GIFT OF
Campbell's 1907
Soil Culture Manual
A Complete Guide to Scientific Agriculture as
Adapted to the Semi-Arid Regions.
BY
H. W. CAMPBELL.
The proper fitting of the Soil for the Conservation
and Control of Moisture and the Development
of Soil Fertility; How Moisture Moves in the Soil
by Capillary Attraction, Percolation and Evapor-
ation; the Relation of Water and Air to Plant
Growth, and how this may be Regulated by
Cultivation. ::::::::::::
EIGHTH THOUSAND.
PRICE $2.50
THE CAMPBELL SOIL CULTURE Co. (INC.)
Lincoln, Nebr.
U. S. A.
Copyrighted 190 9 by H. W. Campbell
Lincoln, Neb.
Woodrufff Bank : Note Company
Printers and Binders
Lincoln, Neb.
CONTENTS.
PASE
Introduction 5
How to Use the Manual 15
The Ideal Farmer 19
True Basis of Prosperity 24
Small Farms; Better Farmmg 28
A Look Into the Future 32
The Disk Harrow 37
Plowing 44
Sub-Surface Packing 58
Summer Culture of the Soil 75
Physical Condition of the Soil 91
Soil Fertility : 99
Water Holding Capacity of the Soil 107
Importance of Air in the Soil Ill
Percqlation, or Getting Water into the Subsoil 117
Evaporation 123
Advantages of the Semi-Arid Region 130
Cultivation of the Soil 137
Barnyard Manures 148
Corn Growing 156
Growing Wheat 175
Growing Potatoes 197
Trees on the Farm 204
Sugar Beet Growing 218
Alfalfa 226
Seeking New Arid Plants 232
Irrigation 235
Arboriculture 241
Soil Mulch or Dust Blanket 247
Getting Most out of the Farm 251
Practical Results of the Campbell System 255
Winter Killing of Grain '.' 263
Stooling of Grain 266
Quantity of Seed per Acre : 270
The Inevitable Dry Seasons 273
Domain of Scientific Soil Culture 276
Progress in Agricultural Science 279
Crops, Markets and Prices. .' * 282
World-Wide fame of this Work 286
Good Farming and Good Morals 293
Profit of Scientific Soil Culture 296
Correspondence and Comment 298
Tools for the Farm 302
Some History of the Movement 305
Correspondence Course in Soil Culture 311
445130
ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
H. ^ . Campbell Frontispiece
Montana Wheat Field Near Great Falls 12
Burlington Model Farm near Holdrege 16
Feasting Time, Colorado Melons 2i
Corn in Colorado 90 Miles East of Denver 25
Campbell System Vegetables 29
Montana Wheat Without Irrigation 34
Following Harvester with the Disk 39
Showing Soil as the Plow Leaves It 46
Surface of Soil Harrowed without Sub-packing 47
Showiig Soil as the Packer Leaves It 60
Showing Soil After Packing and Harrowing 63
The Sub-Surface Packer 64
Development of Roots in Firm Soil 65
Root Development in Loose Soil 67
Germination of Wheat in Different Soils 68
Summer Culture vs. Summer Fallow 76
Watbf Holding Capacity of Soils Illustrated 108
Hea\y Rain Crust, and How Broken Up 113
Effect of Shutting Out the Air 115
Capillary Attraction Illustrated 118
How Water is Stored in the Soil 1 19
A Modern Manure Spreader 154
Development of Corn Roots 165
Cornfield by Campbell System in North Dakota 167
Pomeroy Farm Corn in very Hot Season 171
Wheat in Three Stages of Growth 179
Seeding with Different Kinds of Drills 182
Growth of Listed Wheat 184
Effect of Different Depths of Seeding 185
Harvesting Wheat Fifty Years Ago 188
Eastern Colorado Wheat 190
Wyoming Wheat in the Dry Country 191
Pomeroy Farm 1904 Wheat Crop 193
Germination of Wheat in Different Soils 194
Root Development with Shallow Cultivation 198
Deep Cultivation and Root Development 200
Magnified Roots and Soil 201
Peach Tree Five Months Old, Pomeroy Farm 207
Peach Tree 17 Months After setting 210
White Elm 17 Months After Planting 215
Thinning Sugar Beets 218
Forty Acre Beet Field 219
Modern Beet Sugar Factory 221
Sugar Beets in North Dakota by Campbell Method 223
J. Sterling Morton, Father of Arbor Day 242
A Prairie Park, Arbor Lodge 243
Arbor Lodge, Home o? Secretary Morton 244
Arbor Lodge Trees. 245
Soil Mulch and Dust Blanket Before Rain. 248
Soil Mulch and Dust Blanket After Rain 249
Sorghum by Thorough Cultivation 257
Growth and Stooling of Grain 267
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION.
Agricultural industry is undergoing in these opening
years of the Twentieth century a most wonderful develop-
ment in the direction of that perfection of method and
practical application of scientific principles which has been
the hope and inspiration of thoughtful students of agri-
culture through ages.
That which is being wrought out by workers, by stu-
dents, by thinkers, by investigators in all branches of ag-
riculture in plant breeding, in domestic animal industry,
in crop diversification, in planting, and harvesting, and
marketing goes directly to the final solution of the essen-
tial problems connected with production.
Farming methods of the past century were those of
preceding years; the methods of our century are to be
those of the next thousand years.
This does not mean that our forefathers did not know
anything about farming, nor that what they did was all
wrong, nor that they failed to solve the problems of their
day and age. It does not mean we are on the verge of
revolution and are about to overturn old methods and
adopt entirely new ones all round. But with the more
varied needs of mankind as civilization becomes more
complicated, and the proportionate narrowing of our fields
as we approach the limit of tillable area, the new and com-
plicated problems are to be met only by the putting to-
gether of many heads and the accumulation of much
^; ,..** <'AMPJ3P>LL'S SOIL CULTURE MAM A I.
wisdom. The strides we are making just now are beyond
those of other days. We are in position to take advan-
tage of the accumulation of evidence and to discover the
truth that shall endure.
The reader will not find in the pages of this Soil Cul-
ture Manual a universal guide to success in farming. But
he will find something here that will be of immense value
to him if he but has the patience and industry to master
the principles and is willing to give a fair trial to the
methods which are here described for the treatment of
soils. It is presented with a confidence born of years of
investigation and experiment, and of success in many
seasons of adverse conditions spread out over many states
with soil and climate as different as it is possible to have.
This Soil Culture Manual has to do with just one sub-
ject, or rather one branch of agriculture, but it so hap-
pens that this lies at the very foundation of all agricul-
ture. Production is the end and aim of all farming. Pro-
duction is possible only where soil conditions are right,
for no matter what may be the climate or the extent of
cultivation, there cannot be crops if there is not fertility
available in the soil. Available fertility may exist, under
most favored conditions, where there has been no culti-
vation; but it is more often true that fertility comes from
conditions brought about by cultivation done intelligently.
This handling of the soil with a view to the devel-
opment of available fertility is Scientific Soil culture.
It is my purpose to present in this Manual the re-
sults of years of labor in this field. I desire to treat a com-
plicated subject with .plainness and frankness. Here is
material for a discourse filled with scientific terms, but I
shall try to be so plain that everyone may know all about
it. I shall give something of the history of the develop-
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 7
merit of what has come to be known in a dozen or more
states as the Campbell system of soil culture; shall tell
why and how I came to make the investigations which
led up to this; shall discuss freely the principles which
lie at the foundation; shall tell what has been accom-
plished and what may be expected; and I shall give here
instructions as to how to apply these principles as nearly
complete as possible.
In previous editions of the Manual, and in various
other publications and in public addresses, commencing
a dozen years ago, I have insisted that science in soil cul-
ture and the more perfect adaptation of scientific methods
to farming would result in doubling the crops in the great
semi-arid belt of America. In later years I have made
the statement still stronger and have declared, to the
amazement of some of the doubting ones, that crops have
not been one-fourth what they should have been in this
region. It is because I have had faith in this region and
have been confident that crops could be made as certain
here as elsewhere, that I have pursued investigations,
often under the most discouraging conditions and in the
face of fierce opposition, and it is in the hope that I may
convince others, not a few but thousands, that I publish
this Manual.
While the investigations which have resulted in the
development of this system of soil culture have been car-
ried on in the semi-arid belt, or that region where the rain-
fall is too small for successful farming in the ordinary
way, it should be understood at the outset that the prin-
ciples are applicable anywhere and in any climate, and
that even where there is an excess of moisture, those who
make use of the system will achieve results of great value.
The difficulties to be overcome by the farmer in assuring
8 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
good crops are so pronounced in this semi-arid region that
it seems specially fitted for development of the very highest
type of agricultural science; but everywhere the problems
are much the same, and having shown the way to success
here, the way will be much easier elsewhere. There is
hardly a section of the United States that can be said to
be free from the danger of crop failure by reason of the
irregular distribution of the rainfall. The season of
drouth, or weeks of dryness perhaps sandwiched between
other weeks of excessive rainfall, are common to all re-
gions. In showing how to overcome the danger which
is ever present in- the semi-arid region we have also shown
how to avoid the danger which comes occasionally in any
farming country. The system therefore is of universal
application. If in discussing it solely in relation to the
problems of the semi-arid region I seem to ignore this
larger truth, it is not because it is not well understood.
I also admonish the reader not to take fright of the
subject because it appears to be ponderous and uninter-
esting. The term, "scientific soil culture," may seem
heavy, but I assure you that when once you have grasped
the principles here made use of, the study will become
the most fascinating imaginable. Other branches of ag-
riculture are attractive to intelligent persons. Consider
what has been achieved in stock breeding, in adaptation
of breeds to certain purposes, in bringing about perfec-
tion in the domestic animals; then observe what has been
done in the production of the improved varieties of vege-
tables and fruits, and in creation of marvelously beautiful
flowers; all the result of applying the genius of man to
intelligent direction of the resources of nature and in
the special line of scientific treatment of the soil to secure
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 9
a variety of results there is just as much opportunity for
original research. The flower garden does not contain all
the wonders.
I present this Manual to the public with greater con-
fidence than its predecessors, because the evidence has
been accumulating that the secret of success in the semi-
arid region lies in proper fitting of the soil. To the evi-
dence which has come directly from the numerous exper-
imental farms that have been handled under my personal
direction has been added the testimony of scores of farmers
who have followed more or less imperfectly the directions
contained in previous editions of the Soil Culture Manual.
Along with this is the more important fact that every-
where in the states most affected there has come to be
general recognition of the vital truths of the system and
there is such a unanimous interest in the whole subject
that it is no longer necessary to beg for a hearing. I have
greater confidence also from the fact that all the time I
have been learning more and more about the subject, have
been developing my own ideas and dissipating my own
doubts, until I feel sure that what I am here to present
has far greater merit than anything which has preceded.
I have not done with experiments nor have I satisfied my-
self that I have reached the very best possible results,
but I do know that I have gone a long way toward per-
fecting a system through which the forces of nature may
be made to serve man at all times.
It is not intended that this Soil Culture Manual shall
contain any simple code of imperative rules to govern
every act of the farmer in his culture of the soil. The
nature of the subject forbids this. What must be done
is to give the inquirer a clear statement of general prin-
ciples, with simple directions for applying the same under
10 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
many varied conditions, and to explain the reason for
doing certain things then to leave it to the intelligent
direction of the farmer to do the rest. These general
principles relate to soil physics, to the character of the
soil, the texture of the soil, the movement of moisture
in the soil, the development of soil fertility or those ele-
ments essential to plant growth, and what can be done
and must be done by cultivation to affect the quantity
and quality of the crop. One who comprehends clearly
these principles and labors with the knowledge that is in
him, will find the way to profitable agriculture.
There can be no universal rule for the cultivation of
the soil. Conditions are so different that there must be
variation. Everyone knows that drainage is necessary
to some soils in some climates. It is not so well under-
stood that where the rainfall is insufficient there can
be conservation of the moisture by cultivation. Neither
is it generally known that by and through cultivation of
the soil there is brought about great changes in the phys-
ical condition so that soils having but little available fer-
tility may be strengthened and others burdened with
plant elements are modified. Some important general
rules may be applied, however, in the semi-arid region,
so that they may be followed with assurance that there
will be conservation of moisture and development of plant
elements and the consequent growth of crops equal to
those grown in the more humid regions of the country.
It ought not to be difficult for any one to recall facts
and incidents which have come under his personal ob-
servation tending to prove the main arguments in sup-
port of our position. Take, for instance, the very common
incident of a large plant growth occurring right where
there had been the previous winter a large drift of snow
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAI n
lodged behind a windbreak in the field. The average
farmer will readily explain it all by a statement that
where the snow piled up on the ground it gave a certain
protection to the grain, and that it acted like a blanket
to preserve the grain from harm, thus assuring a better
stand of the grain. But this explanation fails to explain.
It does not get at the real truth. But investigation will
show that the snow melted gradually in the spring, and by
this slow melting process the water was able to percolate
into the soil so that the moisture reached a great depth,
and that this moisture was stored deep in the soil as in a
reservoir, that later in the season, when the hot days came
and evaporation was rapid from the surface, this stored
moisture was supplied to the roots of the plants so that
they kept on growing at a time when other plants in
the field were checked in growth by the drouth. The soil
conditions were different beneath the snow drifts. There
was an abundance of moisture and it was deep in the soil.
By capillary movement of the water at the right time, and
having an inexhaustible supply of water at the source,
the plants were supplied with what they needed, and
growth was perfect, regardless of the climatic conditions
which prevailed.
The incident is a valuable lesson in the storage and
conservation of moisture in the soil, and the matter of
the production of the proper physical condition in the
soil to secure best results.
In the pages of this Manual it will be shown that the
results which followed this accidental development of
proper soil conditions may be duplicated on whole fields
and that what was done by the chance piling up of the
snow behind a fence or hedgerow has shown us what can
be done in a larger way by cultivation in the right way
12 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
and at the right time. It will be shown that it is abso-
lutely necessary, in regions where the rainfall is scant,
that there shall be this storage of the water in the soil
and conservation of the water so that there is no waste.
The greater amount of water that can be stored in such
a way that it will be used when needed, not only storage
before the crops are planted but storage during the grow-
MONTANA WHEAT
Field forty-five miles southeast of Great Falls. Wheat
grown Without Irrigation.
ing season, and the greater success had in so cultivating
the ground as to save all this moisture for the use of the
plant while growing, the better will be the results.
But aside from mere storage of the water there must
be ever kept in mind this fact that both the cultivation
13
and the storage of the water are for the purpose of pro-
ducing a proper physical condition of the soil. The soil
must be in such condition that there will be the greatest
development of roots. There must be development of
roots and these roots must be able to take from the soil
the elements of plant growth. There must be available
fertility. The time comes nearly every season, in almost
every climate, when there is severe drouth for a few days;
and unless the roots are properly developed in good soil,
disaster comes to the growing plants. It is not uncom-
mon to find that the apparently fine growth of weeks is
withered by a day or two of extremely dry and hot weather.
Such could not be the case if the plant was prepared for
such an emergency. The essential thing is to have the
moisture available, to have the soil condition such as
to develop good roots, and then drouths can be defied.
If the reader is interested in irrigation, then let it be
borne in mind that the principles which are here applied
are applicable as well to irrigated land. We have no
doubt that much that is here written will be found espec-
ially useful to irrigation farmers the moisture and its
relation to soil fertility, the movement of moisture in the
soil, the part played by air and other elements in the soil,
and the general principles regarding fertility.
This book is offered to the intelligent and progressive
farmers of the great west. And this term "the great west"
has come to have a new meaning to very many in recent
years. It is indeed the land of great possibilities. We
have never more than half appreciated it in the past. It
is a region which, under application of true scientific
principles in the cultivation of the soil, is destin^ d to be
covered with countless homes of happy American fami-
lies, with cities and towns prosperous and growing. May
14
God speed the day when the people will realize that these
vast plains were not intended to be mere grazing lands
for the few cattle companies, but that they will give sup-
port to many small herds and flocks cared for by many
men, and that all the grass and cereals of the best agri-
cultural regions of the earth will be grown here in abun-
dance.
Ours is an age of progress in many lines. We are
witnessing almost miracles in industrial and commercial
life. Those of us who are devoted to the noblest calling
of all should not be behind our neighbors in taking up
with all that is good among the new things of the century.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
CHAPTER II.
HOW TO USE THE MANUAL.
Complete mastery of the principles governing scien-
tific soil culture is essential to success in practical field
work.
These are the steps likely to be followed by one who
will achieve highest success: Honest inquiry into the
merits of the system, study of the question with mind
divested of all prejudice, courage to apply the principles
regardless of the influence of wrong outside teaching or
influences, study over and over again of all that is here
laid down in regard to handling the soil, intelligent ap-
plication to conditions as they may be found affected
by local influences.
One who takes up this Manual deeply or even slightly
prejudiced against all things new and disposed to scoff
at or criticise all teaching that does not have the recom-
mendation of age, will make no headway. Honest doubts
will not stand in the way, if the mind is free to accept
the truth no matter who reveals it. But 'at a time when
the most eminent students of agriculture throughout the
world are admitting that their views are undergoing
rapid changes, and when there is everywhere a passion
for new things, new plants, new machinery, new methods
no man should be found disputing the conclusions of
practical experience.
Then there must be not only courage to go right out
into the fields and do the things which must be done for
16
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
success, but a desire to see true principles fairly tried.
Sometimes the farmer starts out bravely to adopt scien-
tific soil culture, but then he comes up against something
that appears to be contrary to the teachings of his father
BURLINGTON MODEL FARM
Crop of Wheat at Holdrege, Neb., in 1906, yielding 51^ bu.
per acre testing 64 Ibs.
or grandfather or a neighbor, and he resolves upon such
a variation that he undoes all he has accomplished.
But the danger to the novice lies chiefly in his failure
to study the method enough. He must know it well.
The principles of scientific soil culture must be grounded
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 17
deep within him. He must be saturated with the subject.
It must become part of his being, and this can only be ac-
complished by going over the subject many times and
mastering every detail, always guarding against a wrong
understanding of a seemingly minor question.
The professional man prepares himself for his voca-
tion by long study of the books in which are laid down the
general principles of his profession or science. The law-
yer cons the big books which contain nothing but common
sense principles. The engineer or architect or draughts-
man spends months in special study of very simple prin-
ciples. So also in this science or profession.
The vital point is ability to understand the soil, its
relation to air and water and their combined relation
to plant life, and the processes of development of soil
fertility, so that the farmer may comprehend fully the
effect of various conditions, and the further fact that he
himself can by cultivation control these elements; just
what, when and how certain work should be done, what
to guard against and what to encourage, and what
results to reasonably expect.
The Manual must be studied well. It would be impos-
sible to put into a whole library detailed instructions
as to every phase of soil culture, adapted to every pos-
sible condition that might be encountered; but herein is
laid down general principles from which the intelligent
farmer can gain an understanding of what should be done.
The Manual should be studied every month in the year,
and while crops are growing it will pay to consult it every
day.
To further assist the student in grasping all the many
principles and details in scientific soil culture we have
prepared a correspondence course of twelve lessons through
18 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
which a full understanding of all the points may be reached.
There is no subject today the full knowledge of which
means so much to the farmer as how to get the most out
of his soil, for it is the key to his prosperity and happiness.
Anyone interested in a thorough course can learn all par-
ticulars by addressing H. W. Campbell, at Lincoln, Nebr.
There is so much to be made known on the subject that
the farmer will not be able to get it all in one book or
in one year.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 19
CHAPTER III.
3
THE IDEAL FARMER.
One of the principles long followed in educational
work is that the man who is well educated with a mind,
under good discipline, is fitted for almost any sphere in
life. In recent years this theory has received some rude
shocks, and school men are finding out that the man
who is really educated is one who has some specialty in
which he is better than others. Therefore specialization
has become the rule in schools and colleges and in all walks
of life. The man who tries to be a good minister and a
good lawyer at the same time is no more found. Neither
do men try to be at once a blacksmith, a plumber and a
shoemaker.
So it is in agriculture men have found that it pays
to learn all about the subject. Just because one is schooled
in many books or has been successful in trade or a pro-
fession is not sufficient to qualify him for farming. He
must know his subject and know it well. And at the
basis of his science lies knowledge of the soil and its char-
acter and possibilities.
But the farmer must have a well trained mind. He
must be keen, of perception and broad-minded. He must
be studious and keep abreast with the times. He should
take farm magazines' and read farm books. He ought
also to have the daily papers at hand, and know what is
going on in the world. All these things will give him power
to reason. But above all else, he must have adaptability.
20 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
Agriculture is a science with new problems every year,
and where conditions change the application of the prin-
ciples must change also. The farmer must meet condi-
tions as he finds them. With the true principles well
grounded in him he must be ready to adapt himself to all
conditions that may come up.
The problem of farming in what is known as the semi-
arid region is quite different from that in the humid por-
tions of the country. The old methods will not get results.
The farmer who must readily adapt himself to this fact
will be quickest to achieve success. Farming, for instance,
in the lower portions of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys
is comparatively easy. The farmer has water to waste,
and he does let it go to waste. Of course he would do
better farming if he did not waste his. water, or rather if
he had it under control perfectly, as he might have, but
in fact, he can farm very well and be indifferent to the
waste of water. Not so everywhere.
As a matter of fact the men who have been making
a success of farm operations in the region between the hu-
mid belt and the western mountains are men capable of
working out hard problems. They have actually been
engaged in solving these hard problems for many years.
The early land seekers made the mistake of trying to farm
as they did in the states where they formerly lived. The
later farmers profited by their experience. As a result
ideal homes are springing up all over the western states.
All this may be dismissed as intelligence in farming;
but it is true that there has been entirely too much farm-
ing done without this intelligence.
The ideal farmer is first of all a student, then an in-
vestigator, and finally a specialist; ever alert for new
things and new ideas, open-minded and free from conceit;
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
21
a man familiar with what is going on around him, and yet
intensely devoted to his own work.
In order that we may realize our fondest hopes as to
the future of our country our farmers must be men who are
capable of developing their industry to its fullest extent.
FEASTING TIME.
Watermelons Raised in Lincoln County, Col., by the Campbell System.
This ability must have a scientific basis. It need not be
wrapped up in terms so strange that the farm lad may
turn away in despair. Science requires only words that
we can all understand. But I am sure that if the young
men and women of today would throw away that old
delusive idea that soils produce just in proportion to the
sunshine and rainfall and that these are matters of chance,
22 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
and that the physical condition of the soil has little or
nothing to do with the crops, there would be a better
feeling as to the safeness and sureness of agriculture. Then
the farmer should try to comprehend how God has pro-
vided the necessary elements for the germination of the
seed and growth of the plant; but it has been left to man
to discover what is necessary under all conditions to de-
velop the magnificent crop of cereals or to cause the gar-
dens to glow with the beauty of finest flowers. Man
must prepare the way. He must combine the different
elements and give direction to the forces of nature. It
is a study worthy of the greatest minds of the world. It
is a science which the ideal farmer must know.
There has been a good deal of tendency in recent
years to follow the cry of back to the farms; but if the na-
ture of the science were better understood and men were
more familiar with what has been accomplished and what
lies just ahead, I feel sure that public sentiment would
change radically and that rural life would be far more
popular than it is now.
Scientific methods under the guiding hands of the
ideal farmers are rapidly eliminating the drudgery of
farm life. Our teachers in schools and in literature are
not so much teaching a way to avoid work as they are
showing how more can be accomplished with a given
amount of work. It is being shown how larger crops and
surer crops are to be garnered. The men and women of
the farm are being awakened to the fact that they are not
mere toilers, but important factors in the affairs of the
world. It is open to them to make real progress, for if
they do all that they should they will discover methods
of improvement, and by their investigations show the way
to better methods for the production of crops.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 23
More and more it is becoming recognized everywhere
that farming is the one business that all others depend
upon. No other business or profession is so important
from a material standpoint. It supplies that from which
all other development proceeds. But it is not what it
once was. It is not an incidental calling. It is the bus-
iness of millions of the very best of the people
of the earth. These people have a broader outlook and
are facing greater possibilities than ever before.
The tendency is now as it must ever be to the small
farm as against the "bonanza farm," which has so much
characterized the newer portions of the United States,
The abolition of the bonanza farm, which is inevitable,
will change the whole feeling toward farm life. The small
farmer is the one who gets the most out of his work. He
is the one who develops. He will follow the more inten-
sive system of farming. He will do the most to develop
his state and country.
And the small farmer is the one who makes his farm
his home. He seeks comfort for himself and his children.
He does not build a shed to shelter him during the crop
season with his family miles away. He becomes a per-
manent fixture in his country. He builds good houses
and barns, he gets the best cattle and horses and hogs,
he has a garden of flowers and he plants trees. He wants
the school house to be located not far away and he wil-
lingly taxes himself for support of the school. He con-
tributes to the erection of a church in the village and he
is careful that the rural route and the co-operative tele-
phone do not pass him by.
The ideal farmer makes the ideal farm, and in tun?
there is compensation quite enough.
24 CAMPBELJL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
CHAPTER IV.
BASIS OF PROSPERITY.
Prosperity is a sort of endless chain. The dollar goes
round on a debt-paying tour and everybody is happy. If
the dollar stops somewhere along the line then everybody
is gloomy.
If you set out to explain this and devise a chain for
the dollar to follow in its rounds, you will invariably in-
clude the farmer somewhere in the circle. If you begin
with the grocer then you will go on to the miller or the
baker or the packer, and soon back to the farmer. You
may begin with the lawyer and his fee in court, or the
minister and the contribution box, or start down in the
"pit" of the stock exchange where gambling goes on daily
-but you will always follow back to the farmer if you
go long enough.
The farmer himself is a consumer as well as a producer.
The farmer is always buying something. He seldom
hoards up the money he gets from his sales of grain or
steers. The farmer is a consumer of manufactured goods,
and when he has money in abundance he buys freely of
the things which are made in factories. Finally the
circle is completed, and the money comes back to him
in purchase of more of the farm products.
If the farmer is prosperous then he is a buyer. But
the farmer more than any other person on earth can get
along fairly well for a time without any general buying
if he is compelled to do so. He can and does economize
CAMPBOLL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
25
more than others when his bank account is low. And
so when conditions are such that men begin to retrench
in expenses the farmer is one of the first to do so, and soon
the chain of prosperity is broken at avital spot. In like
CORN IN COLORADO.
Grown Ninety Miles East of Denver in 1906 by the Campbell Method.
manner it is certain that as long as the farmer is spending
money freely then others will have something with which
to buy things or to pay debts. The farmer's good times
means good times for everybody.
Now the farmer is prosperous just as he has abundance
26
of crops of all kinds. It matters not that the gold pro-
duction is becoming greater each year and prices are
advancing steadily, unless we are to have good results
from agricultural operations. Nobody cares about high
prices unless there is something to sell. We have here
in the United States an era of great prosperity simply
because there has been for a number of years a steady
increase in farm production, not a spurt one year and
a failure the next, but continuing good crops over large
areas of the country.
This is the true basis of prosperity. It is therefore
of real interest to men in every walk of life to do all that
is in their power to have continuance of the success of
the farmers. Therefore the business or professional man
helps himself indirectly when he in any manner aids or
prompts the farmer to gain a better knowledge of his soils
and scientific soil culture.
It used to be said, and with much truth, that the
great safety valve for the whole economic system of the
United States was the free homes of the West. When-
ever industrial conditions became unsatisfactory in the
manufacturing centers the surplus labor was shunted
off to the free or cheap land of the west. Now, that
this practically free land is no longer obtainable, the same
effect comes through increase in the producing power of
the farms already occupied. The farmer cannot cure
his dissatisfaction by turning quickly to unoccupied land;
he can increase his product and output by applying better
methods to his farming operations.
Few people realize how this process of getting more
out of the soil by means of scientific farming has been
developed in recent years, especially in the middle and
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 27
western states; much less do they realize what an import-
ant factor this has been in furthering the immense ex-
pansion of business in our history.
It is no small matter to effect a change so that on a
million acres of farm land the yield of grain is doubled
in quantity. The farmer who is contented with 15 bushels
of wheat per acre when he gets a crop, and counts on
missing a few seasons because, as he thinks, the "luck
of the weather" was against him, immediately becomes a
man of much more importance to himself and the com-
munity when he discovers that he can get 30 to 40 bushels
of wheat every year on the same land by application of
a little science under modern methods. This is just what
has been taking place in recent years, especially in that
section of our country once set down as of little value
for farming, but now recognized as our choicest region.
Because of this development upon these western farms,
because of the application of scientific farming, because
of the steady increase in the output of the farms, there
has come to our country unexampled prosperity in every
line. The towns are growing, the cities are expanding,
railroad lines are being built, the banks are busy, the mer-
chants are doing well, the factories are running over-time,
the workingmen are getting better wages, everybody is
better and happier. The problem of maintaining this
prosperity which so much delights us all is, therefore,
not one related to the kind of currency we have, the pay-
ing of bounties to ship owners, or to the treatment of the
tariff; but that of maintaining a steady average of prof-
itable crop production.
The student of social economics must fail entirely who
underestimates the importance of scientific soil culture in
the creation and maintenance of our prosperity.
28 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
CHAPTER V.
SMALL FARMS; BETTER FARMING.
The struggle to get that which will sustain life in
quantities sufficient to always satisfy all the people has
been going on since the garden of Eden ceased to yield
of its fruit an over-supply. It seems that there will never
be enough of the good things of life. There can never
be permanently any too great production of the things
which come from the soil to supply the needs of man.
The cry is ever for more.
The people of the United States nave been favored
for the century and a quarter of national existence by
the fact of their always having near at hand a vast supply
of cheap unoccupied land, so that when production fell
below requirements some men could move out upon the
unused land and rapidly increase production by expan-
sion of the agricultural area. The statisticians of the
states have done much boasting of how the production
of their states has increased; but this increase has gener-
ally been because of the enlarged area under cultivation.
But the cheap land is about all taken. Attention is
turned properly to the problem of how to get more out
of the land already under cultivation. Here is a great
corn state and a group of men conceive the idea that the
average yield per acre of corn can be increased from 30
to 40 bushels or perhaps more. Great idea, and the peo-
ple are delighted with the missionary work thus done.
Another learns of a new variety of wheat more productive
than any other and he is hailed as a great benefactor.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
29
It is the same everywhere. The acres which lie in
the so-called semi-arid belt have been utilized for grazing
and they are yet our cheapest land. With the westward
tide turned back from the coast and mountains, it has
CAMPBELL SYSTEM VEGETABLES.
Raised without Irrigation by Mr. Rice, ninety miles east of Denver,
on Kansas Pacific, first season's crop.
become necessary that something be done to make these
cheap acres yield more. And happily that something is
being done. The intelligent tilling of the soil on the dry
prairies is enabling these farmers to double their crops.
30 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
Instead of 7 to 10 bushels of wheat to the acre they are
getting 30 to 40, and getting it every year. Corn
and hay yield in corresponding amounts.
The result is exactly the same as that of opening up
new land and increasing the acreage under cultivation.
It is all that is left for the American farmer. He must
farm better and get larger crops or admit that he has
reached the limit of his productive capacity.
The profit of the average western farm is not half
what it should be or could be if the farmer would utilize
all present available knowledge. Our farming methods
compare unfavorably with those of other countries. Com-
pared with the amount of land under cultivation, we do
not use a sufficient number of teams, nor employ enough
labor, nor have the necessary equipment. The estimated
average value per acre of machinery, teams, buildings and
appliances in various countries is as follows:
In the United States $ 9 . 00
In England 40.00
In Germany .from $50 to 100.00
The total is governed to some extent by the special
farming followed.
The returns per acre from land in these three countries
show even a wider difference. The United States has soil
equally good and much of it even better than in the other
countries named, yet the wheat crop averages a little
over 14 bushels per acre for the whole country, while
England averages 32 bushels and Germany 33J bushels
per acre.
The difference is largely due to the more scientific
methods of farming in the old world*
The western farmer should look carefully into this
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 31
methods of farming, and especially make a study of soil
culture, and determine for himself by intelligent reason-
ing, if he can not easily double his crop yield.
In the past few years prosperity has abounded. There
is no question as to the close relationship between general
prosperity and the steady production of the farms. When
there is an abundance of farm produce going into the
markets of the world all business thrives. That in the
United States this constant prosperity covering a period
of years has been due largely to the fact that the farmers
have been successful in their efforts to greatly increase
the per acre yield of their land is also beyond any question.
Every farmer should consider what it means to him
individually to double his crops. He should also consider
how important it is to make sure of good crops no matter
what the conditions may be. This is what scientific soil
culture does.
But we can never have much better farming until
farmers content themselves with fewer acres for each one.
There has been all too much spreading out so that one
man tills, or directs the tillage, of many thousands of
acres. Land greed has been the curse of farming. The
farmer can no more do his best while trying to cultivate
a thousand acres than by confining himself to a two-acre
lot. He must have enough, but not too much.
Better farming means better farms, more comfortable
farm homes, happier farm families, better citizenship,
more nearly the ideal simple life.
32
CHAPTER VI.
A LOOK INTO THE FUTURE.
Spread before you a map of the United States, one of
the old kind common to the geographies of thirty to fifty
years ago. You may have to brush the dust from its
faded surface if you find one such. Perhaps you can con-
jure it up in your mind. On such a map you will recall
that there were large regions marked "great forests;"
then other areas indicated as "high plateaus;" and others
where the dotted surface indicated a desert just like that
in northern Africa. Then the portions which the map
makers regarded as strictly good were marked with innu-
merable rivers and lakes.
Compare this with a good railroad map of today which
can be gotten from any first class agent. Note how the
forest regions bave disappeared, and how seldom is there
anything to indicate a high plateau. The mountain re-
gions seem to have shrunk. And, behold! the fabled
deserts have disappeared entirely.
But the transcontinental lines of railway have long
stretches with few stations, indicating that in some por-
tions of the country the population is small. All this
is being gradually changed, yet the area of small popula-
tion is still very large.
The semi-arid region of the United States lies west
of the Missouri river, presenting first an irregular strip
extending from the Canada line to Texas, through por-
tions of the Dakotas, Montana, Wyoming, Nebraska,
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 33
Colorado, Oklahoma and New Mexico; then having sec-
tions surrounding the Rocky mountains and the Coast
ranges, including large areas of Idaho, Washington, Ore-
gon, Utah, Arizona and California. Here is almost a
third of the United States where the rainfall is from 10
to 20 inches annually, where in many places farming by
the old methods has proved a failure. This is the semi-
arid region about which so much has been said. It is
the dream of the irrigationist to "reclaim" large portions
of this country. It has been the hope of the herdsman
that much of it would ever remain public land that he
might continue his grazing of large herds.
It is a matter of common knowledge that the soil of
this region is of a texture admirably adapted to the best
farming. The fact of the small precipitation has been
the sole reason for the failure to develop this region. For
many years it was believed that this was in fact a desert
region. The gold seekers who followed the trails across
the plains sent back word that the climate was such that
this must ever be a worthless land. But as the years
wore on, here and there a farmer tried to do more than
herd his cattle and sheep on the short grass. A few suc-
cesses were recorded amid many failures. But the slow
plodding farmer has a way of winning success despite all
theories, and today, all through this semi-arid region are
to be found scattered farms where men have accomplished
a great deal for themselves. The soil is, in fact, fine and
rich, of loose texture, and generally free from objection-
able traits.
It has been abundantly demonstrated that if farming
operations are carried on in this region under scientific
soil culture, if care is taken to conserve the moisture and
not to waste it, if the soil is so treated that its fertility
34 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
will be made available, if there is plowing and packing and
seeding and cultivation suited to the conditions as they
exist in this vast region then crops are large and sure,
and farming becomes akin to an exact science.
And this can be done is being done will be done by
millions where it is done by only a few today.
A few years hence and the so-called "plains" or "Great
American desert" of the map makers will be dotted with
MONTANA WHEAT.
Wheat Crop of Thirty Bushels, Fifteen Miles South of Great Falls,
Montana, Grown without Irrigatiou.
splendid farm houses and great red barns. There will
t3 rows of trees for wind-breaks and shade. There will
be orchards and gardens. The great fields will be tilled
by the very best of modern machinery. Steam and electric-
ity will largely take the place of horse power in the heav-
CAMBPELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 35
iest work, for this is possible here much more than in the
cramped fields of the older states. Plowing and seeding
and harvesting will all be done much more quickly and
better than ever before. There are few obstacles to good
work. There are no boulders to break the plowshare
and no stumps to bend the sickle. It is a country admir-
ably adapted to the ideal farming. And the men who go
out to conquer this desert land and to compel success
under adverse conditions are just the men to build up
ideal homes.
It is in this vast region that railroad building is going
on now more rapidly than any place else in the world.
Nothing could be more significant. Men who invest their
millions in railroad enterprises do not do so without con-
sideration of what it means. A few years ago the railroad
managers declared that if they could do so, they would
pull up some of the tracks they had laid in this coun-
try; and today these same tracks mark the pathway of
immense commerce. Because there were failures due to
misdirected efforts on the part of the farmers is not proof
that the country is useless. On the contrary it has been
demonstrated, and this is better known by the railroad
builders than by any others, that the semi-arid region
is destined to be in a few years the richest portion of the
United States.
Looking far into the future one may see this region
dotted with fine farms, with countless herds of blooded
animals grazing, with school houses in every township,
with branch lines of railroads, with electric interurban
trolly lines running in a thousand directions, with tele-
phone systems innumerable, with rural mail routes reach-
36 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
ing to every door. It is coming just as sure as the coming
of another century. The key has been found and the
door to the riches has been unlocked.
How many millions will be supported upon this region?
Nobody knows. But the day will come when those who
tell of the hesitancy of their forefathers about trying to
subdue this region will have to modify the truth if they
are to be believed.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 37
CHAPTER VII.
THE DISK HARROW.
There is no tool the farmer can own that can be used
in as many ways and under as many different conditions,
and turn him as much profit if judiciously operated, as
the Disk Harrow. It can be used to great advantage
when the plow could not be used.
It is not, however, a tool that can take the place of
the plow and secure anything like fair returns, except in
exceedingly favorable seasons when rainfall is ideal and
opportune.
Thousands of acres of wheat have been put in with a
disk drill, or by disking the ground and then drilling,
much of which was never cut, and a still larger percent
never paid the expense of growing.
Since spending so much time in scientific research of
the soils and the implements with which to till the soils,
we have become very much interested in the disk harrow
and its great scope of usefulness.
The great value of the disk harrow lies in its adapta-
bility to the protection of moisture, the preparation of
the surface soil for the encouragement of rapid percolation
of the rain water, and in thoroughly pulverizing a some-
what cloddy plowed field and getting an improved phys-
ical or mechanical condition of the soil. It has been
used on thousands of acres instead of plowing, when it
should have been used to precede the plow. We have
quoted, under the heads of "Evaporation" and "Culti-
38 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
vation," instances where the early use of the disk for the
sole purpose of preventing evaporation and preparing the
surface to receive and utilize further rains, has resulted
in giving the farmer increased yields of corn as high as
twenty bushels to the acre. Think of twenty bushels of
corn per acre for only forty cents of extra expense. In
the handling of fields for summer culture there is no tool
that can take the place of the disk harrow, cost of labor
and value of work considered; and while it is not a tool
that can be continuously used, we do not see how a man
can successfully handle an orchard without it. The disk
harrow may be used to prepare a field for a crop, and
in connection with the plow, its work is most valuable.
The complete pulverizing and thorough separating of the
particles one from another in its rotating action, when
proper diameter of disk is used, is perfect.
WHEN TO USE THE DISK.
We most urgently advise the use of the disk early
in the spring on all stubble ground or old fields intended
for spring crops. The value of this early work with the
disk is inestimable, and the more arid the condition, the
greater the value of its early use. No time should be
lost after the soil has become sufficiently thawed and dry
so that it will not stick to the disk. For best results
double disk the ground by lapping one-half, the object
being to thoroughly pulverize and loosen the surface for
a two-fold purpose. To loosen and form a soil mulch to
prevent the loss of moisture by evaporation as well as
to break the hard crusted surface to promote a more rapid
and complete percolation or soaking into the soil below
of the early spring rains.
In addition to the subject of conserving and more
effectually storing the moisture, is another question not
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
39
commonly considered, but of equal importance that of
the more ready admission of the air which is in two ways
very advantageous, that of more quickly warming the soil
and promoting a more ready chemical action necessary
to the development of fertility.
THE DISK AFTER HARVEST.
In still another season of the year we find the disk of
equal value, that is immediately after the small grain
Following Harvester with the Disk, a very profitable part of the
Campbell system.
or any other crop is removed. It is advised whenever
possible to follow behind the harvester and not allow
the soil to be exposed a single day to the sun's rays after
40
the crop is gathered. It is very difficult to explain the
value and importance of this work in sufficiently strong
terms to permit the reader to grasp its full force and
meaning. We will endeavor to give it in six reasons.
First: There is no time in the year when water held
in the soil near the surface in sufficient quantities, will
bring about so many valuable chemical changes as during
the months of July and August. This is the season of
the year when a vast amount of nitrates and bacteria
may be developed, in other words, the fertility, the very
elements that start your wheat off early in the fall with
that dark green color, and has very much to do with its
stooling, providing, however, your final work of fitting
your seed bed is carried out as explained under " plowing"
and "sub-packing."
The fact that the farmer loses sight of the real scien-
tific or necessary physical condition of the soil in the
plowing of his field for another crop, accounts for the
failure of so many plowed fields to yield as much in dry
seasons as fields that were simply put in with a disk drill
and not plowed. How often have we heard farmers
say: "I plowed my ground and fitted it thoroughly, and
my neighbor hogged his wheat in with a disk and got a
better crop than I did." In fact the man with the disk
had produced a more- scientific condition of the soil.
Second: If there is any moisture in the soil below,
by preparing this fine mulch of a liberal thickness this
moisture will accumulate in the firm soil just beneath.
If no more rains come, your ground is in perfect condition
to plow because of the moisture you have retained by
the early disking.
Third: If you do not wish to plow in the fall this
moisture can be carried over until the next spring, when
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 41
in case of a dry spring your soil, if properly handled, as
I will outline later, can be planted, and the seed will im-
mediately germinate and grow, while your neighbor is
worrying about a dry country and may harvest nothing.
Fourth: Sometimes you may have teams and time
to do some fall plowing for spring crops. If your soil is
dry it is folly to plow, but if you have held the moisture
in the soil, it is wise to fall-plow, providing you follow the
plow with the sub-surface packer, firming the lower por-
tion of the furrow slice while the soil is still moist, holding
the moisture below instead of allowing the furrow to dry
out, as it will, if left loose by the plow.
DO NOT GAMBLE.
Some say that with early plowing the rains will pack
it, and you don't need the Sub-Surface Packer. If you
want to gamble the price of a good crop that it will rain
enough in the fall to do the necessary packing, then all
right. However, let us consider one fact. How would
you have come out in the fall of 1903 in western Kansas
and Nebraska, the Panhandle of Texas, and all eastern
Colorado, with practically no rain for eight months, from
late August to early May, 1904? Just as a great many did
come out. Better follow business principles and be sure.
Gambling wins sometimes, but you can never bank on it.
Fifth: In case you wish to sow fall wheat this early
disking may mean ten to thirty bushels more per acre.
By holding the moisture as shown above, it will be seen
that any subsequent rain will percolate more quickly and
deeper. If the rain be a heavy one, sufficient to dissolve
and pack the loosened surface, the harrow should be thor-
oughly used as soon as the soil is dry enough not to stick,
and by all means wait ro longer. When you are ready to
plow for fall wheat your soil is moist. By following the
42 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
plow with the packer, and the packer with the harrow,
you will have a fine, firm, moist seedbed and your wheat
will come up, stool and grow rapidly, and you need have
no fears of winter killing if the seed bed is in proper condi-
tion.
Sixth: In our last is found the most important fact of all,
namely, that of having your ground in condition to carry
your crop through any spring drouth that has ever yet
occurred, with a sure good stand of wheat, and an early
rapid growth.
SIZE OF THE DISK TO USE.
When disk harrows first came in use the common
size was fourteen inches in diameter, and this size we still
prefer, but the demand seems to be for larger disks, the
farmer's conceiving the idea that they draw lighter. While
this is true, the pulverizing effect of the sixteen-inch is
not so good as the fourteen, the eighteen-inch even less,
and a twenty-inch we would not have on a farm. Just
a moment's thought on this point, and you will readily
see the reason
The larger the disk the slower it revolves, consequently
the pulverizing effect is decreased as the size of the disk
is increased. I have noticed twenty-inch disks rolling
along when the ground was somewhat dry, and simply
slice the soil, raising it up a little and letting it fall back
in large clods in exactly the same position it was before
the disk passed over. The process simply made little
crevices and actually increased the evaporation of moist-
ure instead of decreasing it. A fourteen-inch disk moving
along at the same rate of speed would revolve faster,
therefore, pulverize and completelv reverse the soil. Don't
buy a disk too large in diameter.
CAMPBELL-S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 43
Always double disk by lapping one-half. This leaves
the surface level if you drive so the outside disk will just
fill the furrow left by the center of the disk just preceding.
Keep tbe disk sharp. It pays. Buy as broad a disk as you
have horses to draw. Time is money. Always precede
your plowing by thoroughly disking. It helps materially
in obtaining a fine, firm root bed. New and improved
disk harrows are the next thing in order,,
44 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
CHAPTER VIII.
PLOWING.
In outlining' a general plan for the preparation of our
fields for the best possible results in crop growing and
grain yields, the plow takes first place as the all-important
tool. The kind of plow used is not so vital as the how
it is used, and what the condition of the soil is or should
be when used.
Many have attempted to fix the time when the plow-
ing should be done, whether early or late, fall or spring,
in regard to which we would assert that there can be no
fixed rule for time or depth of plowing. For the purpose
of securing the best results the farmer must first take the
precaution to prepare the field for plowing as outlined
in the chapter headed "The Disk Harrow."
Many experiments have been conducted by the various
agricultural colleges along the lines of determining a fixed
rule for plowing, but the wide difference in results one year
with another, when the attempts have been made to plow
the same time of year or the same depth, shows conclusively
that the simple fact of plowing three, four, six or eight
inches deep each year, or plowing spring or fall, late or
early, means but little, and the results shown cannot be
taken as any guide whatever unless we consider the
condition of the soil . when the plowing is done,
and what tillage has been done before plowing. If these
questions are not considered, then the final result of the
experimental crop is governed more by the soil condition
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 45
at the time of plowing, and the climatic conditions before
and after plowing than by the absolute depth or time of
plowing.
We desire to call attention to these facts on the start,
that we may prepare the student to more fully grasp the
real scientific principles
SPRING PLOWING OLD LAND.
The first and all-important work is the early double-
disking as explained in the preceding chapter. It is
nothing uncommon to see farmers double-disk by first
going over the ground one way and then cross-disk it.
This is not correct, for it results in a series of ridges and
trenches, leaving the surface very uneven. The trenches
left by the center of the disk each way over the field, ex-
poses the solid soil in the bottom to the direct rays of the
sun, causing an enormous evaporation resulting in a thick
hard crust which breaks into coarse clods when plowed.
The proper manner of double-disking is to lap half, which
leaves the surface smooth and thoroughly pulverized.
In the lapping of the half of the disk the last time over,
the last disks revolve at right angles with the disks that
precede. We cannot put too much stress upon this part
of the proper preparation of the soils. Bearing in mind
that the all-important element for the successful growth
of our crops is water, we must lose no opportunity of
conserving and storing the water from the earliest part
of the spring to late in the fall.
WHEN TO PLOW.
Evaporation and percolation are more fully explained
in chapters to follow. After thoroughly pulverizing the
surface to stop the evaporation we can do our plowing
a little later, regardless of the climatic conditions which
may exist, and we shall find the soil in a moist condition.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
It i; very important that much care and attention be
given to the condition of the ground at the time the plow-
ing is done. Land should not be plowed when in bad
physical condition, for good physical conditions are very
necessary for an abundance of available plant food. This
cannot be obtained in the seed and root bed unless this
Cut No. 1. Showing Soil as the Plow Leaves It.
point is given careful attention. Devote special study
to what we say with reference to the physical condition
of the soil. It is one of the most important subjects in
connection with the chapter on the water holding capacity
of the soil.
CAMPBELL S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
47
In cut No. 1, we illustrate the common condition
of ordinary plowed fields. Observe the appearance un-
derneath the portion of the furrow that has been thrown
over by the mould board on the side of the next furrow.
This illustration shows a field that had not been disked
before plowing.
Here is the stubble, weeds and clods that Kave rolled
Cut No. 2. Surface of Soil Harrowed but without Sub-Packing.
from the next furrow, while right at the point where the
furrow is tipped over the soil is firm from the bottom up.
The usual manner of further preparing this ground is by
the use of the harrow. This has a tendency to level,
and, if shallow plowed, to work the ground down fairly
well at the bottom of the plowing. In deep plowing,
of six or more inches, the harrow has but little effect
upon these cavities underneath. This is a very serious prop-
osition, and it is the source of many bad conditions which
48 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
have a direct effect upon the final yield of the crops. First
of all, it cuts off the seed or root bed from the sub-soil,
preventing the movement of any moisture up into the
root-bed. It also forms air spaces or cavities where a
volume of air may exist, which aids in drying out the
soil immediately adjacent. It also prevents the lateral
roots and feeders from extending and permeating
this portion of the soil, leaving a large per cent of our
surface soil in a condition riot at all beneficial to the grow-
ing crop.
In cut No. 3, we show the cross section of the same
two furrows shown in cut No. 1. Here the cavities and
loose condition of the soil at the bottom of the furrow
have all been obliterated by the use of the sub-surface
packer, which is illustrated in cut No. 5. These sharp
wedge-faced wheels have both a downward and a lateral
pressure against the soil in the spaces between them.
The soil is moved by the packer in such a manner as to
form a firm and evenly packed stratum at the lower por-
tion of the furrow.
EFFECT OF THE DISKING.
A word about the disk. Had this land been double-
disked before plowing, the stubble, weeds or manure
shown in a strip at the bottom would have been scattered
through the lower part of the furrow, the soil made finer
and the packer would have made it more uniform and
firmer, increasing its water-holding capacity. This would
have promoted more general nitrification, facilitated greater
and more uniform root growth and made it possible to
have even doubled the yield of the crop, for it is not un-
common that a little more available fertility just tit the
proper time would have increased the yield fully two
and possibly three times.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 49
PHYSICAL CONDITION OF SOIL.
When our farmers grasp the real meaning of the little
things just referred to, that is, that a certain physical or
mechanical condition of the soil must exist where the roots
and rootlets should grow, and that this condition is govern-
ed by the time and kind of tillage, and that only a slight
variation from the ideal condition because of unscientific
tillage or fitting may, and often does make, five, ten or
twentv-five bushels per acre difference in the yield, then
it is that we shall know by results what the possibilities
of our great prairies are.
After the packer has been used, by then employing
the ordinary smoothing harrow, or any late improved
harrow, the surface is pulverized and made fine and the
lower part of the upper portion, which is shown as loose
and coarse in cut No. 1, is made firm, forming a perfect
seed bed. The lower part made firm by the packer forms
the main root bed, while cut No. 4 shows field complete.
MANY IDEAS AS TO PLOWING.
With this general explanation, let us return to the
subject of plowing. With the varied experiences of the
average farmer throughout the semi-arid west there has
arisen a great variety of ideas with reference to depths
of plowing, and whether it is advisable even to plow more
than once in two or three years. Some have resorted to
double-listing, each farmer believing he has conceived a
very plausible reason why he should plow three or five inches
or why he should not plow at all. I fully appreciate the
honesty and good intentions of the farmer, but the reason
there is such a great variety of opinion is because he does
not grasp the importance of having a certain physical
condition of the soil, one that is favorable to holding the
largest amount of moisture to the square inch; one that
50 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
is favorable to the most rapid movement of moisture by
capillary attraction; one that is most favorable to the de-
velopment of the greatest anunmt of available fertility,
and one that is favorable to the most prolific growth
and development of the lateral roots, with their thous-
ands of little feeders. This condition cannot be secured
at its best and the largest productive results obtained
without thoroughly plowing, pulverizing and packing the
soil each and every year.
All of the above mentioned conditions are gained by
plowing at a sufficient depth to stir the soil which will
later contain the major part of feeding roots.
In further discussing the question of what is the proper
physical condition of the soil when plowing is done, we
would call your attention to the furrow as it is turned over
by the plow when the soil is simply moist neither very
wet nor very dry. How nicely each little particle of soil
seems to separate, one from the other, when, if too dry,
a cloddy condition is observed; and the same is true when
the soil is too wet. We should try to secure the most
uniform, fine condition of our soil for the four-fold pur-
pose above referred to. By close observation and careful
attention to these important points we may secure a
crop result fully one hundred per cent greater than we
could obtain if these items were disregarded.
PROPER DEPTH OF PLOWING
Let us first consider the simple question of deep, me-
dium, or shallow plowing from its standpoint alone, with-
out considering the condition of the soil at the time, or
the kind of tools we are going to use after plowing.
This brings us to the position of the average plowman
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 51
up to a very recent date. All he considered in getting
ready to plow, was to get his other work out of the way,
then go at it and rip it up.
Many farmers and experimenters have endeavored
under these rules to ascertain the most desirable depth
of plowing for best results, and after trying one piece,
say, three inches, another five, and another seven inches
deep, for three or five years, they have found themselves
all at sea. One year the deep plowing gave best results,
possibly the next year it gave the poorest; while the me-
dium or shallow came in ahead, and all because the
farmer had no conception whatever of the true principles
of developing or promoting available fertility. His plan
of procedure was a gamble, and left him entirely at the
mercy of kind Providence in the doling out of rain and
sunshine. If the rains came at the proper time and in
the proper quantity, interspersed with no long, dry pe-
riods, the game was his; but if the reverse was true, then
his deep plowing that did so well the previous year, gave
a light crop, or nothing at all.
Had this one question alone in Soil Culture been fully
understood twenty years ago, the central west would
have never felt the pangs of adversity during the panic
of the early nineties, nor would hundreds of eastern wid-
ows, orphans, ministers, school teachers, and savings
banks lost millions of dollars in western mortgages.
FALL PLOWING OLD LAND.
After discussing the pros and cons of spring plowing,
it would seem tha.t we had exhausted the subject. Not
so, in the least. One of the most important questions
we have not yet touched, and that is, what may be done
to very materially increase the chances of a big crop of
wheat following wheat?
52 CAMBFELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
The following of a harvester with a disk as shown in
illustration elsewhere, is one of the little things that mean
much. Especially is this true in the growing of winter
wheat in the more arid sections. There are two very
prominent reasons for this:
First, by repeated experiments we have found it very
important in holding up the fertility of the soil to prevent
its becoming dry either before the crop is planted, during
its growth, or after it is harvested, in so far as it may be
possible. Especially is this true in July and August,
during which time the temperature usually runs high and the
humidity low, causing an enormous evaporation and rapid
drying out of the soil upon which the dead stubble of
wheat or other small grain is left standing with the sur-
face soil closely compacted by the rains or from irrigation.
The stubble itself strongly attracts the sun's rays. By
double-disking we are able to mix the stubble and coarser
roots among the loosened soil, forming a most ideal mulch
to prevent further evaporation, and if you have been care-
ful to conserve all your moisture in previous years, you
will soon find the firm soil beneath this mulch quite moist.
INCREASING THE FERTILITY.
This moisture, together with the nitrifying air that
freely permeates your mulch, together with the heat,
will develop more or less bacteria and nitrates, and really
increases the available fertility in lieu of depleting it, as
is true when the field is allowed to dry out under the
more common methods.
Second, by the disking you prevent the loss of moist-
ure, this peculiarly desirable condition causing this moist-
ure to gather in the hard soil just beneath the mulch,
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 53
putting your field in ideal condition to plow, and by using
reasonable caution to harrow or again disk in case of
excessive heavy rains you can plow at any time.
CONSIDER SOIL CONDITIONS.
The proper depth of plowing, as we have previously
attempted to show, must be governed very largely by the
condition of the soil, the time of year that the plowing is
done, the time it is to be seeded or planted, and the kind
of tools you have for the after work.
Take the average prairie soil, especially if level with
a sand loam formation : I advise plowing fully seven inches
deep if to be seeded or planted soon after. But to do this
and anticipate a fair crop, the soil must be moist and not
wet. The surface must be thoroughly disked before
plowing, and the sub-surface packer must follow close
to the plow. The plowing done before noon should be
packed before going to dinner, and that done in the after-
noon packed before leaving the field at night, and then
follow with the harrow to get the surface in good condi-
tion before the clods get too dry.
In case of early fall plowing, for spring crops and
moist soil, if you have sufficient team, it will be found
profitable to plow eight inches deep, following with a
packer and harrow as above mentioned. If you have no
sub-surface packer, beg, buy or borrow one. If you have
no packer, I would not advise plowing over fiver inches
deep, and use the common harrow with teeth slightly
slanting and weighted, the object being to pulverize and
firm the under portion of the furrow. But don't figure
on getting the same results from the five inch plowing
thus fitted. These observations are very important.
EVEN FURROW SLICES.
Much care and attention should be given to the furrow
54 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
slices that they may be even in width and depth, so that
when you go over the ground with your packer or harrow
there may be no soil spaces left loose and porous. The
average farmer must realize the great importance of
thoroughly fining and firming the entire plowed portion.
In the ordinary conditions as found at the bottom of fur-
rows in plowing left without any further work until it
has all dried out, shown in cut No. 1, fully one-third of
the soil contributes no nourishment whatever to the growth
or production of the crop. By adding a little extra pains
and labor that one-third of non-productive soil may be
put in condition to do its full share in making a larger
and better crop, while the remaining two-thirds will
bring far better results. By closely following this rule
you will greatly increase the certainty as well as the quan-
tity and quality of your crops of small grain.
BREAKING NEW PRAIRIE LANDS.
There are two questions to consider in breaking
new prairie, both of which are quite vital.
First, what can or should be done to promote the
quickest and most thorough decomposition not only
of the sod that is turned over, but of that portion of the
soil just beneath the sod that we expect to turn on top
in our next plowing.
Second, how to get all the rainwater possible to pass
below the sod, and there conserve it.
When we went to Dakota in 1879, the idea was very
prevalent that the sod as it was turned over should be
allowed to kink up and lie loosely on the surface. This
we soon found was a very erroneous idea for the semi-
arid sections, a plan that might have originated in early
Illinois home making.
With fourteen years' farming in Dakota, we became
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 55
very much prejudiced in favor of breaking only when
the grass was growing the fastest. Other facts and con-
ditions have developed to that degree that we have prac-
tically lost sight of this idea except in the more humid
sections.
The marvelous and rapid change of the big pastures
in the great semi-arid sections of this country into farm-
ing sections through Scientific Soil Culture during 1905
and 1906 .has brought forth thousands of inquiries as to
how these prairies may be opened up and a crop grown
the first year.
Having opened up two farms of this nature in the
Panhandle of Texas, and observing many other fields
during the above two years, coupled with our early expe-
rience with sod breaking in the Dakotas in 1879 to 1889,
we find the best plan, if possible to do so, is to break the
fall before,
FALL BREAKING.
We are assuming that we have what is commonly known
as buffalo sod. For best results we would break as early
in the fall as it may be consistent, and as to depth of
breaking would be governed by the tools we had to operate
with and kind of crop we desired to plant.
If for spring wheat or oats break about three and
a half inches deep, using the walking rod breaker, and using
the greatest possible care to turn it flat. Follow with a
smooth roller if one can be had. In lieu of this, use the
sub-surface packer, going twice over the field, then harrow
to fill the crevices, and leave until spring.
As early as conditions will permit, double-disk, set-
ting the disk levers as far over as possible, and not turn
56 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
up the sod from the bottom. Then harrow thoroughly
with common smoothing harrow, teeth slanted back
and weighted.
FOR POTATOES, VEGETABLES, ETC.
Follow same plan as above outlined, except break
about three inches. ' after treating as above outlined,
plow again with stirring or stubble plow about two inches
deeper, following the plow with the sub-surface packer,
then harrow.
In case fall breaking is impossible and spring breaking
is imperative, follow practically the same plan of fitting
for the different crops, but of necessity the breaking must
be early. Bear in mind the soil must be fine, and at the
bottom as firm as it may be possible to get it.
The disk plow may be used. It is only a question of
getting the soil as fine and firm as possible for reasons
frequently reiterated all through this volume. Very good
Milo maize and Kaffir corn can be grown in the same
manner for feed for teams.
When necessary to spring-break sod, we would not
advise sowing oats in a section where the rainfall is less
than 20 inches annually. It is by no means a sure crop
on sod, no matter how it is fitted. It is not wise to risk
any more on sod than necessities demand.
BREAKING SOD FOR FALL WHEAT.
There is very little prairie sod now unbroken except
in the more arid sections, and we believe in turning it as
quickly as conditions will permit, and so far as it may
be possible, break tbe fall before you wish to crop,
as it will pay. If at any time you have some leisure,
curn over some sod as flat as you can. Roll it to make it
lie firmly against the subsoil. The packer does very
well if you have no roller. Keep the surface worked
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 57
after heavy rains. If you can't loosen it with any other
tool, disk it. Watch, and so far as possible, harrow when
the surface is just moist. This will prevent the loss of
any moisture, holding it as far as it may be possible beneath
the blanket, and in case of heavy rain harrow again. With
this blanket properly provided during June and July the
sod itself will not only be found to be well rotted but the
top of the subsoil to a depth of one to three inches also.
In August, or as soon as the soil beneath the blanket is
rotted, it should be plowed again, this time with the
stirring or stubble plow, cutting about two and a half
inches deeper and following with the sub-surface packer,
the same as outlined for ordinary stubble plowing. The
harrowing should be very thorough.
If care has been taken to conserve the rain waters
and the work well done, this ground may be planted to
fall wheat or to spring crops the following spring, after
which it should be treated the same as old ground, except
to run the plow two inches deeper the next time.
There is no economy, but on the other hand, great
waste, in trying to economize or minimize the amount
of labor required to thoroughly prepare the soil for the
sowing or planting of grain, for the work of thorough
preparation is easily and quickly done, and when once
done a successful harvest is assured.
58 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTUEE MANUAL
CHAPTER IX.
' SUB-SURFACE PACKING.
By sub-surface packing we mean the packing and
firming of the soil at the bottom of the ordinary furrow
by a mechanical process and the elimination of the open
spaces between large lumps of the earth.
To those who have been drilled in the theory of sub-
soil plowing, and who have been taught that the chief
thing is to open up the under soil as much as possible,
or those who are not familiar with the great difference
there is in soils in different sections of the country, the
suggestion of the necessity for firming the sub-surface
will come as a shock.
This sub-surface packing of the soil is something that
even the professional students of the subject have found
hard to understand. It is something against which
some of them have protested, because they have failed
to understand all that is involved. But it is a principle
which is making its own way. As we will show elsewhere
the interest in the subject is increasing at a great rate.
Appliances for accomplishing this result are becoming
more and more in demand. Practical farmers are learn-
ing that it is the thing.
Sub-surface packing is a purely mechanical process.
Special tools are on the market for doing this work, but
no matter what tool or implement may be used, the prin-
ciple is just the same, and results will follow in proportion
to the success which has been attained in doing this nee-
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 59
essary packing and at the right time. Elsewhere is de-
scribed more in detail the sub-surface packer especially
devised for doing this work, a machine which is winning
its way because of demonstration that it has a mission
to fulfill and is doing it.
Sub-surface packing of the soil is a process of follow-
ing the plow immediately or otherwise with implements
which crush down the loose soil of the under portion of
the furrow slice, breaking up the large lumps, compact-
ing the whole so that the particles of soil lie closer together
and form a perfect connection between the unbroken
earth beneath the surface and the loosened soil of the
furrow. It is not compacting the surface layer as by
a roller, for that merely invites waste of the land as dust.
It has reference solely to that portion of the soil which
lies near the bottom of the cultivated upper soil.
Nature has placed at the disposal of man all the nec-
essary conditions and elements in the sand loam soils
on the level prairies of the great semi-arid belt, together
with the properties of air and water, aided by heat and
light, to produce large crops every year, but has wisely
left it to man to work out the manner and method of
combining these elements; and it is now apparent that
the combining or utilizing of these elements must be upon
strictly scientific principles, or in plain English, there
must be correct principles under these ideal conditions
and every part of the work must be done precisely at
the proper time and in a correct manner.
MISSION OF THE PACKER.
The Sub-Surface Packer has a vital mission to per-
form. Its main object is not that of aiding in storing
the moisture in the soil, but that of controlling or equal-
izing the holding capacity of the soil for both air and water.
60
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
It is not the purpose of this tool to simply hold up the
present normal yield, but to greatly increase the present
average yield by from 50 to 250 per cent.
Experiments repeated over and over again in a variety
of soils in the semi-arid belt, have proven conclusively
Cut No. 3. Showing Soil as the Packer Leaves It.
that in promoting or developing plant elements or fertility
under such conditions that it may be available in large
quantities, there must be in the soil just the proper quan-
tity of both air and water. If there be too much water
and too little air, or too little water and too much air,
you cannot secure the best possible results.
CAMBPELI/S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 61
In the latter lies the greatest danger, as a rule. If
the soil is too coarse and loose, then the air exists in too
large quantities, and the development of nitrates and bac-
teria is proportionately slow.
The condition has proven to be most ideal when the
soil is thoroughly pulverized and closely compacted from
the bottom of the furrow up to within two to three inches
of the surface, while this surface layer of two or three
inches, should be loose and composed of fine and medium
lumps to allow of a free permeation of the air, and to
prevent the moisture being depleted below the proper
or normal quantity by surface evaporation.
Another important advantage is gained by the pack-
ing of this lower portion of the furrow slice, and that is,
the increasing of the water holding capacity of the soil,
enabling us to carry our plants over long dry periods
without the least injury. There have been instances
where this one advantage alone has made a difference
of fifteen to twenty bushels per acre in the yield.
MOVEMENT OF WATER IN SOIL.
The movement of the water in the soil under varying
conditions of the soil and the surface should be well un-
derstood. A discussion of the subject may not seem of
interest to the average farmer, yet the well established
facts in regard to this subject have great weight when
carefully considered in connection with the preparation
of the soil for crops. It is a subject altogether too broad
and represents too much in dollars and cents to be held
back from general use by mere prejudice or the skepti-
cism that usually rises in the face of all new devices or
methods.
Professor F. H. King, of the University of Wisconsin,
undoubtedly one of the most learned men in soil physics
62
we have in the West, if not in the country, in 1895 pub-
lished a book entitled "The Soil," which book should be
in the hands of every farmer. In treating the question
of the effect of rolling on soil moisture, he says:
"When, however, the changes in the water contents
of the surface four feet of soil which follow the use of a
heavy roller are studied, it is found that we have here a
case of the translocation of soil moisture, a case where
by destroying the many large non-capillary pores in the
surface soil, and bringing its grains more closely together,
its water-lifting power is increased and to such an extent
that often within twenty-four hours after rolling the
upper one or two feet beneath the firm ground have come
to contain more moisture than similar and immediately
adjacent land does at the same level, while the lower two
feet have become dryer. Water has been lifted from the
lower into the upper soil.
"In the table below will be seen the difference in the
water contents of the soils which have been rolled and
the immediately adjacent ones not so treated. These
results are averages derived from one hundred and forty-
seven sets of samples, therefore not a conclusion of theroy,
but one of fact, from continued repeated practical results:
Per cent of water
"Surface 36 to 54 inches, unrolled, contained 19.73
Surface 36 to 54 inches, rolled, contained 18.72
Loss by rolling 1.01
Surface 24 to 36 inches, unrolled, contained 19.85
Surface 24 to 36 inches, rolled, contained 19.29
Loss by rolling 56
Surface 2 to 18 inches, rolled, contained 16.85
Surface 2 to 18 inches, unrolled, contained 15.64
Gain by rolling 1 .21"
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
63
ROLLING VS. SUB-SURFACE PACKING
It is here seen that when samples of soil are taken at
a depth exceeding two feet, the rolled ground as a whole
is dryer than that not rolled, and that this difference is
greater when the samples are taken at a depth of from
three to four or more feet. The data presented also
shows that the two to eighteen surface inches of loose
ground recently firmed contains more water than that
which has not been so treated. It is a matter we have
Cut No. 4. Showing Soil after Packing and Harrowing.
carefully studied, and in all our experimental work we
have observed that the statements of Professor King
have been verified fully; thus affording conclusive proof
of the truth of all that we have said with reference to the
sub-surface packing of the soil. When the extreme sur-
face is packed the effect is to draw the moisture to the
surface where it is lost by evaporation. By the sub-
64 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
packing, as shown in cut No. 4, we have that firm strat-
um at the point where the roots mainly grow, and with
our loose mulch on the surface we prevent the loss of
our moisture by evaporation.
Cut No. 5. Sub-surface Packer.
Results obtained by Professor King in these one hun-
dred and forty-seven tests certainly prove very effectually
the correctness of the conclusion of sub-packing. We
secure a much deeper or thicker stratum of packed soil
than can possibly be secured from a surface roller. This
would of itself create a greater force of capillary lifting
power. Then again, and don't lose sight of this fact,
as the sub-packed soil lifts the moisture it is not lost by
evaporation as is the moisture from the surface packed,
but is held there beneath the loose surface or soil mulch.
This fact causes an accumulation of moisture in the packed
portion which further aids in the upward movement of
the moisture from below. This translocation of water
brought about by the sub-packing is of the highest im-
portance when we reach the long dry periods so common
in midsummer, a condition we rarely fail to get some-
time each and every year. We have proven by practical
tests, over and over again, that by this increased move-
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
65
ment of the moisture the plant is amply supplied, under
which conditions the damage so common is not only
prevented, but the plant has been able to make a rapid,
healthy growth right through, while plants in ordinary
manner have suffered and possibly been ruined because
of shortage of moisture.
When we reach a point in the extreme heated portion
of the last afternoon prior to a heavy rain, where our
supply of moisture is beginning to shorten, the fact that
we have by this sub-surface packing been able to lift the
water stored below a little faster may be the means of
doubling or trebling the yield.
Another point that has been but slightly touched upon
is, that by this fine, firm substratum we are able to carry
what might be quite properly termed a balanced quantity
or ration of both air and water, thus bringing about that
most ideal condition for the development of fertility.
DEVELOPMENT OF ROOTS.
Cut No. 6. Development of Roots in Firm Soil.
In cut No. 6, we represent the cross section of a lat-
66 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
eral or branch root very largely magnified. The little
branches running out from the center represent the little
hair roots or feeders which are often so small that they
are scarcely perceptible to the naked eye. These little
feeders are neither more nor less than little tubes, or.
elongated cells. You will notice in the outer tier of cells
each little feeder practically forms a part of the cell. The
soil where this root is located is represented to be that
ideal condition of fineness and firmness previously referred
to, a condition that means so much to any plant, not
only to sustain it in a healthy, growing condition, during
critical drouthy conditions, but to promote a strong,
healthy, rapid growth during the ideal climatic condi-
tions.
In cut No. 7, we represent a coarser or less compacted
soil. Here the lateral root is only able to send out two
little feeders, This condition is very serious. We have
examined roots many times and found them three, four,
and five inches in length, with scarcely a hair root or
feeder the entire distance. Then coming, possibly, to
the packed soil beneath a horse-foot track, we would find
a complete net-work of little feeders running in every
direction. The one great reason for this greatly increased
number of feeders in the packed soil is the fact of its
ideal physical condition with its perfectly balanced ration
of plant foods, just what the little rootlets go out after
when they start from the newly germinated seed. Just
keep your mind on this one fact, not only in the study of
this Manual, but in your field work and observation.
MAKING THE SEED BED.
It is hardly possible to put too much stress upon the
point of thoroughly pulverizing and packing the seed
bed. Probably the strongest or most complete practical
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
67
illustration was brought out at the Pomeroy model farm,
at Hill City, Kansas, in the growth and development of
the wheat sown in the fall of 1901. This ground had been
prepared with the greatest possible care, having been
plowed seven inches deep, with the soil in a moist condi-
tion, kept so by the disking and harrowing of the surface.
When plowed, the plow was followed closely with the sub-
surface packer, and the harrow following closely the sub-
surface packer. By endeavoring to do all the work when
the soil was in proper condition, we had secured a very
favorable physical condition. At the time of seeding,
October 8th, 9th, and 10th, there was a fine loose mulch
No. 7. Root Development in Loose Soil.
on the surface, two and one-half inches deep. The soil
immediately beneath was very fine, firm and moist. The
wheat was put in with a shoe drill, less than one-half
bushel of seed to the acre, from one-half to one inch into
this fine, moist soil, just beneath the mulch. Germi-
68
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
nation and development were rapid. The fourth day, as
regular as the days came after seeding, the little green
spears could be seen the entire length of the row. On
the seventh day these leaves measured from three to four
inches high. Thus, in seven days, the hard, dry seeds
had become moistened, burst their shells, sent out later-
ally the little rootlets, and the little stalks had grown to
a height of five or six inches from the seed. This is not
all. On the sixteenth day of November, this wheat was
taller and thicker than a field sown on the sixteenth day
of September, with one and one-quarter bushels of seed on
soil fitted without sub-packing.
In cut No. 8, we have two conditions of soil. On
Cut No. 8. Germination of Wheat Influenced by
Firmness of Soil.
the right we have the more common plan. Here we find
the grain of wheat in somewhat coarse and loose soil,
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 69
where the subsurface packer has not been used. It is in
this kind of a seed bed that the wheat frequently remains
all the fall without germinating; again it may sprout
because of a shower only to wither and die from later dry
windy weather, or perchance may absorb just enough
to burst the shell and send the germ out slightly and a
few feeble rootlets, then be completely ruined by the
winter freezing because of a lack of moisture in the soil
about the roots to draw the frost in thawing out. All
this is because of an unbalanced ration, too much air and
too little water.
IDEAL CONDITION OF SOIL.
On the left we have the ideal condition, a condition
that can easily be attained at a nominal expense. By
the use of the sub-surface packer when the soil is in proper
condition as previously explained, we get that fine, even
firm condition as shown, to a depth of seven inches; then
with a good harrow we secure the fine, loose mulch
about two inches deep; with the closed heel shoe drill we
provided that V-shaped opening about one inch in the
firm soil into which the grain drops. As it reaches the
bottom it is surrounded, except over the top, with fine,
firm moist soil. The fine dirt that very naturally fills
this opening as the shoe moves along, puts our wheat
where all conditions are as nearly perfect to utilize the
greatest quantity of the greatest number of nature's pro-
visions or resources for the rapid, healthy prolific growth
of the plant.
The numerous small moist particles of soil that come
in contact with the wheat .conveys the moisture quickly
and in ample quantities. This, coupled with the air from
above brings about the very remarkable germination and
development shown at the extreme left of cut No. 8 in the
short space of five days.
70 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE 'MANUAL
Study well this illustration and note the varied condi-
tions. The single grain at the right in the left hand sec-
tion is simply to show the surrounding condition as it is
deposited, compared with those in the loose soil to the
right. Do not simply look at the illustration, but study
the relative condition and reasonable results that may
be anticipated from each, and to aid you in this conclu-
sion, consider well what has already been said with ref-
erence to the ideal physical or mechanical condition of
the soil.
QUICK GERMINATION
This quick germination is always apparent in all our
fields, and is invariably followed by early and prolific
stooling, as shown in the chapter on wheat growing.
On the Kilpatrick Brothers' ranch in Chase county,
Nebraska, where we had directed the preparing of some
ground for fall wheat in 1903, the wheat was sown Sep-
tember 14th, two weeks after the last rain, the field being
on a slope towards Champion, a town two and a half miles
away. On the morning of the nineteenth, really but four
days from seeding, the shape of the field was discernible
from Champion by its green color. This statement may
be emphasized from the fact that hundreds of acres of
wheat were sown that fall, and not another one showed
green that season. Because of over seven months without
rain, beginning September 1st, the Kilpatrick wheat was
all that was harvested in that county, making over thirty
bushels to the acre, the rest being a total failure.
As a further evidence, let us refer to some of the more
common conditions that have occurred and many times
puzzled the farmer in years gone by.
In the spring of 1899 a large amount of winter wheat in
the semi-arid belt was found to have been killed. We drove
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 71
over many fields that spring to investigate and study the
cause as far as possible. One fact was invariably percep-
tible where the soil was light and loose to a considerable
depth, the wheat was entirely dead. In the more com-
pact portions or spots in the fields, the condition of the
wheat was found better. For instance, along the sides
of the dead furrows almost all of the wheat was found to
in a perfectly healthy condition, while on the back furrows
it was usually all dead. Again, at the corners of the
fields where lands were plowed around, and the horses
in turning had tramped and packed the plowed ground,
the wheat was found to be in good condition. The horse
foot and wheel tracks invariably had a favorable
effect. This is a condition and result that is corroborated
by all investigators, that if there is plenty of moisture in
the ground there is little or no danger of freezing or winter
killing, while if the soil is loose and becomes too dry serious
results follow. The same was fully shown in the quota-
tion from the Illinois Agricultural college bulletin, por-
tions of which we quote under the heading of " Raising
Trees." These conditions bear out all observations, both
with reference to the fact that packing the soil will increase
the water contents of those portions, and the further fact
as stated by the Illinois bulletin, that if there be plenty of
moisture about the roots there is practically no injury
from freezing.
VALUE OF HEALTHY ROOT SYSTEM.
One point which we have tried to impress upon our
readers at different times, is the fact that plants cannot
thrive and produce abundant yields without a perfectly
healthy root system and a perfect root system is a phy-
sical impossibility in coarse, loose soils. Professor King
has shown by practical experiments, and all observation
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
confirms his conclusions, that in soil that is packed the
moisture moves upward from a depth of from one to four
feet much more rapidly than in loose soil. It is therefore
important to have this packing when a condition of
extreme drouth is reached, as it may be the one thing
that will save a crop.
Another very marked advantage of this sub-packing
was found in our work at the Burlington model 'farm
at Holdrege, Nebraska. In 1005 a piece of ground was
plowed for corn; a strip was left unpacked but all was
well harrowed and the corn planted the same day. Where
the packing was done, the stand of corn was perfect, while
the strip not packed had hardly a two-thirds stand, and
the entire season's growth showed the advantage of pack
ing. While the use of the sub-surface packer has been
found valuable in Wisconsin and Illinois, the further west
we get into the semi-arid country, the greater is its import-
ance, while in the more arid portions of the semi-arid belt
its use is practically indispensible.
It must be borne in mind that Professor King experi-
mented in packing at the extreme surface, where near-
ly all the moisture that had moved to this point was
lost by evaporation, and that had the packing been done
just below the surface the contrast would have been much
greater. Professor King's experiments were on the grounds
of the Wisconsin college, where soil moisture is invariably
found all through the soil down to sheet water. Had
they been made in our semi-arid region, the contrast would
have been greater. If we get our soil moistened here to
a depth of four or five feet we have exceeded by some
distance the usual conditions, and this depth of soil moist-
ure would be sufficient to carry us any ordinary season
in the successful growth of crops. Had Professor King's
CAMPBELL'S SOIL rui/rumo MANUAL 76
experiments been made with a three inch layer of loose
soil mulch above the packed portion, they would have
shown a much greater increase of moisture at -the point
of two to eighteen inches.
EFFECT OF THE SUB-PACKING.
All these facts in connection with the movement of
moisture in the soil, under different conditions of the soil,
as indicated in the experiments noted and the teachings
of the most eminent students of soil physics, give us the
valuable lesson that the packing of the sub-soil, or what
may be properly termed the root-bed, aids us in these
important points; increasing the water holding capacity
of the soil facilitates the movement of the water from
below up to this point when it is needed.
The last but by no means least of the advantages de-
rived from this sub-packing outside of what has been
already mentioned, is that by the increased upward move-
ment of moisture previously explained, we are able to keep
up the supply of moisture about the roots to that degree
that nitrification and the development of fertility continues
though the weather be hot and parching, and the plant
is growing rapidly, and yet through this ideal condition
we are able to keep up the supply of plant elements in a
soluble condition, thus giving to the plant that dark green,
healthy, prolific growth without a set-back, which is, by
the way, the secret of large yields.
Now let us take a last look at the field of grain trying
to exist on a piece of land the root-bed of which is coarse
and loose. The excessive heat has caused such a rapid
evaporation from the leaf and the upward movement of
moisture by capilliary attraction has been so slow that
the moisture aboua the roots has become so depleted that
nitrification ceases; all fertility has become unavailable,
74
the plant has taken on a pale, unhealthy look, and upon
the time in season, and the duration of the period of
drouth, depends the extent of injury to the crop.
This is so important that it may be stated again plainly,
so that no reader may misunderstand. The process of
packing the under portion of furrow or plowed ground
creates five conditions to aid in carrying the growing crop
over long dry periods, namely:
1. More water in the soil.
2. A stronger capillary movement of water.
3. More prolific growth of roots.
4. A more rapid development of nitrates and bac-
teria.
5. A larger per cent of available fertility or plant
elements during drouthy periods or conditions.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 75
CHAPTER X.
SUMMER CULTURE.
Under this caption we must of necessity, reiterate
much that has been said in previous chapters, as it com-
bines more ideas of soil tillage into new forms, combina-
tions and uses than any other chapter. In fact, it was
during our early experiments along this line that we dis-
covered the marvelous possibilities of the soils under semi-
arid conditions.
It was also while working out the most desirable meth-
ods in detail in Summer Culture that we first became fully
convinced that the average yield of all cultivated fields
in the more arid sections could be made to produce not
only two and three times as much fodder and grain as haa
been heretofore produced in good years, but that good
yields could be made certain in dry seasons, and it is since
we have been proving the correctness of some of our con-
clusions along these lines, that Scientific Soil Culture has
become recognized as the great factor in all agricultural
development.
While many of the ideas and combination of ideas of
Summer Culture are new, and their application and effect
in the more humid sections are not yet fully proven; yet
it is very apparent that the principles will prove of great
value under all conditions and in all farming sections,
but not to the same degree under humid conditions as
under more arid conditions.
76
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
In discussing the details in general through this chapter
we refer almost entirely to the soils and conditions ofthe
more arid section.
In the development or promotion of many new de-
vices that came into use simply as a matter of convenience
A B
Cut No. 9. Summer Culture vs. Summer Fallow, (a) Summer
Culture as Applied by the Campbell Method, (b) Summer
Fallow as Commonly Applied.
or pleasure or added comfort, great interest and enthu-
siasm is not uncommon. Again we see books of fiction
put upon the market that soon find their way into nearly
all homes, simply for amusement or entertainment.
Here comes a new science that means dollars to mil-
lions of people, not in a commercial way by which one
makes a profit from another, but by 'bringing more wealth
out of mother earth and filling increased granaries with
but little extra expense beyond learning how and once
learning, you are always in position to command bigger
incomes and get them.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 77
Summer Culture has been confounded with Summer
Fallow, the methods are so different that any conclusion
that may have been derived from Summer Fallow exper-
iments by our agricultural experts would not apply to
Summer Culture; therefore, many of the objections held
up or against Summer Fallow do not apply at all to Sum-
mer Culture, The most prominent is the rotation results.
EXPERIMENTS IN ROTATION.
For illustration, take the eight year rotation at the
South Dakota Experiment Station under the direction
of E. C. Chilcott up to 1906.
We would first call attention to some of the state-
ments made in the bulletin with reference to the handling
of the ground. Referring to summer fallow, they say all
summer fallowed plats are plowed in July before any
weeds have ripened their seeds, and are plowed again
with the other plats in the fall. They are given no other
cultivation during the season.
Referring to the corn plats they say corn is drilled in
rows one way. It is given good clean cultivation with
the drag, weeder and cultivator, each in its proper season.
Referring to the preparation of the ground for the various
plats, wheat, oats, and barley, they say. "The plats are
plowed in the fall, usually in September, crosswise of the
series. This necessarily involves plowing the corn ground
and potato ground. We have found by other experi-
ments that where the crop has been properly cultivated
and kept clean there is on the average very little difference
to be seen in the following crop whether the corn ground
is plowed or whether it is drilled in without plowing. The
ground is plowed at depths varying in different years
from five to seven inches. As early as possible the in
spring the ground is harrowed twice with an ordinary
steel harrow."
78 CAMBPELL/S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
From this kind of fitting as stated for each particular
field the following results were obtained. From a seven
years' rotation, wheat after corn, the average yield of
wheat was 15.9 bushels. In the rotation of wheat with
summer fallow, same number of years, the average yield
of the wheat was 15.8. In these rotations two sets of
plats were used so that there was a crop of wheat to har-
vest each year, making a fair and apparently honest com-
parison not only with the results between rotating with
summer fallow or with corn, but of these yields against
wheat continuously.
Seven consecutive crops of wheat on same field showed
an average of 13.7 bushels. We wish to call attention
to the fact that the rotation with corn or summer fallow
only gave a gain of slightly more than two bushels per
acre,
REAL SUMMER CULTURE.
We would also call attention to the manner of summer
fallow, and as a comparison, note carefully our instruc-
tions under the heading of summer culture.
Compare the above results as taken from Bulletin No.
98, South Dakota Agricultural College, with the Pomeroy
Model Farm at Hill City, Kansas, where the results after
our plan of summer culture in four consecutive years,
1901 to 1904 inclusive, the average was over forty bushels
per acre, while wheat in the same locality, grown under
the ordinary methods of tillage averaged less than ten
bushels. It will be noticed that the above four years
included the very unfavorable seasons of 1901 and 1904,
in which a large per cent of the wheat in that locality was
a total failure. At Holdrege, Nebraska, which is 200
miles west of Omaha, the lowest yield of wheat rotated
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 79
with summer culture for three years has been 51 \ bushels,
and in each case the wheat tested 62J to 64 pounds per
bushel.
At Trenton, Hitchcock county, Nebraska, in 1904,
where 90 per cent of over 20,000 acres of wheat sown
was a total failure, a field having been summer tilled ac-
cording to our plan, yielded 41 bushels of 60 pound wheat.
We refer to these very marked contrasts between the re-
sults of wheat rotated with summer fallow and wheat
rotated with summer culture to show clearly and dis-
tinctly that there is not only a difference in methods, but
a very marked difference in results.
RESULTS OF TILLING.
At the North Platte branch station of the Nebraska
State Agricultural College a piece of ground was summer
tilled in 1904, sowed to wheat that fall with seed ranging
from one-half bushel to one bushel per acre. The result
of this excessive seeding was an enormous growth of
wheat during 1905. The vast amount of fertility that
was made available by the careful tillage of this field in
1904 resulted in an unusual amount of stooling, making
the wheat altogether too thick, consequently straw was too
weak, and before harvest time it all went down flat, and
could not be cut with a binder, neither could it be cut
with a mower. This crop was left on the ground, until the
spring of 1906, when it was burned off and sowed to barley
and yielded 62 bushels per acre. This in face of the fact
that some plats fitted under the ordinary methods in the
immediate vicinity and sowed to barley yielded practically
nothing.
We could quote many similar results, but what seems
a little strange is that we should have been farming in
this country for more than a hundred years and yet no
80 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
one got onto the fact that by a little different method of
handling the soil three and four ttimes as much grain
might be produced.
We do not refer to South Dakota for any special rea-
son, other than it is a fair illustration of work done by all
the stations and shows very conclusively how easy it is
to become wedded to theory and beleive it to be right,
though it may be wrong in practice.
DIFFICULTY OF EXPERIMENTS.
Again we must repeat the fact that soil culture is one
of the most, if not the most, complex science we have,
for the reason that we cannot see what is going on in the
soil below the surface. A certain thing done under cer-
tain soil conditions will produce certain results, while the
same mechanical work under slightly changed conditions
will not bring the same results at all.
Another serious drawback to rapid development along
correct lines is the fact that twelve long months are required
between each experiment. Then the experimenter may
follow out the same line for three, five or ten years, and
just as he begins to think he has established a point he
finds that what he supposed to be the influencing element
has practically nothing to do with the result.
We frequently find experimenters that have spent al-
most a lifetime on certain lines of experiments with con-
fidence in the correctness of their position; then through
some chain of circumstances find they are wrong and
change their tactics entirely. To us it seems almost
ridiculous for the average farmer to attempt to conduct
any experiment in soil tillage with a hope of new and
valuable light. Let him rather spend his efforts in proving
what those with facilities have worked out.
Theory is one thing, a practical demonstrated fact is
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 81
quite another. What the farmer wants to know is how
he can get the largest profit from his farm in a series of
years. If he be a stock grower it matters little how sci-
entific he may be in the handling and feeding of his stock
if his crop is short his profits are proportionately short.
AVERAGE- GRAIN YIELD.
If he depends upon the sale of fodders and grains for
profits, then his profits are very materially increased by
even a slight increase in yield. For illustration, the aver-
age yield per acre of wheat for the following states for
twelve years, 1893 to to 1904 inclusive, was: Illinois, 13.3
bushels; Minnesota, 14 bushels; North Dakota, 12.6
bushels; South Dakota, 10.2 bushels; Nebraska, 13.5
bushels; and Kansas, 12.3 bushels.
Now suppose a farmer raises about the average or 13
bushels, from this must /come all the expense of raising,
threshing, interest on land, investment or rental, wear
and tear, or use of teams and tools, and when you figure
up as above and balance your account there is practically
nothing left for the farmer.
Thirteen bushels of wheat per acre is about one-fourth
of the producing powers of any of the good lands in all
of the above states, or any other similar lands, and less
than one-third of the smallest yield we have gotten fol-
lowing summer tilling, where the work was properly done
in any one year during the past seven years. Supposing
that the farmer doubles the 13 bushels, the last 13 bushels
is nearly all profit, except the cost of threshing and mar-
keting. All that is necessary to get this increased yield
is to get the soil into a more scientific or correct physical
condition, and when this same amount of labor that was
required to fit the soil for the 13 bushel crop is applied.
82 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
not foolishly and recklessly, but at the right time and in
the right manner, there is needed but little more extra
work.
Let us go a little further, and with just a little more
extra labor, and only a little, put in scientifically, and we
will get three times the 13 bushel yield or 39 bushels,
and yet a little more labor and four times the amount r
or 52 bushels can be grown. This has been done yes.
and as high as 63 and over in several instances, and the
60 bushel point can be easily reached in many places,
if the principles we shall outline are carefully followed.
Think of it a moment four and a-half times as much as
the average of all these states for twelve years.
HOW SUMMER TILLING SHOULD BE DONE.
Begin the work as early in the spring as the frost is
sufficiently out of the ground, and the surface dry enough
to permit the use of the disk harrow without the soil ad-
hering to the disk, going over the ground twice by lapping
the disk one half. This produces a mulch which prevents
evaporation; also loosens and opens the surface, so that
the later rains readily and quickly percolate into the soil,
harrowing the ground after each subsequent rain. If the
rain is too heavy so as to dissolve and pack the surface,
a second disking may be necessary, especially so if the
season is advanced far enough for weeds to start freely.
Don't at all hazards permit the weeds to grow or the sur-
ace to become crusted. A little carelessness here may
and often does make ten or twenty bushels less yield in
wheat, and proportionally similar losses to other crops.
Bear in mind there are three objects in conducting
this work with great care. First, is to retain all the moist-
ure possible that may be then in the soil, for the evapora-
tion in early spring is very great from both the strong rays
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 83
of the sun, and in most localities the high spring winds
take up much moisture. Second, is to loosen the surface
that it may more readily and more surely take in all the
water from the spring rains. Third, but by no means
least, to admit the warm spring air that nature's labora-
tory may be put early to work preparing the way for large
quantities of available fertility or plant elements. Plow
late in June or early July, seven to eight inches deep. Do
not leave the field at noon until that which has been
plowed during the forenoon has been gone over with the
sub-surface packer. Then at night the same, and if you
use the packer follow it with some kind of a harrow or
cultivator that will leave the surface witti a light loose
mulch, breaking the larger clods and leveling, so far as it
may be possible, the top of the firm soil beneath.
The common lever harrow produces very fair condi-
tions. There are, however, three or four much improved
devices for this work being perfected, which will doubtless
be found on the market very soon.
KEEP AHEAD OF THE WEEDS.
In June and July weeds are quite persistent and great
care should be taken not to let them get the start. In
fact there is but little danger of weeds if you take care
to lose no water by evaporation. All weeds are easily
killed when small, but after the tap root has gone down
and become firmly imbedded, it is not easy to destroy
them. Watch the condition of your field, going over it
as soon after a heavy rain as the soil will permit, using
the tool . which you use to keep your mulch open
and loose; care should be taken to keep the mulch from
two and a-half to three inches deep. Remember, it is
not desirable to have this mulch too fine, and never a dust
blanket. It will be found very much easier to secure a
mulch of desirable coarseness, if the cultivating is done
after rains when the surface soil has reached the moist
condition, not wet, and yet before it gets dry. Continue
this persistent care through the season; in case of extreme
heat more frequent cultivation is necessary. Our rule is
to watch carefully the firm soil just beneath the mulch
and gauge our time of cultivation during continued dry
periods by the quantity of apparent moisture, observed
at the top of the firm soil beneath the mulch, or if we
move the loose soil away and find there is ajnple moisture,
the protection is all right. If the top is beginning to show
dry, then it is time to cultivate again.
EARLY SPRING WORK.
If desirable to put in spring crops, it is a good idea to
thoroughly disk the ground as it goes into the winter.
This will bring some of the moist firm soil to the top and
better protect from winds, also leaving the surface mc.'e
uneven, to catch the snow, if in a country where snow-
storms are looked for.
In the early spring, as soon as spring conditions will
permit, the ground should be gone over for the purpose
of reestablishing the soil mulch. Should the snows and
rains have been ample to have considerably packed the
surface, the disk harrow may of necessity have to be used,
although much depends on the kind of a harrow or culti-
vator you may have. These are points of which the
precise how cannot be specified; get the idea, then use
good judgment as to the how and when, and the kind of
tool.
In case of fall seeding to winter wheat, rye or oats,
care should be taken, especially in the more arid sections
where fall rains of any magnitude are less probable, to
have at least two inches and a-half of fine loose soil on the
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 85
Surface, and if the seed bed is made fine and firm, as above
outlined, not more than one-third of the usual amount
of seed is necessary. Under these conditions place the
seed from a half to one inch into thefine firm soil, not over
that, and by all means if you are getting a new drill, pur-
chase the closed heel shoe drill or some drill that will leave
the seed in firm soil.
SECURING IDEAL CONDITIONS.
Cut No. 16 represents the most ideal soil conditions and
shows the effect of depositing the seed in its proper place,
with the closed heel shoe drill, the principal advantages
of which are set forth in the chapter on wheat growing.
While our methods of summer culture involve some
little extra work over the old or more common methods
of summer fallow or general preparation for crops; yet
you must consider fully and carefully two points. First,
that the object of summer culture is not only to store
ample moisture below so that we may be able to . carry
our next crop through to maturity, no matter how dry the
season may be without ill effect from the droughty condi-
tion, but further to provide and steadily maintain such
an ideal physical condition of the soil during the entire
spring and summer, as shall permit of a most liberal
development of bacteria and nitrate or available fertility, in
order that we may grow and mature a very large crop of
whatever we plant, no matter what the season may be.
What we mean by a very large crop is, two and three
times as much as the average farmer has been producing
per acre by the old or more common methods. Can this
be done? Yes; and we have proven it by repeated results
each year during seven consecutive years; beginning with
86 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
the year 1900, increasing the certainty and magnitude of
these yields as we learned more of the correct principles
in detail.
CLIMATE NOT RESPONSIBLE.
It is altogether too common an idea that the quantity
and quality of the crop depends upon climatic conditions.
This does not apply to the semi-arid belt. The success
of the farmer depends entirely upon the quantity and
quality of the grains and vegetables he raises. Under the
ordinary plan of farming the expense of preparing, plant-
ing and cultivating is just the same whether we get fifty
bushels of corn or five bushels or none at all. If we pro-
ceed properly the necessary labor may be fifty per cent
more, but even if it were double and we succeed in getting
thirty to sixty bushels of wheat in seasons when our
neighbors under ordinary conditions get five or ten, does
it pay? If we are able to get eighty bushels of corn when
our neighbor gets thirty, does it pay?
By holding the moisture near the surface during the
heated portions of the season we succeed in securing a
more complete decomposition of the vegetable matter in
our soil, passing it on to the stage known as humus, which
is a most valuable element in the soil. The more humus
we have the greater amount of moisture we can hold in
the ground. This, coupled with the amount of moisture
that we are able to store, and the improvement of the
physical condition of the soil by the disking, plowing and
frequent cultivation in our summer culture, brings about
four conditions By the very fine, compact condition,
our soil will hold more water, consequently our plant is
less liable to suffer from a lack of water during extreme
heat. This packed condition is also, from the fact of the
more minute pores in the soil, favorable to a more rapid
CAMBPELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 87
movement of moisture by capillary attraction, and last
but not least, conducive to a more prolific growth, and a
more general and uniform distribution of the roots.
Fourth, and by no means least, is the fact that under
this condition of the soil, we are able to carry in the soil
just the proper quantity of both air and water, which
together with the heat, brings about that certain chemical
action necessary for the development of the large quanti-
ties of fertility. When the pores in the soil are too large
and soil coarse and loose, too much air is prevalent and
little or no development of plant elements is possible.
All four of these conditions are exceedingly important
in seasons like that of 1901, when weeks go by with con-
tinuous extreme heat and no rain, and such seasons or
conditions always come without warning.
POSSIBILITIES IN THE SEMI-ARID COUNTRY.
It is our opinion, based on practical results and ob-
servation of conditions similar to those in western Kansas
that by the summer culture plan, storing the water the
entire season and raising crops the following year, much
larger average crops may be grown than the present aver-
age in Iowa or Illinois. In fact, we do not believe we
overdraw when we say that in the more arid portions of the
semi-arid belt, by the summer culture plan, only cropping
every other year, we can raise more wheat at less cost
in ten years than can be grown in the more humid portions
of the belt in ten consecutive crops by the ordinary plan.
By our method we have the advantage of only seeding
half the land and only harvesting half the land. The
great value of work along this line lies in grasping fully
the idea of storing and conserving the rain waters, and
studying carefully the necessary physical condition of the
soil and endeavoring to bring it to the highest degree of
perfection.
sS CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
If water is stored in the soil of our western prairies,
nature has formed perfect and complete conditions to
bring this moisture back by capillary attraction to that
stratum, or one known as the root bed, where it not only
plays its part as drink for the plant, but as above stated
to keep up its part in combination with other elements
in the development of available plant elements, upon
which the plant not only exists but thrives during pro-
longed dry periods, causing a prolific growth instead of
withering and sometimes total failure under the coarser
or more common conditions of the soil.
OF UNIVERSAL APPLICATION.
In fact, when the conditions are understood and the
necessary labor properly applied, records of phenomenal
yields will be numerous as far west as the foot hills of the
Rockies.
The following from E. F. Stevens, of the Crete nursery,
shows the value of summer culture, even in the more
humid portions of the semi-arid belt. He says: " Regard-
ing the possibility of carrying moisture conserved one
year over into the next season for use for the next crop,
we remember that one year we grew a crop of seedlings
on elevated tahle lands on a part of the divide between
the Blue and Salt creek, just southeast of Crete. Seed-
lings for their best growth require very frequent culti-
vation. They are cultivated weekly and oft times twice
a week, to secure the best possible growth and the best
grade obtainable in a few months. This superior culture
conserved moisture, but we did not so understand it then.
As a rule a crop of seedlings does not take up all the annual
rainfall, so quite a portion of this conserved moisture
was carried over until the next season. The following
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 89
year on this plat of ground previously devoted to seed-
lings, as above stated, we secured 105 bushels and forty
pounds of corn per acre."
This marvelous yield referred to by Mr. Stevens is the
direct result of the careful cultivation which resulted in
storing a large surplus of moisture, and it is fair and rea-
sonable to conclude that equally as good, if not better,
results may be gained in any portion of Nebraska, Kansas,
or western Iowa and Missouri, by following our plan of
summer culture.
To get the best results the farmer's mind must be clear
on three important points: That the ground must be in
proper condition when all his work is done on the soil;
that he must have a good, fine and firm root bed or seed
and an abundance of moisture stored below.
A REMARKABLE ILLUSTRATION.
In closing this chapter it may be very interesting as
well as very conclusive evidence of the correctness of our
claims, to give a few of the very marked conditions that
surrounded some of, the fields of wheat in the spring of
1904 on the Pomeroy Model Farm at Hill City, Kansas,
during the long continued early drouth. When most
fields under ordinary methods of cultivation were showing
no growth and no apparent moisture, the Model farm
wheat was making rapid growth carrying a dark green
color, while five feet of moisture was found below. An-
other field near Grainfield, Kansas, was in the same con-
dition; another near Champion, Nebraska, and another
near Trenton, Nebraska. The latter yielded forty-one
bushels per acre, while ninety per cent of the entire wheat
crop in that localitv was a total failure. Every wheat
field in western Nebraska and Kansas might have yielded
as much as the Trenton field had the land been treated
00 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
by our method and the heavy rains of 1903 stored in the
soil and reserved for the long dry spring of 1904. Do
not confound summer culture with summer fallowing.
They are different.
Summer culture previous to seeding to alfalfa will in-
sure a positive and even catch and a fair crop the first
season.
Summer culture for the storing of the rain waters in
the soil, although comparatively new as outlined, is a most
important adjunct in farming in the West.
Begin your summer culture as early in the spring as
the conditions will let you on the ground with your disk
harrow. Don't let the weeds grow, thinking they are
valuable as a fertilizer to turn under. The moisture they
take from the ground is worth far more to you in growing
the next crop.
The purposes of summer culture are many, but the
most prominent of all that it never fails to bring about to
a most marvelous degree is to change a field of very normal
crop growing ability to one of almost incomprehensible
producing powers in just ordinary seasons. So marked
are the results that all sorts of doubting Thomases appear
and present many theories, but we urge the student to
throw away all skeptical influences. Study well the prin-
ciples and apply them with as much correctness as pos-
sible and draw your own conclusion as to certainty of
results and causes of results.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 91
CHAPTER XI.
PHYSICAL CONDITION OF THE SOIL.
By the physical condition of the soil we refer to the
proper preparation and that final condition of the soil that
so completely regulates or governs its producing powers.
There is no subject less understood toda}^ and there is
no one branch of agricultural science so vital to the suc-
cess of the farmer as a thorough knowledge of soil physics.
The man who delves down into the very heart of this
subject and follows every line and branch until he ferrets
out all the dark secrets of controlling and utilizing na-
ture's great resources now lying dormant in our great
prairies, will do more for suffering humanity than any
half dozen men have ever yet done.
It is our candid opinion that when this is accomplished,
grain will be produced so much cheaper because of the
greatly increased yield per acre, that bread will be pro-
vided at much less than the present cost.
Millions are being spent by the United States govern-
ment in building enormous reservoirs and miles of expen-
sive ditches, and millions more in scanning other coun-
tries far and wide for improved plants and seeds, but all
this combined cannot provide as many prosperous farmers
or cheapen the cost of production like the thorough knowl-
edge of soil physics and soil culture.
It is appalling to think that we have so many men
who know all about the soil and its tillage, or think they
92 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTUKE MANUAL
do, and yet so very little has been accomplished in
increasing the average yield of our great and magnificent
prairies.
The average yield of all grains in Nebraska and Kansas
in 1906 was from 15 to 30 per cent greater than any one
previous year in the past twenty years. Many say
this is due to more favorable climatic conditions, but this
is not wholly true. A good portion is due to a better
knowledge of the soils and how to till them; and yet it is
possible by a still more comprehensive knowledge of these
soils and what physical condition it is necessary to reach to-
gether with the how, when and where, to attain that de-
gree that we may be able to liberate and utilize all na-
tures' resources. We shall then see the average yield as
shown in the above states in 1906, easily doubled, and
what is true of these states is proportionately true of all
other similar states. Why this subject, so vital to the
the welfare of our country, has been so neglected in the
past we cannot comprehend.
There will be some little gained by seed breeding and
seed selection and a little by acclimating plants, a little
by crop rotation, but not until rotation is better
understood than it is now. Possibly some -material gain
may be made by the introduction of the so-called drouth-
resisting plants. But the great and lasting change that
is certainly on its way, must come through a broader
and more practical knowledge of soil physics.
FORCES THAT AWAIT DEVELOPMENT.,
Few tillers of the soil realize how easily the silent
forces that lie beneath our feet within this inert soil over
which we walk and have been taught to almost shun, can
by timely direction and control be made to minister unto
us by yielding up from mother earth bountiful crops. Sad
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 93
indeed it is that so many through a chain of circumstances
have been led to look upon farming, especially the actual
tillage of the soil, as wearisome toil, uncertain of its re-
ward.
If they could be only made to see that kind Provi
dence has intended that man should have dominion over
all things, and set themselves at work to learn how they
may intelligently command nature's resources that certain
obedience may be secured, then toil would be changed to
healthful, inspiring, agreeable work.
We wish to prove to you that nature has provided
all necessary elements on these broad, level prairies of
the semi-arid belt to grow cereals, vegetables, forage and
fruits in such quantities and of such quality as to make
the most sanguine minds marvel, when proper tillage is
applied.
To do this the tiller of the soil must learn what to do;
when to do it, how to do it, and why he works the soil
by this method which enables nature to reveal all the pos-
sibilities she stores in this workshop for an unlimited
supply of crop material. We will show you that it does
not require a vast amount of hard and expensive labor
to get large results, but it does require effort with knowl-
edge and judgment. Just as a valuable machine may be
made powerless and useless by the wrong or slack adjust-
ment of some bolt or nut, so in the mechanical preparation
of the soil success in the highest degree depends on doing
the right thing at the right time and in the right manner.
You could not put a valuable machine together unless
you knew something of mechanics. You cannot properly
till the soil and extract from it all that nature has stored
there for your use unless you understand some of the sim-
ple rules of soil physics,
94 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTUKE MANUAL
Much misleading matter has been printed on the sub-
ject of soil physics and in discussing available soil fertility.
Professor Milton Whitney, chief of the bureau of soils,
United States department of Agriculture, says in Bulletin
No. 22, issued by the department, "That there is no apparent
relation between the chemical composition of the soil as
determined by the methods of analysis used, and the
yields of crops; but that the chief factor determining the
yield is the physical condition of the soil under suitable
climatic conditions."
It is our candid opinion, based on more than twenty
years' of observation and experience, that it is to the
highest interest to the farmer to give little attention to
the chemical properties of his soil until he has learned
well and carefully its necessary physical condition in order
that he may utilize nature's many elements and forces
found in the soil, also in the air, water, heat and light.
The general properties of the component parts of the
average high level prairies of the semi-arid belt are all
that could be desired. In the cultivation of these soils
every precaution should be taken to prevent at any and
all times during the year any loss of moisture by evapora-
tion. It is highly important that these soils never be
allowed to dry out. Upon this fact depends much.
Roberts in his book on the " Fertility of the Land,"
says: "The percolation of rain waters not only conserves
the plant food but improves the physical condition of the
land. Just as soon as the soil becomes depleted of its
moisture it becomes dead or dormant and life ceases."
TIME TO WORK THE SOIL.
In order to secure the best possible physical condition,
the greatest care should be exercised to do the plowing,
packing and cultivating while the soil is moist- When the
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 95
soil is moist, as all observing farmers know, the soil grains
more readily separate one from the other. The real or
desirable object of plowing is not simply to turn the soil
over, but in addition to turning the soil is the pulverizing
The more thoroughly this is done the better opportunity
the heat, air and moisture have to exercise their full power
to combine all the properties into plant foods so that they
may be available to the plant.
So far as we can grasp the true principles regarding the
necessary physical conditions, they are found in recogniz-
ing the following facts, viz:
First That fertility is not matter, or a substance,
or something that exists in the soil in given quantities
and makes plants grow if the seed is put in the soil, regard-
less of how it is tilled or fitted.
Second That the growth of all plants dependsp uon
the quantity and force or energy of the available fertility,
and this is great or small just in proportion to the phys-
ical or mechanical condition of the soil.
Third That the soil is nature's laboratory, where
the proportion of air and water may be combined in just
the proper quantities. If the soils are too coarse and lie
too loose, then there is too much air for the water the soil
can hold, and with the most ideal climatic conditions
only fairly good crops can possibly be grown.
Fourth That water is a vital element in all vegetable
growth, but it is not the only element that the tiller of the
soil must see to. Air is equally important, and in all
tillage, air must be recognized and the soil prepared with
an eye to utilizing it just as nature demands. Give nature
a chance and she will do wonders, but don't expect too
much without some intelligent effort on your part.
96 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
The plants under proper conditions show a dark, healthy
green color, and grows rapidly. Remember that the root
growth in all grains is always in excess of the plant above
ground, and that root growth is greatest in soil that is fine
and firm in which there is held all the moisture than can
be carried by capillary force, and that it is apparently
impossible by ordinary mechanical work to ^et the average
sand loam soil in the great semi-arid section so firm that
it cannot carry at the same time the necessary amount
of air.
PERFECT SOIL CONDITIONS.
Let us assume for further illustration or explanation
that we have just the ideal condition for holding and
carrying the proper quantity of air and water in the soil.
The sun is warming the soils, chemical action is doing its
work, the wheat, oats or barley is three or four inches high,
a rain comes of some little magnitude which dissolves
and packs the soil mulch on the surface, then the sun
comes out and the plants improve for a little time, but at
this point look out, for we are approaching the danger
point, not of the total loss of the crop but of getting the
highest possible yield, which should be our aim at all
times.
If by certain more carefully fitted soil conditions, you
can get 50 bushels of wheat per acre instead of 10 to 20
bushels per acre, is it not worth digging for?
This is no visionary or imposible thought, but a stern
truth, that only requires a little careful study and intelli-
gent application, after first stepping away from those old,
stubborn prejudices, that theory alone had prompted you
to cling so tenaciously to.
The packing of the surface by the rain will cause an
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 97
upward movement of moisture which is brought from the
root zone or stratum by capillary attraction to the surface
and evaporated.
The warm sun has set the vigorous plant to work
pumping water by means of its many little rootlets up
through the stalk and out the leaf. With these two forces
at work your moisture is soon depleted below the normal,
and chemical action becomes slower.
Another dangerous factor is also at work, the moisture
that is rising to the surface is carrying with it the mag-
nesia, alkalies and salts so prevalent in our prairie soils,
in a soluble or dissolved condition, and as they reach the
surface the moisture is lost in vapor.
These mineral substances are deposited between the
surface soil grains, and if this process go^s on long enough
the surface becomes solid and the air nearly or quite ex-
cluded. The moment this condition becomes general
practically all growth ceases from a lack of air though
there may be plenty of moisture. Therefore the vital
importance of harrowing this surface as explained in other
chapters.
The Cut No 9 on page 76 illustrates quite clearly the
ideal physical condition as compared with the more com-
mon haphazard manner. Study the two views carefully,
and think of what you have seen in the field and how
different were the results.
It is our opinion that upon this ideal physical condi-
tion of the soil grains as shown in the above cut, as well
as others shown in previous chapters, depends very largely
the magnitude and quality of the crop. This conclusion
is not based on theory, but upon results obtained in many
tests following these lines.
98 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
We have invariably found growth most rapid and the
plants most healthful when the soil was fine and firm
where the roots were growing, with 'the surface two inches
or more loose and open, and ample moisture stored below
to a depth of four or more feet, and this so long as there
is the required quantity of air and water in that portion
beneath the mulch where the principal feeding roots are
located. By the aid of heat chemical action is going on
and fertility is being made available in large quantities.
Now the great point is to keep up this kind of condition,
if it can be done through the growing season. Phenom-
enal results are sure to come, if there is not too much seed,
or some fungus or insect pest at hand. Too much seed
is very commonly the cause of a yield below the possible
result on soil ideally fitted and especially is this true of
oats and wheat.
CAMPBELL'S SBIL CULTURE MANUAL 99
CHAPTER XII.
SOIL FERTILITY.
That which every farmer tries to do is to cause his
land to bring forth good crops. All his labor leads up
to the harvest time. His whole reckoning is prelimi-
nary to market results.
So it is that when the farmer or the home seeker goes
out to consider whether he shall buy a given tract of
land, the question that is uppermost in his mind relates
to the crop producing qualities of the soil. Everyone
knows that some soils are better than others and that
there are soils which seemingly are not of any use at all
in crop production. Then it is also fairly well known
that land cultivated in the best possible manner may be-
come better with the years, while land poorly cared for
may rapidly lose what little value it had in its wild state.
The ordinary or average tiller of the soil has very little
knowledge of the scientific principles which are involved
in this distinction. It is not surprising, either, for as a
matter of fact, those who have made a specialty of the
scientific study of soils, who have spent much time and
money in experimental work, and who have been able
to collect the information brought out by hundreds of
others who have gone before these specialists are not at
all agreed as to very many of the essential points in regard
to the soil. The best of these are quite prepared to mod-
ify their views at any time.
With the scientific investigations we have little con-
cern. It is with results that we have to deal.
100 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
This fact must be kept in mind that, speaking in
every-day terms, there is a distinction between fertility
and available fertility. Perhaps it is better stated that
the only kind of fertility that the farmer cares for is that
which is available, and he has little concern for any fer-
tility that is supposed to rest within the soil unless he
possesses the secret of making it useful in increasing his
crop yield. So it is that in speaking of fertility we wish
to be understood as referring to available fertility,
A CONDITION OF THE SOIL.
Soil fertility is not something that is a part of the soil-
A very good soil may have little or no fertility available.
It is a thing apart from the soil, to be placed there or to
be developed there, through a condition of the soil due
to a combination of causes. And it is just to bring about
this condition that the farmer tills his land. The pur-
pose we have in scientific soil culture is to develop fertility
by and through creating within the soil a condition favor-
able to this development. The reader will find in this
Manual a great deal about the treatment of the soil to
conserve the moisture and to give it the proper amount
of air, and to guard against drouth, and to keep the soil's
physical condition right all looking to development of
soil fertility.
That soil fertility depends a great deal more upon the
condition of the soil than has been commonly believed
is now coming to be accepted by many of those whose
positions entitle them to consideration. Prof. L. H
Bailey, of the Cornell University experiment station, a
man always fair and always in the front rank, has de-
clared that "the texture or physical condition of the soil
is nearly always more important than its mere richness in
plant food. 77 In explaining why a finely divided, mellow;
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 10l
friable soil is more productive than a hard and lumpy
one of the same chemical composition, he says that "it
holds and retains more moisture; holds more air; presents
greater surface to the roots; promotes nitrifiication ; has^
tens the decomposition of the mineral elements; has less
variable extremes of temperature; allows a better root-
hold to the plant."
And as if to clinch the matter Prof. Bailey in briefly
referring to fertilizers, declares that "it is useless to apply
commercial fertilizers to lands which are not in proper
physical condition for the very best growth of crops."
SAVING OUR SOILS.
In a circular issued by the University of Illinois relating
to soil investigation, Prof. Cyril G. Hopkins asks these
pertinent questions:
"Does not the ultimate position or final destiny of
America rest upon the question whether the crop produ-
cing power of our soils shall continue gradually to be reduced
or whether it shall be increased or at least maintained? We
need not ask whether the fertility of the soil can be abso-
lutely and completely exhausted. The fundamental ques-
tion is, will the system of farming which we practice or
advise ultimately reduce the productive capacity of the
soil."
And in prefacing a somewhat breezy and certainly
very instructive lecture upon the subject Prof. Hopkins
says:
"Surely there is no subject pertaining to agricultural
science and practice regarding which there is such a diver-
sity of opinion as the subject of soil improvement for
increased crop production. Both practical farmers and
even eminent scientific authorities disagree almost abso-
lutely on some fundamental principles. Indeed these
102 CAMl'HKLL's SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
differences of opinion are so marked and frequent that I
feel compelled to ask, in language which has recently been
declared grammatical, 'Where are we at?' '
Prof. Hopkins evidently sees what is ahead, for he
declares that "the agricultural experimental stations are
becoming more and more responsible for the methods of
soil management which are being practiced in this coun-
try," and he suggests that if leguminous crops, for instance,
do not obtain sufficient atmospheric nitrogen, "is it not
our business to discover why they do not, and then ad-
vocate a system of soil treatment or soil management
which shall enable legumes to obtain from the free and
absolutely inexhaustible supply of the atmosphere all
of the nitrogen which they need for maximum yields?"
We make these quotations here, in, connection with
this subject, largely to make it clear to the average farmer
that he need not feel at all discouraged if he realizes how
little he knows about the mystery of the soil in its rela-
tion to plant growth. There are others in the haze.
CHANGING THEIR VIEWS.
Turning to Farmer's Bulletin 257, by the U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, containing an address on "Soil Fer-
tility," by Prof. Milton Whitney, the eminent chief of the
Bureau of Soils for the Department, we find him declar-
ing that "fertility and crop production are different terms,"
and that "fertility is a property inherent in the soil; it
is what the soil is capable of doing if it is under the best
possible conditions." Of course Prof. Whitney presented
the matter from a purely scientific standpoint, and his
discussion of the soil and its purposes and of the feeding
1* pfants by the soil was backed by years of investigation;
yet we find him confessing with a frankness that is decid-
edly encouraging. He says:
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 103
"I believe that through the results of our investiga-
tions during the last twelve years we are beginning to
understand clearly the chemistry of the soil. It is exceed-
ingly interesting, but it is entirely different from our
former conceptions of it. We are changing our ideas
about the chemistry of the soil as we are changing our
ideas about the nature of diseases and about physical
forces and physical laws which we thought were perfectly
understood."
It need not be regarded as at all surprising therefore,
that practical farmers and experimenters should be chang-
ing their views as to the chemistry and the physics of the
soil, and in regard to soil management, since those who
have had such opportunities for knowing the truth admit
now that their views are changing because of modern
investigations.
And this is true that investigation is giving us new
light on the soil and on the nature of soil fertility, and
we are finding out a great many new things about the
relationship which a certain physical condition of the soi
through cultivation bears to the fertility of the soil and
to plant growth.
The soil is not alone the home of the plant and a place
for its roots to take hold and keep the plant erect; the soil
is the source of food supply for the plant, and the supply
is there in proportion to the intelligence of the tiller of
the soil in his preparation for it.
Instinctively, almost, the possessor of land that is
poor in crop producing qualities turns to fertilizers as his
hope. But he often discovers that he^ has not been able
to secure soil fertility by the application of fertilizers.
He is puzzled, but he does not find any solution to the
puzzle. The Department of Agriculture reports experi-
104 CAM SPELL'S son, QULTUBE M \\ir.vL
ments on a tract of land in Iowa "which with stable manure
every time produces a smaller crop than without." No
explanation.
WHAT THE SOIL IS.
Now the soil is, in fact, a part of the volcanic matter
which composes most of the earth. It is broken into
minute fragments. These fragments are perfect speci-
mens of rocks and stones or pulverized minerals. But
they are so fine that the different minerals readily combine
by chemical action. The plant food is organic in nature.
It is composed of different mineral substances united by
chemical action or otherwise. We do not know and we
never can know just how and why these combinations
are effected.
We do know that nitrogen plays a large part in form-
ing these organic substances which are the food of the
plants. We know that nitrogen abounds in the air and
that it may easily be separated from the other component
parts of the air. We know that this chemical 'action is
possible only where there is water, and we know that it is
promoted by the rays of light from the sun. We feel sure
also, that in some way the electricity ever present in the
earth and in the air plays a part in this laboratory in
developing growth.
What we can do by cultivation of the soil is to bring
about the conditions best suited to whatever action is
necessary to develop plant food in the soil. The ideal soil
condition is one where there is just the right amount of
water and air and other elements. We can do a great
deal in assisting nature, or at least in not obstructing
nature, in this laboratory work. And this is scientific
soil culture.
The scientific investigator does not go far in making
CAMPBELL'S son, rin/rnKK MAN'UAL 105
explanation of the way soils gain fertility until he uses the
term "bacteria." It is a useful term, and has a meaning
fairly well understood, but the term is made to cover a
good deal that is simply so mysterious that no explanation
is offered. It is a fact, however, that the development
of bacteria in the soil bears close relation to its fertility,
and that these bacteria, whatever they may be in fact,
play a very important part in making the soil what it
ought to be for the greatest amount of plant food.
ELEMENTS OF FERTILITY.
There are several things in this connection that may
be regarded as well settled.
1 . Soil fertility is due to the proper combination
of elements in the soil.
2. Soil fertility is developed in the soil by the proper
tilling of the soil, so as to have available the right propor-
tions of air, water, and other elements.
3. Soil fertility is possible to a high degree in almost
every soil, and the addition of fertilizers is only one way
of gaining this condition.
Again we repeat that all the processes of agriculture
look to development and maintenance in the soil, of this
available fertility which is so essential to plant growth.
The farmer must bear this ever in mind. He turns over
the sod or the stubble, not merely to pulverize the surface
for a seed bed, or to kill the weeds, but he does it with
a view to creating a physical condition of the soil suitable
for development of fertility. He may never know why the
mineral elements combine just as they do to make plant
food, but it is enough for him to know they do it, then to
do his part in preparing the way.
Good crop results from our fields is our great desire,
106 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
and to this end we have spent nearly a quarter of a century
in soil culture experiments, study and general observ-
ation.
In 1891 we became positive of our ability by observing
certain physical conditions of the soil to secure good crops
during drouthy condition, while others failed; a little
later we were convinced by repeated results that the aver-
age yield of the great semi-arid section even in good sea-
sons could easily be doubled, and now it is evident there
can be even a greater increase in the yields and to the devel-
opment of increased available fertility by utilizing more
of nature's abundant resources, such as heat, air, water
and light through chemical action which we have found
is great or small, just in proportion to the ability of the
soil to combine these elements in proper quantities under
such ideal conditions as shall cause the most complete
chemical action for the production or development of the
necessary amount of fertility, and that this all important
ideal condition of the soil can be established by scientific
soil culture.
107
CHAPTER XIII.
WATER HOLDING CAPACITY OF THE SOIL.
Among the more important questions involved in Sci-
entific Soil Culture, is that of so handling and preparing
the soil that it may carry the largest possible amount of
of capillary water, and at the same time let surrounding
conditions be such that all free or surplus water may read-
ily percolate down and away.
It must be understood that a soil saturated or full
of water is as bad as no water at all, so far as plant growth
and the development of plant elements or fertility may
be concerned.
It is now quite apparent that plants really do not
utilize or consume the amount of water once thought
necessary; in fact, some irrigation experiments have shown
that beyond a certain nominal quantity of water, more
water does not mean more or better crops. In these ex-
periments and all others every result apparently points
to the fact that there must be a certain quantity of water
in the soil together with its requisite amount of air properly
distributed and mingled, and when this very ideal condi-
tion is attained the only needful is Old Sol's persuasive
influence, when the development of plants and fruits will
be marvelously pleasing.
It takes no argument to convince the average man
that there are many times when, if the soil could have had
just a little more available moisture, there would have
been one, two or three times as great a yield. To more
108 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
clearly show the vital importance, in this great semi-arid
belt, of thoroughly fining and firming that portion of the
soil in which the roots of the plants should grow and feed,
we have prepared the accompanying illustration.
( 'it! No. 10. Water-holding Capacity of Soils.
In the glass on the right is one pound of the largest
buckshot we could find; in the glass on the left is one
pound of the very smallest bird shot we could obtain; in
the center is an one-ounce druggist's graduate. With
this graduate we measured precisely one ounce of water
and turned into each glass. We then shook each glass
to be sure that every shot was moistened all over. This
covered each one with a thin film of water exactly as the
moisture is retained around each little particle of soil. It
is not possible in our illustration to get rid of the free water,
or that portion between the shot, except by tipping the
glass over and holding the shot back to allow all the water,
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 109
which is not held in film form, to drain out into the grad-
uate. Measuring carefully the amount from each glass,
we find to our surprise that the fine shot retains nearly
thirteen times as much water as the coarse shot. Here
we have a practical demonstration of how the water-
holding capacity of the soil is increased by finely pulver-
izing and making it firm, a condition most favorable for
the movement of moisture by capillary attraction and the
most perfect development of roots, both of which sub-
jects have been taken up in detail in other chapters.
The shot, before it was put into the glasses, was care-
fully weighed on fine druggists' scales to be sure that we
had the same quantity. As you see, both glasses are filled
to the same height with the coarse and fine shot and both
glasses are of the same size.
WATER AND SOIL CONDITIONS.
The great question which bears so largely upon the
quantity and quality of all crops is that of water in suffi-
cient available quantities at all times. Nothing has more
to do with this than the mechanical or physical condi-
tion of the soil. The deeper the soil is stirred and yet
made fine and firm, the greater is our ability to guard
against the shortage of water at some critical time. To
plow deeply and leave the under portion lumpy and loose
is a very objectionable condition with which to approach
a dry period, and as experience has shown, no one knows
when such a time may occur. Therefore, for safety, the
lower portion of the furrow must be made fine and com-
pect, as deep as plowed.
Many thinking men, from a theoretical standpoint,
insist that the soil of the prairies must be loosened up
deeply to let the water down. This is not essential in
the least, providing the soil is moist a foot or so below the
110 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
surface and the surface is kept loose. As soon as the rain
comes in contact with the moist earth below it readily
percolates down through the fine soil. In fact the soil
that is moist for three or four feet down will dry off on the
surface much quicker than soil that is dry underneath
because of more rapid percolation. The slowest soil to
take the rain waters is the dry soil with a firm surface.
Again considering the water-holding capacity of the
soil, and recognizing a marked difference in the amount
of the water held by the fine shot shown in our illustration,
we more clearly grasp the value of adding well rotted
manures to the soil of the western prairies and the fur-
ther importance of having it thoroughly mixed into the
soil. The manure when decomposed very materially adds
to the number of minute particles and further increases
the water-holding capacity. The manure question is fully
considered in a chapter by itself, and should be very care-
fully studied for its relation to the moisture question is
broad; therefore, it is one that means much to the semi-
arid country.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 111
CHAPTER XIV.
IMPORTANCE OF AIR IN THE SOIL.
Not as much importance has been given to a study of
the part played by air in the soil as the subject warrants.
Neither is it very well understood that its availability in
the soil is largely regulated by the mechanical arrange-
ment of the particles in the upper six or eight inches top
layer of the soil.
Because we have seen it constantly demonstrated we
know the necessity of water in the soil for plant growth,
but it is not so easy to comprehend the material value to
the plant of air in the soil. We cannot see its effect in
anything like as broad a sense as we do the water, yet its
presence in proper quantities in the soil and about the roots
of the plants is just as vital to its life, health and growth
as water.
Water without air and its component parts is worthless;
air without water and its component parts is equally
valueless to the growth and development of all farm
crops.
Consider the subject carefully. How many times have
we seen a field of wheat, corn or oats, possibly half-grown,
and noted that in some depression the crop was ranker in
growth and also a darker green. If a rain of considerable
magnitude comes, and the depression fills with water
and remains there for several days, the plants that seemed
to have the advantage before the rain now begin to lose
their dark, healthy green color; if the water remains long
112
enough over the surface a yellow cast becomes apparent,
then a brown, and finally it dies. This is because of a
lack of air at the roots.
The great store house of nitrogen is the atmosphere. It
is the place where all is kept that is not in use otherwise. And
nitrogen is one of the essentials of plant life. The plants
do not take their nitrogen directly from the air; but it
comes to the plant in an indirect manner through organic
substances in the soil. The nitrogen of the air combines
with mineral substances in the soil, and then by reason of
the action of bacteria certain compounds are formed
which contain nitrogen in a soluble form. Then it be-
comes plant food.
NITROGEN AS PLANT FOOD.
But you cannot have these compounds containing
nitrogen if the other elements are shut off from contact
with nature's great storehouse of nitrogen. Hence the
circulation of air in the soil is an absolute necessity. Soil
in a perfect vacuum is dead soil, and can no more become
or develop plant food than soil submerged in water or soil
baked to absolute dry ness.
The great danger in handling soil in relation to the aii
in the same lies in the possibility of having a condition
that will shut out the air without the farmer knowing it.
A heavy rain may produce this undesirable condition.
In cut No. 11 is shown what frequently happens and how
it may be overcome. It shows soil where there has been
a heavy rainfall, beating down the surface which has been
softened by the raindrops, and with the result that the
upper surface is compacted perfectly. As soon as tho
small amount of water near the surface has disappeared
by evaporation the upper crust is hard. It is iiripenetra,-
CAMBPELL'S SOIL CULTUE MANUAL
113
ble by air. It may as effectually seal the subsoil from
the air as does the coat of paraffine over the jar of jelly in
the pantry.
A B
Cut No. 11. Showing Heavy Rain Crust and how it is Broken up
(a) Soil Mulch Restored by Cultivation, (b) Soil Mulch
after Heavy Rain, Dissolved and settled down.
When such conditions are found they must be destroyed.
The only thing is to promptly break up this crust and
put the soil into condition so there will again be a natural
mingling of the air and water with the particles of the soil.
This mingling must be in proper quantities of each that
is the soil must be of sufficient fineness and firmness below
the surface, or that portion properly termed the root bed,
so there may not be too much air, for while air is most
valuable in the soil in just the proper quantities, it is se-
riously detrimental in too large quantities.
SHUTTING OUT THE AIR.
In the experiment work we have conducted we have
noted some remarkable conditions and results. We have
found, for instance, that the air may be shut out by the
114 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
forming of an almost impervious crust, either on the sur-
face or beneath a soil mulch. The most marked effect
of this crust was brought out at the Pomeroy model farm,
Hill City, Kansas, in 1901, during an extremely long dry
period in mid-summer when for nearly three months al-
most the entire country experienced one hundred degrees
of heat, at times the thermometer running even higher,
without any rain. Because of wheat harvesting and other
pressing work the orchard was left from fifteen to eighteen
days without cultivation. During this time a crust had
formed under the mulch which we had kept fully two
and a-half inches in depth. The crust was nearly one inch
thick and was so dense that the air was almost completely
shut out. This crust was caused by the mulch becoming so
heated through the direct rays of the sun that the moisture
in the firm soil just beneath formed a vapor and passed
off through the pores of the mulch, to a degree moistening
the mulch, and allowing enough capillary attraction,
which together with the heat, permitted much of the
moisture to be lost by evaporation. This resulted in
bringing up much magnesia, alkali salts, etc., in a soluble or
dissolved condition. When this soluble matter reached
the point in the firm soil near the surface, where the moist-
ure was transformed into vapor by the intense heat, it
became a solid, and these minute particles gradually filled
up the pores in the top of the firm soil.
Our attention was first called to this on returning
after an absence of four days from the farm, by noting the
fact that the foliage of the tree was losing its dark green
color. To ascertain the reason for this, after finding that
there was ample moisture beneath the crust, the exper-
iment of double disking one-half of the orchard was tried.
The disk was set to cut as deeply as possible, thus com-
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
115
pletely destroying the crust. On the morning of the fourth
day there was a perceptible difference in the color of the
leaves in this half of the orchard. In seven days the
trees in the disked portion had resumed their healthy
dark green color, while the undisked portion had become
still lighter in color. The balance of the orchard was
then disked. Although the extreme weather continued
Cut No. 12. Showing Effect of Shutting Air from Roots
four weeks longer, the leaves of the whole orchard resumed
their fine, deep green, and new growth was apparently
rapid.
Similar conditions have since been noted in wheat.
116 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
oats and corn, with same results from similar treatment,
all pointing to the fact that both the growth and yield
of crops may be very materially diminished by shutting
the air from the roots of the plants.
To illustrate more fully the effect of shutting the air
from the roots we take the accompanying cut No. 12 from
Goff's book, "Principles of Plant Culture."
To make this test practical, two glasses were filled
about half full of soft water, then two slips of the same
kind of a plant as near alike as could be selected were placed
in the two glasses and then a thin layer of olive oil was put
upon the water in one glass to prevent the air reaching
the water, the glasses placed in a warm light place; in a
very few days live healthy roots are seen developing from
the slip in the glass without the oil, while the oil covered
glass not only shows no roots but the leaves soon begin to
wither. While it must be remembered that slips from
any and all trees or shrubs will not do this, only such as
willow, nasturtion, or wandering jew, etc. Yet it demon-
strates clearly and beyond a shade of doubt that the air
plays a very important part in the growth and develop-
ment of roots and plants.
One more thought before closing this very important
topic. The full and complete knowledge of the relation
of air and its utility in the production of all farm crops
means the absolute certainty of the greatly increased
yields of your fields without any material increase in the
cost of production, because it is found in utilizing what
is actually going to waste, not by a specially increased
amount of labor, but through doing the work commonly
done with an eye to bringing about that certain necessary
physical condition more through a little different manner
of tilling the soil when it is in proper condition to work.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 117
CHAPTER XV.
PERCOLATION; OR GETTING WATER DOWN
INTO THE SUB-SOIL.
During the past three years the question of getting
the water down into the subsoil has commanded much
attention and discussion.
In the more arid sections there seems to be a prevail-
ing idea that the soil must be broken up or loosened deeply
by subsoiling or otherwise, or the rain waters will not
permeate the subsoils of our great prairies to any material
depth. Theoretically, this is true, and all general observ-
ations so far as the prairies in their natural state is con-
cerned, have backed up the theory as a fact or truth.
A little broader and more careful observation shows
the theory to be a theory only.
What we have found to be true in cultivated soils is
also largely true of the prairies. Several trips over por-
tions of Eastern Colorado in the autumn of 1906 gave
strong proof that, when the soil is moistened to a depth
of one foot or more, that a subsequent rain of any mag-
nitude soon disappears by percolation. This was proven
in one instance in November; a quite heavy rain disappeared
from the level prairies very quickly, although it remained
cool and cloudy, so that little was lost by evaporation.
Four days later showed the prairie soil to be moist nine
inches deeper than before the rain; proving the readiness
of moist soil to take in more water.
There is no subject that is more vital to the scientific
118
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
farmers in all our arid countries. To grow good crops
successfully in any and all seasons, the moisture must
be stored in the soils and subsoils below. If it is only a
question of getting a living out of the soil, that is one
thing, but if it is a questron of living well in good
homes and educating a family of children, then let us
Cut No. 13. Capillary Attraction Illustrated.
get out of the soil all we can. If we have a legal right
to the crop that grows on the land we till then why not
raise a big crop instead of a small one?
In cut No. 14 we have attempted to illustrate the
percolation of water, or the getting of water down into
the soil. We have divided this cut into three sections,
numbering them 1, 2 and 3, from left to right, then divided
these sections into lateral strata A, B, C, and D.
In section No. 1, A represents the soil mulch, a stratum
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
119
of light, loose, and dry soil; B represents a stratum of
thoroughly pulverized and firm soil, meaning the portion
that is cut by the plow and then sub-packed; C repre-
sents about eight inches of the subsoil into which water has
percolated, and D represents the portion of subsoil still
below that is yet dry.
In section 2, we find the mulch has been compacted by
a heavy fall of rain. This mulch in its loose condition
readily takes in the water, and as soon as the water reaches
the moist soil found in strata B and 0, it immediately
1 2 3
Cut No. 14. Showing How Water is Stored in the Soil.
percolates down below, and is shown by the darker portion
of soil in the upper part of stratum D. Here the water ha*
come in contact with dry soil, which resists percolation
Slowly and steadily by gravity the water finds its waj
120
down the columns of soil, which by the way, throughout
the entire semi-arid belt are almost invariably found in
a perpendicular position.
In section 3, we have again reproduced our soil mulch
by cultivation to stop the evaporation or loss of our water
from the surface, and we find the moisture below has per-
colated on down until the water is all distributed, each
little particle taking on its film of water to a given thick-
ness which it seems to steadily hold onto while the bal-
ance of the free water finds its way on down until it is all
distributed in like manner.
The next rain will result the same as is shown in section
2, only we have six, eight or twelve inches more moist
soil for it to pass through before reaching the dry soil.
An illustration will make this more clear. In setting
out our cabbage or tomato plants in the spring of the
year when the surface is dry and fine we usually water
them. In our first application of water to this dry surface
we notice the water does not seem to percolate, but for a
little time remains dormant on the surface. After a little
it finds its way down through the dry particles by force
of gravity, leaving each particle it passes covered with a
thin film of water. Then we apply a second application
of water while the surface is still moist and we notice the
water immediately disappears. The reason of non-perco-
lation of the first application is because of the resistance
of the dry particles to moisture, or repulsion for water.
The quick movement of the second application of water
into the ground is the result of the attraction of water for
water, together with gravit^
The following will illustrate this natural law: take a
piece of glass, or a smooth earthen plate and oil it slightly,
then put drops of water, a half dozen or more, on the gla?>
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 121
take a narrow piece of ordinary newspaper, about one-
half inch wide, let it extend from the thumb and finger
about two inches, slowly move it down so the end of
the paper will come in contact with a single drop of water.
If you notice closely you will see a remarkable resistance
of the paper against the water. Very soon the little pores
begin to absorb the water, and the end of the paper be-
comes moist. Now slowly raise the paper and notice
how persistently the paper hangs to the water. When
it lets go there is a quick upward movement, thus show-
ing the power of attraction of water for water. Now
steadily move the fingers down slowly, watching the paper
and you will notice when it gets close to the water there
is a sudden movement down, even while there is a little
space between the moisture on the paper and the water
on the glass. The power of attraction is made very per-
ceptible by the quick connection of the two moist parti-
cles. Now draw the paper across the glass from one drop
to the other, you will notice the water all hangs together.
You will have a string or train of water two or three inches
long trailing on behind your paper.
This illustrates how easy it is to get moisture into the
soil by keeping the surface constantly loose and open, so
that as the rain falls it soon works its way through the
larger pores until it reaches the moist particles in the firm
soil,' when it immediately percolates on down below. Here
again nature has done* a great deal for the semi-arid belt.
The peculiar formation and size of the usual particle of
soil is very favorable for percolation; also for its return
upward by capillary attraction to feed the plant during
our long dry seasons.
Here again we must reiterate. When a heavy rain
comes, the effect is to mom or less dissolve the soil mulch
122 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
and cause it to settle very firm as shown in the center
column of our illustration. The restoring of this mulch
is of vital importance, and the question of the proper
time in which the condition of the surface soil regarding
the per cent of moisture it still has, must be carefully
considered, that cultivation may be done at a time when
the greatest good may come from it.
When we realize that under the conditions we are con-
sidering, following a heavy rain, the soil will lose from
its surface by evaporation under normal summer climatic
conditions from one and a-half to two quarts of water per
square foot each day.
We certainly should grasp the importance of quick
action, but if we cultivate too quickly we may puddle
the soil and leave a very poor mulch, especially if the soil
be close and heavy.
Again if the soil be slightly or quite sandy and we
delay the cultivation too long, and the surface soil becomes
quite dry, which it will much quicker than the heavy soil,
then we may have our soil too much on the order of dust
which is easily disturbed by high winds. All these things
must be watched and duly considered.
Just as soon as the soil is dry enough so it will not
stick to the harrow or cultivator, it should be quickly
gone over,
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 123
.CHAPTER XVI.
EVAPORATION.
In connection with the percolation of the water down
through the soil and the capillary movement of the water
upwards, there is the all-important topic of evaporation.
It is highly important to the farmer living in the semi-
arid region to know all about evaporation, for it is by
evaporation rather than by under drainage that the larger
part of his water leaves him.
When one understands perfectly the effect of evap-
oration and how it operates to remove water from the
soil he is in a position to better understand why it is that
there can be so much conservation of the moisture in the
soil that the land of the semi-arid belt becomes in fact
better fitted for good crops than the land of the more
humid sections. It is a common remark among those
who but little understand the situation that if there was
only a little more rainfall in the semi-arid region it would
be the ideal farming country. They say that all the coun-
try lacks is enough rainfall to provide all the water neces-
sary. This is a superficial view. It does not take into
account the main elements.
It is true that if we could always have here in the semi-
arid country just the right amount of rainfall, and have
it at the right time, we would have no trouble in raising
good crops. It would be very nice indeed to have this
condition. We would have the tropics beat badly, and
our people would have time for bull fights and things like
that while they were just waiting for the crops to mature-
124 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
But it is also true, and this needs no demonstration,
that even in the humid sections of the country they suffer
from drouth. Down on the Atlantic coast there are many
places where there is an average of one rainy day in every
three during the growing season and right there you will
find the old settlers telling about how they lost a crop by
drouth. And if they do not suffer from drouth they are
likely to suffer equally as much by having rain when
they do not want it.
RAPIDITY OF EVAPORATION.
It is stated that the best estimate based on experiments
as to the extent of evaporation from the soil in the humid
regions shows that fully fifty per cent of the rain water
which falls is returned to the air directly in vapor. But
this is not true of the semi-arid region, where a much
smaller proportion is returned to the air in that way.
And where there is cultivation with a special view to pre-
venting this evaporation from the surface the evaporation
is still less. Prof. Whitney tells of an experiment by the
Department of Agriculture to test the rapidity of evapo-
ration under different conditions. Two cylinders six feet
long were filled with soil and placed erect in water so that
the soil was kept damp. Then over the exposed end of
one tube a draft of air was blown to hasten evaporation,
while over the other a similar blast of air was blown, but
in this case the air was heated. It was evident that the
heated air would of itself take up the water faster than the
cold air. For a time the evaporation from the tube where
the heated air was operating seemed to be much faster
than from the other. But the surface soil was soon dried
out and this checked evaporation. During the time the
experiment was conducted it was found that the evapo-
ration from the tube with heated air was very much less
than from the tube with cold air.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 125
This illustrates exactly what is done on the soils o.
the semi-arid region to check evaporation.
NOT LACK OF RAINFALL.
The real difficulty in the semi-arid belt is not a lack
of rainfall, but the loss of too much by evaporation, and
this can be largely controlled by proper cultivation, at
least sufficiently to secure a good growth of crops every
year. It has been demonstrated by careful laboratory ) /
and field work by Professors King, Whitney, Hilgard, and H
others, that seven inches of rainfall is ample to grow a
good crop of any kind, providing the water is all utilized.
Measurements and records by the government weather
bureau have shown that in the more westerly portions
of the semi-arid belt the average rainfall is more than
twice as much as is needed, while a little further east it
is three and four times the necessary amount.
The usual difficulty, if such we may call it, is the fact that
this rain does not always come just at the time the plants
most need it. This is the reason crops have failed and
the average investigator or observer of the existing con-
ditions in this great belt has drawn the conclusion that
there is not rain enough. We have lived in this belt of
country twenty-eight years, and have experienced all the
pros and cons, the ups and downs that the country is heir
to. Sixteen years of this time has been spent entirely
in the study of the soil, the movement of the moisture in
the soil, and that all-important question of storing the
rain waters. Our experience in these sixteen years has
been quite varied, but each and every year some new and
important fact has been brought out, all leading to the one
conclusion, that the rainfall can be stored in the ground,
126 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
and its evaporation prevented by a proper manipulation
of the soil, thus enabling us to secure, not only fair, but
remarkably good crops any and every year.
The irrigator must consider this question of evapora-
tion. As a matter of fact he has discovered that his great
loss of water is from evaporation and he has studied to
offset this. Placing water on the surface of the ground
simply invites loss of the water at once. What must be
done and what is done where irrigation is well understood
is to place the water deep in the soil, and store it where
it can be made use of at the right time and in the right
way.
LOSS AT THE SURFACE.
The wonderful rapidity with which moisture rises by
capillary attraction to the surface and is evaporated is
not commonly understood. The most favorable condition
for this rapid, upward movement of moisture is the natural
condition found after irrigation or heavy rains, when the sur-
face soil particles are dissolved and settled very closely to-
gether. Professor King has conducted some very extensive
experiments in ascertaining the amount of moisture that
would evaporate from a square foot of ground in twentv-four
hours. This work was accomplished by placing a metallic
tube one foot square in a tank of water so protected that
there could be no evaporation or loss of water, except
through this tube. The tube was five feet long, filled
with soil from top to bottom, and submerged into the
water four feet, so that the moisture to reach the surface
to evaporate had to pass up one foot through the soil by
capillary attraction. The rate of evaporation for ten con-
secutive days was a quart and a-half of water to the square
foot. The tube was then lifted one foot higher, making
it necessary for the moisture to rise two feet by capillary
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 127
attraction, when the loss was a little over one quart. It
was then lifted to three and then to four feet, and when
rising four feet by capillary attraction the loss was a little
over a pint to the square foot. This shows clearly why
uur crops may suffer so quickly even after we have had
considerable rain.
The experience of the writer in his own work in 1894,
demonstrated clearly these two facts: First, that moist-
ure will evaporate very quickly when soil is left in its
natural condition; second, that a large per cent of moist-
ure can be stored in the ground. In that year there was
no rainfall after early May or during the month of June,
and the average field was practically dry when the first
rain came on July 7. At that time the fields were flooded by
a rain of four and a-half inches which came down quickly.
In the fields where we were conducting experiments we
had previous to this time got the moisture down nearly
three and a-half feet, and the surface was in the best of
condition to absorb the fresh rain. In eight days the
ordinary field was again practically dry. In such fields,
owing to the great resistance of the dry soil, percolation
was very slow, and the extreme heat which naturally fol-
lowed quickly evaporated all the water which had fallen.
But the field we had been carefully cultivating and had
prepared for just such an emergency, was found to have
a moist soil over two and a-half feet deeper than before,
or down to a depth of six feet.
During the season of 1901, there were many demon-
strations of the remarkable results following extra work
clone just at the proper time. A farmer near Fairmont
cultivated once more after a heavy rain which came about
the middle of July, after the farmers in that locality had
"laid their corn by." This extra cultivation; which could
128
not have cost over thirty cents an acre, added fifteen
bushels per acre to his yield of corn. James Armstrong,
of Phelps county, double-disked his ground early in the
spring, then cultivated his corn once more than his neigh-
bors, at a total cost not exceeding sixty cents an acre,
and got twenty bushels of corn per acre for his extra
labor. This may seem like an exaggeration, but the com-
parison was made between this field and an adjoining
field on his own farm not thus treated, as well as a com-
parison with the crops of his neighbors. Dozens of sim-
ilar illustrations could be given of the immense value of
this principle; If the work is done at the right time re-
sults are great.
GREATEST ELEMENT OF WASTE.
The careful tiller of the soil will, then, bear in mind a*
all times the fact that evaporation is the greatest element
in the waste of water, that evaporation depends upon the
condition of the soil surface and the atmosphere, that it
is always immediately following a rain or an irrigation
when the surface is compact and moist that evaporation
is most rapid, that evaporation is comparitively slow
from a broken and dry surface, and that by checking evap-
oration the farmer literally forces the water down into
his natural store house or reservoir for water beneath
the surface.
Cultivation of the surface of the soil is not alone to
kill weeds or loosen the soil to admit the air but it is for
the purpose of stopping the waste of water through evap-
oration.
Evidence from all over the semi-arid west proves con-
clusively that if every farmer had fully understood the
theory and principles of conserving the soil water by proper
cultivation, there would have been no short crop of corn
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 129
in 1901 in that section of country. The excessive evapo-
ration of the rain water all over the great plains country
is the direct and sole cause of a greater loss to the farmers
of that belt than any other one thing. Educate the farm-
ers of the semi-arid belt to store, conserve and utilize the
the rain water and we have paved the way for thousands
more ideal farm homes and a higher state of prosperity
than this belt ever experienced or the people anticipated.
It is by and through knowledge of certain great funda-
mental principles of agriculture, and application of those
principles to conditions which exist in this semi-arid sec-
tion and no place else in our country, that this region is
to come into its own, and be made, indeed, a veritable
garden.
Evaporation of the rain water on the great plains
country has made many a man hopeless and homeless.
Prevention of the evaporation of the soil waters by proper
cultivation means better crops, better homes, better
people, happier children, and a better and more prosper-
ous country.
130 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTUKK MANUAL
CHAPTER XVII.
ADVANTAGES OF SEMI-ARID REGION.
Don't apologize for being a farmer of the semi-arid
region. It is not advisable to be boastful beyond that
which is easily demonstrated; but at least do not feel
that in conducting the business of agriculture in a region
where the rainfall is small you are defying nature. It is
true that you may be defying the traditions of the past
and doing violence to the old accepted theories on agri-
culture, but you need not concern yourself about these
things.
Don't belittle your own state and your own farm by
bewailing the fact that the rain does not fall as often
there as it did on the farm where you spent your boyhood
days. There were seemingly some advantages in having
rainstorms so often and so great that the waste of great
quantities of water was not seriously felt. It may be a
nice thing to have more water than you know what to do
with. But even this has its drawbacks. Perhaps it is
better on the whole not to have so much water. Let us
see.
The soil of the semi-arid region is generally of a loose
and fine texture. There is nearly always present in the
soil sufficient sand to prevent the soil becoming heavy.
In large portions of the humid regions the soil is underlaid
with clay in such a way that the storehouse for water
is limited, or there is danger of the burning out of the
soil. But this is seldom f ru^ in the semi-arid country.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 131
In fact it is well known that by far the larger proportion
of the soils of the semi-arid country is of almost unlimited
depth and of uniform texture. This is an advantage.
DIFFERENCE IN THE RAINS.
In Farmer's Bulletin 266, published by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., we find also
some discussion of the difference in the rains of 'the differ-
ent sections. The Bulletin says:
"There is an important difference in character between
the rains of the east and those of the west. The summer
rains of the west, and especially of the plains country,
consist largely of infrequent heavy showers. If the soil
be open and deep, this rain sinks deeply into the ground.
As previously mentioned the hot sun and drying winds
of the semi-arid regions rapidly 1 dry the topsoil and this
forms a mulch, or covering, which retards evaporation.
Light showers in a dry time do very little good. They
wet the surface, and if the water extends to the moist
soil below, water from below actually flows to the surface
over the wet soil grains, and the water of the light shower, as
well as some of that previously in the soil, is lost by evap-
orating into the air. In humid countries, where much of
the precipitation consists of frequent light, slow falling
rains, with much cloudy weather, the surface dries more
slowly, giving less protection to the lower soil, so that
much more water is lost from the soil as a whole than
would be the case if the same quantity of water came
in less frequent rains, provided, of course, the heavy rains
all sink into the soil."
Bear in mind that it is practically always and ever
true that the soil of the semi-arid country is in the best
possible condition for soaking up all of the water rain
which falls. If it is perfectly dry down to a great depth
132 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
it will not take up water as it should, but if only the sur-
face is dry and beneath is found comparatively moist
soil, a condition which prevails where there is the right
cultivation then this soil will take up the moisture.
The only problem then left is to save this moisture.
A DIFFERENCE IN THE SOILS.
In Farmers' Bulletin 257, of the Department of Ag-
riculture, we find Professor Whitney relating an incident
which nicely illustrates the difference between the semi-
arid country and the humid regions. He said:
"Some years ago I saw some interesting soils in Cal-
ifornia. In some of the valleys they have soils that will
produce a crop without any rainfall during the period of
growth. At a point near Los Angeles, which I visited
one September, they had a tobacco field which had been
planted in April or May and had produced a crop which had
been harvested. A sucker crop had been allowed to grow,
and in September they were cutting the sucker crop,
which had made a fair growth and was then in a very
flourishing condition. The tobacco had had no rain since
it was planted, but had been cultivated throughout the
season as we do our crops in the east. With my hands
I could scrape off the surface and get down to moist soil.
The wells of that district showed the table water was
forty feet below the surface. Such an occurrence appears
a very remarkable fact to us here in the east, where we
suffer if the rain does not come within two or three weeks.
"In trying to find out the reason for those peculiar
conditions in some of the western soils, the fact presented
itself that in those localities they have a very dry air, a
very hot climate, and usually very strong winds that
dry out the surface rapidly. They have about 18 or 20
inches of rain during the winter. After the rains stop in
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 133
April, if they immediately cultivate their surface soil and
get it completely dried out, they thereby conserve the
moisture, because any subsequent loss through evapo-
ration will have to come from evaporation within the soil,
and that is very slow, although slow evaporation does take
place within a soil. If you fill a tumbler with moist soil
and put it in the window in the sunshine, you will find
that the heat of the window sill frill make the temperature
of the bottom of the soil higher than the temperatiure of
the surface; you will then get evaporation from the bottom,
and the bottom soil will dry out quicker than the top."
He did not explain, however, the direction which the
vapor takes which he says is in the soil. Evaporation
takes place only when there is some open avenue of escape
for the water in the form of vapor. There is no evapo-
ration from a hermetically sealed box.
It was no doubt a matter of great surprise to Prof.
Whitney, as it has been to many others, to find crops
grown in the semi-arid country without any rainfall during
the growing season. They had a right to feel surprised
when they scraped off the surface with their hands and
found moist soil just beneath, and this where there had
not been rainfall for months. And investigation would
have shown exactly why the store house for water still
had a supply on hand for the use of the growing plants.
We have gone to many of our fields in Nebraska, Kansas
and Colorado during similar periods, with doubting Thom-
ases, who were equally as surprised as was Prof. Whitney,
especially in 1894-5, and also 1901-2.
DRAWBACKS TO THE HUMID REGION.
The story of the California tobacco crop was told to a
company of Maryland farmers, and continuing in response
to questions, Prof. Whitney further explained:
" Conditions here are rather unfavorable for the con-
134
trol of moisture, because of our frequent rains. Strange
as it may seem, while we suffer if we do not get rains, we
should actually be better off, as they are in the arid re-
gions of the west, if we did not have any rain during the
growing season and had a means of providing water when
we wanted it. There is no question that the arid con-
ditions of agriculture with water for irrigation permit
the most perfect system of cultivation. Such a system
is much more efficient and crops are under much better
control, if the conditions are handled intelligently, than
they are here in the east. The trouble with us is that we
cannot maintain this dry mulch. After a rain we plow
or cultivate just as soon as we can and we get the surface
moderately dry; then another rain comes on, and if we
think we can afford it, we cultivate again ; then still an-
other rain comes, and we try again to get the surface
dry. If you cultivate your soil after a rain just in the
right time to catch the moisture in the soil, then if you
have a drouth, cultivate by all means, keep cultivating
and you will do much toward saving your crop. The
Secretary of Agriculture has told of a very disastrous
drouth while he was professor of agriculture in Iowa,
when he saved his corn crop and got a normal yield by
constant cultivation during the dry season, while his
neighbors had almost a complete failure. As I told you,
it all depends on the skill, the judgment, and the chance
which led you to begin operations at the right time. If
you knew what was coming you could save your crop
during any ordinary period of drouth."
In view of the fact that it is no new discovery that
conditions in the semi-arid regions are radically different
from those in the more humid regions, and especially the
character of the soil and its adaptability to the best pos-
135
sible cultivation, it is somewhat strange that so little ha
been done in making practical investigation of what should
be done in the west to assure good farming operations.
IDEAL FARMING COUNTRY.
The vital truth is that the so-called semi-arid region
is almost ideally adapted to best agriculture. The soil is
of the right texture and capable of being handled to the
best advantage. The soil has all the elements necessary
for the highest degree of soil fertility. There is compar-
atively no loss by the washing away process. There is
no carrying away of the surface bodily so that the subsoil
must be transformed. There is practically no loss from
drainage. The soil is easily made loose when that is
wanted and easily compacted when that is desired. In
short, no soil is seemingly more ideal for general farm op-
erations.
Then the very fact that the atmosphere is dry, as a
rule, is of great advantage, and yet so many had supposed
it a detriment. The rain comes in the form of a heavy
shower, and when it is over there is a dry atmosphere
which quickly takes up the water from the surface, and
with prompt action with the cultivator the formation of-
a soil mulch is therefore easily encouraged and of a na-
ture that is very effective.
In short it is in the semi-arid region that the farmer
can best secure that ideal soil condition that enables him
to control the moisture which is needed for the growth of
the plant.
Therefore we say again that no man engaged in farming
in the semi-arid sections has any excuse for offering apol-
ogies. He has the best natural conditions for good farm-
ing. It only requires that he apply science and a reason-
able amount of well directed labor, and his results are
136 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
more certain than with the farmer who lives in a region
where there must be a good deal of guessing as to the
soil, the rain, the sunshine, and the wind.
The semi-arid section having more sunshine and less
rain makes it possible to not only prepare the soil into
the most ideal seed and root bed, but it is also possible to
keep the soil about the feeding roots constantly supplied
with the necessary amount of both air and water. These
coupled with heat and light cause nitrification as well as
other chemical action through which almost unlimited
plant elements are made available, and it is because of
these facts and the further fact that such conditions can
not be so readily and so continuously sustained in sections
of greater rainfall and more cloudy weather, that the
semi-arid sections have the advantage of greater average
yields at less average cost, when work is scientifically done.
CAMBPELL'S SOIL -(.'iTi/mii-; MANUAL 137
CHAPTER XVIII.
CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
The cultivation of the soil embraces, in a general way,
about all of farming that relates to crop growing, but in
a more restricted sense it relates merely to the treatment
of the surface of the soil during the crop growing period.
It is absolutely necessary o good farming that the
farmer have a clear understanding of the philosophy of
soil cultivation. He must be able to consider why the
surface is cultivated, how best to cultivate it, why different
kinds of cultivation are necessary under different condi-
tions, the implements to use, the time of cultivation and
the frequency of cultivation. As already known to the
reader who has conscientiously followed these pages,
no general rule can be laid down for any portion of the
work incident to agriculture. The processes nesessary to
securing good crops cannot be put on a diagram that
all may read. The most that can be done and this ought
always to be sufficient is to thoroughly explain the gen-
eral principles and make clear why each operation is per-
formed and to tell just what effect may be expected from
following any given line of work; then the farmer must
apply this knowledge intelligently to the problems which
come to him from day to day in actual experience in the
fields.
So it is with cultivation, there can be no exact rule
as to depth, or time, or frequency of cultivation. But
it can be made clear what a certain kind of cultivation will
do under certain conditions. Then if the farmer knows
what he wants he can adapt his work to his needs.
There has been a great deal of discussion as to the value
of shallow and deep cultivation. Some persons have
undertaken to make entirely too much of one or the other
of these systems. The fault is that they have not always
kept in mind that much depends on the character of the
soil, and still more on the soil and atmospheric condi-
tions which prevail at the time of the cultivation. It
is not necessary to make an argument anywhere in the
semi-arid region to convince the farmer that the old-
style of cultivation of growing crops with the long pointed
shovels is not proper especially in the light soils of the
west. If he has had experience he knows that this method
of cultivating his corn or potatoes is as likely to do harm
as to do good. So he has turned to shallow cultivation
as the natural alternative. But it is possible he has gone
too far in that direction, an error easily made and quite
common.
Shallow cultivation is not very well understood. There
are times when it is just the right thing. But take it, for
instance, in the drier portions of the west, where the at-
mosphere is free from moisture and the altitude is high
so that vaporizing of the water comes at a low tempera-
ture, it is easy to cultivate too shallow. A little deeper
will get better results, because it is necessary to have a
deeper soil mulch to protect the moisture beneath.
SHALLOW VS. DEEP.
In the chapter touching on the growth of potatoes,
th^re will be found two illustrations which will bear study
ir connection with this subject of shallow or deep culti-
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 130
vation. In cut No. 20 is shown a hill of potatoes which
was grown by shallow cultivation. In this case, it is
proper to add, the ground was first plowed eight inches
deep, having been previously disked, the plow followed
with a sub-surface packer, and the whole portion made
thoroughly fine and firm. In securing this illustration,
the lateral roots of many different hills were washed out.
The main roots running from the stock were almost in-
variably found to have traveled in quite a uniform dis-
tance from the surface of moisture; the little branches
running out from the main roots taking various directions,
some lateral and some down.
The illustration quite perfectly shows all these im-
portant facts. Notice the two and a-half inch mulch, and
the very fine, uniform condition of the balance of the
furrow or plowed portion, where may be seen numerous
roots. This represents a hill of potatoes taken from a
field grown on our farm in Brown county, South Dakota,
in 1894, when thirty-two acres of high, level prairie pro-
duced an average of one hundred and forty-two bushels
to the acre, and this in a season when almost all the crops
throughout the entire semi-arid belt were ruined by the
extreme drouth.
In Cut No. 21, we give another illustration of potatoes
grown under other conditions. This .ground was treated
practically the same as that shown in cut No. 20, but deep
cultivation was applied, and less frequent. The field
was cultivated three times, cutting fully four inches deep,
which resulted in destroying nearly all the lateral roots,
while the other field was cultivated eight times, cutting
about two inches. The difference in the result of the
two crops was attributed directly to the treatment of the
ground after planting.
140 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
TIME OF CULTIVATION.
These illustrations show very plainly the difference
in results between shallow and deep cultivation, but they
also show another thing, and that is that the time of cul-
tivation is a very important thing. Deep cultivation will
certainly, under some conditions, facilitate the evapora-
tion and waste of the water, and sometimes very shallow
cultivation will have the same effect. The depth of the
cultivation may well be varied to meet conditions as
you find them.
If you would secure the greatest possible benefit from
the labor given over to cultivation, you should first pro-
vide yourself - with some fine-toothed cultivator, so that
the soil may be all thoroughly fined, leaving the surface
of the firm soil beneath as near level as possible. Then,
great care should be taken to catch your ground in proper
condition. It is true there is but little time after a rain
that the ground is in the best possible condition. This
is the time when the free water has all percolated below,
and the soil to the depth which you wish to run your cul-
tivator, is simply moist neither very wet nor very dry.
In this condition the little particles seem to readily sepa-
rate, one from the other, then your stirred soil is com-
posed of an innumerable number of little, minute lumps,
forming a mulch that gives you the highest degree of
protection. A mulch made when soil is in this condition
will never blow.
If the soil be too dry it breaks into large lumps, which
not unfrequently lie in such manner as to conduct the
air through the large spaces between them down to the
solid and firm soil beneath, causing much loss by evapo-
ration. It is needless to mention the difficulty arising
from cultivating soil that is too wet. When worked it
141
becomes what is known as "puddled," and then when
dried it becomes hard as brick, and a heavy rain is required
to even dissolve the lumps so that they may be pulver-
ized afterwards.
SAVING THE MOISTURE.
There are two vital points in regard to the success-
ful growing of crops in the western country. The first
is the importance of getting all the water possible into
the ground, and second, using every possible means to
conserve or retain it there.
The importance, or value, of a little additional water
is shown by the effect of snow drifts that may form on
the field from any cause. The increased amount of moist-
ure that seems to find its way into the ground when the
snow melts invariably makes itself apparent in the grow-
ing crop as soon as a dry period begins to affect the crop
in the least. At these points the crop always holds out
longer, sometimes carrying the crop over to another good
rain, which results in maturing an unusually large yield
on these places, while the balance of the field will
not yield to exceed one-half to one-fourth the
amount. Thus a gain in yield of wheat of probably ten
bushels to the acre is the result of perhaps not over one-
half inch of additional water that had percolated into the
ground. The enormous evaporation from our fields under
favorable conditions is not in the least comprehended by
the average farmer because he has no means of readily
testing and proving.
EVAPORATION DANGER.
The danger to the farmer from evaporation cannot be
overestimated. Therein lies the whole secret of good
farming in the semi-arid region. If there was no water
lost or wasted the deserts would blossom. Under the
142 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
heading of " Evaporation," we have given the results of
some experiments by Professor F. H. King of Wisconsin
showing; the rapidity with which moisture \\ill rise through
the soil by what is known as capillary attraction, reach
the surface and pass off in vapor into the atmosphere in
a single day. Not until the farmer begins to grasp the
vital importance of keeping even a little additional water
in his soil can he be expected to use all diligence due in
preventing this evaporation. This observation of the
farmers throughout the semi-arid west, during the grow
ing season of 1901, especially Kansas and Nebraska,
ought to be amply convincing with reference to the value
of stored water in the soil. There were frequent remarks
during its prolonged and severe drouth of the mid-surnmer
with reference to how the corn continued day after day
and week after week, contending against this extreme
heat without rain, without showing any apparent effect
of drouth; but this was simply the direct result of the
unusually heavy rains in early spring that percolated
down into the soil, in many instances eighteen inches to
two feet deeper than usual, and there acting as a reserve,
continued to return by capillary attraction and feed the
corn plants and other grain until it was exhausted. In
this same chapter on evaporation we make mention of
seyeral instances where the early disking of the ground
resulted in retaining a sufficient amount of additional
water to carry a crop of corn through, increasing its yield
in some instances as high as twenty bushels, which was
not secured in adjoining fields, not disked, simply because
the moisture was allowed to evaporate by leaving the sur-
face hard and compact, as is always the condition after a
heavy rain or snow.
143
SOIL CONDITIONS.
To be successful the farmer must grasp the full im-
portance of doing all his work just at a time when the
condition of the soil is best adapted. The idea that by
plowing today we may get ten bushels of wheat to the
acre, when if we plowed the ground four days later we would
get fifteen bushels or vice versa seems rather ridiculous.
While this statement and the figures used, may in most
cases be a little strong, yet it is a fact that the average
yield of a field is frequently increased or decreased quite
a per cent by a few days variation in the time the work
is done.
This is especially true with reference to cultivation.
We have in mind a case near Fremont, Nebraska, where
the 'phenomenal difference of fifteen to eighteen bushels
per acre was made by cultivating a part of the field before
a heavy rain of nearly five inches, and the balance of it
after this rain. The reason of this remarkable difference
was simply what we have been dwelling upon, the result
of retaining a large per cent of moisture in the soil mulch
by the cultivation after the rain, that was lost from the
balance of the field by rapid evaporation. This occurred
in July, and was the last cultivation preparatory to what
is called laying the corn by. The rain was a very heavy
one. The part of the field that was cultivated previous
to the rain was left with the thick compacted crust made
by the heavy fall of water, which resulted in dissolving
the loosened soil and settling it very close, thus leaving
the surface in the best possible condition for a rapid move-
ment of moisture to the surface and evaporation. Under
another head we have explained this more clearly. The
portion not cultivated previous to the rain was gone over
144 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
as soon after the drain as conditions would permit, thus
producing a perfect protection to the moisture below,
and bringing about the remarkable result referred to.
While these cases cited seem like extreme instances,
under similar circumstances you can look for similar re-
sults. When the reader begins to understand the direct
effect of these conditions it will then be quite clear why
a light crop was secured when a good crop might have
been harvested.
TIME OF CULTIVATION.
The exact time for the cultivation of a field cannot
be fixed by any arbitrary rules. Certain things can be
stated, as for instance-
Too moist soil will settle, so that you have accom-
plished nothing by cultivation.
Too dry soil will break up into clods and the surface
mulch will be imperfect.
Too wet soil will when cultivated, form a connection
between the surface and the subsoil, so that moisture
will be steadily carried to the surface.
Too dry soil will be left by cultivation so that the air
goes down into it and carries away moisture.
But you should always cultivate immeditaely or as
soon after a rain as the soil conditions become suitable.
One of these conditions is that the soil does not adhere
to the cultivator or tool used. Usually soil sufficiently
dried so it will not stick will be such as will form the right
kind of a mulch.
We do not mean by this that the soil should be abso-
lutely dry on the surface. It is an error to wait for that
time, for the moment the surface is apparently dry the
crust begins to form. It is desirable to catch the ground
just before this time when all the soil is simply moist,
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 145
and then there is a free and ready separation of all parti-
cles. In this condition the cultivator runs the easiest,
the mulch made the finest and lies up loose and light.
The judgment of the farmer must be used with great
care at this time. He must bear in mind just what he
wants and try his best to get just such condition of his
soil.
TIME FOR QUICK WORK.
There is no time in the year's round of duties when
quick work even at the expense of many long days of
labor is so much needed as at the height of the growing
season, when advantage must he taken of every rainfall
that favors us.
It must be borne in mind that every moment's delay
after the soil reaches the proper condition causes you to
lose water very fast. It is at the rate of a quart or over
per square foot per day, providing it is clear sunny weather,
and even more in case of heavy south winds. The more
intense the heat the more frequent it is necessary to cul-
tivate. A very good rule is to watch the condition of the
firm soil just beneath the loose mulch or cultivated por-
tion, and whenever the surface of this firm soil begins to
show dry ness it is high time to commence cultivating
again.
We cannot impress this point more fully upon your
mind than by referring you to that chapter which tells
of the crusting of the orchard on the Pomeroy Model
farm during the extreme dry period of 1901, and its effect
upon the growth of the trees.
We had a simlar experience, but more clearly illus-
trated, in the cultivation of corn in Cheyenne county,
northwest Kansas, in 1898. This demonstrates very
clearly the great importance of being exceedingly cautious,
146 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
not to let any crust form under the mulch. We are of the
opinion that many corn crops have been seriously injured
by that condition, when with no more available moisture
the crop would have come out all right had it not been
for this crust.
KEEPING MULCH IN CONDITION.
There are many important reasons why great care
should be taken to keep the mulch in perfect condition
and prevent the loss as far as possible of any moisture by
evaporation from the surface of the soil. The following
paragraph taken from Professor King's book on "The
Soil," conveys some important information along this
line. We quote this because it bears the figures of his
own practical observation at various depths in the soil,
showing the effect not only of the surface soil getting too
dry, but of light showers. He says:
"When the surface soil has its water contents reduced
so the upper six to twelve inches are beginning to get
dry the rate of capillary rise of water through it is decreased
and it begins to assume the properties of a mulch. But
when this condition has been reached if a rain increased
the thickness of the water film on the soil grains without
causing percolation, the capillary flow may be so certain
that the surface foot draws upon the deeper soil moisture
at a more rapid rate than before, causing a translocation
of the lower soil moisture, the deeper soil becoming meas-
urably drier soon after such a rain than it was before,
while the surface foot is found to contain more water
than has fallen upon it."
He cites experiments as proof of this important prin-
ciple. Some of his experiments were very interesting and
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 147
instructive, showing that by wetting the surface capillary
attraction was so increased as to show that moisture had
moved up from the fourth and fifth foot below.
This emphasizes the fact that the tiller of the soil
should understand these conditions that he may know
just what to do to get the best possible yields.
CONCLUSIONS.
In closing this chapter we venture to repeat that we
may emphasize some things taught.
Winter wheat will not winter kill in firmed, moist
soil, while in loose soil it frequently thins out or kills
out entirely.
A fine, firm root bed, with a loose surface or mulch,
is a condition that will withstand the extreme dry periods
longest without any injury to the plant.
Study well the question of thoroughly pulverizing and
packing the lower portion of the plowing; a full under-
standing v)f its importance means many dollars, because
it means a larger crop result.
Subsurface packing increases the moisture in the lower
portion of the plowed ground and induces decomposition
of the weeds, stubble, or manures that have been turned
under, thereby adding humus, the all important ingredient
for rapid plant growth, as well as enabling the plant to
withstand drouth.
If you would get your soil to a condition of fineness
and firmness, do all your work to that end when the soil
is just slightly moist, for it then plows better, packs better,
and cultivates better. Do not go to work on plowed
ground that is dried to the bottom, whether plowed in
good condition or not, and expect in any way to get the
lower portion of the furrow in good condition. You may
improve it. The closer you keep to the plow the better
you can pack the under portion.
148 CAMBPELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
CHAPTER XIX.
BAYNYARD MANURES.
The use of barnyard manures in enriching the soil has
become so universal that it seems almost strange that
in large areas of the country but little use is made of it.
In the eastern part of the United States, as well as in
other countries, there is no need for argument to con-
vince the farmers of the great value of barnyard ma-
nures. They have demonstrated it many times. They
do not waste any.
In the western states, more especially in the semi-
arid regions, farmers have come to have an entirely differ-
ent view of the value of the barnyard manures. In the
entire belt it is probable that at the present time a large
proportion of the barnyard manures are burned or thrown
away. This is all wrong. In no section of the country
is the soil of such a character as to respond more quickly
and effectively to the use of barnyard manures and in
no place will the effect of such manures last longer, or
be of such permanent improvement.
There is the best possible reason for this. The soil
is light and naturally rich in the primary elements neces-
sary to fertility. But it is also well adapted to holding
moisture, and there is in fact, no great drainage of the
water. There is much loss of the value of manures in
regions where the rainfall is heavy, for the under drainage
carries away the best part of it. In the semi-arid belt
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 149
there is none of this loss of fertility by drainage. The
light rainfall is therefore a distinct advantage in the
treatment of manures.
But there is difficulty in making the best possible
application of manure. The atmosphere is dry and the
soil may remain dry for a long period, so that the ma-
nure lies dormant on top of the soil. This is not condu-
cive to nitrification or decomposition, and many farmers
have failed to get good results. Then it is a fact that
in the barnyard manure as it is gathered in this dry
country there is much loose and coarse straw in an al-
most perfect state of preservation, not very well fitted
for helping the soil. When the manure is plowed under,
as it must be to get the best results, the soil is so loose
and light that there is not sufficient weight to press the
whole down, and make such a compact mass as best
serves to make a good bed. The soil, with the fresh
fertilizer mixed in, has retained an open and porous con-
dition down to a considerable depth, which proves a
detriment to the soil, with the natural result that the
crop burns out and weeds gain the ascendency. The
throwing of coarse manure on the top of the ground,
leaving it in bunches, then plowing it under without
special care in packing is of little value. In fact, this
system of applying manure brings about a condition
frequently much worse than if none had been applied.
Especially is this true in the semi-arid region, where
much greater care must be taken to get the manure
perfectly mixed with the soil.
MANNER OF APPLYING
The best results have always been had in the semi-
arid country by having the manure applied with a spread-
er, then using a sharp disk to double-disk the surface,
150 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURED MANUAL
thus mixing the manure to a considerable extent with the
top three inches of soil. We followed this by plowing
six or seven inches deep, using a rod on the beam to
turn everything under. This is then followed by the
sub-surface packer which treatment results in firmly
packing the soil and manures firmly at the bottom of
the furrow. The reader should refer back to cuts No.
1, 2, 3, and 4, especially to note what we mean in \his
regard. The plowing under of manure that has not
been well distributed is likely to leave the ground as in
cut No. 1, which is evidently a condition that will not
only waste the natural strength of the soil, but be waste-
ful to the manure that has been turned uncler. By use of
the sub-surface packer the mixing is not only made per-
fect, but the manure is brought into actual contact wth
the soil, when the proper processes bring about the de-
velopment of the humus. Only slight moisture is neces-
sary to develop the decomposition if the mixing is well
done; much moisture will hardly suffice if the mixing
and packing is not done.
The history of our experience in this matter well illus-
trates the common experience of others. In 1882 upon
a South Dakota farm we gave a liberal coating of barn-
yard manure, plowed it under, and worked it down as
best we could after the manner usually practiced in old
Vermont. The rainfall during that season was quite
liberal and timely. The piece, about five acres, was plant-
ed to corn and well cultivated, with such good results,
that we decided to treat the manure question with the
same care and economy as we were wont to do in the
East. The same plan was followed out in 1883, with a
total loss of all the crops which were planted on that
ground. A small attempt was made again in 1884, with
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 151
the same poor results. For several years after this wt
followed the usual plan of the western farmer, of hauling
it out and using any possible method to get rid of it.
REMARKABLE RESULTS
But the remarkable results each and every year from
the field where the manure was applied in 1882, was too
convincing of its value. For ten successive years this
entire quarter section was put into wheat. Every year
in the early stages of the growth of the wheat, the shape
of this five-acre field, which was in one corner of the
one hundred and sixty acres, was perceptible both in
the color of the wheat and the development of the stools,
and almost invariably at harvest time, the grain on this
little piece would be from four to eight and ten inches
higher than the balance of the field, and yielded invari-
ably from fifty to one hundred and fifty per cent more.
With much study along these lines, and several ex-
periments, to find out why such remarkable results were
obtained from this field and why we could not succeed
in later attempts, we were finally able to solve the prob-
lem fully. It is simply a question of mixing the manures
into the soil as much as possible, and then firming the
under portion of the furrow slice, thoroughly packing
manure and soil, followed with careful cultivation, when
the sam eresults may practically be attained any year
that were secured in the seasons referred to, when we had
the unusual amount of rain scattered along at proper
periods at just the right time to. produce decomposition.
The peculiarity of the formation of our soil is such
that manures, when properly applied, very materially
aid us in carrying our crops through the dry periods and
preventing the serious effects of the drouth, for the
simple reason that the humus, which is decomposed veg-
152
etable matter, very materially increases the water-hold-
ing capacity of our soil. The more humus we have in
the soil, the greater is the number of particles, conse-
quently the greater amount of surface to hold water.
It also aids in the movement of moisture through the
soil, and in the encouragement and development of root
growth.
. The existence of the humus in the soil we know to
be absolutely necessary to successful growing of crops.
It is where this humus abounds that we find the great-
est development of nitrates in the soil, not alone because
nitrates are carried into the soil with the fertilizer as a
part of it, but because of the chemical action which takes
place in the soil. A good deal is said about the carrying
of nitrates into the soil, and in certain crops gathering
the nitrogen from the air and storing it in the soil, but
the fact is that the greater portion of the nitrates in the
soil are prepared there by the chemical action which is
always stimulated by barnyard manures.
PERMANENT EFFECTS.
There is one great advantage in the practical use of
barnyard manures in the semi-arid belt. The effect is
more lasting when the manure is properly applied
than in the soils of the more humid regions. In these
latter regions the greater rainfall lias a tendency to wash
out the humus below. This trouble of washing out is
especially perceptible in the gravelly soils of New York
and the New England states. There is another advan-
tage of the semi-arid belt which will be appreciated when
these facts are better understood by the masses, for our
observations so far clearly show that manures are even
more valuable here than in the east, not that our soil is
not fertile, but the more humus we have in the soil the
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 153
more water will each square inch of soil hold, and conse-
quently our soil is safer and less liable to suffer from
drouth. There is but little expense attached to an ex-
periment to ascertain the correctness of our assertions
on this subject, and were you to make them, you would
find more and surer profit from them than from govern-
ment bonds. The sub-surface packer is a very valuable
tool in securing immediate results from manure. Exam-
ination of the illustrations in this book will make this
very clear, and the matter is not exaggerated in the
least.
MANURE AND WATER.
Professor Goff in his book oh principles of plant cul-
ture, says: "Much of the benefit of manuring undoubt-
edly comes from the increased capacity it gives the soils
for holding and transmitting water."
Professor King says in his book on soils, that in three
years' experiments with barnyard manures he found
"That for manure fallowed ground the surface foot con-
tained eighteen and one-fourth times, or four thousand
and eighty-seven gallons more water per acre than ad-
jacent and similar but unmanured land did; while the
second foot contained nine and one-fourth tons and the
third six and one-third tons more water, making a tctal
difference in favor of the manured ground of thirty-fcui
and one-third tons or eighty-five thousand gallons."
We would advise, where it is possible, to plow manure
uder in summer tilling fields, and in doing this it will be
found that far less seed is needed for best results.
ECONOMY IN SEED.
The use of manure has such an important bearing
on the proper preparation of the seed bed that its right
use may go a long way toward saving in the use of seed
154 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
grain. The stalk sent up from an imperfect seed bed
is of slow growth and scant of leaves. The stalk which
runs upward from a perfect seed bed spreads out and
probably branches, and the leaves are abundant and
strong. If there is an abundance of humus in the
soil there is stooling out of the stalk so that instead of
one upright stem there are two or three or mayhap a
dozen stems sent up to bear flowers and grain. It there-
fore follows that where manure has been used in a man-
A Modern Manure Spreader.
ner to develop in the soil the greatest amount of humus,
so that plant food is more than sufficient for the needs
of the plant, a very much smaller quantity of seed should
be sown per acre than on soil less favorable to growth.
If there is too much seed per acre the grain will stool
too much and make so heavy a growth that it will stand
up. Heavy stooling results in the weak straw carrying
down the grain, and in this condition the grain will not
full and it often happens it cannot be harvested.
The right use of manure therefore, partially compen-
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 155
sates itself in the economy in use of seed. In no one
thing are mistakes more common than this of the right
amount of grain for the fields in the semi-arid belt.
THE MANURE SPREADER. .
While the manure spreader is a very valuable farm
implement from a time saving point, yet its great value
lies in the fact that the manure is thoroughly torn into
small pieces and very evenly distributed over the surface
of the field.' It will pay for itself in a short time provid-
ing the farmer will use great care in mixing the manure
with the soil, plowing it under at a fair depth and then
firming the soil with a sub-surface packer. It only takes
a little manure per acre and a little intelligent mixing
and preparing of the soil to easily double the present aver-
age yield.
Barnyard manure must be handled with good tools
and be treated as something distinctly valuable. To
throw it upon the land and trust to luck, is worse than
time wasted.
156 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
CHAPTER XX.
CORN GROWING.
Corn is a crop which requires a season a little longer
than small grain and the crop does not thrive best where
the nights are cool, so that the northern limit of the corn
belt is easily reached. But with care corn may be grown
far north in a satisfactory manner and is a good crop in
a large part of the semi-arid region. The care referred
to relates to the preparation of the seed bed, the previous
fitting of the soil, the manner of planting, the time and
manner of cultivation. No crop is more responsive to
good treatment than corn. No crop suffers more from
carelessness or ignorance on the part of the farmer.
The first thing a farmer must consider is the prepa-
ration of the soil. Corn is a crop which demands culti-
vation during the growing season, put it also demands
a preparation quite equal to that of wheat or other grains.
Among the hills of New York and New England the
farmers give a great deal of care to the preparation of
the soil for the corn crop, for the farmers have learned
by experience that it is poor economy to put good seed
corn into badly prepared ground. It is on the corn fields
that they most generally use barnyard manure, and it is not
infrequent that they treat the corn ground to from $2
to $4 worth of fertilizing per acre, there being many
places where this seems to be necessary every year if
good crops are to be had.
Professor Bailey, of Cornell university, has well said
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 157
that no after cultivation can make amends for a poor
job of preparation of the soil. This applies with much
more force to the semi-arid belt than it does to the east-
ern sections of the country.
In Illinois and other states of the Mississippi valley
the soil is more fertile and rain usually ample so that
no fertilizers are required and when the rains are ample
and timely two or three ordinary cultivations during the
growing period produce a good crop of corn, But even
there they are beginning to leased the value of conserving
the water by more frequent and timely cultivation, 'be-
cause of dry periods that are likely to come at any time.
They are also learning that the breaking up of the crust
which has formed on the surface after a rain is valuable
because it admits the air to the soil and makes the corn
grow better. But with us in the semi-arid belt, more at-
tention must be given to the preparation of the ground.
We cannot depend upon heavy rains to aid us in dissolv-
ing and settling our soil, consequently we must give
close attention to every part of the work.
The first thing in order in the spring in the prepara-
tion of the soil for corn, is the early disking which should
be a double disking in order to thoroughly pulverize the
surface, bearing in mind that every act should be with
a view to storing and providing the greatest possible
amount of water in the soil. Early disking covers the
two important points referred to, that of preventing evap-
oration and opening up the surface to receive the later
rains. This done we simply wait for the proper time
for further preparation and planting, always being in
readiness, however, to loosen up the surface at any time
should we get a rain of any magnitude.
158 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
USE OF THE LISTEK.
There is some diversity of opinion as to what is the
best way to plant corn. We prefer the use of the lister
over that of the check rower, especially in the higher
altitude or in the northern states where the nights are
cooler, which results in heavier suckering or stooling.
The additional shoots are very detrimental to the corn
crops, especially should we have a dry season. In the
humid sections, and on the rolling land, we still prefer
the check rower.
There is one distinct advantage in the lister which
is worth a great deal to the farmer in some cases. When
there are symptoms of suckering, or the conditions are
such as to cause this, we may, by filling the furrow and
covering up the young shoots destroy them completely
and with ease. The higher the altitude and the drier
the atmosphere, the deeper is it necessary to cultivate
in order to produce a deeper mulch to prevent evapora-
tion. In using the lister on ground where the moisture
has been carefully preserved by disking and harrowing
in the early spring it is quite important to follow the
lister with some tool to thoroughly pulverize the moist
soil that is thrown up as such soil soon assumes a dry
and a very hard condition which is afterwards difficult
to manage. There ought always to be enough time so
that the surface of the soil can be cared for after planting
and before it is necessary to begin the corn cultivation.
The best tool for treating the soil surface at this period
is the weeder. The long and flexible teeth lap down on
the side of the furrow or ridge as thrown up between the
rows and quite completely pulverize the large clods that
are thrown up by the lister, leaving a perfect circle with
a nice fine mulch over the entire surface. This puts
159
your ground in magnificent shape, especially in the sand
soils of the semi-arid belt, so that you can continue the
use of the weeder by going lengthwise of the ridges and
completely destroy the weeds before they assume any
size / keeping your mulch in perfect condition to prevent
evaporation, going over the ground after each rain, as
in the cultivation of other crops, watching the condition
very closely in order that you may catch the ground just
when slightly moist before the crust has begun to form.
This does away with the weed cutting idea.
THE WEED PROBLEM.
The importance of getting ahead of the weeds and
keeping them down cannot be overstated. It is almost
impossible to select words from the English language
with sufficient force to impress upon the average farmer
the serious detriment to crops of even the small weeds.
To get a good corn crop the weeds must be kept out.
And it is far easier to keep the weeds from growing than
it is to kill them after they have become strong. An
illustration of what can be done in che semi-arid belt
will be given.
On the Kilpatrick ranch, in Chase county, Nebraska,
in 1903, two hundred and seventy acres of listed corn
were handled in this manner. The weeder used was the
combination weeder and harrow made in sections the
same as the common steel harrow. This is an implement
that will be soon on the market generally, and its use
will be common. We used enough sections to cover six
rows of the corn, and the entire rield was gone over four
times before any other cultivator was used, and the corn
was then about eight to ten inches high. The suckers
or stools were from two to five inches long. A
two-row riding cultivator with two wide shovels on each
160
side was then used throwing the soil from the ridge over
the suckers to cover them up and practically leveling the
ridges down. A few days later it was with considerable
difficulty that a sucker could be found, in fact, with care
and catching the corn at proper height the suckrs can
all be destroyed. The cultivator was followed with the
weeder, which practically leveled the surface. The
corn was now ten to fifteen inches high and scarcely a
broken stalk could be found, owing to the fact of the
flexibleness of the teeth and that the drag or weeder bars
were seven inches high. The field was gone over five
times with a weeder, that took in six rows; and this cost
less than to have gone over once with a one-row cultiva-
tor and twice with a two-row cultivator. This made the
total cost of eight cultivations equivalent to less than
two and a-half times over by the old plan. The corn
made over forty bushels to the acre. Many other similar
illustrations of what can be done might be cited in the
country just east of the Colorado line.
In growing listed corn we do not believe in very deep
listing, but in thorough cultivation from early spring
until the crop is put in, then consider fully that ample
moisture and air must be in the soil and that weeds grow-
ing in a corn field live on your best corn.
We will never get the high limit in yield by listing
corn into the unplowed land. The plowing of the land
to a good depth in the autumn, following with the sub-
packer well weighted, then early spring culture and list-
ing shallower, would bring much better results. In short,
a three-row lister is now being perfected for fields thus
fitted and a three row cultivator will also be ready
CHECK ROW PLANTING.
Early plowing is absolutely necessary in making use
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 161
of the check row planter. The earlier the ground is
plowed the better, provided it is not plowed when too
wet. But there must also be the disking process in
preparation for the plowing, for the problem of evapora-
tion also comes in very early in the year, and the disking
puts the surface in condition to prevent this and to en-
courage the percolation of the later rains into the soil.
The use of the disk is advisable since you can get onto
the ground with the disk and do good work when it would
be too wet to plow at a proper depth. And you can
cover the field quicker with a broad gauged disk than
with the plow. It also enables you to get your soil in
much better physical condition than would be possible
if the ground were allowed to dry out. The plowing
should be followed up soon after, but remember this point
if you have been particularly persistent in preventing
this evaporation by the disking your ground is in perfect
condition to plow, even though you have considerable
dry weather later in the spring. The soil will roll up
in a moist condition, and is susceptible to the best results
with the packer or any other tool. Follow the plow
closely with the packer, at least every noon and night.
There are few places where the subsurface packer
turns the profit it will in following the -plow in preparing
a field for corn. An experiment on the Burlington farm
in Phelps county, Nebraska, in 1904, where a strip of
land in a field being prepared for corn was left without
packing, the following facts were observed: Germination
was four or five days slower; the stand of corn much less
uniform and the final yield per acre fully fifteen bushels
less.
WATCHING THE MOISTURE.
Fall plowing is preferable at all times where the crops
162 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
can be handled so as to permit. But never plow when
the soil is dry. It is better to wait until spring and then
disk early as indicated above. It is impossible to put
too much stress on this point, and some farmers seem
never willing to accept the reports of others as to expe-
rience. Nothing short of paying the price of forty bushels
or more per acre of shortage will convert the average
man.
A most beautiful illustration of the difference in crop
yield from moist and dry soil was developed near Verdon,
Nebraska, in 1906. The farmer had in the early spring
disked a part of a 1905 corn field to raise a new variety
of oats, but failing to get the seed, the entire field was
a^ain put to corn. All southeastern Nebraska was very
dry that spring. By the time the man was ready to plow
for corn, he found 'the undisked portion of his corn field
quite dry. The field was plowed crosswise of fb^ disked
portion. He was very much surprised to nna tne disked
portion moist when he began plowing, but very much
more surprised to get 67 bushels of corn per acre from
the disked portion and only 41 bushels per acre from
the undisked. The whole field was treated just the same
after planting.
After your ground is turned over, and the necessary
work done to pulverize the surface, watch closely the
condition. Whenever any rain comes, even though it
only wets through the mulch or loose soil on top, it is
necessary to immediately stir it to dry it out.
The importance of quick work after the surface has
been moistened, even by a slight rain, cannot be too
strongly urged. In the use of the check row planter the
difference in the time of germination, the rapidity of the
young plant in ground prepared as outlined under the
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 163
head of plowing and sub-packing, as compared with
corn put into the ground in the ordinary manner, is inter-
esting. The growth of roots as shown under the topic
of root development is also an interesting matter.
AMOUNT OF SEED.
Here is another thing about which there is a great
diversity of opinion even among the experienced corn
growers of the west. Perhaps experiences have been
different. Condition of soil and climate have something
to do with it.
But do not put in too much seed. Better not have
all that you think ought to be in the field. There are
unquestionably many cases where light crops are due
to the presence of too much seed in the ground. Half
as many stalks growing would have done better as pro-
ducers, and the crop would have been two or three times
as great.
The remark is frequently heard: "If you don't put
in the seed you can't get the crop," indicating the crop
was gauged by the quantity of seed. This is another
mistake and is beginning to be more generally under-
stood. The strongest evidence along this .line is found
in some experimental work which we conducted in 1897,
where eight ears of corn were raised from one single
kernel, seven of these were well developed ears, the
eighth having corn about half the length of the cob,
both the upper and lower ends of the cob being bare of
corn. It may not be generally known, but it is a fact,
that a stalk of corn starts from five to ten ears, and
some or all of them will usually be abandoned by the
stalk before the ear is in fact developed. Now the de-
velopment of these ears depends entirely upon the phys-
ical condition of the soil and an ample supply of avail-
164 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
able soil moisture, air and plant food at all times. It
is true there are instances , or conditions that might exist
by which more corn might possibly be got from two,
three or four stalks in a hill than one. These would be
rare cases, and where by extreme heat the demands upon
the supply of moisture and plant food might suddenly
destroy the vitality, or life of all the ears that were started
on the corn, except the top one. Then a sudden and
liberal rain immediately replenishing the soil about the
roots with the necessary moisture which would immedi-
ately increase the available supply of plant food and push
to completion the single ears left on each stalk, when we
would have two, three, or four ears to the hill as against
one ear if we had but one stalk. Then again should the
dry period continue longer without any rain we might
lose all the ears, because the demand for moisture to
supply the growth and development of two, three, or
four stalks -would be just that much greater than for
one stalk, consequently the one stalk could endure the
drouth longer without suffering, and probably reach the
next rain when ample moisture would mature one or
two good ears as against none at all with a larger number
of stalks.
ROOT DEVELOPMENT.
The number of ears therefore, does not depend en-
tirely on the number of stalks growing. It is substan-
tially true that it is possible to secure as many ears from
a crop with one kernel in a hill as from three kernels in
a hill. In the semi-arid region it is much more prob-
able the one-kernel crop will beat the three-kernel
crop. However, where there has bpen storage of the
moisture and the soil is well prepared we prefer two
kernels in the hill and believe that we can get best results
from this amount of seed.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
165
In the accompanying illustration we show a single
stalk of corn and the general direction and development,
of roots. This illustration was made from several care-
ful investigations of the location and development o,'
0-SEED ROOT
-FIRST BOOT
2-FIRST CIRCLE
3-SECOD -
*- THIRD
S-FOUR -
ROOTS
Development of Corn Roots.
corn roots. In the right hand corner you will note the
figures to 6, each indicating the circle of roots, indi-
cating the first development, or from the germination of
the kernel of corn, while No. 1 indicates the second growth
166 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
of roots, which almost invariably is found to run very
close to the surface of moisture. The depth of the early
cultivation of the corn, providing we have no immediate
subsequent rains to moisten the cultivated portion,
largely regulates the location of these roots, therefore it
is well to go slightly deeper the first time. No. 2 indi-
cates the third line of roots, which 'is almost invariably
found, although starting from the stalk a little higher,
to make its way to a lower point beneath the line from
which roots No. 1 seem to feed. These roots although only
shown in the illustration as being single roots running
to the right and left as we look at the stalk of corn, yet
there is an entire circle around the stalk running in every
direction, providing the condition of the ground is such
as to encourage them. Here one can. readily see the im-
portance of cultivating as deep the first time as in any
previous cultivation, for these roots find their way out
through the soil in the early stages of the growth of the
plant. Roots No. 3, which is the second circle of roots,
are what are properly known as brace roots. These
roots, like the subsequent roots 4, 5, and 6, find their
course very largely straight down into the soil. They,
however, convey but a small per cent of moisture and
plant food to the corn. This being almost entirely the
work of the roots shown by 1 and 2. Here in this illus-
tration can readily be seen the serious results from deeper
subsequent cultivation, which might result in cutting
off many roots. We can also see the importance of all
work as outlined under the various headings referring to
the preparation and care of the soil being carefully
carried out.
RESULT OF GOOD CULTIVATION.
Here in this illustration is represented corn put ni
CAMPBELLS SOIL. CULTURE MA N TAL
167
with the check row planter, the ground plowed fully
seven inches deep, thoroughly pulverized and made firm.
Now, supposing we have carried out the necessary work
to have stored and conserved moisture to considerable
depth, five or six feet, with our plowed ground thor-
oughly pulverized and made firm, we have the best pos-
Cornfield by Campbell System, 84 bushels per acre, Lisbon, N- D.
sible condition, as stated under the head of sub-sur-
face packing, for the three all important conditions which
we so frequently mention. That of holding the greatest
possible amount of moisture in the soil, a condition to
168 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
promote the most rapid movement of moisture by capil-
lary attraction from the sub-soil up into this finely pul-
verized portion. Also a condition most favorable to
the development of roots and root hairs or feeders. Care-
ful investigation of fields thus prepared after the stalks
of corn have reached a height of three or four feet will
show almost a perfect network of these little roots and
feeders throughout the entire field. Scarcely a spot half
an inch square can be found that is not permeated by
many of these little hair roots seeking the moisture and
plant food therefrom.
With our moisture in ample quantities below, as
stated, and this perfect condition of soil and develop-
ment of roots, the growth and development of a magnif-
icent crop of corn now depends entirely upon the time,
manner, and kind of cultivation. It is not absolutely
necessary that the farmer should have a specially fine
toothed cultivator. The eagle claw cultivator, that
carries four shovels on each side of the row, is probably
the best in general use. Again we must repeat the im-
portance of watching closely the condition of the soil,
that as much of the work as possible may be done at the
time, immediately after a rain when the soil is simply
moist and the soil grains seem to most readily separate
one from the other, as in this condition the most perfect
and uniformly fine mulch may be produced.
In connection with the preparation of the soil the
farmer should never overlook the great value of summer
tilling of the soil with a view to bettering, not for one
season alone, but for many seasons, the general condition
of his soil. The marvelous results reported from fields
summer tilled in preparation for a crop of wheat may
be expected in proportion from corn crops, and it is
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 169
worthy of careful experiment by every farmer in a test
field. Few can comprehend or believe the greatly in-
creased yield possible from summer tilled fields over
ordinary fitting of the soil for crops until they have seen
the marked results from a test.
BROAD GAUGED CULTIVATORS.
Persons who have learned well that time is an im-
portant element in cultivation, also realize that appro-
priate implements are necessary. Cultivators must be
built on the broad gauged plan if farmers are to be suc-
cessful in cultivating the ground when it is in just the
right condition, a condition that does not long exist
after a rain, and manufacturers are trying to supply this
demand. A two or three-row machine is very important,
that we may cultivate two or three times as much ground
in the same length of time, and when the farmers come to
understand the importance of rapid work and the demand
is made, such tools will be produced, for Yankee ingenu-
ity is prevalent in all our big manufacturing establish-
ments.
The fact is that we have not had in the great semi-
arid belt any season when it was not possible to keep
the soil in such condition as would be suitable for good
crops with the proper machinery. Such conditions as
indicated here have been held about the roots of the corn
by proper cultivation. With the loose mulch on top, to
a depth of two and a-half to three inches, produced when
the conditions are just right after a rain, and stirred just
often enough during the long dry periods, we can prac-
tically prevent any loss whatever by evaporation from
the surface. This accomplished, the perfect physical
condition of our soil and complete development of roots
will take the moisture from below sufficiently fast to pre-
170 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
vent practically any damage from extreme drouth, and
produce a most magnificent crop of corn.
THE CORN AREA.
The corn area is greater than has been advertised
Corn is not limited to a narrow belt running through the
country. Good corn has been grown in western Florida
where it was once supposed no corn could be grown.
Good corn is being grown every year north of the Canada
line. Good corn is being grown on farms far up the
mountain slopes of the west. This does not fit in well
with what the old books and newspapers have been telling
us. What is the reason?
It is not that we have got new varieties of corn from
Siberia or Patagonia, nor is it merely that we have been
acclimating corn for these out-of-the-way regions, though
a great deal does depend on the selection of the seed for
corn.
It used to be said everywhere, and it was believed by
everybody, that corn could not be grown where cool
nights prevail. Our best authorities also declared sol-
emnly only a few years ago, that corn could not be grown
north of Iowa, nor at an altitude of 2000 feet or over.
Now we find large yields of corn have been grown at
various places in North Dakota and elsewhere at an
elevation of over 6000 feet. At Walsenberg, Colorado, at
an altitude of 6800 feet, one variety of corn, an early
dent variety, has been grown with great success for seven
consecutive years. The fifth, sixth and seventh years,
the yield was over 40 bushels per acre. The acclimation
of this corn has much to do with the success achieved,
but the greater part of the success is due to the fact of
a better understanding of the soil and how to till it.
Corn is the one staple crop on thousands of farms.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
171
It is a decidedly profitable crop where it can be used
rightly, as for instance, where hogs and cattle are grown,
Raised by Campbell method. Raised by common method.
Pomeroy Farm corn grown in the excessively hot weather of 1901;
Campbell system vs. adjoining farm.
172 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
and it can be used on the farm for feeding. But of course
its cost is much less per bushel where 60 to 100 bushels
are grown than where 20 to 33 pushels are grown. To
raise this limit means dollars to the farmer, and it is
therefore worth a great deal to him to make a study of
the problem.
SEED CORN TESTING.
It never pays to plant any kind of seed that is poor.
In one respect the farmers of the semi-arid region are
favored, because the climate is such as to preserve seed
better than in some other places; but in another respect
they are at a disadvantage, for the shortness of the season
may prevent them from gathering mature seed. The only
safe thing to do is to gather the corn for seed carefully
before the frost has got a chance to injure the kernels,
and put the corn in a place where it will dry out slowly
and surely and remain dry all winter. Selection of seed
corn from the field before the regular picking of corn is
undertaken can do no possible harm, and it may be the
means of saving an entire crop in after years.
Then before planting, no matter how careful the far-
mer has been, it is to his advantage to make a thorough
test of the corn he intends to plant. This may be done
in a variety of ways that will suggest themselves to every
farmer. The testing should be done early enough so that
if the farmer finds that 10 or 20 per cent of his seed will
not grow, or even if 5 or 2 per cent produces weak stalks,
he can supply himself with seed in some way.
INVESTIGATE AND KNOW.
The facts we have given here in this chapter on corn
ought to suggest to every farmer in the semi-arid region,
especially every one who has accepted the old dictum
that corn cannot be grown here, that he should experi-
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 173
ment and know for himself whether corn can be made a
good crop on his land. A small field for experimental
purposes is easily handled. If corn can be grown, and
yields of from 40 to 75 bushels secured, it is folly to be
trying for yields of from 10 to 25, and equally bad to be
devoting the land to some other crop exclusively. The
farmer who wishes to intelligently convince himself what
is best for his particular section would do well to lay off
three or four small fields and try corn cultivation under
somewhat different conditions, then act accordingly.
TO REMEMBER.
Here are some things to remember in connection with
the growing of corn in the semi-arid regions:
Plenty of water in the soil means plenty of corn.
No after cultivation can make amends for a poor job
of preparing the soil for the crop. Do not forget this
fact.
The deeper you can get water stored down in the
ground before planting time the surer you are to get a
big crop.
Don't get too much taken up with the idea of shallow
cultivation. The best condition is with from two and
a-half to three inches of fine loose soil.
Be ready in the spring before the ground is ready,
then at first chance get into the field with a disk and go
over the ground intended for corn. Nothing can pay
better than this, no matter whether the ground was plowed
the previous fall or not.
Cultivate your growing corn once after the last rain,
even though you may think you do not need the water
for this crop. You may need it for next year and the
time to save it is just after it has gone into the ground,
Never permit a crust to form under the mulch. It is
174 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
as bad there as it would be on the surface, and it will form
there unless you watch closely during long periods of heat
and drouth.
There is no work done, cost considered, that seems to
go further toward increasing the yield of corn than that
of early double disking where the land is not fall plowed.
Do not permit the weeds to grow. Every weed means
less corn. They are silent thieves that take away all
that you have saved up for your crops.
Be sure of your seed.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 175
CHAPTER XXI.
WHEAT.
Wheat is one of the great staples of the world; bread
made from wheat flour is the most common wholesome
food for all classes of people. It is produced over a very
large portion of the world, and yet an over-production
seems impossible except that it may be from a local
condition at a time following a shortage in a country
that may export large quantities, a sudden shortage by
drouth would turn other purchasing countries to other
sources, then when the country reached its normal pro-
duction again it might find difficulty in getting the same
trade back; but in a country like the United States with
its city population so rapidly growing, no man need fear
the over-production of wheat if it is kept steadily on the
increase.
The main object of this chapter is to show how fluc-
tuation may be prevented and a steady advance in yield
may be sustained. One thing is certain, cheap land does
not mean cheap wheat; cheap wheat is produced by in-
creasing the yield per acre without materially increasing
the labor and total cost of production. It is to this end
we have spent almost a life time, and have reached the point
where to us it seems ridiculous for a farmer to own a por-
tion of land and spend his time in directing the work and
only get 10 to 15 bushels per acre.
There are no good wheat lands in this United States
that .cannot be made to yield three and four times this
176 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
amount, and especially is this true in the great semi-arid
section, and that simply by and through a better under-
standing of the soils and their cultivation.
As there are two distinct kinds of wheat, spring and
winter, and the time of seeding so widely different, we
must of necessity treat them under the two headings.
SPRING WHEAT.,
Spring wheat in the northern sections and on up into
Canada, has become a very important crop. In preparing
ground for this crop little attention has been given in the
past to the all important question of storing and conserv-
ing the rain water. It has been simply a question of
plowing at any time when the farmer was ready to plow,
the seeding and harrowing likewise, without reference to
the condition of the soil, or the storage of water.
From 1902 to 1906 there has been a growing tendency
to early fall 'plowing. This has been encouraged largely
because of the possible rain of sufficient magnitude that
might to some degree dissolve the plowed soil and settle
it more compactly in the bottom of the furrow. The ten-
dency during the same years has been not to plow more
than four or five inches. This is because there has not
been any general knowledge of soil physics and scientific
soil culture. Therefore the attempt to overcome one evil
by committing another in the more arid portions of the
wheat belt in the northwest and all similar sections. The
application of summer culture methods as outlined in
this volume would greatly improve wheat growing, land
values and prosperity generally,
As previously stated during the past seven years of
our very marked success with summer culture its prin-
ciples unfortunately have been confounded with summer
fallow. This fact has very materially retarded its general
CAMPB-ELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 177
endorsement for the reason that almost any farmer knows
that to summer fallow tis commonly practiced is a waste
of time and money. In the semi-arid belt it scarcely
improves the physical condition of the soil and does not
materially increase the available fertility. While we have
thoroughly discussed this question under another heading
referring especially to that of " Summer Culture," yet its
work is of such great importance, and the additional expense
so little compared to results, that we cannot resist a repe-
tition in part. If the work is properly done the returns
are large. Begin first in the early spring, just as soon a
the frost is out of the ground, arid the soil sufficiently dry
to permit of disking without the soil adhering to the disk,
lapping half, so as to thoroughly pulverize the surface, thus
putting your ground in condition to prevent evaporation,
as well as to admit of the rapid percolation of the early
rains and you will be surprised at results. Keep the sur-
face harrowed or loosened by the use of some tool to the
depth of at least two inches, plowing in June or July, the
time when the other work is least pressing, to a depth of
six or seven inches, following the plow closely with the
sub-surface packer and let the packer be followed closely
with the harrow, keeping in mind that all important point
of working the soil when it is in the best condition to
most thoroughly pulverize, continuing this surface culti-
vation after the plowing through the entire season. In
this kind of work in the northwest, as well as in any por-
tion of the semi-arid belt, it is very important to do this
surface cultivating, whether it be with the common harrow
or spring tooth or disk, at a time when the soil is in the
best possible condition; that is, simply moist, not dry or
wet. Then you have a fine, even soil mulch composed of
minute lumps, a condition you cannot get if the soil is dry
178
or wet. It is when soil is in this condition that the par-
ticles seem most readily to separate, not simply into dust
but these minute lumps made from slightly moist soil when
dry will never blow.
Having had fifteen years experience in the northwest
we are well aware of this blowing difficulty on the lighter
soils, which can be entirely prevented by care with reference
to the conditions of the soil -as above stated. It is very
desirable in following this plan to keep the weeds entirely
clean from the field. Don't for a moment encourage the
idea that weeds are valuable to turn under, for there is
so little value to them that it is not worthy of considera-
tion, but the water drawn out of the soil by these weeds
while growing is far more valuable to the coming crop.
Watch it carefully. In the spring time try to catch
this ground as early as possible with the harrow, and put
in your seed not to exceed one-half bushel to the acre.
This quantity is ample.
As noted in the following section of this chapter the
largest yields we have ever got, 62 bushels per acre of
winter wheat on summer tilled land, was grown from 20
pounds of seed, one-third of a bushel. Notice cut No. 16,
which represents the ideal condition of the soil. The lower
portion of the furrow or plowed portion has been made
fine and firm, first by plowing when the soil was in perfect
condition to plow, as explained under heading of "Plow-
ing," then fined and firmed by following with the sub-
surface packer, and the surface kept loose by cultivation.
THE DKILL
The drill used is what we term the closed heel shoe drill,
with shoes six or seven inches apart. It is our aim to let
the shoe run from one-half to one inch into the firm moist
soil beneath the mulch as shown in the illustration at the
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
179
left. The seed is deposited in the bottom of a "V" shaped
crevice, as there it rests in a bed of moist soil. Germina-
tion is rapid because of the ideal condition, air in proper
quantities reaches it through the fine but loose soil above,
and moisture is plenty because the kernel is closely sur-
Cut No. 16. Wheat in Three Stages of Growth; Kernel, Single Stalk
and Stooled Out.
rounded bv fine, firm soil carrying all the capillary water
it can hold, which is quickly given off to the kernel as soon
as it comes in contact with the many moist particles.
In the center we have the blade about three inches
above the surface. This stage of growth we have almost
invariably noted on the morning of the fourth day after
the seed is deposited, when this ideal soil condition is at-
tained. Such rapid growth of the stem is due only to the
180 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
fact that a perfect root system is immedaitely established,
as shown in illustration, because of the perfect physical
condition of the soil and the large amount of available
fertility that has been developed by the summer tillage.
Remember the physical condition of the soil above represent-
ed is very easily attained in all semi-arid sections.
At the end of the cut we have the same kernel a little
later. Note the liberal stooling. The one lone stalk has
developed dozens more, and why? Because of the enor-
mous root system that has developed, and in every con-
ceivable direction from the bottom of the stem these little
rootlets have penetrated the soil, from these little rootlets
thousands of little hair roots or feeders are drinking in
the moisture laden with plant elements, sending it to the
main stalk; but small as it is it cannot begin to utilize
all that this little army of food gatherers bring in; the
result is another stalk and another until enough have
pushed their leaves into the sunlight to take care of all
that is gathered in and provided by the roots.
Now take notice that we are approaching a possible
big crop of wheat, for it is probable we have an average
of ten, fifteen, or twenty heads started to every kernel
we planted. If we can finish and mature a good head on
each stalk what can we look for in yield. Two things,
both of which are largely within the power of man to con-
trol, must be previously provided for, water and availa-
ble fertility. We may have plenty of moisture and yet
not the fertility; moisture can be stored as shown under
the head of percolation. Fertility in case of a summer
tilled field as shown above was developed during the heated
portion of the season when the soil was fine and firm,
with a loose mulch over the surface holding the moisture
at the top of the firm soil into which the air readily per-
181
meated after passing through the loose mulch on the sur-
face. With the air and the moisture, through the medium
of heat and light, chemical action takes place and the
available fertility is the result; and so long as ample moist-
ure can be supplied from the storage below by that wonder-
ful phenomenon, capillary attraction, which never fails
to do its part, all necessary plant elements or fertility
are ever available to complete the big crop.
Remember there are three requisites for the big and
sure results, a perfect physical condition of the soil, fertility
made available, and ample moisture stored below.
KIND OF GRAIN DRILL.
That the drill is by all means preferable in planting
all small grain, there is practically no denial. Especially
is it true in the more arid sections, but there are many
kinds of drills of the more common makes, as there are
three especially different methods of depositing the grain.
In cut No. 17 we show practically the condition of the
soil after one of each. There is no question but what
many will criticise some of our ideas, but we do not draw
our conclusions from theory or from short and hasty con-
sideration, nor without careful comparative tests. The
disk drill is quite popular, its draft is light, but it does not
leave the grain in anything like an ideal condition; for
the soil is lifted and left loose over and around the kernel.
Next to this is the press drill. Note the difference in
germination of the grain of the two. By packing the soil
onto the kernel with the press wheel you notice more
perfect rooting and the growth is considerably in advance
of the grain put in with the disk drill. The press drill
has its objections, especially is this true where the seed
is deposited in soil that has not been sub-packed, as was
the case from which we secured our illustration.
182
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTIKK MANUAL
In seasons of normal rainfall with the usual dry period
in May or June, the condition as shown would bring a small
yield of wheat. The action of a press wheel is somewhat
coarse and loose, or we might say the soil as it is found
by ordinary fitting is not what most farmers imagine. The
shape of the packed portion is much the shape of an egg
little end down, as shown in the cut. The result is a rapid
Cut No. 17. Effect of Seeding with Three Kinds of Drills.
early growth of roots and a liberal stooling; the roots and
rootlets, however, are mainly confined within the finer and
more packed portion as shown in cut. This fact we as-
certained by cutting a deep trench across two rows thus
planted and with a fine stream from the nozzle of a small
hand-pump, such as is usually used to wash buggies with,
we brought out the conditions shown. Now the trouble
usually is soon apparent when a dry period comes on after
the early rank growth when all the plants and all the stools
are obliged to depend mainly on this narrow packed strip,
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 183
and we have noted instances when three-fourthi of the
stalks or stools would die down in a single hot day simply
because the root system was too narrow and the movement
of moisture by capillary attraction too slow up to the nar-
row strip. Because of the excessive heat the demand of the
plants for moisture was greater than the condition of the
soil could supply, and therefore the little strip becomes
depleted of its soil moisture and down goes the plants one
after another to the number that can be fed by the avail-
able moisture through the present root system.
In the next section we see how the closed hee! shoe
drill has deposited its seed into the fine firm moist soil.
The root system in this condition is not only perfect on
the start, but is lasting because the entire plowed portion
has been made fine and firm to the very bottom. These
points mean much when you consider all kinds of seasons.
Farming is not successful farming until you are able to
overcome all possible conditions that tend to a small crop.
LISTING WHEAT.
During the past few years of desperate efforts to over-
come drouthy conditions and to if possible improve on
the methods of insuring annual crops, there have been a
number who have tried the plan of putting in v/heat with
a lister. In cut No. 18, we show the plan more for the
purpose of putting some inquiring minds right as to the
real merits of the method in the 'conditions which follow.
It is claimed by the most sanguine advocates that the great
advantage is that the rains run down into the bottom of
the furrow, then on into the soil below, to the roots of the
plants, and cause a strong healthy growth. But close in-
vestigation shows a root development similar to that
shown in the cut, and that instead of the real feeding ground
being below the furrow, it is in the ridges between the
184
CAMBPELL s SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
furrows, because here it is that the most ideal condition
exists. The mulch that lies over the top of the ridge
prevents the moisture escaping even more completely
than in the bottom of the furrow after a good rain which
dissolves and packs the soil in the bottom. In the ridge
between the rows it is never too wet and always moist, as
long as moisture exists below and with the proper proper-
iiiiiii
Cut No. 18. Showing Growth of Listed Wheat.
ties of air, water, heat and light, fertility is available.
Don't ever be misled into the idea that plants feed especi-
ally close to the plant body, but rather where the most
ideal conditions exist.
Then again be careful to observe all the facts before
drawing a conclusion. Any scheme that will provide the
proper proportion of moisture below has an advantage, but
bear in mind that moisture is not the only element to
court.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
185
PROPER DEPTHS OF SEEDING
Very much could be said on the subject of the proper
depths of seeding, for the reason that when you make a
statement as to a certain depth it must be followed with
many ifs, pros, and cons; therefore we bave provided cut
No. 19 as a base of argument. In this illustration, how-
ever, we assume that we have the ideal soil condition.
At one end may be seen the seed too shallow. Under
this condition germination is slower and the plant is more
A i / / /'//'!
ABC
Cut No. 19. Effect of Different Depths of Seeding, (a) Too Shallow
Seeding, (b) Proper Depth of Seeding, (c) Too Deep Seeding.
quickly affected by excessive heat. If the entire soil was
fitted in the more common loose way this seed would have
a hard time to exist in case of dry weather.
In the center we have the more ideal condition. Here
germination is more rapid, a perfect root system, and prac-
tically no loss of time, while at the other end the seed was
put too deep. Germination being somewhat slower, a
longer period is required for the first leaf to reach the sun-
186 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
light, then when it gets to the proper stage for growth, a
new set of roots form just at the point where air, moisture,
and heat seem to mingle in the most ideal quantities. Here
the complete system of feeding roots is established and the
root or stem from there down to the kernel withers and'
dies.
What is here shown regarding wheat is also true of all
other grains, corn included. One of the main points we
wish to establish here is that depth of seeding does not
establish the depth of rooting.
HARROWING SPRING WHEAT
The harrowing of spring wheat is not today a common
practice. Some wheat' growers have never heard it agi-
tated, but more do not believe it can be done without
causing a permanent damage to the crop; and yet we have
noted and watched results where a part of a field was
harrowed and a part left unharrowed, when the final yield
would show more than double where it was harrowed than
where it was not harrowed.
The harrowing of wheat and all other small grain is a
subject, of vital importance, but like all other branches of
soil culture there is a right and a wrong condition, a right
and a wrong time, a right and a wrong manner of harrow-
ing.
SOIL CONDITIONS
The first condition to consider is the soil condition.
Just a glance at cut No. 16. The soil at what we term the
root bed is here shown fine and firm. Note the root sys-
tem. In case of a heavy rain that would dissolve and
settle the loose mulch, thereby assisting the loss of our
stored water below, as well as shutting the air out. Some-
thing must be done. Just as soon as the surface is suffi-
ciently dry so the soil will not stick to the harrow this
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 187
field must be harrowed. While you may destroy some
plants, the loosening up of the surface brings back that
ideal condition for the development of plant elements that
means so much to the growing plant, and it would be
better in many instances to destroy one half of the grain
and give the other half a good chance, than to starve out
all the plants.
That soil condition most favorable for the perfect root
system is most favorable for harrowing. Never harrow
after .the surface has become dry and hard, but always
when moist. This is almost invariably possible at some
opportune time.
THE WEEDER
There is no place where the weeder that is properly
constructed plays its little part so completely as upon
a field of wheat or other small grain which has been put
into a field that has that ideal condition and the proper
quantity of seed has been sown. The surface can be so
nicely loosened and yet so little grain is destroyed, be-
cause of the flexibleness of the teeth, but if you have no
weeder use the common lever harrow. But if your soil
has been left so light and loose that you have no root bed,
then be careful, for it is better that you summer till the
field and get two or three crops next year, than to chance
a failure of a crop on a piece of soil so unscientifically fitted
that it will not permit of harrowing.
TIME OF HARROWING
Care must be taken to catch the soil moist if possible.
The best time to harrow is when the grain is beginning to
stool, or when three to four inches high.
If, however, the field should unfortunately pass through
the spring without rain enough to settle the mulch it is
not necessary to harrow. Then again should you get a
188
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
heavy rain and harrowing had been done and a second rain
.should come, it may he necessary to harrow again. The
great effort should be to get the foliage of the grain to cover
Harvesting Wheat Fifty Years Ago.
the soil, while the surface is still loose, in order that there
may be free access of air to the firm soil. Above all things
CAMBPELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 189
don't look upon this air circulation as a mere fad or theory.
Its importance and great value has been proven over and
over again in our work.
AFTER HARVEST
When a crop has been taken off, get on this ground as
quickly as possible with the disk harrow. Double-disking
is exceedingly valuable. The small size disk, fourteen or
fifteen inch, set at a good angle will quite thoroughly pul-
verize the ground, but with the larger disk it is impossible
to get a good condition without double-disking. Remem-
ber that the object is to thoroughly pulverize the surface
two or three inches, to not only prevent the loss of any
moisture we may have below, but to have the ground in
the best possible condition on the surface for the rapid
percolation, or getting of the rain waters down into the
soil. Lose no time after any rain in again loosening the
surface, especially upon any ground that you may have
already plowed. After the disking, plow and pack and
harrow, as stated with reference to summer culture. Should
you get any heavy rains late in the fall, lose no time in
loosening the surface to save the water, for you may need
it the following year.
When spring time comes get over your ground as quickly
AS possible with the harrow, aiming if possible to do this
before the surface gets dry, put in your seed, not too thick,
and await its developments when it reaches the stooling
point, which it will do early in the season if your ground
is in the proper condition. At this point of growth, that
is when the wheat is beginning to stool or sucker, go over
your ground with a long-toothed weeder. This will loosen
the surface and destroy the weeds. The checking of
evaporation by this cultivation will urge on your wheat,
when it will soon cover the ground, then the danger of
190
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
evaporation is much less. The rich prairie soils of the
Dakotas, Minnesota and other sections of the northwest
should produce thirty to fifty bushels of spring wheat
EASTERN COLORADO WHEAT
Crop of Forty-eight Bushels per Acre in Eastern Colorado in 1906
Without Irrigation.
instead of five to twenty, and will if the soil is properly
handled. A thirty bushel crop should be got any year.
CAMPBELLS SOIL CULTURE MA-NUAL
it/1
Don't think for a moment that you can get this rapid
growth and early heavy stooling of the wheat unless your
ground is thoroughly fined and firmed and you have held
the moisture below, forming a seed bed in which there will be
a rapid developmtnt of strong roots which is the direct
result of prolific stooling. The use of the weeder or har-
row on wheat after it has begun to stool, or is three or
four inches high, when your ground is loose and porous
WYOMING WHEAT.
Showing What is Being Done on the Fine Prairies Without Irrigation.
\vhere the roots should grow is not always a safe propo-
sition. The root development is so light that much of
the wheat may be easily pulled up and destroyed.
WINTER WHEAT
Winter wheat is a little different proposition from the
spring wheat. Here again we believe when the farmer
in the winter wheat belt has learned the value of summer
192 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
culture, and how it will not only greatly increase the av-
erage yield, but make a failure, so far as drouth is con-
cerned, an impossibility, a larger acreage will be thus
treated.
This part of the Campbell system of soil sulture if
carried out to the letter in the winter wheat sections,
especially where the crop will ripen in time to finish cut-
ting in June, will certainly revolutionize wheat growing,
not only in the more arid sections, but in the more humid
sections.
The plan should be in case of old land, to summer
till about one-third of the land thoroughly each year until
the entire- field has been gone over, then follow closely
the following plan: As soon as the crop is harvested,
double disk the field; better still to follow the harvester
with the disk; harrow or otherwise cultivate after each
subsequent rain, until as near as it may be possible to the
middle of July; then plow and follow same plan as is laid
down for summer culture, and seed again at proper time.
This line of work if carefully followed after one season's
thorough summer culture will result in further big crops,
because the disking, plowing and other cultivation during
July and August and early September, gives opportunity
for further development of plant elements as well as stor-
age of miosture for the next crop.
The experience on the Pomeroy model farm at Hill
City, Kansas, for seven years, 1900 to 1906 inclusive, at
the Burlington farm at Holdrege, Nebraska, from 1903 to
1906, inclusive, and many other points in western Kansas
and Nebraska, and eastern Colorado, and the Panhandle of
Texas, are certainly evidence that our ideas drawn from
twenty-seven years of experience and observation, repre-
sent something more than theory. They at laast carry
CAMPBELL S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
19o
very strong evidence as to the value of this class of work,
where, by this very careful preparing of the soil, having
plowed about seven inches deep, followed our plow closely
with the sub-surface packer, and the packer with the har-
row, going over our fields immediately after the heavy
rains or as soon as the soil was sufficiently dry to permit it
The 1904 Wheat Crop, Pomeroy Farm, Kansas.
we had formed a fine, firm and very moist seed bed. Under
these conditions twelve quarts of seed was found to be
ample. Its germination was so quick and the rapid de-
velopment of roots brought about by the very favorable
physical condition of the soil, caused the liberal stooling,
and in thirty days after seeding our ground was nearly
or quite covered with the wheat. The immediate disking
194
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTUKE MANUAL
after the winter wheat crop is removed is of very great
importance; as we have repeatedly said, it is of two-fold
value, as it prevents the loss by evaporation of any moist-
ure in the soil, and puts the surface in the best possible
Germination of Wheat in Soil Properly Fitted and in Loose Soil.
condition for the rapid percolation of later rain waters.
The plowing may be done a little later, and to get the best
results a good depth of plowing is necessary, and then the
plow should be followed with the sub-surface packer. Mark
you, we are after a condition that will not only enable us
to get the best possible results, but prevents any damage
by drouth and assures gdod crops annually, which means
CAMPBLL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 195
prosperity in its highest degree. A fine, firm seed bed,
or root bed, has many advantages over the coarse, loose
condition.
In the first place, one-third only of the seed is necessary,
in the next place the growth and development of the plant
is^much more rapid, and will soon cover the surface. In
the third place, the development of roots is much greater,
we are able to draw moisture and plant food from a much
larger percentage of the soil, and last, but not least, we
have a condition of soil that will hold a much greater per
cent of moisture as well as one having a greater power
of capillary attraction, enabling us to keep up the supply
of moisture which we draw from below, where, by careful
work, much of the rain waters are stored, that under ordi-
nary conditions would have been lost by evaporation or
run off.
WHEAT THE PIONEER'S MONEY CROP
Wheat is the money crop for the pioneer and will
surely put him on his feet if he will but follow Scientific
Soil Culture to the letter, whereby he makes the crop a
sure one so far as the general climatic conditions may go,
but when once on his feet he should change to mixed or
real farming.
BURNING STUBBLE
The question of burning stubble has received quite a
discussion in many localities. This, however, is a one-
sided question. Stubble should never be burned, as it is'
sending up in smoke what means much to the soil.
The usual and only difficulty is overcome entirely by
the use of the sub-surface packer. See cut elsewhere.
We not only oppose burning stubble, but favor cutting
the stubble just as high as possible, that just as much
196 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
vegetable matter as possible may be returned to the soil,
and when you get a crop after summer tilling running 40
to 60 bushels per acre then cut it as high as you can. You
can bank on increasing the humus to some degree with the
enormous root growth together with the straw,
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 11/7
CHAPTER XXII.
GROWING POTATOES.
The potato is another crop which in the catalogue
of the the western farmer is too often listed with the things
which he thinks can only be grown where there is an abun-
dance of water in the soil for the plants and to waste. The
potato is a strong grower and does require a great deal of
soil fertility, but it is not a crop to be confined to the more
humid regions.
There are persons who have been insisting for a long
time that the only thing to do if potatoes are to be grown
in the west to supply the demand for home consumption,
some new variety must be developed or imported that
will better suit the climatic conditions. This is a vain
hope except so long as little or no attention is given to
the vitally important matter of the proper fitting of the
soil for the crop.
Of course there is always danger of loss from the rav-
ages of insects and from leaf or tuber diseases; but it
can be safely asserted that these dangers are not as great
in the semi-arid belt as in other parts of the country gen-
erally. In fact the better preparation of the soil made
necersary here and the perfect cultivation which must
be followed for success, practically insures against loss
from any of these various causes.
In fact, many farmers have been making a success
with potatoes in the semi-arid belt for a number of years.
The writer has knowledge of instances in southern Nebraska
198
CAMPBELLS SOIL (TLTURE MANUAL
where in the spring, of 1901 there was almost entire ab-
sence of rain, yet one 20-acre field averaged 100 bushels
per acre, and the potatoes were sold at $1.00 a bushel.
This was with cultivation under the Campbell method*
while all around the potato crop was a total failure. Ther e
Cut No. 20. Root Development with shallow cultivation.
is really no reason why good crops of potatoes cannot be
grown all the way from the Texas line to Canada, with
right preparation of the soil and care in cultivation during
the growing season.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 199
PREPARING THE SOIL
The preparation of the soil is, in growing potatoes as
in almost everything else, the chief matter for considera-
tion. In the chapter on sub-surface packing will be found
illustrations of the different ways of preparing the soil for
the root and seed bed, from which the reader may gain
a good idea of what is meant. While we have said much
upon the importance of a proper condition of the soil when
all work is done, we must almost repeat it again, because
so very much depends upon this to secure fineness, firm-
ness and moisture in the. soil such as may be most favor-
able to a rapid and full development of roots such as will
lead them to permeate every part or portion of the soil.
In the ideal root and seed bed as shown in the cut the
soil was plowed eight inches deep, after having been thor-
oughly disked to a depth of fully three and a-half inches;
the disking having been done early our soil was moist and
was in the best possible condition to plow; as the furrow
rolled over the fine, dry top soil went under, the moist soil
coming to the surface in an ideal condition, and while
moist the particles seemed to readily separate one from
the other and adjust themselves without material resist-
ance to the desired compactness, as the packer wheels
rolled over the plowed ground, which was done quite close
to the plow.
In the illustrations given we have been able to show
only the main lateral branches of the roots. The little
hair roots or feeders may be found in such soil running in
every direction, so completely filling the soil as to draw
moisture and plant food from every portion.
In the cut in this chapter, where the soil and roots are
shown highly magnified, is something that will bear study
by every farmer. It represents at the right a section of
200
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
a branch root showing the cell formation; from these outei
cells are the hair roots or feeders A A, running through
Cut No. 21 . Deep Cultivation.
among the particles of soil represented by the dark spots;
around these spots are lines parallel with the shape of the
particle of soil which represent the film or covering of
water. The white spots represent air spaces. Now, if
the reader will look at this cut and think for a moment
that these hair roots or little tubes marked A A in their
full size in the soil are barely perceptible to the naked eye,
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 201
and then imagine that these soil grains and air spaces here
shown are proportionately smaller in their teal soil con-
dition, he can 'gain a good understanding of what is the
ideal condition of the soil to which he has been laboring.
If you are after a sure crop, as well as a good crop of
potatoes, get your root bed as near this condition as pos-
Cut No. 15. Magnified Roots and Soil.
sible. Having previously succeeded in storing a liberal
amount of moisture in the soil below, as shown in cut No.
8, you can plant your potatoes knowing you have done all
you could do to assure success so far.
SEED AND PLANTING
The planting of potatoes can be done at the time of
plowing if desired, by simply dropping the potatoes on the
side of the furrows about three inches from the bottom,
so that the next furrow will cover them. Better results,
perhaps, will come from more complete preparation of the
202 CAMBPELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
ground, as for any other crop, then planting with a potato
planter about four inches deep.
As to variety of potatoes it is well known that there
are a number of excellent varieties, and one farmer may
have a preference for one while another farmer is sure hit
kind is the best. But almost any of the standard varietiet
will do. In selecting a new variety do not get one thas
has not been sufficiently tested. It is well in trying ous
new varieties to begin in a small way and work up for seed.
The Early Ohio is an old standard variety, but it is not the
only good one. For seed we prefer large potatoes, cutting
them as near two eyes in a piece as convenient, then plant-
ing one piece in a hill. For the more arid portions of the
semi-arid belt we would plant the rows about three feet
ten inches apart and drop the seed, cut as above, about
twenty inches apart. In the lower altitudes, or where
there is a greater rainfall, plant somewhat closer. Remem-
ber, the one great point is to never let your potato plant
lack for water. If you do your crop suffers. Small and
knotty potatoes are the result of the potato plant getting
short of water at certain times, which tends to force the
ripening or maturing period. Then a sudden and heavy
rainfall or the irrigation of the potatoes after this condi-
tion forces a new and rapid growth which results in setting
a second lot of potatoes, some of which may appear on
the roots and others on the sides of the already formed
potato.
CULTIVATION
Care should be taken in cultivation of the potato not
to destroy the roots. The potato is prolific of roots, and
these reach out into every part of the soil between the
rows. Too deep cultivation will destroy many of these
roots, especially after the plants have grown to a consid-
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 203
erable size, while shallower cultivation encourages the plant
to send out its roots laterally so that the value of late
rains may be realized most quickly. There is no better
tool in the early cultivation than the harrow or weeder, if
you will use it freely and with some judgment. The long
toothed weeder may be used from the time the crop is
planted until the tops are too large to draw between the
teeth, providing you catch the soil in just the proper con-
dition, especially in the average sand loam soils. Should
you get a very heavy rain that may result in packing the
surface to a considerable depth, then it will be necessary
to cultivate with some fine tooth cultivator, as in cultiva-
ting corn, but in such case it is well to follow the cultivator
closely by crossing the fows with the weeder. This more
completely fines the mulch as well as levels it, also loosens
the soil among the vines, and cleans the young weeds.
Watch closely the condition, however, and be sure to keep
the soil stirred deep enough, even if it is necessary to use
the cultivator; a mulch of fine, loose soil of fully two and
a-half inches in depth should be kept as soon as the potato
tops get to any size, and the soil should be stirred often
enough to keep the top of the firm soil beneath the mulch
in a moist condition. This condition can be kept if you
have moisture stored below, and do not plant too thick
and watch your time of cultivation. Upon the care and
attention given over to this part of the work depends the
quality and quantity of the crop. Don't stop cultivation
wheri they are in blossom, but don't destroy the roots.
If you want to raise a prize crop put them on a piece
of summer tilled ground, plowing again in the spring fully
eight inches and handle as suggested.
204 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAT
CHAPTER XXIII.
TREES ON THE FARM.
Plant trees! It is old advice, and ever good. It was
the best possible advice for the pioneers of New England
when they planned their farm homes; it was still better
for those who went into the valleys of the Ohio and Mis-
sissippi and converted the prairies into gardens. And
so it is the best advice to be given those who are making
homes on the great semi-arid plains o/ the west. Wherever
the trees will grow and flourish there can be agricultural
pursuits ; and trees can be grown anywhere in* the semi-
arid country.
Shade trees and for shelter and ornament ought to be
on every farm of this region. We have abundantly dem-
onstrated, and can furnish the evidence that will convince
the most skeptical that fine trees for this purpose can be
grown in five years in regions regarded generally as the
most unfavorable for tree planting. And what is there
that can add more to making farm life pleasant and sat-
isfactory than a lot of shade trees surrounding the farm
house, so that at the noon hour or in idle moments the
farmer may rest out in the open air in the shade of a fine,
tree. Those who have first looked upon the barren plains
of the west have regarded this as only a dream; but the
dream is a reality on hundreds of farms.
Then as to trees for fruit, and with these the small
shrubbery of the garden for small fruits of various kinds,
and the vines. Good orchards are being grown in the semi-
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 205
arid region under the system of scientific soil culture as
we have demonstrated. The problem is a little different
from that of orcharding in the older states and where
there is moisture to waste, but intelligent application of
the principles which are necessarily followed in farming
under semi-arid conditions, will inevitably point the way
to success in the growing of orchards.
Trees for fruit and ornament and for the wood, havo
transformed the praries of Iowa, Illinois, Minnesota, Mis-
souri and eastern Kansas, Nebraska and the Dakotas,
until the very face of nature seems different. What has
been done here can and will be done further west where it
is commonly supposed conditions are not so favorable. It
will be shown that conditions are favorable, if only we
know how to take advantage of these conditions.
The traveler who journeys over the region along the
eastern line of Colorado and further west and who is able
to compare the appearance of the country with what it
was only a few years ago, must be struck with the change
which is taking place already, and if he understands what
is possible he can easily picture the still further improve-
ment possible in a few years. No farmer living in this
region who possesses any enterprise or any pride in his
surroundings but has now a fine grove or orchard, or both,
and trees healthy and beautiful.
PRACTICAL WORK
The test of tree growing is found in practical expe-
rience. Some remarkable results have been attained and
these are well worthy of consideration by everyone at all
interested in the subject. An experience at the Pomeroy-
model farm near Hill City, Kansas, covering a period of
five years or more will illustrate well what can be done.
The land selected for the buildings around which a large
206 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
number of shade and ornamental trees were set, and for
the orchard, is on a high divide overlooking the town, with
quite a considerable south slope.
The south slope is much more unfavorable than the
north, as it gets the rays of the sun more directly and catches
the force of the south winds during the extreme heated
portion of the season; but this south slope was purposely
selected that visitors might see that what could be done
under such conditions might be done at any point. For
the most successful growing of trees or orchard a northeast
slope should be selected as most favorable.
The ground for our, trees was first double-disked early
in March, 1900, plowed in April about eight inches deep,
the plow followed by the sub-surface packer, and the
packer with a good harrow. The ground was then laid
out by using the check chain of a corn planter. A small
stake was set for each tree or shrub, and nine hundred and
sixty-four of these stakes were thus set.
When the trees were received from the nursery a deep
trench was dug and all trees heeled in with tops pointing
north. Care was taken to keep the roots from the air, and
what is most important, to keep them moist. When taken
from the boxes they were quickly covered with dirt, and
water turned on. A kerosene barrel was sawed in two
parts, each half barrel was filled about two thirds full of
water, and sufficient dirt was added to form a thin solution
of mud. when the trees were taken from the trench
when the workmen were ready to engage in the actual
work of setting the trees, and put into this solution one
by one, and enough mud adhered to the roots to keep them
protected from the air and sun while being handled during
the process of setting,
CAMPBELL'S SBIL CULTURE MANUAL
207
SETTING THE TREES
In setting the trees in the orchard two boards four feet
long by six inches wide were provided with a notch in the
Peach tree, 5 months after setting, Pomeroy farm.
center and a notch at each end, both boards being cut
exactly alike. The man who dug the holes used one of the
208 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
boards, and placing the center notch on the stake pulled
the stake out and set it in one of the end notches and added
another stake in the other end notch. He then removed
the board and dug the hole.
In digging the hole the tree was examined to note the
size and shape of root and hole dug sufficiently large to
allow spreading all the roots out their full length and no
more. The man who directed the tree setting carried the
second notched board and after the hole was completed
he placed the board on the two stakes, and dropping his
tree into the hole brought the body to the middle notch,
thus holding it exactly where the original stake had been
set,
In setting a tree a helper using a hoe pulverized the
dirt that was still fresh and moist, hauling it to the roots
as fast as a man could place it in with his hands and by
the aid of a trowel. Great care was taken to work the
soil in about roots. When sufficient dirt was in to cover
the roots a quart of water was turned in. By vibrating
the tree slightly the water soon percolated through the
moist soil, dissolving the particles and settling them closely
around the roots. The holes were then filled within two
inches of the top, and then tramped firmly. Then about
three inches of loose dirt was scattered over this packed
soil, and the tree left.
This plan was so successful that in the spring of 1901
we were obliged to reset only seventeen trees, less than
two per cent, the trees all having made a very fair growth
the first year. The expense of caring for these trees in
1900 outside of the trimming, but including all other work
and cultivation, amounted to $22.00, or about $2.25 an
acre.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 2UO
CARE OF SURFACE
The plan of operation was immediately after setting
the. trees to double-disk the entire surface, because the
hauling of the wagons and the tramping of the men over
the moist soil while setting the trees resulted in packing
the ground considerably. A two-horse disk was used for
this work, which enabled us to get very close to the tree.
As soon as a rain of any magnitude had fallen, the ground
was gone over with the pulverizing harrow, crossing the
work done with the disk. This harrow is a tool pretty
generally known, and a most valuable instrument for this
class of work. No weeds were allowed to grow. About
two and a-half inches of the surface was kept constantly
loose and fine by the use of the harrow until July, when a
second double-disking was applied. The object, of this
occasional disking was to cut deeper to prevent even the
slightest degree of crusting beneath, the mulch. Then the
harrow was used, going at right angles each time with the
previous cultivation until September 1st.
LATE CULTIVATION
Up to this time we had been inclined to follow the ideas
of most orchard and tree men and horticulturists, which
was to discontinue cultivation after August, the object
being to check the growth of the tree and allow the new
wood to mature before freezing time. This idea presum-
ably is correct in the more humid portions of our country.
But in the semi-arid section we are inclined to discredit
this theory in its full extent, especially where the rainfall
is below fifteen inches. We believe the cultivation should
be continued, but less frequent. We must not lose too
much of the moisture from around the main roots and
their branches, if we would carry our trees safely through
210
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
the winter. This question is a nice one and must be
treated with care. It is proper to reduce the sap in the
body and limbs slightly, but there is danger in going into
the winter with soil too dry about the roots. Much atten-
Peach tree, Pomeroy farm, 17 months after setting.
211
tion has been given to this point by most of our agricultu-
ral colleges the past four or five years.
From Bulletin No. 52, issued by the University of
Illinois in 1898, we take the following. We quote it espec-
ially because it corresponds to our own experience and is
the result of several years of observation:
" Throughout large sections of Illinois may be found the
rotting remnants of once extensive orchards, representing
large original expenditures of both labor and money. The
frequency with which such localities are met would almost
seem to justify the statement usually heard in the neigh-
borhood where such worn out orchards are found that
the soil is not fitted for the growing of fruit. On the other
hand, the enormous apple and other fruit production in
other parts of the state, and frequently in localities not far
distant from those mentioned, makes it evident that the
reason so often assigned cannot be the correct one.
CAUSES OF FAILURE.
"On examination and inquiry it will be found to be
almost invariably the case that the true cause for the
failure or the dying out of an orchard is the lack of profi-
cient, or the entire absence of proper cultivation and care.
While the Illinois agriculturist has been devoting his time
and attention to the care of his field and garden crop, -it
is too often the case that the orchard has been left to care
for itself, with the above mentioned result. The com-
monest cause of failure in orchards in Illinois may be
traced direct to the ill effects of summer drouths, though
perhaps it is more commonly referred to as freezing in
winter. The connection really existing between these two
destructive agencies has not been often recognized. The
fact that certain varieties of apples usually accounted
212 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
hardy even to our most northern limits, and in exposed
situations sometimes fail after a winter not noted for
severity, has at different times attracted attention, but
the significance of such failures does not seem to have been
duly appreciated. On consulting the records it is found
that orchard injuries and exceptionally severe winters do
not coincide. The autumnal conditions of the trees clearly
has to do with the results, and this again depends upon
the developments of the growing trees. One of the worst
things that can happen to trees is the failure of a sufficient
supply of soil moisture. A continuous supply of water
is essential to all the vital processes of vegetation. Apple
trees severely suffer when not so supplied/'
The bulletin continues at considerable length along this
line, and then presents two very striking cuts on pages
126 and 127, one showing the orchard upon the college
farm with trees hanging full of fruit, the other of an ad-
joining farm with neglected trees uncultivated, bare of
fruit and almost minus of foliage, and the bulletin concludes
by referring to the cuts in the following manner:
"The photographs were taken in September, 1897. The
tree in the foreground of the college orchard, with its
wealth of foliage and bending under the weight of its load
of fruit, tells its own story, and stands forth in marked
contrast to the preceding picture, which is bare of fruit
and almost minus of foliage. From the contrast there can
be but one conclusion drawn, that while other things have
greater or less effect upon an orchard's health and condi-
tion, the prime requisite to successful orcharding in Illi-
nois is thorough and systematic cultivation."
While the principles involved in the Illinois bulletin
are important and valuable in that state, they are vital
with us in the semi-arid section. The prevailing idea,
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 213
and the idea usually- drawn from most of our articles, is
that the work is too expensive to make orchard growing
profitable in the more arid portions of this country. This
is quite an error, fully demonstrated by the figures given
of our own work in the orchard of the Pomeroy model
farm in 1900.
EXPERIENCE IN KANSAS.
In this chapter is shown an illustration of a peach tree
grown on the Pomeroy model farm in Kansas, from a
photograph taken in the fall after the first season's growth.
The tree had then been in the ground five months. The
trees in this orchard were all cut back to about three feet
when they were set, and all limbs cut back so as to leave
but two buds to the limb. The second season's growth
is shown in the illustration where a growth of seventeen
months indicates a remarkable result. This photograph
was taken August 23, 1901. The contrast in growth as
shown in these two illustrations ought to be sufficient
proof of what can be done in trees growing where the
preparation of the soil has been right. It shows that
without irrigation orchards may be grown in the most
arid portions of the states of Colorado, Kansas and Ne-
braska. The body of the tree shown as of first season's
growth, measured a little over an inch in diameter, while
the body of the tree after 17 months' growth measured
two and one-half inches in diameter. As the man standing
by the tree measured six feet three inches, to the top of
his hat, the reader may get some idea of the remarkable
growth of these trees. There is no reason why they should
not have made this remarkable growth, for, although we
experienced a continuous dry period, with the excessive
heat of one hundred degrees and above for forty-three
days, from June 18 to August 1, entirely without rain;
214 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
yet during that entire time the ground was amply moist
to make into balls about the roots of the trees, and to a
depth of over ten feet. During this entire time, owing to
the manner of cultivation and the care taken tosave this
moisture, this soil was practically as full of moisture about
the roots of the trees as it could hold, and had there been
previous irrigation from a ditch the soil could not have
been more moist.
SHADE TREE EESULTS
The illustration of a white elm tree on the Pomeroy
model farm seventeen months after setting again shows
what can be done on ground properly prepared and with
right treatment of the surface of the soil. Looking closely
you can see the man's hand about four feet from the
ground, grasping the pole which is ten feet high. At this
point where the hand shows, the tree was cut off when set
in the spring of 1900. The growth during 1900 was not
much, though quite as much as might be expected the
fierst year, the new limbs averaging about ten inches. This
photograph was taken August 23, 1901, when the tree
reached within eight inches of the top of the ten-foot pole.
Elms are usually considered slow growth. This illustra-
tion is certainly a demonstration of two facts, that they
will make remarkable growth with plenty of moisture, and
that moisture can be stored in sufficient quantities on the
far western prairies to supply all necessary needs of such
trees.
In the setting of trees or orchards in the more arid
portions of this belt, care should be taken to not get them
too close together. A successful growing of a tree depends
upon ample pasturage of the roots. In our orchard at
the Model farm we set our cherries and peach trees twenty-
two feet each way, and our apples twenty-two by thirty-
CAMPBELL S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
215,
two feet. No crop of any kind or nature should be grown
in an orchard if you would secure the best results. It may
seem like a waste of ground to see little two-year-old
trees standing two and a-half to three feet high with tops
only one foot to eighteen inches broad, twenty-two feet
White Elm tree, Pomeroy farm, 17 months after planting.
216 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
apart each way; but when we note the immense growth of
our trees the second year we see it is not long before the
entire space is utilized. Back of the house where we lived
in Holdrege, Nebraska, is a cherry tree that now measures
seventeen and a-half feet across from tip to tip of limbs.
You can readily see that in the twenty-two-foot distances
we only have four and a-half feet left. Now, if vou expect
the trees to make this growth, you must not interfere with
the roots of the tree, or in any way rob it of any of the
moisture or plant food in the soil. Besides, to plant a crop
of any kind would make the cultivation much more incon-
venient and expensive. A trip back to the old Eastern
States, even in Illinois, and then on through Ohio and New
York State, will disclose a radical change in methods of
handling orchards. The most profitable orchards in those
states, today, have no crops or grass growing in them;
while twenty years ago it was a common practice to seed
them down to grasses. If that kind of treatment is desir-
able and profitable in the east where the rainfall is more
than abundant; it is much more desirable in the west.
We can now cite many instances of successful tree and
orchard growing in western Kansas and Nebraska and
eastern Colorado, but space will not permit. For further
evidence of the importance of frequent cultivation of
trees read the chapter on soil culture, and for more em-
phatic evidence of the marvelous growth that can be at-
tained by proper cultivation of both fruit and forest trees,
visit the Pomeroy model farm in midsummer and behold
the lofty and beautiful shade trees growing there.
The truth is that all over the semi-arid region in the
past five to ten years there has been wonderful develop-
ment in the growing of trees and the care of orchards and
groves. Everywhere the fact is coming to be recognized
217
that tree growing is just like the growing of other things,
that it all depends on the care and preparation of the
soil and intelligent application of the principles of scien-
tific soil culture. The present error is the inclination to
be satisfied with a fair ordinary growth. Don't do that.
Get all nature can give up to you.
It is useless to apply commercial fertilizers to lands
which are not in proper physical condition for the very
best growth of crops. Prof. L. H. Bailey,
We find by the Campbell system that we can as well
keep moisture in the ground as to put it in a jug and put
in the cork. J. B. Beal, Chief Land Examiner Union Pacific
Railroad.
Nitrogen Supply. Considering all these facts and the
additional facts that there are about seventy-five million
pounds of atmospheric nitrogen resting upon every acre of
land, and that it is impossible to obtain unlimited quanti-
ties of nitrogen from the air for the use of farm crops, and
at very small cost, the inevitable conclusion is that the in-
exhaustible supply of nitrogen in the air is the store from
which we must draw to maintain a sufficient amount of
this element in the soil for the most profitable crop yields.
-Prof. Cyril G. Hopkins.
218
CAMPBELL S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
CHAPTER XXIV.
SUGAR BEET GROWING.
All honor to those who have been doing much in recent
years to develop in the semi-arid belt as well as elsewhere
in the states the new industry of making sugar from beets.
Nearly everyone is aware of the fact that there is now
manufactured in this country a great deal of sugar from
beets; but few realize the enormous quantities of sugar
made each and every year west of the Mississippi river.
The consumption of sugar is increasing rapidly, and the
Thinning Sugar Beets.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 219
demand is almost keeping pace with the supply, so that
the possibilities of the business are infinite. Sugar fac-
tories are dotting the states of the west. Many more are
coming. And it is no longer true that the sugar beet
factory must be supplied from roots grown near by, for it
is found profitable to ship long distances to factories.
The possibilities of beet sugar production in the west
are beyond estimate, and not only by irrigation but with-
40 acre Sugar Beet field at Holly, Colorado.
out irrigation many fields are being developed. In this
article is an illustration of a field of sugar beets grown at
Lisbon, N. D., on the grounds of the soldier's home by Col.
Mcllvaine, in 1897, the second year's experiment on the
same ground. It was grown under the Campbell method
o soil culture and the yield showed the phenomenal re-
turns of 46,000 pounds, or 23 tons, per acre. The illus-
220 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
tration shows the wonderful growth. Aside from the
value which can be got from the beets for sugar there is
also the great value to be got from the feeding of the pulp.
Experiments thus far show that this value is considerable,
and later experiments may add much to our knowledge of
how to utilize it. At any rate it is certain that sugar beet
growing will be one of the great industries of the semi-
arid west for the next century,
SUGAR BEET CULTURE UNDER IRRIGATION.
The following is a conicse statement of the best methods
used in the successful raising of sugar beets under irrigation.
Soil Always select your best land. Avoid using poor
land for growing beets. Also new ground should not be
selected as a good tonnage is rare under these conditions.
The ground should have been at least two years under
cultivation and if possible manured to some extent in the
fall. Stable manure is highly recommended as it will very
materially increase the tonnage. Never plant seed on
land that is sandy enough to blow.
Plowing As the sugar beet plant derives its life from the
soil, deep plowing is urged as it gives the root plenty of room
to grow down and absorb nutriment. If possible in all cases
the plowing should be done in the fall and the land allowed
to remain rough all winter, airing the land thoroughly and
letting in the moisture. It also permits the land to slowly
settle and pack which will insure better germination.
Levelling To facilitate the thorough irrigation of a
field, it is essential that the ground should be levelled as
well as possible so as to leave no low spots where water will
stand. To obtain the best and quickest results, it is wejl
to use a harrow and loosen the top soil, after which a floater
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
221
may be used to drag the soil from the high knowls into the
hollows.
Seed Bed Probably the most important thing neces-
sary to be done to insure a good beet crop, is the prepar-
ation of the seed bed. After the land has been plowed and
eveled as explained above, the seed bed may be made by
A MODERN FACTORY.
Factory for making Beet Sugar at Holly, Col. Completed in 1905,
most modern construction. Owned by the Holly
Sugar Company.
working the soil down to a depth of four or five inches and
then packing it well with the use of a heavy roller, thus in-
suring the capillary attraction for the moisture which will
germinate the seed. Be sure that all the weeds are killed
before planting the beet seed, otherwise, unnecessary ex-
222 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
pense will be entailed aside from the danger to the crop.
The seed bed should only be made when the land is moist
and in order that the land may not dry before seeding, no
more land should be prepared than can be seeded each day.
Seeding In order to secure a good yield, a good stand
is necessary. To do this not less than twenty pounds of
seed to the acre should be planted. The time of planting
varies a little with the season, but April and May are the
usual planting months. Beet drills built expressly for the
irrigated country may be secured to do this seeding.
Cultivation Cultivation answers two very important
purposes, the loosening of the crust after irrigation or rain,
and the preservation of the moisture in the ground. Special
one horse cultivators are used for cultivating beet fields.
A field should always be cultivated as soon after an irri-
gation or rain as possible in order to break the crust which
has formed and allow the plant to grow and breathe, and
at the same time it serves to kill the young weeds as they
come up between the rows.
Thinning Thinning of the beets takes place usually
about four weeks after seeding, when the young plant
shows four well developed leaves above the ground. In
thinning great care should be exercised in the proper
spacing and also the selection of the hardiest plant to be
left in the ground; also to see that the plants that are left
are disturbed as little as possible. Thinning done at the
right time means a great deal towards securing a heavy
tonnage and sweet beets.
Hoeing In case the ground is very foul part of the
field, if not all, may have to be hoed before cultivation
takes place. This hoeing should be done carefully so as
not to disturb the young beet plant.
CAMPBELL S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
223
Irrigation It is much better for beet land if it can be
irrigated in winter before seeding takes place. Irrigation
should be delayed as long as possible after thinning, and
Sugar beets, 23 tons per acre, by Campbell method.
flooding at all times should be avoided. The best way to
irrigate is to run the water down the furrows between the
beets which irrigates the roots without touching the leaves
of the plant, as when the plant is young it is detrimental to
have the leaves wet with irrigation.
Harvesting Whenever the beets are ripe, which is
224
determined by analysis by the factories, the beets are
plowed up with special plows, topped with a large corn
kniie at the base of the bottom leaf and delivered by wagon
or train to the factory.
Siloing As all the beets cannot be delivered to the
factory before heavy freezing weather sets in, it is necessary
to place the undelivered beets, after being harvested, into
siloes. The siloing of beets is done by placing leaves and
dirt over the beets, leaving a small hole at the top to pre-
vent the beets from sweating. Usually not more than two
to three tons of beets are placed in one silo. Great care
should be exercised to see that not too much dirt is placed
over the beets until the weather has turned exceedingly
cold.
SUGER BEET CULTURE WITHOUT IRRIGATION.
The growing of sugar beets in the semi-arid section
without irrigation can be conducted by following prac-
tically the same instructions embodied under the heading
ofc 'Beet Culture by Irrigation, " except instead of irrigating,
giv'e a season to summer culture, storing carefully the
season's rain-fall, following carefully the general instruction
under summer culture. Plowing, however should be
eight or nine inches deep, follow with the packer well
weighted, then work the surface with the common harrow
aiming to reach the condition shown in Cut No. 4. Balance
of the work should be practically along the same lines as
suggested under irrigation.
In cultivating such fields great care should be given,
not only to cultivate soon after rains, but watch the surface
of the hard soil under the mulch and just as soon as it
shows dryness it should be cultivated again to prevent a
crust from forming under the mulch, which it is liable to
AMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 225
do in prolonged dry periods. Some very marked results
have been accomplished by this method, while the tonnage
is not quite equal to that from scientific irrigation, yet the
yields of sugar is much better. The growing of sugar
beets without irrigation in sections where the sugar beets
can be easily marketed, will, in the near future, be very
commonly practised.
The Pomeroy farm certainly proves the truth of Mr.
Campbell's theories, or else he is a wizard. Wm. E. Curtis.
Your great work in soil culture is thoroughly appreciated
by every thinking citizen of Nebraska. The late J. Sterling
Morton.
The Campbell system is a glorious success. It is not a
mere wet season humbug, destined to collapse with the
next series of dry years. I have doubted, watched, investi-
gated constantly for nine months, and have become con-
vinced that it is the greatest agricultural discovery of re-
cent history. John E. Leet, in Denver Republican.
226 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULIURL
CHAPTER XXV.
ALFALFA.
In 1895 alfalfa was little known in the United States
except in remote localities. A few had begun to realize
something of its value not only as a great hay or forage
producing plant, but as a fodder of unusual feeding value.
Not until 1900 did our people begin to grasp the real value
of the plant which was never well established until care-
ful experiments were made by the State Agricultural
Experimental Stations in a large variety of feeding tests.
In no case was any other hay or fodders found to be
its equal except for working horses. Its producing powers
are far in excess of all other hay when conditions are
right.
In its early culture and growth it was considered to be
a low land or water plant. Little by little, however, it
has gone into the prairies until today there are many fields
of ten, twenty, fifty and a hundred acres on the high di-
vide in the more arid sections; in some instances two and
three hundred feet above sheet water. In Kimball county,
Nebraska, twenty four miles from the Wyoming line, is
ten acre field now five years old, 312 feet from sheet water
with an average rainfall of 14 inches. This field has cut
from one to two and a-half tons of No. 1 hay each year.
It is disked once and harrowed twice during each season.
This is only one out of many similar cases, showing
conclusively that with careful fitting and good care alfalfa
is a most desirable plant.
227
Alfalfa, like all other crops, thrives best under the most
favorable conditions. There is probably no point in the
raising of alfalfa more important than that of securing a
good stand. It seems almost impossible, in fact, climatic
conditions must be very favorable, in order to get a catch
of seed in reseeding spots among well rooted plants. There
is no seed that responds, or returns greater rewards for a
good seed bed than alfalfa, and yet it is a very simple
proposition, and if the proper course is pursued and good
seed used, there is practically no question about securing
a good stand. The summer culture plan, by which one
season's rain is stored in the ground, and the soil carefully
prepared as outlined in the chapter under this heading, then
sowing the seed the following spring, taking care to loosen
the surface soil the first opening of spring is best. The best
results we have ever seen in western Kansas have come
from seeding early in April on ground thus prepared, with
ten pounds of seed put in with a shoe drill with a chain
cover.
PLAN OF SEEDING.
The next best plan is thorough culture from early
spring to July, together with careful preparation, then
seed in July with ten pounds of seed with drill or twenty
pounds if broadcast. At the time of seeding the above
field there were about two inches of loose, fine soil on the
surface made by the use of a common harrow, and the
shoe set so as to put the seed from one-half to one inch
into the solid, fine moist soil beneath. The seed came up
quickly and very even, and if there was any complaint to
be made it was the fact that it was too thick. With the
prevailing price of alfalfa seed the saving of a few pounds
of seed is a great item, especially in putting in large fields.
The further fact that when once sowed and the crop estab- ,
228
lished, it is there for years to come, certainly is sufficient
argument to support the demand for thorough and careful
preparation of the seed bed.
The summer culture idea involving this storage of one
year's rainfall puts the soil in such .condition for five or
six feet down that the tap root immediately pushes on
down through this moist soil sending out the little feeders
on their way down, and the chances are that a good crop
may be harvested the first year, as was true in the case
above referred to, due only to the fact that the soil condi-
tions were perfect for the rapid development of roots, and
ample moisture to produce this magnificent growth. While
it is true that much better results are attained from alfalfa
in valleys where sheet water is eight to twelve feet from
the surface, yet a sufficient number of experiments have
been made and in some of them a sufficient length of time
has elapsed, to warrant the statement that on the majority
of our high divides in the semi-arid belt as good or better
yields can be secured from this crop than are commonly
harvested in the eastern states on the average meadows
of timothy and clover. The value of lands where the
phenomenal crops or yields of alfalfa along some of the
valleys in western Nebraska and Kansas has hardly
come to be understood, or fully appreciated even
by the people who have raised them. We are familiar
with fields that for three successive years have turned off
in alfalfa hay alone from $30 to $40 per acre, and where
hay and a crop of seed has been harvested as. high as $80
per acre has been made. The value of this plant for feed-
ing hogs, cattle, and sheep is just beginning to be 'appre-
ciated. All experiments thus far carefully conducted luivo
demonstrated that there is no fodder plant so valuable/
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 229
PREPARING THE FIELDS.
The preparing of fields for seeding to alfalfa on old
ground cannot be better explained than in the in-
structions under the heading of Summer Culture for spring
wheat to which we refer you. As stated above, alfalfa
responds quickly and liberally to favorable conditions
not only with reference to ample moisture, but the more
available fertility the stronger is your plant and the more
sure are you of an even stand.
Under no conditions can a man afford to slight the
fitting. A common remark is, "I haven't the time/' Stop
a moment and fairly and honestly consider what this
means. No one can tell what this season or the next
will be, therefore don't forget this one fact, that if you
do not do such necessary work as will guarantee a per-
fectly healthy stand under any and all conditions, you
are liable to get such dry and otherwise unfavorable
conditions as to cause a complete failure. Have you
gained anything by slighting the preparatory work if
you lose all your crop? All your time and seed counts
for nothing, you are a year behind, and no alfalfa for the
hogs after all.
Let us look on the other side begin in the early spring
and follow closely and carefully the rules for summer tilling
and put in your seed either in August or early the following
spring. The latter we prefer, especially in sections where
summer and autumn rains are common, the principal reason
is that we are less liable to get a heavy packing rain after
seeding it and before it comes up, which is very serious.
We have seen fields absolutely ruined by the heavy
rain followed by hot sun just before the seed comes up.
In sections where the heavy rains are common in spring,
and less- liable or very rare in midsummer and early au-
230 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
tumn, as is true generally on the Pacific slope, then by all
means seed in August.
If the early spring is unusually dry, then plan to seed
in the spring. Remember this fact that planting in' sum-
mer tilled soils properly handled the germination is quick-
est, and early growth is most rapid when it is clear sunny
weather and no rain. With the more common methods
of fitting without sub-packing, a good rain is necessary to
even start the crop.
The difference between the more common methods of
fitting and thorough scientific fitting is as broad as the
contrast between a safe business proposition and that of
gambling on chance games.
SEEDING ON NEW BREAKING.
Alfalfa, like many other crops, may be sown on new
breaking the same season the breaking is done and some-
times gives satisfactory results, but considering its uncer-
tainty and the difference in the value of a good crop as
against a poor crop and possibly none at all, we are inclined
to give over the whole season to preparation, for then a
good crop is practically assured.
The proper time to break depends somewhat on locality
and the time the heavy rains are expected. As a rule
east of the Rocky mountains late fall or early spring
breaking is followed with best results. For detailed in-
structions on fitting, note general matter under the head
of plowing. Briefly, the breaking for alfalfa should be
about three and one-half inches deep, using every possible
means and care to lay the furrow slice flat and roll down
solid either with the sub-packer or smooth roller, then
disk, but do not set the disk at a sufficient angle to cut
through the sod, let the disk lap half, then follow with the
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 231
steel lever harrow slightly slanted going both with the
disk and lever harrow same direction as the team traveled
in breaking. If care is taken in plowing, then in rolling,
then in disking, you will have about two inches of loose
soil. Harrow thoroughly after each rain. If this is fully
accomplished the sod will not only be fully rotted in a
very short time, but the top of the sub-soil beneath will also
become rotted to a depth of two or three inches. As soon as
this is found to be true, then begin back setting or plowing
with the stubble plow, cutting about two and one-half
inches deeper; follow the plow with the packer as explained
under the head of Plowing and Sub-Packing, then follow
with the harrow, any good harrow, getting it all fine
and firm before it has time to dry out. Look well to the
storage of later rains and be ready to loosen the surface in
early spring with the harrow and put in your seed fairly
early, governed largely by the locality, using not over ten
pounds of good seed with a shoe drill and chain cover.
If your work is all well done, as outlined, you need
have no fears of the result.
232 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTI'KI; MANUAL
CHAPTER XXVI.
SEEKING NEW ARID PLANTS.
The Department of Agriculture, which is expending
millions each year for the benefit of agriculture, has thus
far, in taking up a study of the problem of the arid and
semi-arid regions, confined itself to two things, namely,
irrigation and the seeking of new plants.
All honor to those who have so well directed the ex-*
penditure of money to make irrigation farming possible
in rich valleys that were lying fallow!
And to those who have earnestly sought new plants
that will be of value in dry regions, may they be successful
far beyond their fondest dreams !
But it will not do to place great dependence on the
finding of plants that will grow in the deserts without
application of special methods of cultivation. Indeed, Prof.
Hansen, the agent of the United States government, who
has been specially engaged in this work a number of years,
has warned against over-confidence in this regard.
"We are going to extend the alfalfa belt as far north
as we can/' said Prof. Hansen on his return from Asia
in the autumn of 1906, "and we hope that these seeds
will prove all that we expect of them. But there is no
use in expecting too much. I would not risk my reputa-
tion on any positive predictions; I can only say that we
confidently hope that we have found the right thing."
Prof. Hansen was referring especially to the seed of
alfalfa and clover which he sent back from northern Asia
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE; MANUAL 233
It appears thai 1 ho effort has been found rather to find a
quick growing plant adapted to extreme northern sum-
mers, than one which will defy drouth. Prof. Hansen
sent back from Asia the seeds of three kinds of alfalfa,
two found far north and growing where there was little
rain, and the other growing in the woods. He also brought
back seeds of several kinds of clover native in northern
Siberia where it is very cold, with short summers and
little rain. All these will be tried out in the Dakotas and
in a few years seed will be distributed to farmers. Another
thing brought back is a coarse potato suitable only for
stock food, which is said to grow in a dry northern cli-
mate. A visit was made also to the high table land in
central Asia, where, it is stated, alfalfa has been grown for
centuries under conditions very similar to those found in
the semi-arid region of America.
It does not appear, from anything that has as yet been
published, that any special information has been secured
as to the character of the soil or the methods of cultiva-
tion which have prevailed in these regions of the old world
where conditions are exceptional.
From what Prof. Hansen has said it may be fairly
inferred that he realizes fully that drouth resistance is
something that does not inhere alone in plants, but there
are other things to be considered.
The fact is that great good can and will be accom-
plished by the .importation of new plants adapted to
growth in unusual climates, but this must and will be,
by and through cultivation of these plants in connection
with systems of soil culture adapted to the regions. Suc-
cess in adapting Asiatic drouth-resisting plants and grasses
will be attained only by making use of scientific soil cul-
ture. Putting the two together will be vastly beneficial.
234 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
But the quest for plants that will grow right out upon
the western and northern prairies and make good crops
under conditions of cultivation used in the humid regions
or with little or no care, is destined to be a dead failure.
The owners of land in this region must understand now,
513 they will some time, that there are no plants anywhere
in the world that will make good crops in dry regions
without the most careful preparation of the soil.
Intelligent farmers everywhere will give all possible
encouragement to the effort to introduce new and valuable
plants, and they will do well to make a study of these
plants in relation to the very best systems of cultiva-
tion.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 235
CHAPTER XXVII.
IRRIGATION.
There is no conflict or antagonism between scientific
soil culture and irrigation. There is nothing in our teach-
ings that need be taken as in any sense hostile to the great
development of irrigation projects in the west. Neither
is the solution of the problem of the semi-arid region to be
found in the adoption of irrigation.
Irrigation farming is being carried on in many of the
splendid valleys of the west with great success. The irri-
gated area is sure to be rapidly and greatly enlarged, and
no man can tell what results are possible. The United
States government, under authority of congress, has en-
couraged this by special laws under which irrigation dis-
tricts are created and favors given to large companies, and
by direct appropriation for construction of gigantic dams
and reservoirs. That this is money well spent will not
be disputed by persons familiar with what is being accom-
plished.
But it is true that the area which may be brought under
cultivation with irrigation is limited, as compared with the
vaster areas where ditches are not possible. It is also
true that at best irrigation farming is expensive and it
necessitates special farming and intensive work in order
that it will pay. Under such circumstances the farmers
must get immense returns for their labor.
Scientific soil culture and irrigation therefore supple-
ment each other. There are millions of acres of the most
CAMPBELLS -SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
fertile lands, level and easy of cultivation, near to the
irrigation districts but which cannot be irrigated without
unwarranted expense, which receive ample rainfall to pro-
duce fine and profitable crops if the water is properly
stored and utilized.. These lands will remain useless un-
less scientific soil culture is adopted.
Then there are millions of other acres of land in the
same region, which are now used for farming in some way,
where there is sufficient rainfall to make irrigation im-
practicable, but where the present yield of crops under the
old system is not to exceed one-third what it might be if
the general principles of our system were fully understood
and practiced.
But the value of this system will be still more shown
on the millions of acres of irrigated land where best results
are not obtained. On these areas irrigation is possible,
but the quantity of water is limited, and there can never
be enough to carry on irrigation farming by the wasteful
methods so common. Scientific soil culture comes in to
greatly enlarge the area of irrigable lands by showing how
good results can be obtained by much less water.
The fundamental principle upon which the success of
this system is based is that of economical use of water,
it matters not whence it cometh, whether direct from the
clouds or from the flowing streams, ditches, reservoirs, or
wells. The first and important thing to do is to get a
supply of water stored in the soil to feed, nourish and
mature the crop in a period of dry weather; and the second
and almost equally important requisite is the ideal seed
and root bed, so vital in the success of our system, all of
which is necessary in growing crops by artificial* applica-
tion ol water required in irrigation.
Of course if the farmer has water to waste, whether
237
from ditches or clouds, he can be wasteful and still pros-
per. We do not wish to be understood as saying that a
farmer may not get a better crop with plenty of water to
turn loose at will upon a piece of ground poorly fitted
than he could with the same reckless fitting and be obliged
to depend upon replenishing his soil with moisture from
the heavens. But that is not the question today with
the progressive farmer.
How can we get the greatest results from our soil, the
labor and expense being considered? That is the question
of today, whether in irrigation districts or elsewhere. And
in fact, nowhere is it more essential to guard against waste
than in applying irrigation. The expensive thing is water.
Seldom is there as much water as there is land. The irri-
gation area is limited by the quantity of available water.
By following methods that will reduce the amount of water
needed per acre, the number of acres that may be supplied
from a given ditch or reservoir can be increased.
The ideal condition for the most healthful and success-
ful growth of all cultivated -crops is a good depth of root
bed made thoroughly fine and firm. There is little danger
in getting the average sand loam soils, so common in the
arid and semi-arid sections, too firm, while some of our
heavy clay soils if not properly handled might become too
closely compacted, but this kind of soil is not at all com-
mon. Previous to the thorough fitting of the seed and root
bed see to it that ample moisture is stored below where
nature can do her part by bringing it up to the roots of the
growing plants by capillary attraction, then keep your sur-
face always cultivated in such manner as to provide as near
us possible a fine, loose mulch of soil (not dust), stirring it
often enough to keep the moisture up to the top of the firm
soil nist beneath the mulch. The moment the top of this
238 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
firm soil becomes in the least dry there is immediately a
process of depositing of salts and other matter between these
particles of soil closing the pores and consequently dimin-
ishing the quantity of air that should freely pass through
this soil to the roots. This condition not only points to
the fact that you are allowing the air to be shut out but that
you are losing moisture by evaporation from the soil which
may be checked by cultivation. In fact, there should be
no dry soil above your moisture except what is loose and
fine.
Sub-irrigation is being practiced with marvelous re-
sults in some instances. This demonstrates clearly that if
the irrigator will watch his opportunity and will turn on
his surplus water in the fall after his crop has been removed
or during the winter or early spring, with the water stored
in the soil below and care in conserving the moisture by
proper cultivation, fine crops can be grown with very little
after irrigation.
Very large crops of winter wheat should be grown on
the average soils in Colorado and sections under similar
conditions if special effort was carefully put forth to irri-
gate thoroughly, immediately after the crop is harvested,
then double disk as soon as the surface is sufficiently dry
to do the work without sticking. Plowing later using great
care to pack the plowed portions and harrow the surface
while moist, seeding sufficiently early for a good fall growth,
then harrow early in the spring, then with one irrigation
after the foliage fully covers the surface, sixty bushels per
acre should be common under such conditions. In all crop-
growing under irrigation, much consideration should be
given to the chapters under the following headings: "Phys-
ical conditon of the soil/' "air and its importance in the
soil" and the "water holding capacity of the soil/'
PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF THE SOIL.
The one vital question that the irrigator must consider
no matter how much water he may have available is the
physical condition of the soil. Plants do not thrive on water
alone. A combination of the properties of air and water
together with heat and light are the resourceful elements
which we have, and nm?s be utilized in proper proportions
combined in the soil under proper conditions or we cannot
secure the large yields. It is folly for a man to own a tract
of land and in addition thereto to own a water-right, and
then to use them without securing to exceed one-half or
one-third of the best yield of that field; if he himself will
only do his part intelligently. The part which he must
play is that of preparing the soil, securing that ideal con-
dition which is illustrated in several of the previous chap-
ters by cuts. Following this is that all important part of
keeping the surface of the soil in condition to admit the air,
the importance of which is fully detailed under the head of
"Air in the Soil." At no time should the moisture that is
forced into the soil from the ditches by gravity be allowed
to return in any quantities to the surface and evaporate.
It is through this upward movement of moisture by
capillary attraction that many of our fields which are under-
laid with a large per cent of alkali are ruined, this alkali
when in a soluble or dissolved condition rises to the sur-
face with the moisture in its upward movement by capillary
attraction, and as the moisture leaves in a vapor, the solid
alkali is left on the surface.
Too much water is almost invariably applied to irri-
gating fields simply because we have been led to place all
faith in water and water only as the producing power. From
all our observations in irrigation, the reading of bulletins
and correspondence with people who have had yearc
240 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
of experience in California, Colorado, and many other sec-
tions, it is our candid opinion that the average irrigator
east of the rockies would produce better results with one-
quarter of water he has commonly used, together with the
scientific principles of soil culture as laid down under the
various chapters in this book. (See Sugar Beets by Irri-
gation.)
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 241
CHAPTER XXVIII.
ARBORICULTURE.
Arbor Day is in fact a national day. The people of
nearly all the states give recognition to the immense im-
portance of tree planting by setting apart a day for this
work. The late J. Sterling Morton, of Nebraska City, a
pioneer of the trans-Missouri country, was the father of
Arbor Day, and .by his zeal and interest in it he forced
recognition for the day everywhere.
Mr. Morton was for more than forty years a resident
of Nebraska. At his home, Arbor Lodge, as he called it,
is one of the finest groves of trees in all the country. Shortly
before his death he wrote expressly for the 1902 Soil Cul-
ture Manual the letter which follows, and what he then
wrote has such permanent value that it is here repeated.
He had become deeply interested in the work being done
for study of the soil and for agriculture in the semi-and
b r \L He wrote:
Mr. H. W. Campbell:
DEAR SIR After an experience of more than forty
years at Arbor Lodge, adjoining Nebraska City, in the
County of Otoe, I declare that the best method of plant-
ing forest trees is in rows running north and south. The
first row on the east should be of a rapidly growing variety,
like catalpa speciosa, cottonwood, aspen, or soft maple.
The next row should be a nut-bearing tree, like the black
walnut, butternut, or coffee bean. The next succeeding
row on the west should be, like the first one, of a rapidly
242 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTUKE MANUAL,
THE LATE J. STERLING MORTON.
Nebraska Pioneer, Father of Arbor Day, Secretary of Agriculture.
growing variety. Planted in this way, the swiftly grow-
ing trees act as nurses for the slowly growing trees. Planted
thus, black walnut, instead of putting on a scrubby growth
and looking like gigantic quince trees when they have
reached twenty years of age, run up towards the sun for
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
243
light and make good trunks of twenty feet in length. This
wood is valuable, and trees thus planted are grown with
relative celerity. At Arbor Lodge I have between 100 and
200 walnuts thus treated, which were put into the gronud
in the autumn of 1865, and if you could see and measure
them, it would be a work of supererogation for me to make
further argument in favor of this system of planting.
To grow either deciduous trees or any variety of conifers
on these plains with any degree of success, it is necessary
A PRAIRIE PARK.
Portion of Arbor Lodge, showing result of tree planting in Nebraska.
to plant them close together. All great forests, whence
have come the best timber that man has ever used for
building and cabinet woods, have been dense. The vast
pineries of the Northwest were so closely planted by nature
that it was impossible for a horseman to ride through many
244
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
of them because of the interweaving branches. To suc-
cessfully grow trees like those the forests produced, we
must endeavor to create forestal conditions.
In 1892 I planted 10,000 white pines, purchased of
Robert Douglas' Sons at Waukegan, 111. They were two
years old and averaged perhaps a foot to 14 inches in height.
They were planted in rows 4 feet apart, and the trees were
ARBOR LODGE.
Home of the late J. Sterling Morton, at Nebraska City.
4 feet from each other in the rows. They were cultivated
as corn is cultivated, the furrows going first east and west
and then north and south. They have made a remarkably
fine growth, both as to height and circumference. Many of
them are from four to five inches in diameter and from 18
to 20 feet in height. It is with difficulty that a man can
walk among them, and last summer when the drought and
CAMPBELL S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
-45
not winds were doing their worst to smother and parch
out vegetation in this section of the country, those pines
showed no indication of distress. Going in among them
and stooping down, and looking under their lower limbs,
one could not see a single particle of vegetable growth aside
from the trees. The ground was thoroughly mulched with
the needles which had fallen from them, and blanketed the
ARBOR LODGE TREES.
Part of the evergreen grove set by the hands of the late J. Sterling
Morton.
earth, so to speak, with the mold which they had created.
Removing this carpet of needles one could find moist, cool
soil at all times. The conditions about the roots of these
trees were such as their ancestors found in the great pine-
ries of Wisconsin, Minnesota and Michigan.
lilany varieties of trees have been condemned as unfit
for cultivation in Nebraska, after trying them m isolated
246 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
positions, exposed to the hot sun and drying winds from
the southwest. Trees are almost as gregarious as human
beings. No man or woman could have been perfectly de-
veloped, physically, and intellectually, in absolute solitude
and without communication or intercourse with other hu-
man beings. And just so, no single tree planted out on
the hot prairie, exposed to the burning sun all day long,
can make as perfect a specimen of its kind as can be grown
where trees are clustered together.
Arboriculture is absolutely indispensible to the conser-
vation of other plant life, and even to the existence of ani-
mal life on these planis. The independence of the lives
of trees and the lives of human beings is constant. If a
single summer should be passed without foliage, flower or
fruit on the globe, all animal existence would cease.
Your great work in soil culture is thoroughly appre-
ciated by every thinking citizen of Nebraska. Your in-
telligent efforts to benefit the agriculture and horticulture
of this state are of greater value to your race and to those
who come after you than all the efforts of all the members
of congress who have ever represented this commonwealth
at Washington. It is a gratification to realize that soil
culture and arboriculture are destined, without asking an
appropriation from the general government, to revolu-
tionize the climatic and productive conditions of the state
of Nebraska. Just as plants need light and as potato
sprouts in dark cellars seek the windows and doors where
the sun's rays occasionally stream in, so all the people of
the prairie states need the illuminating practicalities of
your researches and experiments in soil cullture, which
illustrate the method of insuring crops by intelligent tillage
against destruction by drouths.
J. STERLING MORTON.
ARBOR LODGE, Jan. 18th., 1902.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 247
CHAPTER XXIX.
SOIL MULCH OR DUST BLANKET.
As the interest develops in Scientific Soil Culture there
are frequent instances where the innocent are misled in
unintentional ways. Among the more common is the refer-
ence to the name applied to the loose soil established by
the cultivator or harrow over the tilled fields. It is very
important that this question be fully understood, for much
difficulty and trouble may be avoided thereby.
DUST BLANKET.
The name Dust Blanket is an old one and is today
very commonly used, especially by the older writers, and
as a rule is taken by the farmer to mean literally what it
says, dust. The dust blanket in the older and more humid
sections of the east where the name originated, was con-
sidered by many to be necessary for the best protection
of moisture. This, however, has been found to be an error
in the more arid sections where the atmosphere is so much
dryer. It also was found to be the wrong idea by Prof.
King in his very elaborate experiments at the Wisconsin
Experiment Station during the early nineties. In the fol-
lowing, quoted from his book, "The Soil," on page 195, he
refers to the comparative effectiveness of a mulch of coarse
quartz sand that would pass a screen of 20 meshes to the
inch, but was retained by one of 40 meshes as compared
with pulverized air dried clay of equal thickness. It was
found that the evaporation from the soil with dust mulch
248 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
prepared from pulverized clay was three and a half times
as great as from the soil with the coarse sand mulch.
The conclusions of Prof. King after these experiments
have been fully corroborated by all of our observations,
there is no result without a cause and a theory can never
be accepted as a fact until the cause is fully understood.
Under the head of capillary attraction we have learned
that moistures moves very much faster through small pores
in the soil than large ones, while it is true that soil abso-
A. B.
Cut No. 22. Soil Mulch and Dust Blanket before rain, (a) Soil
Mulch; (b) Dust Blanket.
lutely void of moisture is minus any capillary attraction
yet, when the rays of the sun in a mid-July day pierces
the soil's surface the dry dust soon becomes so very warm
or hot that a vapor begins to rise from the surface of the
moist soil below and soon the lower particles of the dust
blanket become slightly moistened; then other particles
still above, while the lower ones become slightly more
moist until connection is sufficient to lift the moisture on
up to the surface where it is lost.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
249
The dust blanket is also very objectionable in the
early spring, as a warranty deed or a patent from Uncle
Sam will not hold it when the strong March winds reach
after it. This difficulty, however, is not true in all the
semi-arid sections, especially on the Pacific Coast, but is
A. B.
Cut No. 23. Soil Mulch and Dust Blanket after rain-
Mulch, (b) Dnst Blanket.
(a)Sofl
very serious in other localities that are more subject to
high spring winds.
The dust blanket is also objectionable wherever heavy
rains are liable to occur, more especially in sections where
the soils are of a very fine texture. The tendency of a
sudden heavy rain falling upon a dust blanket or mulch is
to dissolve and run the mulch together, leaving it very hard
and compact on the surface. If the sun can reach the sur-
face a very dense crust is quickly formed and if not worked
very quickly it will soon be so hard that the common har-
row or weeder will not touch it.
250 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
SOIL MULCH.
Soil mulch is the true name for the loose soil on sur-
face intended to conserve moisture below, and this mulch
should be composed of lumps of soil ranging from the size
of a pin head to that of a walnut. To secure such a mulch
may seem difficult, but it is not if the soil is cultivated or
harrowed when moist, not wet, not dry. When loosened
up under this condition the soil readily separates the same
as when plowed in ideal condition. Careful notation will
disclose the fact that the soil under this condition takes
a granular form. The sun soon .dries these granules or
lumps and no blowing will be noted whatever.
A soil mulch composed of these minute and larger
lumps will hold the moisture below without loss very much
longer and very much more effectively than the dust blanket.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 251
CHAPTER XXX.
GETTING MOST OUT OF THE FARM.
There is much loss to farming operations, and it is a
matter of common knowledge that the great majority of
farmers fall short of achieving their best because of
the imperfection of their work. There are so many ways
that loss can come to the farmer that this is not surprising.
It may come through indolence or the inability to do that
which is nesessary. Farming is hard work when science
is not recognized. It may come through sheer waste, for
there is no other place where waste is so easy and so con-
stant unless guarded against. It too frequently comes be-
cause of wrong methods, or doing the wrong thing, or
trying too many experiments, or because the farmer dis-
poses of his raw materials, and only half completes the
work that is his by right.
That there is a right way and a wrong way for nearly
everything will not be disputed. Familiar illustrations
are found on every hand. The housewife who combines
skill and intelligence with her work prepares the bread,
and after working, and mixing, and baking, she produces
the finest loaf possible. Another with the same materials,
and doing perhaps as much work, but in a different way,
gets bread unfit for the table. And so it is with nearly
everything.
In agriculture it is necessary that the farmer, if he is to
keep abreast of the times, if he is to compete with others,
if he is to get the most out of his farming operations and
252 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
realize what he should, must put his head to work and
inform himself as to the correct lines to follow that he may
be most successful. He must learn how to handle the
soil that he will haye it at his command the largest amount
of available soil fertility, and he must know how to use
this. But he must go further and make a study of the
question how to get the greatest benefit from his crops
by diversification of his industry and by completing the
processes.
Diversified farming is a subject to which too little atten-
tion is given by the average farmer. He imagines it is
some fad or tomfoolery and that it is best confined to the
books. But it is a reality. It shows results, and that is
the important thing.
The farmer is by nature and training conservative. He
has done well; he cannot very well realize how much better
he might have done, or what is possible for him in the
future. He does not comprehend, except in rare instances,
the vast difference in final profits between doing things by
strictly scientific methods and doing the same things by
the common go-lucky way.
It is not sufficient that the farmer find out how to grow
the largest crops and get tons or bushels as his portion;
he must know what further he can do with his grain and
hay and fodder to make the end most desirable. Divers-
ified or mixed farming shows the way. Grain raising to
the exclusion of all else is not wise. It is wasteful to the
land, and wasteful to the crop itself. By raising all kinds
of crops better results are obtained.
And in the matter of preventing waste, it is essential
that live stock be added to the farm. Cattle and hogs,
and perhaps sheep and poultry, are necessary. Right
there the farmer becomes in part a manufacturer. The
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 253
conversion of the corn and oats and hay into meat, butter,
cheese, etc., is the aim of farming operations in general.
The grain must finally be fit for human food in some
form. Raising live stock is a part of the process of manu-
facturing good food out of the grain.
Dairying and poultry raising go a long way toward
completing the natural processes of the farm. Both are
possible in some degree on all farms. Sometimes best
results are possible in dairying only where there are many
farmers combined to work together, but always there is
some advantage in keeping a few animals on the farm.
As to breeds, feeding and care of live stock that is another
question one so broad that it should be treated in sepa-
rate volumes but its relationship to other farm operations
is easily understood.
It has been declared with much positiveness that the
waste on an average farm represents a value greater than
the average profit of farms. If so, then farmers have not
done as well as those who have devoted themselves to com-
mercial pursuits. The expense of operation of the great
packing plants, so it is stated, is paid in full by the receipts
from that which formerly went as waste in the processes of
meat marketing. A good deal of the same kind of economy
is possible on the farm.
In the matter of preventing waste on the farm nothing
is quite equal to cattle and hogs. Between them they
glean all that is valuable, But in addition they retain on
the farm that which is valuable to soil and which may be
returned from time to time in the form of the barnyard
manures which are essential to the best farming operations.
The application of barnyard manures to the land will go
far toward, and is one of the requisites in maintaining the
soil fertility and offsetting the evil effects of drouth.
254
The proper diversification of farming operations is a
fit subject for much study by every intelligent farmer. It
has relation to all his work. It goes to the point of con-
serving soil elements and building up the soil by develop-
ment of the necessary humus, and it has relation to waste
and to partial manufacture as a part of farm work. The
diversification may come in a score of ways. It is not
best to carry it too far or to try all ways at once ; but careful
study of the subject in connection with the local conditions
and opportunities will point the right way. It is at least
quite proper to make a specialty of some one thing.
In a large sense the science of proper culture of the soil
so as to make its properties available for the best results
is only one branch of the larger subject of properly mixing
the farm operations so as to get the most out of the soil.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL ?55
CHAPTER XXXI.
PRACTICAL RESULTS.
What has actually been done to demonstrate that
scientific soil culture is practical and that good results
follow?
The question is a proper one. The careful reader of
this manual will hardly need to ask the question, for scat-
tered all through it is given many illustrations of what has
been done, and many reports are made of specific results
attained under the system. But at the risk of doing that
which is needless, we desire here to present just a few facts
showing some of the things done, so that the inquirer
may have them all in one place to better consider them.
This work has been done by conducting experiments
at a number of places, which a r 3 mentioned in the Manual
but we will here confine our record to a few where the most
careful work was done.
First, was the accomplishment at the Pomeroy model
farm at Hill City, Kansas, far out toward the Colorado line.
This is a locality which has been regarded by many as about
as unfavorable as it was possible to find. The author of
the Manual conducted for Hon. James P. Pomeroy a model
farm, of Colorado Springs, and a great deal of what has
been learned came out of that farm. It was started in
1900. As illustrating results, it can be said that one field
that had been farmed for fourteen years, and never but one
crop cut in that time, was summer tilled in 1900, and
yielded 42 J bushels of wheat in 1901; was summer tilled
256 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
again in 1902, and cropped in 1903-4-5-6, averaging in the
four seasons fully 40 bushels per acre. The last crop, that
in 1906, a very good year, and the yield was the largest
ever grown on the land.
THE BURLINGTON FARM.
Second, and more important, because conducted with
even greater care, was the results from the Burlington
model farm. This is a tract at Holdrege, Nebraska. In
1905, for instance, wheat to the amount of 54J bushels
and testing 63 pounds, was secured from summer tilled
lands, while other lands well handled on the same farm
but not summer tilled, only gave 32 bushels testing 60
pounds. In 1906 what on summer tilled ground gave 51 J
bushels testing 64 pounds. Wheat as a second crop on
land summer tilled in 1904, which yielded 54J bushels in
1905, yielded in 1906 49J bushels testing 63 pounds.
Wheat on land well handled but never summer tilled
yielded 28 bushels testing 60^ pounds. This all showed
the marked effect of summer tilling on the second year's
crops.
Again, it was shown in experiments on a farm in Hitch-
cock county, Nebraska, in a crop of 1904, what could be
accomplished. Here a wheat crop of 41 bushels per acre
was obtained on ground properly handled under the
Campbell system, when 90 per cent of over 20,000 acres
in the same county was a total failure.
At Grainfield, Kansas, in the same year, a yield of 56
bushels per acre was obtained, when many fields around
failed entirely because of the drouth in 1903 which con-
tinued up till the spring of 1904.
Henry F. Kipp has had success with the Campbell method
in Western Nebraska, where in the summer of 1904, he
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
257
harvested from 20 acres sown in winter wheat 820 bushels
testing 59 pounds, or an average of 41 bushels per acre.
This was on land cultivated the previous year, when the
nearly eight months of drouth gave a loss of 90 per cent
of the wheat in the same neighborhood.
COLORADO RESULTS.
A number of farmers in Eastern Colorado made reports
on the results of their 1906 work in following the Campbell
method of soil culture for wheat, and here is a brief state-
ment of the same: Charles Butler, Calhan, 36 acres, 31
Sorghum by Thorough Cultivation on sod breaking in Eastern
Colorado.
bushels; W. Syes, Calhan, 20 acres, 32 bushels; E. Loring,
Yuma, 40 acres, 36 bushels; George Owens, Longmont, 72
acres, 39 bushels; E. A. Mead, Ault, 40 acres, 48 bushels;
E. P. House, Greeley, 53 bushels; John F. Wright, Long-
mont, 25 acres, 53 bushels; William Callaway, Wray, 20
258 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
acres, 62 bushels; Lee K. Klein, Loveland, 40 acres, 65
bushels; In this same vicinity the same season Bergstron
Bros., of Longmont, got 80 bushels of barley; A. Mead, of
Ault, got 75 bushels barley; and L. L. Mulligan, of Long-
mont, got 75 bushels of barley. The results show that
these farmers did not follow the system closely or perfectly
but they did get results just in proportion to the fidelity
with which they followed out the system.
Near Limon, Col. W. S, Pershing got over 300 bushels
per acre of turnips which he sold for 75 cents per hundred
weight.
In raising corn Charles H. Lee, 40 feet from water,
raised 30 acres of corn which gave 50 bushels to the acre,
and on watermelons he realized $150 an acre. Henry Swan
50 feet from sheet water, raised on 40 acres 30 bushels of
macaroni wheat per acre, and on 50 acres of corn he got
50 bushels per acre. B. Rice, 40 feet to water, got 40
bushels per acre of corn from a 30-acre tract.
Joseph Emmal, who lives near Ramah, Col., following
the Campbell sytem, reported an average of 120 bushels of
potatoes; and C. F. Butler, near the same place reports
that for five years he has averaged 130 bushels of potatoes
per acre.
E. R. Parsons, on an orchard near Parker, Col., made a
net profit of $1,345 from 1,000 cherry trees, 500 plum trees,
200 apple trees and 1,400 currant bushes. All were cared
for under the soil culture methods.
On the grounds of the State Soldiers' Home at Lisbon,
N. D., in 1897, on a tract cultivated for two years under
the Campbell method the phenomenal yield of 23 tons of
sugar beets per acre was obtained.
As to what the use of the system has accomplished in
four counties of Colorado alone, where the farmers have
made more general use of the system than elsewhere, the
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 259
land department of the Union Pacific makes the following
estimate of the wheat and corn acreage and crops in three
counties, the counties mentioned being Adams, Arapahoe,
Lincoln and Cheyenne.:
Wheat. Corn.
Year. Acreage. Bushels. Acreage. Bushels.
1905 2,000 30,000 5,000 100,000
1906 12,000 180,000 12,000 300,000
1907 35,000 525,000 30,000 750,000
On the ranch of Kilpatrick Bros., in Chase County,
Neb., in 1904, a wheat crop was grown with 30 bushels
to the acre, whereas all round, because of a seven months 7
drouth, there was total failure of the crop.
On the Burlington farm in Nebraska, 228 acres under
cultivation were handled in 1904 and two subsequent years
by two men and nine horses, except harvest time; and in
1905 the net profit on the farm was over $4,000 or $11.76
per acre on the entire acreage of 340 acres in crops, meadow
and pasture.
We give these various specific reports only as samples
of what has been done; but results have been achieved all
over the states of the semi-arid region quite as striking.
ONE EXAMPLE.
J. D. Clarkson, writing from Greenfield, Kan., tells of
the result of work being done there as follows:
"I was out east of this town looking over some wheat
fields and am sending you two samples of wheat as found
growing in the same fields not ten feet apart. One of them
was growing on ground cultivated by the Campbell sys-
tem for two years. This is the second crop. It yielded
34 bushels to the acre the first crop. The other sample
was taken from land not over ten feet away that has been
cultivated by the old method of disking the wheat in the
260 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
stalk ground. An exaination of the sample that was
taken from the land under the Campbell culture shows a
bunch of roots forty in number, ranging from two to four
inches in length, each of which is strong and vigorous. From
this bunch of roots have sprung eight stalks now ranging
from nine to twelve inches in length. This all comes from
one grain of wheat that may be seen just in the center of
the bunch of roots. On the land that was disked in among
the corn stalks I had to take five bunches of roots to get
eight stalks, and the}^ did not average more than one-half
the size or length of the others, and the roots in the five
bunches are not half as much as the others in bulk or
length. These two samples of growing wheat, taken as
they were from land otherwise just alike except in the
manner of cultivation and seeded about the same time, is
a glaring example of the value of your experiments and
researches in the interests of the f armmers in the semi-arid
belt, and it would be to the financial interest of these pro-
pie if some means could be devised whereby results of your
years of experience and experiments could be given much
wider circulation, especially for those who are just coming
into this section."
A KANSAS EXPERIENCE.
The following letter written by J. B. Beal, chief land
examiner of the Union Tacific land department, to Land
Commissioner Houtz, at Omaha, Aug. 1, 1904, from Grain-
field, Kas., tells an interesting story of results:
"You wrote me on the 6th of May in answer to a letter
I wrote you about the field of wheat east of Grainfield that
we looked at when you were here, I thought I would wait
until the wheat was harvested and thrashed and then give
you a full synopsis of the matter. All of this has taken
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 261
place. I will commence at the beginning. This ground
was plowed good probably six inches deep the first part
of June, 1903; it was sub-packed and harrowed as soon as
the plowing was completed, then after each rain, I think
a day after, the ground was harrowed over and the crust
that would have formed on the ground when it commenced
to dry up was pulverized and made fine. This tract of
land was harrowed I think seven times between the time
of packing after plowing in June and the time of seeding,
which was the 19th, 20th and 21st days of September, and
there was nothing more done to this field of wheat until
the harvesting commenced. The cost of the work, and
it was all hired done, including the purchase of the seed
wheat, was $3.25 per acre; this wheat made a fairly good
growth last fall and as soon as the warm days commenced
to come this spring this wheat began to grow and you re-
member how it looked the night we walked over it, and
this was long before we had our first spring rain. It kept
on growing until it was a good height and completely cov-
ered the ground before we had our first rain, looking all
the time as fresh as a rose. The people were watching
this wheat field, and as no other wheat in the country was
growing at all, they concluded one evening they would fix
up a test auger and go over there and test the depth of
moisture in the ground. They found it upon their in-
vestigation nice and moist five feet down, and of course
this is the sequel of the whole matter. All of this moisture
fell on the ground last summer after the plowing was done
and retained there by this system of harrowing the ground
after each rain, keeping the ground fine and loose on top.
11 We find by the Campbell System that we can as well
keep the moisture in the ground as to put it in a jug and
put in a cork. This wheat field has been looked at by
262 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
many people this summer. The ground has been carefully
measured and found to contain a trifle less than 38 acres.
"It took five pounds of twine to bind each acre, and
with the black rust that struck the wheat, the same as all
other fields in this country, this wheat yielded a little over
35 bushels per acre and weighed 60 pounds per bushel.
The people that know most about wheat in this country
say that the rust damaged this field of wheat not less than
20 bushels per acre, and my honest belief that if the rust
had not affected it it would have made 60 bushels per acre.
"The wheat sold for $22.50 per acre, less the cost of
planting it and placing it upon the market, which was $6.50
per acre, leaving a net profit of $16.00 per acre. I think
this a fair margin for $5.00 land,"
SOU, CULTURE MANUAL 263
CHAPTER XXXII.
KILLING OF AUTUMN SOWN GRAIN.
The question of winter killing of autumn sown grain
in the semi-arid belt is one that called forth much dis-
cussion along in the nineties, but of recent years we hear
but little except an occasional comment in a severe cold
period during the winter months, when the fields are bare.
This fact is largely due to better fitting of the soil bed by
the farmers generally.
Few people realize just why autumn sown grain winter
kills. Years of careful observation have proven conclu-
sively that it is invariably due to a loose seed and root
bed and little moisture. We have never seen any apparent
signs of winter killing on any part of a field that had been
summer tilled except where water had stood for some
length of time and frozen.
In the autum of 1898 a great portion of Kansas and
Nebraska had very little rain, in short but little rain fell
after the middle of August, except in the extreme eastern
part of the two states, therefore a large amount of fall
wheat was sown in soil plowed and fitted rather dry. Rain
was sufficient to germinate most fields of wheat, but the
winter was open with frequent freezes, and when spring
came much wheat was found to be dead. The writer was
asked to investigate and gave much time to the question.
Over a considerable scope of the country we found the fol-
lowing facts and conditions to be uniformly true.
Through the major part of all fields, the wheat was
264
badly damaged. Wherever we noted a horse foot track
the wheat in or at the edge was invariably green. Where
we found fields plowed round the field, at the corners
where the horses had tramped the portion in turning, we
also found green wheat. This was especially true in one
field in Northwest Kansas, where the farmer had harrowed
his field thoroughly after plowing as above mentioned and
before seeding. Other marked contrasts were shown in the
dead furrows and the back furrows. In the latter the
wheat was almost invariably found dead entirely, while
along the edge of the former we found good stands of green
wheat. These observations together with many others led
us to one conclusion, viz. ; that winter killing of all autumn
sown grain would never be known, if the following prin-
ciples were carefully observed:
1. Conservation of soil moisture.
2. Plowing of fields only when moist.
3. The use of the sub-surface packer well weighted at
the proper time.
It is exceedingly difficult to put too much stress upon
these three requisites, especially is it true with reference
to the packer; its work is most vital for the development
and support of strong and healthy plants.
We would also call attention to some very strong cor-
roborating evidence in the quotation from Bulletin No. 52,
issued by the Agricultural Experimental Station of Illinois
in 1898 referred to at length under tree growing, the sum
of which was that fruit trees winter killed frequently in
early fruit growing in Illinois, and it was finally agreed
that soil and climatic conditions were not favorable for
fruit growing, especially apples. After the Agricultural
College began to take notes it soon became evident that
the trouble all came from trees going into the winter with
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 265
little or no moisture about the roots, since which time
there has been no trouble whatever, and the same sections
have proven to be great apple producing localities, by
simply handling the soil just a little differently.
Few farmers in the central west today would think of
handling their soil as was commonly done only eight or
ten years ago, and yet they are only just beginning to grasp
the fundamental principles, all of which mean dollars, hap-
piness and greater prosperity to them.
266 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
CHAPTER XXXIII.
STOOLING OF GRAIN.
The real cause of small grain stooling is not a question
well understood by the average tiller of the soil, and yet
it is a subject that if well understood would pave the way
to the comprehension of other even more puzzling and yet
most important subjects. The simple fact that the farmer
has not understood this question has led him to do things
that has cost him money as well as bring an actual detri-
ment to his crop. To understand these principles is to
explain and make clear why the farmer should be so very
careful to carry out many of the principles laid down under
the chapters on Plowing, Sub-Packing and Summer Cul-
ture.
To more clearly explain this phenomenon we call your
attention to Cut No. 24, where we show the two condi-
tions, one of which promotes stooling the other does not.
At the left is the more common condition of the soil in the
average western field. This represents soil that has not
been packed and has been plowed when in fair conditiou
and harrowed. The root system here is not large because
soil of this nature does not carry a large amount of moisture,
on the other hand it carries large quantities of air. This
unbalanced condition brings about slow chemical action
which liberates small quantities of plant elements or fer-
tility, consequently the development of roots is but little
in excess of what the first and original main stalk can take
care of, consequently little or no stooling has taken place.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 267
Theory among many of the early farmers had it that
a period of cool days was necessary for stooling, therefore
when this period came it was as a rule hailed with joy.
This is what we should call stooling under forced condi-
tions, such as would not result in well filled heads from
the increased stools.
It is true that a cool period after the soil has warmed
up in the spring and growth of the young plant commenced
will cause stooling, but why? Because the rootlets are
gathering in the moisture laden with plant elements and
starting it on its way to light and sunshine, when the at-
mosphere cools to that degree that there is no evaporation
for the leaf, the movement up the main stalk ceases.
CAUSE OF STOOLING.
The moisture and plant elements being gathered in by
the little hair roots or feeders must materialize somewhere,
consequetnly the additional stooling or increased number
of suckers or stalks. Now these little new shoots soon be-
come full fledged stalks. The consequence is an increased
leaf surface, and when the clear, warm, sunny weather
comes on and the leaves are fanned by the warm southern
breezes evaporation from the leaf surface is greatly in-
creased, and each warm period as the leaves increase in
size and number brings a greater demand on the roots
for moisture. Under the soil conditions shown on the left,
the time is sure to come when the requisite amount of mois-
ture cannot be supplied, and when this time comes we have
a condition quite similar to the oil lamp when the oil has
been all taken out of the bowl by the burning blaze at
the top of the wick. Steadily the soil becomes drier like
the wick and finally these stools begin to die off. When
this period is reached the real damage to the final crop is
268
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
measured largely by the stage of growth of the plant. If
at the beginning of the farming point the head in the ori-
ginal or parent stalk will be smaller; if at the kernel form-
ing period, the less kernel, etc.
The point we wish to convey is the fact that coarse,
loose soils as shown in the cut at the left will not permit
A. B.
Gut No. 24. Growth and stooling of grain, (a) Growth in loose
unpacked soil, (b) Growth and stooling of
wheat in ideal soil conditions,
of a perfect root system, and will not carry to exceed one-
fifth to one -tenth the amount of moisture (see cut No. 10);
also that moisture will not move by capillary attraction
more than one-fourth to one-eighth as fast in such soil
consequently crops under this most common condition in
the past, during a prolonged drouth, had to suffer severely
or perish entirely.
THE SCIENTIFIC CONDITION.
At the right end of cut No. 24 we have the ideal condi-
tion. As shown in cut No. 16 the lower portion of the fur-
239
row has been made fine and firm. The seed has been de-
posited in the little V-shaped crevice where germination
is rapid and the little rootlets almost immediately begin
to meander about in all directions, sending out numerous
little feeders to gather in moisture and plant elements.
By this rapid development of roots, each doing its part as
nature intended, the moisture and plant elements are gath-
ered in so rapidly that the little lone stalk cannot take care
of it all. This plant element must be utilized in some
manner and out comes another tiny stalk, then another,
and so nature 'a desire for life and growth goes on in its
active work until ten, twenty, fifty and we have seen even
one hundred and two perfect stalks with wheat bearing
heads grown from one kernel.
This very marked stooling will take place very largely
in proportion to the physical condition of the soil and the
amount of available fertility. For example a piece of sand
loam prairie with a clay sub-soil such as is found, as a rule,
in the great semi-arid belt that has been cropped one or
more times, then summer tilled carefully as explained in
Chapters 8, 9, and 10, you will have a condition that will
not permit of sowing over twenty pounds of winter wheat
or twenty-five pounds of spring wheat, and if the work has
been well done and in the more arid portion of the semi-
arid sections, not more than three-fourths of the above
amount should be shown.
Stools developed under these conditions are very much
more likely to carry through and mature.
270 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
CHAPTER XXXIV.
QUANTITY OF SEED.
What the necessary amount of seed per acre is, is a
question somewhat complex, as there are many little de-
tails some of which have much to do with the quantity
of seed and the final crop result. Therefore, we find it
entirely out of the question to outline imperative rules for
the real or necessary quantity of seed.
We well remember a book published about twenty-five
years ago which had a table giving the required amount
of seed for the different farm crops. As we now under-
stand soil physics / soil fertility and the moisture question,
this table seems not only very inconsistent, but ridiculous.
For example it says "75 to 90 pounds of winter wheat per
acre on good rich soil." To cover practically what was
meant by the language we would now say that on good
soil scientifically fitted from 15 to 20 pounds of winter
wheat, and if more was sown, the chances would be very
much in favor of less yield of grain and a poorer quality
On the Burlington Model Farm in the autumn of 1904
a piece of summer tilled land was by mistake seeded with
thirty pounds of seed, and the result was straw and heads
enough for seventy bushels per acre, but it was so thick
that the straw became weak and more or less of the entire
field went down. The yield was only 46J bushels per acre,
the grain testing only 58 pounds. The stubble was so
thick, long and more or less matted that we were obliged
to burn it off to plow. This same field was seeded again
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 271
to wheat in the autumn of 1905, and anticipating less
available fertility we sowed twenty-two pounds of seed
and the 1906 yield was 49J bushels per acre, testing 63
pounds per bushel. Several similar instances have been
observed with like results, showing conclusively that we
must gauge the quantity of all kinds of seeds per acre by
the physical condition of the soil. The more ideally per-
fect the soil is fitted, the greater is the amount of available
fertility, consequently the less seed is required by nature
for the best results. As a rule summer tilled fields that
are scientifically handled require about one-third the amount
of wheat, oats or barley that has been commonly sowed by
the farmer, but careful observation in testing fields only
can give the farmer the correct idea as to the proper quan-
tity for certain conditions.
It should be borne in mind that with coarse plump seed
slightly more is required; on the other hand fine, somewhat
shrunken seeds with a healthy germ require less ; also that
early seeding requires slightly less seed than late planting.
Keep in mind that the proper quantity of seed with thor-
oughly fitted fields gives the highest yield, that above or
below this ideal quantity will diminish the yield. The rule
today is too much seed per acre; the quantity as well as the
quality is frequently less from over seeding.
For well fitted summer tilled fields the following quan-
tity of good seeds is most desirable when the seeding is done
sufficiently early: Winter wheat, 18 to 20 pounds; spring
wheat, 22 to 25 pounds; oats, 20 to 25 pounds; barley, 35
to 40 pounds per acre.
Corn to do best in the more arid sections should never
carry more than two kernels to the hill. Potatoes should
be planted early with from one-fourth to one-third less
seed than is commonly planted in the more humid sections.
272 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
The main points to keep in mind are: First and above
all things, as nearly as may be possible a perfect physical
condition of the soil backed by ample stored water below;
the good seed carefully selected, followed by good judg-
ment at seed time to see that the quantity of seed con-
forms to soil conditions, the careful after culture together
with not only an ambition but an effort each season to ex-
cell the previous crop. Remember that the average crop
is not one-thirci of the possible yield of our soils.
273
CHAPTER XXXV.
THE INEVITABLE DRY SEASONS.
The seasons change and the favors of nature are given
or withheld by the operation of laws or influences of which
we know little. No man can know just when the storm
will come or when the drouth will follow. But we do know
that, in a general way, long periods of abundance of rain
are likely to be followed by periods of drouth, and for this
we must always be prepared.
We clip a fugative item from the daily newspapers in
March, 1907, as below, in which Prof. Willis L. Moore,
chief of the United States weather bureau at Washington,
is quoted as giving warning of a drouth in the western
country. We give it not so much that this prediction has
value or causes surprise, but for reasons which are indi-
cated later. The item is:
"Prof. Moore predicts that the country is due for a long
period of drouth. The present long period of abundant
rainfall over the great cereal plains, about six years, is the
longest of which the weather bureau has any records
Prof. Moore is certain that there will be a shortage in rain-
fall soon equal to amount to the excess during the last six
years. This is based on the records of the bureau, which
show that the average rainfall during the first ten years of
a period of thirty, forty, or fifty years is precisely the same
us the average of the last ten. Many persons write to the
bureau, saying that they have been advised to buy land in
a region formerly classed as arid. It is offered for sale to
274 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
them on the ground that there has been a permanent
change in the climate. Invariable Prof. Moore answers
that the climate has not changed. Prof. Moore points out
that the country does not need as much rain as it did
formerly to make the land productive. The virgin soil is
being broken up and the trees are being planted. While
this does not increase the rainfall, as is sometimes stated,
it makes the same amount more efficient and more profit-
able, because the soil is broken up and there will not be so
much evaporation, the ground absorbing it more thor-
oughly."
The warning should be taken to heart by everyone, not
with fear and forebodings, but with redoubled effort to
solve and solve correctly and finally the problem of how to
meet just such conditions as are predicted without danger
of crop losses.
It is worth while to point out that if there are persons
who are urging others to begin farming in the semi-arid
or arid regions on .the claim of there having been any per-
manent change in the -climate they are the worst possible
enemies of those whom they would dupe, as well as of the
country they seek to populate. There is no reason to be-
lieve there will be any material difference between the
climate of the Twentieth century and that of the Nine-
teenth.
But Prof. Moore does recognize, as many others have
that conditions are changing in the semi-arid country and
that better results are being obtained. Naturally he looks
about for a cause and an explanation. He gives that
which comes most readily to hand. It is true there is no
increase in rainfall averaging up one year with another
and it is true there is an increase of moisture available
for the use of the plants. It is hardly fair, however, to
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 275
attribute this merely to the fact that "the soil is broken
up," unless it is intended by that phrase to include a good
deal more, and to convey the idea that not only is the soil
broken up, but that the farmers have been intelligently
applying improved methods of cultivation with special
view to meeting the adverse conditions which they find
all about them. With this modification the hint of explan-
ation, which may not be exactly as Prof. Moore himself
would put it, is all right.
That the semi-arid regions are better prepared now to
fight the drouth and to stand independent of the varying
fortunes of the weather, is certainly true. Yet much
more can and must be done in the way of spreading the
knowledge among the new farmers of the new west.
276 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
CHAPTER XXXVI.
THE DOMAIN OF SOIL CULTURE.
-
Who shall bound the domain in which scientific soil
culture is destined to be in fact a redeemer? It is a new
thing, but many there are who inquire anxiously as to its
limits. But no man can yet tell. It surely is far reaching
One thing is certain, scientific soil culture is not a sys-
tem adapted solely to farming in the dry regions, but it is
a system useful also to the farmer who may have in most
years an abundance of water. Let it be remembered, and
this is something within the knowledge of all, that there
are very few places anywhere on the globe entirely free
from the danger of disaster to crops by reason of waste of
the water. The farmer, no matter where he lives, is indeed
rare who has never seen his crops wither and decline dur-
ing a drouthy period for want of perhaps a small amount
of moisture at the critical period of growth.
But there are regions where it is indispensible, where
irrigation is impossible, and the plan of adopting desert
plants has not been made a success. This area is large.
Like other useful things in the world, scientific soil
culture is a child of necessity. The system was developed
in adversity. Failure was its inspiration. There is an ir-
regular and variable line running through the Dakotas,
Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma and Texas, which has long
been supposed to mark the extreme limit of profitable soil
tillage for ordinary crops. It was on the border line of the
farming regions, right where they merge into the broad acres
CAMPBELL'S fc-oiL CULTURE MANUAL 277
of grazing land, that this system of eliminating the imagin-
ary boundary line was developed under our own guidance.
Under the old system there was the long series of alternat-
ing successes and failures, resulting in an impoverished land
and heart broken men and women, for the failures were
more numerous than the successes. Here was the birth of
scientific soil culture, and here it has had its first and great-
est victories.
But a great deal has actually been done in at least a
dozen good states. In eastern Colorado splendid results
have been achieved by application of the principles, often
imperfectly it is true, yet sufficient to produce good results.
In western Kansas and western Nebraska the triumphs
have been great. Something has been accomplished in
northern Texas, and in Oklahoma and New Mexico near
by. In Wyoming and in Montana, in many rich valleys
and uplands, the good work is going on. In all these states
individual experimenters are accomplishing good results.
These are mostly homesteaders and those who have pur-
chased railroad lands. Thousands of our 1902 and 1905
manuals have found their way into the hands of men who
are tilling the soil in these states. They make use of the
ideas they have gathered there, and in due time they will
come into the full fruition of their labor and studies.
But the call is also for more detailed information and
from further west. Out on the plains of eastern Oregon
enterprising and courageous men have taken up the sys-
tem and are working it out with results that are astonish-
ing to their neighbors. In Washington and California in-
terest is being taken in the subject. We have lectured in
many states and explained the system and are having calls
to go to many of these states for furthei work.
But the system is of value also in the more favored
278 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
regions of the Mississippi valley and along the coasts of
lakes and oceans where there is abundance of water, but
where distribution is not always what it should be. Farm-
ers in these regions are making use of the principles enun-
ciated to enable them the better to increase their yields
and to make doubly sure of good crops.
Within the past year we have been visited by men from
South Africa, with a view to having our system tried there.
Letters and inquiries have come from Porto Rico, Aus-
tralia, Mexico, Canada and elsewhere, indicating that there
is demand for knowledge concerning the system all over
the world.
The soil culture empire has no limits. The system is
useful on every farm. It reaches over "oceans and moun-
tains. Over vast areas the principles are triumphing over
the perverseness of nature. And some day this soil culture
empire will be the garden spot of the earth,
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 279
CHAPTER XXXVII.
PROGRESS IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE.
A great deal is being written for the books, magazines
and newspapers about the wonderful things that are being
done in all industrial lines for the advancement of the hu-
man race. It is era of achievement. Men do things. And
as a result the sum total of human happiness is promoted
with much rapidity.
We all feel that the natural trend of things in the open-
ing decade indicates that the Twentieth century is to mark
an advancement in all material things that go to give com-
fort to mankind far in advance of the splendid record of
the Nineteenth or any previous century. The passion is
for progress, for the new things, for the better things, for
the more perfect organization and accomplishment.
Yet it is all too true that man is naturally conservative
and is prone to cling tenaciously to the good old things.
He changes only under stress of necessity. That which is
new must demonstrate its right to existence. It is ever-
lastingly true now as it has always been in the past that
conservatism stands in the way of progress. Inventors
and discoverers have had to meet and overcome conser-
vatism with its strong backing of prejudice. One such
was compelled to go to prison because he declared his be-
lief that the world was round. Another struggled for years
to get a hearing in his project of demonstrating that he
could cross the ocean and reach the Indies by apparently
going away from them, An inventor who devised a ma-
280 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
chine to sew mechanically was denounced as having sought
to take from the seamstresses their means of earning a
living. Wise railroad owners laughed at the young man
who first proposed a plan for stopping railroad trains with
air. Men who have taken the advance step in discovery
or invention, in all science and knowledge, have won their
way over ignorance and prejudice. Sometimes it has been
necessary to overcome the inertia of error as it lies en-
trenched behind years of wrong teaching. Of course the
truth prevails in the end; but to very many of those to
whom it has been given to be leaders in special lines it has
seemed like long waiting for the victory.
If there is progress in industry generally there is also
progress in all forms of industry that relate to farming.
And if this progress in most things is accomplished spite
of prejudice it holds true as to agriculture. Scientific cul-
ture of the soil is a step forward; but it has had to make
its opposition. It has proved its worth on the great prai-
ries of the west that have been given a bad name by the
early travelers and investigators. They got a wrong idea
and passed it on to others. From their ox-train wagons
they looked out upon what seemed to them a dreary waste
of more than half desert land. They had left the trees
and the wood-bordered meadows behind, and they sent
back word that between the valleys and the mountains
was a trackless plain fit only for wild and roving bands
of buffalos. It was advertised that these vast regions were
uninhabitable.
But later came the trans-continental railroads to con-
nect the oceans. Travelers whose investigations were made
from the windows of swiftly speeding cars told only of the
sandy plains. They did not stop to consider that perhaps
here was a country where Nature had left it for man to
solve a few problems by study and application. It would
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 281
never do to make the whole face of the earth ji Garden of
Eden, where man had only to gather the fruit and eat.
And so to the natural conservatism of man in regard to
all things was added the wrong teachings as to the charac-
ter of the vast semi-arid regions, and this in time engen-
dered deep-seated prejudices, which it will take many years
to remove. Then, again, there have been years of study
of agriculture following the lines of the forefathers, and
adapting the study to conditions that generally prevail
where agriculture is most favored. Here again is created
prejudice against anything new or different.
Scientific soil culture has been under the necessity of
making a place for itself despite prejudice. It has been
necessary to not only show that this method is right, but
also that old methods are wrong.
Agricultural science is making as great progress as any
other branch of human activity. The prejudices of the
past are being broken down rapidly. Men are thinking
about the matter and thinking differently from what they
were. One cannot make much progress without getting
into a new way of thinking. Scientific soil culture involves
this very thing, for he who succeeds at it must do very
much original thinking that he may work out the little
problems which no man can foresee. If the farmer who
approaches the subject in the right spirit becomes filled
with the true principle he will invariably reason along the
right lines and come out right. Its methods do not in-
volve new machinery, and in some things the methods are
but variations of those in common use, but it does involve
a new way of thinking, which is the foundation of the
science.
So soon as prejudice is wholly put away then will prog-
ress in agricultural science be on a par with that in other
more advanced lines.
282 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
CROPS, MARKETS, PRICES.
The farmer not only wants big crops but it is his desire
to get the best price for the same. That which the crop
brings, directly or indirectly, is the prime object to be ever
kept in mind.
There are a good many elements entering into the price
question and men may easily make serious mistakes. Of
course there may be at any time in almost any community
some advantage gained by taking advantage of temporary
or local conditions; but it must be remembered that the
price of agricultural products is generally more unchang-
ing through a long series of years than of any other class
of commodities. Statistics have been kept by the com-
mercial associations, including the price of agricultural pro-
ducts as well as of other things, and compilation from these
shows that the fluctuation in average value of farm pro-
ducts from year to year and from decade to decade has
not been great. It is gratifying that there has been a
tendency for many years to a slight average increase in
value.
The theory that all would be lovely with the farmers
if they could only form a trust or combine and artificially
limit the production of farm staples so as to force prices
up, or to hold grain and produce so that the marketing
could be done with special reference to holding up the
price, has little to support it. The notion is equally wrong
that the farmer who manages to have a good crop when
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 283
all his neighbors have none, or that assumes that crop
failure somewhere must be necessary to good prices at
some other place.
The ideal conditon is that of having good crops every
year and in all places. You can gain no permanent and
enduring advantage by the misfortune of your neighbors.
What is it that demoralizes prices and brings distress
to farming and other industries? Not over-production,
but lack of production. The poor crops your neighbor
has will cause you to suffer in the end.
The fact of the matter is that we shall never know a
time when production will outrun demand and the markets
of the world will be glutted. This might happen with one
or two things, but not with things in general. More and
more it is going to tax the ingenuity of man to provide for
his own necessities and desires. The area of land available
for agricultural purposes is limited and it will be nearly
all made use of in some way in the very near future. The
problem must ever be that of how to so increase production
that there will be competence for all, then how to distribute
this throughout the world.
But under present conditions, with commercial war a
perpetual thing, encouraged and guarded and supplied with
weapons by our governments, there is a scramble for mark-
ets. We of America set out to corral a desirable market
for a certain line of goods, especially farm products, and
have it well in hand when there comes a season when we
cannot supply the demand, as was the case in the early
'90's, and immediately others step in and take possession
of the field. Then when we are ready to again furnish our
To iiner customers with what they want we find that they
IK, re made arrangements elsewhere that are satisfactory
in them. Right there the evil effect of poor markets is
284 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
felt, not by those who lost at once but by all who are en-
gaged in production. A market once lost by demoraliza-
tion is hard to get back again.
But in another way poor crops in a part of the area of
production has an evil effect over all the area. The farmer
is himself always a consumer. If he is prosperous he buys
things. And as he buys things he helps to keep off the
demand for the products of many others in other indus-
tries. Thus all become consumers and all propsper together.
But with some of the farmers reducing their expenditures
because of their temporary misfortunes by decreased yields,
the total of demand for all the ordinary things of life is
materially reduced.
The true principle for the farmer is to strive to have
good average crops and have them steadily all the time,
and here it is that scientific soil culture plays its noble part.
The greatest thing that is possible for any state or any
nation or any section of country is to have assurance of
good crops every year. If this is done the price question
will soon adjust itself to conditions so that the market
problem is less and less one to cause worry to the farmer.
If there is a surplus, be it lr;*-ge or small, a place will be
found where it will be absorbed properly, and this once
established will remain permanently. Everyone will re-
joice in the good fortune of his neighbor.
The real problem of prices and markets is that of how
to guard against the distressing ups and downs of crop
yields incident to the hit and miss style of farming which
is partly guess work.
Scientific soil culture gets at the root of the problem.
It shows the way. It is directed toward making crops grow
where they were not before grown and also, and this is most
important of all, toward the making certain of good crop
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 285
every year where under the old system crop failures were
inevitable at times.
The condition which is desired is one of assurance of
good crops, with the consequent assurance of fair and
steady prices, and this state of affairs running through a
series of years unchanged, not a fluctuating and uncertain
condition with an occasional good crop sandwiched in be-
tween several poor ones and some failures and when this
condition becomes general, as it will, there will be no more
complaint of market demoralization and no desire to com-
bine to limit crop production and exact high prices.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
CHAPTER XXXIX.
WORLD WIDE FAME OF THIS WORK.
It is a matter of genuine pride and satisfaction that there
has come to be, even though it is after years of waiting,
almost world wide recogniton of the truth of what we have
been teaching as to the proper method of conducting farm
operations on the semi-arid soils. Of course it is a matter
which, from our standpoint, cannot be explained, why far-
mers and students generally have been so slow to see the
truth, but we make due allowance for the momentum of
centuries of conservatism.
But if recognition of the truth comes apparently very
late it seems to be coming with added force and greater
meaning. Within recent months we have had evidence of
a desire to know more of the system coming from far off
lands on the other side of the world, and there is a demand
for some information on the subject in many countries.
The system of scientific soil culture has forced itself to the
attention of many of the best students and writers of the
country. In the Century Magazine for July, 1906, there
appeared a discussion of the whole subject by John L.
Cowan, of Albuquerque, N. M. In the World's Work the
same season appeared another similar article by Herbert
Quick, the talented writer. William E. Curtis, a famous
correspondent writing for the Chicago Record-Herald, told
at length in July, 1905, of the work being done by the
Campbell method in Kansas and elsewhere. The western
newspapers have been filled with information on the sub-
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 287
ject. The Northwestern Miller, of Minneapolis, in Novem-
ber, 1906, gave five pages and over to a presentation of
facts regarding the system from the pen of Mr. Cowan.
Some excerpts from these various articles will show how
the world is coming to regard the work.
SALVATION OF THE DRY BELT.
From the article by Herbert Quick in the World's Work
Magazine the following excerpts are taken:
Since Cain first tilled the soil, many a new thing has been
seen in agriculture, but in the actual handling of the soil,
perhaps not many. A picture of the year's work of the
man who without irrigation successfully farms the semi-
arid prairies of the "Grat American Desert," however,
shows some striking novelties, heralding perhaps an agri-
cultural revolution.
The achievements of Luther Burbank in plant breeding
have recently held general attention. I am glad here to
put forth the name of Mr. Burbank (at least in the generous
emulation of those who are striving to conquer nature)
that of Hardy W. Campbell, a Vermont man who formerly
lived in South Dakota and now lives in Lincoln, Neb. The
originator of the "Campbell Method" of "Dry Farming,"
he is teaching the so-called arid west that it is not arid if
it but uses properly, ordinary rainfall that its climate yields.
Mr. Campbell, without irrigation, can make crops grow
on hundreds of thousands of semi-arid square miles of
"desert" that otherwise would be fruitless and flowerless
except for the wild growths, sparse and unprofitable, indi-
genous to such land and climate. In the natural habitat
of the cactus, he grows wheat, corn, and vegetables. Be-
tween the Missouri river and the mountains, "dry farm-
ing" has become a phase of hope.
288 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
The Campbell method has fought its way to acceptance
through its results only. Its- first victory was won in 1894
in Brown county, S. D., when Mr. Campbell grew 142
bushels of potatoes per acre in competition with his uncon-
verted neighbors, who undertook by old methods to sur-
pass the new way, and met failure from severe drought.
In the autumn Mr. Campbell's field was moist to a depth
of six feet, though all others were dry as dust to an inde-
finite depth. In October, 1895, the same field showed ten
feet of moisture a clear evidence of gain on the drouth.
Mr. Campbell was testing his system patiently, and by
true scientific methods, and this year sent many test tubes
of earth to the department of Agriculture at Washington
for moisture tests. The following table shows the re-
sults of these tests from two fields: No. 1, under the
Campbell method; No. 2, under ordinary tillage. Similar
results are found in all these tests. The table covers the
first ten tests of July, at the Hastings, Neb., station.
Date Ins. rainfall
No. 1 No. 2
July 1st, None, 18.49 9.71
" 3d, " 18.30 9.68
" 4th, " 18.30 10.25
" 5th, " 19.89 9.16
" 6th, " 19.19 10.33
" 7th, " 17.04 9.85
" 8th, 1-16 inch, 18.85 10.00
" 9th, None, 18.37 8.62
11 10th, " 17.36 8.90
" llth, " 16.29 8.23
The significant thing shown in this table is the uniform
moisture of the Campbell fields, at the level most favorable
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 289
to plant growth, as well as its constant excess over the
others. The writer has found the soil in Campbell's fields
moist enough to be squeezed into a ball, while identical
soil fifty feet away, cultivated by ordinary methods, would
blow away in dust when released.
The Campbell method is spoken of as the salvation of
the dry belt. The work is an enormous one, that of chang-
ing the traditional methods of plowing and harrowing and
tilling of a whole farming population. The wonder is,
not that his progress has been so slow, but that in the ten
years of his active apostolate (for such his life has been)
*his useful and patient man has accomplished so much.
RESULTS DECLARED TO BE REMARKABLE.
William E. Curtis, traveler and author, went to Hill
City, Kansas, in the summer of 1905, and from there
wrote a two-column article for the Chicago Record-Herald
in which he said:
What is known as the Campbell method of "dry farm-
ing" is being practiced on the semi-arid plains of western
Kansas and eastern Colorado with remarkable success.
The results accomplished on several model farms, under
the direction of the inventor, discoverer or promoter
whichever you prefer to call him are remarkable, and
are entitled to the respect of every one who is interested
in the development of the high, dry plains between the
Rocky mountains and the Missouri river.
Any one who has doubts of the practicability of the
Campbell system should go to Hill City, Kansas, and com-
pare the crops on the Pomeroy farm with those upon the
farms which surround it, for the fields of wheat, corn, oats,
potatoes and everything else that is growing will be four
or five times as great as will be the harvest on the other
side of the fences.
290
Mr. Campbell has been working in North Dakota, South
Dakota, Nebraska and Kansas, for twenty years or more
trying to induce farmers to adopt his plan of "soil culture,"
as he calls it, and everywhere he has been, from the James
river in the north to the Arkansas, he has been equally
successful in producing without irrigation the same results
that are usally expected with irrigation with compara-
tively little more expense. There is no secret about it.
The whole thing is simply the exercise of care and patience,
and any man of ordinary intelligence can work it as well as
a college professor could if he only learns how.
The Pomeroy farm certainly proves the truth of Mr.
Campbell's theories, or else he is a wizard. The orchard,
five years old, is equal to any I have ever seen; the hedges
that divide the fields and surround the garden are as high
as the head of a man; the vegetable garden, the berry
bushes, the flowers and the foliage are equal to any that
you can find upon the best irrigated farm in California;
while the wheat, corn and potatoes are simply perfect.
The farm across the road looks skinny and shabby;
the gaps oetween the rows of corn; the bald spots in the
wheat, and the feeble poatoes look as if a conspiracy had
been set up to furnish as striking a contrast as possible.
From one field as Mr. Campbell says, he expects to har-
vest fifty-six bushels of wheat to the acre by his system.
On the other side of the fence, where the ordinary meth-
ods have been used, it will not pan out more than seven
or eight bushels, and it is the same soil and the same
rainfall.
ESSENTIALLY SCIENTIFIC FARMING.
John L. Cowan, writing in the Century Magazine for
July, 1906, gave something of what had been done, and ne
said:
JAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 291
It has been demonstrated on many model farms main-
tained by western railroads and on hundreds of private
farms, that all that is necessary on the plains and in the
inter-mountain parks and valleys is intelligently to make
the most of the rains and snows that fall in order to grow
as good crops as can be raised anywhere. In other words,
farming methods must be adapted to natural conditions.
This seems so simple and self-evident that the only wonder
that men have been so slow in finding it out. It ought not
to be hard to believe that lands that produce the rich
buffalo and grama grasses of the plains without cultiva-
tion, can be made to produce crops still more valuable
with cultivation adapted to the soil and climate.
However, what the National Department of Agricul-
ture, the various state governmnts, and the great railroad
corporations have at last been made to see, has been dem-
onstrated every season for twenty years consecutive by
Mr. H. W. Campbell, of Lincoln, Nebraska, the pioneer
"dry farmer" of arid America. In sc'ores of places from
the James river to the Arkansas he has been uniformly
successful in producing without irrigation the same results
that are expected with irrigation, with comparatively little
additional expense, but not without more watchfulness
and care. What western people have become accustomed
to calling the "Campbell system of dry farming" consists
simply in the exercise of intelligence, care, patience, and
industry.
Dry farming is essentiallv scientific farming, and for
that reason the term used by Mr. Campbell, "scientific
soil culture," is perhaps, more truly descriptive than the
popular term. Nevertheless, its principles can be, and are
applied just as successfully by men who have as little of
the education of the schools as they are by the college grad-
292 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
uates. However, no farmer in the arid belt need hope
for even moderate success without unceasing diligence.
Twenty years ago Mr. J. P. Pomeroy, now of Colorado
Springs, acquired 30,000 acres of land in Graham county,
western Kansas, and founded Hill City almost in the center
of the tract. For fourteen years portions of this tract were
cultivated by old-fashioned methods. In all that time
only one good crop was harvested, that being in a season
when the rainfall was abnormally large. He had heard of
Mr. Campbell and his system of dry farming and sent for
him, telling him to go ahead and shew him just what he
could do on land on which profitable farming by ordinary
methods had proven to be impossible. Mr. Campbell laid
out a model farm on the very land that had been tried often
with discouraging results. Last season the sixth successive
crop was harvested. In the fourteen years in which old-
fashioned methods were followed, thirteen failures were
scored. In the six years in which the Campbell
system has been on trial on the same lands, a crop failure
has been unknown. The smallest yield of wheat per acre
in that time has been thirty-five bushels, while farmers
close by have never obtained more than thirteen bushels
per acre, and very rarely even that. The yields of corn,
oats, potatoes, alfalfa, berries, small fruits, and vegetables
is equal to that obtained from the average irrigated farms
around Greeley, Fort Collins, Grand Junction, and other
parts of Colorado ' 'under the ditch." On this farm there
is also a six-year-old orchard that is in prime condition, the
trees being as large as eight-year-old trees in the famous
fruit growing district of Palisades. A more complete
vindication of all the claims made by the advocates of the
practicability of farming on the plains without irrigation
could not well be imagined,
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 293
CHAPTER XL.
GOOD FARMING AND GOOD MORALS.
Perhaps it is not fair to assert that for the preservation
of the morals of a people dependence must be placed entirely
on the farming class; but it is not going a bit too far to
insist that as between good farming and poor farming
there is a difference as wide as the poles are separated in
their relation to the morals of the people.
Did you ever pass an old farm, with broken fences over-
grown with weeds, with ramshackle sheds and a nouse
with unmended roof, with exposed corn bins, and a few
racing hogs browsing along the hedge rows? And if you
have, do you not recall that involuntarily you peeked
around the corners expecting to find the head of the family
in keeping with his surroundings and living a life not at all
to be made use of as an example? Of course not every
farmer struggling against odds on a half-barren farm is
below the standard in methods of living. There may be
high thinking and genuine love for all that is best in the
world and this amid surroundings not at all congenial.
But usually if there is a desire for the better life, there is
some sign displayed by which the keen observer may
know that conditions are but temporary.
But you pause at the gate near a modest cottage neatly
painted, and about the place there is an air of neatness
and cleanness and good living, and you expect to find, and
usually do find, a family living the happy and contented
life.
294 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
Now there is nothing that will go so far toward chang-
ing the life of a man or of a family to the better things as
prosperity. Poverty is a demoralizing influence. Idleness
is next of kin to sin. And idleness is closely associated
with poor farming. Whatever tends to give the people
more of the material comforts of life helps to raise them
up. It is easier to be good when one has had a fine dinner.
Scientific soil culture points the way to greater pros-
perity on the farm. It means steady large results with no
losses. It means that farming operations are reduced to
a science. With an understanding of its principles and
such application of the same as to produce the results
which are always possible, it means the raising of the
average of living to a higher plane. It means more home
comforts, better farm equipment, finer houses and barns,
good roads, telephone, and trolley lines, and above all else
support of the schools and the churches.
It is a most excellent thing for any community to give
support to the schools and the churches. The benefits
come in many ways. They are not all visionary. And a
people who do support schools and churches are not the
up-grade at all times. They help to better conditions in
the cities and towns. They give to the cities the ablest
of the men in all walks of life. But unless there is actual
success in farm operations the influence nay be the other
way. Discontent on the farm is a dangerous thing and has
sent many a noble boy and girl to the city with high hopes
of betterment which too often have proved a bitter failure.
It is because of the fact that the state and the nation
are vitally interested in the welfare of the farming popu-
lation that public sentiment supports with hearty unanim-
ity the expenditures of millions annually to improve the
farming conditions. The state cannot be a good state
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 295
unless its people are prosperous and contented. They
need not be stupidly content with the idea that they have
attained perfection, but they should have the content
which comes to him who triumphs in what he undertakes.
And so state and nation are alike lending a helping hand
to the farmer.
As a great moral influence we shall claim for scientific
soil culture a place in the front rank. It leads all others
because upon the quality and quantity of what is grown
from the soil depends the magnitude and success of all
brashes of agricultural pursuits,
Fair Investigation. Agriculture demands and Uo
all the investigation which is being given to it it is in need
of, and is worthy of, all the investigators whose services
are being devoted to this greatest of all our industries; but
let us remember that it is only a genius who can draw cor-
rect conclusions from incomplete date or insufficient pre-
mises ; that we are to use all obtainable information to guide
us, and that we are to work together as a unit for the better-
ment of American agriculture. The work is greater than
any man or any office. Let every man develop and mag-
nify the line of work which he is called upon to perform,
but let us neither decry nor ignore nor underestimate the
value of any other good work. Prof. Cyril G. Hopkins,
Illinc?.s University o
296 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
CHAPTER XLI.
PROFIT OF SCIENTIFIC SOIL CULTURE
The only way to determine just how profitable scientific
soil culture is as compared with the old way is to make the
test on the farm but we give here a 2-year comparison as a
help to those who want to know the difference. The simple
and direct application of scientific soil culture involves one
crop in two years. This is not always the case, for it may
be two crops in three years or three in four. But assuming
that to get ideal results it is necessary to grow just one crop
in two years, we may then compare this with two ordinary
crops in the same two years and reach a conclusion that
will mean something.
We give below a fair estimate of the cost, results and
profits of a 2-year period under the scientific method and
the old way. Average prices are paid for labor in both
cases and we have tried to be conservative. It may be
felt by some that we have placed the wheat yield too high
under the scientific method, but we have really discounted
actual results and made allowance for imperfections.
Wheat yields in the dry country have been, under the
Campbell method, as much as 60 to 67 bushels to the acre.
We have figured on 50 bushels. But even if this should be
cut materially there still is margin for a nice profit. All
will depend upon whether or not the work is rightly done.
We give a fair estimate on the cost and profits of two fields
of 100 acres each, one by the old method and one by the
Campbell method as follows:
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 297
BY SCIENTIFIC SOIL CULTURE.
Double disking in Juiy, one man, four horses, 45c an acre. . . . $45.00
Harrowing twice over after rains, lOc per acre each time 20 .00
Double disking in early spring 45 . 00
Harrowing three times after rains 30 .00
Plowing 7 inches deep in July 200 .00
Subsurface packing, once over 25 .00
Harrowing four times after rains 60 . 00
Seeding with drills 40 . 00
Thirty-four bushels seed wheat at $1 34.00
Harrowing twice in spring with lever harrow 20 . 00
Harvesting 60 .00
Four hundred pounds twine at 14c 56.00
Threshing 5000 bushels at 7c 350 .00
Marketing, 3c 150.00
Total expenses two years $1,135 .00
Credit by 5000 bushels at 80o $4,000.00
Less total expenses 1,135.00
Profit $2,865.00
BY ORDINARY METHOD.
Plowing in August and September $200 .00
Harrowing once 10 .00
Seeding 40.00
One hundred bushels seed 100 .00
Harvesting 60 .00
One hundred fifty pounds twine, 14c 21 . 00
Threshing 1300 bushels 7c 91 .00
Marketing, 3c 39.00
Total expenses first year $561.00
Same for two years 1,122 .00
Yield first year 1300 bushels at 80c 1,040 .00
Yield second 1300 bushels at 80c 1,040.00
Total income for two years $2,080 .00
Total expense two years 1,122.00
Profit $958.00
Net profit Campbell method one crop in two years $2,865.00
Net profit old method two crops in two years 958 . 00
Difference in favor of Scientific Soil Culture $1,907 .00
298 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
CHAPTER XLII.
CORRESPONDENCE AND COMMENT.
Under date of July 5, 1906, Charles F. Mills, editor
of the Farm and Home, Springfield, 111., in acknowledging
receipt of a copy of the 1905 Manual, wrote:
"My attention was called to your methods of dry
farming in the July issue of the Century. We hope to be
able to send you some orders for your Manual which will
be offered as a premium. Your work is deserving of the
highest commendation."
FINEST EVER.
F. H. Oberthier, secretary and general manager of the
Comanche Cotton Oil Company, Comanche, Texas, wrote:
"I have read and reread your Manual and I think it is
the finest work of the kind I ever saw. I think every
farmer in the semi-arid west should study this book. I
wouldn't take $1,000 for what it has taught me."
INCREASED LAND VALUE.
Herman S. Youtsey, writing from Fort Collins, Col.,
Dec. 10th, 1905, said:
"I have been reading what one of the wiseacres has to
say in defining the Campbell system of soil culture and as
usual the most conspicuous point in the article is what he
don't know about the system. Meeting so many articles
of this character in which improper notions are inculcated
and knowing the importance of a correct knowledge of
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 299
the Campbell methods, I am led to the conclusion that
some more effective plan of getting your Manual of soil
culture into the hands of the people should be devised. I
have frequently said that your Manual is worth its weight
in gold to any man who tills the soil whether he farms
wthout irrigation or with it. No reasonable consideration
could induce me to part with the knowledge I have gained
from your writing, if such a thing was possible, for by
following in the way you have indicated I have caused
land costing $3.00 an acre to yield a net income of $18.00
an acre in one year and aside from the question of a mone-
tary consideration, it has lifted farm labor from mere
drudgery to the field of scientific pursuit."
GREAT DISCOVERY.
John E. Leet, after years of careful study of the sub-
ject, wrote in the Denver Republican:
"The Campbell system is a glorious success. It is not
a mere wet season humbug, destined to collapse with the
next series of dry years. I have doubted, watched, inves-
tigated constantly, for nine months, and have become abso-
lutely convinced that it is the greatest agricultural discov-
ery of recent history. It will rapidly settle the fertile,
sunny, beautiful healthful rolling plains of eastern Colorado
and western Kansas with a dense and thrifty population."
WEALTH INCREASED.
L. J. Clinton, director of the Agricultural experiment
station at Storrs, Conn., writing January 21, 1907, in regard
to the Manual, said:
"I know something of the work you have done in re-
claiming what was known formerly as 'the great American
desert/ and I believe as a result of your instruction in soil
300 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
culture work that the wealth of the country has been very
materially increased. I shall await the arrival of your
book with considerable interest."
IN SOUTH DAKOTA.
R. J. Mann, president of the Clark county National
Bank, at Clark, S. D., ordered for free distribution among
his bank customers 500 of the Campbell Soil Culture Alma-
nacs, issued in 1907, and he wrote:
"I have been studying your literature the last year and
am very much interested in it, and this is the cause of my
ordering these almanacs. I know, or believe, you are
doing a good work and would be glad to see your work go
into the farmers' hands, and I hope that distributing
these almanacs will prove what you feel and that I believe
can be done in this country with good farming."
W. M. Wiley, manager of the Arkansas Valley Sugar
Beet and Irrigated land company, at Holly, Col., writing
to Mr. Campbell, said:
"Although I have never met you I have become greatly
impressed with what is called the Campbell system of
farming. In 1902 we had to farm the lands under the
Amity canal without water, and by carrying out a modi-
fied system of your views we succeeded in making a crop
practically without irrigation, and it was a good crop, too.
This served to attract my attention more than ever to your
system. I have told several officials of the Santa Fe Rail-
road that the arid west could be better and sooner put into
cultivation by following your theories or the practices re-
commended by you than by getting the government to
spend oceans of money for irrigation works, because no
matter how much money was spent in irrigation, the amount
of land which the water would cover must necessarily be
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 301
infinitesmal compared to the vast area to be cultivate J;
but that if they would adopt your plan and establish some
model farms under your direction something could be done
in cultivating the country. I should like very much to
meet and have a talk with you. I should like particularly
to get the U. S. government interested in your methods.''
BIG RESULTS.
J. P. Pomeroy, of Colorado Springs, under date of Sep-
tember 10, 1904, writes to C. E. Wantland, Denver: "We
cultivate entirely under Professor Campbell's plan. This
season the wheat crop in our section was practically a fail-
ure, which was the result of the failure of our farmers to put
in their crops in time, and to properly cultivate; this was
clearly proven by the fact that on our farm we raised over
forty bushels per acre, and from less than one-half bushel
of seed planted. Surely the time must soon come, when
our people will have realized that this system absolutely
assures the production of regular crops every year through
western Kansas and Nebraska, as well as eastern Colorado."
The Campbell method is spoken of as the salvation of
the dry belt. The work is an enormous one, that of chang-
ing the traditional methods of plowing and harrowing and
tilling, of a whole farming population. The wonder is, not
that his progress has been so slow, but that in the ten years
of his active apostolate (for such his life has been) this useful
and patient man has succeeded in doing so much. Herbert
Quick, in World's Work.
302 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
CHAPTER XLIII.
TOOLS FOR THE FARM.
Since publishing our first manual in 1901, we have
been asked many times for a list of the implements we
consider best adapted to general farming on the prairie of
the great semi-arid belt. This, we realize, is a delicate
subject on which to give advice, therefore, we simply give
a list of such tools as we bought for the Pomeroy Model
Farm at Hill City, the Burlington Model farm at Holdredge
and for other farms.
For ordinary sized farms we have four-horse tools, or
larger, as far as it is possible. To decrease the cost of
production adds profits, the same as to increase the yield.
When one man can turn over two fourteen-inch furrows
or twenty-eight inches by driving four horses instead of
sixteen inches by driving three horses, you are not only
decreasing the cost of plowing over thirty per cent, but are
getting a field plowed in six days that would take ten days
with the sixteen inch plow. This is an advantage in many
ways and what is true of plowing is proportionately true
of all other farm work.
The following tools make a very complete outfit for
four good heavy work horses, and with these horses and
tools eighty to one hundred acres can be handled by our
plan on the high level priries of the more arid portions of
ill 1 semi-arid belt where the soils are of the usual sand-
Ion in formation.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 303
LIST OF TOOLS.
One gang plow, two fourteen-inch.
One four-horse disk harrow. .
One four-horse improved harrow.
One four-horse combination weeder.
One four-horse Campbell sub-packer.
One two-row cultivator.
One one-horse cultivator.
In addition to these tools comes such planters' drills
and harvesters as shall be needed for the crops the farmer
may wish to raise.
The list of tools is such as has been found most desir-
able for securing the best possible physical condition of
*he soil at the least expense.
THE SUB-SURFACE PACKER.
There are few farm implements of high merit that have
had the struggle for recognition that the sub-surface packer
has. It was first put upon the market in 1895 and about
100 sold. A few more sold each succeeding year, but no
great numbers until the year 1905.
The principal drawback was the fact that it was a
new tool, with a new mission, backed by a new principle,
and every conceivable theory has been advanced to side-
track its popularity mainly on the ground that the ideal
physical condition brought out by its proper use was not
necessary, and as the machine cost from $25.00 to $45.00
according to size and distance from factory, the public
generally were quite inclined to credit all theories of the
skeptics.
But the machine kept persistently at its mission, prov-
ing the marvelous results to be gained from the new prin-
ciples involved, thereby steadily gaining recognition until
,,04 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
the year 1905, when there were more sub-surface pacKers
sold than in all the previons nine years combined. Then
the factory was compelled to expand its facilities and the
demand continued to increase until the sales for the year
1906 were, equivalent to more than twice the total number
sold not only in 1905 but from January 1st, 1895, to Jan-
uary 1st, 1906. Just before going to press we learn that
the orders received at the factory for the month of Jan-
uary, 1907, were nearly half as many as the entire sales
for 1906.
There is but one reason for this enormous increase in
the sales of the sub-surface packer, and that is, that this
new machine has accomplished its new mission by proving
through practical demonstrations that the new principle
of a thoroughly pulverized and absolutely firm sub-stratum,
or root and seed bed, and its perfect connection with the
subsoil below, is one of the most vital conditions for suc-
cessful crop growing, and the one point to be fully recog-
nized in preparing the soil for the purpose of growing large
yields of all kinds of cereals.
An unassuming fellow townsman of mine, Mr. H. W
Campbell, has made a discovery worthy to rank him with
Watt, Hudson, Eli Whitney and Edison that of to stor-
ing up water in the soil to be cultivated as to make a very
meager precipitation suffice to grow a crop and that with
no irrigation. E. Benjamin Andrews, Chancellor Neb-
raska State University.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 305
CHAPTER XLIV.
SOME HISTORY OF THE MOVEMENT.
The Northwestern Miller, in issues in November, 1906>
contained three very complete and satisfactory articles
upon the Campbell system written by John L. Cowan, in
which an outside view of the work was given, and from
the standpoint of an investigator coming to the subject
without prejudice. Below is given some portions of this
largely for the bit of history which Mr. Cowan wove into
the narrative:
There has been no more important agricultural develop-
ment within recent years than the sudden rise in popular
approval of the Campbell System of Scientific Soil Culture
or, as the public prefers to call it, "Dry Farming." Dur-
ing two months of the past summer, it was given more
magazine and newspaper publicity than in the twenty years
before, through which the originator of the system toiled
to bring it to perfection and fought for recognition.
The one thing that has finally compelled endorsement
is its results. It has "delivered the goods," and few people
will refuse to credit the evidence of their own senses. Con-
sequently, the great trans-continental railroad systems own-
ing land grants have vied with ten thousand land agents in
their efforts to inform the public about this new system of
farming on the "dry lands" without irrigation.
The National Department of Agriculture and the vari-
ous state agricultural colleges have not endorsed or given
official recognition to the Campbell system. They have
306 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
recgonized its results, if not in official documents, in the
far more significant form of establishing numerous experi-
ment stations on the high, dry plains that they have always
hitherto regarded as hopelessly arid. There they are de-
monstrating along independent lines the very facts to the
proving of which Hardy W. Campbell has devoted more
than twenty years of his life. This belated government
action, taken when the results of the Campbell system
could no longer be denied or ignored, is, in fact, the strong-
est endorsement that the Campbell system of farming with-
out irrigation in the semi-arid region could receive. * *
Mr. Campbell's own account of the circumstances tha
started his investigations is interesting, and hitherto un-
published. In 1882, he harvested one of the greatest wheat
crops that had ever been cut and threshed in the Dakotas,
obtaining 12,000 bushels from 300 acres of land, in Brown
county, South Dakota. The next year, his crop of 260
acres of the same land was an absolute failure, while the
remaining 40 acres returned a good yield. Here was a
puzzling proposition, as all the land had received the same
treatment and had been seeded at practically the same
time. To discover the reason for the widely differing har-
vests became, for a time, Mr. Campbell's ruling passion.
He recalled that the record-breaking crop of 12,000
bushels had been secured after spring plowing of the land.
Also that the 260 acres that failed to yield a crop worth
harvesting the subsequent season had been plowed in the
fall, while the 40 acres from which a good crop had been
obtained had been plowed in the spring. The conclusion
seemed inevitable that the secret of obtaining good crops
lay in the spring plowing.
He talked it over with his neighbors, and everyone
agreed that the virtues of spring plowing for spring wheat
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 307
had been incontrovertibly demonstrated. Fortunately for
the farmers of Brown county, they realized that it would
be impossible for them to plow all their wheat land in the
spring in time to get their seeding done: but everyone re-
duced the amount of fall plowing to its lowest possible
terms. Never before or since was the percentage of wheat
land in that neighborhood plowed in the spring so great.-
When harvest time came, everyone had the same result:
the crop was all but a total failure on the land that had
been plowed in the spring; but that plowed the preceding
fall returned a good yield.
Campbell, the man from Vermont, where people are
born asking questions, and never outgrow the habit, was
not discouraged. He was willing to admit, with his neigh-
bors, that the whole secret of the production of good crops
did not lie in the time of plowing. Where he differed from
his neighbors was in his refusal to believe that the secret
vas past finding out.
Even at that early stage of his investigations, he be-
lieved it possible to conserve in the soil sufficient moisture
to mature a crop, even in years of extreme drouth such as
brought disaster to the farmers of the plains with discour-
aging frequency. The problem to be worked out was how
to place the soil in the proper physical condition for the
reception and storage of moisture. For the reception and
ready percolation of moisture, it required no extended train
of reasoning to teach him that the soil must be kept loose
and porous by thorough cultivation.
How to keep the moisture there, was a widely different
matter. The common expedient was the use of the roller,
in 01 ^er to compact the soil and prevent too rapid evapora-
tion. Experiment convinced him that this was of little
value, because its effects were confined to two or three
308 CAMBPELI/S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
inches of top soil. Further experiment showed him that
it defeated the very end it was designed to promote, in-
creasing the movement of moisture from below up into the
compacted stratum, where it speedily passed off by eva-
poration. While perfectly true that a plowed field that
has been rolled shows the presence of considerably -more
moisture near the surface that can be found in one that
is due solely to the exhaustion of the supply that has per-
colated down into the subsoil. That supply is needed far
more urgently to carry the growing crop over the pro-
tracted heat and probable drouth of summer than to aid
in the germination of seed. The use of the roller, therefore,
was abandoned, as promoting the early exhaustion rather
than the conservation of moisture.
In 1885, he designed his first sub-soil packer, constructed
somewhat after the form of a grain drill, with teeth, or pack-
ing devices that slanted backward, penetrating the soil to
a depth of several inches, tending to squeeze the earth be-
tween them closer together. This gave encouraging re-
sults as a crop producer, and frequent tests of the soil, com-
pared with tests of adjacent lands not thus packed, proved
that it did conserve the moisture, although not as efficiently
as was desirable. The use of this implement proved im-
practicable, for the reason that the friction was too great
and it required too much power to work it to render it ad-
aptable for general farm use. Nevertheless, the experi-
ments made with it were of great value, proving that the
packing of the sub-soil (not of the surface) would conserve
^he moisture.
To give the record of the hundreds of experiments that
have been conducted since 1885 would not now be possible.
Even if possible, that record would be tedious, uninterest-
ing and unimportant. Equally unimportant would be an
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 309
account of his efforts to remedy the defects in his early edu-
cation that so seriously hampered him in the prosecution
o a strictly scientific investigation along original lines.
Many of the things that he had to learn by patient experi-
ment would have been taught him by the schools, or could
have been reasoned out had he been thoroughly grounded
at the start in scientific methods. Perhaps, however- '*
his idea had been conventionalized by too much of the sci-
ence of college curricula he might have accepted the dictum
that the reclamation of the semi-arid lands was impossible,
and the Campbell system would never have been born.
After giving much more of the detail history of the
years of labor which resulted in the development of the
system Mr. Cowan continued:
Some have gone so far as to assert that most of the
methods taught by Mr. Campbell were advocated by Jethro
Tull, a hundred and twenty-five years ago. Inasmuch as
Jethro Tull never visited America and .probably never heard
of the American plains, it would be remarkable indeed if
he had devised a system of agricultural procedure suited
to conditions there.
It is, of course, true that many of the facts of the Camp-
bell system were known long before Mr. Campbell's time.
Some of the methods used are applicable to farming the
whole world over, and have been practiced for generations.
Some of the processes have been worked out under the
pressure of necessity by hundreds, or perhaps, thousands,
of farmers on the plains. If Campbell had done no more
than collect, organize and classify these disconnected facts
and methods into a coherrent system of practice adapted to
conditions in the semi-arid belt, he would have accom-
plished a work of the very highest utility.
"He has done much more than that. He has adopted
310 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
nothing on mere hearsay or authority. Every principle
advocated by him, he has tested, not once, nor in one place,
but many times, in widely separated localities, in seasojis
of greatly differing rainfall and temperature, throughout
the plains region from the James river valley to the Texas
Panhandle. In addition, there are principles of soil cul-
ture and methods of procedure that unquestionably origin-
ated with him. One of these is that of "summer culture"
on newly broken prairie land, before any attempt is made
to grow a crop. Anyone who breaks prairie lands, and
plants them without first devoting a full season to careful
cultivation in order to get the soil in the proper physical
condition for the promotion of plant growth, and in order
to store a sufficient amount of moisture within reach of
the plant roots to carry the growing crop through a pro-
tracted drouth, is simply inviting failure should a season
of unusual drouth follow.
Another feature that originated with Mr. Campbell,
which he regards of vital importance, is the sub-soil packer.
This is an absolutely new farming implement, the essential
feature consists of a series of sharp, wedge-shaped wheels,
that cut into the ground, and literally wedge the portions
between them together.
These wheels exert both a lateral and a downward pres-
sure, accomplishing a number of desirable results. They
elimnate the air spaces left by overturning the furrow slice
along the bottom and the sides of preceding furrows ; press '
the earth firmly around the weeds, clods and stubble; aid
in pulverizing the soil, thus increasing its capillary attrac-
tion and its water-holding capacity; and, at the same time,
they leave the surface soil loose and in condition to prevent
unnecessary loss of moisture through evaporation.
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL 311
CHAPTER XLV.
CORRESPONDENCE COURSES OF STUDY.
There has not been any development in educational
lines in recent years to equal in extent and importance that
which relates to the use of correspondence or mail courses
of study. Every one has become familiar with the mail
order mercantile house which is prepared to do business
with the individual consumer anywhere in the country.
The mail routes of Uncle Sam reach into every settlement
of the country. They cover the vast prairies as well as
penetrate into the deep woods of the timbered regions. The
facilities for communication between people are not better
for the residents of the cities than for the residents of the
country. Great mercantile houses have taken advantage
of this to establish communication with consumers direct,
to sell to them direct, and to transact all their business by
mail. There is some prejudice against this because of the
unquestioned fact that here is a form of competition that
is injurious to local business and therefore retards rather
than aids in building up local trading communities. But
the mail order business is a reality.
Another extension of this same work and we have the
correspondence course of study. By and through private
enterprise this plan has grown to great proportions in recent
years. There are correspondence courses in nearly every-
thing. They teach science, literature, art, trades, mechan-
ics, chemistry, pharmacy, bookkeeping, surveying, draught-
ng, engineering, writing, weaving, electricity, etc. As a
312 CAMPBELL'S BOIL CULTURE MANUAL
result of this work it has been placed within the reach of
thousands of boys and girls to secure special education they
desire without the great expense of attending some school
or college in a distant city. The son of a poor mechanic
struggling for a living in a city factory becomes ambitious
to learn a useful trade or science, and his only time is that
which most boys use for play-time. But his ambition leads
him to take up a correspondence course of study, and in the
long evenings at home he pores over these books until he
has mastered his subject. The result is that a great engi-
neer, or inventor, or contractor, or business man is devel-
oped. No matter how many great colleges or universities
might have been founded, this development of the poor
boy who must labor while he learns would never have been
possible but for the correspondence course.
The theory of the correspondence course system is the
taking of the school into the home. It is not possible for
any great proportion of the ambitious boys and girls of the
country to take advantage of our schools of highe.r educa-
tion. To many millions of them it is denied because of
various circumstances. They have not the time, they have
have not the preliminary preparation, they cannot afford
it, they do not know how to get into the colleges. These
shut-out boys' and girls are just as important to the country
as those for whom the college doors open. The corres-
pondence course of study takes the college right to these
boys and girls. It opens the way for higher education to
millions who would otherwise have no such opportunity.
So valuable is this principle that it is receiving state
recognition. Much of the development of the correspond-
ence course plan is due to private enterprise. All honor to
those who have been pioneers in this work. But it has
been taken up by such public institutions as for instance,
son, CULTURE .\I\MF.U. 313
the Armour Institute, of Chicago, in recognition of the fact
that it ought to be largely -a public work. It is being taken
up by the great agricultural and industrial colleges of the
country. Legislatures are making appropriations for carry-
ing on the work. It is only a matter of time until many of
the general branches will be taught in this way under state
supervision.
There have been prepared a number of courses in general
agriculture, and some of these of great merit. It is a little
strange that the one subject which more than any other
lends itself readily to the correspondence course idea has
been neglected until the last agriculture. There can be
no teaching of agriculture away from the farm. Actual
contact with the soil is essential in the teaching of agricul-
ture. No man can learn to farm by poring over books.
But if in the poring over books he has opportunity to go
out every day and apply in practical way that which he is
learning, then much may be learned of great value from the
books. It is because of this that a correspondence course
in agriculture seems especially appropriate. The farmer
is less likely than any other to find opportunity to get away
from his work and to take up special courses of study in the
colleges. He seldom has the preliminary preparation so
that he can get into the agricultural colleges. But he does
have some time for study and he generally has the disposi-
tion to study and to learn. The correspondence course,
when it comes to the farmer, comes to one who can make
the greatest possible use of the same.
But most of the correspondence courses as prepared not
only by corporations making a specialty of this work but
by the colleges and universities, are distinctly intended to
take boys and girls from the farms and to put them into
the workshops of the cities. It is not very difficult to lead
31 4 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
the farm residents to feel that in some other field of activity
the chance of success is better than in their own. That is
why the farmers are so often approached with suggestions
of learning, through correspondence courses, something
that will fit them for other work.
As a matter of fact, the farmer can gain most from a
correspondence course with direct relation to his own work.
The time has passed for sneering at the so-called book-
farmer. The college bred farm superintendent is a reality
and a success. Men who are making a study of farming
with special reference to well established principles are
taking the lead. The average farmer does his work well,
and he succeeds fairly well, but as a matter of fact, he might
do a little better by knowing some things. He gains a great
deal by the study of farm papers and magazines, but he
too often treats their advice lightly.
What is needed for the farmer in these days is some
method by which there can be brought right home to him
all the science and all the achievement of the colleges, the
results of special study and investigation, the lessons of
innumerable experiments, and to do this in a way that will
appeal to him as something practicable. He should be able
to gain knowledge of a kind that is useful. No theory
should be presented to him without a purpose. Nothing
should be given him that has not a practical side. It is
well he should understand the science of the soil physics
and seed germination and plant development and all that
but he should understand all this with special reference
to making his own crops bigger and better. The philosophy
of farming is all very well, but the essential thing is to
accomplish great results. Now it is entirely possible that
through the correspondence course of study method the
farirer may be given the essentials of his science in such a
CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULI UKE MANUAL 315
way that he can immediately apply them to the problems
just before him. The farmer is in a better position to profit
by and through a correspondence course than any other.
The extension of the rural route service has brought
every farm in the country up next to the city.
In order to meet the demand for further and more def-
inite instruction in the principles of scientific soil culture
there is in preparation a complete correspondence course
in agriculture having special reference at all times to this
branch of the subject. This work is being prepared by H.
W. Campbell, and under his personal direction, and as soon
as it is ready for use the fact will be made known to the
public. Those who take this correspondence course will
have many benefits, such as the advantage of personal
correspondence with the editor, the results of scientific in-
vestigation and personal and practical instruction.
In this connection a work is now being carried on that
is sure to be of the greatest advantage to all persons in-
terested at all in the subject. At the time this is written
a number of model or experimental farms are in operation
in various states of the west. These are farms on which
are being carried on the best principles of scientific tillage
under the personal direction of Mr. Campbell. The soil
has been fitted in accordance with the most approved
methods. All the experience of the past 25 years has been
drawn upon to make these farms successful. They are in
the hands of competent persons. An exact record is being
kept, and the results will be carefully computed. The
outcome will be the collection of data regarding scientific
tillage that will be invaluable to the farmers of the dry
country. At the same time a number of other farms are
being opened and secured. The sole object in these farms
is to carry on this educational work. They are not operated
316 CAMPBELL'S SOIL CULTURE MANUAL
for profit nor as a side line for speculative purposes, and
they are kept free from the influences that might tend to
exaggerate the results for selfish reasons. The persons who
take the correspondence course will be the greatest gainers
from this educational and demonstrative work.
Since the first edition of this book was printed there has
also been started, in response to an almost universal de-
mand, a monthly magazine called Campbell's Scientific
Farmer, which is devoted wholly to the teaching of the
principles of scientific soil culture. This is not a general
farm paper nor a household paper, but a special journal
devoted to one line of farming or one branch of agriculture,
just as a stock breeder's journal or a horticultural magazine
or a publication devoted to forestry or irrigation. This
Campbell's Scientific Farmer will therefore supplement the
great work in which we have been engaged many years,
by carrying direct to the people current information as
to what is done and is being done in the various portions of
the country with regard to soil culture methods best adapted
to the dry country or to dry conditions.
Everywhere it is coming to be recognized that agricul-
ture is a great science and that it is one of the things about
which there is always much to learn. The movement back
to the farms is genuine, and it has a reason. But if there
is to be a movement back to the farms it should be intelli-
gently directed. More than that, the movement should
have a solid foundation. In the semi-arid portions of the
countries lie the greatest possibilities. Those who make
themselves perfectly familiar with every question which
may arise in regard to the semi-arid region are those who
will achieve greatest success.
INDEX. 317
INDEX.
Advantages of Semi- Arid Region, XVII, 130.
Agricultural Science, Progress in, 279.
Air in the Soil, XIV, 111; nitrogen as plant food, 112; rain crust ani how broken up
113; shutting out the air, 113, 115.
Alfalfa, XXV, 226; plan of seeding, 227; preparing fields for, 229.
Arbor Lodge, 244, 245.
Arboriculture, XXVIII, 241.
Arid plants, seeking new, 232.
Barnyard Manures, XIX, 148.
Basis of Prosperity, IV, 24.
Beet Culture with Irrigation, 220; without irrigation, 225.
Beets, sugar, growing, 218; modern factory, 221; under Campbell system, 223.
Blowing of the lighter soils, 178.
Burning stubble, 195,
Burlington farm, model, 16; results, 256.
Campbell, H. W., portrait, frontispiece; at dry farming congress, 297; history of
his work, 305.
Campbell system, developed, 7; vegetables in Colorado, 29; with sugar beets, 223;
corn, 167, 171; world-wide fame, 286;, in irrigation, 235; commended by Mor-
ton, 246; results, 255; domain, 276; at dry farming congress, 297; history, 305;
in correspondence course, 311.
Capillary attraction, illustrated, 118.
Century Magazine on Campbell system, 290.
Check row planting, 160.
Climate, no change in, 274.
Colorado, eastern, wheat, 190; results of crops, 257; corn in, 25.
Conditions changing by reason of good farming, 274.
Crops, markets, and prices, XXXVIII, 282.
Corn growing, XX, 156.
Corn, in Colorado, 25; root development, 165; by Campbell method, 167, 171; area
for, 170; testing seed, 172; use of lister, 158.
Correspondence course in Soil culture, XLV, 311.
Correspondence and comment, XLII, 298.
Cowan, John L., in Century, on Campbell system, 290.
Curtis, Wm. E., on Campbell system, 289.
Cultivation, of the soil, XVII, 137; late, of trees, 209; of potatoes, 202; time of, 144;
result of good, 166.
Cultivators, 169.
Culture, summer vs. summer fallow, 76.
)eep cultivation and root development, 200.
)epths of seeding, proper, 185; effect of different, 185.
)isk harrow, VII, 37; when to use, 38; after harvest, 39; following the harvester, 39;
size of, to use, 42.
Disking, effect of, 48; in early spring, 177.
Diversified farming, 252.
Domain of soil culture, XXXVI, 276.
Drills, 178; kinds of grain, 181; seeding with, 182,
Drawbacks to humid region, 133,
318 INDEX.
Dry seasons, 273.
Dust blanket explained, 247.
Economy in seed, 153.
Essentially scientific farming, 290.
Evaporation, XVI, 123; danger of, 141; loss at the surface, 126; greatest ,mc:.L
of waste, 138.
Fall plowing old land, 51.
Feasting time, Colorado melons, 21.
Fertility of the soil, 99; elements of, 105.
Following harvester with disk, 39.
Free homes and greater crops, 27.
Germination, quick, 70; of wheat, 194.
Getting most out of the farm, XXX, 251.
Good farming and good morals. XL, 293.
Grain, kinds of drills, 181; stooling of, 180, 266; scientific condition for, 268; winter
killing of, 263.
Growing potatoes, XXII, 197.
Hansen, Prof. N. C., on new plants, 232.
Harvesting wheat fifty years ago, 188.
Harvest, after, 189.
Harvester, following with disk, 39.
Harrowing, time of, 187; spring wheat, 186.
.History of the movement, XLIV, 305.
Hopkins, Prof. Cyril G., on soils, 101; on fair investigation, 295.
How to use the Manual, II, 15.
Humid regions, drawbacks, 133.
Ideal farmer, the, III, 19.
Ideal farming country, 135.
Increase of products under soil culture, 259.
Inevitable dry seasons, XXXV, 273.
Introduction, I, 5.
Irrigation, XXVII, 235.
Kansas experience, 259, 260.
Keeping mulch in condition, 146.
Kilpatrick ranch, 70; results, 159.
King, Prof. F. H., experiments in soils, 62, 126.
Live stock on the farm, 253.
Listing, wheat, 183; corn, 158.
Look into the future, VI, 32.
Manure, application, 149; permanent effects, 152; modern spreader, 151-
Moisture, saving of, 141; watching it, 161.
Montana wheat without irrigation, 12, 34.
Morals and good farming, 293.
Morton, J. Sterling, portrait, 242; on Campbell's work, 246.
Mulch, keeping in condition, 146.
Nitrogen as plant food, 112.
North Platte station, 79.
Over-production, 283.
Percolation, or getting water down into the sub-soil, XV, 117; capillary attraction
illustrated, 118; how water stored in soil, 119.
INDEX. 319
Physical condition of the soil, XI, 91; time to work soil, 94; perfect soil conditions,
96; condition, 239.
Planting, check row, 160; with lister, 161.
Plowing, VIII, 44; spring plowing old land, 45; when, 45; effect of disking, 48;
proper depth, 50; fall plowing old land, 51; breaking new prairie kad, 54;
even furrows, 53; fall breaking, 55.
Pomeroy farm, results, 67, 89, 114, 171, 255; wheat crop on, 193; farm trees, 207,
210, 215.
Potatoes, growing, 197; preparing soil for, 199; seed and planting, 201; variety of,
202; cultivation of, 202.
Practical results, XXXI, 255; at Hill City, 255; at Holdrege, 256, in Colorado,
257; at Greenfield, Kan., 259; in dozen states, 277.
Prejudices, overcoming, 281.
Prevention of winter killing, 264.
Preparing soil for potatoes, 199.
Prevention of waste on farm, 252.
Progress in agricultural science, XXXVII, 279.
Proper phyiscal condition of soil, 50.
Quantity of seed, XXIV, 270.
Quick, Herbert, in World's Work, on Campbell system, 287.
Rain crust, and how broken up, 113.
Rainfall, not lack of, 125.
Rains, difference in, 131.
Raising standard of living, 294.
Rapidity of evaporation, 124.
Results declared to be remarkable, 289.
Roberts, Prof, Isaac P., on fertility of land, 94.
Root development, in loose soil, 67; in firm soil, 65; with shallow cultivation, 198;
deep cultivation, 200; in all soils, 164, 166.
Roots and soil, magnified, 201.
Root system, value of healthy, 71.
Rotation, experiments in, 77.
Salvation of the dry .belt, 287.
Saving of the moisture, 141.
Scientific condition for grain, 267.
Seed and planting, potatoes, 201.
Seed bed, making with packer, 66.
Seed corn, testing, 172.
Seeding, for alfalfa, 227; alfalfa on new breaking, 230; effect of different Jspths,
187; proper depth of, 185; with three kinds of drills, 182.
Seed, quantity of, 270; too much per acre, 271; amount of, 163.
Seeking new arid plants, XXVI, 232.
Semi-arid region, advantages of, 130.
Setting of trees, 207.
Shade and Shelter, trees, 204.
Shallow cultivation, root development, 198
Shallow vs. deep cultivation, 138.
Size of disk to use, 42.
Small farms, better farming, V, 28.
Sod, breaking for fall wheat, 56; new prairie land, 54.
320 INDEX.
Soil, after packing and harrowing, 63; as packer leaves it, 60; as the plow leaves
it, 46; cultivation of, 137; shallow vs. deep cultivation, 138; time of, 140;
fertility, XII, 99, 52; a condition of, 100; saving, 101; experts changing views
on, 102; what it is, 104; elements of fertility, 105; physical condition of, 91,
49, 186, 239; time to work, 94; perfect conditions, 96; preparing for potatoes,
199; summer treatment of, 177, 189; surface harrowed, 47; water stored in for
irrigation, 236; blowing of, 178; of semi-arid region, 130; conditions, 143; time
of cultivation, 144.
Soil Mulch or dust blanket, XXIX, 247; before rain, 248; after rain, 249.
Soil culture, correspondence course in, 311; domain of, 276; where developed, 276;
results, 277; increase of products under, 259.
Sorghum by thorough cultivation, 257.
Specialty in farming, 19.
Spring, early disking in, 177; early work, 84; plowing old land, 45; treatment of
soil, 177, 189.
Spring wheat, harrowing, 186; growing, 176.
Stooling of grain, XXXIII, 266; cause of, 267; explained, 180.
Sub- irrigation, 238.
Sub-surface packing, IX, 58; packer illustrated, 64; mission of the packer, 59; soil
as packer leaves it, 60; rolling vs. sub-surface packing, 63; roots in firm soil,
65; making seed bed, 66; ideal condition of soil, 69; effect of packer, 73.
Sugar beet growing, XXIV, 218; thinning beets, 218; forty-acre field, 219; under
irrigation, 220, modern factory, 221; by Campbell method, 223; without irri-
gation, 224.
Summer culture, X, 75; experiments in rotation, 77; results of tilling, 79; how done,
82; early spring work, 84; of universal application, 88; in detail, 177.
Tilling, results of, 79; how summer tilling done, 82.
Time for quick work, 145.
Time, of cultivation, 140, 144; of harrowing, 187.
Tools for the farm, XLIII, 302.
True soil mulch, 250.
Trees, on the farm, XXIII, 204; for shade and shelter, 204; practical work with,
205; ground for, 206; setting of, 207; peach, 5 months old, 207; late cultivation,
209; causes of failure with, 211; peach 17 months old, 207; Illinois experience
with, 211; Kansas experience with, 213; shade results, 214; elm, 17 months
old, 215; method of planting, 241.
Value of machinery per acre, 30
Water holding capacity of the soil, XIII, 107; water contents of soil, 62; soil con-
ditioas, 109; stored in the soil, 119; stored in soil for irrigation, 236.
Weeds, keep dean from field, 178; problem of, 159.
Weeder, the, 187.
"Yheat, XXI, 175; crop on Pomeroy farm, 193; eastern Colorado, 190; spring, 176;
in three shiges of growth, 179; in Wyoming, 191; germination in two soils, 194;
growth of listed, 1S4; harrowing spring, 186; harvesting fifty years ago, 188;
listing of, 163; the pioneer's money crop, 194; winter, 191.
Whitney, Prof. Milton, on fertility, 102; on chemistry, 94; en evaporation, 124;
on soils, 132.
W ; nter killing autumn sown grain, XXXII, 263; prevention ui 2'<i.
Winter wheat, 191.
World-wide fame of this work, XXXIX, 286.
World's Work, on Campbell system, 287.
Wyoming wheat, 191.
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