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Volume 83
1969
THE OTTAWA FIELD-NATURALISTS’ CLUB
ONTARIO
c. A ' Be
_ The CANADIAN
FIELD-NATURALIST
Published by THE OTTAWA FIELD-NATURALISTS’ CLUB, Ottawa, Ontario
Guest Editorial Lines:
Conservation and the Population Problem RARarer H: Raven 1
Articles
‘Scientific and Cultural Studies of the Mer Bleue MAY I 2 19
W. K. W. Batpwin and +1269... Mosourn 4
3 Aillen Bead at the Mer Bleue: HA RVApp M. Camrizetp 7
The Dragonflies (Odonata) of the Mer Bleue Putuip SUOU REM a: G. S. WaLLey 14
“Some Historical Notes on Collecting Lepidoptera in the Mer Ree . N. FREEMAN 16
Observations on Oil Pollution and Wintering Purple Sandpipers, Erolia maritima
-(Brunnich), In Nova Scotia Peter C. Smit and J. SHERMAN BLEAKNEY 19
A Hybrid Grouse, Lagopus x Canachites, from Northern Ontario
Harry G. Lumspen 23
Introduction of Tropical Fishes into a Hotspring near Banff, Alberta _
D. E. McAtuisTer 31
Colonies of Double-crested Cormorants and White Pelicans in Alberta
Keres VERMEER 36
Autumn ene. Habits of the Red-winged Blackbird in Southern Manitoba
Lawrie B. SmirH and Rate D. Birp 40
Fungi of Central Baffin Island J. A. PaRMELEE 48
Notes
Gulls at Fredericton, New Brunswick P. A. Pearce 54
Range Extensions of Listera auriculata Wiegand in Ontario and Quebec
H. N. Mackenzie and E. W. Greenwoop 55
Greenland Wheatears Observed at Esker, Labrador, May 20-June 2, 1967 Nicuoias N. SmirH 56
Specimen of Gyrfalcon from Saachwestern British Columbia
R, WayNe CampseLt and Ken P. Morrison 57
Observations on a Partial Albino Great Horned Owl Joun G. Woops 57
Further Data on pte sspeciite Competition at a Joint Bufflehead-Goldeneye Nest Site
Witu1am D. McLaren 59
Notes on Food Requirements of the Snowy Owl Joun C. Semensticker IV 60
Arctic Fox Attacks on Molting Canada Geese — S, WayNE SPELLER 62
A Scissor-tailed Flycatcher in British Columbia J. A. Mitrican 82
News and Comment . :
The Nature Preserves Act of the State of Indiana (Act No. 176) Epiror 63
Federal Government Preserves Waterfowl Breeding Area 63
Letters
Jurisdiction Over Raptorial Birds Donatp A. Broop 64
A Plea for Federal Protection of the Peregrine Falcon Dick DEKKER 64
Need for a Truly Representative National Organization for Canadian Naturalists M. T. Myres 67
Reviews 69
The Lovely and the Wild — Hours and the Birds — A Lifetime with the Birds: An Ornithological
Logbook — Trees — Other New Titles
A Brief on the Future of Gatineau Park H, N. MacKenzm 78
By-laws of the Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club 81
Report of Council to the Ninetieth Annual Meeting of the Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club 83
Statement of Financial Standing of the Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club November 30, 1968 88
i
Can. Field Nat.| Vol. 83 | No. 1 | p. 1-88 | Ottawa, January-March, 1969
%
THE OTTAWA FIELD-NATURALISTS’ CLUB ;
FouNDED IN 1879 es
_ —Patrons— : a |
THEIR Pees THE GovERNoR GENERAL AND Mrs. Rorans Micsenea q
The objectives of the Club are to promote the appreciation, preservation and con-
servation of Canada’s natural heritage; to encourage investigation and publish the results.
of research in all fields of natural history and to diffuse information on these fields as
widely as possible; to support and co-operate with organizations engaged in preserving,
maintaining or restoring quality environments for living things.
The club is a corporate member of the Federation of Ontario BE So ae
MEMBERS OF COUNCIL Pepe tier yet
President: Hur N. MacKenzig, 228 Royal Avenue, Ottawa, Ontario. — oe ae
First Vice-President: THropore Mosquin.
Second Vice-President: W. A. Hotianp. 4
Secretary: ALEXANDER W. RATHWELL, Canadian Wildlife Service, 400 Laurier Avenue
West, Ottawa 4, Ontario.
Treasurer: F. M. Briguam, Box 3264, Postal Station C, Ottawa 3, Ontario. =
Additional Members of Couneil: W. K. W. Batpwin, E. L. Bousrierp, I. M. ees D.
Brunton, W. J. Copy, BARBARA CoLEMAN, Joyce M. Dunston, R. Y. Epwarnps, J. M.
Gittett, E. W. Greenwoop, ANNE HANes, D. D. Hocartu, Luena Howpen, W. I.
ILLMAN, Toe Kineston, D. Larontarng, F. Lesianc, G. H. McGee, PATRICIA Narraway, _ 3
A. E. PoRSID. L. C. SHerk, J. H. Sonne Mary San H. E. Soaoe SHEILA Tnonson@
Auditors: J. M. GILLETT Hee iG: Hownen:
THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST 3
Editor: THropore Mosguin, Plant Research Institute, Central Experimental Farm, Ouiwa.4 a
Review Editor: DonaLp A. Situ, Department of Biology, Carleton eee: Ottawa.
Associate Editors: a
Joun W. Arnotp (Entomology), Entomology Research Institute, Central Experi- -—
mental Farm, Ottawa.
Watter A. Bett (Paleontology), 112 Abercrombie Road, New Glasgow, Nova .
Scotia. ;
E. L. Bousrietp (General Invertebrate Zn oRy): National Museum of Natural 5
Sciences, Ottawa. x
J. SHermAn Bieakney (Herpetology), Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia. s
Irwin M. Bropo (Botany), National Museum of Natural Sciences, Ottawa. Ry
ArTHuR H. CLarke, Jr., (Valacolosy), National Museum of Natural Sciences, —
Ottawa. 3
W. Ear Goprrey (Ornithology), National Museum of Natural Sciences, Ottawa. —
J. AntHony Kerru (Pesticides), Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa. | be
Donato E. McAtutster (Ichthyology), National Museum of Natural Sciences, —
Ottawa. ‘
Pui M. Youneman (Mammalogy), National Museum of Nararal Sciences, 4
Business Manager: W. J. Copy, Plant Research Institute, Central Experimental Horm, :
Ottawa.
MEMBERSHIP AND SUBSCRIPTION
The annual membership fee of $5.00 for individuals covers subscription to the
journal. Libraries and other institutions may subscribe at the rate of $10.00 per year
(volume). Applications for membership, subscriptions, changes of address and unde-
liverable copies should be mailed to: Treasurer, Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club, Box 3264, <
Postal Station ‘C’, Ottawa 3, Ontario, Canada. Return postage guaranteed. |
Second class mail registration number O527
The Canadian Field-Naturalist
VoLuME 83 JANUARY-MARCH, 1969 Na 1
CONSERVATION AND THE POPULATION PROBLEM
WE ARE ALL CONCERNED with the problem of conserving natural areas. We
are willing to devote our time and energies to this cause, in part, because we
feel that it is important to maintain a world that has many different kinds of
places for ourselves and our children to enjoy. Our efforts to accomplish this
have been moderately successful, and are increasing both in scope and intensity.
Yet they are doomed to ultimate failure unless something is done about the
most critical problem facing us at the present time, the human population
problem.
Ten thousand years ago, soon after the close of the last glacial cycle, there
were fewer people in the entire world than there are in metropolitan Tokyo
at the present day. From the fewer than ten million people alive at that time
have descended the 3.5 billion people who inhabit the world today. The world
population has been doubling at an ever increasing rate, and it is estimated
that there will be nearly 7 billion people living on earth at the close of the
present century. The world population at the present time is so enormous
that if all the people on earth stood in a single line, they would reach to the
moon and back, twice.
Some eight thousand years ago, the human population of the earth began
to grow sharply. This occurred because of the discovery of agriculture. By
growing crops in dense stands, man was able to produce enough food to allow
the formation of towns and cities. In these densely populated centers, he
attained high standards of civilization. Agriculture originated in the Near
East, and by 3000 B.C. it had spread to all the plains of Europe south of the
Scandanavian mountains. In the Far East, agriculture revolved around the
cultivation of rice, and in Middle America, it was based on corn. Advanced
civilizations developed independently in each of these centers.
The most stable communities on earth are those which involve large
numbers of species of plants and animals in complex associations. In agriculture,
the effort is to maintain one or at most a few species in a pure stand. The
_ productivity may be high, but the community is basically unstable. Essential
elements are “mined” from the soil when the crops are removed, and the soil
deteriorates rapidly under the full brunt of the weather. Insecticides must
be used to prevent insects and other pests from consuming the entire crop
rapidly and efficiently. When these insecticides and fertilizers enter into the
world ecosystem, they have clearly undesirable side effects, yet they must be
used to insure the production of crops in sufficient quantities to feed the present
population of the earth.
According to current estimates, at least 2 billion of the current world
population of 3.5 billion is undernourished, and millions starve to death each
year. If the present level of application of pesticides and fertilizers were
Mailing date of this number: 30th April, 1969.
1
2 Tue CANADIAN FieLp-NATURALIST Vol. 83
decreased, an even higher proportion of the world’s population would be
undernourished, and more would starve. If the application of these chemicals
is continued at present rates, they will accumulate and eventually destroy all of
the world’s ecosystems. Huge industries stand behind the manufacture and
use of insecticides and fertilizers, and it is difficult to imagine a government so
enlightened that it would sharply restrict their usage in the face of world
starvation. ‘The decision to do so is a wholly unpalatable one at the present
time, but it is a decision that we must eventually make if we are to survive.
In the tropics, the problems of agriculture are particularly great. The
clayey red laterite soils characteristic of tropical regions cannot be cultivated
for long once the forest is cleared. Under the constant pounding of tropical
rainstorms, they form cement-like layers that cannot be broken by any known
plow. When human populations in the tropics were at low levels, they
subsisted by successively cultivating cleared patches of forest, then abandoning
them while the forest regenerated. At high levels of population, this sort of
cycle is not possible; all of the available land must be brought under cultivation
to feed the people. But the intensive cultivation of tropical soils rapidly
renders them useless. Many ancient civilizations have vanished in the tropics,
and the basic reason may be the inability of tropical soils to support a high
human population indefinitely. “Today, it is the tropical countries which have
the most rapidly growing populations, ‘and what is tragedy for their inhabitants
may ultimately be tragedy for us all.
For there are absolute limits to the population of the earth. J. H. Fremlin,
a British physicist, has calculated that the ultimate limit would be set by the
ability of the earth to radiate heat into space and so to maintain a temperature
at which living things can survive’. Man and his activities produce heat in
many ways. At high enough population levels, they would produce enough
heat to exceed the limit of what could be radiated. Beyond this point, the
temperature of the earth would climb sharply, and all living things would
perish. When would this desperate situation be attained at present rates of
growth?
At the heat limit, one can calculate, there would be some sixty million
billion people, who would have to be housed in a tall apartment ‘structure
of hundreds of stories covering the entire land and sea. The people would
be at a density of about 100 persons for each square yard of the earth’s surface.
Such a warren could theoretically be constructed. ‘The quality of human life
in it would obviously be so low, we might wonder if it could properly be called
human. And this would clearly be the absolute limit: No more people could
be added regardless of the scientific advances that might be made. There
would be an absolute necessity for practicing stringent population control to
prevent the human population from climbing still further and perishing.
Well, you must say, this nightmarish predicament would not possibly arise
for many thousands of years. In fact, at present rates of growth, it would be
attained in about 900 years: about as far in the future as the Norman Conquest
was in the past.
1969 GueEst EpiItorIaAL 3
Could we not then colonize the planets, and ship off the excess people to
far corners of the universe? In perhaps 250 years we would populate all the
planets of the solar system to the same density as the earth. And even for this
very limited solution the economics are frightening. For example, Professor
Garrett Hardin, of the University of California, Santa Barbara, has calculated
that, using the most favorable assumptions, the citizens of the United States and
Canada could, by cutting their standard of living to a fifth of its present level,
accumulate enough capital in a year to export ove day’s increase in the popula-
tion of the world!
Clearly, then there are real limits to population expansion regardless of
what science can accomplish. Increased food production, while it is highly
desirable, will not allow unlimited growth. At some point stringent control
of population growth will have to be practiced. Any statement which
discourages population control at the present time 1s irresponsible and immoral,
and has the effect of condemning millions of people to an untimely and horrible
death. The quality of human life deteriorates with population growth, and
we have a choice: at what point will we accept the inevitable and halt the
deterioration?
As Professor Paul Ehrlich of Stanford University has stressed", we are
all inhabitants of a space ship of limited carrying capacity, and we must survive
or perish as citizens of the earth. National limits have no meaning for the
survival of the world, and the fate of the people living in India or Nigeria is
inseparably linked with our own. In view of this, isolationism and limited
solutions should have no place in our thinking. As a human race, we are in
the present day facing our greatest challenge.
Peter H. RAven
DEPARTMENT OF BIoLoGiIcAL SCIENCES
STANFORD UNIVERSITY
REFERENCES
1Fremlin, J. H. 1964. How many people can the world support? New Scientist 24: 285-287.
“Ehrlich, Paul R. 1968. The Population Bomb. Ballantine Books, New York. Paperback.
WZ
SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL STUDIES OF
THE MER BLEUE
W. K. W. Batpwin and THeropore Mosaquin
National Museum of Natural Sciences, Ottawa, Ontario
Plant Research Institute, Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, Ontario
WirTH THIS IssuE, the CANADIAN FreLp-Naturatist begins the publication of a
series of papers on the Mer Bleue Peatland. The aim of this series is to provide
a continuing publication outlet for studies dealing mainly with scientific
aspects of the natural history of the area. However, the choice of title for the
series is based on the fact that the Mer Bleue is not only a scientific and natural
history facility but also a natural cultural asset to all people of the Ottawa
region. Hence, it is probable that special studies dealing with recreational
and educational aspects of the Mer Bleue will be included in this series even
though such contributions, of necessity, may be of a controversial nature.
The Mer Bleue is a large (6,300 acres), relatively natural area of bog and
fen which reaches into the Greenbelt of the National ‘Capital area about 7 miles
east of the Parliament Buildings. It occupies an abandoned channel scoured
out in clay plains some 8,000 years ago by the ancient Ottawa River following
the withdrawal of the marine ‘Champlain Sea. It consists of three more or less
distinct basins. [he center of the Mer Bleue is a raised bog or “hochmoor”,
slightly domed where Sphagnum peat has built up most deeply, and sloping
off to the marginal “lag” or natural drainage moat. The depth of peat in the
center is from 10 to 20 feet and the peat includes large quantities of stumps
and logs. Elevated islands of alluvium deposited in the old stream channel
penetrate the Mer Bleue providing some outlooks and access to the central part.
At the east and where the wetland meets farmland, a variety of habitats suitable
for the breeding of game birds exists, and all around the edge of the bog there
are sedge and cattail swamps interspersed with ponds that are attractive to
waterfowl and other wildlife. The Mer Bleue has extensive black spruce and
tamarack stands with small birches, open leatherleaf heaths and cottongrass
communities. It has survived various disturbances: the encroachment of
farming around the edges; attempts to exploit peat for fuel and horticulture;
ditch digging as a make-work for the unemployed in the depression of rhe
1930's; use as a range for testing aerial bombing during the Second World War
and the testing of track vehicles in later years.
The Mer Bleue has long been valued for its rare and otherwise interesting
plants and animals and for the fact that it is a unique feature in the landscape
of the Ottawa region. It is the first place in the New World where a modern
analysis of fossil pollen was made and is also the area from which many type
specimens were collected. It is very accessible from the many research centres
of the Ottawa region. The Mer Bleue is outstanding among the many peat-
lands, both fens and bogs, in the Upper St. Lawrence Section of the Great
Lakes-St. Lawrence Forest Region because it is the largest of its kind remaining
4
1969 BaLDWIN AND Mosqutn: Srupies oF THE Mer BLEUE
ws
in an approximation to a natural state. [he western two thirds is part of the
Greenbelt and owned by the National Capital Commission, the eastern third is
privately owned.
In 1963 the Ottawa Fieid-Naturalist’s Club was alarmed by rumours of
possible future dumping of garbage on the Mer Bleue. Enquiries and meetings
were held that disclosed a wide concern of naturalists, scientists and other
people in this fascinating area. Club records noted excursions there dating
back to the 1880’s and interest is now increasing. Contacts with scientists at
the Geological Survey of Canada, the National Museum, the Plant and
Entomology Research Institutes in the Department of Agriculture, the Canadian
Wildlife Service, the National Research Council, the Department of Forestry
and the universities at Carleton and Ottawa, revealed their lively interests in
continuing research in this classic locality and unique environment. In 1963
the Canada Department of Forestry provided a valuable large-scale vegetation
map of the Mer Bleue for the use of research scientists and naturalists. The
club took up the matter of the future of the Mer Bleue with the Chairman
of the National Capital Commission which is the principal owner of the land.
A committee was appointed to evaluate the area and its environs and to advise
upon its future management. Dr. J. S. Rowe, chairman of the ad hoc com-
mittee, presented a full report to the National Capital Commission on July 21,
1965 (Rowe, 1965a). At the same time Rowe also prepared a special report
for the Canada Department of Forestry (Rowe, 1965b). It was during this
period that the idea developed for a special issue or series in the CANADIAN
Fretp-Narura.ist to be devoted to all aspects of the Mer Bleue.
In the consultations with various scientists it became apparent that we are
just at the beginning of our understanding of peatlands in Canada and that there
was a real need for a focus and stimulus to research into them and _ their
component bogs and fens. Some forty authors indicated their willingness to
contribute.
The initiative of the Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club has stimulated the
National Capital Commission to assemble most, but not yet all, of the Mer
Bleue into public ownership under Commission management. It has been
recommended that the commission acquire the whole of the ecosystem including
the critical througholds to its drainage.
There are indeed several good precedents for our attempt to bring diverse
contributions together in print. The Cambridge Naturalists in England have
published a long set of papers (Gardiner, 1923 to 1932) dealing wien the many
aspects of the famous Wicken Fen, which is now successfully conserved and
managed by the National Trust. Likewise, the many publications by Dr:
W. W. Judd, Department of Zoology, University of Western Ontario, have
had an important bearing on the eventual preservation and conservation ae the
Byron Bog located near the heart of London, Ontario (Judd, 1967). This is
the first time that the Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club has embarked on such a
publication enterprise. Like the Wicken Fen and the Byron Bog, we hope
that the Mer Bleue Peatland will be preserved as “a reservoir of wild nature
from which the man of thought may draw inspiration in his task of tracing
6 Tur CanapiAn Fie_tp-NaATURALIST
the past and foretelling the future of life.”
Vol. 83
Whether it will prove possible to
develop a program that will conserve, manage and develop the entire Mer
Bleue, only the future will tell.
Certainly if the Mer Bleue is to survive
indefinitely, the essential hydrologic regime of the entire area will have to be
managed as a unit, since the health of each part depends on the whole.
REFERENCES
Garpiner, J. S. 1923 to 1932. Natural His-
tory of Wicken Fen. Bowes and Bowes,
Cambridge, Two volumes, six parts.
Volume 1, 653 pp., Volume 2, 266 pp.
Jupp, W. W. 1967. The Preservation of
the Byron Bog. Canadian Field-Naturalist
81(3): 232-233.
ROWE En S50l9osa. he Mer Blene ean
appreciation of its present and future uses,
a brief presented to the National Capital
Commission.
Rowe, J. S. 1965b. The Mer Bleue: A
special report to the Canada Department
of Forestry dealing with the potential
values and uses of the Mer Bleue to the
Department.
WZ
POLLEN RECORD AT THE MER BLEUE
M. CAMFIELD
Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario
INTRODUCTION
THE POLLEN GRAINS of flowering plants are carried from the anthers to
receptive stigmas by the wind or by insects. “They are small, from 10 to 100
microns, and very light and can therefore easily be transported by either
means. Not unnaturally most smaller plants are pollinated by insects and
most tall trees by the breezes blowing through their branches.
The chances of a particular pollen grain landing on an appropriate
stigma are slight and it is only because pollen is produced in such vast quantities
(some trees may produce pollen in regular clouds) that this method is so
successful. Thus only a fraction of the millions of pollen grains released
actually function in fertilisation. The wind carries the rest, sometimes over
many miles, until they settle down to earth or, for our purposes, into bodies
of water or bogs.
Each pollen grain has a skin or external skeleton known as exine, which
in an oxygen poor environment, such as a sphagnum bog or mud at the bottom
of a lake, may be preserved with little change almost indefinitely, and may
thus be available for study thousands of years after the plant that bore it died
and rotted away. Moreover exine has properties, such as shape, thickness,
ornaments and pores, that under the microscope generally permit identification
of the genus and sometimes of the species of the parent plant.
Each year clouds of pollen fell on the Mer Bleue and were buried in the
growing bog, so that year by year a record was preserved of the plants, in
particular of the trees, that grew at that time in the district. As the flora of a
district is to a considerable extent controlled by the climate, changes in
climate too may be deduced from the pollen record.
The special value of the tree record was stressed above because tree pollen
(arboreal pollen), will obviously leave a more uniform record from one part
of a bog to another, or from one bog to another. Non-arboreal pollen is
much more local, for pollen from a clump of a certain plant will naturally be
more plentiful near the clump than farther out in the bog where perhaps the
plant does not grow at all. However, not all wind born pollen is from trees
and some plants from open lands and pastures, particularly weeds and grasses,
may leave clear records and indicate the proportion of forest cover to
open ground.
It will be recognized that major climatic changes will occur at about
the same time over considerable tracts and a record of a particular change
may be used to relate the history of one bog with that of another, and eventually
the climatic history of the whole region may be pieced together. The times
of this record will, however, only be relative and for an absolute dating the
1Contribution No. 1 to the series ‘‘Scientific and Cultural Studies of the Mer Bleue’ (see CANADIAN
FIELD-NATURALIST 83(1):4-6. 1969.
7
8 THe CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
method using the isotope Carbon 14 must be used. One such determination
has been made for the Mer Bleue and indicates that the basal organic sediments
in the abandoned Ottawa River channel were deposited between 7,400 and 7,900
years ago. In the Mer Bleue, therefore, we have a record of conditions during
the last 7,500 years or so, or from before 5600 B.C., the time of the Middle Stone
Age in Europe and of the earliest painted pottery in the Middle East.
It is gratifying to find such a long unbroken record of the floral history of
the region, but it must be remembered, in interpreting it, that this record may
be distorted in at least two important ways. Not all pollen grains preserve
equally well; the pollen of larch (Larix) for instance is preserved infrequently
and that of poplar (Populus) and white cedar (Thuja) hardly ever. The
absence of their pollen grains therefore does not mean that the trees themselves
were absent. Then again the pines, for example, produce so much windborn
pollen, which preserve extremely well, that they are over-represented in
the record.
Besides pollen grains, the spores of mosses, club mosses, scouring rushes,
ferns and fungi are often preserved, as well as rhizopods and diatom frustules.
None of these is as informative for our purpose as the pollen, but they do
offer some information on local conditions during certain stages in the develop-
ment of the Mer Bleue.
Auer (1930) published a tree pollen diagram of the Mer Bleue, using
eleven samples. The diagram given here (Figure 2) is more detailed but
agrees with Auer’s in general trends.
PROCEDURE
The first step in the study of the pollen record of Mer Bleue was to secure
2 continuous section from top to bottom of the bog in the deepest place.
The exact location of the bore hole is shown in Figure 1. The continuous core
section was obtained by means of a boring device. This core was taken by
Dr. J. Terasmae and R. J. Mott using a Hiller peat borer. Details of sampling
techniques may be found in Mott (1966) and samples studied were taken at
20 cm intervals or less. From the samples the pollen grains and spores were
extracted’ and mounted on slides for study under the microscope. Grains
from each sample were identified and counted systematically, a total count
of 200 or more of tree pollen being considered sufficient to represent properly
the entire sample. The grains were considered in three categories, arboreal
pollen, non-arboreal pollen, and spores. The number of grains of each item
was then expressed as a percentage of the total number of arboreal pollen
grains. ‘This base is used as the arboreal pollen is regarded as of special
significance because of its relative abundance and uniform distribution.
One of the principal methods of depicting the results of a pollen analysis
is by means of a pollen diagram (see Figure 2). In the left hand vertical
column is recorded the nature of the various layers of material in the core,
the youngest being at the top. In each successive colunm is plotted the
2C-14 date GSC—681—7,650--210 years. Lowdon and Blake (1968).
8The pollen was extracted by the use of Erdtman’s acetolysis method. Full details of this and other
procedures may be found in Erdtman (1943), Terasmae (1958) and Faegri and Iverson (1954).
1969 CaAaMFIELD: PoLLEN REcorD ar THE Mer Brurur 9
ee Railway,
tere
45° 25°
MER BLEUE
PEAT BOG
75°30"
1
1 x ° 1 Mile
a
Figure 1. Index map of the Mer Bleue, circle marking position of the bore hole.
percentage, as obtained above, of the genus or species listed at the head of
the column. For each sample this is plotted horizontally as a histogram, the
figure at the bottom of each column showing percentage expressed by the
full width of the column. The end of each bar is then joined to complete
the diagram. It should be noted that a different scale is used for pollen grains
that are plentiful than for those that are scarce.
In some slides a certain form may have been recognized but not have been
noted when making the count. Its presence is then Rented by a cross on
the diagram. This symbol is also used for some spores or other forms whose
presence is of interest but whose abundance is of no general significance.
INTERPRETATION
With this pollen diagram it is now possible to interpret the botanical
history of the Mer Bleue itself. Naturally any single section, represented by
a single diagram, will show many minor deviations that have only local
significance, and some indeed may ‘be accidents of accumulation or sampling.
Howevce if the diagram for Mer Bleue be compared with other pollen diagrams.
of the Ottawa region (Auer, 1930; Potzger and Courtemanche, 1957, Terasmae,
1960; Mott and Camfield, in preparation), these local variations can be
eliminated and a general picture deduced.
In any degra it can be seen that in parts of the stratigraphic section,
representing periods of time, the pollen of certain trees is more plentiful or
less plentiful than in other parts. This must clearly indicate some change
of conditions, and if the same sequence of changes can be recognized in
CENTIMETRES
IN
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10 Tue Canapian FIeLtp-NATURALIST Vol. 83
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to well
300
decomposed,
woody, Be
tibrous, -
S05) p
Phagnum = ins
ue
pr | — v Ee
Clay gyttia fi [ace + [LF
Silty clay
°lo> O
C-14 DATE
GSC-681—7,650 #210 YRS.
10 5
Percentage of total arboreal pollen
Figure 2. Mer Bleue Peat Bog pollen diagram (continued on opposite page).
several diagrams it can with confidence be assumed to represent environmental
changes of regional significance. It is therefore possible to establish a series
of zones, generally numbered from the youngest to the oldest, the boundaries
between each being a time when one of these significant changes took place.
Once these zones are established, more or less empirically, it is possible
to deduce something about the nature of the environment, as far as the plants
are concerned, during each period. In this way a climatic or environmental
history of a region may be established.
Two aspects of this must be clearly distinguished. One is the history of
the region as a whole, a region of hundreds of square miles, the other is the
history of the Mer Bleue and its immediate vicinity. The regional history
may be deduced from features that are common to all or most of the diagrams,
the local history must be based on the plants that grew in the bog or its
immediate surroundings and reflected special conditions. For it is the local
history of these special conditions with which we are concerned. Pollen
1969 CAMFIELD: PoLLEN Recorp At THE Mer BLEUE 11
=
= ow
= Ooo ov
Uv oo — vo o
5 voy Ego v
& 2 «ow offs oO G2 fe Y
So @ 8 Eo 8 Oss o aowee oss
2 1) tc, no Oo aa o) Coretta ase etsy eae) hes)
c ‘Ss a Suen fe SH LORE oa80 oe 380Sta
os) ea a= o
oer Cie MON tito PEW gg tS ooh clea s Saale Selo
1) ees Zz (3 fe ro} oO te) fo} (S DOEOLYADIS Cod GgoNSTS
a => i) ©) ay x>wW O COOHNnzmz=ZzZZFQOIZucg0OWs
ACHE EN E
v
NON-ARBOREAL POLL
+++ + + + + +
ven>
+-—present
records may indicate for instance whether there was much open water present,
whether there was a marsh or meadows bordering on the bog, whether the
bog was at an early stage of its development or whether it was large and
well established.
ORIGIN OF THE Mer BLEUE
In this area, some 11,500 years ago, as the continental ice sheet retreated,
the basin that is now the Ottawa Valley was flooded by marine water, formin
a body that is now called the Champlain Sea. This sea flooded the Ottawa
Valley far to the west of Mer Bleue, later to withdraw to its present position
in the St. Lawrence Valley. The Ottawa Valley, left by the withdrawal
of the sea, was drained then as now by the Ottawa River, but in its early stages
this river flowed through various channels south of its present course (Gadd
Ge OG2)) hree of these old channels can be traced in the Mer Bleue,
cudecd the sample from the bottom of the Mer Bleue core is of silty clay,
presumably deposited by the river. The centre channel from which our
core was taken is the deepest and after the river shifted its course to the north
it did not dry up entirely but part became a lake in which organic material,
including pollen, was deposited.
12 THe CaNnapbiANn Fie_p-NATURALIST Vol. 83
BoranicaL History oF THE Mer BLEUE
The oldest pollen assemblages show that ash and elm trees grew not far
from the abandoned river channel and water lilies decorated patches of open
water. Open land was clearly plentiful and contributed abundant grass pollen
to the sediments. One of the earliest trees to move in was jack pine (Pinus
banksiana) a coloniser of open, sandy ground. All this happened (according
to our only Carbon 14 date) some 7,500 years ago, and the period of time in
this region is designated as Zone IV (see Figure 2). Pollen counts of this
zone give no very distinctive clues about the climate at that time. However,
the presence of jack pine indicates that the climate was not as cold as it
probably was in the immediate post-glacial period not represented in the Mer
leue diagram. Another pollen diagram of the region that goes back further
in time than that of the Mer Bleue (Potzger and Courtemanche 1957) indicates
that spruce, which thrives better in colder and damper climates than pine,
was then plentiful. By contrast therefore the climate in Zone [V was warmer
and drier.
The end of Zone IV and the beginning of Zone III is marked in the pollen
diagram by an increase in white pine (Pinus strobus)* and a slight decline in
jack pine. By this time too, the abandoned channel of the Ottawa River
had begun to develop into the mire or bog we know today. Cat-tails (Typha)
grew in the water, Sphagnum moss began to appear, shortly to be followed
by plants of the blueberry family (Ericaceae) generally associated with it.
Among the Ericaceous poll en grains listed as undifferentiated is at least one
that probably came from a leatherleaf (Chamaedaphne calyculata). This
plant can grow close to open water and indicates an early stage in the develop-
ment of the Mer Bleue. During Zone III the climate was probably as warm
and dry as in Zone IV, as indicated by the abundance of pines, especially of
white pine, and a FOnese perhaps not unlike the Great Lakes — St. Lawrence
Forest of today was established (Rowe 1959).
With the start of Zone II occurs a dramatic change. Hemlock (Tszga)
and beech (Fagus) become plentiful. Birch (Bezzla), alder (Alnus), ironwood
(Ostrya) and hornbeam (Carpinus), elm (Ulmus), hickory (Carya), maple
(Acer), ash (Fraxinus), basswood (Tilia) and walnut (Juglans) all seem to
have flourished. At present most of these trees seem to be most common
south of the Mer Bleue region; and it seems reasonable to conclude that the
climate was milder than before, even milder than today. In Zone II also
labrador tea (Ledum) appeared for the first time. This plant marks a further
stage in bog development and the Mer Bleue bog must have been quite
extensive by this time.
At the bottom of Zone I both hemlock and beech become scarcer, perhaps
the climate was cooling again. In the very top sample of Zone I the entry
of the first lumbermen can "be detected by their effect on the vegetation. Pine
declines, perhaps many stands were cut down, and an increase in birch may
show that it was occupying the logged off areas. The great increase in w eed
4From here on if a genus or species is said to increase, the fact is that the amount of pollen in the
samples increases. This is believed to be a valid inference but there may be exceptions.
1969 CamFieLp: PoLLEN Recorp at THE Mer BLEUE 13
and grass pollen suggests the presence nearby of cleared land; indeed the
tremendous increase of ragweed (Ambrosia) is hard to explain in any other way.
During the summer of 1962, under Dr. Terasmae’s direction samples of
atmospheric pollen and surface peat and bog water were collected (Terasmae
and Mott, 1964+). When the pollen assemblages thus obtained are compared
with the results of the youngest of the bog samples the coincidence is striking.
Almost all the trends indicated in the top of the pollen diagram appear to have
continued to the present. It would certainly seem that the fossil pollen
within the bog gives a reasonably accurate picture of the vegetation of the
time, although there are some anomalies. Both spruce and jack pine grow in
the Gatineau, a few miles north of Mer Bleue, although the latter is rare.
Yet spruce pollen is scarce in the 1962 samples and jack pine pollen is abundant.
Perhaps the prevalent westerly wind blows in jack pine pollen from Petawawa,
100 miles northeast of Ottawa where there are large jack pine stands.
Ragweed which had become common with the beginning of Zone I is even
more plentiful in the modern samples, reflecting further reduction in the
forest cover.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank Dr. J. Terasmae and R. J. Mott of the
Geological Survey of Canada for many good suggestions. Special thanks to
Dr. H. M. A. Rice for his help and for contributing the part on modern pollen.
REFERENCES
Aver, V. 1930. Peat bogs in southeastern — and Camrietp, M. Pollen diagrams
Canada. Geological Survey of Canada, of the Ottawa district, in preparation.
Mean Mere : , Porzcer, J. E. and CourtEMANCHE, A. 1957.
Erptman, G. 1943. An introduction co Pollen studies in the Gatineau Valley,
pollen analysis. Chronica Botanica, Wal- Quebec. Bulletin du Service de Biogéo-
tham, Mass. graphie, Number 17. Université de Mont-
Fareri, K. and Iverson, J. 1964. Textbook eal.
of pollen analysis. Hafner Publishing Com-
pany, New York.
Gapp, N. R. 1961. Surficial ] f
ate Oren eriee singer eeuinen ee and Natural Resources. Forestry Branch,
Canada, paper 61-19. Bulletin 123.
1962. Surficial geology of Ot- Trrasmar, J. 1958. Contributions to Can-
Rowe, J. S. 1959. Forest Regions of
Canada. Department of Northern Affairs
tawa map-area, Ontario and Quebec. Geo- adian Palynology. Geological Survey of
logical survey of Canada, Report and Map Canada, Bulletin 46.
16—1962.
-. 1958. Contributions to Canadian
Palynology number 2. Part I. Geological
Survey of Canada, Bulletin 56.
- and Mort, R. J. 1964. Pollen
Lowpon, J, A. and Brake, W., Jr. 1968.
Geological Survey of Canada Radiocarbon
Dates VII. Paper 68-2 Part B. p. 213.
Morr, R. J. 1966. Quaternary palymo-
logical sampling techniques of the Geo- depositions in lakes and bogs near Ottawa,
logical Survey of Canada. Geological Canada. Canadian Journal of Botany 42:
Survey of Canada, Paper 66-41. 1355-1363.
Accepted January 9, 1968
THE DRAGONFLIES (ODONATA) OF THE MER BLEUE
Puritie S. Corset AND G. S. WALLEY
Entomology Research Institute, Research Branch,
Canada Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, Ontario
Tue Mer Breve has been visited by collectors of dragonflies for at least 65
years, and has yielded species of unusual interest. Among the earliest
entomologists to catch Odonata there were A. Gibson, C. H. Young, J. A.
Letourneau, and J. Fletcher. Those who have Policcred there subsequently
include E. M. Walker, J. McDunnough, F. P. Ide, R. Ozburn, A. W. Richardson,
W. J. Brown and ourselves. Knowledge of the distribution and ecology of
Canadian Odonata derives to a large extent from the writings of Professor
E. M. Walker. For this article we have drawn extensively on his list of
Ontario species (Walker, 1941, Trans. Roy. Canada. Inst.) and on his treatise
“The Odonata of Canada and Alaska” (Walker, 1953, 1958 and in preparation).
Our records derive mainly from these published sources, but also from the
Canadian National Collection, Ottawa, and from our own observations.
Being an extensive area of spring-fed pools and sluggish streams, with
shelter offered by scattered patches of trees, the Mer Bleue offers a eee
habitat for both the aquatic larvae and the winged adults of Odonata. Apart
from its general suitability as a habitat for dragonflies, however, it is of
particular interest in two respects: it harbours many species typical of acid
bogs which are not common elsewhere in this part of Ontario, and (partly
because of this) it is a southern outpost for several such species that are
otherwise boreal in distribution. Thus the dragonflies recorded from the Mer
Bleue are not all of a kind and, as far as our knowledge permits, it will be
appropriate to consider them under several heads.
The 14 species that occupy acid, spring-fed, bog pools or streams may be
regarded as typical of the Mer Bleue fauna, and they have been distinguished
in the accompanying list. Noteworthy among them is Somatochlora walshii,
which inhabits quiet boggy streams in the Canadian and Transition zones.
It was in the Mer Bleue, near Carlsbad Springs, that the larva of this handsome
corduliid was first discovered on 5 June 1940. E. M. Walker and T. N.
Freeman, after crossing the “moat” at the edge of the bog, came upon a newly
emerged male hanging beside the larval akin it had just vacnteal Walker had
taken an unidentified larva of Somatochlora at this same spot 11 years before,
and he was now able to show that this also had been S. walshii.
Northern or boreal dragonflies, for which the Mer Bleue represents a
southerly outpost, are Williamsonia fletcheri, Somatochlora franklini, S.
kennedyi, and Leucorrhinia hudsonica. All are also inhabitants of acid bog
pools. The first-mentioned, the smallest of the Canadian corduliids, is the
dragonfly for which this locality w ill always be best known. The species
was described by E. B. Williamson in 1923, from material collected in the Mer
Bleue by various Ottawa entomologists, and was named in honour of the late
1Contribution No. 2 to the series ‘Scientific and Cultural Studies of the Mer Bleue’’ (see CANADIAN
FIeLp-NATURALIST 83(1):4-6. 1969.
14
1969 CorBET AND WALLEY: DRAGONFLIES OF THE Mer BLEUE 15
James Fletcher, former Dominion Entomologist and Botanist of the Canada
Department of Agriculture. This dragonfly is a glacial relic that inhabits
muskegs. At the Mer Bleue its flying season is brief and Veliva calslves malilie
larva has never been found.
Some of the resident species are typical of slow streams and rivers, for
example Agrion aequabile, a striking blue-winged damselfly, and the three
gomphids, of which the rare Gomphus cornutus is noteworthy. Its range
centres around the Great Lakes, embracing Illinois, Iowa, Quebec, Ontario
and Manitoba. ‘The first record for Canada came from the Mer Bleue, a male
caught by James Fletcher on 18 June 1907; and the only place it has been
taken in appreciable numbers in this country since is on the Bear Brook, a
sluggish muddy stream at Carlsbad Springs.
Our list may contain dragonflies of two other kinds. There are species
of wide ecological valency, such as Ischnura verticalis, which is liable to breed
in almost any unpolluted body of water. And there are the inveterate
wanderers, likely to be caught in most places where Odonata fly, whether
they breed there or not. Probable candidates for this latter category are
Tetragoneuria cynosura and T. spinigera, the larvae of which inhabit rocky
lakes, but the adults of which may be found in almost any place offering
sufficient shelter for them to fly and feed. Within their natural range, they
are often encountered far from water, and their presence in collections is no
indication that they breed locally. Of course dragonflies, as a group, are
strong flyers, and so one must always be cautious about inferring breeding
distribution from adult captures alone. But sufficient is known of the Odonata
caught at the Mer Bleue to enable us to state that at least 27, and probably 29,
of the 32 listed breed there also. Apart from the two Tetragoneuria just
mentioned, other species which may also have been casual adult visitors are
Epicordulia princeps, Libellula lydia and L. pulchella.
A list of Odonata recorded from the Mer Bleue and Carlsbad Springs
follows. An asterisk denotes a species typical of acid, bog pools or streams.
OponATa RECORDED FROM THE Mer BLEur
Zygoptera
AGRITDAE
Agrion aequabile (Say)
LESTIDAE
Lestes dryas Kirby
COENAGRIIDAE
*Nehalenmia irene (Hagen)
*Enallagma hageni (Walsh)
E. ebrium (Hagen)
E. antennatum (Say)
Ischnura verticalis (Say)
Anisoptera
AESHNIDAE
* Aeshna canadensis Walker
*A. verticalis Hagen
A. constricta Say
GOM PHIDAE
Gomphus cornutus ‘Tough
G. vastus Walsh
G. notatus Rambur
CORDULIIDAE
Epicordulia princeps (Hagen)
16 THe CANADIAN Fig_p-NaTuRALIST
Tetragoneuria cynosura (Say)
T. spinigera (Selys)
*T. canis McLachlan
*“Williamsonia fletcher Williamson
*Somatochlora walshii (Scudder)
*S. franklini (Selys)
*5. Rennedyi Walker
LIBEL LULIDAE
*Libellula quadrimaculata Linnaeus
Vol. 83
*L. julia Uhler
L. lydia Drury
L. pulchella Drury
Sympetrum vicinum (Hagen)
S. semicinctum (Say)
*§. danae Sulzer
S. obtrusum (Hagen)
*Leucorrhinia bhudsonica (Selys)
*L. proxima Calvert
L. intacta (Hagen)
REFERENCES
Watker, E. M. 1941. List of Odonata of
Ontario with distributional and seasonal
data. Transactions of the Royal Canadian
1958. The Odonata of Canada
and Alaska. Volume 2. University of
Toronto Press.
Institute 23(2):201-265.
= 19530 dhe) Odonata oterCanadas—
and Alaska. Volume 1. University of
Toronto Press.
(in preparation). The Odonata
of Canada and Alaska. Volume 3. Univer-
sity of Toronto Press.
Accepted July 26, 1966
SOME HISTORICAL NOTES ON COLLECTING
LEPIDOPTERA IN THE MER BLEUE
T. N. FREEMAN
Entomology Research Institute, Research Branch,
Canada Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, Ontario
Tue collecting of Lepidoptera in the Mer Bleue probably started 100 years
ago. However, the first published record of this activity appeared in 1879.
On July 19 of that year, 28 members of the Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club
including Dr. J. Fletcher and Mr. W. H. H. Harrington, both of Ottawa, made
an excursion to the Mer Bleue to collect insects, plants, and other biological
specimens. Numerous butterflies were observed flying in the bog, but no
detailed entomological results were given. (1879, Ottawa Field Nat. Club.
Trans. No. 1, p.p. 8, 13). Fletcher was one of the founders of that Club and
was appointed as the first Dominion Entomologist in 1884, and Dominion
Entomologist and Botanist in 1887. Harrington served in the Dominion Postal
Service and worked in entomology in his spare time.
Excursions to the Mer Bleue by Fletcher and other members of the Club
were annual events from 1879 until Fletcher’s death in 1908. “These were made
1Contribution No. 3 to the series “Scientific and Cultural Studies of the Mer Bleue” (see CANADIAN
FIELD-NATURALIST 83(1):4-6. 1969.
1969 FREEMAN: COLLECTING LEPIDJPTERA IN THE Mer BLEUE 17
by a horse-drawn vehicle, or by a special railway car attached to the Boston
Express, operating on what was then known as the Canada Atlantic Railway.
The horses were “put up” or the car was detached at Eastman’s Springs. This
place name was changed to Carlsbad Springs in 1906. It is situated in the
western part of the Mer Bleue, about 12 miles east of Ottawa on the present
Canadian National Railway.
For many years the mineral springs of the area were considered to contain
valuable medicinal properties, and the “Springs” consisted mainly of a hotel for
invalids or convalescing patients and those who accompanied them. Even
those hardy entomological pioneers “stopped a few minutes to drink the water,
and to light the bubbles of gas as they rose to the surface”. (Gibson, 1902,
Thirty-second Annual Rept. Ent. Soc. Ont. for 1901, p. 110).
The first Lepidoptera recorded from the Mer Bleue were the Bog Copper
(Lycaena epixanthe Bdv. & Lec.), and the Bronze Copper (Lycaena thoe
Guer.). These were taken by a few members of the Club on July 1, 1886. A
larger excursion was made that year “to Eastman’s Springs on 24th July, when
some interesting collections were made in the Mer Bleue swamp, and the
waters of the mineral springs duly examined and tested”. (1887, Ottawa Field
Nats Glubrlirans, 32) 13))/23)):
Perhaps the first significant lepidopteron to be taken in the Mer Bleue
was a female of the Jutta Arctic (Oeneis qutta Hbn.) collected by Fletcher in
June 1888. Fletcher obtained eggs from this specimen and sent them to
W. H. Edwards, Coalburg, West Virginia. The resulting larvae enabled
Edwards to make descriptions of the immature stages of this species for his
classical treatise on the Butterflies of North America (Vol. 3, 1897).
The first new species of Lepidoptera to be recorded from the Mer Bleue
was a noctuid moth collected by Mr. C. H. Young, on August 30, 1899, and
again in September 1900. The larvae of this species were collected later by
Fletcher, Young and Gibson on May 30, 1901, and Young was able to rear
some of them to the adult stage. The moths were sent to Prof. J. B. Smith,
New Brunswick, New Jersey who named it Semiophora youngii (now
Anomogyna youngii (Smith)). An account of this can be found in a delight-
ful article by Gibson entitled “A Day at the Mer Bleue (Eastman’s Springs,
Ont.)”. (1901, Report of the Entomological Society of Ontario, p. 110).
In 1902 Young and Gibson made three trips to the Mer Bleue to investigate
the life history of youngii because of the considerable injury caused by the
larvae feeding on the larch and black spruce.
Years later I had the privilege of becoming personally acquainted with
these two men and learned something of the difficulties they experienced on
their excursions. One of these difficulties was crossing the wide, natural moat
that surrounded the bog. They told me that to cross this they had to wade
for 20 minutes in water up to their hips before they could start collecting
in the boggy terrain amid the vast hordes of mosquitoes. ‘This emphasizes
the enthusiasm and fortitude of our pioneer entomologists, a frame of mind
not always present in some of the ankle-wading entomologists of today.
18 THe CANADIAN FieLp-NATURALIST Vol. 83
On June 19, 1907, the well-known microlepidopterist Mr. W. D. Kearfott
from Montclair, New Jersey, accompanied Fletcher, Gibson and Young to
Carlsbad Springs. There they discovered some small larvae boring in the
twigs of larch and causing considerable damage. Kearfott reared some adults
and named the species Argyresthia laricella. (1908, Journal of the New York
Entomological Society 15: 182). Later that summer Young made collections
in the bog on July 2, 5 and 10, and took 10 specimens of a new crambid moth
that Kearfott described as Crambus youngellus (1908, Proceedings of the U.S.
National Museum 35: 380).
The following year on June 6, 1908, Gibson and Young, accompanied by
Mr. Norman Criddle, the renowned naturalist from Treesbank, Manitoba,
went to the Mer Bleue and collected three specimens of the rare Bog Fritillary
butterfly Boloria eunomia triclaris Hbn. (1909, Report of the Entomological
Society of Ontario for 1908, page 103). Young collected another specimen
of this species at the same locality on June 9, but, to my knowledge it has not
been collected there since that date.
The next interesting record from the Mer Bleue was the capture of a
specimen of an arctic butterfly the Freija Fritillary, Boloria frezja Thumb.,
by Young on June 6, 1911. (1912, Report of the Entomological Society of
Ontario for 1911, page 92). This species also has not since been collected
from the Mer Bleue. With the death of Fletcher in 1908, and Young’s
acquisition a few years later of a summer home at Meach Lake, Quebec, (about
15 miles north of Ottawa), the Mer Bleue entered a decade of entomological
doldrums. In 1919 Dr. J. H. McDunnough was appointed chief of the newly
formed Systematic Unit of the Entomological Branch, Canada Department
of Agriculture. He soon became interested in the insect fauna of the Mer
Bleue, and as he acquired staff, investigations in the bog became more frequent.
Important collections were made by McDunnough, G. S. Walley and W. J.
Brown. The collections were added to by F. A. Urquhart and T. N. Freeman,
who spent a few weeks in the bog during the summer of 1936. This work
did not immediately reveal new records or species but considerably enlarged
the meager collections made by the early entomologists and provided specimens
for further study.
During the war years 1939-1945, the Mer Bleue was used for military
maneuvers and was “out of bounds” to the public. I sneaked in once and
experienced a near-miss from a smoke-bomb. Perhaps this was why I didn’t
visit the bog again until June 1955 at which time I went to find Argyresthia
laricella Kft., that was discovered there in 1907 and had never been seen since.
Tt was still there and a nice series of specimens were collected.
During the past two summers adults of the rare olethreutid moth Ezdo-
thenia daeckeana Kft. were reared from larvae found feeding on the Pitcher
Plant (Sarracenia purpurea L.) in the Mer Bleue.
Thus for 85 years the Mer Bleue has continually contributed to the
advancement of Canadian entomology, and if left undisturbed, will provide
additional knowledge for many years.
Accepted July 26, 1966
OBSERVATIONS ON OIL POLLUTION AND
WINTERING PURPLE SANDPIPERS,
EROLIA MARITIMA (BRUNNICH), IN NOVA SCOTIA
Prrer C. SmirH’ and J. SHERMAN BLEAKNEY
‘Department of Zoology, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario
"Department of Biology, Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia
Durine the latter half of February, 1967, a section of the Nova Scotia coast
line along the Bay of Fundy shore became polluted with bunker oil (Austin-
Smith 1968). Rafts of the sticky oil came ashore for several weeks as shifting
-winds and high tides carried masses of oil-matted rockweed, timbers, and other
flotsam up and down the coast. As this was a period of high spring tides, the
contaminating oil was spread over a vertical distance of thirty feet (near
Digby, Digby Co.) to forty feet (near Scots Bay, Kings Co.) at each successive
tide and affected some one hundred miles of shoreline. The authors assume
that the equally high tides of late March and April would have re-distributed
the masses of oil caked flotsam washed up the previous month. It seems likely
that thousands of marine birds could become affected over this extended
period. Even on June 9 and July 5 there were patches of wet, sticky oil on the
rocks and drift logs at Halls Harbour and Morden.
A number of staff members and students from the Biology Department of
Acadia University explored sections of the Fundy shore and collected or
recorded at least sixteen species of waterfowl affected by the oil. A visit to this
coast just after a high tide would reveal flying birds with dark oil stains;
swimming birds unable to fly and in distress, birds sitting on the beach very
weak or dying; and other indistinguishable species washed up in the strand line
completely encased in a tarry sarcophagus. ‘The effect of such oil pollution is
well known for swimming and diving waterfowl, but what we wish to report
here is the effect on the habits and habitat of an intertidal shore bird, the
wintering flocks of Purple Sandpipers, Erolia maritima, that frequent our
Fundy shore with notes on feeding ecology and ethology.
Flocks of Purple Sandpipers were seen at Halls Harbour on March 2 and
similar observations were made at Port George and Margaretsville on March
11. It is the flock at Halls Harbour upon which our report is chiefly based.
The shore line here is basalt and just off a promontory of land east of the
community is an isolated pinnacle of rock. On March 2 this pinnacle was
surrounded by water at high tide and capped with an ice block formed from
frozen spray. Upon this icecap, exposed to the frigid onshore wind, was a
flock of thirty-eight sandpipers cach standing on one leg and facing into the
wind. Six of these birds had dark brown stains on ehelr HORA surface.
This characteristic oil contamination of the chest and abdomen and undertail
coverts was noted again on March 11. Whereas the larger sea birds actually
contact pieces of oil and get matted feathers, the Purple Sandpipers build up
a thin coating of oil from wading in tide pools. It was noted later that some
19
20 Tue Canapian Fietp-NaATuRALIST Vol. 83
tide pools had patches of oil stuck to the rocks at the water line and that these
fed an obvious film of oil into the pool. Other pools had oil on rocks above
the water line and these, because of the cold winter weather, flowed very slowly
but did contribute an almost indistinguishable film of oil. Rarely did any of
the sandpipers have an actual blotch of oil stuck to their feathers. This latter
sort of contact could result from their scrambling in and out of the steep-sided
basalt rock pools. Both on March 2 and 11 it was noted that these contaminated
birds spent a considerable amount of time preening their oil spots. As
examination of several collected specimens revealed, the combination of oil and
preening eventually matted the feathers and in severe cases the abdominal
skin surface was left exposed. We have no evidence that any Purple Sand-
pipers were rendered flightless by the oil pollution and no dead ones were
picked up, but through loss of body heat and ingestion of oil through preening
it is probable that losses did occur. However, this would not be of the
magnitude of waterfowl mortality due to the great differences between the
aquatic habitat (waterfowl), and the high intertidal-spray zone habitat
(sandpiper) with their concomitant differences in degree and manner of oil
contamination.
At the time of our observations at 1700 hours on March 2 the tide had
just begun to recede and there was some flight activity between the “icecap”
resting site and a series of tide pools directly below us at the base of a twenty-
five foot cliff. From our vantage point we ‘observed nine birds, three of which
were resting by the pools and aie rest were feeding in typical frantic sandpiper
fashion. Two types of feeding behavior were noted. One consisted of
moving along unidirectionally following the fissures in the columnar basaltic
rock and probing quickly into the damp or flooded crevices. These feeding
movements were very rapid and the birds kept moving forward continuously.
The second feeding pattern consisted of the birds standing in the tide pools
and moving their feet rapidly while remaining in one location, thus disturbing
the benthic material and this was immediately followed by feeding i in a radial
pattern. While feeding, the birds would not allow another within a radius
of some twenty-four inches without showing aggressive behavior by running
at the intruder for a short distance. ‘This chasing was accompanied by a rapid
“twit-wit’ note. This suggestion of an individual tolerance distance was
also evident by the pbecn ation that the members of the flock perched on the
ice-covered pinnacle were not huddled together, as might be expected, but were
uniformly spaced well apart. Feare (1966) through observing wintering
Purple Sandpipers in Britain suggested that aggressive behavior at dusk aid
following a high tide may be due to intraspecific competition for food.
At least three of the feeding birds had oil stains. These occasionally
ceased feeding and while standing half submerged they would alternately
preen their feathers beneath the water and then flutter their wings and body
and quickly submerge the head and shoulders so that a narrow band of water
rolled down their back and sides.
Halls Harbour was revisited in the morning of March 4 but the Sandpipers
could not be located. The tide had been ebbing for four hours. A search
1969 SmMiTH AND BLEAKNEY: Or PoLtLuTion in Nova Scotia Dill
of part of the shore line and the tip of the icecap resting site for dead individuals
was unsuccessful. [he area was examined for oil pollution and in particular
the effect on the tide pool habitat, as described previously. “Temperature of
the water in the pools where the birds had been feeding and bathing on March
2 varied from +0.5°C to —0.75°C depending on the size and position of the
pool, vegetation, wind action and presence or absence of ice blocks in the water.
The water temperature at the edge of the sea was 0.0°C and several air tempera-
ture readings taken at the sane time ranged from 0.0°C to +0.5°C.
Examination of the digestive tract contents of five specimens, four of
which were collected at Halls Harbour on March 1 by Professor Peter Austin-
Smith, Acadia University, and one collected at Margaretsville on March 11 by
the junior author, revealed that the locally abundant Northern Rough
_ Periwinkle, Littorina saxatilis, formed the major item of prey. Two other
larger periwinkles are common in these pools, but only a few fragments of
Littorina obtusata were identified. No fragments showing the characteristic
surface texture of L. littorea were located. Fresh specimens of each of these
three species of snail were collected for comparison with the stomach contents
and when they were crushed it was discovered that L. savatilis and obtusata broke
with very little pressure, whereas the thick shelled /ittorea required a heavy
blow. While Feare (1966) suggested that prey selection is based on prey
size, shell hardness may also be an important factor.
The entire snail is consumed and ground to fragments in the gizzard. The
only inorganic “gravel” in the gizzard consisted of particles mostly less than
0.5 mm. and only one as large as 2.5 mm. was observed. It is therefore assumed
that the snails are crushed one against the other by the powerful gizzzard. The
shells are reduced to such fine fragments that only the lower portion of the
central columella with parietal lip is intact in the gizzard. Rarely was a
complete whorl from the tips of the shell spire identifiable. Some pepper sized
fragments escape into the intestine and once in this alkaline medium they
apparently continue undigested to the cloaca. The larger columella pieces in
the gizzard were 3 mm. long, but nothing of that size ever occurred in the
intestine. Are the hard columella pieces retained in the gizzard as “‘stones”’
and gradually worn down? Perhaps they are reduced by action of gastric
acidity. Certainly some process prevents them from rapidly accumulating
‘and filling the gizzard.
The only other identifiable items of food were a tiny fragment of a barnacle
in one bird and the broken plates of a complete barnacle, Damo balanoides, in
another. ‘This is the common barnacle species on the Fundy coast. The only
other identifiable organic items in the gizzards were pieces of down feathers
from the sandpipers themselves. Presumably these were ingested while
preening. There was no evidence of oil in the digestive tract.
A check for reports on food habits of this sandpiper revealed a dirth of
information for North America. References to specific identification of
digestive tract contents were found in Bent (1927) where he quotes two British
authors, Yarrell and Witherby. The latter author listed a truly amazing
variety of plant and animal matter including grasses, moss, buds and leaves of
22 Tue CANADIAN Fie_p-NATURALIST Vol. 83
phanerogams, seeds, fish, and fish ova. Several genera were mentioned
specifically, but no species. “Iwo items included oan this list of genera in
Bent’s quotation of Witherby, namely the orders Amphipoda and Isopoda, are
mistakenly italacised as if they, too, were genera. From faeces analysis, Feare
(1966) found Purple Sandpiper diet in Britain to reflect the faunal and floral
zonation of the intertidal area. Major prey items were molluscs and included
Littorina littorea, L. littoralis, L. saxatilis, Thais lapillus, Hydrolica ventrosa,
and Mytilus edulis. One gizzard was examined where the most numerous
component was Littorina saxatilis, this conforms with our Fundy coast gizzard
analysis.
It would be interesting to have more data on the winter feeding habits of
this unusual sandpiper for they should vary over the species total winter range.
For instance, mussels (presumably Mytilus edulis) are mentioned as food items
by Feare, Verrelll and Witherby and this species of mollusc is common along
much of our Nova Scotia coast line, but extremely rare on the Fundy shore,
where these Purple Sandpipers must turn to Littorina saxatilis and perhaps
Balanus balanoides as a staple winter diet. If this sandpiper feeds in the mid-
tide and low tide zones to any great extent it would not be in the L. saxatilis
habitat and would be feeding on different prey species.
« Where is a definite ecological advantage for this bird to adapt its feeding
habits towards L. saxatilis. The latter is a high tide and spray zone snail, and
is thus available even during extended periods of stormy winter weather.
Certainly at this latitude a protected shore line would be covered with ice
blocks and very few intertidal species would be exposed. It may be that
Erolia maritima has to winter on exposed points of coastline for here the shore
is kept free of ice by wind and wave, and by the same action the crucial spray
zone habitat is extended far above the wash of the waves and allows the birds
to feed daily under almost any winter weather condition.
REFERENCES
Austin-SmitH, P. J. 1968. Late winter oil American shore birds. Part I. Dover ed.,
pollution in the Bay of Fundy, Nova New York. 1962. 420 pp.
Scotia. Canadian Field-Naturalist 82(2): Frare, C. J. 1966. The winter feeding of
145-146. the Purple Sandpiper. British Birds 59:
Bent, A. C. 1927. Life histories of North 165-179.
Accepted November 22, 1968
A HYBRID GROUSE, LAGOPUS x CANACHITES,
FROM NORTHERN ONTARIO
Harry G. LuMSDEN
Ontario Department of Lands and Forests, Maple, Ontario
Axsout January 15, 1960 Mr. M. Hunter, Chief of the Winisk Band of Indians,
shot an unusual grouse while hunting about 15 km south of the mouth of the
Winisk River. Not having seen a similar bird before he kept it and gave it
to Mr. D. W. Simkin, then District Biologist, Department of Lands and Forests,
Sioux Lookout. Mr. Simkin tentatively identified it as a hybrid between a
Willow Ptarmigan Lagopus lagopus and a Spruce Grouse Canachites cana-
densis. He sent the specimen to the writer who prepared it as a study skin
and partial skeleton.
Taverner (1931) recorded a Willow Ptarmigan Spruce Grouse hybrid
taken about 3 km from York Factory on February 16, 1931 and preserved by
Ven. Archdeacon R. Faries. Through the courtesy of Mr. W. E. Godfrey
I have been able to examine this specimen which is in the collection of the
National Museum of Canada. Archdeacon Faries wrote that a similar hybrid
was shot in 1930 near Cape Tatnam but was not preserved.
The physiographic characteristics of the Hudson Bay coastal area of
Ontario provide habitat conditions for both species in close proximity. The
coastal plane has quite recently emerged from the sea and is apparently still
slowly rising. The flat bedrock formed of sedimentary limestones carries an
over-burden of marine clays and gravels. As the land rises a succession of
gravelly beaches are formed which provide narrow strips of well drained soil
in the marshy coastal plane. The cold influence of Hudson Bay prevents
trees from colonizing the beach lines closest to the coast, but from 1 to 15 km
inland tamarack Larix laricina, white spruce Picea glauca and black spruce
Picea mariana begin to appear.
Thus, back from the coast there is a series of beach lines with thickets
of conifers about their crowns which tail off into a heath-lichen tundra com-
munity on the dry level ground surrounding them. Figure | is a photograph
_ of the Pipowitan River about 8 km from the Hudson Bay coast. The Spruce
Grouse illustrated in Figures 2 and 3 was collected among the spruces on the
left side of this picture. Three Willow Ptarmigan were seen among the trees
within 100 m of this bird. The autumn plumaged Willow Ptarmigan illustrated
in Figs. 2 and 3, was collected on a heath-lichen beach line on the right side
of this picture.
The Pipowitan River flows into Hudson Bay about 13 km west of Fort
Severn. ‘The interspersion of habitat types in this area is also to be found along
the coast east to the Winisk area and west to Cape Tatnam.
The breeding range of the Spruce Grouse C. c. canadensis in Ontario
extends north to the treed beach lines close to the Hudson Bay coast. The
breeding range of the Willow Ptarmigan L. J. albus is a strip along the entire
23
24 Tue CANADIAN FieLp-NaATURALIST Vol. 83
Ficure 1. Lower Pipowitan River. Spruce Grouse are found in the spruce stands along
the river. Willow Ptarmigan range into the spruces but the adjacent heath lichen
areas are a more important component of their habitat.
Hudson Bay coast to Cape Henrietta Maria and thence south along the James
Bay coast, almost to Lake River. It is on the partially treed beach lines that
individuals of the two species are likely to be thrown into close association.
We might coguite into the breakdown of isolating mechanisms which per-
mitted the production of these hybrids. Both behavioral and physiological
factors are involved. Although normally monogamous, the pair bond in
Willow Ptarmigan is not as strong as that of many passerines and waders. Most
hens usually move from one cock’s territory to another throughout the winter,
finally settling down with one male to nest, occasionally a single cock may
have two mates (Watson and Jenkins, 1964).
Under captive conditions, isolated hens have been able to progress in the
breeding cycle to the point of laying eggs without the stimulus of courtship
from cocks (Watson and Jenkins, 1964).
What is known of the mating behavior of Spruce Grouse suggests that
this species is polygamous and there appears to be no pair bond. Mr. V.
Saftar writes me that his captive Spruce Grouse hen laid four eggs about 3
weeks after the cock died.
1969 LuMspEN: Hysrip Grouse FROM ONTARIO 25
Since the hens of both species have laid in the highly unnatural environ-
ment of captivity and those of Willow Ptarmigan without the stimulation of
any courtship from a cock, it seems likely that the hens of both species can,
in their normal habitats, lay without the stimulation of courtship from a cock
of their own kind.
Receptive male Spruce Grouse will attempt copulation with mounted male
and female specimens even when the specimens are in a dilapitated condition
(Lumsden, 1961). Copulation seems to be evoked by the mount if it is
flattened to the ground and motionless.
I know of no published accounts of like experiments with Willow
Ptarmigan.
At the receptive stage in the reproductive cycle, captive female Ruffed
Grouse Bonasa umbellus at the University of Guelph will squat in the pre-
copulatory display before humans standing i in front of the cage. Captive Blue
Grouse Dendragapus obscurus have acted in a similar manner at the University
of British Columbia (Bendell pers. com.).
Unpublished records in the files of the Department of Lands and Forests
indicate that both Willow Ptarmigan and Spruce Grouse fluctuate in numbers
in Ontario to a considerable extent. In the Hudson Bay coastal region Willow
Ptarmigan can be very scarce some years and Spruce Grouse populations are
normally sparse. It seems likely that a female unable to find a mate of her own
species might progress in the breeding cycle to the stage of mating. She might
perform pre-copulatory displays before a male of the other species even though
the evoking stimuli were inappropriate, as in the cases of the female Ruffed
and Blue Grouse mentioned above.
It seems equally possible that a male of either species, confronted by a hen
performing a pre-copulatory display, even though she was of the “wrong”
species, would copulate.
DESCRIPTION OF Hysrips
The York Factory Specimen
Nares, some of the feathers black with white tips, others pure white;
lores and chin white, a small patch of feathers at the gape and the upper Anon
black, some of the feathers white tipped; ear coverts grey; streak above and
behind the eye white; crown and back of the neck grey, with numerous small
black spots and bars; front and sides of the neck white, the bases of some of
the feathers black; a narrow band across the upper breast black; the feathers on
the rest of the breast, flanks, belly and undertail coverts white, with black bases
which show on the sides of the upper breast in a barred and blotched pattern,
some of the black patches also appear en the belly; mantle a mixture of bars,
streaks and speckles of brown tinged with chestnut, black and grey, some of the
feathers on the upper mantle sooty black with grey edging, some white feathers
on the side of the upper mantle; lower back and rump brown, barred with
black and grey, feathers on the left side of the lower rump broadly tipped with
white; lesser upper wing coverts grey, streaked with black and tinged with
26 THe CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
Figure 2. Dorsal aspect of (left to right) a February and September Willow Ptarmigan;
the Winisk hybrid, and a September Spruce Grouse.
brown, speckled with grey and with broad white edges, tertiary coverts dark
brown with broad white tips; primaries dark brown with white tips, numbers
six to nine (outer ones) with white outer webs becoming speckled with brown
toward the tips; shafts dark brown, secondaries and tertiaries dark brown
speckled with white with broad white tips, tertiaries tinged with chestnut;
upper-tail coverts dark brown with chestnut tinged bars and broad white tips;
rectrices sooty black, many of the outer ones with a faint chestnut tinge near
the tip and some of the central ones with grey barring near the base; under-
wing coverts and axillaries white; tarsal feathering dirty white with brown
speckles, toe feathering white with much stain.
The Winisk Specimen
Nares black but some of the feathers with white tips; lores and chin white;
a patch of feathers at the gape and the upper throat black; ear coverts grey,
streak above and behind the eye white; crown and back of the neck grey with
some small black marks; rest of the head, front and sides of the neck white;
a band across the upper breast black; rest of the breast, flanks, belly and under-
tail coverts white, most of the feathers with black bases which do not show;
1969 LumspEN: Hysrip GROUSE FROM ONTARIO De
Figure 3. Ventral aspect of the same specimens in Fig. 2. The September specimens of
the Willow Ptarmigan and the Spruce Grouse were collected close to the river
illustrated in Fig. 1.
mantle grey streaked and speckled with black, a few partially white
feathers are present and the odd one has some small chestnut markings;
lower back and rump grey with broad black transverse bars and chestnut
markings replacing the grey on some feathers, some feathers broadly tipped
with white; lesser upper-wing coverts and primary coverts sooty black with
grey streaks and speckles; secondary coverts white with sooty base streaked
and speckled with grey; tertiary coverts grey, speckled with black and with
broad white tips; primaries sooty black with white tips; numbers six to nine
(outer ones) with white outer webs, becoming speckled with sooty black
toward the tips; shafts dark brown; secondaries and tertiaries sooty black
speckled and barred with pale grey with broad white tips, some of the inner
ones slightly tinged with chestnut; upper-tail coverts, for two thirds to three
quarters of their length, grey with black bars and blotches, terminal part black
with dark chestnut bars and blotches and a broad white tip; rectrices, upper
surface, black with grey speckling, terminal third black, central four feathers
with white tip, edge of outer web of outer two rectrices on each side white,
under surface of rectrices black; under-wing coverts white with some faint
28 THe CANnapian FIeELp-NaTurRALIST Vol. 83
TaBLE 1. — Comparisons of weights and external measurements of male Spruce Grouse,
Willow Ptarmigan and the hybrids
Canachites canadensis Hybrids Lagopus lagopus
canadensis York Factory Winisk albus
Winter wt Avg 518 g (10) — 651 Avg 617 g (6)
(468-570) (587-655 )
Wing Avg 175 mm (10) 193 197 Avg 203 mm (10)
(168-177) (189-216)
Tail Avg 120 mm (10) 133 139 Avg 120 mm (10)
(112-124) (113-127)
erey speckles; axillaries white, tarsus and toe feathering dense and white, the
third tail feather from the outside on the left side has a small chestnut mark
on the inner web.
Figure 2 illustrates the dorsal aspects of a male Spruce Grouse, the Winisk
Hybrid, and September and February specimens of Willow Ptarmigan.
F igure 3 illustrates the ventral aspects of the same specimens.
Soft Parts of Both Hybrids
In both hybrids the beak is black and although slightly smaller resembles
that of the Willow Ptarmigan in curvature of the rostrum and in massiveness.
In both, the terminal joints only of the front toes and the rear toe are bare
of feathers, the proximal joints of the toes and the tarsi possess dense feathering
which cover the feet almost to the end of the toe nails. Like the Spruce Grouse,
the toes carry pectinations throughout their length. In the Willow Ptarmigan
these structures are microscopic or absent. The length of the pectinations is
variable but some on the central toes are 2.3 mm long; this exceeds the length
found on most Spruce Grouse taken in January or February.
In both hybrids the nails are very long and are black turning to horn at
the edge and tip and are unlike winter specimens of Willow Ptarmigan 1 in which
the nails are yellowish white with black bases.
The specimen from Winisk, taken in 1960, possessed a bursa 21 mm deep
indicating that it was a bird of the year. The testes were 5 mm long and
appeared to be normal. There is no sex notation on the specimen label (Nat.
Mus. of Canada 24742) of the York Factory bird, but, as noted by Taverner,
it was probably a male since the black areas on its plumage coincide with those
on male Spruce Grouse.
The Winisk specimen has 17 rectrices. A careful check of the specimen
before the skin was prepared revealed that none were missing. The extra one
is on the left side and is slightly narrower and shorter than its neighbour and
the outer feather on the opposite side. The York Factory specimen has 16
tail feathers as do most Willow Ptarmigans and Spruce Grouse.
1969 Lumspen: Hysrm Grouse FROM ONTARIO 29
TABLE 2. — Measurements of the skeletons of male Spruce Grouse, Willow Ptarmigan, and
the Winisk hybrid
Hybrid
Element Canachites canadensis from Lagopus lagopus
10 specimens Winisk 10 specimens
Femur 57.7 (55.2-60.0) 63.0 63.8 (61.5-65.4)
Tibio tarsus 72.8 (70.4-75.1) 79.6 80.3 (78. 2-82 .0)
Tarsus 36.9 (35.4-39.5) 40.3 41.7 (40.7-43.0)
Humerus S42 (O2S—9 Ore) 61.2 63.1 (60.7-64.9)
Coracoid 43.4 (41.7-45.2) 46.8 46.1 (43.4-48.2)
Scapula 61.6 (57.2-63.7) 66.7 64.6 (62.3-66.7)
Sternum (Length of the keel) 79.0 (74.4-82.0 78.2 75.0 (70.9-78.5)
Synsacrum (width measured 43.9 (41.6-46.1) 50.6 49.9 (47.4-52.8)
from the tips of the lateral
processes of the Ilium)
In the Willow Ptarmigan the upper tail coverts in the winter plumage
are actually longer than the rectrices and, at rest, cover them thus hiding
their black color “completely, In the hybrids the upper tail coverts end 22 mm
and 30 mm short of the tips of the central rectrices. They are relatively
longer than those of the Spruce Grouse which end 30 mm to 37 mm from the
end of the tail.
Size
In Table 1 a comparison is given of the weights and wing and tail measure-
ments of Spruce Grouse, Willow Ptarmigan, and hybrid males.
The Ptarmigan weights were of specimens of L. /. albus collected at
Uranium City, Saskatchewan in February and sent to the author through the
courtesy of Dr. R. W. Nero. The weights of Spruce Grouse were from
Ontario specimens of the race C. c. canadensis collected in December, January,
and February.
The measurements from the skins and skeletons were all taken from birds
collected in northern Ontario. ‘They are in the collection of the author.
It will be seen that the Winisk hybrid was substantially heavier than any
of the males of Spruce Grouse and of all but one of the Willow Ptarmigan
in the sample.
The wing length of all but one Willow Ptarmigan exceeded that of the
Winisk hybrid while only two Willow Ptarmigan were smaller in this aspect
than the York Factory specimen.
Table 2 summarizes the skeletal measurements for the Winisk hybrid and
10 each of male Willow Ptarmigan and Spruce Grouse.
The hybrid exceeded the Spruce Grouse series in size in all skeletal
elements measured except the sternum. A single cock Spruce Grouse had a
shorter sternum keel and one other was the same length.
30 Tue Canapian FIeELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
With the exception of one skeletal element the measurements of the Winisk
hybrid lay within the range noted for Willow Ptarmigan. The tarsus was,
however, slightly shorter than any of the Willow Ptarmigan in the series.
The femur of the Willow Ptarmigan is not only longer than that of the
Spruce Grouse studied, it is also much more heavily built. "The Spruce Grouse
femur is relatively straight while that of the Willow Ptarmigan is curved. The
hybrid shares this character with the Willow Ptarmigan.
Apart from great length and massiveness, the tibiotarsus of the hybrid
differs from that of the Spruce Grouse in the relatively greater prominence
of the inner and outer anterior crests. It is similar in this respect to the Willow
Ptarmigan.
Finally, comparison of the sterna reveals that in the Willow Ptarmigan
the margins of the sternal plate are almost parallel. About the narrowest point
the width is 10.7 mm, at the posterior end it broadens to 14.5 mm. In the
Spruce Grouse the narrowest point measures 11.7 mm and the posterior end
flares laterally to 23.2 mm. The hybrid les between the two, but more
nearly resembles the Spruce Grouse in this character, measuring at the
narrowest point 11.6 mm and flaring to 20.6 mm at the posterior ens
The Winisk hybrid is larger, in all but one of the skeletal characters
measured than any of the Spruce Grouse in the sample. It is larger than the
Willow Prarmigan i in the mean in six and smaller than the mean in five of these
characters. There is a suggestion here that hybrid vigour influences the size
of the Spruce Grouse < Willow Ptarmigan cross. It is not known if these
hybrids were fertile.
REFERENCES
Lumspen, H. G. 1961. Displays of the Museum of Canada Annual Report 1930:
spruce grouse. Canadian Field-Naturalist 90-91.
75 (3) :152-160.
Taverner, P. A. 1931. A new hybrid Watson, A. and D. Jenkins. 1964. Notes
grouse Lagopus lagopus (Linnaeus) X on the behaviour of the Red Grouse.
Canachitis canadensis (Linnaeus). National British Birds 17:136-170.
Accepted November 14, 1968
Ws
INTRODUCTION OF TROPICAL FISHES INTO A
HOTSPRING NEAR BANFF, ALBERTA
D. E. McALtister
Curator of Fishes, National Museum of Natural Sciences, Ottawa, Ontario
In 1924 mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis (Baird and Girard), were introduced
for purposes of mosquito contro] into the outflow of Cave and Basin Hotspring.
Banff National Park, Aiberta. In the summer of 1953 these waters were
checked and the presence of numerous schools was confirmed (Mail, 1954).
In response to my request, Drs. A. H. Clarke and E. G. Munroe checked
- on the status of this population while visiting the Banff area on 1 June 1968.
Using dip nets, specimens were collected from a marsh (see Figure 1) which
is located immediately below and is partly warmed by several hiss of the
hotspring, near the Bow River. To our surprise not only Gambusia affinis.
but the green swordtail, Xiphophorus belleri Heckel, and the guppy, Poecilia
(Lebistes) reticulata Peters, were collected. Most were preserved (see table
1) but 7 living guppies were brought back (still alive, 15 October 1968). Enquiry
revealed that local acquarists had planted tropical fishes and that mollies,
cichlids and angelfish were also present. Except for the angelfishes, the fishes
were reported to overwinter. It appears that introductions of species other
than the mosquitofish must have been made between 1958 and 1967.
At the author's request the Regional Biologist, Mr. J. C. Ward, contacted
through Mr. Jean-Paul Cuerrier, made a further collection in the same locality
28 August 1968, in the hopes of securing the other species reported. This
collection contained the previously caught species and in addition the all-black
variety of the sailfin molly, Poecilia (Poecilia) latipinna (Lesueur) (previously
placed i in the genus Mollienesia) and the convict or zebra cichlid, Cichlasomia
ni igrofasciatum (Giinther). Fishes frem this collection are shown in Figure 2.
None of these species are recorded in Scott and Crossman’s (1967) Peel
checklist of Canadian freshwater fishes. The only other references to the
mosquitofish in Canada are a brief mention in Nelson (1965) to the hotspring
introduction and ones in Carl, Clemens and Lindsey (1967) and Smith (1960)
which will be mentioned further on. The specimens of the sailfin molly, the
guppy, the green swordtail and the zebra cichlid apparently provide the first
records for their successful introduction into the waters of Alberta and of
Canada.
The number and size ranges of each species in the awo collections are
recorded in Table 1, with the total number of specimens collected and the total
size range. The collections. except for a small sample of each species sent to
the Royal Ontario Museum, are catalogued in the National Museum of Natural
Sciences, National Museums of Canada. Ottawa. Nomenclature of poeciliids
follows Rosen and Bailey (1963). From the table it is apparent that the guppy
was most common in the collections, followed by the mosquitofish, the sailfin
molly, the green swordtail and the zebra cichlid. The size ranges might suggest
31
we)
nN
Tue CanapiAN FIetp-NATURALIST Vol. 83
SES
FIGURE 1. Photograph of the location in the marsh where collection NMC 68-163 was
made. Photo by Dr. E. G. Munroe.
that all species collected were reproducing, assuming no introductions of
small fishes were made during the summer.
The collection site was in the marsh next to the outflow of Cave and Basin
Hotspring at 51°10’N, 115°35’W, across the road from the spring itself, about
one mile southwest of Banff on the southwest side of Bow River, Banft National
Park, Alberta. According to Dr. Clarke the water is 30° C where it exits
from the outlet pipe, but 26° C in the swamp where the fish are found,
Vegetation is present on a muddy bottom. The current is slight, the water
depth 0-8 inches.
In addition, three other introductions of mosquitofish Gambusia affinis, into
Canadian waters, may be noted. D. L. Smith (1960) records that in May
1958, 50 mosquitofish were released into a pond near the University of Manitoba,
Winnipeg, Manitoba. By October there were 3,000, of w hich 1,000 were
removed. In late May of 1959, after the ice had melted it was found that a
good population had overwintered and had begun to reproduce. Dr. C. C.
Lindsey (in litt., November 15, 1967) wrote me that, according to Dr. Thorstein,
Head of the Department of Entomology, these mosquitofish survived for about
two winters but in 1961 or thereabouts the pond (“in a private yard near the
1969 MaAttister: TroprcaL Fishes 1x a Hotsprinc Near BANFF 33
SAILPIN MOLLIES
ZEBRA CICHLIDS
MOSQUITOR ION GREEN SWORDTAILS
GUPPIES
Figure 2. Photograph of fishes in collection NMC 68-301 taken from the outlet of the
Cave and Basin Hotspring, Banff National Park, Alberta.
34 THe CaNnapiAn Fietp-NaAturAatist Vol. 83
TaBLe 1. — Number and size range (mm standard length) of fishes in hotspring collections
Collection Collection
Family and species NMC 68-163 NMC 68-301 Total
1 June 1968 28 Aug. 1968
POECILIIDAE
Poecilia ( Poecilia) 13 13
latipinna (Lesueur)
Poecilia (Lebistes )
reticulata Peters
Xtphophorus
hellert Heckel
Gambusia affinis
(Baird and Girard)
62
7.8—18.5 mm
1
19.0 mm
12 + 7 live
14.4—29.2 mm
18.4—35.9 mm
396
6.4—29.2 mm
11
20.4—38.2 mm
95
11.0—44.8 mm
18.4—35.9 mm
458
6.4—29.2 mm
12
19.0—38.2 mm
107 + 7 live
11.0—44.8 mm
CICHLIDAE
Cichlasoma — 4 4
nigrofasciatum 15.9—67.6 mn 15.9—67.6 mm
(Giinther )
old Psychology rat shed”) dried out. Carl, Clemens and Lindsey (1967)
report that Gambusia sp. ? were introduced into ponds in the Kelowna area
about 1928, but it is not known if any still survive. Dr. J. S. Nelson (a7 litt.,
October 21, 1968) wrote that he had just received two guppies in a collection
made by Mr. J. C. Ward from the sulphur hotspring area of Third Vermillion
Lake which is about one mile west of Banff and just north across the Bow
River from the site of the Cave and Basin collection.
The successful introduction of these tropical fishes so far north of their
natural range is of ecological interest. It shows that reproduction and growth
has not been inhibited by the different photoperiodism of higher latitudes nor
by the different animal and plant life which provide food and shelter. This
ecological lability may explain the success of their introductien and as aquarium
fishes. Factors also favouring their introduction include the elevated tempera-
ture of the marsh and probably the apparent absence of piscivorous fishes.
The only other fish recorded from the hotsprings is the longnose dace,
Rhinichthys cataractae Valenciennes, 1842, noted by Eigenmann (1894) under
the name Rhinichthys dulcis as very abundant, and by Nichole (1916) as a new
subspecies, Rhinighthys cataractae smithi (a name, incidentally, omitted from
Jordan, Evermann and Clark, 1930). No specimens of the longnose dace
were caught in the present collections.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is very grateful to Drs. Arthur H. Clarke, National Museum
of Natural Sciences and Eugene G. Munroe, Entomology Research Institute,
and to Mr. J. C. Ward, National and Historic Parks Branch for collecting the
1969 MaAttister: TropicAL Fishes 1x A Horsprinc Nrar BANFF 35
specimens, and to Mr. Jean- Paul Cuerrier for his assistance in this matter.
Dr. C. C. Lindsey, University of Manitoba, and Dr. J. S. Nelson, University
of Alberta, generously provided information on Gambusia introductions,
Dr. W. B. Scott, Royal Ontario Museum checked the identification and these
three along with Mr. ‘Ward and Mr. Charles G. Gruchy, University of Ottawa,
kindly criticized the manuscript.
REFERENCES
Cart, G. Crirrorp, W. A. CLEMENS, and Alberta. Journal of the Fisheries Research
C. C. Linpsey. 1967. The fresh-water Board of Canada. 22(3):721-753, 21 figures.
fishes of British Columbia. British Colum- NicHors, JoHN ‘TREADWELL. 1916. On a
bia Provincial Museum Handbook (5): new race of minnow from the Rocky
_ 1-192, illustrated. Mountains Park. American Museum of
EiGgENMANN, C. H. 1894. Results of ex- Natural History Bulletin 35, Article 8:69.
plorations in western Canada and the Rosen, Donn Eric, and Reeve M. Batey.
northwestern United States. Bulletin of the 1963. The poeciliid fishes (Cyprinodonti-
United States Fishery Commission for formes) their structure, zoogeography and
1894. 14:101-132, plates 5-8. systematics. Bulletin of the American
Jorpan, D. S., B. W. Ererman, and H. W. Museum of Natural History. 126, Article
Crark. 1930, Check list of the fishes and 1:1-176, 61 text-figures, 2 plates.
fishlike vertebrates of North and Middle Scorr, W. B., and E. J. CrossMAn. 1967.
America. Report of the United States Provisional checklist of Canadian fresh-
Commission of Fisheries for 1928, Appen- water fishes. Information Leaflet, Depart-
dix X. 670 pages. ment of Ichthyology and Herpetology,
Mair, G. ALLEN. 1954. The mosquito fish, Royal Ontario Museum, 39 pages.
Gambusia affinis (Baird and Girard) in) Smit, Davin L. 1960. The ability of the
Alberta. Mosquito News 14(3):120. top minnow, Gambusia affinis (Baird &
Netson, J. S. 1965. Effects of fish intro- Girard) to reproduce and overwinter in
ductions and hydro-electric development an outdoor pond at Winnipeg, Manitoba,
on fishes of the Kananaskis River system, Canada. Mosquito News 20(1):55-56.
Accepted December 4, 1968
2
COLONIES OF DOUBLE-CRESTED CORMORANTS
AND WHITE PELICANS IN ALBERTA
Keres VERMEER
Canadian Wildlife Service, Edmonton, Alberta
INTRODUCTION
A survey of nesting colonies of Double-crested Cormorants (Phalacrocorax
auritus) and White Pelicans (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos) was made in Alberta
during the summer of 1967, as a review of the literature (Thompson, 1933,
Lies and Behle, 1966) on these birds revealed that they are declining in number
in this province. The survey was conducted by car, boat, and plane.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Mr. L. G. Sugden, Canadian Wildlife Service, read the manuscript and
offered useful comments. Mr. N. Thomas and Mr. C. Scott, Alberta Fish
and Wildlife Division, assisted in locating nesting colonies.
RESULTS AND DIscUssION
Figure 1 depicts that few active nesting colonies of Double-crested
Cormorants and White Pelicans remain in Alberta. The letters denoting the
location of active and extinct nesting colonies in Figure 1 relate to those in
Tables 1 and 2 respectively.
Several of the extinct Double-crested Cormorant and White Pelican
colonies disappeared as a result of human disturbance (Farley, 1919; Soper,
1952). Soper (1952) urged sanctuary protection for the pelican colony in
Newell Reservoir. No such protection has been given and the nesting popula-
tion of White Pelicans dwindled at Newell Reservoir from 157 nests in 1951
to 27 nests in 1966 (C. Gordon, pers. comm.). No pelicans nested at Newell
Reservoir in 1967. Pelicans started to nest on an island in Lower Therien Lake
in June, 1967, but abandoned the location later. There were two nests with
TaBLeE 1. — Number of nests in active colonies of Double-crested Cormorants and White
Pelicans in Alberta in 1967.
Species Colony location No. nests
Double-crested C, Lower Therien Lake 29
Cormorants C» Frog Lake 2
C; Newell Reservoir 148
White Pelicans P, Lower Therien Lake 2
P. Namur Lake TSS)
P3 Slave River ca 50
Ps, Wadlin Lake* 15
*Observed in 1968.
36
1969 VERMEER: CORMORANTS AND PELICANS IN ALBERTA 37
eats ter ere ad, at ek OW ay hg his a, ay seeps ale eee | 59°
og ERs ey el et Ge 8 Mei WE RL ov gar SS SARC
VT ara a fot tte ae eas P(e Ore SEE ORCS SO Pon SE SCOUT OAL ie Ee gent Soa?
© NSIS Eo ae a reg es os SSRN I LN HISAR oa Re ee a | 56°
EA rigta) = yf) ae Io eb ony Mita ap b yee ney Whur bey ael 55°
MEER os ets OMe ER a Bg eee eee re io ale
oce
c700p9
Rc kk See, SN a UREN Ok REL Ge eee Wet TS ay ey eras — 453°
eS iar ester ek oa aE Du ONO ncaa eA fe) a abe gitar eR A fea se ( 52°
ACTIVE COLONIES
@ WHITE PELICANS
® DOUBLE - CRESTED
CORMORANTS edt ii oN oy es omen gy msg UIE. gl deren eee le a 4 51°
e@ @ 1-10 NESTS
@ @ 11-50 NESTS
@ @ 51-100 nests P 100M c3
@ WW iio! - 200 nests
Ay Riad Wea nL a ck 50°
EXGTINCTWACOUONIES@ y=) hte ye) cea ae |
O WHITE PELICANS
O DOUBLE - CRESTED CORMORANTS
O 20 40 60 80 100 MILES
La | 49°
Figure 1. Nesting colonies of Double-crested Cormorants and White Pelicans in Alberta.
38 Tue CANADIAN Fire_p-NATURALIST Vol. 83
TABLE 2. — Size of extinct Double-crested Cormorant and White Pelican colonies
Species Colony location No. nests Source
Double-crested C, Fresh-water Lake ca 20 Rowan in Lewis, 1929
Cormorants C,; Lac la Biche ca 120 Rowan in Lewis, 1929
C, Ministik Lake cay 12 Horning, 1923
C,; Miquelon Lake = Farley, 1919
Cs Primrose Lake ca 120 Rowan in Lewis, 1929
White Pelicans P, Beaverhill Lake 81 Lies and Behle, 1966
P; Buffalo Lake —= Macoun in Thompson, 1933
P. Lac la Biche — Farley, 1922
P, Lake Shanks ca 50 T. Helgeson (pers. comm).
Ps Lake Ste. Anne few Macoun in Thompson, 1933
P, Miquelon Lake ca 250 Farley, 1919
Pip Newell Reservoir 157 Soper, 1952
Py, Pelican River small colony Preble in Thompson, 1933
young cormorants on a reef in Lac la Biche in 1966, but no cormorants nested
there in 1967. There are indications that the birds abandoned these sites as
a result of human disturbance.
All colonies of cormorants and pelicans were found on islands. The
nests of cormorants were in contact with one another and built on old nesting
platforms of previous years. The nests of pelicans were situated directly on
the ground either in the open or beneath trees. The clutch sizes of the
cormorants at Lower Therien Lake and Newell Reservoir and that of the
pelicans at Namur Lake in 1967 are shown in Table 3. The values of the
obtained clutch sizes are probably biased as eggs may have disappeared as a
result of predation.
The average clutch sizes of Double-crested Cormorants in Alberta in 1967
were within the range of those reported by McLeod and Bondar (1953) for
this species at Lake Winnipegosis, Manitoba. Counts by these authors gave
an average of 2.43 eggs per nest in 1943, 2.87 in 1944, and 3.63 in 1945. Higher
values for the average clutch size of Double-crested Cormorants were obtained
by Behle (1958) in Utah and by Drent ef al. (1964) in British Columbia.
Sixty-six nests in both studies averaged 3.9 and 4.1 eggs respectively. Schaller
(1964) reported an average clutch size of 1.67 eggs in 212 nests of White
Pelicans at Yellowstone Lake, Wyoming. This is a lower average than for
this species at Namur Lake, Alberta.
The fledging success could be calculated for Double-crested Cormorants
only. The fledging success in 148 nests of this species at Newell Reservoir
consisted of 1.9 fledglings per nest. This is a lower average than the 2.4 fledglings
roduced per nest in 66 nests of this species in British Columbia (Drent ez al.,
1964). A Double-crested Cormorant colony at Frog Lake in 1967 and one at
Lac la Biche in 1966, consisting of two nests each, produced 1.5 fledglings per
nest. This shows that small colonies of this species also can reproduce
successfully.
1969
VERMEER: CORMORANTS AND PELICANS IN ALBERTA 39
TaBLE 3. — Clutch sizes of Double-crested Cormorants and White Pelicans in Alberta in 1967
Number of clutches
Double-crested Cormorants
White Pelicans
Clutch size
Lower Therien Lake
Newell Reservoir Namur Lake
1 2 17 13
2 6 26 54
3 7 23 20
4 12 75 20
5 2 7
Total 29 148 107
Mean clutch size 3.21 3.20 2.44
SUMMARY
A survey of Double-crested Cormorants and White Pelican colonies was
made in Alberta in 1967. Nesting colonies of both species are endangered in
Alberta because of human disturbance.
The average clutch sizes for Double-
crested Cormorants were 2.30 and 2.31 and that for White Pelicans was 2.44.
The average fledging success in 148 nests of the Double-crested Cormorants
consisted of 1.9 fledglings per nest.
REFERENCES
Bene, W.H. 1958. The bird life of Great
Salt Lake. University of Utah Press, 203 pp.
Drent, R. H., G. F. Van Tets, F. Tompa
and K. VERMEER. 1964. The breeding
birds of Mandarte Island, British Columbia.
Canadian Field-Naturalist, 78:208-263.
Fartey, F. L. 1919. The White Pelican,
Pelecanus erythrorbynchos in Alberta.
Canadian Field-Naturalist, 33:38-39.
Fartey, F. L. 1922. Summer birds of the
Lac la Biche and Fort McMurray region.
Canadian Field-Naturalist, 36:72-75.
Horning, J. E. 1923. Turkey Vultures in
Alberta. Auk, 40:324-325.
Lewis, H. F. 1929. The natural history of
the Double-crested Cormorant (Phalacro-
corax auritus auritus L.).Published Ph.D.
thesis, Ottawa. 94 pp.
Lies, M. F. and W. H. Beuie. 1966. Status
of the White Pelican in the United States
and Canada through 1964. Condor, 68:
279-292.
McLeop, J. A. and G. F. Bonnar. 1953. A
brief study of the Double-crested Cormo-
rant on Lake Winnipegosis. Canadian
Field-Naturalist, 67:1-11. ,
SCHALLER, G. B. 1964. Breeding Behavior
of the White Pelican at Yellowstone Lake,
Wyoming. Condor, 66:3-23.
Soper, J. D. 1952. Protection of wildfowl
breeding grounds in the Lake Newell
locality, Eastern Irrigation District, Al-
berta Canadian Wildlife Service, Edmon-
ton. 26 pp.
Txompson, B. H. 1933. History and pre-
sent status of the breeding colonies of the
White Pelican (Pelecanus erythrorbyn-
chos) in the United States. United States
Department of the Interior. National Park
Service. Occasional Paper Number 1.
82 pp.
Accepted November 27, 1968
AUTUMN FLOCKING HABITS OF THE RED-WINGED
BLACKBIRD IN SOUTHERN MANITOBA’
Lawrete B. SmirH AND RALPH D. Birp*
Research Station, Canada Department of Agriculture
Winnipeg, Manitoba
Biacksirps (Family Icteridae) customarily gather in flocks after the young are
able to fly. The gregarious Red-winged Blackbird, Agelaius phoeniceus, is the
dominant species in these flocks but is frequently associated with one or more
of the following: Yellow-headed Blackbird, Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus;
Common Grackle, Quiscalus quiscula; Brown-headed Cowbird, Molothrus ater;
Brewer’s Blackbird, Euphagus cyanocephalus; Rusty Blackbird, Ewphagus caro-
linus; Bobolink, Dolichonyx oryzivorus. In addition, the Common Starling,
Sturnus vulgaris, has been observed in flocks of icterid blackbirds. Audubon
(1831) reported that certain North American Indians were troubled by flocks
of blackbirds feeding in their fields of maize. Recently there has been renewed
interest in blackbirds because of the depredation caused by fall flocks on agri-
cultural crops (Mitchell and Linehan, 1957; Neff, 1949; Neff and Meanley,
1957; Bird and Smith, 1964).
"In Manitoba, blackbird damage is most severe on ripening crops of oats,
barley and sunflowers as a result of the feeding of flocks prior to their departure
on migration. Reduction of damage therefore depends on being able to control
the flocks, which in turn requires knowledge of the normal behaviour of black-
bird flocks. Observations on the daily behaviour of blackbird flocks in southern
Manitoba during the summers of 1960 to 1964 are reported.
‘TIME OF OCCURRENCE OF FLOCKS
Red-winged Blackbirds are summer residents in Manitoba. Small flocks
of males begin returning to Manitoba from their winter range late in March
or early in April (Mrs. Joan Hochbaum, unpublished data). By the third
week in April, the size and frequency of flocks of males has increased greatly.
Females first appear during the last week of April. About mid-May the last
flocks of either sex arrive in southern Manitoba.
Flocks break up when they reach the breeding grounds. Later, after the
young birds leave the nest, flocks begin to form again when family groups of
females and young gradually join with other family groups from a breeding
area. Throughout July and August these flocks forage in the upland areas
near their night roost, which is usually in a relatively large marshy or shrubby
area near water. Southward migration from Manitoba begins about mid-
August, reaches a peak during the last week of August or the first week in
September (Fig. 1), then diminishes gradually and terminates about mid-
November.
As the migrating flocks travel southwards from Manitoba through the
United States they apparently move from one area of concentration to another
1Contribution No. 314 from the Research Station, Research Branch, Canada Department of Agriculture,
25 Dafoe Rd., Winnipeg 19. Man.
“Present address, Old Scott Road, Ganges, B.C.
40
1969 SMITH AND Birp: FLockinc Hasits or BLACKBIRDS 41
10,000
dp)
a
nS
(aa)
<
< eoe
a
a]
@m
LL
2 100
Oo
2 meee FIELDS NEAR DELTA MARSHES
eooooee FIELDS NEAR ASSINIBOINE R.
Wet cele 228 Te Na eel aes
AUG SEPT
Figure 1. Total number of blackbirds seen at weekly intervals during August and Sep-
tember 1964 in two agricultural areas.
(De Grazio, 1961, 1963). From November until February the birds forage
daily in the fields in flocks at the wintering sites mainly in Arkansas, Tennessee,
and Texas. The wintering populations begin to move northward in late
February (Neff and Meanley, 1957).
Stupy AREAS AND MetruHops
Blackbird flocks were observed in two agricultural areas in Manitoba,
one north of Portage la Prairie and the other near Altona, which were described
in detail in a previous paper (Bird and Smith, 1964). Each area, consisting of
approximately 80 square miles, was visited once every two weeks from May to
October in 1960, usually from 1000 hr. to 1700 hr. C.S.T. ie. from 5-6 hours
after sunrise until 2-3 hours before sunset. The areas were also visited at
various times during August and September in 1961, 1962, 1963 and 1964.
Observations were made with the aid of 8 x 30 binoculars.
RESULTS
Daily Behaviour of Autumn Flocks
Flocks that form after the nesting season feed on cereal grains, weed
seeds, and insects (Bird and Smith, 1964). The daily pattern of behaviour is
remarkably consistent. Beginning at sunrise blackbirds leave the communal
night roost and fly to nearby fields to feed; after feeding they fly to the
nearest water to drink, then rest in trees near the watering spot where they
preen themselves, and sing sporadically. This cycle of movements seemed to
be repeated throughout the day (Table 1) and about 2 hours before sunset,
the birds begin returning to the night roost.
Vol. 83
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1969 SMITH AND Birp: FLrockinc Hasirs or BLACKBIRDS 43
TABLE 2. — Distance between feeding and resting areas of blackbird flocks in southern
Manitoba
Distance from feeding area to resting area (yards)
Location
100 150 200 300 400 700 1000
Portage la Prairie 3 3 1 1 0 1 1
Altona 4 3 0 2 0 0
During the day blackbirds left the trees in small groups of 10 or less,
_evenly spaced along a direct line between the trees and the field in which they
fed. When the birds ceased feeding, they usually rose in a flock of 50 or
more, circled once, and then either flew directly to the trees or split in two
parts; one part returned to the crop and the other went to the trees. While
the birds were in the field they rose frequently in a flock and either returned
to the same spot immediately or moved to another part of the field. The
intervals between feeding periods were variable. Most flocks fed within 200
yards of the trees in which they rested (Table 2). However, in the Delta area
in October 1960, blackbirds in one flock were observed feeding about 1000
vards from the resting area. The fields in which the birds fed were usually
close to a source of water, such as a pond, farm dugout or ditch, with trees
and or shrubs nearby.
Sex Distribution in Flocks
In 1964, observations were made on the sex distribution within flocks from
two areas of farmland near Portage la Prairie. One area was near the extensive
Delta marshes and the other was along the banks of the Assiniboine River. In
both areas observations were made weekly from August 13 until September 23.
Near the Delta marshes observations were made in fields within % mile of
either side of a segment of road running 5 miles south from the edge of the
marsh. ‘I'wo such segments were randomly selected. Observations near the
Assiniboine River were made % mile on either side of a highway near the
north bank of the river for a distance of 30 miles. The ditches along this
highway were ae and had many wet areas with dense growth of cattail,
Typha latifolia L., that were breeding sites for Red- -winged Blackbirds in
summer.
The proportion of adult males in flocks near the Delta marshes was higher
than in those along the Assiniboine River, irrespective of the size of the flock
(Table 3). Conversely, however, Allen (1914) noted that the adult male
Red-winged Blackbirds formed separate flocks after the breeding season. In
1960, we observed flocks that contained only adult and sub-adult males from
early August to early October. Also in years previous to 1964, some flocks
that contained either adult and sub-adult males only, or females and juveniles
44 Tue CaNapiAN Fie_p-NATURALIST Vol. 83
TABLE 3. — Estimated proportion of adult males in blackbird flocks from two areas near
Portage la Prairie, Manitoba, in August and September, 1964
No. birds in flock No. weeks No. flocks No. adult No. females % adult
males males
Near Delta Marshes
5 — 50 6 9 195 83 70.1
50 — 500 6 4 1609 303 84.1
500 or more 6 3 3590 1910 65.3
Near Assiniboine River
5 — 50 6 18 93 369 20.1
50 — 500 6 24 916 2380 27.8
500 or more 6 7 5667 11933 322?
only, were seen; such flocks occurred less frequently than those that con-
tained mixed sexes and developmental stages.
Size of Flocks
The size of a flock varies greatly throughout the season and throughout
the day. A blackbird flock appears to be an open community that can be
added to or subtracted from readily. Thus, in a particular area, the size of
a flock can change rapidly during the day, yet is unlikely to reflect a change
in the total population in the area. Usually feeding flocks contained less than
500 birds (Table 4+). However, large flocks (over 500 birds) were observed
more frequently in the area north of Portage la Prairie than in the area around
Altona (Table 4) and some flocks in the area north of Portage la Prairie in
early September were estimated to contain 10,000 blackbirds.
Species Within Flocks
In 1960, the species compositions of 75 flocks was recorded during the
period from mid-July until mid-October. Of these flocks 35 contained Red-
winged Blackbirds only; the remainder of the flocks contained from 1 to 4
other species. The species and their frequency of representation were:
Yellow-headed Blackbird 33
Brewer’s Blackbird kil
Brown-headed Cowbird
Rusty Blackbird
Common Grackle
Bobolink
Starling
S| =| SS Re PY
1969 SmItH AND Biro: Frockinc Hasirs or BLACKBIRDS 45
TasLe 4. — Frequency of occurrence of blackbird flocks of different sizes in two areas of
Manitoba noted between July 23 and October 19, 1960
No. of flocks
Area
5 to 50 birds 50 to 500 birds more than 500 birds
Portage la Prairie 14 34 10
Altona 15 oy 2
Miscellaneous Notes on Flocks
Blackbirds continue to feed in the fields in late July and August during
the postnuptial molt. Absence of some primary feathers, absence of tail
feathers, or absence of large patches of feathers from the head and body
characterized the molting birds. Allen (1914) and Neff and Meanley (1957)
noted that during the molt blackbirds either remained in the marshes or in
treed and shrubby areas during the day. Our observations showed that black-
birds did not fly far from trees to feed while they were in the period of heavy
molt, although they might move a mile or two from the night roost during
the day.
Birds entering a field to feed nearly always flew directly to a place where
birds were already feeding and either dropped down amongst the feeding birds
or flew slightly past them, made a 180 degree turn and then landed.
In late September and October, when most of the fields had been
harvested, the birds foraged on either stubble or cultivated fields. Often the
flocks moved rapidly across the field with the birds at the rear continually
making short flights over the other birds to land at the front of the flock.
In flights of more than 1% mile, the longest axis of most flocks constituted the
direction of flight. This is in contrast to observations made by Allen (1914)
near Ithaca, New York, that the longest axis of flocks was perpendicular to
the line of flight.
An approaching hawk invariably evoked an alarm reaction. ‘The birds
rose from the ground or low vegetation as the hawk approached and then
circled above the hawk until it passed by. The Marsh Hawk, Circus cyaneus,
particularly, and to a lesser extent the Sparrow Hawk, Falco sparverius, elicited
this alarm reaction.
When birds in a flock were shot at with a .22 rifle or a shotgun, they
arose immediately and flew to the nearest trees. The sound of an acetylene
exploder produced a similar response. Once the birds were in the trees,
however, noise alone rarely induced them to leave.
Discussion
Most of the life of an adult blackbird appears to be spent as a member of
a flock. Flocks only break up during the nesting season and even then some
pirds may still continue to feed in flocks. The flocking behaviour of black-
46 Tue CanapiaAn Fietp-NATURALIST Vol. 83
birds appears to have survival value. No doubt blackbirds in flocks are more
successful than isolated birds in locating abundant sources of food. Searching
efficiency of the flock is particularly important for birds such as these which
feed on small seeds (e. -g., Setaria sp.) and insects as small as aphids (Bird and
Smith, 1964).
In addition to the benefit derived from being able to find a food source
initially, other flocks can more readily find concentrations of food by decoying
to flocks already feeding. Use of communal roosts permits birds that have
arrived recently in the area to follow others to food sources and the habit of
feeding in certain areas becomes established.
Birds in flocks have better protection from predators than do individuals
because a predator cannot get near a flock without being detected. It is also
possible that a whirling flock of birds confuses predators such as hawks.
The most outstanding characteristic of late summer flocks of blackbirds
in southern Manitoba was the consistent behavioural pattern associated with
feeding. Cessation of feeding was invariably followed by flight to a source
of water. The blackbirds then rested and ‘preened themselves in trees and
shrubs adjacent to the water. In due course the birds returned to the fields
to feed. It is assumed that the stimulus for further feeding was in some
manner related to the activity of the gastro-intestinal system and perhaps the
fullness of the crop. Blackbirds in late summer usually fed until gizzard and
crop were full, particularly before the flight to the night roost.
Voracious feeding by blackbirds at this time of year is accompanied by
fat accumulation which serves as an energy reserve during migration. The
pattern of feeding behaviour appears to offer an efficient means of storing
energy in preparation for migration.
In southern Manitoba, the feeding cycle seemed to be continuous through-
out the day. In contrast, Orians (1961) noted with wintering birds in Cali-
fornia and Case (1962) noted with migrating birds in New York State that
a rest period existed about mid-day which interrupted the feeding cycle.
When more than one species of blackbird was present in a flock, there did
not appear to be segregation according to species. Nevertheless, De Grazio
(1961) noted that in night roosts, Yellow-headed Blackbirds tended to segregate
from other species of blackbirds.
SUMMARY
Flocks of Red-winged Blackbirds that form after the breeding season in
southern Manitoba follow a characteristic cycle of movements during the
day; flight to a field to feed, flight to water to drink, a period of rest and
preening in nearby shrubs or ereees then a return to the field to feed. Flocks
usually feed in fields within 200 yards of a source of water near trees or shrubs.
Throughout the post- nesting period flocks of mixed sexes were seen more
frequently than those containing either adult and sub-adult males only, or
females and juveniles only. Most feeding flocks contained less than 500
blackbirds but where extensive amounts of roosting habitat were available,
larger flocks were noted. Red-winged Blackbirds may occur alone in flocks
1969 SMITH AND Birp: FLockinc Hasirs or BLACKBIRDS 47
or in association with from one to four other species of blackbird. The
Yellow-headed Blackbird is most frequently associated with the Red-winged
Blackbird.
Red- -winged Blackbirds are not confined to marshy or shrubby areas while
they are in the period of postnuptial molt although they do feed relatively
close to this type of cover. When they fly to a field to feed, they usually
alight where other blackbirds are feeding. Flocks in flight fOr more than
‘4 mile are usually oriented with the longest axis in the direction of flight.
Flocks exhibit alarm at the approach of hawks and at the sound of a
shotgun or a .22 rifle.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are grateful to Mrs. Joan Hochbaum, Waterfowl Research Station,
Delta, Manitoba, for her kind permission to make use of data compiled from
24 consecutive years of observations on spring migration at Delta, to H. A.
Hochbaum, Waterfowl Research Station, Delta, and Dr. F. M. McKinney,
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, for helpful suggestions on blackbird
behaviour during the study, to Dr. R. W. Nero, Manitoba Museum of Man
and Nature, Dr. C. H. Buckner, Canada Department of Forestry and Dr. A. J.
McGinnis, Canada Department of Agriculture, Winnipeg, for valuable criticism
of the manuscript.
REFERENCES
Auten, A. A. 1914. The Red-winged Refuge, South Dakota. Calendar Year
Blackbird: A ‘study in the ecology of a 1961. Bureau Sport Fisheries and Wildlife,
cat-tail marsh. Proceedings of the Lin-
nean Society of New York, Nos. 24-25,
pp. 43-128.
AMERICAN OrnitHoLocists’ UNton. 1957.
Check-list of North American birds. 5th
edition, 691 pp.
Avpuson, J. J. 1831. Ornithological biog-
raphy. Edinburgh and Philadelphia.
Biro, R. D. and L. B. Smitn. 1964. The
food habits of the Red-winged Blackbird,
Agelaius phoeniceus, in Manitoba. Can-
adian Field-Naturalist 78: 179-186.
Case, N. A. 1962. Nesting and flocking of
the Red-winged Blackbird. Master’s thesis.
Cornell University, 79 pp.
De Grazio, J. W. 1961. Cooperative in-
vestigations on blackbird depredation con-
trol in the vicinity of Sand Lake National
Wildlife Refuge, South Dakota, Progress
Report No. 1, Bureau Sport Fisheries and
Wildlife, Denver, Colorado. mimeo.
1962. Methods of controlling
blackbird damage to field corn in the
vicinity of Sand Lake National Wildlife
A ccepted September 25,
Denver, Colorado. mimeo.
1963. Methods of controlling
blackbird damage to field corn in the
vicinity of Sand Lake National Wildlife
Refuge, South Dakota. Calendar Year
1962, Bureau Sport Fisheries and Wildlife,
Denver, Colorado. mimeo.
Mircuett, R. T. and J. T. Linenan. 1954.
Investigations on corn depredations by
blackbirds on the lower Delaware Valley
during 1954. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-
vice, unpublished report, 11 pp.
NerF, J. 1949. Migratory birds and
crop damage. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-
vice and University of Arkansas College
of Agriculture Extension Service, 17 pp.
Nerr, J. A. and B. Meaney. 1957. Black-
birds and the Arkansas rice crop. Agricul-
tural Experimental Station, College of
Agriculture and Home Economics, Uni-
versity of Arkansas, Bulletin 584.
Orians, G. H. 1961. The ecology of
blackbird (Agelaius) social systems. Eco-
logical Monographs 31: 285-312.
1968
FUNGI OF CENTRAL BAFFIN ISLAND’
J. A. PARMELEE
Plant Research Institute, Research Branch
Canada Department of Agriculture, Ottawa
INTRODUCTION
Tue Plant Research Institute, Canada Department of Agriculture currently
carries a project to study the fungi of the Canadian Arctic. This large
geographical area was little known mycologically until 1950 and until 1967
Baffin Island was still poorly sampled.
In 1967, 4 DEW line (Distant Early Warning) sites were used as working
bases from which to collect fleshy saprophytic fungi, parasitic fungi and their
host plants. All of these sites, except inland plateau Fox 3 are on exposed
coastal locations and the opportunity to use the Geographical Branch Camp
at Inugsuin Fiord as another base was greatly appreciated because its location,
some 70 miles inland from the outer coast, offered habitat protection not
found at the other sites.
The sites at which specimens were taken are located from the east to
west coasts of Baffin Island approximately at mid length. They are:
Cape Dyer (DYE Main 66°35’N 61°37’°W)
Cape Hooper (FOX 4 68°26’N 66°44’W )
Inugsuin Fiord (Geographical Branch Camp 69°37’N 70°02’W)
Dewar Lakes (FOX 3 68°37’N 71°07’'W)
Longstaff Bluff (FOX 2 68°56’N 75°18’W)
The time spent at each site was governed by a first impression of the
flora and by the weather conditions permitting air travel. Only 3 days each
were spent at Cape Hooper and at Dewar Lakes and about one week at each
of the other sites. In this time some 500 specimens (phanerogamic and crypto-
gamic) were collected including some soil samples for future determination
of soil fungi. In addition 450 specimens of mosses were made by J. R. Sea-
born who assisted in the 1967 program.
The mycological specimens are deposited in the National Mycological
Herbarium (DAOM) and many will be distributed in our normal exchange
program. The vascular specimens are deposited in the Phanerogamic Her-
bartum (DAO); both herbaria are in the Plant Research Institute, Central
Experimental Farm, Ottawa.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS
On arrival at Cape Dyer on July 14, the plateau level of the lower camp
was covered with up to 3 ft. of snow. Collecting was limited to southwest
facing slopes leading to Sunneshine Fd. and plant growth was more advanced
nearest the fiord and sea level. One week later and 200 hundred miles west
at Cape Hooper, essentially the same snow conditions were experienced.
Again collecting was limited to southerly exposures. Just four days later at
the head of Inugsuin Fiord some 120 miles northwest of Hooper snow was
1Contribution No. 700 of the Plant Research Institute.
48
1969 ParMALEE: Funct or Barrin ISLAND 49
absent although Lakes 1. and 2. were partly ice-covered and plant growth was
considerably in advance of that seen at the other sites. Plants of the base
camp area have been listed by Hainault (1966). To this list can be added:
Carex marina Dew.
C. membranacea Hook.
C. ursina Dew.
Juncus albescens (Lge.) Fern.
J. arcticus Willd.
Eriophorum triste (Th. Fr.) Hadac
E. vaginatum L. ssp. spissum (Fern.) Hult.
Puccinellia langeana (Berk.) Th. S¢r.
Ranunculus sulphureus Sol.
Anemone parviflora Michx.
Draba hirta L.
Hippuris vulgaris L.
Saxifraga aizoides L.
S. nivalis L.
All but 5 of the above species were earlier recorded for the Isortog Fiord
area by Webber (1964) and their occurrence at Inugsuin Fiord was to be
expected.
The flora of the east coast sites and the Dewar Lakes site is generally
similar. Only at the west coast site of Longstaff Bluff did additional species
appear. Here were found additional Leguminosae (Astragalus alpinus L..,
Oxytropis may delliana Yrautv. and O. arctobis Bunge) and Compositae (Matri-
caria ambigua (Ledeb.) Kryle., Senecio congestus (R.Br.) DC., Chrysanthemum
integrifolium Rich.) These elements occur farther west along the mainland
coast. A comparison of plant lists by Hainault and Webber (op. cit.) sup-
ports my general impression that the western coast of Baffin Island supports
the richer flora. A number of causes may be responsible for this and a
probable main factor is the slightly ameliorated climate. Accompanying an
increase of species in the west will be an increase in the associated parasitic
fungi.
Tue Funer
In the following annotated list, the fleshy fungi (Agaricales) have been
identified by J. W. Groves and Sclerotinias were named by Mary E. Elliott.
The collection numbers are those of the author.
Funet IMPERFECTI
Cladosporium hberbarum (Pers.) Lk. on
Poa arctica R.Br. (3998 c Inugsuin). Pri-
marily saprophytic following heavy inci-
dence of mildew. A common saprophyte on
a wide range of hosts.
Cylindrosporium serabrankowii (Bub.)
Bub. on Astragalus alpinus L. (4042, 4151
Longstaff) and on Oxytropis maydelliana
Trautv. (4150 a Longstaff). The latter is a
new host for this parasite.
Phyllosticta sp. on Oxytropis maydelliana
Trautv. (4150 b Longstaff). Temporarily
assigned to Phyllosticta.
Selenophoma drabae
(=Selenophoma donacis
var. stomaticola (Baeuml.) Sprague &
Johns.) on Arctagrostis latifolia (R.Br.)
Griseb. (4051 b Longstaff). This fungus has
a wide host range including many Cruci-
ferae. The above grass is thought to be a
new host.
(Fuckel) Petrak.
(Pers.) Sprague
50 Tue CANADIAN FieLp-NATURALIST
PHYCOMYCETES
Peronospora parasitica (Pers.) Fr. on
Eutrema edwardsii R.Br. (4070 b), on Draba
sp. (4084), on Cochlearia officals L.
(4147) all from Longstaff. Occurs on the
undersurface of leaves of these and other
Cruciferae in the arctic.
ASCOMYCETES
Cenangium arcticum Ehrenb. ex Fr. on
Cassiope tetragona (L.) D.Don (3787 b
Cape Hooper). Saprophytic on stems from
previous season.
Erysiphe graminis DC. ex Merat on Poa
arctica R.Br. (3998 Ingusuin and 4021b, 4035
Dewar Lakes). Fairly common, known on
other grasses and regularly associated with
rust infection.
Helvella leucomelaena (Pers.) Nannf. On
moist bare soil at sea level (4122 Longstaff).
A fleshy discomycete, or cup fungus, black-
brown and deeply cup-shaped.
Helvella queletii Bres. on disturbed wet
gravel near airstrip (4087 Longstaff). Size:
1-4 cm. diam., color: dark brown.
Isothea rhytismoides (Bab. ex Berk.) Fr.
on Dryas integrifolia M. Vahl. (3937 b
Inugsuin and 4039 b Longstaff). Causing
locally heavy infection at both sites. This
fungus ranges widely in the northern hemis-
phere and is known only on Dryas.
Mycosphaerella chamaenerti Savile. stat.
conid.: Ramularia chamaenerii Rostr. on
Epilobium latifolium L. (4111 b Longstaff) .
Mycosphaerella saxifragae (Pass.) Lind
on Saxifraga foliosa R.Br. (3885 c Inugsuin).
Peziza melaleuca (Bres.) Seaver. On dis-
turbed wet gravel in close proximity to H.
queletii; readily distinguished by smaller
size, 1.0 cm. diam. or less, and darker color
(4088 Longstaff).
Rhytisma_ bistortae (DC.) Rostr. on
Polygonum viviparum L. (4157 C. Dyer).
Symptoms as in the following fungus but
found only rarely.
Rhytisma salicinum (Pers. ex Fr.) Fr. on
Salix arctophila Cock. (4009 c Inugsuin,
4022 b Dewar L., 4091 b, 4133 Longstaff)
and on S. herbacea L. (3930 Inugsuin, 4092
c Longstaff). Infection was usually heavier
on S. arctophila. Widespread throughout
the arctic and subarctic on numerous
species of willow. The raised, black shiny
fructifications on young leaves are easily
observed. Maturity occurs over winter and
ascospores are produced on necrotic leaves
one to three years old.
Vol. 83
Sclerotinia vahliana Rostr. on Erio-
phorum angustifolium Honck. (3894 Inug-
suin, 4085 Longstaff), on E. scheuchzeri
Hoppe (3807 b C. Hooper). Some general
comparisons between S. dennisii Svreck
and S. valbiana have been given by Savile
and Parmelee (1964).
Scutellinia armatospora Denison among
mosses on disturbed wet gravel, locally
common (4086 Longstaff). The hymenium
of this small discoycete is bright red.
Sphaerotheca fuliginea (Schlecht. ex Fr.)
Pollaci on Braya purpurascens (R.Br.)
Bunge (4071 b Longstaff). This powdery
mildew was found only on Braya but is
recorded on other Cruciferae and indeed
other families.
Basipiomycetes (Ustilaginales)
Anthracoidea elynae (Syd.) Kukk. var.
elynae on Kobresia myosuroides (Vill.)
Fiori & Paol. (3862 b, 3986, 3987 Inugsuin
and 4191 C. Dyer.). A very common smut
of the achenes.
Anthracoidea rupestris Kukk. on Carex
rupestris All. As above the achene is re-
placed by a black ball of smut spores.
Schizonella elynae (Blytt) Liro. on
Kobresia myosuroides (Vill.) Fiori & Paol.
(4192). This leaf smut is known also from
one alpine region in British Columbia. It
is rarely collected and apparently this is
the most northerly Canadian record.
Ustilago bistortarumt (DC.) Korn on
Polygonum viviparum L. (3841, 3842 Inug-
suin, 4031 Dewar L.; 4158 C. Dyer). Occurs
widely over the range of the host and in
three distinct phases which have been
treated also as varieties or even species.
The phases are: inflorescence smut, leaf
blade smut and leaf margin smut. Collec-
tions 3841 and 3842 from the same colony
are the inflorescence and leaf blade phase
respectively, supporting an earlier sugges-
tion (Savile and Parmelee 1965) that the
three phases are but a single species.
Ustilago vinosa Berk. ex Tul. on Oxyria
digyna (L.) Hill (3924, 3946 a Inugsuin,;
4135 Longstaff; 4159 C. Dyer). This in-
florescence smut was found wherever there
were good-size colonies of the host. All
sites were moist but not wet, often lecated
below a snow-drift.
Ustilago. violacea (Pers.) Roussell var.
violacea on Silene acaulis L. var. exscapa
(All.) DC. (3929 Inugsuin, 4190 C. Dyer);
and on Stellaria edwardsii R.Br. (3872 b,
1969
4008 Inugsuin). Using hosts as a basis, this
anther smut on S. edwardsii may be identi-
fied as U. violacea var. stellariae (Sow.)
Savile. Observations of smut spores do not
confirm this — their size intergrades with
var. violacea indicating a need for additional
study of this complex.
Basmiomycetes (Uredinales)
Chrysomyxa ledi (Alb. & Schw.) deBary
var. rhododendri (deBary) Savile on Rho-
dodendron lapponicum Wahlenb. (3943 b,
3989 Inugsuin). The host occurred sparing-
ly at Cape Dyer and was not rusted. It was
common on the dry protected slopes at the
head of Inugsuin Fiord and rust infection
- was moderately heavy. We have one speci-
men from Frobisher ‘Bay — the only other
collection from Baffin Island. This and the
following species of Chrysomyxa are exam-
ples of heteroecious rusts existing success-
fully far from their alternate host in this
instance, 350-800 miles north of Picea.
Spread over such a distance can be explained
using this species as an example: once estab-
lished from the closest Picea, the uredinia
build up on Rhododendron and repeat on
adjacent plants. From the west, south or
east urediniospores could survive the 100-
150-250 mile aerial dispersal from Southamp-
ton I., Ungava or Greenland to Baffin Island
and continue spread from Rhododendron to
Rhododendron. If this is so, rust may be
found on Rhodendron to its limit in north-
ern Baffin.
Chrysomyxa ledicola (Peck) Lagerh. on
Ledum palustre L. var. decumbers Ait.
(3846 b, 3980 Inugsuin, 4028 Dewar L.: 4041
Longstaff). There was heavy infection at
all collecting sites and these are at the
northern limit of the host (Porsild 1957).
Chrysomyxa empetri (Pers.) Schroet. on
Empetrum nigrum L. (4000 b, Inugsuin;
4103, 4143 Longstaff) . Light to heavy infec-
tion was encountered. Porsild (1957) shows
widely dispersed host records north of 70°
lat. and these rust collections may be at
the northern limit of the rust.
Melampsora epitea Thuem. on Salix arc-
tica Pall. (3706 b C. Dyer), on S. arctophila
Cocks G00 a; 3743™.C- Dyer; 13996 1G:
Hooper; 4022 c Dewar L.; 3864 b, 4009 b
Inugsuin), on S. herbacea L. (4019 b Dewar
L.; 4092 b Longstaff), on S. reticulata L.
(3882 b, 3931 b Inugsuin,; 4074 b, 4129 b
Longstaff) on Salix sp. (3835 a Inugsuin).
The aecial state occurs on Saxifraga in the
arctic, but was not found. In the high
ParRMALEE: Funct oF BAFFiIn ISLAND
ta
—
arctic the rust generally overwinters in the
buds of Salix and survives without host al-
ternation. Comparison of urediniospores
originating from the different Salix spp.
shows slight differences but extensive study
of the complex is required before such
characters can be used in any taxonomic
revision.
Puccinia arenariae (Schum.) Wint. on
Cerastium alpinum L. (4052 b, 4148 b Long-
staff). Widely distributed throughout the
world on Caryophyllaceae. It is especially
widely represented in DAOM from alpine
and subarctic regions.
Puccinia bistortae (Strauss) DC. on Poly-
gonum viviparum L. (3702 b C. Dyer, 3843
a, 3973 Inugsuin). Both uredinia and telia
were present on young plants recently
emerged from snow cover when collected
on 14 July.
Puccinia eutremae Lindr. on Cochlearia
officinalis L. (4146 Longstaff). Infection
was heavy on young plants otherwise only
moderate in protected habitats along the
rocky coast. Other susceptible Cruciferae
include Eutema edwardsii. Our rust records
do not extend farther north although hosts
are amply recorded from the high arctic.
Puccinia pazschkei Diet. var tricuspidatae
Savile on Saxifraga tricuspidata Rottb. (4145
Longstaff). The host is a wide ranging
arctic-alpine species with which the rust is
nearly coextensive.
Puccinia poae-nemoralis Otth. ssp. poae-
nemoralis on Poa arctica R.Br. (4040 a
Longstaff). The host was locally common
and just lightly infected with rust. As is
usual for this species, only uredinia were
present on the leaves.
Puccinia pedicularis Vhuem. on Pedicu-
laris flammea L. (4160 b C. Dyer). This is
the first North American collection of this
microcyclic rust. It was found only once,
and then sparingly, although searched for
diligently at all collecting sites. This rust
is known also from northeast Greenland
on the same host.
Basipiomycetes (Exobasidiaceae )
Exobasidium vaccinii Wor. var. vaccinii
on Cassiope tetragona (L.) D.Don (4020 b
Dewar L; 4114, 4152 Longstaff; 4189 C.
Dyer).
Exobasidium vaccinii — uliginosi Boud.
var. vaccini-uliginosi on _ Vaccinium uli-
ginosum L. (3829 a Inugsuin, 4104 b Long-
staff). Exobasidium is parasitic on leaves
nn
nN
and is readily recognized. Leaves are slight-
ly enlarged, often reddened and covered
by a downy bloom formed by the fungus.
The first species recorded here is common
and widely distributed throughout the arc-
tic; the second is mainly at low-arctic and
subarctic sites.
Basiiomycetes (Lycoperdales)
Calvatia cretacea (Berk.) Lloyd on soil
in various plant associations. (3732, 3773,
3776 C. Dyer; 3907 Inugsuin, 4018 Dewar
L.; 4090 Longstaff). A common puftball,
often abundant; in 1967 found up to 8.5 cm.
diameter. It is edible when young.
Basiwiomycetes (Agaricales)
These fleshy fungi are associated with a
soil habitat where there is some decaying
organic material. Occasionally they are as-
sociated with living plant material, although
usually not as a parasite (cf. Leptoglossum
lobatum). Many are edible, some doubtfully
so and some are poisonous. Notes about
edibility are based on remarks by Singer
(1962) and Groves (1962). Identifications
herein are by Dr. J. W. Groves.
Amanitopsis inaurata (Pers.) Fayod. (3962,
3992 Inugsuin; 4172 C. Dyer). Scarce on
moist slopes. Cap or pileus is silvery brown,
shiny but not sticky. Widely distributed in
Canada. Singer considers this in the genus
Amanita which has a number of poisonous
species.
Clitocybe luteovitellina (Pilat & Nannf.)
Bigelow (3888, 3890 Inugsuin). Associated
with sphagnum and having a predominantly
northern distribution. Cap is pale yellow.
Clitocybe umbellifera (Fr.) Bigelow.
(3772 C. Dyer). Widely coliected in the
arctic and aften associated with mosses.
Cortinarms sp. (3731 C. Dyer; 3825 C.
Hooper; 3886, 3975, 3994 Inugsuin).
Galerina vittaeformis (Fr.) Singer var.
vittaeformis f£. tetraspora (3887 Inugsuin).
There is one previous Canadian collection
in DAOM from Victoria, B.C. The genus
contains edible and poisonous species and
is therefore not widely used as food.
Hebeloma hiemale Bres. (3910, 3993 Inug-
suin). Specimens in DAOM are mostly
from northern Canada, a few from Ontario,
and are often from an association with
Dryas.
Hebeloma ?sordidulum (Peck) Sacc.
(3749 C. Dyer; 3889, 3974 Inugsuin). These
specimens are from Cassiope heaths and all
specimens in DAOM are from north of
Tue CANADIAN Fie_p-NaATURALIST
Vol. 83
tree line. According to Singer (1951) the
species concept of the genus is not clear.
At least one species is known to be poi-
sonous.
Inocybe ?lorillardiana Murr. (4171 C.
Dyer). Arctic collections in DAOM are
often but not always from a Dryas associa-
tion.
Laccaria tetraspora Singer (3775 C. Dyer).
There are only 3 specimens in DAOM all
from sandy habitats. Not among the species
listed as being edible.
Lactarius speciosus Burl. (4153 Longstaff).
Most species of Lactarius are edible but
Groves (1962) warns that those with an
acrid taste should be avoided.
Leptoglossum lobatum (Pers. ex Fr.)
Ricken (4170 C. Dyer). This is a common
fungus in the arctic, always growing para-
sitically on mosses. It is of doubtful food
use — pileus, or cap, very thin.
Omphalia onisca Fr. (3823, 3286 C.
Hooper). Both collections are from lowlying
wet sand, Fructifications small and poorly
represented in DAOM.
Russula flava Rom. (4045 Longstaff).
Rare on a grassy, stony beach. The slimy
and sticky yellow pileus in this collection
up to 6.0 cm. diameter. Common in wood-
ed regions of Canada and U.S.A. Most
Russula species are edible — Singer names
R. foetans as being probably slightly poi-
sonous. Groves reports R. flava as edible.
Russula fragilis Fr. (3958 Inugsuin). The
cap is pale pink, tinged red, smaller than
R. flava and with a like distribution. Groves
considers the edibility of this species as
doubtful.
Russula nigrodisca Peck (3908, 3976, 3990
Inugsuin, 4117 Longstaff). In this species
the cap becomes bright red. During August
of 1967 the fructifications became almost
abundant on some slopes and moist areas.
Russula venosa Vel. (3959 Inugsuin). The
cap is dark orange-red. The fungus was
growing adjacent No. 3958 in a wet runnel.
Both fungi were rare at this site.
Stropharia aeruginosa (Curt. ex Fr.)
Quél. (3909 Inugsuin). The cap is yellow-
ish green, Some species in the genus are
considered edible but are rarely eaten.
Groves indicates that this species is report-
ed to be poisonous.
Many saprophytic Ascomycetes and
Fungi Imperfecti have been removed from
1, 2 and 3 year old stems and leaves of
numerous plants. These await future study.
1969
ParRMALEE: FuncI oF Barrin IsLaNp 53
REFERENCES
Groves, J. W. 1962. Edible and poisonous
mushrooms of Canada. Publication 1112
Canada Dept. Agriculture, Ottawa, Ont.
Harautt, R. 1966. Botany of Inugsuin
Fiord area, Baffin Island, N.W.T. Jn:
Field Report, North Central Baffin Is-
land, for the Geographical Branch, Dept.
Mines and Tech. Surveys O. Loken ed.
79-93.
Porsitp, A. E. 1957. Illustrated flora of
the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Na-
tional Museum of Canada Bull. No. 146.
209 pp.
SAVILE, D. B. O. and Parmeter, J. A.
1965. Parasitic fungi of the Queen Fliza-
beth Islands. Can. Jour. Bot. 42: 699-722.
Singer, R. 1961. The Agricales in modern
taxonomy. J. Cramer, Weinheim, Ger-
many, 2nd. ed. 915 pp.
Wesser, P. J. 1964. Geobotanical stu-
dies around the northwestern margins of
the Barnes Ice Cap Baffin Island N.W.T.
In: Field Report, North Central Baffin
Island for the Geographical Branch, Dept.
Mines and Tech. Surveys. O. Loken ed.
75-96.
Accepted September 25, 1968
NOTES
Gulls at Fredericton,
New Brunswick
IN THE PERIOD 1960 to 1968 sight records
of nine gull species were obtained at
Fredericton, N.B. Five of these had not
hitherto been observed inland in the
province. Fredericton is located at 45°
58’N, 66°39'W on the Saint John River,
about 80 river-miles from its mouth on
the Bay of Fundy. Following is an
annotated list.
Glaucous Gull Larus hyperboreus. 1
have seen this winter gull at Fredericton
on several occasions: one bird frequently
from November 6 to 30, 1961 (seen also
by D. S. Christie, N. R. Brown); one
from October 25 to November 15, 1964
(seen also by D. S. Christie); one on
November 20 and 27, 1966; and one on
December 3, 1967. All were buffy in
color and among other gulls of different
species. This bird is uncommonly seen
along the coast in winter. Before the 1961
record it was unknown inland in New
Brunswick.
Iceland Gull Larus glaucoides. | have
noted one or more of this species regu-
larly each fall from 1961 to 1967. Dates
range from October 17 (1965) to Decem-
ber 7 (1962). Most birds were immature
ones in the buffy plumage. Two spring
records are as follows: one seen by D. S.
Christie and me on April 22, 1963, and
one by O. Washburn on May 8, 1966.
Squires (1952) reports it a “Not uncom-
mon winter resident along the coast.”
Like L. hyperboreus it was unknown in-
land here before 1961.
Great Black-backed Gull Larus mari-
nus. This species may be seen from soon
after the river ice breaks up in the spring
until the fall freeze-up. Numbers are
usually small, with a slight increase in the
fall.
Herring Gull Larus argentatus. This is
the commonest gull at Fredericton and
occurs throughout the ice-free part of
the year. Earliest opening and_ latest
closing dates of the river at Fredericton
54
are March 19 and December 31. A few
birds, presumed to be non-breeders, are
present throughout the summer. Con-
centrations of up to 100 may be seen in
the fall.
Ring-billed Gull Larus delawarensis.
Transient ring-bills occur fairly regularly
in small numbers in spring and fall.
Seasonal dates are as follows: April 7
(seven seen in 1965 by D. S. Christie) to
May 16 (one noted by the same observer
in 1962), and August 21 (one seen in 1961
by A. A. Dean, two seen three days later
byaeD: Gitson) to November 6 (one
noted by me in 1966). I saw nine on
August 25, 1968. Squires (1965) notes
that during the last week in June 1965 H.
Chiasson found ten pairs nesting at
Bathurst. This constituted the first known
breeding record in the province.
Laughing Gull Larus atricil’a. An im-
mature representative of this southern
species was at Fredericton from Septem-
ber 15 to 25, 1960, and was seen by A. A.
Dean, D. K. Parr, I. W. Varty, and
others. Hurricane “Donna” had buffeted
the region two days earlier. At the mouth
of the Nashwaak River on August 25,
1968, I saw an adult in molt. The only
known breeding area in the province is
the Grand Manan archipelago where
Moses (Pettingill 1939) saw three be-
tween 1925 and 1930. On the authority of
O. Hawksley, Palmer (1949) stated that
two pairs nested in 1948 on nearby
Machias Seal Island. On a visit to this
southernmost outpost of New Brunswick
in August 1966, K. F. Edwards and I
were informed by one of the light keepers
that two pairs had bred there that year.
We saw one bird of this species during
our visit.
Bonaparte’s Gull Larus philadelphia.
Small numbers occur fairly regularly in
spring and fall. Seasonal dates are April
29 to May 17, and August 5 to Novem-
ber 5.
Black-legged WKittiwake Rissa tridac-
tyla. | saw an immature of this species on
November 26, 1961. My identification
1969
was confirmed by A. A. Dean and N. R.
Brown. Squires (1952) refers to its com-
mon occurrence in the Bay of Fundy in
the fall and winter. It was the first inland
record in New Brunswick: its presence
at Fredericton could not be attributed
to any weather disturbances at the time.
Sabine’s Gull Xezza sabini. A. A. Dean,
O. Washburn, and I saw a gull which
we identified as an immature Sabine’s at
Fredericton on October 22, 1966. We
kept the bird under almost continuous
observation for over three hours, for
-most of which time it was at rest on the
water. In flight the striking wing pattern
was most apparent. The bird was in very
close company with a Bonaparte’s Gull
the whole time. Side by side on the water
the two birds appeared identical in size.
All the details of plumage depicted in
Snyder’s (1957) illustration were noted.
There had been strong winds from the
northwest for several days before its
arrival. Squires (1952) refers to the casual
status of this gull in New Brunswick,
citing one specimen taken and two sight
records between 1878 and about 1926, all
in or near the Grand Manan archipelago.
The diversity of gull species records
in Fredericton is chiefly attributed to two
factors. First a local naturalists’ or-
ganization was formed in 1959. Channels
for the rapid communication of informa-
tion concerning sightings were soon de-
veloped. The stretch of river on which
most of the gull observations were made
was for several years probably the most
continuously and intensively covered of
any area of like size in the province.
Second, nearly all the gulls reported were
seen in the vicinity of a sewer outlet.
REFERENCES
Parmer, R. S. 1949. Maine Birds. Bulletin
of the Museum of Comparative Zoology.
102.
Perrine, O. S. 1939. The bird life of
the Grand Manan archipelago. Proceed-
ings of the Nova Scotian Institute of
Science. Volume 19, Part 4.
Notes 55
Snyper, L. L. 1957. Arctic birds of Canada.
University of Toronto Press, Toronto.
Seurres, W. A. 1952. The birds of New
Brunswick. New Brunswick Museum
Monographic Series No. 4.
Sgutres, W. A. 1965. Nature News (New
Brunswick Museum) 15 (3).
A. PEARCE
Canadian Wildlife Service
P.O Box 486
Fredericton, N.B.
Accepted November 26, 1968
Range Extensions of
Listera auriculata Wiegand
in Ontario and Quebec
AMONG ORCHIDS native to Canada the
genus Listera is represented by a few
species of which L. cordata (L. ) R.Br. is
widespread and not infrequent, though
scarcely common. The other species tend
to be northern and western, (except for
L. australis, a southern plant) and are
best described as rare and local. Listera
auriculata has been recorded previously
in eastern Canada only from a few loca-
tions north of Lake Superior, in the Clay
Belt, the Mingan Islands in the Gulf of
St. Lawrence, and farther east, north and
west. It was therefore of considerable
interest when routine field work for the
Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club survey
of native orchids turned up two new sites
for this species in Southern Ontario and
Quebec. The locations are:
1. Gatineau Park, Quebec (near Ottawa,
Ont.) Lat. 45°31’N, Long. 75°53’W
This rugged area of Precambrian rock
is maintained as a natural park, and ex-
cept for few roads and ski trails is mainly
wild and little disturbed in recent decades.
Listera auriculata was found growing in
moist soil a few feet from a brook which
certainly floods the plants during spring
run-off. The site is forested with mixed
cover which includes hemlock and
WS
oO
black birch. There were only three plants
of the orchid, two in full bloom on 25
June, 1968, and one seedling.
A single flower has been preserved in
alcohol in the National Herbarium of
Canada, Ottawa (CAN), and photo-
graphs of the largest plant have been
deposited in that herbarium and that of
the Research Branch, Department of
Agriculture, Ottawa (DAO).
2. Barry's Bay, Ontario, Lat. 45°28’N,
Long. 77°32’W
This is another part of the Canadian
Shield with large areas covered by glacial
sands and gravels. Listera auriculata
occurs in the latter. The site is in a dense
cedar wood with some admixture of hem-
lock and alders, and is very wet. The
forest floor is covered with Sphagnum
and has a small, much-divided permanent
stream flowing through it. The orchids
grow in the wet moss and are scattered
over a small area never far from the
water. Fifteen plants were counted, all in
flower on 7 July, 1968.
A voucher specimen has been deposited
in the National Herbarium of Canada,
Ottawa (CAN).
H. N. MacKenzir
E. W. GrEeENWoop
Ottawa, Ontario
Accepted November 10, 1968
Greenland Wheatears Observed
at Esker, Labrador, May 20 -
Jjume 2711967
For soMeE time Arthur Sorensen and I
had been planning a trip to Labrador.
Our original plan was to leave Platts-
burgh, N.Y., early in the spring before
the flies became bad. On May 30 in a
snow storm we boarded the Quebec
North Shore and Labrador train at
Sept-Isles for Esker, Arthur’s sister
Tue Canapian Firitp-Naturatist
Vol. 83
Helen completed the party. Our plan
had been to canoe from Lake Astray
to Churchill Falls, but when we arrived
at Sept-Isles, we learned that the inter-
ior lakes were still icebound. A road
had been built from Esker to the Falls
so Esker became our destination by
chance. Our canoe trip became a hike.
The gazetteer gives the following
description of Esker: Esker: inter-
ior Labrador, a station of Q., N.S.,
and L. Railway. 53°45’ N.
When we arrived at Esker, we found
that we did not have the proper papers
authorizing us to use the road, so we
decided to hike to Lake Menihek and
establish a camp from which we could
make observations on birds and other
life.
One of the first birds observed was
a new one to us all, a Greenland Wheat-
ear, Oenanthe oenanthe. It perched
about 12 feet from the ground in a
black spruce and appeared to watch us
intently. The perch apparently was a
favorite, and we came to expect to find
it there. It seemed to be as interested
in us as we were in it.
As we explored the area around our
camp we saw 3 others and as the days
went by we knew that we would find
each in _ its perch. Unfortunately we
could not remain long enough to learn
if they planned to nest in their areas.
The first wheatear that we saw seem-
ed to take an intense interest in us and
vied with a Myrtle Warbler, Dendroica
coronata, for attention from us. The
moment we arrived in camp first the
one and then the other came, the second
coming a little closer than the first,
which then came closer. This action
kept up until they were 6 to 10 feet
from us. It must have been as interesting
an experience for them as it was for us.
Nicuotas N. SMITH
Plattsburg, New York
Accepted April 26, 1968
1969
Specimen of Gyrfalcon from
Southwestern British Columbia
On 15 NovemBer 1965 a Gyrfalcon
(Falco rusticolus) was inadvertantly shot
at Burnaby Lake, 10 miles east of Van-
couver, British Columbia. It had fre-
quented the marshes of the lake since 12
November, killing and eating domes-
ticated Mallards before it was shot. The
Gyrfalcon was skinned and the carcass
discarded before the writers could deter-
mine sex and weight. The skin was do-
_nated to the Ken P. Morrison collection.
The bluish-gray beak and tarsus, the
streaked breast (the dark stripes nar-
rower than the white interspaces) and
the white-feather edging on the back in-
dicated that it was an immature bird.
Several standard measurements were
taken: culmen (from cere), 24.1 mm;
tarsus, 65.0 mm; wing (total), 521 mm,
tail, 225 mm; and body length, 633 mm.
Godfrey (Birds of Canada, National
Museum of Canada Bulletin Number
203) describes two subspecies for British
Columbia (uralensis and obsoletus) deter-
mined by the length of the fourth
primary (number seven) from the out-
side. Primary feather measurements, from
number ten to seven are as follows: 265
mm, 292 mm, 295 mm and 282 mm. The
fact that primary seven is longer than (or
equal to) the outer feather indicates this
specimen is likely F. r. wralensis.
Munro and Cowan (A Review of the
Bird Fauna of British Columbia, B.C.
Provincial Museum Special Publication
2, 1947) list the Gyrfalcon as a scarce
winter visitant to British Columbia. This
bird is considered as accidental in the
1962 Edition of the Vancouver Check-
list.
R. Wayne CAMPBELL
Ken P. Morrison
5536 Hardwick Street
Burnaby 2
British Columbia
and
Oliver
British Columbia
Accepted November 14, 1968
Notes i
Observations on a Partial Albino
Great Horned Owl
AccorDING to Ross (Cassinia, 2-21, 1963)
albinism is extremely rare among owls.
In his survey of albinism in North
American birds he sites only one record
cf albinism in the Great Horned Owl
(Bubo virginianus) making the following
observations of special interest.
On 29 Decmeber 1965, I flushed a pie-
bald Great Horned Ow] from an eastern
hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) along the
Humber River in Toronto, Ontario. The
bird landed in a nearby dead white elm
(Ulmus americanus) and sat there quietly
for a time providing an excellent oppor-
tunity for observation. It was strikingly
mottled with large areas of white on the
wings, back and head. The tail and breast
were predominantly brown with only
small asymmetrical patches of white. The
feathers of the loral region, usually light
coloured, were very dark. The bill was
remarkably light and the bird’s irises
were yellow. In flight its wings formed
a mosiac of white and brown.
This easily identifiable owl was noted
on numerous occasions throughout 1966
and the first half of 1967. In the spring
of 1967 it mated with a normally coloured
Great Horned Owl and was frequently
observed on the resulting nest up to 23
April. A single typically plumaged young
was raised.
During the remaining part of 1967
coverage of the area in which the owl
had been observed was very poor and
the bird was not recorded again until
March 1968 when it was found nesting
within 25 yards of its 1967 nest site. At
this time a great deal of local public
attention was focused on the bird and the
nesting attempt failed. The observations
at the nests in both years suggested that
the piebald bird was a female. From a
comparison of notes made in 1965 and
photographs of the bird taken in 1967 and
1968 it was apparent that very little
58 THe CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
Figure 1. Partial albino Great Horned Owl at its 1967 nest. Photograph is a black and
white reproduction of a 35 mm colour slide by Messrs. Carmichael, Crich, and James.
1969
change had taken place in the bird’s ap-
pearance in two and one- -third years. To
my knowledge the owl was never ob-
served more than a mile from its original
position throughout this period.
I should like to thank Dr. Jon C. Bar-
low of the Department of Ornithology,
Royal Ontario Museum, and Mr. M. B.
Fenton of the University of Toronto for
their help and advice in the preparation
of this note. To Messrs. Ken Carmichael,
Vic Crich, and Gord James, I would like
to extend my thanks for allowing me to
use the accompanying photograph of the
owl.
Joun G. Woops
Apartment 702
25 Widdicombe Hiii
Weston, Ontario
Accepted November 15, 1968
Further Data on Interspecific
Competition at a Joint Bufflehead-
Goldeneye Nest Site
IN an earlier note, Erskine (CAaNaApIAN
Frecp-Naturatist 73:131 1959) reported
the discovery near Riske Creek, British
Columbia, of a nest-cavity in a senile
aspen containing a joint clutch of fifteen
eggs of Barrow’s Goldeneye Bucephala
islandica and two eggs of Bufflehead
Bucephala albeola. On June 11, 1958,
about half of the Goldeneye eggs were
pipping as was one of the Bufflehead
eggs. In addition, the nest contained the
desiccated corpses of two adult female
Bufflehead, estimated to have been dead
for one and two years respectively. Four
days later, on June 15, J. Hatter and L. G.
Sugden of the British Columbia Fish and
Wildlife Branch found that all the Gol-
deneye eggs and one of the Bufflehead
eggs had hatched and they were able to
account for all the young.
On June 9, 1959, Erskine and McLaren
visited the nest and trapped the same
Notes 59
female Goldeneye which had _ been
banded there in 1958. The nest contained
ten Goldeneye eggs and the corpse of
another female Balchend! estimated to
have been dead about one month
(Erskine, Canaptan Fietp-Naturatisr
74: 161-162 1960).
On June 8, 1960, Miss M. F. Jackson,
of the Department of Zoology, Univer-
sity of British Columbia, again visited the
site and found the same female Goldeneye
incubating ten eggs (M. F. Jackson, pers.
comm. ).
Further checking by Sugden and
Erskine showed that the same female
Goldeneye used the site in 1961 and 1962
without further evidence of interaction
with BufHehead, and a check in 1964
showed the site to be unused (Erskine,
in litt.).
The site was re-located by McLaren
on July 21, 1968, when another dead
female Buffiehead was found in the
cavity, together with shell fragments and
dried sancinmenves of Goldeneye eggs. The
Bufflehead appeared to have been dead
at least one year and it was not possible
to ascertain with certainty whether the
egg fragments indicated use of the nest
by. a Goldeneye during the current year
(1968) or the previous year (1967).
There were two Goldeneye broods of
six and three young respectively on the
adjacent slough.
The nest tree, which was described as
“Senile” in 1958, was dead in 1968. It had
broken immediately above the nest en-
trance hole and the broken top was lean-
ing from the stub forming an angle of
about 45 degrees with the flight-line away
from the entrance.
In 1958, the tree was recorded as stand-
ing twelve feet from the shoreline of the
adjacent slough. In 1968 the base of the
tree was exactly at the water’s edge. This
increase in water level has been general
throughout the region, according to re-
cords kept by the British Columbia Fish
and Wildlife Branch (H. B. Mitchell,
60 Tue CANApIAN Fie_p-NATURALIST
pers. comm.), and may well have been
the proximal factor causing the death of
the tree.
In the same general area, a joint clutch
was incubated in 1959 by a female Buffle-
head, with partial success in hatching eggs
of both species. All other known joint
clutches of these two species have been
~ found in Alberta (Erskine, 1960).
The known history of this particular
nest-site now extends over a minimum
period of ten years, during which the
same female Goldeneye nested for at
least five successive years (1958- 1962),
including the hatching of the joint clutch.
It is almost certain that she killed the
single Bufflehead found in the nest in
1959, and probable that, in different
years, she killed the two found in the nest
in 1958. Thus, over a ten-year period, at
least four female Bufflehead have been
killed, possibly by two different Golden-
ewe Gemnalles, as a result of attempts to nest
in this site, and another Bufflehead was
presumably successful in laying two eggs
in 1958 without being killed. It is un-
fortunate that the 1968 occupant of the
nest, if any, was not captured, but the
nest will be visited during the 1969 field
season.
If the concept of competition is to be
useful, it must be separated from other
forms of ecological interaction under a
limited definition involving simultaneous
demand and shortness of supply of the
environmental resource concerned, as
pointed out by Milne (Symp. Soc. Exp.
Biol. TV:40-61 1961), among others.
The data noted here from this and
other nest-sites in the same region would
seem to favour the existence of such a
situation in the study area. McLaren
(M.Sc. thesis, Dept. of Zoology, Univer-
sity of British Columbia, 1963) was able
to show that in this general region the
species using cavities enone’ by
Flickers Colaptes showed considerable
overlap in the physical characteristics of
nest sites and suggested that, particularly
since the invasion of the area by the
Vol. 83
European Starling Sturna vulgaris, nest-
site competition among species in this
ecological grouping was definitely indi-
cated. This conclusion was further sup-
ported by numerous instances of egg-
foisting, nest destruction and actual
fighting between pairs of different species
over certain nest-sites.
The present data suggest vigorous
“competition” for the use of this particu-
lar site, but it should be borne in mind
that the site may for some reason be a
particularly attractive one. The specific
factors which render it so remain ob-
scure: it has been suggested (Erskine,
1960, op. cit.) that the ready acceptance
by Goldeneyes of nest boxes in this area
indicates a shortage of suitable natural
nest sites such as this one, but Buffleheads
normally nest in old cavities excavated by
Flickers, which are relatively abundant
in the study area. In 1968, a Bufflehead
nest in such a site was found only 30 feet
from the joint site, and in previous years
Buftleheads have nested in various sites
within a distance of 50 metres.
Wiii1aMm D. McLaren
Assistant Professor
Department of Zoology
McGill University
Montreal, P.Q.
Accepted November 27, 1968
Notes on the Food Requirements
of the Snowy Owl
Craicueap and Craighead (1956) have
shown that information on raptor daily
food requirements is necessary for esti-
mating the number of prey individuals
required to maintain the predator. There-
fore, information on the daily food in-
take of a juvenile, male Snowy Owl
(Nyctea scandiaca) was collected during
a winter and summer period.
The owl was trapped near Charlo, Lake
County in the Flathead Valley of western
1969 Notes 61
TABLE 1. — Food requirements of a juvenile, male snowy owl
Daily food consumption
Av. body Change in (grams) Te av
No. of wt. body wt. body wt.
days fed (grams) (grams) eaten
per day
Mean Range
56 1518 0 ASI 0-200 8.6
28 1445 226+ 145 0-298 10.0
Montana in late November, 1966. He marized by Watson, 1957). Generally,
was equipped with jesses, swivel, and
leash, and placd on a perch in the Uni-
versity of Montana Research Mews. The
owl was “manned”, but I was never able
to train him to fly to the gloved hand on
command. Exercise was obtained by
“bating off” the perch (beating the wings
continually). He was fed once a day on
raw beef heart occasionally supplemented
with mice to provide necessary roughage
and minerals.
Data on food consumption were col-
lected during two periods: a 56-day
period in January and February, and a
28-day period in July, 1967. During feed-
ing trials, the bird was weighed once
every 4 days. In the winter period, the
Ww eight of the owl was held constant at its
capture weight (1518 g) by regulating
the daily food ration. At the time of cap-
ture, the owl was in good flesh as he had
been capitalizing on the high populations
of Microtus present in the Flathead Val-
ley that fall. In July, the food consump-
tion of the owl was recorded during a 28-
day period while he regained his capture
weight from an initial weight of 1292 g.
During the second period, the owl was
offered all the food it would eat in a 30-
minute period each day. During both
feeding trials, the owl would fast for one
or two days at a time while food was
available.
Figures on the food consumption of
male Snowy Owls vary from 11 to 19%
food consumed per day expressed as a
per cent of body weight (studies sum-
the female has been reported to consume
less than the male (9-11°%). The 8.6%
and 10.0% recorded for my owl (Table
1) are less than the figures on food con-
sumption by male Snowy Owls reported
by others. Considering the mild climate,
little exercise, and small amount of in-
digestible matter given in the diet, 8.6%,
of the body weight in food eaten per day
probably represents the minimum food
requirement of male Snowy Owls. It is
interesting to note that the food require-
ments of two other large owls, the Great
Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus) and the
Great Grey Owl (Strix nebulosa), are
7.0°4 and 7.4% of their body weight con-
sumed in food per day (Craighead and
Craighead, op. cit.).
I wish to thank Dr. W. L. Jellison for
donating the owl, and Dr. R. S. Hoff-
mann for reviewing the manuscript.
REFERENCES
CraicHEAD, J. J., and F. C. CraicuHeap, Jr.
1956. Hawks, owls, and wildlife. Stack-
pole Co., Harrisburg, Penn. and Wildlife
Management Institute, Washington, D.C.
443 p.
Watson, A. 1957. The behaviour, breed-
ing, and food-ecology of the Snowy Owl
Nyctea scandiaca. \bis 99:419-461.
Joun C. Semensticker [V
Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit
University of Montana
Missoula, Montana
Accepted November 22, 1968
62 THe CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
Arctic Fox Attacks on
Molting Canada Geese
Ar 20:25, 18 July 1968, I watched from
a distance of 100 yards an Arctic Fox
(Alopex lagopus) attack and kill a molt-
ing adult female Canada Goose (Branta
canadensis) on a peninsula in the Thelon
River, N.W.T. (64°37’'N, 100°10’W).
The fox, which was seen from a canoe,
ran down a hillside and attacked the lone
goose 130 yards from shore. The fox,
making no sound, repeatedly circled the
goose, charging and retreating but always
remaining one to three feet from it. The
goose defended itself by keeping its head
high, neck arched, wings outstretched
and turning to face the fox at all times.
It charged the fox six times during the 15
minute ordeal. The goose did not attempt
to reach the safety of the water even
though the fox did not appear to prevent
this from happening. Eventually the fox
killed the goose by breaking its neck and
ate the bird’s head before leaving.
J. P. Ryder (pers. comm.) observed
an Arctic Fox attack a flock of 60 molt-
ing adult geese and 24 flightless juvenile
Canada Geese on 31 July 1966 on the
Pitok River, N.W.T. (67°40’ N, 101°15’
W). The fox ran over a hill and attacked
the young geese only. It broke the necks
of four young geese before they could
reach the shore several yards away. At
the approach of the canoe the fox ran
away.
The distribution of many arctic nesting
birds is related to their adaptation to
Arctic Fox predation (Larson, 1960.
Oikos, 11:276-305).Snow Geese (Chen
caerulescens) and Ross’ Geese (Chen
rossii) nest primarily on islands in the
central Arctic, an adaptation that limits
Arctic Fox predation (Ryder, Avk, in
press). During the molting period, geese
range over wide areas of the tundra and
are particularly susceptible to predation.
Observations of Arctic Fox predation on
arctic nesting birds are rare in inland
Vol. 83
areas where lemmings constitute the
major food item of foxes during the year
(Larson, op. Cit.).
S. WAYNE SPELLER
Dept. of Biology
Univ. of Saskatchewan
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan
Accepted November 27, 1968
A Scissor-tailed Flycatcher
in British Columbia
ON SEPTEMBER 23, 1968, at approximately
11.30 A.M., Mr. Ron Walker of Cascade,
British Columbia, called at my house in
Grand Forks, B.C., and informed me that
he had seen a Scissor-tailed Flycatcher
Muscivora forficata beside the highway
about three miles east of Grand Forks.
My wife and I followed Mr. and Mrs.
Walker in our car to the spot where they
had first seen the flycatcher, and found
that it was still in the vicinity.
The flycatcher was alone, but Mr.
Walker had previously seen it in
proximity to several Audubon Warbler’s,
Dendroica auduboni. The four of us kept
the flycatcher under close observation
for fifteen or twenty minutes, the bird
showing no apparent concern at our
presence or that of the two parked cars.
During the time we had the bird under
observation it flew around and above us,
thereby affording an opportunity to note
the spreading and closing of the long,
strangely marked tail, as the bird perched
occasionally on a fence wire beside the
road, or on the top of some small bushes,
and once on the tip of a mullein plant,
Verbascum thapsis, about fifty feet from
where we were standing. The flycatcher
was not seen to take any food, but there
may be some significance in the fact that
grasshoppers were very numerous and
active in the locality where this flycatcher
was observed. Finally, the bird flew off
in a southerly direction and disappeared.
J. A. Miriican
P.O. Box 728
Grand Forks
British Columbia
Accepted November 14, 1968
NEWS AND COMMENT
Tuer Nature Preserves ACT OF THE STATE OF INDIANA (Act No. 176)
For anyone contemplating the formulation of legislation to preserve Natural and
Scientific Areas, the content and wording of this act will be very useful. This law
(1) provides the establishment of a registry of areas possessing features of unique
natural significance, (2) establishes a procedure for the dedication of such areas as
Nature Preserves, (3) declares the areas so dedicated are put to their highest and
best public use, (4) provides that the Articles of Dedication may set forth any
number of patterns of use and ownership and (5) establishes a procedure for the
amending of the Articles of Dedication based upon a specific finding of an unavoidable
alternative public need by the Indiana Natural Resources Commission.
The full text of the Act is also reprinted in the quarterly magazine Trends in
Parks and Recreation, Volume 5, Number 1, (1968), a publication of the Park
Practice Program, issued by the United States Department of the Interior, National
Park Service, Washington.
Editor
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT PRESERVES WATERFOWL BREEDING AREA
Purcuase by the federal government of TIles-de-la-Paix, i4 low-lying islands
covering about 300 acres near the south shore of Lake St. Louis, 20 miles southwest
of Montreal, was announced by the Honourable Jean Chretien, Minister of
Indian Affairs and Northern Development.
The government bought the islands — most of them owned by the Grey Nuns
of Montreal — for about $35, 000, in order to preserve some of the fast- -disappearing
habitat for ducks and other migratory water birds in the Montreal area. The first
acquisition made in the Province of Quebec under the national program for
preserving habitat for migratory waterfowl, it was carried out with the co-operation
of the Quebec Department of Tourism, Fish and Game.
It is one of the aims of the National Wildlife Policy and Program to take such
action, wherever it is badly needed throughout Canada. Losses of waterfowl
habitat have been particularly severe in the Montreal area in the last few years.
Iles-de-la-Paix were selected for purchase after studies carried out by wildlife
biologists showed that they provided good habitat for at least seven species of
waterfowl nesting there. In addition, they discovered a great variety of non-game
birds on the islands.
“By taking this action we will ensure that these birds will still have a place to
live, where they can contribute to the pleasures of hunters and naturalists and to
those who simply enjoy the outdoors. Picnicking, swimming, hunting and other
outdoor activities allowed by the previous owners will be permitted to continue
in designated areas,” said Mr. Chrétien, “so long as these activities do not conflict
with the main purpose of protecting wildlife on the islands. Camping and the
construction of summer cottages will not be allowed.”
The Canadian Wildlife Service will conduct research on waterfowl] and will
carry out a management program designed to increase the value of the habitat for
migratory birds. The islands may also be used for ecological research by universities.
One of the first undertakings of the wetlands preservation program was the
leasing of prairie potholes. A few areas have been purchased in the Maritimes and
the government intends to obtain control of areas elsewhere, either by purchase,
lease, or other forms of agreement in order to ensure the continued availability of
habitat required by migratory birds.
Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development
Ottawa
63
LEE ERS
Jurisprction Over Raproriat Birps
Wauite there has been an encouraging positive change in public attitude toward the
birds of prey in North America in the last 20 years, there are signs that all is not
well. There is evidence that, in addition to the general pesticide threat, indis-
criminate shooting goes on with little attempt at prosecution, and that nests are
frequently disturbed or robbed. Legal and illegal trafficking, particularly in the
rarer species, is increasing, as is the amount of money being exchanged in such
transactions. The combined demands of falconry, captive breeding attempts, zoos,
touring displays and mascot programs are now reaching considerable proportions.
A difficulty in conservation and management of raptors in the face of such
threats is that protective legislation and destructive threats vary greatly from State
to State and Province to Province, while most species of concern are highly
migratory. Thus no one political unit feels any great responsibility toward
maintenance of continental populations. There is little to be gained by protecting
nesting birds in the north if they are subsequently trapped during migration or shot
on their wintering grounds. Likewise, strict protection in winter habitats is of
little use if nests are robbed in the north. Some States and Provinces allow legal
harvests, even of the rarer species, while others do not. Similar inconsistencies
apply to export of birds.
A partial answer to this dilemma might consist of inclusion of flaconiform
birds under the Migratory Bird Convention Act. While this would not directly
ameliorate the pesticide threat, or protect the many birds which migrate to South
America, it wou!d at least result in consistent policy within the member countries,
and thus better insure the long term survival of such species as the peregerine and
prairie falcons. Violation of ensuing regulations would then become a Federal
offence, this in itself being a good deterrent. More fedrally sponsored research
into raptor-pesticide relationships could also be a result.
I think that most people concerned about the raptors would be in favor of
Federal jurisdiction over them. Perhaps this letter will stimulate some action in
that direction.
Donald A. Blood
2999 King Richard Way
Nanaimo, B.C.
30 January, 1969
A Prea ror FEDERAL PROTECTION OF THE PEREGRINE FALCON
Votume 82, Number 3, of the Canapian Frevp-Narturatist featured a paper by
Donald A. Blood, titled: “Population Status of Peregrine Falcons in the Queen
Charlotte Islands, British Columbia” (Blood, 1968). On page 174, under the heading
“Nestling Harvest”, Blood conludes: “The cumulative removal to date (of nestlings
by falconers) appears to have had no adverse effect on the population status of
peregrines (Falco peregrinus) in the Queen Charlotte Islands.” Contradictory to
this is another statement at the bottom of the same page under the heading
“Summary”: “There is evidence that the number of active eyries has declined
significantly in at least one area where former breeding densities were very high”.
This latter area, Langara Island, was the subject of an earlier study by Beebe
(1960), whose paper, published in the Connor, included a map on which exact
locations of the eyries was indicated. As a result of that paper an unspecified
number of falconers, many from the U.S., went to Langara and competed with
6+
1969 LETTERS 65
each other in raiding the falcon eyries. Of 12 Peregrine nests that Beebe found
on the island only 4 were occupied in 1966 (7 minus 3 that were found by Blood,
but not by Beebe). This constitutes a decline of 66%, in an area where it is known
that falconers have been active since 1952 and which is relatively free of pesticides.
(Hancock, 1969). Pesticide contamination has been blamed for the extirpation
of many Peregrine populations. Apart from the facts concerning Langara Island,
there are other indications that human disturbance may have played a more
important role than is generally realized. Cade et al. (1967) and Enderson and Berger
(1968), in racent studies on the Yukon and Mackenzie Rivers, disclosed that the
number of Peregrine eyries and their reproductive success appeared normal, i” spite
of heavy Poreaninaon by pesticide residues. Eggs taken by Enderson contained
about twice as much Chlorinated Hydrocarbon wesales as in stricken English popu-
lations. On the cther hand, the North American Peregrine populations, that have
virtually disappeared were not situated in wilderness areas but in settled regions and
were subject to various forms of persecution by humans, as documented by Herbert
(1965) and Dekker (1967). Peregrine populations in INoreHe a Europe appear to
be effected more thoroughly. Finnish birds are badly diminished in spite of relative
freedom from human interference at their wilderness nesting sites. But the dangers
to these birds, once they migrate, appear far greater than is the case in Western North
America. On some of their migratory routes and wintering g grounds, such as the
Dutch lowlands, pesticides were used in concentrations hich directly resulted in
the crippling and dying of tens of thousands of potential prey species of the Peregrine.
The (easy) capture of one or three of these birds may well have resulted in quick
doom to a raptor. According to Voous (1965), in two months time in the spring
of 1960 27,000 dead birds were picked up in the Netherlands, of which 159 were
hawks and owls. It is estimated that about 10 times that many birds were killed
as a result of the distribution of seeds treated with Partahion expressly to kill harmful
birds and rodents. Added to such disasters is the constant threat to raptors by bird
catchers and hunters of all kinds in Belgium, France, Italy, Spain and Portugal,
where the catching of passerines for food and as pets is a favourite pastime.
Hawks are attracted to the lure birds and are caught in the nets. In France alone,
an estimated 200,000 raptors are killed yearly (Voous, 1965).
To the plight of European Peregrines falconers have responded in a singularly
nationalistic way. For instance, German falconers decided to leave the remnants
of the native population alone, and turned their attention to Southern and Eastern
Europe, as well as North America. In Italy alone 60 young Peregrines were known
to be robbed by German falconers in 1968. (Raptor Research News 2(4): 74).
The large falcons, Lanners (Falco biarmicus) and ee (Falco cherrug) as well
as Peregrines are taken from nests in Italy, Spain and Hungary in such numbers,
year after year, that Fischer (1967) states that for that reason alone entire popula-
tions are bound to die out. Fischer, as well as the writer of his manuscript, have
had the privilege of meeting some of the best falconers in Europe. These people
are very dedicated and skilful. They have a great knowledge of raptors. Birds
in their possession are treated with infinite patience and care. It is a very difficult
business to train and fly a hawk properly. Unfortunately, the bulk of so-called
falconers lack time and skill to keep their birds in good flying condition. They are
no more than glorified keepers of ego-boosting pets. As a whole, falconers might
be classified as consumptive users of a natural resources. If they are allowed to
take their share of the falcons, what valid reason is there to exclude other consump-
tive users such as amateur collectors and taxidermusts?
66 THe CANApIAN FreLp-NaATURALIST Vol. 83
Privately, responsible falccners agree that the Peregrine should be left alone.
They would settle for other species of raptor. But the large falcons bring a high
price to unscrupulous individuals in many parts of the world. There will always
be a certain amount of illegal catching and selling. But this is a poor argument
for trying to keep certain areas open for the collection of Peregrines. Northern
Canada still harbours a good population of Peregrines. But as Cade (1967) and
Enderson (1968) have pointed out, due to high ratios of pesticide residues, these
birds may be poised at the brink of disaster. Human disturbance at the nest sites,
by researchers as well as falconers, should be kept at a minimum. At preent,
Alaska, the Yukon and the N.W.T. are closed to the taking of young Peregrines.
This protection should be extended to other areas, such as the Queen Charlotte
Islands. Blood’s recent paper comes at a critical time. His conclusion that the
taking of young falcons has had no adverse effect on the population status of the
Peregrine, is debatable and contrary to other reports (Hancock, 1969). In corres-
pondence with the writer of this manuscript Blood admits that the desertion of
nests at Langara may quite possibly be the result of human interference, both legal
and illegal, but because this desertion took place before he started his research, he
did not care to speculate on the cause since there was little to go on. As his paper
reads now, there is a danger that it will be used by certain individuals in their
attempts to get a larger share of what they like to call the “harvest” of young
Peregrines for faiconry purposes.
In general, it is plain that the status of the Peregrine in the Western Hemisphere
shows a dangerous trend toward total extirpation. Federal, continent-wide, protec-
tion will no doubt be extended to this magnificent bird once its numbers will have
reached the same order of magnitude as that of the Whooping Crane (Grus
americana). But then it may well be too late. The time to protect the Peregrine
effectivly, is mow, when it is still common in part of its former world-wide range.
REFERENCES
Breese, F. L. 1960. The Marine Peregrines Peregrines and their prey species in
of the northwest Pacific. Northern Canada. The Condor 70(2):
Bioop, Donato A. 1968. Population Status 149-153.
of the Peregrine Falcons in the Queen FiscHer, Worrcanc. 1967. Der Wander-
Charlotte Islands, British Columbia. Cana-
dian Field-Naturalist 82 (3) :169-176.
Cape, T. J., C. M. Wurre and J. R. Haven.
1967. Peregrines and pesticides in Alaska.
Raptor Research News 1(2):23-38.
Dekker, Dick. 1967. Disappearance of the
falk. A. Ziemsen Verlag, Wittenberg-
Lutherstadt, DDR.
Hancock, Davip. 1969. The Peales Falcon
and the conservationists stand. Newsletter
British Columbia Nature Counsel 6(2).
R. A. and K. G. S. Hersert.
Peregrine Falcon as a breeding bird of a
river valley in Alberta. Blue Jay 25(4):
175-176.
ENperson, J. H. and D. D. Bercer.
Chlorinated Hydrocarbon
1968.
residues in
HERBERT,
1965. Behaviour of Peregrine Falcons in
the New York City region. Auk 82:62-94.
Voous, K. H. 1965. Roofvogels gevraagd
Stitching LVIO, Amsterdam, Holland.
Dick DEKKER,
3819-112A Street,
Edmonton, Alberta
Mr. Dekker is a past Vice-President of the Edmonton Bird Club and at present is chairman of the
Predator Committee of the EBC.
1969 LETTERS 67
Tue NEED FoR A TRULY REPRESENTATIVE NATIONAL ORGANIZATION
FOR CANADIAN NATURALISTS
ORGANIZATIONALLY, the Naturalists’ Movement in Canada is not nearly as influential
as it could be. The reason is not so much a lack of interest in animals and plants
on the part of Canadians generally, as it is due to regionally and locally oriented
societies as well as a shortage of leaders concerned with a zational approach to
Canadian natural history and conservation problems. Indeed, at present, the phrase
the “Naturalists’ Movement” is really only an abstraction hase upon a recognition
that naturalists’ clubs and societies across the country do have many interests and
aspirations in common. They also face similar problems on which unified action
would be far more effective than would independent action.
In more than one province (e.g. in B.C., Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario and
‘Newfoundland) there is a federation of all naturalists’ clubs or a province-wide
naturalists’ society, and in these provinces the Naturalists’ Movement is manifestly
much stronger than elsewhere. Yet, in the nation as a whole, the Naturalists’
Movement remains weak. There is no national conference where problems of
mutual interest can be discussed by delegates from the executive councils of all the
provincial societies or federations.
In Canada there are upwards of two million Canadians who hunt or fish. The
provincial federations of fish and game clubs are served at the national level by the
Canadian Wildlife Federation, which represents 160,000 of these hunters and
fishermen. A recent estimate has suggested that Canadians with interests in natural
history number at least one million, although a much smaller proportion are active
in any naturalists’ society. The only national organization that can currently claim
to speak for Canadian naturalists as a whole is the Canadian Audubon Society.
But the Canadian Audubon Society does not have a strong individual membership
base and, more important, the regional naturalists’ organizations are not directly
represented on its Board of Directors. Instead it claims an undisclosed number
of “affiliates”, from among which several of the larger naturalists’ societies and
provincial federations are missing. In the past, the afhliates have played little or no
part in determining C.A.S. policies, and the annual meeting of the C.A.S. has
seldom, if ever, been held outside Ontario.
It is reasonable to conclude, therefore, that the Naturalists’ Movement in
Canada would be enormously strengthened and better served if there were a
“CanapiAN Union or Naturatists’ Orcanizations” (“C.U.N.O.”) which would be
governed by a Board of Directors elected by the provincial naturalists’ federations
or societies. “C.U.N.O.” would have, as its primary purposes, the provision of
advice and assistance to local groups when needed, the provision of coordinated
conservation guidelines for all naturalists’ groups, and the taking of direct action
itself on their behalf whenever this were deemed necessary on a matter of more
than provincial concern. But, because of its intimate link with all provincial
naturalists’ groups, “C.U.N.O.” would hopefully also quickly become the main
distributor across the country of news and information of interest to all naturalists.
It would probably publish a news-sheet, which could be distributed (free to all
M.P.’s, M.L.A.’s, and news media, and (for a small subscription ) to interested
members of the general public. KincrisHer, published in England is an example
of the form it might take — brief news capsules which cite the publication or
organization from which they are derived, so that more detail can be obtained by
anyone interested in a particular item.
68 Tue CANADIAN FirLtp-NATURALIST Vol. 83
To this point, “C.U.N.O.” would appear to be filling a vacuum in the Canadian
scene, not already filled by the Canadian Audubon Society. Though, in its function,
it would resemble the Canadian Wildlife Federation, the groups of which it would
be composed and to which it would be responsible would be quite different.
Nevertheless, the question arises whether it would not be better for the proposed
“C.U.N.O.” and the Canadian Audubon Society to be one and the same organization.
If the C.A.S. were to change its name and organization so that it became, in fact,
a National Union of Naturalists’ Organizations, its effectiveness as a conservation
organization would be much enhanced.
In addition to a widely-distributed information news-sheet, which such a
national organization might publish, it might also assume responsibility for the
publication of Canapian Aupuson for the general reader, and negotiate for the
publication of the Canapian Fretp-NaTuraList under the °C:CENLOsimiprintemss re
result would be the establishment of a simgle national naturalists’ organization
representative of all the naturalists’ groups in Canada with the provincial federations
supporting it. For many Canadians the formation of a truly national naturalists’
organization would mean a welcome increase in co-operation and communication
among naturalists.
M. T. Myres,
Department of Biology,
University of Calgary,
Calgary 44, Alberta.
REVIEWS
The Lovely and the Wild
By Louise DE Kiritine Lawrence. McGraw-
Hill Book Co., New York, Toronto,
London, Sydney. 228 pp. 1968. $8.75.
No one who reads this book will ever
observe birds or other wild creatures in
quite the same way again. The title sug-
gests a delight in wildness, which per-
meates the pages, but it fails to indicate
the book’s contribution to the study of
bird behaviour. Its wealth of original
observations, detailed with profound
regard for accuracy, will interest both
experienced observer and beginner. The
author writes skilfully and with warmth
and charm, to bring us, for instance, her
discovery of the mysterious flight song
of the ovenbird, or the strange antics of
a pair of nesting redstarts, or the cruel
hazards facing a wild animal transported
out of familiar territory.
A native of Sweden, Louise de Kiriline
Lawrence was unfamiliar with North
American birds when she settled in her
wilderness home west of Mattawa, On-
tario. But years of the most intensive
study resulted in an amazing knowledge
of the birds of the wilderness that sur-
rounded her. She began modestly by
identfying one species after another to
add to her bird list. But list-making was
too superficial an approach for this re-
markable woman, and she soon grad-
uated to be what she calls a watcher, her
greatest rewards coming with insight
into the meaning of bird behaviour. Her
faculty to interpret bird behaviour will
hold the seasoned observer enthralled.
The author has a talent for grasping the
survival value of seemingly meaningless
instinctive behaviour, and for compre-
hending unsuspected mechanisms by
which wild nature, unaided by man,
remains in a state of natural balance.
An unusual perspective is gained as each
creature is studied, not as an isolated
entity, but always as an integral part of
the life of the forest.
69
A thrilling description of a wilderness
paddle up the Mattawa thirty years ago,
with bird song echoing wildly from
ravine after ravine, concludes with a
simple statement. “All this was long ago.
It is no longer the same.” There are
unexplained empty spaces in the wilder-
ness today, “marvellous woodland habi-
tats now unoccupied and silent after
migration”. ‘This contention is docu-
mented by carefully recorded data,
daily counts and seasonal censuses taken
over a period of many years in virtually
unchanged habitat in the same area. The
author’s records show 1949-1950 to mark
the beginning of a drastic decline in the
numbers of nearly all species of wood-
land songbirds, a decline which, tragic-
ally, has continued for at least fifteen
years. It would appear that, in ways
not fully understood, man has at last
interfered with wild nature so seriously
that he is beginning to destroy the
achievements of the ages. This alarming
disclosure is presented simply and factu-
ally, with a plea for an awareness of what
is happening, and for safeguards against
heedless devastation.
The book is charmingly illustrated
with black and white sketches by Glen
Loates.
SHEILA THOMSON
Sheila Thomson
2066 Rideau River Drive
Ottawa, Ontario
Hours and the Birds
By R. D. Symons. 1967. University of
Toronto Press, Toronto, 224 pp., 17 colour
plates, numerous drawings. $12.50.
Almost anyone who likes to read about
wild birds, especially if he knows Sas-
katchewan, will greatly enjoy this dif-
ferent and attractive book. The author
has lived over fifty years in Saskatchewan
and other parts of the Canadian West, at
times as a rancher, wheat farmer, home-
steader, and teacher, but always an en-
thusiastic naturalist.
70 Tue CaNnapian Fietp-NATURALIST
The book is an absorbing account of his
many experiences and 1 impressions of out-
doors Saskatchewan, especially its birds.
Symons knows Saskatchewan intimately
and his genuine affection for it shows on
every page. His style is direct, clear,
often vivid, occasionally curt. He writes
of the birds as he sees them and he does
this with many a subtle touch that a less
sensitive observer would miss completely.
The general reader will learn much
about Saskatchewan birds and the ex-
perienced bird watcher will enjoy seeing
the birds again from Symon’s viewpoint.
Indeed, there is a considerable amount of
information in the book that will interest
the professional. For instance, cases are
described and illustrated in color of the
Bonaparte Gull nesting on the ground
instead of in the tree nests of other birds.
We learn that many of the Ruffed
Grouse used to stock the Cypress Hills
came from the Battleford area. There are
numerous distributional data scattered
through the text.
Many drawings and 17 color plates, all
the work of the author, handsomely illus-
trate the book. The field sketches were
done at different times over the years and
often under trying conditions. As is to be
expected under such circumstances, the
quality is somewhat variable but the pic-
tures are not less interesting for that.
Most are really delightful.
The ‘young’ Starling (p. 94), how-
ever, looks more like a spotted winter
adult; the ‘young’ Cedar Waxwings
(p. 170) show no breast streaks; and the
presence of the male hummingbird at the
nest is likely to convey to readers the
erroneous impression that he takes part
in the nesting activities. Words like cater-
pillar, scavenging, shelter, and aggressive
are mispelled in the captions of the illus-
trations (the last four times!), although
these words are spelled correctly in the
text. It is our Winter Wren, not our
House Wren, that occurs in England
@pseb):
Vol. 83
The book closes with some good advice
on looking for birds, a check-list of the
birds of Saskatchewan, a selected biblio-
graphy, and an index.
As he nears the end of the book, the
author tells us, “Look for beauty and you
will find it, remembering that the eye sees
only as the heart desires”. Obviously that
philosophy has long been one of the
author’s powerful motivations, for beauty
is certainly one of the main ingredients
of this unusual and charming book.
W. Eart Goprrey
Museum of Natural Sciences
National Museums of Canada
Ottawa 4, Ontario
A Lifetime with the Birds:
An Ornithological Logbook
By Earre R. Greene. 1966. Edwards
Brothers, Ann Arbor. 404 pp., 110 half-
tones. $6.00. (Obtainable from E. R.
Greene, 1600 West Fifth St., Oxnard, Cali-
fornia 93030).
This is an autobiographical account of
over sixty years of association with North
America’s birds and bird watchers. Earle
Greene has travelled widely over this
continent and in his travels he has identi-
fied well over 600 species of birds. He
has a great interest in people as well
as in birds. He knows most of this con-
tinent’s ornithologists, both old and
young, and as a result the names of bird
men and women are mentioned fully as
frequently as are those of birds.
The book is abundantly illustrated
with photographs of people and places
of particular interest to bird students.
Anyone who has ever attended a large
convention of North American orni-
thologists will find familiar names of
both men and birds in this interesting
book as well as familiar faces and places
in the photographs liberally scattered
through the text. :
W. Eart Goprrey
National Museum of Natural Sciences
National Museums of Canada
Ottawa 4, Ontario
1969
Trees
By ANpreAs FEININGER. The Viking Press,
New York and the Macmillan “Go, of
Canada, Toronto. 1968. 160 illus., 116 pp.
$23.75.
In this volume Mr. Feininger presents a
series of absolutely beautiful full-page
photographs, one quarter of which are
in colour, which have been selected from
over 5000 photographs taken in his tra-
vels throughout the United States and
around the world. He has seen beauty
in the stately thousand-year-old sequotas,
‘twisted roots, the dead branches of a
bristle pine, the annual rings, the bark of
a birch tree, a spray of leaves silhouetted
against the sky, and many other facets
raled to trees, which might to the casual
observer go unnoticed.
There is an introduction and a chapter
on the importance of trees. The pictures
then illustrate the succeeding chapters
which deal among other things with facts
about trees, their various parts, great age
and size and the fall colours. The text is
REVIEWS al
easily written and authoritative, but will
I am afraid be little read because of the
beauty of the pictures. For each picture
there is an accompanying descriptive
paragraph, but because these are divorced
from the pictures, they too will be little
consulted.
That Mr. Feininger is a conservationist
is amply attested to by the love and care
he has taken in portraying his subjects.
His final chapter entitled “You Can
Help” is an appeal to the American
people to be concerned with preservation
of their national heritage.
As an appendix for the interested
photographer there is a record of the
type of camera, lens and exposure used
for each photograph.
The volume which measures 101 by
124 inches in size was printed in West
Germany by F. Bruckmann KG, Munich.
W. J. Copy
Plant Research Institute
Central Experimental Farm
Ottawa, Ontario
OTHER NEW TITLES
The following titles are offered as a service to readers.
Their listing does
not preclude them from possible review in a future issue of this journal.
Cities are People. S. Carl Hirsch. Viking
Press, 1968. Photographs. 176 p. $4.95 (US).
A Field Guide to the Mammals of Britain
and Europe. F. H. van den Brink, transl.
from Dutch and edited by Hans Kruuk and
H. N. Southern. Houghton, 1968. Plates,
illus. by Paul Barruel, maps. 221 p. $7.50
(US).
Plant Communities. A Textbook of Plant
Synecology. Rexford Daubenmire. Harper
and Row, New York, 1968. Illus. 300 p.
$9.75 (US).
International Zoo Yearbook. Vol. 8. Caro-
line Jarvis and Ruth Biegler (Eds.). Zoo-
logical Society of London, London, 1968.
Illus. 414 p. $18.75 (US).
Advances in Water Quality Lmprovement.
Earnest F. Gloyna and W. Wesley Ecken-
felder, Jr. (Eds.). Univ. of Texas Press, 1968.
Illus. 513 p. $15 (US).
The Book of The Giraffe. C. A. Spinage.
Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1968. Illus. 191 p.
$6.95 (US).
Ecological Adaptations for Breeding in
Birds. David Lack. Methuen, London, 1968
(distributed in the U.S. by Barnes and Noble,
New York). Illus. 409 p. $15 (US).
Encyclopedia of Animal Care. (Formerly
Black’s Veterinary Directory). William GC.
Miller and Geoffrey P. West. Williams and
Wilkins, Baltimore, ed. 8. 1967. Illus. 1015 p.
$10.25 (US).
72 Tue CanapdiAN Fie_p-NaTuRALIST
Environmental Problems. Pesticides, Ther-
mal Pollution, and Environmental Synerg-
isms. Bill Ray Wilson (Ed.). Lippincott,
Philadelphia, 1968. Illus. 183 p. $5.25 (US).
Evolution in Changing Environments.
Some Theoretical Explorations. Richard
Levins. Princeton University Press, Prince-
ton, N.J., 1968. Illus. 120 p. $6.50. Monographs
in Population Biology, No. 2.
Heredity, Evolution, and Society. I. Michael
Lerner. Freeman, San Francisco, 1968. Illus.
307 p. $8 (US).
Immunity to Parasites. Sixth Symposium of
the British Society: for Parasitology, London,
INov. 91967 Angela, Haak’) Maylor i(Ed:).
Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford,
1968. Illus. 118 p. $6.50 (US). Paperback.
The Roe Deer of Cranborne Chase. An
Ecological Survey. Richard Prior. With an
Appendix on the Diseases of Roe by A.
McDiarmid. Oxford University Press, New
York; 1968" Illus. 222\ p. $7. CUS).
The Systems Approach. C. West Church-
man. Delacorte, New York, 1968. 243 p.
$7.50 (US).
Towards a Beiter Use of the Oceans. A
Study and Prognosis. SIPRI Symposium,
Stockholm, June 1968. International Institute
for Peace and Conflict Research. Stockholm,
1968. 323 p. $6 (US).
Man and the California Condor: The Em-
battled History and Uncertain Future of
North America’s Largest Free-living Bird.
Ian McMillan. Dutton, 1968. Illus. 191 p.
$5.95 (US).
The Place No One Knew: Glen Canyon on
the Colorado. Eliot Porter. Sierra Club Bal-
lantine Bks., 1968. 75 color plates. 160 p.
$3.95 (US). Paperback.
Social Organization of the Hamadryas
Baboons: A Field Study. Hans Kummer,
Univ. of Chicago Press, 1968. Photographs,
diagrams. 189 p. $8.95 (US).
Industrial Waste Disposal. R. D. Ross (Ed.).
Reinhold, 1968. Illus. 340 p. $16 (US).
Spaceship Earth. Barbara Ward. Columbia
Univ. Press, 1968. 152 p, $1.95 (US). Peper-
back.
Vol. 83
The Teacher and the Machine: Horace
Mann Lecture 1967. Philip W. Jackson. Univ.
of Pittsburgh Press, 1968. 90 p. $2.50 (US).
Unusual Aquarium Fishes. Alan Mark
Fletcher. Lippincott, 1968. Photographs. 143
p. $4.50 (US).
Wild Flowers of North Carolina. William
S. Justice and C. Ritchie Bell. Univ. of N.C.
Press, 1968. 400 color photographs, drawings.
217 p $7.75 (US).
Arctic and Alpine Research. Institute of
Arctic and Alpine Research, University of
Colorado, Boulder. A new quarterly journal
beginning January-March, 1969. $12.00 (US)
per year.
Ecological Development in Polar Regions.
A Study in Evolution. M. J. Dunbar. Pren-
tice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1968. Illus.
119 p. $4.95. Concepts of Modern Biology.
Science Policy and the University. Harold
Orlans (Ed.), Brookings Institution, 1968.
352 p. $7.50 Cloth; $2.95 (US) Paperback.
Scientists in Politics: The Atomic Scien-
tists Movement, 1945-46. Donald A.
Strickland. Purdue Univ. Press, 1968. 149 p.
$4.95 (US).
The Fitness of Man’s Environment: Smith-
sonian Annual II. Robert McAdams and
others, introd. by Rt. Hon. Jennie Lee.
Smithsonian Inst. Press, 1968. 250 p. $5.95.
Twelve contributions on the theme that man
can no longer afford to alter his environ-
ment without recognizing that environment
is the dynamic sum of its interrelated parts.
The Rays are not Coloured: Essays on the
Science of Vision and Colour. W. D.
Wright. Am. Elsevier Pub. Co., 1968. Color
plates, diagrams. 154 p. $5.95 (US).
Waterfowl: Their Biology and Natural
History. Paul A. Johnsgaard, introd. by Peter
Scott. Univ. of Neb. Press, 1968. 148 plates
(59 in color), drawings. 138 p. $8.95 (US).
World Population: An Analysis of Vital
Data. Nathan Keyfitz and Wilhelm Flieger.
Univ. of Chicago Press, 1968. 672 p. $16.50
(US).
Scientific Writing for Graduate Students.
F. Peter Woodford (Ed.). A Council of
1969
Biology Editors Manual prepared by the
CBE Committee on Graduate Training in
Scientific Writing. Rockefeller University
Press, New York. 1968. 192 p. $5.95 (US).
Animals for Research: A Directory of
Sources of Laboratory Animals, Fluids,
Tissues, Organs, Equipment and Mater-
ials. Institute of Laboratory Animal Re-
sources, NRC. National Acad. of Sciences,
1968. 7th rev. ed. 125 p. $3.25 (US). Paper-
back.
Animals in Danger: The Story of Van-
ishing American Wildlife. Frances and
~ Dorothy Wood Dodd, 1968. Photographs.
181 p. $4.95 (US).
The Biology of the Cockroach. D. M.
Guthrie and A. R. Tindall. St. Martin’s
Press, 1968. Illus. 408 p. $19 (US).
Fish Migration. F. R. Harden Jones. St.
Martin’s Press, 1968. Illus. by H. E. Jenner.
325 p. $21. (US).
In the Wake of the Sea-Serpents. Bernard
Heuvelmans. Trans. from French by Richard
Garnett. Hill & Wang, 1968. Illus. 645 p. $10.
(US).
Life Histories of North American Card-
inals, Grosbeaks, Buntings, Towhees,
Finches, Sparrows and Allies, Order Pas-
seriformes: Family Fringillidae. Parts 1-3.
Arthur Cleveland Bent and Collaborators,
Oliver L. Austin, Jr. (Ed.). Smithsonian
Institution, 1968. 80 plates. 1889 p. $8.25 (US)
per set of 3 vols. Paperback.
Animal Societies: From the Bee to the
Gorilla. Remy Chauvin, transl. from French
by George Ordish. Hill & Wang, 1968. 45
plates, drawings. 281 p. $6.50 (US).
Antarctic Bird Studies: Antarctic Research
Series, Vol. 12. Oliver L. Austin, Jr. (Ed.).
Am. Geophysical Union, 1968. Illus. 262 p.
$16.50 (US).
Selective Toxicity and Related Topics.
Adrien Albert. Methuen (Barnes & Noble),
1968, 4th edition. Illus. 531 p. Deals with the
physical and chemical properties of selec-
tively toxic agents, those substances which
injure certain cells without harming others,
ReEvIEWsS 73
covering most of the drugs and all of the
fungicides, insecticides and weed killers.
$14.50 (US).
Telescopes: How to Choose and Use Them.
Terry Maloney. Sterling Pub. Co., 1968.
Illus. 114 p. Useful advice for the amateur
astronomer and birdwatcher. $3.95 (US).
Ecology and Resource Management: A
Quantitative Approach. Kenneth E. F.
Watt, McGraw Hill, 1968.
The Cycle of Erosion in Different Cli-
mates. Pierre Birot, transl. from French by
C. Ian Jackson and Keith M. Clayton. Univ.
of Calif. Press, 1968. Illus. 144 p. $5.50 (US).
A Handbook of Living Primates: Mor-
phology, Ecology and Behavior of Non-
human Primates. J. R. Napier and P. H.
Napier. Academic Press, 1967. Illus. 456 p.
$21.50 (US).
Animal Behavior in Laboratory and Field.
Allen W. Stokes (Ed.). Freeman, San Fran-
cisco, 1968. Illus. 198 p. $4.75 (US). Paper-
back. Individual Exercises, 25 c. each.
Australian Tertiary Depesits Containing
Terrestrial Mammals. R A. Stirton, R. H.
Tedford and M. O. Woodburne. University
of California Press, Berkeley, 1968. Illus. 30
p- $1.50 (US). Paperback. Publications in
Geological Sciences. Vol. 77.
Endocrinologie des Insectes. Pierre Joly.
Mason, Paris, 1968. Illus. 344 p. Collection
les Grands Problemes de la Biologie, Mono-
graphie 7. 96F.
The Enzymatic Oxidation of Toxicants.
Proceedings of a conference, Raleigh, N.C.
Ernest Hodgson (Ed.). North Carolina State
University, Raleigh, 1968.. Illus. 229 p. $2.
(US). Paperback.
Evolution and the Genetics of Popula-
tions. A Treatise in Three Volumes. Vol 1,
Genetic and Biometric Foundations. Sewall
Wright. University of Chicago Press, Chi-
cago, 1968. Illus. 469 p. $15. (US).
The Evolutionary History of the Avian
Genus Chrysoecocyx. Herbert Friedmann.
Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington,
74 THe CaANnapiAN FIELD-NATURALIST
D.C., 1968. Illus. 137 p. Paperback. USS.
National Museum Bulletin No. 265.
Field Book of Wild Birds and Their
Music. F. Schuyler Mathews, Dover, New
York. 1967. Illus. 350 p. $2.75 (US). Paper-
back. Reprint of the 1921 Edition.
An Introduction to Advanced Geography.
E. W. H. Briault and J. H. Hubbard.
Elsevier, New York, ed. 2, 1968. Illus. 503 p.
$7. (US).
The Mountaineering Handbook. An Invi-
tation to Climbing. Curtis W. Casewit and
Dick Pownall. Lippincott, Philadelphia. 1968.
Illus. 222 p. $5.95 (US).
$5.95 (US).
The Nature of Science and Science Teach-
ing. James IT. Robinson, Wadsworth, Bel-
mont, Calif., 1968. Illus. 149 p. $4.95. Wads-
worth Guides to Science Teaching.
Oceans. Karl K. Turekian. Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1968. Illus. 120 p.
Cloth, $5.95, Paperback, $2. (US).
The Origin of the Solar System. H. P.
Bérlage. Pergamon, New York, 1968. Illus.
130 p. $1.85 (US). Paperback. Pergamon
International Popular Science Series.
The Population Bomb. Paul A. Ehrlich.
Ballantine Books. New York, 1968. 224 p.
Paperback. 95c. (US). A Sierra Club-
Ballantine Book. Very highly recommended
as an introduction to a complex problem.
For the general reader.
Teaching Children Science. An Inquiry
Approach. Louis I. Kuslan and A. Harris
Stone. Wadsworth, Belmont, Calif., 1968.
Illus. 464 p. $7.95 (US).
Reproduction in the Female Mammal.
Proceedings of the 13th Easter School in
Agricultural Science, Nottingham, England,
1966. G. E. Lamming and E. C. Amoroso
(Eds.). Plenum, New York; Butterworths,
London, 1967. Illus. 583 p. $32 (US).
Biology of Gestation. Vol. 1, The Maternal
Organism. N. S. Assali (Ed.). Academic
Press, New York, 1968. Illus. 507 p. $27.
(US).
Vol. 83
Flora of Alaska and Neighboring Terri-
tories. Eric Hulten. Stanford University
Press, Stanford, Calif., 1967. Illus. 1008 p.
$35 (US).)
The Algae. A Review. G. W. Prescott.
Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 1968. Illus. 436 p.
$7.95 (US). Riverside Studies in Biology.
A Guide to the National Parks. Their
Landscape and Geology. William H. Mat-
thews, III. Natural History Press, Garden
City, N.Y., 1968. Vol. 1, The Western Parks.
Illus. 480 p. $7.95; Vol. 2, The Eastern Parks.
Illus. 287 p. $6.95 (US).
Man and Aggression. M. F. Ashley Montagu
(Ed.). Oxford University Press, New York,
1968. 178 p. Cloth, $5; Paperback, $1.95 (US).
Man and Monkey. L. Williams. With draw-
ings by the author and photography by
Lorna Pearce. Lippincott, Philadelphia, 1968.
198 p. $5.95 (US).
The Physiology of Sense Organs. De-
Forest Mellon. Jr. Oliver and Boyd, Edin-
burgh, 1968. University Reviews in Biology.
Illus. 107 p. 25s. Paperback.
Strategy for the Conquest of Hunger.
Proceedings of a Symposium Convened by
the Rockefeller Foundation, New York, Apr.
1968. Rockefeller Foundation, New York,
1968. Illus. 131 p. Paperback.
The Tides. Pulse of the Earth. Edward
P. Clancy. Illustrated by Warren H. Max-
field. Doubleday, Garden City, N.Y., 1968.
228 p. $4.95 (US).
Fisheries Biology. A Study in Population
Dynamics. D. H. Cushing. University of
Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1968. Illus. 200 p.
$7.50 (US).
The Conservation of Norfolk Island. J. S.
Turner, C. N. Smithers and R. D. Hoogland.
Australian Conservation Foundation, Aus-
tralia, 1968. Illus. 41 p. Paperback. ACF
Special Publication No. 1
Data Acquisition and Processing in Biol-
ogy and Medicine. Vol. 5. Proceedings of
a conference. Rochester, N.Y., 1966. Kurt
Enslein (Ed.). Pergamon, New York, 1968.
Illus. 377 p. $16 (US).
1969
Index to Air Pollution Research. A guide
to Current Government and Industry Sup-
ported Air Pollution Research, July 1968.
Patricia A. Burd. Center for Air Environ-
ment Studies, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, 1968. 164 p. $2. (US).
Paperback.
Proceedings of the Fifteenth Southern
Water Resources and Pollution Control
Conference. Raleigh, N.C., April, 1966.
Department of Civil Engineering, North
Carolina State University. Raleigh, 1968.
Illus. 190 p. $4. (US)). Paperback.
‘Science and Man. The Philosophy of
Scientific Humanism. Tad S. Clements.
Thomas, Springfield, Ill., 1968. 152 p. $9.
(US). American Lecture Series Publication
No. 714.
War and Peace in the Global Village. An
Inventory of Some of the Current Spastic
Situations that could be Eliminated by
more Feed-forward. Marshall McLuhan and
Quentin Fiore. McGraw-Hill. New-York,
1968. Illus. 192 p. Cloth, $5.95, Paperback,
$1.95 (US).
Air Pollution. R. S. Scorer. Pergamon Press,
1968. Color plates, photographs, diagrams.
151 p. $7.50, Cloth; $4.50 Paperback (US).
The Biology of Estuarine Animals. J.
Green. Univ. of Wash. Press, 1968. Illus.
401 p. $9.50 (US).
Central Asia. Aleksandr Belenitsky, transl.
from Russian by James Hogarth. World
Pub. Co., 1968. 250 p. 54 color plates, 89
photographs. Includes Uzbek, Tadzhik,
Turkmenian and Kirghiz Republics and the
southern part of the Kazakh Republic. $10.
(US).
The Farming of Fish. C. F. Hickling. Per-
gamon Press, 1968. Illus. 88p. $2. (US).
Paperback.
A Guide to Scientific and Technical Jour-
nals in Translation. Carl J. Himmelsbach
and Grace E. Boyd. Special Libraries Assn.,
1968. 47 p. $4.50 (US). Paperback.
Helpful Microorganisms. Daniel N. Lapedes.
World Pub. Co., 1968. Photographs, dia-
grams. 192 p. $4.50 (US).
REVIEWS 75
Kilauea: Case History of a Volcano. Don
Herbert and Fulvio Bardossi. Harper, 1968.
Illus. by Joyce Ballantyne, photographs, 191
p. $5.95 (US).
A Lifetime with Lions. George Adamson.
Doubleday, 1968. 54 Illus. 286 p. Game
warden’s story of his life im an African
game reserve. $5.95 (US).
Animals at Bay: Rare and Rescued Amer-
ican Wildlife. Doubleday, 1968. Illus. by
John Schoenherr, 159 p. $3.59 (US).
Conservation and Caribbean Regional
Progress. Carl A. Carlozzi and Alice A.
Carlozzi. Caribbean Research Inst. (Antioch
Press), 1968. Illus. by Christine Sena. 151 p.
$4. (US).
Disposal of Process Wastes: Liquids,
Solids, Gases. Otto Jaag and others, transl.
from German by Max Wulfinghoff. Chem-
ical Pub. Co., 1968. Illus. 240 p. $12.50 (US).
Symposium of papers presented at the
ACHEMA meeting at Frankfurt/Main, 1964,
discussing the nature of contamination of
man’s environment and suggesting new tech-
niques and equipment to combat the menace.
The Land Renewed: The Story of Soil
Conservation. William R. Van _ Dersal.
Walck, 1968. Rev. ed. Photographs. 160 p.
$6. (US).
A Treasury of Australian Wildlife: Se-
lected Studies from Australian Natural
History. D. F. McMichael (Ed.), Ure Smith
(Taplinger), 1960. 235 photographs. 354 p.
$12.95 (US).
The Conquest of Nature: Technology and
its Consequences. R. J. Forbes. Praeger,
1968. 98 p. $4.95 (US).
Essays on Form in Plants. C. W. Wardlaw.
Barnes & Noble, 1968. Illus. 399 p. $8.75
(US).
Exploring the Reef. Robert P. L. Straughan.
Barnes, A. S., 1968. Color plates, photo-
graphs. 248 p. $17.50 (US).
Poisonous Snakes of the World: A Manual
for Use by U.S. Amphibious Forces.
Granville M. Moore (Ed.). Dept. of the
76 Tue CanapiAN Frecp-NATURALIST
Navy Bureau of Medicine and Surgery
(GOP), 1968. 8 color plates, photographs,
drawings, maps. 212 p. $3.25 COS)E
Man, Culture, and Animals: The Role of
Animals in Human Eeological Adjust-
ments. Anthony Leeds and Andrew P.
Vayda (Eds.). Amer. Ass. Adv. Science.
1967. Illus. 304 p. 1965. Second printing $8.
(US).
Ground Level Climatology. Robert H.
Shaw (Ed.). Amer. Ass. Adv. Science. 1967.
144 illus. 408 p. $12.50 (US).
Residue Reviews: Residues of Pesticides
and Other Foreign Chemicals in Foods
and Feeds, Vol. 22. Francis A. Gunther
(Ed.), Springer-Verlag, N.Y., 1968. 119 p.
$9.50 (US).
Biological Clocks and Patterns. Shirley
Moore. Criterion Bks., 1968. Illus. by Omar
Davis. 133 p. $3.50 (US).
Miraculous Web: The Balance of Life.
Natalie Friendly. Prentice-Hall, 1968. Illus.
by Bette Fast. 92 p. $3.95 (US).
Field Guide to the National Parks of East
Africa. John G. Williams Collins, 1967 or
1968. Indispensable for tourists. Maps, de-
scriptions and checklists of wildlife of 60
East African Parks. 45s UK.
Pesticide Handbook — Entoma, 1968.
Donald E. H. Frear. College Science Pubs.,
1968, 20th ed. 324 p. Cloth, $4.50; Paperback,
$3. (US).
Vegetation and Soils: A World Picture.
S. R. Eyre. Aldine Pub. Co., 1968. 2nd ed.
32 plates, diagrams, maps. 328 p. $8.95 (US).
World Without Hunger. Orville L. Free-
man. Praeger, 1968. 190 p. $5.95 (US).
Chemical and Biological Warfare: Amer-
ica’s Hidden Arsenal. Seymour M. Hersh.
Bobbs-Merrill, 1968. 354 p. $7.50 (US). A
documented study of U.S. production, pol-
icy, research and use of chemical and bio-
logical agents.
The Common Scents of Smell: How the
Nese Knows and What It all Shows. Russell
Vol. 83
C. Erb. World Pub. Co., 1968. 142 p. $4.95
GUS):
Human Color Perception: A Critical Study
of the Experimental Foundation. Joseph
J. Sheppard, Jr. Am. Elsevier Pub. Co., 1968.
Illus. 192 p. $10. (US).
Man and the Future. James E. Gunn (Ed.),
Univ. of Kansas Press, 1968. 305 p. $6.75
CUS):
Seals of the World. Gavin Maxwell.
Houghton, 1968. 42 photographs. 153 p.
$6.95 (US).
Plant Propagation: Principles and Prac-
tices. Hudson JT. Hartmann and Dale E.
Kester. Prentice-Hall, 1968. 2nd ed., Illus.
7102 p. $145 (US):
Paddlewheels on the Frontier. Art Downs.
Evergreen Preess Ltd. Published by B.C.
Outdoors Magazine, 5543 129 Street, RR. 1,
Cloverdale, B.C. 74 p. $2.95. Deals with early
steamers of British Columbia, it is the result
of a great amount of research in old news-
papers and historic files.
Canada North. Farley Mowat. McLelland
and Stewart, Toronto. 1967. Colored plates,
black and white photographs. 127 p. $4.95.
The Caribbean Islands. Mary Slater. Viking
Press, 1968. 41 plates, maps. 244 p. $6.95 (US).
Decision Making in National Science Pol-
icy. Ciba Foundation Symosium. Anthony
de Reuck, Maurice Goldsmith and Julie
Knight (Eds), Little, Brown, 1968. 310 p.
w12e CUS):
Health of Mankind. Ciba Foundation 100th
Symposium. Gordon Wolstenholme and
Maeve O’Connor (Eds.), Little, Brown, 1968.
Illus. 297 p. $12. (US).
Man in the Landscape: A Historic View of
the Esthetics of Nature. Paul Shepard.
Knopf, 1967. 11 plates. 295 p. $6.95 (US).
Museums and Education. Eric Larrabee,
Ed. Smithsonian Institution Press (Random
House), 1968. 255 p. $6.50 (US).
1969
Mammals of the World. Ernest P. Walker
with Florence Warnick and others. Johns
Hopkins Press, 2nd ed., 1968. 1,850 photo-
graphs. 1,500 p. Two vols. Slip-cased. $30.
(US).
Primitive Nervous Systems. Thomas L.
Lentz. Yale Univ. Press, 1968. Illus. 148 p.
$7.50 (US).
Taxonomy of American Species of Linden
(Tilia). George Neville Jones. Univ. of Il.
Press, 1968; 30 plates. 156 p. $5.95 (US).
Paperback.
Trees of North America: A Guide to Field
Identification. C. Frank Brockman. Golden
Press, 1968. 280 p. 1,000 full color illus. by
Rebecca Merrilees. Cloth $5.95; Paperback
$2.95 (US).
The Bears and I: Raising Three Cubs in
the Nerth Woods. Robert Franklin Leslie.
Dutton, 1968. Illus. by Theodore A. Xaras.
224 p. $5.95 (US).
The Biological Time Bomb. Gordon Rat-
tray Taylor. World Pub. Co., 1968. 240 p.
$5.50 (US).
The Complete Book of Cat Health and
Care. J. J. McCoy. Putnam, 1968. Plates.
3M! Dn SA (WIS)
Discover American Trees. Rutherford Platt.
Dodd, 1968. 256 p. Photographs by author,
illus. by Margaret L. Cosgrove. $4.50 (US).
Revised edition of book originally (1952)
published as American Trees.
An Environment Fit for People: The New
Meaning of Conservation. Raymond F.
Dasmann. Public Affairs Pamphlets, 1968.
Photographs, paperback. 28 p. 25 c. From
381 Park Ave. South, New York 10016.
McGraw-Hill Directory and Almanac of
Canada 1968. Helen Sawyer Hogg, Robert
Craig Brown and others, Eds. McGraw-Hill,
3rd ed. Maps. 856 p. $17.50.
Game Bird Hunting in the West. Mike
Cramond Mitchell Press. 252 p. $5.95.
REVIEWS Wil
The American University: How It Runs,
Where It Is Going. Jacques Barzun. Harper,
1968. 319 p. $7.95 (US).
The Central Nervous System and Fish Be-
havior. David Ingle (Ed.), Univ. of Chicago
Press, 1968. Illus. 272 pp. $15. (US).
Evolution and Environment. A Symposium
presented on the Occasion of the One
Hundredth Anniversary of the Foundation
of the Peabody Museum of Natural History.
Ellen T. Drake (Ed.). Yale Univ. Press,
1968. Illus. 470 p. $15. (US).
Bambocs: A Gardener’s Guide to their
Cultivation in Temperate Climates. A. H.
Lawson. Taplinger, 1968. Photographs, draw-
ings. 182 p. $12. (US).
The Great Lene Land. A Narrative of Travel
and Adventure in the Notrh-West of Amer-
ica. William Francis Butler. Tuttle, 1968.
Illus., map. 396 p. An account of a 4000-mile
winter journey on horse, on foot and by
dogsled, through mostly uninhabited wilder-
ness between Lake Superior and the Rocky
Mountains, an expedition commissioned by
the Canadian Government in 1871. $5. (US).
Hew to Follow the Adventures of Insects.
V Brown. Little, Brown, 1968. Illus. by Julia
Iltis. 201 p. $4.50 (US).
How te Know the Grasses. Richard W.
Pohl. Brown, Wm. C., 1968. Rev. ed. 427
illustrations. 244 p. $3.25 (US).
Island of Adventure: A Naturalist Ex-
plores a Gulf Coast Wilderness. Ross E.
Hutchins. Dodd, 1968. Photographs by
author. 243 p. $6. (US).
Molluses. J. E. Morton. Hillary House Pubs.,
1967. Rev. ed. ‘lus. 244 p. $2.25 (US) Paper-
back.
The Sockeye Salmon, Oncorhynchus
nerka. R. E. Foerster. Fisheries Res. Bd.
Canada (Queen’s Printer. Ottawa). 1968.
422 p. photographs, diagrams, maps. A study
of the sockeye population under a variety
of climatic and environmental conditions.
An assessment of overall survival as well as
78 THe CaANnapiAN Fie_tp-NATURALIST Vol. 83
each stage of the life cycle from egg through Geological Evolution of North America.
to adult spawning stages. $8. H. Clark and W. Stearn. Ronald Press. New
York, ed. 2, 1968. Illus. 569 p.
Insect Abundance. Fourth symposium of é ey ‘
the Royal Entomological Society of London, Ethics, Politics and Social Research.
Sept) 1967) dis RUE Soutmwoods (Hd). Gideon) Sjobera (Ed) isn eo
Published for the Society by Blackwell bridge, Mass., 1967. 358 p. $8.95 (US).
Scientific Publications, Oxford, England, Water Resources Management and Public
1968. Ilus. 160 p. $9. (US). Policy. T. H. Campbell and R. O. Sylvester
’ (Eds.). University of Washington Press,
Environment and Change. The Next Fifty Seattle, 1968. Illus. 253 p. $9.50 (US).
Years. Commissioned, William R. Ewald,
Jr. (Ed.). American Institute of Planners’ Odour Description and Odour Classifica-
Fiftieth Year Consultation. Indiana Uni- tion: A Multidisciplinary Examination. R.
versity Press, Bloomington, 1968. 397 p. Harper, E. C. Smith and D. G. Land. Elsev-
Cloth $10; Paperback 4.95 (US)). ier, New York, 1968. Illus. 191 p. $7.50 (US).
WZ
A BRIEF ON THE FUTURE OF GATINEAU PARK’
PRESENTED TO THE NaTIONAL CapiraL CommMtssion, OTrawa,
BY THE Orrawa Fir_p-NaTurRALIsTs’ CLUB, SEPTEMBER, 1968
Tue Orrawa Fietp-Narurtists’ Crus is anxious that policy and plans for
the future of Gatineau Park be established soon so that continued enjoyment
of its many features by residents of the National Capital District and by
visitors can be assured for a very long time to come. Our primary concern
is that this very varied and largely natural area be maintained as such. The
close location of such a large wild area to a major city is unique in Canada,
but the advantage of such easy accessibility carries the disadvantage that
intensity of use is high and growing as the population of the Ottawa district
grows.
We can expect that pressure for “improvement” to Gatineau Park will
continue and increase. Unfortunately the term “park” carries connotations
for most of us of an area heavily modified, “beautified”, and with elaborate
facilities such as playgrounds, swimming pools, bandstands, lawns and carefully
pruned shrubbery. All these are legitimate in their place, but we contend
that they are very much out of place in Gatineau Park, which should be a
natural park. To this end, we make the followi ing specific suggestions:
1. A large part of Gatineau Park should be retained as a aay area. The
northwest sector, around Lac Lapeche, including Curley and Kelly Lakes,
seems suitable for this purpose. Ro: ad access atoll be very limited.
1Gatineau Park is a Federal Park located in the Province of Quebec but very close to the National Capital.
1969
ie)
MacKenzie: BrieF ON THE FUTURE oF GATINEAU PARK 79
A number of small areas of special interest should be left undisturbed.
Among them:
a.
Hopkin’s Ho te, just west of the Eardley-Masham road. ‘This is a very
beautiful but tiny sphagnum mire, a text-book example of the zonation
of vegetation during the lake-filling process. There is a tiny open lake
surrounded by an open sphagnum mat with an orchid (Calopogon),
pitcher plants ( Sarracemia), sundews (Drosera) and many other interest-
ing plants, surrounded by a wet black spruce (Picea) -tamarack (Larix)
forest.
Fotiy Boe, east of the parkway near the informal parking area at the
south end of the park. It isa more mature cedar/tamarack fen in crystal-
line limestone, and supports at least 14 species of orchids.
Meracu Lake Marsu, including most of Macdonald Bay, the stream
connecting Meach and Harrington Lakes, and the lower end of Flynn’s
Creek. This area is a regular nesting ground for loons, osprey, herons,
bitterns and song birds. It is frequented by beaver, muskrat, mink,
otter, possibly fisher, and in winter by deer, fox and smaller mammals.
The area from Wadsworth and Charette Lakes to Lusk Lake to
Harrington Lake. This is a beaver and bear area. North of Lac
Charette is a bog lake (with acid water, 4 to 5) with a floating mat of
vegetation. This is a rare lake type in our region, and it is a nesting
area for waterfowl and has many deer.
Esker — about 4 mile from the Eardlev-Masham road is the only esker
in the park, with a fine stand of beech. This should be preserved as
a unique feature; it might be very tempting to use it as a source of gravel.
3. A Park Naturalist should be employed, with duties including the following:
a.
b.
Identification and cataloguing of natural values within the Park.
Advising park management concerning development plans, road location
and eonceucuion! plant-animal management and conservation.
Developing, supervising and participating in a training program for
park rangers.
Developing and guiding the implementation of a public education
program of displays, lectures, nature walks, nature trails and other
facilities to help visitors to better understand and enjoy the Park’s
natural history.
4, A long-term plan for park roadways and other facilities should be
developed to:
a.
b.
provide reasonable but limited access by vehicles, with minimum damage
to the ecology of the area.
keep the road edges natural — there is no point in tidying up the road
edges as ina city park. ‘The roads should be bush roads except for good
surfacing. Plantings, if needed, should be of native plants.
provide many more parking lots of small size, to give access to walking
paths.
80 Tue Canapian Fietp-NaTturRALIst Vol. 83
We should note here that the existing parkways and parking restrictions
give the strong impression that visitors are intended to drive through
the park, only stopping at points where they must join a crowd. Some
of our members, lacking any published information on plans for the
park, suggest that road- building be stopped until a complete plan is ready.
‘ny
.
Where boating is allowed, the use of powerful motors and fast boats should
be prohibited. This may now be part of park regulations, we do not know.
6. The growth in size and number of camping areas should be restrained in
the park, to preserve its natural character. Campsites and beaches should
be developed outside the park when more such facilities are needed.
7. As opportunity and funds permit. private property within Gatineau Park
should be eliminated, and with it all agriculture and lumbering. No doubt
this is already NCC policy.
8. When there are firm long-term plans for the future of Gatineau Park, they
should be publicized widely, thoroughly and repeatedly.
The Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club has previously offered to assist the
NCC in the development of Gatineau Park in any feasible way. This offer is
repeated now. The Club has among its members many of the important
scientists of the Ottawa area, including outstanding botanists, zoologists and
ecologists. Other amateur members are very knowledgeable 1 in their specialties.
We can make much of this expertise available from time to time, and will, if
it 1s wanted.
As an example of what we might do, we could arrange botanical explora-
tion of areas where construction is planned and advise whether any rarities
should be avoided or moved. We might note that if one particular parking
area were extended 50 feet, it would destroy the only known site here for a very
rare fern.
This submission is made to bring particular points of view to your
attention, and to offer what help we can to achieve our joint objective. We
would be pleased to discuss any of the points further with your Semoss | Lie
would be very helpful to us if we could be kept generally informed of the
plans for Gatineau Park and their progress.
H. N. MacKenzie,
PRESIDENT,
Tue Orrawa Frie_p-NaturaLists’ CLup,
Orrawa,
Editor’s note: The above brief has subsequently been discussed with the
National Capital Commission. The reception was very favorable and arrange-
ments have been made for a continuing exchange of information pertaining to
future development of the Park.
BY-LAWS
of
tA OTTAWA FIELD-NATURALISTS) CLUB
1. Meetings of the General Member-
ship. The Club shall hold at least two
meetings of the general membership
each year at which the affairs of the
Club shall be discussed.
2. Duties of the Publications Commit-
tee. The Publications Committee shall
have supervision over THE CANADIAN
Fretp-NaturaList and such other
publications as directed by the Coun-
cil. The committee shall have the
power to decide what shall appear in
publications under its jurisdiction and
shall see that the Editors perform their
duties in accordance with the Constitu-
tion and By-laws.
The Chairman of the committee
shall submit to the Council a report
which shall be embodied in the annual
report of the Council. This report shall
give an outline of the work accom-
plished by the committee during the
year.
3. Duties of the Excursions and Lec-
tures Committee. The Excursions and
Lectures Committee shall make ar-
rangements for field excursions and
lecture programs. It shall, in co-opera-
tion with other committees, plan the
programs for the annual banquet and
for the meetings of general member-
ship and notify members of these
meetings by special circular.
The Chairman of the committee
shall submit a report to the Council at
the close of each year outlining the
activities carried out under the super-
vision of the committee. This report
81
shall be embodied in the annual report
of the Council.
4
T.
Duties of the Reserve Fund Com-
muttee. The Reserve Fund Committee
shall serve in an advisory capacity to
the Council in matters concerning the
investment of the Reserve Fund.
Duis TO; the we ditomrom ibriE
CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST. Lhe Edi-
tor of THe Canapian Fretp-NaTura-
List shall be responsible for the pre-
paration of THe Canapian Fretp-Na-
TURALIST. He shall be the executive
officer of the Publications Committee
to whom he shall be responsible. He
shall be Chairman of an Editorial Com-
mittee composed of himself and the
Associate Editors of THr CANADIAN
FieLp-NATURALIST.
6. Duties of the Editor of Tra &
LanpscaPe. The Editor of Tram &
LanpscaPE shall be responsible for the
preparation and distribution of TRAtL
& Lanpscape. He shall be responsible
directly to the Council. He shall be
the Chairman of an Editorial Commit-
tee composed of himself and the Asso-
ciate Editors of Tram, & LANpsCAPE.
7. Duties of the Associate Editors.
The Associate Editors shall assist the
Editors in preparing the publications
of the Club.
8. Duties of the Business Manager.
The Business Manager shall be respon-
sible, under the direction of the Public-
ations Committee, for the custody and
sale of the publications owned by the
Club and for managing the circulation
of THe CanapiaAn FIreLp-NATURALIST.
82 THe Canapran Fietp-NaTurRALIST
9. Fees. The schedule of annual fees
shall be as follows:
Members:
Individual $5.00
(receives THE CANADIAN FIELD-
Naturalist; also Tram & LANp-
scAPE if local member. Trait &
LANDSCAPE to be sent to outside
member on request.)
Family $7.00
(receives one copy per household
of Ture CaNnapran Fretp-Natur-
ALIsT; also one copy of Tram &
LanpscaPE to be sent to outside
member on request. )
Affiliated Societies $20.00
Institutional Subscription $10.00
(receives ome copy of THE
CANADIAN FIFLD-NTURALIST.
Trait & LANDSCAPE to be sent on
request. )
These fees shall take effect January
1, 1969. Fees become due at the be-
ginning of each calendar year. No
member in arrears shall be entitled to
the privileges of the Club.
Vol. 83
10. Order of Business at Meetings of
the Council.
1. Minutes of the previous meeting
2. Business arising out of the
minutes
Communications
Finances
Reports of committees
6. New business
11. Expulsion From the Club. An in-
dividual may be expelled from the
Club for conduct or activities pre-
judicial to the well-being of the Club
by a two-thirds majority vote of the
members present at a meeting of the
Council, the individual first having had
an opportunity to defend himself be-
fore a vote is taken.
Ls)
eee
12. Amendments. An amendment to
these By-laws may be adopted at any
meeting of the Council, by a two-
thirds vote of the members present, due
notice embodying a copy of the pro-
posed amendment having been given
at a previous meeting of the Council.
Any such amendment shall be pub-
lished in an early issue of THE
CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST.
WZ
REPORT OF COUNCIL
TO THE NINETIETH ANNUAL MEETING OF
THE OTTAWA FIELD-NATURALISTS’ CLUB
December 9, 1968
Durine the past year, twelve meetings of Council were held at the National
Museum of Canada: January 12, February 9, March 1, April 17, May 2,
May 23, June 6, June 20, July 17 August 27, October 1 and November 27,
1968. ‘The Club’s business was conducted in the usual orderly manner.
Appointments for 1968 were made as follows:
Editor, THe Canapran Frecp-NATUuRALIST — T. Mosaquin
Business Manager, THe CanapiaAn Fiecp-NAturatist —W. J. Copy
Chairman, Publications Committee — J. M. GiLietr
Chairman, Excursions and Lectures Committee — E. W. GreENWwoopD
Chairman, Reserve Funds Committee —R. Frirx
Chairman, Membership Committee — I. Bropo
Chairman, Bird Census Committee — G. H. McGEeE
Chairman, Macoun Field Club Committee — I. Bropo
Chairman, F.O.N. Affairs Committee —
Chairman, Public Relations Committee —W. A. HoLianp
Chairman, Natural Areas Committee — FE. W. Grerenwoop
Chairman, Constitutional Committee — T. Moseurin
REPORT OF THE PUBLICATIONS COMMITTEE
Since the last report of Council four numbers of Tur Canapran Fievp-
NarvuraList have been published. These include Volume 81, Number 4,
October-December 1967, containing 72 pages; Volume 82, Number 1, January-
March 1968, containing 74 pages, Number 2, April-June, containing 84 pages;
and Number 3, July-September, containing 71 pages. The breakdown of items
by subject for the four numbers is as follows:
ARTICLES NOTES REVIEWS
180) Gao gees LN aru Dee earmark eet i 7 8
Pele pet olor, feria nets okie nae. 1 3 —
Ne thyy,olo a yg eeerie css a 1 2 3
MianrarmmeMoreny ye ee 4 3 3
Orme Olopiy. ae eet stor 4 20 iL
Miscellaneous ee ee een y) 2 5
In addition to the above summary there were 22 other items such as
Editorials, News and Comment and Special Notices.
The publication of Tr CanaprAn Fretp-NaTuratist was again supported
by a grant of $500 from the Conservation Committee of the Canadian Nationa!
Sportsmen’s Show. This assistance is gratefully acknowledged.
83
84 Tue Canapran Fietp-NaturAList Vol. 83
The Club’s popular journal Tram anp LanpscaPE which published articles
of a non-technical nature designed for local readership has completed its second
successful year of publication. A total of 168 pages were published in six
numbers.
Expenditures for THe CanapiaAn Fie_p-NaruraList and TRAIL AND
LanpscaAPE are recorded in the financial statement of the Club.
Report OF THE PuBLIC RELATIONS COMMITTEE
A group named the Centennial Committee headed by G. H. McGee
prepared a brochure on birds, botany and geology of the Ottawa area for the
information of visitors to the Capital.
The cost of printing 10,000 copies of the brochure was borne by the
Tourist and Convention Bureau of the City of Ottawa. The Director, Mr.
G. Geldart, stated excellent comments were received from as far as London,
England, New York and British Columbia. All copies were distributed. Next
year additional copies may be printed by the City, depending on the amount
of funds made available.
Various reports cn club activities were passed on to John Bird of the
Ottawa Journal and Wilfred Bell of the Ottawa Citizen for inclusion in their
news columns for which we are very grateful.
It is hoped that by December 31st, a car decal in colour for member
identification will have been received from the printers.
Report oF THE Brrp Census COMMITTEE
The Committee wishes to report that the forty-ninth consecutive Annual
Christmas Bird Count by the Ottawa Field Naturalists’ Club was held on Sunday,
December 23, 1967.
A total of 8,866 birds of 46 species was reported, compared to 9,404
individuals of 49 species in the 1966 count. However, the number of species
equals, and the number of individuals is somewhat higher than, the past 10-year
average.
One new species, the Myrtle Warbler, was added to our all time list which
now totals 96.
The details of the Census were reported in the Christmas Census edition
of the Audubon Field Notes and were included in a tabulation compiled for
the Federation of Ontario Naturalists by the Wellington-Waterloo Field
Naturalists’ Club covering reports from thirty-two participating clubs in
Ontario.
Report oF THE Macoun Fietp CLus CoMMITTEE
Membership. The number of members has remained fairly constant from
Jast spring until this fall, even though there is a large “turnover” between the
last official meeting in June and the first in September. At the moment, the
membership is:
Junior (Grades 46) 35° (+5 on waiting list)
Intermediate (Grades 7-8) 35 (+2 on waiting list)
Senior (Grades 9-13) 21 (none on waiting list)
1The maximum for each group is 35.
1969 Report oF CounciL 1968 85
Activities. We continued an active field trip program with spring trips
to the Dominion Observatory, Ramsey Lake in the Gatineau, the Harry Thomp-
sons’ cottage for animal tracking (on snow shoes), and a number of trips to
the Macoun Nature Study Area by the Seniors. (More about that below.)
This fall, we have had an “autumn nature” trip to the Macoun Nature
Study Area with the Seniors acting as guides, and guided tours through the
experimental and display sections of the Plant Research Institute Greenhouses.
We have had a number of excellent speakers for the Senior Meetings, and
also for the Intermediate and Junior Meetings.
Macoun Nature Study Area. ‘The Senior group began a study of an area
southwest of Bells Corners which they are calling the Macoun Nature Study
Area. Some members are more active than others in their projects, but adequate
_transportation seems to be the limiting factor with most members. We look
forward to more serious work this spring.
Library. More books have been added to the growing Club Library,
about 40 in the last year, so that we now have approximately 360 books. We
hope to continue this rate of growth in the near future since the library
continues to be one of our most important and well used facilities.
New Help. Yo ease the burden of clerical work which falls on the
shoulders of the chairman and Michael Shchepanek, the very hard-working
assistant chairman, the Information and Education Section of the National
Museum agreed to assign a secretary to handle routine matter of applications
and inquiries (Mrs. Carmel Dutremble: 992-0483). Mr. Stead’s secretary is
helping with the typing and stencil needs and Mr. Pat Wohler is again serving
us by securing films, looking after requisitions and generally acting as a liaison
between the Club and the Museum.
Scholarship Winner for the Red Bay Camp. Arnet Sheppard, a recently
“graduated” member of the Macoun Field Club was awarded a scholarship
by the O.F.N. Club to attend a two week session at the Federation of Ontario
Naturalists’ Camp at Red Bay in the Bruce Peninsula. He reported that he
learned a great deal and thought i it was an extremely valuable experience. This
experience is now being passed on to the younger members, since Arnet is
helping out with some of the meetings and field trips.
Finances. ‘The committee ran short of funds at the end of the summer
(due to unfortunate timing in the billing of our bus charters), and we had to
request an additional $50 operating funds. ‘This was approved by Council.
Report OF THE Excursions AND LECTURES COMMITTEE
The committee organized 40 field trips and lectures during 1968, and set
up the arrangements for the Annual Dinner.
The general program was quite successful, with all but a very few outings
and lectures being well-attended. Our efforts to go beyond simply showing
and identifying birds and plants, which comprised two. lectures, “Studying
86 THE CANADIAN FieLp-NATURALIST Vol. 83
Bird Migration with Radar” and “Canadian Study of Large Meteor Craters”
fell flat. Only a handful of our members and the public attended, although
both lectures turned out to be simple and most interesting.
The Annual Dinner was successful except financially. We took a beating
on reserved attendance because of lack of attendance. Since the club must pay
for all reservations, we have recommended that in future all reservations be paid
for by the persons making them whether they attend or not.
The membership of the committee in 1968 was:
Chairman: Mr. E. W. Greenwood
Members: Mr. F. M. Brigham
Mr. W. A. Holland
Miss V. Humphreys (consultant)
Dr. W. J. Illman
Mr. and Mrs. B. Lauzon
Mr. and Mrs. H. N. MacKenzie
Mr. G. H. McGee
Mr. L. C. Sherk
Miss M. E. Stuart
Report OF THE NAarurAL AREAS COMMITTEE
The Committee held no meetings in 1968, and in fact did not manage to
organize itself. Nonetheless, some specific actions for conservation were taken,
and the ground prepared for some longer-term activity.
The specific items were:
(1) New Public Campsite on the Corkstown Road. When this project
was announced, the exact location was determined and found out to
be precisely where Pink Ladyslipper (Cypripedium acaule) has its
largest colony close to Ottawa. Negotiations with NCC and the
City of Ottawa, and field trips by Mr. MacKenzie and Mr. Greenwood
in company with the landscape architects, resulted in a plan for the
layout of roads and parking areas which will minimize damage to
the orchids and to the other interesting plants there. It was agreed
that fencing or any other action which would suggest to the public
that something was protected would be not only useless but dangerous.
The presence of Poison Ivy (Rhus radicans) will be warned of by
signs, and since the orchids have finished flowering before many
campers arrive, deliberate damage by picking is unlikely.
(2) Orchid Colonies on the Ottawa River Parkways. ‘The NCC has been
notified of the exact locations of several colonies of the rare orchid
Habenaria flava which grow where tidying-up in the park areas along
the Ottawa River might destroy the plants. The NCC has taken
immediate action to locate the colonies and preserve them. If future
work endangers the plants, our Club will be notified so that they may
be transplanted.
1969 Report oF Councit 1968 87
More important than these particular actions has been the initiation of
long-term collaboration with the NCC for the future development of Gatineau
Park. An ad hoc committee discussed what might be Club policy towards
Gatineau Park and prepared a draft submisison. ‘This was refined and discussed
with the Council, and a final version was submitted to the NCC. It was well
received, and Mr. MacDonald of the NCC discussed the OFNC brief with
Mr. MacKenzie and Mr. Greenwood. (See page 78.)
There is no doubt that NCC and OFNC desires for the future of Gatineau
Park are very much the same. It is agreed that our Club and the NCC will
work closely together and keep one another informed, so that the Park may
develop as far as possible without preventable damage to its natural history
values.
REPORT OF THE RESERVE FUND CoMMITTEE
Two investment transactions were completed during the year.
1. Canada Savings Bonds, value $1,700.00, Series 22, were converted to
Canada Replacement Bonds Series 24, to take advantage of higher
interest rates.
2. As approved by Council, $5,000.00 from current account was invested
in Canada Replacement Bonds Series 24, June 1968. These bonds
remain in current account and are available in cash on demand.
ReEporT OF THE MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE
The Membership Comittee was relatively inactive this year. Programs
initiated last year, however, were carried on this year.
(a) Letters of acceptance were sent out to all new (non-institutional)
members.
(b) Introductory brochure — membership application forms were made
available to field trip leaders, the treasurer, the public relations
chairman, teachers of natural history, etc.
(c) Letters inviting Macoun Club parents to join were sent out and had
a fairily good response.
MeEMBERSHIP TOTALS
Active and Subscribers 973
Associate 108
Honorary 5
Life 9
1,095
WZ
STATEMENT OF FINANCIAL STANDING
THE OTTAWA FIELD-NATURALISTS’ CLUB NOVEMBER 30. 1968
ASSETS
Balance in Bank Nov. 30, 1968.
Bills receivable. . ie
RECEIPTS
Balance, Nov. 30, 1967........
Fees: Current. . $4 637.29
Arrears....... 80.00
Advance...... 746.15
Associate. .... 333.15
Separates & Illustrations.......
Back Numbers
(incl. Transactions)..........
Geologies: scx. Sei 2 eee
Donation,
C.N. Sportsmen’s Show......
Godfrey ‘‘Birds of Canada’’....
Macoun Club Collections.......
Trail & Landscape copies.......
Interest on Bonds.............
Miscellaneous.................
WES S Premilnmia paren aa aoe.
ASSETS
Can. Savings Bonds S22.......
$2,000 H.E.P.C. 3% bonds,
Manketavaluene enn ae
30 shares Bell Telephone,
market value...............
Bank Bal. Nov. 30, 1968.......
RECEIPTS
Bank Bal. Nov. 30, 1967.......
Bank Interest 95.5 sash oe uae
H.E.P.C. Bond interest........
Bell Telephone dividends.......
ASSETS
Can. Savings Bonds $22.......
$1,500 H.E.P.C. 3% bonds,
market Vallee tart Gon Mase ity ae
5 shares Bell Telephone,
ManketavalUchi see eee:
Bank Balance Nov. 30, 1968....
RECEIPTS
Bank Balance Nov. 30, 1967....
Banksinteres tase eee
H.E.P.C. Bond interest........
Bell Telephone dividends.......
CURRENT ACCOUNT
LIABILITIES
a, 3,615.16 (Cheques outstanding.......... $ 250.00
1.212283), 9 Balanced. ..c dete eee 4,577.99
oe 4,827.99 $ 4,827.99
EXPENDITURES
Can. Field Naturalist.......... 3,989.09
7,214.40 Separates & Illustrations....... 1,330.86
Kditor’s Honorarium.......... 200.00
Business Mgr’s. Honorarium.... 100.00
Book keeping System.......... 373.46
J Postage, Stationery & Supplies. . 572.45
5,796.59 Treasurer’s Clerical Assistance. . 71.50
1,601.78 Orchid Survey: ...: 4 eee 90.56
F.O.N. Camp: Arnett Sheppard. 155.00
1,084.26 Excursions & Lectures Comm.. . 114.10
98.25 Macoun Field Club............ 297.23
Trail & Landscape............ 1,014.83
Sere Bonds for Reserve Acct........ 5,045.67
25.00 _Miscellaneous................. 15177
80.50 Bank Exchange Charges....... 47.64
65.15 Bank Balance
262.50 Nov. 30, 1968..... $3,615.16
44.16 less o/s cheques. . . 250.00
146.73 ey SOS KS
$16,919.32 $16,919.32
RESERVE FUND
LIABILITIES
$ 6,500.00
Nil
1,920.00
1,432°50
188.63
$10,041.13
SS eS EXPENDITURES
58.56 Safety deposit box rental....... 7.50
6ooy Bank Balance Nov. 30, 1968... 188.63
75.00
$ 196.13 $ 196.13
PUBLICATIONS FUND
LIABILITIES
$ 200.00
Nil
1,440.00
238.75
121.29
$ 2,000.04
g 61.58 EXPENDITURES
79
45/00 Bank Balance Nov. 30, 1968.... $§ 121.29
12.50 EVAL ESL
$121.29 $ 121.29
Audited and found correct (Signed)
J. M. Gillett and D. E. McAllister, Auditors (Signed) L. G. Howden, Treasurer
fs ihe CANADIAN
FIELD-NATURALIS
Published by THE OTTAWA FIELD-NATURALISTS’ CLUB, ‘Or nee
ne
as
uest Editorial (
The DDE Affair AUG & «126
: HARVARD
as UNIVER
Beriheance of Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Residues to Breeding Pelicans a ek ele
Cormorants DanieL W. ANDERSON, JOSEPH J. Hickey,
Rosert W. RisEBRouGH, DoNALD F. Hueues and Roweee E. CurisTENSEN
$f
is
Vegetation of a Prairie Near Winnipeg, Manitoba
M. H. Levin and G. M. KeLrener
Observations on Wolves at a Rendevous Site in Algonquin Park
i Joun B. Tueserce and Douetas H. Prmiorr
The Status of the Pine Marten in Newfoundland ArtTHuR |. BeRGERUD
Fishermen’s Reports of Freshwater and Saltwater Migrations of Nova Scotia Eels
(Anguilla rostrata) J. Cart Mepcor
‘Nesting of the Long-tailed Jaeger in Southwest Yukon Territory — An Extension
of the known Breeding Grounds Larry W. Price
Laboratory Studies of Interactions between the White-footed Mouse and
Redback Vole Lowe. L. Gerz
Some Trichoptera of the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in Central New
Hampshire KennetH McConnocuir and Gene FE. Likens
Notes
Postmetamorphic Basking Aggregations of the Boreal Toad, Bufo boreas boreas
Jerrrey Howarp Brack and JupirH Norene Biack
A Reconsideration of the Relationship of Barbula johanseni (Musci) Howarp Crum
Notes on Birds of the Iron Bridge, Ontario, Region W. Eart GopFrrey
Vertical Distribution of White Perch, Roccus americanus Modified by Light
| A. N. Suert and G. Power
Striped Mullet, Mugil cephalus, Records from Halifax County, Nova Scotia, in 1966 and 1968
Joun GILHEN
Puccinellia ambigua Th. S¢r., New to the Hudson Bay Region A. E. Porsitp
Red-tailed Hawks Nesting on Cliffs in Ontario Rosert F. ANDRLE
Clethraceae: A Plant Family New to Canada P. M. Tacuereau
Supernumerary Teeth in a Brown Lemming from Barrow, Alaska Davw L. CHESEMORE
Studies of the Bryon Bog in Southwestern Ontario, XXXVII. Leeches (Hirudinea) Collected
in the Bog Wi.iaMm W. Jupp
(continued on outside back cover)
Can. Field Nat. | Vol. 83 | No.2 | p. 89-188 Ottawa, April-June, 1969
.
THE OTTAWA FIELD-NATURALISTS’ CLUB
FouNDED IN 1879
— Patrons —
‘THEIR ExCELLENCIES THE GOVERNOR GENERAL AND Mrs. ROLAND Mucins .
The objectives of the Club are to promote the appreciation, preservation and cor =a
servation of Canada’s natural heritage; to encourage investigation and publish the results —
of research in all fields of natural history and to diffuse information on these fields as
widely as possible; to support and co-operate with organizations engaged in presetving’
maintaining or restoring quality environments for living things. =
The club is a corporate member of the Federation of Ontario Naturalists.
MEMBERS OF COUNCIL
President: Huet N. MacKewzir, 228 Royal Avenue, Ottawa, Ontario.
First Vice-President: ‘THroporE Mosquin.
Second Vice-President: W. A. HOLianp. 4
Secretary: ALEXANDER W. RATHWELL, Canadian Wildlife Service, 400 Laurier Aven
West, Ottawa 4, Ontario.
Treasurer: F. M. Brigham, Box 3264, Postal Station C, Ottawa 3, Ontario.
Additional Members of Council: W. K. W. Batpwin, E. L. Bousrietp, I. M. Bropo,
Brunton, W. J. Copy, BarBArA CoLEMAN, Joyce M. Dunston, R. Y. Epwarps, J. M.
Gittett, E. W. Greenwoon, Anne Hanes, D. D. Hocartu, Luetta Hownen, W. I
ItLMAN, Lots Kineston, D. LAFonTAINE, F. Lestanc, G. H. McGee, Patricia NARRAW.
A. E. Porsitp, L. C. SHerk, J. H. Soper, Mary STUART, H. E. Swrines, SHEILA ‘THOMso
Auditors: J. M See and L. G. Hownen. } .
THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
Editor: Taropore Mosquin, Plant Research Institute, Central Experimental Farm, Ou
Review Editor: DonaLp A. SmitH, Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottaw:
Associate Editors:
Joun W. Arnotp (Entomology), Entomology Research Tagen Central —
mental Farm, Ottawa.
Watter A. Bett (Paleontology), 112 Abercrombie Road, New Glasgow, No
Scotia.
E. L. Bousrretp (General Invertebrate Zoology), National Museum of Natur
Sciences, Ottawa. i
J. SHERMAN BLEAKNEY ( Herpetology), Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Sensis <t
Irwin M. Bropo (Botany), National Museum of Natural Sciences, Ottawa.
ArtHur H. Crarke, Jr., (Malacology), National Museum of Natural Scienc
Ottawa.
W. Eart Goprrey (Ornithology), National Museum of Natural Sciences, Oe
J. AntHony Keitu (Pesticides), Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa.
Donatp E. McA.utstrer (Ichthyology), National Museum of Natural Sciences, ¥
Ottawa. |
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The Canadian Field-Naturalist
VOLUME 83 APRIL-JUNE, 1969 NuMBER 2
THE DDE AFFAIR
Wiruin the past few years, a number of research leads have fallen into place
to form one particular picture of biocide side effects that is unusually complete
and adds new legitimacy to the long-voiced concern over the widespread
distribution of low levels of residues of DDT.
This picture involves the relationship between chlorinated hydrocarbons
and declining populations of raptorial birds with abnormally thin eggshells, and
some of its aspects were dealt with in the editorial of the October-December
issue. Unlike some proposed side-effects of pesticides, the evidence for this
relationship is extremely convincing. The fact that a decline in eggshell weight
of British Peregrines and Sparrowhawks coincided both with the widespread
introduction of DDT and with a decline in their reproductive success could
possibly have been called mere coincidence until the same association was shown
to hold for declining populations of Peregrines, Bald Eagles and Ospreys in North
America but, most significantly, not to hold for stationary populations of Red-
tailed Hawks, Golden Eagles, and Great Horned Owls. There is also now
excellent evidence for a mechanism, DDT, its most widespread metabolite DDE,
and PCB (the polychlorinated biphenyls), have all now been shown to induce
enzymes in birds that degrade steroids which in turn control eggshell formation.
And, finally, an inverse correlation has been established between DDE residues
in individual eggs and the thickness of their shells.
This group of results marks a turning point in research into pesticide side
effects and their resource management implications. For five years this research
has been demonstrating the fantastically thorough dispersion of residues of
organochlorine insecticides throughout the biosphere, but has been unable to
show significant population effects. And to make these effects seem even less
likely, the most abundant and widely dispersed of these residues is DDE, a
metabolite of demonstrably lower acute toxicity than its relatively non-toxic
parent, DDT. But now it is clear that DDE itself is a thoroughly capable steroid
_degrader, and there is little doubt that by this means it is a cause of the declines
of those populations of birds which have substantial DDE residues and
abnormally thin eggshells.
This gives a most unfortunate new significance to all those recent studies
documenting the universal contamination of the biosphere with DDE. For here
is a consistent component of the diet and bodies of many entire populations
of higher vertebrates that increases enzyme activity in the liver and can critically
interfere with endocrine functions. Work presently underway in Canada is
documenting the now-expected patterns of universal DDE distribution at very
uneven concentrations, with population declines in some populations with high
Mailing date of this number: 7th August, 1969
89
90 Tue CanapIAN FIeLp-NaTURALIST Vol. 83
residue levels. This distribution ranges from resident arctic animals and Atlantic
seabirds quite out of contact with areas of DDT use, to animals in New Bruns-
wick forests, urban areas, and open farm country, that all share some history of
exposure.
The central significance for biological research is that vertebrate popula-
tions, particularly of carnivores and even in the most remote regions, can no
longer be considered without proof to have normal endocrine functions. Future
studies, particularly of reproductive success and behaviour, must, to be taken
seriously, include assays for DDE and similarly active materials. For some
species populations with relatively high DDE concentrations, such as man
bird- and fish-eating birds, it will no longer be possible to find sufficiently
uncontaminated control populations with which to determine either normal
patterns or the degree of abnormality induced by DDE.
The central significance for environmental pollution research is that it has
hopelessly failed. For these decisive studies showing critical DDE effects in
Europe and North America come after 20 years of large-scale DDT use and
small-scale side-effect research, and at the point where, in these countries, DDT
use is declining anyway and ironically for different reasons, principally the
development of resistant strains of insects. If environmental pollution research
cannot be supported to a much greater and more coherent extent in the future,
and so achieve results in time spans that have any relevance to the problems,
then this research is merely a sop to the conscience of the scientific community,
a pretense with no real function in resource management.
The central significance of this DDE affair for overall resource policy in
Canada is that there exists no effective mechanism for preventing such resource
degradations by toxic chemicals now or in the future. In the case of pesticides,
despite new legislation, there is, absurdly, no requirement that individual pesti-
cide uses be justified ecologically, that their total benefits outweigh their en-
vironmental costs. And pesticides, at least, are formally scrutinized before
being sold in the market, but what of potential industrial contaminants, such as»
the polychlorinated biphenyls?
The last editorial on this subject challenged the scientific community to
follow up the fascinating research leads now open in biocide side-effect studies.
This one challenges resource policy makers to look at the DDE affair, recognize
the futility of the present scale of side-effect research, and either greatly expand
this research and formally integrate its results at the appropriate time into
resource planning, or admit that short term goals are their only interest and
that rational planning is beyond them.
J. A. Kerrs,
Canadian Wildlife Service,
Ottawa.
April 11, 1969.
SIGNIFICANCE OF CHLORINATED HYDROCARBON
RESIDUES TO BREEDING PELICANS
AND CORMORANTS
DantEL W. ANDERSON and JosEPH J. HICKEY
Department of Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin,
Madison, Wisconsin 53706
Rogsert W. RISEBROUGH
Department of Nutritional Sciences, Institute of Marine Resources,
University of California, Berkeley, California 94720
DonaLp F. HuGuHes and Rosertr E. CHRISTENSEN
WARE Institute Inc., Madison, Wisconsin 53705
INTRODUCTION
THis paper reports levels of chlorinated hydrocarbons present in eggs and
spring food of Double-crested Cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus) and White
Pelicans (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos) and the effects the residues might have
upon the reproductive physiology of these species. On the basis of research
concerning fat-kinetics in certain migratory birds (Hanson 1962, Weise 1963,
Brenner 1967, and others), there is good reason to believe that residues in the
eggs provide a reliable index to fat-stored contamination in the female, espe-
cially in birds with small clutches. The precise relationships have yet to be
studied in detail (Lockie 1967, Stickel 1968).
Srupy AREAS AND METHODS
Study Areas
Sampling was conducted in the summer of 1965 on 19 lakes and impound-
ments in 10 watersheds of the prairie states and provinces (Figure 1). Eleven
cormorant and five pelican colonies were involved. Pesticides used locally now
or in the recent past in most of our study areas included most commonly DDT,
Aldrin, Dieldrin, Sevin, Toxaphene, and mercury seed-dressings. “loxaphene
used for fish control in the Dakotas was a potential contaminant (Henegar
1966, Needham 1966), although it would likely be distributed in a nonrandom
pattern. Toxaphene has been shown to be an important local contaminant in
fish-eating birds (Rudd 1964:259; and J. O. Keith, personal communication).
Dieldrin use at a rate of 2 oz/acre in North Dakota and southern Manitoba and
Saskatchewan has in the past been widespread during heavy grasshopper out-
breaks. In the other Canadian areas we sampled, known insecticide use ap-
peared to be very slight or negligible. Chlorinated hydrocarbons of pesticide
or industrial origin have been detected as fallout in rainwater in England
(Wheatley and Hardman 1965, Tarrant and Tatton 1968), in rainwater and
dust in Ohio (Cohen and Pinkerton 1966), in airborne particles over the
Atlantic Ocean (Risebrough et al. 1968) and in resident wildlife of Antarctica
(Tatton and Ruzicka 1967). Local minor usage or nonuse therefore does not
91
92 Tue CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
necessarily mean that residues will not be detected. The industrial pollutants
include the polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB’s) which, like the insecticides, are
now widely distributed in wildlife (Jensen 1966, Widmark 1967, Holmes et al.
1967, Risebrough et al. 1968b, Koeman et al. 1969).
Sampling and Pooling
Fish were sampled by angling, gill-netting, and by picking up regurgitated
meals, To minimize the effects of digestion, only whole regurgitated fish were
taken. We pooled 329 of these fish for chemical analysis by segregating fish
of approximately the same age and weights from each area. Fish up to 5 Ib
were occasionally seen as pelican meals, although both pelicans and cormorants
left materials at their colonies that were composed of minnows and fish up to
1 or 2 lb. We observed no other cold-blooded vertebrates or invertebrates in
the regurgitated boluses at the colonies at the time of sampling. Where
differences in fish size were encountered, we used equal volumes of ground
material to give each fish equal representation in the pool. The fish were
completely wrapped in aluminum foil and frozen (—23°C) until preparation
for chemical analysis (1 to 3 months following collection).
A total of 89 cormorant and 54 pelican eggs were collected, one from
each nest sample, in a pattern distributed as evenly as possible across the long
axis of each colony. “These were combined into 59 pools for chemical analysis.
The field-collected eggs were wrapped individually in aluminum foil and kept
frozen until analysis as above with fish. No attempt was made to collect eggs
that we found on the ground outside of nests. We attempted to pool eggs
of roughly equivalent incubation stages for each colony and species. Disparity
of breeding schedule in pelicans (Shaller 1964, Diem and Condon 1967) may
bias samples to a subcolony rather than truly represent the entire breeding
population for a given location. This problem needs further research. Differ-
ent breeding units in a given colony, i.e., groups with separate, distinct
phenologies, may represent different wintering groups (Ward 1924, Diem and
Condon 1967), or groups with similar physiological conditioning for breeding
(Shaller 1964). They may also represent renesting or younger birds, especially
if found on the periphery of their colony site.
Laboratory Analyses
ORIGINAL ANALYTICAL PROCEDURE. WARF Institute, Inc. (formerly The
Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation, referred to following as WARF)
conducted the laboratory analyses. The original analytical procedure followed
methods outlined by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (USFDA 1965).
All samples were ground and then homogenized in a blender. Subsamples
were then mixed with sodium sulphate. The latter were extracted for eight or
more hours in a Soxhlet apparatus with ether: petroleum ether (70:170). After
the samples had been extracted in the Soxhlet apparatus, they were made up
to 50-ml volumes and divided into two portions. One portion was cleaned-up
by passing it through a florisil column (USFDA 1965). The solvent comprised
150 to 200 ml of ethyl] ether: petroleum ether in the first elution. The propor-
tion of ethyl ether was 3 to 5%, depending on the activation of the florisil.
1969 ANDERSON ET AL.: CHLORINATED HypROCARBONS IN Birps 93
Figure 1. Map showing locations of pelican and cormorant breeding colonies used for
pesticide studies in 1965. Locations are numbered as follows: 1. Lake DuBay, Wis.;
2. Agassiz National Wildlife Refuge (NWR), Minn.; 3. Chase Lake NWR, N.D.;
4. Lake Garrison, N.D.; 5. Upper Souris NWR, N.D.; 6. Salyer (formerly Lower
Souris) NWR, N.D.; 7. Dog Lake, Man.; 8. Lake Winnipegosis, Man.; 9. Suggi Lake,
Sask.; 10. Moose Lake, Man.; 11. Pelican Lake, Man. Nesting pelicans were sampled
at Chase Lake, Dog Lake, Suggi Lake, Moose Lake, and Pelican Lake.
94 Tue CaNnaDIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
The second elution was comprised of 220 to 250 ml of the same solvents but
with 15% ethyl ether. ‘The extracts were analyzed with gas chromatographs
(GC) (Barber Coleman, model GC 5000, and Jarrell-Ash, model 28-700)
equipped with electron-capture detectors. The glass columns were %-inch
by 4-ft, packed with 5% DC-200 (12,500) on Cromport XXX. The column
temperatures were 210°C. The flow rate of nitrogen was 75 cc/minute.
The second portions of the subsamples were used for fat determinations.
These portions were placed in preweighed beakers and dried first over a steam
bath and then transferred to a 40°C oven for 2 to 4 hours. The beakers were
then reweighed, weight of fat doubled, and the per cent fat calculated on the
basis of the original “fresh” weight of the extracted sample.
Solvent and glassware blanks showed no interfering peaks which would
interfere with the determination of DDT and PCB compounds. Recoveries,
using this procedure, from egg and tissue samples spiked with DDE, TDE,
DDT, or Dieldrin, with levels greater than 0.05 ppm, have been tested by
WARF chemists and found to be 85 to 100 per cent (F. B. Coon, personal
communication).
SAPONIFICATION, REANALYSIS, AND REINTERPRETATION OF ORIGINAL CHROMATO-
GRAMS. ‘The recent discovery of polychlorinated biphenyls in British, Swedish,
and North American wildlife samples and their possible interference with the
determination of other compounds prompted us to reevaluate our original
findings. Five extracts of eggs were randomly selected from the original series,
rerun again on the GC in 1969, then treated with alcoholic KOH (USFDA
1968; Risebrough et al., in press, 1969) and analyzed for the third time on
the GC.
The polychlorinated biphenyls are mixtures of compounds which differ in
the number and the position of the chlorine atoms on the biphenyl molecule.
The commercial preparations are graded according to their average chlorine
content. A chromatogram on a DC-200 column of Aroclor 1254, the average
chlorine content of which is 54%, is shown in Figure 2a. The PCB peaks
labelled 8, 9, and 10 have retention times on DC-200 columns, relative to
p,p’-DDE, ot 1.25, 1.48, and 1.75. They were usually the most conspicuous
of the PCB peaks in our chromatograms obtained with electron capture de-
tectors. These rhree compounds also constitute a large fraction of the total
polychlorinated bipheny] in the Aroclor 1254 mixture.
Peak 8 with retention time 1.25 may thus interfere with the determination
of p,p’- TIDE, which has a retention time of 1.27 on DC-200 columns. Similarly,
peak 10 may interfere with the determination of p,p’-DDT, which has a
retention time of 1.68. On this column, however, peak 9 with retention time
1.48 does not interfere with the determination of any of the DDT group.
Although PCB peak at 1.25 is selectively degraded by ultraviolet light (Rise-
brough et al., in press, 1969), most of our chromatograms of wildlife extracts
indicated that peaks 8, 9, and 10 had approximately the same height. From
1969 ANDERSON ET AL.: CHLORINATED HypROcARBONS IN Birps 95
STANDARDS: i STANDARD:
: H
4 LINDANE AROCLOR 1254
2 HEPTACHLOR
3 ALDRIN 1969
4H. EPOXIDE
5 p,p-DDE
6 P,P“TDE 5
7 p,p-DDT
1969
'
CORMORANT WHITE PELICAN H PELICAN
t
D:
ORIGINAL ORIGINAL 1969
6+8
3965 1965
3 10
SAUGER i H WALLEYE
L. WILLIAMS, N.D. 1 L.GARRISON, N.D, SUGGI L., SASK,
NOTE: ALL FISH
CHROMATOGRAMS
ARE ORIGINALS
FROM 1965
D-C CORMORANT !
1969
9
8 || 10
CORMORANT
SAPONIFIED
1969
H PELICAN
: 4
SAPONIFIED
1969
11 p,p-DDMU
11
9 10
8
NO. PIKE
af
HF MOOSE L., MAN.
S
10
FicureE 2. Examples of chromatograms of egg and fish extracts under different treatments,
showing their different basic characteristics and responses. These chromatograms do
not represent specially selected examples. The 1969 GC runs, the “original” chromato-
grams from 1965, and the fish chromatograms are each traced on their own scales and
represent different recorders on the DC-200 column. A. Standards, the original, and
saponified extracts of cormorant eggs. The standards represent an injection of 0.05
micrograms per ml each of p, p’-TDE and p, p’-DDT and 0.4 micrograms per ml of
Aroclor 1254. The conversion factor of 10 (see text) was estimated from these
differences as well as differences in peak responses. The cormorant extracts (1969)
show little change in DDT-TDE interfering peaks upon saponification, suggesting
little or no presence of DDT or TDE. The p, p’-DDE is off-scale on these cormorant
chromatograms and is indicated by a dashed line, as are following example. B. Original
chromatogram of cormorant egg extracts from Dog Lake, Manitoba. C. Original
chromatogram of pelican egg extracts from Moose Lake, Manitoba. D. Original and
saponified extracts of white pelican eggs from Chase Lake, North Dakota, showing
conversion p, p’-TDE, revealing smaller peaks underneath. E. Original chromatograms
of fish extracts (locations are given in diagram), suggesting prevalence of DDE, TDE,
and DDT, in that order, superimposed on a backbround of PCB’s. F. Same as E,
but from our northernmost sampling sites, showing a general PCB pattern with possibly
very small amounts of p, p’-DDE present.
96 Tue CANADIAN FieLp-NATURALIST Vol. 83
visual examination of the chromatograms of the cormorant egg extracts in
Figures 2a and 20 it was therefore possible to conclude that there was relatively
little or no p,p’-TDE or p,p’-DDT in the extract. In the chromatograms of the
unsaponified extracts of the pelican egg in Figures 2c and 2d, however, the
peak after DDE was much higher than the PCB peaks which followed. It
would consist, therefore, mainly of p,p’-TDE. Since peak 10 was approxi-
mately as high as peak 9, it likely consisted mainly of PCB and not p,p’-DDT.
Saponification of extracts converts p,p’-DDT to p,p’-DDE and p,p’-TDE
to p,p’-DDMU but does not affect the PCB compounds (Risebrough et al., in
press, 1969). The profile of the cormorant chromatogram was therefore un-
changed with saponification, but the profile of the pelican chromatograms
changed after saponification because of the conversion of p,p’-TDE to
~p,p’-DDMU.
In order to obtain correlation coefficients between PCB content and egg-
shell thickness, it was necessary to estimate the relative PCB concentrations.
On a strictly empirical basis, it was found that Aroclor 1254 could be quanti-
fied by considering peak 10 as p,p’-DDT and multiplying that value by 10.
Since peak 10 had originally, in most cases, been quantified as p,p’-DDT, and
since many of the original extracts contained little or no p,p’-DDT, it was
possible to obtain a crude estimate of PCB by visual examination of the
chromatograms.
Five extracts originally prepared in 1965 were saponified in 1969 to remove
interfering p,p’-DDT and p,p’-TDE. For these samples, PCB was quantified
as Aroclor 1254 by relating peaks 9 and 10 to the corresponding peaks of
chromatograms of standard Aroclor 1254. The results obtained by the two
methods are presented in Table 1.
One or more PCB compounds may emerge at approximately the same time
as p,p’-DDE, but it is evident from the chromatograms of Figures 2a, b, c, and
d that the DDE peak was always much higher than the PCB peaks and that
there was no significant PCB interference in the determination of DDE. This
seems generally true for extracts of North American wildlife (Risebrough et
al. 1968b) but chromatograms of extracts of a European Kestrel (Falco tin-
nunculus) (Holmes et al. 1967) and a Common Eider (Somateria mollissima)
(IXoeman et al. 1969) suggest that PCB may be more abundant than DDE as an
environmental pollutant in some areas of Europe. Moreover, some of the PCB
compounds with lower molecular weights, including those interfering with
p,p’-DDE on QF-1 columns may be selectively metabolized (Risebrough and
Anderson, in preparation).
The eggs were measured as described by Anderson and Hickey (1969).
Because they showed geographical variations in egg size, shell weight, and
shell thickness, it became necessary to compare eggs from the same geo-
graphical areas.
The residues are presented as ppm wet weight (“fresh” weight) unless
otherwise stated. Chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides in general are pre-
ANDERSON ET AL.: CHLORINATED HyprocarBons IN Birps
1969
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98 Tue CaNnapDIAN FIeLp-NaTURALIST Vol. 83
TABLE 2. — Chemical names of compounds discussed in the text
p, p’-DDE 1, 1-dichloro-2, 2-bis (p-chlorophenyl) ethylene
p, p’-DDT 1, 1, 1-trichloro-2, 2-bis (p-chlorophenyl) ethane
p, p’-TDE (DDD) 1, 1-dichloro-2, 2-bis (p-chlorophenyl) ethane
p, p’-DDMU 1-chloro-2, 2-bis (p-chlorophenyl) ethylene
Aldrin Not less than 95% of 1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 10-hexachloro-1, 4, 4a, 5, 8, 8a-
hexahydro-1, 4-endo-exo 5, 8-dimethanophthalene
Sevin 1-naphthyl methylcarbamate
Dieldrin Not less than 85% of 1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 10-hexachloro-6, 7-epoxy-1, 4, 4a,
5, 6, 7, 8, 8a-octahydro-1, 4-endo-exo-5, 8-dimethano-naphthalene
Endrin 1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 10-hexachloro-6, 7-epoxy-1, 4, 4a, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8a-octahydro-
1, 4,-endo-endo-5, 8-dimethanonaphthalene
Heptachlor epoxide 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8-heptachloro-2, 3-epoxy-3a, 4, 7, 7a-tetrahydro-4,
7-methanoindan
Toxaphene chlorinated camphene containing 67% to 69% chlorine
PCB chlorinated biphenyl] :
Lindane 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6-hexachlorocyclohexane, 99% or more gamma isomer
sented as “CH” in further discussion. p,p’-DDT plus its various metabolites
are referred to collectively as “DDT-family” residues. [he technical names
of the compounds discussed in this text are listed in Table 2.
Statistical Analyses
Statistical analyses used in this study followed Steel and Torrie (1960).
Most data were analyzed with an IBM 1620 computer.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Residue Levels
No fish pools (Table 3) from our sample approached levels greater than
0.1 ppm (parts per million) of p,p’-DDE (< 0.08 ppm from a Lake Garrison,
N.D., sauger pool). No Dieldrin values for fish exceeded 0.015 ppm. Hepta-
chlor epoxide (HE), Endrin, Aldrin, and Toxaphene were not detected in any
of the fish pools. PCB residues were detected in all fish samples, but were
usually present in trace amounts (Table 3 and Figures 2e, f). Since laboratory
solvent and glassware blanks showed no evidence of PCB contamination, it
would appear that the presence of PCB in fish from remote areas suggests
widespread aerial fallout. Although there is substantial evidence for aerial
fallout of both DDT and PCB in pelagic areas (Risebrough et al. 1968) we
believe that further sampling is necessary to show that this PCB was derived
from aerial fallout.
The mean residues for cormorant and pelican eggs were expectedly higher
than those for fish (Table 3). Dieldrin, p,p’-DDE, and PCB’s were universal
in all the egg pools, whereas HE (0.3 to 0.5 ppm associated with higher levels
of all residues) was detected in only three cormorant egg pools, one from Dog
Lake, Manitoba and two from Pelican Lake, Manitoba. The highest cormorant
egg residues were 45.0 ppm of p,p’-DDE and 28 ppm of estimated PCB's.
These were from Lake DuBay, Wisconsin. The highest DDE residues from
pelican eggs were from Pelican Lake, Manitoba and ran 4.8 ppm. PCB residues
in this same sample were present in trace amounts. Our highest estimate for
PCB’s in pelicans was 1.2 ppm from two egg pools, one from Moose Lake,
99
ANDERSON ET AL.: CHLORINATED HypROCARBONS IN Birps
1969
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100 THe CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
Manitoba and the other from Suggi Lake, Saskatchewan. The lowest cor-
morant egg residues of p,p’-DDE (1.4 ppm) were from Upper Souris, North
Dakota and the lowest for pelicans (0.6 to 0.7 ppm) were from Dog Lake,
Manitoba and Chase Lake, North Dakota. The lowest estimated PCB residues
for pelicans were trace amounts found in egg pools from Chase Lake, North
Dakota, and Dog and Pelican lakes, Manitoba. Plots of frequency distributions
of the total residues suggested normal distributions, except for some slight
skewness in the cormorants due to the single pool from Lake DuBay, Wisconsin.
The residues seem low enough to cause no alarm from an acute-toxicity
point of view. As a source of food for fish-eating birds, the fish contained
levels which were far below those required to induce poisoning in White
Pelicans (J. O. Keith 1964) and in Bald Eagles, Haliaeetus leucocephalus
(Stickel et al. 1966).
There were no significant residue differences between “live” and dead eggs
of either species (t-test), as well as between their moisture percentages. Sur-
viving Herring Gull (Larus argentatus) eggs have been shown to contain much
higher levels (J. A. Keith 1966); and levels of chlorinated hydrocarbons that
average above those we found in all pelicans and most cormorants were not
believed to prevent the hatching of Bald Eagle eggs (Stickel et al. 1966). Ex-
tremely high levels in the yolks of Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) eggs ap-
parently did not affect their hatchabilities in incubators (Azevedo et al. 1965).
In domestic chickens, Weihe (1967) showed that dietary levels as high as
200 ppm DDT only slightly reduced chick survival. Maximum yolk residues
resulting from this diet were 300 ppm DDT and 80 ppm DDE.
Interspecific Differences
We estimated the 1965 dates of earliest egg-laying for each colony and for
each species by backdating from the oldest young observed at the colony.
Long-term arrival dates were estimated from the following sources: Bent
(1922), Lewis (1929), Mendall (1936), and personal communications with
refuge personnel. Apparently, pelicans arrive early on the breeding grounds
(mean for five colonies = 19 April) and thus spend more time there before
egg-laying (20 to 39 days) than cormorants (3 to 20 days), (95% C.L.).
Cormorants arrive later (mean for seven general geographic areas = 3 May).
Since pelicans probably winter farther south, they must have a more rapid
migration than cormorants, or start north sooner. R. B. Klopman (personal
communication) has observed pelicans arriving during cold and snowy weather
at Dog Lake, and J. C. Bartonek (personal communication) has seen them on
the ice at Pelican Lake. They are reported to arrive at Lake Yellowstone,
Wyoming, very often while the lake is still frozen over (Diem and Condon
1967). Pelicans from more southern and western regions may not be under
such “stresses,” although they have been observed subject to early-season cold
weather upon arrival at Nevada and California breeding grounds (Jj. O. Keith,
personal communication). Cormorants, on the other hand, are known to
migrate leisurely and usually do not arrive until the ice is out (Lewis 1929),
although they generally winter farther north than pelicans. Interior cor-
morants most likely winter on the Gulf Coast and southern Mississippi River
1969 ANDERSON ET AL.: CHLORINATED HypROCARBONS IN Birps 101
(Lewis 1929:5-14) and Rio Grande valleys (Palmer 1962:367). White Pelicans
from the interior most likely winter on the Gulf Coast and more commonly
farther south into Mexico (Palmer 1962:331 and Ann Gammell, personal
communication).
The studies of Wesley et al. (1965) and Stadelman et al. (1965) in
demonstrating the diminution of fat and egg residues with a “clean” diet, how-
ever, suggest that the length of time spent in relatively uncontaminated areas
might be a possible bias concerning the dates on which the cormorant and
pelican eggs were laid in relation to the time they had already spent on the
breeding grounds. There were no apparent differences in the percentages of
Eee@iama@pelicani— 4.42) 10.32 72, cormorant — 4.26 == (03477-9577, (CL).
There were no intraspecific relationships among the following factors and
residues of DDE, PCB, or Dieldrin: (1) number of days between mean colony
egg-laying and laying of the samples we took, and (2) the number of days the
birds were on the breeding grounds before laying the sample we took.
Lamb et al. (1967) suggested that egg-laying is a large factor in the ability
of a female pheasant to excrete Dieldrin, and Hunt et al. (in press, 1969) sug-
gested a similar phenomenon with DDT. Decreasing amounts of Dieldrin
were present in the eggs after cessation of Dieldrin in the diet (it was still
present in the eggs after 14 days). Other studies with various insecticides
have shown that residues are deposited in the eggs for long periods of time
following termination of experimental treatments (Ware and Naber 1961—
Lindane, Azevedo et al. 1965—-DDT, and Stadelman et al. 1965—Dieldrin).
DDT-residue accumulation in the eggs and fat of domestic poultry and pheas-
ants has been shown to be related to dietary levels (Draper et al. 1952; Azevedo
et al., 1965; Hunt et al., in press, 1969). Ratio differences of DDE over
estimated PCB show they are greater in pelicans (2.9:1) than in cormorants
(1.3:1) suggesting that, if local food was of prime importance, ratios in eggs
would be similar. There was no evidence of different contamination levels
of food between pelicans and cormorants at the time of sampling as suggested
by (1) lack of marked residue-level differences between all species of fish
sampled (Table 3), and (2) the observations at many of the feeding areas of
both species feeding on, and even competing for, the same abundant food
sources. Possible differences in residue-storage physiology between pelicans
and cormorants on similar diets remain unknown. Resident species, represent-
ing different food-web levels, in the Gulf of California have been shown
(Risebrough et al. 19684) to have a characteristic DDE/PCB ratio. Migratory
species, which breed in the area, but winter elsewhere, had different DDE/PCB
ratios. Although egg residue levels are ultimately related to dietary levels,
they probably represent stored residues rather than direct, local dietary influence
in the two migratory species we have studied here. Since there were no
relationships between time of egg-collecting or laying and the amounts of
residues present, and since it has already been suggested that egg residues are
often acquired prior to arrival on the breeding grounds (Sheldon et al. 1963,
Henriksson et al. 1966, Anderson 1967, and others) we conclude that the major
102 THe CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
TABLE 4. — Simple correlations between various egg-shell measurements of cormorants and
pelicans and their various detected residues in ppm wet weight in individual pools
Correlation Coefficients:
Species
Grouping No. | Measurement!
p, p-DDE | Est. PCB | p, p’-TDE | p, p’-DDT
Cormorant:
First nesters 29 WT — .560** — .463* — .058 . 203
TH — .797*** | — .430* .079 — .095
aul — .523** — .347+ —.015 P22 1
T2 =, — .393* .002 .201
Renests 6 WT — .587 — .855* ND ND
sen — .441 — .395 ND ND
Til — .706+ — .956** ND ND
TED — .648 — .892* ND ND
All nests 35 WT — .562*** | —.478** — .086 .103
TH = A 93"** || -— 4 agre .036 — .142
alu DATE ol = SOO — .045 .139
T2 — .544*** | — .424* — .029 .128
Pelican:
First nests 16 WT — .432+ . 046 — .468+ 2239
TH — .445+ — .037 — .335 .329
let — .550* — .129 — .527* — .058
ple? —.521* .089 — .548* STS)
All nests 20 WT — .360 094 — .392+ . 250
TH — .436+ .059 — .320 oiled
T1 — .420* .010 — .417+ .022
aly — .496* .118 —.515* 2133
+P = 0.07
Ae << O05
le << OO
piel 0, 00
1WT = shell weight, including membranes.
TH = shell thickness, including membranes.
T1 = shell weight/egg volume.
T2 = shell weight/(length X breadth), Ratcliffe (1967).
ND = not detected at the levels of sensitivity used.
interspecific differences between the egg residues in pelicans and cormorants
are probably due to dissimilar nonbreeding-area exposures.
Significance of Residues
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN RESIDUES AND EGGSHELL DEPOSITION. Initially, we
computed correlation coefficients, relating four eggshell measurements to the
residue contents of each egg on both a total-micrograms-present basis and a
ppm-wet-weight basis (Table 4). The correlations must be considered in
relation to the amounts of residues present and their frequencies in our samples
(Table 3). The residues should also be considered as an index to the con-
centrations of CH’s in the female, not as the direct cause of shell changes.
Both bases of comparison (micrograms vs. ppm) were in close agreement, but
1969 ANDERSON ET AL.: CHLORINATED HypDROCARBONS IN Birps 103
TABLE 5. — Thickness of pelican and cormorant eggs from 1965 compared to pre-1940 museum
specimens from the same general areas!
Mean (mm) 95% %
Species Period No. Thickness (CnIEs Change
Pelican? pre-1940 58 0.686 0.673-0.699 ——
Pelican 1965 19 0.655 0.643-0.667 —4.5%
Cormorant? pre-1940 100 0.434 0.429-0.439 =
Cormorant 1965 35 0.398 0.386-0.410 —8.3%
1These eggs were measured and obtained as described in Hickey and Anderson (1968); samples
for the pre-1940 eggs were randomly selected from a larger pool of data.
2These means represent eggs taken in Alta., Sask., Man., N.D., Mont., and N. W.T. by egg-
collectors.
3These means represent eggs taken as above in Alta., Sask., Man., Ont., N.D., Minn., and
Mich.
we chose here to present the ppm-based data because most pesticide data in
the literature have in the past been presented on this basis. Had we used
addled eggs in our samples (thus likely desiccated), the calculations could only
have been validly performed on the microgram basis.
The correlation coefficients suggest that in cormorants, p,p’-DDE and
PCB’s were closely related to changes in. our indices of eggshell weight and
thickness, as well as the actual measurements (Table 4). The residues of
p,p’-DDT and p,p’-T DE were not present in sufficient quantity and frequency
in the eggs of interior cormorants to be of prime importance in eggshell
changes. The correlation between DDE and PCB in cormorants only was
highly significant (7 = 0.5422 P <0.001), suggesting similar contamination
patterns for these two compounds in that species. Both would naturally,
then, correlate to shell changes, even if only one were having an effect. The
stronger relationship of p,p’-DDE to eggshell changes in first-nest cormorants
and the correlation of p,p’-DDE but not PCB’s to eggshell changes in pelicans
attests to the importance of that compound. The potential importance of
PCB’s is suggested, however, by their increased relationship to eggshell changes
in renesting cormorants (Table 4). Further research is needed, however, be-
fore PCB’s can be definitely tied to shell changes.
Regressions of shell thickness on both DDE and PCB’s on a colony-basis
(the ecological unit related to population changes) (Figure 3) show the im-
portance of DDE and the possible importance of PCB’s in predicting the
magnitudes of shell change each population might be subject to (P < 0.001 for
DDE, P < 0.01 for PCB’s). Renests (Figure 3) show a tendency for eggshell
“recovery” in cormorants in relations to both DDE and PCB’s. The slopes
are nearly equal, however (Figure 3a). Ludwig and Tomoff (1966) reported
a higher nesting success in renesting Herring Gulls nesting at Grand Traverse
Bay, Lake Michigan. That population had been subject to severe egg losses
due to breakage and associated phenomenon in first nests.
104
SHELL THICKNESS IN mm
Tue CaNnabDIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
A
r =—.9868**
RENEST=0
FIRST NEST=@
i Ss
@ “ss,
7 &
Y =0.4183 - 0.0025 X
10 20 30
1969 ANDERSON ET AL.: CHLORINATED HypROCARBONS IN BirpDs 105
In pelicans, where all residues were present in much lower amounts than
in cormorants (Table 3), p,p’-DDE and p,p’-TDE showed significant or nearly
significant relationships with nearly all the eggshell parameters tested (Table 4).
Unfortunately, only four first-nest colonies were represented, not enough
points for a valid, predictive regression on the colony basis as above with
cormorants. A, regression of shell thickness and residues of DDE + TDE on
an individual-pool basis (Figure 4) is nonetheless significant (P < 0.05).
It appears that in both species, measurable declines in shell weight and
thickness can be related to the lowest residues of p,p’-DDE and PCB. Within
the limits of our residue-detection ability, there does not appear to be a mini-
mum effective level concerning changes in eggshell. Low levels of residues in
the diet (Table 3) and the tendency for shell thickness recovery in renests
suggests that breeding-season depletion of fat reserves is less important than
the direct dietary effects on eggshell deposition in the two species we studied.
It follows that residue-thickness relationships need not always relate, but may
depend on the particular residue-exposure, ecological situation to which a
given breeding bird (or group of breeding birds) is exposed prior to and during
egg and shell formation.
Since the percentages of fat in cormorant eggs were essentially the same
in first nests (4.24%) as in renests (4.37%) their residue differences might be
explained by postulating some dilution in the fat of previously stored residues.
Residues on a fat basis suggested this (262 ppm for first nests and 166 ppm for
renests. ‘Ihe residues in the eggs of renests were lower, but not significantly
so (Table 3), probably due to limited degrees of freedom in the small sample of
renests. The differences in amount of residues in the fat of the eggs, then,
could account for the lower mean residues in renests, but suggest that previously
stored residues are still important in egg deposition.
To further test for changes in shell thickness, we independently compared
our 1965 eggs with museum specimens from the same geographical areas, but
from the pre-DDT period. The comparisons (Table 5) showed small, but
significant (P < 0.05) changes in shell thicknesses of both pelicans and cor-
morants.
POPULATION status. The populations of White Pelicans we studied seem
. stationary (Anderson 1967), except where they are locally subject to disturb-
ance and molestation. Lies and Behle (1966) concluded that the White Pelican
Figure 3. Relationships between DDE residues (A), estimated PCB residues (B), and
shell thickness in Double-crested Cormorants, plotted on a colony-basis. Individual
points are numbered in accordance with Figure 1. Open circles represent renest
colonies (the original colony of the season was destroyed or disturbed away from the
first-nest site, therefore, phenologically behind other colonies from the same general
latitude and longitude) and closed circles represent first-nest colonies. “MU” in the
upper figure represents the museum mean thickness (Table 5), bounded by 95%
Confidence Limits. Figure 3A, P<0.001; Figure 3B, P<0.01. The line-of-fit for
renests in A. was fitted by eye but clearly resembled the calculated regression based
on individual pools. A line-of-fit for renests in B., though significant on an individual-
pool basis, was not obvious on a colony basis.
106 THe Canapran Fretp-NaTURALIST Vol. 83
has declined since the early 1900's due to its sensitivity to disturbances d
breeding. The major reason for the long-term decline of the White Pelican
seems to be related to increasing infringement upon its breeding habitat by
advancing “civilization.” In the United States, the refuge system has probably
been responsible for the maintenance of essentially stable numbers. In Canada,
the species is still threatened by disturbances of the nesting colonies by fisher-
men (Carson 1966), and by tourists and other factors (Houston 1962). One
of the largest breeding colonies in Canada (at Primrose Lake, Saskatchewan)
may be threatened by a bombing range.
The Lake DuBay. Wisconsin. breeding g population of cormorants showing
a 25°, decline in shell thickness (Figure 3) has recently decreased to nearly
zero (Anderson and Hamerstrom 1967 ). Since the report of Anderson and
Hamerstrom (1967), these birds (about 15 adults in the area in 1967) occupied
only one nest in 1967, which failed (C. R. Sindelar Jr., personal commmmnica-
tion). J.J.H. and D.W-.A. were unable to find any occupied nests on 31 May
1968 at Lake DuBay, although about 10 adults frequented the traditional
nesting site, where a reasonably stationary population of Great Blue Herons
(Ardea herodias) ) persists. A large flock of cormorants was observed in the
ales area on 23 June 1968 (Frances Hamerstrom, personal communication).
Forty-two dark adults and eight light-coloured yearlings were seen. This
flocking behavior is indeed unusual, during a period when the birds should have
been exhibiting reproductive, not migratory, behavior. Traditionally, young
of nearly banding age would be found at the colony by late June. Late nesting
has characterized the cormorant rookery at Lake DuBay in recent years
(Frances Hamerstrom, personal communication). In 1968, one cormorant nest
was found by F. H. from which three abandoned eggs were taken. These eggs
averaged 16 ppm p.p’-DDE, 46 ppm estimated PCB, and 1.5 ppm each of
Dieldrin and HE. The mean thickness for these three eggs was 0.37 mm,
predictable in Figure 3a.
Agassiz cormorants were known to be stationary in 1965, compared to
the early 1940's (J. W. Ellis, personal communication). Upper Souris, Salyer,
and Chase Lake cormorants (see Figure 1 for these locations) seemed stationary
or not seriously declining in 1965 ( ‘Anderson 1967). although the Salyer colony
seemed to be holding i its numbers at a much lower level compared to the mid-
1940’s (M. C. Hammond, personal communication). Deterioration of nesting
habitat and predation might have been important factors in the decline of the
Salyer colony. Lake Garrison cormorants had increased up to the 1960's
(G. Enyeart, personal communication) due to an opening of new habitat
(flooded trees) and creation of abundant food supplies (Anderson 1967), al-
though somewhat affected by shell changes in 1965 (Figure 3). The long-
term status of the Canadian cormorant colonies we studied remains generally
unknown.
In general, it appears that the status of a given colony can be related to the
residues and shell thickness of the eggs from that colony, especially in areas
such as Lake DuBay, where changes “have been rather marked. Other eco-
logical factors undoubtedly complicate the situations and probably modify
them.
1969 ANDERSON ET 4L.: CatorinaTep Hypeocarsons my Birns 107
LL THICKNESS (mim)
SHE
1 2 3 =
PPM DDE+TDE
Ol
oO)
Ficure 4. Relationship between DDE + TDE and eggshell thickness im White Pelicans.
as described m Figure 3, except that these points represent mdividual pools rather
than colonies. P<0.05. 7
DECLINING POPULATIONS, REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS, AND SUBLETHAL EFFECTS OF
CHLORINATED HYDROCARBONS. Cramp et al. (1964) hypothesized that declines
of raptors in Great Britain were due to “sub-lethal effects in reducing ferulity.
Their ranges of residue levels in four raptors were from 1.8 to 12.1 1 ppm.
Lockie and Ratcliffe (1964) reported in great detail on Golden Eagle (Aquila
chrysaéios) egg breakage in Scotland. “Egg residues on the order of 0.25
to 10.29 ppm were detected. Eynies with histories of 1.44 to 6.90 ppm ees e
definite egg breakage. whereas eyries with residues of 1.1 or less bred
successfully or resulted in occasionally addled, but not broken eggs. A certain
percentage of addled eggs was considered normal. as usually these eagles
lav two eggs but raise only one young. These authors concluded that toxic
chemicals were to blame as affecting behavior of adults. Lockie (1967
later stressing Dieldrin residues alone stated: . the critical isa: at which
behavior became Upset as evidenced by egg-breaking. was no higher than 1 ppm
(part per million) of Dieldrin in the egg contents. However, this is a very
rough figure since other chemicals, for example DDE (a metabolite of
DDT). BHC. and Heptachlor were present im varying amounis =
se urster and Wi ingate (1968) associated residues of 3.61 to 11.04 ppm in the
eos of Bermuda Petrels (Prerodroma cahow) with their declining reproductive
soo oe Ratclifie (19672) reported on egg breakage in Bridsh Pere grines
(Falco peregrinus) and on residues associated with unsuccessful eynies (17.4
mean ppm CH residues) and eyries with improved success since 1963
ppm). The general Peregrine population in Britain has not shown recovery.
however, and Ratcliffe concludes that persistent organo-chlorine PELs have
been the causal factor in the decline and failure of recovery of these birds. In
a pioneering study, Ratcliffe (1967) showed that three ‘declining species of
British raptors (Peregrines, Golden Eagles, and European Sparrow Hawks [Ac-
108 Tue CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
cipiter nisus|) had been laying thin-shelled eggs. This phenomenon was re-
lated to an environmental change which had occurred in 1947. Hickey and
Anderson (1968) subsequently showed that some North American populations
of Peregrine Falcons began to lay thin-shelled eggs in 1947, prior to their
extirpation over large areas of the United States and southern Canada (sum-
marized in Hickey 1969). Declining populations of Bald Eagles, Ospreys
(Pandion haliaetus), and Peregrines displayed this shell-thinning phenomenon,
but stationary populations of Ospreys, Red-tailed Hawks (Buteo jamaicensis),
Great Horned Owls (Bubo virginianus), and Golden Eagles showed no evidence
of shell-thinning (Hickey and Anderson 1968).
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF CHLORINATED HYDROCARBONS RELATING TO EGG-
SHELL FORMATION. The data presented in this paper suggest that DDE has a
greater effect on shell thickness than PCB. The limited work so far carried
out concerning the induction of steroid hydroxylating enzymes in birds by
PCB and Dieldrin (Peakall 1967, Risebrough et al. 1968) indicate, however,
that both PCB and Dieldrin are more potent enzyme inducers than p,p’-DDE
or p,p’-DDT. Elevated levels of steroid metabolism resulting from the induc-
tion of nonspecific oxidase enzymes in the microsomal fraction could affect
calcium metabolism in several ways (Ratcliffe 1967b; Peakall 1967; Risebrough
et al. 1968b, Wurster, in press, 1969). Estrogen and androgen are essential
for the deposition of medullary bone, which is a major source of eggshell
calcium (reviewed by Simkiss 1967:160-185). Vitamin D is essential for cal-
cium absorption from the small intestine (reviewed by Simkiss 1967:62-71).
The active form of Vitamin D is a derivative of Vitamin D: and is hydroxylated
at the 25 position (Blunt et al. 1968). Nonspecific hydroxylation of the
Vitamin D; molecule at different positions by the induced enzymes might there-
fore create an artificial Vitamin D deficiency.
Neither estrogen nor Vitamin D degradation, however, can adequately
explain the absence of a no-effect range of concentrations of DDE upon shell
thickness and the observed linear relationships between DDE concentration
and shell thickness. This relationship, moreover, is linear to zero concentration
of DDE and the shell thickness at zero concentration is equivalent to, or slightly
less, than the shell thickness of eggs collected before 1940 (Figures 3 and 4).
In addition to the data here presented for White Pelicans and Double-crested
Cormorants, a linear relationship has also been found between DDE concen-
trations in the eggs and the thickness of the shells from Herring Gulls (P <
0.001) (Hickey and Anderson 1968). Feedback mechanisms would be ex-
pected to maintain essential estrogen levels at lower DDE concentrations.
Similarly, gross abnormalities of Vitamin D metabolism would be expected only
when induced steroid hydroxylase activities are significantly higher than nor-
mal, especially in fish-eating birds which receive adequate Vitamin D in their
diets.
The enzyme carbonic anhydase is found in the cells of the shell gland
where it catalyses the formation of the carbonate ions which combine with
calcium to form the calcium carbonate of the eggshell (Common 1941,
1969 ANDERSON ET AL.: CHLORINATED HypDROCARBONS IN Birps 109
Gutowska and Mitchell 1945, Bernstein et al. 1968). Inhibition of this enzyme
by sulfanilamide and other unsubstituted sulfonamides such as acetazolamide
results in the production of thin-shelled eggs (Gutowska and Mitchell 1945,
Benesch et al. 1945). Carbonic anhydrase inhibition in the shell gland by
acetazolamide has been correlated with decreases in eggshell weight (Bernstein
et al. 1968). Microgram amounts of DDT also inhibit carbonic anhydrase
prepared from bovine erythrocytes (Keller 1952, 1963). Preparations of the
mammalian enzyme are also inhibited im vitro by p,p’-DDE at physiological
concentrations (R. W. Risebrough, in preparation). Inhibition im vivo of
carbonic anhydrase in birds by DDE could therefore account for the linear
relationships plotted in Figures 3 and 4. It would also explain how the effect
of DDE upon shell changes could be greater than the effects of other chlori-
nated hydrocarbons which are more potent enzyme inducers.
CoNCLUDING COMMENTS
The present study was largely accomplished before the nature of PCB
interference in the determination of the DDT- -compounds was known. The
initial conclusions, however, were not greatly changed when corrections were
made for this eerreT ence: DDE appears to be the environmental pollutant
most responsible for the thin eggshell phenomenon. The effects upon avian
reproduction of the polychlorinated biphenyls and other environmental pol-
lutants, of elevated levels of steroid metabolism, of possible abnormal vitamin
metabolism caused by environmental pollutants, and of the possible inhibition
of carbonic anhydrase and other enzyme systems remain to be determined.
We hope this will be accomplished before the fish-eating birds have disappeared.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
_ This study was supported by funds from the Bureau of Sport Fisheries
and Wildlife, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Patuxent Wildlife Research
Center, Laurel, Maryland. Support for one of the investigators (R. W. R.)
was provided by the National Science Foundation, GB-6362.
We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Frances Hamerstrom, Wis-
consin Department of Natural Resources, F. H. Davis, C. A. Hughlett, and
the many field personnel of the US. Fish and Wildlife Service; G. H.
- Townsend, Ducks Unlimited; the Otto brothers of Ashern, Manitoba. (Ghia Pe
Sindelar, Ic has provided us information on the Lake DuBay cormorant and
hereon rookery since 1967. We also wish to thank E. F. Bossenmaier, K. H.
Doan, the many other personnel of the Manitoba Department of Mines and
Natural Resources, and the Manitoba Government Air Service for air trans-
portation and field assistance. The Department of Dairy Science, University
of Wisconsin, provided computer facilities at no cost. Ed N. Harrison, Wilson
C. Hanna, and many others provided assistance in measuring museum eggs.
Finally, we wish to thank R. A. McCabe, W. G. Reeder, and L. B. Keith,
University of Wisconsin, J. A. Keith, Canadian Wildlife Service; J. O. Keith,
Lucille F. Stickel, E. H. Dustman, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; and F. B.
Coon, WARF Institute for advice during the study or preparation of the
manuscript.
110
Tue CaNnapiAN FIe_p-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
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VEGETATION OF A PRAIRIE NEAR
WINNIPEG, MANITOBA
M. H. Levin’ anp G. M. KELEHER’®
INTRODUCTION
Tue Red River prairie of Manitoba, after less than 100 years of settlement, has
largely disappeared. Recent actions by the International Biological Program,
Manitoba Committee for the Conservation of Terrestrial Ecosystems, have
emphasized that true prairie vegetation in the southern part of the Province has
all but vanished. The efforts of this Committee, during the summer of 1968,
were directed toward recognizing the remaining fragments of this once
extensive grassland and initiation of appropriate measures to insure their
preservation.
The complete loss of true prairie as a natural vegetation type in Manitoba
would be incalculable for as Aldo Leopold (1941) stated, “each biotic province
needs its own wilderness for comparative studies of used and unused land.”
Wilderness, then, became for Leopold the most perfect norm to a science of
Jand health. The second norm which Leopold described was one in which
the land physiology has remained [stable] despite centuries of human use.
It is apparent that true prairie has not been defended for one hundred
years and its lack of resistance to changing land use precludes its being a
wilderness as described by Leopold. For the most part, only fragments of
prairie are left, or have redeveloped, on disturbed soils. As physiognomic
types, they bring us close to both wilderness and centuries of land use.
In our presentation we describe one small area of grassland in the true
prairie region of Manitoba and give suggestions for its management with the
hope that the loss of a last remnant of a once widespread landscape type will
be recognized to be as tragic as extinction of an animal or plant species.
Location, History, AND PHysICAL SETTING
The Beaudry Prairie (Fig. 1) lies on the south side of Route 241, west of
Headingley. It is composed of two adjoining rights-of-way owned by
Canadian National Railways and Manitoba Highways. These rights-of-way
extend one mile from surveyed road registered plan number 3801 (Parish lots
7 and 8, St. Francis Xavier) west to the junction of provincial routes 241 and
424 (Parish Lots 22 and 23). The combined width of the two rights-of-way
is approximately 110 feet. The name ‘Beaudry’ has been derived from the
nearest railway siding (Fig. 1).
The railroad was established here in 1908 and put into use immediately,
as part of the Grand Trunk, from Winnipeg to Portage la Prairie. Regular
use was discontinued in 1965, and at present the track is used five times per
year from Winnipeg to Cabot. Management techniques on the railroad
Center for Ecological Research, Department of Landscape Architecture and Regional Planning,
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104.
“Department of Botany, The University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
113,
114
Figure 1.
THe CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
—~
re oe
BEAU DRY
PRAIRIE
\
Vol. 83
=
Scale 1:50.000
N
ASESG.
mile
Winnipeg
Map illustrating location of Beaudry Prairie in relation to major landmarks.
The topographic base map is Winnipeg, Manitoba, 62 H/14 West Half, First Edition,
1954, available from the Department of Mines and Technical Surveys, Ottawa.
TABLE 1. — Species Composition in the Andropogon gerardi Type Prairie
Mean
Species Foliage %
Cover | Frequency
Andropogon gerardi 33 100
Galium sepentrionale 35 100
Thalictrum venulsoum 6 100
Spartina pectinata 6 86
Astragalus goniatus 6 43
Anemone canadensis 5 71
Symphoricar pos
occidentalis 4 86
Amelanchier alnifolia 4 71
Rosa acicularis 3 100
Helianthus laetiflorus 3 qi
Artemisia ludoviciana 3 71
Helianthus maximiliant 3 57
Solidago missouriensis 1 57
Panicum leibergir 1 57
Lathyrus palustris 1 43
Vicia americana 1 43
Glycyrrhiza lepidota 1 29
Species
Steironema ciliatum
Fragaria virginiana
Zizia aptera
Lathyrus ochroleucus
Salix petiolaris
Comandra richardsiana
Geranium bicknellit
Heliopsis helianthoides
var. scrabra
Cirsium flodmanit
Heuchera richardson
Anemone cylindrica
Sisyrinchium montanum
Crepis tectorum
Sonchus uliginosus
Spiraea alba
Populus balsamifera X
P. deltoides
Mean
Foliage
Cover
455
/o
Frequenc y
1969 LEVIN AND KELEHER: VEGETATION OF A PRAIRIE 115
right-of-way have included blanket spraying of Atlacide’, a soil sterilant,
during the last two weeks of June to a distance of 8 feet from the center of
the track. Annual burning of this right-of-way was customary in the autumn
prior to 1965. Management of the highway right-of-way has been by a
single mowing each midsummer. Fires set by the railway undoubtedly have
spread to the roadside. During dry spring seasons it is probable that wild-fires,
near the end of March, have been frequent.
The soil of the Beaudry Prairie is a lacustrine fine clay sediment of the
Red River Association. Although it apparently has been disturbed by con-
struction activities in the past, this soil exhibits characteristics of a variant of
the St. Norbert clay. (Ehrlich et al. 1963). This is a woodland soil type
TABLE 2. — Species Composition in the
Stipa spartea — Andropogon gerardi
Type Prairie
Mean
Species Foliage %
Cover | Frequency
Stipa spartea 50 100
Andropogon gerardi 19 50
Galium septentrionale 19 100
Astragalus goniatus 11 100
Rosa acicularis 5 100
Artemisia ludoviciana 5 100
Amelanchier alnifolia 5 67
Helianthus laetiflorus 4 67
Symphoricar pos
occidentalis 3 50
Spartina pectinata D 83
Thalictrum venulosum 2 67
Panicum lerbergu D 50
Lithospermum. canescens 1 50
Monarda fistulosa 1 34
Lathyrus ochroleucus 1 17
Glycyrrhiza lepidota <1 50
Solidago rigida <1 34
Comandra richardsiana <1 34
Geranium bicknellit <1 34
Anemone cylindrica <1 17
Asclepias ovalzfolia <1 17
that. characteristically supports bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa). In the
Beaudry Prairie seedlings of bur oak are now present.
Metuops
The site was first visited on August 14, 1967, and subsequent plant collec-
tions were made on June 27, July 4, July 24 and August 1, 1968. Voucher
specimens have been deposited in the Herbarium of the Canada Department
of Agriculture, Ottawa, Ontario. Nomenclature follows Scoggan (1957)
except Phragmites australis (Clayton, 1968).
1Atlacide’, 58% Sodium Chlorate; Chipman Chemical Company, P.O. Box 2009, Murchison Drive,
New Brunswick, N.J.
116 THe CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
Ficure 2. Big bluestem (Andropogon gerardi) cover type found on moist parts of the
site. Wolfberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis) is the principal species along the
embankment at the top of the land form. August 15, 1968.
The cover of two of the most representative prairie vegetation types was
sampled using 0.5 x 2 m quadrats on July 24, 1968. In each type 7 quadrats
appeared, by inspection, to give an adequate representation of the vegetation.
We have used the designation “foliage cover” to indicate projection of above
ground parts.
FLORA AND VEGETATION
The flora of the Beaudry Prairie (Table 3) was found to be composed
of 108 species of flowering plants. One moss was also recorded. Of these,
only 17 (15%) are species not native to the region. Although not all species
were found in both sampled stands (Tables 1 and 2) we have included a
complete floristic list (Table 3) for comparisons in the future.
The big bluestem type (Table 1, Fig. 2) was the most extensive of the
two types. This was found on more mesic sites (Weaver, 1954) in the area.
In the Beaudry Prairie Andropogon gerardi, the aspect dominant was mixed
with a small amount of cordgrass (Spartina pectinata). A carpet of northern
bedstraw (Galium septentrionale), with occasional plants of meadow-rue
(Thalictrum venulosumt) was found beneath the foliage of these grasses. A
few individuals of milk-vetch (Astragalus goniatus) also were present in this
mat. Iwo species of sunflower (Helianthus laetiflorus and H. maximiliani)
and the conspicuous wormwood (Artemisia ludoviciana) comprised the major
forb cover. Wolfberry (Symzphoricarpos occidentalis) janeberry (Amelanchier
alnifolia), and wild rose (Rosa acicularis) were the most frequent woody
plants. Most of these shrubs had a stunted appearance.
1969 LEVIN AND KELEHER: VEGETATION OF A PRAIRIE 117
Ficure 3. Porcupine grass (Stipa spartea) — big bluestem (Andropogon gerardi) cover type
found on driest parts of the site. Stipa is shown by the light colored fruiting culms,
while Andropogon is represented by the darker culms at the left and upper centre.
The shrub in the lower center is juneberry (Amelanchier alnifolia). August 1, 1968.
The porcupine grass—big bluestem type (Table 2, Fig. 3) was found
on slightly more elevated and drier sites in the prairie. Stzpa spartea dominated
this cover type and contributed approximately half the total foliage cover.
Slight differences in drainage contributed to a more xeric environment with a
decrease in cordgrass (Spartina pectinata), a presence of puccoon (Litho-
spermum canescens), and a slight increase in panic grass (Panicum leibergit).
Shrubs were again present at uncommon levels and exhibited poor vigor.
Twenty-one species, in total, appeared in our sample of this type compared
with 33 species in the big bluestem cover type.
MANAGEMENT
Virtual abandonment of the railway in 1965, with elimination of fire as
a control to prevent snow from drifting, has allowed these prairie types to
become invaded by woody species. Further increases in Symphoricarpos
occidentalis and Quercus macrocarpa along with non- prairie components can
be expected unless fire or mowing is employed as a tool in management.
Pelton (1953) suggested that annual or very frequent fires are probably
detrimental to Symphoricarpos. Kucera, Ehrenreich and Brown (1963)
concluded the fires set in the spring, when fuels are dry and temperatures are
warm, would kill invading trees in Missouri prairie. It was suspected that if
the trees had begun physiological activity at this time, greater overall damage
would result. Kucera and Koelling (1964) noted, however, that annual
118 Tue CaNnapDIAN FrieLtp-NATURALIST Vol. 83
burning would favor grasses to the exclusion of other prairie components, and
that biennial burning would reduce densities of forbs. Since the main objec-
tive of management on the Beaudry Prairie is to maintain a rich species com-
position of both grasses and forbs, we suggest that burning should be initiated
in the spring. Ehrenreich and Aikman (1963) have shown that occasional
spring burning of native prairie in Iowa would not harm the vegetation and
may increase the seed produced by native grasses over those of introduced
_ grasses. Snow management objectives could be accomplished by mowing the
vegetation at the end of the growing season after the plants have shed seeds,
and when the ground is frozen. Subsequent burning, possibly on a three year
cycle, should be delayed in order to allow an assessment of change in floristic
composition and dominance patterns. The more aggressive trees and shrubs,
in this period, could be eliminated with selectively applied herbicides.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to thank officials of Canadian National Railways (Mr. L. H. B.
Gooding) and Manitoba Highways (Mr. S. Goodbrandson) for their coopera-
tion in preserving the prairie as an experimental area.
The site was first visited in company with Dr. R. W. Nero. Mr. C. B.
Gill provided us with a partial list of the species on the site and Dr. C. D.
Bird identified the moss species. Drs. Frank E. Egler, Roger Q. Landers,
Jack McCormick and Robert P. McIntosh offered valuable criticism on the
manuscript.
This work was supported by a President’s Summer Research Fellowship
to the senior author in the Department of Botany at the University of Manitoba.
This support and that of the National Research Council of Canada is gratefully
acknowledged.
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Morris map sheet areas. Manitoba soil sur-
vey. Canada Dept. of Agriculture, Pro-
vincial Dept. of Agriculture and Soils
Dept., The University of Manitoba. Soils
Report No. 5. + 111p.
Kucera, C. L., J. R. ExsrenreicH and C.
Brown. 1963. Some effects of fire on
tree species in Missouri prairie. lowa State
central Missouri prairie. Am. Midland
Naturalist 72:142-147.
Leopotp, A. 1941. Wilderness as a land
laboratory. The Living Wilderness 6:3.
PeLton, JoHN. 1953. Studies on the life
history of Symphoricarpos occidentalis
Hook. in Minnesota. Ecol. Monographs
23:17-39.
Scocean, H. J. 1957. Flora of Manitoba.
Bull. no. 140. National Museum of Canada.
Dept of Northern Affairs and National
Resources, Ottawa, Ontario. + 619 p.
Weaver, J. E. 1954. North American
prairie. Johnsen Publishing Company,
Lincoln, Nebraska. + 348 p.
1969
LEVIN AND KELEHER: VEGETATION OF A PRAIRIE
TABLE 3. — Flora of the Beaudry Prairie
Species and Authority
Bryaceae Musciae
Bryum stenotrichum C. Mill.
Dicotyledonae
Ranunculaceae
Anemone canadensis L.
Anemone cylindrica Gray
Ranunculus abortivus L.
Thalictrum venulosum Trel.
Saxifragaceae
~ Heuchera richardsonit R. Br.
Rosaceae
Amelanchier alnifolia Nutt.
Crataegus succulenta Link
Fragaria virginiana Duchesne
Potentilla arguta Pursh
Potentilla norvegica L.
Prunus virginiana L.
Rosa acicularis Lindl.
Spiraea alba Du Roi
Leguminosae
Amorpha nana Nutt.
Astragalus canadensis L.
Astragalus flexuosus Doug}.
Astragalus goniatus Nutt.
Glycyrrhiza lepidota (Nutt.) Pursh
Lathyrus ochroleucus Hook.
Lathyrus palustris L.
Lathyrus venosus Muhl. var.
intonsus Butt. &. St. John
* Medicago sativa L.
* Melilotus alba Dest.
* Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam.
Petalostemum purpureum
(Vent.) Rydb.
*Trifolium pratense L.
Vicia americana Muhl.
Fagaceae
Quercus macrocarpa Michx.
Aceraceae
Acer negundo L.
Anacardiaceae
Rhus radicans L. var. rydbergi
(Small) Rehd.
Geraniaceae
Geranium bicknelli Britt.
Umbelliferae
Sanicula marilandica L.
Zizia aptera (Gray) Fern.
Zizia aurea (L.) W. D. J. Koch
- Tall Cinquefoil
119
Common Name
Anemone
Thimbleweed
Kidneyleaf-Buttercup
Meadow-Rue
Alumroot
Juneberry
Hawthorn
Strawberry
Cinquefoil
Choke-cherry
Rose
Meadow-Sweet
Fragrant False Indigo
Milk-Vetch
Milk-Vetch
Milk-Vetch
Wild Licorice
Pale Vetchling
Vetchling
Vetchling
Alfalfa
White Melilot
Yellow Melilot
Prairie Clover
Red Clover
Vetch
Bur Oak
Box-Elder
Poison Ivy
Cranesbill
Sanicle
Golden Alexanders
Abundance!
In vegetation list
In vegetation list
vr
In vegetation list
In vegetation list
In vegetation list
abs
In vegetation list
vr
r
vr
In vegetation list
In vegetation list
vr
)
abs
In vegetation list
In vegetation list
In vegetation list
In vegetation list
fo)
abs
vr
r
O
abs
In vegetation list
abs
vr
In vegetation list
vr
In vegetation list
ie
120 Tue CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
TABLE 3. (Continued)
Vol. 83
Species and Authority
Santalaceae
Comandra richardsiana Fern.
Caryophyllaceae
* Silene cseret Baumg.
Polygonaceae
*Rumex crispus L.
Cruciferae
*Brassica kaber (DC.) L.C. Wheeler
Descurainia pinnata (Walt.) Britt.
var. brachycarpa (Richards. )
Fern.
Lepidium densiflorum Schrad.
Salicaceae
Populus balsamifera L. X P.
deltoides Marsh
Populus tremuloides Michx.
Salix amygdaloides Anderss.
Salix bebbiana Sarg.
Salix intertor Rowlee
Salix lutea Nutt.
Salix petiolaris Sm.
Primulaceae
Stetronema ciliatum (L.) Raf.
Gentianaceae
Gentiana andrewsit Griseb.
Asclepiadaceae
Asclepias ovalifolia Dene.
Convolvulaceae
Convolvulus sepium L.
Boraginaceae
Lithospermum canescens (Michx.)
Lehm.
Labiatae
Mentha arvensis L. var. villosa
(Benth.) Stewart
Monarda fistulosa L.
Stachys palustris L. var. pilosa
(Nutt.) Fern.
Campanulaceae
Campanula rotundifolia L.
Rubiaceae
Galium septentrionale R. &. S.
Caprifoliaceae
Symphoricarpos occidentalis Hook.
Common Name
Bastard-Toadflax
Catchfly
Yellow Dock
Charlock
Tansy-Mustard
Peppergrass
Poplar hybrid
Aspen
Peach-leaved Willow
Willow
Sandbar- Willow
Yellow Willow
Willow
Fringed Loosestrife
Closed Gentian
Milkweed
Hedge-Bindweed
Puccoon
Mint
Wild Bergamot
Woundwort
Harebell
Northern Bedstraw
Wolfberry
Abundance!
In vegetation list
abs
abs
abs
abs
abs
In vegetation list
r
r
r
r
r
In vegetation list
In vegetation list
In vegetation list
abs
In vegetation list
abs a
In vegetation list
abs
In vegetation list
In vegetation list
1969 LeEvIN AND KELEHER: VEGETATION OF A PRAIRIE
Compositae
Ambrosia trifida L.
Aster laevis L.
2A
TABLE 3. (Continued)
Species and Authority Common Name Abundance!
Achillea lanulosa Nutt. Yarrow r
Agoseris glauca (Nutt.) Greene oO
Great Ragweed abs
*Artemisia absinthium L. Wormwood abs
Artemisia ludoviciana Nutt. Wormwood In vegetation list
Aster fo)
Aster pansus (Blake) Cronq. Aster Co)
*Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. Canada Thistle abs
*Cirsium arvense f. albiflorum
abs
(Rand & Redf.) Hoffm.
Cirsium flodmaniu (Rydb.) Arthur
*Crepis tectorum L.
Grindelia squarrosa (Pursh) Dunal
Helianthus laetiflorus Pers.
Helianthus maximiliani Schrad.
Heliopsis heltanthoides (L.) Sweet
var. scabra (Dunal) Fern.
Hieracium umbellatum L.
Lactuca pulchella (Pursh) DC.
Luatris ligulistylis (Nels. )
K. Schum.
Prenanthes racemosa Michx.
Rudbeckia serotina Nutt.
Senecio pauperculus Michx.
Solidago canadensis L.
Solidago missourtensis Nutt.
Solidago rigida L.
*Sonchus uliginosus Bieb.
*Taraxacum officinale Weber
Monocotyledonae
Liliaceae
Allium stellatum Fraser
Smilacina stellata (L.) Desf.
Iridaceae
Sisyrinchium montanum Greene
Orchidaceae
Cypripedium calceolus L.
var. parviflorum (Salisb.) Fern.
Juncaceae
Juncus balticus Willd.
- var. littoralis Engelm.
Gramineae
*A gropyron cristatum (L.) Gaertn.
Agropyron trachycaulum (Link)
Malte
Andropogon gerard Vitman
*Bromus inermis Leyss.
Festuca rubra L.
Hierochloé odorata (L.) Beauv.
Hordeum jubatum L.
Koeleria cristata (L.) Pers.
Panicum leibergi (Vasey) Scribn.
*Phleum pratense L.
Flodman’s Thistle
Hawk’s-beard
Curlycup-Gumweed
Sunflower
Sunflower
Ox-eye
Hawkweed
Lettuce
Blazing-star
Rattlesnake-root
Black-eyed Susan
Groundsel
Goldenrod
Goldenrod
Goldenrod
Sow-Thistle
Common Dandelion
Wild Onion
False Solomon’s-seal
Blue-eyed Grass
Small Yellow Lady’s-slipper
Rush
Crested Wheat-Grass
Wheat-Grass
Big Bluestem
Brome-Grass
Fescue-Grass
Sweet Grass
Squirrel-tail Grass
June Grass
Panic-Grass
Timothy
In vegetation list
In vegetation list
abs
In vegetation list
In vegetation list
In vegetation list
vr
vr
vr
vr
In vegetation list
In vegetation list
In vegetation list
vr
vr
In vegetation list
abs
In vegetation list
abs
vr
vr
abs
Oo
In vegetation list
abs
122 Tue CANADIAN FIeELp-NATURALIST Vol. 83
TABLE 3. (Continued)
Species and Authority Common Name Abundance!
Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin.
ex Steudel Reed abs
*Poa compressa L. Wiregrass vr
Poa palustris L. Fowl-meadow Grass abs
Poa pratensis L. Kentucky Bluegrass vr
Spartina pectinata Link Cord-Grass In vegetation list
Stipa spartea Trin. Porcupine-Grass In vegetation list
Cyperaceae
Carex brevior (Dew.) Mack. Sedge abs
Carex laeviconica Dew. Sedge abs
Carex lanuginosa Michx. Sedge abs
d — dominant
va — very abundant
a — abundant
f — frequent
o — occasional
i Tare
vr — very rare
abs — absent from prairie cover types but present along the rights-of-way
* — naturalized species. All others are native in the area.
Accepted October 29, 1968
Re
OBSERVATIONS OF WOLVES AT A RENDEZVOUS
SITE IN ALGONQUIN PARK
Joun B. THEBERGE
Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver 8, B.C.
Douetas H. PIMLotr
Department of Zoology, University of Toronto, Toronto 5, Ontario
Tuts PAPER describes the activities of four adult timber wolves (Canis lupus
lycaon L.) and three pups observed for 16 days in August, 1962 in Algonquin
Provincial Park, Ontario.
These observations, made as part of the Ontario Department of Lands
and Forests’ wolf research program directed by Dr. Pimlott, are of value as
descriptive information on wolf behaviour in summer in forested regions is
uncommon.
Contact was maintained with the wolves by broadcasting pre-recorded
wolf howls from a portable record player, or by imitating wolf howls and
listening for replies (Pimlott, 1960), and by direct observation. Observations
were made in the open, often within sight ‘of the wolves, at a distance of 500
1969 THEBERGE AND Pimiotr. WoLves IN ALGONQUIN PARK 123
feet. The wolves rarely paid any attention to the observers, however once,
Pimlott was approached by a single wolf to within 75 feet.
The centre of activity of the pack, hereafter called a rendezvous site,
encompassed approximately 80 acres one mile east of Annie Bay of Lake
Opeongo, at the edge of a large clearing logged and burned 15 years previously.
Before burning, black spruce (Picea mariana) had grown on lower sites, and
red pine (Pinus resinosa), white pine (Pinus strobus), sugar maple (Acer
saccharum) and yellow birch (Betula lutea) on better drained sites. Some red
pine survived the cutting and fire, and aspen (Populus tremuloides) regeneration
had begun in places. Principally, however, ground cover consisted of bracken
fern (Pteridium aquilinum) and blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium) inter-
spersed with many burned stumps and logs. A bog with sedge, grass and
-ericaceous shrubs occupied one fifth of the rendezvous site.
The north edge of the burn, often frequented by the wolves, consisted of
a stand of dense black spruce which occupied a wet Sphagnum site.
Pack AND INDIVIDUAL MovEMENTS
The pack was originally located on the night of August 7 when it answered
a recording of wolf pup howls played from a distance of one half a mile.
Some wolves were heard or seen at the rendezvous site on all but two of the
subsequent 16 days. No check was made on one of these days. On the other,
a pack was heard about a mile away but its identity was uncertain as another
ack was occasionally within hearing.
The wolves disappeared on August 24, and although a pack was heard a
mile away on that date and on August 26, we were unable to establish its
identity. The study terminated August 29 with no record of wolves returning
to the rendezvous site.
The three pups formed the nucleus of the pack at the rendezvous site.
Only once were they observed away from the site. On that occasion they
howled from a location about one half mile away, whereupon an adult wolf
ran off the burn towards them; it reappeared with them 20 minutes later. This
was the only time we suspected that the pups were unattended by an adult wolf.
Four adults were seen with the pups on only one occasion. Three adults
accompanying them was more common, but sometimes fewer were present.
When adults were not actually seen with the pups, they were often in the
trees within a few yards of them. On eight occasions single wolves were
heard at distances of a mile or more. The possibility that these animals were
from the adjacent pack was reduced by our observations at dusk of wolves
dispersing out over the burn, and morning greeting ceremonies, to be described.
As mentioned, another pack was occasionally within a mile of the rendez-
vous site. This pack was much less sedentary, although we believed it too
contained pups. Evidence indicated that this pack had a rendezvous site three
miles away which it used early in August and returned to later in the month.
This pack came to within 200 yards of the Annie Bay pack on the evening of
August 15 and the following morning. Both times at least two single wolves
were between the two packs, as evidenced by howling. The only record of
124 Tre Canapdian Freup-Narurauist Vol. 83
four adults with the pups was made on that morning. This suggested that
possibly the two packs were actually sub-units of the same pack. Murie (1944)
cited an example of a strange w olf trying to join a pack and being actively
repelled and actually injured. No aggression was observed here.
Prriovs or ActivITY
Wolves were on the burn primarily during the few hours following
daybreak and before dark (Table 1). In the morning, the time they left the
burn varied from 0725 to 045 (based on seven mornings of observation). They
remained longer on sunny mornings.
When not on the burn they apparently remained in the trees at its edge,
as indicated by 25 separate responses from that location to pre-recorded non
human simulated wolf howls. We speculate that during the heat of the day
the wolves remained inactive in the trees, as no howls were heard from other
localities. Kolenosky and Johnston (1967) reported from a study of radio-
tagged wolves in North-western Ontario that little activ ity occurred from
0900 to 1500. Murie (1944) reported that Alaskan w olves normally rested
throughout the day.
At nights, how ling indicated that the pups and at least one adult were
on or beside the burn. On four nights other adults left and were heard at
various locations, presumably out hunting.
BeHAVIOUR
Pups: Sometimes pups engaged in strenuous play for an hour or more at a
time. Play was interspersed With brief rest periods usually of a few minutes
duration. The most common components of play were: chasing each other,
running among the stumps and logs, rolling together and pawing each other.
Less frequently they playfully bit one another. On three oceasions one
crouched behind a stump and jumped at a passing pup.
We heard no vocalizations during this play.
Play of a similar type was described by Murie (1944) and Crisler (1958),
both in an arctic environment. Young and Goldman (1944) also reported that
it occurs but their source of information was not described. The difficulty in
observing undisturbed behaviour in forested regions accounts for its lack of
documentation. Play by captive pups has been described in many reports,
including one by Rutter and Pimlott (1968) on pups kept as part of this research
program.
Adults: Adult wolves were often seen moving aimlessly with tail and head
lowered. This type of movement was interspersed with periods of sitting or
lying down. W hen a wolf resumed w alking, it often went off in a different
direction. They generally stayed within 100 yards of the pups. In the late
evening they w ould sometimes disperse farther out over the burn.
Adults rested for long periods, usually lying in a partially curled position.
Certain locations were favored, especially the base of one slightly elevated
stump.
1969 THEBERGE AND Pimiorr. Worves 1s ALconours Park 125
TABLE 1.—Time of day wolves visible on the burn
Time Number days | Per cent days Per cent days Total per cent
observation | adults seen pups seen days wolves seen
|
Daybreak to 1000 8 | 63 63 48
1000 to 1900 6 17 0 17
1900 to dark 10 60 | 60 70
We observed adults playing among themselves on only one occasion.
It lasted for only a few minutes, and consisted of jumping, rolling, pawing
each other and running together.
Adult-Pup Interactions: On three occasions adults joined in the play of the
pups by running and jumping with them. Once, an adult crouched and sprang
at a pup, chased it and rolled it over.
Greeting Ceremony: On five occasions we observed a vigorous greeting
ceremony when members of the pack returned to the rendezvous site. This
ceremony occurred once when the three pups returned and four times when a
single adult returned. Both pups and adults participated in a]] ceremonies.
The animals returning and those at the site ran towards each other with
tails held high and ears forward. They frolicked together in a tight group
for approximately a minute. The most dramatic element of the displays was
the vigorous flicking of tails as they were held high over their backs. The
ceremony terminated abruptly with the wolves walking slowly away and lying
down, and the pups resuming play among themselves. These observations
were very similar to ones made by Murie (1944) and Crisler (1958) in Alaska.
We did not observe similar behaviour when wolves departed in the evening,
as did Murie.
W olf-Bear Interactions: Black bears (Ursus americanus) were seen twice at
the rendezvous site. The first time, three adult wolves lying out on the burn
suddenly jumped up and ran out to meet the bear which was galloping towards
them. The wolves jumped at the bear, encircled it and darted in and out.
The bear, still moving, swung around at the wolves, then chased one of them
with the other two wolves chasing the bear. The wolves gave up the chase
when they reached the trees. No actual contact was made between the
participants.
The second time a bear appeared, the wolves were in the trees at the edge
of the burn. The bear walked to within 100 feet of them, then began running
and jumping over deadfall and disappeared beyond the wolves. No wolves
came out of the trees.
Foop
White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) comprise 80 per cent of the
summer diet of wolves in Algonquin Park (Pimlott et al., 1967).
A calculation of the number of deer required to sustain the minimum of
three adult wolves in the pack for 16 days based on figures presented by
126 THe CANnapIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
Pimlott (1967) (7.2 pounds food per day; 20 per cent wastage, proportion of
fawns to adults killed 8:2; adult deer weight of 150 pounds; adjusted fawn
weight of 50 pounds) suggests that the equivalent of approximately 0.4 adult
deer and 5.3 fawns (total of 334 pounds) would have been utilized. An
additional amount was required by the three pups.
We placed two deer hit by cars, a doe and a fawn, out at the edge of the
site. Both were fully utilized by the pack, but utilization occurred at night
_ so was not observed. The doe was placed out only three days before the pack
left so contributed a relatively minor amount to the total food requirements.
We did not observe hunting or prey being killed. A search was made
of the site after the wolves left, but we found no bones. This suggested that
the adult wolves made their kills and fed during their nightly forays away from
the site. Although no adult was observed regurgitating for the pups as has
been reported by other observers (Young and Goldman, 1944; Crisler, 1958;
Haber, pers. comm.), the lack of bones suggested that this was the method of
feeding the pups at the Annie Bay site.
V OCALIZATIONS
The wolves at the site howled in response to auditory stimulation 37 times.
This represented 52 per cent of attempts made when wolves were believed to
have been present. Pre-recorded wolf howls were more successful in eliciting
responses (60°) than human howls (38%) but the difference was not significant
CXG== 2708 IDE aI P2005)
Barking occurred when a wolf approached members of the Pimlott family
to within 75 feet. The wolf barked for 11 minutes, gradually moving away.
Our subjective interpretation was that this behaviour represented an aggressive
challenge.
Spontaneous howling (no known auditory stimulus) by the pack was_
heard on four nights. These nights represented all the times when single
wolves were known to have been absent from the pack. This suggested that
separation of pack members elicited howling. The evidence was only circum-
stantial, however, as wolves may have been absent on other occasions without
our knowledge. The evidence of absence was the occurrence of howls of
single animals away from the site during the night, and morning greeting
ceremonies when animals returned to the site.
DISCUSSION
Rendezvous sites, or “resting sites”, used after wolves vacate the natal den
have been described by Murie (1944), Young and Goldman (1944), Rutter
and Pimlott (1968), Joslin (1967), Kolenosky and Johnston (1967). In the
latter two studies more than one rendezvous site was found within the home
range of a pack.
The Annie Bay rendezvous site environment, that of a border between
coniferous forest and an open and at least partially wet area, fits Joslin’s (1967)
description of 11 sites he examined in other areas of Algonquin Park. Kolenosky
1969 THEBERGE AND PIMLotr. WoLveEs IN ALGONQUIN PARK 127
and Johnston (1967) described four “resting sites” also characterized by close
proximity to water and at least semi-open forest canopy.
Reporting on the sedentary nature of packs in the summer, Joslin (1967)
stated that packs remained for an average of 17 days at any one rendezvous
site. Cowan (1947) described a variation in the sedentary nature of wolf
packs in Alberta. The Annie Bay pack remained for a minimum of 16 days
at its rendezvous site, despite the pups being almost two-thirds adult size and
seemingly fully capable of travelling long distances.
Small summer home ranges have been described in Ontario by Kolenosky
and Johnston (1967) for a radio-tagged female with a litter (18.3 km.”) and
by Joslin (1967) (8.1 square miles, 7.2 square miles, 25.0 square miles) in
Algonquin Park. Since we did not know the location of other rendezvous
sites that were occupied during the summer by the Annie Bay pack, our
information on size of home range was incomplete. However, the sedentary
nature of the pack suggested that it also had a relatively small home range.
The behaviour of the wolves in the first encounter with a bear was identical
to that described by Murie (1944) when he observed wolves meeting a grizzly
(Ursus arctos). Protection of the pups may have motivated the wolves’
behaviour in both cases. Murie (1944) also found that competition at a kill
between the two species resulted in similar behaviour. That wolf-bear encoun-
ters can have more serious results was documented by Rutter and Pimlott
(1968) who described a female wolf killed at a den with evidence that a bear
was responsible.
Howling in response to both types of auditory stimulation — pre-recorded
wolf howls (60% response) and human howls (38% response) was high
compared to Joslin’s (1967) report of 7.9% and 16.4% respectively. This
difference is partially attributable to seasonal variation. Joslin’s results spanned
the four summer months whereas ours were all from August. Howling is
more common as the summer progresses (Joslin, 1967; Theberge, 1964).
Joslin (1967) found that human howls elicited significantly more responses
than pre-recorded howls. He attributed the lower rate of response
to the pre-recorded howls to the “tinny” quality of the loudspeaker. The same
equipment was used at Annie Bay where significant differences did not occur.
That wolves have the ability to distinguish pre-recorded wolf howls, and even
pre-recorded human howls from live human howls was demonstrated by
Theberge and Falls (1967). ‘The difference in our results is not believed to be
due to a difference in the ability of a human to mimic a wolf’s howl. Theberge
(1964) reported on a variety of loud sounds that would elicit responses. The
only other explanation is that the pre-recorded howl we used, that of a sequence
of pup howls, was more of a stimulus than Joslin’s pre-recorded howl of
adult wolves.
The circumstantial evidence that spontaneous howling occurred when wolves
were absent from the pack agrees with Theberge and Falls’ (1967) conclusion
from a study of captive wolves that at least one type of howling is a manifestation
of an emotion triggered by separation, and has an obvious value in pack cohesion.
128
Tue CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
REFERENCES
Cowan, I. M. 1947. The timber wolf in
the Rocky Mountain National Parks of
Canada. Canadian Journal of Research
25:139-174.
Crister, L. 1958. Arctic Wild. Harper and
Brothers, New York. 301 pp.
Jostriy, P. W. B. 1967. Movements and
home sites of timber wolves in Algonquin
Park. American Zoologist 7:279-288.
Kotenosky, G. B., and D. H. Jounston.
1967. Radio-tracking wolves in Ontario.
American Zoologist 7:289-303.
Muri, A. 1944. The wolves of Mount
McKinley. U.S. National Park Service,
Fauna Series 5, Washington. 238 pp.
Prmiotr, D. H. 1960. The use of tape-
recorded wolf howls to locate timber
wolves. 22nd Midwest Fish and Wildlife
Conference. Toronto. 15 pp:
Pimiortt, D. H. 1967. Wolf predation and
ungulate populations. American Zoologist
7:267-278,
Prmtott, D. H., J. A. SHANNON, and G. B.
KoLenosky. 1967. The inter-relation-
ships of wolves and deer in Algonquin
Park. ‘Transactions Northeast Wildlife
Conference. 16 pp. mimeo.
Rutter, R. J., and D. H. Pimtorr. 1968.
The world of the wolf. J. B. Lippincott,
Philadelphia and New York. 202 pp.
TuHeEserce, J. B., and J. B. Farts. 1967.
Howling as a means of communication in
timber wolves. American Zoologist 7:
331-338.
THEBERGE, J. B. 1964. Some aspects of tim-
ber wolf howling. Unpublished B.Sc.
thesis. University of Guelph, Ontario.
21 pp.
Youne, S. P., and E. A. Gorpman. 1944.
The wolves of North America. Wildlife
Management Institute, Washington. 636 pp.
Accepted February 4, 1969
Vs
THE STATUS OF PINE MARTEN
IN NEWFOUNDLAND
ArTHuR T. BERGERUD
Department of Biology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia
I wisx to call to the attention of conservationists the precarious status of the
Newfoundland pine marten (Martes americana atrata Bangs). In the past 50
years marten have disappeared from large sections of central Newfoundland.
By 1960 the species’ range was no longer continuous — one population was
located in eastern Newfoundland in the vicinity of Gander Lake, Northwest
Gander River, and Gambo Pond — Trinton Brook (Fig. 1). A second popula-
tion located in western Newfoundland was concentrated between Little Grand
Lake and Lloyds Lake, along the east shore of Grand Lake, and in the river
valleys of Southwest Brook, Little Barachois Brook and Flat Bay Brook (Fig. 1).
The last marten sighting reported to me from the eastern population was
in 1961; this population is now probably extinct. The future of the western
population is not bright. At present a road is being constructed from Buchans
to St. Georges, through the heart of the present range. This road will open
this vast region to logging operations.
1969 Bercerup: Prine Marten IN NEWFOUNDLAND 129
MAP
OF
NEWFOUNDLAND LEGEND
ey @ RECENT PINE MARTIN
= SIGHTINGS
=F © EXTENSIVE AREAS
= MATURE TIMBER
TERRA NOVA
NATIONAL PARK
SCALE OF MILES
25 (0) 25 50 75 100
(jo = Ss es es ees
Freure 1. The distribution of marten in Newfoundland in the decade 1950 to 1960 based
on the reports of wildlife officers. The years represent the approximate time of
disappearance. Marten may now be extinct in the eastern section of the indicated range.
Apparently pine marten were never found in some forested sections of
Newfoundland. Older residents on the Avalon Peninsula and the Bonavista
Peninsula are not familiar with the species (Fig. 2). Again on the Northern
Peninsula north of Parsons Pond, it is not clear if the species was ever common.
The pristine range of the species appears to have been almost exclusively
in the Grand Falls and the Corner Brook sections of the boreal forest as outlined
130 THe CaNnapian Firtp-NATURALIST Vol. 83
<0 MILES
“ BONAVISTA
PENINSULA
4s)
”
ae to Vey
i
'
i
i
AVALON PENINSULA
j
|
;
|
The orginal area of productive forest in Newfoundland. No records were
d of marten having ever been t on the Bonavista or Avalon Peninsulas.
pecies’ primary original range included the forested sections of the west coast
t al
Northern Peninsula). central Newfoundland and northeastern New-
i
@ -
by Rowe (1959). These two sections encompass the most productive forests
It is not known why the species did not inhabit the extensive original spruce
and fir forests of the Avalon and Bonavisa Peninsulas | Fig. 2). One hypothesis
that I think worthy of testing is that these forested sections did not include
sufficient large trees for denning and arboreal life requirements. Both the
1969 Bercerup: Pree Marten ww NeEwFrocnDLAND 131
Grand Falls and Corner Brook section of the boreal forest once contained
extensive stands of white pine (Pinus strobus); where as, this tree species was
largely absent from the remainder of the Island (Rowe 1959). The area now
inhabited by marten contains the last dying relic stands of diseased pine. The
importance of this tree species to marten could easily be checked by following
winter tracks.
The correlation between the former distribution of white pine and marten
abundance could be spurious — the correlation reflecting a more basic relation-
ship between site fertility and marten status. Marten do without pine im most
of North America. However the life requirement of Newfoundland marten
must be unique — there are no native squirrels in Newfoundland — and one only
one native mouse species (Microtus pennsylanicus). It is difficult to imagine
how the species survived at all) The Newfoundland marten’s food habits
are unknown.
Marten have frequently been seen in newly logged areas. The animals
appear quite tame. The decline of marten does not appear to be due to an
aversion to man per se but rather to the logging destruction of mature forests
and possibly the loss of pine forests through disease.
It is unfortunate that Terra Nova National Park does not boast a marten
population and may lack suitable habitat. It is doubtful that the powerful
forestry interests in - Newfoundland will permit a large block of suitable habitat
to be set aside for the preservation of the species.
The Wildlife Division of the Newfoundland government should undertake
a life history study of the s ‘species. The first principle oi the stated policy of
the Wildlife Division is: “. . . to maintain all indigenous Species from exunc-
tion...” (Walters and Pike 1961: 48). Now is the time ro act!
ACKNOWLEDGAIENTS
I would like to acknowledge my appreciation to wildlife officers Arthur
Butt, Eph Balsam, Norman Muise. and Samuel Kelly f for supplying i imiformation
on marten distribution in Newfoundland.
REEERENCES
Rowe, J.S. 1959. Forest regions of Canada. Annual Report of the Dept of Mies.
Dept. Northern Affairs and Nat Res. Asncukure and Resources. Sc John’s,
Forestry Br. Bull. 123. 71 pp. Newfoundland. pp. 48-59.
Watters, H. W.. ard D. G. Pre. 1961.
Accepied February 3. 1969
eee
FISHERMEN’S REPORTS OF FRESHWATER AND
SALTWATER MIGRATIONS OF NOVA SCOTIA EELS
(ANGUILLA ROSTRATA)
J. Cart MeEpcor
Fisheries Research Board of Canada
Biological Station, St. Andrews, N.B.
INTRODUCTION
FISHERMEN’S reports have been starting points of investigations that broadened
understanding of biological and fisheries management problems and enhanced
values of fisheries the world over. The following reports by Nova Scotia eel
fishermen and fisheries officers and discussion of these indicate promising areas
for scientific study.
SALTWATER-TO-FRESHWATER AUTUMN MIGRATION
OF YELLOW-BELLIED EELS
On September 15, 1939, I watched a man building a “V-shaped weir
made of fine-mesh cotton netting in Moulin River near Louisdale, Richmond
County. The narrow end pointed upstream. He said he was building an
eel trap and always did build one about that time of year; that thousands of
eels would soon run upstream from the saltwater estuary to freshwater lakes
where they would pass the winter.
In 1951, Fisheries Officer E. L. Power of Arichat, Richmond County,
assured me that the fisherman was quite correct; that there still were regular
upstream autumn runs of eels in Moulin River and that to his certain knowledge
there were similar runs in at least two neighbouring streams, River Inhabitants
on Cape Breton Island, and Grand Lake Brook on Madame Island, both in
Richmond County.
In 1967, Mr. A. E. Terrio, Fisheries Officer of Arichat and a long-time eel
fisherman, recounted personal experiences and assembled reports for me from
trustworthy fishermen of his district. He stated that upstream eel migrations
are commoner than Mr. Power had suggested, that they are more or less
conspicuous in all streams on Madame Island and in several Cape Breton
Island streams besides River Inhabitants. He mapped sites of nine eel weirs
(Figures 1 and 2) known by him to have been recently and regularly used
in fishing these annual runs.
Mr. Terrio stated that these eels are vellow-bellied,; that they move
upstream to freshwater lakes and bury themselves in mud until spring.
FRESHWATER-TO-SALTWATER SPRING MIGRATION
OF YELLOW-BELLIED EELS
Mr. Terrio also states that there are early spring migrations of yellow-
bellied eels from these same streams to their saltwater estuaries and that he has
observed them many times from boyhood. They occur at night. He
132
1969 Mepcor: Micrations or EEts 133
Moulin River
.<Louisdale —.
2 Hbr 8 :
Grand Lake
Scale Miles
Figure 1. Eel weir sites (solid circles) now or recently used in fishing annual autumn
saltwater-to-freshwater migrations of eels in Moulin River and Grand Lake Brook, N.S
134 Tue CANADIAN FrIeLp-NaATURALIST Vol. 83
recollects how in spring scores of men and boys proceeded to the nearest
brook, each armed with a torch and a curved steel rod with burlap wrapped
around one end to form a hand grip. An old scythe blade with the sharp
edge beaten down often served the purpose. The rods were used to cudgel
eels as they swam through riffles in the stream. It was easy to grab them
when they were stunned and throw them onto the bank. Everyone wore
woollen mittens to keep his hands warm and to afford a better grip on the
slippery creatures.
Mr. Terrio relayed an account by a neighbour, Mr. Ambrose A. Poirier
of D’Escousse, Richmond County, of unusual circumstances attending one
freshwater-to-saltwater spring migration in Langlois Lake, 5.5 miles northeast
of Arichat on Madame Island. Langois Lake is a brackish, tidal water, as is
the estuary of the brook that feeds into the lake at its eastern end. Both are
ice-bound in winter.
Mr. Poirier stated that in March, several years ago when the lake was
still ice-bound, there was a heavy Tinea during the day and water from the
brook flooded out over the winter ice. The following night there was a
sharp frost and a layer of shell ice formed at the surface leaving a layer of
water between it and the heavy winter ice.
The following morning it was discovered that a good part of the frozen-
over lake was black with eels trapped in the water between the two ice layers.
Before long, every man and his son from the district were there and got
themselves a mess of eels. They appeared to be moving downstream.
In explanation of this phenomenon, Mr. Poirier stated that the tide was low
during the night leaving the winter ice resting firmly on the intertidal beaches
of the lake. This forced all the fresh water flowing in from the brook to
spread out over the winter ice covering of the lake. ine eels from the brook
headwaters apparently emerged at night and swam in the brook water out
over the winter ice.
SUMMER AND WINTER Homes For EEts?
Mr. Terrio believes that eels involved in freshwater-to-saltwater spring
runs are the same eels that made the autumn migrations in the opposite
direction. He believes that many eels have saltwater summer and freshwater
winter homes. I have reports in 1968 from long-experienced eel fishermen
of western Nova Scotia who share this same view.
Mr. Charles Theriau of Port Mouton reported that eels are fished for
local domestic use, during similar autumn and spring migrations in the
following Nova Scotia streams in his area: Robertsons Lake Brook, Douglas
Brook and Path Lake Brook in Port Joli district, Queens County, and Timber
Island Brook and Cox Creek Brook in Port Hebert district, Shelburne County.
Mr. John L. Amiro of Lower East Pubnico, Yarmouth County, reported
similar fisheries using flumes in Eel Brook Lake, Tusket River, Trout Brook,
Argyle River, Pubnico Lake and French Lake all in Yarmouth County, and in
Barrington River, Shelburne County. He states that downstream migrations
begin in May and last for about 3 weeks, that times of upstream migrations
1969 Mepcor: MicraTions oF EELS 135
N
Scale Miles
[ecteslantye tase reel [portman nares En
O | 2
Mill Brook
Smith Brook
Inhabitants Harbour
>
inane Wives
Ficure 2. Eel weir sites (solid circles) now or recently used in fishing annual autumn
saltwater-to-freshwater migrations of eels in Mill and Smith Brooks, tributaries of
River Inhabitants, N.S.
136 Tue CaNnapDIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
vary somewhat from year to year but start at about the time of first autumn
frost and also last for about 3 weeks, that the runs take place only at night and
consist of partly-grown eels, % to 1% pounds in weight and that most are
yellow-bellied but some are white.
FRESHWATER-TO-SALTWATER AUTUMN MIGRATION
OF SILVER-BELLIED EELS
Mr. Terrio states that in his district there are also migrations of white-
bellied eels during the first heavy rainstorms in early autumn. These are,
without doubt, the late-summer ‘and early-autumn spawning runs that are
prominent in many Nova Scotia rivers, e.g., the Margaree River, Inverness
County (Medcof, 1966). According to Mr. Terrio, fishermen in the Arichat
area miss these runs because their weirs are constructed so as to catch only
upstream migrants.
Mr. Terrio believes these downstream migrations of white-bellied eels
overlap the upstream autumn migrations of yellow-bellied eels. Mr. Amiro,
on the other hand, states that in his district the downstream runs are all over
before the upstream migrations begin.
Frepinc MicraATIoNs
Mr. Joseph M. Marchand, a long-time eel fisherman of Louisdale, told Mr.
Terrio that in the L’Ardoise area, Richmond County, eels make feeding
migrations. They run upstream to ponds where gaspereau (Alosa pseudo-
harengus) have spawned and feed on the newly hatched fry. After a period
the eels move down again to salt water until such time as other fish ascend
the stream. The eels then repeat the process.
Mr. Theriau states that in the Port Mouton area eels make similar upstream
runs in spring to feed on smelt (Osmerus miordax) spawn.
Discussion
The above reports suggest that eels migrate between salt water and fresh
water more commonly than the literature indicates. They also suggest
problems deserving biological investigation, for instance, the migratory
behaviour of this under-exploited species and the significance of belly colour
of eels (white and yellow) which has been studied in part by Vladykov (1955).
The summer and winter homes migration theory is intriguing but the
behavioural basis for it is so little knewn that it has never been subjected to
proof by tagging experiments. Smith and Saunders (1955) refer to the
saltwater-to-freshwater autumn eel migrations in Moulin River reported above
and to similar but less conspicuous runs in the Moser River, Halifax County.
Eales (1968) makes general statements on both the autumn and spring runs
based partly on Richmond County information which I supplied by personal
communication.
Dr. M. W. Smith has passed along a personal communication received
from a Mr. Ona who fished eels commercially in the Saint John River and in
1969 Mepcor: Micrations oF EELs 137
Grand Lake, Queens County, N.B., about 25 years ago. Mr. Ona stated that
changing catches indicated autumn concentrations of eels over muddy bottom
in man-made canals that connect the river and the lake and that eels can be
trapped in worthwhile quantities only in the canals at that season. He also
stated that eels wintered in the mud in these areas in vast numbers. This
apparent movement to a winter home could be a freshwater equivalent of
autumn saltwater-to-freshwater migrations in Nova Scotia streams.
Smith and Saunders (1955) describe downstream spring runs from lakes
and streams in Charlotte County, N.B. These can scarcely be considered as
parts of supposed, to-and-from winter homes migrations because the authors
report no evidence of upstream autumn migrations.
Another question raised by the Nova Scotia reports is why migrations
between fresh water and salt water seem more conspicuous in these coastal
streams than elsewhere. A factor favouring them may be shortness of streams
and consequent proximity of freshwater wintering sites and saltwater estuarine
summer homes (Figures 1 and 2). Eels would not have to travel far to complete
their runs.
Some fishermen say that eels living in brackish estuaries move to fresh
water “to find” muddy areas for wintering. But there are muddy bottoms
that seem suitable in both these habitats and in many parts of our coast
(including Madame Island, according to Mr. Terrio) some eels hibernate in
mud in saltwater estuaries and are speared there in winter (Day, 1948).
Physical characteristics of bottoms therefore seem an unlikely basis for
“selection” of freshwater wintering sites. Winter temperature difference
could be a factor that was responsible in some mysterious way for the evolu-
tion of these runs that occur in autumn.
In most freshwater lakes of moderate or great depth, bottom temperatures
are often static for long periods in winter at about 4°C (Birge and Juday, 1912),
whereas in our saltwater estuaries temperatures range about —1.5°C for long
periods in winter (Needler, 1941). Schmidt (1935) argues that Anguilla is a
genus of tropical origin. If this be true, do some of our eels “prefer” fresh-
water habitats for wintering because they are warmer at that season? And
what factors determine which eels winter in fresh water and which in salt water?
Mr. Poirier’s report of eels being trapped between two layers of ice is
interesting not only because it may relate to the supposed spring migration
from winter to summer homes but also because it extends the Smith-Saunders
(1955) observation that eels are occasionally active at low temperatures when
one might expect them to be hibernating.
Mr. Marchand’s and Mr. Theriau’s descriptions of feeding migrations are
of interest too. I have encountered no similar reports of short-term saltwater-
freshwater movements. However, we have observations and accounts of
regular mid-August descents of eels and gaspereau fry in freshwater parts of
Margaree River, N.S., the eels feeding on the gaspereau (Medcof, 1966).
Perhaps the tneverienits described by Messrs. Marchand and Theriau should not
be called feeding “migrations” but be considered merely as phases of a flexible
feeding behaviour.
138 Tue CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to thank Inspectors Power and Terrio and Messrs. Theriau,
Marchand, Amiro and Ona for information they have provided and Mr. J. W.
Saunders and Dr. M. W. Smith for assistance and encouragement in compiling
this report.
REFERENCES
Birce, E. A. and C. Jupay. 1912. A lim- Neeprter, A. W. H. 1941. Temperatures
nological study of the Finger Lakes of and salinities under the ice in a shallow
New York. Bulletin of United States inlet. Ibid. 5:236-243.
- Bureau Fisheries 32:525-609. SmitrH, M. W. and J. W. Saunpers. 1955.
Day, L. R. 1948. Fishing eels—a profitable The American eel in certain fresh waters
side line. Fisheries Research Board of of the Maritime Provinces of Canada. Ibid.
Canada, Atlantic Biological Station Circu- 12:238-269.
lar, General Series, No. 13, 3 p. Scumipt, J. 1935. Danish eel investigations
Eates, J. G. 1968. The eel fisheries of during 25 years (1905-1930) (from “Dana’s
eastern Canada. Bulletin Fisheries Research Fogt Omkung Jorden 1928-1930” Copen-
Board of Canada, No. 166, 79 p. hagen, 1932), Carlsberg Foundation,
Mencor, J. C. 1966. Incidental records on Copenhagen, 16 p.
behaviour of eels in Lake Ainslie, Nova VuapyKoy, V. 1955. Eels, Fishes of Que-
Scotia. Journal of Fisheries Research Board bec, Album No. 6, Department of
of Canada 23:1101-1105. Fisheries, Province of Quebec, 12 p.
Accepted February 3, 1969
Be
NESTING OF THE LONG-TAILED JAEGER IN
SOUTHWEST YUKON TERRITORY — AN EXTENSION
OF THE KNOWN BREEDING GROUNDS
Larry W. Price
Department of Geography, University of Illinois
AN ExTENsION of the known breeding grounds of the Long-tailed Jaeger
(Stercorarius longicaudus) was discovered during summer 1967 and noted
again in 1968 while carrying out geomorphological field work in the Ruby
Range of southwest Yukon Territory, Canada. The exact locality is Gladstone
Lakes, about 30 miles due north of Mile 1045 Alaska Highway, 61°23’N
138°12’W. Location of the site, with respect to the presently known breeding
grounds, is shown in Figure 1.
The general environment of this breeding ground extension is that of alpine
tundra at an elevation of 6,300 feet on a southeast facing 14° slope. Tree-line
is at 3,800 feet, about three miles distant. Well-developed solifluction lobes
occur on the slope and they present, in cross section, a series of treads and
risers, as in a stairway. Favourable microhabitats for both flora and fauna are
provided, particularly at the fronts (risers) of the lobes, where there is late
snow lie to serve as insulation, water availability through the summer from
1Present address: Department of Geography, Portland State University, Portland, Oregon.
1969 Price: LONG-TAILED JAEGER IN THE YUKON 139
BREEDING DISTIBUTION OF THE LONG-TAILED JAEGER IN CANADA
Source: Godfrey, W. Earl, The Birds of Canada,
Queen's Printer, Ottawa, 1966, p. 173.
Figure 1. Breeding Distribution of the Long-tailed Jaeger in Canada.
melting permafrost, and a higher temperature because of the greater angle of
incidence of solar radiation.
A pair of jaegers was observed to be nesting both summers, 1967 and 1968,
in almost exactly the same spot. The nest was on the top (tread) of a
solifluction lobe in wet and mossy cotton-grass tussocks. Dominant species
include Eviophorum angustifolium, Carex muicrochaeta, Salix pseudopolaris,
Salix reticulata, and mosses and lichens. As far as we col tell, there were
no special preparations for the nest — it was simply in a small depression between
two tussocks.
One offspring was born each year, apparently late in June. The picture
below was taken on July 2, 1968, of the young jaeger (Figure 2). It was
140 Tue CanapiaN Fretp-NaTURALIStT Vol. 83
Figure 2. Photo of baby Jaeger taken on july 2 2, 1968. He is about 6 inches tall, and is
assumed to be two or three days old.
perhaps a week old at the time because it could stagger around a little, but
not very successfully. Life processes are very compressed and accelerated -
in the short tundra summer and it was interesting to note the young bird’s
progress. On July 16, we observed one of the parents flying over the young,
diving and screeching at it. This continued incessantly until July 22, when
we first saw the young bird flying.
The jaeger has remarkable eyesight and we found them to be excellent
watchdogs. Nothing happened on the slope but what they knew about it.
Indeed, their presence affected the ecology of the slope in important ways.
For example, any eagle which came closer than two or three miles, was
promptly chased away. Occasionally we would hear the jaegers begin their
high shrill calls and look in the direction they were flying to see an eagle —
just a speck in the sky. The same treatment was given G other unwelcome
creatures such as wolf, fox, wolverine, bear, and ermine. The elimination of
these carnivores from the slope during the summer was somewhat counter-
balanced by the jaegers themselves, because they essentially filled the predator
niche in the food chain. They harvested many of the small rodents which
occurred in abundance on the slopessite:; shrews, lemmings, voles, and mice
of various kinds. For the larger burrowing mammals, however, such as ground
squirrels, pika, marmot, as well as the ptarmigan, it made for a rather trouble-
free existence. The jaegers’ presence may, in part, be responsible for main-
taining the particularly high population of these animals on this slope.
There were other Long-tailed Jaegers in the vicinity, and they occasionally
visited our slope. Generally only one other jaeger would be seen and the
1969 Price: LoNG-TAILED JAEGER IN THE YUKON 141
most we ever saw at one time was five (including the two adults and one young
from our slope). The jaegers from our slope seemed to resent these visitors,
however, and when they came, a great deal of screaming and chasing about the
sky resulted.
’ The time of arrival of the jaegers in the spring is not known. They
were there both years when we arrived on June 18, and as mentioned, the young
was born probably i in the last week of June. According to Godfrey (1966),
the incubation period is 23 days, so from inference, they may have ares
late in May. As to their departure in the fall, they were still on the slope
in 1967 when we left on August 24. In 1968, however, they left the slope
on August 10.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to thank Miss Virginia Vincent and W. Earl Godfrey
for their help in the formulative stages of this paper. Field support was
provided by the Icefield Ranges Research Project of the Arctic Institute of
North America.
REFERENCES
Goprrey, W. Eari, The Birds of Canada, 203, Queen’s Printer, Ottawa, 1966. 428 p.
National Museum of Canada Bulletin No.
Accepted December 10, 1968
LABORATORY STUDIES OF INTERACTIONS BETWEEN
THE WHITE-FOOTED MOUSE AND REDBACK VOLE
Lowe tt L. Getz
Biological Sciences Group, University of Connecticut, Storrs
Tue possible role of interspecific aggression in the habitat segregation of small
mammals has been discussed by Clough (196+), Getz (1962), King (1957,
Sheppe (1967), Findley ( 1954), and Wirtz and Pearson (1960). In certain
parts of their ranges, ‘and especially in southern New England, the white-
footed mouse Peromyscus leucopus and redback vole, Clethrionomys gappert,
have different local distributional patterns which could result in part from
interspecific interactions. The role of interspecific aggression in such habitat
segregation of the two species is not known, however.
Although found in many types of woodlands, P. leucopus, attains its
highest population densities in uplands (up to 60/ha); it is not very abundant
in lowland swamps (seldom above 15/ha). In southern New England (Gs
gapperi is restricted almost exclusively to and attains high population “densities
(60/ha) in such sw amps. It is therefore possible that « aggressive interactions
between the two species could be a factor in the smaller numbers of P. Jewcopus
in swamps and the absence of C. gapperi from uplands in southern New
England.
142 Tue CANADIAN FieLD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
Calhoun (1963) in analyzing snap-trap data from various regions in the
northeast concluded that in some places C. gapperi is dominant over P. leucopus;
in other places, however, C. gapperi appeared to be subordinate or there is no
indication of dominance by either species. No other data are available in
regard to aggressive interactions between the two species.
During a comparative study of the ecology and behavior of these two
species, some data were obtained in regard to social interactions. Although
the experiments were not by any means exhaustive, they do contribute
information to the over all problem of habitat segregation of C. gapperi and
P. leucopus.
MerHops
Indications of interspecific behavior were obtained by two methods:
observing 5-min encounters between one individual of each species and by the
introduction of a new animal into an established group.
Both series of observations were conducted in 26 x 76 x 30 cm aquaria.
The three sides not facing the observer were covered with white cardboard
and the top with a weighted board. The bottom of the chamber was covered
with 3 to 5 cm of wood shavings. In the individual encounters the chamber
was divided into two compartments by a removable partition. All observations
were made in a laboratory in which only the observer was present. Normal
overhead room lights were used during the individual encounter trials; in the
‘introduction into an established group’ trials, a normal photoperiod was
maintained by sunlight coming in through room windows.
During the individual encounter trials, the two individuals to be tested
were placed in opposite ends of the chamber, separated by the divider. They
were allowed 2 min to become adjusted to the chamber, the partition was then
withdrawn. I sat 1.5 m from the chamber and recorded the interactions
between the two individuals during the next 5 min by whispering into a portable
dictaphone. At the end of 5 min the divider was used to force the two animals
into one half the chamber. Their interactions in the smaller space were
observed for 1 min. Groups of five animals of each species were tested so
that each individual of each group was tested against all the individuals of the
other species. No individual was tested twice in succession.
For the ‘introduction into an established group’ studies, three individuals
of a species (2 male, 1 female) were placed in the chamber. They were left
together in a quiet room until they appeared to become adjusted to each other
(as evidenced by resting or sleeping huddled together in a pile). Even if
such huddling occurred within a few hours, trials were not started for at least
two days. At that time a new animal of either species was placed in the
chamber. The interactions of the group and the new animal were recorded
for 10 min. Checks of the group were then made every 2 to + hours during
the day and 6 to 8 hours during the night. The new animal was recorded as
having been “accepted” into the group when it was permitted to huddle in the
“pile”. When it was accepted, or after four days, if it were not accepted, the
new animal was removed. After 6 to 8 hours an individual of the other species
1969 Getz: THE WHITE-FOOTED Mouse AND REDBACK VOLE 143
TaBLeE 1.—Interspecific aggressive behavior of Peromyscus leucopus and Clethrionomys gapperi
as displayed in 5-min encounters between one individual of each species.
Source of ere Species Aggressor* | Dominant | Curious Teucred
Amiel rials other
Animal
Wild captured 50 C. gapperi wate 4 5 36
P. leucopus 3 6 15 26
Lab raised 25 C. gappert 1 7 ee 16
P. leucopus 1 1 10 7
Totals 75 5) 18 30 85
*Individual initiating the action during an encounter.
was introduced. Five or six individuals (both sexes) of each species were
introduced into each group.
Both wild-captured and laboratory-raised animals were tested. The wild-
captured animals were trapped in the vicinity of Storrs, Connecticut from a
swamp habitat in which both species occurred. The animals were brought
into the laboratory and isolated in individual 20 x 25 x 10 cm metal cages in
a battery of such cages; they could not see each other. All tests were
conducted within two weeks of the time of capture.
The laboratory-raised animals were removed from their parents at
aproximately 21-30 days and isolated in individual cages. These mice were
tested at approximately four months of age. The stock for P. leucopus was
live-trapped in the vicinity of Storrs, Connecticut, second or third generation
animals were used. The stock for C. gapperi was from Alger County,
Michigan, they had been in the laboratory for 4 or 5 generations.
RESULTS
Individual encounters: Determination of dominant and_ subordinate
position of an individual was based on criteria used in a previous study (Getz,
1962). There was very little indication of dominance on the part of either
species. Only 18 instances of dominance were observed in a total of 75 trials
involving 15 individuals of each species (Table 1). There was no similarity
between the behavior of the laboratory raised and wild captured animals.
In light of the small over all percentage of dominance in the individual
encounters, differences between laboratory-raised and wild-captured animals
do not appear to have any significance, however. Neither species appears to
be significantly dominant over the other under these laboratory conditions.
Table 1 shows that in the majority of the individual encounter trials, the
animals either appeared to ignore each other or at most to be mildly curious of
the presence of the other animal. In a large number of the trials the animals
wandered about their end of the cage, chewing on shavings or grooming
themselves, and paying no noticeable attention to the other animal. Sometimes
they wandered over the entire cage without showing any signs of interactions,
144 Tue CanapiAN Fietp-NATURALIST Vol. 83
TABLE 2.—Interspecific aggressive behavior as displayed by interactions between an esta-
blished group of 3 individuals of one species and a new animal introduced into the chamber.
Resident Introduced No. of Resident* patroduced ec No
species species | introductions| dominant ign Eaviely Be pees
accepted** | accepted EDISVE
C. gapperi Cs: 6 6 Eun 2
(Wild capt) eee ls 5 2 3 3
C. gapperi Crige 5 5
(Lab raised) Reels 6 2 6
P. leucopus Pek 6 6 6
(Wild capt) Co & 6 1 6
P. leucopus IPs Ike 4 3 1 3 1
(Lab raised) (Gave 5 1 1 4
Totals 43 12 13 6 31
*The introduced animal was not dominant in any of the trials.
**Within 1 hour.
even when passing within 4 to 5 cm of each other. There was no interspecific
grooming.
In other instances one or both of the animals would stare intently at the
other. [his was described as “curious” behavior. If the other animal was
moving around its end of the cage, the “curious” individual would watch every
movement of the other animal. In many cases such an individual would remain
almost completely motionless during the entire 5-min trial, moving only his
head so as to follow the movements of the other animal. In other cases the
animal doing the staring would stretch its neck and body out toward the other
animal and remain in such a position most of the 5 min. P. Jewcopus displayed
much more such “curious” behavior than did C. gapperi (Table 1).
There was no increase in any aggressive display when the animals were
crowded into the smaller compartment in any of the trials; they continued to
react towards each other as they had in the larger chamber.
There was no difference in the observed interactions which correlated
with the sexes of the animals of the trial.
Introduction into an established group: Indications of aggressive behavior
during the first 10 min a new animal was in the chamber were observed in only
12 of the 43 total introductions involving both species. In all 12 cases the
members of the established group were obviously the dominants. In 13
instances the new animal was immediately (within 1 hour) accepted into the
group. In six instances the introduced animal was not accepted at all by the
group during the 4+day trial.
There was no consistent trend in the above observations. Of the 12
observations of dominance of the established group, nine involved introduced
individuals of the same species as that of the established group (Table 2).
1969 Getz: THe WuiteE-Footep Mouse ANd REDBACK VOLE 145
Likewise five of the six individuals never accepted into a group involved the
same species as the established group. Individuals of the other species were in
general accepted as readily as or more readily than individuals of the other
species.
The wild-captured C. gapperi displayed more aggressiveness against intro-
duced animals of both species than did the laboratory-raised animals. The
laboratory-raised P. leucopus, on the other hand, were more aggressive than
were the wild captured individuals. This is exactly the opposite trend as
noted in the ‘individual encounter’ trials.
There was no noticeable difference in behavior towards introduced males
and females.
DIscussIOoN
The above observations indicate no aggressive behavior which could
account for the habitat segregation of the two species in southern New England.
In general there was very little aggressiveness between the two species and even
that which was observed did not indicate any definite trend for one species
to be more aggressive or dominant over the other. Aggression was directed
at individuals of their own species as frequently as against the other species.
It is not possible to evaluate the significance of the “curious” behavior
in regard to interactions between the two species. The intent staring at and
apparent avoidance of C. gapperi by P. leucopus could possibly be an indication
of some type of interaction with significance in the habitat segregation of the
two species. The present data were not sufficient to determine if this behavior
had such significance under natural conditions or was an artifact of the
laboratory conditions. More extensive studies are needed to make this
evaluation.
A greater water requirement (related to a relatively inefficient kidney)
is a major reason for the restriction of C. gapperi to wet swamps in southern
New England; nothing in the water requirements of P. leucopus accounts
for their lower numbers in swamps, however (Getz, 1968). P. Jewcopus avoids
standing water more than does C. gapperi and is less capable of sustained
swimming (Getz, 1967). As many swamps contain standing water for
considerable periods during the year, such reactions to water may play a part
in the difference in the local distributions of the two species. It does not
appear to be the primary factor, however. The greater aboreality of
P. leucopus (Nicholson, 1941; Getz and Ginsberg, In Press) should reduce the
influence of standing water on the distribution of P. leucopus.
Lower food availability in swamps as compared to uplands may be a
factor in the smaller numbers of P. leucopus in swamps (Getz, 1961). This
conclusion needs to be tested in the field, however, to determine its validity.
Therefore, while it appears that C. gapperi is not found in upland situations
in southern New England because of water requirements, the reason for low
numbers of P. leucopus in swamps is still an open question. There is, however,
no indication that interspecific aggressive behavior plays a major role in the
habitat segregation of the two species.
Vol. 83
146 THe CANADIAN FIeELD-NATURALIST
SUMMARY
Interspecific interactions of the white-footed mouse, Peromyscus leucopus,
and the redback vole, Clethrionomys gapperi, were observed during 5-min
encounters between one individual of each species and by reactions of established
groups of 3 to new individuals. There were only 18 instances of dominance
in 75 individual encounters involving 15 individuals of each species; P. leucopus
was dominant in 7, C. gapperi in 11. In the majority of the trials the two
individuals ignored each other. When introduced into a chamber with an
established group, a new animal of the other species was accepted into the
group as readily as or more readily than was an individual of the same species.
There was no indication that interspecific aggression plays a major role in the
habitat segregation of P. leucopus and C. gapperi.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The work for this study was sponsored by NSF grants G 22553 and
GB 2242.
REFERENCES
CatHoun, J. B. 1963. The social use of
space, p. 1-187. In W. V. Mayer and R. G.
lance and microclimate on the local dis-
tribution of the redback vole and white-
Van Gelder (eds.). Physiological Mam-
malogy. Academic Press. New York.
Ciouen, G. C. 1964. Local distribution of
two voles: evidence for interspecific inter-
action. Canadian Field-Naturalist 78:80-89.
Finptey, J. S. 1954. Competition as a
possible limiting factor in the distribution
of Microtus. Ecology 35:418-420.
Getz, L. L. 1961. Notes on the local dis-
tribution of Peromyscus leucopus and
Zapus bhudsonius. American Midland Na-
turalist 65:486-500.
1962. Aggressive behavior of the
meadow and prairie voles. Journal of
Mammalogy 43:351-358.
1967. Responses of selected small
mammals to water. Occasional Papers in
Biology, University of Connecticut 1:
71-81.
-__—--——, 1968. Influence of water ba-
footed mouse. Ecology In Press.
—— .and V. Grnspere. In Press. Arboreal ~
behaviour of the redback vole, Clethrio-
nomys gapperi. Animal Behaviour.
Kine, J. A. 1957. Intra-and interspecific
conflict of Mus and Peromyscus. Ecology
38:355-357.
NicHotson, A. J. 1941. The homes and
social habits of the wood mouse (Pero-
myscus leucopus noveboracensis) in
southern Michigan. American Midland
Naturalist 25:196-223.
Suepre, W. 1967. Habitat restriction of
competitive exclusion in mice Peromyscus
and Mus. Canadian Field-Naturalist 81:
81-98.
Wirtz, W. O. and P. G. Pearson. 1960. A
preliminary analysis of habitat orientation
in Microtus and Peromyscus. American
Midland Naturalist 63:131-142.
Accepted November 21, 1968
Ne
SOME TRICHOPTERA OF THE HUBBARD BROOK
EXPERIMENTAL FOREST IN
CENTRAL NEW HAMPSHIRE’
KENNETH McConnocHIigr AND GENE E. LIKENS
Department of Biological Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire
INTRODUCTION
In 1963 an intensive ecological study was begun of several forested watershed-
ecosystems in the White Mountain National Forest of central New Hampshire
(Bormann and Likens 1967). These studies have been done in cooperation
with the Northeastern Forest Experiment Station in the Hubbard Brook
Experimental Forest near West Thornton, New Hampshire. The goal of
this study has been to evaluate as many of the parameters of the ecosystem
as possible, in order to understand the function of the entire system. Data
have been accumulated on hydrologic-nutrient cycle interaction, biomass,
productivity, and phenology of the vegetation, and many other parameters of
the ecosystem. Pertinent to this study are data on the presence, distribution
and size of trichopteran populations in the drainage streams of this forested
ecosystem. Extensive collections of larval and adult caddisflies have been
made in New Hampshire (e.g. Flint 1960; Morse and Blickle 1953, 1957),
but few detailed studies had been done for a specific habitat and none had
been done within the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest. Therefore basic
studies were begun in 1965 to obtain information about the Trichoptera in
these watersheds.
Hussarp Brook ExPERIMENTAL FOREST
The Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, covering 3076 hectares, is
typified by rugged terrain, ranging from 229 to 1006 m altitude, and is covered
by unbroken forest of second-growth northern hardwoods, primarily sugar
maple, yellow birch and beech. Some red spruce and balsam fir may be found
at the higher elevations. Climate, although varying in response to altitude, may
be classified as humid continental with short, cool summers and long, cold
winters (Trewartha 1954). The average air temperature in July is 19° C,
while the average January temperature is —9° C. Annual precipitation is
about 121 cm, of which one-third to one-quarter is snow (U.S. Forest
Service 1964).
Within the larger area, a number of small tributary watersheds have been
chosen for intensive study of hydrologic and nutrient parameters. ‘These
watersheds (ecosystems) range in size from 12 to 43 hectares and in altitude
from 500 to 800 m.
1Financial support for this project was provided by Grant No. GY-124 from the Undergraduate
Research Participation Program of the National Science Foundation. We gratefully acknowledge the
enthusiastic counsel and assistance of Dr. Kenneth Cooper, and we are indebted to Dr. Oliver S. Flint, Jr.
and Dr. Wallace J. Morse for identification of adult forms. Dr. Flint also verified the larval identifications.
We thank Dr. F. H. Bormann for collaborative support and assistance. Drs. W. Henson, D. Hinckley and
R. Pierce read the manuscript and offered suggestions and criticisms. This is contribution No. 7 of the
Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study.
2Present address: DETtOuth, Medical School, Hanover, New Hampshire.
147
148 THe CANADIAN Frie_p-NATURALIST Vol. 83
Watershed 4 was selected for this study because of its larger drainage
stream and the overall size of the watershed (36.1 ha). The actual length of
the drainage stream above the gauging station in watershed 4 is 755 m. ‘There
are three first order branches of this stream, two of which remained dry during
most of the summer of 1966. These two branches were considered unlikely
to support caddisfly larvae, and they were ignored in this study. The bedrock
of the watersheds and the drainage streams is the Littleton Formation, which
in this area is a sillimanite-zone gneiss.
Although the precipitation in the region is equally distributed among the
months, stream flow is unequally distributed (Likens et al. 1967). By late
summer and early autumn, streamflow is usually very low and in some cases
may be negligible. Snow pack melt causes major streamflow during the spring.
DRAINAGE STREAM
During the summer, the drainage stream of watershed 4 is in deep shade
beneath the forest canopy, and water temperatures do not vary greatly.
Variation during the day is not more than a degree or two, with the maximum
temperature occurring about 1500 hours. The annual range in temperature is
from about 0 to 17.5° C. The altitudinal temperature gradient during mid-
summer is about 5-7° C, and may be as much as 12° C. The steepest thermal
gradient is confined largely to the upper 50 m of the stream.
The streamwater is clear and contains little dissolved materials (Likens
et al. 1967). Dissolved oxygen is normally near saturation, and the water
varies in pH from 4.6 to 6.4 according to flow and the time of year.
The streamed channel is characterized by cobbles and small boulders,
occasional bedrock exposures and numerous “dams” of organic debris. The
bank-full area of the water-bearing streambed of watershed 4 in June 1966
was 1577 m’ or 0.5% of the total area of this watershed. The average width
of the lower portion of the stream is 2.9 m, while the upper portion is about
1.4 m wide. Stream velocity can be rapid (up to 200 cm/sec at the surface
during periods of heavy rain) and turbulent as might be expected from the
average slope (28%) and bottom composition (Minnikin 1920). At times of
low stream flow, however, the flow is greatly reduced, especially in the upper
portion. It can be reduced to mere seepage from one pool to the next.
A survey of the bottom composition in the drainage stream of watershed
4 was made during the summer of 1966. This was done by three observers
estimating the percentage of the bank-full channel that was covered by
inorganic or organic materials every 10 to 20 m throughout the course of the
stream. ‘The results of this survey indicated that in the lower reaches of the
stream the bottom composition was approximately 20% organic, but increased
to some 70-80% organic near the headwaters and eventually merged with the
litter of the forest floor.
ApuLt CoLLECTIONS
Lighted traps (Fig. 1) were used to collect adult Trichoptera. Collections
were made at distances of 129 m (elevation 448 m), 420 m (elevation 512 m)
1969 McConnocuHiE AND LIKENS: TRICHOPTERA IN New Hampsuire 149
“BLACK LIGHT"
SCREEN
FUNNEL
REUG FOR
BAT TERY
50 cm
BASKET
POISON SOURCE
20. CM ——=
Ficure 1. Lighted trap for adult Trichoptera. The 6-watt General Electric “black light”
is powered by a 12-volt storage battery. Insects hit the screen, fall through the funnel
into the bucket and are killed by ethyl acetate fumes. The fumes are emitted from a
plaster-of-paris block that was soaked in ethyl acetate.
and 700 m (elevation 573 m) along the course of the stream above the weir in
watershed 4. Over a period of nine weeks, starting 4 July 1966 and ending
2 September 1966, a trap was set once a week at each of these sites. Exceptions
to this scheme occurred in the first and third weeks when collections were
obtained from only two sites. The upper site was missed the first week, and
the lower site was missed the third week.
It was not possible to collect at all three sites on the same night since only
two traps were available. All of the sites were within 2 m of the stream, and
were selected to give approximately equal spacing along the stream course
and to avoid shielding by vegetation as much as possible. ‘The traps were set
out approximately one-half hour before sunset and were collected the next
morning.
150 THe CANADIAN FiIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
TABLE 1. — List of species collected within the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest during
1965-1966
Species Adult!-2 Larvae?
HYDROPSYCHIDAE
Diplectrona modesta Bks. I +
Hydropsyche slossonae Bks. I —
H. sparna Ross II =
Parapsyche apicalis (Bks). V +
LEPIDOSTOMATIDAE
Lepidostoma frosti (Milne) IV -
L. griseum (Bks). VI +7
L. lydia Ross II =
L. sackent (Bks). II —
L. sommermanae Ross I —
L. swannanoa Ross I _—
Theliopsyche grisea (Hag). IV —
LIMNEPHILIDAE
Tronoquia lyratus (Ross) IV +7
Limnephilus consocius Walk. I =
L. indivisus Walk. II —
L. moestus Bks. V =
L. ornatus Bks. I _
L. submonilifer Walk. IV =
Neophylax aniqua Ross — _
N. consimilis Bett. II =
N. ornatus Bks. I —
Onocosmoecus quadrinotatus Bks. II —
Platycentropus indistinctus Walk. I —
P. radiatus (Say) II _
Pseudostenophylax sparsus (Bks.) IV _
P. untformis Bett. V ==
Psychoglypha alaskensts (Bks.) = =
Psycnopsyche circularis ( Prov.) Vt —
P. divergens (Walk.) VI at
P. gentilis (McL.) IV aE
P. guttifer (Walk.) VI —
P. luculenta (Bett. ) VI =F
P. scabripennis (Ramb.) V +7
MOLANNIDAE
Molanna blenda Sibl. IV +t
ODONTOCERIDAE
Psilotreta frontalis Bks. III =>
PHILOPOTAMIDAE
Dolophiloides distinctus (Walk.) III =5
Wormaldia moesta (Bks.) VI +7
PHYRGANIDAE
Banksiola crotchi Bks. I =
Oligostomus sp. A* Ca) oie
Oligostomis sp. B* (—) =
Ptilostomis ocellifera (Walk.) II =
PSYCHOMYTIDAE
Lype diversa (Bks.) I —
Nyctiophylax vestitus (Hag.) Ij =
Polycentropus cinereus Hag. Ill
1969 McConnocnuiz£ AND LIKENS: TRICHOPTERA IN New Hampsnire 151
TABLE 1. (Continued)
Species Adult!? Larvae?
P. elarus Ross (+)** _
P. maculatus Bks. (+)** —
RHYACOPHILIDAE
Rhyacophila carolina Bks. III —
R. fuscula (Walk. ) Ill _
R. glaberrima Ulm. V =
R. tnvaria (Walk.) — +t
Rhyacophila sp. (1 @ ) II =
Total species 45 19
Total species represented by both adults and larvae 50
1The relative number of adult individuals for each species, based on total collection of 1706
individuals obtained by lighted trap during 1966 is indicated by:
Cd) =i (III1) = 5-13 (V) = (41-120
(II) = 2-4 (IV) = 14-40 (VI) = 121-364
2({) indicates tentative identification.
(—) not found.
(+) found but not quantified.
*Designations as ‘“‘species A’’ and “‘species B”’ are those of the authors.
** Polycentropus elarus and P. maculatus totaled 96 individuals. The number in each species
is unknown.
LarvAL CoLLECTIONS
Collection of larval forms from the stream was much less extensive than
that done for adults. Substrate sieving and various hand collection techniques
were employed once during the winter and twice in the spring, as well as
numerous occasions during the summer.
RESULTS
A total of fifty species of Trichoptera were collected from watershed 4
of the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest (Table 1). Forty-five adult
species are represented and nineteen species of larvae. Five of the nineteen
larval species were not found as adults.
Three species had not been reported previously for New Hampshire
(Morse and Blickle 1953, 1957). Of these three, only Theliopsyche grisea
(Hag.) was collected for the first time in the state. Lepidostoma sommer-
manae (Ross) and Neophylax consimilis (Bett.) have not been reported
previously in the state although there are unpublished records of previous
collections. (W. Morse, personal communication).
A total of 1706 adult caddisflies were collected in the lighted traps during
the summer. Of these, 747 were obtained at an elevation of 448 m, 538 at
512 m and 421 at 573 m. The most obvious difference in distribution and
abundance was shown by the results for adults of Pycnopsyche divergens
(Walk.). For the summer, 4 individuals were collected at the lowest site,
152 Tue CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
7 at the middle and 138 at the highest. The larvae of this species might be
expected more commonly in the upper portion of watershed 4 since they
normally inhabit very small, spring-fed brooklets (Flint 1960).
DISCUSSION
How well the list of species (Table 1) represents the actual resident
population of watershed 4 depends on the degree to which the sample is
representative and on the extent of migration into the area by “foreign” species.
An adequate sampling period is, of course, necessary for a representative
sample. The optimum period for sampling the adult populations would have
been longer, beginning in the spring and extending into the fall. In terms of
the entire population, however, it is felt that the most important weeks were
sampled. ‘This was suggested by the data of Morse and Blickle (1953) which
indicate that the months of July and August include the most intensive portion
of the flight periods of most species. Nevertheless, there might have been
some species for which the flight period was not sampled at all. This may.
explain the fact that five species, represented by larval individuals, were not
also represented by adults.
In addition to providing a more complete list, a longer sampling period
would have allowed us to establish more accurately the relative abundance
relationships (Table 1). ‘That is, the flight periods of some species coincided ~
to a greater degree with our collection period than the flight periods of others.
Dates of previous collections in New Hampshire indicate that this is the case
(Morse and Blickle, 1953).
Some suppert for considering the sample as representative is provided by
the frequency distribution of species and individuals in the total sample
(Fig. 2). The relationship between number of species and number of
individuals per species is logarithmic. Similar log-normal distributions have
been considered typical for various animal populations (Williams, 1964).
Migration of adult caddisflies into the watershed, from different habitats
with different trichopteran species, may have occurred. Aquatic environments
differing from the stream of watershed 4 are within distances conceivably
travelled by adults (Roos 1957). Some 920 m beyond our lowest collection
station the stream from watershed 4 drains into Hubbard Brook. Hubbard
Brook is a much larger and somewhat warmer stream. Also, Mirror Lake
is only 4 km distance. Trichoptera are considered to be generally weak fliers,
but certainly with the aid of wind, their travelling such distances is likely.
The incidence of such occurrences in watershed 4 is probably low, but is
highly conjectural from our data.
Because of the uncertainty of adult migration, further statements about
altitudinal differences in species distribution probably is unwarranted from our
data. Except for Pycnopsyche divergens (Walk.), where differences in
abundance with altitude are quite marked, data for other species collected with
the lighted traps are not extensive enough to establish significance.
Extensive samples from the larval population must be obtained to determine
any correlation between specific distribution differences and environmental
1969 McConnocuHi£ AND LIKENS: [TRICHOPTERA IN New Hampsuire 153
12
UW
10 o 12
Yn
Sull
9 2 10
wn £9
W 2 ae
a 7 Se
e & 5
ww
© Ele uw 4
oc a 3
Se @ 2
= ai
> 4 2
Zz ae 30¢
Se ele Uae vis
(2-4) (5-13)(14- 40)(41-121) (122-364)
X3 GEOMETRIC CLASSES
OF ABUNDANCE
3 (1)
fo) 10 20 30 40 50 100 150 200 250 300
NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS PER SPECIES
Figure 2. Frequency distribution of species of adult Trichoptera with different numbers
of individuals obtained with a lighted trap during the summer of 1966.
factors. For example, significant differences would be expected on the basis
of the large increase in organic matter in the stream with increased elevation.
Ulfstrand (1967) considers substrate and food to be the most important factors
in influencing larval distribution, whereas current velocity is primarily of
indirect importance through its effect on food and substrate composition.
SUMMARY
1. Fifty species of Trichoptera were collected from watershed 4 of the
Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest during 1966. Forty-five species of
adults and 19 species of larvae were recorded. Adults were collected with
lighted traps from 4 July to 2 September 1966.
2. Theliopsyche grisea (Hag.), Lepidostoma sommermanae (Ross), and
Neophylax consimilis Bett. represented new records for New Hampshire.
REFERENCES
Bormann, F. H. and G. E. Lixens. 1967. dium budgets for a small forested eco-
Nutrient Cycling. Science 155 (3761): system. Ecology 48(5):772-785.
424-429. Minnixkin, R. C. 1920. Practical river and
Frint, O. S. 1960. Taxonomy and biology canal engineering. Griffin and Co., Ltd.,
of Neartic Limnephilid larvae with special London. 123 p.
reference to species in the Eastern United Morse, W. J. and R. L. Brickte. 1953. A
States. Entomologica Americana 40:1-120. check list of the Trichoptera (caddisflies)
Lixens, G. E., F. H. Bormann, N. M. of New Hampshire. Entomological News
Jounson and R. S. Pierce. 1967. The 64:68-73, 97-102.
calcium, magnesium, potassium and so- Morse, W. J. and R. L. Brickre. 1957.
154
Additions and corrections to the list of
New Hampshire Trichoptera. Entomo--
logical News 68:127-131.
Roos, T. 1957. Studies on upstream migra-
tion in adult stream-dwelling insects.
1. Rept. Inst. Freshwater Research Drott-
ning. 38:167-193.
TrewartHa, G. T. 1954. Introduction to
Climate. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York. 402 p.
-UxrFstranp, S. 1967. Microdistribution of
Tue CANADIAN FIeELD-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
benthic species (Ephemeroptera, Plecop-
tera, Trichoptera, Diptera:Simuliidae) in
Lapland streams. Oikos 18:293-310.
U.S. Forest Service. Northeastern Forest
Experiment Station. 1964. Hubbard
Brook Experimental Forest. Northeast
Forest Expt. Sta. Upper Darby, Penna.
13% ps
aan C. B. 1964. Patterns in the
Balance of Nature. Academic Press. New
York. 324 p.
Accepted December 8, 1968
NOTES
Postmetamorphic Basking
Ageregations of the Boreal
Toad, Bufo boreas boreas
Waite collecting in Waterton Lakes
National Park, Alberta, Canada, three
basking aggregations of juvenile Bufo
boreas boreas were observed. All ob-
servations were made in a three acre
swamp and pond area created by two
beaver dams. There were two major
fingers of water at the north end of the
- pond area and lowering water had left a
narrow muddy bank along the edges of
the water. This swamp and pond area is
located 14 miles NW of Canadian High-
way 5 on the south side of the Red Rock
Canyon Road, Waterton Lakes National
Park, Alberta, at 4,500 feet of elevation.
The first observations were made on 6
August 1968, at 11 a.m. The first aggrega-
tion consisted of about 300 juvenile
toads stacked two or three deep in a
square foot area exposed to the direct
rays of the sun along a small irregularity
of the finger of the pond. All moved in
mass into the water when disturbed. The
temperature on the basking aggregation
was 26°C., the water temperature 20°C.,
and the air temperature 24°C. This small
irregularity of the pond was in the form
of an elongated U and had a narrow
muddy bank packed evenly by the toad
aggregation. Another toad agg regation
of about 200 individuals was observed in
another irregularity about two feet
away. Farther down the long finger of
the pond was a level muddy area with
small patches of short grass. This area
was about 6 feet square. There was a
large aggregation of around 1,000 toads
and several smaller aggregations in this
area, all in the direct rays of the sun and
in piles several deep. All individuals in
the aggregations were inactive although
alert and readily moved towards and
into the water when disturbed.
In all areas where basking aggregations
occurred, very few juveniles were found
155
in the surrounding vegetation and were
aggregated on bare ground rather than
short grass. The ground where basking
aggregations were present was packed
evenly with numerous round depressions
the size of a juvenile toad.
The three major aggregations were
present early in the afternoon, still in
the direct rays of the sun.
By 6:30 p.m. the same day, the aggrega-
tions had dispersed from the first two
irregularities along the finger of water.
The juveniles were now numerous in
the surrounding vegetation, under banks
and other objects. They appeared to be
dispersed for feeding. The air tempera-
ture was 22°C. and the temperature in
the tall grass where the juvenile toads
were numerous was 24°C. Most of the
large aggregation had also dispersed to
the surrounding grass and up and down
the shoreline. One aggregation of about
300 juveniles still existed in the middle
of the 6 foot area.
The next observations were made at
8 am. on 7 August 1968. The juvenile
toads were difficult to find and were cold
and sluggish in the tall grass, under banks
and other sheltered spots. A small aggre-
gation formed on top of a downed log
where the first rays of the sun were
hitting. The air temperature was 9°C.,
the water 12°C., and the temperature on
the log where the small aggregation
existed was 11°C.
Twenty juveniles were randomly
collected and preserved. The snout-vent
lengths ranged from 13.0 mm. to 16.8
mm. with an average snout-vent length
of 15.4 mm.
Mullally and Cunningham (1956) and
Karlstrom (1962) have reported apparent
basking in the sun by adults of the Yose-
mite toad, Bufo canorus. They suggested
that basking by the Yosemite toad was
an important behavioral adaptation
when environmental! temperatures were
low. Basking enabled the Yosemite toad
to obtain sufficient heat to feed normally
and perform other activities. Similarly,
156
basking aggregations in juvenile B. b.
boreas would result in their utilization
of direct sunlight as an extremely impor-
tant adaptation to life in the cool tem-
peratures of Waterton Lakes National
Park. These basking aggregations of
juvenile toads probably served the func-
tion of raising their body temperatures
to permit greater activity and feeding.
There were large aggregations early in
the day when cooler temperatures existed
and then dispersal from the aggregations
for feeding later in the day during and
after the warmest temperatures.
Color slides were taken of these aggre-
gations, but reproduction in black and
white was not feasible. These slides are
available upon request to the authors.
Our thanks to Francis R. Cook, and
J. R. B. Coleman for their help in obtain-
ing a permit to collect in Waterton
Lakes National Park, and to Dr. Charles
C. Carpenter for reading the manuscript.
REFERENCES
KarrstroM, E. L. 1962. The toad genus
Bufo in the Sierra Nevada of California.
University of California Publications in
Zoology 62:1-104.
Muttatty, D. P. and J. D. CunnincHaM.
1956. Aspects of the thermal ecology of
The Yosemite toad. Herpetologica 12:
57-67.
JerrrEyY Howarp Brack
Jupira Norene Brack
Department of Zoology,
University of Oklahoma,
Norman, Oklahoma 73069
Accepted January 9, 1969
A Reconsideration of the
Relationship of Barbula
johanseniu (Musci)
Barbula johansenii is a rare moss known
from four widely scattered localities in
the North. It was first found by Frits
Johansen on Victoria Island (ca. 69°30’
Tue CANADIAN FieLp-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
N, 115° W) and described by Williams
(1921) in one of the reports of the
Canadian Arctic Expedition of 1913-18.
Steere (1952) reported it from the
Brooks Range of arctic Alaska (68°12’ N,
152°7’ W), and Savicz-Ljubitskaja (1964)
recorded its occurrence in the Lena River
valley of eastern Siberia (ca. 71°40’ N,
127°10’' E). In 1965 I reported the first
collection outside the arctic in the
Canadian Rocky Mountains, at Baker
Creek, Banff National Park (ca. 51°30’
N, 116° W), Alberta.
The species is similar in gametophytic
characteristics to Barbula acuta (Brid.)
Brid. and its common arctic expression,
B. icmadophila Schimp., but 1s easily
recognized by long, fleshy, swollen leaf
tips which are regularly caducous. Both
Williams and Savicz-Ljubitskaja ob-
served proliferations from the ends of
fallen leaf tips, indicating an apparent
function in vegetative reproduction.
Adequate descriptions of the gameto-
phytes may be found in publications by
Williams (1921), Steere (1938), and
Savicz-Ljubitskaja (1964). Walliams’
illustrations were reproduced by Steere
in Grout’s Moss Flora of North America
(1938), and Savicz-Ljubitskaja (1964)
provided excellent drawings. The sporo-
phytes have, until now, been unknown.
Recently, quite by chance, I discovered
fruiting material in a Canadian collection
made by Thomas Drummond and in-
cluded as an unmixed tuft with Didy-
modon tophaceus (Brid.) Jur. in his
Musci Americani (Rocky Mountains),
no. 120 [distributed as D. trifarius
(Hedw.) Brid.], at least as represented
in the herbarium of the University of
Michigan. The specimen was presumably
collected “about the Falls of Niagara.”
Such accidental mixtures are commonly
found in Drummond’s_ exsiccati set
(1828), and the labels are neither in-
formative nor accurate. For phytogeo-
graphic reasons, I am guessing that this
collection actually came from western
Canada and probably from the calcareous
habitats of the Rocky Mountains as most,
1969
though not all of Drummond’s collections
did. (A recent report by Bird, 1967, gives
useful information on Drummond’s
itinerary up the Hudson River and across
Canada to the Rocky Mountains. The
title of the exsiccati is misleading, as
many of the collections came from the
vicinity of Niagara Falls and elsewhere
in Upper Canada, as Ontario was then
called, and also én various ill-defined
parts of the central Canadian prairies.)
The sporophytes indicate a relation-
ship to Didymodon rather than to
Barbula because of short, erect peristome
teeth (rather than the long, spirally
twisted teeth so highly characteristic of
Barbula),and a nomenclatural transfer is
required: Didymodon johansenii (Wil-
liams) n. comb. Barbula johansenu
Williams, Report Canad. Arctic Exped.
1913-18, Bot. 4E: 4. 1921. A description
of essential features of fruiting plants
follows:
Upper and perichaetial leaves con-
spicuously enlarged (about 2 mm. long
as compared with the lower leaves which
are 1.5 mm. long or less and narrower at
the base), slenderly subulate from a
broad, ovate base, the subulae nearly
always broken off. Setae 7-8 mm. long,
dark-red; capsules 1.2-1.3 mm. long,
oblong-cylindric, erect and symmetric,
dark-red; annulus differentiated; oper-
culum not seen; peristome teeth short and
slender but well developed, about 100 u
high, erect, imperfectly divided into 2
terete forks, pale, finely papillose-
roughened. Spores spherical, finely papil-
lose, 11-13 mw in diameter. Calyptrae
cucullate, smooth, naked.
Steere (1953), in an interesting and
provocative contribution to arctic phyto-
geography, called attention to a small
group of rare bryophytes which are
essentially limited to high northern lati-
tudes and may have survived the Pleisto-
cene in unglaciated parts of the High
Arctic, in the western Arctic Archi-
pelago of Canada, parts of the Yukon,
Notes
157
and the Brooks Range of Alaska. The
fact that some of them, such as Barbula
johansenii, occur sparingly in montane
habitats south of the arctic, does not dis-
prove Steere’s thesis, as it is possible that
such species may have escaped glaciation
in some localized niches in the Canadian
Rocky Mountains as well as in a northern
nunatak of greater extent and greater
import. Such disjunctions do present the
interesting possibility, however, of a
survival farther south in the American
Rocky Mountains and a secondary in-
vasion of the North in post-Pleistocene
times.
REFERENCES
Biro, C. D. 1967. The mosses collected
by Thomas Drummond in_ western
Canada. The Bryologist 70(2) :262-266.
Crum, H. 1965. Barbula johansenii, an
arctic disjunct in the Canadian Rocky
Mountains. The Bryologist 68(3): 344-345.
Drummonp, T. 1928. Musci Americani
(Rocky Mountains). 228 specimens. Glas-
gow.
Savicz-Lyusitskaja, Lypia I. 1964. Novy
vid dlya brioflory SSSR—Barbula johan-
seni Williams. Barbula johansenii Wil-
liams—species nova ad bryofloram URSS.
Akad. Nauk SSSR, Novosti Sistematiki
Nizshikh Rastenii 1964:286-292.
STEERE, W. C. 1938. Barbula. pp. 173-185
in A. J. Grout, Moss Flora of North
America North of Mexico. Vol. 1.
Newfane, Vt.
1952. Bryophyta of arctic Ameri-
ca. V. The rediscovery of Barbula johan-
senii. The Bryologist 55 (4) :259-260.
1953. On the geographical distri-
bution of arctic bryophytes. Im I. L.
Wiggins, Current Biological Research in
the Alaskan Arctic. Stanford University
Publications, University Series, Biological
Sciences 11:30-47.
WituaMs, R. S. 1921. Mosses. Report of
the Canadian Arctic Expedition 1913-18,
Botany 4(E):1-15.
Howarp Crum
Herbarium,
University of Michigan,
Ann Arbor,
Michigan
Accepted January 6, 1969
158
Notes on Birds of the Iron Bridge,
Ontario, Region
From June 14 to 29, 1966 the writer,
assisted by Messrs. Frank Cosenzo and
Ted Miller, collected ornithological ma-
terial for the bird research collection of
the Museum of Natural Sciences, Na-
tional Museums of Canada. Work was
centred at Iron Bridge, Ontario, with
occasional trips west to Thessalon; east
to Blind River; and north to about 25
miles north of Iron Bridge.
117 species were identified in the re-
gion. The status of most species was
similar to that in the Sault Ste. Marie
region, Ontario, as recorded by Snyder
(1942) and Warburton (1950). The
status of the following few species, how-
ever, seems noteworthy.
Strix nebulosa Forster, Great Gray Ow
Remnants of one individual were found
near Iron Bridge on June 26. It had been
dead for some months and doubtless came
south as part of the great irruption dur-
ing the winter of 1965-1966 (Goodwin
1966).
Asio otus (Linnaeus), Lonc-rarED Ow
On June 26 a nest of this owl was lo-
cated in extensive forest ten miles north
of Iron Bridge. It was situated about 40
feet up in a 55-foot white spruce and
contained three well-developed young.
Definite nesting records of this species
appear to be few in that part of Ontario.
Myiarchus crinitus boreus Bangs, Great
Crestep FLYCATCHER
Three were observed on June 15, and
two on June 19 and 22, near Iron Bridge.
It apparently is near the northern peri-
phery of its range there.
Stelgidopteryx ruficelis serripennis
(Audubon), RoucH-wincep SwaLLow
Two were noted near Iron Bridge on
June 22. The species is doubtless on the
northern edge of its range there. Perhaps
it is a recent arrival for it was not re-
corded by Snyder (1942) in the Sault Ste.
Tue CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
Marie region and it has just now been
found nesting six miles west of Thessalon
by Denis (1968). Specimen: 1 ad. 6 June
22, Iron Bridge.
Corvus corax Linnaeus, ComMoN RavEN
Fairly common west at least to Thes-
salon. We observed it on June 15(6),
16(2), 17(4 including flying young),
19(4), 21(3), 22(4), 23(3), 24(3),
25(12), 26(16 in one flock), 27(7), 28(7).
West of Thessalon it apparently is scarce
in summer if indeed present at all. Snyder
(1942) did not list it and Warburton
(1950) gave it winter status only at Sault
Ste. Marie.
Telmatodytes palustris (Wilson),
Lonc-BILLED MarsH WrReEN
At Blind River, in a cattail marsh, three
were observed on June 21. The species
was noted by Chandler Robbins (MS.)
on Manitoulin Island but was not en-
countered in the Sault Ste. Marie region
by Snyder (1942) or Warburton (1950).
Toxostoma rufum rufum (Linnaeus),
Brown THRASHER
Observed in daily numbers varying
from one to seven. Although not uncom-
mon farther east at Bigwood (Baillie and
Hope 1947) it apparently is scarce west-
ward in the Sault Ste Marie region ac-
cording to Snyder (1942) and Warbur-
ton (1950). Specimens: 2 ad. males, 2
ad. females, June 16-22. Iron Bridge.
Hylocichla mustelina (Gmelin),
Woop TurusH
Observed near Iron Bridge on June
14(4), 20(2), 24(2), 25(5), 27(2), 28(2);
also 20 miles north of Thessalon June
20(2); 15 miles north of Iron Bridge
June 17(2); and 10 miles north of Blind
River (2).
Although this thrush has been re-
corded at Lake Nipissing farther east
(Ricker and Clarke 1939), it was not
found in the Sault Ste. Marie region by
Snyder (1942) or Warburton (1950).
Probably it is a recent arrival at Iron
1969
Bridge. Specimens: 2 ad. males, June
20-21, Iron Bridge (10 and 13 miles N.).
Regulus calendula calendula (Linnaeus),
RuByY-CROWNED KINGLET
A singing male in pine-spruce wood-
land, some six miles northwest of Iron
Bridge, on June 23 was our only record.
It behaved as though on its nesting
grounds. It was not encountered by
Snyder (1942) in the Sault Ste. Marie
region and Warburton (1950) found it
there only as an autumn migrant.
Specimen: 1 ad. male, June 23, Iron
Bridge (6 miles N.W.).
Vireo gilvus (Vieillot), WarBLInc VIREO
A singing individual in shade trees
within the town of Blind River on June
21 was our only record.
Dendroica tigrina (Gmelin),
Care May WarsBLer
Two singing individuals in tall spruce-
pine forest ten miles north of Iron Bridge
on June 24.
Specimen: 1 ad. male, June 24, Iron
Bridge (10 miles N.).
Icterus galbula (Linnaeus),
BaLtTimore ORIOLE
A group of two adults, accompanied
by three flying young were observed 8
miles north of Blind River on June 21;
also two other adults in the same general
area. One adult male was noted on
several occasions at Iron Bridge. Evi-
dently this species is virtually absent as
a breeding bird in the Sault Ste. Marie
region for Snyder (1942) does not men-
tion it and Warburton (1950) observed
only one spring migrant.
Specimen: 1 ad. female, June 21, Blind
River (8 miles N.).
Euphagus cyanocephalus (Wagler),
Brewer’s BLACKBIRD
This western species is a very recent
arrival in the region. Its presence at
Sault Ste. Marie was first detected in
1953 and it was first ascertained to be
Notes
159
nesting there in
Devitt 1964).
In 1966, we observed it regularly in
daily numbers varying from 2 to 30 in
the Iron Bridge, Blind River, and
Thessalon areas. Short-tailed young, not
long out of the nest, were noted near
Iron Bridge.
Specimens: 2 ad. females, June 27,
Sowerby (4 miles W.).
1954 (Baillie 1954;
REFERENCES
Baru, James L. 1954. Ontario - western
New York region. Audubon Field Notes
8(5) :343.
Bam, James L., and Cimrorp E. Hope.
1947. The summer birds of Sudbury Dis-
trict, Ontario, Contributions of the Royal
Ontario Museum of Zoology 28:1-32.
Denis, Norman. 1968. Nesting records—
1967—Algoma District. News letter of the
Thunder Bay Field Naturalists Club 22
(1):5.
Devitt, O. E. 1964. An extension in the
breeding range of Brewer’s Blackbird in
Ontario. Canadian Field-Naturalist 78(1):
42-46.
Goopwin, Cuiive E. 1966. Ontario-western
New York Region. Audubon Field Notes
20(3) :417.
Ricker, W. E., and C. H. D. Crarxe. 1939.
The birds of the vicinity of Lake Nipissing,
Ontario. Contributions of the Royal
Ontario Museum of Zoology 16:1-25.
Snyper, L. L. 1942. Summer birds of the
Sault Ste. Marie region, Ontario. In A
faunal investigation of the Sault Ste. Marie
region, Ontario by L. L. Snyder, E. B. S.
Logier, and T. B. Kurata. Transactions of
the Royal Canadian Institute 22 (Part 1):
99-165.
WARBURTON, FRED. 1950. Notes on the ver-
tebrates, except fishes, of the Sault Ste.
Marie region of Ontario. Canadian Field-
Naturalist 64(6) :192-200.
W. Eart Goprrey
Museum of Natural Sciences
National Museums of Canada
Ottawa, Ontario
Accepted January 10, 1969
160
Vertical Distribution of
White Perch, Roccus americanus,
modified by Light
Durine the summer of 1967, an attempt
was made to record the diel vertical
distribution of white perch in the Bay
of Quinte, Lake Ontario. A bottom
trawl operated both during the day and
night, proved unsuitable. A specially
constructed 18 foot deep gill net with
panels of 1.5; 2; 2.5 and 3 inch mesh dis-
tributed at all depths was impractical
because few white perch were taken and
the net was choked with alewives
(Pomolabus pseudoharengus). Winder-
mere traps operated off the dock of the
Fisheries Station at Glenora gave the
best information. Previous experience
had indicated that white perch were
abundant here during the month of July.
Each trap was 4 long and 2’ in
diameter. On one side, there was an
opening tapering to 4” and on the other
a door for removal of fish. The traps
were made of 3” wire gauze or nylon
Tue CanapiAN FreELp-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
120
zg NIGHT LIFTS
H NIGHT LIFTS WITH LIGHT
[e)
(e)
80
60
40
CATCH PER UNIT EFFORT
20
4 8 12 16 20
DEPTH (FEET)
Figure 1. The number of white perch taken
at the depths indicated per 100 hours night
fishing per Windermere trap under normal
conditions and with surface illumination.
TABLE 1.—Numbers of white perch caught at various depths in Windermere traps during
July in the Bay of Quinte, Lake Ontario
(catch per unit effort in parenthesis)
Number of fish and CUE at each depth
Hours (depths in feet)
Type of Lift No. fishing ot Fe
4 8 12 16 20
Day 10 86 - 1 - 3 -
- Gia) - (3.4) =
Night 15 248 159 181 82 35 48
(64.1) (72.9) (33.0) (14.1) (19.3)
24-hour 10 240 5 88 33 27 40
(21.6) (36.6) (Sie), (12) (16.6)
Total of day, 35 574 211 272 115 63 88
night and 24-hour (36.7) (47.3) (20.0) (10.9) (15.3)
Night, surface 8 112 23 30 37 64 157
illumination (20.5) (26.7) @G3ah) (Sie) GORD)
1969
mesh. Traps were hung at depths of 4’, 8’,
12’, 16’ and 20’. Observations were made
between 8 July and 31 July. Thirty-five
lifts, each involving 5 traps hung at the
depths stated, were made. This involved
574 hours fishing. In addition, 8 night
lifts were made to determine the effect
of light. This involved 112 hours fishing
while the surface of the water was
illuminated by a 100 watt bulb.
Under natural conditions, there were
10 day lifts, 15 night lifts and 10 24-hour
lifts; these involved 86, 248 and 240
hours fishing respectively. In all, 749 fish
were collected. The catch per unit effort,
defined as the number of fish caught per
Windermere trap per 100 hours of fish-
ing, was relatively low in day lifts.
Results from night lifts and 24 hour lifts
show that the CUE was maximum at 8
feet and then decreased in the depth
order of 4 ,12’, 20’ and 16’ (Table 1).
Even combining all lifts, this pattern
persisted. The day lifts caught too few
fish to provide information on depth
distribution. At night, the effectiveness
of traps hung at 8’ indicated that the fish
congregated near to the surface.
Analysis of night lifts made when the
surface of the water was illuminated
showed a different distribution. The
CUE was maximum at 20’ and decreased
from 140.1 at that depth to 20.5 at 4
(Table 1 and Fig. 1).
Light had modified the vertical dis-
tribution of this population of white
perch and it is undoubtedly important
in controlling the vertical movements
of white perch in nature.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Mr. W. J. Christie of
Fisheries Station, Glenora, and Dr. D. W.
Coble of Missouri Cooperative Fishery
Unit for their encouragement and sug-
gestions.
The senior author is grateful to the
External Aid Office, Ottawa, for a
scholarship awarded him under the
Colombo Plan through the Government
Notes
161
of Pakistan. Financial support for the
project was provided by the Ontario
Department of University Affairs.
A. N. SHERI
G. Power
Department of Biology
University of Waterloo
Waterloo, Ontario
Canada
Striped Mullet, Mzgil cephalus,
Records from Halifax County,
Nova Scotia, in 1966 and 1968
On THE night of September 1, 1966, a
small school of young gaspereau, Alosa
pseudopharengus Wilson, was seen in
shallow water, at the head of Prospect
Bay approximately 14 miles south west
of Halifax. Mixed with this school was
a smaller number of striped miullets,
Mugil cephalus Linnaeus. The mullets
were smaller and seemed to be concen-
trated at the end of the school. There is
some fresh water influence here from
Whites Lake Brook and several small
creeks. Out from the low tide mark
there is thick eel grass and the sandy
bottom becomes covered with deep silt.
Two mullets were collected with the
use of a head lamp and a fine mesh
landing net. This is the second recorded
collection of M. cephalus in inshore
Canadian waters. The two Prospect
specimens measured 29 mm. and 31 mm.
The first recorded collection of this
species was by Vladykov when a three
inch M. cephalus was taken in a seine
haul in Bedford Basin, Halifax Harbour,
Nova Scotia, September 29, 1931.
The Prospect area was visited again
at night, on September 6, 1966, and three
small schools of mixed mullets and
gaspereau were seen. Five of the striped
mullets were collected. Two of these
specimens were deposited in the Royal
Ontario Museum, Toronto. The cata-
logue no. is 25177.
162 THe CANnabiaN Fretp-NaATurALIST Vol. 83
1966
Date No. of Specimens Size Range Average Size
September 1 2 specimens 29 mm. — 31 mm. 30 mm.
September 6 6 speciemns 29:5 mim. — 37.5 mim: 32.7 mm.
September 10 57 specimens 28.5 mm. — 37.5 mm. 31.7 mm.
1968
Date No. of Specimens Size Range Average Size
September 24 7 specimens 32 mm. — 38.5 mm. 34.2 mm.
September 29 11 specimens 29 mm. — 48 mm. 38.3 mm.
October 1 2 specimens 30 mm. — 32.5 mm. 31.3 mm.
October 8 16 specimens 30.5 mm. — 58.5 mm. 39.3 mm.
October 12 10 specimens 32.5 mm. — 50 mm. 42.8 mm.
October 17 2 specimens 34.5 mm. — 42 mm. 38.3 mm.
October 22 14 specimens 33.5 mm. — 68 mm. 48.7 mm.
October 28 14 specimens 43 mm. — 76 mm. 52.8 mm.
October 29 1 specimen 48 mm. 48 mm.
The largest number of M. cephalus
(approximately 200 to 300 mullets) was
seen on the night of September 10, 1966.
Some of these mullets were in small
schools with gaspereau, however, most
were scattered along the shore from the
tide mark to a depth of about 2 feet.
Fifty-seven specimens were collected.
I returned to the area at night on
September 26, 1966, and saw one mullet
swimming on its side near the surface.
No attempt was made to collect M.
cephalus in the fall of 1967.
The small sandy beach at Prospect
Bay was visited nine times between
September 24 and October 29, 1968. Each
time striped mullets were collected. At
low tide slimy brown algae could be
seen in the eel grass and on the bottom.
Mullets were scooped up with the algae
since they lay on top or were entangled
within the plant life. The largest num-
ber of fish, approximately 300 specimens,
was seen on October 8, 12, 22 and 28,
1968. On October 29 only one specimen
was collected out of seven striped mul-
lets seen. No mullets were seen on
several trips made in early November.
REFERENCES
Lem, A. H. and W. B. Scorr. 1966. Fishes
of the Atlantic Coast of Canada. Fisheries
Research Board of Canada, Bulletin No.
15D.
Vuiapykov, V. D. and R. A. McKenzm.
1935. The Marine Fishes of Nova Scotia,
Proceedings of the Nova Scotia Institute
of Science, 19:17-113.
JoHN GILHEN
Nova Scotia Museum
Halifax, Nova Scotia
Accepted November 28, 1968
1969
Puccinellia ambigua Th. S¢r.,
new to the Hudson Bay Region
Puccinellia ambigua Th. S¢r., heretofore
known only from a few disjunct stations
in the Gulf of St. Lawrence Region, has
been added to the long and still growing
list of bicentric littoral species common
to the Hudson-James Bay area and the
Gulf region, but lacking along the inter-
vening Labrador coast. By its long,
flagelliform and leafy runners, P. am-
bigua superficially resembles P. phry-
ganodes, with which it has been con-
fused but, unlike the latter, its anthers
are fully functional but only half as long
as those of P. phryganodes, and it regu-
larly produces normal and viable fruits.
Puccinellia ambigua was described
and illustrated in Medd. o. Grl. 136,3:64
(1953), tab. 7, and figs. 1, 37 and 83-84.
The type came from Prince Edward
Island, Prince Co., Alberton, and was
collected by M. L. Fernald & H. St. John,
No. 6913. Duplicates had been distri-
buted to several herbaria by Fernald and
labelled P. paupercula (Holm) Fern. &
Weatherby var. alaskana (Scribn. &
Merr.) Fern & Weatherby, with the
parenthetic comment “dwarf form with
abundant long stolons resembling those
of P. phryganodes”. The type of P.
ambigua is in Copenhagen and a dupli-
cate in Ottawa (CAN 37617). Besides
the type S¢rensen (l.c.) cited a specimen
from the Avalon Peninsula, Newfound-
land, Fernald & Wiegand, No. 4656, of
which a duplicate likewise is in Ottawa,
and a third, from New Brunswick:
Gloucester Co. Grande Anse, Tureson &
Alm, No. 164. Additional specimens in
the National Herbarium, Ottawa, by
Fernald & Weatherby (1916) cited either
as P. paupercula or P. paupercula var.
alaskana, suggest that P. ambigua is
wideranging in the Gulf of St. Lawrence
region: Newfoundland: Valley of Ex-
ploits River, Norris Arm, Fernald &
Wiegand, No. 4657; Region of Bay St.
George, damp sandy shores, St. George,
Fernald & Wiegand, No. 2614; Magdalen
Notes 163
Islands: wet brackish sand, Grindstone
Island, Fernald, Bartram, Long & St.
John, No. 6912; Saguenay Co., Quebec,
Bluff Harbour, 50° 12’ N.-and 60° 41’
W., Aug. 1, 1927, Harrison F. Lewis;
and Gaspé Co. Que. Salt Marsh, Riviere
St. Anne des Monts, Tourelle, Fernald &
Smith, No. 25441.
S¢grensen (l.c.), placed P. ambigua in
what he called the “Pumilla Group”,
said to be “best typified by P. pumila
(Vasey) Hitche. and by P. kamtschatica
var. sublaevis Holmb., both of them
natives of the subarctic Beringian Re-
gion. Generally low-grown, glaucous and
glabrous caespitose plants, by rare ex-
ceptions forming epiterranean runners.
Spikelets and pedicels somewhat shining,
bracts [glumes] entire or nearly so, not
markedly nerved. Epidermal cells =
warty, the short cells often semiglobular,
tumid, sometimes transformed into
minute blunt spinules; marginal cells
rather short, though generally not iso-
diametrical”’.
Besides the above, Sgrensen included
the following in his “Pumila Group”:
P. triflora Swallen and probably P.
Hultenti Swallen, both of Alaska, and
P. pumila var. Fernaldii Hultén, which
latter is P. paupercula var. alaskana sensu
Fernald & Wiegand of the Gulf of St.
Lawrence region or, at least all those that
have stolons. Sgrensen further suggested
that P. Ramtschatica var. aspera Holmb.
of eastern Asia, and the Novaya Zem-
lian P. tenella (Lange) Th. Sgr. may
belong. The Pumila group is arctic- sub-
arctic but, according to S¢grensen, is not
represented in floras of Greenland,
or Spitsbergen. In fact true P. pumlia
may not be present either in the flora of
eastern North America.
Sgrensen (lc. p. 66) further showed
that P. paupercula var. alaskana of
Fernald and Weatherby consists of two
elements: one distinguished by flagelli-
form runners, superficially resembling
those of P. phryganodes, and known to
him only from the Gulf of St. Lawrence
Region, he separated and described as
164
P. ambigua. The non-stoloniferous P.
paupercula and P. paupercula var. alas-
kana of the Gray Manual range, accord-
ing to Sgrensen are related to P. pumila,
but without a legitimate name, because
P. pumila var. Fernaldii Hultén, 1937,
p- 96, was based on P. paupercula var.
alaskana (sensu Fernald and Weatherby)
as illustrated in Rhodora 18:18 where
the illustrations: tab. 117 and figs. 68-72,
unfortunately, were drawn from a speci-
men from British Columbia.
When dealing with the genus Pucci-
nellia for a Flora of Continental North-
west Territories (in preparation, see
Porsild & Cody, 1968) we hesitated to
include P. pumila in view of Sgrensen’s
cautioning conclusions. In the National
Herbarium of Canada, however, are four
sheets of Puccinellia from the Hudson
Bay region, that by Sgrensen were
tentatively referred to P. pumila. He saw
these in 1953, but only after his mono-
graph had gone to press. One, from
Rankin Inlet on the west coast of Hud-
son Bay, lat 62° 45’, Aug. 30, 1910, J. M.
Macoun, CAN 79116, by Fernald and
Weatherby determined as P. paupercula,
he annotated P. pumila (Vasey) Hitchc.,
and the remaining three: P. alaskana
Scribn. & Merr., from Churchill, Man.
Aug. 13-16, 1936, N. Polunin, No. 1917;
P. angustata R. Br. from east coast of
Hudson Bay, Long Island, 54° 36’,
Dutilly & Lepage, No. 12;789; and P.
arctica Hook. from the east coast of
James Bay, Attikuan Pt, 54° 12’ N.,
Baldwin, Hustich et al., No. 187, Séren-
sen tentatively named P. pumila (Vasey)
Hitche. s. lat.
An examination of much new material
in the National Herbarium of Canada of
Puccinellia from the eastern Canadian
Arctic, accessioned since 1953, brought
to light, under P. phryganodes, two col-
lections of clear-cut P. ambigua Th.
Sgr.: East coast of James Bay, déprimé
sur le rivage de sable, Vieux-Comptoir,
2 37 Aa IN W/ Soe oS e nO5.4
Dutilly and Duman, No. 32.096; vicinity
Tue CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
of Churchill, Man. 58° 46’ N. 94° 10’ W.,
wet area in salt marsh, July 30, 1956,
Schofield & Crum, No. 7088. Both have
well developed leafy runners and in both
the florets are fertile and the anthers
0.6-0.7 mm long.
Inasmuch as the range of P. ambigua has
thus been extended to the Hudson Bay
region, there is perhaps reason to suspect
that the Rankin Inlet specimen, and cer-
tainly the remaining three that Sgrensen
hesitated to consider typical P. humilis
may, in fact, be P. ambigua. The Rankin
Inlets specimens unfortunately were col-
lected very late in the season, when most
of the florets had been reduced to empty
glumes, and when the bases of the
flowering shoots were shrivelled and
partly reduced to shreds. If not P.
ambigua, the Rankin Inlet plant is
probably identical with the non- stoloni-
ferous P. “paupercula” of the Gulf of
St. Lawrence region type. In the James
Bay specimens (Baldwin & Hustich No.
187) leafy runners are already sprouting
on July 20, and in Dutilly and Lepage’s,
No. 12,789, insipient internodal re-
juvenation buds, such as are illustrated
by Sorensen (lc. fig. 1, on p. 66) for
P. ambigua, can be seen quite clearly.
REFERENCES
Fernatp, M. L., and C. A. WEATHERBY. 1916.
The genus Puccinellia in eastern North
America. Rhodora 18:1-23, Pl. 114-117.
Hurtin, E. 1937. Flora of the Aleutian
Islands, Stockholm 1937.
Porsip, A. E.,. and~ Wa 5j>) Copyess eG:
Checklist of the Vascular plants of con-
tinental Northwest Territories, Canada.
Plant Research Institute, Canada Depart-
ment of Agriculture.
S@RENSEN, TH. 1953. A Revision of the
Greenland species of Puccinellia Parl.
Medd. o. Grénl. 136,3.
A. E. Porsitp
National Museum of Natural Sciences
Ottawa
Accepted February 4, 1968
1969
Red-tailed Hawks Nesting on
Cliffs in Ontario
Tue Red-tailed Hawk, Buteo jamaicensis,
is known to nest occasionally on cliffs in
western North America, but apparently
very few such nestings in the eastern
part of the continent have been men-
tioned in the literature. Snyder (1942)
describes a cliff nest in the Sault Ste.
Marie region: “A pair of Red-tailed
Hawks reared its family in a nest situated
on a ledge high up on the rock cliffs at
Iron River. The nest, from very close
Inspection, appeared as characteristically
bulky as one built in a normal arboreal
site.” MacLulich (1938), referring to
Algonquin Provincial Park, did not men-
tion a specific nest but stated that “It
builds its nest either in tall trees in the
forest or near the top of a high rocky
hill or cliff.” Since these are the only
published references that I have been able
to locate on this species’ cliff nesting in
eastern North America, I think that the
following accounts of two such nests
are of interest.
Dr. George K. Peck, of Oakville,
Ontario, supplied me with information
about a nest on a cliff at Mount Nemo
(part of the Niagara Escarpment),
Halton County, Ontario. He described
it as being on a small ledge and sup-
ported by a small cedar tree growing
out of the rock, about 25 feet down from
the top of the cliff and 125 feet up from
the base. He observed this nest on May
1, 1965, when it contained two small
young, and again on June 2, 1968, when
it held two eggs and the adult was incu-
bating. A report came to him later that
these eggs hatched and subsequently one
young disappeared. Dr. Peck also said
that he has good reason to believe that
this nest was similarly occupied in 1964.
In 1966 and 1967 it was not used and this
pair of Red-tails was thought to be
nesting in a tree in the valley.
Another Red-tailed Hawk cliff nest
was discovered by the writer and
Nores
165
Joseph F. Thill on April 12, 1968, on the
west side of the Niagara River gorge
about 1.5 miles south of Queenston,
Ontario. This large nest is located
about 18 feet below the cliff top and
approximately 280 feet above the river.
It is placed against a sheer but irregular
face of dolomite rock strata and ap-
pears to be partly on a small ledge
but chiefly supported by a small cedar
tree growing from the rock. At the time
of discovery the female was apparently
incubating, and during this observation
period the male alighted once on the nest
but mainly soared about the gorge or
perched on trees growing from its sides.
On May 7 two downy young were in
the nest and they began to feed on a
rodent which an adult brought in. By
May 21 the young were well feathered
and frequently exercised their wings. On
this date and on June 3 an adult was seen
to tear up food and feed the young. On
the latter date only one almost full grown
young bird was on the nest. It frequently
moved about and flapped its wings as if
in preparation for a first flight attempt.
I thank Dr. Peck for the data on the
Mount Nemo nest and also for checking
some of the literature not immediately
available to me.
REFERENCES
MacLuticu, D. A. 1938. Birds of Algon-
quin Provincial Park, Ontario. Contribu-
tions of the Royal Ontario Museum of
Zoology 13:1-47.
Snyper, L. L., Locirr, E. B. S., and Kurata,
T. B. 1942. A Faunal Investigation of
the Sault Ste. Marie Region, Ontario. Con-
tributions of the Royal Ontario Museum
of Zoology 21:99-163.
Rosert F. ANpDRLE
Buffalo Museum of Science
Humboldt Park
Buffalo, New York 14211
Accepted November 26, 1968
166
Clethraceae: A Plant Family
New to Canada
SWEET PEPPERBUSH or white alder,
Clethra alnifolia L., is a shrub 1-10 feet
high of the coastal plain of eastern North
America.
This note reports for the first time
the occurrence of this species in Canada,
thus adding a new family: Clethraceae,
to our flora.
I collected specimens of this plant
growing on the shore of Belliveau Lake,
Belliveau Cove, Digby county, Nova
Scotia on October 13, 1968. The shrub,
about 5 feet high, was in flower at this
time with numerous racemes of distinctly
fragrant, white blossoms. A colleague
later found the species in several places
around the same lake.
Clethra alnifolia occurs from eastern
Texas to Florida north to southern
Maine, southern New Hampshire, south-
eastern New York and eastern Pennsyl-
vania. (Fernald, 1950). It is found in
Cape Cod and on the Elizabeth Islands,
Massachusetts, where it is one of the
more conspicuous bog plants and _ is
characteristic of the dense shrubby
thickets about pond borders and in the
transition zone between grassland and
woodland. (Fogg, 1930).
The distribution of Clethra alnifolia
follows that of a number of coastal plain
species which occur in southwestern
Nova Scotia, and on the mainland range
from southern Maine to Florida and
Wexas near the’ coast.) Roland! (1945)
lists thirty-one species as typical of plants
showing this pattern of distribution.
Three outstanding examples from this
group are: Ilex glabra (L.) Gray, Lach-
nanthes tinctoria (Walt.) Ell, and
Lophiola septentrionalis Fern. South-
western Nova Scotia has still a number
of unbotanized lake shores and stream
edges likely to yield additional new re-
cords of species which here at their
Tue CANADIAN FreLp-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
northern limits are rare and often highly
localized.
There are several reasons why a species
as large and conspicuous as Clethra
alnifolia has not been reported before
this:
1. Despite the Gray Herbarium Ex-
pedition to Nova Scotia and. the
extensive work of A. E. Roland,
J. S. Erskine and E. C. Smith, many
lake shores and stream edges in
southwestern Nova Scotia remain
to be botanically explored.
2. When not in flower, Clethra super-
ficially resembles JJex verticillata,
a very common shrub in the Pro-
vince.
3. When Clethra is in flower and
conspicuous, from late September
to October, most botanists have
returned to the office and lecture
hall.
My specimens (Taschereau 373) have
been deposited in the following herbaria:
Acadia University, Wolfville, NS.;
Nova Scotia Museum, Halifax; Plant
Research Institute, Canada Department
of Agriculture, Ottawa.
REFERENCES
Fernanp, M. L. 1950. Gray’s Manual of
Botany, Eighth Edition. American Book
Company, New York.
Focc, J. M. Jr. 1930. The Flora of the
Elizabeth Islands, Massachusetts. Rhodora
32 al OMe 269!
Roranp, A. E. 1945. The Flora of Nova
Scotia. Reprinted from Proceedings of
Nova Scotian Institute of Science Volume
XXI Part 3, 1944-1945, Truro, N.S.
P. M. TascHEREAU
Acadia University, |
Wolfville, Nova Scotia
Accepted February 10, 1969
1969
Notes
167
Ficure 1. Arrangement and occlusal pattern of supernumerary teeth in an abnormal
maxillary of a brown lemming from Barrow, Alaska.
Supernumerary Teeth in a Brown
Lemming from Barrow, Alaska
IN MatTERIAL collected at a white fox
(Alopex lagopus) den site 25 km south-
east of Barrow Village, Alaska, was an
unusual brown lemming (Lewzus trimu-
cronatus) maxillary. It contained four
rather than the three cheek teeth
characteristic of this species (Fig. 1).
Also, the left and right enamel patterns
of the occlusal surface differ markedly
from each other. The right tooth row,
9.2 mm long, contains a normal set of
molars plus an additional one that
duplicates the enamel pattern of the
normal M;. The left tooth row, 10 mm
long, contains a normal M, and M, but
the M; enamel pattern copies that of M,.
The extra molar is compressed and lacks
the characteristic distal hook found in
the normal M, structure.
This skull, U.A. No. 7840, is deposited
in the biological collections section of
168
the Museum, University of Alaska,
College, Alaska.
Daviw L. CHESEMORE
Alaska Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit
University of Alaska, College
Alaska 99701
Accepted February 4, 1969
Studies of the Byron Bog in
Southwestern Ontario XXX VII.
Leeches (Hirudinea) Collected
in the Bog
In 1961 regular daily collections of inver-
tebrates were made from May 8 to
September 29 in the four different zones
of the Byron Bog. These four zones were
wooded slopes (C), lower wooded re-
gion (B), open floating bog (A) and
the open pond, Redmond’s Pond (D)
(Fig 1, Judd, 1963). Collections were
made by M. S. Beverley following the
procedure described by Judd (1963).
Among the aquatic invertebrates were
fifteen leeches which have been identi-
fied by Dr. J. E. Moore, Box 307, Ed-
monton, Alberta, as Erpobdeila punc-
tata (Leidy) (Erpobdellidae) and Thero-
myzon sp. (Glossiphoniidae). The
distribution of the specimens in the zones
of the bog was as follows, one specimen
for each date:
Zone B
E. punctata—May 26, June 22, July 18
Zone C
E. punctata—June 30, July 30
Zone D
E. punctata-May 20, June 13, 17, 29
(immature), 30, July 14 (immature),
15
Theromyzon sp.—June 26, July 15, 16
Leeches of the genus Theromyzon
were found only in Redmond’s Pond
(Zone D). This pond is frequented by
THe CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
swimming birds and the presence of
leeches of this genus in the pond is in
accord with the report of Mann (1962)
that most species of Theromyzon enter
the nostrils of wading and swimming
birds and feed from the mucous mem-
brane.
Mann (1962) reports that among
leeches of the family Erpobdellidae some
are aquatic, devouring freshwater in-
vertebrates, while others take up a bur-
rowing existence at the edges of lakes
and streams, or occasionally become
fully terrestrial, devouring earthworms.
Specimens of Erpobdeila punctata in the
bog were found in this range of habitats,
for while most of them were collected
from Redmond’s Pond in Zone D, some
were in the temporary pools under trees
in Zone B and two were in muddy
patches on the lower slopes of Zone C.
Pennak (1953) records that E. punctata
feeds on aquatic invertebrates, fish and
frogs and is sometimes a scavenger, and
Judd (1968) found E. punctata in dead
crayfish in the vicinity of London.
REFERENCES
Jupp, W. W. 1963. Studies of the Byron
Bog in southwestern Ontario XVI. Ob-
servations on the life cycles of two
species of Crangonyx (Crustacea: Amphi-
poda). Natural History Papers, National
Museum of Canada, No. 20.
1968. Crayfish in the vicinity of
London, Ontario, Natural History Papers,
National Museum of Canada, No. 41.
Mann, K. H. 1962. Leeches (Hirudinea).
Their structure, physiology, ecology and
embryology. Pergamon Press, Oxford.
201 p.
Pennak, R. W. 1953. Fresh-water inverte-
brates of the United States. Ronald Press,
New York. 769 p.
WitiiaM W. Jupp
Department of Zoology,
University of Western Ontario,
London. Ontario
Accepted February 11, 1969
NEWS AND COMMENT
A Nationat Park FoR THE NorTHWEST [TERRITORIES —
Tue East ARM OF GREAT SLAVE LAKE AND ARTILLERY LAKE
SiNcE 1962 the subject of establishing the first National Park wholly in the Northwest
Territories has been under study. The reasons for proposing a park in such a remote
region as the east end of Great Slave Lake are manifold, but the problems involved
are also numerous.
On 19 February, 1969 a public meeting regarding this proposal was held in
Edmonton, Alberta. An overwhelming majority of the 102 people present were in
favour of such a park. At that time no map of the projected site was available.
However, it was known that the Parks Branch of the Department of Indian Affairs
and Northern Development (DIAND) had proposed a “core” National Park of 1100
square miles with a “National Park Reserve” which would eventually increase the
park area to 4300 square miles. The total reserve area would be added after a period
of mineral exploration. At the meeting, various people who are familiar with the
area gave informative talks and provided a short information sheet. Several days
after the meeting a 17-page bulletin from the National Parks Branch of DIAND was
received. Most of the material presented below was derived from this bulletin and
the information sheet.
The DIAND bulletin describes the area thus: “Nowhere else is the treeline-tundra
_ transition represented in such a dramatic manner. The scenic splendour is striking;
green waters contrasting with red cliffs, waterfalls thundering into the gorges . . .”.
The entrance to the East Arm of Great Slave Lake is choked with a myriad of
low, smoothly-contoured islands of Precambrian rock capped by stands of wind-
sculpured black-spruce. To the east the islands grade into more rugged outlines,
culminating in the vertical cliffs of awesome proportions on Redcliff and Et-Then
Islands. Similar cliffs jut from the lake on mainland peninsulas and headlands.
The deepest body of fresh water in North America is in Christie Bay, the
southern part of the East Arm. Here the water is over 2000 feet deep, and from above
looks crystal-clear for almost 100 feet.
The geology of the region is responsible for the magnificent scenery. The most
significant feature is the McDonald fault. This huge downfault in the earth’s crust
has given rise to a Graben comparable to that of the Red Sea or the Rhine Valley.
It is responsible for the towering cliffs and the depth of the basin in which Great
Slave Lake lies. Some of the oldest rocks on the surface of the earth form the country
to the north. They are part of the Precambrian Shield and are between 2500 and 2600
_ million years old. This section of the Canadian Shield slopes steeply from 1200 feet
elevation to the bottom of the lake, which itself is overlain by sedimentary and
volcanic rocks. The immense reddish cliffs are composed of resistant diabase sills.
The McDonald fault, on the south shore of the lake, is an extremely well defined
landmark. It extends about 350 miles from the Slave River to the Thelon River. In
places it presents a straight wall of rock, sometimes over 700 feet high. To the east
the fault is expressed as a trough, and associated with this are numerous small lakes
and interconnecting streams known as Pike’s Portage Route.
To the south of the fault the land rises in rolling country at about 1000 feet
elevation. Here the rocks are younger, aged 1800 to 1900 million years.
The resistant nature of these rocks makes the streams flowing into the lake
brilliantly clear. The rapid descent on the north shore makes the waters flow in
white torrents over rapids and waterfalls from the small lakes above the rim of the
169
170 Tue CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
East Arm. The Lockhart River drains Artillery Lake into Great Slave. In falling
700 feet in 20 miles it surges over countless rapids and four waterfalls — Hanbury,
Anderson, Perry, and Tyrell.
The river water lacks dissolved minerals and organic matter. This makes the
lake waters almost alga free and transparent to such considerable depths. Such lakes
are termed oligotrophic and represent the earliest stage in the transition of lakes to
marshes, and eventually dry land. Nevertheless, there is aquatic life. “There are
populations of sport-fish such as Grayling, Whitefish, Pike, and Lake Trout, as well
as other fish. Lake Trout breed predominantly in the East Arm.
A spectacular array of birds feed upon these fish. They include Arctic Loons,
Grebes, Mergansers, Arctic Terns, Gulls, Cranes, and Bald Eagles. Great Slave Lake
is one of the major breeding areas for the fast diminishing population of Bald Eagles.
There are many Passerines inhabiting the forest, ducks and geese breed in the area.
The northern Boreal forest supports a contingent of characteristic small mam-
mals. ‘These are chipmunks, squirrels, marmots, flying squirrels, jumping mice,
shrews, voles, and deer mice. Some of these fall prey to foxes or supplement the
diets of wolves. Among the larger animals which are fairly common are moose,
black bears, and caribou. The migration route of the caribou is close to Artillery
Lake. The tracks of all these animals pock-mark the gravelly beaches of the lakes.
The theme of this National Park would be “Edge of the Barrens”. One of the
best known transitions from taiga to tundra is well delineated around Artillery Lake.
The country grades from black-spruce forests to open lichen-woodlands and on to
the barrens of the low arctic tundra. During the short summer the tundra flowers
burst into a mass of vivid colour, typified by yellow mountain avens, red-purple
fireweed, blue lupins, and a multitude of other blooms, busy with bumblebees and
flies.
Ptarmigan thrive on the abundant food of the tundra, along with hares, lem-
mings, and other tundra animals. Here the caribou find summer fodder and wolves
lope in search of prey. Occasionally the rare barrenground grizzly bear may venture
into this region.
Eskers occur over the tundra as reminders of the receeded icesheets of the last
great glaciation. They break the homogeneity of the arctic barrens as distinctive
serpentine landmarks.
The tundra-taiga transition zone has not been studied in detail. Much can be
learned about plant and animal communities in general from an examination of the
ecosystems associated with such an extensive and important ecotone.
History has its fair share of adventure to relate. Many famous northern explor-
ers have their names linked with the areas around Great Slave Lake. Samuel Hearne
and Alexander Mackenzie reached Great Slave Lake in the late eighteenth century.
Captain Back established Fort Reliance at the mouth of the Lockhart River in 1833
on his scientific exploration in connection with assisting John Ross’ arctic expedition.
The ruins of Fort Reliance still stand as three disintegrating chimneys. The Back
River was named for Captain Back and is associated with some of the searches for the
lost Franklin expedition. John Hornby explored these regions, and died after
immeasureable hardships in what is now the Thelon Game Sanctuary. In the 1880’s
Warburton Pike travelled in the area and left his name on Pike’s Portage Route.
Geological exploration started with Dawson and Tyrell in the late nineteenth cen-
tury. Other famous names associated with Great Slave Lake are Mackinley, Bullock,
Preble, and Ernest Thompson Seton.
The area presents us with a convergence of numerous unique features. Geo-
graphically, the lake itself with its depth and clarity, and the McDonald fault with its
News AND CoMMENT 7a
1969
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172 Tue CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
ancient rocks effect the spectacular scenery. Climatologically, the area is ‘Boreal
interior’ and is not represented in any other existing park. Historical interests
will be preserved. The theme “Edge of the Barrens” is well represented by the
animal and plant communities on each side of the treeline gate. Clearly, here is an
area of intense interest to all students of natural history at every level.
The objections to establishing a park in this area are mainly commercial. Cer-
tainly, such a park will not be accessible to the majority of Canadians at present.
It will be the only National Park wholly in the Northwest Territories, and the only
_ Canadian National Park established about a large body of water. It will preserve for
future Canadians a combination of unique and beautiful inheritances, protected,
pristine, and unpolluted.
Commercial ventures in the area include fishing. A park would improve the lot
of the Indian people by enabling them to sell their experience with the waters and
the woods as guides to fishermen. The fishing rights of the Indian people should not
be jeopardized by the inclusion of part of the East Arm within the park.
The major economic concerns come from mining enterprises. These have a very
strong influence on activity in the area. Associated with the McDonald fault, re-
sponsible for much of the scenery, are such rich mineral deposits as the finds at Pine
Point on the southern shore of the lake. Naturally, mining interests do not want to
unconditionally surrender the opportunity to exploit mineral resources which may be
present on the fault at the East Arm.
Extraction of ore would be from shaft mines which occupy relatively small areas.
With stringent regulations on the area of above-ground workings and pollution of
the atmosphere and the lake by dust, smoke, sewerage, and noise, a compromise be-
tween conservation and exploitation could probably be reached for the ‘reserve area’.
The map presented here (Figure 1) has been redrawn from the DIAND bulletin.
The obvious fault with the proposed park and reserve area is that no water of the
East Arm is included within the boundaries. The majority of the spectacular parts
of the McDonald fault are also missing. The reserve area should encompass more
of the McDonald fault south and west of the town of Snowdrift, Et-Then Island,
and the north shore of the East Arm if this park is to be complete.
Another shortcoming of the DIAND proposal is the lack of regulations on
mineral exploration and exploitation. A 10-year period for exploration should be
adequate. Regulations on all mining activities must consider extraction methods,
and the transportation of the ores in relation to the whole park and pollution of the
environment, particularly the lake.
A set of regulations, settled on by arbitration in the very near future, would
ease the doubts of both the park supporters and the mining concerns. Above all,
we must not be deterred by difficult opposition from striving to work out some
agreement which will ensure the permanent integrity of this outstanding area. In this
regard we urge you (the reader) to support this park at the “Edge of the Barrens”
by letters to the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development and the
press.
P. G. Kevan,
Department of Entomology,
University of Alberta, Edmonton.
L. N. EverNnDEN,
Department of Zoology,
University of Alberta, Edmonton.
April 14, 1969.
1969 News anp CoMMENT 173
PesticipkE Caustinc Rapip ExTINCTION OF THE BROWN PELICAN
Cairornia’s famous pelicans, those swift-diving, gape-peaked fishing birds so
familiar all along our coasts, are facing total extinction from poisonous DDT that
rains like fallout into their ocean feeding grounds.
It looks as though the huge brown birds will hatch no young at all in California
this year, and the path of death is sweeping inexorably southward as far as the
Mexican islands off Baja California.
The DDT, a long-lasting pesticide, used widely on the State’s croplands, is
entering the marine food web through tiny oceanic plants and animals known as
plankton; small fishlike anchovies and sardines, eat the plankton, and the pelicans
eat the fish. At each step along the way the DDT becomes more concentrated.
The doom of the pelican — and most probably of many other sea bird species
as well — was disclosed yesterday by Dr. Robert W. Risebrough at the University
of California’s Institute of Marine Resources in Berkeley.
Dr. Risebrough and a group of colleagues have been surveying the pelicans’
nesting sites on islands along the California coast for the past month. The result
is grim indeed: this is the nesting and egg-laying season, but scarcely any eggs at
all are surviving.
Why? Because the DDT residues accumulating in the bodies of the adult
female birds upsets an intricate hormone-enzyme relationship and cause the pelicans
to lay thin-shelled eggs so deficient in calcium that they crack and fall apart almost
at once. Even the ones that last a few days are so fragile that they cave in under
the weight of the nesting mother’s body.
The upshot is a new and inescapable assault by a powerful synthetic pesticide
on still another of the diverse living organisms with which man shares a delicate
ecological balance.
Risebrough reported yesterday that a month ago he and a team of colleagues
visited Anacapa, one of the Channel islands off Oxnard, in Ventura county. In the
group were Joseph R. Jehl and M. N. Kirven of the San Diego Natural History
Museum and Fred C. Sibley of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service at Ojai.
Anacapa is a major nesting ground for the huge brown pelicans, and Risebrough’s
team counted 298 new nests. But only twelve contained intact eggs; hundreds of
broken, flaky, eggshells from the other nests littered the ground. Many still
contained yolk material, and careful analysis in Risebrough’s laboratory at Berkeley
showed heavy concentrations of DDE —an altered DDT molecule — in the fatty
parts of the yolk.
Careful measurement of the broken egg shells showed they averaged only .287
millimeters thick — about half the thickness of a similar group of pelican eggs
collected in the same locality 30 years ago, when a thousand nests produced 2000
to 3000 eggs and young each year.
~ A week after Risebrough’s first visit to Anacapa he returned, and found that
all twelve of the intact eggs had been shattered. They were too thin to survive.
On April 18, he said, Sibley and James Keith of the Fish and Wildlife Service
at Davis, California, returned again to Anacapa. This time they found 320 new
pelican nests, and in only 19 were there any intact eggs at all. A pelican usually
lays and hatches a clutch of two to three eggs; the few Anacapa nests with any eggs
at all contained only one or two in each and they probably won’t hatch either.
And yesterday came still another report: From San Diego Dr. Jehl told The
Chronicle he has just spent a week exploring islands off Baja California. On
Coronados, eight miles from Tijuana, he found only 19 intact eggs among more than
300 pelican nests; on San Martin, southwest of Ensenada, he found 17 unbroken
174 Tue CaNnapiANn Fiecp-NaTurRALIST Vol. 83
eggs among 100 nests; and on San Benito, 300 miles further south, he found the first
sign of hope — 38 nests with a total of 66 intact eggs among a group of 73 nests in all.
Apparently the lethal pesticide residue in the ocean thins out further south and
this is probably because so much more of it is used in California fields.
This fits in with Risebrough’s observation that pesticide concentrations in the
bodies of ocean fish are heavy near the California coast — and heaviest of all around
Los Angeles, where the wind-borne DDT particles are trapped in the concentrated
smog and drift downward to the sea surface.
One of the most dangerous features of DDT, aside from the fact that it persists
as a poison for many years without breaking down, is that it does not dissolve in
water, but does dissolve in fats.
Therefore the particles can be carried through the ocean waters, enter the
bloodstream of fish and birds, and build up in their fatty tissues.
Many, many varieties of sea birds are now being affected by the toxic chemical.
Petrels, murres and cormorants are endangered.
The bodies of California’s ubiquitous seagulls contain DDT residues too, but
Risebrough believes they’re safe for the time being. The reason: much of their
diet is garbage from populated areas, and as Risebrough says gloomily; “California
garbage is probably cleaner than the ocean’s fish today.”
If the current pace of pesticide use continues, Risebrough warned yesterday,
more and more of it will find its way to the sea; the outlook, he said, is for total
extinction of many species of marine bird life.
As for man, no one can yet say. All fish contain DDT now, and man eats them
in great quantity. What the long range human dangers may be, science has yet to
find out.
Davin PERLMAN (Science Correspondent)
San Francisco Chronicle
April 22, 1969
Reprinted with permission.
SurVEY OF Birp CoLLECTIONS
Tue SuBcoMMITTEE on Collections, of the Committee on Research of the American
Ornithologists’ Union, is conducting a survey of collections of birds in the United
States and Canada. In the past, many studies utilizing museum materials have been
handicapped by ignorance of the existence of potentially important specimens. We
hope, by means of this survey, to enable future workers to take full advantage of all
available material.
Survey forms have been sent to institutions and individuals known to have, or
suspected of having, an ornithological collection. We request your assistance so
that our survey will be as complete as possible.
If you have received a survey form, please complete it and return it promptly.
If you have a collection and have not received a form, or if you know of other
persons or institutions who have collections but who have not received a form, please
notify:
Ricuarp C. Banks,
Bird and Mammal Laboratories,
U.S. National Museum,
Washington, D.C., 20560
1969 News ann CoMMENT 175
LOUISE DE KirRILINE LAWRENCE IS HonorED
Tue author of a recent book The Lovely and the Wild published by the McGraw-
Hill Book Company, has been awarded the John Burroughs Medal for her writing
on nature. Mrs. Lawrence, is a Canadian who lives with her husband on the banks
of the Mattawa River west of Mattawa, Ontario. The medal was presented by the
John Burroughs Memorial Foundation at a ceremony at the American Museum of
Natural History, New York, in March. Mrs. Lawrence is the 43rd winner of the
medal. “The Lovely and the Wild” is reviewed in the January-March, 1969 issue of
the Canadian Field-Naturalist.
LETTERS
NatTIoNaL Parks Poticy — DECISIONS WHERE ConFLicts Exist
Tue Frnanciat Post of February 15, 1969 contains a lead article on page 1 under the
heading:
Federal Schizophrenia
Parks and Mines Vie for Beauty Spot
The article discusses the conflict of interest between the national parks and
northern development responsibilities of the Department of Indian Affairs and
Northern Development in the case of the proposed 4,300 square mile national park at
the eastern end of Great Slave Lake (see map on page 171 of this issue). The
conflicting interest is the suspected existence of rich mineral deposits which, together
with hydro-electric potential, would support an important extension to the
wealth of the Northwest Territories.
Pros and cons are given to state the case of the miners and the National Parks
officials. What is of serious concern to naturalists, however, are the conclusions
offered by the reporter who posed the following Questions:
“1) Are there other sites equally suitable for national parks?
2) If alternatives prove less desireable, what is the real measure of net gains and
losses between the various alternatives and potential resource development?”
He then goes on to state “This is not a task which Ottawa can properly leave to
the parks department. Its role basically is to find the best possible parks. It is too
much to ask the parks department to decide between compromises.” ‘This is followed
by a pitch for a new category of national parks which permit both resource devel-
opment and parks use.
The important factors to naturalists are:
1) The parks officials have stated that other sites in the Northwest Territories
were examined but that this was the outstanding one in terms of those features
which the parks policy would like to preserve for future generations.
2) Most politicians are still far more impressed with arguments which emphasize
economic considerations than those of an esthetic, cultural or other non-
economic character.
176 Tue CANADIAN FieLp-NATURALIST Vol. 83
3) The general public is only beginning to realize the cost that exploitation of
natural resources imposes on the taxpayer in the form of
a) Lost natural areas
b) pollution of land, water and air, and
c) the ecological imbalances which so often result.
4) Granted that joint resources and parks uses might be achieved if effective
controls could be applied, the sad experience of most experiments of this
nature should make the administrators extremely cautious. Past experience
has shown that the mining industry, having as its objective the achievement of
profits for its owners, has rarely, ‘if ever, been content to exploit only a part
of any desirable mineral occurrence. Getting the foot in the door is almost
a certain prelude to having the camel (the mining interests) in the tent and
the master (the general public) out in the cold. In case anyone should point
complacently to the joint use of Algonquin Park by the public and the forest
industry, two points might be made
a) Forests are renewable resources whereas minerals are not.
b) The forest industry has a great deal to gain in Algonquin Park by not
“rocking the boat”.
I would end by appealing to naturalists to be conservationists in this and like
cases and use every possible means to convince their elected representatives that:
a) a change in parks policy is not in the best public interest, and
b) unique natural areas are precious resources, which, once destroyed are
almost always irreplaceable.
Hue N. MacKenzie,
President,
Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club
March 27, 1969
REVIEWS
The World of the Wolf
By Russert J. Rurrer and Doveras H.
Prmtort, 1968. J. B. Lippincott Company,
Philadelphia and New York. 202 pp.
illustrated. $5.95 (US.).
This is another in the fine series of
mammal biographies in the Living
World Books edited by John K. Terres.
This volume is authored by two
Canadians. Russell Rutter is a long-time
Ontario naturalist raised on a small farm
near Burks Falls. After wartime service
he worked in Algonquin Provincial Park
as an Interpretive Naturalist. Douglas
Pimlott studied wildlife biology and
forestry after his wartime service and
later joined the Ontario Department of
Lands and Forests to study timber wolves
in Algonquin Park. These two men are
ably equipped to write of the “world of
the wolf” based upon their extensive
field studies in Algonquin Park.
Pimiott wrote the chapters on the
wolf as a symbol of evil, the war on
wolves, the wolf as an individual, the
future of wolves and wolves around the
world. He is also responsible for the
many excellent photographs which pro-
fusely illustrate the text. Rutter wrote
the chapters on the annual cycle of the
wolf and the voice of the wolf.
This book relates mainly the observa-
tions and experiences of the authors
with Algonquin Park wolves. Little
attempt was made to integrate the many
published wolf observations although
David Mech’s study of Isle Royale
wolves is frequently mentioned. There
is bibliography of 58 titles, but no men-
tion of Mowat’s Never Cry Wolf! The
style is plain and straight-forward in
description. This book will be of special
interest to Ontario naturalists because
of the emphasis placed on Algonquin
Park wolves.
A. W. F. BanFieLp
National Museum of Natural Sciences,
Ottawa
177
Palaeontology of the Swan Hills Area,
North-Central Alberta
By Loris S. Russert. 1967. Royal Ontario
Museum, Life Science Series, Contribu-
tion 71, 31 pp., 1 plate. Paperback. $1.00.
The Swan Hills of Alberta are located
in the central region of the province,
approximately 400 miles north of the in-
ternational boundary and near the
northern limit of settlement. They also
lie within the vast boreal forest region
of Canada, where the vegetative cover
is rarely broken by exposures of under-
lying sedimentary strata and precipita-
tion is often heaviest during the summer
months. It is not surprising, therefore,
that the fossil localities listed by Russell
were all artificial exposures created in
the course of road construction and
drilling operations.
As Russell recognizes, most of the
fossil occurrences are of little value ex-
cept in that they facilitate the mapping
of the surface expression of the contact
between Cretaceous and Tertiary fresh-
water sediments. The author, showing a
breadth of competency rare among
contemporary palaeontologists, identi-
fied all of the megafossils recovered by
his party, which incude the remains of
conifers, mollusks, fish, reptiles and
mammals. It may be noted in passing that
the association of “ganoid” scales with
skeletal elements of the amiid fish
Stylomyleodon (=?Kindleia) presents
no difficulty, as another amiid (Sinazia
zdanskyi Stensio, 1935, Liu et al., 1963)
from the late Jurassic or early Cre-
taceous of China also possesses squama-
tion of the lepisosteid type (I am in-
debted to Michael Waldman for this
information).
One of Russell’s localities, however,
produced 11 jaw fragments and 20 iso-
lated teeth or tooth fragments of small
mammals of late Paleocene age. Fifteen
different forms are recognized, including
one new species (Carpolestes cy gneus)
178
of carpolestid primate. Despite its small
size this collection is significant in that
it represents the northernmost occur-
rence of Paleocene mammals in North
America. It will not be an easy task to
find significant new fossil vertebrate
sites across the great expanse of the
northern interior of our continent. We
are indebted to Russell for making this
occurrence known.
REFERENCES
Liv, T., H. Liu, and T. Su. 1963. The dis-
covery of Sinamia zdanskyi from the
Ordos Region and its stratigraphical sig-
nificance. Vertebrata Palasiatica 7 (1) :1-30.
Strensio, E. 1935. Sinamia zdanskyi, a new
amiid from the lower Cretaceous of
Shantung, China. Palaeontologia Sinica
Series C, 3 (1):1-48.
Date A. RusseELL
Curator of Fossil Vertebrates
National Museum of Natural Sciences
Ottawa, Ontario
The Olympic Rain Forest
By Ruts Kirk. Published in co-operation
with the Olympic Natural History Associ-
ation by University of Washington Press,
Seattle and London. x + 86 pp. Photo-
graphs by Johsel Namkung and Ruth
Kirk. 1966. $6.95 (U.S.).
This handsome photographic essay on
the three river valleys, the Hoh, Queets
and Quinault, which sustain the world-
renowned rain forest of the Olympic
Peninsula, should surely elicit a good
deal of interest in 1969, the year of the
XI International Botanical Congress in
nearby Seattle, Washington.
Mrs. Kirk’s running commentary on
the natural history of these valleys sets
the perspective in space and time for
viewing the beautifully executed photo-
graphs more meaningfully. It is written,
I think quite rightly, for the layman.
THe CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
Instruction in word and picture is most
agreeably palatable from the wife of a
park naturalist whose life has become
very much a part of these valleys. The
photographs, whether a panoramic view
of the bounding hills bedecked with the
enshrouding gossamer of a rising coastal
fog or a detailed portrait, in full color,
of a banana slug are well done and of
considerable artistic merit. Mrs. Kirk
and her photographic collaborator,
Johsel Namkung, are to be complimented
on an exquisite piece of work. Eight
pages are devoted to color, the rest to
black and white prints; all of them are
good and many are sparkling treasures.
Man and his place in these valleys past,
present and imponderable future are not
omitted. Even the professional biologist
is remembered in an appendix giving
Latin binomials and brief descriptions of
some of the more important floristic and
faunistic elements in the ecosystem.
This title and its companion paper-
back volumes deserve a good market
among those who would visit the
Olympic Rain Forest.
Wo. I. IL~tman
Department of Biology,
Carleton University,
Ottawa 1, Ontario
By the same publisher:
Exploring the Olympic Penimsula by
Ruth Kirk. Illus., maps, $3.95, paper-
back $1.95 (US.).
Roads and Trails of Olympic National
Park by Frederick Leissler. Illus.,
maps, paperback $1.95 (U.S.).
The History of Life
By A. Lee McAtester. Prentice-Hall, Engle-
wood Cliffs, N. J. Foundations of Earth
Science Series. viii + 152 pp., illus. Paper-
back. 1968.
For ill or good we live in the age of
mass communication and_ telegraphic
1969
conveyance of blocks of easily digested
and imaginatively presented impressions.
Hand-in-hand with electronic media
and learning machines, we have been
deluged with a plethora of paperbacks
expounding this or that segment of
natural history, usually, it must be ad-
mitted, in a way inferior to that in which
more comprehensive treatises deal with
the subject matter placed in a more
general context.
This title, it seems to me, constitutes
an interesting and most commendable
exception. McAlester has given an intro-
ductory synthesis of stratigraphic geol-
ogy and palaeontology with comparative
morphology of plants and animals placed
in the setting of modern evolutionary
theory and physical anthropology. No
small order? Indeed! But he has carried
it off with comparatively few apparent
blunders, inflicted, undoubtedly, by
dictates of brevity which defies excursive
accuracy.
The book is highly recommended for
amateur naturalists, students and _ all
others wishing to place to-day’s natural
scene in its historical perspective. And
here is at least one professional biologist
who felt he benefitted immensely from
this painless synthesis of the vast pano-
rama of life.
Wo. I. Ituman
Dept. of Biology,
Carleton University,
Ottawa 1, Ontario
Quick-Key Guide to Wildflowers of
Northeastern and Central United States
and Adjacent Canada
By Davi Arcuipatp, Rosemary V. FLeM-
iNG and Viremnta M. Kune. Doubleday
& Co. Inc. Garden City, N.Y. Illus. 198
pp. +51 key cards. 1968. $5.95.
This is the fourth in a series of
Quick-Key Field Identification Guides.
Others in the series are: Guide to Trees,
REVIEWS
179
Guide to Birds, and Guide to Rocks and
Minerals. These books employ a unique
method of utilizing punch cards as an aid
to identifying specimens.
The pocket-sized Guide to Wildflow-
ers contains a selection of 545 of the
more common and widespread flowers of
Northeastern and Central United States
and adjacent Canada. It is designed for
the interested amateur, who may at the
beginning have little or no knowledge of
flowers, but a desire to learn. All the
species are illustrated by fine line draw-
ings many of which were used in Flora
of West Virginia by P. D. Strausbaugh
and E. L. Core. Pictures are three to a
page. The accompanying text is minimal
and includes the common name, Latin
name, family common name, a simple
description of the flower, height, range,
habitat, and occasionally other brief
notes.
Identification is accomplished by the
superimposing of selected punched cards
one upon the other until only 1 or 2
black dots show through. Cards are
selected by following simple directions
which are found on only 2 pages. Final
identification is by comparison of the
specimens with the line drawings.
The order of species is unconvention-
al; species which appear similar, although
actually unrelated, are placed close to
one another for ready comparison. An
index to both common and scientific
names is provided.
As mentioned above this book is de-
signed for the totally uninitiated individ-
ual who may wish to discover what is
growing about him. From this useful
book he can proceed to the more diffi-
cult dichotomous keys and more de-
tailed descriptions of other floras and
manuals as his interest develops.
W. J. Copy
Plant Research Institute
Central Experimental Farm
Ottawa, Ontario
180
The Ploughboy and the Nightingale
By Doris Parkin Ker. Copp Clark, Toron-
to. x + 304 pp. 1958.
Lest any of my naturalist friends be
under the misapprehension that this title
is a scientific analysis of a Briton’s
favorite bird species, I must hasten to
point out that it has little more to do
with ornithology than the amazing dis-
covery in 1851 of a fine collection of
stuffed birds, replete with nests and
eggs, curated by Dr. Sandys, rector of
St. Paul’s Episcopal Parish in Chatham,
Ontario, by the great Swedish Nightin-
gale, Jenny Lind.
I believe, however, that this romantic
tale is obviously so well researched and
so redolent of the local scene that at
least a native of the Western District
of Upper Canada will have no trouble
in reliving with Mathew Van Dalsen the
best remembered and most treasured
week of his life.
Mrs. Keil’s recounting of the varied
scenes and sights of life along the Thames
and the Lower Lakes in those pioneer
days is guaranteed to bring satisfaction,
titillation and tears to every sensitive
naturalist.
Wo. I. ILt~tMan
Department of Biology,
Carleton University,
Ottawa 1, Ontario
A Guide to Spiders and Their Kin
By Hersert W. Levi and Lorna R. Lev.
Illustrated by Nicholas Strekalovsky. A
Golden Nature Guide, Golden Press,
New York. 160 pp. 1968. Paperback, $1.35
in Canada.
One of the joys that the amateur in
Britain and on the Continent has in ob-
Tue CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
serving nature is the great wealth of
handbooks devoted to different groups
of animals and plants. Such handbooks
pertinent to the many parts of the North
American fauna and flora have been
sadly wanting and to a large measure
have, I feel, held up and impeded the
proper appreciation of nature by the en-
lightened dilettante.
The book that has recently come
to me for review is a counterpart of the
best of European handbooks. Dr. Herbert
Levi and his wife are to be congratulated
on their book on spiders, which has been
so beautifully illustrated by Nicholas
Strekalovsky. The arrangement of the
spiders and their allies is well done, the
descriptions, while brief, are good, the
distribution maps are useful, and the line
drawings are excellent.
In the past, many of the works de-
voted to spiders were very difficult for
the amateur to use because of the com-
plexity of the keys. This difficulty has
been overcome in the Levis’ book he-
cause a worker can compare his speci-
mens with the excellent figures given.
It is to be hoped that the Golden
Press will see its way clear to publishing
more of the same kind of books for
groups of organisms which have here-
tofore been neglected.
My only criticisms are minor. The
colours, as one might expect in a book
of this price, are adequate but fail to
show the lovely metallic shades so com-
mon in spiders. Secondly, the section on
mites is hopelessly inadequate. A second
book on this topic would suffice.
H. H. J. Nessitr
Carleton University,
Ottawa 1, Canada.
1969
REVIEWS 181
OTHER NEW TITLES
The following titles are presented as a service to readers. Their listing does not
preclude them from possible review in a future issue of this journal.
Animal Communication. Techniques of
Study and Results of Research. Thomas A.
Sebeok (Ed.), Indiana University Press,
Bloomington, 1968. Illus. 68 p. $20 (US).
Discovering Plants. A Nature and Science
Book of Experiments. Richard M. Klein and
Deana T. Klein. Natural History Press,
Garden City, N.Y. 1968. Illus. 128 p. $4.50
(US).
Environmental Conservation. Raymond F.
Dasmann. Wiley, New York, ed. 2, 1968.
Illus. 384 p. $8.95 (US).
La Lutte contre les Pollutions. Milieux
Inhales. Ingérés et Acoustiques. Jean A.
Ternisien. Presses Universitaires de France,
Paris, 1968. 184 p. Paperback, 14 F. La
Science Vivante.
A Numerical Taxonomic Study of the
Genus Salix, Section Sitchenses. Theodore
J. Crovello. University of California Press,
Berkeley, 1968. Illus. 64 p. Paperback, $2
(US) University of California Publications
in Botany, Vol. 44.
Piant and Animal Geography. Marion
Newbigin. Methuen, London, 1968 (distri-
buted in the U.S. by Barnes and Noble,
New York). 320 p. Cloth, $5.75, Paper, $3.
University Paperbacks, No. 221. Reprint of
the 1936 edition.
Les Pollutions et Leurs Effects. Milieux
Inhales, Ingérés et Acoustiques. Jean A.
Ternisien. Presses Universitaires de France,
Paris, 1968. 189 p. Paperback 14 F. La
- Science Vivante.
Urbanization. Development Policies and
Planning. U.N. Department of Economic
and Social Affairs. United Nations, New
York, 1968. Illus. 130 p. Paperback $2 (US).
Water Research in Canada. J. P. Bruce
and D. E. L. Maasland. With a Special Re-
port on the Contribution of Social Science
Research to Water Resource Management
in Canada, by W. R. Derrick Sewell. Science
Secretariat, Ottawa, Canada, 1968 (available
from the Queen’s Printer, Ottawa). 170
pp. Paperback, $2.50, Special Study No. 5.
The World of the Grizzly Bear. Text and
photographs by W. J. Schoonmaker. Lippin-
cott, Philadelphia, 1968. 192 p. $5.95 (US).
Living World Books.
Haldane and Modern Biology edited by
K. R. Dronamraju, The Johns Hopkins
Press, Baltimore, Md., 1968, 333 p., $10.95.
Entomology of Antarctica. Vol. 10, Ant-
arctic Research Series, J. L. Gressitt (Ed.),
American Geophysical Union, NRC-NAS
Publ. No. 1574, Washington, D.C., 1967,
Illus. 395 p. $17.00 (US).
The Ecology of Soil Bacteria. An Inter-
national Symposium. T. R. G. Gray and
D. Parkinson (Eds.), University of Toronto
Press, 1968, Illus. 618 p. Ca. $23.00.
Perspectives in Ecological Theory. R.
R. Margalef, University of Chicago Press,
1968, Illus., 111 p. $4.50 (US).
Studies in the Structure, Physiology and
Ecology of Molluses. V. Fretter (EFd_.)
Academic Press, Inc., London, 1968. Illus.
377 p. 90s or $15.00 (US).
The American University. How It Runs,
Where It is Going. Jacques Barzun. Harper
and Row, New York, 1968. 322 pp. $7.95
(US).
Bureaucracy, Politics, and Public Policy.
Francis E. Rourke. Little, Brown, Boston,
1968. 180 pp. Paperback. $2.75 (US).
Ecology of Insect Vector Populations. R.
C. Muirhead-Thomson. Academic Press,
New York, 1968. Illus. 176 p. $9.50 (US).
Grasslands of the Monsoon. R. O. Whyte.
Praeger, New York, 1968. Illus. + 40 plates.
328 p. $9.50 (US).
The Management and Conservation of
Biological Resources. John D._ Black.
Davis, Philadelphia, 1968. Illus. 340 p. $7.50
(US).
The Measurement of Environmental
Factors in Terrestrial Ecology. A sym-
posium, Reading, England, 1967. R. M.
Wadsworth, L. C. Chapas, A. J. Rutter, M.
182 Tue CanapiAN FIetp-NATURALIST
E. Solomon, and J. Warren Wilson, (Eds.),
Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford,
1968. Illus. 314 p. $9.50 (US). British Eco-
logical Society Symposium, Vol. 8.
Oil and Water. The Torrey Canyon Dis-
aster. Edward Cowan. Lippincott, Philadel-
phia, 1968. Illus. 242 p. $6.95 (US).
The Moth Book. A Popular Guide to a
Knowledge of the Moths of North America
— W. J. Holland, annotations and new
foreword by A. E. Brower — Dover, 1968.
48 color plates, 263 drawings. 479 p. Paper-
back $5.00 (US).
Moving the Earth for A Song. M. Wilson
Gaillard. John Knox Press, 1969. Photo-
graphs. 112 p. $4.(US). Considers the prob-
lem of saving habitat for migratory birds.
The Origin of Species by Means of
Natural Selection or The Preservation of
Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life.
Charles Darwin, (Ed.), with introduction
by J. W. Rurrow, Penguin Bks., 1968. 477 p.
Paperback, $1.25 (US). Reprint of the 1859
edition.
America’s Endangered Wildlife. George
Laycock. Norton, 1969. Photographs. 266 p.
$4.95 (US).
Plants: Adaptation Through Evolution.
Joan Eiger Gottlieb. Reinhold, 1969. Photo-
graphs, drawings, 114 p. Paperback. $2.25
(US).
The Treatment of Industrial Wastes.
Edmund B. Besselievre. McGraw-Hill, 1969.
Photographs, diagrams, 403 p., $16.50 (US).
Seashells of North America: A Guide to
Field Identification. R. Tucker Abbott.
Golden Press, 1969. 280 p. 1,000 illus. in
color by George F. Sandstrom, $5.95; paper-
back, $3.95 (US).
Climate and Agriculture. An Ecological
Survey. Jen-Hu Chang. Aldine, Chicago,
1968. Illus. 304 p. $9.75 (US).
Elementary Probability for the Biological
Sciences. James E: Mosimann. Appleton-
Century-Crofts, New York, 1968. Illus. 256
p. Paperback. $3.95 (US).
Gas Chromatography. Orion Edwin
Schupp III. Interscience (Wiley), New
York, 1968. Illus. 422 p. $16.50 (US). Tech-
Vol. 83
nique of Organic Chemistry. Vol. 13. In-
cluded in this list because of its relevancy
to the problem of environmental contamina-
tion by pesticides.
Chemical Warfare: A Study in Restraints.
Frederic J. Brown. Princeton Univ. Press,
1968. 355 p. $9. (US). Analysis of restraints
— political, military, economic and psycho-
logical, operative in varying degrees be-
tween 1915 and 1945.
Pleistocene Extinctions. The Search for a
Cause. Proceedings of the 17th Congress
of the International Association for Qua-
ternary Research, vol. 6. P. S. Martin and
H. E. Wright, Jr., (Eds.), Yale University
Press, New Haven, Conn., 1967. Illus. 453 p.
$12.50 (US).
Atlas of the Pacific Northwest: Resources
and Development. Richard M, Highsmith
Jr., (Ed.), Jon M. Leverenz, Cartographer.
Oregon State University Press, Corvallis,
ed. 4, 1968. Illus. 168 p. $5. (US).
The Behavioral Sciences and the Federal
Government. National Academy of Scien-
ces, Washington, D.C., 1968. 110 p. Paper-
back, $3.25 (US). NAS Publication 1680.
The Biological Effects of Oil Pollution
on Littoral Communities. Proceedings of
a symposium, Pembroke, Wales, Feb. 1968.
J. D. Carthy and Don R. Arthur, (Eds.),
Field Studies Council, London, 1968. Illus.
198 p. Paperback. 45s. Supplement to vol. 2
of Field Studies.
Economic Development of Tropical Agri-
culture. Theory, Policy, Strategy, and
Organization. A series of seminars, Univer-
sity of Florida, 1966. W. W. McPherson,
(Ed.), University of Florida Press, Gaines-
ville, 1968. Illus. 328 p. $8.50 (US).
Elements of Marine Ecology. An intro-
ductory Course. R. V. Tait. Plenum, New
York; Butterworths, London, 1968. Illus.
272 p. $12.50 (US).
Insect Resistance in Crop Plants. Reginald
H. Painter. University Press of Kansas,
Lawrence, 1968. Illus. 522 p. Paperback.
$4.75 (US). Reprint of the 1951 edition.
The Range of Choice in Water Manage-
ment. A Study of Dissolved Oxygen in
the Potomac Estuary. Robert K. Davis.
1969
With contributions by Robert M. Stein-
berg, Leo J. Hetling, and Nicholas C.
Matalas. Published for Resources for the
Future by Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore,
1968. Illus. 206 p. $7. (US).
Science for Better Living. The Yearbook
of Agriculture, 1968. U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Washington, D.C., 1968. (Avail-
able from Superintendent of Documents,
Washington, D.C.). Illus. 386 p. $3. (US).
So Human an Animal. Rene Dubos.
Scribner, New York, 1968. 272 p. $6.95
(US).
The Queen Charotte Islands, 1774-1966.
Kathleen E. Dalzell. Publisher, C. M. Adam,
Terrace, B.C. Printed by Evergreen Press,
Vancouver, 1968. Illus. 340 p. $12.00.
Living with Your Land: A Guide to Con-
servation for the City’s Fringe. John
Vosburgh. Cranbrook Institute of Science,
1968. Photographs, drawing. 149 p. $1. (US)
direct to publisher, Bloomfield Hills, Mich.
The Audubon Illustrated Handbook of
American Birds. Edgar M. Reilly, Jr.;
Olin Sewall Pettingill, Jr., (Ed.). McGraw-
Hill, 1968. 35 color plates, 375 photographs,
100 drawings. 524 p. $25. (US).
Managing Water Quality: Economics,
Technology, Institutions. Allen V. Kneese
and Blair IT. Bower. Johns Hopkins Press,
1968. Diagrams. 324 p. $8.95 (US).
Newsletter. Associate Committee on Qua-
ternary Research, National Research Coun-
cil of Canada, Ottawa, 1968. Number 1. J.
Terasmae (Ed.) 22 p. Mimeographed. The
ACQR was established by the National
Research Council in the autumn of 1966
in response to a request presented by the
Canadian delegation to the seventh INQUA
(International Union for Quaternary Re-
search) Congress. INQUA is concerned
primarily with the study of environment
on the earth and its history during the
latest or Quaternary geological period,
which extends to the present and includes
the “ice age” as well as the interval of man’s
existence. One of the objectives of ACQR
is to stimulate and co-ordinate Quaternary
research in Canada. It is also concerned
with the preservation and salvage of archeo-
logical and related sites. Copies of the News
letter can be obtained from J. Terasmae,
REVIEWS 183
Geology Department, Brock University, St.
Catharines, Ontario.
The Biology of Estuarine Animals. J.
Green. University of Washington Press,
Seattle, 1968. Illus. 401 p. $9.50 (US).
Evolution and the Genetics of Popula-
tions. A Treatise in Three Volumes. Sewall
Wright. Vol. 1, Genetic and Biometric
Foundations, University of Chicago Press,
Chicago, 1968. Illus. 469 p. $15. (US).
Life on a Litile-Known Planet. Howard
Ensign Evans. Illustrations by Arnold Clap-
man. Dutton, New York, 1968. 320 p. $7.95
(US). A book on hunting wasps and social
insects. Highly recommended for both
scientist and layman.
Radiation Biology. Alison P. Casarett.
Prepared under the auspices of the Ameri-
can Institute of Biological Sciences for the
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. Prentice-
Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1968. Illus.
368 p. $9.25 (US).
Air Sampling Instruments. For Evalua-
tion of Atmospheric Contaminants. Ameri-
can Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists, Cincinnati, Ohio, ed. 3, 1966.
Illus. Unpaged. $10. (US).
The Day of the Dinosaur. L. Sprague de
Camp and Catherine Crook de Camp,
Doubleday, New York, 1968. Illus. + 83
plates. 320 p. $6.95 (US).
Desalination. Water for the World’s
Future. Roy Popkin. Praeger, New York,
1968, Illus. 240 p. $6.50 (US).
Disease Resistance in Plants. J. E. Van
Der Plank. Academic Press, New York,
1968. Illus. 210 p. $9.50 (US).
Ecological Psychology. Concepts and
Methods for Studying the Environment of
Human Behavior. Roger G. Barker. Stan-
ford University Press, Stanford, Calif., 1968,
Illus. 246 p. $7.50 (US).
Four Seasons in the Woods. Henry B.
Kane. Knopf, New York, 1968, Illus., 60 p.
$3.50 (US).
From Sea to Shining Sea. A Report on
the American Environment — Our Natural
Heritage. The President’s: Council on Re-
creation and Natural Beauty, Washington,
184
D.C. 1968 (available from Superintendent
of Documents, Washington, D.C.). Illus.,
304 p., Paperback, $2.50 (US).
Gondwanaland Revisited: New Evidence
for Continental Drift. American Philoso-
phical Society, Philadelphia, 1968. Paper, $1.
Proceedings of the American Philosophical
Society, Vol. 112, No. 5 (pp. 307-53).
Hummingbirds and Their Flowers. Karen
A. Grant and Verne Grant. Columbia Uni-
versity Press, New York, 1968. Illus., 118 p.,
$17.50 (US).
Man’s Rise to Civilization as Shown by
the Indians of North America from Pri-
meval Times to the Coming of the In-
dustrial State. Peter Farb. Dutton. New
York, 1968, Illus., 332 p., $8.95 (US).
The Sun and Its Influence. An Introduc-
tion to the Study of Solar-Terrestrial Rela-
tions. M. A. Ellison. Third edition, revised
by Patrick Moore, Elsevier, New York,
1968. Illus., 240 p., $5.50 (US).
Taxonomy and Phylogeny of Old World
Primates with References to the Origin
of Man. Proceedings of a Round Table,
Turin, Italy, 1967. Rosenberg and Sellier,
Turin, 1968. Illus., 324 p., $16. (US).
Algae, Man and the Environment: Pro-
ceedings of International Symposium, 1967
— Daniel F. Jackson, (Ed.), Syracuse Univ.
Press, 1968. Illus. 554 p. $18. (US).
The Study of Human Evolution. Sher-
wood L. Washburn. Condon Lectures,
Oregon State (Univ. of Oregon Bks.), 1968.
Illus. 48 p. Paperback. $1.75 (US).
Three Billion Years of Life. Andre de
Cayeux, transl. from French by Joyce E.
Clemow. Stein and Day, 1969. Photographs,
239 p. $5.95 (US).
Wild Refuge — George Laycock — Natural
History Press, 1969. 40 photographs, 151 p.
map. $3.50 (US). A tour through important
wildlife refuges of the USA.
A Practical Handbook of Seawater Analy-
sis. J. D. H. Strickland and T. R. Parsons.
Fisheries Res. Bd. of Canada (Queen’s
Printer, Ottawa), 1968. Illus. 311 p. $7.50
(US). For marine ecologists.
Tue CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
Social Sciences and the Environment:
Conference on the Present and Potential
Contribution of the Social Sciences to Re-
search and Policy Formulation in the Qual-
ity of the Physical Environment — Morris
E. Garnsey and James R. Hibbs (Eds.),
Univ. of Colo. Press, 1968. 249 p. $6. (US).
The Flora of New England. A Manual for
the Identification of All Vascular Plants,
Including Ferns and Fern Allies and Flower-
ing Plants Growing Without Cultivation in
New England. Frank Conkling Seymour.
Tuttle, 1969. Photographs, map. 596 p.
$12.50 (US).
Mammals of Southern California. Ernest
Sheldon Booth. Univ. of Calif. Press, 1968.
Illus. 99 p. $1.75 (US).
Saskatchewan and the Rocky Mountains.
The Earl of Southesk. Tuttle, 1969. illus.
448 p. $5. (US). Diary written in 1859 and
1860.
Vanishing Wild Animals of the World.
Richard Fitter. Foreword by Duke of Edin-
burgh, introd. by Peter Scott. Watts, F.,
43 paintings, drawings by John Leigh-Pem-
berton, maps. 144 p. $7.95 (US).
The Wonders of Life on Earth. Editors
of Life and Lincoln Barnett. Time-Life Bks.,
1968. Rev. ed., photographs and paintings
in color. 238 p. $12.95 (US).
Bird Song: Acoustics and Physiology.
Crawford H. Greenewalt. Smithsonian In-
stitution Press (Random House), 1968. Illus.
194 p. $12.50 (US).
Man: The Next 30 Years. Henry Still.
Hawthorn Bks., 1968. 216 p. $5.95 (US).
Journalistic summation of the future. Deals
with cities, communication, transportation
and technology. A non-ecological point of
view.
Deserts of the World: An Appraisal of
Research into Their Physical and Bio-
logical Environments. William G. McGin-
nies, Bram J. Goldman and Patricia Paylore
(Eds.), Univ. of Ariz. Press, 1968. 788 p.
$15. (US).
Food Goals, Future Structural Changes
and Agricultural Policy. A National Base-
book. Donald J. Hunter (Ed.), lowa State
Univ. Press, 1969. 325 p. $5.95 (US).
1969
Bird Navigation. G. V. T, Matthews.
Second edition. Cambridge University Press,
New York, 1968. Illus. 198 p. Cloth, $7,
paper, $2.45 (US). Cambridge Monographs
in Experiment Biology, No. 3.
Fish Migration. F. R. Harden Jones.
Illustrated by H. E. Jenner. St. Martin’s,
New York, 1968. Illus. 325 p. $21. (US).
Overcoming World Hunger. The Ameri-
can Assembly, Clifford M. Hardin (Ed.),
Prentice-Hall, 1969. 177 p. Tables. $4.95
(US). Paperback. $1.95 (US). Discussion. of
population growth and its control, nutrition,
food production in hungry nations and
assessment of programs.
South of Yosemite. Selected Writings by
John Muir. Frederick R. Gunsky (Ed.).
Photographs by Philip Hyde. Sketches by
John Muir. Published for the American
Museum of Natural History by the Natural
History Press, Garden City, N.Y., 1968.
269 p. $7.50 (US).
Advances in Agronomy. Prepared under
the auspices of the American Society of
Agronomy. Vol. 20. A. G. Norman (Ed.),
Academic Press, New York, 1968. Illus.
380 p. $16.50 (US).
Bankers, Bones and Beetles. The First
Century of the American Museum of
Natural History. Geoffrey Hellman. Pub-
lished for the American Museum of Natural
History Press (Doubleday), Garden City,
N.Y., 1969. 276 p. + 18 plates. $5.95.
Biology of the Myxomycetes. William D.
Gray and Constantine J. Alexopoulos.
Ronald Press, New York, 1968. Illus. 294 p.
$12. (US).
British Mosses and Liverworts. An intro-
ductory work, with full descriptions and
figures of over 200 species, and keys for
the identification of all except the very rare
species. Written and illustrated by E. Ver-
non Watson. Cambridge University Press,
New York, ed. 2, 1968. Illus. 496 p. $13.
(US).
Reviews 185
Current Problems of Lower Vertebrate
Phylogeny. Proceedings of the 4th Nobel
Symposium, Stockholm, 1967. Tor Orvig
(Ed.), Interscience (Wiley), New York;
Almgqvist and Wiksell, Stockholm, 1968.
Illus. 540 p. $35. (US).
Forest Tree Planting in Arid Zones. A.
Y. Goor and C. W. Barney. Ronald Press,
New York, 1968. Illus. 414 p. $15. (US).
The Germ-Free Animal in Research. M.
E. Coates, H. A. Gordon, and B. S. Wost-
mann (Eds.), Academic Press, New York,
1968. Illus. 292 p- $11.50 (US).
Plant Diseases and Their Chemical Con-
trol. E. Evans. Blackwell Scientific Publi-
cations, Oxford, 1968 (U.S. distributor,
Davis, Philadelphia). Illus. 288 p. $12.25
(US).
The Quaternary of Illinois. A symposium
in observance of the centennial of the Uni-
versity of Illinois, Urbana, 1968. Robert E.
Bergstrom (Ed.), University of Illinois,
Urbana, 1968. Illus. 182 p. Paperback. $5.
(US). University of Illinois College of Agri-
culture Special Publication No. 14.
Sea and Air. The Naval Environment.
Jerome Williams, John J. Higginson, and
John D. Rohrbough. U.S. Naval Institute,
Annapolis, Md., 1968. Illus. 344 p. $11.50
(US):
Stars and Clouds of the Milky Way. The
Structure and Motion of Our Galaxy.
Thornton Page and Lou Williams Page
(Eds.), Macmillan, New York; Collier-
Macmillan, London, 1968. Illus. 364 p. $7.95
(US). Macmillan Sky and Telescope Lib-
rary of Astronomy, vol. 7.
Transportation in the World of the
Future. Hal Hellman, Evans, New York,
1968 (distributor, Lippincott, Philadelphia).
Illus. 188 p. $4.95 (US).
Vistas in Science. The 13th Air Force
Office of Scientific Research Science Semi-
nar, Albuquerque, 1968. David L. Arm,
(Ed.), University of New Mexico Press,
Albuquerque, 1968. Illus. 258 p. $5.95 (US).
186
Water. Canadian Needs and Resources.
J. S. Cram. Preface by I. W. Akerley. In-
troduction by Christian de Laet, Harvest
House, Montreal, 1968. Illus. 190 p. Cloth
$5; paperback $2.50 (US).
Conodont Zonation of the Kinderhookian
Series, Washington County, Iowa. Joseph
J. Straka II. Univ. of Iowa Studies in Natural
History, Vol. 21, No. 2, April, 1968. Illus.
71 p. Paperbound, $2. (US) from Dept. of
Publications, Univ. of Iowa, Iowa City, lowa
52240.
Venomous Vertebrates. Volume I of three-
volume treatise: Venomous Animals and
Their Venoms. Wolfgang Biicherl, Eleanor
E. Buckley and Venancio Deulofeu (Eds.)
Academic Press, New York and London,
1967. 707 p. $34. (US) Presents taxonomic,
morphologic and ecologic information on
venomous mammals and snakes; deals with
venoms, medical aspects and antisera. Vol-
umes II and III will complete the treatment
of venomous animals of all classes.
The Origin of Terrestrial Vertebrates.
I. I. Schmalhausen. Translated from the
Russian by Leon Kelso; translation edited by
Keith Thomson. Academic Press, New York
and London, 1968. 314 p. $15. (US).
Stock-poisoning Plants of Western Can-
ada. R. W. Lodge, A. McLean and A.
Johnston. Publication 1361, Canada Depart-
ment of Agriculture, 1968. Illus. with line
drawings. 34 p. Obtainable from Information
Division, Canada Department of Agriculture,
Ottawa.
Resources of Canadian Academic and
Research Libraries. Robert B. Downs.
Association of Universities and Colleges of
Canada, Ottawa. 1967. $5.
Orchid Flowers: Their Pollination and
Evolution. L. van der Pijl and Calaway H.
Dodson. Published jointly by The Fairchild
Tropical Garden and the University of
Miami Press, Coral Gables, Florida, 1966.
$12.50 (US).
The Flora of Greenland. Tyge W.
Bocher, K. Holmen and Knud Jakobsen.
Translated from the Danish edition Grgn-
Tue CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
lands Flora, 2nd revised edition, 1966, by
T. T. Elkington and M. C. Lewis. P. Haase &
Son, Copenhagen, 1968.
A Dictionary of the Flowering Plants and
Ferns. J. C. Willis (7th Edition revised by
H. K. Airy Shaw) Cambridge Univ. Press,
London and Cambridge, 1966. 1214 p. $16.
from Macmillan, Toronto. Completely re-
written; twice the size of 6th ed.
The Ecology of the Alpine Zone of
Mount Kenya. M. J. Coe. Monographiae
Biologicae XVII. W. Junk Publishers, The
Hague. frontispiece + 24 plates, 20 figs.
viii + 136 p. $6.95 (US).
Arctic Biology. Ten papers presented at
the 1957 and one presented at the 1965
Biology Colloquium at Oregon State Univer-
sity. Edited by Henry P. Hansen. Oregon
State University Press, Corvallis. 1967. Illus.
vili + 318 p. $6.50. Papers on history, vege-
tation, wildlife, agriculture, human problems
of the American Arctic.
Edible Native Plants of the Rocky
Mountains. H. D. Harrington. Univ. of
New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, 1967. Illus.
by Y. Matsumura. 392 pp., $8.95 (US).
Underwater and Floating-leaved Plants
of the United States and Canada. Neil
Hotchkiss. Resource Publication 44, Bureau
of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, U.S. Dept.
of the Interior. U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, 1967. 124 p. Line draw-
ings. $0.65 (US).
Desert Biology: Volume I of a two-
volume treatise edited by G. W. Brown, Jr.
Academic Press, New York and London,
1968. 575 p. $29.50 (US) Volume I contains
11 papers dealing with the forces causing
deserts and arid regions, the evolution of
desert vegetation in western North America,
desert limnology, venoms and the adaptation
and behavior of desert plants, amphibians,
reptiles, birds and mammals, including man.
Microecology. J. L. Cloudsley-Thompson.
Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd. (London? )
1967. The Institute of Biology’s Studies in
Biology No. 6. Illus. with line drawings and
1969
photos. 49 p. Paperback. $1.75 from Mac-
millan of Canada.
The Caecilians of the World: a Taxo-
nomic Review by Edward H. Taylor. Uni-
versity of Kansas Press, Lawrence, 1968.
Illus. viii + 484 p.
Towards a New Relationship of Man and
Nature in Temperate Lands. IUCN Pub-
lication Series No. 7, 1967. International
Union for Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources, Morges, Switzerland.
Canada Agriculture: The First Hundred
Years. Ottawa, Canada Dept. of Agricul-
ture, Historical Series, No. 1. Illus. 82 p.
1967. $2.50 from Queen’s Printer, Ottawa.
Sportsman’s Guide to Game Animals.
Leonard Lee Rue. Harper & Row, New
York, 1968. Illus. with photos. 640 p. $8.25
(US).
A Treasury of Birdlore. Joseph Wood
Krutch and Paul S. Eriksson, (Ed.), Hill and
Wang, New York. Reprinted. An anthology
of selections from the writings of Audubon,
Burroughs, Austin, Terres, Catesby, Seton
and others on birds and birdwatching. 32 p.
of illustrations. $9.50 (US).
Reproduction in Brown Lemmings (Lem-
mus trimucronatus) and its Relevance to
Their Cycle of Abundance. David A.
Muilen. Univ. California Publ. in Zoology,
1968. v. 85, 24 p. $1.50 (US).
Wild Fox. Roger Burrows. Taplinger, New
York, 1968. Illus. 203 p. $6.50 (US) On
behaviour of red foxes in U.K.
Evolution of Branchiostegals and Classi-
fication of Teleostome Fishes. D. E.
McAllister. National Museum of Canada
Bulletin No. 221, Biological Series 77, 1968.
2 tables, 21 plates, 3 figs. 239 p. $3. from
Queen’s Printer, Ottawa.
Signals in the Animal World. Dietrich
Burkhardt, Wolfgang Schleidt and Helmut
Altner. George Allen & Unwin, London,
1968 (?). Illus. 150 p. 63/-(UK).
REvIEWws 187
The Amazing World in Insects: A Photo-
‘graphic Introduction by Arend T. Bandsma
and Robin T. Brandt. George Allen &
Unwin, London, 1968 (2). 140 plates of
which 23 are in colour. 42/-
The Great Extermination: a Guide to
Anglo-Australian Cupidity, Wickedness
and Waste. A. J. Marshall (Ed.), Heine-
mann, London and Melbourne, 1966. 20
plates, 59 figs. 221 p. Australian $4.75. This
book by Marshall and 6 other biologists
chronicles the tragic story of extinctions
(34 mammals and 12 birds during the past
few hundred years), depletion of unique
animal populations, and thoughtless destruc-
tion of habitats that have occurred and are
still occurring in Australia.
Deep-water Fishes of California. John E.
Fitch and Robert J. Lavenberg. University
of California Press, Berkeley and Los Ange-
les, 1968. California Natural History Guide
25. 74 figs, 1 map. 155 p. Paperback. $2.25
(US).
Advances in Ecological Research, Volume
5. Edited by J, B. Cragg, Academic Press,
New York and London. 1968. 283 p. $15.60
from Renouf Publishing Co., Montreal. The
main aim of this series is to present com-
prehensive accounts of selected topics of
ecological research so that readers with a
general interest in ecology can obtain a
balanced picture of what is taking place.
Volume 5 contains 4 papers: Toward under-
standing ecosystems by D. M. Gates,
Ecology, systematics and evolution of Aus-
tralian frogs by A. R. Main; Studies of the
insect fauna on Scotch broom Sarothamnus
scoparius (L.) Wimmer by N. Waloff;
Ecology of fire in grasslands by R.
Daubenmire.
Men and Dinosaurs: The Search in Field
and Laboratory. Edwin H. Colbert. E. P.
Dutton & Co., New York. $8.95 (US).
Recent Mammals of the World: A Synop-
sis of Families. Sydney Anderson and J.
Knox Jones, Jr. (Eds.) Sponsored by The
American Society of Mammalogists. The
Ronald Press, New York, 1967. Illus. 453 p.
$12.50.
188 Tue CANADIAN
Oomingmak. The Expedition to the Musk
Ox Island in the Bering Sea. Peter Matthies-
sen. Hastings House, New York, 1967. Illus.
with photos. 85 p. $3.95 (US). An account
of the 1964 expedition from the University
of Alaska to Nunivak to capture musk ox
calves for domestication.
Quaternary Extinctions of Large Mam-
mals. Daniel IJ. Axelrod. Univ. of California
Publications in Geological Sciences, vol. 74.
Univ. of California Pres, Berkeley and Los
Angeles. 1967. 12 figs. 42 p. $1.50 (US).
Ecolegy and Biogeography of High Alti-
tude Insects. M. S. Mani. Series Ento-
FreL_p-NaATURALIST Vol. 83
mologica Vol.. 4, 1967. 80 figs. 528 pp., $27.80
(US) from Junk, Publishers, The Hague.
Fossil Vertebrates. Edited by Colin Patter-
son and P. H. Greenwood. Journal of the
Linnean Society (Zoology) Vol. 47, No. 311.
30 plates. 260 p. $11.50 (US) from Academic
Press, New York and London, 1967. This
special velume containing 20 original re-
search papers by palaeontologists of inter-
national repute was presented to Dr. Errol I.
White upon his retirement from the Keeper-
ship of Palaeontology in the British Museum
(Natural History).
REPRINTED
A GUIDE TO THE GEOLOGY
OF THE OTTAWA DISTRICT
by Alice Wilson
Price $1.25 plus 15c postage
Also available
A GUIDE TO THE GEOLOGY
OF THE
GATINEAU-LIEVRE DISTRICT
Price $1.00 plus 15c postage
AVAILABLE FROM:
W. J. Copy, Business Manager
Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club
Plant Research Institute
Central Experimental Farm
Ottawa 3, Ont.
§$-¢ 2/0)
The CANADIAN
FIELD- MATURALIST
Published by THE OTTAWA FIELD-NATURALISTS’ CLUB, . Ottawa, Ontario
7
+z
a :
J Srna fe
. : APY +
‘Editorial t Ifa 5s) roRd
ee Move to Ban Chlorinated Hydrocarbons ~~ Eprror
“Articles WNIVE:
egional Population Declines and Organochlorine Insecticides in aby
Prairie Falcons R. W. Fyre, J. CamMpse.y, B. Hayson and K. Hopson
Ecological Notes on the Mammals of Southern Quebec Rospert E. WRIGLEY
A Contribution to the Flora of the Saskatchewan River Delta
HERMAN J. Dirscut and Don L. Dasss
‘The Striped Bicink Mephitis mephitis (Schreber), in Nova Scotia Donatp G. Dopps
‘Studies of the Byron Bog in Southwestern Ontario XXXIX. Insects Trapped in the
| Leaves of Sundew, Drosera intermedia Hayne and Drosera rotundifolia L.
WitiiaM W. Jupp
Great Blue Heron Colonies in Alberta Kees VERMEER
Euphorbia x pseudo-esula (E. cyparissias < E. esula) in Canada
‘ R. J. Moore and C. FRANKTON
Productivity of Richardson’s Ground Squirrels near Rochester, Alberta
| “Cart H. NEttis
Some Nomenclature Problems in North American Betwia Janet R. DucLe
Range Extensions for Some Alaskan Aquatic Plants Vernon L. HarmMs
‘Recent Data on Summer Birds of the Upper Yukon River, Alaska, and Adjacent
Part of the Yukon Territory, Canada
3 Crayton M. Wuire and Joun R. HaucuH
Alfred Eugene Bourguignon W. Eart GopFREY
Notes _
An Unusual Winter Movement of Peromyscus maniculatus W.. A. .FULLER
First Breeding Record of the White-headed Woodpecker for Canada Joun K. Cooper
An Unusually Large, Gravid Ring-necked Snake, Diadophis punctatus edwardsi (Merrem)
with Eight Eggs from Nova Scotia JoHN GILHEN
The Highest Chromosome Number Known to Occur in a North American Plant
G. A. Mutiiean and W. J. Copy
Early Cessation of Reproduction in an Unusually Abundant Population of Peromyscus
‘ maniculatus borealis Raymonp P. CanHaM
The Fluoride Content of Water from Wells in the Greater Ottawa Area
W. M. Tupper and D. Man
(continued on outside back cover)
| Can. Field Nat. | Vol. 83
189
No. 3 |p. 189-295 | Ottawa, July-September, 1969
THE OTTAWA FIELD-NATURALISTS’ CLUB
- FOUNDED IN 1879 .
— Patrons — fi
‘THEIR ExcELLENCIES THE GOVERNOR GENERAL AND Mrs. ROLAND ice e,
The objectives of the Club are to promote the appreciation, preservation and |
servation of Canada’s natural heritage; to encourage investigation and publish the
of research in all fields of natural history and to diffuse information on these fi
widely as possible; to support and co-operate with organizations engaged in pr eser
maintaining or restoring quality environments for living things. ae
The club is a corporate member of the Federation of Ontario Naturalists. pose,
MEMBERS OF COUNCIL —
President: Hut N. MacKenzir, 228 Royal Avenue, Ottawa, Ontario.
First Vice-President: ‘THEopoRE Mosqumn.
Second Vice-President: W. A. HoLianp.
Secretary: ALEXANDER W. RATHWELL, Canadian Wildlife Service, 400 Laurier Aven
West, Ottawa 4, Ontario.
Treasurer: F. M. Brigham, Box 3264, Postal Station C, Ottawa 3, Ontario.
Additional Members of Council: W. K. W. Batpwiy, E. L. Bousrretp, I. M. Bropo, D.
Brunton, W. J. Copy, Barpara CoLemMan, Joyce M. Dunston, R. Y. Epwarps, J. M.
GittettT, E. W. GreEnwoop, Anne Hanes, D. D. Hocartu, Lurtta Howpen, W.
ItLmaN, Lois Kineston, D. LAFONTAINE, F, LesLanc, G. H. McGee, Patricia Narra
A. E. Porsitp, L. C. SHerx, J. H. Soper, Mary Sruarr, H. E. Sweers, SHEILA THOM
Auditors: J. M. GILLETT and AG: Hownen.
THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
Editor: TuroporE Mosoum, Plant Research Institute, Central Experimental Farm, Otta
Review Editor: Donatp A. Situ, Department of Biology, Carleton University, Otta
Associate Editors: :
Joun W. Arnotp (Entomology), Entomology Research Institute, Central
mental Farm, Ottawa.
Watter A. Bett (Paleontology), 112 Abercrombie Road, New Char N
Scotia.
E. L. Bousrietp (General Invertebrate Zoology), National Museum of Na
Sciences, Ottawa.
J. SHERMAN BLeaKNEY (Herpetology), Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia
Irwin M. Bropo (Botany), National Museum of Natural Sciences, Ottawa.
ArtHur H. Crarke, Jr., (Malacology), National Museum of Natural Scienc
Ottawa.
W. Eart Goprrey (Ornithology), National Museum of Natural Sciences, Ottawa
J. AntHony Kerrn (Pesticides), Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa.
Donatp E. McA tister (Ichthyology), National Museum of Natural Scies ces,
Ottawa.
Putri M. Youneman (Mammalogy), National Museum of Natural Science
Business Manager: W. J. Copy, Plant Research Institute, Central Experimental Fan
Ottawa.
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The Canadian Field-Naturalist
VoLuME 83 JULY-SEPTEMBER, 1969 NuMBER 3
GOVERNMENTS MOVE TO BAN CHLORINATED
HYDROCARBONS
Tue chlorinated hydrocarbon biocides include two groups of compounds, those
dispersed as pesticides and those dispersed via industrial processes. The first group
includes BHC, lindane, heptachlor, toxaphene, chlordane, aldrin, dieldrin and DDT.
The products used by industry are called polychlorinated biphenyls and include a
number of closely related compounds. Until recently, their length of life in
natural environments was thought to measure from a few to at least several dozen
years but some recent data from Sweden and California indicate that some of them
may remain toxic almost indefinitely so that the total amount of these toxic
materials may be steadily increasing in the biosphere as a whole. Even pesticide-free
environments are not safe from contamination by these compounds because when
used as a spray, a great deal (about one-half) does not hit the target and comes
down as droplets, with precipitation or with dust particles up to many thousands
of miles from where it was first released. The clouds seen by the astronauts
contained many tons of DDT and other chlorinated hydrocarbons. And according
to United Nations Secretary, U Thant, over a billion pounds of DDT alone have
already been spread through the environment. Once released into the environment
the chlorinated hydrocarbons cannot be controlled and eventually enter the
ecological food chains where they are beginning to cause large-scale reproductive
failures in fish, birds, crustaceans and other wildlife both on the continents and in
the oceans where they are building up to increasingly higher levels. Right now,
various species are already so contaminated that they are becoming extinct over
large areas of their former ranges. Potential extinctions of the earth’s biota on an
enormous scale appear to be in the offing if we cannot stop or reverse present trends.
It is my personal opinion at this time that the problem of accumulating toxicity
of the earth’s natural environments is the prime pollution issue of our day. It is
important for us to know that this toxicity is being caused by only a few, very
specific, man-made biocides among which the chlorinated hydrocarbons are the
most abundant and widely used. The issue is vital because this special kind of
toxicity is now beginning to destroy the web of life and so to reduce the capacity
of the earth to produce the many kinds of living resources upon which so many
of us depend today and which will be needed even more by more numerous future
generations. Once species become extinct they cannot be re-created; when complex
_ environments lose their ancient stability we may not be able to re-establish them.
By any cost-benefit logic the chlorinated hydrocarbons are threatening to destroy
far more resources than they are protecting.
Many independent scients who do not have their jobs, empires or special
relationships to protect, think that the chances of extinctions on a world-wide scale
are very high indeed and also that they are probable —based only on present
scientific knowledge and on extrapolations of present toxicity trends.
The following governments have recognized the problem and moved to ban
at least some of these compounds within very recent time.
SWEDEN. This is the first country to announce a ban on DDT, including aldrin,
dieldrin and lindane. The ban takes effect January 1, 1970 and will last two years.
Mailing date of this number: 13th November, 1969.
189
190 THe CanapiANn Fieitp-NaTurRAList Vol. 83
Norway. The manufacture and import of DDT will be illegal as of October 1,
1969, and all use will be banned as of October 1, 1970.
Denmark. All use of DDT will be banned as of November 1, 1969. Stocks will
be retained for several very specialized uses. The ban in Denmark is permanent.
Huneary. All use of DDT will be banned as of January, 1970.
Unirep Srates. Bills are pending in Washington that would severely restrict use
of chlorinated hydrocarbons. The Agricultural Research Service and the Forest
Service have suspended all use of these chemicals in departmental programs pending
a review. (See Bioscience, 19:739 for details). Some 80,000 tons of DDT were
manufactured in the United States in 1968. Most of this was for export.
Canapa. The Federal Government has the authority to withdraw or not grant
the registration for the sale of any pesticide. The Pesr Controt Propucrs Acr
administered by the Department of Agriculture, governs sale of all pesticides.
Uses of chlorinated hydrocarbons are currently under review and uses will be cut
down in those areas where there are suitable substitutes but apparently no outright
ban 1s planned as yet. According to the Dominion Bureau of Statistics, the amounts
of DDT, aldrin and dieldrin used in Canada in agriculture alone are as follows:
Year DDT aldrin + dieldrin
CPSs hewane PU Racer sl ane MU fr lhionspounds) =n 580 thousand pounds
16a ee es eee ty iba ph, Ce oa aera aa pote
foe mms.
TOYS pect eae Scere gh ok pe 1.7 ; Veilibcloge = pat paste Onl Ae 442 ‘ &
G6 Si ae are ell ee TGV ee 1.84 “ PE SP Soa atts 2) INCU Re oe 278 be Ss
Ausrratia. In 1968 a ban was imposed on the application of DDT to livestock
and fodder crops in order to protect export beef from being barred by importing
countries that have set low tolerance limits to DDT-contaminated carcass fat.
Arizona. A one-year moratorium on DDT has been declared to reduce con-
tamination of dairy products.
Micnican. The first state to ban DDT. The Department of Agriculture moved
to cancel all registrations for DDT in the state. This has made DDT illegal in
Michigan.
Wisconsin. A strong bill banning use of DDT has been passed by the State assembly.
Speedy passage through the Senate is expected (Bioscience, 19: 739).
Iniinors. A bill bannmg DDT has been passed by the house and is now before the
Senate (N.Y. Times, April 30, 1969).
CatirorniA. This state will ban the use of DDT preparations for household uses
as of January 1, 1970. Bills are pending in the State Legislature that would outlaw it
completely in the state. At least one court case is pending and use on farms is being
reduced.
PENNSYLVANIA. A State Commission has recommended banning DDT.
N. Y. Ciry. Use in all N.Y. City Parks has been stopped after a pilot ban of 2
years in which biological control methods were found to be more effective.
Huntincton Townsuip, Lone Istanp. DDT, aldrin and dieldrin have been banned.
Onrario. Ontario banned DDT in late September. The ban will take effect in
January, 1970 and will reduce present use by 90 percent. DDT now joins aldrin,
dieldrin and heptachlor as being banned from ‘widespread use in the province.
— Tueopore Mosgquin, September, 1969.
REGIONAL POPULATION DECLINES AND
ORGANOCHLORINE INSECTICIDES IN
CANADIAN PRAIRIE FALCONS
R. W. Fyre’, J. CAmpsBeit, B. Hayson anp K. Hopson
‘Canadian Wildlife Service, Edmonton, Alberta
INTRODUCTION
Tue INTERNATIONAL PEREGRINE SymMPostuM held in Madison, Wisconsin, in
August of 1965 focused attention on the recent declines in populations of the
Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) and several other species of raptorial birds
found in Europe and North America (Hickey, 1968). The declines were most
pronounced in the bird- and fish-eating raptors, and there was evidence of a
relationship between these population changes and the advent of the recent
widespread use of organochlorine insecticides. More recently it has been
shown that, on both continents, the populations which showed declines were
characterized by egg-eating (ibid.) and by the production of eggs which
showed reduced shell weight and thickness (Hickey and Anderson, 1968,
Ratcliffe, 1967a). A similar reduction in shell thickness in the eggs of American
Herring Gulls (Larus argentatus) from five states has been shown to have been
inversely correlated with the amount of DDE in the egg contents (Hickey and
Anderson, 1968). Analysis has also verified the presence of high levels of
organochlorine insecticide residues in the tissues and eggs of the declining
species (Cade, White, and Haugh, 1968, Enderson and Berger, 1968; Hickey
and Anderson, 1968; Lockie and Ratcliffe, 1964; Moore, 1965; Ratcliffe, 1967b),
higher than in related species that are not declining (Hickey and Anderson,
1968). Rudd (1964) demonstrated that low levels of organochlorine insecticide
residues are concentrated by resistant organisms and are accumulated to a
greater degree at each successive step along food chains in various. ecosystems.
In the last few years it has been demonstrated that a wide variety of these
insecticides or their metabolites, including DDE, will induce increased pro-
duction of hepatic microsomal enzymes in both mammals and birds. These
enzymes in turn are capable of hydroxilating the steroid hormones which play
a major role in regulating calcium metabolism and eggshell thickness during
egg production (Peakall, 1967; Risebrough et al., 1968).
Because of these findings and the documented presence of high residue
levels in raptorial birds, the most plausible hypothesis is that those raptor
species affected in the recent declines accumulated sufficient organochlorine
insecticide residues to induce the production of unusually high levels of hepatic
microsomal enzymes, and that the resulting breakdown of steroids was the
primary cause of the widespread reduction in shell thickness and the parallel
reproductive failure.
Following the peregrine symposium’s documentation of raptor population
declines, the Canadian Wildlife Service began to examine the status of potential-
191
192 THe CANabIAN FieLtp-NaATURALIST Vol. 83
ly threatened Canadian raptor populations, and to collect egg and tissue samples
for pesticide residue analysis. This paper is the first of a series and sum-
marizes the results of field investigations and organochlorine insecticide residue
determinations in the Prairie Falcon (Falco mexicanus) in western Canada dur-
ing 1966, 1967, and 1968.
MetTHops
In 1966, 1967, and 1968 field investigations were carried out to assess the
populations of Prairie Falcons in southern Saskatchewan and Alberta. In
Saskatchewan, field work was restricted to two areas (A and B, Fig. 1) chosen
because we had earlier population data for comparison. Since little comparative
information was available in Alberta, investigations there consisted of initial
surveys in areas of suitable habitat (C,D,E,F, Fig. 1). Comparisons were then
made wherever possible.
During the investigations, all nest locations were mapped and data recorded
on occupancy, nest success, and behavior of the adult birds. Whenever possible
the nests were revisited and young falcons banded. In 1967 and 1968, samples
were collected for residue analysis. hese included both fresh and unhatched
eggs, prey species, and in one instance four young Prairie Falcons found dead
in a nest. Each sample was wrapped in aluminum foil, frozen, and sent to L.
M. Reynolds of the Ontario Research Foundation for analysis in the following
manner.
The sample is homogenized where possible, and an aliquot (ca. 3 g) is
analysed as follows: Moisture is determined by the use of a vacuum oven at
low temperature. The dried material 1s eround with anhydrous Na2SOu, and
the fat is estimated by Soxhlet extraction with 1:2 ether:hexane mixture as
the extractant. The solvent is removed from the extract and the fat residue is
weighed. ‘The pesticides are then separated from the fat by cold precipitation
and filtration of the fat with the aid of a charcoal-Celite pad. The extract
containing the pesticides is cleaned-up further on Florisil (some samples need
no further cleanup) and analysed by gas liquid chromatographic- -electron cap-
ture detection technique. Confirmation of the pesticides is by thin-layer
chromatography but is supplemented by chemical reactions for specific pesti-
cides. When polychlorobiphenyls appear to be present, a special Florisil
separation by hexane elution is carried out. The method is sensitive to about
0.001 ppm.
Before sending the egg contents to L. M. Reynolds, the outer dimensions
of the intact eggs were measured, after which the contents were removed and
the shells washed and allowed to dry at room temperatures. Once dry, the
shells were weighed to 0.01 g, their length and breadth recorded, and four
measurements of the thickness of the eggshell less membranes were taken
around the girth of the egg. The mean of these measurements was used to
represent the shell thickness of the individual e
Possibly because of relatively limited nesting habitat, Prairie Falcons in
western Canada traditionally nest in the same general location each year. The
number of pairs nesting in any area of suitable habitat appears to remain very
constant, making it possible to census populations of this species with a reason-
1969 Fyre er AL.: Pesticipes IN Prairie FALCoNns 193
Figure 1. Outline map of Saskatchewan and Alberta showing areas investigated.
able degree of accuracy. The nest location is generally referred to as the
eyrie or site (Enderson, 1964; Hickey, 1942; Webster, 1944), however, since the
exact location of the eyrie or nest site may vary leroy year to year on a given
cliff, or series of cliffs, we are using the term nesting territory to describe
traditionally used nesting locations.
Figures on populations and population changes are based on the number
of occupied nesting territories in each area (Table 1). For our purposes an
occupied territory is defined as any previously known territory occupied by a
pair of adult Prairie Falcons or any cliff defended by one or two adult Prairie
Falcons at any time during the breeding season.
OBSERVATIONS
A. PoPpuLATIONS
_Investigation in 1966 of prairie falcon nesting territories identified by
Fyfe i in 1958 and 1959 indicated that a sharp decline in the number of occupied
territories had occurred in area B, with eight of nine former territories deserted.
In sharp contrast, in area A six of seven 1958 and 1959 territories were occupied
and one new territory was located. Area C was investigated for the first time
in 1966, and 13 active territories were located.
Field work carried out in areas A and C during the spring of 1967 indicated
no change from the year before in the number of occupied territories. How-
ever, although the number of territories remained the same, one nest in area A
was deserted during incubation for no apparent reason. This nest originally
194 Tue CANabIAN FieLp-NATURALIST Vol. 83
TABLE 1.—Prairie Falcon nesting territories investigated.
1966 1967 1968
Previously Previously Previously
known New known New known New
Area territories territories territories territories territories territories
gf (2) 20) ¢] 2) 2) 2) ee
4 Q a a a] a 3 (2) a a 5 (2)
S 3 a) & © 3 S) 5 g 5 3 8
aa 2) S 2) Ss 2) 8 2) a Q 5 iS)
oO e) 5 o) Oo fe) S o) Oo e) S o)
=) eS)
A 7 6 1 1 8 7 1 0 8 i 1 3
B 9 1 8 0 — - — — 9 1 8 1
C - = ~ = 13 13 0 1 14 14 0 0
D - = = - = - = = 4 0 4 11
18, — _ = = - = = 7 7 0 9
F = = = ~ - = = 10 5 5 6
Total | 16 7 9 1 21 20 1 1 52 34 18 30
contained three eggs, one of which was collected fresh for analysis. The
remaining two eggs were fully incubated yet failed to hatch although they
contained two fully developed chicks. The subsequent residue analysis and
shell measurements are discussed later.
In 1968 field investigations were continued in areas A, B, and C with
results for known territories almost identical with those recorded in 1966 and
1967. The only difference in the 1968 results was the discovery of four new
territories, one in area B and three in area A. The number of occupied
territories in relation to previously known territories remained the same in all
areas.
During 1968 the survey was extended in Alberta to include three areas
(D, E, and F) new to us, and in these three areas a total of 21 territories known
from the preceding five years were investigated, and 26 new territories were
found. Of the 21 previously known territories, all 7 in area E were occupied
whereas only 5 of the 10 in area F and none of ane 4 in area D were occupied.
The number of known occupied Peregrine Falcon territories in area D had also
declined from six in 1960 (Decker, 1967) to none in 1968, and the two in area
F also became unoccupied during the same interval. Although no Peregrine
Falcons were observed by us in these areas, five single prairie falcons in area F,
two in area D, and one in area C were observed at cliffs. In all instances these
birds flew silently from what appeared to be good nest sites but which proved
empty and were not defended although the birds remained in the area. This
pattern of single birds at nest sites was a characteristic of the declining popula-
tions of Peregrine Falcons.
Enderson (1964) noted that of the 36 Prairie Falcon territories in his study
an average of 11 percent remained unoccupied each of the three years. Al-
though he does not suggest a decline in the Prairie Falcon populations, he does
1969 FYFE ET AL.: PESTICIDES IN PRAIRIE FALCONS 195
KEY
NO. OF EGGS
OTHER ORGANOCHLORINE
INSECTICIDES
DIELDRIN
HEPTACHLOR
EPOXIDE
RESIDUES IN WET- WEIGHT ppm
DDE
AREA
Figure 2. Insecticide residues in Prairie Falcon eggs averaged by area.
indicate that three of the eyries which were unoccupied had not been occupied
for four or five years.
Observations show no change during 1966, 1967, and 1968 in the number
of known territories occupied in areas C and E. In the remaining four areas
the number of occupied territories has declined from 31 to 13 during the last
10 years, a loss of 34 percent of the 52 known territories investigated.
Our observations indicate that the Prairie Falcon declines in western Canada
are limited to specific areas. The two most marked declines are less than 100
miles from areas where no declines have been observed. ‘This variation suggests
that the factors which are adversely affecting this species, though widespread,
are not uniform. Also the lack of change in areas A, B, and C during the past
three years suggests that those pairs which have not been affected are able
to survive because their location, food preferences, or specific behavior patterns
have in some way isolated these birds from the decimating factors.
We were not able to revisit every nest at or immediately following
fledging, therefore, it is not possible to indicate definite fledging success. aie
1968 production of nestlings based on the number of young found in the nests
is given in Table 2. Since second visits were made to most nests we have ex-
pressed production as nestlings produced per occupied territory and nestlings
produced per successful pair. In 1968 nestlings per successful pair averaged
3.57 (range 2.4 to 4.2) giving an indication of the productivity of those pairs
reproducing successfully. Nestlings per occupied territory in 1968 averaged
2.5 (range 1.5 to 3.25), which gives a more reliable indication of the reproduc-
tive success of the species in each area since it takes into account nest destruc-
tion and desertion. Our mean of 2.5 nestlings per occupied territory is con-
196 Tue CANADIAN FIeELD-NATURALIST Vol.’ 83
Table 2.—Prairie Falcon production and organochlorine insecticide levels by area.!
Total egg-residues in ppm
Occupied | Successful| No. of wet weight
Area | territories pairs nestlings | N/S? | N/O#
Mean Range N
D 11 7 17 24 1.5 8.45 | GeG7=13e60) set
A 10 6 23 3.8 Des 8.13 (3 .38-21 . 66) 12
F 11 7 27 3.8 2:9 -
C 14 9 38 4.2 Dt 5.16 (2.07-10.77) 10
E 16 15 52 3 3.2 2.09 (1.07-4.04) | 8
1Production is of 1968, insecticide levels are of 1967 and 1968.
2Nestlings produced per successful pair.
3Nestlings produced per occupied territory.
siderably higher than Enderson’s average of 1.9 recorded during his 1960-62
study in Wyoming and Colorado (Enderson, 1964). This would suggest that
the prairie falcons in western Canada are reproducing successfully. However,
since many of the eyries were located for the first time in 1968 it is entirely
possible that our figures are high because nests which were deserted early in
incubation may have been missed whereas successful eyries were readily located.
The data suggest that the lowest nestling production occurred in areas A, F,
and D, which are three of the four areas of recent population decline. The
fourth area, B, was not revisited, so we have no nestling data for it. We can
then conclude that the regionally limited Prairie Falcon declines are continuing.
B. InsectricipeE RESIDUES
Of 36 Prairie Falcon eggs from four areas analysed by L. M. Reynolds,
all contained measurable residues of organochlorine insecticides. These eggs
averaged 6.9 percent fat and 79 percent moisture (69 — 85 percent), and resi-
dues are expressed on a wet-weight basis except in Fig. 3, which is based on dry
weights. All eggs contained residues of DDE, heptachlor epoxide, DDD and
pp’-DDT;; all but two contained residues of dieldrin and six contained residues
of pp’-DDT. In the three areas, where residue levels were highest, DDE was
by far the largest component in the eggs (Fig. 2).
Total residues in our samples show a wide range of contamination, from
1.07 to 21.66 ppm wet weight, yet the levels in the eggs from each area tend
to be similar. Although the sample is too small to draw definite conclusions
from, nestling production is lowest in those areas with the highest residue
levels (Table 2). Heptachlor epoxide and dieldrin, although usually present
in small amounts in our samples, are by most criteria many times as toxic to
birds as DDT or its metabolites.
Recent experimental evidence of Enderson and Berger (1969) shows that
Prairie Falcons can accumulate high levels of dieldrin after eating only a few
highly contaminated items. They also demonstrated that a corresponding
increase was found in the contamination levels of the eggs if the items were
INDEX
SHELL THICKNESS
1969 FYFE ET AL.: PesticipEs IN Prairie FaLcons 197
O-1I0 lO-20 20-30 > 30
DRY-WEIGHT ppm DDE IN EGGS
Figure 3. Variation of shell-thickness index with DDE concentration in Prairie Falcon
~eggs. Sample numbers are in brackets, horizontal lines are means, boxes are 95 percent
confidence limits, and vertical lines are sample ranges.
fed to the falcons immediately before egg laying. Prairie Falcons in western
Canada return to the nesting territories several weeks before egg laying and
so much of the insecticide residues in the eggs may be accumulated from the
prey in the vicinity of the nest during this period.
Individual variation in residues in the eggs within any one area probably
results from specific prey abundance or food preferences of individual birds.
Considerable individual differences in food preferences are already established
198 THe CaNnapiAN Frie_p-NATURALIST Vol. 83
for the Prairie Falcon (Enderson, 1964; Webster, 1944; Edwards, 1968; Bent,
1938), and since different prey species carry different residue levels these
differences would be reflected in the eggs. On this basis it is also possible that
the similarities in egg-residue levels found within each area also reflect specific
prey abundance or preferences in a given region.
C. EcesHett THICKNESS
DDE was the predominant residue in all eggs with relatively high total
residues (Fig. 2). This metabolite of DDT has in the past not been considered
of great importance because of its reportedly low toxicity; however, recent
research into the effect of organochlorine insecticides in relation to calctum
metabolism during egg production has resulted in a reassessment of the signifi-
cance of sublethal levels of this (Hickey and Anderson, 1968) and other
chemicals (Peakall, 1967; Jones and Summers, 1968; Enderson and Berger,
1969; Jefferies, 1967; Risebrough ez al., 1968). It is now recognized that the
potential results of sublethal levels of these substances are a far more serious
and long-term threat in the environment than the immediate threat posed by
their toxicity on application (Risebrough et al., 1968).
A comparison of dry weight DDE levels in the egg content with Ratcliffe’s
(1967a) shell-thickness index (weight/length > width) is shown in Fig. 3. We
use the index here, rather than our thickness measurements, to allow direct
comparison with the American data of Enderson and Berger (1969), and be-
cause relationship with DDE was essentially the same using either index or
actual thickness values.
To compensate for any minor variability in analyses and to facilitate
comparison with Enderson and Berger (ibid.), the eggs were grouped into
classes of 10 ppm dry weight. The mean thickness index of the eggs with
0- 10 ppm DDE is 1.834. The mean index then shows a decrease in each class
to a low of 1.497 for those eggs with more than 30 ppm DDE, a decrease of
18 percent. These data suggest a decrease in shell thickness as the DDE residue
levels increase and are similar to Enderson and Berger’s (1969) findings for this
falcon in Colorado.
Considering our 36 eggs as a current sample of Canadian Prairie Falcons,
the mean thickness index is 1.71, with 95 percent confidence limits of 1.65 to
1.77. This is a significant drop of 11 percent from a pre-organochlorine-
insecticide era figure of 1.93, with 95 percent confidence limits of 1.91 to 1.95,
taken from 192 eggs from Alberta, Saskatchewan, Montana, Nebraska, Wyom-
ing, and South Dakota (unpublished data of Anderson and Hickey).
D. Nestiinc Mortatiry AND Ecc HATcHABILITY
Analysis of the brains of two of four young falcons found dead in a nest
in 1968 in area C showed the two combined tissues to contain 5.05 ppm (wet
weight) heptachlor epoxide, 0.322 ppm dieldrin, 3.06 ppm DDE, 0.035 ppm
DDD, 0.044 ppm pp’-DDT. Although there are species differences in the
1969 Fyre ET AL.: Pesriciwes IN PRAIRIE FaLcons 199
average lethal brain residue levels it has been shown that brain residues of
dieldrin of 4 or 5 ppm (wet weight), or higher, indicate that an animal was in
the known danger zone and may have died of dieldrin poisoning (Stickel,
Stickel, and Spann, 1968).
Since dieldrin and heptachlor epoxide are considered to have similar
toxicity, the 5.05 ppm (wet weight) heptachlor epoxide level falls within this
danger zone and suggests that these birds may have died of insecticide poison-
ing. The presence of these levels in four- to five-week-old nestlings indicates
that significantly high residue levels are being accumulated from the prey
species found in wegient Canada not only during the egg-laying season, but also
some two months later.
Enderson and Berger (1969) have demonstrated that in Prairie Falcons thin-
shelled eggs resulted in lower hatchability with only 10 percent of those pairs
having eggs with a thickness index below 1.45 fledging one or more young.
During our investigations one nest in area A containing two well-developed
eggs which had failed to hatch was deserted. Subsequent measurements and
analyses showed an average shell thickness index of 1.40 with a corresponding
mean total residue content of 16.2 ppm wet weight, of which 15.3 ppm was
DDE. On a dry-weight basis, these ppm values are 73.6 for the total and
69.8 for DDE. The mean thickness index of 1.40 suggests that these eggs
failed to hatch because of abnormally thin egg shells apparently induced by
high levels of DDE.
SUMMARY
Investigations into the status of Prairie Falcons in western Canada were
carried out in 1966, 1967 and 1968. Samples were collected and residue
analyses conducted on Prairie Falcon egg contents and tissue samples.
The field investigations show a 34 percent reduction in the occupancy of
territories known in the previous 10 years. This reduction has been con-
centrated in four of six areas studied, and current nestling production is also
lowest in three of these same four areas (we lack nestling data for the fourth
area).
All egg and tissue samples analysed contained organochlorine insecticide
residues, principally DDE, with generally smaller amounts of heptachlor
epoxide and dieldrin. Total residues in eggs ranged from 1 — 22 ppm wet
weight, but levels in the samples within each area were similar. A comparison
of eggshell thickness to DDE levels in the eggs shows a decrease in shell weight
and thickness with increasing DDE levels. These shells are significantly thinner
than shells of eggs laid before the widespread use of organochlorine insecticides.
High heptachlor epoxide levels may have caused the death of four young
falcons, and high DDE levels may have caused the hatching failure of two
fully-developed and thin-shelled falcon eggs.
Areas with the lowest rate of production of nestling falcons were also
the areas with the highest DDE levels in falcon eggs,
Vol. 83
Tue CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to thank members of the Saskatchewan Falconry Association for
assistance in obtaining samples, Dr. Lincoln Reynolds of the Ontario Research
Foundation for conducting the analyses, and Dr. John Kelsall and Mr. J. A.
Keith for editorial assistance and constructive criticism during the preparation
of this paper.
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Accepted June 25, 1969
Ys
ECOLOGICAL NOTES ON THE MAMMALS
OF SOUTHERN QUEBEC
Rosert E. WRIGLEY’
Department of Zoology and Redpath Museum, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec
INTRODUCTION
Tuts study is concerned with the distribution, habitat and life history of the
mammalian fauna of extreme southern Quebec. Data were collected during
four years (1965-1968) of intermittent trapping and observation, mainly in
the region south of the St. Lawrence River bounded by the Canadian-United
States boundary, and a line through the Monteregian Hills to Compton County,
Quebec. This area has received little attention from naturalists. Peterson
(1966) recorded the few mammal specimens from here, and the Redpath
Museum, McGill University, has a small collection from Mont St. Hilaire.
During the present study 611 specimens of 31 species were preserved, including
a small series from Bark Lake (Argenteuil Co.) and Camp de la Roche, Laur-
entides Park (47° 41’ N; 70° 50’ W). Many species are recorded for the first
time in the area, and are among the first collected in the province. Ten
other species were observed, and six are known to occur here but were not
detected (Hairy-tailed mole, Eastern long-eared bat, Least bat, Eastern pipis-
trelle, Red bat, Hoary bat). Six species appear to have been extirpated (Tim-
berwolf, Marten, Wolverine, Cougar, Wapiti, Woodland caribou), and six
species are regarded as hypothetical inhabitants (Gray long-tailed shrew, New
England cottontail, Yellow-nosed vole, Coyote, Gray fox, Eastern flying
squirrel).
The distribution of subspecies of the smoky shrew, eastern chipmunk and
red-backed vole is discussed. Measurements are in millimeters. The specimens
are deposited in the following institutions: National Museum of Canada,
Ottawa; Redpath Museum, McGill University, Montreal; Department of Tour-
ism, Fish and Game, Quebec; Museum of Natural History, University of Illinois,
Urbana.
FLORA AND PHYSIOGRAPHY
The main study area lies within the Great Lakes — St. Lawrence Forest
Region (Rowe, 1959), where southern deciduous and northern coniferous plant
communities merge to form a diverse flora. Two geographic sections have been
recognized which have an important bearing on mammalian distribution. The
Upper St. Lawrence Section includes the lowlands in the north and west and
the Monteregian Hills, a chain of eight large hills which rise abruptly from the
plain. The forests are largely beech-sugar maple, with admixtures of hemlock,
red maple, yellow birch, white elm, basswood, oaks, ashes, white pine and
cedar. Most of the original forest has been cleared during several hundred
years of agriculture.
1Present address: Department of Zoology and Museum of Natural History, University of Illinois,
Urbana, Illinois 61801.
201
202 Tue CaNapiAN Fie_p-NaATURALIST Vol. 83
The Eastern Townships Section lies to the southeast, on the northwestern
fringe of the Appalachian Mountains. Though the valleys are extensively
farmed, the hills and mountains remain well covered with deciduous-coniferous
forest. Sugar maple, yellow birch, white birch, largetooth aspen, white spruce,
red spruce, white pine, balsam fir and hemlock are most important, particularly
with increasing elevation. Many mountains are over 2000 feet in elevation and
the highest are the Sutton Mountains at 3100 feet.
The region investigated in Laurentides Park is well within the boreal for-
est, and contains black spruce, white spruce, balsam fir and tamarack. The
Bark Lake area is similar to the Eastern Townships Section.
CLIMATE
Mean daily seasonal temperatures in the study region are: January 10-15°F,
April 35-45°F, July 65-70°F, October 45-50°F. Annual minimum-maximum
temperatures range from -30°F to 95°F. Mean annual precipitation is 36-42
inches, while the annual snowfall ranges from 80-110 inches. Due largely to
higher elevation, the Eastern Townships Section receives an annual average of
15 more inches of snow, and 20 fewer frost-free days (100-120) than the
Upper St. Lawrence Section (Atlas of Canada, 1957).
GEOGRAPHICAL AFFINITIES OF THE MAMMALIAN FAUNA
An ecotone of two major animal communities occurs in extreme southern
Quebec — the boreal and deciduous forest biociations. Vegetation, climate,
soil and interspecific competition appear to be important factors affecting the
distribution of mammals in this region, however, specific information is mostly
lacking. Twenty-two species reach their northern limits, and four species attain
their southern limits of distribution in or near this region.
Northern Limit Hoary bat Bobcat
Opossum Eastern cottontail Cougar
Gray long-tailed shrew New England cottontail Wapiti
Hairy-tailed mole Gray squirrel
Eastern long-eared bat Eastern flying squirrel
Least bat White-footed mouse Southern Limit
Indiana bat Pine vole Eastern phenacomys
Eastern pipistrelle Gray fox Northern bog lemming
Big brown bat Raccoon Wolverine
Red bat Long-tailed weasel Woodland caribou
The St. Lawrence River does not appear to have been an important barrier
to mammalian dispersal northwards, subsequent to the last glacial recession.
Species inhabiting regions north of the river either crossed the stretch of water
or winter ice, or immigrated from Ontario. Interruption of gene exchange in
populations on opposite shores has resulted in the formation of geographic
races in the eastern part of the ranges of many species, especially across the
Gulf of St. Lawrence. However, farther upstream (southwest) from the study
area, such differentiation is present only in the woodland jumping mouse and
pygmy shrew.
1969 Wrictey: Nores on MAMMALS OF QUEBEC 203
South of the St. Lawrence River, there exists a progressive change in climate
and vegetation from the deciduous forests in the vicinity of Lake Ontario to
the boreal forest of the Gaspe Peninsula. Seventeen species of mammals have
evolved different subspecies in the two areas. Within the study region, four
subspecies intergrade, four have affinities with northeastern populations, and
nine more closely resemble populations to the southwest (Hall and Kelson,
1959).
SW Affinities Woodland jumping mouse Red fox
Water shrew Short-tailed weasel
Short-tailed shrew Long-tailed weasel NE Affinities
Snowshoe hare Intergrades Smoky shrew
Northern flying squirrel Pygmy shrew Woodchuck
Deer mouse Red squirrel Beaver
Red-backed vole Meadow jumping mouse Bobcat
Several hundred years of land cultivation and settlement have altered the
original mammalian fauna of this region. The disappearance and reduction of
species have resulted mainly from habitat destruction, hunting and trapping.
Unfortunately, as these forces continue, many more species will be extermin-
ated. Meadow voles and woodchucks have likely prospered with the increase
of grassy clearings.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Dr. Austin W. Cameron, Redpath Museum, McGill
University, for directing this study. Mr. Henri Ouellet, Redpath Museum, and
Dr. Peter Grant, Department of Zoology, McGill University, kindly provided
field information and donated several mammal specimens. Mr. Phillip M.
Youngman, National Museum of Canada, and Dr. Randolph L. Peterson, Royal
Ontario Museum, allowed me to examine specimens in their care. Thanks are
extended to Dr. Donald F. Hoffmeister, Museum of Natural History, Univer-
sity of Illinois, and Dr. M. Raymond Lee, Department of Zoology, University
of Illinois, for critically reading the manuscript. For the opportunity of col-
Jecting mammals in Laurentides Park, Quebec, I am indebted to Mr. Pierre Des
Meules, Department of Tourism, Fish and Game, Quebec.
The assistance of numerous local residents, game wardens, and farmers
who supplied information on the occurrence of mammals and permitted collect-
ing on their property, is gratefully asknowledged. I thank Mrs. Arlene L.
Webb, Museum of Natural History, University of Illinois, for typing the
manuscript. Research and accommodations in the Monteregian Hills were
financed by the Committee of the Gault Estate, McGill University.
Species’ ACCOUNTS
Sorex cinereus (Kerr). MAsKED SHREW sphagnum bogs, supported high populations.
This common species occurred in a wide Dry or exposed situations were avoided.
variety of thabitats, and over 60 individuals Trapping during the spring at South
were captured. Mature deciduous-coniferous Bolton revealed a predominance of males
woods with a thick leaf mold, rank growths (22 males, 6 females) which may have been
of grasses and sedges, and occasionally due to greater activity in search of females.
204 Tue CANADIAN Fie_p- NATURALIST
The testes of all males were enlarged
(over 5.3 mm) prior to April 18. Two fe-
males on April 26, one on May 1, and two
on May 6 were in estrus, while another on
the latter date had eight embryos. A female
taken on September 26 had recently pro-
duced a litter. One male was parasitized by
a coiled nematode larva in the fascia of a
hind leg.
Specimens collected: South Bolton, 16, Glen
Sutton, 1; Dundee, 2; Stanbridge East, 1,
Camp de la Roche (Laurentides Park), 18.
Total 38.
Sorex fumeus (Miller). SMoKy SHREW
Twenty-five smoky shrews were captur-
ed in the mountains; none in the lowlands.
The preferred habitat appeared to be damp
deciduous-coniferous forest. Most were
trapped around stumps, under mossy logs,
and in the cover of yew boughs and ferns
near streams. Two shrews were found on a
talus slope in a stand of red pine, hemlock,
yellow birch, and another was taken in
sugar maple woods at the edge of a field.
The breeding season likely occurs from
mid-April to late August in this region.
Five males collected from April 14 to May
1 had enlarged testes (over 5 mm), and
pregnant females were taken on April 22,
May 2, 6. An aged female revealed recent
placental scars on July 22. Seven shrews,
all from spring litters, obtained from Octo-
ber 9 to 29 (3 males, 4 females) showed no
breeding sign. There was evidence, then,
for at least two reproductive periods, with
a litter size averaging 6.6 (6-8). One female
from South Bolton had a coiled nematode
larva in the fascia between the scapulae.
These specimens were referred to S. f.
umbrosus (Jackson) on the basis of dark
grayish brown pelage and large size. The
average and extreme measurements of eight
adults were as follows: total length, 121.5
(117-131); tail, 48.4 (47-50); hind foot, 14.0;
weight, 7.0g¢ (6-10).
Specimens collected: Mont St. Hilaire, 1;
South Bolton, 15. Total 16.
Sorex palustris (Richardson). WATER SHREW
This species was rare and found only at
one locality in the mountains, where five
specimens were taken at one place along
a stream in deciduous-coniferous forest. A
single pitfall trap, placed amid sedges and
ferns on the gravel shore, captured four of
the shrews (two in one night). The flank
glands were enlarged and emitted a strong,
Vol. 83
musky odor. The scent was noticeable in
the vicinity of the trap site, and probably
attracted other shrews to that particular
trap.
Four males trapped on April 22, 26, and
May 1 had large testes (5-7 mm). A female
collected on June 14 revealed no reproduc-
tive sign.
Specimens collected: South Bolton, 5.
Microsorex hoyi (Baird). Pyemy sHREWw
This rare species was not found in ex-
treme southern Quebec, but it no doubt
occurs here. Two specimens were captured
in pitfall traps at Laurentides Park — one in
a damp, white spruce stand several yards
from an alder-lined stream, the other in a
sphagnum bog.
Specimens collected: Camp de la Roche
(Laurentides Park), 2.
Blarina brevicauda SHORT-TAILED
SHREW
(Say).
Blarina was found in a wider range of
habitats than any other small mammal, and
was often the most abundant. Friable soil,
moisture, and cover, in the form of decay-
ing vegetation, dense herbs, or fallen logs,
were essential components of the micro-
habitat. Damp, mature deciduous-coniferous
woods consistently supported the highest
numbers. Fields of tall grasses and sedges
were also inhabited. The only situations
avoided were dry fields and woods, and
talus slopes. ;
The breeding season extended from late
April to early September. Males with en- —
larged testes (over 9 mm) were found from
April 26 to September 2. One female was in
estrus on May 6, three contained embryos
in May, June and July, and nine others re-
vealed recent reproductive signs (placental
scars, lactation) up to September 27. The
average number of young in six litters
was 6.8 (5-8).
Twelve percent of the short-tailed shrews
examined were parasitized by a coiled
nematode larva. One to five worms were
situated in the scapular fascia. One shrew
had red mites on the anus.
The specimens from extreme southern
Quebec were referred to B. b. talpoides
(Gapper) rather than B. D. hooperi (Bole
and Moulthrop), due to large size. Seventy-
one adults averaged: total length, 128.8
(118-144); tail, 26.8 (22-31); hind foot, 15.7
(15-17); weight, 20.0¢ (15-28).
1969
Specimens collected: Bark Lake (Argenteuil
Co.), 1; Dundee, 13; St. Sebastien, 1; Mont
St. Hilaire, 6; Mont Yamaska, 2; Mont
Shefford, 4; Mont Orford, 5; Mont Echo,
7; Glen Mountain, 13; South Bolton, 37;
Glen Sutton, 3. Total 92.
Condylura cristata (Linnaeus). STAR-NOSED
MOLE
This mole was locally common over most
of the area. Characteristic earth mounds and
runways in bogs, moist fields and woods,
were particularly evident in the spring. A
male collected on April 27 had enlarged
testes (19 x 11 mm), and a female on the
same date revealed four 12 mm embryos,
plus one reabsorbed embryo.
Specimens collected: South Bolton, 3.
Myotis lucifugus (LeConte). Litrte BRowN
BAT
This species was the most abundant bat
occurring around forests, orchards, marshes,
lakes, streams and buildings. At Dundee, a
mummified individual was found entangled
in a burdock. The largest population was
observed at Bark Lake, a heavily forested
area of mature, deciduous-coniferous trees
and plentiful lakes. Several cottages were
utilized as roosting sites by hundreds of
bats.
One female contained a 12 mm embryo
on June 8. A male had enlarged testes
(6X 3 mm) on August 23, suggesting the
breeding season was approaching. The
warm, crowded summer roosts (all females)
encouraged the spread of ectoparasites, and
all specimens examined were heavily in-
fested.
Specimens collected: Bark Lake (Argenteuil
Co.), 4; Mont St. Hilaire, 3. Total 7.
Lasionycteris noctivagans (LeConte).
SILVER-HAIRED BAT
This migratory species was seen often at
Mont St. Hilaire, suggesting its general oc-
currence in the area. It appeared in apple
orchards and a quarry beside beech woods.
The silver-haired bat emerged at late dusk
and was usually solitary. The high, erratic
flight and late appearance made it especially
difficult to collect. One female, obtained by
Mr. Raymond Clarke, on August 24, reveal-
ed one old placental scar.
Specimens collected: Mont St. Hilaire, 1.
Eptesicus fuscus (Beauvois). Big BROWN BAT
This large bat was found at only two
localities though it may have been common
Wricitey: Notes on MAMMALS OF QEUBEC
205
in the St. Lawrence Valley. It was often
observed flying over orchards, deciduous
forest edges, and in the vicinity of buildings
at Mont St. Hilaire. It emerged early in
the evening, and two were seen flying an
hour before sunset. Members of this species
consistently foraged in groups of two or
three.
A female collected on July 6 revealed
two recent placental scars, and another on
September 1 had two old scars. A male taken
on August 29 had enlarged testes.
Specimens collected: Mont St. Hilaire, 5.
Lepus americanus (Erxleben). SNowsHor
HARE
The hare was common in many areas and
almost any type of forest appeared to pro-
vide sufficient food and cover. However, it
was most abundant in northern hardwoods
mixed with hemlock, balsam fir or white
pine, particularly along the edges of mea-
dows. The presence of hares was conspic-
uous in winter, with tracks and woody
droppings in the snow, and shrubs stripped
of bark several feet above snow line. Forms.
were located either under conifer boughs
or excavated several feet into the snow.
Specimens collected: Mont Echo, 1; South
Bolton, 1. Total 2.
Sylvilagus floridanus
COTTONTAIL
The cottontail eccurred only locally, and
appeared to be absent from many suitable
areas. Population numbers were reported to
fluctuate, and cottontails were scarce at
this time. The only individuals personally
observed were in lanes in St. Lambert.
(Allen). Eastern
Sciurus carolinensis (Gmelin). Eastern
GRAY SQUIRREL
The St. Lawrence lowlands and _ all
Monteregian Hills supported gray squirrels,
while only a few scattered colonies were
discovered in the mountainous areas of
Brome County. This species was closely
associated with tracts of hardwood forest
containing beech, oak or hickory. Mature
trees were necessary to provide sufficient
mast for the long winter period as well as
nesting holes to avoid severe climatic con-
ditions. In winter and spring, individuals
were observed digging through deep snow
in search of food in the leaf litter. Since
food and cover requirements are not ful-
filled in the coniferous forest to the north,
the gray squirrel reaches its northern limit
of distribution in extreme southern Quebec.
206
Few data were obtained on reproduction
as both pregnant females and young re-
mained in or close by the nest. On May 13,
a female was observed in the act of moving
the family to a new nest hole 150 yards
distant. The juveniles were covered with
fine, gray fur, and were being carried by
the abdomen in the female’s mouth. Two
other females revealed placental scars on
August 15 and September 11, while a male
had enlarged testes (15 mm) on August 4.
There is thus, evidence for two annual lit-
ters, in early May and early August.
Specimens collected: Mont St. Hilaire, 3;
St. Sebastien, 2; St. Lambert, 1. Total 6.
Tamiasciurus hbudsonicus (Erxleben) Rep
SQUIRREL
Red squirrels were common both in the
mountains and lowlands, particularly in
conifer stands (spruce, pine, hemlock, bal-
sam fir, white cedar. Small deciduous wood-
lots and fencerows harbored several, as
long as there were a few conifers present.
Fall food caches in hollow trees contained
apples, fungi, maple samaras, conifer cones,
and mast of beech, oak, hickory and butter-
nut. During the late winter, buds of balsam
fir and numerous deciduous trees were
heavily utilized.
There appeared to be two breeding
periods for this species. Lactating females
with recent placental scars were found on
June 9, July 20, August 23, two on Septem-
ber 11, while another was in estrus on June
12. Males with enlarged and descended
testes were taken from early April to early
September. Weaned young were observed
foraging on the ground in early June. Most
young were probably born in May and
August. Placental scar counts of three fe-
males averaged 5 (4-6).
Specimens collected: South Bolton, 7; St.
Sebastien, 4; Dundee, 4. Mont St. Hilaire, 3;
Ayers Cliff, 1; Mont Bruno, 1; Mont
Yamaska, 1; Bark Lake (Argenteuil Co.), 1,
Camp de la Roche (Laurentides Park), 2.
Total 24.
Marmota nmionax (Linnaeus). WoopcHuck
The woodchuck is one of the few mam-
mals to have benefited from the clearing of
forests. The greatest number occurred in
open areas where a rich herbaceous growth
provided abundant food. Damp, shady con-
iferous stands were avoided, but burrows
could usually be detected in open deciduous
forest, both on mountainsides and flatlands.
Tue CanajiaAn FrieLtp-NATURALIST
Vol 83
The forest edge was particularly attractive
since it afforded good cover and close
proximity to food. The woodchuck was
often seen climbing on rocky fencerows
and half-fallen trees, and one individual was
even observed high in a hemlock, but it
experienced considerable difficulty in de-
scending.
Though this hibernator was observed
abroad from April 23 to September 26,
some individuals were no doubt active in
March and October.
A female and her five young were seen
on June 2. One of the latter weighed 500
grams and was estimated to be 6-7 weeks
old, so that parturition probably occurred
in mid-April. An older juvenile (838g) was
retrieved from a red fox on June 6.
Specimens collected: Mont St. Hilaire, 2;
East Hill, 3 mi. W South Bolton, 1. Total 3.
Tamias striatus (Linnaeus). EASTERN CHIP-
MUNK
The chipmunk was one of the most com-
mon and conspicuous mammals in wooded
areas, from shrub stage to climax forest.
Mature beech-maple woods supported the
greatest numbers, and in deciduous-coni-
ferous woods there was a marked tendency
to occupy open, brushy glades and the
forest-edge rather than the dark interior.
Examination of stomach contents and cheek
pouches revealed numerous kinds of nuts,
seeds, insects and snails.
The first chipmunks out of hibernation
were observed at Mont St. Hilaire on April
15, 1966, and April 16, 1967, when there
was still a considerable snow cover in the
forest. However, since the latter specimen
contained small embryos, it must have been
active several weeks prior. Much body fat
was also present. Over a dozen chipmunks
were seen at South Bolton on October 22,
just previous to several days of freezing
temperatures. Thereafter, none was found
and presumably the majority had com-
menced hibernation.
There were two breeding seasons in this
region, with young born in late April —
early May, and August. One female con-
tained small embryos (3 mm) on April 16,
another was lactating on May 6, and a third
revealed recent placental scars on May 16.
Juveniles were out foraging in late May.
Recent placental scars were found in four
August and three early September speci-
mens, and juveniles were collected in mid-
1969
September. The average number of young
in 11 litters was 4.7 (4-6).
Seven individuals (all from farm wood-
lots in the lowlands) were infested with
botflies. One female had two larvae in the
rump and five others in various stages of
development in the inguinal region.
Populations south of the St. Lawrence
River have buffy tones characteristic of
T. s. lysteri (Richardson) and lack the griz-
zled gray pelage of T. s. quebecensis (Cam-
eron) further to the north, and are referred
to the former race.
Specimens collected: St. Anne de Bellevue,
1; Mont Bruno, 1; Mont St. Hilaire, 9;
Mont Yamaska, 3; Mont Shefford, 2; Mont
- Orford, 1; Ayers Cliff, 5; South Bolton,
11; Glen Mountain, 1; Glen Sutton, 1; St.
Sebastien, 5; Dundee, 2. Total 42.
Glaucomys volans (Linnaeus). Eastern
FLYING SQUIRREL
This small species of flying squirrel was
not found in the study region south of the
St. Lawrence River, but it may occur here
in the deciduous lowlands. It has been dis-
covered north of the river, however, pro-
bably immigrating from Ontario. The
Redpath Museum has three specimens from
Quebec: Hudson, 2: Isle Perrot, 1.
Glaucomys sabrinus (Shaw). NorrHEeRN
FLYING SQUIRREL
Since only a single specimen was taken,
this species is probably uncommon. It was
trapped while feeding on a shelf fungus,
Polyporus betulinus. The forest consisted
of mature yellow birch, sugar maple, hem-
lock, balsam fir and white spruce, at an
elevation of 700 feet. The male collected
on May 6 had greatly enlarged testes
(20 xX 9 mm).
Specimens collected: South Bolton, 1.
Castor canadensis (Kuhl). BEAVER
The beaver still persists in this region
where relatively isolated waterways are
available, particularly in Huntingdon and
Brome counties. Habitat destruction and
trapping prevent a population increase to
former high numbers. Several families were
observed in undisturbed ponds and streams
in the vicinity of South Bolton. The bark
and branches of aspen were preferred as
food, and beavers made excursions up to
sixty yards into the forest when nearby
supplies were exhausted.
Wrictey: Notes on MAMMALS OF QUEBEC
207
Peromyscus maniculatus (Wagner). DEER
MOUSE
All wooded habitats harbored the deer
mouse, and it was usually the most abun-
dant species present. The greatest numbers
were obtained in mature, damp deciduous-
coniferous woods: fewer in second growth
hardwood or coniferous forest. The species
never ventured into grassland but occupied
the forest edge, except in the lowlands where
it was excluded by the white-footed mouse.
The breeding season extended from mid-
April to mid-September. At least two and
possibly more annual litters were produced
by over-wintering females, and spring-
born individuals were sexually active by
late July and August. The first evidence of
reproduction was noted on April 14 and
16 with four estrous females, April 18 with
three females carrying small embryos, and
April 26 with a female carrying half-term
embryos. Pregnant females were then found
in May, 2 animals; June, 2; July, 4; August
4; September, 0. Females revealing placental
scars were taken from May to September
(2, 3, 3, 10, 1 respectively). The length of
testes remained large (8-12 mm) from early
April to early September. Seventeen females
averaged 5.6 (3-7) embryos per litter, while
18 counts of placental scars averaged 5.3
(4-7).
Specimens collected: Mont Bruno, 1; Mont
St. Hilaire, 25; Rougemont, 6, Mont Yam-
aska, 24; Mont Shefford, 4; Mont Orford,
3; South Bolton, 21; Glen Mountain, 7;
Glen Sutton, 2; Mont Echo, 2; Cowansville,
1; Farnham, 2; St. Angele, 3; St. Sebastien,
1; Dundee, 3; Camp de la Roche (Lauren-
tides Park), 3. Total 108.
Peromyscus leucopus (Rafinesque). WuitE-
FOOTED MOUSE
The white-footed mouse was present in
all seral plant stages from grassland to
climax coniferous forest in the St. Lawrence
lowlands and Monteregian Hills, but was
absent from the more boreal regions to the
east and north. Where the two species of
Peromyscus occurred sympatrically, the
white-footed mouse was usually restricted
to warm, dry situations (exposed, rocky
slopes in pine-northern hardwood forest
and forest edge), while the deer mouse
selected the cool, moist depths of the forest.
Decreasing availability of optimum habitat
and competitive exclusion by the deer
mouse appeared to be important factors
limiting this species’ distribution.
208
The breeding period extended from mid-
April to mid-September, during which time
several litters were produced. Pregnant fe-
males were found in May, 1; July, 1; Aug-
ust, 3; September, 2. Testes remained large
and descended throughout the season. In-
dividuals born in the spring were sexually
active by early July. Nine litters averaged
4.7 (3-6).
Specimens collected: Mont St. Hilaire, 11;
Rougemont, 4, Mont Yamaska, 1, St.
Angele, 1; Stanbridge East, 1, St. Sebastien,
1; Dundee, 5. Total 24.
Synaptomys cooperi (Baird). SOUTHERN BOG
LEMMING
This species was rare and highly localized
in distribution. Intensive trapping in many
suitable habitats (damp meadows, bogs, de-
ciduous forest) was usually unsuccessful.
Eight specimens were found in a sphagnum-
sedge bog in a boreal forest, two in a sedge-
mat invaded by low shrubs, and one in a
dry field near deciduous woods. One fe-
male carried three embryos on August 5.
Specimens collected: Camp de la Roche
(Laurentides Park), 8; South Bolton, 2;
Total 10.
Clethrionomys
BACKED VOLE
gapperi (Vigors). Rep-
This species was rather scarce during the
study period. Not a single specimen was
obtained from lowland areas, though local
colonies no doubt existed. It was common
only at Mont St. Hilaire, where fifteen were
collected on a five acre plot in 240 trap
nights. The forest was composed of mature
beech, maple, red oak, white birch, hemlock
and white pine. Moist situations with a
good cover of decaying vegetation, rocks or
logs were most productive. Red-backed voles
were either rare or absent from similar
environments on the other Monteregian
Hills, and only occasional in the more typ-
ical habitat of damp, coniferous-northern
hardwood forests at higher elevations.
Pregnant females were found in each
month from late April to early September.
At least two and possibly more litters were
produced annually. In fact, one specimen
had placental scars and embryos as early as
June 2. The testes remained large (9-14
mm) in males taken from mid-April to
mid-September. The average number of
young in 20 litters was 4.6 (3-7).
The specimens are referred to C. g. gap-
pert (Vigors) rather than C. g. ochraceous
Tue CANADIAN FreLp-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
(Miller), due to their dark red pelage and
small size: total length, 142.1 (131-160);
tail, 39.3 (34-50); hind foot, 19.5 (18-20).
Specimens collected: Mont St. Hilaire, 24;
Mont Yamaska, 9; Shefford Mountain, 2;
Mont Orford, 2; Glen Sutton, 1; South
Bolton, 13; Camp de la Roche (Laurentides
Park), 6. Total 57.
Microtus pennsylvanicus (Ord). MErapow
VOLE
The meadow vole was unusually scarce,
except at Mont St. Hilaire. Dr. Peter Grant
and I collected over 100 specimens from a
ten acre apple orchard in one summer. The
abundance of meadow and red-backed voles
at Mont St. Hilaire and a general paucity
elsewhere suggested a low in the microtine
oscillations for southern Quebec, with the
northern populations at Mont St. Hilaire
out of phase. Other habitats occupied by
this species were moist meadows, grassy
drainage ditches, sedge growth around
ponds and lakes, and sphagnum bogs.
The breeding season occurred from early
April to late September. Two anestrous
females were caught on April 14, one preg-
nant female on May 1, and an estrous in-
dividual on May 2. Five pregnancies were
noted in June, three in July and one on
September 6. Thereafter, adults were bar-
ren, though another female showed signs of
lactation ‘and recent parturition on Sep-
tember 24. Testes were enlarged (over 10
mm) from early April to late September.
Spring-born individuals were sexually active
by July. The average number of young in
11 litters was 5.8 (4-9).
Specimens collected: St. Anne de Bellevue,
1; St. Lambert, 1; Mont St. Hilaire, 18;
Rougemont, 2; South Bolton, 10; Dundee,
9. Total 41.
Microtus pinetorum (LeConte). PINE VOLE
Peterson (1966) reported a specimen from
Pinnacle Mountain, Missisquoi County, the
first for Quebec and the most northern
record for the species. During the present
study two pine voles were collected, from
South Bolton and Mont St. Hilaire. The
latter record extends the range 38 miles to
the north. This microtine is scarce in north-
ern Vermont and New York, and was ap-
parently restricted to a few local colonies
in extreme southern Quebec. It may, how-
ever, be more common than suspected since
its fossorial habits hinder trapping success.
Perhaps it occurs still farther to the north-
1969
east, in the St. Lawrence Valley south of the
river.
The Mont St. Hilaire specimen was trap-
ped at an exposed den entrance, in open
beech, maple, red oak, white pine woods,
about twenty yards from a pasture. The soil
was moderately dry with little leaf mold
present, and only a scant cover of herbs and
stumps. The South Bolton specimen was
also caught emerging from a tunnel in a
rotten stump, two feet inside the woods
from a hayfield. The surrounding woods
were mixed, but reduced locally to second
growth sugar maple. A thick organic layer
was present on the forest floor, retaining
moisture and supporting numerous herbs.
Repeated efforts to collect more pine voles
in both areas were unsuccessful.
Specimens collected: Mont St. Hilaire, 1;
South Bolton, 1. Total 2.
Ondatra zibethicus (Linnaeus). Muskrat
The muskrat was common in streams,
ponds and marshes throughout the area, and
is trapped for its fur.
Specimens collected: Camp de la Roche
(Laurentides Park), 1.
Rattus norvegicus (Berkenhout). Norway
RAT
This introduced species often occurred
in the vicinity of buildings, but was taken
under wild conditions only at Rougemont.
The site was a drainage ditch, overgrown
with cattails and willow, beside a grain
field. The nearest farm house was one-half
mile away, and it was probably there that
the rat colony retired for the winter. It is
doubtful that this species could survive the
long, cold period without better cover than
the summer burrows.
Specimens collected: Rougemont, 3.
Mus musculus (Linnaeus). Housr Mouse
The house mouse was another introduced
rodent that invaded grain fields during the
summer and returned to human habitations
and barns in winter. Specimens were taken
at Rougemont in the grain field near where
the rats were found, and also at Dundee
along grassy drainage ditches, several hun-
dred yards from farm buildings. Native
rodents in the same habitat were the mea-
dow vole, white-footed mouse and meadow
jumping mouse.
A female collected on September 24 had
old placental scars, and taken nearby were
five young, probably from its litter. One
Wricitey: Notes on MAMMALS OF QUEBEC
209
male had enlarged testes (7.5 mm) on Aug-
ust 30, but those of two adult males collec-
ted on September 24 and 25 were reduced
(5 mm).
Specimens collected: Rougemont, 2; Dun-
dee, 9. Total 11.
Zapus hudsonius (Zimmerman). Merapow
JUMPING MOUSE
Though Zapus was found in a variety of
habitats, nowhere was it abundant. Moist
situations supporting a thick herbaceous
growth, such as meadows, edge of ponds
and watercourses, and sphagnum-sedge bogs,
appeared optimum. Alder-lined stream
banks and the forest-edge (both deciduous
and coniferous) were also selected. In the
latter three habitats this species was associa-
ted with the woodland jumping mouse.
This species was found to be active from
May 2 to September 25. One individual was
noticeably fat on September 18. An ex-
tremely fat female was caught on September
24 at a den entrance on a grassy hummock,
which was probably the hibernation site.
The next day a smaller, lean female was
taken at the same place. Hibernation for
the majority of the population probably
commenced in early October and extended
until late April.
The few data suggested only a spring
litter, however, it is possible that at least
a few females may reproduce twice an-
nually, as occurs in New York (Connor
1966). Iwo females carried small embryos
on June 21, while another on this date and
one on July 17 revealed placental scars.
A July 18 specimen showed recent implan-
tation, but no sign of reproducing earlier.
Testes of males remained large (over 5
mm) from May 2 to August 30. Two adult
females in July and two in September were
barren. Four litters averaged six young
GapE
Specimens collected: St. Anne de Bellevue,
6 (collected by Dr. Peter Grant); South
Bolton, 8; Dundee, 3, Camp de la Roche
(Laurentides Park), 1. Total 18.
Napaeozapus insignis (Miller). WoopLanp
JUMPING MOUSE
This woodland species was absent from
the deciduous lowlands, and usually pre-
sent in small numbers in optimum habitat
of herbaceous growth along small mountain
streams in deciduous-coniferous woods. At
South Bolton, however, it was the most
abundant species in the vicinity of a stream
210
in hemlock-northern hardwoods, with
stands of balsam fir and white spruce.
Intermittent trapping in three years pro-
duced 47 specimens. Other situations sup-
porting small numbers were forest edges,
sphagnum bogs invaded by shrubs, and
alder thickets lining waterways.
The hibernation period was similar to
that of the meadow jumping mouse. One
individual emerged unusually early (April
16), and was caught near a stream at Mont
St. Hilaire, where there was still a substan-
tial snow cover. The specimen was fat and
its stomach contained beech nuts and in-
sects. To determine the time of emergence
at South Bolton, where this species was
known to be abundant, snap and _ pitfall
traps were set on April 19 and checked
daily. Not until the snow had melted and
the ground was thawed did Napaeozapus
appear. On May 6, five males and one fe-
male were taken. The last specimen in the
fall was captured here on September 7, and
th area was not examined again until Octo-
ber 9. Trapping in this and other suitable
places failed to reveal their presence. Ap-
parently, most were hibernating by early
October and remained below ground until
early May.
There is evidence for only a single annual
litter in this region. Eight pregnancies were
noted from June 4 to 20. Though the testes
of males remained large (over 7 mm) from
the time of emergence to August. no preg-
nant females were found during the summer
months. Signs of spring reproduction (re-
cent lactation and placental scars) were
found in nine adults from July 1 to August
19. Occasional second litters may be pro-
duced in southern Quebec, but certainly
not with the regularity of populations in
the southern part of the range.
Specimens collected: Mont Bruno, 1; Mont
St. Hilaire, 2; Mont Yamaska, 9; Shefford
Mountain, 2; Mont Orford, 2; South Bolton,
58; Glen Mountain, 1; Glen Sutton, 5;
Mont Echo, 2; Camp de la Roche (Laur-
entides Park), 1. Total 83.
Erethizon dorsatum (Linnaeus). PorcuPine
The porcupine was scarce in the St. Law-
rence lowlands and Monteregian Hills, but
locally abundant in the mountains. Over 20
roadkills were recorded in Brome County
during the summer months of 1966, and
Tue CANADIAN FieLp-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
about a dozen live individuals were observ-
ed in the vicinity of South Bolton. Many
deciduous and coniferous trees were utilized
as food. A very young porcupine was dis-
covered on May 6 hiding under a balsam
fir.
Specimens collected: South Bolton, 1.
Vulpes vulpes (Linnaeus). Rep Fox
Excellent range was afforded this species
in southern Quebec’s farmlands interspersed
with extensive woodlots, and the partly
opened forests in the mountains. Most
farmers and country residents reported see-
ing an occasional fox. Three were observed
by myself at Mont St. Hilaire, one of which
carried a meadow vole and a young wood-
chuck in its jaws. A food cache consisting
of a chipmunk and an immature snowshoe
hare was found at South Bolton. Roadkills
were noted throughout the area.
Specimens collected: Mont St. Hilaire, 1;
(collected by Mr. Henri Ouellet).
Ursus americanus (Pallas). BLAck BEAR
The black bear has been exterminated
from most of the area, however, a small
number are taken annually by hunters.
Game wardens reported a few bears in the
wooded regions of Huntingdon and Brome
counties. These individuals had probably
wandered into this region from adjacent
States.
Procyon lotor (Linnaeus). RAccoon
Raccoons were fairly common in wood-
lots and forests throughout the region. —
They seemed to congregate in beech and
oak woods and also in the vicinity of lakes
and streams. Food items determined by ob-
servation and analysis of droppings, in-
cluded berries, apples, mast of beech and
oak, frogs, clams, birds’ eggs, and rodents.
Specimens collected: 2 mi. S Knowlton, 1;
South Bolton, 1. Total 2.
Mustela erminea (Linnaeus). SHORT-TAILED
WEASEL
Limited trapping for this species was un-
successful, as other mammals (usually rac-
coons) constantly disturbed the traps. The
only specimen obtained in this study was
shot by Mr. Andre Ouellet in a field near
Mont St. Hilaire. Game wardens reported
weasels in many areas.
Specimens collected: 2 mi.
Hilaire, 1.
SE Mont St.
1969
Mustela frenata (Lichtenstein). LoNG-TAILED
WEASEL
One large male was shot at Mont St.
Hilaire, on a rocky slope of hemlock-
northern hardwoods. It was hunting among
the mossy boulders, and examination of its
stomach contents revealed an undigested
red-backed vole. Scats were occasionally
found along woodland paths; evidence of
the general occurrence of weasels in the
region.
Specimens collected: Mont St. Hilaire, 1.
Mustela vison (Schreber). Minx
Mink occurred along streams and lake
borders in remote areas where trapping
_ pressure had not been excessive. Two ani-
mals were observed hunting the riverbanks
at South Bolton.
Martes pennanti (Erxleben). FIsHer
The fisher has long been extirpated from
this region. However, Mr. McGibbon,
game warden for Huntingdon County, re-
ported that an increase of fisher in New
York had resulted in the appearance of a
few animals in traplines from his district.
Invasions from the south may now main-
tain low populations here.
Mephitis mephitis (Schreber). Strrpep SKUNK
The skunk is a common mammal in south-
ern Quebec, and many were observed both
alive and as roadkills in all but heavily pop-
ulated areas.
Lutra canadensis (Schreber). RIVER OTTER
Unfortunatey the otter has almost disap-
Wrictey: Notes on MAMMALS OF QUEBEC
211
peared from this area. Trappers, game war-
dens, and local residents reported only an
occasional animal.
Lynx canadensis (Kerr). CANADA LYNX
Mr. C. Randall of South Bolton, who
used to hunt lynx in the surrounding hills,
reported that they had become scarce.
Game wardens had no recent accounts of
this species, so it is either very rare now or
absent altogther.
Lynx rufus (Schreber). Boscat
According to game wardens and farmers,
the bobcat still persists on extensive farm
woodlots and secluded forests.
Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmerman).
WHITE-TAILED DEER
Deer have disappeared from extensively
farmed and populated areas of the St. Law-
rence lowlands, but remain common where
forests offer sufficient cover and food. A
few data from the 1965 hunting season give
some indication of their abundance in the
more productive counties: Compton, 560;
Brome, 455; Stanstead, 282; Shefford, 270;
Missisquoi, 198; Huntingdon, 88; (Report
from the Department of Tourism, Fish and
Game, Quebec).
Alces alces (Linnaeus). Moose
Moose have been drastically reduced in
this region for a long time. Several are re-
ported annually in Brome County, which
have probably wandered in from the east
where this species is more common.
REFERENCES
Atlas of Canada, 1957. Dept. Mines Tech.
Survey, Geog. Branch, Ottawa.
Cameron, A. W. 1953. The Mammals of
the Trois Pistoles and the Gaspe Penin-
sula, Quebec. Bull. Nat. Mus. Canada.
128: 168-188.
Connor, P. F. 1966. The Mammals of the
Tug Hill Plateau, New York. N.Y. State
Mus. and Science Ser., Bull. 406.
Hatt, E. R. and Ketson, K. R. 1959. The
Mammals of North America. Ronald
Press Co., N.Y. Vol. 1: 1-546, Vol. 2:
547-1083.
Pererson, R. L. 1966. The Mammals of
Eastern Canada. Oxford University Press,
Toronto. 465 p.
Rowe, J. S. 1959. Forest Regions of Can-
ada. Dept. North. Affairs Nat. Res., For-
estry Branch, Ottawa.
Accepted March 27, 1969
A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF THE
SASKATCHEWAN RIVER DELTA
HerMAN J. DirscuHt and Don L. Dasss
Canadian Wildlife Service, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan
FRom spring 1964 to autumn 1968 we studied vegetation-environmental rela-
tionships and waterfowl use in the western part of the Saskatchewan River
Delta. In the course of the field research we collected vascular plants and
bryophytes throughout this 1,100-square-mile (2850 km*) area, in which the
flora had not previously been systematically explored. Extensive use of heli-
copters and airboats made it possible to visit remote sections of the Delta which
otherwise are almost inaccessible.
The Saskatchewan River Delta is botanically interesting because it is floris-
tically richer than the surrounding boreal uplands and marks the western limit
of distribution of Ulmus americana and Acer spicatum.
THe Stupy AREA
The investigations were confined to that part of the Saskatchewan River
Delta which lies between the Saskatchewan River (Old Channel) and the Carrot
River, from their confluence near The Pas, Manitoba, on the east to the con-
necting Sipanok Channel on the west. The study area thus extends from 53°
30’ to 54° 00’ north latitude and from 101° 18’ to 103° 00’ west longitude
(Fig. 1). Most of the collections, however, were made in a 280-square-mile
(725 km’) block in the northern part of the area in which waterfowl food
habits research (Dirschl, 1969) and plant ecological studies were also con-
centrated.
PHYSIOGRAPHY AND SOILS
The lower portion of the 40-mile (64 km) wide valley of the Saskatchewan
River and its main tributaries, the Carrot and Torch rivers, forms the Cumber-
land Lake Lowland Division of the Manitoba Lowland Physiographic Region
(Acton et al., 1960).
The valley descends in a broad plain from an elevation of approximately
1,100 feet (335 m) above sea level at Nipawin to 852 feet (260 m) in the flood
plain at The Pas, where the river has cut a gap through higher morainic deposits
to reach Cedar Lake and, eventually, Lake Winnipeg (Ellis and Graveland,
1967).
Geologically, the area is a lacustrine plain, representing the western ex-
tension of a series of glacial lakes contemporaneous with glacial Lake Agassiz
in Manitoba. This lake plain has been modified greatly by the subsequent
activity of the rivers, which have cut valleys through the higher positions of
the plain and laid down a pattern of alluvial and flood plain deposits in the
lower area. This process of alluvial deposition is still active (Clayton and
Ellis, 1952) but is expected to slow, owing to changes in river flows resulting
from the upstream Gardiner and Squaw Rapids dams.
212
213
FLORA OF THE SASKATCHEWAN RIVER DELTA
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214 Tue CaANapIAN Frie_p-NATURALIST Vol. 83
Figure 2. View of the alluvial levee of the Saskatchewan River near Cumberland House,
showing examples of the following communities: A — Picea glauca — hardwoods forest,
B— Populus balsamifera regeneration, C — Alnus — Salix shrub, and D— Carex fen.
The alluvial-lacustrine plain is flat and lies below the flood levels of the
rivers which meander through it. The rivers are bordered by natural levees
of alluvium which show little soil profile development, probably because of
fluctuating water tables and periodic gleysolic conditions. The dominant soil
profile on the levees is a weakly developed wooded calcareous type. In the
best drained sites, limited podsolization has led to Dark Gray Wooded and
Gray Wooded profiles (Ellis and Graveland, 1967).
Shallow, eutrophic lakes and marshes are surrounded mostly by wide bands
of floating sedge mats. Peat, varying in thickness from 1 to more than 12
feet (30.5 cm — 3.7 m), covers the remainder of the flood plain.
CLIMATE
The area lies within the Humid Continental Cool Summer (Dfb) climatic
region of the K6ppen classification (Atlas of Canada, 1957). Mean annual
precipitation at Cumberland House is 17.02 inches (432 mm) — with 10-11
inches (254-279 mm) falling during the growing season — (Ellis and Grave-
land, 1967) and 15.4 inches (391 mm) at The Pas (Kendrew and Currie, 1955).
Mean monthly January and July temperatures at The Pas are —9°F and
Co hn(— 228° anduligiea@). respectively. The summer growing season 1s
short, the mean duration of the frost-free period at The Pas is 102 days
1969 DirscHt AND Dass: FLorRA OF THE SASKATCHEWAN RIVER DELTA 72 15)
(Kendrew and Currie, 1955). The ground remains frozen for five months in
well-drained sites, while muskegs and fens may remain frozen until late July
(Dirschl et al., 1967).
Major PLANT CoMMUNITIES
Rowe (1959) includes the Saskatchewan River Delta within the Manitoba
Lowland Section of the Boreal Forest Region. The Delta contains a great
variety of vegetation types, ranging from species-rich moist forest to sub-
merged aquatics, and from acid sphagnum bogs to communities of salt-tolerant
plants. Because of the physical nature of the environment in which meandering
streams with elevated banks, large shallow lakes, and numerous small water
bodies are found in close proximity, the plant communities that developed in
_ response to this broad range of physical habitats form an intricate mosaic.
A brief description of the major phytocoenoses of the Delta will permit
a better understanding of the habitat notes in the annotated list of plant
species. The communities described are readily recognizable in the field by
their physiognomy and, in most cases, they occupy a distinct position in the
landscape.
Nomenclature of vascular plants is according to Scoggan (1957), except
for the genus Betula which follows Dugle (1966). Authority for bryophytes
is Bird (1968).
A. LEVEE COMMUNITIES
The alluvial levees of the rivers are the highest and best drained sites in
the Delta; in the past they were covered by water only during periods of ex-
treme flood conditions. Two major communities are characteristic of these
sites:
(1) Picea glauca — hardwoods forest, and
(2) Alnus - Salix shrub.
Picea glauca — Hardwoods Forest. Floristically, this is probably the
richest forest vegetation in Saskatchewan. Mature, undisturbed stands — domi-
nated by Picea glauca up to 100 feet (31 m) high and 27 inches (69 cm) in
diameter, by slightly smaller Populus balsamifera or, more frequently, by
mixtures of both — are among the tallest in the province. (Figs. 2 and 3.)
Other common trees are Acer negundo, Betula papyrifera, Ulmus americana,
and Fraxinus pennsylvanica var. lanceolata. Predominant shrubs are Viburnum
trilobum, Prunus pennsylvanica, Salix discolor, and Cornus stolonifera. Dense
ground vegetation is variously dominated by Ribes spp., Equisetum pratense,
Rosa acicularis, Aralia nudicaulis, and Matteuccia struthiopteris.
Alnus - Salix Shrub. This type occurs mainly adjacent to the Picea glauca
— hardwoods forest in a slightly lower position on the levees. Predominant
tall shrubs are Alnus rugosa, Salix discolor, and S. bebbiana. Cornus stolonifera
and Viburnum trilobum are also common. Abundant in the ground vegetation
are Calamogrostis spp., Equisetum pratense, and Mentha arvensis.
216 Tue CanapiAN FieLp-NaTuRALIST Vol. 83
B. LAKE MARGIN COMMUNITIES
Large portions of the area between the levees and the lake basins are
covered by | to 6 feet (31-183 cm) of peat, derived from partially decomposed
sedges and aquatic plants. Ground water levels remain generally within 1 to
3 feet (31-92 cm) of the surface throughout the growing season. Spring
thawing is slow and ice lenses often remain until late July. As a result
relatively few shallow-rooted plants are capable of growing in this environment.
In the vicinity of the shores of the present lakes, layers of poorly de-
composed peat have been buoyed up and have formed extensive floating mats.
Salix Fen. This community occupies a somewhat lower position in the
landscape than the Alnus-Salix shrub. The shrub layer consists of willows,
generally less than 6 feet (183 cm) tall. Salix petiolaris, S. pedicellaris, and
S. candida predominate (Fig. 4). The ground vegetation consists mainly of
Carex spp., Naumburgia thyrsiflora, and Potentilla pulustris.
Carex Fen. Closer to the lakeshore, Salix fens often grade into open fens,
dominated by Carex spp. and lacking any shrubby components (Fig. 5).
Common species are: Carex atherodes, C. rostrata, and Calamogrostis spp. in
the drier areas; Carex lanuginosa, C. aquatilis, Equisetum fluviatile, Potentilla
palustris, and Typha latifolia in wetter locations.
Phragmites Swamp. Phragmites communis commonly forms a dense band
along the outer edge of the floating mat. It also occurs as an emergent in
shallow and wind-protected bays.
C. AQUATIC COMMUNITIES
The floating aquatics Potamogeton richardson, P. natans, P. pectinatus,
Nuphar variegatum, Myriophyllum exalbescens, Ceratophyllum demersum, and
Utricularia spp. are abundant in the shallower lakes of the Delta and near
the shores of the deeper lakes. Scirpus validus and S. acutus form dense
stands in shallow lakes and along stream banks (Fig. 6). Sparganium eury-
carpum and Acorus calamus are also abundant along the edges of stream
channels.
D. BOG COMMUNITIES
In locations of impeded drainage, peat 6-13 feet (1.83-3.97 m) in thickness,
has developed. The vegetation of these areas is floristically quite different
from that of open drainages.
Picea mariana - Larix Bog. This community occurs on deep Sphagnum
peat whose surface appears to be slightly raised above the surrounding area.
The overstory consists of stunted Picea mariana with Larix laricina usually
associated around the edges of the stands (Fig. 7). Tall shrubs are completely
absent. Dense ground vegetation is dominated by mixtures of Ledum
groenlandicum, Chamaedaphne calyculata, Kalmia polifolia, Rubus chama-
emorus, and Oxycoccus quadripetalus.
Betula glandulifera Shrub. Communities dominated by Betula glandulifera
are extensive in locations of impeded drainage. In most cases they are found
on deep peat in proximity with Picea mariana and Larix laricina stands.
1969 DirscHL AND Dapps: FLORA OF THE SASKATCHEWAN RIVER DELTA 217
Ficure 3. (Above). Picea glauca —hardwoods forest stand on the levee of the Saskat-
chewan River.
Figure 4. (Below). Salix fen, dominated by Salix candida in association with various
species of Carex.
218 Tue CANADIAN FIeELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
Ficure 5. (Above). Carex fen, dominated by Carex lanuginosa, Equisetum fluviatile and
Typha latifolia.
Ficure 6. (Below). Emergent aquatic vegetation in a shallow delta lake. Note the
typically circular clones of Scirpus acutus and the dense cover of floating leaves of
Nuphar variegatum.
1969 DirscHL AND Dass: FLoRA OF THE SASKATCHEWAN RiveR DELTA 219
Figure 7. (Above). Picea mariana — Larix bog on Sphagnum peat near the Birch River.
Ficure 8. (Below). Betula glandulifera thicket on deep peat with remnant Larix laricina
trees.
Tue CANADIAN FieLp-NATURALIST Vol. 83
i)
i)
=)
Betula glandulifera forms dense thickets (Fig. 8). Myrica gale is a fre-
quent co-dominant; Salix candida, and S. pedicellaris also occur commonly.
Scattered Larix laricina trees and seedlings and a sparse surface cover of
Sphagnum spp. indicate a seral relationship between the two major vegetation
types of impeded drainages.
ANNOTATED List oF PLANT SPECIES
The following list is derived from 870 collections which include 58 families,
137 genera, and 231 species of vascular plants, and 14 species of bryophytes.
The identification of most vascular plants has been verified by Dr. G. W.
Argus or Mr. J. H. Hudson, University of Saskatchewan. The bryophytes
were identified by Dr. C. D. Bird, University of Calgary. Voucher specimens
are deposited in the herbarium of the Prairie Migratory Bird Research Centre,
University of Saskatchewan Campus, Saskatoon. The numbers used in the
species list are herbarium accession numbers. All collections are from Sas-
katchewan, except those marked specifically to be from the Manitoba portion of
the study region.
A. VaAscuLaR PLANTS
EQUISETACEAE
Equisetum arvense L. Fairly common in
Picea glauca—hardwood forest. 272.
Equisetum fluviatile L. Common in very
wet to submerged habitats. 273-282.
Equisetum hyemale L. var. affine (Engelm.)
A. A. Eat. In stands of Picea glauca on
sandy soils. 283.
Equisetum pratense Ehrh. Common on
moist banks of streams and canals and
associated with levee forest and shrub
communities. 284.
OPHIOGLOSSACEAE
Botrychium virginianum (L.) Sw. Collec-
tions were taken from stands of Betula
papyrifera on moist hummocks of stream
levees. 516-517.
POLYPODIACEAE
Dryopteris spinulosa (O. F. Muell.) Watt.
Collected in a mixed stand of Abies bal-
samea and Picea glauca on a well drained
stream levee. 556-559.
Matteuccia struthiopteris (L.) Todaro var.
pensylvanica (Willd.) Morton. A very
common fern in the understory of the
Picea glauca—hardwoods forest. 518, 560-
562.
PINACEAE
Abies balsamea (L.) Mill. Occurs in associ-
ation with Picea glauca in a few locations
on interior levees. 519-524.
Juniperus communis L. Found in stands of
Picea glauca growing on thin glacial till
over limestone bedrock on Cumberland
Island. 525-527.
Juniperus horizontalis Moench. Associated
with J. communis. 528.
Larix laricina (Du Roi) K. Koch. Generally
associated with Picea mariana in deep peat
areas of impeded drainages. 529-533.
Picea glauca (Moench) Voss. A common
tree species on raised levees. 822-883.
Picea mariana (Mill.) BSP. Characteristic
tree species of deep peat bogs. 534, 884.
SPARGANIACEAE
Sparganium angustifolium Michx. Not com-
mon in the area. Found in shallow water
and on floating sedge mat. 782.
Sparganium eurycarpum Engelm. A com-
mon species in Carex fen communities and
in shallow water along creeks and canals.
783-793.
LOSTERACEAE
Potamogeton filiformis Pers. Collected in
shallow bays and shorelines to a depth of
about 3 feet (92 cm). 820.
Potamogeton friesii Rupr. Not common.
Found in some lakes in the Delta. 821.
Potamogeton natans L. One of the most
common pondweeds in the streams and
canals; less abundant in still water. 822-830.
Potamogeton praelongus Wulfen. Not com-
mon. Found in the deeper lakes, 831.
1969
DirscHL AND Dapps: FLORA OF THE SASKATCHEWAN River DELTA
221
Figure 9. Very old, isolated Populus deltoides on the levee of the Saskatchewan River
south of Cumberland House.
Potamogeton vaginatus Turcz. Very com-
mon in the open water of some: lakes
836-839.
Potamogeton richardson (Benn.) Rydb. A
common plant of streams and_ shallow
open lakes. 832-835.
Potamogeton zosteriformis Fern. Found in
both still and flowing water to depths of
4 feet (122 cm). 839-843.
JUNCAGINACEAE
Scheuchzeria palustris L. var. americanus
Fern. Specimens have been collected in
areas of impeded drainage, adjacent to
stands of Picea mariana and Larix laricina,
associated with Betula glandulifera and
Carex spp., on floating and anchored Carex
mats. 430-435.
Triglochin maritima \. Associated with
Betula glandulifera and Carex spp. ad-
jacent to stands of Picea mariana and Larix
laricina. 436-439.
ALISMATACEAE
Alisma triviale Pursh Common in shallow
water of creeks and canals throughout the
area. 3-7.
Sagittaria cuneata Sheldon. In 4-6 inches
(10-15 cm) of water, usually associated
with Carex atherodes along canals and
creeks. 8-13.
HyYDROCHARITACEAE
Elodea canadensis Michx. Occurs in most
shallow lakes of the Delta. 413-420.
GRAMINEAE
Agropyron trachycaulum var. glaucum
(Pease and Moore) Malte. Rare. In a
Populus balsamifera stand on a stream
levee, associated with Cornus stolonifera,
Ribes hirtellum, and Viburnum trilobum.
315-316.
Agropyron repens
turbed soil. 317.
Agrostis scabra Willd. Sparse, in moist to
wet Carex fens. 318.
Beckmannia syzigachne (Steud.) Fern. In
mineral soil beside an artificial canal. 319.
Bromus ciliatus L. Collected from dry to
moist levees in stands of tall Salix or
Populus balsamifera. 320-322.
Bromus imermis Leyss. Found along dry
roadways and cutlines, 323-324.
(L.) Beauv. On dis-
WD Tue CanapiAn Fre_p-NaATURALIST
Calamagrostis canadensis—inexpansa—neglecta
complex. Wide-spread_ collecting has
failed to turn up pure parental types. A
common grass which grows in a variety of
habitats from well drained levees to float-
ing fens. 325-360.
Cinna latifolia (Trev.) Griseb. Collected
on alluvium in stands of Picea glauca,
Populus balsamifera, and tall Salix. 361-363.
Elymus canadensis L. Found along the
highway road allowance. 364-368.
Glyceria grandis Wats. Collected on a
portage cutline on the levee of the Saskat-
chewan River. 369-370.
Glyceria striata (Lam.) Hitche. Collected
in a stand of Picea mariana on an old creek
levee. Associated with Equisetum arvense
and Carex atherodes. 371-373.
Hordeum jubatum L. Found along road
allowance. 374-377.
Muhlenbergia glomerata (Willd.) Trin. var.
cinnoides (Link) Hermann. Found on
wet banks of creeks and canals and in open
wet meadows. 378-379.
Phalaris arundinacea L. On mineral soils in
moist to wet habitat in stands of Salix
discolor and S. bebbiana. 380-382.
Phleum pratense L. Found along road al-
lowances and cutlines on the levee of the
Saskatchewan River. 383-387.
Phragmites communis Trin. var. berlandieri
(Fourn.) Fern. A very common shore-
line plant throughout the Delta. It com-
pletely surrounds some of the smaller lakes.
388-390.
Poa pratensis L. Frequent around dwellings
on river levees. 392.
Scolochloa festucacea (Willd.) Link. A
common species in shallow lakes in the
eastern portion of the study area. 393-394.
CYPERACEAE
Eleocharis palustris (L.) R. & S. Common
on creek banks and on floating mats. 186.
Eriophorum chamissonis Mey. Collected in
a Picea mariana-Larix stand, growing in
Sphagnum moss. 187-189.
Eriophorum gracile Koch. Collected in a
saturated Betula glandulifera community.
191-193,
Eriophorum spissum Fern. Found in clear-
ings in Picea mariana-Larix stands, grow-
ing on Sphagnum hummocks. 194-199.
Scirpus acutus Muhl. Extensive in open
water throughout the delta, in 1.5-5.5 feet
(46-168 cm.) of water. 201-202.
Scirpus fluviatilis (Torr.) Gray. In dense
stands in water up to 18 inches (46 cm)
Vol. 83
deep along streams in the Manitoba por-
tion of the study area. 203-206.
Scirpus mecirocarppus Presl. var. rubrotinctus
(Fern.) Jones. Occasionally found in
about 10 inches (25 cm) of water along
creeks and canals. 207-208.
Scirpus validus Vahl. Restricted to shore-
lines, in less than two feet of water, or
occasionally in floating Carex fens. Also
found in shallow moving streams. (Mani-
toba and Sask.). 209-210.
Carex aquatilis Wahl. In Carex fens. 212-221.
Carex atherodes Spreng. Frequent in pure
stands in flooded meadows or on floating
mats. 222-224, 243-244, 872.
Carex aurea Nutt. Rare on moist peat in a
Betula glandulifera stand. 225-227.
Carex canescens L. Rare. Occasional on wet
banks and floating mats. 228.
Carex chordorrhiza L4f. Collected in a
stand of Betula glandulifera on deep
Sphagnum peat. 229.
Carex deweyana Schwein. Occasional on
moist, rich alluvium and in dry woods.
230.
Carex diandra Schrank. Collected on a tuft
of floating Phragmites communis on the
north shore of Wapisew Lake. 231-236.
Carex disperma Dew. Uncommon on moist
alluvium in Alnus-Salix and Populus
balsamifera stands. 237-242.
Carex lanuginosa Michx. A common con-
stituent of Carex fens in relatively dry
locations. 245-251.
Carex lasiocarpa Ehrh. var americana Fern.
Associated with Typha _ latifolia and
Myrica gale. 253.
Carex limosa L. Collected from dry
Sphagnum hammocks at the edge of a
Picea mariana-Larix community. 254-257.
Carex paupercula Michx. Found on Sphag-
num in Picea mariana bogs. 258.
Carex pseudo-cyperus L. Frequent at lake
shorelines in stands of floating Phragmites
communis. 259.
Carex rostrata Stokes. A common species
of very wet Carex fens. 260-265.
ARACEAE
Acorus calamus L. In partly submerged
Carex meadows or in pure stands in open
water, 2-3 feet (61-92 cm) deep. 15-19.
Calla palustris L. In shallow, moving water
of creeks on the east side of Egg Lake.
20-24.
JUNCACEAE
Juncus nodosus L. Collected on water-
saturated mineral soil on the downstream
1969
side of the Birch River Dam, in the area
of seepage discharge. 421-429.
LILIACEAE
Disporum trachycarpum (Wats.) B. & H.
Rare; occurs in moist forest and tall Salix
communities of river levees. 471.
Smilacina trifolia (L.) Desf. On Sphagnum
in stands of Picea mariana. 472-476.
Smilacina stellata (L.) Desf. A common
though never abundant, plant of moist to
saturated mineral soil sites on the levees.
477-482.
SALICACEAE
Populus balsamifera L. One of the most
common and widely distributed tree
species of the levee forest communities.
664-666.
Populus deltoides Marsh. A single mature
tree, approximately 100 feet (30 m) tall,
was found on the levee of the Saskat-
chewan River on the south side of Cum-
berland Island. The collection was taken
from a 30-foot (915 cm)-high sucker, one
of ten which surround the parent tree
(Fig. 9). 663.
Populus tremuloides Michx. Restricted to
very well drained sites on river and stream
levees. 667-669.
Salix bebbiana Sarg. A prominent con-
stituent of the Alnus-Salix community-
type. 670-676.
Salix candida Flagge. Frequent dominant
in Salix fen communities. 677-686.
Salix discolor Muh]. Occurs in a range of
habitats, from the drier Alnus-Salix shrub
communities to moisture-saturated Salix
fen. 687-702.
Salix interior Rowlee. Restricted to river
banks and sandbars. 703.
Salix lasiandra Benth. Not common. Col-
lections were made in a stand of tall Salix
on the levee of the Saskatchewan River.
704-705.
Salix lutea Nutt. Rare in the area. 706.
Salix maccalliana Rowlee. Occasionally
found in Salix fens. 707-708.
Salix pedicellaris Pursh var. hypoglauca
Fern. Common in Salix fens and in bog
communities dominated by Betula glan-
dulifera. 709-714, 873.
Salix petiolaris Sm. An important cons-
stituent of the Salix fen community-type.
715-723.
Salix planifolia Pursh. Uncommon in Alnus-
Salix shrub communities. 724-726.
DirscHL AND Dapss: FLORA OF THE SASKATCHEWAN RIVER DELTA
223
Salix serissima (Bailey Fern. Often asso-
ciated with Betula glandulifera and Salix
spp. 727-737.
MyricacEAE
Myrica gale L. Commonly associated with
Betula glandulifera and occasionally with
Salix candida and S. pedicellaris. 485-492.
BETULACEAE
Alnus rugosa (Du Roi) Spreng. var. ameri-
cana (Regel) Fern. Abundant on creek
and river levees associated with Salix
discolor and S. bebbiana. 33-36.
Betula glandulifera (Reg.) Butler. Found
on deep peat in areas of impeded drainage.
37-39.
Betula papyrifera Marsh. Associated with
Picea glauca and Populus balsamifera in
mixed forests on river levees. 40-41, 43.
Betula resinifera Britt. Yn similar habitat. 42.
Corylus cornuta Marsh. Collections are
from the well-drained levees of the Birch
and Saskatchewan rivers. 44-46.
ULMACEAE
Ulmus americana L. A common constituent
of the Picea glauca-hardwoods forests of
river levees. 794-798.
URTICACEAE
Urtica dioica L. var. procera Wedd. Found
in dense stands in disturbed locations.
818-819.
SANTALACEAE
Geocaulon lividum (Richards.) Fern. As-
sociated with Ledum groenlandicum and
Rubus chamaemorus on deep Sphagnum
peat. 738-740.
POLYGONACEAE
Polygonum lapathifolium L. Exists in a
wide range of habitat types from dry
levees to saturated floating mat. 539-545.
Polygonum amphibium L. var. stipulaceum
(Coleman) Fern. Common on floating
Carex mats. 546-551.
Rumex orbiculatus Gray. Collected in a
wet Salix fen. 552, 555.
Rumex maritimus L. var. fueginus (Philipp1)
Dusén. Rare. Collected in a dense stand
of floating Phragmites communis. 553.
Rumex mexicanus Meisn. A single specimen
collected from a sandy, disturbed site on
Cumberland Island. 554.
CHENOPODIACEAE
Chenopodium album LL. Collected at the
side of the roadway (Mile 55, Highway
123). 94-96.
224
Chenopodium capitatum (L.) Asch. Col-
lected in an opening in a stand of Populus
balsamifera. 97-100.
CARYOPHYLLACEAE
Arenaria lateriflora L. In duff under Alnus-
Salix shrub or mixed forest. 78-83.
Stellaria calycantha (Ledeb.) Bongard. Oc-
casional in moist duff in Alnus-Salix
communities. 84.
Stellaria longifolia Muhl. Collected in a
Salix discolor stand, growing in moss, on
and around fallen logs. 85-89.
CERATOPHYLLACEAE
Ceratophyllum demersum LL. A common
aquatic plant, found in the shallow lakes
of the delta. 90-93.
NYMPHAEACEAE
Nuphar variegatum Engelm. A very com-
mon floating aquatic in most of the lakes
and ponds in the western part of the study
area, nearly absent in the eastern part.
493-496.
Nymphaea tetragona Georgi subsp. leibergi
(Morong) Porsild. Common, but not
abundant, in some of the shallow lakes.
497-499.
RANUNCULACEAE
Actaea rubra (Ait.) Willd. Frequent in
fairly dry sites in Picea glauca and tall
Salix stands. 578-580.
Anemone canadensis L. A common plant
in openings of the levee communities.
581-584.
Caltha palustris L. A common early-bloom-
ing plant of Carex fens and openings in
Alnus-Salix communities. 585-588.
Ranunculus abortivus L. Rare. Found in
moist depressions on alluvium or in dis-
turbed, wet clearings. 589.
Ranunculus aquatilis WL. var. capillaceus
(Thuill.) DC. Common in dense clusters
at the water surface in protected bays.
590-593.
Ranunculus circinatus Sibth. var. subrigidus
(Drew) Benson. Rare. Occurs in sheltered
shallow bays of some lakes. 594.
Ranunculus gmelini DC. var. hookeri (Don)
Benson. Rare on Carex mats or stream
banks. 595.
Ranunculus lapponicus L. On moisture-
saturated sedge and Sphagnum peat de-
posits. 596.
Ranunculus macounii Britt. Common in
moist to wet habitats in open stands of
tall willows. 597.
Ranunculus pensylvanicus WL. Found in
moist depressions on river levees, 598.
THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
CRUCIFERAE
Brassica kaber (DC.) L. C. Wheeler. In
alluvium of disturbed sites. 164-167.
Brassica juncea (L.) Coss. Along road al-
lowance of Highway 123. 168-169.
Cardamine pennsylvanica Muhl. One collec-
tion from a cutline through a Alnus-Salix
community. In 6 inches (15 cm) of water.
170.
Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medic. A
weedy species found along disturbed road-
ways. 171-173.
Erucastrum gallicum (Willd.) O. E. Schulz.
Collected from a disturbed site on the
levee of the Saskatchewan River. 174-177.
Rorippa islandica (Oeder) Borbas_ var.
fernaldiana Butt. and Abbe. Found along
roadways. Has also been collected on
floating Phragmites islands.. 178-182.
Thlaspi arvense L. Collected along a road
allowance. 183-185.
SARRACENIACEAE
Sarracenia purpurea L. A very common
plant of Picea mariana-Sphagnum bogs.
741-743.
DROSERACEAE
Drosera rotundifolia L. Abundant in Picea
mariana-Sphagnum bogs. 266-268.
SAXIFRAGACEAE
Mitella nuda L. Common in levee forest
communities, 744.
Parnassia multiseta (Ledeb.) Fern. In Carex
fens. 745-748.
Ribes americanum Mill. Abundant on creek
and river levees in tall Salix, Picea glauca,
and mixed forest stands. 749-752.
Ribes glandulosum Grauer. In clearings
and natural openings on the levees. 753-763.
Ribes bhirtellum Michx. Common on all
levees. 764-770.
Ribes hudsonianum Richards.
all levees. 7771-774.
Ribes lacustre (Pers.) Poir. Common in
moist woods and tall Salix stands. 775-776.
Ribes oxyacanthoides L. Occurs in most
levee communities. 777.
Ribes triste Pall. Common in wooded com-
munities on most of the natural levees.
778.
RosacEAE
Amelanchier alnifolia Nutt. A common
shrub in forest and shrub communities on
alluvium. 600-604.
Fragaria vesca L. var. americana Porter.
Common in duff of Picea glauca-hard-
woods forest communities. 605.
Fragaria virginiana Duchesne.
Common on
Collected
1969
under gaps of the canopy of a Picea
glauca-Betula papyrifera stand on the
levee of the Saskatchewan River. 606.
Geum macrophyllum Willd. var. perincisum
(Rydb.) Raup. Rare. One specimen col-
lected in a moist stand of Salix discolor
and S. bebbiana. 607.
Potentilla anserina L.
river levees. 608-609.
Potentilla fruticosa L. Found in Salix fens
and Betula grandulifera shrub on deep
peat. 610-611.
Potentilla norvegica L. var. hirsuta (Michx.)
Lehm. Common in disturbed areas and
cutlines on river levees. 612-616.
Potentilla palustris (L.) Scop. A common
plant of Carex fens. 617-623.
Prunus virginiana L. Abundant in _ the
shrub layer of Picea glauca-hardwoods
forest stands. 624-626.
Rosa acicularis Lindl. Restricted to well-
drained levee communities. 627-628.
Rubus acaulis Michx. Found on moist to
wet alluvial soils. 629-632.
Rubus chamaemorus L. Generally associ-
ated with ericaceaus species in Picea
mariana bogs. 633-635.
Rubus idaeus L. var. strigosus (Michx.)
Maxim. Common in forest openings.
Rubus pubescens Raf. Common in moist
Picea glauca-hardwoods forests. 636-637.
Sorbus decora (Sarg.) Schn. Collections
taken from mixed forest stands on stream
levees, dominated by Populus balsamifera
or P. tremuloides. 638-643.
Spiraea alba Du Roi. Often found in very
wet sites along the outside edge of Salix
fens. 644-651.
LEGUMINOSAE
Astragalus canadensis L. Collected from
road allowance on levee of the Saskat-
chewan River. 453-454.
Vicia americana Muhl. Found in dry to
moist sites along the river levees. 460.
AACERACEAE
Acer negundo L. A common tree on the
well drained levee of the Saskatchewan
River. 1-2.
Acer spicatum Lam. No collection taken.
Observed by authors and Dr. G. W. Argus
of the Fraser Herbarium, University of
Saskatchewan.
BALSAMINACEAE
Impatiens capensis Meerb. In moist habitats,
under tall Salix or on creek banks. 31-32.
RHAMNACEAE
Rhamnus alnifolia
In disturbed areas on
L’Hér. Collected on
DirscuL AND Dapss: FLORA OF THE SASKATCHEWAN RIvER DELTA
pos)
Sphagnum peat in a Picea mariana stand.
599.
GUTTIFERAE
Hypericum virginicum L. var. fraseri
(Spach) Fern. Common in dense Phrag-
mites stands, with scattered occurrence in
stands of Betula glandulifera and Myrica
gale. 395-407.
VIOLACEAE
Viola renifolia Gray. A single collection
taken from an opening in a wet stand of
Salix discolor and S. petiolaris. 816.
Viola selkirkii Pursh. A common plant of
the moist forest floor in most levee com-
munities. 817.
ELAEAGNACEAE
Shepherdia canadensis (L.) Nutt. Rare in
open areas on river levees. 269-271.
ONAGRACEAE
Circaea alpina L. Common in moist forests,
growing in duff or on decomposing logs.
501-504.
Epilobium angustifolium L. Found on cut-
lines and in disturbed areas around
dwellings throughout the area. 505-508.
Epilobium leptophyllum Raf. Collected in
Carex-Equisetum fluviatile or Carex-Salix
candida fens in up to several inches of
surface water. 509-512.
Epilobium glandulosum Lehm. var. adeno-
caulon (Haussk.) Fern. Collection taken
from a cutline through a stand of Populus
balsamifera on the levee of the Saskat-
chewan River. 514-515.
HALORAGACEAE
Myriophyllum exalbescens Fern. A com-
mon floating plant found in the bays and
sheltered shallows of all lakes in the Delta.
408-412.
ARALIACEAE
Aralia nudicaulis LL. Common in_ Picea
glauca-hardwoods forest throughout the
area. 25-30.
UMBELLIFERAE
Cicuta bulbifera L. Found along creeks
and canals, collections also taken from
Phragmites swamps. 799-800.
Cicuta maculata’ L. Found along water
courses and in Carex fen communities near
lake shores. 801-805.
Heracleum lanatum Michx. Generally
found in openings in the moist forest on
stream and river levees. 806-810.
Osmorbhiza longistylis (Yorr.) DC. Not com-
mon. Found in Picea glauca-hardwoods
communities on river levees. 811.
Sium suave Walt. Common in the shallows
226
of streams and canals and in Carex fen
communities near lake shores. 812-815.
CoRNACEAE
Cornus canadensis L. In Picea glauca-
hardwoods forests on well drained levees.
Associated with Equiseteum pratense and
Aralia nudicaulis. 156-160.
Cornus stolonifera Michx. A very common
shrub of levee vegetation throughout the
Delta. 161-163.
PYROLACEAE
Moneses uniflora (L.) Gray. In leaf litter
under Picea glauca. 569-572.
Monotropa uniflora L. Not common. Col-
lected in Sphagnum within a stand of
Picea mariana. 483-484.
Pyrola asarifolia Michx. Sparse in leaf litter
in Populus balsamifera stands. 573-576.
Pyrola secunda L. Rare. In an open stand
of Picea glauca. 577.
ERICACEAE
Andromeda glaucophylla Link. Collections
were taken from a deep Sphagnum peat
bog. Plants growing in 6 inches (15 cm)
of standing water. 285-287.
Chamaedaphne calyculata (L.) Moench.
Collected on Sphagnum adjacent to a
stand of Picea mariana and Larix laricina.
288-291.
Kalmia polifolia Wang. Common on Sphag-
num moss under a Picea mariana canopy.
292-296.
Ledum groenlandicum. Oeder. A very com-
mon plant on Sphagnum moss. 297-304.
Oxycoccus quadripetalus Gilib. Abundant
in Picea mariana stands on hummocks of
Sphagnum moss. 305-309.
Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. var. minus Lodd.
Collected from a Sphagnum hummock in
a Picea mariana bog. 310.
PRIMULACEAE
Naumburgia thyrsiflora (L.) Duby (Lysi-
machia thyrsiflora L.). A common con-
stituent of both Carex and Phragmites
floating mats. 563-566.
Trientalis borealis Raf. Occasional in de-
pressions within Picea glauca-hardwoods
forest. 567-568.
OLEACEAE
Fraxinus pennsylvanica var. subintegerrima
(Vahl) Fern. A minor constituent of Picea
glauca-hardwoods forest communities. 500.
GENTIANACEAE
Menyanthes trifoliata L. Locally abundant
at the outer edge of floating mats. Also
rooted in 3 feet (92 cm) of water along
a creek. 311-314.
Tue CaNapIAN FrieL_p-NATURALIST
‘Vol. 83
APOCYNACEAE
Apocynum androsaemifolium L. Collected
from a sandy, disturbed site on Cumber-
land Island. 14.
BORAGINACEAE
Lappula echinata Gilib. Collection from the
road allowance of Sask. Highway 123 at
Mile 55. 47.
Mertensia paniculata (Ait.) G. Don. In
Alnus-Salix shrub on the levee of the
Saskatchewan River. 48-53.
LABIATAE
Lycopus uniflorus Michx. Collections were
taken from a Larix laricina stand, associ-
ated with Equisetum fluviatile, Carex
atherodes and C. aquatilis. 440-444.
Mentha arvensis L. var. villosa (Benth.)
Stewart. A common forb of moist to wet
Carex fens. 445.
Scutellaria galericulata var. epilobitfolia
(Hamilt.) Jordal. Common in Carex fens.
446-447.
Stachys palustris L. var. pilosa (Nutt.) Fern.
Found in well drained to moist habitat
along stream and river levees. 448-452.
SCROPHULARIACEAE
Pedicularis parviflora Sm. Collections taken
from a stand of Betula glandulifera-
Myrica gale. 779-781.
LENTIBULARIACEAE
Utricularia intermedia Wayne. Found in
the shallow water on and adjacent to
floating Carex fens. 461-462.
Utricularia vulgaris L. var. americana A.
Gray. Grows in large masses in shallow,
open water. 463-470.
PLANTAGINACEAE
Plantago major L. Found along road al-
lowances and around dwellings in the area.
535-538.
RUBIACEAE
Galium septentrionale R. & S. (G. boreal).
Common in moist localities. 660-662.
Galium labradoricum Wieg. Usually found
in the driest stands of Picea glauca-hard-
woods forest.
Galium trifidum L. Collected on a moist
stream bank in a stand of Betula papyrifera
and Populus balsamifera. 652-653.
Galium triflorum Michx. Common in stands
of Salix discolor and S. bebbiana, and in
gaps in mixed forest communities. 654-659.
CAPRIFOLIACEAE
Linnea borealis L. var. americana (Forbes)
Rehd. On well-drained levees with an
overstory of Picea glauca or Abies bal-
samea. 56-58.
~ Achillea
1969
Lonicera dioica L. var. glaucescens (Rydb.)
Butters. Infrequent in openings in Alnus-
Salix shrub and on steep river banks. 59-61.
Lonicera villosa (Michx.) R. & S. var.
solonis (Eat.) Fern. Common in stands
of Betula glandulifera in deep peat areas.
62.
Symphoricarpos occidentalis Hook. Abun-
dant on creek and river levees. 63-74.
Viburnum edule (Michx.) Raf. In Picea
glauca-hardwoods forests. 75-76.
Viburnum trilobum Marsh. A very com-
mon plant of the levee communities. 77.
CAMPANULACEAE
Campanula aparinoides Pursh. Frequent in
low Salix and Carex fens. 54.
CoMPOSITAE
millefolium . Collected from
road allowance. 101-102.
Achillea sibirica Wedeb. Associated with
Equisetum pratense and Cornus canaden-
sis on river levees. 103-106.
Aster ciliolatus Lindl. Collected in a stand
of Larix laricina, associated with Carex
atherodes and Equisetum fluviatile. 107-108.
Aster junciformis Rydb. In exposed sites
on creek and river levees. 109-111.
Aster ptarmicoides (Nees) T. and G. Col-
lected near a small lake in deep peat. As-
sociated with Carex atherodes, Nauim-
bergia thyrsiflora, and Phragmites com-
munis. 112.
Aster puniceus L. Occurs in moist openings
in low Salix communities. 118-119.
Bidens cernua L. A common plant in moist
to wet Carex fen. 123-124.
Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. Found along
disturbed road cuts. 125-127.
DirscuHt AND Dapss: FLORA OF THE SASKATCHEWAN RIVER DELTA
227
Cirsium muticum Michx. Collected in a
dense Populus balsamifera stand. 128.
Erigeron philadelphicus L. Fairly common
in sunny openings in tall Salix stands.
120-122.
Megalodonta beckii (Torr.) Greene. Found
only in one location at the east end of Cut
Beaver Lake in 2-3 feet (61-92 cm) of
water. 129-134. (Only previous collection
in Sask. also from this area (Breitung,
1957))).
Petasites sagittatus (Pursh) Gray. Common
in 2-4 inches (61-122 cm) of standing water
in Carex and Salix fens. 135-137.
Petasites vitifolius Greene. Collected in a
stand of Picea mariana south of Cut Beaver
Lake. Associated with Carex atherodes,
Equisetum arvense, and mosses on a low
creek levee. 138-140.
Senecio eremophilus Richards. Found in an
open cutline through a stand of Populus
balsamifera. 141-144.
Solidago canadensis L. Common in Calama-
grostis-dominated openings in Alnus-Salix
stands. 145-148.
Solidago graminifolia (L.) Salisb. var. major
(Michx.) Fern. In moist to dry sites
along canals and openings in forest com-
munities. 149.
Sonchus arvensis L. Collected along road
allowance of Highway 123. 151-152.
Sonchus asper (L.) Hill. Common in dis-
turbed habitat throughout the study area.
153.
Taraxacum officinale Weber. A very com-
mon weed along roadways and around
dwellings. 154-155.
B. BrYoOPHYTES
MaARCHANTIACEAE
Marchantia polymorpha L. Found with
Campylium chrysophyllum in a stand of
Phragmites communis. 845.
SPHAGNACEAE
Sphagnum fuscum (Schimp.) Klinggr.
From a hummock in a Picea mariana bog.
846-847.
Sphagnum magellanicum Brid. From a hum-
mock in a Picea mariana bog. 848-852.
Sphagnum recurvum P. Beauv. Collected
from surface of a hollow in a Picea
mariana bog. 853-856.
DiIcRANACEAE
Dicranum polysetum Sw. Collected in a
Picea glauca stand on decayed logs and
duff. 869-871.
BRY ACEAE
Bryum pseudotriquetrum (Hedw.)
Schwaegr. Associated with Equisetum
fluviatile in a stand of Larix laricina and
Betula g'andulifera. 858.
MNIACEAE
Mnium rostratum Schrad. Growing in a
depression in a Picea mariana bog. 865.
AULACOMNIACEAE
Aulacomnium palustre (Web. & Mohr.)
Schwaegr. Collected on a hummock in
a Larix laricina stand. 857.
AMBLYSTEGIACEAE
Calliergonella cuspidata (Hedw.) Loeske.
In a stand of Phragmites communis to-
gether with Carex atherodes and Hyperi-
cum virginicum. 859-861.
228 Tue CANapIAN FieLp-NaATURALIST Vol. 83
RHYTIDIACEAE
Rhytidiadelphus triquetrus (Hedw.) Warnst.
Found in dry levee forest communities.
880-881.
HyYLocoMIACEAE
Hylocomium splendens (Hedw.) Bry. Eur.
Collected in a Picea glauca stand on de-
cayed logs and duff. 866-868.
Campylium chrysophyllum (Brid.) J. Lange.
In a stand of Phragmites, associated with
Impatiens capensis and Galium trifidum.
Drepanocladus aduncus var. polycarpus
(Bland.) Roth. Found in a variety of
wet sites. 862-864.
ENTODONTACEAE
Pleurozium schreberi (Brid.) Mitt. On dry
hummhcks in Picea mariana stands. 874-879.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Grateful acknowledgement is made to Dr. G. W. Argus and Mr. jealet:
Hudson, W. P. Fraser Herbarium, University of Saskatchewan for the identifi-
cation or verification of the identity of the vascular plants. We are also
grateful to Dr. C. D. Bird, Department of Biology, University of Calgary, for
identifying the bryophytes.
Thanks are due the following technicians and student assistants who
helped in making the collection: Garry Gentle, Arni Goodman, Dan Nieman,
Carl Surrendi, Edwin Blackstar, Leo Gudmundson, Joan Laws, and Trevor
Morris. Kay Fergusson assisted in data tabulation.
Dr. J. B. Gollop, Canadian Wildlife Service, kindly criticized the manu-
script and made helpful suggestions.
REFERENCES
INCTON SED ikea) pee CLAY TONS) Gago pris,
E. A. Curistianson, and W. O. Kupscu.
1960. Physiographic divisions of Saskat-
chewan. Map No. 1. Saskatchewan Re-
search Council, University of Sask. Saska-
toon.
Atlas of Canada. 1957. Dept. of Energy,
Mines and Resources, Geographical
Branch, Ottawa.
Birp, C. D. 1968. A preliminary flora of
the Alberta Sphagna and Musci II. Uni-
versity of Calgary. 116 pp (mimeo.).
Breitune, A. J. 1957. Annotated catalogue
of the vascular flora of Saskatchewan. The
American Midland Naturalist, Vol. 58
(ibs il=7/2-
Crayton, J. S. and J. G. Extis. 1952. Re-
port on the soils of the lower Saskatchewan
Valley. Sask. Soil Survey, Univ. of Sas-
katchewan, Saskatoon. 25 pp (mimeo.).
Dirscut, H. J. 1969. Foods of lesser scaup
and blue-winged teal in the Saskatchewan
River Delta. Journal of Wildlife Manage-
ment 33(1): 77-87.
————— , A. S. Goopman, and M. C. Den-
NINGTON. 1967. Land capability for
wildlife production and utilization in the
western Saskatchewan River Delta. Cana-
dian Wildlife Service and Saskatchewan
Wildlife Branch. 233 pp + 4 maps.
Duets, Janet R. 1966. A taxonomic study
of western Canadian species in the genus
Betula. Canadian Journal of Botany 4+:
929-1007.
Exus, J. G. and D. Gravetanp. 1967. Pre-
liminary soil survey of the Saskatchewan
River Delta Project. Sask. Inst. of Pedol-
ogy, Saskatoon. Publication SP1, 63 pp +
1 map.
KENpDREW, W. G. and B. W. Currie. 1955.
The climate of central Canada. Meteoro-
logical Branch, Dept. of Transport. 194 pp.
Rowe, J. S. 1959. Forest regions of
Canada. Bul. 123, Dept. of Forestry, Ot-
tawa. 71 pp.
Scoccan, H. J. 1957. Flora of Manitoba.
National Mus. Can., Bul. 140. Dept of Nor.
Aff. and Nat. Res., Ottawa. 619 pp.
Accepted April 2, 1969
THE STRIPED SKUNK, MEPHITIS MEPHITIS
(SCHREBER), IN NOVA SCOTIA
Donatp G. Dopps
Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia
Tue striped skunk was common in Nova Scotia between 1900 and 1930. Thence-
forth, it declined, becoming extinct, or nearly so, in many parts of the province
in the late 1940’s. It has since increased, and appears to be feo yINS its
former range.
Gilpin (1870: 63, 65, 67-68) in a paper read before the Nova Scotia Institute
of Natural Science in 1868, probably presented the first documentation of the
_ skunk in Nova Scotia. He moced that “Twenty years ago Mr. Downs informed
me the skunk was so rare that he had obtained but one skin . . . ” Gilpin felt
that both the skunk and raccoon were newcomers to the Province yet he re-
called “incredible” stories of the Indians “willingly eating the tainted meat.”
It seems unlikely that such a practice would be developed in a few years.
Piers (1900:13) ina summary of reports noted that W. E. Palfrey advised
offering a bounty on skunks in ‘Annapolis County. The same author (Piers
1903:32) states that W. W. Cunnabell of Parrsboro considered skunks as being
numerous in Cumberland County. Rand (1933:45) considered the skunk as
rather rare in the interior of western Nova Scotia; “preferring the edge of the
more settled districts of the Annapolis Valley.”
Sheldon (1936:211) Teported the skunk as being “better known in the
farmlands than elsewhere” and Smith (1940:227) noted that at the time his field
studies were conducted (1935:1938) the skunk was most commonly found in
the Annapolis Valley. Cameron (1958-14) suggested that the skunk was one of
the species likely to colonize Cape Breton Island from mainland Nova Scotia
“within the next few years”.
Recent History
Skunk fur export figures (Table I) from Nova Scotia are available for
most years, 1910-1963 (Annual Reports, Dept. of Lands and Forests). The
figure for the report year 1914-1915 was markedly below average. An out-
break of disease in ranch skunks provides a possible clue to the cause. Cruikshank
(1915) notes, “We have had no disease of any kind until the present year, or
iene the fall of 1914 when an epidemic of distemper broke out in several
ranches. It proved fearfully deadly and there seems to be no cure for it. On
one ranch only 29 skunks remained of a total of 340... ”
If this disease affected wild skunks, as it well may have, both the 1914 and
the more recent decline, beginning in the late 1920’s could have resulted from
a disease organism.
The skunk farming fad died out rather quickly in Nova Scotia, (Table 2),
probably as a result of the disease problems. Fur farm permits declined from
a high of 40 in 1913-14 to no permits in 1918-19. A total of seven was issued be-
tween 1919 and 1922 and none thereafter.
229
230 Tue Canapian Fietp-NaTuraList Vol. 83
TasBLe 1.— Skunk skins exported from Nova Scotia, fiscal years 1910-11 through 1962-63.
Fiscal Year Skins Exported Fiscal Year Skins Exported
1910-11 3613 1937-38 317
1911-12 4813 1938-39 168
1912-13 5467 1939-40 97
1913-14 4570 1940-41 No records
1914-15 255 1941-42 271
1915-16 1004 1942-43 90
1916-17 412 1943-44 143
1917-18 233 1944-45 120
1918-19 1256 1945-46 107
1919-20 1288 1946-47 67
1920-21 1558 1947-48 39
1921-22 2316 1948-49 Dili
1922-23 3768 1949-50 26
1923-24 3497 1950-51 No records
1924-25 No records 1951-52 13
1925-26 4077 1952-53 11
1926-27 2060 1953-54 8
1927-28 1511 1954-55 8
1928-29 1016 1955-56 1
1929-30 728 1956-57 41
1930-31 501 1957-58 364
1931-32 503 1958-59 1
1932-33 793 1959-60 2
1933-34 262 1960-61 27
1934-35 471 1961-62 5
1935-36 349 1962-63 16
1936-37 541
A total of 37 completed questionnares received from Dept. of Lands and
Forests personnel, trappers and residents throughout the Province provided
estimates of the dates of the decline in skunks (Table 3). “Peak” population
years were given in Yarmouth and Digby Counties as 1914-1920, Annapolis
1915, Colchester 1915-1932, Lunenburg 1905, and Pictou 1920-1930. Dept. of
Lands and Forests Annual Reports note skunks as declining in most counties
in 1937, 1938, and 1946-1950. In 1951 the report states “skunks, which almost
disappeared from the Province are becoming more noticeable in Cumberland
and Colchester Counties, and have been observed in other areas, such as Pictou
County near Glasgow, and toward Halifax near Lantz.” Figure 1 indicates
county and place locations named.
The data suggest a general decline beginning in the western end of the
Province about 1925 and moving eastward reaching possible “lows” in northern
and eastern mainland areas in the mid 1940's.
Present Status
The seven eastern mainland counties of the Province are known to have
skunks present. Except for two observations of skunks dead on the highway
in central Kings County, reported by Provincial Forest Ranger Slee eairles
in August 1963, the western-most report received has been from Falmouth,
Hants County. The approximate westward boundary for the skunk in 1966 1S
230
Tue Srrirep SKUNK IN Nova Scotia
Donpps:
1969
‘PI09G KAON Ul syuUNyS Jo vONNqMASIq *] ANNI
P4DMjJSOM dJAjOWIXo1ddy
yuasaid syunys
DoCCICICaCnCnCnT Bese LO SaI CVE UO 9) 6 Auppunog
Sa ah ag Re UN Petre OTe Grea eet |D1DUIAOIg : KaDpunog Pagar
\ °
. Jf
02
ajpos
VILOOS VAON
\
SN@Nanni, :
“4 SITOdVNNYV
7 \
#
yiMow D4
SONI
GNV1SI
NOLSAYG
aS
advo | quyma 3
SONIUd
232 Tue CANADIAN Frecp-NaATUuRALIST Vol. 33
TaBLe 2. — Skunk ranching data in Nova Scotia, 1914-1919.
Year Captivity Sold Died Exported Total
1914 647 621 120 102 1490
1915 598 39 489 159 1276
1916 262 24 147 112 545
1917 37 | 1 12 8 58
1918 0 0 0 0 0
1919 4 0 0 0 4
Total ieee os Ges 768 381 3373
shown on Figure 1. Skunks are not yet known to be present on Cape Breton
Island.
Populations tend to be concentrated about a few centers throughout the
eastern mainland. The farming areas of Cumberland, Colchester, Pictou and
Antigonish Counties have the highest densities while Guysborough, Halifax,
and Hants Counties indicate scattered, low density populations. In 1964 I
received reports of 50 skunk observations from 15 Provincial Forest Ranger
questionnaires in the seven counties. Since 1960 I have personally observed
either live or dead skunks on highways in Hants, Colchester, Cumberland,
Pictou, and Antigonish Counties and in the woods of Guysborough County.
In 1964 the questionnaires suggested static populations in Cumberland,
Pictou and Guysborough with possible increasing populations in Colchester,
Halifax and Hants Counties.
It appears that skunks were completely lost from all the western portion
of the Province and probably much of the eastern mainland — existing in low
numbers in the counties of Cumberland, Colchester, and Pictou at the bottom
of the fluctuation. They are however, oradually returning westward and seem
to be moving through the farming regions of the northern counties more rapidly
than through the forested, non-farm southern counties.
TABLE 3. — Years of decreasing population density in Nova Scotia as reported from question-
naires
County Estimated Years of Decline
Yarmouth
1917 and again after 1925
Digby Same as Yarmouth
Shelburne 1930-36
Queens 1930-35
Annapolis 1926-30
Kings After 1935
Halifax ‘““Gone”’ by 1940
Hants 1925-1940
Colchester 1933-1945
Pictou 1931-1944
Guysborough
‘“‘Lowest”’ 1946
1969 Dopps: THE STRIPED SKUNK IN Nova Scoria 233
All questionnaires completed by Forest Rangers in the western counties
indicated an absence of skunks for several years. In extensive coverage of
much of this back country since 1960 I have observed no sign of skunks and
personal interview with residents throughout western Nova Scotia has provided
only negative results. The complete lack of any positive information for several
years suggests that skunks probably do not occur in western Nova Scotia now.
REFERENCES
Cameron, A. W. 1958. Mammals of the Piers, G. 1903. Nova Scotia Game and
Islands of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Inland Fishery Protection Society, Annual
National Museum of Canada, Bulletin No. Report. J. Burgoyne, Halifax. 44 pp.
Hara OSeep Dies i ee 1900; Nova Scotia Game and In-
CrurksHank, H. F. 1915. A Letter from land Fishery Society, Annual Report. J.
Canada. (In) Holbrook, F. M. Skunk _ Burgoyne, Halifax. 22 pp.
Culture for Profit. Skunk Development
Bureau, Chicago, Illinois 142 pp.
GipIn, J. B. 1870. On the Mammalia of
Nova Scotia. Proceedings of the Nova
Scotian Institute of Natural Science, Vol.
II, Part I], Article VII, No. IV. pp. 58-69.
Nova Scotia. 1910-1963. Department of Lands
and Forests, Annual Reports, Halifax.
Rano, A. L. 1933. Notes on the Mam-
mals of Western Nova Scotia. Canadian
Field-Naturalist XLVII (3) :41-50.
SHELDON, C. 1936. The Mammals of Lake
Kedgemakooge and Vicinity, Nova Scotia.
Journal of Mammalogy 17 (3) :207-215.
SmitH, R. W. 1940. The Land Mammals
of Nova Scotia. American Midland Natur-
alist 24(1) :213-214.
Accepted April 18, 1969
STUDIES OF THE BYRON BOG IN SOUTHWESTERN
ONTARIO XXXIX. INSECTS TRAPPED IN THE
LEAVES OF SUNDEW, DROSERA
INTERMEDIA HAYNE AND
DROSERA ROTUNDIFOLIA L.
WitiraM W. Jupp
Department of Zoology, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.
Tue Byron Boe has been described by Judd (1957). Its central part is a float-
ing mat of Sphagnum moss. On this mat grows the pitcher-plant, Sarracenia
purpurea L. A study of the insects found in the leaves of this plant was conduc-
ted in 1956 and reported on by Judd (1959). Also on the mat grow two other
carnivorous plants, the Spatulate-leaved Sundew, Drosera intermedia Hayne
and the Round-leaved Sundew, Drosera rotundifolia L. D. intermedia is more
abundant than D. rotundifolia for it grows in extensive patches on the Sphagnum
mat, while D. rotundifolia is more scattered and grows on the sides of cushions
of Sphagnum. Charles Darwin (1898) in the opening sentence of his “Insecti-
vorous Plants” said “During the summer of 1860 I was surprised by finding how
large a number of insects were caught by the leaves of the common sun-dew
(Drosera rotundifolia) on a heath in Sussex” and proceeded to give an account
234 Tue CaNnapiAn Fie_p-NaATuRALIST Vol. 83
of many subsequent original observations on the insectivorous habits of this
plant. Lloyd (1942) brought together observations on the habits of Drosera,
including several by Darwin.
On August 12, 1967 collections were made of insects trapped in the leaves
of D. intermedia and D. rotundifolia in the Byron Bog. There was no wind, the
temperature was 75°F, and the sky was clear except for the presence of scattered
cumulus clouds. During the afternoon plants of the two species were scanned
closely and any leaf on which part of the blade was rolled, or the tentacles were
bent over the blade, was snipped from the plant and examined with a hand lens.
Several leaves had small portions of fronds of Sphagnum moss trapped by the
tentacles. Darwin (1898) points out that “if a bit of dry moss, peat or other
rubbish, is blown onto the disc, as often happens, the tentacles clasp it in a use-
less manner.” Fifty leaves were found clasping dead insects. These were care-
fully removed and pinned or preserved in fluid and were identified by the
following taxonomists all of whom, except V. R. Vickery, are members of the
staff of the Entomology Research Institute, Department of Agriculture, Ottawa:
D. Brown (Hemiptera, Homoptera), R. deRuette (Coleoptera), R. V. Peterson
(Chloropidae, Pipunculidae, Scatopsidae), W. R. Richards (Aphidae), H. J.
Teskey (Tipulidae), V. R. Vickery, Macdonald College, Quebec (Gryllidae),
J. R. Vockeroth (Anthomyzidae, Muscidae). All the specimens are in the
collection of the Department of Zoology, University of Western Ontario except
some noted as “kept” in the Canadian National Collection. Many of the insects
were too greatly dismembered to be recognized but several were identified to
genus and species. As will be seen in the following account, several of them
are species which have been found previously in the bog in various habitats,
particularly on bushes of leather-leaf, Chamaedaphne calyculata and in Red-
mond’s Pond, a permanent pond in the Sphagnum mat. able I shows what
insects were collected.
Account oF Insects COLLECTED
As many as three insects were found in one leaf, as exemplified by three
Oscinella sp. in a leaf of D. intermedia. Darwin (1898) records that as many as
thirteen insects were found in a single leaf of D. rotundifolia. The presence of
47 flies in the leaves, about three-quarters of the total catch, is in accord with
the observation of Darwin (1898) that “flies (Diptera) are captured much
oftener than other insects.” In the trapping of an insect by D. rotundifolia
the blade of the leaf remained flat and the tentacles alone closed over the insect.
In D. intermedia the tentacles closed over the insect and in addition, in some
cases, the tip of the leaf curled downward along the length of the leaf, thus
enclosing the insect in a cylindrical roll formed by the blade of the leaf. This
latter observation is in accord with the report on D. intermedia by Darwin
(1898) that the “apex of the leaf curls over an exciting object.” Many more
leaves of D. intermedia than of D. rotundifolia were found clasping insects, this
difference being probably a reflection of the greater abundance of D. intermedia
as compared with D. rotundifolia.
1969 Jupp: Srupies oF THE Byron Boc IN SOUTHWESTERN ONTARIO 235)
TABLE 1. — Insects trapped in fifty leaves of Drosera
Number of leaves of
Drosera Number
Order Family Name of
Insects
intermedia | rotundifolia
Orthoptera | Gryllidae Nemobius sp. (nymph) 1 1
Coleoptera | Dytiscidae Hydroporus sp. 1 1
Helodidae Cyphon sp. 4 4
Hemiptera | Saldidae Saldula orbiculata 1 1
Micracanthia ?humalts 2 2
Miridae Plagionathus sp. 1 1
Homoptera | Cicadellidae unidentified hopper 1 1
Macrosteles sp. 1 1
Scleroracus sp. 1 1
Aphidae Rhopalosiphum mazdis 3 3
Aphis ?fabae 1 1
Diptera Chironomidae | unidentified midges 7 1 9
Tipulidae Erioptera uliginosa 1 1
Erioptera ?caloptera 1 1
?Erioptera sp. 1 1
Mycetophilidae | Macrocera sp. 1 1
Scatopsidae Scatopse fuscipes 1 1
Pipunculidae Pipunculus sp. 1 1
unidentified fly 1 1
Chloropidae Oscinella sp. 2 4
Anthomyzidae | Cyamops nebulosa 1 1
Muscidae Coenosia tigrina 1 1
Unidentified
flies 14 3 25
TOTALS 47 6 64
Forty-four leaves of D. intermedia and six leaves of D. rotundifolia held a
total of 64 insects. Three leaves of D. intermedia held two different species
of insects: 1 Rhopalosiphum maidis and 1 chironomid fly; 1 Cyphon sp. and 1
unidentified fly; 1 Oscinella sp. and 1 chironomid fly. Thus the total of forty-
seven leaves reported for D. intermedia in Table I represents the forty-four
leaves of this species holding insects. Other insects caught in leaves of D. iter-
media were distributed as follows: thirty-two leaves with 1 insect each; seven
leaves with 2 unidentifiable flies each; one leaf with 2 chironomid flies; one leaf
with 3 Oscinella sp. In the leaves of D. rotundifolia the insects were distributed
as follows: five leaves with 1 insect each and one leaf with 2 unidentified flies.
ORTHOPTERA
Gryllidae
Nemobius sp.—1 nymph. Dr. Vickery, in
identifying the nymph, pointed out that it
was in the first or second instar and was
probably N. palustris, a species confined to
Sphagnum bogs (Vickery and Kevan, 1967).
CoLEOPTERA
Dytscidae
Hydroporus sp.—1 adult. Several species of
this genus of beetle were collected pervious-
ly from Redmond’s Pond by Judd (1968).
Helodidae
Cyphon sp. — 4 adults. Several beetles of this
genus were collected previously from leaves
of leather-leaf by Judd (1960).
HEMIPTERA
Saldidae
Saldula orbiculata (Uhler) —1 shore bug.
Bugs of hte genus Saldula were found pre-
236
viously on Redmond’s Pond (Judd, 1961).
Micracanthia ?humilis (Say) —2 shore bugs.
Usinger (1956) reports. that bugs of the
genus Micracanthia inhabit bogs.
Miridae
Plagiognathus sp.—1 plant bug. P. repetitus
Knight occurred commonly on leather-leaf
in 1956 (Judd, 1960).
HoMopPrTERA
Cicadellidae
Macrosteles p. —1 leaf hopper. Hoppers of
this genus are present on leather-leaf in the
bog (Judd, 1960).
Scleroracus sp.—1 leaf hopper. Two species
of this genus occur commonly on leather-
leaf in the bog (Judd, 1960).
One unidentified leaf hopper was found
in a leaf.
Aphidae
Rhopalosiphum maidis (Fitch) —3 aphids.
This is the Corn Leaf Aphid (Archibald,
1958).
Aphis ?fabae Scopoli—1 aphid. A. fabae is
reported by Archibald (1958) to winter on
high bush cranberry and strawberry bush,
both of which are shrubs found in the bog
(Judd, 1966).
DIPTERA
Chironomidae
Nine unidentified midges were found in the
leaves. Several species in this family form
a large part of the population of insects in
Redmond’s Pond (Judd, 1961).
Tipulidae
Erioptera uliginosa Alex.—1 cranefly
(kept). This species was found previously
in the bog by Judd (1960).
Tue CANADIAN FieL_p-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
Erioptera ?caloptera Say—1 cranefly.
Erioptera sp.—1 cranefly.
Mycetophilidae
Macrocera sp.— 1 female fungus gnat. A fly
of this genus was found previously in the
bog by Judd (1960).
Scatopsidae
Scatopse fuscipes Meigen—1 fly. This spe-
cies is widely distributed in North America
and the larvae live in decaying plant mater-
ial and animal excreta (Stone ez al., 1965).
Pipunculidae
Pipunculus sp.—1 fly. This fly was in a
leaf of D. rotundifolia and another pipun-
culid fly of unknown genus was in a leaf
of D. intermedia. Flies of this family are
parasites of Homoptera, many species of
which occur in the bog (Judd, 1960).
Chloropidae
Oscinella sp.—4 flies (kept). One species
of Oscinella has been found on leather-leaf
in the bog (Judd, 1960).
Anthomyzidae
Cyamops nebulosa Mel.—1 male (kept).
Flies of this family are taken commonly
from grass and low vegetation, especially
in marshy areas (Stone et al., 1965).
Muscidae
Coenosia tigrina (Fab).—1 female. Several
species of Coenosia have been found in the
bog (Judd, 1960), including C. tigrina from
Redmond’s Pond (Judd, 1961).
In addition to the flies identified above,
twenty-five dismembered and unidentified
flies were found in the leaves.
REFERENCES
Arcurpatp, K. D. 1958. Forest Aphidae
of Nova Scotia. Proceedings, Nova Sco-
tian Institute of Science, 24(2):1-254.
Darwin, Cuartes. 1898. Insectivorous
Plants. D. Appleton & Co. New York.
462 pages.
Jupp, W. W. 1957. Studies of the Byron
Bog in southwestern Ontario I. Descrip-
tion of the bog. Canadian Entomologist,
89(5) :235-238.
1959. Studies of the Byron Bog
in southwestern Ontario X. Inquilines and
victims of the pitcher-plant, Sarracenia
purpurea L, Canadian Entomologist, 91
(3) :171-180.
REA io 1960. Studies of the Byron Bog
in southwestern Ontario XI. Seasonal dis-
ee
tribution of adult insects in the Chazzae-
daphnetunt calyculatae association. Cana-
dian Entomologist. 92 (4) :241-251.
pera LTE 1961. Studies of the Byron Bog
in southwestern Ontario XII. A study of
the population of insects emerging as
adults from Redmond’s Pond. American
Midland Naturalist 65 (1) :89-100.
rae eel 1966. Studies of the Byron Bog
in southwestern Ontario XXVI. Distribu-
tion of shrubs and vines. Michigan Bot-
anist, 5(2):51-56.
1968. Studies of the Byron Bog
in southwestern Ontario XXXII. Distri-
bution of Dytiscidae and Hydrophilidae
(Coleoptera) in the bog. Proceedings,
1969 Jupp: Srupies oF THE Byron Boc in SOUTHWESTERN ONTARIO 2B,
Entomological Society of Ontario (1967) 276. 1696 pages.
98:48-52. Ustncer, R. L. 1956. Aquatic insects of
Evevna tb. 1942> The Carnivorous California with keys to North American
Plants. Chronica Botanica Co. Waltham, genera and California species. University
Mass. 352 pages. of California Press. Berkeley and Los
Stone, A., C. W. Saprosky, W. W. Wirth, Angeles. 508 pages.
R. H. Foote, and J. R. Coutson. 1965. Vickery, V. R. and D. K. M. Kevan. 1967.
A catalog of the Diptera of America Records of the orthopteroid insects in
north of Mexico. U.S. Department of Ontario. Proceedings, Entomological So-
Agriculture, Agricultural Handbook No. ciety of Ontario (1966) 97:13-68.
Accepted April 18, 1969
Se
GREAT BLUE HERON COLONIES IN ALBERTA
Kees VERMEER
Canadian Wildlife Service, Edmonton, Alberta
A survey of nesting colonies of Great Blue Herons (Ardea herodias) was made
in Alberta from May to August, 1967, as part of a Canadian Wildlife Service
program to protect endangered birds. Most heronries were located by asking
biologists, wardens, and naturalists if they knew of nesting colonies in their
areas. A few others were found by searching apparently suitable habitat along
rivers and around lakes. A few colonies may have been missed as the survey
was not exhaustive. A heronry of 11 active nests, situated in low willow bushes
on an island at Dowling Lake, was studied in 1968 because of its accessibility.
This colony was visited twice or four times a week during April, twice or three
times a week in May, and once a week in June and July of 1968.
Most heronries are located in the southern half of the province as shown
in Figure 1. Numbers and letters in that figure SoH spon to the active and
extinct nesting colonies shown in Tables 1 and 3 respectively. All colonies
were near water, probably on account of the feeding habits of the herons.
Cottam and Uhler (1945) found that 189 stomachs of Great Blue Herons col-
lected throughout the United States contained mostly fish and aquatic arthro-
ods. Of the 35 active and extinct colonies, 19 were located on lake islands, 4
near lake shores, and 12 near rivers or creeks. The preference for nesting in
the tops of trees (Table 2) and on lake islands rather than on lake shores is pro-
bably a mechanism to avoid mammalian predation. The two heronries below 20
feet (Table 2) were located on islands. Behle (1958) found Great Blue Herons
nesting on the ground and in greasewood bushes on several islands in Great
Salt Lake, Utah. Lahrman (1957) observed Great Blue Herons nesting on the
ground on an island in Old Wives Lake, Saskatchewan. Predation is probably
minimal on island heronries.
238 Tue CANnabIAN Fietp-NaATURALIST Vol. 83
TaBLE 1. — Location and size of Great Blue Heron colonies in Alberta in 1967
Water body No. nests Section Township Range
1. Arthur Lake 44 22 55 5W5
2. Baker Creek 14 33 18 29W4
3. Battle River 12 41 17W4
4, Battle River 30 12 45 23W4
5. Beaverdam Creek 33 21 28 3W5
6. Belly River 55) DD, 4 27W4
7. Bow River 18 35 21 25W4
8. Bow River 34 3 21 26W4
9. Buffalo Lake 7 26 40 21W4
10. Chip Lake 36 17 54 10W5
11. Dowling Lake 11 7 32 14W4
12. Frenchman Lake 7 16 64 10W4
13. Frog Lake 45 27 yi 3W4
14. Honeymoon Lake 5 13 36 26W4
15. Island Lake 1 1 68 24W4
16. Islet Lake 8 1 52 20W4
17. Jamieson Lake 15 35 43 7W4
18. Lower Mann Lake 13 1 60 11W4
19. Meyer Lake 17 23 69 24W4
20. Murray Lake 30 26 9 8W4
21. Oldman River 14 1 11 19W4
22. Pelican Lake 35 8 79 21W4
23. Red Deer River 32 28 21 12W4
24. Schroeder Lake 18 12 37 26W4
25. Thunder Lake 14 30 59 5W5
26. Trout Creek 12 34 11 28W4
27. Unnamed pond 14 20 55 1W5
Great Blue Heron colonies are chiefly situated in western cottonwoods
(Populus sargentii) below 51° latitude, in balsam poplars (P. balsamifera)
between latitudes 51° and 54°, and in balsam poplar and spruce (Picea spp.)
above 54° latitude in Alberta. Behle (1958) reports Great Blue Herons nesting
in cedars, greasewoodbushes, hawthorne and willow thickets, and in hardstem
bulrush two to four feet above shallow water in Utah. The selection of certain
nesting trees probably depends on their proximity to water, availability, height,
and tree-structure which facilitates building of nests.
Great Blue Herons frequently nest in dead trees, and the birds’ excrement
probably contributes to the death of the tree. Active and inactive nests of
herons were found in dead trees which had been blown over in several colonies.
Colony sites may disappear in this fashion. R. Underwood (pers. comm.) in-
formed me that the nesting trees in the island heronry at Honeymoon Lake
decayed and that the herons moved consequently to nest at the shore of that
lake and 5.5 miles north to an island in Schroeder Lake. Munro (1929:200) re-
ports of the heronry at Ministik Lake in 1924: “Some of the nesting trees had
fallen and many others were dead or dying”. Farley (1919) found that a heronry
originally discovered in trees on a 2-acre island in Miquelon Lake in 1908 had
disappeared ten years laters. He reported: “All the trees had fallen and the
entire surface of the island was covered with nettles”’.
1969
VerMEER: GREAT BLuE Herons IN ALBERTA
GREAT BLUE HERON COLONIES
| — 5 NESTS
6 — 10 NESTS
I] — IS NESTS
16 — 25 NESTS
26- 35 NESTS
36-— 45 NESTS
46 — 55 NESTS
EXTINCT COLONIES
c@e@eee-.-
OQ 20 40 60 80 100 MILES
Figure 1. Distribution and size of of Great Blue Heron colonies in Alberta in 1967.
240 Tue CanabiAN Fietp-NaTurRALIsT Vol. 83
TABLE 2. — Tree habitat of active Great Blue Heron colonies
Dominant tree Prevalent condition Estimated average
species in colony of nesting trees height in feet
No.
Species colonies Alive Dead 1-10 11-20 21-30 >30
Populus spp.* 19 12 5 1 1 17
Picea spp.» 5 3 2 1 4
Acer negundo 2 2 2
Salix sp. 1 1 1
Total 27 18 i 1 1 4 21
amostly Populus balsamifera and P. sargentiu
bPicea glauca and P. mariana
Two Great Blue Heron colonies had disappeared as a result of vandalism
(Table 3), and some of the active heronries are presently suffering the same
fate. G. W. Meyer (pers. comm.) informed me that 12 herons were shot at the
colony at Island Lake in 1965, resulting in a decline from 10 active nests in that
year to one nest in 1967. He also stated that the herons moved 9 miles north of
Island Lake to nest on a peninsula in Meyer Lake. According to W. Uhl (pers.
comm.), about 15 herons were shot in the colony at Trout Creek in 1963. It
appears that some measure of protection is needed to prevent a similar fate
occurring to other heronries in Alberta.
Some old heron nests may be taken over by other birds. Three at Dowling
Lake contained eggs of Canada Geese (Branta canadensis). C. Gordon (pers.
comm.) found 17 occupied by Canada Geese in a now extinct colony on the
Bow River. House sparrows (Passer domesticus) were found nesting in the
base of heron nests in four fallen trees. Palmer (1962) reported large hawks,
owls, and vultures commonly nesting in heronries.
All but one heronry contained only Great Blue Herons. A mixed colony
of 30 and 20 nests of Great Blue and Black-crowned Night Herons (Nycticorax
ny cticorax), respectively, was found in boxelder trees (Acer negundo) near
Murray Lake. That is the first record of Black-crowned Night Herons nesting
TABLE 3. — Causes of the loss of Great Blue Heron colonies
Colony location Cause of decline Source
A. Astotin Lake unknown Soper, 1940
B. Bow River vandalism C. Gordon (pers. comm.)
C. Honeymoon Lake trees decayed R. Underwood (pers. comm.)
D. Isle Lake vandalism D. Unger (pers. comm.)
E. Majeau Lake fire Soper, 1939
F. Ministik Lake trees decayed Munro, 1929
G. Miquelon Lake trees decayed Farley, 1919
H. Oldman River trees cut C. Gordon (pers. comm.)
1969
VERMEER: GREAT BLUE HERONS IN ALBERTA
241
TaBLE 4. — Spring arrival and distribution of clutch initiation of Great Blue Herons at
Dowling Lake in 1968
Spring arrival
Clutch initiation
Date of No. of herons Date of clutch No. of clutches
observation observed initiation? initiated
March 30 0 April 26 1
April 8 1 Sat ae 1
i 10 1 aS 1
ate 1D 1 Be OG) 1
eee 1 May 1 1
” 16 2 ” 1
5 18 5 5 1
a D2, 7 ts 8 1
a 26 9 roel) 2
rn 29 11 sa AL 1
May 3 7) June 1 1
aEstimated to within one day
in trees in Alberta. Several other nesting colonies of that species have been
found in marsh vegetation there (Wolford, 1966).
In 1968, a Great Blue Heron colony with 11 active nests at Dowling Lake
was studied in more detail. ‘The spring arrival and clutch commencement of
the herons at this colony are shown in Table 4. The clutch initiated on May 24
may have been delayed because a pair of Canada Geese occupied this nest pre-
viously in that month. The clutch initiated on June 1 is thought to be replace-
ment, since the initial clutch in the same nest failed. The time interval between
the laying of successive eggs in a clutch, incubation period, clutch size, and
age at first flight of the herons at Dowling Lake are shown in Table 5.
There were originally 55 eggs in 11 clutches but one egg each was taken
from 10 nests for a pesticide analysis of their contents. The remaining 45 eggs
resulted in 20 fledglings. Extrapolating from these eggs left in the nest, the
original 55 eggs would probably have resulted in 24 or 25 fledglings which is
an average success of 2.2 or 2.3 fledglings per nest. Fledglings were counted in
92 nests of Great Blue Herons in Alberta in 1967. The average success was 2.5
TABLE 5. — Egg-laying intervals, incubation period, clutch size, and age of first flight of
Great Blue Herons at Dowling Lake
Sample size Mean Range
Egg laying interval 14 intervals? 2 days 2 days
Incubation period 6 periods? 26.7 days 26-27 days
Clutch size 11 clutches? 5.0 eggs 4-6 eggs
Age at first flight 7 periods¢ 52.6 days 51-54 days
aK stimated to within one day
bReplacement clutch of 3 eggs which failed, excluded
cFirst flight occurred when startled on nest
242 Tue CANnapiAN FieLp-NaTuURALIST Vol. 83
TABLE 6. — Fledging success observed in 92 nests of Great Blue Herons in Alberta in 1967
No. fledglings per nest No. nests
1 8
2 39
3 35
4 10
Mean fledging success per nest 2.5
fledglings per nest that year (Table 6). Hence the fledging success of the herons
at Dowling Lake in 1968 was similar to that in several heronries in Alberta in
1967.
All young herons at Dowling Lake could fly by August 1. Some kept visit-
ing the nest after fledging as five young herons were still observed on the nests
by August 8.
SUMMARY
All Great Blue Heron colonies were situated near water, with most on
lake islands. Disappearance of some heronries resulted from decay of nesting
trees and vandalism. The egg-laying interval averaged 2 days, the incubation
period 26.7 days and the age at first flight for Great Blue Herons averaged 52.6
days. The mean clutch size was 5.0 eggs. The average fledging success in 92
nests in heronries throughout Alberta consisted of 2.5 fledglings in 1967.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Mr. M. Sorensen and Mr. L. G. Sugden, Canadian Wildlife Service, read
the manuscript and offered useful comments. Mr. R. Isbister, Canadian Wild-
life Service, assisted in the field. Mr. G. Freeman, Ducks Unlimited, and
Messrs. C. Gordon, N. Thomas, and C. Scott, Alberta Fish and Wildlife. Divi-
sion, assisted in locating heronries.
REFERENCES
Bente, W. H. 1958. The bird life of Canadian Field-Naturalist, 43:198-223.
Great Salt Lake. University of Utah Parmer, R. S. (ed.) 1962. Handbook of
Press, 203 pp. North American birds. Volume 1. Yale
Cottam, C., and Unter, F. M. 1937. Birds University Press. 567 pp.
in relation to fishes. Wildlife research and Soper, J. D. 1940. Preliminary faunal re-
management leaflet. BS-83. United States port on Elk Island National Park, Alberta.
Department of Agriculture. Bureau of
Biological Survey, 16 pp.
Fartey, F. L. 1919. The White Pelican.
Pelecanus erythrorbynchos in Alberta.
Canadian Field-Naturalist, 33:38-39.
LanrmMan, F. W. 1957. Birds of the Isle
of Bays, 1957. The Blue Jay, 15: 106-109.
Munro, J. A. 1929. Glimpses of little
known western lakes and their bird life.
Department of Mines and Resources, Na-
tional Parks Bureau, Ottawa. 47 pp.
Soper. J.D. 1939. Report on Majeau Lake
public shooting ground, Alberta. Depart-
ment of Mines and Resources, National
Parks Bureau, Ottawa. 12 pp.
Wo rorp, J. W. 1966. An ecological study
of the Black-crowned Night Heron in
southern Alberta. Unpublished master’s
thesis. University of Alberta. 55 pp.
Accepted March 20, 1969
EUPHORBIA X PSEUDO-ESULA
(Ce OMPARIS NAS) or ESUIEA) INE@ANADA
R. J. Moore and C. Frankton
Plant Research Institute, Canada Department of Agriculture, Ottawa
THE OCCURRENCE OF Euphorbia pseudo-esula Schur in North America has
not yet been reported in floras. “This hybrid between E. cy parissias L. (Cypress
Spurge) and E. esula L. (Leafy Spurge) has recently been collected at three
widely-separated locations in Ontario.
Cypress Spurge and Leafy Spurge are European introductions of common
occurrence in some areas of Canada. In Ontario, Cypress Spurge is widespread
and is a serious weed in some districts. ~—IWwo chromosome races (27=20,
2n=40) of E. cyparissias are present; the diploid plants of Ontario are seed
sterile, due to pollen abortion but tetraploids are highly fertile (Moore &
Lindsay, 1953). Ihe chromosome number of E. eszla is 2n=60 (Moore, 1958).
Euphorbia esula is less common in Ontario but is abundant and weedy in the
Prairie Provinces.
An artificial hybrid between E. eszla and a tetraploid plant of E. cy parissias
was made in a previous study (Moore, 1958). The hybrid was intermediate
in appearance and in chromosome number (27—50). ‘The natural hybrid has
been frequently reported in Europe, from central and southern Germany,
northern Austria, Hungary and Roumania. It has been called E. pseudo-
eswla Schur and E. X figertii Dorfler; the former name has priority.
OcCURRENCE IN CANADA
The natural hybrid has been found in the following three locations in
Ontario. Specimens are preserved in the herbarium of the Department of
Agriculture, Ottawa (DAO). The chromosome counts reported here were
made by the senior author from root tips of plants collected at the locations
stated and subsequently cultivated in the greenhouse.
HURON CO., Bluevale — collected by J. Parmelee and D. B. O. Savile in
1957 while on a mycological survey. A living plant was collected and from
this the chromosome number 27=50 was determined. ‘Tetraploid E. cyparissias
was found in the same area. ‘The occurrence of the hybrid and its chromosome
number was reported by Parmelee (1962).
BRUCE CO., 34% miles south of Sauble Beach, G. A. Mulligan © R. J.
Moore 2650, July 28, 1962. Numerous plants were scattered through woods
along the highway. Very few plants bore any seed.
MUSKOKA CO., just west of Port Sydney, C. & E. G. Frankton 2085,
July 29, 1968. An ungrazed field near the highway contained the hybrid and
also E. cyparissias (C. & E. G. Frankton 2083) and E. esula (C. & E. G. Frankton
2084). Chromosome numbers were determined as: FE. cyparissias, 2n—=40;
E. X pseudo-esula, 2n=50.
1Contribution No. 717 of the Plant Research Institute.
243
244 Tue CaNapiAN Fietp-NaTurRALIstT Vol. 83
MorPHOLOGY
Photographs of the artificial hybrid were previously published (Moore,
1958). One of the natural hybrids is shown in Fig. 1. Hybrids are inter-
mediate between the parents in height, in abundance and size of the cauline
leaves and in arrangement of the flowering rays. The flowering rays bearing
the cyathia may be aggregated into a terminal umbel or occur singly in the
leaf axils, along the stem. In EF. cyparissias, all rays are usually collected in
the terminal umbel but occasionally a few rays are found below the umbel.
In E. esula, many rays are regularly found below the more open terminal umbel,
along the upper third of the stem. The hybrid also has many rays below the
umbel but there is a greater tendency to a terminal concentration than in
E. esula.
The three taxa can be separated by the following key which can be adapted
to the key in Gray’s Manual (Fernald, 1950, p. 964) and inserted between
E. cyparissias and E. lucida.
Cauline leaves narrowly linear to linear-filiform or spatulate, 1-2 cm long 0.5-3
mm wide; floral leaves 4-6 mim long!" - = eae E. cyparissias
Cauline leaves linear, broadly linear to oblong-lanceolate, longer and wider,
larger floral leaves 1-2 cm long.
Median cauline leaves 1-10 mm wide; larger floral leaves 1-1.3 cm long;
cyathia 2.5-3 mm high.
Cauline leaves to 7 cm long, 2-10 mm wide, not crowded ____ E. esula
Cauline leaves to 4 cm long, 1-5 mm wide, usually numerous and crowded
ONY IG Need EE Ta i E00 ate SL 2 ene (0 E. X pseudo-esula
Median cauline leaves 10-25 mm wide; larger floral leaves 1.2-2 cm long;
cyathia 3-4) mm high! = 2a he ee E. lucida
The hybrids resemble E. eszJa more closely than E. cyparissias and may
be confused with Leafy Spurge. A plant that appears to be E. eswla but has
unusually numerous and small leaves may be suspected to be a hybrid. The
intermediate chromosome number is conclusive evidence of hybridity. The
hybrid nature of two of the three collections reported here has been verified
by chromosome counts. Pollen of one hybrid plant was examined and found to
be about 30°%% normal. Field observations indicate that a small amount of seed
may be formed by hybrids.
Only hybrids between E. eszla and tetraploid E. cyparissias have yet been
found. Although diploid Cypress Spurge in Ontario lacks viable pollen, the
pistil is normal and hybrids could probably be formed. The two cytological
races seem to be morphologically indistinguishable. However, the presence
in a hybrid of 10, rather than 20 chromosomes of E. cyparissias together with
30 chromosomes GE E. esula may result in some differences in the appearance of
the two cytological races of the hybrid.
Pritchard (1961) found that both diploid and tetraploid plants of E.
cyparissias occur in Europe and that pollen-fertile diploid plants exist there.
He found that tetraploids were more abundant and widespread but that both
races occur in central Europe. Two forms of the hybrid have been recognized
in Europe (see Moore, 1958). The form polyphylla Schur is said to be more
1969 Moore AND FRANKTON: EUPHORBIA IN CANADA 245
LAURE OTTAWA KANEDA
Figure 1. Euphorbia < pseudo-esula collected at Port Sydney, Muskoka (Frankton 2085).
246 Tue CaNapDIAN Frie_p-NATURALIST Vol. 83
like E. cyparissias whereas the form pseudo-esula is closer to E. esula. It may
be that the two cytological races of E. cyparissias have crossed with E. esula,
producing this variation. We have examined specimens of these forms from
Dorfler’s Herbarium Normale (4295, 4296) and found them to be very similar,
differing possibly in the width of the floral bracts which are slightly larger
in f. pseudo-esula. \n this character, our collections with the chromosome
number 27—50 may fit better the form psewdo-esula.
REFERENCES
Fernatp, M. L. 1950. Gray’s manual of nal of Botany 36:547-559.
botany. Eighth edition. American Book Parmeter, J. A. 1962. Uromyces striatus
Company, New York. Schroet. in Ontario. Canadian Journal of
Moore, R. J., and Linpsay, D. L. 1953. Botany 40:491-510.
Fertility and polyploidy of Euphorbia Prrrcuarv, T. 1961. The cytotaxonomy of
cyparissias in Canada. Canadian Journal of the weedy species Euphorbia cyparissias L.
Botany 31:152-163. and Euphorbia esula L. Recent Advances
Moore, R. J. 1958. Cytotaxonomy of in Botany (IX International Botanical
Euphorbia esula in Canada and its hybrid Congress) Volume 1:866-870. University
with Euphorbia cy parissias. Canadian Jour- of Toronto Press.
Accepted February 4, 1969
Re
PRODUCTIVITY OF RICHARDSON’S GROUND
SQUIRRELS NEAR ROCHESTER, ALBERTA’
Cart H. NELLis
Department of Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin, Madison
INTRODUCTION
SURPRISINGLY little is known about litter size in Richardson’s ground squirrels
Spermophilus richardsonii (Asdell 1964). This paper summarizes sex ratios,
breeding dates, litter sizes, and intrauterine lossess in this ground squirrel in
1967 at Rochester, Alberta.
Rochester, located about 60 miles north of Edmonton, is near the northwest
corner of the geographic range of Richardson’s ground squirrel (Soper 1964).
This species extended its range into the Rochester area as the land was settled
and cleared, beginning in the 1910's.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Samples of 6, 135, and 67 Richardson’s ground squirrels were secured by
shooting on 29 March, 18 April-11 May, and 1-15 July 1967, respectively.
‘Contribution from the Rochester Wildlife Research Center, Rochester, Alberta, a research
facility of the Department of Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin, with cooperation
from the Alberta departments of Agriculture (Veterinary Services Branch) and Lands and
Forests (Fish and Wildlife Division), the Research Council of Alberta, and the Research
Committee of the Graduate School, University of Wisconsin.
1969 Moore AND FRANKTON: EUPHORBIA IN CANADA 247
TABLE 1.—Sex ratios of Richardson’s ground squirrels in 1967 at Rochester, Alberta. Squirrels
were first seen above ground on 22 March.
Age and Number Number Males/100
Sample Date Males Females Females
ADULTS
29 March 6 0 —*
18-22 April 5 3 —
25-29 April 10 24 42*
1-5 May 16 44 36*
6-11 May 4 29 14*
1-15 July 4 7 Dil
Total 45 107 MIs
JUVENILES
1-15 July 27 29 93
FETUSES 26 28 93
*Ratio significantly different (P <0.02) from 50:50.
Reproductive tracts were preserved in 10 percent formalin and subsequently
examined for fetuses and implantation scars. The larger fetuses were sexed
internally.
Fetuses were aged by measuring uterine swellings (length + width +
height) as described for thirteen-lined ‘ground squirrels ( (S permophilus tridecem-
lineatus) by Foster (1934). I plotted his data and modified the resulting curve
for aging Richardson’s ground squirrels by adjusting the scale on the swelling-
size axis so that his value of 60 mm for term fetuses corresponded to my
maximum value of 89 mm. ‘These 8 largest fetuses were probably very close
to term since they averaged 51 mm C-R length and 7.6 gm. Both of these
values exceed those of 46 mm and 6.0 em given nitor 42 postpartum Richardson’s
ground squirrels by Denniston (1957:415). Gestation period was taken as 28
days (Asdell 1964). Date of conception was established from estimated
fetal age.
RESULTS AND DIscUussION
Sex Ratios
Sex ratios of fetal and juvenile Richardson’s ground squirrels were not
significantly different from 50:50; however, among adults there was a shift
from a predominance of males shortly after emergence in spring to an increas-
ingly dominant percentage of females as the reproductive season progressed
(Table 1). My sample of adults in July is small but suggests that females are
in the majority at that time.
Other authors have noted adult sex ratios favoring females, especially in
spring (Jacobsen 1923, Evans and Holdenried 1943, Fitch 1948, Sowls 1948,
Tomich 1962, Zimny 1965, and McCarley 1966). Since males emerge from
hibernation earlier than females (Foster 1934 and Sowls 1948), an excess of
males in the sample early in the season might be expected. The predominance
of females during the reproductive period could be due either to females
being more numerous in the population or to behavioral differences which
rendered them more vulnerable to shooting. I favor the first possibility since
248 Tue CanapiAN FIe_p-NaATURALIST Vol. 83
NUMBER OF FEMALES
or NW FU AN DO DO
nea 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 OF .
BREEDING DATES ‘
Figure 1. Calculated breeding dates for 87 Richardson’s ground squirrels in 1967 at
Rochester, Alberta.
males are less likely to survive to reproductive age than females (Fitch
1948:583 and McCarley 1966:307). Although there appears to be a progressive
decrease in the proportion of males in my samples after 25 April (Table 1),
this change is not statistically significant.
Breeding Season
Conception occurred from 8 April to 3 May, with the peak at 17-2
April (Fig. 1). Over three-fourths of the conceptions occurred in the two-
week period of 14-27 April. Thus in 1967, breeding started about 2 weeks
after and peaked about a month after the first squirrels were seen above ground
on 22 March.
Productivity
All 69 adult females taken after breeding ceased (3 May) were or had been
pregnant; nonbreeding is apparently rare in this species.
Eighty-four gravid females contained 735 live fetuses, an average of 8.75
fetuses per female (Table 2). However, average litter size decreased signi-
ficantly from early to late pregnancy so that litter size at birth was probably
about 8.0. This decrease occurred primarily during early pregnancy (Table
2). Litter size varied from 4 to 13.
Seton (1929) gives an average of 7.0 fetuses for 8 females, Howell (1938)
gives 7.5 fetuses per female, and Fuller (1948) gives 9.3 fetuses per female
but his sample contained only 3 females. Denniston (1957) gives an average
of 7.0 young at birth for 6 litters.
A total of 42 fetuses (5.4 percent) were being resorbed; but resorption
rate increased significantly as gestation adv snied (Table 2), Number of
resorbing fetuses per fem: ale varied from 0 to 3; and resorption occurred in 38
percent of the females. Tomich (1962) found that 9 of 150 fetuses (6.0
percent) were being resorbed and that 29 percent of 24 female Spermophilus
beecheyi were involved.
Placental scar counts on 13 postpartum Richardson’s ground squirrels
yielded 9.85 scars per female (range 6 to 15). This value is not significantly
higher than the mean litter size for all pregnant females but it is higher than
that for females in the last third of gestation (Table 2). Tomich (1962) and
1969 Moorr AND FRANKTON: EUPHORBIA IN CANADA 249
TABLE 2.—Productivity of Richardson’s ground squirrels in 1967 at Rochester, Alberta.
Number of
Approximate -Uterine Percent Live
Fetal Swelling of Fetuses
Age Size Females Live Resorbing Fetuses per
(days) (mm ) Fetuses Fetuses Resorbing Female
0-9 7-24 18 173 2 1.14 9 .61¢4
10-18 25-53 47 403 DS Sato 8.578
19-28 54-89 15 119 11 8. 52> 7.934.e4
Not Taken 4 40 4 - -
Total Gravid 84 735 42 5.4 8.752
Postpartum 13 128 2 i SP 9. 85-8
aSignificantly different (P <0.02) when tested in a 3X2 contingency table.
bSignificantly different (P <0.02) when tested in a 2X2 contingency table.
cSignificantly different (¢ = 2.06, P<0.05).
dSignificantly different (t = 3.04, P<0.01).
eNot significantly different (¢ = 1.41).
‘Significantly different (¢ = 2.53, P<0.02).
gNot significantly different (tf = 1.57).
McKeever (1964) also found that scar counts gave higher average litter sizes
than did fetai counts. “These high counts are partly due to the difficulty of
distinguishing scars of resorbed fetuses from scars of fetuses carried to term.
Because of this difficulty in classifying placental scars, resorption rate based
on scar counts (1.5 percent) was significantly lower than the 8.5 percent based
on fetal counts during the last third of pregnancy (Table 2).
I did not calculate a juvenile:adult ratio for the July sample since I made
a conscious effort to collect larger (adult) animals during this period.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to thank Lloyd B. Keith for critically reading this manuscript. I
am also grateful to the landowners who allowed me to collect ground squirrels
on their property.
REFERENCES
AspELL, S. A. 1964. Patterns of mammalian cycle in the female ground squirrel, Citel-
reproduction. Cornell University Press,
Ithaca, New York. 670 pp.
Denniston, R. M., II. 1957. Notes on
breeding and size of young in the Richard-
‘son ground squirrel. Journal of Mam-
malogy 38(3):414-416.
Evans, F. C. and R. Horpenriep. 1943. A
population study of the Beechey ground
squirrel in central California. Journal of
Mammalogy 24 (2) :231-260.
Fircu, H. S. 1948. Ecology of the Cali-
fornia ground squirrel on grazing lands.
American Midland Naturalist 39(3):513-
596.
Foster, M. A. 1934. The reproductive
lus tridecemlineatus (Mitchill). American
Journal of Anatomy 54(3):487-511.
Futter, W. A. 1948. A note on Richard-
son’s ground squirrel in Saskatchewan.
Blue Jay 6(2):20-21.
Hower, A. H. 1938. Revision of the
North American ground squirrels. North
American Fauna 56:1-256.
Jacopsen, W. C. 1923. Rate of reproduc-
tion in Citellus beecheyi. Journal of Mam-
malogy 4(1):58.
McCartey, H. 1966. Annual cycle, popu-
lation dynamics and adaptive behavior of
Citellus tridecemlineatus. Journal of Mam-
malogy 47 (2) :294-316.
250 Tue CANADIAN FieLp-NATURALIST Vol 83
McKeever, S. 1964. The biology of the Sowrs, L. K. 1948. The Franklin ground
golden-mantled ground squirrel, Citellus squirrel, Citellus franklinii (Sabine), and
lateralis. Ecological Monographs 34(4): its relationship to nesting ducks. Journal of
383-401. Mammalogy 29(2):113-137.
Seton, E. T. 1929. Lives of game animals: Tomicn, P. Q. 1962. The annual cycle of
Vol. [V--Part I—Rodents, etc. Doubleday, the California ground squirrel Citellus
Doran and Co., Inc., Garden City, New beecheyi. University of California Publica-
York. 440 pp. tion in Zoology 65 (3) :213-281.
Soper, J. D. 1964. The mammals of Al- Zrmny, Marityn L. 1965. Thirteen-lined
berta. The Hamly Press Ltd., Edmonton, ground squirrels born in captivity. Journal
Alberta. 410 pp. of Mammalogy 46 (3) :521-522.
Accepted February 4, 1969
Ms
SOME NOMENCLATURE PROBLEMS IN
NORTH AMERICAN BETULA
Janet R. DuGLE
Environmental Control, Whiteshell Nuclear Research Establishment, Pinawa, Manitoba
IN soME recent taxonomic literature, for example the “Flora of the Prairie
Provinces” (Boivin 1967), and “Flora of Alaska and Neighboring Territories”
(Hultén 1968), changes in nomenclature in the genus Betula have been
suggested. The purpose of this note is to comment upon some of these
changes.
Several authors, including Fernald (1945) and Boivin (1967) have used
the name B. occidentalis Hooker for the river birch. Boivin states that
B. occidentalis is an acceptable name because it can be retypified, even though
the types are mixed. However, as pointed out by Dugle (1964; 1966), both
the description and the types refer to two different species, making B.
occidentalis a nomen confusum. hus B. fontinalis Sarg. (1901) is the correct
name. Hultén (1968) has used “Betula occidentalis Hook.”, with the quotation
marks referring to his statement that these birches are hybrids between
B. glandulosa and B. neoalaskana (B. papyrifera subsp. humilis). However,
when the entire distribution of B. fontinalis is studied, it becomes evident that
this birch is not a hybrid (Dugle 1964; 1966).
Boivin (1967) has described B. x sandbergii as being a “Hybrid of
B. papyrifera’, without reference to the other parental species, B. glandulifera.
Referring to the Dugle annotations, he states “Most sheets so-named and
examined were more characteristic of B. occidentalis |B. fontinalis| while a few
rather resembled B. papyrifera or B. nana var. glandulifera [B. glandulifera].”
However, birches of hybrid origin frequently resemble the parental species.
Also, it is not surprising that B. < sandbergii superficially resembles B. fontinalis,
which has some characteristics intermediate between shrub and tree birches.
It has been suggested by Boivin (1967) that specimens of B. x winteri
(Dugle 1966) from “Craven, West Hawk Lake, etc.” are outside the range of
1969 Ducite: NortH America BeruLa 251
one of the parental species, B. neoalaskana.’ When more thorough collections
are made in the provinces of Saskatchewan and Manitoba, Boivin’s criticism
can be better discussed. The locations of any specimens included by Boivin
under “etc.” is not known. However, it is biologically quite possible for the
effects of introgressive hybridization to extend far beyond the distribution of
one or the other of the parental species, as is the case in B. X sargentit which
is found at much lower altitudes and far more southern latitudes than B.
glandulosa, one of the parental species.
The resemblance of the types of B. x eastwoodae and B. X uliginosa in
photographs is not sufficient reason to assume they are synonyms for B.
fontinalis (= B. occidentalis). The distribution and hybrid nature of these
birches as evidenced by both their difference in morphology and chromosome
numbers has been thoroughly discussed (Dugle 1966).
I agree with Boivin’s conclusion (Boivin, 1967) that the name B. resinifera
Britton (Dugle 1966) was not correct. Since there has been considerable
confusion in the nomenclature of this birch, a somewhat detailed discussion
follows:
B. neoalaskana has 28 somatic chromisomes, and is distributed in north-
central Canada and Alaska (Dugle 1966). “Iwo of the previous names which
have been applied are: B. alba subsp. papyrifera var. humilis Regel and B. alba
subsp. verrucosa var. resinifera Regel [DC Prodr. 16, 2:166 (1868)]. The
first, Regel’s var. humilis, has been shown to be inappropriate by Boivin (1967).
In addition, the epithet humilis is not available for a species same since it has
already been used for a different species within the genus Betula (Article 6+
of the International Code).
The second name, B. alba subsp. verrucosa var. resinifera Regel in Bull.
Soc. Mose. 18:398 (1865), was typified by a Middendorf collection from Siberia.
Regel also used this name in DC Prodr. (1868) and added to the list of specimens
a collection cited: “in America boreali-occidentali ad Saskatchavan (Palliser).”
This collection (Bourgeau, 1858, on the Palliser expedition) was originally
distributed as B. papyracea but was annotated by Regel and listed in DC
Prodr. (1868) as indicated above [see Fernald (1945) for discussion]. There-
fore, the Saskatchewan River collection cannot be included in the typification
of the epithet resimifera.
The next major development in nomenclature of this species was its
description of Sargent (1901) as B. alaskana. “The type specimen for B. alaskana
was the Bourgeau, 1858, specimen discussed above. This name was thought
to be suitable until it was discovered that a fossil, B. alascana, had been named
by Lesquereux in 1883. Consequently Sargent (1922) was forced to change
the name to B. neoalaskana.
In 1901, one month following the publication of B. alaskana, Britton
described a North American birch as B. resinifera (Regel) Britton. He listed
B. alba subsp. verrucosa var. resinifera Regel, Bull. Soc. Mosc. 18:398 (1865)
“Boivin refers to the representative specimens as “syntypes” of B. X witeri. Since a
holotype was designated, the representative specimens are by definition paratypes, not
syntypes.
BSD Tue CANaAbIAN FieLp-NaATURALIST Vol. 83
as a synonym. A complete description of the birch was followed by a state-
ment that a specimen collected by R. S. Williams, 13 August 1899, was the type
of his species. In addition Britton listed three other Specimens from North
America immediately following his citation of type... His comment: “Our
material agrees in every respect with Regel’s description in DeCandolle’s
Prodromus 16: Part 2, 164. 1868.” is significant. Britton appears to have used
the above description to compare the two entities. However, Note 5 under
Article 7 states: “A new name formed from a previously published legitimate
name or epithet (stat. nov., comb. nov.) is, in all circumstances, typified by
the type of its basionym.” ‘Therefore, one must attempt to determine the
intention of Britton when he published his name, B. resimifera. By naming
types, he indicated he was substituting a new name, but his method of writing,
his description and his synonymy imply he was making a new combination.
Elimination of the synonymy of B. resimifera (Dugle 1966) is one solution to
the quandry, but it may be contrary to Note 5 under Article 7 of the Code.
It should be pointed out that this interpretation of the Code is only one of
several and that the addition of Note 5 which was passed at the Edinburgh
Congress has changed interpretations considerably. Amendments or additions
to Article 63 being considered by committee may affect the above discussion
and the following conclusion. As Boivin suggested, B. resinifera Britton
(1901) is incorrect and B. neoalaskana Sargent (1922) is the oldest legitimate
name available.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to my colleagues for their helpful discussions.
REFERENCES
Borin, B. 1967. Flora of the prairie pro- Lanjouw, J. et al. 1961. International
vinces. Phytologia 15:414-418.
Britton, N. L. 1901. In Britton, N. L. &
P. A. Rydberg. An enumeration of the
flowering plants collected by R. S.
Williams and by J. B. Tarleton. Bulletin
New York Botanical Garden 2:165.
Duete, Janet R. 1964. Thesis, University
of Alberta.
1966. A taxonomic study of
western Canadian species in the genus
Betula. Canadian Journal Botany 44:929-
1007. i
Fernatp, N. L. 1945. Some North Ameri-
can Corylaceae (Betulaceae) Rhodora 47:
303-329.
Hutten, Eric. 1968. Flora of Alaska and
Neighboring Territories. A Manual of
the Vascular Plants. Stanford University
Press, Stanford, Calif. pp. 364-367.
Code of Botanical Nomenclature. 9th ed.
372 pp. Utrecht.
Lanjouw and F. A. STAF Leu,
1964. Synopsis of Proposals.
Veg. 30:1-68.
ReceL, E. 1865. Bemerkungen uber die
Gattungen Betula und Alnus nebst
Beschreibung einiger neuer Arten. Bull.
Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou 38:388-434.
1868. In DeCandolle, A. P. Pro-
dromus systematis naturalis regni vegeta-
bilis. Sumptibus Victoris Masson et Filii,
Parisiis. Vol. 16. pp. 162-163, 165-166.
SaRGENT, C. S. 1901.
North American
Gazette 31:236.
a . 1922. Notes on North American
trees. X. Journal Arnold Arboretum 3:206.
(Editors).
Regnum
New or little known
trees. III. Botanical
“The Williams specimen (NY) has been lost, but the second specimen listed (US) has
been located and annotated as “Paratype” for B. resinifera Britton (Dugle 1966).
Accepted May 2,
196S
RANGE EXTENSIONS FOR SOME ALASKAN
AOUATIC RE ANUS
VeRNON L. Harms
Northwestern Louisiana State College, Natchitoches
Our knowledge concerning the distribution of the Alaskan aquatic flora remains
inadequate, despite such recent floristic works as the Flora of the Aleutian
Islands (2nd edition) by Hultén (1960), A Flora of the Alaskan Arctic Slope by
Wiggins and Thomas (1962), and in particular the Flora of Alaska and
Neighboring Territories by Hultén (1968) with its well-done distribution maps
for each taxon. The present paper, which represents a report of some of
the more significant aquatic plant records deposited in the University of
Alaska Herbarium, is an attempt to amplify the available distributional
information.
While involved with an aquatic plant study’ in the middle Tanana River
valley, interior Alaska, I had the opportunity of making field observations and
fairly extensive sollassiens of the aquatic vascular plants in lakes and ponds
of this region. Also between 1964 and 1968, I was privileged to make field
expeditions to many other parts of Alaska, supported in greatest part by the
University of Alaska Museum, but with frequent cooperation from the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Coast Guard Service,
U.S. Navy, etc., during which many aquatic as well as other plant collections
were made. As curator of the University of Alaska Herbarium for five years,
I was involved in the processing of nearly 16,000 specimens, including numerous
aquatic plants. With the initiation of my aquatic plant studies in 1965, I
attempted to correctly redetermine and compile the aquatic plant records
which were represented i in the University of Alaska Herbarium. When these
locality records were mapped, some were found to significantly extend the
reported ranges of certain aquatic species, and others helped to narrow or
bridge apparent distributional gaps between previous records. Although it
is often difficult to judge the relative phytogeographic significance of such
distributional records, the following citations appear worth noting. In this
paper, which represents a compilation of aquatic plant collections by many
persons whose material has been deposited in the University of Alaska
Herbarium (ALA), acknowledgements are accorded to the respective collec-
tors in the specimen citations below.
1. BIDENS CERNUA L. ‘Tanana River Valley:
Nenana, H. Schmuck 7-63, Harding Lake,
ca. 50 mi. s.e. of Fairbanks, B. R. Knobloch
species is extended about 200 miles to the
southeast, but still leaves the Alaskan distri-
bution nearly 850 miles disjunct from: that
112-66; Lost Lake, ca. 65 mi. s.e. of Fair-
banks, B. R. Knobloch 66-66; Yetlin Lake,
K. Schneider 76. The known Alaskan range
of this possibly introduced bur-marigold
of the rest of North America.
2. CERATOPHYLLUM DEMERSUM L. Upper
Tanana River Valley: Northway area, D.
Rose 77. This species was first reported for
1Supported by 1965-1966 grants from the Office of Water Resources Research, United States Department
of Interior, to the University of Alaska Institute of Water Resources.
28
254
Alaska by Smith (1956) from near Summit,
10 miles east of Cantwell, in the Alaska
Range, and recently Hultén (1968) indicated
its occurrence at Fort Yukon. Thus, the
Rose collection from Northway apparently
represents only the third record for the
species in Alaska. These widely separated
Alaskan localities are all at least 800 miles
west or northwest of the nearest North
American stations for the species at Great
Slave Lake in southern Mackenzie District,
at Wood Buffalo National Park in northern
Alberta, and in southern British Columbia.
The species might well be expected else-
where in Alaska and northwestern Canada.
However, since its occurrence seems similar-
ly sporadic in northeastern Asia, the species
on both sides of the Bering Sea may now
be limited to a few surviving outposts after
a general withdrawal from the Beringian
area which probably represented at least one
of its major centers of post-Pleistocene dis-
persal.
>
3. cicuTA poucLasu (DC.) Coult. & Rose.
Central Yukon River Valley: Fort Yukon,
G. W. Gasser. This record extends the
known range of this water-hemlock about 70
miles north of the former Circle Hot Springs
report (Hultén, 1947), and represents only
the third interior Alaskan station (and the
first not from a hot springs site) for this
rather infrequently recorded species other-
wise found in Alaska only along the Pacific
Coast.
4. ELEOCHARIS ACICULARIS (L.) Roem. &
Schult. Central Yukon River Valley: Huslia,
lower Koyukuk River area, S. Harbo 20,
Small Lake, between Sheenjek and Coleen
Rivers (67° 23’ N., 143° 50’ W.), S. Shetler
628-AF. Although these records do not ex-
tend the species’ perimeters in Alaska, they
help to bridge several prominent gaps in the
known distribution, documenting the species’
presence in the central Yukon River valley
between the west coast and interior stations,
and between the latter and reports from the
lower Mackenzie River, N.W.T.
5. ELEOCHARIS PALUSTRIS (L.) Roem. &
Schult. (including E. macrostachya Britt., but
not E. uniglumis nor E. kamtschatica), Cen-
tral Pacific Coast Region: Skilak Lake, Kenai
Pa., C. Divinyi 22 July 1958. Upper Alaskan
Peninsula: Naknek Lake, Katmai Natl. Mon.,
D. T. Hoopes 11 July 1961; Iguigig, head of
Kvichak River, outlet of Iliamna Lake,
Harms 4370. Tanana River Valley: Minto
Lakes, N. Hosley; George Lake, ca. 30 mi.
Tue CANADIAN Fietp-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
s.e. of Delta Junction, Harms 3420; North-
way area, D. Rose 7, 11. Central Yukon
River Valley: Huslia, Lower Koyukuk River
area, S. Harbo 17; Fishhook Creek, Black
River area, S. Shetler 437-AF, 438-AF; Small
Lake, between Sheenjek and Coleen Rivers,
S. Shetler 857-AF. The Huslia record ex-
tends the species’ known range about 200
miles west and north of the former reports
from the Wiseman, Fairbanks, ard McGrath
areas. The northeastern Alaskan records
from Small Lake and the Black River areas
narrow somewhat the apparent gap between
the known Alaskan distribution and reported
stations from the Mackenzie River delta,
N.W.T. The other collections merely serve
to better fill in the distribution of this spike-
rush in Alaska.
6. LYSIMACHIA THYRSIFLORA L. Alaska Range
Area: Talkeetna Mts., C. Yamada 6-61,
Yanert Fork of Nenana River, F. C. Dean
15 Aug. 1959. Tanana River Valley: Midway
Lake, 12 mi. s.e. of Tetlin Junction, D. Rose
44. These Alaskan Range and Tanana valley
records help to bridge the wide distributional
gaps between the few former interior
Alaskan and the scattered coastal reports for
this infrequently collected species in Alaska.
7. MYRIOPHYLLUM SPICATUM L. ssp. EXAL-
BESCENS (Fern.) Hult. Central Pacific Coast:
Jim Lake, Upper Knik arm, near Palmer,
R. E. LeResche 22. Upper Alaskan Penin-
sula: Nystrom Lake, Katmai Natl. Monu-
ment, D. T. Hoopes 11 July 1961. Tanana
River Valley: 20 mi. s. of Clear near Nenana
River, Harms 5055, Harding Lake, ca. 50 mi.
s.e. of Fairbanks, Harms 5757, G. Smith
2281, B. R. Knobloch 84-66, Lost Lake, ca.
65 mi. s.e. of Fairbanks, B. R. Knobloch
42-66, 60-66. South Slope Brooks Range:
Last Lake, Upper Sheenjek River, 20 mi.
above Old Woman Creek, (68° 35’ N;
143° 50’ W), B. Kessel S-188. The Palmer
and Katmai National Mounment records
extend the known range of this sub-species
to the central Pacific coast region over 250
miles south of the previous lower Yukon
River and Alaskan Range sites. While sub-
species exalbescens seems replaced elsewhere
along the Pacific Coast (i.e., in southeastern
Alaska and western Aleutians) by subspecies
spicatum, the above cited Palmer and Katmai
records for subspecies exalbescens are not
overly surprising since they are disjunct
from the previous and occur within the
narrow Pacific coastal extension of the in-
terior Picea glauca-Betula papyrifera forest.
1969
8. NUPHAR POLYSEPALUM Engelm. Alaska
Peninsula: Ugashik area, D. Streubel 27 July
1967. Alaska Range: McGonnigal Pass, Mt.
McKinley Natl. Park, A. & R. Nelson 4286.
Tanana River Valley: Lost Lake, ca. 65 mi.
s.e. Of Fairbanks, B. R. Knobloch 61-66,
George Lake, ca. 30 mi. s.e. of Delta Junc-
tion, Harms 3211, Upper Berry Creek, L. A.
Spetzman 1022. Central Yukon River Valley;
30 mi. above Circle, K. Alt 52. Although not
expanding the overall known range of this
species in Alaska, these records serve to
better fill in its central Alaskan distribution
and the collection from Ugashik narrows
the wide gap between the former reports
(Hultén, 1944) from Katmai and Unimak
Island.
9. NYMPHAEA TETRAGONA Georgi. Tanana
River Valley: Harding Lake, B. R. Knob-
loch 43-66, 45-66, Northway, D. Rose 92.
Central Yukon River Valley: 40 miles above
Circle, K. Alt 54. These records supplement
the known Tanana Valley disrtibution of
this sporadically distributed water lily and
also extend the species’ known Alaskan and
North American range northward to the
central Yukon River 40 miles above Circle.
10. POTAMOGETON FRIESIT Rupr. ‘Tanana
River Valley: College, G. W. Argus 1097;
Lake Killarney, 3 mi. w. of College, G. W.
Argus 516; Blair Lake, ca. 45 mi. s.-s.e. of
Fairbanks, G. Smith 1903, George Lake, ca.
30 mi. s.e. of Delta Junction, Harms 3120,
3212; Northway, D. Rose 5. These records
help to fill in the Tanana River Valley dis-
tribution of this infrequently collected pond-
weed species in Alaska, and the Northway
collection narrows the distributional gap
separating the scattered Alaskan records and
those from southern Yukon Territory.
11. POTAMOGETON NATANS L. ‘Tanana River
Valley: Nenana area, H. Schmuck July 1963,
Northway, D. Rose. These collections add
two more stations for this rarely collected
species in Alaska and help to connect the
eastern and more western interior Alaskan
records.
12. POTAMOGETON PRAELONGUS Wulf. Alaska
Range: Tok Hwy., 29 mi. n.e. of Gulkana,
G. Smith 2302. Tanana River Valley: Hard-
ing Lake, ca. 50 mi. s.e. of Fairbanks, B. R.
Knobloch 81-66, G. Smith 2283A; Richard-
son Hwy., 60 mi. s.e. of Fairbanks, G. Sith
2273A;, Northway area, D. Rose 60. Small
Lake, between Sheenjek and Coleen Rivers,
S. Shetler 677-AF, 843-AF. Bering Sea: Big
Harms: ALAsSKAN AQUATIC PLANTS
755)3)
Lake, St. Matthew Is., Harms 5584. The Tok
Highway and Northway collections help to
bridge the distributional gaps between
former records from central Alaska, south
central Alaska, and Kluane Lake, Yukon
Territory. The collection from _ Saint
Matthew Island represents nearly a 600 mile
Alaskan range extension north of the pre-
vious central Aleutian sites at Atka and Adak,
over a 500 mile extension northwest of the
previous Katmai site, upper Alaskan Penin-
sula, and nearly as far southwest of the
previous Teller site, Seward Peninsula.
However, the rather remote Saint Matthew
Island station is probably less surprising than
first appearances might suggest, since P.
praelongus is a circumpolar species found
also in eastern Siberia and it probably has
survived the Pleistocene epoch in the
Beringian refugium.
13. SAGITTARIA CUNEATA Sheldon. Tanana
River Valley: Minto Lakes, N. Hosley 7-50,
Harms 5781, George Lake, about 30 mi. s.e.
of Delta Junction, Harms 3171;Northway
area, D. Rose 90. Central Yukon River
Valley: Fort Yukon, G. W. Gasser 3 Aug.
1934, Fishhook Creek, Black River area,
S. Shetler 558-AF, 504-AF. These records
supplement considerably the three previous
reports for this arrowhead species in Alaska.
The latter two collections apparently repre-
sent the most northern reports for this North
American species. In Alaska, S. cuneata
appears limited to the Pleistocene-unglaci-
ated middle Yukon and Tanana River
valleys. At George Lake, the species was
surprisingly abundant on silty and sandy
bottoms, producing flowering scapes in
shallow water of less than a half meter
depth, but forming only basal rosettes at
greater depths.
14. SCUTELLARIA GALERICULATA L, (S. epilo-
biifolia A. Ham.) Central Pacific Coast:
Moose River below Sterling, Kenai Pa., L.
Bidlake. Tanana River Valley: Northway
area, D. Rose 16, 88. The Kenai Peninsula
collection extends the known Alaskan range
of this skullcap species about 60 miles south
of previous reports from Anchorage and
the Matanuska valley, and the Northway
record narrows the gap between the Alaskan
collections and the one from Mayo, Yukon
Territory.
15. stumM suAvE Walter. Tanana River
Valley: Fish Lake, 25 mi. e. of Tanana, G.
Smith 1778 (distributed as Cicuta macken-
zieana),; Big Minto Lake, L. Rowinski 20
256 Tue CanapiAN Frecp-NaTURALIST
July 1956. This rare species has been pre-
viously reported in Alaska from only three
widely spaced localities along the Yukon
River: Holy Cross, Galena, and the Black
River area. The present records indicate its
presence as well along the lower Tanana
River drainages. The infrequent collecting
of this water-parsnip species in Alaska may
be due partly to its general similarity to the
common water-hemlock species, Cicuta
mackenzieana Raup. The nearest non-
Alaskan collections appear to be those from
the upper Liard River near the Yukon-
British Columbia border and the Great Slave
Lake area of southern Mackenzie District,
N.W.T.
16. SUBULARIA AQUATICA L. Tanana River
Valley: Harding Lake, ca. 50 mi. s.e. of Fair-
banks, Harms & Knobloch 5755, George
Lake, ca. 30 mi.s.e. of Delta Junction, Harms
3173; Moon Lake, 10 mi. w. of Tanacross,
Harms 6292. While the present records
scarcely alter the overall Alaskan distribu-
tion of this rarely collected species, they
represent a few additional collection sites,
and suggest the species’ common occurrence
in the Tanana River valley of the interior
despite most previous records having been
from the Alaska Range or the Pacific and
Bering Sea coastal regions. At each of the
Tanana valley lake sites listed above, the
plants were locally abundant on firm, sandy,
shallow bottoms in wave-protected coves.
17. TRIGLOCHIN PALUsTRIS L. Southeastern
Pacific Coast: Yakutat, Harms 3208. Central
Yukon River: Circle Hot Springs, G. Smith
2639-A. South Slope Brooks Range: Onion
Portage on Kobuk River, C. Schweger 85;
Walker Lake, G. Smith 2466; Old Woman
Creek, upper Sheenjek River, B. Kessel
S-64..The collections from the south slope
of the Brooks Range tend to bridge the
formerly evident gap in this species’ distribu-
Vol. 83
tion between the Bering Strait records and
those farther east from interior and southern
Alaska.
18. TYPHA LatiroLia L. Tanana River
Valley: Mile 10 Chena Hot Springs Road,
ca. 15 mi. n.e. of Fairbanks, D. E. Seim 27
July 1965; Ester City, ca. 12 mi. w. of Fair-
banks, D. Roseneau 35. Yukon River Valley:
12 mi. s.w. of Circle, M. E. Hatler 56; Fort
Yukon, Harms 3757-B; Fishhook Creek,
Black River area, S. Shetler 587-AF; Small
Lake, between Sheenjek and Coleen Rivers,
S. Shetler 845-AF. These collections fill in
better the known Alaskan distribution of
this cattail, especially in the central Yukon
River valley, and extends it over 100 miles
to the northeast. The Small Lake collection
apparently represents the most northern
record for the species in either North
America or Eurasia. Except for one south-
central Alaskan collection from the Lower
Susitna River, cattails in Alaska appear
restricted to the Pleistocene-unglaciated,
middle Yukon and Tanana River valleys.
Although highly sporadic in their Alaskan
occurrence, cattails frequently represent the
dominant emergent plants in those ponds
where they are present.
19. zOSTERA MARINA L. Uppper Alaska
Peninsula: Kukak Bay, Katmai Natl. Monu-
ment, C. L. Estabrook 201. Bering Sea Re-
gion: Mekoruk River mouth, Nunivak Is.,
J. G. King 67, Cape Newenham, Nanak Bay,
J. L. Hout 69. The records from along the
Bering Sea coast narrow somewhat the dis-
tributional gap between the former Pacific
Coast and the Bering Strait reports for eel-
grass. This marine species should probably
be expected in shallow surf-protected coves
all along the Bering Sea coast as it is along
the Pacific coast, although it may truly be
absent along the Arctic coast.
REFERENCES
Hutren, E. 1941-1950. Flora of Alaska and
Yukon, Parts I-X. Lunds Universitets
Arsskriff N.F. Avd. 2. 1902 p.
1960. Flora of the Aleutian
Islands, Ed. 2. J. Cramer, Weinheim
Bergstr. 375 p.
———-— . 1967. Comments on the flora of
Alaska and Yukon. Kungl. Svensk. Veten-
skapsakad. Handl., Ser. 2, 7:1-147.
————— 1968. Flora of Alaska and Neigh-
boring ‘Territories. Stanford University
Press, Stanford, California. 1008 p.
SmitH, S. G. 1956. Some aquatic and bog
plants new to the flora of Alaska. Proceed-
ings of the 6th & 7th Alaska Science Con-
ference, pp. 71-72.
Wiens, I. L., and J. H. Txomas. 1962.
A Flora of the Alaskan Arctic Slope.
University of Toronto Press. 425 p.
Accepted May 1, 1969
RECENT DATA ON SUMMER BIRDS OF THE
UPPER YUKON RIVER, ALASKA, AND ADJACENT
PART OF THE YUKON TERRITORY, CANADA
Crayton M. WHITE AND JoHN R. Haucu
Section of Ecology and Systematics, Division of Biological Sciences,
Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14850
From 10 June through 3 August 1966, we surveyed the Peregrine Falcon
(Falco peregrinus) population along the upper Yukon River to gather data
on peticide residues in this population. Some of the results of the Peregrine
study have been published (Cade, White, and Haugh, 1968). During our
study several points regarding the general avifauna of the region became
evident, as follows. Although considerable biological work has been done
along the Yukon, such as that done by various University of Alaska summer
field parties, and much is known about the river, little recent published
information on birds is available in the literature for use as background material
for further studies. Furthermore, judging from the literature available and
from our recent observations, it is evident that some bird populations are
apparently historically stable, that is, they show the same relative numbers
today as they did in earlier investigations (i.e. Dall and Bannister, 1869; Bishop,
1900; Osgood, 1909; Blackwelder, 1919; Cade, (field notes 1951); and Gabrielson
and Lincoln, 1959). Other populations show marked fluctuations in numbers,
that is, they are abundant in some years, absent in others, or show vacillating
trends in population numbers. Still other populations or species are newly
invading the region and /or are becoming established as breeders. Additionally,
during our work, several observations of lesser known species were made.
This report presents information on some of the above mentioned points in
addition to giving an annotated list of our observations and data on species
not previously recorded for interior Alaska.
Through the courtesy of Tom J. Cade we were allowed use of his field
notes taken on the Yukon from 11 July to 25 August 1951. We also traveled
with Tom Cade, James Enderson, and Stanley Temple and made further
observations on the Yukon from 30 May to 11 June and from 16 to 20 July
1968, with the principal purpose of obtaining additional data on peregrines.
This report is composed of data extracted from field notes for 117 days of
observations on a precise stretch of river.
The term “Upper Yukon”, as used in this report, is that portion of the
river extending from Circle, Alaska, to the mouth of the Fortymile River,
Y.T., Canada, a distance of approximately 200 river miles. The upper Yukon
follows a valley course through mountainous terrain, usually cutting cliffs
where it flows close to steep-sided mountains and/or bisects these mountains.
Where the river does not closely approach the mountains, there are frequent
spruce covered flats and areas of muskeg extending inland from the river a
few miles until the floodplain, in turn, abutts the base of the mountains.
257
258 THE CANapIAN Fietp-NATuRALIsT Vol. 83
Several moderately large rivers join the Yukon at various points, namely,
the Seventymile, Tatonduk (Sheep Creek of some reports), Nation, Kandik
(Charley Creek of some reports) and Charley River. For several miles
around the mouth of the Charley River the terrain is broad, flat, and devoid
of relief. One section of high, rugged cliffs terminating at the river’s edge,
sometimes referred to as the Woodchopper Volcanics, is nearly 4 miles in
length and rises 1500 feet above the level of the river. At Circle the terrain
has essentially lost it’s relief and the river traverses the Yukon Flats, a region
characterized by numerous lakes, acid muskeg bogs, erratically meandering
sloughs and rivers, and spruce, willow, and cottonwood covered flats. Although
this report is essentially confined to that region upriver from Circle, we did
on one occasion travel about 12 miles downriver from Circle and some observa-
tions from this area are noted in the report.
Those species known to have bred or suspected of breeding during our
survey (as evidenced by the physiological state of adult, such as the presence
of a brood patch, behavioral actions of the adult, such as food gathering, etc.;
or the presence of birds of the year) are marked by an asterisk in the following
annotated list.
ANNOTATED SPECIES ACCOUNT
Gavia immer—CoMMON Loon. Several taking off from the river in front of the
were seen, or heard calling in 1966 as fol-
lows: 12 June, near Kathul Mt.; 1 July,
mouth of Nation River; 3 July, mouth of
Kandik River (several); and 9 July, heard
calling at Circle.
Gavia arctica— Arctic Loon. Less fre-
quently seen than Gavia immer. On 19 June
1966, one was seen and heard calling at Eagle
and on 23 June two were seen near the
Nation River. The few records may reflect
the lack of our observations of inland ponds,
rather than actual numerical status.
Gavia stellata — Rep-THROATED Loon. We
did not observe it in 1966, but saw one bird
that may have been this species in 1968.
Cade saw it on two occasions in 1951.
Podiceps grisegena — RED-NECKED GREBE. Our
only record is the remains of one found in
a peregrine falcon aerie in 1966. Cade re-
corded one in 1951.
Podiceps auritas— Hornep Grese.* Our
only records for 1966 are the remains of
three individuals found in a peregrine aerie
and a mummified downy young found in
Beck’s cabin near the Kandik River. Cade
recorded at least two in 1951. They are
doubtless common in sloughs adjacent to
the river.
Olor sp.— WuistLinc or TRUMPTER SWAN.
On 14 June 1966, a fully adult swan was seen
village of Eagle.
Branta canadensis—Canapva Gooss.* A\l-
though Canada Geese place their nests on
cliffs and bluffs and are associated with bluffs
in many parts of Alaska, e.g., the Colville
River, this is not the case on the Yukon
River as suggested by Kessel ez al. (1966).
On the Yukon, the geese use or nest on pond
edges, islands and river banks. Observations
on the river are scattered but not un-
common. A few observations on the oc-
currence of this goose are noted below. On
10 July 1966, about 10 separate pairs were
seen in a 10-mile stretch of river downriver
from Circle and also a flock of 15 were seen
near Circle. On 13 June, a pair with seven
young less than a week in age was seen a
few miles downriver from Montauk Mt. On
the Nation River on 1 July 1966, we saw a
pair with 6 young which had the black tips
of the primary feathers unsheathed for
about 2 inches. Cade saw a flock of about
60 on 23 August 1951, about 20 miles upriver
from Circle and on 24 August, two flocks,
one of about 25 and one of about 35, were
seen at Circle.
Branta nigricans — Brack Brant. ‘Two were
seen on the river upriver from Eagle on 15
June 1966. Niel Argy, US.F.W5S., Fair-
banks, informed us that accumulating records
indicate that they occur regularly along the
1969
Yukon but apparently there is no trend for
increasing numbers. (See Cade (1955) for
previous records and discussion of inland
migration routes.
Anser albifrons — WHITE-FRONTED Goose.
Not seen in 1966 when observations started
on 10 June; but in 1968, between 31 May and
8 June, they were moderately common.
None was seen by Cade in 1951.
Anas platyrhynchos—Matuarp.* Seen
regularly along the entire river but not com-
mon in 1966. Cade saw a flock of 37 and a
flock of 35 on 14 August 1951, near the
Kandik River.
Anas acuta — PINTAIL.*
along the river. Small flocks of males, usually
_ between 7 and 15 per flock, were seen during
the last two weeks of June, 1966. In contrast
to the mallard, they were common enough
to be taken frequently as prey by Peregrine
Falcons in 1951 and 1966. Interestingly, Os-
good (1909) records the Mallard as fairly
common on the river and the Pintail as un-
common.
Anas strepera—Gapwatt To add to the
growing list of observations (see Kessel and
Springer, 1966) one was seen on the river 17
July 1968, in the vicinity of the Wood-
chopper Volcanics.
Anas carolinensis —GREEN-WINGED TEAL.*
Although this species was recorded as scarce
in the interior in the early 1900’s and none
was seen along the river by Osgood (1909)
and only three were seen by Bishop (1900)
at Circle, we noted the species at several
localities in 1966. The species also was
counted 7 times as prey items in peregrine
aeries in 1951, 9 times in 1966 and 5 times in
1968.
Anas discors —BiurE-wincep Traut. Kessel
and Springer (1966) note the increasing
abundance of this species in the Yukon River
region. None was recorded by Bishop (1900)
nor Osgood (1909) although it was found
“sparingly” at Fort Yukon in 1865-66 by Dall
and Bannister (1869). In 1966, only 3 adults
were seen near the U.S.-Canada boundary
on 21 July. By contrast there were a dozen
or so observations scattered along the river
between the Fortymile River and Circle
during the first week of June, 1968.
Spatula clypeata — SHOVELER.* We observed
Shovelers on three occasions all in the
general region of Eagle in 1966. On 20 July,
a group of three males molting into the
eclipse plumage was seen.
White aNp HavucuH: Birps oF THE YUKON RIVER
Observed regularly ©
259
Mareca americana — AMERICAN W/HIDGEON.*
On 12 June a flock of about 15 was seen near
Charley River, and a flock of 15-25 was seen
on 28 June, 1968 near Eagle. Additionally,
we observed single birds or pairs along the
entire stretch of river at various dates.
Aythya collaris — Rinc-NEcKED Duck.* This
species may also be increasing in interior
Alaska (Kessel and Springer, 1966). A fe-
male with a brood of at least three one-
fourth grown young, was seen in a slough
of the river on 28 July 1966, downriver from
Takoma Bluff. The female floppped around
the slough for several minutes as we ap-
proached and then as we proceeded to fol-
low her closely, she slowly swam down the
river. During her initial performance the
young promptly hid making it difficult to
obtain an accurate count of them. This
record adds to the few breeding records
mentioned by Kessel and Springer (1966).
Aythya marila—GreateR Scaup.* Indivi-
duals were seen at scattered localities with
a flock of about 10 mixed males and females
observed on 28 June 1966 near the Tatonduk
River.
Aythya spp.* —Several individuals, either
Greater Scaup A. marila or Lesser Scalp A.
affinis, were seen at scattered localities. One
bird seen on 17 July, with a flock of scaup,
had a conspicuous red-colored head but
conditions were too dark and overcast and
the bird was seen too briefly to preclude
positive identification, although it might
have been a Redhead (A. americana). Scaup
were fairly common
Bucephala albeola—Burrteneav. A male
and two females flew past the boat on 12
June 1966, near the mouth of the Charley
River.
Bucephala spp.— Goupeneyes.* We _ had
scattered observations in 1966 along the river.
The majority of individuals were thought
to be Common Goldeneye B. clangula rather
thas Barrow’s Goldeneye B. islandica. One
female, in a slough of the river, acted as
though she had a brood of chicks nearby
on 5 July near the Woodchopper Volcanics,
and a second female was seen with a brood
of at least 6 young near Circle on 10 July
1966.
Clangula hyemalis—Oxvsouaw A lone fe-
male, with a flock of seven Surf Scoters, was
seen near the mouth of the Seventymile
River on 28 June 1966.
260
Histrionicus histrionicus — HaRLEQuIN Duck.
Cade found the remains of one in a peregrine
aerie on the Yukon in 1951. It has been re-
corded on tributaries of the Yukon, that lie
between Eagle and Circle, and possibly it
occurs on the Yukon proper. We did not see
it in 1966 nor in 1968.
Melanitta deglandi — WuitE-wINcED SCOTER.
Decidedly less common than Surf Scoters.
Only three, a male and two females, were
seen together on the river near the mouth
of the Kandik River on 17 July 1966.
Melanitta perspicillata—Surr Scoter.* A
fairly common species on the river. Pairs
were occasionally seen but mixed flocks of
males and females and large flocks composed
entirely of males were more commonly ob-
served. On 6 July 1966, a flock of 86 males
was seen as it made two passes over Circle.
On 18 July 1968, a flock of 12-15, all but one
being males was seen below Takoma Bluff.
Cade saw a flock of 40-50 on 30 July, and a
flock of 43, all juvenile birds, on 14 August
1951. Osgood (1909) also noted flocks com-
posed largely of males. Bishop (1900) lists it
as abundant unriver from Circle.
Mergus spp.— Merrcansers. All mergansers
seen were probably Red-breasted Mergan-
ser M. serrator but positive identification
was not made on all individuals. Our only
record for 1966 was a pair seen briefly as
they flew up the Tatonduk River from near
its mouth. Blackwelder (1919) cites the
species as common on the Yukon. Several
were seen near the mouth of the Nation
River in 1968. Cade observed it on two
occasions in 1951.
Accipiter gentilis —GosHawk. Not seen by
us in 1966 and 1968, but one immature was
seen by Cade on 4 August 1951. The paucity
of observations during the breeding season
is somewhat surprising considering the
habitat of the region.
Accipiter striatus — SHARP-SHINNED Hawk.*
We saw this hawk on four occasions in
1966. On 16 June one was seen near Eagle
Creek. It remained in the area for a length
of time, apparently hunting, and it may
have nested nearby. On 18 August 1951, Cade
saw an immature perched beside a merlin
on a fish rack.
Buteo jamaicensis and “harlani” — Rep-
TAILED Hawk.* ‘Two pairs with nests and
one lone adult were seen in 1966. The mem-
bers of both pairs had the mottled “harlani”
tails. In 1968 some eight individuals were
Tue CaNnapiAN Fie_p-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
seen, two of which had brick-red tails. No
nesting activities were observed in 1968. The
Indians at Eagle make a definite connection
between rabbit population cycles and hawk
cycles for they told us (1966) that the rabbit
cycle was down and we probably would not
see any hawks. The relationship between
rabbit cycles is seemingly born out by ob-
servations in 1951 when prey species were
more abundant and Cade noted Buteos on
eight occasions and on at least two occasions
several were seen. Cade recorded four nests
between the Fortymile and Circle. Further,
we saw no owls in 1966 and 1968, and Cade
noted several (see under Bubo). Of the
hawks seen in 1951, only one had a “red-tail”.
On 14 July 1966, a nest about 10 miles above
Circle contained two downy young. The
nest was on an island in a 60 foot cotton-
wood (Populus balsamifera) about 10 feet
from the top. One young weighed 653 grams.
It was completely covered with a sooty-
gray down except for the primary feathers
which were about 45 mm out of the sheaths
and tail feathers which were about 30 mm
out of the sheaths. Inasmuch as the downy
young and early nesting plumages are not
well described (Friedmann 1950) it may be
of interest to note that each young possessed
a perfect, well-defined “triangle” of pure
white down on the back of the head measur-
ing about 34 mm at the base and 45 mm
from base to apex. In other Buteos the white
spot on the back of the head has been
defined as an irregular circle. When fully
feathered the young were generally blackish
with some white mottling on the venter.
A total of 15 maggots, the largest measur-
ing 10 mm long, was taken from the ears of
one of the young. They were identified as
Protocalliphora spp. by Kenneth J. Capelle,
Bear River Wildlife Refuge entomologist.
Food remains in the nest consisted of a red
squirrel (Tamisciurus hudsonicus), several
microtines, Bohemian Waxwing (Bomby-
cilla garrula), an unidentified anatid, Gray
Jay (Perisoreus canadensis) and Common
Snipe (Capella gallinago). The two young
found in one nest on 19 July 1951, were well
feathered on their lower breasts and backs.
Food remains in 1951 consisted of Microtus
spp., two Spruce Grouse (Canachites cana-
densis), and some unidentified passerines.
Frank Warren of Circle told us that in
1965, three of these hawks were on Birch
Creek near the bridge near Circle. One was
shot as it was in the process of killing a
1969
Canada Goose (Branta canadensis) gosling
near the edge of the creek. This hawk was
black and had a mottled tai]
Aquila chrysaetos — Go.vEN Eacte. In 1966,
none was seen on the river but one was seen
on the Taylor Highway about midway be-
tween Eagle and Tok as it hovered in the
air much after the fashion of a Buteo. In
1968, however, five single birds were seen.
In addition, two individuals were seen
perching together in a tree midway between
Eagle and Calico Bluff. The latter sighting
may have involved a mated pair. On 23
August 1951, Cade saw a brown-headed
eagle, either this species or an immature Bald
Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), being
_ attacked by a raptor, possibly a Peregrine
Falcon.
Haliaeetus leucocephalus—Batp EAGLe.
Two Bald Eagles, one adult and one imma-
ture, were seen on 8 June 1968, below
Kathul Mt. None was seen in 1966 although
we were told that a pair had long nested
about two miles up the Charley River from
its mouth. Because of low water conditions,
we were unable to investigate this report.
This nest, however, might have been that of
an Osprey (Pandion haliaétus) as that species
has reportedly bred on the Kandik River
(Williams, 1925).
Circus cyaneus— Marsh Hawk. In_ 1966,
some six observations were made between
13 June and 30 July from Circle to about
10 miles above Eagle. In contrast, none was
seen in 1968. Cade saw them on five occasions
between Eagle and Circle in 1951. (Bishop
(1900) mentions a few. It appears to be of
sporadic occurrence and may be more com-
mon downriver from Circle on the Flats
(see Blackwelder, 1919).
Falco peregrinus — PEREGRINE Fatcon.* Data
on this species have been summarized (Cade,
et al., 1968). A few items are of interest.
Bishop (1900) reported that it was distri-
buted along the river from Fort Davidson
to Circle at an interval of about one pair
per 10 miles. Cade found the average dis-
tance between pairs in 1951 to be 9.3 miles
while in 1966, for 172 miles there were 17
pairs for an average distance of 10.5 miles.
In 1968, along the same 172 mile stretch
there were also pairs or single birds at 17
breeding stations or individual cliffs. These
data would indicate a rather strict historical
stability in the numbers of pairs along the
river. Charlie Stevens, a chief at one time in
WhuitE AND HaucuH: Birps oF THE YUKON RIVER
261
the Indian village at Eagle, told us that the
Indian name for the Peregrine is Khé-
trund (our phonetics) which _ literally
means shoulder. This name arises from
the fact that they believe that Peregrines
strike their prey with the shoulder of the
wing (actually wrist) as it is bent back
in the Peregrine’s stoop. Willie Junabee,
also of Eagle Village, told of an occasion
when the natives watched a Peregrine in
front of the village stoop repeatedly at a
crane until the latter was forced into the
river. The Indians were of the impression
that the Peregrine directed its stoops at the
head of the crane. Another observation of
interest is that of Circle resident Carl Dasch
who while goose hunting in late August in
front of his cabin watched a Peregrine stoop
at and hit a wooden goose decoy with such
force that it knocked the head off of the
decoy and momentarily dazed the falcon.
Falco columbarius — Mertrwx. We failed to
to see this bird in 1966. In 1968, one and
possibly a second was seen the first week in
June. Cade recorded it on nine occasions in
1951. His earliest record was on 19 July, but
all other records were in August. Two or
three were frequently seen together and
appeared to be sibling groups.
Falco sparverius — AMERICAN KESTREL.*
Single individuals were seen on four occa-
sions in 1966 between 21 June and 17 July
and nine times in June, 1968. Only two were
females. Some of the birds were associated
with cliffs and may have used them for
nesting. Bishop (1900) saw this species only
as far up the river as Fort Selkirk with one
possible sighting at Circle. Osgood (1909)
does not mention it and none was seen by
Cade in 1951 on the Yukon River. Cade
(pers. comm.) recalls seeing only the rare
individual throughout most of Alaska in the
early 1950’s and White observed only two
pairs in the Fairbanks area in 1962 and 1963.
The species may be generally increasing its
range throughout Alaska as noted by Camp-
bell (1968).
Canachites canadensis — SpRUcCE Grouse. The
remains of an individual found near a
Peregrine aerie is our only record for 1966.
Cade saw them, usually immature birds, on
several occasions in 1951.
Bonasa umbellus—Rurrep Grouse.* Our
only record is of a female with at least
four % grown young 21 miles upriver from
Circle on 28 July 1966. On 24 July 1951, Cade
saw a female with nine “well grown”
young, in the Yukon Territory. This was
his only record for this bird.
Grus canadensis —SANDHILL CRANE. On
several occasions we heard and saw cranes
near Circle in July and August, 1966, and
also the first week of June, 1968.
Pluvialus dominica—Go.tvEN Ptiover. A
flock of nine birds, believed to be this
species, was seen on 14 August 1951, by Cade
near the Kandik River.
Capella gallinago —CoMMoN SNIPE.* Com-
mon and widespread in 1966 and 1968. In-
terestingly, winnowing had ceased by 5 July
and no winnowing birds were heard until
17 July 1966, at which time they were again
heard occasionally until at least 3 August.
In contrast, Dall and Bannister (1968:291)
reported it as “rare on the Yukon”.
Actitis macularia — SPOTTED SANDPIPER.* The
species is ubiquitous along the river. The
first downy young were seen on 4 July 1966.
On 17 July, near Coal Creek, broods of
recently-hatched downy young and nearly
fully-feathered young were seen only a few
yards apart. This disparity in the ages of
broods was conspicuous on several occasions.
It would be instructive to determine whether
this disparity results from asynchronous
nesting or attempts at renesting by some
pairs.
Tringa solitaria—SovLiTARY SANDPIPER.*
We have only one record of several in-
dividuals in the vicinity of the Woodchopper
Volcanics on 5 July 1966. The absence of
records reflects our lack of work in the
muskeg and pond areas away from the river.
They were found in peregrine aeries at
scattered locations.
Totanus flaviceps—LrsseER YELLOWLEGS.*
We saw it only at Circle and in the vicinity
of the Woodchopper Volcanics. It was,
however, found as a prey item in several
peregrine aeries scattered along the river. In
one aerie the legs of one were markedly
longer and thicker than the others found
and might have been from a greater yellow-
legs (I. melanoleucus), although the latter
would have been out of its known range.
Erolia melanotus — Pectoral SANDPIPER. One
completely intact mummified specimen was
found hidden, possibly by the falcon, near
a Peregrine perch above an aerie on 5 July
1966.
“PEEP” SANDPIPERS. Several small Erolia or
Ereunetes sandpipers were seen in a flock
Tue CANADIAN FieLtp-NaATURALIST
Vol. 83
flying down the river on 12 June 1966. These
may have been Least Sandpipers (Erolia
minutilla) as this species has been reported
from Circle in June (Osgood, 1909) or
Semipalmated Sandpipers (Ereunetes pusil-
lus) as Cade found the remains of two in
Peregrine aeries on the Yukon in 1951.
Limosa haemastica—Wupsonian Gopwit.
Kessel and Springer (1966) have recently
commented on the increase of the species in
interior Alaska. One was observed flying and
heard calling near Circle on 11 July 1966.
Our attention was drawn to the bird by the
actions of the flying swallows Presumably
the godwit momentarily had a somewhat
falconine appearance to the flying swallows,
for they joined into a tight wheeling flock
and followed, below and in the general
course of the godwit, precisely as swallows
do near their nesting colony at the ap-
pearance of a flying Peregrine (see below
under swallows).
Lobipes lobatus —NorTHERN PHALAROPE.*
Our only records are of three individuals
found as prey remains in Peregrine aeries.
The lack of records may reflect our lack
of frequent visits to lakes away from the
river. However, none was recorded by Cade
on the lakes in 1951. Yocom (1964) lists it
as a common breeder on the Yukon Flats.
Larus argentatus — Herrinc Guii.* Common
on the river in 1966. Observed every few
miles with often three or four seen sitting
together. The broad flattened region sur-
rounding the mouth of the Charley River
is especially frequented by this bird. In-
terestingly, only nine individuals were
counted between Eagle and Circle in mid-
July 1968. Cade found it to be common in
1951. On 14 August 1951, in the region of
the Kandik River, he saw 21 adults and 27
birds of the year in the days travel. Some of
these were associated with flocks of Mallards.
Larus canus—Merw Gut. Less common
than the Herring Gull along the stretch of
river from Castle Rock to Circle. Near
Circle it was seen more frequently. Most of
our records are of individual birds, but at
Circle on 6 July 1966, a group of seven was
seen. Yocom (1964) lists it as common in
the Yukon Flats.
Larus philadelphia —Bonaparte’s GulLL.*
Although none was seen by us in 1966 or
1968, they were frequently taken by Pere-
grines, presumably from around lakes and
away from the river.
1969
Rissa brevirostris — Rep-LEGGED. KITTIWAKE.
On 4 July 1966, four miles downriver from
the mouth of the Kandik River, a small gull
with bright red legs and feet passed the boat
about 75 feet away as it flew upriver. The
solid black wingtips, with a lack of
“mirrors”, the red legs, small size (our first
thought was of a Mew Gull) and unre-
markable bill—not red—left no doubt but
that it was a kittiwake. We were moving
downriver as it passed us and an effort to
turn the heavily laden boat upstream and
pursue and collect the gull proved futile,
although we were able to follow and observe
it for some distance. There is but one other
inland record of this species (AOU Check-
list, 1957; Godfrey, 1966). The record is of
_ an individual found dead near Fortymile,
Yukon Territory, Canada. It is conceivable
that the Yukon bird reached the Fortymile
by following the Yukon River in a manner
similar to the bird of our observation.
Xema sabini — Sasine’s Guiy. This is a gull
principally of coastal and insular regions and
is a rare migrant to interior Canada (God-
frey, 1966). The first specimen record for
interior Alaska was recently reported by
Kessel and Springer (1966). On 22 June 1966,
a pair of intact wings, from an adult, at-
tached to the pectoral girdle was found in
a Peregrine aerie on the river in Yukon
Territory, Canada, at Castle Rock. The con-
dition of the wings indicated that the gull
had not been dead for more than 2-3 months
and was probably killed during spring mi-
gration by the falcons which seemingly do
not arrive on the Yukon River prior to
early or mid-April.
Sterna paradisaea — Arctic TERN.* Our re-
cords all come from near Circle. A pair was
seen on 10 June 1966, 10 miles unriver from
Circle and a lone bird at Circle on 13 July
1966. Remains of one was found in a Pere-
grine aerie a few miles from Circle. Ap-
parently it is more common on the Yukon
Flats where the terrain is more open
(Yocom, 1964).
Bubo virginianus —Great Hornep Owt.
We failed to see or hear this species in 1966
or 1968. However, they were, like Buteo,
numerous in 1951. Cade saw or heard them
on 14 occasions or on about 31% of the days
spent on the river. Squirrels, perhaps a
major prey item, were also vastly more
common in 1951 than in 1966. The high
squirrel population was apparently a func-
tion of a good spruce cone crop as addi-
WHITE AND Haucu: Birps oF THE YUKON RIVER
263
tionally indicated by the numbers of cross-
bills in 1951 also (see below).
Asio flammeus — SuHort-EARED Own. Only
one was seen in 1966 and that was not on the
river, but on the Taylor Highway several
miles from Eagle.
Aegolius funereus — BoreaL Ow. Our only
record is the remains of an individual found
in a Peregrine aerie near the Nation River
in 1966.
Selasphorus rufus —Rurous Hummrnepirp.
An adult male was seen feeding in fireweed
near the confluence of Coal Creek and the
Yukon River on 28 July 1966. Unidentified
hummingbirds, presumably of this species,
were seen by us near Eagle on 16 June and
about 26 miles upriver from Circle on 5
July 1966. Antone Merly, of Eagle, told us
of several hummingbirds he had seen in
Eagle during the “past few years” and Frank
Warren, of Circle, told us of one caught
by the bill in the screen door of his house
(in August 1965 according to the records
of Brina Kessel). This species, although
reported as occurring only in southeast
Alaska (Gabrielson and Lincoln, 1959),
apparently occurs sparsely in interior Alaska
with fair regularity (Brina Kessel, pers.
comm.). The species is probably increasing
along the Yukon River and careful ob-
servations might reveal that it breeds there
as indicated by our various summer records.
Megaceryle alcyon—BerLTED KINGFISHER.
We failed to note it on the river in 1966 and
1968, but Cade saw one in 1951 about one
mile from the river along a stream. This
locality was near the Fortymile River. In-
terestingly, Bishop (1909) never say it more
than about 40 miles below Dawson. Osgood
(1909) saw one at Eagle. Blackwelder (1919),
aside from finding it on the Flats did not
find it on the Yukon downriver from the
White River. The kingfisher would seem
to. be a “natural” for the Yukon River
because of the habitat, especially with the
dirt banks for nesting holes. Perhaps the dirt
banks are too ephemeral and unstable to suit
kingfisher requirements or the water too
turbid for effective fishing conditions.
Colaptes auratus —YELLOW-SHAFTED FLICKER.*
We observed individuals near the Nation
River and on three occasions near Circle.
However, a total of 11 was found in Pere-
grine aeries indicating its greater abundance.
Since flickers are receiving considerable
study regarding the species and hybridiza-
264
tion problems, it would seem valuable to
report a flicker of the “red-shafted” type
seen on the Taylor Highway, 18 June 1966,
between Tok and Eagle, Alaska. This lies far
outside the range of the “red-shafted” type
as shown by Short (1965). (See also Yocom,
1964, for a record of the “red-shafted” type
near Fort Yukon).
Dendrocopos sp.* Only one seen briefly,
thought to be a Hairy Woodpecker D.
villosus, at the mouth of the Charley River,
but tail feathers of a D. villosus were found
in three Peregrine aeries.
Picoides tridactylus — NORTHERN THREE-TOED
Wooppecker. None was seen by us in 1966
or 1968, but Cade observed it on six occasions
in 1951.
Sayornis saya —Say’s PHorse.* Seen regu-
larly along the river in areas of bluffs.
Interestingly, Bishop (1900) reported seeing
many until they reached Charley Creek
(Kandik River) but did not observe the bird
between there and Circle. Osgood (1909),
however, lists it as common on the Yukon
without giving further data except to say
it was noted at Circle.
Empidonax flaviventris — YELLOW - BELLIED
FLycaTcHER.* On 28 July 1966, an individual
weighing 10.3 gm., with an ossified skull,
brood patch, light fat, and ovarian follicles
1.5 x 1.5 mm was taken from a mistnet in
thick willows near the confluence of Coal
Creek and the Yukon River. That same day,
Haugh saw another very yellow-breasted
flycatcher thought to be of this species. On
24 June 1966, an intact freshly killed speci-
men was found near a Peregrine aerie in the
vicinity of Eagle. Although it has been
heretofore unknown in Alaska, these records
taken together tend to indicate limited
breeding of this flycatcher in interior Alaska.
The current range map of the species’ dis-
tribution in Canada (Godfrey, 1966; 254)
shows that it extends west to the region of
Fort Norman, N.W.T., thence south
through the extreme southeastern tip of the
Yukon Territory. If indeed the specimen
taken was breeding, as indicated by its con-
dition, and not a post-breeding wanderer,
it would be of interest to re-examine the
species distribution in Canada for possible
clues as to the route the species followed
through Canada into Alaska. The specimen
was identified by Ned K. Johnson and is
deposited in the Biological Collections, Uni-
versity of Alaska.
Tue CANADIAN FieLD-NATURALIST
Vol. 33
Empidonax traillii— TRattu’s FLycAaTCHER.*
Common along the river bank. Singing birds
were heard about every 100 yards on a four-
mile walk from Eagle Village to Eagle on
25 June 1966. All birds calling were seem-
ingly of the “Fitz-bew” type except for
several near Eagle which tended to be a
“Way-be-oh” or “Phe-be-o”.
Empidonax hammondii—Hammonp’s Fiy-
CATCHER.* We saw it in 1966 only at a few
places; principally near the Woodchopper
Region and about 21 miles upriver from
Circle. All individuals seen or mistnetted
were associated with conifer forested hill-
sides. Bishop (1900) found it equally com-
mon with £., traillii and in the same habitat
until he reached Charley Creek (Kandik
River) after which he did not see it again.
Our extensive mistnetting along the willows
and river banks in the habitat of E. traillii
failed to turn up any individuals of E. ham-
mondit.
Contopus sordidulus —\WeESTERN Woop
Pewee. We failed to see, hear, or mistnet
this species. Cade recorded it several times
in 1951 and collected one individual which
he called a pewee.
Nuttallornis borealis— Ouvive-sIDED FLy-
CATCHER. We saw the species on only one
occasion in 1966, but Cade saw it on five
occasions in 1951.
Hirundinidae —Swattows.* At Eagle four
species, the Tree (lridoprocne bicolor),
Cliff (Petrochelidon pyrrbhonota), Violet-
green (Tachycineta thalassina) and Bank
(Riparia riparia) swallows were found
sympatrically in 1966. Riparia is by far the
most numerous at Eagle, with several
colonies, one of which has greater than 500
individuals. There were about 20 pairs of
Tachycineta, 10 pairs of Petrochelidon and
two pairs of Iridoprocne in the town. Al-
though no quantitative measurement of
niche utilization, such as food samples
analysis, was made, a slight difference in
foraging was observed among the species.
Iridoprocne was only seen foraging near to
the ground over the grassy airfield. Tachy-
cineta and Petrochelidon foraged principally
in the area encompassed by the town or
somewhat overland and at an intermediate
height above the ground. Riparia appeared
to be the most versatile and was seen in all
situations even back overland as far as 3-4
miles from the colony.
1969
During most of the morning and early
afternoon hours, Riparia foraged over the
river near the colony. Daily, from about
16-1800 hours, the Tachycineta were seen
sitting on the utility wires in town and
during this time Riparia foraged about the
resting Violet-green Swallows. All swallow
specimens that we collected were found to
be feeding heavily on mosquitos. Because
of such an unlimited food supply, greater
food “niche” separation may not be neces-
sary during the nesting period.
One albino fledgling appeared on 18 July
in the Eagle Riparia colony and was present
until at least 22 July, at which time we left
Eagle. More than 830 Riparia, from the
colony at Circle, were counted as they sat
‘on utility wires on the evening of 10 July.
This date was prior to the fledging of young
and all were considered to be adults, in-
dicating the size of the colony.
Tachycineta was gone from Eagle by 22
July and from cliffs it occupied downriver
by 28 July. It was gone by 5 August in 1951.
In 1915, they were last seen by Blackwelder
(1919) on 11 August. Petrochelidon was
first noticed absent from cliffs on 27 July
1966. A Petrochelidon colony of considerable
size about 17 miles upriver from Circle in
1966 was abandoned in 1968. Riparia was
still common on 3 August in 1966 and a
few were seen by Cade on 24 August in
1951. Blackwelder (1919) found Tachycineta
abundant, Riparia “not abundant”, and only
one colony of Petrochelidon. We found
Riparia very abundant; Petrochelidon with
scattered, but usually moderately large
colonies; and only a few small colonies of
Tachycineta on the lower cliffs. Osgood
(1909) noted Petrochelidon at the Seventy-
mile River but not elsewhere and Bishop
(1900) did not record it below Dawson but
believed it was not seen there because it had
already migrated. Osgood (1909) called
Tachycineta common between Eagle and
Circle. In 1951, Cade recorded Tachycineta
nearly as frequently as he did Riparia. There
is apparently a dynamic fluctuation of not
only species composition but also numbers
of individuals over the years. Osgood (1909)
noted the Barn Swallow (Hirundo rustica)
at Eagle, but neither we nor Cade recorded
it during the time we spent in the river
valley.
Each time the Peregrine left its aerie near
Eagle and flew over the Riparia colony, the
swallows formed a tight, wheeling flock
Waite AND Haucu: Birps oF THE YUKON RIVER
265
and chattered loudly, following, although
somewhat below, the Peregrine course of
flight.
Perisoreus canadensis — Gray Jay.* Fairly
common. On one occasion, at a locality near
Circle, we found 12 freshly killed jays about
a Peregrine aerie and the nearby plucking
perches
Corvus corax—CoMMoN Raven.* In 1966,
ravens were seen only at six localities, of
which four were probably nesting areas.
They were often observed in groups of 4-5,
probably siblings or family groups. In 1968,
however, because we were on the river
about 1% weeks earlier and at a time when
young ravens were just leaving the nest,
many more were seen. Eleven nesting sites
were found in 1968 and the young were in
the process of fledging in the first week of
June. On 4 July 1966, a group of eight was
seen to frequent a clump of bushes and
small trees along the river toward dusk and
this may have been a “communal” roost for
perhaps two broods of birds. This group
was seen there for a total of three days. In
1951, Cade noted the species during nearly
every day of travel. A first year bird which
Cade collected was beginning to molt into
adult plumage on 17 July.
Parus hudsonicus — Boreal CHICKADEE.* We
only identified chickadees as hudsonicus on
two occasions and heard or saw other parids
on two different occasions that might have
been hudsonicus. Parids on the whole were
scarce. By contrast, Bishop, (1900) found
chickadees regularly distributed in family
or large flocks all the way to Fort Yukon.
Cade noted them regularly in 1951; all re-
corded as P. hudsonicus. It is interesting to
note that the black-capped chickadee (P.
atricapillus) does not appear to have been
recorded from this region. We had one
record from Eagle on 20 June 1966, of an
individual we identified as a Gray-headed
Chickadee (P. cinctus). We watched it for
some five minutes at about 40 feet. We will
defer the recording of this bird as P. cinctus,
however, because of the lack of a specimen
or undisputed photograph.
Turdus migratorius — Rosin.*
sionally at frequent localities.
Seen occa-
Ixoreus naevius —Variep TuHRusH.* Heard
singing principally where the rivers and
large streams, e.g. Coal Creek, Seventymile,
Tatonduk, Kandik, Nation, etc., enter the
Yukon. At the Tatonduk River on 30 June
266
1966, two adult females and three adult males
were taken in a mist net. On 28 July 1966,
about 21 miles upriver from Circle, 13
juveniles were taken in two nights of mist-
netting and no adults were seen or taken.
The juveniles had partially grown adult tail
feathers and some adult body feathers, but
all had juvenal-plumaged heads. Birds were
heard singing most frequently from about
1800 hours, through the night hours, to
about 0700 hours the following morning.
Hylocichla (Catharus) spp.* The records
from some 20 nights of mistnetting are in-
structive in terms of comparative frequencies
of thrushes. One bias in the data, however,
is that all habitats were not equally sampled
with regards to total number of netting
nights. The Hermit Thrush (H. guttata) was
only seen once and that was near Castle
Rock, Yukon, and never taken in a net
despite netting in spruce habitat. The Gray-
cheeked Thrush (H. minima) was found
most frequenlty from Circle to about 30
miles above Circle. At Circle, in three nights
of mistnetting, only seven individuals were
taken, as opposed to 11 Swainson’s Thrush
(A. ustulata). At Eagle no H. minima were
taken alhtough 20 H. ustulata were taken in
three nights of mist netting; a few H. minima
were heard singing, however. H. ustulata was
extremely common and appeared to be
equally as common at Eagle and at Circle and
points between. H. ustulata and H. minima
appeared to equally frequent the same habi-
tats along the river proper, relative to their
numbers. It would be instructive to deter-
mine frequencies of these two thrushes in
the Yukon Flats and partitioning of the
habitat, if any. Bishop (1900) indicates that
H. ustulata was the most common thrush.
Osgood (1909) cites H. ustulata as abundant
from Eagle to Circle and only mentions
H. minima as being fairly common in the
vicinity of Circle. Dall and Bannister (1869)
also reported H. ustulata as more common
than H. minima.
Sialia currucoides —MounTAIN BLUEBIRD.
One adult male was seen on 27 June 1966
across from Eagle Village. Records for the
interior of Alaska are scattered and infre-
quent (Kessel and Springer, 1966) but
judging from the distribution map in God-
frey (1966:303), there are breeders in the
region of the Yukon Territory encom-
passing the Yukon River. In 1951, Cade was
told by Arthur Stevens, an Eagle resident,
that a pair came to Eagle nearly every year.
THe CANADIAN Fietp-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
Oenanthe oenanthe — WHEATEAR. One was
collected at the mouth of Coal Creek, 20
August 1951, by Cade.
Myadestes townsendi— TowNsENp’s SOoLt-
TAIRE.~ Gabrielson and Lincoln (1959:675)
state that “It is usually found at rather high
elevations, particularly in the breeding
season, when it is likely to be at or close
to timberline.” Contrary to this statement,
solitaires on the upper Yukon River appear
to prefer a much broader habitat type.
Wherever there are drier slopes, usually
south or west facing, dominated by aspen
or cottonwoods with a sage, grass, or rose
understory, the solitaire was found in 1966
and 1968. Young, perhaps a day or two out
of the nest, were found among the aspens
along the river near Castle Rock on 22 June
1966. Pairs of adults, much aroused by our
presence as though a nest were nearby, were
found on the drier hillsides at Calico Bluff,
Montauk Bluff, and Takoma Bluff. Inasmuch
as they were also seen in the spruce stands
at higher elevations, their ecological toler-
ance in the breeding season would seem to
have a much greater latitude than heretofore
reported for Alaska. Paired solitaires, per-
haps breeding pairs and recently fledged
young, were also seen about six miles up-
river from Circle on 31 July 1966, and in
the first week of June, 1968.
Bombycilla garrulus—BoHEMIAN W AXWING.*
Seen on five occasions in 1966 at various
points on the river. Two separate individuals
were watched as they “hawked” insects near
Kathul Mt. on 17 July 1966. They would
perch on the tip of a tall, usually isolated,
spruce at the river’s edge, launch forth and
fly erratically about grabbing insects then
return to the spruce. Seen more frequently
in 1951 and sometimes in large flocks.
Fledgling waxwings were found as prey
items in a Peregrine aerie on 16 July 1966.
Regulus calendula— Rupy-cRowNED KING-
LET. Seen or heard singing on but two
occasions in 1966.
Anthus spinoletta — Water Pieir. Not seen
in 1966 nor 1968, but Cade saw it near the
Nation River on 12 and 14 August 1951.
Vermivora celata —ORANGE-CROWNED W£ARB-
LER.” Our records for V. celata pertain to
a few birds taken in mistnets on the portion
of river near Circle. No warblers were
identified as this species elsewhere. An adult
taken on 28 July 1966, was in heavy molt and
had a newly emerging tail, with all feathers
267
WuitE AND Haucu: Birds oF THE YUKON RIVER
1969
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268
of a uniform length, and out about 10 mm.
Cade saw several on 17 August 1951 near the
Charley River.
Dendroica petechia—YeELLOw WArBLER.*
Widespread and common on the river.
Dendroica coronata— MyrtteE WARBLER.
Identified only once near Kandik River in
1966. Bishop (1900) found it commonly.
Dendroica striata —BLacKPpOLL WARBLER.
One record, an adult male, mistnetted on 12
July 1966 at Circle. Osgood (1900) only
found it occasionally and was of the im-
pression that it increased in numbers near
Circle.
Seiurus noveboracensis — NORTHERN WATER-
THRUSH.” Widespread and frequently seen,
especially common at Circle. Adults were in
fresh fall plumage by 1 August 1966, except
for 1-3 remaining primary feathers only
about one-half emerged.
Wilsonia pusilla — Wirson’s WarsBLer.*
Seen only on four occasions but doubtless
more common. Osgood (1909) found it
abundant between Eagle and Circle. Birds
of the year were taken in a mistnet about
21 miles upriver from Circle on 28 July 1966.
Euphagus carolinus—Rusty BuiacKksirp.*
Seen on only two occasions, once at Miller’s
Camp (mouth of Tatonduk River) and once
at Circle in 1966. Only two were found as
prey items in Peregrine aeries in 1966, while
six were found in Peregrine aeries in 1951
(Cade; er ‘al., 1968). Interestingly, it was
noted only once, at Circle, by Cade on 25
August 1951,
Pinicola enucleator — Pink Grospeak.* Seen
on two occasions, once at Eagle on 21 June
and once at Circle on 12 July 1966. It was
breeding at the latter locality.
Acanthis flammea—Common ReEppou..*
Redpolls, as compared to their common
status at Fairbanks, were notably scarce in
1966. A slightly greater number was ob-
served in 1968. It was only seen or heard at
five localities in 1966. All sightings in 1966
relate to lone individuals flying high in the
air, except for a flock of 15 above Wood-
chopper Creek and a pair near Kandik
River. Only one was seen at Eagle in seven
days of observations. By contrast, Cade
recorded it on 11 occasions in 1951. All but
two of Cade’s records were in August. On
Tue CANADIAN FieLD-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
17 August, he observed a flock of 12. A
female mistnetted at Circle on 2 August
1966, still had a very edematous brood patch
and had been gathering food, indicating that
young were in the nest at that late date
Loxia leucoptera —Wuite-WiNcED Cross-
BILL. Two were seen on 16 June 1966 near
Eagle. None was seen in 1968. Contrastingly,
Cade saw it, often in large flocks, nearly
every day of travel from 11 July to 25
August 1951. These records, in addition to
the numerous squirrels seen by Cade, indi-
cated a big spruce cone crop.
Passerculus sandwichensis — SAVANNAH SPAR-
row.” Seen or heard only in the vicinity of
Circle in 1966 where it was moderately com-
mon. :
Junco hyemalis —S.LATE-coLoreD JUNCO.*
Moderately common throughout the region,
being equally so in 1966 and 1951.
Spizella arborea —TREE Sparrow.* Moder-
ately common and widespread. More com-
mon at Circle than Eagle.
Zonotrichia leucophrys — WHITE-CROWNED
Sparrow.” Frequently, but not commonly,
encountered along the entire river. Most of
our records come from the vicinity of Circle.
Five eggs in a nest near our tent at Eagle in
1966 hatched on 28 June while on that same
date, recently fledged young were seen at
Eagle and a nest of three fresh eggs was
found at Miller’s Camp some 20 miles below
Eagle.
Passerella iliaca — Fox Sparrow.* Frequent-
ly observed and heard, but not abundant,
along the entire river. Most frequently seen
or mistnetted in the vicinity of Circle. A
juvenile on 11 July 1966 at Circle had several
newly emerged adult feathers on the breast
only.
Melospiza lincolnii— LincoLtn’s Sparrow.*
Not commonly encountered and only seen
on two occasions in 1966 and on two occa-
sions in 1951. It would be instructive to take
census counts through uniform habitat
along the course of the river to determine the
exact relative abundance of the passerines
and the extent to which their abundance
varies along the river.
Calcarius lapponicus —LarLanp LonesPuR.
Two juveniles seen on 17 August 1951 by
Cade. None was seen in 1966 nor 1968.
1969 WuitrE AND Haucu: Birps oF THE YUKON RIVER 269
SUMMARY
Of the 92 species encountered during the 1966 and 1968 periods of our
surveys, 57 were judged to have been breeding (marked with an asterisk).
In addition to those species judged to be breeding, 14 other species seen by us,
the Common Loon, Arctic Loon, Red-necked Grebe, Bufflehead, merganser
spp., Spruce Grouse, Sandhill Crane, Mew Gull, Boreal Owl, Western Wood
Pewee, Olive-sided Flycatcher, Ruby-crowned Kinglet, and Myrtle and
Blackpoll warblers were most certainly breeding. Of those listed by us the
following merit comment as to breeding status. The Blue-winged Teal has
doubtlessly recently arrived as a breeder; it breeds farther north in the Fats.
The Goshawk also doubtlessly breeds in the region. We would expect to
find Golden Eagles, Merlins and Water Pipits breeding near timberline or
_in the cliff areas on the mountains immediately adjacent to the river. We
would also expect Bald Eagle to breed in the region, though sparsely. Marsh
Hawks, Great-horned Owls, and Short-eared Owls probably breed irregularly,
possibly in considerable numbers, or perhaps annually in limited numbers
depending on the size of the prey population. It is also expected that
crossbills breed when the seed cone crop conditions are suitable. Three-toed
Woodpeckers were doubtlessly in the region in 1966 and 1968 although we
missed them. Lastly, the Mountain Bluebird may breed in small numbers
annually and it is possible that, at present at least, it is near the northern limits
of its breeding range.
From the above listed 26 species we feel justified in adding all, except
perhaps the Great-horned Owl, Short-eared Owl, and Crossbill, as also breeding
during the period of our survey. The addition of these species would bring
to 80 the total number of species breeding. A perusal of the summer and
distributional records from Gabrielson and Lincoln (1959) may indicate that
as many as 118 species could be breeding in this region of the Yukon River.
The Pine Siskin (Spinus pinus) was present in conspicuous numbers during
Bishop’s survey (1900) as far north as Dawson and the Fortymile River. The
species was not seen by Cade nor us. It has, however, been recently shown
to breed in the Fairbanks region (White and Brooks, 1964) and likewise it
probably breeds along the upper Yukon River. The same applies to the Brown
Creeper (Certhia familiaris) (see Kessel and Springer, 1966). “Iwo owls, the
Great Gray (Strix nebulosa) and the Hawk Owl (Surnia ulula) were reported
by either Bishop (1900) or Osgood (1909) and although not seen by us it is not
surprising because of their habits. Cade did not see them in 1951 either,
but he found remains of the latter in a Peregrine aerie. There is no reason
to believe their status has changed since the time of Bishop and Osgood. -In
light of the present state of knowledge of these two owls it would be informative
to determine their exact status, as it would be for all owls, along the upper
Yukon. Osgood (1909) reported seeing Rough-legged Hawks (Buteo lagopus)
commonly on the Yukon between Eagle and Circle and mentions a nest found
in a spruce tree near Charlie Creek. Osgood never reported other species of
270 Tue CanapiAN FIecp-NaTurRALIST Vol. 83
Buteo. We believe that the birds seen were actually Buteo jamaicensis, B.
“harlani”, or perhaps the Swainson’s hawk (Buteo swainsoni) (see Williams,
1925 and Dall and Bannister, 1869, for remarks of B. swainsoni in this general
region), and that the citing of the hawks as B. lagopus was a lapse on Osgood’s
part. However, Dall and Bannister (1869) reported eggs of B. lagopus taken
from a nest near Fort Yukon. ‘Their record may lend credence to Osgood’s
(1909) sightings and suggest that the species has changed its distribution and
it may have formerly nested along the Yukon upriver from Circle.
The status of the Barn Swallow, with repect to the upper Yukon, is open
to question (see Gabrielson and Lincoln, 1959) and Osgood (1909) gives the
only report, to our knowledge, for that region. It most certainly is not of
regular occurrence. We would expect that chipping sparrows (Spizella
passerina) will be recorded within the next few years from the region as they
have been seen on the Taylor Highway just to the southwest (see Kessel and
Springer, 1966: 194). We are surprised that the Tennessee Warbler (Vermi-
vora peregrina) has not been recorded from this region, judging from Godfrey's
(1966: 323) range map of it in Canada, but expect it to be recorded from the
upper Yukon region in the near future.
No species reported from the region in the early 1900’s appear to have
disappeared from it although several species have become established since that
time. There are, however, some species recorded by Dall and Bannister (1869)
from farther downriver on the Yukon Flats that no longer appear to be
breeding in that region.
The status of those species seen or listed by us, with respect to adjacent
regions further upriver and downriver, and the status of the species along
that portion of river we surveyed, as we tentatively interpret it, is summarized
in Table 1. The literature heretofore cited is used to determine the category
under which it is placed. The species of which little can be done by us
concerning their status are given under the heading, undeterminable. Some
species, for example the Violet-green Swallow, are given under more than one
category as more than one phenomenon may be taking place. Once downriver
beyond Circle, into the Flats, the nature of the avifauna and the abundance
of various species appears to change rapidly (see for example Blackwelder’s
1919, citation for the Belted Kingfisher; and Yocom, 1964). Two species, the
Red-legged Kittiwake and Sabine’s Gull, are considered as accidentals or of
rare occurrence. It is probable that the Gray-headed Chickadee occurs
sporadically in the region (see also Gabrielson and Lincoln, 1959: 628). It
is evident from this report that a periodic surveillance of the upper Yukon
River is in order to verify and further assess its breeding avifauna.
We thank Tom J. Cade and George C. West for reading this report and
offering comments. Our work was supported in 1966 by the USFWS, Laurel,
Maryland, and in 1968 by the Arctic Institute of North America under con-
tractual arrangements will the Office of Naval Research.
1969 Whiter AND Haucu: Birps oF THE YUKON RIVER Dy
REFERENCES
American Ornithologists’ Union. 1957. The birds of Alaska. Wildlife Manage-
Check-list of North American Birds. 5th
ed. Baltimore, Maryland, 691 pp.
Bisnop, L. B. 1900. Annotated list of birds
In W. H. Osgood, Results of a biological
reconnaissance of the Yukon River region.
North American Fauna No. 19.
BLAcKWELDER, FE. 1919. Notes on the sum-
mer birds of the upper Yukon region,
Alaska. Auk 36:57-64.
Cape, T. J. 1955. Records of the black
brant in the Yukon basin and the question
of a spring migration route. Journal of
Wildlife Management 19: 321-324.
Cape, T. J., C. M. Wuite, and J. R. Haven.
1968. Peregrines and pesticides in Alaska.
Condor 70:170-178.
CampBELL, J. M. 1968. Records of Falco
sparverius from the John River valley,
arctic Alaska. Auk 85:510-511
Dati, W. H., and H. M. Bannister. 1869.
List of the birds of Alaska, with bio-
graphical notes. Transactions of the
Chicago Academy of Science 1:267-310.
FRIEDMANN, H. 1950. The birds of North
and Middle America. United States Na-
tional Museum Bulletin 50, Part XI, 793 pp.
GasriELson, I. N., and F. C. Lincotn. 1959.
ment Institute, Washington, D.C. 922 pp.
Goprrey, W. E. 1966. The birds of
Canada. National Museum of Canada
Bulletin No. 203. Biol. Ser. No. 73, 428 pp.
KesseL, B. and H. K. Springer. 1966. Re-
cent data on status of some interior Alaska
birds. Condor 68:185-195.
KesseL, B., R. B. WEEpDEN, and G. C. West.
1966. Bird-finding in Interior and South-
central Alaska. Mimeographed. Alaska
Ornithological Society 49 pp.
Oscoop, W. H. 1909. Biological investiga-
tions in Alaska and Yukon Territory.
North American Fauna No. 30.
SHort, L. L., Jr. 1965. Hybridization in
the flickers (Colaptes) of North America.
Bulletin American Museum Natural His-
tory, Vol. 129, Article 4:307-428.
White, C. M. and W. S. Brooks. 1964.
Additional bird records for interior Alaska.
Condor 66:308.
Witiams, M. Y. 1925. Notes on the life
along the Yukon-Alaska boundary. Can-
adian Field-Naturalist 39:69-72.
Yocom, C. F. 1964. Noteworthy records
of birds from the Fort Yukon and the
Yukon Flats, Alaska. Murrelet 45:30-36.
Accepted May 1, 1969
ALFRED EUGENE BOURGUIGNON
1893-1968
W. Eart GopFrey
National Museum of Natural Sciences
WirtH THE Passinc or Alfred (Fred) Eugene Bourguignon, in Ottawa on
December 11, 1968, the Ottawa Field Naturalists’ Club lost a highly valued,
long-time member, and to a great many of us an esteemed friend. Born on June
26, 1893, in Ottawa, he was the eldest of thirteen children born to Alfred and
Delia Aubrey Bourguignon.
After leaving school, Fred helped 1 in his father’s grocery, flour, and seed
store, taking over the business in 1921 on the death a his father. His first
hobby, in the little spare time he had in those hard-working days, was racing
pigeons which he kept in his father’s grain shed. In 1911, he won the O.E.P.A.
prize for the best red magpie. When about 17 years of age, he began to go
hunting with his father and this sparked an interest in the observing and collect-
ing of birds that remained with him for the rest of his life.
22
1969 ALFRED EUGENE BouRGUIGNON DH3)
About that time, too, he began a physical culture program at home and
quickly developed into a powerful youth. Occasionally he astonished cus-
tomers in the store by carrying two 50-pound bags of sugar, one under each
arm. ‘The sight of Fred cycling down the street with a bale of hay on his
shoulder for delivery to a customer was a common one.
Soon he began to give physical culture lessons at home and at various
schools in Ottawa. He entered competitions and, in 1920, won the Central
Canada championship in both wrestling and weight-lifting. He refereed many
wrestling matches. Occasionally his clothes were badly torn, and once an
irate fan broke a bottle across his nose. Typically, he took this abuse in stride
and carried on. He travelled considerably and met such notables as “Strangler”
Lewis, Jack Sharkey, Jack Dempsey, and many more, most of whom left him
their autographs testifying to his fairness.
He was one of the founders, in 1908, of the Montagnard Athletic Associa-
tion whose primary purpose is the encouragement and promotion of amateur
sports in Ottawa. He played on their first hockey team in 1912. Fred re-
mained active in the Montagnard Club all his life, as its President for 40 years,
and as its Treasurer during the last eight.
His interest in birds continued all the while and in 1948 he sold his business
in order to have more time to devote to field study of birds and the building up
of his collection. He made various trips to study birds. In 1948, he travelled
extensively in western Canada and the United States; in 1949, to the Gaspe
Peninsula and eastern provinces, 1958, the Gaspe Coast and Bonaventure
Island, a honeymoon trip with his second wife, who shared all his subsequent
trips; 1959, the Canadian prairies and West Coast, 1960, the French Islands of
St. Pierre and Miquelon; 1961, various parts of Europe; 1962, a 10,000-mile trip
over the Alaska Highway and return by the southern route.
He was an enthusiastic member of the Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club and
for a lengthy period he served as a Member of Council. He was especially
active with the Bird Group and for years its monthly meetings were held at the
Bourguignon home. Without fail, each member was individually and warmly
welcomed upon arrival, and there were refreshments for all when business was
over.
At one time Fred felt that the Club should have its own club house. With
typical generosity, he carefully selected a good area for birds, leased the land,
and erected a comfortable club house (with outdoor fireplace) at his own
expense in money and effort. Indeed there are few members of long standing
in the Bird Group who were not, at one time or another, beneficiaries of at
least one of Fred’s generous and thoughtful acts.
Over the years, he built up a superb collection of mounted birds. The
entire basement of his Hare Avenue home was modified into a museum to house
and display to best advantage his beautifully-prepared and accurately-labelled
collection. The many groups and individuals who same to see the collection
were always welcome. Bird-oriented dinner guests, after an unforgettable
repast, invariably gravitated to the bird room where the remainder of the
evening passed all too quickly.
274 Tue CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
Although physically powerful, Fred was gentle, kindly, modest, and
generous. With no prejudices to his fellow men, he treated all with absolute
fairness. He had a great, but quiet, sense of humor and love of life. His
wonderfully even disposition under the most extenuating of circumstances was
the envy of those who were privileged to know him well.
He was married twice. In 1921, he married Alvina Millaire, who died in
1957. In 1958, he married Marie (Molly) J. Flynn who survives.
In the course of his long ornithological activity, Fred contributed much
to the stock of knowledge concerning the birds of the Ottawa region, adding
several species to the list and furnishing useful data on many more. He pub-
lished mainly in The Canadian F ield-Naturalist.
During his lengthy association with birds and bird watchers he did much
to create and sustain interest locally in the birds of Ottawa. His field experi-
ence and fine collection were readily available to all who asked; his car was
ever ready to transport interested people to any point of ornithological im-
portance regardless of terrain or weather; and there was always a helpful word
and a smile of encouragement for those who went to him for advice.
NOTES
An Unusual Winter Movement
of Peromyscus maniculatus
Recentty Morris (1967) described a
summer homing movement in Peromys-
cus maniculatus of 490 feet. Murie (1963)
and Murie & Murie (1931) previously
described much longer journeys by in-
dividual Deer Mice artificially displaced
from their home range. The present note
describes a spontaneous winter move-
ment of a Deer Mouse (P.m. borealis).
The observation was made near mile
post 85, Mackenzie Highway, North-
west Territories (116°44’W;60°52’N)
on 20 December 1968. The ground had
been covered by a permanent snow
cover since 28 October but the mean
depth of snow on the ground was only
about 10 inches. Air temperature, record-
ed about 4 miles to the east at the Heart
Lake Biological Station of the University
of Alberta, had reached a low of -30F on
5 December, then warmed to +21 on
18 December. The minima on the nights
of 18/19 and 19/20 December were -10F
and -9F respectively and the maximum
on 19 December was +8F. The tem-
perature at the soil-snow interface re-
mained between +20 and +25F from
14 to 23 December.
The forest at the point of observation
can best be described as “park-like jack
pine (Pinus banksiana)”. Trees are
widely spaced, there is no shrub layer
and the field layer consists mainly of
mosses, heaths and lichens offering little
to small mammals in the way of food
or cover. The small mammal population
of this habitat had been sampled repeat-
edly during the previous four summers
and was known to be always low.
My attention was drawn to an area of
snow, about 6 feet long and a foot wide,
at the edge of the highway right-of-way,
that had been “trampled” by the repeat-
ed passage of a small mammal. On in-
2S)
vestigation, the track proved to be that
of a deer mouse. Deer mice are the only
cricetines in the area and their tracks in
snow are readily distinguished from those
of microtines. The animal had come to
the surface some 925 feet from the tram-
pled area (distance approximated by
pacing parallel to the track and follow-
ing its twist and turns). The animal re-
turned by a different, more direct, route
to within 125 feet of its point of origin.
It then retraced its own outgoing trail
and reentered the hole in the snow from
which it had emerged. I estimated the
return trip at 695 feet, making a round
trip of about 1620 feet.
Closer examination of the trampled
area revealed five holes leading to short
tunnels into the snow. I excavated each
of these and discovered that each ended
about 4 inches beneath the surface in a
small chamber. In each chamber was
evidence that the animal had fed on the
fruit of Rosa woodsii. Evidence varied
from freshly nipped pedicels to partly
eaten fruits and seeds left in the snow.
Curiously, other fruits visible on the
same stems were left untouched.
Roses are non-existent inside the pine
stand, but flourish under the disturbed
conditions of the roadside. It is a reason-
able assumption that the “purpose” of
the trip was to feed on rose hips and
that the mouse knew the location of the
roses from previous visits. It is also clear
that the animal had no difficulty return-
ing to its point of origin, more or less
directly. It thus seems that journeys of
700 feet or so may be within the “life
range” (Murie & Murie 1931) of Deer
Mice
The most remarkable feature of this
journey may be that it probably took
place at a temperature below OF (on the
assumption that Deer Mice are nocturnal
in winter as well as in summer). This is
contrary to the usual habit of small
mammals which avoid low winter air
276 Tue CANnapiAN FieLtp-NaATuURALIST
temperatures by remaining beneath the
snow. It is even more remarkable in
Deer Mice whose winter mobility is
much reduced by repeated bouts of
torpor (Stebbins 1958).
The site was revisited on 2 January
1969. All sign had been obliterated by
fresh snow and there was no sign of re-
newed surface activity. Air temperature
in the area had fallen to -47F in the
interim.
REFERENCES
Morris. R. D., 1967. A note on the hom-
ing behaviour of Peromyscus maniculatus
osgoodi. Canadian Field-Naturalist. 81:
225-26.
Mure, M., 1963. Homing and orientation
of Deermice. Journal of Mammalogy 44:
338-49.
Monts, O. J., and A. Murir, 1931. Travels
of Peromyscus. Journal of Mammalogy
12:200-09.
Pruitt, W. O. Jr.. 1957. The Bioclimate
of some taiga mammals. Arctic 10:131-38.
STepBins, L. L., 1968. Seasonal and latitu-
dinal variations in the circadian rhythms
of three species of small rodents in north-
ern Canada. Ph.D. Thesis, University of
Alberta, Edmonton. 68 p.
W. A. FuLLer
Department of Zoology
University of Alberta,
Edmonton, Canada
Accepted April 2, 1969
First Breeding Record of the
White-Headed Woodpecker
for Canada
Basep on three specimens from the
Okanagan and Similkameen Valleys, the
White-headed Woodpecker Dendroco-
pos albolarvatus is listed as casual in
central-southern Britsh Columbia (Munro
and Cowan, 1947). Although not re-
corded as a breeding species in British
Columbia, this woodpecker has been
recorded by Brown (1925) nesting near
Vol. 83
the international border in the “Moun-
tains of Okanogan County” in central-
northern Washington.
On May 21, 1967, Louise V. Cooper
sighted a male White-headed Wood-
pecker excavating a nest hole in a dead
Douglas fir Pseudotsuga menziesii snag
on lower Anarchist Mountain, three
miles east of Osoyoos, B.C. The snag,
about 25 feet in height, was located in a
typical parkland habitat of open mixed
coniferous woodlands of ponderosa pine
Pinus ponderosa and Douglas fir with
occasional patches of Saskatoon berry,
Amelanchier sp., about 25 feet from the
roadside.
On June 3 David L. Frost, Louise V.
Cooper, John M. Cooper, and the writer
revisited the nest site and observed the
female woodpecker actively pushing
chips from the nest cavity. The hole,
one and one-half inches in diameter was
about 12 feet from the ground.
On June 10 David L. Frost, John M.
Cooper, and the writer again visited the
area and found the female incubating
four eggs. The eggs were glossy white
with smali, sharp, calcium deposits on
the external shell and averaged 0.96 X 0.76
inches. Mr. Frost photographed the fe-
male at the nest hole.
British Columbia is the only province
in Canada in which the White-headed
Woodpecker has been recorded (God-
frey, 1966) and therefore the notes
above constitute the first Canadian breed-
ing record.
I wish to thank R. Wayne Campbell,
Burnaby, B.C., for assistance in prepar-
ing this note.
REFERENCES
American Ornithologists’ Union. 1957.
Check-List of North American Birds. 5th
Edition. Baltimore, Maryland.
Brown, D. E. 1925. Nesting of the White-
headed Woodpecker in Washington.
Murrelet 6(3) :63.
Goprrey, Eart W. 1966. The Birds of
Canada. Nat. Mus. Canada. Bull. 203:246.
1969
Monro, J. A. and Cowan, I. McT. 1947.
A Review of the Bird Fauna of British
Columbia. B.C. Prov. Mus. Spec. Pub. No.
E
me
Joun K. Cooper
1926 7th Avenue
New Westminster
British Columbia
Accepted March 20, 1969
An Unusually Large, Gravid
Ring-necked Snake, Diadophis
punctatus edwardsi (Merrem)
with Eight Eggs from
Nova Scotia
On June 11, 1968, about 1:30 p.m.,
three ring-necked snakes were seen under
a large, flat rock near a pond in the
vicinity of Colpton, approximately six-
teen miles west of Bridgewater, Lunen-
burg County, Nova Scotia. One snake
was noticeably larger than the other two
and was the only specimen collected.
When picked up, and held in a loose
grip, the reptile opened its mouth
slightly and struck at my hand several
times. Since I have handled more than
thirty ring-necked snakes in the wild
and have never been bitten this action
was unexpected.
The snake, measured with some resis-
tance, was 212 inches in total length; the
tail was 43 inches long. The size range
for adults is 10-20 inches; however, two
specimens collected at Harford, New
York, exceeded this range; one measured
21 inches in length, the other 224 inches.
(Wright and Wright, 1957) The Colp-
ton specimen is the largest recorded
from Canadian populations.
This ring-necked snake was kept in
captivity for almost three weeks and
during this time consumed five red-
backed salamanders, Plethodon cinereus
cinereus (Green), without being forced.
However, the snake escaped and was not
found until about six weeks later. The
anterior half of the body had been de-
Notes
277
voured by carrion beetles, Silpha surin-
amensis Fab., so that only the skeleton
covered by the hard dry skin remained.
Within the posterior half of the body,
eight shriveled eggs were found. In
Michigan, 202 gravid D. punctatus ed-
wards were collected, segregated in cap-
tivity and observed. The mean from the
total compliment was 3.5 eggs per fe-
male. One snake laid seven eggs (Blan-
chard, 1937).
This specimen, with eggs, is in the
Nova Scotia Museum Collection. Tihe
accession number is 68-Z-30-9(1).
I wish to thank J. Sherman Bleakney,
Professor of Zoology, Acadia University,
Wolfville, Nova Scotia, for commenting
on the manuscript, and Barry Wright,
Entomologist, Nova Scotia Museum,
Halifax, for identifying the carrion
beetles.
REFERENCES
Brancuarp, F. N. 1937. The eggs and
natural nests of the eastern ring-necked
snake Diadoplhis punctatus edwardsit. Pap.
Mich. Acad. Sci. 22:521-532.
Wrieut, A. H. and A. A. Wricur. 1957.
Handbook of snakes of the United States
and Canada. Comstock Publishing Associ-
ates.
JoHN GILHEN
Nova Scotia Museum
Halifax, Nova Scotia
Accepted April 18, 1969
The Highest Chromosome
Number Known to Occur in a
North American Plant’
Metotic chromosomes were examined in
spore mother cells of plants taken from
a large population of a fern, Ophioglos-
sum vulgatum L. var. pseudopodum
(Blake) Farwell, growing 2.3 miles
southwest of Ramsayville, Carleton
County Ontario, 45°21’N, 75°36"W (site
1 in Greenwood 1967). The voucher
specimen (Cody 18107) is deposited in
1Plant Research Institute Contribution No. 723.
278 Tue CanapiANn Fietp-NaATURALIST
Vol. 83
Figure 1. Meiotic chromosomes of Ophioglossum vulgatum var. pseudopodum. X714
the Phanerogamic Herbarium, Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Ottawa. Spore
mother cells from these plants had ca.
480 bivalent chromosomes at diakinesis
(Figure 1). Dr. Florence S. Wagner,
University of Michigan, in a personal
communication, stated that she had ob-
tained a higher chromosome number for
plants of Ophioglossum vulgatum L. var.
pycnostichum Fernald from Virginia. It
is therefore almost certain that Ophio-
glossum vulgatum, with at least 960 so-
matic chromosomes, has the highest
chromosome number of any North
American plant. This is not surprising,
since the highest chromosome number
known in the plant kingdom, 2n = ca.
1260, was recorded from plants of Ophio-
glossum reticulatum L. from _ India
(Abraham and Ninan 1954).
REFERENCES
ApraHaM, A. and C. A. Ninan_ 1954. The
chromosomes of Ophioglossum reticula-
tum L. Current Science 23:213-214.
GreENWoop, E. W. 1967. Mass occurren-
ces of the fern, Ophioglossum: vulgatumt,
in the Ottawa District, Ontario. Canadian
Field-Naturalist 81:186-188.
GeraLtp A. MULLIGAN
Wim =J. Copy
Plant Research Institute
Department of Agriculture,
Ottawa, Ontario.
Accepted April 16, 1969
1969 -
Early Cessation of Reproduction
in an Unusually Abundant
Population of Peromyscus
maniculatus borealis
ALTHOUGH occasional outbreaks are re-
ported, Peromyscus maniculatus is usually
considered to be a species whose popu-
lations do not exhibit wide fluctations
in numbers (Terman, 1966). This report
concerns a population of deer mice of
unusual abundance encountered in north-
ern Alberta.
In the evening of 8 July 1967, 80
Sherman mouse traps were set in a pop-
lar woodlot in the valley of the Smoky
River at Watino, 40 miles south of Peace
River. The traps were set in four parallel
lines of equal length. Each line was
approximately 15 yards apart, with the
traps in each lines placed at intervals of
about 5 yards. The following morning,
50 mice were collected from the traps,
representing a trap success of 62.5%.
For other areas of central and northern
Alberta in 1967, the mean trap success
was about 4%.
Four of the captured mice were
Clethrionomys gappert athabascae, and
the other 46 were Peromyscus manicula-
tus borealis. Of the 45 deer mice which
were alive, 19 were overwintered ani-
mals, (7 males, 12 females), and 26 were
young of the year, (16 males, 10 fe-
males). None weighed less than 12.0 g.,
although juveniles weighing as little as
7.0 g. could theoretically have been cap-
tured in the traps. All of the animals
seemed in excellent health, and were
without obvious wounds.
Four of the overwintered male deer
mice were autopsied within 3 days of
their capture. All had the flaccid, dark-
ened testes typically found after the end
of the breeding season. Testicular smears
revealed no spermatozoa. Nine overwin-
tered females were autopsied a month
later. All possessed placental scars, but
none were pregnant, and none produced
Nores
279
a litter while in captivity, although
breeding normally extended through
August in this region. None of the young
deer mice captured were sexually ma-
ture, and none became mature during 2
months of captivity. Reproduction ap-
peared to have ceased in this population.
Three of the four red-backed mice
captured at Watino were females. All
three were pregnant at capture, and pro-
duced normal litters. The male was also
in breeding condition.
The same small area at Watino and
adjacent areas were trapped again in
1968, on 25 June, 12 July, and 1 Septem-
ber. Overall trap success was 3.7%; in
615 trap nights were captured 1 Cleth-
rionomys gapperi and 23 Peromyscus
maniculatus. Ten of the deer mice had
overwintered.
REFERENCES
Terman, C. R. 1966. Population Fluctu-
ations of Peromyscus maniculatus and
Other Small Mammals as Revealed by
the North American Census of Small
Mammals. American Midland Naturalist
76(2) :419-426.
Raymonp P. CanHaM
Department of Zoology,
University of Alberta,
Edmonton, Alberta.
Accepted April 2, 1969
The Fluoride Content of Water
from Wells in the Greater
Ottawa Area
Some 120 cities and towns in Canada
and 2500 cites and towns in North
America add fluoride to their water
supplies as a caries preventive. The fluor-
ide concentration is generally maintained
between 0.8 and 1.2 ppm for this pur-
pose. Fluorides are also present in vary-
ing, but appreciable amounts in well,
spring, and stream waters.
The fluoride content of water from 24
wells in the greater Ottawa area was
280
THe CANADIAN FieLD-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
TABLE 1. — Fluoride Content in Parts per Million of Well Waters from the Greater Ottawa
Area and of Ottawa City Water
Ottawa
Well | Fluoride Well Fluoride Well Fluoride we Fluoride
Number | Content Number Content Number Content Ss aes Content
ample
No.
Fi 0.20 F9 0.65 F17 0.80 1 1.02
F2 ORT F10 0.26 F18 0.95 2 oe es)
F3 0825 Fil O27 F19 1.41 3 1.05
F4 0.32 Fi2 0.66 F20 0.10
F5 je F13 Ons2 F21 0.12
F6 0.30 F14 0.93 F22 0.02
F7 0.36 Fi5 0.65 F23 0.25
F8 0.28 F16 0.04 F24 0.12
recently determined. The wells that Breeding Records of the
were sampled were distributed from
Dunrobin to Kemptville, but at least
30 per cent of the wells were from
Nepean Townhip and a few were from
within the city. A lanthanum chelate of
alizarin complexone was used as a color
indicator (1). All analyses were done in
triplicate. Three samples of Ottawa City
water collected over a five day period
were similarly analyzed. All results are
recorded in the table below.
The fluoride content of Ottawa City
water ranged from 1.02 to 1.13 ppm
over the 5 day period. The well waters
ranged from 0.02 to 1.41 ppm with a
general background between 0.25-0.30
ppm. Only two wells (F16, F22) had
extremely low fluoride contents. It is
informative to note that approximately
one third of the well waters have a
fluoride content equivalent to or ap-
proaching that considered desirable as
a preventive for caries.
REFERENCES
Tupper, W. M. and Man, D., A Direct
Photometric Method for Determining
Fluoride in Water using Alizarin Com-
plexone as a Color Indicator (In Press).
W. M. Tupper
D. Mau
Department of Geology
Carleton University,
Ottawa, Ontario.
Accepted, April 18, 1969
Ring-necked Duck in
Gaspé South County, Quebec
THE present status of the Ring-necked
Duck (Aythya collaris) in Québec is
rather poorly known (Mendall, 1958).
Waterfowl investigations carried out in
river estuaries opening into Gaspé Bay
and on inland lakes in Gaspé South
County have revealed the presence of
breeding Ring-necked Ducks.
From mid-June to mid-August 1965,
while working for the Québec Wildlife
Service in Gaspé, I conducted weekly
brood counts by canoe on the York River
Estuary and also made some observations
on inland lakes. Twenty-four broods of
seven species were seen. Four of these
were Ring-necked Duck. Although no
brood counts were made in 1966, I saw
a brood of Ring-necked Ducks on the
York River at the end of July during
banding operations.
Reed (1966) suggested that the Ring-
necked Duck was the third most com-
mon breeding duck on the inland waters
of the lower St. Lawrence counties of
Riviere-du-Loup and Rimouski. He
found the black duck (Anas rubripes)
and the common goldeneye (Bucephala
clangula) to rank first and second in
abundance. The observations reported
1969
here seem to indicate that the same
hierarchy prevails in Gaspé South
County.
REFERENCES
Menpatt, Howarp L. 1958. The Ring-
necked Duck in the Northeast. University
of Maine Bulletin 60(16) :317.
Reep, Austin. 1966. Breeding records of
the Ring-necked Duck in_ Riviére-du
Loup and Rimouski Counties, Quebec.
Canadian Field-Naturalist. 80(3):182.
Marcet LAPERLE
Canadian Wildlife Service,
Ste Foy, Quebec 10, P.Q.
Accepetd March 20, 1969
The Golden-winged Warbler in
Muskoka County, Ontario
SNYDER (1957) has shown that the
Golden-winged Warbler, Vermivora
chrysoptera, has expanded its breeding
range some 150 miles northward during
the present century and he mentions
that it is now found sparsely north to
northern Simcoe County. Devitt (1967)
records that it was first reported in Sim-
coe County on June 11, 1929 and states
that it since has become an uncommon
summer resident in that county.
Indeed, the species now is a summer
resident still farther north in various
localities in southern Muskoka County.
Between June 12 and 30, 1967, while
doing field work in Muskoka County,
the writer recorded the Golden-winged
Warbler at the following places in
southern Muskoka County. One was ob-
served on various occasions two miles
east of Gravenhurst, one four miles east,
and one nine miles east. Near Kilworthy
one was noted on June 15 and another
on the following day at Morrison Lake.
One was observed at Vankoughnet on
June 18. At least 12 individuals were
noted in the Torrance region between
NOoTEs
281
June 20 and 30 and specimens were col-
lected. In most instances the habitat
favored was moist to wet alders and
willows.
REFERENCES
Devirr, O. E. 1967. The Birds of Simcoe
County, Ontario. Brereton Field Natural-
ists’ Club, Barrie. 192 pp.
Snyper, L. L. 1957. Changes in the Avi-
fauna of Ontario. /m Changes in the Fauna
of Ontario, edited by F. A. Urquhart.
University of Toronto Press, Yoronto.
Pp. 1-75.
W. Eart GopFrrey
National Museum of Natural Sciences
National Museums of Canada, Ottawa
Accepted March 15, 1969
Early Emergence from
Hibernation of the Rubber Boa
On February 24, 1968, Mr. D. K.
Campbell, a biology teacher at Vernon
Senior Secondary School, discovered
three rubber boas (Charina bottae (Blain-
ville) ) basking on the surface of a south-
facing talus slope near Westwold, B.C.
Two snakes were curled up together
and the third, also curled up, was about
6 feet away.
The maximum temperature recorded
at the Westwold weather station on
this date was 56°F, and warm daytime
temperatures had prevailed for the pre-
ceding six days. This early emergence
is nevertheless surprising, considering
that in a locality subject to winter tem-
peratures as low as -40°F the snakes’
hibernating quarters would, of necessity,
be well below the surface of the talus.
JaMeEs GRANT
RR. 2,
Vernon, B.C.
Accepted April 19, 1969
282
Burrows of the Pallid Vole,
Lagurus curtatus,
in Alberta, Canada
Comments on the habitat of this vole
have been reported by Bailey (North
American Fauna 49: 17-226, 1926) and
Moore (Canadian Field-Naturalist 67:
154-156, 1953). These authors obtained
pallid voles in highland half barren areas
where scanty vegetative cover included
silver sage, blazing star, winter fat cactus,
sagewort, club-moss, and grasses. They
noted holes and well worn runways of
these animals but did not describe their
burrows.
It was gratifying therefore, while col-
lecting these animals during the early
summer months in Alberta, to find several
active colonies of the pallid vole. These
colonies were located 13 miles southwest
of Scotfield, Township 29, Range 10 west
of fourth, Alberta, Canada.
Within an area roughly one-half square
mile seven colonies of pallid voles were
located. These colonies were restricted to
definite ecological and microgeographical
areas. Colonies were located on knolls
which were only slightly elevated above
the flat prairie terrain. Vegetation of
grasses and silver sage were always more
abundant, or at least more concentrated
on each knoll, so that each area colonized
was greener than surrounding areas. The
average size of each knoll was 43 by 45
feet. At least 20 holes were found on the
surface of each knoll. Each opening, lead-
ing to a network of tunnels, measured
one and one-half to two inches in
diameter. Entrance to these holes was
surrounded by a typical mud mound. An
area of one to two inches in circum-
ference surrounding each mud mound
was denuded of vegetative cover. Several
well marked runways lacking vegetative
cover led to each opening. In an effort
to obtain information relative to the
tunnels and burrows of these voles, 10
burrows were excavated. Each opening
Tue CanapiANn Fie_tp-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
led to a short shelf just under the surface
of the ground. From this shelf the tunnel
continued downward in a sigmoid pat-
tern. There were usually two anticham-
bers, two to three inches in diameter,
one on either side of the tunnel, and
located approximately six inches below
the surface. Below the antichambers,
tunnels extended downward to an
average depth of 14 inches where hori-
zontal interconnecting passageways were
numerous. The fact that these tunnels
were interconnected, at least in part, was
apparent from the following account.
While standing in the middle of one
colony, I was able to catch a young ani-
mal alive. This animal was tagged, carried
to a hole a distance of 10 feet from the
hole in which it was taken, and allowed
to enter this hole. By the time I walked
back to the point of original capture, the
animal reappeared and was identified as
the same tagged animal. Excavated tun-
nels averaged one and one-half inches in
diameter. These tunnels, antichambers,
and the shelf just below the surface, were
all littered with grass and silver sage.
Since these animals were observed eating
grass and silver sage, it seems probable
that pallid voles maintain a reserve food
supply at all subterranian levels of the
burrow.
Lye C. DEeaRDEN
Human Morphology
California College of Medicine
University of California
Irvine, California
Accepted April 15, 1969
First Alberta Record of the
Band-Tailed Pigeon
On the evening of the 27 July, 1967, Mr.
Harvey Burns was on his property at
Leduc, Alberta, in the parkland about
20 miles South of Edmonton. He ob-
served a group of Purple Martins, Progne
subis (Linnaeus), diving on a_ bird
largely concealed in a tree. Thinking the
1969
bird to be a predator that had been
molesting the martins, he shot it.
On examination, it proved to be a
Band-tailed Pigeon, columba fasciata Say.
Recognizing the species, Mr. Burns real-
ised its significance, and took the speci-
men to Dr. C. Hampson. One of us
(M. J. H.) mounted it for the Provincial
Notes 283
discovered. The crop was crammed with
Saskatoon berries Amelanchier alnifolia
Nutt., and there were no eggs present.
The summer had been hot and dry,
with no unusual storms. The weather
at the time of collection was clear and
fine. The Band-tailed Pigeon breeds in
Britsh Columbia and Utah, but has not
Museum and Archives of Alberta (Reg- previously been recorded in Alberta.
istration No. Z67.32.1).
The bird is an adult female in good
condition, with no indication of abrasion
of the feathers to suggest it might have
been in captivity. The bird was fat and
healthy, and no external parasites were
Davin A. E. Spatpine
MicuaeL J. Hampson
Provincial Museum and Archives of Alberta,
Edmonton, Alberta
Accepted March 20, 1969
Ys
LETTERS
NoptIiAr Fiicuts oF THE ANT, Lasius pallitarsis
Tue report “Swarming and Mating in the Ant, Lasius sitkaensis Pergande” by Corbet
and Ayre (1968) is of considerable interest because of the record of almost 35 miles
of synchronous and nearly continuous swarming of ants. Although several authors
have concluded that flights will occur concurrently from many of the mature colonies
in an area, Corbet’s observation is unique in its extent.
The swarming behavior described by Corbet and Ayre is typical of Myrmica
spp. (see Neudecker, 1952) and many other Myrmicine genera, but not of Laszus
at least North American Lasius. Some early references to Lasius flights mention
swarming (Wheeler, 1910; Donisthorpe, 1927) but these descriptions of alate
activity are either vague or else refer to random movements of alates in the
air. More recently, Sudd (1967) has stated that swarms of the European ant, Lasius
niger, “may form large clouds.” Sudd goes on to cite observations of swarming by
Polimanti (1911), but Polimanti’s observations were of L. niger alates attracted to
street lights at dusk, hardly an appropriate reference to swarming. A positive asser-
tion of Lasius swarming was made by Collingwood (1958) who stated that “vast
swarms of Lasius niger L. and L. flavus F. have been frequently recorded in this
country (Great Britain) especially in the south where clouds of these ants have
sometimes been observed . . . ” Unfortunately, no references were cited. The pos-
sibility that Lasius alates may form swarms should be anticipated because various
types of swarming behaviour have been observed in other formicine genera, including
Brachymyrmex (Arnaud and Quate, 1951), Prenolepis (Talbot, 1945) and Formica
(Chapman, 1954, 1957; Talbot, 1959, and Kannowski and Johnson, 1969).
On Oakville Prairie, an 800 acre field station of the University of North Dakota
located twelve miles west of Grand Forks, the climatic conditions that favor the
flights of Lasius sitkaensis (comparable to those listed by Corbet and Ayre) also
favor the flights of Lasius neoniger, L. umbratus, Myrmica fracticornis and Bra-
284 Tue CanapiAn FieLp-NaTURALIsT Vol. 83
chymyrmex depilis. Consequently, alates of all five of these species often may be
observed in the air over this locality at the same time on the same day. In 12 years
of study of ant flights at Oakville Prairie I have observed many flights of alates from
the nests of these species.” Even though the air from 2-20 meters above the prairie
is populated with hundreds of thousands, perhaps millions, of alates, only the
Myrmicas have been observed to form swarms of the type observed by Corbet. On
Oakville Prairie the Lasius alates have always been observed to fly randomly in a
horizontal pattern over the field. The act of attraction of the much smaller males
to the females has not been observed, but copulating pairs are numerous in the air
on a flight day. These copulating pairs fly the same horizontal pattern as the unmated
alates. After copulation, the newly mated females, and sometimes the mated pairs,
fall to the ground. There, the females usually flick off their wings by swift leg
movements and begin the search for a new nest site. The males fly off, presumably
to attempt other matings.
We know very little about the flight and mating behaviour of formicine ants,
but it does seem strange that a common and widespread species should exhibit such
a difference in behavior in two localities which are near the center of the species’
range. I believe that there are two ways of accounting for this: 1) swarming may
occur only in certain ecological environments (e.g., in a forested region such as
southeastern Ontario the alates may gather in the open roadways or over landmark
trees, while in the nearly treeless prairies a non-swarming type of behavior may
occur); or 2) the association with the swarms was erroneous.
What is disturbing about the Corbet and Ayre report is the presumed association
of two mated pairs of L. sitkaensis with the swarms. These authors stated that “ants
seen or caught beneath swarms. [italics added] at about 1700 hrs. E.S.T. were all
mating pairs. Two such pairs, in fresh condition, were identified (by G. L. A.) as
Lasius sitkaensis Pergande. It is likely, though not certain, that the whole swarm
comprised this species.” We are asked to accept the swarms as being composed of
L. sitkaensis alates without any assurance that these two pairs were part of the
swarms. Had the sample been collected directly from a swarm and a larger number
of specimens preserved, a more certain association of species and behavior would
have been possible.
Corbet and Ayre cite this Ontario occurence as “probably the first authentic |
record of a nuptial flight for this species...” In so doing, they overlooked the
description of flights of L. sitkaensis in New Mexico by Medler (1958) and additional
references to the flight period and environmental conditions favorable to flights of
this species in North Dakota by Kannowski (1963).
Finally, Francoeur and Beique (1966) showed that L. sitkaensis Pergande is a
synonym of L. pallitarsis (Provancher). The validity of this synonymy has been
accepted by E. O. Wilson (personal communication) whose revision of Lasius (1955)
is the most recent taxonomic study of the genus.
REFERENCES
Arnaup, P. H. and L. W. Quatre. 1951. mits. Pan-Pacific Entomologist. 30: 93-102.
Note on the swarming of Brachymyrmex Cyapman, J. A. 1957. A further consider-
sp. (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Pan- ation of summit ant swarms. Canadian
Pacific Entomologist. 27: 171. Entomologist. 89: 389-395.
CHapmaNn, J. A. 1954. Swarming of ants CoLtinewoop, C. A. 1958. Summit ant
on western United States mountain sum- swarms. Entomologist’s Record. 70: 65-67.
Part of this research has been supported by a grant (GB-6514) from the National Science Foundation
1969
Corset, P. S. and G. L. Ayre. 1968.
Swarming and mating in the ant, Lasius
sitkaensis Pergande. Canadian Field-Natur-
alist. 82: 230-231.
DonistHorPeE, H. Sr. J. K. 1927. British
ants, their life history and classification.
2nd Ed. London: Routledge and Sons,
436 pp.
FrANcoEuUR, A. and R. BeErque. 1966. Les
Formicides (Hymenopteres) de Prova-
ncher. Canadian Entomologist. 98: 140-145.
Kannowskl, P. B. 1963. The flight activ-
ities of formicine ants. Symposia Genetica
et Biologica Italica. 12: 74-102.
Kannowskl, P. B. and R. L. Jounson. 1969.
Male patrolling behaviour and sex attrac-
tion in ants of the genus Formica. In Press:
Animal Behaviour.
Mepter, J. T. 1958. A note on swarming
LETTERS
285
phototropismus des Lasius niger L. beo-
bachtete Eigentiimlichkeit. Biologisches
Centralblatt. 31: 222-224.
Supp, J. H. 1967. An introduction to. the
behaviour of ants. New York: St. Martin’s
Press. 200 pp.
Tarsor, M. 1945. A comparison of the
flights of four species of ants. American
Midland Naturalist. 34: 504-510.
Tarsor, M. 1959. Flight activities of two
species of ants of the genus Formica.
American Midland Naturalist. 61: 124-132.
WHEELER, W. M. 1910. Ants, their struc-
ture, development and behavior. New
York: Columbia University Press. 663 pp.
Witson, E. O. 1955. A monographic re-
vision of the ant genus Lasius. Bulletin,
Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard
College. 113: 1-201.
and emergence of ants (Hymenoptera,
Formicidae). Proceedings, Entomologicdl
Society of Washington. 60: 258.
NEuDECKER, F. 1952. Ameisen - Rachsaulen.
Natur und Volk 82: 233-235.
Porimanti, D. 1911. Uber eine beim
Pau. B. Kannowsk1
Department of Biology
University of North Dakota
Grand Forks, North Dakota 58201
November 15, 1968.
SWARMING AND MATING IN THE ANT, Lasius sitRaensis
PERGANDE: FURTHER REMARKS
Kannowski’s comment on our article relates to three questions (listed here in reverse
order):
1. Nomenclature of the specimens collected.
2. Priority of the observation as a record of nuptial flight in L. sitkaensis.
3. Whether or not the specimens collected were representative (a) of the
swarm above them, and (b) of the other swarms along the 35-mile stretch
of highway.
Questions 1 and 2 are essentially procedural.
1. We were remiss in overlooking the recent synonymy (Francoeur and Beique,
1966) involving Lasius sitkaensis Pergande and L. pallitarsis (Provancher).
(The determination and identity of the specimens are not in doubt.)
2. Whether or not Medler’s (1958) record can be classed as a “nuptial flight”
depends on the meaning assigned to this term. In our article we used the
term to comprise “swarming and associated mating.” We have since learnt
from Kannowski (im litt.) that he does not regard swarming as a criterion of
nuptial flight. Specimens seen by Corbet were mating and flying in a swarm;
alates seen by Medler were “clustered around emergence holes until late after-
noon, dispersing gradually by flying away singly rather than swarming”.
We could usefully have cited Medler, if only to note the contrast between
his observations and our own. It would have been useful also to cite Kan-
nowski’s article (1963) on weather conditions conducive to swarming. Cita-
tion of neither references would have changed the substance of our report.
It was Corbet’s recollection that the specimens were caught in two ways:
by the collector leaping up and snatching them from the base of the swarm;
and by the collector picking them up (from the ground or an automobile
3(a).
286 Tue CanapiANn Frietp-NaTurRAList Vol. 83
top) as pairs seen falling out from the swarm. To check this, the three
scientists who were his companions on this occasion were asked, indepen-
dently and without prompting, to recall how the specimens were captured.
All said that the captured specimens had been “definitely part of the swarm”
Only one was sure how the ants were collected and he confirmed @orbers
recollection as recorded above. No one’s report conflicted with it. As far
as it is possible to obtain incisive evidence for such a thing, it must be con-
cluded that the specimens captured mating were part of the swarm above
the collector. Whether or not this swarm was homogeneous we cannot (and
did not) say, and upon this depends the answer to this question. Kannowski
(above) has observed composite swarms of this type and so this possibility
must be entertained in this case.
3(b). Collections were made from one point only. It was the similarity im gross
appearance of the other swarms that led us to say it was “likely, though not
certain” that all comprised the same species. This also must remain an open
question until the observations can be repeated with a better opportunity
being offered for sampling different parts of the swarm. Certainly our
observation does not exclude the possibility that some or all of the other
swarms comprised other species.
It is hoped that our observation and Kannowski’s pertinent comments will en-
courage other naturalists in North America to make more extensive collections that
will resolve these questions. Exactly one year after our observation, similar swarms
were reported near Belleville in Eastern Ontario. If such swarming occurs annually
we shall hope ourselves to document it in greater detail in future years.
Puitie S. CorBet
G. L. Ayre
Research Institute,
Canada Department of Agriculture,
Belleville, Ontario
May 13, 1969
On A Nationat NAturALists’ ORGANIZATION
Further to Dr. M. T. Myres’ appeal for a National Organization for Canadian
Naturalists (C.F.N. Vol. 83, No. 1, 1969), I would like to add one thought.
Having worked in the Lands Section of the Canadian Wildlife Service for a
short period of time, it has become apparent that the public is becoming increasingly
aware of the need to preserve natural areas. Very often, individuals wish to make
bequests of land, or of money to purchase land. There are a number of foundations
which have funds to be used in this way but in each case there is probably some
uncertainty as to how the land or money can be put to best use. Here thea, is one
important need for a national organization which would identify these areas which
should be purchased and then buy them. It would be hoped that agreements could
be reached with Provincial and Federal Governments to purchase them back for
public use — if this were found desirable. The main advantage here would be the
relative speed with which a private organization could move, in securing the rapidly
disappearing natural areas.
R. D. Harris
Canadian Wildlife Service
University of British Columbia Campus,
Vancouver 8, B.C.
June 3, 1969.
REVIEWS
Flora of the Queen Charlotte Islands:
Part I. Systematics of the Vascular
Plants
By James A. Catper and Roy L. Taytor,
xiii + 659 pp., illus. $12.50; and Part 2,
Cytological Aspects of the Vascular
Plants By Roy L. Taytor and GeraLp
A. Muttiean, ix + 148 pp., $7.50. Canada
Department of Agriculture, Research
Branch, Monograph No. 4, 1968. Avail-
able from Queen’s Printer, Ottawa.
The Amphi-Pacific segment of the
Circumpolar Flora is extremely interest-
ing and complicated since the continents
of Asia and America have been linked
in the north by mountain and coastal
migration highways at one time or an-
other for a very long time. Elements of
the Tertiary Flora which have used
these highways have surviving close
relatives deep in the two continents as
far apart as the Southern Rocky Moun-
tains and the Altai-Pamir region of Asia.
The Atlantic aspect of the Circum-
polar flora has been well-known and
thoroughly studied for over a century,
but although the existence of Tertiary
connections involving eastern Asia and
Eastern North America was discussed
a century ago by Asa Gray, the obvious
possibility of more extensive floristic con-
nections between Japan and western
North America has not been thoroughly
explored, at least in the long arc of the
Pacific Coast between Washington and
Alaska. The Flera of the Queen Char-
lotte Islands deals with the most signifi-
cant segment of this gap, which, until
the present study, was virtually un-
known territory.
The Flora represents a distillation of
what must be the most thorough investi-
gation of such an area in recent times,
accomplished through team work unit-
ing some of the most competent and
critical field botanists it has been my
privilege to know. Although Part 3, the
Bryophytes, has not appeared at this
writing, this statement can be extended
to anticipate the latter survey by W. B.
Schofield.
This flora appears at a time when
there is intense activity on flora-writing
involving the northwestern United
States, Alaska, The Aleutian Islands, and
Japan — independent studies by students
having widely differing geographic and
taxonomic frames of reference. The facts
are not all in and for some time to come
we should expect to endure considerable
fluidity in nomenclature of the plants of
this vast area, and in specific and generic
concepts. Non-taxonomists evidently
need to be reminded often that nomen-
clature is the shorthand which taxono-
mic scientists use to express their various
points of view. Only in a limited sense is
one name “right” and another “wrong”.
Expression of varying viewpoint is the
right of every scientist; in fact, to be
able to express complex points of view
by a binomial is economical as well as
useful. To ask the taxonomists to “once
and for all get together and stabilize
their nomenclature”. would be to deny
them the right to differ, which is re-
garded as sacrosanct in all other branches
of research. This Flora struggles with
the taxonomic concepts utilized by past
workers and with those in current use.
This is a good sign, for it means that
conversations are occurring and old no-
tions are being challenged. We should
be willing to wait a reasonable time for
stabilization of nomenclature.
One real value of part 1 is that the
authors give critical evaluations of the
taxa, together with perceptive discus-
sions of floristic ecology, and they pre-
sent honest discussions of their taxonomic
positions where these are too often re-
duced, in monographs and floras, to
mere lists of synonymy. Detailed intro-
ductory chapters on history, physio-
graphy, geology, climate, economic
botany, plant communities and phyto-
287
288
geography help to make this an ideal
floristic treatment.
European students will find reason to
criticize the book for its failure to ac-
count for some of their literature. For
example, the authors seem to have been
unaware of Bjorkman’s work on Poda-
grostis, Hylander’s critical studies on the
taxonomy and nomenclature of the
Scandinavian flora, and others. Although
regrettable, a certain amount of provin-
cialism must be allowed floristic writers
since their field of bibliographic respon-
siblity is too vast to handle without the
computer.
The quality of work and the profi-
ciency of the workers leaves little to be
desired. However, it is difficult to under-
stand the division of the book into
separate parts, or to understand the
rather elaborate use of color in a book
with rather limited appeal to the ama-
teur or layman. The color photographs
have suffered badly in reproduction.
Without intending to criticize the re-
search accomplished by ‘Taylor and
Mulligan, Part 2, in my opinion, is a
sheer waste of paper. Its subject matter
could have been condensed to form an
appendix to the first volume or run
directly into the text under the respec-
tive taxa. Each of the 568 taxa is listed
by name, with ample space above and
below the entry, whether a chromosome
count was obtained or not. The dust
jacket claims that 71% of the taxa were
analyzed cytologically. However, most
of the counts agree perfectly with earlier
ones by other workers in other regions,
and most of the discussion simply seems
to consist of different ways of saying
that this or that count is identical to
one reported elsewhere. Surely the cyto-
taxonomists can find some symbol by
which this information could be con-
veyed. The cytological volume has no
illustrations of karyotypes or metaphase
Tue CaNnapiAN FIeELD-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
plates which would lend interest to this
volume.
Wittiam A. WEBER
University of Colorado Museum,
Bouider
Growth and Utilization of Poplars
in Canada
By J. S. Mari and J. B. Cayrorp (Eds.),
Forestry Branch, Canada Department of
Forestry and Rural Development, Ottawa,
Publ. No. 1205. Illus. vii + 257 pp., 1968.
Paperback.
The various species of poplar which
are found in Canada are a most impor-
tant economic resource. In February
1967 a symposium was held at Harrison
Hot Springs, B.C. to discuss the status of
poplar in Canada. All aspects from
silvical characteristics through breeding,
parasites and utilization were treated.
The papers presented have been repro-
duced in book form together with three
additional papers which introduce and
give broader coverage to the subject.
Undoubtedly there were many Can-
adian foresters and other interested indi-
viduals who were unable to be present
at these meetings, so it is most fortunate
that these papers have been reproduced.
The information provided will thereby
be available to workers in all parts of the
world where poplar is an important
forest tree. The bibliographies which
accompany the papers are for the most
part quite extensive.
Of particular interest to the readers
of this journal are Chapter 1: Landscape
and climate of Canada by J. S. Maini;
Chapter 2: Silvics and ecology of Pop-
ulus in Canada by J. S. Maini; and Chap-
ter 7: Insects and diseases by A. G.
Davidson and R. M. Prentice. These,
and particularly the first and last might
be of special interest in biology classes
in our schools, but unfortunately will
probably never be seen there.
1969
Chapter 1 is a brief description of the
physiographic regions, climatological
zones, soils, vegetation regions and veg-
etation — environment relationships in
Canada. Six maps illustrate these factors.
This material is all available elsewhere,
as the extensive bibliography indicates,
but is brought together in a readily
understood form.
In Chapter 2 Dr. Maini gives detailed
descriptions of the seven native species
of Canadian poplar, provides keys for
both leafy and winter twig conditions,
and presents some excellent photographs
of leaves, twigs, bark and fruit. Mention
is made of Pleistocene and post-Pleisto-
cene poplar distribution, and paragraphs
on the modern distribution of each of
the Canadian species together with three
coloured distribution maps are given.
Phenology, reproduction, development
and growth, biotic, climatic and edaphic
relationships are also discussed.
Again, Chapter 7 deals with Insects
and Diseases. According to the authors,
at least 300 species of insects and 150
fungi have been recorded by the Forest
Insect and Disease Survey on living
trembling aspen alone. The major species
of these are described, together with the
damages they cause. Natural control,
control by man, and other points of
interest are discussed. Eleven excellent
photographs illustrate this chapter.
The text is typewritten, reproduction
is by offset on a glossy paper.
W. J. Copy
Piant Research Institute
Central Experimental Farm
Ottawa, Ontario
The Sociology of Nature
By Lesuiz Rew. Pelican A556, Penguin Books
Ltd., Hammondsworth, Middlesex 6/-
1962.
This book of 278 pages is the best value
for money in the field of elementary
REVIEWS
289
ecology texts. It deals with individuals
and communities, changes in both, and
with learning, movement and dispersal,
colour and pattern and all their inter-
relations. Each chapter begins with an
apt quotation from Darwin or a well
known poet or philosopher. The author’s
wide experience in Canada and Europe
have helped him to write about the com-
plexity of ecology with a freshness and
clarity that makes for easy reading and
understanding.
While most of the book is descriptive
the author has drawn a timeless conclu-
sion. “We are beginning to realize now
that ecology is a science of the utmost
practical importance, that it is not radio-
active strontium that threatens the future
of mankind but neglect of the teachings
of ecology”.
Many international scientific meetings
in 1968 and 1969 reached the same con-
clusion. A recent Gallup poll has shown
that the public is finally beginning to
react to the situation. Reid’s mastery of
the subject put him 10 years ahead of
most people in understanding the grow-
ing importance of ecology.
No well-informed naturalist should be
without this delightful book.
V. E. F. Somman
Canadian Wildlife Service
Ottawa, Ontario
Man and Environment: Crisis and the
Strategy of Choice
By Roserr Arvitt, Pelican Original A889,
Penguin Books Ltd., Hammondsworth,
Middlesex, England. 332 pp. 8/6 (U.K.)
1967.
In the preface the author, who uses
the pseudonym Robert Arvill, states:
“This book is about people; about their
impact on land, air, water and wildlife,
and the environment they create; about
the damage and the destruction they
290 Tue CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
cause and the measures they take as a
society to remedy this. Above all, it is
about the possibilities they now have to
re-shape and create an environment that
fits their highest aspirations”.
In reviewing man’s impact on the
world the author reminds us that it took
man about 200,000 years to achieve a
population of a billion, but only an ad-
ditional hundred years to reach 2 billion.
With a world population of 34 billion
in 1966 the most recent doubling of
population will have occurred in about 35
years. Although many countries have a
higher rate of increase, the arrival of a
new baby every 12 seconds in the Uni-
ted States coupled with the production
of a new car every five seconds together
lead to the loss of two acres of country-
side every minute. The author reminds
us that there are now about 25 million
square miles of habitable and cultivable
land in the world. He contrasts that with
the 780 square miles of land that are
taken out of cultivation a day for urban
expansion, roads, industrial expansion
and by erosion. Those figures give us an
idea of the urgency of our present pro-
blems.
The author treats land in its agricul-
tural, forestry, wildlife and recreational
context. He goes on to review the pro-
blems of air and water pollution and
their complex relations to the rest of
the fabric of ecology. There are
two chapters on wildlife, which are in-
troduced by a couplet from Alexander
Pope’s Essay on Man: “From Nature’s
chain, whatever link you strike, Tenth
or ten thousandth, breaks the chain
alike”.
Under the heading of “Unities” there
are useful discussions of famous wet-
land areas which typify biological com-
plexes. They include the Everglades of
Florida, the Norfolk and East Suffolk
Broads of England and the Camargue of
France. In each case conflicting uses
of the areas have led to unintended re-
sults in these ecologically fragile environ-
Vol. 83
ments. Some similar occurrences in the
United Kingdom involving areas other
than wetlands are also reviewed.
The last six chapters deal with increas-
ing numbers of people, the impact of
their leisure activities on the land and
the need for planning of land use to en-
sure minimum destruction of habitat.
Although much of the book is oriented
toward problems as they exist in the
United Kingdom, the ideas presented are
useful anywhere. A useful 21-page ap-
pendix closes with a Chinese proverb:
“The art of life lies in a constant re-
adjustment to our surroundings”.
There are 16 pages of photographs.
The text is clear and free from errors.
All concerned persons interested in
natural history and the future of the
earth as a place to live should read this
book.
V. E. F. Sotman
Canadian Wildlife Service,
Ottawa, Ontario
The Flora of Nova Scotia
By A. E. Roranp and E. C. Smira. Part I. |
The Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms, and
Monocotyledons. Proc. N.S. Inst. Sci. 26,
part 2: 3-237, 1963-1964 (published 1966).
The original Flora of Nova Scotia by
A. E. Roland appeared in Volume 21,
Parts 3 & 4, 1944-46 (published 1947) of
the Proceedings of the Nova Scotia In-
stitute of Science, and this part of the
new edition which has picked up an addi-
tional author appears in volume 26, part
2, 1963-1964 (1966). At the time of this
writing, the second part was in press.
The first edition has not been available
for some time. It is gratifying, therefore,
to see the new edition appear. The text
has been rather thoroughly revised; keys,
discussions under individual species and
statements of range have been rewritten,
1969
expanded or altered as needed. The dot
maps use the original base map but have
been replotted to incorporate the exten-
sive records accumulated by J. S. Erskine,
W. B. Schofield, D. H. Webster and
others since the first edition appeared.
Because the maps include Prince Edward
Island, the distribution maps of David
Erskine’s flora of that province have been
incorporated. Recent monographs have
been consulted where available but the
old style of discussion of varieties and
forms following each species has been re-
tained. The genus Potamogeton has been
written by D. H. Webster, the genus
Eleocharis by W. B. Schofield and the
Orchidaceae have been influenced by
J. F. Donly’s treatment of the group for
the province. The grasses which were
completely omitted in the first edition,
are now included. They are taken from
the treatment by A. E. Roland and W. G.
Dore (The Grasses of Nova Scotia, Proc.
N. S. Inst. Sci. 20: 177-288. 1942). The
Carices (as in most floras) are based on
the work of K. K. Mackenzie (North
American Flora 18: 1-478. 1931-35.
The sequence of families follows
M. L. Fernald’s 8th edition of Gray’s
Manual which is that of Engler and
Prantl. The first edition followed the
sequence of the 7th edition of Gray’s
Manual. This means that the new flora
begins with the horsetails rather than the
ferns. There are no species descriptions
and identification depends wholly on the
dichotomous keys plus the illustrations
as it did in the first edition. Illustrations,
exclusive of the Gramineae and three
Potamogetons are the same as those used
some 20 years ago, but judging from the
results, probably reproduced by offset.
A few of them should have been replaced
and this oversight significantly detracts
from the attractiveness of the manual.
For example, the illustration of Lycopo-
dium on page 17 is still little more than
a silouette and that of Pomtederia and
Eriocaulon on page 191 is altogether too
light. The new grass plates are excellent
although the identity of the illustrator
REVIEWS
291
is not given. There is a small glossary, a
page and a half of bibliography and an
index. It is hoped that when the two parts
are ultimately combined this will be
expanded. In this edition the type style
is sharp and a high quality glossy paper
is used.
The authors are to be congratulated on
a fine job of revision and incorporation
of new data without loss of the original
style and format.
Joun M. Gitietr
Plant Research Institute
Department of Agriculture
Ottawa
Living With Your Land: A Guide to
Conservation for the City’s Fringe
By JoHn Vossureu, Bulletin 53, Cranbrook
Institute of Science, Bloomfield Hills,
Michigan 48013. 7+ 149 pp., illus., 1968.
paperback $1.00 (U.S.).
The subtitle sets the tone of this at-
tractively designed paperback.
While the book offers hints to subur-
ban land owners it is directed mainly to
those who, having for the first time
moved beyond the city, face the hazards
of slightly “wilder” land. Beginning with
soil and its properties as a good or bad
base for a building, the author goes on
to cover erosion and its control. From
land-holding plants to shelterbelts which
moderate the extremes of climate is an
easy and logical step. A wide variety of
animals and plants of the countryside —
skunks, deerflies, grouse, turtles and
poison ivy to name but a few — are
shown to be both objects of interest and
also, at times, problems to the house-
holder. The author outlines ways to
attract wild creatures or, if necessary,
to keep them under control.
The democratic approach in dealing
with community problems, from objec-
tionable billboards to land trespass, 1s
stressed. Each landowner has a strong
weapon in his ballot.
292
Appropriate line drawings and sketches
appear throughout the book and there
are 16 pages of photographs. The type,
though small is easily read and free
from errors.
New rural dwellers will find much
Tue CaNapIANn Fre_p- NATURALIST
Vol. 83
useful information in the book. Even
experienced naturalists will learn from
it.
V. E. F. Sotman
Canadian Wildlife Service,
Ottawa, Ontario.
OTHER NEW TITLES
Natural Areas in Indiana and Their Pre-
servation. A. A. Lindsey, D. V. Schmelz &
S. A. Nichols, Indiana Natural Areas Survey,
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana, 1969.
594 p. Illus.
High School Biology, BSCS Green Ver-
sion. 2nd ed., H. Kolb (supervisor), N. A.
Anderson, R. G. Beidleman, D. S. Farner,
V. Larsen, W. V. Mayer, E. M. Palmer, S.
Perrott & P. G. Pearson. Rand McNally &
Company, Chicago, Illinois, 1968, 823 p.,
Illus.
The American Environment. R. Nash
(Ed.), Readings in the History of Conserva-
tion, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc.,
Reading, Mass., 1968. 236 p. $2.75 (US).
Birth Control and Love: A complete
Guide to Contraception and Fertility.
Alan F. Guttmacher, M.D. with Winfield
Best and Frederick S. Jaffe. Macmillan Co.,
1969. Revised edition. Illus. 337 p. $6.95
(US).
Our Northern Shrubs and How to Identify
Them. Harriet L. Keeler. New Appendix of
Nomenclatural Changes by Edward G. Voss.
Dover, 1969. 240 illus. 540 p. Paperback
$3.75 (US).
Eagles, Hawks and Falcons of the World.
Vols. 1 and 2. Leslie Brown and Dean
Amadon. McGraw-Hill, 1969. 166 paintings,
diagrams, 15 under-wing plates, 94 maps.
945 p. Two vols. in slip case. Sponsored by
the National Audubon Society. $59.50 (US).
Quaternary Landscapes in Iowa. Robert
V. Ruhe. Iowa State Univ. Press, 1969. 255 p.
photographs, diagrams, $8.50. (US).
World Crop Protection. Vol. I. Pests and
Diseases. J. H. Stapley and F. C. H. Gayner
with foreword by Lee Ling. CRC Press,
1969. Illus. 270 p. $18.50 (US).
The Evolution and Classification of
Flowering Plants. A. Cronquist. Houghton
Mifflin Co., Boston, Mass., 1968, Illus., 396 p.
$6.95 (US).
Galapagos: The Flow of Wildness. Eliot
Porter and others. Sierra Club. 2 Vols.
Superb illustrations. 360 pp. $55 (US) per
boxed set.
Galapagos: Islands of Birds. Bryan Nelson.
Morrow. 360 p. $7.95 (US).
Birds of the Atlantic Ocean. Paintings by
Keith Shackleton: text by Ted Stokes. Mac-
millan. 156 p. $12.95 (US).
1976: Agenda for Tomorrow. Stewart L.
Udall. Harcourt, Brace & World. 165 pp.
$3.95. (Reviewed in Audubon, May, 1969).
Reproductive Behaviour in Ungulates. A.
F. Fraser, Academic Press, New York, 1968.
Illus. 202 p. $8 (US).
Advances in Marine Biology. Vol. 6.
Frederick S. Russell and Maurice Yonge
(Eds.) Academic Press, New York, 1968.
Illus. 406 p. $17.50 (US).
Air Pollution. Vol. 3, Sources of Air Pollu-
tion and their Control. Arthur C. Stern.
Academic Press, New York, ed. 2, 1969.
Illus. 870 p. $47.50 (US). Environmental
Sciences Series.
Algae, Man and the Environment. Pro-
ceedings of an International Symposium,
Syracuse, N.Y., 1967. Daniel F. Jackson
(ed.). Syracuse University Press, Syracuse,
1968. Illus. 554 p. $18 (US).
Around the World. A view from Space.
Rand McNally, Chicago, 1969. 128 pp., illus.
$4.95.
1969
Background Studies in Science Policy.
Projections of R & D Manpower and Ex-
penditure. R. W. Jackson, D. W. Hender-
son, and B. Leung. Science Council of
Canada, Ottawa, 1969 (available from the
Queen’s Printer, Ottawa). Illus. 6 p. Paper-
back. $1.25. Special Study No. 6.
The Behavior and Physiology of Pinni-
peds. R. J. Harrison, Richard C. Hubbard,
Richard S. Peterson, Charles E. Rice, and
Ronald J. Schusterman (Eds.), Appleton-
Century-Crofts, New York, 1968. Illus. 412
p- $12 (US).
The Biology of Marine Mammals. Harold
T. Anderson (Ed.), Academic Press, New
York, 1969. Illus. 514 p. $21.50 (US).
Clinical Toxicology of Commercial Pro-
ducts. Acute Poisoning. Marion N. Glea-
son, Robert E. Gosselin, Harold C. Hodge,
and Roger P. Smith. Williams and Wilkins,
Baltimore, ed. 3, 1969. Illus. 1539 p. $24.50
GUS)E
Comparative Nutrition of Wild Animals.
Proceedings of a symposium, London, 1966.
M. A. Crawford (Ed.). Published for the
Zoological Society of London by Academic
Press, New York, 1968. Illus. 430 p. $19.50
(US). Symposia of the Zoological Society of
London, No. 21.
Desert Biology. Special Topics on the
Physical and Biological Aspects of Arid
Regions. Vol. 1. G. W. Brown, Jr. (Ed),
Academic Press, New York, 1968. Illus. 638
p. $29.50 (US).
Enzymes — The Agents of Life. David
M. Locke. Crown, New York, 1969. Illus.
248 p. $5.95 (US).
Gas Phase Chromatography of Steroids.
K. B. Eik-Nes and E. C. Horning. Springer-
Verlag, New York, 1968. Illus. 384 p. $9.50
(US). Monographs on Endocrinology. Vol.
Op
Plant ecology of the Copper River delta,
Alaska. Crow, J. H. Ann Arbor, University
Microfilms, 1968. (Thesis, Washington State
University, 1968).
Essays in Plant Geography and Ecology.
K. N. H. Greenidge (Ed.), Halifax, Nova
Scotia Museum, 1969. (Papers presented at
the Symposium in Terrestrial Plant Ecology
REVIEWS
293
held at Saint Francis Xavier University,
Antigonish, N.S. October, 1966.
Modern Methods in Plant Taxonomy. \V.
Hi. Heywood (Ed.), Report of a conference,
Liverpool, 1967. Published for the Botanical
Society of the British Isles and the Linnean
Society of London by Academic Press, New
York, 1968. Illus. 312 p. $13.50 (US). Botani-
cal Society of the British Isles Conference
Report No. 10.
Principles of Systematic Zoology. Ernst
Mayr. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1969. Illus.
434 p. $12.50 (US).
Seashells of North America. A Guide to
Field Identification. R. Tucker Abbott.
Illustrated by George F. Sandstrom. Herbert
S. Zim (Ed.) Golden Press, New York,
1969. 280 p. Cloth, $5.95, Paperback, $3.95
(US). Golden Field Guide.
Noise as a Public Health Hazard. Proceed-
ings of Conference, 1968. W. Dixon Ward
and James E. Fricke (Eds.) Am. Speech and
Hearing Assn. (ASHA Reports No. 4),
1969, Diagrams 384 p. Paperback $5. (US).
Spring Flora of Minnesota Including
Common Cultivated Plants. Thomas Mor-
ley. Univ. of Minn. Press, 1969. Illus. 283
p- $7.75 (US).
Pleistocene Geology and Biology. With
Especial Reference to the British Isles. R.
G. West. Wiley, New York, 1968. Illus.
377 p. $9.50 (US).
A Glossary of Genetics and Cytogenetics.
Classical and Molecular. Rigomar Rieger,
Arnd. Michaelis and Melivn M. Green.
Third edition (first English edition).
Springer-Verlag, New York, 1968. Illus.
508 p. $16.50 (US).
Cities and Housing: The Spatial Pattern
of Urban Residential Land Use. Richard F.
Muth. Univ. of Chicago Press, 1969. Dia-
grams 355 p. $9 (US).
Environmental and Cultural Behavior:
Ecological Studies in Cultural Anthropol-
ogy. Andrew P. Vayda (Ed.), Natural
History Press, 1969. Maps. 485 p. $7.95;
paper, $2.95 (US).
Public Knowledge. An Essay Concerning
the Social Dimension of Science. J. M.
294
Ziman. Cambridge University Press, Ntw
York, 1968. 154 p. Cloth, $3.95, Paperback,
$1.95 (US).
Energy Flow in Biology. Biological Organi-
zation as a Problem in Thermal Physics.
Harold J. Morowitz. Academic Press, New
York, 1968. Illus. 179 p. $9.50 (US). For the
biophysical ecologist.
William Bartram: Botanical and Zoologi-
cal Drawings, 1756-1788. Joseph Ewan
(Ed.), American Philosophical Society,
Philadelphia, 1968. Illus. 180 p. $35 (US).
Memoirs of the American Philosophical
Society. Vol. 74.
Between Pacific Tides. Edward F. Ricketts
and Jack Calvin. Fourth edition, revised by
Joel W. Hedgpeth. Stanford University
Press, Stanford, Calif., 1968. Illus. 624 p.
$10 (US).
Atlas of the Great Barrier Reef. W. G.
H. Maxwell. Elsevier, New York, 1968.
Illus. 260 p. $32.50 (US).
Fertility and Family Planning: A World
View. S. J. Behrman, M:D., Leslie Corsa
Jr.. M.D. and Ronald Freedman (Eds.),
Univ. of Mich. Press, 1969. Graphs. 503 p.
$12.50 (US).
Eternal Quest. The Story of the Great
Naturalists. Alexander B. Adams. Putnam,
New York, 1969. 16 plates 512 p. $10.95
(US).
Perspectives in Ecological Theory. Ramon
Margalef. University of Chicago Press,
Chicago, 1968. Illus. 112 p. $4.50 Chicago
Series in Biology.
The Basis of Progressive Evolution. G.
Ledyard Stebbins. Univ. of N.C. Press, 1969
Illus. 150 p. $5 (US).
Lost Wild America: The Story of Our
Extinct and Vanishing Wildlife. Robert
M. McClung. Morrow, 1969. Illus. by Bob
Hines. 239 p. $5.95 (US).
Biology and Man. George Gaylord Simp-
son, Harcourt, 1969. 175 p. $5.95 (US).
Our Amazing World of Nature: Its Mar-
vels & Mysteries. Readers Digest. Alan
Devoe and others. Readers Digest, 1969.
200 photographs in color. 320 Ds $11.95
(US).
Tue CaANnapiAN Fietp-NaATURALIST
Vol. 83
Ecology of Insect Vector Populations. R.
C. Muirhead-Thomson, Academic Press,
New York, 1968. Illus. 176 p. $9.50 (US).
Agricultural Origins and Dispersals. The
Domestications of Animals nad Foodstuffs.
Carl O. Sauer. MIT Press, Cambridge ed. 2,
1969. Illus. 184 p. Cloth, $7.50; paper $2.95
(US).
The Problems of Birds as Pests. Proceed-
ings of a symposium, London, 1967. R. K.
Murton, and E. N. Wright (Eds.). Pub-
lished for the Institute of Biology by
Academic Press, New York, 1968. Illus. 256
p- $9.50 (US). Symposia of the Institute of
Biology No. 17.
The Prometheus Project. Mankind’s Search
for Long-Range Goals. Gerald Feinberg,
Doubleday, Garden City, N.Y., 1968. 216 p.
$4.95 (US). Reviewed in Science 164: 285
(1969).
Climate and Agriculture. An Ecological
Survey. Jen-Hu Chang. Aldine, Chicago,
1968. Illus. 304 p. $9.75 (US).
Fundamentals of Forest Biogeocoenology.
V. Sukachev and N. Dylis. Translated from
Russian (Moscow, 1964) by J. M. Maclen-
nan. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh, 1968.
Illus. 672 p. 12.12 sh. (UK).
The Fungi. An Advanced Treatise. G. C.
Ainsworth and Alfred S. Sussman (Eds.),
Vol. 3. The Fungal Population. Academic
Press, New York, 1968. Illus. 738 p. $27.50
qUsye :
The Measurement of Environmental Fac-
tors in Terrestrial Ecology. A symposium,
Reading, England, 1967. R. M. Wadsworth,
L. C. Chapas, A. J. Rutter, M. E. Solomon,
and J. Warren Wilson (Eds.), Blackwell
Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1968. Illus.
314 p. British Ecological Society Symposium
No. 8. $9.50 (US).
Aspects of Form. A symposium on Form
in Nature and Art. Lancelot Law Whyte
(Ed.), Elsevier, New York, 1968. Illus. 254
p. Reprint with a new preface of the 1951
edition $8.50 (US).
Bird Song. Acoustics and Physiology.
Crawford H. Greenewalt. Smithsonian In-
stitution Press, Washington, D.C., 1968
(distributor, Random House, New York).
Illus. 196 p. $12.50 (US).
1969
Deserts of the World. An Appraisal of
Research into Their Physical and Biological
Environments. William G. McGinnies,
Bram J. Goldman, and Patricia Paylore,
(Eds.), University of Arizona Press, Tuc-
son, 1969. Illus. 788 p. $15. (US).
The Earth Sciences in Canada. A Cen-
tennial Appraisal and Forecast. A sym-
posium, Ottawa, 1967. E. R. W. Neale
(Ed.), University of Toronto Press, Vor-
onto Press, Toronto, 1968. Illus. 260 p.
Royal Society of Canada Special Publica-
tions, No. 11. $8.50.
Overcoming World Hunger. American
Assembly. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
N.J., 1969. 180 p. Cloth, $4.95 Paperback,
$1.95 (US).
Upper Waters of the Intertropical Pacific
Ocean. Mizuki Tsuchiya. Johns Hopkins
Press, Baltimore, 1968. Illus. 52 p. plus
maps. Johns Hopkins Oceanographic Stud-
ies, No. 4. $8.50 (US).
Weed Control. Subcommittee on Weeds,
Committee on Plant and Animal Pests,
Agricultural Board, National Research
Council. National Academy of Sciences,
Washington, D.C., 1968. Illus. 474 p.,
Paperback, Principles of Plant and Animal
Pest Control. Vol. 2. NAS Publication 1597.
$8. (US).
Common Edible Mushrooms. Clyde M.
Christensen. Univ. of Munn. Press, 1969.
62 photographs, diagrams 124 p. $4.50;
Paperback, $2.45 (US).
An Introduction to Chromatography.
David Abbott and R. S. Andrews — Hough-
ton, 1968, Illus. 70 p. Paperback. Discusses
the theory of paper chromatography, thin
layer column and gas chromatography, and
suggests experiments in all four techniques.
Freshman level. $1.75 (US).
Wonders of Parasites. Philip Goldstein
Lantern Press, 1969. Illus. 139. $3.95 (US).
Studies in the Structure, Physiology and
Ecology of Molluses. Proceedings of a
symposium, London, 1967. Vera Fretter,
(Ed.), Academic Press, New York, 1968.
Illus. 378 p. Symposia of the Zoological
Society of London, No. 22 $15 (US).
REVIEWS
295
Advances in Pest Control Research. Vol.
8. R. L. Metcalf Ed. Interscience (Wiley )
New York, 1968, Illus. 256 p., $15 (US).
Environment, the University, and the Wel-
fare of Men. Billy Ray Wilson, (Ed.),
Lippincott, Philadelphia, 1969. Illus. 184 p:
pes). (WUIS))s
A Spider’s Web. Problems in Regulatory
Biology. Peter N. Witt. Charles F. Reed,
and David B. Peakall, Springer-Verlag,
New York 1968. Illus. 108 p. $9 (US).
Peregrine Falcon Populations, their Bio-
logy and Decline. J. J. Hickey (Ed.) The
University of Wisconsin Press, Madison,
Milwaukee and London, 1969. Illus. 596 p.
$10 (US).
The common Aster species of Southern
Ontario. James S. Pringle. Royal Botanical
Gardens, Hamilton, Ontario, Technical Bul-
letin No. 2. (1967).
The common Solidago species (Golden-
rods) of Southern Ontario. James S.
Pringle, Royal Botanical Gardens, Hamilton,
Ontario, Technical Bulletin No. 3. (1968).
Checklist of the Spontaneous Vascular
flora of the Royal Botanical Gardens,
Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. James S.
Pringle. Royal Botanical Gardens, Technical
Bulletin No. 4. 46 p. (1969).
A Floristic Study of Norfolk County,
Ontario. James E. Cruise. Transactions of
the Royal Canadian Institute, Volume 35.
No. 72. (1969). 116 p.
Birds in Ontario — Western Invaders.
J. L. Baillie. 1969. The Ontario Naturalist
1/69, pp. 7, 28-30. A well-documented sum-
mary of bird species that are known to have
extended their range eastward in Ontario.
We all Fall Down: The Prospect of Bio-
logical and Chemical Warfare. Allen Lane,
London, 1968. 2 plates. 291 p. Includes a
bibliography.
Invertebrate Receptors: The proceedings
of a symposium held at the Zoological
Society of London on 30 and 31 May, 1967.
J: D: Garthy and G. E. Newell’ \(Eds.),
Academic Press, 1968. Illus. 341 p.
Science, History and Hudson Bay. C. S.
Beals (Ed.), Dept. of Energy, Mines and
Resources, Ottawa, 1968. Illus. (part color).
2 vols. Number of pages not known.
a] ‘
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_ The CANADIAN
FIELD-NATURALIST
OT
tg Mil 3: GOwies Svea
ee Published by THE OTTAWA FIELD-NATURALISTS’ CLUB,-Ottawa, Ontario
Q APR 1 ena
e Editorial AS i t Pius FS
Toward Legislation to Protect Young Peregrine Falcons HARVARD Eprtor - 297
UNIVERSHY,
A Contribution to the Biology of the Gray Jay Russet J. Rutrer 300
_ Lightning Fires in Saskatchewan Grassland J. S. Rowe 317
_ Sex and Age Variation in Red Squirrel Skulls from Missoula County, Montana
Cart H. Netiis 324
_ Notes on Mammals in Alpine Areas of the Northern St. Elias Mountains,
: Yukon Territory and Alaska Barsara M. Murray and Davin F. Murray 331 *
_ Observations on Moose Feeding on Aquatics of Bowron Lake Park,
; British Columbia R. W. Rircey and N. A. M. VerRBEEK 339
_ Breeding Birds of the West Mirae Islands, Great Slave Lake, N.W.T.
aie Mitton W. WELLER, Davin L. Traucer and Gary L. Krapu 344
_ Observations on Canadian Birch (Betula) Collections at the Morgan Arboretum.
VIII. Betwla from Grand Manan Island, New Brunswick
W. H. Brittain and W. F. Grant 361
~ Anomalous Conditions in Three Species of Birds WiLuiAM THRELFALL 384
Professor Edmund M. Walker, 1877-1969 F. P. Ink 389
_ Notes
- Distribution Extensions of Manitoba Plant Species -J. Looman 392
An Adult White-winged Black Tern in New Brunswick J. H. Morgan and P. A. Pearce 394
Bewick Wren, Host to Brown-headed Cowbird Enm K. Lemon 395
Long-billed ier eee in New Brunswick P. A. Pearce and N. R. Brown 396
Arrival Dates of Birds at Churchill, Manitoba, 1968 | Carroti D. Lirrterietp and ALLAN PaxuLaK = 397
Lesser Black-backed Gull at Churchill, Manitoba. A New Bird for Canada
R. K. Ross and F. Cooxe 399
_ Birds as Predators of Ticks in Canada | P. R. Wixinson 400
_. Two Rare Sculpins (Cottidae) New to the Marine Fauna of British Columbia J. D. McPHam 400
Nesting of the Caspian Tern in Central-eastern Manitoba W. Eart Goprrey 401
Occurrence of the Common Puffin on Lake St. Peter, Quebec Wan. T. Munro 402
_ British Columbia Record of Skua in Terrestrial Habitat _Doueras D. Dow and Werner H. Hesse 402
_ New Brunswick Specimens of the Field Sparrow and Laughing Gull
Be N. R. Brown and P. A. Pearce 403
Notes on the Blue Fox of Rat Island, Alaska Vernon D. Berns 404
The Ground Dove in Canada James A. Dick and Ross D. James 405
_ A Record of the Virginia Rail from Banff National Park, Alberta E. B. CunnincnHam 406
(continued on outside back cover)
Can. Field Nat. | Vol. 83 | No. 4 | p. 297-444 | Ottawa, October-December, 1969
THE OTTAWA FIELD-NATURALISTS’ CLUB roe
FouNDED IN 1879
— Patrons — :
THeEIR EXCELLENCIES THE GOVERNOR GENERAL AND Mike. ROLAND MIcHENER (at
The objectives of the Club are to promote the appreciation, preservation and con-
servation of Canada’s natural heritage; to encourage investigation and publish the result ts
of research in all fields of natural history and to diffuse mformation on these fields as”
widely as possible; to support and co-operate with organizations engaged in preserving,
maintaining or restoring quality environments for living things. Cc
The club is 2 corporate member of the Federation of Ontario Naturalists. “a
MEMBERS OF COUNCIL
President: Hur N. MacKenzir, 228 Royal Avenue, Ottawa, Ontario.
First Vice-President: THroporE Mosquin.
Second Vice-President: W. A. HoLianp. aia
Secretary: ALEXANDER W. RaTHWELL, Canadian Wildlife Service, bake Laurier “Avenue
West, Ottawa 4, Ontario. ee a
Treasurer: F. M. Bricuam, Box 3264, Postal Station C, Ottawa 33 Ontaris, S Ke
Additional Members of Council: W. K. W. Batpwin, E. L. Bousrietp, I. M. Brovo, D.
Brunton, W. J. Copy, Barsara CoLEMAN, Joyce M. Dunston, R. Y. Epwarps, J. M.
Gittett, E. W. Greenwoop, ANNE Hanes, D. D. Hocartu, Lurtta Howpen, W. I. ©
ILLMAN, Lois Kineston, D. LAFONTAINE, F. LesLanc, G. H. McGee, Patricia Nae
A. E. Porsitp, L. C. Suerx, J. H. Soper, Mary SruaRr, H. E. SWEERS, SHEILA ‘THOMSON. —
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THE CANADIAN F IELD-NATURALIST ‘ ‘
Editor: Turzopore Mosgquin, Plant Research Institute, Central Experimental Farm, Draws s
‘Review Editor: Donatp A. Smitu, Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa.
Associate Editors: a
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mental Farm, Ottawa. :
Watter A. Bett (Paleontology), 112 Abercrombie Road, New Glasgow, Nav
Scotia. ;
E. L. Bousriretp (General Invertebrate Zoology), National Museum of Natural
Sciences, Ottawa.
J. SHERMAN BLEaKNEY (Herpetology), Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia.
Irwin M. Bropo (Botany), National Museum of Natural Sciences, Ottawa.
Artuur H. Crarke, Jr. (Malacology), National Museum of Natural Sciences, %
Ottawa.
W. Eart Goprrey (Ornithology), National Museum of Natural Sciences, Ottawa.
J. Antuony Kerru (Pesticides), Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa.
Donatp E. McAttister (Ichthyology), National Museum of Natural Sciences, —
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The Canadian Field Naturalist
VOLUME 83 OCTOBER-DECEMBER, 1969 NuMBER 4
TOWARD LEGISLATION TO PROTECT YOUNG
PEREGRINE FALCONS
A historically significant conference may have taken place at Cornell
University, New York, on November 4 and 5, 1969, decisions reached and
actions taken could well determine whether the swiftest flying of all living
things, the Peregrine Falcon, will survive as a wild breeding bird in North
America. The conference was planned by Dr. Tom J. Cade, Director of the
Laboratory of Ornithology at Cornell, and was sponsored by the Laboratory.
It was attended by many United States and Canadian scientists who strongly
reafhirmed that the Peregrine is an increasingly endangered species in all of
North America and they called on governments of the United States, Canada
and Mexico to take strong measures to preserve the species from extinction.
Following the conference, Cade, as chairman, sent letters to the Secretary of
the U.S. Department of the Interior, the Minister of Indian Affairs and
Northern Development in Canada and to the Secretary of Agriculture, in
Mexico expressing “deep concern” about the status of the Peregrine and urging
the three governments to take whatever action is needed to preserve the species.
Parts of the letter read:
“From present evidence, it is probable that all remaining North American
Peregrine populations are affected to some degree by pesticide contamina-
tion, and if the Peregrine is to survive as a species, it 1s absolutely essential
that the use of DDT and related poisons be stopped as soon as possible.
The problem transcends the boundaries of state and provincial jurisdictions
and is truly international, as migrant Peregrines that breed in arctic Alaska,
Canada and Greenland pass southward to winter as far away as Argentina.
— If DDT and derivative residues reach levels of 30 parts per million or
more in the brain, death is likely; and there are several documented cases of
falcons found dead with pesticide concentrations of this order in their brains.
The evidence is also clear that sublethal accumulations of pesticide residues
affect reproduction in falcons, with the result that the annual production of
young birds is insufficient to replace losses in the adult breeding populations.
The combined effects of direct mortality and reduced reproduction rate
have been responsible for the virtual extinction of the Peregrine as a
breeding bird in many parts of its former range in both Europe and
America.”
“In the United States, there are no longer any Peregrines breeding east of
‘the Mississippi River, and surveys made in the past three years show that
the disappearance of breeding pairs at long known nesting sites has continued
westward and northward on the continent. Only remnant populations
remain in the Rocky Mountains, in Alberta, and along the West Coast from
Washington to Baja California. Even some remote arctic Canadian popula-
tions have declined recently.”
“The current trend toward a sharp reduction in the uses of DDT and
other hard pesticides offers some hope that the Peregrine Falcon will not be
completely extirpated from North America. The decline of the Peregrine
Mailing date of this number: 31st March, 1970
297
298 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
in Great Britain has evidently stopped, following a reduction in the use of
pesticides there. But even after all use of persistent pesticides ends, residues
of the chlorinated hydrocarbons will remain as contaminants in the environ-
ment for many years to come, so that Peregrine populations will continue
in a precarious state for the indefinite future.”
“In order for the Peregrine to make a comeback as a species and to regain
range it has now lost, it is essential that the remaining breeding populations
be protected from unnecessary molestation and that the survival of each
year’s young birds be maximized. With the present greatly reduced popula-
tion size and lowered reproductive success, the taking of Peregrines for any
purpose should be carefully regulated.” (Italics mine).
It seems clear that if governments act soon to pass legislation that would
impose appropriate penalties to prohibit “the harvesting” of young Peregrines
from their nests, these birds may, given time for the environment to cleanse
itself, be saved from ultimate extinction. It is interesting and historically
significant that the following press release was issued from the office of the
Hon. William Kenneth ier Minister of Recreation and Conservation of the
Province of British Columbia, dated June 25, 1969:
“Nine immature Peregrine Falcons were successfully collected from nests in
the Queen Charlotte Islands by Fish and Wildlife Branch personnel this
month as part of a new program designed to protect this rare species and to
provide research information. Collection of birds by government personnel,
rather than by the public, succeeded in reducing illegal activity in the
area over that in recent years. In addition, the nestling falcons were
systematically removed to provide information on the effects of a known
removal rate on long-term population trends, said Dr. J. Hatter, Director.
They were immediately flown to Vancouver and picked up by falconers
who had previously paid a $200.00 collection fee. (Italics mine).
A survey of falcon nesting sites in a sample area of the Queen Charlottes
revealed about the same number of breeding pairs as in 1965 and 1968. The
average number of young per nest this year was 2.25, down slightly from
the 1965-68 average of 2.75. However, due to the time involved in collecting
birds, fewer nests were examined this year.”
I have in hand a copy of “Hawk Chalk” (Volume VIII, No. 2, August,
1969), a periodical which is an official publication of the North American
Falconry Association (NAFA) and the articles in this particular issue dramatize
implicitly the direction from which the winds are blowing on the remnant
Peregrine nesting sites. This particular issue of Hawk Chalk reads like an
obituary to falconry. On the one hand there is immense concern about the
effects of chlorinated hydrocarbon biocides on the future of the Peregrine and
about the declining populations of raptors in general and on the other hand, a
powerful plea by the president of NAFA, Mr. H. M. Webster, to members to
oppose very strongly a recent bill Benore the United States House of Repre-
sentatives (HR 11363) that would “prevent the importation of endangered
species of wildlife into the United States; prevent the interstate shipment of
wildlife taken contrary to state law; and for other purposes.” Mr. Webster
states that this bill “is. probably the most restricting thing that has ever been
brought to my attention.” He asks that members put in their requests to their
Congressman and to quote further says that:
1969 EpirortaAu 299
“You will all remember that the Peregrine was recently placed on the
endangered species list, well, here it where it will go for there are no
recognized subspecies set forth as exceptions. This bill permits the Secre-
tary of the Interior to act as judge as to what species of animal or wildlife
is to be classified as endangered despite the provincial, territorial or national
law of the country that originates the shipment. For example, it will be
impossible to receive Peale’s Peregrine (the subspecies along the British
Columbia coast) even under permit from British Columbia or anywhere else
in the world for that matter. This would mean Canada, Mexico or else-
where despite permits issued for the shipment of the Shea The Secretary
of the Interior may review the endangered list every five years (if we
holler sufficiently loud). You may be arrested without warrant, you may
be searched without warrant and any of your birds taken. This will stop
any of our falconers from travelling to Canada to hunt or to Mexico to
hawikes— Lt everyone sits ice and tight, falconry as we know it is quickly
approaching a tragic end.”
It is a paradox that the very same issue of Hawk Chalk reports that a
biologist, Dr. James H. Enderson, just finished checking all known Peregrine
eyries in the Rocky Mountain Region from Mexico to southern Alberta; he
estimated that no more than 10 birds fledged in the entire area (elsewhere in the
issue the number is reported as “two sets of young hatched”)
Hawk Chalk also carried a long letter from the retiring Canadian Director
of NAFA, Mr. Frank Beebe, who states:
“T have never been of the conviction that the Peregrine is going extinct,
but even if it is and does there are still other species and perhaps I have done
a little more than most others to “save” it; more certainly, than those who are
most critical of my making use of the species.”
Mr. Beebe states further that he will no longer “cooperate” with the
B.C. government to make his data available, nor publish any material in scientific
journals, nor turn the carcass of dead birds in for analysis. He states further
“so far as officials are concerned none of my birds ever die or are lost; so far as
other falconers are concerned again the same thing exactly.” He states that
he is against, and he argues hard for excluding persons who breed hawks in
captivity (for the use of falconers, etc.) from the board of directors of NAFA.
He ends his letter by stating that “from here on I shall write only about some
aspects of falconry, not about people, or pesticides, or the biology of wild
raptors, or theories or facts about domestic reproduction.” Presumably, to
_ be a good falconer you just have to capture your falcons from the wild and
how many you get, where you get them and what you do with them does not
concern people other than falconers.
The Meetings at Cornell, organized by Dr. Cade, concluded with a state-
ment by Dr. Cade saying that the best way to preserve the Peregrine is to
declare the entire North American Peregrine population to be endangered.
“The moral force of such a declaration by Canada, Mexico and the United
States would place the state and provincial governments w hich have legal
jurisdiction over the Peregrines, under a strong constraint to tighten their
local regulations on man’s behavior in relation to this highly esteemed bird.”
Tueopore Mosqurn, December, 1969
A CONTRIBUTION TO THE BIOLOGY OF THE
GRAY JAY (PERISOREUS CANADENSIS)
Russet_ J. RUTTER
Ontario Department of Lands and Forests, Algonquin Park, Ontario
AxtuHoucH the Gray Jay has been consistently mentioned by travellers in the
northern wilderness since the earliest times, and is today one of the first birds
to be noticed by the myriads of urban dwellers who now invade its haunts in
search of summer recreation, surprisingly little is known about its life history.
This is partly because of its wilderness habitat and the fact that its reproductive
cycle coincides with a season when bush travel is difficult or impossible. But
I think one of the main reasons is that it was long ago “tagged” with certain
characteristics by somewhat fanciful observers, and their reports have been
repeated in bird-book after bird-book for generations. Everybody knows
about the Whiskey Jack. A good example of this is the first sentence under
“Behavior” in Bent’s famous Life Histories (1946): “The most striking and
characteristic traits of the Canada Jay are its tameness or boldness, one could
almost say its stupidity, and its thieving propensities.”
I have had unusual opportunities to observe this bird during the past ten
years in Algonquin Provincial Park, Ontario, and more recently have benefitted
from the cooperation of Dan Strickland, a graduate student at the University
of Montreal, who has written his Master’ s thesis based on two years’ study of
Gray Jays in Parc de la Vérondrye, Quebec. Acknowledgment i is made here
of his generosity in allowing me the free use of his notes in preparing this
paper. While it makes no pretense of being comprehensive, it will deal with
some information that I believe to be original, and it is frankly suggestive of
possibilities for further studies.
Wuat Do WE Know?
In 1899 Oscar Bird Warren contributed an article to The Auk under the
title “A Chapter in the Life of the Canada Jay,” and I have not seen a more
complete account of the nesting behavior of the species. Since Warren’s con-
tribution there have been many additions to the literature, but each has dealt
with some special feature of life history. Bock (1961), Dow (1965), and
Stirling (1968) have written on some aspects of feeding habits; Lawrence
(1957) and Devitt (1961) have reported instances of displacement singing;
Campbell (1965) and Roberts (1966) have published accounts of migratory
movements; Lawrence (1968) has reported flycatching and storing of potential
nest-building material, and Allen (1965) has described how food is sometimes
carried in the feet. Informative as these items are, they have told us little
about the Gray Jay’s daily life, and we must rely on early discursive accounts
for information on its general habs
We have been told by many writers that it is all but omnivorous, but we
really know little about its natural food, particularly its seasonal variation, or
how it sustains itself through long subarctic winters where it is not in contact
300
1969 Rutter: BiotoGy oF THE GRAY JAY 301
with man. Its fascinating social relationships, permanent pair bonds, and strict
territorial organization have been given little or no attention. I have been
unable to find in the literature a single reference to its territorial habits, surely
one of its most interesting characterisics.
As with all animals that tolerate only a limited population on permanent
territories, a great deal of study is required on population dynamics. For
example: In one territory in Algonquin Park only five birds were required to
maintain a pair through five years, indicating a loss of three during that period.
On another territory only one bird disappeared in five years. With a survival
of only 50% of the potential 30 young that could have been hatched on these
two territories in five years, the question of what happens to the extra birds in
a country already supporting a maximum jay population is an interesting one.
; References in the literature to seasonal movements have ranged from
generalities such as, “Winters at lower elevations in breeding range” (Bailey
and Niedrach, 1965) to documented reports of observed migrations (Campbell,
1965; Roberts, 1966), but the origin and age-structure of these wandering birds
have not been investigated. Studies of marked birds show that each territory,
of approximately one- -half a square mile, is occupied throughout the year by
one pair, and it is reasonable to guess that birds dispersed over the country
outside the normal range are surplus young unable to find a place in the terri-
torial pattern. The difficulty of proving this is increased by the fact that
after the postjuvenal molt, which is completed before September, birds of the
year are indistinguishable in the field from adults. Complicating the situation
are such observations as that of Roberts (op. cit.) who, at Whitefish Point,
Michigan, saw large numbers of Gray Jays poneemeared on the point, along
with other migrants on 21 May 1966. ‘This seems to give strength to the theory
that such birds are displaced young of the preceding year, as all established
Gray Jays would at that date be caring for young. But where did they come
from and where were they going? No suggestion of an influx of birds at any
season has been noted in more recent studies.
Tue Necessity oF Cotor-Banps AND A TECHNIQUE DESCRIBED
From 1959 to 1963, as a part of the Park Naturalist’s banding program
in Algonquin Park, I banded 64 Gray Jays with the standard aluminum bands
issued by Canedhemn Wildlife Service. It was apparent from the results that
these bands were of little use for individual field recognition, as most of the
banded birds could not be trapped a second time, at least for a year or more.
It was equally apparent that, as J. P. Scott (1967) has so neatly phrased it,
“Without knowing the identity of individuals and the social relationships
between them, it is impossible to interpret their behavior in any but hy potheti-
cal ways.”
In the fall of 1960 I had experimentally color-banded five Gray Jays at
widely separated points in Algonquin Park, but this small project had not been
followed up and few of the birds had been reported. In the w inter of 1963-64
I maintained a feeding station at the Park Museum, and one of the five jays that
were daily visitors was wearing an orange band that | had applied near the
302 - THe CAaNnapiAN FiIetp-NATURALIST Vol. 83
Museum on 15 November 1960. This was further evidence of what I had long
suspected, that these birds remained at or near the same place year after year.
I had also noticed that almost always when more than two birds were together
there were frequent agonistic encounters and I was curious about the cause of
such behavior. So I decided to begin a long-term color-banding project, and
as a beginning I marked the four unbanded birds visiting the feeder.
Within a few days of doing this the value of the technique was apparent.
I learned that only two birds belonged at the Museum, and the other three were
intruders from an adjoining territory, where one of them was also an intruder.
On the Museum territory the three intruders were compatible among them-
selves but all were attacked by the resident pair. When they returned to their
own territory, two of them resented the presence of the third. Situations of
this kind are not uncommon among Gray Jays, and the term “third bird” has
been used by Strickland and Rutter to describe a bird that attaches itself to an
established pair and, although resented and harassed, remains with them for a
period of time. In some cases a third bird is resented more by one of the pair
than by the other, and it could be that this represents antagonism toward
another of the same sex. It may remain for only a short time, but the one
mentioned in the preceding paragraph persisted for 15 months, including one
nesting season and a part of another. ‘This third bird associated with the male
without conflict while the female was incubating but was not seen while the
young were in the nest. It was always attacked by the female when she was
off the nest, and it did not appear again after the second nesting. There is
evidence that third birds are not young of the pairs with which they associate.
In the spring of 1968 Strickland banded three young, and in the fall their
parents were accompanied by a third bird that was not one of the banded
young. Brewster (1937) describes an instance of this behavior that he ob-
served in Maine.
A brief explanation of the marking technique used in Algonquin Park
is given here. A single-cell Potter trap is used to capture the birds, and the
first capture presents no problem. Each bird is fitted with a standard aluminum
band on the right leg and either a color-band or bands on the left leg or a
color-band over the aluminum band on the right leg. Using six colors — green,
blue, yellow, orange, red, and white — 48 birds may be marked by this simple
method without placing more than three bands on any bird. By fitting the
standard band on the left leg the system may be duplicated in reverse, and
other patterns may be devised as the need arises. The keeping of records is
facilitated by referring to the banded birds in accordance with the position of
the bands: GL for a single green band on the left leg; GO for a single green
band over the standard on the right leg; GOWL for a green band over a white
band on the left leg. In Algonquin Park, where the great number of human
visitors may give valuable assistance by reporting banded birds, the above
system encourages participation, as people are interested in birds with such
names as YOWL, BOYL, BOWL, WOOL, and OOGL. I have no record
of a Gray Jay removing a band or of the bands interfering in any way with
its normal activities.
1969 Rutrer: Brorocgy oF THE GRAy JAy 303
An unexpected and not immediately appreciated result from the banding
of the birds at the Museum feeder was the establishment of the sex of the local
pair when they were seen in copulation on 30 March. Their nest had already
been discovered at that time, but without knowing which was male and which
female meaningful observations on their individual roles during nesting would
have been impossible. Just how important this observation was may be under-
stood from the fact that among 16 nesting pairs that Strickland and I have
watched, this is the only witnessed copulation, and Blomgren (1964) reports
only one from the many nests of P. ifaustus that he had worked on in Sweden
over many years. Differences in behavior between the male and female at the
nest are sufficiently stereotyped that, once a marked pair has been watched, it
is usually possible to make the distinction from behavior alone, but in the case
of unmarked birds there are always areas of uncertainty even after long
familiarity.
Species in which sex cannot be differentiated in life present many problems,
not the least of which is the incorporation into the literature of uncertain
observations. Grinnell (1900a) wrote of the behavior of a pair of Gray Jays
that he was watching near their nest, “They followed each other about play-
fully, uttering low, conversational notes. The male would try to approach
the female, vibrating his wings and striking various coquettish attitudes .. .”;
and Lawrence (1968) describes a feeding situation, “Hopping on the ground
with a piece of food in the bill, one of a pair of Gray Jays, upon being pursued
by its mate in an effort to take the food away, went into an interesting display.
The bird ran out of the way of its pursuer with all the contour feathers fully
erected and then crouched with wings held stiffly out from its flanks, tips
vibrating. At the sight of this display the mate immediately stopped the
pursuit”. Grinnell was watching a not uncommon performance of a pair in
the vicinity of the nest, but it is always the female that strikes the “coquettish
attitudes.” Lawrence describes a situation where an intruder, well loaded with
stolen food, decides to stand its ground, and by an elaborate threat display,
temporarily halts the attack of the bird that is defending the territory. A paired
bird would not try to take food forcibly from its mate.
But these are easy mistakes to make. In his account of a study of Central
American jays Alexander Skutch (1935) comments, “The difficulty of recog-
nizing individuals is one of the chief handicaps which face the serious bird-
watcher.” And Blachard (in Nice, 1937), telling of an encouter between
two female White-crowned Sparrows, wrote, “Had they not been banded, I
should have thought I was watching a boundary dispute between two males.”
Even the birds have difficulty. Nice (op. cit.) says in describing the use of live
birds as decoys for trapping members of the same species, “But this method
is successful only with birds that know each other, for otherwise a Song
Sparrow cannot tell the sex of one of its kind in the trap any more surely than
a person can. . .”
‘TERRITORY
“Territory” as used in this paper is defined as the area occupied and
defended by a pair of birds throughout the year. Although the nest is built
304 ‘THE CANADIAN FreLtp-NATURALIST Vol. 83
79% Hardwood} 50% Hardwood | All Hardwood
pLS-wooL? | GOS - RO? f
(BOGL, May-Des) |
79% Conifers | 75% Conifers |
Figure 1. Territorial occupation by Gray Jays of 1/2 square miles in Algonquin Park, 1968.
on this area there is no evidence of a nesting territory as such, and there is a
wide tolerance of man and other animals in the nest vicinity. They may attack
such potential predators as the Red Squirrel (Tamasciurus hudsonicus) or the
Blue Jay (Cyanocitta cristata) near the nest, but they may do this anywhere
if there is a food source involved. I have several times seen a Red Squirrel
unmolested within a few yards of a nest when one or both of the adults were
present. The only defensive action that might appear to be concerned with
nesting arises from a direct attack on the young, as when they are being
handled for banding. If the young become vocal their distress calls seem to
provoke a violent reaction in the adults, and they will literally fly in the face
of the intruder with loud, clattering cries that might well deter a natural
predator. They will react in the same way, however, to an attack on the
young after they have left the nest area. A newly hatched young, which utters
no sound, has been taken from the nest and photographed while being held in
the hand without causing the adults any apparent concern. (Strickland, Pers.
Comm. ).
Consistent territorial defence for no obvious reason (e.g. food) is main-
tained only against other members of the species, and these are generally
attacked on sight. Some parts of the territory are used much more than others,
probably because of more favorable habitat, but the seldom used parts are
vigorously defended if an occasion to do so arises. In the winter of 1968-69
GO and RO spent much time near their southern boundary and often trespassed
deeply into the territory of BOGL and WO, who were usually near the
southern boundary of their territory (Fig. 2), and thus did not notice the en-
croaching of the other pair. When I became aware of this situation I lured
1969 Rutrer: Brotogy oF THE Gray Jay 305
| 73 % Hardwood | 30 “/o Hardwood | All Hardwood
Y00L?
PL? YOWL ? | BOGLS-wos
YOGR ?
70% Conifers | 73% Conifers
Figure 2. Territorial occupation by Gray Jays of the same area in 1969.
BOGL and WO northward by the use of food until we encountered GO and
RO, when the latter were promptly attacked and driven back across the terri-
torial line. Trespassing birds are aware that they are trespassing, and always
give way before an attack by the rightful occupants.
In Algonquin Park, Ontario, and in La Vérondrye Park, Quebec, it has
been found that the territory of each pair of Gray Jays approximates one
quarter of a square mile, or 160 acres. Coniferous forest, particularly spruce,
or a spruce-tamarac association, with trees of small to medium size is the pre-
ferred forest cover. Pure hardwood stands are utilized for foraging, but there
is no record of a defended territory that was not at least 50% coniferous. In
La Vérondrye Park, where there is continuous coniferous cover over large
areas, territories tend to be more often contiguous than in Algonquin Park,
where the coniferous stands are frequently broken by hills of Precambrian
rock supporting maples and other hardwoods.
The only recorded case of an established pair being displaced by another
oceurred in Algonquin Park between 1968 and 1969. The male GO, mated
successively with GL and RO, had occupied the Museum territory since 1964.
In the spring of 1968 BOGL appeared as a third bird with GO and RO and
remained on the territory in spite of frequent harassment by GO. In October,
1968, a fourth bird appeared, and eventually, as WO, became the mate of
BOGL. In December all four birds were using the territory, but GO and RO
were seen only rarely, and by the end of the year it was evident that BOGL
and WO were the resident pair. Field work during the winter disclosed that
GO and RO were occupying the next territory to the north. The diagram-
matic sketches, Figs. 1 and 2, are an attempt to illustrate this territorial change.
306 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
Competition for territory might be expected on this variable terrain, and
it has not yet been shown that such displacements occur where suitable habitat
is more continuous. Further evidence of possible intensive territorial com-
petition might be deduced from the situation on the territory immediately
west of that occupied by BOGL and WO. There the male PL, who had lost
two females, had held tes territory for at least six years. In the spring of
1969, nore, there were four Gray Jays there, no two of which formed an
unmistakable pair. Although PL was still the dominant bird, the resulting
social disturbance was such that there was some uncertainty whether or not
a nesting occurred.
Foop AND STORAGE
Because of its preoccupation with gathering and storing food and its quick
recognition of man as a food source, the Gray Jay is not easily studied under
completely “natural” conditions. Contrary to the popular idea, it does not
instinctively expect man to provide food, but as man increases his use of its
natural habitat the possibility of finding birds that have not learned to do so
diminishes. On the other hand, the disadvantages of working with birds that
have had their habits modified by the presence of man are partly offset by
the advantages of being able to manipulate the birds by the use of a controlled
food supply.
Outside of the commensal relationship that often exists between man and
Jay it is a retiring, inconspicuous bird, paying little attention to man and his
activities and keeping its affairs to itself. But it learns fast, and once having
identified man with food it does not forget. So strong is the food-storing
instinct htat it may supersede, at least temporarily, not only nest-building, but
incubation of the eggs and care of the young. The female of a pair that is
accustomed to being fed by humans may be enticed to leave her incubation
or brooding by offering her food, and I have discovered several nests by making
use of this habit. The male, ordinarily avoiding the nest vicinity during in-
cubation, will often come to pick up and carry off food placed at the base of
the nest tree. At such times he ignores the nest completely.
Gray Jays have been seen storing food at all seasons, but it may be that
storing is not a major activity during the warm months. It is not easy to obtain
information on this because they are then occupied by caring for young and by
passing through the annual molt, and they become quite inconspicuous. At any
season, with exceptions noted below, it is not common to see them storing food
except under artificial conditions. We conclude only by inference that they
store natural food in the same way. There is a period i in late summer and early
fall when they become comparatively indifferent to food of human origin and
spend much time foraging on the ground in grassy areas. Stomach analysis
of birds taken then indicate that grasshoppers may form a considerable part of
their diet. “They have been seen collecting frozen chokecherries in late fall and
apparently carrying them off for storage, and cherry pits have been found in
stomach contents. But there are few records of them taking any kind of
vegetable food under natural conditions. They do feed on dead animals, and
307
Jay
Rutter: Brotocy oF THE GRaAy
1969
.
Sunod 03 pof IO posois pue Yo patsswd dq 0 poo}; woss ory SuIs[nq SurMoys
‘Aef Avrry
308 Tue CAaNaApIAN Fietp- NATURALIST Vol. 83
in circumstances such as the wolf-deer association in Algonquin Park, a pre-
dator kill may become a major food supply while it lasts. Because of the un-
certain occurrence of kills and the territorial habits of the birds this can hardly
be considered as significant 1 in relation to the general population. When they
do have an opportunity to utilize this kind of natural food it is actively stored.
Their method of storing food is probably unique among North American
birds. Anything intended for storage, whether a piece of meat or a collection
of bread crumbs, is manipulated in the mouth into a roughly oval bolus im-
pregnated and coated externally with a glutinous saliva that adheres to any-
thing it touches. This bolus is pushed into a crevice in the bark of a tree,
among the needles of a conifer, under a tuft of lichen, or in any similar place.
It has the appearance of an object coated with shellac, but to what extent the
saliva acts as a preservative is not known. Neither is it known how much of
this food is recovered and eaten later, but there is no doubt in my mind that it
is the deciding factor that enables the Gray Jay to occupy a restricted territory
in northern regions throughout the year. Dow (1965) found that captive birds
began to utilize stores within hours if they were deprived of other food.
An experiment carried out by Strickland showed that they may feed the
young from stored food if bad weather interferes with the normal supply.
For some time before the nesting cycle started and while nest building was in
progress he kept one pair supplied with bread that had been colored by a water
soluble dye. This was both eaten and stored, and the color showed con-
spicuously in the faeces of the adults. The dyed bread was discontinued at the
start of incubation, but 40 days later, during a period of adverse weather, the
color appeared i in fe faeces of the young, which were then 19 days old.
Storing is usually done on the birds’ own territory, but intruders attracted
to an adjacent territory by some exceptional food supply often store on the
territory upon which they are intruding. It is unlikely that they remember
where each bolus is stored. At any given time they must have thousands hid-
den within feeding range, and most of them would be discovered sooner or
later in the course of normal searching.
In Algonquin Park in winter it is common for a pair to have a satellite
Blue Jay that gets a good part of its living by stealing from their stores or
directly from the source of supply. It is too wary to come close enough to
take food offered by a human being, but it will watch a Gray Jay hiding a
bolus and then try to find it. Sometimes when I have been searching for a pair
with which I have temporarily lost contact, the Blue Jay has shown up first,
and it may be that its more mobile and higher flying habits occasionally help
the Gray Jays to find food. It also repels other Blue Jays that invade its
“concession,” so that its presence is not entirely without value. At least on their
own territory, Gray Jays are dominant over their larger and stronger relative,
but it is generally ignor ed except when near their nest or in direct contact aes
a food supply.
PREDATION
Gray Jays have been seen to attack the Red Squirrel (Tamuasciurus hud-
sonicus) and the Blue Jay in the vicinity of the nest, and they easily repel
309
BroLoGy OF THE GRAy Jay
RUTTER
1969
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“"IOOA = 582] 1J9] UO 9SuRIO IDA0
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310 THE CANADIAN FieL_p-NATURALIST Vol. 83
these potential predators when they are detected. In La Verondrye Park a
nestling was killed by a squirrel, but the events leading up to this action were
not seen. The young in this nest were 20 days old and could have been in the
process of leaving the nest, perhaps during temporary absence of the adults.
They would be vulnerable to such an attack at that time (see account of nest-
leaving under “Nesting”). A brood of three in Algonquin Park were des-
troyed, also on the day of leaving the nest, either by Ravens or a Marten
(Martes americana) both of which were seen in the vicinity. When we con-
sider that the natural habitat of the Gray Jay is also that of such predators as
those mentioned, they seem to be remarkably free from predation.
There are many references in the literature to predation by the Gray Jay
on the eggs or young of smaller birds, but this is mostly assumed from the bad
reputation of the Corvidae, and there is not much documented evidence. They
are often treated as predators by smaller birds, and are generally attacked on
sight by such extroverted nest protectors as the Robin and the Barn Swallow.
NESTING
The average date for the start of incubation in this latitude is 20 March,
with extreme dates recorded of 14 March and 8 April. About two weeks is
spent in building the nest. On 4 March a nest in La Vérondrye Park was only
a handful of twigs, anchored to horizontal branches by the silk from insect
cocoons. On 13 March it looked like a finished structure, but incubation did
not start until 19 March. A late nest in Algonquin Park was finished within
one week. On 1 April it was also an untidy cluster of dead twigs, but on 3
April it seemed to be finished, and incubation started on 8 April. There was
some evidence that this might have been a second nest, following an accident
to the first. Any time after 1 March the birds may be seen breaking off dead
twigs and carrying them about, or collecting feathers or shredded bark and
storing them in the same manner as food, except that no saliva is used. The
male seems to be more active in this pre-building behavior than the female, but
it is uncertain whether or not he initiates the actual construction. “Lo what
extent this stored building material is used in the eventual nest is also uncertain.
According to my records, once the building is well under way the female does
the major part of the work, but Strickland has seen a male working on a
nearly finished nest, even to the extent of shaping the nest cup with his body.
As with many other birds, there is a period of several days between completion
of the nest and the laying of the first egg.
Nests have been found in Ontario and Quebec in Black Spruce (Picea
mariana), White Spruce (Picea glauca), and Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea), with
Black Spruce predominating. A typical nest would be from eight to 14 feet
above the ground on the south or southwest side of a Black Spruce and facing
an opening of some kind, a beaver mealow, a brulé, or perhaps just a small
space left by a falling tree. But there is always enough clearing to allow the
late winter sun to reach the nest and to give the birds a free passage to come
and go. In 1965 one nest in Algonquin Park was 40 feet up in a Balsam Fir —
the exception that proves the rule. In some parts of the Northwest, where
311
Rutter: BrotoGy oF THE Gray Jay
1969
b
961 “Youre yy
"\sou posoaoo-mous uo Aef AID
312 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
coniferous trees are not readily available, nests have been found in shrubby
willows (Bent, 1946).
If a nest is to be found without the intervention of good luck it must be
done while it is being built. Except for an occasional furtive visit to feed the
female, the male avoids the nest vicinity during incubation, and the female sits
very closely from the first egg and it is almost impossible to flush her by
ordinary means. When there was a nest 300 yards from the Park Museum in
Algonquin Park, the male spent most of his time on the Museum grounds, and
I often left him there while I went to inspect the nest. He would still be
there, quite unconcerned, when I returned. In order to inspect the contents
of a nest it has been my practice to extend my hand slowly toward the sitting
bird. When it was within a few inches she would get off, barely moving out of
the way, and returning at once when I moved away a few feet. I have worked
for an hour erecting an observation platform, using saw, hammer, and nails,
beside a nest that was ten feet from the ground, without disturbing the sitting
bird or bringing the male to the scene. Lawrence (1947) tells of trying to
ascertain the contents of a nest that was eight feet from the ground but from
which the female “refused to budge” even when one of the observers walked
up to the tree and waved his hat in front of her.
The female does all the incubating and it is difficult to find the nest un-
occupied. The male does feed the female on the nest, but this is an un-
scheduled and irregular activity and is seldom seen. The full complement of
eggs in all nests that have been found in Algonquin Park and in La Vérondrye
Park has been three, but Warren (1899) found four in Michigan, Brandt
(1943) found four in Alaska, and Bradbury (1918) reported two nests with
two eggs each in Colorado.
The average incubation period, from first egg to first young, is 20 days.
For several days after the young hatch there is little change in the nest attentive-
ness of the female, but the male brings food at irregular intervals, varying from
five minutes to two hours. When he arrives at the nest the female stands up, takes
food from his bill and they both feed the young. At this stage they appear to
swallow all the faeces, and this continues to some extent as long as the young
are in the nest, but in the later stages they often carry away a fecal sac.
The female does a great deal of poking about with her bill in the nest,
and this activity erences with the growth of the young. Some of this con-
sists of a violent jabbing 1 in the nest lining while the bird’s body is raised to an
almost vertical position. This unexplained habit has been observed in other
passerines (Jehl, 1968), and has been called “airing the bed,” from the theory
that it may be concerned with ventilation or with the removal of uncom-
fortable objects from the lining.
As early as the third or fourth day after hatching, the female begins to
make short foraging flights with the male, and her absences gradually lengthen
until about the fench day. After that the adults generally go and come together
and there is little brooding of the young except at night or during adverse
weather.
The eyes of the young open between the 10th and 12th day, and at the
same time they first become vocal, uttering a chattering chorus when the
1969 Rutter: Biology oF THE Gray Jay 313
adults come with food. I have described this in my notes as a ‘“‘clamorous
murmur.” All growth accelerates at this time, and wing and tail feathers
erupt rapidly. The bills of the young, which are at first pinkish, become for
a time almost pure white, and may be seen readily from a distance of 30 feet.
They remain in the nest from 17 to 20 days, but whether the variation can be
correlated with external factors remains to be verified. In my own records
they left earlier in calm, mild weather, and later when it was cool and wet.
Compared with most passerine birds, feedings are widely spaced, and it
is not unusual for the young to be unattended for almost two hours. The
longest timed interval in my notes was one hour and 50 minutes, but intervals
of more than one hour are common. During their last week in the nest the
young are fed about 12 times in 12 hours by each parent, or a total of 24
feedings a day. The number of feedings, however, cannot be taken as a measure
of the amount of food. Jays carry food to the young in their throats, and often
an adult comes to the nest with the feathers of the throat partly standing on
end and sometimes the bill partly open from the bulging load within.
What the food consists of is not known. Watching the feeding at close
range it appears to be a dark, glutinous mass heavily impregnated with saliva. 1
think there is little doubt that it is mostly insects. They have been watched
catching small moths and working over rotting logs and trees that have been
recently felled. In such places they might find hibernating carpenter ants or
wood-boring larvae. Two or three times I have seen them give the young
such artificial food as bread when I have been feeding them near the nest, but
this is not usual and has always been when the nestlings were close to fledging.
Because it demonstrates some unusual behavior, a brief resumé of the
vacating of a nest by the young will be given here. This nest was only 52
inches above the ground in a Black Spruce, situated on a sparsely forested
plain of glacial sand where the ground cover was chiefly of blueberry (Vac-
cimum sp.), Sweet Fern (Comptonia peregrina), and Sheep Laurel (Kalmia
angustifolia). \ had checked the nest at 16:40 on 3 May and at that time the
three young, then 16 days old, had just been fed and were quiet. I did not
see the nest on 4 May until 17.25, and when I arrived one adult was perched
on the rim but was not attending the young and left one minute later. An
inspection showed that one young had already gone, and the two remaining
were very alert and were calling with a soft “chep” note that I had not heard
before. I retired to my usual watching place 30 feet from the nest and waited.
At 17:32 one young climbed out and fluttered to the ground, making off im-
mediately in the direction taken by the adult and proceeding rapidly through
the rough ground cover by vigorous hopping and flapping, accompanied by
continuous “‘chepping” calls. In about 25 yards it encountered the trunk of a
dead poplar that sloped upward at a 30 degree angle from the ground and was
lodged in a windfall of small dead trees. It ascended this by a series of flutter-
ing hops, each one accompanied by an emphatic “chep”. Three feet from the
ground this trunk rested against a horizontal one, and the nestling turned off
there and went along the horizontal trunk to where it lay against a standing
314 Tue CANADIAN Fie_p-NATURALIST Vol. 83
tree. There it assumed a roosting position against the upright tree and from
there it called intermittently, either a single “chep” or a fairly loud, two-
syllable call that I wrote down as “Queeu- -queerk.” I approached to within
three feet of this bird and at that point one of the adults came down and fed it.
This was at 17:37. As the adult flew away, the young, its hunger apparently
unsatisfied, started off in the same direction, working its way along the log.
After about six feet it fell off, but continued on the ground until it disappeared
beneath a thicket of spruce. In a moment I could see it working its way up-
ward in one of these, hopping from one limb to another, and I turned my
attention to the young still in the nest.
At 17:45 it had left the nest and was moving about in the tree, twice getting
into and out of the nest. It was also giving the two calls already described. At
17:45 both adults came to the nest with food and both fed the young that was
perched on a nearby branch. After they had gone, the young one carried out
a complete preening operation on itself, then put its head over its left shoulder
and partly hidden among its scapular feathers and appeared to sleep. At
18:20 an adult arrived with food but was unable, after repeated efforts, to
arouse the young. The adult then went to the nest, but finding nothing there
it returned to the young, which this time raised its head long enough to take
food and at once returned to its sleeping position.
No adult had visited the other young since 17:37, or for 43 minutes, but at
18:21 it was being fed in the spruce tree by the other adult. It was then
settled close against the trunk but was only about one foot above the ground.
No more feeding was seen, but at 18:27 an adult was at the nest fussing with
the lining as if it were still occupied, although the sleeping young was just over
afoot away. The adult settled on the nest as though brooding for two minutes
and then flew off. All was quiet when I left at 18:38.
I was unable to visit this nest again until 14:45 on 6 May. There were no
birds at the nest site when I| arrived, but in a few minutes both adults appeared
and flew past the nest into a close growth of spruce 50 yards to the northeast. I
could not see what happened there, but a search of the spruces disclosed two
young, both in the same tree, one Anna feet above the ground and the other
eight feet. They sat tightly against the trunk and did not give any food calls,
but occasionally stood up to stretch or defecate. At 15:20 both adults came,
but only one seemed to have food and this was given to the highest young.
These were unmarked birds and I was unable to separate male from female in
these circumstances. They left without seeming to notice me, and did not
come again until 16:30, when again one of them fed the same young bird.
When they left this time the young that had just been fed attempted to
follow them, but made a “crash landing” after about 100 feet. However, it
quickly made its way to the base of aierher spruce and was soon ascending
it branch by branch. I was unable to wait longer and did not see these birds
again.
Subsequent observations on other nests suggest that this was fairly typical
post-nestling behavior. Leaving the nest when they are capable of flying only a
few y yards they move about by ‘making short flights and w orking their way up-
1969 Rutter: Brotocgy oF THE Gray Jay 315
ward to roosts in thickly foliaged conifers, where they may be better protected
against predation than they would be in the nest at that stage a Sy OD atE
It is not known how long parental feeding continues, but on 22 May of the
same year I found a group of three young, fully Gensanenied and capable of sus-
tained flight, still spending most of the time perched close to the trunks of
conifers and apparently still depending on the adults for food, although they
were making tentative efforts to feed themselves. It is very Bimealt to keep
in touch with these family groups, for they are constantly on the move and
soon have the additional onceaent of summer foliage.
Although it is essentially a bird of the wilderness, the Gray Jay is quick
to take advantage of man-made sources of food, and that this adaptability
extends also to its choice of nest-building material is illustrated by the following
comparison of the composition of two nests in Algonquin Park. No. 1 was
situated one mile from the highway that passes through the park; No. 2 was
300 yards from the Park Museum, where there is much year-round human
activity.
Nest No. 1
Base of dry spruce, tamarac, and poplar twigs (up to 14 inches long), support-
ing and partly surrounding the nest proper, which was largely composed of
shredded cedar bark with an intermixture of plant fibres and shaped into a
cup by the body of the bird during the building process. This cup was deeply
lined with feathers of Ruffed Grouse (Bonasa umbellus) and Spruce Grouse
(Canachites canadensis), a small amount of moose hair, and one small piece of
facial tissue. Dimensions: Diameter at base, 12 inches; from lower edge of
base to rim of cup, five inches; diameter of cup, three inches; depth of cup,
three and one-half inches. Weight of all material, 208.4 grams.
Nest No. 2
Overall construction similar to No. 1, but the cedar bark surrounding the cup
was reinforced by one piece of light string seven inches long, one piece of
heavy cord three inches long, one piece of binder twine 13 inches long, a
considerable amount of facial tissue, and several wads of surgical cotton. An
interesting addition to the lining of this nest was the scapular feathers and
several body feathers of a Saw-whet Owl (Aegolius acadicus). Present in all
Gray Jay nests are many cocoons of spiders and lepidopterous insects. These
help to bind the material together and anchor the base of dead twigs to the
branches on which it rests.
REFERENCES
ALLEN, CuHartes R. K. 1965. Unusual be- Briancuarp, B.D. 1936. I Nick, MARGARET
haviour in Gray Jays. The Canadian- M. Studies in the Life History of the
Field-Naturalist 79: 211. Song Sparrow. Dover Publications, Inc.
Bartey, Avrrep M. and Rosert J. NiepRAcu. New York. (1964 reprint).
1965. Birds of Colorado. Vol. 1. Denver Btomeren, Arne. 1964. Lavskrika. Bon-
Museum of Natural History. niers. Stockholm.
Bent, ArtHur C. 1946. Life Histories of Bock, Watrter J. 1961. Salivary glands in
North American Jays, Crows, and Titmice. the Grey Jay. The Auk 78: 355-365.
United States National Museum. Bulletin Brewster, Wi1iAm. 1937. The birds of
191. the Lake Umbagog region of Maine. Bul-
316
letin of the Museum of Comparative Zo-
ology, Harvard 66: 503-508.
Brappury, W. C. 1918. Nesting of the
Rocky Mountain Jay. The Condor 20:
197-208.
Branpt, Herserr. 1943. Alaska Bird
Trails: 425-427. Bird Research Foundation,
Cleveland.
Campsetl, J. Mircuerr. 1965. An impres-
sive Gray Jay migration. The Canadian
Field-Naturalist 79: 157-158.
Devitt, O. E. 1961. An example of the
whisper song of the Gray Jay (Perisoreus
canadensis). The Auk 78: 265-266.
Dow, Doveras D. 1965. The role of saliva
in food storage by the Gray Jay. The Auk
82: 139-154.
GRINNELL, JosePpH. 1900. Jz Macouin,
Joun, and James M. Macourn. Catalogue
of Canadian Birds. Government Printing
Bureau, Ottawa.
Jeni, JosepH R. Jr. 1968. The breeding of
Smith’s Longspur. The Wilson Bulletin
80: 123-149.
Lawrence, Louise pE Kirmrine. 1947. Five
days with a pair of nesting Canada Jays.
The Canadian Field-Naturalist 61: 1-11.
THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
LAWRENCE, LOUISE DE Kiritine. 1957. Dis-
placement singing in a Canada Jay (Peri-
soreus canadensis. The Auk 74: 260-261.
LawrReENcE, LoutsE bE KIRILINE. 1968.
Notes on hoarding nesting material, dis-
play, and flycatching in the Gray Jay
(Perisoreus canadensis). The Auk 85: 139.
Nice, Marcaret M. 1937. Studies in the
life history of the Song Sparrow. Dover
Publications, Inc. New York. (1964 re-
print).
Roserts, J. O. L. 1966. Report on 1966
spring operation of P.P.B.O. at Whitefish
Point, Michigan. Ontario Bird Banding II:
(4) 11-17.
Scott, J. P. 1967. The evolution of social
behavior in dogs and wolves. American
Zoologist 7: 373-381.
SkUTcH, ALEXANDER F. 1935. Helpers at
the nest. The Auk: 52: 257-273.
STiRLING, Davin. 1968. Notes on food and
feeding habits of some wintering birds.
The Canadian Field-Naturalist 82: 14-17.
WarreEN, Oscar B. 1899. A chapter in the
life history of the Canada Jay. The Auk
16: 12-19.
Accepted June 2, 1969
LIGHTNING FIRES IN SASKATCHEWAN GRASSLAND
J. S. Rowe
Department of Plant Ecology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon
INTRODUCTION
HAve LIGHTNING fires been important in the ecology of native grasslands? The
question has long been argued, a sure sign that substantial evidence is scarce.
This report documents the occurrence of lightning fires in southwestern Saskat-
chewan grassland in 1967.
Making a case for early man as a congenital arsonist, Stewart (1956, p,
128) stated: “I have found no evidence that lightning ignited (the) vegetation
on the plains and prairies at times and places to cause widespread grass fires.
He called attention to the similar opinions of Plummer (1912): “I have been
able to discover no authentic record of any grass fire ever being ignited by
lightning”, of Gleason (1913) who wrote that he could find “no record of a
prairie fire produced by lightning”, and of Braun-Blanquet (1932) who stated
that fire “contrary to the opinion of some American investigators” is to be
classed among the anthropogenous factors.
Stewart’s view was contradicted by Malin (1956, p. 350) who, however,
adduced only two references to lightning fires in grassland, both drawn from
a 1911 Kansas newspaper! Noting the deficiency of evidence, Tukey (1956,
p. 949) observed that “the collection and quantitative study of many more
such examples might teach us about the frequency of lightning-induced grass
fires... Then we might be able to make much better judgements of the
importance of Indian fires in the North American grassland”.
The importance of lightning as a phenomenon affecting vegetation has
recently been assessed by Komarek (1966), who referred to a number of eye-
witness accounts of prairie lightning fires on the plains of the western U.S.A.,
particularly in grassland districts of the National Forests. Raby (1966) as-
sembled historical information that implicates lightning as at least one cause of
the fires that plagued western Canada in early settlement days. He presented
a letter by John Macoun, Naturalist with the Geological Survey of Canada,
from which the following quotation (p. 99) is taken: “I may say that last
season and in that year of 1893 fires were caused by lightning setting fire to
the grass. In one thunder-storm last summer three fires were started at Crane
Lake by lightning striking the prairie.” Crane Lake is in southwestern
Saskatchewan.
SASKATCHEWAN LIGHTNING FIRES
In September of 1967 the radio carried reports of lightning fires in south-
western Saskatchewan grasslands. From the Royal Canadian Mounted Police
at Swift Current I obtained the names of ranchers reputed to have seen fires
started on their rangelands during thunder-storms, and they in turn referred
me to additional observers. Information obtained by correspondence with
thirteen men in the general area shown in Figure 1 is sumarized in Table 1.
There can be little doubt that these reports are authentic, as corroborative
317
318 THe CANADIAN Fietp-NATURALIST Vol. 83
evidence was also collected from the RCMP (who frequently are involved in
fighting the fires) as well as from soil surveyors and meteorologists familiar
with the southwestern part of the province.
In the spring of 1968 I visited several of the burned areas near the Inter-
national boundary south of Swift Current and interviewed two ranchers who
had witnessed lightning fires in the previous fall. ‘They were astonished to
hear that the occurrence of lightning-ignited prairie fires had been questioned,
for this threat to their grazing resource is recurrent and most dangerous in
years when a moist spring with lush growth is followed by summer drought.
So serious is the problem that in many districts the ranchers have co- operatively
organized fire-spotting and fire- -fighting systems to detect and contain fires set
by lightning.
Although fires were fairly extensive in southwest Saskatchewan in 1967,
it is not possible to estimate the percentage of open rangeland burned. Nor is
there much information on the frequency of lightning fire years such as
1967, although respondents mentioned 1937, 1958, 1961 and 1966. On this slim
evidence, perhaps one year in six has the combination of grass cover fuel and
“dry storm” weather conducive to ignition of grasslands by lightning in south-
west Saskatchewan.
Frre EFFEcts
Two lightning-fired areas in Ranges 7 and 8 of Township 1, west of the
3rd Meridian, were examined on May 25, 1968. The grasslands belong to the
Stipa-Bouteloua-A gropyron faciation of the Mixed Prairie Association accord-
ing to Coupland (1961). The burns were estimated to be twelve square miles
and one square mile in size. East and west boundaries were clearly defined, as
the fires had run southward from the points of ignition before brisk winds.
The contrast between the clean-burn ground and the unburned ground with its
carry-over of dead foliage and litter was striking. Because of the earliness of
the season it was not possible to make a detailed floristic comparison of burned
and adjacent unburned areas but the following effects of the fires were
obvious.
On dry stony hilltops and hillsides where vegetation had been sparse, the
fire had burned off the grass-herb cover and exposed a ground stratum of
Selaginella densa apparently unharmed and protecting the slopes from erosion.
The chief sprouting species in the clubmoss mat was prairie wool, Carex
eleocharis, accompanied by sprigs of unidentified grasses. Pulsatilla jndovieiana,
prairie crocus, was the prominent resprouting herb. Sagebrush, Artemisia cana,
had been practically eliminated from these sites; not only had the woody stems
been consumed but in some places the fire had eaten into the tap-roots several
inches below the soil surface, the former position of each bush being marked
by a circular black patch with a small hole or a charcoal stub in the center.
On moister sites with gentler slopes where the adjacent grassland suggested
that Baa -burn vegetation had been dense, the fire was more destructive. In
some places the Selaginella mat had been completely removed to mineral soil,
destroying as well the living crowns of the grasses. Agropyron dasystachyum
in particular had suffered severely, its crowns burned out over areas up to 10
1969 Rowe: Licgurnine Fires in GRASSLANDS 319
55°
Br ini As)
Albert
+S askatoon
>
| 3 9°
inten
Figure 1. Solid squares mark reported lightning fires in grasslands of southern Saskatchewan.
feet in diameter. Substantial patches of Rosa acicularis had apparently been
killed too, for there were no signs of resprouting among the charred stems.
DiscussION
The above observations are consistent with many reports in the literature
showing that fire is relatively more destructive of woody perennials than of
grasses and herbs. Fire clearly favours the expansion of grasslands at the
expense of shrubs and of trees. But although there is general acceptance of
the idea that fire, from whatever cause, is a factor in grassland ecology, its
importance has been difficult to assess.
Vol. 83
THe CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
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1969 Rowe: LigHTnine Fires in GRASSLANDS 323
Borchert (1950) placed fire as simply one of a number of factors operating
in North American grasslands “under the master hand of climate”. Others,
unwilling to accept the implied concepts of grassland climates and climax
grasslands, have proposed that fire plays a fundamental role in maintaining
grassland against the invasion of woody plants (Wells 1965). In the extreme
it has been proposed that all grasslands are fire disturbance types (Sauer 1950).
The view that some grasslands owe their existence almost entirely to fire while
others do not (Dix 1964) seems reasonable in the light of present limited
knowledge.
The key questions concern frequency and extent of fires in grassland
regions. In almost any year grasslands could burn, the fuel is there, usually in
a dry state after midsummer. Whether or not they do burn depends on
the two chief agents of ignition; man and lightning. The former we know
fired the grasslands regularly in historic times (Bird 1961, Raby 1966). Did
the latter operate with similar effectiveness in prehistoric times, perhaps over
millions of years? The problem is important, for if lightning fires were inti-
mate environmental events during the evolution of grassland ecosystems, then
fire or alternate techniques that mimic its effects may be essential tools for the
management of rangelands today (see the recent review by Daubenmire, 1968).
Although historic and prehistoric times are difficult to decipher, new
methods such as analysis of thermally-altered carbon in soils, in lake sediments
and organic deposits may produce helpful clues in the future. The subject
will also be clarified by contemporary studies of grassland meteorology, and
by experimental ecology that compares control-burned with unburned grass-
lands.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The assistance of Mr. N. A. Skoglund in identifying the vegetative material
iS gratefully acknowledged. The project was supported by Grant 161046 of
the National Research Council of Canada.
REFERENCES
Birv, R. D. 1961. Ecology of the aspen
parkland. Canada Department of Agricul-
ture Research Branch Publication No.
1066, Ottawa, 155 pp.
Borcuert, JoHN R. 1950. The climate of
the central North American grassland.
Annals: Association of American Geo-
graphy XL: 1-39.
Braun-BianovEt, J. 1932. Plant sociology.
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 439
Boe ak. R. T. 1961. A reconsideration
of grassland classification in the Northern
Great Plains of North America. Journal
of Ecology 49: 135-167.
Daupenmire, R. 1968. Ecology of fire in
grasslands. p. 209-266. In J. B. Cragg (ed.),
Advances in Ecological Research, Vol. 5,
Academic Press, London and New York.
Dix, R. L. 1964. A history of biotic and
climatic changes within the North Ameri-
can grassland. p. 71-89. Im D. J. Crisp
(ed.), Grazing in Terrestrial Marine En-
vironments. Blackwell Scientific Publica-
tions, Oxford.
Gieason, H. A. 1913. The relation of
forest distribution and prairie fires to the
Middle West. Torreya 13: 173-181.
Komarek, E. V. Sr. 1966. The meteoro-
logical basis for fire ecology. Proc. Fifth
Annual Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Con-
ference, p. 85-125. Publ. of Tall Timbers
Res. Sta., Tallahassee, Fla.
324
Maun, JAMes C. 1956. The grassland of
North America: Its occupance and the
challenge of continuous reappraisals. p.
350-366. In Wm. L. Thomas (ed.), Man’s
Role in Changing the Face of the Earth.
University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Ill.
Prummer, F. G. 1912. Lightning in rela-
tion to forest fires. U.S.D.A. Forest Ser-
vice Bull. No. 111, Wash. D.C., 39 pp.
Rasy, S. 1966. Prairie fires in the North-
West. Saskatchewan History 19: 81-99.
Sauer, Cart QO. 1950. Grassland climax,
fire and man. Journal of Range Manage-
ment 3: 16-22.
Tue CanapiaAn Fietp-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
STEWART, Omer C. 1956. Fire as the first
great force employed by man. p. 115-133.
In Wm. L. Thomas (ed.), Man’s Role in
Changing the Face of the Earth. Univer-
sity of Chicago Press, Chicago, Ill.
Tukey, J. W. 1956. Discussion: Tech-
niques of Learning. p. 949. In Wm. L.
Thomas (ed.), Man’s Role in Changing
the Face of the Earth. Univeristy of
Chicago Press, Chicago, Ill.
WELts, Puitie V. 1965. Scarp woodlands,
transported grassland soils, and concept of
grassland climate in the Great Plains
Region. Science 148: 246-249.
Accepted July 5, 1969
we
SEX AND AGE VARIATION IN RED SQUIRREL
SKULLS FROM MISSOULA COUNTY, MONTANA’
Car H. NEL Is
Department of Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin, Madison
INTRODUCTION
Rep sQuiRREL (Tamziasciurus hudsonicus) taxonomy is based primarily upon
coat color but some work has been done on cranial variations among the
different subspecies (Allen 1898; Hatt 1929; Durrant 1952; Hall and Kelson
1959; Findley 1961). Basic data on sex and age variation in red squirrel skulls
are limited. Layne (1954) found that males exceeded females in most but not
all cranial dimensions, and that growth of the skull was essentially complete by
20 weeks of age. Findley (1961) found some cranial differences associated
with age and body size.
This study was conducted to determine the nature and extent of variation
in red squirrel skulls associated with sex and age.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The skulls used in this study came from Montana State University Zoology
Museum, Missoula (36 skulls), and Section of Upland Ecology, U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Missoula, Montana (72 skulls). All skulls of Tamuasciurus hud-
sonicus richardsoni were collected in Missoula County, western Montana.
The following cranial measurements (with abbreviations used in the
tables) were taken to the nearest 0.1 mm with calipers:
Occipital-nasal length (Oc-nl Igth) as described by Layne (1954).
Length of nasals (Lgth nsls) as described by Howell (1918).
Zygomatic breadth (Zygmt brdth) as described by Layne (1954).
1Contribution of the Department of Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin, Madison.
1969 NEeELuis: SEx AND AGE VARIATION IN SQUIRRELS BD
Interorbital breadth (Iorbt brdth) as described by Howell (1918).
Postorbital breadth (Porbt brdth) as described by Howell (1918).
Palatal length (Pltl lgth) was taken from the proximal surface of the base
of the incisors to the posterior-most point of the palatine bone.
Palatal width at M1 (Plt wd @ M1) was taken across the palatine bone at
the alveoli of M1.
Tooth row length (Tth rw lIgth) as described by Layne (1954).
Breadth of rostrum (Brdth rstrm) was taken across the rostrum just
anterior to the swellings associated with the incisors.
Mandible length (Mndbl Igth) as described by Layne (1954).
Five age groups were recognized based upon maxillary tooth eruption,
replacement, and wear:
Stage I: M1, M2, and/or M3 not fully erupted; P4 lacteal.
Stage II: Permanent P4 replacing lacteal P4 but not fully erupted; all
molars fully erupted but show little, if any, wear.
Stage III: P4 permanent, wear on M1 and M2 slight with no dentine
showing; dentine may or may not be visible as small spots on
M3.
Stage IV: dentine showing on up to half of surface of M1 and/or M2,
M3 showing as much as two-thirds dentine.
Stage V: dentine showing on over half of surfaces of M1 and M2 and
over two-thirds of M3; M3 worn smooth and M2 nearly
smooth.
Since no known-aged squirrels were available the age in weeks or months of
the different stages must be estimated. Stage I probably included squirrels
between 6 and 10-12 weeks of age since young do not emerge from the nest
until about 6 weeks and have all molars fully erupted by 10-12 weeks (Layne
1954). Likewise, Stage II probably includes squirrels between 10-12 and
19-20 weeks since P4 is either lacteal or being replaced during this period
(Layne 1954). Stage HI squirrels are possibly between 5 and 10-12 months of
age since most of them were collected between September and March; young
are usually born in April and May (Hatt 1929; Layne 1954, C. H. Halvorson,
pers. comm.). Stage IV squirrels, based upon tooth-wear patterns in squirrels
_ taken in the same month, would probably be about 1 to 3 years old, and Stage
V squirrels are possibly over 3 years old.
- Four skulls were measured 15 times each to determine measuring accuracy.
A maximum error of 0.1 mm for all measurements except length of nasals (0.2
mm) was found.
RESULTS
Variation Due to Sex
Sample sizes in Stages I, II, and V were too small to warrant comparisons.
No difference due to sex was found in any cranial measurement of Stage III
skulls (Table 1). But significant differences (P < 0.05) due to sex were found
in occipital-nasal length and zygomatic breadth in Stage IV skulls; and the
Vol. 83
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1969 NELLIs: SEX AND AGE VARIATION IN SQUIRRELS 327
t-values for length of nasals and interorbital breadth approached significance
(P < 0.10). Stage IV males averaged larger than females in all measurements
except palatal width at M1 and tooth row length. There is too much overlap
to separate sexes by any cranial measurement.
Variation Due to Age
The data on age differences are shown in Table 2; sexes have been com-
bined in each stage to increase sample size.
Significant (P < 0.05) increases were found among Stages I, II, and HI in
occipital-nasal length, length of nasals, zygomatic breadth, interorbital breadth,
TABLE 2. — Mean, standard error, and sample size for red squirrel skulls from Missoula
County, Montana, by age group (sexes combined)
-Measurement* Stage I Stage II Stage III Stage IV Stage V
Oc-nl Igth 43.37 46.49 48.15 48.43 48.71
734 .299 mS? ANDO 240
3 14 28 A2 14
Leth nsls 1335 7 14.70 1525 15.52 15.60
220 142 081 074 .129
S 15 30 43 14
Zygmt brdth 24.50 26.32 Ds UP 28.00 V8no2
.600 226 142 116 165
2 12 30 41 14
Iorbt brdth 13.50 14.18 14.85 15.01 15229
SY) 142 So 057 .120
4 15 31 43 14
Porbt brdth | 15.28 L507 15), 17 15. 12 15.06
.166 .102 088 064 5 wiih
+ 16 29 42 14
Pltl Igth 21.30 21.91 22.47 22.56 22.63
334 168 .108 081 -154
4 15 29 43 12
Plt wd @ M1 6.10 5.54 5.30 . 5.28 5.38)
091 096 045 038 063
4 15 31 42 12
Tth rw lgth 8.10 8.10 8.10 8.11 7.84
057 057 .038 .031 054
3 16 31 42 13
Brdth rstrm 6.58 7.19 7.67 1282 7.87
.150 .079 051 048 082
4 16 31 43 11
Mndbl lgth 30.15 32.06 3302 33.94 34.24
. 366 211 135 095 .159
4 13 30 42 14
*See text for abbreviations of measurements.
+Values given in order are: mean in mm, standard error of the mean, and number of skulls
measured.
328 Tue CaNnapiAN Fretp-NATuRALIST Vol. 83
palatal length, breadth of rostrum, and mandible length (Table 3). A signifi-
cant decrease was noted among these stages in palatal width at M1. No
difference was found in postorbital breadth or tooth row length among these
age groups. The significant changes noted in older squirrels were: increases
in length of nasals between Stages III and IV, interorbital breadth between
Stages IV and V, breadth of rostrum between Stages III and IV; and a decrease
in tooth row length between Stages IV and V (Table 3).
Postorbital breadth and tooth row length show the least variation due to
age (tooth row length decreases significantly in old squirrels as a result of
wear). Occipital-nasal length, length of nasals, zygomatic breadth, interorbital
breadth, breadth of rostrum, and mandible length all show a steady increase
with age (Table 2).
Sample Size
A sample of about 110 Stage III or 160 Stage IV skulls, if the sexes are
combined, would be statistically reliable at the 95 percent level. Respective
sample sizes would be 75 and 110 at the 90 percent level, 50 and 70 at the 80
percent level, and 30 and 40 at the 68 percent level. If an equal sex ratio is
assumed, the total sample required would be about the same when the sexes are
separated as when they are combined. Sample size might be reduced somewhat
if squirrels were collected during one part of one year instead of throughout
several years as were the specimens used in this study.
DIscussION
Th results of this study agree with previous work and indicate that adult
male red squirrels have slightly larger skulls than adult females (Hatt 1929;
Layne 1954). This study also confirms the finding of Layne (1954) that these
sex differences are not large enough to allow sex determination from any
cranial measurement. I found a significant difference in zygomatic breadth in
Stage IV skulls associated with sex, but Layne (1954) found no sex differences |
in this measurement.
The finding of significant increases in most cranial measurements associated
with age agrees with data presented on other rodents by Allen (1894) and Hall
(1926). Length of nasals and breadth of rostrum apparently continued signifi-
cant growth longer than other cranial components.
Hall (1926) found that postorbital breadth and tooth row length increase
little, if any, with age in ground squirrels (Spermophilus beecheyi); 1 found no
increase in either measurement with age in red squirrels; and Findley (1961:
317) states that postorbital breadth in red squirrels “. . . does not change with
increasing age or size”. Layne (1954) has also shown that tooth row length
does not increase with age after about 9 weeks. However, Findley (1961)
reports that larger skulls have longer tooth rows.
The decrease I found in tooth row length is caused by wearing away of
the widest part of the tooth crown and thereby allowing the teeth to move
closer together; Allen (1894) found a similar decrease in Neotoma micropus.
If the alveolar length of the tooth row, in place of the crown length, were
used this decrease might be avoided.
1969 NELLIs: SEx AND AGE VARIATION IN SQUIRRELS 329
TABLE 3. — Comparisons of red squirrel skull measurements between age groups
(sexes combined)
Means and sample sizes appear in Table 2
Stages I vs. II | Stages II vs. III | Stages III vs. 1V | Stages IV vs.V
Measurement*
t- Signif. t- Signif. t- Signif. t- Signif.
value level value level value level value level
Oc-nl Iigth 3.94 01 4.94 01 1.44 ns 1.04 ns
Lgth nsls 5.83 01 3.35 01 2.45 .05 0.54 ns
Zygmt brdth 2.88 05 5.65 01 153 ns 1.58 ns
lorbt brdth 1.95 nst 3.81 01 1.34 ns DAM .05
Porbt brdth 1.08 ns 0.74 ns 0.46 ns 0.47 ns
Pit! Igth 1.63 ns 2.80 01 0.67 ns 0.40 ns
Plt wd @ Mi 4.24 01 2.26 .05 0.34 ns 0.68 ns
~Tth rw Igth 0.00 ns 0.00 ns 0.20 ns 4.35 01
Brdth rstrm 3.59 01 16.00 01 2.11 05 0.53 ns
Mndb! Igth 4.52 O01 6.24 01 1.94 ns 1.62 ns
*See test for abbreviations of measurements.
tNot significantly different (P > 0.05)..
My data agree with those of Layne (1954) in indicating that individual
variability in red squirrel skulls is small. It, therefore, appears that statistical]
analysis involving 100 to 200 skulls from any locality could be profitably
undertaken for a taxonomic review of the red squirrel. I found highly signifi-
cant (P < 0.01) differences in all 4 cranial parameters tested between Montana
and New York squirrels (T. b. loquax) as reported by Layne (1954); T. h.
richardson was larger. ‘The limited data presented by Allen (1898) and
Findley (1961) strengthen the possibility of basing red squirrel taxonomy on
cranial measurements. However, this study indicates that skulls should be
separated by age group, and possibly by sex, if comparisons between different
populations are made for taxonomic or other purposes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to thank Dr. Philip L. Wright and Mr. Curtis H. Halvorson for
providing access to the skulls in the Montana State University Zoology Museum
and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service collection, respectively. Dr. Wright,
Mr. Halvorson, and Dr. Richard D. Taber provided valuable advise on manu-
script preparation. I also wish to thank my wife, Jane, for help with recording,
analyzing, and tabulating the data.
REFERENCES
ALLEN, J. A. 1894. Cranial variation in (subgenus Tamzasciurus). Bulletin of the
Neotoma micropus due to growth and American Museum of Natural History 10:
individual differentiation. Bulletin of the 249-298.
American Museum of Natural History 6: Durrant, S. D. 1952. Mammals of Utah:
233-246. taxonomy and distribution. University of
1898. Revision of the chicka- Kansas Museum of Natural History Publi-
rees, or North American red squirrels cation 6: 1-549.
330 THe CANADIAN FIeELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
Finpiey, J. S. 1961. Geographic variation
in New Mexican chickarees. Journal of
Mammalogy 42: 313-322.
Hat, E.R. 1926. Changes during growth
in the skull of the rodent Otospermophilus
grammurus beecheyi. University of Cali-
fornia Publication in Zoology 21: 355-404.
—————— , and K. R. Ketson. 1959. The
mammmals of North America: Vol. I.
Ronald Press Co., New York, N.Y. 546 +
79 pp.
Harr, Ro VT. 1929. The jredesquirccle its
life history and habits, with special refer-
ence to the Adirondacks of New York and
the Harvard Forest. Roosevelt Wild Life
Annals 2(1): 1-146.
Hower, A. H. 1918. Revision of the
American flying squirrels. North Ameri-
can Fauna 44: 1-64.
Layne, J. N. 1954. The biology of the
red squirrel, Tamziasciurus hudsonicus lo-
quax (Bangs), in central New York,
Ecological Monographs 24: 227-267.
Accepted July 1, 1969
NOTES ON MAMMALS IN ALPINE AREAS OF THE
NORTHERN ST. ELIAS MOUNTAINS,
YUKON TERRITORY AND ALASKA’
BarBaRA M. Murray AND Davin F. Murray
Department of Biology
Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John’s
Tue St. Elias Mountains are situated in northwestern British Columbia, south-
western Yukon Territory, and reach their northern extent at the White River
in Alaska (cf. Wahrhaftig, 1965, Plate 1). “These spectacular mountains have
the most extensive glacierization in continental North America. Extensive
areas of alpine vegetation are found adjacent to the glaciers, and limited tundra
is found on nunataks in the icefield. Incidental to botanical studies during the
summers of 1965-68, observations were made on mammals in the vicinity of
the Kaskawulsh, Steele, and Russell glaciers which are among those flowing
eastward from the icefield on the continental slope of the range (Fig. 1).
Three study areas are along the Kaskawulsh Glacier and the Slims River.
(1) Kaskawulsh Nunatak. At the edge of the icefield an extensive bedrock
ridge protrudes through the ice and divides the upper Kaskawulsh Glacier into
North and Central arms. At the extreme downglacier end of the nunatak is a
low, vegetated knoll (Fig. 2) The knoll is about 20 miles upglacier from the
glacier terminus and lies a few miles below the firn limit. It is separated by a
mile of ice on each side from adjacent mountains. ‘The relatively stable and
vegetated surface is at 6000 feet, about 200 feet above the Central Arm, but
somewhat less above the North Arm. The vegetated surface is less than 4 mile
in its longest dimension. (2) Observation Mountain. Just upglacier from the
terminus and on the north side of the Kaskawulsh Glacier is a saddle at 5000-
5500 feet between two ridges that reach 7000 feet (Fig. 3). The saddle drops
abruptly to the glacier on one side and into the canyon of Canada Creek on the
other. (3) Between Sheep and Bullion creeks in the mountains north of the
Slims River is a large expanse of rolling tundra at 5000 feet, with ridge crests
to 6000 feet. Muller (1967, p. 124, Plate 2) gives an aerial view of this locality.
Two study areas are in the vicinity of the Steele Glacier: (4) on the south
wall at the big bend in the glacier at 5800-7000 feet (Wood, 1942, p. 46, Fig. 8
is an aerial view), and (5) on the north side of the valley at 6000-7000 feet
(Wood, 1942, p. 46, Fig. 7 is a photograph of this area).
Three study areas at 4000-6000 feet are in the mountains flanking the upper
White River on the south side: (6) near the Guerin Glacier, (7) near the
Sheep Glacier, and (8) near the terminus of the Russell Glacier.
The Icefield Ranges Research Project (jointly sponsored by the American
Geographical Society and the Arctic Institute of North America), under whose
auspices the botanical studies were begun, has maintained camps in the icefield;
one of these is the Seward Nunatak (9) at 6000 feet on the upper Seward
Glacier on the coastal slope of the range (Wood, 1948, p. 110 is a photograph
1Studies in Biology from Memorial University of Newfoundland, Number 159.
2Present address: Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alaska, College, Alaska, 99701.
331
332
Tue CANADIAN FIeELD-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
of this site). This is a small, sparsely vegetated nunatak. It is the most isolated
of all the sites and is miles conn extensive vegetation.
Little information is available concerning the mammals in the St. Elias
Mountains, especially in remote interior areas.
Banfield (1960) presented an
annotated list of the mammals of the Kluane Game Sanctuary, of which two
thirds is in the St. Elias Mountains, and he cited previous work in the area.
This paper presents our notes and reports by other participants in the Icefield
Ranges Research Project.
ANNOTATED LIST OF MAMMALS
GrizzLy Bear. Ursus arctos. We observed
bears or sign at areas 1-8. At Observation
Mountain, where the greatest variety of
wildlife was seen, two Grizzly Bears (one
brown and one blonde) were seen periodi-
cally throughout July 1966. The bears pre-
ferred cool, moist, north- and east-facing
slopes where lush herb mats of the snow-
flush areas provided food. One such site was
near our camp, and we were able to observe
a bear on 9 July as it alternately fed and
rested for nine hours. The bear was sighted
at 0930 hr.; it grazed until 1200 hr. when
it lay on its side and rested for an hour. It fed
again until 1430 hr., then rested until 1600
hr. After grazing until 1800 hr. it was alerted
to our presence by the noise of radio contact
with the project plane overhead. The bear
went high onto talus and lay down and look-
ed in the direction of our camp for 30 min-
utes before disappearing over the mountain
at 1900 hr
On 22 July a Grizzly Bear gave chase to
10 adult Mountain goats and 6 kids up a
very steep slope. The speed and duration of
the sprint was impressive, but the goats
easily reached the safety of the ridge crest
and disappeared. Another bear was seen run-
ning back and forth between ground squir-
rel burrows, presumably in an attempt to
trap ground squirrels that had strayed too
far from their burrows. Otherwise the bears
spent their time seeking vegetable food.
Studies on Grizzly Bear ecology are being
conducted in Kluane Game Sanctuary by A.
M. Pearson, Canadian Wildlife Service.
Timper Wo tr. Canis lupus. Little Timber
Wolf sign was observed along the Kaska-
wulsh and Steele drainages, and only one
was glimpsed in the forest on the north side
of the Slims River. At the upper White
River in Alaska, sign was more common
where tracks of wolves, caribou, and grizzly
dotted many gravel bars.
Coyote. Canis latrans. Tracks were seen
frequently along the Slims River floodplain
and up into the tundra, and yapping was
heard on several occasions when we camped
near site 3.
Rep Fox. Vulpes vulpes. Red Foxes were
seen at Observation Mountain, the north side
of the Steele valley, and along the upper
White River. One afternoon we observed
a Red Fox barking at and advancing toward
a Wolverine. The Wolverine was backing
away and was in no apparent hurry to break
off the encounter.
Wease. Mustela sp. A weasel (probably M.
ermineda) was sighted on two occasions in
the first week of August 1964, at the Seward
Nunatak. It was believed to be feeding on
bird remains at the base of a cliff (Ray
Lougeay, personal communication). This is
just one of several remarkable cases of mam-
mals having traveled long distances over
glaciers. Pruitt (1957) reported a weasel at
15,000 feet on Mt. McKinley, Alaska, and
concluded that it had “traveled some two
vertical miles above timberline . . . before
dying, presumably of starvation.”
Wotrverine. Gulo gulo. Reported by Ban-
field (1960) as common. A Wolverine was
seen five times in July (twice on the 8th at
0900 hr. and 1600 hr., at 0400 hr. on the 9th,
and at 0200 hr. on the 12th, in addition to
the fox incident on the 17th) at Observation
Mountain. Its curiosity was not dampened
by being chased twice by our dog, when it
again exhibited no signs of aggressiveness.
Other Wolverines were seen on the south
side of the Steele Glacier (Walter A. Wood,
personal communication) and at 7000 feet on
a small glacier near the Steele Glacier
(Michael Hebb, personal communication)
in August 1967.
1969 Murray ann Murray: MAamMMats oF YUKON AND ALASKA 333
GEN AA
I ALASKA
Burwash
Landing
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oe
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Ficure 1. Study areas.
Cowuear. Felis concolor. The nearest reliable
(published) records of Cougar are from
northern British Columbia (Rand, 1944) and
from west of Watson Lake, Y.T. (Young-
man, 1968). However, during 1964-1966 resi-
dents along the Alaska Highway between
Haines Junction and Burwash Landing and
some Icefield Ranges Research Project per-
sonnel reported sighting a Cougar along the
Alaska Highway and the environs of the
south end of Kluane Lake. Neither these
sightings nor the reference in Wood (1967)
have been verified. Nevertheless, it is signifi-
cant that people from the area and familiar
with the wildlife caught glimpses of an animal
they could not immediately identify.
Lynx. Lynx canadensis. We saw no live
Lynx but found an entire Lynx skeleton in
334
a snow accumulation area on the Kaska-
wulsh Nunatak in 1965. They have been
seen well into the icefield near the base of
Mt. Bering and on the Lowell Glacier (M.
E. Alford, 1966, personal communication).
Hoary Marmot. Marmota caligata. Marmots
were not observed by Banfield (1960) but
were reported by Cameron (1952). We saw
only two marmots at Observation Mountain
in July 1966.
Arctic Grounp SquiRREL. Spermophilus un-
dulatus. Arctic Ground Squirrels are com-
mon from meadows and flats at Kluane Lake
(2600 feet) to the alpine areas, where they
are found on tundra and on sparsely vege-
tated moraines up to 6500-7000 feet. The
most detailed observations were made be-
tween 1 July and 1 August 1965 on the
Kaskawulsh Nunatak, where there were at
least 13 adults, 7 with young. The ground
squirrel population more than doubled in
1965; at least 23 young were born in litters
of one to four.
The limited habitat restricts the size of
the population, and once maximum numbers
are attained, dispersal of the annual incre-
ment becomes a necessity. Even before the
emergence of the young, all suitable habitat
on the knoll was utilized by the adult popu-
lation. In July 1967 we noted no further
development of burrow systems, which indi-
cates that the carrying capacity of the ter-
rain had been reached.
In addition to dispersal, the origin of the
population is a problem, since the nunatak is
separated from adjacent mountains by a mile
of ice. Two routes are possible for migration
to or emigration from the nunatak. The
stock for the population may have originated
from the areas of tundra at the glacier ter-
minus for which the medial moraine could
have served as a route to the nunatak. How-
ever, this is unlikely, since it would require
a 15 to 20 mile trek over rough, essentially
vegetation-free terrain. A more likely source
is from known ground squirrel populations
in mountains directly across the ice from
the nunatak, where tundra vegetation is
present, but discontinuous (Peter Anderton
and Gil Dewart, personal communication).
In this case the medical moraine could serve
to direct ground squirrels crossing the glac-
ier from either side, dow nplacier from the
nunatak. 7
THe CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
The nunatak could have been visited first
during Hypsithermal time when its surface
was ice-free, and the glacier terminus had
begun its retreat. Maximum retreat is docu-
mented to within about 10 miles of the
nunatak (Denton and Stuiver, 1966) and is
postulated to a few miles upglacier of the
nunatak (Borns and Goldthwait, 1966),
which would place the nunatak in contact
with the valley floor.
Due to their impact on the vegetation, it
is unlikely that an Arctic Ground Squirrel
population could persist for a long period
of time on the nunatak. Burrowing activity
obliterates or buries vegetation. This and
geomorphic processes promote soil instabil-
ity, thus revegetation is slow.
Young were first seen on the nunatak on
11 July around a burrow system which had
been snow covered until the end of the first
week in July. The mother grazed at a con-
siderable distance from the young, and even
remained in the burrow for up to 20 minutes
while the young grazed and dozed near the
burrow entrance. Two weeks after emer-
gence the young were ranging far out of the
territory of their natal burrow and were
digging and “hay collecting.” The ground
squirrels did not appear to be wary, and no
predation was observed during July 1965,
probably because of our presence. However,
grizzly and canid scats and the Lynx skeleton
indicate that these predators visit the area.
Any large predator could drastically reduce
population size in a short time. An Arctic
Ground Squirrel carcass was found decom-
posed intact indicating that predators do
not necessarily reach the nunatak each year.
No raptors were seen, but skeletal remains
of one were found.
Ground squirrel territories were well de-
fined and covered most of the vegetated
surface. Boundary squabbles occurred every
morning, and the antagonism between
ground squirrels seemed to be of greater
intensity and frequency than on the tundra
above the Slims River where extensive habi-
tat was available. Late in July there were
signs of antagonism between mothers and
young. One young ground squirrel was seen
on the moraine 200 feet below the nunatak
in early August.
Greatest population pressure occurs in
the fall when the young of the year Tequire
hibernacula, and probably most emigration
attempts would be made then. However,
1969 Murray AND Murray: MamMMats or YUKON AND ALASKA 335
Kaskawulsh Nunatak.
a
z
=)
~
336
glacier conditions would be most hazardous
for ground squirrels at this time. Since the
nunatak lies below the firn limit, the cover
of snow melts by late July. Consequently
crevasses are no longer bridged, and the
ice surface is crisscrossed by meltwater
streams, some of which are swift and deep.
Early spring conditions would present far
less difficulty, but then one would expect
the necessity to seek new territories to be
less severe.
A behavior study with a tagging and re-
capture program on the nunatak and flank-
ing mountains could yield information as to
the dynamics of an Arctic Ground Squirrel
population in a restricted and isolated area,
and whether or not they do, in fact, re-
peatedly attempt movement across the glac-
ier, and if so, at what season, and with what
success. Since a weasel was seen on the
Seward Nunatak and pikas or pika sign have
been found there and on the Kaskawulsh
Nunatak, it is apparent that these small
mammals are also capable of crossing large
expanses of ice. A. H. Tinker (personal
communication) confirmed by trapping
without success in 1966 our impression that
mice and voles are not on the Kaskawulsh
Nunatak.
Sincinc Vote. Microtus gregalis (M. miurus).
We did no trapping, but the distinctive hay-
piles (consisting here of Salix arctica and S.
barrattiana) and their “singing” identified a
population of M. gregalis on the tundra
between Sheep and Bullion creeks in 1966.
There was more sign in 1967, and the popu-
lation was obviously high. We noted at
least 25 burrow entrances in an area 5 by 8
feet. By June 1968 the population had
crashed; no animals were seen and much of
the old haypiles remained, although on the
north side of the Steele valley M. gregalis
were plentiful. During 1967 when the mouse
population was high between Sheep and
Bullion creeks, numbers of this species were
low at nearby Kluane Lake (A. H. Tinker,
personal communication).
CotiareD Pika. Ochotona collaris. Pikas
were observed in areas of blocky talus at
Observation Mountain and in the vicinity of
Steele Glacier among moraine boulders and
in talus. Pikas or sign have also been noted
well into the icefield. According to Walter
A. Wood (1948, and personal communica-
THE CANADIAN FIeELD-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
tion) pikas were found on Seward Nunatak
and other nunataks in the vicinity in 1945
and 1948 but were not seen in 1951. We
found old pika scats and the remains of a
haypile in the talus of a snow accumulation
area on the Kaskawulsh Nunatak. No pikas
were heard or observed there in July 1965,
1966, or 1967.
PorcuPine. Erethizon dorsatum. A Porcupine
was seen on 4 July 1968 at 5500 feet on the
tundra between Sheep and Bullion creeks.
Moose. Alces alces. Banfield (1960) men-
tioned evidence of feeding and tracks on
the tundra. We saw Moose tracks along an
old mining road in the tundra above the
Slims River. The road was heavily used
since it is a convenient route through the
shrub zone between the forest and tundra.
Tracks and scats of bear, moose, fox, and
coyote were common.
Three Moose were seen together on two
occasions a week apart on the tundra at
Observation Mountain in 1966. They spent
18 hours there on 15 July and 12 hours there
on 23 July and climbed on talus to 6000
feet and rested high on the slope for several
hours not far from a band of White Sheep.
Caripou. Rangifer tarandus. Caribou were
observed on the Burwash Uplands west of
Kluane Lake and in the White River valley,
on the floodplain and on the tundra. Several
sets of small antlers, presumably from fe-
males, were found on high, exposed tundra
slopes near Sheep Glacier indicating that
this may be an area of calving.
Wuite SHeer. Ovis dalli. Banfield (1960)
presented a distribution map for White
Sheep in the Kluane Game Sanctuary. They
are common throughout the St. Elias Moun-
tains; we saw them at locations 2-8. We
camped at Observation Mountain from 6
July to 2 August 1966. Bands of 5 to 20
adults were seen daily. Small bands of lambs
and ewes appeared for the first time that
season on 25 July and were often seen after
that date. Undoubtedly they had been hid-
den in more precipitous areas. As the sum-
mer progressed, the bands of sheep stayed
higher on the mountain, perhaps to remain
near the retreating edge of snowbanks to
feed on the new vegetation.
337
MamMMaA.s oF YUKON AND ALASKA
Murray anp Murray
1969
‘oTppes
‘
ulRIUNOPY UONBAIOSqC
€ ANSI
338
Mountain Goat. Oreamnos americanus.
Banfield (1960) stated that local reports
placed goats in the Alsek River valley alone.
We observed goats at Observation Moun-
tain and in the mountains flanking Bullion
Creek, and in 1914 Auer (1916; cf. Rand,
1945) hunted and photographed them in the
Slims River Canada (Kennedy?) Creek area.
Mountain Goats have been seen on the
Kaskawulsh Nunatak in 1964 (Peter Ander-
ton, personal communication), and many
“beds” and scats were found there. A recent
sighting near the mouth of Steele Creek
THe CANADIAN FIeELD-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
(Cliff Armstrong, personal communication)
places goats further north along the range.
It is possible that Mountain Goats are now
extending their range east and north in the
St. Elias Mountains.
At Observation Mountain one, two, and
three males were seen from time to time
until 21 July when does and kids appeared.
The males often rested and grazed near and
even mixed with bands of White Sheep. The
nursery bands ranged in size from 2 to 10
adults with up to 6 kids.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
These notes were made possible through support from grants awarded to
the second author by: Arctic Institute of North America 95, 1965; National
Science Foundation GB-5008, 1966, 1967; and National Research Council of
Canada A-4467, 1968.
We wish to thank Walter A. Wood, Director, for his
encouragement and aid and other participants in the Icefield Ranges Research
Project. We are grateful to William O. Pruitt, Jr., Memorial University of
Newfoundland, for reading the manuscript.
REFERENCES
Aver, H. A. 1916. Camp Fires in the Yu-
kon. Stewart & Kidd Co., Cincinnati, Ohio.
BanFieLtD, A. W. F. 1960. Notes on the
mammals of the Kluane Game Sanctuary,
Yukon Territory. National Museum of
Canada Bulletin 172, Biological Series 65,
Contributions in Zoology, 1959: 128-135.
Borns, H. W. and R. P. GotptHwair. 1966.
Late-Pleistocene fluctuations of Kaska-
wulsh Glacier, southwestern Yukon Terri-
tory, Canada. American Journal of Science
264: 600-619.
Cameron, A. W. 1952. Notes on mammals
of Yukon. National Museum of Canada
Bulletin 126 (Annual Report, 1950-1951):
176-184.
Denton, G. H. and M. Sruiver. 1966.
Neoglacial chronology, northeastern St.
Elias Mountains, Canada. American Journal
of Science 264: 577-599.
Mutirr, J. E. 1967. Kluane Lake map-
area, Yukon Territory. Geological Survey
of Canada Memoir 340. 137 pp. + 2 maps.
Pruitt, W. O., Jr. 1957. A high altitude
weasel. The Murrelet 38: 36.
Ranp, A. L. 1944. The southern half of
the Alaska Highway and its mammals.
National Museum of Canada Bulletin 98,
Biological Series 27: 1-50.
1945. Mammals of Yukon, Can-
ada. National Museum of Canada Bulletin
100, Biological Series 29: 1-93.
Wanurnartic, C. 1965. Physiographic divi-
sions of Alaska. United States Geological
Survey Professional Paper 482. 52 pp. +6
Pl.
Woop, W. A. 1942. The parachuting of
expedition supplies. Geographical Review
32S SHH) 5.
1948. Project “Snow Cornice.”
Arctic 1) 10721128
1967. A history of mountaineer-
ing in the Saint Elias Mountains. Yukon
Alpine Centennial Expedition. 45 pp.
YouneMaAn, P. M. 1968. Notes on mam-
mals of southeastern Yukon Territory and
adjacent Mackenzie District. National
Museum of Canada Bulletin 223, Contri-
butions to Zoology IV: 70-86.
Accepted July 1, 1969
OBSERVATIONS OF MOOSE FEEDING ON AQUATICS
IN BOWRON LAKE PARK, BRITISH COLUMBIA
British Columbia Fish and Wildlife Branch, Kamloops, B.C.
R. W. Rircey anp N. A. M. VERBEEK
Bowron Lake Provincial Park (lat. 53°N., long. 121°W.) features a chain of
lakes forming a rough square with a perimeter of approximately 73 miles.
Smaller lakes in the southwest part of the park are shallow, relatively warm,
and with little glacial influence while the large lakes are narrow, deep, and fed
by glacial streams.
Moose (Alces alces) are abundant summer residents along the slow moving
~ Bowron River and adjacent lakes. We were able to record their feeding
behavior on aquatics during the summer of 1962. The observations were made
during a general wildlife survey of the park.
MetTHops
Observations were made from July 20 to August 16, 1962. A 10-minute
observation period was taken as a standard. During each observation period
every identifiable food eaten was recorded. Identification of underwater food
was possible from portions of the plant or plants hanging from the moose’s
mouth after surfacing, or from floating parts that appeared after feeding was
completed.
The major food item per observation period was also recorded. This was
usually easy as many aquatics occurred in pure stands. In mixed stands,
identified items were counted. It was necessary to make a subjective choice
of the main food item in only a few cases.
Hasirat
Three types of favored aquatic feeding areas were evident:
1. Lakes and ponds with little or no current, banks relatively steep and
emergent vegetation generally scarce. These waters had heavy growth of
various species of pondweed of which large-leaved pondweed (Potamogeton
amplifolius) and common floating pondweed (P. natans) were most abundant.
P. robinsii occurred in scattered localities. There were few beds of horse-tail
(Equisetum spp.) or of bur-reed (Sparganium sp.).
2. Ponds with shallow banks and temporarily flooded marshes. Here
emergent vegetation was abundant. Higher parts of the meadows were
dominated by sedges (Carex spp.), with a few grasses scattered throughout.
Buck-bean (Menyanthes trifoliata), was common in wet depressions and on
floating hummocks. The transition from meadow to open water was marked
by almost pure stands of swamp horsetail (E. fluviatile). The transition be-
tween marsh edges and the surrounding coniferous forests included stands of
bog birch (Betzla glandulosa), alder (Alnus sp.), and scattered willows (Salix
spp.)-
3. Ponds showing the influence of river currents and the slow flowing
river between the ponds. The most abundant aquatic in the river was Potanzo-
330)
340 Tue CanapiAN Friectp-NaTURALIST Vol. 83
TABLE 1. — Aquatic foods eaten by moose, Bowron Lake Park
Op Occurrence %
Occurrence occurrence as occurrence
Food ie ue in principal principal
observations | observations food food
Equisetum fluviatile 35 56.0 25 39.5
Sparganium spp. 28 42.4 18 DS. i
Potamogeton spp. 24 36.4 16 24.2
Carex spp. 7 10.6 0
Menyanthes trifoliata 5 1.6 5 7.6
Salix spp. 4 6.0 0
Ranunculus sp. 2 3.0) 0
Potentilla palustris 2 3.0 0
Characeae 1 1.5 1 1eS
Lobelia sp. 1 LS) 1 LS
Cornus stolontfera 1 5 0
Totals 110 66 100.0
geton richardsonii; ponds had extensive beds composed solely of bur-reed.
Borders of the river and ponds were composed mainly of horsetail (primarily
swamp horsetail). Willows along the shore were mostly dead or dying as a
result of drowning. The survivors were subjected to beaver cutting and moose
browsing.
RESULTS
A total of 66 observations was made in which the major food or foods
were identified. This covered a period of eleven feeding hours and approxi-
mately 20 different moose were involved.
The most important food was swamp horsetail (Table 1). It occurred
in over half of the observations and was the major food in almost 40%. Murie
(1934) and Shelford and Olsen (1935) noted that horsetail was an important
aquatic food.
Moose feeding on horsetail grazed the stems from a few inches above the
water surface to a few inches below. Usually the plants were chewed off at the
surface and about 6 — 12” of stem was eaten.
De Vos (1958) found that horsetail was eaten until mid-June and suggested
that palatability may decrease after this time. No decrease in use was noted
in this study through July to mid-August. By then, 90% or more of the tips
had been grazed over large areas.
Bur-reed was recorded as the second major food item although species
were not identified as few of the plants were in fruit. Use of bur-reed by
moose has been recorded in Alaska (Palmer 1933), in Ontario (Peterson 1955,
by Cringan in De Vos 1958 study). In Wells Gray Park, British Columbia,
it is the chief aquatic food. ‘ ;
McCabe and McCabe (1928) stated that ‘a sedge of a more fleshy type,
with a triangular stem, is an autumn delicacy’ in their study of the Bowron
1969 Ritcey and VeRBEEK: Moose 1 British CotumMBIA 341
Lake moose. This ‘sedge’ was described as having its leaves flat and growing
along the surface of the water for a foot or more. They examined stomachs
crammed with this material. We believe this to be a species of bur-reed rather
than a sedge.
Two methods of feeding on this plant were observed. Usually moose
walked or swam about picking up mouthfuls of floating leaves. Alternatively,
the head was submerged to just below eye level with leaves, stems, and some-
times roots being eaten. No noticeable depletion of bur-reed beds occurred
through the study period.
Use of several species of pondweed was recorded: Potamogeton richard-
somi, P. robinsii, P. gramineus, P. natans, and P. amplifolius in order of occur-
rence. Other narrow-leaved pondweeds were eaten but not positively identi-
fied. Although it would be difficult to determine the preference for the
~ various species, it appeared that P. robinsii and P. richardsonii were taken more
frequently, in relation to their abundance, than the others. De Vos (1958)
records use of seven species of pondweed in Ontario, four of which were
eaten in this study.
In 12 of 20 observations moose feed with the head more or less completely
under water to obtain pondweeds. Diving was observed twice. The plants
involved in surface feeding were often those washed up along the shore by
storms after being cut loose by outboard motors or feeding moose. The
pondweeds showed no evidence of being depleted by heavy feeding.
Pondweed use might have been heavier in the absence of tourist traffic.
The main travel route for boats dissected some of the better pondweed areas.
The occurrence of all other foods as major items in the diet totalled ap-
proximately 1094. Some of these may be classified as semi-aquatics but we
have preferred to use the definition of Fassett (1957) for an aquatic: ‘a plant
that may, under normal conditions, germinate and grow with at least its base
in the water and is large enough to be seen by the naked eye.’
The water line on feeding moose was recorded in each observation. The
observations (Table 2) showed that adults tended to feed in deeper water than
yearlings and that calves fed only in shallow water. However, yearlings were
often seen swimming and calves were seen swimming on occasion. This sug-
gests that deep water feeding is probably learned much after the ability to swim.
Observations in Wells Gray Park substantiate these findings.
There were insufficient data to evaluate the influence of climatic factors
on aquatic feeding. The situation further defied statistical analysis because
disturbances by boaters were more numerous on hot, clears days) Wes Vios
(1958) saw more moose along lakes in Ontario during clear periods than during
light rains. We believe that deep water feeding occurs more frequently on
hot days and that flies may induce moose to use deeper water. On several
occasions, moose were seen shaking their heads with lowered ears when they
lifted their heads from the water. The flies which attacked the exposed heads
appeared to be large tabanids.
The nutritive value of aquatic plants eaten by moose has not been examined.
However, almost all moose observed in this study were in good condition by
Vol. 83
Tue CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
342
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1969 Ritcey AND VERBEEK: Moose 1x British CoLtuMBIA 343
the end of summer. As aquatic plants appeared so frequently in our observa-
tions we believe that they formed the bulk of the summer diet (although
examination of the periphery of the study area showed that moose ate consider-
able portions of browse in the form of deciduous leaves). We further believe
the nutritional state of moose in this region by summer’s end must depend, to
a large part, on their intake of aquatic plants.
SUMMARY
Observations of moose summering on the lakes and rivers of Bowron Lake
Park showed their distribution to depend on lakes with relatively shallow,
warm water. Plants of three genera: Equisetum, Sparganium, and Potamogeton,
were the most important foods. Adult moose fed more frequently in deep
water than did yearlings. Calves did not feed in deep water. A high per-
centage of available horsetail tips were browsed but no depletion of other
important foods was noted. The moose appeared to be in a good state of
nutrition after summering for a large part on aquatic vegetation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
These observations were made during a survey carried out by the British
Columbia Parks Branch, Department of Recreation and Conservation. Mr.
Jim Lorance was helpful in arranging accommodation and transportation. We
are also thankful to D. J. Spalding for critically reading the manuscript.
REFERENCES
De Vos, ANtToon. 1958. Summer observa- their history and status. Murrelet 9(1):
tions on moose behavior in Ontario. Jour- 1-9.
nal of Mammalogy 39: 128-139. Murr, AporpH. 1934. The moose of Isle
Epwarps, R. Yorke, and Rricey, R. W. Royale. University of Michigan, Museum
1956. The migration of a moose herd. of Zoology, Miscellaneous Publication
Journal of Mammalogy 37: 486-494. No. 25.
Parmer, L. J., 1933. Range reconnaissance
Kenai Peninsula Moose area. Unpub.
Report, pp. 1-11.
Peterson, R. L. 1955. North American
Fassetr, Norman C. 1957. A manual of
aquatic plants. The University of Wiscon-
sin Press. Madison, Wisconsin.
Hatimpay, W. E. D. 1937. A forest clas- Moose. University of Toronto Press.
sification for Canada. Canada Department Syrrrorp, B. E. and Sicurp Orson. 1935.
of Mines and Resources, Dominion For- Sere, climax, and influent animals with
estry Service Bulletin No. 89. pp. 1-50. special reference to the transcontinental
Mcase, Tuomas T., and McCase, Exrmor coniferous forest of North America.
Boiies. 1928. The Bowron Lake moose; Ecology 16, No. 35, 375-402.
Accepted June 30, 1969
BREEDING BIRDS OF THE WEST MIRAGE ISLANDS,
GREAT SLAVE LAKE, N.W.T-
Mitton W. WELLER, Davin L. TRAuGER, AND Gary L. Krapu
Department of Zoology and Entomology,
Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50010
Tue Avirauna of the Great Slave Lake area has not been intensively investi-
gated. Preble (1908) made general notes on birds of parts of the lake, and more
recently several biologists have studied birds of the lakes and rivers south of
Great Slave Lake (Soper, 1957; Stewart, 1966, Nero, 1963). Even with the
new access road from Edmonton, Alberta, to Vellpurienies Northwest Terri-
tories, there has still been relatively little ornithological receuren on the north
shore of the lake. Perhaps this is because currently there is more intense
interest in the ecology of tundra regions.
Great Slave Lake lies in the transition between the forested Mackenzie
Lowlands and the more rugged Laurentian Shield. A unique feature of the
northern lake shore is the complex of islands lying in deep water at various
distances from the mainland. Our survey was intended to determine the bird
fauna of an isolated group of islands with a view to future intensive investiga-
tion of the avian community in relation to size of land mass, habitat, and the
importance of barriers. Special emphasis was placed on the Greater Scaup
(Aythya marila) because the nesting ecology of this species has been little
studied and because information was desired for comparison with the Lesser
Scaup (Aythya affinis) being studied concurrently on inland Jakes on the north
side of Great Slave Lake by Trauger.
Stupy AREA
An isolated group known as the West Mirage Islands was selected for this
study (Figure 1). They are located Ae 13 miles S.S.W. of Yellow-
knife, Northwest Territories, and approximately 3 Y. miles from the mainland
(Lat. 62°16’, Long. 114°29’). The group consists of approximately 97 islands
of which we searched 73 (Figure 2). These islands vary in size from barren
rock islets 20 feet in diameter to well-vegetated islands of an estimated 16 acres.
Although some islands were very closely spaced, we have considered them as
separate entities for simplicity in record- -keeping. It usually was necessary for
us to move from one island to another by boat. Most islands were less than
100 yards apart with the maximum distance between islands being about 650
yards. These islands are composed of dark, fine-grained, black basalt in con-
trast to the uniform red-granite islands and auineeaite nearer the mainland. No
island exceeds 25 feet in height, and all appear to have been submerged during
recent geologic times. Based on hydrographic maps, water depths around the
islands range from 13 to 180 feet, and the islands are characterized by very
abrupt shorelines (Figures 3). Many appear to be completely washed during
storms because driftwood is found 10 feet or higher above the water (Figure
‘Journal Paper No. J-6146 of the Iowa Agriculture and Home Economics Experiment Station, Ames,
Towa. Project No. 1504.
344
1969 WELLER, TRAUGER AND Krapu: Birps or Great SLAVE LAKE 345
i Uy
_
Ficure 1. Aerial view of the main cluster of the West Mirage Islands, looking NNW.
WEST MIRAGE ISLANDS
GREAT SLAVE LAKE
Scale: +——4= 1000 feet
Figure 2. Map of the West Mirage Islands showing locations (black) of islands checked
for nests.
346 Tue CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
Figure 3. Vista of Islands to show rocky and sparsely-vegetated as well as “wooded”
islands. Note abrupt shorelines and driftwood.
3). This also may be due to varying water levels since the levels were reported-
ly several feet lower than normal.
Because of the size and depth of Great Slave Lake, it becomes icefree
several weeks after small lakes on the mainland. In general, the phenology of
the area was between 2 and 3 weeks behind that of the mainland. Undoubtedly,
this has an important bearing on the species of birds that utilize the islands and
on the chronology of their nesting. Although continuous observation would
be necessary to determine comparative chronology of nesting of island versus
mainland birds, there was less difference in nesting chronology than vegetation
would imply. Our study was made on June 30 and July 3-5, 1968, and most
species obviously were well into the nesting cycle and several were rearing
young. Trauger photographed the West Mirage Islands on May 29 when they
were completely icebound. According to local observers, ice left Yellowknife
Bay on June 22 which would not have allowed sufficient time for water birds
to have reached the incubation stages we observed 10 days later. Krapu, how-
ever, photographed the islands from the air on June 5. An examination of these
photos showed a belt of open water along the edges of the islands that would
have allowed water birds to swim and feed.
As Preble (1908:98) noted, the vegetation of the islands of Great Slave
Lake has the rugged, sparse appearance of the boreal forest-tundra ecotone
rather than the boreal forest of the mainland near Yellowknife. Vegetation
1969 WELLER, TRAUGER AND Krapu: Birps or Great SLAvE Lake 347
Figure 4. Ground-level boughs of spruce adjacent to dead trunk. The observers are
examining the nest-site of a Red-breasted Merganser.
ranges from dry tundra lichens and mosses with a few tufts of grass to
Labrador Tea (Ledum groenlandicum), gooseberry (Ribes sp.), scrubby willow
(Salix sp.), white birch (Betula papyrifera) and black spruce (Picea mariana).
‘illo trees in protected sites do not exceed 6 feet in height. Most birch
trees were 8-12 feet tall, and most black spruce were 10-20 feet (Figure 3).
Most spruce show the effects of exposure to this harsh environment and have
few branches high on the tree, but many sprawling ground-level branches
(Figure 4).
These islands provide an excellent example of primary succession. Many
rocks are bare and polished (presumably by ice as well as water), and no plants
except algae grow at the water-line (Figure 3) Ophnernding nockysareas ane
populated with lichens, and level areas often have a trace of soil ‘and a thin
layer of mosses (Figure 5). Small depressions and cracks hold sufficient soil
to support dense clumps of grasses (mainly Calamagrostis sp.) (Figure 6).
Clumps of grass also occur near water level of gradual shorelines (Figure 7).
Rocky depressions near the shore often are barren pools, but a few shallow
basins have submergent vegetation. Deeper pools have a partial to continuous
moss and sedge mat (Figure 8). “Those in more advanced stages have little
visible water, but have Labrador Tea at the perimeter and willows at the edge.
Some idea of the rate of plant invasion into pools is suggested by a boggy area
on the island where we camped. According to aerial photographs taken in
348 Tue CanapiAN Fre_tp-NATURALIST Vol. 83
Ficure 5. Nest-site of Arctic Tern in a slight depression. Note modest amount of nest
material, and adjacent lichen.
1945, there was an open pool not apparent in 1968. Spruce and birch are
found only in areas that have soil in rock cracks or shallow depressions.
These islands have been less influenced by man than most islands closer
to the mainland. But, they are far from pristine. The islands have been used
to some degree as campsites for commercial fishermen and are littered with
packaging crates and food containers in certain areas. On two islands, fires
have resulted in serious damage to both tundra and timber. Fishermen have
also waged a campaign against Bald Eagles, which they consider destructive to
fish. On one island serious damage was done by the exploding of surplus war-
time weapons. This has, however, created an interesting area to study the
succession of plants and bird life.
Enroute to the West Mirage Islands, nine islands along shore were visited.
These islands often were more wooded and the trees were of considerably
larger size. Notes on seven of these islands are included because they were
similar in physiography and fauna.
MetTHODs
We expended 10 long man-days of effort on June 30 and July 3-5, 1968.
On each island three or four men walked side by side searching every arable
niche for birds and nests. Most islands were cover- mapped by a quickly made
sketch map showing: 1, island shape; 2, distribution of trees; 3, barren rock
outcrops; 4, extensive tundra areas; and 5, isolated pools. We also camped for
1969 WEL eR, TRAvGER AND Krapu: Birps or Great Stave Lake 349
two nights on the largest island where we gained a more intimate contact with
the activities of certain birds.
Topographic maps were used as a base for locating and numbering islands.
Numbers then were used for recording all data. Aerial photos as well as the
topographic maps allowed us to place islands into certain size and vegetation
categories. A dot grid was used for comparing size of the areas from an
enlargement of a topographic map. Precise acreages of these islands are not
available at this time, but size estimates based on measurements of the topo-
graphic maps ranged from less than 3 acre to about 16 acres.
RESULTS
Species Composition
Because of the harsh environment, delayed phenology, and sparse tundra-
like vegetation, it is not surprising that this intensive survey yielded evidence
of only 35 species of birds. Although no avifaunal studies have been made on
the mainland, an estimate of number of breeding land birds by MacArthur and
Wilson (1967:116) indicates approximately 81 species occurring on the north
side of Great Slave Lake. Only highly adaptable or island-nesting species
occurred on these islands.
Of the 35 species found on the islands, 17 were observed nesting or caring
for young. These 17 species are listed in Table 1 by their frequency of occur-
rence on islands. Because one would not expect all birds to be nesting con-
currently, the frequency of sighting of these birds on each island rather than
the frequency of nesting seems to be the best measure of their relative abund-
TABLE 1.— Frequency of oecurrence by islands of birds nesting and birds observed on 73
of the West Mirage Islands.
¢ Freq. of occur. Freq. of occur.
Species of Nesting of Sighting
Savannah Sparrow (Passerculus sandwichensis) 3! 322
Greater Scaup (A ythya marila) 22 26
California Gull (Larus californicus) 15 17
White-crowned Sparrow (Zonotrichia leucophrys) 2 16
Arctic Tern (Sterna paradisaea) 13 16
Herring Gull (Larus argentatus) 13 13
Red-breasted Merganser (Mergus serrator) 6 iil
-Northern Phalarope (Lobipes lobatus) 2 9
Parasitic Jaeger (Stercorarius parasiticus) 3 9
Myrtle Warbler (Dendroica coronata) 1 7
Green-winged Teal (Anas carolinezsis) 1 6
Mew Gull (Larus canus) 3 5
Pintail (Anas acuta) 1 5
Caspian Tern (Hydroprogne cas pia) 3 4
Red-throated Loon (Gavia stellata) 2 3
Song Sparrow (Melospiza melodia) 1 3
Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) 1 2
1Indicates that nests were found on 3 of 72 islands surveyed.
2Indicates that birds were observed on 32 of 72 islands surveyed.
350 THe CaNnapiAN Fretp-NATURALIST Vol. 83
TaBLE 2.— Numbers of nests examined, arranged according to abundance.
. West Mirage Shoreward
Species Islands Islands Total
California Gull 92 27 119
Arctic Tern 48 42 90
Greater Scaup 40 9 49
Herring Gull 22 3 25
Red-breasted Merganser 5 0 5
White-crowned Sparrow 5 0 5
Parasitic Jaeger 3 2 5
Caspian Tern 3 1 4
Savannah Sparrow 3 0 3
Red-throated Loon 2 0 2
Pintail 2 0 2
Mew Gull 1 1 2
Northern Phalarope 1 0 1
Mallard 1 0 1
ance (Table 1). Using the frequency of nesting, the five species of most fre-
quent occurrence by islands were: Savannah Sparrow, Greater Scaup, California
Gull, White-crowned Sparrow, and Arctic Tern. Although no direct counts
were made, we would estimate total populations on all islands to produce an
order of abundance of: California Gull, Arctic Tern, Savannah Sparrow, Her-
ring Gull, and Greater Scaup. This order is reflected better but not completely
in numbers of nests recorded (Table 2).
Twelve other species were seen in the area (Table 3), and all but the
Yellow-billed Loon could be considered potential breeding birds. Evidence of
6 other species also was found, but these birds were not actually seen (Table
4), and two undoubtedly were winter residents. Our local guide, Mr. William
McDonald, has visited these islands for many years and indicated that three
other species had been recorded nesting there: Canada Goose (Branta cana-
TABLE 3. — Frequency of occurrence of birds observed on 73 West Mirage Islands but for
which no nests, young or positive evidence of breeding was recorded.
Species Freq. of occur.
Common Loon (Gavia immer)
Common Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula)
Common Raven (Corvus corax)
Yellow Warbler (Dendroica petechia)
Yellow-billed Loon (Gavia adamsii)
Common Scoter (Oidemia nigra)
Common Merganser (Mergus merganser)
Sora (Porzana carolina)
Spotted Sandpiper (Actitis macularia)
Semipalmated Sandpiper (Ereunetes pusillus)
Common Redpoll (Acanthis flammea)
White-throated Sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis)
te DO Gs Ge
1969 WELLER, TRAUGER AND Krapu: Birps or Great SLAVE LAKE 351
TABLE 4. — Evidence of the occurrence of birds not actually observed during field work in 1968
Species Evidence ae
occur.
Willow Ptarmigan (Lagopus lagopus)! Wings, bones, and droppings 20
Yellow-shafted Flicker (Colaptes auratus)? Wing and tail feathers 2
Lesser Scaup (4 ythya affinis)? Eggs in 2 Greater Scaup nests 1
Short-eared Ow! (Aso flammeus)! Wing (incomplete albino) 1
Northern Three-toed Woodpecker
(Picoides tridactylus)! Foot, leg and part of wing 1
Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)? Old nest; many wing feathers 1
1Probably winter residents or migrants.
2Probably rare breeding birds or summer residents.
densis), Oldsquaw (Clangula hyemalis), and Hudsonian Godwit (Limosa
haemastica).
Evidence was encountered of 3 species of mammals. A muskrat (Ondatra
sibethicus) was seen on one island and a muskrat lodge was present at the base
of a willow tree at a pool edge. Remains of snowshoe hares (Lepus ameri-
canus) were common, and remains of caribou (Rangifer tarandus) were found
on two islands. Caribou occur only rarely at Yellowknife in winter now.
Nesting
Although major effort was devoted to determining the presence or absence
of a species on each island, an attempt was made to locate all nests and record
clutch size and nest-sites. Nests of 14 species were found (Table 2). Almost
all birds of the West Mirage Islands and of the more barren shoreward islands
were ground nesters and many were colonial. Presumably, there are few
ground-level predators.
In this dry climate, the rate of deterioration is very slow. Several old
nests of Greater Scaup were found which held shells and membranes of the
previous year. One hen was incubating a clutch on what was obviously last-
year’s site because old shells and membranes were found beneath the eggs. A
related situation was that some gull nests found empty may have been those
from a previous year; however, the age of the nest materials was such that no
certain judgment could be made.
Nests of several species of birds tended to be closely spaced. Indeed,
California Gulls were highly social and were restricted to a few island colonies
with nests as close as 4 feet. Two Greater Scaup nests were only 7 feet apart,
and the only 2 Pintail nests found were in the same patch of Labrador Tea and
60 feet apart.
Predation on eggs of ducks was especially common but the predator was
not determined. Any of the gulls or the Parasitic Jaegers could have been
responsible but Ravens also were seen. Shells of eggs of Greater Scaup and
Red-breasted Mergansers usually were found under trees suggesting that Ravens
were responsible. But shells also were found in open areas. In one instance,
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1969 WELLER, [TRAUGER AND Krapu: Birps of GREAT SLAVE LAKE 353
shells of about 10 Greater Scaup eggs were scattered in an open area less than
50 feet square.
Clutch-size
Mean clutch size, range and sample size are given in Table 5 for the
Greater Scaup and in Table 6 for other species.
Some interspecific parasitic laying was noted among the waterfowl. One
Red-breasted Merganser nest of 4 eggs also held 2 Greater Scaup eggs. Two
Greater Scaup nests held Lesser Scaup eggs: One nest of 8 eggs held a single
Lesser Scaup egg, and a nest of 10 Greater Scaup eggs had 1 Greater and 3
Lesser Scaup eggs outside the nest in the vegetation and water. Obviously,
some fighting had occurred between hens.
Intraspecific parasitism was common. One Greater Scaup nest held 22
eggs and 2 held 16 each. All three nests were well cared for and incubated
when found but the nest of 22 eggs had one egg outside the nest. Thus, the
best estimate of clutch size in Greater Scaup was calculated on the basis of
using only warm nests and those that did not exceed 12 eggs (Table 5). This
follows the system used by Weller (1959) for other members of the genus
Aythya.
Clutch size of most gulls and terns is 3 eggs at lower latitudes (Palmer,
1941; Tinbergen, 1961). Clutches of 3 eggs were rare, however, in Herring
and California Gulls, and clutch size averaged 1.8 and 1.9, respectively (Table
6). No clutch of 3 was found in a sample of 90 nests of Arctic Terns. AI-
though some may still have been laying, several nests were hatching, and other
empty nests with nervous adults nearby suggested that hatching was well
underway. Andersen (1959) found that only 9% of clutches of Arctic Terns
were of 3 eggs at 55°53’ N. lat. in Denmark, but 75% of Common Tern
clutches there were of 3. Arctic Tern clutches of only 1 and 2, however, were
found in East Greenland at 73 to 75° N. lat. At least in the survey year, only
clutches of 1 and 2 were found at 62° N. lat. on Great Slave Lake islands. The
influence of land mass size on clutch size cannot be ignored, but we have no
data on Arctic Tern populations not nesting on islands.
Nest-sites and cover plants
All gull and tern nests were open ground — either barren rock or moss
tundra. Those on rocks usually had a bowl constructed of grass, moss or
lichen, but a few tern nests were in a bare rocky depression. Those on the
tundra mat usually were only a slight depression, but rarely did they have any
significant amount of nest material (Figure 5).
Gulls were the only species to utilize small barren rocky islands free even
of grass. Parasitic Jaegers selected high barren spots on the islands; rarely did
other birds nest near them.
Nests of Savannah and White-crowned Sparrows were in tufts of grass
in small cracks in the rock.
Cover type was recorded for 36 nests of Greater Scaup (Table 7). Most
nests were in grass of the previous year’s growth. Often they were in a crack
354 THe CaNnapDIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
Figure 6. Nest of Greater Scaup in small patch of Calamagrostis sp.
in a rock (Figure 6) or near the edge of water (Figure 7). On the West
Mirage Islands, however, nests were placed at various distances from water
(range 1 to 50 feet, mean of 19 feet for 28 nests) and various heights above the
water. The height varied with island height but nests were found at the tops
of the highest islands as shown by a range of height estimates from 0 to 25 with
a mean of 7 feet for 29 nests. Two Greater Scaup nests were in grass with an
TABLE 7. — Cover plants of 36 Greater Scaup nests on Great Slave Lake islands
West Mirage Shoreward
Islands Islands ENIEest
Calamagrostis sp. 13 3 16
Agrostis sp. + 0 4
Poa sp. 1 1 2
“Dead grass”’ 3 0 3
Grass + willow 2 0 2
Grass + sedge 2 0 2
Carex spp. 1 1 2
Grass + yarrow @) 2 D,
Ribes sp. + grass 1 0 1
Labrador Tea 1 0 1
Spruce branches 0 1 1
28 8 36
1969 WELLER, [TRAUGER AND Krapu: Birps or Great SLAVE LAKE BD)
Figure 7. Site of a Greater Scaup nest at the water level.
overhanging shrub; one was in gooseberry, and the other was in Labrador Tea.
One nest was under the prostrate bough of a spruce tree, but most were in
open sites that allowed good visibility and easy escape to water. Scaup nested
on both wooded and unwooded islands but most utilized the latter.
Red-breasted Mergansers invariably were in dense shrubbery. In 4 in-
stances, the nests were in the ground level boughs of spruce (Figure 4), but one
was under a rock partly sheltered by Ribes sp., and one was in Labrador Tea.
The last nest was near Greater Scaup and Pintail nests and had been parasitized
by a Greater Scaup.
Species associations during nesting
The tendency of ducks to be associated in nesting with gulls and terns
is well documented in Scandinavia (Koskimies, 1957; Hilden, 1964) and North
America (Vermeer, 1968). Many of the islands studied in the Great Slave
Lake did seem to have a large number of duck nests associated with tern
colonies. An attempt was made to measure such interspecific relationships
in nesting. One analysis compares species found nesting on the same islands
of the West Mirage group (Figure 9). Greater Scaup and Arctic Terns were
associated in nesting with nearly all other species, possibly because of their
abundance or because of their adaptability to parts of most islands. California
Gulls tended more to dominate barren islands and only Herring Gulls and
Greater Scaup were found with them on the same islands. One br oody pair of
Arctic Terns was found on one island where California Gulls nested, but this
356 Tue CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
Figure 8. One of the larger pools, showing areas of grasses and sedges.
association seemed rare. Numbers of nests of Parasitic Jaegers and Caspian
Terns were too few to be of significance.
Figure 9 also demonstrates intraspecific nesting associations by showing
islands on which more than one nest of the same species was found. Parasitic
Jaegers seemed to dominate islands on which they nested, and pairs may be
mutually exclusive.
Table 1 on frequency of nesting by islands also suggests species associa-
tions. Greater Scaup nested on 22 of 73 West Mirage islands and 2 of the
7 shoreward islands. Of the 22 West Mirage Islands, 8 (36%) also had nesting
Arctic Terns, 8 (36%) had California Gulls, and 5 (23%) had Herring Gulls.
In total, some species of gull, tern or jaeger nested on 18 of the 22 (82%)
islands. This does suggest a strong association, but there were islands used
by gulls and terns on which Greater Scaup did not nest; 15 of the 73 (20%)
West Mirage Islands and 3 of 7 (43%) offshore islands examined had nests of
gulls or terns but none of scaup.
A third attempt to show species interactions is Figure 10, which indicates
species observed (rather than nesting) on the same island. This measure shows
better than does Figure 9 the universal abundance of Savannah Sparrows. The
diverse interactions of less common species such as Mew Gulls and Song
Sparrows merely reflects the occurrence of one species on a large island used
by many. In other words, the island size and habitat conditions were of
greater significance than species competition or other interactions.
1969 WELLER, [RAUGER AND Krapu: Birps or Great SLAvE Lake 357
wi ond za 3
Bee 2% 20%
27,90 Og s5,2to5o ade
OS qS=uZ0FCZousa%a
Odds Sewers pa MOU
Qs ees ousZzu
ENdI2a , qd€ut@edcaog ¢
eOfacZavrequun ine
R.T. LOON aaa | im | |
G. SCAUP | i
MALLARD a7 eae
PINTAIL | ee
R.B: MERG.
N. PHALAROPE
P JAEGER
CALIF GULL
HERRING GULL
MEW GULL
ARCTIC TERN
CASPIAN TERN
SAV. SPARROW
SONG SPARROW | fm | |
Eales]
w.c.SPARROW fie | | [| | | & rT see
Figure 9. Interspecific relationships of species as shown by species found nesting on the
same island.
Baa 32
Species diversity and island size
The diversity of birds on any land mass seems generally more directly
related to the size of that mass than to distance from mine mainland source of
pioneers (MacArthur and Wilson, 1967: 20-23). Because the West Mirage
Islands form a tight cluster, distance to mainland was not analyzed. But an
analysis of relative area of islands and breeding birds was made (Figure 11).
The resulting plot provided only a suggestion of an increase in numbers of
breeding birds with increased area but a stronger relationship exists between
species of birds sighted and area of the islands. Unfortunately, sample size of
larger islands was small (see data on frequency of occurrences in Figure 11).
In general, larger land masses have greater habitat diversity, and pre-
sumably this is the cause of the larger number of avian species. An effort was
made to compare wooded and nonwooded islands of equal size but the sample
sizes of large unwooded islands and small wooded islands were small. In the
358 THe CanapiAn Fietp-NaATURALIST
G. SCAUP
G.W. TEAL
| | | MALLARD
Cc. LOON
R.T. LOON
G. SCAUP
G.W. TEAL
MALLARD
PINTAIL
R.B. MERG.
SEMIPAL. SP.
SPOTTED SP.
N. PHALAROPE
P. JAEGER
CALIF. GULL
HERRING GULL
MEW GULL
ARCTIC TERN
CASPIAN TERN
RAVEN
MYRTLE WARB.
YELLOW WARB. |__
REDPOLL
SAV. SPARROW
SONG SPARROW |_|
W.C. SPARROW
R.B. MERG.
| | | SEMIPAL. SP.
PINTAIL
|_|><
N. PHALAROPE
PR JAEGER
>< a Pe | | | SporteD sp.
HERRING GULL
ARCTIC TERN
CASPIAN TERN
CALIF. GULL
MEW GULL
<<
lo)
=
loo)
wy)
SONG SPARROW
W. C. SPARROW
SAV. SPARROW
po uo (RANK
YELLOW WAREB.
MYRTLE WARB.
REDPOLL
Figure 10. Interspecific relationships of birds as shown by species sighted on the same
island.
smaller islands, the diversity induced by the presence of trees seemed to reduce
bird use, but a positive relationship was obvious on larger islands (Table 8).
This may be due to the dominance of ground-nesting birds and their need of
TABLE 8. — Relative importance of habitat in the species-area relationship
Relative Mean no. Mean no.
Isl. size No. Isl. breeding sighted
in acres per island per island
Non-wooded 3=5
Wooded 3=5)
Non-wooded 5-16
Wooded 5-16
i)
H= U1 ~1 Oo
wmonNnor
Onn — Ww
On >
wor co
1969 WELLER, TRAUGER AND Krapu: Birps of GREAT SLAVE LAKE 359
12 6
NUMBER OF SPECIES
DOTS 10 20 30 40 50
EST. ACRES 3.3 66 99 13.2 16.5
FREQ.of OCC. 62 2 4 4 Oo 1= 73
Ficure 11. Area-diversity pattern for birds observed and possibly nesting on the West
Mirage Islands.
open areas; i.e., trees were a deterrent to ground-nesting birds on small islands
but not on larger islands where relatively larger open spaces existed.
Most breeding birds of these islands were ground-nesting species utilizing
fish rather than foods associated with land. Undoubtedly, population size and
species diversity both were increased markedly by this addition to the habitat.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are indebted to Mr. William McDonald, geologist and long-term
resident of Yellowknife, who inspired an interest in the Great Slave Lake
islands and who guided us to the offshore and West Mirage Islands. Both
Trauger and Krapu were employed by the Northern Prairie Wildlife Research
Center, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, and were engaged on studies
of Lesser Scaup and other species on the mainland. Mr. Charles E. O’Brien
of the American Museum of Natural History kindly identified some bird
remains.
SUMMARY
The breeding birds of 73 of 97 islands of this isolated group were studied
on June 30 and July 3-5, 1968. Their location in a cold, deep lake produced a
harsh environment and results in vegetation comparable to that 100 miles or
360
more northward of these islands.
THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
Evidence of 35 species of birds was recorded
of which 17 were observed nesting or caring for young. The species found
on the island were characteristically widespread and adaptable birds and most
were ground- nesting species.
Sightings and nests found indicated an order of
abundance for the 5 major species as follows: California Gull, Arctic Tern,
Savannah Sparrow, Herring Gull, and Greater Scaup.
Most of the gulls and terns were colonial nesters and used only a few
islands.
Solitary nesters such as Greater Scaup and Savannah Sparrows were
found on nearly every island. Clutch size of most gulls and terns was nearer
2 than 3, supporting observations on the relationship of clutch size and latitude
observed in Scandinavia.
Clutch size of Greater Scaup varied from 1 to 22
with several large clutches denoting intraspecific parasitism.
Most birds were ground-nesters and had relatively exposed nests.
Greater
Scaup and the sparrows, however, used grassy depressions or cracks in the
rocks.
Red-breasted Mergansers placed their nests under shrubs or at the bases
of spruce trees. Few tree-nesting species were present, and only one Bald Eagle
nest was found in a tree.
An analysis of species interactions shows a strong association between
ducks and gulls.
the greatest diversity of bird species.
Large islands with greater habitat diversity tended to have
Aquatic food resource surrounding the
(=)
islands undoubtedly permitted larger populations and greater diversity of birds
than on an equal land area.
REFERENCES
ANDERSEN, F. S. 1959. Bills, eggs, and nests
of captured Arctic Tern (Sterna paradisaea
Pont.) and Common Terns (Sterna hir-
undo L..). Dansk Ornithologisk Forenings
Tidsskrift 53: 84-102.
Hitpven, O. 1964. Ecology of duck popu-
lean in the island group of Valassaaret,
Gulf of Bothnia. Annales Zoologici Fennici
1: 153-277.
Koskimiss, J. 1957. Terns and gulls as fea-
tures of habitat recognition for birds
nesting in their colonies. Ornis Fennica 34:
1-6.
MacArtuur, R. H., and E. O. Witson.
1967. ake theory os island biogeography.
Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, N.J.
203 pp.
Nero, R. W. 1963. Birds of the Lake
Auikelbasca Region, Saskatchewan. Special
Publication No. 5, Saskatchewan Natural
History Society, Regina. 143 pp-
Pacmer, R. S. 1941. A behavior study of
the common tern (Sterna hirundo hirundo
L.). Proceedings of the Boston Society of
Natural History 42: 1-119.
Preste, E. A. 1908. A_ biological investi-
gation of the Athabaska-MacKenzie region.
U.S. Bureau Biological Survey North
America Fauna 27. 574 pp.
Soper, J. D. 1957. Notes on wildfowl of
Slave River Delta and vicinity, Northwest
Territeries. Canadian Field-Naturalist 71:
74-81.
Stewart, R. E. 1966. Notes on birds and
other animals in the Slave River — Little
Buffalo River Area, N.W.T. Blue Jay 24:
22-32.
‘TINBERGEN, N. 1961. The
world. Basic Books, Inc.
255 pp.
VERMEER, K. 1968. Ecological aspects of
ducks nesting in high densities among
larids. Wilson Bulletin 80: 78-83.
Wetter, M. W. 1959. Parasitic egg laying
in the Redhead (Aythya americana) and
other North American Anatidae. Ecologi-
cal Monographs 29: 333-365.
herring gull’s
New York
Accepted June 25, 1969
OBSERVATIONS ON CANADIAN BIRCH (BETULA)
COLLECTIONS AT THE MORGAN ARBORETUM.
VII. BETULA FROM GRAND MANAN ISLAND,
NEW BRUNSWICK
W. H. Britratn’ anp W. F. Grant”
The Morgan Arboretum, Macdonald College, P.Q.
A COLLECTION of birch specimens was made by the senior author on Grand
Manan Island (Long. 65°45’ West, Lat. 44°40’ North) situated in Charlotte
County, New Brunswick, at the entrance to the Bay of Fundy, a distance of
six miles from West Quoddy Head, Maine. It was anticipated that an intensive
study of individuals from one rather isolated area might provide greater
information on the relationships between species and also provide data which
could be used in a comparison of populations from other areas of Canada.
In addition to B. cordifolia Regel, B. papyrifera Marsh., and B. populifolia
Marsh., a number of trees similar to those described by Blanchard (1904a,b) as
“Blue Birches” (B. caerulea Blanch. and B. caerulea-grandis Blanch.) were
found. The former species, B. caerulea, is considered to be a hybrid between
B. populifolia and B. papyrifera (Fernald, 1945, 1950) and it has been speculated
that the latter species, B. caerulea-grandis, is also a hybrid between these two
species (Brayshaw, 1966). However, data to be presented suggests that B.
cordifolia plays a role in the origin of the blue birches and the relationships of
these species to each other will be considered here.
MarTeErRIALS AND MrtTHops
The Site
Weatherby and Adams (1945) in a check list of the species growing on
Grand Manan Island present an outline of the physiography, geology, and
forest growth of the island, and remark on the alterations that have occurred
over the years as a result of human interference. ‘This aspect is of particular
significance since it indicates the radical change that has occurred from the
original conditions existing at the time of settlement. In 1839, Gerner
(Weatherby and Adams, /.c.) is quoted as stating that the hilly area was
covered with a fine growth of beech, birch, and maple, whereas the lower
lands had an immense growth of pine and spruce, adding that the largest growth
had been destroyed by fire. Mention is also made of the destructive fire which
swept the island in the late nineteenth century, which must have destroyed
most of the then existing leaf mould. In 1945, Weatherby and Adams (Lc)
attributed lumbering activities for the great change in the vegetative aspect of
the island since their previous visit in 1929. It seems clear that these changes
have greatly accelerated since 1945 and it is now known that lumbering in the
interior of the island was not completed until 1966. This has left behind
1§cientific Advisor, The Morgan Aboretum. :
*Professor, Department of Genetics, McGill University.
361
362 Tue CaNnapDIAN Fie_tp-NATURALIST Vol. 83
NORTHERN HEAD
THE BISHOP
SWALLOW
TAIL
BAY
OF
FUNDY
LONG ISLAND
=e =
ROAD
eertrwce-m es
oe =.
“TPS CSS HENEY
ISLAND
HISLAND
WHITE HEAD
ISLAND
SOUTH HEAD BAY OF FUNDY
BEACH
Ficure 1. Map of Grand Manan Island, New Brunswick, showing principle roads (see text).
isolated individual trees, or clumps, of B. cordifolia up to 45 years of age, and
some older growth of B. alleghaniensis.
Collecting Stations
The map of the island (Figure 1) lists the names of the major collecting
stations that are situated on the main road that runs the length of the island
1969 BritTaIn AND GRANT: CANADIAN Bircu Co.tections. VIII. 363
Lowe _PowD _BEACH
——————
Scale
5 wenes 2 1 me
Figure 2. Detailed map of Anchorage Road showing the two main collecting stations
marked A and B (see text). i
and from which run short cross roads extending into the various coves. Some
collecting was also carried out along the “pulp roads” which extend from the
Hill Road, that runs roughly parallel to the main road into the hilly interior,
and along the Dark Habour Road crossing the island from Castalea. It is in
the former area that recent destructive cutting has occurred, and there has not
been time for a second growth to take possession of this area.
While collections were made at random over the island, attention was
concentrated on two areas marked A and B in Figure 2. The former was a low
lying area where the present cover has grown up after a considerable cutting
364 Tue CanapiaAn Fre_cp-NaTurRaList Vol. 83
some 35 years before which involved a much larger acreage. The greater part
of the plant population was furnished by birch species. In the moister part of
this area there was a dense undergrowth of Spiraea latifolia and Alnus rugosa
(A. incana), with a scattering of other species as follows: Fraxinus nigra,
Sambucus pubens, Salix sp., Viburnum cassinoides, Picea rubens, Prunus
virgimana and Larix laricina.
Area B is situated on rising ground and underlaid by rock. It represents a
narrow cut-back from the prevailing spruce—fir woods at the back. The depth
of the cutting is approximately 45 metres which was made some 12 years ago.
It is covered by a scattering of B. cordifolia trees, and the older individuals have
attained a diameter up to 4 cm and are already bearing seed. A few small B.
populifolia, less than a metre high, were noted. There was an abundance of
small red spruce and balsam seedlings in from the woods at the back. There
was also an irregular fringe of large B. cordifolia trees fronting the woods,
and this was the predominant birch species in area B. ‘This area, in a sense,
represents an earlier stage of development than area A, though spruce and fir
will ultimately loom larger in this complex than in area A.
Weatherby and Adams (1945) listed only B. papyrifera and B. populifolia
from Grand Manan. However, Hodgdon and Pike (1962, 1964) reported
collecting B. papyrifera var. cordifolia (Regel) Fern,. and in this paper the
presence of B. caerulea and B. caerulea-grandis on Grand Manan Island is
reported for the first time.
The Climate
In a soil survey of southwestern New Brunskick, Wicklund and Langmaid
(1953) provided some climatic data which is of value in understanding the
present ecological relationship of the species on the island. Birches are parti-
cularly sensitive to temperature and water levels. The Grand Manan climate
is noted for cool summers, mild winters, and a greater number of frost-free
days (177 days) than some coastal areas such as St. John, New Brunswick
(169 day7s))pew alehie average mean temperature for the four winter months,
December—March, is —2.2, —4.4, —5.0, —1.1°C, respectively, as compared with
Predenctony Nba 7-05) 10105 9-4 wands sesic Os respectively. Similarly, the
average mean temperature fore the actual growing period, May—August, for
Grand Manan is 8.8, 13.3, 16.6, and 16.6°C, respectively, while for Fredericton,
for the same period, it is 10.5, 15.6, 18.9 and 4.4°C, respectively. The amount
of rainfall is only slightly Hitccrent between these two areas, 23.86 cm for the
period April—October for Grand Manan, and 24.99 cm for Fredericton. These
figures for total rainfall, however, do not tell the whole story, since the great
prevalence of ocean fogs which occur in Grand Manan have the effect of
greatly depressing the evaporation rate.
Criteria Used in the Analysis
The characters used in distinguishing the species are as follows:
1. Leaf Attenuation Factor. This is expressed as the a/7 ratio (Brayshaw,
1966) where a equals one-half the apical segment, that is, the distance from
1969 BritraAIn AND GRANT: CANADIAN Bircu Coxtections. VIII. 365
Components of ATTENUATION FACTOR a/m
(Redrawn after Brayshaw)
Apical
oo mid point of
distal from apical segment /
widest
point
Fieure 3. Diagram illustrating the method for determining the leaf attenuation factor a/m.
the widest part of the leaf blade to the leaf tip, and 77 equals the width of the
leaf blade at the midpoint of the apical segment (Figure 3, redrawn from
Brayshaw, 1966). Five leaves per specimen were measured but for comparative
purposes only from catkin bearing shoots.
2. Leaf base. The leaf base was considered under four forms: a) mainly
cuneate, b) shortly rounded or truncate, c) cuneate and cordate mixed, and
d) mainly cordate.
3. Leaf lateral veins. The number of lateral veins on one side of a leaf.
A minimum of five leaves were used for each accession.
4. Leaf serrations. The number of serrations on one side of a leaf. A
minimum of five leaves were used for each accession.
5. Stomatal guard cells. A minimum of twenty guard cells were measured
for each accession.
6. Catkin length. Five mature catkins were measured for each accession.
7. Style length. Five to twenty styles were measured for each accession.
8. Achene length and width. Five to twenty achenes were measured for
each accession.
9. Achene length-width (L/W) ratio. The ratio between the length and
width of the achene.
10. Bract length. Five to twenty bracts were measured for each accession.
ee
Vol. 83
Tue CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
366
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1969 BritTAIN AND GRANT: CANADIAN BircH Coxtections. VIII. 367
11. Bract form. Four distinct types of bract form were recognized
(Figure 4+): Form 1. Lateral lobes extending horizontally or only slightly down-
curved. Form 2. Lateral lobes sharply recurved, median lobe tapering.
Form 3. Lateral lobes porrect, medium lobe tapering. Form 4. Lateral lobes
always porrect, medium lobe with subparallel sides.
12. Chromosome number determinations. Our techniques have been
given previously (Brittain and Grant, 1965a).
In order to help determine the relationships of the taxa under study, a)
hybrid indices, b) pictorialized scatter diagrams, and c) polygonal graphs, were
constructed as follows:
a) Hybrid index. The hybrid index is a means of analyzing the variation
in a natural population and illustrating visually the presence or absence of
hybridization within the population (Anderson, 1949, 1953). A character
which varies in the population may be assigned a value such as zero, one, or
two depending on the number of arbitrarily chosen variations of the character.
In this study, characters associated with one parent were rated as zero, whereas
those associated with the other parent were rated as two. Intermediate situa-
tions were assigned the value of one. When this type of rating is carried out
for a number of characters then the members of one of the two parental popu-
lations would have a total or hybrid index value of zero even if we assume
eight characters were used, as in the populations studied. The other parental
population, with a value of two for each character, would have a hybrid index
value of sixteen for the eight characters. The characters used and the hybrid
index values assigned to them are listed in Table 2.
The hybrid index values were arbitrarily obtained by subtracting the
standard deviation from the mean for the parent with the highest mean value
and adding the standard deviation to the mean for the parent with the lowest
mean value. The resulting figures were used for the range of the intermediate
values and assigned a hybrid index value of one. For example, the mean catkin
length of B. cordifolia was 4.05 cm and the standard deviation 0.62 (4.05 — 0.62)
= 3.43. Likewise, for B. papyrifera, 3.10 + 0.59 (3.10 + 0.59) = 3.69. Zero
represented values lower than 3.43, whereas two represented values higher than
3.69 (see Tables 1, 2).
Bar graphs were constructed plotting hybrid index values against the
frequency with which they occur in the population. A visual indication of the
absence, or presence, of hybridization, the degree of hybridization, the direction
in which hybridization and backcrossing is occurring between species, may be
- obtained from this procedure.
b) Pictorialized scatter diagrams. This method of population analysis
(Anderson, 1949) has been used to illustrate character-association and the
effects of hybridization in a natural population. The relationship between two
birch characters was plotted for each specimen in a two-dimensional field.
Each spot or circle in the field represents one specimen. The circles were then
modified to include the analysis of additional characters simultaneously by
means of appending lines at 12, 3, 6, and 9 o’clock. The association of several
characters may be observed and the effect of hybridization on this association
508 509 512
501
427 469 470 481
A2T7s 470s 481s 501s
Figure 5. Representative illustrations of leaves (reduced ca. 3/5) and bracts and samaras
x ca. 6) of B. papyrifera (upper half, accession numbers 453, 508, 509, 512) and B.
populifolia (lower half, accession numbers 427, 469, 470, 481, 501). b= bract: s==‘samara:
123s 428s 443s
Figure 6. Representative illustrations of leaves (reduced ca. 3/5) and bracts and samaras
x ca. 6) of B. caerulea. The numbers refer to accession numbers. b = bract; s = samara.
\ faag
431s 438s 449s 490s
y
004
ES 495 529
432 448 476 fe fo
FIGuRE 7. Representative illustrations of leaves (reduced ca. 3/5) and bracts and samaras
x ca. 6) of B. cordifolia. The numbers refer to accession numbers. b—
samara.
bract; s=
1969 BrirtaAIn AND GRANT: CANADIAN Bircu CoLtections. VIII. 371
if hybridization has occurred.
c) Polygonal graphs. The polygonal graph is a circle with as many
radii as characters under consideration. “The units on each radius represent
measurements of one character. Each accession number is represeuted by the
mean measurements of the characters being plotted. Since each measurement
is plotted along a different radius, when all the points representing the measure-
ments of one individual are plotted and joined together, a polygon is formed.
This permits the visual comparison of members of a population on the basis of
several characters at the same time.
Other characters than the foregoing might well have been used but it was
found that those selected were sufficient for the purpose of establishing the
identity of our specimens. Some characters such as bark color could not be
_used, because many of the trees from which we obtained catkins still maintained
their juvenile character in respect to bark color, or evidenced the loose exfolia-
tion characteristic of older trees.
In statistical analyses which were carried out, the standard deviation of the
individual mean to the mean of the species was calculated for the nine mor-
phological characters given in Table 1. The mean values for each species were
subjected to a ¢ test employing an IBM computer to determine if the-means
were significantly different.
OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSION
Chromosome numbers were determined from root tips of young seedlings
for 38 collections of B. cordifolia, 30 of B. caerulea and 6 of B. populifolia. All
seedlings of these taxa had a somatic chromosome number of 28. In contrast,
seedlings of 15 of the 17 collections of B. papyrifera had 84 somatic chromo-
somes and the remaining two 70. There was a greater number of 84-chromo-
some plants in the Grand Manan collection than in collections from other areas,
where there were more individuals with 70 chromosomes (Brittain and Grant,
1967). Likewise in the Grand Manan collection, no seedlings of B. papyrifera
were found with 56 somatic chromosomes.
Drawings of leaves and fruit characters have been chosen to illustrate the
extremes in morphological variability found for each species (B. papyrifera and
B. populifolia, Figure 5; B. caerulea, Figure 6, B. cordifolia, Figure 7).
The means and standard errors for the measurements of the morphological
characters are given in Table 1. ‘The results of the ¢ tests have been indicated
by appending letters to the means. Those means which do not differ signifi-
cantly from one another are followed by the same letter. For example, the
means of the achene length for B. papyrifera, B. populifolia, B. caerulea and
B. cordifolia are followed by the letters a, b, a, and c, respectively. This
signifies that the difference in the length of the achene between B. papyrifera
and B. caerulea is not significant, other combinations are significant. It may
be seen that each species differs significantly from the other three species for
four characters (catkin length, bract length, achene width, and style length),
and that each species differs significantly from two of the four species for
three additional characters (achene length, leaf a/7 ratio, and guard cell length).
FREQUENCY
372 Tue Canapian FIetp-NATURALIST Vol. 83
B. PAPYRIFERA
B. CORDIFOLIA
im WN
i
inv)
(2422424)
7 222 A AN
eT LT ea Le
S22 LL 2£5
Paes awa ws
7 8 9 10 NU I2 DBS l4aiSeiG
HYBRID INDEX VALUES
Ficure 8. Frequency of hybrid index values of B. papyrifera and B. cordifolia.
Comparison of B. papyrifera and B. cordifolia
The specimens from Grand Manan have made it possible to compare these
taxa from a relatively restricted area. A hybrid index for eight measurable
characters was prepared (Table 2) and a bar graph based on the hybrid index
values for each specimen is shown in Figure 8.
The hybrid index of a typical B. papyrifera ranged from 0 to 4 whereas
that of B. cordifolia ranged from 10 to 16. In general, individuals of these two
taxa were clearly distinct from one another; however, two individuals of B.
papyrifera with hybrid index values of 8 and 9 fell in the range of B. cordifolia
and one specimen of B. cordifolia with a hybrid index value of 6 overlapped
with those of B. papyrifera. A few specimens of B. papyrifera found elsewhere
in eastern Canada (Brittain and Grant, 1967) had 56 somatic chromosomes and
had certain hybrid characteristics. However, the specimens studied here with
intermediate hybrid index values had the same chromosome numbers as those
found for the typical species.
In the pictorialized scatter diagram (Figure 9), measurements of the style
length and guard cell length were plotted for each individual. It may be seen
that B. cordifolia and B. papyrifera are clearly distinct from one another. The
individual of B. papyrifera with a hybrid index value of 9 (No. 450) was close
1969 Brittain AND GRANT: CanaprAn Bircw Corrections. VIII. 373
TABLE 1. — Measurements for the morphological characteristics of birch species from Grand
Manan Island. Mean and standard error are given for each character with range in brackets
Character B. papyrifera B. populifolia B. caerulea B. cordifolia
Catkin length 3.16-£0.12 a* 1.91+0.05 b 2.72+0.08 c 4.05+0.10 d
(cm) (2.00—4.40) (1.46—2.58) (1.52—3.75) (3.13—5.68)
Bract length 5.23+0.16 a 3.47+0.07 b 4,530.09 c 5.99+0.16 d
(mm) (4.08—7.00) (2.71—4.56) (3.50—6.00) (4.58—9.10)
Achene length 1.970.03 a - 1.60+0.03 b 2.05-0.04 a 2.34+0.04 c
(mm) (1.60—2.92) (1.32—2.00) (1.60—2.71) (1.76—2.70)
Achene width 1.31+0.03 a 0.830.02 b 1.080.02 c 1.530.02 d
(mm) (1.01—1.57) (0.62—1.12) (0.83—1.36) (1.29—1.78)
- Achene length/ 1.49+0.05 a 1.94+-0.05 b 1.92+0.05 b 1.5340.02 a
width ratio (1.10—2.04) (1.38—2:53) (1.50—2.53) (1.26—1.83)
Style length 0.710.04 a 0.92+0.03 b 1.14+0.04 c 1.460.05 d
(mm) (0.19—1.13) (0.60—1.44) (0.80—1.80) (1.00—2.37)
Leaf a/m ratio 0.91+0.03 a 1.53-0.06 b 1.26+0.04 c 0.88+0.02 a***
(0.68—1.16) (1.05—2.50) (0.93—1.73) (0.63—1.20)
No. of serrations | 29.43+0.89 a 40.52+1.70 b A2.71:1.22 be 45.50=-1.38 c***
(20.0—36.5) (28.4—87.2) (30.4—63.6) (30.0—71.0)
Pairs of lateral 7,230.12 a 7.250.111 a 7.14+0.17 a 8.68-0.14 b***
veins (6.5—8.9) (5.6—8.6) (4.1—9.0) (6.6—10.4)
Guard cell 36.2740.72 a 32.4740.57 b** | 32.62-40.57 b SO SOSEVG Cr"
length () (28.20—44.46) (28.48—35.01) (26.88—38.10) (25.59—37.00)
No. specimens
examined 22 34 32 A?
*a b,c,d: Mean values between species are significant at 0.05 level except when means are
followed by the same letter; see text.
**Mean based on 10 specimens.
***Viean based on 41 specimens.
to the boundary. Plants numbered 465 and 444 which lie in similar positions
have a hybrid index value of 4 and 2, respectively. The individual Of ee
cordifolia (No. 525) with a hybrid index value of 8 was again adjacent to the
boundary or intermediate in its relationship to specimens of both taxa. Speci-
mens which fell on the extremes of the range, that is, number +48 of B. cordi-
folia and number 517 of B. papyrifera had hybrid index values of 15 and 2,
respectively, characteristic of their respective taxa. For B. cordifolia, speci-
mens numbered 497, 505, and 513 had a hybrid index value of 0, and OE/3}.
papyrifera specimens numbered 436 and 495 had a hybrid index value of 16.
Polygonal graphs based on eight selected characters were prepared for
each plant analysed. The assigned values for these characters are given on the
eight radii in the key to the polygons (Figure 10). Representative polygons
illustrating the entire variation found for B. cordifolia and B. papyrifera are
374 THe Canapian Frecp-NaTuRALIST Vol. 83
shown in Figure 11. The polygons have been arranged to give a visual image
of the morphological variation between individuals as revealed by this method.
The upper four rows of polygons in Figure 11 are of B. cordifolia and the latter
four are of B. papyrifera. The morphological variability which is evident in
herbarium specimens of B. papyrifera is clearly exhibited in the polygons re-
presenting this species. In contrast, the polygons of B. cordifolia are consider-
ably more uniform indicating the closer similarity in morphological features
of representatives of this taxon.
Our analysis has shown that B. cordifolia (B. papyrifera var. cordifolia)
is clearly distinct from B. papyrifera in chromosome number, in the pictorial-
ized scatter analysis (Figure 9), and in the polygon analysis (Figure 11). An
occasional specimen of B. cordifolia, or B. papyrifera, may have some character-
istics which overlap with the other species as may be seen from a comparison
of the hybrid index values (Figure 8) for these two species. However, with
the exception of the achene length/width ratio and the leaf a/m ratio, the eight
characters studied were all statistically significantly different (Table 1). This
TABLE 2. — Characters and index values used in scoring hybrid index for: A—B. papyrifera
and B. cordifolia; B — B. populifolia, B. caerulea and B. cordifolia
1. Catkin length (cm) <3 4 25—| () | ID ea
SE oe Oon— all 2.18 ==33243e——1
Se Sein >. O44
2. Bract length (mm) < 4.93) = 0 <- 3.85 = 0
4.94 — 6.18 = 1 3.86 — 4.94 =1
S O19 = 2 > 49 see
3. Achene length (mm) <<a ea (i) <4 FORO
2 D3 0L ail edd = 2oil = il
SS 2oll = 2 S 2A = 2
4. Achene width (mm) << Oem) < 0.93 =0
1.40— 1.47 =1 0.94 — 1.40 =1
> 1,43 = 2 S 1.4 = 2
5. Style length (mm) < 0.93 =0 < 1.06=0
0.94— 1.15=1 Of = 1.15 = il
>) alo = 2 See elo "2
6. Number of serrations <3 SHO} —m0) < 36.62 = 0
Soe 8) — On oSa—at 36.63 — 50.42 = 1
5 OOS > 50.43 = 2
7. Lateral leaf veins <<a a — 0) <<) fi9r = 20
1.80)= 7.84 = 1 7.80 — 8.10 =1
Si. 8522 > Sallie
8. Guard cell length (u) < 32.68 = 2
32.69 — 32.74 = 1
S32. 05 = 0
8. Leaf a/m ratio <9 OR — ee
1.00— 1.18 =1
hale) sa 0)
STYLE LENGTH (mm.)
1969 BritTAIN AND GRANT: CanapiAN Bircw Coxvections. VIII. 375
24
“49
o SCATTER DIAGRAM FOR
B.PAPYRIFERA AND B.CORDI FOLIA
aa
20 LEGEND
#2 has B.PAPYRIFERA=() 2.LEAF BASE.
o Boot o 8 CORDIFOLIA=@ sade =O
icarmmilewern | SUMEME 7p
a 437 <3.0¢cm.-O ROUNDED CUNEATE.
Pe -o- 30-36cm.-<O ROUNDED ANO/OR_
523 ‘ Oe, & CORDATE fe)
a > 36 cm.= 3.No OF SERRATIONS
9 AL S©)
Sor <37 =O
-o Q > 37 =O-
52!
LS oe %-o" “~%- 4. BRACT FORM
iat -o: rr) A o POINTED MEDIAN LOBE= ©
-$ “O° oe ROUNDED MEDIAN LoBE-—C)
250 30.0 ‘ 35.0 40.0 450
GUARD CELL LENGTH (Ll)
Figure 9. Pictorial scatter diagram of B. papyrifera and B. cordifolia.
confirms our original conclusion (Brittain and Grant, 1965b) that B. papyrifera
var. cordifolia should have specific rank as B. cordifolia Regel, and hence, the
reason for our use of the specific name for this taxon here.
Hodgdon and Pike (1964) reported that they found some trees of B.
cordifolia (B. papyrifera var. cordifolia) on Grand Manan Island only after
very diligent hunting, and Weatherby and Adams (1945) did not report this
-taxon at all in their list of species growing on Grand Manan. In contrast, we
have found B. cordifolia to be in considerable abundance, and probably to be
the most plentiful birch species on Grand Manan at the present time. In the
uninhabited interior of the island, B. cordifolia was the only species present.
The late G. C. Cunningham (personal communication) said that a maritime
form of B. cordifolia occurred along the Gulf of St. Lawrence in which the
leaves were not cordate, but were broadly rounded at the base. This form was
found to be abundant on Grand Manan, and exceeded the typical form. Since
in all other respects, including chromosome number, it was indistinguishable
from typical B. cordifolia, and there was a complete integration in leaf form
THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
r
ies)
I
ion
Figure 10. Key to the polygonal graphs of B. papyrifera and B. cordifolia. 1. Chromosome
number, X = 27 = 70 or 84; Y=2n=56; Z=2n=28. II. Number of serrations on
one idle of leaf. II. Style length (mm). IV. Bract form: P = median lobe tapering,
lateral lobes extending porrect or recurved; C= median lobe with parallel sides and
lateral lobes always porrect. V. Catkin length (cm). WI. Guard cell length (w).
VIl. Achene length (mm). VIII. Number of pairs of lateral veins.
from the one to the other, we have not distinguished between the two ex-
tremes and have not tried to split off individuals into subtaxonomic categories.
It may be, however, that Hodgdon and Pike (1964) mistook this maritime form
for B. papyrifera and hence, their statement for the scarcity of B. cordifolia.
The Betula caerulea complex
In Figure 12, the hybrid index values for each specimen of B. populifolia,
B. caerulea and B. cordifolia have been illustrated by means of a bar graph for
eight measured characters. The hybrid index of a typical B. populifolia ranged
from 0 to 5, whereas that of B. cordifolia ranged from 10 to 16. These two taxa
1969 Brirrain anp Grant: Canaptan Birca Coxxections. VIII. 377
425 430 431 ee i
4 439 aan 442 445
447 ; 448 | 449 451 | ep
433 | 490 aoe Be 502
450
C 2 rh 4 467 47)
4
aN \ 496 497 ) 505 508
512
KR 517 518 544 cK
and B. papyrifera, lower
Ficure 11. Polygonal graphs of B. cordifolia, upper four rows,
ariability found
four rows. The polygons were selected to show the entire range of v
for the two taxa.
378 THe CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
B. POPULIFOLIA
Li
[ll] 8. CAERULEA
E| 8. CORDIFOLIA
FREQUENCY
iN
O 1,2 3°04 5 6 7. 8 98 10 1 2) oleae
HYBRID INDEX VALUES
Figure 12. Frequency of hybrid index values of B. populifolia, B. caerulea, and B. cordifolia
are clearly distinct from one another by the criteria employed. In the case
of B. caerulea, the hybrid index values ranged from 3 to 11 with one specimen
having a value of 13. The values for the majority of specimens of B. caerulea
clearly fall intermediate to those of B. populifolia and B. cordifolia with some
introgression in both parental directions, that is, individuals possessing char-
acteristics of both B. populifolia and B. cordifolia. A close comparison of our
specimens of B. caerulea with those of B. caerulea and B. caerulea-grandis col-
lected by Blanchard in 1903 in Vermont, revealed that all of our specimens
BRACT LENGTH (mm.)
1969 BrirTAIN AND GRANT: CANADIAN BircH Co.tections. VIII. 379
SCATTER DIAGRAM FOR
9.0 in a8, B. CORDIFOLIA, B. POPULOFOLIA AND B.COERULEA
‘ eo” ae
8.0 a @% So
e e” 0g:
7.0 : e oxe"” :
o 0"
30 Ss e°
535 492 435 " 473
; eeseger. 3°
Or ee' er 8 Gis
e %S" 441 ona ee
so Jo e555 Soe ge
oe ¢ 208 50s gree: } oS oO"
be OPT gong de ot
AD awe Wiel gels ote ae d 4 Oe On Ole ay ts ee
ee aN Sars Aras? CGS
LEGEND
20 B.CORDIFOLIA = @ 2.ACHENE LENGTH
6. POPULOFOLIA = O <1.7 mm. = fe)
B.COERULEA = ©
17-19mm. = (2)
L.CATKIN LENGTH >19mm. =O
fe < 2.20 cm. = fe)
: : 3.ACHENE BODY 4.UNDERSIDE OF LEAF
220-340cm.= © Giasrous -O- ciasrous --O
>340cm. =O HisPiouous =O — puBescent= O
5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
A/M RATIO-ATTENUATION FACTOR
Figure 13. Pictorial scatter diagram of B. populifolia, B. caerulea and B. cordifolia.
were like Blanchard’s B. caerulea-grandis with the exception of one specimen
(No. 420) which was similar to Blanchard’s B. caerulea. Our specimen No.
420 had a hybrid index value of 5, which was well within the variation found
for our other specimens. In a ¢ test comparing measurements of eight char-
acters from a herbarium specimen of B. caerulea collected by Blanchard (B-6,
Windham, Vermont, August 1, 1903; Brittain and Grant, 1967) with measure-
ments of specimens of B. caerulea and B. caerulea-grandis collected on Grand
Manan, all of the eight characters differed significantly between the herbarium
specimen and the Grand Manan specimens. In a comparison with Blanchard’s
B. caerulea-grandis (B-18; Stratton, Windham Co., Vermont, July 17, 1903),
the catkin length, achene length, leaf serrations, and guard cell measurements,
were not significantly different from those specimens collected on Grand
Manan, but bract length, achene width, style length, and number of lateral
veins, differed significantly.
In the pictorialized scatter diagram for B. cordifolia, B. caerulea and B.
populifolia, the leaf a/m ratio was used as a coordinate on one axis and the
380 Tue CANapiIAN Fietp-NaTuRALIST Vol. 83
ip
V
FiguRE 14. Key to the polygonal graphs of B. populifolia, B. caerulea, and B. cordifolia
II. Catkin length (cm). Il. Bract length (mm). II]. Achene length (mm). IV. Achene-
length-width ratio. V. Attenuation factor (a/m ratio). WI. Achene body: G = Glab-
rous or nearly so, H = Hispidulous. VII. Underside of leaf: Gl = Glabrous,; P =
Pubescent. VIII. Bract Form: L. H. = Lateral lobes horizontally extending or slightly
recurved, median lobe tapering, L.P. = Lateral lobes porrect, M.P.= median lobe with
subparallel sides and lateral lobes always porrect.
bract length on the other (Figure 13). Measurements for each individual were
plotted. The series of dots outline individuals which belong to B. cordifolia and
to B. populifolia, respectively. ‘The individuals of B. caerulea numbered 433,
526 and 458 lie within the circle enclosing the B. populifolia specimens.
Accession numbers 433 and 526 have hybrid indices of 6 and 7 which lie in
the peak of the mode of the specimens represented by B. caerulea, however,
number 458 has a hybrid index of 3 which is more characteristic ue specimens
of B. populifolia. In general, the specimens of B. caerulea are intermediate
in position to B. cordifolia and B. populifolia, but individuals are found in the
1969 BrirtAIN AND GRANT: CANADIAN Bircu Corvections. VIII. 381
>
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Figure 15. Polygonal graphs of B. cordifolia, first row, B. populifolia, bottom row, B.
caerulea, seven center rows. The polygons were selected to show the entire range of
variation within each species. Center right: Superimposed polygons illustrating mean
values for these species. C= B. cordifolia, C1 = B. caerulea, P1=B. populifolia.
382 THe CaANapIAN Fretp-NATURALIST Vol. 83
range of both parents. Specimen number 473 with a hybrid index of 9, and
numbers 423 and 475 with a hybrid index of 10, lie adjacent to B. cordifolia and
have a high hybrid index value characteristic of B. cordifolia. A specimen of
B. caerulea, number 455, plotted adjacent to those of B. populifolia has a hybrid
index value of 3 which is in the range of specimens of B. populifolia, and
specimen numbers 477 and 464, also lying in similar positions, have a hybrid
index value of 4. Thus it may be seen that plants of B. caerulea overlap with
values assigned to both B. cordifolia and B. populif olia.
Polygonal graphs again based on eight selected characters were prepared
for each plant of B. cordifolia, B. caerulea and B. populifolia. he assigned
values for these characters are given on the eight radii in the key to the poly-
gons (Figure 14). Representative polygons illustrating the entire variation
found for B. cordifolia, B. caerulea, and B. populifolia are shown in Figure 15.
The polygons have been arranged to give a visual image of the morphological
variation between individuals. The first row of polygons in Figure 15 are of
B. cordifolia and the last row are of B. populifolia. The center seven rows are
polygons of B. caerulea. It is readily apparent that the polygons of B. cordi-
folia and B. populifolia are quite distinct from one another whereas there is a
complete gradation in polygon shapes from B. cordifolia to B. populifolia.
This study is the first report of B. caerulea and B. caerulea-grandis on
Grand Manan Island. We consider B. caerulea and B. caerulea-grandis to share
a common parentage and for the reasons presented to be different extremes of
introgressants between B. populifolia and B. cordifolia. Since there is a com-
plete range of introgressants between B. populifolia and B. cordifolia (Figure
12) we consider it meaningless to give names to different introgressants between
them. Consequently, all individuals which share a common parentage between
B. populifolia and B. cordifolia we are designating B. caerulea Blanchard,
since this was the first taxon to be described by Blanchard (1904a). It should
be noted that Blanchard (1904b) himself had some doubt as to the correct
nomenclature for these two individuals he described. From the hybrid index
values for B. populifolia, B. caerulea and B. cordifolia (Figure 12) it may be
clearly observed that B. caerulea introgresses both towards B. populifolia and
B. cordifolia. From unpublished observations the degree of introgression
varies in different regions and hence, in one area there may be more B. caerulea
types (greater introgression with B. populifolia), or more B. caerulea-grandis
types (greater introgression with B. cordifolia). Hence, our reasons for using
the name B. caerulea for these introgressants. As we have clearly shown
(Figure 12), B. caerulea (and B. caerulea-grandis) are hybrids between B.
populifolia and B. cordifolia, as we earlier suspected (Brittain and Grant, 1967),
and not between B. populifolia and B. papyrifera (Fernald, 1950; Brayshaw,
1966).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was made possible by a grant to Dr. W. H. Brittain from the
National Research Council of Canada which is gratefully acknowledged.
Certain aspects of the research have been supported by a grant to Dr. W. F.
Grant from the Canada Department of Forestry.
1969 BritrAIN AND GRANT: CANADIAN BircH Co.L.ections. VIII. 383
SUMMARY
A cytological and a morphological study employing hybrid indices, pic-
torialized scatter diagrams, and polygonal graphs, has been carried out on a
collection of birches from Grand Manan Island, New Brunswick, namely, B.
papyrifera Marsh., B. papyrifera var. cordifolia (Reg.) Fern., B. populifolia
Marsh., and some hybrids B. caerulea Blanch. and B. caerulea-grandis Blanch.
Somatic chromosome numbers of 28 were determined for all accessions of B.
papyrifera var. cordifolia, B. caerulea and B. populifolia. ‘Two out of seven-
teen seedlings of B. papyrifera had a somatic chromosome number of 70; fifteen
had 84. Hybrid index values, pictorialized scatter diagrams and polygons
showed that B. papyrifera and B. papyrifera var. cordifolia were clearly dis-
tinct from one another, as well as in chromosome numbers, confirming our
earlier conclusion that B. papyrifera var. cordifolia should be reinstated to
specific rank, namely as B. cordifolia Regel. This study is the first to report
B. caerulea and B. caerulea-grandis on Grand Manan Island. Betula caerulea
and B. caerulea-grandis are considered to share a common parentage and to
represent different extremes of introgressants between B. populifolia and B.
cordifolia. Since introgressants between these two taxa give a considerable
number of phenotypes which individually could all be described as new taxa,
we have designated the name x B. caerulea, to all hybrids between B. populi-
folia and B. cordifolia.
REFERENCES
Anpberson, E. 1949, Introgressive hybrid- Frernarp, M. L. 1945. Some North Ameri-
ization. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
. 1953. Introgressive hybridiza-
tion. Biological Reviews. Cambridge Philo-
sophical Society 28: 280-307.
Brancuarp, W. H. 1904a.
birches. Betula 1(1): 1.
. 1904b. A new
Betula 1(2): 1-2
BraysHaw, T. C.
birches?
187-194.
Brittain, W. H. and Grant, W. F. 1965a.
Observations on Canadian birch (Betula)
collections at the Morgan Arboretum. I.
B. papyrifera in eastern Canada. Canadian
- Field-Naturalist 79: 189-197.
——————. 1965b. Observations on Cana-
dian birch (Betula) collections at the
Morgan Arboretum. II. B. papyrifera var.
cordifolia. Canadian Field-Naturalist 79:
253-257.
New white
white birch.
1966. What are the blue
Canadian Field-Naturalist 80:
————. 1967. Observations on Cana-
dian birch (Betula) collections at the
Morgan Arboretum. IV. B. caerulea-
grandis hybrids. Canadian Field-Naturalist
81: 116-127.
can Corylaceae (Betulaceae). I. Notes on
Betula in eastern North America. Rhodora
47: 303-329.
1950. Gray’s manual of botany.
American Book Co., New York.
Hopepon, A. R. sn Rik Re belo?
Some additions to the flora of Grand
Manan Island, New Brunswick. Rhodora
64: 98-102.
1964. Flora of the Wolf Is-
lands, New Brunswick. Part 2. Some
phytogeographic considerations. Rhodora
66: 140-155.
Weatuersy, C. A. and Apams, J. 1945.
List of the vascular plants of Grand
Manan, Charlotte County, New Bruns-
wick. Contributions from the Gray Her-
barium 158: 1-96.
WickLunp, R. E. and Lanemaw, K. K.
1953. Soil survey of southwestern New
Brunswick. Experimental Farms Service,
Canada Department of Agriculture in Co-
operation with the New Brunswick
Department of Agriculture. 1-47.
Accepted June 20, 1969
ANOMALOUS CONDITIONS IN
THREE SPECIES OF BIRDS
WILLIAM THRELFALL
Department of Biology, Memorial University of Newfoundland,
St. John’s, Newfoundland
SmitH (1942) observed a meadowlark that had lost all its toes and part of its
tarsi, while Ernst (1943) noted a Pied-billed Grebe with a deformed wing.
Threlfall (1963) recovered an oystercatcher that had lost the whole of its left
foot and toes 2 and 4 of its right foot. Harris (1964) recorded that at the
end of the breeding season in a Herring Gull colony, on Skomer Island, West
Wales, chicks were often seen with broken and amputated wings. In none of
these cases was the underlying bony structure of the mutilated or injured limbs
examined. Tiemeier (1941) found evidence of repaired bone injury in some
birds, while Abbott (1943) recorded two cases of bone repair in ducks.
During a survey of the helminth parasite burden of marine birds in New-
foundland four birds were collected in which anomalous conditions were noted.
On 8 May 1968, a Leach’s Petrel (Oceanodroma leucorhoa) with a deform-
Figure 1. Showing the feet of the Leach’s petrel.
384
1969 THRELFALL: ANOMALOUS CONDITIONS IN Birps 385
Figure 2. Showing the deformed wing and a normal wing.
ed foot was found on Gull Island, Witless Bay, Newfoundland. A superficial
examination of the foot (Figure 1) would lead one to believe that the deformity
was the result of an error in the developmental processes of the bird, as the toes
seemed to bear rudimentary claws. When the undersurface of the foot was
examined an extra triangular piece of skin was found extending from the first
joint of the second toe to the tip of the fourth toe, forming a small sac of skin
with the normal web.
The skin was then removed so that the underlying bony structures might
be examined. It was found that the foot had in fact been severed at some time
during the animal’s life. The second toe having been removed at the second
joint, while the third toe had been severed 1.5 mm. beyond the first joint. The
wound left when the foot was removed had healed completely, the bird being
completely normal in every other respect. The extra piece of skin under the
foot could be explained if a flap was left hanging when the foot was removed,
the torn tissues healing in the position described. The claw-like structures were
found to be modified scales. Herring Gulls and Great Black-backed Gulls
destroy many hundreds of petrels every year (Threlfall, 1968) on the island
where the specimen was found and it could well be that the original injury
was caused by one of these creatures.
A bridled Common Murre (Uria aalge) was recovered on 16 July 1968
from a gill net in which it had become entangled and drowned, several hundred
feet off-shore from Gull Island. The bird was an adult female and apparently
386 THe CanapiAn FIeLp-NATURALIST Vol. 83
oO
429
oO
133
A
/
/
/
/
/
/
BO)”
ro
B Cc
Figure 3. Showing the degree to which the wings could be opened.
A: normal wing.
B: distal end of deformed wing.
C: proximal end of deformed wing.
(Two figures were necessary in the case of the deformed wing due to the bones
opening in 2 planes and not 1 as in a normal wing.)
healthy. It was found that the left leg had been amputated approximately
1.5 cm. below the tibio-tarsal/tarso metatarsal joint. The stump of the leg
had healed completely and when the skin was removed a layer of fibrous con-
nective tissue, approximately one eighth of an inch thick, was found covering
the end of the bone. As murres use their wings for TihaGlem cater propulsion
and the feet for steering it is unlikely that this injury would have any great
effect on the life of the creature.
On 7 June 1967, an adult, female Herring Gull (Larus argentatus) was
found dead on Great Island, near Bauline, Newfoundland. Autopsy revealed
the presence of blood in fhe lungs, but no other pathological symptoms were
seen. A large herring (Clupea harengus) was the only food found in the
creature’s digestive tract. The joints of the animal’s left foot were found to be
greatly swollen, and when the skin was removed from the toes large deposits of
connective tissue were found around all the joints. The condition may have
been arthritic in nature.
1969 THRELFALL: ANOMALOUS ConpITIONS IN Birps 387
Ss
PA
Figure 4. A: bones of a normal wing.
B: bones in the deformed wing.
C: articular surfaced of the humerus, radius and ulna in a normal wing.
D: as above, but in deformed wing.
During a field trip to Gull Island 4 August 1967, a Herring Gull chick
which was unable to fly was collected. “he chick was unable to open its left
wing to its fullest extent due to a deformation of the bone structure (Figures
2, 3, and 4). Examination of the bones revealed that there was complete
ankylosis of the metacarpal bone with the pisoulnare and scapholunare, a certain
amount of movement being possible between the end of this fused bone and
the distal end of the radius and ulna. The second phalanx. in the deformed
wing was approximately half the length of the same phalanx in a normal wing.
The articulatory surfaces of the proximal end of the radius and ulna, and the
distal end of the humerus, were very much reduced (Figures 4C and Ds asthe
bones in the deformed wing did not lie in one plane as iS seen in a normal wing,
but lay in two planes (approximately 75° between the planes) (Figure 3).
The proximal end of the humerus did not articulate with the glenoid cavity in
the normal way the head of the bone having been twisted through 90°, relative
to the position of a normal bone (Figures 4A & B). ‘The distal end of the
humerus seemed to have been twisted through approximately 60° relative to
the longitudinal axis and the distal end of a normal bone.
388 Tue CANApDIAN FIeELp-NATURALIST Vol. 83
No sign of injury was seen in the bone and it would appear that the con-
dition was present at the time of hatching.
This work was supported by the National Research Council of Canada
(grant NRC-A3500) to whom I express my gratitude.
Biological studies from Memorial University of Newfoundland No. 123.
REFERENCES
Assort, C. E. 1943. Bone repair in ducks. Turerrarr, W. 1963. Factors concerned
Auk., 60: 447. in the mortality of some birds which
: i : ; perished in Anglesey and Northern Caer-
ERNST, S. G. 1943 . Deformation in the narvonshire during the winter of 1963,
wing of a Pied-billed Grebe. Auk. 60: 447. with special reference to parasitism by
Harris, M. P. 1964. Aspects of the breed- helminths. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 13.
ing biology of the gulls Larus argentatus, 6: 721-737.
; 0 ae pa) Se . 1968. The food of three species
arimus. : 2 2- 5 SP
Pe cage eae of gulls in Newfoundland. Can. Field Nat.
82(3): 176-180.
SmitH, C. F. 1942. An injured Meadow- Tiemetrr, O. W. 1941. Repaired bone in-
larkee Ante Oe 43.9: jury in birds. Auk, 58: 350-359.
Accepted June 2, 1969
PROFESSOR EDMUND M. WALKER
1877-1969
F. P. Ibe
Department of Zoology, University of Toronto
Wiri THe passine of Dr. Walker in February, 1969, a contact with Natural
History events over a period of almost unique extent has been broken.
Although his main scientific contributions were in Entomology the breadth
of his interests encompassed many other branches of the sciences and other
cultural fields.
He was born in Windsor, Ontario in October, 1877, the eldest son -of
Byron Edmund Walker, later Sir Edmund, who was sometime head of the
Canadian Bank of Commerce. He spent much of his early life in Toronto and
received most of his formal education there. After attending Harbord Col-
legiate he entered Arts and Medicine at the University receiving the BA degree
in 1900 and MB and Medical Council in 1903. This was followed by a year as an
intern at the Toronto General Hospital. However, his early interest in and
389
390 Tue CaNnapiIAN FIE_p-NATURALIST Vol. 83
dedication to Natural Science destined him for a career in teaching and research
and he did not practise Medicine. The opportunity came with his appointment
as an Assistant under Professor Ramsay Wright for the 1904-05 session. He
then went abroad for a year of Post Graduate training at the University of
Berlin taking Invertebrate Zoology w ith Professor Paul Deegener and General
Zoology with Professor F. E. Schulze. On his return in 1906 he was appointed
a Lecturer at Toronto, became Professor of Invertebrate Zoology in 1926 and
was Head of the Department of Biology, (Zoology after 1940), 1934-1948.
On retirement he was appointed Professor Emeritus and remained active in
research as Honorary Curator of Invertebrates at the Royal Ontario Museum
of Zoology until ill health incapacitated him early in 1965.
In addition to his original courses in Invertebrate Zoology he introduced
a course in Forest Entomology following the creation of the Faculty of
Forestry in 1907 and gave a course to medical students in Parasitology and
later developed an advanced course on the Phylogeny of the Arthropods to
which his own research contributed significantly. It was during his incumbency
of the Headship that Animal Physiology and Human Genetics were introduced
into the curriculum.
He was married twice, first to Eleanora Walzel of Halbstadt, Cchecho-
slovakia by whom there were three daughters and a son and second, to Dr.
Norma H. Ford, a former student and member of the staff who developed
Human Genetics in the University and headed the genetics unit in the Toronto
Hospital for Sick Children. After relinquishing much of his course work on
becoming Head of the Department he resumed teaching of some of it during
part of World War Two, thus adding considerably to the already heavy
demands of the Headship.
His own research resulted in more than 130 scientific papers over the
years 1897-1966, a complete list of which is given by Dr. Glenn Wiggins’.
Many of these were taxonomic papers on the Orthoptera and Odonata. Out-
standing classics in his field were a monograph on the dragonfly genus Aeshna
and one on Somatochlora in which his skill as an illustrator is probably best
shown, a series on the anatomy of the relict orthopteroid insect Grylloblatta
campodieformis found in 1913 on Sulphur Mountain at Banff and his three-
volume work — The Dragonflies of Canada and Alaska—the last volume of
which was nearly completed before illness brought these activities to an end.
The excellence of his research brought recognition in election to office
and fellowship in scientific societies in which he was active. These included
Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada and President of Section V in 1936 and
recipient of the coveted Flavelle medal in 1960; Fellow of the Entomological
Society of America, Vice-President in 1917 and President in 1939; Fellow of the
Entomological Society of Ontario, 1963, of which he was President 1910-12, one
of the first Honorary members and dicen of the Canadian Entomologist 1910-20,
Fellow of the Royal Entomological Society of London. He was an Honorary
member of the Entomological Society of Canada from its founding in 1958 and a
1Wiggins, Glenn. 1966. Centennial of Entomology in Canada, 1863-1963—A tribute to Edmund M.
Walker. Uniy. of Toronto Press, Contr. 69, Life Sciences, Royal Ontario Museum, 94 pages.
1969 Proressor EnpmMunp M. Wa ker 391
fellow; an Honorary member of the Canadian Society of Zoologists from its
founding i in 1962; a member of the Toronto Field Naturalists’ Club from its
founding 1920, President in 1926 and later became a Director and President
of the Federation of Ontario Naturalists. He was Honorary Editor of the
Transactions of the Royal Canadian Institute 1924-45, and an Honorary
member. Further recognition of his outstanding contribution came when he
was made a Vice-President of the 10th International Congress of Entomology,
Montreal, 1956 and named Entomologist of the Congress. At the Celebration
of the Centennal of the Entomological Society of Ontario in 1963 he was one of
the recipients of the D.Sc. honoris causa, from Carleton University.
The late Professor Walker’s interest in Natural History was aroused early
in childhood and was maintained throughout a long life. He was fortunate
in being placed in an environment which allowed him to follow his early
inclination and to receive along the way encouraging stimulus from some of
the early workers in his field.
A sensitive and rather shy man, he was very human, with a fine sense of
humour not always revealed in his daily contacts but enriching the relation
with his students, fellow workers and others enjoying the privilege of his
closer acquaintance. He excelled as a keen, critical observer and never ceased
to be aroused and excited by what he saw. This enthusiasm was infectious
and rendered him a stimulating teacher and entertaining guide. His wide
knowledge of the trees of the forest, shrubs and plants and the associated
animals made a trip in the field an enriching experience for kindred spirits and
some of his most stimulating instruction was given in this setting. This is
where questions and Renee problems presented themselves which required
investigation in the laboratory by closer scrutiny under the microscope. An
obscure point in a life cycle was clarified by rearing the animal in the laboratory.
By painstaking anatomical study our knowledge of insect form and function
was increased and relationships demonstrated. Ever in mind, also, was the
relation of animals to their environment as revealed by studies of their habitats.
He was quick, also, to appreciate the significance of findings of newer
branches of zoology for his field but realizing his limitations, refrained from
extending his own activities at the expense of thoroughness in his chosen sphere.
His work so absorbed him that it was at the same time his chief recreation
particularly that part which took him into the field. But he had many other
intellectual interests including literature, music and art from which he derived
much pleasure. He was an artist of considerable accomplishment, painting the
scenery he so keenly appreciated, and finding satisfying relaxation in this
diversion.
Ata dinner in Hart House, 1948, on the occasion of his retirement as Head
of the Department of Zoology, he said “I believe that the future for biology
is a bright one and that there is more room than ever before for students of
different temperaments and different outlooks on life”.
NOTES
Distribution Extensions of
Manitoba Plant Species
THe MaIN reference to the distribution
of plant species in Manitoba is Scoggan’s
Flora of Manitoba (1957). Since this
flora was published, many more plant
collections have been made, and | have
found range extensions for many species
in collections made since 1964.
One collection in particular is note-
worthy. This is a collection made west
of Child Lake in the Duck Mountain
Forest Reserve, at approximately 51°
33’N, 101° 15’°W. No less than nine
grass species were collected which are
typical of the Festuco-Danthonietum
spicatae Looman, 1969—the Festuca
scabrella association (Moss and Camp-
bell, 1947; Blood, 1966)—and are north-
ward extensions of their known range
in Manitoba. Undoubtedly, more inten-
sive collecting will bring many more
range extensions to light.
In the following enumeration the
“Known range” is that given by Scoggan,
unless otherwise indicated. The position
of the locations given was determined
on maps of the National Topographic
Series, Scale 1: 250.000. Voucher speci-
mens of all collections are in the her-
barium of the Research Station, Swift
Current, Saskatchewan (SCS), and some
duplicates are in the herbarium of
the Plant Research Institute, Canada
Department of Agriculture, Ottawa
(DAO).
Taxus canadensis Marsh
elecla islands Silkeme Nn O62 m3 8. VVe
Looman 9010; Pine Dock, 51° 37’N, 96°
50’°W, Looman 9040; Bull Head Bay, 51°
40'N, 96° 53’W, Looman, 9063. In
Muskeg. Known range: “Apparently
limited to the forested area southeast of
Lake Winnipeg . . . near the Ontario
boundary. . .” A report from York Fac-
tory is considered doubtful. Boivin
(1967) knows of only one location, at
Indian Bay, besides the York Factory
392
one. The identity of my specimens is
confirmed by Dr. Boivin.
Festuca scabrella Torr. (F. altaica Trin.
var. major (Vasey) Gl.)
W. of Child Lake, Duck Mountain,
Looman 11899. In fescue prairie. Known
range: northernmost collection Riding
Mountain.
Helictotrichon hookeri (Scribn.) Henr.
W. of Child Lake, Duck Mountain,
Looman 11896. In fescue prairie. Known
range: northernmost collection Riding
Mountain.
Danthonia intermedia Vasey.
W. of Child Lake, Duck Mountain,
Looman 11905. In fescue prairie. Known
range: Riding Mountain (Blood, 1966).
This species has been reported from
Manitoba by Macoun (1888) who lists
it “. .. from Portage la Prairie westward.
to the source of the Qu’Appelle; .. .”
Further, “Prairies at Emerson, Manitoba
(Burgess) Red River, Manitoba 1827.
(Douglas).”Dr. Boivin, confirming my
identification, writes that these reports
have been discounted by later authors,
and that specimens from Manitoba under
the name D. intermedia have been re-
vised to D. spicata. Scoggan excludes D.
intermedia from the flora of Manitoba
and cites D. spicata as the source of
earlier reports of the former. I excluded
the species from the Festuco-Dantho-
nietum spicatae (Looman, 1969) because
I never found the species. But Blood
(1966) lists it as occurring in fescue
prairie in the Riding Mountain. An in-
tensive search in both the Duck Moun-
tain and Riding Mountain areas con-
firmed its occurrence in Manitoba.
Stipa spartea Trin.
W. of Child Lake, Duck Mountain,
Looman 11901. In fescue prairie. Known
range: south edge of Duck Mountain.
Stipa spartea Trin. var. curtiseta Hitchc.
W. of Child Lake, Duck Mountain,
Looman 11900. In fescue prairie. Known
range: as far north as Riding Mountain.
1969
Stipa richardsoni Link
W. of Child Lake, Duck Mountain,
Looman 11902. In fescue prairie. Known
range: “Known in Manitoba only from
Riding Mountain”.
Muhlenbergia racemosa (Michx.) BSP.
W. of Child Lake, Duck Mountain,
Looman 11897. In fescue prairie. Known
range: northernmost collection Dauphin.
Muhlenbergia richardsonis (Trin.) Rydb.
W. of Child Lake, Duck Mountain,
Looman 11906. In fescue prairie. Known
range: northernmost collection Birds
Hill near Winnipeg.
Calamovilfa longifolia (Hook.) Scribn.
W. of Child Lake, Duck Mountain,
Looman 11903. On steep grassy slope.
Known range: northernmost collection
Dropmore.
Andropogon scoparius Michx.
W. of Child Lake, Duck Mountain,
Looman 11908. On steep grassy slope.
Known range: northernmost collection
Dropmore.
Vitis riparia Michx.
Lake Audy, Riding Mountain, 50°
46’N, 100° 14°;W, Looman 11919. In
shrubbery along lake. Known range:
northernmost collection Victoria Beach,
about 55 mi. northeast of Winnipeg.
Arctostaphylos rubra (Rehd. & Wils.)
Fern.
South of The Pas, at about 53° 27’N, 101°
22’W, Looman 10353, in muskeg. Known
range: southernmost collection Hill
Lake, north of Lake Winnipeg.
Scutellaria leonardi Ep.
West of Rennie, 49° 52’N, 95° 34’°W,
Looman 8830. On mosses over rock out-
crop. Known range: The species is
known from North Dakota (Stevens,
1950), and its range as given by Gleason
Notes 393
(1952) excludes Canada. My identifica-
tion of this species is confirmed by Dr.
Boivin, who calls it “. . . a somewhat
unexpected addition to the flora of
Canada”. S. Jeonardi Epl. was formerly
included in S. parvula Michx., which
occurs in Quebec and Ontario. It differs
from the latter by not being glandular-
hairy on either stem or leaves and by
having entire lanceolate-deltoid, rather
than dentate, ovate leaves.
REFERENCES
Bioop, D. A. 1966. The Festuca scabrella
association in Riding Mountain National
Park, Manitoba. Canadian Field- Na-
turalist 80: 24-32.
Borvin, B. 1967. Flora of the Prairie Pro-
vinees. Part 1, Provancheria, 2, Memoires
de !’'Herbier Louis Marie, Faculte d’Agri-
culture, Université Laval. 202 pp.
Grrason, H. A. 1952. The New Britton
and Brown Illustrated Flora of the North-
eastern United States and adjacent Canada.
Volume 3. 589 p. New York Botanical
Gardens.
Looman, J. 1969. The fescue grasslands
of Western Canada. Vegetatio, Tuixen
jubilee volume. (in press).
Macoun, J. 1888. Catalogue of Canadian
Plants. Part IV. Endogens. II + 248 p.
Montreal, Dawson Brothers.
Moss, E. H., and Camppeir, J. A. 1947.
The fescue grassland of Alberta. Canada
J. Res. C25: 209-227.
Scoccana len 1957
National Museum of Canada
140: 1-619.
Stevens, O. A. 1950. Handbook of North
Dakota plants. North Dakota Agricul-
tural College, Fargo, North Dakota.
324 p.
Flora of Manitoba.
Bulletin
J. Looman
Research Station
Research Branch
Canada Department of Agriculture
Swift Current, Saskatchewan
Accepted May 2, 1969
394
An Adult White-winged Black
Tern in New Brunswick
On July 27, 1968, we were watching
birds at Grand Point (45°55’N, 66°05’W )
near Douglas Harbour, Queen’s County,
N.B. This promotory is on the northern
shore of Grand Lake, the province’s
largest body of fresh water, and from
it a shingle bar juts out into the lake. At
the water’s edge near the end of the bar
were several Great Black-backed Gulls
Larus marinus, Herring Gulls L. argen-
tatus, Ring-billed Gulls L. delawarensis,
and Bonaparte’s Gulls L. philadelphia.
There were also about 20 Common Terns
Sterna hirundo. Nearby and at a slightly
higher elevation there was a discrete
flock of about 100 resting Black Terns
Chlidonias niger. The birds were dis-
turbed by our close approach and circled
for a while before settling a short dis-
tance away. It was after we had put
them to flight a second time that we
noticed one of the supposed Black Terns
was different from the others. With the
aid of binoculars and telescope and in
bright sunny weather we observed this
bird during the next two hours.
We noted the following plumage de-
tails during observation of the bird on the
ground and in flight.
Upper parts: forehead and front of
crown white; rear of crown and nape
black; back and scapulars gray; rump
and upper tail coverts white.
Side of head: lores and side of face
white; ear coverts black, joined with the
black of the crown and indistinctly with
that of the breast.
Under parts: chin and throat white;
breast blotched black and white; belly,
axillaries and flanks black; under tail
coverts white.
Wings: remiges dark gray as in Ch.
niger; major coverts gray, paler than
remiges; lesser and probably median
coverts white; marginal coverts pale
gray; wing linings black, very slightly
blotchy due to onset of molt. $
Tue CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
Tail: retrices almost wholly white but
with some pale gray streakings on the
ups dorsally.
Soft parts: bill and legs appeared black.
We identified the bird as a molting
White-winged Black Tern Chlidonias
leucopterus. Color photographs were
taken and a field sketch made. These have
been submitted for comment to W. Earl
Godfrey at the National Museum of
Natural Sciences.
Due to the presence of unmolted wing
coverts, the bird, while on the ground,
appeared much paler than any of the
Black Terns with which it associated.
This distinction could be expected to
disappear as the molt progressed. Black
Terns were present in all stages of molt
and none was seen which appproached
this degree of paleness. In flight, the
white rump and predominantly white
tail were the most noticeable distin-
guishing features and, when the bird was
high enough, the black wing linings also.
Due to the onset of molt, the white
upper wing coverts were not a good
field mark. In fact the dark “saddle”
formed by the contrast of pale wings
and dark back, often given as a charac-
teristic of sub-adult and winter-plumage
Ch. leucopterus, is unreliable at a time
when molting juvenal Ch. niger can show
a “saddle” of brown juvenal back
feathers and gray wings.
The following day we returned to the
area with N. Moore and W. Wilson. We
soon located the bird among the resting
Black Terns and approached to about 40
yards, without learning anything new.
On July 29 it was seen again by S. Lunn
and P.A.P. On that occasion the bird
dissociated itself from the Black Terns
and flew southwest down the lake until
it disappeared from view. Later in the
day, however, C. Archibald, D. Christie,
and M. Majka successfully located it at
the usual place. The bird was last seen
by N. Moore 24 hours later. It was not,
to our knowledge, independently identi-
fied. J.H.M. has seen White-winged
1969
Black Terns elsewhere, in the United
Kingdom and in Libya. The other ob-
servers could claim no previous ex-
perience with this species.
By August 1 about half the Black
Terns had left the area and Common
Terns were more numerous. The Black
Terns were probably from the breeding
colony at Big Timber Lake, seven miles
west of Grand Point, which Peters
(1941) reported. Recent spring observa-
tions of up to 50 birds at nearby Mc-
Gowan’s Corner suggest that the colony
has expanded considerably. The White-
winged Black Tern has not before been
reported from Canada (Godfrey, 1966),
but there is a nearctic specimen and
several sight records of this Old World
species that are worth citing. A breeding
female was shot near Black Hawk Island,
Lake Koshkonong, Wis. on July 5, 1873
(Kumlien and Hollister, 1903). Two,
one an adult in full breeding plumage,
were reported at Scituate, Mass. on May
25-27, 1954 (Griscom and Snyder, 1955).
The species was noted at Nauset and
Monomy, Mass. on July 18 and August
4, 1960 (Hill, 1965). Bagg (1963) cited
the occurrence of one at Salisbury, Mass.
July 11-18, 1963. Scott and Cutler (1963a,
1963b, 1964a, 1964b, 1965) reported the
repeated observation of one at Chinco-
teague Refuge, Va. Most of the authors
referred to the association of the White-
winged species with Black Terns. Peter-
son, Mountfort, and Hollom (1966)
state that the two species are frequently
found together throughout the year.
REFERENCES
Bace, A. M. 1963. Northeastern Maritime
Region. Audubon Field Notes, 17, p. 445.
GopFrEy, W. E. 1966. The Birds of
Canada. National Museum of Canada,
Bulletin No. 203, Biological Series No. 73.
Griscom, L. and D. E. SNyper. 1955. The
Birds of Massachusetts. Peabody Museum,
Salem, Mass. pp. 256-257.
Hm, N. P. 1965. The Birds of Cape Cod,
Massachusetts. William Morrow and Co.,
New York. p. 184.
Nores 395
Kumuten, L. and N. Hotuister. 1903. The
Birds of Wisconsin. Bulletin of the Wis-
consin Natural History Society, 3, new
series, p. 14:
Peters, H. S. 1941. Black Terns Nesting
in New Brunswick. Auk, 58. p. 260.
Peterson, R. T., G. Mountrort, and P. A. D.
Hottom. 1966. A Field Guide to the
Birds of Britain and Europe. Revised ed.
Collins, London.
Scone kesnandie 1) Ase @unmmRe 9634:
Middle Atlantic Coast Region. Audubon
Field Notes, 17, p. 396.
. 1963b. Middle Atlantic Coast
Audubon Field Notes, 17, p. 453.
1964a. Middle Atlantic Coast
Audubon Field Notes, 18, p. 441.
. 1964b. Middle Atlantic Coast
Audubon Field Notes, 18, p. 502.
Region.
Region.
Region.
= 1965— Middle’ “Atlantic” ‘Coast
Region. Audubon Field Notes, 19, p. 459.
J. H. Morean
P. A. PEARCE
199 Atlas Road
Toronto 10, Ontario
Canadian Wildlife Service
Fredericton, N.B.
Accepted August 15, 1969
Bewick Wren, Host to
Brown-headed Cowbird
Ix 1967, the Ornithology Section of the
Victoria Natural History Society, com-
menced a limited study on the hosts of
the Brown-headed Cowbird (Molothrus
ater (Boddaert.)) in the Victoria area.
Through the kind co-operation of Dr.
Ge Ge Gare aD inectoromenthes british
Columbia Provincial Museum, who acted
as the “clearing house” for phone calls,
we received many reports on nests con-
taining cowbird eggs and young cow-
birds being fed.
There were the usual reports of
Chipping Sparrows, White-crowned
Sparrows, Song Sparrows, Oregon Jun-
cos, merical Goldfinch and Yellow
396
Warblers either incubating or feeding
young cowbirds.
There were, however, some extremely
interesting reports on unusual hosts. On
August 13, 1968, IT. Davies observed a
cowbird being fed by a Wilson Warbler.
In Bulletin No. 233, Smithsonian Insti-
tute, 1963, it states that only sixteen
instances of cowbird parasitism were
reported for this warbler. There were
two reports of Western Flycatchers
acting as the host.
On August 1, 1967, there was an ob-
servation, by Miss M. C. Melburn, of
the feeding of a cowbird by a female
Golden-crowned Kinglet. I have not
been able to find another reference to
this species acting as a host.
The writer was phoned, on June 12,
1967, to inspect a nest which had been
made in a peg bag, which was hanging
under the porch of a house in Oak Bay,
one of the municipalities of Greater
Victoria. The report said that there
were “four small, creamy white eggs,
and one larger egg which was bluish
covered with brown blotches.” With
Mr. M. C. M. Matheson I inspected the
nest and found that a Bewick wren was
the host.
Up to 1963 there had been one report
as listed in Bulletin No. 233. I com-
municated with Dr. D. B. Peakall, De-
partment of Zoology, Cornell University,
Ithaca. He replied stating, “we have
checked the nest record cards that we
have on hand for this species over the
last four years and find that we do have
one other record of a cowbird egg in a
Bewick wren nest and one being hatched.
It is from a Mr. D. Patterson, 1966, in
Tennessee.”
I also wrote to the Department of
Zoology, University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, to enquire if they had any
records in their nest record cards. I
learned that the nest observed and photo-
graphed by Mr. Matheson and myself
was the first record for British Columbia.
Tue Canapian Fietp-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
The wren raised the cowbird but
owing to its size and weight the other
two wren chicks succumbed. Two eggs
did not hatch.
In the Old World cuckoos, the eggs
closely resemble their hosts but in the
Brown-headed Cowbird this adaptive
resemblance does not appear to have
taken place. However, that such simi-
larity is not essential is amply shown by
the great number of young cowbirds
observed in the Victoria area each year.
The Brown-headed Cowbird is be-
lieved to have entered North America
through Mexico, spreading its range
both easterly and westerly as the forests
were cut and turned into grasslands. The
first record for British Columbia was in
1939 when Dr. I. McT. Cowan saw ten
cowbirds at Tupper Creek. It was not
until 1955 that the birds appeared in the
Victoria area.
The cowbird truly lives up to it’s
scientific name “Molothrus” meaning
vagabond, tramp or parasite. Its com-
mon name, cowbird, formerly buffalo-
bird, is self-explanatory.
Enw K. Lemon
1226 Roslyn Road
Victoria, B.C.
Accepted May 29, 1969
Long-billed Dowitchers in
New Brunswick
On October 11, 1968, Pearce was sur-
prised to see a flock of five dowitchers
in a brackish marsh at Castalia, Grand
Manan, N.B. where he had not pre-
viously seen dowitchers as late in the
fall. Three of the birds bulked a little
larger than the others and two were
exceptionally long billed. No plumage
differences were discerned. Three birds
from the group were collected. The
skins were prepared by Brown. We are
1969
grateful to W. Earl Godfrey for con-
firming our tentative identifications.
Data are as follows, specimen numbers
referring to the collection of Brown and
measurements being in mm:
No. 730. Limnodromus scolopaceus
(Gay). Sex 2; wing, 155; tail,
66; exposed culmen, 76; tarsus,
45.
No. 731. L. scolopaceus. Sex 2; wing,
152; tail, 60; exposed culmen,
60; tarsus, 41. (This specimen
has been donated to The New
Brunswick Museum.)
No. 732. L. griseus griseus (Gmelin). Sex
2; wing, 138; tail, 59; exposed
culmen, 52; tarsus, 35.
Boardman (1903) reported the Long-
billed Dowitcher as the Greater Long-
beak Macrorhamphus scolopaceus (Say)
and stated it was rare at St. Andrews,
but no specimen evidence referable to
New Brunswick was noted by Squires
(1952). Pitelka (1950) cited one taken
at Sable Island, Nova Scotia, on October
31, 1897. The present record establishes
the known occurrence of the species on
the Atlantic coast approximately 50
miles farther north.
REFERENCES
BoarpMaN, S. A. 1903. The Naturalist of
the St. Croix. Bangor: C. H. Glass and
Co (Scientific Lists reprinted from The
Calais Times. December 1899 to March
1900).
Piretka, F. A. 1950. Geographic Varia-
tion and the Species Problem in the
Shore-bird Genus Lizzmodromus. Univer-
sity of California Publications in Zoology.
Vol. 50
Squires, W A. 1952. The birds of New
Brunswick. Monographic Series No. 4.
The New Brunswick Museum, Saint John,
N.B.
P. A. PEARCE
N. R. Brown
Canadian Wildlife Service
P.O. Box 486
Fredericton, N.B.
Faculty of Forestry
University of New Brunswick
Fredericton, N.B.
Accepted May 30, 1969
Notes
Arrival Dates of Birds at
Churchill, Manitoba, 1968
A NUMBER of ornithological studies have
been conducted in recent years in the
Churchill, Manitoba area, but most were
initiated in June and little information
has been published on the spring arrival
dates of most species.
During late spring and summer of 1968,
arrival dates were recorded for most
species with the exception of some that
had arrived before May 18 including the
Horned Lark (Eremophila alpestris),
Lapland Longspur (Calcarius lapponi-
cus), and Snow Bunting (Plectrophenax
nivalis). From May 18 through June 9,
bird observations were made daily while
conducting research on Canada Geese
(Branta canadensis) for the Manitoba
Wildlife Branch, Department of Mines
and Natural Resources.
On May 18, the ground was approxi-
mately 85% snow covered with little
open water. The high was 28 F with
northerly winds 20-28 mph. Similar
weather conditions occurred May 19, 20,
21, and 23. On May 24, surface winds
changed to the southwest and the tem-
perature reached 66 F. Southwest winds
continued through May 25 and 26, with
temperatures reaching 73 F and 72 F,
respectively. The three-day warming
trend opened many ponds and smaller
lakes and brought in large numbers of
migrating birds. Thawing was again de-
layed when cold air arrived at 2:00 a.m.,
CST, May 27, and remained through
june +3?
The following list represents 1968 first
arrival dates for species at Churchill,
Manitoba.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank Clait E.
Braun and Dr. Ronald A. Ryder for help
in preparation of the manuscript.
SPECIES DATE
Arctic Loon
Gavia arctica May 27
398 THe Canapian Frecp-NaturRAList Vol. 83
Ked-throated Loon White-rumped Sandpiper
Gavia stellata June 9 Erolia fuscicollis June 1
Horned Grebe Baird’s Sandpiper
Podiceps auritus May 22 Erolia bairdii May 24
American Bittern Least Sandpiper
Botaurus lentiginosus June 4 Erolia minutilla May 25
Whistling Swan Dunlin
Olor columbianus May 24 Erolia alpina May 24
Canada Goose Short-billed Dowitcher
Branta canadensis April 22 Limnodromus griseus May 24
Brant Stilt Sandpiper
Branta bernicla June 13 Micropalama himantopus May 25
White-fronted Goose Semipalmated Sandpiper
Anser albifrons May 23 Ereunetes pusillus May 24
Snow/Bliue Goose Hudsonian Godwit
Chen hyperborea May 20 Limosa haemastica May 25
Mallard Sanderling
Anas platyrhynchos May 24 Crocethia alba June 2
Black Duck Red Phalarope
Anas rubripes May 27 Phalaropus fulicarius June 9
Pintail Northern Phalarope
Anas acuta May 14@ Lobipes lobatus May 25
Green-winged Teal Pomarine Jaeger
Anas carolinensis May 24 Stercorarius pomarinus June 4
American Widgeon Long-tailed Jaeger
Mareca americana May 24 : tec ene longicaudus May 26
Shoveler célan u
Spatula clypeata May 22 Larus glaucoides June 2
Greater Scaup Herring Gull
Alniiten aattita May 26 Larus _argentatus May 5
Lesser Scaup Bonaparte’s Gull -
Aythya affinis May 23 g ees plage re May 24
Oldsquaw abine’s Gu alee
: Xema sabini June 3
Clangula hyemalis May 23 Agee Tara
Common Eider Sterna paradisaea May 26
Somateria mollissima June 5 Tree Swallow
White-winged Scoter Iridoprocne bicolor May 24
Melanitta deglandi May 30 Common Crow
Surf Scoter Corvus brachyrhynchos May 29
Melanitta perspicillata May 24 American Robin —
Common Scoter Turdus migratorius May 23
Oidemia nigra June 5 Gray-cheeked Thrush
Red-breasted Merganser Hylocichla minima May 26
Mergus serrator May 24 Water Pipit
Rough-legged Hawk Anthus spinoletta May 22
Buteo lagopus May 6®) Northern Shrike
Marsh Hawk Lanius excubitor May: 23
Circus cyaneus May 21 Myrtle Warbler
Peregrine Falcon Dendroica coronata May 25
Falco peregrinus May 22 Blackpoll Warbler
Pigeon Hawk Dendroica striata June 5
lc oi cOMta antl May erate HOLE eee time §
Sora Ou ;
Porzana carolina May 30 Rusty Blackbird :
Wellonmi Rail Mike Ee May 21
anc ceHeiicons noveboracensis June 27© Pinicolnwenuclentor May 14
palmated Plover Hoary Redpoll
Te semipalmatus May 24 Acanthis hornemanni May 19
Charan rae 5 Common Redpoll
haradrius vociferus May 24 Acanthis flammea May 19
American Golden Plover White-winged Crossbill
Pluvialis dominica May 22 Loxia leucoptera June 5
Black-bellied Plover Savannah Sparrow
Squatarola squatarola May 24 Passerculus sandwichensis May 19
Ruddy Turnstone Slate-colored Junco
Arenaria interpres May 25 Junco hyemalis May 10®
Common Snipe Tree Sparrow
Capella gallinago May 24 Spizella arborea May 25
Whimbrel Harris’ Sparrow
Numenius phaeopus May 26 Zonotrichia querula May 25
Spotted Sandpiper White-crowned Sparrow
Actitis macularia June 5 Zonotrichia leucophrys May 25
Solitary Sandpiper White-throated Sparrow
Tringa solitaria May 29 Zonotrichia albicollis May 25
Lesser Yellowlegs Lincoln’s Sparrow
Totanus flavipes May 23 Melospiza lincolnii June 5
Knot Swamp Sparrow
Calidris canutus June 4 Melospiza georgiana May 26
Pectoral Sandpiper Smith’s Longspur
Erolia melanotos May 28 Calcarius pictus May 26
1969
@First observed by P. Worth.
pee observed by Dr. F. Cooke near LaPérouse
ay.
) First observed by B. Knudsen.
“First observed by B. C. Lieff.
CarroiL D. LitTLerieLp
ALLAN PAKULAK
Department of Fishery and Wildlife Biology
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado
Accepted May 31, 1969
Lesser Black-backed Gull at
~Churchill, Manitoba. A new
bird for Canada
On June 5, 1968, an adult Lesser Black-
backed Gull, Larus fuscus, was observed
on the large garbage dump just east of
Fort Churchill, Manitoba. This bird was
in the company of a large flock of other
gulls, mostly Herring Gulls, Larus argen-
tatus, and Thayer’s Gulls Larus thayeri.
Three Glaucous Gulls Larus hy perboreus
were also present.
The gull, in breeding plumage, was
observed as close as forty feet by C.
Littlefield, B. Knudson, and both writers
who are familiar with this species from
Europe. Observations were made in
good, diffuse light through seven and ten
power binoculars and a fifteen to sixty
power telescope. Clearly identifiable
photographs were also taken (using a
X 8 telephoto lens). All field marks were
observed and are summarized below.
Overall Appearance—The bird was
slightly smaller than a Herring Gull with
a proportionally less massive head and
bill.
Plumage Coloration—The mantle
colour was a very dark gray although it
seemed lighter than that of a Great
Black-backed Gull Larus marinus. The
wing tips were black with white mirrors.
The remaining plumage was white.
Notes
399
Bill Coloration — The bill was similar
in colour to that of the Herring Gull.
Soft Part Coloration —The eyes had
pale straw coloured irises. The eye-ring
was reddish. The legs and feet were a
pronounced yellow.
What was presumably the same bird
was seen at the nearby Cape Merry Dump
on the previous day but due to bad light
conditions no certain identification could
be made. The gull was not seen again
after the morning of June 5.
Although this species is an addition to
the Canadian avifauna, there are at least
eighteen North American records, thir-
teen of which are from coastal regions
of the northeastern United States. Four
specimens have been taken (Assateague
Island, Maryland, 1948; Buffalo, New
York, 1949; Rutherford, New Jersey,
1958; Enot, Indiana, 1962). In all cases
where subspecific determination was
feasible, the specimens have been found
to belong to the British race, graellsii.
Although it cannot be definitely said,
this would seem to be the race of the
Churchill bird, judging from the very
dark gray mantle. Recent observations
of the presumed graellsii race off South
Greenland (Brown, 1968) serve to sup-
port this identification and to give some
reason for this seemingly isolated
Churchill occurrence.
Photographs and field notes have been
deposited in the National Museum of
Canada.
REFERENCES
Brown, R. G. B. 1968. Sea Birds in New-
foundland and Greenland Waters, April-
May 1966. Canadian Field-Naturalist 82:
88-102.
R. K. Ross
F. Cooke
Department of Biology
Queen’s University
Kingston, Ontario
Accepted August 12, 1969
+00
Birds as Predators of Ticks
in Canada
Tue Nore by Stelfox (1968) in this
journal was a welcome addition to the
scanty literature on known or presumed
instances of the Black-billed Magpie
(Pica pica) eating ticks. Green (1949)
made similar observations, and was able
to collect six magpies containing 3 to
16 engorged ticks. Probably most of
these were Dermacentor andersoni but
D. albipictus may also be present.
Petrischeva and Zhmayeva (1949) identi-
fied 160 ticks of eight genera in the
stomachs of 12 Pica pica bactriana.
From our own observations and ranch
reports, there is little doubt that magpies,
and possibly starlings and other birds,
are not infrequent predators of D. ander-
som on cattle, but no conclusive evi-
dence of birds ingesting ticks from
cattle in Canada is known to me. D.
andersoni is of considerable economic
importance, as a cause of paralysis in
livestock and man, particularly in British
Columbia (Gregson, 1956, 1966).
In British Columbia, and probably the
montane regions of Alberta, D. andersoni
is found mainly on the withers, neck
and poll of cattle, whereas on the
prairies, D. andersoni tends to attach on
the underside of cattle (Davidson, 1941;
Wilkinson and Lawson, 1965) and may
be less accessible to birds. I would wel-
come further evidence of bird predation
on ticks in Canada, particularly ticks on
livestock, and would assist in identifying
tick remains, which might be found in
stomach contents or faeces.
REFERENCES
Davipson, W. B. 1941. The Rocky Moun-
tain wood tick and tick-borne diseases.
Canadian Journal of Comparative Medical
Veterinary Science 5: 124-137
Green, H. V. 1949. The bighorn sheep of
Banff National Park. National Parks and
Historic Sites Service. Ottawa.
Grecson, J. D. 1956. The Ixodoidea of
THe CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
Canada. Canada Department of Agricul-
ture Science Service Publication No. 930.
Grecson, J. D. 1966. Records of tick
paralysis in livestock in British Columbia.
Journal of the Entomological Society of
British Columbia 63: 13-18.
PerriscHevA, P. A. and ZHMmayeva, Z. M.
1949. Natural enemies of field ticks.
Zoologicheskt Zhurnal 28: 479-481. Trans-
lation 82. Department of Medical Zoology
U.S. Naval Medical Research Unit No. 3,
Cairo, Egypt.
STELFox, Davip. 1968. A note on Magpies
and Rocky Mountain Bighorn Sheep.
Canadian Field-Naturalist 82: 224.
Witkinson, P. R. and Lawson, J. E. 1965.
Differences of sites of attachment of
Dermacentor andersoni Stiles to cattle in
southeastern Alberta and in South Central
British Columbia, in relation to possible
existence of genetically different strains
of ticks. Canadian Journal of Zoology 43:
408-411.
P. R. WILKINSON
Entomology Section
Canada Department of Agriculture
Research Station
Box 210
Kamloops, B.C.
Accepted May 29, 1969
Two Rare Sculpins (Cottidae)
New to the Marine Fauna of
British Columbia
Tue darter sculpin, Radulinus boleoides,
Gilbert, 1898 and the frogmouth sculpin,
Icelinus oculatus, Gilbert, 1891 are en-
demic to the eastern North Pacific,
Radulinus boleoides was previously
known only from California and the San
Juan Islands, Washington, while Jcelinus
oculatus was known only from _ the
coasts of California and Oregon. Bolin
(1944) notes that both species are only
rarely collected.
The British Columbia specimen of
R. boleoides (an immature female 61.4
mm in standard length) was taken two
1969
miles off Cape James, Hope Island,
northern British Columbia at a depth of
50 to 65 feet by Drs. R. Rosenblatt and
G. Cowan on a sand and gravel bottom.
This extends the range of the species
about 300 miles north. The specimen
closely fits the detailed description of
R. boleoides given by Bolin (1944) and
therefore no description is included.
The British Columbia specimen of
I. oculatus was taken in Pendrell Sound,
Redonda Island, southern British Colum-
bia by the Fisheries Research Board of
Canada at a depth of 45 fathoms. Since
_ the species is known from only 5 speci-
mens, and the British Columbia specimen
differs in a number of characters (mainly
cirri number and distribution) a brief
description is included. The description
follows the format of Clemens and
Wilby (1961). The morphometric ratios
and meristic counts in parentheses are
from 3 California specimens (including
the holotype) and one Oregon specimen
examined in the Stanford Natural His-
tory Museum.
Body heavy anteriorly, strongly
tapered posteriorly. Head moderate 2.4
(2.4-2.6) into standard length. Mouth
terminal, snout moderately steep and
long 3.6 (3.5-3.7) in head; spines, nasal,
moderate, sharp; preopercular 4, upper-
most stout, with 2 or 3 sharp, upwardly
directed spinules; gill membranes united,
free from isthmus. Anus three-quarters
distance between insertion of pelvic fins
and origin of anal fin. Genital papilla of
males large, bluntly conical. Fins: dorsal
(2) X -15 (16-17); anal 13 (13-14); pel-
vic 1, 2, thoracic; caudal truncate. Lateral
line gently decurved then straight. Scales
ctenoid; on upper part of body in two
rows close to dorsal fins, beginning be-
low 3rd spine of spinous fin, ending be-
hind second dorsal fin, 36 (30-36) scales
in double row 4 in a single row extending
beyond the double row; on lateral line
38 (37-39), rough. Cirri: along lateral
line 8 (6-9), filamentous; on head; nasal
(1), long, expanded at tip, eyeball 2
Nortes
401
(1-2), long, slender; postorbital (1), long
multifid; on suborbital stay (1), long;
maxillary 3 (1). Colour (in alcohol):
light tan, 3 dark saddles below dorsal fins,
fine light reticulations below lateral line.
Soft dorsal, anal, caudal and pectorals
with dark stripes.
REFERENCES
Bottn, R. L. 1944. A review of the marine
cottid fishes of california. Stan. Ich. Bull.
31) 1E135.
CLEMENS, W. A. and Wirsay G. V. 1961.
Fishes of the Pacific coast of Canada.
Fisheries Research Board of Canada Bulle-
tin (68): 1-443.
J. D. McPuair
Institute of Animal Resource Ecology
University of British Columbia
Vancouver 8, B.C
Accepted August 19, 1969
Nesting of the Caspian Tern in
Central-eastern Manitoba
TuroucH the courtesy of Mr. Sam
Waller I recently examined a set of two
eggs of the Caspian Tern, H ydroprogne
caspia, collected on a rocky reef in God’s
Lake, Manitoba, on July 10, 1963, by
Lief Sunde. Mr. Sunde informs me (77
litt.) that there were at least 16, perhaps
up to 30, nests on one island.
Although this is the northernmost
known nesting locality of the species in
Manitoba, there is a possibility that more
northern ones exist. This is suggested by
an observation of Mr. Robert Frisch
(MS) who saw a “great flock of Caspian
Terns on a reef in Lake Waskaiowaka,
northwest of Split Lake, Manitoba, in
the middle of August, 1962.”
W. Eart GopFrReY
National Museum of Natural Sciences
National Museums of Canada
Ottawa 4, Ontario
Accepted August 3, 1969
402
Occurrence of the Common
Puffin on Lake St. Peter, Quebec
On September 28, 1968, a hunter brought
to my field headquarters at Nicolet,
P.Q., a bird which he had shot but could
not identify. Examination showed it to
be an immature Common Puffin (Frater-
cula arctica). This specimen is in the
Canadian Wildlife Service collection at
Quebec City. Another immature speci-
men, taken on September 27, also on
Lake St. Peter, was given by a hunter to
Reginald Ouellet and is now in the col-
lection of the Quebec Wildlife Service.
A third specimen was reported to me on
October 5 but it had been discarded and
could not therefore be verified.
Although hurricane Frances passed
near coastal areas of the Atlantic Pro-
vinces in late September no major
weather disturbances were recorded in
the Gulf of St. Lawrence which might
have accounted for the above sightings.
Few previous reports exist for this
species so far inland. In “The Birds of
Canada” Earl Godfrey mentions only
two, one near Ottawa (on the Ottawa
River) in late October, 1881, and the
other from Southwestern Quebec. The
latter was recorded on October 30, 1949,
by L. M. Terril, Province of Quebec
Society for the Protection of Birds
Annual Report for 1949, pp. 26-27 (God-
frey, pers. comm.).
Wo. T. Munro
Canadian Wildlife Service
Suite 801 Place Laurier
2700 Boul. Sir Wilfrid Laurier
Ste Foy, Quebec 10, Quebec
Accepted May 29, 1969
British Columbia Record of Skua
in Terrestrial Habitat
On 7 September 1968 at 07:45, the
writers, accompanied by Hilde Hesse
and Margaret Anne Dow, observed a
THE CANADIAN FIeELD-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
large dark brown buteo-like bird stand-
ing in a plowed field at Canoe Pass, near
Vancouver, British Columbia. When
viewed through a 20X telescope, it was
identified as a Skua, Catharacta skua.
The yellow-buff of head and neck con-
trasted sharply with the dark brown
back, and further contrast resulted from
the lighter edges of a few feathers of
the back and wings. The bill was slate-
gray with a hooked black tip. We viewed
the bird for 5 to 8 minutes from a dis-
tance of 100 meters; it looked about
frequently but appeared undisturbed. It
then ran a few steps and took flight; the
broad whitish wing flash was clearly
noted. The bird was almost as large as
Glaucous-winged Gulls, Larus glauces-
cens, that it flew past; its shape and flight
differed from those of the familiar Para-
sitic Jaeger, Stercorarius parasiticus,
several being seen later the same day.
The Checklist of North American birds
(A.O.U., 1957) mentions two inland re-—
cords, viz. Kansas City and the Niagara
Gorge. The Skua is rare in British
Columbia, it does not appear on the
Checklist of Vancouver birds (B.C.
Nest Records Scheme, Department of
Zoology, U.B.C., 1962). Apparently
most British Golub records relate to
sightings or specimens offshore or at
offishore islands (C. J. Guiguet, pers.
comm.; A.O.U., op cit; Godfrey, The
birds of Canada. Natl. Mus. Canada Bull.
No. 203, 1966; Munro and Cowan A
review of the bird fauna of British
Columbia. B.C. Prov Mus. Special Publ.
No. 2 1947). Thus, the observation of a
Skua, apparently normal and uninjured,
on the mainland 250 meters from the
water's edge is most remarkable.
Dovucias D. Dow
WERNER H. HeEsse
Department of Zoology
University of Queensland
St. Lucia, Brisbane, Australia, 4067
5693 Eglinton Street
Burnaby 2, British Columbia
Accepted May 29, 1969
1969
New Brunswick Specimens of the
Field Sparrow and Laughing Gull
AxtHoucH there have been many sight
records of the Field Sparrow Spizella
pusilla (Wilson) in New Brunswick, par-
ticularly in recent years, the presence of
this species has not been verified with a
preserved specimen. Squires (1952) re-
ports the Field Sparrow as a casual sum-
mer resident. He also refers to a dead
specimen found at Machias Seal Island
in June 1950 and reported by Woolfen-
den (1952). In recent correspondence
regarding the possible existence of this
_ specimen, Dr. Woolfenden states, in
part:
“The Field Sparrow specimen that
I found, to which Squires refers,
consisted of the skull with rham-
potheca and a few feathers. I com-
pared these remains with speci-
mens at the American Museum
of Natural History and then dis-
carded them. . . .”
It therefore appears that no specimen
existed prior to October 30, 1968, when
we saw a bird of this species at Poco-
logan, Charlotte County. The bird was
collected in a field of long grass with
scattered alder bushes beside the Bay of
Fundy. The specimen, referable to the
nominale race, is No. 736 in the collec-
tion of N. R. Brown. Data are as follows:
sex 2, wing 70 mm, tail 72 mm, exposed
culmen 8 mm, tarsus 19 mm. The
stomach contained remains of small
seeds, probably of grasses.
Also on October 30, 1968, we observed
three small gulls at Chance Harbour,
Saint John County. The birds were
flying over the mouth of a fresh-water
stream entering the protected bay. One
of the birds was collected and has been
identified as a Laughing Gull Larus
atricilla Winnaeus in second winter
plumage. Squires (1952) refers to this
gull as a very rare summer resident. He
reports several sightings since 1862 but
Notes
403
does not refer to existing specimens. In
recent correspondence regarding this
species Dr. Squires, Curator, Natural
Science Department, New Brunswick
Museum, writes:
“Probably the Laughing Gull you
collected is the first specimen
taken in New Brunswick for
which accurate data are preserved.
Boardman had a specimen in his
collection which we have here but
it has no data on it although it was
probably collected for him at
Grand Manan.”
The specimen is No. 737 in the above-
mentioned collection. Data are as fol-
lows: sex ¢, wing 331 mm, tail 140
mm, exposed culmen 39 mm, tarsus 55
mm. The stomach was filled with small
shrimp.
We wish to thank W. Earl Godfrey,
Head, Vertebrate Zoology Section, Na-
tional Museum of Natural Sciences,
Ottawa, for confirming our identifica-
tions of the two specimens.
REFERENCES
Souires, W. A. 1952. The Birds of New
Brunswick. Monographic Series No. 4.
The New Brunswick Museum, Saint John,
NB.
Woo FenvEN, G. E. 1952. Some interesting
summer records for Machias Seal Island,
New Brunswick. Bulletin Maine Audubon
Society 8: 50-52.
N. R. Brown
P. A. Pearce
Faculty of Forestry
University of New Brunswick
Fredericton, N.B.
Canadian Wildlife Service
P.O. Box 486
Fredericton, N.B.
Contribution No. 8, Faculty of Forestry
University of New Brunswick
Fredericton, N.B.
Accepted June 3, 1969
404
Notes on the Blue Fox of
Rat Island, Alaska
Tuis report deals with the blue fox, a
color phase of the Arctic fox (Alopex
lagopus), on Rat Island in the Aleutian
Islands, Alaska. Fur trappers transplanted
blue fox to certain Aleutian Islands early
in the 1900’s, but these islands were sel-
dom revisited after market values de-
clined in the 1930’s. Trappers resident
to Atka Island transplanted foxes to Rat
Island about 1921 (Gray, 1939). The
common rat (Rattus norvegicus), became
established after a Russian sailing vessel
was wrecked there about 1750. Sea otters
(Enhydra lutris), harbor seals (Phoca
vitulina), and sea lions (Eumetopias
jubata) are the only mammals indigenous
to the island. The detrimental effect the
fox eventually had on wildlife, particu-
larly the Aleutian Canada goose (Brania
canadensis leucopea), as reported by
Murie (1959), was the stimulus for the
US. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wild-
life to collect information basic to assess-
ing requirements of a predator control
program.
Rat Island lies approximately 178° 18’
E. longitude, 51° 48’ N. latitude and in-
cludes 25 square miles of tundra habitat
bordered by a rugged coastline; maxi-
mum length and width is 13 by 3 miles
respectively.
A total of 197 foxes was captured alive
during periods collectively extending
from June through August, 1961-62 at
four areas two of which were trapped
simultaneously. Foxes frequented beaches
and headlands and were easily taken in
steel traps placed near sea mammal
carcasses, which had been cast ashore, or
at baited sets. Animals were tagged in
one ear and individually marked in the
other with colored plastic affixed by a
jessed knot before being released.
The Rat Island fox population was
estimated in 1962 at 247 + 28 (fiducial
limits, a 0.05) based on analyses of trap-
THe CANADIAN FieLtp-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
retrap data using the Lincoln Index
(Wildl. Invest. Tech., 1963). Sex ratios
of adult and juvenile segments were
essentially even and juveniles comprised
30% of the total number of fox captured
which indicated reproduction was low
considering the reproductive potential
typical of canine species. Further support
in this respect was obtained by making
observations at 16 natal dens where
counts averaged 2.8 pups per litter and
ranged from 1 to 5 pups. Arctic fox
litters reportedly range from 1 to 14 pups
in size (Palmer, 1954). Whelping peaked
in June.
Beach fringes and headlands were used
as denning areas. Those of the headlands
extended into the shallow turf to a depth
of 3 feet. Dens along beaches were con-
structed beneath natural rock formations
or driftwood piles and had more exten-
sive depth and several entrances. The
terminal extremity of each den generally
contained a bed, 4 inches in thickness,
composed of vegetative material and fox
fur.
The extent that natal den sites were
defended varied appreciably among in-
dividual animals. Defensive behavior
usually amounted to holding an intruder
at bay near the periphery of the denning
area. Fox pups abandoned dens of head-
land areas during July to forage along
nearby beaches as family groups.
The foxes’ home range was relatively
sedentary although no topographic bar-
riers existed on Rat Island. A total of 59
foxes was recaptured at the same locale
in 1962 but only 7 of these disclosed any
appreciable movements. They averaged
about 4 miles between capture locations
with minimal and maximal distances of 2
and 7 miles respectively.
Summer food items consisted mostly
of amphipods (Orchestia spp.) and kelp
pupae (Fucellia spp.) that inhabited de-
composing kelp piles found along beaches.
Of 36 scat examinations, these items were
found in 90% of the specimens. Foxes
exhibited little inclination to feed on sea
1969
mammals, fowl, or rats during the sum-
mer on Rat Island. Although bird life
was scarce on Rat Island, the presence of
large bird colonies on other Aleutian
islands presumably influences preferences.
The bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucoceph-
alus) was the only apparent predator as
evidenced by the discovery of four skins
of fox pups in one of the four nests
present on Rat Island.
In summary blue foxes were live trap-
ped and tagged for behavior observations
in respect to whelping, feeding, move-
ment and population studies on an
“undisturbed Aleutian Island. All the den-
ning occurred near the beaches with the
peak occurring in June. Summer food
items consisted mostly of amphipods and
kelp fly pupae. The only apparent preda-
tor is the bald eagle.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I wish to thank Richard J. Hensel,
Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge, and
other co-workers for reviewing this
manuscript.
REFERENCES
Gray, H. D. 1939. Proposed Plans for the
Administration of the Aleutian Islands
Wildlife Refuge. Unpublished report in
files of Aleutian Islands NWR, Cold Bay,
Alaska.
Mure, O. J. 1959. Fauna of the Aleutian
Islands and Alaska Peninsula. N. A. Fauna
No. 61, U. S. Government Printing Of-
fice, Washington, D.C.
Parmer, E. L. 1957. Palmer’s Fieldbook
of Mammals. E. P. Dutton & Company,
Inc., New York.
THe Witpiire Society. 1963. Wildlife In-
vestigational Techniques. 2nd _ Edition.
Edited by H.S. Mosby. Edwards Brothers,
Inc., Ann Arbor, Mich.
VERNON D. Berns
Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge
Kodiak, Alaska
Accepted October 14, 1969
Novres
405
The Ground Dove in Canada
On 29 October 1968, Mrs. John E. Free-
man in the company of Mrs. D. Reynett
and Mrs. R. Sutton, found a dead Ground
Dove, Columbigallina passerina on a road
one and one half miles from the town of
Red Rock, Thunder Bay District,
Ontario. This specimen comprises the
first record of a Ground Dove in Ontario
and in Canada. The bird was subsequently
donated to the Royal Ontario Museum
by Mr. and Mrs. Freeman and is now
specimen number 103396 in the collection
of the Department of Ornithology.
The following measurements were
taken on the specimen: bill (culmen),
11.1 mm.; wing (chord), 89.6 mm.; tail,
59.6 mm. Although mensural characters
were not conclusive, on the basis of
plumage characters outlined by Ridgway
(1966, Birds of North and Middle
America, U.S.N.M. Bull. vol. 50, no. 7,
p. 398) and in comparison to specimens
in the collection of the Department of
Ornithology, the specimen was assigned
to the eastern race, Columbigallina p.
passerina.
North of Mexico this form breeds
from southeastern Texas east through
the Gulf States to South Carolina. Casual
or accidental records are known from
as far north as Kansas (R. F. Johnston,
1965. A Directory to the Birds of Kansas.
U.K.M.N.H. Misc. Publ. 41); Iowa (C.
H. Pangburn, 1922. Sight Record of a
Ground Dove in Iowa. Auk, vol. 39, p.
568); Michigan (T. A. Petts, 1966. First
Record of Ground Dove in Michigan.
The Jack Pine Warbler, vol. 44, no. 4,
p. 176); New Jersey (W. Stone, 1908.
The Birds of New Jersey. p. 155); and a
hypothetical record for New York
(E. M. Reilly & K. C. Parkes, 1952.
Prelim. Annot. Checklist of Birds of New
York State). However, there is no pre-
vious record of this species in any part
of Canada.
Although the bird was found on the
road, post-mortem examination disclosed
406
no broken bones or hemorrhaging. How-
ever, subcutaneous fat deposits were
absent and the carcass appeared to be
emaciated. The temperature (at Arm-
strong) ranged from 16 to 45 degrees F.
between 22 and 29 October. Weather
data for several days prior to 29 October
showed that a low pressure area moved
west to east through Ontario (centered
in the Nipigon area on 28 October) and
concurrently there was a high pressure
area in the Caribbean. A ridge extended
between these two pressure areas with
a resultant northerly flow of warm air
into Canada. This weather front may
have been instrumental in carrying this
bird into northern Ontario.
We wish to thank Mrs. John E. Free-
man for her alertness and interest in
taking this specimen; Mr. Freeman for
transporting the specimen to Toronto;
and to express our appreciation to the
Freemans for donating the specimen to
the Royal Ontario Museum. Weather
data were obtained from the Meteoro-
logical Branch of the Department of
Transport of Canada, in particular
Messrs. Manning of the Climatology
Branch, and Mowat of the Meteorology
Branch.
James A. Dick and Ross D. James
Department of Ornithology
Royal Ontario Museum
Toronto 5, Ontario
Accepted August 15, 1969
A Record of The V irginia Rail
from Banff National Park.
Alberta
A Vireta Ratt, Rallus limicola, was
recovered May 1, 1968, on Bow Pass in
Banff National Park, (approximately
51°40’ North—116°30’ West, elevation
THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
6,878 feet), by H. L. Jennings, District
Park Warden. The bird had apparently
struck a single strand telephone line
which crosses the Pass.
Winter conditions prevail at Bow Pass
in early May and at the time the bird
was recovered, several feet of winter
snow still covered the ground. Pre-
sumably the bird became lost during a
storm and was blown far off its normal
course.
The few records of the species in
Alberta are confined to the central and
eastern portions of the Province accord-
ing to Salt and Wilk (1958). To my
knowledge none have previously been
reported from the Rocky Mountains
proper. Godfrey (1966), shows the Vir-
ginia Rail breeding in eastern and cen-
tral Alberta and in the Columbia River
Valley of southern British Columbia.
Both areas are well over a hundred air
miles from Bow Pass.
REFERENCES
Goprrey, W. Earr. 1966. The Birds of
Canada. National Museum of Canada,
Bulletin No. 203, Biological Series No. 73.
Queen’s Printer, Ottawa.
SaLt, W. Ray and A. L. Wik. 1958. The
Birds of ‘Alberta. Department of Econo-
mic Affairs. Queen’s Printer, Edmonton.
E. B. CunNINGHAM
Park Naturalist
Banff National Park
Banff, Alberta
Accepted May 29, 1969
Observation of Wheatear Near
Schultz Lake, Keewatin
District, N.W.1T.
Tue recorded breeding range of the
Wheatear in North America shows a
wide gap between the range of the Euro-
pean Wheatear (Oenanthe 0. oenanthe)
1969
and that of the Greenland subspecies
(Ocenanthe o. leucorhoa). The map of the
breeding distribution of the Wheatear
shown by Godfrey (1966) indicates that
most of the Yukon Territory falls within
the breeding range of the nominate race.
The Greenland subspecies in Canada has
been recorded in eastern Labrador, most
of Baffin Island, the southern portion of
Ellesmere Island, the extreme northwest
corner of arctic Quebec, and the north-
west tip of Southampton Island. The
latter area includes White Island, where
breeding was established by Dr. N. G.
Smith in 1960 (Godfrey, pers. comm.).
In this context it is of interest to report
the following observation of a Wheatear
about 375 miles west of the nearest
known breeding area on White Island.
On July 21, 1968, while engaged in field
work related to a study of pesticide resi-
dues in birds, Richard Fyfe and I ob-
served a Wheatear just east of Whale-
bone Hill on the north shore of Schultz
Lake, N.W.T. The geographic location,
64° 46’ N., 97° 46’W. is about 225 miles
inland from Hudson Bay.
The bird was observed near the base
of one of the weathered and disintegrat-
ing granitic escarpments, which rise
prominently above the gently rolling,
stony tundra in that area. The bird,
which appeared to be an adult male, was
observed through 7 x 50 binoculars at
fairly close range and although its rest-
Jess and “shy” behaviour prevented us
from making extended studies, the black
face mask and the black and white pat-
tern of the tail were clearly observed.
The Wheatear’s habit of frequently
spreading and flipping its tail, its low,
short flights over the rocks and _ its
““check-check” call, somewhat resem-
bling that of a Red-winged Blackbird
were noted. Twice we were able to ap-
proach the Wheatear to within shotgun
range but, partly due to the bird’s rest-
lessness, our efforts to collect the bird
failed. Since the Wheatear returned fre-
quently to the same rocky outcrop and
NotTEs
407
tended to remain in the area where the
initial observation was made, we strongly
suspect it may have been nesting nearby.
Our observations and those made by
Dr. N. G. Smith suggest that the wide
gap between the two ranges of the
Wheatear in North America is being
narrowed.
REFERENCES
Goprrey, W. Ear. 1966. The Birds of
Canada. The Queen’s Printer, Ottawa. 428
PP:
Erniz Kuyr and R. W. Fyre
Canadian Wildlife Service
Fort Smith, N.W.T. and
Edmonton, Alberta
Accepted October 14, 1969
Some Interspecific Intolerance
Between Barrow’s Goldeneye and
Other Duck Species During
Brood-rearing
In the course of conducting a waterfowl
survey for the Canadian Wildlife Ser-
vice in the Cariboo Parkland region of
British Columbia in 1968, two note-
worthy incidents of interspecific in-
tolerance involving Barrow’s Goldeneye,
Bucephala islandica, were observed. The
first took place on July 12 on a small
pond of seven acres. This was occupied
by several broods of ducks, including an
advanced brood of Barrow’s Goldeneye.
A downy brood of Blue-wing Teal, Anas
discors, was observed to move toward
that part of the pond where the Golden-
eye brood was feeding. Neither observer
witnessed what initiated the conflict, but
splashing and distress calls attracted our
attention. The Goldeneye female had
408
caught a young teal in her bill and was
shaking it vigorously, while the female
teal attacked the Goldeneye female in
turn. At the end of the brief skirmish
the young teal floated dead on the sur-
face. None of the other downy teal were
seen during a further half hour of ob-
servation.
The second incident took place on
July 21 and involved advanced broods
of Bufflehead, Bucephala albeola, and
Barrow’s Goldeneye, each with eight
chicks. Before the attack the Golden-
eye female assumed the ‘crouch and
the lJaying-neck-on-the-water’ posture
(Myres, 1960). The attack was directed
against the hindmost member of the
Bufflehead brood as that brood swam
away. Ihe Bufflehead female responded
immediately by attacking the Goldeneye
female. The fight ended with the broods
widely separated.
Similar incidents have previously been
recorded (Myres, 1960; Sugden, 1960),
and the subject has been reviewed
THE CANADIAN FieLp-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
that mortality was only associated with
the downy brood. Erskine refers to a
similar incident in which a Bufflehead
brood less than three days old disap-
peared following an attack from a female
Goldeneye.
REFERENCES
Erskine, A. J. 1960. A discussion of the
Distributional Ecology of the Bufflehead
(Bucephala albeola,; Anatidae; Aves) based
upon Breeding Biology Studies in British
Columbia. Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis, Uni-
versity of British Columbia.
Myres, M. T. 1960. The Behavior of the
Sea-ducks and its value in the Systematics
of the tribes Mergini and Somaterinii, of
the family Anatidae. Unpublished Ph.D.
Thesis, University of British Columbia.
SuepEN, Lawson G. 1960. An Observation
of Interspecific Strife Between Barrow’s
Goldeneye and Lesser Scaup. Canadian
Field-Naturalist 74 (3): 163.
Jan RoBerRTSON
Henry STELFOX
briefly by Erskine (1960). Of the two
incidents described here it is interesting
Canadian iS Service
Vancouver 8,
Accepted rae a "1969
NEWS AND COMMENT
ENDANGERED WILDLIFE IN CANADA — 1970
The year 1970 will mark a turning point in the awareness of thousands of
Canadians concerning the species of Canadian wildlife that are now in danger of
becoming extinct. First, the next issue of the Canadian Field-Naturalist will contain
a series of 4 papers on endangered vertebrates of Canada written by experts in their
field, documenting case histories on mainly scientific grounds Secondly, and much
more important, the theme of National Wildlife Week, April 5-11, 1970 will be
“Endangered Wildlife in Canada.” National Wildlife Week is sponsored by. the
Canadian Wildlife Federation in co-operation with provincial resource departments.
During the week the CWF will co-ordinate a nation-wide program. It is expected
that over 100,000 posters and classroom lessons as well as 30,000 illustrated booklets
on our endangered wildlife will be distributed to schools across Canada. A tele-
vision clip lasting 60 seconds will also be made available to TV stations across the
country. The purpose of National Wildlife Week, 1970, is not only to demonstrate
which species are endangered but to bring home to people some of the fundamental
forces that now threaten many of our w ild animals and birds.
f Eprror
1969 News Aanp ComMMENT 409
SomME Facrs: ABourT FALCONRY IN WASHINGTON
The Northwest Falconry News, Volume 4, No. 1, 1969, publication of the
Northwest Falconry Association, reports that in the state of Washington alone in
1967 and 1968, the number of “hawks” captured by falconers were at least: Redtail
39, Prairie Falcon 24, Coopers Hawk 19, Sparrow Hawk 27, Peregrine Falcon 4,
Goshawk 6, Ferruginous Hawk 3, Black Merlin 1, Sharp-shinned Hawk 2, Swainsons
Hawk 4, American Rough-legged 1. Some of divs Peregrines, Prairie Balcous and
Goshawks were from domestic reproduction.
A total of 195 falconry permits were issued in 1968, authorizing the holding of
a hawk or hawks. This is a large 1 increase over 1967 when 128 permits were issued.
Epiror
Drrecrory OF CANADIAN BorAniIsts
A “Directory or CaNnapiAn Botanists, 1969” has recently (August 1969) been
published by The Canadian Botanical Association, in co-operation with The Canadian
Society of Plant Physiologists and The Canadian Phytopathological Society. It
contains approximately 950 names; the Canadian members of the above societies.
The botanical interests of most persons are indicated.
Copies may be obtained for $1 (individuals and libraries) or $100 (commercial
users) from the Treasurer of The Canadian Botanical Association: Dr. Wm. Illman,
Dept. of Biology, Carleton University, Colonel By Drive, Ottawa 1, Ontario.
Canapa JOINS INTERNATIONAL CONSERVATION UNION
Canapa has joined the INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION NATURE AND
Natura Resources (IUCN).
The IUCN, with headquarters in Switzerland, was set up in 1948 to promote
the preservation and wise use of the world’s resources. As an international,
non-political body, it has the support of such agencies as the Food and Agriculture
Organization, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization,
Economic and Social Council of the United Nations, and the Council of Europe.
In making the announcement the Honorable Jean Chrétien, Minister of Indian
Affairs and Northern Development said that as one of some 30 member states,
Canada will have two votes at IUCN general assemblies, and will receive all IUCN
publications. In addition, it will be able to draw on the scientific, legal, and
administrative experience of conservation experts associated with IUCN.
Annual dues of $3,000 have been paid by Mr. Chrétien’s Department, which
manages a large conservation and scientific research program through its Canadian
Wildlife Service and National and Historic Parks Branch.
Canadian membership was ratified at the 10th General Assembly held in New
Delhi, India, from November 24 to December 1. Dr. Ward Stephens, Western
Regional Director of the Canadian Wildlife Service, and Mr. John IJ. Nicol, Director
of the National and Historic Parks Branch, represented Canada at the assembly while
Mr. Harold Ejidsvik attended as an observer.
The IUCN is financed mainly by the World Wildlife Fund and membership
fees. Sovereign states, government departments and services, and independent
national associations and institutions are eligible to join. In addition, individuals can
support it through membership in the “Friends of IUCN”.
410 THE CANADIAN FieLp-NATURALIST Vol. 83
Through its Ecology, Education, National Parks, Legislation and Administration,
Survival Service, and Landscape Planning Commissions, IUCN studies and advises
on such problems as maintenance of natural habitat m urban, industrial or resort
areas, and setting up of national parks or reserves.
It also makes representations directly to governments to point out threats to
their natural resources. For example, IUCN intervention prompted Sweden,
Norway and Finland to strengthen protective laws for arctic species.
At the meeting the IUCN decided to hold its 1972 meeting in Canada.
Adapted from a Press Release, Department of Indian Affairs
and Northern Development, Ottawa.
LETTERS
A Pea FoR FEDERAL PROTECTION OF THE PEREGRINE FaAtcon. II.
Piease allow me to comment on a paper which appeared in the Canadian Field-
Naturalist, Vol. 83, No. 3, titled: “Regional population declines and organochlorine
insecticides in Canadian Prairie Falcons.” There is a mistake in the following
sentence on page 194: “The number of known occupied Peregrine Falcon territories
in area D had also declined from six in 1960 (Dekker, 1967) to one in 1968... .”
These six territories were not located in area D, where the insecticide residues in
Prairie Falcon eggs were found to be highest of the 4 study areas, but in area F for
no such figures are given. Incidentally, these six nests were subject to a great deal
of human disturbance, as was stressed in my paper “Disappearance of the Peregine
Falcon as a breeding bird in a river valley in Alberta” (Blue Jay 25: 175-177).
Human disturbance, accidental as well as intentional, was also commonplace
along other Alberta rivers. Breeding Peregrines near centres of population were the
first to go. Along the North Saskatchewan between Edmonton and Devon, the birds
were extirpated long before neighbouring populations showed any signs of decline. In
1969 only 3 nests could be found in the province. R. Fyfe, of the Canadian Wildlife
Service and currently studying raptors and pesticides in the West, informed me
that 2 of these nests were robbed of young, one completely, the other partly.
It is a pity that the element of human disturbance was not mentioned in the recent
study on Alberta’s Prairie Falcons, even more so since DDE levels found are much
lower than those reported from the Canadian North, where the reproductive success
of Peregrines is considered normal, in spite of a high rate of contamination.
Especially now, when recent regulations restricting the use of DDT in North
America allows some hope that such birds as the Peregrine may be saved in the
nick of time, all additional dangers to their continued survival should be carefully
assessed. Some of these dangers are quite apparent when one studies the literature.
R. Fyfe, who shares my deep concern in this matter, has privately expressed agreement
with my view that the difference in North American Peregrine populations that
have disappeared and those that are still doing well, is not a difference in the level
of pesticide contamination but a difference in the rate of human disturbance. Of
course, I do not imply that the birds nesting in wilderness areas are safe in spite
of pesticides. On the contrary, if the current high levels are allowed to build up,
the species is ultimately doomed. But again, as there is some hope that this fate
may be averted, there is now all the more reason to halt the occurrence of human
disturbance in remote areas, which has been growing ever since Peregrines became
extinct in more accessible regions. In a previous letter concerning this subject,
which appeared in this publication (Vol. 83, No. 1, page 64) I erroneously stated
1969 LETTERS 411
that the taking of Peregrines for falconry purposes was not allowed in the Yukon
and the Northwest Territories, as I was led to believe by a C.W.S. employee stationed
in Edmonton. After writing to the Territorial Gonvernments | got the following
information:
During the 1969 season 6 permits were issued in the Yukon free of charge, for
a maximum of 8 birds. In the Northwest Territories, from 1967 to 1969, 17 permits
were issued, covering 43 Gyrfalcons and 18 Peregrines. In 1965 one well-known
west-coast falconer reportedly took 16 Peregrines, half of that number illegally.
The quota in 1969 was 40 birds at $50.00 a piece. There are indications that this
price may be raised considerably for Gyrfalcons, and that the Peregrine will be
completely restricted in 1970.
Though the take of Peregrines seems rather small, the disturbance factor may
be important, especially since many permit holders visit a number of eyries for
study purposes. There are also risks involved in professional research which go
- beyond the occasional collecting of birds and eggs. Eyries are visited two or three
times per season, and sometimes it takes several hours from the time the party
arrives at the nesting cliff until the birds are finally left alone. Since Peregrines
are conspicuous birds and nest on exposed locations, few pairs escape attention.
The policy of both the Yukon and the Northwest Territories in the issuing of
permits is one of restraint and is under constant review. Permits are issued only
to reputable falconers. As a letter from the federal minister of Indian Affairs and
Northern Develoment informs me, all applicants are screened by R. Fyfe, who is a
falconer himself.
In the United States, during the past year, the plight of the Peregrine was
the subject of four conferences, respectively sponsored by the National Audubon
Society, Cornell University, the American Falconers Association and the Raptor
Research Foundation. Sincere concern was expressed by all involved. The
falconers, among them such Peregrine authorities as Dr. Tom Cade and Dr. Jim
Enderson, agreed that the Peregrine should be protected from the ever-increasing
pressure of human disturbance, but they appeared to favour a restrictive system of
permits for falconry and “scientific” purposes. ‘The latter probably includes attempts
at breeding in captivity, which have not been successful so far.
A group of American and Canadian scientists, that met at Cornell University in
November of 1969, drafted a resolution recommending continent-wide protection
for the Peregrine. A letter to this affect was sent to all governments involved.
The National Audubon Society was concerned about the capture of migrant falcons
along the coasts of Florida, Texas and elsewhere. In a letter to me, R. C. Clement,
vice-president of the organization recognizes the role played by direct human
disturbance in the extirpation of Peregrines on the continent and the need for total
protection, which is now “a matter of finding the proper technique . . . as legislation
is of course always slow”.
To assist the American organizations in achieving their objective, the time has
come for Canadian ornithologists to express their views to the proper authorities.
After all, Canada is the birthplace of the majority of the Peregrines which are still
left in the Western World.
Dick Dekker
Chairman, Predator Committee
Edmonton Bird Club
3819-112A Street
Edmonton 73, Alberta
January 13, 1970
REVIEWS
Flora of Alaska and Neighboring Terri-
tories: a Manual of the Vascular Plants
By Eric Hurten. Stanford University Press,
Stanford, Calif. 1968. xxiii + 1008 pp. illus.,
$35.00 (U.S.).
Alaska lies at the crossroads of circum-
polar plant distribution. A flora of
Alaska is thus a most important contri-
bution to botanical knowledge. Profes-
sor Hultén’s new flora of this region is
the culmination of a lifetime of untiring
work on plants of circumpolar and arctic
distribution which began with his Flora
of Kamchatka (1927-1930) and was con-
tinued through Outline of the History
of Arctic and Boreal Biota During the
Quaternary Period (1937), Flora of the
Aleutian Islands (1937), Flora of Alaska
and Yukon (1941-1950), The Amphi-
Atlantic Plants (1958) and The Circum-
polar Plants (1964). He must be con-
gratulated for having brought this monu-
mental work to completion.
This book will be an essential tool for
anyone working on the vascular plants
of northern regions. It is unique in that
two distribution maps are provided for
each of the 1,735 species and subspecies
treated. One is a detailed dot map for
the Alaska-Yukon and adjacent area of
Siberia, British Columbia and Mackenzie
District, and the other, outlining the
circumpolar distribution, is similar to
those used in the latter two works men-
tioned above, but is necessarily much
smaller because of the format and thus
more difficult to consult.
New collecting in the region covered
by the dot maps has already made some
of these maps out of date; e.g. Lycopo-
dium alpinum, Cardamine microphylla
(C. minuta) and Eritrichium splendens
among others have been reported from
the Richardson Mountains of north-
western Mackenzie District, and Agrostis
exarata, Claytonia tuberosa and Chryso-
splenium Wrightii from the Mackenzie
Mountains, since the book went to press,
but this does not lessen the value of these
412
maps. It is the inevitable result of further
field work in regions previously poorly
explored botanically. Further collecting
will also inevitably bring together some
of the disjunct regions shown on the
circumpolar maps. In some cases we
wonder if the black lines delimiting the
distributions might not be adjusted, e.g.
the black line on the dot map (p. 316)
for Cypripedium calceolus ssp. parvi-
florum encompasses a large part of
central Yukon in order to include a col-
lection from near the Alaska-Yukon
border, while on the map for Dactylor-
hiza aristata (p. 318) two dots on the
south coast of Alaska are separated from
the main Alaska Peninsula - Aleutian
Island distribution when they might
perhaps just as readily have been in-
cluded.
Throughout the book two taxa are
treated on each page, except where
lengthy keys restrict this practice. Des-
criptions are more or less brief, and are
accompanied by notes on habitat which
are based on the author’s extensive field
studies, and comments on the differences
between American and Alaskan sub-
species and their Eurasian counterparts.
Line drawings by Mrs. Dagny Tande-Lid
of Oslo are in the margin beside the
accompanying text. There are no de-
tailed drawings, but the sketches pre-
sented do provide a most useful aid to
identification.
Dichotomous keys to families, genera,
species and subspecific taxa are provided.
The keys to families and genera are a
most useful improvement over the Flora
of Alaska and Yukon for the amateur
or for botanists unfamiliar with all the
genera of the region. One serious omis-
sion which has been noted is that the
generic keys which immediately follow
the family key at the beginning of the
book do not have the individual genera
numbered nor are page references given
for the genera in the following text, a
distinct disadvantage if the user is un-
familiar with the taxonomic sequence
followed in the book.
1969
- Because of the excellent presentation,
the book is a delight to use. A con-
siderable part of its 53 lb. weight might
have been eliminated if the large mar-
gins had been trimmed and other large
spaces had been closed up. Although the
book would thus have been smaller and
therefore easier to take into the field,
this would have made it less easily usable.
An introduction presents general in-
formation on the region such as climate,
geological features, plant collection and
distribution, comments on races, apo-
micts, hybrids and endemics, and a list
of additional species which might still
be discovered. There is a center insert
of eight pages of beautiful color photo-
graphs, some depicting the terrain and
others individual plants. Also included is
a glossary of botanical terms, an anno-
tated list of all authors of taxa appearing
in the book including authors of
synonyms, a list of persons for whom
taxa have been named, an eight-page
bibliography, and indexes to common
and scientific names.
The price of this volume will pro-
bably preclude its purchase by all but
the most interested of individuals, al-
though it is well worth the $35.00 price
tag. It will, however, be a must for all
botanical libraries and institutions in the
northern hemisphere.
W. J. Copy
Plant Research Institute
Central Experimental Farm
Ottawa 3, Ontario, Canada
Eighty More Land Birds to Know
By Barry Kent MacKay. The Book Society
of Canada Ltd., published by Saunders of
Toronto Ltd., 8 color plates, iv + 83 pp.
(1968). Published in February, 1969.
$2.95.
This is the third in a series of field
guides to a selection of Canadian birds,
The first eight pages consist of color
Reviews
413
illustrations of the species treated. Each
bird is covered by a single page in the
text, which includes a line drawing to
indicate key field marks. The eighty
species are briefly discussed under the
headings: Appearance, Voice, Habitat,
Range, Nesting, and Food. A_ short
descriptive paragraph completes each
treatment.
Unfortunately one of this volume’s
great difficulties appears immediately.
What is the purpose of the book? Is it
a field guide for naturalists and bird-
watchers in the Great Lakes area, or do
beginning birders use it in identifying
frequently encountered Canadian birds?
The author and publisher state conflict-
ing views; neither is suceessiully sup-
ported by the book.
No beginner should use a field guide
that deals with only eighty species.
Would not great confusion and dis-
couragement result upon observing one
of the many species not covered? Surely
we cannot expect birders to carry three
books into the field—yet with this series,
one must. The beginning or casual birder
would be much better off to invest
another dollar and purchase a complete
field guide of lasting value. (The Peter-
son “Field Guide to the Birds” would be
ideal).
MacKay’s illustrations are generally
poor, as is the key to spring plumages.
There is one pointless color plate of
fledgling ‘birds—these are beyond the
scope of the beginner. For birders in the
Great Lakes region, of what use is the
illustration of a fledgling Gray-cheeked
Thrush? Furthermore, I can see no
earthly reason for including such extra-
limital species as Wheatear, Sprague’s
Pipit and Bullock’s Oriole.
Status has been ignored, leading the
unaware into such false conclusions as
that Blackpoll Warbler and Gray-
cheeked Thrush are equally common
migrants through the area. A number of
small but important technical errors are
evident (e.g. the range of the Orange-
414
crowned Warbler as compared with
that in Godfrey’s “Birds of Canada’).
One of the most critical omissions is
that of a recognizable order. In the
absence of the established A.O.U. order
(with which every beginning birder
should become familiar), one is forced
to make constant reference to the index.
In the field, much precious time would
be lost.
All this is not to say that the book is
useless. There are several worthwhile
points in its favour. The method of de-
noting important field marks by the use
of titled pointers (a la Peterson — but
improved upon) is very successful. The
descriptive paragraph concluding each
species account is well done—light, read-
able and generally informative. The
General Appearance sections are good,
and further, I find the whole treatment
of the Winter Wren a positive delight.
However, the image remains one of a
generally unimaginative inconsistent ef-
fort. I find it ill-planned, poorly executed
and rather vague. Nevertheless, MacKay
has shown considerable potential in this
work. Perhaps unburdened by the con-
fines of continuing a series he did not
originate, he will be able to draw on this
talent more successfully next time.
Regretfully, I find it impossible to
recommend “Eighty More Land Birds
to Know” to the beginning or casual
birder.
D. F. Brunton
2565 Elmhurst St.
Ottawa 14, Ontario
The Sockeye Salmon,
Oncorhynchus nerka
By R. E. Foerster. 1968. Fisheries Research
Board of Canada Bulletin 162: xv + 422
pp-, 6 plates (2 colored), 96 text-figures.
$8.00 from Queen’s Printer, Ottawa.
Since the original description over 150
years ago and particularly during the last
50 years, biologists around the periphery
THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
of the North Pacific have been con-
tributing information on the sockeye
salmon, Oncorhynchus nerka. Foerster
has integrated these contributions with
his own life-time studies to produce a
monograph of the first order.
The sockeye has an intriguing life
history. Generally the eggs are deposited
in redds during late summer and autumn
in tributaries or outlets of lakes. After
hatching in early spring, the young
spend a year or more in the lake before
descending to the sea. One to five years
are spent in the sea, with some sockeye
migrating as far as the Aleutians. The
mature adults return to their natal stream,
spawn, and die. In some populations the
young may omit the period of lake resi-
dence and go directly to sea. Other popu-
lations remain permanently in fresh-
water and are called kokanee. The un-
ravelling of this story has taken many
years and there are still problems un-
solved. Problems that are discussed in-
clude: How do sockeye fry find their
way through large lakes on their way to
the sea? How does the adult sockeye
navigate from mid-ocean to the estuary
and recognize its natal stream?
Following an introductory chapter
with a useful summary of the life history,
origin and evolution, are chapters on the
fishery, escapement, reproductive suc-
cess, upstream migration, spawning, lake
residence, marine phase, stock identifica-
tion, artificial propagation, and hybrid-
ization.
The style is terse because of the high
density of information, but always clear.
Quotations from original papers enrich
the text and give fresh vignettes of fry
migration, spawning, etc.
Although material is drawn from
many sources (over 300 references are
included), there is a real unity to the
text, a tribute to the author’s knowledge
and grasp of the material. Many re-
ferences up to 1962 and a few to 1966
are included. Literature of other coun-
tries is not ignored and American,
1969
Japanese, Russian as well as Canadian
(a not unimportant segment is Canadian)
sources are used. The author further
draws upon several unpublished manu-
scripts. The material from these sources
is not simply compiled, but is critically
evaluated and integrated.
The volume tries to bring together all
that is presently known about the sock-
eye. A useful addition would have been
a section outlining what is not known
about the sockeye. From the absence of
sections on anatomy, embryology, be-
havior and physiology, per se, one infers
~ that little is known of these aspects. The
author notes the absence of winter ob-
servations in the North Pacific. Much
of the information collected relates to
reproduction, survival, growth, and
stock identification, management-ori-
ented aspects of biology. These sections,
comprising the bulk of the book, are
masterfully done. Surprisingly little men-
tion is made of dams and fish ladders.
The section on origin and evolution is
not as strong as the others. Rounsefell
(1962, Relationships among North
American Salmonidae. Fish Bull., U.S.
Fish Wildl. Serv. 62) might have been
referred to here. The reviewer would
like to have seen included an overall dis-
tribution map of the species. Although
the table of contents is detailed, an index
would have been useful because the text
is so packed with information.
For the zoologist this book will be a
mine of information, to the fishery
biologist an indispensible tool, and to the
interested naturalist a storehouse of
fascinating facts. It is a work of which
the author and the Board may well be
proud.
D. E. McALLIsTER
Curator of Fishes
National Museum of Natural Sciences
Ottawa, Ontario
REVIEWS
A Place for Everything
By Davin Munro. Canadian Broadcasting
Corporation, Toronto. iv + 108 pp., 304
photos (19 in color), 1968. $3.95, from
CBC Publications, Box 500, Terminal A,
Toronto 1, Ont.
This is a picture book for adults. The
excellent text and the carefully planned
relationship between text and _photo-
graphs give a comprehensive introduc-
tion to ecology with particular reference
to Canada. The author succeeds in
making easily understood the complex
ideas of environment, of the relation of
environment to man’s population explo-
sion and what that explosion means in
terms of environmental pollution.
The name of the book derives from
the tidy housekeeper. The pictures and
text explain why there is a place for
everything and why man should be very
careful that his actions do not upset the
housekeeping arrangements of an area,
a country, or the world. If he is not care-
ful, everything will not have a place and
some things will be lost forever, with far-
reaching effects on man’s world. At the
worst he, himself, will have no place.
For those Canadians who tend to for-
get the basic importance of good soil and
clean water, the book will be a forcible
reminder. For all others, it will recall the
pleasantness of nature and the need to
ensure its preservation for all time, for
our own good.
The paragraph on hunting illustrates
the author’s philosophy:
Hunting does no harm to animal
populations so long as it helps keep
the numbers of the hunted at a level
their habitat can support. If no animals
were killed by hunters, most would
soon die by some other cause. To hunt
is a reason to learn about the lives of
the hunted and the areas they frequent.
To hunt is to become alert and ob-
servant, to learn to move carefully
and quietly, and to become truly
aware of the out-of-doors. But to hunt
without respect for and knowledge of
416
the hunted; to hunt carelessly and
noisily, crippling animals, littering and
damaging their habitat is to destroy
the experience you are looking for.
The book is beautifully and subtly
arranged, the photographs well produced
and the text typical Munro, easily read,
logical and lucid.
V. E. F. Somman
Canadian Wildlife Service
Ottawa, Ontario
The National Forests of America
By Orvirte L. FREEMAN and MicHaEL
Frome. G. P. Putman’s Sons, New York
in association with Country Beautiful
Foundation, Inc., Waukesha, Wis. and
Longmans Canada Limited, Toronto. 1968.
194 pp., illus. $16.25.
This is a large book with striking
scenic photographs, many of them in
color, of the National Forests and Na-
tional Grasslands in the United States.
The text by Orville L. Freeman, until
recently Secretary of Agriculture, and
Michael Frome is a compact commentary
on these reserves, their characteristics
and their uses.
It is significant of changing public
attitudes toward native landscapes that
the book emphasizes the recreational
the aesthetic values of the forests rather
than marketable commodities such as
lumber and beef. A naive reader might
suppose that the chief aim of the Na-
tional Forest System is to enhance the
enjoyment of the tourist, the hiker, the
camper, and the skier. True there is
mention that about 25,000 timber sales
yield close to $140 millions annually, and
that about 60,000 farmer-ranchers graze
livestock in the reserves, but such statis-
tics are given relatively little space.
Furthermore, the increasing alienation
of forest land as Wilderness Preserves is
recorded without a tremor as if it were
THe CANADIAN Fre_p-NaATuRALIST
Vol. 83
the most natural thing in the world, from
all of which one can conclude that the
authors have not been overly influenced
by traditional forestry. A short “Epi-
logue” by the Chief of the Forest Ser-
vice, Edward P. Cliff, gives a profes-
sional’s appraisal of what the National
Forests are all about, and here we glimpse
a truer picture of multiple use and its
implications for “natural” landscapes.
The fact that the book is slanted to
the beauties of mountain, river, forest
and grassland rather than to resource
management detracts not at all from it,
for by what other means can the interests
of humanity-at-large be caught and
held? Doubtless the real future of much
of the North American wildland re-
source lies with amenity and recreation.
In Canada too the trends are evident,
although progress in setting up new
national parks, natural areas and wilder-
nesses is disappointingly slow.
The introduction traces the history
and development of the Reserves and
of the Forest Service. Then follow
pleasingly illustrated chapters on trees
and forests, wilderness areas, scenic roads,
wildlife, recreation areas and interpreta-
tion programs, youth- training programs,
scenic rivers, hiking trails, winter sports,
grasslands, scenic Alaska, and historical
monuments. Included are tables and
maps, providing information in summary
form on National Forests, Waildernesses,
Primitive Areas and other reserves of
special interest. A few small errors were
noticed in the common names of animals;
a toad is called a tree frog on page 6+,
a damselfly is a dragonfly on page 144,
and on page 169 the swans look re-
markably like geese.
I found that book attractive and: in-
formative, and can recommend it to
nature lovers and park enthusiasts.
J. S. Rowe
Department of Plant Ecology
University of Saskatchewan
Saskatoon
1969
Manual of the Vascular Flora of the
Carolinas
By Apert E. Raprorp, Harry E. AHLEs
and C. Ritcum Bett. The University of
North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill. 1968.
Ixi + 1183 pp., illus. $19.75 (U.S.).
Students of the vascular plants of the
southeastern United States and of the
Carolinas in particular will be more than
pleased with the appearance of this new
flora. It is the only descriptive flora of
North Carolina and South Carolina since
“Flora Caroliniana” by Thomas Walter
_ was published in 1788, although the re-
gional manuals by J. K. Small did include
the area.
The book is written in the standard
fashion with keys to families, genera and
species, family, generic, and _ species
descriptions, notes on habitat, abundance,
flowering time, distribution within the
Carolinas, and distribution by state in
the southeastern U.S.A. Synonomy is
given where the names used for taxa
differ from other manuals, with the use-
ful suffix of an initial to indicate the
reference, e.g. F (Fernald), S (Small).
A total of 3542 taxa are treated. Some
additional taxa which have been reported
for the area but for which no voucher
herbarium specimen could be found are
briefly described at the end of the genus,
but are not keyed out. Chromosome
numbers have mostly been taken from
Delay (1951), Darlington and Wylie
(1955) and Cave (1955-66); numbers
followed by a raised small ° indicate that
the count was from material gathered in
the Carolinas.
‘Small Carolina distribution maps are
provided nearby to give the county
occurrence for all taxa which are known
to occur in six or more counties; where a
taxon occurs in five or fewer counties,
these are listed alphabetically in the text.
Line drawings by Marion Seiler and
Peggy Kessler Duke greatly enhance the
volume. These are necessarily small, but
nevertheless of good quality. They are
REVIEWS
417
intermixed with the maps and are to be
found on almost every other page
throughout the book. A small asterisk
after the specific name in the text indi-
cates that there is a drawing. I could,
however, find no mention of this prac-
tice in the introduction, and it took some
time to divine just what the asterisk
meant. There are unfortunately no page
references for the drawings or for the
maps.
Work on the flora began in 1956 with
three years of systematic county by
county surveying of the vascular flora.
Specialized collecting of particular areas
and genera followed and in all, the
authors accumulated over 200,000 speci-
mens which served as a basis for their
writing—a remarkable feat. Responsi-
bility for the treatments of various
families was divided among the three
authors; a list by family is recorded in
the introduction. Other specialist con-
tributors were: W. T. Batson (Juncus),
Janice Coffey (Luzula), D. S. Correll
(Orchidaceae), F. C. Hommersand
(Boraginaceae), H. R. Totten (Pinaceae,
Taxodiaceae, Cupressaceae and Faga-
ceae), M. Evans (Ferns and Fern Allies)
and R. L. Wilbur (Fabaceae).
The authors are to be congratulated
for their foresight and perseverance in
bringing such a work as this to fruition.
The volume is well’ bound with a
flexible spine which allows the 1? inch
thick book to remain open at any page.
There is unfortunately considerable dif-
ference in the blackness of the print
from page to page in the copy reviewed.
W. J. Copy
Plant Research Institute
Central Experimental Farm
Ottawa, Canada
418
Two Pioneer Naturalists:
John Goldie, Diary of a Journey through
Upper Canada, 1819.
Foreword by Wiu114AmM Spawn. Privately
printed. x + 65 pp. 1967. $1.75 from Uni-
versity of Toronto Bookstore.
John Kerr McMorine, 1842-1912.
Clergyman and Botanist
By Enna G. Ross. Privately printed, 21 pp.
1969. $1.00 from the author, Pakenham,
Ontario.
John Goldie (1793-1886) was trained
as a gardener at the Glasgow Botanic
Garden under the direction of W. J.
Hooker, Britain’s great empire botanist.
As a consequence, young Goldie was
inspired to make his trip of exploration
to America in 1817-19, and trips to
Russia in 1824 and 1830. Eventually, in
1844, he emigrated to Canada and settled
at Ayr where he farmed, built a mill, and
established a pioneer Ontario family.
The diary of his 1819 trip was printed
before (in 1897) but is generally un-
known; this new printing is therefore
most welcome, especially since it is dif-
ferent —unabridged, from the original
manuscript recently discovered in the
Toronto Public Library. It concerns the
journey, on foot, from Montreal (June 4)
to Brockville, Kingston, York (June 26),
Lake Simcoe, Niagara (July 11), around
Lake Ontario to Pittsburg (Aug. 2,
“Sept.” in error), Geneva, Salina (Syra-
cuse) and Sackets Harbour to Kingston
(Aug. 25). Earlier portions of Goldie’s
diary dealing with Nova Scotia, Quebec,
the eastern States, etc. were unfor-
tunately destroyed, along with bundles
of specimens by varied accidents, as ex-
plained by Mr. Spawn in his useful in-
troduction.
The account is factual and exciting.
Goldie was a real vagabond-type and
chose to trudge the whole way, some-
times 40 miles a day with pack on back,
sleeping-out when night overtook him,
idling with strangers, avoiding toll
bridges, and exposing himself, almost
THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
deliberately it seems, to all the trials of
the wilderness,—heat, mosquitoes, storms,
rattlesnakes, swamp, thorns and hunger,
but always resting on a Sunday to
read his books. The record of plants
seen, wildlife, soil, landscape, customs,
weather, prices, etc., of course, is in-
valuable Canadiana, set down reliably
and forthrightly,—perhaps with a tinge
of bravado!
We know Goldie best for the Shield
Fern, Aspidiunt Goldianum, named for
him by Hooker on a plant from Montreal,
carried back to Scotland. Further results
from the trip are the some dozen new
species he himself described, including
our spring Squirrel Corn, Dicentra
canadensis (Goldie) Walp., and the rare
Sundew, Drosera linearis Goldie, for
which we get details of site and circum-
stances in the diary. To glean his total
botanical contribution we need to con-
sult Joseph Ewan’s rejoinder in Rhodora-
70: 457-461, 1968.
As a prominent churchman, Rev. Mc-
Morine held charges in the early settle-
ments of Renfrew and Lanark Counties
in the Ottawa Valley and at Port Arthur,
later settling in Kingston. On missions
or on holidays for health reasons, he
also spent periods at Portage-la-Prairie,
Cacouna on the lower St. Lawrence,
Lake Papineau in the Laurentians, in
Tennessee and the Adirondacks. At
each locality the native flora attracted
his study, and specimens were meticu-
lously prepared for deposit in the her-
barium back at Queen’s College, King-
ston, where he had had his theological
training—and where he had shared the
excitement of Professor Lawson’s botany
classes. On election to Fellowship in the
Botanical Society in 1861, McMorine
presented a paper on The Plants of
Ramsay, the township around his home
in Almonte. The manuscript has not sur-
vived, and no further floristic writings
seem to have been attempted. But the
specimens remain, and continue to be
cited in the technical literature; this is
1969
why we have to know more about the
man, his collecting habits and his travels.
Miss Ross has tallied more than 1200
McMorine specimens, representing some
780 different species. In her brief essay
she lists only his Ferns and Orchids as a
sample. A map of collecting sites is in-
cluded. We are grateful to her for re-
searching this enterprising and doubly
dedicated Canadian.
W. G. Dore
Plant Research Institute
Department of Agriculture
_ Ottawa, Ontario
L’Alose et le Gaspereau
(The American Shad and the Alewife)
By Jean-Marie Roy. Poissons du Québec,
Album Numéro 8. Ministere de l’Indus-
trie et du Commerce du Québec, Direc-
tion des Pécheries, Quebec. 24 pages. 1969.
After a pause of five years, another
album of the series Poissons du Quebec
has appeared. Number 8, on the shad
and alewife, appears in a slightly smaller
format, 83 x 11 inches, and on finer
paper than previous numbers. A pair of
a delicately-tinted, life-like color plates
by P. Voerodina grace the center of
the booklet. A 38-page mimeographed
English translation is available for those
who do not read French.
Authoritative information on diagnos-
tic features and color, habitat, migra-
tions size, races, spawning, food, pre-
dators, distribution, the fishery, and
economic importance are included for
each species. The text, printing, and de-
sign all attest that “Québec sait faire.”
One hopes that there will be further
numbers in this series.
D. E. McALListTER
Curator of Fishes
National Museum of Natural Sciences
Ottawa, Ontario
REVIEWS
419
Trees of North America: A Field Guide to
the Major Native and Introduced Species
North of Mexico
By C. Frank Brockman, illustrated by
Rebecca Merrilees. The Golden Field
Guide Series, Golden Press, New York.
280 pp., illus. 1968. 44% x 74 in. paperback
$3.95 (US.), clothbound $5.95 (U.S.).
The tourist who has only a passing
interest in the trees he sees in his travels
as well as the travelling naturalist will
find this pocket-size book a most wel-
come and useful companion. It is the
second of a series of guide books
published by the Golden Press ( see
review of the first, Birds of North
America by Robbins, Bruun and Zim,
Can. Field-Nat. 81 (2): 146: 1967).
This book contains short paragraph
descriptions of nearly 600 of some 865
species of trees which are native to
North America north of Mexico. In
addition, over 100 more important
foreign trees which are in cultivation
and have become naturalized are also
treated. Descriptions are accompanied
by marginal disrtibution maps (for the
native species) and coloured sketches of
leaves and flowers or fruit, and oc-
casionally habit drawings and bark pat-
terns on the opposite page. There are
no keys. Identification 1s accomplished
by comparison with the drawings, re-
ference to the text and the distribution
maps.
In the introduction, there are short
illustrated descriptions of the plant
families represented in the book. A page
is devoted to the definition of a tree and
tree shapes. Two pages of illustrations
depict the different types of leaves and
leaf shapes, margins, tips, bases and vena-
tion. Mention is made of flowers, fruits,
bark and twigs. Six forest regions are
described briefly and there is a one-page
coloured map _ broadly outlining the
vegetation regions of North America.
The colour illustrations are excellent.
The maps, largely because of their size,
420
do present some inaccuracies, e.g. the
range of Pitch Pine (Pinus rigida) does
extend into Canada across the St.
Lawrence River at the Thousand Islands
and into the southern part of the Eastern
Townships of Quebec; Bebb Willow
(Salix Bebbiana) does occur as a shrub
as far north as the southern part of the
Mackenzie River Delta in Mackenzie
District; and Jack Pine (Pinus Bank-
siana) does not extend as far north as
indicated, at least in Mackenzie District.
The text is set in a good legible type
face, and appears to be quite accurate.
The plastic-coated cover of the paper-
back edition is a welcome feature of a
book which is designed for use in the
field.
W. J. Copy
Plant Research Institute
Central Experimental Farm
Ottawa
Insect Pests
By Georce S. Ficuter. A Goldon Nature
Guide, Golden Press, New York. 160 pp.,
illus., 1966. 4 x 4 in. paperback $1.00 or
clothbound $3.95 (U.S.).
“Insect Pests” is a useful manual for
identification and control of common
insect and related pests of North
America. The cover states that it is ‘a
guide to more than 350 pests of home,
garden, field and forest.’ The pests are
grouped on the basis of where the
damage is observed and Nicholas Strek-
alovsky has adequately illustrated them
in color in all developmental stages with
the actual size in fractions of an inch
always shown.
Common names are used, omitting
reference to either family or scientific
names. This is perhaps permissible in a
popular guide but leaves something to
Tue CanapiAn Fietp-NaATuRALIST
Vol. 83
be desired in accuracy of identification
or treatment. The larva figured for the
little house fly is certainly not the cor-
rect one for Fannia canicularis (L.).Too
many of the recommendations are
general: “Consult your local agricultural
agent for treatment.”
There is an attempt to cover widely
regional pests, from the cotton boll
weevil to the spruce budworm, and
from the screw worm fly to the Rocky
Mountain spotted fever tick. This, how-
ever, extends its usefulness to almost
every part of the North American con-
tinent, to farmers, housewives, gardeners
and the average person who requires
immediate information on insect pests.
E. M. ArRNAson
Department of Biology
Carleton University
Ottawa 1, Ontario
The Eternal Quest
By ALexAnver B Apams. G. P. Putman’s
Sons, New York. Longmans Canada
Limited, Don Mills, Ontario. 1969. 509
pages. 34 illustrations. $13.75.
This well written book will certainly ©
appeal to the layman, to the intellectual,
and to the professional. Alexander Adams
has successfully presented biographical
accounts of great naturalists from Thales
(ca. 640 B.C.-ca. 546 B.C.) “the success-
ful merchant, who helped start men on
the search for general scientific laws” to
Morgan (1866-1945) who “was one of
the early geneticists to experiment with
the breeding of fruit flies and to use
them for the study of genes”.
Most of the chapters contain detailed
biographies of outstanding scientists
such as Linnaeus, Buffon, Lamarck,
Cuvier, Wilson and Audubon, Hum-
boldt, Lyell, Agassiz, Darwin, Wallace,
Huxley, and Mendel. Here they appear
in their daily life as men, not as pillars
1969
of our contemporaneous scientific knowl-
edge and theories. Alexander Adams, in
this respect, has been very successful,
for “the first problem was to define a
naturalist”, and “even among those per-
sons who were indubitably naturalists,
the choice was often difficult to make”.
Alexander Adams’ clearly stated goal
was “to write the story of man’s dis-
covery of his place in the natural world
and to show the qualities and characters
of some of the men who did the dis-
covering”, in sum, discoveries coupled
with biographies of the men that made
_the discoveries. I expected to find in this
ReEvIEws
421
book details related to the great scientific
contributions themselves more or less in
equal proportion with the so well pre-
sented biographies, but the former were
briefer than I would have liked. The
carefully selected bibliography together
with the appendices, however, do com-
pensate somewhat by adding some de-
tails on the discoveries.
Bernarp R. Baum
Plant Research Institute
Canada Department of Agriculture
Ottawa, Ontario
OTHER NEW TITLES
Farming the Sea. A. McKee. Crowell, New
York, 1969. Illus. 198 p. $6.95 (US).
The World of the Red Fox. Leonard Lee
Rue II. Lippincott, Philadelphia, 1969. Illus.
208 p. $5.95 (US).
Animals on Stamps. H. Strom and L. H. -
Lewy. Philart Productions Ltd., London,
1968. Plates. 398 p. £1 10s.
The Future of the Future.John McHale.
Braziller, 1969. Illus. 322 p. Considers the
balance of the whole global ecology, the
consequences of the explosive growth of the
human species, its increased activities and the
by-products of civilization. $7.95 (US).
Biological Effects of Pesticides in Mam-
malian Systems. Herman F. Kraybill (Ed.),
N.Y. Academy of Sciences, Annals, Vol. 160,
1969. Illus. 422 p. $23 (US).
Chemical Fallout: Current Research on
Persistent Pesticides. Morton W. Miller
and George G. Berg (Eds.), 1969. Illus.
531 p. Follows pesticides from their entry
into the ecological system, their effect on
natural populations, their mechanisms of
action in organisms, their effect on human
populations and ends with an evaluation of
control methods. Obtainable from Charles C.
Thomas, 301 East Lawrence Ave., Spring-
field, Illinois. $22.50 (US).
How to Know the Lichens. Mason E. Hale.
Brown, 1969. 428 illustrations. 226 p. $3
US):
In Defence of Nature. John Hay. Little,
Brown, 1969. 210 p. A naturalist’s wander-
ings along the Atlantic coast between
Newfoundland and Long Island. $5.00 (US).
The Lure of the Pond. Wallace Kirkland.
Regnery, 1969. Illus. 151 p. About insects,
plants, birds and other things populating a
quiet Wisconsin pond. $6.95 (US).
Saskatoon Wetlands Seminar. Canadian
Wildlife Service Report Series No. 6.
Queen’s Printer, Ottawa, 1969. Illus. 262 p.
Transactions of a seminar on small water
areas in the prairie pothole region, held
February 20 to 22, 1967, to mark the opening
of the Prairie Migratory Bird Research
Centre in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. $5.25.
World Crop Protection. Volume 1, Pests
and Diseases. J. H. Stapley and F. C. H.
Gayner, CRC Press, International Scientific
Series, 1969. Illus. 270 p. $18.85 (US).
The Biology of Marine Mammals. H. T.
Anderson (Ed.), Academic Press., New
York, 1969. Illus. 511 p. $21.50 (US).
Arctic Bibliography. Volume 14. Marie
Tremaine (Ed.), McGill University Press,
1969. 1,792 p. Provides a key to scientific
publications available in the principal
libraries of the world, relating to the Arctic
and Subarctic, and other low-temperature
conditions. This volume includes over 8,500
abstracts of recent scientific publications.
Subjects covered include geology, meteo-
rology, oceanography and the humanities.
422
Administration, native populations, economic
conditions and public health and welfare
receive special attention. $20.00.
The Year of the Whale. Victor Scheffer.
Scribner, 1969. Illus. 213 p. $6.95 (US).
Pleistocene Mammals of Europe. Bjorn
Kurten. Aldine, Chicago, 1968. Illus. 320 p.
SES. (CORE
Effects of Pesticides on Fruit and
Vegetable Physiology. Subcommittee on
Chemicals Affecting Fruit and Vegetable
Physiology, Committee on Plant and Animal
Pests, National Research Council, National
Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.
1968. 90 p. $3.25 (US).
The Nations Water Resources Summary
Report. An assessment of the Water Re-
sources Council, Washington, D.C. 1968.
Superintendent of Documents, Washington,
D.C. Illus. 32 p. $0.65 (US).
Anatomy of the Monocotyledons, Volume
Ili, Commelinales-Zingiberales. P. B.
Tomlinson, Oxford at the Clarendon Press,
1969. Illus. 446 p. $14.75 (US).
Ethology of Mammals. R. F. Ewer. Plenum
Press, N.Y., London Logos Press, 1968. Illus.
418 p. $26. (US).
Moths and How to Rear Them. Paul Villiar.
Funk and Wagnalls, 1969. Illust. by the
author. 242 p. A modern rearing manual for
the amateur and professional breeder. The
result of nine years of study includes
appendices depicting winter twigs and guide
to food plants. $10. (US).
The Quality of the Urban Environment.
Essays on “New Resources” in an Urban
Age. Harvey S. Perloff (Ed.), Resources for
the Future, Johns Hopkins Press, 1969. Illus.
332 p. Paperback, $6.50 (US).
Urban Dynamics. Jay W. Forrester. M.LT.
Press, 1969. Illus. 285 p. A computer-aided
analysis of urban growth and decay, examines
the city as a self-regulating system that has
its own evolution. $12.50 (US).
Introduction to the Mathematics of
Population. Nathan Keyfitz. Addison-
Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1968. Illus. 450 p.
$13.50 (US).
Providing Quality Environment in Our
Communities. A public lecture series,
THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
Washington, D.C., 1967. Ward W. Konkle
(Ed.), Graduate School Press, U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.,
1968. Illus. 152 p. Cloth $5.25; Paperback,
$3 (US).
Wildlife in Danger. James Fisher, Noel
Simon, Jack Vincent and members and
correspondents of the Survival Service Com-
mission of the International Union for
Conservation of Nature and National Re-
sources, (IUCN) Viking, New York, 1969.
Illus. 368 p. $12.95. A Studio Book.
Environment and Cultural Behavior. Eco-
logical Studies in Cultural Anthropology.
Andrew P. Vayda (Ed.), Published for the
American Museum of Natural History by
Natural History Press, Garden City, N.Y.,
1969. Illus. 486 p. Cloth $7.95; Paperback
$2.95 (US). American Museum Sourcebooks
in Anthropology.
Oceanographic Atlas of the Pacific Ocean.
Richard A. Barkley, University of Hawaii
Press, Honolulu, 1968. Illus. 180 p. $30 (US).
Pollution: What It Is . .. What It
Does . . . What Can Be Done About It.
W. J. Maunder and H. D. Foster (Eds.),
Evening Division University of Victoria,
Victoria, B.C., Canada, 1969. 118 p. Paper-
back $1. 50
Prehistory of North America. Jesse D.
Jennings. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1969.
Illus. 402 p. $9.95 (US).
Environment and Resources. From Con-
servation to Ecomanagement, Jaro Mayda.
School of Law, University of Puerto Rico,
Rio Piedras, 1968. 254 p. Paperback $3 (US).
Darwin’s South America. Robert S.
Hopkins. Day, 1969. Illus. 224 p. Geo-
grapher’s fresh evaluation of the young
naturalist’s achievements, observations and
discoveries, with excerpts from Darwin’s
writings reviewed in their historical per-
spective. $5.95 (US).
Family Planning Perspectives. A new
quarterly magazine sponsored by a division
of Planned Parenthood — World Tope ee
545 Madison Avenue, New York 10022, 1
available upon request from the Technical
Assistance Division. For persons who often
think of family planning and population
control. Deals with legal problems and public
policy in regard to birth control programs
and similar matters.
1969
The Academy of Sciences of the USSR, a
Brief Account of its History and Work.
Obtainable from the Joint Publication Re-
search Service, JPRS 47808, Commerce
Department, Washington, D.C. $3 (US).
Lewis and Clark: Pioneering Naturalists.
P. R. Cutright. University of Illinois Press,
Urbana, 1969. Illus. 510 p. $12.50 (US).
Eskimo Prehistory. Hans-Georg Bandi.
Translated from the German edition by Ann
E. Keep. University of Alaska Press, College,
Alaska, 1969. (Distributed by University of
Washington Press, Seattle, Wash.) Illus.
228 p. $6.50 (US). Gandics of Northern
_ Peoples, No. 2.
Insect Vision. G. A. Mazokhin-Porshnya-
koy. Translated from the Russian by R. and
L. Masironi. T. H. Goldsmith (Translation
Ed.). Plenum Press, New York, 1969. As
compared with the Russian edition this
United States’ one contains some changes and
additional information, based on more recent
information from the literature. Illus. 306 p.
$23.50.
The World of Dragonflies and Damsel-
flies. Ross E. Hutchins. Dodd, Mead, New
York, 1969. Illus. 128 p. $4.25 (US).
International Conference on Oil Pollution
of the Sea. Report of proceedings, Rome,
1968. Obtainable from the Secretary, British
Advisory Committee on Oil Pollution of the
Sea, Natural History Museum, London. Illus.
416 p. Paperback. 40s.
ReEvIEWws 423
Concepts of Ecology. E. J. Kormondy.
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1969.
Illus. 210 p. Paperback $2.95 (US).
Molecular Approaches to Ecology. M.
Florkin and E. Schoffeniels. Academic Press,
N.Y., 1969. Illus. 204 p. $10 (US).
Seaweeds of Cape Cod and the Islands.
J. M. Kingsbury. Illustrated by E. and M.
Norman. Chatham Press, Chatham, Mass.
1969. 214 p. $12.50 (US).
Water, Earth and Man: A Synthesis of
Hydrology, Geomorphology, and Socio-
Economic Geography. R. J. Chorley (Ed.),
Methuen, London, 1969. Illus. 588 p.
$16 (US).
Migration and Dispersal of Insects by
Flight. C. G. Johnson. Methuen, London,
1969. Illus. 766 p. $24 (US).
The Ecology of Reproduction in Wild and
Domestic Animals. R. M. R. S. Sadlier.
Methuen, London, 1969. Illus. 324 p.
$12 (US).
Speciation in Tropical Environments.
Papers from a symposium, London, October-
November, 1968. R. H. Lowe-McConnell
(Ed.). Linnaean Society of London. Pub-
lished by Academic Press, New York, 1969.
Illus. 248 p. $11.50 (US). Includes 15 papers.
Conservation in a Changing World. Pro-
ceedings of a conference held in Toronto,
March 13-14, 1969. The Conservation Coun-
cil of Ontario, Suite 604-11 Adelaide Street
West, Toronto. 113 p.
Ws
INDEX TO VOLUME 83
Compiled by Cuartorte E. DILL
Note: Where a species is named in the text by both scientific and common names, it has been
indexed by scientific name only. Species are indexed by common names if the name appears
in the title of an article or if the scientific name has not been used in the article.
Reviews are indexed by author of the review and by title listed under the general heading,
Reviews.
Abies
Acanthis
flammea 268, 350, 398
hornemanni 398
Accipiter
gentilis, 260
nisus, 107
striatus, 260
Acer
negundo, 119, 225, 240
saccharum, 123
spicatum, 212, 215, 225
Achillea
lanulosa, 121
mallefolium, 227
sibirica, 227
Acorus
calamus, 216, 222
Actaea
rubra, 224
Actitis
macularia, 262, 350, 398
Aegolius
acadicus, 315
funereus, 263
Aeshna
canadensis, 15
constricta, 15
verticalis, 15
A gelaius
phoeniceus, 40
A goseris
glauca, 121
A grion
aequabile, 15
A gropyron
cristatum, 121
dasystachyum, 318
repens, 221
trachycaulum, 121
t. var. glaucum 221
Agrostis
scabra, 221
Alberta,
Band-tailed Pigeon, 282
Double-crested Cormorants, 36
Great Blue Heron colonies, 237
introduction of tropical fishes, 31
pallid vole, Lagurus curtatus, 282
Richardson’s ground squirrels, 246
Virginia Rail, 406
White Pelicans, 36
Alces
alces, 211, 336, 339
Alisma
triviale, 221
Allium
stellatum, 121
Alnus
inmcana, 364
vugosa, 215, 223, 364
Alopex
lagopus, 62, 167, 404
Alosa
pseudoharengus, 136, 161
Amanitopsts
inaurata, 52
Ambrosia
trafida, 121
Amelanchier
alnifolia, 114-117, 119, 224, 283
Amor pha
nana, 119
Anas
acuta, 259, 349, 398
carolinensis, 259, 349, 398
discors, 259, 407
platyrhynchos, 259, 349, 398
rubripes, 280, 398
strepera, 259
Anderson, Daniel W., Joseph J. Hickey,
Robert W. Risebrough, Donald F.
Hughes and Robert E. Christensen
Significance of chlorinated hydrocarbon
residues to breeding pelicans and cormo-
rants, 91
Andrle, Robert F.
Red-tailed Hawks nesting on cliffs in
Ontario, 165
Andromeda
glaucophylla, 226
Andropogon
gerardt, 114, 115, 116, 117, 121
scoparius, 393
Anemone
canadensts, 114, 119, 224
cylindrica, 114, 115, 119
parviflora, 49
Anguilla
rostrata, 132
Anomogyna
youngit, 17
1969
Anser
albifrons, 259, 398
Anthracoidea
elynae var. elynae, 50
rupestris, 50
Anthus
spinoletta, 266, 398
Aphis
fabae, 236
A pocynum
androsaemifolium, 226
Aquatic plants, Range extensions for some
Alaskan, by Vernon L. Harms, 253
Aquila
chrysaétos, 107, 261
Arahia
nudicaulis, 215, 225, 226
Arctagrostis
latifolia, 49
Arctostaphylos
rubra, 393
Ardea
herodias, 106, 237
Arenaria
inter pres, 398
lateriflora, 224
Argyresthia
laricella, 18
Arnason, E. M.
Review of: Insect Pests, 420
Artemisia
absinthium, 121
cana, 318
ludoviciana, 114, 115, 116, 121
Asclepias
ovalifolia, 115, 120
Asto
flammeus, 263
otus, 158
Aster
ciliolatus, 227
junciformis, 227
laevis, 121
pansus, 121
ptarmicoides, 227
puniceus, 227
Astragalus
alpinus, 49
canadensis, 119, 225
flexuosus, 119
goniatus, 114, 115, 116, 119
Aulocomnium
palustre, 227
Autumn flocking habits of the Red-winged
Blackbird in southern Manitoba, by
Lawrie B. Smith and Ralph D. Bird, 40
Ayre, G. L., 285
A ythya
affinis, 259, 344, 398
americana, 259
collaris, 259, 280
marila, 259, 344, 349, 398
INDEx TO VOLUME 83
Baffin Island, fungi, 48
Balanus
balanoides, 21
Baldwin, W. K. W. and Theodore Mosquin
Scientific and cultural studies of the Mer
Bleue, 4
Banfield, A. W. F.
Review of: The World of the Wolf, 177
Banks, Richard C.
Survey of bird collections, 174
Banksiola
crotcht, 150
Barbula
acuta, 156
tcmadophila, 156
johansentt, 156
Baum, Bernard R.
Review of: The Eternal Quest, 420
Beckmannia
syzigachne, 221
Bergerud, Arthur T.
The status of pine marten in Newfound-
land, 128
Berns, Vernon D.
Notes on the blue fox of Rat Island,
Alaska, 404
Betula
alascana, 251
alaskana, 251
alba subsp. papyrifera var. humilis, 251
a. subsp. verrucosa var. resinifera, 251
alleghaniensis, 362
caerulea, 361-383
caerulea-grandis, 361, 364, 379, 383
cordifolia, 361, 383
X eastwoodae, 251
fontinalis, 250, 251
glandulifera, 216, 219-223, 226, 227, 250
glandulosa, 250, 251, 339
lutea, 123
nana var. glandulifera, 250
neolaskana, 250, 251, 252
occidentalis, 250, 251
papyracea, 251
papyrifera, 215, 220, 223, 347, 361-383
p. subsp. humilis, 250
p. var. cordifolia, 364, 383
populifolia, 361-383
resinifera, 223, 251, 252
X sandbergit, 250
X sargentit, 251
X uliginosa, 251
X winter1, 250
Betula, North American, Some nomenclature
problems in, by Janet R. Dugle, 250
Bidens
cernua, 227, 253
Birch (Betula), Observations on Canadian,
collections at the Morgan Arboretum.
VITI.
Betula from Grand Manan Island, New
Brunswick, by W. H. Brittain and W. F.
Grant, 361
426
Bird collections, Survey of,
by Richard C. Banks, 174
Bird, Ralph D., 40
Birds, Anomalous conditions in three species
of,
by William Threlfall, 384
Birds as predators of ticks in Canada,
by P. R. Wilkinson, 400
Birds, Breeding, of the West Mirage Islands,
Great Slave Lake, N.W.T.,
by Milton W. Weller et al, 344
Birds of the Iron Bridge, Ontario region,
Notes on,
by W. Earl Godfrey, 158
Birds of the upper Yukon River, Alaska, and
adjacent part of the Yukon Territory,
Canada, Recent data on summer,
by Clayton M. White and John R.
Haugh, 257
Birds, raptorial, Jurisdiction over (letter)
by Donald A. Blood, 64
Black, Jeffrey Howard and Judith Norene
Black
Postmetamorphic basking aggregations
of the boreal toad, Bufo boreas boreas,
155
Blackbird, Red-winged, Autumn flocking
habits of the, in southern Manitoba,
by Lawrie B. Smith and Ralph D.
Bird, 40
Blarina
brevicauda, 204
b. hoopert, 204
b. talpoides, 204
Bleakney, J. Sherman, 19
Blood, Donald A.
Jurisdiction over raptorial birds (letter),
64
Boa, rubber, Early emergence from hiberna-
tion of the,
by James Grant, 281
Boloria
eunomia triclaris, 18
freija, 18
Bombycilla
garrulus, 260, 266
Bonasa
umbellus, 25, 261, 315
Botanists (Directory of Canadian), 409
Botaurus
lentiginosus, 398
Botrychium
virginianum, 220
Bourguignon, Alfred Eugene 1893-1968,
by Earl W. Godrey, 272
Brachymyrmex
depilis, 283
Branta
bernicla, 398
canadensis, 62, 240, 258, 261, 350, 397, 398
c. leucopea, 404
nigricans, 258
Brassica
juncea, 224
Raber, 120, 224
Tue CANADIAN FIeELD-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
Braya
purpurascens, 50
British Columbia,
Gyrfalcon, 57
moose, 339
Scissor-tailed Flycatcher, 62
sculpins (Cottidae), 460
Skua, 402
Brittain, W. H. and W. F. Grant
Observations on Canadian birch (Betula)
collections at the Morgan Arboretum.
VIII. Betwla from Grand Manan Island,
New Brunswick 361
Bromus
ciliatus, 221
inermts, 121, 221
Brown, N. R., 397
Brown, N. R. and P. A. Pearce
New Brunswick specimens of the Field
Sparrow and Laughing Gull, 403
Brunton, D. F.
Review cf: Eighty Mere I.and Birds to
Know, 413
Bryum
pseudotriquetrum, 227
stenotrichum, 119
Bubo
virginianus, 57, 61, 108, 263
Bucephala
albeola, 59, 259, 408
clangula, 259, 280, 350
islandica, 59, 259, 407
Bufflehead-Goldeneye,
Further data on interspecific competition
at a joint.... nest site,
by William D. McLaren, 59
Bufo
boreas boreas, 155, 156
canorus, 155
Buteo
“‘harlant”’, 260, 270
jamaicensis, 108, 165, 260
lagopus, 269, 398
swainsont, 270
Calamagrostis
canadensts-inex pansa-neglecta complex,
DRO
Calamovilfa
longifolia, 393
Calcarius
lapponicus, 268, 397
pictus, 398
Calidris
canutus, 398
Calla
palustris, 222
Calliergonella
cuspidata, 227
Caltha
palustris 224
Calvatia
cretacea 52
Camfield M.
Pollen record at the Mer Bleue, 7
1969
Campanula
aparinoides, 227
rotundtfolia, 120
Campbell, J., 191
Campbell, R. Wayne and Ken P. Morrison
Specimen of Gyrfalcon from southwestern
British Columbia, 57
Campylium
chrysophyllum, 227, 228
Canachites
canadensis, 23, 29, 260, 261, 315
c. canadensis, 23, 28, 29
Canham, Raymond P.
Early cessation of reproduction in an
unusually abundant population of Pero-
myscus maniculatus borealis, 279
Canis
latrans, 332
lupus, 332
: lL. lycaon, 122
Capella
gallinago, 260, 262, 398
Capsella
bursa-pastoris, 224
Cardamine
pennsylvanica, 224
Carex
aquatilis, 216, 222, 226
atherodes, 216, 221, 222, 226, 227
aurea, 222
brevior, 121
canescens, 222
chordorrhiza, 222
deweyana, 222
diandra, 222
disperma, 222
eleocharis, 318
laeviconica, 121
lanuginosa, 121, 216, 218, 222
lasiocarpa var. americana, 222
limosa, 222
marina, 49
membranacea, 49
microchaeta, 139
paupercula, 222
pseudo-cyperus, 222
rostrata, 216, 222
rupestris, 50
ursina, 49
Cassiope
tetragona, 50, 51
Castor
canadensis, 207
Catharacta
skua, 402
Catostomus
commersont, 99
Cenangium
articum, 50
Cerastium
alpinum, 51
Ceratophyllum
demersum, 216, 224, 253
Certhia
familiaris, 269
Chamaedaphne calyculata, 12, 216, 226, 234
INDEX TO VOLUME 83 427
Charadews
semtpalmatus, 398
vociferus, 398
Charina
bottae, 281
Chen
caerulescens, 62
hyperborea, 398
rossi, 62
Chenopodium
album, 223
capitatum, 224
Chesemore, David L.
Supernumerary teeth in a brown lem-
ming from Barrow, Alaska, 167
Chlidonias
leucopierus, 394
niger, 394
Chlorinated hydrocarbon residues, Signi-
ficance of, to breeding pelicans and
cormorants, by Daniel W. Anderson et
al, 91
Chlorinated hydrocarbons,
Governments move to ban, (editorial)
by Theodore Mosquin, 189
Christenen, Robert E., 91
Chromosome number, The highest, known to
occur in a North American plant, by
Gerald A. Mulligan and William J.
Cody, 277
Chrysanthemum
integrifolium, 49
Chrysomyxa
empetrt, 51
ledt var. rhododendrt, 51
ledicola, 51
Cichlasoma
nigrofasciatum, 31, 34
Cicuta
bulbifera, 225
douglas, 254
mackenzieana, 255, 256
maculata, 225
Cinna
latifolia, 222
Circaea
alpina, 225
Circus
cyaneus, 45, 261, 398
Curstum
arvense, 121, 227
a. f. albtflorum, 121
flodmanit, 114, 121
muticum, 227
Cladosporium
herbarum, 49
Clangula
hyemalis, 259, 351, 398
Clethi a
alnifolia, 166
Clethraceae: a plant family new to Canada,
by P. M. Taschereau, 166
Clethrionomys
gappert, 141-146, 208, 279
g. athabascae, 279
428
g. gappert, 208
g. ochraceous, 208
Clitocybe
luteovitellina, 52
umbellifera, 52
Clupea
harengus, 386
Cochlearia
officinalis, 50, 51
Cody, W. J.
Review of: Flora of Alaska and Neigh-
boring Territories: a Manual of the
Vascular Plants, 412
Cody, W. J.
Review of: Growth and Utilization of
Poplars in Canada, 288
Cody, W. J.
Review of: Manual of the Vascular Flora
of the Carolinas, 417
Cody, W. J.
Review of: Quick-Key Guide to Wild-
flowers of Northeastern and Central
United States and Adjacent Canada, 179
Cody, W. J.
Review of: Trees, 71
Cody, W. J.
Review of: Trees of North America: A
Field Guide to the Major Native and
Introduced Species North of Mexico, 419
Cody, W. J., 277
Coenosia
tigvina, 235, 236
Colaptes
auratus, 263
Columba
fasciata, 283
Columbigallina
passerina, 405
p. passerina, 405
Comandra
richardsiana, 114, 115, 120
Comptonia
peregrina, 313
Condylura
cristata, 205
Conservation and the population problem
(editorial) by Peter H. Raven, 1
Contopus
sordidulus, 264
Convolvulus
sepium, 120
Cooke, F., 399
Cooper, John K.
First breeding record of the White-headed
Woodpecker for Canada, 276
Corbet, Philip S. and G. S. Walley
The dragonflies (Odonata) of the Mer
Bleue, 14
Corbet, Philip S. and G. L. Ayre
Swarming and mating in the ant, Lasius
sitkaensts, Pergande: further remarks
(letter), 285
Coregonus
clupeaformis, 99
Cormorants, Double-crested,
Colonies of, and White Pelicans in
Tue CanapiAn Fir_tp-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
Alberta, by Kees Vermeer, 36
Cornus
canadensis, 226, 227
stolonifera, 215, 221, 226, 340
Corvus
brachyrhynchos, 398
corax, 158, 265, 350
Corylus
cornuta, 223
Coturnicops
noveboracensis, 398
Cowbird, Brown-headed,
Bewick Wren, host to, by Enid K.
Lemon, 395
Crambus
youngellus, 18
Crataegus
succulenta, 119
Creptis
tectorum, 114, 121
Crocethia
alba, 398
Crum, Howard
A reconsideration of the relationship of
Barbula johansenu (Musci), 156
Cunningham, E. B.
A record of the Virginia Rail from Banff
National Park, Alberta, 406
Cyamops
nebulosa, 235, 236
Cyanocitta
cristata, 304
Cylindrosportum
serabrankowi, 49
Cypripedium
calceolus, var. parviflorum, 121
Dabbs, Don L., 212
DDE affair, The, (editorial)
by J. A. Keith, 89
Danthonia
intermedia, 392
spicata, 392
Dearden, Lyle C.
Burrows of the pallid vole, Lagurus
curtatus, in Alberta, Canada, 282
Dekker, Dick
A plea for federal protection of the
Peregrine Falcon (letter), 64
A plea for federal protection of Peregrine
Falcon II (letter), 410
Dendragapus
obscurus, 25
Dendrocopos
albolarvatus, 276
villosus, 264
Dendrioca
coronata, 56, 268, 349, 398
petechia, 268, 350
striata, 268
tigrina, 159
Dermacentor
albtpictus, 400
andersont, 400
Desurainia
pinnata var. brachycarpa, 120
1969
Diadophis
punctatis edwardsi, 277
Dick, James A. and Ross D. James
The Ground Dove in Canada, 405
Dicranum
polysetum, 227
Didymodon
johansenti, 157
tophaceus, 156
trifarius, 156
Diplectrona
modesta, 150
Dirsch], Herman J. and Don L. Dabbs
A contribution to the flora of the Sas-
katchewan River Delta, 212
Disporum
trachycarpum, 223
Dodds, Donald G.
The striped skunk, Mephitis mephitis
(Schreber), in Nova Scotia, 229
Dolichonyx
oryzivorus, 40
Dolophiloides
distinctus, 150
Dore, W. G.
Review: Two Pioneer Naturalists: John
Goldie, Diary of a Journey through
Upper Canada, 1819; John Kerr Mc-
Morine, 1842-1912, Clergyman and Bot-
anist, 418
Dove, Ground, in Canada,
by James A. Dick and Ross D. James, 405
Dow, Douglas D. and Werner H. Hesse
British Columbia record of Skua in
terrestrial habitat, 402
Dowitchers, Long-billed, in New Brunswick,
by P. A. Pearce and N. R. Brown, 397
Draba
hirta, 49
Dragonflies (Odonata) of the Mer Bleue,
by Philip S. Corbet and G. S. Walley, 14
Drepanocladus
aduncus var. polycarpus, 228
Drosera
rotundifolia, 224, 233-236
intermedia, 233-236
Dryas
integrifolia, 50
Dryopteris
spinulosa, 220
Duck, Ring-necked, Breeding records of the,
_in Gaspe South County, Quebec, by
Marcel Laperle, 280
Dugle, Janet R.
Some nomenclature problems in North
American Betula, 250
Eels (Anguilla rostrata),
Fishermen’s reports of freshwater and
saltwater migrations,
by J. Carl Medcof, 132
Eleocharis
acicularis, 254
kamtschatica, 254
macrostachya, 254
INDEx TO VOLUME 83
429
palustris, 222, 254
uniglumis, 254
Elodea
canadensis, 221
Elymus
canadensis, 222
Empetrum
nigrum, 51
Empidonax
flaviventris, 264
hammond, 264
tratllit, 264
Enallagma
antennatum, 15
ebrium, 15
hagent, 15
Endangered wildlife in Canada — 1970, 408
Endothenta
daeckeana, 18
Enthydra
lutris, 404
Epicordulia
princeps, 15
Epilobium
angustifolium, 225
glandulosum var. adenocaulon, 225
latifolium, 50
leptophyllum, 225
Eptesicus
fuscus, 205
Equisetum
arvense, 220, 222, 227 2
fluviatile, 216, 218, 220, 226, 227, 339, 340
hyemale var. affine, 220
pratense, 215, 220, 226, 227
Eremophila
alpestris, 397
Erethizon
dorsatum, 210, 336
Ereunetes
pusillus, 262, 350, 398
Erigeron
philadelphicus, 227
Eriophorum
angustifolium, 50, 139
chamissonis, 222
gracile, 222
scheuchzer1, 50
spissum, 222
triste, 49
vaginatum ssp. spissum, 49
Enioptera
caloptera, 235, 236
uliginosa, 235, 236
Erolia
alpina, 398
biardi, 398
fuscicoilis, 398
maritima, 19-22
melanotus, 262, 398
minutilla, 262, 398
Er pobdella
punctata, 168
Erucastrum
gallicum, 224
430
Erystphe
gramints, 50
Esox
luctus, 99
Eucalia
inconstans, 99
Eumetopias
jubata, 404
Euphagus
carolinus, 40, 268, 398
cyanocephalus, 40, 159
Euphorbia
cyparissias, 243, 244, 245
esula, 243, 244, 245
x figertu, 243
lucida, 244
xX pseudo-esula, 243, 245
Euphorbia X pseudo-esula
(E. cyparissias X FE. esula)
in Canada, by R. J. Moore and C.
Frankton, 243
Eutrema
edwardsi, 50, 51
Evernden, L. N., 169
Exobasidium
vaccinit var. vaccinit, 51
vaccinit-uliginosi var. vaccinit-uliginost,
51
Falco
biarmicus, 65
cherrug, 65
columbarius, 261, 398
mexicanus, 192
peregrinus, 64, 107, 191, 257, 261, 398
rusticolus, 57
yr. uralensis, 57
sparvertus, 45, 261
tinnunculus, 96
Falcon, Peregrine, A plea for federal protec-
tion of the,
by Dick Dekker (letters) 64, 410
Falconry in Washington, Some facts about,
409
Falcons, Peregrine, Toward
protect young, (editorial)
by Theodore Mosquin, 297
Falcons, Prairie, Regional population de-
clines and organochlorine insecticides in
Canadian, by R. W. Fyfe et ai, 191
Felis
concolor, 333
Festuca
altaica var. major, 392
rubra, 121
scabrella, 392
Fishes, tropical, Introduction of,
hotspring near Banff, Alberta,
by D. E. McAllister, 31
Fluoride content of water from wells in the
greater Ottawa area,
by W. M. Tupper and D. Mah, 279
Flycatcher, Scissor-tailed, in British
Columbia, by J. A. Millican, 62
legislation to
into a
Tue CanapiAn Frecp-NaATURALIST
Vol. 83
Fox, Arctic, attacks on molting Canada Geese,
by S. Wayne Speller, 62
Fox, blue, of Rat Island, Alaska, Notes on the,
by Vernon D. Berns, 404
Fragaria
vesca var. americana, 224
virginiana, 114, 119, 224
Frankton, C., 243
Fratercula
arctica, 402
Fraxinus
nigra, 364
pennsylvanica var. lanceolata, 215
p. var. subintegerima, 226
Freeman, T. N.
Some historical notes on collecting
Lepidoptera in the Mer Bleue, 16
Fuller, W. A.
An unusual winter movement of Pero-
myscus maniculatus, 275
Fungi of central Baffin Island,
by J. A. Parmelee, 48
Fyfe, R. W., 406
Fyfe, R. W., J. Campbell, B. Hayson and
kK. Hodson
Regional population declines and organo-
chlorine insecticides in Canadian Prairie
Falcons, 191
Galerina
vittaeformis var. vittaeformis f. tetraspora,
Galium
boreale, 226
labradoricum, 226
septentrionale, 114-116, 120, 226
trafidum, 226, 228
triflorum, 226
Gambusia
affinis, 31, 34 :
Gatineau Park, A brief on the future of,
presented to the National Capital Com- —
mission, Ottawa, by the Ottawa Field-
Naturalists’ Club, September, 1968, 78
Gavia
adamsi1, 350
arctica, 258, 397
immer, 258, 350
stellata, 258, 349, 398
Gentiana
andrewsi1, 120
Geocaulon
lividum, 223
Geranium
bicknellit, 114, 115, 119
Getz, Lowell L.
Laboratory studies of interactions be-
tween the white-footed mouse and red-
back vole, 141
Geum
macrophyllum var. perincisum, 225
Gilhen, John
An unusually large, gravid ring-necked
snake, Diadophis punctatus edwardsi
(Merrem) with eight eggs from Nova
Scotia, 277
1969
Gilhen, John
Striped mullet, Mugil cephalus, records
from Halifax County, Nova Scotia, in
1966 and 1968, 161
Gillett, John M.
Review of: The Flora of Nova Scotia, 290
Glaucomys
sabrinus, 207
volans, 207
Glyceria
granda, 222
striata, 222
Glycyrrhiza
lepidota, 114, 115, 119
Godfrey, W. Earl
ace Eugene Bourguignon 1893-1968,
272
Godfrey, W. Earl
The Golden-winged Warbler in Muskoka
County, Ontario, 281
Godfrey, W. Earl
Nesting of the Caspian Tern in central-
eastern Manitoba, 401
Godfrey, W. Earl
Notes on birds of the Iron Bridge,
Ontario, region, 158
Godfrey, W. Earl
Review of: Hours and the Birds, 69
Review of: A Lifetime with the Birds:
An Ornithological Logbook, 70
Goldeneye, Barrow’s, and other duck species
during brood-rearing, Some interspecific
intolerance between, by Ian Robertson
and Henry Stelfox, 407
Gomphus
cornutus, 15
notatus, 15
vastus, 15
Goose, Canada, 62
Grant, James
Early emergence from hibernation of the
rubber boa, 281
Grant, W. F., 361
Greenwood, E. W., 55
Grindelia
squarrosa, 121
Grouse, hybrid, Lagopus X Canachites, from
Northern Ontario,
by Harry G. Lumsden, 23
Grylloblaita
campodieformis, 390
Grus
americana, 66
canadensis, 262
Gull, Laughing, New Brunswick specimens of
the Field Sparrow and,
by N. R. Brown and P. A. Pearce, 403
Gull, Lesser Black-backed, at Churchill,
Manitoba. A new bird tor Canada,
by R. K. Ross and IF. Cooke, 399
Gulls at Fredericton, New Brunswick,
by A. Pearce, 54
Gulo
gulo, 332
Gyrfalcon from southwestern British Colum-
bia, specimen of,
INDEx TO VOLUME 83
431
by R. Wayne Campbell and Ken P.
Morrison, 57
Haliaeetus
leucocephalus, 100, 261, 405
Hampson, Michael J., 282
Harms, Vernon L.
Range extensions for
aquatic plants, 253
Harris, R. D.
On a national naturalists’ organization
(letter), 286
Haugh, John R., 257
Hawks, Red-tailed, nesting on cliffs in
Ontario, by Robert F. Andrle, 165
Hayson, B., 191
Hebeloma
hiemale, 52
sordidulum, 52
Helianthus
laetiflorus, 114, 115, 116, 121
maximiliant, 114, 116, 121
Helictotrichon
hooker1, 392
Heliopsts
helianthoides
Helvella
leucomelaena, 50
queletit, 50
Heracleum
lanatum, 225
Heron, Great Blue, colonies in Alberta,
by Kees Vermeer, 237
Hesse, Werner H., 402
Heuchera
vichardsonit, 114, 119
Hickey, Joseph J. (see Anderson et. al.), 91
Hieracium
umbellatum, 121
Hierochloé
odorata, 121
Hippuris
vulgaris, 49
Hirundo
rustica, 265
HAisirionicus
- histrionicus, 260
Hodson, K., 191
Hordeum
jubatum, 121, 222
Hughs, Donald F. (see Anderson, et. al.), 91
Hydrolica
ventrosa, 22
Hydroprogne
caspia, 349, 401
Hydropsyche
slossonae, 150
sparna, 150
Hylocichla
guttata, 266
minima, 266, 398
mustelina, 158
ustulata, 266
AH ylocomium
splendens, 228
some Alaskan
Wer, cao, Wile Wil
432
Hypericum
virginicum, 227
v. var. frasert, 225
Icelinus
oculatus, 400, 401
Ictalurus
melas, 99
Icterus
galbula, 159
Ide, F. P.
Professor Edmund
1969, 389
M. Walker, 1877-
Ilex
glabra, 166
verticillata, 166
Illman, Wm. I.
Review of: The History of Life, 178
Review of: The Olympic Rain Forest, 178
Review of: The Ploughboy and the
Nightingale, 180
Impatiens
capensis, 225, 227
Inocybe
lorillardiana, 52
Insects trapped in the leaves of sundew,
Drosera intermedia Hayne and Drosera
rotundifolia L. Studies of the Byron Bog
in southwestern Ontario XX XIX,
by William W. Judd, 233
International Union for Conservation and
Natural Resources (IUCN), 409
Introduction of tropical fishes into a hotspring
near Banff, Alberta,
by D. E. McAllister, 31
Iridoprocne
bicolor, 264, 398
Tronoquia
lyratus, 150
Ischnura
verticalis, 15
Isothea
rhytismoides, 50
Ixoreus
naevius, 265
Jaeger, Long-tailed, Nesting of, in southwest
Yukon Territory,
by Larry W. Price, 138
James, Ross D., 405
Jay, Gray (Perisoreus canadensis).
tribution to the biology of the,
by Russell J. Rutter, 300
Judd, William W.
Studies of the Byron Bog in southwestern
Ontario XX XVII. Leeches (Hirudinea)
collected in the Bog, 168
Judd, William W.
Studies of the Byron Bog in southwestern
Ontario XX XIX. Insects trapped in the
leaves of sundew, Drosera intermedia
Hayne and Drosera rotundifolia L., 233
Junco
hyemalis, 268, 398
A con-
THE CANADIAN Fie_p-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
Juncus albescens, 49
arcticus, 49
balticus var. littoralis, 121
nodosus, 222
Juniperus
communis, 220
horizontalis, 220
Kalmia
angustifolia, 313
polifolia, 216, 226
Kannowski, Paul B.
Nuptial flights of the ant, Lastus palli-
tarsis (letter), 283
Keith, J. A.
The DDE affair, (editorial), 89
Keleher, G. M., 113
Kevan, P. G. and L. N. Evernden
A National Park for the Northwest
Territories — The East Arm of Great
Slave Lake and Artillery Lake, 169
Kobresia
myosuroides, 50
Koeleria
cristata, 121
Krapu, Gary L., 344
Kuyt, Ernie and R. W. Fyfe
Observations of Wheatear near Schultz
Lake, Keewatin District, N.W.T., 406
Labrador, Greenland Wheatears, 56
Laccaria
tetraspora, 52
Lachnanthes
tinctoria, 166
Lactarius
speciosus, 52
Lactuca
pulchella, 121
Lagopus
lagopus, 23, 29
l. albus, 23, 28, 29
Lagurus
cuitatus, 282
Lanius
excubitor, 398
Laperle, Marcel
Breeding records of the Ring-necked
Duck in Gaspe South County, Quebec,
280
Lappula echinata, 226
Larix
laricina, 23, 216, 219, 220, 226, 227, 364
Larus
argentatus, 54, 100, 191, 262, 349, 386,
394, 398, 399
atricilla, 54, 403
californicus, 349
canus, 262, 349
delawarensis, 54, 394
fuscus, 399
glaucescens, 402
glaucoides, 54, 398
hyperboreus, 54, 399
marinus, 54, 394, 399
philadelphia, 54, 262, 394, 398
1969
thayert, 399
Lasionycteris
noctivagans, 205
Lasius
flavus, 283
neontiger, 283
niger, 283
pallitarsis, 283, 285
sitkaensis, 283, 285
umbratus, 283
Lathyrus
ochroleucus, 114, 115, 119
palustris, 114, 119
venosus var. intonsus, 119
Lawrence, Louise de Kiriline, is honored, 175
Ledum
groenlandicum, 216, 223, 226, 347
palustre var. decumbens, 51
- Leeches (Hirudinea) collected in the Bog,
Studies of the Byron Bog in southwestern
Ontario XX XVII,
by William W. Judd, 168
Lemming, brown, from Barrow Alaska,
Supernumerary teeth in a,
by David L. Chesemore, 167
Lemmus
trimucronatus, 167
Lemon, Enid K.
Bewick Wren, host to Brown-headed
Cowbird, 395
Lepidium
densifiorum, 120
Lepidoptera in the Mer Bleue, Some historical
notes on collecting, by T. N. Freeman, 16.
Lepidostoma,
frostt, 150
griseum, 150
lydia, 150
sackent, 150
sommermanae, 150, 151, 153
swannanoa, 150
Leptoglossum
lobatum, 52
Lepus
americanus, 205, 351
Lestes
dryas, 15
Leucorrhinia
hudsonica, 14, 16
intacta, 16
proxima, 16
Levin, M. H. and G. H. Keleher
' Vegetation of a prairie near Winnipeg,
Manitoba, 113
Liatris
ligulistylis, 121
Libellula
julia, 16
lydia, 15, 16
pulchella, 15, 16
quadrimaculata, 16
Lightning fires in Saskatchewan grassland,
J. S. Rowe, 317
Likens, Gene E., 147
Limnephalus
consocius, 150
Inpex TO VoLUME 83 433
indivisus, 150
moestus, 150
ornatus, 150
submonilifer, 150
Limnodromus
griseus, 398
g. griseus, 397
scolopaceus, 397
Lamosa
haemastica, 262, 351, 398
Linnaea
borealis var. americana, 226
Listera
auriculata, 55, 56
australis, 55
cordata, 55
Lithospermum
canescens, 115, 117, 120
Littlefield, Carroll D. and Allan Pakulak
Arrival dates of birds at Churchill,
Manitoba, 1968, 397
Littorina
littoralis, 22
littorea, 21, 22
obtusata, 21
saxatilis, 21, 22
Lobipes
lobatus, 262, 349, 398
Lonicera
dioica var. glaucescens, 227
villosa var. solonis, 227
Looman, J.
Distribution extensions
plant species, 392
Lophiola
septentrionalis, 166
Loxia
leucoptera, 268, 398
Lumsden, Harry G.
A hybrid grouse, Lagopus X Canachites,
from Northern Ontario, 23
Lutra
canadensis, 211
Lycaena
epixanthe, 17
thoe, 17
Lycopus
uniflorus, 226
Lynx
canadensis, 211, 333
rufus, 211
of Manitoba
Lype
diversa, 150
Lysimachia
thyrsiflora, 226, 254
McAllister, D. E.
Introduction of tropical fishes into a
hotspring near Banff, Alberta, 31
McAllister, D. E.
Review of: L’Alose et le Gaspereau (The
American Shad and the Alewife), 419
McAllister, D. E.
Review of: The Sockeye Salmon, Onco-
rhynchus nerka, 414
434
McConnochie, Kenneth and Gene E. Likens
Some Trichoptera of the Hubbard Brook
Experimental Forest in central New
Hampshire, 147
MacKenzie, Hue N.
National Parks policy — decisions where
conflicts exist (letter), 175
MacKenzie, H. N. and E. W. Greenwood
Range extensions of Listera auriculata
Wiegand in Ontario and Quebec, 55
McLaren, William D.
Further data on interspecific competition
at a joint Bufflehead — Goldeneye nest
site, 59
McPhail, J. D.
Two rare sculpins (Cottidae) new to the
marine fauna of British Columbia, 400
Macrorhamphus
scolopaceus, 397
Mah, D., 279
Mammals in alpine areas of the northern
St. Elias Mountains, Yukon Territory
and Alaska, Notes on, by Barbara M.
Murray and David F. Murray, 331
Mammals of southern Quebec,
Ecological notes on the,
by Robert E. Wrigley, 201
Manitoba,
birds at Churchill, 397
Caspian Tern, 401
distribution extensions of plant species,
392
Lesser Black-backed Gull, 399
Red-winged Blackbird, 40
vegetation of a prairie, 113
Marchantia
polymorpha, 227
Mareca
americana, 259, 398
Marmota
caligata, 334
monax, 206
Marten, pine, The status of, in Newfoundland,
by Arthur T. Bergerud, 128
Martes
americana atrata, 128, 310
pennantt, 211
Matricaria
ambigua, 49
Matteuccia
struthiopteris, 215
Ss. pensylvanica, 220
Medcof, J. Carl
Fishermen’s reports of reshwater and
saltwater migrations of Nova Scotia eels
(Anguilla rostrata), 132
Medicago
sativa, 119
Megaceryle
alcyon, 263
Megalodonta
becki1, 227
Melampsora
epitea, 51
Melanitta
deglandi, 260, 398
THe CANADIAN Fie_p-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
berspicillata, 260, 398
Melilotus
alba, 119
officinalis, 119
Melos piza
georgiana, 398
lincolni, 398
melodia, 349
Mentha
arvensis, 215
a. var. villosa, 120, 226
Menyanthes
trifoliata, 226, 339
Mephitis
mephitis, 211 ;
Mephitis mephitis (Schreber),
The striped skunk, in Nova Scotia,
by Donald G. Dobbs, 229
Mer Bleue,
dragonflies, 14
Lepidoptera, 16
pollen record, 7
scientific and cultura! studies, 4
Mergus
merganser, 350
serrator, 260, 349, 398
Mertensia
paniculata, 226
Miucreacanthia
humilis, 235, 236
Micropalama
himantopus, 398
Microsorex
hoyt, 204
Microtus
gregalis, 336
miurus, 336
pennsylvanicus, 131, 208
pinetorum, 208
Millican, J. A.
A Scissor-tailed Flycatcher in British
Columbia, 62
Mitella nuda, 224
Mnium
vostratum, 227
Molanna
blenda, 150
Molothrus
ater, 40, 395
Monarda
fistulosa, 115, 120
Moneses
uniflora, 226
Moore, R. J. and C. Frankton
Euphorbia X pseudo-esula (E. cyparissias
x E. esula) in Canada, 243
Moose feeding on aquatics in Bowron jLake
Park, British Columbia, Observations on,
by R. W. Ritcey and N. A. M. Verbeek,
339
Morgan, J. H. and P. A. Pearce
An adult White-winged Black Tern in
New Brunswick, 394
Morrison, Ken P., 57
1969
Mosquin, Theodore
Governments move to ban chlorinated
hydrocarbons (editorial), 189
Mosquin, Theodore
Toward legislation to protect young
Peregrine Falcons (editorial), 297
Mosquin, Theodore, 4
Mouse, white-footed, and redback vole,
Laboratory studies of interactions be-
tween, by Lowell L. Getz, 141
Mugil
cephalus, 161
Muhlenbergia
glomerata, 222
racemosa, 393
richardsonis, 393
Mullet, Striped, Mugil cephalus,
records from Halifax County,
Scotia, in 1966 and 1968,
; by John Gilhen, 161
Mulligan, Gerald A. and William J. Cody
The highest chromosome number known
to occur in a North American plant, 277
Munro, Wm. T.
Occurrence of the Common Puffin on
Lake St. Peter, Quebec, 402
Murray, Barbara M. and David F. Murray
Notes on mammals in alpine areas of the
northern St. Elias Mountains, Yukon
Territory and Alaska, 331
Mus
musculus, 209
Mustela
erminea, 210, 332
frenata, 211
vison, 211
Myadestes
townsend1, 266
Mycosphaerella
chamaeneri, 50
saxifragae, 50
Myiarchus
crinitus boreus, 158
Myotis
lucifugus, 205
Myres, M. T.
The need for a truly representative na-
tional organization for Canadian na-
turalists (letter), 67
Myrica
gale, 220, 222, 223, 226
Myriophyllum
- exalbescens, 216, 225
spicatum, 254
Myrmica
fracticornis, 283
Mytilus
edulis, 22
Napaeozapus
insignis, 209
Nova
National Park for the Northwest Territories —
The East Arm of Great Slave Lake and
Artillery Lake, by P. G. Kevan and
L. N. Evernden, 169
INDEX TO VoLUME 83
435
National Parks policy — decisions where con-
flicts exist (letter),
by Hue N. MacKenzie, 175
Naturalists, Canadian, The need for a truly
representative national organization for
(letter) by M. T. Myres, 67
Naturalists’ organization, On
(letter), by R. D. Harris, 286
Nature Preserves Act of the State of Indiana
(Act. No. 176) The, 63
Naumburgia
thyrsiflora, 216, 226, 227
Nehalennia
trene, 15
Nellis, Carl H.
Productivity of Richardson’s ground
squirrels near Rochester, Alberta, 246
Nellis, Carl H.
Sex and age variation in red squirrel
skulls for Missoula County, Montana, 324
Nemobius
palustris, 235
Neophylax
aniqua, 150
consimalis, 150, 151, 153
ornatus, 150
Neotoma
micropus, 328
Nesbitt, H. H. J.
Review of: A Guide to Spiders and Their
Kin, 180
New Brunswick,
birch, 361
Field Sparrow, 403
gulls, 54
Laughing Gull, 403
Long-billed Dowitcher, 396
White-winged Black Tern, 394
Newfoundland, pine marten, 128
Northwest Territories,
breeding birds, Great Slave Lake, 344
a National Park for, 169
Wheatear, 406
Nova Scotia,
migration of eels, 132
oil pollution and wintering Purple Sand-
pipers, 19
ring-necked snake, 277
striped mullet, Mugil cephalus, 161
striped skunk, 228
Numenius
phaeopus, 398
Nuphar
polysepalum, 255
variegatum, 216, 218, 224
Nuptial flights of the ant,
Lasius pallitarsis (letter),
by Paut B. Kannowski, 283
Nuttallornis
borealis, 264
Nyctea
scandiaca, 60
Nycticorax
nycticorax, 240
a national
436
Nyctiophylax
vestitus, 150
Nymphaea
tetragona, 225
t. subsp. leibergit, 224
Oceanodroma
leucorhoa, 384
Ochotona
collaris, 336
Odocotleus
virginianus, 125, 211
Oenanthe
oenanthe, 56, 266
o. leucorhoa, 407
o. oenanthe, 406
Oents
jutta, 17
Oidemia
nigra, 350, 398
Oil pollution and wintering Purple Sandpipers,
Erolia maritima (Brunnich), in Nova
Scotia, Observations on, by Peter C.
Smith and J. Sherman Bleakney, 19
Oligostomis sp. 150
Olor
columbianus, 398
Omphalia
onisca, 52
Ondatra
zibethicus, 209, 351
Onocosmoecus
quadrinotatus, 150
Ontario.
birds of the Iron Bridge region, 158
hybrid grouse, 23
insects trapped in sundew, Byron Bog,
leeches, Byron Bog, 168
Listera auriculata, 55
Red-tailed Hawks, 165
Ophioglossum
reticulatum, 278
vulgatum, 278
v. var. pseudopodum, 277
v. var. pycnostichum, 278
Oreamnos
americanus, 338
Organochlorine insecticides in Canadian
Prairie Falcons, Regional population
declines and, by R. W. Fyfe et al, 191
Osmerus
mordax, 136
Osmorhiza
longistylis, 225
Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club,
By-Laws, 81
Report of Council
Annual Meeting, 83
Statement of financial standing, Novem-
ber 30, 1968, 88
Ovis
dalli, 336
to the Ninetieth
THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
Owl, Great Horned, Observations on a partial
albino, by John G. Woods, 57
Owl, Snowy, Notes on the food requirements
of the, by John C. Seidensticker IV, 60
Oxycoccus
quadripetalus, 216, 226
Oxyria
digyna, 50
Oxytropis
arctobia, 49
maydelliana, 49
Pakulak, Allan, 397
Pandion
haliaetus, 108, 261
Panicum
leibergii, 114, 115, 117, 121
Parapsyche
apicalis, 150
Parmelee, J. A.
Fungi of central Baffin Island, 48
Parnassia
Multiseta, 224
Parus
atvicapillus, 265
cinctus, 265
hudsonicus, 265
Passer
domesticus, 240
Passerculus
sandwichensis, 268, 349, 398
Passerella
tliaca, 268
Pearce, A.
Gulls at Fredericton, New Brunswick, 54
Pearce, P. A., 394, 403
Pearce, P. A. and N. R. Brown
Long-billed Dowitchers in New Bruns-
wick, 397
Pedicularis
flammea, 51
parviflora, 226
Pelecanus
erythrorhynchos, 36, 91
Pelican, Brown, Pesticide causing rapid ex-
tinction of the, by David Perlman, 173
Pelicans, White, Colonies of Double-crested
Cormorants and, in Alberta,
by Kees Vermeer, 36
Perca
flavescens, 99
Perch, white, Roccus americanus,
Vertical distribution of, modified by
light, by A. N. Sheri and G. Power, 160
Pertsoreus
canadensis, 260, 265
Perlman, David
Pesticide causing rapid extinction of the
Brown Pelican, 173
Peromyscus
leucopus, 141-146, 207
maniculatus, 207, 275
m. borealis, 275, 279
Peromyscus maniculatus, An unusual winter
movement of, by W. A. Fuller, 275
1969
Peromscus maniculatus borealis,
Early cessation of reproduction in an
unusually abundant population of,
by Raymond P. Canham, 279
Peronospora
parasitica, 50
Pesticide causing rapid extinction of the
Brown Pelican, by David Perlman, 173
Petalostemum
purpureum, 119
Petasites
sagittatus, 227
vitifolius, 227
Petrochelidon
pyrrhonota, 264
Peziza
melaleuca, 50
Phalacrocorax
auritus, 36, 91
Phalaiis
arundinacea, 222
Phalaropus
fulucarius, 398
Phasianus
colchicus, 100
Phleum
pratense, 121, 222
Phoca
vitulina, 404
Phragmites
australis, 115, 121
communis, 216, 222, 223, 227
c. var. berlandier1, 222
Pica
pica, 40G
p. bactriana, 400
Picea
glauca, 10, 23, 214-216, 220-222, 224,
226-228, 240, 310
mariana, 10, 23, 123, 216, 219-222, 226-
228, 240, 310, 347
yubens, 364
Picoides
tridactylus, 264
Pimlott, Douglas H., 122
Pinicola
enucleator, 268, 398
Pinus
banksiana, 10, 12, 274
ponderosa, 276
resinosa, 123
_ Strobus, 10, 12, 123, 131
Plagiognathus
repetitus, 236
Planiago
major, 226
Platycentropus
indistinctus, 150
yadiatus, 150
Plectrophenax
nivalis, 397
Plethodon
cinereus cinereus, 277
Pleurozium
schrebert, 228
INDEX TO VOLUME 83
437
Pluvialis
dominica, 262, 398
Poa
arctica, 49, 50, 51
compressa, 121
palustris, 121
pratensis, 121, 222
Poaiceps
auritas, 258, 398
grisegena, 258
Poecilia (Lebistes)
reticulata, 31, 34
Poecilia (Poccilia)
latipinna, 31, 34
Pollen record at the Mer Bleue,
by M. Camfield, 7
Pollution, Oi!, 19
Polycentropus
cinereus, 150
elaius, 151
maculatus, 151
Polygonum
amphibium var. stipulaceum, 223
lapathifolium, 223
viviparum, 50, 51
Pomolabus
pseudoharengus, 160
Population problem, Conservation and the
(editorial), by Peter H. Raven, 1
Populus
balsamifera, 214, 215, 221-227, 238, 240
balsamifera X deltoides, 114, 120
deltoides, 223
sargenti, 238, 240
tremuloides, 120, 123, 223, 225
Porsild, A. E.
Puccinellia ambigua Th. Sr., new to the
Hudson Bay region, 163
Porzana
carolina, 350, 398
Potamogeton
amplifolius, 339, 341
fuliformis, 220
friesti, 220, 255
gramineus, 341
natans, 216, 220, 255, 339, 341
pectinatus, 216
praelongus, 220, 255
richardsoni1, 216, 221, 339, 341
robinsi1, 339, 341
vaginatus, 221
zostertformis, 221
Potentilla
anserina, 225
arguta, 119
fruticosa, 225
norvegica, 119
n. var. hirsuta, 225
palustris, 216, 225, 340
Power, G., 160
Prenanthes
vacemosa, 121
Price, Larry W.
Nesting of the Long-tailed Jaeger in
southwest Yukon Territory — an extens-
ion of the known breeding grounds, 138
438
Procyon
lotor, 210
Progne
subis, 282
Protocalliphora spp. 260
Prunus
pennsylvanica, 215
virginiana, 119, 225, 364
Pseudostenophylax
sparsus, 150
uniforms, 150
Pseudotsuga
menziesit, 276
Psilotreta
frontalis, 150
Psychoglypha
alaskensis, 150
Pteridium
aquilinum, 123
Pterodroma
cahow, 107
Ptilostomts
ocellifera, 150
Puccinellia
alaskana, 164
ambigua, 163, 164
angustata, 164
arctica, 164
Hulten, 163
Kamtschatica var. aspera, 163
K. var. sublaevis, 163
longeana, 48
paupercula, 163, 164
p. var. alaskana, 163, 164
phryganodes, 163, 164
pumila, 163, 164
p. var. Fernaldi1, 163, 164
tenella, 163
triflora, 163
Puccinellia ambigua Th. S¢r.,
new to the Hudson Bay region,
by A. E. Porsild, 163
Puccinia
arenariae, 51
bistortae, 51
eutremae, 51
pazschket var. tricuspidatae, 51
pedicularis, 51
poae-nemoralis, ssp. poae-nemoralis, 51
Puffin, Common, Occurrence of the, on Lake
St. Peter, Quebec, by Wm. T. Munro, 402
Pulsatilla
ludoviciana, 318
Pycnopsyche
circularis, 150
divergens, 150, 151, 152
gentilis, 150
guttifer, 150
luculenta, 150
scabripennis, 150
Pyrola
asarifolia, 226
secunda, 226
Quebec,
Common Puffin, 402
Tue CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
Listera auriculata, 55
mammals, 201
Ring-necked Duck, 280
Quercus
macrocarpa, 115, 117, 119
Quiscalus
quiscula, 40
Radulinus,
boleoides, 400, 401
Rail, Virginia, from Banff National Park,
Alberta, A record of the,
by E. B. Cunningham, 406
Rallus
limicola, 406
Ramularia
chamaeneri, 50
Range extensions for some Alaskan aquatic
plants, by Vernon L. Harms, 253
Rangifer
tarandus, 336, 351
Ranunculus
abortivus, 119, 224
aquatilis var. capillaceus, 224
circinatus var. subrigidus, 224
lapponicus, 224
macountt, 224
pensylvanicus, 224
sulphureus, 48
Rattus
norvegicus, 209, 404
Raven, Peter H.
Conservation and the population problem
(editorial), 1
Regulus
calendula, 266
c. cavendula, 159
Reviews:
L’Alose et le Gaspereau (The American
‘Shad and the Alewife), 419
Eighty More Land Birds te Know, 413
The Eternal Quest, 420
Flora of Alaska and Neighboring Terri-
tories: a Manual of the Vascular Plants,
412
The Flora of Nova Scotia, 290
Flora of the Queen Charlotte Islands,
Parts 1 and 2, 287
Growth and Utilization of Poplars in
Canada, 288
A Guide to Spiders and Their Kin, 180
The History of Life, 178
Hours and the Birds, 69
Insect Pests, 420
A Lifetime with the Birds: An Ornitho-
logical Logbook, 70
Living With Your Land: A Guide to
Conservation for the City’s Fringe, 291
The Lovely and the Wild, 69
Man and Environment: Crisis and the
Strategy of Choice, 289
Manual of the Vascular Flora of the
Carolinas, 417
The National Forests of America, 416
The Olympic Rain Forest, 178
Palaeontology of the Swan Hills Area
1969
North-Central Alberta, 177
A Place for Everything, 415
The Ploughboy and the Nightingale, 180
Quick-Key Guide to Wildflowers of
North-eastern and Central United States
and Adjacent Canada, 179
The Sociology of Nature, 289
The Sockeye Salmon, Oncorhynchus
nerka, 414
Trees, 71
Trees of North America: A Field Guide
to the Major Native and Introduced
Species North of Mexico, 419
Two Pioneer Naturalists: John Goldie,
Diary of a Journey through Upper
Canada, 1819; John Kerr McMorine,
1842-1912, Clergyman and Botanist, 418
The World of the Wolf, 177
Rhamnus
alnifolia, 225
Rhinichthys
cataractae, 34
c. smithi, 34
dulcis, 34
Rhododendron
lapponicum, 51
Rhopalosiphum
matdis, 235, 236
Rhus :
radicans var. rydbergit, 119
Rhyacophila
carolina, 151
fuscula, 151
glaberrima, 151
imvaria, 151
Rhytidiadelphus
triquetrus, 228
Rhytisma
bistartae. 50
salicinum, 50
Ribes
americanum, 224
gladulosum, 224
hirtellum, 221
hudsonianum, 224
lacustre, 224
oxyacanthoides, 224
triste, 224
Riparia
riparia, 264
Risebrough, Robert W., 91
Rissa
brevirostris, 263
tridactyla, 54
Ritcey, R. W. and N. A. M. Verbeek
Observations of moose feeding on aqua-
tics in Bowron Lake Park, British
Columbia, 339
Robertson, Ian, and Henry Stelfox
Some interspecific intolerance between
Barrow’s Goldeneye and other duck
species during brood-rearing, 407
Roccus
americanus, 160
Rorippa
islandica var. fernaldiana, 224
InNDEx TO VOLUME 83
439
Rosa
acicularis, 114, 115, 116, 119, 215, 225,
319
woodsti, 275
Ross, R. K. and F. Cooke
Lesser Black-backed Gull at Churchill,
Manitoba, A new bird for Canada, 399
Rowe, J. S.
Lightning fires in Saskatchewan grass-
land, 317
Rowe, J. S.
Review of:
America, 416
Rubus
acaulis, 225
chamaemorus, 216, 223, 225
tdaeus var. strigosus, 225
pubescens, 225
Rudbeckia
serotina, 121
Rumex
crispus, 120
maritimus var. fueginum, 223
mexicanus, 223
orbiculatus, 223
Russell, Dale A.
Review of: Palaeontology of the Swan
Hills Area, North-Central Alberta, 177
Russula
flava, 52
foetans, 52
fragilis, 52
nigrodisca, 52
venosa, 52
Rutter, Russell J.
A contribution to the biology of the Gray
Jay (Perisoreus canadensis), 300
The National Forests of
Sagittaria
cuneata, 221, 255
Saldula
orbiculata, 235
Salix
amygdaloides, 120
arctica, 51, 336
arctophila, 50, 51
barrattiana, 336
bebbiana, 120, 215, 223, 225, 226
candida, 216, 217, 220, 223
discolor, 215, 223-226
herbacea, 50, 51
anterior, 120, 223
lasiandra, 223
lutea, 120, 223
maccalliana, 223
pedicellaris, 216, 220
p. hypoglauca, 223
petiolaris, 114, 120, 216, 223, 225
planifolia, 223
pseudopolaris, 139
reticulata, 51, 139
serissima, 223
Sambucus
pubens, 364
440
Sandpipers
Purple, 19-22
Sanicula
marilandica, 119
Sarracenia
purpurea, 18, 224, 233
Saskatchewan, lighting fires in grassland, 317
Saxifraga
aizoides, 49
foliosa, 50
nivalis, 49
tricuspidata, 51
Sayornis
saya, 264
Scatopse
fuscipes, 235, 236
Scheuchzeria
palustris var. americanus, 221
Schizonella
elynae, 50
Scientific and cultural studies of the Mer
Bleue, by W. K. W. Baldwin and
Theodore Mosquin, 4
Scirpus
acutus, 216, 218, 222
fluviatilis, 222
microcarpus var. rubrotinctus, 222
validus, 216, 222
Scirus
carolinensis, 205
Sclerotinia
dennisi1, 50
vahliana, 50
Scolochloa
festucacae, 222
Scutellaria
galericulata var. epiobufolia, 226
leonard1, 393
parvula, 393
Scutellinia
armatospora, 50
epilobifolia, 255
galericulata, 255
Seidensticker, John C. IV
Notes on the food requirements of the
Snowy Owl, 60
Sewurus
noveboracensis, 268, 398
Selaginella
densa, 318
Selas phorus
rufus, 263
Selenophoma
drabae, var. stomaticola, 49
donacis, 49
Semiophora
youngit, 17
Senecio
congestus, 49
eremophilus, 227
pauperculus, 121
Shepherdia
canadensis, 225
Sheri, A. N. and G. Power
Vertical distribution of white perch,
Tue CANaApDIAN FIELD-NATURALIST
Vol. 83
Roccus americanus, modified by light, 160
Sialia
currucoides, 266
Silene
acaulis, var. exscapa, 50
cseret, 120
Silpha
surinamensis, 277
Sisyrinchium
montanum, 114, 121
Sium
suave, 225, 255
Skua in terristrial habitat,
British Columbia record of, by Douglas
D. Dow and Werner H. Hesse, 402
Skunk, The striped, Mephitis mephitis (Schre-
ber), in Nova Scotia,
by Donald G. Dodds, 229
Smilacina
stellata, 121, 223
trifolia, 223
Smith, Lawrie and Ralph D. Bird
Autumn flocking habits of the Red-
winged Blackbird in southern Manitoba,
40
Smith, Nicolas N.
Greenland Wheatears observed at Esker,
Labrador, May 20 — June 2, 1967, 56
Smith, Peter C. and J. Sherman Bleakney
Observations on oil pollution and win-
tering Purple Sandpipers, Erolia maritima
(Brunnich), in Nova Scotia, 19
Snake, ring-necked,
Diadophis punctatus edwardst (Merrem),
An unusually large, gravid, with eight
eggs from Nova Scotia, 277
Solidago
canadensis, 121, 227
graminifolia var. major, 227
missourtensis, 114, 121
rigida, 115, 121
Solman, V. E. F.
Review of: Living With Your Land: «
Guide to Conservation for the City’s
Fringe, 291
Solman, V. E. F.
Review of: Man and Environment: Crisis
and the Strategy of Choice, 289
Solman, V. E. F.
Review of: A Place for Everything, +15
Solman, V. E. F.
Review of: The Sociology of Nature, 289
Somateria
mollissima, 96, 398
Somatochlora
franklint, 14, 16
kennedy, 14, 16
walshii, 14, 16
Sonchus
arvensis, 227
asper, 227
uliginosus, 114, 121
Sorbus
decora, 225
Sorex
cinereus, 203
1969
fumeus, 204
palustris, 204
Spalding, Dadid A. E. and Michael J.
Hampson
First Alberta record of the Band-tailed
Pigeon, 282
Sparganium
angustifolium, 220
eurycarpum, 216, 220
Sparrow, Field, and Laughing Gull, New
Brunswick specimens of the,
by N. R. Brown and P. A. Pearce, 403
Spartina
pertinata, 114, 115, 116, 117, 121
Spatula
clypeata, 259, 398
Speller, S. Wayne
Arctic fox attacks on molting Canada
_ Geese, 62
Spermophilus
beechey1, 248, 328
richardsontt, 246
tridecemlineatus, 247
undulatus, 334
Sphaerotheca
fuliginea, 50
Sphagnum
fuscum, 227
magellanicum, 227
recurvum, 227
Spinus
spinus, 269
Spiraea
alba, 114, 119, 225
latifolia, 364
Spizella
arborea, 268, 398
passerina, 270
pusilla, 403
Squatarola
squatarola, 398
Squirrel, red, Sex and age variation in, skulls
from Missoula County, Montana,
by Carl H. Nellis, 324
Squirrels, Richardson’s ground, Productivity
of, near Rochester, Alberta,
by Carl H. Nellis, 246
Stachys
palustris var. pilosa, 120, 226
- Stetronema
ciliatum, 224, 120
Stelfox, Henry, 407
Stelgidopteryx
ruficolis serripennis, 158
Stellaria
calycantha, 224
edwardsiu, 50
longifolia, 224
Stercorar1us
longicaudus, 138
parasiticus, 349, 402
pomarinus, 398
Sterna
hirundo, 394
paradisaea, 263, 349, 398
INDEx TO VOLUME 83
441
Stipa
richardsont, 393
spartea, 115, 117, 121, 392
S. var. curtiseta, 392
Stizostedian
canadense, 99
vitreum, 99
Strix
nebulosa, 61, 158, 269
Stropharia
aeruginosa, 52
Sturnus
vulgaris, 40
Subularia
aquatica, 256
Sundew, Drosera intermedia Hayne and
Drosera rotundifolia L., Insects trapped
in the leaves of.
Studies of the Byron Bog in southwestern
Ontario XX XIX,
by William W. Judd, 233
Surnia
ulula, 269
Swarming and mating in the ant,
Lasius sitkaensis, Pergande:
remarks (letter)
by Philip S. Corbet and G. L. Ayre, 285
Sylvilagus
floridanus, 205
Sympetrum
danae, 16
obtrusum, 16
semicinctum, 16
vicinum, 16
Symphoricar pos
occidentalis, 114, 115, 116, 117, 120, 227
Synaptomys
coopert, 208
further
Tachycineta
thalassina, 264
Tamas
striatus, 206
s. Lystert, 207
s. quebecensis, 207
Tamiasciurus |
hudsonicus, 206, 260, 304, 308, 324
h. loquax, 329
h. richardsont, 324, 329
Taraxacum
officinale, 121, 227
Taschereau, P. M.
Clethraceae:
Canada, 166
Taxus
canadensis, 392
Telmatodytes
palustris, 158
Tern, Caspian, Nesting of the, in central-
eastern Manitoba,
by W. Earl Godfrey, 401
Tetragoneuria
canis, 16
cynosura, 15, 16
spinigera, 15, 16
a plant family new to
442 THe CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 83
Thais Vaccinium
lapillus, 22 angustifolium, 123
Thalictrum uliginosum, 51
venulosum, 114, 115, 116, 119 vitis-idaea var. minus, 226
Theberge, John B. and Douglas H. Pimlott Vegetation of a prairie near Wines
Observations of wolves at a rendezvous
site in Algonquin Park, 122
Theliopsyche
grisea, 150, 151, 153
Theromyzon sp. 168
Thlas pi
arvense, 224
Thomson, Sheila
Review of: The Lovely and the Wild, 69
Threlfall, William
Anomalous conditions in three species of
birds, 384
Ticks in Canada, Birds as predators of,
by P. R. Wilkinson, 400
Toad, Boreal, 155
Totanus
flaviceps, 262, 398
melanoleucus, 262
Toxostoma
rufum rufum, 158
Trauger, David L., 344
Trichoptera of the Hubbard Brook Experi-
mental Forest in central New Hampshire,
Some, by Kenneth McConnochie and
Gene E. Likens, 147
Trientalis
borealis, 226
Trifolium
pratense, 119
Triglochin
maritima, 221
palustris, 256
Tringa
solitaria, 262, 398
Tsuga
canadensis, 57
Tupper, W. M. and D. Mah
The fluoride content of water from wells
in the greater Ottawa area, 279
Turdus
migratorius, 265, 398
Typha
latifolia, 43, 216, 218, 222, 256
Ulmus
americana, 57, 212, 215, 223
Uria
aalge, 385
Ursus
americanus, 125, 210
arctos, 127, 332
Urtica
dioica, var. procera, 223
Ustilago
bistortarum, 50
vinosa, 50
violacea, var. violacea, 50
v. var. stellariae, 51
Utricularia
intermedia, 226
vulgaris var. americana, 226
Manitoba, by M. H. Levin and G.
Keleher, 113
Vermeer, Kees
Colonies of Double-crested Cormorants
and White Pelicans in Alberta, 36
Vermeer, Kees
Great Blue Heron colonies in Alberta, 237
Vermivora
celata, 266
chrysoptera, 281
peregrina, 270
Viburnum
cassinoides, 364
edule, 227
trilobum, 215, 221, 227
Vicia
americana, 114, 119, 225
Viola
renifolia, 225
selkirkit, 225
Vireo
giluus, 159
Vitis
riparia, 393
Vole, pallid, Lagurus curtatus,
Burrows of the, in Alberta, Canada,
by Lyle C. Dearden, 282
Vole, redback,
Laboratory studies of interactions be-
tween the white-footed mouse and,
by Lowell L. Getz, 141
Vulpes
vulpes, 210, 332
Walker, Professor Edmund M. 1877-1969,
by F. P. Ide, 389
Walley, G. S., 14
Warbler, Cation winged, in Muskoka Genes
Ontario, by W. Earl Godfrey, 281
Waterfowel eae (preservation of wet-
lands), 6
Weber, W ioe A.
Review of: Flora of the Queen Charlotte
Isiands: Part I, Systematics of the
Vascular Plante: Part 2, Cytological
Aspects of the Vascular Plants, 287
Weller, Milton W., David L. Trauger, and
Gary L. Krapu
Breeding birds of the West Mirage
Islands, Great Slave Lake, N.W.T., 344
Wheatear near Schultz Lake, Keewatin
District, N.W.T., Observation of,
by Ernie Kuyt and R. W. Fyfe, 406
Wheatears, Greenland, observed at Esker,
Labrador, May 20 — June 2, 1967,
by Nicholas N. Smith, 56
White, Clayton M. and John R. Haugh
Recent data on summer birds of the upper
Yukon River, Alaska, and adjacent part
of the Yukon Territory, Canada, 257
1969 Inpex To VoLUME 83 443
Wilkinson, P. R. Xanthocephalus
Birds as predators of ticks in Canada, 400 xanthocephalus, 40
Williamsonia fletcher1, 14, 16 Xema
Wilsonia _ sabina, 55, 263, 398
pusilla, 268 Xiphophorus
Wolves at a rendezvous site in Algonquin hellert, 31, 34
Park, Observations of, Bhs cet Y
by John B. Theberge and Douglas H. Yukon Territory :
Pimlott, 122 data on summer birds, 257
: Long-tailed Jaegar, 138
eae ccna ol Ae Par iCana da mammals in St. Elias Mountains, 331
by John K. Cooper, 276 Geni
Woods, John G. 4 : 4 hudsonius, 209
Observations on a partial albino Great 7;,i4 :
Horned Owl, 57 aptera, 114, 119
Wormaldia aurea, 119
moesta, 150 Zonotrichia
Wren, Bewick, Host to Brown-headed Cow- albicollis, 350, 398
bird, by Enid K. Lemon, 395 leucophrys, 268, 349, 398
Wrigley, Robert E. querula, 398
Ecological notes on the mammals of Zostera
southern Quebec, 201 marina, 256
444 Tue Canapian Frecp-NaATuRALIST Vol. 83
A NOTE ON THE PRODUCTION OF THIS JOURNAL
The Canadian Field-Naturalist conforms to recommendations on the lay-out
of periodicals issued by the International Organization for Standardization. It is
set by linotype in Janson. The title is Kennerley. Boldface headings are Bodoni.
Coverstock is “Mayfair” by Howard Smith and the text paper is Provincial
“thriftcoat”. The journal is printed by The Runge Press Limited, 124 Queen
Street, Ottawa 4, Canada.
The publications committee acknowledges with thanks the contribution of
the Conservation Council of the Canadian National Sportsmen’s Show toward the
publication of this volume.
We
ERRATUM
Tue paper entitled “Regional Population Declines and Organochlorine Insecticides
in Canadian Prairie Falcons” (Canadian Field-Naturalist 83:191-200) contains an
error on page 194. ‘The error, which reverses areas D and F is in paragraph 3,
lines 6 and 8. ‘This sentence should read: The number of known occupied Peregrine
Falcon territories in area F had also declined from six in 1960 (Dekker, 1967) to
none in 1968, and the two in area D also became unoccupied during the same interval.
(See also the letter by Mr. Decker on page 410 of this issue).
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