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BANCROFT
LIBRARY
THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
THE
y .M
ALIFORNIA TEACH
DEVOTED TO THE
jfducational Inkr^ate of California.
OFFICIAL ORQAN OF THE
Department of Public Instruction,
Vol. XL]
DECEMBER, 1873.
FNo. 6.
CONTENTS
Book Notices 201
County Superintendents 197
Circulation of Waters 169
Department of Public Instruction 196
Engaging Manners 195
Essay on Form 185
Preparing Skeleton Leaves 184
Physiology of the Blood 175
Ruts 180
State Normal School 198
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HKNRY N. BOLANIDER, P tJ B L I S H E R ,
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California Teacher.
nKrKMRKR, 1«78.
Vol.. XT. ^ ^^T^AMFNTO. No. 6.
CIRCULATION 01 W \ THRS ON SURFACE OF THE EARTH.
ITT.
Let iiB now pass from the attracting power of the sun and
moon to another impetus or force which they possess, namely,
their heat. And as we above designated the former power as
immeasurably small with the planets, so now in the latter case,
we may omit all mention whatever of the moon; which, though
it does not generate cold, as used to bo thought, still its heat is
so inconsiderable that only very recently it has been positively
proved to possess any. In treating this latter point, then, that
of heat, the only body deserving of notice is the sun, whose
heat is so great that in one year it could dissolve a crust of
ice a hundred feet thick, enveloping the whole earth. With
every degree of heat, the water, the sea, too, on the surface, is
changed into an aeriform, invisible body, which we call vapor,
and which remains hidden from our view till it again returns
condensed as fog, or a cloud. This evaporation increases with
an inerea8e<i extent of surface and a higher degree of heat; it is
therefore greatest in the torrid zone. Incorporated with the
air. the vapor, ascending from thence to the height of the at-
mosphere, becomes dense according to the degree of cooling,
turning to rain, or snow, or dew, or hoar frost on the ground.
To this process we apply the terms distillation and sublimation.
As in the evaporation of water, it leaves behind it all the sub-
V, ( I ; fe
17^^ CiRruLATioN OP Waters [December
stances which it dissolved while in contact with its firm bottom,
80 rain water, being distilled water, is pure. If by an artificial
extending of the superficies we increase the volume of evapora-
tion, as they do in the south of France to gain the sea salt, we
can closely inspect this uninterrupted chemical analysis. The
atmosphere is then, as its name shows, a great steam-apparatus,
whose reservoir is the ocean, its furnace the sun, and whose
condensing vessels are the higher geographical latitudes. If
the rain falls immediately back into the sea again, it diminishes
the pungency of the saline ingredients, which evaporation has
intensified; and old sailors tell us that this is the case in the
rainy season in so marked a degree, that in a calm, drinking
water may be skimmed from the surface of the sea. For this
reason the sea is less salt in the vicinity of the equator, in the
region of calms, than in that of the rainless whirlwinds; it
diminishes again in the tropics, where the sinking whirlwind
induces new falls, the so-called sub-tropic rains. But if on the
other hand the rain falls on the land, if the soil is porous it
penetrates; or should the soil be rocky, or clayey and imper
vious to water, it flows off to a lower lying level.
Now the surface of the earth is composed of strata lying one
upon the other, till down into the deepest depths; those on the
plain are disposed horizontally, while, on the other hand, those
on the mountains take an inclined or sloping position. The
gaping edges of those layers, the so-called strata-heads, can be
seen best on the summits of the mountains; as if, in the heaving
of the great bulk, the outer covering of the strata had been dis-
turbed, and the bursting mass had hardened into the form of
the crystalline rocks. The watertight and the porous strata
alternating, the former fill with water when the rain falls on
the exposed formations. The French have a good expression
for such a spongy stratum, and call it une nappe d'eau. You
can make the whole arrangement pretty clear to yourselves by
a very simple contrivance. Take a pile of alternating sheets
of dry writing-paper and well soaked blotting paper, and then
bend up the whole upper part of the book thus formed, out of
its horizontal position. You thus gain not a bad idea of how
the strata look at the top of a mountain. Farther: if you join
two vessels at tb^ bottom by a cross-pipe, and pour water into
2
I
1873] On the Surface of tbb Earth. 171
the one, the water in the other will rise as high as in the first,
no matter how it may differ in size and capacity, nor how long
the pipe is. If you lead a pipe through a dike by the sea shore,
and curve it round, the water will rise to the sea level even
though the pipe should end in a quill. Add one drop, and the
whole ocean rises, naturally in proportion to its expanse. This
is called the law of the communication of tubes; of such tubes
the U-shaped offers the simplest illustration. This law of course
holds good for any number of Vessels connected by tubes. Such
are the Suterazi of the Turks, who, when they desire to conduct
water from the one hill to the other, carry a pipe down the one
hill, right across the valley, and up the ascent of the second.
Had the Romans been acquainted with this principle, they would
not have reared their splendidly-arched aqueducts, which bear
a more brilliant testimony to their feeling for art than to their
knowledge of physics.
The arrangement for providing all larger towns with water is
only an imitation of these Suterazi. A main reservoir is almost
filled up with water, the connecting pipes branch off as required,
under the street pavement, and from these the communicating
pipes are conducted into the houses, and carried to a height
which of course does not exceed the level of the main reservoir.
The effort to rise is everywhere equal, and the upper wall of the
horizontal part of the pipes, therefore, has to withstand a pres-
sure from below upwards. If it cannot withstand the pressure,
the water oozes out, and a source is found. For, indeed, what
else are those nappes d'eau, hut the water in those pipes, the
walls of which are formed by the water-tight layers? Hence
the springs ooze out at the foot of the mountains exactly where
the upper covering has cracked, in making a bend roupd. But
the spring is often to be found at a greater distance from the
base ; where, for example, the stratum comes to an end in the
plain, or has been burst at some point. If the strata are dis-
posed horizontally on either side of a so-called erosion-valley
the water issuing thence can have no ascending power, unless
the layers assume an inclined position at a greater distance.
Those valleys lined with sloping layers fall into three divisions,
viz: into concave or basin-shaped, in which the strata of both
walls dip towards the valley; divergent valleys, where this is
172 Circulation of Waters [Decembsr
the case only on one side, which presents a succession of strata,
eloping gently downwards, and the other a steep descent laying
bare the heads of the layers; and lastly, chasms, in which the
heads of the strata are turned to both sides of the valley, and
slope off to the outside. From this, it is to be expected that
springs may be found on both sides in the basin-shaped valleys ;
in the divergent valleys only on the sloping side, and in the
chasm not at all ; as the rain falling on the heads of the strata
Would simply feed the springs of a neighboring valley. But
nature has frequently neglected to make the opening for the
spring to bubble forth, and man must come to her aid, by
breaking through the upper stratum with a ground-auger, and
in tbis manner get a well, an Artesian well, so called from the
province of Artois, where they were first introduced into Eur-
ope, in the year 1126. The ascending power of the water natu-
rally depends on how high the curve of the layer is filled with
water. As long as the auger is boring in the upper stratum if
. remains dry, but immediately fills with water as soon as the last
wall is pierced, just like those pipes laid in our houses as a pro-
tection against fire, which, being left empty in winter to prevent
freezing, fill instantly the obstruction is removed. If the nappe
d'eau has no side bent upwards, i. e., if it is filled merely by lat-
eral infiltration, then on reaching the water we get only a well,
to obtain the water out of which, it has to be drawn or pumped
to the surface. If the spring has been bored in a high-lying
region, it is possible the water does not rise to the surface at
all, but remains at a certain depth, corresponding to the point
of issue of the stratum in the mountains. If the water-tight
layer over the porous one were quite wanting, the water, if it
possessed any force to ascend, would do so of itself In this
case it would be useless to add a new bore to the many already
made.
The irrigation of the deeper-lying oases in Sahara seems from
the most ancient times to have been effected by means of Artes-
ian wells. Shaw says of Wad-rag — a collection of villages at
the entrance of the Sahara — that these villages have no springs,
the inhabitants procuring water in a peculiar manner. They
dig* wells, a hundred or even two hundred fathoms deep, till
they find under the S^nd a stone resembling slate, under which
1873] On the Surfacb of the Earth. 173
the Babar taht el erd, that is, the water is fonnd under the
earth. This stone is not difficult to pierce, which being done,
the water bursts forth so suddenly and in such abundance, that
the men who have been let down frequently perisb, though
drawn up as quickly as possible. Olympiodor tells of the dig-
ging of such deep wells in the great oasis. They are called
Bahr in the erosions of the lower plateau; on the plateau itself,
Schreia.
When in the year 1844 after the battle at Meggarin, General
Desvaux was encamped in the oasis Sidi Kasched, he remarked
that on one side of it the palm trees looked poor and shabby,
while they were sound and flourishing on the other. On en-
quiring into the reason of this peculiar appearance, he was
informed that there was a scarcity of water, the chief well hav-
ing fallen in; and as they possessed no means of digging a new
one, they were awaiting the day when their palms would cease
to bear fruit, and they should all die of hunger. It was Allah's
will. The General, on his own responsibility, concluded to send
to France for a boring apparatus; an engineer from of Degousee
in Paris, was summoned. He foun'd the matter practicable, and
the, following winter, after a division of Spahis had worked for
four days, a spring bubbled forth out of the deserted shaft,
bringing 4,300 litres of water a minute. The inhabitants rushed
in crowds to the blessed spring, bathing their children in it.
Now came petitions from all the other oases for similar favors,
and since then some fifty we^s have been brought into use
without visibly diminishing the volume of water in those al-
ready dug. The love of exaggeration now prevalent has led
many to express a hope, that in the above manner the desert
would, in coarse oi time, be changed into a lovely garden.
The abundance of water in a spring may be exceedingly em-
barrassing. A considerable number of years ago, an Italian
proprietor had an Artesian well dug in his grounds, but it
proved to be so powerful that it inundated his own and bis
neighbor's estates. All endeavors to stop the spring were un-
successful; and the lawsuit for damages in which this involved
him, completed his ruin. The story of Goethe's Zauberlehrling
was realized on bim to his misfortune. Frequently the water-
tight stratum runs away over the tops of the mountains and
174 Circulation of Waters. \_December
the heads of the porous layers, which are then prevented from
filling with water. This was the case in Marseilles, where the
fruitful soil of the vineyards was often entirely washed away
by the thunder-plumps (rain spouts). It struck the vintagers
to bore deep holes through the upper stratum of clay, and to
construct channels into which to carry the rain-water ; and
since that time springs about the circumference of a man's arm,
which were unknown before, have formed at the harbor. • In
the year 1831 the fountain in the cathedral square in Tours
cast up branches and shells from a depth of 335 feet.
Can we still doubt, in the face of those facts, that the water
which oozes forth in natural springs is originally Tagewasser
(day light- water; the water which penetrates into a mine from
the upper strata) as the miners call it. And who knows it bet-
ter than they, they who keep up an unceasing struggle to get it
under, who construct pits and channels over the pits and mines
in order to prevent it breaking in, by carrying it off rapidly;
and who after a heavy shower of rain see it appear, first in the
lower, and afterwards in the lowest depths. How many sources
dry up after long drought, many so frequently as to get the
name of "hunger-springs," by way of contrast with those in
Switzerland in spring, and which on the first dissolving of the
snow burst forth everywhere. And yet there are still to be
found adherents of the so-called capillary system. We know it
is true that in a narrow tube the water, with a curved concave
surface, stands higher than in ,a wide vessel into which the
tubes are introduced; but the water can be higher only as long
as the surface is hollow; if it has run out, the surface must first
be equalized; that, however, can never be, because then the
condition of standing higher no longer exists. You see in dip-
ping a bit of sugar into your coffee, it imbibes the coffee, but no
coffee spring will ever bubble forth out of it.
But we are told that in the hot summer of 1822 the waters
collected in unusual quantities at the bottom of the mines in the
Hartz Forest, while on the surface all the springs ran dry.
How easy it was to explain this by saying, that the earth, loos-
ened and cracked by the heightened temperature, its natural
capillary tubes were so much widened that they could no longer
raise the water to the surface, hence it was compelled to col-
1873] Physiolooy ok the Blood. 175
lect at the bottom I This explanation is certainly simple, but
simpler still the following: that as those waters were raised by
means of mill-works driven by springs, on the drying up of
those springs, the works stood still and could not raise the
waters!
[For the California Teacher.]
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BLOOD.
Although physiologists of ancient times considered the blood
as playing an important part in the animal economy, and al-
though in somewhat later times considerable attention was paid
to the study of it, it was not till the microscope was placed in
the hands of the naturalist that any exact knowledge of its
nature was attained.
By aid of the microscope "we perceive that the blood is not a
homogeneous fluid, but a mixture of ingredients differing great-
ly from each other in nature. The blood is water holding in
solution albumen, tibrine, fatty and saccharine substances, and
several alkaline salts; it also floats vesicular globules composed
of hematosine, globuline and some other albuminoids, phosphur-
eted fatty substances, earthy salts and one compound salt con-
taining iron. Thus the simple ingredients which appear to be
essential to its constitution are oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitro-
gen, sulphur, phosphorus, chloride of sodium, iron, potash, soda,
calcium and magnesium. Thus we see that the blood contains
every element necessary for the building up of the tissues of
the body.
These furnish compounds of two kinds ; the one combustible
and consequently combining easily with oxygen, thus creating
new products ; the other consisting of substances that have al-
ready undergone combustion, and consequently are not affected
by this principle of oxygen; the fatty and saccharine matters
belong to the first class, the water and inorganic salts to the
second.
The compound substances of the blood remain therein for a
longer or shorter time and then disappear, having suffered de-
struction, expulsion from the system, or been employed in the
building up of the tissues of the body. There is no invariable
176 Physiology of the Blood. [December
standard regulating the proportion which they must maintain
to each other, yet each zoological species has its own general
standard, variations from which beyond certain limits denote
variations from the normal standard of health,
The temperature of the blood is independent of the surround-
ing atmosphere ; it is the result of chemical processes taking
place within it; in man it is from 37° to 38° centigrade, while in
birds it is about -4° higher; in the lower vertebrates it is but
little higher than the surrounding medium.
There is a general relative proportion of the weight of the
blood to the weight of the body; this proportion varies in dif-
ferent animals, being greatest in those which present the high-
est degree of physiological activity or vitality; in animals of
the same species the relative weight of blood in those below
the average size, is greater than in those of abnormally large
growth. In man about one twelfth or one thirteenth of the
weight of the body is blood, in woman a little less; in children
about one nineteenth. Abstinence from food diminishes the
quantity of blood in the body; the same occurs in certain path-
ological conditions of the system.
The function of the blood is to build up the tissues of the
body, and to carry away worn-out particles; it is contained in
a system of tubes which are impermeable, except for the inter-
change of matters between the blood and the more solid flesh.
The color of the blood is not uniform, but may vary many
shades in different individuals, in the same individuals in differ-
ent parts of the vascular system, and at different times.
Let a drop of blood be magnified from 300 to 400 times, and
it will appear to consist of a multitude of corpuscular elements,
while ^the fluid in which they float is betrayed only by the
swimming motion of these little bodies. The fluid is called the
plasma or serum of the blood, and constitutes about three quar-
ters of its volume; the corpuscles are called blood-cells, and con-
stitute about one-eighth of the volume of the blood — that is,
when they are separated from it, and become dried; Lehmann
thinks that in thp living blood they constitute at least one-half.
RED BLOOD-CELLS.
The red blood-cells represent the most remarkable feature of
1873] Physiology op the Blood. 177
the blood as we examine it under the microscope; it is to them
that the blood owes its color, and they form a dividing line be-
tween the Vertebrates and the Invertebrates, never being found
in the latter. They are but little more dense than the liquid in
which they float, which liquid they render more opaque, while
they diminish its fluidity but little.
Minute as these little bodies are, measuring in man but about
the 250th of a line in diameter, they are, nevertheless, of a very
composite character. Two of their constituent parts are globu-
line, an albumen-like substance, and hematosine, which is also
an albuminoid, and is found combined with iron. These two
substances are both easily dissolved in water, but the serum of
the blood holds in solution certain ingredients which combined
render these substances insoluble, and thus the blood-cells re-
main intact.
The blood-cells were formerly supposed to owe their red color
to iron; experiment, however, has proved that the blood de-
prived of all iron still retains its color; and since this has been
proved, physiologists have sought, and sought in vain, for the
true coloring principle of the blood; modifications of its color
have been referred to modifications in the form of the cell at
different points of its circulation, to hematosine and to the gases
of the blood.
The blood-cells appear to be minute chemical laboratories
within which the work is accomplished of effecting certain
chemical changes in those substances which are held in solu-
tion in the fluid surrounding them, and having performed their
allotted labor, they cease to exist. They play an important
part in the phenomenon of respiration, acting as storehouses or
condensers of oxygen ; the 'oxygen is apparently absorbed by
the plasma or serum, which then delivers it up to the keeping
of the globules; these condense the oxygen, without changing
it chemically, and carry it to every part of the system.
In the different classes of Vertebrates the red blood-cells vary
in forviy size^ and structure.
I. In the Mammalia they are circular, while in oviparous
vertebrates they are elliptical; exceptions to this general rule
exist in the camel, llama and chameleon, which have elliptical
blood-cells, while in a few of the lowest order of fishes they are
circular.
178 Physiology of the Blood. [December
II. They are smallest in the Mammalia, and increase in size
in an order exactly corresponding to the classes of the animal
kingdom; thus, smallest in the Mammalia, next in Birds, next in
Beptiles, next in Fishes, and largest in the Batrachians. Among
the Mammalia, we do not, however, find the smallest in man,
but in the Euminantia, while the Bimana and Quadrumana dif-
fer but little from the Eodentia. Examining further, we find
that although the size of the body has nothing to do with
that of the blood-cells, yet the smallest animals are, in general,
the most active; that rapidity of motion is intimately connected
with frequency of respiration, and that in animals constituted
according to the same fundamental plan, the tendency of nature
is to render the blood-cells smaller in proportion as the neces-
sity for respiration increases. This is illustrated in the deer
(particularly the musk deer), the stag, and the antelope, who
are among the fleetest of animals, and are consequently obliged
to breathe frequently, and in them we find the smallest blood-
cells.
III. The microscope reveals a dark spot in these minute bod-
ies, which, in the Mammalia, seems to be caused by a central
depression, while in the lower animals it indicates the presence
of a solid nucleus, and this nucleus may be considered as a sign
of physiological inferiority.
In those viviparous animals (camel, etc.) which present the
anomaly of elliptical globules, these are found to be destitute
of a nucleus; hence the characteristic distinguishing viviparous
from oviparous animals seems to be the absence of the nucleus,
rather than the circular form.
Again, the structure of the peripheral portions of the red
cells, is a question yet to be determined; some suppose them to
be enclosed by a kind of membrane, thus forming isolated cells,
while others consider them mere masses of gelatine-like sub-
stance; there is, however, a strong leaning to the opinion that
they consist of a membranous wall (which must be perfectly
transparent, since it is the contents within which lend the blood
its color), and a gelatine-like substance, rather than a liquid,
between the wall and the nucleus. The nuclei are composed of
nucleoli. The origin of the red blood-cells is unknown.
1873] Physioloqy of the Blood. 179
white blood-cells.
Besides the red blood-cell8 there are also white blood-cells,
and these, unlike the former, are found both in Vertebrates and
in Invertebrates. It is believed they originate in the spleen,
liver, and other glandular organs of the body. Of these cells
there are at least two kinds, and some physiologists think to
have discerned four; their nature is not well known, und the
solution of the problem depends on the test of chemical re-
agents as well as upon the microscope. Their number is less
than that of the red blood-cells, being in the ratio of one of the
former to three or four hundred of the latter.
One kind, which may be called elementary globules, are much
smaller than the red globules in man ; they appear to consist
of a fatty substance surrounded by a layer of albumen ; they
abound in the blood soon ailer eating.
Another kind, sometimes called plasmic globules, are larger
than the red blood-cells in man; they vary in structure, and are
less abundant than the elementary globules.
One thing remarkable in them is the changes of form which
they are seen to undergo when observed under the microscope;
the motion thus produced resembles the movements of an ani-
mal, and hence it has been suggested that they are really ani-
malcules, a theory, however, not accepted by physiologists in
general.
In some diseased states of the system the blood exhibits the
phenomenon of abnormal blood-cells also.
The blood-cells grow and become modified with age; they are
the seat of physiological phenomena, and are endowed with a
special activity. We know that the secretory organs of the
body — liver, salivary glands, etc. — perform their functions by
means of cells, that is, that the secretion of the bile in the liver,
of the saliva in the salivary glands, takes place within the cells
of these organs; the cells of the blood appear to be of the same
nature, differing only by being left to float freely in a fluid in-
stead of being united so as to form layers, tubes, or compact
masses, and thus we may look upon them not as simple concre-
tions of animal matter, the result of precipitation or coagula-
tion, but as miniature elementary organisms ; and hence the
blood may be considered as a living fluid, as liquid flesh.
L.
180 EuTS. IDecember
RUTS.
An order of exercises is considered an indispensable part of
the teacher's belongings; we carve up our time into pieces of
various lengths, which we endeavor to adapt to the varied
wants and requirements of reading, arithmetic, spelling, music,
and all the thousand and one tasks which the busy teacher
finds to do. After having appropriated every second of breath-
ing time, we make ourselves and our pupils miserable by en-
deavoring to carry out our programme with the most rigid
exactitude. While every nerve is strained to its work, we go
over the same old rigmarole day after day, week after week,
beating ceaselessly at the same old tasks, at precisely the same
time of the day, until we find that our pupils are yawning over
their books, and that, we are not accomplishing half as much as
we expected when we made out that wonderful order of exer-
cises, in which not a moment was wasted.
When we discover that we are teaching in a rut, and feel sure
that something must be done to get out of it, what do we do?
Some do not realize what the trouble is; find their scholars
sleepy, and know no better way of waking them up than by
using the rattan very freely; it wakes them up, perhaps, but
whether it makes better scholars of them, is a question open to
considerable discussion. When the rattan is used as a cure for
laziness, I imagine that its work is rarely crowued with success.
Of continual scolding, though there is a strong temptation to it,
I have still less an opinion; since it wears out the strength of
the teacher, and rather amuses the scholars than otherwise.
They are the wisest, I think, who look the matter over, and
change their programmes.
It is a good plan, endorsed by many good teachers, to turn
the programme upside down, as it were ; that is, have that
study or recitation first which we are in the habit of having
last, and so on. Those who have never tried this simple exped-
ient, will be astonished to see what an effect it has on a sleepy
and uninterested class of children; they weary of the old things
which they do not know or understand, but have nevertheless
grown very tired of; and if the studies are taken up in the
morning light instead of the afternoon, they seem much clearer
1873] KuTS. 181
to their young eyes, and get a little of the gloss of newness on
them besides.
But more fatal by far than the unvarying time, is the monot-
onous manner of teaching, into which we fall the more natur-
ally, because our nerves are strained to the utmost tension and
we are sorely tried, and it is much easier to teach in a rut,
than out of one. In the days, now gone by, in which no small
amount of time and attention was given to oral instruction, the
object lessons, which might have been a means of exciting con-
siderable interest among the scholars, were taught by two thirds
of our teachers in a way which would have excited derision and
scorn in any well conducted kindcr-garten. Not but what we
knew that the object should be at hand in giving the lesson, and
passed around the class; that the children themselves should be
allowed to do some of the talking, and that some small infrac-
tions of discipline might be overlooked; that, in spite of blun-
ders, and the silly speeches in which some children delight, and
the slow progress made in the search after information, knowl-
edge drawn out was and is worth five times as much as that
poured in ; although we knew this quite well, we were perhaps
tired; the object was not at hand, and the time could not always
be spared from other lessons ; patience had been sadly worn
upon during the day, and we rarely felt like overlooking any-
thing in the way of naughtiness; and it urns easier to put the
lesson, or rather, the skeleton of what the lesson ought to have
been, on the blackboard, and say, "Copy it, and then study it."
It did just about as well when they were examined, and if it
was rather "rutty" it saved a great deal of work. With little
children the plan was the same in effect, if a little different in
method. "Now, children, put your hands behind you, and lis-
ten to every word I say; pay attention all the time, and don't
forget anything." This was, of course, quite sufficient to make
the lesson totally useless, but the teacher was unconscious of
the fact, and went on: "Say this after me; 'The parts of a pin
are : head, shank, and point.' Say it three times. Johnny,
what are the parts of a pin?" And so on, till oral instruction,
which might have been so profitable, became a perfect bore to
scholars and teachers, until it was dropped at last from the
course of study, to the infinite delight of both.
182 Ruts. [December
Another studj'^, if study it could be called, which was always
laughed at, and generally neglected, was called morals and
manners. Morals was understood by most teachers to mean,
learning ten maxims, as well understood by the children as
though they were Greek instead of English; and manners were
taught by means of memorizing three rules for good behavior.
This was all very well, but calling it morals and manners was
unmitigated nonsense. Some teachers, while they would be the
first to discountenance cheating, lying, and stealing, or rudeness
of any kind, maintain that morals and manners can be incul-
cated, but not taught; it is certainly something in which chil-
dren should not be examined. If we could talk to our pretty,
well dressed, well cared for little girls in such a way as to make
them more considerate for those who have been less fortunate
in their surroundings, we should do an amount of moral teach-
ing more effective than five hundred maxims.
Because Biddy Mack does not belong to her set; because she
wears calico dresses without any starch, and dreadful calfskin
boots; because she picks up chips in a big basket, and buys
flour at the corner grocery by the ten cents' worth, and stays
at home on Mondays to help her mother wash, little Miss Ele-
gance never notices her unless when questions in the tables are
being passed around, when Biddy is found to be handy, if her
hair is up, and her stockings are down.
Over the schoolroom door should be written in letters of
gold, Marian Douglas' line, "'Tis only good children the angels
call fair."
If the teacher by many efforts could but make the little lady
understand that those Mondays on which Biddy's seat is vacant
are very long to the little girl, no bigger than herself; that she
has to rub out the stocking feet; (so many pairs of little stock
ings ! ) and wash the towels through the first water, and tend
the baby, and run errands, and help get dinner, and empty the
tubs; that the work is not easy, and the arms very small. That
there is a big wolf who has been watching their door for many
months and years, and that he sometimes comes so close that
the wretched mother and the trembling little children can hear
his hoarse growl; that he is so fierce and so determined to have
his prey, that even the little shoulders must be braced to the
1873] Ruts. 183
wheel whose turning brings them bread, and the little hands
must do what they can to beat him away for a while longer.
Tell her that the name of the wolf is Poverty, and we hope she
may never meet him at her threshhold.
Then Mary Malone, who sits next to her, has such big, coarse
hands, and such red hair; Miss Elegance "can't endure her,"
and doesn't scruple to show it. How well might her teacher
point to the golden letters over the door, and tell her that
angels look past the face and see only the soul; and that she
wouldn't wonder if they smiled on poor red-handed, red-headed,
red-eyed Mary, while they looked on her with very doubtful
eyes. The teacher could whisper to her that the redness of
Mary's eyes is caused by tears ; that when she thinks of the
mother (beautiful to her, because she was her mother), whom
she had, and has not; her childish heart aches with a bitter
pain the little lady's has never dreamed of, and the carrotty
head turns from the pillow, and the slip is wet with her tears,
night after night. Such moral teaching might fail, but it might
have its effect ; at least one shell of selfishness might drop
away fVom the wofully selfish little heart ; moral teaching
worthy the name it would be, certainly.
Since the introduction of the Grube system, muci. . liiiiness"
in the teaching of tables has been done away with. Children
used to have a peculiar way of "sing-songing" the tables, in
which they took an immense amount of satisfaction ; if the
teacher did not chance to be nervous it was rather soothing
than otherwise, and it kept the children out of mischief, but it
never taught the difference between one and three, nor the sum
of two and two. It was a dreadful rut, but the educational
machine seems to be lifted out of it now. The system substi-
tuted for it, though much more wearing on the teacher, is so
clear, so rational, so interesting to the children, so lasting in
what it teaches, that we all owe our thanks to the originator,
who evidently is not a man who believes in an unvarying pro-
gramme, which does not waste a moment, and provides for
everything but breathing-time. C. G. D.
184 Preparing Skeleton Leaves. [December
\From The Garden.l^
PREPARING SKELETON LEAVES.
By James F. Eobinson.
We have recently heard much about finding suitable employ-
ment for ladies, and allowing them to enter the medical profes-
sion, etc. I leave these discussions to abler minds ; and, in a
more humble manner, I shall endeavor to point out a little con-
genial employment for the leisure hours of our fair readers ;
one, moreover, in which, whilst they are usefully occupied,
they will derive both amusement and pleasure. Most amusing
scientific work is simply adapted for the passing hour ;• but
mine, if enthusiastically followed, will bring joy when glanced
at in years to come, for '' A thing of beauty is a joy forever" in
more senses than one. A very pleasant occupation for leisure
moments is the art of preparing, or rather skeletonizing leaves.
The old method, as most of my readers are aware, was simply
to immerse the leaves beneath water for several weeks until the
epidermis and parenchyma had decayed ; then, taking them
out, to rub off the decayed fleshy or cellular matter in a bowl
of clean water. To say the least of this method, it was very
unsatisfactory and often yielded results far from pleasing, with-
out taking into consideration the great amount of patience need-
ful to complete the process. Now, thanks to chemistry, we
have another better plan, not occupying as many hours as the
old decaying method took weeks to accomplish. An excellent
recommendation for processes of this kind is their simplicity, as
anything complicated, or requiring expensive requisites in its
performance, is sure to be scouted, or, at most, to gain but few
adherents. Most of my lady friends to whom I have recommen-
ded the undermentioned process for skeletonizing leaves, have
fallen so much in love with it, as to follow it up constantly in
Autumn, merely for amusement. The result has been the pro-
duction of many an elegant drawing-room ornament, either being
placed in a vase or mounted for framing beneath glass, as a per-
manent record of their industry. First dissolve four ounces of
common washing-soda in a quart of boiling water, then add two
ounces of slaked quick-lime, and boil for about fifteen minutes.
Allow this solution to cool ; afterwards pour off all the clear
liquor into a clean saucepan. When the solution is at the boil-
1873] Essay on Form, 185
ing point, place the leaves carefully in the pan, and boil the
whole together for an hour. Boiling water ought to be added
occasionally, but sufficient only to replace that lost by evapora-
tion. The epidermis and parenchyma of some leaves will more
readily separate than in others. A good test is to try the leaves
after they have been gently simmering (boiling) for about an
hour, and, if the cellular matter does not easily rub off betwixt
the finger and thumb beneath cold water, boil them again for a
short time. When the fleshy matter is found to be sufficiently
softened, rub them separately, but very gently, beneath cold
water until the perfect skeleton is exposed. The skeletons at
first are of a dirty white color ; to make them pure white, and
therefore more beautiful, all that is necessary is to bleach them
in a weak solution of chloride of lime. I have found the best
solution is a large teaspoonful of chloride of lime to a quart of
water ; if a few drops of vinegar be added to the bleaching solu-
tion, it is all the better, for then the free chlorine is liberated.
Do not allow them to remain too long in the bleaching liquor,
or they will become very brittle, and cannot afterwards be
handled without injury. About fifteen minutes is sufficient to
make them white and clean-looking. After the specimens are
bleached, dry them in white blotting-paper beneath a gentle
pressure. Of course in this, as in other things, a little practice
is needful to secure perfection. Simple leaves are the best for
beginners to experiment upon : Vine, Poplar, Beech, and Ivy
leaves make excellent skeletons. Care must be exercised in the
selection of leaves, as well as the period of the year, and the
state of the atmosphere, when the specimens are collected,
otherwise failure will be the result. The best months to gather
the specimens are July to September. Never collect specimens
in damp weather, and none but perfectly matured leaves ought
to be gathered.
ESSAY ON FORM, AS A BRANCH OE EDUCATION.
BV PROP. CONRAD DIEHL, ST. LODIS, MO.
Introduction.-
Only knowledge of form enables mankind to transform raw
material to its use. The culture of a people can be measured
186 As A Branch of Education. [December
by the standard of its utilitarian and aesthetic productions in
form. The study of form must therefore be considered as one
of the most essential branches of public education. It is but
too true that in the pursuit of this study no satisfactory results
have hitherto been attained in our schools. Whether it is
owing to a lack of recognition of the value of this study, or to
the absence of a rational method, or both, forms the subject of
this address.
Before I can attempt to develop my views, 1 beg leave to lay
before you a series of questions which are of the greatest im-
portance in the consideration of this subject ; questions which
I have repeatedly revolved in my mind since I have become
identified with Art-education in St. Louis.
1. What are the best subjects for study, and in what manner
are they to be presented to the pupil ?
2. What technical means are to be employed in working out
these subjects ?
3. In order that a child may learn to comprehend fully the
nature of a straight line, should the teacher illustrate such a
line on the blackboard without the use of a ruler, and should the
child likewise be refused the use of the ruler, when drawing
straight lines ?
4. Should a teacher, in describing a circle, or a section of a
circle, or in dividing a line into a^ given number of equal parts,
perform this task without the use of dividers ? and should the
pupils be likewise required to accomplish it without the aid of
such an instrument ?
5. Should a class engaged in constructive or imitative work,
be refused the use of the ruler and of the dividers, where suc-
cess in the execution can be tested and governed only by means
of these instruments ?
6. Would not the demonstration and illustration of geometri-
cal plane figures .md of geometrical solids be materially aided
by the use of things of daily use which exhibit these figures,
and are familiar to the child, while the abstract figures of geom
etry are new to it, and therefore bewildering ? This, it appears
to me, is a very important point, as it embodies the first princi-
ple of object-teaching, namely : that we must proceed from the
known to the unknown.
1878] !-..-^.>i ..N Form. 187
7. Can receding surfaces be illustrated to a child from draw-
ings on the flat ?
8. Should free-hand drawing be practiced in any case but
that in which the use of instruments is impossible, as in draw-
ing from real objects, or in sketching?
9. Should not the child, in drawing from real objects, be made
familiar with the use of the plumb-line for gauging points within
an object, lying in a vertical direction ? and also with the pro-
cess of comparative measurement by means of which the pro-
portions which an object presents in its relations to the eye are
compared as thrown upon a plane ?
10. Can a teacher present clearly to a pupil a subject with
which he or she is not thoroughly acquainted? and, if the study
of form and its conditions is to be made a subject of public edu-
cation, is it possible that such subject can be successfully pur-
sued, unless the opportunity is offered to teachers by Boards of
Education to become thoroughly competent and conversant
with that which they are to present to children ?
11. After teachers have become thoroughly conversant with
the phenomena of form and its construction, should they not be
supplied with a oomplete set of models, so constructed as to be
separable into their component parts, and into pieces showing
the various " sections ? and should not these models be accom-
panied by charts upon which these parts are illustrated, in
ground plan, elevation and sections, on the scale of the models,
together with their constructions according to the rules of per-
spective, showing the precise appearance of the models in a
given relation to the eye ?
12. Would not the introduction of an apparatus in which the
principles of perspective are embodied, materially aid this study?
Part I.
Of all matters important to the culture as well as the material
welfare of a people, not one has been more superficially dealt
with in educational systems than the training of the intellect
in regard to an understanding of the nature of form. Few
among the masses are able to use it as a means of communica-
tion, and it is no venture to assert that ninety-nine per cent, are
incapable of giving a description of objects by any other means
188 As A Branch op Education. IBecember
than words (although before they could designate an object
with a word, their eyes had made them familiar with such
object), simply because they had never been taught how to see.
Yet make this last assertion, and you are either denounced as
a maniac, or as an overbearing pretender. You will readily be
convinced that those persons can recognize an object at as
great a distance as you can ; furthermore, that they make dis-
tinctions between long and round heads ; crooked, snub, aquil-
ine, or other noses, etc.; in short, that they can enter into a
verbal description in detail of anything which, by means of
vision, they had ever committed to memory; and no doubt, at
the moment of description, the object described stands vividly
before their mind's eye ; but stop them short, avert your face,
ask simply which of the two eyelids overlaps the other, the
upper or the lower, and you will, nine times out of ten, receive
an answer to the effect that they have never examined, despite
the fact that there is not a feature which they have more
closely scrutinized, and that the eye has been the means of
conveying to them all visible impressions. They have failed to
examine, simply because they have never been taught how to
see. The impression is prevalent among the masses that access
to the domain of form is restricted to a few persons of talent,
who are particularly endowed by Providence. The existence
of this delusion cannot astonish us, since form, that manifesta-
tion of matter most easily recognized by the senses of sight and
touch, has not yet been subjected to a definite system of inves-
tigation and analysis. In connection with this, it may be well
to state, that the practical result produced in Schools of Art
tends to prove, that the talent most promising on entering does
not invariably carry away the palm in the end ; but that, on
the contrary, those who arrive at the highest distinction gave
but indifferent promise at first. These concentrated their force
on the training of the mind, in consequence of which their
power of execution lagged behind their mental accomplish-
ment; they worked with modest assiduity, and after they had
chosen a worthy subject, overcame all technical obstacles, re-
gardless of sacrifices; whilst many of the most promising tal-
ents, transported by momentary success, thought that it did
not require great exertions on their part to excel, numbered
1873] Essay on Form, 189
themselves among the chosen, until it was too late to mend.
Thus popular prejudice has been the ruin of many talents who,
with earnest application and perseverance, might have become
shining lights in their profession.
Form presents three separate fields for investigation :
1. The analysis of that which exists, u c, learning how to see.
2. The digestion of that which exists, by separating and com-
bining the same, i. e.y learning how to think.
3. The embodiment of our thoughts in form, i. «., learning
how to create.
When we contemplate a work of art, in sculpture, architec-
ture or painting, we do not realize that these, together with all
results produced by the trades, are deduced from one common
source. We may readily assert that a chemist can become a
successful soap manufacturer, or an artist a joiner or shoema-
ker, while it would be venturesome to infer the contrary : we
readily conclude, that the more a soapmaker knows about
chemistry, or a joiner or shoemaker about form, the greater
will be his success in his vocation.
The question forces itself upon us, whether the elements of
the study of form might not be introduced in the primary
classes of our schools as advantageously as Natural Sciences, a
question which I answer in the affirmative. I feel confidence
in this assertion, because in the first steps taken in the training
of the mind, forms are used ; the children are made familiar
with arbitrary signs designed to represent sounds, i. e., with
letters. Form is next brought into direct requisition by accom-
panying combinations of these signs, i. e. words, with illustra-
tions of the objects they designate, to aid the memory in retain-
ing these words; then, in training the mechanical capacity, the
child is taught to imitate those signs, i. e., to write; they thus
actually receive the first lessons in free-hand drawing, learning
to draw straight lines and curves, and to combine these lines in
certain relations and proportions. Beyond this, their imitative
capacity in the actual writing of form receives no training, and
why? Who will hesitate to declare that, just as a reading
lesson is aided by accompanying words with illustrations, a
training in the writing of real form, i. e., in drawing from real
objects, would materially aid the reading lesson? In the study
190 As A Branch of I'^ducatjon. [December
of form it may be deemed equally essential that the child should
contemplate the best and most beautiful, according to the capa-
city of its understanding; as in language it is considered neces-
sary that the precepts of the teacher should be unexceptionable,
and his or her language simple and correct. It will be found
in form, as in language, that the progress made by the child is
not limited to the training in school; since, before it entered, it
had already exercised the eye, as well as, to a certain degree,
acquired the use of language. What it gains in school is prac-
tically developed outside by intercourse.
. Can we reasonably claim that the eye of a child, up to the
time it enters a school, has been less active than its tongue or
ear, when we positively know, that it learns to identify words
with objects and sensations long after it is familiar with such
objects and sensations ? Do we not frequently find children
making attempts to draw objects before they have the faintest
idea of word-writing? Is not writing in form a transmutation
of ideas into the universal language? And could any teacher
conversant only with the language of his nation, read books
written in foreign languages, whether French, German, Span-
ish, Russian, Arabic, Chinese, etc., as readily as a man or woman
properly trained in the reading and writing of form would read
their designs, or even a child their picture books designed
expressly for children ? Are we not entitled to anticipate
as decided results by encouraging a child to imitate form,
as we attain in language, by systematic training? The great
end which we attain in reading, is to learn to understand that
which has been written by others; in writing and speaking, to
communicate our thoughts to others; in drawing, to embody
ideas in form. What we know or see, we can communicate by
these means; there are, however, many things which we can
communicate in writing and not in drawing, and vice versa.
Before proposing a new plan for instruction in drawing, it is
necessary to give sufficient reason for condemning the system
hitherto in use, i. e., drawing from cards.
All elementary drawing-cards commend themselves to the
eye as being well adapted to the purpose of teaching juveniles
how to draw, inasmuch as they offer precisely such representa-
tions as the child would attempt in drawing from the objects
1873] Essay on Form, 191
themselves, i. e , outlines. Such patterns teach a chili to ignore
the fact that objects are bounded by planes, and can bo repre-
sented from more than one point of view. Now, instead of set-
ting a child to copying such meaningless things, why not place
it under the guidance of a person who can direct it to draw the
outlines of the various sides of an object, that it may learn to
understand the value of surfaces in various positions?
Let children, from the start, be impressed with the true con-
dition of things, and if a child is considered too young to be
benefited by a consistent proposition, let us not pervert its judg-
ment by trying to accommodate the matter to its understanding
in a manner which is ever subject to contradiction; but let us
wait until the child is prepared. Then, instead of teaching it
to identify outline and shading with form, let them understand
that what is technically described by an outline, is the bound-
ary of an object, conditioned by its surfaces escaping the angle
of vision; and that what is called shading, is the gradation of
light on the convex surfaces of the object, in their relation to
the source of light; furthermore, that the side opposite to that
which receives the direct light is also illuminated, only in less
degree, by reflection.
How can a receding surface be made clear to a child from a
drawing card? If it is merely the object to train a child to
perseverance in aimless work, nothing can be better calculated
to produce this effect than drawing cards, although the same
end might be attained by suffering it to stare at a point on the
-wall for hours at a time. By placing a child before a natural
object, we at once call its reasoning faculties into activity; by
placing it before a card, we leave these faculties in repose, and
its eye patiently glides from one surface to another. The shad-
ing system in card drawing is a rare invention; one method
proposes to produce the effect of shadow by lines drawn thicker
or thinner, closer together or wider apart; another, by crossing
lines, etc., whilst in nature nothing of all this trumpery can be
found.
Why should objects, whose surfaces are represented smooth
in the light, be represented crossed in the shadow? The pho-
tograph will offer the best guide for technical means in that
direction. Technical restrictions will only force themselves
upon those who work on materials which will not admit of a
free treatment, as wood, steel, stone, etc. Shading is a per-
verted term; nature gives us no means for identifying it. Mod-
eling is the word for which it has been substituted. In card
drawing, the term shading is used as the end of modeling, while
in truth shading is but the means to this end. Light may be
thrown upon an object from as many ^^^e^ ft6> possible, and in
192 As A Branch of Education. [December
such manner that not one of its surfaces will be in shadow, yet
the object will show its relief and can be reproduced on canvas,
conveying fully the same idea of relief as though it were ex-
posed to but one source of light. The vocabulary of a card-
drawing teacher is soon exhausted; ''too long, too short; too
broad, too narrow, too thick, too thin; too heavy, too light;
and, in the wrong direction."
It is clear that a teacher can only successfully teach that
which he knows himself; and if a drawing-teacher teaches from
cards, it is ample proof that he has not the capacity to teach
drawing from objects; for if he had, he would never stultify
himself by the use of a method so irrational. The aim, from
the beginning, should be to teach a child to see and to under-
stand form in all its conditions and relations, regardless of the
technical result produced at first; since in the technical acquire-
ments in this, as in all other pursuits, practice makes perfect.
The summing up of all amounts to the following: whoever is
capable of producing good results in drawing or painting from
nature, will find no manner of difiiculty in copying a drawing
or a painting, whilst the reverse is entirely out of question. A
man who can produce, can surely copy his own product.
Part II.
First Lessons in Drawing. — The first lesson in drawing
should be an object lesson, and in giving this lesson three points
must be considered: first, to train the eye; second, to exercise
the hand; third, to cultivate the understanding.
In looking at an object, the first impression the eye receives
is its general boundary ; next, the eye wanders within that
boundary to examine the minutest features. The only techni-
cal means for describing these boundaries, and also for deter-
mining the parts within, is the Zme, and with this means the
child should be directed to describe the impressions received
upon a plane surface, be it upon a slate or paper. The child
will make an attempt, and it will be at once perceived that the
eye will neither be able to recognize the true direction of a line,
nor will the slate- or lead-pencil submit to be guided in a de-
sired direction; and that, in consequence, the attempt proves a
failure. This is the most opportune occasion to act upon the
child's understanding. The child is perplexed and its interest
excited, therefore a great effort must be made on the part of
the teacher to leave an impression on the mind which the child
can realize, and one which will never be subject to a contradic-
tion during the entire course of the study of form. Unless this
point is made, it is a question whether the mind of a child will
ever be so readily accessible to a subsequent new proposition.
The most striking and valuable disclosure that can be mad^
to a child, is to illustrate the rule: "How to construct one
1873] E88AY ON Form, 193
straight line, at right angles to another;" and in order to pre-
sent this rule in its most valuable forn^ the direction of the first
line given should be horizontal, in consequence of which, the
line constructed at right angles must needs be vertical. After
the illustration is concluded upon the board, if the teacher
holds a plumb line over the vertical chalk mark, and a cup
brim full of water under the horizontal line, the impression
madt' on the mind of the child can never be effaced from its
memory as long as it is possessed of reason. This, then, has
restored the confidence of the child, that had been shaken in its
first attempt in the new study, and if this success is properly
followed up, it cannot otherwise than create a strong desire to
hear the next proposition.
The teacher can now illustrate with objects of industrial pro-
duction how almost every object of use is constructed upon this
basis; the chair, the table, the bureau, the washstand, the glass,
the bowl, the castors, and every part belonging thereto; the
houses, doors and windows, etc., ad infinitum. Also, it will be
realized that all animated nature is constructed upon the same
basis; that in the human being, in an upright position, equally
supported on both feet, the central line is vertical, whilst the
complementary features of either half (externally) invariably
lie in a horizontal direction ; and so throughout the animal
kingdom. How much consciousness has thus been gained by
little! and to what extent will not this simple lesson lead, in
directing the child's observations!
We have now advanced to a point at which it is necessary
to give the child some assurance of its ability to acquire skill in
a mechanical direction ; that it may, with proper application
and care, learn to perform certain things as well as they can be
performed; and the teacher will henceforth divide his lessons
into two kinds, viz: object lessons, and exercises in construc-
tion.
Object Lessons. — It is evident that in the investigation of
natural objects, with a view of reproducing the impression re-
ceived, on a plane surface, no mechanical instruments can be
called to aid, except the plumb-line and the straight edge (pen-
cil). The one, to determine points within an object, falling in
a vertical direction, the use of which can be easily acquired;
the other, to determine points lying in a horizontal direction,
by holding up a pencil. When the head is erect, the pupils of
the eyes lie horizontally, and with some practice the direction
desired can be gauged.
It is valuable for teachers to know, that children will never,
'It first, attempt to describe an object as they see it, but as they
/{now it to be. In an effort to delineate a human head, the
child may be found to reason somewhat as follows : "A head is
round, it has two eyes and one mouth that lie flat, one nose and
194 As A Branch ot' Education. [Becemher
two ears that 'stick out.'" These conclusions are forthwith
illustrated; and, to its utter astonishment, after having located
the eyes and the mouth within the circumference, the nose pro-
jecting from one side of the curve and an ear from the opposite
side, there remains no room for the second ear. The child per-
ceives that something is wrong, and is puzzled to find the rea-
son; it recapitulates, but that only increases the mystery. This
peculiarity can best be observed in a class of children placed
before a cast of a human hand or head. It will be found in the
first attempt made to reproduce such objects on paper, that, if
it be a hand, the child will draw four fingers and a thumb, re-
gardless of whether all of the fingers, or the thumb, are visible
from its point of view or not; and it will not realize that if a
finger is foreshortened, the impression received is diff^erent from
one presenting:: its full length to the eye. The child will, with
full confidence, draw four fingers and a thumb, and if the thumb
and little fingci- turn out smaller than the other fingers, the
author may be considered a prodigy. Again, if a face present
a three-quarior view, equal justice will be done to the eye on
the oif side of the face, which is partly shut out from view by
the projection of the nose, as to the eye which presents itself
fully to view; and this because the child knows that the off eye
is not a whit smaller than the other. It is here necessary that
the teacher should describe the form of the object in question
on paper, and invite the child to follow the movements of his
pencil with the eye and compare the lines with the original
forms.
It is of great importance that the child should be made thor-
oughly acquainted with the nature of the task, and nothing can
be attained more easily.
The impression which the eye receives of an object is to be
portrayed upon a plane surface. The object being a solid, and
in consequence being capable of representation from an indefi-
nite number of points of view, it is necessary that the conditions
governing the picture which the e\^e received of the object, in
its relative position, should be clearly demonstrated. To ac
complish this end, two things are necessary: first, that during
the time occupied by actual illustration, the object remain in a
fixed position; second, that the child retain the position first
assigned to it, during the entire proceedings. The teacher will
produce a pane of glass upon which equal squares are described,
and hold it touching the nearest point on the surface of the
object, at right angles to the line of vision (of the pupils), be-
ginning at one extreme side of the object All children sitting
on the corresponding side of the room will now find the bound-
ary, as well as the features, incribed into the squares, and the
picture thus received into the surface of the glass reveals pre-
cisely the manner of producing its appearance, from a given
1873] Essay on Form, 195
point of view, on the plane surface; and if this pane of glass is
made stationary, and an equal number ot squares is described
upon the paper or slate to those on the glass through which the
picture of the object is transmitted, the child realizes the phe-
nomena readily by tracing the lines within the squares, even
though at first the results may not prove satisfactory. This
method of investigation will, owing to its simplicity, consistency
and truth, so strongly impress the mind, that the substance of
the illustrations will remain indelible. Thus the child has re-
ceived the most important notions of the phenomena of form.
Lessons in Construction. — These lessons are not less impor-
tant for the education of the eye and the development of the
understanding in the study of form, than object lessons, and
the same amount of time should be devoted to each. The first
exercise will be to teach a child to draw and recognize straight
and regularly curved lines. One of the first examples of con-
struction involves both: how to construct a right angle. Be-
fore a child can fully recognize a right angle, it can gain but an
imperfect comprehension of an acute or obtuse angle, since the
former is the measure of the latter.
It will be considered but reasonable, if the task to draw
straight lines and regular curves is assigned, to allow the pupils
the use of the straightedge and the compasses as indispensable.
What artist, technically ever so skillful, would volunteer to
draw a straight lino or a circle without the aid of these instru-
ments, free-hand, in competition with a boy or girl thirteen
years of age, properly trained to their use, and allowed to use
them? And what can offer more satisfaction to a child, than
the assurance that, with these instruments, it can draw certain
lines as accurately as an artist? The possession of these instru-
ments offers an emolument, and the child will make strong
efforts to master their use, and will soon be prepared to con-
struct all regular plane figures, from the triangle to the ellypse.
Enqaoinq Manners. — There are a thousand engaging ways,
which every person may put on, without the risk of being
deemed either affected or foppish. The sweet smile, the quiet,
cordial bow, the earnest movement, in addressing a friend, or
more especially a stranger, who may be recommended to us, the
graceful attention which is captivating when united with self-
possession; these will insure us the good regards of all. There
is a certain softness of manner which should be cultivated, and
which, in either man or woman, adds a charm that is even more
irresistible than beauty.
196 Department of Public Instecction. [^December
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION,
On entering upon his official duties, the State Superintendent appointed a State
Board of Examination, composed of teachers, who are residents of San Francisco.
The business of the Board was transacted very efficiently until the State Superin-
tendent's office was removed to Sacramento. Then the meetings became very irregu-
lar, and vexatious delays occurred in the dispatch of business. The State Superin-
tendent saw himself, therefore, compelled to reorganize the Board by appointing
four teachers who are residents of Sacramento. Accordingly, on the 1st of October,
1873, a new Board was appointed, consisting of A. H. McDonald, J. H. EickhoflE",
Miss M. J. "Watson, and Miss Annie P. Weeks. The State Superintendent is ex-
officio Chairman, and J. H. EickhoflF was elected Secretary. All applications for
State certificates or diplomas must be sent to the State Superintendent's office at
Sacramento.
Several County Superintendents seem to hold that if from any reason whatever an
election for Trustees is illegal, they, as County Superintendents, have the power to
determine the legality of the election, and to set aside such election, and to appoint
Trustees in place of those elected by the people. Now, a County Superintendent is
only an executive officer, and no executive officer, not even the Governor of the State,
has the power to determine the legality ox' an election, or to set aside an election. An
executive officer can only appoint to an office in cases and under circumstances
spectfied by law. A County Superintendent can appoint a Trustee only when the
people fail to elect, or when a Trustee neglects to qualify within a certain time, or
when a Trustee resigns. The question of the legality of an election can only be
decided by the County Court, in the manner prescribed by law.
Several County Superintendents have asked whether they have the power to
remove a Board of Trustees upon a petition from the majority of the parents or
voters of a district ? Certainly not. This will be sufficient answer. To go into the
details of the question, at this late date, would be an insult to the general intelligence
of school officers.
The question has been asked whether a Board of Trustees can maintain more than
one school at the same time. We think the question refers to a case where a Board
of Trustees maintains separate schools in diflFerent parts of the district. We see
nothing wrong in this ; on the contrary, we hold it is the plain duty of the Trustees
to establish as many schools, and in as many places, as the needs of the district may
demand.
A DISTRICT, organized some years ago, selected a site for a school-house, but erected
no building thereon. Since then the boundaries of the district have been so changed
that the present site is no longer centrally located. The question is asked whether
the site may be changed on petition, or whether it must be changed by a vote of the
district. If there is any contest in the matter, or if the new site must be purchased,
the district must certainly vote upon the question ; but if the new site is donated, and
its location is unobjectionable to the patrons of the school, the Trustees may act upon
the question in accordance with the prayer of a petition.
The same district, having maintained no public school for several years, has
received for those years no public school moneys. Last year, however, a three
months' public school was maintained, and the district asks whether it is not entitled
to its share of the public school moneys for the present year. Undoubtedly yes ; for
the default of maintaining a tree months' school during any year entails a forfeiture
of only the next year's portion of the school funds.
1873]
Department of Public Instruction.
197
COUNTY SUPEEINTENDENTS,
BLECTED SEPTEMBER 3d, 1873, AND THEIR POST OFFICES.
COUNTIES.
Names.
Post Office.
Alameda
Rev. W. F. B. Lynch
A. C. Pratt
East Oakland
Alpine
Amador
Butte
Monitor
Rev. S. Q. Briggs
H. T. Batcbelder
J. B. Qarvey
A. Thurber
Jackson
Oroville
Calaveras
Contra Costa „
Angels
Pacheco
Colusa ^,,,
J. E. Putnam
Colusa
Del Norte «
Max Lippowitz
Crescent City
Placerville
El Dorado
Jno. Munsun
Fresno „
Humboldt
Inyo
Kern
KUmaUi „
Rev. T. 0. Ellis, Sr...
E. C. Cummings
Geo. H. Hardy
King's River
Ferndale
Independence
Bakersfleld.
Sawyer's Bar
Middletown
L. A. Beardaley
S. L. Finley
T<a«
Louis Wallace
Lassen .
Z. N. Spalding
Geo. H. Peck
Susanville
El Monte
Marin „
Saml. Saunders
San Rafael
Mariposa
David Egenhoff
Mariposa
Ukiah City
Snelling
Benton
J. H. Seawell...
Merced
B. F. Fowler
Mono
E. R.Miner
Monterey
Napa
R. C. McCroskey
Rev. G. W. Ford
Frank Power
Salinas City
Napa
North San Juan
Nevada
Placer
JohnT. Kinkade.^..
W. S. Church
Auburn
Plumas
Quincy
Sacramento
San Bernardino
Sacramento
San Bernardino
Dr. G. R. Kelly
Henry Goodcell, Jr....
J. H. S. Jamison
San Diego
North San Diego
San Joaquin
T. 0. Crawford
Stockton
San Luis Obispo
San Mateo
Jas. M. Felts
Cambria
C. G. Warren
Redwood City
Santa Barbara
Santa Barbara
Rev. J. C. Hamer.
J. G. Kennedy
Santa Clara
San Jos6
Santa Crus
W. H. Hobbs
Sequel
Shasta
ShasU
L. K. Grim
Sierra
A. M. Phalin
Port Wine
Siskiyou. — .a «
Solano
Wm. Duenkel
Treka
C. W. Childs
Snisun City
Santa Rosa
Sonoma «
A. C. MoMeans
Staoislaas «
James Bumey..
Modesto
Sotter
M. C. Clark
Yuba City
Tehama
Weaversville
Porterville
Tehama
Trinity „ .-
Tulare
Chas. D. Woodman ...
Hiram H. Bragdon....
R. P. Merrill
Tuolumne
Ventura
John Muman
F. S. S. Buckman
G. N. Freman
Sonora
San Buenaventura
Yolo
Woodland
Yuba
Th. H. Steel
Marysville
198 Department op Public Instruction. [December
STATE NORMAL SCHOOL.
I.— THE OBJECTS AND WANTS OF THE NORMAL SCHOOL.
To the Board of Trustees of the State Normal School of California :
Gentlemen : — Your Committee, to whom was referred the matter of " The Objects
and Wants of the Normal School," beg leave respectfully to submit the following
report :
The primary object of a Normal School is to fit young persons to enter upon the
work of teaching intelligently, and to perform the work successfully.
Theoretically, a Normal School should teach only how to teach, receiving pupils
after they are fully prepared in scholastic attainments, and giving them the neces-
sary instruction in the philosophy of education and methods of teaching.
Practically, it has in all cases, your Committee believe, been found necessary to
devote much of the time and labor of the school to preparing pupils in the branches
to be taught.
Several causes conspire to make this divergence between the theory and the prac-
tice in Normal Schools. Among them are the following :
I. The profession of teaching has, as yet, not become so permanent and remunera-
tive that pupils will take the tim'e, after having acquired sufficient knowledge to
obtain certificates, to qualify themselves in methods of teaching, and a school doing
only professional work, would find itself without pupils.
II. The successful teacher requires more positive, exhaustive, and definite knowl-
edge of the branches he is to teach than is usually given in other schools.
III. It is believed, and perhaps truly, that there is a certain economy in combining
the instruction how to teach with that which gives tohat is to be taught.
rV. Most persons who desire to fit themselves for teaching, desire at the same time
to acquire the knowledge that will fit them for any or all the duties of life.
Whether all this is founded in good philosophy or not, we are obliged to accept it
as true, and schools must, to meet the public demand, be organized and conducted
accordingly.
It remains, then, to present the plan which will, under the circumstances, best
meet public demand and accomplish the desired end. In connection with this, your
Committee make the following suggestions :
The school must be manned by a corps of well qualified instructors. This involves
teachers who, in addition to the thorough and critical knowledge of the branches
taught, which is absolutely necessary, shall have devoted time, study, and thought
enough to the subject of teaching, so that they have arrived at the natural or normal
method of presentation, and who are sufficiently acquainted with the laws of menta
growth and development to be able to judge whether their work is accomplishing
what they desire. They must also have that somewhat rare power of selection, which
will enable them to distinguish between essentials and non-essentials and to work
accordingly.
In addition to this, they must have that mental strength and activity which will
enable them, when brought into contact with adult and vigorous minds, to lead
them, instead of being led by them.
If such teachers can be found and secured, the success of your school is certain.
A Normal School, from its very nature, must be progressive. No school, and no
1873] Department op Public Instruction. 199
teacher in the school, must r«»t ouDiented upon the laurels already gained, or the
point already attained. There is need for constant intercourse with educators the
world over. One who would hold and worthily fill his position as a teacher in a
Normal School can do so only by a life of labor.
The course of study and training should provide for two distinct kinds of work.
That is, there are certain subjects that teachers are required to know, and there are
other subjects that, under existing ciroustanoes, they can only be expected to know
about. Could one course of study bo extended to three or even four years, we might
enlarge the first class of sabjeots and diminish the second. That, for the present,
•eems impracticable.
There must, then, be given a thorough, searching, definite knowledge of the
branches which are to be taught in the public schools, and a power to express that
knowledge with clearness and precision. Nothing can take the place of this. And
especially should this knowledge and power be given in the structure and use of our
mother tongue. Language id the teacher's instrument ; if he would be successful he
must become the master of it.
Of the second class of subjects — those upon which we may expect only general
information — but a general knowledge can be given. This knowledge should be
accurate, as far as it goes ; should give the boundaries and divisions of the subject,
and such other information as will enable the pupil to pursue it alone after leaving
the school, and if possible, such a love for study as will give him an inclination so
to do.
Many of these so-called higher studies have a very important economic value ; that
is, they are closely connected with the laws of life and health ; with the daily avoca-
tions of life, and with the protection and development of the resources of our State.
The instruction in these should be such as to bring this relation constantly before the
pupil, thus compelling him to realize that our schools should prepare children ior the
practical duties of life.
As many of these studies require for their proper prosecution illustrative apparatus,
the Normal School must have at as early a time as possible a complete apparatus.
Most of the points in reference to the organization of the school having been
presented by the Principal and adopted by the Board at its last meeting, your Com-
mittee need not here recapitulate them.
All of which is respectfully submitted.
B. CORY,
CHAS. H. ALLEN,
San Jos6, Oct. 22d, 1873.
y Committet.
II.— PREPARATORY DEPARTMENT.
To the Board of Trustee* of the State Normal School of California :
Objctlbmbk:— Your Committee, to whom was referred the matter of "Additional
Teachers in the Normal School," "The Opening of a Preparatory Department," and
" The Organisation of a Past-graduating Course," respectfully report the following :
I. That we recommend the Board to authorize the Committee on Teachers to pro-
care, as soon as they are satisfied that they can secure the proper person, an additional
male teacher, at a salary of not to exceed $2,400 per year.
II. That the Principal of the school be authorized to open a Preparatory Depart-
ment, and, in conjunction with the Committee on Teachers, to employ a Principal for
200 Department of Public Instruction. ^December
the same, at a salary of not to exceed $1,200 per aanum. That a tuition fee be
charged for instruction in this department of not less than $1 per week. That the
Committee on Teachers be authorized to establish such rules and regulations for the
admission to said department as they see fit, such rules and regulations to be sub-
mitted to the Board for their approval.
III. That there be opened, in connection with the last term in the year, a past
graduate class, to which may be admitted graduates of this or other Normal Schools,
High Schools, Colleges, or Academies, who shall present satisfactory evidence of
having taught at least one year successfully. That the instruction in this class be
mainly professional, and that to graduate from this class a professional diploma be
granted.
All of which is respectfully submitted.
San Jos6, Oct. 22d, 1873.
JAMES DENMAN, \
HENRY N. BOLANDER, I Committee.
CHAS. H. ALLEN, J
The report of the Committee was accepted and each of the recommendations
adopted by the Board.
III.— CIRCULAR.
Institute Term. — No provision having been made for a State Teachers' Institute,
an Institute Term will be held in connection with the Normal School, beginning
Tuesday, January 6th, 1874, and ending Friday, January 23d, 1874. The term is
made somewhat shorter than the session last year, with the hope that more teachers
may be present during the entire session. The members of the Institute will receive
two hours' instruction per day from the Faculty of the Normal School and others,
upon subjects pertaining to the duties of the school-room, and in addition will have
the privilege of attending any of the classes in the Normal School, and of wit-
nessing the instruction in the Model School. Evening lectures will be delivered
during the session upon educational topics, by prominent educators. The list of
lecturers will be announced hereafter. Board can be had at reasonable rates, and it
is expected that the railroad companies may extend the same courtesy that they did
last year — free return tickets to those attending the session. County Superintendents
are requsted to give notice through the local papers and in other ways, of the Insti-
tute Term, that unemployed teachers may avail themselves of this means of improve-
ment.
Past Graduate Course. — The Trustees have also made provision for a past
graduate course, open to graduates of this or other Normal Schools, High Schools,
Colleges or Academies, who may present satisfactory evidence of having taught suc-
cessfully for one year. This class will be provided for only during the last term of
the year. The instruction will, in the main, be professional, and to those graduating
from this class a professional diploma will be granted. The past graduate course
will afford an opportunity to teachers to review their studies, to become acquainted
with the most approved methods of instruction, and by the aid of the apparatus with
which the school is soon to be supplied, perhaps to become more familiar with illus-
trative apparatus and more skillful in its manipulation.
Peepabatory Class. — A preparatory class will hereafter be connected with the
1873] Book Notiobs. I'Ol
0ehool, where thoee who are uot qualified to eater the school may find means ol qual-
ifying themselves, under the raperrUion of the Normal School. In thia a tuition fee
will be chaffred. All other olasflee are free. For further particulars, address
CHAS. H. ALLEN,
Principal State Normal School. San Jose, Cal.
We cup the following ftrom the Petaluma .4r»;»««;
Petaluma has an excellent school department. At no time tor years haj^i the com-
munity been so well satisfied with the administration of school affairs. Perfection has
never yet been reached in eduoatidual matter«, and there is, of course, room for im-
provement ; but we do not believe there is a city in the Siate of the size of Petaluma.
in which the public schools as a whole are superior to ours. The High School fills a
want that has long been felt. It is ably conducted and justly popular. It deserves
the support and encouragement of the entire community, of whose material as well as
educational interests it is and will continue to be a large promoter. The Grammar
and Primary departments are in the hands of teachers who, so far as we are able t*t
learn, perform their duty faithfully and give good satisfaction. All the schools are
well attended, the number of pupils enrolled last month being 668, which is 23 greater
than in the corresponding month last year.
CouvTY Superintendents elect take office on the first Monday in March, 1874, and
hold office till the first day of January, 1876.
BOOK NOTICES
St. Nicholas, for Novbmber. Published by Scribner A, Co., 654 Broadway, New
York. $3 00 per annum.
In Seribner'a Monthly for July, 1873, appeared an article on Children' h Magazintt,
which we should like to print in full ; but we have room for only an extract or two :
"Sometimes I feel like rushing through the world with two placards — one held aloft
in my right hand, Bbwarb op Children's Magazines! the other flourished in my
left, Child's Magazine Wanted ! A good magazine for the little ones was never lo
much needed, and much harm is done by nearly all that are published. In England,
especially, the so-called juvenile publications are precisely what they ought not to
be. In Qermany, though better, they too often distract sensitive little souls with
grotesquerie. Our magazines timidly approach the proper standard in some respects,
but fall far short in others. We edit for the approval of fathers and mothers, and
endeavor to make the child's monthly a milk-and-water variety of the adult's period-
ical. But, in fact, the child's magazine needs to be stronger, truer, bolder, more
uncompromising than the other. Its cheer must be the cheer of the bird-song, not
of condescending, editorial babble. If it mean freshness and heartiness, and life and
joy, and it« words are simply, directly and musically put together, it will trill its own
way. We mast not help it overmuch. In all except skillful handling of methods,
we most be as little children if we would enter this kingdom.
" If now and then the situation have fun in it, if something tumble unexpectedly,
if the child-mind is surprised into an electric recognition of comical incongruity, so
that there is a reciprocal "ha, hal" between the printed page and the little reader,
well and good. But, for humanity's sake, let there be no editorial grimacing, no
tedious vaolting back and forth over the grim railing that encloses halt and lame old
jokes long ago tamed in there to die.
"Let there be no sermonizing either, no wearisome spinning out of facts, no rattling
of the dry bones of history. A child's magazine is its pleasure-ground. Qrown peo-
pie go to their periodicals for relaxation, it is true; but they also go for information,
for suggestion, and for to-day's fashion in literature. But with children the case is
different. They take ap their monthly or weekly because they wish to, and if they
202 Book Notices. [December
don't like it they throw it down again. Most children of the present civilization
attend school. Their little heads are strained and taxed with the day's lessons.
They do not want to be bothered nor amused, nor taught, nor petted. Ihey just
want to have their own way over their own magazine. They want to enter the one
place where they may come and go as they please, where they are not obliged to
mind, or say "yes ma'am," and "yes sir," — where, in short, they can live a brand-
new, free life of their own for a little while, accepting acquaintances as they choose
and turning their backs without ceremony upon what does not concern them. Of
course they expect to pick up odd bits and treasures, and to now and then " drop in"
familiarly at an air-castle, or step over to fairy land. They feel their way, too, very
much as we old folk do, toward sweet recognitions of familiar day-dreams, secret
goodnesses, and all the glorified classics of the soul. We who have strayed farther
from these, thrill even to meet a hint of them in poems and essays. But what de-
lights us in Milton, Keats and Tennyson, children often find for themselves in stars,
daisies, and such joys and troubles as little ones know. That this comparison holds,
is the best we can say of our writers. If they make us reach forth our hands to clutch
the star or the good-deed candle-blaze, what more can be done?
"A child's periodical must be pictorially illustrated, of course, and the pictures
must have the greatest variety consistent with simplicity, beauty aad unity. They
should be heartily conceived and well executed ; and they must be suggestive, attract-
ive and epigrammatic. If it be only the picture of a cat, it must be so like a cat that
it will do its own purring, and not sit, a dead, stuffed thing, requiring the editor to
purr for it. One of the sins of this age is editorial dribbling over inane pictures. The
time to shake up a dull picture is when it is in the hands of the artist and engraver,
and not when it lies, a fact accomplished, before the keen eyes of the little folk. Well
enough for the editor to stand ready to answer questions that would naturally be put
to the flesh-and-blood father, mother, or friend standing by. Well enough, too, for
the picture to cause a whole tangle of interrogation marks in the child's mind. It
need not be elaborate, nor exhaust its theme, but what it attempts to do it must do
well, and the editor must not over-help nor hinder. He must give just what the child
demands, and to»do this successfully is a matter of instinct, without which no man
should presume to be a child's editor.
"Doubtless a great deal of instruction and good moral teaching may be inculcated
in the pages of a magazine ; but it must be by hints dropped incidentally here and
there; by a few brisk, hearty statements of the difference between right and wrong ;
a sharp, clean thrust at falsehood, a sunny recognition of truth, a gracious application
of politeness, an unwilling glimpse of the odious doings of the uncharitable and base.
In a word, pleasant, breezy things may linger and turn themselves this way and that.
Hanh, cruel facts — if they must come, and sometimes it is important that they should
— must march forward boldly, say what they have to say, and go. The ideal child's
magazine, we must remember, is a pleasure-ground where butterflies]|flit gayly hither
and thither ; where flowers quietly spread their bloom ; where wind and sunshine play
freaks of light and shadow; but where toads hop quickly out of sight and snakes dare
not show themselves at all. Wells and fountains there may be in the grounds, but
water must be drawn from the one in right trim, bright little buckets ; and there must
be no artificial coloring of the other, nor great show-cards about it, saying, " Behold !
a fountain." Let its own flow and sparkle proclaim it."
This article was written by Mrs. Mary Mapes Dodge, who now appears before us as
the editress of St. Nicholas; and its first number realizes in a high degree the author's
ideal, as sketched above. Among the thirty-three articles there are some for every
eye, from the very little ones to the oldest of young, or old people. A whole page of
large type is devoted to "little children with big eyes." Bright little jingles and
** Jack-in-the-Pulpit," full of wit and wisdom, do some curious sermonizing :
"How did they learn that their ways were small?
Jean and Kitty —
How did they know they were scorned by all?
Jean and Kitty —
Why, they listened one day, at a neighbor's blinds,
And heard the family speak their minds —
What a pity 1
1873] Book Notices. 20:i
Then there are interesting descriptions of sebras, passenger-pigeons, the curious
inhabitants of the Farallone Islands, and the Piute Indians ; a charmingly-told ac-
count of a fairy's visit to a bee-hive; a funny story of "Andy and the Worm;" a
book about dolls, written by a boy, and written as only a boy can write. In short,
the reading matter is emphatically raried and bright. The illustrations are the
work of well known artists, and are of that superior character which have placed
Soribner'a Monthly in the front rank of Americun iteriodicsil litirutuic.
[The Department of Public Instruction, Educational Items, and many noticcn of
books and periodicals have been unavoidably crowded out of this number.]
THOMPSON'S DRAWING TEACHER.
An Eight-page monthly pap«r. Shows how to learn and to teach
Drawing, Writing, Arithmetic and Reading.
Every Primary Teacher and every parent should have it.
fevery number is full of Engravings.
J^iCE, ^1.35 PER Jear. Specimen ftuMBER, 13 Pents.
Specimen numbers /r«e to those who will get np Clubs. Address
L. 8. THOMPSON, Sandusky, Ohio.
NEW AND VALUABLE TEXT BOOKs!
Tlie Bryant Sc Stratton Business Aritlinietic.
One vol. 8vo. Price, $2.50.
"This new work is pre-eminently superior to any preceding pnblioatiun of the
kind." — Chicago Evening Journal.
TTie CONSTITUTION of the UNITED STATES
WITH A
CONCORDANCE and CLASSIFIED INDEX.
By Chables W. Stearns, M. D. One vol. 12mo. Price, $1.00
" I deem your edition the best I have ever seen." — Psor. J. H. Gilmorr, Uni^
versity of Rochester.
An Analytical and Pracrtical French Grammar,
By J. (J. Keetei^.
One vol. 12ino. Price, $200.
Copies of the above Works for examination may be had of the Publishers on receipt
of one half the retail price. Correspondence solicited.
Mason, Baker, Sl Pratt,
Publishers, New York.
NEW BOOKS.
Kindergarten Culture in the Family and Kindergarten. — {Just
Published.) By W. N. Hailman, A. M. A complete sketch of Froebel's system
of Early Education, adapted to American Institutions. For the use of Mothers
and Teachers. 12mo. 120 pp., cloth. Illustrated. Price 75 cents.
Ray's Surveying and Navigation: — {Just Published.)
With a Preliminary Treatise on Trigonometry and Mensuration. By A. Schuy-
ler, A. M., Professor of Applied Mathematics and Logic in Baldwin University;
Author of "Higher Arithmetic," "Principles of Logic," and "Complete
Algebra." 8vo., sheep, 403 pp. Price, $2.25 : for introduction, $1.50; sample
copy by mail, $1.75.
The School Stage:
By W. H. Venable. 27 New Juvenile Acting Plays for Exhibitions at School
and Home. Plain and full directions relating to costume, properties and stage
"business." Numerous illustrations by Farny. 12mo., cloth. Price $1.25.
Eclectic Classical Series; By G. K. Babtholomew:
I. Latin Grammar,
A concise and systematic arrangement of the laws of the Latin tongue, pre-
pared with special reference to class use in schools and colleges. In the
treatment of Etymology, the verb is placed first ; in Syntax, the examples
precede the rule. Printed in large, clear type. 276 pp., 12 mo., half roan.
Price $1.50. Sample copies and supplies for introduction, $1.00.
II, Latin Gradual,
To accompany the author's Latin Grammar. 12mo., 150 pp., hf. roan. Price
$1.25. Sample copies and supplies for introduction, 84 cents.
Good Morals and Gentle Manners:
By Alex. M. Gow, A. M., SupH Puhlie Schools, Evansville, Ind. A system-
atic text-book on Moral and Social Law. " Practical Ethics for the training of
the true Gentleman and Lady." 12 mo., cloth. Price $1.25. Sample copies
and supplies for introduction, 84 cents.
Brown^s Physiology and Hygiene, Venable' s U. S. History, Thai-
heimer^s Ancient History, Henkle^s Test Speller, WillianVs Parser's
Manual, Schuyler's Complete Algebra, Schuyler's Logic, Norton's
Philosophy, Phillips' Bay School Singer, Cole's Institute Reader,
Kidd' s Rhetorical Reader, Eclectic Copy- Books, Eclectic Geographies^
White's Arithmetics, Etc. Etc.
Descriptive Circulars and Price Lists to any address on application.
WILSON, HINKLE & CO.,
f uhUshers a! th^ EiDl^ctic Educatixinal S^nes^
CINCINNATI and NEW YORK.
THE OLDEST AND MOST COMPLETE
BOOK BINDERY
^
t.t
plank B0OI1 iMattufiict0ri|
ON THE PACIFIC COAST.
Fob Excellence of Work I Defy Competition.
SIX FIRST PREMIUMS AWARDED
A GOLD AND TWO SILVER MEDALS,
STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.
F. FOSTEI^,
No. 39 J Street.
Bet. Second and Third, SACRAMEJ^TO,
•9* Periodicals, Music, Newspapers, etc., Bound in Every Style,
and at prices which cannot fail to satisfy my patrons.
ORDERS BY MAIL OR EXPRESS PROMPTLY ATTENDED TO.
GILBERT & MOORE,
MANUFCTURERS OF
AND SETTEES.
High and Normal School Desks with Lifting Lids.
pfflmmmiimim^
THE STER1.ING SCHOOL DE8K SUPERIOR TO ALL OTHERS IN
Oomfort, jyjxirsLlyility and. Beauty.
1st. Curved Backs, adapted to the form
of the pupil. For comfort and ease of
position, this style is pre-eminently tak-
ing the lead.
2d. Cfurved Slat Folding- Seats. De-
signed to economize room when turned
back (& great convenience in sweeping
and In school exercises), yet wider than
seats of less modern construction.
3d. Perfectly JVoiseless Hinges, The
motion of this hinge is absolutely noise-
less. We will guarantee them NEVER
TO BREAK with fair usage.
4th. Casting and Woodwork of tn»
best quality and the most graceful pat-
terns throughout. We use the very best kiln dried cherry lumber for school
desks, and walnut for office furniture. We can wood desks in ash at lower figures.
3th. Ink W^lls, all except Nos. Five and Six, furnished with the STERLING
PATENT INK WELLS, the best in the market.
Gth. Where expense is an item to be considered, we would call attention to the
fact that our prices are below competition .
These desks are now in use in over four
thousand five hundred schools in the east
and west, and in a number of schools in
California, Oregon and Nevada, and are
increasing in popularity as they become
more widely known, and everywhere give
perfect satisfaction. School Officers will
find it to their advantage to call and ex-
amine our furniture before purchasing
elsewhere. The only place where all
styles of school desks are kept on hand
at very low prices.
Liberal discount to school officers. We
make it a specialty to supply schools.
Send for circular and price list.
Correspondence invited.
GILBERT & MOORE,
SALESROOM,
No. 219 Bush St.,
(Opposite Mercantile Library.)
Factory, 445 Braiman St.
SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.
PHILOSOPHY
OF
N^^TXJR^L HISTORY:
By Wm. Smellib and Dr. John Wabk.
Illustrated, l^ee $3 OO.
ADAPTED FOR USE IN THE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL OF CALIFORNIA.
The Standard Work on this subjeot, and ased very extensively in the best High
8()hooIs and Academies.
School Officers oontemplatiog the introduction of the study of Natural History, or
feeling the desirableness of a change from the text book now in use, will do well to
examine thiii work.
Specimen pages mailed on Application.
Specimen copies furnished for examination on receipt of half price.
THOMPSON BROWN & CO.,
(Late THOMPSON, BIO BLOW db BROWN,)
Publishers, BOSTON.
OFFICIALLY RECOMMENDED.
HOTZE'S FIRST LESSONS IN PHYSICS.
An elementary work on J^atural Philosophy for
First and Second Grades.
Retail PHce $1.00
For Introduction or Zzamination 60
Extract trom the new Course of Study adopted by the California State Board of
Education, February 14th, 1873:
•• Natubal Philosophy. Oral, or, at the option of the teacher, HotMe*» XlrH
in rhyeiea"
All correspondence and orders for introduction shonld be addressed to
LIBBY ^ SWETT,
3 New Montgomary Street, San Francisco.
* HEJ^DRICKS. CHITTEJ^DEJ^ ^ CO.,
ST. LOUIS, MO.
HOTZE'S FIRST LESSONS liS PHYSIOLOGY
Nearly ready.
CALlP^OKlSriA.
^TATE Normal School.
NEWTON BOOTH Governor
H. N. BOLANDER Superintendent of Public Instruction
C. T. RYLAND San Jos6
DR. B. BRYANT San Jos6
BENJAMIN CORY ', San Jos6
T. ELLARD BEANE Santa Clara
JAMES DENMAN San Francisco
OFFICKRS OF THE BOA-R-D.
NEWTON BOOTH, President. | H. N. BOLANDER, Secretary.
EXECUTIVE CO:iVt2VIITTEE.
H. N. BOLANDER, DR. B. CORY, T. ELLARD BEANE.
TEACHERS.
Chas. H. Allkn, a. M Principal
John H. Braly Vice Principal
Miss E. W. Houghton Assistant in Senior Clas
Miss L. Washburn Assistant in Junior Classs
Miss M. J. Titus Principal Training School
COURSE OE STUDY.
JUNIOR CLASS.
First Term, June 18th to October 24th.
Orthography, Reading, Penmanship, Drawing, Geography, Arithmetic, Grammar,
and Word Analysis.
Second Term, November 6th to March 27th.
Algebra, United States History, Physiology, Grammar, and Composition.
SENIOR CLASS.
First Term, June 18th to October 24th.
Vocal Culture, Geometery, Natural Philosophy, Natural History, Chemistry, and
Rhetoric.
SKCoiro TsRM, NoTember 5Ui to March 27th.
Arithmetic, Physical Geography, Botany, Mental Philosophy, and Bngllsh Liter-
ature.
GENERAL EXERCISES DURING THE ENTIRE COURSE.
\'oca] Masio, Methods of Teaching, Composition, Declamation, School Law, and
' nsti;atiun of the United States, and of California.
GRADUATES' CLASS.
At the beginning of the school year, June, '78, an additional class will be organ-
ised. None will be admitted into this class who are not graduates of a Normal
School and who hare not taught successfully two years after graduating. The mem-
bers of this class will have peculiar opportunities for improvement in every depart-
ment of the teacher's work. To those who successfully complete the following
studies. Life Diplomas will be given : English Literature, Criticism, Astronomy,
Geology, Meteorology, Elocution, Moral Philosophy, Political Science, Logic, Meta-
physics, EUstory and Science of Education, Didactics.
REGULATIONS OF THE NORMAL SCHOOL.
1. All pupils, on entering the School, are to sign the following declaration :
" We, the subscribers, hereby declare that our purpose in entering the State Normal
School is to fit ourselves for the profession of Teaching, and that it in our intention to
engage in teaching in the Public Schools of this State."
2. To enter the Junior Class male candidates must be seventeen years of age ; and
female candidates sixteen. T» enter the Senior Class they must be one year older.
S. All applicants are required to present letters of recommendation from the
County Superintendent of the county in which they reside. The holders uf first or
second grade teacher's certificates will be admitted on their certificates.
4. No pupil will be entitled to a Diploma of Graduation who has not been a mem-
ber of the school at least one year.
GENERAL INFORMATION.
As the accommodations are ample, no limit is fixed to the number of representatives
to which a county is entitled.
Pupils will be required to furnish their Text Books. Reference Books will be fur-
ished by the school.
There is no boarding house connected with the Normal School. Good boarding
can be obtained in private families at reasonable rates.
CALENDAR FOR 1873-74.
1873. Wednesday, June 18th First term begins.
1873. Friday, October 24th First term ends.
(Fall vacation, one week.)
1873. Wednesday, November 6th Second term begins.
1874. Thursday, March 2«th Second term enda.
JOHN Q. HODQE ^ CO.,
IMPORTERS, MANUFACTURERS AND
WHOLESALE STATIONERS
Keep a Large Stock of
SCHOOL BOOKS,
A^O-EISTTS FOR
School Government^
For Public Schools and Sunday Schools.
Soliool ^tSbtlcDTxeicy
/kX.1. ISlSf^S
Imported to Order.
JOHIV G. HODGE & GO.^
Nos. 327, 329 and 331 Sansome Street,
SAN FRANCISCO.
BROWN'S ENGLISH GRAMMARS.
REVISED AND IMPROVED EDITIONS.
KUITKU
Br HBNRT KIDDLE, A. L.. Sup«rintendeiit Schools of New York City.
Adopted for State Unifomiity
By the State Board of ALibairia, Dec. 14, 1879.
Arkansas, Jan. 15, 1873-
California, July la, 1870.
WILLIAM WOOD & CO.
Take pleasure in announcing to Teacberti, and to Members of School Committees,
that new and improved editions of these popular and widely used Grammars have
just been published. Mr. Kiddle has revised the books thoroughly, particularly
the department of Sentential Aualytia. He has abo incorporated a COURSE OF
ORAL INSTRUCTION, which it is thought will add greatly to the value of these
deservedly favored School Books. The prices will be the same as heretofore, viz :
BROWN'S FIRST LINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 45c.
BROWN'S INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR $1 00
The excellence of Brown's Grammars is very generally admitted, and notwith-
standing the multitude of Sr>>)ool Grammars which have come in competition with
them, they have steadily mtvanced in public favor. In perspicuous arrangement,
jMJCuracy of definition, fullness of illustration, and comprehensiveness of plan, they
stand unrivaled ; and are probably more extensively used throughout the United
States than any other works on the subject.
These elementary works are among the best extant, and are rapidly coming into
use in almost every State in the Union. — Boston Po$t.
BROWN'S GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS.
Over 1,000 pages, royal 8vo $6 25
The Grammar of English Grammars is an invaluable book of reference. No
teacher can afford to be without it, and it should be placed by the side of Webster
and Worcester in every school.
The Grammar of English Grammars is a great thesaurus of grammatical knowl-
edge. There is nothin;^ like it, as far as we know, in the English language. Every
teacher who wishes to consult authorities upon disputed and knotty points of gram-
mar, in connection with masterly discussion of the same, will do as we have done —
buy it and use it constantly. No progressive toacher can afford to be without it.
Mattachusett* Teacher.
The amount of learning and labor employed in the production of these works is
immense, and when compared with the few days' work usually devoted to the prepa-
ration of any one of the numerous volumes which daily issue from the press, the per-
formance is truly commendable. The first book is well adapted to beginners ; the
second to more lulvanced classes ; and the third, that magnificent royal 8vo. volume,
is a vast reservoir of grammatical knowledge, which every one who wishes to thor-
ongly anderataad the English language should have in his library. — California
Teaeker.
None have stood the test of thorough trial like Brown's.— C. N. Simmons, late
Supt., RocheMttr, N. Y.
Brown's Qramm ir i- -mII mj favorite.— B. C. Hobbs. St'ite Snpt. Pub. ln*true-
tiam, Indiana.
iotl f iraltaro
.VNT)
SCHOOL SUPPLIES OP ALL KINDS
FOB, SALE BY
622 Washington %X.^
SAN FRANCISCO.
The Strongest,
Neatest and
Cheapest Desks
IN THE MARKET.
Descriptive Circulars sent on
application.
REVERSIBLE SETTEES FOR SUNDAY SCHOOLS,
RECITATION SEATS, TEACHERS' DESKS.
PERSONS OF BOTH SEXES
are thoroughly fitted for business
pursuits, or for telegraphic opera-
tors, at this institution. The
scholarships of this school are
good for tuition in the thirty-six
Bryant A Stratton Colleges. Young
men are practically educated for
Bankers, Merchants, Clerks and
Bookkeepers by the most thorough
course of actual business training
ever introduced into any school on the Pacific Coast. Sessions continue day and
evening throughout the entire year. Students can enter at any time. Just the
course of study for young men in all walks of life who wish to succeed. For full
information regarding the school, call at the College OflBce, 24 Post street, or send
for Heald's College Journal, published monthly, and sent free to all by
addressing
E. P. HEALD,
JPresident Business College, San Francisco,
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, OAKLAND.
Rbobnts — The Governor, Lieut. Governor, Speaker, and Superintendent of Instruc-
tion i the Presidents uf the State Agricultural Society and Mechanics' Institute,
«x o^eto ; with sixteen appointed and honorary Regents.
Facultt ih thb Scientific asd Litbrart Dbpartxemts. — President — Daniel C.
Gilman. Resident Professors* — John Le Conte, M. D., Physios and Industrial
Mechanics ; Martin Kellogg (Dean of the Faculty), Latin and Greek ; Joseph
Le CoQte, M. D., Geology and Natural History; William T. Welcker, Mathe-
matics; Paul Pioda, Modem Languages; Eira 8. Carr, M. D., Agriculture,
Agrioul. Chemistry, Horticulture ; William Swinton, English Language, Rhetoric
History; Willard B. Rising, Ph. D., Chemistry and Metallurgy; Frank Soule,
Jr., Civil Engineering and Astronomy. Non-resident Professors — Stephen J.
Field, LL.D. (of the U. S. Supreme Court), Law ; Georjre Davidson (U. S. Coast
Survey), Geodesy and Hydrography. Assistant Professors and Instructors —
Samuel Junes, Mathematics ; George W. Bunnell, Ancient Languages ; Robert
E. Ogilby, Drawing ; Julius Grossmann. German : Manuel M. Corolla, Spanish ;
James M. Phillips, Hebrew and Syriao.
GENERAL STATEMENT.
The University of California will enter upon the beginning of its fifth year in
September, 1873. At that time it is expected that the two large buildings provided
by the State — the Hall of Science and the Hall of Letters — will be ready to be occu-
pied. With the traditional college the modern schools of theoretical and applied
science are also maintained, in accordance with the legislative enactments of the
State of California, and with the conditions of the Congressional endowment. The
Congressional gift provides for " at least one college, where the leading object shall
be, without excluding other scientific and classical studies, and including military
tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are related to Agriculture and the
Mechanic Arts."
The general arrangement of the courses may be thus indicated :
A.— DEPARTMENT OF LETTERS.
COURSES.
1. — Ancient Languages, Literature, and History.
2. — Modem Languages, Literature, and History.
B.— DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND THE ARTS.
COURSES.
3. — Agriculture.
4. — Chemistry and Metallurgy.
5. — Engineering.
6. — Mechanic Arts.
Special students, properly qualified, may pursue the study of partioalar braaohei
without following in full any prescribed course.
Regular examinations for admission will take place on the 15th day of July, and
the 24th and 25th days of September, 1873.
The next year of instruction will begin September 25th.
Commencement occurs July 16th, 1873, and is followed by the long vacation.
For Circulars or Registers apply to the President or to the Dean of the Faculty,
Oakland.
• Arraacad U tka erter af appaJnt— t.
A. WALDTEUFEIm^
KTo. 287^ ir-irst Street,! San Jose
B1X7SXC S/kXaXa, > / I
BOOKSELLER
DEALER IN
MUSIC AND MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
STEINWAY & SONS' PIANO FORTES,
CHICKERING & SONS' PIANO FORTES,
HAYNES BROTHERS' PIANO FORTES,
BURDETT'S CELESTE and COMBINATION ORGANS,
H. HEET2'S Wmm PIAHOS,
P. RENISH'S UPRIGHT PIANOS.
The undersigned would respectfully call the attention of Teachers and School
OlBlcers to his large and complete stock of
School Books, Library Books,
CHARTS, MAPS, GLOBES, SLATES, and School Sup-
plies generally, which he offers at low rates.
Special attention given to the filling of orders for School
Library Books.
Books, and any other articles in his line of business im-
ported to order on but a small commission.
Catalogue of School and School Library Books mailed
free.
Liberal discounts to Schools, Teachers and School Officers.
Correspondence invited.
A. WALDTEUPEL,
JVo. 287 First Street— Music Hall— San Jose.
NEW AND APPROVED TEXT BOOKS
FOH THE
SCHOOLS OF CALIFOIMVIA.,
IIBLISHBD BT
IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR & CO.
And for sale by all enterprifliiig Booksellers throughout the State.
WOKKS BY
OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
A CONDENSED SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE
UNITED STATES, conhtructcd for deHnltlve results In Recitation, and con-
taining a new method of Topical Reviews. Illustrated with Maps, Portraits,
and other lllustnitlous. 1vol. Cloth. 300 pages. Price, $1.50.
FIBST LESSONS IN OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY,
bringing out Itjs salient points, and aiming to comt
1vol. Square. Fully illustrated. Price, 75 cents.
bringing out \ts salient points, and aiming to combine simplicity with sense.
"" lllui -
WORD- ANALYSIS— A GRADED CLASS-BOOK OF
ENGLISH DERIVATIVE WORDS, with practical exercises In Spelling
Analyzing, Defining, Synonyms, and the Use of Words. 1 vol. 128 pages
Price, 40 cents.
WORD-BOOK OF ENGLISH SPELLING, ORAL
AND WRITTEN— designed to attain Practical Results In the acquisition of
the ordlnarv English vocabulary, and to serve as an introduction to Word-
Analysis. i5i pages. Price, 25 cents.
SWINTONS WORD PRIMER. — A BEGINNERS
Book In Oral and Written Spelling— designed aa an introduction to the
Word-Book. 96 pages. Price, 20 cents.
ROBINSON'S PROGRESSIVE COURSE
OP
Vi.O
The mo«t popular and widely circulated series or Arithmetical School Booka
ever published— are used exclusively in the Public Schools of California, and can
be had through all dealers In the State.
IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR & CO.,
Ednoational Pnbliahera,
Nos. 188 and 140 Qrand Street, NEW YORK.
Orders may be addressed to
THE TRADE GENERALLY.
BENT WOOD
School Furmture Maaufactured ia the tJalted States*
WARBAJ^TED FOB TWO YEABS.
All Breakage in that time Beplaced Free of Charge,
Providing the Desks are not ill used.
DO J^OT FAIL TO EXAMIJ^E THEM.
JjIHE " BENT WOOD SCHOOL FURNITURE '' is manufactured from the very
III BEST of Material. The Ends and Standards being made of well seasoned
^ Hickory, which is Steamed and Bent into shape, and fastened in the joints
with a MALLEABLE IRON LOCK. The Backs and Seats are made of alternate slats
of Blackwalnut and Ash, and are so shaped that for comfort they are excelled by no
other school desk manufactured.
They are ele&ant in appearance and are an ornament to any school room .
They are simple in their combination and can be put up by any ordinary mechanic.
They Will Jfot Break or Give Way.
There are six sizes of both single and double Desk, and two styles — the " Normal,"
with lifting lid, and the '* Favorite," with plain top. We should be pleased to send
descriptive catalogues, recommendations, and prices, upon application, and would
respectfully urge all interested in school matters to call and examine them before pur-
chasing others. A Complete Stock of
Recitation Seats, Teacliers' Desks,
Scliool ^pparatns. Stationery,
Scliool Books, etc., ^t Low Prices.
721 Market Street, - - Soun Francisco.
MANUFACTL'KERS OF
mnm «« ^ k a if n ?^
aOTHIC SCHOOL FURNITURE.
FIVE SIZES, SINGLE AXD DOUBLE.
SUPERIOR TO ALL OTHERS IN
OOMFOH^T, I>U«^ A.BILIT1^& BEAUTY.
WE CALL SPE(^IAL A^FTENTIOX
1st.— Curved Baekst fittinf; the form of the j
pupil »o perfectly that the erect, healthful |
position Ik the ni<>st natural one to asHume. {
9d.— Curved Slat Folding S>-ats, wider and j
more comfortable than any others made. The i
advantage of Folding Seats for Calistlienics and
general convenience Is now universally admit- ,
ted.
Sd.—PwrfficUy Noiaeleaa /Finflr^*, strong, du-
rable and elastic, the only hinge with a silent |
movement. We invite School Dflicers to ox- |
amine our Furniture in this particular, in I
places where it has been in use for a long i
lime.
4th,— Foot Rests, giving great strength and
tirniness to the castings, and aflTording a very '
TO THE FOLLOWING POINTS:
great relief to the pupil. They can be put in
or taken out after tne desks are set up.
Sth.—Castings and Wood-work throughout
of the best quality and most graceful patterns.
For our Standard Desk we use tlrst-class cherry
and walnut hunlK-r.
0th.— The Iran is dove-tniled into the Wowl.
By this device the woods arc more Ilrmly held
in place, the desk stands the test ol climate
better, and there is a saving of more than one-
half the coat of putting tttgether.
7th,-TUKY ARK P:NTIRELY OF HOME
MANUFACTURE, the only improved School
Desks manufactured on the Pacltlc Coast.
Our Furniture is noMtr iu Use in
state JVorm«f School ^
.ftai'ffurttle,
t.nM Ang-tlf^
San Jose.
Freeporl,
Santa Homo,
14 'oodlandf
Santa Harbetrmj
Uenldnburg-y
San .flateof
.MIninedaj
«fuinef/y
Bent da,
Rtd BtMir,
Sum JFranciaco,
Chieot
8mm Rmfmtl,
€mroy,
Bureka,
Plmcerttllt,
Coluua,
VmeartlUi
Tmylorville,
Jmmhetm,
Mtreed,
Sutuuny
Sacramento,
Boca,
J\'atirtdad,
San MHego,
%yiount Ktlen,
San Pi tiro f
Santa Ana,
WvMtntinster,
Clove rdale,
Onisbo,
Auburn,
Volca no.
Mountain Vietv,
t^ompton,
Oaktitnd,
Pleftaantonf
Lincoln,
Lower lAtke,
Oridtey,
Washington College,
Gauli,
8mn Quentin,
Farntington,
Knight's Landing,
Port I ft nd, Oregon,
Carnon City, Nevada,
! Bmltle Mountain, Nev.
Ktc., etc.
And Hverywliere Gives Perfect Satisfaction.
IIioH School Desks with Lifting Lids, Teachers' Desks and Settees,
Of all Styles ami Prices.
BOOKS AND STATIO^^EEY
at wholesale and retail.
SCHOOL BOOKS AND SCHOOL SUPPLIES
OF EVERY KIND.
Liberal Discounts to Teachers and School Officers. Wb make ▲ specialty of
SUPPLYING SCHOOI^S.
Educational Catalogues and .Price- Lists for School Furniture and School Sup^
plies sent on application.
• LIBBY & SWETT,
p. a.Boae,»207. Grand Hotel Building, 3 New Montgomery St., San Francisco.
A. ROMAN & CO.,
Agents for Pacific Coast.
Peard s Improved De>:k and Seat
with Top and Si at Kolded. occu-
pying but 10 inches.
Peard's Improved Desk and Seat, ready for Use.
Peard's Improved Desk and Seat, with Top
Folded so as to Use for Settee.
SCHOOL DESK AND SETTEE
A FOLDING DESK, by which the school room can be transformed into a SPACIOUS and ELE-
GANT ASSEMBLY ROOM for adults. When -the desk lid is folded, the settee becomes just as
available for LECTURE ROOM USE as though made expressly for that purpose. In view of the
fact that many school houses are used for PUBLIC MEETINGS of all kinds, including RELI-
GIOUS WORSHIP on the Sabbath, this feature of making the desk into a COMFORTABLE
SETTEE will be found invaluable. The style and finish of these desks is unsurpassed.
Over 50.000 of these Desks have been Sold
having
Since their first manufacture, July, 1871, showing at once their GREAT POPULARITY,
been adopted for exclusive use in the PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF NEW YORK CITY.
Besides the Folding Desk described above, we call attention to the CS> IS BS S S S XC «
with FOLDING SEA T, just patented and designed to supply schools not wishing Folding Desk.
Size 1. Size 2. Size 3. Size 4, Size S.
Showing comparative sizes of the " G K M " Desk.
Illustrated Catalogue and Price List sent, post paidj on application.
We also respectfully call the attention of the Teachers and School Officers of the Pacific Coast to
our large and complete stock of
.X-ji"lora.r-3r ZBoolsis^ Ololoos,
Vbifh we offer at low rates. Special attention given to the filling of SCHOOL LIBRARY
SoOK ORDERS. Catalogues of SCHOOL and SCHOOL LIBRARY BOOKS mailed free, and
prices of anything in our line given upon application.
p\4 Mers, Booksellers, Importers, aad Statloaers,
No. 11 Montgomery Street, (Lick House Block),
SAN FRANCISCO.
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