OMIFDRN1AI
FISH-GAME
tONSERV/fflOK Of WILD UFE THROUGH EDUCATION"
STATE OF CALIFORNIA
DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES
DIVISION OF FISH AND GAME
San Francisco, California
EARL WARREN
Governor
WARREN T. HANNUM
Director of Natural Resources
FISH AND GAME COMMISSION
LEE F. PAYNE, President
Los Angeles
PAUL DENNY, Commissioner HARVEY E. HASTAIN, Commissioner
Etna Brawley
WILLIAM J. SILVA, Commissioner CARL F. WENTE, Commissioner
Modesto San Francisco
E. L. MACAULAY
Executive Officer
San Francisco
CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME
PHIL M. ROEDEL, Editor Terminal Island
Editorial Board
RICHARD S. CROKER San Francisco
WILLIAM A. DILL Fresno
JOHN E. CHATTIN San Francisco
California Fish and Game is a journal devoted to the conservation of wildlife
which is published quarterlv bv the California Division of Fish and Game. Contributions
should be sent to Mr. Phil M. Roedel, Editor, State Fisheries Laboratory, Terminal
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conform to the style of previous issues.
The articles appearing herein are not copyrighted and may be reproduced else-
where, provided due credit is given the authors and the California Division of Fish and
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CALIFORNIA FISH and GAME
"CONSERVATION OF WILDLIFE THROUGH EDUCATION"
Volume 37 [SSUED JULY I, L951 Number 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
The Devils Garden Deer Eerd
[nterstate Deer Herd Committee 233
Notes on Kokanee Spawning in Donner Lake.
California, 1949__ __J. B. Kimskv 27:!
Early Development of the Cottid Fish, Clinocottus
recalvus (Greeley) -.Robert W. Morris 281
Plastic Deterioration and Metal Corrosion in Peterson Disk
Fish Tags__ A. J. Calhoun, D. II. Fry, Jr., and E. P. Hughes 301
The Relative Abundance of Sharks and Bat Stingrays in
San Francisco Bay Earl S. Herald and Wm. Ellis Ripley 315
Results of the Pismo Clam Censuses, 1948, 1949
and 1950 Robert D. Collyer 331
Pseudofins on the Caudal Peduncle of Juvenile
Scombroids Earl S. Herald 335
Age and Length Composition of the Sardine Catch off the
Pacific Coast of the United States and Canada in
1950-51
Frances E. Felix. Anita E. Daugherty and Leo Pinkas 339
Notes
The Whale Shark, Rhineodon typus, <>ft Northern Baja
California John E. Fitch 351
Pacific Cod off Central California __J. B. Phillips 351
Retirement of Harry Cole 352
Reviews 353
Reports 356
( 232 )
THE DEVILS GARDEN DEER HERD '
(FIFTH PROGRESS REPORT OF THE INTERSTATE DEER HERD AND
ITS RANGE, INCLUDING A SUMMATION OF WORK TO DATE)
By I VII KM \ II DEEE III RD < !OM MITTE E
INTRODUCTION
The Devils Garden interstate deer herd is made up of Rocky Moun-
tain mule deer (Odocoili us h( minims In minims thai summer principally
on the Fremont National Fon-si in Oregon and winter on the Devils
Garden area in the Modoc National Forest in California. The Oregon
slimmer range covers approximately 400,000 acres and the < !alifornia win-
ter range approximately 335,000 acres. .Much of t lie area t hat is classed as
winter range, however, is made up of territory through which the deer
merely pass during migration. The acreage on which the deer spend the
greater part of the winter is much smaller, covering approximately
100, ()()() acres Figure 94). In addition to the animals from Oregon, a
considerable uumber of deer from summer ranges in California also come
to winter on this smaller a rea i Intel-Mate Dm- Herd Committee, l!)49a).
Earliest records of livestock use of the Devils Garden range extend
back to 1870. During subsequenl \ ears I he range was heavily stocked. It
has been estimated that by L900, there were approximate^ 75,000 cattle
and horses using the area hounded by M t . Dome ou the west, Goose Lake
on the ea.st, and Rlud Lake on the south. The thousands of horses which
remained on the open range all winter were particularly destructive of
the native vegetation.
In the 1880 's sheep grazing began. The area became noted as a winter
and lambing range. The peak in sheep use was reached between 1916 and
1920, when an estimated 125.000 of these animals were present on the
area between Mt. Dome and Doublehead Mountain. The range is capable
of supporting only a fraction of that number today.
Part of the winter deer range came under responsible administration
when the Modoc National Forest was created in 1904. But the most of the
deer midwinter concentration area remained public domain until 1920,
when it was added to the national forest. Since that time livestock has
been greatly reduced. At the present time, limited numbers of cattle and
sheep are permitted on the Devils Garden range during the regular
spring-fall grazing season.
Deer were reported as scarce in the Devils Garden area wThen John
Work passed through on his "Fur Brigade to the Bonaventura" in
1832-33 (Maloney, 1945) . Fremont and Applegate reported an abundance
of deer in 1846. Older residents claim that deer were numerous until the
1 Submitted for publication February, 1951.
C233)
L':;i
< ALIFORNIA
AND GAME
lLok"""
- FALL MIGRATION ROUTE
SCALE
Figure 9 4. Location of the summer and winter ranges of the interstate deer herd
severe winter of 1889-1890, after which for a time they practically dis-
appeared. Since that time deer have increased.
The forage resource on the Devils Garden area has been depleted
considerably by past grazing abuses. Large areas, which once supported
stands of good perennial grasses, now maintain principally an annual
cover, mostly cheat grass (Bromus tectorum).
The better browse species have also suffered. Bitterbrnsh {Purshia
tridt ntata I is the most important browse species on the deer winter range
(Hormav, 1943). The bitterbrnsh stand not only shows the effect of
heavy livestock and deer use. but has also been depleted by fire, drought.
and to a lesser extenl by tent caterpillars and rodent girdling.
THE DEVILS OARDEX DEER HERD
235
236
CALIF! IRN I \ FISH IND GAME
Since L936, several large fires have destroyed browse species on
extensive areas. A fire history map \\ ill 1)" found in Figure 96. The severe
drought thai occurred over the uorthwesl from 1917 to 1936 contributed
to the weakening and killing of browse plants on sizable acreages. At the
present time there exisl thousands of acres <>n which hittcrbnish stands
are almosl completely dead.
i- igtjre 96. Location of areas burned by large fires on the Devils Garden winter deer
range. Also shows areas on which caterpillar damage is heaviest.
A deer food problem has been recognized on the Devils Garden
winter deer range for many years. Modoc forest officers first observed
abnormal cropping of juniper trees (Juniperus occidentalis) in 1931.
By 1935 this range depletion was a cause of concern to the forest
administrators.
The forest service assigned a wildlife technician to study the problem
during the winters of 1937-38 and 1938-39. Studies were conducted to
determine winter range boundaries, deer numbers, herd composition,
feeding habits, and migration routes and dates. As a result, it was re-
ported that an overpopulation of deer was present on the winter range,
and that forage productivity and carrying capacity were being seriously
reduced by over-utilization of forage plants. Reduction in livestock num-
bers and the removal of surplus antlerless deer were recommended.
The Oregon Game Commission recognized the need for action by
opening the Mule Deer Refuge on the Fremont National Forest and
authorizing special antlerless deer seasons in 1939, 1941 and 1943. This
resulted in the removal of 4,775 antlerless deer mostly from the summer
range of the interstate deer herd.
THE DEVILS GARDEN DEER HERD 237
During the winter of 1943-44, officers on the Modoc National Forest
continued their investigation of the deer-range problem. Checks were
made of forage utilization, deer herd movements, herd composition and
total numbers. They reported that key forage species had been practically
eliminated on large areas and that much of the remaining stand was not
able to reproduce because of over-utilization of seasonal growth. A reduc-
tion of antlerless deer, including deer that remained yearlong in Cali-
fornia, was recommended.
In 1945. the [nterstate Deer Herd < lommittee was organized to study
the deer-livestock problem on the Devils Garden winter deer range. This
committee is composed of members of the Oregon Came < 'inn mission, the
U. S. Forest Service, Regions V and VI, the California Division of Fish
and Game, and representatives of organized sportsmen ami livestock
growers associations. The findings of this committee have been published
in progress reports i Interstate Deer Herd Committee, 1946, 1 !' 17, 1949b,
1950) of which this report is tie- fifth.
The studies of the Interstate Deer Herd Committer resulted in
adoption of a plan for management of the Devils Garden winter deer
range. This plan se1 up guides for regulation of both deer and livestock
numbers on the winter range. In accordance with this plan, the number
of livestock permitted on the w inter range by the Foresl Service has been
reduced. In October ami November, 1950, special seasons were authorized
in Oregon and in California, which allowed the taking of antlerless deer
on both the summer and winter range of the deer herd in order to bring
deer numbers into closer balance with the supply of forage on the winter
range.
It is the purpose of this fifth progress report to present a summation
and evaluation of methods and findings of pasl studies, as well as an
account of recent action and results.
SIZE OF THE DEER HERD
Deer do not lend themselves to accurate censusing. A study made of
the effectiveness of various >\m census methods indicated that none of
the practical methods tested was 100 percent accurate (Rasmussen, 1944).
The census methods used in the course of the studies have aimed at
approximate rather than exact numbers.
Strip Counts
The first attempt to census the Devils Garden interstate deer herd
was made by Handle during the winter of 1937-38. He reported that
the occurrence of severe winter weather between March 1-15 forced
the deer herd into an area of approximately 25,300 acres (Figure 99a).
A count of all deer on 13 random strips covering 5,720 acres resulted
in an actual tally of 2,555 head. On the basis of this count of a deer
to every 2.2 acres, it was computed that the total deer herd numbered
11,150. Because of reports that some deer had drifted even farther
west than the concentration area, Randle considered the actual number
of deer in the herd as being in excess of 15,000 head (Randle, 1938).
Strip counts were resumed by the Modoc forest staff during the
winter of 1943-44. The winter range was divided into 39 units, each of
single vegetation t}-pe, as shown in Figure 97. A counting strip was
located through each unit. Automobiles were used to count wherever
238
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OREGON
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CALIFORNIA
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10 MILES
SCALE
Figure
Location of strip counting units on the winter ile.-r range study area
possible, otherwise saddle horses were used, ('omits were made at 10-day
intervals throughout the first winter (Fischer, et al.. 1044 .
The area of each strip on which deer could be counted accurately
under prevailing conditions of cover and topography was estimated.
Counts were then converted to deer per square mile and applied to the
entire area within each counting unit ( Cronemiller, et al.. 1946).
Based mi the strip counts, the deer population was firsl reported
as 2().7()(i head Fischer, el al., 1944) but Later recomputed at 18,000
head (Interstate Deer Herd Committee, 1946 .
During the following winter (1944-45 strip counts were made in
an identical manner, but at monthly, rather than 10-day. intervals. The
size of the deer population was reported as unchanged i Fischer, et al.,
1945).
The car strip census was continued by the Interstate Deer Berd
Committee with some modifications. During the first three winters
(1945-46. 1946-47 and 1047-48) counts were made monthly from No-
vember to March, inclusive. But examination of the data revealed that
January was the month when the deer were most concentrated and
during which the highest counts were obtained. During the winter of
1948-4!i. strip counts were reduced to two i December and January i and
to one in 1040-50.
The (leer population, as computed from the strip counts, fell from
18,000 to 13,600 the winter of 1945-46. to 12.400 the winter of 1946-47,
THE DEVILS GARDEN DEEK IIKKD
239
ami to 9,800 the winter of 1947-48. Bu1 all inferences Thar a severe
decline in deer numbers was in progress became shattered during the
winter of 1948-49 when th tcurrem f heavy snowfalls and low
temperatures forced the deer into heavier concentrations similar to that
reported by Randle for L938. As a result, the computed deer population
jumped to 23,400 head.
It became apparent thai the strip count as conducted in the pasl
could not be relied on to give adequate approximations of the deer popu-
lation. During mild weather in open winters not all the deer remained
inside thr boundaries of the study area. On the other hand, it appears
thai in severe winters, additional deer are forced int<> the area. The
effectiveness of strip counts can vary considerably nol only with weather
conditions bul with the time of clay at which they an- made. For the
Devils Garden counts, men had to assemble from long distances, so dates
ha<l to be scheduled in advai Bui ideal counting weather could no1
be so scheduled. Because of the long mileage of counting strips, the
count had to be made as rapidly as possible in order to prevent dupli-
cated counts resulting from deer movements Elence much counting was
done at other than ideal times of day. As a result of all these factors,
there w;is discrepancy in the counts. This became even more apparenl
during the following winter 1949 50 . when an incomplete strip count
made during February, because roads were impassable in January, re-
sulted in a drop to 10,200 head Obviously, estimates based on partial
counts have little value. A summary of deer population as computed
from strip counts will he found in Table 1.
TABLE 1
Devils Garden Deer Population Based on Strip Counts
u
U .
i 'oroputed deer
popu
19 ;; IS
1943 i ;
p. II 15
1 1 .150
•
ISIMHI
•
12 100
Incomplete)
1 Open winter, di
winter, deer
The strip count, as made on the Devils Garden winter deer range,
has proven inconsistent as an indicator of the true size of the deer herd.
The additional expense that would he involved, were steps taken to cor-
rect the weaknesses of the method, would probably make such action
impractical. The inte^sl -n- herd committee has recommended that
this type of censusik^uScontinued on the winter range.
Drives
Deer drives were tried on a small scale on the Devils Garden winter
deer range during two winters i 1945-46 and 1946-47 . The area driven
consisted of about four sections. A regular road strip census was made
of this unit during a cold, wind} day in March, l!*4*i. No deer were seen.
A few minutes later a drive was started, ami 307 deer were counted
(Interstate Deer Herd Committee, l!'46).
2 |d i VLIFORNLA FISH AND QAM]
Another drive of the same area was made the following winter on
a warm, slightly cloudy day in February. Deer were reluctant to leave
cover, milled about, and cu1 back through the drivers, making counting
conditions difficult. A total counl of 594 deer, or 1 is per section, was
obtained (Interstate Deer Herd Committee, 1947). Both drives indi-
cated thai the strip counl method of counting deer is ap1 to be conserva-
tive unless weather and feeding conditions are ideal so that deer are
freely distributed, rather than bunched in dense cover.
Aerial Census
An airplane deer count was made in February, 1947. The Devils
Garden area was divided into seven units all of which were flown in
three days. Strips, at the rate of 2.7 to the mile, were flown at 75 to 300
feet altitude depending on vegetation cover types. Buttes were flown
independently in rising spirals. All hands of deer not easily counted
were photographed with a "K-20" aerial camera and counted from
photographs.
Because no attempt was made to count deer in the timbered areas
on the southern portion of the winter range, the census was incomplete.
The total count was 4.'JoS head (Interstate Deer Herd Committee,
1947).
It was reported that deer were easily seen on bare ground and in
open brush, and could be readily distinguished on areas of open juniper
cover type, but that the animals were hard to see in denser stands of
juniper and in lava pockets. The Interstate Deer Herd Committee plans
to use the aerial count wdienever wTeather conditions concentrate the
deer herd in open terrain.
State-line Track Counts
A dirt road parallels the boundary line between Oregon and Cali-
fornia. This road makes a convenient strip upon which to count deer
tracks. During the fall migration, there is considerable automobile travel
on the road, but in the spring the road remains in large part undis-
turbed. The Interstate Deer Herd Committee decided to include among
its census methods a count of deer tracks made each spring along the
state-line road during the northern migration of the interstate herd.
The road has been divided into counting units divided by mileposts
or other easily distinguishable features. Each unit is counted every other
day during the peak of the migration and less frequently as migration
falls off. Counts are made with saddle horses or jeeps. All southbound
tracks counted are subtracted from northbound tracks. A brush drag
is pulled behind a horse, or a spring-tooth harrow behind a jeep, to
obliterate tracks after they are recorded and to prepare the road-bed
for the next count.
It has been recognized that the state line track counts give only mini-
mum figures of the number of deer crossing from California into Oregon.
It is difficult to distinguish deer tracks where the road surface is hard or
rocky. Where bands of deer cross the road in single file, a percentage of
the tracks will be obliterated. Snowfalls will cover tracks before they are
counted, and rains may wash them out. For these reasons, the observers
have reported that counts only indicate that at least that many deer
moved across the state line during the counting period.
THE DEVILS GARDEN DEER HERD
241
The first systematic track count was made in the spring of 1947;
counting conditions were reported as good. A total count of 10,826 sets
of tracks was recorded. To this figure an estimate of 3,058 head was added
to take care of (1) animals that had crossed the line before the count was
made, (2) animals that crossed after the count was discontinued, (3)
animals that crossed west of the counting strips. Of the total obtained, it
was estimated that 12,884 were deer that had wintered on the Devils
Garden winter deer range.1
During the spring of 1048, the counting strips were extended, as
shown in Figure 102, to include ;ill migration routes. Adverse weather
seriously hampered activities. Snow, sled, or rain occurred almost daily
during the counting period, and obliterated many deer 1 racks. A total of
9,665 sets of deer tracks was counted. No estimate of additional deer was
made.
In 1949, weather conditi »ns were favorable. A net total of 14,01 1 sits
of tracks was counted.
In 1950, the weather conditions were favorable except that a period
of continuous stormy weather, between May ls1 and 7th. occurred during
the peak of the migration. It was estimated that a minimum of 2,000 deer
crossed durum- this week ulcn tracks were not tallied. A total count of
13,256 sets of tracks was recorded.
TABLE 2
Interstate Deer Numbers Based on Track Counts
Year
v i .:,; i o ■
ate of
number missed
Total
1947
10,826
9,665
1 1.011
13,256
2,058
\'.> estimate
\" estimate
2,000
12,884
nus
9,665
1949 -
14,011
1950- .
15,256
Table 2 summarizes the track counts by years during the four-year
period. Figure 98 illustrates graphically the number of deer migrating
by daily periods.
Because the track count is the only measure of the number of deer
that are interstate migrants, and is valuable as a minimum estimate of
deer numbers, the Interstate Deer Herd Committee has decided to con-
tinue the use of this census method. However, it gives no measure of the
number of deer that summer on California ranges.
Deer Pellet Counts
The deer pellet count is more than a census method. The approximate
number of deer on a range can be determined by this method. But it has
an equal, or more important, value in revealing the portions of a range
where deer actually spend their time. By making periodic counts, it is
1 Not all the deer that migrate from Oregon to California each fall end up on the
Devils Garden winter deer range. An unknown number of interstate deer winter in the
East Garden. These animals migrate across the state boundary line east of the Devils
Garden deer herd counting strips. It is possible that some of these animals winter in the
Alturas-Canbv rim area. Randle estimated that approximately 14,000 deer wintered in
this area during the winter of 1938-39, but field observations indicate that the number of
deer has dropped considerably since that time. This deer herd which winters in the East
Garden is outside the scope of the present cooperative study.
242
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THE DEVILS GARDEN* DEER HERD 243
possible to determine deer movements and concentrations. Also, it is pos-
sible, through the use of conversion factors, to determine the approximate
poundage of forage consumed by deer during their period of residence.
The method of making deer pellet counts has been described by Mc-
Cain (1948). Briefly, a system of randomized counting strips is laid out
on the unit to be sampled. Fresh groups of deer dung found on the strips
are counted. Groups left from previous years are distinguished by color
and weathering and not counted. The total count is converted to deer-
days by use of a conversion factor of 12.7 -roups to one deer-day, as de-
termined by Rasmusst-n i 1943
Ten thousand deer-days can mean that 10, 000 deer were on the range
for one day. or 1,000 deer for 10 days, or 100 deer for a 100 days. But if
the approximate length of the period that deer were on the range is known.
the length of stay can be divided into total deer-days to give the approxi-
mate deer popidat ion.
Deer pellet counts began on a systematic basis on the Devils ( rarden
area in the spring of 1947. A total of 155 sample plots was counted. Some
of the area now classified as summer range was included in the sample
unit, and part of the area now included in the winter range was Left out,
so that the count is not directly comparable with other census figures. A
total of 2,054,000 deer-days was computed from the count data. Based
on nne-ration dates, the period the average deer spenl on the winter range
was estimated at 172 days (October 25 to April 15). Using this figure,
the total population was computed at 12,000 head of deer.
Figure 99b shows the areas on which deer concentrated during the
winter of 1946-47 as indicated by the pellet count. The data indicated
that 58 percent of the deer range use had occurred on 18,000 acres leaving
the balance of the use spread over 322,500 acres | Interstate Deer Herd
Committee, 1 !t47 . No counts were made west of the Alturas-Klamath
Falls Highway. Subsequent counts show large numbers in this area.
In 1948, pellet counts were made at the sites of the new permanent
forage utilization plots in process of establishment on the winter range.
The counting strip was fixed at eleven chains long and six feet wide, or
one-tenth of an acre. That spring 183 plots, scattered over 338,000 acre-,
were counted. A total of 3,857,300 deer-days was computed from the
count data. The average length of stay was estimated at 192 days ( Novem-
ber 1 to May 10), and the total population computed at 20,000 deer.
The areas on which deer concentrated during the winter of 1947-48
are shown in Figure 99c. It was indicated that 7!» percent of the deer
range use had occurred on 110,000 acres | Interstate Deer Herd Com-
mittee, 1950).
The most complete deer pellet count was made in the spring of 1949,
when 384 plots scattered over the 338,000 acres of winter range were
counted. A total of 5,299,550 deer-days was computed. With an average
stay of 184 days (October 25 to April 27), a total population of 28,800
deer was derived.
It was indicated that 45 percent of the range use by deer during the
winter of 1948-49 had occurred on 46,400 acres, and 82 percent of the
range use on 138,700 acres. Concentration areas are shown in Figure 99d
('Interstate Deer Herd Committee, 1950).
•_' II
( \i.ii(ii;\ i a FISH and <; \ \i i:
rf u«e
LEGEND
0-10 DEER DAYS
PER ACRE
MORE THAN 10
DEER DAYS PER ACRE
MORE THAN 20
DEER DAYS PER ACRE
MORE THAN 30
DEER DAYS PER ACRE
Figure 99. Location of areas on which deer concentrated during the years of
study. See text for details.
THE DEVILS GARDEN DEER HERD 245
In the spring of 1950, the question of the necessity of sampling the
entire winter range each season, when most of the use occurred on a much
smaller area, was resolved by limiting both forage checks and pellet
counts to what was believed to be the key area. It was decided that a
knowledge of trend in deer numbers and deer forage utilization on this
key area was sufficient for the deer management program. As a result, the
area sampled was sharply reduced and the number of plots counted was
only 122.
Because pellet counts were made only at forage plots where key
forage species were present, several blanks resulted in the picture of deer
concentrations. The Interstate Deer Herd Committee has derided to
remedy this defect in the future.
The incomplete counl data indicated thai deer us 1 the key area
during the winter of 1949-50 was only 80 percent of t hat of the previous
year, if the counl data obtained in 1950 is compared with that obtained
from the same plots in L949. The incomplete data revealed that t he deer
concentration area extended to the easl much farther than during the
previous year, as shown in Figure 99e.
A summary of the population data computed from the pellet counts
is given in Table 3.
TABLE 3
Devils Garden Deer Numbers Based on Pellet Counts
\\ ml. 1
Number of deer
Remarks
1946-47
12,000
20,000
28,800
23
Incomplete survey
1947-48 ..
i.lete— 183 plots
1948-49..- ..
Complete 384 plots»
1949-50
Incomplete survey
1 Statistical analysis of the 1948-40 pellet data indicates that the probabilities were 19 out of 20 that the
actual average number of pellet groups per plol (based on all plots in all vegetation types) was within 'i'i:i ! 2.6
groups.
There are several possible sources of error involved in pellet counts.
(1) Deer that die during their stay on the winter range leave after them
numbers of pellets groups that vary with time spent alive on the area.
This will tend to make the computed spring population too high, but may
be satisfactory for the average winter population. (2) In hilly or moun-
tainous country a source of error lies in the counting of pellet groups on
surface acres, whereas compilation must, without considerable expense,
be based on map acres. This will tend to make computed populations low
inversely to degree of slopes. (3) On slopes, pellets may be washed away
or covered with silt, which will tend to make computed populations low.
(4) In rocky, brushy, or grassy country some pellet groups may be over-
looked which will make the counts conservative. (5) There may be a loss
of pellet groups through trampling. This source of error will increase
with deer density, and will tend to make the counts too low. (6) Pellet
groups of the previous year may be counted as of the current year. Unless
care is taken to overcome this source of error, computed populations may
be much too high. (7) The conversion factor of 12.7 groups to one deer-
day may be higher or lower than the true average. (8) Unless a sufficient
246
i \urui;\ l \ risll AND GA M E
Qumber of plots are counted to secure a feliable sample, the sampling
error may be large I Leopold, e1 al., I!'")'1 .
Considering thai the topography on the Devils Garden winter deer
range is mostly 0a1 or gentle, with only a few pronounced hills and buttes,
and thai the cover tends to be open rather than dense, and that men
were trained to distinguish pellets of differenl age classes, it is believed
that several <>f these sources <>l' error have been held to a minimum. The
data <h rived from tin 1949 count, win n 384 />l<>ls in n counted, man well
In tht mostreliabU approximation to dati of tin Inn sizt of tht <-<>mhni<<l
,h iili, rds. It is believed that the pellet counl t hod of determining deer
populations is the most promising method used in the deer study.
Comparison of Census Data
In order to facilitate comparison, a summation of population data
is presented in Table 4.
TABLE 4
Comparison of Deer Numbers Based on Different Census Methods
Season
Entire herd
Interstate herd
Strip count
Pellet count
Track count
1946-47
12,400
9,800
23.400
10.200
12,000
20,000
28,800
23,000
10,826
1947-48
9,665
1948-49 '
14,011
1 949-50 .
13,256
1 Year of deep snow and concent ration of deer.
In making this comparison it should be remembered (1) that the
strip counts covered a smaller area than the pellet counts for all seasons
except 1946-47, (2) that populations computed from pellet counts for
1946-47 and 1949-50 are based on incomplete data. (3) that populations
based on the track counts are for deer that migrate to Oregon only, (4)
that the strip count population for 1949-50 was incomplete. The north-
western portion of the range could not be counted in the spring of 1950
because roads were impassable.
The count data made during 1948-49 is the most complete. The
population as computed from the pellet count, which sampled a larger
area than the strip count, totaled 28,800 head. When the pellet data is
computed on the basis of the area covered by the strip count, a popula-
tion of 24,200 head is obtained. This may be compared with the total of
23,400 head computed from the strip count. The figures are in close agree-
ment. A total population of 28,000 head, of which at least 15,000 are
interstate migrants, may be considered as a close approximation of the
true number of deer in the herds that came to winter on the Devils
Garden area during the winter of 1948-49.
THE COMPOSITION OF THE DEER HERD
The composition of the deer herd wintering on the Devils Garden
range has been based on careful counts made during the rutting season
in late November and December when bucks move freely in the open.
THE DEVILS GARDEN DEER HERD
247
Since the start of the cooperative study, no groups of deer have been
included in the count unless every individual in the group has been
classified. This practice tends to eliminate errors caused by (1) counters
concentrating attention on unusual deer, such as large bucks, while other
animals are slipping away uncounted, or, conversely, (2) the missing
of more wary buck deer that run off while other animals are being tallied.
Counts are made with field glasses to prevent the inclusion of spike
bucks in the doe column, to segregate antler classes, and to help dis-
tinguish large fawns from small yearlings. Bucks are classified by antler
classes, yearling does are not segregated from mature does.
FIGURE 100. Field glasses are used t,, h.lp the . .1 » server segregate deer into bucks, does
and lawns. Photograph by U. S. Forest service.
A comparison of herd composition, doe: buck and doe: fawn ratios.
and bucks by antler classes, for the various years of study will be found
in Tables .">. (i and 7.
TABLE 5
Herd Composition for Years of Study
Season
Number of
animate
classified
Percentage of herd
Bucks
Does
Fawns
1943-44. _
1944-45
1945-46
5,986
3,007
1,696
1,603
1,736
297'
1,835
8.6
8.0
6.4
9.0
8.1
5.4
8.1
63.2
55 . 0
60.4
57.0
59.0
51.2
47.4
28.2
37.0
33 2
1946-47
34 0
1947-48_ _
32.9
1948-49
43 4
1949-50
44.5
1 Poor sample due to stormy weather and bad road conditions.
248
< \].II'm|;\|.\ FISH AM) GAME
TABLE 6
Bucks and Fawns Per 100 Does for Various Years
-
Number of animals per 100 does
Number
classified
18
■
20
11
15
11
ie
14
11
17
81
L25
103
15
67
:,1
61
56
85
94
1,262
•
2,882
1,338
5,986
3,007
1945- 16
1 696
1 .603
1947-48
1,736
-
297
1949-50 f
1,835
TABLE 7
Percentage of Antler Classes in Buck Population
(Number of Points)
Season
1
2
3
4
4 +
1943-44
5
9
8
10
19
25
29
30
28
26
25
40
31
42
30
25
26
22
17
19
12
28
34
38
30
18
13
14
7
1944-45
4
2
1946-47
13
1947-48
6
1948-49'.
1949-50
12
3
1 The 1948-49 data are based on only 16 bucks.
It is evident from a reading of these tables (1) that the number of
fawns per 100 does has risen sharply during the last two years, (2) that
the buck population has fluctuated around an average 14 per hundred
does during the last seven years but was higher for 1949-50, (3) that
there has been a significant increase in the number of spiked deer in the
herd.
It has been shown that development of antlers of white-tailed deer
is affected by the quality of food on which the deer must subsist (Sever-
inghaus, et al., 1950). Latham (1950) states that in Pennsylvania "any
spike buck is an abnormality, reflecting the over-browsed condition of
the range, and spikes are common only when the animals are improperly
nourished." The Rocky Mountain mule deer normally may be expected
to produce at least forked-horn antlers when yearlings. The marked
increase in spike bucks among the deer wintering on the Devils Garden
area may well be a product of poor nutrition.
Productivity and Survival
During the winter of 1945-46, 12 females were taken from the deer
herd for study purposes and the following winter 59 mature females and
one yearling. They were taken at monthly intervals during the winter
period. It was found that pregnancy could be determined in animals
taken after January 14. Of the 49 does examined after that date, all but
THE DEVILS GARDEN DEER HERD 249
the yearling were pregnant. The number of embryos per pregnant doe
was found to be 1.75 (Chattin, 1948).
The ratio of 175 embryos per 100 does was based on mature animals
only. Ordinarily the yearling class of does will breed during their second
winter. The one yearling in the sample was hardly representative of this
class of breeders. However, The study did indicate that the rate of fawn
conception was up close to the full potential for Rocky Mountain mule
deer.
Losses of embryos from reabsorption. abortion and stillbirth occurs
among animals in poor condition as a result of malnutrition and/or
disease. Assuming that no such losses occurred among does in the Devils
Garden deer herd, the study indicates that at least 150 live fawns were
born for every 100 breeding does in the herd.
Doe :fawn ratios determined by deer counts usually are based on all
does of yearling age or greater. Attempts to segregate yearling from older
does while making composition counts often results in gross errors.
Among Rocky Mountain mule deer, the yearling class is not expected to
produce fawns. \Vha1 percent of the does breed as fawns is not known,
but is considered negligible. Therefore, an allowance must be made for
yearlings to make the doe :fawn ratios comparable directly with the
potential of 150 lawns per LOO breeding does.
Assuming, for the sake of discussion, that 15 percent of the doe herd
is composed of yearlings, the doc dawn ratio of 56 fawns per 100 does for
t lie 19 17-48 season would indicate t here were 56 fawns for every 85 does
of breeding age, or 66 fawns for every loo mature does in the herd. Like-
wise the doe :f awn ratio of 94 fawns per LOO does for the 1949-50 season
indicates there were 110 fawns for every 100 mature does in the herd that
■\ inter.
If 150 fawns per 100 docs were born during each of the years in
question, the loss of fawns up to the time the November-December com-
position counts were made was 84 for 1947 and 40 for 1949.
Factors Influencing Survival
Forage conditions on the winter ramie, as indicated by the condition
of bitterbrush and juniper browse, have worsened during this three-year
period. Browse conditions on the summer range reportedly have remained
good. Only two other influences come to mind that have changed during
the period. (1) Favorable precipitation has resulted in a better than
normal growth of grass during the springs of 1948 and 1949. (2) A pro-
gressive reduction of predators by use of the poison 1080 had reduced
the coyote population on the summer range to a very low density during
the summers of 1948 and 1949. It is possible that one or both of these
influences may be responsible for the recent sharp rise in fawn survival.
It is probable, however, that winter food conditions are responsible
for the great loss of fawns that must occur on the range after the counts
are made in early winter. It will be seen in Table 5 that fawns made up
43.4 percent of the deer herd in late 1948. Normally, the fawn crop may
be expected to be made up of 50 percent males and 50 percent females.
In short, about 21.7 percent of the herd was made up of male fawns. Had
all of these survived, the percentage of bucks in the herd should have
been much higher in late 1949 than the 8.1 percent shown in the table.
Table 7 shows that spikes and 2-point bucks made up 71 percent of the
I VLIFl IRN l \ 1 " I r— 1 1 AND QA \l I.
total buck herd in L949. In other words, the yearling buck class made
np only 5.8 percenl of the entire herd. The difference between this figure
and what should be expected had all the 1948 count of lawns survived
to become yearlings indicates thai heavy losses of lawns are occurring
after counts arc made. Pawns and old age classes of deer arc the first to
succumb where good forage is in short supply.
Other life history data concerning den- that winter on the Devils
Garden area are given by Chattin 1948 and in the Second Progress
Report of the Interstate Deer \\<'i<\ < lommittee (1947).
WHAT THE DEER EAT
The analysis of the contents of deer stomachs offers valuable infor-
mation on what deer eat and when they eat it. Starting with the winter
of 1945-46, the contents of stomachs taken from deer on the winter range,
and on the summer range in Oregon, have been analyzed. The findings
are summarized in Table 8, and are presented graphically in Figure 101.
It will be seen from the table that herbaceous forage is present in
the diet the year round, making up from 11.2 to 96.0 percent of the
FEB MAR APR MAT JUNE
MONTHS WHEN DEER WERE TAKEN
Figure 101. The deer diet month by month as indicated by an analysis of stomach
samples
THE DEVILS GARDEN DEEK HERD
251
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252 I \UI <>i;\ I A PISH AND QAM]
stomach contents, depending on the time of year, sine- this class of
forage is generally more easily digested than browse, it is probable that
grass and forbs may play an even inure important pari in the deer diel
than the data indicate. The fluctuating use during the summer months
is more probably the resull of poor sampling, rather than change in
preference. Dry grass and forbs (mostly Balsamorhiza sagittata) are
taken in the late fall and early winter. Some of this dry forage, par-
ticularly grasses, probably is taken inadvertently in attempts to nip the
sh green blades thai starl to grow at this time Herbaceous vegetation
may play a more vital role in deer nutrition than generally is believed at
present. Bowever, during the critical periods when snow covers the
herbaceous forage on the winter range, grasses and forbs are not available
to deer. For this reason grasses and weeds do not make a dependable
base for the regulation of deer numbers.
Snowbrush (Ceanothus velutinus) appears to play an important role
in the summer diet of the interstate deer herd. It appeared in deer
stomachs from June to October, inclusive, and averaged 17 to 55 percent
of the stomach contents. It was supplemented by wild cherry (Primus
spp.), mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius), bitterbrush, and
squaw carpet (Ceanothus prostratus).
Bitterbrush was used throughout the year, with the exception of
April and May when grasses and weeds made up most of the deer diet.
The use of bitterbrush appears to be heaviest in October, when it aver-
aged 34 percent of the material found in the deer stomachs. The stomach
samples indicate that this use falls off as the winter progresses to 1.2
percent in March and none in April.
Sagebrush appears as strictly a winter \\>n<\. while juniper browse
is very nearly so. As bitterbrush declines in the deer diet, the use of sage-
brush and juniper increases. The reasons for this shift from bitterbrush
to sagebrush are not known. Much of the bitterbrush on the midwinter
concentration area is moderately to heavily cropped by January. Aldous
(1945) reported that tips and bud ends of bitterbrush twigs are highest
in nutrients. Nutrients fall off in cropped stems. Perhaps this, in part,
may account for the shift. Sagebrush is the most abundant browse on the
winter range.
Sagebrush has been reported in TTtah as about half as high for
digestible protein and twice as high for digestible fat and carbohydrates
as is green alfalfa. Chemical analysis indicates it should be readily
digestible and nutritious feed (Smith, 1950a). On the other hand, deer
feeding studies in Utah indicate that deer soon reach satiation in the
consumption of sagebrush and turn to other forage species unless forced
by lack of other forajre to subsist wholly upon it (Smith, 1950b). It was
found on the Lassen-Washoe interstate winter deer range in Nevada and
California that deer have died as a result of malnutrition (as indicated
by bone marrow) on ranges where sagebrush in all age-classes was
abundant. The sagebrush present on the Lassen-Washoe range is pre-
dominantly big sage (A. tridi ntata). On the Devils Garden range, black
sage (A. arhuscula i is also present in abundance.
During the winter of 1950-51. a collection of browse materials will
be clipped at monthly intervals so that chemical analysis for nutrients
can be made. Perhaps the findings will throw light on the reason why deer
THE DEVILS GARDEN DEER HERD 253
change from bitterbrush to sagebrush in midwinter on the Devils Garden
range.
It is recognized that the examination of the contents of deer stomachs
will not always reveal true food preferences or exact diets. The stomach
contents from deer on depleted ranges will disclose the forages of neces-
sity rather than preference. Differential digestion and assimilation are
factors which must be considered also. Succulent materials pass through
the stomach rapidly; dry, woody materials digest slowly (Xorris, 1943).
Nevertheless, the analysis of contents of deer stomachs docs yield knowl-
edge of the feeding habits of these animals and provides data on winch
to base management.
THE DEER RANGE
Systematic studies of forage utilization by deer were started by
Modoc national forest personnel during the winter of 1943-44. Twenty
line transects were established at mechanical intervals in bitterbrush
types. Plots were laid out in various Lengths so as to sample 20 bitterbrush
shrubs at each location.
Livestock arc removed from the Devils Garden area a1 the time the
first migrant deer arrive in the fall. < inversely, deer start to move toward
their summer ranges before livestock are permitted on the area in the
spring. As a result, it is a simple matter to separate livestock cropping
from cropping by deer.
The 20 plots were checked in the late fall to obtain percentage
cropping of bitterbrush by livestock, and in the spring to obtain total
utilization. The difference was assigned to deer.
The findings indicated that average cropping of the seasonal leader
growth of bitterbrush was 64.7 percent. It was reported that livestock
took 28.6 and deer 36.1 percent.
Hormay (1943) found that <><> percent utilization of leader growth
was the most a bitterbrush shrub can withstand without reduction of
vigor and seed production. An over-all average does not reveal what
is happening to individual shrubs. In some cases, light utilization in
one area may outbalance destructive use m another. The data must be
broken down further in order to reveal variations in use. This was
partially done for the bitterbrush study. It was reported that 58 percent
of the shrubs were overutilized (Fischer et al., 1941 1.
After the interstate deer herd committee was organized, the Oregon
Game Commission set out a new series of 19 plots in the fall of 1945,
located as shown in Figure 102. Most of the plots were placed farther
north than those used in the earlier study. The utilization checks revealed
that total use of bitterbrush averaged 80 percent. It was indicated that
livestock took 45.6 percent of the leader growth, and deer 34.4 percent
(Interstate Deer Herd Committee, 1946).
A third series of 20 forage plots was established the following fall,
1946, by the California Division of Fish and Game. With some excep-
tions, these plots were located in the same area as the first study. Both
the second and third series were checked for utilization during the winter
of 1946-47. The findings were as follows :
The second series yielded an average use of 74 percent, with
livestock taking 49 and deer 25 percent.
The third series yielded an average use of 73 percent, with live-
stock taking 40 and deer 33 percent.
25 1
( ALIFORNl \ PISH AND GAME
Figure 102. Location of forage plots established timing the winters of 1945-46 and
1946-47
The data indicated that 50 out of every 100 shrubs sampled were browsed
60 percent or greater when livestock left the range in the fall. By the
time deer left in the spring, 81 out of every 100 shrubs were overbrowsed.
1 1 was reported that the sample was hardly intensive enough to be used
as a base for management, but it was sufficient to show the need for a
reduction in animals using the winter range (Interstate Deer Herd
Committee, 1947).
In addition to the utilization study of bitterbrush, a grass utiliza-
tion check was made in the spring of 1947. Fifty transects were used.
Each consisted of 10 square-foot quadrats located at chain intervals,
along transect lines. Estimates were made to the nearest 10 percent of the
amount, by weight, of the green growth cropped by deer. The findings
indicated that 32 percent of the grass plants in the sample had been
cropped. From these, deer had taken an average of 17 percent of the
green leafage as it appeared at the time of sampling. Average utilization
for all grass plants was given as 5 percent (Interstate Deer Herd Com-
mittee, L947).
The findings of the three independent studies became a subject of
considerable discussion at Interstate Deer Herd Committee meetings. It
was admitted that variation in use of bitterbrush was great on the Devils
THE DEVILS GARDEN DEER HERD 255
Garden area. A small number of plots was not adequate to sample this
use. Findings might vary according to the areas in which plots were
located. It was decided to make a fresh start in deer-livestock forage
utilization studies. It was agreed that future studies would be cooperative
efforts, rather than done independently by separate agencies. As a result
of these discussions a plan for management of the Devils Garden winter
deer range was developed and adopted by the agencies.
Interstate Winter Deer Range Management Plan
The management plan recognized that livestock production is an
important industry in .Modoc County. It also recognized that the deer
which winter on the Devils Garden area are an important asset to the
peoples of both ( !alifornia and ( Oregon, and that the number of deer thai
can be maintained on a thousand square miles of summer range in both
< >regon and California is largely dependent on the quantity of forage
available upon the 200 square miles where the deer concentrate during the
crit ical months of February and March. Taking all values into considera-
tion, it was agreed | 1 I th;it allowable crops of key forage species on the
winter range would he divided between deer and livestock on a 50/50
BOUNDARY OF STUDY AREA
A EVEN NUMBERED PLOTS
0 ODD NUMBERED PLOTS
Figure 103. Location of new forage and pellet count plots on the winter deer range
256 < A.LIFORNIA FISH AND <;.\ \i I.
basis, 2 thai utilization data based on a system of forage plots estab-
lished "ii the \\ inter range would be accepted by ;ill the agencies as a true
index of forage use, 3 thai adjusl ments in numbers of livestock and/or
deer would be based on nerd and made on the basis of three-year running
averages of forage utilization. It was agr I to apply the best principles
of livestock and deer managemenl to the area ... in order to balance
the combined use of livestock and deer with average forage production of
the range . . . so thai the trend in forage depletion would be reversed
and range conditions maintained or improved for the future I Interstate
Den- Berd < lommittee, 1949a).
The New Forage Plots
The California Forest and Range Experiment Station was called on
for assistance in sampling the range vegetation. It was planned to use
400 plots. 100 in each of the four main range vegetation types that occur
on the winter range. Tim plots were designed to furnish information not
only on current forage utilization, but also to give data on ground cover-
age and vegetation composition which may be used as a base from which
to measure future changes.
Two hundred plots were established in the fall of 1947, and the
balance was located the following summer. A full description of the
method will be found in the third progress report (Interstate Deer
Herd Committee, 1949b). Briefly, each plot consists of a 200-foot line
along which 20 segments, each 25 inches long, were measured by the
line-interception method (Canfield, 1939 and Hormay, 1949). Plots
were located at predetermined intervals along the roads, truck trails,
and ways that reach into most areas on the winter range. The locations
of the plots are shown in Figure 103.
Condition of the Ground Cover
A full analysis of the ground cover and percentage composition of
the vegetation, as indicated by the forage plots, will be found in the
fourth progress report (Interstate Deer Herd Committee, 1950). A
breakdown of the principal elements will be found in Table 9.
The table shows that the percentage of the ground covered with
vegetation available for deer or livestock is
28.4 in the pine-bitterbrush type
37.0 in the sagebrush type
31.7 in the juniper type
37.4 in the grassland type
In addition to this cover, an overstory of juniper trees occurs in the
juniper vegetation type and an overstory of coniferous trees and some
stands of unavailable mountain mahogany and wild cherry occur in the
pine-bitterbrush type.
Of the available browse species present, sagebrush is most common
and abundant. Sagebrush makes up
3.9 percent of available vegetation in pine-bitterbrush type
56.1 percent of available vegetation in sagebrush type
31.6 percent of available vegetation in juniper type
4.9 percent of available vegetation in grassland type
THE DEVILS GARDEN DEER HERD
257
TABLE 9
Principal Elements of Vegetation on Winter Deer Range
(Based on 396 Forage Plots : 198,000 Inches of Line Intercepts)
Frequency
of occur-
rence, plots
Percentage of total
fegetation coverage
Species
Pine-
bitterbrush1
Sagebrush
type
Juniper
type1
Grassland
type
290
349
4.88
5.31
4.65
7.31
15.06
13.36
33.74
32.18
10.19
39.31
12.44
11.96
18.82
5.89
28.42
26.09
2.30
65.92
19.58
4.51
61.94
. 14.42
3.89
1.17
0.49
0.88
3.05
11.32
2.84
36.67
3.23
56.11
0.11
0.00
0.00
3.18
0.06
0.64
56.81
3.60
31.59
2.45
0.13
0.16
4.45
0.00
0.81
90.01
113
217
37
6
8
119
•11
0.10
4.95
0.00
Cherry (bitter and choke)
0.00
0.00
4.81
0.00
0.13
38.06
100.00
28.4
63.33
100.00
37.0
43.19
100.00
31.7
9.99
396
100.00
Total percentage of ground
37.4
1 An overstory of juniper occurs in the juniper type and an overstory of trees occurs in the pine-bitter-
brush type.
Bitterbrush is the next most abundant browse on the winter range.
Of the available living vegetation, bitterbrush makes up
14.4 percent in the pine-bitterbrush type
3.2 percent in the sagebrush type
3.6 percent in the juniper type
0.1 percent in the grassland type
The survey also measured the coverage of dead browses that were
still in place on the winter range. Of the total stand of bitterbrush (dead
and alive) it was found that
41 percent was dead in the pine-bitterbrush type
33 percent was dead in the sagebrush type
48 percent was dead in the juniper type
The amount of bitterbrush that occurs as scattered shrubs in the
grassland type is negligible.
Form Classes of Key Browses
When shrubs and trees are not browsed, or only lightly browsed,
they tend to assume the natural shapes which are normal for each species.
As intensity of browsing increases, the departure from these normal
forms becomes more striking. Continued heavy browsing, year after
year, results in tightly hedged or high-lined and partly dead browse
258
( ALIFORN I A IIH I AN D OA M E
ill tiulitlv t». ' l^«< I l>
irbrowsing
plants that stand out as evidence of poor range condition and declining
forage yield (Dasmann, 1951 i.
A classification of the forms of bitterbrnsh shrubs and juniper
trees on 133 plots on the key area was made in 1950. Degree of hedging
was broken down into (1 ) little or no hedging, (2) moderately hedged,
and (3) heavily hedged. Availability of forage was classed as (1) all
available, (2) largely available, (3) mostly unavailable, and (4) un-
available.
It was found that 30.7 percent of the bitterbrnsh shrubs and 33.9
percent of the available juniper trees were heavily hedged. The full
findings are given in Table 10.
TABLE 10
Form Classes of Bitterbrush and Juniper
Percentage of stand in
each class
1. All available, little or no hedging
2. All available, moderately hedged
3. All available, heavily hedged -
4. Partly available, little or no hedging
5. Partly available, moderately hedged
6. Partly available, heavily hedged
7. Mostly unavailable
8. Unavailable1
100.0
Includes only living plants.
THE DEVILS GARDEN DEER HERD
259
Age Classes of Key Browses
The absence, or scarcity, of one or more age classes from a stand of
vegetation gives cause for deliberation. This is especially so when younger
age classes are scarce even though older stands are dying out. Unless
there has been a recent change in such site conditions as climate and
soil, the absence of younger age classes from a stand will often indicate
overcropping by range animals. The younger age groups of preferred
browse species are particularly susceptible to losses resulting from over-
cropping.
To determine the age-factor of the stand of bitterbrush and juniper
on the winter range, these browses were classified as either seedlings,
young plants, mature plants, or decadent plants. It was found that
1.0 percent of the bitterbrush sampled was seedlings
15.4 percent of the bitterbrush sampled was young plants
55.6 percent of the bitterbrush sampled was mature plants
28.0 percent of t he bitterbrush sampled was decadent plants
The balance between age classes of juniper trees was more even,
as is shown in Table 11.
TABLE 11
Age Classes of Bitterbrush and Juniper
Percentage <>f stand in
each class
Seedlings
Young plants.
Mature plants.
Per.'ulcnt plant:-
100.0
The fact that 30 percent of the bitterbrush stand was revealed as
heavily hedged, and that nearly twice as many shrubs are in the decadent
class as are in the seedling and young plaid categories, indicates that
forage depletion is still in progress on the Devils Garden area.
Forage Utilization
The grasses, forbs, and browses on forage plots are checked for
utilization each fall and spring by work teams composed of representa-
tives of all the agencies. Utilization of grasses is estimated by the height-
weight method (Lommasson and .Jensen, 1942). Percentage cropping
of browses is estimated by the method described by Hormay (1943),
except that juniper twig utilization is actually measured on tagged
twigs. Use of forbs is estimated on a percentage-volume basis.
Utilization data on all plants except annuals were taken during
the first two years of the study (1947-48 and 1948-49). It was found that
grasses were commonly cropped by deer, and rather heavily on limited
spots, but that average utilization was light. The blue grasses (Poa
secunda and nevadensis) appeared to be most relished and were most
heavily used (4.5 percent in 1947-48). Needle grasses (Stipa columbiana
I \l IH>K\ i \ fimi AND GAM]
i
H&
*
feM (
Figure 105. Evolution of a deer browse line on juniper trees
U. S. Forest Service photos
THE DEVILS GARDEN DEER HERD 261
and elmeri) were next in degree of use with an average cropping of 2.9
percent of the green leafage in 1947-48.
Arrowleaf balsamroot (Balsamorhiza sagittata) appeared as the
most heavily cropped forb that covered more than 0.1 percent of the
ground surface of the winter range. But by fall the cropping of balsam-
root only averaged 3 percent. Time-consuming utilization checks on
grasses and forbs were discontinued after 1948-49.
Among the browses, bitterbrush appeared as by far the most heavily
cropped shrub, with juniper second in degree of use. Sagebrush fell
fourth, the cropping of rabbitbrush being somewhat heavier. Because
cropping of bitterbrush and juniper was much greater than the use of
other forage species mi the range, it appeared obvious that if animal num-
bers were kept at levels at which these browses received no more than
proper use, no other forage species would generally be overutilized. For
this reason, bitterbrush and juniper were chosen as key forage species.
Starting in 1949-50, utilization checks have been confined to key species
on key areas, except that other browses are checked where they occur on
plots on which key species are present.
One rough index of the relative importance of various forage species
in the diet of deer can be compiled by multiplying the amount present on
the range by the amount that was eaten, in other words, percentage of the
ground covered by the species by average percentage cropping. This was
done with bitterbrush, sagebrush and rabbitbrush as they occur on the
deer concentration area. The index of their relative importance in the
deer diet during the 1949-50 winter season was computed as
74 for bitterbrush
65 tor sagebrush
20 for rabbitbrush
An index for juniper could not be computed because, as yet, no good
figure on relative ground covered by all classes of available juniper
browse has been determined.
Evaluation of Range Survey Procedures
The principal sources of error that may influence both forage in-
ventories and forage utilization checks are (1) unrepresentative or biased
sample plots and (2) biased, or inaccurate measurements or estimations
by range examiners. Steps were taken to reduce these sources of error.
A 1 1 hough the sample plots were set out at predetermined mechanical
intervals along established base lines, and are not strictly randomized, it
is believed they do yield a representative sample. The topography of the
area tends to be gentle ; hence the roads and ways are not mostly located
on ridge-tops or valley bottoms as is apt to be the case where topography
is more pronounced. Initial points of the line transects were set 50 feet
from the roads so as to eliminate the immediate influence of the passage-
ways. Plots were run at right angles to the road at point of departure so
as to reduce the bias of selection.
As for the range examiners, the men that assemble each season to
check the plots train together before the actual work starts in order to
standardize measurement and estimation procedures and to level off indi-
vidual bias. While a certain amount of error due to all sources does exist,
it is believed that it is not great. Statistical analysis of the data on total
262
( AL1F0RXIA FISH AND GAME
bitterbrush cropping for the 1949-50 season indicates the probabilities
are 19 oul of 20 thai the true average lies within 11 .7 percenl of the com-
puted average.
BITTERBRUSH BASE AREA
Both the range vegetation survey and general observations reveal
that there are extensive acreages of winter range on which bitterbrush is
scarce. < Iropping of bitterbrush is generally much heavier where it occurs
as scattered plants. To reduce stocking to a level where these sparse stands
would be properly used is qo1 practical. It was decided to sacrifice bitter-
brush on areas where this species naturally was scarce or where it was
heavily depleted. It was planned to base reductions in numbers of deer
or livestock on utilization of bitterbrush, the key forage species, only
where it occurred in sufficient abundance to make management practical.
The area of which this is true is called the bitterbrush basi area. Else-
where, juniper is regarded as the key forage species for deer. This is
called the juniper bust area. The location of these areas is shown in
Figure 103.
Three-Year Utilization of Key Forage Species
As -was stated above, the agencies concerned with managing the
Devils ( iarden deer herd and its range, agreed that adjustments in levels
of stocking would be based on utilization of key forage species over three-
year periods. The reason for the use of three-year averages is that the
management plan seeks to base stocking on trends in range condition
rather than on the effect of exceptionally good or bad growth years.
Bitterbrush
The first three-year period began with the season of 1947-48 and
ended with that of 1949-50. During these three seasons the cropping of
bitterbrush on the bitterbrush base area by livestock has gradually light-
ened, while the use by deer has become heavier. This is shown in Table 12.
The percentage of the stand which is subject to overbrowsing also has
increased during the three-year period. It has gone up from 30 percent
in 1!»47-4S to 40 percent in 1949-50. This is shown in Table 13.
TABLE 12
Average Cropping of Bitterbrush for Three Years1
Class of animals
Average percentage cropping
1947-48
1948-49
1949-50
3-year
average
20.1
16.2
18.4
21.5
13.4
27.5
17.3
Deer
21.7
Total...
36.3
39.9
40.9
39.0
1 A sizable fraction of the bitterbrush plots used in early studies were located in areas on which bitterbrush
is now sacrificed. Most of the other plots were located in areas where use of bitterbrush is also normally heavy.
For this reason the utilization averages derived from early studies are much higher than the averages based on plots
scattered over the entire bitterbrush base area.
THE DEVILS GARDEN DEER HKK1)
26:}
TABLE 13
Percentage of Plots on Which Bitterbrush Cropping Was 60 Percent or Heavier
Season
Fall
Spring
10
13
12
30
34
40
}
s
"J
k
•
\
]
[
*
r-^JL-
■r BIT1LR8RUSH
BASE AREA
0RCC0M
CiLlfORN
Figure 106. Location of bitterbrush plots on which cropping averaged 60 percent or
greater ta) after livestock left tie- range in 1 1 1 . • fall and (b) after deer lefl the follow-
ing spring (1949-50)
Aii analysis of the ground cover data on bitterbrush indicated that
8 percent of the stand of living bitterbrush present on the bitterbrush
base area when the surveys were made had died since the plots were
measured in 1947 and 1948. This is far in excess of the present rate of
natural reproduction, and is at least partially a result of overbrowsiiii:.
Since the areas on which it is thought practical to sacrifice bitter-
brush have been excluded from the bitterbrush base area, the sizable per-
centage of the stand subjected to damaging use is of considerable signifi-
cance. While a certain amount of overcropping is usually unavoidable
on even the best managed ranges, it is believed that when such a large
and increasing percentage of the stand is subjected to overcropping there
is need for immediate reduction in the number of animals using the
winter range.
Juniper
Cropping of juniper fluctuated during the three-year period. The
percentage of available growth cropped by deer averaged
14.0 percent in 1947-48
22.2 percent in 1948-49
12.3 percent in 1949-50
2—41374
26 1 ' Al.ll'i IRN IA 11-11 \\l> (, \ \l I
Utilization was heaviesl during the severe winter of 1948-49. This
was to I spected, since juniper is to some extent an emergency food
which is taken by deer more during periods of bad weather when they are
bunched in cover. Use of juniper by livestock is negligible.
The tolerance of juniper to browsing has not been determined by
published studies. Aldous (1943 found thai northern white cedar
(Thuja occidentals could no1 maintain growth of browse if more than
25 percent of its foliage was removed annually. Juniper is a more open-
growing tree than northern white cedar, and its capacity to regenerate
growth on lower branches may be somewhal higher, although it is very
slow.
The studies revealed that the percentage of the plots on which the
average use of juniper was higher than 25 percent was as follows for the
different years :
19 17-48 17 percent
1948-49 _ 29 percent
1949-50 ___11 percent
Sagebrush and Rabbitbrush
Cropping of sagebrush averaged 9.1 percent on the plots examined
during 1949-50. Livestock took 0.2 and deer 8.7 percent of the leafy
growth. Rabbitbrush cropping averaged 13.9 percent, of which livestock
took 2.8, rodents 2.4, and deer 8.3 percent during the 1949-50 season.
REDUCTION PROGRAM
The range studies consistently have indicated the need for a reduc-
tion in stocking by deer and livestock on the Devils Garden area, if the
demand for food is to be balanced against the supply of allowable forage.
In order to halt range depletion, and insure a continuing supply of good
range forage for the future, steps have been taken to reduce livestock use
of the area and to increase the hunter harvest of deer.
Reduction of Livestock
Cattle and Sheep
During the three-year period terminating with the season of 1949-50,
the use of the Devils Garden winter deer range by livestock has been
reduced. This is reflected in the decreasing amount of bitterbrush crop-
ping by livestock.
The number of livestock that graze on national forests can be ex-
pressed in three ways, i.e., obligations, permitted use, and actual use.
Stockmen ( 1) who were using the public lands prior to the creation of
the national forests, (2) who had established ranch headquarters, (3)
who possessed sufficient outside range to feed their stock without damage
to the resource during periods when stock was not permitted on the
national forest lands, and (4) who were United States citizens were
granted the preference of receiving grazing privileges on national foresl
lands. During subsequent years, preferences have been granted to home-
steaders and others who met certain requirements. These grazing privi-
leges are considered as obligations by the Forest Service.
National forest permittees who hold grazing preferences often, for
various reasons, do not apply to graze full numbers each year. Hence the
number permitted during any one year may vary considerably from the
THE DEVILS GARDEX DEER HERD
265
number obligated. After receiving his permit, a permittee may decide to
graze fewer animals or to graze for a lesser period than the permit speci-
fies. Hence actual use may be different from permitted use. Also number
of livestock allowed on the forest on a temporary year-to-year basis, and
livestock permitted because of privately owned lands, serves to confuse
the question of livestock numbers. For instance, the livestock data given
in the published management plan (Interstate Deer Herd Committee,
1949a) is based on actual use. This will differ from the data found in
Table 14, which is based on obligations. It is believed that the number of
livestock covered by obligations makes the logical base on which to com-
pute increases and decreases of livestock on the winter deer range.
The obligations for the winter range for 1946 and 1950 are given as
follows :
1946 20,542 animal anil months1
1950 17,404 animal unit months
This represents a 15.3 percent reduction in livestock grazing obli-
gations.
TABLE 14
Livestock Obligations on the Devils Garden Winter Deer Range
Allotment
Percent
within
winter
range
1946
Animal
unit months
1950
Head'
Animal
unit months
Casuse
Clear Lake Spring
Hackamore
Hog Lake..
Lava Bed Winter.
North Badger- _ -
South Badger. .
Boles Meadow
Dry Luke .
Howard Gulch
Mowitz
Potter Pasture
Timber Mountain
100.0
100.0
47.6
27.4
14.9
100.0
100.0
46.6
82.4
11.7
100.0
100.0
46.2
1,250 S
12,750 S
630 C
595 S
247 S
745 S
1,125 S
1,250 S
1,398 C
190 C
90 C
350 C
470 C
53 C
500
476
197
373
900
1,000
4,753
1,051
406
1,750
1,880
263
1,250 S
11,350 S
530 C
524 S
329 S
745 S
1,000 S
900
1,277
231
55
300
470
578
7
17,962 S
3,181 C
20,542
16,676 S
2,870 C
500
4438
419
110
373
800
720
4,889
1,302
266
1,500
1,880
207
17,404
1C: Cattle, S: Sheep.
Wild Horses
A wild horse problem has been present on the winter range for years.
Attempts are made to keep down the wild horse population by periodic
removals. By 1946, wild horses had again built up to numbers that made
considerable use of the range forage. During April and May, 1946, under
an order issued by the Secretary of Agriculture, 287 horses were removed
from the range. These horses had used the range yearlong, consuming
over 3,400 horse-months of forage each year. The removal of these animals
has reduced the pressure for forage on the winter range and has resulted
1 An animal unit month is a measure of livestock range use. It means that one
mature cow with her calf has grazed for one month. Sheep use is converted to animal
unit months at the ratio of five sheep to one cow.
266 ( ALIFORNl \ PISH AND GA M E
in increasing the supply of food for other classes of range animals I Inter-
state Deer Herd ( lommittee, L9 17 .
Deer
I in nn - the winter of 1!' 17 18, an attempl was made to remove some
of tli-' surplus deer tn trapping and transplanting. .Montana corral type
traps were used. All traps had catch pens and Loading chutes attached.
Trapped dm- were transported in pickup trucks to a Large barn where
they were held until enough accumulated to make a two-ton truckload.
Success in the trapping venture was hampered by dil'lienlties in
obtaining materials for construction of traps.
During the period between January 7 and April 10, 72 deer were
trapped. Of this number 49 were transplanted to other areas, nine died,
and 1 I escaped. This resulted in the removal of 58 deer from the winter
range I Interstate Deer Herd Committee, 1949b).
Current Reduction Program
Application of the three-year reduction formula, based on bitter-
brush utilization, indicated that a further reduction in livestock and a
considerable increase in the deer harvest was needed to bring the level of
stocking into closer balance with forage production on the winter range.
It wras decided that since the level of range use which prevailed dur-
ing 1M47-48 resulted in overbrowsing of 30 percent of the bitterbrush
stand, the amount of cropping that should be considered allowable obvi-
ously should be less than that of 1947-48. On the other hand, it was
believed advisable to make gradual reductions on an experimental basis
rather than to make drastic cuts. With this in mind, it was decided to
accept 34 percent cropping as the average use of bitterbrush that would
be allowed on the winter range.
The three-year formula was applied as follows :
Livestock Deer
Three-year average cropping 17.3 21.7
Allowable average (50/50) __ 17.0 17.0
Overuse _ 0.3 4.7
Percentage reduction of animals needed 2 20
It was planned to make the 2 percent reduction in livestock use on
the deer winter concentration area where it is most needed. A reduction
of 108 animal unit months is indicated.
Again, because of the experimental nature of antlerless deer hunts
in California, it was decided to apply the 20 percent reduction figure to
a number of deer equal to the Oregon migrants, or 15,000 head, and leave
the balance of the deer on the range to serve as a safety factor. This
resulted in a planned reduction of 3,000 antlerless deer. Accordingly,
special antlerless deer hunting seasons were opened in Oregon, on October
18-19, 1950, and in California, from November 4 to 12, inclusive, in order
to allow the removal of 1,500 antlerless deer in each state.
THE ANTLERLESS DEER HUNT
Considerable opposition developed in California against the Devils
Garden antlerless deer season. California has had a buck law since 1883.
Only two other antlerless deer seasons, one on Santa Catalina Island
during 1949-50 and one on the Mineral King federal game refuge in 1 950,
THE DEVILS GARDEN DEER HERD 267
have been held in this State As a result many people are unaware of the
need, and the value, of harvesting surplus deer whether male or female.
Were it not for the active support of the local organizations of
sportsmen and stockmen, as well as state-wide organizations, who are
represented in the Interstate Deer Herd Committee and or were aware
of the facts in the case, it is probable the bunt would have been cancelled.
fn general, the persons best informed have been in support of managing
the deer herd that uses the Devils ( harden winter deer range. They realize
that unless a deer herd is kept in balance with the supply of good forage
on its range, wasteful losses occur.
As it turned out the antlerless deer hunts were quite successful.
Xo hunting accidents occurred and there was little law violation. The
participants represented a cross-section of the hunting public. Many of
the part icipants were interested in Learning facts about deer management.
The majority of the hunters were well satisfied with the special season.
Eowever, in spite of this there lias been considerable adverse publicity
in California from individuals and groups that oppose the hunting of
female deer.
A breakdown of the resultant antlerless deer bag reveals that
688 animals were taken in Oregon
1,319 animals were taken in California.
The special hunts resulted in the removal of a total of 2.007 antlerless
<lrrv, or about two-thirds of the planned objective. In Oregon 53 out of
every 100 hunters permitted to hunt bagged a deer. The success ratio on
the winter ran<re in California was slightly over 94 oul of every 100
hunters.
Of the total animals checked, the age classes were as follows:
Mature does 68.9 percent
Yearlings 13.6 percent
Fawns 17.5 percent
100.0 percent
The average dressed weights of mature does taken in California was 90
pounds, of yearlings 70 pounds, and of fawns 41 pounds. In Oregon
weights were somewhat higher, older does averaging 97 pounds, young
does 76 pounds, female fawns 42 pounds, and male fawns 47 pounds.
The average dressed weights of Rocky Mountain mule deer taken from
an area of good range in northern Utah was 101 pounds for does and
55 pounds for fawns (Stoddart & Rasmussen, 194.~> i.
PRODUCTIVITY AND HARVEST
With a herd of approximately 28,000 deer a harvest of 2,007 antler-
less animals, plus an estimated regular buck kill of 2,500 animals (500
in California and 2,000 in Oregon) represents a total take of 16.1 percent
of the early winter population. Tested deer management practice in
other western states indicates it is possible to harvest each year a num-
ber of deer equal to 20 to 30 percent of the winter population without
lowering the level of production. Obviously, the action taken on the ranges
of the Devils Garden deer herd should not be expected to result in an over-
all reduction in deer numbers nor can it be expected to bring the herd
into balance with the forage supply on the winter range.
268
( \l.ll'u|;\ | ,\ PISH Wli GAME
During the Las1 three years i L947-48, 1948-49, L949-50) the number
of fawns in the herd has averaged 10.2 percenl of the total population,
or approximately 11,200 animals. In short, the herd of 28,000 deer may
1 spected to produce an average of 11,200 fawns per season, or a ae1
production until late fall of 10 percenl it' favorable survival conditions
prevail.
Allowing a generous 33 percenl of the production for replacement
of all normal natural losses, a surplus of 7,500 animals remains each sea-
son available for harvesl by sportsmen. Of these, sportsmen ordinarily
bag aboul 2,500 bucks. < (bviously, it' the remaining surplus of 5,000 ani-
mals was i" survive each year, the deer population would rapidly grow
to greal magnitude. Bu1 these surplus animals do not survive. Because
the presenl deer population already out-balances the range carrying
capacity, this surplus is lost each year from winter kill or other causes.
mSk^MMM
Figure 107.
Be< ause deer numbers exceed the carrying capacity of the winter n
surplus deer are lost each year from winter kill or other causes
No systematic study has been made to date of the number of deer
that die each year on the winter range. The apparent low survival of
buck fawns to yearling age, indicates a high mortality. General observa-
tions indicate there has been a considerable loss during the winters of
1948-49 and 1949-50. The Interstate Deer Herd Committee plans to make
such a study during the winter of 1950-51. Perhaps this study will reveal
the magnitude of the yearly losses of deer that could just as well go into
the hunter's bag if regular either-sex hunting was permitted on this deer
range.
In the meanwhile, it should be pointed out that the antlerless deer
hunts held in 1950 should not result in any lasting reduction of deer on
the Devils Garden interstate winter deer range. It will be necessary to
hold other antlerless hunts regularly during the coming years to manage
THE DEVILS GARDEN DEER HERD
269
this deer herd on the sound, practical basis needed to maintain the forage
resource and to provide sustained production of deer for hunters in the
future.
RANGE IMPROVEMENTS
When deer become too numerous for the supply of forage on their
range, there are two ways to bring supply and demand into balance. One
is to reduce the demand by harvesting more deer. The other is to increase
the supply by artificial range improvement.
For the Devils Garden, generally it may be said that the area is
supporting as much of a cover of vegetation as present soil and moisture
conditions will allow. The practical objective in range improvement on
this area is not to increase the total cover, but to bring about changes in
the kinds and condition of vegetation now presenl on the range.
The California Poresl and Range Experimental station is carrying
on experiments in bitterbrush planting on the deer range. So far. these
trials have not been too successful. < >ne problem in planting palatable
forages on a heavily populate,! deer range is the protection of the young
plants until they become established. Since these young plants are suc-
enlent and palatable, they are apt to be severely damaged and killed ou1
in a short while where good forage is in shorl supply. On the other hand,
if the browsing pressure is reduced to a level where such plantings will
survive, natural reproduction may reseed more widely and successfully
than can artificial planting if there remains sufficienl native seed stock
on the range.
There are extensive stands of sagebrush on the Devils Garden range.
Some of these occur on good soils thai will respond to grass reseeding.
The .Modoc National Foresl is clearing sagebrush from such sites and
wtot
3
a
~.-.Ti»t*>
-y^jfc..
^M '
3
Figure 10S.
Mountain mahogany is universally high-lined by deer browsing on the
winter range
270 l VLIPORN LA PISH AND GAME
|)l;ini in<_r good perennial grasses as rapidly as funds and manpower will
permit. To date, 1,680 acres of sagebrush Land have been converted to
grass "ii the I >evils < rarden area.
The Forest Service is also developing the supply of water on the
Devils Garden range, principally by the construction of dams to hold
spring run-off. Water usually is no1 a problem to deer during the winter
period. Bu1 the scattering of waters over the range brings about better
distribution of livestock during the summer months, spreading use more
evenly over the area and decreasing localized range damage.
There exists a considerable acreage of mountain mahogany (Cerco-
carpus ledifolius) on the Devils Garden range. The seasonal growth of
1liis plant species is considered an excellenl deer food. But the mahogany
stand consists mostly of tall, mature shrubs, or trees. These are univer-
sally high-lined from overbrowsing and offer little available forage to
deer a1 the present time. The California Division of Fish and Game has
been experimenting with coppicing of mountain mahogany by cutting
the tops to determine if sprout growth can be induced. It has been found
that the cut-back shrubs will produce considerable forage.
To coppice sufficient numbers of shrubs to have a material effect on
the food supply would run to considerable expense. However, further
efforts along similar lines are contemplated.
The construction by the Modoc National Forest of a division fence
along the north boundary of the deer midwinter concentration area to
hold back the spring drift of cattle already has had a beneficial effect
on both the grass and browse condition of this part of the winter range.
When this fence is completed, it is planned to deter livestock use of the
area so as to allow native grasses to mature and bring about faster natural
reseeding of perennials on the badly depleted area.
Tt is now the practice to reseed to palatable grasses all wild-tire
burns that occur on the winter ranee. While this practice will hardly
compensate for the critical loss of good browses that results from fire,
it does result in the establishment of perennial grass stands that offer
food to both livestock and deer. Tn 1950, 3,580 acres of wild-fire burns
were reseeded to grasses by the Forest Service.
CONCLUSION
The objective in deer management is the production on each man-
agement unit of the maximum number of harvestable animals that may
be carried on a sustained yield basis without serious conflict with other
legitimate land uses. The Interstate Deev Herd Committee seeks to real-
ize this objective through common sense management of the deer that
winter on the Devils Garden winter deer range. Because deer numbers
are in excess of the natural food supply, each year there occurs a sur-
plus of both male and female deer on the deer range. The objective in
the action policies recommended by the committee is to increase the har-
vest of deer on this range so that the deer herd will be brought into
balance with the productive capacity of the winter range and so that
surplus animals will be used rather than lost.
THE DEVILS GARDEN DEER HERD 271
REFERENCES
Aldous, C. M.
1945. A winter study of mule deer in Nevada. Jouru. Wildl. Mgmt., vol. 9, no. 2,
p. 145-151.
Aldous, Shaler E.
1941. Deer management suggestions for northern white cedar types. Journ. Wildl.
Mgmt., vol. 5, no. 1, p. 90-94.
Allman, Richard T ., and T. S. Hamilton
19411. Nutritional deficiencies in livestock. F. A. O. Agric. Studies no. 3. Excerpt
In Journ. Range Mgmt., vol. 4, no. 1, p. 41.
Canfield, R. H.
r.).">l>. Application of the line interception method in sampling range vegetation.
Journ. Forestry, vol. 39, p. 388 394.
< 'hat tin. John E.
1948. Breeding season and productivity in the interstate deer herd. Calif. Fish and
Game, vol. 34, no. 1. p. 25-31.
Cheatum, E. L., and ('. \V. Severinghaus
l!i.">0. Variations in fertility of white-tailed deer related to range conditions. Trans.
Fifteenth X. Am. Wildl. Conf., p. 170-189.
Cronemiller, F. I'.. and <!. A. Fischer
1946. Censusintf a deer herd hy sampling methods. Trans. Eleventh X. Am. Wildl.
Conf., p. 349 354.
Dasmann, William P.
1949. Deer-livestock forage studies on the interstate winter deer range in Califor-
nia. Journ. Range Mgmt., vol. 2, no. 1, p. 206 212.
1951. Some .leer range survej methods. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. .'>T, no. 1,
p. 43-52.
Fischer, George A., John ('. 1 »a\ is. Floyd I\ erson and F. P. Cronemiller
1944. The winter range of the interstate deer herd. Modoc national forest, Califor-
nia. U. S. Foresl Service, Region 5, 20 p. (mimeographed)
1945. A supplement to "The winter range of the interstate deer herd." Ibid, 7 p.
i mimeographed )
Hormaj . August L.
1943a. Bit terbrusb in California. Calif, forest and Range Exper. Sta., Research
Xote 34, 13 p. (multilith)
1943b. A method of estimating grazing use of bitterbrush. Ibid, Research Xote 35,
4 p.
1949. Getting better records of vegetation changes with the line interception
method. Journ. Range Mgmt., vol. 2, no. 2, p. ''>7 69.
Interstate Deer Herd Committee
1946. Progress report on the cooperative study of the interstate 'leer herd and its
range. U. S. Forest Service, Region 5, 11 p. (multilith i
1947. Second progress report on the cooperative study of the interstate deer herd
and its range. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 33, no. 4, p. 287-314.
1949a. Interstate winter deer range management plan. Calif. Fish and (lame. vol.
35, no. 2, p. 103-114.
1949b. Third progress report of the cooperative study of the interstate deer herd and
its range. Ibid, p. 115-134.
1950. Fourth progress report of the cooperative study of the interstate deer herd
and its range. Calif. Fish and Game. vol. 36, no. 1, p. 27-52.
Latham, Roger M.
1950. Pennsylvania's deer problem. Pennsylvania Game News, Special Issue no. 1,
48 p.
Leopold, A. Starker, Thane Riney, Randal McCain and Lloyd Tevis
1950. The Jawbone deer herd : part 1 of final report on Pittman-Robertson Project
California 28-R. In press.
Lommasson, T., and Chandler Jensen
1942. Determining the utilization of range grasses from height-weight tables. U. S.
Forest Service, No. Region, 9 p.
I \l.ll <'i;\ i \ ii-ii AND GAME
M<< lain, Randal
1948. A method for measuring deer range use. Trans. Thirteenth N. Am. Wildl.
Conf., p. i:;i HI.
Maloney, A B
1945. The fur brigade to the Bonaventura, John Work's California expedition,
1832-33. Calif. Historical Soc, San Francisco, Calif., L12 p.
Morris, J. -T.
L943 Botanical analyses of stomach contents as a method of determining forage
consumption of range sheep. K<-o]ogy. vol. l'I. no. L'. p. L* 4 4 lt>1.
Randle, Allan C.
1938. Deer winter range studies, L937-38: Modoc X:ition:il Forest, California
Reg on. I . S. Foresl Service, Region 5, L7 p. (mimeographed)
1939. Summary reporl on the winter mule deer range studies made during the win-
ter of 1938-39. U. S. Foresl Service, Region 5, 11 p. (mimeographed)
Rasmussen, I». [., and Everett R. Doman
1943. Census methods and their application in the managemenl of mule deer. Trans.
Eighth N. Am. Wildl. Conf., p. 369-379.
Severinghaus, C. W., II. F. Maguire, R. A. Cookingham and J. E. Tanck.
1950. Variations bj age class in tin- antler beam diameters of white-tailed deer
related to range conditions. Trans. Fifteenth X. Am. Wildl. Conf., p. 551-568.
Smith. Arthur D.
1950a. Sagebrush as a winter feed for deer. Journ. Wildl. Mgmt., vol. 14, no. 3,
p. 285-289.
1950b. Feeding deer on browse species during winter. Journ. Range Mgmt.. vol. •'!.
no. 2, p. 130-132.
Stoddart, L. A., and D. I. Rasmussen
1945. Deer managemenl and range livestock production. Utah State Agric. College,
Exper. Sta., Circ. 1211, 17 p.
NOTES ON KOKANEE SPAWNING IN DONNER
LAKE, CALIFORNIA, 19491
P,y J. TI. Kimsiv
Bureau of Fish Conservation
California Division of Fish and Game
INTRODUCTION
Although kokanee red salmon (Oncorhynch us t<< rka kennerlyi) were
noted spawning along the shore in Donner Lake, Nevada County, in
1946, 1947, 1948, and 1949, it was not known whether or not the eggs
would develop to hatching. J. C. Fraser observed them spawning along
the shore in November, 1947 (Curtis and Fraser, 1948). After the spawn-
ing, however, the lake was drawn down very heavily in January and
February and the nests were Lef1 dry ami frozen. This same condition had
been noted in 1946 by A. F. Pollitt of tie- Tahoe Hatchery of the Divi-
sion of Pish and Game. From these observations it had been assumed
that natural reproduction of kokanee in Donner Lake was virtually
i in possible.
On December 4. 1!»47. 5,190 eggs at 230 per ounce were taken from
kokanee in Donner Lake and held for hatching at Tahoe Hatchery. One
night during a particularly cold period, the water accidentally went
off in the trough which carried these eggs and the next morning they
were discovered in a shrunken, frozen condil ion. [nstead of throwing out
the supposedly dead eggs, the water was turned back into the trough to
see if they would recover. The whole mass of frozen eggs rose to the sur-
t'aee and floated. After a time they thawed, swelled out to normal size,
and went on developing. These eggs hatched villi only a normal loss and
the fry were later planted. The above observations were not recorded but
were obtained from the different hatchery employees who handled the
eggs.
Such an incident made it appear possible that if the eggs in the
nests at Donner Lake were frozen or partially frozen for only short
periods, they might continue development and that when the water again
covered the nests they would hatch out and the resulting fry eventually
would enter the Donner Lake fishery.
That the anadromous form of the red salmon (0. nerka nerka) was
a successful lake shore spawner was well known, but little information
on this phase of the kokanee 's spawning habits was available.
OBSERVATIONS
With a view to obtaining definite information as to the success or
failure of the shore spawning of kokanee in Donner Lake, extensive
observations were carried out in the fall of 1949.
1 Submitted for publication January, 1951.
( 273 )
■2, I l Mil"!.". I \ FISH AND <. A WE
One of the besl areas Eor observing the spawning of kokanee in
Donner Lake is located off the end of Waggoner's boat pier on the north
shore. This area is only a fev hundred feel from the highway and is
easilj accessible even through the heaviesl of snow. The shore at this
poinl slopes gently for aboul 1"" feel and then drops off abruptly to
depths of 30 i" 50 feet. When the lake Level is normal, the edge of the
shelf is tinder aboul six to eighl feel of water. The water is one to three
r this poinl when the kokanee begin to spawn and the water
surface is aboul one to one and a half feel below it at the point of maxi-
mum drawdown. The section where the observations were made is about
100 yards long and is composed of a mixture of sand, "-ravel, and cobbles
on a clay substrate. About one quarter of this lies in a spring seepage
area. Since the clay base is tipped slightly toward the lake, the gravel
in the seepage area lias a slow but constant flow of water through it.
Tic first kokanee were seen on the fourth of November, 194M. when
the water temperature was 51 degrees 1-'. at the surface. These consisted
primarily of males and much fighting and splashing was noted. On the
fifth of November a gill net was set in water from depths of six to fifty
feet. When this net was picked up on November 6, eight male and one
female kokanee were taken. All were in water shallower than 20 feet
except the female, which was taken at 50 feet. The males had free flowing
milt and the female emitted eggs on compression. The average size of all
fish taken at this time was 18^ inches and the average weight was about
two pounds. The coloration and body conformation were identical with
those described for the anadromous form of the red salmon Kiuure 109).
No nest building was observed at this time.
•Joseph V. Verret, student biologist, made an extensive reconnais-
sance of the lake shore on November 15, 21, and 29. lie was unable to find
any other kokanee spawning in the lake. However, a few were subse-
quently reported spawning in the northwest end.
Figure 109. Male kokanee in spawning condition, November 5, 1949
KOKANEE SPAWNING IX DONNER LAKE
<>ii November 15 and 2!». Mr. Verret marked nine kokanee nests.
On November 29 one of the nests was partially above the waterline
and 200 eggs were removed. These eggs appeared to be in the "tender
stage" and died soon after handling.
On December 7 all of the marked nests except two were exposed.
Sample eggs were removed and were found to be developing normally.
At this time tl ggs were buried under from four to seven inches
of gravel. The water level of the Lake was K) inches below the surface of
the nests. Even though the surface was dry, the eggs buried only four
inches were kept moisl by capillary water. The temperature of the sand
in whieh the eggs were embedded was 39.5 degrees F. The surface of the
lake was 47 degrees F.. and the seepage areas lv degrees F.'
On December 12 the top three inches of the nests were frozen.
Below this level the sand was not fro/en and the eggs were continuing
development at •'!!• degrees F. The eggs in the seepage areas were still in
48 degrees P. water and several appeared to be in the firsl stages of
"eyeing." The temperature of the lake was 45.5 degrees F.
Although no kokanee had been reported as spawning below the dam
in Donner Creek, this area was investigated on December 12 and 20
live kokanee i 1 1 males, six females i were observed. Three dead kokanee
were also seen. At least six nests were noted in the firsl hundred yards of
stream below the dam. and there were probably more These kokanee
appeared to be larger than those in the lake and were estimated to be
from 18 to 20 inches long, with a1 leasl one individual about 24 inches in
length. They were all in a very battered condition and were not laying
eggs, although some Hexing actions and fighting was noted among them.
Most of them appeared to be so weak that they were barely able to main
tain their position in the current. The temperature of the stream was
4i; degrees F.
1 Unless otherwise stated all lake temperatures were taken at the surface along
i he shore.
Figure 110.
Male kokanee shortly after dying at the end of the spawning- period.
December 12, 1949.
276
I \[ H <>K\ I \ FISH IND GAME
< Mi December 23 the air temperature \\;is \1 decrees I*'., the lake
12 degrees F., and tl ggs in the exposed nests 34 degrees F. The top five
inches of nesl were frozen and there was from one to three inches of
snow "ii them. The eggs below this Level were not frozen and appeared to
!"■ still developing. Although a1 leasl 1<) kokanee had been observed on
the 1-th lit' December, none were noted this date. There were no dead
fish along the shore. They may have been removed In- coyotes, since tracks
of these animals indicated thai they had been prowling along the beach.
The eggs in the seepage nests were not frozen and were continuing
development at }."> degrees F.
<mi December 30 the air temperature was 42 degrees F. and the
lake temperature was 12 degrees K. Tl ggs in the exposed nests were
frozen so hard that they chinked like pebbles when dropped into a col-
lecting pan. Tl ggs in the seepage areas were continuing development
at 45 degrees F. and 44 degrees K The top one-half inch of the seepage
area was frozen, bu1 the eggs were not. The top of the seepage nests was
ahont one and one-half feet above the lake's surface, but the eggs were
always in slowly running water.
Five kokanee wen- still alive in Donner Creek on December 30.
The temperature of the stream was 39 degrees F. One dead male which
measured 19 inches in length and weighed 2.8 pounds was picked up.
Before the tail was frayed and the spawning period had begun, this
fish was probably 20 inches long and nearer to three pounds in weight.
%$&&£
Figure 111. The exposed spawning gravels on December 30, 1949, when all nests were
exposed and frozen
KOKANEE SPAWNING IX DOXXER LAKE
277
A brief observation on January 4 showed the eggs in the seepage
areas to be in the eyed stage and developing at 44 degrees F. The air
temperature was 33 degrees F. and the lake 40 degrees F. The other
nests were frozen too hard to break through with a shovel in the limited
time available. On January 6 the air temperature was 39 degrees F.,
and the lake was 40 degrees F. The seepage nests were 44 degrees F.,
and the eggs were developing normally At this time a section 2 feet x
3 feet x 8 inches was excavated over a known ;i<">tin- area. There were
five inches of frozen sand over the eggs. Frozen eggs were obtained
singly and in clusters at the bottom of this frozen level under rocks the
size <>!' hens' eggs. The eggs were all greatly shrunken ami very hard.
About 200 eggs were submerged in a pan in the lake. When they had
thawed, they regained their round shape but turned white. A total of
1,073 eggs was obtained on this date. A careful counl had been kept of
all eggs previously removed from the same area, amounting to 354, giving
a total of 1,427 eggs in six square feet. It was estimated that the eggs
were laid in a bell 200 feet x (i feet, or 1,200 square feet of nesting area.
A conservative estimate based on this area would put the total number
of eggs deposited at around 250,000. Mr. Jack Waggoner and Mr. Verret
estimated that about 200 fish weir spawning, with a sex ratio of one
female to four males. Assuming 1<> of these to he females and each tVmale
to deposit approximately 2,500 eggs, aboui 100,000 eggs would be
deposited. Taking both figures into consideration, it would therefore
be reasonable to assume that somewhere between 100,000 and 2.">n,000
egoS were deposited. The actual number mosl likely lies in the lower range.
Figure 112. Nest frozen to depth of seven inches on December 30, 1949. All eggs
here were killed.
278 CALIPORN I \ FISH A.ND GA \l E
On January 20, warm rains had accelerated the thaw and the
inflow was evidently greater than the outflow, since the lake bad risen
one foot. This rise bad flooded the lowesl nests and capillary seepage
again was keeping the higher nests moisl and thawed. All of the eggs
uncovered in the highest nests had turned white ;i ml appeared to be dead.
The lower flooded nests still had live, developing eggs, in spite of the
fad thai they had been frozen solid for unknown periods of time. It
would appear thai a1 leasl the lower eggs in these nests were kept alive
and prevented from freezing too long by capillary seepage from the
warmer lake water. The eggs in these nests were at 40 degrees F. on this
date, as was the hike water.
The seepage nests were ;it 44 degrees F. In searching for eggs, a
number of empty ones were round. Very careful removal of the over-
burden of sand and stones resulted in finding one newly emerged kokanee
and several others which were vigorously trying to emerge. All of the
eggs i approximately 30) which were removed were very active and
hatching appeared imminent. Ninety eggs were removed from the frozen
nests near the shore and these, with the 30 seepage eggs, were taken to
Tahoe Hatchery to hatch in the troughs.
On January 25 all nests were again flooded. As the lake came up,
the excess deposit of gravel was washed off by wave action and the
deepesl eggs were buried three inches. An estimated 90 percent loss in
eggs was caused by the freezing. It appeared that about 5 percent of the
total nests were in the seepage area and another 5 percent of the total
were in the lower belt of frozen nests, which continued development even
though frozen.
On February l(i the air temperature was 42 degrees F. and the
water under six to eight inches of ice was 34 degrees F. A number of
holes were cut through the ice to observe the nesting areas. Two small
fish-like objects were noted over the lower frozen nests. They were very
active and would swim rapidly, coast to a stop on the bottom, and then
resume swimming rapidly. At this time it was snowing and a wind made
it difficult to make observations. One kokanee with yoke sac was obtained
from the seepage nesting area. This individual was free swimming and
very active. Tt was forced out of hiding by violently agitating the water
with a shovel. The resulting current brought several out of the rock
crevices, but only one w'as collected.
The eggs placed in the Tahoe Hatchery on January 20 hatched
and the fry appeared to be normal in every respect. The average tem-
perature of the hatchery water was 43 degrees F. The eggs from the
seepage nests began to hatch on February 12 and those from the frozen
nests began hatching on March 15.
SUMMARY
1. Kokanee in Donner Lake began spawning activities about the
fourth of November, 1949, when the water temperature was 51 degrees F.
at the surface.
2. The lake was drawn down to the extent that all nests were uncov-
ered by December 23.
3. All of the eggs except those in .the seepage areas experienced at
least occasional freezing. Eggs submitted to prolonged freezing died.
KOKANEE SPAWNING IN DCNNER LAKE 279
4. Eggs in the seepage area developed normally at temperatures
ranging from 44 degrees F. to 48 degrees F. They began hatching in the
nests about January 20, 1950, and a series of eggs removed to Tahoe
Hatehery began hatching in 43 degrees F. water on February 12, 1950.
5. Eggs removed from nests which had experienced little freezing
began hatching on March 15, when removed to Tahoe Hatchery.
6. Kokanee fry from Donner Lake nests which were hatched in
Tahoe Hatchery were normal in cvci-v respect, in comparison with the
hatchery kokanee.
7. It is believed thai the successful natural reproduction of kokanee
would be possible on ;i large scale in Donner Lake if the water level could
be stabilized during tlie spawning and developmental period.
LITERATURE CITED
( 'urt is Brian, and J. C. Fraser
L948. Kokanee in California. California Fish and Game, \<>l. 34, no. .".. p. 111-114.
EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE COTTID FISH,
CLINOCOTTUS RECALVUS (GREELEY)1
By Robert W. Mokkis
Hopkins Marine Station of Stanford University
Pacific Grove, California
INTRODUCTION
Clinocottus recalvus was one of several species used in a study of
methods of incubating the eggs and rearing the larvae of marine fishes
in the laboratory. While the techniques involved were the primary field
of investigation, some notes on development were kept during the course
of the studies in order to add to the knowledge of identities of eggs and
larvae of the fishes of California. A reasonably complete account has so
far been recorded in the ease of only this one species and this is here
presented.
The invesigations were conducted during the winter and spring of
1949-50. Thus far the rearing experiments have been entirely of an ex-
ploratory nature. In none of them has the element of control been ade-
quate. For these reasons a statement of methods would be premature at
this time.
SOURCE OF MATERIAL
Six males and two females of Clinocottus recalvus were collected
from tide pools in the vicinity of Carme] and Pacific Grove, California,
over the period March 11 to March 17. 1950. They were placed in an
aquarium supplied with running sea water and containing several large
stones. On March 18 the aquarium yielded a cluster of eggs deposited by
the larger of the two females, which was 95 mm. in total length. The
smaller female, 82 mm. long, deposited a duster the following day. These
clusters were removed at the time of their respective discoveries and
placed in separate bowls through which there was a steady, gentle flow
of well-aerated sea water.
EGG CLUSTER
Both of the egg masses were wedge shaped and conformed snugly
with the contours of the stones and aquarium bottom, between which they
were deposited. The cluster laid by the large female covered an area
roughly 20 mm. by 30 mm. and measured about 10 mm. at its thickest
edge. The cluster from the small female was about 15 mm. by 25 mm.
and also about 10 mm. thick at its thickest edge. By actual count, the
cluster deposited by the small female contained 876 eggs. The eggs
adhered firmly to each other but not to the substrate. In the small cluster
the eggs were somewhat more firmly united than in the larger one, appar-
ently due to a difference in the amount of adhesive material among them.
1 Submitted for publication January, 1951. The writer wishes to express his grati-
tude for the guidance given by Dr. Rolf L. Bolin.
(281)
282 < ALIFORN l.\ PISH AND GAME
EGG
The eggs of both females were of the same pale, translucent, cream
color with amber oil globules of a more transparent nature. This color
may or may qoI be of value in identification since Budd (1940) and
ninaiin 1892 found considerable discrepancy in the color of the
3 of another species of this same genus. Eggs stripped from several
specimens of Oligocottus snyderi Greeley have been seen which were
identical in color with the ground color of the parenl from which they
came. They varied from pale green through olive to a deep violet. It may
be that color will be of little value in the identification of the eggs of the
species described in this paper.
No eggs were seen to he markedly distorted from the spherical shape.
The mean diameter of 10 eggs from the larger female was 1.32 mm., and
they ranged from 1.30 to 1.37 mm. The mean diameter of 20 eggs from
the smaller female was 1.25 mm., and these ranged from 1.21 to 1.35 mm.
The areas of contad between the eggs were roughtly circular, rang-
ing from .153 to .238 mm. in diameter with a mean diameter of .200 mm.
in the case of the larger female. .221 to .306 mm. with a mean of .267 mm.
for the smaller female.
The egg capsules were tough and extremely resistant To rupture and
their thickness was found to be quite uniform at .032 mm. Radial canals
are very evident even when examined under a wide-field binocular micro-
scope. Each of these opens at the surface in a conical depression. At this
comparatively low magnification the surface of the capsule appears
smooth, but examination at the magnification of 440 diameters shows the
texture to be granular. The individual elements of this granulation appear
as beadlike nodes arranged in rows parallel in both vertical and horizon-
tal coordinates. Superficially at least they bear strong resemblance to the
rivet-shaped processes of the zona radiata in Pygosteus pungitius as
described by Eigenmann (1890). Appearance of the capsule when ex-
amined under a magnification of 440 diameters is shown in Figure 113.
The term capsule used in the above description implies the zona radiata
and any other membranes which may have been in intimate association
with it. A careful inspection revealed nothing answering the description
of a micropyle ; this may have been overlooked, however.
In describing the eggs of cottid fishes. Budd (1940) and Eigenmann
(1892) have defined the number of oil globules present. This is not diag-
nostic in the cues presently considered, the number varying greatly
among the eggs at any one time during early stages of incubation. During
these initial hours of embryonic development there is. in general, a steady
decrease in the number of globules, accompanied by a concurrent increase
in the size of those remaining. Although never actually witnessed, it is
obvious that coalescence of the droplets takes place. During the last five
days of incubation there is some decrease in the size of the remaining oil
globule. Regarding the absolute quantity of oil initially present, there
appeared to be some difference among the eggs.
The yolk, which imparts the creamy translucent color to the egg,
is somewhat variable in quantity. This conclusion is made on the basis
of the apparent difference in the size of the perivitelline space in the
different eggs. The "opaque, grayislvbrown mass of flocculent material"
seen in the yolk of the eggs of Orthonopias triads Starks and Mann by
EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF CLINOCOTTUS BECALVUS 283
Bolin i 1941 ) is present in the eggs described in this paper. This mass
is usually in intimate association with the embryo or one of the oil
globules but this is not always the case. The yolk appears to become
progressively more dense during development, due, apparently, to a
constriction of the layer of protoplasm over it during the earlier stages
of development and in the later stages to the confinement imposed by
tin- extra-embryonic ectoderm. After about 70 hours the yolk has become
so dense that the oil globules no longer rise freely through it hut are
held firmly in one position. That this density is not inherent to the yolk
is indicated by the free movemenl of the oil globule after the larva
has hatched. Protoplasm was not identified in the yolk.
EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
The smaller egg cluster was broken into small pieces to facilitate
counting and this harsh treatment resulted in the early demise of over
half of the eggs it contained. Other than this initial heavy mortality
in the one hatch, development proceeded at a comparable rate in both
clusters of eggs and further mortality was about equal. Water tempera-
tures were taken daily during the course of incubation, and ranged
from 13 degrees to 15 degrees C. The descriptions ami the figures are
based on eggs which were picked from the cluster at each examination.
It was learned from early experience that the rate of development was
greatly affected by the heal during the period of examination under
the microscope. After eggs were once examined, they were placed iii a
separate container and not again used in recording the data <>u devel-
opment.
The development can best he followed by reference to the accom-
panying figures.
Figure 111 represents an egg at the earliest stage observed. This
stage is considered "zero*- hours of development for the purpose of
assigning the times to the other stages although the exact age of the
egg represented here is not known, h is evidently very young and judg-
ing from the report of Bolin (1941) on Orthonopias triads, develop-
ment had probably been initialed within the previous hour. At this
stage the yolk is drawing away from the capsule to form the perivitel-
line space! This space has a greatesl width of about .20 to .25 mm and
is completely formed in the firsl hour of recorded development. The
behavior of the yolk indicates that the space is filled with a liquid of
a slightly lower specific gravity than that of the yolk. At this early
stage several large oil globules are present and rise freely through the
yolk, while innumerable very small droplets lie at the periphery, their
ratio of surface to volume being so great as to impede their rise.
During the period in which the perivitelline space is forming, the
protoplasm over the surface of the yolk moves to form an elongate mass
lying along a meridian. This movement is evident only by the accumu-
lation of the protoplasm, no streaming of the latter being visible. The
protoplasm moves without regard to gravity, indicating that it is of
about the same density as the yolk. The accumulation of protoplasm
in this meridian does not at first bulge into the perivitelline space but.
rather, depresses the yolk. However, a short time later the flow con-
tinues to one end of the elongate mass where the blastodisc commences
to form. This stage is shown in Figure 115, representing an egg after
I'M
CALIFORNIA ll-ll AND GAME
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JJiJjJJ;JJ)ljijJ. ->'>_) -> > J JJJjJJ
J J J J -> j .
->Jv j j -> j j -i-J > '*> Jf >i J Jff j j jJ/jj;
\i > i i 1 JVj J i > JJ> J J J ) ; ) J j > Jdft ,
V-
o >jjj j_>> *;
Figure 113. Kpg capsule much enlarged.
Entire field shown represents an area .05
mm. in diameter.
Figure 114. Egg at zero hours of devel-
opment. Perivitelline space forming. Total
diameter of egg 1.30 mm.
Figure 115. Egg at two hours of devel-
opment. Protoplasm has converged in a
general meridian and is moving to form
the blastodisc.
Figure 116.
Four hours.
Mastodisc.
Well-formed
Figure 117. Five hours. Two-cell stage.
Figure 118. Seven and one-half hours.
Four-cell stage.
EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF CLINOCOTTUS RECALVUS 2.85
two hours of incubation. Here is seen the streak of protoplasm lying
to the left and the developing blastodisc at its upper end. That the
protoplasm remaining over the yolk is confining it closely is suggested
by the furrow in the yolk which is produced by the early meridional
accumulation of protoplasm.
After four hours the egg appears as shown in Figure 116. Here is
seen a well-formed blastodisc with no traces of the surrounding proto-
plasm being visible.
Figure 117 shows an egg after five hours of incubation. At this
time the first cleavage has taken place, and the firsl two blastomeres
are to be seen. The firsl plane of cleavage is, obviously, meridional.
After seven and one-half hours, the egg appears as m Figure 118.
By this time the second cleavage has been completed at righl angles to
the first.
Figure 119 depicts the egg after nine and one- ha If hours, at which
time eighl cells are fully for I. Six and seven cell stages are also
commonly seen. In some eggs held under the microscope for prolonged
observation, the third cleavage was seen to occur. It paralleled one of
the first two cleavage planes, but differences in the rates of cell division
caused the two developing furrows to be badly distorted. The firsl two
planes were also displaced in this process, and a considerable loss of
symmetry occurred. Whether the furrows of the third plane parallel
the firsl or second cleavage is not known since four equally defined cells
existed at the time this observation was begun.
At 11 hours an egg was observed with 16 well-defined cells. It is
shown in Figure 120. At this time the blastomeres of the eggs observed
were arranged in configurations of highly divergenl nature. Twelve-.
13-, 14-, and 15-cell stages were encountered, ('ells shifting over one
another often obscured some of the others present.
At about 14 hours, the blastoderm recovered a high degree of sym-
metry. At tins time, the firsl well-formed blastodermal cap could be
seen. It is shown in Figure 121. It was. at first, lenticular in shape and
later rose from the yolk becoming considerably more thickened. The
number of cells contained in the cap could not be determined.
The egg shown in Figure 122 shows the condition at 24 hours of
development when the late blastodermal cap consisted of cells greatlj
reduced in size. At this time, the cap was almost hemispherical in shape
except that its periphery assumed a sharp gradient as it conformed to
the contour of the yolk.
In Figure 123 appears a lateral view of an embryo at 57 hours.
The posterior pole lies to the right where the embryo has become somewhat
flattened. Encroachment upon the segmentation cavity by involution, par-
ticularly at the posterior end. causes the cavity to be clearly visible only
at the left, forward of the anterior end of the embryo. The germ ring is
prominent around the margin of the segmentation cavity. This ring is
wide at the posterior pole of the disc, narrowing laterally and anteriorly.
Manifestations of the phenomena associated with the formation of the
periblast, as described by "Wilson (1891), were not definitely observed
although at the perimeter of the ring an area was marked off by a
constriction forming a structure which somewhat resembled the descrip-
tion of a periblastic wall. This structure was obscured by the germ ring-
after a few more hours of development.
286
< A 1. 1 nil; \ I A PISH AND OAME
Figi re 119. Nine and one-half hours. Figure 120. Eleven hours. Sixteen-cell
Eight-cell stage. stage.
Figure 121. Fourteen hours. Early bias- Figure 122. Twenty-four hours. Late
todermal cap. blastodermal cap.
Figure 123. Fifty-seven hours. Seg-
mentation cavity and germ ring.
Figure 124. Seventy-three hours. Germ
ring advancing past the equatorial posi-
tion.
EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF CLINOCOTTUS RECALVUS 287
Figure 124 is of the right lateral aspect of the embryo after 73 hours
of incubation. Differential growth of the germ ring is now quite evident.
In this figure it has grown anteriorly, passing the equatorial position and
can be seen to produce a slight constriction in the surface of the yolk.
The restriction imposed upon the yolk by its increasing investment of
extra-embryonic ectoderm apparently produces the increase in density
earlier described. With this confinement the oil globules are rendered
practically immobile.
At 88 hours the blastopore has dosed and Kupffer's vesicle has
become evident. There are profound changes in the anterior end of the
embryo and the eyes have become visible.
A lateral aspect of the embryo a fter 96 hours appears in Figure 125.
A.1 this time the eye with its lens is clearly visible, and the posterior
margin of the midbrain is marked by a noticeable constriction. Kupffer's
vesicle is now and for ;i few hours following, at its peak of development.
The remnant of the segmentation cavity persists ;it this stage as ;i clear
area between the yolk ami the extra-embryonic ectoderm, spreading
forward and laterally from the anterior end of tl mbryo.
Parts of the central nervous system are more highly developed ami
segmentation of the body is clearly seen by the fifth day of incubation.
Figure 126 represents an embryo a1 this stage.
The embryo on the sixth day is shown in Figure 127. The hearl can
he seen nn the ventral surface of tin- body slightly posterior to the eyes
ami its pulsation is now regular and well sustained. The otic capsules arc
present. Kupffer's vesicle lias almost lost its identity, and tic tail is com
mencing to grow five from the yolk. Sporadic twitching movements can
now be discerned.
Figure 128 represents an embryo of nine days. By this time the
otoliths have become clearly visible ami the tail, now growing \'vct\ has
lengthened extensively ami is twisted to lie flat on the yolk; it is quite
active ami moves from one side to the other. The last of the see-mentation
cavity can si ill be seen hut ii is obscured during the next day or two by
the increasing growth of the tail. The eyes have now acquired some
pigment and darken progressively from this time on. The yolk has become
so (lark 'it this stage that it is nearly opaque.
A dorso-lateral view of tin1 anterior regions of the embryo at 1"> days
of incubation appears in Figure 129. Melanin, which first made its
appearance over the body cavity on the eleventh day. has come to lie in
large, well-defined, stellate chromatophores. Several dendritic melano-
phores of extremely delicate appearance now lie over the nape and also
on the dorsal surface of the head just back of the eyes. A row of small
melanophores lies along the ventral surface of the tail. The eyes have
acquired sufficient pigment to be seen without magnification. The vitel-
line veins are quite prominent. The entire animal, but particularly the
head, has undergone much growth. The granular patches on the surface
of the head, seen by Eigenmann (1892) and other more recent authors,
are now present. It was suggested by Bolin (1941) that these might
function as rasping points to assist the embryo in extricating itself from
the heavy capsule at hatching. In the case of the embryos considered
here, this possibility seems unlikely. The granulations are minute con-
vexities of low elevation which grade into the dorso-anterior surface of
the head with a very gentle slope. They were first seen at 15 days of
288
CALIPORN l \ PISH Wli QAM]
Figure 125. Ninety-six hours. Eye and
Kupffer's vesicle.
Figure 126. Five days
Figure 127. Six days
Figure 128. Nine days
Figure 129. Fifteen days
Figure 130. Nineteen days
EARLY DEVELOPMENT OE CLINOCOTTUS RECALVUS 289
incubation. Their location and approximate size can be seen in Figure 129.
Later in this description they will again be discussed.
The delicate membranes of the pectoral fins were first seen on the
sixteenth day. At this time they were visible only when the embryo was
in such a position that they could be viewed against the clear perivi-
telline space.
HATCHING
An outline drawing depicting the proportionally large size of the
head on the 19th day when the embroyos began hatching is shown in
Figure 130. Good fortune \v;is experienced in having an egg in advan-
tageous position under the microscope and in perfect focus at the verj
moment of the initial rupture of its capsule. The head emerges explo-
sively, bu1 the remainder of lie1 body may stay in the capsule for some
time. When the head firsl comes ou1 i1 is extremely flattened. The incipi-
ent lower jaw is crushed back and upward againsl the roof of the mouth.
The dorsal surface of the eyes is almost level with the extreme top of the
head. This great flattening was nut noted at the time of the preparation
of Figure L29; however, a retrospective examination of thai figure indi-
cates such a <• lition even a1 thai earlj date, Immediately upon emerg
ing from the capsule the head begins to round ou1 and enlarge. Con-
c itant with this change in contour the granular patches on its surface
largely disappear. After three or Hour hours only traces of crescentic and
circular lines remain to mark their former position. It appears probable
that these patches are merely distortions in the surface of the head which,
though destined to be rounded, is greatly flattened by the extreme pres-
sure which it suffers during its late stages of confinement. Measurement
of the wall of the empty capsule indicates no decrease in its thickness dur-
ing incubation, nor were any scores of erosion observed on its inner sur-
face. It must be added, bowever, that it is difficult to avoid search for a
structure, perhaps analogous to the egg-tooth of birds, which could
facilitate the escape of the delicate larva from this extremely resistant
capsule.
Hatching began on April 7 in the large cluster and during the
following night in the small one. Shortly after the beginning of hatching
the eggs were removed from running water and placed in a container of
sea water, equipped with a mechanical agitator. Approximately 80 per-
cent of the eggs hatched on April 7 and 8. Thus, with respect to both
clusters, hatching occurred primarily on the nineteenth and twentieth
days of incubation. Among those eggs remaining, some hatching con-
tinued for the next eight days, at the end of which time only a few living
individuals remained. These were discarded. The larvae hatching after
April 8 were much smaller than those which hatched the first two days.
These late-hatched larvae were weak and inviable. Conspicuous was the
difference in the size of the eye of the late individuals, the diameter of
this organ being reduced by as much as one-third that of the eye in the
healthy, early-hatched larvae. The late-hatched members are not con-
sidered in this description since they failed to develop.
29(1 I \l.in (RNIA PISH AND GA M E
LARVAL DEVELOPMENT
During the firsl eighl weeks of Larval development, water tempera-
tures were taken once or twice daily. These temperatures ranged from
13.5 degrees to 1 7..") degrees < '. No greater change than 1 .5 degrees ( '. was
uoted in any single period of 24 hours. A ft it two months, water tempera-
tures were no longer taken regularly.
To record their progress, larvae were examined briefly each day or
two during their firsl four weeks. What appeared to be typical specimens
were examined thoroughly and a drawing was prepared whenever
developmenl bad proceeded to the point where such a figure would be
useful. The course of developmenl can best be followed by reference to
these. In preparation of the drawings, well-defined outlines are shown
by solid lines. Vague margins or the edges of hyaline areas are shown in
stippled lines. I [p to and including the figure of the larva at seven weeks
of age (Figure 137), individual melanophores have been shown as
accurately as possible. For the condition of the other pigments up to this
time, the text must suffice. Stippled areas in these figures represent the
relative opacity of those regions. In Figure 139 the chromatophores have
become so numerous and relatively so small that, for the most part, their
positions have been shown as stippled areas. It appears likely that with
development there is a virtual as well as relative diminution in size of
the melanophores, but their expansion and contraction makes this diffi-
cult to ascertain. Live specimens are shown in Figures 131, 132, 133, 134,
135 and 137. The remaining figures are of animals freshly killed.
NEWLY HATCHED LARVA
Figures 131 and 132 represenl the newly hatched larva, with mean
length of 4.65 mm. These larvae were at least two hours old, their heads
having rounded out. and lower- jaws having become functional. Although
the lower jaw opens and closes, no stream of water can be seen passing
through the mouth. The granular patches of the surface of the head
remain only as faint delicate lines at this time. They are crudely depicted
in the figures. Some of the parts of tie' central nervous system are well
defined in the anterior regions, bur back of the head the cord is not marked
Figure 131. Newly hatched larva Total length 4.6 mm.
Figure 132. Newly hatched larva, dorsal view. Total length 4.7 mm.
IAKLV DEVELOPMENT OF CLINOCOTTUS RECALVUS 29]
off from the developing muscular tissue. The eyes are prominent and
highly Functional, and the choroid fissure is still evident, though reduced.
The otic capsules and otoliths can be seen quite plainly. Neither olfactory
capsules nor nasal pits are evident. Midway along the body, segmenta-
tion is quite obvious but grows increasingly less conspicuous both ante-
riorly and posteriorly. The finfolds are large and continuous, the ventral
being slightly deeper than the dorsal one. The gut is small and lias one
loop embedded in the yolk. The liver is prominent and in sum,, specimens
a bright green gall bladder is to be seen. The oil globule moves freely in
the anterior part of the yolk sac. During the preparation of the drawing,
the larva usually come to resl in an inverted position, thus the oil globule
in the figure is in the ventral pari of the yolk. Normally, with the body
upright, the oil globule comes to resl againsl the antero-ventral surface
of the liver. Two to 12 diffuse, dendritic melanophores appear on the top
of the head in the interorbital space, the pattern extending back to inert
that over the nape where there are 13 to in pigmenl cells of the same
general appearance. When they an- all in ; xpanded condition, the
melanophores over the nape are somewhat darker than those on the head
There are three to seven pah' melanophores within each otic capsule.
Three to five dendritic melanophores are situated on each side of the yolk
sac antero-laterally, ami 14 to ~2\ smaller ones extend along the ventral
margin of the bodj beginning somewhere between the fifth ami eleventh
segmenl back from the vertical of the amis The first »r two of these
are usually separated from the remainder of this s.-ries by i or two
unpigmented segments, and the last one to five extend diagonally down
into the ventral finfold. Over the body cavity lies an elliptical pattern
of large stellate melanophores. Prom a lateral view, this pattern narrows
into a hand anteriorly that is lost within the head and posteriorly into
a hand that curves downward following the descending gut. When seen
dorsally as in Figure 132, aboul 35 to 50 of these large melanophores can
be counted on either side, arranged in five to six reasonably well-defined
rows. They tend to have clear centers ami radial branches arising from
a central ring of melanin. Even when fully expanded they are dark and
well defined and do not lose their individual identities. On the surface
of the descending gut, approximately Hi melanophores can be counted.
and one is located on the lip at each side of the anus. The above-mentioned
elliptical pattern in which these melanophores lie is formed by a matrix
of \anthin. itself behaving very much like a large chromatophore. <'om
ditions causing dilation and contraction of the melanophores, such as
exposure to chemicals and sudden temperature change, cause the margin
of the ellipse of xantliin to move in an undulating fashion. Tn death it i-
seen to be contracted, shrinking the entire pattern toward the midline.
A small amount of diffuse xantliin is found on the nape and the top of
the head. This pigment is not -eon as well-defined chroniatophores in
these areas.
TEN-DAY LARVA
During the first 10 days after hatching the length increases by about
one-half millimeter in most of the specimens and the yolk sae loses its
broad lateral convexities, the yolk having been exhausted i Figure 133).
An oil globule does not persist beyond five days after hatching. The intes-
tinal loo]) has grown much larger, and food organisms can now be seen
( A 1. 1 I 'OK \ I A PISH AND QAM1
5««y«to& . Ill i 3 £ < * i J t I *i» - ..
;
v • •- .i. ...-——
■
l'"n;i 1:1: 1 :::*.. Tcrwlay larva. Total length 5.0 mm.
within it. [ncipienl elements of the operculum have spread down and
bacfe from the eye, almosl obscuring the Lower jaw when the latter is
closed. No trace remains of the choroid fissure. The posterior reaches of
the body have become deeper, and the dorsal nerve cord is now clearly
defined from the developing muscle segments. The posterior end of the
tail curves up slightly al this time. A change has taken place in the
ventral unfold .just hack of the anus so that it now bears a slight indenta-
tion at thai point. The contour of the head has changed somewhat as can
be seen in the figure.
The melanophores have become heavier over the body cavity and
the nape and increased in number on the top of the head while xanthin
has become more intense in all of these areas. In addition, three or four
melanophores have appeared on the wall of the forebrain just anterior
to the eyes. Vitelline circulatory elements now form a vermiculate pat-
tern over the liver which has grown posteriorly, replacing the yolk.
NINETEEN-DAY LARVA
Figure 134 shows a larva at 19 days of age. Differences in size among
the larvae have now become evident, a few lagging noticeably in their
growth. There has been a substantial increase in the relative size of the
Figure 134. Nineteen-day larva. Total length 7.6 mm.
head and anterior regions of the trunk. The entire body has become
markedly deeper. Branchiostegal rays, which were first observed at 14
days, can be seen clearly. The area below the eye has expanded broadly
and formed a deep preopercle. The margin of this structure bears from
five to nine short spines which are situated in clusters of two or three
each. The preopercle has an acute-angled corner and in some specimens
a well-defined spine is here formed. The eye is bright with accumulated
guanin and its antero-dorsal surface shows a patch of metallic green.
Back of the eye the chain of circumorbital bones has expanded consid-
erably, its other parts remaining narrow. The otic capsule has assumed
a triangular outline.
The gills can now be seen to be richly supplied with blood, and strong
currents of water pass through the mouth when the jaws are opened and
EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF CLINOCOTTUS RECALVUS 293
closed. This current was first observed at 13 days. Whether or not respira-
tion was confined entirely to the vitelline circulation prior to that time is
not known.
Rays can be seen in the pectoral fins when the latter are seen against
a light background. Just back of the vertical of the anus, 11 compressed
nodes appear on the body margin. They originate from the ventral sep-
tum, one per segment. In later development it was noted that these are
the ends of the interhaemal bones. In the region where these project,
each myotome has assumed a sharp angle in its outline. The end of the
tail now curves upward to a greater degree, and extending downward
and to the rear are about 10 ill-defined rays which arc represented merely
by bars of material somewhat more opaque than the surrounding tissue,
and which are expanded and contiguous at their distal ends. These
changes in the tail have brought the melanophores, which formerly la.\
in the ventral finfold, into contact with the mosl venl ral of the developing
caudal rays. The anterior two or three melanophores of the series on
the ventral surface are now found in the septum well up in the body
away from the margin.
All of the melanophores in the anterior regions of the body have
become much heavier. On each side those over the body cavity curve
down and sharply inward at the upper limit of the descending gut. The
number of melanophores in this region appears to be unchanged. On
the anterior surface of the head there are now about U.~> to 30 melano-
phores, and 35 to 40 occur over the top of the head. The number of mel-
anophores over the nape is aboul the same. With the increased forward
extension of muscle segments, thr< r four melanophores from the sur-
face of the cerebellum now come to lie on the surface of the muscles them-
selves. Much diffuse melanin is presenl below and medial to the otic cap-
sules. Diffuse xanthin has increased in the regions where it was originally
described.
TWENTY-SEVEN-DAY LARVA
A larva of '21 days appears in Figure 1 :!•">. In total length it measures
only 8.3 mm, but its increase in girth has ben in much greater propor-
tion. The spines on the margin of the preopercle have grown in length
and can be seen to be united by a membranous web. The acute angle of
the peropercle is lost and it is now quite broadly rounded. Other elements
of the operculum can be seen just beyond the margin of the preopercle
as a vague narrow crescent, poorly defined against the underlying gill
membranes. The eyes are beginning to migrate dorsally and their anterior
surfaces are covered with a heavy layer of melanin. The otic capsule is
now a trilobate structure being encroached upon by the folds of the brain
and the dorsal extension of the operculum.
^^s **»'** -*■ '-r*L - - -'- v v . ^^&
§(5) Jgi ••::1^3^-_^;^^ss^ . ■ -
Figure 135. Twenty-seven day larva. Total length 8.3 mm.
- -
■ • am in length but have
- - b st the mottled back-
■ - ppeared as small
- - -
- - ••_■■- at. From the ends
- - - - ihe anal fin can now be seen to be
■ -■ • ' ■ adal except that they
They are most dense and
gradually - stinet at their
subtly into the finfold. On the
suras, the soft dorsal rays
t of the soft - s from the ends
5 early as the similar development
- - - . ts rate is rapid and at
- ■ _ - - ■ - s of the two fins are about equal in
the sofil - th. fkif olds has produced marked
sen from the figure. The
:te different. The spines appear at
s of th* interneurals remaining imbedded
• • - | - entire development. From the outset, the
- sharply defined and are thus easily
_• - ] - . ■ - - The appearance of the
in that they are now longer and slightly
oiward deflection, the end of the vertebral eol-
_ ■ ■ ;rve. Their outgrowth has carried
jin leaving the outline with a
- - -.1 spines in the caudal region are
this 1
_■ • - the outlines of almost all of the
I
-" ges appear to be somewhat
s of 1 gjh. this i -duetion may
larvae have a much lighter coloration.
. - . te that this change in coloration
■-- - " benthonic habit. A large niel-
premaxillary and the latter
Melanophores have appeared
■ - " " Melanin, both diffuse
- - . s, is 'it in the region medial to the
9 a melanin, and
"he anterior one-thir
- nedsoi - diffuse melanin.
- -id. nape, and body cavity now
.re now
• ear at their respective
I
TH RTY- FOUR -DAY LARVA
. . J mal died. am -
f th< i uncle a' rer 'he body
ue and the contours
ilar
..HLT DEV. .
::.argin of the preoperele now appears to follow
the membrane which inelndes the preoperenlar spines
ntinued its upward migration
:' the most anterior visible elements of the brain. The
psule has become darker, obscuring the detail me-
dial *
fins have now acquired suJr
in 1* it deta
Spines o the median
he most
itly and about 8 or 1' I .iddle or vided inl
posterior end of I
■
ils and interhaemals.
-
S
stribul juate
in the figure.
■
~ :. on the spines that fin. S
:»ear on " ral fin and r
3
- 'f melanophores on v
•he anal " f this series :owe
y upward inl .udal fin and are in intii-
the I indant throughon
and head, and 1 — n in th I
phores are pr ~ -rtheb«» - -rspa
the melanop: - are also heo r.ead
about one-half its length, the indi
the: - i-oming smaller posteriorly.
oment two small spines were noted
-aeh otie capsule
attained a maximum length of about 0
appeared like developing cirri H re transiti
rhe larva showed that the
phied. Their si s :-ent back toward the boo
eneased in a low. fleshy cap. From this point on. their identi
pletely lost. Als lays here formed in the 1
t—i
( Al.li'Mi;\ | .\ ri-ll AMI CA.MI.
ctly back of the descending gut a peneil-like downward extrusion
arkened material. It grew rapidly bu1 developed some curvature and
therefore did not extend below the venter. At seven weeks this had
enlarged and developed mure curvature and was assumed to be part of
the urogenital system.
SEVEN-WEEK LARVA
Although it is not yet fully metamorphosed, The animal now leads
anal s1 :clusively demersal existence.
preoperele has undergone striking change. Its uppermost spine
s engthened greatly and to a lesser extent one or two directly below it
have also grown. The remainder of the preopercular spines have become
included in The solidified margin of The preoperele and cannot now be
n e upper spines are still quite delicate and are difficult to make
out in The Lateral view, due To The increase of pigment in that area. The
]• jaw extends below the angle of The preoperele and That angle is
s1 under a fleshy covering. The other elements of the gill covers have
grown considerably but are as yet indistinguishable.
Anion- The specimens There is a great discrepancy regarding the
position of The eves at this time. In some They lie almost at the outline
of The head but in most they are in about the position shown in Fig-
ure 137. Tlie melanin cap of the eye now extends down on each side of
the eyeball. Each of the olfactory capsules now bears a robust spine
and both pairs of nares are visible.
The pectoral fins have become heavy with rays well defined in their
proximal portions. The ends of the rays are still flattened and grade into
the surrounding membrane, except the lowermost four or five which are
clearly defined for their entire length. Segmentation is (dear in all of the
rays and The membrane is incised heTween the ends of the lower five. The
pelvic fins have increased greatly in length and the rays can be made out
but a spine cannot be s<
In the spinous dorsal, the centrally located spines have become ele-
vated and all spines have grown in length. In the soft dorsal and anal
fins, the ray>. are divided into two or three segments and are clearly
defined except at their distal ends where they are still flat and "brush-
like."" The caudal rays show comparable development except in the dor-
sal and ventral edges where they merge and are without separate iden-
tities. In the tail the haemal spines have fused into a hypural plate which
has a conspicuous thickening extending down and back from the proxi-
mal end of the urostvle.
. s .-^.„.^,
Figure 137. Seven-week larva. Total length 10.8 mm.
EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF CLINOCOTTUS RECALVUS 297
The melanophores over the body cavity are quite indistinct due to
the increased thi<-knps> of the body wall. The distribution of the melano-
phores over the head is adequately shown in Figure 137. Large mela-
nophores are found on the rays of the pectoral fins, forming three or four
ill-defined bars across the latter. Over the dorsum, the posterior spread
of melanophores from tin- nape has extended laterally and reaches mid-
way between the origin of the pectoral fins and the anus. These mela-
nophores extend forward over the base of the pectoral fin and are con-
tinuous with those which originated there. Melanophores lying in close
iciation with the spines of the dorsal form three reasonably well-
defined bars across that fin. A few small melanophores are also found
in the membrane. Two small areas of melanophores are found on the dor-
sum near the junction of the spinous and soft dorsal fins. Little change
is to be noted in the series of melanophores along the ventral surfac<
the tail except that the anterior ones are becoming obscured by the
thickening of the body. Melanin on the spinal cord has continued to
increase. Xanthophores have increased in number and have spread pos-
teriorly so that they are now found over the entire body. Larger xan-
thophores are conspicuous '>n the spinal cord. The increase in intensity
of the coloration of the xantliopln.i-.-N is steady and after the sixth week
of development there were some which could probably !>•• termed erythro-
phores. These reddish pigment cells are now particularly conspicuous
over the head and along the lateral midline of the body, back to about
the vertical of the anus. Guanophores made their appearance on the
opercular elements of some of the S] imens at six weeks of a'_r-- and at
seven weeks they are --till difficult to study and can be seen only under
optimum conditions. The pale, translucent >_rr«->-!i pigment common in
the flesh of - ttids was first noted about the head and pectoral
regions when the larvae were about six weeks old.
The ann> has moved anteriorly and has caused the trunk to become
somewhat shorter and deeper in relation to the size and shape of the head.
% Iii Figure 138 appear the
i rcular el ts at eighl
l/y 0 of age. At this time the long spine
fer??^^/ c n ot" T^ie PreoPercle is develop
- — ^^ / ^ a slight upward curve and the
PO - /" } / remaining spines have been lost
/ I I through — "ion of their mem-
10 " i~* I J branous investment. The bony di-
I [/ visions of the gill cover can be
/ y clearly seen.
J y/ < l<>se examination of the pel-
^^^ vie fin at eight weeks shows the
Figure 13S. Opercular elements at eight spine developing in intimate aS£
weeks. PO = preopercle : O = opercle ; SO = • , • • 1 1 n
subopercle ; IO = interopercle. CiatlOn With the first SOf t ray.
TEN-WEEK FISH
The larger specimens of 10-week-old fish are about 20.0 mm. in total
length. The 1S.0 mm. specimen represented in Figure 139 was killed
prior to preparation of the drawing and a< a result the rays of the
pectoral fins are pulled together, the gill covers are flared, and the
mvotomes are obscured.
298
< \I.II''mi;\] \ PISH ami GAME
The preopercle with its long curved spine is quite conspicuous.
Growth <>r tin- livvihv uv.t tlir iiilicr iipcrcular elements obscures their
margins excepl for pari of the line demarking the interoperele from
tin- subopercle. The lower angle of the preopercle is also overgrown. The
opercle imu extends back and its upper lobe lies over the base of the
pectoral fin. The principal exil of the water passing over the gills is
marked by ;i wide, well-defined groove at the upper limit of the oper-
culum. Both pairs of nares have developed definite tubes by this time.
The eyes have advanced so thai they now form part of the outline
of the head. Melanin in tl \<'s has increased somewhat, following the
pattern previously described. The lower halves of the pectoral fins now
have incised margins and their rays are well defined.
re 139. Ten-week fish. Total length 18.0 mm.
The membrane of the anal fin shows slight incision. The dorsal fins
show no significant change. The caudal rays are well defined except at
the distal ends which do not reach the margin of the fin. From their
termination to the margin of the membrane, they are represented by
delicate undulating lines, several of which extend out from the end of
each ray. If such a condition existed in any of the other fins during
their development, it was overlooked.
The large dendritic melanophores seen throughout the development
in various parts of the body now persist only on the pectoral fin where
they form three or four ill-defined bars on or close to the rays. Two rows
of somewhat smaller melanophores are situated across the base of the
pectoral fins. At this time, the color of the fish is imparted dominantly
by erythrophores which have shown great increase in numbers. They
are now found on all parts of the body and occasionally a few are seen
in the membranes of the fins. Whether or not the domination of this
particular pigment is due to environmental conditions is not known.
The general patterns followed by the red and yellow are the same. Over
the head and anterior one-half of the trunk, xanthophores are abundant
and in close association with the erythrophores. Posteriorly, the xan-
thophores are less frequent. Melanophores are also present in the con-
centrations of erythrophores over the areas where the former are shown
in Figure 137, but their posterior spread has been, with exception of a
few isolated individuals, masked by the increasing abundance of guano-
phores. These last mentioned pigment cells cover the melanophores
quite effectively but are not prominent in the areas dominated by red
and yellow. A concentration of guanophores forms a pale triangle over
the head which is surrounded by broad, dark lines formed by concen-
trations of red, yellow, and black. The base of the triangle extends across
EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF CLIXOCOTTUS RECALVUS
299
the head at about the posterior margin of the eyes, and its apex is formed
by two dark lines converging just anterior to the origin of the spinous
dorsal. The lateral angles of this triangle are directly above the spine of
each preopercle. Heavy pigmentation covers the anterior surface of the
head between the eyes and extends down to cover the anterior two-thirds
of the upper jaws. The region of the operculum and preoperculum, below
and behind the eye, is dominated by a broad band of guanophores. Pos-
terior to the triangle tnenl ioned above is a wide band of somewhat lighter
coloration extending down and forward on each side from aboul the
origin of the spinous dorsal. This is followed by a heavy saddle-shaped
band of red. Posteriorly, bars alternately dominated by guanophores
and erythrophores extend across the back. The red areas are continuous
with a band of erythrophores which originates anteriorly around the
base of the pectoral fin and passes posteriorly. This band lias a wavy
ventral margin. There is a ratlin- isolated patch of red over the caudal
peduncle. Along the sides of the body, about parallel with the vertebral
column, is a band of erythrophores which follows the urostyle in the tail.
'I here is also a vertical hand of ml down the side of the tail from the
vertical of the end of the urostyle. The entire contents of the body
cavity have assumed a heavy v^*\ color hut this is perhaps imparted
h\ the diet of copepods upon which the fish have fed.
Two pores of the hi t »t;i I line system now appear in front of each
eye and two r;m lie seen in the hit erorbit a I space. A slender cirrus now
appears over, and just posterior to, each eye. Well-defined scales occur
along the lateral line from the posterior margin of the operculum
to aboul the vertical of the anus. These scales 1 ome less distinct
posteriorly.
FOURTEEN-WEEK FISH
Figure 140 represents a fish 14 weeks of age, measuring 24.3 mm.
in total length. At this time it may he treated satisfactorily with the
taxonomic keys id' Bolin i 1!'4 1 . Color changes include heavier develop-
ment of melanophores, guanophores, and erythrophores in the areas
where they earlier appeared, as well as a general spread of melanophores
caudally, the latter coming to occupy those areas formerly held by the
red and yellow pigments alone. Bars of melanophores show plainly on
the two dorsal tins and a similar effect produced by erythrophores is
present on the caudal. Four or five bars of melanophores are present on
the pectoral fins. The pelvies and anal remain unmarked. The ground
Figure 140. Fourteen-week fish. Total length 24.3 mm.
:«)() ( ALIFOKNIA FISH AND GAME
color of the entire animal is a yellowish green and is much lighter than
thai of adull specimens. The scales which appeared temporarily in the
anterior one-third of the lateral line are overgrown by skin. The post-
orbital cirrus of each side is now followed by three more cirri and three
or four lie .11 intervals along the anterior part of the lateral line. The
spin.' of the preopercle has become shortened and thickened. The anus
lies well in the middle one-third of the distance between the base of the
pelvic tins and the origin of the anal.
According to Bolin (1944), the young of Clinocottus globict ps
Girard . when ;it this stage of development, are indistinguishable from
those "I' Clinocottus recalvus on the basis of morphology, and cue must
rely on the range to make the determination. This difficulty is due to
the late development of cirri in the anterior half of the interorbital space
in Clinocottus globia /is. these not making their appearance until the
specimens are at least 35 mm. in length.
Beyond the stages of development dealt with in the present paper,
adequate descriptions are to be found in the literature.
REFERENCES
Bolin, Rolf L.
1941. Embryonic and early larval stages of the cottid fish Orthonopias triads
Starks and Mann. Stanford Iehthyol. Bull., vol. 2, no. 3, p. 73-82, 25 figs.
1'.i44. A review of the marine cottid fishes of California. Ibid., vol. 3, no. 1, p. 1-135,
4d figs.
Budd, Paul L.
L940. Development of the eggs and early larvae of six California fishes. Calif. Div.
Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 56, 53 p., 13 ids.
Eigenmann, Carl H.
1890. On the egg membranes and micropyle of some osseous fishes. Harvard Mus.
Comp. Zool., Bull., vol. 19, no. 2, p. 129-ir,4. '■'• pis.
1892. The fishes of San Diego, California. U. S. Nat. Mus., Proa, vol. 15, no. 897,
p. 123-17S, 9 pis.
Wilson. Henry Y.
ls-.il. The embryologj of the sea bass I Serranus atrarius). U. S. Fish Comm., Bull.,
v..l. '.». lss-.i. P. 209-277. 20 pis.
PLASTIC DETERIORATION AND METAL CORRO
SION IN PETERSEN DISK FISH TAGS1
By A. J. < 'alhoi n
I '.hi. -.hi >>\ Fish < Jonserval ion
and
l». II. Fey, -Ik., and E. P. in ghes
Bureau of Marine Fisheries
INTRODUCTION
Petersen-type tags are currently bring used extensively along the
Pacific Coast from California to Alaska in connection with fish tagging
programs ran^i ng fr very simple migration sunlit to elaborate and
precise population determinations. They have been used on more than
:!<) species of fishes in California alone.
These tags consisl of tun plastic disks beld againsl the fish by a pin
through both disks and some part of the fish's bodj usually the base
of the dorsal fin or the caudal peduncle. Tin- disks ride on the pins like
wheels on an axle. A tag in place on a starry flounder is shown in
Figure 141.
For some time the wriiers have been disturbed by the loss of tags
due t<> corrosion of the pins in salt water and to breakage of the disks,
and the effect that such losses could ha\ i the validity "!' conclusions
drawn Prom certain types of tagging experiments. This concern led to
the aquarium testing of various metals commonly used with Petersen
disks and to the critical examination of disks and pins returned from
tish tallied at sea which, in turn, provided the material for this progress
report. Results of corrosion and deterioration tests accumulate slowly,
and it seemed desirable to make this information immediatelj available
toother fisheries workers who may be unaware of the serious shortcomings
of some of the metals and plastics in common use for these tags.
It should be noted in passing that the writers do not believe that
the Petersen disk is an ideal fish tag, even when it stays free of metal
corrosion and plastic breakage. The design has many disadvantages. It
is slow to apply, does not allow for much growth of the fish, and is overly
apt to catch on nets. Some advantages are that it is less apt to be over-
looked than any other well-tested design, and that it can be attached to
a wide variety id' fishes. In certain tagging programs the disadvantages
are serious, and efforts are being made in California and elsewhere to
develop a different type of tag which will overcome them. Meanwhile,
disk tags are commonly the most suitable type available ; hence their
widespread use.
We wish to express our appreciation to Dr. E. S. Herald of the
Steinhart Aquarium, San Francisco, and to members of his staff for
1 Submitted for publication March, 1951.
i 301 i
302
< \l.ll'iil;\ I \ 11-11 AM> GA ME
J
Figure 141. Starry flounder (Platichthys stellatus) with Petersen disk tag in place.
The wire passes through the fish and holds a second disk in place on its far side. The
knotlike twist of the wire shown here is in general use on the Pacific Coast. Photograph
by D. H. Fry, Jr.
their wholehearted cooperation. Without the facilities of the aquarium,
the work would have been far more difficult and less conclusive.
DETERIORATION OF PLASTIC DISKS
The disks used by the California Division of Fish and Game have
been fabricated from several different materials. They are cut from
plastic sheets built up of three thin laminations. One member of each
pair is serially numbered and the other carries brief instructions to the
finder. The printing is on the middle, opaque layer, and the two outer
layers are transparent. Laminating serves the double function of protect-
ing the printing and strengthening the disk. This design has been used
widely and found to be generally satisfactory.
Cellulose Nitrate
The earliest disk tags used by the Division were made of cellulose
nitrate (celluloid). They were a half inch in diameter (12.7 mm.) and
0.030 inches thick (0.76 mm.). They proved entirely satisfactory for the
first few years after manufacturing. However, after six to eight years of
storage they became somewhat brittle, and an appreciable number of
those placed on salmon cracked while the fish were on the spawning beds.
No cracking was noted when some of these same tags were used recently
on striped bass. Much smaller numbers were involved in the latter in-
stance, and the tags were not subjected to the battering they received on
spawning salmon.
DETERIORATION AND CORROSION IN DISK FISH TAGS 303
In a more recent order of cellulose nitrate tags, the disks were larger
(iVinch diameter). They showed no tendency to crack in spite of the
extra strain imposed by the larger diameter.
The desirability of greater thickness in nitrate tags to further in-
crease their strength remains to be evaluated.
Two later orders were filled with cellulose acetate and with Vinylite
disks, used by others and presumed to be satisfactory. They have had
serious shortcomings, which are outlined below, and recent efforts to
reorder nitrate tags have met with difficulties; few manufacturers will
now handle, the material because of the fire hazard involved. Moreover,
w ith the advent of the newer, less-inflammable plastics, nitrate is becom
ing increasingly difficult to obtain in .sheet form. A manufacturer willing
to fill an order for nitrate tags has recently been located. However, judg-
ing from the difficulties encountered in locating this source, they may
eventually be unobtainable.
Cellulose Acetate
Our first acetate tags were ^-inch in diameter and 0.030 inch
thick. Workmanship was excellent, hut the acetate was softer and more
flexible than t he nitrate. Moreover, this material absorbs a relatively large
amouni of water, scarcely an advantage in a plasl ic fish tag. These acetate
tags were satisfactory od flatfish, but they were an alarming failure on
salmon. After a spawning migration which is often Long and rough, the
salmon dig nests and Sgh1 vigorously on the spawning grounds. The final
result is thai thej damage the acetate tags to an extenl unapproached by
any other species studied. Al s1 as many salmon were recovered in the
spawning grounds with fresh tag scars and no tags as with tags still in
place. Most of the disks recovered were battered, cracked, and ready to
fall off. Typical examples are shown in the bottom row in Figure 14'2.
Pin corrosion may have caused shedding in a few instances, but most of
the loss could he attributed with certainty to failure of the disks. Fre-
quently, one disk would break off entirely, and the other would be recov-
ered with the pin. Most of these salmon were tagged in fresh water and
recovered so soon that pin corrosion was not a consideration. Such fish
could be distinguished by absence of the adipose fin, which was removed
when they were tagged.
Following this unfortunate experience with cellulose acetate, we
decided to return to nitrate tags, but at that time we were unable to find
anyone who would make them. In desperation, an order was placed for
cellulose acetate disks a half inch in diameter and 0.045 inches thick, the
maximum thickness which the maker's lamination press could handle
without spoiling the printing. It was hoped that the reduced diameter
and increased thickness would give greater strength. These tags have
proved reasonably successful even on salmon. They show far more
scratches, cuts, and wear than do the nitrate disks, but they will get us
by if nitrate cannot be obtained. Twenty king salmon carrying these
thick acetate disks were recovered after spawning by Marine Fisheries
field men. One tag was missing and one was damaged enough to weaken
it slightly. The remaining 38 were in good condition. Twenty-five tagged
king salmon were among the fish taken for spawning purposes by the
Coleman Hatchery crew. There was one tag missing and one bent and
cracked. The remaining 48 were in good condition. Salmon held in a
I A.LIPORN I \ l IMI AM) CAME
Figure 142. Defective tags. The single disk in the top row is Vinylite and broke while
on a striped bass {Roccus saxatilis). Note the sharp fracture, which is typical of this
material. The three tags in the bottom row are cellulose acetate (0.030 inch thick,
Vie inch diameter). They were recovered from spawned-out king salmon (Oncorhyn-
chus tshawytscha) and are all too typical of thin acetate tags recovered on the spawn-
ing beds. Photograph by D. H. Fry, Jr.
hatchery pen will damage tags but usually the collective damage is not
as severe as on the spawning grounds.
Vinylite
While men working with salmon were having trouble with cellulose
acetate tags, another crew was tagging striped bass with Vinylite disks
of the sort used earlier for this species on the Atlantic Coast (Merriman,
1941). They proved to be unduly brittle. Sharply cracked disks were
returned frequently. The one shown in the top row in Figure 142 is
typical. Use of this material has been discontinued in favor of cellulose
nitrate, for which a source has recently been found. However, if the
latter cannot be obtained in the future, it will be desirable to compare
the qualities of the thicker (0.045 inch) acetate tags with Vinylite ones
of the same thickness. The brittleness of the latter material may prove to
be less of a disadvantage than the weakness of acetate.
CORROSION OF METAL WIRES
Corrosion tests have been performed at the Steinhart Aquarium on
Monel wire of two types, nickel pins of two batches, nickel wire, stainless
steel wire and tantalum wire. Some Monel strap tags were also tested. Of
these, only stainless steel and tantalum show real promise.
The tests were carried out by tagging striped bass (Roccas saxatilis)
about 15 inches long, and examining them at such irregular intervals as
our other work would permit. Tags were attached under the first dorsal
DETERIORATION AXD CORROSION IN DISK FISH TAGS
305
fin, under the second dorsal, and on the caudal peduncle. Most of the fish
had three sets of tags.
Some of the metals used in these tests are commonly supposed to be
rather immune to the action of sea water but actually corroded rapidly
to the point of failure. Such corrosion appears to have been at least
partially due to a concentration-cell effect. This phenomenon is related
to the much better known galvanic action. Galvanic action occurs when
two unlike metals are immersed in an electrolyte such as sea water. A
concent ration-cell action occurs when one metal is immersed in two con-
centrations of an electrolyte or in two unlike electrolytes. The body fluids
of the fish and the ocean water are evidently sufficiently different to
cause such corrosion in some metals which would easily withstand a simple
immersion test.
The writers considered the possibility that conditions in the
aquarium might be more corrosive than in the ocean, and that corrosion
of one metal might vary among different species of fishes ; hence, careful
examination was made of returned tags from all the fish being recovered
in central and northern California. This demonstrated thai nickel pins
corroded more rapidly in the aquarium than in the ocean, hut they did
corrode in both places. This difference could not he demonstrated with
other materials. As possible reasons for the difference, we mighf mention
that by comparison with tl ■•■an off central California, the aquarium
water averages a few degrees warmer, is less well buffered, and contains
far more excretory products. In addition, the aquarium tanks nave metal
drain pipes, which might induce a minor amount of electrolysis. Also, the
pins were only on striped bass in the aquarium tests and only on other
species in field tests.
As for the relative effects of different species of fishes on corrosion
in general, we can state that nickel pins showed serious corrosion when
used on such unrelated forms as sharks, sturgeon, salmon, striped bass,
and flatfishes.
Nickel
Nickel has been used widely in tagging marine fishes. Its short-
comings have apparently not been generally appreciated. In aquarium
experiments begun in 1049. 20 of the nickel pins then in use in California
TABLE 1
Chemical Composition of Nickel Pins and Nickel Wire1
Nickel wire
Nickel pins
(Soft, for use on
flatfish)
Nickel pins
(Medium hard, for
use on salmon)
Nickel.
Manganese..
Copper
Iron
Cobalt
Titanium
Magnesium..
Molybdenum
Silicon
Aluminum
Chromium . _
99.05%
.30% to
.03% to
.03% to
.03% to
less than
less than
less than
less than
less than
less than
3%
0.30%
0.30%
0.30%
.03%
.03%
.03%
.03%
.03%
.03%
99.11%
.30% to
.03% to
.03% to
.03% to
less than
less than
less than
less than
less than
less than
3%
0.30%
0.30%
0.30%
.03%
.03%
.03%
.03%
.03%
.03%
99.19%
.30% to
less than
.03% to
.03% to
less than
less than
less than
less than
less than
less than
3%
.03%
0.30%
0.30%
.03%
.03%
.03%
.03%
.03%
.03%
1 Analysis by Abbot A. Haules, Inc., San Francisco. Elements other than nickel were determined spectro-
graphically.
306 I \l.ll-'"k\|.\ PISH AM) GAME
were tested with plastic Petersen i.\ pe disks on striped bass, as previously
described. The diameter of these pins was n.ii.",-_> inch. Their chemical
composition is given in Table 1. Ten pins of each of the two types shown
in the table were used. These tags were placed beneath either t lie first or
second dorsal fin. At the end of seven months, the fish were removed for
careful examination of the various kinds of wire which were being tested.
Nineteen of the 20 tags in which the nickel pins had been used had fallen
off as a dired resull of pin corrosion. The single remaining one was so
badly corroded that the tag was on the verge of falling off. Typical ex-
amples of these corroded pins are shown in Figure 143, A to E. There
was a peculiar hollowing oui of manj pins, leaving only atissue-thin shell
of metal for pari of their Length. This hollowing was the most common
type of corrosion encountered in nickel pins in both field and aquarium.
A fair proportion of those corroded in this manner were mirror bright
ob the mi it side and showed no external break that could be detected with
the oaked eye. Mos1 such pins were discovered by bending the wire — the
hollow ones broke. It is interesting to note that nickel wire which had not
I n formed into pins showed no such behavior.
At the time that these experiments were started, the Bureau of
Marine Fisheries was getting returns from fair numbers of ocean-tagged
salmon and assorted species of bottom fishes. Disk tags and nickel pins
had been used exclusively. The returned pins were classified as un-
corroded, corroded but not seriously weakened, or seriously weakened by
corrosion. Tarnish was not classified as corrosion. The record of 158
salmon tag pins is shown in Table 2 and 75 pins from nine species of
bottom fish are recorded in Table 3. Some bottom fish returns were out
over 400 days and some salmon returns were out over 700 clays.
Figure 143. (opposite page)
A. Nickel pin, 0.032 inch (0.81 mm.) diameter, field test. Note the longitudinal
crack, under which the pin was hollow. Such cracks are difficult or impossible
to see with the naked eye. This pin was on a green sturgeon (Acipenser
medirostris) for 198 days.
B. Nickel pin, 0.032 inch (0.81 mm.) diameter, field test, after 151 days on a king
salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha). The shaft has hollowed near the head
of the pin.
C. Nickel pin, 0.032 inch (0.81 mm.) diameter, field test, returned from an English
sole (Parophrys vetulus) after 273 days. This pin is hollow near the tip, and
a thread was passed through the nearly detached piece at the end to demon-
strate its hollowness.
D. Nickel pin, 0.032 inch (0.81 mm.) diameter, field test, showing surface cor-
rosion. This pin was on a king salmon for 492 days.
E. Nickel pin, 0.032 inch (0.81 mm.) diameter, aquarium test, showing hollow-
ing at both ends. It was hollow for 5/ie inch at the tip. It was placed on a flatfish
in the aquarium and found on the tank bottom 2 32 days later. Though in the
aquarium, this fish was not used in the regular series of tests outlined in the
text.
F. Nickel wire, 0.036 inch (0.91 mm.) diameter, field test, returned after 205 days
on a 29-inch striped bass (Roccus saxatilis). Note the surface corrosion. Unlike
the pins, the wire did not become hollow.
G. Hard silver wire, 0.036 inch (0.91 mm.) diameter, field test, showing an in-
cipient break resulting from repeated bending. Similar "necks" in two returned
wires broke in handling before they could be photographed. The one shown
was prepared by flexing a piece of the silver wire. One wire reached this condi-
tion after 132 days on a 22-inch striped bass in the field.
H. Monel wire, 0.036 inch (0.91 mm.) diameter, field test, showing a pitting type
of corrosion. Note that the tip has corroded through and dropped off. This tag
was returned after 228 days on a striped bass.
I. Monel wire, 0.036 inch (0.91 mm.) diameter, aquarium test, after about seven
months on a striped bass. Note. the shredding type of corrosion. All tags in
this test involving Monel had fallen off within 232 days from corrosion, and
were collected from the tank bottom. Photograph by D. H. Fry, Jr.
DETERIORATION AND CORROSION IN DISK FISH TAGS 307
-
I \! IR'RXIA FISH AND GAME
There appears to be no demonstrable difTerenee between species. Of
the pins which had been <>ut more than 200 days, corrosion had affected
34 percenl of those od salmon and 32 percent of the ones on bottom
fishes.
TABLE 2
Corrosion of Nickel Pins on Salmon
1 >:i\ - out
0-99
100-199
200-499
500-799
Total
42
0
0
56
1
3
22
2
8
15
3
6
135
roded but not seriously weak-
6
Number seriously weakened by corrosion ..
17
42
0
60
6.7
32
31
24
37.5
158
Also of interest was the tendency of the incidence of corrosion
among returned pins to level off (at something over 30 percent), rather
than to continue increasing indefinitely. One plausible explanation is as
follows. Suppose that the pins remain uncorroded for a period which
varies greatly but is always over 100 days, and that each day thereafter
a small number starts to corrode. The number of corroded pins will then
increase as time passes, but eventally the corroded pins will start break-
ing. If the number breaking each day is the same as the number starting
to coiinde. there will be no further increase in the number of corroded
but unbroken) pins.
Nickel wire 0.036 inch in diameter cut into lengths and knotted at
both ends has also been used in a preliminary way on striped bass in
California. This material was tested in the same aquarium experiment
with the nickel pins described above and stood up a great deal better.
None of the nine wires tested showed any evidence of corrosion after
seven months. Even after 19 months, the four which remained on fish
appeared as good as new ; nor had the other five which had been removed
along the way been corroded. Differences in the chemical composition of
the pins and the wire were at first believed responsible for the apparent
discrepancy. However, this was ruled out when a chemical analysis, out-
lined in Table 1, revealed no differences of any consequence. Location of
all the wires on the caudal peduncle, and all the pins further forward
on the back of the fish, where they passed through more tissue, may have
had something to do with it, although this seems improbable. Further
confusion arises from the fact that badly corroded tag wires cut from this
same coil have been returned from wild striped bass after less than a year.
An example is shown in Figure 143F. This latter fact, coupled with the
behavior of the nickel pins, already discussed, is proof enough of the
general unsuitability of this metal for salt-water tagging. Work with it
has accordingly been discontinued, despite the many intriguing ques-
tions which remain unanswered.
DETERIORATION AXD CORROSION* IN DISK FISH TAGS 309
Monel
On the basis of information provided by the International Nickel
Company, Monel metal appeared to be a promising material for use with
Petersen disks on salt-water fish. A representative of this company rec-
ommended it highly in 1!'4S. lie was convinced of its superiority over
nickel for our purposes. The success experienced with Monel strap tags
on halibut (Thompson and Sherrington, 1930) supported his conviction.
Accordingly, this material was tried in a preliminary field test with sev-
eral hundred striped bass in 1948. Soft-temper Monel metal wire. 0.036
inch in diameter, was used. A parallel aquarium test was carried on
with 20 fish of the same species in a salt water tank at Steinhart Aqua-
rium. All 20 of the wires used in this latter experiment had corroded
sufficiently to cause loss of the tags after only six months. A photograph
of a typical wire is shown in Figure 1431.
This experimenl was subsequently repeated with another 20 Monel
wires, using K) from the same coil and 1<> Prom a differenl hatch of metal.
The results were essentially the same. None of the tags stayed on longer
than seven months, and corrosion was responsible for their loss. More
over, Monel metal strap tags placed on the opercles of eight of these same
fish also corroded rapidly.
These developments were baffling in view of the success experienced
by the Intei-national Fisheries Commission, already mentioned. Differ-
ences in environmental conditions, in the fish themselves, or in the alloys
used could explain tic discrepancy.
At first it was believed that some peculiar electrolytic or chemical
condition in the aquarium had produced a greatly increased rate of cor-
rosion of the Monel metal wires over that which would have occurred in
the ocean. However, the subsequent return of one of these same wires
corroded almost to the breaking point after exactly one year on a wild
striped bass suggested that essentially the same thing was happening in
the ocean where it would, of course, be somewhat retarded, since in Cali-
fornia these fish ordinarily move into fresh water during the winter-. A
photograph of a corroded Monel metal wire after 228 days on a wild
striped bass is shown in Figure 143H. It is now obvious, on the basis of
the aquarium experiments and additional corroded returns from wild
fish, that Monel metal is also unsuitable for use in tagging salt-water
fishes. Much better materials are available for the purpose.
Silver
Silver was turned to as one of the possibilities worth investigating
after nickel and Monel metal were found wanting. Several hundred
striped bass were tagged with disk tags and cold-rolled silver wire (0.03fi
inch in diameter) in a preliminary field test in 1950. A sizable number
has already been returned, none corroded. However, this metal has
proved to be unsuitable, because of its physical characters. The con-
tinual working which it undergoes on a strong and active fish, such as a
striped bass, soon produces a sharply localized hour-glass type of attentu-
ation. Returned wires have characteristically shown this, and have fre-
quently been on the point of breaking after being out less than nine
months. It is readily possible to reproduce this in a piece of silver wire
by working it a few times with the fingers. This was done to produce the
310
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DETERIORATION' AXD CORROSION IN DISK FISH TAGS
311
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example shown in Figure 143G which is essentially similar in appearance
to many of those actually returned from fish.
Silver is clearly nol tin* answer to the problem and testing lias been
discontinued.
Stainless Steel
This w;is another of the metals given serious consideration when
nickel ami Monel metal proved unsatisfactory. It appeared promising
in the light of information supplied by Scandinavian fisheries workers.1
although local metallurgists who were consulted feared that, being an
alloy, ii mighl behave in the same way as Monel metal.
A.ctive testing of stainless steel is now under way. Results to date are
highly promising, bu1 it is still too early for final conclusions.
Ten stainless steel w ires, type 302,2 diameter 0.032 inch, were tested
on striped bass in a -alt-water aquarium tank. None showed evidence
of corrosion after seven months. Alter 13 months, three of the 10 tags
remained in place, and the wires showed no evidence of corrosion.
The actual record is better than this might indicate, for three tags had
been removed for examination, three were shed or lost through the death
of the fish, and one was lost when a plastic disk (Vinylite) cracked and
fell off. None of these seven showed any signs of corrosion. After 19
months the two remaining wires similarly were imcorroded. All of these
stainless steel wires were located on the caudal peduncle. It will be
recalled that this was also the case with the nickel wires which failed to
corrode.
In a second aquarium experiment, still in progress, the same type
and diameter stainless steel wire from another source was tested in a
similar manner. After nine months. II of the original 12 were still in
place, and a careful examination revealed no evidence of corrosion. How-
ever, there was characteristically about one-fourth inch of slack. These
tags were all located beneath either the first or second dorsal.
It is also too early for final conclusions from field tests on stainless
steel in California, but the available evidence is favorable. Examination
of a small number of returns of type 302 stainless steel wires from salmon
and striped bass has revealed no corrosion, but none had been out more
than eight months.
It is interesting to note that Cable (1950) reports success with
stainless steel rivets and plastic disks on shad (Alosa).
Stainless steel wire has certain physical characteristics which are
distinct disadvantages:
It is difficult to twist properly when locking the second tag disk
in place. Even "dead soft" wire refuses to twist into a neat, compact
"knot." To a person casually handling such wire, it seems much more
flexible than (for example) our nickel pins, but the nickel will readily
twist into a short radius curve and make a compact knot. The stainless
steel will not, and efforts to make it do so are apt to injure the fish. The
diameter of the wire has a great influence on this lack of short radius
flexibility. Some o.O.'iii-jnch-diameter wire proved to be entirely useless
1 The information was obtained bv correspondence with Messrs. Einar Lea, Bergen,
Norway, and Ph. Wolf, Malmo, Sweden.
2 Composition of type 302 stainless steel, as denned by the American Iron and Steel
Institute, is as follows: carbon 0.08-0.20 percent, manganese 2.0 percent maximum,
silicon 1.0 percent maximum, phosphorus 0.0 1 percent maximum, sulphur 0.03 percent
maximum, chrominum 17.0-19.0 percent, nickel 8.0-10.0 percent, remainder "iron."
DETERIORATION AXD CORROSION IX DISK FISH TAGS 313
for tagging. The 0.032-inch wire of the same temper was much better
and has been used for all of our aquarium and field work.
A second difficulty has to do with the tags developing slack while
on the fish. This appears to be partly due to the wire working its way
through the flesh of the fish and partly to the tag disks pulling a little
extra slack out of the loose knots described in the preceding paragraph.
In our aquarium experiments, stainless steel tags had an average of
a little over one-fourth inch of slack after nine months. At best, Petersen
disk tags are overly susceptible to catching in nets and a slack tag with
a poor knot is worse than average.
Stainless steel pins should be an improvement over wire in that
they would have a knot on one end only. We have contacted 1 7 pin manu-
facturers to date and none was willing to make pins ou1 of this material.
One final inconvenience of stainless steel is quickly discovered by
every tagger. When lids wire is cut with a pair of pliers, it takes on a
razor-sharp tip that will slice into any flesh it touches.
Tantalum
Tantalum is a comparatively rare metal. We have not yet had time
to test it thoroughly, but to date the only apparent disadvantage is its
cost (about 1") cents for a wire 0.032 inch by three inches — enough for
one tag).
This metal is used in human surgery because it is chemically inert,
does not corrode, and is nontoxic. Tantalum wire possesses about the righl
dcuTi f stiffness l<M' t .- 1 -_: ■_• i 1 1 l: . and ii is easy to twist into a good knot.
There was no evidence of corrosion on any of 15 t ant alum wires used
with disk tags on striped bass in Steinharl Aquarium. These tags had
been in place for nine months when last examined. There seems to be
little tendency for tantalum wires to develop slack.
It was reported to as thai in human surgery flesh will attach to
tantalum. A careful check was made in the aquarium tests to note it' the
fish flesh attached in the wires. In no instance was there any indication
that this was happening with tantalum or any other metal.
Field tests with tantalum have been very limited. The few returns
we have examined show no corrosion.
Plastics
A fairly intensive search has failed to uncover any nonmetallic
filaments promising enough to warrant testing with Petersen disks. Fiber-
glass cuts itself when knotted and subjected to continual working. A great
variety of plastic monofilaments which have been examined are unsuit-
able because they cannot be knotted satisfactorily in the required diam-
eter. However, the search is being continued.
SUMMARY
Failure of the plastic materials used for Petersen-type disk tags
by the California Division of Fish and Game has presented serious prob-
lems. Cellulose nitrate has been the most satisfactory, although it has
tended to become brittle after prolonged storage. Thin cellulose acetate
disks (0.030 inch) seemed satisfactory on flatfish, but have failed badly
on salmon; thicker ones (0.015 inch) have stood up fairly well. Vinyl-
ite disks have been unduly brittle and subject to cracking.
314 « A 1. 1 FoKNIA PISH AND GAME
Corrosion of metal wires used with these disks has been an even
more serious problem. Nickel and Monel metal have proved entirely un-
satisfactory because of their rapid corrosion on salt-water fish. Silver
been unsatisfactory because the wire soon broke. Stainless steel and
tantalum are both highly promising on the basis of preliminary observa-
tions, and they are currently being tested further.
REFERENCES
Cable, Louella B.
1950. A cheek tag for marking fish, with semi-automatic pliers for application of
tag. Cons. Per. hit it. Explor. Mer, Journ. du Cons., rol. 16, no. 2, p. 185-191.
Merriman, I >a trie]
1941. Studies on the striped bass I Roccus saxatilis) of the Atlantic Coast. U. S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, Fisherj Bulletin, vol. 50, no. .'J.', p. 1-77.
Thompson, William F. and William ('. Herrington
1930. Life his tor j of the Pacific halibut. (1) Marking experiments. International
Fisheries Comm., Rept. no. 2, 137 p.
THE RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF SHARKS AND
BAT STINGRAYS IN SAN FRANCISCO BAY1
j:.v 1 ■'. \i:i S. I [EBALD
Steinhart Aquarium. California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco
and \V\j. Ij i rs Ripley
Bureau of Marine Fisheries, California Division of Fish and Game
Through the studies of the California Division of Fish and Game
as well as the catch records of the annual Coyote Point shark derbies,
much information has accumulated on the shark and ba1 stingray popu-
lations in the central and sunt linn portions of San Francisco Bay. These
data, presented herein, should be considered as a preliminary working
basis for future population studies in the Bay area. Most valuable was
the information obtained from the catches of the Fourth Annual Coyote
Point Shark Derby held on Sunday, September 17. 1950. The shark derby
is an event held annually since 1!»47 and sponsored jointly by the San
Mateo Lions Club and the Coyote Point Yacht Club. Through these
sponsoring organizations many prizes are offered each year by local
business men. The awards are made for a wide variety of catches such
as the largest sharks, smallesl shark, largest stingrays, with special
awards for the best father and sun team, best fisherwoman, best fishergirl,
etc. This has stimulated a greal amount of interest as indicated by the
large number of fishermen registered for the yearly derbies. During the
1950 derby all of the fishermen obtained their catches within the area
bounded by Hunter Point on the north, the east side of the channel in
the center of the bay, and the shell mounds about one mile south of San
Mateo Bridge (Figure 144). The majority of the boats fished within
one and one-half miles of Coyote Point. There were no boats fishing on
the east side of the bay although there are good shark fishing localities
within that area.
The 1,406 fishermen registered with the 1950 derby officials turned
in a total of 926 sharks and 89 bat stingray s (total weight 4,216 pounds).2
This count was made by the senior author and Mr. Donald Simpson at
the Royal Tallow and Soap Company on the morning after the derby. It
is known that a number of sharks and bat stingrays were not turned in
and hence not counted, but we have no way of estimating the exact
number. Two rarities were among the catches, i.e., a thresher shark and
a sixgill shark.
The catch data for each species taken during the 1950 shark derby
(September 17) are presented in Table 1 together with a comparison
of the June, 1948, derby catches as well as those made by the Division
of Fish and Game during October and November of 1943. Data on the
1 Submitted for publication December, 1950.
2 Weight does not include 35 soupfin removed from contestants' boats which are
included in the total count. Soupfin are protected in California and may be caught only
in areas in which the depth is 25 fathoms or greater; specific gear is required. Soupfin
may not be caught in San Francisco Bay.
(315)
316
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SHARKS AND BAT STINGRAYS IN SAN FRANCISCO BAY
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SHARKS AND BAT STINGRAYS IN SAN FRANCISCO BAY
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320
< AXJFORNIA FISH AND GAME
1948 derbj catches were taken by the junior author. In addition, the 1943
shark studies were under his direction.
The L943 fishing was divided bet wren two separate areas in the bay
the shaded portions of Figure 144i. tin- southernmost of which corre-
sponds approximately to thai area fished during the annual shark der-
bies. Since the 1943 fishing was carried out during October and Novem-
ber and thai of the 1('~>ii derby during September, these data are more
comparable than thai of the June, 1948, derby.
To compare accurately the relative abundance of the sharks of the
northern pari of the bay with those of the southern section, all data from
the 1943 survey were summarized. Only those data which were com-
parable (sel line-caught sharks) were considered, sharks not included
in the calculations were those taken by trammel net (Station 1, south
bay and by hand lines | Station 6, south bay, and Station 2, north bay),
as well as those taken by one set Line with inadequate data (Station 17,
north h;i.\ . Prom Tables 2 and 3 it will he noted that the total set of
hooks per station ranged between 110 and 880. These tables also
presenl other essential data, i.e.. fishing time and resultant catch by spe-
eies. Total hook minutes were obtained for each set of gear by multiplying
the time fished by the number of hooks used. Combining the records for
all stations, the number of hook minutes was divided into the number of
sharks caught. Division by 60 and multiplication by 100 resulted in a
figure giving the average number of sharks taken per 100 hook-hours of
fishing time. This same method was applied to obtain the catch by species
per 100 hook-hours. The data are presented in Table 4.
TABLE 4
Number of Sharks Caught Per 100 Hook-Hours of Fishing Time
San Francisco Bay: October- November, 1943
Species
North Bay
South Bay
Species
North Bay
South Bay
Brown Smoothhound -
27.31
6.35
1.76
37.55
8.49
27.41
0.35
3.24
Leopard Shark
0.41
All sharks combined
35.78
77.10
From this table the brown smoothhounds are found to be the most
abundant species in both sections of the bay. In the northern section the
order of abundance is brown smoothhound, leopard shark, dogfish, and
soupfin. In the southern section it is brown smoothhound, dogfish, leopard
shark, soupfin and sevengill shark. There were none of the latter species
in the northern section. Table 4 also demonstrates that the south bay is
more than twice as productive as the north bay in terms of all sharks
caught (77.10 sharks per 100 hook hours as compared with 35.78).
To compare all of the data from the various shark derbies with that
of the 1943 survey, it was necessary to use a percentage treatment as the
methods of fishing were too varied to permit application of a standard-
ized unit of effort. Discussion of the south bay Fish and Game catches
(1943), as compared with the 1948 and 1950 shark derbies, will be made
under the individual species. It is cautioned that sharp fluctuations in
abundance for any species from one series of data to the next may result
in a percentage difference in other species, as previously indicated, which
SHARKS AXD BAT STINGRAYS IX SAX FRAXCISCO BAY 321
will be more apparent than real. For example, the drop in the percentage
catch of dogfish between 1943 and 1950 (from 31.9 to 0.5 percent) would
necessarily cause the difference between these two figures to be reflected
as an apparent but not real increase in other species of the 1950 catch.
BROWN SMOOTHHOUND, TRIAKIS HENLEI
Table 1 indicates ;i genera] agreement in the percentage catch of
brown smoothhounds, i.e., 48.2 percent of the south bay shark catch in
1!)43. 4::.!i percent in 194* and 58 percenl in 1950.
Based on an examination of stomach contents, the brown smooth-
hound appears to feed in the bay by preference upon small crabs and
shrimp. In the Aquarium brown smoothhounds musl he handled with care
for they are usually difficuH to keep in good health. At aighl a lighted
bulb must always he in place over the tank, otherwise the smoothhounds
bnmp into the side walls SO often that within one or two weeks the noses
are badly abraded and death results. Gravid females will occasionally
drop their young in the aquarium tanks.
LEOPARD SHARK, TRIAKIS SEMIFASCIATA
Data on the percentage catches for this species are rather erratic
although the northern and southern areas are in agreement i 15.2 versus
13.1 percent for 1943 i. In 1948 the percentage catch jumped to 46.3 per-
cent and in 1950 dropped to 28.2 percent.
The leopard is one of Calif ornia 's toughesl sharks. It can be kept ou1
of water for a considerable time and will revive when again placed in
water. It lives for severa] years in the Aquarium and adapts itself readily
to any ty] f food. Males have been recorded as reaching a maximum
length of :: feet Roedel and Ripley, 1950, p. 51 . Anion- the shark derby
catches were two males of approximately 4.1 feet.
DOGFISH, SQUALUS ACANTHIAS
In the southern section of the hay the dogfish is usually the second
most abundant shark. Consequently, the scarcity of specimens in the
catch of the 1950 shark derby was a source of considerable interest. Only
five dogfish were taken, four adults and one juvenile. The senior author
helped to weigh the sharks taken during the 1949 derby, and although
no count was made at that time, it is estimated that there were at least
35 or 4H of this species. The 1943 (October-November) figures indicate
that the dogfish furnished 31.9 percent of the sharks caught in the south-
ern part of the bay. Yet in September. 1950, the same area yielded only
one-half percent of this species in the total catch.
Foerster (1942) has reported the preliminary results of dogfish
tagging in the British Columbia area. During 1941, 564 dogfish were
tagged in four different groups. From these releases there were 34 recov-
eries. Although the returns indicated much movement during the period
of freedom, it was not possible to demonstrate a migration pattern.
There are three records of tagged dogfish moving from Washington to
Oregon and California for a maximum distance of 760 miles during a
period of 6 to 18 months (Bonham et al., 1949, p. 92). According to Bige-
low and Schroeder (1948, p. 455) the same species of dogfish occurs on
322 CALIFORNIA l [SB A.\l> GAME
tin' Atlantic Coast. In thai area there is no1 only much variation in sea-
sonal abundance, bu1 also a good deal of sudden and erratic local move-
lii' nt from locality to locality. Thus it seems thai there is ;i probability
thai the Pacific Coasl dogfish population may fluctuate in a manner simi-
lar to thai of the population on the Atlantic Coast. Such might explain
the absence of dogfish from the 1950 derby catches.
One other possible factor in the disappearance of the dogfish from
the southern end oi the bay should be discussed. Beginning about 1945
there was an extensive trawl fi-sherv tor dogfish developed in Northern
California waters during the months of ( October through January. It is
possible thai this concentrated fishing effort might have reduced the dog-
fish br Istock population.
In an effort to check on the significance of the absence of dogfish from
the derby catches, the senior writer visited the Hunter Point Shrimp
Company on September 28, 29, and 30, which was 11 to 13 days after
the derby. The nets operated by this company fish on the bottom
from fixed positions about two miles south of Treasure Island. During
the three days there were 61 sharks caught, including 30 dogfish, 20
brown smoothhounds, one leopard and one thresher. This was not as
many as would normally be expected; but, as pointed out by the fisher-
men, the presence of considerable seaweed drives fishes and sharks away
from the nets. These inadequate catch figures show that dogfish composed
about 49.2 percent of the shark catch. Since these data were not obtained
at the same time as the shark derby, their significance is somewhat de-
creased. However it does seem that the absence of dogfish from the 1950
catches could most probably have been caused by one of the sudden
erratic local movements described bv Bigelow and Schroeder (1948,
p. 460).
We have not been too successful in keeping dogfish in the Aquarium
for any extended period of time. Without a nightlight over the tank this
species, like the brown smoothhound, quickly wears off its nose on the
walls. Mr. W. E. Sullivan of the Depoe Bay Aquarium (Oregon) advises
us that they are able to keep dogfish alive for a maximum time of about
one month. At Steinhart Aquarium we have had one clutch of four young
which were dropped by a 102-cm. (40-inch) female (October 15, 1950).
The young survived only about two days and the pangs of sharkbirth
were apparently too much for the mother as four days later she died.
The dogfish is an extremely wide-ranging species, occurring not only
on both sides of the North Pacific but also on both sides of the North
Atlantic.
SOUPFIN SHARK, GALEORHINUS ZYOPTERUS
Despite the restriction on the taking of soupfin shark, at least 60
were caught at the derby. The senior author counted 14. The junior
author tagged and released 11 that had been caught by contestants.
Warden E. M. McLaurin, aboard the patrol boat "Minnow," recovered
35 dead soupfin from other fishing boats. This is a total of 60 which is
considerably in excess of the approximate dozen specimens observed by
the senior author during the 1949 derby. This small increase may be due
in part to the legal protection which has been given to the soupfin as well
SHARKS AND BAT STINGRAYS IX SAX FRANCISCO BAY
323
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32 I CALIFORNIA PISH AND i; AMI
as to the almost complete cessal ion of commercial fishing activities during
1950. The soupfin has been twofold curse* 1 by the possession of a delicious
dorsal fin ;is well as a vitamin-rich liver.
Fishermen report thai before the war large numbers of both sexes
of soupfin were presenl in I he bay. I n t he early part of the war the bay
was dose, I to set line fishing thus providing some protection. However in
adjacenl localities many soupfin were caught, resulting in an over-all
reduction in abundance. The studies made by the junior author (1946)
have shown that the females move into the bay to drop their young.
Whether these brood females are resident in the San Francisco region is
not known. The junior author has also shown that the soupfin population
in Northern California is composed mostly of males, in Southern Cali-
fornia mostly of females and in Central California of an approximate
50 ."ill ratio. With this peculiar distributional pattern there must be
considerable migration. There have been 118 soupfin tagged in the State
by interested California fishermen as well as by the Division of Fish and
I iame. From these tagged soupfin there have been only four returns, the
data for which appear in Table 5. Number 8753 is probably the most
interesting record, for this female traveled about 95 miles southward in
the short time of four days. Another female, No. 8749, was tagged five
days later and 30 miles northward of the point where 8753 was tagged.
Despite this short time and distance separating the tagging areas, No.
8749 traveled in the opposite direction, i.e., northward for approximately
1,100 miles to Hecate Strait, British Columbia, during a period of 3^
months. Number A-3272 (female) was tagged 15 miles north of 8749 and
also migrated northward for more than 1,000 miles to the vicinity of
Vancouver, British Columbia, during the next 2| years; this specimen
has been previously reported by Ripley (1946b). Number 8728 (male)
moved about 190 miles northward during 5h months of freedom between
tagging and recapture. The five-pound salmon in the stomach of this
specimen is noteworthy since it is only rarely that salmon are taken in
the San Diego area.
Westrheim (1950) reported 18 soupfin tagged by Oregon fishermen
during 1948 and 291 during 1949. Of the 1949 group 85 were tagged in
the area between Point Conception and Eureka. There were two recov-
eries during 1949 (Table 5). A male tagged at Point Sur moved about 90
miles northward during 2| months of freedom and grew four inches in
length during that time. Another male, tagged near Cape Scott, Van-
couver Island, British Columbia, traveled 75 miles eastward during two
days of freedom.
No conclusions can be drawn from this small amount of data. How-
ever, it is of interest to note that two of the three females migrated for
more than 1,000 miles and that the third female averaged about 27-|
miles per day for four days. One male moved a total of 190 miles in 5|
months. Another male moved 90 miles in 2| months and the third male,
75 miles in two days.
For the 1950 derby the Division of Fish and Game prepared a
mimeographed sheet for distribution to all fishermen. This paper pre-
sented graphically the principal characters used to distinguish the vari-
ous species of sharks, including the soupfin. In all press releases by the
sponsoring organizations the restrictions on the taking of soupfin were
SHARKS AND BAT STINGRAYS IN SAN FRANCISCO BAY 325
fully discussed. Despite these precautions the 60 specimens mentioned
above were caught and most of them not released.
Several attempts have been made to bring living soupfin to the
Aquarium but all have met with failure. Consequently we have no knowl-
edge of the manner in which this species acts in captivit \ .
SEVENGILL SHARK, NOTORYNCHUS MACULATUM
The 59 sevengill sharks caughl during the derby represenl an appar-
ent 2\ percenl increase over the 1943 records. In this latter year 36 speci-
mens were caught of which 25 were females and 11 were males. However,
of the 33 specimens sexed at the 1950 derby the reverse was true, for 22
were males and 1 1 were females.
Internal examinations were made on 37 specimens. Only three fish
had food in the stomach other than bait. < >ne fish contained four separate
pieces of sardine bait. None of the fish was sexually mature. A lii j pound
male had a gonad which weighed only 4.."> grams whereas a female of "20 \
pounds had an equally small gonad of 5.2 grams. It is often possible to
explain the marked predominance of one sex in a given population on
the basis of migration and movements connected with sexual maturity
and reproduction. However, such explanation will not clarify the ap-
parent reversal in the numbers of each sex shown by comparison between
the 1943 and 1950 catches. We are a1 a loss to explain this reversal excepl
by i he smallness of the sample.
Ill all of the foil!- shark derbies held to dale the largesl Sharks caught
have been sevens-ills. In order of size they have I n 36 pounds i 1948 .
34 pounds < 1949), 30 pounds i L947 i and 27| pounds i 1950). The 1943
Pish and Game records list three specimens larger than this. i.e.. one shark
of 42 pounds, another of 50 pounds and the largest. KXi' pounds. It is
probable that the majority of sevengills leave the bay by the time they
have attained a weight of 50 pounds i Figure 1 4~> .
1
1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
■
IOO
~
90
MALES •
-
eo
FEMALES o
-
70
-
a
5 60
O
50
Z
°
1- 40
,
•
* 50
•
20
o
-
10
°5
|o.
8
• •"* *
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1
I
I
I
I
I
-
i
60
70 80 90
100 110 120 IJO 140 150
160 170
180
190
200
210
220
1
LENGTH IN CENTIMETERS
Figure 145. Length-weight graph for 61 young sevengill sharks caught in
San Francisco Bay
326 I \ui'"i;\i \ FISH \\h i, \ mi:
sii this species is ovoviviparous, bearing its young alive, it is
interesting to speculate as to the manner in which the young arrive in the
bay. I >" I he aduh femali s enter the baj and drop their young, or are they
dropped outside of the bay and subsequently carried in by the currents
as well as by the juveniles' own swimming ability .'
Although we bave no knowledge of the occurrence within the bay
of the large adull sevengills (maximum Length 15 fleet), nevertheless
there is evidence of the presence of Large shark-like animals in the area.
On November 1 . 1943, the junior author made a set of 162 hooks between
Alcatraz and Treasure Islands. Each end of the set was weighted with a
25-pound anchor and one end carried a buoy line. During this operation
vine Large fishlike organism cu1 the gear in half and dragged the remain-
der out towards the Golden Gate where it was lost. Since a submarine
net was in operation at the time, the probability of this having been
caused by a whale or blackfish is limited as animals of this diameter would
noi have been able to penetrate the net and, in any event, they do not take
bait. The writers hold the unproved conviction that the culprit might have
been a large sevengill shark.
A swimming sevengill shark is a beautiful sight to behold, and in the
Aquarium it never seems to stop swimming. Day or night, the sevengill
is usually on the move. This swimming habit is undoubtedly correlated
with the fact that the adults are open-water sharks not limited to inshore
coastal areas. A young sevengill shark caught September 17, 1950, lived
in the Aquarium until January 17, 1951, when it died as the result of an
accident. During these four months the shark was never observed to resl
on the bottom, and it never learned to feed itself in captivity. It was
force-fed usually three times a week being given one-half a sardine or
the equivalent at each feeding.
In the bay there seems to be an indication that the sevengill prefers
the deeper water. At the 1950 derby many catches of brown smooth-
hounds, leopard sharks and bat stingrays were made in water of 8 to 15
feet depth. However, most of the sevengills came from water deeper than
20 feet. The preferred area near Coyote Point seemed to be the section
along the edge of the dropoff into the deeper portions of the main channel.
During the 1943 Fish and Game survey the best catches of sevengill
sharks were made in an area about two miles southeast of Hunter Point
at a depth of 30 to 35 feet. During 6| hours of fishing (10.15 a.m. to 4.45
p.m.) three persons using five handlines and sardine bait caught 605
pounds of sevengill sharks (17 males and 21 females) including one
female of 106| pounds. In addition there were caught 216 pounds of
leopards and 136 pounds of brown smoothhounds.
A sevengill shark just pulled out of the water is a nasty fish to
handle. Tn a small boat it is often imperative to kill it immediately, for
otherwise the belligerent disposition of the shark as well as its tendency
to use its jaws and sharp teeth on anything in the vicinity makes it a
dangerous liability. Recently an Aquarium staff member was force-feed-
ing the small sevengill shark previously mentioned, and being accus-
tomed to shoving sardines down the throats of other types of sharks with
his fingers, he applied the same method to the sevengill. "When he finished
the feeding, he was surprised to find a deep and subsequently painful
gash on one of his fingers. Needless to say, this technique has now been
modified.
SHARKS AND BAT STINGRAYS IN SAN FRANCIS* 0 BAY
327
Since little information is available on sevengill sharks, there are
presented in Figure 145 the weight-length data for 61 of the specimens
examined.
SIXGILL SHARK, HEXANCHUS GRISEUS
One of the two rarities taken during the derby fishing was a young
female sixgill shark with a weighl of 20^ pounds and a length of 1290 mm.
(50| inches). It was caughl by Mr. .lack Morris of San Francisco at a
location in the channel one-half way between Eunter Point and Coyote
Point. The catch was made in 35 feel of water with sardine bait. There
is a single published record for San Francisco Bay; Evermann (1929,
p. 348) listed "two fishes {Hexanchus corinus) from Sausalito, Califor-
nia. "' These were caughl a1 Peterson "> Boa1 I [ouse on July 14. 1928, and
presented to the Academy by the fisherman (Cat. Xo. 21*3 . <>n March
19, l!)4o, Mr. Donald Simpson. Aquatic ( iollector for Steinharl Aquarium,
caughl a 670 nun. (26| inches male sixgill shark at the intake of the
Pacific Gas and Electric plant in San Francisco (CAS Cat. No. 11615
To our knowledge the Largest shark ever caughl in San Francisco Bay
was a Mil pound sixgill. This ll-foo1 specimen was taken during July,
1928, by Mr. K. C. Pell of San Francisco Figure 146). The catch was
Figure 146. The largest shark known from San Francisco Bav — a sixgill caught near
Sausalito by Mr. R. C. Pell, July, 1928 < 11 feet and 464 pounds)
made at Yellow Bluff which is about one-half mile inside of Golden Gate
Bridge near Sausalito.
The recorded range on the Pacific Coast for the sixgill shark is from
northern British Columbia to Southern California ( Roedel and Ripley,
1950, p. 40). In addition to the Pacific Coast the sixgill shark has an
extremely wide range, being known from both sides of the Atlantic, the
Mediterranean and South Africa as well as from Chile, Japan, Australia
4—41374
328 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME
and the southern [ndian Ocean. The mos1 complete discussion of the
species is to be Eound in Bigelow and Schroeder (1948, p. 80). These
authors give the maximum length of the sixgill shark as 26 Heel with most
large a lults attaining a maximum length no greater Than 15J feet.
THRESHER SHARK, ALOPIAS VULPINUS
The in"--' spectacular catch of the 1950 derby was a young male
thresher shark weighing 6| pounds and measuring 1168 mm. total length
16 inches . This shark was caught on sardine bail at a depth of 18 feet
near the channel marker off Coyote Poinl by Mr. Raymond Farmer of
K.mIu I City. Mr. Parmer tells of the thresher's rolling in the water
several times after being hooked, in The same manner as is characteristic
of some nt' The large striped bass. This specimen is now cataloged in the
California Academy of Sciences [chthyological Collections, Xo. 20438.
While visiting Hunter Point Shrimp Company docks on September
30, 1950, the senior writer was surprised to find a 37-pound female
thresher shark among The few sharks taken on ThaT day. This was The first
shark of This kind which The fishermen had semi. The total length of the
specimen was 1935 mm. (76A inches) with the length to the notch in front
of lie- Tail 898 mm. (35| inches i. The stomach was crammed with 18
anchovies, and the ovaries were flattened showing no sign of maturity
(144.5 grams . This specimen is now cataloged as ('As \<>. 20453.
There is a record of two threshers taken during 1947 in salmon gill
nets fishing off McNear's Point in San Pablo Bay (Roedel and Ripley,
plod. p. 47 i. These ••very long-tailed specimens" were taken by a char-
1' red boat doing salmon tagging. The biologist in charge was not familiar
with the local sharks but did observe the long tails, which were later
i i it off by the fishermen. Bigelow and Schroeder (1948, p. 168) report
two small specimens from San Francisco in the collections of the Museum
of Comparative Zoology. There is no information as to whether these
were taken in the bay or were brought To San Francisco by boats fishing
in other areas.
In California the thresher shark is not uncommon south of Santa
Cruz; however, north of Santa Cruz very few are taken.
"We have never had a thresher shark in The Aquarium so cannot
report on its behavior in captivity. The thresher's long tail and fast
swimming ability might pose serious problems if the shark were kept
in a restricted area.
BAT STiNGRAY, HOLORHINUS CALIFORNICUS
This large stingray is reported to attain a weight of 150 pounds
(Roedel and Ripley, 1950. p. 78). Those which have been taken at Tin-
shark derbies have weighed considerably less than this maximum weight.
In 1948. 1949 and 1950 the largest bat stingrays caught weighed 40, 58
and 45 pounds respectively. The species ranges along the Pacific Coast
from Oregon to Magdalena Bay. Baja California. It occurs most com-
monly in shallow bays and sloughs.
The handling of large bat stingrays out of water is often a problem.
If the specimen is not to be saved, then the quick removal of the tail
including the dangerous spine is sufficient. However, if The bat stingray
is to be used for exhibition in an aquarium, one needs two sturdy hands
SHARKS AND BAT STINGRAYS IX SAN FRANCISCO BAY 329
and a pair of pliers. Two fingers of one hand are inserted, one in each
spiracle; using the pliers in the other hand the tail is carefully seized
;ii the spine, and the bat ray is carried to the nearest tank of water.
Large bat rays of 30 or more pounds are usually sluggish in the Aquarium
and oft. 'i i do not readily learn to avoid the sides of the tank. The resultanl
abrasion of the pectoral wing tips has caused the eventual death of some
specimens. Y^ung bat rays of 20 pounds and less seem to adapl them-
selves to tanks and various foods withoul difficulty.
As indicated in Table 1 tin- 89 hat stingrays caughl during the 1950
derby represented a considerable increase proportionally over the 28
caught in the same area during tin- 1943 fishing. In the fishing area
north of Treasure Island the percentage of ba1 stingrays in the total hat
stingray and shark catch was intermediate between the 1943 and 1948
south h;iv catches, i.e.. 5.2 versus 8.0 percenl 1950 and 2.0 percent
1943). '
Most of the ba1 stingray's tails from the 1950 derby were removed
by Air. Marvin Kolber, instructor ;it San Mateo Junior College, for the
study by Dr. Bruce Halstead I 1950) of the function of the spine and
poison gland. This activity created much wild eyed speculation among
the many visitors at the derby ;is to the reasons for this procedure.
REFERENCES
Bigelow, Henry I'... and William C. Schroeder
1948. Fishes of the western north Atlantic. Chap 3. Sharks. Sears Found. Marine
Res., Memoir 1. pt. 1. \>. 59-546, lot ti^s.
Bonham, Kelshaw, and others.
L949. Biological .-owl vitamin A studies of dogfish landed in the state of Washington
(Squalus suckleyi). Washington Dept. Fish., Biological Kept. 19A, p. 83
111. II figs.
Evermann, Barton Warren
L929. Report of the director <>i" the museum for the year L928. Calif. Acad. ScL,
Proc, vol. 17. 4ili ser., p. 308 360.
Foerster, R. B.
L942. Dogfish tagging — preliminary results. Canada. Fisheries Res. Bd. Pacific
t loasl Sta., Progress Rept. no. 53, p. L2 1-"..
Halstead, Bruce W., ami F. Rene Modglin
1950. A preliminary reporl "n the venom apparatus of the bat-raj Holorhinus
califomicus. Copeia, no. '.'>. p. 165-175, 6"
Ripley, Wm. Ellis
1946a. The soupfin shark and the fishery. Calif. Div. Fish ami Game, Fish Bull.
64, p. 7 37. 18 figs., 1--' tables.
1946b. Recovery of a tagged soupfin shark. Calif. Fish ami Game, vol. 32, no. 2, p.
101-102.
Roedel, Phil M., and Win. Ellis Ripley
1950. California sharks ami rays. Calif. Div. Fish ami Came. Fish Bull. 7."i. 88 p.,
65 figs.
Westrheim, Sigurd J.
1950. The 1949 soupfin shark fishery of Oregon. Oregon Fish Comra., Research
Briefs, vol. 3. no. 1. p. 39-49, 3 figs.. 4 tables.
RESULTS OF THE PISMO CLAM CENSUSES,
1948, 1949, AND 1950'
Bj ROBl IM I ». < '"I LI ER
Bureau <>\ Marine Fisheries, California Division "f Pish and Game
Since 1925, the Bureau of Marine Fisheries has made a census of
the Pismo clam (Tivela stultorum) population in the Pismo Beach area
during the period of lowesl tides cadi November. This report covers the
censuses conducted in 1948, L949, ami 1950.
A trench or section is dug across the beach from the high tide mark
as far out as it is possible to collect the clams. The section, standard each
year, is 6 inches wide and 8| inches deep. For most of the length of the
section, the sand is thrown to the side in such a manner as to spread it
out in a thin Layer. As Long as the beach is just wet, and there is not too
much water, this system works perfectly. Even the smallest clams are
easily seen. When the trench reaches the point where too much surf
prevents spreading of the sand, it is then passed through a screen of
one-fourth-inch mesh. Eventually, too much water forces abandoning
the screen, fro iM I In 'ii on p roh in g is done, which turns out only the Larger
chims. former studies have shown that over 90 pen-cut of the young
clams are found in the intertidal zone, which is more than covered by
the throwing and screening methods. Thus only a vci-y few of the clams
would be missed in a section.
The locations of the sections are: I 1 i Pismo — one-eighth mile north
of Pismo Pier, (2) Oceano 1 ,',, miles south of Pismo Pier, (3) Le
Grande — one mile south of the north boundary of the old clam refuge,
(4) Morro — nine-tenths mile north of Morro Rock, (5) Cayucos — eight-
tenths mile south of the Standard Oil Pier.
The first three sections are on Pismo Peach proper. The Oceano
section is in a new dam refuge which was closed to digging by act of the
Fish and Game Commission onNovember5, 1949. The Le Grande section
is in the old refuge which was closed from 1929 to 1949. The Pismo
Section has always been open to clamming.
The two remaining sections lie to the north of Pismo Beach in an
area between .Morro Pay and Cayucos which is potentially good clam
bearing- beach. Sportsmen have planted clams in various places, supple-
menting the few already present, in the hope of building up future clam-
ming along this stretch of the coast. At the time the Oceano preserve
was established, another area which extends li miles north from Morro
Rock, -was also made a refuge. The portion of Cayucos beach between
Big Creek and Old Creek was closed to digging by the Fish and Game
Commission on September 29, 1950. Both the Morro and Cayucos pre-
serves were established at the request of San Luis Obispo County sports-
men. The census sections are in these recently closed areas.
1 Submitted for publication January, 1951.
(331)
332
CALIFORNIA n>ll AND GAME
Until L949, the census was confined to Pismo Beach. In the 1948
census, only the ( >ceano section was dug. All five sections were <ln<r in
1949 and all bul the Pismo section in November, L950.
The number of clams found are shown by age in Table 1 and by size
in Table 2. Zero year clams are those spawned the year of the census.
( >ne-year clams are those spawned the year before and are approaching
two years of age. Table 1 shows 22 zero group clams taken from the Morro
and Cayucos sections in 1949. No one-year clams were found on these
-'•'•nuns in 1950, indicating a total loss of whal mitihl have been a fair
se1 of young clams.
The results of the clam censuses are perturbing. First, there has
I n an almosl complete lack of young clams for the pasl three years,
- :ond, there has been a reduction each year in the total number of clams
found. The 1950 clam census showed the smallest clam population since
1941. The backlog of old clams in the ('"nun- refuge (Le Grande) was
reduced, in one season, to the point where diggers are now getting very
few except those jusl reaching five inches, the minimum legal size. In
TABLE 1
Number of Clams by Age Groups
Pismo Beach
• -
1949
1950
\_" in years
Oceano
( >ceano
Le
' Irande
Pismo
Total
Oceano
Le
Grande
Total
0
1
1
7
53
1 9 1
65
73
52
13
15
1
39
97
31
21
29
24
13
•5
3
33
77
27
15
6
2
1
6
1
1
2
14
3
4
5
6
7
69
20
17
12
5
15
15
18
41
34
6
17
41
39
27
16
13
5
9
2.5
19
9
7
22
50
64
46
25
8+
20
Totals
259
163
153
154
470
L54
74
228
Morro Bay — Cayucos Beaches
Age in years
1949
1950
Morro
Total
Morro
Cayucos
Total
0
3
19
22
1 .
2
7
1
1
33
31
1
7
2
41
31
1
3
1
1
8
4
2
2
6
7
15
1
3
2
6
1
1
7
7
8
8+
15
Totals
77
29
• 106
32
3
35
PISMO CLAM CENSUSES, 1948, 1949. I950
TABLE 2
Number of Clams by Size
Pismo Beach
:;::::
1948
1949
1950
Inclii -
Oceano
Oceano
I..-
1 Irande
Pismo
1
( Irande
Under 1
1
1
1 •
13
_'
1
6
1
1
2 3
76
21
g
2
32
1
3
3-4
86
95
7 j
50
217
ri
32
81
4-5
80
12
57
92
I'M
90
in
130
5 6
4
2
13
21
1 1
1
12
6 +
1
1
Totals
162
153
154
169
1 53
71
227
Morro Bay-
—Cay ucos
3eaches
[nchea
1949
1950
Morro
( !aj ucos
Total
Morro
( !aj
Total
3
18
21
2 3
1
13
56
4
1
14
6
3-4.
4-5
5 6
1
7
2
6
is
8
6
;
21
8
6+
Totals-. -.
77
28 1
105
32
3
35
1 One clam injured and not measured.
L949, L3 days after the refuge was opened, the section yielded 14 legal
sized clams. In 1950, the same section contained jusl one legal clam, and
it was exactly five inches. In addition, the number of smaller (dams in
the Lie Grande section in 1950 was approximately one-half that of 1949.
Somewhat similar reductions in numbers occurred in the other sections.
There can be little doubt that the present status of the Pismo clams on
these beaches is bad. However, there is also reason to expect good sets
of young clams in the next few years and that the clam population will
be re-established, at least temporarily.
Legislation has gone about as far as possible toward protecting the
Pismo clams, but there is considerable that individual diggers can do
toward the preservation of this valuable mollusk and the fine recreation
that is dependent upon its continued abundance. Undersized clams should
be replaced in the sand close to where they were dug or if washed out
by a storm, they should be returned to the water where they can survive.
It is best to bury the clams just under the surface of the sand, with the
hingelike ligament up and toward the sea.
33 t I AX.IPORNIA PISH Wl> GAME
REFERENCES
A|.lin._.l \
1 ;• 47. Pismo clam increase. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 33, no. •"■. p. 129-131.
Pitch, John E.
1950. The Pismo clam. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 36, no. 3, p. 285 312.
] [errington, William I '.
1930. The Pismo clam, further studies of its life history and depletion. Calif. Div.
Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 18, 69 p., 16 figs.
\Vi\\ mouth, Frank W.
1923. The life history and growth of the Pismo clam. {Tivela stultorum Mawe).
Calif. Fish and ( tame < !omm., Fish Bull. 7. 120 p., 14 figs.
PSEUDOFINS ON THE CAUDAL PEDUNCLE OF
JUVENILE SCOMBROIDS1
By Earl S. Hekat.i)
Steinharl Aquarium, California Academj of Sciences
San Francisco
While studying Philippine frigate mackerel (Auxis thazard and
Auxis tapeinosoma as a member of the Philippine Fishery Program of
the U. S. Fisli and Wildlife Service, the writer was surprised To find that
two of the three solid ridges which are conspicuous along the side of the
tail of adult Auxis actually develop a- small, anstriated, finlike struc-
ture-. At a later date through the courtesy of the Pacific Oceanic Fish
eries Investigations of the Fish and Wildlife Service, the writer was
enabled to examine a series of juvenile Costa Rican .1 uxis. 'I' he pseudofins
along the caudal peduncle of these specimens proved to he similar in all
respects to those of the Philippine material. .Mr. John E. Fitch, of the
California Division of Fish and (lame, ha- told me that in nine small
Auxis from the .Mexican eoasl well-developed pseudofins were found in
a 42 nun. specimen. Pseudofins were just forming in a 32 mm. specimen
but were not discernible in the remaining seven which ranged from 13
to L'7 mm.
The lateral ridges in which the fin cays develop may sometimes he
discernible in fish as small as I'll mm. i standard length I. In others they
may not develop until the fish is nearly .'III mm. The greatest development
of the pseudofins usually takes place -a hen the fish is between 30 and
40 mm. By the time the fish has attained the latter length the pseudofins
are invariably well developed (Figure 147).
Submitted for publication December, 1950.
<■'<:■■<;
Figure 147. Lateral view of the caudal peduncle of a 42 mm. Auxis thazard from
Menado, Celebes. Cross-sectional view at left. Pablo Bravo, del.
(335 )
336 CALIF< IRN I \ FISH AND <;am i:
Under the microscope each .1 uxis pseudofin is usually tun ml to con-
sist of 11 unstriated sofl rays. On some specimens as many ;is 14 rays
have been counted. These structures probably have no outstanding
anatomical significance and are undoubtedly similar to the ceratotrichia
of other vertebrates. There seems to be no possibility thai the pseudofins
could nave developed as extensions of the lateral fin folds after the
< regenbauer I heory.
No mention of the presence or development of the pseudofins lias
been found in the literature. This may be due to the fact that even when
present, they are not readily apparent. However, under a dissecting
microscope, the use of a small probe will quickly bring them into view.
The lengths which frigate mackerel attain before these pseudofins
disappear and are replaced by a solid ridge is not definitely known. One
specimen of 95 mm. from the Gulf of California had well-developed
pseudofins. Mr. Charles 15. Wade of the Philippine Fishery Program has
kindly examined some juvenile .1 uxis thazard (140-231 mm., fork length )
from Batangas, P. I. He finds that the rays of pseudofins are present but
he believes that he detects an indication that these false fins are in the
process of being lost when the fish is about 200 mm. in length.
In none of the juvenile .1 n.ris or other scombroids examined by the
writer has the center ridge of the caudal peduncle shown any fin struc-
ture. Yet the marks on the ridge seem to suggest that at sometime in the
ontogeny of the species, this ridge must have carried a pseudofin similar
to the paired structures developed laterally. Among other scombroids
available for examination was a 113 mm. skipjack (Katsuwonus pelamis I
from Costa Rica (previously reported by Eckles, 1949, p. 246, fig. 1).
Since this specimen had been taken from the stomach of an adult tuna,
some of the tail was partially digested. On one side it was possible to
count 11 rays of the pseudofin. but on the opposite side there were 14.
Mr. Wade examined three Katsuwonus from the Pilas Island group of
the Sulu Archipelago, P. I. Two of the specimens, 18 and 22 mm., showed
indication of the false fins. On the third specimen. 25.5 mm., develop-
ment was just starting.
Mr. Wade also reports 14-rayed pseudofins on juvenile Philippine
Euthynnus affinis yaito of a size range between 38 and 125 mm.
Three young specimens (17-63 mm.) of Costa Rican Spanish mack-
erel (8 comb eromorus sierra) were examined (also previously reported by
Eckles, 1949, p. 247, figs. 2 and 3). Strangely enough they showed no
evidence of pseudofins on the peduncle although the largest specimen
had the ridges slightly developed. More juveniles of this species are
needed to determine whether the pseudofins develop late or are possibly
absent at all stages.
Based on the four species reported upon herein, it would seem that
most of the adult scombroids showing ridges on the side of the caudal
peduncle probably pass through a pseudofin stage in their development.
PSEUDOFINS ON JUVENILE SCOMBROIDS 337
REFERENCES
Eckles, Howard II.
r.(4'.t. Observations on juvenile oceanic skipjack (Katsuwonus pelamis) from
Hawaiian waters and sierra mackerel (8 comber omorus sierra) from the
eastern Pacific. I". S. Fish and Wildlife Serv., Fishery Bull., vol. 51, no. 48,
,,. 245 250,3 figs.
Fraser Brunner, A.
l'.tp.i. on the fishes "f the LL.-t.u- Euthynnus. Ann. Mag. Xat. Hist., ser. 12, vol. 2,
p. 622 627, 2 figs.
L950. The tishe< of the family Scombridae. Ann. Mag. Xat. Hist., ser. 12. vol. 3,
p. 131-HKi. :jr. Hks.
Kishinouj e, Kamakiehi
L923. Contributions to the comparative studj of the so-called scombroid fishes.
College Amir. Imperial Qniv. Tokyo, Journ., vol. 8, do. .">. p. 293 175, 26
figs., 22 pis.
Wade, Charles B.
1949. .Votes on the Philippine frigate mackerels, family Thunnidae, genus iuxis.
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Serv., Fisherj Bull., vol. 51, ao. 46, p. 229-240,
Ki figs.
1950. Juvenile forms of Veothunnus macropterus, Katsuwonus pelamis and
Euthynnus yaito from Philippine seas. U. S. Fish ami Wildlife Serv., Fishery
Bull., vol. 51, no. 53, p. :'.'.»:, 104, L3 figs.
AGE AND LENGTH COMPOSITION
OF THE SARDINE CATCH OFF THE PACIFIC
COAST OF THE UNITED STATES AND
CANADA IN 1950 51 '
By Frances E. I'i i i\. United States Fish and Wildlife Sen ire
A \ 1 1 \ E. 1 1 \i (.in im'v and Leo Pink \s. California
Division of Fish and < lame
This is the fifth reporl on the age and length composition of the
sardine catch (iff the Pacific Coast of the United States and Canada and
covers the 1950-5] season. Pre"* inns reports have presented such data for
the 1941-42 through L949-50 seasons I Felin, Daugherty and Pinkas, 1950;
Kelin and Phillips. 1948; Felin, Phillips and Daugherty, 1949; Mosher,
Pel in and Phillips. pi I'i i. The it was qo fishery off the British < Jolumbia,
Washington and Oregon coasts in this season. The interseason (summer)
fishery in California was prohibited by law.
During 1950-51 sardines were landed a1 San Francisco, Moss Land-
ing, Monterey. Mbrro Bay, Port San Luis, Santa Barbara, Hueneme, Los
A.ngeles-Long Beach Harbor, Newporl Beach and San Diego. Some of
these fish were trucked to other ports for processing. All fish landed at San
Francisco were processed t here and appear In i he San Francisco tonnages.
Monterey totals include fish landed at that port, at Moss Landing and at
Morro Bay. This combines ports south of San Francisco hut north of
Point Conception. All Landings made south of Point Conception except
San Diego were included with the San Pedro I Los Angeles-Long Peach
Harbor) tonnages. San Diego totals include all landings at that port.
Since Point Conception marks a division in oceanic conditions and sep-
arates two resultant fishing grounds, this grouping more accurately
reflects the distribution of sardines in the ocean than would a grouping
according to the place of processing.
The methods used in determining ages and sampling the catch have
been described (Walford and Mosher, 1943a and b; Felin and Phillips,
1948). Previously, the sampling methods yielded a random selection of
scale samples from the length frequency distribution of the fish. In the
1950-51 season the sampling methods were modified with the intent of im-
proving their accuracy without a prohibitive increase in the amount of
work required. The methods are similar to those used previously, with
the following exceptions: Instead of five samples of 50 fish per week (in
each port), 10 samples of 50 fish each were taken per week. Five samples
were taken in the first half of the week (Monday through Wednesday)
and five were taken in the last half (Thursday through Saturday) . Instead
of securing 10 scale samples at random with respect to fish length from
each sample of 50 fish, one scale sample was taken at random from each
1 Submitted for publication March, 1951.
2 Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Pish and Wildlife Service.
( 339 )
340
CALIFORNIA PISH IND GAME
130° 125° I20c
BRITISH COLUMBIA
WASHINGTON
OREGON
CALIFORNIA
AN PEDRO
\san\diego
50c
45C
40°
35°
130°
125
120'
Figure 14 8. Sardine fishing areas. VII-XIII, areas in the Pacific Northwest fishery.
A, San Francisco-Monterey fishing grounds. B, Southern California fishing grounds.
SARDINE CATCH IN" I950-5I
341
centimeter interval (i.e., 181-190, 191-200 mm., etc.) of fish length in the
sample of 50 fish. Thus, the scale samples ;uv random with respect to fish
length onhj within each centimeter Length stratum.
Tables 1 through 5 show, by sex and region of catch, the length fre-
quency distributions of fish of each year class sampled in the 1950-51
season. The centimeter strata from which the scales were selected ran-
domly with respect to fish Length are indicated by the horizontal lines.
TABLE 1
Length Composition of the 1948 Year-Class, Age 2, 1950-51
Length, nun.
San Francisco
Monterej
San Pedro
\l
\l
M
California
M
178
180.
182-
184.
is.,
188,
L90
1 1 2
7 1 8
hi 5 15
L92
L94
196
L9S
200.
4
7
9
23
3
14
23
25
54
202
1
1
2
t
1
2
7
2
3
2
s
4
1
*
4
l.->
in
Hi
.5
6
10
8
7
9
8
20
24
12
1 1
14
13
20
7
8
14
12
8
11
13
17
2.5
204
28
206
1
1
1
1
2 3
1 2
18
208..
21
!10
31
212
2
3
2
1
2
1
1
2
7
4
!
9
2
.5
1
11
7
•">
3
1
20
9
!0
1
1
11
6
7
1
11
12
7
4
2
22
21 1
1
1
18
216
14
218
220
2
,22
1
"i
3
4
1
1
4
4
1
2
1
2
1
3
4
3
1
4
22 1
2
2
2
2
6
226
3
228
2
230
i
1
1
--
1
234
236
2
2
2
2
238
240
242
--
1
1
--
1
1
Totals
o
5 10
40
36
76
142
120
262
187
161
348
342
< \I [FORN I A FISB A.ND GAME
TABLE 2
Length Composition of the 1947 Year-Class. Age 3, 1950-51
I ength, mum.
>:in
1 rancLsco
Mont, n
San Pedro
' 'aliforil
a
M
1'
T
M 1 T
M 1 1
M F
T
i 'in
1 _ 1
1 1 2
2 1
3
192 .
I'.H
1 1
3 1 4
8..8
12 .5 17
4
1 1
9
16 6
4
196
1 .. 1
I -. 1
1 .. 1
5
198
9
200
3
1
4
22
202 .
1 1 2
1 1 2
3 I 4
9 - 9
5 4 9
5 4 9
7 1 2
9 1 10
2 7 9
5 13 18
6 5
7 8
12 2
14 8
10 18
1 1
201
1
--
1
15
206..
14
208
210
3
1
1
4
1
22
28
212
2 1 3
8 2 10
4 4 8
2 2 4
7 3 10
15 4 19
5 6 11
4 10 14
5 1 0 1 5
2 6 8
17 5
13 8
10 16
9 13
13 10
22
214 .
21
216
218
220
2
2
4
2
1
1
4
3
26
22
23
222
224
226
1
1
4
4
4
4
5
4
4
]
4
3 6 9
5 1 6
5 3 8
1 3 4
5 5 10
5 25 30
3 12 15
..4 4
3 9 12
1 1 2
9 35
8 17
5 11
5 12
6 10
44
25
16
228..
230
17
16
232
234
236
1
2
2
1
3
3
3 7 10
1 7 8
2 2 4
4 3 7
5
..3 3
3 5 8
1 1
1 1
2 2
4 12
6 13
2 3
6 6
8
16
19
5
238_-
240
2
2
1
4
1
12
8
242 .
244__.
2
1
3
1 1 2
1 _. 1
1 1
1 .. 1
..2 2
1 1
3 3
1
1
1
2
6
1
246
1
248..-
1
250
2
252 __
254
2 2
2
2
Totals
25
30
55
77 (17 144
100 139 239
202 236
438
SARDINE CATCH IX 1950-51
343
TABLE 3
Length Composition of the 1946 Year-Class, Age 4, in 1950-51
Length, nun.
San Francisco
Muii'
San Pedro
California
M 1 T
M F T
M F T
M F T
196
1 .. 1
1 1
198. _
2 2
1 1
2 1 3
1 l
200..
4 1 5
202
204
1 1
2 2
4 1
1 2 3
2 2
1 2 3
2 1
2 3 5
.'{ :;
206
3 2 5
JUS
210
1 1
1 2 3
7 2 9
4 7 11
212
.'1 1
1 1
1 3
3 3 6
2 3 5
7
3 1 4
2 5 7
1 '.
6 3 9
2 :. 7
2 1 a
7 12
8 7 15
216
1 I 2
1 1 2
2
9 7 16
218
220
8 8 16
5 4 9
222
2 2
4 1 5
1 :<, 1
1 2 A
2 6 8
a a t;
l l
6 8 14
3 8 11
A 8
3 2 5
1 2 :;
9 1 1 2(1
224
X 11 19
226
7 9 it;
228
1 1
6 6 12
230..
2 6
232
3 3
1 1
1 2 3
1 fi 7
2 1; s
1 4
3 5
2 2
7 7
1 8 9
1 3 4
2
1 1 2
1 Hi 17
23 I
3 15 IS
236
3 9 12
238
2 5 7
240
1 3 4
242
7 7
1 1
2
1 1
2 2
1 1
1 2 3
1 1
1 7 8
244
2 2 4
246
248
1 1 2
1 1
1 4
1 1 2
250
2 2
252
1 1
1 . 1
1 1
254 _.
1 1
1 1 2
256
258
1 1
1 1
1 1 2
Totals _
16 17 33
42 64 106
50 73 123
108 154 262
344
CALIPORN I A FISB AND QAM]
TABLE 4
Length Composition of the 1945 Year-Class, Age 5, in 1950-51
Length, nun.
Sun Francisco Monterey
San Pedro
California
M 1 T
M 1 T
M V T
M F T
198
1 1
1 1
2 .. 2
200
202
204
1 1
1 1
206 ..
208
2 2
1 1
2 2
210 _
1 1
212
1 .. 1
2 2
2 1 3
1 __ 1
21 1
1 1
1 _ 1
1 .. 1
1 1 2
2 1 3
216 .
1 1
1 1
4 1 5
218
I 1 2
220 .
1 1
2 1 3
222
1 1 2
1 1
2 2 4
2 1 3
..11
3 3 6
224
2 2 4
226
1 1
228
3 2 5
1 1
2 13 5 3 8
230 .
2 2
3 3
232
234
2 ._ 2
1 __ 1
1 1
1 __ 1
1 1 2
1 .. 1
1 3 4
3 4 7
2 __ 2
236
1 2 3
1 1
2 3 5
238
1 1 2
240
242
1 1
1 .. 1
1 1 2
244
1 1
1 1
246
1 1
1 1
248
250
252
1 1
1 1
25 1
256
1 1
1 1
1 __ 1
258
1 1
260
266 .
1 1
1 1
Totals
4 2 6
12 18 30
16 14 30
32 34 66
SARDINE CATCH IN 1950-51
345
0
(- ^
03 oj
>> <a
0 m-
#
'3
O
«3
O
: : : : :
- :
-
1 °°
<M co
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05 .2
** CJ
#
03
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0
fa
1$
-
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~ g
>. "
CO of
as js
*
03
=
0
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0
fa
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CI
CI
-
- -
-
co
CM
50
£1
M
03
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Si
>>
Ttl
0
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'S
0
fa
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- - -
— re
— -
co —
co —
Z
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re —
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~ -
•*
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0
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e
oj
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„
,-, ! ! ! !
co
£
M
C
►J
■*' d 00 d
1-1 — 1-1 cn
NIMNN
N ■* OOOO
N M N tl X
NNMNN
<N «*l
CO CO
CM c^
(N Tf d 00 0
■^ Tjl -^ Tf CO
CM CN CN CM CM
CM ■*' O 00 d
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CM
CO
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<n ■* d
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346
CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME
Table 6 shows, 1>\ sex and region of catch, the mean length and
standard error of the mean for each year class sampled in the 1950-51
season. These are simply based on the total samples for the season and
are not weighted according to the relative proportions of the total catch
made in the different lunar months. They are, however, of necessity
weighted according to the Length frequency distributions of the 50-fish
samples.
TABLE 6
Mean Length and Standard Error of the Mean in Millimeters for Each
Year-Class in the 1950-51 Season by Region of Catch
California
Yiar-< hi —
San Francisco
Monterey
San Pedro
M.
S.E.
M.
S.E.
M.
S.E.
1948
Male .. .. ..... ...
Female . . . .
Totals
1947
Male
208
210
209
218
223
221
220
222
221
222
219
222
224
216
220
1.53
1.37
1.06
1.77
1.24
1.05
1.82
2.21
1.50
4.90
5.18
3.71
7.61
4.82
210
213
212
219
223
220
219
224
222
224
222
222
223
225
223
242
274
259
1.32
1.34
.98
.87
.80
.65
1.20
.98
.80
2.06
2.36
1.91
5.01
4.54
1.01
203
206
205
208
213
211
214
216
215
217
224
219
221
230
223
.46
.46
.36
.70
Female _ . _ _ _ _ _ _
Totals _'
1946
Male
Female ... .__-._ .
Totals.
1945
Male
Female _ . . . . . ....
Totals
1944
Male
Female _
Totals
.62
.49
1.15
1.01
.77
2.23
2.56
1.85
1.01
1.91
1.99
1943
Male
Totals _
1942
Male
258
258
Totals.
1940
Male
Female ._ .
272
272
Totals.
SARDINE CATCH IN 1950-51 347
TABLE 7
Calendar Dates of Lunar Months for the 1950-51 Season
"August July 30- August 27
"September" August 28-September 26
"October" September 27-October 25
"November' ' - October 26- November 24
"December" November 25-December 23
"January" December 24-January 22
"February". January 23-February 20
Table 7 gives the calendar dates for the Lunar months in the season.
Table 8 gives the numbers of fish, by region of catch, in each year
••lass caught during the season. The number of fish caught was estimated
from the total weight landed at each port in each week divided by the
average weight of the fish during that period. These were summed by
lunar months and ports. The apportionment of numbers of fish among the
several year classes caught each lunar month at each port was slightly
more complicated than previously, owing to the change in sampling
methods. From the age data, the percentage ,.f each year class within
each centimeter Length stratum was calculated. These percentages were
then weighted according to the length frequency distributions of the 50-
lish samples. The resulting percentages were used in allocating the num-
ber of fish among the different year classes
Scale samples and fish measurements were obtained at San Francisco
by Carl \V. Walser, a1 .Monterey by Leo Pinkas and at San Pedro by
Amta E. Daugherty. Age determinations were made by the three authors.
We wish to acknow Ledge with thanks the assistance of Mr. Walser and of
Mrs. Madalyn 15. Murray in the laboratory. Special thanks are due to
Mr. T. M. Widrig for his valuable advice in connection with sampling
problems.
348
t ALIFORNIA risn AND <; \ \i I
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SARDINE CATCH IN I950-5I 349
REFERENCES
Felin, Frances E., Anita E. Daugherty and Leo Pinkas
1950. Age and length composition of the sardine catch off the Pacific Coast of the
United States and Canada in 1949-50. Calif. Fish and Came, vol. 36, no. 3,
pp. 241-249, 1 fig.
Felin, Frances F.. and Julius B. Phillips
L948. Age and length composition of the sardine catch off the Pacific Coasl of the
United States and Canada, l'.Ul 42 through L946 17. Calif. Div. Fish and
Game, Fish Bull. 69, 122 p., 1 fig.
Felin, Frances F.. Julius l'>. Phillips and Anita F. Daugherty
L949. Age and length composition of the sardine catch off the Pacific Coast of the
United States and Canada in L948 19. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 35, qo. '■'>.
pp. 165 1 S3, 1 fig.
Mosher, Kenneth IF. Frances F. Felin and Julius B. Phillips
I'.il'.i. Age and length composition of the sardine catch "if the Pacific Coasl of the
United States and Canada in 1947 4s. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 35, qo. 1,
pp. 15 K), 1 fig.
Walfor-d, Lionel A., and Kenneth IF Mosher
L943a. Studies on the Pacific pilchard or sardine (Sardinops caerulea). -. Deter-
mination of the age of juveniles bj scales and otoliths. F. S. Fish and Wildlife
Service. Special Sci. Rept. no. 20, 19 p., 32 figs
L943b. Studies on the Pacific pilchard or sardine (Sardinops caerulea). '■'<. Deter-
mination of age of adults by scales, and effect of environment on first year's
growth as it bears on age determination. F. S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Special Sci. Rept. no. 21, 29 p., 6 tigs.
NOTES
THE WHALE SHARK, RHINEODON TYPUS, OFF
NORTHERN BAJA CALIFORNIA
While fishing a few miles south of the United States-Mexico boundary
near South Island of Los Coronados, Baja California, on January 31,
1951, the passengers aboard the sportfishing boat Collever spotted a
school of sardines jumping wildly at the surface. Mr. Offie Collins, skipper
and owner of the Collever which operates ou1 of San Diego, moved the
boat directly oyer the center of activity. A large shark was moving lei-
surely just beneath the surface and seemed to be "feeding on the sar-
dines." Collins stayed near the shark for aboul 15 minutes and ' ' humped
it with the side of the boal several times for the benefil of the passengers. '*
The shark was described as aboul 20 Peel long, brownish in color with
yellowish spots, from the size of a quarter to that of a saucer, all over
its body. The dorsal fin was rounded and the gill slits extended from high
on the hark nearly to the throat on the underside. Unquestionably this
was ,-i whale shark. Rhineodon hums.
The present locality some 30 miles south of San Diego is over 750
miles north of any previous record on this coast. Gudger (1935, Proc.
Zool. Soc. London, p. 863-893) has recorded this species from Cape San
Lucas, Baja California, where it is a common sighl to California tuna
fisherman.- John /•.'. Fitch, Bureau of Marini Fisheries, Calif omia Divi-
sion of Fish and Garni . F< bruary, 1951.
PACIFIC COD OFF CENTRAL CALIFORNIA
A Pacific cod (Gadus macrocephalus . 2">' inches total length, was
captured off Pt. Sur, about 25 miles south of Monterey, California, on
February 15, 1951. The specimen was taken by the drag boat Liberty,
Captain P.M. Rhoades, while otter-trawling for chilipepper and bocaccio
rockfish in 100 fathoms. The specimen was taken to the General Fish Cor-
poration. Monterey, where is was observed by the author. Captain
Rhoades, who had previously fished at Eureka. California, stated that
he had caught an occasional Pacific cod in his drag net while operating
in the Eureka region. In "California Fish and Game," vol. 36, no. 4,
p. 439, October, 1950, the author records several specimens taken in
Northern California. The present record extends the southern range of
this species another 300 miles. — ./. B. Phillips, Bureau of Marine Fish-
eries, California Division of Fish and Game, February, 1951.
(351)
352 CALIFORNIA FISH AM) GAME
RETIREMENT OF HARRY COLE
Harry Cole, Fish Hatchery Foreman, Vnl>;i River Hatchery, retired
from the service on April 30, 1951. He was firsl appointed Fish I latchery
Foreman on December ■'!. 1928, with the former Bureau of Fish Culture
and was stationed al the Feather River Hatchery. He was later trans-
ferred to the Basin Creek Hatchery and since October, 1941, has been in
charge of the Yuba River Hatchery, Sierra County. During the pasl two
seasons Mr. Cole has been temporarily stationed each spring a1 the [die
wild Hatchery, Reno, Nevada, to assisl in the < lalifornia-Nevada coopera-
tive program for the introduction of Kokanee into Lake Tahoe. Before
coming to the Division of Fish and Game he was with the State of < Oregon,
Fish and Game Department. Our besl wishes to Harry for ;i long and
happy retirement. — A. C. Tuft. Chief, Bureau of Fish Conservation,
REVIEWS
Wildlife Management
By Ira X. Gabrielson ; The Macmillan Company, New York. 1951 ; xii + 274p.,
m illus., 8 tables. $4.50
This title maj confuse readers of this journal for two reasons. Not long ago
a I k with nearly the same title bul written bj another author was presented to the
public and reviewed herein i vol. •">•". 1949, p. 205). In the second place Ira Gabrielson,
who was director of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service for eleven years, has denned
"wildlife" i" mean nol only mammals and birds but iish as well. This authoritative
innovation maj now give John I >oe a more concise meaning of the term, which he
undersl I generallj to mean onlj land animals. The booh is aimed to help those
interested in improving the position of wildlife, and the author appraises cumin
practices, shows the need for repeated checks on techniques, and emphasizes the use
of balanced management programs. There are several definitions of management in the
book. Basically, wildlife managemenl is a two-fold program to (a) maintain and
utilize a resource and (b) al the same time modifj buman activities affecting thai
resource.
In explaining these phases Dr. Gabrielson does nol plead on his knees for wild-
life. His appraisals and discussions are straightforward commentaries on the principal
features of a relatively new profession. It' a credo is apparent, it concerns public par-
ticipation in a national wildlife program. His ideas on this matter are presented brieflj
and directlj to the point. Scattered through the I k are succinct kej sentences, [f
these sentences and certain picture captions were i<> be arranged systematically, both
would together serve as a primer on wildlife management. The photographs are excel
Lent, bul thej would have served a better purpose arranged in the same sequence as
are the topics. Technical terms are almost whollj absent; the I k is more effective
because of this. In general each chapter is a complete discussion of a topic in t his order :
history, function, limitations, and appraisal. A list of pertinent and basic references
follows each chapter and can be advantageously used by those who will read more.
A very pressing need for better methods is evident, says the author, in biological
research in both game and fisheries management, in public education, and in state
administration. Indeed, this comment is made so often one maj wonder where progress
has been made at all. .Minor discrepancies occur. At lirst mention neither the Location
nor the significance of the events at Horseshoe Lake. Illinois, are explained. The tables
ill chapter seven, "Artificial E'ropagation," seem to serve no immediate purpose. A hint
is given that European managemenl methods for big game are more effective, hut this
point is not enlarged.
Such criticisms of "Wildlife Management" are picayunish. The book instantlj
answers the i d for a broad critique of managemenl practices used today. It is parti-
cularly well written and will he a standard source of information for citizen, legislator,
student, and biologist. Robert />. Eberhardt, California Division of Fish ami Game.
Geography of the Pacific
( )tis W. Freeman, Editor; John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1951; xii + 573
p.. lr.Gfigs. $10.
Here is an excellent account of the Pacific, its lands and its peoples. There has
been a definite need for a comprehensive reference of this sort, for as the Pacific con-
tinues to grow in world importance so does the demand for information about it. The
authors are not concerned with the bordering American and Asiatic mainlands nor
do they consider the home islands of Japan — existing references are quite adequate —
hut every place else from Australia to such currently unimportant pinpoints as Clip-
perton Island is described in as much detail as knowledge and space permit. Thirteen
men contributed to the volume, most of them representing Pacific Coast and Hawaiian
institutions.
( 353 )
354 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME
The firsl three of the nineteen chapters treat the physical geography, native i
pies, ;iihI explorations of the entire Pacific, and the last presents a survej of trade,
transportation and strategic places. Those between discuss firsl and must extensivelj
Australia and then the island groups. These chapters follow the same general scheme,
and the book as a whole is cohesive, something which cannot always be said where
multiple authorship is involved. Physical geography, climate, mineral resources, flora
and fauna, agriculture, fisheries, commerce, trade and industry, the inhabitants, their
history and government: these all receive consideration in rough proportion to their
importance. Some of the relative^ minor topics are skipped over once in a while, but
such derelictions arc infrequent and nol serious.
The book is recommended bighlj to anyone interested in the Pacific, be his inter
esl academic, commercial, or simply i he result of li\ ing near this ocean or having sailed
it. Well illustrated with photographs and maps, attractivelj printed and bound, it will
make a handsome as well as a valuable addition to one'- library. I'hil 1/. I'urdrl,
California Division of Fish and <lmn< .
The Sea Shore
By C. M. Yonge; Collins. London. 1949; .'ill p., til color ami 62 black and white
photographs, SS text figures. $5.
Americans have frequently commented on the knack of British scientists in being
both willing and able to write books of high quality which serye layman and fellow-
scientist alike. Such a comment is very much in order here. Professor Yonge not only
has a full command of his subject but he writes delightfully.
The intertidal area of Britain encompasses highly varied environments reflecting
the influence of both warm and cold waters on sandy beaches, rocky coasts and estu-
aries. It has been the object of intensive study lor many years, and, consequently, there
is a great fund of knowledge about its habitats and the animals and plants living in
them. The essence of that knowledge forms the subject matter of the book.
In his introductory chapters, Professor Yonge presents general information which
provides his readers with the background necessary for an understanding of the shore.
He tells something of the history of studies of the sea shore in Britain, describes the
kinds of animals and plants to be found, relates a bit of oceanography so that one can
appreciate the influence of the open ocean on the shore and its denizens, and explains
how the shore is affected physically by the impact of the ocean upon it.
.Most of the book deals with specific habitats or with groups of animals; one
chapter is devoted to marine plants. These chapters tell the story of life as it exists
within the limited area of the shore, of the gradations and differences one will find as
he explores the various zones which lie between high water line and low. They tell of
the adaptations of the inhabitants, their relationships with each other and with their
environments — in short, the ecology of this meeting place of land and ocean. The locale
is Britain but the principles are as valid in California.
The closing sections discuss the factors, particularly water temperature, which
limit the ranges of intertidal species and which may account for fluctuations in abund-
ance, and the uses to which shore products are or can be put. It will probably come as
a surprise to many readers in this country, most of whom relish a wide variety of sea-
foods, that the English make relatively little use of these resources. There is an
appendix which tells briefly of major references and an index and glossary.
The many illustrations are outstanding. The color photographs are superb and
unquestionably comprise the book's most striking feature. They tend to overshadow
the black-and-white photographs which by themselves would be sufficient cause for
admiration.
Anyone Interested in natural history should own this book. — Phil M. Roedel,
California Division of Fish and Game.
REVIEWS 355
Fishing in the West
By Arthur H. Carha'rt ; The Macmillan Company, New York, 1950 ; viii + 144
p., illustrated. $4.50.
This book turns out to be little more than a compilation of chapters each of which
mighl have appeared alone in a monthly outdoor magazine. .Most of them start off jn
somewhat the following manner: "Old man Colby was sort of a recluse," or "It was
time i" head in to the little camp fire." The purpose of the book is to stimulate the
imagination of the angler confined to the eastern side of the .Mississippi River rather
than to supply much useful information to the western fisherman. As so often happens
under these circumstances the atypical and unusual situation is presented rather than
the common experience, such ;is the following: "His rod was one to handle a torpedo
line, a strong 1 1 footer, and the fly was Ladj Mite, No. 14." [t is hoped that no inexperi
(•need angler follows ibis advice literally in any of our California waters.
The chapters on the various species are nol too accurate and some misidentifica-
tion is evident. For example, "Kern River trout" are caught in Clear Creek, Colorado,
a badl\ polluted stream near Denver, and six separate references are made to catching
"silver salmon" in the .Missouri River al Belena, Montana.
This book cannot be recommended to anj student of fisheries, but it will be good
entertainment for any apartmi at-bound sportsman. It makes an especially strong case
for habitat improvement and condemns "the criminal \\;iste of monej on hatcheries" —
a thought which should cause considerable comment ai ig some sportsmen. — /.'. 1/.
Paul, California Division <>i Fish and Game.
REPORTS
FISH CASES
January, February, March, 1951
1
Number
of
arrests
Fines
imposed
Jail
sentences
(days)
Abalone: Closed season; no license; undersize; out of shell; overlimit; failure to
show license on demand; diving in District 19A; taking for commercial pur-
poses in District 19A; closed area .
151
238
1
2
42
7
4
10
33
4
114
2
157
2
1
4
12
3
4
1
1
21
1
$4,351.50
3,715.00
12.50
30.00
1,192.50
255.00
155.00
160.00
1.165.00
90.00
3,723.00
60.00
6,319.00
225.00
25.00
145.00
570.00
100.00
170.00
50.00
37.50
885.00
12.50
Angling: No license; possessing gaff within 300 feet of stream; using another's
license; fishing in closed stream; snagging; 2 lines; 2 poles; failure to show
license on demand; spearing fish within 100 feet of lower side of Mendota Dam;
niaking false statement to secure license; night fishing; using 7 poles; angling
in closed district; set lines; treble hook ..
281
Barracuda: Selling undersize
Bass, Black: Closed season ; no license __ __ .
Bass, Striped: Possession on commercial boat; 2 lines; overlimit and sale of
undersized; possession in restaurant; no license; undersize; taking at night;
buying .
Bluegill: Closed season _ .
Carp; Taking with gaff and clubs; no license
Catfish: 2 lines; taking other than by angling; selling undersize; possessing
undersize; no license; operating set line _ . _
Clam, Cockle: No license; overlimit; undersize... ...
Clam, Gaper: No license; overlimit ... .
17
Clam, Pismo: Overlimit; undersize; failure to show on demand; no license; out
of shell; selling; digging after hours; taking after hours; night clamming
Clam, Washington: Xo license; overlimit . .
90
Commercial: Xo commercial license; drag net in 131-.) fathoms (Monterey);
failure to obtain fish packer's license; failure to keep records; operating purse
seiner in District 19A; illegal use of round haul net in closed area; taking fish
with purse seine in District 118.5; operating purse seiner in District 118.5;
failure to keep and return log record on drag boat; selling fish without com-
mercial license; over 500 lbs. crab on drag boat; no dealer's license; failure to
issue fish receipts; selling short catfish; possessing undersize crabs; using drag
net inless than 50 fathoms; dragging in less than 25 fathoms in District 17
Crab: Undersize; taking undersize female for sale. _ _
373
Crappie: Closed season.. .
Frog: Closed season. .
Lobster: Pulling lobster traps; undersize; possessing undersize and resisting
arrest; operating traps in closed area
Pollution: Sawdust in stream; oil; sawdust and trash
Salmon: Xo license; spearing within 300 feet of closed stream; attempting to
take and taking on spawning beds.
Shad: Closed season _
Sturgeon: On commercial boat
Trout: Snagging; no license; shooting with rifle; closed season; overlimit; using
trout roe; fishing in closed stream; possessing steelhead; importing without
tags; snagging with triple hooks; possessing trout and gaff hook in closed area;
spearing ■.
YelJowtail: Selling .
Totals.
815
$23,448.50
308.05
49.00
3,618.75
761
Seizures: Abalone ..
Crab
Sardina
Grand total
$27,424.30
(356)
REPORTS
357
GAME CASES
January, February, March, 1951
Offense
Number
of
arrests
Fines
imposed
Jail
Sentences
(days)
Bear: Closed season
Beaver: Closed district
Coot: Closed season; taking with .22 rifle; no license; late shooting--.-
Deer: Closed season; attempting to take overlimit; taking doe, spike buck,
forked horn; illegal possession; unauthorized possession of doe; failure to tag;
fai'ure to fill out tag; night hunting; use of flashlight, artificial light; posses-
sion of spotlight while hunting
Deer meat: Possession and purchase of unstamped meat; possessing illegal
meat; closed season; possession and sale; possessing unstamped meat
Dove: Closed season; unplugged gun; bringing from Mexico in closed season;
overlimit
Duck: No license; possessing gun in refuge and late hunting; closed season; over-
limit; late shooting; bringing overlimit from Mexico; unplugged gun; using
.22 rifle and no license; shooting from powerboat; undeclared
from auto; attempting to take at night; operating powerboat for shooters;
transferring license tags; earlj shooting; shooting tn refuge; failure to show
license on demand
Goose: ( Hosed season; possession of gun in refuge; late hunting; no license; hunt-
ing on refuge; taking with .22 rifle; overlimit ; shooting from motorboai
ing overlimit from Mexico; improperly plugged gun.
Hunting: I'sing spotlight; possession ol gun m refuge; possession of gun and
light at night; no permit; no back patch in cooperative area: night hunting;
falsifying license; discharging gun in refuge; QO Incuse; spotlighting; hunting
on restricted zone; unplugged gun; carl, shooting; hunting in federal Refuge
Nongame birds: Taking meadow lark, seagulls; shooting at meadow lark, red-
tail hawk, sparrow hawk, monkey-faced owl, woodr* 1 1 1
1'heasant: Closed season: taking hen; early shooting; shooting from pov
failure to tag; hunting anil possessing in closed season; no game breeder's
license: taking in closed ." ■■■ ve area; unplugged gun; possessing
without tags; taking with .22 rifle
Pigeon: ( Iverlimil ; closed season _
Quail: Closed season; overlimit; possession of gun and light in quail area at
night
Rabbit: Taking at night in closed season; no In take in
closed season; unplugged gun; transfer of hunting license; shooting from
public road; night hunting; hunting with anothei ottontails
in closed season; .spotlighting and shooting from car
Shore birds: Shooting protected shore birds
Swan: Taking wild swan ._ _
Totals
117
3
2
$10.00
165.00
4,962.50
2,000.00
316.00
207
6,487.50
39
1,115.00
72
1,920.00
9
125.00
28
2
1,165.00
75.00
765.00
2,905.00
75.00
100.00
200
17H
280
$22,186.00
767' ■
358 CALLFORN I A PISH AM) GAME
SEIZURES OF FISH AND GAME
January, February, March, 1951
Fish: Pounds Number
Abalone 2 plus 3,122
Barracuda 101
Bass, Black 37
Bass, Striped 135 plus 38
Bass, WhiteSea 9,818
Bluegill 91
Carp. _ _. 201
Catfish 15 plus 65
Clam, Cockle 416 plus 8,675
Clam, Gaper... 76
Clam, Pismo 2,123
Clam, Washington _ 63
Crab 870 plus 49
Crappie -.- 13
Frog 25
Lobster 47 plus 113
Salmon 65^2 plus 3
Sardine 270,500
Shad 6
Sturgeon 2
Trout 35 plus 44
Yellowtail 304
Game:
Beaver 1
Beaver, hides 4
Coot 13
Deer 259 plus 22
Dove 83
Duck 505
Goose 72
Nongame birds 9
Pheasant . 18
Quail 62
Rabbit 84
Squirrel 1
Swan 2
printed in California state printing office
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Understanding 9/11