the lateral 
line. Dorsal and anal edged with 
black. 

Has.—Coasts of Europe. 


-CoNGER VULGARIS, Cuv. 
Yarr. Brit, Fishes—11 p. 304. 


band across the occiput, and two 
rows of dots on the nape. Colour 
all whitish. 

Has.— Mediterranean. 


Concer myrus, Linn. 


The upper jaw depressed, the lower 
margin of the head straight ; co- 
lour greenish yellow. Dorsal com- 
mencing over the branchial aper- 


( 
| 
| 
4 
| 
| 
L 
Is smaller than the above, with a broad 
r 
CONGER BALEARIS, Cuv. | 
Laroach An. du Mus. xiii. t. 20. 3. 


tures. 
| Has.—Ivica 


( The upper jaw longer than the low- 

. er; upper lip broad and flabby. 

eben yaar yar t, 25.4 Pectorals situated high on the 

f. 10 R : hehe shoulder, the dorsal commencing 

i «cil a little behind them; colour grey. 
Has.—Ivica, 


210 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


( Jaws of nearly equal length, provid- 
ed with a row of thickly set fine 
hooked teeth. Dorsal commences 


Riippell’s Fishes of the Red Sae, 
and Northern Africa, t. 29, 1. 


greenish grey above, white below, 
both colours forming incomplete 
bars on the sides. 

| Has.—Red Sea. 


Upper jaw longer than the lower. 

N. B.—No detailed description has 
been given of it, but according to 
Cuvier, it has been figured in La- 
cepe for the Myre. 


Concer Americana, Forks. 3 behind the pectorals. Colour dark © 
| 


CONGER LONGICOLLIS, Cuv. 
Lacep. 11. t. 3. f. 52. 


IiI. Gen.—Mureanesox, Nob. 


Jaws elongated and narrow, without tubular nostrils ; 

a row of prominent distant sharp teeth along the centre of 

the vomer, with a row of short conical teeth on etther side 

of the same. Several large scattered teeth at the apex of 
the jaws. 

Vomerial teeth compressed and tri- 
cuspid, presenting sharp cutting ed- 
ges before and behind. Two rows 
of teeth on each side of the lower 


jaw. 
| Has.—Bengal and China. 


Mura@nesox tricuspipata, Nob. | 
Cal. Jour. Nat. Hist. vol. iv. d 
i. axiv. fi 1. 


c Yomerial teeth long, with a single 
lanceolate point, with cutting ed- 
Mur@€NESox LANCEOLATA, Nob, | ges before and behind. Two rows 
te VAs feos of teeth on each side of the lower 
jaw. 
| Has.—Bengal. 


r Vomerial teeth long and conical. 
| Two rows of teeth on each side 
Mura@nesox exopentata, Nob. of the lower jaw, and a third outer 
t. vi. fi 3, 4 row of lateral teeth presenting their 
[ points horizontally outwards. 


Has.—Bay of Bengal. 


Mur2#€NESOX SERRADENTATA, Nob. 


b : 
: : Vomerial teeth serrated. 
hn Sg tet Russ. Ind. Pate} ih eaChromander Conte 


Jaws seem shorter than those of the 
others. 
Has.— Bengal. 


Mura@nesox waAmMittonit, Nob. 
t. viii. f. 3. 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 211 
I]. Fam.—OPHISURIDE. Nob. 


Have pectoral fins, but no caudal. Dorsal and analt er- 
minating before they reach the end of the tail. 


IV. Gen.—LeEproGNaTHus, Swains. 


Pectoral fins conspicuous ; jaws prolonged, narrow, and 
pointed, armed with sharp scattered teeth. 


Dorsal and anal expand towards the 
LePTOGNATHUS OXYRHYNCHUN, end of the tail, where they termi- 
Swatns. Fishes and Amph, 1-221. nate. 

Hazs.—Coast of Sicily. 


V. Gen.—Opuisurus, Lacep. 


Head conical, upper jaw longer than the lower, teeth coni- 
cal, in broad bands ; branchial rays numerous and decussate 
with those of the opposite side. 


Oputsurus Fasciatus, Lacep. 


Ed. 1831—iii. p. 68 row intervals. 


25 transvese bands separated by nar- 
Has.— Unknown. 


OpuHIsuRUS SERPENS, Lacep. 


No spots, or very small ones. 
ii. p. 198. Has.—Italy and adjoining parts of 


Europe. 
( Dark green above, white below; a 
| row of pale spots on the lateral 
line. The head is wider than the 
eres sata, ‘Buch. < _ body, the eyes are placed high on 


Gang. Fishes, t. 5 f. 5. | the sides of the head. P. 8: D. 


{ 230to 240: A. 170. 
| Has.—Bengal. 


c Head wider than the body, eyes half 
way up on the sides of the head ; 
Opuisurvus Boro. Buch. colour above black, beneath yellow, 
Gang. Fishes, p. 20. 4 pectoral fins minute and round. P. 
11: D.3380: A. 270. 
| Has.—Bengal. 


Opuisurus HARANCHA, Buch. Pectoral fins terminating in a narrow 
Gang. Fishes, p. 20, Calcutia Jour. point, P. 12; D.345: A. 240. 
Nat. Hist. v. t. xii. f. 4. Haxs.—Bengal. 


Small conical head, eyes, high, pecto- 

rals long containing 11 rays each, 

Oruisurus ROstTRATUS, Buch. tail conical and terminating in a 
round point. 
Has.—Bengal. 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


Muzzle short and narrow, eyes placed 


Oprnisurus MinimMus. Nob. 
t xef- 3. 


near each other toward the crown; 
branchial membrane contains 24 
rays. ‘Tail sharp and tapering. 


Has.—Bengal. 


Long narrow slender body, termina- 


Opuisurus VERMIFORMIS, Nob. _ ! 
eStart 


ting behind in a long conical round 
pointed-tail. Rostrum long and 
pointed, under jaw terminating ina 
narrow point. Pectorals long and 
contain 11 rays. 


| Has.—Bengal. 


VI. 


Gen.—OpnitHorax, Nob. 


Pectoral fins very small, so as to be scarcely perceptible. 


D 
OruITHORAX OPHIS. 
Ophisurus ophis, Lacep. 


orsal fin broad, anal narrow, body 
and dorsal covered with large round 
spots. Pectoral fins very minute. 


Has.—Seas of Europe. 
OpuHITHORAX COLUBRINA. Fifteen transverse bands. Pectoral 
Murenophis Colubrina, Lacep. fins almost imperceptibly small. 
EVP. O42; Kix, f, Us Has.—New England. 


B 
f 


OpnuiTHORAX IMBERBIS. 
Sphagebranchus imberbis Loaoach 


| 

oe. 4 

An. du. mus. xiii. 25. f. 18. | 
i 

| 

l 


H 


ody elongated and nearly cylin- 
dric, tail compressed. Dorsal fin 
more elevated in front than to- 
wards the end of the tail, and is 
contained in a fissure in the back : 
the anal fin is parallel throughout, 
and is contained in a fissure in the 
tail. The tail is equal to half the 
length of the body. The eyes are 
very small and situated near the 
extremity of a narrow muzzle. 
AB.— Mediterranean. 


I. Fam.—MURAENIDZE. Nob. 


No trace of pectoral fins. 


The branchial rays long and 


filiform, anterior apertures of the nostrils tubular. 


VII. Gen.—Datopruts, Rafinesq. 


Branchial apertures placed under the throat. 


Dorsal and 


anal terminating before they reach the end of the tail which 
is naked. Dorsal begins near the branchial apertures. 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 213 


Dorsal and anal increase in breadth 
sue SCARF A, ae d before they reach the end of the 
Swains. Nat. Hist. dmph. an tail where they terminate abruptly. 

Hep 3h, ps 221. Has.—Coasts of Sicily. 


Dorsal and anal of uniform breadth 


Da oruis ortentaLis, Nob. with a cluster of large mucus pores 
Mauntibukram paun. Russell Ind. on the top of the head. 
Fishes No. 37. Has.—Coromandel Coast. 


(Colour flesh red with eighteen trans- 
verse bands, between the two first 
| of which upon the head there is a 
bright yellow appearance. Teeth 
strong and hooked : the dorsal com- 
mences before the branchial aper- 


Datoruts RUPELLI2Z, Nob. tures. 
Murena Reticulata, Fauna North.< N.B.—This cannot, as Dr. Riippell 


Africa, p. 117. supposed, be MM. Reticulata, Bl. or 

| Murenophis colubrina, Lacep. which 

has small pectoral fins, and was 

placed on that account by Baron 

Cuvier in the genus Ophisurus, and 

is besides a native of New England. 
| Has.—Red Sea. 


C Dorsal and anal of uniformly narrow 
: and continued to the end of the 
tail: a lateral row of mucus pores 
on either side of the crown joined 
to a cross row behind; colour light 
brown, mottled with dark brown 
spots. Several rows of teeth in 
1 the centre of the mouth. 

| Has.—Red Sea. 


DaLorHis GEOMETRICA. 

Mur ena Geometrica, Rupp. Fishes d 
of the Red Sea. In Faun. North 
Africa, t. 30 f. 1. | 


( Dorsal commences over the branchial 
apertures and form a narrow con- 
| tinuation round the end of the tail, 
Wri # : j the anus is placed at the anterior 
M of the . ore noe Tn ie ie third of the body which is marked 
Rh Africa, t 96 f2 { with brown spots, several rows of 
rita at hooked teeth on the jaws and pal- 
late, 
| Has.—Red Sea. 


DALOPHIS TIGRINA. 


VIII. Gen.—Mourana. Nob. 


Dorsal commences behind the branchial apertures: palatine 
bones compressed so as to form a narrow ridge along the 
roof of the mouth, where there is a single irregular row of 
teeth in addition to a single row on the mawillaries. 


214 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


( Dorsal commences as far behind the 
branchial apertures as these are 

| from the muzzle. Maxillary teeth 
sharp and widely set. There area 

few irregular large spots on the 

body and tail intermixed with small 

spots. 

| Has.—Seas of Europe. 


( Head and mouth small, furnished with 
' a single row of small, pointed, and 
| very close set teeth, and (two rows 
on the palate, Bl.) palate smooth. 
Muranophis Catenula, Lacep. v.2 The dorsal commences further be- 
628 P : Lb | hind the branchial apertures than 
; these are from the vent, and the 
| spots on the body are of the form 

| of links of a chain. 

| Has.—Unknown. 


( Branchial apertures at a distance 

{ from the head, equal to the length 

Mur2NA PANTHERINA. | of this last part. The dorsal com- 
Murenophis Pantherina, Lacep.v.< _ mences as far behind the branchial 
628. { apertures as these are from the 

| head. Colour likethat of a Panther 

| Has.—Unknown (Dutch collection.) 


Mureana uepana, Linn. 
Murenophis Helana, Lacep. v.< 
627. | 


MuR4&NA CATENULA. i 


IX. Gen.—Stropurpon. Nob. 


III.— Dorsal commencing at the nape, two rows of teeth in 
the maxillaries, with a few scattered conical moveable pro- 
minent teeth at the apex of the jaws, a single irregular row 
on the palate. 


Colour yellowish brown, with nume- 


MUuRZENA FLAVIMARGINATA, Riipp. rous dark brown spots. Dorsal and 
Fishes of the Red Sea. In Fauna anal edged with yellow. Jaw of 
Northern Africa, t. 30. f. 3. nearly equal length. 


Hazs.—Red Sea. 


Muzzle round, upper jaw thicker and 
| longer than the lower: anus situated 


4, STROBHIDON GRISEA. before the middle, general colour 
Murenophis Grisea, Lacep. . brown and white disposed in small 
streaks. 


Hazs.—New Britain. 


Mouth and teeth large, those in front 
5. STROPHIDON AFRICANA. of the jaws larger than the others. 
Murenophis Africana, Lacep. Body and tail marbled, anus situat- 
ed at the middle. 
Has.—The Coast of Guinea. 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 215 


¢ Head small, depressed, nape very 
high, mouth widely cleft, with 
many bristling sharp teeth; co- 
lour, variations of black and brown 
in distinct zones 
Haz.—New Britain and Amboyna. 


STROPHIDON ECHIDNA, | 
Murenophis Echidna, Lacep. 


STROPHIDON UNICOLOR. 
Mur enophie 
Annal du Mus. xili. xxv. 


one in the lower jaw. Body cylin- 
dric, anus situated at the middle; 
nape high. 


< 
| 
ig 
Two rows of teeth in the upper, and 
Unicolor bes) 


Has.—Ivica. 


fe 


STROPHIDON LITERATA, Nob. 
Vil. 2. 


Ce Se 


outh widely cleft, jaws of equal 
length, 3 long retractile conical 
teeth in a row near the apex of the 
upper jaw in front of the central 
palatine row, and two interrupted 
rows on each side, the inner row 
composed of prominent distant 
teeth; colour dark green above, with 
short white interrupted streaks: 
334 rays concealed in the dorsal, 
and 182 in the anal fin. 


la AB.— bengal. 


(Liver brown colour. 


STROPHIDON HEPATICA. 


Murena Hepatica Rupp. Faun.g N 


North Africa, p. 120. 


The anal fin 
commences at the middle of the 
body : fin very broad and elevated. 
B.—The peculiarities of dentition 
are not stated. 


| Han.—Red Sea. 


{ Head raised abruptly over eyes, body 


Srropuipon puncrata, Nob. 
vii. 3. 


STROPHIDON MACULATA. 
Murenophis tile baim Buch. M.S. 
Drawings viii. 1. 


t 
| 
1 
| 
lL 
ty 


H 


marked with round spots particu- 
larly in the young. The outer 
row of small teeth on the upper 
jaw is continuous round the apex 
alternately with the large teeth of 
the inner row. There are 392 
rays concealed in the dorsal, and 
190 in the anal fin. 


aB.— Bengal. 


robably the young of the above. 


Head conical, jaws of equal length, 


Murenophis Sathete, Buch. 


> 


| 
STROPHIDON LONGICANDATA, Nob. J 

I 

| 

L 


dorsal commencing half way be- 
tween the branchial aperture and 
head, contains 484, and the anal 384 
concealed rays ; colour olive green, 
without spots. 


Haz.—Bengal. 


QF 


216 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


X. Gen.—Tuaropontis, Nob. 


IV. Dorsal commencing at the nape, a double row of teeth 
along the centre of the palate, and a single row on the maxil- 
laries, toyether with several long moveable hooked conical teeth 
near the apex of the jaws. 


¢ The anus nearer to the tail than it is to 

THARODONTIS NIGRICANS. | the head which is flat; jaws long, 

Murenophis Nigricans, Lacep. muzzle round, teeth of the upper 
Encyc. Method. Gronov. Zooph. 1 jaw and those at apex of the lower, 
163. | larger than the others. 

| Has.—South America. 


ik Head and mouth small, each jaw fur- 
nished with a row of pointed irre- 
gular long teeth, anus rather beyond 
THERODONTIS RETICULARIS. | the middle, reticulated brown spots 
Gymnothorax Reticulatus, Bl. 416.9 and bands on the back, diminishing 
| on the sides, obscure brown spots 
on the dorsal. 
| Has.—Tranquebar. 


Dorsal narrow, two _ longitudinal 
1 Ree RP ee Na rows of spots on each side. The 
ul Ca wEcIA Fae et 4 upper Jaw is more advanced than 

piling ae ? ye the lower, the anus situated about 


Commers. the middle. 
Has.—New Britain. 


( Crown high and rounded, every part 
of the body is marked with black 
pentangular spots, separated by 
narrow white lines of the same 
form. The teeth are sharp and 
hooked, consisting of a single row 
on the edges of both jaws, and 
a double row on the centre of the 
back part of the palate, and 3 
moveable fangs in a central row 
near the apex of the upper jaw. 
Has.—Arracan. 


TH#RODONTIS RETICULATA, Nob. 
vu.1. 


ooo ee 


( The anus is situated a little in front 
| of the middle; fins grey, colour ash 
; grey with a blackish edging to the 
Murena Cineraceus, Rupp. Fauna Z fins, eight or ten dark lines over 
North Africa, p. 120. Museum the opercula. 
of Frankfort. N.B.—The peculiarities of its denti- 
tion requires to be pointed out. 
| Has.—Mohila on the Red Sea. 


THERODONTIS CINERACEUS. 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 217 


Yellowish colour, marbled with many 

: fine citron yellow and dark brown 

| spots. The anal fin commences ra- 
ther behind the middle. _ 

N.B.—Iit is merely said of the denti- 

tion that the mouth is provided with 

| a row of remarkable strong conical 


TH#ZRODONTIS OPHIS. 
Murena Ophis. eee Faun. North 
Africa, t. 29. f. 2 


hooked teeth, so as to render the 
i bite dangerous. 
| Has.—Red Sea. 


ooene yellowish brown, with ches- 

_ nut brown spots, with a yellow ed- 
ging to the fins; jaws and palate 
furnished with a single row of 
strong teeth. 

N.B.—Dr. Ruppell supposes this spe- 
cies to be Murenophis gris, Lacep. 
in which however there are two 
rows of teeth on the edge of the 
jaws, while in this there seems to 
be but one row. 

LHas.—Red Sea. 


THRODONTIS FLAVIMARGINATA. 
Murena flavimarginata, Rupp. 
Faun. North Africa, t. xix. f. 2 


oe 


XI. Gen.—Gymnomurana, Lacep. 


The body and tail almost cylindrical, neither dorsal nor anal 
Jins, and the caudal is sometimes wanting. 


Without caudal or other fins. Body 

marked by alternate transverse 

GyMNOMURZENA DOLIATA. bars of brown and white. Upper 

Lacep. v. t. 19, f. 4. jaw a little longer than the lower. 
. Has.—New England. 


The lower jaw a little longer than the 
upper; aslight rudimental caudal, 


GyYMNOMURENA MARMORATA 
2 anus nearer to the head than the 


Lacep. v. p. 648. 


tail. 
Has.—Europe. 
GYMNOMURENA CONCOLOR,* Two rows of sharp teeth on each jaw, 
Uropterygius Concolor, Ltuppell. with one on the palate, colour uni- 
Fishes of the Red Sea in Faun. formly liver brown, caudal distinct. 
North Africa. Hazs.—Red Sea. 


* The bite of this species is said by Lacepede to be poisonous. 


218 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


( Body long, and tapering from the 
GYMNOMURENA C&ECUS. i 


intestinal aperture to the point of 


MUREZNa cz&cus, Linn.. the tail. Head conical, terminating 
Apterichthus Cecus Loroach. Ann.{ in a narrow pointed muzzle—no 
du Mus. 13, t. 21, f. 6. | fins. Teeth small at the base, and 


| large and distinct from each other 
{_ at the apex of the jaws. 


Tribe.—_OPHICARDIDES. Nob. 


The heart situated far behind the gills, and the anus be- 
hind the middle of the body. 


L. Fam._SYNBRANCHIDA:, Nob. 


A single external opening leading to the gills which are 
supported by bony arches, no fins beyond a slight duplica- 
ture of the skin, forming an adipose dorsal and anal united at 
the end of the tail. Anterior nostrils tubular. 


I. Gen.—OprvnicarpiA, Nob. 


Jaws depressed, gills small, consisting of 3 slightly pecti- 
nated combs, to which there is a single transverse external 
opening, diverging to a small internal opening on either side. 
Teeth disposed in broad bands on either side as well as on the 
maxillaries. 


( Having five strong bony branchial 
| rays on either side, the first isolated 
in front of the others and much 

| larger. The body is cylindric, with- 
out scales, andverylong. ‘The tail 
very short and compressed, the 

| anus situated at the posterior fifth 
| of the entire length. Head short 
lL 


OprnicarpiaA PHAyRIANA, Nob. 
2 ena | 


— 


and convex at the crown. 
Has.—Sandoway. 


II. Gen.—Pneumasrancuus, Nob. 
Head depressed, 3 branchial arches, the intervals between 
them almost obliterated by: means of a vascular membrane 
which lines a blind sack- opening on either side over the first 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 219 


arch, performing the functions at once of lungs and gills. The 
body is covered with small imbricated scales. The branchial 


apertures and fins as in Ophicardia, but the ventral aperture 
is not quite so far back. 


round black spots; two or three 
white streaks extending a short 
way along the sides from the back 
of the head. Below yellowish- 
white. The anus is at a distance 
4 of 3-4th of the entire length from 
| the muzzle. The tail is compressed 
| and narrow. The reflection of 
| 

lL 


pColons above olive green, with small 
| 
| 


PNEUMABRANCHUs stRIATUS, Nob. 
Unibranchapertura Cuchia, Buch. 
Xiil. 


skin representing the dorsal fin, 
occupies the latter two-thirds of 
the tail. 

H as.—Bengal. 


( Body yellowish white, with a few irre- 
gular dark spots of various size scat- 
| tered over thebody. And the mem- 
PNEUMABRANCHUS LEPROSUS, *  branous expansion representing an 
Nob. { adipose dorsal commences almost 

| as far forward as the vent. 
LHas.—Bengal. 


Colour uniformly bright yellow, 
7 pupils black, irides narrow, and 
PNEUMABRANCHUS ALBINUS, Nob. bright golden yellow, surrounded 
by a livid zone. 
Has.—Bengal. 


{ Colour dark dusky grey above, blue- 
ish grey below. The anus situa- - 
ted a little before the posterior 
fourth part of the entire length. 
The membranous expansion repre- 
| senting the dorsal, begins to appear 
before the middle of the tail. 

| Has.—Chusan and Ningpoo in China. 


PNEUMABRANCHUS CINEREUS, Nob. 
Cale. Journ. Nat. Hist. 1. t. f. 2 


III. Gen.—Synsrancuus, Bloch. 


A single branchial aperture forming a longitudinal fissure 
under the throat, a thick head and blunt narrow muzzle. 


220 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


SYNBRANCHUS MARMORATA, Bl. 


Shaw Zool. vol. iv. t. 4 many ranges of small teeth. 


Muzzle round, jaws furnished with 
Has.—Surinam. 


Muzzle narrow and pointed, without 
spots on the body ; itis smaller than 
the last and ofa dusky brown colour. 

Has.—Surinam. 


SYNBRANCHUS IMMACUALTA, Bl. 


The dorsal commences about the 
middle of the body, the head small, 
muzzle pointed, upper jaw longer 
than the lower, colour grey. 

Has.—Coast of Guinea. 


SYNBRANCHUS CENDRE, Bon. 


Muzzle pointed, many rows of hook- 


SYNBRANCHUS LINEATA. 
Unibranchapertura Lineata, 
Lacep. 


ed teeth in both jaws; a dark line 
extended from the head along the 
whole length of the back. 


Has.—Cayenne. 


( Eyes small and situated near the end 
of the muzzle; the dorsal commen- 
ces about the latter fourth of the 
entire length, the dorsal, anal 
and caudal adipose, and very diffi- 

L cult to distinguish. 

Hazs.—Cayenne. 


SYNBRANCHUS LAVIS. 2 
Unibranchapertura Levis, Lacep. } 


IV. Gen.—OPuisTERNON, Nob. 


A single transverse. opening under the throat, common 
to both branchie. These consist of four pectinated combs 
on each side. Two bands of teeth on the edges of the upper 
jaw, 5 short cartilaginous branchial rays. Eyes small and 
placed on the muzzle, teeth disposed in bands on the sides 
of the jaws. 


( The head is long, depressed and nar- 
row, the eyes small and placed 
near the extremity of the muzzle 
which is slightly recurved ; 2 broad 
bands of teeth on either side of 
the upper jaw, the outer band 
placed on the maxillaries, forms 
a crescent in front. 
| Has.—Bengal. 


OPHISTERNON BENGALENSIS, MDD 
=i; 1. : 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 221 


c Head short and thick, rounded at 
the crown; the outer band of 
mse. laterally in asingle row, and forms 
an inverted crescent at the apex. 
Has.—Arracan. 


_ OpnistERNON HEPaTicus, Nob. teeth on the upper jaw terminates 
L 


V. Gen.—ALaABEs, Cuv. 


A single branchial aperture under the throat ; pectoral fins 
well marked, 3 branchial rays, the intestines as in Synbranchus. 


A single small species only is known, and this inhabits the 
Indian Ocean. 


ALABES cuvERIZ. Nob. pectoral fins, teeth pointed. 


A small concave disk between the 
Has.—Indian Ocean. 


if. Fam.—PTYOBRANCHID/, Nob. 
Two distinct branchial apertures situated in front of small 
pectorals, leading to gills consisting of 4 pectinated combs 
supported by bony arches. Fins supported by rays. 


VI. Gen.—Pryosrancuus, Nob. 

Head small, with a narrow conical round muzzle, and a long 
perfectly cylindrical body like a reed, terminating abruptly in a 
thick tail. Dorsal and anal narrow, rounded, and connected 
with the caudal by means of a narrow raphe. 


{ Distance from the muzzle to the pec- 
torals equel to 1-12th of the entire 
| length, diameter of the body equal 
to about 1-50th of thelength. The 
| anus is situated at the latter 3d of 
the length, the tail is of equal depth 
| with the body to the very end, with- 
in two or three diameters of which 
PTYOPRANCHUS ARUNDINACEUS, ~ it becomes compressed, and termi- 
Nob. nates in a thick wedge. The anal 
fin commences at a distance behind 
the anus equal to its own length, 
| the dorsal commences at the middle 
| of thetail. The jaws are of equal 
size. Colour dark olive-green 
| above, greenish-white below. The 

fin rays are P. 10: D, 10: A. 40. 

| Has,—Bengal. 


> ee 


222 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


PryOBRANCHUS GUTHRIANUS, 
Nob. 
Kae. 


PryOBRACHUS LINEARIS, 
Moringua linearis, Gray. Hard. 
Illust. Ind. Zool. i. 8. 


PryoBRANCHUS HARDWICKII, 
Rataboura Hardwichit Gray.* 


Pryosruncuus raitBorvaA, Nob. 

Murena raitaborua Buch Gang. 
Fishes, p. 25. Hard. Illust. Ind. 
Zool. 11. f. 4. 


( The diameter equal to about 1-47th of 


| 
| 
| 


entire length, body perfectly cylin- 
dric, but the tail is a little com- 
pressed, and terminates in an oval 
point; the anal fin commences at 
a distance behind the vent. The 
raphes connecting the caudal with 
the dorsal and anal fins area little 
more developed than in the last, the 
fin rays are P.11: D. 36: A. 44: C. 
64. Colour dark green above, of a 
lighter shade below. 


{ Has.—Bengal. 


Cas a Coe 


r 


The caudal, anal, and dorsal fins 


united and straight. 


N.B.—I suspect this species is fabri- 


cated from a drawing in the Buc- 
hanan collection Bot. Garden, Cal- 
cutta, in which the dorsal and anal 
are both represented by mistake 
winding in a spiral form round the 
end of the tail, which had been ac- 
cidentally twisted. 


Dorsal fin contains 26 rays, the anal 


32, and the caudal 36. 


N.B.—This supposed species was 


made by Mr. Gray to form a dis- 
tinct genus from the last under an 
idea that the caudal is in the one 
distinct, and in the other united with 
the dorsal and anal. It is needless 
to remark that such distinctions 
could only have originated from 
bad drawings. 


The diameter of the body equal to 


about 1-31st of the entire length. 
The distance from the muzzle to the 
pectorals equal to 1-9th of the en- 
tire length, and to 1-38rd of the 
length ofthe tail. The anal fin com- 
mences about one diameter of the 
body behind the vent. Teeth short, 
strong and hooked, 10 forming a 
line on the vomer, and 15 an inter- 
rupted line on either side of the 
upper jaw, pectorals round, P. 9: 
D. 39: A. 44: C. 60, or there abouts. 
Colour, purple above, below red- 
dish white; tail dark. 


{ Hazs.—Bengal. 


* This is founded on a figure taken from Buchanan’s MSS. Bot. Garden, Calcutta, 
marked in the Author’s hand writing Murena raitaborua. See As. Res. Beng. 


vol, p. xix. 221. 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 223 


The anal fin commences near the anus, 
and contains 50 or more distinct 
rays, when it slopes off into a nar- 
row raphe connecting it with the 
anal, which contains seventy or 
more distinct rays. Tail compress- 
ed and lanceolate. The fin rays 
are D. 40: A. 56: C. 70. Co- 
lour above red, minutely speckled 
with black dots, below reddish 
white. Length about 10 inches, 
diameter about } inch. 

Has.— Bengal. 


PryosrRANcHus ERYTHREUS, Nob. | 
1X.—o. | 


Nob. are D. 42: A. 36: C. 64. 


Pryoprancnus muLtipentatus, { Tail thick and clumsy. The fin rays 
ix.—4. Has.—Bengal. 


Head small, tail slightly tapering and 
compressed, with the anal com- 
mencing near the anus; about 30 
small hooked teeth forming a row 
on either side of the jaws, with 
only about 4 teeth, forming a row 

~ on the vomer near the apex of the 

vicggaw. 2 Pdt : Desi: A. S820C. 60, 

| or thereabouts. Colour purple, 

lL 


ere cee, 


PNEUMABRANCHUS PARVIDENTA- 
tus, Nob. 
1x.—5. 


and minutely dotted above the la- 
teral line; white below. Length 
about 10 inches, diameter of the 
body #4 inch. 


(The head is very small, muzzle acute 
| and sharp, eyes close together, 


about 22 sharp hooked teeth on 
Pryoprancuus cracitis, Nob. either side of the jaws and ten 


ix.— 6. < forming arow on the vomer. Length 
about 9 inches, diameter 1-5th inch. 
Colour purple above the lateral 

| line, and white below. 


About four inches in length. P. 11: D. 
Pryosrancuus Brevis, Nob. 40 :C. 54, probably the young of P. 
medius. 


The following are the only species here omitted, the 
necessary works in which their descriptions appear, not 
being procurable in Calcutta. The first three are referred 

26 


224 Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


to by Cuvier as Congers ; namely, Murena strongylodon, Schn. 
Mur. nigra, Risso, Anguilla Marbree, Quoy and Gaym, Voy. 
de Frecin. t. 51, f. 2, and M. Savanna, Cuv. from Martinique. 
Ophisurus longmusean, Cuv. Quoy and Gaym. I. c.; Oph. 
guitatus, Cuv. a new species from Surinam. M. Saga, 
Risso, remarkable for elongated jaws and the extension of 
the tail into a point; it evidently belongs to the genus Da- 
lophis, Raf. The other three are Murenide with a single 
row of sharp teeth on the edges of the jaws, viz. M. Moringa, 
Cuv. from the Antilles, Catesb. ii. xxi.; M. punctata BI. ; 
and M. meleagris, Sch. Lastly, two species referred by Cuvier 
to the genus Sphagebranchus, Bl., viz. Leptocephalus spal- 
lanzani, Risso, Cecula pterygea, Vahl. Mem. d’Hist. Nat. 
de Copenh. iii. x. 11. v. 13. 1. 2.° 

Lastly, twelve species of Apodal fishes, known only by 
their remains in the tertiary strata of Europe, are figured in 
the Litiolithologia Veronese, and two in M. Agassiz’s work 
on Fossil Fishes. Being extinct, these species cannot be 
said, strictly speaking, to come within our present object, 
which is limited chiefly to the species of Bengal, and the 
position which they hold in the general distribution of the 
order. This I have endeavoured to exhibit in the following 
table, already referred to, p. 206. 

It may be remarked however with regard to the solid 
parts of animals dispersed throughout the strata of the 
earth, that they prove a gradual cooling to have taken place 
in the temperature of the globe, by which alone we are 
enabled to account for the remains of tropical animals found 


in high northern latitudes. The history of Apodal fishes 


only tends to confirm the general fact of such a change. 
The accompanying table shows as already remarked, p. 206, 
that the number and variety of Apodal fishes increase as we 
approach the tropics. In Bengal the lowest latitude in 
which they have been examined, we have probably ten 
species of the genus Anguilla, which is more than double the 


ee ee Pe fe 


Apodail Fishes of Bengal. 225 


amount of species now existing throughout the whole of 
Europe. Yet in a single locality of that temperate conti- 
nent, nine fossil species of Anguilla have already been found. 
These are imbedded in the slaty rocks of Monte Bolca, 
together with a species of Ophisurus, a genus now nearly 
restricted to the tropics alone, and which is almost as little 
known in Europe in the present day, as the Crocodiles and 
Tapirs with whose bones its remains are mingled in Italy 
and France. 


NOTE. 


Should it be thought necessary to separate the Bengal species of the genus from 
Anguilla, Cuv. on account of their naked tessellated scales, I would propose the 
following name and characters for the new group. 

Sus-cenus.—Terpolepis.—Lower jaw broader, and longer than the upper. 
Dorsal and anal as in the genus Anguilla, body covered with minute naked oblong 
tessellated scales. Teeth conical, small, slightly hooked, and disposed in abroad band 
on either side of the jaws, as well as on the vomer. Anterior nostrils tubular. 


ERRATA. 


With respect to the genus Cossyphus, p. 403 vol. IV. J find that name has. 
been previously appropriated to another genus by M. Valenciennes, I there- 
fore propose Phagorus, the Greek name of an unknown kind of fish, to be substi- 
tuted for the genus in question, in place of the first mentioned name. 


Page 204, last line but one from bottom, for Pl. xii, read Pl. xiii. 


Apodal Fishes of Bengal. 


226 


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& 
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= ee "ANG ‘lajselelg °° 
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* uag ‘snjeydaso0jdary (4) 

as “ANY ‘snqouveussa}¢ 

as "ANO ‘snyoreumAy ,, 
ee ee ang ‘sndereg 

ee °° surry ‘snjouutAy 
“you, SxuAreydoooeg (2) 

ve *e-u ‘sngoueiqoéig -u 
ee ee "ang ‘soqeTy (3) ) 

ne °* *u ‘uoureystydg | 

** = -yaoTg ‘snyoueaqudg }-u 
**  *u ‘snyouviqeunoug 

ee ** 'u “etpreo1qdo 


‘daoey ‘euszeanmouudy 


oe °° 9 ‘sIjJUOporKy J, 

as ss *u ‘uoptydoijg ¢ °° 
vy as ‘u ‘euxzinyy | 

co se year ‘stqdoreq J 

as ee ‘u ‘xeloqy1qdg 

¢ *-daoery ‘sninstydg > °° 
ec "MS ‘snyyeusojdery 

oe me | epaeeee 

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‘see sang “erpmBuy § 


ACLICY 9) 


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| 


‘SALONWAYD (3) J 


‘W CIHONVUAOALG 


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‘WAIHONVYANAG 


‘u ‘HY CINAVyN 


‘u ‘Walunsindg 


| 
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‘u ‘WAITTINONY J 


*sorTTUIe 


"saysiy qopodp fo uowngrsip qoarydvasoay 


‘u ‘SUCITIINONY 


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‘u ‘SHCIGUVOAHLHO]T | 


| 
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‘wT ‘SHadO0dv 


ETS EERE Se SS RR FEES Ss EY GREE RE OE pn ee 
— 


“1IpPIC, 


227 


On Azolla and Salvinia. By W. Grirrita, Esq. F. L. 8. 
Memb. Imp. Acad. Natur. Curios., Royal Ratisb. Botan. 
Soc., Asst. Surgeon, Madras Establishment. 


Having lately had an opportunity, one of the many which 
the H. C. Botanic Gardens afford, of examining Azolla and 
Salvinia, I now ‘purpose giving my observations in detail. 
For I believe that there is no part of structural, and con- 
sequently systematic Botany, more enveloped in obscurity 
and mystification than these two genera, the examination 
of which appears to have been limited to their mature state. 

It is necessary in the first place to observe that in Azolla 
and Salvinia the so-called, or supposed male and female or- 
gans are up to a certain and comparatively late period of 
their development indistinguishable, a circumstance of pri- 
mary importance, of which I have been long aware.* 


The first stage of the two organs (ovula) observed in 
Azolla has presented them enclosed in an involucrum of a 
very cucullate form, the point turned inwards so as to touch 
the axis. They are sessile cellular bodies of a concave or 
cup-shaped form, the cup (the young ¢egument) being occu- 
pied by a protruding cellular body (the nucleus) ; one is rather 
more advanced than the other. (Pl. 15. f. 1.) 

The second stage presented them of a more oblong form, 
the protruding cellular body more surrounded by the cup, 
(Pl. 15. f. 2.3.) by which in the third it is completely enclosed. 
(Pl. 15. f. 4.) 


* The first opportunity I had of seeing Azolla was in 1837, during a journey 
across the Jheels of Eastern Bengal. I then became aware of the identity of the 
male and female organs up to so late a period as precluded their being intended 
to perform such opposite functions: of the other observations then made it is only 
necessary to notice the delineation of the granules within the organs in that stage 
when they often appear to form a column reaching from the foramen to the nucleus. 
The similarity of the two organs was mentioned to Mr. Solly, and by him brought to 
the notice of the Linnean Society. 


298 On Azolla and Salvinia. 


The fourth stage presented them as still more oblong, with 
a tendency to an urceolar form. The once protruding nuc- 
leus is now completely concealed, the cup having become ex- 
tended beyond its apex into a short mammilla having a narrow 
orifice (the foramen). Minute examination at this stage dis- 
closes a tendency, at least in appearance, in the aforesaid 
mammilla to be lobed, as though it had been produced, not 
by one, but by about four component parts. The same 
stage has generally presented moniliform filaments in apposi- 
tion with the apex of one or both organs. (Pl. 15. f.5.) These 
moniliform filaments are found within the involucrum from the 
earliest period examined, but were not observed to have any 
positive relations with the organs before this period. They 
now plainly pass into the organs, and have therein sooner 
or later appeared to be resolved into their component 
joints, which occupy the cavity existing between the once 
protruding body and the foramen. (Pl. 15. f. 7. 8. 10. 11.) 
And this is so constant, that even in cases where the 
moniliform filaments are not seen in application with the 
foramen, or passing through it, the space just particularised 
will be found filled with their component parts. (PU. 15./f. 
12. 13. 14. 15.) 

Up to this time both the organs have presented a cellular 
surface of the usual colour; each cell of the surface con- 
taining a nucleus, likewise of the ordinary herbaceous colour. 

The fifth stage presents the base of the nucleus surround- 
ed by small cellular protuberances. (Pl. 15. f. 12. 13. 14.) 
The moniliform filaments are the same. The cells of the 
surface of each organ are more developed, and have begun 
to assume a rosy tint. ‘The nuclei of these cells also are not 
only more distinctly defined, but are in most cases of a pink 
tint, in some deep pink. 

Throughout these stages small cellular protuberances have 
been developing from the axis outside the base of either or- 
gan. These at the stage under consideration are simple, 


On Azolla and Salvinia. 299 


jointed, more or less capitate filaments, the head represen- 
ting the protuberance as it existed originally. (Pd. 15. f. 10. 
12. 15. 16.) 

The sixth stage presents both organs of a decided pink 
tint, except the base or often the lower half, the cells of 
which do not contain a coloured fluid. The apex of both 
appears distinctly browned, and generally exhibits short 
moniliform filaments adhering to it. The space between 
the nucleus and the foramen, is occupied by the joints of the 
moniliform filaments. Thus far both organs present common 
appearances. 

But at this stage remarkable dissimilarities begin to be 
exhibited, and what is equally remarkable these affect either 
both organs indifferently, or one only of each pair, in which 
case alone there can be said to be any thing definite in 
the position of the two. In this case in one organ the 
developments take place within the nucleus, in the other 
in the small cellular protuberances round its base. The 
former becomes the male of Botanists, the latter the female; 
or the former becomes the ovate organ presenting the so-cal- 
led calyptra containing the large yellow sac, surmounted by 
the curious lobed body; the latter becomes the globular organ 
containing the numerous, smaller, pedicellate bodies. Of the 
first, the first change ascertained was the appearance of a 
grumous condensation in the original nucleus (Pi. 15. f. 12. 
15. 14.); of the latter, the development of grumous matter 
in each of the small protuberances round the base of the 
nucleus, which are developed in a centrifugal order. 

In the first which I now propose to follow, this condensa- 
tion, for so it apparently is, increases until a tolerably well 
defined opaque grumous disc is seen in the nucleus: this disc 
subsequently appears under a certain focus transparent in the 
centre, opaque round the edges (Pi. 15. f. 15. Pl. 16. f. 3.); 
an appearance due, I believe, to the development of a mem- 
branous sac inside. In the meantime, the pink colour of the 


230 On Azolla and Salvinia. 


cells of the surface of the organ has increased, so has the 
browning of the apex, which still often presents traces of ad- 
hering moniliform filaments. Both organs also exhibit distinct 
vessels prolonged from the vessels of the axis into their bases. 
(Pl. 15. f. 12. 13. 14.) 

The next stage presents nothing particular in the appear- 
ance of the organ, or the enclosed moniliform filaments. The 
nucleus however, presents about its centre, in lieu of the 
grumous disc transparent in the centre, a well defined small 
yellow sac, and between it and the apex of the nucleus, 
a grumous mass is seen presenting what appear to be several 
small points of condensation. (Pl. 16. f. 4. 5.) Somewhat later 
the organ having increased a little in size, the yellow sac is 
found to be as it were capped by the grumous mass, (Pl. 16. 
f. 6. 9.) which presents shortly after indications of division 
(lobes) on its surface. (Pl. 16. f. 7. 8.) 

The space between the apex of the nucleus and the now 
very brown apex of the organ, still presents the dislocated 
joints, which now form acolumn of communication between 
the foramen and the nucleus (Pl. 16.f. 6.) ; parts of the moni- 
liform filaments may often also be found adhering to the fora- 
men itself. 

The lobes mentioned as appearing in the capping grume 
continuing to be developed, encroach upwards on the nucleus 
(Pl. 16. f. 7.); and the yellow sac, which, as the lobes increase 
in consistency, appears more and more distinctly pendulous 
from their mass, becomes gradually covered with an incrus- 
tation. The joints of the moniliform bodies which previously 
could be easily squeezed out through the foramen disappear 
about this period. (Pl. 16. f. 7.) 

When fully developed the organ presents scarcely if any 
change of form: most of the cells of the surface are gorged 
with pink fluid ; the apex is distinctly brown. The cavity 
of the organ is occupied by a complex body, consisting of 
two dissimilar parts; the upper, which forms rather more 


On Azolla and Salvinia. 931 


than the half, consisting of nine lobes (Pl. 16. f. 15. 16.) 
(the three uppermost of which are the largest,) mutually 
united by a remarkable tissue, which on pulling them from 
their places separates with them in the form of fibrous 
radicellar prolongations (Pl. 16. f. 20.) This part (the 
upper loculus of Brown) is up to a certain period perfectly 
homogeneous, and even when the nine lobes are evidently 
cellular, the axis or common attaching portion is grumous - 
and homogeneous. It is by this tissue that the whole 
mass hangs from the apex of the capsule which separates 
with it in the shape of a conical calyptra, (Pl. 16. f. 13. 14.) 
presenting in the centre a brown mammilla (the original 
foramen.) The above mass is in apposition below with 
- the upper surface of the yellow sac; the part of this (i. e. 
the vertex) so in apposition not being covered by the 
incrustation (Pl. 16. f. 17. 18.) The yellow sac is filled 
with oleaginous particles; it presents on the centre of its 
upper face a trilinear mark (Pl. 16. f. 17. 18.); it is separ- 
able from the incrustation, which presents an areolate cel- 
lular-looking surface (Pl. 16. f. 13. 15. 16. etc.) ; its mem- 
brane is thick, of a waxy texture, and without markings or 
any other indications of composition. (Pl. 16. f. 22.) 


The changes in the other organ, appear only to affect the 
protuberances round the base of the nucleus, which body 
may be detected unchanged, as I have ascertained by 
measurements, in the mature organ. All the protuberances 
undergo the same changes, those next the base of the nucle- 
us, (or those first developed, or the *ppermost,) being the 
most precocious. .A nearly mature capsule will present a 
complete series of the developments. 

First they appear as small sessile protuberances with 
slight indications of cellularity and a central cavity (P/. 17. /f. 
5.) In the second stage one or two cells will be found 
to have been developed under the original protuberance, 

2H 


252 On Azolla and Salvinia. 


which is now therefore more or less pedicellate. The 
cellularity of the head or terminal part is more evident, it is 
evidently hollow, and the cavity contains grumous matter 
(Pl. 17. f. 6.7.) As it goes on enlarging the head assumes 
a spherical form, the pedicel becomes more developed, the 
grumous mass larger (Pl. 17. f. 8. 9. 10.) 

Then in the cells of the heads, which are the young 
secondary capsules, amylaceous granules (for they are 
violetted by indigo) appear. And at this period, if the 
grumous mass be closely examined, very minute cells will 
be seen in it, each cell containing 3 or 4 nuclei (Pl. 17. f. 11. 
12.) (or perhaps three or four cells each containing a nucleus) 
convex exteriorly, trifacial interiorly.* 

The enlargement continuing, the next stage presents the 
formerly grumous mass as cellular, the membrane of the 
cells (the parent cells) not well developed, with grume along 
their contiguous faces. (Pl. 17. f. 13.) In each of these 
cells are 3 or 4 yellow nuclei presenting more or less of 
their original connection, or quite distinct. Examined 
separately each of these presents a convex surface and 
a trifacial one, the last being the surface of their former — 
contiguity. The parent cells soon cease to be evident, 
and then the cavity of the s. capsule appears filled more 
or less with trifacial yellow cells (Pl. 17. fi 14.) 

At a later period each head (or s. capsule) presents the 
appearance of being subdivided into several cellular-looking 
compartments, each of which encloses several of the yellow 
sacs (Pl. 17. f. 15.) The yellow sacs, when separated, 
present no particular change, appearing generally quite 
empty (Pl. 17. f. 16.) | 

Still later each s. capsule presents generally three or some- 
times two subdivisions of increased size (Pl. 17. f. 17. 18.) 
And this is nearly the mature form, for the further changes 


* Trifacial if three are developed as is most usual, quadrifacial, if four. 


On Azolla and Salvinia. oa 


only regard the appearance of cellularity in the subdivi- 
sions, and the imbedding of the yellow sacs in the apparently 
cellular masses hence resulting. 

When quite formed each secondary capsule presents a 
long simple stalk, a spherical head, formed of one layer of 
sinuous cells, containing green granules adhering to the walls 
of each cell (P/. 17. f. 19.) Each contains two or three, some- 
times four, cellular bodies, convex on the outer surface or that 
next the wall of the cavity, irregular on the inner surface, 
or that of mutual apposition. This surface presents prolonga- 
tions having appearances of cellularity, but not of organic cel- 
lularity (Pl. 17. f. 20. 21.) The mass is solid and apparently 
cellular ; within it may be seen the once free trifacial yellow 
sacs. 

It will be hence seen that in Azolla the difformity of the 
mature organs is extreme, indeed but for the foramen, and 
the trilineal mark of the vertex of the yellow sac, the two 
could scarcely be considered as having anything in common. 


The young state of the organ of the Salvinia is too like 
that of Azolla to need any detailed remark. But the nucleus 
presents from an extremely early period a papillar appear- 
ance, the first developments of the future secondary capsules 
taking place at an exceedingly early period (Pi. 18. f. 1. 
2.3. 4, 5.) 

The first discrepancy remarked in the organs of this plant 
consists in the number of the papillze (future secondary cap- 
sules) developed. ‘This also occurs at a very early period, 
when the two subsequently difform organs are recognisable, 
the one by the smallness and great number of the papillz, the 
other by their larger size and smaller number. 

The second discrepancy arises from the greater develop- 
ment of a particular cell in the secondary capsules resulting 
from the development of the papillz. Otherwise, at least up 
to the period of the enclosure of the trifacial cells (or spores) 


234 On Azolla and Salvinia. 


of the smaller spherical secondary capsules, the developments 
are so much the same that they may be advantageously con- 
sidered together. 

In both, the first steps consist in the development of the cells 
of the superficies of the secondary capsules. (Pl. 18. f. 10. 
1]. 12. 13.) Shortly after, a cavity begins to appear in the se- 
condary capsule, and this cavity then becomes filled with the 
usual formative grumous matter (Pl. 18. f. 17. 18. 20.) It 
is in this grume that all the subsequent changes of impor- 
tance take place. 

The first of these exhibits a variable number of irregular 
granular nuclei (or coagula or condensations) in the grume, 
which same coagula soon exhibit, (except in cases of abortion) 
traces of being surrounded by a membrane (Pl. 18. f. 21. 
23. 24.) 

A little later each secondary capsule will be found to pre- 
sent a central mass of grume apparently connected with the | 
inner surface of the s. capsule by radiating grumous lines 
(Pl. 18. f. 22.) the interstices of which are very generally 
occupied at least partly by distinct cellular bodies with 
one surface trifacial. On slightly pressing the secondary 
capsules the grume escapes, and then presents, if attentively 
examined, a few nuclei or coagula as before said, and a con- 
siderable number of faintly defined cells, in most of which 
traces are to be seen of ternary or quaternary division, and 
as many nuclei; also a few small trifacial cells, as above- 
mentioned. 

The grumous mass of the secondary capsules resulting 
from the larger papille exhibits, however, in the centre 
a cell containing granules, completely surrounded by grume 
and apparently quite isolated (Pl. 19. f. 2.); with this ex- 
ception and the difference in size, its contents may, I think, 
be considered as identical with those of the others. But 
this includes the curious difference of trifacial cells being 
developed both in the centre and the circumference. 


On Azolla and Salvinia. 935 


Following the development of each from this period sepa- 
rately, it will be found that the grumous mass of the smaller 
secondary capsules gradually becomes smaller, while the 
number of the trifacial cells becomes visibly increased ; until 
the whole or greater part of each secondary capsule is filled 
with them and with grume (PI. 18. f. 27.); and latterly by 
trifacial cells alone. After this however, the cavity of these 
secondary capsules becomes again filled with grumous 
matter developed from the inner paries of each from 
several points, each including a variable number of the ad- 
jacent trifacial cells (P/. 20. f. 1.2.) These at length meet 
in the centre and form a solid mass, imbedded in which, 
without any appreciable order,* will be found all the. tri- 
facial cells of the capsule (Pl. 20. f. 11.) 

In the perfect state these s. capsules are exceedingly 
numerous, attached by capillary simple pedicels to branches 
of a central receptacle (Pl. 20. f. 6.) They are of a 
brownish colour, the cells composing them are in one layer 
and are separable from each other (Pl. 20. f. 9.) Each 
contains a sub-globular whitish opaque body, with an 
unequal surface presenting prominent and depressed 
parts (Pl. 20. f. 10.) It can scarcely be considered as or- 
ganically cellular, although its surface to a greater or less 
extent appears cellular under the microscope, for pressure 
destroys this appearance, and it then appears as uniform 
grume in which are imbedded the trifacial cells. These are of 
unequal size; some of them can be seen without using pres- 
sure ; they are of unequal size, and of a yellowish brown tinge. 
Though previously empty they now contain grumous coagula 
cohering to the sides ; the larger present in addition granules. 

The trifacial cells often appear grouped. No oil escapes 
on pressure, or I should have attributed the superficial cellu- 


* But I have remarked that while the trifacial cells are being imbedded the 


trifacial surface is turned to the periphery. Can this have any reference to ger- 
mination ? 


286 On Azolla and Salvinia. 


lar appearance (it is altogether like nascent cellular tissue, 
and its precursion by grume is like this too) to the same cause 
as the apparent cellularity of the incrustation. In some 
abortive trifacials may be seen. 


The changes that take place in the larger capsules from 
the same period, chiefly affect the central sac, which, when 
detached, will be found to present a similar, but relatively 
smaller trifacial surface (Pl. 19. f. 5.); at this period this 
sac is about equal in size to the trifacial cells, visible in 
the circumference of the grume. But it never has presented 
to me their empty appearance (Pi. 19. f. 2. 3. 5.) 

The next period presented this central sac a good deal 
enlarged, still apparently isolated; it is surrounded by a 
much thinner mass of grume, which from the frequent ab- 
sence of the radiating* lines, often appears free of attach- 
ments. ‘The space between this grume and the inner wall of 
the secondary capsule is more or less occupied by free trifacial 
cells (Pl. 19. f. 3. 4. 8.) The grume itself on escaping from 
the capsule will be found to present the trifacial cells, and 
larger cells, (parent cells) exhibiting indications of division 
(P1.A9:, £16.) 

The central sac continues to increase: the grume sur- 
rounding it to diminish, until it is reduced to a thin coating. 
Generally about this period the sac has appeared to be at- 
tached to the apex of the cavity of the secondary capsule 
by means of grume; occasionally traces of radiating lines 
have been visible. The trilineal mark has mostly appeared 
to correspond with the attaching mass of grume. 

The sac continuing to increase soon occupies the greater 
part of the cavity of the secondary capsule; it assumes a yel- 
lowish colour; generally it appears to be freely pendu- 


* These lines are presumably unabsorbed or unaltered portions of the original 
continuous grume. 


Oe ee ee ae ee ee ee 


. On Azolla and Salvinia. O34 


lous, but sometimes traces of radiating lines remain to a 
latish period. 

About the same period I have pretty constantly observed a 
mammilliform process in the cavity of the sac, corresponding 
to the trifacial line (P/. 19. f. 17.); it has a mucilaginous ap- 
pearance and gradually passes off into a thin layer apparently 
applied over the whole surface of the cavity of the sac. About 
this period also, the outer surface of this sac will be found 
studded with granules, by the increasing deposit of which it 
becomes at length enclosed in an incrustation. This increases 
in thickness, presents subsequently three lobes at the apex, in 
the centre of which is an attaching ? process of the sac (Pl. 
20. f. 13. 14.) Its next and last change is to assume a cellu- 
lar appearance and harder consistency. The cavity of the 
sac also generally presents appearances of cellularity, the cells 
seeming to be very irregular in size, and I believe having 
some connection, at least at first, with the mammilla above 
mentioned (Pi. 19. f. 21.) The contents of the sac, how- 
ever though seemingly so cellular, are scarcely appreciable; 
grume only of excessive tenuity escaping under pressure. 
Soon after this, the yellow sac which has increased in yellow- 
ness and thickness, presents a viscid granular matter, not in 
my opinion organised. 

The mature secondary capsule, which is attached to a free 
central receptacle by means of a short, stout, compound stalk 
(Pl. 20. f. 12.)* presents a cellular papillose surface of a 
brown colour, becoming hyaline in water ; the component 
cells are separable; it contains a large, single, whitish body 
of a chalky embossed aspect, without any obvious attach- 
ment; this is of an oblong shape, and has a rugose or 
irregular surface (Pi. 20. f. 12.) The upper end, which is 


* The assumption that the more numerous pedicelled capsules are derived 
from the development of every cell of the surface of the nucleus, while the fewer 
oblong ones are derived from the development of several cells of the same surface, 
will explain the difference of their stalks. 


238 On Azolla and Salvinia. 


rather the smallest, presents three connivent valvular lobes. 
This white body is the incrustation, it is of a thick, appa- 
rently not organic, crustaceous substance. Its lower two- 
thirds are occupied by the yellow sac (Pl. 20. f. 12. 14. 19.) 
which is with difficulty separable entire; its upper surface, 
which on drying becomes concave, presents the trifacial line. 
This sac is filled with a viscid matter, innumerable granules, 
and irregular globules of oily fluid. A section in the dry 
state appears solid (Pl. 20. f. 20.) <A few trifacial cells may 
still often be found between it and the wall of the secondary 
capsule. 

The mature capsules of both kinds, which are almost 
similar in appearance, appear to become irregularly ruptur- 
ed (Pi. 20. f. 5.); they are covered externally with brown 
rigid hairs, and present at the top a brown striated mark (the 
original foramen;) (Pl. 20. f. 17.) they consist of two layers, 
an outer, from which the hairs arise, composed of irregular 
angular cells of a brown colour, and an inner, thinner, 
colourless one, united to the outer only along certain lines: 
this is composed of oblong cells, in which a few greenish 
mobile granules exist. 

Those containing the fewer oblong bodies are the most 
numerous, and more oblong, they are solitary. and always 
next the axis; therefore if only one capsule is developed it will 
be of this kind, if more than one, it will be the lowest one. 

It will be hence seen that the differences of Salvinia from 
Azolla consist in the situation of the organs; in the ab- 
sence of an indusium or involucrum; in the nucleus being 
in all developed into secondary capsules, in the early ap- 
pearance of the papille indicating the future secondary 
capsules, their unequal size and number, (on which so 
much depends,) and their being all subsequently deve- 
loped indiscriminately: in the greater degree of incrusta- 
tion of the yellow sac, and its three-lobed upper end ; and in 
the absence of the cellular lobes. The development of the 


On Azolla and Salvinia. 239 


smaller, more numerous, secondary capsules of the two 
may be said to be absolutely the same, the fact of their pre- 
senting in Salvinia simple pedicels, and a single mass being, 
at least so far as origin is concerned, of minor impor- 
tance. ; 

Many points of this communication are nearly untouched, 
but I have not lately been able to procure either of the two 
genera in fructification. I have not yet observed any thing in 
connection with germination; after three months immersion 
in water neither kind of organ has undergone any change. 


There are some points of the above observations which 
seem to me to call for remark, before passing to the more 
general ones, which it is the aim of this to establish. 

A curious discrepancy to reduce, appears to me pre- 
sented by the body and its lobes surmounting the yellow 
sac in Azolla. 

Analogy perhaps suggests its being of the nature of the 
masses enclosing the trifacial cells in the other kind of 
secondary capsules. For not to mention the similarity in 
appearance between the rather numerous condensed points, 
visible in the grume surmounting the sac in Azolla, with 
those, especially such as appear to be abortive, in the 
grumous nucleus of both kinds of secondary capsules 
in Salvinia, (which would perhaps justify the hypothesis 
of their being the rudiments of so many parent cells,) 
I have seen appearances in which they appeared to be sur- 
rounded by a membrane: and this has appeared to me cer- 
tain that at least more such membranes have been ob- 
served than the subsequent number of lobes, even although 
I have seen more than one point of condensation enclosed 
in one membrane. So that their origin from confluence 
of several distinct parts, and the enclosure of one at 
least of the original points in the mass so resulting seems, 
though perhaps obscurely, to parallel the formation of the 

21 


240 On Azolla and Saivinia. 


masses properly so called, with which in external appearance 
and hypothetical capabilities of forming new plants they 
have something in common. 

On the remarkable difference of the yellow sac, etc. in 
Azolla being developed within the nucleus, to the exclusion 
of the growths round its base, while in Salvinia each corres- 
ponding sac is developed within a growth or protuberance 
from the surface of the nucleus, I have nothing to offer. 
Neither have I any thing to say in explanation of the pedi- 
celled, mass-containing secondary capsules of Azolla being 
developments of the basilar protuberances, to the exclusion 
of the nucleus itself. It is a remarkable fact, however, that 
in Musci and the vaginulated Hepatic, the ovulum under- 
goes no change except in situation, for it forms the extreme tip 
or point of the mature seta. In Azolla something of the same 
kind occurs, but in a limited manner, an opposite direction 
and without change of situation; for the nucleus, the part first 
formed, may be found unchanged in the mature capsule. 
And we are not in want of instances in which that part of a 
_ phanerogamous ovulum, which is first formed and which is a 
direct extension of the surface from which it grows, remains 
equally unchanged during the development of the seed. 


The first general remark I have to make regards the 
similarity of the organs in their younger stages to that form 
of the ovulum of phanerogamous plants, in which the ori- 
ginal direction of development is preserved, and which 
are now generally known by the term antitropous, or more 
correctly atropous.* And though this simpler form of 
ovulum is not always peculiar to particular families and not 


* Although the difference between the development of the vegetable carpel leaf 
and vegetable ovulum is in general sufficiently apparent, an exception has appear- 
ed to me to be presented by Naias, in which the future pistillum seems to be de- 
rived from an annular growth round a central body, which subsequently becomes the 
ovulum! ! 


a eR ee eee ee ee ae es ee 


ia 


i ee ee 


On Agolla and Salvinia. Qa] 


invariably even to particular genera among Angiospermous 
plants,* yet I believe it is characteristic of those plants 
called Gymnospermous, in which the ordinarily convolute 
carpel leaf is expanded or in which the ovulum is supposed 
to be a direct continuation of the axis. 

The similarity contended for will scarcely be denied at 
least to Azolla, in which it is extended even to the rela- 
tions of the vascular fascicles with the base of the nucleus. 
In both, as in all ovula, the nucleus is first formed, and is 
afterwards gradually enclosed by the growth of an integu- 
ment, at one period a mere annulus round its base.+ 

I do not conceive the very early papillose state of the 
nucleus in Salvinia to weaken the similarity. For in the 
first place this indication of division is scarcely aboriginal, and 
I donot consider a nucleus with a similar surface unlikely to 
be found in a phznogamous ovulum, in connection with a 
plurality of embryo sacs, in which case the similarity will be 
mainly increased. 


* Nepenthes. 


¢ The other instances in which a similar structure might exist among the higher 
Acotyledones are Chara, such forms of Ferns as Deparia, some Cyathee and 
especially ? Hymenophyllum and Trichomanes. 

In Chara, in which there is also a similar but more constant disposition of the 
two difform organs, the first objection presented is that the integument, with- 
in which the nucleus becomes included, is not a continuous development from 
round its base, but from as many points as there are subsequently spiral tubes. 
The growths of distinct cells from the apices of these form what has been 
considered by some the stigma. But I have not observed any thing like the usual 
subsequent developments; the original nucleus itself appearing to become the 
germinating body, that is the membrane enclosing the amylaceous granules. In 
this genus the degree in which both organs represent the axis of the plant itself, 
is carried perhaps to a greater extent than in any other. 

So far as I have yet seen there is nothing in common between the supposed 
male of Chara, and the supposed males of these plants. But there is an analogy 
between the twisted filaments it contains and the assumed male organs of Azolla, 
and of many other of the higher Acotyledonous plants. ‘ 

The structure of the germinating organs, and of the growing points of the stem 
and its branches appears to me to shew that Chara cannot be generically separated 
from Nitella, of which it is merely a more developed form, 


242 On Azolla and Salvinia. 


If the comparison is drawn between the organs of Azolla 
and the ovula of certain Gymnospermous plants at a later par- 
ticular period, we find the resemblance to be increased by 
the occupation of that part of the interior of the ovulum, (or 
body,) between the foramen and the apex of the nucleus, by 
a number of grains derived from without.* This circum- 
stance in Gymnospermous plants is explainable by the ex- 
ternal relations of the ovula being so much more direct 
than in Angiospermous plants. And the same may be said 
of Azolla (and Salvinia) if they are compared with pistillige- 
rous Acotyledones. 

I have here set aside the nature of the grains found in the 
ovulum of Azolla for the sake of exactness, but there are pre- 
sumptive evidences that the analogy may be extended to the 
functions of the grains themselves. 

The evidences in favour of fecundation are, I think, as 
strong as they are in Musci and Hepatice, in which I de- 
rive them from the breaking up of the tissue terminating and 
closing the style (subsequently to the application of a parti- 
cular matter,) whereby the style becomes a canal opening 
exteriorly ; from the browning observable in the orifice of 
this canal extending downwards until it reaches the cavity 
of the ovarium, and from the corresponding enlargement of 
the cell (ovulum) existing in that cavity.+ In Salvinia the 
appearances as closely resemble the above as is compatible 
with the difference in the organs themselves. The supposed 
fecundating matter has appeared, at least after it has come 
in contact with the female organ, to be much the same. 

In Azolla the evidence consists in the derivation of the 
grains from without, on the browning of the foramen after 


* For instance Cycas; I have drawings illustrating this, made in 1835. 

+ Such are the appearances that have been presented to me by examination of 
Phascum and Funaria; by Mr. Valentine however neither the opening of the apex | 
of the style or the browning is supposed to be in any way connected with fecunda- 
tion.—Linn, Trans. xvii, p. 466-67, 


On Azolla and Salvinia. 243 


the appearance of the grains within the ovulum, and on the 
subsequent new growths presumably excited into action 
thereby, and their direction, which proceeds from the point 
next the point of application of the supposed fecundating in- 
fluence.* 

I am not willing to omit an analogy with Phanerogamic 
fecundation derived from the apparent inaptitude of the 
means to the end. It has always appeared to me remark- 
able by what means a tube of such tenuity, of such flexibility, 
and with such an obtuse point as a pollen tube can not only 
get at the nucleus, but overcome the resistance presented by 
its solid tissue so far as to penetrate it to a certain, and 
often not inconsiderable a distance. Of this apparent insuf- 
ficiency Azolla has a considerable share; yet the access of 
the grains to the inside of the ovulum appears certain. 

Difficulties however are at present offered by both genera. 
In Salvinia there are three kinds of bodies, which might be 


* Assuming fecundation to take place in Azolla and Salvinia, there will be, I 
think, three modifications at least of this phenomenon among the higher acotyle- 
donous plants. In one the male influence is applied to the apex of the pistillum, 
in the second to the nucleus without the intervention of a pistillary apparatus. 
In the third the male influence is exerted on the frond itself, and is followed 
by the development of the young capsule from a point in the substance of the 
frond corresponding to and sometimes distant from the place to which the male 
influence has been applied. 

This is founded on observations made on Anthoceros in 1836, from which it would 
appear that the place of exsertion of the future capsules is pointed out bya slight 
protuberance, over the apex of which a flake of matter like the male matter of Musci 
and Salvinia is spread, sending down to some distance within the frond a tube-like 
process, which causes the dislocation of the cells of the tissue with which it comes 
into contact. 

The future capsule is stated in my notes not to be appreciably pre-existent, and its 
situation, which is exactly under the line of direction of the descending process, 
above mentioned, is only pointed out by a bulbiform condensation of the tissue of the 
frond. The young capsule during its development ascends along the samg line, 
and pushes before it a corresponding cylindrical body of the tissue of the fromd, the 
calyptra of authors. 

I have never since had an opportunity of verifying these observations which, if 
correct, may I think prove of some importance. 


244: On Azolla and Salvinia. 


assumed to be the male organs: one found on the stalks of 
the ovula, the second on the capsules, the third on the roots. 

Of these the second kind (Pl. 16. f. 7.) appeared precisely 
like the moniliform filaments of Azolla, but was only observ- 
ed once, and on a somewhat advanced capsule. The se- 
cond kind was observed constantly and in plenty. They vary 
somewhat, some, the male organs of Hedwig, ( Theor. Gen. 
et fruct. Plant. Crypt. p. 105, t. 8, f. 2, 3.) having rather long 
joints containing granules ; others nearest the ovulum (Pi. 15. 
f. 7.) having shorter joints, each containing a nucleus immer- 
sed in a brownish fluid. Those on the roots, are also constant. 
and in plenty : they resemble those on the stalk of the ovu- 
lum, figured by Hedwig. The granular contents are first de- 
veloped in the terminal cell, and thence downwards ; each joint 
becoming at length quite crammed with granules, some of 
which are often of a large size. ‘They then lose more or less of 
their previously very active motion. These radicular filaments 
have the same reference to those containing granules found 
on the stalk of the ovulum, that the radicles themselves have 
to the brown hairs of the same part and the capsule. 

But it is from the assumed action of those containing 
a nucleus and brown matter, that the appearance of the 
matter found adhering to the previously clean foramen, 
(and which looks like the fecundating matter of Musci and — 
Hepaticz) will be perhaps best explained. 

I should not, however, omit remarking that in such sub- 
merged parts of a plant, as these of Salvinia, deceptions might 
arise from the adhesion of foreign matter to a greater degree 
than would be likely to occur in many Musci and Hepatice. 

In Azolla the chief difficulty I think is presented by the 
absence of such a developed form of anther as might be 
expgcted to accompany so developed a form of pollen grain.* 

* In order to reduce the usual acotyledonous form of anther to the type of the 


same organ among phanerogams, I lave often speculated on the probability of each 
anther being a pollen grain. Butthey have an organic connection with the plants to 


On Azolla and Salvinia. DAH 


So much so, that each joint of the moniliform filaments, or 
each grain as found in the ovulum, is not distinguishable 
from the simplest forms of pollen grains, which I take to be 
those in which no outer integument is developed, as in Naias, 
Zanichellia, etc. and which are consequently simple mem- 
branous bags or sacs. The chief* discrepancy is that the 
grains of Azolla do not undergo any elongation in the per- 
formance of their supposed functions as appears to be uni- 
versally the case in phzenogamous plants, even in those in 
which the pollen grain is bodily received into the nucleus :}+ 
and contrariwise no growth, beyond mere extension, has been 
observed in pheznogamous pollen exterior to the ovulum.t 
It is scarcely, however, to be expected that analogies, pro- 
ducable through every stage of any particular process in 


which they belong, their structure is different, and they generally dehisce. These 
are all strong objections, particularly when it is considered that if these anthers be 
pollen grains they represent the inner membrane of ordinary pollen. 

But the difference is not unadjustable in my opinion, if the anther of Mosses is 
compared with the very young phenogamous anther, at that period when the grume, 
from which the mass in which the parent cells are developed originates, is so 
fluid that pressure causes an escape of minute fovillar matter not unlike the con- 
tents of the anthers of Musci. 

* I do not mention their organic connection with the plant, because that may be 
the consequence of their not being provided with a proper protecting organ. It is 
besides at the most only very partial, and it is not greater than that occurring in 
many forms of supposed anthers among these kinds of plants; 2. e. where the anther 
consists of a cell terminating a stalk of a single row of cellules, to which type the male 
organs of Azolla and Chara are easily reducible. For any difficulty that might be 
objected to the attributing fecundating powers to each component cell (not ex- 
clusively to the terminal one) becomes lessened by the remarkable form ofthe male 
organs of Drepanophyllum and certain Necker and Syrhopodon. 

fT e. g. Cycas. 

{ A remarkable circumstance was observed once or twice in some of the joints 
of the moniliform filaments, while attached to the axis. Some of them were a 
good deal enlarged, of a yellow green tint, with a nucleus towards either end, 
or with only one near the base when the enlarged joint happened to be the ter- 
minal one. Others near the terminal ones had become divided into two by a line 
across the middle, the two cells thus resulting being broader and more bé€dlike 
than before. In some others again close to either end was a small nucellus, which 
corresponded with the contiguous nucelli of the neighbouring joints: and near 
each nucleus was observed the shadowing out of a large cell. 


246 On Azolla and Salvinia. 


plants very much differing in general organization, should 
be found; so I do not lay stress upon the possibility of the 
elongation, just referred to, being reduced to such an al- 
most inappreciable amount as might perhaps occur in a 
Gymnospermous ovulum with exserted embryo sacs. 

A difficulty may also be considered to be presented by 
the existence of the hairs round the base of the ovula. For 
these in their structure resemble what I suppose to be the 
male organs of Ferns, and also the anthers of certain Mosses 
and Hepatice; although the terminal cell presents less gra- 
nular matter than usual. 

In the respect of the supposed males, Azolla presents 
greater analogies with phanerogamous plants, than either 
-Musci or Hepatic, in which nothing analogous to pollen 
grains has been, I believe, yet observed in the anther; which 
again can scarcely in all cases be considered a grain of pol- 
len, the view suggested by the contents. Still even with the 
objections before mentioned the analogies are as tenable I 
think as those existing between the pistilla of Mosses and 
of phanerogamous plants; those organs in the former being 
originally closed, in the latter, theoretically at least, original- 
ly open. 

General objections may be raised from the fact of monili- 
form filaments similar to those of Azolla having been found 
on the capsule of Salvinia, unconnected apparently with fecun- 
dation, and on the dissimilarity of the supposed fecundating 
process in the two genera. 

These observations, although they appear to me to indi- 
cate the existence of sexes in Azolla and (Salvinia) as strong- 
ly as in Musci and Hepatice, (in which they are admitted by 
the best botanists), do not bear out in any way the ideas hi- 
therto entertained by botanists regarding the sexual organs 
of the two genera in question. For independently of the or- 
gans being the same in structure up to a comparatively late 
period, they are both submitted to the action of the same 


Se ge eS a 


tele, fcr A ee 5 


ee eS, 


On Azolla and Salvinia. Q4.7 


agent determining their subsequent development; that deve- 
lopment is continued contemporaneously ; they separate con- 
temporaneously, and without either having undergone any 
particular change. So that if they be male and female, 
the action of the one on the other does not take place while 
they are attached to the axis. 

There appears to me absolutely nothing in the structure 
of the supposed male to suggest its performing the functions 
of that sex. I believe that in cases of the known male organs 
of vegetables the (active) contents are homogeneous, the 
functions ephemeral. Dr. Martius (op. cit. p. 127) is of 
opinion that the lobed bodies have nothing of the char- 
acters of anthers, and that the whole contents form the 
rudiment of a young plant, grounding this opinion on the 
similarity of the sac or vesicle with the nucula of Chara 
and Marsileacez. But it is remarkable that he considers 
the masses of the other secondary capsules, which are solid 
bodies, to have the closest analogy with pollen grains, and 
therefore he alludes to his having observed them adhering 
firmly to the calyptrate capsule. 

An argument in favour of their being male organs is 
derivable from the development, which appears to be that 
of the pollen of phenogamous plants. But this holds good to 
a greater degree in the development of the contents of the sup- 
posed female, as well as in that of the acknowledged spores of 
some other Acotyledonous families, in which nevertheless the 
evidence in favour of sexes is acknowledged to be the most com- 
plete. The same argument, so extended as to include both 
kinds of bodies, may be advanced. In this case they will 
enter the hypothesis of Mr. Valentine,* which must, how- 
ever, to be consistent with analogy suppose the absence of 
sexes in all Acotyledonous plants. This I think difficult 
to do, and while I fully agree in the remarkable similarity 


* Linn. Trans. xvii. p. 480, 481; xvii. p. 502. 
2K 


248 On Azolla and Salvinia. 


between pollen and spores, it is to be borne in mind, that 


whereas pollen is the result of a simple separation consti- 
tuting a primary and independent process; in Musci, 
Hepatice, Salvinide, the spores, otherwise so similar to 
pollen, are the result of a secondary process, dependent 
on a primary one which appears to be remarkably analogous* 
to phanerogamic fecundation. 

Among the peculiarities of the developments of the spores 
I may mention the comparative obscurity of the parent 
cells, which in all other similar plants examined by me have 
been obvious enough, especially in Isoetes and Marsilea, 
the spores being visible enough in the parent cells, within 
which their outer coat even becomes developed. In these 
plants however it is so obscure, and the separation takes 
place at such an early period, and apparently so rapidly, 
that for some time I was almost reduced to consider 
the trifacial cells, as parent cells, each containing 3 spores 
in a state of extreme contiguity. In no instance did I 
observe the parent cell of the central sac, (subsequently 
the yellow sac,) or its companions. And although I have 
examined many instances, yet in none did I find the usual 
relations continued, that might have been expected as long as 
the trifacial cells remained imbedded in grume. So much 
so, that for a second time I was almost reduced to look on 
them as parent cells. _ 


* The identity of the spores of Acotyledonous and the pollen of Cotyledonous 
plants is perhaps strengthened by the curious resemblance of the fructification 
of Equisetum to the male apparatus of Cycadez ; in which also the pistillary 
apparatus, in this view to be looked on as a sort of nidus, is of great simplicity. 

Mr. Valentine’s account was read before the Linn. Socy. in 1833, and appeared 
in 1837. M. Schleiden’s was extracted in the Lond. Edin. Phil. Mag. from 
Weigmann’s Archiv. fiir Zoologie, pt. iv. 1837. The similarity between the obser- 
vations of the two is remarkable, and gives the hypothesis great importance. M. 
Schleiden has however an advantage in my opinion from considering the embryo 
to be a growth of the ends of the pollen-tubes, and from acknowledging the 
difficulties presented by Musci, Hepaticz and Rhizocarpex. 


On Azolla and Salvinia. 949 


The great development of a particular spore of a particu- 
lar capsule, and the corresponding abortion of all the rest, is a 
second peculiarity. This, which has not been observed in 
Musci, Hepatice, or Filices, occurs in a marked degree in 


_ Marsilea* and Pilularia ;} and there is also a tendency to it, 


though not confined to different capsules, in Isoetes and 
Psilotum. And this, to which the dissimilarity of the mature 
reproductive organs is mainly attributable, thus becomes so 
general, that it obviously relates to something important, and 
will probably be found to exist in particular portions of the 
families just mentioned as exceptions. 

Mr. Valentine,t was so far as I know, the first who dis- 
tinctly attributed this want of uniformity to abortion, an 


* A second examination of Marsilea has not presented to me any thing corrobora- 
tive of M. Fabre’s statement. So far as the development of the two difform bodies 
(capsules ) themselves is concerned, there is a manifest agreement with Pilularia, 
Salvinia, and Azolla. The germinating body is equally derived from the excessive 
development of a single spore of one capsule, and the abortion of the rest. The 
other capsules contain spores in a state of uniform development, forming the sup- 
posed pollen of some Botanists. 

Marsilea evidently appears to connect Salvinide with Filices ; its important dif- 
ferences from Salvinidz consist in the capsules, which correspond to the secondary 
capsules of that family, being developed within the substance of a modified leaf, 
in their occuring mixed with each other, and in the spores of the pedicellate cap- 
sules not becoming imbedded in apparently cellular masses. I have not observed 
anything indicating fecundation. 

+ Mr. Valentine, (Linn. Trans. loc, cit.) appears to have no doubt of this 
in Pilularia. M. Endlicher* thinks it may be so in Salvinia, and makes it part 
of his generic character of Pilularia and Marsilea, (op. cit. p. 68,) at least so far 
as the term sporangia abortiva may be considered to indicate abortive spores. 

But I think their great comparative number, the at least equal development of 
their capsules in Salvinia and Azolla, their appearance, and their subsequently con- 
taining granular matter, objections to this, though none of them can be considered 
conclusive. Still it is not to be denied, that if compared with the mature spores of 
Filices, Musci, Hepatice, in all which the spores have hitherto been found 
uniform, they exhibit an apparently imperfect state of development. 

t Valent. Linn. Trans. xviii. p. 491, 497, t. 35, f. 34, 35, 36. 


* Gen, Pl, p. 67, in annot. in Salvinia. 


250 On Azolla and Salvinia. 


opinion which appears to be correct to some degree at 
least. 

The anomaly observable in the numerous spherical pedi- 
celled secondary capsules, through which the previously free 
spores become enclosed in cells, which subsequently partly 
or entirely coalescing form solid masses, in which the spores 
are then imbedded, is, I think, very remarkable. 

The appearance, however, of these cells, which exist in 
both genera, and which seem to be developed from the 
inner surface of the secondary capsules, either corresponding 
to and enclosing several spores, or at least as in Salvinia 
occasionally arising opposite single ones, is not organic: 
it is that of the mammilla of the yellow sac. The young 
masses indeed are like it elastic, and it is evident that 
there is neither a common nor a partial membrane. 

It is difficult to believe that these masses are abortive 
developments, particularly when the appearance of grume or 
molecules in the imbedded spores, and the obvious 
hypothetical capability of growth of the masses is consider- 
ed. Direct observation on this head is required, and if it be 
found that they do produce young plants, and that the growths 
take place from more than one of the imbedded spores, 
an analogy may become presented to pluri-embryonate 
Gymnospermous plants. 

I know of no parallel instances to the lobes surmount- 
ing the yellow sac in Azolla, and especially to the tissue, 
which on being pulled separates in the form of radicels. There 
are reasons, as I have stated, for supposing the lobes them- 
selves to be modifications of the spores, and comparing 
the early number of nuclei or points of condensation with the 
mature number of the lobes, the opinion becomes suggested, 
that these receive their developments at the expense of others. 
However this may be, their analogy with the solid masses of 
the spherical pedicellate secondary capsules appears suffi- 
ciently obvious. ‘They are not in any way to be referred to 


On Azolla and Salvinia. 951 


the incrustation, which does not, I think, become organised ; 
and which moreover, appears somehow or other connected 
in every instance with the difformity of the organs. 


In conclusion it appears to me sufficiently plain, that in 
the higher Acotyledonous plants, in which I include Filices, 
Lycopodinez, Isoetez, Kquiseteze, Marsileacez, Salvinide, 
Musci, Hepatice, Characee, there are at least two modifica- 
tions of the female organ representing the modifications of 
the same organ of Cotyledonous plants. 

The term Pistillum has been applied to the female organ of 
Mosses by some first-rate Botanists, though not without vio- 
lent opposition from some systematists. Since the examina- 
tion of Balanophora, its application is, if possible, still more 
legitimate. In my opinion it is not to be doubted, that 
not only have Musci and Hepatice a pistillum, but that this 
contains an ovulum.* 

The analogies presented by the plants which form the 
subject of this communication, to those Cotyledonous plants 
in which the ovulum is entirely naked, either, as is supposed 
to be the case in some, without a carpel leaf, or with that 
organ in an expanded not a convolute state, are I think equal- 
ly striking. 

It may be worthy also of remark, that in proportion as 
Acotyledonous plants become, so to speak, less pistilligerous, 
their vegetative organs appear to be more developed. This 
is evident if a Fern be compared with a Moss. And it 
seems to be so closely followed up, that Salvinia which has 
less, perhaps, of the atropous phanogamous ovulum than 
Azolla, has its organs of vegetation considerably more deve- 
loped. 


_ * See also Mr. Valentine, Linn. Trans. xvii, p. 466, 67, t- 23, f. 1, 2, 6; where it 
4s stated, that the development of the capsule depends on the presence of the cell 
(or ovulum) in the pistillum. 


252 On Azolla and Salvinia. 
Famitta.—_SALVINID, Barti. 


Pars Rhizospermarum. Roth. D. C. Rhizocarpearum, 
Batisch. Marsileacearum, Br. 


Plante natantes, ramose. Radices plumose. Folia opposi- 
ta,* pagina supera papillosa. Organa mascula; pili articulati 
pedicelli ovuligeri? vel filamenta moniliformia partium novel- 
larum. Organa feminea ; Ovula atropa, (submersa), solita- 
ria vel per paria. Capsulet submerse, apice micropyle no- 
tatze, alie{ (infima cujusque paris vel racemi) includentes 
saccum§ luteum, vel plures, (et tunc singuli in capsula secon- 
daria reconditi,) materie granuloso-viscosa, oleaginosa farc- 
tum et incrustatione e maxima parte tectum. Ale (superi- 
ores cujusque paris vel racemi) continentes capsulas secon- 
darias|| 00, globosas, pedicellos simplices terminantes, singulis 
includentibus massam{ (vel massas 2-3) aspectuc ellulosam, 
in qua spore immerse. 


Sus-FaMILIA.—SALVININE. 


Radices verticillato-fasciculate, nud. Folia opposita, mtegra, pe- 
tiolata, pilis articulatis superne vestita, vernatione induplicata. Orga- 
na mascula ? pili** simpliciter articulati siti in pedicellum ovuli. 


* The leaves are not quite opposite in Azolla: this combined with the obvious 
conduplicate vernation of these organs in Salvinia, inclined me to believe, that 
they were bilobed in Azolla ; a conduplicative vernation would then explain their 
istuatione But their development is opposed to this, as also their opposition in 
Salvinia. 

¢ Calyx. Schreber. Indusium. Willd. Mart. Fl. masculi et feeminei. R. Br. 
Receptacula. Sprengel. Organa propagatoria. Mart. Endlicher 

+ Flos. femineus. Schreb. Fl. Masc. R. Bre Meyen. Organ. masc. ? et feeminea. 
Mart. Endl. Indusium. Calyptra. Mart. Endlich. 

§ Gongylus. Mart. Vesicula basilaris. Endl. 

|| Fl. Mase. Anthere. Schreb. Fl. Fem. Meyen. R. Br. Capsule partiales, R. 
Br. Mart. Organ. fem: masce Sporangia. Mart. Endl. Indusia Mart. Meyen. 
Globuli. Endl. 

{ Semina Br. Grana. Endl. Granula Mart. 

** These curious filaments have in some respects a centrifugal development: 
the cells of the base, or next the axis, being the least developed as regards number 
of granules. These, which are very irregular in size, are exceedingly mobile. The 
action appears to cease at last from want of room, for the cells become literally 
crammed with the granules. 


On Azolla and Salvinia. 953 


Ovula terminalia, nuda, solitaria,s Nucleus celluloso-papillosus. Cap- 
sule' aliquando solitariz, seepius in racemum terminalem dispositze ; 
infima? cujusque racemi, (vel terminalis si una tantum evolvitur) 
continens capsulas secondarias? 6-18 oblongas, insidentes in recept- 
aculum centralem. Saccus* incrustatione apice triloba omnino in- 
clusus. Capsule alie superiores capsulas secondarias®’ 00, globosas, 
in receptaculum centralem® ope pedicellorum capillaceorum’ affixas 
recondentes. Massa® solitaria. 


SALVINIA. 


Mich. Nov. Gen. p. 107. ¢. 58. Aublet. Pl. Guian. p. 969. 
t. 367. Linn. Gen. Pl. ed. Schreb. p. 753. No. 1617. Juss. 
Gen. Pl. p. 16. Lam. Enc. Meth. t. 863. Flore Francaise. 
DC. et Lam. 2. p. 579. Mart. Pl. Crypt. Bras. p. 128. t. 
76, 75. II. Endl. Gen. Pl. p. 67. No. 689. 


CuHar: GEN :—Character Sub-familiz. 


Superficies infera et immersa pilis brunneis subulatis ves- 
tita. Radices sessiles in cault vel circa apicem rami ovuligert. 
Capsule subrotunde, irregulariter dehiscentes, parietibus 
bilamellosis, lamella interna exteriori secus lineas longitudi- 
nales paucas tantum adnata. Crusta sacci cretaceo-albida: 


Hasitus Lemnaceo-Pistoideus. 


Characteres specierum forma foliorum, dispositione et nu- 
mero papillarum, situ radicum, et numero et dispositione cap- 
sularum deducendi. 


i Receptacula. Spr. Fructus. Mich. Fem: flores. Germina, Aubl. Indu- 
sium. Mart. 

2 Flos femineus. Schreb, Indusium. Mart. 

3 Germina, semina. Schreb. Sporangia. Mart. Endl. 

4 Gongylus. Mart. Spora. Endl. 

5 Flores masculi. Indusium. Mart. Anthere. Schreb. Sporangia. Mart. Fl. 
masc. ? Globuli. Endl. 

6 Columella. Schreb. 

7 Filamenta. Schreb. 

8 Granulum. Mart. Materies mucilaginosa, Endl. 


954 On Azolla and Salvinia. 


S. verticillata, foliis parallelogrammico-oblongis subpan- 
duriformibus canaliculatis, pilis ternis vel quaternis papillas 
(conicas) superficiei terminantibus. 

S. verticillata, Roxb. Crypt. Pl. Cal. Jour. Nat. Hist. 1V. 
p. 469. 


Has.—Stagnant waters. Bengal. 


Descr.—Floating, sparingly branched. Siem, stalks and under- 
surface of leaves thickly covered with stout subulate brown hairs, 
the terminal cell of which is suddenly attenuated. Leaves paral- 
lelogrammic-oblong, constricted about the centre so as to be sub- 
panduriform, channelled down the middle. Hairs in threes or fours 
arising from conical papillz of the surface ; terminal cells brownish, 
withered-looking. 

Roots terminating, short, descending stalks, generally about 12, 
disposed in two series around the lower reproductive organ, which 
occupies the centre. Mixed with the radicles, especially in the 
young parts, are articulated colourless filaments, the component 
parts of which contain unequal granules. 

Male organs ? articulated hairs on the stalks of the ovula; each 
joint containing a nucleus and a brownish fluid. 

Ovula nearly sessile concealed by the roots, and partly covered 
with hairs. Tegument open at the top. 

Mature reproductwe organs solitary, or in racemes of 3-5, about 
the size of a pea, covered with brown rigid hairs. ‘The upper ones 
of each raceme, (or lowest as regards general situation,) contain 
innumerable spherical bodies, of a brownish colour, and reticulated 
cellular surface, terminating capillary simple filaments. ‘These 
again contain a solid whitish opaque body. 

The other, which occupies the lowest part of the raceme, and which 
is the first and often the only one developed, is more oblong, contain- 
ing 6-18 larger, oblong-ovate bodies on short stout compound stalks : 
colour brown, surface also reticulated. Each contains a large, emboss- 
ed, opaque, ovate, free body, of a chalky aspect: it is three-lobed at 
the apex, and contains below this a cavity lined by a yellowish 
membrane, filled with granular and viscid matter and oily globules. 


On Azolla and Salvinia. 955 


S. cucullata, foliis subreniformibus in cucullum condupli- 
catis, pilis solitariis e superficie ipsa exorientibus. 
S. cucullata. Roxb. Crypt. Pl. Cal. Jour. Nat. Hist. 1V. 


p. 470. 
Has.—Stagnant waters. Bengal, Tenasserim Coast. 


Descr.—Much branched. Under-surface covered with brown 
hairs, longer and with a less suddenly attenuated terminal cell. 
Joints of the stem short, so that the leaves are all close together. 
Roots springing directly from the stem, about 15. Leaves on short 
stalks, subreniform in outline, so folded together that the margins 
of the base are in contact. Hazrs of the surface solitary, springing 
immediately from the surface ; terminal cells with the same curious 
withered appearance. J’ructification not observed. 


Oxs.— This species I take to be comparatively less de- 
veloped than the preceding, founding my supposition chiefly 
on the fact, that the leaves partly represent the immature 
state of the same organs of S. verticillata. 


Sus-FamMiILia.—AZOLLINE. 


Radices solitariz, basi vaginate, apice calyptrate.* Folia 
imbricantia, inferum immersum membranaceum. Organa 
mascula ; filamenta moniliformia in partibus novellis caulis 
et ramorum. Ovula per paria cauli affixa, in znvolucro e folii 


* The calyptra of the roots of Azolla has probably been considered to be the 
torn-up end of the sheath surrounding the base of each root, which can scarcely 
have escaped observation. But it is quite a distinct organ; the sheath at the 
base is perforated at its apex by the young root, while the calyptra appears to 
be a separation of its cutis, due to the development of a radicle from each cell 
of the subjacent tissue. 

In this respect it has another curious analogy with Lemna, of the sheath and 
calyptra of which I was aware in 1836, long before I saw M. Schleiden’s paper 
on Lemnacez, 

2 1L 


256 On AvaliniauloSabid. 


contigui lobo membranceo derivato abscondita. Capsule’ 

involucro inclusz, subsessiles; paris difformis inferior,? ob- 
longa, demum circumscissa continens Saccu® (luteu) e maxima 
parte incrustatione inclusum, vertice coronatum corpore* 

centro cavo, apice explanato cum capsule apice coherente, 
divulso radiculoso fibroso, superficie diviso in lobos 3 vel 9 5, 
quorum 3 superiores (majores), 6 inferiores; corpus totum in 
membranam nuclearem (capsulam secondariam) inclusum. 
Capsule alterius ° capsule secondariez massas’ 2—3 faciebus 
contiguis radiculigeras continent. 


AZOLLA. 


Lam. Enc. Meth. 1. p. 348. ¢. 863. A. Br. Prod. Fl. Nov. 
Holl. edn. p. 2. 22. App. Flinders. Terra Austr. 2. p. 611. 
t. 10. Mart. Pl. Crypt. Bras. p. 123. t. 74, 75. I. Meyen. 
Nov. Act. 18. p. 523. t. 38. Endl. Gen. Pl. p. 67. No. 688. 

Salvinia, Juss. Gen. Pl. p. 16. 

Rhizosperma. Meyen. op. cit. loc. cit. 


Cuar. Gen.—Character Sub-familiz. 


If the foregoing supposition be correct, those species of Azolla alone, that have 
radicles either plumose throughout, or to a greater or less distance from the apex, 
will present this calyptra. M. Meyen does not notice any such calyptra in 
his account, and I do not understand what Martius means by a calyptriform 


spongiole—still less by the phrase ‘‘ spongiola conica vestita,’’ 


op. cit. p. 124. 
Figs. 2, 3. of his work, would appear to represent a calyptra of some sort. 

1 Organa propagatoria Mart. Endl. Meyen. 

2 Fl. Masc. Meyen. Endl.? R. Br. Calyptra. Mart. Endl. Indusium. Meyen. 

3 Dimidium inferius. Loculus inferior. R. Br. Vesicula. Mart. V. basilaris. 
Endl. Vesicula spherica Meyen. 

4 Dimidium superius. Loculus superior. R. Br. Axis tricruris. Mart. Columella 
tricruris: Endl. Axis triangularis. Meyen. 

5 Anthere. R. Br. Meyen. Corpuscula. R. Br. Mart. Corp. antheriformia. 
Endl. 

6 Involucrum interius. R. Br. Indusium. Mart. Indusium exterius. Meyen 
Capsule. Capsule partiales R. Br. Sporangia. Mart. Endl. Sporangia. Indu- 
sium interius. Seed-holder. Meyen. 

7 Semina R. Br. Grana. Mart. Endl, Granula Meyen. 


On Azolla and Salvinia. 257 


* Americane. Radices simplices. Lobt corporis (capsule 
calyptratim dehiscentis) 3, pyriformes. Masse (capsule se- 
condariz pedicellatz) 6-9, globose, subcompresse, margine 
pilis¢ glochidiatis mstructz. 

** Asiatice. (Rhizosperma. Meyen. op. cit. p. 523.) Ra- 
dices partim vel omnino plumose. Lobi corporis (capsule ° 
calyptratim dehiscentis) 9, angulati, (3 superiores majores, 
6 inferiores.) Masse (capsule secondarie pedicellate) 2-3, 
extus convexze, intus concave et processubus radicellifor- 
mibus 3-4 instructe. 

Superficies infera immersa glabra. Ovula basi proces- 
sibus paraphysiformibus stipata. Capsule rubro plus minus 
tincta, parietibus simplicibus ; inferior (paris difformis) ob- 
longo-ovata, superior subglobosa, superficie rugosa. Sacci 
lutei tegumentum nigro-sanguineum. 


Hapsitus Jungermannia. 


Affinitates incertae. Analogiz cum Gymnospermis phane- 
rogamicis et Lemnaceis. 


A. pinnata, circumscriptione triangulari-pinnata, foliis su- 
perioribus papulosis, radicibus longitudinaliter plumosis.t 

A. pinnata, R. Br. Prod. p. 23. 

Salvinia imbricata, Roxb. Crypt. Pl. Cal. Jour. Nat. 
Hist. IV. p. 470. 


A minute floating plant with the habit of Jungermannia. Stem 
so branched, that the general outline of the whole plant becomes 
triangular. Roofs solitary, arising from the stem at the origin of 


+ The situation and structure of these hairs require I think further examina- 
tion. As regards the first it appears to me, that whether scattered over the 
whole surface, or only along the margins, they would be visible while contained 
in the secondary capsule, yet neither Martius nor Meyen represent them as being 
so. And as regards the second, the hairs of Azolla pinnata do not appear to me 
organically cellular, 

$+ Char, ex. immort. Prodr. 


958 On Azolla and Salvinia. 


each branch, plumose throughout their whole length, tipped by a 
calyptra, and surrounded at the base by a short sheath, which may be 
mistaken for one of the circumcised capsules, 

Leaves opposite, so close together as to become imbricated, espe- 
cially the lower membranous ones, entire, obliquely ascending, thick, 

. flesky, outer surface covered with stout whitish papille of a single 
somewhat conical cell, the oldest ones rather the smallest, upper ones 
more or less trapeziform. Under ones quite membranous, hya- 
line, larger, nearly reniform, with a tendency, especially in the 
young ones, to have the points incurved; these are composed of a 
single layer ‘of cellular tissue. 

The growing points especially, present a number of minute con- 
fervoid filaments, the assumed male organs, which at certain periods 
may be seen passing into the foramen, the ovula becoming resolved 
into their component cells within the cavity of that body. 

Organs of reproduction in pairs, attached to the stem and branches, 
one above the other, concealed in a membranous involucrum. Ovula 
atropous, oblong-ovate, with a conspicuous foramen and nucleus, 
around the base of which are cellular protuberances. 

Capsules of each pair either difform—in which case the lowest one 
is oblong-ovate, the upper globose—or both of either kind, generally 
perhaps the globose, presenting at the apex the brown remains of the 
foramen,* and still enclosed in the involucrum. Upper half generally 
tinged with red. 

The oblong-ovate capsule opens by circumcision ; with the apex sepa- 
rate the contents, which consist of a large yellow sac contained in a 
fine membrane, the remains of the nucleus (or the secondary capsule.) 
The sac is filled with oleaginous granular fluid, and surmounted by 
a mass of fibrous-tissue, by which it adheres slightly to the calyptra ; 
on the surface of the fibrous tissue are 9 cellular lobes (the three 
upper the largest), which when pulled away, separate with some of 
the fibrous tissue, and so appear provided with radicles. 


* See also Martius, t. 74, f. 10, and Meyen f. 23, for the apex of the round 
capsule containing the pedicelled secondaries. 

M. Meyen indeed says, his figure is a representation of the base of this organ, 
his common indusium ; but this is probably a mistake. For the mere punctum 
in the centre is too small an indication of a rather large hilum, and the disposi- 
tion of the cells and whole appearance is that of the apex. 


On Azolla and Salvinia. 259 


The globose capsule has a rugose surface from the pressure of the se- 
condary capsules within ; these are many in number, spherical, attach- 
ed by long capilliform pedicels to a central much branched recep- 
tacle ; each contains two or three cellular masses, presenting on their 
contiguous faces two or three radiciform prolongations. In their 
substance may be seen imbedded numerous yellow grains, the spores. 


The genus Azolla was founded by M. Lamark,* on speci- 
mens without fructification brought from Magellan by M. 
Commerson. M. Jussieu,} as I have stated, considered it a 
congener of Salvinia. 

Willdenowt who quotes Lamark, describes the fructifica- 
tion as ‘‘capsula unilocularis radicalis globosa polysperma 2?” 

It was first accurately defined by Mr. Brown in his 
Prod. Fl. Nov. Holl. ed. 2, p. 22, and subsequently in the 
Appendix to Flinders’ Voyage to Terra Australis, vol. 2, 
p- 611, t. 10, in which it is worthily illustrated by that 
great observer, Ferdinand Bauer. M. Meyen observes of 
these illustrations, that they are so wonderfully complete, 
that repeated examinations since have made scarcely the 
least addition to what is therein represented. ‘To this I 
may add, that M. Bauer has even delineated the trilineal 
mark on the yellow sac, which in itself is quite sufficient to 
shew the real origin and nature of that body. 

It was again described and figured by Martius,§ from 
American specimens. 

It has been observed in an original manner by M. Meyen,]|| 
with whose paper I am acquainted through a translation by 
my friend Mr. Macpherson, Civil Surgeon, Howrah; and 
also by M. Rafinesque, but I have no access to his account. 


* Enc. Meth, 2, p. 343, t. 863, and Suppt. 5, p. 567. 
} Gen. Pl. 5, p. 17. 

t Sp. Pl. 5, p. 644. 

§ Pl. Crypt. Bras. p. 123, t. 74, 75, f. 1. 

|| Nov. Act. Acad, 18, p. 507, t. 38. 


260 On Azolla and Salvinia. 


The character framed by Mr. Brown, leaves as usual, little 
or nothing to be desired. He considers the capsule con- 
taining the yellow sac, etc., to be the male: the other capsule, 
2. e. that containing the pedicelled spherical secondary cap- 
sules, the female. Of the two cited characters, if Imay pre- 
sume to judge, I prefer that of the Prodromus. That of the 
Appendix to Flinders presents some modifications, the most 
important of which appears to be the substitution of ‘‘ In- 
volucrum interius” for ‘“ Capsula communis,” which latter 
term is, I think, very happy. Another regards the substi- 
tution of “ corpuscula” for ‘‘ Antherz ?” unaccompanied how- 
ever by any increased doubt of their being the male organs. 
For this alteration may perhaps be taken as indicating, that 
though sexes may be present, yet the male must not ne- 
cessarily be an antheriform body, which some writers would 
seem to have insisted on.* 

By Martius the pedicellate spherical secondary capsules 
are called “ sporangia,” their contents “ grana,” and the cap- 
sules themselves ‘indusia,”{ these he considers doubt- 
fully the females. The others which he considers with 
equal doubt to be the males, he describes to consist of a 


“6 vesi- 


“calyptra,” subsequently circumcised, containing a 
cula,” on which is placed a three-legged axis bearing semi- 
immersed ‘‘corpuscula,” and adhering to the apex of the 
calyptra. The “grana” or contents of the spherical se- 
condary capsules are stated to be furnished with hairs,} but 
this appears only to apply to the American species. 

The principal aim of M. Meyen’s account is to establish 
a generic difference between the American and Asiatic spe- 


cies, but the genus Rhizosperma, intended to contain the 


* Lind]. Introd. Nat. Ord. p. 407, extr. Mem. Wern. Soc. 

+ His synonym ‘‘ involucrum, R. Br.’’ should have been ‘‘ involucrum in- 
terius ;’’ it has no application to the character in the Prodromus. 

+t See t. 75, f. 14, 18, 19. 


On Azolla and Nalvinia. 261 


Asiatic species, has not been adopted. The principal points 
to be noticed in regard to the fructification are his consider- 
ing (with Mr. Brown,) the calyptrate capsule to be the male 
organ, and the globular capsule containing the pedicelled se- 
condary capsules to be the female; his not having been able 
to ascertain the presence of the yellow sacs, each containing 
four bodies, figured by Martius in the contained masses, (his 
seeds); and his stating that the root-like prolongations are 
confined to their flattened edges, and not, as represented 
by Martius, scattered over the whole surface. M. Meyen’s 
inner calyptra of the male is the nucleary membrane ? 
M. Meyen mentions the original nucleus of the capsules 
containing the pedicellate secondaries, as a pestle-shaped 
body, terminating the column to which they (his partial 
indusia,) are attached. 

The later descriptions of Sprengel and Endlicher are 
compilations. | 

Sprengel* calls the capsules receptacles, and states them 
to be axillary! Some of these are described as transversely 
bilocular, the upper-cell containing triangular bodies attach- 
ed to a common axis, the under-cell containing a mucous 
latex or subsequently a powdery mass. The others which 
are said to be covered by a double membrane! contain 
pedicelled globules, each divided into three triangular 
corpuscles furnished with radicles. 

The best part of this curious character appears to be 
taken from the character in Flinders’s Appendix, and as re- 
gards the contents of the pedicelled secondary capsules, 
from figure 17 of M. Bauer. 

It is, I think, instructive to observe, that with the excep- 
tion of the term receptacula, this character presents no 
analogy with those of the other genera with which it is 
classed: even the similarity of the pedicelled spherical 


* Gen. Pl. 2, p. 716, No. 3604, 


262 On Azolla and Salvinia. 


secondary capsules with those of Salvinia, the genus imme- 


diately preceding it, is not noticed. 

M. Endlicher’s* character is obviously derived from that 
of Martius; one difference being his applying the term 
columella, (the columnula of the organum calyptratum of 
Martius,) to the three-legged axis of this botanist ; another 
his stating the lobes attached to it to be antheriform.+ 


* Gen. Pl. p. 67, No. 688. 

+ In Mr. Hervey’s Genera of S. African Plants, I find a character of this 
genus taken from Kaulfuss, but it would be impossible to identify the genus 
without the synonymy. 

The terms used in most of the characters, except those of Mr. Brown, are in 
several instances unintelligible, as generally is the case when a name is made to 
pass for an explanation, or when the application of a name is founded on mis- 
taken ideas of the nature or analogies of certain parts. In the late work on 
Genera by M. Endlicher, I find the terms indusium, calyptra, and columella, all 
in use. And in anote, other general analogies are so extended as to refer one of 
the organs to the type of a ‘‘ flos monadelphus ovario infero.”’ 

Now of the terms above cited, there appears to me only one, (calyptra,) 
capable of legitimate application, but only as far as regards mechanical function. 
The difference otherwise is very great ; for in Azolla the calyptra is nothing more 
than what is presented by every dehiscentia circumscissa of a fruit, and is limited 
to one only of the capsules ; while in Mosses and all calyptrate Hepatice, it is 
the pistillum displaced from its base at a remarkably early period. A more real 
analogy of this part in Azolla is to be found, perhaps, in the seed of Lemnacee 
during germination. 

The term indusium is applied to the capsule itself, whereas, correctly speak- 
ing, it is only applicable to a covering of capsules of a partial or general na- 
ture derived from the surface of the foliaceous body or frond, on which the cap- 
sules are situated. This term indusium, which should be distinguished from 
involucrum, is at most only applicable to Azolla. 

A columella is the remains of an originally continuous, solid, celle aatie. 
unaffected during the development of the spores ; it is a continuation either of 
a partial or a specialaxis. It may, I believe, be justly considered analogous to 
the connectivum of a bilocular anther, or the cellular tissue between the 
cavities of a plurilocular anther. In Azolla it does not appear to be even solid. 

It may be seen also, that the same character gives an indusium to one, acalyp- 
tra to the other body, while the application of the term calyptra ceases to be 
even mechanically correct from being applied to the whole capsule. 


On Azolla and Salvinia. 263 


The genus Salvinia is said to have been first established 
by Micheli.* He considered the papilliform hairs on the 
surface of the leaves to be apetalous flowers ; a curious idea, 
since the hairs themselves, which he calls filaments, are ex- 
pressly stated to be without anthers, “ scilicet filamento apice 
destituto.” The spiral nature attributed to them is due 
to a mistaken view of their articulations. 

Linnzusy{ referred it to Marsilea ; the generic description 
of which is derived as regards his male-fiowers from Salvinia, 
and as regards his female-flower, from Marsilea itself. But 
_his views of the parts of the male-flower do not quite coin- 
cide with those of Micheli, as he describes with greater con- 
sistency, but not accuracy, the filaments as anthers, and the 
papilla from which they arise as filament (or receptacle). 

Aublet’st description of the filaments is much the same 
as that of Micheli, but he expresses doubt of their being 
the male organs. The capsules are described by him as 
germina. He appears to have only noticed the smaller in- 
definite secondary capsules,§ which he describes as seeds. 
The species is represented as having emerged erect fructifi- 
cation, and the capsules as being bivalved. 

Jussieu|| in adopting Salvinia of Micheli refers to it 
Marsilea of Linneus and Azolla of Lamark. His character 
is derived almost entirely from Micheli. ‘The flowers are 
stated to be monoicous ; the view taken of the males is much 
the same as that of Micheli, but the specification of the 
analogous parts is avoided. It is suggested that the males 
will rather be found to have some connection with the cap- 
sule than the leaves. 

In Schreber’s§ character, (probably owing to Guettard 
whose account I have not been able to consult,) a considera- 
ble step is made in advance, the difformity of the organs be- 


* Nov. Gen, p. 107, t. 58. 

+ Genera Plantarum, ed. 6 Holmiz, 1764, p. 560, No. 1182. 

¢ Hist. des Pl. de la Guiane, p. 969, t. 367. 

§ See Pl. 367, f. 5, 6. || Gen. Pl. p.16. Gen. Pl. ed. 8, p. 969, No. 1617. 
2M 


264: On Azolla and Salvinia. 


ing recognised. ‘The capsules constitute his calyx; those 
containing the indefinite mass-containing secondary capsules 
being his male flowers. Their pedicels are the filaments ; 
the capsules themselves his anthers. The other capsules 
are the females; their secondary capsules are his germina, 
and the analogy is carried so far as to suppose, though with 
some doubt, the existence of a stigma. The germina become 
the seeds, though the pericarpium is stated to be present! 

It is stated in a note, that the above males and females are 
distinguishable even in the dried plants by the size of the 
grains they contain. The male-flowers are described as 
glomeruled round a central solitary female. 

Willdenow* after quoting Schreber, describes the capsules 
as composed of imbricated connate indusia. The difformity 
of their contents is passed over entirely. The capsules are 
described for seeds ! 

Lamark} appears to have entertained still another view, for 
in his generic character, (0. c. p. 484,) the stamina are stated 
to be situated on the capsules, which are said to be in pairs. In 
his description of S. natans no mention is made of any dif- 
formity in the contents of the capsules, nor is it to be gather- 
ed from his remarks on any of the other species in the Sup- 
plement, that he was aware of it. The figures C. D., however, 
of the Illustrations obviously represent the two forms of the 
mature organs. 

In the Flore Francaise of Lamark and Decandolle,t the 
same views are entertained as in the Encyclopédie. 

In the Dictionaire des Sciences Naturelles,§ the same opi- 
nions are adhered to, and it is to be gathered from it, that 
the hairs on the capsules are the stamina of Lamark. 

Sprengel,|| describes the capsules as receptacles, the se- 
condary capsules as sporangia. He is also silent regarding 
the important point of their dissimilarity. 


* Sp. Pl. 5, pt. 2, p. 536, No. 1985. + Enc. Meth, Illustr. Pl. 863. 
+ 2, p. B79. § 47, p. 149. || Gen. Pl. p. 716, No. 3603. 


On Azolla and Salvinia. 965 


Martius* calls the capsules indusia, the indefinite mass- 
containing secondary capsules he doubtfully considers sporan- 
gia ; the others he calls sporangia, their contents a germinating 
gongylus. (This gongylus Martius states to be the seed of 
Schreber, which I have rather considered to be the secondary 
capsule. This appears to me indicated by the statement of the 
pericarpium being absent.) The part to which the secondary 
capsules are attached he calls columnula. He notices the 
articulated granule-containing filaments found among the 
radicles, which he describes as spongioliform. 

Endlicher’s} character is much the same as that of Martius, 
but without as much reservation regarding the nature of the 
organs. The contents of the larger sac-containing secondary 
capsules, which he considers the females, is stated to be a 
solid spore; of the others, (doubtful males,) a mucilaginous 
matter. In a note he inclines to regard these as abortive 
sporangia. 

These are all the accounts which I have been able to 
consult. It appears to me singular, that the dissimilarity of 
the organs so specially noticed by Schreber, should have 
been overlooked by subsequent authors, prior to the ap- 
pearance of Martius’s beautiful work. It is, moreover, 
adverted to by Mr. Brown,} who also notices the analogy 
between the seeds of Guettard and Schreber, (the sac-con- 
taining secondary capsules,) and the supposed male organs of 
Azolla. This analogy is reversed by Martius and Endlicher. 


The germination of these sac-containing secondary capsules 
has been observed by M. Vaucher§ and from Eindlicher’s|| 
remarks it would appear to have been also observed by 


* Pl. Crypt. Bras. p. 128, t. 76, 75. f. 2. 

+ Gen. Pl. p. 67, No. 689. 

¢ Prodr, Fl. Nov, Holl, ed. 2. p. 23 in. obs. 

§ Ann. Mus. Hist Nat. 18, p- #04, t. 21, No. 1. 
|| Gen. Pl. loc, cit. 


266 On Azolla and Salvinia. 


others. M. Vaucher, seems to have been unaware of the 
existence of any other organs: although the indefinite mass- 
containing secondary capsules appear to be represented by the 
right hand figure of f.3. The circumstance that fixes the ger- 
mination to have been observed in these particular secondary 
capsules, (otherwise it would be an open question,) is the ex- 
planation of fig. 5, and this figure itself. For the teeth there 
mentioned and depicted only exist in these particular se- 
condary capsules. But there is nothing to fix the exact 
nature of the three teeth, which may either be those of the 
incrustation, as is most probable, or the interlinear spaces of 
the vertex of the yellow sac. 


The accompanying table will shew the opinions regarding 
the locus naturalis of the family composed of these two ge- 
nera. I consider the association of these plants in a tribe 
with Isoeteze and Lycopodinee to be untenable.* The 
classification of Reichenbach is remarkable. 


1804, ,Lamark. Naiades. 
1810, 2 B Marsileacez, (Rhizo-|Pilularia, Marsilea, Salvinia, 
1814, § oe sperme, Roth, D.| Azolla. 
C.*) (ord. nat.) 

1828, |Reichenbach.|Musci. Gongylobrya.| Ricciez, Salviniacee. 
(Formatio. ) 

1830, |Bartling. Rhizocarpe. Batsch. | Salviniacez, Marsileacez, Isoe- 
(class. ) tex. 

1831, |Sprengel. Rhizosperme, D.C. | Marsilea, Pilularia, Salvinia, 
Azolla, Isoetes. 

1836, |Lindley. Lycopodales. (alliance.)| Lycopodinee (including Iso- 
etes,) Marsileacez, Salvinia- 
cee. 

1836, |Endlicher. Hydropterides (class.) | Salviniacee, Marsileacez. 


* De Candolle does not include Isoetee in his Rhizospermee. See Fl. Franc. 
2, p. 5TT-579. 
Aublet places Salvinia in the Linnean Cryptogamia Alga. 


On Azolla and Salvinia. 267 


EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 
AZOLLA PINNATA. 


Pl. xv. 


(Male Organs and Development and fecundation of the Female Organs, ) 


12. 


13. 


(Ovula.) 


. Pair of organs (ovula,) with the involucrum somewhat 


reflexed. 


. Another pair rather more advanced; involucrum re- 


moved. 


. One of these magnified, about 400 times. 
. Ovulum considerably more advanced, 250 times. 
. A pair of the same more advanced: under slight 


pressure. 


. Fully developed ovulum, in this instance no filaments 


were found connected with it, but grume is represented 
projecting from the foramen. 


. Fellow ovulum, burst accidentally ; about 300 times. 


The filaments passing out through the rupture were 
noted to be apparently continuous with some of those 
projecting from the foramen. 


. Another ovulum, the filaments are seen plainly passing 


into the cavity, which was partly filled with their 
disconnected joints, 300 times. 


. Confervoid filaments ; undergoing certain changes while 


attached to the axis, 550 times. 


. Pair of fully developed ovula. 
- Right hand one of the same pair, the space inside is 


filled with the disjointed component parts of the pro- 
truding filaments. 

Pair of rather more developed ovula, the left hand one 
burst accidentally ; both seen under pressure. The 
protuberances round the base of the nucleus distinct- 
ly seen, also the paraphysiform bodies, the vascular 
supplies of the ovula, and in the right hand one the 
disposition of the component cells of the previously 
continuous filaments. Both shew the first change 
that occurs in the nucleus, and both would have been 
calyptrate capsules ; 200 times. 

Another a little more advanced, burst and under pres- 
sure. 


16. 


We 


18. 19. 


14. 
13. 


On Azolla and Salvinia. 


Fellow of the same, the grains, (disconnected joints of 
the filaments,) have all passed out by pressure, and 
the space between the nucleus and the foramen is 
consequently empty. In both the early development 
of the future yellow sac is attempted to be shewn. 

Part of a confervoid filament found about the base of 
this pair, 550 times. 

Grains contained in the same: in fig. 19 these appear 
as if inclined to coalesce ; 550 times. 

Another more advanced. 

Fellow of the same, as usual a little more advanced : in 
this the yellow sac was sufficiently distinct, and the 
condensed points, the first step in the development of 
the lobes, had also made their appearance; 200 times. 


Pl. xvi. , 


(Development and mature state of the sac-containing capsule. ) 


Fig. 1. Young capsule, filaments still protruding from the fo- 


ramen ; this belongs to the second kind of formation : 
it is a fellow of No. 4. 


. Another of about the same period, with some para- 


physiform bodies round its base. 


. A pair rather more advanced: the membrane of the 


(yellow) sac is now being developed; to the right 
hand one confervoid filaments are seen adhering. 


. Fellow of No. 1, represents the development of the 


yellow sac, and the appearance of the condensed 
points within the nucleus above the (yellow) sac. 


. Another similar one, more advanced. 
- Do. do. still more advanced : this is intended to repre- 


sent that step of the development when the (yellow) 
sac is crowned with a cap of grume, presenting nu- 
merous condensed points, or nuclei. 


. Another still more advanced, under slight pressure : the 


grains (disconnected joints of the filaments) have 
almost disappeared, a membrane is developed round 
the condensed points, (or nuclei:) the (yellow) sac is 
collapsed accidentally. 


. Represents the (yellow) sac and its crowning mass de- 


tached, parts displaced : (yellow) sac collapsed. In- 


} eS aie ae ae = =— vs 


17. 


On AZolla and Salvinia. 269 


tended to shew that there are more membranes deve- 
loped in the crowning grume than there are subse- 
quent lobes, there being in this, on one surface, no 
less than 7. 


. (Yellow) sac and capping grume with its condensed 


points, at a stage intermediate between fig. 6 and 7. 


. (Yellow) sac alone. 

. The same, burst on the trilineal-marked surface. 

. Lower persistent parts of a pair of calyptrate capsules. 
. Contents of one of the same, as they separate with the 


calyptra. 


. Calyptra detached. 
. Contents without the calyptra, to which they adhere 


by the cup-shaped mass of radicello-fibrous tissue at 
the apex : nucleary membrane (or secondary capsule) 
removed. 


. Contents without the calyptra, and without the nu- 


cleary membrane : lobes somewhat displaced. 


. (Yellow) sac, and its incrustation removed, shewing the 


trilineal mark on its vertex. 


. Part of the incrustation. 

. One of the lobes, pulled off. 

. One of the radicular fibres, 550 times. 

. (Yellow) sac. 

. The same burst, and emptied of most of its contents. 


Pl. xvii. 


(Development of the other kind of capsules and their contents, part copied 


or 


Pm © ND = 


from Mr. Bauer’s drawing. ) 


. Young capsule. 

. Nucleus and basilar protuberances detached. 

. The same magnified, about 300 times. 

. Nucleus and basilar protuberances of another more 


developed young capsule. 


. One of the lowest or least developed protuberances, 


(very young secondary capsule. ) 


. Another more advanced. 
. Ditto still more advanced. 
. Ditto ditto. 


11. 


12. 
13. 


14. 
19. 


16. 
17. 18. 


19. 
20. 
oi. 
(22: 
| 2s. 
| 24. 
4 25. 


From Fd. 
Bauer. 


| 26 
(27 


On Azolla and Salvinia. 


. Ditto ditto in connection with curious, jointed, often 


very irregular bodies, the history of which was not 


traced. — 

Young secondary capsule more advanced: burst by 
pressure. Young trifacial cells shewn in the escap- 
ed grume. 

One of these trifacial cells, about 500 times. 

Portion of the contents of one of these secondary cap- 
sules, shewing the parent cells, and enclosed (trifacial 
cells) or spores: only observed once; 300 times. 

Young secondary capsule, for the most part filled with 
grume and (yellow) trifacial cells. 

Ditto more advanced : the primary masses are being 
developed. 

Trifacial cells (spores) detached from the same. 

Fully developed secondary capsule: containing 3 masses 
in which the spores are imbedded. , 

Secondary capsules, surface view. 

Masses of the same. 

A mass detached. 

Portion of a plant, (natural size.) 

The same magnified. 

Contents of the calyptrate capsule, calyptra removed. 

Longitudinal section of body crowning the (yellow) 

sac, (upper loculus of Brown.) 

. One of the other kind of secondary capsules, cut across. 

. One of the masses of the same under two aspects. 


SALVINIA VERTICILLATA. 


Pl. xviii. 


(Development of the Organs, (Ovula,) and of the indefinite mass-containing 
secondary capsules and their contents, trifacial cells (or spores. ) 


Fig. 1 


2. 


3. 


. Apex of a reproductive-organ-bearing axis with one 
somewhat developed ovulum, and one in a much 
earlier state, 7. e. before the appearance even of the 
tegument. Both, from their situation, would have 
contained the spherical mass-containing secondary 
capsules. 

A young organ (ovulum) under pressure, it is the small 
one of No. 4. 
Another rather more advanced. 


ge Be a 


—- Ae 


5. 6. 


22. 


23. 


24, 


On Azolla and Salvinia. 271 


. An organ (ovulum) in its perfect state, with a much 


younger one (No. 2) at its base. The supposed fe- 
cundating matter shewn in application to the foramen. 

An organ much less advanced: 5 is a longitudinal 
section. 


. Another in its perfect state: the jointed obtuse fila- 


ments are what I take to be the male organs. The 
supposed fecundating matter shewn in contact with 
the foramen. It was also noted to have appeared to fill 
the space in the organ between the nucleus and the 
foramen. 


. Young capsule under pressure to shew the nucleus, 


now a mass of young secondary capsules. 


. Nucleus (or mass of young secondary capsules) of the 


Same. 


. 11, 12. 13. 14. Represent the first developments of these 


secondary capsules. 


. 16. 17. 18. Continuation of the developments, ending in 


the presence of a larger cavity filled with grume in 
the secondary capsule. 


. Long section of a capsule more advanced. 
. One of its secondary capsules at that stage, when the 


cavity is occupied by uniform grume. 


. Another intended to exhibit the next step, z. ¢. the ap- 


pearance of points of condensation (or nuclei.) 

Another more advanced: the parts of the circumference 
of the grume between the radiating lines have a ten- 
dency, (shewn by iodine,) to the production of mem- 
brane (parent-cells ?) 

Represents a young secondary, with its cavity only 
partly filled with grume, in which two condensed 
points (nuclei) are visible. 

Another about the same period, a considerable num- 
ber of membranous sacs (parent cells?) visible in the 
grume. 


. Another about the same period. 
}. Ditto more advanced, the membranes, (parent cells ?) 


more developed. 


. Another still more advanced; at this stage the cavity 


is filled partly or entirely with grume, in which are 
imbedded a number of distinct trifacial cells, the 
young spores. 

2N 


272 


On Azolla and Salvinia. 


Pl.» xix. 


(The development of the sac-containing secondary capsules. ) 


Fig. 1. 


2. 


13, 


15. 
16. 


17h 


18. 


19, 


Capsule. 

One of its secondary capsules, the cell in the centre of 
the grume is the young (subsequently yellow) sac ; 
those between the central grume, and the inner sur- 
face of the capsule are young trificials, (abortive 
spores.) 


. Another secondary of the same capsule rather more 


advanced. 


. Another, still more advanced. 
. The central cell, young (subsequently yellow,) sac de- 


tached; trilineally marked surface. 


. Portion of the grumous contents of No. 4, shewing 


parent cells developing, and fully formed, and two 
young spores. 


. Confervoid filaments attached to the outside of the 


capsule of No. 4; about 500 times. 


. A young secondary still more advanced, but with the 


central cell abortive, appearing in its original state of 
a grumous condensation or nucleus. 


. 10. 11. Parent cells squeezed out of the grume of the 


same secondary capsule. 

Another secondary capsule still more developed : cen- 
tral cell (subsequently yellow) sac much more de- 
veloped ; the surrounding grume much diminished. 

14. Part of the more fluid grumous contents of the 
same: 14. represents what appears to be trifacials 
just separating : this was only observed once. 

Central sac of No. 12. 

Another secondary capsule rather more advanced, the 
central sac now commences to assume a yellowish 
tint. 

Another more advanced, shews the mammilla in the 
vertex of the central (yellowish) sac, appearing to 
pass off into a thin grumous lining of the cavity of 
the sac. ° 

Sac of the same; trilineally marked face. 

Another more advanced: perhaps represents the deve- 
lopment of the three lobes subsequently crowning 
the (yellow) sac. .4nalogy with Azoolla ? 


oe = 


20. 
21. 


On Azolla and Salvinia. 273 


Vertex of the (yellow) sac of the same. 
Another surface of the same, intended to represent the 
cellular appearance. 


Pl. xx. 


(Salvinia verticillata and cucullata, the completion of the development of 
the spherical mass-containing secondaries, and the perfect state of the 
(yellow) sac-containing secondary capsules of the first species. ) 


Fig. 1. 


2. Spherical mass-containing secondaries at the time 

when the trifacials become contained in grumous 
projections from the inner surface of the secondary 
capsules, which projections subsequently coalesce 
into a mass. 


. Salvinia verticillata, (natural size.) 
. Capsule containing the indefinite, simply pedicellate, 


spherical, mass-containing secondaries. 


. The same opened naturally. 
. Some of the secondary capsules and part of the re- 


ceptacle. 


. Superficial view of one of the secondaries. 
. Another view of the same ; centre in focus. 


9. Portion of the secondary capsule, shewing the separa- 


12. 


tion of the component cells. 


. A mass. 
. The same under pressure, to shew the imbedded trifacial 


cells or spores. 
A nearly mature sac-containing secondary capsule. 


. Contents of the same. 


Another view, shews the central attaching (?) process 
between the lobes of the vertex. 


. Same, (vertex in view,) lobes somewhat displaced to 


shew the trilineal mark. 


. Mature capsule. 

. Same, long section. 

. Contents of the same. 

. Contents of one of its secondaries. 
. Cross section of the same. 

21. 


Salvinia cucullata, natural size. 


All the figures, (with a few exceptions mentioned,) more or less mag- 
nified : reduced for the most part from (measured) sketches made un- 
der }, 1-16th objectives of an achromatic microscope, by Ross. 


Description of four species of Fishes from the Rivers at the 
foot of the Boutan Mountains. By J. M‘CLELLANp. 


Several species from the Boutan mountains have been 
described in the notice of Mr. Griffith’s collections, made 
during the Embassy of Captain Pemberton, &c. in the se- 
cond volume of this Journal, p. 586. 

Mr. A. Campbell, Superintendent of Darjeeling, favoured 
me with two species from Darjeeling, noticed in the second 
volume, p. 148. 

Mr. D. C. Russell, of the Bengal Civil Service, favoured 
me with a species from the same quarter, which has been 
noticed p. 427, vol. 1. 

It remains upon the present occasion to describe three 
species subsequently received from Mr. A. Campbell, and 
which would have been noticed earlier, but that I have been 
waiting in hopes of receiving a regularly selected collection 
from that quarter, such as might afford materials for a paper 
on the subject of suitable interest and importance. 

Before going further, it is necessary in the first instance 
to offer a few remarks on Mr. Russell’s specimens, of the 
Ground Fish of Boutan, or, as it has been called, inaccurate- 
ly I suspect, the dura Chang. This species belongs to the 
same well known genus, with a small fish known in some 
parts of Bengal under the native name Lazéa, in other places 
called Chang. The Boutan ground fish is so much like the 
Chang, that ordinary observers would only distinguish it as 
considerably larger; hence I conceive the term bura Chang 
to be only a corruption of bura (large) Chang. In my 
former remarks on the subject, the species was considered 
to be the same as Ophicephalus barca, Buch. I now 
consider it to be a distinct species, which may be named and 
described as follows :— 


Four species of Fishes from the Rivers, Sc. 215 


OPHICEPHALUS AMPHIBEUS, (J. M.) vol. i. Pl. xi. fi 3. 
Bura Chang. 


In addition to the general characters of the genus, the fins are 
dark, and the sides marked with twenty-four alternately dark and 
whitish transverse bars. The length is equal to eight diameters 
of the body taken at the pectoral fins. The ventral fins are small 
and soft, the dorsal and anal broad, the former commencing on the 
back just above the pectorals. The fin rays are 

P, 14: D. 48: V. 5: A. 34: C. 13. 

When alive, the dark sombre colours are relieved by minute 
dots of vermillion and smalt blue, dispersed indiscriminately over 
the upper parts of the body and sides, more particularly about the 
head. 


This species is very nearly allied to Ophicephalus nigrt- 
cans, Cuv. et Val. from which it differs in containing two 
rays less in the dorsal fin. 7 

When noticing this subject on a former occasion, vol. i. 
p- 427, the circumstance of Buchanan Hamilton having 
twenty years ago announced the fact of certain species of 
this genus inhabiting holes in the perpendicular banks of the 
Bramaputra, near Goalpara, was pointed out. The holes he 
says, were those frequented by certain birds, and consequent- 
ly raised high above the water. Other species of this genus, 
(says the same author,) are found on the grass after heavy 
showers of rain, and that too at a distance from water, so as 
to be reckoned amongst those fishes which the natives of 
India, together with many Europeans, believe to fall from 
heaven with rain.— See Gangetic Fishes, pp. 67-8. 

As to the species here described, Mr. Russell observes, 
that it is found in the vicinity of the Chail river, one of the 
tributaries of the Teesta at the foot of the Boutan mountains; 
sometimes it is met with as much as two miles from the bank 
of the river, where it penetrates into holes in the ground. 
From these it probably emerges when the ground is inundat- 


276 Four species of Fishes from the 


ed during heavy rain, like the species of this genus so fre- 
quently found on the surface of the earth, as if they had 
fallen from the clouds. 

The natives of Boutan know so well the ground in which 
to find these fish, that they dig them out from their holes in 
the following manner: a stick is passed into the suspected 
hole, and the earth raised sometimes to a depth of nineteen 
feet. When water makes its appearance the operations are 
suspended, and a little cow-dung is dropped into the well, 
this attracts the fish from their hiding place into the well, 
when they are easily secured. They are said to be usually 
found in pairs, each fish weighing about 4 lbs., and some- 
times as much as two feet in length. 

Such is the account given of the habits of this species by 
Mr. Russell, and I have already adverted to the statements 
of Buchanan Hamilton on the same subject, together with 
the popular opinion of the people of the country and of 
Europeans, forming together a body of evidence not to be 
questioned. 

Dr. A. Campbell, Superintendent of Darjeeling, in a paper, 
(in the xi. vol. Jour. As. Soc. p. 963,) which I only refer to 
for the inadvertence with which it is written, without con- 
sulting the opinions of others, seems to regard the fore- 
going account of the habits of the bura Chang, as if 
it were calculated to excite, (to use his own words,) 
either “ an unenquiring and implicit credence, or wonder, 
without any lasting impression of the matter narrated, or 
sceptical disbelief.” 

In a recent visit to Boutan, Dr. Campbell states, that he 
learnt on enquiry, that the bura Chang or, as he names it 
the bura Chang, is not found on the right bank of the Teesta.* 


* This, if not depending on some local cause, which ought to have been stated, 
would be far more incredible than any thing else that has been advanced upon 
the subject. 


Rivers at the foot of the Boutan Mountains. 277 


It inhabits jheels and slow running streams near the hills, 
living principally in the banks, into which it penetrates 
from one foot to six. The ‘tubes’ leading from the water 
into the banks, are generally a few inches below the surface 
of the water,* and are consequently filled with water, and 
terminate in a basin where the fish remains. The usual 
mode of catching them is by introducing the hand into these 
recesses under the water, two fish are generally found to- 
gether, and they lie coiled up horizontally like a wheel. 
It is not believed that they bore their own holes, but that 
they occupy the abandoned locations of land crabs. When 
in the water-pools or streams, they always remain close to 
the margin, and constantly move out and into their holes. 
** They never leave the water, nor can they move on grass 
more than any other fish.” 

Under an impression, perhaps, that no fish are formed 
to live out of water, Dr. Campbell may have thought it 
necessary to obtain the foregoing information, in order to 
reconcile with his own views, what appeared to him to be 
an exception to a general law of nature. But there are eight 
genera of the same family of fishes to which the bura Chang 
belongs, all specially formed for an amphibious mode of life. 
They constitute what Cuvier calls, the family of Labrynthi- 
form Pharangeals, from the circumstance of their pharangeal 
bones being formed into a kind of honeycomb, for the reten- 
tion of a supply of water to enable them to live in dry places. 

The following is the account of the family in question, as 
given by the Baron Cuvier in the Histoire Naturelles des 
Poissons :— 

“The family of which we are about to afford a history, is 
remarkable for a peculiar structure, which consists of a 
division into leaflets of a portion of the pharangeal bones. 


* This we should suppose would depend on the season and state of the river, 
as hill streams rise and fall so continually, that they never can be said to have 
any fixed level. 


278 Four species of Fishes from the 


This division produces a number of little cells more or less 
complicated, and calculated to retain a certain quantity of 
water; they are a good deal like the cells in the stomach of 
the camel. This apparatus is formed under the arches of 
the operculum, and being pressed closely against the body 
when the fish is removed from the water, a sufficient quanti- 
ty of that fluid is thus retained free from evaporation, and in 
contact with the gills, to protect them from drought. Hence 
the fishes of this family, whose habits we have any account 
of, all seem to be capable of quitting the rivers and tanks in 
which they ordinarily reside, and frequently make excursions 
to great distances by jumping along the grassy surface of 
dry land.” 

Hence we see, that Mr. Russell’s account of the dura 
Chang, is only in accordance with the known habits of the 
family to which it belongs, and however extraordinary it may 
seem, does not require to be bolstered up by any such explan- 
ations as those of Dr. Campbell. Nature herself is the best 
monitor in such cases. Mr. Pearson incommunicating Mr. 
Russell’s account of the bura Chang to the Asiatic Society, 
considered it to be of such a novel* nature, as to deserve 
on that account the peculiar attention of that learned body. 
Now as to the novelty, which the Society took for granted! 

‘‘What is most astonishing,” says Baron Cuvier, ‘ and 
what some naturalists of the present day ought to be ashamed 
of, these habits were known to the ancients.” 

Theophrastus in his Treatise on Fishes which live without 
water says, that there exist in India certain fishes which 
leave the rivers for a time, and return to them again; that 
they resemble those which the Greeks call uvétvoe, that is to 
say, mullets. “ There may be some doubt,” says Baron Cuvier, 
‘fas to whether this refers to our Anabas, or rather perhaps 


* Journ. As. Soc. Beng. 1839, vol. viii, p. 551, and Cal. Jour. Nat. Hist. 
vol. i, p. 427. 


Rivers at the foot of the Boutan Mountains. 279 


to Ophicephalus, which both have the head broad and ob- 
tuse, and covered with scales as the mullets.” In another 
place, Cuvier remarks, when speaking of Ophicephalus, that 
*‘ Theophrastus, as we have already stated, was acquainted 
with these singular fishes; for it is evident to those who 
are acquainted with the passage of this philosopher which 
we have cited, that there are in India certain fishes resem- 
bling mullets, which spend a portion of their time in the 
earth.” Again in another work, (the last edition of the Régne 
Animal, vol. ii,) the same illustrious author remarks in 
a note, that the fishes alluded to by Theophrastus, most in- 
contestibly belong to the genus Ophicephalus. 

Thus it would appear, that what was communicated to, and 
received by the Asiatic Society in 1839 as new, and four 
years after questioned as improbable in the publications 
of the same Society, was well known to the ancients, and 
so far from being improbable, is as I have here proved by a 
reference to one of the greatest modern philosophers, to be 
perfectly consistent with the order of nature. 

The history of this species may be useful, as tending to 
remind us, how liable we are to retrograde in these things. 


Two undescribed species of Barbel, and a non-described 
genus of Chetodon. 


The large-scaled barbels of India are conveniently divided 
into such as have a smooth, and such as have a denticulated 
spine to the dorsal fin. Six large-scaled species of this genus 
having the dorsal spine smooth, are described, vol. xix, As. 
Res. Of these, five are remarkable for the great length 
of the head. The sixth, an Assam species, there called 
Bokhar, although having the head short, has only 27 scales 
along the lateral line. A seventh is mentioned on the 
authority of Buchanan in the work alluded to, where it is 
stated in a note, that I had not myself met with it. Since 
20 


ow 


280 Four species of Fishes from the 


then, in a collection from China, I met with a species with 
short head and smooth dorsal spine, which I believed to be 
Buchan’s Cyprinus putitora; the scales of this were still 
larger than those of the Bokhar, being only 25 in number 
on the lateral line. 

The following species differs from both, in having 32 
scales on that line. 


2. BARBUS SPINULOSUS. (J. M.) Pl. xxi. fi 3. 


Descr.—The length of the head is equal to a fourth part of the 
length of the body. The eyes are placed anterior to the middle 
of the head, the back is little arched, and the dorsal commences 
mid-way between the end of the nose and commencement of the tail 
fin. The three first rays of the dorsal are closely united, the third 
spinous ray is straight, and more slender than usual in this genus. 
It is shorter than the succeeding soft ray. The muzzle is short and 
smooth ; there are 32 scales along the lateral line, the fin rays are, 


6 
P.16:D.5:V.9: A. 9: C3. 
7 


Colour olive green above, white below, the fins are all pale. 
Length of the spceimen 7 inches. 


Hazit.—Rivers at the foot of Sikkim Mountains on the northern 
frontier of Bengal. 


3. BARBUS CLAVATUS. (J. M.) Pl. xxi. fi 2. 
Cyprinus chagunio, Buch. The large spined Barbel. 


In the As. Res. vol. x1x, the characters of this species 
are given on the authority of Buchanan. Not having met 
with it, I conceived from that author’s description, that it 
might be a variety of the spotted Barbel, B. spilopholus. 

The collection now before us, affords however, a very 
distinct species, which I believe to be the Cyprinus chagunio, 
Buch. 


Descr.—The depth of the body is equal to + of the length, mouth 
slightly cleft, muzzle short and covered with small thorny tuber- 


Rivers at the foot of the Boutan Mountains. 281 


cles; the eyes are large and placed midway between the muzzle and 
operculum. The back ascends from the nape to the dorsal, leaving 
a narrow ridge in front of that fin; the third dorsal spine is large, 
and equal in length to the depth of the body, and serrated behind. 
The fin rays are 


3 
P. 16: D, 2: V..10: A. ae C. 


aI sl© 


There are 42 scales along the lateral line, and 114 in an oblique 
row from the base of the ventrals to the dorsal, colour blue above, 
lower parts white; the fins are pale bluish white. Length 7 inches. 


Hazir.—Rivers at the foot of the Sikkim Mountains on the nor- 
thern frontier of Bengal. 


Tribe, Squammipennes, Cuv.—Fam. Chemslon Cuv. 
CTENOPS, N. Gen. Nob. 


_ Gen. Cuar.—Head acute, dorsal small, placed far back 
on the latter third of the back, anal long, the lower margin 
of the preoperculum denticulated, anterior suborbitar bone 
forming the side of the rostrum, is large and denticulated 
below. 

Oxzs.—The intestines are about the length of the body, 
and present two large cecal appendages. 

The teeth are placed in partial tufts, or two incomplete 
rows on the margins of the intermaxillaries, which are very 
protractile. No teeth on the vomer or palatines. 

There is but one species known. 


CTENOPS NOBILIS, (J. M.) Pl. xxi. f. 1. 


Descr.—The back is obliquely raised almost in a straight line, 
from the head to the dorsal, which is placed near the tail. Head de- 
pressed, rostrum elongated, the operculum smooth-edged behind, 
with a soft projecting scaly point directed backward, the ventrals 
are preceded by a sharp spine. The fin rays are 


6 1 4 
i: 12: D. «> V.e: Az: C. 16. 


7 
Colour mottled grey, with some bright silvery spots. 


282 The late Dr. Malcolmson. . 


Haxsit.—The rivers at the Sikkim passes on the northern frontier 


of Bengal. 


We are indebted to the kindness of Mr. Campbell Superintendent 
of Darjeeling, for the three last specimens. They were received two 
years since, and a description of them only withheld in hopes of 
receiving further accessions from the same quarter. 


The late Dr. J. G. Matcotmson, F. R. S., G. S. 


Since the appearance of the last number of this Journal, the 
death of J. G. Malcolmson, Esq. of Bombay, has been announced in 
the public prints. Mr. M. belonged formerly to the Madras Medical. 
Service, which like the Medical Service generally in India, rarely 
affords scope for men of enterprising character and talent. Mr. 
Malcolmson after having distinguished himself as a medical officer 
by the publication of an Essay on Berri Beri, and several geological 
and other papers, became Secretary to the Medical Board of Madras. 

He vacated this office, and availed himself of furlough to Europe, 
where he further distinguished himself by the discovery of fossil 
fishes in the old red sandstone of his native country in the north 
of Scotland, as well as by several communications to the Geological 
and other Societies of which he was elected member. He also 
formed upon that occasion an extensive connection with the princi- 
pal scientific men of London and Paris, with whom he continued 
afterwards to correspond till the period of his death. He resigned 
the Honorable Company’s Service, we believe, before he was entitled 
to any pension, and joined the mercantile house of Forbes and Co. 
of Bombay. Amidst the cares of mercantile pursuits, he still kept up 
his scientific correspondence, and found time to devote a portion of 
his energies to scientific occupations. He became Secretary to the 
Bombay branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, and was one of the chief 
supporters and original projecters of a valuable Quarterly Journal 
published by that Institution at Bombay. Mr. Malcolmson possessed 
a high degree of public.spirit and enterprize, directed by a sound 
judgment. He was always foremost in undertaking, works of 
utility, aiding them no less by his example and intelligence, than by 


Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory, 283 


his own private resources and means. In all this, he ever appeared 
to hold himself in the back ground, and rather seemed to advocate 
and promote the objects and views of others, than his own. No man 
however, had a better sense of what was due to himself, as he 
occasionally proved on his natural generosity of character being 
misunderstood. He was one of the ablest and best friends of this 
journal, and shortly before his death we had a communication 
from him on the subject of Isinglass, on the introduction of which 
to the English market from Bombay, he was bestowing much 
attention. 

This, however, is only one of the numerous objects of public in- 
terest that will suffer by his loss. Mr. Malcolmson died, we 
believe, in the prime of life, from a fever contracted it is said, dur- 
ing an excursion for some scientific object, the particulars of which 
we have not heard. 


peespierent olyections to the Glacial Theory. By Capt. Tuos. 
Hurron. Bengal Army. 


The figure of the earth, and the traces which its strata present 
of a former elevated temperature, have long since given rise to the 
opinion, that our planet. has gradually and insensibly cooled down 
from a state of intense heat; and certainly without deeming it 
necessary to admit, that the material elements of the earth were 
once in a nebular condition; it is still abundantly evident from 
the facts of Geology, that the animals whose remains are found 
imbedded in the earlier strata, must have lived in a climate perhaps 
even warmer than those of tropical countries in the present day. 
Those very fossils, indeed, from the earliest to the most recent 
period may be said-to form a kind of thermometric register, which 
proves indubitably, that the climates of the earth have, from some 
cause, decreased in temperature until the present order of things 
commenced, since which no sensible’ diminution would appear to 
have taken place. There is nothing observable amidst the appear- 

ances and phenomena of the strata, to warrant the idea that such 
decrease of temperature has been fitful and uncertain ; diminish- 
ing at one period; increasing at another ; and then again re- 


284 Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 


suming a ratio of gradual decrease ; but on the contrary, every fact 
with which we are acquainted, tends forcibly to prove, that such 
decrease, although periodical, and occurring at widely distant 
periods of time, has yet been constant, and dependant mainly upon 
the physical distribution of land and water. The strata of the 
earth in all parts of the world, from the earliest to the most recent 
periods, furnish incontestible evidence of violent disruption ; 
the transition; the secondary and the tertiary formations have 
each in turn been subject to some revolution or convulsion, which 
has destroyed the organised beings of those periods, and has been 
succeeded by a decrease of temperature, and a corresponding 
change in the species of the animal and vegetable tribes, a fact 
well proved by the gradual passage in a fossil state of the exuvice 
of beings adapted only for existence in the warmest climates, to 
those which could survive only in more modern times, . 

Yet doctrines have recently sprung up, apparently in direct 
opposition to these revealed facts of geology, which are endea- 
vouring to prove, that glaciers formerly existed in countries which — 
at the present day are totally free from them, and whose temper- 
ature is moreover altogether opposed to their formation. The 
proofs of the former occurrence of glaciers in Edinburgh and other 
parts of Great Britain, as well as on the continent of Europe, are 
said to be furnished by accummulations of transported matter 
across the mouths of glens and valleys, and by deep grooves and 
polished surfaces on rocks, to which it is asserted nothing but the 
weighty friction of enormous glaciers charged with debris, could 
have given rise. : 

Now it must be evident, since glaciers do not at present occur in 
our island, that if they ever had existence there, it must have been at 
a period when the temperature was far colder than it has ever been 
during the historical era of man; yet this would be to set 
at nought the evidence furnished by organic remains, for these 
all prove, that up to the opening or commencement of the present 
era, all prior conditions of temperature were invariably higher than 
now, and such a result too, the theory of refrigeration must absolute- 
ly demand. Lyell it is true, has endeavoured to explain, that by 
some cause during the cooling process, the temperature may 


Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 285 


have become such as to give rise to glaciers, and then again re- 
turned to a higher state and destroyed them ; but this is like build- 
ing upa structure with one hand, for the sole pleasure of destroying 
it with the other. Lyell seems to have taught himself to believe in 
the truth of this hyphothesis, from the occurrence in a fossil state 
of certain species of shells, still living in temperate climates, but 
surely this fact instead of proving that the former condition was 
colder, merely shows that some of the present living forms were 
eapable of existing during the tertiary period likewise, and we 
know that even in the secondary series, there are some species 
which occur in more than one member of the system, without 
proving that the earlier deposit was made during a colder period. 

Nor if we agree with this author, that changes in physical geo- 
graphy have always affected the temperatur of climates, could the 
former temperature ever have been colder than in our days? for we 
are taught by him, “that since the commencement of the tertiary 
period, the dry land in the northern hemisphere has been continually 
on the increase, both because it is now greatly in excess beyond 
the average proportion which land generally bears to water on the 
globe, and because a comparison of the secondary and tertiary strata 
affords indications of a passage from the condition of an ocean inter- 
spersed with islands, to that of a large continent.”—Lyell’s Prin. 
Geol. p. 215. 

Now, that increase of land in northern latitudes must necessarily 
operate in reducing the temperature, and rendering climates colder, 
is perhaps one of the surest propositions of the author’s theory, and 
as he shows us from the appearances of the present northern con- 
tinents, that land has been continually on the increase in the northern 
hemisphere ever since the commencement of the tertiary period, so 
he proves to us also most conclusively, that the cold of our climates 
has been, from the commencement of the same period, continually 
on the increase likewise. 

It has been urged, that the particular degree of cold which the 
glacial theory requires, occurred between the conclusion of the 
tertiary, and the commencement of the modern eras; but even in 
this case we fail most signally to prove the truth of the doctrine, 
for if land in northern latitudes has been continually on the increase 


286 Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 


till the termination of the tertiary epoch, so likewise has the cold ; 
and if no lands have arisen from the waters since that time, the maxi- 
mum decrease of temperature took place at that period. In order 
therefore to raise the temperature again and dissolve the glaciers, 
the northern lands should have decreased at the commencement of 
the modern era; yet this so far from being true, is actually dis- 
proved by the fact, that land is still rising in the north, and has con- 
tinued to do so, we are informed, since the commencement of the 
tertiary period. The climates of the earth are therefore colder 
now than they have been at any former period, and this the pheno- 
mena of the strata confirm, and the theory of refrigeration demands ; 
for it must be evident, that if the theory of internal heat be true, 
such a result as this must be inevitable, for in by-gone ages when 
the central heat was greater, and the crust of the external earth 
less thick and solid, the surface temperature must have been kept 
higher by the radiating heat ; whereas in our time it is proved, the 
the surface is scarcely affected by the internal temperature of the 
planet. 

‘‘ All the observations collected and discussed by the most learned 
physiologists of our days, inform us, that the increase of temperature 
in the strata lying immediately beneath the surface, is about a 
degree in thirty metres, at a medium. In a globe of iron, a similar 
increase would only give a quarter of a centesimal degree, for the 
actual elevation of the temperature of the surface. As a conse- 
quence of the influence of the central fire, this elevation is very 
trifling, and almost imperceptible; that, however, which the earth 
experiences is much less still. In fact, the strata of the mineral 
shell are not composed of iron, but of substances which offer much 
less facility for the transmission of heat. Now, the heating of the 
ground is (for the same level of temperature in the direction of the 
depth) directly proportioned to this facility; whence it follows 
that if, as is very likely, the substances of which the upper envelope 
of the earth is composed, conduct eight times less heat than iron, 
the excess of heat communicated by the internal fire will only be the 
32d part of a centesimal degree, a quantity quite insignificant. 
When we examine attentively and according to known principles, 
all the observations relative to the figure of the “arth, we cannot doubt 


} 


{ 


Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 28 


that this planet received at its origin, a very elevated temperature. 
On the other hand, thermometrical observations shew us, that the 
present distribution of heat in the terrestrial envelope is, that which 
would have occurred, if the globe had been first very hot and then 
progressively cooled, till it reached the state in which we now find 
it.”— Calcutta Journal Nat. Hist. No. 12, p. 604. 

Thus, if there be any truth in the doctrines of geologists, we de- 
rive conclusive evidence from the fossil exuviz of extinct animals, 
from the former distribution of land and water, and from the past 
and present condition of the interior of the planet, that the climates 
of the present day are far colder than they have ever before been, 
and consequently, that if glaciers cannot now form in our island, 
so neither could they have done so at any previous epoch ; from all 
which it will necessarily result, that if the Glacial Theory is to be 
maintained, the previous work and research of years, and the in- 
ferences drawn from the phenomena apparent in the strata of the 
earth, must be abandoned as erroneous. 

Again, it has been urged by high geological authority, that while 
the accumulations of debris at the mouths of glens and valleys are 
attributable to the former occurrence of glaciers in those situations, 
the detached erratic blocks so numerously scattered over the 
countries of the north, between the fortieth parallels of latitude and 
the pole, are due to the agency of icebergs, which carried those 
huge masses “ when the lands over which they lie scattered were 
submerged beneath the sea.” —Lyell’s Elem. Geol. p. 1386. 

This author goes on to state, that the fact of those blocks occur- 
ring in both hemispheres as far as the fortieth parallels, raises a 
presumption, that the greater warmth of parts of Asia, Africa and 
America nearer the line, has been proved unfavorable to the trans- 
port of such blocks. On the other hand, they abound in the colder 
regions of North America from Canada Northwards, as well as in - 
Northern Europe, and when we travel Southwards, and cross the line 
in South America, we fall in with them again in Chili and Patagonia, 
between latitude 41° S. and Cape Horn.”—Jbid, p. 137. 

Many serious objections appear to rise up against this hypothesis 
even out of the very arguments used to establish it, for although it 


is undoubtedly true that icebergs in the present day possess thie 
\ 
ih 


288 Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 


power of diffusing large blocks over northern tracts, yet such, 
with reference to the period of deposition, are geologically distinct 
from those other blocks and detritus more properly termed 
erratics ; and again such modern blocks become more numerous to- 
wards the lower limit of icebergs than in the preceding paré of their 
course. 

Now it ought naturally to follow, that if icebergs were the agents 
which scattered the true erratics and detritus, the occurrence of 
such phenomena should be more frequent as we approach the 
southern limit to which icebergs are supposed to have travelled, 
than when we journey northwards ; for as the icefloes engendered 
in the north, sailed down towards the south, the higher tempera- 
ture towards which they were floating would have caused them 
to deposit the detritus with which they were charged over those 
tracts within the influence of tropical heat, and consequently a far 
greater accumulation of blocks and detritus would be found in those 
warm southern regions over which the icebergs had melted, than in 
those cold climates of the north which had given them birth. We 
should therefore look for such transported matter in abundance as 
we neared the warmer regions, and in a decreasing ratio as we tra- 
velled north to the countries from whence the icebergs and boulders 
started. But is such the fact? assuredly not,—for precisely the 
very reverse is well known to be the case, and Lyell himself, the 
propounder of the theory, tells us, that ‘* these erratics are far more 
numerous in northern countries, although some are met with as far 
south as the Swiss Jura;” (Lyell’s Elem. Geol. p. 136,) and it 
is precisely the gradual diminution of these blocks both in size and 
frequency as we proceed southwards, which has hitherto influenced 
all observers in declaring the course of the last diluvial currents to 
have been from north to south. In this respect, therefore, the or- 
der of deposition apparent in recent and ancient erratics is reversed, 
and the inferences deduced cannot be relied on, for while modern 
deposits of transported matter increase as we travel from the north 
towards the limits to which icebergs can attain, the ancient detri- 
tus is found on the contrary to decrease; thus in this instance 
it is evident, that the causes now in operation did not produce the 
effects under consideration. 


Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 289 


But according to Lyell’s reasoning, the present northern conti- 
nents were submerged beneath the sea at the time when these blocks 
were scattered over them. Whence then did the icebergs obtain the 
detritus with which they were charged ? or where were the ice- 
bergs themselves produced? where was then situated the land 
which furnished the erratics? The North was then all Ocean, 
could equatorial lands have furnished icebergs? 

Had the ancient erratic blocks been deposited by icebergs at a 
time when the present northern lands were submerged, the arrange- 
ment now apparent in their distribution would indicate, that such 
icebergs must have come from a direction opposite to that pursued 
in the present day. It may therefore perhaps be said, that the time 
when our northern lands were beneath the sea, the then existing 
drylands occupied the regions near the equator, especially since 
many facts arising from the character and appearances of the im- 

“bedded fossils, would tend to show that former conditions of tem- 
perature were far higher than now. Since, however, the northern 
latitudes must always have enjoyed a colder climate than the equa- 
tor, it is evident that had icebergs by any possibility been engen- 
dered in the latter regions, they could not have been dissolved in the 
colder temperature of the former, and therefore they would have 
accumulated into a mass without depositing the erratics enclosed in 
them. But such a distribution of land is easily seen to be totally 
adverse to the formation of icebergs, and Lyell himself assures us, 
that if we consider a mere approximation to such a state of things, 
it would be sufficient to cause a general elevation of temperature, 
and if there were no arctic lands to chill the atmosphere and freeze 
the sea, and if the loftiest chains were near the line, it seems rea- 
sonable to imagine, that the highest mountains might be clothed with 
arich vegetation to their summits, and that nearly all signs of frost 
would disappear from the earth. If during the long night of a 
polar winter, the snows should whiten the summits of some arctic 
islands, they would be dissolved as rapidly by the returning sun, as 
are the snows of Etna by the blasts of the sirocco.”——Lyell’s Prin. 
Geol. p. 191. 

Now there seems every reason to believe from the phenorena 
which strata disclose in all parts of the world, that the temperature 


290 Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 


of climates during the period immediately preceding the present dis- 
tribution of land and sea, was such as is here conjecturally describ- 
ed, for we perceive that animals analogous to those now only exist- 
ing within tropical countries, once lived in the immediate vicinity 
of the arctic regions. ‘The occurrence of these tropical forms, 
while it indubitably proves, that during the period alluded to, there 
were some lands uncovered in the northern hemisphere, likewise 
establishes the fact, that the climates of the regions in which those 
animals lived were warmer than at present, and therefore, that if 
they were adapted to tropical constitutions, they must have been 
quite unfitted for the production of icebergs. 

The occurrence of large boulders on the summits and slopes of 
lofty mountains, between which and the true site from whence the 
blocks have been torn, deep valleys at present intervene, have pre- 
sented difficulties which it is said can only be removed by supposing 
that icebergs were instrumental to their deposition at a time when 
the localities in which they rest, were beneath the waves; but in- 
dependent of the decisive argument above given, it may very rea- 
sonably be doubted, whether a huge mass of rock suddenly liberated 
from a floating iceberg, would ever have found a resting place either 
on the summit or slopes of a submerged chain of mountains, 
inasmuch as such a falling body, however much its velocity might 
have been moderated by the medium through which it was descend- 
ing, could never have been so gently and quietly deposited as to 
enable it to rest at once in a state of equilibrium, but on the con- 
trary, the weight of the mass and the impetus acquired in the 
descent, would undoubtedly have caused it to roll down into the 
troughs or submerged valleys, unless it happened accidentally to 
alight in some hollow, or under some other peculiar circumstance 
which prevented its farther descent. So far, however, from this ap- 
pearing to be the case, the boulders are often found upon the very 
summit of hills without the least additional support. It may per- 
haps be urged, that at the time when the blocks were deposited, they 
sunk down amidst the softer sediments with which the submerged 
Jand was covered, and so found an immediate support and resting 
place; but that subsequently when the land was upraised, those 
softer materials were washed away or drained off by the retiring 


Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 291 


waters; this, however, can only be admitted by supposing that such 
upheavements have been very slow and gradual in their progress, for 
a sudden and violent uprise would not only have caused the finer 
detritus to drain off with the waters, but would likewise have set in 
motion the larger boulders, and caused them to roll from the uprising 
ridges down into the valleys below. The violent disruption apparent 
among the strata of uplifted rocks, and the vertical position many of 
these strata have attained, afford sufficient evidence of a rapid 
uprise from the waters, and therefore renders it highly improbable 
that such boulders were deposited before the upheavement took 
place, and these facts coupled with the proofs above cited, of 
former elevated temperature in which icebergs could not have 
existed, clearly demonstrate that these latter were not the agents by 
which boulders have been dispersed over the countries of the north. 
In many instances, as in the Alps, the ranges on which boulders 
rest, are not more than fifty miles distant from the sites whence they 
have been torn, and it seems scarcely reasonable to suppose, that 
at the time when the climate of the central chain of the Alps, (which 
was then a rocky island,) was cold enough to give origin to icebergs, 
the temperature at only fifty miles distant was warm enough to 
melt them again, for as Lyell hypothetically observes, at the time, 
when the northern hemisphere was an ocean studded with islands, 
the equatorial regions abounded in land, and the temperature caused 
by such a distribution was not only totally opposed to the formation 
of icebergs, but even to the occurrence of any severe cold. 

But if then it be thus shown that diluvial matter, and erratic 
blocks are not due to the agency of glaciers or of icebergs, what 
Other agent can we employ to distribute them according to their 
present arrangement ? What, but the mighty, and overwhelming rush 
of retiring waters, thrown back tumultuously in furious waves 
towards the south, as the mountainous regions of the northern 
hemisphere successively burst upwards from beneath the sea ? 
What other agent save diluvial currents such as these, could have 
borne off the masses of shattered rocks urged onwards by the 
double impulse afforded by uprising hills and retiring waters, 
and strewed the land with detritus decreasing in quantity and in 
size as we travel towards the southern tracts, where the mighty 


292 Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 


Cebacle was at length reduced to tranquillity and equilibrium in the 
depths of the Southern Ocean ? 

The glacier theory proposed by M. Agassiz, and now supported 
by Buckland and Lyell, asserts, that the accumulations of debris 
called ‘‘ moraines,” which occur across the mouths of glens and 
valleys in the Highlands of Scotland, could only have been there de- 
posited by melting glaciers, for their position is such, that had water 
been the agent, which brought down the detritus from the hills, 
it must inevitably have swept off the fragments before it, instead of 
heaping them up as barriers across the glens. This reasoning, how- 
ever, does not appear to be absolutely correct, for the waters which 
must have accumulated these moraines, were not the rivers and 
streams of modern times, nor were they the transient out-bursts of 
lakes from the higher lands ; had they been such, it is no doubt true, 
that they would have swept away the accumulations of debris from 
the mouth of every glen through which they descended. But the 
height at which many of the moraines occur on the sides of the 
glens, at once proves, that if they were deposited by water, it must 
have been by water possessing far greater force and volume than 
any that occurs at present. Now if we allow that the land was 
once submerged, and the strata horizontal, of which no reasonable 
doubt can be entertained, it will follow, that when volcanic 
movements within broke up the strata and upheaved them, the 
friction of the uprising masses against each other would, in nu- 
merous instances, have caused precisely the very grooves, strize, and 
polished surfaces which rocks often exhibit, while the shattered 
and disrupted surface would have yielded abundantly the debris and 
boulders of which the supposed moraines are composed, and these 
hurled together in confusion by the mighty debacle formed by the 
suddenly uprising land, would have been accumulated in masses of 
great extent across the openings of the glens and valleys through 
which the recoiling, and ever and anon returning swell, tumultuously 
descended. These forming barriers to the quiet streams which at a 
later period occupied the glens, would have dammed up the waters 
until their gradually increasing force at length burst over or 
through the obstacle, and thus modified the form and appearance of 
the moraines. It may perhaps be objected, that the friction of up- 


Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 293 


rising masses of rock is not of itself sufficient to account for the 
grooves and striz which are often visible. That such friction, 
however, is capable of producing some of these phenomena, we have 
proof in the instance of the “ ninety fathom dibe,” in the coal-field 
of Newcastle. This name has been given to it, because the beds 
are ninety fathoms lower on the northern than they are on the 
southern side. The fissure has been filled by a body of sand, which 
is now in the state of sandstone, and is called the dibe, which is 
sometimes very narrow, but in other places more than twenty yards 
wide. The walls of the fissure are scored by grooves, such as 
would have been produced zf the broken ends of the rock, had been 
rubbed along the plane of the fault.”—Lyell’s Elem. Geol. p. 120, 

Still it may be urged, that such friction could not have acted on 
horizontal surfaces, nor on external surfaces generally, which exhi- 
bit no signs of violent fracture; in these cases, another agent is 
evidently necessary, and if we admit, that at the time when our lands 
first emerged from the ocean, the strata were in a soft and semi-con- 
solidated state, we shall perceive that the strize and grooves may 
have been furrowed upon them by the passage over the surface, of 
the vast rocky masses which hurled down from the uprising hills, 
were borne along by the retiring waters, to the lower lands. 

Thus we shall derive assistance from two distinct agents, both of 
which may have been instrumental, under different circumstances, to 
the production of the phenomena now attributed to glaciers. 

The partial stratification which some of the supposed moraines 
exhibit, as in the district where the rivers Esk, Proson, and Carity 
unite, not only offers difficulties which the glacier theory cannot 
explain or surmount, but is precisely the very effect to which water 
alone could give rise. 

“The lower part of the barrier at Glenairn, thirty feet in depth, 
laid open in the river cliff, consists of unstratified mud full of boul- 
ders; and the upper part from fifty to one hundred feet thick, of 
gravel and sand is inferred by Mr. Lyell from analogy, to be strati- 
fied. If this barrier be supposed to be a large terminal moraine 
accumulated by a retreating glacier, Mr. Lyell states, its origin is 
easy to be understood, and that the water produced by the melting 
of the ice may have overflowed the mound and furrowed out the 


294 Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 


softer materials composing the upper part into ridges and hillocks ; 
but, he adds, it is difficult to comprehend how a capping of such 
materials on the summit of a terminal moraine could have acquired 
a stratified structure. At Cortachie, four miles below the barrier of 
Glenairn, the Esk enters the lower country of old red sandstone ; 
and a mile and a half farther down it, is Joined by the Proson; and 
a mile yet lower, by the Carity. In the district where these streams 
unite, there is a great amount of unstratified detritus full of Gram- 
pian boulders, and covered for the most part with stratified gravel 
and sand, in some places from thirty to forty feet thick.” —Edin. 
New Phil. Jour. No. 59, p. 201. 

Now the very circumstance of boulders occurring in the lower 
part of these accumulations, while the upper portion is composed 
of strata of gravel and sand, at once points out the action of water 
rather than of glaciers; for had the latter been the agent, we shall 
at once perceive, that as the ice melted, the detritus would have 
been indiscriminately deposited in a shapeless heap without refer- 
ence to any law of specific gravity, such as the arrangement in the 
above described moraines betokens. Lyell here seems to overlook 
a fact recorded in his Principles of Geology; ‘the moraine of 
the glacier, observes Charpentier, zs entirely devoid of stratification, 
for there has been no sorting of the materials as in the case of sand, 
mud, and pebbles, when deposited by running waters. The ice 
transports indifferently into the same spots, the heaviest blocks and 
the finest particles, mingling all together, and leaving them in one 
confused and promiscuous heap wherever it melts.”—Lyell’s Prin. 
Geol. p. 377. 

If this doctrine be correct, and it is clear from the manner in 
which Lyell quotes it, that he believes it to be so, it is very evident 
that the accumulations near Glenairn cannot be the production of 
glaciers, and he indeed while describing them, seems to be re- 
minded of the impossibility, although the desire of establishing a 
novel and somewhat marvellous theory has urged him to persevere, 
even in the face of facts which militate against it. 

On the other hand, this arrangement is in every respect that 
which would have resulted from the action of retiring waters, for if 
a sudden upheavement of our present continents or portions of 


Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 295 


those continents had taken place, the swell occasioned in the ocean 
by such uprise would have forced back the diluvial wave, bearing 
with it the fragments of various rocks which had been shattered by 
the movement, and these would have been dropped sooner or later 
according to their weight, over thuse tracts traversed by the re- 
tiring waters. But it is not to be supposed, as Bakewell judiciously 
observes, that such a swell could suddenly subside; it would return 
over the land repeatedly at a lower and lower level each time, until 
its force being expended and the equilibrium once more restored, 
it would have deposited those lighter materials which had become 
sorted by the movement of the water, above the heavier boulders 
and detritus. —See Bakewell’s Introd. Geol. passim. 

Thus the heavy blocks forming the lower portion of the Glenairn 
moraine, and those scattered over the lower land at Cortachie, 
would appear to be precisely in the position, supposing water to 
have been instrumental to their deposition, which their greater 
specific gravity would demand ; while the lighter gravels and sands 
which form so thick a stratum above them, are likewise the produce 
of the same waters as their force and powers of suspension dimi- 
nished. Nor is it at all necessary to suppose, that all our lands were 
at once uncovered by this outburst, for when once the mountains 
had been upheaved by the volcanic action within the earth, the 
subsequent movements may have been more gradual and similar 
to what is still taking place; the mounds or accumulations of 
debris would therefore have remained uninjured beneath the waters, 
until the uprise of more land in various quarters had caused the 
ocean to retire, and left the diluvium to the action of rivers and 
streams as the drainage of the land proceeded, while its own retire- 
ment would have denuded the strata to which it had previously 
given rise. Lyell supposes, that the detritus at Glenairn is the 
production of a glacier whose dissolution caused a body of water to 
accumulate, until it ‘‘overflowed the mound and furrowed out the 
softer materials composing the upper part into ridges and hillocks.” 

This is obviously incorrect, or he not only shows us elsewhere, 
that the distribution of land and sea previous to the historical era 
was such as to banish nearly all signs of frost from the earth, but 
that the rise of land in the north has continued ever since the com- 

2Q 


296 Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 


mencement of the tertiary period which preceded it, down to the 
present time, and therefore that the climates of the earth are now 
colder than they have ever before been ; from which it must follow, 
that as no glacier now exists at Glenairn, so it never could have 
existed there at all. 

Supposing, however, for the sake of argument, that such had once 
been the fact, we shall still perceive that no furrowing of the mound 
could have taken place from the melting of the ice, much less could 
it have given rise to stratification ; for had the melting of the gla- 
ciers been as sudden as M. Agassiz supposes their accumulation to 
have been, vast deluges would have been produced, which instead of 
heaping up debris at the mouths of glens, would have swept it all 
off before the impetuous torrents, ( See Hitchcock's Geol. passim); 
while on the other hand, had the thaw proceeded as gradually as it 
does in the present day, where glaciers occur, the waters would 
have escaped before the mound of detritus was completed, for it is 
to the escape of the ice in the form of water that the moraines are 
due, and until such escape is effected, no moraine is deposited. As 
the ice melts, the water escapes, and the detritus falls down into a 
confused and promiscuous heap without stratification ; the Glenairn 
moraine therefore must owe its origin to some other cause. 

There is yet another circumstance which seems to me, to militate 
against the opinion, that detritus and erratic blocks are due either to 
the agency of glaciers or of icebergs, I allude to the rounded and 
water-worn appearance which almost invariably characterises this 
group of deposits. It is well known, that in the present day, the 
detritus with which icebergs are occasionally loaded, is torn by the 
action of frost from the shores where the ice is formed, and after- 
wards floated away to be deposited in situations far distant 
from their natural sites. Such fragments are either torn from 
the solid rock by the expansion of water which has found a 
passage into fissures; or masses already detached are uplifted 
from the shoresand bottom of shallow waters. In the former 
case, the fragments would exhibit their edges or angles for the 
most part uninjured, while in the latter instance, the detritus 
uplifted will, in all probability, consist of rounded water-worn frag- 
ments, which have either been subject to friction in the situations 


Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 297 


from whence they are lifted, or by the action of the river currents 
which have brought them down from the land. At the time when 
the present lands were submerged therefore, there could have been 
no rivers to furnish detritus, for allowing that some land existed in 
the northern hemisphere, yet such would have consisted only of 
rocky islands such as the summits of the present mountains might 
produce, and consequently would have been unable to furnish rivers 
of any moment; the detritus therefore which is now scattered over 
the continents of the north, should consist chiefly of the angular 
fragments which the frost had detached from rocks in situ, and 
not of rounded or water-worn pebbles and boulders. Lyell endea- 
vours to shew, that the rounding of erratics is to be attributed to 
the action of frost, and not to the attrition of moving waters, and 
he cites the granite used in the buildings of Quebec to show the 
correctness of his views. This, however, is founding a general rule 
upon one nearly solitary exception, for while the Quebec granite re- 
quires to be coated over with oil and paint, in order to preserve it 
from exfoliation, we do not hear of the same necessity existing else- 
where in regard to all granites ; and this is proved from what Lyell 
himself tells us regarding the icebergs which were seen “ in Sir 
George Eyre’s Sound in the latitude of Paris, which were seen in 
1834 carrying angular pieces of granite, and stranding them in 
fiords, where the shores were composed of clay slate.”—Lyell’s 
Prin. Geol. p. 379. 

While therefore the rounding of erratics composed of the Quebec 
granite may be attributed to the agency of frosts, the same rule 
will not apply to all, nor yet to the generality of blocks; and thus 
the instance quoted, forms but an exception, and is of little value in 
determining the cause which has rounded almost all boulders and 
detritus, of whatever rock composed.* M. Lariviere relates, that 
“being at Memel on the Baltic in 1821, when the ice of the river 
Niemen broke up, he saw a mass of ice thirty feet long which had 
descended the stream, and had been thrown ashore. In the middle 


* It is proper to add, that my friend Lieut. R. B. Smith informs me, that in the 
primary districts of Southern India, the granite blocks are subject to similar ex- 
foliation from the effects of atmospheric agents, and have all the appearance of 
having been subjected to aqueous attrition. 


298 Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 


of it wasa triangular piece of granite, about a yard in diameter, 
resembling in composition the red granite of Finland.” “In a late 
voyage of discovery made in the antarctic regions in 1839, a dark 
coloured angular mass of rock was seen imbedded in an iceberg, 
drifting along in mid-ocean in lat. 61° S.”—Prin. Geol. p. 370- 
379. 

These instances are sufficient to show, that modern icebergs are 
instrumental to the deposition of angular boulders, and that although 
they also carry large quantities of rounded pebbles and blocks, yet 
the probability is in favour of these latter having been uplifted from 
districts previously strewed over with the water-worn detritus of a 
former epoch; while therefore the true ancient erratics are rounded, 
the modern iceberg deposits, if composed of fragments recently 
torn from rocks iz situ are angular or possessing their sharp edges ; 
it still remains then to account for the rounding of ancient erratics. 

It has often been objected, that the transient passage of a body 
of waters over the land could not have imparted to transported 
matter, the rounded and often polished surface which its pebbles 
and boulders exhibit; but there are conditions attending the de- 
position of ancient erratics, to which due weight does not appear to 
have been accorded. The sharp and rugged outline almost invari- 
ably apparent among members of the primary class, and the curious 
step-like structure of the trappean rocks, to all of which an igne. 
ous origin is now pretty generally assigned, have long since attract- 
ed the attention of observers; and controversies have occasionally 
arisen as to whether molten or fused matter could have assumed the 
acute and steeple-shaped form of granitic peaks; or whether it 
ought not rather to have arranged itself over the surface after the 
manner of modern lavas. The fact, that at the time when primary 
and plutonic rocks were upheaved, the strata of the earth were 
horizontal beds beneath the deep enveloping waters of the sea, seems 
to have been entirely lost sight of, or disregarded in these contro- 
versies. If, however, we admit this fact, it must be evident, that 
when the igneous rocks first burst through the upper strata of the 
earth, and came in contact with the cold waters of the superincum- 
bent ocean, a sudden cooling and contraction of the heated mass 
must naturally have ensued, which would have caused the surface to 


Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 299 


exfoliate and split into fragments of various magnitude, and these 
fragments yielding to the force of the waters which were thus sud- 
denly displaced, would have been hurried off by the retreating waves 
to the lower levels. This reasoning seems in some measure to 
derive support from the facts observable, whenever in modern times 
an outburst of voleanic matter takes place from beneath the sea ; 
numerous instances are on record of islands suddenly appearing 
above the waters, but these have almost invariably disappeared 
again after a short time, from their summits having been swept 
off in fragments caused by the sudden refrigeration and splitting of 
the surface, as the heated matter came in contact with the superin- 
cumbent ocean. The ruggedness of primary ranges is therefore 
easily accounted for by the sudden cooling of the surface when in a 
state of intense heat, and by the immediate denudation attendant on 
the passage of the tumultuous body of waters displaced by the 
movement. The step-like appearance of trappean rocks would, in 
~like manner be caused by the sudden refrigeration of surface induc- 
ing the rock to split into cuboidal masses, and the denudation of 
this fractured surface would therefore give the step-like appearance 
alluded to. This may perhaps be admitted as a satisfactory expla- 
nation of the phenomena apparent in these formations, and coupled 
with the subsequent tumultuous action of the waters on the newly 
detached fragments may enable us to arrive at some explanation 
of the reason, why ancient detritus is almost invariably rounded and 
worn. Had the action of the displaced waters been no greater 
than that exercised by the transient passage of a flood over the lower 
lands, doubtless the effects attributable to it would have been insuf- 
ficient to account for the polishing and rounding of erratics, but we 
must not be blind to the fact, that a sudden and violent outburst of 
large tracts of land, or of mountain ranges from beneath the sea, 
would have given rise to waves which would not only have acted 
with an intensity of force of which we can perhaps form no just con- 
ception, but likewise that their action on the land would have been 
of long continuance. ‘‘ The vibration of the sea produced by the 
great Lisbon earthquake of 1755, threw a wave sixty feet high on the 
coast of Cadiz, and one eighteen feet in height on the island of 
Madeira. The area agitated by this earthquake comprised a large 


300 Apparent oljections to the Glacial Theory. 


portion of the northern hemisphere, yet no very great amount of dis- 
locating effects was observed, at least nothing like the production 
of a line of elevated land. We may hence form some idea of the ef- 
fects which would be produced if a line of mountains one hundred 
miles long, and not above two or three thousand feet high, were 
suddenly thrust up beneath the waters of the sea. The vibrations 
produced in the superincumbent fluid would be proportionally great, 
and the waves rushing over shallows and lowlands, comparatively 
enormous. We may therefore fairly infer, that greater intensities of 
force would produce greater waves, while the motion caused in the 
water over the dislocations, supposing such to be formed, would 
tend to remove the fragments produced.”——-De la Beche’s Theor. 
Geol. pp. 202-208. 

‘‘ At Tabahuana, during the earthquake of February 1835, when 
the sea was observed to retire, so that vessels at anchor in seven 
fathoms water were aground, and all the rocks and shoals in the bay 
were visible, an enormous wave was seen forcing its way between 
the western passage, which separates Quiriquina Island from the 
main land. This immense wave passed rapidly along the western 
side of the Bay of Concepcion, sweeping the steep shore of every 
thing moveable within thirty feet, vertically from the high water 
mark. It broke over, dashed along, and whirled about the shipping, 
as if they had been light boats; it overflowed the greater part of 
the town, and then rushed back with such a torrent, that almost 
every thing moveable, which the earthquake had not buried, was 
carried out to sea. In a few minutes, a second wave returned more 
powerful than the first. After another awful suspense of a few mi- 
nutes, a third enormous swell was observed approaching, larger than 
either of the former waves. The island of Juan Fernandez suffered 
much. Great waves swept the shores of the island, after the sea 
had retired, so much that old anchors were seen at the bottom of 
the anchorage.” — Bakewell’s Introd. Geol. p. 43. 

‘“‘ During this earthquake a permanent elevation of the ground of 
about nine feet took place, and the sea rose to the height of from 
thirty to forty feet, sweeping over a great extent of land, and tearing 
away the various obstacles opposed to its progress. If we suppose 
mountains several thousand feet high were elevated by similar causes, 


iA. Lee 


_ Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 301 


the swell of the sea must have been inconceivably overwhelming. 
Sir James Hall supposes, that the upheaving of a large island, like 
Sumatra, might take place so suddenly, as to drive the ocean with 
great impetuosity over the summits of the highest mountains, and 
strip off the glaciers, and transport them into distant countries. Ice 
being specifically lighter than water, the glaciers would carry away 
with them the blocks of stone that had fallen from the impending 
rocks, and had become incased in ice. This theory of Sir James 
Hall’s would, I conceive, offer a better explanation than any other, 
for the occurrence of groups of fragments of particular rocks, un- 
mixed with fragments of other rocks. Each glacier, loaded with 
stones from the rocks above it, may be regarded as a ship freighted 
with specimens of its native mountains, which it deposits, by thaw- 
ing in the place where it ultimately rests. Nor would a wave or 
swell of the sea that had covered the highest mountains, suddenly 
subside ; it would sweep repeatedly over the whole surface of the 
globe at a lower and lower level each time; breaking down oppos- 
ing obstacles, opening new passages for the water, and scooping 
out valleys and cols in the softer beds and strata.”—Bakewell’s 
Introd. Geol. p. 588. 

If then the elevation of land by modern earthquakes to no greater 
height than nine feet, can produce such violent agitation in the 
waters of the sea, what might we not expect from that volcanic force 
which has been instrumental in times past to the upheavement of 
whole ranges of lofty mountains? It will be evident, that the frag- 
ments of rock torn by the united action of sudden cooling, and re- 
tiring waters from the uprising mass, would not only have been 
hurried to the lower lands, and scattered far and wide, but that they 
would have been rolled backwards and forwards over those plains by 
the repeated flux and reflux of the debacle, until their edges were com- 
pletely rounded off, when the final retreat of the waters as equili- 
brium was restored, would have left the detritus scattered in a de- 
creasing ratio from north to south, precisely as it exists on the 
continents of the northern heniisphere. © 

That mountains have been as suddenly upraised as this theory 
would require, there can be no reason to doubt, from the fact, that 
the strata are not only often lifted up to a vertical position, but are 


302 Apparent oljections to the Glacial Theory. 


,actually traversed by dibes and beds of igneous rocks, whose former 
state.of fusion is a proof,that they must, have been rapidly forced 
upwards ; and besides which,.it sometimes happens, that-fragments 
of a low-seated rock, have been,carried upwards and imbedded. in a 
superior stratum, and it:seems «quite impossible, that such pheno- 
mena. could have been. produced:by a gentle.and gradual uprise...,. 

Water, therefore, would appear to have been the agent by. which 
detritus has been accumulated, and its fragments;rounded,. and the 
very arrangement of these fragments in a decreasing ratio,as. to size 
and quantity. as we proceed. farther,from, the parent rock, affords 
evidence which is at variance with glacial action. .‘M. Elie. de 
Beaumont has shewn,,.that;in the valley ofthe Durance;,the blocks 
decrease in: volume and become less angular as they recede from the 
mountains behind Gap, until the transported, matter diminished to 
the pebbles. constituting the wide extent of country. known as the 
Craus Similar facts.are.also observable:down other valleys. Per- 
haps in the loess. of the Rhine, we may trace the remains of still. finer 
detritus, which .has accumulated to the depth of 200 or 3800. feet 
above the valley, and -bears evident marks of sudden transport. 
The supposition is rendered more probable by the abundance of 
Alpine pebbles discovered.resting on various rocks, where the loess 
ceases. in the higher. parts of the valley. of the: Rhine, and which 
have: apparently been accumulated by a sudden rush of water. down 
the valley. The other great accumulation of erratic blocks seems 
due to some more general cause, since.not,only are the‘blocks scat- 
tered in, great abundance over Northern..Kurope, in.a manner to 
shew. their northern origin, but those which, occur in the northern 
parts of America, apparently in equal abundance, also point to a 
similar origin. We hence infer, that some cause, .situated.in,the 
polar regions, has so acted_as to, produce .this dispersion of solid 
matter-over a certain portion of the earth’s surfaces. We know of 
no agent capable of causing the effect. required, but: moving waters 
—De la Beche's,Theor.. Geol. p. 889.04. +5 4 — Ly 

With regard toDr. Buckland’s statement, that a.glacier once des- 
cended from Shap Fells, and crossed the valley. of the Eden, it ap= 
pears to me that the desire to establish the theory, has in great mea- 
sure led him to overlook the fact, that the physical.conformation 


Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 303 


of the valley altogether militates against his views, and proves them 
to be erroneous. ‘It is impossible,” says this eminent geologist 
“to explain satisfactorily the dispersion of the well-known Shap 
granite boulders, in the valleys which lead down from the Fell 
northwards, southwards, and easterly, by a great diluvial cur- 
rent, and still more so, their transport from the valley of the 
Eden over the lofty summits of Stainmore Forest into the valley of 
the Tees. The glacier theory, he states, offers on the contrary a 
solution of the difficulties. A glacier descending to the north 
from Shap Fell, would convey the blocks to the village of Shap, 
and distribute them throughout the intervening space; another 
glacier ranging to the south would deposit the boulders on the hills 
and in the valleys descending by Highborrow Bridge to Kendal; 
whilst a third glacier proceeding eastwards betwixt Crosby, Ravens- 
worth and Orton, would traverse transversely the upper part of the 
valley of the Eden near Brough, and accumulate piles of ice against 
the opposite escarpment, until they overtopped its lowest depres- 
sions in Stainmore Forest, and disgorged their moraines into the 
valleys of the Greta and the Tees.”—EHdin. New Phil. Jour. No. 
59, p 205. 

It may not perhaps be very difficult to show, by the aid of 
Greenough’s beautiful geological map, that it is more probable 
that water was the agent which produced the above described 
effects, than glaciers, which latter I trust I have shewn, could not 
have existed in our island without a far colder climate than the 
facts of geology authorise us to believe has ever occurred. The 
difficulty which Dr. Buckland cannot remove, seems to consist al- 
most entirely in the various directions which the boulders have 
pursued from a given point, namely, Shap Fells. Now as it is 
not contended that the valleys leading down from the Fell have 
been scooped out by the action of glaciers, we are left at liberty to 
conclude, that they had origin before the supposed glaciers which 
slid through them. The elevation of the Fells, and the existence 
of valleys leading in various directions from them, prove, that an 
upheavement has taken place which not only gave rise to the 
heights, but likewise produced the troughs or valleys between the 
uprising masses. If at the period of this movement the land was 

2R 


304 Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 


submerged, what other agent would be required to scatter the 
blocks than the retiring waves as they rushed impetuously down the 
channels which the valleys formed, and what more natural than that 
the first violent down rush of the retreating waters, should have 
heaped up detritus ‘‘against the opposite escarpment,” until it 
overtopped the depression in Stainmore Forest, and discharged 
itself, over the then rising barrier, into the valleys of the Greta and 
the Tees? Taking the,.F ells as the point or chief point of up- 
heavement, it is avidairt that the divergence of valleys from it-as a 
centre, is natural and necessary, for such is the arrangement in 
every quarter of the globe where mountains and hills occur ; there 
being always some points of upheavement from which valleys 
descend and diverge.in various directions; so that if the elevated 
land happens to be detached_or isolated, it will necessarily consti- 
tute a focus or central point from which valleys and glens will ra- 
diate around it, Now such appears to be the arrangement in the 
locality. under consideration, the Fell being the focus from which 
valleys descend to the north, south and east. Leda 

The retiring waters would therefore naturally rush down shies 
valleys, and scatter the erratics and detritus precisely in the direc- 
tion and order in which they now occur. A wave descending 
to the north from Shap Fells would convey the blocks to the 
village of Shap, and distribute them throughout the intervening 
space ; another wave ranging to the south, would deposit the boul- 
ders on the then uprising hills and in the valleys descending by 
Highborrow Bridge to Kendal ; whilst a third great wave proceeding 
eastwards betwixt Crosby, Ravensworth and Orton would traverse 
transversely the upper part of the valley of the Eden, near Brough, 
and accumulate piles of detritus against the opposite uprising escarp- 
ment, and rushing over the hills of Stainmore Forest, would disgorge 
itself into the valleys of the Greta and the Tees, which form the 
drainage of the country. A glance at the accompanying map 
Plate xxii. will moreover point out, that water is the only agent 
which could so have acted, for a glacier crossing the valley and 
encountering the escarpment opposed to its onward passage, would 
only have accumulated.ice along that base wntil the lateral pres- 
sure caused by the streams in the higher parts of the valley would 


Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 305 


have forced it down towards the embouchure of Eden, instead of 
over the ridge. ‘Had’ the ice melted within the boundary, the water 
would naturally have followed the drainage of the valley, and have 
escaped by the Eden, and the detritus would: have remained al- 
together on the outside of the escarpment in a confused heap. On 
the other hand, a mighty recoil of waters before an uprising mass 
of Jand would at once”have rushed straight over the escarpment, 
carrying with it, as above quoted, the’ fragments of the shattered 
rocks, and leaving accumulations of the same against the escarp- 
ment which was then rising up to intercept the passage.’ Again, 
when we consider that the Shap granite boulders are found lying 
chiefly along” the true drainage of the country, it becomes still 
More ‘probable that water was the agent by which they were dis- 
persed. The northerly course of the boulders by the village of 
Shap is corroborative of this opinion, for from the very base of the 
Fells on that side arise numerous minor streams which, lower down, 
after passing the villages of Shap and Rosgill, unite to form the 
river Lowther ; while still lower this river is joined by the Eamont, 
and then both turning easterly, are emptied into the river Eden. 
On the south in the direction of the boulders, the country is drain- 
ed by the rivers Mint and Ken, which after uniting, pass by Kendal; 
and are discharged into Morecambe Bay, as is likewise the river 
Lune, one of whose tributaries appears on Greenough’s map to 
take its rise from Shap Fells. Again on the east, the drainage 
of the country is effected by many small streams proceeding from a 
southerly direction, and forming the river’ Eden whose course is 
northerly till it joins the Solway Firth. A glacier therefore which 
descended from the Fells and crossed the valley of the Eden trans~ 
versely between Crosby, Ravensworth and Orton, must have inter. 
cepted the course of all the streams in the upper part of the valley, 
and caused an aecumulation of water, or more probably of ice, which 
would effectually have stopped the farther uphill progress of ‘gla- 
ciers ; or rather, at the time when the climate was cold enough to 
form glaciers on such an inconsiderable elevation as the Fells, 
it is more probable that every stream descending from the heights 
of Stainmore Forest must have been frozen likewise, and thus an 
accumulation of ice would have taken place along the upper por- 


306 Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory: 


tion of the valley of the Eden, which would have formed an enormous. 


glacier, whose course, from the conformation of the country, must. 
necessarily, have been along the line of the _present river, and 
would therefore not only,have intercepted any glacier from the 
Fells, but would have turned it down the valley likewise. No ac- 
cumulation of boulders from Shap Fells could ever therefore have 


reached the escarpments of Stainmore Forest, much less could a 


glacier have carried them into the valleys of the Greta/and the 
Tees, and had glaciers ever existed in the neighbourhood of the 
Fells, the transported matter from that locality should now be lying 
at the embouchure of the Eden, instead of agaioik and beyond the 
escarpments of Stainmore Forest. 

The only other agent then, that we can produce possessing suffi- 
cient power to carry the granite blocks into the valleys of the Greta 
and the Tees, is evidently water, whose rapid and overwhelming 
rush to the lower levels as the granite of the Fells was suddenly 
upheaved, would have carried the disrupted fragments across the 
valley and the uprising hills, and left them in their: present situations 
as its power of transport decreased weet its equilib tum Was again 
established. EMH 

It becomes probable, therefore, that neither the agency of icebergs 
nor of glaciers could have produced the effects apparent upon the sur- 
face of the earth, but that such are precisely | the _ phenomena which 
would have resulted from the action of water, for the boulders and 
debris so plentifully scattered over the countries of the northern 
hemisphere shew, that while the debacles caused by the sudden rise 
of portions of the land were thrown back on all sides. towards 
the south, the blocks and fragments of the shattered surface were 
deposited according to their own specific gravity, and the decreasing 
power of the retreating waves to carry them. rt 

Thus erratics would naturally be more numerous in the northern 
lands, and occur in a decreasing ratio as we travelled southwards, 
until they ceased altogether, and it is precisely their occurrence in this 
order which has hitherto led to the inference, that the diluvial cur- 
rents which deposited them must have passed from north to south. 

I do not, however, mean to assert, that glaciers have had no share 
in the distribution of blocks over those countries where they still 


7. — 


Apparent objections to the Glacial Theory. 307 


exist, because it seems to be well proved, that such glaciers have 
formerly descended to far greater distances over the lower lands than 
they do now, ‘and undoubtedly the deposition of many of the blocks 
observed at considerable distances from the limit of the present Al-’ 
pine glaciers, is due to the agency of-ice. What I would insist 
upon is, that the numerous boulders termed’ erratic blocks which 
lie scattered abroad over the countries of the ‘north, ‘and even ‘in 
our own Island, where no glaciers exist, are not due to the agency 
of glaciers, but to that of the powerful rush of retreating waters, 
as the lands of the northern Hemisphere arose from out: the ocear, 
with which they were formerly covered. | 
Mussooree, 4th March, 1844. ~ + ’ 


- & Pen 


OS aaa Ro : 1s ig : # 


On a method of treating Mineral Sulphurets, ‘especially 

those. of Copper, for the manufacture of Sulphurie Acid, 
and 1 the extraction of — ‘their Metallic Base. By_ Fie, 
- Tuomas Latter, 67th Hegamant Bengal Native Infantry. 
_ Plate xxiii. 


e 


’ Tlie following’ method of treating mineral sulphurets, es- 
pewaly those of copper, ‘having been for some time employ- 
ed with great success in France, and on account of its sim- 
plicity. and ‘cheapness, being peculiarly adapted for use 
5 amon "the natives of India, I take an early opportunity of 
publishing i it through the medium of your Journal. 

_ Tt may be necessary to premise, that, this method employed 
‘in Lyons for the treatment of sulphurets of copper, was for 
the primary purpose of manufacturing sulphuric acid, after 
which, the remaining metallic slag was treated for the cop- 
per that it might contain, and ores which were found to yield 
not more than 13 per,cent. of metal, were thus treated with 
profit. fag 


». The ores are aca it farnacedtof a peculiar sine, 
‘having a round head, with a narrow neck, fig. 1, front-view ; 


308 On a method of treating Mineral Sulphurets. 


fig. 2, side ‘view; @,’is a little feeding door at the top of 
the head, just large enough for the purpose of admitting a 
shovel with fresh supplies of ore; 6, 6, b, are doors, 
three on each side, for the purpose of raking out the 
burnt ore and slag; ¢ is the neck about 4 or 5 inches 
wide—the ore is broken into’ pieces about 4 or 4 the size of 
the first, just-large enough not to drop through the neck 
until diminished by burning. For the first time of charging, 
the furnace is filled from top to bottom with the ore mixed: 
with one-third its quantity of coal or charcoal, and when once 
well-set a burning, it only requires being regularly fed with 
ore, taking care never to’allow the fire to get lower than the 
neck part; it may thus be kept burning without any fresh 
supply of fuel whatever for any number of years, the heat 
and flame of the burning ore being sufficient to set alight 
the fresh supplies; the height of these furnaces is about 43 
feet high, the head part about 14 foot, the neck between’ 4 
and 5 inches broad. The length of the furnace is 6 bi 
and the size of the three side-doors in proportion. - 
Eight of these furnaces are placed round a domed reser- 
voir or alembic, to which they are connected by as many 
pipes; d, at the end opposite the feeding door a, fig. a 
shows a bird’s eye view of the 8 furnaces, e, @, e, e, e, @, €, e, 
arranged round the domed reservoir, f; to which they 
are connected by the 8 connecting tubes d, d, d, d, d, d, d, d. 
Fig. 4 presents the view of 2 furnaces with the domed re- 
servoir, the others being removed for the purpose of showing 
the action more clearly; e, e, are the two furnaces ; J, the 
domed reservoir; d, d, the connecting tubes ; g, an aper- 
ture admitting a stream of vapor of water for the purpose 
of uniting with the sulphurous vapors arising from the com- 
bustion of the sulphur in the mineral which enters the dom- 
ed reservoir f, through the pipe d, from the head of 
the furnace e; on uniting with the vapor of the water it 
becomes liquid sulphureous acid, whence it passes through ~ 


~ On a method of treating Mineral Sulphurets. 309 


the pipe h, (fig. 4,) towards the leaden chamber /; but 
on its way it passes over'a quantity of saltpetre placed in 
the recess 7, absorbs oxygen therefrom, becomes sulphu- 
ric acid, is condensed in the leaden chamber /, and after- 
wards evaporated to the proper strength; & is an aper- 
ture for the purpose of supplying saltpetre to the receptacle 
z- Thus far for the manufacture of sulphuric acid. I was 
informed, that when the’ furnaces were supplied with fresh 
ore every three hours, and the well-burnt ore extracted 
every 24 hours, the calculation was, that every three hours 
you charge these furnaces with 120|bs. of metal, and every 
24 hours extract 800lbs. of roasted ore. 

This roasted ore is then placed on a platform of mnacoueen. 
m, fig. 5, and is kept continually soaked with water aci- 
dulated with sulphuric acid. This platform should have a 
tilt down towards one corner, so as to permit the water to 
percolate, and to pass charged with the’sulphates through 
one angle into the reservoir 2. In proportion to the heat 
of the weather will be the rapidity with which the diluted 
sulphuric acid will take up the soluble matter in the ore—a 
mixture of alumina, peroxide of iron, and silica, &c. will re- 
main behind, and the water will pass overcharged with the 
sulphates as of copper, iron, arsenic, &c. according to the 
composition of the mineral. When arrived in the. reser- 
voir. My it is pumped up into another reservoir o, from 
whence, it is allowed to descend unto the baths p, p, p; 
in these baths are placed pieces of iron, and.as the water 
charged with acidulated sulphate of copper passes over 
this i iron, the coppper will be precipitated ; these baths empty 
into one another by the assistance .of syphons q, 9,.9, so 
arranged, that they may play of themselves. Fig. 6. is 
bird’s eye view of fig. 5, shewing the arrangement of xe 
baths, the same letters correspond to those in fig. 5. These 
baths may be as numerous as necessary, the water with the 
sulphate of copper being kept continually running over these 


310 Ona method of treating Mineral Sulphurets. 


successive deposits of iron, precipitates all its copper, and 
passes off in a state of sulphate of iron ; of course the first 
bath will be the one that will first present a deposition of 
chemically pure metallic copper in a state of powder, when 
such is the case, it should be cleaned out, and fresh iron 
put in. When the next bath is in the same state, the same 
thing should be done to it, and so one with the rest. 

The ore in the platform need not be thoroughly cleaned 
away more than once in two or three months. It is neces- 
sary to remark, that at the bottom of the domed reservoir, 
there is always a small quantity of water to permit of the 
absorption of any arsenical or other vapor. 


Nore.—The simple plan here proposed of working the sulphurets of copper, 
would, we conceive, be applicable in a most particular manner to the Kemaon 
copper mines. These mines are now a very trifling source of revenue, but might be 
rendered, by the introduction of this method of treating the ore, of very great 
national importance. Sulphuric Acid, one of the products, is an article which we 
only require to obtain in India at a cheap rate, in order to give rise to numerous 
chemical manufactures of which it is the basis, as, for instance, the whole of the 


manufactured medicines.—J. M. 


THE 
CALCUTTA JOURNAL 


OF 


NATURAL HISTORY. 


The Palms of British East India. By W. Grirritu, Esq. 
F. L. S. Memb. Imp. Acad. Natur. Curios., Royal Ratisb. 
Botan. Soc., Corr. Memb. Hortic. Socy. of London, Asst. 
Surgeon, Madras Establishment. 


[Continued from page 103.] 


Sup-ramitra.—CORYPHINAE. Mart. Paim. p. 251. 


Flores hermaphroditi, rarius polygami, rarius dioici. Ova- 
ria 3, discreta aut partim coherentia. Fructus drupaceus 
vel baccatus, monospermus, ovario unico plerumque tantum 
maturato. Albumen corneum, xquabile vel centro-cavum, 
vel processu tegumentorum intrante excavatum vel exaratum. 
Embryo sepius dorsalis, rarissime subbasilaris. 

Palme perennantes vel monocarpice, frutescentes vel ar- 
boree. Folia sepissime flabelliformia, raro pinnata. In- 
florescentia axillaris, raro terminalis. Spathe plures in- 
completa, vaginantes, rarius una completa; secondarie ple- 
rumque deficientes. 


Sect. L—Foura FLABELLIFORMIA. 


CorypHa.— Monocarpice, arboreex, terminiflore. Folia 
palmatim partita, flabelliformia. Spathe seconda- 
ri@ et tertiariae tot quot rami spadicis. Flores 

VOL. V. NO. XIX. OCTOBER, 1844. Qs 


312 The Palms of British East India. 


hermaphroditi, glomerulati. Corolla tripetala. Bac- 
ca sub-exsucca. Albumen centro-cavum vel solidum. 
Embryo verticalis. 

Livistona.—Perennes, arboree, axillifloree. Folia palma- 
tim partita, flabelliformia. Flores hermaphroditi, 
glomerulati. Corolla tripartita. Drupa. Albumen 
processu intrante excavatum. Embryo dorsalis. 

LicuaLa.—Perennes, frutescentes, axilliflore. Folia pin- 
natim flabelliformia. Flores hermaphroditi, soli- 
tarii, binati vel ternati? tribracteati. Corolla tri- 
partita. Eilamenta in annulum faucinum sepissime 
coalita. Drupa, etc. preecedentis. 

CuHAM&rops.—Perennes, frutescentes vel arborez, axilli- 
flore. Folia palmatim-partita, flabelliformia. Flores 
polygami. Corolla tripetala. Bacca. Semen longi- 
tudinaliter sulcatum. Embryo dorsalis. 


Sect. [].—Fotta Pinnata. 
PHENIX. 
‘Susp-ramMity.—CORY PHIN AS. 
Flowers hermaphrodite, seldom polygamous, rarely dicecious. Ovaria three, dis- 
tinct or partly cohering. Fruit a berry or a drupe, generally solitary, one ovarium 


only being matured, | seeded. Albumen horny, equal, solid or hollow in the cen- 
tre, or excavated on the surface, or subruminate. Embryo dorsal. 


LEAVES FAN-SHAPED. 
Large trees flowering only once. In- 

florescence terminal; secondary and 

tertiary spathes many. Flowers her- 

maphrodite, several together. Corolla 

three petalled. Stamens hypogynous. 

Berry almost juiceless. Albumen 

hollow in the middle or solid. Em- 

bryo near the apex. - «ove eoee CORYPHA. 
Perennial trees. Inflorescence axillary. 

Flowers hermaphrodite, several toge- 

ther. Corolla tripartite. Stamens peri- 

gynous. Fruit a drupe. Albumen with 

a cavity communicating exteriorly and 

filled with the integuments. Embryo 

about the middle of the dorsal face. .. LivisTona. 
Perennial. Inflorescence axillary. Flow- 

ers polygamous, several together. Co- 

rolla tripartite. Stamens hypogynous. 

Fruit a berry. Seed with a longitudi- 
L nal furrow. eere coos eoee CHAMAROPS. 


‘ 
| 
| 
| 
| 

Palmately divided. | 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 


ss ‘wha ———— 


The Palms of British East India. 313 


( Perennial. Inflorescence axillary. Flow- 
ers hermaphrodite, solitary, or two or 
Pinnately divided. ..4 three together. Corolla tripartite. Sta- 
mens perigynous: filaments at the faux 
| combined into an annulus. Fruit as in 
L Livistona. cues cece esse Licuata. 
Leaves PINNATE. sees sees cease ooo. PHANIX. 


Secr. I. 


Folia flabelliformia. Flores hermaphroditi, rarius poly- 
gami. Spathe plures incomplete. Corolla valvata. Sta- 
mina 6, sepius perigyna. Stylz connati. Drupa rarius bacca. 
Semen superficie lzeviusculum, vel (in Chameropide) verti- 
ealiter suleatum. Albumen centro-cavum, vel processu in- 
trante excavatum, vel (in Chameropide) exaratum, interdum 
sub-ruminatum. 

Palme frutescentes vel arboree, perennantes vel monocar- 
pice, in umbrosis humidisque vigentes. Folia palmatim vel 
(in Licuala) pinnatim flabelliformia, interdum maxima, pli- 
cata, laciniis ut plurimum bifidis : petioli inermes vel sepius 
secus margines aculeatt. Spadices perennantium axillares, 
monocarpicarum terminales, maximae. Spathee plures, in- 
completae, vaginantes. Flores sessiles, solitarit vel sepe glo- 
merulati, sepe obscure 1-bracteati. Stamina in tripetalis 
libera, hypogyna, in reliquis perigyna, filamentis sepe in 
annulum faucinum coalitis, Anthere versatiles. Ovarium 
sepius vertice exsculpium. Bacce drupeve olivacee, rubre 
vel cyanee. 

Incolz Americe tropice, Australie, et Asiz praesertim 
ultragangetice et archipelagice. Species una Mediterranea, 
altera Affghanensis. Limes borealis specierum indicarum 
30-31 grad. alt. supra mare 1,000—1,500 pedum. 


Usus.—Foliorum pinnis exsiccatis inscribere solent indi- 
gene. 
CORYPHA. 
Linn, (Mus. Cliff. 11.) Gen. Pl. ed. 6ta. p. 572. No. 1221. 
ed. Schreber. p. 774. No. 1690. Syst. Pl. ed. Schult. 7. p. 
Ixxvill, No. 1493, Juss. Gen. p. 39. (partim.) Gertn. 


314 The Palms of British East India. 


Fruct. et. Sem. 1. p. 18. ¢. 7. (semine inverso.) Lam. Enc. 
Meth. t. 899. (e Rheede et Gertner.) A. Br. Pr. Fl. Nov. 
Holl. ed. 2da. p. 123. Roxb. Fl. Ind. 2. p. 174. ILcones. 7. 
t. 37. Suppt. 3. t.80. Mart. Progr. p. 10. (partim.) Palme. 
231. Endl. Gen. p. 252. No. 1753. 

Codda-Pana. Rheed. Hort. Mal. 3. p. 1. ¢. 1-12. 


Taliera. Mart. Progr. p. 10. Syst. Pl. ed. Schult. 7. p.- 


Ixxvili. No. 1492. 
Gembanga. Blume.in Bot. Zeit. (1825.) 2. p. 580. et 678. 
(e Martio.) 


Cuar. Gen.—Flores hermaphroditi. Calyx tridentatus. 
Corolla tripetala. Stamina 6, hypogyna, filamentis basi dis- 
tinctis. Ovaria 3, coherentia. Style connati. Fructus 
(unicus seepius maturescens) baccatus, monospermus. Albu- 
men corneum, centro-cavum (unius solidum.) Embryo versus 
apicem albuminis. 


Hasitus.—Palmz asiatice arboree, procere, monocar- 
pice. ‘Truncus annulatus vel spiraliter sulcatus. Corona 
maxima, ampla. Petiolorum margines aculeati. Rete O. 
Lamina palmatim multipartita, lacinits apice bilobis. In- 
florescentia terminalis, amplissima. Spathe primarie@ et se- 
condariea plurime. Flores glomerulati, breve pedicellati, fla- 
vescentes. Fructus oltvacet seu fiavescentes. 

Affinitas proxima cum Livistona (confer R. Br. Prod. 
p- 123, adnot.) Discrimina majora constant in vita mono- 
carpica, inflorescentia terminali et spathis secondariis. 


50. (1) C. elata, trunco spiraliter sulcato, petiolis spirali- 
ter dispositis exauriculatis, lamina (petiolo breviore) plana, 
laciniis 85-90 profundis lineari-ensiformibus obtuse bilobis 
posticis cum petiolo angulum acutum efformantibus, glomeru- 
lis florum distantibus, petalis lanceolatis, fructibus sclopeti 
slobuli magnitudine, embryone versus apicem albuminis so- 


lidi. 


1) ape 


The Palms of British East India. O15 


C. elata, Roxb. Fl. Ind. 2, p. 176. Icones Suppt 3. t. 80. 
Mart. Palm. p. 2338. 


Has.—Bengal, flowering in March and April: the seeds 
require about 12 months to ripen. Bujoor or Bujur-batool, 
Beng. (Roxb.) Cultivated in the Botanic and some other 
Gardens about Calcutta. I have not seen it in flower or 
fruit. 


Derscr.—“ Trunk straight, but often varying in thickness, I 
have two trees, which were pretty well ascertained to be about 
thirty years old when in flower ; one was seventy feet to the base 
of the inflorescence, the other about sixty ; circumference near the 
root eight feet, and about the middle of the trees five and a half or six: 
their whole length strongly marked with rough, dark coloured, 
spiral ridges, and furrows, which plainly point out the spiral ar- 
rangement of the leaves. The ligneous fibres, as in the order, 
are on the outside, forming a tube for the soft spongy substance 
within, of dark chocolate colour, tough and hard, but by no means 
equal, in either quantity or quality, to the very serviceable wood of 
Borassus flabelliformis. | 

Leaves round the top of the trunk, immediately under the base of 
the inflorescence, numerous, palmate pinnatifid, plaited, from eight 
to ten feet each way; segments generally from forty to fifty pair, 
united about half their length, ensiform, apices rather obtuse and 
bifid, texture hard, smooth on both sides. When the tree begins 
to blossom, the leaves wither and soon fall off, leaving the fructiferous 
part naked. Petioles (stipes) from six to twelve feet long, con- 
cave above, with the thin, hard, black margins thereof cut into 
numerous, very short, curved spines. Spathes numerous, there be- 
ing one at each joint of the various ramifications of the spadix, all 
smooth and when recent, of a pale yellowish green. Inflorescence, 
(spadix) terminal; it may be called an immense, more than supra- 
decompound, round panicle ; in this species it is of a much smaller 
span than the leaves, and only about one-fourth or one-fifth part of 
the whole height of the tree; the various and innumerable ramifi- 
cations are always alternate, smooth and of a pale yellow colour. 


316 The Palms of British East India. 


Flowers small, sessile, collected in little bundles over the ultimate 
divisions of the panicle, pale yellow, small, rather offensive. Calyx 
small, 3-toothed. Petals three, oblong, reflexed, shorter than the 
stamina. ’tdaments six, broad at the base, and there united, toward 
the apex slender and incurved. Anthers ovate. Germ superior, 
round-ovate, 3-lobed, 3-celled, with one ovulum in each, attached 
to the bottom of its cell. Style short, 3-grooved. Stigma 3-lobed. 
Berry globular, the size of a musket ball, olive-coloured, smooth 
when fresh, but it soon becomes dry and wrinkled, 1-celled; the 
two abortive lobes of the germ are always to be found at the base. 
Seed solitary, subglobular. Jnteguments apparently two, but they 
are firmly united, and of a friable texture; the exterior one pale 
yellowish brown, and veined ; the zz¢erzor one brown, and adhering 
firmly to the perisperm. Perisperm conform to the seed, of a hard, 
horny texture, and a pale gray colour. Hmbryo simple, short, cylin- 
dric, lodged near the apex of the perisperm.” (Roxb. o. ec. 1. c.) 


To this I have to add that the petioles are much more 
slender than in the other species, their sides marked with 
oblique furrows, corresponding with the teeth, which are 
very large. They separate a little above the base: this 
afterwards becomes longitudinally split, and long afterwards 
falls off. ‘The lamina describes nearly a complete circle ; 
length 5-6 feet, breadth 15 feet; the posterior pinne do not 
meet, much less overlap. Laciniz about 85, linear-ensiform, 
much narrower than in the others: the central are about 3 
feet long, the lateral and intermediate about 33 feet; the 
posticous ones towards the base present denticulate margins. 

This Palm will be at once recognised by its black spirally 
marked trunk. From the other species of Corypha it is 
abundantly distinct by its long, obviously spirally placed, 
exauriculate petioles, and by the smaller, dark green, flat 
lamina with narrow, linear-ensiform segments. The fruit is 
also smaller. 

According to Roxburgh’s drawing, the inflorescence of this 
is so dense that no part of the spadix or spathes is visible, 


The Palms of British East India. ol7 


and the outline is irregularly pyramidal, some of the bran- 
ches being much larger than others. 


52, (2) C. Tailiera, trunco obsolete annulato, petiolis bi- 
auriculatis, lamina (petiolum excedente) glaucescente a medio 
supra conduplicata, laciniis 80-90 ensiformibus bilobis posti- 
cis incumbentibus, glomerulis florum approximatis, petalis 
oblongis estivatione imbricatis, fructibus pomi minoris magni- 
tudine rugosis, embryone in apice albuminis centro cavi. 

C. Talliera, Roxb. Cor. Pl. 3. p. 51. t. 255-256. (auct. Mart.) 
Icones 7. t. 87. Fl. Ind. 2. p. 174. Mart. Palme. p. 281. 
Taliera benghalensis. Spreng. Syst. 2. p. 18. Taliera Tali. 
Mart. Syst. veg. ed. Schult. 7. p. 1306. 


Has.—Bengal, scarce in the vicinity of Calcutta. Flowers 
at the beginning of the hot season, seeds ripen 9 or 10 
months afterwards. Tara, Tallier, Tareet, Beng. (Roxb.) 
Cultivated in the Botanic Gardens. I have not seen the 
flowers or fruit. 


Drscr.—“ Trunk perfectly straight, about thirty feet high, and 
as near as the eye can judge equally thick throughout, of a dark 
brown colour, and somewhat rough with the marks left by the im- 
pression of the fallen leaves. Leaves palmate-pinnatifid, plaited, 
subrotund. Leaftets or divisions of the frond united rather more than 
half way, numerous, generally about eighty, (or forty pairs,) linear- 
lanceolate, pointed until broken by the wind, or otherwise, polished 
on both sides, with a strong somewhat four-sided rib running their 
whole length ; generally about six feet long, greatest breadth about 
four inches. The thread which forms part of the Linnean specific 
character of Corypha umbraculifera, is sometimes present, sometimes 
wanting, at best such perishable marks deserve no notice. Petioles 
from five to ten feet long, remarkably strong, upper side deeply chan- 
nelled, the sharp margins armed with numerous, short, strong, dark- 
coloured polished, compressed spines. Spathes just as numerous 
as the primary and secondary ramifications in the spadix, all 
smooth, and obtuse. Spadix supra-decompound, issuing in the 


O18 The Palms of British East India. 


month of February from the apex of the tree, and centre of the lea- 
ves, forming an immense, diffuse, ovate panicle, of about twenty or 
more feet in height, so that the height of the whole tree, from the 
ground to the top of the spadix is now about fifty feet. Primary 
branches alternate, round, spreading nearly horizontally with their 
apices ascending. Secondary ramifications alternate, bifarious, com- 
pressed, drooping, recurved, soon dividing into numerous, variously 
curved, smaller, subcylindric, branchlets covered with innumera- 
ble, small white, odorous, subsessile flowers. Calyx ; perianth 
inferior, minute, obscurely 3-toothed. Petals three, oblong, con- 
cave, fleshy, smooth, expanding, many times larger than the perianth. 
No nectary. laments six, nearly of the length of the petals, at 
the base broad, and in some measure united. Anthers ovate. Germ 
3-lobed, 3-celled with the embryo of a distinct seed in each, at- 
tached to the bottom of its cell. Style shorter than the stamina. 
Stigma simple. Berries from one to three conjoined, though one 
is the most common, and then the rudiments of the other two are 
present, they are singly quite round, about the size of a crab-apple, 
when ripe, wrinkled, and of a dark olive, or greenish yellow co- 
lour. The pulp is but in small proportion, and yellow when the 
fruit is ripe. Seed solitary, round, attached to the base of the 
berry, of a white colour, and horny substance, with a small vacuum 
in the centre. Embryo lodged in the apex, which circumstance alone, 
is sufficient to distinguish it from Gerétner’s Corypha umbraculifera. 
The leaves of this tree are employed by the natives to write on 
with their pointed steel bodkins, and also to tie the rafters of their 
houses, for they are said to be strong and durable. I do not find that 
the wood is applied to any useful purpose.” (foxb. o. c. l. ce.) 


This species is so closely allied to C. umbraculifera, as to 
be difficult to distinguish when out of flower. The Garden 
specimens are distinguishable by the lamina of the leaf of 
this species being conduplicate from the middle upwards, and 
by the posticous segments overlapping, so that the whole 
becomes peltate. 

The leaves are very like those of Borassus flabelliformis, 
but much larger. The petioles are bi-auriculate and with- 


The Paims of British East India. 319 


out an obvious spiral arrangement, they separate at the top 
of the dilated part, and subsequently fall off leaving a smooth 
trunk. The lamina is 5-6 ft. long, 15 ft. broad, glaucescent ; 
the segments 90-95, deeper and broader than in C. umbraculi- 
fera, the central being 3-33 feet long. 

Roxburgh’s drawing represents the inflorescence as conical 
pyramidal, longer than the crown of leaves, open so that 
the spathes and branches are seen distinctly, and these last 
as regularly diminishing upwards.* 


53. (3) C. umbraculifera, trunco annulato, petiolis exauri- 
culatis, lamina (petiolum subzquante) a medio supra condu- 
plicata, laciniis 90-100 parum profundis ensiformibus bilobis 
posticis cum petiolo angulum acutum exhibentibus, glomerulis 
florum approximatis, fructibus pomi minoris magnitudine et 
forma, embryone in apice albuminis centro cavi. 

C. umbraculifera, Linn. Spec. Pl. ed. 2da. p. 1657. Fl. 
Zeyl. p. 187. (excl. syn. Rumphii.} Gaertn. Fruct. et. Sem. 
1. p. 18. ¢. 7. sem. inverso (excl. syn. Rumphii.) Waelld. Sp. Pl. 
2,p. 201. Spreng. Syst. Veg. 2. p.138. Lam. Enc. Meth. 
899. (e Rheede et Gertner.) Syst. Veg. ed. Schultes. 7. p. 


* I subjoin descriptions of flowers and fruit from Garden specimens with the 
name C. umbraculifera, but which I believe to belong here. 

Flower-bearing branches often dichotomous above the mouths of their spathes, 
about 2 inches long. Flowers several together, on short stout subannulate stalks, 
among the bases of which small scales may be found. Calyx short, cup-shaped, 
with three very rounded teeth. Corolla 3-times longer than the calyx, petals ob- 
long, concave, very spreading in bud, imbricate ! Stamina 6; filaments stout subu- 
late, about as long as the petals, those opposite the petals being twice as broad; 
anthers oblong-ovate. Ovarium globose turbinate, 3-lobed, each lobe with 3 de- 
pressed areole on its vertex. Style about as long, stout, subulate, 3-furrowed. 
Stigma subsimple. Ovula solitary, erect, anatropous. 

Fruit globose, substance excepting the cutis rather thick, homogeneous, fleshy, 
cellular. Seed erect, oblong roundish ; tegument externally cellular, coriaceous, 
internally blackish, subosseous, adhering firmly to the very dense, hollow in the 
centre, horny albumen. Embryo situated rather obliquely in the apex of the al- 
bumen, the cavity containing it communicating with the central cavity of the al- 
bumen. 


QT 


320 The Palms of British East India. 


1308. Roxb. Fl. Ind. 2. p. 177. Mart. Palm. p. 232. Codda 
Pana. Rheede. Hort. Mal. 3 t. 1-12. 


Has.—Ceylon, Malabar Coast. Tala or Talagas. Cingha- 
lese. Condapari. Tamul. (Roxb.) Codda-Pana. Malabar. 
(Rheede.) Tallipot Palm. I have not seen it in flower or 
fruit. 


Descr.—Habit very much like that of C. Talliera. Leaves larger 
than those of C. Talliera; in native places immense.  Petioles 
stout, 7-feet long, channelled, margins with horny, irregular, often 
paired teeth. Lamina describing nearly a complete circle, 6 feet 
long, 13 feet broad, from the middle upwards conduplicate, but not 
so much so as in C. Talliera; lacinie 95-100, ensiform, obtusely 
bifid, the central ones 14 foot long, the intermediate ones 13, the 
posticous not meeting or overlapping, but forming acute angles with 
the petiole. Inflorescence much the same as in C. Talliera. 


I have specimens of part of the inflorescence, from trees 
round some of the pagodas at Mergui, most probably belong- 
ing to this species. I subjoin a description. 


Descr.—Flower.bearing branches 18-20 inches long, lower divi- 
sions bi-trichotomous, the rest simple; these are about a foot long, 
subulate, covered with warty protuberances (the situations of the 
flowers. ) 

Flowers several together on short subannular stalks, at the base 
of which small scales exist. Calyx cup-shaped, small, with three 
very short teeth. Petals broader, spreading, 3-4 times longer than 
the calyx: subvalvate in exstivation, upper edges quite so. Stami- 
na 6; filaments rather shorter than the petals, about equal, stout, 
subulate ; anthers oblong, ovate in bud, much larger than those of 
C. Talliera. Ovariwm conical from a round base, three-lobed, at- 
tenuated into a stout subulate three-furrowed style, which is rather 
longer than the ovarium. Stigma simple. Ovuia solitary, erect. 


I have no means of ascertaining to what species these spe- 
cimens really belong, not having access to a complete copy of 


The Palms of British East India. 321 


Martius’ Palms, where the necessarily minute examination 
can only be expected ; but probability is in favour of their 
belonging to C. umbraculifera. If this is the case, the zsti- 
vation of the corolla, and shape of the ovarium will assist the 
specific distinction. 


LICUALA. 


Rumph. Hb. Amb. 1. p. 44.t.9. Thunb. Nov. gen. p. 70. 
Linn. Gen. Pl. ed. Schreb. 2. p. 774, ed. Spreng. p. 149. No. 
1300. Jussieu. Gen. Pl. p. 59. Gaertner. Sem. et. Fruct. 2. 
p. 268. ¢t. 189. Syst. Veg. ed. Sch. 7. p. 77. No. 1490, 
Roxb. Fil. Ind. 2. p. 179. Icones. Suppt. 3. t. 79. Mart. 
Progr. p. 9. No. 1V. Palme. p. 234. t. 184, 135, 162, Endl. 
Gen. Pl. p. 252. No. 1755. 


Cuar. Gen.—Flores hermaphroditi. Perianthium utrum- 
que tripartitum. Stamina 6, filamentis (a corolla liberifactis) 
in annumul sepissime coalitis. Drupa (unica maturescens) 
monosperma. Albumen cavitate ventrali. Hmbryo dorsalis. 


Hasitus.—Palme Asiae orientalis et archipelagicae inco- 
lae, frutescentes, enterdum subacaules. Caulis ut plurimum an- 
nulatus, interdum basibus petiolorum persistentihus induratis 
exasperatius. Folia pinnato-flabelliformia ; petioli sepissime 
secus margines aculets cornetis conicis saepius aduncis armati ; 
pinne cuneiformes, apice plus minus truncatae, lobatae, lobis 
bifidis. Spadix (initio siliquaeformis) spicatim vel panicula- 
tim ramosus. Spathz tubulosae, ore obliquo bilobo. Flores 
solitarit, bint vel terni, saepe extus pubescentes. Ovarium 
vertice exsculptum. Carpidia apicibus cohaerentia. Drupe 
miniatae vel rubrae. 


54, (1) L. spinosa, trunco 8-12-pedali annulato vel aspero, 
petiolis per totam longitudinem armatis, lamina orbiculari-reni- 
formi, pinnis sub 18, lateralibus oblique przmorsis 3-4-lobis 
obtuse bipartitis, terminali 10-11-lobo, intermediis 3-5-lobis 


322 The Palms of British East India. 


lobis obtuse bifidis, spadice foliorum circiter longitudine, 
ramis 3-7 spicigeris, spicis subulatis pubescentibus, floribus 
bi-ternatis extus pubescentibus, calyce ovato ad medium 
rotundate tripartito, bacca obovato-oblonga. 

Licuala spinosa, Willd. 2. p. 201. (excl. syn. Rumph.) 
Roxb. Fl. Ind. 2. p. 181,? (excl. syn. Rumph. et Lam.) Syst. 
Veg. ed. Sch. 2. p. 1301. Mart. Palm. p. 235. t. 135. I. II. 


Has.—Common in wet places, particularly in hedges, 
Malacca. Malayan name, Plass. Cultivated in the H. C. 
Botanic Garden, where it flowers in the cold and ripens its 
fruit in the hot season. 


Descr.—A stout Palm, 10-12 feet high, forming dense tufts. 
Trunk 2-4 inches in diameter, 8-10 feet high, marked with the 
scars of the fallen petioles. Leaves 6-7 feet long. Petiole about 
4-41 feet. long, obtusely trigonal, margins armed throughout with 
stout conical somewhat curved aculei. Lamina in outline orbi- 
cularly reniform, about 4 feet across the broad diameter; pinne 
about 18, narrow cuneate; central ones about 2 feet long; termi- 
nal one 10-11 plicate, truncate, with as many lobes as plaits, the 
lateral ones the deepest, all obtusely bifid; the intermediate more 
or less truncate, 3-5 lobed, lobes larger and deeper, but otherwise 
similar to those of the terminal one, the lateral with oblique 3-lobed 
ends. Ligula very narrow, 1-14 inch long, scarious. 

Spadix a little longer than the leaves, branches 7-10, adnate to 
the axis as high as the points of the spathes. Spathes green, sprink- 
led with brownish scurf, with scarious lacerated ends, occasionally 
obliquely lacerated. Spikes to the lower branches several, stout, 
subulate, downy, spreading, generally secund. 

Flowers sessile, in two’s or three’s, small, nearly ovate. Calyx 
subovate, divided to the middle into three rounded teeth. Corolla 
a little longer than the calyx, divided below the middle into three 
broad lanceolate, acuminate segments. Annulus rather high, nearly 
entire. ilaments (free,) short, setaceous. Anthers oblong-ovate. 
Ovarium depressed, turbinate, sculptured at the apex. Style fili- 
form, rather longer than the ovary. 


The Palms of British East India. 323 


Fruit as though stalked by the cylindrical tube of the calyx, 
surrounded at the base by the perianth, oblong, red, one-seeded. 
Seed ovate, intrant process curved towards the middle of the dorsum. 
Albumen horny, on a transverse section horse-shoe-shaped. Embryo 
about central. 


This species appears to vary a good deal; it is not impro- 
bable that two species lurk under this name. Some of my 
Malacca specimens have the trunk armed with the hardened 
bases of the petioles, slenderer spadices and considerably 
smaller fruit. 

It approaches in the leaves to L. peltata, especially in the 
division of the ends of the pinne, but it is otherwise obvi- 
ously distinct; it is the only species I know that forms 
tufts. Its nearest affinity is with L. paludosa. 

Rumph’s figure* (Hb. Amb. 1. t. 9.) quoted for this ap- 
pears to me to be a distinct species, particularly as regards 
the spathes and the erect simple spikes. 


55. (2) L. paludosa, (n. sp.) trunco sub-levi 8-12-pedali, 
petiolis apice inermibus, lamina flabelliformi, pinnis 7-9, 
lateralibus apice obliquis profunde et acute 3-4 lobis, lobis 
bipartitis, reliquis truncatis lobis 4-5, (vel terminali 7-8) latis 
brevibus bifidis, spadice foliorum circiter longitudine, ramis 
spicas plures nutantes secundas gerentibus, floribus glabris 
solitariis turbinatis, calyce cyathiformi integriusculo corolla 
sub-duplo breviore, ovario depresso-turbinato. 


Has.—Low sandy wet places along the sea-coast, about 
Tanjong Cling, Koondoor, and Pulo Bissar, Malacca; asso- 
ciated with Pandanus, Eugenia, Diospyros, Helospora, etc. 
In flower February, 1842. 


Drscr.— Trunk 8-12 feet high, about 14 inch in diameter, un- 
armed and almost without marks of annuli, except towards the apex 


* See Mart. Palm. p. 236. adnot. where the name L. Rumphii is proposed for 
this species. 


324 The Paims of British East India. 


where they are incomplete. Crown moderate. Rete of rather 
stout, rich brown fibres. Ligula linear, one inch long, gradually 
attenuate towards the apex. Petiole 14-14 foot long, subtrigonal, 
armed along the margins, except towards the apex, with small, 
black, horny, conical, curved teeth. Lamina flabelliform, rather 
smaller than that of L. spinosa; pinne 8-10, cuneate, lateral ones 
oblique at the apex, deeply and acutely 3-4 lobed, lobes bilobed 
(except the side ones, ) the others more or less truncate with 4, (or 
as in the terminal 5-8,) broad, short, bifid lobes. 

Spadix about the same length as the leaves, rather curved. 
Spathes tubular, green, with membranous or scarious lacerated 
mouths. Branches of the spadix bearing 5-7 spikes, which are 
4-6 inches long, curved, secund, generally nodding, slightly pube- 
rulous, often appearing as if they arose separately from within the 
mouth of the spathe. 

Flowers solitary, sessile, of a turbinate form, smaller than usual. 
Calyx cup-shaped, half the length of the corolla, nearly entire, 
irregularly split at the expansion of the flower. Corolla (in bud) ur- 
ceolate, about one-third longer than the calyx, divided to the middle 
into three, cordate ovate segments. Annulus of the stamina white, 
nearly entire, projecting considerably above the faux of the corolla. 
Filaments(free)short,setiform. Anthers versatile, oblong, pale brown. 
Ovarium depressed, turbinate, with a horny sculptured vertex ; car- 
pels adhering by the style. Ovula solitary, erect, anatropous. 
Style subulate, rather shorter than the ovarium. Stigma simple. 
Fruit not seen. 


This species approaches to L. spinosa, but is abundantly 
distinct by its smooth stem, which does not look much like the 
stem of a palm, and by the short smooth turbinate flowers. 

The tracts of country in which it is found, form one of 
the peculiar marks of the Straits’ Flora, and are highly con- 
trasted with the muddy littoral tracts, which are covered as 
usual with Mangrove jungle. 


56. (3) L. peltata, trunco robusto 3-4 pedali, petiolis per 
totam longitudinem armatis, lamina orbiculari-peltata, pinnis 


The Palms of British East India. 325 


18-20, lateralibus apice obliquis profunde et acute 3-5 lobis, 
lobis bipartitis, reliquis truncatis plurilobatis, lobis obtuse bi- 
fidis, spadice foliorum circiter longitudine, spicis simplicibus 
pendulis secundis pubescentibus, floribus solitariis (maximis) 
extus pubescentibus, annulo staminum nullo, ovario depresso 
turbinato stylo triplo breviore, bacca obovata, processu 
intrante sursum latissima obliqua, embryone infra medium 
seminis. 

Licuala peltata. Roxb. Fl. Ind. 2. p. 179. Icones. Suppt. 
3. t. 79. Hamilton Comm. Herb. Amb. in Mem. Wern. Soe. 
5. p. 313. Mart. Palm. p. 234. t. 162. 


Has.— Woody mountainous country to the eastward of and 
near Chittagong, Roxburgh ; Mountains beyond the Ganges; 
Rungpore, Buchanan; Assam, Major Jenkins; Himalayan 
range, below Darjeeling, Seharunpore Collectors. Cultivated 
in H. C. Bot. Gardens, flowering in the cold season, fruiting 
in the hot season. Kurup, Kurkuti. Bengally. Chattah Pat. 
Assamese. 


Descr.*—A low Palm, with a stout stem 3-4 feet high, marked 
below with the scars of the fallen leaves, above rough from the per- 
sistent bases of the petioles. Leaves 8-10 feet long. tete copious. 
Petiole 6-7 feet long, triangular, armed throughout along the mar- 
gins, especially towards the base, with stout, horny, black, very 
sharp, conical, rather curved thorns. JZigula cordate, when young 
the margin is very elevated and tomentose. Lamina peltate; 
pinne about 18-20, describing nearly a circle of about 6 feet in 
diameter, about 3 feet 3 inches long, outermost ones cuneate-oblong, 
3-5 plaited, 3-5 lobed, lobes acutely bilobed, with oblique ends ; 
intermediate and terminal much broader, 7-8 inches across, trun- 


cate, with several plaits and as many less deep, broader, rather 
obtuse, bifid lobes. 


* From plants in the Botanic Gardens. Entire specimens since received from 
Major Jenkins have the stem 33-4 feet high, rough from the persistent, distant 
bases of the petioles; the leaves 12-14 feet in length; the petioles 8-9 feet and 
armed throughout. The spadices equal the leaves. 


326 The Palms of British East India. 


Spadiz erect, rather longer than the leaves, stout, simply branched, 
sprinkled in the upper parts with brown scurf. Spathes tubular, green, 
lower ones a foot or nearly two feet long, bilobed at the apex, 
at length variously split, similarly scurfy. Spikes 3-5, solitary, 
nodding-pendulous, secund, centrifugally developed, a foot (or more) 
long, pubescent, adnate to the axis to about the middle of the 
spathe. 

Flowers numerous, on short stalks, solitary, very large, 7 lines 
long, of a greenish white-colour, covered externally with the same 
pubescence as the spike, opening centrifugally. Calyx with a 
funnel-shaped or obconical tube, shortly 3-toothed. Corolla twice 
as long as the calyx, divided to the calyx into three broadly lanceo- 
late, coriaceous, reflexed segments. /2/aments united among each 
other and to the corolla as far as the base of its segments, thence 
free, long, stout, plano-subulate, keeled along the back. <Anthers 
linear, sagittate, exserted, attached near the middle; otherwise the 
cells are nearly distinct. 

Ovarium turbinate, short, with a sculptured depressed apex ; 
carpels cohering by their apices. Ovwla solitary, erect, anatropous. 
Style filiform, slender, three times longer than the ovarium. Stig- 
ma, obsoletely 3-toothed, on a level with the anthers. 

Fruit obovate, oblong, attenuate to the base, red, 1-seeded, 
apiculate by base of style, and crowned with the 2 abortive carpels, 
surrounded at the base by the perianth, the tube of the calyx resem- 
bling a short pedicel. Seed oblong; excavation passing in above 
the hilum, oblique, reaching nearly to the apex of the seed, dilated 
upwards. Albumen horny. Embryo below the middle. 


This, which is the largest and finest species of the genus, 
is not likely to be confounded with any other. Its large 
peltate orbicular leaves, simple large pendulous spikes, and 
comparatively very large flowers, will at once distinguish it. 
In the leaves it is allied to L. longipes, but that species is 
almost stemless, the leaves are also dark green, and differ- 
ently lobed. Martius’s figure of the entire plant gives a 
much better idea of L. spinosa than of this species. 


The Palms of British East India. 327 


Major Jenkins informs me, ‘the leaves of the Chattah 
Pat are used for the same purposes as those of the Toko, 
but are much coarser, and only made use of by the lower 
orders. The demand for them is very great, scarcely a 
single ploughman, cow-keeper or cooly but has his Jhapee 
or Chattah made of Chattah Pat.” 


57. (4) L. acutzfida, trunco gracili, foliis flabelliformibus, 
pinnis 15-20 subzequilatis anguste cuneatis tricarinatis, later- 
alibus apice obliquis inequaliter 3-4-lobis, terminali 4-5-lobo, 
intermediis trilobis lobulis (lateralibus exceptis) bipartitis 
sinubus acutis, spadice folia subzquante cum spicis floribus- 
que fusco-pubescenti-hirto, ramis simplicibus vel bipartitis, 
spathis bilobis sericeo argenteove paleaceis, floribus inferi- 


oribus binatis superioribus solitartis, petalis calyce obconico 


ad medium tripartito longioribus, seminis pisiformis processu 
intrante cylindraceo rectiusculo. 

L. acutifida, Mart. Palm. p. 287. t. 135, iil. iv. (exp syn. 
Roxb.) 


Has.—Penang, whenceI have specimens from Mr. Lewes, 
and Dr. Oxley. Malayan name Plass tzkooss. 


Descr.*—A small miniature Palm. 7’runk 3-5 feet high, (some- 
times 15-20 feet, Mr. Lewes), 10-11 lines in diameter, about 22 
linesin diameter at the base, marked with incomplete rings, to which 
portions of the base of the petioles adhere. 

Petioles in some of the specimens 35-4 feet long, in others (and 
this seems the natural state) scarcely 18 inches long, plano- convex, 
armed towards the base along the margins with tooth-shaped, 
straight or sub-deflexed short prickles. Fete brown, copious, pro- 
duced upwards into a long brown membranous ligula. Pinne 
15-20, disposed in a subpeltate manner, generally linear-cuneate, 


* Specimens, three entire small plants and several specimens of inflorescence 


' and a few ripe seeds. 


AH 


328 The Palms of British East India. 


10-11 inches long, 8 lines broad ; the intermediate ones the narrowest, 
unequally 3-4 lobed; the others 3-lobed, the central lobe deeply 
bipartite; the central pinnz 4-5 lobed, (the inner lobes deeply 
bipartite, the lateral ones entire.) Between the lobes threads are 
often to be found. 

Spadices 12-18 inches long, nodding, covered below with greyish, 
above with ferruginous pubescence, rather stouter towards the apex. 
Spathes tubular with oblique mouths, covered with grey silvery 
adpressed hairs or rather palez ; limbs more or less lanceolar, bi- 
lobed, lobes ending in acuminate scarious points ; the second spathe 
nearly 6 inches long. Spikes generally simple, rarely dichotomous, 
adnate to the peduncle very high up, subulate, densely covered with 
tawny pubescence; the lowest 5 inches long. 

Flowers numerous, sessile, spreading in every direction, articula- 
ted on short stalks, lowermost in pairs, upper ones solitary. Calya 
obconical, trifid to the middle, tawny pubescent, segments obtuse. 
Corolla 4 longer than the calyx, similarly pubescent externally, 
furrowed internally, tripartite to the middle, segments half lanceo- 
late acute. Annulus of the stamens 6-toothed. Filaments (free) short, 
setageous from a broad base. Anthers oblong. Ovarium smooth, 
sculptured at the apex, obovate-oblong, about the length of the tube 
of the corolla, of three carpella, cohering by their apices: ovwla soli- 
tary, erect, anatropous. Style about equalling the stamina, filiform, 
three-sulcate. Stsgma obsoletely cup-shaped, obscurely 3-denti- 
culate. 

Fruit about the size of a large pea, roundish-oblong, surrounded 
at the base by the flattened-out limb of the perianth, and as it were 
stalked by the tube of the same, dry. Seed pisiform, tinged with 
reddish ; teguments very thin, adhering firmly to the albumen; from 
the hilum enters a deep process, so that it is horse-shoe shaped on 
a longitudinal section. Albumen horny, equal. Embryo subcentral. 


Oxss.—The stems of this plant afford the well known 
walking sticks known by the name of “ Penang Lawyers.” 
These are prepared by scraping with glass, and polishing. 
Mr. Lewes informs me, ‘‘ Hach stem is well-scraped, by which 


The Palms of British East India. 329 


the epidermis is altogether removed ; care must be taken not 
to take away much more, as the inside is like the substance 
of a rattan. It is on this account that the smaller, thinner 
sticks are so much sought for, and are so rare. The sticks 
are then straitened by fire. No other process is used.” 

The plant seems to be confined within narrow geographi- 
cal limits; it is not known I believe about Malacca, where its 
place seems supplied by the following closely allied species. 
Martius, however, states it to be found throughout the Ma- 
layan peninsula. 

I have an impression that under this species as given by 
Martius, two distinct ones will be found; for though the 
description agrees well with my Penang specimens, yet the 
drawing of the spadix represents the parts nearly of the same 
size as in L. spinosa. 

L. pumila, Blume, appears only to be distinguished from 
this by the broader equal teeth of the pinne, the intermedi- 
ate ones of which are the broadest, being described as 16-21 
lines broad and 6-8-toothed, while the two innermost ones are 
said to be only an inch broad.* 


58. (5) L. glabra, (n. sp.) trunco gracili 3-5 pedali, foliis 
flabelliformibus, pinnis 16 subequilatis lineari-cuneatis tri- 
carinatis, lateralibus apice 3-4-lobis dentatisve, terminali 
4-lobo, intermediis trilobis lobis (lateralibus exceptis) obtu- 
sissimis bipartitis sinubus latis, spadice folia subaquante 
cum spathis spicis floribusque glabro, ramis 3-5-partitis, 
spicis gracilibus, floribus inferioribus binatis, calyce cyathi- 
formi brevissime tridentato, corolla triplo longiore infra 
medium tripartita, ovariis usque ad medium coherentibus. 


Has.—Solitary on Goonong Miring, an offset of Mount 
Ophir, Flowers in February. Malayan name, Plass Goonoong. 


* Syst. Veg. ed. Sch. 7, 2. p. 130. 


330 Lhe Palms of British Last India. 


Drscr.—A miniature Palm. Trunk 3-5 feet high, rather slender- 
er than that of the preceding. Petiole, rete and ligula much the 
same as those of the preceding. Lamina of the same size as the 
preceding, flabelliform ; pznne@ about 16, linear-cuneate, tricarinate, 
the lateral ones obliquely and unequally 3-4 toothed or lobed, the 
central one 4-lobed, the two inner lobes bifid, the rest 3-lobed 
with the central lobe bifid ; all the divisions obtuse. 

Spadices about equalling the leaves, in some of the specimens 3 
feet long, nodding, quite smooth, as are the spathes, which have acute- 
ly bipartite points. Branches distant, adnate to the spadix high up. 
Spikes several on one branch (except the uppermost ones), quite 
smooth, slender, 2-3 inches long, spreading. 

Flowers also smooth, rather distant, on short articulated stalks ; 
lower ones in pairs. Calyx cup-shaped, with three very short teeth. 
Corolla deeply tripartite, three times longer than the calyx, seg- 
ments linear lanceolate. vlaments (free) subulate from a broad 
base, rather long. Anthers ovate. Pollen ovate, 1-plicate. Ovarium 
obovate oblong, of three carpella adhering nearly to the middle. 
Ovula solitary, erect, anatropous. S¢yle filiform, rather shorter 
than the ovarium. Stigma subsimple. 

Fruit about the same size as that of L. acutifida, but obovate. 
Seed of the same shape, the intrant process is rather larger than 
in the preceding. 


I first met with this on Mount Ophir ; subsequently I have 
received specimens from the same locality from my collec- 
tor E. Fernandez. It is closely allied to the preceding, 
(Penang Lawyer,) from which indeed the leaves are scarcely 
distinguishable, except by the broad sinuses of the lobes 
and their more obtuse points. The smooth inflorescence 
and flowers, however, at once distinguish it from both that 
species and L. pumila, Blume. I am not aware of its stems 
being used for walking sticks. 


59. (6) L. longipes, (n. sp.) subacaulis, petiolis (4-5 pedali- 
bus) triquetris apicem versus inermibus, lamina orbiculari- 


The Palms of British East India. 301 


peltata (atroviridi,) pinnis circiter 20 cuneatis, lateralibus obli- 
que truncatis 3-4-dentatis, terminali latiore truncata sub 11- 
dentata, dentibus omnibus bifidis et irregulariter denticulatis, 
spadice erecto petiolis multo breviore thyrsoideo-ramoso, 
spicis (ramorum pluribus) undique patentibus, floribus soli- 
tariis numerosis parce pilosis, calyeis cylindracei dentibus 
rotundatis bifidis, ovario medium supra fusco-villoso. 


Has.— Solitary in dense forests, Ayer Punnus (Rhim) and 
Goonoong Miring, Mount Ophir, but not above an elevation 
of 1000 feet. Forests near Lainear, to the south of Mergui. 
Flowers nearly all the year. Plass Bhatto of the Malays. 


Descr.—A nearly stemless Palm, otherwise of considerable size, 
with dark green peltate leaves. Leaves 5-7 feet long. Rete of stout 
leathery fibres. Petioles stout, 4-5 feet long, rather obtusely trique- 
trous, armed (except the upper third) along the two inner angles 
with stout, horny, conical, tooth-shaped prickles. Lamina 2-21 
fect long, 3-4 feet broad, peltate-flabelliform; pinne 20-22, the 
lateral ones narrowest, obliquely cut off, unequally 3-4-lobed, lobes 
irregularly denticulate; the terminal one cuneate, 5 inches broad, 
truncate, 11-keeled above, with as many short, truncate, broad, 
bifid, denticulate lobes as keels: intermediate ones narrower, 
generally 3-keeled, otherwise similar: upper margins of all black- 
ish-brown. 

Spadix stout, much branched, much shorter than the leaves, 13- 
feet long, erect, undulate, flexuose. Spathes compressed, lax, almost 
inflated, laceroso-fibrous at the ends, when young grey from a co- 
vering of cellular paleaceous cellules. ranches adnate to the 
peduncle high up, bearing many spreading, subulate, scurfy-pubes- 
cent spikes, 3-5 inches long. 

Flowers numerous, sessile, green, slightly hairy outside. Calyx 
subcylindrical, 3-toothed, teeth bifid! Corolla almost twice as long 
as the calyx, divided to a little below the middle into three broad, 
cordate, lanceolate segments. Annulus of the stamina subtruncate, 
projecting considerably above the faux of the corolla. Filaments 
(free) short, setiform. Anthers cordato-ovate, slightly inflexed. Ova- 


O02 The Palms of British East India. 


rium turbinate, toward the base smooth and tripartible, above entire 
and covered with fuscous villi. Ovzla solitary, erect, anatropous. 
Style cylindric, rather shorter than the ovarium, hollow at the apex. 
Stigmata three, minute, on a level with the annulus. 

Fruit (immature) subbaccate, sitting on the stout pedicel-like 
tube of the calyx: surrounded at the base by the perianth, and 
annulus, apiculate by the style, one seeded. Hndocarp thin, subos- 


seous. 


This, judging from Schultes’ description,* appears to be 
somewhat allied to Blume’s L. ramosa, quoted by Martius 
under L. spinosa. 

It is very distinct from the other species known to me 
by its inflorescence, which is so divided and short as to be 
almost a thyrsiform panicle, its short trunk but otherwise 
large stature, and dark leaves, in the orbicular spreading of 
the divisions of which it resembles L. peltata. 


60. (7.) L. triphylla, (n. sp.) nana, subacaulis, pinnis tri- 
bus pluridentatis (dentibus marginali excepto emarginatis), - 
lateralibus oblique cuneatis przmorsis, terminali abrupte 
premorsa, spadice foliis breviori vix spithamaeo, floribus 
paucis solitariis, fructibus pisiformibus processu intranti 
curvato. 


Has.—In dense forests, Ayer Punnus, (Rhim,) Malacca. 
Only one specimen was procured. 


Derscr.—A very dwarf Palm, the whole height not exceeding 
21 feet; the stem being about 3-4 inches long. Leaves 1-2 feet 
long. Petioles plano-convex or canaliculate, armed below the mid- 
dle with straight or somewhat hooked, deflexed, rather long prickles. 
Rete well developed. Lamina of three cuneate pinne, the lateral 
ones obliquely preemorse, the terminal (which is 5-6 inches long, 
24 wide) truncate: as many short teeth as there are carinz, all 


* Syst. Veg. ed Schultes. 


The Palms of British East India. 292 


except the lateral one on either side emarginate ; those of the ter- 
minal one being the shortest and about 12 in number. 

Spadix (fruit-bearing) nodding, cernuous, scarcely a span long, 
smooth, except the spike bearing part, which is scurfy-pubescent. 
Spathes smooth, bipartite. Branches four, lowermost dichotomous. 
Spikes about an inch long, marked with the scars of a few flowers. 
Berries about 5 on the largest spike, sub-distichous, red, the size 
of a pea, seated as it were on a short stout stalk (the tube of 
the calyx,) and surrounded at the base by the spreading cordate- 
ovate acuminate segments. Seed like a small pea. Intrant process 
curved, so that its upper part becomes nearly horizontal. Embryo 
subcentral. 


The stature and leaves of this will at once distinguish it. 
In the teeth of the pinne it approaches L. pumila, and especi- 
ally L. longipes. 

It appears to be distinguishable from very young plants of 
L. spinosa by the longer petioles, and less deeply toothed 
pinne. The perianthium also does not appear to be pubes- 
cent, and the fruit is pisiform. 


LIVISTONA. 


fh. Br. Prod. Fl. Nov. Holl. ed. 2da. 123. Syst. Veget. 
ed. Schult. 7. No. 1491. p. 1307. Mart. Progr. Palmar. p. 
10. Padm. 102 (part. sub nom. Coryphae rotundifoliae) 109, 
(part) 110, 111, 135, 145, 146. Endl. Gen. Pl. p. 252. No. 
1754. 

Livistonia, Gen. Pl. ed. Spreng. p. 283. No. 1465. 

Saribus. Rumph. Hb. Amb. 1. ¢. 8. 


Cuar. Gen.—Flores hermaphroditi. Perianthium utrum- 
que tripartitum. Stamina 6, filamentis e corolla liberifactis 
distinctis, (basi dilatatis). Ovaria 3, apice coherentia. Styli 
connati. St¢gma subsimplex. Drupa (unica maturescens) 
monosperma. Albumen cavitate ventrali. Embryo dorsalis. 


oA The Palms of British East India. 


Ss) 


Hasitus.—Palme Aszae orientalis et australis, saepius ar- 
boreae, perennantes. Foliorum petioli saepius armati ; lamine 
segmenta profunde bipartita, interdum acuminatissima pen- 
dula, lateralia longiora. Rete copiosum. Spadices axil- 
lares, paniculatim ramosi; pedunculis spathis vaginantibus 
obtectis. Flores minuti, albidi, glomerulati. Drupe saepius 
inaequilaterales, glaucescentt-azureae. 

Discrimina vera inter Licualam et hoc genus ponuntur tan- 
tum in foliis palmatim flabelliformibus, filamentis in annulum 
liberum vix coalitis et baccis azureis. Fructus structura in 
utroque eadem. 


61. (1) L. Jenkinsiana, (n. sp.) 20-30-pedalis, petiolis 
pertotam fere longitudinem armatis, lamina (foliorum) reni- 
formi-flabelliformi diametro extremo 5-6 pedali subtus glauco 
pruinosa, segmentis 75-80 obtuse bilobis, lateralibus sub- 
11 pedalibus centralibus duplo longioribus, calyce rotunde 
et membranaceim 3-dentato, fructibus subreniformi-rotundis 
magnitudine globuli sclopeti. 


Haz.—Gubro Purbut, Upper Assam, in flower March 
1836. Common throughout Assam, but most plentiful in 
the Nowgong district, Major Jenkins. Toko Pat of the 
Assamese. 


Descr.*—A Palm 20-30 feet high, with a thick round crown. 
Trunk in diameter 6-7 inches, rough towards the apex from the 
adhering bases of the petioles. Leaves 6-7 feet long. Petiole chan- 
nelled above, armed almost to the summit; ligula cordate. Lamina 
reniform flabelliform, greatest breadth 5-6 feet, length from the apex 
of the petiole 3-34 feet, divided into about 76-80, obtuse, bi-lobed 
segments, of which the extreme lateral ones are the deepest, being 
18-inches long, while the central ones are scarcely half that length, 


* Partly from living plants observed at Gubroo, partly from specimens received 
from Major Jenkins. 


The Palms of British East India. 300 


under surface glaucous cesious. The outline of the undivided part 
is almost exactly cordate. 

Spadices axillary, 2-3 feet long ; branches a span or a foot long, 
dichotomous opposite the ends of the spathes ; branchlets (spikes) 
lowermost 2 or 3 times divided, the others simple. Spathes ches- 
nut red, sometimes split, concealing the greater part of the peduncle ; 
scurfy outside, the one next the first branch 14 foot long, 3-5 keeled, 
with a large, oblong, deeply bilobed, split limb. 

Spikes to each branch many, 4-6 inches long, spreading, rather 
stout. lowers several together, sessile on small knobs, small, 
greenish, without bracteze Alabastra oblong. Calyx short, with 
a broad as it were lobed base, cup-shaped, with three short rounded 
teeth with membranous margins. Corolla about twice as long as 
the calyx, divided to a short distance from the middle into three 
triangular segments. Stamina 6, united as usual. laments free 
(at the faux,) short, setaceous from a very dilated base. Anthers 
oblong, versatile. Pollen lanceolar, with one fold. Ovarium ob- 
conical, yellow, with a depressed, red spotted, somewhat sculptured 
apex ; carpels cohering by means of the short trisulcate filiform style. 
Stigma simple. Ovula solitary, erect, anatropous. 

Drupe reniform, round, slightly attenuate at the base, the size of 
a musket ball, of a leaden blue colour, marked on one side with a 
depressed whitish line. Seed erect, presenting on the side correspond- 
ing with the above line on the fruit a broad raphe-like line. Albu- 
men horny, opposite the centre of the above line deeply excavated ; 
cavity as usual filled with a spongy substance. Embryo opposite 
the excavation or in the centre of the dorsal face. : 


It appears to be quite distinct from any published species. 
The fruit is larger than in any other. 

Major Jenkins tells me: ‘‘ This palm is an indispensable 
accompaniment of every native gentleman’s house, but in 
some parts it is rare, and the trees are then of great value. 
I cannot call to my recollection having ever seen a Toko 
tree undoubtedly wild. The leaves are in universal use 
throughout Assam for covering the tops of doolees, (pal- 

i 


336 The Palms of British East India. i 


kees,) and the roofs of khel boats, also for making the pe- 
culiar hats, or rather umbrella-hats (jhapees) of the Assa- 
mese. For all these purposes the leaves are admirably 
adapted from their lightness, toughness, and durability.” 

It has been therefore deemed not inappropriate to con- 
nect with it the name of the present Commissioner of Assam, 
whose name is so honourably and inseparably connected with 
that of the Province under his controul. To this constant 
contributor the Botanic gardens are indebted for a number 
of seeds, now vegetating, and for a number of young plants. 


62. (2) L. spectabilis, (n. sp.) procera, petiolis per totam 
longitudinem armatis, foliis orbiculari-peltatis diametro ex- 
tremo 9-10-pedali, segmentis circiter 90 profunde bipartitis, 
laciniis in filis longis pendulis acuminatissimis, calyce ad 
medium tripartito, baccis subrotundis globuli sclopeti mi- 
noris magnitudine. 


Hazs.—Solitary in the low littoral tracts, adapted to rice 
cultivation, Malacca. Penang. Mr. Lewes. Malayan name. 
Sardang. 


Descr.—A lofty palm, 50-60 feet high. Trunk smooth or 
armed towards the base with the hard persistent bases of the petioles. 
Crown ample, round. Pefioles obtusely triangular, armed along 
the margins with very stout, conical, subulate, compressed, generally 
recurved thorns. Lamina orbiculari-peltate, 9-10 feet across, 
plaited deeply, divided into about 90 divisions. These are ensi- 
form, deeply bi-lobed, the segments being gradually acuminated 
into flat pendulous threads. The central divisions reach to 2 feet 
from apex of the petiole, while the outer ones reach almost to the 
petiole itself. The length of their segments is 21-3 feet, those of 
the central divisions extending to about a foot from the base.* 


* The long diameter of the leaf is about 6 feet, the cross diameter about 8 feet. 
The lateral divisions almost reach to the base, aud their secondaries again do the 
same, about 4 feet long. The intermediate reach to about 14 foot from the base, 


The Palms of British East India. 307 


Spadices axillary, 4-5 feet long, alternately branched, nodding. 
Branches 1-14 foot long, spreading, dichotomous at the mouths of the 
spathes, much divided into forked or simple spreading branchlets 
(spikes), 6-10 inches long. Spathes coriaceous, fuscous or chesnut 
coloured, concealing the whole peduncle, with erect adpressed acu- 
minate limbs; the lower ones generally more or less reticulately split. 

Flowers sessile, the lower ones several together, upper solitary. 
Calyx minute, cup-shaped from a broad base, divided to the middle 
into three round teeth. Corolla (in bud) depressed, a little longer 
than the calyx, divided nearly to the base into three broad segments. 
Stamina 6 ; filaments united to the corolla as far as the base of the 
segments, there (free) short, dilated. Amthers oblong-ovate or cor- 
date-ovate. Ovarzum oblong-obturbinate, sculptured at the apex, the 
three carpels cohering by the style, which is trisulcate, filiform, about 
three times shorter than the ovarium. Ovula solitary, erect, ana- 
tropous. 

Spadix of the fruit nodding, otherwise unchanged, branchlets sub- 
secund, yellowish. Berry globose, of the size of a small bullet, near- 
ly dry, of an azure blue; smooth, somewhat oblique, surrounded at 
the base by the perianthium. Ezdocarp thickish, subosseous. Seed 
with a large cavity filled with the tegument. Lmbryo central. 


Although the vernacular name given by Blume for L. rotun- 
difolia is the same, and the fruit agrees well with the figure 
of Martius, yet there are so many discrepancies in his de- 
scription, as regards the arming of the petiole, the degree of 
acumination of the segments of the leaves, which is described 
as less than in L. sinensis, and their general size, that I am 
compelled to consider this distinct. 

Rumph’s figure, quoted by Blume and Martius aad L. 
rotundifolia, gives no idea of the habit except as regards the 
fruit-bearing spadix. And I do not think it probable that the 
retrofracted pendulous divisions of the leaves, for which this 
are 42 feet long, the secondary divisions about 3 feet long. The central divisions 


reach to about 3 feet from the apex of the petiole, are 3-34 feet long, their secondary 
divisions 3 feet long, and even more acuminate and filiform than the rest, 


338 The Palms of British East India. 


species is more remarkable than perhaps any other,* would 
have escaped Rumph altogether. F. Bauer’s beautiful fi- 
gurey of L. inermis gives, excepting as regards the pendu- 
lous segments of the leaves and annulation of the trunk, a 
good idea of the habit of this Palm. I am not aware of its 
being applied to any use. 


CHAMAZROPS. 


Linn. Mus. Cliff. p. 10. Gen. Pl. ed. 6ta. 1764. p. 571. No. 
1219. ed. Schreb. p. 772. No. 1688. Jussieu. Gen. p. 39. Lam. 
Enc. 4. p.709. (Palmiers) t. 900. Syst. Pl. ed. Schultes. 2. p. 
xc. 1488. Hndl. Gen. p. 253. No. 1759. Mart. Progr. 
p. 9. Palm. p. 247. t. 120. 124-5. Pl. As. Rar. 3. ¢. 211. 
Andrews. Bot. Rep. t. 599. Bot. Mag. t. 2152. Lambdt. in 
Linn. Trans. 10. t. 8. 

Chameeriphes. Gaertn. Fruct. et. Sem. 1. p. 25. t. 9. 


Cuar. Gen.—Flores polygamo-mono-dioici. Calyx tripar- 
titus. Corolla tripetala v. tripartita. Stamina 6-9, filamentis 


* L. sinensis, 20 pedalis, petiolis inermibus, foliorum lamina reniformi-flabelli- 
formi diametro 5-pedali, segments 80-85 ad medium bipartitis subulato-acuminatis- 
simis pendulis, fructibus suboliveeformibus ineequilateralibus. 

L. sinensis, Mart. Palm. p. 240. ¢. 146, 1-11. 

Has.—Southern China, Martius. Cultivated in these gardens under the name 
Livistonia ? Mauritiana; said to have been introduced from the Mauritius in 1821. 

The largest specimen is 20-295 feet high, with a stout obscurely annulated trunk. 
Crown round. ‘Leaves much plicate, and also conduplicate along the cen- 
tre, the lateral segments which are much the narrowest 2 feet or 2-2 inches 
long, their divisions about a foot long. Spadices smaller, but otherwise much like 
those of L. spectabilis. Flowers white, of an unpleasant smell, generally 4 to- 
gether. Calyx with three rounded teeth with membranous margins. Corolla longer 
than the calyx, divided below the middle into three cordate erect segments. 
Fruit-bearing spadix nodding, with subsecund branches. Berries dull blue, 
oblong, 7 lines long, and 43 wide. Seed oblong, of a greyish colour, on a longi- 
tudinal section reniform, intrant process subcentral. Embryo opposite to this, a 
little below the centre of the dorsal face, looking downwards. 

This approaches in the acuminated pendulous segments of the leaves to L. spec- 
tabilis, but otherwise is quite distinct. It is not mentioned in the Hortus Mauriti- 
anus. A. D. 1837. 

+ Mart.Palm, t. 145. 


The Paims of British East India. 339 


basi coalitis. Ovaria tria. Styli 0. Baccae 1-3, monosperme. 
Semen in facie ventrali sulcatum, equabile vel ruminato-va- 
riegatum. Embryo dorsalis. 


Hasitus.—Palme perennantes, frutescentes vel arboreae, 
nanae vel procerae. Rete saepius amplum. Petioli margine 
denticulati, vel spinosi, vel sublaeves. Lamina palmatim 
multipartita ; lacinize induplicatae, apice saepissime bilobae, 
jilis intermediis saepius nullis. Spadices simpliciter aut com- 
posito-ramosi. Spathze coriaceae, tubulosae, rameae paucae 
vel deficientes. Flores flavescentes, bracteatt. Filamenta basi 
connata. Baccz carne spissa parca, olivaeformes vel subro- 
tundae. 

‘“‘ Numerus partium haud raro auctus; loco ternarii qua- 
ternarius, quinarius vel senarius.” 

Affinitate proxima Livistone. Prebet transitum ad Phe- 
nicem per flores polygamos, staminum numerum auctum, bac- 
cas et structura seminis. 


63. (1.) C. Martiana, trunco elato, frondium vagina cylin- 
drica reticulata, petiolis margine leviter dentatis et supra 
paleis albis furfuraceis, lamina reniformi subtus glauca, 
laciniis 70-75 conduplicato-canaliculatis, segmentis apice 
bifidis, spathis partialibus pluribus, baccis olivaformibus 
lepidotis (flavescentibus). 

C. Martiana, Wall. (sine charactere!*) Mart. in Pl. As. 
Rar. 3. p. 5. t. 211. 


* The describer and investigator of the affinities of any undescribed plant is the 
proper person to name it. Working botanists should pay no attention whatever to 
those persons who insist on attaching their initials to objects they will not, or 
cannot, describe and elucidate. It was originally intended that the initials at- 
tached to the name of a species should be those of the botanist who first defined it, 
but now owing to flattery, indolence, incapacity and MSS. names, this very requi- 
site signification is in a considerable measure lost. Some stringent rule is much 
required, for the present it may be sufficient to attach sine charactere / to all in- 
itials that fall under the above mischievous paradox. 


340 The Palms of British East India. 


Has.—Bunipa in the great valley of Nipal, at an elevation 
of about 5000 feet above the level of the sea. Newar name, 
Tuggu. (Wallich.) 


Descr.*— Trunk 20 feet high, irregularly annulate, of irregular 
diameter. Crvown hemispherical, rather thin. eaves 5 feet long. 
Petioles 21-3 feet long, unarmed, generally partly twisted. La- 
mina reniform-orbicular or almost orbicular, concave, (rarely con- 
vex) 2 feet 2 inches long, about 4 feet broad; laciniz about 75, 
conduplicato-canaliculate, glaucous underneath, with nodding ends; 
the central ones the broadest, about 16 inches long, obtusely 
bilobed to the depth of 4 or 1 inch; lateral ones about a foot long, 
linear acuminate, very narrow, acutely bilobed ; intermediate ones 
16 inches long, and acutely bilobed. 

Spadices 3-5 feet long, very much branched; furnished at the 
base (and under each primary branch) with spathes: peduncle 
about a foot long. Lowermost spathe 1-14 foot long, two-edged, 
semi-bifid at the apex: the third or fourth suffults a flower. bearing 
branch. Spikes 1-14 inch long. lowers minute, solitary or in 
pairs: at the base of each a minute membranaceous bracte. Calyx 
trifid; laciniz ovato-triangular, sub-obtuse. Petals three times 
larger than the calyx, ovato-orbicular, erecto-patent. Stamina as 
long as the corolla. Anthers linear-oblong. Ovaria 3, ovate, 
covered with a silky wool: the fertile ones have very short styles 
terminated by a capitate stigma: the barren ones have longer styles 
without any stigma. Berries shaped like an olive, but twice as 
small, furrowed slightly along on one side: yellowish, sprinkled 
with adpressed dry squamules. Seed erect, of the size of a coffee 
seed: ventral face with a depression, filled with cellular substance ; 
dorsal convex. Albumen cartilaginous-horny, horse-shoe-shaped on 
a transverse section. mbryo at the centre of the dorsal face. 


This elegant Palm thrives tolerably well in the H. C. gardens 
in shady raised spots. ‘The figure in the Pl. As. Rar. (loc. 
cit.) improved from a native drawing of a garden specimen 


* From living plants in the H. C. Botanic Gardens, inflorescence and fruit 
chiefly from Martius, Palm. loc. cit. 


The Palms of British East India. 341 


does not give a good idea of the crown of the garden speci- 
mens, being too large and too thick, and without any old 
leaves hanging down. The representation of the inflores- 
cence is probably quite wrong. 


64, (2.) C. khasyana, (n. sp.) trunco mediocri, petiolis 
per totam longitudinem denticulato-scabris, fibrillitio e fibris 
erectis regidiusculis, lamina reniformi-flabelliformi profunde 
60-65 partita, laciniis induplicatis bilobis vel bipartitis lobis 
centralium brevibus obtusis recurvis, spadice (fructus) bipe- 
dali, ramis primariis tribus, spathis subternis (basilaribus 2 
rameo 1,) pedunculum communem omnino tegentibus, fruc- 
tibus oblongis livido-ceruleis. 


Has.—Khassya hills: on precipices at Moosmai and 
Mamloo, alt. 4000 ft. ; not observed in flower or fruit. 


Descr.*—A palm of moderate height, (the specimen measures 
9-10 feet,) the trunk 5 inches in diameter in the thickest parts, 
obscurely annulate. Under the crown, which is thick, is an oblong 
mass (2 feet long) of flattened bases of petioles, and their retia which 
are of stiff fibres. 

Leaves about 34 feet long: petiole 18 inches long, with irregular 
denticulate margins: damina flabelliform reniform, (so is the entire 
part of the leaf) 2 feet long by 34 feet wide: divisions about 65, the 
lateral ones shortest, 12-14 inches long, but the deepest divided, 
(viz. to within 5-6 inches of the apex of petiole) linear, their segments 
14-2 inches long, narrow, acute ; central ensiform reaching to within 
10-12 inches of the apex of the petiole, about 16 inches long, shortly 
and obtusely bilobed, segments about 4 inch long with recurved 
points; intermediate divisions also ensiform, about 18 inches long, 
their segments narrower and deeper than those of the central. Young 
leaves covered with thick, white, paleaceous tomentum. 


* Entire ? specimen of a trunk and crown, and two fruit-bearing spadices: these 
have been unnoticed since the return of the Assam Deputation in 1836, Seeds 
since received have germinated, 


342 The Palms of British East India. 


Spadix (fruit-bearing,) 2 feet long, nodding, compressed: the 
lower half concealed by the spathes of which there are three, two 
common ones, and one to one of the main branches. They are 
coriaceous, brown, with oblique mouths, and bilobed limbs, the 
lowest is about a foot long. Branches of the spadix quite exserted, 
quite naked, the terminal one dichotomous : divisions many. Spikes 
4-6 inches long. 

Fruit scarcely baccate, 4 inch long, 24 lines broad, solitary or 2-3 
together, but of distinct carpels, oblong, inzequilateral, obliquely 
apiculate at the apex, surrounded at the base by the calyx which 
has a stout cylindrical base, and three deep, broad oblong divisions, 
by a corolla of three cordate ovate petals, equal in length to the 
calyx, and by six sterile stamina: on one side may be found two 
abortive villous ovaries. Seed oblong, with the ventral face rather 
deeply furrowed, the furrow not reaching quite to the apex, reni- 
form on a transverse section. Albumen with a scaly surface, along 
this line presenting a cavity filled with spongy tissue: horny, other- 
wise equal. Embryo in the centre of the dorsal face. 


This species is closely allied to C. Martiana: it differs in 
its shorter stouter stature, the petioles toothed throughout, 
in the nature of the rete, and the texture of the leaves which 
is more like that of C. humilis. The paleaceous tomentum 
much more developed, and the berries are blueish, not yellow. 
The divisions of the leaves are much the same, excepting 
the secondary segments of the central divisions, which are 
shallow, obtuse and recurved.* 


* Chamerops Ritchiana, (n. sp.) nana, sepius subacaulis, petiolis inermibus, 
fibrillitio subnullo, lamina profunde palmatim 10-15 partita, laciniis mduplicato- 
sissimis ultra medium bipartitis, segmentis rigidis angustis gradatim acuminatis. 

Has.—Khybur Pass, and generally in the low arid mountainous parts of Eas- 
tern Affehanisthan. Pushtoo name Maizurrye. Not observed in flower or fruit. 

Descr.*—A small Palm, scarcely exceeding 2-3 feet in height, generally 
tufted, and generally almost stemless. There is scarcely any rete, but the bases 
of the petioles, where naturally covering each other, present a rust-coloured wool. 
Leaves from 20 inches to 3 feet in length, whitish-glaucous, coriaceous. Petiole 


* From specimens brought from Affghanisthan, and a few seeds received from the Seharun- 
pore Garden, of which one germinated in the H. C. Botanic Gardens. 


The Palms of British East India. 343 


Sect. II. 

Folia pinnata. Spatha una completa. Flores dioici. Corolla 
fl. feeminei convoluto-imbricata. Stamina 6-9, raro 3, hypo- 
gyna. Pistilla 3, discreta. Bacca. Semen \ongitudinaliter 
exaratum. 

Palme perennantes, nanae et subacaules, frutescentes ve] 
arboreae, saepius gregariae et locos aridos amantes. ‘Truncus 
petiolorum cicatricibus vel basibus asper, rarws annulatus. 
Petioli inferne planiuscult depressi, superne compressissimt. 
Rete panniforme, copiosum. Pinne saepius fasciculatae, plu- 
rifariae, rigidae, glaucescentes, conduplicatae vel conduplicato- 
canaliculatae, venis diaphanis parallelo-striatae, rarius solita- 
riae, bifariae, flaccidae, planiusculae ; infimae in spinis degene- 
rantes. Inflorescentia axillaris. Spatha completa, coriacea, 
bicarinata, primum antice aperiens, demum dextrorsum et si- 
nistrorsum bivalvis, postremum decidua. Spadix saepius exser- 
tus, racemi in modum ramosus, pedunculo compresso. Spice 


6-12 inches long, quite unarmed. Lamina palmate, laciniae (the fibres stout, often 
persistent,) 10-15 induplicate, divided to the middle or a good deal below into 
gradually acuminated rigid subsequently obtuse segments. The seeds seem to vary 
a good deal, some being oblong, others round, some again as large as a small 
marble, others not much bigger than a large pea, surface minutely wrinkled. 
Raphe tolerably distinct. Chalaza palmately branched. Albumen horny, very 
dense, with a good sized central cavity. Hmbryo near the base, narrow at the 
radicular end. 

I have named it in honour of my friend Dr. Ritchie of the Bombay Medical 
Service, to whom I was indebted while in Affghanisthan for constant contributions 
of plants, and two valuable collections, one made between Candahar and Herat, 
and Herat and Bamean via Maimunna and Toorkistan, and another made about 
Pesh-Bolak and in the Khybur Pass. It is the only palm I met with in that country, 
and is of extensive use for making cordage, etc.; it may therefore appropriately 
commemorate an officer who was employed in Affghanisthan for a considerable time, 
and who was more extensively acquainted with that country than any other officer, 
excepting perhaps Major Pottinger. 

It appears to be distinguished from C. humilis by its unarmed petioles, the want 
of a rete and the deeply divided laciniae of the leaves, which in C. humilis are 
quite entire,* or at the most bifid.+ 


* Desf. Fl. Atl. 2. p. 437, Syst. Veg. ed. Schult, 2. p. 1489. 
+ Mart. Palm. p. 248. 


344 The Palms of British East India. 


fasciculatae, subfastigiatae, sacpius simplices. Flores mascult, 
angulati. Calyx urceolatus, tridentatus. Corolla ¢ripetala. 
Stamina hypogyna, saepius 6. Anthere adnatae. Pistillum ru- 
dimentarium (an semper. ? ). Flores faeminet convoluto-claust. 
Calyx maris. Petala 3, rotundata, carnoso-coriacea, convoluta. 
Stamina sterilia 6. Ovaria distincta. Styli distincti, recurvi. 
Stigmata subsimplicia. Bacca saepius oblonga, rubra vel de- 
mum nigrescens. Albumen aliquando ruminatum. Embryo 
centralis vel prope basin. 

Incole Africz occidentalis et borealis, et preesertim Asiae 
tropice orientalis. Limes borealis specierum indicarum 30° 
grad ; australis 5° grad. 

Praebent farinam (Sago speciem), succum vinosum ( Taree) 
et prae alia Saccharum. Fructus (Phaenicis dactyliferz) 
edules, Arabis et Persicis aestimatissimi. Folia unius tegeti- 
bus apta, et petioli corbulis. 


PHAENIX. 
(Char. Sectionis.) 


Linn. Gen. ed. 6ta. p. 573. No. 1224. ed. Schreb. p. 776. 
No. 1194. ed. Spreng. p. 283. No. 1467. Juss. Gen. p. 38. 
Gaertn. Sem. fruct. 1. p. 23. ¢.9. Lam. Ene. Meth. t. 893. 
(part. e Gaertn.) Rowb. Icones 15. t. 31, 32, 33. Suppt. 5. ¢. 
15. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 783. Endl. Gen. p. 253. No. 1763. Mart. 
Progr. p. 11. Palm. p. 257. t. 120, 124. 136, 164. (ex Endl.) 

Elate. (Linn. Mus. Cliff. p. 12. auct. Mart.) Ait. Hort. Kew. 
ed. 2da. 3. p. 280. Lam. Enc. Meth. t. 899. (e Rheedio.) 
Linn. Gen. Pl. ed. Schreb. p. 777. No. 1697. ed. Spreng. 
p. 250. No. 1304. Sp. Pl. Willd. 4. p. 170. No. 1682. 

Katu Indel. Rheede Hort. Mal. 3. p. 15. t. 22-25. 


65. (1.) P. acaulis, trunco brevissimo bulbiformi, foliis fas- 
ciculatis linearibus conduplicatis sub-quadrifariis, spadici- 
bus faemineis terra semi-immersis et in spathis e maxima parte 
inclusis, fructibus oblongis, embryone in centrum dorsi. 


The Palms of British East India. 345 


P. acaulis. Roxb. Hort. Bengh. p. ‘73. Fl. Ind. 3. p. '783.* 
Icones Suppt. 5. t. 15. Buch. Hamilt. Comment. in Hort. 
Malab. in Linn. Trans. 15. p. 88. Sprengel Syst. Pl. 2. 
p. 139. 


Has.— Behar, (Rowxb.) Elevated plains on the north side 
of the Ganges on a clayey soil. Buchanan Hamilton. Chota 
Nagpore. Col. Ouseley. Plains between the valley of Hook- 
hoong and Mogam. Junglee Khujur. 


Dzscr.—“ Stem none in plants 10 years old; at this age when in 
flower, the whole body of the plant, including the inflorescence, but 
exclusively of the foliage, is of an ovate form, and not exceeding six 
or eight inches in height from the surface of the ground. Leaves 
( Fronds, L.) pinnate ; from two to six feet long. Leaflets in nearly 
opposite, rather remote fascicles; the superior ones folded, slen- 
der, ensiform, and about eighteen inches long; lower ones small, 
straight, rigid, and ending in very sharp, spinous points. Petzoles 
(stipes) near the base flat, towards the apex triangular, smooth. 
Maur. Spathes and spadix as in the female hereafter described. 
Flowers alternate, solitary, sessile, small, pale yellow. Calyx one- 
leaved, triangular; angles or lobes acute, unequal. Corol three 
petalled; petals obliquely-lanceolate, acute, slightly united at the 
base. Filaments six, very short, inserted into the base of the corol. 
Anthers linear, nearly as long as the petals. Pisti] none. Frma.e. 
Spathes universal, axillary, solitary, one-valved, about six inches 
long, with their base rather below the surface of the earth, generally 
splitting into two portions down the middle on each side. Spadix 
ramous, composed of many, simple, short, erect, flexuose branches ; 
all are smooth, and of a pale yellow. Flowers alternate, solitary, 
sessile, in bractiform notches on the sides of the branches of the 
spadix. Calyx cup-shaped, truncate, with three obscure points 
at equal distances on the margin. Petals three, sub-rotund, thick 
and fleshy, concave, smooth. Nectary a small, six-toothed cup in 


* Buchanan is here given as the authority, but this appears to be a mistake, see 
Linn, Trans, xv. p. 80. 


346 The Palms of British East India. 


which the germs sit. Germs three, each one-celled, and containing 
a single ovulum attached to the middle of the cell on the inside. 
Styles three, recurved, small and short. Stigma small. Drupe 
oval, fleshy, small, smooth, of a bright red, of the size of a very 
small olive, one-celled. Seed solitary, oblong, with a deep longi- 
tudinal groove on one side. Embryo in the middle of the back, 
or convex side of the seed.” Roxb. o. ¢., l. c. 


This species varies considerably in the size of the leaves 
and breadth of the pinne, and in the size and degree of 
exsertion of the male spadix. ‘The male plant is probably 
scarcely distinguishable from that of the succeeding, but the 
female is at once by the shortness of the peduncle of the 
spadix, which is generally shorter, and never, so far as I 
know, longer than the spathes. 

Dr. Royle* mentions a species closely allied to, if not 
identical with this, inhabiting the Kheree Pass, Siwalik 
Hills, at an elevation of 2500 feet, in company with Pinus 
longifolia. I omit his name, because it is not accompanied 
with any defining characters. Most probably it is the suc- 
ceeding or a third species of this form, which requires 
much more examination than it has received. 

I subjoin the description of a specimen sent by Colonel 
Ouseley, who informs me that it is considered by the natives 
as a distinct species. ‘The only differences I can detect are 
the shortness and less induplication of the pinne, and the 
colour of the fruit. 

P. acaulis var. melanocarpa. / 


Descr.—A dwarf palm not exceeding 2 feet in height, including 
the leaves. Stem bulbiform, 6 inches long, covered with the protuber- 
ant hardened persistent bases ofthe petioles, their points being spread- 
ing recurved. Leaves 1-14 foot long, ascending then spreading. Peti- 
ole below flat, above quite compressed. Pinne subfasciculate, fasci- 
cles subopposite, some ascending on either side others spreading, 


* Illustr. p, 394, 397. 


The Palms of British East India. B47 


attached by broad cartilaginous insertions above which they are 
conduplicate, glaucescent, spinous pointed, the upper ones the lar- 
gest, 7-8 inches long, } inch broad, conduplicate near the base 
above this almost flat (at least the old ones): the lowermost are 
degenerated into strongish channelled 3-gonal spines, the rest pre- 
sent intermediate characters. 

Spadices of both sexes buried among the persistent bases of the 
petioles, of the fruit only partly exserted, without spathes ; spikes 
2-3 inches long, stout. Fruzt suffulted by a green angular bracte, 
sessile, alternate, of the size of a small olive, at first reddish, after- 
wards black-purple: apex distinctly cuspidate, base surrounded by 
an angular tridentate calyx, by the imbricated broad petals, and by 
6 small abortive stamina. ndocarp ? (tegument ?) thin, like silver 
paper. Seed one, erect, greyish, deeply furrowed on one side and 
with about 7 striz on the remaining part of the surface. Along the 
same furrow the horny albumen is deeply grooved, the groove filled 
with spongy substance. Embryo at or a little below the centre of 
the dorsal face. 


66, (2) P. Ouseleyana, (n. sp.) trunco brevissimo bulbiformi, 
foliis fasciculatis linearibus conduplicatissimis angustissimis, 
spadicibus feemineis longe exsertis spathis multoties longi- 
oribus. 


Has.—Chota Nagpore, Col. Ouseley. Assam, Major 
Jenkins. 


Descr.*—Bulbous stems ovate, imbricated conspicuously with 
the hardened scale-like bases of the petioles, about a foot in length 
and 6 inches in diameter. Fete of a few rigid fibres. Leaves 21-3 
feet long. Pinnae entirely conduplicate, about a foot long, from 
the conduplication 2-24 lines broad, subulate-acuminate ; lower- 
most degenerated into short spines. Male spadices about a foot 
long, the ends of the uppermost spikes rather longer than the 
bivalved carinate spathe. Female spadices 2-24 feet long with a few 


* Specimens. A male and female specimen entire, but without flowers or per- 
fect female spathes, communicated by Major Jenkins. 


348 The Palms of British East India. 


short flexuose spikes towards the apex, much longer than the spathes, 
which appear to be about a span long. Peduncles of both spadices 
much flattened. 


Colonel Ouseley, Agent to the Governor General 8S. W. 
Frontier, first directed my attention to the distinguishing 
marks of this species, which I have therefore dedicated 
to him, and also as a tribute of respect for his exertions 
in bringing to notice the vegetable products of the districts 
under his charge, as well as the valuable grains of Central 
India. 


67. (3) P. farinifera, trunco brevissimo, pinnis oppositis, 
spadicibus exsertis, fructibus oblongo-ovatis, embryone ad 
medium faciei dorsalis.* 

P. farinifera, Willd. Roxb. Cor. Pl. 1. p. 55. t. '74. Icones. 
15. ¢. 32. (inflor) Fl. ind. 3. p. 785. Sprengel Syst. Pl. 2. p. 
139. P. pusilla. Lour. Fl. Coch. ed. Willd. p. 753. Gaert. 
Sem. et. Fruct. 1. t. 9. ?+ 


Has.—Dry barren parts chiefly of the sandy lands at a 
small distance from the sea near Coringa. Flowers in Jan. 
Feb; fruit ripens in May. Telinga name Chilta-eita. (Roxb. ) 
Common on all the hilly country between the Ganges and 
Cape Comorin ( Buchanan Hamilton. ) 


Descr.—“ Trunk, the little it has is only about one or at most 
two feet high, and so entirely enveloped in the sheaths of the leaves 
that it is never seen, the whole appearing like a large round bush. 
Leaves pinnate. Leaflets opposite, sword-shaped, much pointed, 
smooth, ofa deep green. Spathes axillary, one-valved, concave on 
the inside, fitting the trunk or base of the leaf immediately with it ; 
this concavity is bordered by two sharp edges ; convex on the out- 
side, there splitting longitudinally, leathery, smooth, withering. 


* Char. e Roxb. 
t This synonym is I think doubtful, as Roxburgh’s figure does not agree with 
figs. f. g. of Gertner. 


The Palms of British East India. 349 


Spadix erect, very ramous, branches simple, spreading in every di- 
rection, from eight to twelve inches long. Mane Fiowers. Calya 
small, slightly three-toothed. Petals three, oblong, white, rigid. 
Filaments six, very short, inserted into a fleshy globular receptacle. 
Anthers oblong, erect. FEMALE FLoweErs ona separate plant. Calyx 
as above. Petals three, orbicular, concave, equal, rigid, lasting. 
Germs three, though never more than one ever increases in size, the 
other two always wither, although they contain the rudiment of a 
seed every way like the fertile germ; ovate, each ending in a short 
recurved style. Stigma simple. Berry when ripe, of a shining 
black, of the size of a large French bean; the pulp is sweet and 
mealy, but in small quantity, the natives eat them as gathered from 
the bush without any preparation. Seed cartilaginous, of the shape 
of the berry, grooved longitudinally, as in the common date, pretty 
smooth, brown on the outside, of a light greyish white within, on the 
middle of the back there is a small elevation, under which is an oblong 
pit containing the embryo or first principle of the new plant.” 

The leaflets are wrought into mats for sleeping upon, &c. The 
common petioles are split into three or four, and used to make com- 
mon baskets of various kinds, but they are not so good for this pur- 
pose as the Bamboo, which is very elastic, much more durable, and 
splits easily. The small trunk when divested of its leaves, and the 
strong brown fibrous web that surrounds it at their insertions, is 
generally about fifteen or eighteen inches long, and six in diameter 
at the thickest part; its exterior or woody part consists of white 
fibres matted together, these envelope a large quantity of farina- 
ceous substance, which the natives use for food in times of scarcity. 
To procure this meal, the small trunk is split into six or eight pieces, 
dried, and beat in wooden mortars till the farinaceous part is de- 
tached from the fibres; it is then sifted to separate them, the meal 
is then fit for use. The only further preparation it undergoes, is 
the boiling it into a thick gruel, or as it is called in India, Kanji ; it 
seems to possess less nourishment than the common sago, and is 
less: palatable, being considerably bitter when boiled; probably a 
little care in the preparation, and varying the mode, might improve 
it ; however, it certainly deserves attention, for during the end of 
the last, and beginning of this year, and again at this present time, 


350 The Palms of British East India. 


May 1792, it has saved many lives. Rice was too dear, and at 
times not to be had, which forced many of the poor to have re- 
course to these sorts of food. Fortunately it is one of the most 
common plants on this part of the coast, particularly near the sea.”— 
Roxb. o. ce. 1. ¢. 


There is a (male) specimen called. P. farinifera in the 
Botanic Gardens. It has a trunk 4 feet high, 6-8 inches in dia- 
meter, rough with the persistent bases of the petioles. The 
leaves are 3-4 feet long, spreading, the pinne in subopposite 
fascicles, (the lower generally in pairs,) sub-4 farious, (upper 
series sub-ascending, lower very spreading, but obliquely) ca- 
naliculate, conduplicate at the base, glaucescent, subulato- 
acuminate, 10 inches long, 6 lines wide, those next the spin- 
ous ones, which occupy the lowest 8-10 inches of the petiole, 
longest and narrowest. The spadiz is 1-15 foot long, the pe- 
duncle well exserted from the axilla and compressed. 

This can scarcely be Roxburgh’s plant, since it has a dis- 
tinct stem and fasciculate pinne. It seems exactly interme- 
diate in foliage between P. acaulis and P. dactylifera of these 
Gardens. 


68. (4.) P. sylvestris, arborea, pinnis densis fasciculatis 
rigidis lineari-ensiformibus conduplicato-canaliculatis acumi- 
natissimis, fructibus cylindraceo-oblongis, embryone ad vel 
supra centrum faciei dorsalis. 

P. sylvestris. Roxb. Hort. Bengh. p. 73. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 
787. Icones. (fl. et. fr.) 15. t=. 31. Ham. Comm. Hort. Mal. 
Linn. Trans. 15. p. 86. Katou-indel. Rheede. Hort. Mal. 3. t. 
22-25.* 


Has.—Common all over India, all soils and situations 
seeming to suit equally well. Flowers at the beginning of the 
hot-season, (Roxb.) 


* The fruit here figured is very much smaller, and of a different shape than it is 
in Bengal, at least on uninjured treese 


The Palms of British East India. 351 


The most common Palm of India. Buchanan Hamilton. 
Beng. Khujjoor ; Sanse. Khurjura ; Teling. Pedda eita. 


Descr.—A very handsome palm, often when uninjured by ex- 
tracting toddy, 35-40 feet in height. Trunk rough from the persis- 
tent bases of the petioles. Crown about hemispherical, very large and 
thick. Zeaves 10-15 feet long. Petéole compressed only towards the 
apex ; at the base bearing a few channelled triangular short spines. 
Pinne@ very numerous, densely fascicled, glaucous, rigid, ensiform, 18 
inches long, 1 inch 3 lines wide, conduplicate at the base, then cana- 
liculate, subulato-acuminate, almost spinous pointed, 4 farious, some 
intermediately spreading, others crossing these above and below in 
an ascending direction. Male spadix 2-3 feet long: peduncle high- 
ly compressed. Spathes of about the same length, very coriaceous, 
almost woody, covered with brown scurf, separating into two boat- 
shaped valves. Spikes, exceedingly numerous towards the apex of 
the peduncle, and chiefly on its anterior face, generally in fascicles 
and simple, 4-6 inches long, slender, very flexuose. Flowers 3 lines 
long, very numerous, angular, oblique. Calyx cup-shaped, with 
three short rounded teeth. Peta/s 3-4 times longer than the calyx, 
concave, warty on the outside, on the inside deeply ridged and fur- 
rowed. Filaments (free,) scarcely any. Axthers linear, adnate, a 
little shorter than the petals. 

Female spadizx much the same, as are the spathes. Spikes inserted 
in distinct groups, 1-123 foot long, not bearing flowers throughout the 
lower 4-6 inches, flexuose. #/owers distant, roundish. Calyx cup- 
shaped, obsoletely three-toothed. Petals 3, very broad, much con- 
volute-imbricate, leaving a small opening at the apex. Barren sta- 
mina 3-4. Ovaria,three ; ovules solitary. Style recurved, inwardly 
papillose. 

Spadix of the fruit 3-feet long, nodding at the apex from the 
weight of the fruit, very compressed, of a golden orange colour. Fruit 
scattered on long pendulous nodding similarly coloured spikes, with 

brown orange swollen bases, oblong, very obtuse, 14 inches long, 
7-8 lines wide, with an oblique mark of the base of the style, sur- 
: rounded at the base by the perianth. Pu/p yellow, moderate, very 
astringent, lined by irregular cellular white tissue, part of this ad- 


| 2. F, 


| 
} 


352 The Palms of British East India. 


heres to the thin envelope that separates with the seed. Seed oblong, 
deeply grooved (margins of the groove slightly wrinkled) along its 
whole length on one side, on the other with a slight incomplete fur- 
row, in the centre of which is a depression with a mammillate fun- 
dus, the situation of the embryo. Aldbwmen on a transverse section 
horse-shoe-shaped. Embryo at or a little above the middle of the 
dorsal face. 


My materials do not enable me to point out any distinc- 
tion between this and P. dactylifera,* the true Date Palm. 
In appearance they would seem to be indistinguishable. Rox- 
burgh says nothing in the Flora Indica regarding this in ex- 
plication of his specific character. But in a pencil note to 
the unfinished drawing of P. sylvestris, he says the male 
flowers of P. dactylifera are most exactly like. Buchanan 
Hamilton considers it the wild state of the true Date Palm, 
so much cultivated in Arabia and Africa, and states, that on 
comparing young plants, he had not been able to see the 
smallest difference, except that the Arabian plant was rather 
the largest and more vigorous.{ Compared with Geertner’s 
figure of P. dactylifera, 1, t. 9. the fruit of P. sylvestris is 
considerably smaller. ‘The embryo also is on the central 
line. 

I have only seen Martius’s character of P. dactylifera, 
(loc. cit.) at which species the Botanic Garden copy of his 
Palme breaks off. 


* The plant called Phenix dactylifera of these Gardens does not attain a greater 
height than 4-5 feet. Zrunk remarkably stout, | foot or more in diameter, marked 
with the scars of the petioles. Leaves 7-8 feet long. Petioles compressed a long 
way down, in the lower 2 feet bearing many stout rigid channelled spines. Pin- 
ne fascicled, their direction as in P. sylvestris, but in a less marked degree, bifa- 
rious when young, | foot long, 1 inch broad, subulato-acuminate, those next the 
spines longest and narrowest. 

Spadix 2-23 feet long, branched at the apex; peduncle 1-1} foot lomg, much 
compressed. 

This plant is evidently closely allied to P. sylvestris, and with P. farinifera of 
the Gardens forms a complete transition from P. sylvestris to P. acaulis. Both 
it and this so-called P. farinifera require more examination. 

¢ Comm. in Hort. Mal. op. cit. p. 82, 83, 85. 


The Palms of British East [ndia. 308 


“‘ This tree yields Tari, or Palm wine, during the cold seasons. 
The method of extracting it destroys the appearance and fertility 
of the tree. The fruit of those that have been cut for drawing off 
the juice being very small. 

“‘ The mode of extracting this juice is by removing the lower leaves 
and their sheaths, and cutting a notch into the pith of the tree near 
the top, from thence it issues and is conducted by a small channel 
made of a bit of the Palmyra tree leaf into a pot suspended to 
receive it. On the coast of Coromandel this Palm juice is either 
drunk fresh from the tree, or boiled down into sugar, or fermented 
for distillation, when it gives out a large portion of ardent spirit 
commonly called Paria aruk on the coast of Coromandel. Mats 
and baskets are made of the leaves. 

“The Bengalees call this tree Khewoor. They also boil the juice 
into sugar. In the whole Province of Bengal about fifteen thou- 
sand maunds, or about a hundred thousand hundred-weight, is made 
annually. At the age of from seven or ten years, when the trunk of 
the trees will be about four feet high, they begin to yield juice, and 
continue productive for twenty or twenty-five years. It is extracted 
during the cold months of November, December, January, and Feb- 
ruary ; during which period, each tree is reckoned to yield from one 
hundred and twenty to two hundred and forty pints of juice, which 
averages one hundred and eighty pints; every twelve pints or pounds 
is boiled down to one of Goor or Jaguri, and four of Goor yield one 
of good powder sugar, so that the average produce of each tree 
is about seven or eight pounds of sugar annually. 

“ Another statement presented to me, gives a much larger produce, 
viz. the average produce of each tree is sixteen pints per day, four of 
which will yield two pounds of molasses, and forty of molasses will 
yield twenty-five pounds of brown sugar. The difference is so great, 
that I cannot well reconcile them, but am inclined to give most cre- 
dit to the first. 

‘“‘ Date sugar, as it is here called, is not so much esteemed as cane 
sugar, and sells for about one fourth less.” Rowb. o. c. 1. ¢. 


69. (5.) P. paludosa, arbuscula, trunco basi annulato, 
pinnis solitariis bifariis ensiformibus acuminatissimis patenti- 


354 The Palms of British East India. 


nutantibus, spathis antice aperientibus, spadicibus exsertis, 
fructibus ovatis, embryone hilum versus. 

P. paludosa, Roxb. Hort. Bengh. p. 73. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 789. 
Icones. 15. t. 35, (indifferent.) 


Has.—The Sunderbuns, where it forms a considerable 
portion of those impenetrable woods which completely cover 
that extensive tract of country, (Roxburgh.) Along the 
Salueen, between Amherst and Moalmain. Penang, (Mr. 
Lewes,) where it is known by the name Dangsa. Sansc. 
name Hintala; Bengal. Hintal. , 


Drscr—The specimens in the Botanic Gardens form very elegant 
impenetrable tufts. Zrunk 12-15 feet high, 34 inches in diameter, an- 
nulate at the base, otherwise covered with the brown, retiferous, armed 
petioles. Leaves gracefully spreading, 8-10 feet long. Petzole covered 
with scurf, brownish-glaucescent, in the lower 3 feet bearing irregu- 
larly spreading, hard, brown, triangular, channelled, rather long spines. 
Pinne bifarious, solitary, spreading, thencurved downwards, not rigid, 
2 feet long, 8 lines wide, exceedingly acuminate, bifarious, condu- 
plicate at the base, otherwise flat, underneath glaucous-cesious, the 
lowest longest and narrowest. Spadix (male) about a foot long. 
Spathes coriaceous, bicarinate, opening anticously, orange brownish ; 
keels with irregular edges, that of the spadix about equalling it: of 
the female half as short. Flowers yellow, more distant than in the 
other species. Calyx cup-shaped, less regularly three toothed than 
in P. sylvestris or farinifera. Petals three. Filaments six, short. 

Spadix (female) about 14 foot long, flowers greenish. Calyx as 
in the male. Petals roundish, concave. Sterile stamina 6. Ova- 
ria three, styles recurved, longer than in the other species. 

Spadix of the fruit 3-4 feet long, erect, yellowish orange, branch- 
ed at the apex. Spikes of the same colour, generally several to- 
gether, with cartilaginous thickened bases, about a foot long, nodding, 
rarely branched. Fruit sessile, on thickened knobs, spreading or 
pointing downwards, first yellowish, then red, lastly black-purple, 
oval, 6-7 lines long, 3-4 wide, with a small oblique apiculus at 


The Palms of British East India. 0505 


apex, at the base the more or less split perianth. Seed ovate, com- 
pressed, with a rather deep furrow on one side, ceasing just above 
the middle, and with an indistinct furrow on the opposite side. 
Groove of the albumen deeper at either end than in the middle. 
Embryo near the base. 


This species is not likely to be confounded with any other, 
Its habit is less genuine than in the others. It is at once dis- 
tinguished by the bifarious flaccid flat solitary pinne, the 
shape of its fruit and the situation of the embryo. 

** The trunks of the smaller trees serve for walking sticks, 
and the natives have an idea that snakes get out of the way 
of any person having such a staff. The longer ones serve 
for rafters to their houses, and the leaves for thatch.” Rowxb. 

It is well worth cultivation on account of its elegance, and 
its being adapted for bank scenery. 

So far as I know, it is the most southerly species of the 
genus, at least of the Northern hemisphere.* 


(To be continued. ) 


On some Plants in the H. C. Botanic Gardens. By W. 
GrirFitH, Esg., Corr. Memb. Royal Acad. Soc. Turin. 
etc. etc. Asst. Surgeon, Madras Establishment. 


GEODORUM. 


Jackson in Andr. Bot. Rep. 10. t. 626. R. Brown in 
Hort. Kew. ed. 2. 5. p. 207. Endl. Gen. Pl. p. 200. No. 


1433. Cistella. Blume. Tabellen. 55. Limodorum. Rod. 
Cor. Pi. t. 39-40. 


* I have very lately received the leaves and fruit spadices of a fifth species 
from Dr. Wight, who informs me that he communicated imperfect specimens of 
the same to Dr. Martius many years ago with the MSS. name P. pedunculata. 
It appears to be at once recognisable by the great length of the peduncles of the 


fruit spadices, which are 34-4 feet long. An account will appear in the Supple- 
ment, 


56 On some Plants in the H. C. Botanic Gardens. 


eS) 


Cuar. Gen.—Sepala et petala subconformia, subsecunda. 
Labellum cucullato-ventricosum, sessile, cum columna conti- 
nuum, basi sub-calcaratum. Anthera bilabiata. Pollina 2. 
postice foveolata. 


Hasitus.—Herbae terrestres tuberosae. Folia plicata. 
Scapi apice recurvato-penduli. Flores saepissime spicatt, con- 
esti, postict. 


G. laxiflorum, (n. sp.) seapo foliis breviore, spica pendula 
laxiflora, sepalis oblongis, petalis oblongo-ovatis duplo latior 
bus, labello subcalcarato rotundato cochleariformi a medio 
supra dilatato undulato emarginato. 


Has.—Assam, Major Jenkins. Flowers here in May. 


Descr.—Old stems or tubers short, obturbinate, marked with the 
scars of fallen leaves. Leaf stem about a foot high, including the 
leaves which are 3-5, the more perfect 8-10 inches long, ovate-lan- 
ceolate, conduplicate, sub-acuminate, undulate. Scape twice as 
short, with a few membranous, whitish sheaths. Bractes narrow- 
lanceolate, shorter than the ovarium. Flowers 8-10, whitish, rather 
large. Perianth spreading. Sepals linear-oblong, obtuse, the la- 
teral rather broader, with oblique emarginate points. Petals oblong- 
lanceolate, twice as broad. Labellum sub-calcarate at the base, 
roundish, cochleariform, entire, upper-half undulate, sub-deflexed, 
emarginate: colour white, floor tinged with yellow, at the base 
where it is joined with the labellum is a patch of purplish, short 
cellular hairs. Column stout, short, with similar but more minute 
hairs at the base: lateral teeth of the apex distinct. Anthers - 
whitish, lower lip chiefly purple. Clinandrium shallow, prolonged 
or acuminate behind, its floor keeled, with a conical shining tooth 
towards the stigma, with which it is apparently continuous. Pollen- 
masses oblong, excavate behind. Caudicula broadly spathulate, 
cucullate towards the pollen-masses. Gland roundish. 


This species is nearly allied to G. dilatatum, (Limodorum 
recurvum, Roxb.) but differs from it in the thinly flowered 


On some Plants in the H. C. Botanic Gardens. Bod 


spike, the broad petals, and the round cochleariform entire 
labellum, which when spread out is of a cordate shape. 


G. appendiculatum, (n. sp.) scapo foliis breviore, spica 
pendula, floribus congestis, sepalis lineari-vel spathulato- 
oblongis, petalis oblongo-ovatis latioribus, labello subcalca- 
rato apice late obreniformi fundo (partis centralis) cristato, 
columna basi elongata in pedem subzequantem. 

G. dilatatum, Lindl. Bot. Reg. 8. t. 6? 


Hazs.—Assam. Flowers here in May. 


Descr.—A foot or rather more in height. eaves about four, 
oblong-ovate, shortly acuminate. Scape a span in height. Spike 
pendulous. Sractes linear-lanceolate, acuminate, longer than the 
ovaria. Flowers crowded, white. Sepals linear-oblong, nearly 
equal. Petals ovato-lanceolate, rather broader. Labellum subcal- 
carate, keeled below along the middle, with a reniform emarginate 
crenato-repand apex, when flattened out almost three-lobed. The 
floor, along the upper half presents a flat slight elevated crest, 
terminating in a toothed or denticulate manner at the base of the 
reniform part. Column produced at the base into a foot nearly 
as long as itself, white; lateral éeeth of the apex obsolete. Pollen 
masses oblong, roundish. Caudicula short, narrower than usual. 


3? 
Gland roundish, comparatively small. 


This species is nearly allied to G. pallidum, but is distin- 
guished by the shape of the crested labellum and the pro- 
longed base of the column. 

A drawing of it exists here, among those executed during 
Dr. Wallich’s superintendence, named Geodorum pallidum, 
Don, an erroneous name, if Dr. Lindley’s synonymy of G, pal- 
lidum be correct. A variety exists with flesh-coloured flowers, 
and the labellum variegated with purple, this I apprehend is 
the G. dilatatum, Bot. Reg. loc. cit. 


G. pallidum, scapo foliis breviore, spica pendula, floribus 
congestis, sepalis lineari-oblongis subaqualibus, petalis ob- 


358 On some Plants in the H. C. Botanic Gardens. 


longo-lanceolatis duplo latioribus, labello sub-calcarato sub- 
trilobo lateribus basin versus erectis columnam fere obtegenti- 
bus apice dilatato fundo processigero. 

G. pallidum, Don. Prodr. Fl. Nepal. p. 31.? Lindl. Gen. 
et Sp. Orch. p. 176. WLimodorum candidum. Roxb. Lcones. 
Suppt. 5. t. 103. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 470. Béla-pola. Rheede. 
Hort. Mal. 11. t. 35. ? 


Has.—Sylhet. Moulmein. Flowers here in April and May. 


Descr.— Spike pendulous, conical. Flowers rather small, crowded. 
Sepals linear oblong, the lateral ones rather broader. Petals 
oblong-lanceolate, twice as broad. Labellum keeled below, sub-cal- 
carate, almost three-lobed, the side towards the base erect and almost 
concealing the column, dilated about the middle, apex emarginate, 
subtruncate with revolute margins, the floor with indistinct irregular 
cellular longitudinal processes. Colwmn short, sprinkled in front 
with purple dots ; lateral éeeth of the apex obsolete or small, blunt- 
ly conical. 


This appears to me to be Roxburgh's Limodorum candi- 
dum ; as it agrees tolerably well with the figure quoted above. 
It appears to me sufficiently distinct from Roxburgh’s draw- 
ing of Limodorum recurvum, (G. dilatatum,) to which Dr. 
Lindley seems inclined to refer it, by the small flowers, 
narrow sepals, and the shape and disposition of the labellum. 


G. attenuatum (n. sp.) scapo foliis breviore, spica nutante 
pendula, floribus congestis ascendentibus vel erectis, sepa- 
lis petalisque subzqualibus oblongis, labello ecalcarato cal- 
ceolariformi e basi dilatata bicristata attenuata, columna 
nanissima. 


Has.—Burmah. Flowers here in May. 


Descr.—About 10 inches or a foot in height. Leaves about 3, 
ovate or oblong-ovate, acute, 4-6 inches long. Scape about twice as 


On some Plants in the H. C. Botanic Gardens. 359 


short. Spike truncate. Practes whitish, linear, about as long as 
the ovaria. Flowers white, inodorous, ascending or erect, Peri- 
anth less spreading than usual. Sepals oblong, mucronulate, the 
lateral rather broader. Petals more oblong, rather broader. La- 
bellum ecalcarate, keeled along the middle underneath, very con- 
cave and broad below the middle, above attenuate into a concave, 
almost conduplicate, emarginate, crenated apex. It has two short 
converging crests at the base, which leave a small cavity between 
them. Colour white, crests and attenuated apex yellow. Column 
very short, stout, sprinkled with purple cellular pubescence below 
the stigma and along the broad line of union of the lip. A bidentate 
tooth on either side of the apex. Anthers white, with dark purple 
sides and under-lip. Pollen masses oblong. Caudicula broad, short. 
Gland very broad and large. 


This species is at once recognised by the as it were trun- 
cate spike, the ascending flowers, less spreading perianth, 
shape of the labellum and extremely short column. 

A drawing of it exists, marked in pencil G. candidum, 
Wallich, without any description or explanation, or infor- 
mation. ‘This same name will be found in No 7374 of this 
Botanist’s Catalogue, and is referred to G. pallidum, (Don.) 
in Lind]. genera and species. ‘The Limodorum candidum of 
Roxburgh, as has been seen, is a very different plant. It is 
one among many instances that a Botanist, who attaches 
MSS. names profusely and without examination, who thinks 
Herbaria useless to Indian Botanists, and who does not 
even keep his series of drawings complete, can never be 
sure of recognising one of his own species. And if in a 
small genus of 6-8 species one or two instances of such con- 
fusion arise, what may not be expected in extensive genera ; 
what cumbersome and useless additions to synonymy, if any, 
the least, attention be paid to such names. 


The remaining Indian species of this genus are as fol- 
lows :— 


x x 


360 On some Plants in the H. C. Botanic Gardens. 


G. purpureum, scapo foliis longiore, racemo pendulo, flo- 
ribus alternis, labello ovato acuto picto. 

G. purpureum. &. Br. in Hort. Kew. ed. 2da. 5. p. 207. 
Lindl. Gen. sp. Orch. p. 175. Limodorum nutans. Roxb. 
Corom. Pl. 1. t. 40. cones 13. t. 63. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 4°70. Ma- 
laxis nutans. Willd. 4. p. 93. 


Has.—Moist valleys among the Circar hills. (Rowb.) 


Roxburgh’s drawing represents a spike not a raceme: it 
is the only Indian species yet known in which the scape ex- 
ceeds the leaves in length. 


G. citrinum, scapo foliis breviore, spica pendula, floribus 
congestis, sepalis petalisque zequalibus acuminatis, labello 
subcalcarato apice obtuso integerrimo. 

G. citrinum. Andr. Bot. Rep. 10. t. 626. RR. Br. in Hort. 
Kew. ed. 2-5. ». 207. Lindl. Gen. sp. Orch. p. 176. 


Has.—Pulo Pinang. Chittagong. 


Flowers large, straw-coloured. Labellum yellow at the 
apex and marked on either side with a faint purple intro- 
marginal line. 


G. dilatatum, scapo foliis breviore, spica pendula, floribus 
congestis, sepalis petalisque (latioribus) oblongo-lanceolatis, 
labello subcalcarato apice dilatato crenulato. 

G. dilatatum. A. Br. in Hort. Kew. ed. 2da. 5. p. 207. 
Lindl. Gen. sp. Orch. p. 175. Cistella cernua. Blum. Bijd. 
p. 293. Tabellen. t. 55. Limodorum recurvum. Roxb. 
Corom. 1. t. 59. Lcones 13. t. 62. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 469, Malaxis 
cernua. Swz. Walld. 4. p. 124. 


Has.— Valleys among the Circar Hills. 


Roxburgh’s figure of this species, (Cor. Pl. loc. cit,) which 
is copied from his original drawing referred to above, repre- 


On some Plants in the H. C. Botanic Gardens. 361 


sents the flowers as larger, the labellum shovel-shaped or 
panduriform, yellowish in the lower half, longitudinally 
veined with purple in the dilated apex. 


The following may be proposed as a temporary arrangement of the species. 


1. G. purpureum. 


2.— attenuatum. 
3. — pallidum. 
4. — dilatatum. 


5. — appendiculatum. 
6. — laxiflorum. 
7. — citrinum. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXIV. 


Geodorum laxiflorum. 


1. End of a spike. 

2. Flower, in front. 

3. Labeilum, ditto. 

4. Labellum and column. 

5. Anther, under face. 

6. Pollen masses, front and back views. 
7. Column and stamen in front. 


Geodorum appendiculatum, (upper figures. ) 


1. Apex of a spike. 

2. Flower in front. 

3. Labellum and column. 

4. Anther, under face. 

5. Pollen masses, etc., back view. 

6. Column viewed obliquely, anther removed. 


Geodorum attenuatum, (under figures.) 


1, Apex of a spike. 

. Flower, side view. 

» Labellum, obliquely. 

. Anther, under face. 

. Pollen masses, front. 

. Column, in front, anther removed. All but figures 1. of each se- 
ries representing the spikes, more’or less magnified. 


a> Nn — © LD 


362 On some Plants in the H. C. Botanic Gardens. 


APPENDICULA. 


Blume. Bijdr. p. 207. Tabellen. 40. Lindl. Gen. et Sp. 
Orch. p. 227. Endl. Gen. Pl. p. 205. No. 1483. 


Cuar. Gen.—Perianthium connivens. Sepalum tertium 
subfornicatum, lateralia cum pede columne adnata calcar ob- 
tusum saccumve mentientia. Labellum cum pede columneze 
continuum, inclusum, indivisum, vel subtrilobum, appendicu- 
tum. Columna nana. Anthera dorsalis. Pollinia 8, vel abortu 
pauciora, in glandulam sessilia. 


Hasitus.—Epiphyticae. Caules simplices vel ramosi. Folia 
disticha ; lamina dextrorsum sinistrorsum versa. WVaginae 
in paucis utrinque processu stipuliformt auctae. Racemi op- 
positifolii, vel Glomeruli paleacei terminales. Flores minutz. 


A. callosa, caulibus caespitosis simplicibus, foliis oblongo- 
parallelogrammicis basi deltoideo-cordatis apice bidentatis 
(sinu mucronato), glomerulis florum terminalibus paleaceis, 
petalis lineari-acuminatis, labelli sub-trilobi lobis lateralibus 
dentformibus centrali cordato-ovato basi calloso apice rotun- 
dato, columna apice biauriculata. 

A. callosa, Blume. Bydr. p. 303. Lindl. Gen. et spec. Orch. 
p. 230. 


Has.—Penang. Mr. Lewes. Flowered here in October, 
succeeding well in broken potsherds. 


Drscr.— Stems 6-10 inches long, tufted, erect or spreading, 
covered with the sheaths of the leaves, which have black scarious 
margins, and are prolonged at the apex on either side into a linear- 
setaceous black process, (stipula.) Lamina of the leaves exactly 
bifarious, perpendicular, (looking right and left,) oblong, parallelo- 
grammic, deltoideo-cordate at the base, at the apex bidentate with 
the sinus mucronate: they are 24 lines long, 14 broad, coriaceous, 
one-veined, parallel striate. Head of flowers terminal, oblique or sub- 
erect, paleaceous, sometimes proliferous. lowers generally ex- 


On some Plants in the H. C. Botanic Gardens. 363 


panding one at a time, almost immersed in the paleae, minute, 
half-resupinate, whitish. Perianth ringent. Sepals acute, the an- 
ticous one ovate, concave, the lateral very oblique at the base and 
forming with the foot of the column and base of labellum a large 
roundish sac. Petals the length of the sepals, linear-acuminate. 
Labellum included, continuous at the base with the foot of the 
column with which and the lateral sepals it forms the sac, 3-lobed ; 
the lateral lobes, (up to which it is parallel with the column,) tooth- 
shaped, erect, the central ovate-cordate, conduplicate, with minutely 
undulate margins ; its base occupied by a sulcate subtrilobed callus. 
Column short, roundish, obliquely ascending, almost deficient be- 
hind, obtusely auriculate on either side at the apex, the auricles con- 
cave and sanguineous inside. Fos¢ellum linear-linguiform, almost ver- 
tical, projecting beyond the auricles ; stigma vertical. Anthers dorsal, 
fleshy, almost immersed, bilocular, cells 4-locellar. Pollen masses 
8, clavato-pyriform, sessile on an oblong brownish gland. Ovarium 
6-costate. 


As it agrees tolerably with Blume’s character, I have re- 
ferred it to his A. callosa. But it is to be regretted that such 
short insufficient characters should be resorted to, when 
such variation in form runs through so many organs. Charac- 
ters should always be as prospective as possible, and with 
this view should express the peculiarities of each of the 
organs from which they can be drawn. 

The presence of the divisions on the margin of the sheaths 
near the base of the lamina is remarkable. They are pro- 
bably analogous to such stipulae as those of Rosa, which 
are nothing but the lowermost undeveloped lobes of the leaf. 
Such stipulae have not, so far as I know, been hitherto observ- 
ed in Monocotyledons, although the possibility of their exist- 
ence is indicated by some species of Smilax and Dioscorea. 

The section of Appendicula to which Blume refers this, 
is closely allied to Agrostophyllum, (and perhaps to Glo- 
mera,) from the former of which it differs only in habit, 
which is very peculiar, and the structure of the column. 


364 On some Plants in the H. C. Botanic Gardens. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXVI. 
(left hand.) 
Appendicula callosa. 
Portion of a flowering stem, (natural size.) 
Flower, or rather spike, laterally. 
End of labellum, inner surface, in front. 
Flowers, laterally, sepals removed. 
. Labellum and column, laterally. 
Column, anther reflexed, laterally. 
. Anther, under face. 


. Column, front view, 
. Ditto, back, 


. Pollen masses. 
All but the figure of the flowering stem more or less magnified. 


XIPHOSIUM. 

Cuar. Gen.—Perianthium posticum, ringens, glabrum. 
Sepala carinata, lateralia cum pede columnae in gibberem 
connata. Labellum cum pede columnae articulatum, tremu- 
lum, trilobum. Columna pede elongato. Anthera terminalis. 
Pollinia 8, ope materie pulverea viscosa copiosa coherentia. 
Ovarium triquetrum. 


\ foot removed. 


IODOAAR WN = 


Hasitus.—Rhizomata repentia. Pseudo-bulbi unifolii. 
Scapus bracteis imbricantibus (quarum summa maxima con- 
duplicato-ensiformis) obtectus. Flores variegati, 

Locus artificialis inter Epidendreas, Lindl., naturalis mihi 
1onotus. 


X. acuminatum,* (n. sp.) sepalis acuminatis, petalis cune- 
ato-lanceolatis, labelli lobo centrali acuminato reflexo ob- 
solete l-cristato. 


* A second species, may be thus distinguished. 

X. roseum, * sepalis obtusis oblongis, petalis oblongis, labelli lobo centrali obtuso 
patente tri-cristato. 

Eria rosea. Lindl. Bot. Reg. 12. t. 978. Gen. sp. Orch. p. 67. 

It may be proper to remark, that Dr. Lindley in his Gen. and Sp. places this 
without any specification in the body of the genus Eria, although in the Bot. Reg. 
1. c. he mentions the smooth flowers, and the carinate midrib of the sepals as pe- 
culiar to it. 

* Char. e fig. et descr, in Bot. Reg. 


On some Plants in the H. C. Botanic Gardens. 365 


Has.—Khassya Hills, Churra Punjee, alt. 4300 feet. 
Flowers here in November. 


Descr.—Rhizomata creeping, covered with imbricated scaly 
sheaths. Pseudo-bulbs ovate, rather compressed, obsoletely 4-cor- 
nered, young ones rather scurfy. Leaf (one to each pseudo-bulb, ) 
oblong-lanceolate, attenuate into a longish channelled petiole, con- 
cave, coriaceous, acute, more or less arched. Scape arising from the 
base of the last pseudo-bulb, terminating the rhizoma, a,span or a 
foot in length; the peduncle almost entirely concealed by imbricated 
green bractes, the uppermost one being very long, conduplicate- 
ensiform. From the fissure of this, about its middle, emerges a 
short spike of flowers, which are of some size, prettily variegated, 
and of a waxy aspect. To each of the 3-5 flowers there is a long, 
(equalling the whole flower, ) linear, very acuminate spreading bracte. 
Perianth ringent, posticous. Sepals oblong-lanceolate, acumin- 
ate, keeled along the centre of the back ; the lateral oblique, form- 
ing with the foot of the column a stout gibbosity ; colour brownish 
red with red streaks, and green keels. Petals flesh-coloured, pale, 
with reddish streaks, lanceolate, attenuate to both ends, connivent, 
somewhat shorter than the sepals. Labellum articulated with the 
foot of the column, tremulous, three-lobed: lateral lobes small, 
roundish, erect, terminal sub-lanceolate, acute, with an obsolete 
crest along the centre, reflexed from the middle. An oblique incon- 
spicuous crest at the base of each of the lateral lobes. The general 
colour sanguineous, central lobe tawny yellow. Column curved 
(with its foot forming a hook,) white, somewhat three-toothed at the 
apex ; teeth rounded, anticous (dorsal) one the smallest. Rostel- 
lum entire, short, tongue-shaped. Anther fleshy, two-celled ; cells 4- 
locellar. Pollen masses 8, cohering by fours with a large viscous 
elastic powdery-looking flat body. Ovarium triquetrous (almost 
three winged,) the angles continuous with those of the sepals, red- 
dish brown. 


I met with this plant about Churra Punjee in October 
1837. It was introduced into these gardens, where Buxoo 
tells me it has been called Eria carinata, by Mr. Gibson. 


366 On some Plants in the H. C. Botanic Gardens. 


It appears to me impossible to force this plant into a 
genus so natural as that of Eria, without violating all one’s 
ideas of natural affinities; I have therefore ventured to con- 
stitute a new one, the name of which has reference to the 
sword-shaped bracte-imbricated peduncle, and which will in- 
clude Eria rosea of Dr. Lindley. Technically it is distin- 
guishable from Eria by the remarkable inflorescence, the 
smooth perianthium, carinate sepals and triquetrous ovarium. 
The habit is peculiar. 

I imagine it would come as an Eria into Dr. Lindley’s 
section Tonse, which appears to contain more than one 
genus, as exemplified by Eria convallarioides, planicaulis, 
clavicaulis ? although these are taken from a very partial 
list of species.* 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXV. 
(left hand. ) 


Plant reduced about one-half. 
1. Flower and end of the spike, natural size. 
2. Flower, laterally, sepals and labellum removed. 
3. The same, one petal removed. 
. Labellum, laterally. 
Anther, underface. 
. Pollen masses, in front. 
. Column and anther, in front. 


CONS OT 


. Ovarium, double transverse section. 
All but the figure of the Plant, and No 1, more or less magnified. 


APORUM. 


Blume Byd. p. 334. t. 89. Lindl. Gen. sp. Orch. p. 70. 
Endl. Gen. Pl. p. 192. No. 1364. 


Dendrobium. Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 487. 488. No. 13, 14. 
15. Icones. 15. t. 72, ‘73. 


Herba supplex. Rumph. Hb. Amb. 3. t. 51. 


* Index Bot. Reg. 1838-1841. 


On some Plants in the H. C. Botanic Gardens. 367 


Cuar. Gen.—Pertanthium bilabiatum: labium superius 
sepalis et petalis, inferius labello formatum. Sepadla lateralia 
obliqua, cum pede columnz connata. Peta/a angustiflora. 
Labellum cum pede columne articulatum, indivisum vel tri- 
lobum, cristatum callosum vel nudum. Columna basi longe 
producta. Pollinia 4, per paria collateralia. 


Hasitus.—Herbe epiphytice. Caules simplices vel ra- 
most, apice in quibusdam flagellt in modo attenuati foltis 
denudati florigert. Folia disticha, compressissima, se@pius 
scalpelliformia. Pedicelli florum basz paleis cincti. In- 
florescentia centrifuga, vel irregularis. Flores terminales 
vel axillares, vel in speciebus caulibus apice attenuatis quasi 
racemosi, invicem expandentes, inconspicut. 

Genus structura floris a Dendrobiis quibusdam, (exempli 
gratia D. crumenato), nullo modo diversum. Folia nullo modo 
equitantia. 

A. Jenkinsii (n. sp.), caulibus spithameis, foliis anguste 
scalpelliformibus obtusis subteretibus, floribus solitariis ter- 
minalibus et axillaribus, labello spathulato-obovato apice 
sub-truncato undulato reflexo, columnez pede longissimo 
trivenio apice bifurco. 


Has.—Assam, Major Jenkins, by whom it was introduced 
into these Gardens, where it flowers in October. 


Descr.—Stems simple, grouped together, scarcely more than a 
span long. Leaves ‘narrow scalpelliform, compressed, 2} inches 
long, 14 line broad, very fleshy, obtuse. Flowers terminal, solitary, 
rather large, white. Pedicel 14 inch long. Perianth two-lipped, 
upper lip formed by the sepals and petals, the lower bythe label- 
lum. Opper sepal lanceolate-oblong: the lateral much broader, 
very oblique, united with the foot of the column. Petals spathulato- 
lanceolate, rather narrower than the third sepal, with reflexed. 
spreading points. Labellum entire, ascending-reflexed, revolute to- 

3 R 


368 On some Plants in the H. C. Botanic Gardens. 


wards the apex, where it is emarginate; spread out spathulato- 
obovate, with folded or undulate margins ; colour white, with a yel- 
low line down the centre. Column very short, furnished with an 
erect small tooth on either side of the anther, with an extremely 
long curved foot, which is three-veined, bifurcate at the apex. 
Stigma occupying almost the whole face of the column. <Anther 
sub-immersed, cucullate. Pollinia 4, pyriform, curved. 


The flowers, which vary a good deal in size in distinct in- 
dividuals, have the smell of Dendrobium crumenatum, but to — 
a less powerful degree. 

I have adhered to the usual terms in describing the co- 
lumn, although they are scarcely applicable, the prolonged 
foot belonging partly at least to the labellum and lateral 
sepals. Mr. Brown’s character of Dendrobium, Prodr. Fl. N. 
Hol. p. 188, may have some reference to this, which, as it re- 
gards a diversity of origin of a structure much used in gen- 
eric definitions, is worth investigation. 

The following are the Indian species of this genus. 


A. Leonis, foliis patentissimis breve et late scalpelliformi- 
bus obtusis, floribus terminalibus, labello lineari-oblongo 
pubescenti fimbriato-dentato apice emarginato subdilatato. 

A. indivisum. Bl. Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orch. p. 70. A Leonis. 
Lind. Bot. Reg. 26. mise. not. p. 59. No. 126. 


Has.—Singapore. Cumming. 'Tanjong Cling. Ayer Punus 


(Khim) Malacca. 


Stems a span long. Leaves sometimes so much approximated 
that the stem resembles a coarse double-edged saw: varying in 
size, but always broadly and shortly scalpelliform, Jowers reddish 
brown (Lindl.), subsessile. Petals oblong-lanceolate, twice as broad 
as the third ovate sepal. 


A. anceps, foliis scalpelliformibus ascendenti-patentibus 
acutis, floribus terminalibus vel axillaribus, labello cuneato 
emarginato crenulato. 


On some Plants in the H. C. Botanic Gardens. 369 


A. anceps. Lindl. Gen. sp. Orch. p.'71. Lodd. Bot. Cab. t. 
1895. Dendrobium anceps. Swz. Lindl. Bot.. Reg. 15. t. 
1239. Roxb. Icon. 13. t. 73. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 487. 


Has.—On trees, Delta of the Ganges and Irrawaddi, etc. 


About a span in height. Stems simple or branched. Leaves 
often narrow lanceolate, Flowers green, or more usually brownish- 
ochroleucre. Labellum represented in Bot. Cab. with two reddish 
longitudinal lines. 


A. sinuatum, ‘ foliis lanceolatis equilateris approximatis 
acutis, floribus solitariis axillaribus, labello cuneato elongato 
intra apicem linea hippocrepica crassa sinuata circumdato.” 

A.sinuatum. Lindl. Bot. Reg. 1841. misc. not. p. 1. No. 3. 

Has.—Singapore. Cumming. 

** It has the habit of A. anceps, but its leaves are much nar- 
rower and longer, and the flowers are pale yellowish green.” 


Lindl. 


A. cuspidatum, “ foliis lanceolatis, floribus axillaribus, 
labello emarginato apice crispo per medium obsolete biline- 
ato.” 

A. cuspidatum. Lindl. Bot. Reg. 1841. mise. not. p. 2, 
No. 7. 

Sent by Dr. Wallich to Messrs. Loddiges. 


A. micranthum, foliis lanceolato-scalpelliformibus approxi- 
matis acutis, floribus terminalibus, labello lineari-oblongo bi- 
lobo fundo appendice carnoso truncato aucto. 

A. micranthum. Griff. Calc. Journ. Nat. Hist. 4. p. 375. 
t, 17. 

Penang. Mr. Lewes. 


Stem about a span high, simple. eaves ascending, adpressed. 
Flowers white, minute, much smaller than in any other species. 
Lobes of the dabellum, erroneously said (op. cit.) to be three-lobed, 
nulate, 


370 On some Plants in the H. C. Botanic Gardens. 


A. Roxburghii, caule ramoso apice attenuato florigero, 
foliis scalpelliformibus acuminatis, floribus racemosis, labello 
cuneato apice trilobo crenulato lobo medio emarginato. 

Dendrobium Calceolum. Roxb. Icon. 13, t. 73. Fl. Ind. 
J. p. 488. 


Hazs.—Amboyna. 


Flowers large, “dull orange, and slightly veined with dull-red.” 
Petals linear spathulate, very narrow. Labellum represented as al- 
most 4-lobed, or 3-lobed, with the central lobe emarginate. 


The quotation from the Hb. Amb. in the Flora Indica is 
wrong. Roxburgh probably meant Herba supplex, t. 51. 
fig. 1. 

The species appears to have been passed over entirely. 


A. acinaciforme, caule ramoso apice attenuato florigero, 
foliis sealpelliformibus subacutis, floribus racemosis, labello 
obovato-cuneato emarginato leviter undulato. 

Dendrobium acinaciforme. Roxb. Icones. 13. t. 72. Fi. 
Ind. 3. p. 487. Aporum Serra. Lindl. Gen. sp. Orch. p. 
71. Herba supplex. Hb. Amb. t. 51, f. 2. (auct. Roxb.) 


Has.—Amboyna, Roxburgh.; Assam, Major Jenkins. 


Habit much like that of A. Roxburghii. The flowers are however 
very much smaller, and yellow. Peéals narrow lanceolate. 


The Assam specimens vary a good deal, generally the stems 
are simple, the flowers whitish, and the labellum almost bilo- 
bed. Sometimes however the stem is branched: the leaves 
broader, and so compressed as to be almost flat, and the lip 
faintly spotted with red. In one instance the flower was 
solitary and terminal. 


A. subteres, (n. sp.) caule subsimplici apice attenuato flori- 
gero, foliis distantibus subteretibus compressis arcuatis pa- 


On some Plants in the H. C. Botanic Gardens. 371 


tentibus, floribus racemosis, labello spathulato emarginato 
plicato-undulato fundo sub-tricristato. 


Hasit.—On trees. Ayer Punnus (Rhim), Malacca. 


Derscr.—A slender species not exceeding a foot in height. Stems 
very flexuose, very attenuate. Leaves many times longer than 
broad. Flowers small. Petals linear spathulate, very narrow. 


in general size this approaches to the Assam specimens 
of A. acinaciforme: it appears to be distinguished from all 
others, (setting aside Blume’s species, the characters of 
which are quite insufficient,) by the narrow subterete, dis- 
tant leaves. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXV. 
(left hand. ) 
Aporum Jenkinsi. 
Portion of a plant, natural size. 
. Flower, laterally. 
. Flower, in front. 
. Labellum and column, laterally. 
. Labellum inner surface, in front. 
. Column and anther, obliquely, part of the foot of the column, 
removed. 
6. End of the foot of the column. 
7. Column and anthers, back view. 
8 
9 


OP OF Ne 


. Upper part of the column with the anther, in front. 
. Anther, under face. 
10. Pollinia. 
All but the figure of the plant more or less magnified. 


EUPROBOSCIS. 


Cuar. Gen.— Perianthium posticum, connivens, carnosum. 
Sepala lineari-oblonga, lateralia conduplicato-carinata. Pe- 
tala anguste lanceolata, (apice reflexa.) Labellum simplicissi- 
mum, integerrimum, semi-convolutum, cum basi columnae 
obliqua continuum. Columna verticalis, antice in rostellum 


372 On some Plants in the H. C. Botanic Gardens. 


bicrure longum attenuatum. Stiema verticale. Anthera 
dorsalis, rostrata. Pollinia 8 cerea, rotunda. Caudicula 
longissima. Glandula linearis. 


Hasitus.—Epiphytica, cespitosa. Pseudobulbi turbinale, 
novelli 2-4 folit. Folia carnosa, oblonga, emarginata. Scapus 
subclavatus, erectus. Flores spicati, 1-bracteati, minutz, 
viridescentes. . 


Has.—Nepal, communicated by Major H. Lawrence. 
Flowered here in March, April, 1844. 
Euproboscis pygmaea. 


Derscr.—A minute plant, scarcely exceeding 4 inches in height, 
apparently forming thick tufts. Psewdo-bu/bs turbinate. Leaves 
ovate-oblong, the smaller ones almost round, fleshy, emarginate, 
one-veined, channelled. Scape erect, 3-4 inches high, roundish, 
almost club-shaped with a few membranous sheaths. lowers spik- 
ed, small, inconspicuous, green, scentless, suffulted by a small scale- 
shaped bracte, in bud depressed flat, two-edged. Perianth posticous, 
connivent ; sepals nearly equal, oblong, fleshy, the lateral condupli- 
cate-carinate. Petals narrow lanceolate, of the same length with 
the sepals, points recurved, spreading. Labellum the length of the 
sepals, very entire and simple, much like the petals, half-convolute, 
continuous with the base of the column. Column vertical, very 
short, very oblique indeed deficient behind, in front (anticously) 
elongated into a long rostrate two-legged rostellum. Anther paral- 
lel with the column, dorsal, fleshy, prolonged into a long beak. 
Pollinia 8, round, minute, incumbent in fours. Caudicula very long. 
Gland linear about half aslong. Ovarzwm simple. 


This is one of the many species that so much weaken the 
distinctions employed by Dr. Lindley to arrange naturally 
the plants of this difficult family. Its affinities appear to me to 
be with Neottiez, particularly with certain pseudo-bulboid 
forms allied to Ancectochilus ; yet its pollen masses are obvious- 
ly waxy. In this respect and in the column generally, it ap- 


On some Plants in the H. C. Botanic Gardens. 373 


proaches to Appendicula, the flower of which however does 


not depart from the ordinary structure of a natural section 
of Vandee. 


I see nothing in Lindley’s Gen. and Spec. approaching it 
technically except Appendicula, from which however it 1s too 
distinct to need any comparison. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXVI. 
(right hand.) 
Euproboscis pygme@a. 
Plant, natural size. 
1. Flower, obliquely, 
2. Ditto, front of posticous fact. 
. Flower, sepals removed. 
. Same, petals likewise removed, anther reflexed. 
5. Pollen masses. 


All but the figure of the Plant more or less magnified. 


We Co 


Correspondence. 


Extract of a letter from M. Guizourt, Professor of Pharmacy, Paris, to 
Dr. Movat, Professor of Materia Medica, Calcutta. 


To the Editors of the Calcutta Journal of Natural History. 


Dear GENTLEMEN—I am induced to forward to you for publication in your 
Journal, the enclosed extract from a letter addressed to me by Professor Guibourt 
of Paris, because it will be the means of widely making known, what are deemed 
by the first authorities in Europe, desiderata respecting the Materia Medica of 
India. I have succeeded in collecting a few specimens, and also some definite 
information respecting certain of the substances mentioned by Monsieur Guibourt; 
but my time is so fully and incessantly occupied in more immediate and pressing 
official duties, that | am quite unable, single-handed, to do justice to so important 
and interesting a subject. I venture, therefore, to solicit the aid and co-opera- 
tion of all who take an interest in the matter, and are able from leisure and favour- 
able position to collect specimens, and furnish me with any information concern- 
ing them. I shall be happy to defray every expense attendant upon collecting, 
packing, and transporting all specimens with which I may be favoured, and of 
acknowledging them, with the source from which they were derived, through the 


medium of your valuable Journal, if you will accord me your kind permission to 
do so. 


374 Correspondence. 


I shall take a fature opportunity of publishing the memoranda I am collecting, 
concerning those articles of the Indian Materia Medica, which may be introduced 
as efficient substitutes for the more costly drugs imported from Europe and Ame- 
rica; as well as any which possess peculiar and valuable properties, hitherto 
unknown to us, or not yet established by competent and trustworthy authority. I 
am unwilling, however, to intrude myself upon the notice of the profession and 
the public with premature conclusions, or hasty, ill-conducted experiments, which 
subsequent trial and observation may prove to be unfounded and incorrect. 

I have, &c. 
Frep. J. Movart, M. pv. 

Medical College, 1st Oct. 1844. Profr. of Materia Medica, &c. 


L’Inde est sans contredit l’une des contrées les plus riches en matiére 
utiles dla Pharmacie, aux arts ou 4 ]’économie domestique. Mais nous 
avons encore eu si peu de communications directes avec elle, que vous 
ne devrez pas etre étonné de notre ignorance sur des choses qui vous 
paraitront n’offrir aucune difficulté. De plus, la situation de Calcutta, 
qui en fait l’entrepot central des productions ]’Asie et d’une partie de 
V Afrique, nous fait espérer que vous pourrez nous donner des éclair- 
cissementa sur des objets étrangers au Bengale, mais qui doivent y 
arriver par la voie du commerce. Voici donc les substances sur lesquel- 
les je desire principalement appeler votre attention. 

Costus Arabique.—Racine long tems attribuée au Costus speciosus de la 
famille des Scitaminées. J’ai montré la fausseté de cette opinion, et 
j ai pensé que le Costus devait étre produit par une plante Synanthéreé* 
voisine des Carlines. Enfin j’ai supposé que cette racine etait originaire 
des contrées voisines du cours de |’Indus. II serait utile de verifier 
ces différentes assertions et de nous envoyer la racine du Costus speciosus, 
afin de montrer sa différence avec le Costus arabique. Celui-ci est 
une racine grosse comme le pouce et plus, grisatre, d’une odeur forte 
d’iris et de boue melangées, d’une saveur amére et un peu acre. 

Bois de Couleuvre, ou Lignum colubrinum.—On a donné ce nom aux 
racines de plusieurs végéteaux qui ont jou idaus l|’Inde de la réputatiox 
de guérir la morsure des serpents venimeux. Nous sommes desireun 
de nous les procurer toutes, et notamment les suivantes. 

Racine du Sirychnos Nua Vomica. 


— du Strychnos colubrina, ou Modira Caniram de Rheede. 
——— du Tsjeru-Katavalli-Caniram de Rheede. 

——— del’ Ophioxylum serpentinum. 

——— de l’ Ophiorhiza Mungos. 


——~=— du Soulama amar-ea. 


* Procurable in the Botanic Gardens. 


Correspondence. 375 

Curcuma ou Turmeric.—Pourrait on avoir des échantillous d’herbier des 
differents Curcuma cultives 4 Calcutta, ou croissant naturellement au 
Bengale; chacune des espéces étant accompagnée de la racine.* 

Autres racines que l’on désire de procurer, avec les noms spécifiques 
des plantes atch-root, bish, bishma ou bickma, nirbishee, (Aconitum ferox,) 
madar, (Asclepias gigantea, procera,) Periploca indica, Smilax zeylanica. 

Nard Indien, ou Spicanard.—Deux racines viennent de |’Inde sous ce 
nom, 1° le vrai nard jatamansi, produit par le Valeriana Jatamansi ou 
Nardotaschys Jatamansi, DC. et le nard radicant de l’ Inde, ou nard du 
gange de Dioscoride, dont l’origine est encore inconnu. Pourrait on 
se procurer: 1° un individu sec du Valeriana Jatamansi, avec sa raci- 
ne; 2° un échantillon de quelques onces 4 une livre de vrai nard jata- 
mansi; 38° un individu sec du Valeriana Hardwickii de Wallich, avec sa 
racine; 4° un individu sec du Fedia grandiflora, Wallich, ou Nardo- 
stachys grandiflora. Je soupgonne que cette espéce produit le nard radi- 
cant de l’Inde. 

Rhubarb.—Dans ces derniéres années quelques personnes ont attribués 
la rhubarb de Chine ou du Thibet an Rheum australe. Je la crois tou- 
jours produite par le Rheum palmatum ; mais pour en étre plus certain 
nous prions M. Mouat de nous faire parvenir des échantillons certains 
des racines des differénts, Rheum qui croissent dans |’Himalaya ou qui 
sout cultivés 4 Calcutta.f 

Ecorce d’ Anacarde. (Semecarpus Anacardium.)—Nous desirons beau- 
coup nous procurer l’écorce de cet arbre,{ et connaitre les différents 
noms qtiélle peut porter dans l’Inde, ainsi que les usages auxquelles 
on peut l’employer. 

Ecorce d’ Alyxie aromatique.—Ecorce blanche, aromatique, venant des 
iles Moluques. Elle nous manque complétement. 

Ecorce de Bé-lahé.—Ecorce tres amére employée comme fébrifuge 4 
Madagascar et aux iles Maurice. Est elle connue 4 Calcutta? 

Autres écorces que l’on desire se procurer avec l’indication des arbres 
qui les fournissent : 

Souroul-puttay, Naga-puttay, Konnay-puttay, Karoovelum-puttay, Kally- 
puttay, Marudum-puttay, Poola-puttay. Lodu-puttay, Odium-puttay, Awarai- 
puttay, Popli-puttay, Vaymbadum-puttay, Velum-puttay, Attico-puttay. 

Bois d’ Aloés.—J’ai essayé, dans /’ Historie abrégée des drogues simples, de 
détruire la confusion quiexiste dans les différents bois d’aloz, de calam- 

* No species of Rheum is cultivated here. 

¢ Dr. Falconer has published this plant under the name Aucklandia Costus in 


a late number of the Linn. Trans. to which we have not access. 
{ Procurable in the Botanic Gardens. 


a ¢ 


376 Correspondence. 


bac, da’galloche, de garo, &c. et je pense avoir reconnu, soit dans les dro- 
guiers, soit dans le commerce, ceux de ces bois produits par /’ dloexy- 
lum Agallochum, l Aquilaria secundaria ou malaccensis, et l' Excoecaria Agal- 
locha; mais ces déterminations ont besoin d’étre confirmées par des 
échantillons puisés dans des lieux d’origine ; nous prions donc M. Mouat 
1° de nous faire parvenir un échantillon de chacun des bois d’Alov, de 
Calambac ou d’Agalloche que l’on trouve dans le commerce de 1’Inde, 
avec les notions que vous pourrez recueillir sur leur origine. 

2°, De nous procurer, indépendamment de cela, s’il est possible, le 
bois authentique de chacun des arbres suivants: Alocxylum Agallochum, 
Aquilaria secundaria, Excecaria Agallocha,* Michelia Champacca.t 

Santal citrin. Peut-on se procurer des échantillons certains de Santal 
citrin du Malabar, de la Cochinchine et de Timor, afin d’en reconnaitre les 
différences de qualité signalées par les auteurs. Vieut-il du Santal citrin 
des iles Sandwich, ot est il produit par le Santalum Freycinetianum. 

Santal blanc @ Vodeur de rose.—Jai décrit sous ce nom un bois que l’on 
trouve quelquefois en petite quantité dans le commerce de la droguerie 
a Paris. Il est en btiches peu volumineuses, cylindriques, pourvues d’une 
écorce grise, assez dure et compacte. Le bois est trés pesant, trés dur, trés 
compact, comme imprégné d’huile, susceptible d’un beau poli; il a une 
saveur amére et une odeur de rose tres marquée. L’origine en est incon- 
nue. Trouve t’on quelque chose de semblable dans le commerce de 1’ Inde? 

Y trouve t’on egalement du bois violet et du bois de roses venant de 
la Chine ? 

Plusieurs ouvrages font aussi mention d’un bois d’agra, que l’on dit 
pourvu d’une odeur trés agréable et étre trés estimé en Chine. Le connait 
on dans I’Inde? 

Bois de Santal rouge et Caliatour.—D’aprés Rumphius le Bois de Calia- 
tour serait le meme que le Santal rouge de 1|’Inde; mais on observe 
entre eux des différences, si constantes dans la couleur et la texture que je 
les regarde comme produits pour le moins par deux espéces différentes 
de Pterocarpus. Voici donc les questions que je propose de résoudre. 

lo. Le Bois de Caliatour vient-il du Coromandel, de Ceylon, de Mada- 
gascar, ou de la cote d’Afrique? Connait on l’arbre qui le produit ? 

2°, Le Bois de Santal rouge dé I’ Inde ( Pterocarpus Santalinus ow Segapoo- 
shandanum) peut-il étre distingué du Santal rouge des iles Moluques, que 
je crois produit par le Pterocarpus indicus ? 

3°. Peut on se procurer les bois du Santal rouge d’ Andaman, produit 
parle Pterocarpus dalbergioides ? 


* Procurable in the Botanic Gardens. t Ditto. 


Correspondence. 377 


4°. Peut-on se procurer les bois du Pterocarpus flavus, et du Pierocar- 
pus Marsupium ? Ces différents arbres laissent découler des sucs rouges, 
auxquels on a donné longtems le nom de Sang dragon, mais qui font 
probablement partie des Kinos actuels du commerce. 

Autres Bois que l’on desire se procurer. 

Bois rouge de l’Inde. Inga bigemina.* 

Autre bois rouge de |’Inde ou Shem-marum. Swietenia febrifugu.t 

Bois satiné de 1’Inde. Swietenia Chloroxylon.} 

Bois jaune de ]’Australasie. Oxleya xanthoxyla. 

Diababul de l’Inde. Acacia arabica.§ 

Carin-towarai-marum. 

Poorsung-marum. 

Weskali-marum. 

Waghai-marum. 

Poollicem-marum. Tamarindus indica. || 

Feuilles dites, Cassa elley, et leur nom botanique. 

Fruits ou semences huileuses nommées, Mara-enney. 

Fruit nomméé Boa-tam-payang ou Boochgaan tam-payang, quel est 
lusage de ce fruit dans |’Inde? ai-je eu raison de l’attribuer au Sapindus 
rubiginosus, Roxb. 

Lichens tinctoriaux de l’Inde. Des échantillons avec ]’indication des 
couleurs qu’iles peuvent produire. 


Produits Végétaux. 


Sue d’Aloés.—Echantillons des différents aloés employés daus |’Inde, 
avec Vindication des contrées et des espéces d’aloe qui les fournissent 
ainsi que le procédé d’extraction. 

Opium.—Un echantillon des différents opiums commerciaux fabriqués 
dans |’Inde, et des détails sur la maniére de les obtenir. 


Cachous, Gambeers et Kinos. 

Nous sommes trés desireux de nous procurer des échantillons de tous 
les sucs astringents employés dans 1’Inde, et qui sont connus en Europe 
sous les noms ci-dessus, et nous aurions une grande obligation 4 M. Mouat 
s'il pouvait y joindre une notice sur les contreés et les arbres qui fournis- 
sent chaque espéce. Voici principalement les sortes sur lesquelles nous 
désirons des renseignements. 

1°. Cachou de Colombo en Ceylon. 

2°, Cachou de Mysore nommé Coury. 

3°. Autre cachou de Mysore nomme Cassu. 


* Procurable in the Botanic Gardens. + Ditto. ¢ Ditto. 
§ Ditto. || Ditto. {1 Ditto. ** Ditto. 


378 Correspondence. 


4°. Cachous des provinces supérieures du Gange apportés a Calcutta. 

5°. Cachou blane ou Katha Suffaid. 

6°. Cachou de Pégu nommé aussi Cascaty, ou Cashcuttie. Quel arbre 
le produit ? 

7°. Cachou de Siam. 

8°. Gambeer cubique. 

9°, Gambeer cubique de Java. 

10.° Gambeer prismatique gaune de Singapore, ou Gambeer en aiguilles. 

11°, Les differents Gambeers cireulaires et estampés ou marques d’an 
cachet. 

12°, Cata gambra du Japon. 


13°. Suc astringent du Pterocarpus Marsupium. 


14°, —- —— santalinus. 

15°, ———_——_—— ——_——_—. indicus. 

169, ———__———-__. —___—___-— dalbergioides. 

17°, ——_—_-——_-——_ Butea frondosa. 

18°. — de L’ Eucalyptus resinifera de \’ Australasie. 


19° Quelle est l’origine de la substance nommée en Angleterre Last 
Indian Kino, ou Amboyna Kino? 

20°. Quelle est l’origine du suc astringent nommé Facaoli, Tagale ou 
Takale ? 

Sagou.—Les différentes espéces apportées par le commerce, avec leur 
lieu d’origine et des notions sur les arbres qui les produisent. 

Gommes de lV Inde.—Les différentes gommes solubles dans l’eau et 
analogues 4 la gomme Arabique, que l’on récolte dans I’Inde, soit 
quelles proviennent d’Acacia, soit quelles soient tirees d’autres arbres. 

Bdellium de lV Inde.—I) nous est arrivé, il ya quelques années, une 
gomme résine brunatre, un peu molle, que l’on a cherché 4 vendre sous 
le nom de Myrrhe de Inde, mais qui etait plutot une sorte de bdellium. 
La connait on 4 Calcutta? | 

Copal dur et Copal tendre.—De quelle contrée vient la Résin Copal qui 
arrive de l’Inde, et principalement de Calcutta en Europe? En suppo- 
sant que le Copal ne soit pas originaire de |’Inde, ou du Bengale, y méle- 
t-on, dans les entrepots de l’Inde, quelque résine indienne? quelle est, 
entrautres, l’origine d’une résine en belles larmes ovoides, transparentes, 
vitreuses et presque ’incolores, que l’on trouve mélée au copal ? 

Peut t’on se procurer la résine du Vateria indica on Elcocarpus copal- 
liferus ? et celle des différents Dammara des iles Moluques, surtout 
la résine du Pinus Dammara ou Dammara alba de Rumphius ? 


Correspondence. O19 


De méme celles des Canarium, Amyris et autres arbres résineux de 
l’Inde ou des iles Moluques? 

Gomme Gutte—Pourroit ou enfin connaitre par un échantillon au- 
thentique avec fleurs et fruits, l’arbre dont ou extrait la Gomme Gutte 
dans le pays de Pegu et de Siam? ‘Trouve ton de la gomme gutte ex- 
traite du Carcapuli, Cambogia Gutta, L. ou Garcinia Cambogia, DC.? et 
de la gomme gutte de Ceylon extraite du Garcinia Morella, DC. ou Hebra- 
dendron cambogioides de Graham ? 

Résine Laque.—De quelle partie de |’Inde vient principalement la 
résine Laque? Sur quels arbres la trouve-t-on principalement? Quel 
est, entr’ autres, l’arbre qui produit la Laque en batons de Mysore, nommée 
je crois Komburruk ? Quelle preparation fait-on subir 4 la laque pour la 
convertir en Laque plate ou Laque en écailles, ou pour fabriquer le Lac- 
laque et Lac dye ? 

Styrax liquide.—Cette substance fait elle partie de la matiére médicale 
de l’Inde? De quelle contrée la tire t’ on? Quel arbre la produit ? 

Benjoin.—Se procurer des échantillons des différentes sortes de Ben- 
join du commerce a Calcutta, avec leur lieu d’origine. 

Camphre de Bornéo, du Dryobalanops Camphora, et Huile de camphre 
du meme. 

Monsieur. 

Je crains quel’étendue des notes précédentes, le nombre de demandes 
qui vous sont faites ne vous fassent repentir de vos offres de service, 
vous voyez, dans tous les cas, que nous ne sommes pas gens a4 négliger 
celles qui nous sont faites. Nous vous faisons nos excuses d’en user 
si librement avec vous, et nous recevrons avec reconnaissance les com- 
munications que vous voudrez bien nous faire, relatives aux sujets de- 
mandés, ou 4 tous les autres qui vous paraitront devoir fixer notre atten- 
tion. 

Je suis, Monsieur et honoré confrére, avec la plus parfaite considera- 
tion. 

Votre tres humble serviteur, 
G. GuiBourt, 

Paris, Rue Fedeau, No. 22. Professeur 4 I’ Ecole de Parmacie. 


Note on the Snow Line on the Himalaya. By Capt. T. Huron, 
Bengal Army. 
It would appear from Captain Jack’s remarks in No. 15 of this Jour- 
nal, relative to my paper on the snow line of the Himalaya, that I 
have inadvertently allowed myself to be misunderstood. ‘The truth of 


380 Correspondence. 


the main point for which I contended, is admitted by Captain Jack, and 
likewise I suspect by yourself, namely that the snow lies no longer deep- 
er and lower down on the Northern aspect of ‘‘ the Himalaya,” than it does 
on the Southern aspect ; this being admitted, the minor points may be 
easily disposed of.* 

Captain Jack objects to my stating that ‘‘dense forests and vegeta- 
tion occur along the Southern slopes while they are nearly altogether 
wanting on the Northern face ;” in making this statement, I referred, 
not to the Southern slopes of secondary or minor ranges on the Cis-Hima- 
layan aspect, but to the fact that forests and dense vegetation are found 
on the South of the principal chain or true Himalaya, while on the 
Northern aspect of that great range they are nearly altogether want- 
ing. This assertion will, I doubt not, be borne out by every one who 
has crossed into Tartary : for while to the South of the great chain we 
find superb and stately forests, on the North there is scarcely a tree 
to be seen, and the few that are occasionally met with are either stunt- 
ed Cypresses growing in the moist soil of ravines, or poplars planted 
round a village by the hand of man for economical purposes. 

The reason why the minor ranges South of the Himalaya are clothed 
with forests on their Northern aspect is, I think, to be attributed to the 
fact that the dip of the strata being to the North or North-east, af- 
fords abundant soil on that side for the growth of vegetation, while the 
Southern out-crop, on the other hand, generally presents a bare and 
rocky escarpment on which little else than grasses and ferns can find 
soil enough to nourish them. North of the Western Himalaya, how- 
ever, be the dip to whatever point it my, there are no forests at ail. 

In saying that vegetation atiracted moisture, I have probably erred, 
and I thank Captain Jack for the courteous manner in which he has 
pointed out my mistake. I should rather have said that as vegetation 
is known to absorb or imbide moisture without which it cannot flour- 
ish, so the actual presence of dense forests proves, that the Southern 
climate is damper than the Northern one, which, coupled with the facts 
that the sun has less power on the northern aspect, and that the 
periodical rains do not extend thither, seems, according to my idea, a 


* The difference between Captains Jack and Hutton, is rather a difference about 
words than any real difference of opinion as to the fact, Captain Hutton having 
inadvertently omitted in the first instance to distinguish according to conventional 
terms, the aspect of the Principal Mountain Chain of the Himalaya, from that of 
the Principal mountain groups, subordinate groups, and mountains—Geographical 
terms, the use of which is essential to the clear understanding of the question, —Ep. 


Correspondence. bs 1 


farther reason for the longer continuance of the snow on the North 
than on the South. 

The last number of the Journal contains some remarks on this 
subject from Mr. Batten, who appears to disagree with me ‘in toto.’ 
I do not however see any reason to alter what I have said, especi- 
ally since my statements are fully corroborated by the observations of 
Captains Cunningham and Jack, made in the year 1842, in different 
parts of the Himalaya and likewise at different seasons. It appears to 
me that Mr. Batten’s desire to convince you that “every one who 
has visited the Himalaya,” does not hold opinions opposed to those 
of Captain Webb, has lead him into something very like a contradiction 
of his own opinions, a refutation in fact of his own doctrines, for he 
starts with an assertion that “ the perpetual snow line is at a higher eleva- 
tion on the Northern slope of ‘‘ the Himalaya” than on the Southern slope ;” 
although immediately afterwards he “ willingly allows that the North 
side of a hill retains the snow longer and deeper than the South side, 
and this observation equally applies in Bhote.”’ 

Now if the snow lies longer on the north than on the south, and 
if there be any eternal snows, it is clear, that it must be found on 
the northern aspect and not on the southern, which is precisely what I 
have endeavoured to prove. 

Mr. Batten says ‘that at the same moment of time, (say of any day 
in September) when in Thibet, or Chinese Tartary, little or no snow is 
found; at 17,000 or even 18,000 feet odd above the sea by one traveller, 
another traveller in the Himalaya on the south side of the high peaks 
finds deep snow at 14,000 feet and even lower.’”’ Now Captain Jack’s 
observations bear rather strongly on this very point, and prove the re- 
verse of Mr. Batten’s statement, for he says, that he “crossed the 
Borendo Ghat, on the 25th September 1842, and there was no snow 
at all on the southern aspect, or on the very summit of the Pass; 
but descending a few yards on the northern aspect, to the base of 
a rock which was nearly perpendicular, he had the pleasure of seeing 
his baggage, &c. descending most rapidly by their own gravity, upon an 
unbroken bed of snow extending 250 to 200 yards in one slope, forming 
an angle of about 450.” 

Another traveller in these regions, the well known and enterprising 
Dr. Gerard, has stated “that the line (of perpetual snow) in the lati- 
tude 30° 30’ in Asia is fixable at 15,000 feet on the Southern or Indian 
aspect of the Himalaya mountains, and on the northern (not the Tarta- 
ric) may be concluded at 14,500 feet. This gives a difference of 500 feet 
in favour of the northern side. Dr. Gerard then proceeds to state, that 


382 Correspondence. 


‘the Haus Bussun is the last pinnacle of the chain before it is broken 
by the Sutlej, and could not have been more than five miles from him, 
but it was not visible from where he then was, on the Borendo Pass. 
The cheebs of the Pass are perfectly naked long before this time of the 
year, (August 1822,) and the trough formed by them, although sheeted 
with snow at the summer solstice, is now, (August,) bare rock down to 
the ravine on the south side, with the exception of some accumulations, 
which will be very much diminished before another month; and some 
seasons, as the former (1821,) the whole face of the declivity is without a 
patch of snow. On the north side there hes a vast field which never dissolves. 
At about 1,000 feet below the crest it breaks up, but continues in slips 
and scattered masses to the bottom of the dell, or where the stream 
finds a regular channel at 13,500 feet ; and where the cliffs are steep, it 
occurs at a much lower level.” (Lloyd and Gerard’s Tours in the Hima- 
laya, p. 327-328.) 

These observations then appear to furnish a complete answer to Mr. 
Batten’s challenge, and prove that the perpetual snow line must 
be looked for on the Northern aspect of the mountains, as it is evident 
from the facts mentioned by Captain Jack, Dr. Gerard, Dr. Lord, Cap- 
tain Cunningham and myself, that the snow in some seasons deserts the 
Southern aspect altogether, and consequently that there is no perpetual 
snow on the Southern aspects ; it may perhaps sometimes last for several 
years without entirely disappearing, but yet there are occasional sea- 
sons in which the whole Southern snow of particular localities is dis- 
solved, and thus at once destroys its right to be called eternal; on 
the northern side of the high peaks it never entirely melts, and con- 
sequently the perpetual snow occurs only on that aspect. A person 
may therefore reside several years in these hills without seeing the 
whole of the Southern side uncovered at one time, although every year 
he may witness the denudation of some localities on that aspect, and 
thus he may be led to suppose that the southern snows are eternal, 
an opinion which is above shewn to be erroneous. 

The mere continuance of snow on any spot does not suppose that 
snow never melts there. Were that the case, a progressive and 
unceasing accumulation would be the result; the position of the snow 
line, or what is often erroneously called the line of perpetual congelation, is 
determined solely by this circumstance, that during one complete revo- 
lution of the seasons, or in the course of a year, the snow which falls 
és gust melted, and no more.”’* 


* Professor Forbes’ Travels through the Alps. p. 18. 


; 
' 


Correspondence. 383 


Mr. Batten asks, “‘ How can any facts of one observer in one place falsify 
the facts of another observer in another place?’ Had I been unsupported 
by good authority, [ should long have hesitated to array my own opi- 
nions against those of Captain Webb, but when I found that the facts 
which I had seen were corroborated by the testimony of Dr. Lord and 
Captain Cunningham, I should have been to blame had I not come 
forward, and made at least an attempt to set the matter in its proper 
light. The observations are no longer those “of one individual in one 
place,” but of several competent observers in different parts of the 
mountains, and extend in fact from the Hindoo Koosh to the banks 
of the Ganges. Different travellers in different years, or even in dif- 
ferent parts of the range in the same year,—may differ as to the 
amount of snow to be met with on the Southern aspect; but a series 
of observations made through several successive years along the whole 
range, would assuredly prove, that in no part of the Southern aspect 
was the snow perpetual, bi-ennial or sept-ennial, or for any term of years 
it may it some places rest, but sooner or later it will fade away, and 
prove that the only perpetual snow line is on the Northern aspect. 

I trust, therefore Mr. Batten will forgive me for repeating that I 
believe the hitherto received opinion to be erroneous, and that it has 
been fully proved from the testimony of trustworthy and able observers, 
that the snow lies longer and deeper, and lower down on the northern aspect 
of the Himalaya, than it does on the Southern side. 

Tuomas Hurton, Capt. 
Mussooree, 21st February, 1844. Bengal Army. 


From J. W. Batten, Esg. C. S. to J. M‘Cueutanp, Bengal Medical Service, 
in reply to Capt. Hutton’s remarks on the line of Perpetual Snow in the 
July Number of the Calcutta Journal Natural History 1843, Dated 
Camp, Kaleedoongee, Kemaon, December 9th 1843.* 


My pear Sir,—I have had the pleasure of receiving your polite and 
kind note dated the 17th ultimo, and I beg you to accept my best ac- 
knowledgments for the liberal tone shewn in your explanation of the 
note appended by you to Captain Hutton’s paper. 


* This letter has been kept back with a view of publishing at once all that is to 
be said on both sides of the question. It should have appeared in the last number, 
but from the quantity of matter previously in type, we had not room for it as 
well as Captain Hutton’s letter on the same subject, which we were anxious should 
both appear at the same time.—Ep. 


o 


oOo D 


384: Correspondence. 


2. I have not been able to procure a sight of Captain Jack’s notes ; 
but, unless that gentleman takes up a totally different ground to that 
on which Captain Hutton bases his arguments, there can be nothing for 
me to discuss in opposition to him. 

3. On a second perusal of Captain Hutton’s article im your July 
Number, I find that he can only be understood to debate the question 
whether snow lies deepest and longest on the Northern or the Southern 
slopes of the several heights in the snowy range, and the mountainous 
tract which that range crowns; and that he does not in reality (though 
in appearance he does) attack the observations of Webb and others con- 
cerning the fact, that on the Northern slope of the Himalya the line of per- 
petual snow is not so low as on the Southern slope. 1 am now convinced 
that Captain Hutton confounds the singular with the plural number ; 
viz. slope with slopes. The following extract from his paper shews, that 
he considers the Northern side of every hill in these mountains, that is, 
in Bissehr, Sirmoor, Bareh, Thakooraién, Gurhwal, Kumaon, the Neipal 
Territories, &c. &c.) to be the Northern slope of the Himalya! and 
the Southern slope of every hill to be (exclusive of its Northern side) the 
Southern slope of the Himalya!! 

Extract. 

‘‘ But the same facts which are here insisted on as facts, are observ- 
able at Simla, without travelling even to the Snowy range; for, (the 
Italics are mine) it is notorious to all who have visited the hills, that 
the snow lies longest on the Northern face of Mt. Jacko than on any 
other part of it.” He then mentions the result of a snow storm in the 
spring of 1836, which was visible in May, and adds, ‘“ The same facts 
are well known likewise at Mussooree.” Allow me to add, and to 
every man, woman and child, at Almorah and at every human habitation in 
the whole Northern hemisphere, where snow is ever seen at all. ‘This very 
day the ladies and gentlemen now freezing in the snow at N ynee Tal 
would doubtless, be very happy to find themselves on the Southern side 
of Ayar Pata;—but still, though on the North side of one hill in the 
Ghagur range, they are, I dare say, rejoicing that they are not on the 
Northern slope of the Himalya. This same Ghagur range, by the way, 
is notorious (like Jacko) for the snow on its Northern face, as those 
who look out of their windows at Almorah can testify, and still more 
those who have been snowed up at the Ramgurh bungalow, or who 
have slidden and slipped down the icy road thereunto. 

4. If a person living at any one of the hill stations is able without 
travelling to support Captain Hutton’s arguments, he and I evidently 
cannot be discussing the same subject; and I have, I fear, made an 


: 
| 
) 
| 


Correspondence. 385 


useless parade in my first letter of all my Himalyan wanderings. Vain, 
also, in regard to Captain Hutton and his seconders, have been the travels, 
surveys and writings of Moorcroft, the Gerards, Webb, Hodgson, 
Herbert and Traill. These distinguished men conceived that the North- 
ern slope of the Himalya meant the high land in Chinese Tartary and 
Thibet, (including some part of Kunawur and the Bhote Mehals which 
lie North of the greatest peaks); and it never entered into their minds 
to conceive that the Northern Kuds of Simla and Mussooree were a 
part of the Northern slope of the Himalya. The commonest book on 
Geology or Geography distinguishes between the side of the Himalya 
which faces India, and that which faces Chinese Tartary. The very Hand 
Books and the Primers of Zoological and Botanical Science take care to 
separate the Habitat.‘ Himalya’ from the Habitats Neipal, Kumaon, &c. 
Mr. Hodgson never confounds Cachar with the Lower Hills, still less 
Lassa with Katmandoo. If we allow 80 miles of slope between the 
high snowy peaks and the plains of India, (the actual distance,) we 
may surely allow 80 miles to form a slope on the Tartaric side, how- 
ever gentle it may be in comparison. But Ido not require even 50 
miles on that side. All the phenomena for which I contend, are to be 
found within that distance. 

5. Here I might end, having shewn Captain Hutton (and I will add 
yourself, in revenge for your note against the Kumaonees,) the dan- 
ger of mis-stating the language of others, as such a mis-statement or 
misinterpretation is likely to be followed by the argument of reductio 
ad absurdum against the language and reasoning of the thoughtless ob- 
jectors themselves. But, it is just possible that Capt. Hutton really 
means something which the common interpretation of his language 
does not allow, and, as I have before said, appearances are against him. 
As this gentleman may, perhaps, be taken as an authority, it becomes 
necessary to be very explicit as a counter-authority, and I rely fully 
on your promise to publish my statements in this letter, as you did 
those of Captains Hutton and Jack. 

6. Firstly.—I assert that among scientific men the Himalyan range 
means the chain of highest elevation in the mountains which form the 
Northern boundary of India. 

Secondly.—That in this chain some of the peaks are flanked by the 
beds of rivers which rise on their Northern side, while others are not 
so flanked, but send off rivers, to join those flowing to the Ocean, from 
their Southern bases. They also, of course, send off rivers on their 
Northern side to join flanking drains. That, of the former class of 
peaks are those at Gungootree, Buddrinath, and Melum, where Passes 


386 Correspondence. 


by river beds penetrate the Himalya; viz. the Neelung, the Mana and 
the Juwahir Passes. That, of the latter class of peaks are Bunderpooch, 
at the foot of which rises the Jumna, Kedarnath at the source of the 
Mundaknee, and Nundidevi at the source of the Pindur. 

Thirdly.—That where the Passes by river beds occur, there, a marked 
difference exists between the Northern and Southern extended bases of 
the same peaks, the side to India being more steep and always quite 
impassable at a lower elevation, ; the side to Tartary at a higher eleva- 
tion and on easier ground, being passable by men and cattle in the 
summer months 

Fourthly.—That from Ist July to lst October as a general rule, and 
universally from 15th July to 15th* September, whole tracts of country 
lying North of the high chain of the Himalya elevated from 15,000 to 
19,000 feet above the sea, are found free from snow, (except in crevices, ) 
that human habitations and markets thronged with traders exist at 
15,000 feet: and even above that height, and that high roads for traffic 
with pasture for cattle and bushes for fuel, cross snow-less elevations 
of 17,000 feet odd.+ 

Fifthly.—That none of the phenomena described under the last head are 
found on the Southern side of the Great Himalyan Chain. 

7. It is easy to add comments to these assertions. In any September, 
compare the spot called the Pinduree Glaciers (11,000 feet,) with Melum, 
the same height. One place all ice, the other all fields and habitations. 
Compare the crest of the Mana Pass (18,000 feet) with Maha Punt 
behind Kedarnath temple, the former a high road from Mana to Dapa, 
Toling, &c., the latter a place of death amongst “thick ribbed ice” for 
pilgrims at a short distance from the temple, height of temple (11,300 
feet) certainly at less than 15,000 feet. How very few villages are 
there found above 9,000 feet in any part of the Cis-Himalyan Moun- 
tains. How many towns and marts are there near the sources of the 
Sutlej, overhanging the ravine of that river, (calculated by Moorcroft 
and Webb to be 15,000 feet above the sea.) Dapa, Doompoo, Keoong- 
lung, Misser, &c. Tuklakote, East of the Manessurovur Lake, on the 
upper Gogra, is supposed to be at least 15,000 feet above the sea; and 
the Pergunnah of Prooang, of which it is the capital, is certainly 


* This is the only period at which the perpetual snow line can be discovered, 
that is, after the melting of winter snow, and the first falls of the Autumn. 

¢ This is quite conclusive of the higher elevation of snow on the Thibetan side ; as 
there are no inhabited plateaus at such an elevation on the south side, as far as we 
know.—Ep. 


ee ee a ae ee 


Correspondence. 387 


a more fertile tract than the Kuimaon, Pergunnans of Dharma and 
Becanse-Bhote, which must be crossed to reach it. These very Bhote 
Mehals which I have previously quoted as exemplifying the Northern 
phenomena, are, because lying South of the Passes, or Water's beds, 
from which rivers flow to the North, (though lying North of the Great 
Peaks) uninhabitable except for five months of the year. The places 
in Thibet above named, besides Gurtokh, Roodukh, &c., are inhabited 
throughout the year. 

8. But my illustrations are not required. I am only one witness, 
and that a very humble one. If you will open Montgomery Martin’s 
History of the British Colonies, vol. i, Asza, (my copy is the second 
edition,) pages 95 to 110, you will find an accurate account of the coun- 
try on both sides of the Himalya supported by authority, and the con- 
trast between the North and South side is particularly described. 
There, all the allusions are to Upper Kunawur and the country beyond 
it, (Capt. Hutton’s own Kunawur,) and not to Heoondes behind Kuma- 
on and Gurhwal,—so that Capt. Webb, and others are additional and 
independent authorities for the same kind of facts. The Kumaonees, too, 
are the more valuable authorities, as the highest peaks* of the survey- 
ed tract between the Kalee and Sutlej are situated in Kumaon, and our 
Passes at once take us into Thibet, and do not conduct us like those 
beyond Simla into an intermediate and peculiar tract like Kunawur. 
I also particularly request your attention to Royle’s Illustrations of Hi- 
malyan Botany, first ed. (1833,) vol. i. pp. 32 to 40; vol. ili. pp. xviii xix. 
XX. ; vol. xi. pp. XxX1 xxii. and xxiii. The Roman Numbers shew that the 
remarks are a part of the Introduction. The Arabic Numbers denote 
a part of the actual work; but the Index of any edition will be a suffi- 
cient guide. The mere reprint of Dr. Royle’s admirable observations 
would in fact be a sufficient reply to Capt. Hutton, (I would particular- 
ly request his attention to the account of Zinchin by the Gerards,) that 
is, always supposing that he and Capt. Jack are really attacking Webb, 
Herbert, &c., and do not confine their facts and remarks to Mounts 
Huttoo and Jacko in the Simla territory. 

I remain, My dear Sir, 
Your’s very faithfully, 


J. H. Barren. 
Camp. Kaleedoongee, Kumaon, Terrai, Dec. 9th 18438. 


* Nundidevi is 25,750 feet, and the rest in proportion. The Western Peaks 


rarely attain 21,500 feet, and the Passes do not exceed 16,000 feet, and are often 
lower. 


388 Correspondence. 


P. S.—The causes of the phenomena discussed in this letter, as also 
of those connected with the forests and general appearance of the 
hills in the Mountain Provinces (I mean in regard to Northern and 
Southern exposures,) ought to form the subject of another article, 
which, if you like, I will write, but these things have all been account- 
ed for by better men. 


Memoir of William Macture, Esq. By Dr. S. M. Morton. 
[From the Journal of the Academy of Sciences, Philadelphia. ] 

The most pleasing province of Biography is that which 
commemorates the sway of the affections. These, however, 
variously expressed, tend to the diffusion of Religion, of 
Virtue and of Knowledge, and consequently of Happiness. 
He who feeds the hungry, or soothes the sorrowful, or en- 
courages merit, or disseminates truth, justly claims the res- 
pect and gratitude of the age in which he lives, and conse- 
crates his name in the bosom of posterity. The benefactions 
of a liberal mind not only do good of themselves, but incite 
the same spirit in others; for who can behold the happy 
results of useful and benevolent enterprise, and not feel the 
godlike impulse to participate in and extent them ? 

The study of Natural History in this country, though late 
in attracting general attention, has expanded with surprising 
rapidity. Thirty years ago all our naturalists were embraced 
in a few cultivators of Botany and Mineralogy, while the 
other branches were comparatively unheeded and unknown. 
The vast field of inquiry was devoid of labourers, excepting 
here and there a solitary individual who pursued the se- 
questered paths of Science, filled with an enthusiasm of 
which the busy world knew nothing. How widely different 
is the scene which now presents itself to our view! Behold 
the multitude which throngs that once neglected arena, and 
mark the cheering results! We see the unbounded resources 
of the land brought forth to the light of day, and made to 
minister to the wants and the intelligence of humanity. Every 


Memoir of William Maclure. 389 


region is explored, every locality is anxiously searched for new 
objects of utility, or new sources of study and instruction. 

In connection with these gratifying facts, it will be reason- 
ably inquired, who were they who fostered the early infancy 
of Science in our country? Who were they who stood forth, 
unmindful of the sneer of ignorance and the frown of preju- 
dice, to unveil the fascinating truths of Nature ? 

Among the most zealous and efficient of these pioneers of 
discovery was William Maclure. 

This gentleman, the son of David and Ann Maclure, was 
born at Ayr in Scotland, in the year 1763; and he there 
received the primary part of his education under the charge 
of Mr. Douglas, an intelligent teacher, who was especially 
reputed for classical and mathematical attaimments. His 
pupil’s strong mind readily acquired the several branches of 
a liberal education ; but he has often remarked, that from 
childhood he was disposed to reject the learning of the 
schools for the simpler and more attractive truths of natural 
history. The active duties of life, however, soon engrossed 
his time and attention; and at the early age of nineteen 
years he visited the United States with a view to mercantile 
employment. He landed in the city of New York; and 
having made the requisite arrangements, returned without 
delay to London, where he commenced his career of com- 
mercial enterprise as a partner in the house of Miller, Hart 
& Co. He devoted himself to business with great assiduity, 
and speedily reaped a corresponding reward. In the year 
1796, he again visited America, in order to arrange some un- 
settled business of the parent establishment: but in 1803 we 
find him once more in England, not, however, as a merchant, 
but in the capacity of a public functionary ; for Mr. Maclure 
was at this time appointed a commissioner to settle the claims 
of American citizens on the government of France, for spo- 
liations committed during the revolution in that country. In 
this arduous and responsible trust, Mr. Maclure was associat- 


390 Memoir of William Maclure. 


ed with two colleagues, John Fenton Mercer and Cox Barnet, 
Ksqs.; and by the ability and diligence of this commission, 
the object of their appointment was accomplished to general 
satisfaction. 

During the few years which Mr. Maclure passed on the 
Continent in attention to these concerns, he took occasion to 
visit many parts of Europe for the purpose of collecting ob- 
jects in Natural History, and forwarding them to the United 
States—which from his boyhood had been to him the land of 
promise, and subsequently his adopted country. With this 
design he traversed the most interesting portions of the old 
world, from the Mediterranean Sea to the Baltic, and from 
the British Islands to Bohemia. Geology had become the 
engrossing study of his mind ; and he pursued it with an 
enthusiasm and success to which time, toil and distance pre- 
sented but temporary obstacles. 

Instructed by these researches, Mr. Maclure was prepar- 
ed, on his return to the United States, to commence a most 
important scientific enterprise, and one which he had long 
contemplated as the great object of his ambition, viz.: a 
Geological Survey of the United States. 

In this extraordinary undertaking we have a forcible 
example of what individual effort can accomplish, unsustain- 
ed by government patronage, and unassisted by collateral 
aids. At a time when scientific pursuits were little known 
and still less appreciated in this country, he commenced his 
herculean task. He went forth with his hammer in his hand 
and his wallet on his shoulder, pursuing his researches in 
every direction, often amid pathless tracts and dreary soli- 
tudes, until he had crossed and recrossed the Alleghany 
mountains no less than fifty times. He encountered all the 
privations of hunger, thirst, fatigue and exposure, month 
after month, and year after year, until his indomitable spirit 
had conquered every difficulty, and crowned his enterprise 


with success. 


. 


Memoir of William Maclure. 391 


Mr. Maclure’s observations were made in almost every 
state and territory in the Union, from the river St. Lawrence 
to the Gulf of Mexico; and the Memoir which embraced 
his accumulated facts, was at length submitted to the Ame- 
rican Philosophical Society, and printed in their Transactions 
for the year 1809.* 

Novel as this work was, and replete with important details, 
its author did not suspend his researches with its publica- 
tion, but resumed them on a yet more extended scale, in or- 
der to obtain additional materials, and test the correctness 
of his previous views. In after life he often recurred with 
pleasure to the incidents connected with this survey ; some 
of which, though vexatious at the time, were subsequently the 
theme of amusing anecdote. When travelling in some re- 
mote districts, the unlettered inhabitants seeing him engaged 
in breaking the rocks with his hammer, supposed him to be 
a lunatic who had escaped from confinement; and on one 
occasion, as he drew near a public house, the inmates, 
being informed of his approach, took refuge in-doors, and 
closing the entrance held a parley from the windows, until 
they were at length convinced that the stranger could be 
safely admitted. 

Incidents of this kind, and many others which occurred 
to him, appear to have influenced the following remarks in 
the Preface to his Geology: ‘‘ All inquiry into the nature 
and properties of rocks, or the relative situation they oc- 
cupy on the surface of the earth, has been much neglected. 
It is only ‘since a few years that it has been thought worth 
the attention of either the learned or unlearned; and even 
now a great proportion of both treat such investigations 
with contempt, as beneath their notice. Why mankind 
should have so long neglected to acquire knowledge so use- 


* This memoir is entitled, ‘‘ Observations on the Geology of the United States, 
explanatory of a Geological Map.’ It was read January 2U, 1809, and is published 
in the sixth volume of the Society’s Transactions. 


Oo 8 


- 


392 Memoir of William Maclure. 


ful to the progress of civilization—why the substances over 
which they have been daily stumbling, and without whose 
aid they could not exercise any one art or profession, should 
be the last to occupy their attention—is one of those pro- 
blems perhaps only to be solved by an analysis of the na- 
ture and origin of the power of the few over the many.” 

Notwithstanding that Mr. Maclure thus felt himself almost 
alone in his pursuits in this country, he did not relax his 
ardour in the cause of science, but continued to extend and 
complete his Geological survey ; which, after receiving his 
final revisions, was again presented to the Philosophical 
Society on the 16th of May, 1817, eight years after their 
reception of the original draft. The amended memoir was 
now republished, both in the Society’s Transactions and in 
a separate volume, accompanied by a coloured map and sec- 
tions ; and while it placed its author among the first of liv- 
ing Geologists, excited a thirst for inquiry and comparison 
which has continued to extend its influence over every sec- 
tion of our country. 

It is not proposed, in this place, to analyze this valuable 
contribution to American Science. It may be sufficient to 
remark, that every one conversant with Geology is surprised 
at the number and accuracy of Mr. Maclure’s observations ; 
for the many surveys which have been recently conducted 
in almost every State in the Union, have only tended to con- 
firm his correctness as to the extent and relative position of 
the leading Geological formations of this country ; while the 
genius and industry which could accomplish so much, must 
command the lasting respect and admiration of those who 
can appreciate the triumphs of Science. In the evening of 
his days Mr. Maclure beheld with unmixed pleasure, the 
progress of Geology in his adopted country: he saw State 
after State directing Geological surveys under the supervi- 
sion of zealous and able naturalists: he rejoiced to observe 
how their observations hamonized with his own; and it was 


Memoir of William Maclure. 393 


among his most pleasing reflections, as age and infirmity 
drew near, that he had once trodden almost solitary and un- 
heeded, that path which is now thronged with votaries of 
science and aspirants for honour. 

In truth, what among temporal considerations is more re- 
markable and gratifying than the progress which has been 
made in elucidating the Geology of this country during the 
past thirty years? So extended a field, so many obstacles, 
and so little patronage, seemed at first view to present in- 
superable difficulties; and it was feared, and not without 
reason, that while every part of Europe was explored under 
the patronage of national governments, the vast natural re- 
sources of this country would long remain unsearched and 
unimproved ; not for the want of zeal and talent, but from a 
deficiency of that encouragement which is necessary to great 
and persevering exertion. Happily, however, the day of 
doubt has passed ; and our State governments now vie with 
each other in revealing those buried treasures which mi- 
nister so largely to the wealth, the comfort and the intelli- 
gence of man.* 

The time which Mr. Maclure allotted to repose from his 
Geological pursuits was chiefly passed in Philadelphia ; 
where he watched the rise of a young but promising institu- 
tion, devoted exclusively to Natural History, and numbering 
among its members whatever our city then possessed of 
scientific taste and talent. This institution was the Acade- 
my of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia; and as its history, 
from this period, is inseparably connected. with the life of 
Mr. Maclure, let us pause and inquire into its origin and 
progress. 

The Academy was founded in January, 1812, at which 
period a few gentlemen, at first but seven in number, resolv- 


* We hope a day may yet arrive when this example will not be lost, as it has 
been hitherto, upon the Government of India.—Ep. 


394 Memoir of William Macture. 


ed to meet once in every week for the purpose of conversing 
on scientific subjects, and thus communicating to each other 
the results of their reading, observation and reflection. 

Although Mr. Maclure was absent from the city at the 
initiatory meeting, he had no sooner returned than his name 
was enrolled on the list of members; and from that hour, 
and with this circumstance, the prosperity of the institution 
commenced. Arrangements were soon after entered into 
for the delivery of courses of lectures, chiefly on Chemistry 
and Botany; and the library and museum were at once re- 
plenished with books and specimens from Mr. Maclure’s 
European collections. 

On the 30th of December, 1817, Mr. Maclure was elected 
President of the Academy; to which office of confidence 
and honour he was annually re-elected up to the time of his 
death, a period of more than twenty-two years. 

Under his auspices the Journal of the Academy (which 
now numbers eight octavo volumes) was commenced with. 
energy and talent; and such was his interest in its progress, 
that a considerable portion of the first volume was printed 
in an apartment of his own house. 

Among the most ardent of Mr. Maclure’s colleagues at 
this time was Mr. Thomas Say, a gentleman who united in 
a remarkable degree the love of science and the social vir- 
tues. Enthusiastic in his favourite studies, and possessed 
of a singular tact for detecting the varied relations of orga- 
nized beings, he early attracted the notice and secured the 
esteem of Mr. Maclure; and the friendship which thus grew 
up between them, continued unaltered by time or circum- 
stance to the end of life. How much the Academy and the 
cause of Natural History owe to the united efforts of these 
gentlemen, I need not declare; for not only here, but wher- 
ever their favourite pursuits are loved and cultivated, their 
names will be inseparably interwoven with the records and 
the honours of science. 


Memoir of William Maclure. 395 


During the year 1817 Mr. Maclure chiefly occupied him- 
self in the publication of his Geoldgy in a separate volume. 
after which he devoted himself with assiduity to the interests 
of the Academy. Previous to the year 1819 he had already 
presented the institution with the larger part of the fine li- 
brary he had collected in Europe, embracing nearly fifteen 
hundred volumes; among which were six hundred quartos 
and one hundred and forty-six folios on Natural History, 
Antiquities, the Fine Arts, Voyages and Travels. ‘ The 
value of these acquisitions was greatly enhanced by the fact 
that they were possessed by no other institution on this side 
of the Atlantic. The Academy therefore derived from this 
source a prosperity and permanence which, under other cir- 
cumstances, must have been extremely slow and uncertain; 
while Science at the same time received an impulse which 
has never faltered, and which has been subsequently im- 
parted to every section of our country.”* 

In the winter of 1816-17 Mr. Maclure visited the West 
Indies, for the purpose of ascertaining, by personal observa- 
tion, the Geology of that chain of islands known as the An- 
tilles. With this view he visited and examined nearly twenty 
of these islands in the Carribean Sea, from Barbadoes to San- 
ta Cruz and St Thomas inclusive. He bestowed especial at-- 
tention on those portions of the series which are of volcanic 
origin, of which the Grenadines form the southern and Saba 
the northern end of the chain. The results of this voyage of 
observation, in which he was accompanied by his friend Mr. 
Lesueur, were submitted to the Academy on the 28th of Oc- 
tober 1817, and soon afterwards published in the Society’s 
Journal.+ 

In 1819 Mr. Maclure’s active mind was again directed 
to Europe. Embarking at New York he went direct to 
France, and not long afterwards to Spain. He was induced 


* Notice of the Academy of Natural Sciences, p. 13. 
+ Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences, vol. i. 


396 Memoir of William Maclure. 


to visit the latter country on account of the liberal constitu- 
tion promulgated by the Cortes, which promised a compara- 
tively free government to a country long oppressed by every 
species of bondage. His plan was to establish a great agri- 
cultural school, in which physical labour should be combined 
with moral and intellectual culture. His views were almost 
exclusively directed to the lower and consequently uneduca- 
ted classes, whom he hoped to elevate above the thraldom to 
which they had been subjected by the institutions of their 
country. He purchased of the government 10,000 acres of 
land near the city of Alicant ; and having repaired the build- 
ings, and placed the estate in complete order, he prepared 
to commence his scheme of practical benevolence. Scarce- 
ly, however, were these arrangements made when the Cons- 
titutional government was overthrown, and the old institu- 
tions, with all their abuses, were again imposed upon this 
unfortunate country. The property which Mr. Maclure had 
purchased from the Cortes had been confiscated from the 
Church ; and as the priesthood were now reinvested in their 
estates, they at once dispossessed him without ceremony or 
reimbursement. 

Disappointed and mortified by this adverse termination 
of his plans, Mr. Maclure abandoned them as hopeless, and 
prepared to return to the United States. Before doing so, 
however, he visited various parts of southern Spain with a 
view to scientific investigation. But even in this unoffend- 
ing employment he found himself surrounded by new dan- 
gers, which compelled him to relinquish much that he had 
proposed to accomplish in these researches ; and his feel- 
ings, and the causes which gave rise to them, are forcibly 
expressed in a letter to his friend Professor Silliman, dated 
Alicant, March 6, 1824. 

“1 have been much disappointed in being prevented 
from executing my Mineralogical excursions in Spain, by 
the bands of powerful robbers that have long infested the 


Memoir of Wiliam Maclure. 397 


astonishingly extended surface of uncultivated and inhos- 
pitable wilds in this naturally delightful country. Not that 
I require any money worth the robbing to supply me with 
all that I need—for the regimen which I adopt for the pro- 
motion of my health, demands nothing but water and a very 
small quantity of the most common food—but these bar- 
barians have adopted the Algerine system of taking you as 
a slave, to the mountains, where they exact a ransom of as 
many thousand dollars as they conceive the property you 
possess will enable you to pay.”’* 

On returning to the United States in 1824, Mr. Maclure 
was still intent on establishing an Agricultural School, a plan 
similar to that he had attempted in Spain. At this juncture 
the settlement at New Harmony, in Indiana, had been pur- 
chased by the eccentric author of the Social System ; and 
many intelligent persons, deceived by a plausible theory, went 
forth to join the Utopian colony ; and Mr. Maclure himself, 
willing to test the validity of a system which seemed to pro- 
mise something for human advantage, resolved to establish, 
in the same locality, his proposed Agricultural School. He 
did not, at the same time, adopt all the peculiar views of 
this fugitive community, to many of which, in fact, he was 
decidedly opposed ; but he consented to compromise a part 
of his own opinions in order to accomplish, in his own phrase, 
“the greatest good for the greatest number.” For this pur- 
pose he forwarded to New Harmony his private library, 
philosophical instruments and collections in Natural History, 
designing, by these and other means, to make that locality 
the centre of education in the West. That the Social 
scheme was speedily and entirely abortive, is a fact familiar 
to every one; but Mr. Maclure having purchased extensive 
tracts of land in the town and vicinity of New Harmony, 
continued to reside there for several years, in the hope of 
bringing his school into practical operation. 


* American Journal of Sciences, vol. viii, p. 187. 


098 Memoir of William Macelure. 


In leaving Philadelphia for New Harmony, Mr. Maclure 
induced several distinguished naturalists to bear him com- 
pany, as coadjutors in his educational designs; and among 
them were Mr. Say, Mr. Lesueur, Dr. Troost, and a few 
others who had already earned an enviable scientific repu- 
tation. 

For various reasons, which need not be discussed in this 
place, the School did not fulfil the expectations of its 
founder, who was at length constrained to relinquish it ; and 
the less reluctantly as the approach of age, and the increas- 
ing delicacy of his constitution, admonished him of the ne- 
cessity of seeking a more genial climate. We accordingly 
find him, in the autumn of 1827, embarking for Mexico in 
company with his friend Mr. Say. They passed the winter 
in that delightful country ; and employed their time in ob- 
serving and recording the various new facts in science which 
there presented themselves; and on the approach of sum- 
mer they returned to the United States. 

Mr. Maclure was so pleased with the climate of Mexico, 
and so solicitous to study the social and political institutions 
of that country, that he determined to return the same year ; 
and with this intent he visited Philadelphia, proceeded 
thence to New Haven, and presided for the last time at a 
meeting of the American Geological Society in that city on 
the 17th of November, 1828. Of this institution he had also 
long been President, and took an active interest in its pros- 
perity, which was strengthened by his regard for his friend 
Professor Silliman—a man whom we all esteem for his zeal- 
ous and successful exertions to advance the interests of Sci- 
ence, as well as for his extensive acquirements and his many 
virtues. On this occasion Mr. Maclure declared his inten- 
tion to bring back with him from Mexico a number of young 
native Indians, in order to have them educated in the Uni- 
ted States, and subsequently diffuse the benefits of instruc- 
tion among the people of their own race. This benevolent 


: 
| 
} 


Memoir of William Maclure. 399 


object, however, was not accomplished ; for in the ordering 
of Providence he did not live to return. 

From New Haven Mr. Maclure proceeded to New York, 
and embarked for Mexico. ‘Time and distance, however, 
could not estrange him from that solicitude which he had 
long cherished for the advancement of education in his adopt- 
ed country; and from his remote residence he kept a con- 
stant correspondence with his friends in the United States, 
among whom was the author of this memoir. 

Mr. Say* died in 1834, at New Harmony; and Mr. 
Maclure was thus deprived of one of his oldest and firmest 
friends. ‘The loss seemed for a time to render him waver- 
ing as to his future plans ; but convinced, on reflection, that 
his educational projects in the West could be no longer 
fostered or sustained, he resolved to transfer his library at 
New Harmony to the Academy of Natural Sciences. This 
rich donation was announced to the Society in the autumn 
of 1835; and Dr. Charles Pickering, who had been for seve- 
ral years librarian of the institution, was deputed to superin- 
tend the conveyance of the books to Philadelphia; a trust 
which was speedily and safely accomplished. 

This second library contained 2259 volumes, embracing, 
like the former one, works in every department of useful 
knowledge, but especially Natural History and the Fine Arts, 
together with an extensive series of maps and charts. 

Mr. Maclure’s liberality, however, was not confined 
to a single institution: the American Geological Society, 
established, as we have already mentioned, at New Haven, 


* Mr. Say was one of the founders of the Academy ; and among the last acts of 
life, he provided for the further utility of the institution by requesting that it should 
become the depository of his books and collections. This verbal bequest was hap- 
pily confided to one whose feelings and pursuits were congenial to his own; and 
the Academy is indebted to Mr. and Mrs. Say for some of its most valuable acquisi- 
tions. 

An interesting and eloquent Memoir of Mr. Say, was written by Dr. Benjamin 
Hornor Coates, and published under the auspices of the Academy in 1836. 


a Fr 


400 Memoir of Willtam Maclure. 


partook largely of his benefactions both in books and speci- 
mens; and in reference to these repeated contributions, 
Professor Silliman has expressed the following brief, but just 
and beautiful acknowledgment : ‘‘ This gentleman’s liberality 
to purposes of science and humanity has been too often and 
too munificently experienced in this country, to demand any 
eulogium from us. It is rare that affluence, liberality and 
the possession and love of science unite so signally in the 
same individual.”* 

Since the year 1826 the Academy had occupied an edifice 
in some respects well adapted to its objects; but the extent 
and value of the library, suggested to Mr. Maclure the ne- 
cessity of a fire-proof building. In order to accomplish this 
object he first transferred to the Society a claim on an unset- 
tled estate for the sum of five thousand dollars, which was 
followed in 1837 by a second donation of the same amount. 
Meanwhile, having matured the plan of the new Hall of the 
Academy, and having submitted his views to the members, 
he transmitted, in 1838, an additional subscription for ten 
thousand dollars. 

Thus sustained by the splendid liberality of their venerable 
President, the Society proceeded without delay in the erec- 
tion of the new Hall. The corner stone was laid at the 
corner of Broad and George streets, with due form, on the 
25th of May 1839; on which occasion an appropriate Ad- 
dress was delivered by Professor Johnson. The edifice thus 
auspiciously begun, was conducted without delay to comple- 
tion; so that the first meeting of the Society within its walls 
was held on the 7th day of February 1840. 

Mr. Maclure had fervently desired and fully expected to 
revisit Philadelphia ; but early in the year 1839 his constitu- 
tion suffered several severe shocks of disease, and from that 
period age and its varied infirmities grew rapidly upon him. 


* Amer. Jour. of Science, vol. iii, p. 362. 


Memoir of William Maclure. 401 


Under these circumstances he became more than ever soli- 
citous to return to the United States, to enjoy again the 
companionship of his family and friends, and to end his days 
in that land which had witnessed alike his prosperity and 
his munificence. 

He made repeated efforts to accomplish this last wish of 
his heart ; and finally arranged with his friend Dr. Burrough, 
then United States Consul at Vera Cruz, to meet him at 
Jalapa with a littera and bearers, in order to conduct him 
to the sea-coast. Dr. Burrough faithfully performed his 
part of the engagement ; but after waiting for some days at the 
appointed place of meeting, he received the melancholy in- 
telligence that Mr. Maclure, after having left Mexico and 
accomplished a few leagues of his journey, was compelled by 
illness and consequent exhaustion to relinquish his journey. 

Languid in body, and depressed and disappointed in 
mind, Mr. Maclure reluctantly retraced his steps ; but being 
unable to reach the capital, he was cordially received into 
the country-house of his friend Valentine Gomez Farias, Ex- 
President of Mexico, where he received all the attentions 
which hospitality could dictate. His feeble frame was capa- 
ble of but one subsequent effort, which enabled him to reach 
the villase of San Angel; where, growing weaker and 
weaker, and sensible of the approach of death, he yielded to 
the common lot of humanity on the 23d day of March, 1840, 
in the seventy-seventh year of his age. 

The death of Mr. Maclure was announced to the Academy 
on ‘Tuesday evening, the 28th of April, on which occasion the 
following Resolutions were unanimously adopted :— 

Resolved, 'Vhat the Academy has learned with deep con- 
cern, the decease, at San Angel, near the city of Mexico, of 
their venerable and respected President and benefactor, 
William Maclure, Esq. 

Resolved, 'That although his declining health induced him 
to reside for some years in a distant and more genial clime, 


402 Memoir of William Maclure. 


this Academy cherishes for Mr. Maclure the kindest per- 
sonal recollections, and a grateful sense of his contributions 
to the cause of Science. 

Resolved, 'That as the Pioneer of American Geology, the 
whole country owes to Mr. Maclure a debt of gratitude, and 
in his death will acknowledge the loss of one of the most 
efficient friends of Science and the Arts. 

Resolved, That as the patron of men of science, even more 
than for his personal researches, Mr. Maclure deserves the 
lasting regard of mankind. 

Resolved, That a member of the Academy be appointed 
to prepare and deliver a discourse commemorative of its 
lamented President. 

Resolved, That the Corresponding Secretary be requested 
to communicate to the family of Mr. Maclure a copy of these 
Resolutions. 

Mr. Maclure died before he had accomplished all his 
views in respect to this Institution ; for, looking forward, as 
he did, to renewed personal intercourse with its members, 
he intended to inquire for himself into the most available 
modes of extending its usefulness. This, as we have seen, 
was denied him ; but the spirit of Science which was inherent 
in him, has descended upon his brother and sister ; and to 
these estimable and enlightened individuals, we owe the 
consummation of all that their brother had proposed in re- 
ference to the Academy, which will be hereafter enabled to 
devote its resources exclusively to the advancement of those 
objects for which it was founded. 

Thus closed a life which had been devoted, with untir- 
ing energy and singular disinterestedness, to the attainment 
and diffusion of practical knowledge. No views of pecuniary 
advantage, or personal aggrandizement, entered into the 
motives by which he was governed. His educational plans, 
it is true, were repeatedly inoperative, not because he did 
too little, but because he expected more than could be 


Memoir of William Maclure. 403 


realized in the social institutions by which he was surround- 
ed. He aimed at reforming mankind by diverting their atten- 
tion from the mere pursuit of wealth and ambition, to the 
cultivation of the mind ; and espousing the hypothesis of the 
possible “ equality of education, property and power” among 
men, he laboured to counteract that love of superiority which 
appeared to him to cause half the miseries of our species. 
However fascinating these views are in theory, mankind are 
not yet prepared to reduce them to practice; and without 
entering into discussion in this place, we may venture to 
assert, that what Religion itself has not been able to accom- 
plish, Philosophy will attempt in vain. 

Mr. Maclure’s character habitually expressed itself with- 
out dissimulation or disguise. Educated in the old world 
almost to the period of manhood, and inflexibly averse to 
many of its established institutions, he was prone to indulge 
the opposite extremes of opinion, and became impatient of 
those usages which appeared to him to fetter the reason and 
embarrass the genius of man; and while he rejoiced in the 
republican system of his adopted country, he aimed at an 
intellectual exaltation which, to common observation at least, 
seems incompatible with the wants and impulses of our 
nature. 

Fully and justly imbued with the importance of dissemina- 
ting practical truth, he strove through its influence to bring 
the several classes of mankind more on a level with each 
other; not by invading the privileges of the rich, but by 
educating the poor; thus enforcing the sentiment that 
‘knowledge is power,” and that he who possesses it will 
seldom be the dupe of designing and arbitrary minds. With 
a similar motive he endeavoured to inculcate the elements of 
Political Economy, by the publication of epistolary essays in 
a familiar style, which have been embodied in two volumes 
with the title of Opinions on Various Subjects. They discover 
a bold and original mind, and a fondness for innovation 


404 Memoir of William Maclure. 


which occasionally expresses itself in a startling sentiment ; 
but however we may differ from him on various questions, it 
must be conceded that his views of financial operations 
were remarkably correct, inasmuch as he predicted the 
existing pecuniary embarrassments of this country, at the 
very time when the great mass of observers looked forward 
to accumulating wealth and unexampled prosperity. 

Let it not be supposed that Mr. Maclure’s benevolent 
efforts were restricted to those extended schemes of useful- 
ness to which we have so often adverted. Far, very far 
from it. His individual and more private benefactions, 
were such as became his affluent resources, influenced by a 
generous spirit. He habitually extended his patronage to 
genius, and his cordial support to those plans which, in his 
view, were adapted to the common interests of humanity. 
There are few cabinets of Natural History in our country, 
public or private, that have not been augmented from his 
stores; and several scientific publications of an expensive 
character, have been sustained to completion by his instru- 
mentality. While in Europe he purchased the copper-plate 
illustrations of some important works both in Science and 
Art, with the intention of having them republished at home 
in a cheaper form, in order to render them accessible to all 
classes of learners. Among these works was Michaux’s 
Sylva, which is now going through the press in conformity 
to his wishes. 

He was singularly mild and unostentatious in his manner ; 
and though a man of strong feelings, he seldom allowed his 
temper to triumph over his judgment. Cautious in his in- 
timacies, and firm in his friendships, time and circumstance 
in no degree weakened the affections of his earlier years. 
Though affable and communicative, Mr. Maclure was very 
much of an isolated man during the last thirty years of his 
life; partly owing to a naturally retiring disposition, partly 
to the peculiarity of some of his opinions, in respect to which, 


ii i 


Memoir of William Maclure. 405 


though unobtrusive, he was inflexible—but mainly to that 
frequent change of residence which is unfavourable to social 
fellowship. Hence it is that of the thousands who are 
familiar with his name in the annals of Science, comparatively 
few can speak of him from personal knowledge. 

In person he was above the middle stature, and of a natu- 
rally robust frame. His constitution was elastic, and capa- 
ble of much endurance of privation and fatigue, which he 
attributed chiefly to the undeviating simplicity of his diet. 
His head was large, his forehead high and expanded, his 
nose aquiline ; and his collective features were expressive of 
that undisturbed serenity of mind which was a conspicuous 
trait of his character. 

Those who knew him in early life, represent him to have 
been remarkable for personal endowments; a fact which 
is evident in the full-length portrait now in possession of his 
family, and which was painted upwards of forty years ago by 
the celebrated Northcote. ‘The lithographed likeness which 
accompanies this memoir, is copied from a portrait taken by 
Mr. Sully in 1824, at which period Mr. Maclure was about 
sixty-three years of age. 

Such was William Maclure, whose long, active and useful 
life is the subject of this brief and inadequate memorial. His 
remains are entombed in a distant land, and even there the 
spirit of affection is raising a tablet to his memory. But his 
greater and more enduring monument, is the edifice within 
whose walls we are now met to recount and perpetuate his 
virtues. Wherever we turn our eyes we behold the proofs 
of his talent, his zeal, his munificence. We see an Institu- 
tion which, under his fostering care, has already attained the 
manhood of Science, and is destined to connect his name 
with those beautiful truths which formed the engrossing 
subject of his thoughts. We see around us the collections 
that were made with his own hands, vastly augmented, it is 
true, by the zeal of those who have been stimulated by his 


406 Memoir of William Maclure. 


example. Here are the books which he read—to him the 
fountains of pleasure and instruction. Here has he con- 
centrated the works of Nature, the sources of knowledge, 
the incentives to study ; and, actuated by his liberal spirit, 
we open our doors to all inquiring minds, and invite them to 
participate, with us, in these invaluable acquisitions ; and 
while we regard them as a trust to be transmitted unblemish- 
ed to posterity, let us honour the name and cherish the 
memory of the man from whom we derived them. 


Death of Mr. Loupon. 


On the 14th of Dec. 1843, died, at his house at Bayswater, John 
Claudius Loudon, Esq., who, for nearly half a century, has been before 
the public as a writer of numerous useful and popular works on gar- 
dening, agriculture, and architecture. 

Mr. Loudon’s father was a farmer, residing in the neighbourhood of 
Edinburgh, where he was very highly respected; but Mr. Loudon 
was born on April 8th, 1783, at Cambuslang, in Lanarkshire, where his 
mother’s only sister resided, herself the mother of the Rev. Dr. Claudius 
Buchanan, afterwards celebrated for his philanthropic labours in India. 
Dr. Buchanan was several years older than Mr. Loudon, but there was 
a singular coincidence in many points of their history. The two sisters 
were, in both cases, left windows at an early age, with large families, 
which were brought up by the exertions of the eldest sons ; and both 
mothers had the happiness of seeing their eldest sons become celebra- 
ted. Mr. Loudon was brought up as a landscape-gardener, and began 
to practise in 1803, when he came to England with numerous letters of 
introduction to some of the first landed proprietors in the kingdom, 
He afterwards took a large farm in Oxfordshire, where he resided in 
1809. Inthe years 1813-14-15, he made the tour of Northern Europe, 
traversing Sweden, Russia, Poland, and Austria; in 1819 he travelled 
through Italy; and in 1828 through France and Germany. 

Mr. Loudon’s career as an author began in 1803, when he was only 
twenty years old, and it continued with very little interruption during 
the space of forty years, being only concluded by his death. The first 
works he published were the following :— Observations on laying out Pub- 
lic Squares, in 1803, and on Plantations, in 1804; a Treatise on Hothouses, 
in 1805, and on Country Residences, in 1806, both 4to.; Hints on the For- 


lots > er | > 4 -6 ew eee 


Death of Mr. Loudon. 407 


mation of Gardens, in 1812; and three works on Hol-houses, in 1817 and 
1818. In 1822 appeared the first edition of the Encyclopedia of .Garden- 
ing ; a work remarkable for the immense mass of useful matter which 
it contained, and for the then unusual circumstance of a great quantity 
of woodcuts being mingled with the text : this book obtained an extraor- 
dinary sale, and fully established his fame as an author. Soon after 
was published an anonymous work, written either partly or entirely by 
Mr. Loudon, called the Greenhouse Companion ; and shortly afterwards 
Observations on laying out Farms, in folio, with his name. In 1824, a se- 
cond edition of the Encyclopedia of Gardening was published, with very. 
great alterations and improvements ; and the following year appeared 
the first edition of the Encyclopedia of Agriculture. In 1526, the Garden- 
er’s Magazine was commenced, being the first periodical ever devoted 
exclusively to horticultural subjects. The Magazine of Natural History, 
also the first of its kind, was begun in 1828. Mr. Loudon was now oc- 
cupied in the preparation of the Encyclopedia of Plants, which was pub- 
lished early in 1829, and was speedily followed by the Hortus Britanni- 
cus. In 1830, a second and nearly re-written edition of the Encyclope- 
dia of Agriculture was published, and this was followed by an entirely re- 
written edition of the Encyclopedia of Gardening, in 1831; and the 
Encyclopedia of Cottage, Farm, and Villa Architecture, the first he pub- 
lished on his own account, in 1832. This last work was one of the 
most successful, because it was one of the most useful, he ever wrote, 
and it is likely long to continue a standard book on the subjects of which 
it treats. Mr. Loudon now began to prepare his great and ruinous 
work, the Arboretum Britannicum, the anxieties attendant on which 
were, undoubtedly, the primary cause of that decay of constitution 
which terminated in his death. This was not, however, completed till 
1838, and in the mean time he began the Architectural Magazine, the 
first periodical devoted exclusively to architecture. The labour he un- 
derwent at this time was almost incredible. He had four periodicals, 
viz. the Gardener’s, Natural History, and Architectural Magazines, and 
the Arboretum Britannicum, which was published in monthly numbers, 
going on at the same time; and, to produce these at the proper times, 
he literally worked night and day. Immediately on the conclusion of 
the Arboretum Britannicum, he began the Suburban Gardener, which was 
also published in 1838, as was the Hortus Lignosus Londinensis ; and in 
1839 appeared his edition of Repton’s Landscape-Gardening. In 1840, 
he accepted the editorship of the Gardener’s Gazette, which he retained 
till November, 1841 ; and in 1842 he published his Encyclopedia of Trees 
and Shrubs. In the same year he completed his Suburban Horticulturist ; 


ats 


408 Death of Mr. Loudon. 


and finally, in 1848, he published his work on Cemeteries, the last se- 
parate work he ever wrote. In this list, many minor productions of 
Mr. Loudon’s pen have necessarily been omitted; but it may be men- 
tioned, that he contributed to the Encyclopedia Britannica and Brande’s 
Dictionary of Science ; and that he published numerous supplements, 
from time to time, to his various works. 

No man, perhaps, has ever written so much, under such adverse cir- 
cumstances as Mr. Loudon. Many years ago, when he came first to 
England (in 1803), he had a severe attack of inflammatory rheumatism, 
which disabled him for two years, and ended in an anchylosed knee and 
a contracted left arm. In the year 1820, whilst compiling the Encyclo- 
pedia of Gardening, he had another severe attack of rheumatism ; and 
the following year, being recommended to go to Brighton to get sham- 
pooed in Mahommed’s Baths, his right arm was there broken near the 
shoulder, and it never properly united. Notwithstanding this, he con- 
tinued to write with his right hand till 1825, when the arm was broken 
a second time, and he was then obliged to have it amputated ; but not 
before a general breaking up of the frame had commenced, and the 
thumb and two fingers of the left hand had been rendered useless. 
He afterwards suffered frequently from ill health, till his constitution 
was finally undermined by the anxiety attending on that most costly 
and laborious of all his works, the Arboretum Britannicum, which has un- 
fortunately not yet paid itself. He died at last of disease of the lungs, 
after suffering severely about three months ; and he retained all the 
clearness and energy of his mind to the last. 

His labours as a landscape-gardener are too numerous to be detailed 
here, but that which he always considered as the most important, was 
the laying out of the Arboretum so nobly presented by Joseph Strutt, 
Esq., to the town of Derby. 

Never, perhaps, did any man possess more energy and determination 
than Mr. Loudon; whatever he began he pursued with enthusiasm, 
and carried out, notwithstanding obstacles that would have discouraged 
any ordinary person. He was a warm friend, and most kind and affec- 
tionate in all his relations of son, husband, father, and brother; and 
he never hesitated to sacrifice pecuniary considerations to what he con- 
sidered his duty. That he was always most anxious to promote the 
welfare of gardeners, the volumes of this Magazine bear ample witness ; 
and he laboured not only to improve their professional knowledge, and 
to increase their temporal comforts, but to raise their moral and in- 
tellectual character. 


409 


Observations on Organic Chemistry and its relations to Physiology. By 
Justus Liesic, M.D., Pu.D. 


[Professor Liebig has requested us to state that his remarks upon 
physiologists and pathologists in this paper are intended to apply to 
those of Germany, and not to the physiologists and pathologists of this 
country. The criticisms upon his works which have appeared in Eng- 
land, at least such of them as have reached him, do not appear to re- 
quire any animadversions on his part. But since the reviews of Schulz, 
Henle, and others have been recently reprinted in the English journals, 
Professor Liebig has thought proper to republish his answer to them in 
Tue Lancer, in order to enable the English readers of those articles to 
form ajust opinion of their true value. If there be any passage in Pro- 
fessor Liebig’s reply not very agreeable to the taste of his adversaries, 
they must remember that there has been much in their attacks not very 
palatable to him, and, moreover, that he was not the aggressor, but he 
was compelled, in the interest of science, to stand upon his own de- 
fence. | Lancet, Jan. 1844. 

The appearance of my work on ‘Chemistry, in its applications to 
Agriculture and Physiology,” gave rise to criticisms from men from 
whom I should rather have expected aid in my endeavours to advance 
the science than opposition, characterised by intemperance and passion, 
rather than by candour and that liberal spirit which ought to guide us 
in our judgment on the labours of others. Many of these attacks were 
direeted against persons whose friendship I value most highly, rather 
than against myself personally, or my book, and I, therefore, felt it my 
duty to defend my views, and to refute the objections advanced, in the 
manner they deserved. It was a different matter with respect to the ob- 
jections made, and the difficulties involved in my statements, pointed 
out by Schleiden and Mohl; in them, under rather a repulsive husk, I 
could discern the true kernel of the love of science; I have, therefore, 
not replied to their writings, because instead of entering with them up- 
on a mere war of words, I hoped to reconcile these gentlemen by my ac- 
tions, convinced that we should at lengh agree. Those parts of my 
works which were opposed to their better experience, and which they 
particularly objected to, I have altogether left out of my 5th edition 
(8d English); other points, concerning the correctness of which I was 
too well assured to doubt, from any assertion of theirs, I retained, al- 
though these also might have been omitted without affecting the real 
value of the work. 


410 Observations on Organic Chemistry 


The corrections which their remarks suggested were apart from the 
main purpose of my labours, and I have nothing to regret, save that 
the difference in the direction of our inquiries has deprived me of an 
opportunity of expressing how highly I appreciate the results of their 
great and comprehensive labours in vegetable physiology. In such ho- 
nest and energetic endeavours as theirs for the advancement of science, 
there is so much devotedness and self-sacrifice, that even the merited 
approbation of an individual, although of no great value in comparison 
with the appreciation of the public, may, nevertheless, not be altogether 
unwelcome. 

The publication of my ‘“‘ Animal Chemistry” placed me in the same 
awkward position with many physiologists. Schulz, Henle, and others 
appear to derive gratification in detaching sentences of my writings from 
their connection, and making them the object of severe criticism, by 
which the true relation of chemistry to physiology were made much 
more manifest to me than before. Such mistakes, either involuntary or 
intentional, | could not have supposed possible. I had really thought 
that the ordinary studies of the physiologist and the physician would 
enable them to form, at least, some judgment respecting the questions 
which I discussed. But from the attacks and objections which were made 
to my views I could immediately perceive that they emanated from per- 
sons who had never occupied themselves with physics or chemistry, and 
who were altogether unacquainted with the principles and true spirit of 
these sciences. This induced me to make very light of such opposition ; 
I could confidently leave the decision to the future. 

The ranks of my opponents, however, have been strengthened by,the 
accession of an individual upon whose approbation and applause I was 
accustomed to reckon for many years, and who, by his great experience 
and labours, has acquired a well-founded right to pronounce a judgment 
upon questions connected with these sciences. i 

Immediately after the appearance of my first work on Agricultural 
Chemistry, Berzelius communicated to me, by letter, many objections 
to my views, and declared to me openly, and without reserve, how lit- 
tle his own experience agreed with my observations. ‘These objections 
induced me to submit all the points at issue between us again to the 
test of a strict and minute examination, the results of which only tend- 
ed to strengthen my conviction of the truth of my first impressions, and 
determined me to persevere in the direction I had taken. 

I thought I had succeeded in removing all his doubts in the course of 
our correspondence, and I, therefore, was very much astonished to find 
all his objections re-appear in his “ Twenty-first Annual Report of the 


in its Relations to Physiology. 411 


Progress of Chemistry.” This proceeding was continued in his subse- 
quent Annual Reports, and appeared at length so completely at va- 
riance with his former principles that I thought it my duty to call his at- 
tention to its injustice. I desired him to consider that our long stand- 
ing and intimate friendship forbade me to repel his attacks in the man- 
ner they deserved, and that I therefore stood defenceless. 

All this was unavailing; there was a chasm between us which no 
longer admitted of being filled up, and it is only after having suffered 
the most insulting and injurious attacks, that I perceive (to quote Ber- 
zelius’s own words) “ that it would be a misfortune to science to permit 
its interests to be set aside for friendship’s sake.” (Ann. Rep., 23, 
p- 576.) 

In the Twenty-third Annual Report, Berzelius lays aside all modera- 
tion, and the same hostile disposition towards me is manifested in the 
new edition of his Manual ; and he has been induced to express opinions 
upon my labours in inorganic chemistry which are totally unfounded 
and inexcusable. 

Under these circumstances nothing remains for me save to expose, in 
all simplicity and candour, the relation in which Berzelius stands to the 
present state of organic chemistry. And when, in this exposition, I 
speak of physiologists and pathologists, and the bearings of chemistry 
on physiology, I must remind my readers that I allude to individuals, 
or to their intellectual tendencies, whose names I dco not mention, 
because ere long they will cease to have any interest in connection with 
the matter, and, in fact, they do not at all belong to the subject in 
dispute. 

During the last four years, since Berzelius has ceased to take any 
part in experimental investigations of the questions now arising in the 
science, his whole mental powers have been.directed to theoretical spe- 
culations. But unsupported by his own experiments, his views have 
found no response in science. As long as he pursued experiments, and 
confined his inferences to them, the results he obtained were safe and 
trust-worthy guides in the field of science, but a new domain, foreign to 
him, has since been cultivated with success; phenomena have been ob- 
served, contradictory to views formerly held, and inexplicable upon 
principles derived from the acquisitions of science at that time. This has 
led to new modes of explaining the phenomena observed, irresistible to 
all those who have been themselves experimentally engaged in their in- 
vestigation ; and it is the contest of the former with the latter,—the 
necessary consequences of the progress of the science,—upon which 
Berzelius has entered in the spirit of a partisan, a contest the final 


412 Observations on Organic Chemistry 


result of which it is not difficult to foresee. When Berzelius first enter- 
ed upon his career many hypotheses prevailed which he did not hesitate 
to combat in the interest of science ; he went further, and history shows 
with what success he substituted; by his indefatigable investigations, 
better theories in their place. It is in the very nature of science that 
many of his views should meet with the same fate ; more correct theo- 
ries, notions nearer to truth, must at length replace them, and it is thus 
only that the truth, which is the aim and object of our researches, will 
at length be attained. 

To combat these more modern views with reasons derived from obser- 
vations made long since, and without deigning to enter anew upon per- 
sonal investigations as to their truth, has been the way taken by Ber- 
zelius of late, a way which obviously cannot lead him to his object. 

Every author of a long and laborious investigation has an undoubt- 

ed right to draw his own inferences as to the nature and composition of 
the bodies he discovers, to assign to them a name, and to express them 
by formulz, what part has Berzelius taken in these investigations? Has 
he shown the incorrectness of these formule by new experiments? Has 
he proved the fallacy of the inferences and conclusions by placing them 
in opposition to the results of his own experience? Nothing of the kind. 
Why, and for what reason, then, does he alter the formule of the chloric 
ether compounds of Malaguti, of the napthaline compounds of Laurent, 
of the benzoyl compounds, and the products of uric acid, with an arbi- 
trariness hitherto unexampled? Why does he admit into the composition 
of these substances compounds which either do not at all exist, or to say 
the least, the existence of which is very doubtful? Has not his fixing the 
formule of cerebrote, cephalote, stearoconote, the formation of piotic, 
hypopiotic, and piotinigic acids, shown how little was gained thereby, and 
to what errors want of personal experience in this department led him. 

None of those chemists whose labours Berzelius thought were thus im- 
proved adopted his views, and therefore an irreparable breach could not 
fail to ensue between them. Never, under any circumstances, would 
Berzelius have endured this kind of tyranny from others ; he would have 
repudiated it with all his might; and that this has not yet been done 
to him by other chemists arises simply from the high esteem in which 
he is held for his immeasurable labours. 

Abandoning himself to this course, which would, in former times, have 
been so utterly repugnant to him, he constructed, from an isolated in- 
stance of the atomic theory, “ that equal constitution does not neces- 
sarily produce equal properties,” the special theory of isomerie sub- 
stances, and this led him to the invention of the catalytic force. 


in its Relations to Physiology. 413 


The power of platinum to facilitate the combination of gaseous sub- 
- stances,—that of yeast to resolve sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid,— 
that of sulphuric acid to resolve alcohol into ether and water,—differ 
from the ordinary phenomena of affinity, as those, for instance, which 
accompany the combustion of charcoal in oxygen gas, or the combina- 
tion of sulphuric acid with potass. They were, at that time at least, or, 
according to the notions of Berzelius, inexplicable phenomena. Now, 
how did he facilitate our inquiries into these phenomena? Against all the 
rules of rational inquiry, against all logic, he considered these proper- 
ties of sulphuric acid, of platinum, and of yeast, not as the effects 
of different causes, which was apparent to every one else, in such vari- 
ous substances, but ascribed all these different effects to one and the 
same cause, and this a new and unknown cause. He indeed, admits it 
to be unknown, but he treats it, in discussing unexplained phenomena, 
as a force with the properties of which we are perfectly acquainted. 

If any one will take the trouble to place in the following passages, 
quoted from Berzelius, instead of the words catalytic force, the true 
meaning of the words, namely, the unknown cause of phenomena not fur- 
ther investigated, it will be seen how little has been gained by the 
assumption of the catalytic force. It will, also, at once be evident that 
with its admission all further inquiry into the true causes will be at an 
end. 

To us it appeared, from the very outset, to be nothing better than 
phlogiston resuscitated. 

“If, with this idea, we turn to the chemical processes in living na- 
ture, a new light breaks in upon us. When nature has placed diastate 
in the eyes of potatoes, this leads us to the way in which the insoluble 
starch becomes converted by the catalytic force into gum and sugar ; but 
it does not follow therefrom that this catalytic process is the only one 
in vegetable life; we on the contrary, are led to assume that in living 
plants and animals thousands of catalytic processes take place between 
the tissues and the fluids,”—Berzelius, 15th Annual Report, p. 244. 

** Mitscherlich has shown that the catalytic force of sulphuric acid: 
becomes increased by concentration and elevation of temperature.” — 
15th Ann. Rep., p. 352. 

“Since a catalytic operation by contact is admitted (and this is at 
present an undoubted fact), it is impossible to say where it does not take 
place in chemical processes.” —20th Ann. Rep., p. 455. 

Certainly no one could consider it a crime in me that I did not deem 
these views admissible, and that, following my own convictidn, I declar- 
ed it to be a mistake to make our symbolic language an expression for 


414 Observations on Organic Chemistry 


changeable theoretical notions,—for the theory of volumes, for instance. 
And when instead of the obscure notion concerning the saturating pow- 
er of the acids which then prevailed, I endeavoured to give a better one, 
according to my own apprehensions, and when I attempted to apply an 
indisputable axiom of mechanics to the phenomena of combination and 
decomposition, in what respect did I justly incur reproach? Upon phe- 
nomena imperfectly studied before I commenced, and upon new obser- 
vations, I have based and established the theory of putrefaction and 
decay ; I have shown that humus cannot be the source of the carbon of 
vegetables ; 1 have, in the course of my investigations into the trans- 
formations which nitrogenous substances undergo in the presence of 
water and air, found ammonia to be the ultimate and only source of 
nitrogen in plants; and I have determined the necessity of the alkalies, 
the alkaline earths, and the phosphates, to vegetable life, which was so 
long disregarded by chemists and mistaken by physiologists. 

What connection is there between these views, which are opposed to 
those of Berzelius, and my other labours? Why does my method of 
purifying antimony no longer, according to his account, yield antimo- 
ny free from arsenic? Why is my method of preparing cyanide of po- 
tassium fraught with difficulties now, and no longer to be considered an 
improvement? Why does my separation of nickel from cobalt now 
exist only upon paper? Why does Berzilius incessantly warn us, in 
physiological investigations, not to go beyond his labours of thirty years 
since? Shall we then continue to consider blood corpuscules as globulin, 
and caseine as soluble in water ?—albumen as an acid and a base? Or 
to assume a dozen substances as constituents of the bile, when our in- 
vestigations have proved these things to be otherwise ? 

Shall we continue to bruise the liver and kidneys in a mortar in or- 
der to obtain a knowledge of their composition and vital functions? Of 
what avail have all these labours proved to physiology? Their results 
drag heavily along, in the Manuats, a cumbrous and useless burthen ; 
they introduced totally fallacious methods of investigation into chemical 
physiology, ‘and created that aversion and nausea with which physiolo- 
gists have regarded chemistry. What light could such investigations, 
made after the example of Fourcroy and Vauquelin, throw upon the 
mysterious processes of organic life? What advantage could possibly be 
derived from all these figures which were unconnected with questions 
of fact, from investigations made without any definite object, and con- 
ducted without method? Whilst, with the analysis of a silicate, the 


ultimate problem of the analyst was solved, the mere production of the — 


animal constituents, and their analysis must be considered only as the 


in its Relations to Physiology. 415 


beginning of the task of the chemist. I felt it right to reject all such re- 
sults, and to urge incessantly upon chemists that figures are of no use 
whatever unless connected with definite questions ; that these methods 
could prove of no avail to physiology ; and that our labours, to be of 
any value, must be available as preparatory to those of physiologists. 

I had an undoubted right to do this, as much as a man who perceives 
his fellow-travellers are pursuing a wrong road has to warn them to re- 
trace their steps, more especially as one who has devoted his life to the 
improvement of this department of science. Must I remind Berzelius 
what has been done during the last twenty years in the chemical school 
at Giessen? He has been living all this time, and ought not to forget it 
so easily, even should it be forgotten by a younger generation. 

I fear not to speak of my own labours, from hippuric acid to my re- 
cent investigation of urine, nor to mention those which I have made in 
common with Wohler. I must remind Berzelius that, from the very 
outset of my career, all my efforts have been directed to the attainment 
of a definite object. I feel almost ashamed to recall to Berzelius’ mind 
how much has sprung from my endeavours, and to remind him of the 
advantages that have been derived from my methods, and from the in- 
troduction and adoption of my apparatus. But I may be allowed to 
quote a passage from a paper on some nitrogen compounds, published 
ten years ago (Annalen der Chemie and Pharm., Bd. x., s. 3), since this 
will tend to render my object and purpose more clear and intelligible to 
him and also to my readers. 

‘‘Our insight into the mysterious processes of the animal organism 
will acquire a very different import if, instead of resting satisfied with 
decomposing the substances occurring in the various organs, into nu- 
merous other combinations, the properties cf which teach us nothing, 
we follow their alterations and transformations, step by step, through 
elementary analysis, without heeding (for the moment) their properties ; 
whilst in this manner, we arrive from one link to the other, we indubi- 
tably approach the point more and more from which the chain pro- 
ceeds; infinitely distant though this point may be, yet we approach it. 

‘We know that the oxygen of the atmosphere stands in a definite 
relation to the blood in the respiratory process ; we can show the alter- 
ations which the air undergoes, and observe the phenomena taking 
place in the lungs; but if the science of chemistry does not succeed in 
following up in the animal body all the alterations which take place 
in the organs, and in the substances acting upon the organs, and oper- 
ated upon by them in return, and in obtaining an insight into these 
alterations, itis not worth while to occupy ourselves with them. So 

oH 


416 Observations on Organic Chemistry 


much I consider as certain, that the way which has been hitherto pur- 
sued fritters away our energies without producing any real advantage.” 

If this expression of my sentiments at that time be compared with 
my former or subsequent labours, and be taken in connection with the 
mass of valuable investigations, conducted by talented and skilful 
young chemists, at my instigation and under my observation,—investi- 
gations which embrace every constituent of the animal and vegetable 
kindoms, and form a great part of all we know thereof—every one, 
whether favourable or opposed to my views, will confess that all these 
labours have a common centre—that they are links of one and the same 
chain. The labours of Demarcay, on the nature of bile; the important 
investigations of fatty substances by Redtenbacher, Bromeis, Varentrapp, 
Meyer; of the constituents of blood and milk, by Jul. Vogel, Scherer, 
Jones, Rochleder, and of so many others,—what purpose can reason- 
ably be assigned to them, except the practical confirmation of those prin- 
ciples upon which I proceeded at the very outset of my career, and 
which I developed ten years ago in the clearest manner possible, and to 
which I adhere now with the same conviction as formerly. 

If my object had not been the attainment of truth, but merely the ac- 
quisition of some specious aud futile arguments, I might, with regard to 
the investigation of the nature and constitution of bile, have rested sa- 
tisfied with Demarcay’s figures; but I subsequently induced Kemp to un- 
dertake the same investigation, and after him Theyer and Schloser. These 
latter gentlemen, after a laborious investigation, which lasted for years, 
arrived at last at a knowledge of the true nature and constitution of 
bile, and were enabled to prove that the composition of the bile is not 
perpetually changing, as was previously supposed, and therefore that 
the gall-bladder is not like a common sewer, into which all the waste 
matters of the body indiscriminately flow. In this manner every indivi- 
dual fact was treated, and all its points fully ascertained and determined. 

And now, after eighteen years of incessant labour, and after the ap- 
plication of the intellectual energies of so many individuals, when I ven- 
ture to sum up our results, and to deduce such inferences and conclusions 
as legitimately flow from them, there comes a man—my friend—of the 
highest authority in science, and dares to brand the intellectual expres- 
sion of all these labours as a mere play of fancy! He calls our results 
‘‘ probability-theories,” and this simply, and for no better reason, than 
because we take the heart for a pressure and suction-pump, in the sense 
as the eye, for instance, is compared to a camera obscura,—because, 
by a mere error of the press, it is stated in my work, in one single place, 
that the urine is secreted from venous blood,—because we believe arte- 


in its Relations to Physiology. 417 


rial blood passes through the kidneys and venous blood through the 
liver, and all this proves to him that the author has not sufficiently 
studied the principles of the science upon which he writes.* 

Even admitting that these views are grossly erroneous, was their 
establishment the object of the author’s labours? When he endeavoured 
to ascertain the composition of bile, of urea, of uric acid, of blood, and 
the organic tissues, and to discover their relations to the aliments and 
secretions, was it not perfectly indifferent, as far as his immediate 
object was concerned, whether the urine is secreted from venous or 
_ from arterial blood? and whether the heart is a force and suction-pump, 
or not? 

When the chemist maintains that the blood is not formed from 
starch and sugar; that the bile is not to be found in the feces, but is 
eliminated from the organism in a gaseous form; when he develops his 
theories that those remedies, which are products of organic life, take a 
share in the processes in the animal organism, similar to that which we 
positively know is taken by all the vegetable nutritive matters ; when 
he further asserts that uric acid and urea are products of the transmu- 
tation of matter, and are not directly derived from the aliments; when 
he points out a close connection between nutriment, loss of heat, and 
consumption of energy; ought all these assertions, after the labours 
which have preceded them, and whereon they are founded, to be styled 
‘‘ probability-theories,” ‘ fantastic notions ?” must all the investigations 
made during the last thirty years be deemed to have produced no re- 
sult whatever capable of any useful application ? 

Must I, then, remind my opponents what notions prevailed, even so 
late as four years ago, on the nutrition of plants? Must I remind them 
of the fact, that the result of the last investigations of Boussingault, 
with regard to the advantages of the rotation of crops, consisted in his 
ascribing them to the destruction of weeds, and that the cereals receive 
their nitrogen from the manure, whilst the leguminous plants derive 
part of it from the atmosphere? How many proofs of the correctness of 
the principles laid down by me, could I not place in Berzelius’ hands, 
obtained from the most intelligent, the most clear-headed farmers of 
England and Germany, who have had occasion to test and verify their 
correctness, in a simpler and safer method of cultivation—an infinite 


* “ Thus we have seen it stated in chemico-physiological works that the heart is a pressure 
as well as asuction-pump; that the urine is secreted from venous blood; that arterial blood, 
before it returns to the lungs, passes through the kidneys, whilst venous blood passes through 
the liver, &c, This proves sufficiently that the author had not thoroughly studied the principles 
of the science on which he wrote.”—(Berzelius, Twenty-third Annual Report, p. 573.) 


418 Observations on Organic Chemistry 


saving of labour and money, and in the more abundant crops of their 
fields. 

Had a physician, who began his studies forty years ago, and who has 
not followed during all this time the discoveries made and the experi- 
ence attained, started these objections, I should not have stooped to 
notice it. But do the analyses of feces and urine, the first contribu- 
tions to physiology which Berzelius made,—contributions which give 
us about as much information on the origin of feces and urine as 
we might have derived from an analysis of garnet,—do these give Ber- 
zelius a right to style the results of our labours ‘“ probability-theories,” 
because we connect other questions with them, and endeavour to derive 
from them certain useful applications. 

I fully, and with pleasure, acknowledge the value which his invari- 
ably exact and conscientious labours have had in their time, and which 
they still possess, since they prepared the way for our present know- 
ledge, and since without them we should have been obliged to go through 
the same laborious investigations. But is it impossible to over-estimate 
the labours of Berzelius? Is the field of scientific inquiry to be limited 
by the results of his investigations? Far from it. No such dominion as 
that exercised by Aristotle can now be conceded to any man. Nature 
still offers illimitable mines for us to explore, and shall he whose la- 
bours are rewarded with great discoveries feel no enthusiasm and ex- 
press no gratification at his success? 

For my own part, I confess that I felt my whole nervous system thril- 
ling, as if pervaded by an electric current, when Wohler and myself 
discovered that uric acid and all its products, by a simple supply of 
oxygen, became resolved into carbonic acid and urea, thus showing that 
there existed a connection between urea and uric acid, such as had ne- 
ver before been dreamed of, in its infinite simplicity, —when our calcula- 
tion proved that allantoin, the nitrogenous constituent of the urine of 
the feetus of the cow, contains the elements of uric acid and urea, and 
when we succeeded in producing allantoin, with all its properties, from 
uric acid. Though few words passed between us whilst engaged in 
these investigations, how often have I seen the eyes of my friend glis- 
tening with delight! I felt the same thrilling sensation when, during 
my investigation of Melam, and whilst following up the ultimate pro- 
ducts of cyanogen,—the most simple of all organic radicals,—I found 
that the atoms, instead of resolving themselves into more and more sim- 
ple atoms, and finally into elementary atoms, re-arranged themselves 
into far more complex groups than cyanogen ; and when, upon investi- 
gating the sulphureous and nitrogenous constituents of plants, I found 


in its Relations to Physiology. 419 


with every new analysis my presentiment realised that they are all 
identical in constitution with the blood. All these facts spoke to me 
in a language which I believe I rightly understood, for I had taken the 
greatest pains fully to comprehend the exact meaning and signification 
of the words: ought I, then, to be ceusured for venturing upon the at- 
tempt to render their meaning as clear and intelligible to others,—to 
communicate to others the ideas these words seemed to convey to me? 

The most difficult part of my task unquestionably was, that I had to 
address a public unskilled and inexperienced in the language of the 
phenomena; the physiologists and pathologists to whose pursuits my 
labours appertained did not understand the method of interpretation 
familiar to chemists, nor did they even know the meaning of the indi- 
vidual words. Thus, the Englishman who is but imperfectly acquaint- 
ed with German, reproaches even our best translations of Shakspeare, 
with weakness, want of life and vigour, as compared with the original ; 
thus, too, the German who reads for the first time a French translation 
of one of Schiller’s poems, finds the version feeble and unmeaning ; 
now, the real reason of this is, that those who judge thus, are ignorant 
of the real meaning and import of the words used in the foreign version, 
ignorant of what constitutes exactly equivalent expressions in both lan- 
guages. A good French version of Schiller produes the same effect 
upon the mind of a Frenchman as the original does upon that of a 
German. To be able to judge what difference from the original may 
really be laid to the charge of the translator, a very correct and perfect 
knowledge of both languages is indispensable. * 

This is the relation in which many physiologists stand to the chemist, 
with regard to the consideration and solution of physiological questions. 
Everything which the chemist considers as unquestionable premises 
whence he may safely deduce conclusions appears weak and doubtful 
to the physiologist. 

Their own inability to understand and appreciate the value of the 
reasons advanced, makes them believe that these reasons constitute a 
defective proof. Chemistry cannot be of any use to such persons in 
their inquiries,—from a fear of being unscientific they sacrifice the true 
logic of science,—the highest scientific theories become to them the gross- 
est nonsense. 

It is far easier to come to an understanding with the strictest mathe- 
matician than with such physiologists. The mathematician is kind 
enough to permit us to infer from two known quantities a third, or 
from three known quantities a fourth unknown one; the physiologist 
can permit nothing of the sort. 


420 Observations on Organic Chemisiry 


When the chemist places a calculation before the physiologist the 
latter asks him for his proofs; he is not satisfied with these, but he re- 
quires him to prove these proofs, and then to prove the proofs of the 
proofs! The chemist says, ‘‘I know the weight of a certain amount 
of tobacco, and the weight of the ashes remaining upon its incineration ; 
I know also, therefore, the amount of what has gone off in the smoke.” 
“Prove it!’ exclaims the physiologist. Ifthe chemist had weighed the 
smoke, disregarding altogether the weight of the tobacco and of the 
ashes, the physiologist would have considered the result far more correct, 
so strangely perverted are some people’s intellects. 

The Grand Duke of Hesse provides his soldiers with two pounds of 
bread per diem; the King of Prussia and the Emperor of Austria pro- 
vide their soldiers with the same amount. Now, soldiers do not live upon 
bread alone, they partake of other aliments besides, and of all these 
aliments there remains nothing in the economy, nothing is permanent 
in the organism, except the bones. With military scrupulousness the 
sergeant major weighs all their other aliments down to pepper, salt, and 
vinegar; all these aliments, bread included, are examined as to their 
amount of carbon; the quantity of the faeces evacuated is determined, 
and so is the amount of carbon they contain. Thus we know the 
amount of carbon supplied by the aliments as well as of that elimi- 
nated by the feces. Now, it has been positively ascertained that the 
carbon which enters the organism through the mouth has, besides the 
feeces, no other channel or exit except in the urine, and through the 
skin and the lungs; ahd, moreover, that the carbon is eliminated, in 
the form of carbonic acid, by the skin and the lungs; and that urea and 
water mean nothing else than carbonic acid and ammonia. We may, 
therefore, by a very simple calculation, deduce the unknown quantity 
from the two known quantities, and assert that an adult healthy indi- 
vidual, who is drilled during four hours every day, and has, at the 
same time, to carry a heavy burthen, burns in his organism about thir- 
teen ounces and a half of carbon per diem. 

This conclusion is as true as the assertion of the mechanician who, 
by the experiments made on a body of 100,000 soldiers, has ascertained 
that, on an average, a healthy full-grown man cannot carry above thirty 
pounds for eight hours consecutively without injury to his health. 
The statistician does not proceed upon the principle of the physiolo- 
gist, who considers this conclusion erroneous because, forsooth, some 
feeble individual is not able to carry more than ten pounds, or because 
some strong person, whom he knows, can carry fifty or a hundred 
pounds. 


in tts Relations to Physiology. 421 


Thus it has been ascertained that the average duration of human 
life is thirty and some years, and yet it is precisely at the age of thirty 
that the smallest proportion of individuals die. All these figures come 
as near to truth as it is possible to arrive; they are, therefore, consi- 
dered as really and exactly correct, and serve as the basis of calculation 
for the terms of tontines and life-assurances, or for fixing the weight 
of the arms and baggage a soldier may bear. 

The strictly scientific physiologist is not satisfied with this; observa- 
tions taken from nature on this scale do not convince him. Regardless 
whether an individual or an animal has partaken previously of a repast 
or not, without troubling himself whether with a full or an empty sto- 
mach, he shuts him up in a cage and determines the amount of oxygen 
which he inhales, and the quantity of carbonic acid which he exhales. 
Instead of weighing the tobacco and its asheg, he weighs the smoke! 
as if the sources of error were not a thousand times more obvious and 
considerable in this method than in the former! But supposing even 
this determination were exactly correct, what information does it afford 
him? Neither more nor less than the amount of what an individual, 
shut up in such a cage, inhales and exhales under certain circumstances, 
not very minutely examined, and which do not, at any rate, correspond 
with the normal state. But it does not inform him how much carbon 
this individual consumes in twenty-fours hours. If the experimentalist 
had given a bottle of good wine to the individual in the cage, or if the 
latter had taken a copious draught of cod-liver oil previously to enter- 
ing into the cage, very different proportions would undoubtedly have 
resulted. 

One of my friends has, for 212 days, taken two ounces of cod-liver oil 
per diem, or a sum total of thirty-five pounds and a quarter, during that 
period, without increasing in weight; his feces, upon examination, 
have been found to contain no trace of the oil. Now, if from this we 
infer that these thirty-five pounds and a quarter have been eliminated 
by the skin and the lungs, having served for the support of the respir- 
atory process, what can be rationally objected to such a conclusion ? 
This individual, from the moment he began to take liver-oil, could no 
longer drink wine, precisely because both these substances mutually 
prevent their elimination in the normal way, that is, in the form of oxygen 
compounds. But still the physiologist is unsatisfied, and repeats his 
“Prove it!” When I show him that the amount of carbon which a 
full-grown individual, in a state of free motion and labour, consumes, 
accounts sufficiently for the evolution of heat in his organism, he 
replies, “ This proves nothing, for we do not even know what heat is ; 


422 Observations on Organic Chemistry 


we can produce heat by rubbing together two pieces of wood, or of 
metal; there may be unknown sources of heat in the organism.” As 
if I had intended to prove the nature of heat! or as if it were worth 
while to enquire for unknown causes when the known ones give us a 
satisfactory and perfect explanation! What are unknown causes but 
the offspring of the imagination, the issue and manifestation of weak- 
ness, when the real causes of phenomena lie beyond the sphere of our 
apprehension. 

Is the animal body a piece of wood or of metal, and can the same 
cause which produces heat by friction exist in the organism? Andis 
it not altogether apart from the question to mix up the production of 
electricity in fishes with the enquiry into the production of animal 
heat? The natural philosopher knows, with positive certainty, that 
the electric currents in fishes are not the cause of their temperature; if 
they were so, these animals would not be able to produce electric effects. 

When Volta constructed his admirable pile, he thought he had 
succeeded in making his apparatus similar in all points to the organs 
upon the existence of which, in the gymnotus and torpedo, the power 
of these animals to produce electricity depends. Is it in accordance 
with the logic of science to consider electricity to be the cause of 
phenomena and effects in organisms where no such apparatus can be 
found? When we have positively, and beyond the admission of a 
doubt, ascertained that nature herself, in order to produce electric cur- 
rents, employs apparatus precisely similar to those which the philoso- 
pher employs for the same purpose, is it possible to deduce any other 
conclusion from this fact than that wherever we perceive electric effects 
in the organism they originate in the same manner as the electric cur- 
rent in the battery ? 

All the objections against my views which have hitherto come to my 
knowledge are precisely similar in their character to this reference 
of all the phenomena of heat to electricity. Berzelius says (23rd Annu- 
al Report, page 383),—‘‘ When, in consequence of a violent mental emo- 
tion, the feet of an individual acquires a temperature far below the nor- 
mal temperature, while the forehead of the person thus affected feels 
heated far beyond the normal temperature, must it not be obvious to 
any reflecting mind that the mutual action between the constituents of 
the aliments and oxygen cannot be said here to be the cause that the evolu- 
tion of heat increases in one place and diminishes in another.” 

What can be said to such an objection as this, except that Berzelius 
has not understood what I intended to prove; that he has altogether 
misconceived my object ? 


in its Relations to Physiology. 423 


I can determine, with the most positive certainty, the amount of 
alcohol necessary to heat a given amount of water or of iron and to 
maintain it at this temperature for a certain definite time ; now, if in a 
stove or furnace altogether inaccessible to me, but provided with an 
aperture for the reception of the fuel, and another for the exit of the 
products formed by the combustion of this fuel, I find that these pro- 
ducts consist of carbonic acid, water, and ammonia, and that the con- 
version of the fuel into these compounds depends upon a constant 
supply of atmospheric oxygen, can I rationally and logically ascribe 
the higher temperature which I perceive in this stove or furnace to any 
other cause than that which I see producing the same effect in an 
accessible furnace? Are my conclusions to be deemed fallacious because 
they do not explain the manner in which heat propagates itself in the 
water, or in the iron, or in the inaccessible stove, é.¢., in the organism ? 
I never intended to explain from what cause, or in what manner, the 
head becomes heated when the feet grow cold, although it is quite in 
accordance with my views that heat should accumulate in one place 
when its diffusion in other parts is impeded. 

I know an individual whose head grows cold as ice when his mind is 
affected by any strong emotion, while his feet, at the same time, be- 
come glowing hot, but I do not think myself justified on that account 
to place the seat of the evolution of heat in the lower extremities.* 

Questions relating to the distribution of heat in the animal body, and 
innumerable others relative to the processes and actions of the constitu- 
ent parts of living organisms, we may properly anticipate will be an- 
swered hereafter—time only is required for the solution of many un- 
solved problems. What is chiefly needed at present is the determination 
of principles, the settlement of methods for the pursuit of investigations. 
So long as physiologists and pathologists (the latter are the more 


* Thus I read in a work on physiology, published some time ago, a very insulting commen- 
tary on the following sentence in my ‘‘ Chemistry applied to Physiolgy and Pathology :’—“ The 
only known and wltimate cause of the vital activity in the animal organism is a chemical pro- 
cess.” The words only and ultimate were in italics, as they are here, but the preceding and 
succeeding sentences were altogether omitted. The former sentence says,—‘‘ We recognise in 
the animal organism only one cause as the ultimate cause of all production of energy, and this 
is the mutual action which the constituents of the aliments and the oxygen of the air exercise 
upon each other.” The succceding sentence continues,—‘‘ If we exclude the chemical pro- 
cess, that is, the air and water, in the germination of seeds, or the air in the respiration of 
animals, the manifestations of life take place no longer, or they cease to be perceptible.” 
What I intended to say here must be obvious to every one; I might indeed, have underlined 
the word known, and might perhaps, have substituted condition for cause. But who would 
have thought, after reading my book through, that any one could be in doubt with regard to 
my views respecting the cause of the vital phenomena? 


424 Observations on Organic Chemistry 


chargeable with the error) refuse to adopt the methods of physics and 
chemistry—methods which have been pursued with such signal success 
in these sciences—so long as they are unable to discriminate between 
useful and useless experiments, and rest satisfied with the weighing of 
smoke, it is impossible that they should make any real progress. 

Why do these physiologists and pathologists reject our science? By 
abandoning the Aristotlean method, that of the phlogiston theorists, 
namely, converting effects into causes, Chemistry has, during the last 
fifty years, progressed with gigantic strides towards comprehending all 
the natural phenomena within its domain. This science is at present 
in a rapid course of development, especially in its organic department ; 
it is endeavouring to advance from the simple facts already ascertained 
—its known data—to the investigation and apprehension of the more 
complex and more intricate phenomena which still remain mysteries to 
us. It has already made us familiar with the effects and actions of forces 
upon all the inorganic matters in nature, and it is now employed in seek- 
ing to ascertain and define the exact share which those forces take in the 
vital processes, the limit of their sway in the living organism, and thus 
to distinguish and separate the chemical actions from the operations 
of the ultimate cause of vital phenomena—from the effects of life itself. 

Chemistry, in its bearings upon, and application to medicine and 
physiology, may be considered as a microscope, adapted to facilitate 
observations and investigations into the mysteries of nature, and to 
render the phenomena observed more intelligible to the intellectual eye, 
and more susceptible of useful applications. 

To comprehend the living organism entirely and satisfactorily we 
must be acquainted with everything occurring within it. But how can 
we read and understand a book if we are acquainted with only half the 
letters of the language in which it is written, and but few of the rules 
by which the construction of the language is governed. The letters 
and the rules necessary to be known for the comprehension of this 
volume of nature have been the object of the most laborious resear- 
ches of the most sagacious and best experienced men for a thousand 
years. These researches have proved unavailing, the end is not yet at- 
tained, because a wrong road was taken, and the means employed were 
not adapted to the objectin view. A right direction, correct means, ju- 
dicious and well considered methods, were formerly altogether wanting. 

Medicine and physiology are, like other sciences, in a continual state 
of progress; enormous labours, the expenditure of incalculable ener- 
gies, have elevated these sciences to that high degree of development 
which they have attained, to the exalted ground they now occupy. 


in its Relations to Physiology. 425 


The questions upon which everything at present hinges are these: 
Are the methods of inquiry and research hitherto in use for the appre- 
hension of the mysterious processes of life incapable of improvement? 
Are not these methods rather antiquated and worn out? Are they 
really able to put us in possession of the results we covet? Can we 
rationally expect that they will yet furnish us with solutions of the 
many problems still remaining with respect to the functions of the 
most important organs in the animal economy? Will they ever teach 
us the nature of inflammation or of fever? 

No one who looks attentively at the progress of medicine during the 
last hundred years, can fail of being convinced, that while there has 
always existed a most earnest desire for a clearer insight into the vital 
processes, and a more accurate knowledge of the causes exercising a 
disturbing influence upon them; that while abundant energies have 
been directed toward the attainment of the highest aim of the science, 
there has hitherto been an hiatus which it is necessary should be filled 
up, a connecting link to the disjointed observations, and which must of 
necessity be supplied ere a more extensive and profound knowledge of 
the mysteries of organic nature can be attainable. The information we 
are in quest of is, what are the other forces of nature which co-operate 
with the vital principle in producing and sustaining the manifestations 
of life, the processes continually going on in all living organisms? 

The inability to distinguish, and separate from each other, various 
effects in complex phenomena, render it impossible to refer each es- 
pecial effect to its true cause. Hence the brilliant discoveries of com- 
parative anatomy and physiology, which have enriched these sciences 
more in the course of a few decades of years than the labours of a thou- 
sand years previously, have exercised but a slight influence upon 
medicine. 

All great pathologists, all the more intelligent physiologists, have from 
the beginning clearly and distincly recognised chemistry as the great 
desideratum—the needed link—and they have attempted the solution of 
the several problems presented them with such scanty and insufficient 
means as chemistry afforded in its infancy, and in the various stages of 
its development. Paracelsus, Van Helmont, and Sylvius—chiefs in 
their age—attempted to apply the experience of chemistry to medi- 
cine, they referred all the physiological, pathological, and therapeutical 
knowledge which they possessed to chemical principles. But they re- 
garded the fluids of the animal body exclusively, they bestowed the 
suffrage, in physiological and pathological questions, to them, to the 
entire disregard of the solid parts of the organism, and all the changes 


426 Observations on Organic Chemisiry 


they witnessed and effects they studied were referred to the chemical 
operations of the animal fluids. But the definitions of acid, alkali, and 
fermentation, upon which they relied, and which they had borrowed 
from chemistry, failed, and these terms gradually acquired a very dif- 
ferent signification. 

The first principle of medical chemistry, namely, to take experience 
and experiment alone as the foundation and touchstone of theory, was 
altogether lost sight of in the explanation of vital phenomena, just be- 
cause true experience—the real science of chemistry—could not keep 
pace with the progress of physiology and anatomy. 

Thomas Willis, by giving an effectual impulse to the development of 
anatomy, prepared the overthrow of iatro-chemistry. Henceforth the 
solid parts of the body were more carefully and particularly studied, 
and the functions of the various organs, and every step in the progress 
of advancement made more and more evident the insufficiency of iatro- 
chemistry. ‘The result was an estrangement and separation of medicine 
from chemistry. But never, not even during the prevalence of the 
theory of phlogiston, were chemical investigations and principles con- 
sidered as non-essential to the apprehension of pathological and the- 
rapeutical phenomena. With a truly scientific spirit Boerhaave assert- 
ed the necessity of chemistry to medicine, pointed out their true rela- 
tions, and exposed the folly of the iatro-chemists, and the vanity of 
alchemy. 

Galileo, Kepler, Torricelli, and Lord Bacon, deposited in its grave the 
Aristotlean method of considering and explaining natural phenomena, so 
far as regarded its employment in natural philosophy, but they were 
unable to exercise any influence upon the theory of medicine, because 
chemistry itself, the foundation-stone of medicine, being threatened at 
that time in its own existence and independence as a science, found 
protection—a point of reliance and support, in the philosophical method 
of Aristotle. 

The hypothesis of phlogiston, and the part it performed in natural 
phenomena, was, in fact, nothing more nor less than the union and in- 
corporation of certain effects observed in nature, just in the same man- 
ner as the designation of other elements, air, water, earth, were incor- 
porations of the conceptions of gaseous fluid and solid states of matter, 
and, at a later period, sulphur and mercury were general expressions 
of inflammability and metallic qualities. 

The existence of phlogiston once assumed, the evolution of light and 
heat in combustion, and the alterations which substances undergo in 
chemical processes, were explained in the most satisfactory manner. 


in its Relations to Physiology. 427 


It was the phlogiston latent in bodies which was supposed to acquire 
motion, and to escape by the action of heat, and it was deemed perfect- 
ly rational to conclude that the properties of bodies must depend upon 
a certain proportion of phlogiston, salt, and earth, and that the 
metals should owe to phlogiston their hardness, their ductility, and 
their lustre. All was consistently enough explained. The existence of 
phlogiston seemed beyond a doubt, no one thought of attempting to 
prove it by any special argument. For were there no phlogiston there 
would have been no explanation of the phenomena. No phenomenon 
would have been explicable without phlogiston, all would have been 
darkness and doubt. 

The advantage which the hypothesis of phlogiston presented at that 
time was that it kept together the ascertained facts and led to discoveries, 
as it served as a guide and stimulus to the search for new facts. The 
benefits of such an hypothesis are obvious enough ; and yet, after all, 
it was nothing more than a mere description of phenomena—a word 
which embraced the effects of many causes, and which word was taken and 
considered as the ultimate cause itself. 

At length the period arrived when this word lost its use and significa- 
tion, when the better and more correct knowledge, the offspring of 
phlogiston, devoured its parent. The more minute and comprehensive 
study of heat, in specific and radiated caloric, the more exact determina- 
tion of the individual letters composing the word phlogiston, led to the pre- 
sent state of chemistry, and the method arising from the study has led 
to the more profound and correct apprehension of chemical processes, 
and the causes by which chemical phenomena are produced, the intro- 
duction of which into physiology, pathology, and therapeutics, is the 
great desideratum of the present time. 

The method of the phlogistic philosophers reached its climax in natural 
philosophy, and with this blossom the plant died, the leaves thereof faded, 
and the stem mouldered! The true fruit of it was the irresistible con- 
viction which was forced upon every thinking and reasoning mind that no 
enduring results could be obtained by its means. New and better me- 
thods of investigation took its place, and herewith the essential condi- 
tion was reached of a real and sound progress. Who does not recognise 
in the ‘vital principle’ of the physiologists the old phlogiston theory 
dressed up and disguised in medical rags? As soon as you deprive 
them of this convenient phantasm all their explanations vanish into 
thin air! The simple search fot phlogiston created a new science in 


chemistry ; the search after the “ vital principle” is preparing a new era 
in the medical sciences. 


428 Observations on Organic Chemistry. 


All that belongs to the phenomena of motion, to the form of the organs, 
their formation and development, the processes of absorption and secre- 
tion, have been ascertained by physiologists and anatomists, with a 
sagacity and with an expenditure of labour which must excite the great- 
est admiration. But the greater is the contrast when we compare 
therewith their explanation of the most simple chemical processes. 

Chemistry inquires for the causes of fermentation, putrefaction, and 
decay, processes of gradual resolution of the higher order of atoms into 
the more and more simple, and finally into the original forms of these 
atoms, by the combination of which the most complex atom was form- 
ed. Chemistry here meets, in its way, with physiology, which attempts 
to solve the same problem by its own peculiar method. The physio- 
logist discovers in fermenting fluids formations similar to the lower 
species of plants ; he finds in putrefying matters a world of animalcule; 
without entering upon any further inquiries, he assumes the mere con- 
comitants of these processes to be their real causes. But is not this 
precisely analogous to the old phlogiston hypothesis? According to 
the physiologist, fermentation and putrefaction are effected by the de- 
velopment of fungi and infusorial animalcule. But does this assump- 
tion render the process itself a whit the more intelligible? If the spores 
of fungi had generally the property of inducing fermentation in fluids, 
such a view would have some foundation, but such a property has not 
hitherto been observed by any one, nor has any attempt been made to 
prove its existence. When chemistry proves that in many processes of 
fermentation and decay, the resolution of complex atoms into simpler 
ensues without the presence of vegetable or animal beings, it is certain- 
ly most reasonable to suppose that the presence of these creatures, in 
the few instances where they are found, is purely accidental. Ifthey were 
really the cause of the processes they ought to be found in all cases. 
I have elsewhere (Introductory Address, No. 10, Lancet, p. 395,) com- 
pared these notions with that of a child who attributes the flow of the 
Rhine to the water-mills at Mayence. 

If the fungus be the cause of the destruction of the oak tree, and the 
microscopic animal the cause of the putrefaction of the dead elephant, 
what then causes the putrefaction and decay of the fungi and the ani- 
malcule? They ferment and decay exactly in the same manner as the 
tree and the elephant; nothing remains of them but their non-volatile 
and earthy constituents. 

Is it conceivable that plants and animals should be the causes of such 
effects as fermentation and putrefaction; that is, the destroyers and 
annihilators of organic bodies, parts of plants and animals, when they 


an its Relations to Physiology. 429 


themselves, and their own constituents, are subject to the very same 
processes of decomposition ? 

The influences of atmospheric air, of the aliments, of motion and 
rest, of heat and cold, and of remedial agents upon the animal body, 
both in health and disease, have long been recognised, and yet, never- 
theless, phlogiston until very recently has, either openly or covertly 
been assumed, in all theories constructed to explain these influences, to 
enact the principal part. 

The existence of hydropathic institutions, those dens of covetous 
and rapacious gamblers, where the wretched invalid resorts to throw 
the dice for health and life; the rise and progress of the homeopathic 
system, which treats truth with scorn, and bids defiance to common 
sense, loudly proclaim the need which exists for the adoption of 
settled principles, definite methods of research, and a systematic ar- 
rangement to guarantee their attainment and retention. 

What are denominated by physiologists vital processes, embrace, 
besides the vis vite, the effects of many unascertained causes, the know- 
ledge of which is essential if we are desirous to advance to a real com- 
prehension of the ultimate cause of life, and which we must investigate 
in the phenomena which characterise the totality of life. 

This knowledge can only be atained by means of the most persever- 
ing and unwearied efforts and researches; the power, the means, the in- 
struments necessary to arrive at these results exist, and are in our pos- 
session. 

The only method by which we can succeed, however, is by endea- 
vouring to fix by numbers, measure, and weight, the apparently uncer- 
tain and ever variable phenomena. This is the method of Galileo and 
Bacon, the profound acuteness of its device, the precision of its results, 
the universal utility of its application, have been brilliantly manifested 
in the progress of chemistry. 

Twenty-five years ago chemistry began to be applied to the more 
minute investigation of the constituents of the vegetable and animal 
kingdoms; the results which have been obtained are expressed in num- 
bers, weight, and measure, after this method; we must now endeavour 
to introduce the application of numbers, weight, and measure, into phy- 
siology and medicine, to substitute them for mere unmeaning and 
empty sounds. The chemistry of the present day, in its proposed ap- 
plication to physiology and pathology, has none of the characteristics 
of iatro-chemistry. 

Itis not the true chemist who has endeavoured to apply to the animal 
organism, his notions derived from purely chemical processes, he has 


430 Observations on Organic Chemisiry 


not had the remotest intention of undertaking the explanation of any 
really vital phenomenon upon chemical principles. The only part 
which chemistry now and for the future can take in the explanation of 
the vital processes is limited to a more precise designation of the phe- 
nomena, and to the task of controlling the correctness of inferences, and 
ensuring the accuracy of all observations by number and weight. 

The term hydrogen, for example, designates for every body a sub- 
stance which is one of the constituents of water, but for the chemist the 
meaning of the term is far more comprehensive ; it embraces an aggre- 
gation of properties ; joined with other words, such as chlorine, oxygen, 
sulphur, nitrogen, &c., it presents to him a volume filled with thoughts 
and conceptions, and brings innumerable phenomena before his eye. 
The same may be said of a chemical formula, which is far more to the 
chemist than the expression of the results of an analysis; it renders 
intelligible to him the formation of the substance it designates, the 
products of its decomposition, together with the relations which it bears 
to other substances. Thus, by simply placing together the formule 
of alchol, of acetic acid, and of acetone, all the alterations and decom- 
positions which attended the formation of acetic acid become at once 
perceptible. Without this method of designating chemical compounds 
no just apprehension of them is possible. 

The physiologist, in his own way, has created for himself certain 
conceptions of bile, saliva, cerebral substance, albumen, uric acid, &c. in- 
cluding the physical properties of these substances, their colour, consis- 
tence, taste, &c., which he has ascertained, together with the relations 
he has observed them to bear to the organism and to its individual 
parts. But this physiological conception does not embrace all their pro- 
perties and relations. In the hands of the chemist these organic matters 
manifest innumerable peculiarities in their relation to other substances, 
such as the raptitude to form combinations, to undergo decompositions ; 
moreover, the knowledge of their elements, their invariable, composition, 
in short, all their chemical characters, belong to the word bile, albumen, 
&c., for the chemist. It must be perfectly obvious that the placing to- 
gether of the words in the physiological sense can give us no information 
of their true import, their chemical meaning must form a part of their 
definition, if we are to comprehend all the points connected with them. 

In the compound atoms of which the animal organism consists we 
observe the same fixed and immutable proportion as in inorganic nature. 
The laws of their chemical composition are as true for organic as for 
mineral substances. They ought not, and cannot, be disregarded by 
the true student of nature. 


in its Relations to Physiology. 431 


How strange it is that chemistry should have to fight a kind of battle 
in order to be permitted to render that assistance it can well afford to 
physiology, to extend and to augment, to make more precise and definite 
the significations of physiological terms and to correct the conception 
and definition of organic substances, their origin, properties, and re- 
lations! 

It canot be disputed that a simple substitution of the formula of caseine 
for the word caseine, of the formula of cellular substance for the word 
cell, of the formule of bile, uric acid, &c., renders at once intelligible 
a number of relations which, without the formule, would be im- 
perceptible, or, at least, in the greatest degree obscure. When the 
formula of caseine, compared with that of blood, tells us that caseine 
is identical in composition with the principal constituents of the blood, 
does not these bring us far nearer to the apprehension of its origin 
from the blood and its transformation into blood than we were before? 
A comparison of the formule of the constituents of the blood and of cel- 
lular substance points out to us how much oxygen must join, and how 
much carbon must separate from albumen or fibrine to convert these 
substances into cellular tissue ; and if urea and uric acid are products of 
the transformation of living tissues, and ultimately of blood, does not 
the formula of urea and that of uric acid afford us a perfectly exact 
measure for the quantity of organic substance which has undergone 
this transformation? The formule speak for themselves, but what 
they tell us no longer belongs to chemistry, it now becomes a part of 
physiology. 

I admit that the accurate determination of the composition and pro- 
portions of these bodies, and the assigning their numbers, appertains 
to the domain of chemistry, and may be called chemistry, but the ap- 
plication of the discoveries of organic chemistry to a more comprehen- 
sive and correct definition of the physiological conception, and to the 
more extensive apprehension of the properties, relations, and formations 
of these organic substances, belongs to chemistry only de nomine. 

The production of iron from its ores is a metallurgic process, but the 
application of iron after it is produced to the manufacture of needles 
and innumerable purposes in the arts belongs not to metallurgy. 

It is the same with respect to the methods of the chemist; it is only 
by mistake they are called exclusively chemical methods; they are 
methods in accordance with plain common sense and sound reason, and 
therefore are applicable everywhere and in all sciences. 

The mineralogist is no longer misled by the infinitely various forms 
under which calcareous spar is found in nature; he is now, by the dis- 

3.K 


432 Observations on Organic Chemistry 


coveries of science, enabled to recognise it under any form, and to refer 
them all to a common basis. 

It must be the same in disease, the morbific agent,—the medicinal 
substance, may produce in two individuals effects very unlike in their 
manifestation, and yet the effects themselves must be the same; the 


symptom invariably indicative of this effect being observed in two, three, . 


or four individuals, must be repeated in hundreds and thousands of in- 
stances. The symptoms in the aggregate, are, perhaps, never united 
in any individual, but if those present be correctly observed and rightly 
apprehended, it is impossible to mistake the causes of the disease, or to 
be in doubt as to the remedies required for its cure. 

By simply making use of the acquisitions of chemists, of the profound 
knowledge now obtained respecting chemical forces, by applying the 
infinitely more precise knowledge we now possess of organic substances, 
and by introducing new methods, physiology and pathology will arrive 
at fixed and immutable principles. The acquisitions of anatomy can 
only in this way be rendered capable of useful applications, and no 
power on earth can stay the progress of science in this direction, which 
every one must acknowledge is the fruit of progress,—the offspring of 
the present age. 

Ignorance will withdraw from science from the very moment in which 
it is compelled to verify conclusions by a well-regulated and consis- 
tent method of investigation, taking into account every condition of 
natural phenomena—every influence and contingency affecting the 
symptoms of disease. Even at the present moment physicians, by false 
interpretations of badly observed phenomena, lead each other astray 
and carry on interminable discussions and contentions about the most 
immaterial things. It was precisely the same with chemistry during 
its transition state, when the phlogistic theory was disproved. Every- 
thing was for the time unsettled, and every suggestion and hypothesis 
admitted; the old basis upon which the science rested was cast down, 
and the new one had not yet been established. All this is now altered ; 
the true groundwork of the science is firmly established; the so-called 
practical chemist no longer looks down upon what is called theory with 
a smile of compassion or contempt, as is still frequently the case in 
medicine. No chemist relies any longer upon his own individual ex- 
perience, in which he may be rivalled or surpassed by a clever peasant 
or shepherd. Formerly the chemist went to the soap-boiler, to the 
tanner, to the manufacturer, and artisan, whereas, at present, the soap- 
boiler, the tanner, the manufacturer, and artisan frequent our univer- 
sities, because they know that it 1s science alone which can furnish them 


in its Relations to Physiology. 433 


with the master-key—the magic spell—the “ open sesame” to unlock all 
the mysteries of their pursuits. 

Just as at the present day the influence which the application of 
chemistry will exercise upon the solution of physiological and patho- 
logical problems is, by many physicians, considered worthy only of 
ridicule, so formerly were the advantages derivable from chemistry to 
arts, manufactures, trades, and agriculture, when first indicated, only 
laughed at by those who were pleased to call themselves practical men. 

It has proved most injurious to science that so many individuals 
have made experiments without first obtaining any well-defined notion 
of the design or meaning of experiment. Such people have had the 
power and the will, but rarely have they proposed any definite object, 
any well-directed aim; they have employed a lever, but they have not 
ascertained the point upon which it turned. The reason that so many 
experiments have been made in vain, issimply and solely to be ascribed to 
the fact that comparatively few experimentalists have known how to 
observe natural phenomena, or understood the import of experimental 
research. It has been wholly overlooked by them that we do not by 
experiments examine nature; we do not study the phenomena them- 
selves through which nature is manifested to our senses, and experi- 
ments are only of value inasmuch as they teach us to discover the errors 
of our inferences and to rectify our false conclusions from observation. 
If we could climb up to the rainbow, and could maintain the floating 
yain-drops in their position until we had concluded our observations 
and arrived at a correct apprehension of the phenomena, we should not 
need experiments. But being unable to do this, the philosopher was 
compelled to have recourse to experiments, to turn and turn a plain. 
smooth, and then a triangular piece of glass for centuries, to measure 
and to calculate, ere he succeeded at last in apprehending the cause of 
the colours in the rainbow, their order and relations. 

How admirable is that method, which with such scanty means could 
lead to the attainment of conclusions so correct as to the nature of 
phenomena which seemed to lie far beyond our reach! How much 
more accessible are those phenomena which plants and animals present 
to usin their vital processes! How much easier is the investigation 
into the conditions essential to life; the research for causes of disease, 
states which present themselves daily and hourly to our senses. 

The animal body is as transparent as if made of glass to the intel- 
lectual eye of the physiologist. He knows definitely and positively 
the alterations which the air undergoes in the lungs, and yet, neverthe- 
less, he requires an infinite number of experiments, without the least 


434 Observations on Organic Chemistry 


value in themselves, to enable him to form a satisfactory theory. He 
agitates blood with air, and as he afterwards detects a trace of carbonic 
acid in the air, although without perceiving the slightest absorption of 
oxygen, he is satisfied that this evolution of carbonic acid suffices to 
explain the respiratory process, and yet a handful of wet sawdust or a 
leaf would have produced exactly the same result. How would it be, 
supposing that blood would not in this way yield carbonic acid when 
removed from the organism ? 

Innumerable experiments have been made to prove the nutritive 
properties of carbonic acid for plants, which all gave a negative result. 
Although it was most positively known that carbonic acid is absorbed 
by the green-plant, that under the influence of light it becomes de- - 
composed in the organism; that its carbon is assimilated and oxygen 
eliminated in a gaseous form. The experiments I allude to have no 
value whatever, because the experimentalists disregarded altogether the 
conditions necessary for the absorption and assimilation of carbonic acid 
by the plants, excluding everything, and neglecting every precaution, 
indispensable to the success of their experiments. 

We hear every day of experiments of a similar kind. Thus, to ascer- 
tain whether sugar is capable of being transformed into fat in the living 
animal body, a dozen pigeons are stuffed daily with a quantity of sugar, 
which acts upon them like a medicinal substance, or a poison, and 
when after the lapse of from six to ten days they die of starvation, the 
experimentalist strangely expects to see them filled with fat, and is 
amazed to find himself disappointed. Thus, without knowing the condi- 
tions of the formation of fat in the animal organism, without stopping 
to inquire whether any conditions are required, the experiment is 
commenced by excluding every thing which would render its success 
possible. A state of artificial disease is produced in the animals; all 
nourishment is most carefully withdrawn from them, and thus they 
are deprived of everything necessary for the formation of blood—for 
the support of the vital processes, and, consequently, of that action 
which causes the formation of fat. By means of these cruel and wretch- 
ed experiments these gentlemen believe they are able to prove that 
sugar, a non-nitrogenous substance, is incapable of being converted 
into fat, another non-nitrogenous substance. Such experiments prove 
nothing whatever, except the ignorance and total incapacity of the 
experimentalist to pursue these investigations. 

Everywhere, and in all cases where we can succeed in ascertaining, 
from nature herself, the conditions of a phenomenon, our inferences 
possess afar higher value than they could ever acquire were they 


in its Relations to Physiology. 435 


derived simply from experiments. No experiments can ever contradict 
truths derived from the observation of nature. The great difficulty un- 
der which we labour in our experiments is the immense sacrifice of time 
and exertion required to imitate the conditions under which the observ- 
ed phenomena manifest themselves in nature. 

With a knowledge of those conditions our labour is concluded. The 
safest and most direct way is invariably to study nature for a know- 
ledge of those conditions, and when we have ascertained them, further 
experiments serve only to guard us against mistakes, and to suggest 
useful applications of our knowledge. 

Let us not render our labours futile by creating imaginary difficul- 
ties ; those which exist already are quite enough for us to encounter. 

Does the pathologist imagine that the chemist is desirous of seizing 
upon his territory? Has he acquired a possession in it from whence he 
may be ejected? Is he anxious to leave the Augean stable uncleansed ? 

It has been discovered that benzoic acid becomes hippuric acid in the 
animal organism, that the elements of benzoic acid perform a part in 
the secretory process of the kidneys, that they take a definite and 
traceable share in a vital operation, and may be employed for a definite 
purpose. Benzoic acid is a non-nitrogenous compound which can only 
be produced in the living organism of plants. 

Now, if we find further that animals which, to their aliments, par- 
take of no benzoic acid, but of other non-nitrogenous substances, 
likewise secrete hippuric acid in their urine to a considerable amount, 
whilst the urine of carnivorous animals contains no hippuric acid, am 
I in error in concluding that other non-nitrogenous substances, differing 
from benzoic acid, may also be used for the production of hippuric acid, 
and that they likewise participate in the secretory processes? 

Now, in hippuric acid J still find the elements of benzoic acid; and I 
can by simply adding to benzoic acid another substance produced by the 
organism, form hippuric acid, whilst, with other non-nitrogenous substances, 
this is possible only after they have undergone a series of transformations. 
Does not this fact render it extremely probable, not to say certain, that 
vegetable medicinal substances,—themselves the products of the vital 
force,—may, in a manner exactly analogous, remove abnormal states 
of the animal body, if, by their composition, they are adapted for 
undertaking in the vital processes that part which the aliments can no 
longer perform because some part of the mechanism refuses its co-opera- 
tion which is requisite to render these aliments fit for this purpose! 

A lofty pillar may be saved from falling by a very small fragment of 
stone; the tooth of a wheel which has become loose in the works of a 


436 Observations on Organic Chemistry 


clock may be soldered, and thus the clock restored to its original 
correctness. Now, I ask, does not the fragment of stone so employed 
become part of the pillar? Does not the solder enter into the composi- 
tion of the wheel? A watch may stop for want of oil; a platinum 
wire divided, may be connected with a piece of silver wire, and the 
electric current which had been interrupted restored. Does not the 
silver become part of the platina apparatus, so far as the desired effect 
is concerned? Does not the oil employed to lubricate the axes of the 
wheels form part of the watch ? 

When the chemist deduces inferences from his observations, surely he 
does not go beyond his own sphere. It is true we may not be able at 
present to solve the problem how morphine and quinine operate in the 
organism; but we are surely proceeding in the right direction for ob- 
taining a knowledge of even those points. My opponents object that 
my inferences respecting the effects of vegetable remedies are only pro- 
babilities, but they altogether overlook the circumstance that I myself 
never attempted to pass them off for anything else. If you deprive the 
investigator of nature of the power to make suggestions, to take pro- 
babilities to guide his future aims, you deprive him of all support, of 
all reasons to proceed in his investigations. The chemist, as well as 
every other philosopher, must conceive some probable object toward 
which to direct his researches. 

Would it not be exceedingly absurd to expect that plants would grow 
without seeds, to desire to engraft a noble tree upcen an ignoble stock, 
whilst you reject the scion! How can we sow with the hope of a 
harvest without having a fertile soil at our disposal? Our desire is 
to winnow well the grain until all the chaff is cleared away. 

If I were called upon to decide what right physiologists and patholo- 
gists have to form an opinion with respect to the inferences deduced 
from chemistry to aid physiology, and my judgment were guided by 
the facts and inferences cherished and fought for by these gentlemen, 
the amount of credit I could award to them would be represented by a 
very small figure. 

When resting upon the fact of the transformation of benzoic acid 
into hippuric acid, a fact established in the most exact and decisive 
manner, I deduce a certain inference and catch a glimpse of a little 
more of the horizon of truth than my opponents, is it natural for them 
to desire to put out my eyes? 

When, from the weight of the bile, which, according to the assertions 
of the physiologist, an ox secretes every day, and the weight of the 
blood-constituents which the same animal partakes of in its food in the 


in its Relations to Physiology. 437 


course of twenty-four hours, I infer that the non-nitrogenous constitu- 
ents of his food (gum, starch, sugar, &c.) must likewise participate in 
the formation of the bile, because the amount of carbon contained in 
the bile is greater than is contained in all the blood-constituents par- 
taken of together, can this conclusion be called in question ? 

When, from not finding any bile in the feces, I maintain that the 
bile must, in some manner, return into the circulation, to serve ulti- 
mately for the respiratory process, which means no more than that its 
carbon and hydrogen are eliminated from the organism in the form of 
carbonic acid and water; and further, when the physician finds that in 
cases where, by the administration of calomel, the bile, altered but 
little in its properties, is evacuated in the stools (known as calomel 
stools), the absence of the matter needed for respiration causes all the 
inspired oxygen to be directed towards the cause of the disease, and 
owing to this circumstance the disease is removed, can my inferences be 
doubted? Nevertheless, I do no more than desire my opponents to 
consider them as probable, and to submit them to the test of examina- 
tion. But this has no weight with such people. 

If some young author relates a tissue of marvellous tales to support 
an opinion that there exists certain states of disease in which the blood, 
which contains 80 per cent. of water, the flesh and tissues 75 per cent., 
and the bones 30 per cent. (thus altogether three-fourths water), may 
burn from within, in the absence of oxygen, these same physiologists 
will believe his assertions.* Our author has not, indeed, himself 
witnessed any case of this kind, he has never been ina situation to 
establish even a single one of the facts upon which the whole fabric of 
his tale rests; but it would require too much self-denial, a superhuman 
effort, to destroy such splendid tales, which render his book or his 
lectures so interesting ! 

* “‘ What thing did you see? Speak boldly.” 


‘‘T have seen a ship,” said I, ‘‘ going against a fierce wind with the same velocity as a horse, 
and that by the vapour of boiling water.” 

“‘ Hajji,” said the king (after a stare and athought), ‘‘say nolies here. After all, we are 
a King. Although you area traveller, and have been to the Franks, yet a lie is a lie, come 
from whence it may.” * * *# * ‘So you encountered great tempests 2” said the Shah. 
“‘ Say on Hajji, everything you have in your heart, say on.” 

‘Yes, may it please your Majesty,” said I, ‘‘ one tempest we encountered, on our passage 
from England to Constantinople, was so great, that, venturing to look overboard to see how 
fast we were going for the good of your Majesty’s service, and happening to leave my mouth 
open, a fierce wind entered, and blew three of your slave’s teeth down his throat.’ Upon this 
I opened my mouth and showed the damage which my jaw had sustained from the kick of a 
Curdish horse. 

‘* Are there such winds, indeed ?” asked the Shah. “ In truth they rush down with violence 
enough from the neighbouring heights of Albo,”—Hajji Baba in England, 


438 Observations on Organic Chemistry 


With the same easy credulity, people of this sort firmly believe that an 
individual suffering from diabetes emits more water as urine than he par- 
takes of through the mouth. They, indeed, weigh the water which the 
patient drinks, but they take no account of the water in the milk par- 
taken of (94 per cent.), in the bread (24 per cent.), in the meat (76 per 
cent.) Being either without the ability or the will to establish or 
refute the statement advanced, they assume it at once to be an indisput- 
able truth. 

If the public would take the trouble to test these marvellous stories 
(a task no one seems willing to undertake), it would soon be discover- 
ed that the evidence for them is precisely on a par with, and equally 
entitled to credit, as the certificates of the efficacy of incomparable oils 
for the cure of baldness, of bear’s grease,t of vegetable pills, &c. On 
inquiry, it would be found that the bald heads, the ladies of quality who 
vouch for the marvellous cures, have just departed this life, or set out 
upon a journey,—they are never seen. 

It is such people as these who believe the impregnation of the ovum 
without contact with the seminal principle not only possible but posi- 
tively certain, and who bring forward, in proof of this assertion, in- 
stances which there cannot possibly be any opportunity of testing. 

In criminal law, upon a charge of manslaughter or murder, the judge 
pronounces judgment only after the fact is well-established,—first, the 
corpus delicti, than the accusation, then the sentence, but these gentle- 
men care nothing about the establishment of the fact. If any rare 
morbid state, any reputed effect of a remedy, any pathological pheno- 
menon, with which they are unacquainted, falls into the hands of this 
class of persons, all their egotism is aroused, truth is altogether disre- 
garded. An imaginary criminal, as the cause, is created, whom they 
subject to the torture and the rack. Old women, fools, and children of 
all countries, are dragged forth to supply evidence, and the groans and 
sighs of the suspected innocent are interpreted as confessions in proof 
of their predetermined decision. Analogy is, with these people, con- 
verted into the bed of Procrustes, they stretch or cut off the limbs of 
facts and arguments, unscrupulously, and at their own sovereign plea- 
sure. 

In instances where a medical author advances such strange and ima- 
ginary opinions, the public seems to show an indulgence and kind 
forbearance which certainly is never exhibited towards writers upon 
other sciences. Too many established practitioners care less for the 


+ Original—Jlion’s grease, which our German friends employ instead of bear's grease, but 
with equal effect ! ! 


eS -----»--»-—-— 


in its Relations to Physiology. 439 


advancement of science in their publications than for the extension of 
their own reputation for sagacity and penetration ; whilst many a can- 
didate for practice, pressed by his pecuniary necessities, writes a book 
as the best means of advertising himself; and to impose thus upon the 
public requires so very little labour or skill, that we may almost won- 
der that such works are not still more numerous. 

In chemico-physiological works, physiology is threatened with dan- 
ger, not from chemists, but from physiologists themselves and phy- 
sicians. 

It is not chemistry which asserts that peroxide of iron and protoxide 
of iron perform a part in the respiratory process; this assertion is made 
by physicians. 

Chemistry knows but one organic compound, which invariably con- 
tains iron as a constituent. It is not a chemist who considers proteine 
the basis of blood and the tissues, but it is the iatro-chemist, who has 
introduced into the vital process the idea of the organic radicals. The 
chemist has not done so, because he knows that acetic acid may be 
derived from wood, and in its anhydrous state has the same composi- 
tion as wood, and because he knows that acetic acid may be derived in 
the same manner from a thousand other substances, without being (on 
that account) the prototype of their constitution. 

The iatro-chemist knows a proteine tritoxide, and deutoxide, he de- 
termines the atomic weights of fibrine, albumen, and caseine from their 
combinations with hydrochloric acid and peroxide of lead. It is he who 
wishes to establish the absolute number of atoms composing the ele- 
ments of proteine, who disputes about the formula; this is the iatro- 
chemistry of the. present time. 

It is iatro-chemistry which proposes to make the addition of an atom 
of oxygen to lung tubercle render intelligible the formations of liver 
tubercle, which is just as clear as to suppose the addition of oxygen to 
ear-wax in an ear-spoon (cochlea), to make spzritus cochlearia. 

I am perfectly aware that I bear the blame of many of these deduc- 
tions, which I do not hesitate utterly to repudiate. 

Iatro-chemistry, not chemistry, pretends to prove from the composi- 
tions of mould which forms in a solution of the sugar, that plants 
derive their nitrogen from the gaseous nitrogen of the atmosphere ; for 
chemistry knows that pure solution of sugar does not admit the forma- 
tion of any mould whatever. Chemistry knows that the so fabulously 
powerful vital principle is incapable of employing any element as the 
constituent of an organism. Chemistry knows that it is not diamond 


which nourishes the organism, but a carbon compound ; not hydrogen, 
3.4 


440 Observations on Organic Chemistry 


but a hydrogen compound; not sulphur, but a sulphur compound, and 
from this infers that nitrogen, also, cannot be assimilated as an element, 
but only in the form of a compound, which inference is moreover sup- 
ported by the most direct and positive proofs. 

In concluding these remarks, I cannot conceal from myself the little 
probability there is of their accomplishing any good, because those who 
have understood my works needed not a single line of explanation of 
this kind, and as for my opponents, they would choose to consider the 
most lucid explanation of mine as mere shadows and darkness. We 
need not alarm ourselves that the trees will grow into the skies, since 
nature and Providence alike forbid it; our own watchfulness, or an 
army of preventive police would be superarogatory. 

I have pronounced my own opinions against the views of some indi- 
viduals, who by the greatest and most transcendent merits have acquir- 
ed my esteem, which will never diminish, but they must not forget that 
they have also their opinions, which do not offend me, because nothing 
can offend or disturb me on my way, since I shall ever maintain the 
courage to proceed right onward as long as my powers continue. 

Note.—In the second volume of Berzelius’s Manual, 5th edition, after 
describing my method of separating antimony from arsenic (by fusion 
of regulus of antimony with sulphuret of antimony and carbonate of 
soda), he says, ‘‘ the antimony thus obtained is not so free from arsenic 
as that obtained by Wohler’s method.” 

If I understand this phrase aright, it means that antimony is not 
by my method obtained free from arsenic. Now, although I am always 
anxious to avoid discussions when my theoretical notions are assailed, I 
cannot remain silent, for science and the truth’s sake, when facts are 
thus called in question. This method has been employed many 
hundred times in my laboratory, and has never failed. It has been 
repeated in other places also, and has invariably yielded antimony free 
from arsenic. Besides a few observations of Buchner’s (Rep. new series 
8, p. 266), no objections against my method have reached me in chemi- 
cal literature, and the remarks of Buchner did not apply to the remain- 
ing presence of arsenic, but to loss of weight, &c., a subject discussed 
in the Annalen, bd. 22, p. 58. I cannot conceive what reason Berzelius 
has to condemn this method. 

In his 23rd Annual Report, p. 177, Berzelius remarks upon my 
method of separating cobalt from nickel by means of cyanide of potas- 
sium. ‘“ He (Liebig) further states that he has applied cyanide of potas- 
sium as a means of separating metals from each other, and, for an 
instance, he gives a method for the separation of cobalt from nickel, 


in its Relations to Chysiology. 441 


&c. An experienced eye perceives, immediately, that this method has 
not really been tested by analysis, which, moreover, would render 
necessary various methods, according to the varying relative propor- 
tions of the metals, and that it is fraught with more difficulties and 
sources of error than the common method of separating with ammonia 
and potass.” 

Altogether disregarding the circumstance that Berzelius gives an 
incorrect report of my method, this is not the first occasion on which 
he has deserted his formerly so stoutly-defended principle of allowing 
facts to speak and not opinions. I think it would have been better to 
have made an experiment than to have expressed an opinion based, as 
it is, upon an erroneous notion. Berzelius would then, probably, have 
satisfied himself, and this with the aid of my method, that the separa- 
tion of cobalt from nickel by means of ammonia and potass is very in- 
complete and imperfect, since either the oxide of cobalt remains in 
solution, or the precipitated oxide of nickel contains oxide of cobalt. 

I am, as is well-known, a teacher of chemistry in a university, and 
annually instruct above one hundred students in the art of analy- 
sing minerals, and, amongst others, in the separation of nickel from 
cobalt. My method, which Berzelius thinks exists only on paper, is, 
therefore, very often tried, and hitherto it has been found, invariably, 
that no better method can replace it; perhaps, because it depends upon 
a more correct principle of separation than other methods. I can only 
express my regret that Berzelius should have paid so little attention to 
the experiments of Fresenius and of Haidlen relating to the application 
of cyanide of potassium in chemical analysis, for these experiments 
constitute the most valuable contribution which mineral analysis has 
of late, received. 


Manufacture of Epsom Salts. 

The note, page 310 in our last number, relative to the 
process suggested in the paper of Lieut. Latter on the me- 
thod of treating sulphurets of copper at Lyons, having attract- 
ed the notice of Messrs. Bathgate and Co., it was intimated 
to us, that sulphuric acid since the erection of their large 
chamber, has become so cheap as to be had for little or no- 
thing. Conceiving the circumstance to be favourable for 
resuming the experiments in the manufacture of salts, re- 
ferred to vol. 2, p. 244, we ascertained from Messrs. Bathgate 


442 Manufacture of Epsom Salts. 


and Co., that we might have the acid, specific gravity 1700, 
in quantities of not less than 100 maunds, at 6 Rs. per maund, 
for purposes of experiment. 

We accordingly tried a maund of the acid on the mag- 
nesian limestone of Salem, an account of which mineral will 
also be found, vol. 2, p. 284 of this Journal. The result yielded 
144 lbs. of Epsom salts from 38 lbs. of the calcined rock. 

Taking the magnesite at Rs. 20 per ton, and the acid of 
the above specific gravity at 6 Rs. per maund, the Epsom salts 
afforded, which are very pure, costs 13 shillings and 3 pence 
per cwt. The imported salt from England costs, including 
freight and charges, 24 shillings. Having reported this re- 
sult to the Medical Board, it was not deemed expedient to go 
on with the experiment to the extent proposed, with the view 
to supply public service. We would therefore recommend the 
subject to sulphuric acid manufacturers, as an useful way of 
employing their superfluous acid. ‘The consumption of 
Epsom salts is becoming every year more general in propor- 
tion to the spread of European medical knowledge, the native 
sources and means of supply of all such articles, thus be- 
come proportionably more and more important. 

There is however, another point of view in which this 
question becomes important; so long as we are depending 
in India on supplies of medicine from Apothecaries’ Hall, our 
stock is liable to become exhausted. When the consumption 
exceeds the anticipated expenditure, which it almost always 
does, we are then obliged to make up the deficiency from such 
articles as we can collect in the bazars, sometimes at exor- 
bitant rates. The cheap production of the common articles of 
medicine, such as Epsom salts, from the natural productions 
of the country, would prevent this, and also be the best check 
on the venders of adulterated drugs. Besides, it is the cheap 
and bulky articles of medicine which it becomes us most 
especially to prepare in India, since they are less worth 
their freight and the room they take up on board ship, than 


Manufacture of Epsom Salts. 443 


the more costly stores, such as quinine. The government are 
well aware of this, and in the paper above alluded to on this 
subject in a former number, it is stated in a note that the 
Governor General in Council was surprised to find no less 
than 18 tons of Epsom salts and other bulky articles of a 
similar nature included in our annual indents for medicines 
on Europe, calling at the same time on the Medical Board 
to institute enquiries as to the means of supplying such 
articles in India. Now that we have succeeded so well with 
regard to Epsom salts, we hope the Medical Board will be 
induced to re-consider the subject, and authorise the necess- 
ary supply to be furnished here, instead of occupying ships 
with such unnecessary importations to the neglect of the 
natural productions of this country. The production of Ep- 
som salts from the Salem rock may be effected as above shewn 
at so cheap a rate, as altogether to secure the public against 
its adulteration in the bazars, with the numerous poisonous 
articles which, from its high price at present, are frequently 
mixed up with it. According to Lieut. Ouchterlony, of the 
Madras Engineers, the rock is abundant in Trichinopoly, Co- 
imbatore and Mysore, its principal localities being in Salem. 

Its sites are said by Lieut. Ouchterlony to be near enough 
to the banks of the Cavery, to allow of its being brought down 
that stream to Porto Novo on the coast, at a very low rate of 
not so much as 10 Rs. per ton, or probably a great deal less. 

In the manufacture of sulphate of magnesia, from this rock, 
in the Laboratory of the H. Co’s. Dispensary, which proved 
so satisfactory, it is first broken up into lumps of conve- 
nient size and thrown into the fires which are kept up for 
other purposes, and thus calcined. It is then pounded, 
mixed with water, and dissolved at once with acid, and filter- 
ed through cloth. The solution is then evaporated till a 
pellicle forms, and set aside to crystallize. 

On a large scale the rock should be burnt in a kiln like 
limestone ; but a quantity sufficient for the public expenditure 


444 Coal from the Falls of the Jamuna. 


at present might be made without this, and two or three 
coolies would be sufficient to conduct the whole process. 


Coal from the Falls of the Jamuna, in Assam. 


Results of the chemical examination of two specimens of 
Coal from near the Falls of the Jamuna, Nowgong district, 
Lower Assam. 

Received from Major Jenkins, April 1844. 


Sp. Gr. 1.2. 
Bituminous volatile matter, ... ... 46.0 
Carbon, bh. eoihep so geth le Tan 53.4 
Light yellow White Ash, ... 0. ... 0.6 


in 100 parts. 
Colour black and shining, with a resinous lustre, and tem- 
per-steel tarnish. 
Quality, of the most superior description, better even than 
Cherra Ponji, or any other coal hitherto found in India. 
J. M‘CLELLAND, 
Secretary Coal Committee. 


Laboratory H. Co’s Dispensary, 
27th April, 1844. 


THE 
CALCUTTA JOURNAL 


OF 


NATURAL HISTORY. 


The Palms of British East India. By W. Grirritu, Esq. 
FF. L.S. Memb. Imp. Acad. Natur. Curios. Royal Ratisb. 
Botan. Soc. Corr. Memb. Hort. Soc. Royal Acad. Turin. 
Asst. Surgeon, Madras Establishment. 


[Continued from page 355. ] 


Sus-FaMILIAA—ARECIN/AL, Mart. Progr. p. 7. Palme. 
p. 157. (ex. Endl.) 


Flores mono-dioici vel polygami. Spathae plures incom- 
plete, vel una vel 2 complete, rarissime nulla. Stamina 
3-00 hypogyna. Floris feminet perianthium convoluto-im- 
bricatum, rarius corolla valvata. Ovarium 1-3-loculare, 1-3- 
ovulatum. /ructus baccatus vel tenuiter drupaceus, trilocu- 
laris, profunde trilobus, vel szepius abortu unilocularis. Semz- 
na 1-3. Albumen corneum, ruminatum vel zquabile. Embryo 
sepius basilaris. 

Palme perennantes vel monocarpicae, frutescentes vel ar- 
boreae. Folia pinnatim fissa (aliquando bifurca) vel pinnata, 
rarius bipinnata. Inflorescentia axillaris et terminalis, cen- 
tripeta vel centrifuga. 

VOL. V. NO, XX. JANUARY, 1845. 3M 


446 The Palms of British East India. 


Sect. I. 


Spathe 1 vel 2, sepissime complete. Perianthium femineum convo- 
luto-imbricatum. Fructus sepe obliquus. Folia pinnatim 
fissa vel pinnata. 


ARECA.—Spathe 1-2, completae. Flores monoict in eodem 
spadice. Stamina 3-00. Ovarium 1-3-loculare, 1- 
ovulatum. Drupa, rarius bacca obliqua. Folia 
pinnatim fissa vel pinnata. 

BENTINCKIA.—Spathe 2, entertor completa. Flores monoict in 
distinctis spadicibus, basi in foveolis immersi. Sta- 
mina 6. Ovarium triloculare, l-ovulatum. Bacca? 
obliquissima. Folia pinnata. 

SLACKIA.—Spathe 2, zncompletae, vaginantes. lores mo- 
noice tn eodem spadice, bast in foveolis immerst. 
Stamina 6, filamentis basi coalitis. Ovarium tri- 
loculare. Drupa obliquisstma. Albumen rumina- 
tum. Folia pinnatim fissa. 


Sect II. 


Foha pinnata vel bipinnata, pinnhis vel pinnulis erosis. Inflorescentia 
centrifuga. Spathe plures incompletze. Corolla feeminea val- 
vata. Stamina szpius indefinita. 

* Flores monoici in eodem spadice. 


Caryora.—Folia bipinnata. Stamina 00. Ovarium 1-2- 
loculare. Bacca 1, raro 2-sperma. Albumen rumi- 
natum. 

** Flores monoici in diversis spadicibus, vel dioici. 

ARENGA.—Folia pinnata, pinnis linearibus, bast 1-2 auricu- 
latis. Stamina 00. Ovarium triloculare. Bacca 
vertice depresso trigona, trisperma. Albumen zqua- 
bile. 

W atxicnia.—Folia pinnata, pinnis cuneatis. Flores interdum 
dioict. Stamina in quibusdam 6. Ovarium bilo- 
culare. Bacca disperma. Albumen equabile. 


The Palms of British East India. 44:7 


SusB-FAMILY.—ARECIN A. 


Flowers mono-dioicous or polygamous. Spathes several incomplete, or one or 
two complete, very rarely none. Stamina 3-00, hypogynous. Female perianth 
conyoluto-imbricate, rarely valvate. Ovary 1-3-celled. Ovula 1-3. Fruit berried 
or slightly drupaceous, 3-celled, deeply 3-lobed, or generally by abortion 1-celled. 
Seeds 3 or generally 1. Albumen horny, ruminate or equal. Embryo generally 
basilar. 

Shrubby or arboreous palms, perennial, or flowering onJy once. Leaves pin- 
nate, rarely bipinnate. Inflorescenée axillary and terminal, centripetal or centri- 
fugal. 


Sect. I. 


Leaves pinnately-split or pinnate. Spathe (1 or 2) complete, in one incom- 
plete. Female perianth convoluto-imbricate. Fruit often oblique. 

Spathes 1-2, complete. Flowers moneecious on 

the same spadix. Stamina 3-00. Ovarium 1-3 

celled. Fruit drupaceous, in some an oblique 

berry. Leaves pinnately split or pinnate, .. ARECA. 
Spathes 2, inner one complete. Flowers moneci- 

ous on distinct spadices, their bases immersed in 

niches. Stamina6. Ovarium 3-celled. Berry ? 

exceedingly oblique. Albumen solid. Leaves 

pinnate. oe ee ee os oe -» BENTINCKIA. 
Spathes 2, incomplete, sheathing. Flowers mo- 

neecious on the same spadix, their bases im- 

mersed in niches. Stamina 6, filaments united 

at the base. Ovarium 3-celled. Fruit drupace- 

ous, exceedingly oblique. Albumen ruminate. 

Leaves pinnately split. .. ee ee se MACK IA, 


Sect. IT. 


Leaves pinnate or bipinnate, divisions jagged. Infiorescence centrifugal. 
Spathes several incomplete, tmbricate, sheathing. Female corolla vaivate. 
* Flowers monoecious on the same spadix. 
Leaves bipinnate. Stamina 00. Ovarium 1-2- 
celled. Berry 1 or 2-seeded. Albumen rumi- be 
nate. .. ee oe ar ee ee «» CARYOTA. 
** Flower monoecious on different spadices, or dioecious. 
Leaves pinnate ; pinne linear, 1-2-auriculate at 
the base. Stamina 00. Ovarium 3-celled. Berry 
with a depressed triangular vertex, 3-seeded. 
Albumen equal. .. oe ee ee -» ARENGA. 
Leaves pinnate ; pinne cuneate. Flowers some- 
times dicecious. Stamina sometimes 6. Ovarium 
2-celled. Berry 2-seeded. Albumen equal. .. WaALLicuia- 


448 The Palms of British East India. 


Sect. I. 


Spathe 1-2 complete, rarius incomplete, rarissime nulle. 
Flores mono-dioici vel polygami. Perianthium feemineum 
convoluto-imbricatum. Stamina 3-00, seepius 6. Ovarium 
1-3-loculare, seepius l-ovulatum. Fructus sub-drupaceus 
_ equilateralis, vel subbaccatus ineequilateralis. Semen 1. Al- 
bumen ruminatum, interdum equabile. Embryo szpius basi- 
laris. 

Palme elegantes, frutescentes vel arboree, sepius graciles, 
s@pe arundinacee, in umbrosis vigentes. Corona se@pius 
ampla. Folia pinnatim fissa (imo aliquando bifurca ) vel pin- 
nata, pinnis reduplicatis, saepius oblique acuminatis. In- 
florescentia wniversalis centripeta, partialis centrifuga. 
Spadix avillaris, paniculatim vel racemosim divisus, raro 
andivisus, saecpe refractus, interdum coloratus. Flores ; 
JSemineus sepiusinter duos masculos, (superiores saepe tan- 
tum masculi,) binati, distichi, interdum suaveolentes. Stigma 
plerumque trilobum. 

Incolz presertim Asiz archipelagice et oceanice; una 
cultissima prope mare, plures sylvicole, pauce maritime. 
Limes borealis sp. indicarum 27-28. grad. 

Usus.—Albumen astringens narcotica, inebrians Arecarum 
plurium Asiaticis cum calce et folio Piperis Betel manduca- 
tur. A. Catechu hanc ob causam pre palmas alias indicas 
(Cocos nucifera excepta) abunde colitur. Vagine foliorum 
(A. Catechu) consute haustrorum in usu adhibentur. Trunci 
A. tigillariz asseres stabiliores prebent. 


ARECA. 


Linn. Gen. p. 516. No. 1225. (partim.) ed. Schreber. p. 776. 
No. 1696. (partim). ed. Spreng. p. 284. No. 1473. Juss. Gen. 
p. 88. Gertn. 1. p.t. 7. Lam. Ill. t. 895. Roxb. Icones. 14. 
t. 75-77. Suppl. 5. t. 64-65. Corom. Pl. t. 75. (ex Endl.) Fl. 
Indica 3. p.615. Mart. Palme 169. t. 102, 149, 158. f. 4, 
5, (ex Endl.) Endl. Gen. p. 247. No. 1728. 


The Palms of British East India. 449 


Euterpe. Gaertn. op. cit. 1. p. 29. ¢. 9. 
Pinanga. Rumph. Hb. Amb. |. t. 4. 
Caunga. Rheede Hort. Mal. |. t. 5—8. 


Cuar. Gen.—Spathae 1 vel 2, complete. flores mo- 
noici in eodem spadice, foemineus inter duos masculos. 
Stamina 3-00. Ovarium 1-3 loculare. Ovulum 1. Fructus 
drupaceus vel sub-baccatus monospermus, interdum ob- 
liquus. Albumen ruminatum. Embryo basilaris. 


Hasitus.—Palme arboree vel frutescentes, sepius inermes. 
Truncus annulatus. Folia pinnatim fissa, rarius bipartita vel 
pinnaia ; vagine coriacee, striate. Spadices axillares, pani- 
culatim vel racemosim divise, rarius simplices, saepe refractt. 
Flores saepe distichi, plerumque evolutione centrifugi. An- 
therz lineares. Drupz ovate, saepius aurantiacee, bacce 
globose, coerulescentes. 


Sect. L.—(Pinanea.) Spathe 2-complete, rarius 1. Spa- 
dices erecti, paniculatim ramosi. Flores inferiores 1 feemineus 
inter duos masculos, superiores masculi binati. Stamina 3- 
12, sepius 6. Drupa. 

Frutices inermes, interdum sobolifere, vel saepius arbores. 
Folia pinnatim fissa, rarius pinnata. Spadicis rami dorso 
deficientes. Fl. fem. perianthii foliola inieriora longiora. 


Sect. I.—(Anacuasmus.) Spatha1,completa. Spadices 
refracti, racemosim 2-5-divisi, interdum simplices. Flores ; 1 
foemineus inter duos masculos. Stigma discoideum, szpe 
lobatum. Drupa. 

Inermes, frutescentes. Folia pinnata. FI. faeem. perian- 
thi folzola 3 interiora breviora. 

Seaforthia. Martius. (vix Brown). Pinanga. Blume. Endl. 
Gen. p. 1370. No. 1727/1. ? 


4.50 The Palms of British East India. 


Sect. III].—(Evoptus.) Spathe 2, complete. Spadices 
racemosim divisi, ramis 00, fastigiatis, caudeeformibus, pen- 
dulis. Flores ; sepius 1 feemineus inter duos masculos. Fruc- 
tus sub-baccatus, obliquus, ccerulescens. 

Arboree vel arborescentes, soboliferae, armatae. Folia pin- 
nata. 


Oncosperma. Blume. Endl. Gen. p. 1371, No 1727/3. ? 


~ 


Genus imperfecte cognitum, verisimiliter in posterum in 
plura dividendum.* 

Seaforthia, Br.{ differt habitu Caryotideo et floribus feemi- 
neis inter duos hermaphrodito-masculos ; horumque stylo 
longo. 


Sect. I.—PINANGA. 


70. (1) A. Catechu, arborea, foliis pinnatis et pinnatim fissis, 
pinnis lineari-ensiformibus vel linearibus oblique acuminatis, 
spathis 2, fl. masculis solitariis distichis, petalis oblongis 
acutis, staminibus 6, fl. feemineis solitariis ad vel versus basin 
ramulorum, drupa ovata mammillata magnitudine ovi gal- 


linulee. 
Areca Catechu, Walld. Sp. Pl. 4. p. 524. Roxb. Cor. Pl. 
1. No. 74, Fl. Indica. 3. p. 615. Icones 14. t. 75. (incompl.) 


* The above disposition appears to be pointed out by the Indian species, of 
which alone I have any knowledge. I have no means of ascertaining the opinions 
of Botanists on the limits of the genus. The volume of Kunth’s Synopsis, in which 
I understand Palme are to be found, has not yet found its way to this part of 
India. The Botanic Garden copy of Martius’s Palme contains only a few figures 
without any accompanying letter-press. The copy of Blume’s Kumphia likewise 
contains only two plates of Ptychostoma (Seaforthia, R. Br.). Martius (2 Zitz.) 
seems indisposed to adopt Blume’s divisions. As the habit however is distinct, 
it is probable that accurate examination of ample materials may lead to several 
sufficiently sound generic distinctions. 

Blume’s adoption of Pinanga for a section not including the genuine Pinange 
does not appear tome judicious. His Oncosperma is perhaps Areca tigillaria, 
Jack. 

+ Pr. Fl. Nov. Holl. ed. 2da. p. 123. 


The Palms of British East India. 451 


Ayeca Faufel. Gaert. fr. et. sem. 1. p.19.t. 7.f.2. Pinanga. 
Rumph. Hb. Amb. 1. t. 4. Caunga. Rheede Hort. Mal. 1. 
t. 5-8. 


Hasit.—Commonly cultivated, especially to the Eastward, 
where it attains a much larger size than in Bengal. Sans- 
crit, Goovaka. Bengallee, Gooa. Arabic, Foolful. Pers. and 
Hind. Soopara. Telingee, Poka Chelloo. Malayan, Pinang. 

Perhaps the most elegant Indian Palm. It is too well 
known to need a detailed description. The male flowers 
are delightfully fragrant. 

It is very extensively cultivated in most of the warmer 
and more humid parts of India, especially towards the sea, 
near which alone it comes to perfection. It thrives much 
more luxuriantly on the Tenasserim coast, and in the Straits 
of Malacca than in Bengal; it is also much more immoder- 
ately used by the Burmese and Malays than the Bengallees. 

Several varieties with particular names exist among the 
Malays, and merit perhaps as much attention as do those of 
the Cocoa-nut. 


71. (2) A. triandra, fruticosa, sobolifera, foliis pinnatim 
fissis, pinnis longe et oblique acuminatis, superioribus apice 
fissis, terminali furcata plurifissa fissuris bidentatis, spatha 
], fl. masculis binatis, petalis oblongis obtusis, staminibus 3, 
feemineis ad basin ramulorum solitariis, drupa oliveformi 
mamunillata. 

A. triandra. Roxb. Icones. Suppt. 65, (incompl.) Fl. Ind. 
3. p. 617. Buch. Hamilt. Comm. Hb. Amb. in Mem. Wern. 
Soc. 5.p. 310. Mart. Palm. t. 149. 


Has.—Woods ; Chittagong, Rungpore. Bengallee Bun- 
gooa, Ramgua, Runi Supari. (Buchanan Hamilton.) Culti- 
vated in the H. C. Botanic Gardens; in flower most of the 
year. 


452 The Palms of British East India. 


Descr.*—Shrubby, throwing out offsets at the base. Stem 5-7 feet 
high, green, distinctly annulate, 2-1 inch in diameter. Leaves 4-5 feet 
long, pinne alternate, linear ensiform, 13-16 inches long, 14-2 inches 
broad, often falcate, much and obliquely acuminated, above 1-3-keeled 
according to the breadth which is variable, bright green, upper ones more 
or less split at the apex: terminal broadly cuneate, deeply bipartite, 
forked, lobes truncate, divided into as many narrow, bidentate lobes as 
there are keels on the under surface. 

Spathe green, smooth, with a short blunt point, about a foot long, 
(Roxb.), in the Botanic Garden specimens generally 4-6 inches long, 2 
broad: texture leathery. Spadix highly divided; peduncle and branches 
compressed ; at the base of the lowermost branch a linear bracte 3 inch 
long; branches spreading, ascending, much divided; secondary divisions 
stoutish towards the base, where they bear a female flower, close to 
which they branch into 2 slender flexuose spikes, (on which the male 
flowers are seated,) or more frequently are attenuated into one. 

Male flowers angular, small, cream-coloured, in pairs pressed together 
and secund on the outer side of the spikes. Sepals 3, minute, ovate- 
oblong, unequal. Petals oblong, obtuse, valvate, 3-4 times longer than 
the sepals. Stamens 3, opposite the sepals; filaments stout, short, 
united at the base; anthers sagittate. Rudiment of the Pistdlum conical 
subulate. 

Female flowers rather large, generally between a pair of rudimentary 
males, suffulted by 2 broad, short, pointed bractes. Sepals roundish, green. 
Petals similar, but smaller and less tough. Six very small rudimentary 
stamina. Ovarium ovate, 1-celled, white. Ovulum 1, ascending. Style 0. 
Stigma of 2, or generally 2, erect, unequal, acute lobes. 

Fruit oblong, of the form of an olive, but longer, distinctly mammil- 
late, smooth, when ripe of a lively orange, at length becoming red. Pulp 
in small quantity, and mixed with many longitudinal strong, ligneous 
fibres. Seed conform. Albumen much ruminated. Embryo basilar. 


72. (3) A. laxa, arborea, trunco sepius iIncurvo nunquam 
stricto, foliis pinnatis, pinnis lanceolatis acutis integerrimis 
equidistantibus, spatha l-phylla, staminibus 3, rudimento 
pistilli nullo. 


* From plants in the H, C. Botanic Gardens, fruit from Roxburgh and from 
Martius’ figure. 


The Paims of British East India. 453 


A. laxa, Buch. Hamilt. Comm. in Hb. Amb. in Mem. 
Wern. Soc. 5. p. 30. Pinanga sylvestris glandiformis secun- 
da, Rumph Hb. Amb. 1, p. 39? 


Hastr.—Andaman Islands. Buchanan Hamilton. 


Descr.*—Zrunk 20-30 feet high, annulated, green, tumid, generally 
incurved, never straight as in A. Catechu. Leaves pinnate; pinne lanceo- 
late acute, quite entire, equidistant, two-nerved with 4-plaits ; petiole 
pinniferous from the middle upwards? 

Spathe 1-leaved, lanceolate, acute, margined. Spadix panicled, branches 
angular. Male flowers very many, minute, in pairs. Sepals three-rigid, 
lanceolate, acute. Stamens 3; filaments scarcely any; anthers oblong. 
No rudiment of a Pistillum. 

Female flowers situated towards the bases of the spikes, solitary, few, 
much larger than the males. Sepals convolute, ovate, concave. Petals 
convolute, ovate, acuminate, longer than the calyx. Ovariwm obsolete- 
ly trigonal, ovate, acuminate. Style 0. Stigma acute. Fruit 


Buchanan Hamilton, from whose description the above is 
adapted, states, that it is closely allied to A. triandra, and 
that the nuts were used instead of the Betel-nut by the 
convicts confined on the island. Buchanan Hamilton makes 
no mention of the petals of the male flower. I have no 
knowledge of it. 


73. (4) A. nagensis, (n. sp.) arborea, procera, foliis pinna- 
tim fissis, pinnis linearibus obliquis acuminatissimis, spadice 
spithameo, fl. feemineis ramorum pluribus, fructibus angusto- 
ovatis utrinque attenuatis presertim apice mammillato. 


Hasit.— Assam? Major Jenkins. Naga Hills, up to an ele- 
vation of 800 feet above the level of the sea, affecting banks of 
rivers. Name of the tree in Naga, 7dl-pat ; Singpho, Tong- 
tau; of the nut, Naga, Kave ; Assam, Tamul. (Mr. Owen.) 


* From that of Buchanan Hamilton, I. c. 
Oo N 


454 The Palms of British East India. 


Descr.*—“ Trunk 30-40 feet high, attached to the soil by innumer- 
able black fibrous roots.” Naked part of the petiole about 3 feet long. 
Lamina 4-feet long : pinne sub-opposite or alternate, falcate, very acumi- 
nate, 19-20 inches long, about 13 inch broad, above with 2-3 stout keels ; 
terminal deeply bilobed, variously partite, (lacinize bidentate) ; the less 
divided, broader part obliquely truncate with irregular teeth. 

Spadix about a foot long; peduncle compressed, branched from 
near the base, branches stout flexuose. A scale-shaped bracte under 
each female flower, several of which occur on the lower parts of the 
branches. /ruit oblong ovate, 1 inch long, 5 lines wide, attenuated 
to both ends, base surrounded by the perianth, (sepals round oblong, 
obtuse, petals larger sub-cordate with a short obtuse cuspis), apex 
rostrate mammillate, truncate, with a small mammilla in the centre: 
fibres numerous, stout, whitish. Seed erect, ovate, half an inch long, 
marked with many veins arising from the hilum, these are generally 
dichotomous, anastomosing reticulately on the dorsal face. Albumen 
cartilaginous, horny, ruminate, opaque white. Embryo basilar. 


This appears distinct by its roots and fruit. Itis accord- 
ing to Mr. Owen, used by the Nagas and Abors instead of 
the Betel-nut; the leaves are much like those of A. gracilis. 
Mr. Owen informs me, that it is very scarce, and courts high 
situations generally on river sides. 

Both this and A. laxa require further examination. 


74. (5) A. cocotdes, (n. sp.) arborea, procera, foliis pinnatis 
pinnis linearibus acuminatis bipartitis, spathis ———— fl. 
masculis binatis polyandris, feemineis paucis bases versus 
ramulorum undique insertis, stigmatibus 3-revolutis, drupa 
ovata magnitudine ovi gallini. 


Hasit.—Cultivated at Malacca, but not commonly. Occurs 
in a garden in Malacca towards the Dutch Redoubt ; also 
in a Sawa, half way to Malim. Malayan name, Pinang 
Punowur. 


* Specimens; imperfect leaves, and an imperfect spadix with immature fruit 
rom Major Jenkins; perfect fruit from Mr. Owen. ‘he leaves may be open to 
doubt, from their resemblance to those of agracilis. 


The Palms of British East India. 455 


Descr.—A lofty palm. Trunk 40 feet high. Crown dark green, ample. 
Leaves pinnate; petiole scurfy, plano-convex : lamina 8-9 feet long, 4-43 
broad, in outline lanceolate acuminate; pinne 2 feet long, 14-134 inch 
wide, linear, acuminate, unequally bipartite, shining, very smooth, up- 
permost inequilateral, sub-erose at the points: central vein and 5 others 
forming as many keels above, the central underneath bearing scales at- 
tached by the base. 

Spadix ascending, altogether green; branches stiff, stout, above 
flexuoso-torulose owing to niches in which the flowers are lodged. 
Spathes not seen. 

Lower flowers one female between two males, upper males in pairs. 
Males small; sepals imbricate, carinate, hard, much shorter than the co- 
rolla, margins sub-membranaceous, denticulate, inner rather the longest. 
Corolla vaivate, hard, tripartite to the base; petals oblong-lanceolate, 
sub-obtuse. Stamina numerous ; anthers linear-sagittate. No rudiment of 
a Pistillum. Female (in bud.) Sepals and petals scarcely distinguishable, 
imbricate, with very broad bases. No rudiments of stamina. Ovarium 
large, white, oblong, 1-celled, sub-compressed, divided at the apex into 
3-cuneate sub-recurved lobes, each with a line of stigmatic tissue along 
the central line of the inner face. Ovulum one, attached nearly along its 
whole length ; foramen inferior. 

Spadia of the fruit spreading, presenting one or two annuli on its very 
stout base: branches angular, thickened at the base. Fruit pendulous 
from its weight, ovate, size of a large egg, surrounded at the base by 
the perianth, at the apex presenting the three styles: colour orange, 
smell unpleasant like spoiled sour fruit ; outer substance thick, firm, of 
yellow cellular tissue and longitudinal fibres, which are more numerous 
towards the putamen. ‘This is thin, hard, crustaceous. Seed one, erect; 
tegument thin, shining, light brown. dlbwmen densely horny, much ru- 
minate. Embryo basilar. 


The aspect of this Palm is very different from that of A. 
Catechu, the size being much greater, the crown blackish- 
green, the leaves stiffer and at a distance having a truncate 
appearance; the Malacca specimen when viewed closely 
has the appearance of a cocoa-nut tree. It is also to be 
known from A. Catechu by the round torulose branches of 
the spadix, the binary not solitary distichous polyandrous 
males, by the females not being secund, and by their greater 


456 The Palms of British East India. 


number, by the recurved not connivent styles, and by the 
fruit. 

I am not aware of the history of the plant, the fruit of 
which is, I believe, considered a medicinal kind of betel-nut, 
or its native place. Can it be Pinanga Calapparia of 
Rumph. ? 


Secr. IIL_—ANACLASMUS. 


75. (6) A. pumila, arbuscula, foliis pinnatis, pinnis alternis 
24-pedalibus lineari-ensiformibus pre-acuminatis, spadicis 
ramis sub-4 undique florigeris, fl. masc. sepalis subulato- 
setaceis quam petala obliqua ovato-cuspidata paullo longiori- 
bus, staminibus 6, fl. fem. stigmate obtuse-conico trisulcato, 
fructibus undique insertis ovatis (aurantiaceis.) 

A pumila, Mart. Palm. t. 153. f. iv. v. (spadice inverso.) 


Has.—lIn a dense forest in a ravine near Ching, Malacca; 
one specimen only observed. Malayan name, Pinang Jirong. 


Descr.—Stems 10-12 feet in height, 13-12 inch in diameter, distinctly 
annulate. Leaves 8-9 feet long ; sheaths subventricose, about 2 feet long, 
inside of a shining chesnut colour; petiole bearing pinnz nearly to the 
base where it is channelled, elsewhere trigonal; pinne alternate, 23 feet 
long, 3-13 inch broad, sword-shaped, very acuminate, coriaceous, bright- 
green, above two-keeled with an obsolete intromarginal one on each 
side. 

Inflorescence whitish-yellow. Spadix while included in the spathes 
shortly sword-shaped. Spathe about a foot long, linear, two-edged, 
flattish posticously, anticously ventricose, coriaceous, chesnut-coloured, 
obtuse and sometimes 3-fid at the point, here and there presenting 
spots of adpressed hairs. 

Spadix peduncle about 13 inch long, on the middle of the outer face 
a semi-circular scar of the attachment of the spathe, a little above this 
a membranous spathelle acuminate from a very broad base: a smaller 
one at the base of each lateral branch; branches about four, level- 
topped, pendulous, about a span or a foot long. Flowers about four- 
ranked, sessile, whitish-ochroleucre, throughout one female between two 
males. Male flowers; sepals nearly an inch long, triangular-subulate, 


The Palms of British East India. AST 


canaliculate, and exceedingly acuminate. Petals oblong-ovate, oblique, 
valvate, long cuspidate, but shorter than the sepals. Stamina 6; anthers 
linear, those opposite the petals longest. Pollen ovate, 1-plicate, white. 
No rudiment of a Pistillum ? 

Female flowers ; sepals roundish, imbricate. Petals similar, a good 
deal smaller. No rudiments of stamina. Ovarium white, roundish, 1- 
celled; ovulum one, appense. Style wanting. Stigma obtusely conical, 
large, obscurely trisulcate, almost three-lobed. 

Spadiz of the fruit with about 4 simple, roundish, greenish-white 
branches. Drupe oblong ovate, 1 inch long, 5-6 lines broad, orange- 
coloured, mammillate at the apex, base surrounded by the perianth. 
Seed erect, oblong. Albumen horny, ruminate. LHmbryo basilar, rather 
oblique. 


This species is closely allied to A. malaiana, but is at once 
distinguishable by the tetrastichous not distichous inflores- 
cence, the sepals, number of stamina and the orange not 
sanguineous colour of the fruit. 

Figure 11,6, Plate Seaforthia Reinwardtiana, Mart. Palm. 
gives a tolerable idea of the fruit spadix of this species. 
Judging from Martius’s figure, it varies a good deal in the 
size of the inflorescence and fruit. 


76. (7) A. malazana, arbuscula, foliis pinnatis, pinnis alter- 
nis 1-2-pedalibus linearibus valde acuminatis subtus glauces- 
centibus, spadice 3-5-ramoso, fl. masc. sepalis lanceolato- 
acuminatis quam petala obliqua acuta inzqualia multo mi- 
noribus, staminibus circiter 40, fl. foeminei nullis, stigmatibus 
discoideis, fructibus distichis ovatis (sanguineo-purpureis). 

Seaforthia malaiana. Mart. Palmae, p. 184, t. 158, f. 3. 


Has.—In forests, Ayer Punnus, and Rhim, Malacca; not 
uncommon. Malayan names, Malacca, Pinang Booreng ; 
Penang, Kurdoo. 


Descr.—An elegant Palm, 8-12 feet in height. Habit of the preced- 
ing. Stem distinctly annulate, in diameter 2-1 inch, internodes generally 
subclavate. Crown of 5-8 leaves, spreading. Leaves 5-8 feet long; sheaths 


458 The Palms of British East India. 


1-14 foot long, leathery, striate ; petioles (below the pinnz) 13-13 foot long, 
channelled, otherwise triangular ; pinne alternate, linear, 14-2 feet long, 
8-10 lines broad, very much acuminate, above 2-keeled, underneath with 
1-keel and a vein on either side, and whitish glaucescent: upper pinne 
cuneate, deeply bipartite, segments bilobed, lobes generally bifid; ter- 
minal portion deeply bipartite, obliquely preemorse, segments with seve- 
ral lobes, themselves obtusely bifid. 

Spathe oblong, 10 inches long, 23 broad, leathery-papery, with a 
broad obtuse cuspis, opening along the upper face. Spadix about 6 
inches long ; undivided part of the peduncle 13 inch, compressed, with 
one oblong-linear bracte a little above the middle : branches 3-5, crowded 
with flowers, compressed, flexuose. 

Male-flowers large, pressed, together, quite concealing the female, flat. 
Sepals three, membranaceous, lanceolate, acuminate. Petals much larger, 
unequal, one as large as both others, cordate, the others 3 cordate, all 
acute or acuminate, and of a hard texture. Stamina inserted on a con- 
vex torus, about 40; filaments very short; anthers linear, about twice 
as short as the petals. 

Female flowers less advanced, occasionally two together, occupying 
the bends of the flat faces of the spikes, distichous: under each a 
broad, membranous, much acuminated bracte. Perianth urceolate. Sepals 
cordate, shortly cuspidate. Petals smaller and shorter with minutely 
fimbriated margins. No rudiments of stamina. Ovarium roundish. Style 
very thort. Stigma large, discoid, concave. 

Spadix of the fruit of a bright sanguineous colour; branches 4-5, 
about a span long, compressed, flexuose. Fruit distichous; occupying 
the flat faces of the branches, ovate, at first sanguineous, afterwards 
blackish-purple, mammillate at the apex, surrounded at the base by 
the perianth ; outer substance fleshy cellular, middle fibrous, inner 
hardened crustaceous. Seed one, erect; tegument very thin, mem- 
brano-cellular, veiny, brown, shining, generally adhering to the fruit. 
Albumen horny, deeply ruminate. Exbryo conical, basilar, obliquely 
situated. 


This species is at once distinguishable by the colour of 
the spadices and fruit: its nearest affinities are with A. dis- 
ticha and Dicksoni. It varies in the degree of compression 
of the spikes, and also somewhat in size. 


77. (8) A. Dicksoni, arbuscula, frondibus pinnatis, pinnis 
linearibus 1-2-pedalibus apice preemorsis dentatis, spadicis 


The Palms of British East India. 459 


ramis 4-8, floribus distichis, masc. sepalis canaliculato-subu- 
latis longitudine petalorum acuminatorum, staminibus 20-30, 
fem. staminibus sterilibus 6 apice penicillatis, stigmate capi- 
tato trilobo, fructibus distichis oblongis. 

A. Dicksoni, Roxb. Fl. ind. 3. p. 616. Icones. 14. t. 76. 
Seaforthia Dicksoni. Mart. Palm. p. 184. 


Hasr.—Mountains of Malabar. Dr. Dickson, Wight ; in 
flower and ripe fruit in August. 


Descr.—“ It grows to the height of about sixteen or eighteen feet, 
with a very straight, simple trunk, of about two inches in diameter. 

Leaves pinnate, about four feet long, with extremities bifurcate, like 
the tail of a swallow. Leaflets sessile, linear, ribbed, with numerous 
parallel veins, apices praemorse, dentate; from twelve to twenty-four 
inches long. Spathe simple. Spadix compound, retrofracted; rami- 
fications from four to eight, alternate, simple, equal, distichous; from 
six to eight inches long. Flowers numerous, approximate, alternate in 
two exactly opposite rows, a single female in the centre, with a single 
male on each side. Male flowers. Calyx three-cleft, divisions subulate, 
nearly as long as the corol. Corol, petals three, cordate, with slender 
tapering apices. laments very short. Anthers from twenty to thirty, 
linear. Female flowers. Calyx of three reniform leaflets. Corol like the 
calyx. Nectary, six clavate, hairy-headed scales. Germ superior. 
Style short. Stigma three-lobed. Berry oblong, dry and fibrous, about 
an inch long, by half an inch in diameter. Seed of the shape of the 
berry, ruminated. Embryo lodged in the base.” (Roxb. I. c.) 


“Mr. Dickson, the Surgeon at Bedanore, who first brought 
the plant under my observation, observes that the nut is 
used by the poorer people, as a substitute for the common 
Areca, but no other part of the tree is turned to any useful 
purpose.” (Roxb. ) 


78. (9) A. gracilis, fruticosa, foliis pinnatim fissis, pinnis 
sub-pedalibus falcatis oblique acuminatissimis, spadice sim- 
plici vel 2-3 ramoso undique florigero, spatha 1, fl. masc, 


460 The Palms of British East India. 


calyce minuto, petalis oblique cordatis acutis multoties 
majoribus, staminibus numerosis, fl. feem. rudimentariis 0, 
stigmate infundibuliformi, fructibus ovatis acutis undique 
insertis. 

A. gracilis, Roxb. Icones. Suppt. 5. t. 64. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 
619. Buch. Hamilt. Comm. in Hb. Amb. Mem. Wern. Soc. 
5. p. 8ll. Seaforthia gracilis. Mart. Palm. p. 185. 


Hast.— Hills; Silhet, (where it is called Gooa, Supari 
and Ramgoa), Chittagong and the East border of Bengal. 
Roxburgh. Goalparah, Assam. Buchanan Hamilton. Assam, 
where it is called Girgoa? Major Jenkins. About Kujoodoo, 
and Ningrew, Upper Assam, in fruit January 1839; Tea De- 
putation. Himalayahs below Darjeeling, Seharanpore Col- 
lectors. | 


Descr.*—Stem slender, arundinaceous, about 8 feet high, 6-8 lines in 
diameter, distinctly and distantly annulate. Crown of about 5-6 leaves, 
which are about 3 feet long; skeaths 4 foot long; naked part of the 
petiole 3-4 inches long: pinne about a foot long, 2-3 inches broad, very 
and obliquely, acuminate, above 2-3-keeled : terminal obcuneate, about a 
foot long, 6 inches broad across the sinus, truncate, bipartite to the 
middle, about 8-cleft, divisions bidentate, emarginate, or entire and 
acute. 

Spadices generally simple, sometimes twice or thrice branched, 
6-9 inches long, compressed, bearing flowers on all sides. An annulate 
scar just above the base of the peduncle, and a second at the com- 
mencement of the pendulous part. 

Male flowers; calyx minute, 3-cornered. Petals three, obliquely 
cordate, acute, many times longer than the calyx. Stamina numerous, 
shorter than the corolla. 

Female flowers occupying large shallow niches with 3-toothed margins. 
Sepals broad, rounded. Petals like the sepals, but smaller. No rudi- 
mentary stamina. Ovarium ovate, 1-celled; ovulum 1, erect. Style very 
short, stout. Stigma large, infundibuliform, with ragged edges. (Roxb. ) 


* Chiefly from specimens communicated by Major Jenkins ; spathes not seen. 


i The Palms of British East India. 461 


Drupe reddish, ovate, with an attenuated base and a blunt point, 8 
lines long, 3-4 broad. Seed ovate. Albumen highly ruminate. Embryo 
basilar. 


I have some specimens communicated by Major Jenkins, 
and others collected by myself in Assam, and on the Khassya 
Hills,* of which I subjoin descriptions, as they either shew 
a tendency in this species to vary, or the existence of two 
other nearly allied species. 


79. (10) A. disticha, fruticosa, foliis bipartitis vel pin- 
natis, pinnis oppositis acuminatis, spadice simplici vel 2-3- 
ties ramoso, fl. masc. petalis inzequalibus obliquis cuspidato- 
acuminatis calycem minutum multo excedentibus, staminibus 
circiter 15, fl. faeminei nullis, fructibus ovatis attenuatis dis- 
tichis. 

A. disticha, Roxb. Icones. 14. t. 77. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 620. 
Seaforthia disticha, Mart. Palm. p. 184. 


Hasir.—In dense forests, Ayer Punnus (Rhim), Malacca, 
not uncommon. Pinang. Roxburgh. Malayan name, Pinang 
Booreng Paday. 


* Descr.—Stem apparently very slender. Leaves scarcely more than a span long ; 
petioles 2-3 inches long, triangular, ferruginous scurfy ; sheaths of the same length ; 
lamina cuneate, bilobed to or beyond the middle, 7-8 inches long, 2 broad across 
the sinus, not coriaceous, lobes obliquely acuminate with twice as many acute teeth 
at the apex as there are keels. 

Spadix with 4 sub-digitate branches, the lowest arising about 2 inches from the 
base of the peduncle, they are 3-5 inches in length, spreading and not compressed. 

Fruits tetrastichous, ovate, attenuate at the base and surrounded by the cup- 
shaped perianthium, 63 lines long, 34 broad, distinctly mammillate at the apex ; 
substance thin, fibres tolerably copious. Seed one, erect. Albwmen horny, very 
much and deeply ruminate. Embryo basilar, rather obliquely situated. 

This is also closely allied to A. disticha, but is distinguishable by the more 
branched stouter spadix, the tetrastichous fruit, its larger size, and distinctly mam- 
millate apex. The stigma, judging from one abortive pistillum, is also 5-lobed. 
If the specimens of the leaves belong to the same plant as the spadix, it becomes 
probable that they are the mature form. 

It would also appear to be allied to A. Dicksoni, from which it may be distin- 
guished by the absence of stertile stamina, and the smaller and mamumillate fruit. 


» 
vo O 


462 The Palms of British East India. 


Descr.*—Stem arundinaceous with distinct subclavate lengthened 
joints; varying in height from 14 to 3-4 feet; parts lately exposed 
scurfy. Zeaves rather distant, in the larger specimens, 43 feet long, 
of which the naked base of the petiole is about 6 inches; pinne 
opposite, about a foot long, exceedingly and obliquely acuminate, 
above 3-4 keeled; terminal lobe deeply bipartite, many keeled, trun- 
cate and lobed at the apex: the bilobed leaves of the smaller 
specimens cuneate, forked, 12-14 inches long, 23 inches across the 
sinus, apex obliquely przemorse, 4-5-fid, divisions obtuse, bifid. 

Spadiz 3-4 inches long, simple in the smaller specimens, 2-3 times 
branched in the larger ; branches compressed, flexuose. Spathe oblong, 
about 4 inches long, 1 inch broad, acute. Flowers closely packed; one 
female between two males: the former distichous. 

Male flowers rather large, angular. Calyx membranaceous, minute, 
three-toothed. Petals much larger, unequal, (one nearly as large as both 
others,) oblong, oblique, cuspidate-acuminate. Stamens about 15; fila- 
ments short ; anthers linear. No rudiment of a Pistillum. 

Female flowers with a broad short bracte at their base. Perianth of 6 — 
coriaceo-scarious leaves, about equal in length; the inner (petals) the 
smallest. No rudiments of stamina. Ovarium oblong-ovate ; style very 
short; stégma large, obliquely discoid. 

Fruit spadices 3-6 inches long, branches slender, flexuose. Fruit 
orange-coloured or red, exactly distichous, one at each flexure, oblong, 
63 lines long, 33 broad, mammillate-attenuate at the apex, surrounded 
at the base by the cup-shaped perianth. Seed of the same shape, covered 
by a chartaceous integument, marked with longitudinal lines along 
which the integument is inflected. Albumen horny, ruminate. Embryo 
minute, conical, basilar. 


This plant varies much in size. Roxburgh describes the 
branches of the spadix as woolly: his drawing also repre- 
sents the petals as acute, not cuspidato-acuminate. 

The specimens from Malacca called Pinang Boorang 
Paday, from which the description of the male and female 
flowers is taken, are of a much larger stature in every respect, 
the spadices also are branched, the fruit much more elonga- 
ted, and with a tendency to be curved. Further examination 
may show them to belong to a distinct species. 


* Descr.—Stem and leaves much the same as in A. gracilis. Spadices slender- 
er, 3-4 times branched. Female flowers distichous, distant. 
Hasit.—Assam? Moosmai, near Churra Punjee, at an elevation of 4000 feet. 


The Paims of British East India. 4.63 


(ANACLASMUS ABERRANS.) 
80. (11) A. paradoxa, (n. sp.) fruticosa, nana, foliis pinna- 
tim fissis, pinnis inzequalibus oblique acuminatis, spadice 
simplici, fructu subulato curvato (albo) albumine zquabili. 


Haxsit.—Dense forests near the base of Goonoong Miring, 
Mount Ophir ; in fruit February, 1841. 


Descr.—Stem slender, 5-7 feet high, 3-4 lines in diameter, annulate, 
upwards roughish with ferruginous down. Crown of 6-8 leaves. Leaves 
13 foot long, 8 inches broad; petiole with a long, coriaceous, striate, 
ferruginously downy sheath, above which it is channelled, lower naked 
part about 6 inches long; lamina pinnate, pinne 6-8 inches long, and 
very obliquely cuspidato-acuminate, very unequal, with 3 or 4 or many 
keels ; terminal unequal at the base, bifurcate to the middle, irregularly 
toothed, teeth bifid sometimes split. 

Spadix issuing from the stem below the crown, simple, 4-5 inches 
long, obtuse, pendulous, glaucescent. Fruit distichous, suffulted by a 
minute but broad bracte, and by a double cup, (calyx and corolla) 
of six round imbricate broad scales. They are of a white colour, obtusely 
subulate, 8 lines long, 13 diameter in the widest part or just above the 
base, curved in shape, and of a fibrous substance. Seed one, conform ; 
tegument very thin, membrano-cellular; raphe of three fascicles, the 
central one reflexed near the apex of the seed, becoming confluent with 
the longer of the lateral vessels; the shorter one reflexed about the 
middle of the dorsum. Albumen solid, horny, slightly furrowed along 
the course of the vessels. Embryo minute, basilar, conical. 


The specimen is scarcely distinguishable, except in the 
form and structure of the fruit and seeds, from A. disticha. 
That structure however is so different as to suggest the pro- 
bability of its constituting a new genus. 


Secr. I1.—EUOPLUS. 

81. (12) A. tegillaria, arborea, pinnis bipedalibus pendu- 
lis, spatha exteriore pedunculoque armatis, interiore sub- 
inermi, floribus distantibus, seepe 1 feemineo 1 masculo, petalis 
ovatis in setas subito attenuatis, fructibus globuli sclopets 
minoris magnitudine. 


464 The Palms of British East India. 


A. tigillaria. Jack. Mal. Misc. (Cale. Journ. Nat. Hist. 4. 
p. 12.) 


Hasir.—On the borders of Paddy swamps, Malacca, com- 
mon. Malayan name, Nibong. In forests, Lainear, to the 
South of Mergui? 


Descr.—A very elegant Palm. Trunk 30-40 feet high, distinctly 
annulate, armed, surrounded with offsets at the base. Crown thick, 
graceful. Leaves pinnate, 10-12 feet in length; petiole roundish, armed, 
upwards very scurfy ; pinne about 2 feet long, conduplicate at the base, 
very much acuminate, pendulous, coriaceous, many veined, principal 
keel above excentric, ferruginous scurfy, underneath bearing scales 
attached by their middle. 

Spadices from the axille of lately fallen leaves; peduncle slightly 
armed; branches many, long, undulato-flexuose, lower ones divided, 
upper simple. A rudimentary bractea at the base of the lower ones. 
Spathes (complete) two, boat-shaped, bicarinate, of a stout texture, 
outer green, covered here and there with whitish-ferruginous scurf, 
armed on the dorsum especially about the carine ; inner almost unarm- 
ed, more scurfy, velvety to the touch. 

Flowers crowded, one female between two males, or in pairs, one male 
and one female, the former more advanced. Male ; sepals subcordate, 
cuspidate, carinate, anticous one the largest. Petals 3, valvate, coriace- 
ous, suddenly acuminate into subulate bristles, spreading. Stamina 6 ; 
filaments short, stout, cohering slightly with the petals; anthers large, 
sagittate, obtuse. Rudiment of a Pistillum rather large, white, of three 
carpel leaves distinct nearly from the base. 

Female flowers suffulted by a broad inconspicuous bracte. Sepals 
imbricate, suborbicular, concave, fleshy, coriaceous. Petals larger, im- 
bricate. Rudimentary stamina 3 or none. Ovarium roundish, of the size 
of a small pea, I-celled. Style none. Stigmata 3, connivent. Ovulum 
appense pendulous. 

Spadix of the fruit: branches 1-2 feet long, pendulous, purplish-san- 
guineous, with an articulated appearance. Berry globose, size of a car- 
bine bullet, surrounded at the base by the perianth, marked towards 
the apex on one side with an areola, bearing in the centre the remains 
of the stigmata; endocarp; fibres few, thin. Seed appense just below 
the areola; funicle large, sub-intrant, so that the transverse section is 
sub-reniform. Tegument thin, scarcely separable from the endocarp. 
Albumen horny, deeply ruminate. Embryo oblong-conical, basilar. 


The Palms of British East India. 465 


The trunk of this palm is in much request for making 
posts. Jack (I. c.) says, that there is only one spathe, and 
that the flowers are one male to two females. He does not 
notice any obliquity of the fruit. 


82. (13) A. horrida,* (n. sp.) arborea, pinnis 2-3 peda- 
libus patentibus, spathis pedunculoque spadicis armatissimis, 
floribus congestis, femineo inter duos masculos, petalis 
lanceolato-oblongis in setas attenuatis, fructibus globuli 
sclopeti majoris magnitudine. 

A. Nibung.t Mart. Palm. ¢. 153, f. V? 


Hasit.—Common in densely wooded valleys and ravines, 
Ching. On wooded hills, Laydang Soobubi, but rare. In 
woods at the base of Battoo Bakar, Malacca. Malayan name, 
Bhyass. 


Descr.t{—An elegant Palm, 30-40 feet in height, sending off offsets 
at the base. Trunk annulate, the spaces between the rings much armed. 
Crown rather thin. Leaves spreading in every direction, 14-16 feet long, 
5 feet broad; sheaths leathery, much armed, 2 feet long; petiole 
bearing pinne nearly from the base, green, stout, flattened at the base, 
compressed at the apex, otherwise trigonal, covered with brown irre- 
gular scales, armed throughout, but especially underneath, with black- 
brown flat not very strong spines§ ; pimne alternate or sub-opposite, 
nearly linear, 2-3 feet long, subulate-acuminate, coriaceous, dark-green, 
above keeled along the centre, with two lateral plaits on either side, 
spreading or oblique, never pendulous, as in A. tigillaria; a few scales 
attached by the middle along the central vein underneath. Threads very 
fine, pendulous, at length deciduous. 

Spadiz axillary ; peduncle stout, yellow, flattened at the base, much 
armed on the spaces between the insertion of the spathes, above these 


* A third species of the section, with the habit of this species but smaller, is com- 
mon on the cliffs of the sea-shore a little to the North of Koondoor, near Malacca. 
Its Malayan name is Nibong Paday. I have not seen it in flower or fruit. 

+ This name is scarcely tenable, the true Nibung being Areca tigillaria, Jack. 

t Partly from dried specimens: perfect spadices at time of opening of the 
spathes not seen. ‘ 

§ This is the general character of the armature. 


466 The Palms of British East India. 


unarmed ; branches pendulous, flexuose, about equal, 2 or 3 times 
branched or simple, 1-2 feet long, each suffulted by a yellow bracte with a 
broad base, the upper of which degenerate into scales. Spathes two, com- 
plete, acutely margined, coriaceous, armed with rather weak brown-black 
spines, 1-12 foot long, of a greenish colour outside when mature, 
yellow and polished inside : the inner one with a stout, unarmed cuspis . 
incomplete also two, cuspidate, armed, very unequally conduplicate. 
Flowers about 4 ranked, inserted just above a protuberance of the 
branch of the spadix ; lower ones, one female between two males, upper 
males in pairs. 

Male calyx of three imbricate, carinate, sub-membranaceous sepals. 
Petals 3, valvate, subulate or almost setaceo-acuminate. Stamina 6, 
sagittate. Rudiment of a Pistillum rather large, of three, sometimes two, 
imperfect carpel-leaves. 

Female-calyx, sepals roundish-cordate, imbricated. Corolla conical in 
bud. No rudimentary stamina ? Ovarium of one larger complete carpel, 
and two incomplete ones.* Style none. Stigma (of the perfect ovule 
bearing carpel) linear, running nearly half way to the base of the ovari- 
um. Ovulum anatropous. 

Spadix of the fruit; branches 2-4 feet long, pendulous, without 
spathes, each suffulted by a coriaceous acuminate broad-based bracte. 
Fruit sessile, size of a musket-ball, purplish-black, surrounded at the 
base by the perianth, oblique, the true apex pointed out by a con- 
spicuous mamilla on one side near the middle; epicarp coriaceous ; fibres 
very few; endocarp membranous. Seed round, appense-pendulous, at- 
tached by a broad base, whitish-brown, reticulate with white veiny 
lines ; hilum large, with a tendency to have an entering process. Al- 
bumen horny, deeply ruminate. Embryo not observed. 


This species is allied to A. ¢géllaria, but is very distinct in 
the spathes and fruit. The flowers also are much more 
crowded, and generally appear to have the usual arrange- 
ment ; viz. one female between two males. The young spa- 
dices from the contrast in colour between the spathes and 
their spines and the waviness and adpression of these have 
the appearance of tortoise-shell. 


* These are folded together, the margins united about the middle, above free, 
and evidently stigmatic. 


The Palms of British East India. 467 


BENTINCKIA. 


Berry MSS. Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 621. Mart. Palm. p. 
929. t.139. Endl. Gen. p. 251. No. 1749. Keppleria. Mart. 
Endl. Gen. 1. c. No. 1750. (e Martio.) 


Cuar. Gen.—Spathae 2, vel plures, intima completa. 
Flores monoici in distinctis spadicibus, aut rarius polygami, 
e foveis tandem emergentes, masculi alternatim distichi, 
feeminei solitarii. Masc. Stamina 6. Fem. Ovarium trilocu- 
lare. Ovulum 1. Bacca obliquissima (stigmatibus basilari- 
bus.) Semen sulcatum. Albumen solidum. Embryo basilaris. 


Hasitus.—Truncus tenuis, arundinaceus, annulatus. 
Frondes pinnatae. Spadix infra folia erumpens, paniculatim 
ramosus, rubescens. Flores parvuli, compage subglumacea, 
rubentes. Bacce purpurascentes, parvulae. 


Bentinckia Coddapanna, Berry MSS. in Roxb. Fl. Ind. l. 
c. Mart. Palm. l. c. 


Haxsit.—In mountains, Travancore. Roxburgh. Wight. 
Flowers in June, seeds ripen eight or nine months afterwards. 
Telinga name, Codda-panna. 


Descr.*—An elegant, slender Palm, about 20 feet high. Zrunk about 
an inch in diameter. Pinne@ linear, 2 feet or more in length, nearly an 
inch broad, much acuminate, rigid, closely inserted, generally split at 
the point into two exceedingly narrow triangular portions, 2 to 4 inches 
long, the fissure often bearing a thread; above about 3-keeled, the mid- 
keel below furnished with palez. 

Spadices 1-13 foot long. Spathes membranaceous; outer one or two 
short, truncate, incomplete ; inner complete, longitudinally striate. 
Common peduncle 2-8 inches long, violet towards the base, branches 
few, each with a membranous broad semi-amplexicaul bracte, 3 or 4 
times divided ; of the female simple, generally only with two divisions. 
Colour of the male spadices scarlet, of the female pale lilac or violaceous. 
Spikes 6 inches to a span in length, subfastigiate. 


* Chiefly from Martius, 1. c. Dr. Wight communicated to me specimens of part 
of the leaves, and some immature spadices. 


468 The Palms of British East India. 


Male-flowers disposed in rather loose spires, immersed in niches, which 
are at first nearly closed, afterwards opening vertically. In each niche 
wo, three, or even four flowers, occasionally a female in those towards 
he base of the spikes, the upper ones opening first. An ovate-triangu- 
lar bracte under the lowermost flower; a small bracteole bearded on the 
upper margin on the outer side of the upper ones. Calyx about a line 
long, sepals glumaceous, oblong, concave, rather obtuse. Petals nearly 
twice the length of the calyx, purplish, ovate, acutish, valvate. Stamina 
6, included; filaments subulate ; anthers ovate, subcordate. Rudiment of 
the Pistillum subtrigonal, nearly as long as the stamina. 

Female flowers. Perianth subglumaceous, imbricate, striato-veiny. 
Filaments without anthers: Ovarium ovate, three-celled. Style almost 
wanting. Stigmata three, triangular. 

Berry ovato-globose, rather compressed, 6-7 lines long, surrounded at 
the base by the perianth, bearing the stigmata near the base. Seed 
sub-globose, brown, with a rather deep complete furrow, and several 
other shorter ones. Zesta obscurely chesnut-coloured, with veins arising 
from the groove near the embryo, and converging towards the base on 
the opposite face. Albumen solid, horny. Embryo basilar, conical, nearly 
a line long. 


Martius describes the petals of the male flowers as equal 
in length to the sepals, and the perianthium of the female as 
similar to that of the male. This last, which attributes a val- 
vate corolla to the female flower, I do not find to be cor- 
rect, and in the plate quoted, the petals of the male are 
represented as I have described them. 

This Palm was re-introduced during my superintendence 
of the Honorable Company’s Botanic Garden, from Travan- 
core, through Dr. Wight and Mr. Thomas, Collector of 
Tinnevelly. It appears like most of the other numerous cases 
to have been lost since Dr. Roxburgh left the Gardens. 


SLACKIA. 


Cuar. Gen.—Spaihe 2, incompletae, vaginantes. 
Flores monoici in eodem spadice, e foveis tandem emer- 
gentes ; feeminei inferiores, solitarii vel masculo adjecto, 
masculi superiores, binati. Stamina 6, filamentis basi 


The Palms of Britésh East India. 469 


coalitis, (fl. faem. castrata). Ovarium gibbum, 3-loculare, 
l-ovulatum. Stigmata 3. Drupa obliquissima (stigmatibus 
basilaribus.) Albumen corneum, simpliciter ruminatum. 
Embryo basilaris. 


Hasitus.—Palma malayana, areceformis, fruticosa. Fo- 
lia pinnatim fissa: rete O. Spadices axillares, nutantes, 
ramis (spicis) stmplicibus, sepius 2, aliquando pluribus. Flores 
- subglumacet, albidi. Drupe nigrescenti-purpureae, obovato- 
oblonge. 

Genus Bentinckiz proximum, discrepans spathis et albu- 
mine ruminato. Folia etiam pinnatim fissa. Habitus Geo- 
nome, quod genus differt filamentis in columnam connatis, 
antherarum loculis divaricatis, stylo (ovarii virginei) basilari 
et albumine zquabili. 

Dicatum beato Henrico Slack, botanico magne spei, ztate 
iniente infelici casu abrepto. 


S. geonomeformis. 


Haxsit.—Forests, Ayer Punnus (Rhim), Malacca, rather 
common. In flower and fruit in July, 1842. Malayan name, 
Pinang Rambeh. 


Descr.—Stem slender, 2-4 feet high, about 4 inch in diameter, dis- 
tinctly annulate. Leaves pinnately split, 3-34 feet long, 1-14 broad, in 
outline linear-oblong: sheaths about a span long, striate ; naked base of 
- petiole about a foot long, scurfy pubescent; pimne a foot or more in 
length, obliquely acuminate and nearly entire, or obliquely przemorse 
and eroso-dentate, varying in breadth from 4 an inch to 2 inches, with 
two or 2-more keels accordingly ; terminal bilobed, lobes broad, eroso- 
dentate ; threads very fine. 

Spathes about two, incomplete, leathery membranous, the lower one 
bicarinate ; the upper twice as long, conduplicate, open interiorly to 
about its middle, like the spadix covered with brown pubescence. 
Spadix nodding, generally dichotomous, sometimes racemosely branch- 
ed ; a scale-shaped, likewise scurfy pubescent, acute bracte at the base of 
the divisions. Spikes roundish, rather thick, of a spongy aspect 6-10 
inches long. 


o PF 


470 The Palms of British East India. 


Flowers partly immersed in niches with fimbriate membranaceous 
margins. Males in pairs, tribractreate. Sepals three, oblong-concave, 
striate, sub-coriaceous. Petals valvate, ovato-lanceolate, sub-acute, 
coriaceous. Stamens 6; filaments stoutish, united at the base, upper part 
inflexed in estivation; anthers large, linear-oblong, 2-celled, versatile. 
Pollen 1-plicate. Rudimentary Pistillum angulato-sulcate, conico-cylin- 
dric, stout, with a discoid three-lobed apex. 

female flowers in the lower part of the spikes, tribracteate. Sepals 
as in the male. Petals broad, with a short broad point, imbricate. Six 
rudimentary stamina. Ovarium roundish, gibbous on one side, attenuated 
into a short stout style; with one cell on the gibbous side, containing 
one appense-pendulous oyulum. Stigmata 3, ovate, small, spreading 
or recurved. 

Fruit spadix elongated, 1-14 foot long, presenting at the base the re- 
mains of the spathes, nodding; peduncle compressed or sub-trigonal. 
Fruit sub-drupaceous, oblong, obovate, 54-6 lines long, 4 wide, sur- 
rounded at the base by the perianth, very oblique, presenting on one side 
near the base the style. Seed erect, obovate roundish ; tegument mem- 
branaceous, inflexed along simple lines, visible on the surface of the 
seed, converging towards the foramen. Albumen horny, simply ruminate. 
Embryo basilar. 


It is scarcely distinguishable at first sight from Areca dis- 
ticha, and like it, varies much in size and shape of the pinne. 

I have placed both this and Bentinckia in Arecine, as 
the bulk of the affinities seems to me to indicate. I cannot 
perceive the necessary affinity between any of the genera 
arranged in Endlicher’s Genera Plantarum as pinnate-leaved 
Borassine, and the true genera of that sub-family. 


Sect. II. 

Spathae plures, incomplete. Flores monoici (vel interdum 
polygami ?) in.uno vel distinctis spadicibus, vel dioici; mas- 
culi binati, cum vel absque feemineo interjecto. Corolla feemi- 
nea valvata. Stamina sepissime indefinita. Ovarium 2-3- 
triloculare, 2-3-ovulatum. Bacca 1-3-sperma. Albumen 
eequabile vel (in Caryota) ruminatum. Embryo dorsalis. 

Palmze monocarpicae, interdum ope sobolum perennantes, 
Srutescentes vel saepius arboreae. Folia pinnata vel bipinnata : 


The Palms of British East India. 471 


rete fibrosum: pinnae vel pinnulae varie erosae, lineares vel 
saepius cuneatae, saepius fasciculatae, subtus saepius albidae. 
Spathz imbricatae, pedunculum vestientes. Spadices axillares 
et terminales, (in speciebus monotces saltem) evolutione inversi, 
spicis saepius pendulis, fastigiatis. Sepala 3, imbricata. 
Petala totidem (vel corolla tripartita.) Anthere lineares, 
adnatae. Ovula solitaria. Succus aeris, urens. 

Palme monticole sylvicoleque, incolze e maxima parte 
orbis veteris et preesertim Archipelagi orientalis. Limes 
borealis specierum indicarum 27°-28° grad., altit. supra mare 
4,000 pedum. 

Usus.—Trunci integri pro asseribus, excavati pro aque- 
ductubus, fissi pro telis utuntur. E tela trunci centrali 
laxiori, farina, Sagum edita, paratur. Retis fibre (joo) in 
funes in aquam diutius stabiles torquentur. Succus recens 
(Toddy,) coctus Saccharum (Cabong) przebet et albumen im- 
maturum cum saccharo conservatum condimenta. Denique 
tomentum vaginarum igniario est idoneum. 


ARENGA. 


(Areng.) La Billardiere Mem. V Instit. 4. p. 209. (Martius). 
Mart. Progr. p. 23. Palm. p. 193. t. 208. Endl. Gen. Pl. 
248. No. 1734. 

Saguerus (vel Gomutus). Rumph. Hb. Amb. |. p. 57. t. 
13. Roxb. Icones. 14. ¢. 81. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 626. 

Borassus. Lour. Fl. Cochin. p. 617. ex. pte. 

Gomutus. Spreng. Gen. Pl. p. 450. No. 2222. 


Cuar. Gen.—Flores monoici in diversis spadicibus (vix 
semper). Stamina indefinita. Ovarium triloculare. Bacca 
vertice depresso-trigona, sub-triloba, trisperma. Aldumen 
equabile. Embryo dorsalis. 


Hasitus.—Palmez spectabiles, arboreae, monocarpicae, 
raro soboliferae. 'Truncus annulatus, apicem versus petiolo- 
rum basibus sacpius quasi squamatus. Folia pinnata; rete 


472 The Palms of British East India. 


copiosum fibris rigidis nigris intermixtum : petiolus interdum 
aculeatus ; pinne lineares, fasciculatae et plurifariae, vel 
solitariae bifariae, subtus albidae, basi uno vel utroque latere 
lobato-auriculatae, apice eroso-dentatae truncatae vel dentatae, 
vel bilobae. Spadices nutanti-pendulae ; spicis pendulis, saepius 
fastigiatis caudae equinae in modum dispositis. Flores majus- 
cult. Antherze mucronato-apiculatae. Bacce viridescentes, 
rotundatae, majusculae. Semen (endocarpio cohaerente ? ) sae- 
pius baccatum, saepius evenium. Succus acris. 


85. (1) A. saecharifera, elata, petiolis inermibus, pinnis 
fasciculatis 4-5 fariis lineari-ensiformibus basi utrinque auri- 
culatis (auricula inferiore longe producta) apice bilobis et 
varie dentatis. 

A. saccharifera. Ladill. Mem. Inst. Lam. Enc. Suppt. 
1. p. 441. Mart. Palm. p. 191. ¢. 108. Saguerus s. Gomu- 
tus. Rumph. Hb. Amb. 1. p. 57. t. 13. Saguerus Rum- 
phi. Roxb. 3. p. 626. Borassus Gomutus. Lour. fl. coch. 
p. 648. Gomutus saccharifer. Spreng. Syst. 2. p. 624. 


Hasit.—Malacca Province, generally cultivated, but less 
common in the littoral districts. dnowe of the Malays. 
Succeeds sufficiently well in the H. C. Botanic Gardens, 
flowering throughout the year. 


Descr.—A handsome palm, reaching to the height of 30-40 feet, 
Crown oblong, very dense, of a sombre aspect. Leaves very large, 20 
feet (or more) long, 10 broad, outline oblong-ovate; petiole very stout, 
channelled at the base, sprinkled with blackish scurf; pinne gener- 
ally fasciculate, 4-5 farious, the middle ones 5 feet long, 4-44 inches 
broad, linear-ensiform, coriaceous, dark green above, underneath white, 
margins with distant spinescent teeth, towards the apex becoming more 
frequent; apex itself bilobed or bifid, eroso-dentate ; base with one, or 
generally two unequal auricles, of which the lowermost is much the 
longer. 

Male spadi« 4-5 feet long. Spikes attenuate at the apex, and there 
furnished with a few rudimentary or abortive flowers. Flowers very 
numerous, oblong club-shaped, of a rich purple black colour, and a dis- 


The Palms of British East India. 473 


agreeable smell, of considerable size, often an inchlong. Sepals three, 
rounded, broad. Petals nearly three times longer, oblong obovate. 
Stamina 00; filaments short, slender; anthers nearly as long as the 
petals, aristato-mucronate. 

Female-flowers solitary, large, about an inch across. Sepals 3, very 
broad. Petals three, cordato-ovate, coriaceous. No sterile stamina. 
Ovarium shortly obturbinate, 3-celled, apex 3-lobed, concave in the cen- 
tre, whence arise 3 tooth-shaped, triangular, erect stigmata; substance 
thick, fleshy. Down the back of the lobes which are opposite the 
sepals runs a slight keel. Ovula erect. 

Fruit oblong-round, 2-23 inches long, surrounded at the base by the 
perianth ; apex flat or nearly concave marked with three lines, running 
from the backs of the persistent stigmata to the now nearly obsolete 
lobes ; substance (outer) coriaceous, thick, inner berried-cellular, gelati- 
nous, adhering for the most part to the seeds, abounding in raphides. 
Seeds dull black, convex on the outer, bifacial on the inner face, attenu- 
ate at the base. Albumen horny, cartilaginous. Embryo so eccentric 
as to point almost to the junction of the bifacial side. 


This is one of the handsomest and most useful Malayan 
Palms. It is very commonly cultivated in the interior, the 
lines of trees recalling to mind gothic arches. The 
parts chiefly used are the black fibres forming the rete, the 
juice, and the young albumen; the former are twisted into 
ropes or cordage, renowned for its power of resisting wet ; 
the juice is either drunk as toddy or made into sugar, 
which appears to be in great demand. The young albu- 
men preserved in syrup forms one of the well-known pre- 
serves of the Straits. Mr. Lewes informs me, that trees that 
have died after the ripening of the whole crop of fruit, 
which is the natural course, are almost hollow, and particu- 
larly adapted for making troughs, spouts or channels for 
water, and that they last extremely well under ground. 

In short it is so valuable a palm, that it early attracted 
Dr. Roxburgh’s attention,* who introduced it largely. The 

* With respect to the various and important uses of this most elegant 


palm, I have nothing to offer myself, but refer to what Rumphius and Marsden 
have written on the subject, At the same time, I cannot avoid recommending 


474 The Palms of British East India. 


natives however have never taken to it, prefering the coir of 
the cocoa-nut, and the toddy and sugar of Pheenix syl- 
vestris. 


86. (2) A. Westerhoutii, (n. sp.) petiolis inermibus, pinnis 
alternis bifariis. linearibus basi uni vel ex-auriculatis apice 
exattenuato truncatis szepius bilobis et varie dentatis. 


Hasit.—Naning, Malacca Peninsula, Mr. Westerhout. 
Penang. Mr. Lewes. Malayan names, Anowe kutaree, (Ma- 
lacca); Langkup (Penang.) 


Descr.*—A palm of about the size of the preceding. Leaves ample, 
linear-oblong in outline, 20 feet long, 10 feet across in the broadest 
part ; refe as in A. saccharifera; pinne sessile, about 5 feet in length, 3 
inches broad, alternate or sub-opposite, solitary, bifarious, very spread- 
ing with deflexed points, attenuate towards the base, the upper ones 
alone auriculate at the lower side, coriaceous, bright green above, white 
underneath and (with the petiole) scurfy towards the base ; margins with 
irregular spinescent teeth ; apex preemorse, dentate and erose, sometimes 
bilobed. 


to every one who possesses lands, particularly such as are low, and near the 
coasts of India, to extend the cultivation thereof as much as possible. The 
palm wine itself and the sugar it yields, the black fibres for cables and cordage, 
and the pith for sago, independent of many other uses, are objects of very great 
importance, particularly to the first maritime power in the world, which is in a 
great measure dependent on foreign states for hemp, the chief material of which 
cordage is made in Europe. 

From observations made in the Botanic Garden, well grown, thriving trees 
produce about six leaves annually, and each leaf yields from eight to sixteen 
ounces of the clean fibres. 

In the same garden are now (1810) many thousand plants, and young 
trees, some of them above twenty years growth, with trunks as thick as a stout 
man’s body, and from twenty to thirty feet high, exclusive of the foliage. They 
are in blossom all the year ; one of them was lately cut down, and yielded about 
150 pounds of good sago meal. (Roxb. op. cit.) 


* From an entire specimen of a young palm, procured from Naning by Mr. 


Westerhout, two male spadices, and several specimens of female flowers and 
fruits. 


The Palms of British East India. ATS 


Spadix curved-pendulous. Spathes fibrous, coriaceous, often split. 
Spikes about level topped. Male flowers in pairs, without an interposed 
rudimentary female, or solitary, with a rudimentary female. Calyx 
cup-shaped. Petals oblong, fuscous-purple. Stamima numerous ; fila- 
ments short, subulate ; anthers with mucronate or aristate ends. Pollen 
hispid, with a longitudinal fold. 

Female flowers solitary, sessile. Sepals broad. Petals three, cordate, 
concave, obtusely carinate. Ovarium roundish, trigonal, (angles opposite 
the sepals,) depressed at the apex, and there marked with three lines 
running from the angles to the stigmata, which are three, tooth-shaped, 
and connivent, so as to form a cone. 

Fruit roundish, about the size of a small apple, with a depressed 
three-lobed trigonal vertex, terminated by the sphacelated stigmata, sur- 
rounded at the base by the perianth, 2-3 celled; outer substance thick, 
fibrous-fleshy. Seed separating with the thick gelatinous-cellular, en- 
docarp, black ; when three convex-bifacial. Embryo oblique about the 
centre of the dorsal face of the horny albumen. 


Not having seen this palm growing, I am unable to say 
any thing regarding its habit. The chief difference from A. 
saccharifera is in the leaves. A obtusifolia, Bl., has the 
petioles furnished with marginal aculei. 

The Langkup of Penang may probably be distinct, the 
pinne being smaller and more truncate, the branches of the 
fruit spadix spreading, short, and the fruit larger and more 
oblong. 

I am not aware of its being applied to any use. I have 
Mr. Westerhout’s authority for stating it to be quite local, 
being only found in one place, although there abundant. 


87. (3) A. Wightiz, (n. sp.) sobolifera, trunco humili 3-8 
pedali, petiolis inermibus, pinnis alternis linearibus basi bi- 
auriculatis (auricula inferiore maxima) apice attenuato erosis 
inequaliter bilobis, spadicis ramis subfastigiatis, fl. feem. 
staminibus sterilibus pluribus, semine venoso, embryone 
supra medium. 


Haxsit.—Dense forests, Hills about Coimbatore, Dr. 
Wight. 


476 The Palas opaBeiish Bader Ladin. 


Descr.*—A monoicous palm forming by means of suckers dense 
clumps. Zrunk stout, as thick as a man’s thigh, generally 3-5 feet, 
rarely 8 feet high. Leaves 18-28 feet in length; lower naked part of 
the petiole 6-8 feet long; pinne alternate, crowded, linear ensiform, 3-33 
feet long, 13-2 inches broad, white underneath, with two large auri- 
cule at the base, (the lower very large indeed, 13-2 inches long, overlay- 
ing obliquely the petiole,) with a few distant teeth from the middle 
upwards; apex attenuate, unequally bi-lobed, erose; terminal lobe nar- 
row cuneate, 2-3-lobed, base shortly bi-auriculate, apex truncate, lobu- 
lose, and jagged-dentate. 

Spadices decurved pendulous, about 4 feet long: peduncle before 
branching about 2 feet long, quite concealed by the sheathing imbricate 
lacerate spathes. Male ; branches (spikes) about 2 feet long, sub-fastigiate, 
slender. A scale-shaped bracte at the base of each. Flowers in pairs 
rather distant, (altogether forming a rather thin mass of inflorescence, ) 
rather large, in pairs, with a vertical scale interposed. Calyx of three 
roundish imbricate sepals with thick bases. Petals 3, oblong, very 
thick and coriaceous. Stamina 00; filaments short; anthers linear, ad- 
nate, terminated by a longish subulate point. No rudiment of a pistil- 
lum. 

Branches of the female spadix attenuate towards the ends, where they 
bear rudimentary flowers. lowers solitary, under each a shallow en- 
tire or bi-lobed cup. Sepals broadly cordate, small. Petals roundish- 
cordate, acute or cuspidate. <Abortive stamina several.+ Ovariwm round- 
ish, 3-celled. Styles three, short, recurved. Ovula solitary. 

Fruit crowded on the lower halves of the stout spikes (the upper halves 
naked,) about the size of a crab apple. Seed convex on one face, un- 
equally bifacial on the other, separating easily except at the base from 
the black papery endocarp, brown, surface conspicuously marked with 
slightly branched veins, converging at the apex of the seed. Albumen 
horny. Embryo on one edge of the convex face, above the middle. 


This species approaches in its inflorescence closely to A. 
Westerhoutii. Its main differences from it seem to regard 
the pinne, which are attenuate and bi-lobed at the apex, 
(not as in that species undiminished or even wider and more 


* Specimens: portions of a leaf; an entire male, female, and fruit spadix, com- 
municated by Dr. Wight, with a letter describing the habit, and a drawing of the 
male spadix, male and female flowers, and a fruit-bearing branch. 

¢ In flowers shortly after fecundation, however, I find none. 


The Palms of British East India. 477 


or less truncate, and ex-auriculate at the base), and the seeds. 
It also disagrees in stature, in which respect it differs im- 
portantly also from A. saccharifera, as it also does in the 
solitary pinne and veiny seeds. 

I believe it is the first species hitherto found on the conti- 
nent of British India; it is dedicated to Dr. Wight its dis- 
coverer, to whom Indian Botany is so deeply indebted.* 


CARYOTA. 

Linn. (Mus. Cliff. p. 12.) Gen. Pl. ed. 6ta. p. 517. No. 1228. 
ed. Schreb. p. 779. No. 1701. ed. Spreng. p. 449. No. 2218. 
Juss. Gen. p. 38. Gaert. Sem. et. Fruct. 1, p.20.¢.7. Roxb. 
Icones. 14. ¢. 80. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 624. Jacq. Frag. Bot. p. 20, 
ttt. f-1..,Lam. Iilusir. (t. 897.) Mart. Progr. p. 18. 
Palmae. p. 193. ¢t. 107. 108, (bad.) ¢. 162, (bad.) (Tad. 5, 
Jf. 1, tab. Y, f. 1, 2.) Endl. Gen. p. 248. No. 1735. 

Seguaster Major, Rumph. Hb. Amb. 1. p. 64. t. 14. 

Schunda-pana, Rheede Hort. Mal. 1. p. 15. t. 11. 


Cuar. Gen.—Flores monoici, feemineus inter duos mas- 
culos. Stamina indefinita. Bacca sub-exsucca, szepius mono- 
sperma. Albumen ruminatum. Embryo dorsalis. 


Hasitrus.—Palmez elegantes, saepius procerae, monti-sylvi- 
colae, monocarpicae, interdum ope sobolum perennantes. 'Trun- 
co concinne annulatus. Folia bipinnata, amplissima; rete 


* I subjoin a short description of another species observed in the second 
Kiouk-dweng, or mountain defile of the Irawaddy. 

Stem stout, 10-15 feet high, covered with the bases of the petioles, Leaves 
10 feet long ; rete scanty, stout, with very long, black twig-like processes ; 
pinne ensiform, 2-23 feet long, 13 inch broad, white underneath, bi-auriculately 
lobed at the base, the lower lobe very large and decurrent. Spadices ample, 
nodding, pendulous. 

Haxr.—In densely shaded places of the second (from Mogam) Kiouk-dweng, 
or rocky defile of the Irawaddy, 7th May, 1837. 

This is the most northerly species of the genus. In the same locality Oro- 
phea, Dillenia, Hematospermum, Campanula, A‘sculus, were noticed. 

3 Q 


478 The Palms of British East India. 


tenue, fibrillosum ; pinnule cuneatae, oblique praemorsae, 
erosae, pagina utraque concolori. Spadices nutanti-penduli. 
Spice pendulae, saepius fastigiatae, caudae equinae in modo 
dispositae. Fl. fem. stamina rudimentaria tria. Bacce sub- 
globosae, rubescentes. Succus acerrimus. 

Specierum octo tres tantum satis bene cognitz; alice recog- 
noscende, tum fusius tum accuratius definiende. 


C. urens, arborea, pinnulis coriaceis spinuloso-dentato- 
lobatis et erosis, lateralibus obliquissimis margine exteriori 
producto caudato-acuminatissimis, staminibus sub-38, anther- 
is sepius emarginatis, baccis depresso-globosis 1-2-spermis 
slobuli sclopeti magnitudine. 


88. (1) C. urens. Linn. fl. zeyl. p. 187. No. 396. Willd. sp. 
Pl. 4. p. 493. Gaert. fruct. et. sem. 1. p. 20. t. 7. Roxb. 
Icones. 14. ¢. 80. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 625. Mart. Palm. p. 193. 
t. 107, ¢. 108, (indifferent,) ¢. 162, (very bad.) 

Schunda-pana. Rheede. Hort. Mal. |. p. 15. ¢. 11. 


Hasit.—lIn sandy places, Malabar. (Rheede.) On Hills 
Cavila-Cutty, with Teak and wild Mango trees. Velater, 
Malabar, where it is called Evim-pannah. Dinagepore, Buch. 
Hamilton.* A native of the various mountainous parts of 
India, flowering time the hot and rainy season. Roxb. Assam. 
Telinga, Jeroogoo. Dinapore. Ramguoah, Bon-khejur. Assam, 
Bura Sawar. 


Descr.t—A lofty, extremely elegant palm. Trunk a foot in diameter, 
35-40 feet high, with distinct distant annuli. Crown rather thin, of seve- 
ral ascending gracefully curved leaves, of great size, 18-20 feet long, 
10-12 broad. Petiole very stout, at the base about 3 inches across; 
the lower foot naked, the margins of the sheath continued up on it as 
an elevated confluent line. Rete moderate, coarsely fibrous. Pinne 
fascicled or generally alternate, inserted on large knobs, 5-6 feet long, 
curved or even drooping. The lowest pinnules attached to the petiole 


* Journ. Mysore. etc. 3. p. 64.-—Ditto 2. p. 454. 
¢ From specimens in the Botanic Gardens. 


The Palms of British East India. 479 


itself, crowded, broad cuneate, less obliquely praemorse, and generally 
not produced on the outer side; but the upper ones gradually assume 
the form of the other pinnules, which is narrow cuneate, with the outer 
edge caudato-acuminate; there are about 22-24 to each pinna, 12-15 
inches long, 14-2 inches broad, those of the uppermost pinne very 
narrow, even so as to be almost equilateral. All are sharply toothed, 
lobed and erose, coriaceous, plicate, green. Terminal pinnules broadly 
cuneate, two-lobed, or perhaps generally three-lobed. 

Spadices very large and long (10-12 feet): upper ones flowering first, 
and so on, till that next the ground has flowered, when the tree dies. 
Peduncle curved, stout, entirely covered with large, greyish, coriaceous, 
leathery, 1-14 foot long, closely imbricated spathes. Spikes very long, 
pendulous, level-topped, resembling a huge docked tail. Flowers im- 
mensely numerous, in threes, the central and lowermost later in de- 
velopment, female. Male sepals three, roundish, cordate, ciliate, imbricat- 
ed. Petals oblong, reddish. Stamens about 38; filaments short, white ; 
anthers about as long as the petals, linear, generally with bifid or 
emarginate points. No rudiment of a Pistillum. 

Female flowers much the same, but the sepals are broader, more ciliate, 
the corolla shorter, greenish. Sterile stamina three, opposite the sepals 
and angles of ovarium, resembling young anthers. Ovariwm subtrigonal, 
roundish, bilocular, cells fore and aft. Ovules solitary, erect. Stigmata 
2, cordate, white. Berry reddish, ‘ about the size of a nutmeg, covered 
with a thin, yellow, acrid bark, but nothing that deserves the name of 
pulp. Seed generally solitary,” (Roxb.) “ Albumen horny. Embryo 
conical, centric.’ (Martius.) 


This and the Phoenix sylvestris when allowed to reach 
its full size unmutilated, are the handsomest and most use- 
ful palms of the Peninsula of India. 

“ This tree is highly valuable to the natives of the coun- 
tries where it grows in plenty. It yields them, during the 
hot season, an immense quantity of toddy or palm wine. I 
have been informed that the best trees will yield at the rate 
of one hundred pints in the twenty-four hours. The pith 
or farinaceous part of the trunk of old trees, is said to be 
equal to the best Sago; the natives make it into bread, and 
boil it into thick gruel; these forma great part of the diet 
of those people; and during the late famine, they suffered 


480 The Palms of British East India. 


little while those trees lasted. I have reason to believe 
this substance to be highly nutritious. I have eaten the 
gruel, and think it fully as palatable as that made of the Sago 
we get from the Malay countries.” Hob. op. cit. 


89. (2) Caryota obtusa, (n. sp.) arborea, pinnulis valde 
inzquilateralibus erosis dentibus brevibus obtusissimis, flori- 
bus masculis distantibus, antheris mucronulatis. 


Hasit.—Mishmee Mountains in woods about Yen. Alti- 
tude above the sea 3-4000 feet. 


Descr.*—A very large palm; diameter of the trunk 13-2 feet. Leaves 
very large; pinnules cuneate, very unequal sided, coriaceous, when dry 
remarkably striato-plicate; the outer side scarcely at all produced ; 
the teeth short, very obtuse. 

Branches of the male spadix long, flexuose, scurfy. lowers distant, 
three together, the central (female) later in development. Males about 
5 lines long. Sepals rounded, scurfy and ciliate. Petals 24 times longer 
than the sepals. Stamina indefinite. Anthers linear, mucronulate. Fe- 
male flower (in bud.) Calyx as in the male. Petals much smaller, val- 
vate. Sterile stamina 3, opposite to the sepals. Ovarium subturbinate 
with a trigonal vertex, 1-2 celled. Ovwla solitary, erect. Stigmata 2, ob- 
long, cordate-subreflexed. 


I met with this palm in 1837, during a hurried journey to 
the Mishmee Mountains. Its habit is that of C. urens, from 
which the obtusely toothed pinnules at once distinguish it. 
The Assamese coolies who were with me called it Bura 
Suwar, their name for C. urens. The Mishmees make use 
of the central soft portion of the trunk as food. 

The pinnule are not unlike those of Seguaster major, 
Rumph. Hb. Am. |. t. 14; but my specimens do not contain 
an entire pinna, with the attaching part of the petiole. 

I find in my notes mention made ofa second species inha- 
biting the Mishmee Mountains, with the inflorescence of an 


* Partly from notes made on the spot, from dried specimens of a portion of a 
leaf and a spadix. 


The Palms of British East India. 48 | 


orange yellow colour. Attention should also be directed to 
the “‘Semoong-koong”* of Sikkim, which is probably a spe- 
cies of Caryota. 


90. (3) C. sobolifera, arbuscula, sobolifera, pinnulis sub- 
obtuse erosis et dentatis latere exteriori cuspidato-acumina- 
tis, staminibus circiter 17, antheris mucronulatis, baccis 
szpius monospermis depresso-globosis magnitudine globuli 
sclopetarii minoris. 

C. sobolifera. Mart. Palm. p. 194. 


Hasir.—About Malacca and on Pulo Bissar in woody 
places. Malayan name, Tookkus. Doodoor of Penang, Mr. 
Lewes. Introduced into the Botanic gardens in 1816 from 
the Mauritius, flowers duing the greater part of the year. 


Descr.t—A very elegant Palm, forming by its offsets very thick com- 
pact tufts. Stems 12-15 feet high, 4-5 inches in diameter, greenish, dis- 
tinctly annulate. Leaves 8-9 feet long, spreading, nodding towards the 
apex, glaucescent greenish; petioles and sheaths scurfy downy; pin- 
nule (basilar) sub-opposite, (the rest alternate,) obcuneato-deltoid, 
obliquely preemorse, the outer margin acuminate, regularly and rather 
obtusely jagged. 

Spathes concealing the whole peduncle, almost boat-shaped, at length 
deciduous. Spikes very numerous about a foot long, altogether resem- 
bling a docked tail, axis or rachis green, sulcate. Male flowers very 
numerous, oblong, flesh-coloured, with reddish points. Calyx cup- 
shaped, sepals broad, imbricate. Corolla of three, coriaceous, striate, 
almost distinct, petals. Stamina about 17; filaments united at the base, 
very short; anthers linear, adnate, generally slightly mucronulate. Pol- 
len ovato-lanceolate, 1-3 plicate. 

Female flowers at the time of expansion of the males minute, rudimen- 
tary, not developed until after the males of the same spadix have fallen 
off. They are smaller than the males, not always solitary, but sometimes 
in pairs or threes, or solitary with a scar of one male only. Bracteole 
two, right and left. Sepals rounded, with a brown intromarginal line, 
and ciliate edges. Corolla twice as long, tripartite to a little below the 


* See Journal of the Agricultural Society of India, vol. 2. p. 323. 
t Description, excepting the female flowers, from the Malacca Plant. 


482 The Paims of British East India. 


middle, coriaceous, brown, valvate. Barren stamina 3, united to the corolla 
as far as the sinuses of its segments, ends thickened, glandular, yellowish. 
Ovarium roundish-ovate, with three obtuse angles, 1 or sometimes 2-cel- 
led. Stigma 1, or sometimes 2, cordate, channelled down the middle. Ovu- 
les 1, or sometimes 2, according to the stigmata and cells of the ovary. 

Fruit surrounded at the base by the perianth, depressed, roundish, 
about the size of a carbine bullet, greenish red, or red, presenting (gene- 
rally) at the apex an oblique cordate stigma; epicarpium brittle, sub- 
fibrous. Seed one. Albumen horny, ruminated. Embryo situated ob- 
liquely above the middle of the albumen. 


I can find no distinction between the Malacca and the Bo- 
tanic Garden specimens, the former, however, were not 
noted to be soboliferous. 

The substance of the ovarium, the buds and the outer 
surface of the albumen abound with raphides. 

Martius* mentions his having only met with one ovulum 
and a simple stigma. I find however, often two stig- 
mata, when the ovarium is two-celled; in the other case the 
stigma is oblique, and the ovarium smaller. 

Dr. Martius is to be considered the authority for the 
species. 

WALLICHIA. 


Roxb. Corom. Pl. 3. t. 295. (1819 Sprengel.) Mart. Progr. 
p. 1%. Reichenb. Consp. Reg. Veg. p. 72. No. 1647. Baril. 
Ord. Nat. p. 65. Spreng. Gen. pl. p. 285. No. 1476. Lindl. 
Int. Nat. Ord. p. 346—non D. C. nec Reinwdt. 

Harina. Ham. Mem. Wern. 5. p. 317. Spreng. Gen. pl. p. 
792. No. 4110. Mart. Palm. p. 188. t. 136. (part. mala.) 
Endl. Gen. pl. p. 248. No. 1732. 

Wrightea. Roxb. Icones. 14. t. 78. Fl. ind. 3. p. 621. non 
R. Br. 

Orania. Blume. Mart. Palm. p. 186. t. 157. Endl. Gen. pl. 
p. 248. No. 1731. Bl. Rumphia. t. 85. 

Seguaster minor. Rumph. Hb. Amd. 1. t. 15. 


* Palmae. 1. c. 


The Palms of British East India. 483 


Cuar. Gen.—Flores mono-dioici. Masculi binati. Stamina 
6 vel indefinita. Feminei solitarii vel masculo utrinque sti- 
pati. Bacca sub-exsucca, 1-2-sperma. Albumen zquabile. 
Embryo dorsalis. 


Hasitus.—Palme cespitosae, humiles, frutescentes, sobo- 
liferae (an semper ?), aliquando arundinaceae, truncis mono- 
carpicis. Folia pinnata; rete fibrosum ; pinne infimae saepius 
Jfasciculatae, superiores solitariae, e bast cuneata integerrima 
varie lobatae dentataeve (lobis dentibusque spinuloso-erosis), 
striato-veniae, subtus albidae et nigro punctulatae. Flores 
mono-dioici, vel polygami in diversis spadicibus, vel monoice 
in eodem spadice? Spadices masculi, vel axillares inversa 
ordine evoluti, nutanti-penduli, ramosissimi spicis fastigiatis 
e maxima parte spathis inclusis; vel (Oranie) terminales, 
parce ramost, spicis exsertis. Flores inferiores per paria dis- 
posite cum vel absque feminet rudimento ; superiores solitarit. 
Spadices faeminei terminales, ramis paucis exsertis, interdum 
simplices. Spicae apice attenuatae, polygamae? Flores soli- 
tarii, bi-tribracteolatz. Fructus oblongi, interdum obliqui, rubri 
vel albi. Succus causticus. 

The genus Wallichia was first established by Dr. Rox- 
burgh in 1819.* 

In 1826, it appeared as Harina of Buchanan Hamilton.+ 

In 1852, it re-appeared under the name Wrightea in the 
Flora Indicat of Dr. Roxburgh. And this was the original 
MSS. name, which it became necessary to change, owing to 
the prior appearance of the Wrightia§ of Mr. Brown. 

The synonymy became very confused by the appearance 
in 1823, four years after the publication of the Coromandel 
plants, of the Wallichia of De Candolle,|| a plant belonging 
to the family of Byttneriacez. 

* Cor. Pl. 3. t. 295. This date is taken from Sprengel’s Genera, there being 
no complete copy of the Coromandel Plants in the H. C. Botanic Gardens. 


+ Mem. Wern. Soc. 5. p. 317. ft Op. Cit. 3. p. 621. 
§ Mem. Wern. Soc. 1. p. 73. || Mem. Mus. 10. p. 104, t. 6, 


484 The Palms of British East India. 


These are the synonyms which are the most concerned, 
but the name Wallichia has also been applied to a Rubiace- 
ous genus, the Axanthes of Blume; also Dr. Wallich* states 
by Roxburgh himself in his MSS. to another Rubiaceous 
genus, the Urophyllum of Jack. 

Both Harina of Hamilton and Wallichia of De Candolle, 
appear to have been adopted without remark by the genera- 
lity of Botanists, except by Reichenbach,} Bartling,{ and 
Lindley,§ none of whom, however, take any notice of Harina. 
Harina may, still, through Dr. Martius|| be now considered 
as quite current, although in favour of Wallichia there is 
claim of priority of seven years. And as for the Wallichia 
of De Candolle, it is so far from being so distinct as that 
Botanist considered it, that it has already merged into 
Microchlena, which again is considered by that very com- 
petent authority, Dr. Wight, as not distinct from Erio- 
chleena. 

It is I think singular, and not less consoling to colonial 
Botanists, that a genus belonging to so notable a family as 
Palms, and published in such an enormous, conspicuous, and 
well-known work as the Coromandel Plants, should have 
been overlooked by two Botanists, one writing at Geneva, 
the other in Edinburgh. For the appearance of Wrightea 
in the Flora Indica, twenty-one years after that of Wrightea 
of Mr. Brown, Dr. Wallich may be considered responsible, 
because from his office, professed friendship, and reiterated 
veneration for Dr. Roxburgh, he ought to have been the 
Editor of the second edition of that work, which from want 
of proper supervision is so much disfigured by obscurities 
and typographical errors. 


* Flor. ind. ed. Carey. 2. p. 674. t+ Consp. Regn. Veg. p. 72. 
t+ Ord. Natur. Pl. p. 65. § Introd. Nat. Ord. p. 346. 


|| Palm. p. 188, where no remark is made on the change of name from Wallichia, 
under which it appeared in his Programma, p. 17. 


The Palms of British East India. 485 


* Flores monvict. Stamina sex. 


91. (1) W. earyotoides, pinnis inferioribus 3-4-natim fasci- 
culatis cuneatis panduriformi-lobatis apice ambitu triangula- 
ribus, floribus faemineis distantibus tribracteatis, alabastris 
rotundo-conicis, petalis tribus acutis erectis ovario subduplo 
longioribus. 

W. caryotoides. Roxb. Corom. pl. 3. t. 295. Wrightea 
caryotoides. Roxb. Icon. 14. t. 78. Fl. Ind. 3. p.621. Harina 
caryotoides. Ham. in Mem. Wern. Soc. p. 317. Mart. Palm. 
p. 188, (excl. syn. Hamut.) ¢. 136, (mal.) 


Hasir.—Chittagong, where it is called Chilputta or Bel- 
putia, (Roxb.) Cultivated in the H. C. Botanic Gardens. 


Descr.—An elegant tufted Palm, each tuft consisting of several very 
shortstems. Leaves ascending curved, 8-9 feet long, 24 feet broad, oblong 
in outline; petiole naked and roundish throughout the lower 4 feet, 
among the pinne bifacial on the upper side, sprinkled with brown and 


“age pur! ; pinne ae in threes, cee fours, intermediate 


coriaceous, with a deep notch Cranwretren On either side Teeecan the 
middle, and a shallower one at the apex on either side of the midvein : 
the margins of these lobed, and erose: teeth close set, almost spinous ; 
the terminal pinna cuneate, bilobed at the apex, sides above the middle 
lobed, and similarly erose-dentate. 

Male spadix not seen.* 

Female spadix terminal, shorter than the leaves, erect, or almost nod- 
ding. Spathes closely imbricated, concealing the peduncle. Spikes 
spreading, stout, marked under each flower with a distinct areola, with 


attenuate points, bearing neuter flowers, which are cylindrical with 6 


barren stamina and no Pistillum. 

Next to these occur some, nearly if not quite hermaphrodite, with ge- 
nerally three full sized stamina, and a seemingly well developed Pistil- 
lum. The other flowers are female, and are in bud roundish-conical. 
Sepals three, short, rounded. /Pefals three, ovate-cordate, erect, acute, 

* Roxburgh’s drawing represents the spadix terminal, nodding, the flower bear- 
ing part pendulous. The spathes acuminate, not entirely appressed to the pedun- 
cle, those next the flowers distichous, and rather shorter than the spikes, all being 


of a grey-green tint. The leaves next the inflorescence have the pinnae almost 
truncate, with one or two notches above the middle, the lowermost being in pairs. 


‘eth oR 


486 The Palms of British East India. 


almost spinous pointed, about twice as long as the calyx and ovarium, 
greenish. No rudiments of Stamina. Ovarium roundish-turbinate, 2-celled, 
with a very short conical sty/e and an emarginate stigma. Ovules soli- 
tary, ascending. 

Fruit oblong, about 3 an inch long, reddish, with a thin flesh. Seeds 
generally two, about the size of a coffee-seed, plano-convex, with an in- 
distinctly reticulate-veined surface ; tegument adhering to the albumen, 
which is horny and solid. Embryo conical, a little above the centre of 
the convex or dorsal face. 


This I believe is Roxburgh’s plant, the pinnae agreeing 
in shape with the outline figure of one in his original drawing. 
Still, however, there are many discrepancies, Roxburgh re- 
presenting the spadix as terminal, with both male and female 
flowers, and resembling in most respects the male spadix of 
the succeeding, whereas the garden plants are as I have des- 
cribed them, their spadices evidently corresponding to the 
female spadices of the succeeding. 

Hamilton’s plant, which he considered the same as Rox- 
burgh’s, appears to me from his description distinct. I have 
therefore quoted his synonym doubtfully. 


92. (2) W. oblongifolia, (n. sp.) pinnis imis binatim fas- 
ciculatis (reliquis solitariis) lineari-oblongis basi breviter 
cuneatis integerrimis caeterum sinuoso-lobatis dentatisque ut 
plurimum eroso-serratis obtuse acuminatis, spathis (spad. 
masculi) ventricosis spadicem e maxima parte obcludentibus, 
floribus faemineis densis bibracteatis, corolla tridentata quam 
ovarium breviore segmentis depressis. 

Harina caryotoides. H. B. C. non Roxb. H. densiflora, 
Mart. Palm. p. 189. in annot ? 


Hasit.—Assam. Major Jenkins, Mr. Masters. Sub-Hima- 
layan range. Darjeeling. Seharunpore collectors. Cultivated 
in the H. C. Botanic Gardens, flowering in May and June. 


Descr.—A very elegant Palm forming thicker tufts than the preced- 
ing. Leaves rather larger, the lower ones spreading ; petiole much the 


The Palms of British East India. 487 


same as that of the preceding; pinna alternate or often sub-opposite, 
the lowermost only in pairs, linear oblong, 18-20 inches long and 4 broad, 
from a short entire cuneate base sinuato-lobate and dentate, undulated, 
eroso-dentate almost throughout, white beneath, with a brown midrib; 
terminal pinna broad cuneate, three-lobed, central lobe bi-lobed, simi- 
larly eroso-dentate. 

Male spadices axillary, curved, often nutant or pendulous ; the ends 
of the lowermost touching the ground, scarcely more than 14 foot 
in length. Sypathes densely imbricated, the innermost almost mem- 
branous, striate, tinged with dark purple, equalling the flower-bearing 
part of the spadix, and often disposed round it in an urceolate form. 
Spikes slender, very numerous, level topped, pendulous, their points 
projecting beyond the opening of the spathes. 

Flowers very numerous, ochroleucous, the lower ones in pairs, with a 
rudimentary female between, the upper ones solitary. Calyx cylindri- 
cal, nearly entire. Corolla as long as the calyx, tripartite nearly to the 
base, segments reflexed. Stamina 6; filaments cohering rather high up to 
the petals. No rudiment of a Pistillum. 

Female spadix much like that of the preceding ; spathes brown, condu- 
plicate, the outer one sometimes very long, and acuminate. Branches 
very stout, green, variously ascending, tapered at the ends, where they 
are caudiform and notched, the notches bearing rudimentary flowers. 
Bractes 2, right and left. Flowers purplish, closer than in the preced- 
ing, sometimes (especially in the wild specimens) quite crowded, occu- 
pying the lower part of a flattish areola, bases somewhat immersed; in 
bud almost globose. Calyx very short, divided to the middle into three 
broad rounded teeth. Corolla shorter than the ovarium, trifid, segments 
broadly half ovate, obtuse, depressed. No rudiments of stamina. Ova- 
rium round ovate, two-celled. Stigma an indistinctly emarginate point. 
Ovula solitary. 

Fruit crowded, oblong, surrounded at the base by the periantb, on the 
apex presenting a brown spot (the stigma) ; epicarp tough, rather thin; 
flesh scanty, with a mucilaginous acrid juice. Seeds two, plano-convex ; 
tegument greenish, veiny. Albumen horny, solid. Embryo about the 
centre of the convex face. 


This species is quite distinct from the first, though at first 
sight they are scarcely distinguishable. The main differ- 
ences are the linear-oblong, sinuate-lobed or toothed, ob- 
tusely acuminate pinnae, the lowermost only occurring in 


488 The Palms of British East India. 


pairs, the male spadices, which are judging from Roxburgh’s 
figure, quite different, the shape of the flower bud, and the 
trifid corolla with depressed segments and shorter than the 
ovarium. 


It is more common in the Gardens than the other, for 
which it has been so strangely mistaken. 


* * Flores diotct, Stamina indefinita. 
Oranta. Blume. 


93. (3) W. nana, (n. sp.) pinnis subquinis oppositis basi 
cuneatis ceterum obliquis irregulariter lobatis vel dentatis, 
spathis vaginantibus distichis conduplicatis, fl. feemineis 
tripetalis ferrugineo-furfuraceis, spadicibus (feem.) simplici- 
bus vel 2-3 ramosis, fructibus oblongis l-spermis (albis.) 


Has.—Lower Assam, in woods about Gowahatty. Assam 
Deputation. Major Jenkins. Flowers in July, August. 


Descr.*—A small erect palm from 3 to 5 feet in height. Trunk 
slender, throwing out roots from the base, covered with sheaths of the 
leaves. Leaves about 2 feet long; petiole short, roundish, obliquely 
sheathing at the base, with a thin rete, above produced into a bipartite 
liguliform body; pinne alternate or subopposite, cuneate towards the 
base, above this oblique, variously lobed, toothed and spinuloso-serrate : 
terminal one irregular in shape, generally bilobed, striate-veined, above 
green, underneath glaucous white. 

Spadices axillary. Spathes several, distichously imbricate, ferrugineo- 
furfuraceous, conduplicate, entirely concealing the peduncle. 

Spadix simple, or with two or three divisions, densely ferrugineo-fur- 
furaceous, flower-bearing part exserted, about the length of a finger. 
Flowers densely spiked, small, white, with (at least in the female) an 
inverted order of expansion. Male Calyx of three rounded, sub-mem- 
branous sepals. Petals three, oblong, with almost introflexed points, fur- 
rowed inside from the pressure of the stamina. Stamens about 14, in- 
serted on a small prominent torus, rather shorter than the petals; 
filaments very short ; anthers linear, adnate. No rudiment of a Pistillum. 

Female flowers also white, crowded on a generally simple spadix at- 
tenuate at the apex and probably there bearing neuter or hermaphro- 


* From fresh entire specimens communicated by Major Jenkins. 


The Palms of British East India. 489 


dite flowers. Calyx tripartite nearly to the base, segments very spread- 


ing, greenish. Corolla of 3 broad, ovate, sub-connivent, striate, coriace- 
ous petals. No rudiments of Stamina. Ovarium white or reddish, a 
little shorter than the corolla, triangular-conical, the angles alternating 
with the petals, 2-celled, of a thick coriaceous substance. Style 0. Stigma 
emarginate. Ovules solitary, erect. 

Fruit sub-baccate, white, obliquely oblong, straight on the upper side, 
convex on the other, 7 lines long, 43 broad; base surrounded by the pe- 
rianth, apex presenting a bi-dentate sphacelated stigma, 1-seeded, 2-cel- 
led, 1-cell almost obliterated. Seed 1, of the same shape, whitish ; tegu- 
ment adhering to the albumen; raphe on the straight face, palmate- 
ly divided, branches often dichotomous. Albumen solid, radiating from a 
central line. Embryo about the centre of the convex (dorsal) face. 


This species appears allied to Orania regalis, Blume, 
Rumphia, t. 85. and O. porphyrocarpa, Mart. Palm. t. 157. 
It differs from both in the number and the irregular shape 
of the pinne, the crowded flowers, and three petalled fe- 
males. Inthe shape of the fruit it is nearly intermediate. 

Besides these three species, I have bits of three others, 
collected on the N. E. frontier, (one from Yen in the Mish- 
mee Mountains.) If to these Buchanan’s Harina caryotoides 
be added, the total number of our Indian species will be 
seven, of which increase, the most unexpected part is the 
finding an undescribed species* in the H. C. Botanic Gar- 
dens, in which it has existed at least 25 years. 


MACROCLADUS. 


Cuar. Gen.—Flores moncici, feminei utrinque masculo 
stipati. Spatha duplex, interior completa, clavato-fusifor- 
mis, lignosa. Corollae valvate. Stamina 6. Ovarium trilo- 
culare, loculis l-ovulatis. Fructus subsiccus. Albumen car- 
tilagineum, equabile. Embryo lateralis. 


Hasirus.—Palma malayana, spectabilis, inermis. Corona 
haemisphaerica, densa. Folia pinnata, pinnis linearibus, 


* This makes the second undescribed Palm in the Gardens, see p. 36. 


490 The Palms of British East India. 


apice irregulariter dentatis vel lobatis, subtus albidis. Spa- 
dix axillaris, paniculatim ramosus. Flores albi, minuti. 


Fructus globosus, albidus. 
Folia et flores feminei quaodammodo Arenge, spathe Co- 


cos, fructus Coryphe. 
Locus naturalis mihi ignotus: ad caleem Arecinarum 


interim posui. Affinis Euterpe montane, Graham, Bot. 
Mag. t. 3874, que cum charactere generico citato saltem 
quoad spathas minime convenit. 


94. (1.) M. sylvicola. 
Hast.—In forests, Ching, Malacca. Malayan name, Eéool. 


Descr.—A handsome palm, about 40 feet in height, with somewhat 
the habit of Cocos nucifera. Crown sub-hemispherical, dense. Leaves 
pinnate, ample, 12-15 feet long, spreading in every direction ; petiole 
with the margins of the hardened leathery half stem clasping base la- 
cerate-fibrous, lower naked part about 5 feet long; lamina sub-obovate 
in outline; pinne sub-linear, 23-3 feet long, 2 inches broad, oblique at 
the points where they are irregularly toothed or lobed, underneath 
whitish-scurfy : above 1-keeled, underneath with 5 small keels. 

Spathes 2, outer one very small, incomplete, 2-edged, perforated at 
the apex, leathery; inner complete, almost woody, before dehiscence 
fusiform-clavate with a subulate cuspis, striate or sulcate, ferruginously 
scurfy, roughish, opening longitudinally, the margins becoming re- 
flexed. 

Spadixz paniculately branched, spreading, nodding towards the point, 
here and there ferruginously scurfy ; branches sub-secund, the primary 
ones suffulted by a broad short greenish bracte; the secondary (spikes ) 
nodding, slender, gradually attenuated to the apex, the lower ones bear- 
ing female flowers towards the base, the upper male flowers throughout. 

Flowers distichous, white. Male flowers either one on either side of 
the female or in pairs alone, oblong, sub-angular. Calyx small, tri- 
partite to the middle; divisions tooth-shaped, erect, fleshy, membra- 
nous. Petals 3, oblong, coriaceous, boat-shaped, valvate. Stamina 6, 
shorter than the petals ; filaments stout, subulate ; anthers linear-oblong, 
adnate, extrorse attached near the base. Pollen lanceolate, 1-plicate, 
whitish. Rudiment of the Pistillum simple, conical. 


The Palms of British East India. 49} 


Female flowers shorter and broader than the male. Calyx as in the 
male. Petals broadly ovate, obtuse, spreading, valvate. Rudimentary 
stamina 6; those opposite the petals quite abortive and falling off with 
the petals. Ovarium obtusely trigonal, 3-lobed longitudinally, to each 
lobe 1-cell, with one appense pendulous ovulum. Style none ; stigmata 
3, papillose, recurved, channelled down the centre. 

Fruit spadix with the branches more nodding, and without spathes. 
Fruit surrounded at the base by the perianth, nearly dry, globose, 
about the size of a small lime, oblique, bi-gibbous at the base (from the 
2 abortive cells of the ovarium near which the stigmata will be found,) 
l-seeded, with a smooth cartilaginous aspect; epicarp rather thick, 
fleshy cellular ; endocarp moderate, hardened, rather brittle. Seed large, 
globose; tegument cellular coriaceous, brown, adhering to the endocarp. 
Albumen opaque, white, cartilaginous. Lmbryo large, conical, situated 
about half way between the middle and base of the albumen.* 


* I have since, through the kindness of Dr. Wight, seen the third vol. of M. 
Kunth’s Enumeratio Plantarum, containing Palmae, taken from Martius and 
Endlicher. From it I extract a part relating to the varieties of Areca Catechu, 
and the characters of A. Nibung, (which is probably A. tigillaria, Jack, quoted 
by M. Kunth as a doubtful species, from the description not having been sufficiently 
attended to) and A. Wallichiana, a species of which I have no knowledge, 

‘¢ Pro-varietatibus cultura ortis habendae sunt sequentes: a) oxycarpa: drupa 
ovata, acutiuscula; 5) elliptica: drupa oblonga, utrinque rotundata; c) sphaero- 
carpa: drupa subglobosa; d) gonocarpa: drupa angulosa; e) ceratocarpa: drupa 
vertice sublobata et f) ocarpa: drupa ovali, albida. Aliae varietates minoris 
momenti non a forma et magnitudine, sed a compage fructus ejusque carnositate, 
fragilitate et sic porro dependent.’’ Mart. 

‘A. Nibung Mart. Palm. 173, t. 150, et 153, f. 4 et 5. Caudice elato, aculeato: 
petiolo rhachique fusco-squamulosis aculeatisque; pinnis linearibus, acumina- 
tis, interdum apice bifido filiferis, subtus ad costam squamulosis; spadice ramo- 
so, basi aculeato; florum masculorum hexandrorum petalis ovato-cuspidatis ; 
fructibus globosis, stigmate excentrico. Mart. Euterpe filamentosa Blume in ed. 
Areca spinosa Van Hasselt MSS. Nibung Javanensium. In littore australi In- 
sulae Javae. Caudex gracilis, annulatus. Flores masculi ochroleuci. Drupae 
violaceo-fuscescentes ; carne tenui, grumosa. Albumen lacteum, corneum, rumi- 
natum. Embryo basilaris.’’ (Mart.) 

* A. Wallichiana, Mart. Palm. 178. Inermis; caudice humili; pinnis connex- 
is, inferioribus falcatis, extus repandis et denticulatis, superioribus truncatis et 
denticulato-praemorsis, inferne in nervis rhachique paleaceo-villosulis; spadici- 
bus simpliciter valde ramosis; calycum masculorum hexandrorum foliolis lato- 
orbicularibus, quam petala ovata duplo brevioribus; drupsis..... A¢art.— 
Insula Pulo-Pinang Archipelagi Indici.—Frondes 4-5-pedalis.”’ 

( To be continued. ) 


492 


Geology and Magnetism. 


The connexion of Geology with terrestrial Magnetism 
shewing the general polarity of matter, the meridional struc- 
ture of the crystalline rocks, their transitions, movements, 
and dislocations, including the sedimentary rocks, the laws 
relating to the distribution of metalliferous deposits and 
other magnetic phenomena, by Evan Hopkins, Civil Engi- 
neer and Fellow of the Geological Society, is the title of an 
octavo work of about 130 closely printed pages and numer- 
ous illustrations, which we propose to notice in the following 
remarks :— 

The only thing we regret in the perusal of this work is 
the levity with which the author seems to treat all previous 
information, ‘‘in which we search in vain for any useful 
fundamental rules to guide us in subterraneous operations, 
even in treatises professedly practical, much less in those of 
a more theoretical character.” ‘‘ If we refer to the descrip- 
tions of the primary rocks, we find them so imperfect, and 
so inapplicable,” says Mr. Hopkins, “ to their general struc- 
ture, and mixed so much with hypothetical ideas, that those 
who derive their knowledge from books, must imagine these 
rocks to be confused masses void of all order.” Now it is 
generally known to every one that primary rocks are stra- 
tified and many of them crystalline, and therefore that more 
or less of order and harmony must belong to them, parti- 
cularly in the great scale. It is allowed, however, that the 
study of the primary rocks is a subject of very great dif_i- 
culty, from the manner in which their masses have become 
deranged and altered in almost every conceivable situation 
in which they have been examined. The observations con- 
tained in the present work, may assist in removing some 
of the difficulties with which the examination of the pri- 
mitive rocks is beset, but until the magnetic theory is 
more advanced in its application to this subject, we cannot 


Geology and Magnetism. 493 


allow it to be more practical or useful than ‘ Fossil Geo- 
logy,’ a knowledge of which Mr. Hopkins supposes to be 
of little consequence in mining operations, with regard 
to Fossil Geology, and its practical applications to mining 
operations. A good deal will, however, depend on the ob- 
ject of those operations, whether they are directed for the 
recovery of earthy, or of metallic minerals.- Fossil Geology 
would be of little use in directing the search for the precious 
metals, which are generally found either in recent alluvium 
or in the unstratified rocks in which no fossils occur. With 
regard to coal, the case is very different, and in estimating 
the value of indications of this mineral, we have no other rule 
to guide us than fossil geology, and if this be not always 
successful, the fault is attributable rather to its being imper- 
fectly employed than to its being too much trusted to, and it 
has the advantage over magnetic and economic geologies, in 
as much as it is not to be counterfeited. 

After describing the Mariner’s compass, its use and impor- 
tance, Mr. Hopkins remarks, that there is no substance, but 
which under suitable circumstances, is capable of exhibiting 
signs of magnetic virtue. The crystalline rocks forming the 
solid surface of the globe are more or less magnetic, and cause 
great variations in the magnetic needle, which is never free 
from such influence. Loadstone, a rock impregnated with 
oxide of iron itself forms a magnet, and all primary crystal- 
line rocks containing iron and manganese, will, with due 
accuracy, point north and south like steel needles, z. e. in the 
exact direction in which they are found in situ, when fresh 
cut from the place in which they were formed. Even the 
atmosphere is affected by the same influence, as when the 
aurora borealis makes its appearance. The disturbance of 
the magnetical equilibrium of the atmosphere occasions 
what Humboldt terms magnetical storms, commonly observ- 
ed it is said, before and during earthquakes in equatorial 
America, 


494: Geology and Magnetism. 


The general direction of magnetic curves and meridians 
converge at the poles of the earth, preserving notwithstanding 
their deflections and undulations from various local causes, 
a remarkable degree of regularity. 


‘¢ Numerous fruitless investigations have been made with the view 
of ascertaining the position of the magnetic pole, as if that must be 
a mathematical point. 

Any person who has had some experience with the action of 
fluids, whether water, air, or electric, converging towards or diverg- 
ing from a central passage, must know that they cannot be forced 
into a mathematical point, there must be a limit to their compres- 
sion or density ; nor can it be expected that every individual cur- 
rent should retain its exact radial course towards the focus, and 
much less when diverging from it. Hence, from analogy and ob- 
servations, the narrowest limits that we can assign to the polar axis 
to which the magnetic currents converge and diverge are, perhaps, 
the areas bounded by the arctic and antarctic circles, 

Numerous observations have been made in the equatorial regions, 
indicating both east and west variations in the same meridian of 
only a few leagues in extent ; and numerous other experiments and 
observations may be quoted to prove that the direction of the needle 
does not necessarily point towards the centre of convergence of the 
individual current which moves it, but in the direction of the result- 
ant, viz. the compound of the primary and local currents—the dia- 
gonal of the parallelogram of the two actions. The local disturbing 
force being a variable quantity subject to perpetual fluctuations, it 
follows as a consequence that the variations of the direction must be 
uncertain, and therefore not within the power of any formule to 
know their periodical amount. 

In the above, our observations have been principally confined to 
the magnetic needle ; but as it is proved that all matter is more or 
less affected by the magnetic fluid or current, and since we cannot 
withhold our conviction, after tracing the curves which the needles 
form within, on, and above the earth, that the globe is a magnet, 
i. e. that its axis is magnetic ; and according to the law of magnet- 
ism founded by direct experiment, the North end is the attractive 


Geology and Magnetism. 495 
and the South end is the repulsive, or in plainer language, that the 
magnetic fluid or currents move towards the north, enter into the 
axis, through which they pass, then issue out from the south pole 
and encircle the globe to complete their circuit (as indicated by the 
direction of the needles, and illustrated by the arrows in the follow- 
ing sketch) ;—we ought to be able to trace their effects on all sub- 
stances within the limits of our observations. 


If the earth be a magnet, as we have endeavoured to prove, it 
must produce the effects observed ; if it be not a magnet, it possess- 
es a property identical in its results to one; therefore all we re- 
quire in our investigations is the knowledge of the law of these ac- 
tions, as the name of the primary cause of the action cannot have 
a material influence on our researches, If we continue to call 
it gravitation, we must add to it a property which was not applied 
to it before, viz. polarity,—call it magnetism, and the term embraces 
all we require in astronomy as well as in geology. 

Let us suppose a bar, having been made magnetic, to be placed 
in the axis of an artificial globe, if iron filings be strewed care- 
fully over it, the filings would become magnetic, and arrange 
themselves in curves like the magnetic needles on our globe, as 
shown in Plate I.* The small magnetic ingredients do not converge 
to one mathematical point at each end of the bar, but to a space 
equal to the transverse section of the axis; and if this effect is 
produced by a current of subtile fluid, which may be conceived 


to emanate from one pole and to enter in at the other, penetrating 
* As above.—Eb. 


496 Geology and Magnetism. 


the substance of the bar, and again to issue from its former outlet, 
as exhibited by the arrows in the above diagram, it is reasonable 
to suppose that the fluid will not be compressed more than the 
transverse size of the bar will require. Taking this simple prin- 
ciple of action as a guide, with its various consequnces under 
different circumstances, we shall soon perceive that we not on- 
ly account for the various phenomena of geology, but, in a word, all 
phenomena connected with terrestrial physics; and that we are 
enabled also to reason from the known to the unknown, and actually 
to predict facts before trial, not merely to satisfy curiosity, but 
questions of practical utility, especially in mining. Indeed, theories 
are not worthy of attention unless they can be fairly demonstrat- 
ed and rendered practically useful.” 


The phenomena of terrestrial magnetism is then exempli- 
fied by Mr. Hopkins, by supposing an iron bar magnet to be 
placed in a wooden globe, the poles of the magnet corres- 
ponding with those of the earth. 


‘In placing needles round this globe, we find them arranging 
themselves in the exact order which they keep on the terrestrial 
globe, both as to dip and direction; and as there is nothing to 
disturb them on the wooden globe, their positions in the curves 
of convergence are uniform ; their focus of convergence being equal 
to the transverse area of the magnetic axis at both ends. 

We find in measuring the force along the magnetic curves, that it 
varies inversely as the distance; allowing for the influence of the 
earth’s magnetism and tracing the effects in a horizontal plane, we ob- 
tain the following law, viz. that the force varies inversely as the square 
of the distance from the surface of the ballin the equatorial plane, and 
also in the meridian from the poles towards the equator ; being the 
necessary consequences of the expansion and compression of the 
magnetic fluid surrounding it, as shown in the sketches. This 
is precisely the law of what is called gravitation, but the meri- 
dional variation towards the poles of the earth has been ascribed to 
the effect of a centrifugal force produced by the earth’s rotation. 
The assumed centrifugal effect of the earth’s rotation is also consi- 


Geology and Magnetism. 497 


dered as the cause of the earth being an oblate spheroid. In the 
first place, a globe constituted and placed under similar conditions 
as our earth is, with its enveloping fluids, placed under the influence 
of centripetal and centrifugal forces alone, according to the well- 
known laws of physics, would not, nor could not, produce the obser- 
ved figure, much less the observed variation of attraction towards 
the poles. Its magnetism alone, without rotation, must necessarily 
compress the poles, and also cause the inverse law of intensity in 
the enveloping fluids.” 


Passing over the proof Mr. Hopkins affords of magnetism 
alone being sufficient to account for the oblate spheroidal 
figure of the earth, and of its universal agency, we arrive at 
the following evidence of the polarity of the atmosphere. 


‘‘ If the globe be a magnet, we ought to observe at the poles some 
indications of the convergence of the air towards the poles, 7. e. 
something similar to the inverted conical appearances which we 
observe in the ingredients at the poles of an artificial magnet, Plate 
I. It is true that the air is an invisible substance, yet, as it oc- 
easionally becomes saturated with visible fluids, it would, under 
such condition, with the advantage of reflected light, which may 
also be expected to vary according to the curves formed by the 
currents, show the phenomena of convergences. This fact we have 
in the aurora borealis and australis. These are the luminous ap- 
pearances seen in the atmosphere connected with the poles of our 
earth, the general appearances of which correspond to the curves 
of convergence towards the poles. When these luminous pheno- 
mena display unusual brightness and activity, the magnetic needle 
is also found very fluctuating, both in dip and direction; and also 
the mercury in the barometer is subject to similar action; this coin- 
cidence of the variable movements indicates that they are produced 
by the same cause, viz. the disturbance of the equilibrium of the 
magnetic curves, or tension of the fluid. 

The aurora is not the cause of the needle being disturbed, nor 
are its luminous rays required to produce a rise or fall of the mer- 
cury in the barometer; on the contrary, the whole phenomena 


498 Geology and Magnetism. 


appear to be the effects of the oscillating movements of the magne- 
tic currents. 

The mercury in the barometer, like the magnetic needle, fluc- 
tuates without being accompanied with a visible aurora. Probably 
the light is produced by a change in the constituent elements; 
but the light is not essential to prove the existence of the currents ; 
nor is visibility necessary to produce undulations in such currents: 
such variations can only be ascertained by their effects. 

That the barometer is subject to perpetual oscillation is a pheno- 
menon so well known as not to require comment; but that the 
magnetic needle should be also subject to similar oscillations ap- 
pears to those who have not paid attention to the subject somewhat 
strange. However, the fact is, that the former is the effect of the 
rise and fall, and the latter the horizontal movement of the same fluid ; 
the former is governed by the curves of equal density, the latter by 
the meridional direction of the currents. 

That there is a daily oscillation of the needle has been placed 
beyond a doubt by observations made with the most accurate in- 
struments in almost every part of the world : the mean daily change 
amounts to about ten minutes, When the diurnal variation of the 
needle was first discovered, it was supposed to have only two 
changes in its movements during the day. About 7 a.M. its north 
end began to deviate to the west, and about 2 P.M. it reached 
its maximum westerly deviation. It then returned to the eastward 
to its first position, and remained stationary till it again resumed 
its westerly course in the following morning. 

When magnetic observations became more accurate, it was found 
that the diurnal movement of the needle commences much earlier 
than 7 a.M.; but its motion is to the east. At half-past 7 a.m. in 
England it reaches its greatest easterly deviation, and then begins 
its movement to the west till 2 p.m. It then returns to the east- 
ward till the evening, when it has again a slight westerly motion ; 
and in the course of the night, or early in the morning, it reaches 
the point from which it set out twenty-four hours before*. 

Within the tropics the variations in the height of the mercury 
in the barometer are very uniform, subsiding about half an inch 


* See Brewster’s Treatise on Magnetism. 


Geology and Magnetism. 499 


during the day, and rising again to its former height in the night. 
In the northern regions, such as Denmark, Iceland and Greenland, 
the diurnal variations, are greater and less regular, in the height of 
the mercury as well as the direction and dip of the needle; but in 
advancing from the north to the equator the diurnal variations 
diminish. In the southern hemisphere the daily variation of the 
needle is in an opposite direction, the north end of the needle mov- 
ing to the east at the same hours that it does to the west in the 
northern hemisphere. 

To give an occular illustration, we may conceive the magnetic 
current as a string from pole to pole: if the string be drawn from 
its meridional position at the equator, its relative direction or the 
angle formed between it and the meridian will be the same; but if 
we compare the direction on each side by looking towards the north 
alone, we shall observe that the bend of the string will be—say 
north-west in the southern hemisphere and north-east in the north- 
ern. That such should be the natural consequences of such dis- 
turbances is too evident to require further explanation. 

Besides these regular changes to which the needle and the mer- 
cury in the barometer are subject, they are often affected with 
sudden and extraordinary movements, to which Baron Humboldt 
has given the name of magnetic hurricanes, during which the 
needle often oscillates several degrees on each side of its mean 
position. The vibrating action of the needle during the appear- 
ance of the aurora is well known. It is also known that the 
luminous beams of the aurora are more or less parallel, or rather 
corresponding to the convergence of the dipping-needle; that the 
rainbow-like arches are seen on either side of the meridian; and 
that the beams perpendicular to the horizon are only those on the 
meridian. It has been found that on the days when the southern 
auroree take place, the same phenomenon is observed also in the 
north: the one appears to be the cause of the other, and is therefore 
simultaneously produced, similar to the electric sparks seen at the 
poles of an artificial globe. 

Although the aurora lights are generally accompanied with 
oscillations of the magnetic currents, it is not necessary that they 
should always be so affected, because the light may arise from a 


500 Geology and Magnetism. 


change in the density or property of the currents, and not from 
any changes in their directions. That there is magnetic matter 
in the atmosphere is indubitable, and that this matter is constantly 
acted upon by the currents cannot be doubted. However, it must 
not. be expected that the variations are alike at all places, because 
the disturbances in the equilibrium of the magnetic currents are 
influenced by various causes of a local nature. Resembling the 
weather in this respect, these variations may differ at different places 
at the same instant of time. 

The next point to be considered is the direction in which the 
magnetic currents move. If the currents, as we have previously 
stated, emanate from the south pole of the earth and enter into 
the north pole, we should expect somewhat different appearances in 
the south aurora compared with the north; because from the former 
they rise from an aqueous element, which must produce a visible 
portion of vapour; and if so, the aurora will have the appearance 
of steam; whereas in the latter, as the currents descend from an 
aerial element, and are exposed to the effects of the sun, they must 
be drier. This difference has been observed by several navigators. 

The southern aurora consists of long columns of clear white light, 
shooting up from the horizon, and gradually spreading over the 
whole sky. These columns are bent sideways at their upper ex- 
tremities, and are in every respect similar to the northern lights, 
except in being always of a whitish colour, whereas the northern 
lights assume various tints, especially those of fiery and purple hue. 
The figure is identical—indeed exactly such as would be produced 
by the convergence, or vice versd, of the magnetic currents: and the 
difference in the colours is precisely what we should have been led 
to expect from the different nature of each pole. The saturated or 
hydrogenous nature of the currents coming from the south pole 
towards the north, will account for the observed peculiarity of the 
southern hemisphere in its general temperature, moisture, rains, the 
growth of vegetation, &c., as compared with that of the northern. 

The great ocean of air which envelopes the planet we inhabit, 
and to which we are every instant beholden for supplying us with 
the elements of vitality, is governed by the magnetic currents. 
Whatever substances may be decomposed and converted into gases 


Geology and Magnetism. 501 


and rise in the atmosphere, are again returned into the earth by 
means of the currents. Nothing can be destroyed ; on the contrary 
whatever substances we may consume, reduce, or decompose, become 
again, by means of the enveloping magnetic fluid, what they were 
before they existed in form of vegetable, stone or water, active 
agents in the business of the world, and main supports of vegetable 
and animal life, and are still susceptible of running again and again 
the same round, as circumstances may determine.” 


Mr. Hopkins next explains the identity of magnetic and 
galvanic currents, rejecting the commonly received opinion 
that they move at right angles, which is at variance with the 
analogy of all other physical forces, which act in a line 
extended between two points, the point from which the 
force emanates and that against which it is exerted. When 
a magnet is exposed to electrical action by means of two con- 
ducting wires bent into helices, a spiral current is produced. 
This Mr. Hopkins refers to a general law of all fluids, which 
when forced through tubes, have a tendency to a spiral direc- 
tion, as commonly observed in a funnel. The funnel how- 
ever, we think an unfortunate instance, for we are disposed 
to refer the spirial direction of the fluid passing through 
it a good deal to its shape, and we doubt much if fluids 
forced through square tubes, would indicate any tendency 
to a spiral direction. We do not know how far Mr. Hopkins’ 
views may depend upon such a law. With regard to electro- 
magnetic action, Mr. Hopkins remarks, the mean direction 
of the spiral corresponds with the direction of the wire: 
‘“‘ therefore we may safely consider the magnetic needle, 
enveloped as it is in the great terrestrial magnetic fluid, indi- 
cates the direction of the currents.” 


** We have now to prove that the currents move through the 
magnetic needle from south to north. In the battery we find that 
the currents of hydrogen move from the zinc to the silver plate, 
along or through the connecting wire. We find by experiments 


oT 


502 Geology and Magnetism. 


that the south pole of a magnet has a greater affinity for oxygen 
than the north pole. The difference in the oxidation of the south 
pole, compared with the north, is easily proved by various simple 
methods. All that is required is to place the ends of a magnet in 
water, and allow it to remain undisturbed for several days, and 
the fact is soon proved. A very powerful horse-shoe magnet 
will decompose water, and the oxidation will be observed to go 
on at the south pole, and the evolution of the hydrogen at the north 
pole: hence it is manifest that the currents move from the south 
pole to the north of the needle: the magnet possesses the property 
of filtering, as it were, the oxygen from the stream, be that stream what 
it may, such is the effect and such the direction of the current.” 


Mr. Hopkins next refers to the reduction of metals by 
electro-galvanic currents, by which he accounts for some 
phenomena of metalliferous veins. Where metals are found 
in the metallic state, it has been usual to ascribe their presence 
under such circumstances to the action of heat, although we 
frequently find them, particularly copper and silver, the ores 
of which resist a very high temperature in a native state, 
deposited on timber and decayed leaves in old mines, proving 
the ordinary process of fusion to be incapable of accounting 
for their reduction. Besides, it is found impossible for castings 
to take the exact impression of the mould, owing to the 
great heat required to give metals, even the most fusible, a 
perfectly homogeneous consistence, as well from the lodg- 
ment of air as other causes. In veins, however, we find 
the native metals deposited in every crevice, presenting an 
exact form of the mould, whether this consists of solid quartz 
rock or soft clay, or substances more fusible than the metal 
itself. 

We must therefore look for some other agency than that 
of fire for such effects. Electro-magnetic currents are ad- 
duced by Mr. Hopkins, and he reconciles many of the condi- 
tions in which metals occur in veins, with effects produced 
on metallic solutions by the galvanic battery. 


Geology and Magnetism. 303 


*¢ In order to ascertain experimentally what are the circumstan- 
ces which tend to produce these conditions, we have only to procure 
a galvanic battery and conneet it with two platinum poles, which 
we place in a vessel to serve as the precipitating trough.* In this 
trough we place a saturated solution of a metallie salt—for instance, 
copper—when on examination, if the battery possess but feeble 
power, we shall find that crystalline copper will be deposited ; if, 
however, we dilute this solution with twice, thrice, or four times its 
bulk of water, the metallic deposit will assume a very different aspect : 
it will then be aggregated in a flexible state, or a reguline deposit. 
If we now dilute this same solution to an infinitely greater extent, 
the metal will still be reduced, but in the form of a very fine black. 
powder. 

*¢ Almost all metallic solutions may be substituted for that of the 
sulphate of copper, and the experiment will show nearly the same 
result, namely, that the strength of the metallie solution influences. 
the nature of the deposit. 

‘If we examine the converse of the experiment, and take a solution 
of sulphate of copper, and use successively, first, one very small 
battery, then two or three batteries arranged in a series, and lastly, 
a very intense battery, we shall find that with this self-same solution 
we can obtain by these means, first, a crystalline, then a reguline, 
and subsequently a black deposit. 

“ The above variable state in which minerals are deposited by the 
battery is of very common occurrence in mineral veins; and even 
the same vein presents large and small crystals, and often of variable 
composition, within a very small compass.” 


Mr. Hopkins concludes this portion of the subject by the 
following remark, and allusion to the result obtained by Mr. 
Fox, in his experiments in the mines of Cornwall :— 


‘* Comparing these facts with those observed in metalliferous de- 
posits, we find a very striking coincidence; and when we apply 
similar laws and orders of deposition to mineral veins, the problem 


* See Smee’s excellent work on this subject, second edition, p. 113. 


504 Geology and Magnetism. 


of their formation is easily solved without having recourse to the 
igneous theory. | 

Mr. Fox has obtained an electro-type copper plate by the agency 
of these subterranean currents. He found their natural direction to 
be from south to north in Pennance mine. After a few days crystals 
were formed in the negative plate, but two months had nearly 
elapsed before the apparatus was removed from the circuit.” 


Mr. Hopkins next enters into a consideration of the heat 
produced by magneticand galvanic currents, which he thinks 
sufficiently powerful to account for all the phenomena, usually 
but erroneously ascribed to the action of fire in terrestrial 
physics. Mr. Hopkins objects to the igneous theory, that 
if the increased heat experienced in deep mines proceeded 
from an incandescent nucleus, as some profound geologists 
supposed, it would be found uniform and constant in propor- 
tion to the depth we descend from the surface. On the 
contrary Mr. Hopkins states, that in South America, where a 
great many experiments have been made, the variations in 
the degree of temperature were irregular, and confined to 
particular patches ; and in some instances the temperature 
was even found lower at great depth than at the surface. 
On the other hand, parts of rocks were sometimes found 
intensely hot in deep mines at one time, and at another of 
very low temperature, conditions which though incompati- 
ble with the igneous theories of the earth, are strictly con- 
formable with the chemical actions which are going on in 
rocks, 

Mr. Hopkins here explains the heating phenomena dis- 
played by metallic solutions in a galvanic battery. The 
heat developed, and the power of fusion exercised over 
the most refractory substances, such as platinum, palladium, 
gold, copper, iron and steel, is in proportion to the amount 
of the electro-magnetic currents, or in other words, to the 
power of the battery. 


Geology and Magnetism. 505 


‘“¢ Conducting liquids may be heated in a similar manner. This 
fact may be seen in a great variety of ways: dilute sulphuric acid 
may be made to boil in a siphon connecting two vessels, in which 
the poles of an extensive series of batteries are placed. Another 
mode of showing the same fact is to take a piece of string and 
moisten it with acid, connecting the extremities with the poles of a 
series of galvanic batteries, when it will begin to smoke, and be- 
come charred from the heat produced. 

“ The next property which a battery displays is its power of igni- 
ting metallic or charcoal points when joined to the two ends of the 
battery, and held so that they barely touch ; a light is then exhibit- 
ed equal in brilliancy to that of a little sun. The spark seems 
to depend principally upon a combustion of fine particles of metal, 
and, when charcoal or hard gas coke is used, upon little points of 
it flying from one pole to the other; so that one pole wastes 
away and the other increases, till the flame becomes quite encased 
in a mass of carbonaceous matter. This flame is singularly re- 
pelled or attracted by a magnet held in its vicinity. Heat is, 
indeed, one of the effects of chemical action ; and though we might 
by a fallacious reasoning be led to assert that chemical action is the 
effect of heat, a very slight examination will show the absolute futi- 
lity of such reasoning. In fact, we have no heat of which the cause 
is known, but that which is derived from, and proportionate to che- 
mical action.” 


Mr. Hopkins applies this to terrestrial phenomena fur- 
ther on, and remarks. 


“If we admit the existence of subterranean currents, and that 
these exert a slow decomposing power, like that of the voltaic bat- 
tery, we have a sufficient power for our purpose. In the first place, 
we have a mechanical tension on the consolidated parts of the rocks, 
by the linear action of the currents passing through them; and 
should the intensity of the currents be very great, fractures would 
ensue, more or less at right angles to the direction of the force. 
These fractures would admit air and water, and thus produce intense 
heat, by the avidity with which the metallic nature of the bases of 
the earths and alkalies combines with the oxygen. 


506 Geology and Magnetism. 


‘‘ That nearly all the substances which constitute the crust of the 
globe are found 7” solution as well as solid, saturated throughout the 
rocks, and to such a degree sometimes as to issue out and form 
springs, is well known; therefore, judging from the violent effects on 
a small scale which we are able to produce by experiments, a heat 
would be engendered quite adequate to occasion all that takes place 
in volcanic eruptions. Itis a fact, that nearly all active volcanic 
groups are within a short distance of the sea; and even those that 
are situated at a distance from it may be connected with subterrane- 
ous channels of water. It is also a well-known fact in South 
America that fish are commonly thrown out of the crater, and some 
of the eruptions consist entirely of mud or muddy water, thus giving 
a still greater proof of their origin. The sudden fracture, as well 
as the sudden expansion of the gases, would produce a vibratory 
jar, which being propagated in undulations through the rocks or 
external crust, would give rise to superficial oscillations, and thus 
cause earthquakes. 7 

‘‘We shall note here a singular fact connected with the earth- 
quakes of South America, viz. during nine years’ observations made 
by the writer, the oscillations were from east to west, whilst the 
directions of their disturbances, and the rumbling noise which 
generally accompanies them, were from south to north. The former 
were generally confined to comparatively narrow limits, whilst the 
latter extended often from Chili to central America. 

‘‘ This meridional action of the subterranean currents from south 
to north is not confined to South America, but extends to the 
northern hemisphere. And it appears from numerous observations 
made on the magnetic currents, that the power which governs 
earthquakes and magnetic currents is the same. The mean direc- 
tion of the latter in South America corresponds to the average 
direction of the subterranean disturbances.” 


We do not see that we can well curtail the following 
remarks which constitute the 5th chapter of Mr. Hopkins’ 
work, which we give entire. 


‘From a consideration of the general facts that have been stated 
with respect to the effects of the galvanic current and its identity 


Geology and Magnetism. 507 


with magnetism, it will be sufficiently evident that the earth acts 
upon magnetized bodies in the same way as if it were itself a mag- 
netic battery ; or rather, as if it contained within itself a powerful 
magnet or battery lying in a position coinciding with its axis of 
rotation. 

‘‘In order to make the above to agree with the facts as indicated 
by the needle and other bodies possessing the property of polarity, 
we must assume that the north pole of the earth is the positive one, 
as the currents are moving towards it, therefore the pole of decom- 
position, and the south the negative pole, 2. e. the pole of recom- 
position. Provided these poles be connected by a conducting fluid 
an action would ensue ; and in consequence of the oxidation going 
on at the north pole there would be a tendency in the conducting 
element to move towards it. 

‘‘ The ocean may be considered as the conducting element, its com- 
postion being peculiarly applicable for the purpose. The most 
general component parts of the sea, in addition to pure water, are 
muriatie acid, sulphuric acid, fixed mineral alkali, magnesia, sulphate 
of lime, and various other substances. We also know that the ocean 
reaches from pole to pole. 

*‘ On reference to the observations made on the general currents of 
the ocean, we find the following :— 

‘* The principal currents of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans 
proceed from the south pole in a north-westerly direction towards the 
north. These currents are subject to numerous modifications, in 
consequence of the obstacles presented by the land to its free passage. 
The eastern coast of South America, and the western coast of Africa 
form the boundary to the Atlantic ocean, and the general movement 
of the ocean between the above is in a north-west direction, until it 
enters amongst the West India Islands and the Gulf of Mexico; from 
which point it turns towards the north and north-east near New- 
foundland. In the Pacific ocean there is a similar northward cur- 
rent. 

“* Another interesting question connected with these general north- 
ward currents is the fact, that within the Polar region the fruit of 
trees which belong to the American torrid zone is every year de- 
posited on the western coasts of Ireland and Norway; and on the 


508 Geology and Magnetism. 


shores of the Hebrides are collected seeds of several plants the 
growth of Jamaica, Cuba, and the neighbouring continent. The 
most striking circumstance, perhaps, is that of the wreck of an 
English vessel, burnt near Jamaica, having been found on the coast 
of Scotland. From the account of Captain Parry, it appears that 
there is also a great quantity of timber cast by the sea upon the 
northern coast of Spitzbergen. Timber is found floating in large 
quantities in the north polar seas, and much of which is thrown 
ashore on the northern side of Iceland ; some of which appear to be 
of the growth of Mexico and Brazil. This question has engaged a 
good deal of attention, and has been considered difficult to explain ; 
but by admitting the general northward tendency of the ocean the 
question is easily solved. 

“Tce is fallen in with much sooner in sailing towards the south 
than it is in approaching the north pole. The dry lands or the large 
continents are more or less pointed towards the south, whereas the 
northern parts are more or less ragged and crowded about the 
northern pole; in a word, all observed facts tend to prove that the 
ocean moves from the south pole towards the north. (Plate V.) 

‘Tf then, such an action is actually going on in the great terres- 
trial battery, its effects will not be confined to that of the ocean, but 
will also produce corresponding effects on the solid and semi-fluid 
part of the earth. Such an effect is apparent in the meridional la- 
mination of the crystalline rocks, as shown in Plates IV. and V. 

‘¢ In South America we find the whole region laminated in a north 
and south direction, subject of course to great contortions from 
various local disturbances. This lamination forms those kind of 
rocks known by the name of gneiss and schistose, being in fact a modi- 
fication of the granitic base, produced by the polar laminating action, 
and not, as it is erroneously considered, the result of a mechanical 
sedimentary action. The planes of these meridional laminations 
are generally more or less vertical, and are often seen cutting 
through sedimentary beds at right angles to the seams of deposition, 
and thus showing their independent and subsequent origin. Nor is 
this meridional structure confined to South America, but extends to 
the north, subject of course to great bends from numerous mecha- 


nical resistances. 


Geology and Magnetism. 509 


It may be considered strange that such an universal structure 
has escaped attention, and that it has not ere this been discovered. 
The isolated facts have been long known, but not properly used, 
and the laminated structure has been, and continues to be, con- 
founded with those planes resulting from mechanical deposition. 
As we have already noted, the granitic gneiss and the schistose, 
which are commonly represented in geological sections as sedimen- 
tary beds resting on one another, are the result of a crystalline ac- 
tion modifying the granitic mass in the direction of the lamination, 
which structure is generally formed in a more or less vertical posi- 
tion as commonly seen when not disturbed. 

*‘ Since the year 1792,” says Humboldt in his treatise on Rocks, 
‘‘T have been attentive to the parallelism of beds. Residing on 
mountains of stratified rocks, where this phenomenon is constant, 
examining the direction and dip of primitive and transition beds, 
from the coast of Genoa across the chain of the Bochetta, the plains 
of Lombardy, the Alps of St. Gothard, the table-land of Suabia, the 
mountains of Baireuth, and the plains of Northern Germany, I have 
been struck, if not with the constancy, at least with the extreme fre- 
quency of the directions from south-west to north-east. This in- 
quiry, which I thought would lead naturalists to the discovery of 
a great law of nature, at that time interested me so much, that 
it became one of the principal reasons for my voyage to the equator. 
When | arrived on the coast of Venezuela and passed over the lofty 
littoral chain and the mountains of granite-gneiss that stretch from 
the Lower Oronoco to the basin of the Rio Negro and the Amazon, 
I recognized again the most surprising parallelism in the direction 
of the beds ; that direction was still north-east.” 

Unfortunately, in consequence of Werner’s theory, Humboldt 
wrote the above under the impression that the gneiss and schistose 
rocks were similar to sedimentary beds; hence he confounds the 
lamination of the former with the divisional planes of the latter. 

‘‘ When we examine,” says M. Boué, “ with a compass the posi- 
tion of mineral masses in Scotland, and endeavour to stop at general 
facts, we perceive that the direction of the beds is constant, and 
corresponds with that of the chains from south-west to north-east, 
but that the dip varies according to local circumstances.” 

3.U 


510 Geology and Magnetism. 


According to Von Buch and other continental geologists, the 
directions of the lamination of the crystalline rocks in Sweden and 
Finland are from south to north, varying occasionlly towards the 
east. In Mexico the laminated structure is principally towards the 
north-west; but in the plains it is frequently found due north 
and north-east. In the United States its general direction is simi- 
lar to that of South America, ¢.e. from south to north, but present- 
ing numerous contortions, and thus causing local variations in the 
direction, either towards the east or west, according to the nature 
of the locai resistance. 

‘‘ The direction of primitive and transition beds” (gneiss and 
schist), says Humboldt, “is not a trifling phenomenon of the locali- 
ty, but, on the contrary, a phenomenon independent of the direc- 
tion of secondary chains, their branchings, and the sinuosity of 
their valleys; a phenomenon of which the cause has acted, at 
immense distances, in a uniform manner, for instance in the an- 
cient continent, between the 43° and 57° of latitude, from Scotland 
as far as the confines of Asia.” 

Hence it will be observed that the universality of this structure 
has not escaped attention. 

Dr. M‘Culloch, in his description of the Western Islands of 
Scotland, remarks on the striking uniformity of the beds of gneiss 
and schist being more or less in a north-east direction. In cutting 
any of these beds, as they are called, in an east and west direction, 
i.e. from the eastern to the western coast of Scotland, the lamina 
would be intersected transversely, and on examination the planes 
would be found more or less vertical, sometimes leaning to the east 
and sometimes to the west : any east and west section of consider- 
able length would be found the same. It must be understood, 
however, that the above remark is confined to the average, because 
numerous bends and contortions of very considerable extent are 
frequent in this fundamental structure, and are susceptible of con- 
stant changes from the effects of chemical action going on in it. 

On the eastern coast, between Waterford and Dublin, the more 
ancient lamination presents a mean average direction towards the 
north-east, but is also intersected at various points by a compara- 
tively recent lamination in a north-west direction. It is at these 


Geology and Magnetism. 511 


intersections of the old and new lamina, that the metalliferous de- 
posits of Ireland are principally found. In the Barony of Bantry 
the old laminated structure is much contorted and dislocated. 

In North Wales and the northern part of England similar ob- 
lique intersections of the old and new lamina are observed. The 
most recent lamination of Cornwall is nearly in the direction of the 
magnetic needle, and corresponding to that of Wicklow. 

The above observations are not founded merely on a superficial 
survey of these districts, but on a laborious investigation under 
ground, as well as on the surface. Indeed, without studying the 
structure of rocks beneath the surface, where chemical actions are 
observed in operation, and various crystals constantly forming, 
it is not possible to arrive at any thing like a correct knowledge of 
the law which governs the superficies of our globe. 

In Auvergne the laminz of the gneiss and schist run nearly in a 
direction from south to north, and dip to the west, that is, when 
viewed on a great scale, for when examined more partially the ordi- 
nary exceptions occur. In short, the continent of Europe exhibits 
the uniformity of structure throughout. 

In the United States of America we find the same meridional 
structure. In Virginia the gneiss, talcose and chlorite slates run 
north and south, leaning from the perpendicular towards the west. 
The Boston railway exhibits, by its numerous cuttings in an east 
and west direction, the general verticality and meridional structure 
of the schistose rocks for several miles in length. 

Along the north coast of South America, in the Caribbean Sea 
and the West India Islands, the same structure prevails; and was 
minutely examined by the author, from east to west across the three 
great branches of the Cordilleras, between the latitudes of 4 and 6 
degrees north. 

In an admirable essay published on this subject by Professor 
Sedgwick, we find the following observations :— 

“In that variety of slate which is used for roofing, the structure 
of the rock has been so modified, that the traces of its original 
deposition are quite obliterated; and this remark does not apply 
merely to single quarries, but sometimes to whole mountains. 
In the Welsh slate-rocks we see the cleavage planes preserving an 


512 Geology and Magnetism. 


almost geometrical parallelism, while they pass through contorted 
strata of hard slate, obviously of sedimentary origin. Crystalline 
forces have re-arranged whole mountain masses of them, producing 
a beautiful crystalline cleavage, passing alike through all the strata. 
And again, through all this region, whatever be the contortions 
of the rocks, the planes of cleavage pass on, generally without de- 
viation, running in parallel lines from one end to the other, and 
inclining at a great angle to the west. Without considering 
the crystalline flakes along the planes of cleavage, which prove 
that crystalline action has modified the whole mass, we may affirm 
that no retreat of parts, no contraction in dimensions, in passing 
to a solid state, can explain such phenomena as these. They 
appear to me only resolvable on the supposition that crystalline or 
polar forces acted on the whole mass in given directions and with 
adequate power.” 

In the Geological Report of Cornwall and Devon, Sir H. de la 
Beche remarks :— 

‘** When we regard the prevalence of the great divisional planes 
in particular directions crossed by other nearly at right angles to 
them, producing solids to a certain extent symmetrical, and consi- 
der the mineral modifications which the sedimentary beds have 
generally undergone since they were deposited, we are led to sus- 
pect not only that the lamination planes, commonly termed cleavage, 
are, as has been supposed by some authors, due to polar forces, 
but also that the great divisional planes have been equally caused 
by them, as has been considered probable by others.” “ Although 
the direction of the present magnetic meridian in the district may 
be merely temporary, and the proximation of so many great division- 
al planes to it therefore accidental, still their great prevalence, both 
in the igneous (crystalline) rocks and sedimentary deposits, in that 
direction, leads us to suppose that polar forces may have consider- 
ably governed the arangements of the component matter of the 
rocks they traverse during consolidation. If we require a con- 
stant tendency of such polar forces to arrange the component 
matter of rocks during consolidation in given areas, we can the 
more readily account for the frequency of nearly similar directions 
in the great divisional planes of rocks of different ages.” 


Geology and Magnetism. 513 


These observations are quoted here merely to show the striking 
coincidence of independent investigations with which the writer 
was totally unacquainted during his researches in America; but 
they clearly prove the universality of the polar lamination. 

During the recent examination of the metalliferous deposits and 
primary rocks of England and Ireland, we found the old lamination 
of the United Kingdom, on an average, a few degrees east of north, 
and the new lamination intersecting it obliquely, in a direction 
approaching the present magnetic meridian. (See Plate IX.) The 
same kind of polar structure has been observed in coal beds in all 
countries. 

The meridional lamination has been observed from Morocco, 
in the north of Africa, to the most northern parts of Europe ; 
therefore the crystalline crust of the earth does not consist of 
confused shapeless masses, resulting from igneous eruptions, but 
possesses a structure and arrangement of parts as regular and uni- 
form as any other natural production. It has but oné general 
grain, by which any of the masses will split, and that is from pole 
to pole, as represented in Plates 1V. and V. This meridional grain is 
produced by the arrangement of the crystals in the granitic base, 
causing more or less vertical sheets or plates of mica, talc, chlorite, 
&c., the influence of which, together with the constant circulation of 
the polar currents in the direction of the planes, extends to the 
sedimentary beds, and thus the whole of the surface becomes uni- 
formly cleaved.” 


Passing over certain preliminary remarks and criticisms 
on the prevailing theories of the earth in the sixth chapter 
entitled ‘ general character of the crystalline rocks, called 
primary, Mr. Hopkins offers his own view of the case, which 
may be termed, a magnetic theory of the earth. 


** We shall consider the ocean as the primary menstruum from 
pole to pole,—a compound of the elements in solution through 
which the magnetic currents circulate. From analogy and by ex- 
periment, crystallization would commence at the negative pole, 
and would continue to form until its growth would extend to the 
positive pole in meridional lines, thus producing the polar grain or 


514 Geology and Magnetism. 


lamination explained in the previous chapter. In the primary 
rocks we recognise in every crystal the action of the constant and 
undeviating laws of the polar force and chemical affinity, giving to 
the mass a regular grain, and to every crystal a definite form and 
composition. Hence the above may be considered an experimental 
and natural truth. 

The elementary substances entering into the composition of the 
primary rocks, may on an average be considered the following :— 


Silica, Iron, 
Aluminum, Manganese, 
Magnesia, Fluoric acid, 
Potash, Carbonic acid, 
Soda, Water. 

Lime, 


These are united with variable proportions of the gases, hydrogen, 
oxygen, chlorine, &c. The compound consists of the above in a 
state of fluids, semifluids and solids, being an aggregation of the 
separate elements in different states of crystallization. 


Silica forme) UkI2. 270 a ROR Vy BOREL Ee ee Oiartz: 
Silica, alumina, lime and potash,... ... ... Felspar. 
Silica, alumina, potash and iron,... ... ... Mica, 
Silica, magnesia and potash, SOE oa ales 


Silica, alumina, magnesia and iron, ... ... Chlorite. 
Silica, alumina, magnesia, lime and iron, .. Hornblende. 
Silica, alumina, magnesia, potash and iron,... Schorl. 
Lime and carbonic acid, .. ... .. «.. Carbonate of lime. 
Besides the above compound ingredients, there are also dis- 
seminated in the primary mass all the known mineral substances ; 
these may likewise be compounds, of which hydrogen forms a part. 
Granite may be considered as the fundamental crystalline base, 
a compound of the above ingredients in variable proportions. 
Numerous appellations have been from time to time suggested for 
the different kinds of granites, but it is very evident that such 
distinctions cannot be established, inasmuch as the variety of 
crystals constituting the granitic masses are very irregularly dis- 
seminated, and possess no distinct lines of demarcation. However, 
in order to have some idea of their variable character, the following 


Geology and Magnetism. 515 


may be enumerated as very common compounds in Europe and 


America :— 

Micaceous granite, .... .... ... Mica predominating. 
Chloritic ” Si gaioare obivo@hlorite ,: 
Talcose r epined: id d .cbale 3 
Hornblendic ,, we» eee eee Hornblende ,, 
Quartzose __,, su, abiopee eQuartz 5 


Felspathic _,, compat daointe <a Belspar a 
Porphyritic ,, sss ase eee Felspar in excess with crystals of 
Felspar in a base. 

Felspar in general constitutes by far the largest part of granite: 
it is often in a soft and fluid state, and in small and large grains. 

The following varieties of granitic rocks are often associated in 
the same mountain mass, and may be regarded as contemporaneous- 
ly formed, accidentally modified by an admixture of different in- 
gredients :— 

Common granite; the felspar white or red, composed of quartz, 
felspar and mica. 

Chloritic granite; quartz, felspar and chlorite. 

Felspathic granite; in which felspar is the principal ingredient, 
and the quartz, and particularly the mica, very rare, with large 
crystals of felspar. 

In these masses are veins of the predominating substances of the 
enclosing rocks. 

The granite being the fundamental base, or the crystalline shell 
of the globe, its thickness is not known. It has a polar structure, 
and when the quantity of mica is considerable, granite divides into 
parallel plates, or in other words becomes laminated, and exhibits 
the meridionally structure explained above. 

Gneiss is the laminated part of the granitic base, the same 
identical mass; the distinction being produced by the ingredients 
tending to arrange themselves in parallel plates; quartz follows 
quartz, felspar follows felspar, and mica follows mica. (See Plate 
aL.) 

As this crystalline arrangement and lamination of the funda- 
mental base is produced by the continual circulating action of the 
magnetic currents through the semifluid mass, the transition of the 


516 Geology and Magnetism. 


crystalline aggregation to the laminated structure is necessarily 
insensible; the action being like a simultaneous growth of the 
granite northward. Hence a micaceous granite produces mica- 
ceous gneiss, chloritic granite chloritic gneiss, &c. 

Schist, or Crystalline Slate.—This variety forms the termina- 
tion of the granitic base, the branches and leaves, as it were, of the 
great granitic trunks. The mica granite passes first into gneiss, 
and the latter into mica schist by an almost imperceptible gradation. 
This rock has been represented as stratified by a mistake in con- 
founding the stratified with the laminated structure. (See Plate 
XVI.) It is the final decomposition of the felspar that distinguishes 
slate or schist from gneiss. (Plate VI.)* 

It will therefore be observed that the primary crystalline, from 
the granite to the schist, belongs to one formation, and is essential- 
ly composed of the same minerals, variously modified by the polar 
force, and passes by insensible gradation from the base to the final 
slaty structure in a more or less vertical and meridional direction ; 
but subject to constant changes and disturbances from local causes. 

These rocks are very extensively developed in South America, 
and may be traced from Chili to the Caribbean Sea. A section 
was taken across the three Cordilleras, where the rocks were seen 
cut by ravines upwards of 2000 feet deep, thus exhibiting natural 
sections, and showing the nature of their transition vertically 
as well as horizontally ; the minute, and very laborious investiga- 
tion of which is the foundation of the present observations. ‘The 
crystalline series in Europe falls into insignificance when compared 
with those of America, and it is in such extensive areas that the 
real character of the crystalline base can be clearly ascertained. 

Besides the regular transition of the crystalline base into slate, 
there are also veins formed, interlaminated in the mass. Should 
the base contain a large proportion of magnesia and talc, veins of 
serpentine rocks will be formed; should the granite predominate 
in silica, quartz veins will be found very abundant. 


* We have been unable to give the plates referred to, but the structure repre- 
sented is so well described by Mr. Hopkins, that the reader can be at little 
loss.— Ep. 


Geology and Magnetism. 517 


The felspathic granite never produces slate for the want of mica, 
therefore it is generally covered by a massive rock which is erro- 
neously called clay-slate. Should hornblende and lime be dissemi- 
nated in a felspathic base, hornblende, basaltic, trap, and greenstone 
veins are formed ; and as carbonic acid is generally combined with 
the ingredients, this compound base produces great disturbances in 
the superincumbent masses; it is the most restless base of the 
whole of the above compounds. However, we must always bear in 
mind that there is no granitic base 2m s¢tw actually dormant; these 
are constantly acted upon by the polar current, with variable 
degrees of intensity. The porphyritic granite is the richest base 
for producing minerals in Chili, Peru, Quito, New Granada, 
Mexico, England and Germany. The quartzose granite is the most 
unproductive. 

When the granite forms a moist massive base, it is seldom de- 
ficient in mineral salts, but when comparatively dry, with a distinct 
crystalline grain, it is generally poor in mineral. These are the 
primary points to be first considered in making a survey of a mineral 
district. 

The metalliferous parts of Crownwall have a porphyritic gra- 
nite, which on the surface is partilly decomposed, forming patches 
of dark masses of the same substance; the intermediate part 
(forming the transition) is called “elvan,” being a fine grain 
porphyry. 

The transition of the granite into the slate is very irregular, 
owing to the excess of felspar and the want of mica: this is also 
the cause of the series not possessing the uniform cleavage struc- 
ture seen in America and other places. »However, there are a 
few meridional channels intersecting Cornwall, presenting the usual 
phenomena of the vertical polar cleavage, and cleaving the superin- 
cumbent beds, which may be seen at the United Hills, St. Agnes, 
and various other parts of the northern coast. The interlamination 
of the granite, porphyry, and slate, and the common northward 
transition, may be seen at Dolcoath, and along the whole range 
of the Carn Brea granite, on the north side. 

The gradation of granite into gneiss, and gneiss into mica and 
clay-slates, may be seen in Wicklow, and also in the western part 


3d xX 


518 Geology and Magnetism. 


of Scotland. The Irish crystalline series may be considered as the 
southern extremity of those of Scotland. It has been conjectured 
that the slates of the western part of North Wales formed the 
eastern edges of those seen in Wicklow; this idea originated from 
the mistaken notion that primary schist were sedimentary beds. 
The Wicklow and North Wales crystalline slates are two inde- 
pendent meridional series.* 

A variety of taleose, micaceous and chloritic schists may be seen 
near Holyhead and on the south-west coast of Carnarvon, possess- 
ing that fibrous structure and silky striated and shining lustre in 
the planes of the laminz or meridional cleavage, so peculiar to all 
the crystalline rocks. 

To enumerate the localities of the primary series would be an 
endless task; therefore we must refer to other works, and confine 
ourselves to the mode of their formation and general structure. As 
the action in the primary base is constant, like a series of channels 
growing northward, with their pores and cleavages full of mineral 
solutions, subject to variable tensions, fractures, &c., the structure 
of the compound becomes occasionally very complicated, by which 
cause the phenomena of heaves, splits, veins, &c. are produced. 

Metalliferous rocks. —These are channels of rocks in which mi- 
nerals are so abundantly disseminated that the whole masses are 
worked like quarries. In the silver mines of Mariquita native silver 
is commonly found in flakes, like mica in the lamin of the schist, 
in channels of ground of about twenty-four feet wide, of course in 
the meridian, like the formation of the rock itself; and these metal- 
liferous channels are quarried for silver. In the same neighbour- 
hood the argentiferous channels are very numerous. 

At Ibague, copper is found under similar circumstanees in a 
clay-slate formation ; also lead and iron pyrites, disseminated in 
porphyritic rocks in the same locality. 

Gold is principally found as a superficial efflorescence on the face 
of rocks and in cavities, seldom or never in a close grain or compact 


« This and other similar appearances referred to, are illustrated in the original 
work; but except plate XXVII, exhibiting the polar currents as corresponding 
with the direction and variation of the magnetic needle, we have not thought the 
other illustrations essential to this notice.x—Ep. 


Geology and Magnetism. 519 


rock. It is found in the Brazils, Chili and New Granada, in the 
tender part of porphyry and clay-slate. It is the destruction or 
waste of these friable rocks that produces the rich alluvial soil of 
America. 

The porphyry of Cornwall contains nests of yellow copper ore, 
varying from a few ounces to several tons’ weight. In North Wales 
and Cumberland similar metalliferous rocks are common ; they are 
also very abundant in Ireland. 

Moss copper is well known to miners ; it is the produce of a me- 
talliferous rock, out of which it vegetates like common moss. Gold, 
silver, pyrites, lead, and indeed all metals, may be seen occasionally 
growing out of rocks where the situation and circumstances are 
favourable for their formation. 

The minerals are found in the rocks in solution as common as 
in the solid, indeed it is the state in which we consider them to be 
previous to their crystallization. All rocks are more or less im- 
pregnated with mineral solvents. The cupreous springs are very 
abundant in Chili, Peru, New Granada, Cuba and New Brunswick : 
they are to be seen also in Ireland, Anglesea, Spain and Hungary. 
The copper in solution is obtained by precipitating it by means 
of iron. The bog-iron ore is of similar origin, and is formed pre- 
cisely in the same manner as the calcareous and siliceous tuffa.” 


According to Mr. Hopkins, there are two great series of 
splits and fractures in primary rocks, the one extending 
in a meridional direction from pole, to pole, more or less 
interrupted, and depending on the polar forces. The other 
series extend from east to west, and are occasioned by the 
contraction of the rocks in the direction of the grain. It is 
to these last, that the peculiar rents and dislocations called 
faults, are referred. 


“We have already shown that the polar grain is universally ob- 
served ; the east and west fractures intersecting this structure are 
seen in the Brazils and Chili, forming immense veins of quartz. In 
Peru and Quito they are very abundant. In New Granada, on the 
western Cordillera, which is principally formed of porphyritic 
granite, the east and west fractures are very numerous, and are 


520 Geology and Magnetism. 


generally filled with quartz and auriferous pyrites, being the princi- 
pal metalliferous solvents of this chain. 

The central Cordillera is very schistose, thus possessing great 
tenacity, and capable of being elongated ; consequently the trans- 
verse fractures are but few, and confined to subordinate granular 
channels: the longitudinal and diagonal splits are of ordinary 
occurrence, the sides are commonly grooved and highly polished by 
friction caused by the meridional movements of the parallel masses. 
The hornblendic, calcareous and talco-magnesian varieties are found 
extremely active in the above series. The eastern Cordillera is 
very quartzose, therefore the east and west fractures are very 
numerous, and are intersected by a few polar splits, with striated 
and polished sides. In Mexico the porphyritic variety predominates, 
and the meridional splits are consequently intersected by a great 
number of fractures. In Cuba and the other large islands of the 
West Indies the same phenomena are observed. In the southern 
departments of the United States, and especially at Virginia, the 
polar splits predominate. These splits have cleaved the coal beds 
of Blackheath into longitudinal fragments, causing great disorder 
in their position. In Cornwall they are very numerous; the splits 
are known by the names of fluccan and cross courses, and the trans- 
verse fractures are called dodes. It is in the fractures that the 
mineral wealth of this country is found. 

The great polar splits of Cornwall and Devon extend aeross the 
Bristol Channel to Wales, and have cut the coal fields and all the 
sedimentary rocks of the province into meridional strips. The 
same kinds of splits and fractures are seen throughout England, 
Scotland and Ireland, and have broken the great sedimentary beds 
into various fragments of a somewhat rhomboidal form, according 
to the oblique angles of the splits. 

On the continent of Europe similar series have been observed, 
especially in Tangiers, Spain, France, Germany, Hungary and 
Sweden ; we need not detail them, but beg reference to works de- 
scribing each district. 

These splits and fractures, and their being in continual motion 
by the constant action of the polar force, produce great disorder 
in the general structure, and cause dislocations in the order of 


Geology and Magnetism. 521 


the masses (called heaves by the miners). These are the effects of 
the horizontal or diagonal motion of the individual strips of rocks 
between the splits from their original position. The great heaves 
are produced by the northward action of the rocks between the 
polar splits; the slides observed in the east and west fractures are 
few, and generally insignificant ; they are the effect of wedges of 
rocks squeezed between great splits. 

These dislocations have created great discussions, and have 
caused very opposite opinions, owing principally to the impossibility 
of restoring the continuity of al/ the fractures on both sides of the 
splits. A very little reflection must show that such an agreement 
in all the fractures could not be expected. In the first place, the 
ruptures across the splits would necessarily take place in the direc- 
tion of the least resistance, be that in a direct line or not; it does 
not follow that it should be straight across the split. If, again, we 
consider that the rocks are exposed to the continual action of the 
polar current, and therefore subject to a slow movement northward, 
there would necessarily be fractures taking place periodically in the 
same masses, 7. e. when the ‘“ heaves” are only 1, 10, 20, 30, 50 
feet ; how then would it be possible to restore the continuity of the 
whole series of fractures? It is well known, and can be proved that 
the fractures have occurred at different periods. It is like attempt- 
ing to refit pieces of ice, after having been broken and subjected to 
repeated movements and reunited again by repeated freezing, as 
to try to restore dislocated masses of rocks in the primary base. 

When we consider the semifluid nature of the masses, and their 
permitting a continual molecular action through their pores in the 
meridian direction, like the current of sap in a living tree, we need 
not be surprised that the wall of the fractures, cannot always be 
refitted ; their ruptured sides are altered by the chemical action in 
a very short time; the southern parts of which are often seen pene- 
trating into the northern by a new cleavage formed subsequently to 
the filling of the cracks, as represented in Plate XI.* 

Miners are well aware that the sides of veins often bulge out in 
defiance of all mechanical resistance: it requires a considerable 
practical knowledge to keep them open to extract the mineral, 


particularly in very wet ground. When the splits happen to be in 
* See Note, p. 518. 


522 Geology and Magnetism. 


a north-west direction, the masses of rocks on the western side 
are generally forced northward more than those on the eastern 
side: if the splits be towards the north-east, the contrary effect 
takes place; that is, in real heaves, because a great number are 
called ‘‘ heaves” that are only apparent. In Cornwall the majority 
of the spits are north-west, as described in Plate VIII. :* conse- 
quently all the principal ‘‘ heaves” of the country are to the right, 
the western masses having shifted northward more than the eastern. 
The red sandstone and carbonaceous series, intersected by a split 
near Tiverton in Devon, has been shifted northward on the western 
side nearly half a mile. In the vicinity of Tavistock and Calling- 
ton similar northward movements are observed. There is another 
great northward “heave” near Redruth, produced by the great cross 
course traversing the North Downs. The direction of the ‘ heaves” 
is generally expressed by right and left, because the same expression 
serves on approaching them on either side. Some suppose that the 
nature of ‘‘ heaves” depends on the direction and inclination of the 
mineral veins or transverse fractures; but this is a mistake: the 
movements of the masses are quite independent of the cracks, and 
would be the same had they not existed. Nor does it follow that 
the dislocated veins should be always ‘‘ heaved” on the side of the 
obtuse angle, as generally supposed, because this depends on the 
angle of the fracture itself. 

The cause of the above order in the dislocated masses is made 
manifest when we examine the nature of the mechanical disturbance. 
Admitting the magnetic force to act in the meridian, the direction 
of the oblique splits destroys the parallelism or uniformity of the 
polar forces; consequently the masses presenting the largest trans- 
verse bases to the south will be propelled northward at a greater 
rate than the others. (Plate XII.*) 

Having lately made a very extensive investigation of the princi- 
pal mines of Cornwall, Wales and Ireland, with a view of instituting 
a comparison between them and those of America, this part of our 
subject was carefully attended to, and the result has fully confirmed 
our previous opinion that the greater number of the veins on the 
large scale have been ‘‘ heaved” and filled simultaneously. The 


* See Note, p. 518. 


Geology and Magnetism. 523 


splits, generally speaking, are older than the transverse fractures. 
The mines of Flintshire are referred to as one instance out of hun- 
dreds which may be mentioned, where the transverse cracks are 
confined within the limits of the meridional strips. The cause of 
the meridonal splits intersecting the east and west cracks is not 
from their being of a more recent origin, but owing to one series 
being subject to perpetual longitudinal movements, and the other to 
transverse actions.” 


We give the following observations on veins entire from 
the practical importance of the subject, no less than the 
interesting view taken of it by Mr. Hopkins. 


“ Besides the conflicting opinions respecting the origin of mineral 
veins, much confusion has also arisen from the very loose significa- 
tion which is given by miners to the term vein or lode, which they 
apply, in fact, to almost any species of mineral deposit which affords 
a foundation for mining operations, however widely it may differ 
from the definition of these terms in a mechanical sense. To avoid 
this confusion, and to render the opinion which is here maintained 
respecting their origin more clear, we shall distinguish them by 
veins of fractures and split veins; the former being more or less 
east and west, and the latter north and south: transverse fractures 
and meridional splits are to be considered as identical. We must 
always bear in mind the fact, that the rocks are more or less strong- 
ly saturated with minerals in solution, in a state favourable to 
chemical action, and having a free motion through the pores of the 
rocks in obedience to the polar force. Those who may wish to 
know whether this is a known fact in England, may consult the 
numerous experiments of Mr. Fox, who has proved the existence 
of the subterranean currents and mineral salts in Corwall by re- 
peated experiments. Indeed, to doubt this is equal to doubting 
the meridional action of the magnetic needle; the latter is the 
effect of the same power. 

We have already observed that the meridional channels of rocks 
contain different kinds of minerals, the fractures intersecting which 
form what are called lodes or mineral veins ; we shall now consider 
the nature of their contents. 


524 Geology and Magnetism. 


The Filling of Veins. 


Agreeably to the preceding observations, we should naturally 
conclude, that if fissures be formed in a rock of any given chemical 
composition, the pores of such a rock being filled with solvents, the 
fissures traversing it would contain the predominating mineral 
substance: hence we should find in limestone, veins filled with car- 
bonate of lime; in siliceous rocks, veins of quartz; in hornblendic 
granite or slate, veins of hornblende, &c.: consequently those veins 
which may intersect a series of rocks varying in their chemical 
composition, would be filled with a corresponding variety of mi- 
nerals. Should the laminz or pores of any given channel of rock 
be more strongly saturated with mineral salts than another, the 
traversing crack, or a series of cracks, would be found to contain 
rich deposits opposite to, and within the limits of such a channel. 
This variation in the contents of the bounding rocks produces a 
corresponding variation in the fissure: hence the cause why the 
minerals are formed in isolated masses (called ‘ bunches”), a well- 
known fact in every mining district. The reality of the dependence 
of the masses of metallic ores in a continuous vein upon the qualities 
of the bounding rocks, is very perfectly demonstrated by facts 
long known in England. 

Some veins of fracture change so much in their horizontal direc- 
tion as to be considered in one part a é lode and in another 
a copper lode. This is particularly the case with Chasewater lode, 
which at Wheal Daniel is called a tin lode, at Chasewater mine 
atin and copper lode, and at Treskerby a copper lode. The na- 
ture of the minerals and the accompanying matrix changes with the 
changes of the rocks intersected by the fracture. In South Ameri- 
ca the veins of fractures are also often found,—in one part aurifer- 
ous, in another argentiferous, again cupriferous, according to the 
metalliferous character of the bounding rocks, (Pamplona, Ibague.) 

The changes in the contents of fissures, when traversing sedi- 
mentary rocks, are equally striking. The mining districts of 
Aldstone Moor, Teesdale, &c., consist of sedimentary beds of swale- 
dale grits and limestones, traversed by fractures; the minerals in 
the fissures are chiefly found opposite the limestone beds, which in 


Geology and Magnetism. 525 


the above district are the most metalliferous. (Plate XV.* fig. 3.) 
The ore is more abundant in the limestone than in the gritstone, 
and in the shale ore seldom occurs. The matrix of the vein as it 
passes through the gritstone is often sulphate of barytes ; but when 
it enters the limestone it changes to carbonate of barytes. When 
the rock on one side of a vein is thrown up or down considerably, 
so as to bring a stratum of limestone opposite a stratum of sand- 
stone, or when the walls of the vein are of two different kinds of 
stone, the vein is never so productive in ore as when both sides of 
the vein are of the same kind. The connexion of the opposite beds 
of limestone appears essential to keep up the erystallising action, 
and consequently the accumulations of the useful metals from side 
to side within the fracture. When the strata are but slightly shift- 
ed, the component parts, or the elements of each stratum, connect 
the opposite walls obliquely : sometimes the shales cut through the 
veins from side to side; thus the transverse section of the contents 
of the fracture exhibits the order of the sedimentary demarcations 
of the bounding rocks, as shown in Plate XV. This important fact 
alone is sufficient to invalidate the idea of veins having been filled 
from above or below; and proves very clearly that the veins of 
fractures have been forced open and filled gradually by a lateral 
crystallization from the bounding rocks. 

In Derbyshire the beds of metalliferous limestone are interstrati- 
fied by hornblendic rocks, called toadstones. When a vein of lead 
is worked through the first limestone down to the toadstone, it 
ceases to contain any ore, and often entirely disappears: on sinking 
through the toadstone to the second limestone, the ore is found 
again, but is cut off by a lower bed of toadstone, under which it 
appears again in the third limestone. In some situations, where 
the beds of limestone are divided by seams of clay, they cut off the 
contents of the veins as effectually as the toadstone. (Plate XV.) 

With regard to the metalliferous beds or channels of rocks, it 
matters not of what variety they are, provided they be good con- 
ductors and well charged with metallic solutions. The changes in 
the contents of veins intersecting the more or less vertical channels 


* For this and similar references to plates, see note, p. 518. 


© & 
oOo Y 


526 Geology and Magnetism. 


of the crystalline rocks are similar to those observed in the sedi- 
mentary rocks. 

The mining districts of Gwenap, Redruth and Cambrone (Plate 
VIII.), consists of crystalline channels of clay-slate, porphyry, 
greenstone, granite &c. When the lodes intersect the pale-blue 
massive clay-slate, they are generally productive in copper, and tin 
in the chloritic variety. When the channels dip towards the east 
or the west, the bunches of ore dip in the same direction. If the 
channels of ground be very dry and of a close crystalline grain, they 
seldom produce minerals. The metalliferous character of the 
channels depends principally on a primary prophyritic and moist 
base; this kind of rock appears to be the richest soil, as it were, 
for the production of minerals. These crystalline channels of rocks 
being more or less in the meridian, as we have already explained in 
a previous chapter, and the fractures called lodes intersecting them 
from east to west (Plates VII. and VIII.), each fracture will contain 
similar deposits of mineral in the same meridian, or in a line ap- 
proaching to it, as illustrated in Plate XV.: hence the miner’s old 
rule in Cornwall, parallel lodes produce parallel bunches. This is 
an established fact in all mining districts ; but it must be remembered 
that the rule cannot hold good in split veins. The east and west 
cracks being across the meridional grain, are exposed to the whole 
crystallising action of the series, whereas split veins between the 
channels can only receive such solvents as may pass longitudinally 
through them: this is also the cause of the contents of the two 
classes of veins exhibiting a. different structure; viz. the east and 
west from side to side, and the splits in longitudinal plates. (Plate X.) 

In order to exhibit the mode of filling, and the formation of 
different crystals in the same fracture, place a mass of clay-slate 
between the poles of a battery, immersed in a metallic solution ; 
it will be seen that the currents pass on/y in the direction of the 
cleavage: if the slate be broken across, so as to represent veins of 
fractures, crystals will be observed to grow in each fracture trans- 
versely, z. e. in the direction of the cleavage planes*. If two or 

* We have already insisted that cleavage planes are formed in the direction of 


the currents from pole to pole. Experiments have been made with the view of 
imitating these crystalline planes, by placing a mass of clay between the poles of a 


Geology and Magnetism. 527 


more metals be combined in the solution, and the current be very 
feeble, only one of the metals will be formed in each crack ata 
time: should the current be increased beyond that required for the 
decomposition of one of the metallic salts, the others will be reduc- 
ed proportionably and accordingly to their relative ease of decom- 
position. The intensity of the current and the proportion of the 
metallic salts may vary periodically, which may account for the 
variety of crystals irregularly grouped together in the same vein 
and at the very same spot. When the intensity of the currents is 
very feeble the crystals are large, and when greater than sufficient 
to reduce the metallic salts, hydrogen will evolve and the metals 
will be precipitated in a massive powder. Hence, when minerals 
are found in their metallic state and in large crystals, they indi- 
cate feeble currents, and consequently unfavourable for the produc- 
tion of large quantities in such veins. The most favourable indica- 
tions for rich deposits are strong solutions of minerals, dammed by 
fluccans or clayey veins, so that the excess may ooze out on the 
surface, forming hydrous oxides and sulphates. The amount of 
deposition in each fracture depends on the mechanical positions, as 
illustrated in Plate XIV. The most favourable position of a frac- 
ture for the accumulation of minerals is at right angles to the grain 
of the district, and slightly dipping northward; the unfavourable 
fracture is, that dipping southward at a first angle under a heavy 
hill. In a series of parallel fractures the bunches of mineral will be 
found in a more or less meridional direction (Plates VII. and 
VIII.), on the south somewhat deep, and on the north shallow 
deposits. This rise of the metalliferous currents varies in South 
America from 10° to 20° from the horizon. In Mexico the richer 
bunches of minerals are found in the parts where the fissures inter- 
sect the moist porpbyritic varieties of clay-slates. (Plate VII.) In 


battery, and it has been supposed that the small transverse fissures produced by the 
tension represent the phenomenon of cleavage. A very slight examination will 
shew the distinction between them. ‘Those who may feel disposed to imitate rea 

polar lamine must furnish each pole with a piece of laminated rock; without this 
preparation cleavage planes cannot be produced by artificial means. A mass of 
clay jammed between the walls ina vein of fracture will be cleaved across by the 
natural magnetic currents in a very few years. It is this constant cleaying action 
which is the cause of yeins becoming obliterated. 


528 Geology and Magnetism. 


New Grenada, Peru, Chili and the Brazils, similar channels of rocks 
are equally productive. In a word, every mining district has its 
conducting metalliferous channels, and the whole accumulated evi- 
dence obtained in all parts of the world clearly proves the fact, that 
the contents of the veins of fractures depend on the character of the 
rocks they traverse, as represented in the sketches. 

It is of great importance to bear this fact in mind, because veins 
which have been particularly rich at one place have led persons to 
suppose that the continuation of the same fracture must lead to 
more riches, although such a fracture may intersect barren rocks. 
Every mining establishment ought to be in possession of the general 
bearing and undulations of their respective metalliferous channels, 
without which the work must be attended with great risks: guess 
work, ‘ where it is there it is,” is an extremely bad principle to go 
by, even with a good practical miner; but when exposed to the 
changes of agents, inexperience, &c., the consequence may be easily 
conceived. After great expense has been incurred in carrying on 
works through unproductive rocks, mines have frequently been 
abandoned, when within a few feet of rewarding our search, for the 
want of knowing the width and positions of the barren and rich 
channels of ground. On the other hand, in prosecuting works of 
discovery in a direction where no metalliferous channels exist, mines 
have been carried on at a considerable loss, simply because the vein 
happens to be in the same direction as another more productive. 
Of all speculative employments, mining has been, and continues to 
be, for the want of a well-founded principle, the most uncertain ; 
experience and ingenuity being frequently and completely defeated, 
although the miner has been continually led to suppose himself 
on the point of meeting a good course of ore; while from veins, 
which men of equal ability have abandoned, large profits have after- 
wards been realized. Therefore the theory of the formation of 
mineral veins, and the rules which lead to the discovery of the 
richer deposits, are objects of much greater national importance than 
is generally supposed. It is essential to the interest of every 
mining proprietor to know the general character of the local dis- 
semination of the minerals in the district, and indispensable to his 
forming a correct judgment on the mode of working adopted by 
the practical miner, 


Geology and Magnetism. 529 


The metalliferous deposits are subject to be decomposed and 
recompounded periodically, according to the nature of the local 
changes. In some situations it is possible that veins may change 
their character in a comparatively short period, so as to be rich at 
one time and poor at another, especially if kept full of water. 

Numerous instances may be mentioned where old workings have 
been partially filled with a fresh crop of minerals, and also where 
minerals have been decomposed and disappeared. After the pro- 
duction of some crystals these are again decomposed by new ele- 
ments; and thus we find crystals have disappeared after having 
once served as nuclei for others to be deposited upon. 

A kind of efflorescence of gold, blende and pyrites have been 
found formed on the walls in old workings in the mines of Marmato 
in New Grenada. Gold washings are often abandoned, and the 
very same sand becomes again sufficiently rich to be rewashed, if 
situated immediately on a primary rock. Capillary gold, silver and 
copper have been found formed in old workings near Ibague, subse- 
quently to the mines having been worked by the Aborigines. Native 
copper has been found formed on the timber in the Wicklow mines. 

Mr. W. Forster states, that at Wolfclough mine, in the county 
of Durham, which was closed for more than twenty years, and 
opened again, needles of white lead ore were observed projecting 
from the sides of the veins, more than two inches in length, being 
equal to a vein two inches wide. 

D’Aubuisson observes, that in the mines near Pontgibaud, fer- 
ruginous and calcareous deposits are now effective in the open 
spaces left in the mines; so that if after working out the lode the 
galleries be left shut, and filled with the solutions of the bounding 
rocks during a long series of years, new workings could be carried 
on upon the new deposits. The rubbish left in old workings be- 
comes often cemented by mineral salts, which sometimes crystallize 
in the crevices, so as to render it worth working over again in the 
course of avery few years. In the mines of Hanover a leather 
thong suspended from the roof of a mine was found coated with 
silver ore, and also native silver and vitreous ore coating the wooden 
supports of a mine which had been under water for several years. 

These chemical actions, governed by the subterranean polar cur- 
rents, continue to fill every fissure or vacuity with crystals, the 


530 Geology and Magnetism. 


growth of which swells open the cracks, and thus causes new frac- 
tures and dislocations, according to the variable nature of the con- 
taining rocks, and the amount of resistance. This gradual opening 
of the veins with the growth of the crystals from the sides accounts 
for the isolated masses of the bounding rocks found in veins (Plate 
XIII.), which could not possibly occur had they been open fractures. 
Indeed the hypotheses supposing mineral veins to have been j/illed 
by solution from above, or that of the injection of ingneous matter 
into an open fissure from below, are so crude and irreconcilable 
with the nature of their contents, that they do not deserve our at- 
tention: the facts brought forward fully justify the conclusion that 
all veins, whether they be mineral or not, have been formed and 
filled on the same principle of polar action as above described. In 
the east and west, or transverse fissures, the crystals are formed 
from side to side, and in the splits, longitudinally, in parallel plates, 
as shown in Plate X. The bunches of minerals in the splits are in 
diagonal and longitudinal shoots. (Plate XV.) 


Roots and Branches of Mineral Veins. 


The meeting of a number of small veins either in depth or in a 
horizontal direction is favourable for the accumulation of minerals. 
Plate XVIII. represents a plan of a split vein in New Grenada 
containing silver ores; the feeders or roots, and the northern 
branches, are laid down according to the manner in which the 
mineral concentrated and dispersed northward. Many are called 
feeders by miners which in reality have had the contrary effect. 

The feeders of the east and west veins, like those of the splits, 
are on the south side; the branches seen on the opposite side 
have, generally speaking, allowed the mineral to escape from the 
veins. An oblique fissure on the south side, called a caunéier, 
formed contemporaneously with an east and west vein, produces 
the same effect as the small oblique branches, viz. enriching 
one part of the east and west fracture at the expense of another ; 
the lode north of the oblique vein would be found comparative- 
Jy poor. These facts may be observed in Cornwall in various 
parts, and particularly in the mines of Dolcoath, Tin Croft, and 
North Roskear. 


Geology and Magnetism. 531 


The feeders or roots of the split veins may be seen in the mines 
of St. Just, the bunches of mineral depending entirely upon them ; 
the principal being those coming in from the granite in a S.S.E. 
direction, and forming diagonal shoots of ore from their junction 
northward, as represented in Plate XV. The tin formation in the 
St. Ives consols may be described as a number of large roots com- 
ing in from the South-east, converging into one grand trunk, and 
growing northward at an angle of about eight degrees from the 
horizon, surrounded by the granite. A similar split vein may be 
also seen on the banks of the Tarmar, having the principal feeding 
veins or roots on the south-east side, in tender ground under the 
bed of the river. Split veins, cross courses, &c. are not productive 
without the feeders, the latter being the only means by which the 
contents of the bordering rocks can be brought into them. 

The split veins of all mining districts are of the same nature ; 
therefore as these effects are matters of fact, and easily referred 
to, we shall not enter into further details. All split veins, be they 
quartz, carbonate of lime, hornblende, or any other, have been 
formed in the same manner, and consequently the contents are ar- 
ranged in longitudinal plates. 


The influence of the impermeable Splits on the accumulation of the 
Minerals in the Transverse Fractures. 

Independent of the ‘ bunches” of minerals being found corres- 
ponding to certain channels, the amount of the deposit in the 
fissures is considerably influenced according to the position of the 
intersecting splits. (Plate XVII.) 

That veins of fractures are enriched near their intersection by 
cross-courses, fluccans, faults, &c., is a fact well known in Corn- 
wall, North Wales, and the North of England; the same fact is 
also observed in Germany, in Mexico and South America: the 
evidence for which is very clear, inasmuch as the bunches of mineral 
are sometimes found confined to one side of the splits, as represent- 
ed in the Plate. This well-known fact is another proof of the east 
and west fractures having been filled subsequently to, or contem- 
poraneously with, the formation of the splits. 

These accumulations of minerals appear to have been produced 
by the splits having been filled with substances impervious to water, 


532 Geology and Magnetism. 


the metallic solutions being thus retained entirely on their respec- 
tive sides ; and when one side happens to be more strongly impreg- 
nated than the other, the quantity of minerals formed in the trans- 
verse fissures will be found in the same relative proportion. The 
sketches in Plate XVII., illustrating these kinds of accumulations, 
have been taken from mines in America and Europe ; therefore they 
may be considered as real sections, to which we beg reference for a 
more clear idea of this interesting part of our inquiry. 

The impermeable porphyritic channels have the same influences 
on the deposits of minerals as the cross-course, or meridional split, 
z. e. they dam of and retain the metalliferous solutions on one side, 
and thus produce large accumulations. In South Roskear, Tin 
Croft, and some other mines in Cornwall, the mineral is found 
almost entirely confined to one side of their intersecting cross- 
courses and hornblende veins One of the most noted examples of 
this fact, mentioned in the Geological Report of Cornwall, is that 
of Wheal Alfread, near Guinear. The elvan vein, Plate XVII, 
fig. 1, runs from south west to north-east ; the lode intersects it 
obliquely ; while in the slate, on the eastern side, it contained 
mineral; but on approaching the elvan it became much richer, 
and yielded sufficient ore to afford a profit of £140,000. After 
quitting the elvan on the western side the lode became poor, and 
eventually the mine was abandoned as unproductive. The arrows 
in the sketch represent the nature of the accumulation on one 
side of the elvan, and the apparent cause of the poverty on the 
other. Viewing the subject on a large scale, the accumulations pro- 
duced by impermeable veins will be found according to the following 
order :— 

When the splits or veins run from south-west to north-east the 
“ bunches” will be found principally on the eastern side: if the 
splits run from south-east to north-west the deposits will be found 
on the western-side, being the natural consequences of the oblique 
mechanical interruptions of the solvents transmitted through the 
grain of the rocks by means of the magnetic currents. Numerous 
minor variations must necessarily occur from the effects of local 
causes ; but we need not describe them, as we hope that the prin- 
ciple here laid down will be found sufficient for the guidance of 
the practical miner.” 


Reduction of the Meteorological Register, kept at the Surveyor Gene- 
ral’s Office, Calcutta, for the year commencing on the 1st November 
1843, and terminating 31st October 1844. By J. M‘Ciewianp. 


Meteorological Registers are intended to afford materials for the 
investigation of climate, and if held available in the places where 
they are kept to persons engaged in researches of this nature, 
publication may be well dispensed with. They are bulky if given in 
detail, and useless if too much abridged, while in any case they are 
seldom referred to. 

For these reasons, I discontinued the publication of the usual 
abstracts from the very copious register kept at the Surveyor Gene- 
ral’s Office, by Mr. Rees, since October 1843. I now propose to 
give the general results to be deduced from these records since the 
latter period. 

The prevalence of small-pox and of cholera in March and April 
last, and of a peculiar form of brain fever which set in the early part 
_ of the rains, may render the subject more interesting as accounting 
for those complaints by the unusually early setting in of the hot 
season, its violence and protracted length. The late and irregular 
appearance of the rains, while the heavy falls of rain in August 
and September, and the consequent diminished temperature of those 
months, will account no less satisfactorily for the unusual healthiness 
of that part of the season. 

The observations were made at sunrise, 9h. 40m., noon, 2h. 40m., 
4h., and at sunset ; in all at six different periods. The lowest daily 
temperature is at sunrise, the highest at 2h. 40m., and this holds good 
throughout the year. The lowest temperature observed was on the 
19th January, when the thermometer stood at 51.7; the highest was 
on the 10th of April, when the thermometer stood in the shade 
at 104. The mean temperature of December, the coolest month of the 
year, was 72.02; and of April, the hottest month of the year, 89.6; the 
mean temperature of the whole year founded on six daily observations 
at the hours above stated is 82.35.* The mean minimum is 81.15, 
and the mean maximum is 93.67. 


* The mean of a fractional difference between Tab. I and Tab. XIX the results being in the 
first case obtained from the sums of the columns for each month, and, in the second frem 


the daily average. 
oO 


vo Z 


534 Reduction of the Meteorological Register, 


The greatest extremes were in the months of February and March, 
when there was a difference of 38° between the maximum and mini- 
mum temperature observed. The months of August and October 
afford the nearest approximation to the mean temperature of the 
whole year. 

The following Table exhibits these results for the several months :— 


TABLE I. 


Thermometric Results for the year commencing 1st November 1843, and ter- 
minating 31st October 1844. 


{ ‘ @g « L) 4 
23 § | Hoe. [84 
= °° 
: : eg & 
| Months. = Mean. : roa ; S z 
| ee Set a Biel ue lee 
a i see lels ise. 
| a= e 608 | gy ee es es 
| = = |& On Wenn? 
Qo Oo ° 
1843, | November, ...| 60° 78:49 | 86°2 | — 3-91 29th} 6th! 26-2 
December, ...| 53° 72:02 | 84:5 | —10°37 |17th] 4th! 34-1 
1844, | January, ...... 517 | 72°32 | 84:2 | —10°01 |19th|25th} 32-5 
February, ...| 56° | 78:14 | 94° | — 4°32 | 1st |26th| 38- 
March, ances es 86°85 | 1Ol: | + 4:44 | Ist |28th| 38- 
April,’ :..)s0.| flo | O9'Go | ROP ae 20 Soren pm oe I 
Maiyin cossmisecalyiid GF 87-76 | 98:6 5.34 |14th} 6th] 22-6 
June, ... ...| 76° | 86-88] 95: ‘46 |18tb/20th| 19: 


sh goes we| Cf | 84-03] 93-2 


+ 
+ 
+ 161 | ist/24th| 162 
August, .../ 76°9 | 83:73 | 90:5 | + 
ss 
=s 


dl |/14th/25th} 13-6 
16 | 9th/27th| 19- 
26 |3lst} 6th| 21- 


September,...| 77: | 85°58 | 96. 
October, ...| 7o° 83°68 | 94: 


ee 


Means. '! 81°15 | 82°42 | 93:67 31.23 


The mean height of the barometer during the year was 29.707. 
The lowest mean monthly height was 29.484 in June. The highest 
mean monthly is 29.951 in December; the lowest extreme, 29.196, 
was on the 21st August, and the highest, 30.153, on the 17th of 
January. September affords the nearest approximation to the mean 
annual. The maximum pressure occurs about 10 a.m. The mini- 
mum at 4 p. y., except on the 26th of January, 27th of February and 
29th of May, when the minimum pressure was observed at 6 P. M. 
The following Table exhibits these results :— 


kept at Calcutta, 1843-44. 535 


TABLE II. 


Barometric Results of the year 1843-44. 


tes : tad Epochs. 
= ~~ 
a 5 3 la - § |——_—_- 
= s = TES 
Months. ) ® ras i ; 
= g me iat) “ 
5 ® 5 =e. = 
ra = = a = = 
ae CP aa) aogq 
4 Rie, 4 eed Ii cee = 
\éa| 2 < = =] oe) 


| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 


1843 |November, ...| 29.785 | 29.867 | 30.042 |-+.160! 17th | 2nd 
December, ...| 29.830 | 29.951 | 30.094 |+.244} 1st 19th 
January, ...|*29.772 | 29.937 | 30.152 |-+-.230, 26th | 17th 
February, ...|*29.770 | 29.915 | 30.062 |+.208 | 27th 5th 
March, -»-| 29.606 29.793 | 29.978 |+.086 | 29th Ist 
EE, aco 0) 29.408 29.656 | 29.834 |—.051 | 2nd 16th 
BHAW, ws0) | oss 29.990 29.563 | 29.734 |—.144 | 29th Ist 
June, .. «| 29.271 | 29.184 | 29.694 |—.220 | 29th | 18th 
BOs ssa. ot 29,020 29.517 29.713 j|—.190 | 28th | 21st 
August, eoe| 29.196 22.516 29°740 |—.191 | 21st 30th 
September, ...| 29.394 | 29.662 | 29.865 |—.045/ 8th 29th 
October, ...| 29.572 | 29.633 | 29.987 |—.074) 12th | 28th 


1844 


eS ES | | SS | AS SS my | Teen Try ee | 


Means. 29.5380 | 29.707 | 29.903 


Rain fell on 101 days during the year to the amount of 74.72 
inches, of which we had 65 inches or 2 ths of the whole in 72 days of 
June, July, August and September, and the remaining 92 inches only 
throughout the rest of the year. To this peculiarity, combined with 
the diminished fall of rain during the preceding year, which only 
amounted to 63.34 inches, may probably be ascribed the excessive 
temperature of the months of March and April in particular, and the 
unhealthiness that prevailed at that period in consequence. The 
following Table exhibits the peculiarity of wind and weather generally 
throughout the year. 


* At sunset, 


eo) | 
9 
o> 


Reduction of the Meteorological Register, 


TABLE III. 


Shewing the quantity of Rain and Variations of Wind and Weather, during 
the year 1843-44. 


Weather. Of the Wind at Noon. 
ol lace (eee ee Sa 
° Of -|Oqg o/G Hu n 
Months. | 5, |g 23/5 2"|F2 ae 
2 loes#log Slag as 
ae |S Sel Se eiee et zie :(S 5 
oC 3 smn Cs = Zio D oy ca} > foal = | CAR 
Bm 2 oetees a) at 6]. tos a) S56 
ce A |] A [A* la |e) [oi fod lo |B ai |S Je 
1843] November, 0 29 | O {16} 3] 7} 0} O} 1) 3} O} O| 29 
December,* | 0.86 2 29 O 115) 4} 6| O| O} OF 3} 1] 1] 30 
1844|January, ..| 0.22 1 30) -@ | 15) Dy 4) 3,0) ea? 0} 31 
February, ..| 0.08 i 28 | 0 19] 3] 4) 4} 0} 2) 6 1} O} 29 
March, anf O22 1 30 0 | O| 2| 1} 8} O}10/10} 0} O} 31 
April, RP I 6 24 1 | O| 1] O}17| 1} 3} 6} 2! O} 380 
May, oo| 7.44 i2 19 3 | 0} 3] 1/20} 1] 4} O} 2] OF 31 
June, sot t2.23 14 16 4 3] 2 Le ea al 3) or 30 
July,fos> oe} 13.72 23 8 1 | O} 1) 1/10; 6} 3) 4} 5] o} 30 
August, .-) 26.91 23 8} 4) 1] OF 1/11] 6} 4} 1) 7] Oo] 31 
September, | 5.02 12 18} 3 | 0} 2} 4} 7} 2) 6] 6} 3] oO} 80 
October,t -.| 4.99 6 14} 0} 1} 3} 3) 0} 2 2! 5! 4} 0} 20 
Totals »+| 74.721 101 252 | 15 (68 26'34191\19 4 031291 1! 353 


Thunder, it will be observed from the above Table, occured on 15 
days from April to September, while the rest of the year was exempt 
from it; on five of these occasions it occurred at noon; On seven 
it occurred at 2h. 40m.; and on three occasions at sunset. The 
following Table exhibits the days and hours on which it thundered 
during the year. 


* Observation interrupted at 9 o’clock on the 21st, and at the same and subsequent hours on 
the 25th. 


t 15th July one observation interrupted. 
T Observations interrupted from 15th to 26th of October. 


kept at Calcutta, 1843-44. 537 


TABLE IV. 
Shewing the Periods at which Thunder occurred from 1st November 1843 
to 31st October 1844. 


1843. 1844. 
Ba. hc 8 ° 
Hours, 8-2 |.o9h) 5) . 3 g ° 
A q 3) s\a oa : ° ° Ss o 2 
PISHEISie| El & a) aero & Se ake 
ZAlAtsiais| «| 2 | 5 | 4 « age 
Sunrise, o° A? eopoctco|oo s200 e200 ° ee ooee sarge eece 
9h. 50 m. Peleel|eeteoien vo )eeee 8th ee 18th eeoe @o000 
eels ci 20d a ib ie | <-|2 age bette ht 
Mb. 40m. «lea laefes|ee|oe|oee |$ anch | 24th] Srdj$ tee | Sage pote 


4h. se Poles leohe 2) PO \aeieee0 eee 


Sunset, .. sles sever spberss doth aE ed rE eae 

The following are the proportions of the prevailing winds, to 350, 
the number of days on which observations were kept at six different 
periods each day. North wind 51.6, north-east 19.6, north-west 
29.8, south 89.3, south-east 26.5, south-west 32-6, west 36, east 
24.1, calm 38.5. 

There were 137 calm mornings at sunrise, and only one calm day 
at noon throughout the year, while there were 78 calm evenings at 
sunset. The results under this head are exhibited in the following 
Table :— 


TABLE V. 
Shewing the Direction of the Wind each day at 6 different hours, and the 
relative duration of each Wind throughout the year. 


525 

erste 

Hours. B58 

° A g™ oo 
S| ai | 5 gate 
3 e x 3 289 
SPN Za Ze | saininanl&® la |S 52 
Beurise,...  ...| a2 | 20 | 16 | 68 | 29 gee «| 2a. 1137.| 2 300 
me OOM... ae oo) 137°) 29, 75 | 8&4 49 7 42 1 23 3} = 351 
Noon, . sesh det 2o -| of4.| 90 | 194, 42.53 4 29 1} = 352 
Mie 20Mccs ocn| O2 | 24 | 40 1105 | 20 | 27 |} 58 7 20 6 | = 352 
4h. Ww. iene 12] 42 | 93 | She sein 45 31 61 = 352 
Sunset, 0. 0 56 9 |} 18 |116 | 2a 28 1 11 17. 0 78: see 


—_—_———— - 


Total each 6. ~ 


ee  - 


Sinaia 51.6 19.6 20.8 89.3 26,5)32,6 | 36. |24.] 38.51 = 350 
> 29° one 


SS eee ee ed Ee nnn 


310 1118 (179 {536 |150 \190 \216 1145 {231 | =2101 


em |, | ee re | ny | i | ne | cere ee a 


933 Reduction of the Meteorological Register, 


The relative proportions of the prevailing appearances of the sky 
and changes in the atmosphere are as follows, during the 350 days 
on which observations were recorded. Clear 114.3, generally clear, 
z. €. presenting only such slight appearances of vapour in some part 
of the horizon, as not to deserve to be ranked under any definite 
term, 12.8, cirro strati 21.3, cirro cumuli 16.8, cumulo strati 41.6, 
cumuli 35.5, rain 12.3, cloudy 73.8, foggy 3.8, nimbi 10.8, haze 5.8. 
The following Table exhibits these results :— 


TABLE VI. 


Representing the aspect of the Sky at different hours, and the relative pro- 
portion of the various prevailing appearances of the Atmosphere. 


h 


Ee 

on 

. mS 
3 ea ycses Pera 
— Hs = 3 
Hours. Ojw|s 5 ets 
by |e) |e Bo 
oo WD VS ola ae ae ova 
eo4 Sebvonvie Got eee fe) ee ee aes 
pn Bele oe eel. ean ee See €@i 3 jsus 

SP ies, ea ee he ee a4 
Sunrise 89, 299, CTS poral ga @ Pye gon) Te ee __ 342 
Gh, 50m: ee, eat. 130-1 6. S120 1.561.340 S.62 | See ipeo 349 
Nootjs. se beh 195 | 6 G6 112) 60 | 53 51 | Pe pee, 349 
Qh. 40m. dense) TOL +. 84 144.12 |-68 1 59 15 } 6453 122) 5 eae 
4 po we 102 | 10} 15112, 55|42/13}86| 0] 5| 8 l= 348 
Sigiselabiees 108 ; 28 | 42| 14| 12} 8] 13 1100| 1110! 3 [= 338 


Total, number 
of Obs. une, 686 | 77 {12.8} 101 | 250! 213] 74 1433 20 | 65 32 | 2073 


Proportionofeach’ 114.3]12.8|21.3| 16.8 41.6 35.5112.3 73.8! 3.3. 10.8| 5.3/__ 350 


Under the head of cloudy, are comprehended those appearances 
which, form the opacity of the air could not be arranged under any 
of the definite forms of clouds. There is an obscurity likewise in 
the distinction of fogs and mists and haze, in these registers, which 
ought not to exist, as such terms indicate very opposite conditions of 
the atmosphere. 

It is only necessary to allude to the circumstance in order to 
invite the very able attention of Mr. Rees to the subject, who I be- ' 
lieve has the merit of superintending these important Registers. 
The term Haze, as it ought at least to be used in India, indicates an 
excessively dry condition of the atmosphere, at periods of heat and 
drought. See vol. 1. p. 52, of this Journal. 


kept at Calcutta, 1843-44. 539 


The following abstracts exhibit the peculiarities of the several 
months :— 


November 1843. 


The mean prevalence of north wind during the month was equal 
to 16; of north-east to 1.66; of north-west to 5.16; of south-east 
to .3; of south-west to 1.; and west to 2. in 30 days, while there 
were 3.83 of calm in the same period. There was neither south 
nor east wind during the month. ‘The mornings at sunrise for 17 
days were calm. The evenings at sunset were calm for 6 days, but 
there was no calm between these hours, nor was there any high 
wind during the month. 


TABLE VII. A. 
Variation of the Winds at different hours during the Month of November 1843. 


Result of Observations. 


ee ee i ee OF 
— _ - 


Hours of Observa- = oo tier 
tion. a 


ee es | a 


Sunrise, saat eues | FO 1 
2 re ne a 1 
BRGOU  oc5 sense een 16 3 
OE i i Saiereey a Wg 2 
2 
1 


E BMe eae ene tO 
Sunset, EE Nae Wy) 


a | — oe 
+ 


6 {12 | 0| 23 |in 180 Obs. 


o Pk =) (SES 


Total of each 6—| 96 10° fest. | 0 


—— | | ee ee | | | 


Proportion ofeach,| 16.! 1.6! 5.16'0! .3/1.12,1013.83|= 30 days. 


The sky presented cumuli in proportion only of 14 in 30 days, 
cirro strati in about the proportion of 04, cirro cumuli 0}, and cumulo 
strati in the proportion of a little more than 02 in 30, while 22.5 
were clear, and 4.3 generally so, presenting merely slight vapour in 
particular parts of the horizon at various hours, without rain, fogs, 
or haze during the month. 


540 Reduction of the Meteorological Register, 


TABLE VII. B. 
Aspect of the Sky at different hours, November 1843. 


Result of Observations. 


| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 


4s =e |e! : f 
of O -| . /€$los/oslasis DS 
Hours mo gery 2 |Sa|ES 2 2 = E ale . : 
2 O PR)/O % |.A Sols Vee 15 
oO. 1%, O O Oo lelole |= 
Sunrise, Se eed ee A eae A an 
Oli: OUI ees seek 20 2 xe 6 ede Mage 
Not, aciva 3.0 2 8B dikes. oD itame 
2h 40M, 4 see cen LS 5 lvoe 1 2 4 
4h. Pp. M. Saat yeast tee 2 Mi ek 1 Fg, Nt 
Sunset, SPUR es (ad 8 aly ean | 1 5 
Totah ofeach 62:}1a5eln26ulnae ie almeapol 2 Om 


ee Se 


Proportion of each, |22.5 | 43 | 33 | .5 |.83 [1.5)...!se{eo/ee ae 


December 1843. 
The mean prevalence of north wind during this month was 12.4; of 
north-east 32 ; of north-west 53; of south-east 03 ; of south-west 04 ; 


west 2° east 03 in 30 days, while there was a proportion of 44 of 
calm in the same period. As in the preceding month, there were 17 
calm mornings at sunrise, with 7 calm evenings at sunset. There 
was no south wind during the month, but two observations of east 
wind at 9h. 40m.; and one at noon. 

TABLE VIIL. A. 


Variations of the Winds at different hours in the Month of Dec. 1848. 
Result of Observations. 


—__ 


Hours. : : : : 

a5 ej} | & & 

Be ete eae ree 

At Sunrise, ... 6 2 oneeterae scot PAR 

Seohaim, ...1-16.| .8,|. 1 cA ntl ee | WBN? dey 

», Noon, mata 1d 4 6 eer yee en ee | 

ote.) 9 | | 8 lee 6 lal a 

jo Mh. Ps Ms oof) 92 3 8 a ae 5 1 

5, Sunset, 5) ae sds 1 1 rf 
Total ofeach6—-| 74 | 22 | 34 |...) 2] 1] 17] 3/ 27 von 
Proportion of 5 | in 30 

ea hi 12.33] 8.66) 5.66)...).83 | 16 2.83 .5/4.5 | | garg 


* See note page 536, 


kept at Calcutta, 1843-44. 541 


The sky was overcast and cloudy 2. ; attended with rain 04; with 
fog in the proportion of 04 of a day in 380; cirro cumuli 03; cumuli 
12; and cirro strati in the proportion of 1; while there were 225 
clear, and 1+ of only slight vapour in particular parts of the horizon 
during 30 days. 


TABLE VIII. B. 
Aspect of the Sky at different hours during the Month of December, 1843. 


| 
Result of Observations. 


es en 8 re Sere es © er 


So 
— 

— 
— 
on) 


* 9h. 50m.... ee ene sear 


bo 
oO 


THGOM, ese sis lo tee 


oh Vemhine 
Bae fatale ted lag 
ee eth Gea lees Wh sed 
Sin! O ja, 2S Pali 
+ |o¢ S/S l[slsl & 
Gio! © 4¢E ais] 0 
ro] agai a = |.6 on 
OO ere ees ties (biel tS 
Cert Sofro qo, Oleg |O | & 
| 
Sunrise, ... apege 20 Beir) Oh OR 2h Bris 
] 
0 
0 


Qh. 40m... ove Le ee Le 
WH. PB. Me acs ee ee ey 


Sunset, 


mn rs 


Total of each 6 —| 135 9/16! 410! 10/3 ,12| 2 |in 180 Obs. 


Se eee 


Proportion of each. |22.5 | 1.5 ( 1.) .66 | 0'1.66'.5 | 2.) .383 | in 30 days. 


January 1844. 

The prevalence of north winds diminished to 94, while north-east 
and west winds amount to 44 each; south winds occurred to the 
extent of QF; north-west, south-east, and south-west to the propor- 
tion of 05 each; east wind to 03 in 31 days. There were 11 
calm mornings at sunrise, and 12 calm evenings at sunset. 


' * One observation omitted at this hour on the 2lst, another at this and subse- 
quent hours on the 25th. 


4a . 


542 Reduction of the Meteorological Register, 


TABLE IX A. 
Variation of the Winds at different hours in the Month of January, 1844. 


Result of Observations. 


ee ee es eee 


Hours of Observa- ra 
tion. Ae ie 


SUURISe) \wises 50. 5 f 
Oh DOU jiicas nce | Le 8 
INGORE OE net TE 2 
3 
3 
Z 


2hetOiase- net 8 
4h. P. mM. Sea ch awe Sate 
Sunset. Seciioceeril tate 


Total of each o 56 | 25 


ere Sener ee | ee | Se 


3 
wi | 

Die 10 

2451 

3} 0 

b-}4 

Sh es 
4] 0 

17 


! 
a re ee ee ef 
| 


Proportion of each, 9.33 4.18 


be E 
al [ald 
o| 140112 
0} 4101] 0 
of 6}11| 0 
St Fr Orie 
of 7 oa 
0| 0) 1 (12 
in 185 
3) 25 | 2 [24 on 


No rain fell in January, and the relative proportions of the various 


aspects of the sky and conditions of the atmosphere were as follows : 
Clear 183, generally so 2; cirro strati 14; cirro cumuli 3; cumuli 
strati03; cumuli 14; cloudy 3; foggy On nimbi 03; haze 1. In 31 
days there were 4 foggy mornings at sunrise, and one foggy day at 


noon. 


TABLE IX. B. 
Aspect of the Sky at different hours daily during the Month of January, 1844. 


Result of Observations. 


a rc es a ey, 


ss 

5 
Hours of Obser- S| od 
vation. ea & 
. epee 
§ 5| & 
Oo Ol 
Sunrise, P|! ae || 
9h. 50m. osin cee Ol” J 
Noon, ... ont oD OVO 
2h. 40m. nest ntaaey; Lee>O 
4h. Pp. M. a> 2o.. Sit 0 
Sunset, naps 6+ 8 


—_————-- 


Total of each 6—] 110 12} 7 


= 


Proportion of 


| bo Boum nie | Cirrorccummtlt. 


a 

a 

fn oa 
ee eta 
z| Eig 
o|.@) i 
Ob: DMs 
1 eal 
ty ee 
Qi 2 he. 
Ol aor te. 
ro 
Ww F 


ca eer Ree 
SI} bl slo 
o| #| Sle 
Olm| aly 
2} 4) 110 
Zt 4 OO eo 
Ste PO. poe 
4} 0}; OO] 1 
4; 0; O} 1 
3/ OO; 0} O 
in” 185 
5} 1] 6] { "Ops: 


=r i 18.33 2.| 1.16] 3.|.33! 1.16!...| 3.1.83/.16] 1 {ur 31 


kept at Calcutta, 1843-44. 543 


February 1844, 

High south wind observed on the 21st at 9h. 50, and on the 27th 
at 2h. 40m. The relative proportion of the different winds during the 
month was at follows :— 

North 7m, west wind 64, south 33, north-west 33, north-east 2, 
south-east 04, south 1, east 04, calm 3} in 29 days. There were 
9 calm mornings at sunrise, and 12 calm evenings at sunset. 


TABLE X. A. 
Variation of the Wind at different hours in the Month of February 1844. 


Result of Observations. 


i re EE 


Hours of Ob- 
servation. os cs : s 
a = dF]. E 
gizi'alelala |e lals 
Sunrise Biel ole fecGmlcnerik & 4) Rie 2 2 l 9 
9h. 50m iim agi be a | 3 2 3 eo l 9 oe ee 
etic «ss eo} 9 |.3\, 4 AAS ia 2 6 Pues 
Qh. 40m ° ee 6 55 DD 4 ee 2 9 eo ee 
4h. Pp. M ab Slee! a0 3) 1 2 Fal itete ss |nole 
Sunset, Sh ear ae ee a: 4/.. 2 wt ve bee 


mm es fl ee ———SESE=——— Eee 


Total of each, 6+] 47 |12| 21 | 22 a Le 37 2} 21 |= in 174 Obs. 


Proportion of each,!7.83 /2. | 3.5|3.66} .16 11.83 16.16) .33| 3,5{in 29 days. 
There was no rain during this month, and the aspect of the sky 
; f 4 mts tad 
clear, in the proportion 225 to 29. Generally clear, or with slight va- 


— | | ——> ee re ee 


pour only in some particular parts of the horizon O=; cirrostrati 13, 
cirro cumuli 14, cumuli strati 0}, cumuli 24, cloudy 3, foggy 03. 
Fogs only occurred for two mornings at sunrise. 


TABLE X. B. 
Aspect of the Sky at different Hours during the Month of February 1844. 


Result of Observations. 


# * 
® - fed 
as) _|a ws 
Hours of Obser- re 3 = 
vation. ee vee |S Ab ee : 
2/1 "/S);35/%3 S| 
m ) : : |S 
2/2 ele)]e] aisles 
2 5) es R=>| 3 SE lsisis 
Oo | oO oO oO O 1%4)0 | 
Sunrise, ee ee ee 16 ee 2 ] ee oe ee 7 3 i 
9h. 50m. ee ee se 24 1 ] ee ee 1 es y. ee 
Noon, se ee ee ee 24 1 ee ] ] l ° 1 ee 
2h. 40m. densea tact Li l 3 oe oe atl alate 
4h. Pp. M. ee ee ee 8 ee ee 2 iv 6 ee 2 ee 
Sunset, ee eo ee ee 18 l 2 4 ee ee ee 4 oe 
Total of each, 6 + 137 4 8 8 2 | 14 |..118} 3}—in 174 Obs. 
Proportion of each, 22.8! .83/1.33| 1.33 | .33 |2.33}..!3. 1.5 |— in 29 days. 


544 Reduction of the Meteorological Register, 


March 1844, 

High winds from south and south-west on the 14th, 2] st and 23d. 
The following are the relative proportions of the direction of the 
wind during the month. 

South wind 122, south-west 53, west 54 north-west 13, north-east 
1; east and south-east, each 1 ; north 03 in 31 days. 

N.B.—The south wind prevailed chiefly in the early and latter 
part of the day throughout the month, becoming an arid dry wester- 
ly wind towards noon, frequently continuing so till sunset, or subsid- 
ing into a suffocating calm. 

TABLE, XI. A. 
Variation of the Wind at different Hours in the Month of March, 1844. 
Result of Observations. 


ee a a ne es SY a Se SE OE ee ee ee es 


Hours of Observa- 


: ae } | 
tion. 2 = ea bh = ae & 
ZlZ |Z) a ji | a | EF | o 
eS PEs | es | |e | en | mm geen a a ee ee 
SiWAeise, 25 vie) onl eet be U4 3 eee 9 
Oh: SOM: west. bettl eae Ae pees oI ae 12 2 2 aa 
Noons! i .c80 Pat ey 2 ] Si. Oe SEOs. 
2h. 40m. ... ae Fes ae | 4 PShsst 3 Sia | 
4h. p. M. ... Fie os 2 13] 1 4 9} 1 
Sunset, see eee ear [oes 1 17| 1 2 1) 1 8 


Total of each, 6} 2} 6] 9 76] 6 32; 31] 6 17| 185 Obs. 


es | cee fe ee ee ee 


eed 


Proportion of each].33! 1.|1.5{12.66] 1.15.33! 5.16! 1.1 2.83/31 in days. 


The following are the different aspects of the sky, and the propor- 
tions in which they respectively prevailed, 113 clear, 3 cirro strati, 
34 cumuli, 24 cumuli strati, 7 cumuli, 23 cloudy, 03 foggy, 1 haze, 
02 nimbi in 31 days. 

N.B.—Short partial storms from north-west, with one or two 
very light partial showers (not affecting the pluviometer) took place. 


TABLE XI. B. 
Aspect of the Sky at different hours during the Month of March, 1844. 
Result of Observations. 


a 0 se ne ee Se: Sn Ee 


p> | : 
Hours of =) les soe as Srl ee A 

Observation. ae 2/63] = el ae . ees 

S$ esiBsl/Eai#e/ 812/38 | 8/8) 3 

Deus OD - (DO Bierce fy | Eee 
Sunrise, eas |! 8 aA 7 oe 3 as 
Oh. 50m... ee 15 niet." 2. 3 ee 8 | ee 1 1 
Noon, oe ee 14 oe 1 3 ee 8 2 3 ee 
2h. 40m; ies oe - ate 2 3 a 8 Fe ais me 
Aly (PAMseteiels ate 5 3 4 6 4 aA 
Sunset, ee os 9 ea i) ] 4 5 4 l pe ae 
Total 6 —- 69} .. | 18 | 20 | 13 | 42 is} 4) 6]. 
Proportion, !11.5'..! 3./333'216' 7. |, '2.16] 66! 1.'.16 = 31 


kept at Calcutta, 1843-44. 545 


April 1844. 

There was high west wind on the 3rd, 4th, and 10th; high south 
and south-west wind on the 8th, 9th, 13th, 18th, 21st, 24th and 25th. 
The following are the relative proportions and various directions of 
the wind during the month. 

South wind 20, south-west 34, west 23, east 13, south-east 14, 
north-west 04, north-east Om , north 04, calm 0% in 30 days. 


N. B.—Light southerly winds prevailed, rising gradually towards 
noon; closeness and oppression very great, at night particularly ; 


in the early part of this, and latter part of the preceding month, 
Cholera prevailing. | 


TABLE XII. A. 


Variation of the Wind at different Hours in the month of April, 1844. 


Result of Observations. 


(RS GEE pee SEES Ss RS SEES er a ene pre ee EY SE GS REE FS GS CE ee 


Hour : : : 

eer =e ea ale 

Ce a Se ae a | E |e 5 

SUNFISG, nce ssi} 00 1 184)°*3 2 ri |e a 

SE ORT Mesa ititeae fi habe 2 } 19 1 5 1 at ee 
BRE hater) cee: oF asleticone | IW 1 3 6 | 2 
PES iy eS eae Ae 22 ] 3 Spoil 
er Ms) scatter Bi. | éca,t wos |) EO 2 5 oO ties 
Sunset, eS eee 1 £525 2 Se es ee 


ee eS es et 


Mie Sh. 2 er99 | 16 19 13) 9 | 11—.180 


‘ — et | TT om meee omen | meme SY pes | 


Proportion ofeach .16 |.83 | .33 | 20.| 1.66| 3.16 2.16 15,.16(= 30 


The aspect of the sky was clear in the proportion of 12>, and 


cloudy 43, cumuli strati and cumuli each 4, cirro cumuli 14, foggy 
%, haze 14, mist 0~ and cirro strati 03 in 30 days. 


N. B.—After a period of 3} months drought, a fall of rain at 
intervals took place, commencing about the middle of the month, 
accompanied with thunder; this checked the excessive heat, but 
the nights continued sultry and close. 


546 Reduction of the Meteorological Register, 


TABLE XII. B. 
Aspect of the sky at different hours during the month of April, 1844. 


Result of Observations. 


TS NT ee ps 


a 

a plas RS 

Hour. la) Bole 

= = > ar ail tees G 

St et Oo ja lo cad s < q 
glS)ele lalgle|e| || 
— o — Re Sis|/ es =, ° =] = 
O1OO | -O WWIOleteS | ee 
Sunrise, wih: BS | eels clk) qe S) gether | a ele 
Oh. 50m, «> oe 16 ee ee 3 4 5) ee ee yy e ee 
Noon, ee ee 13 ° ee ee 4 6 e 4 ee 2 ] 
PAR COMO eo 1] ee e ee 6 4 ee 3 3S 3 
4h. Pe Meee ee i ee ee ee 8 5 ee 2 4 ee 
Sunset, a. ssi ts poor dt 24 2) 1 10 - 1 


a |) —_— | — | — | | | ee ee 


Total 6 — 0: Yate) 22 24\24)..| 27} 4 | 9] 5 |=180 


Proportion. | 12.83l..| .33 [1.33] 4./4.|..| 4.5 |.66|1.5|.83/= 30 
May 1844. 

There was high wind from the north on the 13th and 30th at 
9h. 50m., and from the south on the 14th, 15th, and 26th; from the 
south-west at 4 p.m. on the 17th. The relative proportion of each 
wind during the month was follows :— 

South 16, south-east 34, south-west 23, east 23, north-east 
1, north-west 03, north = and calm 3.33 in 31 days. 


[ee] 


TABLE XIII. A. 
Variations of the Wind at different hours in the Month of May, 1844. 


Result of Observationss. 


re en ee tee Se ene Se Se 


Hours. Ak : : 

Zl Ai a lo | oo | & ba 1S 
DUNTISG, 7 cvseee Sach RSs 6 9) : aati 2; 16 
Oy DOMs  coriaee RE Se i) 20 2 aS ] se 
PEOOIE) Po es csovens Slee REED L222 1 cele 2 i 
J reer 3| 1 2; 14 2 ae | 3 2 
MAO!) esa 1 14 6 a Al SHS i 
Sunset, 1 20 Gswiss 2 3 2 

6-1 5|-6| 4] \@6) O1B)) 6) 4 | 461) oplegae: 


—E — ————— —_—_— |. | —____ 
ee oe — | —___. _ —_— |) —— 


.83/1.} .66)16. | 3.16| 2.66! .66 | 2.66) 3.383|}= 31 
4 , : : : 
Cloudy 8>, cumuli strati 63, cumuli 7, cirro strati 34, rain 13, 


clear ], generally clear 0; , cirro cumuli 03, mist 04, nimbi 04, thun- 
der 04, in 31 days. 


kept at Calcutta, 1845-44. 547 


TABLE XIII. B. 
Aspect of the Sky at different Hours during the Month of May, 1844. 


Result of Observations. 


nr ee FS ES ES FR SS 


2 : 
a ot SB 
Hours, <a A an ae 
=) a) 8] 3 |. 
a | + oy es > : omg he 
4/5) ele] elel ale (Bl 2/sie fe 
o| § |] 8/4 Seat ape be) wake be. ta 
O10 |/d/0]0 |Ole@io |e! Shia la 
SE ant he LO, Ld ew, fete At Gopal LT [esl ow hee! ( Thunder at 
9h. 50m. .. ee] ee oe 2 ll 8 1 Clos | ke tae ae A open & 
Noon,.. eo ee ee 2 ee 9 13 0) Za ee ] ] ] ee 20th. 
|g ae ae Lit. TZ al ta lecl, os tes | 1 foUth thunder. 
4h. 1a Me ®eles ee ee ee 9 7 eo 13 e ee l ] ee 
Sunset, --| ]} 3 Brio. Dae ee) Gi oie es ohalteede ss fs 
sadotal of iG PE ee ie I “a (ere 
each 63 + Gt a 21. 41-39 )42)° 9) .53 2 feet 2 d= 186 


alia) ae 
Ur ach, st 8313.51 .66| 6.5 | 7/1.5'883)..' .331..1.33/.5/— 31 


June 1844. 
High wind from the south and south-west on the 9th, 10th, 12th, 
16th, 17th and 18th. 
South wind 133, south-west 5%, west 2, east 21, north-east 01, 
south-west 02, south-east 12, calm 23 in 30 days. 


TABLE XIV. 
Variations of the Wind at different Hours during the Month of June, 1844, 


Result of Observations. 


— ee, 


ee mE es ee 


Hours. A |S aj | = : A| 
i 
Sunrise, aa? eames S| we 12 2) 4; 1 a 8 
9h. 50m. 2e¢ ee ee 3 1 6 2 10 5 1 2 
Noon, ee ae es 1 2 Q 10 1 7¢ 3 3 ° 
Se ae | = (Gen AG ee Ai 4 1 
4h. P. Me ee eo ee 2 ee 15 1° 7 ee 4 1 
Sunset, aa: vee ee ce 1 19 4 a, 1 4 
Total of each 6 — Sr ett 4 80; 10} 31] 12 13| 16/— 180 


es | eee | oe | 
— aes | oo 


Proportion of each.|.33 | 1.83 .66 | 13.33! 1.66] 5.16| 2 | 2.16| 2.66!—=c0 


Cloudy 133, cumuli 4~, cirro cumuli 22, cumulo strati 14 nim- 
bi 13, haze 14, thunder 02, drizzly 02, cirro strati 2, clear 2, 
generally clear }, rain 01 in 30 days. 


548 Reduction of the Meteorological Register, 


TABLE XIV. A. 
Aspect of the Sky at different Hours, during the Month of June, 1844. 


Result of Observations. 


| 
| 


ee eee ee 


% | | 
a = 
oh Re ae = 
Hours. a os 3 § 
= S ¥ | ° my 
Sla/o (2 Ba il el as oS 
o | ] | -|o Si ee fb ie) — 
Hi Dio!lo | qdis ap| © ro) q N 
Sisikif |8 18 jel |) 2] 8] 218 
Benes) © 3) 410 Se) ey) See 
Suutse, ss). salen AMA a Iba 2 a Me ete | aT ee cee 
Qh. 50m. ee 1 ee 4, 2 3 ee 14. es 3 3 ee ee 
Noon,.. ee ee ee 1 3 1 10 ee 12 ee 1 9 ak ee 
2h. 40m. ac eolee 4 3 3 8 ee 10 . eo af i eo Drizzly 
4h. Pe Me ee 4 1 3 1 3 6 ee 10 ee ee Q ee oy) haze 
Sunset. eo Pe: 2 1 1 eo v4 Ves ay A 1 1 2 eo 
Total of pee 
Proportion 
e 6 e se! ° . ° ee 5 ° 033 =— 
Of iceeh. 16 Al INES 1.16] 4.83].5 | 13.5 1.5] 1.5) -33/66 30 


July 1844. 

High wind from the south on the 2d at noon. 

The following are the relative proportions of each wind during 
this month: south 8, south-east 53, east 44, south-west 34, west 
24, north-west 1, north-east 14, and calm 34, in 30 days. 

N.B.—This was the only month in which north wind has not 
been noted on any one of the daily observations. 


TABLE XV. A. 
Variation of the Wind at different Hours during the Month of June 1844. 


Result of Observations. 


Hours a - a |S he ‘ Ee 
ZAl\Z'A2\/alal[o |e |e lo 
Sunrise,* .. Bend ss ea 4 2 2 ] BD dD 
9h. 50m. ee ee ee ee, ] 5 9 4 3 7 ee 
Noon, * : cof ee | 1 ] Oe: Ars A Bl vee 
2h.40m. «- eof 5: | 2:| eon ees |) 82"). oe 
4h. Pp. M. oe . ] 10 8 3 fe | 6 oe 
Sunset, a 1 9 4) 7 1 2 5 
Total ofeach6+ | ..| 9) 6 | 48| 34] 20] 15 | 27 | 21} = 180 
Proportion of each. ae | 8 | 5.66] 3.33! 2.5 | 4.5135 1 = 30 


* An observation is interrupted for Sunrise and noon on the 15th instant. 


kept at Calcutta, 1843-44, 549 


The following are the proportions of the different aspects of the 
sky during May: cloudy 123, cumuli strati 64, cirro strati 34, 
cirro cumuli 03, cumuli 03, rain 3, nimbi 3, foggy 02, drizzly 02 in 
3, in 80 days. 


TABLE XV. B. 
Aspect of the Sky at different Hours, during the Month of July, 1844. 


Result of Observations. 


| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 


“cn ae 5 [em : : ’ |: 
Beles i | > -|.2) P| o 
Hous, |g (5/58/29 82! gi<| 2 | S12) 2 |: 
pa [2) _— nm ~— — ot 
O15 o he Sle! ome a ie 
Bourise,* ..|..) .. Sere sei 4), AS) | 4 Ste ane Nie Ps 
9h. 50m. Di eet 0 Guhl aie LR a el) Qe “AQ Bir a 
Noon,* Te Ob eee ie oie oe, 4h) LO ellie: 9 Beth Hels 
( Cloudy 
2h. 40m. ees ee ee l se 10 ee 3 12 ] 3 se ee 4 & haze. 
L Drizzly. 
4h. P. M. ee oe eo 2 ee rp ee 4 is ee 2 Be ee 3dthunder. 
( Thunder 
Sunset, eelee oe 9 eo ee ry 1 15 ee 3 z es ¢ on the 
L 30th. 


! 
a a et te eee 


healed: ee.) 8.) Soe OB) 74 | 1118) 4° |i (= 180 


eel 
. 


ne anal Henne tl Tennemenmntl Conn eenmeell Teme Gatnmemmemeiaedt Hemant’ tna Teed inmeeedll Hantieeneeetanmentoemeneenee’ 


Proportion of 3.331 .5 | 6.5 |.83!.3! 12.33! .16]3.| .66 |../—= 30 
each. 4 


August 1844. 


High wind on the 21st at noon. 

As in the preceding month south-east and east winds predomi- 
nated slightly over the south, the following are the relative propor- 
tions of each: south wind Be, south-east 64, east 52, south-west 
23, west 14, north-west 12, north 0=, north-east 02, 33 calm in 31 
days. 


* An observation is interrupted for Sunrise and Noon on the 15th instant. 


AB 


550 Reduction of the Meteorological Register, 


TABLE XVI. A. 
Variation of the Wind at different Hours, in the Month of August, 1844. 


Result of Observations. 


Te ee re ene ee 


Hours. ‘ = a ay = : & 

Zlwaliaiati@ \wale ie | oS 
Sunrise, ee anes 1 0 Lee 7) Oa 6; 10 
9h. 50m. ae RAE 1 2 3 8; 10 v2 0 4 | 
Noon, aie ets ] 0 Tt dal 6 4 1 a 0 
2h. 40m. ie Ae 0 0 OV ats 6 3 3 5 1 
4h. Pp. M. °. bytes 1 0 ] 7 4 5 1 7 2 
Sunset, ee were 1 2 1} 10 2 2 1 H) 7 

“EPotal of cach 6} Sa 7) pele ae Te Feels 


SS 


Proportion of each. ...-| 83 


~66| 1.1618.83' 6.33} 2.661 1.16] 5.66! 3.5'— 31 


The aspect of the sky was as follows: cloudy 122, cumuli strati 72, 
rainy 33, nimbi 4, cirro cumuli 1, cumuli 0, cirro strati 04, drizzling 
04, generally clear 03. 


TABLE XVI. B. 
Aspect of the Sky at different Hours, during the Month of August, 1844. 


Result of Observations. 


en Se ee ee ee ic ee 


= 
S on | ted 
ges Om eee 
Hours. = 5 A fe 3 
ae ean aca eS |e ao > Soe = 
>) Pr s l=} ° me) 5 
s\ 5 \2)8/2)4| 2 [Be] 2 
OL Nl) Oa my ee cL ee ey ne 
Sunrise, eWieteid: 4! Ble agreral” (i local Me | 0 
9h. 5m. coed Loot Oe Otek” go 0 2 ES: Vh eek + pe 0 
Noon, ° ee 0 ] 0 12 ] 4 7 ee +) 1 
2h. 40m wets 01010 9 0 Ole Baie ee 0 
4h. P.M eee ° 0 1 () 6 0 Hy) 17 ee 2 ] 
Sunset, Coseloes 2 Tired 0 0 3) 15 ee 9) 2 
Total of each 6 —}. 3| 6| 47 1| 22 7, —*/.. 24 3 i= 189 
Proportion of each. '..]..} .5 3.5'.1| 7.5) .16/3.69 ics 4 o = 31 


September 1844. 
No high wind, 


The winds were variable during this month, south and south-west 
being the prevailing points. The following are the proportions of 
each wind: south-west 6, south 54, south-east 4, east 22, west 4, 
north-west 24, north 1.16, north-east 1, and 32 calm in 30 days. 


N.B.—This, which is usually an unhealthy month in Calcutta, was 
remarkably exempt from sickness. 


kept at Calcutta, 1843-44. 551 


TABLE XVII. A. 


Variations of the Wind at different Hours, during the Month of 
September, 1844. 


Result of Observations. 


Oe a en cr RY es ee ee bee ET 


Hours. = = a |. : ‘ ae 
FL PA ieee licegs oly eayery ce deed Ree, CD: | 
Sunrise, .. ah Rod ste 1 4 4 6 1 3 10 
Pee es oe) a a | Be | eet. 
Noon, 3 oH eee 2 4 7 2 6 6 ect eee 
eta) i218 1044165161) 2 | .z 
ABs Mis: le ye) tal a l 3 6 4 6 3 5 1 
Sunset, eo eo 3 ] eo 6 4 4 1 1 10 
Total of each6 +| 7] 6 | 14| 32 | 24 | 36 | 24 | 16 | 21 |= 180 
Proportion of each.| 1.16] 1 !233/5.33( 4.| 6. ' 4, [2.66] 3.5 |= 30 


The aspect of the sky was clear 33, generally clear OF, cirro 
strati 3F ,cirro cumuli 1, cumuli strati 63, cumuli 22, rainy 2, 


cloudy 84, nimbi 14, light hazy 04, in 30 days. 


TABLE XVII. B. 


Aspect of the Sky at different Hours, during the Month of September, 
1044. 


Result of Observations. 


pets a | 

Hours. =| 3 5 iE | 3 

38 $ 5 JES Ze as peel det a 

“ o = = - 52) 2 ae) 

Bio | 228] 2 | 3 |s) 8 | & 

oO 6 [O19 Oo (Meio Ia] G | 

Sunrise, es oe 4 4 ll 3 ee aia ] 6 ee ] ee 

9h. 50m, ee ee 5 eo 2 l 10 5 ] 3 es 2 ] 

MOOR, «bos 5 ae Tidy 13 4 1 bee 1; 1 

Qh. 40m, se ee y. ee ee ee Z 6| 4 Seis 3 ee 

4h. P.M. ee oe 2 oe 2 l 8 1 3 13 ee ee es 

MUMSet, «oes 4 l 7ige| ll sete 2a. Lise 
meet eae 20} 5! 93| 6| 39} 16|12} 49]..| 8} 2/180 


ee 


Proportion - 3.33 | .83 (3,88 11. | 6.5 | 2.66)2, 8.16 «5 (1.33 33 |= 30 


mre | mn mr ee ee ee | rere | meen | ee | a RE ET LT 


each, 


552 Reduction of the Meteorological Register, 


October 1844. 
Winds variable ; west 31, north-west 2, east on , north 24, north- 


east 2, south 03, south-east 12, south-west 02, and calm 83 in 
20 days. 


TABLE XVIII. A. 


Variations of the Wind at different Hours, during the Month of 
October, 1844. 


Result of Observations. 


Hours. ae = : A e i u * 
7\A4)/4 bo | O jm a | oO 
Sunrise, 04) +o ] 1 1 0 2 0 0 1). 4 
9h. 50m. sie ] 5 4-0 2 1 A SS 0 
Noon, Jeeves Wess 3 OQ} az Zi 4 0 
DhedOmaig sie Fats i) Maa 3 1 1 ] 4 3 0 
Abe Peis tes ete 4 l 3) ] 2 0 4 3 0 
Sunset,* .. . Sl speek 1 2 1 1 2 3 5 


6, +| 15) 13| 17) 4}. 10} 5|. 19] edz) ey e9 

The following are the proportions of the remarks on the aspect of 
the sky ; clear 3, generally so 14, cirro strati 1, cirro cumuli On, cumuli 
strati 02, cumuli 23, rainy 14, cloudy 43, foggy 04, nimbi 03, in 20 


days. 


TABLE XVIII. B. 
Variations of the Wind at different Hours, during the Month of 
October, 1844. 


Result of Observations. 


ES ES EL NS SS ce SS 


= 
a 2G ee 
QO ° — 
Hours. b 3 3 = ; 
eal i a ° = = = = 
s|}Stelee | ge |e l= 
a ie ple one Fa} =] 3 2 r=) a 
Sh Oi. +. ae SN ee fae i SE a oe 
Sunrise, «- one Y 4 J 0 0 0 2 9) Lae 
Qh. 50m. ee -| 4 0 l 0 5 3 1 6 ai atts 
Noon, ie ee. OF GC. Ole 4 ] TAP 1 
PAY 40m. oe ee | Q 1 0 a 6 ] 5 ah 1 
4h. P. Ms ee 33 | ] ] 2 7 2 1 5i> ore 
Sunset,* .. 4 Bre 2is 3 ] 0 ] Hl ona ola 
Total of each o——} 18).-7). 6| 5) 30h J5|.-7) +28]. 1| | Setia 


a, ee | , SS aes ne ee Reed 


Proportionofesehs| Gawmaie!..1.| .93! 5, @ara.16) 4.66! .16| .2aeumgn ae 


* Observation on the 2d at Sunset interrupted, 


993 


An uniform fall of tempera- 


In December the fall of temperature took 
he increase of heat was gradual through- 

, the Thermometer gradually fell, rising slight- 
From this period it gradually fell, presenting 
The months of August and October ap- 


pril 


the early part of Ma 


y- 
he 20th to the 27th of June. A similar fluctuation 


in January, the lowest temperature being about the 


kept at Calcutta, 1843-44, 
. In February t 


the mean temperature of the year. 


24th of July. 


ted nearly to 


The following Table exhibits the mean temperature of the days, months 
proxima 


and year reduced from six observations daily. 


ture is observed in November. 


ddle of the month 
out, and the Thermometer continued to rise with sudden fluctuations till 


in 


ml 


the early part of April, when it exhibited the maximum temperature of the 


place towards the middle of the month, rising slightly towards the end. 
The same is observed 

year. From the 10th of A 

sudden fluctuations from t 


took place about the 


ly 


: 


"82'Z8= Ivo ay} Jo ainje 2 dua], ueayy 


ee EY EE Re BORE Ree Se es me —— i i et ES EE 
Cc A ——, — 


69'E8 GP'S8 | 69'S8 |VEPS |ZL°S8 |69°L8 |1S'68 (1S°98 |8Z'SL \S'L% | 66°TL] 8h'8L) ULE 


ee | 


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554 Reduction of the Meteorological Register, 


It remains to notice the gradations of the mean temperature from 
one month to another, as exhibited by the foregoing Table. The 
results bear on the peculiar effects of the cold season on the constitu- 
tion. The difference of temperature between October and November 
was 3.80, and between February and March 8.23, more than double 
the amount of all the changes put together from April to Septem- 
ber. The following exhibits these results. 


Between the Mean Temp. of Oct. and Noy. — 3.80 difference. 
— November and December, — 6.49 — 
— December and January,.. + .24 — 
— January and February, .. + 6.005 — 
— February and March, .. + 8.23 — 
oe March and April, oe Tt 3. — 
— Apriland May, .. «2. — 192  — 


— May and June,.. oo — 1.87 cam 
— June and July, -o = 138 — 
— July and August, oo 6650 
= August and September,.. + 1.73 — 
—_ September and October, — 1.80 — 


The wet bulb thermometer would add greatly to the value of these 
results, but there are discrepancies in the register of the instrument 
in use, which prove it to be imperfect. With this exception, the 
observations are highly creditable, and have now we believe been 
continued for a sufficient series of years to render their results of the 
highest importance. 

Without drawing any conclusion from the results of a single year, 
particularly when we have materials for a series of years available, 
we may advert to the remarkable correspondence between the ratio 
of Variation of temperature, and that of Mortality, as exhibited in 
the following Table. The third column is taken from an important 
paper by Colonel Sykes, read at the recent meeting of the British 
Association, at York. 


kept at Calcutta, 1843-44: 555 


TABLE XX. 


Shewing the mean monthly gradations of Temperature and Pressure for 
the year 1843-44, as compared with the Ratio of Mortality. 


Difference of 


Mean Temp Difference of Average. 
fe ncithatiod Mean pressure|Ratio of Mor- 
fac of from preceding} tality month- 
prece 
: month. ly. 
ing month. 
November, Bee gre, — 3.80 + .234 11.039 
December, Teme — 6.49 + .884 10.351 
January, ieee + .24 + .014 O77 
February, lars + 6.05 — 022 6.870 
March,.. Ga eaves + 8.23 — .222 8.850 
April, .. prio iii bom + 3. — .137 10.232 
Pee ee! 6 1,99 — 093 8.381 
June, .. of — 1.87 — .379 5.822 
oulgy oe a aaa — 1.38 + .333 6.671 
August, shila — .65 — O01 7.631 
EMECEMOCT, 2 a ge Pees + .146 8.008 
October, Be o 6 — 1.80 029 8.895 


It is necessary to observe, that the temperature of September and 
October last was lower than usual, the thermometer consequently 
exhibits a less remarkable depression in November 1843 as compared 
with October 1844, than it would be found to do in an average 
season ; the result therefore of a wider survey of these registers for 
a series of years, would show, I think, a still greater conformity be- 
tween the two ratios in question. 

Thus the greatest average monthly Mortality takes place in 
November, accompanied by a rapid full of temperature and increased 
pressure, as indicated by the rise of the Barometer. But Mortality 
diminishes, notwithstanding the increased intensity of these con- 
ditions, in December and January. Again, we find the ratio of 
Mortality to increase, (not with the increased ratio of temperature, 
because the lowest scale throughout the year, as shown by Colonel 
Sykes, is in June) with the ratio of variation; whether of the falling 
temperature of November, or the increasing heat of March. Some 
such general rule in the ordinary course of seasons, would appear to 


be indicated by the foregoing results, and however faintly, the subject 
is well worth pursuing. 


556 


On Microscopic Life in the Ocean at the South Pole, and at con- 
siderable depths. By Prof. Eurenpere.* 


The following is the substance of a paper laid by Professor Ehren- 
berg, May 28rd, 1844, before the Berlin Academy, and containing 
some of the results derived from his recent investigations upon 
materials furnished from the South Polar expedition of Captain Ross, 
and the voyages of Messrs. Darwin and Schayer ; their object being 
to determine the relation of minute organic life in the ocean, and at 
the greatest depths hitherto accessible. . 

Last year the author submitted to the Academy a survey of the 
geographical distribution of such organisms over the entire crust 
of the earth ; but the field of these inquiries being one of such vast 
extent and importance, it became evident to him, that to arrive at 
any positive general results, it was necessary to examine the subject 
under a more special point of view, and under this conviction, two 
different courses of investigation suggested themselves as best adapt- 
ed to fulfil that purpose; viz. first, to ascertain both the constant 
and periodical proportion which minute organisms bear to the surface 
of the ocean in different latitudes ; and secondly, to examine sub- 
marine soil or sea-bottom raised from the greatest possible depths. 
It is an easy matter, generally, to collect materials of this kind; but 
before applying to them the test of philosophic criticism and re- 
search, the author feels that it is essentially requisite to retrace the 
contributions of other writers upon the same subject; premising, 
however, that their value will always be enhanced in so far as the 
materials collected have been obtained with due care’and reference to 
their several localities. 

Very essential progress was made in our knowledge of the minute 
and invisible forms of organic life during the years devoted to this 
expedition by Captain Ross. In the year 1840, the Royal Society of 
London appointed a committee to prepare a series of physical 
and meteorological questions to be solved by the proposed expedi- 
tion; and it was at the express desire of the author that Alex. v. 
Humboldt undertook to suggest to that body the importance of 


* The Annals and Magazine of Natural History, No. 90, September, 1844. 


Microscopic Life in the Ocean at the South Pole. 557 


attention being paid to the study of the relations under which minute 
organisms exist, as one likely to throw considerable light upon the 
principal questions now agitated, involved in the recent history of the 
earth’s crust, and also to recommend that the directions given by the 
author as to the methods of collecting them should be adopted 
throughout the whole voyage. Through the scientific ardour of Dr. 
J. Hooker, son of the well-known botanist, and a voyager on board 
the ship Erebus, a variety of valuable materials were collected dur- 
ing the expedition, and a short time back about forty packages 
and three glasses of water were transmitted to Germany from the 
neighbourhood of Cape Horn and Victoria Land. About the 
same time also, Mr. Darwin, the profound observer upon the forma- 
tion of coral reefs in the South-seas, contributed objects from other 
localities. 

The author set about examining carefully without delay, as such 
an opportunity might not again recur, water which had been taken 
from the South Polar sea of from 75° to 78° 10’ south latitude, and 
162° west longitude, with a view of determining its relative amount 
of minute organic life. Of the dry materials some packets only have 
as yet been examined, those namely which from their localities 
appear to possess the greatest interest, and among these were speci- 
mens of the remains of melted polar ice and sea-bottom, taken 
under south latitudes 63° and 78°, from depths of 190 to 270 fa- 
thoms (i. e. 1140—1620 feet), the greatest depths that have been 
hitherto sounded. 

The relations of minute organic life were found, as the author 
had anticipated, to be the same at the south as at the north pole, 
and generally of great extent and intensity at the greatest depths 
of the ocean. 

Previous observations upon those loftiest mountains whose pin- 
nacles are capped with eternal ice, had determined that a gradual 
progressive disappearance of organic life takes place from the base 
to their summit, and that too in accordance with particular laws ; 
to the tree succeeding the lowly shrub, next grass and lichens, 
till finally we arrive at the regions of perpetual snow where there 
is a complete absence of all life. In like manner the development 
of organized beings has been conceived to diminish from the equa- 


A 4c 


558 Microscopic Life in the Ocean at the South Pole. 


tor to the arctic regions of the earth, the latter becoming first 
destitute of trees, then of grass, lastly of lichens and alge until 
at the poles ice and death hold solemn reign. 

The greatest depths in the ocean at which Mollusca had been 
found to exist were, according to the observations of Mr. Cuming 
in the year 1834, the genera Venus Cytherea and Venericardia at 
50, Byssoarca at 75, and Terebratula in 90 fathom water. Ac- 
cording to Milne-Edwards and Elie de Beaumont, 244 metres, or 
732 foot, formed the extreme range for the growth of corals and 
the development of organic matter in the sea off the coast of 
Barbary. From a 100-fathom depth, Peron drew up in the year 
1800, off New Holland, Sertularie and a variety of corallines, 
which were all luminous, and on an average three degrees higher 
in temperature than the surface of the sea. In 1824 and 1825 Quoy 
and Gaimard, in their valuable researches upon the structure of 
corals, asserted that branched corallines could occur only in a depth 
of from 40 to 50 fathom, and that in a 100 fathom of water Refe- 
pora alone existed. According to Ellis and Mylius, who wrote in 
1753, the greatest known depth from which a living animal had 
been taken was the Umébellaria Kncrinus, which was fished up by 
Captain Adrian in Greenland from 236 fathom of water, equal to a 
depth of 1416 foot. Specimens, however, of the sea-bottom have 
been drawn up from still greater depths; for at Gibraltar, Captain 
Smith found in 950 fathom, or 5700 foot of water, sand containing 
fragments of shells; and Captain Vidal, according to Mr. Lyell, 
detected in the mud of Galway Firth, from a depth of 240 fathom, 
only some Dentalia, the remainder of the sea-bottom fram the same 
depth consisting of pulverized shells and other organic remains 
devoid of life. 

According to the calculations of Parrot, a column of sea-water 
at a depth of 1500 foot exercises a pressure of 750 pound, or 7} 
hundred-weight, upon the square inch ; and since the atmospheric 
air enclosed in these animals of a delicate cellular structure descend- 
ing from the surface of the ocean would produce alternately such 
extremes of expansion and contraction as to appear destructive to 
such organisms, just doubts have been raised whether organic life 
could actually subsist at great depths, 


Microscopic Life in the Ocean at the South Pole, 559 


Wollaston, moreover, in 1840 proved that at the great depth of 
670 fathom, in the Mediterranean Sea off Gibraltar, the proportion 
of salt in the water was four times greater than at the surface. 
Very accurate and scientific investigations upon the amount of 
salts of the sea had been already published by Lenz in Petersburg 
during 1830; and Mr. Lyell, in his ‘ Geology’ of 1840, was induc- 
ed to regard the observations of Wollaston not as simply indicating 
a local phenomenon, but to conclude that at still greater depths the 
relative proportion of saline matter would be still more remarkable, 
and must progress in a similar advancing ratio. 

Lastly, Elie de Beaumont, in 1841, adopted the opinion, that 
the limits to which the waters of the sea had been found by Siau 
capable of being set in motion, must be also those at which ses- 
sile marine animals could exist, since these have to wait for their 
food, which in this way only could be conveyed to them, and that 
consequently the limits of stationary organic life, taken in con- 
junction with the depth of the waves, could not much exceed 200 
metres or 600 foot. 

Such considerations, deeply affecting the general science of geo- 
logy, and to which must be added observations upon the increase 
of temperature towards the centre of the earth have ever suggested 
as an interesting matter for inquiry to the author, to examine minute 
organic life in relation to the depth of the element in which it 
could exist. 

Science indeed owes a great debt of gratitude to those travel- 
lers who have so industriously provided the materials of this in- 
vestigation ; in respect of which materials it may be observed 
generally, that they are very rich in quite new typical forms, 
particularly in genera, of which some contain several species ; these, 
occasionally with some mud and fragments of small crustaceans, 
form the chief part of the mass. The new genera* and species are 
here recorded, and of these the Asteromphali are very remarkable, 
from their particularly beautiful stellate forms. 


* Ofthe 7 new genera of Polygastrica, viz, Anaulus, Asteromphalus, Che- 
toceros, Halionyx, Hemiaulus, Hemizoster, and Triauéacias, short characters 
are given in the Proceedings of the Academy : also of the 71 new species. 


560 Microscopic Life in the Ocean at the South Pole. 


Analysis of the various materials furnished by Dr. Hooker from the 
South Polar Voyage. 


J]. Residue from some melted Pancake Ice* at the barrier in 78° 
10’ S. lat., 162° W. long. 


A. SILICEOUS POLYGASTRICA. 


27. Dictyocha Ornamentum. 
28. -. septenaria. 
29. -.. Speculum. 
30. Flustrella concentrica. 
31. Fragilaria acuta, 

32. oes Amphiceros. 
33. Gallionella pileata. 

34 sae sulcata ? 
35. HALIONYX senarius. 

36. ae duodenarius. 
37. Hemravuus antarcticus. 
38. Hemizoster tubulosus. 
39. Lithobotrys denticulata. 
40. Lithocampe australis. 
41. Pysxidicula dentata. 

42. She hellenica. 


43. Rhizosolenia Calyptra. 

44. te Ornithoglossa. 
45. Symbolophora Microtrias. 
46. eee Tetras. 

47. ae Pentas. 

48, aie Hexas. 


49. Synedra Ulna? 
50. Triceratium Pileolus. 
51. Zygoceros australis. 


B, SILICEOUS PHYTOLITHARIA. 


1. Actinoptychus biternarius. 
2. AstERoMPHALUS Hookerii. 
3. ea Rossi. 
4. Buchii. 
5. one Beaumontii. 
6. Humboldti. 
qa ng Cuvierii. 
8. Coscinodiscus actinochilus. 
9: eee Apollinis. 

10. ies cingulatus. 

Li; eccentricus. 

12. gemmifer. 

13. limbatus. 

14, lineatus. 

15. Lune. 

16. ee Oculus IJridis, 

17. oe radiolatus. 

18. Bae subtilis. 

19. wis velatus. 

20. Dicladia antennata. 

21 - bulbosa. 

22. Dictyocha aculeata. 

23. ve Binoculus. 

24. biternaria. 

25. Epiodon. 

26. sists octonaria. 

52. Amphidiscus Agaricus. 

53. clavatus. 

54. Helvella. 

55. Lithasteriscus bulbosus. 


. Spongolithis acicularis 


57. Spongolithis aspera. 


58. --»  brachiata. 

59. -. Caput serpentis. 
60. « | cenocephala, 

61. eu, CLAVUS? 


* Thin and level fragments of ice found floating in the ocean. 


Microscopic Life in the Ocean at the South Pole. 561 


62. Spongolithis collaris. 69. Spongolithis radiata. 

63. .. _Fustis. 70. ..  trachelotyla. 
64. ...  Heteroconus. fae ... Lrachystauron. 
65. He inflexa. 72. ...  Lrianchora. 
66. ...  Leptostauron. 73. .. vaginata. 

67. awe mesogongyla. 74. «.  verticillata. 
68. as neptunia. 75. ...  wuncinata. 


C. CALCAREOUS POLYTHALAMIA. 
76. Grammostomum divergens, 78. Rotalia Erebi. 
77. Rotalia antarctica. 79. Spiroloculina— ? 
In several forms of the genus Cossinodiscus their green ovaries 
were recognizable, consequently they must have been alive. 


2. Residue from melted ice, while the ship sailed through a broad 
tract of brown pancake ice, in 74° to 78° south latitude. (Ma- 
terials from 75° S. lat., 170° W. long.) 


A. SILICEOUS POLYGASTRICA. 


1. AstErompPHALus Buchii. 8. Dictyocha aculeata. 

2 Rossii. 9. Eunotia gibberula. 

3. Coscinodiscus. lineatus. 10. Fragilaria acuta. 

4. as Lune. 11. .. pinnulata. 

5 Oculus Iridis. 12. -.. rotundata. 

6 radiolatus. 13. Hemiau.us antarcticus. 
‘A oa subtilis. 14. Hemizosrer tubulosus. 


B. SILICEOUS PHYTOLITHARIA. 
15. Spongolithis Fustis? Fragm. 


These and the former specimens were sent over in bottles of water. 
They were the same sealed bottles in which they were collected in 
the year 1842. In the first little bottle, in which the sediment was 
considerable, almost every atom being a distinct siliceous organism, 
Hemiaulus antarcticus predominated, The larger bottle of the se- 
cond mass had allowed the greater part to leak through the sealed 
cork, so that only about a quarter remained. The mass of sediment 
arrived in Berlin in May 1844, almost all in such a condition, that 
the author had no hesitation in considering them still alive, although 
they all belonged to the almost or perfectly motionless forms. The 
Fragilarias predominated F, (pinnulata) ; these, though rarely adher- 


562 Microscopie Life in the Ocean at the South Pole. 


ent in chains, had their green ovaries mostly preserved in a distinct 
natural disposition ; Coscinodisct and Hemiaulus also often exhibited 
groups of green granules in their interior. No movement. 


The following numbers were sent over dried :— 


3. Sea-bottom drawn up by the lead from 190 fathom depth, in 
78° 10'S. lat., 162° W. long. 


A. SILICEOUS POLYGASTRICA. 


1, AsteromeuaLus Hookeri. 14, Fragilaria al. sp. 

2. i Buchii. 15. Gallionella Sol. 

3. Humboldtii. 16. Hemiavuuus antarcticus. 
4. ius Cuvieriz. 17. Lithobotrys denticulata. 

5. Coscinodiscus Apollinis. 18. Mesocena Spongolithis. 

6. gemmifer. 19. Pysxidicula. 

i = limbatus. 20. Rhizosolenia Ornithoglossa. 
8. lineatus. 21. Symbolophora ? Microtrias. 
2: Lune. 22. ae Tetras. 
10. ses radiolatus. 23. wae Pentas. 
11. Dictyocha septenaria. 24. ee Hexas. 
12. Speculum. 25. Triavuxactias triquetra. 
13. Fragilaria Amphiceros. 26. T'riceratium Pileolus. 

B. SILICEOUS PHYTOLITHARIA. 

27. Amphidiscus Polydiscus. 34. Spongolithis Fustis. 
28. Spongolithis acicularis. 35. «»  neptunia. 
29. «. | asperde 36. tee Pes Meniidis. 
30. ..  brachiata. 37. see  Lrianchora. 
3l. ... Caputserpentis. 38. oe =: Vaginata. 

32. «».  cenocephala. 39. es.  uncinata. 
336 oo Clavus. 


4, From snow and ice taken from the sea in 76° 8S. lat., 165° W. 
long., near Victoria Land. 


SILICEOUS POLYGASTRICA. 


1. Coscinodiscus lineatus. 4, Fragilaria pinnulata. 
2. soe Lune. 5. .. rotundata 


3. a subtillis. 6. spe a@li AP. 


Microscopic Life in the Ocean at the South Pole. 563 


The chief mass was densely crowded with Fragilaria pinnulata 
and with Coscinodiscus, which on softening in water generally exhi- 
bited their green ovaries, perhaps originally brown. 

5. Contents of the stomach of a Salpa, 66° S. lat., 157° W. long. 
1842. 


SILICEOUS POLYGASTRICA. 


1. Actiniscus Lancearius. 8. Dictyocha aculeata. 

2. Coscinodiscus Apollinis. 9. ae Speculum. 
3 cingulatus. 10. Fragilaria acuta. 

a. eae gemmifer. By: See granulata. 

5 lineatus. 12. .. ~ rotundata. 
6 Lune. 13. Hextronyx duodenarias. 
7 subtilis. 14, Pyw«idicula. 


This materiai contained a large number of Dictyochas, which evi- 
dently must have been particularly sought for by the Salpa, since 
they do not occur in the other samples, and consequently appear to 
be a favourite food of the Salpa. 


6. Flakes floating on the surface of the ocean in 64° S. lat., 160° 
W. long. 


They are like the Oscillatorie of our waters, matted with delicate 
fibres and granules interspersed through the mass. The chief sub- 


_ stance is formed of siliceous, very delicate, lateral tubes of the quite 


new and peculiar genus Chetoceros. ‘The nature of the granules 
remains doubtful. ‘The other forms are scattered through this mat- 
ted substance ; all exhibit however their dried-up ovaries, and con- 
sequently were collected alive. 


SILICEOUS POLYGASTRICA. 


1. AsterompPHatus Darwinit. 10. Dictyocha aculeata. 

2. Re Hookerii. 11. ..  Binoculus. 

3. naa Rossii. 12. oaig Ornamentum,. 
4. Buchii. 13. we Speculum. 

5. Humboldti. 14. Fragilaria Amphiceros. 
6. Cuetoceros Dicheta. 15. S63 granulata. 

f. Tetracheta. 16. Hemtauxus obtusus. 


8. Coscinodiscus lineatus. 17, Lithobotrys denticulata. 
9. on subtilis. 


564 Microscopic Life in the Ocean at the South Pole. 


7. The mass brought up by the lead from the bottom of the sea in 
the Gulf of Erebus and Terror, at the depth of 207 fathoms, in 
63° 40' N. lat., 55° W. long. 


The following species, occasionally with distinct green ovaries, 
were found in this very small sample, mixed among the apparently 
unorganic sand. 


B. SILICEOUS POLYGASTRICA. 


1. Anautus scalaris. 8. Fragilaria rotundata. 

2. Biddulphia ursina. 9. Gallionella Sol. 

3. Coscinodiscus Apollinis. 10. Bo Tympanum. 

4. a8 cingulatus. 11. Grammatophora parallela. 
5. Coseinodiscus Lune. 12. Hemiauuus antarcticus. 
6. ae subtilis. 13. Rhaphoneis faciolata. 

c fos velatus. 14. Zygoseros ? australis. 


B. SILICEOUS PHYTOLITHARIA. 
15. Spongolithis acicularis. 16. Spongolithis Fustis. 


8. Sea-bottom drawn up by the lead from 270 fathom, in 63° 40’ 
S. lat., 55° W. long. 


A. SILICEOUS POLYGASTRICA. 


1. Achnanthes turgens. 18. Fragilaria pinulata. 
2. Amphora libyca. 19. Gallionella Oculus. 
3. Anautus scalaris. 20. cae ROL. 
4, Biddulphia ursina. 21. --.  sulcata. 
5. Campylodiscus Clypeus. 22. Grammatophora africana. 
6. Coscinodiscus Apollinis. 23. ane parallela 
As oes gemmifer. 24. sie serpentina. 
8 se lineatus. 25. Hemiavutus antarcticus. 
9. Lune. 26. Lithocampe nu. sp. 
10. de Oculus Tridis. 27. Mesocena Spongolithis. 
11. be radiolatus. 28. Navicula elliptica. 
12. eee subtilis. 29. Podosphenia cuneata. 
13. Denticella levis. 30. Pyxidicula hellenica ? 
14. Discoplea Rota. 31. Rhaphoneis fasciolata. 
15. ieee Rotula. 32. Rhizosolenia Calyptra. 
16. Flustrella concentrica. 33) ade Ornithoglossa. 


17. Fragilaria Amphiceros 34. Séauroptera aspera. 


Microscopic Life in the Ocean at the South Pele. 565 


35. Symbolophora Microtrias. 38. Symbolophora Hexas. 
36. Pe Tetras. 39, Synedra Ulna. 
37. ae Pentas. 

B, SILICEOUS PHYTOLITHARIA. 
40 Amphidiscus clavatus. 47. Spongolithis Heteroconus. 
41. Spongolithis acicularis. 48. eae angens. 
42. aes aspera. 49. Hs neptunia. 
43. ap brachiata. 50. ay obtusa. 
44, aa Caput serpentis. ol. ave vaginata, 
45. a2 Clavus. 52. fale uncinata. 


* 46. jity, Fustis. 


C. CALCAREOUS POLYTHALAMIA. 


53. Grammostomum divergens. 


9. Samples from Cockburn’s Island, the furthest limit of vege- 
tation at the South Pole, 64° 12’ S. lat., 57° W. long. 


Off Cockburn’s Island (Cockburn’s Head) Dr. Hooker saw an 
Alga, as the lowest and furthest step of vegetation, with forms of 
Protococcus. The Alga is one of the Tetraspora allied to Ulva, 
which Dr. Hooker has reserved, in order to describe more accu- 
rately : I have not recognised the Protococcus in its dried condition. 
This mass, however, is chiefly and equally peopled with and made 
up of Siliceous Polygastrica. An apparently unorganic sand, 
penguins’ feathers and excrements, the Ulva, and only five as yet 
distinguished species of siliceous Infusoria in great numbers, form 
the mass sent over. The vegetable substances may indeed have 
disappeared by putrefaction. The excrement of the birds, like 
guano, might abundantly furnish solid matter; but the solid silice- 
ous earthy element of the little invisible polygastric animals ap- 
pears to form no inconsiderable part of the solid substance, which 
by the death of generations goes to form earth and land. 

The following forms were observed :— 


SILICEOUS POLYGASTRICA. 


1. Eunotia amphioxys. 4. Rhaphoneis Scutellum. 
2. Pinnularia borealis. 5. Stauropiera capitata. 
3. ans peregrina? 


Ip 


566 Microscopic Life in the Ocean at the South Pole. 


Two forms are new, two have been observed also at the north 
pole, and one is widely distributed. 


II. Oceanic materials from M. Schayer. 


M. Schayer of Berlin, who for fifteen years was superintendent 
of English sheep-folds at Woolnorth in Van Diemen’s Land, has, 
in answer to a request sent to him in the year 1842 by the author, 
collected materials unquestionably rich in microscopic animals ; 
he also collected water taken from the ocean in different regions 
on his return in 1843, and brought with him to Berlin four bottles 
holding from a quarter to half a pint. The author had wished 
that water had been drawn up at a distance from the coast in 
accurately known places, in order to become acquainted in some 
measure with the usual amount of microscopic life of the ocean. 

The four well-preserved sealed bottles which have arrived in 
Berlin were shown to the Academy by the author, and the water 
is still quite clear and transparent, having only a few flakes at the 
bottom, which render it turbid when shaken, but soon subside again 
to the bottom, and the former transparency is restored. When 
opened, a slight but yet evident trace of sulphuretted hydrogen was 
perceptible. 

The microscopic investigation has given the following results : 


1. Water from the south of Cape Horn on the high sea under 57° S. 
lat., 70° W. long., contained— 


SILICEOUS POLYGASTRICA. 


1. Fragilaria granulata. 3. Lithostylidium Serra. 
2. Hemrauxus obtusus, 


2. Water from the region of the Brazilian coast near Rio de Janeiro 
on the high sea, in 23° S. lat., 28° W. long. 


A. SILICEOUS POLYGASTRICA. 


1. Cocconeis Scuttellum. 6. Navicula Scalprum. 
2. Fragilaria Navicula. 7. Pinnularia oceanica. 
3. Gallionella sulcata. 8. shu peregrina. 
4. Haliomma radiatum. 9. Surirella sigmoidea. 


qr 


. Navicula dirhynchus. 10. Synedra Ulna. 


Microscopic Life in the Ocean at the South Pole. 567 


B. SILICEOUS PHYTOLITHARIA. 
11. Spongolithis aspera. 13. Spongolithis Fustis. 


12. ate cenocephala. 14. wan vaginata. 


3. Water from the equatorial ocean in direction of St. Louis in 
Brazil, in 0° lat., 28° W. long. 


A. SILICEOUS POLYGASTRICA. 


1, Fragilaria rhabdosoma. 2. Fragilaria Navicula. 


B. SILICEOUS PHYTOLITHARIA. 
3. Lithostylidium rude. 4. Lithostylidium Serra. 


4, Water from the Antilles Ocean, 24° N. lat., 40° W. long. 
A. SILICEOUS POLYGASTRICA. 


1. Haliomma radiatum. 


B. SILICEOUS PHYTOLITHARIA. 


2. Lithodontium nasutum. 4. Lithostylidium rude. 
3. Lithostylidium Amphiodon. 


C. MEMBRANOUS PORTIONS OF PLANTS. 
5. Pollen pini. 


It follows from these four series of observations obtained through 
M. Schayer, that the ocean, in its usual condition, without pecu- 
liarity of colour, without storms and other influences, contains, in the 
most transparent sea-water, numerous perfect and wholly invisible 
organisms suspended in it, and that the siliceous-shelled species are 
the most predominant in all those cases, although the analysis of sea- 
water does not show silica as a constant ingredient, 


III. On a Cloud of Dust which rendered the whole air hazy for a 
long time on the high Atlantic Ocean in 17° 43’ N. lat., 26° W, 
long., and its being constituted of numerous siliceous animalcules. 


Mr. Darwin, the well-known and most meritorious English travel- 
ler and writer on coral reefs, relates in the account of his travels, that 
a fine dust constantly fell from the hazy atmosphere off the Cape 
Verd Islands, and also on the high sea of that region, while he was 


568 Microscopic Life in the Ocean at the South Pole. 


there ; and likewise on a ship, which, according to the account in 
his letter, was 380 sea-miles distant from land. The wind was then 
blowing from the African coast. Mr. Darwin has sent to the author 
for examination a sample of the dust which fell on the ship on the 

_ high sea at that great distance from land. This dust has been uni- 
versally regarded hitherto as volcanic ashes. The microscopic analy- 
sis has clearly shown that a considerable portion, perhaps one-sixth 
of the mass, consists of numerous speceis of Siliceous Polygastrica 
and portions of silicated terrestrial plants, as follows :— 


A. SILICEOUS POLYGASTRICA. 


1 Campylodiscus Clypeus. 10. Himantidium Arcus. 

2. Eunotia Amphioxys. 11. ae Papilio. 
3. eS pibberula. 12. Navicula affinis ? 

4. Gallionella crenata. 13. -- _ lineolata. 

D. 346 distans. 14,  ... +~=Semen. 

6 granulata. 15. Pinnularia borealis. ? 
7 te marchica. 16. = gibba. 

8 procera. 17. Surirella (peruviana ?) 
9, Gomphonema rotundatum ? 18. Synedra Ulna. 


B. SILICEOUS PHYTOLITHARIA. 


19. Amphidiscus Clavus. 29. Lithostylidium Ossiculum. 
20. Lithodontium Bursa. 30. se quadratum. 
21. sa curvatum. 31. te rude. 

22. oes furcatum. 32. bale Serra. 

23. aes nasutum. 33. mee spiriferum. 
24. ves truncatum. 34. Spongolithis acicularis. 

25. Lithostylidium Amphiodon. 35. oo aspera. 

26. as clavatum. 36. eee mesogongyla. 
27. oe cornutum. 37. ae obtusa. 

28. as leeve. 


The forms included in this catalogue, mostly known and for the 
most part European, prove— 


1, That this meteoric shower of dust was of terrestrial origin. 
2. That it is not volcanic ash. ; 
3. That it was dust which had been lifted up to a great height 


from a dried-up marshy district by an unusually strong current of air 
or a whirlwind, 


Microscopic Life in the Ocean at the South Pole. 569 


4. That the dust did not necessarily and evidently come from 
Africa, as being the nearest land, although the wind blew from 
thence when the dust fell; for this reason, that no exclusively 
African forms are among it. 


5. That as Himantidium Papilio, a very marked form, has hitherto 
occurred only in Cayenne (see the Mikroskopische Leben in Sud- 
und Nord-Amerika, plate 2. fig. 2.), and as the Surirella is also pro- 
bably an American form, only two conclusions present themselves ; 
either that the dust was raised in South America into the upper 
strata of air, and brought by a change of the current in another di- 
rection, or Himantidium Papilio, together with Surirelia, likewise 
occur elsewhere, namely in Africa. 


Review of the Results of these Investigations. 


1. Not only is there, as resulted from the former observations 
of the author (vide d. Mikroskopische Leben in Amerika, Spitz- 
bergen, &c.), an invisible minute creation in the neighbourhood 
of the Pole, where the larger animals can no longer subsist, but 
a similar creation is highly developed at the South Pole. 

2. Even the ice and snow of the South Polar Sea is rich in 
living organisms, contending successfully with the extremity of 
cold. 

3. The microscopic living forms of the South Polar Sea contain 
great riches hitherto wholly unknown, frequently of very elegant 
shape, since no less than seven peculiar genera have been discovered, 
of which some contain several, one as many as seven species. 

4, The forms collected in the year 1842, near Victoria Land, 
were capable of being examined in an almost fresh state in Berlin 
in May 1844, which shows how long preservation is possible. 

5. The ocean is not only populated at certain localities and in 
inland seas or on the coasts, with invisible living atoms, but is pro- 
portionately thickly crowded with life everywhere in the clearest 
state of the sea-water and far from the coasts. 

_ 6, Hitherto but one perfectly microscopic form from the high 
sea was known, and even that from the neighbourhood of the coast, 
namely the Astasia oceanica, which Von Chamisso had observed ; 


570 Colouring of the Waters of the Red Sea. 


all other accounts were imperfect and useless. By the new materials 
the number of species is increased nearly 100. 

7. The hitherto observed oceanic microscopic forms are chiefly 
siliceous-loricated animals with some calcareous-shelled. Do these 
numerous forms derive the material of their shells from the bottom 
of the sea ? This question becomes daily more interesting. 

8. Siliceous and calcareous-shelled minute living forms are not 
only mixed up with the muddy sea-bottom, but they themselves 
form it. They live even to a depth of 270 fathom, and consequent- 
ly support a pressure of water equal to 50 atmospheres ; the whole 
influence of this does not indeed bear upon their organic tissues 
when they are locally fixed, but when they move from the bottom 
upwards or reversely ; yet it does not appear to have acted on the 
drawn up specimens. Who can doubt but that organic beings 
which can support a weight of 50 atmospheres may support 100 
and more? 

9. The supposition, that in great depths, above 100 fathom, 
there is no fresh nutriment for organized beings of any kind, has 
become untenable. 

10. Life and temperature in the depths of the ocean are, in their 
variable relation, the points which at present deserve especial 
attention. 

11. The showers of meteoric dust, or supposed ashes, have at 
present been proved to be, even in the case where they fell 380 
sea-miles from land, of organic and terrestrial origin. 

12, It is not perishable Protococct or Ulve or Lichens that 
principally constitutes the organic covering and soil of ‘the ulti- 
mate islands in the Polar Sea; but the living creatures that form 
the first layer of solid earth are invisible, minute, free animals of 
the genera Pinnularia, Eunotia and Stauroneis with their siliceous 
loricee. Several species from the North Pole and the South Pole 
are identical. 


Colouring of the Waters of the Red Sea. 


A memoir on the colour of the waters of the Red Sea, by M. 
Montagne, was read at the Académie des Sciences, July 15th. The 
conclusions which the author draws from all the facts contained in 


Colouring of the Waters of the Red Sea. 571 


his memoir, whether already known or entirely new and still unpub- 
lished, are the following :— 

1. That the name of Erythrean Sea, given first to the sea of 
Oman and to the Arabian Gulf by Herodotus, afterwards by the 
later Greek authors to all the seas which bathe the coasts of Arabia, 
probably owes its origin to the very remarkable phenomenon of the 
colouring of its waters. 

2. That this phenomenon, observed for the first time in 1823 by 
M. Ehrenberg in the bay of Tor only, then again seen twenty years 
later by M. Dupont, but in truly gigantic dimensions, is owing to 
the presence of a microscopic Alga sui generis, floating at the surface 
of the sea, and even less remarkable for its beautiful red colour than 
for its prodigious fecundity. 

3. That the reddening of the waters of the lake of Morat by an 
Oscillatoria which DeCandolle has described, has the nearest re- 
lation to that of the Arabian Gulf, although the two plants are gene- 
rically very distinct. 

4, That as we may well suppose, according to the accounts of 
navigators, who mention striking instances of the red colouring of 
the sea, these curious phenomena, though not observed till quite 
recently, have nevertheless without doubt always existed. 

5. That this unusual colouring of seas is not exclusively caused, 
as Péron and some others seem to think, perhaps as being chiefly 
zoologists, by the presence of mollusca and microscopic animalcules, 
but that it is often also due to the reproduction, perhaps periodical 
and always very prolific, of some inferior alge, and in particular of 
the species of the singular genus Trichodesmium. 

6. Lastly, that the phenomenon in question, although generally 
confined between the tropics, is however not limited to the Red Sea, 
nor indeed to the Gulf of Oman; but that, being much more gene- 
ral, it is found in other seas, for example in the Atlantic and Pacific 
Oceans, as appears in the ‘ Journal of Researches’ by Mr. Darwin, 
and from the unpublished documents of Dr. Hinds, communicated 
by Mr. Berkeley, and from which the following extract is given :— 

‘“‘Dr. Hinds, who sailed in the ship Sulphur, sent to explore the 
western coasts of North America, first observed on the 11th of Feb- 
ruary 1536, near the Abrolhos Islands, the same Alga doubtless 


572 Fossil Molar Tooth of a Mastodon Australis: 


which Mr. Darwin saw at the same date. This Alga was again seen 
many days running. Some specimens of it having been brought to 
Dr. Hinds, he perceived that a penetrating odour escaped from it 
which had before been thought to come from the ship; this odour 
much resembled that which exhales from damp hay. In April 1837, 
the Sulphur being at anchor at Libertad, near St. Salvador, in the 
Pacific, Dr. Hinds again saw the same Alga. 

‘«‘ A land breeze drove it for three days in very thick masses about 
the ship. The sea exhibited the same aspect as at the Abrolhos 
Islands, but the smell was still more penetrating and disagreeable ; 
it caused in a great many persons an irritation of the conjunctive, 
followed by an abundant secretion of tears. Dr. Hinds himself ex- 
perienced it. The Alga in question constitutes a distinct species of 
the genus Trichodesmium, and is named by M. Montagne 7. Hindsiz. 
It differs from that of the Red Sea both in dimensions and smell.”— 
Comptes Rendus, 15th July, 1844. 


Description of a Fossil Molar Tooth of a Mastodon discovered by 
Count Strzlecki in Australia. By Prof. Owsn, F.R.S. 


The large fossil femur, transmitted to England in 1842, by Lieut. 
Col. Sir T. L. Mitchell, Surveyor-General of Australia, from the 
alluvial or tertiary deposits of Darling Downs, and described in the 
‘Annals of Natural History’ for January 1843, p. 8. fig. 1, gave the 
first indication of the former existence of a large Mastodontoid 
quadruped in Australia. 

The portion of tooth described and figured in the same communi- 
cation (p. 9. figs. 2 and 8), presenting characters very like those of 
the molars of both the Mastodon giganteus as well as of the Dinothe- 
rium, and being from the same stratum and locality as the femur 
with which it was transmitted, was regarded by me as having most 
probably belonged to the same animal; and, on the authority of 
drawings subsequently received from Sir T. Mitchell, was referred to 
the genus Dinotherium.* 

Having since received specimens of portions of lower jaws with 
teeth identical in structure with the fragment figured in my first 

* Annals of Natural History, May 1843, pe 329, figs 1. 


Fossil Molar Tooth of the Mastadon Australis. 573 


communication to the ‘Annals’ (p. 9, figs. 2 and 3), I find that 
the reference to that portion of tooth to the genus Dinotherium 
was premature and erroneous. The extinct species to which it be- 
longed does, indeed, combine molar teeth like those of the Dinothe- 
rium with two large incisive tusks in the lower jaw, but these tusks 
incline upwards instead of bending downwards, and are identical in 
form and structure with the tusk from one of the bone-caves of Wel- 
lington Valley, described by me in Sir T. Mitchell’s ‘ Expeditions into 
the Interior of Australia,’ vol. ii. 1838, p. 362. pl. 31, figs. 1 and 2, 
as indicative of a new genus and species of gigantic marsupial ani- 
mal*, to which I gave the name of Diprotodon australis. 

It is not my present object to describe these most interesting ad- 
ditional fossils of the Diprotodon, or to enter into the question whe- 
ther the great femur before alluded to belonged, like the fragment of 
tooth transmitted with it, to the Diprotodon, or to a different and 
larger animal ; but briefly to make known the more decisive evidence 
of the former existence of a large Mastodontoid quadruped in Aus- 
tralia, which is afforded by the tooth figured, on the scale of half an 
inch to one inch, in the subjoined cuts. 


Fig. 1. 


\ SLY Wy F \ 
imi SS) \ \" 
\\ _Siynatao™ iit e. 


ese 
a 
WI 


Wey Casuals 


Mastodon australis, half nat. size. 


If these figures be compared with those of the molar teeth of the 
Mastodon angustidens, reduced to the same scale, in Cuvier’s ‘ Osse- 
mens Fossiles,’ 4to. vol. i., ‘ Divers Mastodontes,’ pl. 2. fig. 11, pl. 
3, fig. 2, or with that of the more abraded molar, pl. 1, fig. 4, they 
will be seen to present a generic and almost specific identity. 


t See also my paper “ On the Classification of Marsupialia,” Zool. Trans, vol. ii. p. 332; 
in which the Diprotodon is placed with the Wombat in the family ‘ Phascolomyide.’ 


ARE 


574 Fossil Molar Tooth of the Mastodon Australis. 


The close approximation of the Australian Mastodon to the Mast. 
angustidens will be appreciated by a comparison of fig. 1 with a simi- 
lar direct side-view of an equally incompletely-formed molar given 
by Cuvier, loc. cit. pl. 1. fig. 1; but this tooth, being from a more 
posterior part of the jaw, has an additional pair of pyramidal emi- 
nences ; and if the proportions of the figure of half an inch be ac- 
curate, the European tooth is rather smaller than the Australian fos- 


Fig. 2. 


ol us S 


Mastodon australis, half nat. size. 


sil, notwithstanding its additional tubercles and more backward 
position in the jaw. 

The Australian fossil tooth here described was brought by a 
native to Count Strzlecki, whilst that enterprising and accomplished 
traveller was exploring the ossiferous caves in Wellington Valley. 
The native stated that the fossil was taken out of a cave further 
in the interior than those of Wellington Valley, and which Count 
Strzlecki was deterred from exploring by the hostility of the tribe 
then in possession of the district. With this circumstantial account, 
communicated to me by Count Strzlecki when he obligingly placed 
the fossil in my hands, and with the previous indication of a large 
Mastodontoid quadruped in the femur transmitted by Sir T. Mitchell 
from Darling Downs, there seems no ground for scepticism as to the 
veritable Australian origin of the molar tooth in question, notwith- 
standing its close similarity with the Mastodon angustidens of the 
European tertiary strata. It is partially mineralized and coated by the 
reddish ferruginous earth characteristic of the Australian fossils dis- 
coyered in the Wellington ossiferous caves by Sir T. Mitchell. 


Fossil Molar Tooth of the Mastodon Australis. 575 


The amount of difference between the Australian molar and those 
of the European Mastodon angustidens, though small, equals that by 
which the molars of the Mastodon Andium are distinguished from 
the molars of the Mastodon angustidens ; and if species so nearly al- 
lied have left their remains in countries so remote as France and 
Peru, still more if the Mastodon angustidens or longirostris formerly 
existed, as has been affirmed, in North America, we need feel the less 
surprise at the discovery of a nearly allied species in the continent of 
Australia. 

The fossil in question is the crown of an incompletely formed 
molar, with the summits of its mastoid or udder-shaped eminences 
entire, its fangs undeveloped, and its base widely excavated by the 
unclosed pulp-cavity. It supports six principal mastoid eminences 
in three transverse pairs, with a narrow ridge at the anterior part of 
the base of the crown, and a small quadrituberculate talon or basal 
prominence posteriorly : the three transverse eminences are joined 
together by a pair of small tubercles at the basal half of each inter- 
space, placed in the long axis of the crown, and rather to the outer 
side of the middle line of the grinding surface, fig. 2. 

The length or antero-posterior diameter of the crown is four inches 
ten lines: the breadth of the posterior pair of tubercles is two inches 
eleven lines: the height of the middle eminences from the base of 
the crown is two inches six lines: the tooth is apparently the fourth 
molar of the left side of the lower jaw. In comparison with a corres- 
ponding molar in the same state of growth of the Mastodon longiros- 
tris* of Kaup, a cast of which is now before me, the Australian 
molar differs in having the principal transverse eminences more com- 
pressed antero-posteriorly in proportion to their height, and tapering 
to sharper summits, which however are obtuse and bifid. The 
breadth of the tooth slightly increases to the posterior pair of emi- 
nences, whilst in the Mastodon longirostris and angustidens the crown 
maintains the same breadth, or more commonly becomes narrower 
from the anterior to the posterior pair of mastoid eminences. 

Other differences observable on a minute comparison are too tri- 
vial to deserve notice, especially when observed in only a single ex- 


* If this species be distinet from the Mast. angustidens of Cuvier, the molar teeth seem to 
me to offer precisely the same characters. 


576 Fossil Molar Tooth of the Mastodon Australis. 


ample of a complex molar tooth. In the Australian specimen under 
consideration the mastodontal characters are unmistakeable, and the 
resemblance to the molar teeth of the Mastodon angustidens is very 
close. The specific distinction of the Australian Mastodon rests, 
at present, only on the slight differences pointed out in the form of 
the mastoid eminences and the contour of the crown of the molar 
tooth. 

The question may arise, whether identity of generic characters in 
the molar teeth of an extinct Australian mammal with those of the 
Mastodon can support the inference that the remaining organization 
of the Probosidian Pachyderm co-existed with such a form of tooth. 
The analogy of the close mutual similarity which exists in the molar 
teeth of the Tapir, Dinothere, Manatee and Kangaroo suggests the sur- | 
mise that the mastodontal type of molar teeth might also have been 
repeated in a gigantic Marsupial genus which has now become 
extinct ; and such an idea naturally arose in my mind after having 
received evidence of the marsupial character of the Diprotodon and 
Nototherium*, two extinct Australian genera, with the tapiroid type 
of molars, represented by species as large as a Rhinoceros. 

The more complex character of the molars of the Mastodon, and 
the restriction of that character, so far as is now known, to that 
genus only, makes it much more probable, however, that the molar 
here described belonged to a true Mastodon, and the species may be 
provisionally termed Mastodon australis. 

London, August 22, 1844. 


* The characters of these genera, and the evidences of their marsupipal nature, will be the 
subjects of a future communication. : 


517 


On some Fossil Remains of Anoplotherium and Giraffe, from the Se- 
walik Hills, in the North of India. By H. Fauconer, M.D., 
F.G.S., and Carr. P. T. Cautuzy, of the Bengal Artillery, 
F.G.S. 


In continuation of their former researches on the fossil remains of 
the Sewalik Hills, the authors, in their present communication, es- 
tablish, on the clear evidence of anatomical comparison, certain dis- 
coveries which, in previous publications, they had either merely an- 
nounced, or had supported by proofs professedly left incomplete. 
They now demonstrate that there occur in the remarkable tertiary 
deposits of the Sewalik range, together with the osseous remains of 
various other vertebrate animals, bones belonging to the two genera, 
Anoplotherium and Giraffe: the former genus determined by Cuvier 
from parts of skeletons dug out from the gypsum beds of Paris; the 
latter genus known only as one of man’s contemporaries, until in 
the year 1838, the authors gave reason for believing its occurrence 
in the fossil state. 

The specimens now figured and described form part of the collec- 
tion which was made by the authors on the spot, and is now depo- 
sited in the British Museum. They were found, together with re- 
mains of Sivatherium, Camel, Antelope, Crocodile, and other animals, 
in the Sewalik range to the west of the river Jumna. 

The bones are found imbedded either in clay or in sandstone. 
When clay is the matrix, they remain white ; and except in being 
deprived more or less completely of their animal matter, they have 
undergone little alteration. The bones in this state the authors have 
eleswhere designated as the ‘soft fossil.”” When sandstone is the 
matrix, the animal matter has completely disappeared, and the bone 
is thoroughly mineralized and rendered nearly crystalline by the infil- 
tration of siliceous or ferruginous matter, and acquires a correspond- 
ing hardness, or tinge of iron, with increased specific gravity. The 
matrix in contact with the bone is rendered compact and crystalline 
in texture. The remains in this state have been designated by the 
authors as the “ hard fossil.” 


578 Fossil Remains of Anoplotherium 


The remains of Anoplotherium and of the larger species of Giraffe, 
described in the present communication, belong to the “ soft fos- 
sils ;” those of the smaller species of giraffe to the ‘‘ hard fossil.” 

Anoplotherium.—The occurrence, in the Sewalik deposits, of bones 
belonging to this genus, was announced by the authors in their ‘ Sy- 
nopsis of the fossil genera, from the upper deposits of the Sewalik 
hills,’ published in the 4th volume of the Journal of the Asiatic 
Society of Bengal, in the year 1835; and the same fact was after- 
wards referred to in the 6th volume, p. 358, of that Journal. In 
these communications the species was not described, but was named 
provisionally, A. posterogenium. In a communication made to the 
Geological Society in the year 1836, descriptive of a quadrumanous 
fossil remain, and published in the 5th volume of the 2d series of 
their Transactions, the same species was mentioned under the name 
of A. Sivalense, a term which the authors propose to retain, in ac- 
cordance with the principle they adopted in the cases of the horse, 
camel, hippopotamus, &c., of connecting the most remarkable new 
species of each fossil Sewalik genus with the formation itself. 

In their present communication the authors purposely abstain from 
entering on the anatomical characters of this new species further in 
detail than is barely sufficient for its determination ; and they there- 
fore confined their notice to two fine fragments of one head, one 
fragment belonging to the left upper jaw; the other fragment to the 
right upper jaw. 

By a happy chance the teeth are beautifully preserved. The age 
of the individual, which was just adult, was the best that could be 
desired to show the marks characteristic of the genus; for the teeth 
had attained their full development, though the two rear molars had 
hardly come into use. 

Remarks on the Genus Anoplotherium.—The true Anoplotheria ef 
Cuvier (of which A. commune may be regarded as the type), together 
with the A. Sivalense and the Chalicotherium (Anoplotherium ?) 
Goldfussi, are allied, by their dentition, to Rhinoceros. The Dicho- 
bunes, A. Leporinum, A. murinum and A. obliquum, Cuvier arranges 
with considerable doubt, and provisionally only, among the Anoplo- 
theria. He considers it not impossible that the two latter species were 


and Giraffe from North of India. 579 


small ruminants. The A. Servinum of Professor Owen (Geol. Trans. 
2nd ser. vol. vi. p. 45), obtained by Mr. Pratt from Binstead in the 
Isle of Wight (Idem, vol. iii. p. 451), is admitted on all hands to be 
exceedingly like a musk deer. Such heterogeneous materials are too 
much for the limits of any one genus Cuvier imagined the separa- 
tion of the two metacarpal bones to be a character limited to the 
Anoplotheria exclusively. He has also regarded the union of the 
metacarpal bones as holding without exception in all the ruminants; 
and this law with respect to ruminants, though empirical, he regards 
as equally certain with any conclusion in physics or morals, and as 
a surer mark than all those of Zadig (Disc. Prel. p. 49). 

The authors, having had an opportunity of examining the skeleton 
of an African ruminant, the Moschus aquaticus of Ogilby, described 
in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society by that gentleman from 
a living specimen, found it wanting in the above supposed essential 
character of the ruminants, and possessing the above supposed dis- 
tinctive character of Anoplotherian Pachyderms. Its metacarpals are 
distinct along their whole length ; its fore leg, from the carpus down- 
wards, is undistinguishable from that of the peccary ; and its succen- 
torial toes are as much developed as in the last-mentioned animal. 

The deviation from the ordinary ruminant type, indicated by the 
foot of this Moschus, is borne out by a series of modifications in the 
construction of the head and in the bones of the extremities and 
trunk, all tending in the direction of the pachyderms. 

The authors believe the present to be the first announcement of 
the existence of such an anomaly in any living ruminant: they had 
previously ascertained the occurrence of the same structure in a 
fossil ruminant from the Sewalik hills. As the Dorcatherium of 
Kaup breaks down the empirical distinction between the ruminants 
and pachyderms, as regards the number of the teeth, so does the 
Moschus aquaticus as regards the structure of the feet. 

Giraffe.—In the 7th volume of the Journal of the Asiatic Society 
of Bengal (pp. 658-660) is a communication dated “‘ Northern Doab, 
July 15, 1838,” and intituled, ‘ Note on a Fossil Ruminant Genus 
allied to Giraffide, in the Sewalik hills, by Capt. P. T. Cautley.” 
The specimen referred to in that paper was the third cervical vertebra 
of a ruminant, which, for the reasons therein assigned, was supposed 


580 Fossil Remains of Anoplotherium 


to have been a giraffe. At that time the authors of the present 
communication had not access either to drawings of the osteology 
or to a skeleton of the existing giraffe: but the grounds for referring 
the vertebra to that genus were, that it belonged to a ruminant with 
a columnar neck, the type of the ruminants being preserved, though 
very attenuated in its proportions: that the animal was very distinct 
from any of the camel tribe: that it was in the giraffe that there 
existed such a form most aberrant from the mean in respect of its 
great elongation. That the bone belonged to a giraffe was put forth 
at the time as only a probable inference, and chiefly to serve as an 
index to future inquiries. 

The authors, having since the former period obtained additional 
specimens, and had access to the fullest means of comparison, are 
now able to place on the record of determined Sewalik fossils, one 
very marked species of giraffe, and also indications of a second species, 
which, so far as the scanty materials go, appears to come near to that 
of Africa. 

The first specimen to which they refer is the identical vertebra 
noticed by Capt. Cautley in 1838. It is an almost perfect cervical 
vertebra. It were needless to enter on the characters which prove it 
to have belonged to a ruminant. Its elongated form shows that it 
belonged to one with a columnar neck ; that is to say, either to one 
of the camel and Auchenia tribe, or to a giraffe, or some distinct and 
unknown type. The fossil differs from the vertebra of a camel, Ist, 
in the position of the vertebrary foramina (a, a’); 2d, in the obsolete 
form of the upper transverse processes. According to the masterly 
analysis of the Macrauchenia by Professor Owen, the Camelide and 
Macrauchenia differ from all other known mammalia in the following 
peculiarity ; that the transverse processes of the six inferior cervical 
vertebrae are without perforations for the vertebrary arteries, which 
enter the vertebrary canal along with the spinal chord, then pene- 
trate the superior vertebrary laminz, and emerge on the canal again 
close under the anterior oblique processes. This structure appears 
on the cervical vertebre of the Sewalik fossil camel. In the verte- 
bra now under consideration, on the contrary, the foramina (a, a’) 
maintain their ordinary position, that is, they perforate the transverse 
processes, and appear on the surface of the body of the vertebra. 


and Giraffe from North of India. 581 


Since the bone therefore does not belong to a camel, it is the 
bone of a giraffe ? There is preserved in the museum of the Zoologi- 
cal Society the skeleton of a young Nubian giraffe which died at the 
Society’s gardens. When its third cervical vertebra is placed in ap- 
position with the fossil, the two are found to agree in every general 
character, though they disagree in some of their proportions, and in 
certain minor peculiarities. In this young and immature giraffe the 
length of the third cervical vertebra is 74 inches ; what, then, is the 
length of this bone in the adult Nubian giraffe? The authors, from 
their not having had under their examination this vertebra of an 
adult animal, have been unable to ascertain this point directly ; but 
they are able to infer it, from the length of a detached bone preserved 
in the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of London, which 
is the second cervical vertebra of a giraffe, nearly, but not quite full- 
grown*. The length of this bone is 113 inches. Now in the ske- 
leton of the young giraffe belonging to the Zoological Society the 
2d and 3rd cervical vertebre are exactly of the same length. The 

‘authors infer, therefore, that in an animal nearly full-grown, such as 
was that to which the detached bone at the College of Surgeons 

belonged, the length of the 3rd cervical vertebra is 113 inches; and 
consequently, that the length of the same bone in an animal which 
has reached full maturity, is about 12 inchest. 

That the fossil vertebra belonged to an adult which had long 
attained its full size, is shown by the complete synostosis of the 
upper and lower articulating surfaces, by the strong relief of the 
ridges and the depth of the muscular depressions. But the length 
of this bone is only a little more than eight inches. As the other 
dimensions of the fossil and recent vertebre that the authors placed 
in apposition, are nearly in proportion to their respective lengths, 
it follows that this fossil species of giraffe was one-third shorter in 
the neck than an adult of the existing Nubian variety. 

But it was not only in size that the two giraffes differed; they 
differed also in their proportions. In the young giraffe at the Zoo- 


* This appears from the detached state of the upper and lower articulating 
heads of the Lone. 
t The height of the skeleton of the young giraffe in the museum of the Zoological 
Society is 10} feet; that of a full-grown Nubian giraffe is 16 as 
Fr 


582 Fossil Remains of Anoplotherium 


logical Society the vertebra, which is 73 inches long, has a vertical 
diameter of 3-8 inches ; whereas in the fossil species the vertebra, 
which is 8 inches long, instead of having a vertical diameter exceed- 
ing 4 inches (as it ought, if its breadth were proportional to its 
length), has a vertical diameter of only 3-6 inches. This goes to 
prove that in this fossil giraffe the neck was one-tenth more slender 
in proportion to its length than the neck is in the existing species. 

The inferior surface of the body of the vertebra is more curved longi- 
tudinally in the fossil than it is in the recent bone; the height of the 
arc in the former case being to the height in the latter as 3 is to 2. 

On the under surface ‘of the fossil vertebra a very distinct longi- 
tudinal ridge runs down the middle, and this ridge is wanting in 
the recent bone; but this difference, probably, is chiefly owing to 
difference of age. 

In the fossrl vertebra the upper articulating head is very con- 
vex ; for with a transverse diameter of 1°4 inch it has a vertical 
height of 1 inch; laterally it is a good deal compressed. 

The posterior articulating surface, forms a perfectly circular cup, 
two inches in diameter; and this diameter, in the immature Nubian 
giraffe, is one-tenth greater, although the vertebra is one-sixteenth 
shorter. This affords a further proof of the comparative slender- 
ness of neck in this fossil species. 

In regard to the apophyses, the inferior transverse processes 
are sent off downwards and outwards from the lower part of the 
anterior end, exactly as in the recent species, and they are deve- 
loped to nearly the same amount of projection. There is, however, 
this considerable difference, that whereas in the recent species they 
do not run half-way down the body of the vertebra, in the fossil they 
are decurrent along the whole of its length in well-marked laminar 
ridges, which are confluent with the nearly obsolete ridges of the 
upper transverse processes, the united mass near the posterior end 
being dilated into two thick aleeform expansions. 

In the fossil, as in the recent bone, the superior transverse pro- 
cesses are seen only in a rudimentary state ; in the former, however 
they run forwards across the body with less obliquity, and conse- 
quently make the canals for the vertebrary arteries twice as long as 
they are in the recent bone. In the fossil the orifices of these canals 
diyide the length of the vertebra into three nearly equal portions ; 


and Giraffe from North of India. 583 


whereas in the recent bone the orifices are both included within its 
anterior half, 

The anterior oblique processes have the same general form and 
direction both in the fossil and recent species; but in the former 
they are considerably stouter and larger, and their interspace is less. 
The articular surfaces are convex, and defined exactly as in the 
recent species. 

The posterior oblique processes of the fossil differ in form very 
little from those of the recent bone; in the fossil, however, the 
articular surfaces are considerably larger ; and the ridges in which 
they are continued along the side of the upper vertebrary arch, are 
much less convergent than in the recent bone; so that in the latter 
this part is somewhat heart-shaped ; whereas in the fossil it is nearly 
oblong, and “ looks squarer,” so to speak. 

The spinous process in the fossil is the same thin triangular 
lamina that is seen in the recent species ; and it differs only in having 
its most prominent point lower down on the arch. 

The spinal canal is very much of the same form and dimensions 
in both the fossil and the recent vertebra. At this point some of 
the matrix remains attached to the fossil bone, and prevents any very 
precise measurement. 

As a minor point of agreement between the fossil and recent 
bones, it may be noted that, in both, the foramen for the small 
nutritious artery on the inferior side of the body of the vertebra 
is on the right. In the other cervical vertebre of the recent skele- 
ton, this solitary foramen is on the left. 

From the above comparisons it appears that the fossil vertebra 
while it is very distinct from that of a camel, fulfils all the conditions 
required for a strict identification with that of a giraffe; that its 
peculiarities are not of greater than specific importance ; and con- 
sequently do not warrant its being referred to a distinct and un- 
known type among the ruminants. 

The authors conclude that there belonged to the Sewalik fauna 
a true well-marked species of giraffe closely resembling the existing 
species in form, but one-third less in height, and with a neck pro- 
portionately more slender; and for this small species they propose 
the name Camelopardalis Sivalensis, 


584: Fossil Remains of Anoplotherium 


Second Fossil Species of Giraffe.—The fossil specimens next to 
be described have been in the possession of the authors ever since 
1836. They are fragments from the upper and lower jaws of an- 
other fossil species of giraffe, in which the teeth are so exactly of 
the same size and form with those of the existing species, and so 
perfectly resemble them in every respect, that it requires the calipers 
to establish any difference between them. 

The largest specimen is a fragment of a left upper jaw containing 
the two rear molars. The back part of the maxillary, beyond the 
teeth, is attached, and clearly proves that they belonged to a full- 
grown animal. These teeth were compared with the teeth, in the 
same stage of wearing, contained in the head of an adult female 
giraffe belonging to the museum of the College of Surgeons, and 
the fossil and recent teeth were found to agree together in the 
most minute particulars. The following are the corresponding dimen- 
sions of the fossil and recent teeth :-— 


Fossil. Recent. 
Inches. Inches. 


Joint length of the two back molars, upper jaw, eek MS 2°55 
Greatest width of last molar, sae see oon 04 1-3 
Ditto ditto of penultimate molar, ‘ce , vase 145 1:35 


Five other specimens are next described in detail by the authors. 
They are all of them fragments of jaws and teeth more or less com- 
plete upper jaws, corresponding exactly in size and form with that 
of the left side, but if anything, rather more worn, and belonging 
therefore, probably, to different individuals. The agreement extends 
down to the small cone of enamel at the base of the hollow between 
the barrels on the inside. Its dimensions are :— 

Length... tsciie.notestaamches: 
Width: nhc... ed owamae 

The third specimen is a fragment of the left lower jaw, containing 
the last molar. It has precisely the form and proportions of the 
corresponding tooth in the left lower jaw of the female head referred 
to, and the same development of its third barrel or heel, which is 
always found in this tooth in ruminants. Its dimensions are :— 

Depths.) oe 17 inch, 
Greatest width........ 1:0 


and Giraffe from North of India. 585 


The fourth specimen is the last false molar of the left lower jaw, 
detached. It agrees closely with the corresponding tooth in the 
recent female head above referred to. This tooth is thicker in pro- 
portion to its length in the giraffe than in other ruminants, and this 
constitutes one of the most distinctive characters of the giraffe’s 
premolars. The anterior semi-barrel appears a trifle longer than the 
corresponding tooth of the recent animal; but this is owing toa 
difference of wear, and is not borne out by measurement, The 
dimensions are :— 


Fossil. Recent. 
Pet. oe seen 2 O meh. 1°0 inch. 
Breadth. ..... 2. 0°9 0°86 


The authors are possessed of the same tooth of the right lower 
jaw, detached ; but have not thought it necessary to figure it. 

The fifth specimen is the penultimate false molar of the right 
upper jaw. It is of the same size and form with the corres- 
ponding tooth in the recent female head, with this difference, that 
it has three tubercles at the inside of the base. On a sixth specimen 
of the first false molar of the right upper jaw, which is not repre- 
sented among the figures, there are three similar tubercles similarly 
placed. It would require an extensive comparison of recent heads 
to determine what value attaches to this peculiarity ; whether the 
tubercles are constantly absent from the teeth of the recent species, 
or appear occasionally as a variation on those of individuals. The 
dimensions of the penultimate false molar of the upper jaw are :— 


Fossil. Recent. 
Length......-. lO inch. 0°95 inch. 
Dreadth....es 1°12 12 


There is a peculiar, finely reticular, striated and rugose surface to 
the enamel of the teeth of certain quadrupeds, the appearance of 
which the authors compare to that of a fine net, forcibly extended, 
so as to bring the sides of the meshes together. This texture they 
formerly described as existing on the surface of the molars of the 
Sivatherium. It is found also on the teeth of the recent giraffe, 
and is more or less conspicuous on those of the hippopotamus. It 


86 Fossil Remains of Anoplotherium 


Cre 


is not observed in the camel, the moose deer, or the larger bovine 
ruminants ; or if ever present, it is but faintly developed. This tex- 
ture is well marked on the enamel of the teeth of this second species 
of giraffe. A magnified representation of it is given. 

The series of teeth last described, excepting the fifth and sixth 
specimens, are all but undistinguishable from those of the Nubian 
giraffe; and the authors have sought in vain for any distinctive 
character by which to discriminate them. There is no good evidence 
to show that this fossil species and the living are even different ; but 
in putting the case thus, the authors are far from advancing that the 
species are identical. The materials are far too scanty to warrant a 
conjecture to that extent. 

Since the neck of the C. Sivalensis was one-third too short and 
slender to sustain the head that would have suited the teeth last 
described, the authors consider it a necessary consequence that these 
teeth belonged to a distinct species. Had the difference been less 
considerable, they might have hesitated regarding this conclusions ; 
but the difference between 8 inches and 12 inches in the length of 
the same cervical vertebra of two adult animals of the same genus, 
admits, in their opinion, of no other construction than distinctness 
of species. For the present, until sufficient materials shall be ob- 
tained to determine the relationship between the African giraffe and 
the second Sewalik species, in reference to their supposed resem- 
blance, the authors propose to mark the latter by the provisional 
name of Camelopardalis affinis. 

General Remarks.—In a former communication to the Society, 
(Geol. Trans. 2nd ser. vol. v. p. 503) the authors noticed the re- 
markable mixture of extinct and recent forms which constituted the 
ancient fauna of Northern India. An extinct testudinate form, 
Colossochelys Atlas, as enormous in reference to other known Chelo- 
nians as the Saurians of the lias and the oolite are to their existing 
analogues, is there associated with one or more of the same species 
of crocodile that now inhabit the rivers of India. The evidence 
respecting one of these species of crocodile, resting as it does on numer- 
ous remains of individuals of all ages,.is considered by the authors as 
nearly conclusive of the identity of the fossil with its recent ana- 
logue, These reptiles occur together with extinct species of such 


and Giraffe from North of India. 587 


very modern types as the monkey, the camel, the antelope, and (as 
has now been shown the giraffe : and these are met by species of the 
extinct genera Sivatherium and Anoplotherium. As regards the 
geographical distribution of the true Anoplotheria, those hitherto 
discovered have been confined, as the authors believe, to Europe ; 
and as regards their geological distribution, to the older and middle 
tertiaries. In India this genus continued down to the period when 
existing Indian crocodiles and probably some other recent forms had 
become inhabitants of that region. 

It might be expected that in a deposit containing Anoplotherium, 
Palzotherian remains also would sooner or later be discovered. 
However, among the very large collection of fossil bones from the 
tertiary sub-Himalayan range, made by the authors during ten years 
in that part of India, they have never found a single fragment of a 
head or tooth which they were able to refer to Palzotherium. This 
is merely a negative result, and only proves the rarity of that form.* 

Although there occur among the Sewalik fossils abundant remains 
of almost every large pachydermatoes genus, such as the elephant, 
mastodon, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, sus, horse, &c., yet no remain 
has been found referrible to the Tapir, a fact the more remarkable, 
inasmuch as one of the only two existing species of that genus is 
now confined to the larger Indian islands and a part of the adjoining 
continent. 

The finding of the giraffe as a fossil, furnishes another link to the 
rapidly increasing chain which (as the discoveries of year after year 
evince) will sooner or later connect extinct with existing forms in a 
continuous series. The bovine, antelope, and antlered ruminants 


* Mr, M’Clelland in his paper on Hexaprotodon (Journ. Asiatic Society of 
Bengal, vol. vii. p. 1046) casually mentions a species of Palewotherium as oc- 
curring among the Sewalik fossils. But he does not describe or figure the speci- 
men. Messrs. Baker and Durand in their remarks appended to their catalogue 
of the Dadoopor collection (Idem, vol. v. p. 836), mention four specimens con- 
taining teeth of the upper and lower jaws belonging to what they provisionally 


> 


designate ‘‘ Cuvierian genera:’’ in regard to one of which, having the upper 
and lower jaws in contact, they state that, ‘‘ although it affords some analogies 
both to the Palezotherium and Anoplotherium, its essential peculiarities are suf- 
ficiently remarkable to cause it to be separated from either genus.’’ ‘ill these 
specimens are either figured or described, the point must remain undecided in 


regard to Palwotherium being represented in the Sewalik fauna. 


588 Fossil Remains of Anoplotherium 


have numerous representatives, both recent and fossil. The camel 
tribe comprises a considerable fossil group, represented in India by 
the Camelus Sivaiensis, and is closely approached to in America by 
extinct Pachydermatous Macrauchenia. The giraffe has hitherto 
been confined, like the human race, to a single species, and has 
occupied an isolated position in the order to which it belongs. It is 
now as closely represented by its fossil analogues as the camel; and 
it may be expected that, when the ossiferous beds of Asia and 
Africa are better known, other intermediate forms will be found, 
filling up the wide interval which now separates the giraffe from the 
antlered ruminants, its nearest allies in the order according to 
Cuvier and Owen.* 

The giraffe throws a new light on the original physical characters 
of Northern India; for whatever may be urged in regard to the 
possible range of its vegetable food, it is very clear that, like the 
existing species, it must have inhabited an open country, and had 
broad plains to roam over. In a densely forest-clad tract, like that 
which now skirts the foot of the Himalayahs, it would soon have 
been exterminated by the large feline ferze, by the hyznas and large 
predaceous bears which are known to have been members of the old 
Sewalik fauna. 

Postscript.—Since the above remarks were submitted to the So- 
ciety, M. Duvernoy’s paper, embodying two communications read to 
the Academy of Sciences on the 19th May and 27th November last, 
has appeared in the January Number of the ‘ Annales des Sciences 
Naturelles.’ ‘These notices were published in the ‘ Comptes Rendus,’ 
but were unknown to the authors at the time. M. Duvernoy 
describes the lower jaw of a fossil giraffe found in the bottom of a 
well, lying on the surface of a yellow clay, along with fragments of 
pottery and domestic utensils, in the court of an ancient donjon of 
the 14th century in the town of Isoodun, Département de 1’Indre. 
Considerable doubt remains as to the bed and source whence the 
fossil was derived. M. Duvernoy attributes the jaw to a distinct 


* M. G. de St. Hilaire, in the zeal for the mutability of species imagined 
that he had detected in the Sivatherium the primeval type which time and neces- 
sity had fined down into the giraffe. Anatomical proofs were all against this in- 
ference: but if a shadow of doubt remained, it must yield tothe fact, that in the 
Sewalik fauna the Giraffe and the Sivatherium were contemporaries. 


and Giraffe from North of India. 589 


species of giraffe, which he names Camelopardalis Biturigum. Pro- 
fessor Owen, from the examination of a cast, confirms the result, 
expressing his conviction “‘ that in the more essential characters the 
Isoodun fossil closely approaches the genus Giraffe, but differs strik- 
ingly from the (single) existing species of the south and east of 
Africa, and that the deviations tend towards the sub-genus Elk.” 

M. Duvernoy also mentions the discovery of a tooth in the mo- 
lasse near Neufchatel, by M. Nicolet, determined by M. Agassiz to 
be the outer incisor of a fossil giraffe-—(Duvernoy, Annales des 
Sciences Naturelles, No. for January 1844.)—Proceedings Geological 
Society. 


Botany of the Brazils, from the President’s address to the Linnean 
Society. 


Don José Pavon, a botanist of considerable merit, and the col- 
league of Ruiz in the memorable botanical expedition dispatched to 
Peru by the Spanish Government in the year 1777, from which 
were obtained such important results both in collections and publica- 
tions. On the recommendation of Ortega, then Professor of Botany 
at Madrid, the expedition was placed under the direction of Ruiz, 
who was accompanied by Pavon and by two artists, Brunete and 
Galvez. M. Dombey also, who had been dispatched from France 
on a similar mission, was allowed to accompany them ; and during 
a residence of ten years they visited many of the most interesting 
districts of Peru and Chile. In 1788 Ruiz and Pavon returned to 
Europe, bringing with them large collections of plants and an exten- 
sive series of botanical drawings, and leaving behind them two of 
their pupils, Tafalla (afterwards Professor of Botany in the University 
of Lima), and Pulgar (an artist of merit), to continue their investi- 
gations. The collections thus made by themselves, and those which 
were subsequently transmitted to them, formed the basis of a series 
of works on the botany of the Western Regions of South America, 
which, had they been carried on to completion, would have been in- 
deed a magnificent contribution to science, and which even in their 
present incomplete state are of high importance. The first of these 
publications appeared in 1794, under the title of ‘ Flore Peruviane 

4G 


590 Whether Lightning Rods attract Lightning. 


et Chilensis Prodromus,’ and contains descriptive characters and . 
illustrative figures of their new genera. This was followed in 1798, 
by the first volume of the ‘ Flora Peruviana et Chilensis,’ two other 
volumes of which, extending as far as the class Octandria of the Lin- 
nzean system, were published in 1799 and 1802. The plates of a 
fourth volume, as well as many others intended for subsequent publi- 
cation, were also prepared. In 1798 also was published the first 
volume of a smaller work without figures, entitled ‘Systema Vege- 
tabilium Flore Peruvianz et Chilensis,’ containing characters of all 
their new genera and of the species belonging to them, as well as of 
all the other species described in the first volume of their * Flora.’ 
Of the immense collections made by Ruiz and Pavon and other 
botanists in the Spanish possessions in America, a large portion was 
purchased by Mr. Lambert between the years 1817 and 1824. 
These were dispersed at the sale of his Herbarium in 1842; but a 
part of them was then obtained for the British Museum, where they 
are now deposited. Little is known of the latter years of Pavon; 
his correspondence with Mr. Lambert appears to have ceased in 
1824, and even the exact date of his death has not been ascertained. 
—The Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Vol. 14, No. 91. 


Whether Lightning Rods attract Lightning. 


[From an interesting work by Snow Harris Esq., F.R.S. on the protection afforded by Light- 
ning Rods to ships of H. M. Navy.] 


“« Amongst the objections made to the employment of lightning 
rods, there appears to have been none so popular, and at the same 
time so plausible, as this, viz., that by setting up pointed conduc- 
tors we invite lightning to our buildings, which otherwise would 
not fall on them ; that should the quantity of electricity discharged 
be greater than the rod can carry off, the redundant quantity must 
necessarily act with destructive violence ; and that since we can 
never know the quantity of electricity which may be accumulated 
in, and be discharged from the clouds, it is not improbable but that 
any conductor which we can conveniently apply may be too small for 
the safe conveyance of such a charge. 


Whether Lightning Rods attract Lighining. 591 


Although the advocates of these opinions have never adduced 
any substantial fact or any known law of electricity, in support 
of them ; although they have never, by any appeal to experience, 
shown that buildings armed with lightning rods have been struck 
by lightning more frequently than buildings not so armed, nor 
demonstrated any single instance in which an efficient lightning 
rod, properly applied, has failed to afford protection,—nevertheless 
such views have been commonly entertained : indeed so strenuously 
have they been insisted on, and that too by persons of education 
and influence, that the Governor-General and Council of the Ho- 
nourable the East India Company were led to order the lightning 
rods to be removed from their powder magazines and other public 
buildings, having in the year 1838 come to the conclusion, from cer- 
tain representations of their scientific officers, that lightning rods were 
attended by more danger than advantage; in the teeth of which con- 
clusion, a magazine at Dum-Dum, and a Corning-house at Mazagon, 
not having lightning rods, were struck by lightning and blown up.* 

In a work on Canada, published so lately as the year 1829,t we 
find the following passage: ‘ Science has every cause to dread the 
thunder rods of Franklin: they attract destruction, and houses are 
safer without than with them. Were they able to carry off the 
fluid they have the means of attracting, then there could be no danger, 
but this they are by no means able to do.” Assertions such as 
these, appealing as they do to the fears of mankind, rather than to 
their dispassionate and sober judgment, have not altogether failed 
in obtaining that sort of temporary favour which so frequently at- 
tends a popular prejudice, promulgated without reason, and received 
without proof. Not only is the idea that a lightning rod invites 
lightning unsupported by any fact, but it is absolutely at variance 
with the whole course of experience. 


* Correspondence with the Honorable Board of Directors ; Professor Daniell and 
Dr. W. B. O’Shaughnessy. Our readers may remember something of a controversy 
on this subject in our pages a few years ago. If not, we beg to refer them to vol. 1. 
pp: 431 and 489. It will there be found that the fallacies and absurdities regarding 
lightning rods referred to by Mr. Harris, were pointed out, and some of the miss- 
tatements on which they were founded fully exposed.—Ep. 

t Three yearsin Canada. By ¥. McTaggart, Civil Engineer in the service of 
the British Government. 


592 Whether Lightning Rods attract Lightning. 


The notion that a lightning rod is a positive evil, appears to have 
arisen entirely out of assumptions, and a partial consideration of 
facts. Thus in consequence of the track of a discharge of lightning 
being always determined through a certain line or lines, which upon 
the whole least resist its progress (48), it has often been found to fall 
in the direction of pointed metallic bodies, such as vanes, vane 
spindles, iron bars, knives, &c. The instances in which these 
bodies seem to have determined the course of lightning have 
been carefully recorded, the phenomena being peculiarly striking 
and remarkable (54) ; but on the other hand, no attention has been 
given to those instances in which lightning has altogether avoided 
such bodies, and passed in other directions (46). Now it will be 
found, as we shall presently show that the action of a pointed con- 
ductor is purely passive. It is rather the patient than the agent ; 
and such conductors can no more be said to attract or inyite a dis- 
charge of lightning, than a water-course can be said to attract the 
water which flows through it at the time of heavy rain. 

We have shown, in a former section (71), what quantity of me- 
tal is really sufficient for the perfect conduction of any quantity of 
lightning liable to be discharged in the most severe thunderstorms : 
therefore, to assume that any conductor which may be applied is not 
sufficiently capacious, is to reason against experience, and to 
resort to a species of argument quite foreign to the conditions of 
the case. It would be, as if we were to insist upon the danger of 
applying water-pipes to buildings, under the assumption that we do 
not really know what quantity of rain may possibly fall from the 
clouds, and that hence the pipe may after all be too small to con- 
vey it. 

In all these reasonings we should recollect, as already explained 
(10), that the forces in operation are distributed over a great ex- 
tent of surface, and that the point or points upon which lightning 
strikes is dependent on some peculiar condition of the intervening 
air, and the amount of force in operation,—not in the mere pre- 
sence of a metallic body projecting for a comparatively short dis- 
tance into the atmosphere,“ that such bodies provoke the shaft 
of heaven is the suggestion of superstition, rather than of science.”* 

* Leshe, Edin, Phil. Magazine. 


Whether Lightning Rods aitract Lightning. 593 


We shall now leave the theoretical discussion of this question, 
and direct attention to the facts themselves, and examine how far 
the evidence deducible from such facts is conclusive upon this im- 
portant point. 

During the thunderstorm which spread over the neighbour- 
hood of Plymouth, in May, 1841, the electrical discharge struck 
one of the high chimneys at the Victualling-Yard, as already 
mentioned (94); it fell also on the topmast of the sheer-hulk off 
the Dock-yard, about a mile and a half distant. Now the circum- 
stances attendant on these discharges of lightning bear directly 
on the question before us. The chimney at the Victualling- Yard 
is a round column of granite, about one hundred and twenty feet 
high, attached to the bakehouse ; it has not a particle of metal in 
its construction, nor has it any projecting point. It stands at a dis- 
tance of about one hundred yards from a clock-tower in the same 
yard ; which on the contrary, fas not only a metal vane, and cross- 
pieces of metal, indicating the four cardinal points, but its dome is 
covered with copper, and there is a large conductor continued part- 
ly within and partly without the tower, from the dome to the 
ground. In the sheer-hulk a very small metallic wire was led 
along the pole topmast, and connected with large metallic chains 
attached to the mast and sheers: the height of this pole was 
comparatively low, and it was completely overtopped by the neigh- 
bouring spars of the line-of-battle ship Cornwallis, fully rigged, 
and fitted with conductors on each of her masts. Now when the 
disruptive discharges took place, they fell on the granite tower, 
which had not a single metallic substance in its construction, and 
on the low flag-staff pole of the sheer-hulk’s mast, notwithstanding 
that the clock-tower near the chimney offered every possible ‘‘in- 
vitation” to the discharge, and the great altitude of the line of battle 
ship’s spars were in the most favourable position for ‘ attracting” 
the electrical explosion. The chimney was rent for sixty feet ; the 
flag-staff of the hulk’s mast was slightly injured, and the small wire 
broken and fused ; the lower mast and chains were uninjured. 

On the 25th of March, 1840, Her Majesty’s ships Powerful and 
Asia, each of eighty-four guns, were at anchor within a short dis- 
tance of each other in Vourla Bay, in the Mediterranean. The 


594: Whether Lightning Rods attract Lightning. 


Asia had the fixed pointed conductors already described (84) at- 
tached to each of her masts; the Powerful was unprovided with 
any lightning conductor whatever. Under these conditions they 
were both exposed to a severe thunderstorm. A discharge of 
lightning fell on the Powerful, the ship without conductors, and 
shivered some of her spars; whilst the Asza, where every supposed 
‘‘ invitation” to the discharge was most prominent, experienced no 
ill effect. 

If no other cases were on record, these alone, would be suffici- 
ent to dispel all apprehensions of a metallic conductor “ attracting 
or inviting” lightning. A great number of instances, however, 
equally clear and satisfactory, exist ; from these we have selected 
the following :— 

Amongst some interesting remarks on the effects of lightning, by 
Professor Winthrop, communicated by Dr. Franklin to Mr. Henley, 
it is stated, that a tree, which stood at the distance of fifty-two feet 
only from a pointed conductor attached to a house, was struck by 
lightning and shivered, while the conductor and house escaped*,— 
that is to say, the lightning fell on a body, which, according to the 
prevalent notion, had little or no attraction for it, and held out no 
“invitation,” in preference to one which did,—a fact totally at vari- 
ance with the whole assumption. 

We have already adverted to the case of the Southampton (46), 
in which a heavy electrical discharge fell upon the sea close to the 
ship, during a thunderstorm on the east coast of Africa. But what 
makes this case especially applicable to the question now under 
consideration, is the circumstance, that all her masts were fitted 
with fixed lightning conductors, which terminated in copper spikes. 
The storm was awful, and is stated by Mr. Martin, the master, to 
have lasted from ten P.M. to two a.m. “ The night was pitchy 
dark, from the density of the surrounding clouds; the roar of the 
thunder was incessant, and the flashes of lightning frequently so 
vivid as to affect the sight for some minutes,” yet no ill effect was 
experienced ; the electrical discharge was not drawn down in an 
explosive form exclusively upon the conductors, although it actually 


fell with violence upon the sea close to the vessel. 
* Phil, Trans, vol, lxiv., p. 152. 


Whether Lightning Rods attract Lightning. 595 


Similar effects were observed in His Majesty’s ship Sapphire, 
armed with pointed conductors of the same kind. Captain Wel- 
lesley, who commanded this ship, states, that ‘‘ the lightning was so 
vivid, and the flashes so quick in succession all around the ship, 
that although the duty to be done was important, I hesitated to ex- 
pose the crew to them ;* yet the ship was not struck.” In another 
place he states, “ that the Sapphire, often met with very severe 
lightning, but it was never attracted to her.” 

The frequent instances in which lightning avoids the most pro- 
minent parts of buildings, and falls obliquely upon some point far 
removed from them, may be further adduced as evidence against 
the attractive influence of such projections. The long zig-zag 
track of lightning, arising from the resistance of the air to its more 
direct path, may cause it to fall very obliquely on the earth’s sur- 
face, as is well known : indeed, some of the directions of the zig-zag, 
may become almost horizontal. Now, in these cases, the pointed 
extremities of a tower, or the masts of ships, have no influence 
whatever on the course of the explosion ; which, on the principles 
already explained (45), finds its way through the least resisting in- 
terval. Mr, Alexander Small states, in a letter to Dr. Franklin, that 
he saw an explosion of lightning pass before his window in a direction 
nearly horizontal, and strike a clock-tower far beneath its summit. 

In the discharge of lightning, which fell on His Majesty’s ship 
Opossum in the English Channel, in March, 1825, “a peal of 
thunder burst on the main rigging, and split the top-mast cap{.” 
Her Majesty’s ship Pique was struck by lightning in the St. Law- 
rence, in November, 1839, by a discharge which fell on the fore- 
mast just beneath the head of it, and from thence passing down 
the mast, did considerable damage. Such cases, although compa- 
ratively rare, and to a certain extent exceptions to the general 
course of lightning, are still sufficient to show how little the direc- 
tion of electrical explosions is determined by the influence of points 
considered as mere attractors, and that it is only when they can 
contribute to the equalization of the opposite electrical forces, that 
lightning strikes on them. Franklin, in endeavouring to draw off 
the electricity of a charged sphere by means of a pointed wire, 


* They were afraid to hoist the boats out. 
t Report of Commission on Shipwreck by Lightning. t Ship’s log. 


596 Whether Lightning Rods attract Lightning. 


found that the point when placed on a rod of glass or wax, had no 
action on it*. 

When this large mass of evidence is duly considered, together 
with the fact, that lightning strikes indiscriminately, trees, rocks, 
and buildings, and even the ground near them, we are compelled 
to admit that the thunder-rods of Franklin are perfectly precise 
in their operation, and that the common notion, that they ‘ invite 
destruction” to our buildings, is not warranted by any sound argu- 
ment drawn from experience. 

It may not be unimportant to notice here the following extract 
from the Memoirs of the Count de Forbin, already alluded to (15). 
In describing the large St. Helmo’s fires, observed in the vane of 
the main-mast, he says, ‘I ordered one of the sailors to take it 
(the vane) down ; but scarcely had he taken the vane from its place, 
when the fire fixed itself on the head of the main-mast, from which 
it was impossible to remove itt,” so that the presence of the metallic 
point was not at all necessary to the electrical discharge. 

Before quitting the subject of the absolute protection from 
lightning afforded by conductors, the Naval Commission inquire, 
whether, according to the common prejudice, conductors have the 
power of attracting a flash of lightning, which in their absence 
would not have occurred; and their report states “ that instances 
of accidents to ships without conductors, and the comparatively 
rare occurrence of lightning being observed to strike on a conduc- 
tor, would tend to negative such a suppositiont.” They further 
consider, from the instances which were submitted to them, of ships 
without conductors having been struck by lightning, in the presence 
of ships furnished with them, which were not so struck, that most 
complete evidence is afforded “ either of the little influence exerted 
by such conductors in inducing or attracting an explosive dis- 
charge, or of their efficacy in harmlessly and imperceptibly con- 
veying away electricity to the water§.” 


* Franklin’s Letters, p. 56. 
+ Letters on Electricity. By the Abbé Nollet.—Vide Phil. Trans. for 1753, 
p. 201. 
t Report of Commission, p. 4. § Report of Commission p. 4. 


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PL. XXVI1 
Calo. yourn. Nat Hist { 
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GENERAL INDEX, VOL. V. 


Page. 

Assam coal, vee wee 444 
Aboriginal Races of America, 117 
Their origin, ... -. 148 
Their Moral traits, aca: BD 
Manner of interment, ... 136 
Maritime enterprise, Pe 4 


Bar Iron, on, Campbell, Capt. 103 
Bengal Isinglass, aoe kao 
Botany of Brazils, ... ee. 089 

Bura Chang, incorrectly named 
Borra Chung, ~ 274 

Its singular habits known to 
the ancients, ... . 278 
Uniformity of nomenclature, 1 


Collections, eae DLS 
» From Rev. E. White, 16-117 
Lieut. Munro, H. M. 
39th Foot, ove UG 
i ye Captain Phayre, ... 117 
Campbell, D. A. Collection 


” ” 


Fishes, ace < 264 
Colouring of the Waters of the 

Red Sea, ... 570 

Correspondence, 37 3, 388 


Description of a Fossil Molar 
Tooth from Australia, by 
Prof. Owen, nae 


Fossil Remains of ian ve 
rium and Giraffe, by Dr. 
Falconer, and Capt. Cautley, 577 


~ 572 


Page. 
-. 492 
373 


Geology and Magnetism, 
Guibourt, M. Letters from,... 


Hutton, Capt. Thos. on the 
Glacial Theory, one! 200 

——, On the Snow Line of 
the Himalaya, sate 


Line of Perpetual Snow, &c. 
remarks on the, by J. H. 
Batten, 

Loudon, Mr. notice of, 


. 083 
. 406 


Maclure, William, Menor of, 388 
Magnesite, . 442 
Malcolmson, J. G. letters from 382 
Manufacture of Epsom Salts, 441 
Microscopic Life, Ehrenberg, 
Prof. on, we . 556 
Mineral Sulphurets, Latter 


Thomas, on, ... . 307 
Organic Chemistry, etc., Lie- 
big, Justus, on, -- 409 


Reduction of Meteorological 


Register, McClelland, J. ... 533 


Whether Lightning Rods at- 
tract Lightning, eee 090 


~ SNE cine 


eon S| 


LY : 
+. 7 
re aray 
hs 


Ratt, Ww 


INDEX OF PLANTS, VOL. V. 


Page. 

ANACLAMUS, «ee oe ose 449, 456 
ARECINE, 212 oe os. 445, 447 
Argca, catechu Willd. ... ... 450 
triandra, Roxb. wee 401 

laxa, Buch, Ham. ... 453 


nagensis, Griff. ws 453 
cocoides, 1d, cue iiesnt £00 
pumala, Mart. «5 406 
malaiana, Griff. eee 457 
Diksoni, Roxb. . 458 
Wallichina, Mart. . 491 
gracilis, Roxb. . 459 


Paradoxa, Griff. «es 463 
tigillaria, Jack. . 463 
horida, Griff. .»» 465 
Nibung, Mart. ... 465, 491 
ARENGA, aa See EEA 
saccharifera, Labill. ... 472 
Westerhouti, Griff. . 474 
Obtusifolia, Blume, ... 475 
Wightii, Griff. wee 475 


Arorvum, Blume, ... ese 306 
Jenkinsia, Griff. .. 067 
Leonis, Lindl. . 368 


anceps, Lindl. oe 368 
sinuaqtum, Lindl. 5 eGo 
cuspidatum, Lindl. ... 369 


micranthum, Griff. ... 369 
Roxburghii, id. «. 370 
acinaciforme, id. . 370 
subteres, id. snc O00 
Aprenpicuta, Blum. sno OOD 
callosa, Blum. ove O02 


Azoua and Saxvina organs of 
fructification in, as 
compared with Musci 
and Hepatici, . 227 

Diversity of opinion 
regarding, ... 259, 266 
Azoua, Ovula of, aeeat. 
AzoLa, pinnata, ... ‘va BOF 


BENTINCKIA, Mies edu, 407 
geonomeformis, Berry, 469 


CaLamus, an ooo 200 
Zalacca, Roxb. MPs 
castaneus, Griff. sen Uae 


CaLamus,—(continued. ) 
angustifolius, Griff. ... 89 
monticola, Griff. Reg) 


calicarpus, id. bis ea 
petiolaris, id. dee Toe 
Collinus, Griff. Ate 
schigospathus, id. <n) On 
arborescens, id. BRS ae 5: 
erectus, Roxb. APP 5. 
longiseus, Griff. eeu 
ornatus, id. are 
acanthospathus, 1d. ... 39 
Royleanus, id. seas) ae 


Roxburgii, id. 84 
pseudo-rotang, Mart. ... 43 
rotang, Roxb. ... 48, 93 
tenuis, Griff. ... 45, 56 


monoicus, Roxb. ... 48 
polygamus, id. eee eS 
gracilis, Roxb. ans, Ot 
mishmeensis, Griff. ... 995 
floribundus, id. die EOD 
insignis, id. ae; SOG 
latifolius, Roxb. veal? 100 
palustris, Griff. eneg rk 
extensus, Roxb. soe OF 


quingue-nervius, Roxb. 61 
verticillaris Griff. ... 63 


Draco, Willd. SUA OH 
geniculatus, Griff. ... 67 
longipes, id. wna OS 
Aystrix, Griff. Paoli 
leptopus, id. wes kta 


platyspathus, Mart. ... 75 
Mastersianus, Griff. ... 76 


ramogissimus, 1d. wehe 
nutantiflorus, ane 
Jenkensianus, 1d. ast OR 
grandis, id. ine Oe 
intermedius, id. ant) 2G 
melanochetes, Blume. 86 


Lewisianus, Griff. ... 87 
CHAMZROPS, 


Martiana, Wall. 339 
khasyana, Griff. 341 
Ritchiana, id. . 042 
CorypPua, 313 


elata Roxb. oo. O14, 315 


XIV 


CornypHa,—( continued. ) 


Talliera, id. eS l7 
unbraculifera, Linn. ... 319 
CoryYPHINA, sm Ohl, L2 
CyMBASPATHAE, ed 
GYMBA PATHE, .. . 89 
Caryorta, APS wes EOE 
urens, Linn. see ANG 
obtusa, Griff. -.. 480 
sobolifera, Mart. . 481 
Euaetssona, won ROU 
EvrRogsoscis, snes EA 
Groporum, Jack. 2s BOD 


Licua.La, 


laziflorum, Griff. we. 306 
appendiculatum, Lindl. 357 
pallidum, Griff ... 357, 358 
attenuatum, id. -. 308 
purpureum, Roxb. Br. 360 
citriuum, Andr. ees 360 
dilatatum, R. Br. . 360 

ew 321 
spinosa, Willd. ... 321, 322 
paludosa, id. wee O20 
peltata, Roxb. ... 324, 325 
acutifida, Mart. woe O27 
pumila, Blume. eee O29 
glabra, Griff. eseae 
longipes, id. eee 300 
triphylla, Griff. eee OO2 


Index of Plants. 


LIvIsTONA, 
Jenkinsiana, Griff. 
spectabilis, id. 

M acrocriapus. 
sylvicola, Griff. 


PHANIKX, 
aculis, Roxb. 
Ouseleyana, Griff. 
ferinifera, Willd. 
sylvestris, Roxb. 
paludosa, Roxb.... 
PLECTOCOMIA, 
elongata, Mart. 
Assamica, id. 
khasiyana, Griff. 
Himalayana, id. 


Satvinia, Mich. 
vertillata, Roxb. 
cucullata, id. 

SALIVINIDA, 

SLACKIA, 


Watuicuia, Roxb. 
Caryotoides, Roxb. 
oblongifolia, Griff. 
nana, Griff. 


XIPHESIUM, 


accuminatum, Griff, 


roseume Lindl. 


oe S00 
. 334 
. 336 
. 489 
- 490 


. 044 


. 344, 345 


. 047 
. 348 
. 350 


353, 354 


95 
96 
97 
98 


- 100 


eee 


253 


. 254 
. 255 
. 252 


468 


- 482 


485 


- 486 


488 


. 364 
-. 364 
. 364 


INDEX OF FISHES, VOL. V. 


Page. 

ALALBEsS, Cuv. ay 2 | 
cuveria, Nob. aan Dae 
ANGUILLA, Cuv. ee 176 
brevirostris, Nob. fae PEE 
bicolor, id. ee ais: 
arracana, id. nko 
nebulosa, id. You 179 
variegata, id. aS, 
ANGUILLIDEs, Nob. = On 
ANGUILLIDS, id. ... 171, 207, 158 
ANGUILLA, Cuv. ee 172; 207 
acutirostris, Yarr. sae DO 
latirostris, Yarr. <nc ZOE 
mediorostris, Yarr. ... 207 
longicolla, Cuv. pay, 
macroptera, Nob. ... 208 
sinensis, 1d. see 208 
Elphinstonei, Sykes. ... 208 
nebulosa, Nob. ees 208 
variegata, id. «.- 208 
brevirostris, id. 36> 2O8 
bicolor, id. eae 209 
arracana, id. ee 209 
Aneuwuirormes, Nob. 171, 158 
Apopss, Linn. wie, 207 
Apopses, Swainson, we Le 
Bareus, Cuv. noe Nes 
spinulosus, Nob. ae 280 
clavatus, id. «ss 280 
chagunio, Buch. . 280 
Concer, Cuv. pe. |) 
vulgaris, Cuv. 172, 209 
myrus, Linn. eae 209 
balearis, Cuv. ssaabO 
mystox, Cuv. ee 209 
americana, Fork. ee. 209 
longicollis, Cuv. ves 
Crenops, N. Gen. Nob. pee. 
nobilis, id. ey tN 
Datopuis, Rafinesq. 173, 212 
scarpa, Raf. wae alo 
orientalis, Nob a nae 
Riipellie, id, oe ae 


Page. 

Da.opHis,—( continued. ) 
geometrica, id. wivale 
tigrina, id. sa. 21d 


GymnomuRzNA, Lacep. 147, 217 


doliata, Lacep. read, 
marmorata, id. PRA | 
concolor, Riippell. ... 217 
cecus, Linn. weZLE 
LEPTOGNATHUs, Sw. 173, 211 
Matocorreriai Apopes Linn. 171 
Murana. Nob. 173, 213 
bagio, Buch. sei Oo 
helana, Linn. woe 214 
catenula, Lacep. Pp oe 
pantherina, id. ae ke 
Muranesox, Nob. 172, 180, 210 
exodentata,id. ... 180, 210 
lanceolata, id. 181, 210 
tricuspidata, id. oe. 210 
seradentata, id. sea 20Q 
Hawmiltonii, id. 182, 210 
Bengalensis, id. won 182 


Moura€nipa, id. 158, 159,173, 212 


Ornicarp1a£, Nob. woe es 
OpnicarpiaA, N. Gen. 155, 191, 218 


Phyareana, Nob. 191, 218 
OPHICEPHALUS, id. eterna 
amphaibeus, woe 270 
burra chang, eon 200 
OruisurDa, id. 172, 211 
Oruisurus, Lacep. 173, 211, 183 
rostratus, Buch. oo. 184 
vermiformis, --. 184 
minimus, Eo Its 155 
caudatus, ween 85 
fasciatus, id. 211 
serpens, id. os ZL 
hijala, Buch. arigr | # 
Boro. Buch. erty 18 
rostratus, Buch. epee 
harancha, Buch. cell 


minimus, Nob. Sec aes 
vermiformis, id. 2 & 


Xvi 


Index of Fishes. 


Page. 
OpuistTeRNoN, N. Gen. 175, 196, 220 


bengalensis, id. ... 197, 220 
hepaticus,id. ... 198, 221 
OpnHITHORAX, id. ext cee 
ophis, Lacep. ons abe 
colubrina, id. wen eke 
imberbis, Laroach. ... 212 
Pneumasrancnus, Nob. 192, 218 
striatus, 1d. etalg 
leprosus, id. 195, 219 
albinus, id. 196, 219 
cinereus, id. as 1) 
PTYOBRANCHIDA, : 
es 199, 221, 176 


Pryoprancuus, N. G. 199, 221, 175 
arundinaceus, Nob. 221, 200 
Guthrianus,id. ... 222, 201 


erythreus, id. 
multidentatus, id. 
parvidentus, id. 
gracilus, id. 
linearis, Gray. 
Hardwickiu, Gray. 
raitborua, Buch. 
brevus, Nob. 


Srroruipon, Nob. 174 
grisea, Lacep. 


223, 
223, 
223, 
223, 


201 
201 
202 
202 


. 222 


deo 


222 
222 


. 223 


, 185, 


214 
244 


Page. 

STROPHIDON, —( continued. ) 
africana, ae 
echidna, ae i 5) 
unicolor, eee 21S 
literata, Nob. 186, 215 
hepatica, wear 21D 
punctata, id. 287, 215 
maculata, Buch. aoe 245 
longicandata. Nob. 187, 215 
SyNBRANCHIDA, Nob. 159 174, 218 
SynBRANcHUs, Bloch. 175, 219 
marmorata, Bl. eos 220 
immaculata, Bl. one 220 
cendre, Bon. aoe 220 
lineata, Lacep. «o- 220 
levis, id. oo. 220 
Tuzropontis, Nob. 174, 187, 216 
nigricans, Lacep. ooh 
reticularis, Bl. 188, 216 
stellata, Lacep. 3. 216 
reticulata, Nob. vee 216 
cineraceus, «oe 216 
ophis, 217 


flavimarginata, Riip. 2 14, 217 


UnisrancnaPertura, Cuchia, 
Buch. is 


192 


ERRATA. 
Page 552, line 18, from top, for ‘ remarks on the,’ read various. 
,, 552, line 22, from top, for ‘ variation of the wind,’ read aspect of the sky. 
», 955, line 7, from bottom, omit the parenthesis. 
», 955, line 5, from bottom, omit the parenthesis, and insert but, 


Preface, pages vii, viii, for ‘resin,’ read rosin. 


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