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THE 

CANADIAN  NATURALIST 

AND  GEOLOGIST: 


CONDUCTED  BY  A  COMMITTEE   OP   THE  NATUBAL 
HISTORY  SOCIETY  OF  MONTBBAL. 


SET  SERIES.— TeL  1, 
(WITH  TWO  XAva.) 


EDITIHQ  COMMITTEE. 
Gmeral  EdUor:  David  A.  P.  Watt. 
J.  V.  Dawboh,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  I      E.  Billirob,  F.O.8., 

{•rincipalqf  Meant  CoUigt.  Gtologieal  Survey/ 1^  Canada. 

T.  aruKir  Hditt,  A.U.,  F.R.S.,  Pbov.  S.  P.  RoBBiira. 

aeOogical  Sarrtg  </  Canada.      \      Uev.  Ai^mx^aoai  F.  Kbmp. 
Cauu.n  Shallwood,  U.D.,  IXJ>-,  D.C.L. 


,.,.d.i.  Google 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  the  ProTinciat  Parliament,  in  the  year 
one  thousand  eigbt  hundced  and  aiit^-four,  bj  Dawson  Bhothkbs, 
in  the  Office  of  tbe  Regiatrar  of  the  Prorince  of  Oaaada. 


,,i.G6oglc 


BotsnlcKl  Science— Record  of  ProgreBs;  Bj  Giobqi  Lutbdr,  Ph.  D., 

LL.D 1 

Ca*e  ID  Limestone  near  Hontteal ;  B7  Hr.  H.  O.  Tihnob 14 

OontribntiODB  to  Lithologjr ;  By  Di.  T.  Stirby  Hdnt,  P.R.S IS 

On  Ocean  DrlllB  and  Gnnenla,   and    their  eS^cU  on  Islands  fkr 

remoTed  fkim  Continents  ;  Sj  J.  Mitthiit  Jonbb,  P.L.S 3T 

Notes  on  the  8i]icifieat[on  of  Fossils ;  Bj  Db.  T,  Stbbht  Hdnt,  F.R.S.    4S 
Notee  on  tbe  Geolog;  and  Botany  of  New  Brunswick ;  B;  Professor 

L.  W,  BULIT 81 

On  PiscicDltnre 134 

ContribntioDB  to  Lithology;  By  Db.  T- Stbbbt  HtWT,  F.B.S 181 

On  the  Chemistry  of  Uannres Si,  1S9 

Elementary  Views  of  the  Classification  of  Animals ;  By  J.  W.  Daw- 
son, LL.D.,  F.R.S  241 

On  tbe  Occurrence  otPierii  Rapte  in  Canada;    By  G.  J.  Bowlbs...  258 
Synopsis  of  Canadian  Ferns  and  Filicoid  Plants ;  By  OiORai  Liw- 

BOM,  Ph.  D.,  LL.D 263 

Obserratlone  on  supposed  Glacial  Drift  in  Ibe  Labrador  Peninsula ; 

By  HiMBT  ToDLi  Hind,  U.A.,  F.R.Q.S 300 

Description  of  two  American  Sponges ;   By  Dr.  J.  S.  Bowirbihk, 

F.R.S 304 

Uicbaaz  and  hil  Journey  in  Canada  ;  By  the  Abb4  Otidi  Bbdnit..  .   32S 
Reminiscences  of  Amherst  College ;    By  Enwisn  Hitdhoocb,  D.D., 

LL.D.  (Reviewed) 33T 

Notes  on  tbe  Habitats  and  Varieties  of  some  Canadian  Ferns ;  By 

D17ID  R.  UoCoRD,  B.A 3G4 

On  the  Qeology  of  Eastern  New  York ;  By  Professor  Jaios  Hij,l 

and  SiB  William  B.  Loeiif 368 

On  the  Fossils  of  theOenus  Rusophycus)  By  J.  W.  Dawson,  LL.D,, 

F.B.8. 363,  4B8 

Obserrations  on  Canadian  Geographical  Botany;  By  A.  T.  Dhdii- 

■oiD,  B.A.,  LL.B 408 

On  tbe  Geology  of  tbe  Ottawa  Valley ;  By  J.  A.  Graxt,  Il.D.,  P.0.8.  419 
On  Peat  and  its  Uses ;  By  Dr.  T.  Stbrrt  Eitmt,  F.R.S 43S 


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IT  CONTIMB. 

NiTiTBAL  Hutobt  Sooiitt. 

Annual  CoDversaziooe BO 

Tbe  Uaple-LeoT  Cutter 64 

Ananal  Meeting 2IS 

UoQlblj  UeetingB 234,  370,  21?,  441 

Annual  UeetlDg,  confiniitif. 303 

BHTOHOLOaiOAl,  SoOUTT. 

Proceedings  of.  3T4 

Conper  on  JItacut  pol}/plunta 3T6 

"      on  a  gall  from  Triiicutn  repem 444 

BairiiH  Assooii?ioa. 

PtoIs.  Balfour  and  Roltetton'i  AddrauM 75 

Jones  and  Parker  on  FaraDrinifen 79 

Oeofn'aphf  and  Etbnologf  (Praaident'a  Addreu) IBS 

Lecture  by  Dr.  LiTingitoa* 37B 

Bxtracti  from  the  Address  of  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  D.O.L 380 

ObserTatloiu  on  the  Salmonida  ;  bj  Dr.  J.  DaTj 44S 

Transport  of  Salmon  Otb  to  Anstralia;  by  T.  Johnson 4fi2 

New  Method  of  Extracting  O old  from  Ores;  b;  F.  0.  Calvert.  4S3 

RnnaiTB  amd  Booi-N'oticm. 

Geological  SorTej  of  Canada ;    Report  of  Frogretg 6B 

Review  of  a  Criticism  of  Renan  on  Languages 146 

Geological  Hagacine 373 

Teraill  on  the  Polyps  of  tbe  United  Sutes 4T0 

MuciLLASaotrl. 

Oo  Organic  Remains  in  the  Laurentian  Rocks 1B2 

The  Bartbqnake  of  April  1S64 ISB 

On  Bivalred  Bntomoslraca 336 

Hail-Storm  in  Fontiac 307 

Oallnna  Tnlgaris 378,  469 

llluBtratton  to  Dr.  Dawson's  article  on  the  Oenns  Ruiophycna.  458 

The  gold  of  Nova  Scotia  of  Pre-Oarboniferous  Ag« 459 

0  SITU  ART. 

Principal  Le itch  of  Queen's  College,  Kiagaton 237 

Professor  Silliman  of  New  Haven 431 

HBTIOROLOSIOAL    TlBLU. 

January  and  February 239 

March  to  Augast 311 

September *>4 

October  to  December... 472 


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CANADIAN  NATURALIST. 


BOTANICAL  SCIENCE— RECORD  OP  PR0GBE9SI 

Bf  OiOBM  LiwBOH,  LL.D.,  ProfeBwr  of  Chemistry,  Dalhaasie  Colle^, 

Ealifoi,  Nova  Scotia. 

1.  Ploha  of  Canada. — Canndiftn  botanists  will  be  pleased  to 
lean  that  the  Reries  of  "  Colonial  Floras,"  now  being  pnblished 
under  authority  of  the  Home  Government,  is  rapidly  progreBsing  ;. 
and  that  Sir  William  Hooter  is  now  desirous  of  receiviog  con. 
tribations  (o  ihe  projected  Flora  of  Canada  and  other  Britiab 
American  Provinces,  of  nbich  Dr.  Joseph  Hooter  is  to  be  the 
author.  As  to  the  nature  of  materials  desired,  it  may  be  statad 
generally  that  information  respecting  the  occurrenoe  in  Canada 
of  plants  not  hitherto  recorded  as  Canadian,  when  accompanied 
by  authenticated  specimens,  will  be  roost  nseful.  In  a  tetter  Iroia 
Sir  William,  he  observes :  "  Our  own  materials  [at  Kew]  are  very 
araple  for  the  object  in  question ;  nevertheless  I  am  far  from  dis- 
couraging any  from  sending  to  us  well-prepared  specimens,  among^ 
which  it  in  probable  we  should  find  some  new  things,  and  more 
still  which  wonld  be  useful  as  showing  the  geographical  distribution 
of  species.  Most  of  all  we  desire,  as  far  as  Canada  is  concerned, 
that  specimens  be  collected  largely  in  the  mo«t  loathem  districts, 
as  there  would  probably  be  found  Waited  Stales  sptdes  not  yet 
recorded  as  Canadian.  The  oaks,  the  pines,  and  in  general  the 
forest'4rees  and  sbnibs,  particularly  of  the  South,  require  a  careful 
study.    Ton  define  clearly  the  plants  we  most  desire  to  have,  vis.. 

Vol.  I.  A  Ko.  L 


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2  THE   CANADIAN   NATURALIST.  [9eb. 

tuck  at  are  uol  already  pMishtd  ta  Canadian,  or  a*  are  oj  critical 
interest." 

2.  Canadian  Ginbemq. — My  friend  and  former  pnpil,  Ur. 
John  G.  Schultz,  the  active  Seuretary  of  tbeSuienlific  Inslitute 
of  Rupert's  Land,  called  attentioa  eome  time  ago  to  the  trade 
which  waB  tbea  belog  carried  on  ia  exporting  giDsang  Aralia 
quinquefolia  from  MiuneBota  to  China.  In  western  MinneBOtathe 
root  is  collected  hy  Indiana,  and  sold  to  traders  in  St.  Paul's  for 
a  dollar  a  ponnd,  to  be  carried  to  New'  York  for  export.  Dr. 
Schiiltz,  eeeing  several  barrels  of  it  at  St.  Paul's,  wisely  sn^ested 
to  Canadians  the  propriety  of  taking  up  this  lucrative  branch  of 
industry.  Iq  a  letter  wbit^  I  have  received  from  Sir  William 
Hooker,  that  veteran  botanist  obeerves :  "  I  am  glad  to  sea  the 
sul'jectof  the  American  ginseng  alluded  to.  Is  it  the  fact  that  it 
is  still  largely  exported  to  China t  and  what  are  the  statistics? 
Nov  would  appear  to  be  the  time  to  send  it.  I  can  assure  you, 
that,  old  botanist  as  I  am,  and  wiih  oorrespondeDts  all  over  the 
world,  with  two  collectors  I  have  had  in  Manchuria,  intimate 
with  all  the  Russian  botanists,  I  have  never  been  able  to  procure 
even  a  dried  specimen  of  the  Chinese  ginseng.  With  great 
difficulty  Dr.  Bunge  obtained  for  ma  a  single  dried  root,  for 
which  three  guineas  was  paid  in  the  country.  I  have  no  doubt  your 
ginseng  is  every  bit  as  good  as  that  of  Manchuria,  and  certainly 
the  Chinese  once  thought  so." 

3.  Canadian  Nuts  and  GoosBBRaRiaa. — I  find  that  the 
common  hszel-nutot  central  Canada  is  Corji/iMrotfrafa/thatoftho 
Northern  States  and  of  the  plains  west  from  Canada,  C.  Ameri- 
cana, which  in  Canada  is  local,  occurring  abundantly  in  some 
places  however,  as  at  Belleville,  where  it  was  pointed  out  to  me 
by  Mr.  1,  UcCoun.  The  common  smooth  gooseberry  of  Upper 
Canada  is  Siba  rotundifolium.  The  mora  prevalent  one  in  the 
New  Sngland  States  is,  according  to  Prof.  Gray,  R.  hirteltum. 

4.  Canadian  Habitats  of  Diphttaehyum  apodum. — Mr,  Jo- 
fiiah  Jones  Etell,  of  Carleton  Place, oneof  my  former  pupils,  has  given 
me  specimens  of  this  very  interesting  lycopod,  collected  by  him  at 
Dickson's  Point,  Mississippi  Lake,  C.  W.,  August,  1803.  The 
only  Canadian  localities  preriously  known  were  Detroit  Biver, 
C.  W.,  where  it  was  found  by  Dr,  P.  W.  Uaclagan ;  and  Belle- 
ville, C.  W.,  where  Mr.  McCoun  pointed  it  out  to  me  last  sum- 
mer.   I  have  since  found  it  in  a  fertile  state  in  the  grass  by  the 


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1864.]  IiAwbom's  botanical  motbs.  3 

margin  of  Mill-Creek,  a  fevr  hundred  yards  below  the  village  of 
'Odessa,  which  is  some  thirteen  or  fourteen  miles  from  Kingston, 
C  W,  This  is  the  Lycopodium  apodum,  Lino.,  Pursh,  etc., 
^staginella  apus.  Gray,  Eaton,  etc.  I  hare  it  from  Schooley's 
Uountain,  (Mr.  A.  O.  Brodie,)  but  it  is  rare  in  the  United  States. 
Being  a  minute  mose-like  species,  it  may  be  sometimes  over- 
looked. It  is  admirably  adspted  for  caltiratton  ia  a  Ward's 
•case,  as  it  covers  the  soil  with  a  very  dense  carpet  of  a  most 
beautiful  light  green  hue. 

6.  Golf-Wbbo  at    Caps    Sable. — The   Nova   Scotia    news- 
papers contain  accounts  of  great  quantities  of  the    gulf-weed 
»  ^Sarffouum  bacciferum)  having  been   thrown  upon   the    shore 
at  Cape  Sable,  by  the  galee  of  December,  1863 ;  the  Gulf-stream, 
it  ia  alleged,  being  maoh  nearer  the  land  than  usual. 

6.  PoA  LAZA,  Htenke. — ^Tliis  rare  alpine  grass  was  foand 
on  the  White  Mountains  by  Principal  DawEoo,  to  whom  lam  in- 
debted for  specimens. 

7.  Floba  of  Anticosti  and  ths  Minqak  Islands. — Mr.  A. 
H.  Verrill  has  pablished  in  the  Boston  Natural  History  Society's 
Prooeedings  a  list  of  the  plants  collected  at  Anticosti  and  the 
Hingau  Islands,  by  himself,  Mr.  A.  Hyatt,  and  Mr.  N.  S.  Shaler, 
who  formed  a  party  from  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology 
for  the  investigation  of  the  geology,  etc.,  of  Anticosti,  in  1861. 
The  list  cont&ina  209  named  species  of  flowering  plants.  I 
note  some  of  the  more  interesting:  Anem-me  parvijlora,  S.  W . 
Point;  Thalielrum  alpinum,  Ranunculus  Cr/mbalaria  ;  Bryax 
integrifolia,  Vahl.,  Mingsn,  and  Anticosti,  abundsnt;  (5.  Drum- 
mondii,  attributed  to  Anticosti  by  Piirsh  was  not  met  with ;)  Rubut 
ChamtemonUf  abundant;  B.aretieus;  Saxifraga  Onenlandka, 
L.,  very  abundant  at  Miogan  Islands.  A  very  lai^e  number  of 
«pecimeDS  of  this  species  collected  at  Mingan,  proves,  according  lo 
Prof.  Gray,  that  S,  Orcealandieaf  S.  caspilosa,  L.,  and  S.  exarala, 
Vill.,  are  only  forms  of  one  species;  S.  ai'zoidet,  hrge  variety, 
abundant  at  Anticosti,  abont  limestone  cliffs ;  S.  aizoon,  Niapisca 
Island ;  Liguitieam  Seoiicum ;  Erigeron  acre,  [E.  alpinum, 
Hook.,)  narrow-leaved  form,  abundant  on  grassy  banks  near  the 
mouth  of  Jupiter  River;  Rhodora  Canadengii,  L./  Iioi'gelearia 
jproatmheni,  Pnfnala  farinotaf  and  P.  Mialaannica  ;  Merltnna 
n(aritt»Mi,  a  fern  with  glabrous  leaves,  was  occasionally  met 
■mtii;  Tamit  Canadensii;  Calypto  borealia ;  Bitrockloa  hortalit. 


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4  THE  CANADIAN  NATD&ALIST.  [Feb^ 

itc.  Nineteen  Orchids  are  aoumerated,  yet  only  tno  Carices,  two- 
gmbse^  and  no  Crjptt^amia,  so  that  there  is  still  room  for  useral 
work  at  ADticosti  and  Mingan.  The  Kahnia  latxfoUa  of  Mr.. 
BiDiogs's  AnticoBii  liat  is  do  doubt  K.  Anffwti/olia,  as  Mr.  Verrilt 
suggeslB. 

8.  WooDBiA  ALPiN A  (W.  hipbrbdrka),  a  Canadian  Plakt. 
— I  am  happy  to  be  able  to  state  definitely  that  this  very  rarc- 
fem  ia  a  native  of  Canada.  Last  winter  several  specimens  oC 
Woodtia  were  brought  to  me  by  my  former  pupil,  Mr.  Bobt.  Bellr 
B.  A.,  who  had  gathered  them  io  Oaapi  in  the  previous  year. 
One  ofthese  could  not  be  satisfactorily  identified;  and  throughProf.. 
Torrey,  I  forwarded  it  to  Mr.  Daniel  G.  Eaton,  who  bas  made  the  . 
American  ferns  a  special  study.  He  kindly  took  the  trouble  to  com* 
pare  it  with  authentic  specimene  in  his  rich  herbarium  of  feraa^ 
and  with  published  figures  and  descriptions  that  were  inacceseibie 
at  Kingston.  He  writes  to  me  that  he  has  now  no  doubt  of  the  iden- 
tity of  the  Gasp^  fern  with  Woodsia  hyperlorta  {W.  a]pUta,%,  F. 
Gr.). He  adds:  "itisthefirstAmericaDBpecimenlhaveseen."  Thus 
Pnnh's  record  of  the  fern  as  occurring  "in  clefts  of  rocks,  Canada,*^ 
is  confirmed.  Mr.  Eaton  further  points  out  that  Major  Bainas's 
Or^;on  specimens  referred  to  W.  hyperborta  by  Sir  William 
Hooker,  in  bis  recent  work  on  British  ferns,  do  not  really  belong 
to  that  species;  "they  have  not  jointed  stripes,  nor  a  cilliate-oleft 
involucre,  and  belong  to  the  Phynemaiiam  section.  I  may  elate  that 
my  own  specimens  of  W.  alpina,  from  Norway,  (Thos.  Ander- 
son, M.D.,)  and  Ban  Lawerp,  Partbahire,  (J.  T.  Syme,  F.L.8.,)  are 
very  small  fertile  fronds,  remarkably  difi'erant  in  aspect  from  the 
comparatively  large  lai  fronds  from  Gasp^  (meafiuring  nine  inche» 
in  length).  I  therefore  propoea  that  the  Gasp6  plant  should  be 
distinguished  as  var.  BeUi,  as  I  had  described  it  in  the  "  Synopsis 
of  Canadian  Ferns  and  Filicoid  Plants"  ;  but  it  must  now  be  re- 
ferred to  W.  alpina,  not  to  W.  glabella,  as  formerly.  Although 
the  latter  species  (W.  glabella)  is  admitted  by  all  anthers  as  a 
Canadian  fern,  I  know  of  no  strictly  Canadian  habitat  for  it.. 
Mr.  Charles  H.  S  chcock  tells  me  that  he  collected  W.  glabella 
sometime  ago  at  Willooghby  Mountain,  Vermonl,  where  it  haa 
become  extremely  scarce. 

9.  Thb  Compass  Plant  ok  Polar  Plant. — It  is  a  miafbr- 
tune  of  botany  that  more  time  is  required  to  clear  up  doubta- 
and  point  out  errors  than  for  the  pleaaanter  task  of  making 


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9864.]  LAwBON'e  botaitioal  notes.  5 

new  discoveries.  Yet  it  is  work  that  must  be  done,  and  it  is 
nsnallj  in  fact  by  this  very  procees  that  discoveries  itre  elimi- 
nated. Lately  some  attention  baa  been  given  by  a  phenomenon 
-said  to  be  exhibited  by  Silphmm  laeiniatum  on  the  prairies,  and 
the  most  contradictory  observations  have  been  recorded.  In  18S2 
Ur.  W.  Gorrie  called  the  attention  of  the  Botanical  Society  of 
-EdlDbnrgh  to  various  notices  of  this  plant,  such  for  example  as 
the  following: — 

"  Bnt  we  bad  a  guide  to  our  direction  unerring  as  the  magnetic 
needle.  We  were  traversing  the  region  of  the  Polar  Plant, 
■the  planes  of  whose  leaves,  at  almost  every  step,  pointed  out  our 
meridian.  It  ^ew  npou  our  track,  and  wa»  crushed  under  the 
hoofof  our  horses,  as  we  rode  onwards." — The  Scalp  ffunttra, 
■iy  CapL  Maynt  Seid,  p.  206. 

"Whilst  in  the  damper  ground  appeared  the  Polar  Plant;  that 
-prairie  compass,  the  plane  of  whose  leaf  ever  turns  towards  the 
magnetic  meridian." — TAe  City  of  the  Saints,  hi/  R.  F.  Burton, 
p.  60. 

"  Fortnnately  none  go  to  the  prairie  for  the  fir^t  time  without 
"being  shown,  in  case  of  such  mishaps,  the  groups  of  compass-weed 
"which  abound  all  over  the  plains,  the  broad  flat  leaves  of  which 
point  due  north  and  south  with  an  accuracy  as  unvarying  as  that 
of  the  magnetic  needle  itself." — The  Prince  of  Walei  in  Oanadai 
(fcc,  bjf  the  Timee't  Special  Correipondent,  p.  300, 

"On  the  aplands  the  grass  is  luxuriant,  :md  occasionally  is 
found  the  wild  tea  {^Amorpha  canetceoi)  and  the  Pilot  Weed,  Sil- 
pluam  laciniatam." — Kmort/'s  Note»  with  the  Advance  Ouard, 
p.  11. 

"  It  is  said  that  the  planes  of  the  leaves  of  this  plant  are  coin- 
cident witJi  the  plane  of  the  meridian  ;  but  those  I  have  noticed 
must  have  been  influenced  by  some  local  attraction  that  deranged 
their  polarity." — Lieut,  AlherCt  Notee  in  the  same  work. 
*  Patience,"   the  Priest  woald  say,   "hsTB  faith,  aad  thy  prayer  will  be 

answered. 
Xook  at  this  delkate  plant  that  lifts  its  bead  from  the  meadow ; 
See  bow  its  leaves  all  point  to  the  aortb,  as  trne  as  tbe  magnet. 
It  is  the  compaaa-flower,  that  tbe  Eager  of  Ood  has  suspended 
.Here  on  its  fragile  stock,  to  direct  the  traveller's  jonrney 
Over  tbe  lea-like,  patbUss,  limitless  waste  of  desert." 

LongfttUndt  Evangtlint. 

What  every  body  says  must  be  tme.    The  combined  testimony 


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6  THE   OANApUK  NATDBALIBT.  [Feb. 

ofMajne  Beid,  Bnrlon,  the  Times's  Special,  and  Lorgfellow, 
added  to  the  common  belief  of  prairie  men,  oaonot  be  gainsayed. 
Yet  ft  cautious  botanist  will  suspect  that  after  all,  the  concurrcDt 
testimony  ma;  resolve  itself  into  a  snow-ball  &do;,  that  has  gath- 
ered as  it  rolled  from  hook  to  book,  and  that  the  popular  authors 
quoted  did  not  trouble  themselves  much  about  the  aocuracy  of  the 
fad.  Prof.  Asa  Gray,  our  chief  American  botanist,  does  not  con- 
firm the  ezbiblljon  of  polarity  by  hia  observation  of  the  plant  in 
the  Cambridge  garden.  In  the  same  way,  I  could  not  make  it 
out  by  observation  of  the  plant  for  two  years,  although  certainly 
iQ  the  single  plant  to  nbicb  my  obseivations  ^were  limited  the 
»tem-Uavei  did  show  a  tendency  towards  a  north  and  south  direc- 
tion. However  in  an  "  extra  "  from  the  American  Journal  of  Sci- 
ence, given  to  me  when  on  a  recent  visit  to  Prof.  Gray  at  Cam- 
bridge, I  find  a  communication  from  Mr.  T.  Hill,  with  observations 
made  on  the  wild  plants  near  Chicago, — Ang.  6, 18S3.  Only  one 
plant,  bearing  four  old  leaves,  gave  an  average  angle  with  the 
meridian  of  more  than  34"  ;  their  mean  waslB"  wbbL  Of  twenty- 
nine  plant",  bearing  ninety-one  leaves,  the  angles  with  the  meridian 
were  as  follows  :  seven  made  angles  greater  than  35°  ;  fifteen,  an- 
gles between  36°  and  20°;  sixteen,  angles  between  20°  and  8°; 
twenty-eight,  angles  between  6°  and  1°;  and  twenty-five,  angles  less 
*  than  1°,  Of  the  sixty-nine  angles  less  than  20°,  the  moan  is  N.  0°  33' 
E.,  i.  e,  about  half  a  degree  east  of  the  meridian.  The  error  of  ob- 
servation may  have  been  as  much  as  three  times  ibis  quantity. 
One  half  of  the  leaves  bear  within  about  half  a  point  of  north, 
two-thirds  within  a  point.  In  the  Eingslon  specimen  the  first 
flower  looked  to  the  north,  the  others  chiefly  south. 

10.  BcxBADMiA  ApftvLLA  iH  NovA  ScoTiA. — This  rare  and 
most  remarkable  of  all  the  mosses  grows  on  the  hills  three  miles 
in  the  rear  of  the  city  of  HiJifai,  Nova  Scotia.  It  was  found 
with  perfectly  formed  but  green  capsules  on  December  26,  1803. 

11.  Parochetds  couMOMtB. — A  herbaceous  leguminous  plant, 
new  to  gardens,  and  bearing  the  above  name,  was  exhibited  at 
the  November  (1863)  meeting  of  the  Edinburgh  Botanical  Socie- 
ty. It  resembles  the  common  white  clover,  bat  hiw  blue  flowers, 
and  is  said  to  be  very  proi'y.  This  plant  was  introduced  to  Ca- 
nada last  year,  a  fine  crop  Imving  been  raised  from  seeds  received 
from  Dr.  Thomas  Anderson,  who  obtained  them  at  a  high  elevor 
lion  on  the  Himaiayae. 


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18ft4.]  lawson'b  botanical  moteb.  7 

12.  AoBR  Nkoi;ndo,  rouiB  varibqatis. — In  the  Verveieknim 
of  oar  friend  Mr.  J.  N".  Haage,  of  Erfurt  in  Praesia,  we  observe  a 
drawing  and  description  of  a  beautiful  ranegated  or  silver  leaved 
variety  of  the  Jeer  N^tmdo, — or  as  it  ought  rather  to  be  called, 
Negwtdo  aceroidee.  This  elegant  variety  will  form  a  welcome 
addition  to  the  list  of  American  ornamental  trees.  _  It  is  for  sale 
in  the  Enropean  nnrseries. 

15.  Cahasiait  8PE0IKB  OP  Eqdisbtuh. — The  following  are 
describediDTranB.Bol.Soc.  Ed. :  E.  it/haticum ;  E.  'umbrotum  ; 
E.  arvaue;  E.  arveiue,  var.  granlalvm  ;  (n  new  and  remarkable 
fornn  from  the  Trent,  near  Trenton)  ;  E.  Telmat^a  ;  E.  limonan  ; 
E.hyemale;  E.  variegatum  ;  E.  ta.rpoidt»;  and  E.  te'rpoida, 
var.  minor,  the  last  from  Gaspfi  (Mr.  Eobt.  Bell).  E.  paluttrt 
ia  nnderstood  to  grow  in  the  northern  parts  of  Canada. 

14.  Sbquoia  Lavtboniaita. — Messrs  P.  Lawson  &;  Son  of 
Edinbui^h  have  raised  a  new  Conifer  from  California  seedi), 
which  baa  been  named  Sequoia  Lawsoniana. 

16.  YocoA  FiLAUBHTOSA. — This  fine  southern  plant  is  quite 
hardy  in  Cansds.  Its  specific  name  refers  to  the  numerous  threads 
or  filaments  which  hang  from  the  marffins  of  the  leavet. 

16.  CLBRODEHnitoN  Thousoks,  Balfour,  (Mrs.  Thompecn's 
Oerodendron).  This  handsome  plant  was  transmitted  by  the 
Rev.  W.  C.  TbompBOn  from  Old  Calabar,  on  the  west  coast  of 
Africa,  and  flowered  at  the  Botanic  Garden  of  Edinburgh,  in 
December,  1861.  It  is  a  shrubby  twining  plant,  producing 
showy  flowerf,  and  will  soon  be  seen  in  all  our  hot-honse!>. 
Prof.  Balfour  gave  a  full  description  of  it  some  time  ago, 
accompanied  by  a  beautiful  drawing  from  the  pencil  of  Dr. 
Greville.  (Trans.  Bot  Soc.  Edin.,  vol.  vii,  p.  2.)  It  had  not 
then  shown  fruit,  which  however  has  been  subsequently  produced, 
and  is  now  described,  with  elegant  drawings.  Prof.  Balfour  states 
that  the  fruit  consisLs  of  four  achens,  which  when  ripe  assume  a 
shining  black  color  externally.  Between  the  achens,  and  attached 
to  their  surface,  but  not  appearing  on  (he  peripheral  aide,  there 
is  a  bright  red  cellular  coat,  which  enlarges  as  the  fruit  ripens, 
aeparating  the  achens,  which  ultimately  appear  as  fonr  distinct' 
seed-vessels,  covered  on  their  upper  surface  (commissure),  with  a 
succulent  rugose  mass  of  cells  of  a  bright  scarlet  color.  The 
snrface  oil-globule-bearing  cells  are  described  as  of  a  glandular 
nature.    We  have  hero  apparently  a  beautiful  example  of  glan- 


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8  THS  CANADIAN  MATURALmT.  [Feb. 

dalar  structure,  preBsutiag  io  mi  eiogeaons  pl&nt  »  perfect  ho- 
mology with  the  gl&ndular  structures  of  the  fruits  of  tnoDOCotyle- 
dona,  so  well  described  by  BrongDiart,Knd  serringto  illiutrate  the 
iheoi7  (see  TraoB.  Bet.  Sou.  Ed.,  t,  p.  213),  that  all  v^etable 
iglands  are  epidoriuat  atracturee.  Id  Beveral  pointB  of  view  then 
.this  is  an  interesting  plant,  and  Dr.  Balfonrhas  dune  it  ample  jus- 
tice in  his  admirable  description. 

17.  PHTSosnaifA  vaNiNoeoH,  Balfour. — Thb  Poison  Bean 
-or   Ordeal   Bean   of  Calabar,  PhytotHgma  venenotatti,  Balfour, 

which  is  used  in  Africa  as  a  state  poison,  a  supposed  means 
-of  discovering  crime,  and  a  certain  method  of  pauisbing  it,  is 
■likely  to  yield,  in  the  hands  of  medical  men,  some  return  for 
all  the  evil  it  has  done  iu  the  hands  of  the  ignorant  and  super- 
stitions Africans.  Dr.  Thomas  R.  Fraaer  finds  that  the  beao  acts 
as  follows : 

1.  The  keruel  acts  od  the  spinal  cord  by  destroying  ita  power 
of  conducting  impressions.  2.  This  destruction  may  result  in  two 
■well.marked  and  distinct  eSiiCts,  either  in  muscular  paralysis,  ex- 
tending gradually  to  the  respiratory  apparatus,  and  producing 
death  by  atphyxia;  or  in  rapid  paralysis  of  the  heart,  probably 
■due  to  an  eitensiou  of  this  action  to  the  sympathetic  ByBtem,thus 
causing  death  by  syncope.  3.  A  difference  in  dose  accompanies 
the  difference  in  effect.  4.  The  functions  of  the  brain  may  be 
affected  secondarily.  5.  It  proJucea  paralysis  of  muscular  fibre, 
striped  and  non-striped.  f>.  It  exiiies  secretions,  and  especially 
the  action  of  the  nlimentary  mncous  membrane.  7.  Topicsl 
-effects  follow  the  local  application  of  the  watery  emulsion  and 
alcoholic  extract;  these  are  destruction  of  the  contraciibiJity  of 
muscular  fibre,  and  contractioQ  of  the  pupil  when  applied  to  the 
«ye-ball  or  eye-lids. 

18.  Nsw  Irish  Lichens  ahd  IIefatic^. — Dr.  Benjamin 
C»rrington,  F.L.S.,  has  dewrihed  (Trans.  B.  Soc,  vii,  p.  3)  the 
following  new  lichens  :  Ephebe  Moorii,  Carringtoo,  adelicale  little 
species  found  at  Glana,  Killaroey,  growing  in  shallow  depressed 
patches,  an  inch  or  more  in  citect,  on  Fmllania  lamaritd, 
var.  miero2>hylla ;  Lecidea  icapanaria,  Carrington,  Killarney, 
parasitic  on  the  stem  and  leaves  of  iScapania  undttlata,  var. 
major,  and  S.aequUoba,  The  same  indefatigable  botanist  has 
l^ren  an  elaboration  of  the  Eillarney  Hepaticffi  well  worthy  of 
atndy.    Crypto^araic  botany  used  to  be  a  pleasant  pastime;  but 


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1864.]  ijlwson'b  botanical  notes.  9 

it  Dov  requires  an  exercise  of  the  obserriog  powers  that  none  but 
^nnine  botaniiits  can  endure. 

19.  Thi  Toot  PoiaoH  of  Nbw  Zealibd. — Dr.  W.  Laader 
Lindsay,  F.R.S.E.,  has  published  a  paper  (read  to  the  British 
Associatiou)  on  the  Toot  Poison  of  Ntw  Zealand,  a  poieoo 
which  has  of  late  ;ears  committed  great  rsvegee  among  the 
flocks  and  herds  of  the  settlerx.  It  belongs  to  the  class  of 
■narootico-irrilantt.  The  poisonous  parts  of  the  plant  to  man 
areusn&lly  the  seed  contained  in  a  beautiful  dark  parple  lus- 
«ions  Ijerry,  resembling  the  blackberry,  which  clusters  closely  in 
rich  pendant  raceroes,  and  is  most  tempting  to  children.  The 
young  shoots,  which  are  tender  and  succulent,  Teaembling  aspara- 
gus in  appearance  and  taste,  are  eaten  by  catile  and  sheep.  Robust 
cattle  habituated  to  its  use  do  not  seem  to  be  affected ;  but  animals 
suddenly  making  a  large  raeal  of  it  alter  long  fasting,  or  afler  long 
feeding  on  drier  or  less  palatable  materials,  or  after  exhaustion  by 
iiard  labour,  hot  dry  weather,  or  a  foiiguing  sea-voyage,  are  sure 
to  suffer  from  its  use.  It  oauaes  vertigo,  stupor,  delirium,  and  con- 
vulsions, curious  staggerings  and  gyrations,  frantic  kicking  and 
racing  or  coursing,  and  tremors.  Id  man  the  symptouis  are  oomai 
with  or  without  delirium,  sometimes  great  muscular  excitement  or 
•convulsions.  Daring  convalescence  there  is  loss  of  memory ,  with 
or  without  vertigo.  Dr.  Lindsay  states  that  in  many  cases  of 
loss  of  cattle  by  individoal  settlers,  the  amount  of  loss  from 
toot-poisoning  alone  had  been  from  twenty-five  to  seventy-five  per 

The  destructive  plant  in  question  is  named  Coriaria  Tutv, 
.Lindsay.  It  is  C  nuei/oHa  of  Linnnus,  C.  tarmenlota,  Forst., 
-elc,  names  (o  which  the  author  objects  aa  inapplicable.  The 
whole  genua  needs  revision  ;  most  of  the  species  are  more  or  less 
■poisonous.  The  New  Zealand  settlers  owe  a  debt  of  gratitude  to 
Dr.  Lindsay  for  the  Ironble  he  has  taken  lo  investigate  the  Toot 
.poison. 

20.  The  Cbinesb  Grbih  Dye. — From  a  report  of  the  Agri- 
Uorticultnral  Society  of  the  Punjab,  just  received  from   L.   A. 

-Stapley,  Esq.,  it  appears  that  that  inatitulion  is  in  a  thriving 
And  active  condition.  At  the  Society's  meeting  on  22nd  July, 
J889,  plants  of  A&omniMtifiJi's,  which  yields  the  celebrated  Chinese 
■green  dye,  were  shown.  It  was  resolved,  with  reference  to  the 
iatnlity  with  which  this  plant  appears  to  be  propagated  in  the 


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to  THE  OANADIAN  NATURALIST.  [Feb. 

Paojab,  and  to  the  great  adTiaability  of  obtaining  fatisractory 
infonnatioD  as  to  the  second  species  of  Rhamnut,  necessary 
to  Ihecomplete  adaptation  of  the  formerplant  to  ihe  parposes  of 
dyeing  as  practiswl  in  China,  that  an  application  be  made 
tiirongh  the  Punjab  government,  toobtain  from  the  British  Con- 
sniar  authorities  in  China,  farther  and  authentic  particnlars  (also- 
seeds)  of  the  several  species  of  Rhamniu,  without  which  the  dye 
cannot  be  prepared,  as  shown  in  the  papers  translated  for  tbft 
Agri-Horticultural  Society  of  Indis  by  Mr.  Cope,  and  published 
in  theirjoamal.  It  is  remarked  with  aattafaction  that  the  aeed- 
linga  before  the  meeting  are  the  produce  of  seeds  from  plants 
grown  in  the  Society's  Badamee  Garden. 

21.  Lakh  Dte. — In  the  snme  report,  D.  F.  McLecd,  Esq, 
calls  attention  to  the  valaable  insect  produciog  this  lakh  and  lakh 
dye  of  commerce.  He  states  that  it  is  indigenous  to  varions 
parlaofthePunjab,  esptoially  to  the  N.  W.  extretnitf  oftheBaree 
Doab,  zillah  Goordaspoor,  and  the  S.  W.  parts  of  the  Kangra 
zillah.  There  is  some  reason  to  believe  that,  at  one  time,  the  insect 
covered  a  larger  space tlian  it  now  occupies.  There  is  a  popnlar 
rumor  that  the  Sikh  government  derived  a  revenue  of  one  lakh 
of  mpees  from  the  farm  of  the  exclusive  privilege  to  gather  the  lakh  ; 
but  this  is  probably  an  exaggeration.  The  subject  is  however  one 
full  of  interest,  and  shonld  draw  the  special  attention  of  the  Society. 
In  tbc  central  provinces,  where  the  insect  exisla  in  i^eat  abandance, 
it  is  propagated  by  artificial  means,  and  grafted  as  it  were  on  the 
tre3.  It  feeds  ohieHy,  down  there,  on  the  Dhak  (Batea  frondota)  ; 
but  in  the  Punjab  it  is  exclusively  found  on  the  Ber  (WtamiiMa 
jiijuba).  Two  years  ago  Mr.  McLeod  had  observed  the  insect  to 
be  spreading  on  Ber  trees  and  bushes  in  his  neighborhood.  This 
year  (1868)  the  insect  has  shown  itself  in  large  quantities,  con- 
siderable enough  to  make  it  worth  the  notice  of  parties  to  pur- 
chase the  right  to  cut  the  branches  on  which  the  insects  are  (bnnd- 
Reference  to  the  exports  of  Bengal  show  that  thousands  of  raaands 
are  sent  to  Europe,  either  as  lakh  or  dye,  and  its  preparation  is  car- 
ried on  >n  large  establish  men  te.  The  lower  province  insectfeeda 
chiefly  on  the  Dhak.  Why  ehoold  experiments  not  be  made  for 
grafting  it  on  this  tree,  of  which  whole  forests  exist  t  His  High- 
ness the  Rnjab  of  Knpoorthutia  haa  devoted  some  attention  to  the 
subject,  and  introduced  the  insect  from  Oudh  into  his  Dhak  for- 
est lands  near  Phugwara.    Experiments  are  likewise  in  progress 


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1864.]  LAWSOS'S  BOTANICAL  NOTES.  II 

in  Ibe  Punjab  in  rniging  silk  and  hopf.  Wild  mnshrooma  ar& 
aboadant  in  the  rains  atSbabpoor;  of  whicb,  according  to  Dr.  Q^ 
Henderson,  tliere  are  two  edible  sorla, — one  globular,  and  (he 
Other  eiBctly  like  an  English  mushroom. 

22.  Ihfbovxhbht  or  Cotton  in  iNniA. — Dr.  Henderson 
reports  that  his  experiments  with  the  finer  kinds  of  cotton,  of 
<vhicb  seeds  have  been  imported,  have  been  very  auccesBfii).  His 
remarks  throw  a  welcome  light  npon  the  present  aspect  of  cotton 
culture  in  India.  He  says  that  the  cotton  seed  sent  to  bim  was 
sown  in  April,  and  sncoeeded  wonderfully :  many  of  the  plants  are 
over  three  feet  high,  and  six  feet  in  circumference  round  the  bn^h. 
Some  sea-island  cotton  sown  a  few  days  before  has  been  giving 
an  early  crop  for  some  time.  The  New  Orleans  seemed  to  thrive 
best :  it  has  been  in  flower  for  a  few  days.  The  reason  of  the  sea- 
island  giving  an  early  crop  is  believed  to  bo  that  after  fre- 
quent and  regular  watering,  it  was  passed  over  once  or  twice,. 
and  the  check  tbus  caused  during  the  hot  winds  made  it  flower. 
An  early  crop  might  in  this  way  be  got  from  all  second  year's 
planis  before  the  rains  come  on,  if  it  would  not  weaken  th& 
plants  too  much.  Dr.  E.  visited  some  wells  where  Egyptian  seed 
bad  been  distributed,  and  found  that  very  little  had  germinated, 
and  also  that  the  plants  were  mixed  with  natire  cotton.  The 
Zeroinders  say  what  is  very  true,  that  they  cannot  afibrd  to  try 
experiments:  they  know  exaotly  the  valne  of  country  cotton, 
but  bad  no  experience  of  the  American  sorts.  It  seems  that 
the  best  mode  of  securing  a  fair  trial  of  Amerionn  cotton  by  the 
Zemindera  would  be  for  government  or  local  coramiltees  lo 
adopt  the  same  method  as  Mr.  Wightman  does, — to  supply  seed 
known  to  be  good,  to  stipulate  for  its  being  sown  in  a  particular 
way,  and  to  guarantee  a  certain  amount  per  bcegah,  so  that  if  the 
crop  failed,  the  Zeminder  would  not  lose  by  it  If  in  each  district 
eight  or  ten  beegahs  were  thus  grown,  the  natives  would  be  able 
to  judge  for  themselves  as  to  the  advantage  of  growing  foreign 
cotton.  Dr.  H.  sowed  some  New  Orleans  seed  near  a  road 
leading  to  the  Cntohery,  and,  as  expected,  the  Zeminders  often 
came  to  look  at  the  plants,  and  asked  qneslions  about  the  new 
cotton. 

28.  Ihdiak  BAuBooe. — ^ESbrls  are  being  made  to  extend 
tbe  growth  of  the  bamboo  as  widely  as  possible  throughout  the 
Punjab.  The  kinds  of  whicb  seeds  are  being  collected  for  dis- 
tributJon  are  these : 


1,;.  Google 


12  THB  CAHADIAN  NATDEALI8T.  [Feb. 

1.  The  hollow  bamboo  of  th«  plaine. 

2.  Solid  bamboo  of  the  lower  bills,  of  which  spear  handles  and 
iclnbg  are  nsiiallT  made. 

S.  The  Nirgali,  or  small  bamboo  of  the  hilU,  growiog  at  ele* 
vationa  from  S,000  to  8,000  feet. 

4.  The  Garroo,  or  still  smaller  hilt  bamboo,  growing  at  higher 
elevations,  probably  np  to  12,000  feet. 

Enquiries  have  been  set  on  foot  to  ascertain,  if  possible,  from 
ihe  people,  the  intervals  which  elapse  between  the  seawos  of  flower- 
ing of  the  several  varieties,  a  point  on  which  the  more  observant 
ought  to  be  able  readily  to  furnish  information;  as  afler  flowering 
and  yielding  seed,  the  entire  tract  of  bamboo  which  has  seeded 
simultaneously  dries  op  and  perishes,  fresh  plantations  springing 
up  irom  the  seeds  which  have  been  scattered  by  the  old  stock. 

24,    Box  WOOD    ASD   OlIVK  wood  fob  THB  EKQtlAVBR. — The 

following  remarlca  by  Dr.  Cl^horn,  the  chief  botanist  in  India, 
aco^mpanied  samples  of  wood-engraving  received  from  Dr. 
Hunter  of  the  Madras  School  of  Arts : — 

"  Some  months  ago  I  sent  small  logs  of  box  and  olive  from 
Kooloo,  and,  as  you  perceive,  both  of  these  woods  answer  well  for 
engraving.  Tbey  show  that  the  wood  cats  smoothly,  and  has 
working  qualities  adapted  for  the  graver  to  print  from. 

"  The  enclosed  twig  of  box  {Biixits  lemptrvirent)  is  taken  fi^m 
R  tree  in  Mr.  McLeod's  arborelwn  at  Dbarrasalln,  a  spot  well  wor-  , 
thy  of  a  vinit,  containing  many  introduced  Himalayan  trees  of 
.great  interest,  as  well  as  many  Earopean  firuit-treee  adapted  to 
this  hill  station.  It  is  perhaps  the  only  collection  of  indigenous 
Alpine  trees  in  the  Punjab  ;  the  nearest  approach  to  it  being  that 
«f  Mr.  Berkeley  at  Kotghur.  I  hope  the  day  is  not  far  distant 
when  the  Punjab  Agri-Horti cultural  Society  may  have  a  Hill 
garden  affiliated  with  it,  at  one  of  the  Sanitaria  of  the  province- 

"  The  Himalayan  box  appears  to  be  identical  with  the  tree  com- 
jnon  all  over  sonthern  Europe,  from  Gibraltar  to  Constantinople, 
^nd  extending  into  Persia.  It  is  found  chiefly  in  valleys  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  from  3,000  to  6,000  feet  I  have  met  with  it  from  Mount 
Tira  near  Jhelum,  to  Wangtu  Bridge  on  the  SuUeJ-  It  is  variable 
in  size,  being  generally  seven  to  eight  feet  high,  and  the  stem  only 
•A  few  inches  thick,  but  attaining  sometimes  a  hei;;bt  of  fifteen  to 
eeventeen  feet,  as  at  Mannikarn  in  Kullu,  and  a  girth  of  Iwenty-two 
inches  as  a  maximum.    Tlie  wood  of  the  smaller  trees  is  often  ihe 


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1864.]  i^wson's  botanical  notes.  13 

best  for  the  tanier  and  the  wood-engraver.  It  is  made  by  the  vil- 
lagers into  liitle  boxes  for  holding  ghee,  honey,  anuff,  and  tinder. 
At  the  medical  storea  in  Sealkote  it  is  turned  into  pill-boxes  ;  uui 
it  appears  to  be  adapted  for  plugs,  trenails,  and  wedges.  The 
wood  is  very  heavy,  and  does  not  float;  it  is  liable  to  split  in  th» 
hot  weather,  and  should  be  seasoned,  and  then  stored  under  cover. 

"  The  Olive  Zaito&n,  which  has  also  been  tolled  for  wood- 
engraving  at  the  Madras  School  of  Arta,  is  aaother  plant  of  the' 
Mediterranean  Flora  which  range  from  the  coast  of  the  Lerant  to 
the  Himalaya.  It  varies  a  good  deal  in  the  shape  of  its  leaves  and 
in  the  amount  of  ferrugineacence ;  hence  the  synonyms  cutpxdata 
aod /emtgXTiBa :  hat  it  does  not  appear  to  differ  specifically  from 
the  Olea  Europea  of  the  Mount  of  Olives, — ihe  emblem  of  peace- 
and  plenty.  The  finest  specimens  I  have  seen  are  in  the  Kaghan 
and  Peshawar  valleys,  where  the  fruit  resembles  that  of  rooky 
utea  in  Palestine  or  Gibraltar.  The  wood  is  much  used  for  combs 
and  bead&,  and  b  found  to  answer  for  the  teeth  of  wheels  at  th& 
Madhopore  workshops." 

25.  Nettle  Fibre. — It  is  perhaps  not  generally  known  in 
Canada  that  the  exquiutely  beautiful  fibre  known  as  China  grasB- 
cloth,  and  so  much  in  favor  for  the  beet  kinds  of  ladies'  hand- 
kerchiefs, is  obtained  from  an  Indian  nettle.  No  doubt  the  Amer- 
ican Urtica.  gi-aeilit,  which  g^ows  abundantly  about  the  Falls  of- 
Nii^ra  and  elsewbere  in  Canada,  might  be  turned  to  good 
account,  were  our  Agricultural  Associations  to  direct  atten* 
tion  that  way.  Dr.  Cleghom  tells  us  that  the  Urtica  ketero- 
phfflla  (the  species  cultivated  by  Mr.  Mclver  at  Ootakamund)  is 
plentiful  in  Simla,  having  followed  man  to  the  summit  of  Jako, 
attracted  by  moistare  to  an  elevation  nnusual  for  any  member  of 
the  family.  It  is  foand  within  the  stations  of  Dalhousie  and 
Dharmsalla,  and  at  many  intermediate  points.  The  quantity  is 
surprising,  wherever  the  soil  hai  become  enriohed  by  the 
encamping  of  cattle.  The  growth  at  this  season  also  is  luxnrtant 
in  shady  ravines  near  houses,  where  there  is  abundance  of  black 
monld  ;  but  the  sting  being  virulent,  the  plants  are  habitually  cut 
down  as  a  nuisance,  both  by  private  persons  and  municipal  com- 
mittees. 

There  are  other  plants  of  the  nettle  tribe,  particularly  Bohmeria 
talici/olia,  "  sibaru,"  used  for  making  ropes  (to  which  attention 
has  been  directed  by  Dr.  Jameson).  This  plantdoes  not  sting,  and 
ie  abundant  at  low  elevationa. 


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14  THB  OAHADIAN  NATURALIST.  [Feb. 

Large  prizes  were  to  be  given  for  qnantitiea  of  the  nettie  fibres 
to  be  delivered  U  Lahore  ia  October  1863.  The  fibre  brings 
from  £16  to  £18  sterling  per  ton  in  London. 

26.  DiATous  OF  THE  SouTH  PACIFIC. — Dr.  Grevillo  has  do- 
scribed,  wilh  exquisite  figures,  (Trans.  Bot.  8oc.  Ed.,)  numerous 
new  epeoiee  of  diatoms  obtained  from  dredgings  in  the  South 
Pacific.  There  are  two  now  genera,  viz. :  StietodetmU,  Qnv.,  and 
Gmphalojait,  Grev,  and  thirty-one  new  species. 

Halifax,  N.  S.  Jan.  1,  1864. 

(To  bi  ConHautd.) 


■CAVE  IN  LIMESTONE  NEAR  MONTREAL. 
Bi  H.  G.  TiNMoa. 

Under  a  similar  heading  to  the  above,  this  caveisnoticed  in  the 
Canadian  Naturalist  and  Geologist,  Vol.  Ill,  page  192.  To  that 
article  we  would  refer  those  interested,  for  the  exact  position  of 
this  cave.  The  party  or  parties,  who  then  visited  this  nurioeity — 
if  I  may  so  call  it— found  it  filled  with  several  feet  of  water,  and 
were  unable  to  give  it  any  satiifactory  eiftminalion.  On  the  11th 
'of  November  last  I  visited  the  cave,  and  had  no  difficulty 
whatever  in  finding  it.  Of  late  years,  the  entrance  has  been 
«onBidcrably  enlarged.  Formerly,  the  opening  was  situated  be- 
tween the  roots  of  a  tree,  which  is  yet  standing  in  the  vicinity;  but 
some  time  since,  the  earth  was  slightly  cut  away,  exposing  the 
■Burfaceoftherock,  and  greatly  enlarging  the  means  of  access  to  this 
cavern.  From  the  outside,  the  limestone  has  a  very  roaty  and 
weather-worn  appearance,  and  is  of  a  shaly  texture.  The  whole 
snrface  is  filled  with  the  fossil  shells  and  corals  peculiar  to  the 
Trenton  limestone.  The  month  of  the  caves  is  aboui  four  feet  high, 
by  six  feet  in  width.  On  entering,  I  was  agreeably  surprised  to  find 
that  the  water  had  entirely  subsided  into  a  narrow  well,  or  fissnre 
in  the  floor,  some  twenty  feet  distant  from  the  mouth  of  the  cave. 
Standing  by  this  well,  the  room  was  about  thirteen  feet  high  by 
eight  feet  in  width.  Tlie  walls  jutted  out  irregularly  on  either 
«ide,  but  gave  the  average  width  of  eight  feet.  The  ceiling  was 
also  of  limeatone  rock,  and  coated  over  with  stalsctitio  car- 
bonate of  lime,  from  which  hung  a  few  small  Stalactites.     In  the 


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1864.]  GAVE  NKAB  HONTBSAL.  1& 

sides  of  the  cbamber  were  numeroua  deep  fissures,  hardly  laige 
«nough  to  admit  an  arm,  and  lined  viiii  tbe  same  mineral. 

In  these  fissures  could  be  seen  very  perfectly  the  formation  of 
satitlactites  and  Blalagmites, — (he  former  meeting  tbe  latter  half 
vay.  Some  of  the  stalactites  were  of  a  beautiful  needle-like 
shape,  and  abont  four  or  fire  inches  long.  These  we  could  not 
procure,  as  they  were  beyond  our  reacb  ;  but  they  may  be  plainly 
seen  by  holding  a  candle  in  tbe  crevice.  Before  passing  farther 
into  the  cave,  let  us  for  a  moment  examine  the  well.  It  is  affirm- 
«d  by  the  people  in  tbe  neighborhood  that  no  bottom  has  yet 
been  found  to  it.  But  on  questioning  them,  wo  found  that  their 
bottomless  measure  was  twQ  pairs  of  reins  tied  together.  It  is 
however  a  difficult  depth  to  measure,  as  it  runs  down  very  irregu- 
larly, and  at  angles.  The  water  is  clear,  and  very  cold,  and  has  a 
strange  greasy  loach.  It  is  surprising  to  see  its  transparency, 
when  it  has  this  thick  and  oily  touoh ;  it  yet  remains  to  deter- 
mine whether  this  well  is  fed  by  springe,  or  by  the  drippings  from 
the  roof  of  the  cavern-  Leaving  the  well,  we  push  on,  and  after 
ascending  a  few  feet,  come  to  two  passages,  one  leading  to  the 
right,  the  other  to  the  lefl.  The  entrance  to  (he  one  on  the 
right  is  about  two  feet  square,  anj  leads  into  a  small  room  or 
passage  running  into  the  rock.  This  passage  is  about  thirty  feet 
long,  and  two  or  three  broad,  ending  in  a  narrow  fissure  which 
seems  to  run  deep  into  the  limestone.  Thia  fissure  is  too  small  for 
one  to  enter  with  any  comfort,  though  I  believe  it  widens  some 
few  feet  farther  in.  Turning  with  difficulty,  we  retraced  our 
stepe,  and  came  before  the  passage  running  to  the  left. 

This  at  the  entrance  was  two  feet  high  and  sik  feet  wide ;  but 
on  entering,  we  found  ourselves  in  a  small  room,  abont  eight  feet 
high,  and  six  wide.  At  its  extremity  another  fissure  ran  down 
into  the  rock,  which  looked  as  if  it  bad  at  one  time  tteen  a  pretty 
large  passage.  Indeed,  so  shaly  and  loose  are  these  rocks,  that 
by  the  action  of  water  and  the  frosts,  this  cave  may  be,  ere  long, 
entirely  blocked  up.  The  kabilans  state  that  it  was  at  one  lime 
much  larger  than  it  is  now.  In  the  first,  or  entrance-chamber,  we^ 
found  slicking  to  the  roof,  and  sparkling  with  moisture,  six 
beautiful  species  of  moths :  two  of  these,  are  now  in  the  Society's 
collection.  Tbese  moths  were  snugly  ensconced  in  the  cracks 
of  the  rock;  sleeping  quietly,  until  the  genial  breath  of  spring 
-snd  the  songs  of  returning  birds  should  ronse  them  again  to 


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16  THB  OANADIAK   NATnBALIST.  [Feb. 

their  ouMoor  employmeDts.  Besides  moths,  bats  also  had  takea 
up  their  quarters  in  this  chvc,  and  flew  around,  sndly  di (concerted 
by  our  intrusion.  In  the  paper  alluded  to  in  thebeginning  of  this 
article,  it  WAS  stated  that  if  tiie  water  could  be  pumped  out  of 
this  cave,  booes  laigbt  be  found  at  the  bottom.  I  may  just  men- 
tion, before  concluding  this  brief  description,  that  the  cave  is  now 
entirely  free  from  water,  and  that  no  bones  have  been  found  as  yet ; 
but  a  search  into  and  amongst  the  loo»e  soil  at  the  bottom,  may" 
be,  and  I  think  would  be,  well  worth  attempting. 


CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  LITHOLOGY.* 
Bt  T.  Sterrt  Hdhi-,  If  .a.  F.R.S.  ;  of  the  Qeological  Surve;  Of  Cftoada. 

Ihtboddction. 
In  a  recent  paper  on  The  Chemical  and  Mhivralogieal  Rdationt 
of  Mctamorphic  Rockt  (Sill inlan's  Journal  [2],  xxxvi,  2[4),f  an 
attempt  was  made  to  define  the  principles  which  have  presided' 
over  the  formation  of  sedimentary  rock!>,  and  to  explain  the  nature 
and  conditions  of  their  alteration  or  metamorphism.  That  paper 
may  be  considered  as  to  a  certaiu  extent  introductory  lo  the 
present  one,  which  will  oontaio,  in  the  first  part,  some  theore- 
tical considerations  which  it  is  conceived  should  serve  as  a  basis  to 
lithologica!  studies.  In  the  second  part  will  be  giren  a  few 
definitions  which  may  serve  to  render  raore  intelligible  the  clas- 
sification and  nomenuiature  of  crystalline  rocks;  while  a  third 
part  will  contain  the  results  of  the  chemical  and  mineralogical 
examination  of  some  of  the  eruptive  rocks  of  Canada;  and  a 
fourth,  some  examples  of  local  metamorphism.  The  most  of  the- 
results  appear  in  the  recent  published  Qeology  of  Canada. 

I.    TaiOBBTIClL   HOTTONB. 

I  have  already,  in  other  places,  expressed  the  opinion  that  the 
various  eruptive  rocks  have  had  no  other  origin  than  the  softening 
and  displacement  of  sedimentary  deposits;  and  have  thus  their 
source  within  the  lower  psrtions  of  tlie  earth's  stratified  covering, 
and  not  beneath  it.  The  theory  which  conceives  them  to  have  been. 
derived  firom  a  portion  of  the  interior  of  the  earth  still  retaining^ 
its  supposed  primitive  condition  of  igneous  fluidity,  is  in  my 
*  From  SUliman't  Journal  Tol.  ixxvil,  pftgs  348. 
n  NatuToiiil,  Tol.  viii,  page  19S. 


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18A4.]  T.  BTERBY   HUNT  ON   LITHOLOGY.  17 

Opinion  untenable.  It  is  not  here  the  pl&ce  to  discnas  the  more 
or  less  ingenioos  speculations  of  Phillips,  Durocher,  and  Bansen 
as  to  the  constitution  of  this  supposed  fluid  ceotre,  nor  the  more 
elaborate  hypothesis  of  Sartoriua  von  Waltershausen  as  to  the 
Gompoaition  and  arrangement  of  the  matters  in  this  imaginary 
reservoir  of  plutooic  rooks.  The  immense  variety  presented  in 
the  composition  of  eruptive  masses  presents  a  strong  argument 
against  the  notion  that  they  are  derived,  as  these  writers 
have  supposed,  from  two  or  more  zones  of  molten  matter, 
differing  in  composition  and  density,  and  lying  everywhere 
beneath  the  solid  omst  of  the  earth ;  which,  in  opposition  to  the 
views  of  many  modern  mathematicians  and  physicists,  the  school 
of  geologists  just  referred  to  regard  as  a  shell  of  very  limited 
thickness. 

The  view  which  I  adopt  is  one  the  merit  of  which  belongs, 
I  believe,  to  Christian  Keferstein,  who,  in  his  Natur^etchiehte  de» 
£Vd£orperj,  published  in  1834,  maintained  that  alltheunatratifled 
rocka,  from  granite  to  lava,  are  products  of  the  transformation 
of  sedimentary  strata,  in  part  very  recent ;  and  that  there  is  no 
well-defined  line  to  be  drawn  between  neptuuian  and  volcanic  rocka, 
since  they  pass  into  each  other  (vol.  i,  p.  109.)  This  viewwaa 
aubeequently,  and  it  would  seem,  independently  brought  forward 
in  1836  by  Sir  John  Hereohel,  who  sought  to  explain  the  origin  of 
metamorphism  and  of  volcanic  phenomeaa  by  the  action  of  the 
internal  heat  of  the  earth  upon  deeply  buried  sediments  impreg^ 
nated  with  water.  (Proc.  Geol.  Soo.  of  London,  vol.  ii,pp.  648, 698.) 
See  also  my  papers  in  the  Canadian  Journal,  1858,  p.  206;  Quar. 
Jour.  Oeol.  Soc.  1859,  p.  488  ;  Can.  Naturalist,  Dec.  I8S9 ;  and 
Silliman's  Journal  [2],  vol.  xxz,  p.  135. 

The  presenceofwaterin  igneous  rocks,and  the  part  which  it  may 
play  in  giving  liquidity  to  all  volcanic  and  plntonic  rocks,  was 
insisted  upon  byPonletl  Scrope,  so  long  ago  as  1824,  in  his  Con- 
lideratUMi  on  Volcanoet.  (See  also  Quar.  Joac.  Qeol.  Soc  London, 
xii,  341r)  This  view  has  since  been  ably  supported  by  Scheerer  in 
his  discuseion  with  Durocher.  (Bui.  Soc.  Geol.  France  [2],  iv,  468, 
'1018  ;  vi,  644 ;  vii,  276  ;  viii,  500.)  Soe  also  Elie  de  Beaumont, 
ibid.,  iv,  1312.  Tbeadmirable  investigations  of  Sorby  on  the  micro- 
Bcopic  structure  of  crystals  (Quar.  Jour,  Geol.  Soc.,  liv,  463) 
have  since  demonstrated  that  water  has  intervened  in  the  orystalli- 
lation  of  almost  all  plntonic  rocks.    He  has^own  that  llie  quartz 

TOL,  L  B  »«.  1. 


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18  TBI  OANASIAN   NATDKALIBT.  [Feb. 

both  ofgronitet  and  crjrstalliDe  schists  oonlaiiiB  great  nnmben 
of  amall  oavities  partially  filled  with  water,  or  with  conoentrated 
aqnoons  solutions  of  chlorids  and  snlpbates  of  potaasium,  sodium, 
oaloium,  and  magnesium,  sometimes  with  free  hydrochloric  acid- 
Similar  flaid-carities  were  found  by  him  in  most  crystals 
artificially  formed  in  aqueous  eolations ;  and  were  also  obaerred  in 
the  minerals  from  the  -  limestones  of  VesaTius,  where  they  occur 
in  nepheline,  idocrase,  hornblende,  and  feldspar ;  the  liquid  in  the 
latter  oiyslals  containing,  besides  cblorids  and  sulphates,  alkaline 
carbanatea.  Mr.  Sorby  has  also  described  the  cavities  filled  with 
vitreous  and  with  stony  matters  which  he  has  observed  in  quartzi 
in  the  feldspar  of  pitohstones,  in  anf^ite,  leodte,  and  nepheline ; 
and  which  are  sometimes  found  associated  with  fluid-cavities  In  the 
same  mineral.  As  these  fluid-cavities  enclosed  the  liquid  at  an  ele- 
vated temperatnre,  iU  subsequent  cooling  has  produced  a  partial 
vacuum,  which  ts  again  filled  on  heating  the  crystal ;  so  that  the 
temperature  of  the  crystals  at  the  time  of  their  formation  may  be 
approximatively  determined.  Mr.  Sorby  concludes  that  every 
pecnliarity  in  the  structure  of  the  quartz  of  the  veins  in  Corn- 
wall, "  may  be  most  completely  explained  by  supposing  that  this 
mineral  was  deposited  from  water  holding  varions  salts  and  acids 
in  solution,  at  temperatures  varying  from  200°  C.  to  a  dull 
red  heat  vidble  in  the  dark  "  (about  940°  C).  At  this  highest 
temperature  he  conceives  that  other  minerals,  such  as  mica,  feldspar, 
and  tinstone  were  deposited ;  the  latter  mineral  containingnnmerous 
small  fiuid-cavities.  In  like  manner,  he  deduces  from  the  fiuid- 
oavitieain  the  Vesuvian  mineralajast  noticed,  a  temperature  of  from 
360°tc36O°C.  The  presenoeat  thesametimeof  bubblesorvapor- 
cavities,  and  of  glass  and  stone  cavities  in  these  crystals  shows 
them  to  have  been  formed  "at  a  dull  red  heat  under  a  pressure 
equal  to  several  thousand  feet  of  rook,  when  water  containing  a 
large  quantity  of  alkaline  salts  in  solution  was  present,  along  with 
melted  rook,  and  various  gases  and  vapors,  *  *  *  •  I  therefore 
think  that  we  must  conclude  provisionally,  that  ai  a  great  depth 
from  the  surface,  at  the  foci  of  volcanic  activity,  liquid  water  is 
present  along  with  the  melted  rocks,  and  that  it  produces  results 
which  would  not  otherwise  occur."  (Loc.  cit.,  p.  488.) 

Mr.  Sorby  has,  as  we  have  just  seen,  determined  the  temperature 
reqnisite  to  expand  the  liquid  so  as  to  fill  the  flnid-oavitie^  pro- 
vided tiiey  were  formed  under  a  pressure  not  greater  than  the  elas- 


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1864.]  T.  BTBRBT  HOHT  OW  LrPHOLOGT.  23 

adjacent  broken  ulioious  strata ;  thus  asaamiDgfor  Bmall  diBtances, 
the  characters  of  an  introsire  rook.  For  some  figures  and  deeerip- 
tions  illnatrating  these  broken  and  distorted  strata,  sse  Qeolt^  of 
Canada,  pp.  27,  28.  We  ma^  also  allude  in  this  connection  to  the 
observaliona  of  Dr.  Hitchcock  among  the  altered  strata  of  the  Green 
Uonntains,  which  seem  to  show  that  the  pebbles  of  gneiss  and  of 
quBTtz  in  certain  conglomerate  beds  have  been  so  softened  as  to  have 
been  flattened,  laminated,  and  bent  around  each  other.  (Silliman's 
Jonrnal  [2],  xxxi,  372.)  Hence,  while  the  t«ndencjr  of  the  various 
obserrationa  above  cited  is  in  bvor  of  the  indigenous  character 
of  many  rooks  hitherto  regarded  asemptive,  we  have  at  the  same 
time  evidence  that  these  rocks  are  occasionally  displaced.  We 
should  not  therefore  on  (^priori  grounds  reject  the  assertion  that 
any  metamorphto  sediment  may  sometimes  occur  in  an  exotic 
or  intrusive  form.  A  given  rock,  like  limestone  or  diorite,  may 
occur  both  as  an  indigenous  and  exotic  rock ;  and  different  por- 
tions of  the  same  mass  may  be  seen  bydiSerent  observers  under  such 
unlike  conditions  that  one  may  r^^rd  it  as  indigenous,  and  the 
other,  with  equal  reason,  may  set  it  down  as  intrusive.  It  is  evi. 
dent  then  that  to  the  Uthologist,  who  examines  locks  without 
reference  to  their  geological  relations,  the  question  of  the  exotic  or 
indigenous  character  of  a  given  rock  is,  in  most  cases,  one  alto- 
gether foreign;  and  onewhioh  can  frequently  be  decided  only  by 
the  geologist  in  the  field.  Hence,  although  generallymade  afiin- 
damental  distjnotion  in  classification,  it  will  be  disr^arded  in  the 
following  sketch  of  the  numenclatore  of  crystalline  rocks. 

I  may  here  allude  to  a  fact  which  I  have  already  noticed,  and  tried 
to  explain,  (Silliman's  Journal  [2],  xizi,  414,  and  xxxvi,  220,  note,) 
that  thronghont  the  great  metamorphic  belt  which  constitutes  the 
Appalachian  chain,  exotic  rocka  are  comparatively  rare  (at  least 
in  New  England  and  Canada)  i  hut  abound,  on  thecontrary,  among 
die  unaltered  strata  on  either  side.  IllnstrationB  of  this  are  seen 
in  the  valley  of  Lake  Champlain,  and  in  its  northward  continua- 
tion toward  Montreal,  in  those  of  the  Hudson  and  Connecticut, 
and  in  the  northeastward  condnnation  of  the  latter  valley  by  Lake 
Memphram^g  to  the  Bay  of  Chalenrs,  which  is  marked  through- 
out  by  intrusive  granites.  In  accordance  with  the  reasons  already 
assigned  for  ihis  distribution  of  exotic  rocka,  it  is  probable  that  a 
similar  condition  of  things  will  be  found  to  exist  in  other  r^ouB ; 
and  that  eruptive  rocks  will,  aa  a  general  rule,  befound  among 


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24  THE  OANASUN   NATUBALIST.  [Feb. 

unaltered,  rather  tlian  among  metamorphic  strata.  It  ie  of  course 
poB^ble  that  a  crjetallization  of  the  Bediments  ma^  in  some  caws 
take  place  aubseciuent  to  the  eruption  of  foreign  rocks  into  their 
midst.  The  rarity  of  iatrasive  rocks  among  orystalline  strata, 
sot  less  than  the  unaltered  condition  of  sedimeuts  which  are  tra- 
■versed  by  abundant  intruBive  masses,  is  a  strong  proof  of  the  fal- 
lacy of  the  still  generally  received  notion  which  connects  meta- 
jDorphism  with  the  contigaity  of  eruptive  rocks. 

II.  Olabbitioatioh  1.110  HouHotiATtru. 

itis  proposed  in  this  second  part,  to  describe  briefly  the  com- 
position, structure,  and  uomenciatnre  of  the  various  crvstailine 
Bilicated  rocks,  considered  without  reference  to  the  distinction  be- 
tween indigenous  and  intrusive  masses.  Comparatively  few  of 
these  rocks  are  homogeneouB,  orconsiat  of  a  single  mineral  species, 
and  the  names  which  have  been  applied  to  varying  mixtures  of 
different  species  are  of  course  arbitrary ;  and  as  they  have 
ofien  been  given  without  any  previous  mineralogical  study,  it  some- 
times happens,  thai,  as  in  the  case  of  the  rocks  composed  of 
anortbic  feldspars  and  pyroxene,  different  names  have  been  pro- 
posed for  varieties  very  closely  related,  or  differing  from  one 
another  only  in  texture  or  in  structure. 

The  minerals  essential  to  the  compo^itioD  of  the  rocks  under 
consideration  are  few  in  number,  and  are  as  follows:  quartz,  or- 
thoclase;  a  triclinic  feldspar  which  may  be  albite,  oligodase, 
andesine,  labradorite,  or  anorthite  ;  scapolite,  leucite,  nepheline, 
sodalite  ;  natrolite,  or  some  allied  zeolite ;  iolite,  garnet,  epidote, 
wollastonite,  hornblende,  pyroxene,  olivine,  chloiitoid,  serpentine, 
diallage ;  muscovite,  pblogopite,  and  some  other  micas  ;  chlorite, 
and  talc.  To  these  mn;  be  added  as  accidental  ingredients,  the  car- 
bonates of  lime,  magQeaia,  and  protoxyd  of  iron,  together  witli 
magnetite,  ilmenite,  and  sphene.  The  silicates  which,  like  tourma- 
line, beryl,  zircon,  sp3dnmene,  ami  lepidolite,  contain  considerable 
portions  of  the  rarer  elements,  and  olten  occur  with  quartz  and 
feldspar  in  granitic  veins,  whoie  origin  has  already  been  alluded 
to,  enter  at  most  in  very  small  quantity  into  great  rock-masses. 

The  varieties  of  structure  in  crystalline  rocks  are  the  more 
deserving  of  notice  as  they  have  led  to  a  great  multiplication  of 
names.  We  may  note  first  the  granitoid  structure,  in  which  the 
mineral  elements  are  distinctly  crystalline,  a«  in  granite.    From 


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1864.]  T.  BTEBBT  HUNT  OB  IJTHOLoaT.  21 

indigenous  rocks,  or  sediments  altered  in  Htu,  and  exotic  rooke,  or 
'Sediments  displaced  and  translated,  forming  eruptive  andintrusive 
msBses.  Under  the  head  of  exotic  rocks  is  however  to  be  included 
another  class  of  crystalline  aggregates,  which  are  for  the  most 
part  distinguished  by  their  structure  from  injected  or  intrueive 
masses.  I  refer  to  the  accumulations  which  fill  mineral  veins,  and 
which  doubtless  have  beeu  deposited  from  aqneous  eolations- 
While  their  peculiar  arrangement,  with  the  predominance  of 
quartz  and  non-silicated  species,  generally  serves  to  distinguish 
the  contents  of  these  veins  from  those  of  injected  plutonio  rocks, 
there  are  not  wanting  cases  in  which  the  predominance  of  feld- 
spar and  mica  gives  rise  to  aggregates  which  have  a  certain 
resemblance  to  dykes  of  intrusive  granite.  From  these  however, 
true  veins  are  generally  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  miner- 
als containing  boron,  fluorine,  phosphorus,  ctesium,  rubidium,  lith- 
ium, glucinum,  zirconium,  tin,  colnmbium,.eto. ;  elements  which 
are  rare,  or  found  only  in  minute  quantities  in  the  great  mass  of 
sediments,  but  are  here  accnmulated  by  deposition  &om  waters, 
which  have  removed  these  elements  from  the  sedimentary  rocks, 
and  deposited  them  subsequently  in  fissures. 

No  one  at  the  present  day  will  probably  be  found  to  deny  the 
plutonic  origin  of  most  non-stratified  rocks,  so  that  the  once  vexed 
qnesUons  of  the  neptunists  and  plutonists  may  be  regarded  as  set- 
tled. If  however  we  go  back  but  a  few  years  in  the  history  of 
geol(^,it  will  be  found  that  an  eruptive  origin  was  then  claimed 
for  many  rocks  which  are  now  admitted  to  be  indigenous.  It  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  refer  to  the  views  of  those  who  have  main- 
tained the  exotic  character  of  many  qoartzites  and  crystalline 
limestones,  when  a  majority  of  writers,  even  to  the  present  day, 
class  serpentines,  eupbotides,  and  hyperites  among  eruptive  rocks; 
although  the  experience  of  every  field-geologist  is  accumulating, 
fromyear  toyear,  agreatmasa  of  evidence  in  &vor  of  the  indige- 
nous nature  of  all  these  rocks.  The  sedimentary  and  indige. 
nona  character  of  very  many  granites,  syenites,  and  diorites  will 
now  no  longer  be  questioned.  Thus  we  find,  for  example,  that 
the  melap'jyres  of  the  Tyrol,  which,  in  Yon  Buch's  too-famous 
theory  ot  dolomitization,  were  supposed  to  have  been  erupted  to- 
gether with  magnesian  vapors  which  effected  the  alteration  of 
the  adjacent  limestones,  have  been  shoirn  by  Fournet  to  be  sedi- 
ments of  Carboniferous  age,  metamorphosed  in  sita, — indigenous 


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22  THE  OAHADIAN  NATDBALIST.  [Fe1>. 

rooks,  which  were  altered  before  the  Juraasic  dolomiteB  were  <!e- 
powted.  {BuL  Soc  Geol.  France  [2],  vi,  506-616).  In  like  manner 
we  find  Scipion  Oraa  conclnding  from  his  researches  tfn  the 
anthraoitic  rocks  of  the  A.lps,  that  the  serpentines,  cnphotidee,  poi^ 
phyries,  and  spilites,  which  are  there  fonnd  associated  with  crys- 
taltine  schists,  are  all  of  sedimentary  origin,  hot  have  been  to  pro- 
foundly altered  in  situ  as  to  bare  lost  nearly  all  traces  of  sedimen- 
tary origin.  (Ann.  des  Mines  [S],  v,  ilB.)  We  might  add  that 
the  tendency  of  recent  investigationB  has  been  to  show  that  the 
protogines,  or  granites  of  the  summit  of  the  Alps,  are  Tertiary  strata 
altered  in  place ;  thus  confirming  the  bold  assertion  made  by  Kef- 
erstein  in  1834,  that  these  granites  are  altered  strata  of  yiyicA. 
(This  Journal  [2],  xxix,  123, 124.)  Lesley's  recent  investigations 
of  the  granites  of  the  White  Mountains  of  New  Hampshire,  show 
them  to  be  clearly  stratified  sedimentary  deposits  in  nearly  hori- 
zontal layers.  (American  Mining  Joarnsl,  1861,page99;  Silliman's 
Joqmal  [2],  iwi,  403.)  The  ophites  (amphibolites)  of  the  Pyre- 
nees, which  by  Dafrenoy  and  other  French  geologists  have  been 
regarded  as  eruptive,  and  were  by  the  former  imagined  to  be  in 
some  mysterious  manner  related  to  the  rock-salt  and  gypsum  of 
the  r^on,  which  he  snpposed  to  be,  like  the  ophites,  of  posterior 
origin  to  the  enclosing  strata  (Eiplic.  de  la  Carte  Geol.  de  France, 
i,  96),  are  according  to  a  recent  note  by  Virlet,  not  emptive,  but 
altered  indigenous  rocks;  belonging,  together  with  the  associated 
gypsum  and  aaliferous  strata,  to  the  Triassic  series.  (Comptee 
Eendus  de  I' Acad.,  Aug.  1863,  p.  232). 

It  wonld  be  easy  to  multiply  examples  of  this  kind,  which  show 
that  a  careful  study  of  very  many  of  the  crystalline  rocks  hitherto 
regarded  as  ernptive,  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  they  are  really 
iadigenons  rocks.  At  the  same  lime,  many  of  these  indigenous 
rocks  appear  to  have  been  at  one  time  in  a  soil  semi-fluid  con- 
dition, which  permitted  movements  obliterating  the  marks  of 
sedimentary  origin,  and  producing  other  results  which  show  the 
passage  into  eruptive  rocks.  Thus  the  crystalline  liniestones  of 
the  Laurentian  series  in  Canada  are  freijuently  interstratified  with 
thin  beds  of  gneiss  and  quartzite,  both  of  which  are  often  found 
broken,  contorted,  xnd  even  twisted  spirally,  in  a  manner  wUch 
indicates  great  flexibility  of  the  silicious  layers,  as  well  as  violent 
movements  in  the  calcareous  rock.  The  latter  is  in  some  cases 
found  in  the  form  of  thin  seams  or  considerable  dykes  among  the 


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1864.]  T.   STXOBT   HUNT  OM   LITHOLOQT.  19 

tic  force  of  the  vapor.  This  ofcourBeiepre&ants  the  lowest  temper- 
atnre  at  which  the  consolidation  could  have  taken  place,  and 
varies  from  340"  to  380"  in  the  VesOvian  minerals,  and  368** 
in  the  quartz  of  the  trachyte  of  Ponza,  to  a  mean  of  216°  in  the 
Oornish  granites,  to  99°  in  those  of  the  Scottish  Highlands,  and 
«ven  descends  to  89°  in  some  parts  of  the  granite  of  Aberdeen. 
But  this  low  temperature  is  improbable,  and  inasmncb  as  water 
and  aqueous  solutions  are  compressible,  their  volume  would  be 
considerably  reduced  under  a  great  pressarc  of  superincumbent 
rock.  Mr.  Sorby  has  therefore  calcnlated  the  pressure  in  feet  of 
rock  which  would  be  required  to  compress  the  liquid  so  much  that 
It  wonld  just  fill  the  cavities  at  300°  0.  The  uumbara  thus  ob- 
tained will  therefore  represent  the  actual  pressure,  provided  the 
rock  was  in  each  case  consolidated  at  that  temperature.  It  would 
thns  appear  that  the  trachyte  of  Fonza  was  solidified  near  the  sur- 
face, or  beneath  a  pressure  of  only  4000  feet  of  rock ;  while  for  the 
Aberdeen  granite  the  pressure  was  equal  to  not  less  than  ?8,000 
feet,  and  for  the  mean  of  the  Highland  granites  16,000.  The 
Cornish  granites  vary  from  82,400  to  63,600,  aud  give  as  a  mean 
50,000  feet  of  pressure.  In  this  connection  Mr.  Sorby  remarks 
that  from  Mr.  Robert  Hunt's  observations  on  the  mean  increase  of 
temperature  in  the  mines  of  Cornwall,  a  heat  of  360°  C.  would 
be  attained  at  a  depth  of  63,G0O  feet. 

The  observations  upon  the  metamorphio  crystalline  schists  in 
the  vicinity  of  these  various  granites  show  that  their  constituent 
minerals  must  have  crystallized  at  abont  the  same  tempera- 
ture as  the  granite  itself;  affording,  as  Mr.  Sorby  observes,'"  a 
strong  argument  in  favor  of  the  BQpposition  thai  the  temperature 
concerned  in  the  normal  metamorphism  of  gneissoid  rocks  was  due 
to  their  haviug  been  at  a  sufficiently  great  depth  beneath  superin- 
cumbent strata";  and  be  concludes  that  with  regard  to  roclra  and 
minerals  formed  at  high  temperatures,  we  have  "  at  one  end  of  the 
chiun  erupted  lavas,  indicating  as  perfect  and  complete  fuNon  as 
the  slags  of  furnaces,  and  at  the  other  end  simple  qnartz-veins,  hav- 
ing a  structure  precisely  analogous  to  that  of  crystals  deposited 
irom  water.  Between  these  there  is  every  connecting  link,  and 
the  central  link  is  granite."  When  the  water,  which  at  great 
-depths  was  associated  with  the  melted  rock,  was  given  ofi*  as  vapor 
while  the  mass  remained  fused,  slag-like  lavas  resulted.  If 
however  the  water  conld  not  escape  in  vapor,  it  remained,  as  we 


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20  THB  CANADIAN  NATDKALI8T.  [Feb. 

bave  Men,  to  take  its  part  in  tlie  crystal) izatioD,  in  some  cases 
forming  bydrated  minerals ;  and  tha  excess  of  it,  as  Mr.  Sorby  sug- 
gests, passed  np  as  a  highly  heated  liqnid,  holding  dissolved 
materiatB,  vhich  would  afterwards  be  deposited  in  the  form  of 
mineral  veins  in  the  fissures  of  snperiDcumbent  rocks. 

I  have  thought  it  well  to  give  at  some  length  the  remarkable 
results  and  conclusions  by  Hr,  Sorby,  because  I  conceive  that  they 
have  not  as  yet  received  the  full  degree  of  consideration  to  which 
they  are  entitled,  and  are  perhaps  little  known  to  some  of  my 
readers.*  The  temperature  deduced  by  him  from  the  examination 
of  the  crystals  of  horublende  and  feldspar  from  Vesutrius  is 
curiously  supported  by  the  experiments  of  Daubr^e ;  who  obtained 
crystallized  pyroxene,  feldspar,  and  qnartz,  in  presence  of  alkaline 
solutioDE,  at  a  temperatnre  of  low  redness^  while  De  Senarmont 
crystallized  quartz,  fluor-spar,  and  sulphate  of  barytes  in  presence 
of  water,  at  temperatures  between  200°  and  300°  C.  At  the  same 
time  the  depodts  from  the  thermal  watera  at  Flombidres  show 
that  crystalliue  hydrous  silicates,  such  as  apopbyllite,  harmotomer 
and  chabaziLe,  have  formed  at  temperatures  hnt  little  above  80°  C. 

We  concave  that  the  deeply  buried  sedimentary  strata,  under 
the  combined  action  of  beat  and  water,  have,  according  to  their 
composition,  been  rendered  more  or  less  plastic,  and  in  many  cases 
have  lost  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  tha  marks  of  their  sedimen- 
tary origin,  although  still  retmning  their  original  strati  graphical 
position.  Id  other  cases  they  have  been  displaced,  and  by  pres- 
sure forced  among  disrupted  strata,  thus  assuming  the  form  of 
eruptive  rocks ;  which,  becoming  consolidated  under  a  sufficient 
pressure,  retain  tha  same  mineral  characters  as  in  the  parent  beds. 
It  is  only  those  rocks  which,  like  lavas,  have  solidified  at  or  near 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  consequently  under  feeble  pressure^ 
which  present  mineralogical  characters  dissimilar  to  those  of  the 
undisturbed  crystalline  sediments.  With  this  exception,  the 
only  distinction  which  can  be  drawn  between  stratified  and 
unstratified  masses  must  in  most  oases  be  based  upon  their  attitude,. 
and  their  relation  to  the  adjacent  rocks. 

In  view  of  these  considerationslhave,  in  previous  papers,adopt- 
ed  for   geological   pui^Knes  a  divirioD  of  crystalline  rocks  into 

*  Sw  farther  tha  late  observations  of  Zirkal  conGrmlng  those  of  Sorby. 
Proc.  Imp.  Acad.  Tianua,  March  13,  1G63  ;  in  abstract  in  Qoar.  Jonr,. 
0«ol.  Soc.,  vol.  xii. 


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1864.]  T.  8TXEUIT   HUNT  OH  LITHOLOOT.  29 

] 

ite),  natrolite,  ioHte,  aod  magnetite  are  sometimes  fonod  as  ele- 
ments in  granitic,  gneissic,  and  B^enitic  rock?.  Tfae  name  of 
miascite  is  given  to  a  gianitia  minatare  of  orthoclase  and  black 
mica  with  elieoiite,  eome times  with  hornblende,  al bite,  nndi^uartz. 

The  etTDCture  of  these  orthosite  rocke  girea  rise  also  to  a  great 
variety  of  names ;  thus  to  coarsely  lamellar  granites  the  name  of 
pegmatite  is  sometimes  given,  while  fine-gnu ned  mixtures  of  ortho- 
dase  and  quartz  have  received  the  names  of  granuli;c,  leptinit« 
and  earite,  or  when  apparently  homogeneous  and  cryiito-crystat- 
line  are  called  petrosilex.  These  latter  forms  often  become  porphyr- 
itic  from  the  presence  of  crystals  of  orthoclase,  giving  rise  to  or- 
thoclase-porphyry,  or  orthophyre.  In  some  of  these  porphyries,  aa 
in  those  of  Grenville,  to  be  described  in  the  third  part  of  this  paper, 
quartz  is  also  present  in  distinct  grains  or  crystals ;  while  in  some 
of  the  red  antique  porphyries  the  feldspathic  base  contains  no 
excess  of  silica,  and  occasionally  encloses  crystals  of  oligoclaae  or 
of  hornblende.  In  many  cases  the  granites,  syenites,  orthophyresr 
and  other  ortbosite  rocks  just  mentioned  are  intmsive;  vrhile  iu 
other  instances,  rocks  litbo logically  indistingaiehable  from  these  are 
indigenous,  and  becoming  schistose  pass  into  gneisa  and  mioa- 
schist 

The  rocks  to  which  the  name  of  trachyte  has  been  given  are 
generally  composed  in  great  part  of  orthoclase  (sanidine).  The 
typical  varieties  of  these  rocks  are  white  or  of  pale  colors,  granu- 
lar or  finely  crystalline,  and  frequently  porous  or  cellular.  They 
appear  to  consist  of  gr^ns,  crystak,  or  lamellte  of  orthoclase,  aggre- 
gated withont  any  cementing  medinm,  and  to  this  seems  to  be  due 
that  roughness  ta  which  the  rock  owesils  name.  Oligoclaae,  qnartzi 
hornblende,  and  mica  are  also  met  with  in  this  rock,  which  becom- 
ing coarsely  granular,  passes  into  granite.  Such  is  tfae  case  with 
the  trachytes  of  the  Sierra  of  Garthageoa  in  Spain,  described  by 
Fournet  as  passing  from  a  dull  rough  grayish  feldspathic  mass, 
into  a  highly  crystalline  aggregate  of  feldspar  and  mica,  with  or 
without  hyaline  quartz,  enclosing  horoblende,  red  garnet,  and  fine 
blue  iolite.    (Comptes  Rendns,  iliv,  p.  1834.) 

The  trachytic  texture  is  not  confined  to  orthosite  rocks.  Abich 
has  described  under  the  name  of  tracby-dolerites  a  group  of  tra- 
chytoid  anorthosites  (daleritee).  The  cone  of  the  Soufrifire  of 
Gnadaloupe  is  described  by  Derille  as  a  rongh  granular  rock 
having  the  external  characters  of  trkcbyte,  from  which  it  is  dis- 


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30  THI  OANADUN  KAT0EA.LIBT.  [Feb. 

tinguished  by  its  somewhat  greater  density  (2'76).  It  conaists 
essentially  of  labradorite,  with  a  little  qnartz,  pyroxene,  olirine, 
and  magnetite.  (Bui.  Boc.  Geol.  de  France  [2],  viii,  426.)  Hnm- 
boldt  designates  the  trachy-dolerites  of  Etna  and  of  the  Peak  of 
Teneriffe  as  trachytes  (Comptes  Bendus,  xliv,  1067) ;  to  that  this 
ward,  like  porphyry,  comes  to  indicate  nothing  more  than  a  pecn- 
laiity  of  stmctnre,  which  may  be  assumed  by  varions  feldspathio 
rooks.  The  trachytic  ortbosites,  as  we  hare  seen,  pass  into  gran- 
ites, ftoia  which  they  do  not  diSer  in  chemical  composition ;  and 
their  differences  in  texture  probably  depend  upon  the  &ct  that  the 
one  was  solidified  under  great  pressure,  and  the  other  near  the  sur- 
ftce,  trachytes  passing  infoot  intolavaa.  TheobserrationBof  Sorby 
on  the  flnid-caritiea  in  the  crystals  of  granites  and  of  trachytes 
are  in  point. 

Among  the  intrnsiveroeksofOanada  tobe  described  are  granitoid, 
compact,  and  earthy  varieUes  of  trachytic  orthosites,  besides  tra- 
chytic porphyiiea.  These  rocks  often  contsin  disseminated  earthy 
carbonates,  sometimes  in  considerable  amount;  as  Deville  had 
alreadyshownforaome  of  the  trachytes  of  Hungary,  and  as  I  have 
also  observed  for  those  of  the  Siebengebirge  on  the  Rhine.  Tra- 
(^ytes  also  hold  la  some  cases  disseminated  portions  of  a  zeolite, 
apparently  natrolite ;  and  through  tlus  mixture  pass  into  phono- 
lites,  of  which  a  characteristic  variety  will  be  noticed  in  this  paper. 
Obsidian  and  pumice-etone,  which  are  often  associated  with  oitho- 
clase  trachytes,  are  related  to  them  in  composition ;  and  pitchstone 
and  perlite  are  similar  rocks,  differing  however  in  contuning  some 
combined  water.  Rocks  resembling  pitchstone,  and  somedmea 
porphyritic  Irom  the  presence  of  distinct  crystals  of  feldspar,  occar 
in  Uie  south  side  of  Michipiooten  Island,  Lake  Superior,  but  have 
not  yet  been  examined.  (Aualyaes  by  Jackson  and  by  Whitney  of 
thepitchstoneaof  Isle  Royale  will  be  found  in  SilHman's  Journal 
[2],  xi,  401 ;  xvii,  128.) 

The  presence  of  an  anorthic  feldspar,  generally  oligodase,  in 
many  granites  and  trachytes,  not  less  than  the  admixture  of  or- 
thoclase  crystals  in  some  of  the  trachytic  do'erites  of  Etna,  serves 
to  connect  the  orthosite  with  the  anortbosite  family.  Great  mssses 
ofindigenonsrock  in  the  Labrador  series  in  Canada,  are  made  up  of 
almost  pure  granular  labradorite,  or  related  triclinic  feldspars,  and 
might  be  termed|normal  anortJiosites.  (Silliman's  Journal  [2],  xxxyi, 
224;  Oeol.  of  Canada,  588.)     In  most  cases  however,  these  feld- 


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1B64.]  T.  STSBET  BUNT  ON  UTHOLOOT.  27 

however  be  foand  that  the  lioe  between  the  two  clasBes  cannot 
always  be  distinctly  drawn;  inBBintich  as  rocks  containing 
ortfaoclase  and  qaartz  often  include  triclinic  feldspars  such  as^ 
albite  and  oligoclase,  and  by  an  admixture  of  hornbleode  offer  a 
transition  to  rocks  of  tbe  Becond  class.  On  the  other  hand,  quartz 
is  sometimes  found  with  triclinic  feldspars  and  hornblende  in 
the  rocks  of  the  second  class.  BoBides  these  two  feldspathio 
classes,  there  is  a  third  small  but  interesting  group,  in  whicb  an 
aluminous  silicate  of  high  specific  gravity,  snch  as  garnet^ 
epidote,  or  zoieite  replaces  the  feldspar  wholly  or  in  part  Tbeee 
minerals  being  basic  silicates  rich  in  alumina,  the  relations  of 
this  group  are  naturally  with  those  of  the  second  class,  although 
varieties  of  these  species  are  fonnd  in  rocks  whicb  belong  to  tbe 
first  class. 

The  ulioo-aluminons  crystalline  rocks  may  thus  be  convenient- 
ly divided  into  three  families.  The  firsk  of  these  includes  those 
rocks  in  which  the  aluminoaa  mineral  is  orthoclase  (ortbose), 
firom  which  tb'ey  may  he  conveniently  designated  by  the  name  of 
the  OTlhoiite  family.  The  second  includes  those  in  which  the  alu- 
minous element  is  an  anorthio  or  triclinic  feldspar,  and  may  be 
designated  as  the  anorthonte  family :  chemically  related  to  ibis 
are  those  rocks  holding  as  one  of  their  elements  nepbeline,  leuoite, 
oTRcapolite.  The  third  familyincludesthose  rocks  which  cout^n 
an  aluminous  silicate  of  high  density,  as  epidote,  zoisite,  garnet, 
andalnsite,  or  byanite,  in  place  of  a  feldspathide.  lolite  or  dich- 
roitc,  which  enters  into  tbe  composition  of  some  orthosite  rocks, 
appears  from  its  atomic  volume  to  be  related  to  the  feldspars,  and 
ahonld  take  ita  place  along-side  of  anorthite  and  scapolite  as  a 
magnesian  feldspathide,  while  beryl  in  like  manner  appears  to 
be  a  glucinic  feldspathide. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice,  that  some  feldspars  having  the  crystalliza- 
tioQ  and  density  of  orthoclase,  nevertheless  contain  large  proper- 
tionsof  soda.  The  loioclase  of  Breithaupt  appears  from  the 
analyses'of  Smith  and  Bmsb  to  be  a  true  aoda-orthoclase  (Silliman's 
Joama)  [2],  ivi,  43) ;  while  the  aanidine  or  glassy  feldspar  of 
many  trachytes  contains  potash  and  soda  in  nearly  equal  propor- 
tions. Tbe  name  of  potash-albite  hns  been  given  to  some 
feldspars  of  this  composition;  hat  tbe  t^achytic  rocks  here- 
after to  be  described  contain  feldspars,  which,  withont  being 
glassy,  have  the  composition  of  sanidtne,  together  with  a  cleavage- 


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28  THE  OAHADUH  KATTTBALUT.  [Feb. 

and  specific  gravity  which  ehov  them  to  belong  to  orthoclaw,  rather 
than  toalbite.  The  anorthic  feldspars  ofier  in  their  compoution  enoh 
gradatioDH  ftom  albite  to  anorthite,  that  the  varionB  intermediate 
apeoiea  which  have  been  distinguished  seem  to  paas  into  each 
Other.  (Silliman's  Journal  [2],  xviii,  270,  Phil.  Mag.  [4],  ix,  262.) 

Next  to  the  feldspars  in  lithological  importance  are  the  two 
species,  pyroxeoe  and  hornblende.  These  are  sometimes  found 
associated  in  the  aame  rock,  and  the  varieUee  of  pyroxene  known 
as  diallage  and  smaragdite  are  frequently  earronnded  or  penetra- 
ted by  hornblende.  This  association  of  the  two  species  should  be 
kept  in  miad,  inasmuch  aa  the  subetitution  of  pyroxene  for  horn- 
blende in  anortbosltea,  has  been  made  the  basis  of  a  eabdivision  iti 
olasdfication.  (Silliman's  Joamai  [2],  Txvii,  339.)  Among  the  micas 
found  in  eilicated  rocks,  besides  muscoTite  and  a  magaesian  mica 
(phlc^opite  or  hiotite),  are  to  be  incliided  the  hydrated  micas 
observed  by  Haughton  in  many  of  the  Irish  granites.  Of  these  the 
one  is  margarodite,  and  the  other  a  uniaxial  black  mica,  also  hydra- 
ted, which  he  has  referred  to  lepidomelane.  (Trans.  Royal  Irish 
Acad.,  xiiii,  593.)  The  presence  of  from  four  to  six  hundredths  of 
water  in  the  micas  ofthose  granites  is  important  in  conneution  with 
the  evidence  already  given  of  the  intervention  of  water  in  the  for- 
mation of  granitic  rocks.  These  t^o  hydrous  micas  were  often 
found  by  Haughton  to  be  united  in  the  same  crystal ;  and  Rose  has 
remarked  a  similar  association  of  potash-mica  and  magaosian  mica 
in  certain  granites.    (Senl^  die  Felaartcn,  p.  206.) 

A  scienliSc  nomenclature  for  compound  rocks  presents  such 
great  difficulties  that  we  must  be  content  for  the  most  part  with 
trivial  names  whiiji  have  from  time  to  time  imposed.  In  the  case 
of  simple  rocks,  the  terms  quartzite,  pyroxeDite,aDorthosite,  and  o^ 
thoolasite  are  sufficiently  de&nite,  or  they  may  be  farther  charac- 
terized aa  normal  orthoclasite,  etc ;  while  quartzoae,  micaceous, 
and  quartzo-micaceo-hornblendic  ortboclasite  would  designate 
various  compound  rocks  of  which  ortboclase  is  the  base.  Such 
namea,  however  doBcriptivc,  will  never  replace  the  older  terms 
granite,  syenite,  etc.,  which  are  employed  to  designate  certain 
forms  of  orthosite  rocks.  The  frequent  aBiOciation  of  a  triclinic 
feldspar  (oligoclase)  with  ortboclase  in  groaite  rocks,  and  the  par- 
tial or  total  replacement  of  the  micas  generally  preseet  in  these,  by 
hornblende,  by  chlorite,  or  by  talc,  giving  rise  in  the  latter  case 
to  what  is  called  protogine,  are  well   kaowu.    Nepheliae  (elieo- 


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1861.]  T.  STEKRT  STMT  ON  LITHOLoaT.  25 

this,  tbere  U  a  gradual  paaaage  throngli  granalar  into  compact 
Tarietiee  of  rock.  Most  of  these  are  simply  finely  granular,  and 
are  rightly  entitled  to  the  distinotion  of  crypto -crystalline ;  but 
otiiera,  like  the  pitchstones,  obsidians,  and  lavas,  are  apparently 
amoTphoas,  and  are  natural  glaeses.  Id  some  cases  the  constitnent 
mioeraU  may  be  so  arranged  as  to  give  a  schistose  or  a  goeissoid 
form  to  a  rock.  This  arrangement  is  generally  to  be  looked  apon  as 
an  eridencc  of  stratification ;  but  eomething  similar  is  occasionally 
•observed  in  eruptive  masses.  In  the  latter  ca^  it  generally 
Beems  to  arise  from  the  arrangement  of  crystals  during  the 
movement  of  the  half-liquid  crystalline  mass  ;  but  it  may  in  some 
instances  arise  from  the  subsequent  formation  of  crystals  arranged 
in  parallel  planes. 

See  on  this  point  Naomann  On  the  Probable  Smptive  Origin  0/ 
Several  Kindt  of  Oneitt,  etc.  ;  Leonhard  and  Bronn,  Neues  Jahr. 
bach  for  1847,  and  Poulett  Serope,  Geol.  Journal,  xii,  345.  I 
consider  however  that  their  views  are  to  be  adopted  with  great  re- 
serve, and  admitted  only  in  a  very  few  cases.  The  ribbanded  struc- 
ture of  some  porphyries  and  clinkstones,  as  noticed  by  Serope,  is 
undoubtedly  the  result  of  movements  in  the  liquid  mass,  and  the 
same  is  true  of  some  of  the  granitoid  dolerites  to  be  described  in 
the  third  part  of  this  paper ;  but  the  eruptive  origin  assumed  by 
Darwin,  Naumann,  and  some  others  for  great  areas  of  gneiss  and 
gneiasoid  granite,  seems  to  a  student  of  the  crystalline  rocks  of  this 
continent  utterly  untenable.  As  has  been  already  remarked,  the 
progress  of  each  year's  investigation  restores  to  the  category  of 
indigenous  rocks  many  of  those  previously  regarded  as  eruptive, 
and  will,  I  am  convinced,  cenfirra  the  principle  which  I  have  Itud 
down  of  the  comparative  rarity  of  exotic  rocks  in  crystalline 
«nd  in  metamorphic  regions. 

Occasionally  the  crystallization  of  a  rock  takes  places  around  cer- 
tain centres,  giving  rise  to  rounded  masses  which  have  a  radiated  or 
a  concentric  structure,  and  constitute  the  so-calledglobularor  orbi- 
cular rocks.  Distinct  crystals  of  some  mioeral,  generally  feld- 
spar, augite,  or  olivine,  are  often  found  imbedded  in  rocks  having  a 
compact  bate.  To  such  rocks  the  name  of  porphyry  is  given,  and 
by  analogy  a  rock  with  a  granular  base  enclosing  distinct  crystals 
aedeaignated  as  porphyritic  or  porphyroid.  Amorphous  or  vitreous 
rocks,  as  pitchstones,  are  in  like  manner  sometimes  porphyritic- 
The  name  of  porphyry,  at  first  given  to  a  peculiar  type  of  feld- 


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26  THE  CANADIAN  MATUBALIST.  [Feb- 

spathic  rocb>,  has  now  become  bo  extended  [hat  it  is  to  be  ragarded 
as  only  indicating  an  accident  of  strncture.  Tlie  title  of  amyg- 
daloid is  given  to  various  rocks  having  roanded  cavities  whioh  are 
wholly  or  partially  filled  with  varions  crystalline  minerals.  The 
base  of  these  rocks  is  generally  granular  or  crypto-CTystalline ; 
but  IB  sometimes  amorphous,  resembling  a  scoria  or  vesionlar 
lava,  the  cavities  of  which  have  been  filled  by  infiltration.  Such  is 
doubtlees  the  origin  of  Bome  amygdaloids.  In  more  cases  how- 
ever these  cavities  have  probably  been  formed  like  those  often 
found  in  dolomites,  and  in  some  other  rocks,  by  a  contraction  daring 
solidification.  Forphyroid  rocks,  in  which  quartz,  orUiocIase,  and 
other  minerals  are  arranged  in  orbicular  masses,  are  also  sometimes- 
designated  as  amygdaloids,  and  may  be  confounded  with  the 
two  previoos  classes  in  which  the  imbedded  minerals  are  the  resnlt 
of  subsequent  infiltration.  Allied  in  stmcure  and  origin  to  the- 
last  are  what  are  named  variolites  or  variolitic  rocks.  (See 
Geology  of  Canada,  pp.  606,  607.) 

The  masses  into  which  some  aluminous  minerals  enter  as  a 
prominent  element  constitute  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  rock^ 
now  under  consideration.  These  are  naturally  divided  into  two 
classes,  whose  origin  we  hav  e  pointed  out  in  a  recent  paper  already 
referred  to.  (Sillimarfs  Journal  [2],  xxxvi,  218.)  The  first  of  these  is- 
characterized  by  containing  an  excess  of  silica,  with  aportion  of  alu- 
mina, much  potash,  and  small  portionsonlyof  lime,  magnesia,  and 
oxyd  of  iron.  The  second  class  contains  a  smaller  amount  of  silica, 
and  laiger  proportions  of  alumina,  lime,  magnesia,  and  ozyd  of  iroDr 
with  eoda,  and  but  litUe  potash.  These  chemical  difierencea  are 
made  apparent  In  the  more  coarsely  crystalline  rocks,  by  the  nature 
of  the  constituent  minerals  ;  and  in  the  compact  varieties,  by  differ- 
ences in  color,  specific  gravity,  and  hardaess.  Thns  in  the  rocks  of 
the  first  class  the  predominant  mineral  is  orthoclase,  generally  asso- 
ciated with  quartz,  and  the  composite  rocks  of  this  class  seldom 
have  adensitymnch  above  that  of  these  species;  or  from  2.6  to  2.1.. 
In  the  second  class,  the  characteristic  mineral  is  a  triclinic  feldspar, 
with  pyroxene  or  hornblende,  the  feldspar  sometimes  predominant ; 
while  in  other  cases  the  pyroiena  or  hornblende  makes  np  the- 
principal  part  of  the  rock.  The  presence  of  these  latter  minerals 
generally  gives  to  the  fine-grained  rocks  of  this  class  a  dark  color,, 
a  hardness  somewhat  inferior  to  the  more  silicious  class,  and  a 
denuty  which  may  vary  from  2.7  to  more  than  3.0.     It  will 


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1864.]  T.  8TKKBT  HXmT  ON  LITHOLOaT.  31 

Bp&n  are  intenningled  with  some  other  mineral,  commoaly  horn- 
blende or  pyrozene. 

The  name  of  dlorite  is  by  good  authoritieB  restricted  to  rocks 
-whose  predominant  elemenU  are  tricliDio  feldspars  with  horobloDde ; 
while  the  aamea  of  diabase  and  dolerite  distinguish  those  rocks  in 
which  pyroxene  takes  the  place  of  hornblende.  In  some  anortho- 
ule  rocks  however,  pyroxene  and  hornblende  are  intimately 
associated,  so  that  a  passage  is  established  from  diorite  to  dia- 
base. The  feldspar  of  diorites  varies  in  composition  from  albite  to 
■anorthite,  and  ia  occasiooalty  accompanied  by  quaru.  This, 
though  most  frequent  with  the  more  silidous  feldspars,  is  some- 
times met  with  in  diorites  which  contain  feldspars  approaching  to 
anortbite  in  composition.  Sometimes  the  two  oonstJtaent  minerals 
are  distanct  and  wall  crystallized,  constituting  a  granitoid  rock : 
fine  examplee  of  this,  hereafter  to  be  described,  occur  in  the  intru- 
sive hills  of  Yamaskft  and  Mount  Johnson.  At  other  times  the 
diorite  is  finely  granular  or  compact,  when  its  color  is  generally 
of  a  green  more  or  leas  dark  &om  the  disseminated  hornblende, 
aod  it  takes  tbe  name  of  greenstone.  The  greenstones  of  the 
Hnronian  series  are  in  part  at  least  dioritea,  and  probably  iadige- 
nons;  bnt  a  great  number  of  the  so-called  greenstone-traps  are 
pyroienic,  and  belong  to  the  class  of  diabase  or  dolerite.  Diorite 
not  nnfreqnently  contains  a  mica, which  ia  generally  brown  or  black 
in  color.  Chlorite,  magnctjte,  ilmenite,  and  sphene  often  occur  as 
disseminated  minerals,  as  also  carbonates  of  lime,  magnesia,  and 
oxyd  of  iron.  The  fine^gr^ned  diorites  are  frequently  porphy- 
ritic  from  the  presence  of  crystals  of  feldspar  or  of  hornblende. 
Occasionally  this  rock  is  concretionary  in  its  structure,  as  in  the 
orbicular  diorite  or  napoleonite  of  Corsica;  which  contains  a 
feldspar  allied  to  anorthite,  with  hornblende,  and  some  quartz. 
The  Dorite  from  Sweden  is  a  granular  mixture  of  a  similar  kind, 
.containing  also  mica ;  and  the  ophite  of  some  writers  is  a  diorite 
in  which  hornblende  greatly  predominates. 

The  rocks  which  are  essentially  composed  of  anorthio  feldspar 
and  pyroxene,  present  still  greater  diversities  than  the  diorites,  and 
have  received  various  names  based  npon  differences  in  texture  and 
in  the  form  of  the  pyroxenic  element  It  is  here  proposed  to  re- 
strict the  name  of  dolerite  to  such  of  these  rocks  as  contain  the 
^lack  angitic  variety  of  pyroxene,  and  to  inclnde  the  mixtures  of 
triclinio  feldspars  with  all  the  other  varieties  of  this  species  under 


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32  THZ  OANADUn  MATDRALIST.  [Feb> 

the  head  of  diabase.  The  finer-gruned  aad  impalpable  varieties 
of  diabase  have  received  the  name  of  aphanite ;  which  is  often  india- 
tjnguiahable  fh)ra  thecorreapoiiding  forms  of  diorite,  and  like  these 
may  become  porphyritic,  giving  rise  to  the  augite-porpbj'ry  of  some 
anthers.  Different  varieties  of  this  porphyry  have  received  the 
name  of  labradophyre,  oligophyre,  and  albitophyre,  according  to 
the  composition  of  the  imbedded  feldspar  crystals.  These  are 
sometimes  accompanied  by  crystals  of  augite,  or  are  altogether 
replaced  by  them. 

The  name  of  hyperite  or  hyperathenite  has  been  given  to  those 
varieties  of  diabase  which  contain  hypersthenc  or  diall^e.  These 
rocks  occur  abundantly  in  the  Labrador  series,  where  the  hypers- 
thene  in  them  sometimes  takes  the  form  of  a  green  diallage,  or 
passes  into  a  finely  granular  pyroxene,  and  is  associated  with  red 
garnet,  ilmenite,  and  a  little  brown  mica;  in  addi^on  to  which 
epidote  is  add  to  occur  in  the  byperites  of  the  same  series  in 
New  York,  and  olivine  is  mentioned  as  being  found  in  the  hyper- 
ites  of  Sweden,  and  of  the  Island  of  Skye.  Hornblende  is  also  in 
some  localities  associated  with  the  hypersthene.  The  byperites, 
although  indigenous  rocks  in  the  Labrador  series  in  Canada,  are 
described  as  formiog  in  other  regions  inlrusire  masses. 

Those  varieties  of  diabase  or  hyperite  which  contain  diallage, 
have,  by  the  Italian  lithologists  been  called  granitone,  but.  by 
Rose  and  others  have  been  described  under  the  name  of  gabbro. 
This  rock  sometimes  contains  hornblende,  mica,  and  an  admixture 
of  epidote.  A  compact  white  or  greenish- white  epidote,  or  zoiutij, 
which  has  the  hardness  of  quartz  and  a  density  of  3.3  to  3.4,  is 
the  mineral  named  sanssurite.  This  with  smaragdite,  which  is  bd 
emerald-green  pyroxene,  often  minged  with  hornblende,  and 
passing  into  diallage,  forms  the  enphotide  of  Hauy.  Com- 
pact varieties  of  labradorit«  and  of  other  triclinic  feldspars  have  by 
most  of  the  modem  litbolofpsla  been  confounded  wiUi  eanssurite, 
and  hence  the  name  of  enpholjde  is  frequently  given  to  the  so- 
called  granitone  or  gabbro,  which  is  only  a  diallagic  variety  of 
diabase.  The  true  enphotide  oft«n  contains  a  portion  of  talo,  and 
sometimes  encloses  crystals  of  a  triclinic  feldspar,  apparently  lab- 
radorite,  thus  offering  a  transition  to  diabase.  See  farther  my 
researches  on  enphotide  and  saussarite ;  Silliman's  Journal  [2], 
xxvii,  339,  and  xzxvii,  426. 

Under  the  name  of  dolerite,  as  already  remarked,  it  is  proposed 


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1864.]  T.  STBRBT  HUNT  OH  LrPHOLOGT.  33 

to  class  Bucb  anorthosite  rooks  as  coDtain  s  black  femiginoui 
PfTozene  or  aDgita.  These  rocks,  which  are  sometimes  coarsely 
^Dolar  or  gramtoid  in  thoir  stmctare,  pass  into  fiDe-^ained  or 
'Compact  Tarieties,  which  aredistiogaished  by  the  names  of  aname- 
dte  aod  basalt.  To  these  latter  varieties  belong  a  great  part  of  the 
greenstone-traps,  although  in  rocks  of  this  teztnre  it  is  often 
impossible  to  determine  whether  it  is  hornblende  or  pyroxene 
which  is  mingled  with  tbe  feldspar.  Olivine  in  grains  or  crystals 
freqnently  occurs  both  id  the  fine^ained  basaltic  doleiites  and 
the  granitoid  varieties,  giving  rise  by  its  predominance  to  what  is 
called  peridotite.  Some  fiDC-grained  dolerites  are  porphyritic 
from  the  presence  of  black  cleavable  augite  crystals,  forming  an 
-sngita-porphyrj'.  Finely  disaeminated  carbonates  of  lime  and  ozyd 
of  iron  are  ocouioDally  present  in  these  rocks  to  the  extent  of 
twenty  per  cenL,  and  even  more.  In  like  manner,  magnetite  and 
ilmenite,  which  are  often  associated,  may  constitute  several  hun- 
dredths of  the  mass.  Many  fine-grained  greenstones  contain,  like 
phonolite,  large  portions  of  some  zeolitic  miaeral,  and  they  often 
abound  in  chlorite.  The  pyroxene  In  these  rocks  is  sometimes 
-reptaoed  by  a  highly  bauo  silicate.  Some  varieties  of  what  baa 
been  called  diallage  may  be  represented  as  an  aluminiferaus  pyrox- 
ene pbu  a  hydrate  of  magnesia.  At  other  times  a  mineral 
approaching  in  compoMtion  to  a  ferruginous  chlorite  (frequently 
amorphous)  enters  into  the  composition  of  these  aDorthosit«s,aDd 
even  in  some  cases  appears  to  replace  altogether  the  pyroxene  or 
the  hornblende,  constituting  an  aberrant  form  of  diorite  or  of 
diabase,  which  is  not  nncommon  among  greenstones,  and  for  which 
adistinctive  name  is  needed.  See  on  this  point  Q%o\ogj  of  Canada, 
pp.  469, 605,  and  the  remarks  on  melapbyre  below. 

The  finei-grained  dolerites  are  often  cellular,  giving  rise  to 
amygdalwds,  whose  cavities  are  generally  filled  with  calcile, 
qaartc,  or  some  zeolitic  minerals.  To  these  amygdaloids  the  name 
of  spilile  is  sometimes  given.  Earthy  varieties  of  basalt,  which  are 
frequently  the  result  of  partial  deoom position,  constitnte  the  wacke 
of  some  writers.  It  is  doubtful  how  far  many  of  these  epilites  and 
wackea  have  a  claim  to  be  considered  as  crystalline  rooks,  inas- 
muob  as  they  appear  in  very  many  cases  to  be  nothing  more  than 
aqueous  sediments  accnmolated  uader  ordinary  conditions,  or  per- 
in^  in  some  oases  derived  from  volcanic  ash  or  volcanic  mud.  Aa 
^e  other  extreme  of  this  seriee  of  rooka  we  may  notice  that  dole- 

Vol.  1. .  0  Mo.  I. 


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34  THB  CANADIAN  NATDBALI8T.  [FeK 

rites  often  asBome  atrschytlcfonn, — the  trachy-dolerites  already 
mentioned^ — or  constitote  the  lavas  from  modera  volcanoea. 

Among  the-compoaad  rocks  which  are  related  to  the  preceding 
group  by  the  presence  o(  augite,  may  be  noticed  nepheline-dolerite, 
■n  which  nepheline  replaces  the  feldspar; and  analcimite, a  variety 
into  which  analcime  enters  in  large  amount.  Scapotite  also  in 
some  cases  replaces  feldsparr  and  forms  wiQi  green  pyroxene,  a 
peonliar  aggregate  associated  with  the  Laurentaan  limestones. 
Leuoite  enters  as  an  important  element  in  some  dolerites,  and  even 
replaces  wholly  the  feldspaChic  element,  giving  rise  to  what  has 
been  called  leucitophyre  or  lenoilite. 

[Leucite  is  generally  regarded  as  an  exclusively  volcanic  mineral ; 
but  according  to  Foumet,  it  occurs  like  other  feldspars  in  mineral 
veins,  forming  the  gangue  of  certain  auriferous  veins  in  Uexico 
(Gtelc^e  Lyoanaise,  page  261).  According  to  Scheerer,  lencile 
also  oocnrs  in  dmsy  cavities  with  zeolites  and  quartz  at  Arendalin 
Norway  ;  although  it  would  seem  to  be  rare  in  this  locality  since 
Durocher  was  not  able  to  detect  it.  (Annales  des  Mines  [4],  i,  218). 
The  conditioDs  required  for  Che  formation  of  this  feldspathide 
must  be  peonliar,  since  the  volcanic  rooks  which  afford  it  are  con* 
fined  to  a  few  localities ;  and  sincewbile  it  contains  a  Isrgeamount 
of  potash  it  is  a  basic  silicate,  and  found  among  highly  basic  rocks, 
in  which  potash  compounds  are  generally  present  only  in  very 
small  quantities.  The  agalmatolita  rocks,  including  dyssyntribite 
and  parophite  (Geology  of  Canada,  page  484),  are  however 
basic  aluminous  silicates  in  which  potash  predominates,  and  might 
be  supposed  under  certain  conditions  of  metamorphism  to  yield 
lencitic  rooks.] 

Thenameofmelaphyre,  which  is  employed  by  many  writers  Od 
litholo^  requires  a  notice  in  this  connection.  It  was  proposed  by 
Brongniart  as  a  synouym  for  black  porphyry  (mela-porphyre)^ 
and  defined  by  him  in  1827  as  a  porphyry  holding  crystals  of 
feldspar  in  a  base  "  of  black  petrosiliciona  hornblende."  (Clasaif.  deS' 
Roches,  page  106.)  Subsequent  researches  showed  thatsomeof 
these  porphyries  were  really  aogitio;  and  Von  Buch  employed  the 
name  of  melaphyreas  synonymous  with  angite-porphyry,in  whicl^ 
he  was  followed  by  D'Halloy.  (Xtes  Roches,  p.  75.)  Inconsequence 
of  this  confasion,  and  of  the  vague  manner  in  which  the  term  is 
used  to  inolDde  rooks  which  are  sometimes  diorites  and  sometimes 
Tarieties  of  dolerite  or  basalt,  Cptta  seems  disposed  to  reject  the 


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1864.]  T.  stbrb;  BtraT  on  litholchit.  35 

Dame  of  melaphyre  »  a  useless  syaonym,  in  which  I  agree  vith 
him.  (Gesteiualehre,  page  48.)  Morerecentlyhowever,  Senft  (Die 
FelBarten,  p^«  263)  has  eodeaTored  to  give  a  new  ugnifioation 
lo  the  term,  and  deSnea  melapbyrB  as  a  reddish-gray  or  greeDiah- 
hrown  ooloTod  rock,  passing  into  black,  and  contsiaiog  neither 
hornblende  nor  pyroxene.  The  melaphyres  of  Tbnringia  and  of 
the  Hartz,  according  to  him,  coneiet  of  tabradorite  with  iron- 
chlorite  (del essite),  carbonates  of  iron  and  lime,  and  a  considerakle 
portion  of  titaniferons  magnetic  iron.  Hornblende  and  mica  are 
present  only  as  rare  and  accidental  minerals.  We  hare  already 
alladed  to  this  'class  of  anorthosite  rocks,  as  requiring  a  distinct- 
ive name;  but  firom  the  historical  relations  of  the  word  melaphyr^ 
it  seems  to  be  an  unfortunate  appellation  for  rocks  which  are  not 
black  in  color,  and  from  which  both  hornblende  and  pyroxene 

We  now  come  to  consider  that  third  group  of  ulicated  rocks,  in 
which  the  fuldspathides  are  replaced  by  Che  denser  double  silicates 
of  the  grenatide  family,  garnet,  epidota,  zoisite,  and  perhaps  ido- 
crase.  Rod  garnet  enters  into  many  gneissic  rocks,  and  even 
forms  with  a  little  admixture  of  quartz,  rock-masses.  In  some  of 
these,  as  in  the  Laurentian  series,  there  appears  an  admiztare  of 
pyroxene,  forming  a  passage  into  omphaate  or  eclogite ;  which 
consiets  of  smaragdit«  (pyroxene)  and  red  garnet,  sometimw  mixed 
with  mica,  quartz,  and  kyanite,  and  passes  through  an  increase  of 
the  latter  into  distJienite  or  kyanite  rock.  An  aggregate  of  horn- 
blende and  red  garnet  forms  beds  la  the  Green  Moantains,  and  an 
admixture  of  red  garnet  with  lievrite  and  a  little  mica  makes  np  a 
rock  in  the  Laurentian  series.  This  is  evidently  related  to  euly- 
ate,  a  rock  forming  strata  in  gneiss  in  Sweden,  and  consisting  of 
garnet,  pyroxene,  and  a  mineral  having  the  composition  of  an 
oUvine  in  which  the  greater  part  of  the  magnesia  is  replaced  by 
ferrous  and  manganous  oxyds.  Related  to  this  is  an  apparently 
nndeecribed  rock  from  the  Tyrol,  of  whidi  a  specimen  is  before  me, 
CODNsdng  of  red  garnet,  green  pyroxene,  and  yellowish-green 
olivine,  the  latter  greatly  predominating ;  and  also  a  coarsely 
crystalline  rock  from  Central  France,  recently  described  by  the 
name  of  cameleonite,  and  composed  of  olivine,  with  pyroxene,  and 
enstadte,  a  magnesian  augite;  these  minerals  being  accompanied 
by  spinal,  ^ene,  and  ilmenite.  I  have  already  alluded  to  the  tme 
enphotideB,  in  which  a  compact  sointe  (jade  or  saosnirite)  takaa 


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36  THS  OANABIAH  SATUaALlST.  [Feb. 

the  place  of  feldspar  id  a  rock  the  other  element  of  which  is  pyr- 
oxene, and  have  shown  how  the  occauonal  presence  of  a  triclinic 
feldspar  connects  euphotide  with  diabase.  (Silliman's  Jounial  [2], 
xzvii,  386.)  In  the  eame  paper  are  described  rocks  made  np  of 
a  white  compact  gnrnet  with  and  without  hornblende  and  feld- 
spar, and  also  an  epidosite,  composed  of  epidote  and  quartz. 

By  the  disappearance  of  the  aluminous  silicate  from  the  rooks 
of  the  second  and  third  groups,  a  passage  ie  established  to  the  am- 
phibolitee  and  pyroxenites  ;  and  these,  through  diallage  rock,  offer 
a  transition  to  the  ophiolites  or  serpentines.  These  relations  are 
well  ezbibited  in  Eastern  Canada,  where  thedioiites  or  greenstones, 
which  are  sometimes  highly  feldspathic,  pass  into  actioolite  rock 
and  hornblende  slate  on  the  one  hand,  and  into  diallagtc  diabase 
and  diallagio  ophiolite  on  the  other. 

These  greenstones,  which  contain  a  chloritic  mineral,  and  are 
often  epidotic,  pass  gradually  into  compact  or  schistose  chloritic 
rocks,  frequently  enclosing  modules  or  layers  of  epidote,  either  pure 
or  mingled  with  quartz.  The  relations  between  these  various  rocks 
are  such  that  after  a  prolonged  study  of  them  I  find  it  difficult  to 
leust  the  conclusion  that  the  whole  series,  from  diorites,  diallagea, 
and  serpentinesjto  chlorites,epidosite9,  and  steatites,  has  been  formed 
under  similar  conditions,  and  that  they  are  all  indigenous  rocks. 
(Geology  ofCanada,  pp.  606,612,  652.)  I  have  elsewhere  express- 
ed the  opinion  that  these  silicates  are  probably  of  chemical  origin, 
and  have  been  deposited  Irom  solations  at  the  earth's  surface.  The 
sepiolite  or  hydrous  silicate  of  magnesia,  which  occurs  in  beds  in 
tertiary  rocks,  the  neolite  of  Scheerer,  the  silicates  of  lime,  magneda, 
and  iron-oxyd  deposited  during  the  evaporatioa  of  many  nstnral 
waters ;  and  the  silicates  of  alumina  like  hatloysite,  allopbane,  and 
oollyrite,  and  that  deposited  by  the  thermal  waters  of  Plombidrea, 
all  show  the  formation  and  deposition  at  the  earth's  surfoce  of 
silicates,  whose  subsequent  alteration  has  probably  given  rise  to 
many  minerals  and  rocks.  (Silliman's  Journal  [2],  xxxii,  286 ;  and 
Oeology  of  Canada,  pp.  Sfi9,  6??,  681).  At  the  same  time  the 
phenomena  of  local  metamorphism  furnish  evidences  that  similar 
compounds  have  resulted  from  the  action  of  heat  upon  mechani- 
cal mixtures  in  sedimentary  depoMt*.  (Ibid.,  p.  fiSl.)  A  further 
consideralioD  of  this  sabject,  and  of  tlte  two-fold  origin  of  many 
■iUcKHis  minerals,  is  reserved  for  another  pUoe. 
(3b  b(  CmMmwI.) 


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1864.]  J.   M.   JOKKB   ON  OOIAN  DRIFTS.  37 

ON  OCEAN  DRIFTS  AND  CURRENTS. 
Br  J.  Mattbkw  Jonib,  F.L.9. 

The  cnrreDte  of  the  ocean  may  well  be  classed  among  the  won- 
ders of  the  world ;  and  the  most  inattentive  ohserrer  of  the  great 
truths  of  nature,  can  hardly  fail  to  be  struck  with  admiration  on 
oontempladog  their  magnitude,  and  conaidering  the  benefits  de- 
rived irom  such  movements. 

Throi^hoat  the  Atlantic,  Pacific,  Aictlc,  Antarctic,  and  Indian 
Oceans,  these  currents  pass  in  particular  directions,  and  with  great- 
er 01  less  force,  purifying  the  mass  of  fluid,  and  rendering  it  habi- 
table to  thousands  of  marine  forms,  which  would  otherwise  lan- 
guish and  die  for  want  of  suitable  nourishment.  Great  are  the- 
struggles  which  take  place  between  currents  and  counter  currents, 
especially  those  of  lo^  extent,  and  many  are  the  instances  on  rec- 
ord of  vessels  being  carried  by  their  influence  far  out  of  their 
destined  coursee,  to  be  cast  away  upon  shores  supposed  to  be  many 
leagues  distant.  Of  late  years,  more  attention  has  been  paid  to 
these  phenomena,  and  the  works  of  Bennel,  Smyth,  Maury,  and 
others  have  gained  them  a  notoriety  they  well  deserve,  for  assured- 
ly to  their  power  may  be  attributed  the  positive  existence  of  many 
islands  now  colonized  by  animal  and  v^tahle  life. 

If  we  take  up  a  hydrographical  chart  of  the  world,  we  shall  at 
once  perceive  the  course  of  the  various  currents  which  are  known 
to  navigators  at  the  present  day.  Fmi— we  have  the  Gulf 
Stream,  issuing  from  the  narrow  strait  between  the  southern  es' 
treme  of  Florida  and  the  Bahamas,  passing,  at  some  distance  from 
land,  the  coast  of  the  American  States,  and  gradually  espandii^ 
its  limits  as  it  pr<^resses,  until  about  the  latitude  of  Cape  Cod,  it 
divei^B  to  the  noiiheasF,  and  proceeding  onwards  to  the  northern 
limits  of  the  Banks  of  Newfoundland,  meets  the  cold  waters  of  the 
great  Arctic  current,  which  comes  down  from  Davis  Straits.  Its 
rate  is  here  lessened ;  but  although  the  course  Is  slow  from  this 
point,  it  steadily  advances  until  it  reaches  the  shores  of  Great 
Britain  and  Northern  Europe.  Secondlt/ — we  have  the  North 
African  current,  which  sets  from  the  latitude  of  the  Azores,  and 
taking  the  coast-line  of  Western  Africa,  proceeds  along  the  shores 
of  that  country  to  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  and  even  farther  north. 
This  stream,   however,  appears  to  divide  its  waters  about   ihe 


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38  THE  OANADIAK  NATUKALIST.  t^^^' 

Tc^on  of  the  Canariea,  and  sends  a  westerly  branoli  towards  Qie 
West  Indies.  Thirdly — ^we  have  the  South  Atlantio  ouirent  set- 
tmg  from  the  Aiotio  Ooean,  pouring  ita  volumes  between  St,  Hel- 
ena and  the  main,  until  arriTing  at  the  northern  edge  of  the  Nortb 
Airioan  current  at  the  equator,  it  diverges  to  the  westward,  and 
flows  into  the  Equatorial  current  which  advances  in  a  similar 
direotion  to  the  northern  coast  of  Brazil,  uid  sweeping  past  the 
•coasts  of  Cayenne  and  Guiana,  bends  round  the  Qnlf  of  Mezioo, 
and  heatod  in  that  vast  cauldron  to  a  high  degree  of  temperature, 
mshes  with  great  velocity  through  the  Florida  passage,  aai  be- 
«omeB  the  celebrated  Gulf  Stream.  FoartMi/ — The  main  eurrent 
of  the  Pacific  is  that  known  as  the  Peruvian  current,  which  origi- 
nates in  the  Antarctic  drift  current,  and  runs  parallel  with  the 
South  American  coast  from  about  the  fortieth  degree  of  south  lat- 
itude to  the  northern  shores  of  Mexico,  whence  it  deviates,  and 
mahes  on  to  the  westward  across  the  Pacific,  laving  the  ehorea  of 
the  whole  intertropical  islands  until  it  arrives  at  New  Guinea,  and 
Australia,  where  it  meeta  the  counter  currents  from  the  Indian 
Ocean.  Lattly — We  have  the  Arctic  current  of  the  Atlantio, 
which  sets  from  Baffin's  Bay  on  the  west,  and  Spitzbetgen  on  the 
east  side  of  Greenhmd,  joining  its  parte  at  the  northern  extremes 
of  the  latter  countty,  and  as  one  vast  stream,  running  ita  course  to 
the  Banks  of  Newfoundland,  where  it  meeta  a  barrier  to  its  farther 
progress  in  the  heat«d  waters  of  the  Gulf  Stream, 

Although  the  currents  just  enumerated  include  all  the  greater 
passages,  yet  there  are  dlvere  others  of  less  magnitude  and  extent 
which  render  service  in  disseminating  around  reproductive  matter 
for  the  colonization  of  distant  positions.  In  thli  Indian  Ocean, 
for  example,  we  have  two  currents  running  paraUel  with  the  con- 
tinent of  India,  and  another  between  the  island  of  Madagasoar 
and  the  adjoiaing  coast  of  Mozambique,  each  exerting  an  influence 
on  the  conntry  they  pass.  These,  with  the  connecting  and  contra 
currents  occurring  in  several  positions,  may  be  supposed  to  repre- 
sent in  some  degree  that  progressive  motion  which  agitates  the 
wide  expanse  of  ocean  in  difierent  quarters  of  the  globe. 

Haying  thus  far  given  a  brief  account  of  the  positions  and 
courses  of  these  currents,  let  us  consider  their  effect  upon  islands 
lying  in  or  near  their  course,  but  far  removed  from  any  continent : 
but  as  it  would  extend  this  paper  to  an  unusual  length  if  we 
were  to  enumerate  the  many  islands  in  each  ocean  which  may  be 


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1864.]  J.   U.   JONES  ON   OOIAH  DRIFTS.  39 

«lsesed  in  the  list,  it  will  perhaps  be  advisable  to  select  the  more 
intere&liiig  localitjes  where  suoh  effect  is  rendered  more  apparent, 
and  where  ooonrrenoee  periodically  take  plaoe,  proving  hj  clearest 
erldenoe  the  real  existence  of  snch  poutions,  and  the  animal  and 
Tegetable  liib  found  apon  (hem. 

Probably  we  could  not  seleot  a  more  perfect  example  of  oorrent- 
ibrmed  islands  than  the  Bermudas,  and  as  we  have  made  their 
natural  history  our  particular  study,  perhaps  we  may  be  allowed 
to  express  our  opinion,  founded  upon  tact  and  the  clearest  evidence, 
as  to  the  origin  of  that  remarkable  group,  which,  with  the  ezoep- 
tioo  of  St.  Helena,  is  supposed  to  be  the  most  remote  from  land  or 
island  of  any  other  in  the  world. 

It  will  be  weU  in  the  first  place  to  expldn  the  sitnation  luid  na- 
tnie  of  this  group,  in  order  that  subsequent  allusions  to  the  same 
may  be  clearly  understood. 

The  Bermudas,  or  Somer's  Islands,  conHistlng  of  fonr  principal, 
and  several  smallor  islands,  lie  off  the  coast  of  Carolina  (the  near- 
est land)  at  a  distance  of  about  six  hundred  miles ;  iVom  Cape 
Sable,  the  northern  extreme  of  Nova  Scotia,  about  seven  hundred 
and  twenty  miles ;  and  in  a  northeast  direction  from  Atwood's 
Keys,  Bahamas,  six  hundred  and  fifty  miles.  They  are  of  low 
elevatJon ;  the  highest  land,  on  which  the  light-honse  is  built,  being 
only  two  hondred  and  fifty  feet  above  the  sea  level  The  forma- 
tion is  entirely  of  calcareous  sandstone,  derived  tiom  broken  shells, 
and  corals,  which  varies  in  oonsistenoy  in  different  parts  of  the 
islands.  On  surveying  the  group,  we  find  the  whole  more  or  less 
clothed  with  cedar,  save  here  and  there,  where  cnlbivation  oocnpies 
the  ground,  or  the  drift  sand  blown  from  the  shore,  has  overwhelm- 
ed both  cedar  grove  and  arable  land,  and  continues  ita  way,  as  is 
the  case  in  Fayet's  ParlBh,  nearly  across  the  liiland  from  side  to 
side.  The  group  is  contained  in  an  area  of  about  twenty  miles 
by  three,  and  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  whole,  gives  it  the  appear- 
ance, as  says  an  old  author,  "  of  a  shepherd's  crook."  A  belt  of 
coral  Tee&  extends  all  around  the  islands;  on  the  north,  to  a 
distance  of  ten  miles  or  more  from  shore ;  to  the  westward, 
about  five  miles,  taking  in  Long  Bar  and  the  Chub  Heads ;  while 
to  the  southward  and  eastward  the  open  sea  meets  with  no  bar- 
rier until  within  a  few  hundred  yards  of  land. 

Having  thus  shortly  described  the  situation  and  appearance  of 
e  will  now  consider  their  origin. 


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40  THE  CANADIAN   MATDRAU8T.  [Fcb.- 

A  Bobmei^  rook,  series  of  rocks,  or  uaj  ineqoality  whiok. 
tends  to  raise  the  usual  line  of  bod  near  Um  water  levd,  wbetlier- 
iu  ooeanj  lake,  or  river,  situate  within  the  inflneDoe  of  a  curroit, 
eaunot  fail  to  present  an  obstruction  to  Uke  free  paas^  of  mate- 
rial ;  as  jQU  may  glean  in  a  minor  form,  ircan  observation  in  any 
brook  or  water-«aur8e,  however  small  it  be.  The  moving  waters 
impeded  on  Uieir  way,  whirl  and  eddy  aroond  the  obstacle,  stjoks 
and  leaves  are  collected  together,  sand  and  earthy  matter  whrae- 
with  the  water  is  impregnated,  add  th^  mite  to  the  gmeral  maas, 
until  a  small  island  is  formed,  aside,  or  in  mid-stream,  wfaiob,  if' 
nndisturbed,  will  gradually  mcrease  until  strong  enough  to  reost 
tlie  force  of  the  element  in  which  it  is  situated ;  seeds  are  conveyod 
thither  either  by  currents  or  foreign  aid,  and  apon  the  aooumula- 
tioa  of  sand,  stick,  and  earth,  generate  vegetable  production^ 
which  in  their  turn  decay  and  become  v^table  mould,  serving 
to  enrich  the  deposit,  and  afford  nouriahm^it  to  other  plants  ia 
rotation. 

If  we  perceive  ourreote  in  lake,  river,  or  brook  forming  depos- 
its of  matter,  on  their  sides  or  in  their  midst,  why  may  we 
not  grant  the  same  power  to  currents  in  the  ocean  ?  And  if  this 
power  be  granted,  which  is  clear  it  should,  we  have  only  to  reoog- 
nice,  in  the  first  place,  the  preaenoe  of  some  inequality  of  the  ocean 
bed  under  the  spot  now  oocupied  by  the  Bermudas,  whether  owing 
to  Tolcauic  action  or  otherwise  it  matt«rs  not ;  secondly,  a  "vast 
sconmulation  of  sand  and  drif%  matter  thereupon ;  and  thirdly, 
the  presence  of  the  coral  Eoophyte  to  complete  a  solid  fabric  to 
within  a  few  inches  of  low-water  mark.  Drift  timber  uid  gulf 
weed  (/Wm  natoTu)  then  arrested  on  their  course,  tbe  latter 
material  by  thousands  of  loads  monthly  in  certain  seasons,  would 
help  to  ruse  the  whole  above  high-water  mark,  until  sand  and 
shell  oast  ashore  by  the  waves  and  blown  along  the  surliice,  form- 
ing rounded  hills ;  sea  birds  making  guano  deposits;  jdants  and 
shrubs  spriog^g  up  from  seeds  either  brought  by  migratory  birds* 
or  earned  on  the  onrrent,  would  give  a  stable  foundation  and  » 

*  The  ttanB  port  alia  n  i>f  needs  by  migralorj  birds  baa  long  engaged 
Ihe  fttt«ntioi]  of  natural  ists.  The  case  maj  dccdt  in  two  waji,  either 
bf  undigested  seeds  pasding  tbrongh  the  body  of  llie  bird,  or  by  earth 
containing  seeds  adhering  to  the  feet.  A  wader  bee  been  ihot  iiiK0T& 
Seotia,. baring  in  its  crop  nndigeited  seeda  of  the  rice  of  tbe  Southent. 
States  of  Amerioa. 


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1S64.]  J.  H.  J0NE8   ON   OOIAK  DRIFTS.  41 

reBtbg-plaee  ibr  animal  life.  The  surfaoe  of  the  land  would 
gradnaU;  ohange  u  increased  masaes  of  sand  became  drifted  Id 
TaricFDs  podtioDS,  the  tinderlying  body  of  loose  partioleB  would 
hardai  by  natural  pioeesa,  and  in  time  fonu  solid  rock,  while  the 
aooomnlalions  of  T^etable  matter  boried  beneath  Ba<sh  hardened 
rook  woold  decompose,  and  form  red  eartli ;  and  where  these  de- 
poaU  become  Uable  to  the  nation  of  the  tides  from  below,  the 
earthy  ooinpoBitwEi  woold  be  cleared  away,  and  oavems  fbnn  in 
the  plaoe,  all  of  whii^  oonditiona  oceor  in  the  Bermadas  at  the 
pesest  day. 

The  Bermudas,  althongb  not  placed  within  the  fnll  foroe  of  the 
Gnlf  Stream,  are  neverthelees  close  enongh  to  be  affected  by  its 
onnent,  which,  after  a  continuance  of  southwest  winds,  affords,  by 
the  ooooneooe  of  drift  seeds  and  otLer  matter  fkim  the  Oarribean 
Sea,  ample  evidence  of  its  o>wtact  with,  or  veiy  near  approach  to 
the  group ;  and  if  faets  of  this  import  should  not  be  oonndered 
sufficient  to  establish  a  clear  case,  the  whol^  marine  fatfna,  which 
is  true  West  Indian,  may  be  brought  forward  in  support  of  the 


But  to  give  the  process  of  formation  of  a  group  of  isluids  of 
eurrent  origin  more  in  detail,  let  us  oonaider  the  remarkable  pro- 
oesB  carried  on  in  the  building  of  reefs  by  the  coral  zoophyte.  It 
is  to  diis  organism,  bw  in  the  seale  of  nature,  that  the  Bermudas 
are  tedebted  for  the  position  they  hold  in  the  midst  of  an  ocean 
at  aU  times  and  seasons  liable  to  great  commotion.  A  mass  of 
nm|^  Band-banks  would  assuredly  be  swept  away,  or  at  all 
ereots  wonld  never  afford  sufficient  protection  to  tropical  and  bo- 
real plants  as  they  do  at  present.  No  cedar  groves  conld  exist  so 
new  the  idiore  as  they  do,  unless  a  barrier  was  made  to  the  for 
ward  pn^ress  of  those  huge  rollii^  seas,  which,  in  severe  weather, 
may  be  seen  dashing  on  the  enter  ree&  of  the  south  shore,  and 
spmdiii^  their  fury  in  casting  high  iu  mid  air  theb  columns  of 
whiteoed  foam. 

The  ooral  soophyte,  which  has  done  so  mnofa  for  ihe  islands  of 
the  Pacific,  has  conferred  an  equal,  if  not  greater,  benefit  upon  the 
Bennudas,  building  up  around  the  whole  coast  huge  walls  of  cal- 
eareoos  matter  formed  by  the  decease  of  countless  graierations  of 
inadr«^»ores  with  their  ever-accompauyii^  mollusca  and  serpnlse, 
welded  blether,  &om  which  baas  springs  another  generation  of 
the  same  ibrms,  to  die  in  their  order,  and  present  a  fVirther 
ground  work  for  (he  labors  of  future  fomilies. 


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42  THE  OANASIAN  NATUOAIiIST.  [Feb. 

To  show  more  clearly  the  benefieial  efieots  of  these  barrier-nefB 
iQ  preventing  the  total  atmUulatioD  of  all  ve^ietable  prodnotbns, 
we  have  only  to  draw  your  attoation  to  the  presaat  state  of  the 
diatriot  known  as  "  The  Sand  Hills"  in  Fajet's  parish,  about  the 
centre  of  the  main  Island,  where  the  barrier  reef  is  oloae  in  shore, 
and  does  not  present  a  sufficient  breakwat«r  to  prevent  tlie  flill 
force  of  the  waves  throwing  up  vast  quantities  of  sand  upon  the 
^ore,  which,  aoted  npou,  by  the  heavy  galee  fktm  the  southward, 
b  blown  in  clouds  to  the  top  of  the  hill,  some  hundred  and  fif^ 
feet  above  high-wal«r  mark,  and  burying  whde  groves  of  oedar 
and  cottages,  is  rapidly  extending  its  limits,  and  will  ere  long 
commit  still  greater  damage  by  covering  land  now  under  cultiva- 
tion. This  present  fact  is  sufficient  to  prove  the  use  of  barrier- 
reefe  to  oceanic  islands,  and  also  more  clearly  the  use  of  oceanic 
currents  in  brinfpng  to  such  portions  animal  life  capable  of  effect- 
ing so  much  good  by  preservii^  a  luxuriant  vegetation  from  utter 
deetmolion.  , 

As  we  have  in  considering  oar  question  touched  upon  the  for- 
mation of  coral  reefs,  perhaps  it  would  not  be  nnintereating  to  state 
a  few  particulars  in  regard  to  the  growth  and  habits  of  the  coral 
zoophytes,  and  the  different  forms  which  are  found  inhabiting  the 
same  reef  in  the  Bermuda  waters. 

There  are  five  species  of  coral  growing  on  the  reefs,  while  in 
(he  sheltered  sounds  and  harbors  two  or  three  more  are  found. 
The  finger-ooral  {Madr^tora  p  almata)  appears  to  be  the  most 
abundant,  crowding  its  palmate  processes  in  every  direction  under 
water,  and  before  it  has  been  cleaned,  it,  has  a  buff  oolor,  and 
when  touched  by  the  hand  has  the  peculiar  slimy  feel  common  to 
all  corals,  and  formed  by  tht  presence  of  the  animal  which  secretce 
the  hard  calcareous  mass.  Some  specimens  of  this  species  are  ex- 
tremely beautiful,  presenting  eveiy  shape  and  form  which  palmate 
processes  caa  exhibit.  At  tlie  extremities,  digits  of  all  lengths 
crown  the  ridge,  while  from  the  flattened  sides  arise  In  many 
cases  extra  palms  digitated  in  like  manner.  The  whole  structure 
is  remarkably  porous.  A  species  of  Madrepora  known  as  the  star- 
coral  (M.  oaiiina)  is  also  found  on  the  outer  reefs,  though  by  no 
means  so  abundant  as  the  former.  It  is  by  far  the  prettiest-form- 
ed coral  in  the  Bermudas,  and  when  cleaned,  presents  a  series  of 
the  most  exqui^te  white  branches  oovered  with  elevated  cells.  In 
the  water  it  has  a  green  appearance,  and  is  coated  with  the  usual 


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1864.]  J.   H.  JOHBB   ON  00£AN   DRIFTS.  43 

slime.  In  some  dtuatioDS  it  grows  short  and  biuhj,  while  in 
odiers  its  etems  are  eltmg&ted  to  some  extent.  There  are  three 
varietice  of  this  species :  (1 ,)  with  the  cells  greatly  protrading ;  (2,) 
with  the  cells  nearly  even ;  and  (3,)  having  them  strongly  depress- 
ed. There  are  two  species  oi  Meandrina  found  on  these  ree&, — 
M.  cerebra,  commonly  known  as  brunstone  from  ite  sii^olar 
appearance,  and  another  species  clearly  different  from  the  preced- 
ing, and  allied  to  M.  Dadalea  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  Madre- 
pora  cerebra  grows  to  a  large  size,  sometimes  three  feet  in  diame- 
ter, and  is  usually  rounded  in  form ;  while  the  latter  is  rarely  found 
more  than  six  inches  across,  and  growing  in  some  cases  within  a 
foot  of  the  sortace  on  reefe,  and  in  rook-pools  even  less.  Two 
species  o^Attnea  occur,  sometimes  covering  the  rock  like  a  mass 
<f  sponge.  These  astroid  corals  are  frequently  found  in  a  seml- 
fbesil  state,  imbedded  in  the  reef,  and  forming  the  base  of  masses 
of  Uving  madrepores. 

On  breaking  into  one  of  the  reefs  left  dry  at  lowest  tide,  you 
find  it  composed  of  the  followit^ :  the  hard  compact  interior  of 
calcareous  rook,  exhibiting  under  the  lens  a  mass  of  minut«  por- 
tions of  shell,  sand,  and  broken  coral,  mixed  with  particles  of 
pmk-oolored  nullipores  j  the  exterior  presenting  an  Irr^iular  honey- 
combed appearance,  some  of  the  recesses  containing  sea-waterand 
dotted  with  small  specimens  of  the  frilled  Meandrina  and  small- 
eyed  AttTwa,  and  adhermg  to  the  sides  of  these  miniatore  pools 
several  species  of  corallines  and  algiB  shooting  out  from  beds  of 
scarlet,  and  sober-ooloied  sponges  and  ascidians,  over  whioh 
crawl  the  slug-like  forms  of  the  many-spotted  Don»  and  sea-hare 
{Aplytia),  and  the  massive  shell-bearing  jR/rpura  deZ/otdea  ;  while 
mthecrannies  and  sinuous  passages  are  snugly  ensoonoed  numbers 
of  purple  Echini  and  hur-clad  annelides ;  the  whole  more  or  less 
covered  with  a  mantle  of  iridescent  sea-weeds. 

Such  is  the  state  of  affairs  on  the  reef;  now  let  us  proceed  t« 
take  a  survey  of  the  productions,  animal  aad  vegetable,  brought 
thither  by  the  current  of  the  Gulf  Stream. 

As  before  remarked,  the  marine  fauna  of  the  Bermudas  is  al- 
most wholly  West  Indian.  The  first,  if  we  except  a  ftw  transient 
vidtors,  are  all  found  in  the  Carribean  Sea.  The  moHusks,  with 
one  exception  only,  according  to  Tristram,  are  all  inhabitants  of 
the  same  district,  while  the  remuning  invertebrata  of  all  orders 
present  a  similar  state.  Many  fishes  are  brought  to  the  group, 
dielterii^  and   feeding  amid  the  vast  fields  of  gulf-weed  (JWtM 


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41  THE   CANADIAN   NATTJKALIBT.  [Feb. 

natant),  and  several  species  of  ornaUoeans  reuh  the  ielands  hy  the 
same  sonroe.  Myriads  of  the  Porti^eae  man-of-war  {Phgiaiia 
pelagica),  the  obliqne-ereeted  VeleSa  ( V.  vulgaru),  and  two  speciea 
of  lanthina  (^I.Jragilitaadl.globotat),  with  their  bnbble-like 
rafts,  are  oast  ashore,  while  hundreds  of  the  pearly  Spirula  (^S. 
Penmii)  float  about  untenanted  by  their  rightfiil  owners.  These 
are  all  from  the  southward.  Then  ashore  we  find  the  land-orab 
{Cfecarcinut  Turieola)  borrowing  in  the  sand-hills ;  and  numing 
along  the  shore-rocka,  the  nimble  and  prettily  marked  Graptut 
pietue,  both  West  Indian  forms.  To  these  may  be  added  many 
others  all  eridently  descendants  of  an  original  stook  bronght  thither 
by  the  oarrent  of  the  Oulf  Stream. 

As  regards  the  botanical  featoree  of  the  islands,  several  trees, 
shmbs,  and  plants  oocor  of  West  Indian  character,  some  of  which, 
springii^  as  they  do  from  positions  close  to  hi^-water  mark,  de- 
note their  oarrent  origin.  We  may  notice  the  odabash  {Oretcentta 
atjete),  the  aea-side  grape  (^Cocaohba  nvi/era),  the  Prickly 
Lantana  (£.  aadeatu),  the  Locnst  (ffymeaaa  ooubaril),  the- 
Ooohineal  plant  (CikUm  eocfiinillifer)  ;  and  muiy  other  species 
may  he  enumerated  in  support  of  the  probable  inflnence  of  the 
Onlf  Stream.  Two  or  three  kinds  of  large  beans  are  fluently 
found  cast  upon  tlie  beach  :  one  called  pin-box  by  the  inhabit- 
ants, is  the  seed  of  a  laige  speciea  of  trailing-vine  {Entada  gigati- 
tea),  bearing  huge  scymitar-abaped  pods ;  and  is  common  in  some  of 
the  West  Indian  islands,  especially  Jamaica,  where  Colonel  S. 
'  Heath  of  the  Royal  Engineers  informs  us  he  has  observed  it  grow- 
ing in  the  mountains  near  the  military  station  at  Maroon  Town, 
some  two  thousand  feet  above  the  sea  level.  Drift  trees,  some- 
timefl  of  large  me,  with  the  roots  attached,  are  also  floated  ashore ; 
and  some  few  years  ago,  according  to  the  observant  naturalist 
Hurdis,  who  resided  several  years  in  the  Bermudas,  two  or  three 
cedar  trees  of  dimaisions  far  exceedii^  those  of  any  speoimens  to 
be  seen  on  the  islands,  were  found  at  some  depth  below  the 
sur&oe  of  a  marsh  which  had  been  reclaimed  from  the  sea, 
and  which  from  their  appearance  were  of  foreign  origin,  and 
had  doubtless  been  carried  by  the  current  from  some  part  of 
tlie  a4jacent  continent.  These  drift  trees  are  in  many  instances 
the  means  of  introducing  pebbles  and  small  portions  of  rock 
adhering  to  their  roots ;  and  it  was  with  no  little  surprise  that  du- 
ring onr  wanderings  aloi^  the  shores  of  the  isUnd  we  found  these 
stones,  of  entirely  di^rent  consistence  to  that  of  the  sandstone  in 


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1864.]  J.    H.  JOHBS   ON  OCEAN   DRIFTS.  45 

which  they  lay  imbedded,  in  the  shore-rook  about  high-water 
mark ;  nor  could  we  at  all  account  for  such  a  eii^alai  circum- 
Btance,  until  we  were  informed  by  a  geoli^eal  friend  that  stones 
had  been  found  among  the  rooto  of  trees  cast  away  on  other 
oceanic  islands,  when  a  c)ua  to  the  mystery  was  at  once  afforded  ub. 

ThoB  we  see  in  some  measure  the  effect  of  ocean  currents  npou 
iriands  like  those  of  the  Bermudas,  far  removed  from  continents ; 
and  the  case  is  the  same  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  Take  for 
example  the  Keeling  or  Coooa  Islands,  which  are  situate  in  the 
Indian  Ocean  at  a  distance  of  about  siz  hundred  milea  from  the 
ooast  of  Sumatra,  which  owe  their  vegetation  to  seeds  transported 
by  currents  from  that  island,  Java,  and  Australia,  and  on  whose 
shores  are  found  stones  and  pebbles  as  in  the  Bermudas.  Canoes 
d*  undoubted  Javanese  oonstraotion  have  also  been  found  cast 
ashore  ;  and  many  other  instances  are  adduced  by  Chamisso,  Dar- 
win, and  others,  of  the  effect  of  currents  upon  these  islands. 

If  snch  cases  can  be  adduced  of  the  introduction  to  distant 
islapds  of  the  ocean  of  whole  faunas  and  floras,  why  may  we  not 
infer  tliat  in  many  oases  islands  like  those  of  the  Paoific  have 
been  peopled  by  the  human  race  in  a.  similar  manner  ?  We  too 
frequently  hear  of  sad  oases  of  the  survivors  of  abimdoned  vessels 
remaining  on  the  ocean  in  open  boats  for  a  fortnight,  or  three 
weeks,  or  even  longer,  driiW  along  by  the  winds  and  eurrents 
in  various  directions.  GjtnoeB  laden  with  people  have  been  drifted 
from  island  to  island  in  the  Paoifio,  although  hundreds  of  miles 
from  each  other,  as  is  well  known ;  while,  according  to  Robertson, 
tbe  fresh  bodies  of  two  men,  of  a  race  unknown  to  Europeans, 
were  cast  ashore,  after  a  series  of  westerly  gales,  upon  the 
Azores,  doubtless  f^m  North  or  South  America,  proving  that 
they  had  nearly  completed  HtxAi  long  drift  voyage  in  their  canoe 
before  some  untoward  accident  befel  them  and  prevented  their 
arrivii^  alive. 

We  oanuot  therefore  see,  if  human  life  can  be  prolonged  under 
such  circumstances,  why  we  may  not  grant  the  drift  and  onrrenta 
of  the  ocean  a  still  greater  usefulness  in  that  of  carrying  to  other 
lands  a  precious  burden  of  human  souls,  to  populate  in  process  of 
dme  whole  continents  as  well  as  islands ;  and,  instead  of  looking  for 
di^rent  centres  of  creation,  to  grant  that  one  alone  was  made  in 
conformity  with  the  statements  of  holy  writ. 

(JUod  btjbrt «  mttting  tftk*  Nat.  Hitt.  Society  0/  K.  Bnauviek,  29lk 
January  1S64.) 


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46  THE  OAITADIAN   NATURALIST.  [Feb. 

NOTES  ON  THE  SILICIPICATION  OP  FOSSILS. 
Br  T.  Stibbt  Hoht,  M.A.,  F.B.S. 

Fossils  replaced  by  silica  are  very  aboadant  amoog  the  paleo- 
zoic limestones  of  Canada.  Someportionsof  tbeCorniferouslinie- 
stoue  are  little  more  than  layers  of  silidfied  sbellsand  corals,  witli 
A  small  amount  of  intermingled  carbonate  of  lime ;  and  beantifDl 
examples  of  ailicificatioQ  are  also  found  in  variona  localities 
throughout  the  limestones  of  theTrenton  and  Quebec  groups.  The 
ulioified  fossils  are  confined  to  certain  planes;  n  □  altered  caloareouB 
Hhells  and  corals  being  often  found  in  the  same  limestone  tied, 
half  an  inch  above  or  below  a  layer  holding  siUolfied  fossils;  and 
even  in  these  the  replacement  is  sometimes  confined  to  a  portion  of 
the  shall  or  coral.  A  carefiil  study  of  a  series  of  these  aiiicified 
specimens  shows  the  operation  of  three  distinct  processes.  First, 
the  replacement  of  the  fossil,  giving  rise  to  an  exact  copy  of  it  in 
chalcodonic  quarta;  second,  the  incruating  by  chalcedony  of  a 
fossil  thus  replaced;  and  third,  in  some  cases  the  filling  np  of  tbe- 
cavity  of  the  replaced  fosail,  with  chalcedony  or  with  crystalline 
quartz.  The  corals  from  the  Corniferons  limestone  present  ex- 
amples of  the  first  process,  and  are  besides  often  filled  or  lined 
with  crystals  of  quartz.  The  same  thing  is  to  be  seen  in  various 
gasteropoda  from  the  Birdseye  formation.  Of  these,  the  silicified 
shells,  from  which  the  limestone  has  been  removed  by  an  acid, 
preserve  all  their  superficial  markings;  bnt  are  oflen  lined  with 
cr]rstalline  quartz,  although  at  other  times  filled  with  the  sedimen- 
tary limestone.  In  two  instances,  where  these  shells  had  been 
fractured,  the  fissure  has  been  filled  np  with  a  tissue  of  chalcedony 
identical  with  that  replacing  the  shell.  This  chalcedony  is  gen- 
erally  fonnd  to  have  a  botryoidal  surface,  and  a  ooncentri& 
structure,  which  however  in  some  cases  can  only  be  discovered 
by  the  aid  of  a  glass.  Specimens  of  orthoceratites  teom  the  same 
formation  shovr  the  exterior,  as  well  as  the  septa  and  the  siphuncle 
beautifully  replaced  by  silica.  In  some  silicified  gasteropods  it  is 
seen,  a^er  removing  the  calcareous  matter  by  an  acid,  that  thfr 
silicification  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  two  walls  of  the  shell,  which 
are  completely  replaced,  while  the  middle  portion  remains  calca- 
reous, or  is  but  partially  penetrated  by  silica.  The  exterior  of 
these  silicified  shells  is  sometimes   inoniBted  with  mammillar^ 


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1864.]  siuomoATion  op  possils.  47 

manes  of  chalcedony  a  teotti  of  an  ioch  oi  more  ia  diameter. 
TbU  is  an  example  of  the  eecoDd  process,  which  is  well  illOB- 
trated  by  a  fine  Bpecimen  of  a  larj^e  and  as  yet  undescribed 
spedea  of  Uetoptoma  from  the  Birdseye  formation,  to  which 
my  attention  has  been  called  by  Mr.  Billings.  It  was  fbnnd 
reposing  on  its  base,  and  filled  with  the  sedimeatary  limestone, 
which  was  removed  by  an  acid,  showing  the  interior  of  the 
shell  with  some  small  adhering  Serpulm,  which  are  aleo  silici- 
fied.  The  exterior  of  the  ehell.  was  completely  covered  with 
a  roogh  waity  coating  of  chalcedony,  which  baa  evidently  spread 
in  ooncentric  circles  from  certain  points,  and  is  from  five  to  ten 
hundredths  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  This  crust,  which  readily 
separates,  has  been  detached  from  a  portion  of  the  snrCace  of  the 
■hell;  which  ia  found  to  have  been  completely  replaced  by  chal- 
cedony, and  retains  all  its  delicate  markings.  From  the  more 
freqaent  absence  of  this  exterior  coating  of  chalcedony  from 
ulicified  fossils,  we  are  inclined  to  look  upon  its  deposition  as  a 
prooees  snbeeqaent  to  the  replacement.  In  some  cases  however  it 
takes  place  upon  non-silioified  specimens.  Thus  a  Stromatopors 
baring  been  cnt  in  two,  and  submitted  to  the  action  of  an  a^id,  it 
was  found  that  the  silica  was  confined  to  an  exterior  crost,  and  to 
occasional  grains  and  portions  disseminated  through  the  calca- 
reous mass  of  the  fossil.  It  is  further  to  be  remarked,  that  the 
limestone  sUata  which  contwn  the  silicified  fossils  are  associated 
with  beds  or  masses  of  bomstOQe,  in  which  these  fossils  are  some- 
times partially  imbedded. 

The  facts  detailed  above  (a  part  of  which  will  be  found  in  the 
Oeol<^  of  Canada,  p.  S29)  point  to  the  conclusion  that  the  re- 
placement  of  the  foiuls,  aa  well  as  their  incrostation  and  filling-up 
with  ulioo,  took  place  before  they  wore  imbedded  in  the  oalcareons 
sediments,  and  that  it  was  dependent  on  the  presence  of  silica 
ditsolred  in  the  waters  of  the  time.  The  mode  in  w  hich  the  first 
process,  or  that  of  replacement,  has  been  effected  is  however  stilt 
obscure.  In  v^etable  structures,  which  are  very  often  silicified, 
such  a  replacement  ia  comparatively  rare.  The  pores  of  the  wood 
become  filled  with  silicions  matter,  while  the  woody  fibre,  in  a  more 
or  lees  alt«red  state,  remains,  and  may  be  extracted,  as  Goeppert 
has  shown,  by  dissolving  the  silica  with  hydrofinorio  acid.  This 
organic  matter  is  often  changed  into  coal,  or  even,  according  to 
Dr.  DawBon,  in  some  Devonian  woods  into  a  graphitio  substance; 


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48  THS  OANASIAN  NATUKILIST.  [Feb. 

while  Goeppert  meDtions  its  change  into  bitnineu,  and  also  observed 
a  resinous  matter  in  the  pores  of  silicifted  coniferB.  He  found 
that  in  some  oaaes,  as  in  cerbin  agatized  woods  from  Hangary, 
the  organic  matter  had  almost,  or  altogether,  disappeared,  leaving 
spaces  which  were  empty,  or  filled  only  with  wator.  Bead-like 
dropsof  silica  were  ocoAsionally  found  by  him  upon  the  bundles 
of  ligneous  fibres.  He  also  observed  in  some  oases  an  incrastalion 
of  hyalite  on  the  Exterior  oi  some  specimens  of  silioifled  wood. 
(Goeppert,  Flaotes  Fossiles,  livr.  1,  port  8.) 

The  silicified  woods  from  Antjgua,  unlike  any  of  these  described 
by  Goeppert,  exhibit  a  replacement  of  the  woody  tissue  by  silica ; 
■  some  of  them  however  still  retaining  portions  of  organic  matter. 
In  a  specimen  of  eK^nons  wood  from  that  locality,  which  I  have 
lately  examined  with  Dr.  Dawson,  the  medullary  rays  are  filled 
with  silica  showing  traces  of  cells,  and  the  ducts  are  also  filled  with 
silica.  The  whole  of  the  woody  fibre  has  more  over  disappeared, 
and  itG  place  is  occupied  by  silio»,  which  is  distinguished  by  a 
slight  difference  in  color  from  that  filling  the  place  of  the  vessels. 
In  this  case,  it  would  appear  that  the  process  of  siliciGt:ation  con- 
asted  of  two  stages ;  the  first  being  the  filling  up  of  the  pores  by 
silica,  followed  by  a  removal,  by  decay,  of  the  organic  matter, 
leaving  a  silicious  skeleton  like  that  of  the  Hungarian  woods 
noticed  above,  aft«r  which  the  empty  spaces  in  this  were  filled  by 
a  further  deposition  of  silica.  It  is  probable  that  processes  similar 
to  those  connected  with  siliisification  take  place  in  the  so-called 
petrifaction  of  organic  remains  by  carbonate  and  sulphate  of  lime, 
sulphate  of  baryies,  oxyd  of  iron,  and  metallic  sulphureta. 

In  this  connection,  may  be  mentioned  the  observations  and  ex- 
periments of  Pengdily,  Ohnrch,  and  others  on  the  so-called  Beek- 
kite.  This  itame  has  been  given  to  mammiilary  chalcedonic 
concretions  around  a  nucleos  of  coral,  sponge,  Hhells,  or  even 
of  limestone,  which  occur  i^i  the  Triassic  conglomerates  of  Torbay 
in  England.  This  nncleus  in  some  cases  has  disappeared,  but  in 
others  remains  in  greater  or  less  part  nnohangcd,  or  faae  been 
partially  silicified.  These  concretions  apparently  result  from  a 
similar  incrusting  process  to  that  which  I  have  described  in 
Stroraatopora  and  Uetoptoma.  Ur.  Church  has  examined  these 
bodies  with  care  both  chemically  and  microscopically,  and 
in  the  L.  E.  A  D.  Phil.  lilagaEine  for  February  1862  ([4], 
zxiii,  95)  baa  given  his  own  and  others'   observations,  with  a 


1,;.  Google 


1864.]  BiLicirioATioN  OP  FOeatLB.  49 

number  of  figures.  He  has  &lso  described  in  this  paper  the 
reBolts  of  some  experiments  od  tbe  process  of  nlicificatiou ;  for 
fnrtber  details  of  which  Me  The  Chemical  News,  vol.  v,  95.  Mr. 
Chareh  prepared  a  aolation  of  silica  in  water  by  dialysis,  accord- 
11%  to  Graham's  method  (L.  E.  &  D.  Phil.  Mag.  [4],  xxiii,  205), 
and  fonnd  that  when  this  solution,  containiDg  about  one  tiro-hun- 
dredths  of  aitics,  and  impregoated  with  a  little  carbonic  acid,  was 
filtered  through  fragments  of  coral,  a  large  portion  of  carbonate 
of  lime  WB3dissolved,Briil  the  whole  of  tbe  silica  removed.  Similar 
results,  though  to  a  less  estent,  were  obtained  witb  shells.  In 
another  experiment,  a  fragment  of  a  recent  coral  was  fitted  into 
the  neck  of  a  funnel,  and  a  solution  prepared  as  above,  with  a 
little  carbonic  acid,  and  containing  one  hundredth  of  silica,  was 
allowed  to  drop  on  the  coral,  and  after  slowly  filtering  through, 
was  fonnd,  as  in  the  previous  experiment,  to  have  abandoned  the 
whole  of  its  silica,  while  the  coral  had  lost  nearly  all  its  lime, 
although  retaining  its  structure  in  a  great  measure.  It  was  however 
covered  with  a  thick  film  of  gelatinoi^  silica."  Mr.  Gburch  farther 
observed  that  the  addiUon  of  small  portions  of  the  solid  carbonate 
of  lime,  barytes,oF  strontia  to  astrong  solution  of  pure  silica,  caused 
it  to  gelatinize  immediately;  and  according  toGraham, solutions  of 
these  carbonates  have  the  same  effect.  The  concentric  structure 
which  is  characteristic  of  uhalceJony,  was  observed  by  Mr.  Church 
in  the  silicious  deposits  from  the  Geysers  of  Iceland,  and  from  the 
hot  springs  of  Luzon  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  as  well  as  in  meni- 
lite;  and  Mr.  J.  H.  Gladstone,  in  a  note  to  Mr.  Church,  in  the 
paper  already  cited  from  the  Fhilos.  Magazine,  refers  to  a  similar 
structure  as  having  been  observed  by  Mr.  Rainey  in  carbonate  of 
lime  formed  in  animal  tissues:  it  is  also  artificially  obtained 
when  carbonatfl  of  lime  is  slowly  deposited  in  the  presence  of 
gum  or  albumen.  Mr.  Cburch  has  since  described  (Cbem. 
News,  vi,  306)  a  curious  example  of  the  deposition  of  silica.  A 
basket  of  eggs  was  recently  fonnd  in  a  chalk-pit  near  Winches- 
ter, where  it  had  been  buried  beneath  tbe  broken  rock  for,  it  is 
supposed,  four  or  five  centniiHs.  The  organic  matter  and  the  cal- 
careous shell  of  the  eggs  lia'  I  both  disappeare  1,  their  places  being 
occupied  by  chalcedony  ;  "  whicli  seemed  farther  to  have  been  de- 
posited upon  tbe  wiilow  twigs  compiaing  the  basket,  incrusting  it 
■0  well  that  the  Veal  nature  of  the  latter  is  evident  to  this  day." 
I  hitve  thought  it  well  to  bring  together  these  obaervatiou 
tot..  I.  A  No.  1. 


nisiti.cdDy  Google 


60  THB  OANADUN  HATUBALIST.  [9b1k 

since,  for  although  they  do  not  expkin  all  the  phenomena  of  siticifi- 
catioD,  they  go  far  towards  sboning  the  conditions  under  which 
silioa  can  be  precipitated  from  ita  solutions  in  natural  waters,  and 
deposHod  either  apon  or  within  organic  bodies,  or  in  the  forms 
of  opal,  chalcedony,  and  horostone.  See  farther  Silliman's  Jonraal 
[2],  xiviii,  pp.  377,  381 ;  and  Bischof,  Lehrbuch,  ii,  1241. 
Montreal  March  25,  1864. 


NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY. 
AKNTTAL  CONTERSAZIONB. 

"  The  Seoond  Annual  Conversazione  of  the  Montreal  Natural 
Histoiy  Society  was  held  in  the  rooms  of  the  Society  on  the  2iid 
instant,  and  was,  we  are  happy  to  say,  highly  suooeBsfU.  We  learn 
with  pleasure  that  since  the  last  annual  social  meeting  the  Society 
has  made  very  steady  progress,  the  year  not  having  been  excelled, 
or  even  equalled,  by  any  other  in  it£  history  for  the  amount  of  «ci- 
entafic  work  done,  and  the  snooesBtril  introduction  of  new  and  vidn- 
able  "features,  which  it  ia  believed  will  be  sonroes  of  permanent 
benefit  to  the  Society.  But  while  the  Society  ijongratnlatea  it- 
self on  this  satJsfaotoiy  state  of  affairs,  there  is  of  coarse  room 
for  still  ftirther  prosperity,  were  the  members  and  the  Mends  of 
the  cause  to  come  forward  more  readily  and  evince  greater  inter- 
est in  its  advancement.  At  the  r^ular  meetings  a  number  of 
interesting  papers  have  been  read,  of  which  mention  has  been 
made  at  various  times  in  these  ootnmns;  and  many  elaborate  arti- 
cles, representing  great  scientific  research,  and  having  an  impor- 
tant hearing  on  the  arte  of  life,  and  on  the  material  improvementa 
of  the  country,  have  been  contributed  to  the  Canadian  Naturalist. 
The  Geol<^  of  our  own  country,  in  which  eveiy  one  mnst  fee! 
more  or  less  interested,  has  received  a  large  share  of  attention ; 
and  ou  points  of  the  geology  of  the  United  States  connected  with 
Canadian  geology,  important  oontributions  have  also  been  received. 
In  fact,  in  all  the  branches  of  study  embraced  by  the  Society,  manj 
new  facts  have  been  made  known,  which  looked  at  merely  in  a 
scientific  aspect,  should  be  highly  esteemed;  but  the  pursuits  of 
the  naturalist  are  also  of  great  utility  to  the  country  in  their 
ecouomioal  applications,  thus  giving  the  Society  a  strong  claim  to 


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1S64.]  tfATDSAL  aiSTOKT  SOOIETT.  51 

the  support  Mid  ooiudder&tioii  of  tbe  publio,  iadependeatl;  of  Ae 
porelf  soienlifio  diflooveriee,  or  of  the  pleuures  to  be  derived  from 
the  ooUeolaonB  and  kotaree.  A  oommittee  of  the  Sooiet;  has,  fbr 
inetsuoe,  been  engaged  in  promoting  measoree  for  the  mora  efieo- 
tnal  proteetion  of  the  smaller  inaeotiTorons  birds  whieh  protect  vx 
gainst  insect  ravages ;  whilst  another  committee  has  been  inreed- 
gating  the  oaases  of  the  decay  of  the  apple-orohards,  for  which  the 
island  of  Montreal  was  once  celebrated.  Disoaauons  have  also 
.arisen  at  the  meeting  respeotiog  the  use  of  Canadian  fibres  in  (he 
mannfaotore  of  fabrics  and  of  paper.  Nor  should  we  omit  to  men- 
ti<Hi  another  important  part  of  the  work  of  this  Society,  namely 
that  of  popularising  natural  soienoe,  thus  rendering  itmore  attrao- 
tive,  and  causing  its  resnlte  to  be  moce  extensively  known.  This 
end  is  songht  to  be  attuned  by  the  popolar  oourse  of  Somerrille 
leotuies,  free  to  the  pnblic,  and  by  throwing  the  Museum  open  on 
easy  t^ms.  One  of  Ae  new  features  worthy  of  special  attention 
is  the  engagement  of  a  soientifio  curator,  Mr.  WhiteaveB,  under 
whose  care  la^e  portions  of  the  collections  have  been  arranged  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  assist  very  materially  in  the  study  of  natural 
history.  There  have  been  added  to  the  Huseum  within  a  short 
time,  many  valuable  contributions  of  marine  shells,  and  some 
interesting  specimens  to  the  collections  of  birds  and  fishes. 

"  Many  of  the  gratii^ing  features  iriiich  we  have  here  briefly  no- 
tmed,  in  order  to  Aow  the  work  that  the  Society  is  engaged  in,  and 
irtist  has  been  done,  are  attributed  to  the  favorable  impresrion 
made  by  the  first  Gonversasione,  held  last  year ;  one  direot  result 
of  winch  was  that  a  member  liberally  offered  to  oommenoe  a  list 
with  1200  to  pay  off  the  remaining  indebtedness  of  the  Society." 

The  chair  was  taken  at  eight  o'clock  by  Dr.  Dawson,  Prerident 
oftbe  Society;  there  being  seated  on  the  platform  the  Lord  Bldiop 
of  Hontieal,  Metropolitan,  Rev.  Mr.  EU^ood,  Rev.  Mr.  Kemp, 
Eev.  Dr.  DeSola,  Hon.  Mr.  Sheppard,  Prof.  Miles,  SUnley  Bagg, 
Esq.,  W.  H.  A.  Daviee,  Esq.,  John  Leemii^,  Esq.,  and  others. 
The  Hall  was  crowded  thronghont,  many  being  unable  to  obtain 
sutts-  The  fine  band  of  the  Royal  Artillery  was  present,  by  the 
kind  permission  of  Ool.  Dnnlop,  R.A. 

The  istroduotory  address  was  delivered  by  the  President  of  the 
Society,  Principal  Dawson,  LL.D.,  who  said :  "  Ladies  and  Qcn- 
tlemen,  the  members  of  the  Natural  History  Society  again  wel- 
-«ame  yon  to  their  annual  oonTersauone,  and  trust  that  on  Has  as 


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52  TBI  OANADIAN   NATCKALIST.  [Fel>^ 

on  former  occaaions,  yoa  will  sympatluEe  with  our  pureaita  and 
enjoy  the  entertainment  which  we  have  piovided.  I  have  no  doubt 
that  many  of  you  r^ard  ub  as  very  simple  though  harmless  entha- 
dasts,  pleased  with  a  butterfly  or  a  flower,  delighted  with  a  new 
shell  or  coral,  going  into  ecetacies  over  the  discovery  <^  some  nn- 
heard-of  worm  or  microscopic  animalcnle  smaller  tha,a  a  grain  of 
dust.  But  admitting  all  this,  and  that  onr  pursuits  may  not  be 
worthy  of  comparison  with  the  grave  and  weighty  matters  which 
engage  jonr  attention,  we  have  sUll  something  to  say  for  onrBelvee^ 
If  enthusiasts,  we  are  not  selSsh ;  indeed  I  may  say  that  we  are 
somewhat  amiable..  A  great  authority  in  such  matters  has  aud 
that  a  tme  naturalist  is  never  an  ill-natnred  man ;  and  we  show 
our  good  nature  by  gathering  here  all  our  precious  treasures,  and 
exposing  them  to  your  inspection,  and  by  providing  in  onr  Uuseom 
a  refuge  for  every  destitute  specimen,  that  might  otherwise  go  to 
waste  or  be  neglected  in  some  obscure  comer.  Indeed,  I  fear  that 
we  sometimes  carry  this  to  an  extreme,  and  even  render  ourselves 
troublesome  by  insisting  that  you  should  look  through  our  micro- 
Boopes  or  examine  onr  choice  specimens,  when  you  would  rather  be 
engaged  about  something  else.  We  further,  in  these  artjfidal 
days,  keep  up  a  testimony  in  behalf  of  nature.  We  maintain  its 
pre-eminent  bveliness,  standing  up  for  the  lily  of  the  field,  even 
against  all  the  glory  of  modern  art.  We  invito  attention  to  the 
plan  and  order,  to  the  design  and  contrivance,  which  exist  in  na- 
ture, and  thus  do  what  little  we  can  to  magnify  the  works  of  Gad. 
Further,  we  are  always  ready  to  inform  yon  as  to  any  little  practi- 
cal matter  that  lies  in  our  way.  If  you  are  puzzled  by  any  strange- 
bird  or  beast,  or  by  any  unaccountable  phenomenon  in  air  or  earth, 
we  are  always  ready  to  do  our  best  to  explain  it.  If  any  imperti- 
nent insect  or  fungus  ravages  your  farm,  garden,  or  orchard,  we 
oan  tell  you  all  abont  its  habits,  and  how  to  get  rid  of  it.  We  can, 
wiUi  the  aid  of  our  friends  of  the  Geological  Survey,  inform  yoa 
as  to  the  mineral  resources  of  the  country,  and  can  guard  you 
against  that  perveraion  of  mining  enterprise,  whereby  some  dmple 
persons  contrive  to  bury  their  money  under  ground  without  any 
rational  hope  of  ever  extraoting  it  again.  Besides  all  this,  in  our 
lectures,  our  monthly  meetinga,  out  published  proceedings,  and  onr 
museum,  we  provide  you  with  many  sources  of  pleasing  and 
profitable  recreation.  Doing  all  this  and  more,  in  a  quiet  unobtru- 
sive way,  we  think  ourselves  entitled  to  ask  your  kind  ocuinte- 


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1864.]  ITATUBAL   HISTOKT  SOOIETT.  53 

iuDC€  and  aid  in  tliis  our  annual  celebration.  I  have  only  to  add, 
that  a  oommittoe  of  members  of  the  Society  has  labored  to  make 
oor  rooms  and  programme  as  attraotive  as  posdble,  and  that  we 
haye  to  thank  many  kind  friends  for  oontribations  to  your  enter- 
tainment this  erening." 

Dr.  SawBon  introdnoed  to  the  andience  one  of  the  pioneers  of 
Natnr&l  History  in  tMs  oonntry — 

Hon.  Mb.  Sheppakd,  who  said  :  "  On  this  otwasion,  the  anoi- 
versary  of  Uie  Natoral  History  Society  of  Montreal,  it  has  fallen 
to  my  lot  to  address  to  this  goodly  assemblage  of  the  patrons  of 
science,  a  few  remarks  and  remembrances  of  the  state  of  natural 
history  and  of  its  progress  in  Canada  dnring  the  preceding  half 
century,  which  it  has  been  supposed  my  long  standing  as  a  student 
of  natore  enables  me  to  submit  to  yoni  patient  hearing.  These 
ohservations  must  necessarily  be  short,  seeing  the  varied  pro- 
gramme provided  for  the  evening.  In  order  to  do  this  subject 
JQStlca  it  will  be  necessary  to  go  back  to  the  early  settlement  of  the 
oonntry,  when  the  Jesuit  missioniiriea  visited  the  wilds  of  Amer- 
ica with  the  intention  of  Christianizing  the  natives.  These  mission- 
aries were  a  learned  and  observant  class  of  men ;  and  their  oppor- 
tunities of  becoming  acquainted  with  the  natural  ptodnctions  of 
the  oonntry,  were  greatly  facilitated  by  tbeii  close  intercourse  with 
the  Indians,  following  them  in  their  periodical  migrations,  and 
Bojonming  with  them  in  their  encampments.  They  collected  a 
vast  amount  of  information  from  their  native  friends  about  the  ani- 
mals, and  especially  about  the  plants,  many  of  which  were  known 
to  possess  h»iling  properties,  and  to  be  useful  in  the  few  arts  that 
the  Indians  were  acquainted  with.  The  results  of  these  researobes 
were,  at  a  later  period,  coUected  and  embodied  by  Charle- 
v(dz  in  his  History  of  Canada.  They  are  well  worthy  of  being 
consulted.  Towards  the  end  of  the  last  oeotuiy  Canada  was 
Tinted  by  Andr£  Michaux  the  elder,  comii^  from  the  north 
Uirongh  Hudson's  Bay,  across  the  country  by  lakes  Mistisions 
and  St.  John,  down  the  Saguenay  and  up  the  north  shores  of  the 
St.  Lawrence,  disappearing  southward  at  some  point  unknown  to 
OB.  It  must  have  been  very  interesting  to  him  to  note  the  grad- 
ual change  of  the  v<^table  productions  in  his  progress  south  from 
the  barren  grounds  of  the  s^nted  birch,  the  vast  collections  of 
lichens  and  mosses  which  cover  the  surface  of  those  dreary  r^ons, 
to  the  noble  oaks  and  maples  on  the  shores  of  the  St.  Lawrenoe. 


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54  THX  OANADIAN   KATURALI8T.  [P«b> 

Miohauz  published  tbe  result  of  his  obaervfttioDB  in  b  Fton  of 
Aowrioa;  but  it  is  rery  me^re,  compared  withUterworkson  tb&t 
sntgeot.  Miohaax  the  younger  never  visited  Caaada  that  I  am  awiie 
of,  but  derived  his  information  respecting  onr  teees  from  his  father. 
Francis  Masson,  that  celebrated  ooUeotor  for  the  Rojtl  Oardeos 
at  Kew,  who  introdnoed  so  many  of  the  floral  beauliefl  (£  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  visited  Canada  about  tiie  beginniag  of  the  present 
oautuij.  He  passed  a  good  portion  of  his  time  in  Montreal ;  and 
oh  how  I  did  yearn  Ibr  the  benefit  <^  his  acquaintance,  with  a 
viewtoinfonnationon  plantsof  the  country,  bat  all  my  sighing  and 
yearning  were  doomed  to  end  in  disa[^intment.  He  died  here 
about  the  year  1804,  at  the  honse  of  Mr.  John  Gray,  at  G6te  St 
Catherine,  a  benevolent  and  much  respected  merchant.  The 
meatioD  of  John  Gray  reminds  me  that  he  kindly  fostered  the  Rev. 
JamsB  Somerville  while  in  a  state  of  mental  abeiralion.  With 
Mr.  Somerville  I  was  much  acquainted ;  he  was  devoted  to  tlie 
study  of  natural  history.  It  will  be  recollected  that  this  gentle- 
man was  a  patron  and  benefactor  <^this  Society.  We  bow  c(»m 
to  (he  name  of  Fi:edenok  Porsh,  the  celebrated  botanist,  who 
made  hia  q)pearanoe  in  Canada  in  1815.  I  beoame  aoquunted 
with  him,  and  derived  much  valuable  information  from  him  about 
I^ants.  He  visited  Anticosti  in  1817,  and  broi^ht  back  a  lai^ 
collection  of  living  plants,  rare  in  other  parts  of  the  country,  some 
of  which  I  cultivated  in  my  garden ;  but  Ihe  greater  portion  of 
them  perished  In  the  packages  in  which  they  were  brou^t  up. 
Among  those  which  survived  were  Ligatticum  Scoticum,  a  beau- 
tiAil  T'AaJfctnnn,  which  he  named  T.purpuratcetu,naiaiiAUi«M,  ' 
ii&a.ii&^yiHii  A.  tehanoproMm.  Foish'sFlcvaof  North  America 
is  a  carefoUy  got-np  book,  and  was  the  staudacd  text-book  till  Sray's 
apfieared.  Pursh  died  here  about  1821,  at  the  bouse  d  Bobwt 
O^hcm,  Blink  Bonny,  annrseryman,  and  a  good  botanist, — aooo- 
teMporaiy  o£  London.  Poor  Pursh  was  thritUees ;  in  his  declining 
years  living  mainly  on  the  hospitality  of  hia  friends,  Colonel  Hamil- 
ton Smith,  the  learned  historian  of  the  natural  history  of  man, 
viuted  Ganadain  1817,  seeking  information  in  scienoe  generally. 
Ibecame  aoquuntod  with  him,  but  his  Bcgoarn  here  was  very  diort. 
Now,  ladies,  allow  me  to  say  a  word  of  encouragement  for  you. 
What  will  you  not  succeed  on  attaining  when  you  set  yonr 
hearts  on  its  aowHuptishment,  as  the  example  of  the  Goonteea  Dal- 
housic  wiU  show.     This  lady  beoame  an  accomplished  botanist, 


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1864.]  NATUBAL  HI8T0KT  BOOBTT.  06' 

aad  was  kd  inde&tigable  oolleetor  of  plants.  Sbe  presented  to  this 
Sodet;  ft  lai^  berbarinm  of  Canadian  plants,  faeantifnllj  {nre- 
serred ;  she  ooUeeled  many  living  planto,  and  sent  them  honm  to 
<ntament  tiie  gardens  and  grounda  of  DalLouie  Castle ;  and  she 
sooeeeded  in  iobiung  her  lady  friends  vitb  a  love  of  botany ;  some 
of  wliom  made  mariced  advances  in  this  hranoh  of  natoral  hiBtoiy, 
ptttionlarly  one,  who  subsequently  sent  many  spedmens  of  Oftna- 
dian  jdante  to  Sir  Jaokaon  Hooker,  to  assist  him  in  the  oomi«lation 
(tfbis  groatwork  the  Plants  ofBrilish  North  America,  in  which  her 
name  ia  duly  recorded  as  »  oontribntor.  The  example  of  Lady  Dal- 
kooBeis  well  worthy  of  imitation  by  those  having  IdsurefbrBtady. 
And  now  permit  me  by  desire  to  endeavor  to  throw  some  Ught  on 
the  migin  and  progress  of  the  Literary  and  Historioal  Sodetyof 
Quebec,  tlie  elder  sister  of  the  Society.  Strange  to  say,  its  formation 
was  bronght  about  indirectly,  by apoUtioal  movement,  in  thiswise. 
It  is  no  doubt  known  to  many  of  yon  that  the  late  John  Ndlson 
was  the  owner  of  the  Quebec  Gaaett^,  eetabliahed  in  1764,  now  in 
itshondredth  year.  In  virtue  of  an  Act  of  Parliament,  it  possessed 
the  privil^a  of  publishing  all  official  doonments  as  they  occurred.- 
Nedlsan  was  a  great  poUtician,  and  was  opposed  to  Lord  Dal- 
booaie  in  some  points  of  government. ,  This  opposition  Lord- 
D^houaie  could  not  tolerate,  and  he  came  to  the  determination  of 
eatablishing  a  paper  which  he  oonld  control,  calling  it  dte  Qaebeo 
Quette  by  authority,  and  he  caused  Dr.  Fisher,  a  oo-editoi  of  the 
New  York  Albion,  to  come  and  take  charge  of  it.  Dr.  Fisher  had 
been  a  member  of  the  Literary  and  Historical  Society  of  NewYork ; 
he  persuaded  Iiord  Dalhousie  to  get  up  a  sodely  with  similar  title 
aad  objeots  in  Qaebeo.  Thia  was  done,  Chief  Justice  Sewell  be- 
coming the  first  Preeideut,  and  W.  Green,  a  native  of  this  city,  the 
secretary.  The  Society  was  in  the  firat  inatanoe  composed  of  high 
oGoials  and  oourUers,  and  the  fee  was  fixed  at  a  high  rate,  for 
some  end  which  can  only  be  guessed  at,  Papers  were  read  befiire 
the  Society.  The  President  gave  his  "  Dark  Days  of  Canada"  ; 
Captains  Bayfield  and  Baddely  read  valuable  papers  on  the  G«d- 
Ogy  of  Canada,  and  Mr.  Greeo  presented  his  papers  on  Textile 
Plants,  and  on  the  plants  used  in  dyeing  by  the  Indians.  Shortly 
after  die  formation  of  that  Society,  some  of  the  younger  inhabit- 
ants of  Quebec,  perhaps  thinking  that  they  had  been  slighted, 
formed  th^nselves  into  a  society  under  the  name  of  the  "  Sodely 
for  the  Promolioa  of  Arts  and  Science  in  Canada."     Lord  Dal- 


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'  66  THS  OAHADUN  NATOOALUT.  [Feb. 

hoosie  nfnsed  his  ooantenanoe  to  this  new  inetitadon.  Bevenl 
p^rswere  read,  andaBnoceaafiUpTogTeas  became  manifest.  After 
K  viiile,  a  disposition  on  the  part  of  the  Literaiy  and  HiBtorioal 
Society  to  conciliate  the  new  one,  and  even  to  adTooat«  a  Ibsloa 
of  the  two,  became  apparent.  This  was  nltimately  effected,  retaio- 
ing  the  ori^nal  title.  The  nnion  of  the  two  societies  was  prodno- 
tive  of  good,  the  workiog  members  becoming  more  nnmennis. 
Some  of  their  labors  appear  in  the  transBetions  of  the  Society. 
On  the  acoeasion  of  Sir  James  Kemp  to  the  goTemment  of  the 
Province,  he  very  liberally  bestowed  to  the  Sodety  a  copy  of  that 
splendid  work  of  art,  Glande'eXiier  Veritatit;  also  a  transit  in- 
etrament,  and  an  excellent  telesoope.  Here  it  may  be  mentioned 
that  M.  Chasseur,  a  naturalist  of  Quebec,  had  formed  a  museum  as 
amatterof  epeculation,  prinoipallycomposedof  birds;  but  finding 
that  it  did  not  answer  bis  expectation  in  point  of  revenue,  he  per- 
suaded the  Legislature  to  purchase  the  collection  ;  and  it  was  placed 
under  the  care  of  the  Literary  and  Historical  Society,  in  addition  to 
their  own  museum,  which  hod  assumed  a  respectable  condition. 
When  in  1838  Lord  Durham  was  sent  out  to  conciliate  the  people, 
and  restore  Canada  to  a  state  of  peace,  he  did  at  least  one  good  thing. 
Led  by  the  title  of  the  Society  to  suppose  that  literature  and  history 
were  its  sole  aim,  he  brought  out  a  large  and  select  collection  of 
the  ancient  Greek  and  Latin  historians,  and  presented  it  to  the 
Society,  for  which  he  ia  entitled  to  praise.  This  valuable  addition 
to  the  library  was  received  thankfully,  and  it  fomiehed  the  means 
for  several  reviews  and  critioismB  by  that  very  learned  and  eateemed 
member  of  the  Society,  Dr.  Wilkie.  At  later  periods  that  So- 
ciety has  been  very  unfortunate,  having  been  no  less  than  three 
times  burnt  out ;  losing  much  of  its  accumulation  of  objects  of  nat- 
ural history,  books,  and  apparatus,  thus  receiving  a  severe  check  in 
Boientifio  pureuita ;  but  it  ia  now  gradnally  recovering  from  its  lessee, 
and  again  rising  into  a  state  of  activity.  Before  concluding,  a  word  of 
OOmmendatioQ  must  be  said  on  the  Geological  Survey  of  the  Prov- 
ince, now  for  BO  many  years  so  well  and  eo  efficiently  conducted 
by  its  learned  and  amiable  bead,  asusted  by  an  active  and  sotenti- 
fic  staff.  Their  joint  labors  have  been  eminently  successful,  as  b 
abundantly  shown  by  the  very  complete  Oeologioal  Museum  in 
this  city;  by  their  periodical  reports  of  work  done,  now  coDSoltda- 
ted  into  one  large  volume, which,  of  course,  will  be  studied  by  all 
soientjfic  devotees,  a  monument  of  the  industry  of  the  Commission 


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1864.]  NATDBAL   BISTORT  SOOIBTT.  B7 

of  SnTT^,  and  an  evidence  to  the  dvilized  vorld  of  the  Taried 
UboTS  and  scientifia  oapabUitiefl  of  the  snrveyorB,  well  meritiDg  Uie 
appknae  and  gratitude  of  the  Province,  to  which  they  are  folly 
entitled.  Shall  I  say  a  word  on  the  Bnbject  of  thia  Society?  If 
permitted,  it  must  be  but  a  word,  fbr  you  are  all  better  acquainted 
wiUi  its  formation  and  operations  than  I  can  pretend  to  be.  The 
Society  was  formed  shorUy  after  that  of  the  L.  and  H.  Society ;  at 
tfaeiostance,  I  believe,  of  the  late  Dr.,Holmes  and  some  congenial 
Bpirits.  In  the  first  few  years  of  its  existence  its  pn^resa  was  not 
very  rapid,  all  np-hill  work,  as  the  Doctor  informed  me,  the  work 
mting  on  a  few  of  the  members ;  but  if  so,  that  langaor  hag  been 
snoessfiilly  shaken  off;  ite  pn^ress  and  prosperity  have  been  of  the 
most  satisfactory  nature.  As  a  contrast  to  the  difficulties  fbr  the 
acquirement  of  scientific  information  met  with  at  a  remote  former 
period,  already  alluded  to,  allow  me  to  state  some  of  the  great  faoili- 
'  ties  which  are  now  offered  to  the  student  of  Natural  History.  In 
many  parts  of  the  Province  there  have  been  established  Colleges  for 
the  education  of  youth,  in  which  the  Natural  Sciences  are  tangfat 
by  learned  professors,  with  the  advantage  of  extensive  museums. 
I  will  only  mention  some  of  them,  without  entering  into  particulars. 
Banning  in  the  lower  part  of  the  province  and  proceeding  up- 
wards, we  have  Laval,  McGill,  Lennoxville,  Queen's,  Toronto,  and 
others.  As  r^rds  this  city,  let  me  mention  with  commendation 
HcGill  Collfge.  Here  for  the  professed  stndent  every  facility 
exists :  r^utar  lectures  are  delivered  on  all  branches  of  Natural 
Science,  fudcd  by  a  very  complete  museum,  with  a  library  of  books 
of  reference.  To  the  occasional  stndent,  this  Society  posaeasea  all 
the  advantages  required;  an  extensive  and  well-arranged  museum, 
r^ular  steted  meetings,  attended  by  all  the  scientific  men  of  the 
city,  a  well-conducted  magazine,  open  to  contributors  generally,  a 
conrteoQS  and  scientific  curator,  a  large  and  commodious  building 
fit  for  all  the  purposes  of  the  Society;  and  if  I  may  judge  by  tiie 
extent  of  the  present  goodly  assembly  of  patrons,  there  seems 
great  reason  to  look  forward  to  further  satisfactory  progress  neces- 
sitating the  extension  of  accommodation,  bespeaking  the  approba- 
tion of  future  dwellers  in  thia  growing  and  beautiful  city,  followed 
by  the  respect  of  the  scientific  world  at  large." 

The  President  then  announced  that  instead  of  the  chemical 
experiments  by  Professor  Robins  following  here,  as  set  down  on 
the  programme,  an  address  would  be  given  by  Prof   Miles  of 


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58  THI  OANABUM   NATUBALIST.  [Feb. 

BifihopB'  College,  LennoxviUe ;  dooe  the  gues  emitted  in  tfae  per- 
fonuuioe  of  tlie  ezperimente  migbt  not  tend  (o  improve  the  vmti- 
lation  of  the  room.    FaoF.  MlLKS  then  ^ke  as  follows  : 

"  Mr.  President,  it  has  afibrded  me  great  pleaBQie  to  reoeive 
an  inTitalaon  to  join  in  this  gatheriog  of  the  members,  fHende,  and 
visitors  of  the  Natural  History  Society. 

"As  one  of  its  numerous  guests  this  eveiuDg,  I  beg  toexprewmy 
sinoere  thanks  for  the  {Hiviiege  of  parddpatang  in  a  treat  bo  Tiohly 
and  Ekt  variously  furBished, — one  which,  while  it  appeak  to  tbe  un- 
derstuiding,  delights  the  imagination  and  the  senses.  But  in  en- 
deavoring to  respond,  at  a  brief  notice,  to  a  request  that  I  should 
address  you,  I  should  begin,  if  the  plea  were  good  for  anything, 
or  if  it  were  judged  to  be  in  good  taste,  by  asking  yon  to  remem- 
ber how  formidable  a  thing  to  some  is  the  prospect  of  bmng  re- 
quired to  make  a  speech.  In  place  of  that,  however,  I  find  it  more 
niUural,  as  it  is  doubtless  more  becoming,  to  obey  the  stimulus  aris- 
ing from  a  hearty  sense  of  sympathy  as  regards  the  objeota  of  the 
Natural  History  Sodety — to  look  to  the  feelings  which  must  ani- 
mate all  who  are  assembled  here  to-night — cultivators,  lovers,  and 
patrons  of  soieDOe — gathered  together  here  socially  for  the  par- 
pose  of  testifying  an  appreciation  of  those  objects — for  tba  purpose, 
in  fact,  of  testifying  raped  for  tcience,  and  an  admiration  of  t^ 
useful  and  heautiiiil  tirte  and  improvements  in  art  which  Boienoe 
is  oontinnally  furnishing. 

"  To  these  cODsidorationa  I  think,  sir,  I  cannot  be  in  error,  whoa 
I  add  the  mention  of  another  motive  in  influencing  us  all  who 
have  come  to  participate  in  this  evening's  recreation ;  namely,  a 
desire  to  express  our  recognition  of  those  services  which  have  ren- 
dered the  Natural  History  Society  what  it  is — whether  of  those  wii» 
havegiven  wiUtoat  stint,  time,  labor,  and  skill  to  its  advancement, 
or  of  those  otiier  promoters  who  have,  in  various  ways,  contributed 
to  the  same  end,  by  donations  of  money,  of  books,  of  works  of  art, 
and  of  specimens  for  the  enrichment  of  the  Society's  collections. 

"  Encouraged  by  reflections  of  this  kind  calculated  to  loosen  the 
tongue,  and  to  place  even  an  unpractised  speaker  at  his  ease,  I  am 
lluuikf^il  for  the  opportunity  of  ezpresung  my  own  gratification  at 
what  I  see  and  hear  to-night,  and  should  rqoice  indeed  if,  it  may 
be  at  a  fitting  moment,  I  oould  be  so  fortunate  as  to  say  only  a 
few  nsefnl  words  in  furtherance  of  a  cause  we  all  desire  to  promote. 

"  There  are  estaUished  here  societies— quite  a  goodly  number  of 


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IS<4.]  NATDBAJ.  BISTOBY  SOOIETT.  69 

Ibem— embuked  in  Qye  exeoation  of  projects  of  benevolenoe,  «da- 
cation,  religioiu,  mental  and  bodily  welfitre,  and  I  have  understood 
tint  Montreal  U  in  this  behalf  not  one  whit  behind  other  notable  <a~ 
ties  in  her  Majesty's  dominiona.  Bat  I  do  think,  eir,  nithout  any  die- 
psngement  of  llieaim  and  work  of  those  other  combinations  of  effort 
which  have  been  alluded  to,  that  one  of  the  very  chief  ornaments 
of  this  ci^,  and  one  of  the  most  efficient  promoters  of  progress,  ia 
the  Natural  HiMory  Society.  Embracing  in  its  list  of  membov, 
livii^  and  deceased,  a  good  number  of  persons  of  high  reputation 
that  extends  iar  beyond  the  immediate  aoene  of  their  labors,  it 
cu  and  doee  command  that  sort  and  degree  of  resp^t  which  gives 
wai^t  to  its  proceedii^s,  and  which  conld  not  attend  the  efforts 
of  any  number  of  merely  local  magnntes.  The  domain  of  the 
Sodety'a  reeeanihes  being  the  botindlesa  field  of  nature,  and  in  a 
eompanitiTely  new  country  where  ahnost  every  day  new  develop- 
ments strengthen  the  oonfidenoe  that  is  entertained  in  the  magni- 
tnde  of  its  natural  resoureee,  the  Socie^  may  be  expected  in  the 
anoeeea  of  its  work  to  render  servioee  of  the  greatest  value  to  the 
lAoile  eoittmnnity  by  being  instrumental  in  bringing  those  resouices 
iwure  and  more  into  notice.  I  ought,  perhaps,  to  apologise  for  pre- 
aamii^  on  yonr  indntgenoe  when  I  venture  to  make  remarks  of 
this  kind — when  I  suggest  that  the  expectations  of  the  public  may 
possibly  extend  much  further  than  some  would  at  first  sight  ad- 
Biit  to  be  legitimate  as  regards  the  labors  of  one  society.  But  I 
iball  be  pardoned,  I  think,  when  it  is  borne  in  mind  how  few  and 
dender  as  yet,  and  as  compared  with  older  countries,  are  our 
erganised  means  for  the  promotion  of  various  special  branches  of 
seienoe.  The  day  to  us  has  not  yet  dawned  for  venturing  to  take 
in  hand  the  organization  of  distinct  societies,  to  promote  astrono- 
my, chemistry,  botany,  met«or«l<^y,  entomology,  and  a  number  of 
ottier  leading  branobee  upon  which  the  progreps  of  natural  history 
is  more  or  less  eesentially  dependent.  It  must  be  obvions  that  the 
fiiends  of  Boience  in  this  country  are  naturally  led,  thion|^  the 
feroe  of  circumstances,  to  depend  upon  such  a  body  as  the  Nata- 
lal  History  Sooie^  of  Montreal  for  fostering  and  keeping  alive 
aiDongst  us  a  general  scientific  spirit,  and  a  tone  of  natural  seienoe 
in  all  its  branches  and  operations  to  take  up  work  which  elsewhere 
would  foe  allotted  to  other  associations.  For  these  and  like  reasons  it 
must  be  gratifying  to  the  members  of  this  society  to  feel  that 
whatever  they  can  do  in  behalf  of  science  generally,  even  in  cases 


,,;.  Google 


60  THR  CANADIAN  NATCFBALI8T.  [Feb. 

where  there  ia  apparently  only  aa  indunot  obnneotioD  witb  Uie 
particolar  branches  they  oomblne  to  proBeoat«,  ia  neoesaarilj  of 
advantage  to  the  oommuuity;  and  that  their  labors,  of  whatoTcc 
kind,  are  sensibly  appreciated,  is  amply  demonstrated  in  the  lurge 
and  interested  circle  of  friends  whom  the  attractjons  of  this  an- 
nnal  oonversaiioDe  have  brought  t^^tber  this  evening. 

"Sir,  I  hope  I  shall  not  be  fonnd  unmindfol  of  the  natnre  of 
-this  social  occasion  upon  which  I  feel  it  would  be  nnfltting  to  claim 
the  attention  of  the  andienoe  for  a  long  time.  It  would  he  no  less 
inappropriate  or  unprofitable  I  believe  for  me  to  attempt  to  engage 
that  attentjoo,  even  for  a  short  time,  by  the  diacnBsion  of  any  purely 
technical  matters  appertuning  to  the  several  branches  of  natural 
history.  Hy  further  remarks  shall,  therefore,  be  brief,  and  shall 
be  devoted  to  one  of  the  most  important  and  interesting  of  the 
Society's  undertakings, — ilt  colUction  of  rpeciment,  iUmtrative  of 
/act*  and  phetwmena  of  natural  kittory.  In  this  department 
almost  every  person  is  able  to  pat  his  hand  to  the  work,  and  to 
iurther  its  progrese ;  and  I  might  add,  that  in  auch  ooUeotioaB 
there  ia  dmoet  always  a  place  waiting  to  be  filled  np  by  contribn- 
riona  such  aa  would  entail  upon  the  individoal  friends  of  soienoe, 
Id  most  oasee,  at  least,  but  a  email  sacrifice.  It  is  perhaps  need- 
less to  observe  that  specimens  of  objects  of  natural  history  sub- 
serve the  purposes  of  attracting  atteation,  exciting  interest,  and 
impressing  the  memory  in  a  manner  that  corresponds  with  the  ef- 
fects produced  by  suitable  experiments  devised  and  executed  in 
illnatraticn  of  any  law  of  nature  or  natural  phenomena.  As  it 
would  be  unreasonable  to  expeot  a  student  of  cbembtry  to  com- 
prehend, realize,  and  retain  in  his  memory  through  mere  words  of 
description  the  phenomena  attendant  apon  the  mutual  action  of 
alkalies  and  acids,  so  would  it  be  too  much  to  firesame  npqji  at- 
taining a  rational  knowledge  of  the  peouliaritjes  of  an  owl  or  of  the 
Bubetanoe  india-rubber  in  the  absence  of  visible  examples  of  these 
okgeots.  Drawings  and  models,  if  well  executed,  may  to  some  ex- 
tent supply  the  deficiency.  But  as  we  all  know  the  work  of  (Jie  ar- 
tist cannot  attain  to  the  perfection  realized  in  natnre ;  andit  may  be 
safely  asserted  that  the  impreauons  producible  by  verbal  descrip- 
tion, even  when  accompanied  by  good  drawings,  is  neither  so  vivid 
nor  so  permanent  as  that  which  ia  created  by  the  ugbt  and  hand- 
ling of  the  objects.  In  fact,  one  common  result  of  an  aocorate  de- 
scription or  drawing  of  a  natural  object  is  to  make  ns  wish  to  tee, 


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1864.}  NATURAL   HISTOBT  80C1BTT.  61 

if  poBBible,  the  object  itself.  Again,  if  the  sight  of  a  speoimen  in 
a  odfection — ^be  it  a  stu^d  hiid,  or  a  mineral,  or  a  valuable  nat- 
ural pTOdnot  in  any  one  of  its  Btagee  of  oonTeiaioD  to  the  uae  of 
man — be  fonndto  augment  the  beholder'aprerioasknovledge  of  it, 
oc  to  set  him  right  in  regard  to  any  erroneona  impreasion  he  may 
have  entertained ;  if  it  serve  to  support  or  oonfato  any  theory,  or  to 
suggest  any  idea  that  is  aflerwards  worked  out  into  naefol  reaulta  ; 
or  in  fine,  if  it  exoite  a  spark  in  the  mind  which  kindles  into 
the  dedre  to  go  forth  and  study  the  works  of  nature  in  any  por- 
tion of  hear  reahn,  there  is  one  of  the  ohief  ends  of  such  a  coUectioD 
attained. 

"It  is  well  worthy  of  note,  that  the  variety  of  trains  of  thought 
and  of  aasoolationH  roused  by  the  sight  of  an  object  presented  ae 
a  speoimen  is  as  great  as  that  which  exists  in  the  mental  qualitiee, 
bias,  and  oocapation  in  life  of  those  who  examine  it.  In  this  oon- 
neotion  I  am  tempted  to  quote  the  language  of  Sir  John  HerBohel. 
Commentiog  upon  the  different  ideas  attached  by  different  per- 
sons even  lo  the  name  of  a  common  sabstanoe,  be  says :  '  Take 
Ibr  instanoe  Iron.  .  One  who  has  never  heard  of  magnetism  has  a 
widely  different  notion  of  iron  from  one  in  the  contrary  predioa-  ■ 
meat.  The  vulgar,  who  r^ard  this  metal  as  inoombasti'>!e,  and 
the  chemist,  who  sees  it  hum  with  the  utmost  fury,  and  who  has 
other  reasons  for  regarding  it  as  one  of  the  most  combustible  bo- 
dies in  nature ; — the  poet,  ,who  usee  it  as  an  emblem  of  rigidity ; 
and  the  smith  and  engineer,  in  whose  hands  it  is  plastic  and 
moulded  like  wax  into  every  form  j — the  jailor,  who  prises  it  as  an 
obstraction,  and  tike  electrician  who  sees  in  it  only  a  channel  of 
open  commnnioalion  by  which  that  most  impsesibte  of  obstacles, 
the  air,  may  he  traversed  by  his  imprisoned  flnid,  have  all  differ- 
ent notions  of  the  same  word.  The  meaning  of  such  a  term  is 
Kke  a  rainbow, — every  body  sees  a  different  one,  and  all  maintain 
it  to  be  the  same.' 

"  The  only  or  principal  effect  upon  some  minds  derived  &om  in- 
specting a  oolketion  of  specimens  appropriately  arranged,  is  believ- 
ed by  many  to  be  a  sort  of  passive  gratifiontion  traceable  rather  to  the 
influence  of  a  tasteful  artistic  display,  than  to  tiie  rect^ition  of  any 
poative  r^olt  of  useful  knowledge.  It  may  be  so :  with  pro^ooon- 
|ded  minds,  or  through  habitual  indifference  to  what  passes,  some 
persons  may  agreeably  though  cursorily  inspect  a  moseam  witb- 
•nt  oarrying  away  any  new  information.    Still  the  effect,  bo  far 


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62  THE   GANADIA.it  NATnaALIBT.  [f^- 

aa  it  goes  is  good — they  enfier  no  harm ;  and  aeeing  th&t  wh&t  u  tins 
to  tlieir  notioe  preedoted  is  not  displeauug,  there  is  the  hope  that 
on  some  Aitare  oooasion  they  may  b«  iadaoed  eren  to  oontribate 
to  that  which  EM  maoh  pteasee  aod  instniets  others.  But  the 
number  of  Baeh  peraons — ^who  can  go  throngh,  perhaps,  an  exten- 
nva  mnaenm  without  deriving  any  b^iefit  whatever,  is  probaUy 
very  small ;  and  if  there  be  any,  he  or  she  is  at  leaat  in  no  wone 
poeitioQ  than  a  certain  eminent  navigator  who  minded  ezdustvely 
bis  own  nautical  businem,  and  returned  home  from  hia  voy^w  is 
ohild-like  ignorance  of  the  artful  ways  of  mankind — so  that  his 
fiiends  jokingly  said  of  him,  'be  has  been  all  round  the  wt^d,  bat 
never  in  it.' 

"  I  am  sore,  sir,  that  it  would  be  tedious  to  listen  to  details  oi 
the  advantages  proposed  and  expected  to  be  realiied  by  a  society 
or  institution  that  embraces  among  its  purposes  the  making  of  a  oot 
leetion  of  specimens.  In  most  of  the  older  museums  very  small  atten- 
tion was  commonly  paid  to  the  points  I  have  alluded  to,  what  have 
beencallen  industrid and eoonomic purposes.  The beauty,the rich- 
ness, the  rarity,  and  curious  nature  of  the  objeate  illustrated,  were 
commonly  the  main  agencies  by  which  the  attention  and  admiration 
of  visiters  were  moved.  Nooneoould  say  justly  thattbese  attributes 
are  not  perfectly  legitimate,  and  worthy  of  especial  provision  in  a 
public  museum,  viewed  aa  a  repository  of  what  is  considered  vain- 
able  on  account  of  its  rarity,  or  because  st^estive  of  intereetlng 
or  important  historical  incidents.  The  majority  of  people  for  a 
very  long  time  to  come  will  probably  regard  wilii  deep  interest 
each  objects  as  the  spurs  of  King  Hfenry  the  Fiflb,  the  watch 
used  by  Oliver  Cromwell,  the  snuff-box  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte, 
the  sword  of  General  Wolf,  and  the  relics  of  personal  effects  be- 
longing to  Sir  John  Franklin  and  his  followers,  recovered  some 
years  after  their  lamented  owners  had  auccambed  to  their  fate  amid 
the  arctic  snows.  The  bare  sight  of  these  things  rouses  in  most 
(tf  us  very  strongemot4ons.  Aa  long  as  the  world  endures,  hnman 
nature  wiU  ever  cherish  the  preservation  of  articles  of  Hub  kind. 
But  it  is  much  less  common  now  than  formerly  to  allot  a  large 
share  of  space  in  a  museum  to  tlieir  preservation  and  edibitton : 
a  more  utilitarian  disposition  is  everywhere  prevalent^and  col- 
leotioos  of  specimens  are  expected  to  be  composed  of  sometbi^ 
more  than  what  may  be  denominated  ourioaitiee. 

"  But  a  brief  visit  to  the  Moseum  of  this  Society,  which  I  mtiy 


,,;.  Google 


1864.}  MATUSAL  HIBTOKT  SOaETT.  63 

h»  permitted  to  uy  I  htm  now  the  opportanity  of  seeing  for  Ibe 
fint  time  in  the  more  ezteDOTe  and  appropriate  building  provided 
for  it,  has  afforded  me  so  much  pleasure  that  I  cannot  help  saying 
a  few  words  on  what  appears  to  me  on  tliis  occasion  worthy  of 
mention,  a  veiy  important  principle  for  governing  the  making  of 
such  ooUeotions — and  it  mnst  be  very  gratifying  to  all  lovera  of 
nstural  history  to  see  the  prindple  adhered  to  in  the  straotare  of 
this  Hosemn  bo  &r  as  it  has  pn^iressed.  The  principle  I  allnde 
to  is  Ui&t  of  utilizing  the  objects  of  a  eolleotion  strictly  with 
s  Tiew  to  the  purposes  aimed  at^-exhibiting  only  specimens  as  per- 
fect as  possible  of  their  Bever^  kinds,  not  n^leoting  artistic  dis- 
play, but  at  the  same  time  saorificing  even  that  (when  necessary) 
to  the  oonditjons  of  order  in  a  series,  position,  and  other  re- 
-qnirementd  for  rendering  illnstrative  objects  of  natnral  history 
really  nsefiiL  Host  modem  collections  made  ander  &vorable  ans- 
|Hce6  are  known  to  follow  this  out  in  a  decree  that  was  deemed 
useless,  or  which,  perhaps,  was  not  even  thon^t  of  in  former 
times.  I  could  name,  sir,  I  think  more  than  one  old-established 
moaenm  where  no  expense  has  been  spared,  and  yet  where  atten- 
-tion  to  thia  feature  has  been  sadly  n^lected,  oocauoning  injury  to 
science,  and  exciting  wonder  in  the  minds  of  intelligent  and 
adentific  viidtors,  who  go  into  them,  perhaps,  anticipating  instmo- 
tive  information.  Doubtless  tJiia  is  sometimes  the  result  of  Bheer 
Delect ;  bat  more  frequently  it  must  arise  from  the  too  great  lib- 
-erality  and  abundauoe  with  whioh  particular  okasee  of  specimens 
have  been  contributed.  It  is  not  so  much  the  extent  of  a  museum 
that  renders  it  useful  in  the  canse  of  science,  as  attention  to  unity 
of  purpose,  and  to  natural  conditions.  A  bird,  for  ekample,  poorly 
stuffed,  mounted  in  an  unnatural  position,  placed  in  a  bad  l^t, 
or  thrown  amongst  others  without  heed  of  its  species,  however  re- 
markable ita  prototype  in  natnre  may  be,  is  hut  ill-suited  to  ea- 
oourage  the  study  of  ornithology,  or  to  illustrate  the  collateral 
facts  of  science  which  students  of  natural  soienoe  are  usually  anz- 
iona  to  verify.  The  grand  rule  so  valuable,  and  carried  out  by 
oaiefol  people  in  their  ordinary  arrangements,  '  a  place  for  every- 
Hang,  and  everything  in  ita  place,'  is  eminently  of  oonseqaenoe  in 
tbe  disposition  of  the  objects  of  a  museum. 

"  For  reasons  snoh  as  are  feebly  indicated  in  the  above  remarks, 
it  is  remarkable  that  people  who  are  partial  to  ornithology  are 
ft  heard  to  declare  that  they  derive  more  real  benefit  and 


,,;.  Google 


64  TBE  CANADIAN   NATrBALIST.  [Feb. 

more  pleasure  from  iospecUng  a  compnTatiTslj  Email  collection 
jndioioiuly  arranged,  and  i^ell  monnted — aa  for  example  the  birds 
in  the  University  of  Edinbnrgh  Goll^  Collection — than  IVom 
the  examples  io  the  great  Briljah  Museum  itself. 

"  In  the  nnolena  of  a  future  extensive  museum  embiaoed  by  the 
geological  collection,  the  examples  of  animals,  of  birds,  reptiles,  and 
fishes,  and  in  the  herbarium  belonging  to  this  Society,  I  feel  sure, 
Sir,  there  ate  offered  opportunities  vhioh  most  furnish  on  all  points 
most  valnable  helps  to  students  of  natural  history  in  this  country ; 
and  thus  positive  utility  as  well  as  the  cause  of  tiieoretical  science 
cannot  fail  to  be  subserved." 

General  chemical  experiments,  of  an  int«restiDg  description, 
were  tlien  performed  by  Professor  Robins,  accompanied  with  ap- 
propriate explanations. 

During  the  remainder  of  the  evening  the  eatertainmeat  was 
contributed  to  by  Mr.  Heam,  optiraan,  who  exhibited  a  series  of 
dissolving  views  j  and  by  the  band,  who  gave  several  other  choice 
selections.  The  visitors  also  examined  with  much  pleasure  the 
various  interesting  objects  in  the  Society's  collection,  and  a 
number  of  microsoopes  and  other  scientific  instruments  displayed 
in  the  library. 


THE  MAPLB-LBAF  CUTTER. 

At  a  late  meeting  of  the  Natural  History  Society,  a  comTauoi- 
oation  was  read  from  Rev.  Mr.Constabell  of  Clarence  vi  lie,  describing 
the  ravHges  of  an  insect  whose  larva  barrows  in  the  maple  leaves, 
cutting  out  circular  pieces,  which  are  used  as  coverings  to  protect 
the  larva  while  eating  the  parencbymn  of  the  leaf. 

From  the  specimens  exhibited,  it  appe^ired  that  the  insect  is  a 
little  moth,  Ornix  aceri/olieUa  of  Fitoh,  well  known  In  the  State 
cf  New  York,  though  apparently  not  hitherto  recorded  in  Canada. 
Fitch  states  that  it  is  not  ordinarily  very  destrnctive,  but  that  in 
some  seasons  it  appears  in  great  nnmbers,  and  iuQicts  considerable 
rav^es,  especially  on  detached  miple  groves.  He  recommends 
that  cattle  should  be  turned  into  the  affected  groves  in  autumn,  id 
the  hope  that  their  treading  would  destroy  the  pups,  which  at 
that  season  are  lying  on  the  ground,  wrapped  in  their  coverlets  of 
cnt  leaves. 


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1864.] 


REVIEW. 


GlOLOatoAL  ScBTKT  OT  Cahada.  Repoit  of  Prc^reffi  from 
its  Commenoement  to  1863.    Lovell,  Montreal. 

This  luge  notETO,  of  983  pagea,  Ulustratod  with  498  wood-cati, 
and  to  be  aoconpuiied  b;  an  atlas  of  mapa  and  sections,  presents 
a  condensed  view  of  the  work  of  the  Canadian  Surrey  from  its 
oomiDencemeiit  in  1843.  It  gives  the  resnlts  of  the  eombined 
labors  of  Sir  W.  E.  Lognn,  Mr.  Murray,  Dr.  Hnnt,  and  Mr. 
Billings,  a  staff  not  to  be  surpassed  either  in  ability  or  enei^, 
and  aided  also  by  several  able  asristants,  of  whom  Mr.  Biohardson 
and  Mr.  Bell  stand  first.  It  is  also  to  be  obserred  that  the 
generous  and  liberal  dispositiOD  of  the  Director  of  the  Sorrey  has 
kept  him  in  friendly  relations  with  every  one  of  any  note  aa  an 
nnoffioial  observer  oo  Canadian  Qeology;  and  that  in  his  Preface 
he  ennmerates  and  frankly  acknowledges  all  the  services,  large  or 
small,  rendered  by  Boob  persona  befbre  the  inatitntion  of  the  Sor- 
vqr  or  during  its  ^Togteea. 

The  work  commences  with  an  account  of  the  Physical  Geog- 
raphy of  Canada,  presenting  in  few  bnt  well^chosen  words  the 
general  features  of  the  country.  A  few  pages  are  then  devoted  to 
the  nomenolatnro  of  the  geological  formations ;  after  which  bc^na 
the  main  portion  of  the  work,  devoted  to  a  detailed  description  of 
the  formations  occurring  in  Canada,  Ix^nning  with  the  Lauren- 
tian,  the  oldest  of  them  all,  and  ending  with  the  Devonian ;  the 
superficial  geolt^  being  ^ven  in  a  separate  chapter  at  the  end. 
The  fowils  are  carefully  noticed  under  each  formation,  with  illna- 
tratioiiB  of  characteristic  epeaies. 

The  aecond  leading  division  of  the  work  is  a  description  of 
Canadian  minerals,  embraoing  many  new  facts  of  interest,  aacer- 
tained  by  the  Chemist  of  the  survey.  Then  follows  by  the  same 
hand  what  may  be  r^^ed  as  a  treatiae  on  rooks,  which  is  prob- 
ably the  most  valuable  and  reliable  memoir  on  this  important 
subject  in  onr  lango^e. 

Thifi  part  of  the  Report  ends  at  page  670;  and  beyond  this,  as 
becomes  a  public  aurvay,  the  remainder  is  occupied  prindpally 
^th  economical  geolc^.  Every  useiiil  rook  or  mineral  occurring 
in  the  ooantry  is  noticed ;  with  details  as  te  the  places  and  condi- 
tions in  which  it  is  found,  and  the  extent  to  which  it  is  worked; 


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66  THE  CANADIAN   NATITRALIST.  [Feb. 

and  much  useful  infbrmation  is  given  as  to  the  modes  of  rendering 
■uoh  depodts  useful  elaewbere. 

The  value  of  this  work  to  Cxnada  oan  Bcamel;  be  onr-estdmated. 
It  must  be  regarded  as  of  vast  importuioe,  whether  we  oonddei 
readers  abroad  or  at  home,  wbetiier  we  oondder  Bcientifio  objects 
purely  or  those  which  are  praotjoal.  Its  meobanioal  exeontion  is 
an  endenoe  of  the  progresa  of  the  arte  among  as.  Its  publication 
to  the  world  is  a  proof  of  the  interest  taken  in  ecienoe  in  this 
country,  and  of  the  enlightened  patronage  afforded  by  the  Oorem- 
ment  to  sooh  investigadons,  and  at  the  same  time,  of  the 
immense  valne  of  our  mineral  reeonroee,  as  well  as  of  the 
exteut  to  which  they  have  already  been  made  available.  It  gives 
for  the  first  time  to  geologists  abroad  the  means  of  making  them- 
sdves  thoroogUy  acquainted  with  the  geology  of  this  country ;  and 
it  thus  places  Canada  on  a  level  with  those  older  oonntries  whose 
structure  has  been  explored,  and  the  knowledge  of  it  made  the 
common  property  of  the  world.  In  some  departments  of  geology, 
it  even  makes  Canadian  rook-formatioDs  rank  as  types  to  which 
those  of  other  countries  will  be  referred.  This  is  espeoially 
the  case  with  regard  to  those  oldest  of  known  rooks,  the  Lau- 
rendan  aeries,  whose  intrioaoies  have  for  the  first  time  been 
unravelled  by  the  Canadian  survey,  their  mineral  character 
explained,  and  the  earliest  known  traces  of  animal  life  ob- 
tained from  themj  so  that  the  term  Laurentian  is  applied 
as  the  general  deeignation  for  the  most  ancient  formataons 
of  Europe  as  well  as  of  America.  To  the  people  of  Canada, 
the  pubUoation  of  this  Report  must  mark  an  era  both  in  soieuoe 
and  practical  mining.  Any  one  desirous  of  studying  gecJogy, 
has  here  to  aid  him  a  detailed  account  of  tlie  Btruoture  of  his  own 
country ;  an  advantage  not  hitherto  enjoyed  by  our  self-taught 
geoli^ists,  and  one  which  in  a  readii^;  oonntrylika  this,  must  bear 
good  fruit.  The  practical  man  has  all  that  is  known  of  what  our 
conutry  produces  in  eveiy  description  of  mineral  wealth;  and  has 
thus  a  reliable  guide  to  mining  enterprise,  and  a  protection  against 
imposture.  Even  in  the  case  of  new  discoveries  of  useful  min- 
erals which  may  be  made,  or  may  be  claimed  to  be  made,  after  the 
publication  of  this  Report,  it  g^vee  the  means  of  testing  their  prob- 
able nature  and  valne,  as  compared  with  those  prerionsly  known. 

No  one,  in  short,  need  henceforth  have  any  excuse  for  profosnng 
ignoranoe  of  the  labors  of  the  Geological  Survey,  or  for  representing 


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1864.]  EEvaw.  67 

it  aa  ft  useless  expenditore  of  tbe  pablio  money.  Persons  not 
intereeted  in  ecienoe  or  in  prao^cal  mining  might  heretofore  have 
b<»n  exonsed  ftr  not  having  read  the  annua!  reporU  of  progresB, 
with  their  irj  details  and  want  of  suitable  illnetrations ;  but  after 
tbe  publioation  of  this  attraoUve  volume,  snch  want  of  knowledge 
oan  no  longer  be  tolerated;  and  it  ia  to  be  hoped  that  do  pablio 
speaker  or  writer  will  venture  bo  to  proclaim  bis  own  ignoranoe  as 
to  pretend  that  Canadian  Geology  is  one  of  those  little  matters 
which  have,  in  the  midst  of  more  important  affairs,  escaped  his 
attention,  or  to  underrato  tlie  labors  of  those  who  have  devoted 
themselves  to  this  great  work. 

We  do  not  propose  togive  any  summary  of  the  Report,  or  to  give 
eztraots  &om  it.  It  should  be  in  the  bands  of  every  reading  man 
in  Canada ;  and  as  a  further  inducement  to  this,  we  oloM  with 
the  fidlowing  eztraots  from  the  Prefiue,  in  relation  to  tbe  arrange- 
ment of  the  Museum  of  the  Survey,  which  is  one  of  its  most  cred- 
itable and  useful  achievements  t 

"  One  of  tbe  daties  imposed  by  tbe  Government  upon  the  Sur- 
vey, at  the  time  of  its  institution,  was  the  ibrmatlon  of  a  Provin- 
dal  Museum,  which  should  illustrate  the  geology  and  the  mineral 
reaouroes  of  the  country.  This  ol:jeot  has  been  constantly  kept  In 
view;  and  aiDoe  a  suitable  building  has  been  plaoed  at  the  disposal 
(^  the  Survey,  the  Museum  has  gradually  assumed  a  value  and 
importance  wbioh  at  the  present  time  reu'^er  it  second  to  few  on 
the  oontinent  for  the  special  purpose  to  which  it  is  devoted.  The 
Hnseum  is  separated  into  two  parts.  One  of  these  is  devoted  to 
Economia  Geology,  and  in  it  are  displayed  specimens  of  such 
rockg  and  minerid  substances  as  can  be  applied  to  tbe  useful 
purposes  of  life.  These  are  subdivided  into  two  clasBes ;  one 
of  them  contuning  tbe  more  important  metals  and  their  ores,  and 
the  other  what  may  be  termed  the  non-metalliferous  mineral  sub- 
stanoea.  These  various  materials  are  agiun  olasufied  technically, 
pretty  much  in  the  way  in  which  they  are  described  in  tbe  f.wenty- 
fint  chapter  of  this  volume;  each  specimen  being  placed  under  a 
label  givii^  its  looaHty,  and  the  geological  formation  to  which  it 
belongs.  The  various  substances  are  as  much  as  possible  reduced 
to  forms  showing  their  uses,  dine  at  onoe  making  tbe  design  (^  the 
arrangement  iutelli^ble'.  In  this  division  of  the  Museum  there 
is  a  classified  collection  of  all  onr  mineral  spcoies;  and  another  of 
OUT  fockB,more  particularly  those  ofamctamorpbioorof  an  intru- 


,.,.d.i.  Google 


68.  THE   CANADIAN   NATUaALIST.  [Feb. 

ai?e  oli&raoter.     This  part  of  the  Museum  it  is  proposed  to  illus- 
trate further  by  geol<^cal  maps,  sections,  and  models. 

"  The  geographical  distribution  of  any  series  of  foimalions  can 
scarcely  be  followed  oat  correctly  over  a  large  area  without  a  pre- 
liminary knowledge  of  the  true  geolo^cal  superpositinn,  or  the 
natural  order  in  whioh  these  fonnatbas  have  been  deposited.  It 
is  now  well  establiiihed  that  throughout  a  veiy  large  proportion  of 
the  whole  series  of  rooks  composii^  the  earth's  crust,  the  best  . 
means  of  determiniDg  their  succession  is  by  their  fossils;  it  being 
a  fiindamental  principle  of  geology  that  different  formations  are 
charaoterized  by  different  groups  of  organic  remains.  The  study 
and  determiuaUoa  of  fossils  thus  becomes  an  Indispensable  part  of 
a  geological  surrey.  But  these  organic  forms  are  so  many  and  bo 
various,  and  pass  into  one  another  by  such  insensible  gradations, 
that  to  make  them  truly  aviulable  requires  the  special  attention  of 
a  person  versed  in  natural  history,  and  indeed  of  one  who  purauea 
an  uninterrupted  study  of  that  department  of  natural  history  which 
is  devoted  to  these  ancient  forma.  Hence  the  necessity  of  attach- 
ing a  paleontologist  to  every  important  geological  surrey;  and 
hence  do  geological  mnseum  can  be  complete  without  a  full  and 
properly  classified  collection  of  described  oiganic  remuns  from  the 
fossiliferoos  rocks  of  the  area  which  it  is  designed  to  illustrate. 

"  The  second  division  of  the  Museum  is  thus  devoted  to  the 
palieontology  of  onr  formations.  In  this  division  the  fossils  are 
displayed  in  gronpe,  which  succeed  one  another  in  the  order  of  the 
formations,  beginning  with  the  most  ancient.  In  each  group  the 
specimens  ajre  arranged  in  a  natural-history  order,  oommeooing 
with  the  simplest  or  lowest  forms,  and  rising  to  the  highest;  and 
to  eaoh  specimen  there  is  attached  a  label  giving  the  generic  and 
specific  names  of  the  fos^,  with  its  geological  formation  and  its 
locality.  In  order  that  there  may  be  no  mistake  as  to  the  fossil 
indicated  by  the  label,  the  spedmens  are  fi«ed  as  much  as  possible 
from  all  other  fossils.  In  order  at  the  same  time  to  save  space, 
the  specimens  have  been  as  much  as  possible  reduced  iu  size.  In 
this  operation  the  services  of  Mr.  T.  C.  Weston,  a  lapidary,  have 
been  made  avulable ;  and  his  skill  has  also  been  applied  t«  slitting 
many  of  the  oe^halopods  and  other  fossils,  and  rooks,  &>r  the  pur- 
pose of  showing  their  internal  structure.  By  this  reduotiOD  in 
the  size  of  the  specimens  we  have  been  able  to  arrange  a  much 
greater  number  in  our  limited  space  than  would  otherwise  have 


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1864.]  REVIEW.  69 

"  The  nmnber  of  species  of  fossils  displayed  in  the  Museum  is 
about  1500.  Figures  engraved  on  wood  of  643  of  the  more 
characteristic  of  these,  are  given  in  the  present  volume.  These 
ue  chiefly  by  Mr.  J.  H.  Walker  of  Montreal,  with  a  few  by  Mr. 
A.  W.  Oraham  and  Mr.  Ct.  Q.  Tasey ;  the  wliole  from  excellent 
drawings  by  Hr.  H.  S.  Smith.  With  a  few  exceptions,  the  species 
here  ^nred  are  distinct  &om  those  which  have  already  been  given 
in  the  Decades  of  Canadian  Organic  Bemains,  published  by  the 
Survey.  Of  these,  I,  III,  and  IV  have  appeared,  and  it  b  espected 
that  Decade  II,  already  referred  to,  will  shortly  be  published.  For 
the  desoriptioDS  of  Decade  I  we  are  indebted  to  Mr.  J.  W.  Salter, 
palsBontologist  to  the  Geological  Survey  of  the  United  Kingdom. 
It  coDtains  twenty-one  species  from  the  Birdseye  and  Black  River 
formation,  the  figures  of  which  are  drawn  by  Mr.  C.  R.  Bone,  and 
engraved  by  Mr.  W.  Sowerby,  Decade  II  will  contun  fifty-one 
species  of  graptolitidse,  by  Prof  James  Hall  of  Albany.  Decade 
ni  contains  twenty-nine  species  of  Lower  Silurian  cystideae  and 
asteridse,  described  by  Mr.  Billings,  and  one  species  of  oyclocys- 
toidea,  by  Messrs.  Salter  and  BilUngs;  with  fourteen  species  of 
Lower  SUorian  blvalved  entomostraoa,  by  Mr.  T.  Rupert  Jones, 
of  the  Oeolo^cal  Society  of  London.  The  figures  are  drawn  on 
stone  by  Messrs.  C.  R.  Bone,  J.  Dinkle,  Tuffen  West,  G.  West, 
and  H.  8.  Smith.  Decade  IV  containa  forty-three  species  of 
Lower  Silurian  crinoidea,  described  by  Mr.  Billings ;  the  figures 
drawn  on  stone  by  Mr.  H.  S.  Smith,  and  printed  by  Mr.  G.  Mat- 
thews of  Montreal.  As  already  stated,  Mr.  Billingshas  described 
altogether  526  species  of  fossils.  Those  not  included  in  the 
Decades  have  been  published  in  the  Canadian  Journal  of  Toronto ; 
the  Canadian  Naturalist  and  Geolc^ist  of  Montreal ;  in  the  Annual 
Reports,  and  in  the  volume  entitled  Paheozoic  Fossils  of  Canada^ 
published  by  the  Survey. 

"  la  the  oollootion  of  the  Survey  there  are  probably  at  the 
present  time  about  500  species  of  fossils  still  remaining  unde- 
scribed.  The  publication  of  these  will  be  an  additional  oontribn- 
tion  to  the  general  fund  of  paleeontological  knowledge;  to  which, 
IS  it  has  been  of  great  utility  in  our  own  inveatigationa,  we  are 
bound  to  add  what  we  can  for  the  benefit  of  others.  But  inde- 
pendent of  the  instruction  derived  fVom  fitsBils  ss  guides  to  our- 
selves, and  proofs  toothers  in  r^rd  to  the  succession  of  our  rocks, 
than  is  a  higher  consideration  attached  to  them  than  thdr  men 


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70  THE  CANADIAN   NATDRALIBT.  [Feb. 

udlitari&n  appUoation.  For,  as  remarked  by  Conybeare,  they 
bring  ua  Bapplemcntary  infonuation  of  nameiona  species  vhieb 
have  long  vaDished  from  the  actual  order  of  thingB;  and  by  their 
reenrreotion  the;  nnexpecledly  extend  oar  views  of  the  varions 
eombinatioDs  of  organic  forms.  In  many  iDStaooes  they  supply 
linka  otherwise  wanting,  inanilingthe  different  terms  of  the  series 
in  an  unbroken  chain,  and  thus  aid  in  the  elucidation  of  those 
general  laws  of  nataral  history,  the  investigation  of  which  is  always 
of  BO  much  interest  to  enlightened  minds." 

The  maps  and  sections  required  to  complete  the  work  will  be 
published  in  the  course  of  this  year.  Through  the  kindness  of 
Sir  W.  E.  Logan,  we  have  been  permitted  to  examine  the  portions 
of  them  already  prepared.  One  of  them  is  anexqnisite  miniature 
geological  map  of  Canada  and  the  neighboring  re^ons,  giving  a 
wonderfhl  amount  of  detail  in  small  spaoe.  Others  are  maps  of 
special  districts  and  fbrmations;  as,  fbr  instance,  of  the  remarkable 
convolutions  of  the  Laurentian  rodcs  in  the  region  of  the  Ottawa, 
and  of  the  distribution  and  subdivisions  of  the  Huronian  system. 
There  are  also  sections  on  several  of  the  most  important  lines, 
which  are  of  especial  value  and  interest  in  oonseqncnoe  of  thdr 
being  drawn  to  a  trua  scale,  so  as  to  present  an  acoorate  view  of 
the  actual  relations  of  the  rocks.  These  will  of  course,  when 
completed,  greatly  enhance  the  value  of  the  work. 


MEETING  OF  BRITISH  ASSOCUTION. 

ZOOLOBT   AKD  BoTAMV. 

Profsbsor  BiLvoDB,  in  his  opening  address,  after  stating  that 
the  subjects  to  bo  discussed  ia  this  Section  were  biological 
ones,  proceeded  to  remark :'  "  Alihongh  our  Section  is  separated 
for  convenienca  from  that  of  geology,  nevertheless  they  have 
important  hearings  on  each  other.  The  study  of  Falnontology 
cannot  be  presented  without  a  thorough  koowledge  of  the 
anatomy,,  mode  of  growth,  and  geographical  distribution  of 
the  plants  and  animals  of  the  present  epoch.  In  fact,  the 
study  of  fossil  plants  and  animals  ought  to  constitute  a  part  of 
every  course  of  Botany  and  Zoology.  Geology,  in  place  of 
being  reckoned    a  distinct  science,  may  be  considered  as  the 


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ISM.]  BBITISU   ASSOCIATION.  71 

laeKit  by  whioli  the  departmenU  of  MiDeralogy,  Botany,  and 
Zoolt^  an  combiaed  in  one  barmoniooa  system,  embraciog  tbe 
natural  histoij  of  the  globe.  Rash  geolog^eal  statements  and 
condueions  often  arise  from  imperfoct  knowledge  of  the  sciences 
included  in  our  Boction.  Fronda  of  ferns  of  different  external 
forms  have  been  described  as  distinct  fossil  speoiea  or  even  goiera, 
the  geologist  not  knowing  that  rery  different  forma  of  frond  are 
exhibited  hy  the  same  species  of  fern  in  the  present  day.  Again, 
another  error  has  arisen  from  the  same  form  of  frond  being  con. 
sidered  as  indicating  the  same  species,  whereas  the  same  form  does 
ocQur  in  different  genera  in  the  present  flora— and  these  can  only 
be  distingnisbed  by  the  fraotification,  which  in  fossil  ferns  is 
rarely  seen.  So  also  tbe  same  forms  of  shell  may  belong  to  dif- 
ferent y<Mro,  the  only  distinction  beingfonnded  on  the  teeth,  or  on 
some  other  cbarscter  of  tbe  <ntwna/ inhabiting  tbe  shell ;  and  such 
cbaraoteiv  are,  of  oourae,  totally  lost  in  the  fossil.  Again,  the 
presence  of  a  palm-leaf  might  be  considered  by  the  geoic^st  as 
indicative  of  a  very  bot  climate,  fVom  his  not  knowing  that  some 
palms  oocar  at  high  latitudes,  and  others  are  met  with  in  mountains 
associated  with  cool  forms  of  ooniferae.  These  and  numerous 
instances  might  be  adduced  to  show  the  necessity  of  a  perfect 
acqofuntance  with  the  present  fauna  and  flora  in  all  their  details 
before  the  geologist  can  determine  fossils,  or  the  character  of  the 
climate  of  Palteontolog^oal  epochs.  There  is  a  mutual  bearing  of 
all  the  natural  sciences  on  each  other,  and  the  student  of  nature 
must  take  a  comprehensive  grasp  of  all-  The  natural  sciences  have 
always  occupied  a  prominent  place  in  the  proceedings  of  the  British 
Association.  Tbe  subject  is  in  itself  popular,  and  is  interesting 
to  all  ola»es.  Mach  has  been  said  in  this  Section  to  advance  the 
saeuees  of  Zoology  and  Botany,  and  to  stimulate  naturalists  in 
their  investigations.  A  great  feature  of  the  asso(»ation  which 
require  special  notice,  is  the  procuring  of  reports  in  different  de- 
partments of  science,  and  tbe  aiding  and  encouraging  of  natural- 
ists in  carrying  on  researches  which  require  much  tabnr  and 
experience  for  their  prosecution.  Many  a  deserving  young  natu- 
ralist has  thus  been  enabled  to  advance  science,  and  lay  the  foun- 
dation for  future  fame  and  promotion.  Another  important 
feature  of  the  Association  is  the  bringing  together  men  of  science 
and  promoting  free  personal  intercourse.  Perhaps  more  good  has 
been  done  hy  this  than  even  by  tbe  reading  of  papers.     Inter- 


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72  THK  CANADIAN   NATURALIST.  [Fflb. 

change  of  thought  by  oral  communication,  and  the  opportunity 
of  frankly  stating  difficulties  and  of  asking  questions,  are  moit 
valuable  to  men  of  science,  o^ecially  when  they  are  congregated 
from  yarions  parts  of  the  world.  Friendships,  too,  are  cemented, 
and  asperities  arc  softened  by  coming  into  contact  with  fellow- 
laborers  in  the  same  great  -field.  No  donbt  there  have  been 
occasioned  uupleasaot  altercations  at  onr  meetings ;  but  even 
these  have  been  ultimately  turned  to  good  account.  Explana- 
tions are  made,  opinions  are  oanrassed,  and  truth  is  finally 
elicited.  For,  as  iron  sharpeneth  iron,  so  the  countenance  of 
a  man  his  friend.  But  iron  does  not  sharpen  iron  unless  it  is 
brought  into  contact  with  its  fellow,  and  one  be  made  to  act 
sharply  and  keenly  on  the  other.  In  former  days  keen  disputes 
took  place  among  geologists  in  reference  to  the  formation  of 
rocks.  The  igneous  view,  propounded  by  my  distinguished 
relative,  Dr.  James  Hutton,  was  supported  warmly  by  some, 
while  tho  aqueous  viow  was  espoused  by  others.  At  length,  tnitb 
was  elicited,  and  the  minds  of  geologists  now,  to  a  certain  extent, 
correspond.  The  relations  and  poniiions  of  rocks,  the  coniinuity 
of  formation!!,  Carabrisn  and  Silurian  rock*,  coal  and  shHies,  gla- 
cial motions,  the  aefinilion  of  species,  their  permanence  or  versal- 
tility,  and  their  origin,  embryog^nesii  in  plants  and  animal)',  flint 
hatchets,  the  age  of  man,  and  many  other  points,  structural  and 
physiological,  have  been,  and  now  are,  still  discussed  with  great 
keenness  and  even  with  accnracy.  But,  out  of  all  this,  as  in 
former  cases,  truth  will  at  length  come  forth.  The  storms  which 
now  and  then  agitate  the  natural -history  atmosphere  will  purify  it. 
Like  the  misla  on  the  mountain,  which  bring  out  in  bold  relief  the 
noble  rocks  and  ravines  of  the  cra^y  sammit,  so  these  dispotes, 
even  while  they  are  carried  on,  bring  out  some  phenomena  of 
interest  which  had  been  prerionsly  invisible.  The  lightning's 
flash  in  the  dark  cloud  may  discern  to  ns  some  prominent  object 
which  bad  been  inviuble  in  the  oalro  sunshine.  But  ere  long  tlie 
atorm  will  cease,  the  mists  will  bedisaipated,  and  then  the  uncloud- 
ed aammit  will  appear  in  all  its  majestic  clearness.  So  when  the 
obscurity  cast  around  science  by  the  disputes  of  combatants  shall 
have  passed  away,  tbe  truth  will  shine  forth  to  the  calm  eye  of 
the  philosophic  observer  in  all  its  beauty.  In  such  polemics  we 
are  not  to  fight  merely  for  victory,  or  for  tbe  adrancemeui  of  our 
own  fame,  but  for  the  great  cause  of  tnitb,^whioh  alone  will 


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1864.]  BRITISH  ASSOOIATION.  73 

prevul  at  l&st.  No  studies  are  better  calculated  to  promote 
friendiy  interooune. '  Tbe  iaveitigation  of  6od's  works  is  veil 
fitted  to  calm  unruly  passioiu,  and  to  promote  humility  and  har- 
mony. In  ipeaking  of  the  effects  of  the  practical  prosecution  of 
Botany,  tbe  late  Dr.  Johoston  of  Bernick  remarks :  '  There  is  a 
pre-arranged  and  henefictal  influence  of  external  nature  over  the 
constitntioD  and  mind  of  man.  He  who  made  nature  all  beauty 
to  the  eye,  implanted  at  tbe  same  time  in  His  rational  creatuTes 
an  instinctive  perception  of  that  beauty,  and  has  joined  with  it  a 
pleasure  and  enjoymeut  that  operate  through  life.  We  are  all 
the  better  for  oar  botanical  walks,  when  ondertalcen  in  a  right 
spirit:  they  soothe,  soften,  or  eibilarate.  The  landscape  around 
OS  becomes  our  teaoher,  and  from  ita  lesson  there  is  no  escape; 
we  are  wooed  to  peace  by  the  impress  of  nature's  beauty,  and  the 
very  air  we  breathe  becomes  a  source  of  gratifluadon  and  pleasure. 
The  eompanioQsbip  of  those  who  are  prosecuting  with  eeal  and 
enthusiasm  the  same  path  of  stueuce  is  a  delightful  fealureuf  such 
exvarw'ons.  The  fe«lings  excited  on  these  occasions  are  by  no 
lueane  evaDescent :  they  last  during  life,  and  are  recalled  by  the 
sight  of  the  specimens  wliich  were  collected.  These  apparent 
iiisigiiifioeiit  remnanta  of  vegetation  reoallmany  tales  of  adventure, 
and  are  aeaociated  with  the  delightful  recollection  of  many  a  friend. 
Many  a  time,  while  carrying  on  our  botanioal  researches  in  the 
wide  field  of  nature,  and  visiting  the  Alpiue  districts  of  this  and 
other  lands,  have  I  felt  the  force  of  these  remarks.  On  the 
last  occasion  that  I  presided  over  Section  D  at  Liverpool,  in  1864, 
I  was  associated  with  my  late  dee  ply -lamented  colleague,  Edward 
Forbes,  who  was  President  of  Seotion  C. ;  and,  on  looking  back  to 
his  career,  I  feel,  that  I  cannot  give  a  better  example  of  a  true 
naturalist — one  who  took  a  wide  and  expanded  view  of  nature  in 
all  her  deparimenta,  and  at  the  same  time  exhibited  such  a  genial 
spirit  as  endeared  him  to  all.  I  have  elsewhere  remarked 
that  with  all  his  knowledge,  he  combined  an  affability,  a 
modesty,  a  kindness,  which  endeared  him  to  every  one. 
Ko  itndent  of  nature  was  beneath  hie  notice ;  no  feat  recorded  by 
apupil,  however  humble,  was  passed  with  neglect.  He  was  ready  at 
all  times  to  be  qaestioued,  and  was  prompt  to  point  ontany  spark 
of  merit  in  others.  Hv  had  no  jealousy,  and  never  indulged  in 
a'.tflcks  upi>n  others.  He  gave  full  credit  to  all ;  and  he  was  more 
ready  to  see  the  bright  than  the  dark  spots  in  their  charactw. 


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74  THE   CANADIAN   NATUaALUT.  [F^. 

Evan  to  those  who  criticised  him  severely  he  bore  no  ill-wiU,  and  h« 
certainly  did  not  retain  ruling  Tor  nuiing.  Orer  and  again  wu 
I  AHBOciated  irith  him  in  sdentjfic  rambles  and  in  meeUngs  of  natu- 
raliBts ;  and  I  have  seen  the  tact  with  which  ha  subdued  the  jiei^r- 
vidum  wgmium  when  misdireoted,  and  calmed  the  tarbnlant  spirit 
when  self-esteem  prevailed  over  the  due  aoknowledgment  of  an- 
other's merits.  He  was  truly  unselfish,  and  never  fiuled  to  neog- 
nize  and  encourage  merit  wherever  he  could  detect  it.  He  had  a 
truly  generous  spirit,  and  was  totally  devoid  of  narrow  bigotry. 
He  waa  desirous  of  promoting  science,  independently  of  all  sel- 
fish views.  He  loved  it  for  its  own  sake.  Would  that  his  example 
waa  more  followed  by  all  of  us !  When  we  look  at  the  changes 
which  are  eonstandy  taking  place  in  the  views  of  naturalists  as 
sdence  advances,  we  cannot  but  feel  the  need  of  modeety  in 
the  statement  of  our  opinions.  While  we  give  our  views  and  the 
reasons  for  adopting  them,  let  this  be  done  withont  dogmaljsm  or 
asperity.  Let  ns  remember  that  our  conclouons  may  be  modi- 
fied or  altered  by  fnlure  discoveries.  Such  anticipations,  however, 
should  not  paralyse  oar  efforts.  Science  is  advancing,  facts  are 
being  accumnlaled,  and,  year  after  year,  anoUestniotureisbeing 
reared  on  a  sound  fonndation.  It  requires  now  and  then  a  mas- 
ter-mind to  bring  oat  great  geaeralizatioaa,  and  to  give  a  decided 
impetus  to  the  work.  Facts  must  be  carefully  weighed,  andkno]vl- 
edge  must  be  accurate  and  extensive  ;  otherwise  a  genius  in  sci- 
ence is  apt  to  bring  forward  rash  generaliiations,  ai^  to  indulge 
in  unfounded  speculations.  The  imagination  is  disposed  to  run 
riot  when  a  grand  vista  seems  to  open  before  it,  and  it  flies  on 
heedlessly  to  the  terminus  without  surveying  the  intermediate 
ground.  We  do  not  ignore  speculation  ;  but  we  recommend,  at 
the  same  time,  cautious  induction — a  sifting  of  facts  and  of  their 
relations  to  each  other,  Katural  History  soiences  are  now  assuming 
an  important  place  in  education.  They  are  not  confined,  as  for- 
merly, chiefly  to  medical  men,  but  they  entei  mora  or  leas  into 
the  preliminary  studies  of  every  one.  While  Classics  and  Mathe- 
matics ought  to  have  an  important  place  in  our  schoole  and  col- 
lies, Natoral  History  cannot  now  be  neglected.  UniversiUes 
which  formerly  ignored  It,  are  now  remedying  their  error  in  this 
respect ;  and  we  may  ere  long  hope  to  flnd  it  occupying  a  atill 
more  important  position  io  educational  institutions.  The  possess- 
ion of  university  bonora  is  now  connected,  to  a  certain  degree, 


,.,.d.i.  Google 


1864.]  BRITISH  AB800IATION.  75 

with  a,  knowledge  of  natore ;  and  a  muter  of  arts,  sa  well  as  a, 
doolor  of  mediciDe,  is  supposed  to  know  somelbing  of  the  objects 
in  the  material  world  witb  wbiuh  he  is  surrounded.  The  estab- 
liahment,  dso,  of  special  degrees  in  science  is  a  step  io  advance, 
for  which  we  are  iudebted  to  the  Uoiversiiy  of  London.  Natu- 
ral sciences  are  partlualarly  valuable  in  mental  trainlTig.  They 
promote  accuracy  of  obserration  and  of  description.  Tbay  teaoh 
the  student  to  look  at  the  objects  around  him,  not  with  an  idle 
gaze,  but  with  an  iatelligeat  dis<;rimination.  They  ensure  correct- 
ness of  diagnosis,  aad  encourage  orderly  and  systematic  habits. 
The  British  association,  in  its  perambulation,  does  mnch  good  by 
bringing  such  subjects  prominently  under  the  nodce  of  directors 
of  educational  institutions  In  various  parts  of  the  country.  It  stirs 
up  many  to  see  the  value  ofthiskindofknowledge,  and  gives  prac- 
dcal  illustrations  of  its  bearing  on  the  ordinary  business  of  life. 
Thus  the  Assodation  has  an  important  influence  on  the  town  in 
which  it  meets,  not  merely  by  what  it  does  daring  its  sittings,  but 
also  by  its  afler-e£Fons  on  the  population.  The  very  preparations 
made  in  the  locality  for  the  meeting  have  ollen  been  prodnctive  of 
much  permanent  good.  They  have  been  instrumental  in  bringing 
together  collections  which  have  formed  tbe  nncleos  of  a  local 
mnseom.  And  they  have  been  the  means  occasionally  of  intro- 
ducing sanitary  measures  of  the  highest  benefit  to  the  inhabitaats." 
In  conclusion,  the  President  remarked  upon  the  reciprocal  rel^ 
tions  of  science  and  theology. 

Pbtsioloot. 
Faor.  RouiSTOs,  in  opening  the  proceedings  of  this  section, 
remarked  that  last  year  Dr.  Sharpey  delivered  an  address  on  tha 
progress  which  phydology  bad  made  during  the  previous  twenty 
years ;  and  before  the  British  Association  last  year,  moreover, 
Professor  Huxley  delivered  an  address  on  the  divisions  and  de- 
partments of  the  science,  with  its  methods  and  prospects.  His 
own  aim  would  therefore  be  to  avoid  the  territories  which  had 
thus  been  occupied ;  and  he  proposed  to  pass  in  review  such 
writers  as  had  written  works  to  which  reference  was  likely  to  be 
made  in  the  section,  and  such  publications  as  might  probably 
become  the  subject  of  discussion.  First,  ha  would  mention  works  in- 
tended for  the  general  public ;  and  secondly,  spedfy  worksofamon 
strictly  scientific  character  in  the  three  departments  of  experimental 
phyaoI<igy,stnictnral  and  comparative  anatomy ,and  the  microaeope, 


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76  THE  CANADIAN   NATtTKALlST.  [Feb. 

and  tbeo  be  intended  to  make  a  few  obeervations  upon  the  general 
and  npon  the  educational  value  of  physiological  study.  Of  phy- 
siological and  anatomical  works  intended  for  the  general  public, 
there  were  happily  now  a  considerable  number.  Among  those  of 
11  popular  character  he  might  specify  The  IntelUelual  Obterver, 
lilt  Popular  Seimee  Review,  The  Natural  Sistory  Revitw,  and 
7!%c  AnnaU  and  Magaxine  of  Natural  Htttory  ;  the  three  brat 
of  recent  date,  but  the  last  a  long  estnblished  and  still  eiuellent 
pnblicatJon.  The  ecientific  societies  publish  so  many  proceedingn 
in  octavo,  with  illuairationB,  that  there  did  not  exist  the  same  ne- 
cessity in  England  as  on  the  Coutinent — a  fact  which  their  foreign 
friends  wodd  do  well  to  remember,  while  the  physiologists  of 
England  were  free  to  acknowledge  the  many  and  valnable  ser- 
vices  rendered  by  German  and  other  Continental  works.  He 
thoughthe  ought,  also,  to  mention  American  literary  contributions, 
and  to  specify  Tkt  Smithttmian  and  The  PkUadelphian  Jour- 
nal of  Science,  the  French  Annates  det  Seieneet  Naturellet,  and 
the  WUrtibuTg  and  Berlin  Archivet.  Physiology  and  scientific 
zoology  had  bcon  expounded  with  singular  clearness  and  accuracy 
to  the  general  publio  by  Xr.  Lewes ;  and  anatomy  was  Inrgely 
introduced  into  the  pleasing  fishermen's  book.  The  Angler' Natu- 
raiiel,  by  Mr.  Cbolmondeley  Fennell.  A  abort  sketch,  such  as  Mr. 
Pennell's,  of  the  economy  of  the  Bird,  would  be  a  most  valnable 
addition  to  onr  ordinary  ornithologies  and  oolites.  He  said 
oologiee,  for  even  in  the  egg  of  the  bird  the  special  needs  of  the 
forthcoming  bird  seerned  to  be  more  especially  provided  for  than 
in  the  e^s  of  other  families  much  higher  in  the  scale.  Passing 
from  works  of  general  to  works  of  more  strictly  and  severely  scien-  ' 
tific  interest,  he  muet  observe  that  a  high  place  was  due  to  the 
leotureaof  Professor  Hoiley  on  the  Classification  of  Animals ;  and 
it  apoke  well  for  the  enlightenment  of  the  readers  of  the  Medical 
Timet  and  of  the  Lancet  that  the  editors  of  those  journals  bad 
felt  it  denrable  to  cater  for  their  tastes  by  publishing  those  lec- 
tures OB  pure  science.  Turning  to  works  on  Experimental  I%y- 
siolt^,  ha  was  reminded  of  vivisection ;  a  word  which  had  been 
rendered  fbmiliar  to  the  ears  of  the  public  during  the  last  few 
weekaby  the  letters  and  discussions  thathad  appeared  in  the  Times 
and  other  papers.  Addressing  himself  to  one  of  the  questions  it 
auggesta,  he  would  ask — Is  it  possible  that  a  want  of  humanity  is 
a  common  &ult  of  physiologists!    He  was  not  by  any  means  so 


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1864.]  BftlTHIH  AfiSOOUTION.  77 

wre  that  "  want  of  decencj  is  want  of  seoae  " — as  Pope  Iiad  a«id 
— aa  that  a  want  of  humanity  is  a  waot  of  culture.  RudeuMh 
ignorance,  want  of  education,  were  much  more  snrelf  connected 
wiih  cruelty  thsn  was  cowardice.  AH  children  pretty  nearly 
were  crnel — that  is  to  say,  they  were  capable  of  perforraiog  acta 
nbich  adults,  at  least  of  the  upperclasses,  shrink  from.  Moat,  if 
not  all,  persons  in  the  lower  order  of  aocicly  concerned  in  the 
capture  of  animals  were  pretty  nearly  invariably  cruel ;  and,  if 
reproved  for  cruelty,  they  would  often  be  unable  to  understand 
what  was  meant.  Gamekeepers,  again,  killed  anything  which 
possesses  life,  unless  they  knew  they  could  be  prosecuted  for  so 
doing,  or  were  paid  for  preserving  it  Cruelty,  then,  usually  flowed 
from  want  of  thought,  want  of  culture,  and  want  of  refinement. 
Was  it  probable,  then,  that  men  of  a  science  demanding  much 
thought,  mach  culture,  and  not  a  little  education,  should  resem- 
ble persons  lacking  all  these  things  ia  the  very  points  most  directly 
characteristic  of  such  deficiencies!  Let  him  state,  too,  greatfacts 
against  which  no  amount  of  writing  or  of  demonstration  coald  be 
of  any  avail,  except  by  ignoring  them.  The  facta  were— first,  ex- 
periments on  living  animals  very  frequently  causa  their  death 
instantaneously;  secondly,  when  this  is  not  the  case,  there  was 
chlorofornt,  which  was  almost  invariably  employed.  In  vivisec- 
tion, as  it  was  called,  frequently  the  first  step  was  the  deettnction 
of  life,  and  that  in  a  way  as  speedy,  to  say  the  least,  as  by  the 
ordinary  methods  of  deetrnction  at  the  command  of  either  the 
sportsman  or  the  butcher.  Now,  surely  a  life  might  as  well  be 
sacrificed  for  increasing  knowledge  as  for  the  production  of  fiesh- 
food,  or  for  what  was  called  sport  Experiment,  too,  was  tedious 
and  toilsome,  and  was,  therefore,  rarely  undertaken  out  of  wan- 
tonness, or  for  the  gratification  of  malignity.  Undertaken  for  the 
ends  of  science,  it  had  as  good  a  claim  to  our  sympathy  as  the 
practices  of  the  *'  gentle  craft "  of  anglers,  to  say  nothing  of  those 
of  the  destroyera  of  warm-blooded  animals.  Vegetarians,  it  was 
true,  but  they  alone,  could  meet  this  argument  on  principle.  They 
conld  say,  "  Your '  To  quoqne '  has  no  g^;ging  force  when  nsed 
tons;  we  deny  that  two  blacks  make  one  white.  Yon  cannot 
experiment  as  yon  choose — find  out  how  to  create  life;  and  no- 
thing can  jostify  yon  in  taking  it  away."  He  did  not  see  how 
this  ccnld  be  met,  at  least  on  vegetarian  principles.  But  from 
what  he  had  already  seen  in  Newcastle,  he  judged  that  the  vege- 


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78  TBE  CANADIAN  NATCEALlSr.  [Feb. 

Urian  membera  of  this  AssiKiiation  were  not  many.  In  the  otbar 
case,  chloroform  obliterated  the  sense  of  pain.  And  tbe  use  ofcblo- 
roform  was  now  rarely  omitted.  The  utility  of  vivieection  hod 
been  strikingly  proved  in  tTo  clnsses  of  diseases— diabetes  and 
epilepsy.  The  latter,  frightful  to  witness,  was  yet  mora  frightful 
to  sti£fer — violence  and  danger  for  the  moment,  and  dreariness  of 
prospect  for  the  futnre,  aud  of  the  nay  to  meet  it  Tivisectioii  had 
^ven  us  at  last  a  hopeful,  because  a  rational,  foreshadomng.  To 
diabetes — an  equally  terrible  if  lesashocking  malady — ^tbe  applica- 
bility of  Tivisectional  results  was  even  more  direct  than  in  refer- 
ence to  epelipsy,  thanks  to  the  Btndies  of  Dr.  Pary.  He  would 
just  say  furliier,  that,  when  vivisection  was  being  denounced  as 
causing  pain  and  suffering  in  a  world  already  so  full  of  both,  it 
would  be  well  to  consider  that,  in  this  question,  as  well  as  in  all 
other  hnman  questions,  we  had  to  deal  with  complei  considera- 
tions, and  to  weigh  thera  one  against  the  other.  Absolute  cer- 
tainty was  not  looked  for  in  morals,  absolute  demonstration  was 
not  given  us  in  reli^ous  questions,  and  absolute  freedom  from 
eril  was  not  given  to  us  in  any  course  of  practjcal  action  we 
adopt.  Vivisection  produces  a  certain  amount  of  pain ;  but  ia 
this  pain  voluntarily  and  of  deliberate  purpose  produced  in  a  few 
laboratories,  greater  in  amount,  in  intensity,  in  duration,  than  the 
mental  pain,  moral  distress,  and  bodily  agony  endured  in  many  a 
cottage,  many  a  palace,  by  the  vic^ms  of  the  very  two  diseases 
which,  in  these  last  years,  vivisection  has  most  assisted  medicine 
to  combat  t  He  felt  it  to  be  bis  duty  to  make  this  apology  for 
vivisection.  Having  done  so,  he  passed  on  to  the  subject  of  stmc- 
tnral  anatomy,  and  specified  the  names  of  numerous  writers  upon 
it — ^bolh  English  and  ConUnental.  He  next  dwelt  upon  the  pro- 
fessional and  popular  advantages  of  physiological  study,  «nJ  of  a 
biological  train ing~~observing  that  a  thorough  scientific  training 
tends,  necessarily,  to  engender  modesty  and  distrust  of  one's  self. 
He  believed  he  had  the  authority  of  their  own  elder  Stephenson 
for  saying  that  to  worldly  success  there  is  no  gift  so  necessary  as 
the  gift  of  something  quite  different.  The  bar,  the  senate,  and 
the  hustings  delight  in  verbal  antitheus,  sharp  distinctions,  and 
sweeping  assertions,  which  nature  abhors.  She  knows  little  of 
antithesis— ebe  works  by  gradadons ;  and  tie  who  has  studied  her 
truthfully  knows  that  the  universality  of  assertion  is  generally  in 
the  inverse  ratio  of  knowledge.     For  success,  then,  in  the  brilliant 


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1864.]  BBITIBH  AB800UTION.  79 

IiDM  of  life,  the  study  of  nature  did  not  constita(«  the  beet  poeei- 
b)e  training;  bat  for  suocees  in  the  scientific  careen  he  had  epe- 
cifled,  it  Tould  bo  waating  worda  to  eaj  how  neceaaary  a  biologi- 
cal tnuning  is.  After  Teferring  to  Baroa  Liebig's  nev  book, 
"  The  M&taral  History  of  Husbandry,"  and  ezpresung  the  assured 
conviclionthatthepopulardogmas  of  Phrenology  would  he  shown 
to  be  radicidly  false  by  the  adTanoement  of  physiological  knowl* 
edge,  ho  then  went  on  to  show  that  profosion  not  parsimony  was 
the  law  of  natnre,andconcIuded  by  saying  that  many  causes  could 
be  working  together  to  one  result.  Raferringto  the  possibility  of 
persona  considering  "the  straggle  for  existence  "  to  be  a  principle 
antagoniatio  to  that  of  "  special  proridence,"  he  said  that  the  in- 
compatibility of  tbe  two  agencies  had  no  truer  foundation  than  could 
be  laid  in  the  arbitrary  teacbing  and  unsupported  hypothesis  of 
ages  skilled  in  the  piecing  together  of  word  mosucs,  but  wholly 
devoid  of  scientific  method.  We  have  wider  knowledge,  we  ought 
to  have  traer  philoeophy,  than  our  forefathers;  it  would  be  an 
anachromsm  indeed  to  suffer  the  figments  of  the  schoolmen  to 
prejadice  ns  against  the  work  of  the  modern  physiologist. 

Oh  houk  Fobbil  and  bxoekt  Fobahimitsoa  oollxotsd  ih 
Jamaica,  bt  the  late  Mr.  Lucas  BAaEiTT,  F.G.S. 

Br  Prof««or  T.  Rdpibi  Jons,  F.a.a.,  and  W.  K.  Fabob,  Esq. 

In  18B2  Mr.  L.  Barrett,  F.Q.S.,  late  Director  of  tbe  Geological 
Sarvey  of  the  West  Indies,  gave  Messrs.  Jones  and  Parker  some 
fossil  and  recent  foraminifera  from  Jamaica,  comprising  a  few 
new  fonns;  some  that  werepreviously  but  little known,and  some 
in-finer  condition  of  growth  than  usual.  The  recent  specimens, 
from  their  ascertained  habitats,  illDstrato,  to  some  extent,  the  con- 
ditions under  which  the  fossil  forms  were  deposited. 

One  sample  of  these  fossil  Jamaican  foraminifera  consisted  of 
several  specimens  of  Amphittegina  vulgarit ;  and  another  of  a 
few  of  the  same  species,  with  one  TeiUularia  Barrettii  (a  new 
variety  of  Texlularia).  No  locality  nor  geological  horizoo  waa 
indicated  for  these.  A  third  sample,  from  "  South  Hall  Cliff',' 
consisted  of  two  Urge  specimens  of  VagmuUna  Ugumen, 
Fourthly,  a  mnoh  larger  series  of  Foraminifera,  ham  the  "  Fte- 
ropod-marl"  of  Jamaica,  affords  Jfodosaria  Hapbanittrutn,  Den- 
talma  aeieula,  Vaginwlina  ttriata,  Frondicutaria  complanata, 
OriiUllma  Cakar,  C.  eal^nta,  C  rotulata,  C,  Itaiita,  Orbilo- 


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80  THE  CANADIAN  ItATUKALIST. 

Una  vetieularit,  Bvlitnina  ovaia,  Cvneolina  pavonia,  VerUbraii- 
na  ilriata,  and  Lttuola  Soldanii.  Tbew,  hovever,  can  be  regard- 
ed only  SB  wa  incomplete  Rhitopodal  buna. 

From  the  recent  furaminifera  obtained  hj  tbe  late  Mr.  Bar- 
rett from  different  sea-zoDGe,  between  IS  and  260  fathoms,  on  tbe 
Jamaica  cost,  ve  learn  that  Ampkifltsina  vulgari*,   Texlulnria  \ 

Bamttii,  Dentatina  acicida,  FrondiaUaria  complanata,  CrUtd-  \ 

lurice  and  Lituola  Soldanii  indicate  at  least  100  fathoms,  and  1 

probably  more,  astbe  depth  at  which  the  Pteropod-marl  and  the  ' 

AmphUtegina-beds  were  deposited  in  that  region.    Pteropods  are  | 

found  in  aome  sea-muds  at  similar  depths.  I 

Of  the  recent  Jamaican  specimens  {evidently  only  the  larger  ' 

and  more  oonspicuoas  members  of  a  rich  Rhizopoilal  fauna),  some  i 

were  taken  at&oml6   to  20  &thom a,  namely,  Quingueloealina  I 

aggtutiiuxM.  Q.pulehtlla,  Orbiettlina  compretsa,ATid  0.  adunca; 
■orae  at  from  CO  to  100  fathoms,  namely,  Orbieulina  eomprtiaa,  I 

De/tlalina  aaeula,tiad  Orbitotijta  veneuiaria ;  and  several  oth-  ) 

era  at  from  100  to  2fiO  fathoms,  namely,  7>BRta/tna  aeieula,  J).  j 

eommunit,  Critlellaria  rotulala,  G.  euUraUt,  C.  Calcar,  Frondi- 
evlaria  complanata,  Amphittegina  vulgaris,  Palytrema  mintacea,  \ 

Bigmerina  nodoaaria,  Vernenilina  tnearinata,  Texlularia  Tro-  ' 

chut,  T.  Barrtttii,  Citneolina  pavonia,  Lituola  Scorpiurut,  and  <i 

G.  Soldanii.  ; 

Cuntotina,  a  rare  form,  hithnrto  known  only  by  6gures  and 
description  given  by  d'Orbigny,  proves  (as  euspccted)  to  be  a 
modification  of  Textularia  ;  and  T,  Barrettii  is  intermediate  be-  i 

tween  it  and  Textularia  proper.  The  Frottdieularia  are  remark- 
ably large  and  beauiifal;  and  tbe  Cristellarice  nai  Dentalina  &n 
also  large  and  relatively  abundant. 

This  faaaa  is  almost  identical  with  the  fossil  foraminifera  of 
the  Tertiary  ^  Pteropod-marl "  of  Jamaica,  above  mentioned,  spe-  , 

oimens  from  which  also  were  given  by  tbe  late  Mr.  Barrett  in  i 

1862  to  the  authors  of  thia  notice.  \ 


PabUahed,  Montreal,  April  15, 1864. 

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CANADIAN  NATURALIST. 


NOTES  ON  THE  GBOLOaT    AND  BOTANY  OF  NEW 

BRUNSWICK. 

Bi  FBoriaBDR  L,  W.  Bailit. 


In  a  Report  vhich  I  have  had  the  honor  to  lay  hefore  Hia  Ez- 
oellenoj  the  Lieatenant-Governor  of  the  Provinoe  relating  to  the 
minee  and  minerala  of  Nev  Brunswick,  some  reference  has  been 
made  to  the  reenlta  obtained  dnring  a  tour  from  Fredericton  to 
Bathnrst,  and  by  an  examination  of  the  rivers  of  Tobique  and 
Nepisiqait.  Much  of  the  inform  ation  thus  obtained  being  unr 
mitable  for  the  more  especial  pnrpoBes  of  that  Report,  I  have,  at 
His  Ezoelleaoy'a  desire,  determined  to  compile  the  more  interest- 
ing foots  for  presentation  to  the  Society  of  Natural  History.  This 
paper,  therefore,  is  iDt«nded  as  a  Supplement  to  the  Report  aboT« 
allnded  to.  It  is  my  object  to  write  down  in  as  connected  a  form 
as  possible,  the  Tarioos  rambUDgobservatioos  of  a  scientific  chara&. 
ftcter  made  during  a  canoe  exploration  of  the  streams  above-men- 
tioned.  Mnoh  of  the  country  travelled  over  has  not  been  hereto- 
fore soientifioally  examined ;  and  although  my  trip  was  of  too  hur- 
ried a  character  to  admit  of  very  careful  ezaminatioDS,  it  is  hoped 
that  some  of  the  results  obtained  may  not  be  without  interest  and 
value. 

Leaving  the  village  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tobique,  on  the  29th 
of  June,  in  company  with  three  volunteer  IViends,  and  four  In- 

Tot.  I.  r  No.  3. 


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82  THE   CANADIAN   NATDaALIBT.  [-^ptll, 

diaoH,  with  their  caooes,  we  reaohed  the  eources  of  that  river  on 
the  5th  of  Jaly.  This  stream,  or  ii  portion  of  it,  having  already  been 
the  subject  of  a  former  exploration,  I  aball  endeavor  to  make  mj 
observations  on  its  character  as  brief  as  possible. 

The  proper  outlet  of  the  Tobiqne  River  is  not  apparent  at  its 
month,  the  land  being  low,  and  the  stream  much  hidden  b;  over- 
grown allovial  islands.  To  the  geologist  the  tme  embouchure 
is  the  romirkable  spot  o.illed  the  "  Narrows,"  situated  bat  a  short 
distance  ab9re  the  [ndian  village.  These  narrows  constitute  one 
of  the  most  curious  and  beautiful  scenes  to  be  found  in  the  Prov- 
ince. The  rocks  which  here  cross  the  bed  of  the  river,  and 
which  are  well  exposed  in  the  perpendicular  cliffs  150  feet  high 
on  both  sides  of  the  stream,  are  composed  of  skt«a  and  Bohists, 
filled  with  scams  of  quartz  and  limesione,  and  parsne  a  course 
about  N.  34°  E.  The  channel  is  very  tortnoos,  and  in  most  parts 
deep,  having  an  average  width  of  about  150  feet.  The  navi- 
gation of  the  stream  is  at  all  times  diSonlt,  repairing  the  utmost 
skill  of  the  Indians,  but  during  periods  of  freshet,  becomes  per- 
fectly impassable.  It  is  probable  that  a  full  ence  existed  at  this 
place,  and  that  the  preseut  gorge,  which  isaboat  a  mile  in  length, 
has  biien  left  by  the  gradual  wearing  away  of  the  strata,  until  the 
course  of  the  river  becomes  cnmparatively  unimpeded. 

Between  the  Narrows  and  the  Red  Rapidtt,  which  are  aboat  11 
miles  distant  from  the  mouth  of  the  river,  the  land  is  of  moderate 
elevation,  occasionally  becoming  bold  and  picturesque.  Some  five 
mik'S  above  the  Narrows,  the  stream  passes  near  the  base  of  high 
Bud  precipitous  cliHs  of  ferruginous  rook,  overhang  with  oedar, 
while  the  opposite  shore  is  low  and  covered  with  a  mixture  of  hard 
and  soft  woods.  Occasionally  terraced  banks  are  evident,  but 
tbey  are  much  less  numerous,  ami  less  remarkuble  than  those  on 
the  river  St.  John.  In  no  case  did  I  observe  more  ihan  one  at 
the  same  spot,  and  they,  as  a  rule,  were  of  but  little  elevation. 
Four  miles  above  the  Narrows,  a  small  stream,  called  the  Pokiok, 
joins  the  main  river,  entering  on  the  west  bank  by  a  fall  through 
rook  apparently  dipping  about  sixty  degrees  to  the  northwest. 
Through  all  this  district  the  land  appears  fertile,  and  the  vegetA- 
tion  luxuriant.  Among  the  trees  noticed  were  elms  and  moun- 
tain ash  of  enormous  size,  cedar,  spruce,  fir,  birch,  thorn,  and  pop- 
lar. Of  herb  iceous  plants  I  noticed  the  following :  Tinella,  eor- 
d^oltu,  7'rif'tutn  ertctum,  small,  yellow  lady's  slippery  Cj/priptdi' 


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1664.]      QsoLCHir  and  botany  of  new  brunswice.  83 

vm  parvifhrum,  Iri$  verncolor.  Anemone  P&iJigylii:nica,  Cor- 
iMM  Ckmadennt  (in  flower  very  abundant),  (J.  ttoioni/ra, 
Strg>topiu  ampleeC/oiitu,  Clintotiia  horeulit,  Vihuntum  apulut, 
Smiieala  tnarilandica,  Veronica  Anagallit,  AanuncufiM  acrU, 
Thalictrum  dioi<Mm,  and  Primula  Aitiericana. 

The  wild  onioD  (^AliiTiin  Sckoenoprasum  f)  was  also  commoii 
upon  the  shore,  with  butter-cups,  daudelioos,  violets,  wild  roses,  and 
BtrawberrieB.  Grasses  and  fi;nis  were  also  Rbnudant  on  strips  of 
intervale,  hut  I  did  not  have  leisure  to  determine  them.  The  lat- 
ter were  especiallj  luxuriant,  freq  uentlj  attaining  a  height  of  four 
and  five  feet.  Among  them  I  reoognized  Plerit  aqitilina,  Ono- 
eka  tauibilit,  Struthiopterti,  ami  Osmundi  regalis.  The  slates 
and  iimestoues,  which  oooupy  the  lower  portion  of  the  stream,  arft 
succeeded,  ahont  a  mile  and  a  half  below  the  Red  Rapids,  by  the 
outer  beds  of  the  Tobiqne  Red  Sandstone  Distriot,  which,  gradu- 
ally widening,  attains  a  very  oonsid  erable  development,  and  final-  . 
ly  disappears  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Blue  Mountains.  The  aoil 
rapidly  assumes  a  deep,  red  tint,  and  strata  of  reddish  saudstoneB 
are  exposed  in  e\i&  upon  the  shore.  The  red  tint  first  becomes 
apparent  upon  the  r^ht  bank  of  the  stream ;  but  at  the  Red  Rtt- 
pid?,  the  aandstones,  assodated  with  coarse,  red  conglomerates, 
cross  the  bed  of  the  river,  with  a  strike  about  N.  70°  E .,  and  are 
exposed  upon  either  bank.  It  is  at  this  spot  that  the  formation 
should   properly  begin  in  the  coloring  of  our  geological  maps. 

The  Bed  Sandstnoe  District  of  the  Tobiqne  is  one  of  great 
interest  and  value.  The  rocks  composing  it  are  red  and  variegated 
sandstones,  limestones,  and  oonglomerates,  witb  salt  springs  and 
beds  of  gypsum.  The  strata  are  nowhere  much  disturbed,  and  in 
general  are  of  very  moderate  elevation.  In  many  places  the  red 
sandstonea  are  well  exposed  in  the  bed  of  the  river,  and  being 
nearly  horiEontal,  form  a  smooth  and  polished  bottom.  The  soil 
of  the  district  is  excellent,  and  probably  few  portions  of  the  Prov- 
ince offer  so  many  inducements  for  settlement. 

Near  the  Wap«ke  or  Wapskobegan,  one  of  the  largest  tributa- 
ries of  the  TobiquQ.  the  red  sandstone  strata  are  well  exposed  in 
nearly  horizontal  beds,  dipping  to  the  southeast  at  an  angle  of  only 
five  d^reea.  At  the  month  of  the  Wapskab^aa  they  are  again 
-exposed,  and  are  interatradfied  with  fine  beds  of  white  and  pink  and 
reddish  gypsum.  These  are  probably  but  a  continuation  of  those 
Te&rred  to,  and  tbeline  of  strike  between  the  two  is  N.  62^  ill., 


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84  THE   OANADIAN  NATCKALIBT.  [April, 

die  dip  boing  ae  above,  about  five  d^^eea  to  the  soatheaat.  The 
gypBum  ia  both  oompaot  aod  fibrous,  aod  coold  be  very  icadil; 
removed  for  local  use  or  Iraasportatioo. 

About  two  miles  above  this  river,  the  red  sandstone  strata  are 
again  exposed,  associated  with  gypsum,  in  what  are  known  aa  the 
"PUaterOliffV  attaining  an  elevation  of  135  feet.  The  beds 
are  nearly  horizoatal,  and  are  apparently  divided  by  freqnwit  joints. 
The  olifis  are  very  preoipitous,  in  some  parts  overhanging  the 
stream,  and  are  iu  a  very  orumbliag  and  dangerous  condition. 
They  are  succeeded  by  other  sandstones  higher  np  the  stream, 
with  mnoh  less  gypsara,  and  having  a  strike  nearly  north  and 
south.  They  here  form  the  bed  of  the  fiver;  andit  seemed  an  we- 
paased  over  them  as  if  our  canoes  were  gliding  along  a  pavemrat 
of  massive  freestone  slabs,  poliehed  by  the  action  of  the  water,  and. 
here  and  there  worn  into  holes  by  the  eddies  and  pi  bblea.  It  is  a 
tittle  singular  tliat,  at  the  Plaster  Cli&  and  elsewhere,  although 
the  gypeiferous  sandstones  attain  on  thelefl  bank  of  the  stream  aa 
elevation  of  more  than  a  hundred  feet,  and  rise  preoipitoasly  from 
the  water,  they  do  not  appear  at  all  upon  the  right,  or  only  in  beds 
a  few  feet  above  the  level  of  the  river. 

In  the  geol<^ioal  reports  of  Dr.  Oesner  allnaion  is  made  to  the 
existence  of  limestone  beds  about  one  mile  above  Plaster  Island, 
and  to  the  cavcrnons  nature  of  the  shore.  I  was  unable  to  detect 
the  locality  referred  to.  We  passed  a  spot  where  land  travelUog 
certainly  appeared  difficult  and  dangerous,  bat  I  sair  nothing  indi- 
cating the  existence  of  former  caves.  Neither  did  I  obaerve  the 
stalactites,  referred  to  by  Dr.  Gesner,  as  abundant  upon  the  shore  ; 
but,  at  a  spot  about  ten  or  twelve  miles  above  the  Wapske,  and  in 
the  neighborhood  of  tiie  Little  Agulqaac,  I  had  the  pleasure  of 
finding  great  nnmbera  of  limestone  geodes,  in  loose  beds,  overlying 
liorizont^tl  strata  of  reddish  sandstones.  These  sandstones  are 
divided  by  parallel  joints,  having  a  strike  N.  62"  £!.  (the  same  as 
that  at  the  Wapskabegan),  and  form  the  bed  of  the  river.  The 
geodei  are  of  about  four  inches  diameter,  and  are  lined  upon  their 
interior  with  fine  kr^e  crystals  of  dog-tooth  spar.  This  locality  will 
afford  excellent  cabinet  ^Mciniens. 

FromtheAgulqaaoto  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  Bine  Moun- 
tain range,  the  soil  continues  reldish,  sandstone  bouldara  lie  in  the 
bed  of  the  river,  and  immense  beds  are  oooasionally  exposed.  The 
sandstones  tn  tUu  are  distinctly  seen  at  the  Horse  Island,  a  little 


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1864.]        QBOLOGT  AND  BOTANT  OP  NEW  BRUNSWICK.  85 

more  Ihxn  fifty  miles  above  the  montb  of  the  river,  sod  ^ain  at 
the  Two  Brooke,  from  which  a  fine  view  is  afforded  of  Bine 
HouDtun  in  tiie  distance.  Abont  here  I  observed  lying  in  the 
bed  of  die  Btream  a  nnmber  of  bonlders  of  milk-white  qoarti, 
highly  orystallised  within,  bnt  on  the  exterior  mnch  water-worn 
and  ronnded.  The  soil  is  apparently  fertile,  and  the  river  abounds 
in  rich  intervale  islands,  sastaioing  a  Inxariant  v^tation.  Be- 
udes  many  of  the  plants  already  named,  I  gBtbered  by  the 
ride  of  the  stream  a  single  specimen  of  the  Nodding  Trillinm, 
TrUlimn  j^muum,  a  plant  which  has  not,  so  far  as  I  know,  been 
found  in  any  other  portion  of  the  Provinoe — also  Pohfgfmatvm 
mudtiflontm. 

Higher  np  the  stream  a  more  distinct  view  of  the  Bine  Moua- 
tun  range  beoomee  apparent.  Iteceotral  peak  is  sharply  conioal, 
its  sidea  making  ao  angle  of  about  120".  It  rises  immediately 
from  the  rivor  bank,  and  at  its  base  is  exposed  high  precipices  of 
thinly  wooded  trap.  A  portion  of  the  monntain  is  nndoubtedly 
red  sandstone,  bnt  the  precipitous  olifis  and  taluset  along  Its  flanks 
distinoUy  iodioate  the  trappean  oharaoter  of  the  summit.  Near 
its  base  are  seen  cliffs  of  bright  red  sandstone,  which  I  fiinud  to 
be  ealeiferona  like  those  farther  down  the  river ;  but  they  did  not, 
like  the  latter,  contain  distinct  geodes. 

Between  the  Bine  Mountuin  and  Niotan  or  Forks  tbe  land  in 
the  vieinilj  of  the  river  is  low,  and  fertile,  presenting  to  the  geol- 
ogist bnt  little  of  interest,  At  one  spot  only,  a  ridge,  composed  of 
duk,  heavy,  and  eompaot  rock,  very  mnch  broken  and  distorted, 
crosses  the  bed  of  tbe  river.  It  is  apparently  granwacke,  bnt 
ladu  the  mioa  of  the  latter. 

Itear  tbe  Niotan  or  Forks  several  streams  combine  to  form  the 
main  river.  The  two  main  hranehe«,  flowing  the  one  e:ist  and  the 
«d>er  west,  after  nnitiog  turn  abruptly,  and  pass  off  to  the  south- 
ward.    The  River  Marmooekel  also  here  joins  the  main  river. 

After  leaving  the  Niotan,  and  parsningthe  left  branch  (sooalf- 
«d,  althoDgh  geognphioally  the  right),  the  character  of  the  cono- 
trj  npidly  ohangee,  beooming  comparatively  sterile,  and  support- 
ing a  mneh  more  Alpine  vegetation  th:iii  the  dbtrict  below.  The 
tieee  are  prinoipslly  pines,  firs,  and  ccii^irs,  covered  with  a  long, 
pendant  lidwn  (^Umea  barbata^  attaining  a  length  of  four  or  five 
feet),  and  tbe  ferns  are  generally  low,  presenting  little  variety.  One 
-of  the  most  common  was  Onodta  sentibili*.      A  few  miles  above 


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86  THB   CANADIAN   NATURALIST.  [Aprils 

the  Forks,  heavy  beds  of  slates  or  flags  oroea  the  stream  with  a 
strike  N.  £.  and  S.  W..  dipping  to  tiie  northwest  at  an  angle  of 
45'^  and  more,  breaking  the  coarse  of  the  river,  and  producing  a  foil 
of  aboat  one  foot.  The  water  at  this  point  is  rapid,  but  aAer  pass- 
ing the  exposed  rocks  again  becomes  deep  and  tranquil.  In  this 
porljon  of  the  stream  the  land  is  low,  with  few  trees,  but  is  thickly 
covered  with  blade  alder  bnahes ;  the  soil  as  far  as  visible,  being 
principally  sand  and  gravel.  The  course  of  the  river  is  very  tor- 
tuous, running  suocessively  to  all  points  of  the  compass.  To  the 
right  of  its  general  oonrse,  at  a  distance  of  about  a  mile,  a  high 
ridge  is  apparent  for  many  miles,  pursuing  a  course  about  N.  30° 
S.  Gravel  beds  are  very  numerous,  and  occasionally  la^e  bonld- 
ers  are  fonad  in  the  stream.  The  pebbles  composing  the  former 
are  firincipalty  slaty;  but  rounded  lumps  of  milky  quartz  are  also 
common,  with  a  variety  <^  silicioos  rocks,  among  which  we  found 
a  fine-tinted,  transparent  cornelian,  jasper,  and  a  little  chalcedony. 

In  the  vicinity  of  a  small  stream  called  the  Cedar  Brook,  which 
enters  the  river  from  the  northeast,  we  passed  over  strata  of  fine, 
dark  slat«  nearly  perpendicular,  and  having  a  strike  about  N.  E.  and 
S.  W.  These  slates  are  visible  for  some  distance,  and  have  seams 
of  white  quartz,  and  sometimes  of  limestones,  ranning  tbroogh 
them.  Near  here  I  examined  the  plants  upon  tbe  bank,  and  ob- 
served TrietUali*  Americana,  CUntonia  horealU,  Oxalit  acetotetla, 
Smiladaa  bi/olia,  Linnaea  borealit,  Comiu  Cajtadetuis,  C.  tto- 
toni/era,  Viburnum  optdus,  Saffitta  gagitti/olia,  Slreptoput  dU- 
torlut.  wild  carranta  and  raspberries,  Thalictrum  (four  or  five  feet 
high),  AKtella  niida,  and  Smilarina  stellafa. 

The  Little  Tobique  receives  its  waters  from  a  chain  of  roman- 
tic lakes,  completely  shut  in  by  high  granitic  mountains.  The  first  of 
these  is  about  two  miles  long  and  one  broad,  and  lies  at  the  very 
base  of  Bald  or  Sagamook  Mountain,  one  of  the  highest  peaks  in 
New  Brnnswick.  It  is  but  one  of  a  continuous  chain,  but  rising 
abruptly  from  the  lake  seems  to  stand  aloof  from  its  less  elevated 
companions.  It  is  of  a  gently  swelling  oatline,  and,  elthongh  dia- 
tJDO'ly  covered  with  v^etation  at  its  summit,  exposes  on  its  sidea 
broad  and  precipitous  cliSs,  laid  bare  by  the  action  of  slides,  which 
have  probably  suggested  its  rather  inappropriate  name.  With 
three  others  of  the  party  I  ascended  the  mountain,  and  was  well 
repaid  by  the  extensive  view  afforded  in  every  direction.  Tbe 
height,  as  given  by  Gesner,  is  2,240  feet;  but  as  he  did  not,  I  be- 


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1664.]        QKOLOGT  AND  BOTANT  OF  NKW  BBUN8WICE.  87 

lieve,  vuit  the  moopUiQ  himseir,  I  am  uDawsr«  of  his  authority 
for  the  assertioD.  I  should  anppose  the  eummit  to  be  about  ooe- 
fourth  of  a  mile  above  the  surface  of  the  lake,  but  had  no  means 
of  measurement. 

The  ascent  of  the  moantaia  is  a  remarkably  eteep  one,  being  as 
much  as  45^  by  actaal  olinometer  measurement.  It  risea  imme- 
didtely  from  tho  aide  of  the  lake  (not  at  a  distance  of  Beveral  miles, 
as  represented  in  all  the  maps  of  the  proviuee),  and  ahows  upon 
its  flanks  three  disiioct  zones  of  vegetation.  The  first  of  these 
sones  oonaiata  of  a  dense  grovth  of  pines,  firs,  and  cedara,  and  ex- 
tends about  a  third  of  the  distance  up  the  moantain  side.  The  second 
ispriuoipallj  composedof  white  and  yellow  birch,  vith  a  few  oeduft 
uid  alders,  and  reaches  to  a  very  considerable  elevation.  The 
third  zoae  is  confined  to  the  summit,  and  a  small  portion  of  the 
sides,  being  covered  wi  h  a  low  dwarf  growth  of  shrubs,  with  a  few 
stunted  hirohes  and  eprnoes.  At  many  points  near  the  summit 
there  ia  no  v^tation  at  all,  the  rocks  being  laid  bare  in  extensive 
slides,  and  the  fragments  being  piled  upon  each  other  in  the  wild- 
est confusion.  At  several  points,  generally  immediately  above  theaa 
slides,  perpeadioular  masses  or  needles  project  from  the  general 
slope  of  the  mountain,  end  can  only  be  reached  with  difficulty. 
The  mountain,  so  far  as  I  hud  an  opportunity  of  examining  it,  is 
compostid  of  a  compact  red  feldspar  roek  or  felsite,  and  is  very 
homogeneous  in  character.  The  entire  slope  of  the  mountain  is 
strewed  with  large  broken  blocks  of  the  same  material,  which,  be- 
ing overgrown  with  moss,  and  often  covering  deep  boles,  make 
the  ascent  a  somewbat  dangerous  as  well  as  difficult  one. 
Bualders  of  similar  material  were  also  noticed  far  down  the  valley 
of  the  Tobi^ne.  I  have  already  alluded  to  the  three  sones  of  ve- 
getation on  the  mountain,  which  are  equally  notioeable  during  an 
ascent,  or  when  viewed  at  a  distance  from  the  lake  below.  The 
herbs  and  shrnbs  noticed  were  about  the  same  as  those  observed  on 
the  Little  Tobique.  The  Labrador  Tea  (^Ledam  lati/olium)  was 
very  common,  increasing  in  ijaantity  as  we  approached  the  sum- 
mit, while  Catfandra  calioitala  was  also  found  growing  abundantly. 
I  noticed  also  Trillium  ereclum,  Oxalis  aeeloteUa,  TVienlaiii  Am- 
ericana, Arali<i7mdicaulCg,Cortiut  CanadenM,  Clintonia  bortalit, 
SlTfptoput  am,pUxifoUu»,  Sitgiltaria  sagittifolia,  Smilaciaa  bi- 
folia,  quantities  of  Vaecinium  idig  notam,  and  OaaltAeria  kitpx- 
dala.  Lichens  were  also  abundant,  especially  ComiadarUi  and 
Cenomt/ce  rangi/erina. 


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S8  THK   OANADUN  NATITKALIST.  [-^pnl) 

There  are  several  isluida  in  Nictan  Lake,  which,  pre  enting  aa 
they  do,  great  oontraat  to  the  mosn tain-peaks  aronnd  them,  should 
not  be  passed  over  without  notice.  One  of  these  only,  where 
we  encamped  for  the  night,  I  had  an  opportaaity  of  examining, 
but  the  others  are  probably  of  a  like  Jeaoriptioa.  The  island  re- 
ferred to  is  about  fifty  feet  in  length  and  thirty  in  breadth,  rimng 
to  ahdght  of  about  ten  feet  above  the  lake,  and  presenting  at  ite  top 
«  nearly  smooth  and  level  surface.  The  material  compoeii^  it  is 
a  oompaet  slate,  and  the  lineconneoting  this  with  the  other  islands 
above  mentioned  would  be  about  N.  E.  and  S.  W.  There  is  no 
continuation  of  such  material  observable  on  the  Bald  Mountain 
dde  of  the  lake,  nor  is  it  probable  on  the  other,  there  being  nothing 
Tinble  bnt  high  and  ni^ed  peaks,  andonbtedly  igneous.  I  did 
not,  however,  examine  the  shore.  The  sides  of  the  island  nnk 
nearly  perpendioularly  into  the  lake,  and  the  depth  of  water  sur- 
rounding them  must  be  very  considerable,  as  we  were  unable  to 
reach  bottom  with  our  longest  fishing  lines. 

The  vegetation  of  the  island  is  scanty,  bnt  quite  different  from 
anything  else  seen  in  this  section  of  the  province.  There  are  no 
foU^irown  trees  upon  it,  bnt  only  one  or  two  dwarf  sprnoes  and 
pines,  with  an  occasional  cedar.  Of  herbs  and  shrubs  I  noticed 
the  following :  Ledian  Jati/olwm,  Siigrmchiumaneepg,  Vaeeiitr 
twnt  Pennt^liMmicum,  V.  Vitie  Idaea,  V.  uliginotam  f  SoUdago 
tamxolataf  PotentUla  iforvegiea,  Con/dcdi*  glauca,  and  Samhu- 
oupuhmt. 

The  occurrenoe  of  these  islands,  rising  like  needles  from  the  bot- 
tom of  the  lake,  and  so  far  as  visible  of  an  entirely  different  char- 
acter from  the  mountain-peaks  around,  is  not  a  little  singular  and 
difficult  of  explanation. 

The  character  of  this  portion  of  the  province  can  well  be  Stu- 
died from  l^e  snmmit  of  S^amore  Mountain.  It  is  essentially  a 
high  table-land,  sloping  gradually  towards  the  St.  John,  yet  in  its 
Ugher  parts  everywhere  broken  up  into  lofty  hills  and  monntains. 
I  was  unable  to  ascertain  any  prevailing  direction  for  the  chains, 
peak  after  peak  appearing  wherever  the  eye  was  turned.  Thegen- 
eral  direction  of  the  lakes  is  about  east  20°  south,  their  form  be- 
ing quit«  irr^ular.  The  Bald  Mountain  range  seems  to  pursne 
a  course  nearly  parallel.  This  is  nndon  btedly  the  highest  land  in 
the  province,  and,  I  have  heard  it  stated  on  good  authority,  that, 
witii  the  aid  of  a  glass,  one  can  see  to  the  north  the  mountain 


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1864.]     OEOLOor  amd  botaht  of  nkw  bbunswioe.  89 

range  of  Qaspj,  and  again  in  the  extreme  eonthweet,  the  lofty  Bum- 
mit  of  Katahdin. 

The  Nepisiquit,  like  the  Tobiqne,  has  its  muroe  in  a  cbaia  of 
romantic  lakes,  surrounded  b;  loftj  granite  monntaina.  The 
lakes  in  neither  case  are  perfectly  distinct,  being  rather  simple  tx- 
paruion*  of  nn^le  lakes.  Tfa^re  arc  three  of  these  espaoded 
sheets  at  the  head  of  the  Tobique,  and  foui  at  the  souroea  of  the 
Nepiaiquit.  The  portage  connecting  the  two  lines  of  water-ehed 
does  not  exceed  three  miles,  and  now  here  attalaa  an  elevation  of 
more  than  fifty  or  sixty  feet. 

The  general  direction  of  this  tj^nsit  isa  little  sonth  of  east,  xnd 
it  is  merely  an  obscure  and  little-frequented  footpath  through  the 
woods.  The  soil  seemed  fertile,  and  the  vt^tation  varied— the 
plants  noticed  being  about  the  same  as  alreadygiven  The  ascent 
from  the  Nictan  Lake  is  veiy  gradual,  and  near  the  middle  of  the 
portage  the  land  is  low  and  swampy.  From  here  it  again  aaoenda 
until  very  near  the  Nepiaiquit  Lake,  when  it  fulls  rapidly  away 
to  that  level.  I  should  suppose  that  the  latter  lake  occupies  a 
somewhat  higher  level  than  those  on  the  Tobique.  There  are  no 
rocks  apparent  anywhere  on  the  line  of  crossing. 

During  this  portion  of  our  tour,  thcmenibers  of  our  party  were 
greatly  tormented  by  the  incessant  biting  of  black  flies  and  mus- 
quitoes.  The  development  of  insect  life  in  this  portion  of  New 
Brunswick  is  very  remarkable,  and  the  number  of  insects  and  the 
ease  with  which  tbey  can  be  obtained  would  fully  satisfy  the  most 
ardeut  ootomologiat.  All  the  orders  of  insects  seem  to  be  repre- 
sented, and  by  a  great  variety  of  genera  and  species.  Butterflies 
of  all  shades  and  varieties  of  gaudy  coloring,  eight  or  ten  different 
kinds  of  flies,  gnats,  mosquitnea,  spiders,  caterpillars,  gadflies, 
dragon-flies,  and  beotlea  are  found  in  the  greatest  profusbn.  I 
sometimes  saw  fifty  or  more  butterflies  awarming  at  rest  upon  a 
single  rock,  and  allowing  one  to  pick  them  up  by  the  handful. 
Every  day,  and  indeed  almost  every  hour  of  the  day,  produced 
some  new  individual ;  and  one  of  our  party,  who  waa  a  great  ento- 
mologist, met  with  nambers  which  be  bad  never  seen  or  even  read 
of  before.  Avery  valuable  and  intcreating  collection  might  be 
here  made.  The  beat  season  for  such  a  purpose  would  be  about  the 
beginning  of  July,  aa  they  afterwards  become  much  leaa  numerous, 
and  in  August  almost  disappear, 

The  Nepisiquit  Lakes  are  four  in  number,  connected  with  each 


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90  THl  OANADIAN   MATDaALIST.  [^P"!^ 

Other  by  narrow  straits.  A  line  connecting  them  all  would  mn 
nearly  east  and  west.  Tbey  are  not  so  deep  as  those  of  the  To- 
biqne;  the  bottom  in  the  Third  Nepiuquit  Lake  being  in  many 
places,  even  near  the  centre,  not  more  than  two  feet  below  the 
sor&oe,  while  from  the  little  island  in  Nictan  Lake  we  were  nnable 
to  reaoh  bottom  with  twenty  feet  of  line.  The  former  are,  li^ 
the  latter,  shnt  in  by  mountain  ranges,  but  their  elevation  is  not 
so  great  BB  those  already  described.  Along  the  shorea  of  the  Ne- 
pisiquit  Lakes  I  observed  Ins  uerncohr  and  Ti/pha  lati/olia 
growing  abundanily,  also  Nvphar  advena,  N.  Kabniana,  Equite- 
titm  limoiamf  E.  tyloa  icum,  and  E.  uli^inoium. 

The  Mepisiquit  passes  out  from  the  lakes  mnch  more  qnietly 
than  the  Tohiqne,  and  descending  by  a  rapid  bnt  nnbroken 
cnrrent  pisses  around  the  base  of  handsome  hills,  clothed  with  a 
rich  green  covering  of  birch  and  spruce.  The  land  close  to  the 
river  is  low  and  covered  with  alder  bushes,  but  some  lofty  monn- 
tuna  appear  to  the  southward.  The  streim  pnrsnes  at  first  a  near- 
ly uniform  course  a  little  west  of  south,  without  winding  much, 
like  the  Tobique.  Its  bed  is  strewed  with  large  and  truvelled 
granitic  boulders,  which  though  not  wanting  on  the  Tobique  were 
mnch  less  numerous  than  here. 

The  mountains  just  alluded  to,  pursue  a  course,  as  nearly  as  I 
could  make  out,  a  little  north  of  east,  crossing  the  river,  which 
works  its  way  around  their  base.  They  are  undoubtedly  granitic, 
and  in  many  places  expose  upon  their  flanks  high  and  rugged 
dif&ofa  brick'red  color,  giving  at  first  the  appearance  of  a  red 
sandstnae  district.  The  boulders,  however,  which  occur  in  the 
bed  of  the  stream,  distinctly  indicate  their  character,  being  com- 
posed of  a  corsc^ained  feldapathic  granite  or  ffmnulite. 

Near  the  base  of  one  of  these  cliffs  we  were  borne  by  the  cur- 
rent, and  so  remarkable  were  its  characters,  that  I  at  once  deter- 
mined to  give  it  a  more  cireful  es.imination.  Landing  for  this 
purpose,  and  approaching  with  one  companion  and  an  Indian 
guide,  what  we  supposed  to  be  the  natur  il  slope  of  the  mountain, 
wewere  suddenly  stopped  by  a  tremcudous  chasm,  which  uoex- 
peotedlylay  open  before  our  feet. 

The  defile  is  about  fifty  or  seventy  feet  deep,  with  almost  pre- 
cipitous sides,  and  furnishes  a  picture  of  singular  wildnesa.  The 
two  sides  of  the  chasm  were  in  the  most  marked  contrast.  That 
by  which  we  approached  was  steep  and  broken  though  covered 


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1864.]        GEOLOOT  AKD  BOTANT  OF  NEW  BBDNSWICE.  91 

with  T^tatioQ,  while  the  opposite  slope,  whioh  was  almost  per- 
pendtoakr  at  its  base,  &nd  which  reaohed  high  up  the  mountaiQ 
mdes,  was  one  dense  mass  of  Urge  det>ahed  blocks  of  reddish 
granite,  orelse  the  origioa)  rock  from  which  thej  had  been  torn. 
Od  this  side  of  the  chasm  scuroelj  a  trace  of  ve^etatioa  could  be- 
seen,  as  far  as  the  eye  oonld  reach- 

The  two  sides  of  this  singalar  defile  are  as  strongly  contrasted  in 
their  mineralogical  characters  as  in  the  features  just  described. 
Tlie  first  or  lowest  side  is  composed  of  a  fine  compact  greyish 
syenite,  mnch  weathered  on  the  surf  loa,  and  covered  with  vegeta- 
tion ;  the  other  is  of  the  same  material  as  the  boalders  I  had  al- 
ready fonad  farther  up  the  river,  vii. :  a  coarse-griuned  feldspathio 
.i^anite  or  graaulite.  There  is  no  mici  present  in  it,  and  but  lit- 
tle hornblende.  It  b  bat  little  weathered,  looking  fresh  and  red, 
and,  as  before  stated,  is  almost  destitute  of  v^tation.  The  direc- 
tion of  the  defile,  at  the  point  where  we  examined  it,  was  nearly  east 
and  west,  bntsoon  turned  off  to  the  northward,  when  it  could  be 
no  loi^r  traced  from  where  we  stood.  I  would  gladly  have  occu- 
pied a  longer  time  in  its  exploration,  bat  could  not  well  afford  the 
delay.  Aa  a  point  of  reference  for  thb  vicinity,  of  which  so  little  has 
heretofore  been  known,  I  havcTentured  to  c:kll  thU  singular  range 
the 'Feldspar  Moant^os"  in  allasion  to  the  mineralogical  charac- 
ter of  its  principal  rocks.  Theloodity  is  about  fifteen  miles,  as  near 
as  I  can  judge,  above  the  Forks  of  the  Nepisiquit  River.  Od  my 
joomey  to  and  from  the  moantun  I  found  rhe  following  plants ; 
Kabnia  angiali/olia,  Ribet  rabrwa,  Epilobiam  (jncafum,  Lin- 
naea  borealia,  OxalU  aeetoMella,  and  others. 

Below  the  Feldspar  Moantaiasfor  adietanceof  many  miles,  the 
conntryis  h^h  and  rugged,  and  presents  an  indescribably  desolate 
^pearance.  As  far  as  the  eye  c  in  see,  the  monatain  slopes  b»ve 
been  stripped  of  their  vegetation  by  extensive  fires,  and  nothing 
bat  the  charred  tranks  of  decaying  trees  is  now  visible.  Moun- 
tains are  seen  in  every  direction,  the  principal  chain  pnrsning  a 
course  parallel  to  thatof  the  river,  about  east  and  west.  The  latter 
descends  rapidly,  gliding  almost  in  a  straight  line,  and  without  a 
fall,  down  an  inclined  plane  of  three  or  four  degrees.  Boulders  of 
feldspathio  and  syeuitie  rocks  are  at  times  very  numerous ;  and  from 
the  fact  that  we  passed  them  only  at  intervals,  according  to  the 
windii^  of  IJie  current,  I  am  iiiclined  to  think  that  they  cross  the 
stream  in  rc^lar  trains,  purauiag  a  uniform  general  direction,  tk 


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92  THK  OANADIAM   MATUOALIBT.  [April, 

little  Roatii  of  6aBt.  TteM  bonlden  are  of  the  aane  material  ai 
tliat  of  dte  monatunB  I  have  deaoribed  above,  and  iDoreaae  io 
DamberBand  magoitade  as  ooe  desoendsthefitreani.  Afawmiles 
beloirthe  ForLa  (where  the  soil  ia  allarial,  and  supports  ezl«DBiTe 
groves  of  elma)  these  boalders  attaia  an  eaormoaa  Bue,  and  oaose 
oamberleas  falla  and  rapids  in  the  cnrreat.  Manj  of  them  are  in- 
jeot«d  with  veias  of  milky  quarts,  and  at  times  appear  to  be  joint- 
«d.  Thej  continue  to  inorease  io  quantity  until  one  reaches  a 
spot  called  the  ladian  Falls,  where  rooks  to  n'lu,  together  with 
huge  granitic  boulders,  block  up  the  stream  and  produce  a  &U  <tf 
four  or  five  feet.  This  b  suooaeded  about  half  a  mile  bdow  by 
another  of  similar  elevation,  tiie  apaoe  between  the  two  bring  filled 
with  dangerous  rapids.  The  rocks  appear  laminated  and  eontorted, 
and  are  filled  with  veins  of  injeoted  quarts,  and  paw  the  stream 
in  a  line  running  about  10°  west  of  North.  A  portage  was  here 
necessary,  during  which  I  observed  the  following  plants:  Wild- 
rotei,  eurraitlt,  and  huckld>erTiea,  nupberrUa,  whiu  and  red  dover, 
Epilobium  tpicatum,  Potenlilla  a/rguta,  Sagitlaria  tagittifoliA, 
Kalmia  anyustt/olia,  ChrjftoMthemum  IeucantA«mtim,  Ailwtm 
Sehoenopranan,  Spiraea  talicifolia,  Pyrola  eUipliea,  Platanikefa, 
orhicviata  1  and  Smiladna  ttellata.  A  short  distanos  below  the 
Forks  I  noticed  also,  Archangelica,  Diervilla  trifida  (not  seen  on 
the  Tobique),  and  Caltha  palaitrU. 

About  twenty  miles  above  the  Grand  Falls  of  the  Nepisiqnit  we 
passed  the  first  formatioas  of  distinctly  stratified  rooks,  oonsistuig 
of  slates  and  ferru^aons  slaty  sandstones,  much  broken  and  oon- 
torted.  They  seemed  to  ran  nearly  east  and  west,  and  dip  north- 
ward (?)  at  a  sharp  angle.  Some  of  the  beds  of  slate  appear  to  be 
«f  excellent  quality. 

These  rooks  are  viuble  for  a  considerable  distanoe,  and  have  a 
strong'y  fernigioous  color.  At  one  point  a  high  oliff,  composed 
<X  them,  projects  into  the  stream,  and  was  so  iatensely  red,  as  to 
induce  me  to  stop  for  tbe  parpoee  of  examination.  I  at  first  sup- 
posed it  to  be  a  bed  of  haematite,  but  it  proved  to  be  merely  a  mag- 
ueaian  slate,  with  only  an  external  resemblaDoe  to  the  above  named 
one.  Much  of  it  is  soft  and  ommbliog,  and  might,  perhaps,  be 
employed  as  a  mineral  paint.  Some  of  it  ia  probably  manganenan 
also,  and  resembles  the  slates  at  the  Tatagouohe  mines,  in  the 
vicinity  of  Bathurst.  The  latter  are  probably  but  oontinuations 
of  the  same  series. 


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1864.}        OEOLOaT  AND  BOTAHT  0¥  NXW  BRUNSWICK.  93 

Below  this  point,  the  bed  of  the  rirei  ii  strewed  with  Bmall  and 
loonded  boalderB,  of  the  riie  of  paTiog-etoaes,  aod  presenUa  very 
KDgahr  appearanoe.  They  ue  of  three  kinds,  a  bright  red  (felds- 
pMhio),  &  dark  (syenitie),  and  green  stoDe,  and  b^ng  polished 
bnghlljby  UiewBt«r,eDggest  the  ideaofamoBaic  pavement.  More 
fenvfliiioiis  strata  bqoq  appear,  dipping  westward,  and  granitio 
booldera  again  become  oommon.  Granite  ridges  soon  appear  in 
rita,  and  seem  to  have  displaced  and  to  have  been  thmstthroaghthe 
oAerstrata.  The  stream  becomes  ra^id  and  violent,  tlte  v^etation 
of  its  banks  poor  and  stunted. 

The  above-named  rooks  oontinne  for  a  short  distanoe  only. 
Abont  five  or  six  miles  above  the  Qrand  Falls,  they  are  sneeeedt  d 
hj-  beds  of  slates  and  slaty  sandstones,  with  some  limestone,  dip- 
]£ng  into  tiie  -  bed  of  the  river  at  an  ai^le  of  60°  to  the  norUi, 
the  river  here  mnniog  abont  northeast.  The  eonrse  of  the  stream 
b  nearly  at  right  uiglee  to  the  strike  of  the  slates,  whieh  form  pre- 
eipatons  oli^  perhaps  seventy-five  or  one  hundred  feet  in  height. 
Like  the  sunilar  goi^  at  the  month  of  the  Tobiqne,  this  spot  is 
Balled  the  Harrows,  and  can  only  be  navigated  by  the  moat  skilinl 
Indians. 

Between  the  Narrows  and  the  Grand  Falls,  sandstone  bods  ap- 
pear with  a  strike  abont  north  and  sonth,  and  dip  to  the  west- 
ward at  a  h^  angle. 

The  Grand  Falls  of  the  Nepisiqait  are  too  well  known  to  re- 
(piire  desoription  here,  tb«r  beanty  and  the  excellent  salmon-flsh- 
Bg  at  their  base  having  long  since  attracted  travellers  to  the  spot. 
Oeol(^ioally,  the  fidl  has  been  the  reenlt  of  the  gradual  wearing 
away  of  consoKdated  strata ;  the  direction  of  the  current  havii^ 
been  probably  determined  by  some  preexisting  fissnre  in  the  beds. 
The  ro^  oontpoeing  the  gorge  below  the  ialls  (which  is  abont  half 
a  mile  in  length)  are  composed  of  oontorted  Termginons  slates,  hav- 
ing a  strike  nearly  north  and  sonth,  and  a  dip  of  50°  to  the  west- 
ward. Through  tliese  slates  the  water  has  worked  its  way, 
giadnally  vridening  the  channel,  and  running  for  a  portion  of  its 
eonne  directly  opposite  to  the  dip  of  the  strata,  bat  tow&rds  the 
lower  part  making  asudden  tnm  southward,  and  then  nearly  follow- 
ing  their  strike.  On  the  rocks  below  the  falls  I  noticed  in  flower. 
Campanula  rotKndiJbHa,  Potenlilla  argata,  and  wild  roses.  Many 
of  these  rocks  are  filled  with  nuraerons  crystals  of  oabio  pyrites. 

Leaving  the  goi^  we  soon  passed  over  more  sandstones  and 


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34  THS  CANADIAN  NATDBALI8T.  [^P"l) 

slates,  still  dlppiog  westwurd.  At  a  plaoe  called  "  The  Great 
Chain  "  they  have  a  dip  of  about  60°  to  the  west,  and  aross  the 
stream  with  a  strike  aboat  DOrth  and  south,  farming  a  Berieo  of 
falls  and  rapids.  With  these  saDdstones  are  associated  ohloritio 
and  taloose  sUtes,  coaforinable  with  them.  At  this  point,  besides 
the  twn  plants  above  natnid,  I  noticed,  Allium  Hchanopragvmt 
SiiyriiLchiitm  aacept,  DieraiUa  trjida,  Aralia  nudicattlit,  Strep- 
toput  dUlorlue,  Linnaea  borealU  Gllntonia  boreaiU,  Iri*  veriteo- 
■  lor,  Corau*  Canadensis,  Platanthera  dilalata,  Archavgeltfa, 
Ackillaea,  Laclaca  elongata^  Thalictrum  dioieam,  Apocjfnum 
androtcemifotium,Oenoihiraehrj/santka,SleUaria,  and  Atpidiitin 
tpiniilottim. 

A  fev  miles  below  the  Great  Chain,  more  laminated  sandBtooea 
'Cross  the  stream,  with  a  strike  N.  40^  W,,  with  a  nearly  perpendi- 
cular dip,  highly  silicious,  and  filled  with  crystals  of  eulphnret  of 
iron.  They  soon  change  their  coarse,  taking  a  strike  N.  20°  E., 
&nd  are  muoh  folded  and  contorted.  With  these  are  associated 
ferrugiooua  slates,  and  the  whule  have  a  reddish  appearance  froni 
the  oxidation  of  their  contained  iron.  The  stream  is  narrow,  and 
passes  rapidly  between  the  rocky  bauka. 

Still  descending,  beds  of  impure  iron-stone  and  ochre,  with  micft- 
oeouB  iron,  appear  on  either  shore,  being  of  a  soft  and  crumbling 
charactor.  Several  of  the  cliffs  exposed  upon  the  shore  are  of  a 
bright  red  color.  They  may  be  seen  on  the  lefl  bank  to 
overlie  nearly  horizontal  beds  of  ferruginons  saodstone,  with  small 
conglomerate  and  pebble  beds,  these  latter  in  tarn  resting  upon 
granite.  The  rocks  appear  to  be  muoh  rounded  and  water-worn, 
even  at  an  elevation  of  tea  or  fifteen  feet  above  the  present  level  of 
the  river.  The  reddish  beds  seem  to  lie  in  a  great  basin  formed 
by  the  underlying  granite,  or  rather  thi^  latter  forms  a  series  of 
anticlinal  axes,  the  si  .:^  and  sandstone  beds  reposing  on  their 
flanks. 

The  granite  beds  are  divided  into  huge  blocks  by  parallel  ver- 
tical joints,  and  thus  present  upon  their  river  face  the  appearance 
of  a  wall.  Their  surfaces  are  perfectly  flat ;  uid  thoae  which  form 
the  river  bed,  being  polished  by  the  wear  of  the  current,  look  like 
a  massive  pavement.  It  is  in  passing  over  these  pinkish  granites, 
that  the  river  Is  wearing  out  the  curious  channels  of  the  Pabinean 
Falls. 

The  granites  at  the  falls  are  distinotly  jointed,  the  line  of  tlifl 


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1864.}      aeoLOOT  and  botany  of  new  bbunbwiok.  95 

joinla  running  due  north  and  south.  The  course  of  the  etream  is 
{HiraUel  to  these,  and  has  probahlj  been  determined  hj  one  ormore 
existing  in  its  bod.  The  spot  is  one  of  the  most  singular  I  have 
seen  in  the  Provinoe. 

Between  the  Pabineau  and  Butburat  our  journey  was  made  by 
land;  the  navigation  of  the  river,  which  is  one  series  ofrapida, 
called  the"  Rough  Waters,"  beingtoodangerousforcauoea.  From 
good  authority,  however,  I  have  learned  that  the  granite  beds  at 
the  Falls  are  sucoeeded  by  states  and  schists  (to  some  extent  oop- 
per-beariDg) ;  and  these  agtun  underlie,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river, 
the  red  sandstones  and  conglomerates  which  form  the  north-east^ 
em  boundary  of  the  New  Kmnswich  ooal-measures.  The  latter 
are  Been  near  the  Nepisiquit  bridge,  on  both  sides  of  the  river  ;  bat 
it  is  not  probable  that  they  extend  far  below  the  city  of  Bathoret. 
On  the  lett  bank,  near  the  bridge,  is  a  carious  spot,  where  coal 
(lignite  7)  aud  copper  ore  are  intimat«]y  associated,  and  interstrati- 
Ged  with  sandstones,  clay,  and  aonglomerates.  It  was  in  conse- 
quenoe  of  the  discovery  of  copper  at  this  point,  under  these  singu- 
lar circumstanoeB,  that  examinations  were  made  for  that  metal 
farther  inland,  which  examinations  led  to  the  discovery  of  the 
present  mining-districts  on  the  Tatagouche  River.  These  latt«r 
are  situated  in  bluish  and  dark  brown  slat«e,  having  a  strike  E. 
10°  S.  and  a  southerly  dip  of  50°.  They  are  probably  continuous 
with  the  beds  south  of  Pabineau,  and  extend  for  a  distance  of  ten 
or  twelve  miles  along  the  coast,  above  Bathurst,  being  csposed  on 
the  Mgadoo  and  other  minor  streams  of  that  n^ion.  They  seem 
to  be  highly  metalliferous. 

I  have  now  given  with  ooosiderablc  detail  the  results  of  a  fort- 
night's ramble  un  these  hitherto  little-known  rivers.  Their  exami- 
nation was  necessarily  a  harried  and  imperfect  one,  the  distance 
travelled  over  beit^  not  less  than  two  hundred  miles ;  and  the  re- 
sults are  only  presented  now,  that  a  more  just  and  accurate  view 
may  be  entertained  of  this  interesting  r^ion. 

I'd  those  who  are  familiar  with  the  geology  of  New  Brnnswiok, 
it  will  have  already  become  apparent  that  mueh  of  what  has  now 
been  stated  differs  widely  from  the  formerly  entertained  notions  as 
to  the  structure  of  this  portion  of  the  Province.  That  these  dif- 
ferences may  be  the  more  readily  appreciated,  I  have  appended  to 
this  article  a  carefully  colored  map  of  the  district,  showing  as  fer 
-as  possible  the  order  of  succession  of  the  rocks  here  exposed,    The 


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96  THE  CANADIAN   HATDBALIBT.  [^P"^ 

following  are  the  most  important  differences  between  this  and  pre- 
eeding  maps : 

Ist.  Upon  I>r.  Robb's  map  the  whole  course  of  the  Tobiqne, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Red  Sandstone  Dietrici,  is  colored  as  if 
passing  through  Upper  Silurian  rocks.  In  reality  moat  of  the 
country  between  the  Blue  Mountain  Brook  and  the  Forks  is  of 
a  trappean  character. 

2ad.  The  ealoiferons  slates  of  the  Narrows  are  separated  from 
the  Red  Sandstone  district  by  terrufi^oai  slates  and  dark  sandstone. 
The  caloiferoua  slates  and  the  sandstonea  have  a  northeaalerly 
strike,  and  similar  rocks  are  again  seen  above  the  Forks,  witii  Qie 
sune  strike.     They  are  probably  conUnuous. 

3rd.  The  exact  limits  of  the  Red  Sandstone  District,  on  the  line 
of  the  river,  are  the  Red  Rapids  and  the  Bine  Hount^ns, 

4th.  The  Blue  Mouotain  and  Bald  Mountain  rise  direcUy 
from  the  waters  of  the  lake  or  river,  not  at  the  distance  of  several 
milee,  as  represented  on  other  maps. 

5th.  On  the  m^  of  Dr.  Robb  no  distinction  is  made  between 
trappean,  syenitio,  and  feldspatbic  rocks.  In  the  aocompanying 
ma^  the  Blue  Mountains,  which  are  trappean,  are  distinguished 
ftt>m  theBuld  Mountain  uid  Nepisiquil  ranges,  which  are  chiefly 
feld^thic.  There  is  an  island  of  slate  in  Niotau  Lake. 

6th.  The  upper  half  of  the  Nepisiquit,  on  Dr.  Robb's  msp,  is 
marked  as  ruoQing  through  upper  Silurian  strata.  On  theoontraiy 
the  whole  district,  colored  yellow  on  my  map,  is  feldspathio,  oon- 
sisting  partlf  oi granulite  and  partly  of  tyen'Ue,  more  particularly 
the  former.  Rocks  of  this  character,  forming  lofty  mouutaiu  ranges, 
cross  the  stream  in  a  northeasterly  direction,  and  are  seen  nearly 
as  farss  the  lodiaa  Falls.  At  the  latter  plaoe  highly  altered  rocks  . 
onWB  the  stream,  with  a  strike  10'  west  of  north. 

7th.  The  granlt.  band  which  has  been  supposed  to  cross  the 
Frovinoe  from  the  Ohepataecticook  Lakes,  and  which  on  Dr. 
Robh's  map  has  t!.e  same  width  at  the  Nepisiquit  which  it  exhibits 
elsewhere,  really  nariows  in  the  vicinity  of  that  stream  to  a  very 
small  strip,  and  probably  soon  disappe^ui.  Owing  to  the  tortuosi- 
ties of  the  river,  these  rocks  app3^  at  several  suooesdve  pointa, 
and  at  first  would  lead  one  to  believe  in  the  existence  of  sever^ 
granitio  anticlinal  axes.  From  the  fact  however  that  all  the  slates 
seen  above  the  Pahineau  have  a  westward  dip,  it  is  probable  that 
only  one  bmid  is  socoessively  exposed.     Where  this  bond  finally 


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1864.]  CHKUiaTBT  or  uanureb.  97 

ilinppears  is  ft  matter  of  much  doubt,  but  it  wiU  not  probably 
be  foDod  far  bsyoad  tha  position  which  I  have  assigned  to  it.  The 
iBetaUiferouB  slates  which  rest  od  its  northern  flinks  ro-appear  on 
the  Tatagouche  River,  and,  as  already  remarked,  the  latter  ore 
probably  oontJanooa  with  those  on  the  Nepisiqait.  Possibly  the 
granite,  after  passing  the  Pabinean,  is  well  exposed  again  ;  but  tliis 
remuns  to  be  determined. 

I  have  only  to  add  tliat  my  observations  were,  as  a  rule,  mode 
from  a  rapidly  moving  canoe,  and  most  only  be  regarded  as  ap- 
proximately aoonrate.  Where  the  oharacter  of  the  ooantry  ooald 
not  be  ascertained,  from  the  ocourrenoe  of  belte  of  intervale,  or  the 
fwaenee  of  alluvial  matter,  or  boulders,  the  map  has  been  left 
devoid  of  color.  The  granitic  r^jion  assigned  to  the  serpentine 
oa  the  map  is  copied  from  that  of  the  late  Dr.  James  Robb. 

(Read  bf/ort  Iht  Natural  Bittary  SceUty  of  Nob  Brmuaick,  litk 
fUmiarjf  1864.) 


ON  THE  CHEMISTRY  OP  MANURES. 

We  extract  from  tbe  Report  of  tbe  Sec<md  Class  of  the  Inter- 
national Jury  of  the  Qreat  Exhibition  of  1862,  the  following 
p^Mr.  The  Reporter,  Prof.  A.  W.  Hofmann,  F.R.S.,  tells  ns  that 
having  invited  Mr.  F.  0.  Ward  to  furnish  bim  with  a  succinct 
view  of  the  question  of  manures  in  thtar  relations  to  agricultural 
ohemistry,  the  following  essay  was  the  result ;  which  Prof  Hofmium 
oharaoterises  withjustios  a3"ooe  of  the  shiest  and  moat  philoB. 
phicotly-oonceived  oompendiuma  of  a  complex  and  dtfioult  subjeot 
which  has  ever  come  under  his  notice."  He  therefore  adopted 
and  endorsed  hia  coadjutor's  work;  adding  for  incorporation  with 
it,  much  valuable  information  of  a  apsciol  kind  fnraished  bim  by 
Heaars.  Lswes,  Gilbert,  Graaing,  and  others.  With  these  explana- 
tory remarks,  we  invite  the  attention  of  our  readers  to  this  remark- 
aUe  esaay,  premising  only  tbat  we  have  omitted  for  the  sake  of 
brevity  csrtun  portiona,  inserting  in  their  places  an  abatraot  of 
them  in  bracketa,  and  have  alao  appended  a  few  notes. — Ei>ilOK8. 

Eaklt  HiSToaT  of  Masdebs. — Manures,  in  the  form  of 
«attle-dung  and  ordinary  farm-yard  composts,  have  been  knowa 
and  employed  from  time  immemorial  for  the  fertilization  of  the 

ToL.  I.  8  Ho.  a. 


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98  THK  CAMADUM   MATIT&ALIST.  [AftUr 

nil;  bat  the  manures  termed  "artifieial/'wliiohlmfathdrarigiii 
^ewbere  than  in  the  farm  itself,  and  are  for  the  most  put  of 
ooneeotrated  and  portable  oharacter,  have  bat  of  late  yesrs  oome 
largely  into  use.  Nevertlielsss  the  maHufuotare  of  these  manura, 
and  the  trade  to  whioli  they  have  given  rise,  already  rank  amongat 
die  meet  exlenEive  of  modern  indostries. 

[The  author  here  gives  a  brief  history  of  the  variooa  pcooMMS 
proposed  and  patented  in  Snglaod  for  the  pr«|)aratioo  of  aitiEmat 
maanree  during  Ae  first  tiiird  of  this  osntnrj.  They  were  b«t 
Hine  in  nnmber,  of  which  two  were  for  the  atiliiatioD  of  nightwul, 
while  a  third  proposed  the  use  of  a  mistore  of  oystei^^helk  sad 
gypBum.  In  the  coarse  of  the  eighteenth  century  three  pate&tifiv 
manorewere  obtuned,  one  of  whioh  desoribed  a  mixture  of  Be»«Jt, 
saltpetre,  lime,  and  Rhenish  tartar,  declared  to  "  possess  n  mag- 
netio  quality  whereby  it  attraots  fertility,  eto."] 

GooasE  or  EAaLT  Scibntifio  Reseakoh. — In  the  moan 
time,  however,  a  vast  store  of  soiantiGo  information,  tending  more 
or  Ie33  directly  to  the  eluoidation  of  this  importaot  subject,  had 
been  in  slow  and  silent  course  of  aecumulation,  by  the  successive 
labors  of  many  eminent  experimentalists. 

Not  to  g3  bick  further  thin  ths  last  cantnry,  nor  even  than  its 
latter  half,  we  shall  find  concentrated  in  this  brief  period,aeeriM 
of  brilliaat  discoveries,  bearing  more  of  less  directly  upon  the 
manurial  and  agriooltural  questions,  but  far  too  nnmeroos  even 
for  the  most  onrsory  narration  here.  9paca  woold  fail  ua  even  to 
enumerato  the  names  of  European  celebrity  that  adorned  this 
memorable  epoch ;  bat  if  wa  had  to  select  half  a  dosen  of  the  most 
illnstrioas  to  represent  the  philosophical  activity,  British  and  eon- 
tiaental,  of  the  period,  wa  would  ventare  to  single  out  on  the  one 
hand.  Black, .  Priestley,  and  C^ivendish  —  and  on  the  other, 
Lavoisier,  Se  Sauasnre,  and  Berthollet. 

During  the  fifty  years  in  question  the  nature  and  oompoaiCion 
of  air  and  m.iler,  ofcarbtnic  acid  and  amnvmia,  (the  four  main 
forms  of  volatile  plant-food, )  were  disoovered, their  gsaeooa  elements 
isolated,  and  their  properties  determined. 

The  sciences  of  geology  and  meteorology  at  tltia  period  also 
began  to  take  shape  and  form;  enibling  an  insight  to  be  giined 
into  the  origin  and  nature  of  caltivable  »oils,  and  into  the  dimcUic 
conditions  of  plant-growth. 

At  the  same  time  the  laws  of  the  physioal  foiees,  partioalarly 


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ISM.]  oHKuraTRT  or  hanuilks.  99 

those  of  light  and  heat,  began  to  be  better  underBtood,  as  veil  in 
their  general  relations,  aa  in  their  special  inflnenco  on  plants. 

The  iatrodaotioQ  of  more  acoarate  chemical  methods  permitted, 
meanwhile,  a  closer  investigation  than  had  before  been  possible,  of 
the  tissues  and  products  of  plants,  and  of  the  various  transforma- 
tioos  whieh  those  products  undergo  daring  the  several  stages'  of 
vegetal  development. 

The  sound  physico^hemical  priooiples  thus  established  had  the 
happiest  influence  on  physiological  investigations.  The  oigans 
of  plants  and  of  animals  were  studied  in  a  clearer  light  than 
before;  aad  their  respiratory,  assimilative,  and  excretory  processes, 
together  with  the  relations  established  b;  those  processes  between 
the  three  great  kingdoms  of  nature,  were  gradoally  made  ont. 

Among  the  many  illastrions  men  who  assisted  in  working  ont 
thess  great  reenlts,  Lavoisier  probably  deserves  the  highest  place; 
not,  perhaps  as  the  largest  contributor  of  new  truths  to  the  accu- 
mulating store, — though  hb  contributions  of  this  kind  were  many 
and  brilliant — but  because  his  vivid  imagination,  and  the  eminent 
generalising  powers  with  which  he  was  endowed,  enabled  him  to 
co-ordinate  all  the  scattered  researches  of  his  time,  and  to  display 
innumerable  istdnted  facts  in  their  true  subserviency  to  general 
laws ;  BO  as  (among  other  things)  largely  to  extendour  knowledge 
of  the  cosmic  equilibrium  on  which  sound  husbandry  can  alone  be 
based.  Everything,  indeed,  that  Lavoisier  did  bore  the  impress 
of  bis  master-mind.  He  it  was  who  first  applied  the  Balance  to 
the  study  of  the  phenomena  of  Ltfb.  Ha  it  was  who  first  showed  . 
that  while  plants  evolve  oxygen,  animals,  on  the  contrary,  consume 
it ;  carbon  being  oxidised  or  burned  in  their  bodies  as  oil  is  burned 
ia  a  lamp.  His  \ottj  tone  of  thought,  and  eloquent  language, 
powerfully  impressed  his  contemporaries;  and  chiefly  to  his  influ- 
enee  and-ezample  the  admirable  researches  of  his  age  owe  their 
high  scope  and  scrupulous  precision.  Scienoe  never  endured  a 
severer  loss  than  whea  Lavoisier  met  his  untimely  fate.  But  bis 
great  spirit  lived  alW  him ;  and  researches  bearing  upon  the 
noble  themes  he  had  loved  to  treat  were  carried  on  with,  if  pos- 
sible, Increased  activity  after  his  death.  The  scientiflo  records  of 
Europe  were  soon  crowded  with  fresh  masses  of  undigested  dis- 
wrery  ;  and  in  a  few  years  such  another  mind  as  his  was  wanted, 
to  grapple  with  the  growing  mass  of  detail,  and  once  more  to  create 
order  ont  of  the  soientifio  chaos. 


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100  THE  CANADIAN   MATrRALIBT.  [^PI^ 

Early  in  the  present  century  England,  ia  her  tarn,  produced  « 
master-mind, — that  of  the  illustrious  Sir  Humphrey  Davy, — vast  in 
scope  &nd  luminDna  in  coaoeptioD,  as  any,  the  greatest,  of  for^ne 
tjmee.  Davy  was  well  fitted  to  wear  the  fallen  mantle  of  Lavoisier, 
and  to  continue  hie  great  work.  It  is  accordingly  to  Davy's 
genius  we  owe  that  memorable  treatise — truly  desoribed  by 
Liebig  as  "  immortal " — the  "  Elements  of  Agricultural  Chem- 
istry." 

In  that  imperishable  work  all  the  scattered  results  of  forej^ne 
research  in  this  branch  of  science  were  collected  and  reduced  to  a 
system,  which  was  extended  and  enriched  by  the  aothor's  own 
capital  researches ;  whereof,  perhaps,  the  most  s^al  (in  this 
depaitmcot  of  science)  were  his  analytical  investigations  of  aoik 
(types  of  all  that  has  since  been  dooe  in  that  way) ;  his  capital 
determinations  of  the  composition  and  transfonnations  of  v^tal 
products ;  and  his  admirable  experiments  on  the  nutrition  of  plants, 
as  well  by  leaf  as  by  root. 

To  the  powerful  impulse  and  just  direction  impressed  by  Lavoi- 
Rer  in  France,  and  Dj>y  in  E.igl  md,  in  subsequent  investigadons 
of  like  kind,  may  be  ascribed  in  a  great  measure  Uieir  vigorous 
and  Eucccsef.il  prosecution  by  pbilosophi'is  contemporary  with  our- 
selves. Of  these  an  encyclopedic  list  cannot,ofoouTfie,  be  given  here; 
and  among  so  many  equally  illustrious  names,  it  would  be  difficult 
to  single  out  a  few,  as  lypes  to  represent  the  rest.  Suffice  it  lo 
say,  that  to  the  exertions  of  these  able  men  we  owe  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  experimental  data,  on  which,  as  on  a  firm  foand;ition, 
the  edifiee  of  modem  a^cnltnral  science,  physical,  chemical,  and 
physiologic  il,  has,  so  to  speak,  been,  stone  by  stone,  built  up. 
Honor  and  gratitude  to  those  who  have  patiently  hewn  out  thorn 
stones  from  iho  quarry  of  undiscovered  truth  I 

B.t  as  the  true  >alue  of  the  quarried  stones  is  only  made 
appjrcnt  by  their  judicious  collocation  in  the  edifice  according  to 
the  plan  of  the  architect,  so  also  dQ  experimental  data,  separate]/ 
aocumulated  by  the  toil  of  many,  only  appear  in  their  true  value 
and  significance  when  comprehensively  embraced,  co-ordinated, 
and,  as  it  were,  fused  into  s  harmonious  whole,  by  the  fiery  genioe 
of  one  mustcr-niind.  Such  a  mind  was  Lavoisier's  in  the  last 
century ;  such  a  service  was  rendered  by  Davy  to  our  fathers ; 
and  such,  to  ourselves,  are  the  mind  and  the  service  of  Justol 
Liebig. 


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1864.]  OHXUISTBT   OF   UANDBES.  101 

Thus  havo  Fnoce,  England,  and  Germanj,  in  the  oovrae  of 
•boat  &  centnrj,  succesdvely  produced  the  three  great  Lawgivers 
«f  Modem  HaBbandrj. 

It  was  in  the  year  1837  that  the  Britiah  AaBociatioa  for  the 
Advanoement  of  Science,  perceiviDg  the  immGoae  accumdatioo  of 
ficts,  for  the  moat  part  unByBtematized,  which  had  already  taken 
place  in  oi^nio  obemistry,  and  was  annually  iooreaaiDg  therein, 
invited  Justus  Liebig,  who  had  already  attained  to  eminence  by 
his  extensive  researches  in  this  branch  of  science,  to  write  a  report 
npon  iiB  then  condition ;  which  honorable  daty  the  iilnstrioos 
philosopher  undertook.  In  the  year  1840,  Liebig,  in  fulGInient 
nf  ttuB  eng^ment,  produced  bis  memorable  work  on  "  Oi^anio 
Chemistry  in  ita  Applioations  to  Agriculture  and  PhyBioIogy." 
In  ordinary  hands  snch  a  report  would,  in  all  probability,  have 
been  but  a  eompilatioD,  more  or  less  compendious,  of  facts  already 
known,  and  conceptions  already  proposed  for  their  co-ordination. 
Bnt  tiie  original  genius  of  Liebig,  essentially  philosophical  and 
constructive,  impressed  npon  his  work  a  very  different  character. 

He  bc^n  by  sweeping  away  the  fallaciouB  theoretical  views  which 
were  at  that  time  in  vogue, — particularly  the  so-called  "  Humus 
theory," — and  replacing  them  by  a  theory  of  his  own,  wider  in 
Boope,  and  more  conformable  with  truth.  With  this,  the  so-called 
"  Mineral  theory,"  as  a  general  clue  for  his  guidance,  Liebig  was 
enabled  to  thread  the  labyrinth  of  intermingled  facts  and  fuUaciee, 
which  had  necessarily  resulted  from  so  many  investigations,  indue, 
tive  and  deductive,  carried  on  for  so  many  years,  by  so  many 
independent  thinkers  and  eiperimentalists,  and  recorded  in  so 
many  soattend  memoirs.  All  of  these  he  was  eaabled  to  we'gh  and 
appreciate,  by  the  criterion  of  a  new  law,  or  rather  system  of  laws, 
themselves  evolved  during  his  large  induolion,  and  established  (in 
a  great  measure)  by  help  of  the  very  ikcts  they  served  to  elucidate 
ud  oonnect. 

Profiting  by  the  controversial  criticism  which  his  book,  on  its 
^tpearance,  did  not  fail  to  provoke,  Liebig  made  it  more  perfect 
in  successive  editions;  and  extended  It  by  additional  volumtf, 
BOme  modtstly  entitled  "  FamOiar  Letters,"  some  promulgated  as 
codes  of  Natural  Law,  but  all  forming  parts  of  a  connected  series, 
in  which,  as  in  a  mirror,  is  displayed  the  prcgressive  development 
of  Liebig's  views,  in  the  light  of  his  own  and  of  contemporary 
researches.    By  these  labors,  pursued  with  unwearied  industry 


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102  THE  CANADIAN  NATUOAUST.  [Api^ 

dnring  upwards  of  twenty  ^sbts,  Justwi  Liebig  hu  nnqncstioBAIj 
shed  npoQ  bis  all- important  theme  a  flood  of  light,  u  oopioos  and 
brilliaDt  to  the  full  as  that  which  it  Hocoessivelf  rec^ved,  in  former 
days,  from  the  luminouB  minds  of  Lavoisier  and  Davy.  Indeed, 
of  the  nffiliation  of  his  labors  to  those  of  his  immediate  predeces- 
sor, Liebig  himself,  in  the  dedication  of  his  work  to  the  Britlaii 
Asaoolaii on, speaks  with  becoming  humility  and  justifiable  pride : — 

"I  have  endeavored,"  he  says,  "to  follow  thepathaurkedout 
by  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  who  based  his  ooncluaionB  only  on  Hiat 
which  was  capable  of  examination  and  proof.  This  is  the  path  of 
true  philoBophioal  inquiry  which  prooiiaes  to  lead  us  to  tniUi, 
the  proper  object  of  our  research." 

Of  liiobig's  views,  and  of  the  rapid  and  profound  revolution  of 
opinion  they  brought  about,  occasion  will  arise  to  speak  in  a  sub- 
sequent page.  Meanwhile,  it  may  suffice  to  remark  that,  amongst 
other  things,  they  completely  overthrew  the  conceptions  provioualy 
entertained  as  to  the  nature  and  operatino  of  manures. 

[Here  referring  again  to  the  history  of  patent  manures  in  England, 
the  author  remarks,  that,  as  a  result  of  the  newly-awakened  interest 
iu  the  subject  of  scientific  agrioulturCj  no  lees  than  ninety-six  pat«ntB 
for  manures  were  r^tered  between  1850  and  1855;  and  he  eBt4- 
mates  that  the  whole  number  of  such  patente  rt^tered  from  1S42 
to  1862  was  at  least  200.] 

This  long  series  of  inventions  compriaee  plans  and  proceSBesfoi 
turning  to  account,  aa  manure,  almost  all  the  known  forms  of 
animal  waste  and  ejficta  :  such  aa,  for  example,  the  night-soil  and 
sewage  of  towns;  theragsof  woollen, silken, and  leathern  clothing; 
the  debris  of  manufactures  in  which  horn,  bone,  hides,  bristles, 
gut,  and  other  organic  and  nitrogenous  materials  are  used;  the 
spent  animal  or  bone  charcoal  of  the  sngor  refineries,  and  other 
phosphatio  residua;  the  ammoniaoal  liquDrs  of  gas-works;  the 
alkaline  wash-waters  of  soap,  dye,  bleach,  and  many  other  faotories ; 
— in  a  word,  several  hundred  forms  of  residua, — nitrogenous,  phos- 
phatio,  and  alkaline, — formerly  oast  away  as  worthless  rubbish. 

These,  the  respective  patentees  propose  to  subject  to  various 
processes,  mechanical,  phydical,  and  chemical:  such  as,  for  example, 
in  the  case  of  liquors,  to  conoentration  by  boiling  down,  or  pre- 
cipitation by  chemical  agency;  in  the  case  of  solid  residua,  of 
crushing,  grinding,  or  other  process  of  comminution  ;  or  to  chemi- 
cal disintegration  by  powerful  solvents,  acid  or  alkaline  according 


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18U.]  0BUU8TBT   OF  MANUBIS.  103 

it  &»  circnmsbuMoe  in  each  oaoa ;  or  to  nuoftntion  ia  wnter ;  or 
to  torrefsation  fay  fire ;  or  to  d^stioD,  at  low  or  faigfa  presHura, 
somBtiHes  in  moiBt,  sometiniei  in  dry  or  snper-heated  steam. 

SeTBTtJ  of  the  patents  ioolnde  recipes  for  misiog  the  prodneta 
this  obtuaed  with  each  other,  or  yfith  prodnota  of  a  different 
or^n,  to  adapt  them  (ai  the  inventors  allege)  for  special  crops  or 
ibr  peoalUr  soils.  Many  of  these  proposals  possess  merit;  thongfa 
a  still  larger  number  exhibit  ignorance  on  the  projectors'  part; 
while  a  oerbuB  percentage  almost  seem  to  have  been  concocted  with 
a  yiaw  to  profit  by  the  ignorance  of  others. 

Sdfibphosph&ti  of  Lwk  MufUFACTDKB. — First  in  irapor- 
taaco,  and  nearfy  first  also  in  ohronologioal  order,  among  the 
ntannie-pstcnts  enrolled  since  the  pablication  of  Liebig's  book  in 
1840,  Btands  the  celebrated  patent  granted  in  1842  to  Mr.  3.  S. 
Lawea,*  for  oonverting  Uiealcie  into  monooaloio  phosphate  by 
means  of  snlphorio  acid.  The  inventJon  of  this  process,  so  far  as 
it  i^i^iee  to  the  treatmeat  of  recent  bones,  is  not  claimed  by  Mr. 
Lawes,  bnt  bolongs  to  Justus  Liebig,  who  saggected  it  in  his 
great  work  already  quoted.  As  this  saggestion  has  become  the 
fi>andadon  of  the  modem  indostry  of  manures,  and  its  aathurship 
has  been  the  snbject  of  oontroTersy,  the  Beporter  feels  bound  to 
record,  in  the  foot-note  bebw,  Liebig's  own  words  on  the  gulgeot.f 

The  great  merit  of  Mr.  Lawes  consists,  first,  in  his  haTiog  ex> 
tended  the  ^tplioation  of  sulphuric  acid  to  phosphates  of  mMtrtU 

■  I^wet  (J.  B.),  PatCQt  No.  9363,  Uaj  23,  1842. 

t  "Thefonn  1b  whicb  the; [bonsa]  are  reatored  to  aioil  does  not  ap- 
pear to  baa  matlei  of  EndilTerence.  For  the  more  Gaaly  the  bones  are 
rtdaced  to  powder,  and  the  more  inlimately  thej  ara  mixed  with  the  ioit, 
tbe  more  eaaily  are  thej  assimilated.  The  most  easj  and  practical  mode 
oreffectios  their  division  is  to  pour  over  the  bones,  in  a  state  of  fiae 
powder,  balf  of  their  weigbt  ot  anlphnric  acid  dilated  witb  three  or  font 
parts  of  water,  and  after  the/ bare  been  digested  for  sometime  te  add 
100  part*  of  water,  and  sprinkle  this  miitare  orer  tbe  field  before  the 
plODgb.  In  a  few  leoonds,  the  free  acids  nnite  with  the  bases  contained 
in  tbe  earth,  and  a  neutral  salt  is  formed  in  a  Ter;  Cue  stale  of  dlrision. 
Biperimeuts  instituted  on  a  soil  farmed  from  grauioaekt,  for  tbe  purpose 
of  asceriaininK  the  action  of  manure  thus  prepared,  haTC  distinctly 
»iowa  that  neither  oora  notkitchea-KardeDplaniesnffbriDJiirionsefnMita 
ia  conaeqaenre,  bnt  that,  on  tbe  contrary,  thej  thrive  witb  much  mwa 
^gor."— "  OrKSBlc  Cbemistrr  la  Its  Application  to  AKricnltate  and 
PbjMlogj,"  pf.  184,  185. 


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104  THE  OANADIAN   HATUBALIST.  [April, 

or^G,  snoh  u  apatite,  and  to  the /omi  booe-phosplute  Icdovd 
as  ooprolite;  and,  seoondly,  in  Ms  having  devised  means  and 
appliances  for  carrying  out  the  mannfaotitre  on  an  indostiial  scale. 
Those  upon  whom  it  has  devolved  to  organiae  a  new  industry,  and 
to  overcome  the  diffioullies  that  apring  up,  unforeseen,  at  every 
stage  of  saoh  a  work,  wLl  know  how  to  appreciate  at  their  just 
value  Mr.  Lawes'a  services  in  this  respect.  Indeed,  in  his  doable 
capacity,  as  a  manufactarer  of  manures,  and  as  an  indefatigable 
experimentalist  on  their  effects,  Mr.  Lawes  merits  recognition  as 
one  of  the  most  actave  promoters  of  agriculture  now  living.  Noc 
would  it  be  just,  in  suob  a  mention,  to  overlook  tbe  large  share  of 
service  rendered  by  Dr.  Oilhert,  the  able  coadjutor  of  Mr.  Lawee, 
in  the  experimental  and  analytic  department  of  his  labors. 

Hr.  Lawes  appears  to  have  made  his  first  essays  in  the  mana- 
focture  of  superphosphate  in  1841-2  ^  and,  on  the  success  of  tbeae 
experiments,  to  have  b^un  his  gi*eat  mannfictoiy  at  Deptford,  in 
1843.  Many  similar  works  have  since  sprung  up,  and  the  manu- 
facture has  growa  to  enormous  magnitude.  Mr.  Lawes  himself 
produces  13,000  to  20,000  tons  of  superphosphate  annually;  and 
the  total  yearly  production  of  superphosphate  in  Great  Britain  is 
estimated  by  him  as  ranging  from  150,000  to  200,000  tons. 

Mr.  Lawes  has  favored  the  Reporter  with  the  following  inter- 
eeUng  particulars  as  to  tiia  most  recent  and  improved  mode  of 
manufacturing  saperphosphate,  its  average  oomposilJOD,  and  its 
present  market  price : — 

"  The  phosphatic  materials  are  firstgronnd  to  a  very  fine  powdw 
by  millstones ;  the  powder  is  then  carried  up  by  means  of  eleva- 
tors, and  discharged  eoatinuously  into  a  long  iron  cylinder,  hsTing 
agitators  revolving  within  it  with  great  velocity.  A  constant 
stream  of  sulphuric  acid,  of  sp.  gr.  1-66,  enters  thecylinder  at  the 
same  end  as  the  dry  powder,  and  the  mixture  flows  oat  at  the  other 
end  in  the  form  of  a  thick  mud,  having  taken  from  three  to  five 
minutes  in  passing  through  the  machine.  The  quantity  turned 
out  by  saoh  a  mixing-machine  is  about  10ft  tons  daily.  The  semL- 
fiiiid  mass  runs  into  covered  pita  tea  to  twelve  feet  deep,  each  of 
sufficient  aisa  to  hold  the  prodace  of  the  day's  work.  It  becomes 
tolerably  solid  in  a  few  hours,  but  retains  a  high  temperature  for 
weeks,  and  even  mouths,  if  left  undisturbed. 

"  The  compoeilJOQ  of  a  superphosphate,  of  good  quality,  mads 
partly  from  mineral  phosphate  and  partly  from  ordinary  Ixmes,  ma^ 
be  stated  as  follows : 


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1864}  caSHIBTBT  or   HANUBES.  lOS 

Solabit  phoaphata 23  to  35  per  cent. 

iDSoIoble  pboapb&te 8  "  10  "     " 

Water 10  "  13  "     " 

Salphat«  of  lime 3G  "  4S   "      " 

Orpinic  matter 11  "  Ifi   "      ■< 

Nitrogen  0-TS  to  I'D  per  cent. 
"  If  sufficient  snlphurio  acid  vere  used  fa)  decompoae  Uie  whole- 
of  the  i^osphate  of  time,  the  product  would  be  too  wet  to  be  pack- 
ed in  b^;s,  and  wotdd  reqoire  eitlier  to  be  mixed  witb  extraneouB 
nibstanoes  of  a  dry  and  porouB  natare,  or  to  be  srtificiallj  dried. 

"  The  price  of  the  beet  descriptions  of  superphosphate  ranges 
&om  51.  15«.  to  61.  10(.  per  ton,  and  of  tbat  made  firom  pnrelj 
nuneral  phosphate  from  4f.  to  &l  b».  per  ton." 

Of  the  raw  materials  annually  worked  np  into  enperphosphate- 
in  Great  Britain,  Mr.  Lawes  estimates  tbat  about  half  is  derived 
from  the  deposits  of  fbssil  bonfr«arth,  or  coprolite,  discovered  ot 
late  years  in  aeveral  parts  of  England.  Bone-ash,  chiefly  imported 
ftom  South  America,  animal  charcoal  from  Germany,  and  bones 
from  all  parts  of  the  world,  together  supply  about  forty  per  cent 
more  of  the  raw  material ;  while  the  remiuning  ten  per  cent  of  the 
total  sapi^y  is  made  np  by  guano  (chiefly  of  the  less  nitrogenous 
and  more  pbosphatic  kinds),  with  a  little  apatite  (aay  200  to  500 
tone  per  annum),  obtained  from  Spun,  Norway,  and  America. 

Impobtation  op  Mandres  into  OaEAT  Britain. — These 
data  alone  might  serve  to  indicate  that  the  industry  of  manures, 
since  the  impnlse  it  received  in  1840,  has  afforded  occupation  not 
only  to  the  inventive  and  manufacturing,  but  also  to  the  commer- 
wkl  activity  of  the  English  nation.  But  of  this  the  origin  and  de- 
vdopment  of  the  guano-trade  affords  direct  evidence. 

^Here  follows  an  historical  sketch  of  the  growth  of  the  trade  in 
guano,  from  which  we  learn  tbat  the  flrst  experiments  with  this 
manure  in  England  appear  to  have  been  mitde  from  1838  to  1840. 
HeasTB  Qibbs  &  Sons,  its  principal  importers,  commenced  in  1842 
by  importing  182  tons  of  guano,.  In  1843  they  imported  4667 
Ions,  and  in  1862  their  total  sappliea  (as  well  for  foroign  as  for 
British  oonsnmptjon)  equalled  no  less  than  435,000  tons.  Of  this 
between  one-third  and  one-fonrth  was  retuned  for  use  in  the  United 
Kii^om.  Its  price,  which  has  varied  from  91.  to  151.,  is  now 
about  121.  the  Urn.} 

The  extraordinary  success  *of  the  Peravian  guano-trade  led  Uy 
Toyages  of  discovery  in  searoh  of  fresh  deposits;  several  of  which 


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106  THI  OAMASIAN  HATDRALIBT.  [^pHl, 

have  been  found  and  extensively  vorlced  on  the  ielanda  of  Uw 
West  AfiioMi  coast  aad  elsewhere.  NorhaacommeroialenterpnBe 
oonfined  itself  to  guano.  Nitrate  of  sodiam,  fonnerly  valued 
«hieflj  as  a  sabatilute  for  saltpetre  in  the  salpharic-aotd  maniifao- 
tura,  has  of  late  jears  oome  more  and  more  lai^ely  into  nae  as  a 
powerful  fertUiier ;  and  the  vast  deposits  of  this  Bubstanoe  anoees- 
sively  opeae  1  up  in  several  parts  of  the  South  American  oontineot 
are  now  eztenuvely  worked  for  the  supply  of  the  English  manaie- 
market.  As  for  bones  and  bone-ash,  they  have  been  imported  by 
thousands  of  ehiploada,  not  merely  from  the  bonndleaa  South 
Amerioan  pampas, — &edinf|;-grounds  and  cemeteries  of  uDDUiabered 
lierds,  from  immemorial  time, — but  also  from  populous  Enropean 
Hjonntiies,  whose  soil  could  by  no  means  spare  them  so  well,  and 
whose  fertility  must  have  been  seriously  impaired  by  &ur  with- 
drawal. 

Good  and  Evil  of  thi  Trade  in  Mandkk8. — The  man- 
ure-trade presents  itself,  therefore,  in  two  aspects ;  the  one  advaa- 
tageooa,  the  other  detrimental  to  mankind.  Nothing  can  be  more 
advantageous  than  the  collection  and  utilisation  of  fertilising 
residua  formerly  oast  away  aa  worthless.  The  fossil  phoephatea 
'ijnarried  oat  of  the  bosom  of  the  earth,  and  the  goano  eztrasted 
{by  the  snccessive  intervention  of  seaweeds,  fishes,  and  peognlu) 
from  the  depths  of  the  ocean,  are  evidently  somuohtreasuio&irly 
won  from  nature  for  the  It^itimate  enrichment  of  mankind.*  Even 
the  withdrawal  of  recent  bonea  and  booa-ash,  from  plains  untenant l- 
«d  as  yet  save  by  wild  cattle,  to  fertilize  the  oom-fielda  of  the 
populous  old  world,  must  be  aeoounted  a  legitimate  commerce- 
But  the  boundary  line  is  ovei^passed,  and  the  manure-trade  becomes 
abnormal,  when  bones  are  withdrawn  from  one  populons  conntiy 
to  enrich  the  ixhanstcd  fields  of  another. 

Nor  is  the  detriment  thus  oooamoned  confined  to  the  connti; 
whose  BoU  is  impoverished.  In  the  closely  knit  relaljons  of  modem 
ctHnmoroe,  the  impoveridment  of  any  one  oommeicial  oonntiy 
reacts  on  the  prosperity  of  all  theothera,  by  diminishing  the  stock 
of  exchangeable  wealth  in  the  world.  If  Germany,  for  instanoe, 
grows  lass  corn,  her  purehasing  power  for    foreign  goods,  uy 

*  See,  ia  this  eoDnect<DD,apaperb7  Mr.Sterry  HaDton  Fitb-Hannraa 
<OaDBdiAn  Haturaliat,  vol.  W,  pp.  13-33),  where  will  b«  found  much  In- 
fonnatioD  on  the  theory  ormanarea  and  ou  th«it  commercial  valae.^ 
Somas. 


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1864.]  ouutrnTBY  or  uanubbb.  107 

Bnaeii  at  Brituh,  is  proportionally  dimiDisbed,  and  oommerte 
mSenpro  Imto.  The  gain  to  France  and  England  is,  theteSon, 
iiot  illnaoiy,  if  either  rohi  a  neighbor's  soil  to  fertiliie  her  own. 

Id  a  vork  jut  puhliahed,*  Baron  Liehig  sternly  rebukes  Eng- 
land f<w  her  om^^ageniesa  to  bny  np,  in  the  form  of  bones,  tbe 
pbosphatic  wealth  of  ooantries  leas  advanced  than  herself  in  finan- 
«ial  and  iodiiatrial  power  ;  and  for  the  apparent  recklewnesa  with 
whieb  Bbe  squanders  fbrth  these  treasares  (ill-gotten  and  ill-apent), 
down  her  inDamerahle  sewers  to  the  sea.  The  great  agricnltaral 
ta&ober  manifests  alarm  at  the  superabundant  seal  with  which  tbe 
most  diligent  of  his  pnpils  obeys  his  lessons ;  and  to  other  nations 
be  earnestly  points  ont  tbe  ruinous  oonsequenoes  that  must  ensue 
to  them  from  the  exportation  of  phoBphates,  drawn fVom  tiieirsoU, 
to  stay  the  ezhanstloa  of  the  English  fields.  His  cry  of  warning 
is  oroujhed  in  terms  of  almost  passionate  invective : — 

England  (he  oxolaima)  is  robbing  all  other  oouotries  of  the  oon- 
lUtioos  of  their  fertility.  Already,  in  her  eagerness  for  bones,  she 
has  torned  ap  the  battle-fields  of  Leipsic,  of  Waterloo,  and  of  the 
Oiimea ;  already  from  the  oataoombs  of  Sicily  she  has  earned 
«way  the  skeletons  of  many  eucoessive  generations.  Annually  she 
r«Bovee  from  the  shores  of  other  countries  to  her  own,  the  mann- 
rial  equivalent  of  three  millions  and  a  half  of  men  ;  whom  she 
takes  from  as  the  meaDS  of  supporting,  and  squanders  down  her 
sewers  to  the  sea.  Like  a  vampire  she  hangs  upon  the  neck  of 
Enrope,  nay  of  the  entire  world,  and  euoks  tbe  heart-blood  from 
nations,  without  a  thought  of  justice  towards  them,  without  a 
shadow  of  lasting  advantage  for  herself. 

It  is  impossible  (he  proceeds  to  say)  that  snch  iniquitous  inter- 
ference with  the  Divine  order  of  the  world  ebonld  escape  its  right- 
ful pnniBbment;  and  this  may  perhaps  overtake  England  even 
sooner  than  ttie  eonntries  she  robs.  Most  assuredly  a  time  awaits 
her,  when  all  her  riohes  of  gold,  iron,  and  ooal  will  be  inndequale 
to  bny  back  a  thonsandth  part  of  the  conditions  of  life,  wbioh  for 
oentnri<;s  she  has  wantonly  squandered  away. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  these  striotures,  though  somewhat 
harsh  in  tone,  are  not  without  a  certain  degree  of  trnih.  It  may, 
however,  be  urged,  on  the  other  hand,  that  they  apply  only  to  ooe 
branch,  among  many,  of  British  manurial  indastry, — and  even  to 

.  '  "EinletuDg  in  die  Natargeselza  des  FeldlMiiea."  Von  Jaatoi  voa 
Liebig.    BrannBcbweig,  Vieweg  und  Sohn,  ISes, 


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108  TQK  OA.NADUN  NATITEALIST.  [^P"^ 

tlut  branch  only  partially.  For,  sinw  the  British  ooprolitfrbeds 
have  been  extensivelj  worked,  they  have  8ap{died  fosnl  phoephates 
at  a  price  so  low  as  to  supersede,  in  a  great  mBaanre,  the  anpplj 
of  receot  booes,  for  agricultural  purposes,  from  ContioeDt^  ooan- 
tries.  Nor  do  the  laws  of  political  economy  permit  na  to  doubt 
that  undue  Bcaroity,  artificially  created,  gradually  raises  maiket 
price  to  an  extent  wliich  becomes  at  last  prohibitory;  so  that  the 
evil  provides  its  own  corrective.  Of  this,  indeed,  a  very  appeaite 
illostraiion  reaches  the  Reporter  while  he  writes.  H.  Glemm- 
Leouiga,  mauufaoturer  of  Manbeim,  informs  him  tliat  EngUflb 
fossil  phosphates  are  being  extensively  exported  to  Germany;  be 
himself  (M.  Clemm-Lenntg)  receiving  coaeiderable  supplies  of  thw 
mnterial  from  British  porte.  The  balance  of  trade  seems,  there- 
fore, to  be  arriving  at  a  just  equilibrum  in  this  matter,  as,  indeed, 
it  always  doett,  if  ouly  it  be  lefl  to  swing  freely. 

Modern  Uistobioal  Btentb  connectkd  with  tbs  Db- 
VXLOPHKNT  OF  THE  Mandbial  INDUSTRY. — But  wcM  Eng- 
land a  more  signal  offender  than  she  is,  or  ever  has  been,  agunst 
what  may  be  termed  the  manurial  equilibrium  of  the  world,  she 
might  plead  her  justifioation  in  the  train  of  modem  historical 
events  which  have  brought  her  manurial  industry  into  iU  preeept 
remarkable  phasts ;  a  phaeis  purely  transitiona],  and  which  mario 
the  crisis  of  a  momentous  revolution,  even  now  in  eoorse  of  ta- 
complishment. 

The  events  here  alluded  to,  like  the  revolution  in  which  they 
are  culminating,  have  their  common  origin  in  the  memorable  io- 
vention  of  the  eteam-eogine  by  Watt. 

The  new  motive  power  placed  by  Watt's  genius  at  the  disposal  of 
mankind,  after  having  iraDsfonned  in  succession  every  other  main 
braooh  of  human  industry — the  i^pinning  and  weaving  of  raiment, 
for  example;  the  arts  of  locomoiion,  by  land  and  sea;  all  the 
various  forms  of  bnite  drudgery,  such  as  lifting,  hewing,  pumpiog, 
grinding,  &c.;  all  the  technical  plastic  arts,  firom  the  shaping  <£ 
the  most  stubborn  metals  to  the  moulding  of  the  most  delicate 
day — in  a  word,  after  having  lightened  for  mankind  all  the  other 
forms  of  toil,  is  now  making  its  way  into  the  farm,  and  impreai- 
ing  upon  the  operations  of  husbandry  an  equally  signal  revolu- 
tion. 

It  is  important  to  observe  that  the  transformations  which  have 
preceded  this  final,  and  most  momentous  change  of  all,  have  not 


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1864.]  CEEUIBTRT   OF   HANURBS.  109 

«nly  prepared  tlie  way  for  it,  but  have,  at  the  same  time,  rendered 
its  advent  anindispenaablenecensity;  as  a  very  brief  consideration 
will  ehow. 

It  is,  in  trhefirat  place,  by  theoperation  of  steam-power  that  the 
handiera/U,  formerly  pursued  by  famillos  dispersed  in  villugea  over 
the  whole  surface  of  the  land,  have  been  replaced  by  manufactures, 
eondnoted  in  colossal  faotoriea,  determining  the  a^lomeration  of 
enormoos  populations,  in  rapidly  developed  towns  and  cities, 
located  nsnally  (for  the  convenieaoe  of  trade)  upon  streams  and 
rivers  leading  to  the  sea. 

Food  has  naturally  followed  popnlatioo ;  and  corn  and  cattle, 
-vegetables  and  fruit,  are  daily  poured  from  the  country  into  the 
towns,  in  (streams  of  constantly  increasing  magnitude.  The  quan- 
tity of  fertilising  reudua  resulting  from  the  consumptjon  of  these 
.  provisions,  and  requiring,  in  iiur  husbandry,  restoration  to  the 
distant  fields  from  whioh  they  come,  undei^oes,  of  coarse,  prepor- 
tionate  alimentation ;  and  the  problem  of  their  re-conveyance  to 
the  land  has  been,  and  still  is,  cue  of  annually  increasing  diffi- 
culty. 

During  tfae  earlier  development  of  the  factory-system,  the  old 
mode  of  urban  defecation,  by  means  of  cesspools  emptied  periodi- 
cally, was  in  v<^e ;  and  much  of  the  night-soil  produced  in  the 
great  mannfitcturing  towns  found  its  way  back  from  these  stagnant 
reoeptades  to  the  land. 

But  as  the  populations  assembled  in  these  industrial  encampments 
^rew  vaster  and  more  dense,  diseases  of  the  so-called  zymotir  ctass 
became  more  and  more  rife  among  them ;  and  though  the  respeo- 
tiveojuseeof  the  several  forms  which  zymotic  or  febrile  disease 
assumes  remuned  unknown,  it  was  gradually  established  by  pro- 
fessional investigations  that  they  had  all  one  common  favoring 
Aindition  in  the  putrescent  effluvia  of  stagnant  filth. 

To  the  few  scientific  inquir-^rs  who  traced  out  this  relation,  it 
beoame  apparent  that  the  stagnant  cesspool  system  was  radically 
Tiaioas,.and  must  be  rooted  oat  at  any  cost.  They  perceived 
that  urban  populations  could  only  be  preserved  from  febrile  disease 
ty  the  daily  removal  of  their  ejeota  before  its  entry  into  the  state 
of  putrefaction ;  and  for  this  end  a  system  of  house  and  street 
drains,  kept  constantly  washed  with  abundant  supplies  of  water, 
Memed  to  afford  the  readiest  means. 

Here  t^ain  the  power  of  steam  was  on  the  side  of  pic^ieia. 


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JIO  THK   OAMADIAN   MATUIALIBT.  t''^P"V 

The  public  vnter-sapply  of  towns,  no  longer  led,  u  of  old,  in 
wooden  pipes,  to  publio  foanlaias,  Uienea  to  be  febihod  in  pail  and 
piteber  to  tbo  dwellings,  was  arged  by  eteam-pamps  at  high  pies- 
sore,  through  iron  pipes  h&ving  lateral  branohee,  into  the  bonses 
themselTes,  and  even  up  to  theic  bigbeat  floors.  Thia  permitted 
the  adoption  of  Braroab's  water-oloaet  (a  ca|ntal  inTentton)  with  ita 
Bffift  water-rash  and  trapped  exit-drain,  instead  of  the  noisome 
privy,  nntrapped  and  waterless,  with  its  stagnant  pitofpotresoenoe 
beneath.  And  tiiongh  Bramah's  closet  itself  was  a  ooetly  pieee  of 
meohanism,  cheaper  contrivances  of  like  kind  soon  fiiUowed, 
bringing  within  reach  of  the  poor  as  well  as  ibe  rioh  the  ineetl- 
mable  blesdng  of  cleanly  defeoatioo. 

These  ameliora^ous  had,  however,  gained  but  little  attention, 
and  were  but  slowly  making  their  way,  whoa,  in  1839,  the  views 
of  their  advocates  recdved  at  once  a  terrible  oonfirmation  and  a 
powerful  impulse,  by  the  snddea  outborst  of  the  Asiatio  diolera. 
***«•**•**«*«•*•     The 

ooneternatioa  it  prodaoed  was  uaiversal ;  and  it  gave  rise  to  that 
remarkable  scries  of  researches,  oonclnaions,  and  practical  reforms, 
known  ooUoctively  as  the  modern  Sanitary  Movement. 

Under  this  new  influence  the  substitution  of  flowing  drains  for 
stagnant  cess-poola  was  carried  on  with  much  inoreased  accirity ; 
though  obstructed  by  a  vehement  controversy  as  to  the  printer 
size  and  form  of  the  druns.  Small  circular  stone-ware  tabes  were 
recommended  by  one  piny;  large  brick  flat-bottomed  sewers  by 
the  other.  The  tubular  system  happily  proved  to  be  the  cheapest 
as  well  as  the  bast ;  and  ita  advocates,  af ler  a  tea  years'  stru^e, 
finally  carried  the  day.  Whole  towns  are  now  drained  through 
12-iaoh  pipes,  which  would  formerly  have  been  deemed  of  aeant 
dimension  for  the  drainage  of  a  single  mansion. 

The  application  of  the  manurial  streams  from  nrban  drains  to 
irrigate  farm-lands  was  also  warmly  advocated  by  the  sanitary 
reformers,  but  as  warmly  doolared  impraoticable  by  several  lead- 
ing engineers ;  whose  views  upon  that  part  of  the  question  pre- 
vailed. 

The  second  invasion  of  Asiatic  cholera,  in  1849,  gave  a  new 
impulae  to  the  abolition  of  cesspools ;  and  the  value  of  tnbntar 
drains,  of  small  sise  and  rapid  sooac,  for  their  leplaoement, 
had  by  that  time  obtained  very  general  rect^nidon.  But  tlie 
leading  engineers  of  England,  while  admitlJDg,  theoretioally,  thfr 


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1864.]  OHUUSTBT  or  MANnoEa.  113 

Tahio  of  sewage  to  fertilize  iKad,  still  denied  the  Bonndoaia  anil 
eootwmj  of  the  meohaaio&l  amuigeQietits  propoBod  b;  ihe  Sanitu; 
Beformen  for  ita  dbtribatloa.  On  an  engineeriag  qaesdon, 
pnUio  opinioa  (not  nnoaturally)  sided  at  the  oatset  with  th» 
ei^neera.  The  new  system  has  had,  therefore,  to  enconoter  a 
profeniooal opposition,  all  the  more  formidable  for  being  Uiaronghly 
eonsctentjoua.  Prohablj  that  opposition,  with  the  controversy  it 
hu  engendered,  and,  above  all,  the  experimenia  to  whieh  it  has 
^ven  rise,  oonstitntea  a  wholesome  ordeal  to  test  the  soundoees 
of  t&e  new  plan,  and  to  bring  abont  the  oorrection  of  sneh  weak 
poiata  as  it  maj  present.  Bat  in  the  mean  time,  the  application 
of  town  sewage  to  fiurm-lands,  on  an  extensive,  national  leale,  has 
stood,  and  still  stands,  adjourned. 

HoDoe  Uie  present  oondicion,  obviously  tranutional,  of  the  great 
mannfiiotnriiig  and  commercial  towns  of  Kngland;  hence  the  in- 
snfierable  pollntionof  her  streams  and  rivers;  henoe  that  prodlg- 
ions  aqnandering  of  the  elements  of  irnmui  Uood,  for  which  she  is 
BO  bitterly  reproached  by  Lieblg. 

Bat  the  some  mighty  power  of  steam  which  brought  abont  t^  oon- 
traliBatiOn  of  the  maaufaotiiriag  population  in  great  towns,  with 
the  evils  thanae  cnaaing,  and  the  sinitiry  am.-liorationa  by  whieh 
IboBe  evils  were  (in  part)  sabdned,  came  fraught  wilb  other  prin- 
otplee  also,  and  other  events,  not  less  influential  in  the  development 
of  the  manorial  industry.  Among  these  tiie  most  eooapicuonsly 
important,  in  thetr  bearing  upon  Uiis  great  industry,  were  the 
doetrine  and  praotiea  of  Free  Trade.  The  historical  affiliation  of 
Free  Trads  to  steam-power  ia  direct  and  obviona.  The  miUions- 
oongregated  by  steam-power  bad  to  be  fed.  To  the  working  of 
tbe  new  factory-system  cbeap  oora  was  as  neoessary  as  cheap 
eoal.  The  restriction  of  bread-supplies,  and,  tbe  consequent  en- 
faanoement  of  their  price,  by  artificial  means,  to  benefit  a  olaae, 
beeame  utterly  inadmisaable.  Protection,  always  a  falkoy,  was 
now  also  an  anachroolsm;  and  after  a  severe  struggle,  and  a 
k)ng  series  of  transitional  expedients,  the  ports  of  England  wore 
tiirawn  open  freely  to  foreign  sappliea  of  food.  Tbe  oultivators 
«r  this  cold  northern  aotl  were  thus  exposed  lo  the  competition  of 
rival  food.growera,  tilling,  beneath  warmer  suns,  the  more  prolific 
eom-fields  or  the  south.  Upon  this  anec|nal  com  petition  the  Eng- 
Ush  territorial  proprietors  entered,  as  upon  a  struggle  for  life  or 
death.    Abundant  manuring  aee.ned  at  tbe  outset  tbeir  main,  if 


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112  THB  CANADIAN   NATDKALIBT.  [^Pn^i 

not  their  sola  resanroe ;  hence  the  rapid  and  prodigioiu  develop- 
ment  of  the  gaano-trude;  heace  the  mnltiptioattoa  of  manarial 
produots  fVom  every  form  of  waste,  afl  manifested  in  the  pateat 
records ;  hence  the  celebrated  "  nibi^a  theory  "  and  the  "  high- 
farming"  Byetem,  to  whioh  allusion  nill  presently  be  made; 
hence,  lastly,  that  ransacking  of  the  whole  world  tor  bones,  bo 
eriminBl  In  Liebig's  view. 

Applioatjon  op  Steah-Poweb  to  AaRiouLTttRB. — Bat 
steam-power,  whioh  has  imposed  npon  the  British  ouliirator  diis 
stTDggle  for  esistence,  brings  him  also  the  means  of  issning  ricto- 
nous  from  the  encounter.  Why  may  not  the  steam-ui^ed  plough- 
share pass  to  and  fro  through  the  field,  as  the  steam-driven  shnt- 
de  pwses  (hroagh  the  fabric  in  the  loom  ?  If  pare  water  can  be 
pnmped  by  etcam-pawer  at  an  iaftnitesimal  cost  into  a  town  for 
its  supply,  why  may  not  the  very  same  water,  enriched  with  the 
yeetn  of  the  population,  and  so  converted  into  a  powerful  manure, 
be  also  pumped  out  of  the  town  by  steam-power,  and  applied  to 
maintain  the  fertility  of  the  land  ?  In  a  word,  why  may  not  hua- 
bandry  rise,  in  its  turn,  from  the  rank  of  a  handicraft  to  that  of 
a  mina/'ietart ;  the  farm  be  organized  and  worked  like  a  faoiory; 
and  food,  like  every  other  commodity,  be  at  length  producod  by 
tteam-poioer  T  These  questions  are  now  in  every  mouth ;  and 
the  agricultural  revolution  thoy  imply  appears  to  be,  at  this  mo- 
ment, in  coarse  of  accomplishment  by  the  Eugliah  people.  Already, 
'  on  many  an  English  f^rm,  the  characteristic  tall  fac'ory-chimney 
'  is  sees  ri^ng  among  the  trees ;  the  steam-engine  is  heard  panting 
below ;  and  the  rapid  thres  ing-whcel,  with  its  noisy  revolutions, 
supersedes  the  laborer's  tardy  flail. 

Already,  at  somiivhit  fewer  points,  the  farm-locomotive  stands 
smikin^  ia  the  field,  winding  to  and  fro,  rouud  the  anchored  windr 
lass,  the  slender  rope  of  steel  whioh  draws  the  rapid  plough-share 
through  the  soil ;  thus  furrowed  twice  as  deep,  and  thrice  as  fast, 
-as  formerly  by  man  and  horse  ;  and  thus  economically  enriched 
with  proportionately-increased  supplies  of  atmospheric  plant-food. 
And  lastly,  already,  at  still  rarer  intervals,  the  subterranean  pipes 
fiir  sewage-irrigation  ramify  beneath  the  fields,  precisely  as  the 
pipes  for  water-distribntion  ramify  beneath  the  streets  of  the  adja- 
cent town ;  the  propelling  power  being  in  both  cases  that  «^ 
flteam. 

These  innovations  are  doubtless  still  experimental;  and  \Sa 


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1864.]  CHEUISTET  Oy   HANCKES.  113 

all  innorations,  they  are  rannted  b;  BOme  with  premature  teal  aa 
perfect  i  while  others,  with  pardonable  BoepticiBtn,  deer;  them  u 
utt«rlf  impraotioable.  Truth  for  the  present  seems  to  lie  between 
theae  eztremes.  The  Bleam-plongh,  though  answeriDg  well  in 
lai^  and  level  fields  with  favo^ableaoiU,  e^ll  re<}uireBadiiptatioii  to 
len  easy  conditions  of  tilla^.  The  Tubular  Irrigatiag  sj8t«m  is 
still  liable  to  the  sudden  influx  of  storm-waters,  over-bardening, 
and  often  OTer-mastering,  the  steam-pumps,  so  as  seriously  to  inter- 
fere with  the  economy  of  thedistributiveoperation.  BntinventiTC 
research  and  praoUcal  experiment  are  rapidly  proceeding  side  by 
side,  and  every  year,  not  to  say  every  month,  sees  some  fresh  tmth 
elicited,  some  previous  "  impossibility  "  achieved. 

Utilisation  or  Urban  S/ecta  ab  Manihib. — The  sepua- 
tion  of  BarfM3e-wat«r  from  sewage  is,  foy  a  certain  number,  confi- 
dently relied  on  to  solve  the  problem  of  sewage  utilization,  in  con- 
formity with  Mr.  F.  0.  Ward's  formula, — "  the  rain/all  to  the 
river,  ihetewage  totheioil."  Others  are  of  opinion  that  sewi^, 
even  when  diluted  by  admixture  with  lain-swoIlen  brooks,  may 
be  economically  pumped  on  the  land.  A  tbird  party  beliBTC 
gravitation  to  be  the  only  eoonomioal  distributive  power  for 
sewage ;  Kud  open  gutters,  eontoured  along  the  undulating  ground, 
the  only  channels  suited  for  iu  oonveyanoe. 

On  these  mechanical  questions  the  Heporter,  as  a  chemist,  has 
of  course  no  opinion  to  ofiiBr.  But  that  the  reckless  squandering 
of  town-sewage  to  the  sea,  if  oontinued  on  its  present  prodigious 
scale,  most,  in  a  few  generations,  justify  the  worst  forebodings  of 
Liebig,  and  that  the  same  steam-power  which  has  indnoed  tlic 
evil  can  alone  supply  the  remedy,  the  Reporter  confidently  believes. 

[Here  follows  a  notice  of  the  systems  of  urban  defecation  pur- 
sued in  Baden  and  in  Japan,  witb  the  remarks  of  Liebig  Uierecn.] 

The  oi^nisation  of  the  soiled  "  Continuous  tubular  oironla- 
ting  system,"  by  which,  with  the  aid  of  steam-power,  the  healthy 
and  ceaaelesa  interchange  of  pure  water  and  manurial  liquor 
between  town  and  country  is  now  sought  to  be  achieved,  seems 
destined  to  constitute  the  mechanical  oomplimont  of  the  great 
.  chemioo-physiolcgicd  truths  promulgated  by  Justus  Liebig;  from 
whose  powerful  genius  the  promoters  of  this  plan  aDsiously  antid- 
pate  not  merely  its  adoption,  but  its  incorporation  in  his  great 
agricultural  edifice,  as  its  orown  and  pinnacle. 

It  b  not  however  pretended  by  the  warmest  advocates  of  this 

Tot.  I.  H  «o.  J. 


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114  THE  OANADIAM   MATUEALIBT.  [Apri^T 

system,  tliat  it  can  be  acoompliahed  hj  a  dngle  generation.  It  is 
admitted,  on  the  eontrary,  that  the  complete  tabnlamatioa  of  the 
farms  of  Europe  mast  be  a  task  aa  gradual  aa  the  oomplet«  draia 
and  vater  pipeage  of  her  towna,  or  as  the  universal  extension  of 
her  nulway  and  electric  oommonicatitinB.  Bat  as  the  magnitade 
of  such  a  project  may  be,  for  many  minds,  the  very  pivot  on  which 
tilieir  judgment  of  it,  favorable  or  adverse,  may  turn,  the  Reporter 
quotes  here,  from  a  speech  of  Mr.  F.  0.  Ward  (in  1855),  some 
remarks  beariog  od  this  point. 

"  It  is  ar^ed,"  said  the  speaker,  after  adverting  to  t£e  cost  of 
the  requisite  pipeage, — "  it  is  argued  from  this  vast  expenditure, 
and  widely-estended  range  of  distribution,  that  the  plan  is  imprac- 
ticable. But  I  think  this  resembles  the  ailments  used  against 
gas-l^hting  at  the  outset.  '  Wliat  I'  It  was  said  in  the  old  days  of 
oil-lamps,  to  the  daring  innovators  who  proposed  gas-lighting,  '  do 
you  seriously  ask  us  to  tear  up  all  the  streets  of  our  towns,  and 
lay  down  thousaods  of  miles  of  snhterranean  arteries,  to  ciionlate 
a  Bubble  vapor  through  every  street  and  into  every  house,  to  do,  at  the 
costs  of  millions  upon  miJiions,  what  our  lampsand  candles  already 
do  sufficiently  well?'  Such  was  the  language  used  ;  and  the  pro- 
posal of  gas-lighting  was  regarded  at  the  outset,  by  the  m^ority 
of  mankind,  as  the  wildest  and  moat  visionary  halluncination. 
But  when  Murdoch's  factory  had  been  illuminated  with  gas,  the 
whole  problem  was  virtually  solved ;  and  when  the  first  line  of  gas- 
lights burned  along  Fall  Mall,  the  illumination  of  all  the  towna  of 
Europe  became  a  mere  question  of  time.  Just  so,  when  the  first 
farm  was  successively  laid  down  with  irrigating  tabes  for  the 
distribution  of  liquid  manure,  there  ceased  to  be  any  force  in  the 
ailment  about  the  quality  and  cost  of  pipeage  for  this  purpose. 
*  *  *  Nor  should  we  be  deterred  from  grappling  with  the  sewage 
problem  by  contemplating  the  vast  magnitade  of  the  results  to 
which  it  will  lead  in  the  coarse  of  time — of  generations,  perhaps, 
when  the  whole  subsoil  of  Europe  will  probably  be  piped  for  the 
distribution  of  liquid  manure,  just  as  all  Flanders  is  already  honey- 
combed with  tanks  for  its  storage." 

SuuHABY  or  IQB  Manitre-Quebtion  in  its  Histo&ical 
Relations. — If  the  foregoing  views  be  correct,  the  present  pecu- 
liar and  provisional  condition  of  the  manorial  industry  in  England 
is  due  to  a  series  of  ooncatenated  influences,  sprin^ng  from  the 
invenlion  of  the  steam-engine  as  their  common  source,  and  com- 


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1864.]  CHSHISTBT  Of  HANURKS.  115 

prising  the  development,  nnder  its  inflaenoe,  of  tbe  modem  manu- 
faatoring  system,  with  its  oeutraliied  awarma  of  populatioD, — 
leading,  on  the  one  hand,  to  increased  demand  for  food,'  and  to  the 
oODsequent  proclamation  of  Free  trade, — leading  also,  on  the  other 
hand,  to  reiterated  invasion  of  ABialic  pestilenoe,  and  to  theoonse- 
qaent  abandonment  of  the  cesspool-system,  in  fovor  of  certain 
tabular  arraogements,  designed  for  the  continuous  removal  and 
atilizatlon  of  the  manorial  waters,  and  now  in  midway  course  of 
organiEation.  Wholesome  controversy,  the  mother  of  experiment, 
enlightens,  while  it  retards  this  revolution ;  and  if,  meanwhile,  as 
Liebig  alleges,  England  "  sacks,  vampire-like,  the  blood  of  Europe," 
it  is  because  she  herself  (in  this  sense)  bleeds  from  a  thousand 
wonnds.  As  the  closure  of  these,  now  her  most  ardent  desire, 
shaU  be  prc^ressively  accomplished,  so,  in  like  proportion,  will  she 
be  absolved  from  further  need  of  the  sanguinary  Biipplios,  for  which 
she  now  pays  so  dear.  To  drop  metaphor, -~as  the  new  oircuiating 
mechanism  for  the  atilization  of  sewage-manure  shall  be  progres- 
sively worked  out  and  realized  in  England,  so,  in  like  degree  will 
her  importations  of  manure  fall  off;  till  at  last,  when  her  manu- 
rial  circulation  shall  be  complete,  the  course  of  the  manure-trade 
may  be  reversed,  and  England  may  be  in  aeondition  to  send  back 
to  the  continents  which  supply  her  with  food,  the  fertilizing  ele- 
ments therein  contained,  or  their  equivalent. 

In  some  degree,  no  doubt,  the  development  of  the  human  race, 
accelerated  as  it  assuredly  will  be  by  more  abundant  food-supplies, 
may  tend  to  prevent  these  mannrial  economies,  by  the  absorption, 
in  increasing  quantities,  of  what  may  be  termed  man's  floating 
capital  of  phosphates — to  wit,  those  held  in  human  skeletons  and 
Mood.  But  large  reserves  of  these,  andof  allotherferUlizingmate- 
rials,  are  fortunately  open  to  our  exploitation,  in  the  as  yet  unap- 
propriated domains  of  nature,— the  ocean,  the  atmosphere,  and  the 
underlying  strata  of  the  earth.  To  these  mineral  sources  the 
manufacturer  of  manures,  guided  in  this  respeot  by  the  general 
coarse  of  modem  industrial  history,  vrill  doubtless  have  recourse  in 
an  increasing  degree.  By  aid  of  the  steam-eagino,  as  already  ex- 
plained, we  are  enabled  to  draw  from  the  air,  and  to  fix  in  the 
raindly  and  economically  oomminat«d  soil,  increased  snppUes  of 
volatile  plant-food.  The  same  systun  wilt  assist  to  open  up,  for 
use  (not  waste),  the  phosphatio  and  alkaline  reserves  of  the  soiL 
To  the  inerea^ing  substitation  of  fossil  for  recent  bones,  as  raw 


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116  THE  OANADIAN   NATDBALIBT.  [-^PtQ) 

Biateriil,  in  the  BnperpliiMphste  manufaotare,  referenoe  hu  alreadj 
been  madei  and  in  the  Bcctioo  oa  potash,  the  new  means  at  our 
disposal  for  eztraotiag  this  fertilizer  from  the  ooean  aad  tlie 
primitive  rooks,  have  been  set  forth  at  length.* 

It  is  not  neoessary  however  to  pnrsae  these  reaaoninga  fdrtber ; 
nor  ta  trace,  to  a  more  dlBtant  future,  the  probable  inflnence  of 
for^ne  and  eon  temper  ir;  events  on  theconrse  of  the  mannrial  in- 
dustry. The  Beporter  will  have  aooomplished  his  wish  should  the 
attention  of  governments  and  individuals  throughout  the  world  be 
directed  by  these  cursor;  remarks  (o  the  double  revolution,  Sani- 
tary and  Agricultural,  now  taking  place  in  England ;  and  to  the 
signal  beneSts  likely  to  accrue  therefVom  tothe  British  nation,  and 
ultimately  to  the  whole  human  race. 

Modern  Tbeost  of  PiiANT-NttrBmoN.  Naiubb  and 
QpEaATiON  OF  Mandbes. — Quitting  the  hiBtorieal  aspeot  of  the 
question,  the  Reporter  propotei  now  to  offer  a  few  remarks  on 
the  nature  tnd  modtu  upcratuJt  of  manures,  and  on  tbegrandand 
aimple  laws  whieh  govern  their  relations  to  the  soil  and  the  crop. 
For  the  clear  apprehension  of  these  it  will  be  necessary,  in  the 
first  inatance,  briefly  to  direct  attention  to  the  nature  and  fnno- 
tions  of  plants,  and  to  the  modern  theory  of  their  alimentation. 
Growing  as  they  do,  wiUi  their  leaves  spread  forth  in  the  air,  and 
their  roots  radiating  in  the  soil,  plants  neceeaarily  draw  from  theas 
media  the  materials  of  whioh  they  oonsiBt.  As  .fertile  soils  are 
rich  in  tlie  debris  of  previous  vegetation,  such  as  dead  roots,  leaves, 
and  the  like,  crumbl  d  to  Tnoitld  or  h-imui ;  and  as  this  hnmus  ii 
slightly  soluble  in  water,  whioh  is  constantly  supplied  to  thesoil  in 
the  form  of  rain  and  dew  ;  it  was  formerly  and  not  unnaturally 
believed,  that  the  aqneoos  solntion  of  organio  matter  thus  formed 

*  Reference  U  bere  made  bj  tbe  Reporter  to  a  previous  leetloo  oftbii 
report,  pp.  4S-M.  From  tbii  it  appears  that  the  procera  for  tbe  eeoooitii« 
eilractioD  of  potatb-ialia  from  seii-wateT,  as  degcribed  bj  Mr.  Sierrj 
Hnnt  (Canadian  Naturalist,  vol.  iii,  pp.  106-109),  ba»  bseo  aUll  furtber 
P«rfec(ed  b;  Ut.  Uerle,  who  enplo;*  artificial  cold  to  aid  the  proccM ; 
and  has  bow  eitabligbed,  in  the  south  of  France,  rer;  eiten^ivi^  worlci 
for  tbe  purpoee  of  carrfing  out  Ur.  Balard'i  proeeues  with  this  improve- 
ment. Ab  regards  tbe  eilraclion  of  potash  from  feldipatbic  rocks,  (be 
late  eiperiments  of  Ward  sod  WjdsdU,  ai  uoliced  in  ihe  report,  ibow 
that  bf  carefall/  cslciniug  feldipar  witb  proper  proportions  of  lime  or 
cballc  and  fluor-spar,  a  frit  is  obtained  from  wbieh  nearly  all  tbe  potash 
maj  be  removed  in  a  canitic  stale  by  the  action  of  water.— Boiioas. 


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1864.]  0HKMIBTB7   OV   UAMDBES.  117 

vu  imbibed  bj  tbe  roots  plaaged  tberein,  and  so  oonveyed  u  food 
to  the  living  tissues.  Acuordiog  to  this  new,  {dants  were  nippoeed 
to  live,  like  animus,  on  organic  food,  more  or  less  resembling  ip 
ehemioal  composition  the  tJasaes  which  it  noarisbed.  This  was 
the  (Hi  organic  or  humus  theory  of  plant-nutrition,  referred  to 
above  as  having  been  attacked  and  demoliBbed  by  the  great  author 
of  the  mi«eral  theory,  now  noiversally  accepted.  Lielng  indeed 
proved,  in  the  clearest  manner,  partly  by  data  ready  to  bis  hand, 
partly  by  bis  own  incomparable  researches,  that  it  is  not  posdble 
fer  plants  to  o>>tain  their  nutriment  in  the  form  of  organic  matter. 
He  showed  that  the  Vegetal  kingdom  of  nature  b  interposed  be- 
tween the  Mineral  and  the  Animal  Kingdoms,  with  the  special 
ftanctioD  of  elaborating  from  the  former  the  food  of  the  latter. 

Thus,  for  example,  with  reference  to  carbon,  the  weighlest 
■olid  constitaent  of  plants,  Liebig  proved  it  to  be  absolutely  im- 
poenble  that  a  sufficient  supply  of  this  element  should  reach  them 
in  the  form  of  dissolved  organic  matter,  or  humus.  la  this  de- 
monstration  Liebig  took  as  his  data,  first,  the  ascertained  solubility 
of  hnmuB  in  rain  water ;  secondly,  the  known  average  quantity  of 
rain-water  falling  annually  on  an  acre  of  land ;  and  lastly,  the- 
qnantity  of  carbon  annually  yielded  by  the  average  crop  of  that 
area,  whether  in  the  form  of  hay,  timber,  or  com  and  straw. 
With  these  elements  of  calculation,  LiAig  demonstrated  irrefrag- 
ably  that  humus,  as  sncb,  is  not  soluble  enough  to  servo  as  plant- 
food  ;  seeing  that  the  whole  annnal  rainfall,  even  If  completely 
saturated  with  bumns,  and  entirely  absorbed  by  the  growing 
wbeat-ptants,  grass,  or  trees,  would  not  supply  a  fourth  part  of  the 
earbon  removed  from  the  farm  in  those  crops.  Liebig  showed 
further,  that  the  growth  of  perennial  plants  (forest  trees,  for  ex- 
ample), so  far  from  exhausting  the  soil  of  humus,  tends  on  the 
Mntrary,  to  oocasion  its  aooumulation  therein;  vegetation,  in  point 
of  fact,  being  a  condition  precedent  of  humus,  not  humus  of  vegc- 
tadon. 

SlTPPLY  nv  Cabbom  to  Plantb. — Pursuing  a  chain  of  argu- 
ment in  which  the  researches  of  De  Saassure,  Boussingault,  and 
many  others,  were,  by  a  masterly  and  luminous  induction,  brou^t 
to  bear  in  support  of  bis  own  conceptions,  Liebig  established  the 
faot,  now  universally  received,  that  carbon  is  conveyed  to  plants, 
not  in  any  org  ntc  combination  whatever,  but  as  a  mineral  gas, 
fbrmed  by  the  aid  of  atmospheric  oxygen,  and  termed  carbonic 


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118  TBI   OAHADUN   NATDEALIST.  [^Pnl| 

The  steps  of  reseaioh  bj  which  our  {NreseDt  knowledge  of  this 
matter  was  built  up  by  Liebig,  from  d&ts  p&rtly  ooUeoted,  partly 
origina],  oaimot  be  here  eoumerated,  but  t^  reoaiTed  view  may  be 
thus  briefly  Bummed  up:  Every  32  lbs.  of  atmoepheria  oxygen 
can  take  up,  without  change  of  volume,  12  Ibe.  of  oarbon  in  the 
form  of  oarbonlc-aeid  gu.  This  gas,  on  the  other  hand,  plants 
have  power  to  absorb  by  leaf  and  root ;  and  by  their  vital  force, 
coiqiled  with  the  action  of  the  solar  light  Tipon  their  leaves,  to  de- 
compose. The  oarbon  they  reduce  to  the  sdid  form,  and  fix  in 
their  growing  tisenee ;  the  oxygen  they  restore  to  the  air.  The 
oxygen  Utns  liberated  by  living  organisms  takes  up  fresh  carbon 
from  effete  o^nic  matter ;  whether  from  the  debris  of  vc^tables 
themselves,  e.  i;.  mouldering  bnmns,  slowly  oxydieed  within  the 
soil ;  OF  from  vegetal  fuel  (recent  or  fossil)  rapidly  osydiied  by 
combustion ;  or  from  the  residuary  materials  of  animal  life,  cirou- 
lating  in  the  blood,  and  eliminated  by  oxydation  durii^  l^ereB|»- 
ratery  process  ;  or  lastly,  from  the  final  rcwduum  of  animal  Uie, 
— the  coTpte,  which  also,  during  its  decay  and  dissolution,  yields 
carbon  in  abundance  to  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  Thus,  by  Uie  in- 
tervention of  atmoepherio  oxygen  as  its  carrier,  carbon,  in  tlteform 
of  oarbonio-acid  gas,  is  transferred  from  dead  te  Uving  organisms, 
the  air  constantly  receiring  fkom  the  fmrmer  as  much  oarbon  as  it 
supplies  to  the  latter. 

Cosmic  EoniLiBRnrH  of  the  Atmobphe&x,  how  ?ar 
DO(TBTFtfL. — Whether  or  not  the  ever-active  processes  which 
eolleotively  supply  oarbon  to  the  air  exactly  balance  those  which 
perpetually  co-operate  to  withdraw  it,  so  as  te  form  a  perfect  and 
unalterable  cosmic  equilibrium,  wc  do  not  know.  The  asserHon 
is  often  made,  and  popuhir  writers  are  in  the  habit  of  extolling  the 
assumed  arrangement  as  an  admirable  provision  of  nature.  But 
we  are  in  truth  quite  ignorant  on  this  subject;  no  reliable  data 
having  come  down  to  us  as  points  of  comparison  by  which  te  de- 
termine any  variation  that  may  have  taken  place,  and  be  still  in 
progress,  in  the  composition  of  the  atmosphero.  And  here  the 
Reporter  cannot  but  romark  in  passing,  that  it  is  time  systematic 
observations  were  begun  in  Europe,  te  serve  as  a  starting-point, 
or  first  term  of  comparison,  by  which  our  snooessors,  if  not  onr- 
■elves,  may  be  enabled  te  elucidate  this  question ;  than  which  none 
can  be  conceived  of  deeper  importenoe  te  mankind. 

True  FtTNOTiONS  of   Hdhus.— Reverting  to  the  bumns  in 


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1864]  CHEUIBTBT   OF   UANURKB.  119 

the  mil,  it>8  trae  offioe,  as  ooDtradistingaiahed  from  the  imagiiur; 
iunotbns  asdgned  it  of  old,  ma;  nov  be  clearly  perceived.  As 
liviDg  oi^nisms  feed  od  the  carbon  restored  to  the  air  by  their 
defunct  predeoessors,  and  as  bumos  is  but  the  debris  of  previous 
vegetation  in  a  soil,  the  carbonic  aoid  developed  by  ite  decay  mnst 
play  a  proportionate  part  in  nourishing  the  crop  then  in  course  of 
grovth.  Hence  the  necessity  of  an  atmosphere  within  the  soil  to 
ozydiEC  the  bamus,  and  thereby  to  reduce  its  carbon  from  the  or- 
ganic to  the  mineral  condition,  so  as  to  make  it  assimilable  by 
plants.  The  necessity  of  such  an  underground  atmosp}\ere  is  an 
established  fact ;  air  being  as  essential  as  warmth  and  moisture  to 
the  germination  of  seeds,  and  to  the  development  of  plants.  One 
«f  the  main  services  rendered  by  plongbing  coobIbIs  in  the  loosen- 
ing of  the  soil,  and  the  multiplication  within  it  of  interstitial  ur- 
spaces.  Of  like  kind  is  (in  one  of  its  aspects)  the  benefit  render- 
ed by  sabsoil-drainage  to  water-lo^ed  soils ;  whose  interstices  of 
oonrse  receive  air  irom  above,  as  fast  as  the  redundant  water  is 
drained  off  ^m  below.  Lastly,  one  principal  advantage  of  the 
_porosity  of  soils,  and  of  their  consequent  tur/ace  allraetum,  con- 
aiste  in  their  property,  Uieace  derived,  of  condensing  and  retain- 
ing within  their  pores  so  much  of  the  underground  air.  The  oxy- 
gen thus  brought  into  close  contact  with  humus,  attacks  it  and 
becomes  chained  with  its  carbon;  remaining  thas  chai^d,  within 
its  pores,  as  carboaio-acid  gas, — the  appropriate  mineral  carbonif- 
«rons  plant-food,  as  already  explained.  This  gas,  meeting  with 
the  moisture  also  retained  in  humus  by  the  surface-action  of  its 
pores  (termed,  with  reference  to  flaids,  capiHary  attraction),  is 
therein  dissolved,  and  so  presented  to  the  ramifying  rootlets  in  the 
most  favorable  manner  for  imbibition  by  the  so-called  atmvtie  ac- 
tion of  their  membranous  spongioles,  and  the  snotion-power  devel- 
oped by  the  evaporation  of  their  sap  from  the  leaves. 

In  this  way  do  decaying  organic  bodies  replenbh  the  atmosphere, 
whether  above  ground  or  below,  with  gaseous  carbon  ;  which  the 
atmosphere,  in  its  turn,  conveys  to  the  plante ;  whcee  leaves  appear 
to  inhale  it  as  gas,  but  to  whose  roots  it  is  supplied  in  watery 
solution.  The  carbon  of  the  plant  and  the  carbon  of  the  soil  have 
but  one  primal  origin,  the  atmosphere.  From  this  source  the  car- 
bon constantly  flows;  to  this  reservoir  it  as  constantly  returns. 
The  humus  of  the  soil,  and  the  tissues  of  plants,  are  bat  successive 
xesting-points  for  carbon  ia  its  circulating  oourse. 


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120  THE  OANADIAM  KATUBALIST.  [A^, 

It  is  now  eu7  to  anderataod  that  fi)Teat'ti«eB  ud  oth«i  pei«n- 
aial  plaoM,  growing  alovly  but  ooatinnously,  year  after  jrear,  and 
poflsessiag  a  oomparatively  vast  expanse  of  foliage  and  of  roots,  can 
thrive  in  soils  less  rich  in  mouldering  hamuB,  and  tbereibra  in 
oarbonic-ftoid  gas,  than  is  needful  for  certain  annuals, — such  u, 
for  inatanoe,  the  wheat-plant, — whose  term  of  eiistenoe  is  brief, 
whose  fbliage  scanty,  whose  roots  small  (especially  during  the  ear- 
lier stages  of  its  .development),  and  whose  growing  power  is  of  a 
proportionately  delicate  quality.  In  this  latter  case,  art  may  ose- 
folly  intervene  to  concentrate,  within  narrower  limits  of  time  and 
spaoe,  tiie  supply  of  carbon  difiiised  by  natnre  over  a  more  extend- 
ed area  and  a  longer  term.  This  explanation  justifies,  in  thecase 
of  wheat  and  umilar  crop3,  additional  supplies,  not  only  of  carbon, 
but  also  of  other  forms  of  plant-food;  and  it  leads  to  the  con- 
sideration of  "  high  farming,"  its  objects,  its  dangers,  and  its 
normal  limits, — which  may,  however,  be  conveniently  reserved 
for  brief  elucidation  further  on. 

Supply  of  Watcr  to  Plants.— Meanwhile  a  few  remaps 
are  dae  to  the  plant-tbod  next  in  order  of  weight  to  oarbon ;  vii., 
to  hydrc^en  and  oxygen ;  which  are  anpplied  to  plants  in  combi- 
nation with  each  other,  as  water. 

The  source  of  this  aliment  is  too  familiar  to  need  even  indication 
here.  Yet  the  natural  mechanism  by  which  water  is  distributed 
to  plants,  in  the  form  of  rain  and  dew,  is  too  wonderful  and  beau- 
tiful to  be  passed  in  rilenoe.  Shakespeare,  who  always  arrived  at 
truth  through  beauty,  was  struck  with  the  alt-pervaSiTe  diffusion 
of  rain,  and  with  the  admirable  tempering  of  its  descent  by  the 
atmospheric  resistance.  Its  soft  fall  upon  the  unruffled  foliage 
symbolized  for  him  Mercy's  sweet  grace  and  "  unBtraiued  quality," 
whereof  he  sayp, 

"  It  droppBtb  as  (be  gentia  raia  from  beavcD 
Upon  the  plants  twDeatb."* 
Shelley  iao,  persoaifying  the  Cloud,  ungs  beaotiiully : 


A  volume  of  prose  could  scarcely  ezpTess  with  more  precirion  and 
oompleteneea  than  these  four  lines  the  philosophy  of  the  aqueous 

■  This  la  eommonlj  printed  "  apoa  the  plae*  beaeatb."  Bat  aa  platt 
canDOt  be  effected  bj  the  gentleaeai  of  ralsfall,  and  ptanti  can,  th«  lat- 
ter eeemg  the  more  likelj  to  have  been  Shakeapeare'a  word. 


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1864.]  OBEUIBTBT   09   UANrRES.  121 

fimd-aappl;  of  plaota, — bo  finely  divideii,  bo  delicately  dropped. 
tad  ea  graadlj  replenished  by  the  colossal  water-service  of  tbo 
WOTld.  Aa  indeed  of  carbon,  bo  of  water,  tbe  atmoephere  is,  for 
^ants,  the  mighty  reservoirand  ever-flowing  fount.  In  point  of 
bet,  every  cubic  foot  of  air  upholds  between  two  and  three  gnuD» 
of  water  invisibly  disaolved ;  and  sa  fast  as  this  oondenBea  above 
to  floating  olouda  und  falling  rain,  so,  in  annual  quantity  precisely 
equal,  is  it  fed  below  by  the  evaporation  of  "  tbe  seas  and  the 
streams."  This  process  however,  like  all  the  other  great  opera- 
tions of  Nature,  is  subject  to  perturbation,  in  the  redress  of  which 
human  Art  finds  its  appropriate  sphere.  In  temperate  olimaies, 
tiie  formation,  dietribntion,  and  eondensation  of  rain-clouds  take 
place,  on  the  whole,  with  sufficient  rt^nlarity  to  insure,  in  ordinary 
seasons,  enough  of  this  aliment  to  the  orope.  It  is  otherwise  in 
tropical  r^iooa.  There,  superfluous  deluges  of  rain,  and  long- 
protracted  droughts,  eucoeed  each  other ;  so  that  artificial  irrigation 
beomnes  the  prime  oonditioo  of  tropical  husbandry.  Irrigation 
niigfat,  indeed,  be  fairly  described  as  tbe  high  /arming  of  the 
topics ;  and  water  aa  their  most  precious  manure. 

Water,  indeed,  is  not  merely  the  vehicle  of  all  other  aliments 
for  plants,  it  is  also  an  aliment  itself— in  the  sense  that  it  assumes 
the  solid  ibrm  in  their  tissues,  entering  into  their  chemical  con- 
sitatioa,  awl  contributing  lar^^y  to  their  weight.  Wood,  for  ex- 
ample, after  having  been  thoroughly  dried,  still  consists,  for  nearly 
half  its  weight,  of  the  elements  of  water.  Water,  moreover,  is  the 
chief  constituent  of  tbe  sap  of  plants ;  and  its  rapid  evaporation 
from  their  surfaces  creates  the  tiitemal  vacuum  to  whi'ib  they  owe 
the  astonishing  suction-power  of  their  roots;  as  Hales  first  proved 
\y  his  capital  experiments  on  this  subject  published  in  1 717. 

StrppLT  or  NiTBOOEN  TO  Plants. — Last  in  order,  because 
least  in  quantity,  yet  by  no  means  on  that  account  lowest  In 
importance  stands  the  nitrdgen  among  tbe  volatile  constituents  to 
plants.  It  is  of  peculiar  interest,  as  one  of  tbe  costliest  aod  most 
eagarty-songht  manarial  elements,  and  as  that  concerning  which 
the  principal  agricultural  controversy  of  tbe  day  is  now  raging. 
Nitrogen  lik^  carbon,  and  the  elements  of  water,  has  in  the  atmos- 
phere its  source  and  reservoir;  flowing  thence  to  living  organisms, 
and  thither  restored  by  their  deo.iy  and  dissolut  on  after  death. 
It  is  thus  diffaaed,  chiefly  In  combination  with  hydrt^n,  as  am- 
Hkoma;  a  gas  in  the  highest   degr.:c  diffusible  in    air,  soluble  in. 


,.,.d.i.  Google 


122  THE  CUIASUN  NATUBALIST.  [-'^pnl, 

-water,  and  absorbable  by  porotia  bodies  snob  aa  vegetal  mould.  It 
is,  therefore,  readily  washed  down  fVom  the  air  by  the  rain  and 
<lew,  and  aa  readily  imbibed  by  tfae  soil,  and  retuned  within  its 
bosom  by  the  pecnliar  pbysioo-ohemioal  force,  already  referred  to 
aa  "  snrfaoe-notion."  All  fertile  soils  contain  abundance  of  am- 
monia thns  avulably  presented  for  absorption  by  the  roots  of  plants. 
The  leares  of  plants  also  absorb  ammonia  ftom  the  ur  in  qnantj- 
ties  varying  with  the  different  genera  and  species. 

It  is  not  only  however  in  the  fbrm  of  ammonia  that  atmos- 
pheric nitTOgen  is  supplied  to  planla.  Nitrogen  oombiaea  witti  at- 
mospheric oxygen  to  an  extent  always  appreciable,  and  mnch  aug- 
mented under  certain  ciroumstanoea  (as,  forinstanoe,  durii^  light- 
aii^^torras),  to  form  nitric  aoid ;  whioh  is  washed  down  to  the 
«>ii  by  the  rain,  and  asdsts,  oertunly  by  its  solvent  powers,  prob- 
ably also  aa  aliment  itself,  in  the  notrition  of  plauts.  Nitric  acid 
also  ori^ nates  to  some  extent,  aa  a  secondary  product  of  tlie  deeay 
of  nitrogenous  oi^anic  matters;  these  yielding  ammonia,  which 
-ozydation  converts  into  nitric  acid  and  water.  Fnrtltermore,  a 
nitn^n-componnd,  containing  both  hydn^n  and  ox^^u,  viz. 
nitrite  of  amidonium,  hail  been  lately  asoertained  (by  SdtSnbein) 
to  originate  during  die  slow  oxydation  of  phosphoroua ;  two  equiv* 
alenta  of  atmoapherie  nitrogen  taking  up  two  equivalents  of  water 
to  produce  it.  Nitrite  of  ammonium  is  similarly  generat«d  (ae- 
'«ordiog  to  Eolbe  and  Boitger)  during  the  oxydation  of  hydrogen, 
and  of  bydrooarbona  generally.  Indeed  Uiere  is  fur  reason  tosnr- 
miae  that  the  generatbn  of  this  salt  aooompaniea  all  [vooessea  of 
^w  oxydation  ;  such  as,  for  example,  that  of  humns  in  the  soil. 
Thesefiicle  ore  of  the  deepest  interest;  and  should  the  supposed 
universality  of  this  natural  raaotion,  as  a  ooocomitant  of  slaw  ozi- 
.dalion,  be  oonGrmed,  a  powerful  light  will  be  thrown  on  tbe  nature 
and  souroe  of  the  nitn^nona  alimentation  of  plants.  It  will  in- 
deed be  a  remarkable  discovery,  as  Liebig  (who  cites  tbeee  &cts 
in  his  admirable  work  above  mentioned*)  justly  obeerves,  should 
it  be  found  that  the  very  prooees  by  whioh  carbon  is  rendered 
available  aa  plant-food,  operates  also  to  bring  atmospheric  nitto- 
gen  into  a  form  in  which  it  is  aaaimdable  by  plants.^ 

*  ThU  TiBw  of  tbe  origin  of  nilroui  acid  and  ammonia  from  auuoa- 
phcric  nitrogen  does  not  iMilong  to  SchOcbien,  but  wai  previoDsl;  enun- 
-ciated  bj  Hr.  Starrf  Hnat  (Oanadian  Journal,  April,  1861).  8m  alM 
TFicklM,  Sillimau'i  Journal  j;3J,  xzit,  263-371. 

f  "  The  Natural  Laws,"  Ac,  pp.  33S-328,  Sag.  ti. 


■v,  Google 


18S4.]  flHXHISTBY  or  UANURXB.  123 

Whether /!■«£  ktmospheria  nitrogen  is  assimilable  by  plants  is  a 
moot-point  M.  G.  Ville  and  others  maintain  that  it -is:  N. 
Bouasingaalt,  from  the  results  of  experiments  extending  over 
twenty  years,  draws  the  Ojipoeite  oondosion.  Messrs.  Lawes,  Gil- 
bert, and  Vv^,  in  an  elaborate  paper  lately  pablished,*  record  the 
reealt  of  a  series  of  valuable  experimentfl  on  this  point ;  and  their 
coDolnsioos  arc  ooofirmatory  of  M.  Boussiogault's  view.  This 
therefore  appears  to  be  the  opinion  supported  by  the  prepondera- 
ting weight  of  experimental  evidence ;  a  eircumstance  whioh  ren- 
ders Sohonbein'a  observation,  and  the  oonolusion  to  whioh  it  points, 
-douUy  interesting  and  important. 

Athospbehio  Debivation  or  Plants  and  Hducts. — Tbas 
far  the  atmosphere,  and  the  moisture  and  gasea  it  contains,  supply 
the  food  on  whioh  plania  live ;  the  soil  serving  merely  as  a  sponge 
to  briog  into  contact  with  the  roots  their  share  of  this  air-derived 
food.  £ven  Uie  carbon-yielding  hnmus,  though  it  immediately 
surrounds  the  roote,  supplies  them  not  directly,  but  only 
through  the  intorveation  of  what  has  been  above  termed  the  vader- 
^rouTtd  atmosphere,  by  which  it  is  slowly  burned.  Each  successive 
generation  of  jAahU  leaves  its  roots  and  other  debris  behind  it ; 
thus  replenishing  the  aoil  with  a  fresh  stock  of  air-derived  humus, 
^remocoMt*,  or  decay,  in  its  turn.  Every  shower  washes  down 
Ditioiren,  in  its  acid  or  alkaline  form,  from  the  air;  and  the  same 
cload-Bupplied  water  furnishes  the  crops  with  their  oxygen  and  hy- 
drogen. It  is  evident  that  from  centuries  of  such  plant-growth 
as  diis  no  exhatution  of  the  soil  would  ensue. 

There  is  certainly  no  result  of  modem  investigation  morecalca- 
lated  to  strike  the  mind  with  wonder  and  admiration  than  this 
fact,— that  the  mighty  forests  which  clothe  the  earth,  and  all  the  vast 
expanse  of  herbage  and  waving  crops,  and  all  the  living  animals 
which  feed  on  these  and  each  other,  including  man  himself,  the 
lord  of  all,  are  built  up,  so  far  as  concerns  nineteen-twentieths  of 
their  weight,  entirely  of  invisible  gases  and  vapor  supplied  by  the 
atmoaphere. 

Thus  upheld,  and  moving  with  the  wind,  the  carbon  and  nitro- 
.gen  oomponnda  chiefly  diffused  below,  the  watery  doudssuspeaded 
above  to  wash  them  down,  these,  the  materials  of  the  whole  oiv 
Hanic  kingdom,  hover  invisible  around  ns ;  and  by  a  distributive 
meohanism  the  meet  grand  and  simple  that  can  be  conceived,  all 

•  Lawes,  OillMtt,  and  Pugb,  "  Phil.  Trans,"  vol.  cli,  p.  431,  IB61. 


.;,  Google 


124  THE  CANADIAN   NATUEALIRT.  [Aprils 

uimtted  nature  ia  wafted,  as  on  wings,  to  every  oorneT  of  the 
habitable  earth.  No  moantun-faBtneee  so  remote,  no  wild  m  deso- 
late, DO  ooean  rock  so  lonely  and  so  bare,  but  thiUier  also  float, 
and  there  descend,  the  viewless  elements  of  life  dissolved  in  air. 
The  tiny  lichen,  that  soaroe  stains  the  wave-worn  oliff,  in  its  wild 
soli tade  ia  not  alone.  Its  food  is  floated  to  it  day  by  day;  and 
the  same  elements,  sailing  on  the  same  winds,  build  vp  the  deli- 
otto  tissnes  byroeansof  which  it  lives,  aod  furnish  the  oxtlioacid 
wherewith  it  exoavates  the  grave  that  holds  its  dust  when  dead. 
That  dust,  be  it  remembered,  b  the  primitive  hamut,  and  the  ear- 
liest form  at  toil.  It  is  derived,  like  the  liohea  ilself,  from  tJieair, 
and  it  oonfirms  die  saying  of  Lieb^,  that  it  is  not  humus  whicb 
generates  plants,  but  plants  whioh  engender  hnmns. 
<,Tobe  contiaued.) 


ON  PISCICULTURE. 


The  importance  of  the  arlifioial  breeding  of  fish,  which  the 
French  have  dignified  with  the  name  of  pisciculture,  is  such  that 
we  have  thought  well  to  bring  before  our  readers  some  of  the 
results  obtained  in  England  and  in  Norway.  For  this  we  are  in- 
debted in  the  first  place  to  a  lecture  recently  delivered  in  London 
by  Frank  Buckland,  Esq.,  and  published  in  The  Joumat  of  l&e 
Sodtti/  of  Art;  for  March  11, 1864.  This  lecture  we  have  some- 
what abridged.  In  the  second  place,  wc  extract  a  very  interesting 
chapter  from  Rev.  M.  R,  Barnard's  Sport  m  Norway,  giving 
a  description  of  the  method  of  fish-breeding  pursued  in  that  oonn- 
try.  Lastly,  we  copy  from  The  Anjkr-NaturalUl,  an  excellent 
book  by  H.  C.  Pennell,  lately  published  by  Van  Voorst,  what  the 
author  designates  as  Proved  Facts  in  the  History  of  the  Satmcm- 
— Editobs. 

On  Fish-Hatchino  :  Br  Frank  Buckland. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  practical  applications  of  the  study  of 
natural  history  that  has  been  brought  to  aotice  of  late  years.  The 
mode  of  hatching  valuable  fish,  such  aa  the  trout  and  salmon,  by 
artificial  means,  is  no  longer  an  experiment.  It  has,  I  have  been 
pleased  to  see,  been  lately  gazetted  by  public  ooosent  to  the  rank. 


,,;.  Google 


1B64.}  OH   P18CICULTUBE.  125 

-of  a  Boienoe,  which  ia  every  year  attracting  more  attention-  I  shall 
not  weary  yon  by  entering  into  the  history  of  the  art :  suffice  it  to 
say,  that  the  first  discoverers  were  two  poor  French  fishermen, 
-Oehin  and  Bemi.  All  honor  to  their  namsafor  the  great  good  they 
have  done  to  their  fellow-creatures. 

Ton  will  find  in  books  a  statement  repeated  over  and  over  again, 
— 1  faolt  very  oommon  in  treatises  on  natural  history, — that  the 
Chinese  were  tbe  first  to  practice  pisoioulture.  But  let  me  tdl 
jon  what  their  pisciculture  oonsists  of.  They  have  no  idea  (I 
have  it  from  the  beat  authority,  vii.  of  oE&cerB  in  the  army  who 
have  travelled  there)  of  halohiag  fish  in  troughs,  such  aa  we  see  in 
Enropeaa  eetabltshmoDta,  nor  have  they  yet  arrived  at  the  practioe 
«f  impregoatiog  die  ef^  artificially.  What  they  do  is  this :  They 
observe  the  spawn  of  fish  hanging  abont  the  bushes,  having  been 
|daoed  there  by  the  fiah  tfaemselvee.  They  colleot  this  spawn,  hang 
it  op  in  tubs  and  ponds,  and  let  It  hatch  out  of  itself.  Bat  though 
they  have  not  the  science  that  we  have,  yet  they  are  pisoicnltorista 
in  a  most  praotical  manner ;  for  I  have  it  on  the  antbority  of  an 
-eye-witneea,  that  when  the  Chinese  flood  their  paddy  or  rioe  fields 
with  water,  they  turn  out  into  those  flooded  fields  lai^  numbers 
offish,  which  feed  upon  the  worms,  insects,  &c.,  which  they  find 
in  the  mud,  and  thb  without  injury  but  rather  benefit  to  the  plants 
tbemselvee.  When  the  fields  have  had  enough  water,  the  Chinese 
wateF-farmsF  opens  the  hatohways,  catches  what  fish  are  fat  enough 
and  sends  them  to  market ;  the  others  he  lets  oat  into  another 
fresh-flooded  paddy-fidd  for  a  pasture.  In  faet,  the  Chinese  herd 
tbmi  fish,  and  drive  them  from  one  pasture  to  another,  just  aa  a 
shepherd  drives  his  sheep  from  one  field  to  another.  These  fish 
are,  it  is  said,  great  coarse  things,  and  appear  to  be  something 
between  a  ohab  and  a  tench.  There  are,  I  believe,  no  representa- 
tives of  the  HalmonidsB  in  China. 

Leaving  the  history  of  the  subject  at  this  point,  I  wotdd  now 
proceed  to  the  practioe  of  the  art.  There  may  be  some  who  say, 
Why  not  let  the  fiah  breed  for  themselves  ?  Doubtless,  if  left  alone 
in  a  perfect  natural  stat«,  they  would  multiply  themselves  to  an 
enormous  extent,  as  is  the  oiae,  I  am  told,  at  Petropaulowski, 
where  the  salmon  are  occasionally  left  high  and  dry  by  the  subsid- 
ing of  the  floods,  and  snoh  nnmbeni  of  them  perish  io  this  way  as 
to  oauM  a  plague  by  the  putrefaction  of  their  bodies. 

When   we  oonuder    the  Ta»t   number  of  eggs  which  nature 


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126  THX  GANADIAK  NATTKALieT.  [-^prilp 

haa  given  to  Gsb,  it  is  a  vonder,  indeed,  t\uX  all  the  world  is  not  fi^. 
The  egg$  of  fish  are  simply  the  hard  roe  of  fish  ;  and  if  yon  ex- 
amine the  next  red-herring  for  breakfiut  you  irill  fiad  that  the 
hard  roe  is  oomposed  of  a  luge  number  of  little  balls,  eaeb  ofwhiob 
might  possibly  oome  to  a  fiab.  Tou  will  find  in  books  on  natural 
history  the  number  of  e^s  in  fish.  Not  trusting  kltogetber  to 
these  statements,  I  have  been  at  some  considerable  pains  to  connt 
the  c^gB*  of  the  following  fish.  To  bc^n  with  the  salmon,  these 
fisb  carry  about  1,000  egg^  to  a  pound  of  their  weight;  so  if  we 
can  get  a  fish  weighing  twenty-five  pounds,  we  have  no  less  than 
26,000  ^gs. 

If  therefore  a  female  salmon  weighing  20lfae.  deposited  her 
^gs  in  some  safe  plaoe,  and  they  all  eventually  became  marketable 
fish,  which  would  be  in  three  or  four  years'  time,  we  should  find 
that  the  ^s  of  this  one  salmon  would  yield  do  less  Uian  178  tons 
11  ewt  of  salDKin  fit  for  food ;  and  supposing  we  put  thisdown  at 
2s.  per  lb.,  it  would  be  worth  £40,000.  Even  supposing  only  a 
quarter  of  the  young  fish  ever  became  marketable,  still  this  one 
fish  would  yield  a  value  of  £10,000,  and  all  without  coating  any 
human  being  a  balf-penny  for  food.  A  trout  of  one  ponnd  weight 
contains  over  1000  c^s,  a  perch  of  half  a  pound  20,692,  &  smelt 
of  two  ounces  36,652,  a  sole  of  one  ponnd  134,466,  a  herring  of 
half  a  pound  19,840,  a  maokerel  of  one  pound  86,120,  and  a  cod 
of  twenty  pounds  not  lees  than  4,872,000  e^s,  while  an  oyster 
yields  about  1,500,000. 

It  may  be  asked,  therefore,  what  becomes  of  all  the  ^gs  of  tiie 

■  Tb«  way  to  count  tbe  egga  is  this :  Hake  a  tew  cats  irilb  a  kaift  la 
the  membtaQG  which  coDtalaa  Ui«  roe,  aod  then  plunge  it  into  water 
vbicb  19,  at  the  raomeoc  of  immersion,  poaltivelj  at  the  boiliDg-point. 
Being  composed  of  albumen,  the  eggg  obey  tbe  natural  law  and  coaga- 
late  in  an  ioBtant.  Then  add  a  little  common  salt,  and  continne  to  boil 
the  eggs  till  tbej  all  become  quite  detached  from  the  membraae,  and 
Bwim  aboat  in  the  water,  loose  tike  marbles.  If  thej  adhere  to  the  mem* 
braoe,  they  should  be  gentlj  removed  bj  a  short  brash,  or  bj  sfaakiag  In 
tbe  boiliog  water.  1  then,  when  all  tha  eges  are  quite  loose,  draw  off  the 
water  and  pour  tbe  eggs  into  a  diab,  dryiog  them  slowly  in  the 
suD,  or  in  an  oven,  the  door  of  which  ia  left  open  to  preveat  their 
becoming  baked  into  lumps.  I  then  weigh  the  whole  mass  of  eggs,  and 
pnt  down  tbe  total  weight  on  paper.  After  which  I  weigh  out  five  grains 
of  the  mass,  and  gel  them  counted  over  carefully  under  a  magnifying 
band-glaBi,  on  white  paper.    This  is  ladies'  work. 


,,;.  Google 


1864.]  ON  FISCICULTUET.  12T 

Balmon,  tront,  &o.?  The  same  thing  that  happens  to  the  oom- 
mOD  fowl  happens  to  the  fish.  In  the  ease  of  the  fowl,  we  onraelTes 
eat  many  thonsands  of  ^gs,  and  w«  know  bow  good  they  are  for 
various  coliDary  purposes.  And  as  in  the  ease  of  the  fowl,  so  also 
with  the  Gsh-egga :  there  are  enemies  innumerable  that  seek  to 
destroy  them ;  even  the  water  itself  is  oocasionally  antagonistic  to 
their  well-being. 

First  of  all,  then,  many  of  the  fish's  e^s  do  not  get  at  all  im- 
pregoated,  or,  not  booomiag  properly  boried  in  the  gravel,  are 
washed  away  by  the  stream.  Id  proof  of  this  I  would  menljoa 
the  following:  There  are  no  good  spawning-plaoesin  the  Thames; 
the  fish — and  the  Thames  trout  are  really  fine  fish — are  therefore 
obliged  to  deposit  their  ^gs  in  the  rapids  in  the  centre  of  the 
stream.  Some  of  the  nests  where  trout  had  been  actually  seen  to 
deposit  tlieir  ^gs  have  lately  been  carefnlly  examined,  and  not  a 
single  egg  oould  be  found:  th^  had  all  been  carried  away  by  the 
stream,  or  devoured  by  inseots,  of  which  thousands  wore  found  in 
the  nest.  A  friend,  wriUng  from  Hampshire,  says  that  he  has 
examined  the  nests  where  the  salmon  have  been  seen  to  spawn,  but  . 
no  egg^  oould  be  found.  Even  supposing  the  eggs  have  be«i 
properly  deposited  in  the  nests,  down  come  the  floods  and  over- 
whelm Uie  place.  Thus,  my  friend  Mr.  T.  Ashworth  informs  me, 
that  at  t^e  bc^nning  of  the  season  over  275,000  ^gs  were  taken 
trom  salmon  and  placed  in  his  hatching-bozes.  Immediately  after 
this  was  done,  the  waters  arose,  and  of  the  eggs  which  hod 
been  exposed  to  their  violence  hardly  one  oould  have  survived. 
Then  again,  we  have  the  reverse  of  fioods,  i.  e.  the  droughts, 
whioh  leave  the  ^gs  exposed;  or,  as  it  happens  in  Hampshire,  ibe 
fish  lay  their  (^gs  in  what  is  called  "  the  drawings  "  ;  the  water  is 
let  o£F  them,  and  the  ^gs  of  coarse  perish.  Fish  again  are  great 
enemies  to  their  own  eggs.  I  have  myself  frequently  seen  two  or 
three  small  trout  hiding  behind  tiie  nest,  and  as  the  female  deposited 
her  E^gs,  swim  after  and  eat  them.  Trout  have  also  been  often 
observed,  with  their  tails  in  the  air,  robbing  the  nests.  Even 
females  will  eat  their  own  ^gs.  What  wonder  then  that  trout 
should  be  so  scaroe  when  both  father  and  mother  devour  their 
offspring.  I  myself  have  frequently,  from  the  maws  of  tiont, 
taken  eggs  which  they  had  stolen  from  the  spawning-beds ;  and  my 
friend  Mr.  Ashworth  tolls  me  that  he  has  actually  hatched  out 
500  ^gs  takeu  fiom  the  month  of  cue  fiah-robber. 


1,;.  Google 


126  THE  CANADIAN   NATURALIST.  C^P"'> 

Supposing  the  egga  to  have  been  property  laid  in  their  nestfl, 
thej  become  the  prey  of  pests  innumerable.  TheUrrEtof  themaj- 
fiy  and  the  dragon-fly  ijustly  called  the  river-tiger)  act  the  ume 
part  to  the  fish-^ga  in  the  water  as  do  the  hedgehogs  and  other 
vermin  to  the  phea8ant.^rgs  on  land. 

Among  birdi  the  fish-eggs  have  many  enemies  as  well  as  friends. 
The  ohief  of  the  former  are  common  daoks,  which,  with  their  spade- 
like bills,  soon  get  all  the  ^gs  oat  of  the  nests  and  devour  them. 
The  swans,  though  very  graceful  ornaments  in  a  pond,  do  a  deal 
of  mischief  to  the  fish,  especially  in  the  Thames.  Two  birds,  the 
water-oniel  and  dab-chiok,  have  been  accused  as  poachers  after  fish- 
^gs.  I  have  examiaed  the  crops  of  several  of  these  birds,  and  have 
invariably  found  them  to  contain  the  remuns  of  insects,  but  no  fish- 
eggs.  This  matter  was  fully  discussed  at  the  Zoological  Sooietj, 
and  the  verdict  first  arrived  at  was  "  not  proven,"  and  on  eeoond 
conuderation  the  water^ousel  waa  fnlly  acquitted  from  the  cha^e 
of  eating  spawn.  True  it  is  he  is  ever  feeding  upon  the  spawning- 
beds;  he  goes  there  to  eat  the  insects  tiiat  are  devouring  thee^s, 
but  he  himself  does  not  touch  them  at  ai). 

The  moor-hens,  however,  I  am  pretty  sure,  will  eat  the  ^;ga 
of  the  fish.  A  good  observer  tells  me  that  out;  morning  the  moor- 
hens got  to  his  hatohing-bozes  and  cleared  all  the  eggs  out  of  tbem. 
There  is  another  bird  whioh  does  a  good  deal  of  harm  to  the  fish- 
hatcher.  A  friend  writes  to  me  to  say  that  he  has  killed  several 
king-fishers  under  the  wires  where  his  fish  were  confined.  Herons 
also  are  terribly  deetructive  to  the  fish  in  the  spawnii^beds. 

We  have  seen  what  beoomes  of  the  fish's  tfp  if  they  are  left, 
to  themselves.  It  is  neoesaary,  therefore,  for  man  to  interfere,  and 
take  the  ^gs  tntm  the  fish  aud  keep  them  under  his  charge.  In 
all  matters  of  interferenoe  with  nature,  we  uaoaot  do  better  than 
take  nature  herself  as  a  guide.  We  observe  that  the  fish  makes  her 
nest  of  her  own  accord  in  a  rapid,  shallow,  and  gravelly  stream. 
We  therefore  must  put  the  tggs  iu  an  artificial  nest  where  the  fol- 
lowing requidtes  are  present :  a  stream  more  or  less  rapid ;  gravel ; 
darkness;  and  perfect  quiet.  This  stream  must  be  allowed  to 
mn  over  the  ^gs  perpetually,  day  and  night,  until  the  yojug  fi^ 
are  hatched  ont,  just  as  it  would  do  In  tlie  brook. 

At  the  pisoioultural  establishment  at  Haningue,  in  France,  the 
eggs  are  placed  upon  glass  rods,  such  as  I  now  show  yon,  during 
the  time  of  iaoubation.    I  would  however  most  humbly  beg  to 


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1864.}  ON  PISOIODLTUSX.  129 

differ  from  the  great  antboritiea  who  tue  the  plasi  ban :  for  m  the 
firat  plaoe,  the  fish  do  not  find  glus  bare  at  the  bottom  of  the  water 
00  which  to  deposit  their  eggs,  but  they  always  find  gravel;  in 
the  aeooad,  it  is  abeolntel;  neoeesary  that  the  figg  ehonld  be  per- 
fectly motionlees  for  some  thirty-five  or  forty  days.  If  yon  place 
a  ronnd  ^g  against  two  glass  bars  which  are  aim  round,  the  whole 
being  under  water,  you  at  once  get  the  best  possible  conditions  for 
motion  of  the  egg  on  the  glass  bar  at  the  ^htcet  touch,  and  yoa 
certainly  do  not  get  what  yon  chiefly  want, — perfect  immobility; 
for  if  the  water  be  turned  on  from  a  tap  a  little  too  faat,  or  you 
happen  to  touch  one  e^  with  a  camel-hair  brush,  all  the  e^s  in 
the  box  immediately  run  against  each  other,  and  b^n  to  dance 
and  roll  aboat.  Again,  when  the  yoang  fish  begin  to  hatoh  ont, 
their  nmbiltoal  bags  very  often  get  caught  between  the  bare,  and 
then  they  perish  ;  or  if  they  fall  through,  they  get  into  water  that 
u  much  too  deep  for  them,  and  whence  it  is  very  difficult  to 
extract  them  without  disturbing  every  e^  in  the  box.  This  is 
done  in  the  French  plan,  by  taking  out  a  cork  and  letting  the 
water  run  off  from  aader  the  bars. 

By  placing  the  e^  on  graeel,  on  the  contrary,  all  this  diffi- 
culty is  obviated.  The  ^gs  can  be  placed  so  that  they  do  not 
touch  one  another ;  so  that  the  dead  ones  do  not  oontaminate  their 
live  neighbors,  aad  may  be  easily  picked  out  by  a  pair  of  forceps ; 
80  that  the  inequalities  of  the  gravel  will  keep  them  perfectly 
Bteady^  so  that  the  young  fiih  when  ooming  out  of  the  egg 
— like  the  young  snake  casting  his  skin  in  a  fnrse-hush— may  have 
facilities  afforded  him  to  get  rid  of  bis  shell,  and  be  not  like  his 
neighbor  on  glass  bars,  who  slips  about  tiicreoD  like  a  clumsy 
skater  upon  well-swept  ice. 

Yon  will  observe,  of  course,  when  yon  examine  the  fiA-hatching 
boxes  now  in  the  room,  that  we  do  not  in  one  respect  adhere  to 
nature;  that  is,  we  do  not  cover  the  egg^  with  gravel,  as  does  the 
(lareut  fish.  The  only  reaaon  why  the  parent  fish  buriee  her  ^^gs 
is  because  of  the  l^ht,  which  is  unfavorable.  All  roots  and  seeds 
of  plants,  we  may  observe,  are  buried  in  the  ground ;  it  would  i^ 
pear,  therefore,  that  at  firet  darkness  is  absolutely  neoeesary  for  the 
development  of  the  first  germs  of  life.  Again,  if  the  eggs  are 
exposed  to  the  light,  a  white  fungus  immediately  appears 
upon  them.  AU  this  is  obviated  in  a  moment  by  placing  wooden 
oovere  on  the  boxes,  for  these  keep  ont  all  the  light,  and  obviate 
Tok  I.  1  Ho.  a. 


n,s,t,.rt.y  Google 


130  THE  OANADIAM  HATURALIBT.  [A^pn'i 

all  the  iooonvenieDOes  of  bring:iDg  fhe  ^s  where  you  oaunot  see 
them,  and  cannot  watoh  their  prc^rets. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  hat^hing-apparattu,  which  may  b«  osed ; 
— oneoutoFdooTB,for  carrying  outoperationB  on  a  lai^Rcale;  and 
the  other  for  use  on  a  smaller  scsle  in-doora. 

I  far  prefer  the  in-door  apparatos,  which  is  very  simple  in  oon- 
Btroction,  more  certain  of  success,  cleaner,  neater,  and  at  the  same 
time  affords  the  great  pleasure  to  the  owner  of  being  able  to  ob- 
serve the  progress  of  the  ^gs.  The  slate-boxes  on  t]ie  tables  are 
those  used  by  my  friend,  Mr.  Ponder,  at  Hampton,  in  wUah 
he  has  hatuhed  bo  many  tboasands  of  fish,  paying  for  the 
boxes  out  of  his  owu  pocket,  and  giving  his  time  gratnllonaly 
for  the  Thames  Angling  PreaerTation  Society.  They  are  threefeet 
long,  and  three  and  a  hnlf  inches  deep.  They  should  be  plated  one 
above  the  other,  after  the  manner  of  the  steps  of  a  staircase,  and  so 
arranged  that  tiie  water  runs  through  them  all  in  ligsag  manner. 
Some  gravel,  about  the  aize  of  peas,  mnst  be  obtained  from  a  gravel 
pit,  not  fWm  the  river-side.  It  mnst  be  well  boiled  to  destroy  allAe 
seeds  of  Testation,  be  washed  perfectly  alean,  and  then  placed  in  the 
troughs,  so  that  there  ahoold  be  an  inchof  gravel,  an  inch  of  water, 
and  an  inch  above  the  water.  Place  in  the  e^gs,  pnt  on  tJie  wooden 
covers,  see  tJiat  the  slwam  runs  properly,  uid  leave  them  entirely 
alone  in  the  boxes.  Such  as  these  have  this  year,  at  Hampton, 
hatched  cut,  and  are  still  hatching  out  no  kaa  than  124,700 
fish  and  eggs. 

All  that  is  requisite  is  a  gentle  and  incessant  flow  of  water,  and 
what  is  water  enough  for  one  trou^  is,  as  a  matter  of  oeoessity, 
enough  for  half-a-doien  or  so.  In  London  houses  the  supply  of 
water  is  often  limited ;  it  is  a  comfort  therefore  to  know  that  the 
same  water  oan  be  used  again  twice  or  three  times. 

If  you  wish  to  batch  yonr  fish  in  boxes  out  of  doors,  ytm  must 
adopt  the  same  principle  as  that  applied  to  in-door  boxes,  reooUeet- 
ing  the  requimtee, — a  clear  running  stream,  elean  gravd,  and  dark- 
ness. Full  details  of  both  in-door  and  ont-door  apparatus,  and 
1^  the  proper  mode  <tf  working  them,  oan  be  found  in  my  tittle 
book.* 

The  e^  having  been  placed  in  the  boxes  and  lefl  totally  undis- 
turbed, in  course  of  time  the  eyes  of  the  young  fieh  will  be  seen 
like  two  black  spots  in  the  egg.  The  time  required  for  this  ap- 
pearanoe  to  exUbit  itself  depends  entirely  on  the  temperature. 

*  Fiah>lial«hiDg.    Tiadey  Brothers,  Catherine  Street,  Strand.    Price  Si. 


..Gooc^lc 


1864.3  ^^   PIBOIOULTUKK.  131 

The  proper  lemporatnie  of  tbe  water,  botb  io  and  out  of  doors, 
flight  to  range  irom  40°  to  50°.  Mr.  Ponder's  obserratioDS  tell 
him  tiiaX  at  this  temperature  it  requiraa  thirty-five  days  for  the 
eyes  to  ^pear,  and  that  thoy  hatch  oat  fourteen  days  a^Twards. 
3?he  same  result  has  been  obtained  by  him  ibr  two  aaoceamTe 
seaBona  with  very  little  variation.  Again,  he  baa  obdeired  that 
-when  the  temperature  was  60°  (in  the  spring  of  the  year)  the 
eyes  of  the  fish  were  visible  in  twenty-aix  days,  and  Uiat  be 
hatdwd  them  oat  in  ten  days  afterwards.  Lay  it  down 
bowerer  fbr  an  axiom,  that  the  higher  the  temperature  for  the 
«^  the  weaker  the  fish  produced  tVom  the  egg.  Anything  above 
.50°  is  weakening. 

The  first  fish  hatched  out  tram  a  batoh  are  the  weakest,  the  last 
are  the  hetdthiest ;  when  however  they  once  begin  to  hatob,  tbey 
vrill  oome  out  all  in  a  mass,  two,  tliree,  or  fonr  Uiousand  of  a 
morning.  The  proper  temperature  for  trout  and  salmon  eggs  is 
■40°  to  50°. 

Grayling  however  ^pear  to  be  an  ezoeptaou  to  this  rule.  Mr. 
Fonder  haa  obtained  a  Mr  snpply  of  the  ova  of  these  fish,  which 
tha  Tbunes  Angling  Preservation  Society  are  introdooing  in  the 
Thunes.  The  quantity  obtained  amounted  to  between  fifteen  and 
twen^  thousand ;  and  though  several  of  these  died,  for  they  are 
most  delicate  things  to  carry,  the  remainder  did  very  well.  They 
are  mooh  more  delicate  than  trout-ova,  both  in  appearanoe  and 
iiatehing,  and  seem  to  dio  at  the  least  provocation.  Thc^  are  bean- 
tifolly  transparent,  and,  when  viewed  in  the  sun,  of  a  lovely  op^ea- 
«ent  hue.  He  has  disoovered  abont  these  a  most  interesting,  and 
I  believe,  a  novel  fact.  The  body  of  the  fish  is  perfectly  visible 
in  nino  days,  and  the  fish  will  actually  hatoh  out  of  the  egg  in 
fourteen  days. 

All  difficulties  and  trouble  with  the  eggs  having  been  overoome, 
we  are  at  lei^th  rewarded  by  seeing  the  young  fish  h^n  to  come 
out  of  the  e^.  At  this  dme  the  tail  of  the  firii  may  be  observed 
moving  from  side  to  side  with  a  npid  vibratory  movement  inside 
the  egg.  T^e  young  fish,  when  hatched,  increase  in  size  daily  ; 
and  t^  darkening  of  the  transparent  snbstanoe  which  would 
eventoaily  be  the  body,  and  the  development  of  the  fins,  have  al- 
ready proved  one  fact,  and  this  (as  the  question  has  f^aentiy  been 
put  to  me)  I  shall  venture  now  to  mention.  The  eggs  do  not 
grow— i.  e.,  they  do  not  increase  in  eiraumferenoe  or  in  ^ame- 


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132  THE   CANADIAN  NAT0HALI8T.  [April, 

ter, — bat  the  fiafa  inside  the  egg  most  certunly  increases  in  bulk, 
till  at  last  it  becomes  so  lai^  that  the  egg-Bhell  sadden];  hoitHe^ 
and  out  comee  the  young  fish. 

In  the  gradual  development  of  the  yoang  saimon  and  troat  ve 
begin  with  aglobaleof  albameD.  We  seewilhinita  faint  line,  and 
two  black  spots.  Day  by  day  these  become  larger,  tJll  the  yonng 
fish  is  bom.  After  this,  the  umbilioal  vesicle  is  absorbed,  the 
color  appears  on  the  scales,  the  long  single  crests,  which  one  ob- 
serves at  birth  running  down  the  upper  and  lower  parts  of  &e 
body,  resolve  themselves,  as  it  were  by  magic,  into  the  various  fins 
diattnctive  of  the  adult  creature,  and  we  have  a  perfeot  fish 
before  us. 

It  ia  most  interesting  to  watch  an  e^  at  the  moment  of,  hatch- 
ing. Yon  may  happen  to  be  gazing  on  a  parlicBlar  egg,  when  of 
a  sndden  you  will  see  it  s[dit  in  twain,  at  the  part  oorreeponding 
with  the  back  of  the  fish ;  yoa  will  then  see  a  tiny  head  with 
black  eyes  and  a  long  tail  appear,  and  you  will  see  the  new-bor& 
oreatare  give  several  oonvalsive  shudders  in  his  attempts  to  &ee  . 
himself  from  the  now  useless  shell.  Poor  littJe  fellow  I  be'  can't 
manage  to  get  out :  the  shell  is  too  light  for  him.  Take,  there- 
fore, a  soft  hair-pencil,  press  lightly  on  the  ^g-shell, — he  seemB  to 
know  you  are  his  friend, — he  gives  another  vigorous  kick  or  two 
and  presto !  he  is  free,  and  has  commenced  life.  If  we  judge 
from  his  motions,  he  must  enjoy  it,  for  away  he  swims  as  fast  as 
his  tiny  and  wriggling  tail  will  carry  him,  round  and  round  in 
a  circle,  and  then  plump  down  he  goes  to  die  bottom  of  the  tank, 
and  reclines  on  his  ffide,  breathing  freely  with  his  gills  for  the 
first  time  in  his  life. 

It  would  appear  that  it  is  not  posmble  for  the  fish  to  remain 
long  enough  in  the  ^g  to  come  out  ready  to  eat  fimd  at  once,  a» 
is  the  ease  with  the  ovo- viviparous  creatures.  They  have  therefore- 
attached  to  their  belly  a  bag,  which  contains  the  nourishment  that 
the  young  fish  must  absorb  before  they  are  able  to  shift  for  them- 
selves. The  moment  the  contents  of  the  bag  are  gone,  (hey  begin 
to  feed  with  the  mouth. 

In  various  creatures  the  progress  of  development  is  different. 
Thus,  for  instanoe,  in  thehumanbaby,  the  first  portion  of  the  body 
developed  is  the  lower  jaw,  and  this  for  an  obvions  reason,  beoaoB& 
the  most  material  want  of  the  baby  is  to  obtain  the  mother's  milt 
by  snotjon. 


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1864.],  OH  PIBCIOULTITRB.  133 

Now,  in  the  case  of  the  fiah,  nature  haa  kindly  packed  up  all  the 
noorishmeat  that  iji  willvant  foraome  six  or  eight  weeka  inanoat 
little  bag  or  parcel,  vhich  ehe  has  affixed  to  the  body  of  the  Mi  in 
such  a  manner  that  it  can  be  absorbed  into  the  system ;  while  as 
the  fiah  does  not  suck  milk  like  a  warm-blooded  animal,  its  lower 
jaw  is  not  developed. 

What  is,  then,  the  most  important  oi^n  to  tile  young  fish  ? 
He  haa  niuneroas  enemies,  and  it  is  his  first  object  to  get  out  of 
thnr  way.  The  eyes,  therefore,  are  the  organs  whiefa  first  arrive  at 
perfection.  The  eye  ia  in  perfect  working  order  at  the  moment  of 
birth,  though  the  reat  of  the  body  ia  far  from  eomplete. 

One  of  my  many  visitors  to  the  t&nka  at  the  Field  newspaper 
office,  where  I  exhibited  the  prooees  last  year,  was  narrating  to 
me  how  he  once  caught  an  enormona  salmon  in  the  Tay,  weighii^ 
some  thirty  odd  pounds;  this  put  the  idea  into  my  head  to  weigh 
one  of  my  saloKin.  He  has,  poor  little  fellow,  a  deal  to  make  up 
before  he  arrives  at  tlfirty  pounds,  for  at  present  (four  days  old) 
he  hardly  turns  the  scale  at  two  grains. 

By  the  kindaeas  of  Mr.  Aahworth,  of  Cheadle,  near  Manches- 
ter, I  am  enabled  to  show  you  a  drawing  of  the  young  fish  which 
weighs  about  two  grains.  He  has  also  given  me  the  following 
obserrations  as  rc^rda  the  increase  of  weight  in  the  young 
salmon :  The  fry  at  three  days  old  is  about  two  grains  in  weight. 
At  uxleen  months  old  it  has  moreased  to  two  ouaces,  or  410  times 
its  first  weight.  At  twenty  months  old,  after  the  smelt  has  bee^ 
in  the  sea,  it  has  become  a  grilse  of  eight  and  a  half  pounds :  it 
has  increased  sixteen  times  in  three  or  four  months.  At  two 
years  and  eight  months  old  it  becomes  a  salmon  of  twelve  to 
fifteen  pounds  in  w^ght;  afUr  which  its  increased  weight  of 
growth  has  not  been  ascertained,  but  by  the  time  it  becomes 
thirfy  ponnda  in  weight  it  has  increased  to  115,200  times  the 
weight  it  was  at  first. 

Among  the  numerous  pn^ny  of  fishes,  it  could  hardly  be 
expected  that  all  of  them  would  be  straight-limbed  and  healthy ; 
we  find,  therefore,  occadonally,  but  not  very  commonly,  crippled 
and  deformed  fish.  Thus  I  show  yon,  thisevening,  diagrams  and 
living  specimens  of  a  fish  of  a  cork-screw  shape,  also  of  a  fish  with 
four  eyes  and  one  head,  also  of  a  salmon  and  of  a  charr  with  two 
heads  and  one  body.  I  take  the  greatest  care  of  these  fiah,  and 
trust  they  will  live,  and  should  they  be  caught  hereafter  by  any 
angler  th^  would  astonish  him. 


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134  THE  CANADIAN  MATOTIALIST.  [Aprir,- 

Ab  r^udfl  the  practiral  ttettment  of  the  yonng  fish,  and  tiie 
qneetioa  as  to  when  ihej  ahojilA  be  turned  out  into  tlie  stmm, 
u  veil  as  many  other  pointSj  I  moat  beg  to  refer  again  to  my 
little  book  on  fish-hatohiog. 

Having  had  now  two  years'  practical  ezperienoe  in  hatching 
fish,  I  bethought  me  whether  this  year  I  ooald  not  somewhat  add 
to  the  science  of  the  matter,  and  have  tlierefore  institttted  several 
experiments  as  r^arded  the  duration  of  the  vitality  of  the  mSt 
and  ova,  whether  kept  separate  in  bottles,  or  taken  from  dead  fah. 
This,  I  am  oonvinoed,  is  a  most  important  poiDt,  and  it  may  pos* 
slbty  lead  to  many  practical  results.  The  first  experiment  which 
I  tried  was  with  a  fish  found  dead  in  the  river,  having  been 
killed  by  a  heron,  and  which  had  probably  been  dead  twenty-four 
hours.  The  eggs,  which  I  impr^nated  with  fresh  milt,  txe  now 
in  my  boxes,  and  very  few  of  th&ni  have  died. 

I  have  also  tried  a  series  of  experiments  as  regards  keeping 
the  milt  and  ova  separate  io  bottles  for  times  varyii^  fVom  tea 
minutes  up  to  sixty-eight  hours.  The  results  hitherto  have  been 
&vorable,  but  I  cannot  be  oertuD  that  fish  will  hatch  out  of  these 
eggs.  Should  however  the  experiment  snoceed,  the  importuit 
fo-aelical  bearing  of  this  will  at  onoe  be  perceptible.  Thus  for  in- 
Btance  I  impr^nated  at  Woroeetcr  some  salmon-ova  fresh  from  the 
fish,  with  trout-milt  which  bad  been  sixty-eight  hours  in  a  bottle, 
but  ^ery  few  of  these  eggs  are  as  yet  dead.  Again,  I  brovf^t 
some  salmMi-eggs  from  Worcester  and  impregnated  them  with 
fresh  troutrmilt  at  Hr.  Samuel  Gumey's,  Csrshalton.  The  eggs  in 
this  ease  were  twenty-nine  hours  old. 

It  is  generally  a  difficult  matter  to  get  the  (figs,  whether  of 
trout  or  salmon,  properly  operated  upon,  and  then  sent  from  a  dis- 
tanoB  to  the  hatching-boxes ;  it  therefore  ooonrred  to  me  diat  if 
I  eould  possibly  get  the  eggs  &om  dead  fish  to  hatch  equalfy  as 
well  as  those  from  live  fish,  it  would  save  a  great  deal  of  time  and 
expense,  as  well  as  trouble.  Fish  therefore  have  been  sent  up  to  me 
dead,  packed  in  moss,  and  I  have  taken  the  «g^  from  them  after 
twelve  hours,  twenty-four  hours,  and  eighty  hours.  It  is  almost 
imposuble  to  tell  from  any  test  that  I  know  of,  whether  these  eggs 
have  been  properly  impr^ated.  Time  alone  will  prove  this.  If  the 
experimeal  succeed,  we  shall  be  able  to  write  to  our  friends  in  the 
extoeme  north  of  Scotland,  or  in  the  furthermost  part  of  Ireland^ 
and  ask  them  to  oatch  the  fish  and  send  them  to  London,  where^ 


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1864.]  ON   PIBCIOULTURI.  135 

they  e*n  be  opwated  vpoo  jiut  as  well  as  thonf^  m  express  mes- 
awgv  bad  been  suit  man;  hnadred  miles  to  do  it. 

Thorn  «bo  have  eoperienoed  die  sad  diaaf^iDtmeDta  that  I 
hftve  had  with  eqg^  sent  even  fW>iu  abort  distaaoes,  and  snppcMd 
to  have  been  properly  iq)erated  on,  whioh  arrive  quite  hard,  white, 
aad  opaque,  and,  of  oourse  dead  (the  oause  of  this  being  generally 
the  ahahii^  of  the  railway,  or  bad  packing),  oau  appreoiate  the 
immenae  advantage  of  operating  on  dead  fish.  Now  if  we  never 
unpack  the  eggs  at  all,  and  leave  them  as  natore  has  heraelf 
arranged,  then  we  diall  have  more  chances  of  suooeaa  than  by  the 
clunBy  attwnpts  of  human  hands  to  send  them  in  a  tin  or  ghus 
TCfiBel.  The  only  objection  to  the  [dan  is  that  the  pareot  fish  are 
of  a  neoeedty  destroyed,  which  is  not  the  case  when  they  are 
treated  in  the  usual  manner. 

I  have  often  been  asked  if  operating  on  fish  and  taking  their 
eggB  from  them  killed  them  ?  Uy  answer  is  that  we  have  this  year 
taken  over  one  hundred  thousuid  troat-^gs,  and  have  not  killed, 
to  my  knuwledge,  oat  ungle  fish,  male  or  female.  Those  gentle- 
men, thenfore,  who  have  been  good  enongh  to  aUow  ns  to  operate 
on  their  fish,*  whether  salmon  or  trout,  need  not  be  in  the  leust 
fear  that  any  injury  has  been  done  to  the  fish,  who,  for  aught  I 
know  to  the  oontrary,  may  really  feel  mooh  obliged  to  us  for  the 
trouble  we  have  saved  them  of  making  their  nests  and  depeaitiug 
their  e^s. 

It  has  been  objected  by  some  that  these  experiments  with  dead 
fish,  and  with  milt  and  ova  taken  from  fisb,  and  kept  separate  many 
hoars,  have  been  tried  before.  In  the  Field  of  Feb.  27, 1864, 
"  the  Ohronicler  "  quotes  from  M.  Coste,  the  eminent  and  learned 
professor  of  embryology  in  the  CoU6^e  de  Fram^,  a  statement  that 
milt  will  remain  alive  for  twenty-four  hours.  I  have  however 
carried  my  ezperiinents  fnrther  on  thib  point,  and  have  aeoertained, 
through  the  kindness  of  my  friend  Mr.  H.  B.  Hanoock,  that 
the  spennatozoa  in  the  fiah  would  live  for  so  long  a  period  as 
141  hours,  that  is  to  say,  nearly  six  days.  It  must  however  be 
remarked  that  both  M.  Cost<-  and  myself  have  separately  oome  to 
the  same  conolnsion,  t)i.,  that  water  must  not  be  added  to  the 
dead  fish  till  the  moment  that  it  is  required  for  use,  for  it  appears 

*  Tbere  ia  a  apectal  claase  in  the  Act  oF  Parliament  wbicb  doea 
awBj  with  the  illagalit;  of  taking  Bpanniait-fisb  with  the  net  for  the 
bona  fide  faifOBe  of  obtaining  tbeiregga  for  the  parposM  of  piBeienltuiB. 


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136  THB  OANADIAM   NATURALIST.  [-^P>^i 

tlut  Uie  ipennatoEoa  usame  their  peooliar  vibratoiy  quick  aotion 
vhen  water  ia  added  to  tiiem,  otherwiBc  they  are  quite  quiesoeat. 
This  is  a  moat  important  point  aa  regards  the  actoal  bringing  the 
theory  into  praolioe. 

I  here  dedre  to  state,  onee  fer  all,  as  I  wish  every  <me  to 
remember,  tliat  I  do  not  .say  that  my  experiment  in  keeping  the 
milt  and  ova  separate  for  so  long  a  time  will  snooeed,  and  that 
healthy  yonng  fish  oome  from  the  egg,  nor  again  am  I  at  all  sore 
that  fish  will  hateh  from  eggs  taken  from  the  dead  fish ;  bnt  there 
is  however  no  reiuon  why  the  experiment  should  not  be  tried,  for 
nature  has  many  choioe  secrets  in  her  labontory  which  she  bat 
yet  withheld  from  ns,  and  which  she  will  only  disoloee  to  ns  bj 
asking  her  in  the  formof  experimeuts  varied  and  repealed  in  every 
poewble  manner. 

Thus  far  I  have  attempted  to  ahow  what  becomes  of  die  ^ff 
of  the  fish  in  their  natural  state ;  how  they  may  be  taken  oare  ofi 
and  what  great  reeults  may  be,  with  good  Inok  and  oareful  man- 
agement, obtained.  I  would  ventare  now  to  report  progress  and 
tbereanlt.  The  first  originators  and  supporters  of  the  important 
Ecienoe  of  Ssh-hatehii^  for  thu  public  good  were  the  French  Ocv- 
emment,  who  have,  as  most  of  yon  are  aware,  erected  a  magnifi- 
cent series  of  buildings,  which  may  be  fairly  denominated  a  fish- 
manufactory,  at  Huningue,  near  Basle. 

I  mnst  now  mention  what  has  been  done  in  her  Majesty's  do- 
minions. The  first  place  established  (that  I  know  of)  was  at 
Perth,  where  thousands  of  salmon  are  hatohed  by  artificial  m^aos 
annually.  In  Mr.  W.  Brown's  admirable  Itttle  book*  will  he 
found  detidls  as  to  the  number  of  eggs  laid  down,  &c.  One  of  tho 
oonsequeooee  of  this  artificial  batching,  Mr.  Brown  informs  us,  is 
as  fbltows :  We  find  that  in  the  year  1828,  the  year  of  the  pasr 
ing  of  Home  Dmmmond's  Act,  the  rental  of  the  salmon-fiaheriea 
of  the  Tay  was  £14,574.  It  gradnaUy  fell  off  every  year  after- 
wards till  1852,  when  it  reached  the  minimum,  amounting  to 
£7,973.  Id  1853  the  artificial  rearing  oommenoed;  and  in 
1868,  when  the  statement  was  printed,  the  rental  was  £11,487 ; 
it  hu  now  reaohed  what  it  was  in  1828."  Hr.  Brown  has 
been  kind  enongh  to  send  me  the  latest  news  as  folbws : — 

"  The  number  of  ova  deposited  in  tlie  boxes  at  Stormontfield 


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1864.]  ON   PIBCICULTPBE.  137 

in  November  «nd  Deoember  [1862  was  about  260,000 ;  in  1863 
{last  spawning)  about  80,000.  The  reasoo  that  so  few  ^gs  were 
got  daring  the  last  spawning-sea  son  was  the  unfavorable  state  of 
4he  river  for  netting  operations." 

One  of  the  greatest  results  in  practioal  fisb-batehing  has  been 
obtained  by  my  friend  Mr.  Thomas  Ashworth,  and  his  brother, 
for  thej  have  aotnally  peopled  with  salmon  Loohs  Mask  and 
Oorrib,  an  area  of  lakes  containing  thirty-five  acres  of  water.  In 
1861,  Mr.  Ashworth  laid  down  650,000  salmon-^gsj  he  being,  in 
hia  own  words,  "  oonfident  that  he  could  breed  salmon  mnoh 
«ader  than  lambs."  In  December  1862  he  deposited  no  less  than 
770,000  salmon-e^B,-  makii^  in  the  two  years  1,429,000.  Mr. 
Ashworth  tells  me  that  the  total  cost  of  doing  this  has  been 
exceedingly  small. 


Fish-Culture  in  Norway:  By  Rev.  M.  E.  Barnard. 

During  the  last  ten  jeare,  the  attention  of  the  Norw^ian 
Oovemment  has  been  directed  towards  the  propagation  of  salmon 
by  artificial  means.  In  a  country  like  the  Scandinavian  peninsula, 
whii^  has  such  an  extent  of  seaboard,  and  which  abounds  in  rivers 
large  and  small,  rpnning  into  fiords  which  intersect  the  coast, 
there  are  so  many  natural  facilities  afibrded  for  the  protection  of 
the  yonng  fish,  that  it  only  reqairee  some  additional  attention  on 
the  part  of  the  inhabitants  themselves  to  make  Norway  stand  at 
the  head  of  the  salmon-producing  countries  of  Europe. 

FuUy  alive  to  the  disadvantages  which  many  parts  of  the  coun- 
try labor  under  in  an  agricultural  respect,  owing  to  the  rigor  of 
winter  and  the  unfertile  nature*^  of  the  soil,  the  government,  with 
A  laudable  generosity,  has  endeavored  to  promote  the  propaga- 
tion of  fish  by  rendering  pecuniary  assistance,  and  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  officers  to  superintend  in  the  management  of  the  operation. 

It  is  somewhat  remarkable  that  the  artificial  prop^ation  of  fish 
was  first  discovered  in  Norway  by  a  simple  laboring  man  in 
1848.  One  harvest-time  he  had  been  obliged  to  keep  at  home  on  ac- 
«ountof  a  bad  leg.  To  amuse  himself  he  used  to  get  down  to  the 
river-ude  and  watch  the  trout  on  their  Bpawn-grouod.      Being  of 

0  square  miles,  of  which 


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138  THK  CANADIAN  MATUEALIST.  [April^ 

on  observaat  natare,  he  waa  Btraok  witii  tia  manner  in  wfaioh  the 
operation  was  carried  on.  He  remarked  that  the  male  fish  fdaeed 
itself  alongside  of  the  female  in  snoh  a  podticm  that  its  head  reached 
to  about  Uie  middle  of  the  body  of  the  latter.  He  further  noticed, 
that  whilst  die  procees  of  diachai^ug  die  ova  was  going  (Hi,  the 
female  turned  somewhat  on  her  side  with  a  quivering  sort  of  mo- 
tion, and  that  the  male  emitted  his  milt  simnltaneonsly.  It  there- 
fore occurred  to  him  that  b;  preaung  the  spawn  out  of  the  female, 
and  the  milt  from  the  male  at  the  same' time,  in  water,  he  would 
obtain  a  quantity  of  fVacttfied  €ggs,  which,  by  being  placed  in  ocm- 
Tenient  places  in  brooks,  would  in  due  time  bnng  forth  fish.  No 
sooner  oonceived  than  executed.  He  threwouthisnels  and  caught 
a  male  and  a  female  fish  ready  to  spawn.  His  wife  took  1^  one, 
and  he  the  other,  and  they  squeezed  their  contents  out  into  a  bowl 
of  oteao  water.  He  then  took  tbe  e^  and  placed  them  in  a 
sheltered  place  in  a  stream  where  there  were  previously  no  trout. 
The  following  summer  he  was  rejoiced  to  see  that  it  swarmed  with 
fish.  Convinced,  therefore,  of  the  snoceas  of  his  plan,  he  con- 
structed for  himself  a  breeding-box  close  to  his  house  ;  and  not- 
withstanding the  jeers  and  scofis  of  his  neighbors,  who  thought  it 
impiooB,  to  say  the  least,  in  interfering  and  meddling  with  things 
which  belonged  to  Nature  alone,  continued  to  breed  fish  every 
autumn.     Such  was  the  first  attempt  at  hatching  ova  io  Norway  ! 

I  will  now  proceed  to  give  a  brief  account  of  the  hatching-ap- 
paratus generally  in  vogue  in  that  conntry,  as  communicated  to 
me  by  Professor  Easch. 

The  case  in  which  the  hatching-boxes  are  placed  (and  which  is 
under  shelter,  so  that  the  water  does  not  freeze)  is  twelve  feet 
long,  thirty-four  inches  wide  in»de,  and  five  inches  deep.  The 
bottom  must  be  perfectly  water-light,  and  very  evenly  planed. 
The  sides  are  formed  of  single  smooth-planed  boards,  which  fit 
tightly  against  the  bottom,  to  prevent  any  leakage  ensuing.  The 
uppermost  end  of  the  case,  into  which  the  water  runs  fWm 
the  pipe,  is  of  the  same  height  as  the  udes.  The  whole  is  divided 
into  five  compartments,  the  first  of  which  receives  the  water  from 
the  pipe.  This  compartment  is  eighteen  inches  wide,  while  tie 
other  four  are  each  thirty  inches  wide.  The  partition-boards  are 
one  inch  lower  than  the  sides  of  the  case,  and  have  boles  bored  in 
them  at  a  distance  of  two  inches  tnm  the  bottom,  by  means  of  a 
hot  wire.     They  are  bored  in  two  rows  (vide  fig.  1.),  four  below, 


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I8M.]  OH   FISOIOULTURI.  139 

ud  time  above.     The  water  eao  tbni  ran  evenly  throughout  the- 
length  of  the  oaee. 

The  habihu^-boxea  (fig.  2),  four  of  which  are  jJaoed  in  eaoh 
oonputmeat,  are  aouetmoted  as  foUows:  The  sidee  oonart  of 
smooth-planed  board,  two  feet  loi^  three  inohes  high,  and  an  inch 
and  a  half  thick.  The  bottom  is  a  glass  plate,  two  feet  long,  and 
senn  inchea  wide.  The  euds  are  of  perforated  line,  or  brasswire- 
work,  ^e  suae  height  as  the  ndes,  whioh  are  Btrengtfieaed  bj  two 
tnuETerae  jneeee  of  wood.  All  the  wood-work  should  be  of  well- 
seaaoned  material ;  and  those  parts  whioh  come  in  oontaot  with  (he 
water  should  be  glased,  as  an;  resinous  or  pitohy  snbetauee  in  the 
wood  would  [HVTe  injurious  to  the  ova.  I  should  mentioo  that 
the  first  ecHupartm^it  into  whioh  the  water  falls  should  be  fdmish- 
ed  with  a  network  lid  of  line  wire,  which  tbnnfi  the  bottom  of  a 
framework  three  or  four  inches  high,  so  as  to  pierent  the  water 
numiog  into  the  next  compartment  except  through  the  holes  in 
Uie  lino  lid.  Thus  the  larvae  of  destruotive  insects,  wonna,  Ac., 
will  be  kept  out.     The  upper  end  of  the  case  should  stand  twa 


inches  higher  than  the  lower  end.  The  water  which  runs  out 
fkim  the  last  compartment  is  prevented  running  out  the  whole 
width  of  the  case  by  means  of  two  pieces  of  wood,  which  are  fast- 
ened to  the  sides,  and  reach  nearly  to  the  middle,  and  is  carried 
off  by  a  pipe. 

The  slimy  deposit  which  cornea  even  ftom  the  purest  water,  and 
settles  on  the  e^e  (it  is  not  detrimental  unless  there  be  too  much 
of  it),  can  easily  be  got  rid  of  by  gently  moving  the  boxes,  and 
allowing  it  to  pass  through  the  ends. 


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140  THB  CANADIAN  NATITEIALIST.  [April, 

After  die  Upee  of  about  fbnr  weeke,  it  will  be  well  to  t^e  the 
hatohing-boxee  oat  of  the  oase  to  aecertaia  which  e^e  are  good. 
The  Mtton  of  the  ur  will  render  them  all  transparent ;  hot  on  le- 
plftoii^  them  in  the  water,  the  anfmi^il  ones  will  assomB  i 
milky  opaque  oolor.  These  can  readily  be  removed  with  a  pur  of 
fine  pmoers  or  long  tweeiers.  The  expoenre  to  the  air  does  not 
hart  the  egge,  but  care  most  be  taken  that  they  do  not  beoome 
dry  on  the  surface.  After  repeating  this  process  three  or  f<niT 
times,  all  the  bad  ^;s  can  be  removed.  "  I  am  convinced, "  is 
the  remaik  of  Professor  Rasch,  "  that  in  a  case  of  the  above  sise 
I  could  hatch  10,000  salmon-ova  in  each  box,  which  woold  thu 
give  a  total  of  160,000,"  there  being  four  hatching-boxea  in  each 
of  the  four  compartments.  If  die  ifry  are  to  be  kept  any  time  in 
the  boxes,  care  must  be  taken  that  th^  be  not  overstocked ;  but 
.  3,000  may  well  be  kept  in  them  from  two  to  tliree  montiks." 

Where  water  from  a  spring  cannot  be  directly  obttuned,  the  fill- 
lowing  plan  is  often  adopted.  The  scale  of  operations  is  however 
necessarily  more  limited.  A  laige  tub,  or  other  wooden  vessel.  Is 
fitted  with  a  tap.  Care  moat  be  taken  that  it  shall  have  previously 
lain  a  sufficiently  long  time  in  water,  so  that  all  the  deleterious 
substances  fVom  the  wood  shaU  have  been  extracted.  It  is  then 
placed  on  a  stand  at  a  sufficient  height  from  the  ground  to  allow 
the  cage  oontuning  the  hatching-boxes  to  be  placed  beneath  the 
tap;  and  they  should  have  a  gentle  inclination,  so  that  the  upper 
end  be  about  half  an  inch  higher  tiian  the  lower. 

The  water,  having  passed  through  the  boxes,  empties  itself  mto 
another  vessel,  at  least  as  large  as  the  tub,  and  shoold  be  r^olated 
that  it  shall  run  out  in  twenty-four  hours.  The  tub,  therefore, 
only  requiree  replenishing  once  in  that  time.  If  the  water  be  at 
all  muddy,  it  is  well  to  place  a  layer  of  fine  sand  mixed  with  char- 
coal at  the  bottom  of  the  tub. 

Even  in  a  common  tea-saucer  a  great  many  ova  may  beliatched 
out.  The  saucer  is  placed  in  a  deep  soap-plate,  and  a  couple  of  moss- 
stalks  laid  over  the  edge  in  snch  a  manner  that  they  shall  act  as 
syphons.  A  constant  flow  of  water  thus  takes  place  from  the  sau- 
«er  into  the  pkte.  In  about  twelve  hours  half  the  water  ftom  tlie 
saucer  will  have  run  out,  so  that  it  will  require  filling  again  moin- 
ing  and  evening.  When  necessary,  fresh  moss-stalks  can  be  sob- 
atituted. 

It  is  of  oouTse  best  to  procure  the  male  and  female  fish  to  be 


,.,.d.i.  Google 


1864.]  ON   PISOICULTUHE.  141 

operated  npon  direct  from  their  breeding-^ronnd,  and  as  ehort  a 
time  aa  poaaible  before  the  Bpawoiog  oommeooee.  Where  this  b 
impoBaible,  they  ahoold  be  kept  ia  fiBh-bozea  or  reeerroirs ;  oare 
however  he  takea  that  they  be  not  kept  too  long  in  confinement 
before  being  used,  as  this  would  have  an  injurious  effect  both  on 
the  ova  and  the  milL  One  male  fiah  ia  saSoi»it  to  frnctiiy 
the  ova  of  a  great  many  females,  and  can  be  need  from  six  to  eight 
days  ia  snooessioD. 

It  ia  not  diffieolt  to  ascertain  when  the  female  is  ready  to  spawn. 
Her  distended  abdomen  yields  easily  to  a  gentle  preaanre,  and  an 
undulating  movemmt  iriiieb  is  perceptible  on  tonobiog  it,  ehowa 
that  the  spawo  is  already  diaoonneoted  from  the  ovary.  She 
should  (hen  be  held  by  the  bead  in  a  vertical  position,  ao  that  the 
ova  will  of  their  own  weight  fall  down  towards  the  vent.  When 
the  fiah  are  large,  it  is  best  to  have  three  persona  to  assist.  One 
takes  the  fish  by  the  head,  and  the  other  by  the  tul,  holding  it 
horiaontally  over  a  dish,  the  vent  downwards,  whilst  Uie  third  very 
gentJy  preesee  along  her  atomaoh  and  aides.  When  the  bottom  of 
the  dish  has  been  covered  with  ova,  in  layers  of  two  or  three  deep, 
the  fiah  can  be  released  into  the  tub  of  water  from  which  she  was 
taken.  The  dish,  by  the  way,  must  previously  have  been  nearly 
filled  with  water.  Before  operating  on  the  male  fish,  the  water 
tiota  the  fish  had  better  be  drained  off,  and  freah  poured  in.  The 
male  fish  is  then  taken  and  handled  in  the  same  way,  A  small 
quantity  of  milt,  just  soffioioit  to  discolor  the  water  after  being 
geoUy  stirred  with  the  fingers,  ia  sufficient.  It  is  thm  put  back 
again  into  the  tub,  and  while  the  female  is  again  bmng  broo^t 
out,  the  eoutents  of  the  dish  are  to  he  emptied  into  another  tub 
half  filled  with  pure  water.  When  all  the  roe  has  been  pressed 
out  and  fraotified  as  before  with  the  milt,  and  again  emptied  into 
tbia  tab,  the  water  ia  allowed  to  run  out  tiirongh  a  hole  pre- 
viously bored  in  the  nde  abont  an  inch  above  the  bottom.  By 
the  motion  of  the  water  running  out,  alt  tbe  ^gs  will  be  brought 
into  oontact  with  die  milt.  In  aboat  five  or  ten  minutes  the  ova 
ean  then  be  removed  into  the' hatching-boxes. 

If  the  ^ga  are  in  a  fit  state,  the  very  amaUest  pressure  is  su£- 
dent  to  squeeae  Ihem  out ;  and  it  has  been  found  that  with  due 
oaie  Ui«  female  au&era  no  injury  from  the  manipulation,  and  will 
be  as  fruitful  the  following  year  as  ever. 

The  uniruitfnl  ^ga,  after  they  have  been  some  time  in  the 


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142  THB  CANATIAN  NATURALIST.  l^V"^, 

hatohing-bozes,  will  be  oorered  with  a  peoullu'  parasitical  plant, 
Leptomihu  ctavattu,  whioh  gives  tliem  the  appearanoe  of  being 
wnpped  in  cotton.  Theae  ehould  be  remored,  as  though  the 
other  eggs  will  not  be  immediately  infected,  yet  the  fibres  of  this 
vegetable  growth  will  in  time  get  around  them,  and  prevent  the 
water  having  free  aoceea  to  them,  when  they  too  will  die.  The 
unftnitfo]  salmon-eggs  ahonld  be  at  oooe  removed ;  but  when  the 
ova  are  veij  small,  as  is  the  case  in  trout,  &c.,  it  is  better  to  wait 
til)  the  parasitioal  plant  has  a{^>eared  befi^e  removing  "  the  tares 
from  the  wheat,"  as  the  operation  oan  then  be  performed  more 
easily.  It  is  therefore  muoh  better  not  to  have  a  layer  of  small 
stones  at  the  bottom  of  the  ease,  as  many  of  the  ova  will  mak  be- 
tween them,  and  fVom  r«nainiDg  nnperoeived  may  in  time  oaose 
great  damage.  It  is  trae  that  the  salmon  instinctively  makes  a 
hole,  and  covers  her  ova  with  small  stones.  Bat  she,  in  all  jwoba- 
bilily,  only  adopts  this  preoantion  in  order  to  protect  them  agaiiut 
their  mimerout /ott,  and  not  that  the  devdo[»nent  of  the  embryo 
may  be  tiiereby  in  any  way  aoo^erated. 

It  might  not  nnoatnrally  be  sapposed  that  it  is  best  to  trans- 
port the  ova  in  the  sune  elonent  as  that  in  which  ttsy  arc  depos- 
ited in  the  ordinary  ooaiae  of  fliinga,  vis.,  imoater.  Batit roost 
at  the  same  time  be  remembered,  that  every  fertile  egg  contains  a 
living  being,  whidi  raqnires  a  oonstant  supply  of  air  for  its  jttcaer- 
vation,  and  tiiat  t^  qoand^  of  air  oontuned  in  a  confined  vcohI 
is  more  rafddly  oonsamed  by  the  ova  than  fresh  air.can  be  absorbed 
from  the  sorfMC.  The  conaequenoe  will  bo  that  unless  f^esh 
water  be  oonstantly  sapplied,  or  the  water  in  the  veaael  be  by  some 
means  aiirated,  the  embryo  cootained  in  the  egg  must  die.  But 
not  only  will  the  constAnt  r^eni^iing  the  vessel  with  fresh  water 
be  troobleaome,  and  often  impossible,  bat  it  will  also  be  attended 
with  great  risk  to  the  safc^  of  the  ova. 

If  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  it  is  not  the  water,  but  the  air  which 
is  therein  oontained,  that  is  essential  to  the  presOTvatioo  of  the 
ova,  U  will  be  apparent  that  if  they  be  kept  moist,  and  havea  oco- 
stant  supply  of  fresh  air,  die  necessary  oraditions  will  be  obtained. 
The  readiest  and  eauest  way  is  to  pack  them  in  damp  moss  (tlie 
marsh  moss,  Sphagnvm,  which  absorbs  moistnre  like  a  qnnge,  is 
the  beat),  throu^  whioh  the  air  will  readily  eireulate.* 

*  ProleMOi  Raach  told  ne  that  ha  bu  hatched  ova  in  damp  mou, 
without  even  immeraing  them  in  water  at  all. 


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2864.]  ON   PISCICULTURE.  143 

In  a  comtnoD  wocKleD  box  the  moss  will  retein  He  dampaeas  so 
a«  not  to  require  wetting  for  several  days.  And  indeed  caation  is 
reqaimle  wbm  it  is  bo  sprinkled,  that  the  temperatnre  of  Uie  fresh 
irater  h%  not  lower  than  that  of  the  moss.  Moreover,  it  is  only 
neoeBsary  to  spinkle  the  topmost  layer  of  the  moss,  as  the  mois- 
ture wilt  gradaally  percolate  through  the  contents  of  the  box. 
Neither  shonld  too  mnoh  water  be  eprinkled  on  at  one  time,  lest 
th«  ova  at  the  bottom  of  the  box  should  be  immersed.  To  obviate 
this  contingency,  it  is  best  to  turn  the  box  over  once  at  least  in  the 
«oane  of  Uie  day. 

In  paokii^  the  box,  tiie  bottom  should  first  be  evenly  covered 
with  a  UiiOk  layer  of  the  moes,  which  should  be  previoudy  washed 
quite  clean.  On  this  a  layer  of  ^gs  should  be  evenly  spread,  then 
should  oome  adiinner  Ityer  of  moss  than  before,  and  so  on,  dter- 
nsto  layers  of  eggs  and  moss  till  the  box  is  nearly  lull.  On  the 
top  of  all,  a  layer  of  moes  of  the  same  thickness  as  the  first  should 
be  lud ;  00  that  when  the  lid  is  fastened  down,  the  whde  will  form 
A  compact  mass,  and  all  shiftily  of  the  contents  be  rendered  im- 
poanble.  The  elasticity  of  the  moss  will  prevent  the  slightest 
dnger  from  pressure  accruing  to  the  ova.  If  the  weather  is  ex- 
trandy  aevere,  the  box  {dtonld  be  protected.  It  may  be  remarked, 
that  ova  sbonld  Dot  be  transported  (ill  the  eyes  of  the  embiyo  are 
visible. 

A  few  precautions  are  neoessary  on  unpacking  such  a  box  oon- 
tjjning  ova.  The  temperature  of  the  box,  and  of  the  water  in  the 
hatching-case,  must  be  compared  with  a  thermometer.  Snppotdng 
that  of  the  former  to  be  the  greater,  the  moss  should  be  gradually 
sprinkled  with  water  ftom  the  latter  till  they  are  both  equal. 
Oreat  oaic  must  be  taken  not  to  hurry  this  operation. 

The  contents  of  the  box  should  then  be  emptied  into  a  good- 
died  tub  half  filled  wiUi  water  of  the  same  temperature  at  that  in 
the  hatehi»g-ecae.  By  gratly  moving  the  hand  about  among  the 
m(MB,  (he  ova  will  nnk  to  the  bottom,  and  the  moss  remain  float- 
ing oa  the  sur&oe.  The  water  ahottld  now  be  drained  off,  and  the 
ova  at  once  deposited  in  the  hatohiug-bozes. 

Should  the  water  in  the  hatdung-boxes,  however,  be  of  a  higher 
temperature  than  the  moas  in  which  the  ova  were  conveyed,  these 
«an  be  at  once  removed  into  the  hatobii^-oases  after  they  have 
been  detached  from  tiia  moss  as  above  described. 


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144  THE   CANADIAN   NATOKALIBT.  [^pnlr 

The  greatest  oare  must  be  takeo  to  prevent  the  entraaoe  of  in- 
sects and  larvie  into  the  hatching-sppar&tus.  The  most  dangerous 
enemy  to  the  ova  and  the  young  fish,  is,  perbape,  the  waternewt 
(^Sorex/odieni).  If  the  apparatus  cannot  be  raised  to  a  sufficient 
height  above  the  ground,  it  should  be  protected  with  a  perforated 
tin  or  zinc  lid. 

A  curious  instance  occurred  at  the  btktobing-«stablishment  at 
Qre^en,  a.  water-cure  establishment  near  Christiania,  a  few  years 
affi.  The  apparatus  was  rtused  two  feet  above  the  ground,  and 
was  not,  therefore,  protected  with  such  a  Ud.  A  la^  quantity  of 
e^  had  been  hatched  out,  when,  one  fine  morning,  the 
young  fry  bad  nearly  all  disappeared!  A  number  of  traps 
were  aooordingly  set  on  the  floor  of  the  bouse,  and  tb&  foUowii^ 
momii^  the  intruder  was  captured.  It  turned  out  to  be  a  water- 
rail,  which  had  found  ingress  through  the  month  of  the  drain. 

The  Di/tUd,  UydropKili,  and  their  larvse,  and  the  larve  of  the 
Libdluia  and  Agrion,  are  also  very  dangerous  raemies.  The 
lAbtUvla  deprata  is  especially  a  deadly  foe,  and  will  even  devour 
the  fish  of  two  to  three  months  old.  It  is  extremely  tenacious  of 
life ;  and  has  been  known,  after  having  been  kept  a  whole  day  in 
spirits,  to  recover  when  placed  in  water  where  there  were  young 
fish,  and  in  a  very  short  time  to  oommenoe  attacking  them  as  if 
nothing  had  happened. 


Peovh*  Facts  in  the  Histort  or  the  Salhon  :  Br 
H.  C.  Pbnnell. 

1.  Salmon  and  Grilse  invariably  spawn  in  fresh  water  if  poe- 
uble  ;  both  the  eggs,  and  the  young  try  whilst  in  the  Parr  state,^ 
being  destroyed  by  contact  with  salt  water. 

2.  The  eggs  are  usually  deposited  on  gravelly  shallows,  where 
they  hatob  in  from  80  to  140  days,  soaording  to  the  temperature 
of  the  water.  Eggs  remaining  nnhatehed  beyond  the  latter  period 
wilt  seldom  hatch  at  all,  possibly  &cm  having  been  destroyed  by 
the  low  temperature. 

3  The  eggs  depodted  by  the  female  will  not  hateh  under  any 
mroumstanoes  ualess  vivified,  after  exclusion,  by  the  milt  of  the 
male ;  and — at  least  up  to  the  period  of  migration — there  is  no 
difference  whatever  in  fry  bred  between  Salmon  only,  between 
Qrilse  only,  between  Salmon  and  Grilse,  between  Salmon  and 
Parr,  or  between  Grilse  and  Parr. 


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1864.}  ON   PIBCICULTITSB.  145 

[The  female  Pur  cannot  spawn ;  bat  tbe  mkia  Parr  poswwes, 
and  eonstantlj  eierdiea,  ths  power  of  Tirifying  Salmon  and 
Grilse  <rea.] 

4.  The  try  remaiD  one,  two,  and,  in  some  oases,  three  yeara  in 
the  riven  «a  Parr  Wore  going  down  to  tlie  aea ;  abont  ludf  tak- 
ii^  their  departnie  at  one  year,  nearly  all  the  others  at  two  years, 
and  the  renuinder  (whieh  are  exoeptionnl)  at  three  years  old. 

5.  AU  yoni^  Salmon-fry  are  marked  with  bluish  bars  on  their 
sides  until  shortly  before  their  migration,  up  to  which  period  they 
are  Parrs ;  they  Aen  invariably  aasame  a  more  or  less  complete 
ooodng  of  dhery  scales  and  beoome  Smolts, — the  bars,  or  Parr- 
marks,  however,  being  Btill  dearly  discernible  on  rubbing  off  the 
new  scales. 

6.  The  yonng  of  all  the  speeiea  here  included  in  the  genus 
Sahrto  have  at  some  period  of  their  existence  these  bluish  bars ; 
and  oonsaqnently  such  marks  are  not  by  themselves  proofs  that 
fry  bearing  them  are  the  yonng  of  the  true  Sahnon  (&i&no  lalar). 

7.  Unless  the  young  fish  put  on  their  Smolt-dress  in  May  or 
eariy  in  June,  and  thereupon  go  down  to  the  sea,  tiiey  remain  aa 
Parrs  another  year;  and  without  Smolt-scalea  they  will  not 
migrate,  and  cannot  exist  in  salt  water, 

8.  The  length  of  the  Parr  at  rix  weeks  old  is  about  an  inch 
and  a  half  or  two  inches ;  and  the  weight  of  the  Smolt  before 
reaching  the  salt  wat«r  from  one  to  two  ounces. 

9.  In  at  least  many  cases,  Smolts  thus  migrating  to  the  sea  in 
May  and  June  return  as  Grilse,  sometimes  within  five,  generally 
within  ten  weeks,  the  increase  in  weight  during  that  period  vary- 
ii^&om  two  to  ten  lbs.,  the  average  being  from  four  to  six  Ibe. ;  and 
these  Grilse  spawn  about  November  or  December,  go  hack  to  the 
see,  uid  in  many  oases  re-ascend  the  rivers  the  next  spring  as 
Salmon,  with  a  further  increase  of  from  four  to  twelve  lbs.  Thus,  a 
fidi  batched  in  April  18&4,  and  marked  as  migrating  in  Hay 
1866,  was  eanght  as  a  Salmon  of  twenty-two  lbs.  weight  in  ftTaroh 
1866. 

10.  It  ai^wan  certain  however  that  Smolts  do  not  always 
return  daring  Uie  same  year  as  Grilse,  but  frequently  remain  nine 
or  ten  months  In  the  sea,  retaroing  in  the  following  spring  as 
small-slied  Salmon. 

[It  will  thni  be  imu  that  the  &t  of  the  Salmon  an  oailad  Parr* 
nntil   thej  put   on  their  migMtaj  ixtu,  when    thej   be- 
Tob.  I.  z  So.  2, 


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146  TBI  CANADIAN  NATUfiALIST.  [^pnl| 

come  Smolti  aod  go  down  to  the  ult  water;  GriU*  if  tbej  re- 
turn from  the  see  dnring  the  first  jmi  of  theii  migration ;  sad 
at  all  other  periods  Saimtm.J 

1 1 .  It  hu  also  been  clearly  proved  tliat,  in  general,  Salmon  and 
Grilae  fiod  their  way  back  to  spawn  to  tbe  riveTS  in  which  they 
were  bred,  sometimes  to  the  identical  spots, — spawn  aboat  Nov- 
ember or  Daoember, — and  go  down  again  to  the  sea  as  "  spent  fish," 
or"Kelto,"  in  Febmaiy  or  Maroh, — retaining,  in  at  least  many 
cases,  during  the  following  fonr  or  five  months,  as  "  olean  fish," 
and  with  an  increase  in  weight  of  from  seven  to  ten  lbs. 

[Shortly  before  spawning,  snd  whilst  retaming  to  the  sea  as 
Kelts,  or  spent  Bah,  Salmon  are  unfit  for  food,  and  tbeir  cap- 
ture is  then  illegal.  "  Foul  Gah,"  bt/ort  spawning,  are,  if  males, 
termed  Red  fish,  from  the  orange-eolored  stripes  with  which 
theircheeksaremarked,  and  the  golden-orange  tint  of  the  bodj  ■ 
the  fbmalea  are  darker  in  color,  and  are  called  Black   fish. 
J/ler  spawning,  the  males  are  called  Kippera,  and  the  females 
Shedders  or  Baggita] 
This,  in  a  condensed  form,  is  the  present  state  of  onr  positive 
knowledge  as  r^ards  the  leading  facts  in  the  hlstoiy  of  the  Sal- 
mon as  it  oeenrs  in  British  waters. 


CoJtPAEUBOKS  OF  AMERICAN  LaNODAOCS  WITH  TH08B  OF  TBK 

Old  Wobld.* 
Under  the  title  not«d  below, ' '  N.O.,"  a  writer  in  the  Lower  Canada 
Journal  of  Education,  attacks  some  ratlier  bold  statements  re^Mot- 
ing  the  Amerioan  languages,  made  by  U.  Benaa  in  his  work  on 
the  Primitive  Languages.  In  an  ethnolo^cal  point  of  view  Uie 
subject  is  of  interest,  and  we  are  glad  that  any  one  acquaioted 
with  onr  native  langoages  is  disposed  to  take  it  np.  The  Ameri- 
can languages  have  nsoally  been  r^arded  as  altogether  distinct 
from  those  of  other  parta  of  the  world,  and  aa  very  disumilar 
among  themselves.  Yet  the  most  superficial  examination  shows 
that  similarities  of  grammatioal  fbrms  and  of  root-words  exist 
over  wide  areas  of  the  American  continent,  and  among  tribes  per- 

*  "  Jngement  erronj  de  U.  Brnest  Renan  ear  leg  Langaes  Banvages," 
(par  N.  0.    Pamphlet  reprinted  from  the  Journal  dlnstrncUoD  Pablique.) 


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1864.]  BEvnw.  147 

fectly  separated  from  each  other.  There  have  also  not  beea 
waatiDg  students  of  the  subject,  who  supposed  they  could  discover 
links  of  oonnection  with  the  languages  of  the  old  world.  Still  the 
sabjeot  has  been  pursued  only  in  a  desultory  manner,  and  it  pre- 
sents a  rich  and  comparatively  anezplored  field.  It  is  more 
specially  important  in  connection  with  the  bold  theory  of  Retzius, 
based  on  cranial  conformation,  that  the  "long-headed"  Indian 
races  of  Eastern  America  may  have  been  of  Nortii  African  or 
SouA  European  origin.  This  woald  make  America  the  meeting  - 
ground  of  the  opposite  estremes  of  human  migratbn  to  the 
East  and  the  West,  as  it  seems  oertaiu  tiiat  the  Indians  of  Western 
Amenca  are  related  to  the  races  of  Northern  Asia.  To  us  this 
theory  receives  strong  oonfirmatlon,  not  only  from  the  similar 
physical  conformation  of  the  Ouanehes  of  the  Canaries,  and  some 
of  the  North  African  races,  but  also  from  the  facts  which  have 
been  ascertained  as  lo  the  form,  habits,  and  rit«s  of  the  earliest 
aborigines  of  Europe.  In  the  further  solution  of  such  questions, 
the  study  of  the  languages  is  most  important,  and  we  need  a 
careful  and  thorough  comparison  of  all  the  Eastern  American 
tongues,  more  especially  with  a  view  to  the  qaestiou  of  (heir 
possibly  having  originated  from  colonists  landing  on  the  West- 
India  Islands  irom  some  part  of  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean, 
and  this  at  a  remote  period,  when  the  languages  of  Europe  were 
a  thdr  most  primitive  state.  The  task  is  a  difficult  one,  requir- 
ng  the  combination  of  the  learning  of  many  men  and  laborious 
nvestigation ;  but  if  any  reliable  positive  results  could  be  obtained, 
the  labor  would  not  be  in  vtdn.  In  the  meantime  we  give  a  few 
extracts  &om  the  pamphlet  of  "  N.  0.,"  in  illustration  of  his  protest 
against  the  dictum  of  M.  Renan,  that  the  idea  of  the  primitive 
unity  of  language  is  a  chimera : — 

"  Mr.  Benau  will  be  perhaps  surprised  to  learn  that  that  Iro- 
quois tongue  which  he  had  considered  bo  barbarous  has,  neverthe- 
less certain  very  carious  analogies  with  the  learned  languages. 
Thus  those  Hebrew  and  Indo-Oermanic  quadrilil«ral  and  quinqni- 
liter^  roots,  of  which  M.  Benan  makes  such  a  show  in  his  book  of 
comparative  philology,  are  also  found  in  the  Iroquois  tongue ;  and 
certunly  the  words  raonraon,  kitkit,  8iion8iion,  taraktarak,  sara- 
sara,  terit«ri,  kSiskSis,  herhar,  t«skoko,  kSitokStto,  iekonienk, 
SirokSiro,  and  others  may  very  well  be  oompared  with  gargar, 
uifuif,  uum,  OAnaAKiaEB,  aARGARIZEIN,  ^invit,  FIFI- 


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148  THE  CANADIAN   NATITBALI8T.  [^piilr 

ZEIN,  tintiDDaTit;,  Uingeln,  and  other  like  vords  given  in  the  list 
of  Mr.  Renan.  Let  ub  then  conclade  diat  for  (Hiomatop(Bi&  the 
Amerioan  languages  are  second  to  none,  and  that  among  them  the 
Iroqnoia  Is  distit^puehed  by  ite  tendenoy  to  take  the  quadriliteral 
form.    But  tiiere  are  other  analc^efl. 

"  Such  will  be  the  analogy  which  exists  between  the  Algonquin 
profiles  and  the  Hebrev  affixes. 

Sabaktam,  thou  hast  forgotten  me,  M,  me,  1 

JadeKA,     thy  hand,  ea,  of  thee,  >  Heb.  aff. 

BagheLO,    his  foot,  o,  of  bim,      ) 

Ninaganik,  he  forgets  me,  Ni,  me,  \ 

KiDindj,     thy  hand,         KA,  of  thee,  >  Alg.  pref. 

0,  his  fool,  O,    of  him  or  of  her,  ) 

"  TtuBiB  an  cxam^ewbichmightbe  considered  as  an  argument  in 
favor  of  the  homogeneity  of  languages,  and  which  demonstrates, 
moreover,  that  the  savage  tonguee  have  not  a  obaracter  exclnuvely 
sensuous,  in  the  sense  that  Mr.  Benan  gives  to  that  word,  bnt  that 
they  are,  at  least  as  peyohol<^oal  as  the  Indo-OermaniolaognBgeg. 
"  The  Algonquin  root  bnim  serves  to  express  all  the  iutelleotual 
operadons,  alt  the  dispositions  of  the  soul,  all  the  emotions  of  the 
heart,  all  the  aots  either  of  the  mind  or  the  vilL  Thus  it  will 
be  said :  ni  mintenintdam,  I  am  contented ;  ni  gackenindam,  I 
am  sad ;  ni  mintenima,  I  am  satisfied  with  somebody ;  ni  dttge 
%ima,  I  am  not  satisfied  with  it;  ni  aakoiitna,  I  am  heartily 
attached  to  him ;  nindapitenima,  I  esteem  bim  :  ni  nickmima,  1 
tiouUe  his  mind,  I  make  him  angiy  ;  ni  pago»enima,  1  make  my 
supplioations  to  bim  in  my  heart,  I  pray  to  him  inwardly ;  ni 
kiUitSaSenima,  I  venerate  him,  I  think  him  worthy  of  honor ; 
ni  kikenima,  I  know  him ;  ni  kSaiakSentTna,  I  know  him  per- 
fectly ;  ni  pixiikenima,  I  can  remember  him  ;  ni  mikaSaiwia,  I 
remember  him ;  ni  mfftmcnima,  I  think  of  him ;  ni  nibSakaSeni' 
ma,  I  brieve  bim  wise ;  ni  tatSenima,  I  understand  it,  I  oonoeive 
it,  I  seize  it  with  the  mind ;  ninol  obtiteienima,  I  reach  him  with 
my  thought,  my  mind  reaches  up  to  him ;  ni  tanmima,  I  believe 
bim  present;  ni  jxmeMtmo,  he  esoapee  my  thot^bt,  my  mind  can- 
not reaoh  him ;  ni  Sanenima,  I  forget  it,  I  lose  the  remembrance 
of  it;  ni  tangenima,  I  loueh  it  (him)  witji  my  mind,  it  seems  to 
me  that  I  toudi  it  (him). 

"  Is  not  the  impwtanee  of  tliis  root  bhiu  a  thing  truly  worthy 


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1864.]  BETEBW.  149 

to  be  Tomarked,  u  it  is  wiihoot  oODtradiotion  a  hundred  times 
more  jwodoodTe  than  itB  congeners  anime  and  animuis  t 

"  The  Latin  animut  has  been  compared  to  the  Greek  anemoi. 
We  can  with  as  mnob,  nay  with  more  reason,  compare  oar  root 
«nvin  to  this  last  one.  In  litct  it  is  found  ia  the  form  anim,  with 
the  Greek  meaaing,  in  the  impersonal  verbs  animat,  the  wind 
blows;  pUanimat,  the  wind  blows  this  way;  ondanimat,  the 
wind  oomes  from  that  direction,  etc.,  etc 

"Bat  here  is  another  pecoliarity  which  comee  to  oar  mind 
whidi  cannot  fkil  to  draw  the  attendon  of  an  Oriental  scholar : 

"  In  Hebrew,  the  third  person  masonline  siognlar  of  the  first 
tense  of  the  iadicative  serves  to  form  all  the  other  persons  and  all 
the  other  tenses  of  the  verb. 

"  In  Algonquin,  the  third  person  singoUr  common  gender  of 
the  pnsent  of  the  indicative  seirea  to  form  all  the  oihet  tenses  and 
penons  of  the  verb. 

"  Thus  it  is  said  in  Hebrew :  qSthal,  he  has  kOled ;  q&haltA; 
thou  hast  killed ;  qSthald,  I  have  killed.  In  the. same  way  it  will 
be  said  in  Algonquin :  nicise,  he  kills,  ki  nieiSe,  thou  kiUeet,  ni 
nioiSe,  I  kill. 

"  In  both  languages,  the  third  person  does  not  take  any  charac- 
tcristie  for  itself  whilst  die  two  others  are  accompanied  or  preceded 
by  thefflgns  which  distingnisb  them,  ta,  ti,  ki,  ni. 

"  The  third  person  is  then  the  root  of  the  verb.  Therefore  that 
ia  the  reason  why  the  Algonquin  dictionary  gives  first  that  pereon, 
in  imitati(»i  of  the  Hebrew. 

"  We  have  said  that  the  syntax  of  our  two  savage  languages  is 
pretty  complicated.  It  is  too  much  so  to  allow  us  to  ent«r,  in  a 
review  like  the  present  one,  into  the  detuls  which  would  be  neces- 
sary to  give  a  correct  idea  of  it.  For  the  same  reason  we  will  not 
give  the  list  of  the  conjngationaeitherlroqnois  or  Algonquin;  we 
shall  only  say  that  they  are  divided  into  oopnlative,  diHJnnotive, 
Buppositive,  concessive,  cansal,  temporal,  adversadve,  optative, 
and  expletive. 

"  We  have  affirmed  that  these  two  languages  are  very  clear,  very 
predae,  expressing  with  facility  not  only  the  exterior  of  ideas,  but 
sdll  more  their  metaphyucal  rebdons.  In  &et,  the  Algonquin  has 
not  leas  than  eight  moods,  whose  names  are :  indioative,  oondi- 
tjonal,  imperative,  subjnnodvo,  Bimultaneous,  participle,  eondngent, 
4ud  gerund.    With  the  exeepdon  of  this  last  one,  alt  these  moOds 


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160  THE   CANADIAN  MATCSALIST.  [April 

have  several  tenses.  The  total  namber  of  them  is  twenty-nine 
The  verbs  in  Iroquois  have  twenty-one  tenses,  divided  into  three 
moods,  indioative,  imperative,  and  Babjnnotive. 

"  Nonns  are  soaroelj  less  nuuTellons ;  thej  are  conjugated  rather 
tban  dedined.  It  will  be  said  in  Iroqaois :  kadtake,  at  my  feet ;  sasi- 
take,  at  thy  feet ;  raaitake,  at  his  feet :  and  in  Algonquin :  nirit,  my 
foot;  kidt,  thy  fi)ot ;  ont,hisfoot:  asitlssud:  ktahahtos, ni  8a(, 
Isee;  Batkahtos,A:t8ai,  thoa  seest;  rathkatos,  8a&),  he  sees.  The 
prefixes  of  nouns  are  almost  the  same  as  thoee  of  the  verbs.  There 
are  in  Iroquois,  as  well  in  the  oonjij^tion  of  nouns  as  in  theconjuga- 
tion  of  verbs,  fifteen  persons,  of  which  four  are  in  the  sing,  five  in 
the  dual,  five  in  the  pinral,  and  an  indeterminate  one.  The  AJgon- 
quins  have  only  seven  persons ;  but  their  nouns  possess,  neverthe- 
less, a  prod^ous  number  of  inflexions  on  aiscount  of  the  accidents  to 
which  they  are  liable,  the  list  of  which  is:  tiie  diminutive,  the 
detoriorative,  the  ultra-deteriorative,  the  investigative,  the  duluta- 
tive,  the  near  preterite,  the  remote  preterite,  the  locative,  the  obvia- 
tive,  the  superobviative,  the  poBeesaive,  the  sociative,  and  the 
modifioative." 

A  multitude  of  questions  and  objections  might  be  raised  even 
on  the  few  pcnnts  stated  above.  The  following,  for  example,  have 
beoi  suggested  to  us  by  an  eminent  hebraist: 

The  first  of  the  three  words  cited  as  examples  of  the  He- 
brew (sabaktani)  is  not  Hebrew,  bnt  belongs  to  another,  thongh 
cognate  language.  In  this  first  example,  therefore,  we  think  H. 
Btttan  will  be  disposed  to  deny  the  analogy.  The  reviewer 
through  inadvertence  has  here  given  bis  opponent  su  advantage. 
Thim  again  without  objecting  that  in  the  one  language  the  nt  is 
prefixed,  and  in  the  other  post-fixed,  we  most  recollect  that  in  He- 
brew, m,  which  is  only  the  objective  case  of  the  pronoun  when 
immediately  joined  to  a  verb,  is  nsed  bat  very  seldom,  especially 
when  compared  vrith  the  falter  prevalence  of  the  form  t,  and 
that  in  verbs  the  n  for  the  first  person  is  never  used  in  the  past 
tenses,  and  in  the  future  tenses  the  n  and  the  i  are  both  omitted, 
and  the  letter  a,  the  other  fragment  of  the  absolute  form  of  the 
[oononns,  is  employed.  It  is  only  right  to  keep  these  points  in 
view,  in  establishing  the  analogy  sought  to  be  set  up.  In  tho 
seoond  example  oiled,  ladeka  (more  properly  yadeoha),  the  a  is 
changed  into  i  in  the  Iroquois,  and  the  o  of  the  third  person  is 
not  used  in  the  verb,  o.  g.,  (p.  20,)  niciSe,  he  kills.  The  reviewer 


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1864.]  bkthw.  151 

bawerer  imfbrau  us  of  very  intereBting  lactB  respecting  the  compo- 
ation  of  the  tenses  of  the  verbs,  as  compared  with  the  Hebrew 
fomOf  uid  it  is  more  of  these  interesting  iacts  that  we  would 

Again,  while  N.  0.  is  quite  ri^t  on  Boientifio  groonds  to  con- 
demn M.  Kenan's  nnphilosophical  referenoe  of  certain  anaic^ra  to 
chanoe,  it  may  not  be  quite  right  to  otgeet  as  he  do«s,  to  what 
M.  Kenan  has  to  say  on  the  sabject  of  onomatopceia,  and  in  which 
he  but  ooinoides  with  suah  eminent  modern  eritica  as  Qesenins, 
Fttnt,  eta.  N.  0.  is  doubtless  acquainted  with  the  ori^nal  He- 
brew text  of  the  Scriptures.  Con  he,  tJien,  ignore  the  remark- 
aUe  prevaleDce  of  Onomatopceia,  morecf^KCially  in  the  early  books 
of  tbe  Sacred  Volume  ?  And  need  we  remind  him  that  tiiia  preva- 
lence of  onomatopceia  in  the  early  history  of  the  language  is  of 
DO  small  value  in  discnsang  the  question  of  the  primitive  language 
— "  anit4  primordiale  du  laogi^"  which,  says  N.  0.,  is  treated  by 
M.Benanas  "iidionlecliim6re,etmytliele  plus  bizarre."  We  are 
not  quite  clear  as  to  whether  the  reviewer  holds  the  Hebrew  to  be  the 
I^imitive  language  of  man  j  but  for  his  Algonquin  "  kokoc,  kokoko, 
kackacipineai,  kakaki,  makaki,  etc.,"  how  many  examples  could  we 
cite,  not  only  in  the  Hebrew,  but  in  the  later  Latin  fiimily  of  lan- 
guages. Here  are  a  &w:  Hebrew  ppV,lackBck,EDgliBh,  he  licked; 
Italian  leccaie ;  French  Uoher :  so  in  Greek  a>x«*',  German  lecken . 
Next  Hebrew  Hip,  kara ;  English,  he  cried ;  Italian,  gridare ;  Fr. 
dw ;  Qer.  schreien.  Our  limited  space,  however,  compels  us  to 
leave  this  topic  here.  Scarcely  more  satisfied  are  we  wit^  the  meagre 
list  of  quadriliteral  and  quinquilitenl  Iroquois  roots  whicb  N.  0. 
oppoeee  to  a  yet  shorter  list  of  Hebrew  and  other  similar  roots, 
as  an  ofiaet  to  tiioee  "  dont  M.  Kenan  &it  un  ai  pompenz  ^tolagc." 
We  Bhall  wait  for  the  more  elaborate  effort  which  we  desire  to  see 
from  tJie  reviewer  before  we  fully  give  in  our  adhesion  to  the  fol- 
lowing important  claims :  "  Conclnons  done  qu'en  mati^  d'ono- 
matop^,  lea  langues  am^oaines  ne  le  cMent  tl  auenne,  et  quo 
parmi  elles,  I'iroqnois  se  distingue  par  des  tendances  k  revStir  la 
forme  qoadrilitdre." 

Similar  ol>ieotiona  may  be  raised  to  comparisons  of  Algonquin 
with  Qreek  and  Latin,  as  '  enim,'  above  referred  to,  or  t^e  root 
"tang"  in  the  verb  to  touch,  oranotherwbich  has  been  su^ested 
as  a  parallel, — ^the  prevalence  of  the  root  "  ouk,"  or  "  oik,"  in  the 
sense  of  house  or  dwelling.  Uore  especially  would  such  obgecdons 


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1B2  THE  CANADUN  NATOOALIST.  l^V"^, 

be  strengtbeoed  by  the  fact  stated  by  N.  0.,  that  perhspe  the  not 
"  sit,"  foot,  is  the  only  one  oommon  to  the  ndghboring  IroqnMs 
and  Algonquin  languages;  unless,  indeed,  it  ^onld  appear  that 
theae  two  laogo^es  have  been  derived  the  one  from  the  east,  the 
other  from  the  vest,  and  have  met  in  Canada.  To  give  force  to 
these  oompariBons  of  roots,  it  would  be  neaesBaiy  to  ahov  that  they 
occnr  also  in  the  Carib,  or  other  langoages  of  that  region,  and  in 
the  extinct  Guanche  of  the  Canaries,  or  in  some  of  the  awnent  Ian- 
gnagee  of  Northern  Africa  or  Southwestern  Europe.  At  one  time 
there  was  a  atrong  tendeni^  to  get  up  fknoiful  reeemblanoes  betwe«i 
langaages.  The  tide  haa  turned,  and  the  prejudices  of  schdan 
are  all  the  other  way.  For  this  very  reason  we  thank  N.  0.  for  bis 
effort,  and  would  encourage,  in  the  interests  of  ethnology,  all  the 
honest  cultivators  of  the  comparative  philology  of  even  those  prim- 
itive tongues,  nnjustly  n^lected  as  barbarous  and  uncultivated; 
though  for  that  very  reason,  Uke  the  habits  and  riles  of  the  pei^le 
who  speak  them,  they  may,  as  Dr.  Wilson  has  well  shown,  be  of 
inestimable  valne  in  interpreting  the  primitive  relationa  of  men, 
and  their  condition  in  *'  pre-historic  times." 


MEETING  OF  BRITISH  ASSOCUTION. 

Geoorapht  and  ErBHOLoar.  - 
In  this  section,  after  some  opening  otwervatiooi  on  the  progreee 
made  between  1888  and  1863  in  the  vaat  centre  of  industry  on 
the Tyne,  the Freudent  remarked:  "I  will Gratcall your  attention 
to  tome  of  the  leading  gei^praphical  results  in  Bridsh  Geography 
which  have  been  broi^^t  about  unce  we  last  met  here.  At 
that  time  four  years  had  elapsed  since  (at  onr  firet  meeting  in 
Scotiaud)  I  directed  the  attention  of  this  Aasociation  to  the  un- 
toward condition  of  the  Top<^;n^hical  Saivey  of  the  British  Isles, 
by  showing  that  no  map  of  any  country  north  of  the  Trent  was  in 
existcDce ;  in  short,  that  all  the  North  of  England  and  the  whole 
of  Scotland  were  in  that  lamentable  state ;  whilst  the  survey  of 
France,  and  of  nearly  all  the  little  states  of  Germany,  had  been 
completed.  Having  roused  public  sentiment  to  this  neglected 
state  of  the  national  map, — «o  neglected,  indeed,  that  one  of  the 
great  headlands  (Cape  Wrath)  was  known  to  have  been  lud  down 
some  miles  out  of  its  proper  place  in  all  maps  and  charts,— den- 
tations to  the  government  followed,  in  the  first  of  which  I  pleaded 


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1864.]  BBITIBH  AS8OCIATI0H.  153 

the  unae  of  geography ;  but  with  little  or  no  effect  as  regarded 
the  North  of  England,  and  my  natjve  country,  Scotland.  In  the 
tirenty-nine  years  which  have  elapsed  between  the  period  when 
the  qne»tion  was  firet  agitated  at  Edinburgh,  considerable  progress 
has,  doubtleSB,  been  made ;  but  it  is  surely  a  reproach  to  a  power- 
fal  country  like  Britain  that  in  thirty  years  we  have  only  just 
seen  the  r^on  between  the  Trent  and  the  Tyne  delineated  and 
laid  down  on  a  real  map, — v.  e^  on  the  one-inch  scale, — whilst 
«ven  yet  the  maps  of  the  northernmost  English  counties  are  un- 
finished. With  the  extension  of  the  surtrey  to  the  North  of  Eng- 
land and  Scotland,  not  only  has  the  ux-incb  scale  been  adopted, 
but  much  larger  cadastral  plans,  on  the  ZSJ-inch  scale,  hare  been 
and  are  in  execution.  While  these  plans  are,  I  grant,  most  valu- 
able to  individual  proprietors,  they  are  beside  the  purposes  of  the 
geo^pber — inasmuch  as  they  exhibit  no  attempt  whatever  at  the 
delineation  of  physical  features.  Hence  I  regret  that  their  execu- 
tion should  have  been  preferred  to  the  completion,  in  the  first  in- 
stance, of  an  intelligible  and  useful  map  of  the  British  Isles,  which, 
if  made  to  depend  on  the  previova  completion  of  the  large-scale 
plans,  will  still  involve,  I  fear,  the  lapse  of  another  very  long 
period  before  the  whole  country  will  possess  what  geographers 
consider  a  map.  The  most  powerful  cause  which  has  retarded 
the  progress  of  good  cartography  has  been  the  frequently-recurring 
cold  fits  of  indiSerenoe  and  consequent  cutting  off  of  the  supplies 
by  which  our  legislature  hai  been  periodically  affected,  and  which 
have  necessarily  occasioned  a  collapse  aod  stagnatioo  in  the  works 
of  this  important  survey.  A^rtspect^  my  own  special  department, 
or  the  "Geological  Survey,"  1  deprecate  still  more  strongly  the 
delay  of  the  construction  of  the  one-inch  map,  seeing  that  no 
geologist  can  labor  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  and  accurately 
delineate  their  interesting  rock-form ationa,  by  coloring  any  of 
the  defective  country-maps  of  that  region.  Let  na  now  cast  a 
rapid  glance  over  the  progress  of  discovery  in  distant  lands,  and 
particularly  where  onr  countrymen  have  signalized  themselves. 
Atformer  meetings  of  this  Association,  we  have  dwelt  on  the  early 
discoveries  of  new  lands  in  the  interior  of  Australia,  in  which  the 
names  of  Mitchell,  Eyre,  Stnrt,  Leichbardt,  and  others  have  been 
always  mentioned  with  honor  and  respect.  The  latter  journeys 
of  the  brothers  Augustus  and  Frank  Gregory  have  earned  for  these 
good  surveyors  the  highest  honors  of  the  Koyal  Geographiccl 


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154  THB   CANADIAN   NATURALIST.  [April, 

Society,  for  their  extenure  researches  and  datermiDstioiu  of  longi- 
tude and  latitude  in  ITorthera,  Eastern,  and  Western  Aaatralia. 
Whilst  more  receotly,  the  bold  expedition  of  Burk  and  Wills  cost 
these  noble  fellows  their  lives,  the  latest  researches  of  their  snc- 
ceBsore  stand  out  as  indeed  most  singularly  saccessful.  U'Douall 
Stuart,  after  variouB  previous  trinmphs,  in  one  of  which  he  reached 
the  watershed  of  North  Australia,  has  actually  passed  from  Ade- 
laide, in  South  Australia,  to  Yan  Dieman  Bay  on  the  north  coast, 
in  latitude  15  deg.  S.  Contemporaneoaely  with  this  last  expedi- 
tion, M'Einlay,  proceeding  also  from  Adelude,  reached  the  Gulf 
of  Carpentaria,  and  thence  travelled  to  the  eastern  shore ;  and 
Landsborough,  realizing  all  the  value  of  the  discoveries  of  Burk 
and  Wills,  and  penetrating  from  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  traversed 
the  continent  southward  until  he  regained  the  noble  colony  of 
Victoria,  in  which  the  expedition  was  organized.  The  rapid  rise 
of  the  different  colonies  in  Australia  is  truly  marvellous;  and 
whilst  we  have  successfully  occupied  all  the  available  ports  and 
lands  along  the  eastern,  southern,  and  western  sides  of  this  great 
continent,  we  are,  I  rejoice  to  say,  now  beginning  to  extend  our 
settlements  to  the  north  const,  the  occupation  of  wh'ch  I  have 
advocated  for  many  a  year,  on  political  as  well  as  on  commercial 
and  colonial  grounds  A  few  years  only  of  practical  researches 
have  dispelled  onr  ignorance  respecting  the  interior  of  this  vast 
mass  of  land  ;  in  which,  though  tiiere  are  wild  desert  tracks,  there 
are  also  many  rich  and  well-watered  oases  of  fine  pasture -grounds, 
through  which  the  colonists  may  open  out  communications  across 
the  continent  from  the  south  and  east  to  the  nor^ern  shores.  A 
short  time  only,I  venture  to  predict,  will  elapse  before  towns  arise 
at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  as  well  as  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Victoria  River  of  the  north ;  from  whence,  as  well  as  from  the 
new  settlement  of  Cape  York,  Australia  will  have  a  direct  com- 
mnnication  with  our  great  Indian  Empire." 

Referring  to  the  discovery  of  the  sources  of  the  Nile,  the  Presi- 
dent remarked  upon  the  fact  that  "traveller  after  traveller,  from 
the  days  of  the  E^ptian  priests  and  of  the  Roman  emperors  down 
to  modem  periods,  bad  endeavored  to  ascend  the  Nile  to  its 
source,  and  all  had  failed  " ;  and  that  it  was  by  reversing  the  pro- 
cess, and  by  proceeding  from  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  near  Zanzi- 
bar, to  the  cenlral  plateau  land  between  North  and  Sonth  Africa, 
that  Captains  Speke  and  Grant  had  solved  the  problem. 


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1864.]  BBITIBB  A8800UTI0M.  155 

Hie  President,  after  HUling  the  sabjeots  of  greatest  interest  to 
be  diwuMed  in  this  Boction,  remarked ;  "  In  the  commencement 
of  this  addr«M,I  spoke  of  the  comparatively  few  means  we  possessed 
in  18S8  of  reaching  rapidly  this  Aoarisbi*)g  town ;  and  now  I 
need^not  remind  yon  that  we  are  snrroaBded  by  a  network  of 
railroads,  which  wind  along  valleys,  or  are  driven  under  yonr  bills. 
Still  less  at  onr  former  meeting  here  had  the  genios  and  saga- 
cionsoesB  of  Wheatatone  overspread  the  coun^  with  the  eteclric 
telegraph,  enabling  men  rapidly  to  transact  important  aflairs  in 
oar  largest  oitiea,  whether  separated  by  a  few  miles  or  by  bnn- 
dreds  of  miles  from  thdr  correspondents.  At  the  last  Manchester 
meeting,  indeed,  we  interchanged  qnestiona  and  answers  with  the 
philoBophers  of  St  Pelersbnrgh  daring  an  evening  assembly ;  and 
unce  then  great  advances  bave  been  made  in  transmitting  tele, 
grams  ronnd  the  world.  In  this  way  a  vast  stride  will  be  made 
in  the  ensuing  winter  by  the  extensioa  of  the  telegraph  from  Con- 
stantinople through  Asia  Minor;  and  thence,  via  the  Persian 
Gol^  to  the  country  of  Mekran,  at  the  bead  of  the  Indian  Ocean, 
and  so  to  the  British  possessions  in  India.  At  the  same  lime, 
other  efforts  are  in  progress  to  carry  a  system  of  telegraphs  from 
Rnssia  through  Siberia,  and  thence  across  the  Desert  of  Gobi  to 
Pekin.  The  greai  de^deratum,  however,  of  connecting  Europe 
with  America  by  a  submarine  telegraph  remtuns  to  be  accom- 
plished. 'With  a  view  to  that  desirable  end,  the  Council  of  the 
Royal  Geographical  Society  warmly  pupported  a  proposal  by  Dr. 
Wallich  to  effect  a  complete  survey  of  the  sea  bottom,  as  a  pre- 
cnrsorto  the  actual  laying  down  of  a  cable  upon  the  vast  unknown 
irregularities  of  the  submarine  surface.  We  naturally  supported 
an  ^ort  like  this,  which  was  certain  to  throw  much  light  on 
Natural  History  and  Physical  Geography ;  and  we  rejoiced  in  the 
preliminary  researches  which  had  been  made  towards  the  estab- 
lishment of  an  electric  line  overland  to  British  India ;  because 
they,  for  the  first  time,  laid  open  to  European  knowledge  countries 
which,  though  unknown  to  the  moderns,  were  seats  of  power  when 
Alexander  the  Great  and  bis  lieutenants  invaded  India.  Tho 
sonndingB  whioh  ascertain  the  nature  of  the  bottom  of  the  ocean, 
not  only  give  ns  the  outlines  and  characters  of  various  sunken 
rocks,  sands,  and  mnd-banks,  and  of  vast  and  deep  cavitiua,  bnt 
inform  ns  where  the  nnder-cnrrents  prevail,  and  where  at  vast 
depths  the  surface  is  tranquil  and  anraffled  in  some  places,  whilst 


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IK  THE  CANADIAN  NATUBALI3T.  [April, 

in  others  aubmarioe  Toluanoes  disturb  the  sos-bottom.  Nay,  more, 
these  BubmaTine  operations  have  taught  us  that  aDlutals  oaouot 
onlj  live,  but  flourish,  preaaTving  even  their  colors,  at  the  enor- 
mous depth  of  one  mile  and  a  halt  We  thus  see  how  the  effi>rts 
of  the  nautical  surveyors  and  the  engineers  to  spread  the  electric 
telegraph  are  not  merely  destined  to  be  useful  to  maDkind,  but 
also  to  elicit  great  and  important  truths  in  Natural  History,  the 
development  of  which  is  specially  connected  with  the  pnratula  of 
the  geogrt^her  and  the  ethnologist." 

The  address  concluded  by  a  rderence  to  the  appointment  of  to 
skilful  and  philosophical  a  naturalist  as  Mr,  John  Lubbock  to  the 
chairof  President  of  the  Ethnological  Sodety,  and  to  the  appoiot- 
roent  of  Mr.  F.  Gallon  as  Seoretary,  under  whose  auspioea  an 
increased  activity  was  being  already  shewn. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 

Thi  Eabtbqitake  of  Apbil,  1864. 

In  the  Canadian  Naturalist,  Yol.  v.,  p.  379,  vill  be  found  a  list 
of  all  the  earthquakes  observed  in  Canada  up  to  that  of  October, 
1860.  Since  that  time,  nitli  the  esoeption  of  a  few  sUght  and 
local  shocks,  chiefly  in  the  vicinity  of  Murray  Bay  and  the 
Saguenay,  which  appear  to  be  points  of  apeoial  intensity  for  die 
seianiio  agency  of  this  country,  there  have  been  eo  earthquakes 
felt  until  Wednesday,  April  20th,  1864,  when  a  shock  of  no 
great  intensity  was  felt  throughout  a  great  part  of  Lower  Canada. 
Like  other  Canadian  earthquakes  it  was  felt  almost  simultaneously 
over  a  wide  extent  of  country,  indioatlng  perhaps  that  its  souice 
was  deep-seated,  and  the  vibrations  propagated  almost  vertloaUy 
to  the  surface.  At  Quebec  the  shock  was  felt  between  1.10  and 
1.15  p.m.;*  and  atL'Islet,  Danville,  Montreal, and otikwplaoes, in 
so  far  as  can  be  ascertdned,  the  hour  was  nearly  the  same,  except 
iu  the  case  of  Father  Point,  where  a  shock  is  said  to  have  been 
felt  at  1 1  o'clock.  Unless  there  is  some  mistake  in  the  statement 
this  must  have  been  a  shock  not  felt  elsewhere.  In  so  &r  as 
reported,  the  shock  seems  to  have  been  most  violent  at  Quebec, 
where,  as  well  as  at  several  other  places,  two  distinct  vibrations 

•  Or  accordiDg  to  other  statcmeDts  at  1.10  p.  u. 


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1864.]  UISCItLANBOUS.  1K7 

were  noted  by  some  obseiren.  The  reports  do  not  give  nncb 
infonnation  as  to  the  directioD  of  the  vibration,  bat  it  wbb  pro- 
bably, as  in  the  earthquake  of  I860,  from  eaet  to  weet,  or  from 
southeast  to  northweet. 

The  only  remarkable  poiat  in  rdaUon  to  this  earthquake  is  its 
ooourrenoe  at  a  season  when  edsmic  ene^  iu  thia  r^on  seems, 
from  past  experienoe,  to  manifest  itself  less  frequently  than  at 
moat  other  times.  Only  four  ont  of  eighty-three  recorded  earth-" 
quakee  in  Canada  and  its  vicinity  have  ocourred  in  April;  the 
antnmn  and  winter  being  the  seasons  of  greatest  eelsmio  aotivity. 

The  fbllowing  extracts  ftem  Quebec  newspapers  give  some 
details  of  interest : — 

The  Mercury  says : — "  The  earth  trembled  violently  ;  eveiy 
house  was  shaken  as  if  an  explosion  of  gas  or  gunpowder,  (x  an 
fixmianent  of  the  rook  had  taken  place — only  no  noise  was 
heard.  Some  fancied  that  a  heavy  weight  had  iallen  upon  the 
floors  above  them,  and,  indeed,  that  was  our  own  seusadon.  The 
walls  of  the  honse  rocked ;  the  windows  rattled  ;  and  we  rocked 
ouiselveB.  To  make  sure  that  the  powe^presB  had  not  fallen  to 
pteoes,  ve  examined  the  press-room,  bnt  fonnd  all  right  there. 
The  inmates  of  the  rooms  above  us,  horror-stricken,  came  down 
stairs  to  enquire  what  the  matter  was ;  people  &om  the  street 
came  tumbling  in  to  ask  us  if  we  bad  felt  any  unusual  seosation : 
the  people  over  the  way  felt  it ;  the  cruet  stands  were  overset, 
]JateB  broken,  and  the  whole  dinner-table  aervii%  at  'Russell's  set 
in  motion ;  the  soldiers  rushed  ont  of  their  bomb-proofs  on  the 
oitatdel,  where  the  shook  was,  we  are  informed,  the  most  severe ; 
in  St.  John  street  without,  peoj^  ran  fh)m  their  houses,  and 
hosts  of  people  bede^d  the  gates  of  the  gas-works.  In  the  streets, 
however,  the  shook  was  not  sensibly  felt,  and  by  some  persons  not 
felt  at  all.  It  is  fully  believed  dtat  the  ooncussory  effect  upon 
the  bouses  was  greater  thui  when  the  laboratory  blew  up.  A 
gentlemaa  informs  us  that  at  Mount  Pleasant  the  shock  appeared 
to  come  from  the  southwest  with  a  gradually  increasing  rumbling 
noise,  and  ended  with  a  report  as  of  a  distant  explouon.  At  the 
house  of  Mr.  Maingny,  in  Scott  street,  near  tlie  Lewis  Road,  the 
eartb  has  opened  in  two  plaoes  in  a  passage  leading  to  the  yard, 
and  a  quantity  of  earth  was  thrown  down  &om  the  siding  of  the 
cellar. 
The  Chronide  statea :— '■  About  ten  minutee  or  a  quarter  past 


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158  THE  OANADIAM  NATDBALIST.  [-^pnl, 

one,  yesterday  &(lemoon,  the  city  was  "  frightened  from  its  pro- 
pricly"  by  a  shook  of  an  earthquake— of  hrief  duration  and  nnat- 
tended  by  any  serioos  resnlla,  but  Buffidently  violent  to  give  an 
idea  of  the  destraction  which  vould  have  been  caused  had  the 
DonTnlsion  of  the  earth  lasted  as  many  minates  as  it  did  seconds. 
The  shock  was  of  a  peonliar  nature.  It  was  not  of  the  svaying 
or  vibratory  species — it  was  a  shaking  of  the  ground  precisely 
similar  id  effect  wilji  that  caued  on  a  bridge  by  the  pasdng  of  a 
heavy  train  at  a  considerable  speed.  In  the  houses  it  was  felt  to  a 
mach  greater  extent  than  byperaons  in  the  streets — this  fact  being 
of  oonise  easily  explained  by  the  motion  Gommnnioat«d  to  floors, 
the  rattling  of  windows,  doors,  fiirat tare,  glass-ware,  and  loose  fix- 
tares.  Several  persons  appear  not  to  have  felt  the  qoivering  motion 
of  the  ground  oat  of  doors,  and  ware  therefore  surprised  to 
see  persons  rushing  into  the  streets,  anxiously  enquiring  what  had 
occurred.  In  the  houses  the  rumbling  or  jarring  soand  was  how- 
ever, positively  alarming.  In  some  instances  omameat«  and  ill- 
secured  panes  of  glass  fell  fW>m  windows.  The  shook  lasted,  as 
nearly  as  can  be  determined,  five  or  six  seconds.  Of  course,  on 
such  an  oocadon,  few  parsons  could  be  Ibund  with  suffiiuent  pre- 
sence of  mind  to  count  at  the  moment  the  duration  of  the  convnl- 
sion,  and  it  can  therefore  only  be  estimated  by  the  reoolleotion  of 
the  event. 

"  In  the  upper  portions  of  the  city — on  the  Cape,  In  the  Citadel, 
and  in  St.  Lewis  suburbs — the  shook  seems  to  have  been  most 
severe.  In  the  Lower  Town  and  St.  Booh's,  however,  it  was  felt 
with  sufficient  force  to  send  thousands  of  persons  into  the  streets 
to  enquire  if  another  ezidonon  had  taken  place,  if  the  gas  works 
at  Orleans  wharf,  Palus,  had  blown  up,  or  if  a  portion  of  Cape 
Diamond  had  given  way  and  crashed  the  houses  in  Champlain 
street.  All  these  surmises  were  indulged  in  at  the  moment.  That 
with  r^ard  to  the  gas  works,  however,  grew  iuto  a  rumor  that 
spread  like  wildfire,  and  hundreds  ran  or  drove  towards  the  Palais 
to  find  that  it  was  unfounded.  This  rumorwas  doubtleBs  strength- 
ened by  the  fact  that  many  persons  fancied  that  they  perceived  a 
gaseous  smell  immediately  after  the  fdiock.  But  the  absence  of 
anything  like  the  loud  report  which  characterizes  an  explosion  seems 
to  have  led  most  people  to  attribute  it  at  once  to  its  trae  oaose. 

"  There  were  none  of  the  signs  of  the  elements  which  usually 
herald  the  ooming  of  earthquakes  in  sonthera  latitudes.     The  sky 


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1864.]  UtS0BLLA.NE0D8.  159 

waa  cloadless  at  the  time,  the  weather  clear  and  agreeable,  with 
what  mariners  would  call  a  "  stiff  breeze."  The  wind  prevented 
the  effect  of  the  earthquake  &om  being  noticeable  on  the  river, 
although  some  observant  persons  say  that  the  surface  of  the  water 
appeared  darker  than  its  ordinary  color  while  the  concasdon 
lasted." 

The  A'ewe  adds  the  following  : — "  The  shock  was  so  sadden  that 
to  iJioee  who  were  within  doois  it  appeared  as  if  the  chimney-wall 
or  roof  of  tlieir  own  or  their  neighbor's  house  had  given  way  and  was 
tumbling  down.  At  the  Artillery  Barracks,  the  men  ran  from  their 
rosma  into  the  square  and  up  towards  the  magazine,  fully  convinced 
that  another  explosion  had  taken  place.  On  the  citadel,  too, 
where  we  are  told  the  shock  was  most  violent,  the  men  ran  in  ter- 
ror from  their  bomb-proof  rooms  into  the  square,  and  crowded  the 
rampaits  to  see  where  the  ezplodon  had  ooonrred. 

"  We  learn  that  in  the  ship-yards  at  St.  Roch's,  the  ships  ou  the 
stocks  waved  to  and  fro.  Some  persons  say  they  distinctly  saw 
the  river  rise  in  some  parts  to  ftheightof  nearly  ten  feet,  and  that 
it  receded  almost  immediately." 

Mr.  Herbert  Williams  writes  tfi  the  Quebec  Chronieh  as  follows, 
irom  Harvey  Hill  Mines,  under  the  date  of  Thursday  April  21 : 
"  At  1.15  p.m.,  yesterday,  a  smart  shock  of  an  earthquake  was 
felt  in  this  district,  lasting  from  ten  to  fifteen  seconds.  It  was  also 
perodved  by  some  of  our  miners,  who  were  at  Ae  time  working 
at  a  depth  of  ISO  feet  below  the  surf^.  The  undulation  at 
this  place,  ag  nearly  as  I  could  judge,  seemed  to  travel  from  south- 
west to  northeast,  the  wind  blowing  at  the  time  from  the  north- 
east. At  6.40  p.m.,  we  had  a  brilliant  flasli  of  %htning  without 
its  usual  acoompanimeDl  of  thunder ;  the  sky  at  the  time  was 
pofectly  clear,  the  wind  blowing  strong  from  the  northeast.  As 
yuo  will,  I  doubt  not,  receive  many  oommunioations  from  different 
parts  of  the  Province,  it  may  be  Interesting  to  learn  the  time  of 
its  t^pearanoe  at  different  places.  Hence  I  send  you  the  above 
facts  of  its  occnrrence  here." 


0.1  Oboanio  Beuains  in  thb  Laukxntian  Rooks  of  Canada. 

(Letter  from  Sir  W.  E.  Lc^an  t«  the  Editors  of  "  Silliman's 

Journal.") 

"  In  August,  185d,  I  exhibited  to  the  American  Assooiadou  at 

Springfield,  Mass.,  specimens  of  what  was  r^;arded  by  me  as  an 


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160  THE   CANADIAN   NATDKALI8T, 


otganic  form  externally  reBembting  Stromatoeerium,  and  found  in 
the  Laurentiu)  limestone  of  the  Ottawa.  These  were  described  by 
me  in  the  Canadian  Naturalist  for  that  year  (vol.  iv,  p.  300), 
and  afterwards  figured  in  the  QeoU^  of  Canada,  p.  49.  In 
1863,  similar  forms  were  detected  by  the  Qeological  Surrey,  in 
the  serpentine-limestone  of  Grenville,  sections  of  which  we  liave 
prepared  and  submitted  for  mioroeoopio  examination  to  Dr.  J.W. 
Dawson.  He  finds  that  tlie  serpentine,  which  was  sui^K»ed  to 
replace  tLe  organic  form,  really  fills  the  interspaoea  of  tbeoaloareona 
fosEil.  '  This  exhibits  in  some  parte  n  waH-preaerred  organic 
straotore,  which  Dr.  Dawson  desoribes  as  that  of  a  Foraminifer 
'  growing  in  large  seedle  patehes  after  the  manner  of  Carpmteria, 
but  of  much  greater  dimenuons.  and  presenting  minute  poiuts 
whioh  reveal  a  structure  reaembling  thit  of  other  fbraminifbrons 
forms,  as  for  example  Calearina  and  NummuHta.'  Fignrw  and 
deeoriptions  will  nxm  be  published  by  the  Geolt^oal  Surrey. 

"Large  portions  of  the  Lanrenti&n  limestones  appear  to  be  made 
up  of  fragments  of  theee  organisms,  mixed  with  other  fragments 
whioh  suggest  oomparisons  with  orinoide  and  other  calcareous  fos- 
sils, but  cannot  be  distinctly  determined.  Some  of  the  limeatones 
are  more  or  less  colored  by  carbonaceous  matter,  which  Dr.  Dawson 
b»  ibund  to  exhibit  under  the  miorosoope  evidenoes  of  organic 
Btructnre,  probably  v^etable. 

"  In  tikis  connection,  it  may  be  notiocd  that  Mr.  Sterry  Huut,  in 
apaperpraaent«d  toUtcGeoli^cal  Society ofliOndou  in  18C>8,  (see 
also  SiUiman's  Journal,  [2],  xzzvi,  296,)  insisted  upon  the  preeenra 
of  beds  of  inn-ore,  metallic  snlphnrets,  and  graphite  in  the  Iisn- 
rantian  series  as  "  affording  evidence  of  the  existence  of  oi^nic 
life  at  tlie  time  of  the  deposition  of  these  old  crystalline  rooks." 

Dr.  Dawson  has  proposed  fi>r  this  fossil  tiie  name  of  Eoxodn 
Gamadeiue,  nnder  which  it  will  shortly  be  folly  described. 


FubliBbed,  Montreal,  May  7, 1861. 

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CANADIAN  NATURALIST. 


CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  LITHOLOGT.* 
Bi  T.  Stcbbt  Eobt,  U-A.,  F.B.S. ;  of  th«  Qeol.  Sarfc/  of  Oaudk. 

III.  On  Sous  Ektiptitb  RoaEB.t 
In  SiUiman'B  Jooraal  for  March  1860  (2iid,  xxiz,  282)  there  is  * 
■krart  note,  pointii^  ovt  the  existence,  in  the  Ticiuity  of  Montreal, 
of  Bereial  intereating  claases  of  ernptire  rooks,  inalndisg  qnartii- 
feroDB  porphjriea,  trachyteB,  phonolite,  doleritee,  and  diorites.  It 
is  jxopoeed  in  the  third  part  of  the  present  paper  to  describe  the 
neoltB  of  some  chemioal  and  mineralogioal  ozaminations  of  these 
rocks,  and  to  give  b;  way  of  pre&ce  a  desoription  of  their  get^rv 
{Ideal  distribntjon  and  geological  relations.  They  may  be  oon- 
aidered  gec^aidtically  as  belong^  to  tiro  gronpe ;  of  vhioh  the  first 
and  more  important  for  the  nnmber  and  variety  of  its  rooks  may  be 
c<»iveniently  described  as  the  Mootreal  gnmp.  It  ooosists  of  a 
floooession  of  introsive  masses  along  a  belt  mnniiig  nearly  trans- 
Terse  to  the  nndolations  of  the  Notre  Dams  Mountains,  which  are 
the  prolongation  of  the  Aiqialachiaiis  into  eastern  Canada.  Com- 
mencing at  Sheffbrd  Hoontun,  an  isolated  traohytio  mass  not  tn 
removed  from  the  western  base  of  the  Notre  Dame  range,  we  find, 
going  westward,  the  detaohed  hills  known  as  Yamaaka,  Ronge- 
mont,  Roaville  or  Bekeil,  Montarville  or  Boucherville,  Mount 
Royal  or  Montreal,  and  Rigand  Motrntuns ;  the  last  being  dis- 
tant aboat  ninety  miles  from  Shefford.    Brome  Mountain,  which 


Ko.  3. 


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162  THE  OANADIAN  MATD&ALIBT.  [Jtlae^ 

oooapies  s  large  uek  to  the  south  of  She&brd,  approaches  within 
two  milee  of  it.  InUke  maimer,  afewmtleB  tothe  aoathof  Beliail. 
IB  another  intmuve  nusB  known  u  Monnt  Johneoa  or  Monnoir ; 
making  in  all  nine  hills  of  eruptive  rook  beloi^!;iDg  to  the  M<mfr~ 
real  group.  Bendes  these,  umnerous  smaller  intrusive  masses  In  the 
form  of  dykes  are  met  with  around  and  between  the  hills.  From 
Hount  Boyal  to  Rigand  Mountain,  a  distanoe  of  about  thirty  milea, 
a  gende  undulation  of  the  strata  is  observed,  whioh  increases  to  the 
westward  of  Bigand,  and  finally  gives  place  to  a  considerable  fault. 
This  disturbance  has  been  tiaeei  to  the  Lanrentide  hills  on  the  Lao 
des  Ghats,  140  miles  west  of  Montreal;  buttotheeaBtwardtheBtrat* 
exhilut  no  evidence  of  tlus  transverse  undulation,  unless  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  intmsive  rocks  already  mentioned  be  supposed  to 
indicate  the  prokngalion  of  a  fraotnre  without  sensible  dislooadtHi.. 

The  whole  of  these  eruptive  rooks  rise  throi^;Ii  unaltered  pako- 
loio  strata,  which  however,  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  intru- 
sive rooks,  exhibit  a  local  metamorphism.  The  hills  of  Sheffordf 
&ome,  and  Y'amaska  break  Uirough  the  strata  of  the  Quebec 
group,  and  lie  a  little  to  the  east  of  the  great  line  of  dislooatioa. 
which,  in  thisregitxi,  brings  up  tlie  lower  members  of  the  paleotoi& 
aeries  agunst  the  superior  portion  of  the  Lower  Silurian,  and  di- 
vides into  two  (Uatricts  thegreat  paleozoic  basin.  (Geol«^  of  Can- 
ada, pp.  334,  &97.)  The  other  hills  all  belong  to  the  western  di~ 
^racn  of  this  basia,  and  break  Hirougfa  various  members  of  the 
Lower  Silnriao  series  from  the  Potsdam  to  the  Hudson  lUver 
ibnBation.  Afflfog  the  numerous  dykes  which  traverse  not  only  the 
sedlmentaiy  strata  but  the  intrunve  masses,  thero  are  some  which 
intersect  the  oongVnnerates  of  St.  Helen's  Island.  These  are  of  nn- 
eerti^  age,  but  repose  unoonformably  on  the  Lower  Silurian  series, 
and  enclose  pebbles  and  masses  of  Upper  ^urian  limestone  oharao- 
teriied  by  fosnls  of  the  Lower  Helderbeig  period.  (Ibid.,  p.  366.) 

This  group  of  intrusive  rocks  offers  very  great  varieties  in  oom- 
poeiticm ;  thus  Shefford  and  Broma  consist  of  what  we  dial!  de- 
scribe as  a  granitoid  trachyte,  while  the  succeeding  mountain, 
Tamaska,  and  the  most  western,  Rigand,  both  oonrist  in  part  of  a 
kuld  of  trachyte,  and  in  part  of  diorite.  Monnoir  and  Bekeil  also 
consist  of  diorites,  wbioh  however  differ  from  the  last  two,  and  from 
eaeh  other  ;  while  Rougemont,  Montarrille,  and  Mount  Royal  con- 
sist in  great  part  of  dolerites,  presenting  however  many  varieties 
in  composition,  and  sometimes  passing  into  pyrozenito.     The  dale- 


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1864.]  T.    STiaSY  HUNT  OH  LITHOLOGT.  163 

ritc8  of  Bongeinimt  and  Mount  Royal  are  oat  by  dykes  of  trtf 
chyte.  Similar  dykea  aim  traverae  the  diorit«  of  Yamaaka,  and  may 
perhaps  be  oonneoted  with  tbe  tracbytio  portion  of  this  mountain. 
It  ia  probaUe,  jndgii^  ftom  some  speoimona  Arom  Roogemont,  that 
the  dolerite  ia  tbere  interaeoted  hy  yeina  of  diorite,  some  t^  wbioh 
reesmbk  that  of  BeloaU,  and  others  that  of  Monnoir.  Dykes  both 
of  Izaobyte,  phonolite,  and  dolerite  are  also  found  traversing  tbe 
Lower  Silariui  strata  in  the  vioinity  of  the  great  eruptive  masses ; 
andtbeconglomerateofSt.  Helen's  mentioned  above  is  traversed  by 
dykes  of  dolerite,  which  in  their  turn  are  cut  by  others  of  trachyte. 
A  Beoond  and  smaller  group  of  intrusive  rocks  occurs  to  the  north- 
west of  Montreal,  chiefly  in  tbe  ooonty  of  Qrenville,  where  they 
traverse  the  gaeiss  aud  limestones  of  tbe  Laurentiau  system.  Tbe 
principal  undulations  of  these  rocks  bave,  like  tbwe  of  tbe  Appa- 
lachians, a  nortb  and  soutli  direction;  but  tbero  is  apparent  also 
a  second  series  of  undulations,  affecting  in  a  less  d^;ree  the  geo- 
gr^ibical  distribution  of  tbe  strata,  and  having,  like  the  Montreal 
and  Rigaud  undulation,  an  east  and  west  direction.  Coinoident  with 
tbe  latt«r  system  of  folds  is  a  series  of  doleritio  dykes,  wMob  nowhere 
attain  a  great  breath,  but  have  in  some  oases  been  traoed  mtxe  tbao 
fifty  milea  in  a  nearly  east  and  west  direction.  Xbeae  dykes  are- 
interrupted  by  a  great  mass  of  reddish  fffenite,  paeaiog  in  some 
parts  into  granite,  and  oeeni^ing  an  wea  of  about  tturty-mx  square 
miles  in  the  townships  of  Orenville,  Chatham,  sod  Wentworth. 
Dylcee  of  this  syenite  extend  from  the  central  mass,  and  traverse  the 
Burronnding  gneiss  and  limestone.  Numerous  dykee  c^  quartaifer- 
ouB  pwpbyry  interseot  both  this  syeidte  and  tiie  surronnding  gneiss, 
and  are  seen  ita  one  case  to  proceed  &om  a  ooomderable  nucleus  of 
porpl^ry,  which  rises  into  a  small  mountmn ;  rendering  it  probable 
tbBt  nnmerous  other  porphyry  dykes  of  the  region  radiate  in 
likamsDnerfrom  otbernueleiofthe  same  rook.  Simie  parte  of  this 
porplqrry  enclose  fragments  of  syenite,  dolerite,  and  gneiss,  which 
vary  in  uie  &om  smaU  grains  to  several  feet  in  diameter,  aadtrfteo 
^ve  to  the  rook  the  obaracter  of  a  breccia.  In  one  instance  a  bed 
of  gneiss,  iqtwarda  of  a  hundred  yards  in  lenglb,  is  complete  sor- 
ronnded  by  tbe  porphyry. 

Okthothtsx  ahd  Steniti. 

Obtboolasi-Forpqtkt  oa  Obthofhtbk. — Und^  Hob  bead 

may  be  noticed  a  lock  which  has  for  its  base  a  compact  petrosiie^ 


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164  THC   CANADIAN   NATUSALI8T.  [June, 

or  mtimato  mixture  of  orthoclaae  aod  qn&rtz,  rendered  porplijritio 
bj  the  preeenoe  of  gruns  or  cryBtals  of  orthoolaae,  of  qnarti,  or 
of  botb  of  these  minerola  iK^tlier.  The  ocoarreace  of  this  rook 
at  Qienville,  where  it  forms  dykei  ia  the  Hjenite  of  that  re^<»i, 
haa  just  been  noticed.  The  fine-grained  petronlioions  base  of  this 
rock  varies  in  oolor  ftom  dark  green  to  various  shades  of  red, 
purple,  and  black ;  these  differences  probably  depending  upon  tita 
d^ree  of  ozydation  of  the  oontained  iron.  Thronghont  this  paste 
are  disseminated  vell-de&ied  orystals  of  a  roae-red  or  fleeh-red 
feldspar  apparently  orthoclaae,  aometimee  veiy  abundant;  and  less 
frequently  small  grains  of  nearly  colorless  translucent  quarts.  As 
analysis  was  made  of  a  charaotenstic  variety  of  the  rook,  the  base 
of  vhioh  wae  greenish-black,  jasper-like,  oonchoidal  in  fracture, 
and  feebly  translucent  on  the  edges,  with  a  somewhat  waxy  lustre. 
The  hardness  was  nearly  equal  to  that  of  quartz,  and  the  specific 
gravity  2.62.  A  few  distinct  crystals  of  red  orthoclase,  and  soma 
grains  of  quartz,  were  present.  The  base,  freed  as  much  as  possi- 
ble from  these,  gave  as  follows : 

Silica 11.20 

Alumloa la.SO 

Peroxjd  of  iron 3. TO 

LioM .90 

FotHh 3B8 

Sod» 6.30 

Tolatlle 60 

»9.0B 
The  oxygen  ratio  of  the  alkalies  and  alumina  is  2.02 :  C».84,  or 
nearly  1 : 3.  The  alumina  requires  43.80  parts  of  silica  to  form 
wi&  the  alkalies  65.48  parts  of  a  feldspar  having  the  ratios  1:3: 
12,  which  are  those  of  orthoclase  and  albite.  There  will  then 
lemun  28.4  parts  of  silica.  This,  with  the  exception  of  a  small 
amount  which  is  probably  united  witli  tike  oiyd  of  iron  and  lime, 
may  be  r^arded  as  nnootnbined.  The  porphyries  of  this  r^ion 
reoeire  a  h^h  polish,  and  are  sometimes  very  beautiful. 

Stbnits. — The  syenite  of  this  region  oonusts  of  orthoclase, 
usually  flesh-red  in  oolor,  and  grayish  yitreoas  quarts,  with  a  small 
portion  of  blackish-green  hornblende,  which  is  sometimee  almost 
or  altt^ther  wanting,  and  is  oooasionally  aooompanied  with  a 
UtUemioa.  The  ortboolaaeisoften  nearly  «)mpact,bnt  more  gen- 


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1864.]  T.  STXaBT  HDKT  OH  LITHOLOOT.  16b 

nUy  disUnotly  oiTstalline  and  deavable,  and  bo  far  an  obserred,  u 
not  UBOoiated  with  any  triolinic  feldspar.  The  hornblende  is  ap- 
pareotlj  sabjeot  to  deoompodtion,  becoming  soft,  earthy,  and  femt- 
pnoojB  in  its  aspect,  while  tiie  feldspar  retdns  its  brilliancy.  The 
partial  aoalysiB  of  sooh  a  specimen  of  the  syenite  gave  only  0.56 
of  lime,  and  traoei  of  magnesia,  with  3.75  per  cent,  of  peroxyd  of 
iron,  and  of  alkalies,  potasb  4.43,  soda  4.35.  This  lai^  proportion 
of  soda  ia  also  to  be  remarked  in  the  orthophjre  jnst  deaoribed,  and 
in  the  red  orthoolteo^aeiss  of  this  r^on,  a  portion  of.  which  gave' 
3.86  per  cent  of  potash  and  3.70  of  soda ;  while  the  red  orthoclase- 
ftom  the  rocks  of  tiiis  Zianrentian  seriea,  named  perthite  by  Dr^ 
Thompson,  gives  in  like  manner  6.37  of  potash  to  5.56  of  soda. 
A  nearly  pnre  potash^orthoolaae,  generally  while  in  color,  is  bow- 
erer  fbnnd  in  aome  of  the  atratiGed  Laorentian  rooks.  (Geology 
of  Can&da,  page  474.) 

This  syenite  of  Greaville  has  in  some  portions  nndergono  a 
peealiar  deoompoutioa,  which  has  reduced  it  to  a  soft  greenish 
matterharingtbeaspeot  of  serpentine,  or  rather  of  pyrallolite.  This, 
duti^  has  been  remarked  only  in  the  vicinity  of  some  remarkable 
TODB  (Robert  which  are  here  fonnd  ontting  the  syenite,  and  as  de- 
BOiibed  by  Sir  W.  E.  Logan,  is  more  or  leas  complete  for  a  distance. 
of  two  hnndred  yards  on  each  ride  of  them.  In  specimens  of  this 
altered  rook,  the  ijnarti  remains  nnobanged ;  while  tJie  feldspar. 
Stall  preserving  its  cleavages,  has  a  hardness  no  greater  than  car- 
bonate of  lime.  It  is  somewhat  unetaous  to  the  toaofa,  with  « 
fbeble  waxy  lustre,  sad  its  oolor  is  occasionally  reddish,  bat  more 
often  of  a  pale  green.  Suoh  a  specimen  was  selected  for  analysis 
and  gave  of  sitioa  80.65,  alnmina  12.60,  lime  0.60,  soda  and  a 
little  potash  2.65,  volatile  2.10,  magoesiaand  oxydof  iron,  traces ; 
=  98.60.  From  this  resnlt  it  appears  that  the  feldspar  of  the 
syenite  has  lost  nearly  two  thirds  of  its  alkali ;  the  iron  and  other 
bases  having  also  for  the  most  part  disappeared.  This  removal  of 
the  protozyd  bases  wool^  appear  from  the  character  of  the  result- 
ing mineral  to  be  different  from  that  which  takes  place  during 
the  kaoUnization  of  feldspar.  The  nature  of  the  process  requires 
further  investigatioo,  but  it  was  not  improbably  connected  with 
the  deporition  of  the  adjacent  chert  orhornstone.  This  substance, 
according  to  SirW.  £.  Logan,  forms  twolaige  veins  which  out  the 
syenite  vertically,  and  have  a  breadth  of  from  four  to  seven  feet. 
It  is  genendly  arranged  iu  bands  or  layers  parallel  to  the  walls  of 


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166  THB  OilHAinAN  NATtTiULIST.  [Jone, 

~the  veins,  and  ruying  in  color  &om  white  to  jellovinh  and  flesh- 
^red.  Themineralhas  the  cbemical  oharaoteraof  flintorhnbrBtoiie, 
•»tiA  like  the  latter  presente  numerous  irr^ialar  cells,  the  valla  <^ 
which  are  Mmetimea  laornated  with  crystala  oFqaails,&nd  in  other 
oases  bear  the  impreaaion  of  amall  cubes,  perhaps  of  crystals  of  fluor- 
spar, which  have  themselves  disappeared.  The  relations  of  these 
singular  veins  of  silez  show  that  it  cannot  beef  sedtmentuyorigtot 
and  it  can  soaroely  be  doubted  that  it  is  an  aqueous  deposit,  and 
results  from  a  similar  process  to  that  which  on  a  lesser  scale  gives 
rise  to  agate  and  chalcedony  tn  various  rocks.  (Qeoli^  of  Canada, 
page  41.) 

TSAOHTTES. 

Under  this  head  we  riiaU  describe  a  dass  of  rocks  whkli  are 
very  abundant  in  Eastern  Canada,  and  present  a  great  variety  of 
aspects.  There  are  many  dykes  iu  the  vicinity  of  Montreal  which 
resemble  some  of  the  typical  traohytic  rocks  of  Anvergne  and  of 
the  Rhine ;  while  the  rocks  of  the  mountains  of  Brome  and  Sheffivd 
consist  almost  entirely  of  distinctly  crystalline  feldspar.  These  will 
be  described  as  granitoid  trachytes,  nnder  which  head  may  also  be 
included  a  somewhat  similar  rock  ^m  Yamaska  Mountun. 

Brome  and  SsiFroBD  Mountains. — The  trachytesof  Brome 
and  Shefford  occupy  two  oondderable  areas  near  to  each  other, 
and,  as  already  stated,  are  the  eastemmost  of  the  eruptive  masses 
now  under  description.  The  larger  area  covers  about  twenty 
square  mileein  Bromeaad  the  western  part  of  the  township  of  Shef- 
ford. It  oonaieta  of  several  rounded  hills,  of  whioh  the  prindpal 
are  named  Brome  and  Shefford  Mountuns,  and  rise  boldly  about 
1,000  feet  above  die  surrounding  plain.  The  rock  shows  divisional 
planes,  f^ving  it  an  aspect  of  stratification,  and  separates  by  other 
joints  into  rectangular  blocks.  The  second  area  includes  about  nine 
square  mOee  in  the  township  of  Shefibrd,  to  the  northwest  of  the 
last,  and  at  the  nearest  point  is  only  about  two  miles  removed  from 
it.     This  is  known  as  Shefford  Mountain. 

The  rocks  of  these  two  mountainous  areas  present  but  very 
alight  differences;  being,  so  far  as  examined,  everywhere  made  up 
in  great  part  of  a  crystalline  feldspar,  with  small  portions  of  brown- 
ish-black mica,  or  of  black  hornblende,  whioh  are  sometimefl  asso- 
ciated. The  proportion  of  these  two  minerals  is  never  above  a  few 
hundredths,  and  is  often  less  than  one  hundredth.    The  other  min- 


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1664.]  T.   8MEET   HUHT   OH   llTHOl-OaT.  16T 

■erd  species  are  small  brilliant  otyatals  of  yellowish  sphene,  and 
■olbere  of  magaetio  Iron,  amounting  together  probably  to  one  tlion- 
B&ndth  of  the  mass.  In  Bome  finer^aiued  variedee  a  few  rare 
-«rrstalB  of  sodality  and  of  nepbeline  are  met  wiA.  Botfor  the 
vniform  absence  of  qoarts,  these  rocks  might  be  taken  for  varieties 
■of  granite  and  syenite.  They  are  very  friable,  and  subject  to 
^iBint^raUoii,  so  tiiat  the  soil  for  some  distance  around  these 
mountains  is  almost  entirely  made  up  of  the  separated  crystals  of 
dfaldspar ;  vhich  however  show  but  little  tendeuoy  to  decomposition, 
and  retain  their  lustre.  The  rock  is  sometimes  rather  finely  granu- 
lar is  its  texture ;  but  is  often  oomposed  of  cleavable  masses  of  ortho- 
■fihse,  which  are  from  one  fifth  to  one  half  of  an  inch  in  breadth, 
and  sometimes  nearly  an  inch  in  length.  The  Instre  is  vitreous,  and 
in  the  more  opaque  varietiea,  pearly ;  bnttbe  crystals  nerer  exhibit 
the  eminently  glassy  lustre  nor  the  fissured  appearance  that 
«luncterizee  the  feldspars  of  many  European  trachytes  whiob  are 
nmilar  to  them  in  oompositioa.  The  color  of  the  feldspar  of  these 
rocks  is  white,  pasdnginto  reddish  ont^  one  hand,  and  into peari- 
gray  or  lavender-gray  on  the  other. 

Specimens  of  the  rock  of  Brome  Monnttun  were  taken  ftvm  the 
ode  near  to  the  village  of  West  Shefford.  It  was  coarsely  crys- 
talline, lavender-gray  in  color,  and  contained  a  little  brown  mioa, 
spbene,  and  magnetic  iron, but  no  hornblende.  Thedensity  of  frag- 
ments of  the  rock  was  found  to  be  2.632-2.638.  Selected  grains 
«f  the  feldspar  had  a  specific  gravity  of  2.575,  and  gave  by  analy- 
aii  the  result  it.  The  dialysis  of  a  second  specimen  from  another 
jwrtion  of  the  hill,  is  given  under  nt. 

The  rock  ftx>m  the  south  side  of  Shefibrd  Mountain  was  next 
examined.  In  one  part  it  oonaisted  of  a  coarse-grained  grayish- 
white  feldspar  with  a  little  black  mica,  and  closely  resembled  the 
ititk  just  described  from  the  adjaoent  monntain.  A  little  lower 
down  the  hill  however  was  a  variety  which,  thoimh  oompletelj 
crystalline,  was  more  coherent  and  finer-gruned  t^an  that  of  Brome, 
the  feldspar  rarely  exhibiting  cleavage-planes  mora  than  a  fourth 
■of  BO  indt  in  length.  Brilliant  crystalline  grains  of  black  hom- 
blmde  about  the  sise  of  grains  of  rice  were  sparii^y  disseminated 
4hTongh  the  mass,  together  with  veiyBmallportionsof  magnetite  and 
jellowish  spbene.  Fragments  of  t^e  rock  had  a  densi^  of  2.607- 
2.657.  The  feldspar  was  yellowish-white  '^d  sub-translacent,  with 
a  somewhat  pearly  lustre.    By  crushing  and  washing  the  mass,  the 


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168  TBI  OAHADUH  NATDKALIBT.  [^OM^ 

gtuni  of  feldspu  were  separated  from  the  heavier  minerals,  aad 
fbond  to  have  a  Bpecifio  gravity  of  2.561.  The  result  of  ite  anal- 
yais,  Hhioh  scarcely  differs  &om  that  of  Brome,  is  given  ander  it. 

SUiea 65.70  69.30  60. 1& 

AlDUina 30.80  10.  TO  20.56 

Lima 84  .84  .73 

PoUth e.43  ....  6.39 

Soda e-S3          6.6T 

TolBtUa 50  ....  .SO 

100.79  99.99 

Takasea  Mountain. — About  twelve  miks  to  the  Dortb  af 
west  from  Sb^ord  Monntuii  rises  the  hill  of  intmuve  rook  known 
as  Yamaska  Mountain,  which  has  an  area  of  about  four  square 
sules,  and  breaks  through  the  strata  of  the  Qo^mo  group,  near  the 
line  of  the  great  dislocation  which  brings  these  up  ^tunst  Uie 
limeetones  of  the  Trenton  group.  The  southeastern  part  of  this 
hiU  oonsiBta  of  a  granitoid  dicrite  hereafter  to  be  noticed ;  bat  the 
greater  portion  of  the  mass  may  be  described  as  a  granitoid  tn- 
ehyto,  differing  in  aspect  from  that  of  Brome  and  Shefford,  in 
beingsomewhatmoTemioaceouB  and  more  fissile.  The  mica,  which 
is  d>rk  brown,  is  in  elongated  flakes,  and  there  is  neither  horU' 
blende  nor  quartE  in  the  speoimenB  collected,  which  however  hold 
small  portions  of  mignetite,  and  minute  crystals  of  amber-yellow 
qihene.  Tbeseseem  to  be  contained  in  veins  of  segrc^tion,  which 
are  of  a  lighter  color  than  tbe  mass.  The  oleavable  feldqttr 
gnuns,  which  make  up  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  rook,  are 
brilliant,  with  a  vitreous  lustre,  and  are  often  yellowiflh  or  reddish- 
gray  in  color.  Apcrtion  of  this  feldspar  separated  by  waahing&tnn 
tite  crushed  massof  the  rook,  had  a  ^leclfic  gr&vi^  of  2-563,  and 
gave  by  analyus  the  result  t.  Another  portion  of  selected  gruns 
of  the  feldspar  gave  vi.  Both  specimens  were  however  Bomewhat 
impure. 

SUica 61.10  08.60 

Alomloa 10.10  SL.60 

Perox^d  of  iron 3.90  3.88 

Urn* 3.6S  0.40 

Magneria 79  1.84 

Pouah 8.04  3.DS 

Soda 0.03  S.B1 

TolatilB 40  .80    " 

98.41       9S.11 


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1864.]  T.    8TIBRT  HTINT   OH   HTHOLOflT.  16» 

Beddes  theee  great  traohytic  hilla,  nameronB  smaller  masBeB  of 
diAieiit  Tuietiei  of  tnoliyte,  in  the  form  of  djkea  and  beds,  are 
fimnd  aloi^;  the  line  of  oonntiy  between  Bigand  and  Yamasks 
HooDtaiiiB.  The  diorite  of  the  latter  is  oat  into  djices  of  a  white 
or  brownish-gn;  traohjte,  which  is  often  porphyritio,  and  may  be 
ixmnected  the  great  mass  just  deeoribed. 

CtUMBhT. — At  Chamblf  a  mass  of  porphyritic  trachyte  is  in- 
traded  in  the  form  of  a  bed  among  the  strata  of  the  Hadson 
BiTsr&naatioa ;  and  about  midway  in  the  Chambly  canal  a  simi- 
lar tradtyte  is  met  with,  which  contains  in  drosy  oaTides,  crystals 
of  qoaiti,  oaloite,  analoime,  and  ohabaiite.  The  base  of  this 
look  is  of  a  pale  fawn  oolor,  and  appeers  at  first  sight  to  be 
mioaeeoiis;  bat  od  closer  examination  it  is  seen  to  be  almost 
entirely  feldspathio.  Minute  portions  of  pyrites,  and  grains 
of  magnetio  iron,  are  rarely  met  with,  and  small  soales  of  a 
dark  green  micaoeoos  mineral  are  very  sparsely  disseminated.  The 
crystals  of  orthoolase,  which  are  very  abundant,  are  sometimee  an 
inch  in  length,  and  one  fbarth  of  an  inch  in  thiokneas :  they  are 
mtne  or  lees  modified,  and  terminatedatboth  ends.  They  are  easily 
detaohed  irom  the  rook,  and  are  yellowish  end  opaqne  on  the  exte- 
rior,  bat  the  inner  portions  of  the  ki^e  crystals  are  transparent 
and  vitieoas.  The  composition  of  the  oiystals  is  given  nnder  Tn. 
The  paste  of  this  porphyry,  when  oarefolly  freed  &om  orystAls,  lost 
by  ignition  2.1  per  oent.  When  polveriied  and  digested  with  dilate 
nitric  add,  it  eServesoed  slightly,  giving  off  carbonic  aaid,  tc^ther 
with  red  fames,  arisiog  in  part  from  the  ozydaUoa  of  the  pyrites. 
The  portion  thos  dissolved  eqaalled  carbonate  of  lime  1.76,  oar- 
bonate  of  magnesia  0.98,  perozyd  of  iron  with  a  traoe  of  alamina 
2.12  per  oent.  The  residue,  dried  at  300'='  F.,  gave  the  resalt  viii. 

auiea 6S.1S  8T.60 

Alamina 19.15  18.30 

Psioxjd  of  iron 1.40 

Line 95  .« 

PotMh 1,83  6.10 

Soda 5.19  B.8B 

ToUUIe 65  .35 

100.12  99.BS 

The  paste  of  this  trachyte  thus  di&rs  bat  little  ttom  the  eiys- 
tab  in  composition.     It  contains  only  a  slight  excess  of  silica,  and 


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170  THI  CANADIAN  HATUSALIBT.  [June, 

seems  to  be  mkde  np  of  lamellae  of  orthocltse,  mingled  witli  emsU 
portions  of  (wrboaatea  of  lime  and  magnesia.  A  part  of  the  iron 
also  is  probably  present  as  oarbonste,  vfaioh,  by  its  deeomposition, 
I^TM  rise  to  the  rasty  red  color  of  tbe  weathered  sarfaoe  of  Ae 
trachyte. 

MoNTSEAL. — The  island  of  Montreal  offers  a  great  variety  of 
traohytia  rooks,  which  traverse  both  the  Lower  Silnrian  strata,  and 
the  dolerite  of  Monnt  Royal.  Some  of  these  dykee  aro  finely 
grannUr,  oooasionallyonunblingto  sand,  and  frequently  are  earthy 
in  toztore.  In  some  oases  tbey  assume  s  eonorotionary  stmotare, 
and  they  an  often  porphyritio  from  the  presence  of  feldspar  or 
hornblende.  One  variety  exhibits  lai^  feldspar  ciystals  in  a  com- 
pact purplish  or  lavender^ray  base,  with  a  waxy  lostro.  This 
■e^rvesoes  with  aoids,  iVom  an  admixture  of  earthy  carbonates,  and 
closely  resembles  in  its  aspect  oertain  trachytes  from  the  Siebenge- 
biige  on  the  Rhine.  Other  varieties  can  scaraely  be  distinguished 
from  Ae  so-called  domite,  the  tniohyte  of  the  Pny  de  DSme,  and 
exhibit  small  dmsy  cavities.  The  presence  of  carbonates  in  Ira- 
chytio  rocks  has  generally  been  overlooked ;  Deville  however  fonnd 
seven  per  cent  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  a  traohytio  rook  from  Hun- 
gary, and  it  occurs  disseminatod  in  some  of  ibe  trachytes  of  the 
Siebengebirge.  Some  of  the  trachytes  about  to  be  described  cm- 
tain  moreover  carbonates  of  m^neda  and  protozyd  of  iron,  and 
weather  to  some  depth  of  a  reddish-brown  eolor  frmn  the  perozy- 
'dation  of  the  latter,  like  the  trachyte  fh>m  Ghambly  just  noticed. 
Acids  romove  from  many  of  these  rocks,  in  addition  to  the  oarbo- 
nates,  portions  of  alamina  and  alkalies.  These  aro  derived  from 
a  soluble  nlicate,  which  in  Uie  trachytes  of  Brome  appean  only 
as  raro  cryeti^  of  nepheline,  and  in  Ohambly  as  analcime  ud 
«habazite.  In  some  of  the  compact  and  earthy  varieties  about 
Montroal,  however,  this  soluble  silicate  exists  to  a  laige  extent, 
and  has  the  oompoationof  natn^te.  By  this  admizturo  of  a 
zeolite  the  trachytes  pass  into  pboiiotit«. 

The  first  of  these  trachytes  which  will  be  noticed  fbrms  a  dyke 
near  McGill  College.  The  rook  is  divided  by  joints  into  irregular 
fragments,  whose  aurfaoes  are  often  coated  with  thin-bladed  crys- 
tals of  an  aluminous  mineral,  apparently  seolilio.  Small  brilliant 
oiystals  of  onbic  iron-pyrit«B,  often  highly  modified,  are  dissemi- 
nated through  the  mass.  The  rook  has  the  hardness  of  feldspar, 
and  a  specific  gravity  of  from  2.617  to  2.632.     Its  color  is  white. 


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1864.]  T.  ariBST  hunt  on  litholoot.  171 

}iMBiDg  into  bloiali  and  grayuli-vbite ;  it  hu  a  feeblj  Bbining  Ihb- 
In,  and  U  alighUf  tranalneent  on  the  edges,  with  a  oompaot  or 
finely  graaalat  texture,  and  an  nneven  snb-coachoidal  fraotore. 
Befon  the  blow-pipe  it  taaee  with  inttuuesoenoe  into  a  white 
«namd.  The  dmA  in  powder,  is  attaoked  even  b;  aoetio  acid,  which 
lemoreB  0.8  per  cent  of  carbonate  of  lime,  beaides  1.5  per  cent 
of  alumina  and  ozjd  <^iron;  the  Utten^ipBrently  derived  from  a 
carbonate.  Nitrie  a^d  diBsolvee  a  little  more  lime,  oxjdises  the 
pyritefl,  and  takes  up,  beaidea  alamina  and  alkalies,  a  oonsideraUe 
portion  of  manganeee.  This  apparently  exists  in  the  form  of  aul- 
l^nret,  sinoe,  while  it  ia  soluble  in  dilute  nitric  aoid,  the  white  por- 
tions of  the  rook  afford  no  trace  of  manganeee  before  the  blow-pipe ; 
although  minnte  daik-oolored  grains,  associated  with  the  pyrites, 
were  found  to  give  an  intense  manganese  reaction.  From  the 
residue  aflei  the  action  of  the  nitric  acid,  a  solndou  of  carbonate 
of  soda  removed  s  portion  of  silica;  and  the  remainder,  dried  at 
300°  F.,  was  free  from  iron  and  from  manganeee.  Its  analysis  is 
given  under  IX ;  while  that  of  the  matters  dissolved  by  nitric  aoid 
and  carbonate  of  soda  firom  100  parts  of  the  rook,  will  be  fonnd 
vnder  IX  A. 

A  dyke  of  trachyte  near  to  the  last,  and  very  similar  to  it  in 
Appearance,  was  submitted  to  the  action  of  nitric  acid,  but  the  in- 
soluble residue  was  not  treated  by  carbonate  of  soda.  Its  analysis 
is  given  under  x,  while  that  of  the  soluble  matters  is  to  be  found 
under  x  A.  A  white  trachyte  from  a  dyke  at  Lachine,  resembled 
the  preoeding,  but  was  somewhat  earthy  in  its  aspect,  and  effer- 
vesced with  nitric  acid,  which  removed  a  portion  of  lime  eqnal  to 
7.40  per  cent  of  carbonate.  On  boiling  the  pnlveriied  rock  with 
nitrate  of  ammonia,  aa  amount  of  lime  equal  to  6.33  per  cent  of 
«Btbonate  was  dissolved.  An  accident  prevented  the  oomplete 
det«rmination  of  the  alkalies  in  the  feldspatbio  readue  of  this  tra- 
ojiyte ;  and  the  solnble  nlica  was  not  removed  previous  to  the  anal- 
ysis, whose  result  is  given  under  xi.  The  proportion  of  the 
potash  to  the  soda  was  however  fonnd  to  be,  by  weight,  nearly  as 
two  to  three.  The  matters  dissolved  by  nitric  aoid  will  be  found 
under  xi  A. 

Another  dyke  of  trachyte  from  Lachine  was  concretionary,  and 
stained  by  infiltration ;  the  interior  of  the  concretions  was  white 
and  earthy.  The  substances  removed  Irom  100  parts  of  the  lock 
by  nitric  aoid  and  carbonate  of  soda,  are  given  under  B.     A  par- 


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172  THX  CANADIAN   NATURALISt.  [JdH^ 

U<tl  sDalyaU  of  the  inaolnble  residule  showed  it  to  be  a  feldspar 
allied  to  those  of  the  preceding  trachjtes:  the  qnantitiee  of  potaeh 
and  soda  were  however  nearly  in  the  ratio  of  fbor  to  three. 

A  lu^  dyke  of  trachyte  in  the  limestone *quBrrie8  at  the  Hil» 
End,  near  Montreal,  is  remarkable  for  the  amonut  of  oaibonfttes 
which  it  oontains.  It  is  grayish-white,  with  dark  f^ej  spots,  graa- 
vlar,  snb-Titreons  in  lustre,  and  holds  a  few  eiystalB  of  hornblende. 
By  ignition  it  loses  11.0  per  cent,  of  its  weight  In  powder  it 
effeireeoefl  freely  with  nitrio  scid,  disengaging  earbooio  acid,  and 
when  heat  is  applied,  red  fnraes  from  the  peroxydation  of  the  iron. 
100  parts  of  tbe  rock  yielded  in  this  way  the  aolable  matters 
given  nnder  xii  A.  The  oompoution  of  the  reeidae,  from. 
which  tiie  soluble  silica  was  not  removed,  is  given  nnder  xit. 


SiUca, 63.26  B3.90  BS.SO  61.67 

Alumina, 21.13  23.10  24.90  31.00- 

Lime B6  .45  .45  3.6»- 

Potub, 5.93  3.43  ....  4.6S 

Soda B.19  8.69              6.35 

ToUtile S3  1.40  3.10  3.31 

99.0T  SB.91  97.69 

A  second  determination  of  the  alkalies  in  a  portion  of  the  tra- 
chyte iZj  whiob  had  not  previously  been  treated  by  acid,  gave 
potash  6.40  and  soda  6.49.  A  second  analysis  of  X  gave  potash 
2.28,  and  soda  795. 


Sillea, 1.43  6.00        

Alamlna 2.43         1.27  1.32  4.84 

Peroi;d  of  Iroo 2.40  3.84         1.41  2.61  2.6* 

Ltae 60  1.86        4.14  3.60  6.4» 

""ffowU , 1.34  1,36  1,70 

Po'"'', 40  .  j6  nadet.  nndet.  undet 

Soda 9B  ,  ji          «  I"  "f 

Red  oxfdof  maDganeBe,....     1.31  .87        

Of  the  matters  soluble  in  nitric  acid  in  the  last-described  trachyte, 
XII,  the  lime  in  the  form  of  carbonate  would  equal  not  less  than 
11.60  per  cent,  the  magnesia  3.58,  and  the  iron  3.82  per  cent  of 
carbonates,  in  which  condition  by  far  the  greater  part  of  these  bases- 
are  probably  present. 


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1664.]  t.  btxkbt  hunt  oh  litholoot.  173 

Phoholiti. 

AsaooUted  with  the  namerotis  traohjtio  dyVea  at  Laohine 
is  one  of  the  phooolite  already  referred  to.  It  is  brittle  and  aome- 
wbat  aohiatoae,  breaking  into  angtdar  fragments,  and  appeaia  to 
ooDsist  of  a  reddish  fawn-oolored  base,  in  which  are  disseminated 
greeiiisb-white  roanded  maasea,  often  gronped,  and  apparently 
coDoretionary  in  thdrstraotore.  These  greenish  portions  are  some- 
times half  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter,  and  oo7er  from  one  third 
to  one  half  of  the  sorfkoes.  They  are  not  rery  diatinotly  seen  nn- 
leea  the  rock  is  moistened.  The  hardneas  of  Ae  different  portions 
does  not  greatly  vary,  and  is  nearly  that  of  apatite.  The  speclflo 
gravity  la  very  low,  being  only  2*414.  The  mass  contains  small 
cavities  filled  with  carbonate  of  lime,  whioh  is  rarely  stained  pur- 
ple: it  is  also  found  in  small  films  in  the  joints.  The  rock  is  gran- 
ular in  its  fracture,  without  lustre,  and  is  feebly  tranalooent  at 
the  edges.  When  pulverized,  and  treated  with  nitric  acid  of  spe- 
cific gravity  1.25,  a  slight  efferveecenoe  ensues,  with  abundant  red 
fumes.  The  mast  grows  warm,  and  gelatiniies ;  and  on  washing 
out  the  acid  solution,  and  treating  the  insoluble  portion  with  a 
solution  of  caustic  soda,  a  white  granular  residue  remains.  These 
reactions  are  obtained  both  with  the  fawn-colored  end  the  greenish 
portions,  but  the  amount  of  insoluble  matter  is  greater  from  the 
last.  The  rock  is  hutslightly  hygroscopic :  a  portion  of  it  in  pow- 
der lost  only  0.2  per  cent  by  a  prolonged  ezposuro  to  212°  F., 
but  7.10  per  cent  at  a  red  heat. 

For  the  quantitative  analysis,  the  method  already  indicated  was 
followed.  It  was  found  that  while  a  dilute  solution  of  caustic  soda 
removed  all  of  the  gelatinous  nlioa  separated  by  the  acid,  it  took 
up  only  a  trace  of  alumina ;  leaving  a  feldspatiuc  reaidue  which 
was  no  longer  attacked  by  nitric  acid.  The  silica  was  separated 
from  the  alkaline  liquid,  and  the  acid  solution  was  found  to  con- 
tain, besides  ahunina  and  soda,  a  little  potash^  some  lime,  magne- 
sia, and  iron,  and  traoes  of  muiganese.  The  greater  part  of  the 
lime  is  evidently  present  as  carbonate ;  for  when  a  portion  of  the 
pulverised  phonolito,  which  gave  to  nitric  amd  lime  eqnal  to  4.36 
per  oent  of  carbonate,  was  boiled  with  a  aolntion  of  nitrato  of  am- 
monia, tliere  were  dissolved  3.87  per  cent  of  carbonate  of  lime; 
bewdes  which  there  was  a  separation  of  a  ooosiderable  amount  of 
oxyd  from  the  deoompoaed  carbonate  of  iron.  From  this  reaction, 
and  firom  the  entire  absence  of  sulphur,  which  was  carefully  sought 


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174  THK  OAMADIAH  NATDKAtieT.  [Jane, 

for,  it  is  probable  tlut  the  whole  of  the  iron,  except  the  amall  por- 
tion of  peloid  whtoh  colors  the  rook,  ezista  in  the  state  of  carbo- 
nate, la  the  fUIoiring  analyses,  theref<»«,  the  lime  and  the  iron, 
as  well  as  a  little  magnesia,  are  calculated  as  carbonates,  xm 
is  the  result  obtained  vith  Ibnr  grams  of  the  reddish  portion  of  the 
jAoQolita,  as  free  as  poesihle  from  the  green ;  and  sir  ms  ob- 
tained with  two  and  a  half  grams  of  a  miztore  of  the  two  ocdors. 

SolobleiUteate,  Eeolil«<&),b7illSbTence.  46.S1  ae.lS 

iDMlable  lilioate,  feldspftr  (1) 4S.TS  es.40 

OarboDftU  of  UnH 3.63  4.38 

"            iron 3.58  8.73 

"           mdgaeBia 53  .3S 

100.00  100.00 
In  order  to  fix  the  composition  of  the  eolnble  siUoate,  the 
amounts  of  the  insoluble  reradne  and  of  the  separated  ulioa, 
alumina,  and  alkalies,  having  been  carefully  detemuned,  and  the 
lime,  magnesia,  and  ozjd  of  iron  oalonlatcd  as  carbonates,  the 
water  was  estimated  by  the  loss.  In  this  way  were  obtuned  the 
results  given  ander  xui  A,  and  Xir  A ;  while  thb  analyses  of 
the  insolnble  silicate,  which  is  a  potash  feldspar,  ant  given  nnder 
xin  B,  and  xiT  b. 

XIII 1.       XIT  A.       Katrolit«.  Analcime. 

Silica 51.96        01.66        41.40        64.06 

Alumina 34.43        34.88        36.0B       39.30 

Soda 13.93        13.05        16.01        14.10 

Potaih I.IS  1.38         

Wat«r 9.64         9.13         9.0B         8.10 

100.00  100.00  100.00  100.00 
The  oompodtion  of  this  seolitic  mmeral  is  intermediate  betwem 
analcime  and  natrolite ;  bat  the  readiness  with  which  it  gelatiniieB 
with  acids,  leads  to  Ae  ooDolnsiOD  that  it  belongs,  in  great  part  at 
least,  to  natrolite.  The  theoretjeal  compomtion  <^  these  two 
leolifee  is  for  the  sake  of  comparison,  placed  alongside  of  the  two 
analyses  of  the  soluble  portion  of  the  phoni^te. 

xtna.       xiva. 

SUioa 59.'70        60.90 

Alnmloa 33.25        34.46 

Lime .99  .46 

Potaib 9.16       nndet. 

Soda 3.9T  " 

TolatUe 3.38         3.10 


«.S0 


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1864.]  T.  BTIHKT  BUNT  ON  UTHOUmT.  17& 

The  fddflfiuB  <^  the  ftbore  tnebyieB  mu]  phont^te  ofo  some  oon- 
udocable  wiatioiu  in  thoir  oompositioD,  eflpeeially  in  the  propop- 
tioss  of  the  alkklisB.  In  ix  the  proportions  of  potash  and  aoda  uo 
nearly  the  tame  u  in  th«  traohytee  of  Brome,  Shoffi>rd,  and 
ChamUy;  and  the  ume  ii  true  of  zu.  Theae  an  doabUasa  to 
be  regarded  as  varieUea  of  orthoelase  witb  a  la^  amonnt  of  aoda, 
while  in  the  feldspar  fWnn  the  phonolite  the  proportion  of  soda  ie 
Tei7  imall.  In  x,  on  the  aonbw7,  the  large  predominanee  tS 
aoda  iodioatee  a  oompoaition  approaobing  that  of  albite.  It  is 
iiirther  apparent,  irom  a  oompariaon  of  the  feld^iais  of  the  other 
traohjtee  whose  oomplete  analyses  are  not  given,  that  the  [ffopor- 
tionsof  the  alkalies  are  liable  to  considerable  variation,  even  in 
a^aoent  and  apparently  similar  dykes.  All  of  the  above  feldspars 
are  probably  to  be  referred  to  ortboclase,  or  to  albite ;  bat  these,  in 
the  earthy  traohytea,  bare  undeigone  a  oomnMnoement  of  deoom- 
pomtion ;  whioh  oonmsts  in  the  loss  of  a  portion  of  silioa  and  alkali, 
and  the  oombination  of  water,  reenlting  in  a  formation  of  kaolin. 
An  admixtnie  of  tiua  anbatanoe  will  ezplun  tiie  inoreased  amonnt 
of  alnmina,  the  deficiency  of  nlica,  and  the  preaenee  of  water  in 
the  feld^Mis  of  HiA  more  earthy  of  these  traehytes. 

Tbeie  tniohytio  dykes  an  not  confined  to  the  vicinity  of  Hont- 
reaL  To  the  southward,  on  the  shwes  (tf  Lake  Ghamplain,  there 
is  feond  in  and  aboat  Bnrlington,  Vermont,  a  vast  number  of 
dykaa  (^  intmuve  rode;  smne  of  whioh  sppear  to  intersect  the 
■trata  of  the  Qa^MO  group,  and  others  those  of  the  Trenton  group. 
Some  of  these  are  deseribcd  as  being  of  greenstone ;  and  others, 
aa  a  white  or  yellowish-while  feldspathic  rook,  often  porphyritio 
from  the  prMenoe  of  feldspar  crystals.  The  base  of  a  yellowish- 
gray  por^yritJc  dyke  titMa  Shelbome,  having  a  rough  firaotnre,  and 
a  spaoifla  gravity  of  2.60,gave  to  Frof.  Q.  ¥.  Barker,  nlioa  67.30, 
alnmina  and  peiozyd  of  iron  19.10,  lime  0.79,  magnesia,  traees, 
potash  4.74,  soda  G- 04,  volatile  1.70,=  09.67.  It  oontained  a 
little  intramingled  quarts ;  and  the  mass  resulting  ftom  the  funon 
of  the  rook  with  an  alkaline  carbonate,  afibrded  traoes  of  a  sni* 
phurei.     (Geology  of  Vermont,  pages  679-707.) 

Somewhat  to  the  aootii  o£  Boriiogton,  on  the  west  ride  of  Lake 
Ofaamplain,  and  near  to  Essex,  tken  is  a  great  mass  of  intrnsive 
nek,  fonnd  in  the  slates  of  the  Hudson  River  fermation.  As 
described  by  Euunons,  it  is  intorstratified  in  an  insular  manner 
among  the  layers  of  the  unaltered  sedimentaiy  rooks,  and  has  a 


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176  THI  CANADIAN  MATDRALI8T.  [June, 

flarile  and  schistoae  Btniotnre,  whioh  gives,  at  first  ugfat,  the  wpeot 
of  atratificfttion  to  what  is  andonbtedl;  an  intnuiTe  rock.  I^ien 
exposed  to  the  action  of  the  wnTea  on  tlw  lake-shore,  ite  strootnre 
ai^iears  to  be  oolnmn&r,  and  sometimes  ooncretjonar^.  This  rock 
is  described  as  composed  of  a  reddish  or  pale  leek-green  oompast 
feldspar,  holding  orjrstals  of  the  same  mineral.  (Geology  of  New 
York,  vol  ii,  page  84.)  These  intmsive  feldapathio  rocks  on  Lake 
'  Ohamplain  Tesanble  oloeel;  the  traehytes  of  Montreal  and  Gham- 
bl;, — with  Hie  latter  of  which,  the  trachyte  at  Shelbnme,  the 
ody  one  of  them  which  has  been  chemically  examined,  closely 
^reee  in  oompoddon. 

DOLEfilTKS. 

The  anorthosites,  which  yet  remain  to  be  described,  may  be 
divided  into  two  groups, — those  composed  of  anortluc  Mdspan  with 
ai^te,  conatitnting  the  doleritee,  and  those  in  which  similar  feld- 
spars are  associated  with  hornblende.  The  general  gec^oetioal 
relations  of  these  two  gronps  of  rocks  in  the  districts  undw  dis- 
onssion  have  already  been  indicated. 

Qbxnvillx. — It  has  already  been  stated  on  page  163  that  the 
ddest  known  intmnve  masses  wbioh  traverse  the  Lanrentian 
stties  are  of  dolerite,  and  that  the  dykes  of  this  rocks  are  inter- 
sected by  the  syenite,  which  was  snooeeded  by  the  orthophyre  or 
qvartiiferons  poiphyry.  Nothing  oorresponding  to  the  syenite  or 
the  orthophyre  is  met  with  among  the  adjacent  Lower  Silurian 
strata,  which  are  seen  to  repose  upon  the  worn  snrfkoes  of  these 
intronve  rocks.  A  fourth  series  of  dykes  of  a  porphyritio  dolerite 
is  however  found  to  cut  all  of  the  preceding  rooks,  and  is  perhaps 
identical  with  some  of  the  doleritw  which  intersect  tlie  Silurian 
rocks  of  the  island  of  HontreaL  In  the  other  parte  of  the  Ltn- 
rentian  series,  so  &r  as  yet  examined,  intmsive  rocks  have  been  but 
seldom  met  with.  Much  of  what  has  been  called  syenite  and 
granite  in  various  parts  of  the  Lanrentian  region,  seems,  like  the 
hypetsthenite  and  other  anorthositce  of  the  Labrador  aeries,  to  be 
indigenous. 

The  dykes  of  this  most  ancient  dolerite  or  greenstone  in 
Orenville,  have  a  well-marked  oolnmnar  stmctnte  at  right  angles 
to  the  plane  of  the  dyke.  They  are  fine  grained,  dark  greenish- 
gray  in  color,  and  weather  grcTish-white.  Under  a  lens,  the  rock 
is  seen  to  oonsist  of  a  greenish-white  feldspar  with  a  soaly  fracture, 


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33.10 


1BQ4.']  T.  dTKKBT   HUNT   OH   LIT&OLOQT.  177 

miDxled  witli  (crtaas  of  pyroxene,  oooasioaal  plates  of  mica,  and 
grains  of  pyrites.  It  onntains  do  ourb'>natefl.  Two  aniilyaea  of 
portions  of  the  dolerite,  from  d^kfts  differing;  a  little  in  texturo, 
gave  as  follows  under  XV  and  XTi : 

SEliw S0.35  SO.IS  Si.'jO 

Aluminft n.3S  ) 

Frroijd  of  Iron 13, 60  J 

Line 10.19  9.S3  T  34 

UngoeaU 4.9)  B.04  4  17 

PotMh e»  .68  3.14 

Soda 3.3S  3.13  3.41 

Tolatil« 76  1.00  3..->a 

9B.04       100.71  99.1U 

The  iron  in  tbeae  analyns,  althongfa  given  above  as  purozyj 
•xiab  in  the  form  of  protoxjd,  and  in  the  second  specimen,  in  p.irt  na 
a  enlphurat.  These  rocica,  wbieb  appear  to  havs  the  couipunitioa 
of  ni  Zturee  of  a  bisic  fetd«p.ir  irilh  pyroxene,  do  not  diffur  trvui 
ordinary  dolerite. 

The  newer  dolerite,  whiohoals  the  three  other  olasncs  of  eruprive 
rocks  in  the  Lanrentian  region,  huB  a  gray ish-bluck, very  fine^r.itied 
base,  earthy  and  soh-oonoKoidul  in  fnctare,  and  reaemLiliiig 
■ouiewhat  tlia  preceding.  It  oonLiind  small  brUliunt  bluck  grains  uf 
iluenite,  with  otbws  of  spbene,  and  atuall  sc.ileB  of  uncj.  {Jixar 
Mooal  mftaees  of  blaok  oleavable  angite,  eonietiuies  half  an  incii  in 
diameter,  give  to  the  rook  a  porphyritic  charaeier.  It  ountaini 
bwidee,  snaaU  <de«vahle  masses  of  whit«  carbomile  of  liwe,  wiih 
which  the  whole  rook  mxms  penetnted.  When  in  puwdur,  it 
e&rvemas  freely  in  the  eold  with  dilate  nitric  acid,  and  the  solu- 
tion evolves  red  fames  on  heuting.  In  tiiia  way  there  were  dis- 
solved, liBte,  equal  to  8.70  per  OdOt  of  ourbonate,  0.50  of  uia;r"«- 
na,  and  ti.bO  of  alamina  and  ozyd  of  iron  =:  I5.7U  per  ouni.  Tiia 
ftaidue  dried  at  211"  P ,  equalled  83.80  per  cent.  A  portion  of 
•huiinMS  silicaW  bad  evidently  been  attacked  by  the  aeiJ.  The 
dried  reaidoe  gave^n  analysis  the  rosolu  which  will  be  Ibund  nbove 
under  XVll. 

The  d^erilai  of  A*  Montreal  diatriet,  besides  forming  ntitaa- 
oaa  dykes,  oonsdtate  the  chief  poniona  of  the  nioantainit  ol  Alun- 

*  With  sane  titanic  acid. 


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178  THX  OAHADUN   NATURALIST.  [JoOf^ 

Urville,  BoogemoDt,  and  Monnt  Royal.  In  all  of  tli«ee  however 
great  dirersitiea  of  composition  are  mei  with,  whioh  will  be  sno- 
oessiTely  noUced. 

HoNTABViLLE. — The  greater  part  of  M ontarviTle  is  eompooed  of 
»  ooarBe-grained  granitoid  doleritej  in  which  blaa'i  cleavable  aagite 
predomiDltea, — eomotimea  tdmoat  to  the  eiclusion  of  anj  otfaa 
mi  .ertil.  Sm^l  porticHis  of  white  feldspar,  and  soales  of  browo 
mioa,  are  sparsely  scattered  tbrou^  the  roek,  with  gnina  of 
carbonate  of  lime.  The  removal  of  these  by  Eolnlion  from  tbt 
weathered  surfaee  oneo  gives  to  it  a  pitted  aspect.  In  other  portion^ 
Che  feldspathio  element  predominates,  and  the  rodk  becomes  por- 
fhyritio  from  the  presence  of  large  crystals  of  sugite.  The  worn 
nrfaoee  of  the  dolerite  sometimes  show  altemations  of  this  varied 
with  another  whioh  is  finer-grained  and  whiter.  Tbe  two  mn 
arranged  in  bands,  whose  vaijing  thickness  and  curving  line* 
suggest  the  notion  that  they  have  been  produced  by  the  flow  and 
As  partial  commingling  of  two  semi-fluid  masses. 

Another  and  remarkable  variety  of  dolerite,  ionnd  at  Montar- 
ville,  appears  to  be  confined  to  a  hill  on  the  shore  of  the  litUe  lak» 
sbont  half  a  mile  northward  from  the  manor-bouse.  The  whole 
of  this  hill,  with  the  ezoepdon  of  some  adherent  portions  of  iadar- 
ated  shale,  seems  to  beoomposedof  agraoitoid  di^erite,  oontaining 
a  large  proportion  of  olivine.  This  mineral  occurs  in  ronnded  erys- 
lalline  masses  or  imperfect  crystals  from  one  tenth  to  one  half  an 
inch  in  diameter,  associated  with  a  white  or  greenish-white  erys- 
talline  feldspar,  blaok  augite,  a  little  brown  mioa,  and  magnetite. 
The  proportion  of  olivine  is  very  variable,  but  in  some  parts  it 
is  the  predominant  mineral.  Its  oolor  is  olive-green,  parang  into 
amber-yellow.  The  grainB,.whioh  are  translucent,  are  much  fissured 
and  very  brittle.  The  pulverised  olivine  gelatinises  with  chlorhj- 
dric  acid  in  the  cold,  and  is  almoet  instantly  deoomposed  when 
warmed  with  sniphurio  acid  diluted  with  its  volume  of  water,  the 
■Qica  separating  chiefly  in  a  fiocculent  form,  and  endoaing  smatt 
grains  of  the  undecomposed  mineral,  whioh  are  left  when  the 
ignited  ulioa  is  dissolved  by  a  solution  of  soda.  A  little  silica  if 
however  retained  in  solution,  and  is  precipitated  by  ammonin 
with  the  oxyd  of  iron.  Two  analyaes  of  different  portions  of  the 
divine  made  in  this  w^  gave,  after  dedwting  the  undeoompoead 
■linenl,  the  following  results : 


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1864.]  T.  STiaar  humt  ok  utholoot.  179 

Silica    37.13        37.1T  =  OjjgBD  19.B2 

UitguMi* 39.3S        39.68=        "        IS.eT 

Praioiya  of  iron 22.51        23.fi4  =       «       'S.IO 

99.0S  SS.39 
The  aagite  of  this  olivinilio  doierite  appears  in  tbe  form  of  email 
arjatalliad  grains,  and  also  in  short  tiiiok  and  terminated  prisms, 
vhiob  are  reudily  detached  from  their  matrix.  Thej  are  often  aa 
iooh  in  length  by  half  an  incb  in  diameter,  and  are  sometime* 
piitially  coated  by  a  film  of  broirn  mtoa.  These  oryetals  deav* 
nadiljr,  preseotit^  brilliant  surfaces,  and  are  blaok  in  eolor,  witL 
an  ash-gray  streak.  Their  hardnesa  is  6.0,  and  l^dr  speoifio  gravity 
S.%1.     Analysis  gave  as  follows: 

Silica 49.40 

Alamina 6.  TO 

Lime 21.38 

UagDenia 13.04 

Protoiydof  iroD T.8S 

Soda  nod  traeea  ot  potaib T4 

Volatile - SO 

100.lt 
The  angite  which  abonnda  in  the  non-olivinitio  doierite  that 
fttms  tho  greater  part  of  Monterville,  does  not  appear  to  differ 
ftrai  that  joal  deaoribed. 

An  average  speoime  a  ofthia  olivinitic  doierite,  or  perido^te,  was 
ndnced  to  powder :  it  did  not  effervesce  with  nitric  acid,  and  whea 
jgniled  lost  only  0.5  per  cent.  When  gently  wanned  with  snlphuria 
leid,  the  oliviae  was  i«adily  dooomposed,  with  the  separation  «f 
loecDJent  silica;  andhy  the  aiibseqnent  use  of  a  dUnte  solution  4^ 
nda,  followed  by  ohlorhydrio  acid,  and  a  second  treatment  witk 
the  alkaline  ley,  55.0  per  cent  of  the  whole  were  dissolved.  This 
portion  ooDusted  of  silica  37.30,  magneeia  33.50,  protozyd  of  iroi 
86.20,  alamiaa  3.00  =  100.00 :  being  equal  to  18.4  of  magnet 
&c  the  enUre  mass.  In  another  experiment,  18.0  per  cent  wen 
obtained.  Taking  the  mean  of  the  two  analyae^  of  olivine  aboTC 
nferred  to,  which  givea  39.5  per  cent  of  magnesia,  18.0  parte  of 
this  base  oorreqwnd  to  46.5  parta  of  olivine.  The  remaining  9.6 
parts  of  dissolved  matter  represent  alnmlna  and  ailioa  from  tba 
bldspar,  and  oxyd  of  iron  from  thenu^etite;  bothof  which  were 
ssmewfaat  attacked  by  the  aoida.  The  nndlsaolved  portion  of  Um 
vak  equalled  44.7  p«T  oest,  abd  appealed  to  «oiuut  of  a  feldspti^ 


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180  TBB  OAHADUN   HATCKALI8T.  [Jane, 

nith  pyroxene,  SDiue  mioa,  and  a  little  magnetite.  Its  analysis 
■fforded  aitica  49.35,  aluaiiiia  18.92,  protozyil  of  irnn  4.51,  liui« 
18.36,  magnesia  SM,  loss  (alkaUes?)  2.60 ;  =  lOlJ.OO. 

In  some  portions  of  the  dolerite  of  Moolarville,  the  feldspar  is 
more  abunilant,  ami  appears  in  slender  ciystala  with  augite,  and  with 
a  smaller  proportjon  ot'oliTine  than  the  last.  A  specimen  of  this 
Tarietj,  being  crushed  and  washed, gave  3'9  percent,  of  m^ietiU, 
md  10.0  peroent  ofamiitureof  ilmenite  witho  ivine.  The  teldsp.ir 
was  obtained  nearly  pure,  in  yellowish  vitreous  grains,  having  a 
■peoific  gravity  of  2.73—2.74,  and  nearly  the  oompnaitiou  of 
ttbradorite.     The  results  of  its  aoalyeis  are  seen  nnder  xviii. 

Silica 63.10  B3.60 

Aluraiaa. 3U  SO  14.40 

Peroijd  of  Iron 1 .  3S  4-60 

Lime 11.48  B.tfl 

Magnesia 12  .80 

Potash .71  aadet. 

Soda 4..!4  " 

ToUtlle 60  .80 

99.00 

The  dolei-ite  of  Moatamlle  is  tnveraed  by  veins  belonging  to 
several  diffei^nt  periods.  In  one  inatanoe,  the  blue k  and  highly 
augitio  mass  is  out  by  a  dyke  of  a  fine-grained  KTcyish-wfaite  dolo- 
rite.  This  is  intersected  by  a  dyke  of  a  fioe-grained  greenish  rock, 
which,  in  its  turn,  is  oat  off  t^  another  small  dyke  which  is  grayish- 
while  liki  the  first. 

Rduueuont. — The  rooks  of  Bongemont  offer  a  general  resem- 
blance to  those  of  Montarrille.  SoneporUons  are  soo.irso^rained 
dolerite,  in  which  angite  greatly  predominates,  with  grains  <^ 
feldspar,  and  a  liti4e  dissemiDsled' carbonate  of  lime.  In  siiine 
parts,  the  angit«  crystals  are  an  ioeh  m  more  in  diameter,  with 
brilliant  eleavagee ;  and  grains  <^  pyrites  are  abnodant,  with  cal- 
rite  in  the  interstioea.  This  rook  resembles  the  hi<;hiy  augitie 
dolerito  of  Muntarville.  Oliline  Is  very  ahandant  in  two  varieties 
of  dolerite  firam  Rougemont.  One  of  these  has  a  grayish  white 
tncly  granular  feldspathio  bses,  in  whidi  are  disseminated  blaek 
Kafft*  and  ambureolDred  oUvine,  lh«  latter  sometimee  in  dtetioet 
sryHtalB.  The  proportionate  these  dmsntsBometimes  vary  in  the 
•ame  spemmen  j  the  ^Hafn  ttatiag  awn  Ihan  half  ^e  mass  ia 


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1S64,]  T.  SMBRT  H1RIT  ON  LHHOLOQT.  ISl 

one  ptrt,  vTiite  in  another  the  ai^^te  and  olivine  predominate.  Bj 
tbe  wtion  of  the  weather,  the  ibldapar  aoquirea  an  opaqoe  whit* 
mrfioe,  npoo  wluoh'the  biwfc  ahiBii^  Anjtite  and  the  rustj-red 
dficompmuD^  olivine  nppettr  in  Strong  ooatrttst. 

The  dnierite  of  this  mooatain  is  travereed  by  nnmeronB  djkrm, 
tome  of  which  are  dioritee  like  thoee  of  MoaQ»ir  and  Belnil,  abont 
to  be  described.  A  dvke  of  eompaot  dolerite  boldlog  oryatals  of 
AldspyraDdgraiaHofnlivine,  is  found  intereeetlng  the  strata  of  tb* 
Budson  River  for[Q:itioti  at  St.  HjFaointbe. 

M  ipsT  Rotal. — This  hill  which  rises  immediatelj  in  the  reai 
flf  Mriotreal,  oonsisl«  for  the  moat  part  of  a  mass  of  highly  BOgitit 
dolerite.  In  some  pirte  lai^  titytAa.\s  of  augite,  like  those  of 
Hnntarvilta,  are  diMeminated  through  a  fine^  lio'^  base,  nhiiA 
is  d  trk  ash-gray  in  oilor;  and  often  effervewjes  freely  with  aoid^ 
from  the  preaenoe  of  a  portion  of  tntermingled  oirbonate  of  limn. 
At  other  times  this  is  wanting,  sod  the  rock  is  a  mass  of  black 
crystalline  au^te,  oonstitnting  a  Teritable  pyroienite,  from  whidi 
feldspar  is  absent.  Miitjires  of  angite  with  teldxpar  are  also  met 
with,  ooDsCituiing  a  granitoid  dolerite,  in  parts  of  which  the  fel^ 
i^ar  predominates,  giving  rise  to  a  light  grayish  rook.  Portions  of 
this  are  sonieU  '  es  found  limited  on  either  nde  by  bands  of  neurlj 
pure  black  pyroxeuiie,  givii^  at  first  sight  an  aspect  of  stratifio*- 
tton.  The  bandsof  these  two  varieties  are  found  curiously  oonioncd 
tn-l  ioterupted,  and  as  at  HontaiviUe,  seem  to  have  resulted  from 
movements  in  a  hetercgeneoos  pasty  mass,  which  have  eSected  a 
partial  blending  of  an  augilMBMgnta  withanothec  more  feldspatbis 
in  its  nature. 

The  miireaugitic  parts  of  Mount  Royal  contain,  like  the  umilai- 
nrieties  trom  Boagemontand  Montarville,  conaiderabte  portions 
of  magnetite,  and  some  ilmenite.  At  the  east  end  of  the  mountain 
t,  variety  of  dolerite,  eenttiining  olivine,  oecurs.  It  consists  of  n 
base  of  grayish- white  granular  feldspar,  which  'n  the  specimen  ez- 
unioed  coastitutesaboa,t  one  half  of  the  mass,  and  eneloses  erystala 
df  brilliant  black  angit«,  and  of  semi-transparent  amber-yellow  olv 
vine.  Tills  rook  el»sely  resembles  tbe  feldspatbio  peridotite  of 
Bougemont,  described  above ;  but  tbe  imbedded  crystals  are  some- 
what larger,  although  lees  titan  those  in  tbe  dolerite  of  Monturvills. 
A  portion  of  the  feldspar,  freed  as  much  as  possible  from  augita, 
furnished  by  analyxis  the  result  already  given  under  SIX ;  whiek- 
ibows  that  it  upproaohea  labradorile  in  eouipoaition. 


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168  THl  OAHADIAN  NATDaALIBT.  JaDt, 

DtOBTTKS. 
Yauaska. — It  BOW reiDUDB  to  desoribe  thediorite6  wIiiohhaTt 
already  been  notioed  as  forming  several  important  masses  among 
the  intrusive  rocks  of  the  Montreal  group.  In  the  first  pliioe  mdj 
Ite  considered  ihatof  Tama^a.  The  greatcrpartof  thismonntaio 
eonsists,  as  already  descnbed,  of  a  mioaoeous  granitoid  trachyte; 
bat  the  soatheasteni  portion  is  entirely  different,  being  a  diorito 
made  up  of  a  pearly  white  crystiilline  translucent  feldspar,  with 
black  brilliant  hornblende,  ilmenite,  and  magnetic  iron.  This 
look  is  sftmetimefl  rather  fine-grained,  though  the  elerucnto  an 
always  very  distinct  to  the  naked  eye.  In  other  parts  are  seen 
large  cleat  age-surfaces  of  feldspar  half  an  inch  in  breadth, 
which  exhibit  in  a  very  beantifal  manner  the  strise  oharaoter- 
iatio  of  the  polysynthetic  maoles  of  the  Vriclinto  feldspars.  TIw 
associiitcd  orystals  of  horoblende  are  always  muoh  smaller  and 
less  distinct,  forming  with  grains  of  feldspar,  a  b  ise,  to  whitdt 
the  larger  feldspar  crystals  give  a  porphyritio  aspeot.  Finer- 
gruined  bands,  in  which  magnetite  and  ilmenite  predominate, 
^averse  the  coarser  portion',  often  reticulating;  and  the  whole 
muss  is  also  occasionally  oat  by  djkcB  of  a  whitish  orbrown<sb- 
gray  trachytic  rock,  which  are  often  porphyritio,  and  may 
perhaps  be  branches  ^m  the  trjchytic  part  of  the  mountain. 

A  portion  of  th  '  coarse-grained  diorite  sileoted  for  examination, 
oontained,  besides  th'-  minerals  aln-ady  enumerated,  ^mallpor  iona 
«f  blackish  mica,  with  grains  of  pyrites,  and  a  little  disseminated 
«arboDateof  lime,  which  caused  the  mass  to  i  ffervesoe  sli^^hlly  with 
nitric  aoi  I.  The  maoled  feldspar  crystals,  somL-times  half  an  inch 
in  length,  were  so  much  penetrated  by  hornbten  e  that  they  were 
«>  t  fit  for  analysis ;  but  by  onislung  and  washing  the  rooc,  a  por- 
tion of  the  feldspar  was  obtained,  which  did  not  eiTervesce  with 
nitric  acid,  and  contained  no  viubie  impurity,  except  a  few  scales  of 
mica;  its  specific  granty  was  2.7fi6 — 2.7^.  It  was  decomposed 
fay  hydroohlorio  acid,  with  separation  of  pulveml  nt  silica;  and  ita 
analysis,  which  is  given  under  XX  and  XXI,  shows  it  to  be  near 
ito  anorthite,  and  identical  in  oompoeition  with  the  feldspar  of  a 
Jiorite  from  Bogoslowsk,  in  the  Uni  Monntaina.  This  is  aiisooia- 
tod  with  a  greenish-black  hornblende  containing  some  titanic  actd, 
Tith  a  little  mica,  and  some  qnarti.  (B.  H.  Soott,  L.  IS.  and  D. 
Philos.  Magazine  [4],  xt,  518.) 

MoNNOto. — Monnoiror  Mount  Johnson  isoomposedof  a  diorit^ 


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1864.]  T.  STBBKT  HD5T  OM  LFPHOLOaT.  183 

vtiicti,  in  its  ^DeralaBpt^t,  greatly  resembles  that  of  Yamaskajnit 
described,  except  that  it  is  rather  more  feldspathic.  The  fiaer- 
grained  Tarietiea  are  grajiah  in  color,  and  exhihlt  a  mixtare  of 
grains  and  amall  oryatala  of  feldspar,  with  hornblende,  brown  mica, 
and  magnetite.  Frequently  however  the  rock  is  muoh  coaraer- 
grained,  conaisting  of  feldspar  grains,  with  slender  prisms  of  black 
hornblende,  often  half  an  inch  long  and  tenth  of  an  inch  broad, 
and  numerous  small  crystals  of  amber-colored  sphene.  In  thu 
i^jre^ate  there  arc  imbedded  cleavable  masses  nf  the  feldspar, 
Bometinies  an  inch  long  by  half  an  inch  in  breadth.  At  the  eonth- 
em  foot  of  the  mountain,  large  blocks  of  the  coarse-grained  diorite 
are  fband  in  a  state  of  disintt^ation,  affording  detached  crystals  of 
feldspar  with  rounded  angles,  and  weathered  externally  to  an  opaque 
white,  from  a  partiul  decomposition.  Near  to  the  base  of  the  moun- 
tain, a  coarse-grained  variety  of  the  diorit*'.  encloses  small  but  dis- 
tinct crystals  of  bnwa  mioa;aad  a  finograined  micaceous  variety, 
containing  sphene,  occurs  near  the  immuit. 

The  feldspar,  in  all  the  specimens  examined  from  this  monntain, 
appears  to  be  nniform  in  character.  Its  color  is  white,  rarely 
greenish  or  grayish  -  it  has  a  vitreous  lustre,  inclinlDg  to  pearly, 
and  it  is  somewhat  transluconL  The  cleavages  of  this  feldspar 
resemble  those  of  oligoclaac,  with  whioh  species  It  also  agrees  in 
SpeoiGo  gravity  and  chemical  composition.  The  macled  forms,  so 
common  in  the  crystals  of  triclinio  feldspars,  have  not  however 
been  detected  ia  the  specimens  from  this  locality.  A  fragment  of 
a  crystal  uave  a  density  of  2.631,  and  another  portion  in  powder, 
2.659.    Theresullflof  its  analysisare given  under  XZii and  xxiu. 

XX.  XXI.  XXI!.  XUU,  KXIV. 

Silica 4d.90     47.00      el. OS  63  10  68.30 

AlutDina 3>"l33.6S      "■«"  -l  14.71 

PerojydoflrOQ l.»l                       .75  ....  » 

Lime 1S.07     1S.90       3.SS  3.e»  B.42 

Ha^Bfiia 65       .91 

Poiath 68       ....         l.BO  ....  J.M 

Bo<la 177       ....        7.96  ....  8.7J 

ToULil 1.00       80  ....  .60 

99.41       ....       99.91  ....         99. 3S 

BttiXEtL. — The  Specimens  which  have  been  examined  from  Ibis 

mountain    onsist  of  a  kind  of  micaoeons  diorite.     The  feldspar, 

which  BO  far  predomioBtee  as  to  give  a  tight  gray  color  to  the  maiv, 


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184  'BB  OANADIAN   NATITaALIBT.  [JtUlQ, 

■8  in  white  translnoent  vitreoiu  oleavuble  grains;  associated  wild 
■mill  distinct  prisms  of  black  hornblende,  scales  of  copper-cnlored 
mioa,  and  jiTiiiiis  of  magnetite.  The  analjEis  of  the  feldspar, 
eztriioted  by  wasliing  a  portion  of  the  crushed  rock,  and  stiil  con- 
taining a  little  mica,  is  jitven  abiiTe  nnder  ZXIT.  This  result 
approaches  to  tho«  obtained  from  the  micaceous  feldspar  roek  of 
Yam^'ska,  V  and  Tlj  vhicb  has  been  descnbed  as  a  kind  of 
tr^ichyi^,  and  with  the  rock  of  Belceil  seems  to  constitute  a  pasaaga 
between  the  trachytes  and  dioritea. 

RtaAirn. — A  portion  of  Rigaud  Monntain  consists  of  a  rather 
ooan^^^ined  dior  te,  which  is  made  ap  of  a  crystalline  feldspar, 
white  or  greenish  in  color,  with  small  priBois  of  brilliant  bluok 
hornblende,  and  crystals  of  black  mica.  In  some  Epecimens  th« 
feldspar,  and  in  •  thers  the  hornblende  predoniinatee.  This  rock 
resembles  the  diorites  of  Beleeil  and  Monnolr. 

The  granitoid  dolerites  of  the  Montreal  grou  ,  oontaining  eonrse- 
ly  crystalline  augite  and  olivine,  break  throngli  the  Lower  Silu- 
rian strata;  and  portions  of  these  two  minerals,  p/ob:ibly  derived 
from  these  intrusive  rocks,  are  found  in  the  dolomitio  conglomer- 
lites  near  Montreal,  which  in  some  cases  include  masses  of  Upper 
Sllnrian  limestone,  and  are  cut  by  dykes  of  a  fine  grained  doLerite. 
These,  which  perhaps  correspond  to  the  newer  dykes  of  the  same 
rock  at  Orenville,  show  that  there  we.e  at  least  three  disiinct 
eruptions  of  dolerite, — one  during  the  Silurian  period,  one  before 
it,  and  another  after  it.  The  traobytes  of  Montreal  and  Chauibly 
appear  to  be  sti  I  more  recent  than  these,  and  to  traverse  the 
newest  dolerites. 

The  trachytes  of  Bromeand  Shefford  seem  toeon«titnteagroup 
apart ;  but  the  diorites  of  Yamaska  und  Mount  Johnson,  althouglli 
nmilar  in  aspect,  differ  widely  in  chemieal  composition.  Facts  art 
■till  wanting  to  establish  the  goolo;tica)  afce  of  these  into'sain 
Basses.  The  different  dolerites,  which  are  related  in  mineral  ooin* 
position,  belong  as  we  have  seen  to  different  geological  periods; 
and  i  wonid  not  be  safe  to  affirm  that  the  different  diorites  or  the 
different  trachytes  of  this  vicinity  are  con tempora neons.  Nor,  on 
the  otiier  hand,  should  even  great  dii<cordanoes  in  chemical  or 
mineralogical  constitndon  be  necessarily  r^arded  as  eBtablishing 
S  difference  in  the  age  of  eruptive  rocks.  Evidence  to  theoontrary 
of  this  is  sten  in  the  eont^nons  and  intermingled  raasBes  of  black 
pyroxenite  and  grey  fiiidi^athic  dolerite  in  Monnt  Royal  and 


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1864.]  r.  BTUUT  BttNV  OS  uTSOU>eT.  las 

HAnt^rvillB ;  and  it  ta  DotiioprAbable  Uut  tlie  olimitic  dderite 
vhiob  iH  KSNOcUted  with  these,  ma;  be  coatraaporuneooa.  If.  ea 
lias  beeD  inaintaiDed  id  the  fiivt  part  of  this  |Nipcr,  the  variiiiii 
JDtrasiTe  rooks  sre  only  dis  bused  sedifDenta  of  deeply-buried  and 
probably  UQOonformable  strata,  it  will  roadilf  be  oonoeived  that 
plitatic  DiasBes  of  very  unlike  obaraotiirB  may  be  ejected  umnlbi- 
neonalj  aioDg  a  line  of  diaraption. 

The  vurioiu  LDtnuive  massea  of  the  Montreal  group  which  hsTC 
been  here  deeoribeil,  appear,  from  their  oompsot  and  cryntatlius 
■truoture,  to  have  beea  dUpluoed  and  ooDBclidated  under  the  pree- 
■are  of  a  ooniddenible  masa  of  nperincnnbunt  strsttu  'I  be  faot 
that  even  their  sumniita,  wbiob  are  in  some  eases  moro  than  1000 
feet  Hbove  the  present  level  of  the  plain,  appear  e<)Qal1j  solid  and 
etTStalliiie  with  their  baaea,  Implies  the  removal  by  denudation, 
aim-e  the  eruption  of  these  masses,  of  a  ibiokneH  of  s  diment  ry 
strata  mui-h  exeeeding  their  present  bei^t  This  denudiitioa 
must  however  have  taken  pLioe  before  tbe  emption  nf  the  latei 
trachytes  and  dolerites ;  sioee  the  dolomite  oonjclomcrates,  whiok 
enclose  the  fragments  of  tbe  olivinilJc  dolerite  and  of  Lower 
and  Upper  Silnrian  rocks,  repnse  uocoaformably  npon  the  Lanren- 
tian  and  tbe  various  Lower  Silurian  strata,  ia  such  a  niaoner  as  to- 
ahow  that  these  offered  nearly  their  present  distribution  at  tbe 
epoch  of  tbe  dejioeitioD  of  the  oongloner^tes.  If  then,  as  ia 
prob^le,  the  exposure  by  denadatioo  of  the  whole  •  f  the  eight 
bills  whieb  have  been  described,  took  plaoe  at  one  e  och,  these  ax* 
all  shown  to  have  a  greater  antiquity  than  the  trachytes  and  tho 
dolerites,  wbioh  traverse  tbe  oonglomerates.  Tbe  fiDe-^rained  ant-' 
earthy  irochytes  of  Mo:  tresi  areoonsequeutlytarmorereoentthaa 
the  crystalline  ones  of  Bronte  and  Sfaefford;  with  which  bowevw^ 
lome  uf  them  agree  in  chemical  compoaitioo. 

The  general  absence  of  granite  from  among  these  intruuv* 
mosses  is  a  faiot  worthy  "f  notice.  Quarts  bas  not  yet  been  de(e«U 
ed  in  th'  feldapathic  rocks  of  Brome  and  Sheffi>rd ;  although,  a* 
ftbove  mentioned,  the  buse  of  tbe  feldspatbie  porphyries  of  Chambly, 
and  Shelbnrne,  eontains  a  slight  excess  of  siliea.  Tbe  graniti* 
rocks  of  Shipton,  and  of  St.  Joseph  on  the  Chandidra  apf  ear  t9 
be  indig  Doos  masses,  belonging  to  the  strata  of  tbe  Quebec  groups 
but  the  higher  fossiliferous  lormations  b>  the  east  of  the  Notr« 
Dame  -tJountains.  are  traversed  in  varinoa  places  by  veins  and 
great  masses  of  intrusive  granita,  as  in  Stanslead,  Barfurd,  and 


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186  THB  CAMADUH  KATUEALIST.  [Jmifl, 

nun;  other  plaoes  to  the  nortbeaet,  and  nlong  the  fVoDtier  of  Can- 
ada. It  is  worthy  of  oote,  that  the  intnuiTe  maises  od  the  two 
iidea  of  the  moantain  range  are,  ao  f &r  as  yet  ohaerred,  entirely 
distinct  in  character;  and  that  eruptive  rocks  are  generally  wnnt- 
infi  nraong  the  Notre  Dame  Mountains,  nhich  consist  chiefly  of 
Stratified  rocks.  It  is  also  to  be  remarked,  that  the  intrusive  gra- 
nif«8  at  their  eastern  base,  are  not  unlike,  in  mineralogical  oharao- 
ters,  to  the  indigenoos  granites  of  the  moantains ;  thna  suggest- 
ing he  vieir  that  tJiese  are  possibly  the  source  of  the  intmsiTS 
granites  whioh  break  through  the  I  'evonian  strata.  A  similar 
relation  has  been  pointed  out  by  Durocher,  in  Scandio  ma,  where 
the  palsaozoio  strata  are  broken  by  iotmsive  masses  of  gr«nil«,' 
orthnphyre,  liroon -syenite,  and  diorite.  These  rooks,  according  to 
bin),  are  specifically  analogous  to  those  of  the  nnderlying  primitive 
gniess.  but  petroL^phically  distinct.  (Bull,  Soo.  Gvol.  de  Fr  nee, 
£2J,  vi  33.)  These  facts  are  in  aooordance  with  the  theory  of 
smptiTe  rocks  developed  at  the  commenaemeot  of  this  paper ;  and 
it  would  be  eany  to  extend  the  comparison  to  the  iotmsiTedioritefl 
mnd  dolcrites  about  Montreal,  and  to  shuw  their  resemblance  with 
ilie  stratified  feldapathio  rooks  of  tha  Lribrador  series.  (Silli- 
-man's  Journal  [2],  xxix,  283,  and  zxxi,  414.) 

IV.  Local  Hbtahobphish. 
In  the  second  part  of  this  paper  I  have  asserted  that  the  silioated 
minerals  of  crystallin<<  rocks  have  a  two-fold  origin.  In  the  first 
place  they  may  result  from  the  molecular  change  of  silicated  sedi- 
menta.  These  ar  •  either  derived  from  the  mechanical  dlsint^rratioD 
Kndptrtiil  deoompoailion  of  pre-existing  Btlicates,  or  have  been  geo- 
Onted  by  chemioal  processes  in  waters  at  the  earth's  surfiice.  In 
fliis  way  steatite,  serpentine,  pyroxene,  hornblende,  chlorite,  and  in 
many  cases  gar  et,  epidote,  and  other  silicates,  are  ibnned  by  a 
tryatallitjtion  and  molecular  re-arrangement  of  ohemically  form  d 
■iticate!!,  in  a  manner  anatogons  to  that  in  which  meohanioally  de- 
rived  olays  are  converted  into  cryatalline  species.  I  have  however 
pointed  out  that  in  the  second  place  many  of  these  silicated  minerals 
may  bj  generated  by  chemical  reaotious  which  take  place  among  the 
nechanioally  mixed  elements  of  sediments  under  the  influence  of  heat 
aided  by  alkaline  solutions.  Both  of  these  methods  are  involved  io 
roek-raetamor|ihi8m ;  and  in  t^e  case  of  the  local  alteration  of  '  ocks 
by  igneous  masses,  it  is  easy  by  comparative  examinations  to  trace 


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1864.]  T.  STIBBT  BUltT  OIT  UTHOLOOT.  187 

ihe  chemical  changes  involved  in  the  production  of  silicated  min- 
srsU  by  the  second  method.  In  this  way  Detexso  has  shonn  that 
in  several  onses  where  tbe  clialk  of  Ireland  has  been  altered  b;  the 
proximity  of  intrasive  traps,  the  sand  and  clay  which  the  former 
■ontain  have  been  converted  into  calcareous  ulioates.  (Ann.  dea 
Mines  [B],  lii,  pp.  189,  208,  212.) 

An  instructive  example -fthie  process  is  fnrntsbed  at  Montreal, 
where  the  bluish  fostnliferous  limestone  of  the  Trenton  group  is 
toaversed  by  dykes  of  dolerite,  which  arc  subordinate  to  the  great 
intrasive  mass  of  Monnt  Royal.  The  limestone  for  a  ilistance  of 
k  foot  or  two,  is  hardened,  but  retains  its  bluish  tint.  Within  k 
few  inches,  it  is  chan^i^ed  to  a  greenish- white  color,  which  is  seen 
to  be  due  to  a  granular  mineral  disseminated  in  the  white  car- 
bonate  of  lime.  The  unaltered  limestone-  from  the  vicinity 
•ontain  vsriabl  -  amounts  of  Insoluble  argillaceous  mattei-s.  A  epeoi- 
nen  treated  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  left  a  resitlae  of  about 
twelve  per  cent  of  a  fine  clayey  substance,  colored  by  a  small 
imonnt  of  oarlwnaceouH  mutter,  and  mixed  with  a  little  pyrites, 
which  was  removed  by  cilnte  nitric  acid.  This  residue,  after 
ignition,  gave  to  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda,  9  5  per  cent  of 
its  weight  of  soluble  silica;  and  the  insoluble  portion,  being  sub- 
mitted to  analysis,  gave  the  result  i.  A  portion  of  the  limestone 
which  was  near  to  the  intrusive  rock,  and  h:id  become  hardened  and 
partially  altered,  was  subjected  to  the  action  of  dilute  nitric  acid, 
and  gave  an  insoluble  residne  with  the  composition  it.  The  more 
thoroughly  altered  greenish  limestone  was  also  treated  with  dilute 
nitric  acid,  which  dissol^  ed  the  carbonate  of  lime,  and  Ivft  a  r  si- 
dne,  the  analyses  of  which,  fh)m  two  different  portions  of  the  rock, 
■re  ^ven  nnder  UI  and  iv. 

1.  ji.  m.  rv. 

Silica, T3.01       Bt.OO        41.60     40  30 

Alumina, 18.31       14.00         1370        0.30 

Lime, 03       16.14        3169      38.40 

HaKnxaio, BT        It  31  4  IT       3.T0 

Prutoijdof  iron, tracrt        3.60  4.68        6-33 

Poriuh fi.fiS        S  14         DDdet.     anilet, 

Hoii^ BO         1.33  "  " 

Tol«iile,. 90  1.30        1.30 

09  67       98. TT  98.04       96.01 

The  residue  from  the  unaltered  limestone,  including  the  silica 
•oluble  in  alknUus,  contains  nearly  75.!»  hundredths  of  silioa,  and 


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188.  THK  OAHADUIf  HATUKAURT.  [JuD^ 

16. &  of  alumina.  These,  in  the  noinity  nf  the  dslerite,  have  b«> 
eorae  S'tturtted  with  protoxyil  bsMs,  inoludin^  the  small  portioni 
of  tu^nesia  anH  of  osvd  (^  iron  which  the  limestone  onntaina, 
This  ;>roces9  evidently  involves  a  deoom position  of  the  carbonat* 
of  lime,  a'<d  the  expulsion  of  the  oa  bonic  acid.  It  is  worthy  of 
remark  that  while  the  unaltered  limestenc  contains  a  little  on^ 
honate  of  m^nesia,  the  rook  from  which  ill  was  obtained  yielded 
to  'li'u'e  nitrio  acid  not  a  traoe  of  mFi^nesJa.  Il  mnrks  an  intei- 
mediiite  eta^e  in  the  process,  and  ebows  moreover  thut  the  alknlie* 
ftre  still  retained  in  combination  with  the  alvmonins  eilicHte; 
-  These  granular  silicates,  which  have  been  formed  by  local 
metHmorphism,  might,  under  favorable  oircamstances,  havecry» 
talliied  in  the  forma  of  feld^sr,  soapolite,  gurnet,  pyroiena, 
or  some  other  of  the  silioioua  minerals  which  so  often  oconr  in  metai- 
morp  ic  limestones.  The  agent  in  producing  those  sliioates  of 
protoxydx  at  the  expense  of  the  carbonates  of  the  limestone,  was 
probably  a  portion  of  alkaline  salt,  either  derived  from  the  feld- 
■patliicmatter  of  the  UiueBtooe,  or  possibly  infiltrated  from  the  con- 
tains fuld^pathic  rock ;  whose  elevated  tempemture  produced  th» 
reaction  whioh  bus  resulted  in  thus  altering  this  limestone. 

Similar  examples  of  local  alteration  are  m  t  with  in  several  nthai 
places  near  to  the  intrusive  rocks  of  the  Montreal  group.  The 
schUts  of  the  Utica  fonuiition  to  oontaot  with  a  dyke  of  intruaiva 
rook  at  Point  Su  Chirlea,  and  also  near  a  mass  of  tmohyte  on  % 
■mall  island  opposite  the  city  of  Montreal,  ooaisionaliy  exhibit  small 
crystals  of  pyroxene,  and  in  some  oases  prisuis  of  hornblcode. 
Among  similarly  altered  shales  at  Boogemont  are  beds  which  ood- 
ust  of  a  highly  fdrriferooa  orystalltne  dolouiito  intermingled  witk 
dark'<freen  oleavuble  h'>rnhlende,  whioh  forms  thin  layers,  or  in 
Other  oases  enclosea.  am.iU  rounded  musses  of  the  dolomite.  (See 
fbr  a  deaoription  and  aodlyees  of  this  rook  the  Geology  of  Canada, 
page  634.) 

At  Montarvitle  the  shales  of  the  Budson  Bivcr  formation 
axe  altered  in  the  vicinity  of  the  dolerite  which  forma  the  mass  of 
the  mnantain.  Some  portions  of  the  strata  are  very  fine-grained, 
leJdish-brown,  and  h,-ive  an  earthy  sub-conohoidal  fracture,  witk 
oeotHional  cleavage  joints.  The  hardnees  of  this  rock  is  not  grea^ 
and  it  is  apparently  a  kindof  argillitei  bat  between  two  beds  of  it 
is  one  of  a  harder  coarse^n'aiaed  rock,  iireenisb-firay  in  color,  and 
mottled  with  a  ligbler  hue.    This  appears  to  be  feldspjthio  in 


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1864.]  0B8MIBTET  OT  MANtTMB.  189 

flO'nposition,  and  is  penetrated  in  variouB  directions  by  nnmerom 
■lender  prisms  of  black  cleavable  pyroxene,  Boiueriiues  bulf  un  iiioh 
in  length.  The  layers  of  sedimentation  are  distinctly  miirkvd  ia 
this  bed,  OS  well  us  in  the  fioer-graiaed  airuta  irhich  enclose  it; 
and  the  who lo  affords  an  intereating  exutupleof'the  different  effevts 
of  the  aaiD.!  agency  upon  beds  of  anliie  compoMilinn  ;  aIthou<;li  it 
would  be  impoBiible  witliout  comparative  oliemic.il  analyses  to  de- 
termine  whether  the  silioite  which  has  here  crystallized  in  the  form 
of  pyroxene  existed  in  th<)  unaltered  sediment,  i<r  whether,  as  in  tha 
ease  of  the  uncryst.iUized  silicate  from  the  altered  limestone  at 
Montreal,  it  has  been  generated  aoder  ^e  influence  of  Che  intm- 
mve  rock.  In  by  fur  the  groat«r  number  of  coieH,  the  only  apparent 
tffiot  of  the  igneous  rocks  in  die  region  under  deKcriptiim  upon 
tiiepalseiizoioliiueittones  and  Bhales,has  been  a  very  local  induration. 
The  appeuranoeoforystula  in  these  oircomstinces  is  a  comparatively 
rare  occnrence,  and  seums  to  dapend  upon  conditions  which  are 
ezcoptionil,  showing,  as  I  have  elsewhere  reniaiked,  that  beat  and 
moisture  are  not  the  only  ooudition  of  metamorpbisiu.  ^SUiiuian'f 
Journal  [2],  xxzvi,  219.) 

With  these  few  exaiuplea  oflooal  metamorpliisni  I  conclude  the 
present  piper;  propusin>;  however  to  give  in  a  i^ulwequent  ime  the 
results  of  some  invesiigutions  of  certain  indi^ennuii  cryaialliue  roeki. 

Montreal,  Marob  15,  1864. 


CHEMISTRY  OF  MANIRES.* 


ClHERKALf   CONSTITDKHTS  OP  PLANTS. — It   is    DOl  boweVW 

txcluaively  by  carbon,  nitrogen,  aud  the  uleuieuU  of  water  that 


■  Oonilnntd  tram  pagf  124. 
t  This  term  eintrfat,  from  rtntrtt,  aafaes,  naf  I'r  vc  cnnrenieat  1«  todl* 
eal«,  witboui  periplira4ia,  ih*asb-conititneaiiof  {)liiD[a  In  con  trad  is  lino- 
tioD  From  their  rulaiile  elements.  Some  writra  iXii  into  ttie  error  of  em- 
plofins  the  efiUiet  "  mineral"  to  deaote  the  aah-inKredUaia;  an  error 
in  DomenoUture  prob.ib'j  arising  from  some  cm  ugeil  ImiirfasioD  that, 
becaaae  of  iu  earth;  drrivntiou,  the  asb  of  plania  is  miire  mineral  in 
eharacter  tbao  the  Tolntils  or  gaseont  elemriiu  wliich  Hir  sa|iplirs  and 
flrv  dissipates.  The  IMnstrions  anthor  of  Ihe  niia  ral-ihporT-  seems,  In 
tome  of  bis  earlierw.liingSi'hlmBsir  (o  hare  eounteiiniiceil  this  error. 
Herertbeless,  ita  simple  indteatioiiillfflM*  for  ii«  refutation,  Cartraaand 


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190  THE  OAHAmAH   NA.TDRALI8T.  [JuBt, 

plants  are  nonrislied ;  nor  is  it  solely  in  quest  of  food,  such  as  tiM 
leaves  also  can  assimilate  from  the  air,  that  the  rooU  spread  forth 
their  manifuld  ramiGoations  amidst  the  earth. 

Lieiieg  first  set  forth,  io  all  tbeir  peculiar  interest  and  import- 
anoe,  the  fixed  in^^redients  of  plants  ;  that  is  the  compounds  which 
appear  as  ash,  when  the  voUtilizable  air-derived  elemeots  of  planta 
are  burned  off.  These  ash-ingredients  constitate,  as  iie explained, 
the  special  (though  not  the  sole)  food  of  the  roots;  and  they  ar» 
tiieoniy  kind  of  nutriment  which  has  its  primary  and  ezoL'Sin 
•ource  in  tbe  soil. 

These  essential  asb-ingredieots,  aof&raa  we  yet  know  them,  an 
the  two  filed  alkalies,  potash  and  soda ;  two  earthy  basea,  lime  and 
magnesia;  one  heavy  metallic  base,  oxide  of  iron;  three  aoid^ 
pbosphorio,  siliolo,  and  sulphuric;  aod  lastly,  ehlorine,  which, 
though  a  gas,  is  always  taken  up  by  phots  in  fixed  combioatioai 
(u  for  example  in  oommon  salt),  so  as  to  remain  in  the  ash  or 
uoineration. 

Small  as  are  the  proportions  of  these  fixed  ingredients  assimilated 
by  plants  during  their  growth,  they  are  yet  as  necessary  to  tht 
plant's  development  as  the  carbon  and  water  which  make  up  iU 
maio  bulk.  60  again,  as  between  tbe  fixed  ingredients  themselves 
dtbough  some  of  tbem  are  needed  in  larger,  and  some  in  suiallci 
proportiocis,  each  species  of  plant  having  in  this  respect,  ita  special 
'  requirements;  although,  for  example,  one  ingredient  may  form 
more  than  one  half  the  total  ash  of  a  given  plant,  and  another 
teaa  than  a  tenth  part  thereof ;  yet  are  they  all'equally  essential 
to  iu  development,  which  languishes  as  much  for  want  of  the  mi- 
nutest as  of  tbe  bulkiest  cinereal  supply,  Soils  wholly  deficient 
in  any  one  of  tbe  ash  ingredients  of  a  particular  plant,  cannot  pro- 
duce that  plant,  bowsoevor  abundantly  every  other  of  its  elements, 
Tolatile  and  fixed,  may  be  supplied.  Partial  deficiency  of  either 
of  the  normal  ingredients  of  plant-food,  whether  fixed  or  volatile^ 
ioTolves  a  proportionately  Boanty  crop;  and  noheaping  of  other 

carbonic  acid,  Ditrogen,  ammonia,  and  nitric  acid,  oijgen,  hydrogen, 
and  wat«c,  all  appertain  to  tbe  mineral  kingdom,  in  gvery  sense  as 
•tuUj  at  silica,  potaali,  the  pbospbaies,  Ac.  The  epithet  "mineral* 
■ppliej  therefora  equallj  to  all  the  elemenla,  botb  TOlatJle  and  fixed,  of 
plant-rood;  it  isfor  tbe  leparaie  detigoation  of  thafixed  oraiheouatito- 
fUM,  that  tb^  epithet  ciTttrtal  b  ptopoaed.  In  thii  sense  (to  test  Ui 
WaTenieaoa)  it  viU  b«  employed  In  the  renuOadM  of  this  section. 


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1664.]  OHUtlBTBT  or  UANDBIB.  191 

nunores  on  the  soil  oun  lave  the  slightest  effect,  so  loog  sb  th» 
one  iogredieat,  wholly  or  partly  deficient,  remaios  unsuppiied. 

Nor  does  the  more  presence  of  the  oinereitl  plant-food  io  th* 
■oil  suffice:  it  most  be  availably  present.  Ihat  is,  besides  anj 
portioL,,  however  large,  of  cinereal  element,  that  may  be  held  la 
mechuoicol  isolation  within  the  substance  of  the  stones  or  olod^ 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  roots ;  or  that  may  be  locked  op  in  ohein- 
ioa]  combination,  too  refractory  for  tbe  solvent  agencies  present  la 
■obd'iej  besides  any  isolated  or  locked-ap  portion  which  may,  is 
tenth,  be  retried  as  absent  for  all  immediate  purposes  of  nutri- 
ttOD ;  there  mast  be  a  sufficiency  of  Bsh-ooDStitaents,  Leld  lij^htlj, 
other  by  tbe  Burfuce-aclioa  of  the  moist  and  porous  earth,  or  (a»- 
cording  to  another  view)  by  the  ohemioal  attraotlon  of  the  alumii^ 
ouB  silicates,  in  snob  manner  as  to  bo,  both  physically  and  ohemi- 
oally,  sooessible  to  the  roots.  No  doubt  the  locked-np  matenala  of 
one  seaS'D,  may,  and  do  become,  in  due  course  of  tillage  and  fal- 
lowing, the  accessible  food  of  the  next ;  and,  indeed,  it  is  to  sueh 
gradually-decomposing  reserree  that  tbe  prolonged  fertility  of  oer- 
taia  soils,  worked  l>y  tillage  and  lallowing  only,  without  manuR^ 
is  due.  But  forallimmediatepurp08es,aBoiliBexhaust«d,  wheo, 
rich  as  it  may  be  io  the  ooad.tions  of  future  ierlility,  it  lacks  an 
adequate  present  supply  of  the  ash-oonstitaentfl  of  plants,  in  &t» 
■ooesrible  diffusion. 

High  Fabhino:  qow  fab  jobtipiablb  :  at  what  poin* 
RXHAirsTrVK. — And  here  it  beoomes  opportune  to  resume  the 
queatioD  of  high  farming,  wliioh  in  a  previoua  page  was  roserTed 
&a  subsequent  elucidation. 

High  &rming,  as  already  pointed  oat,  is  jostlGable  in  so  far  u 
it  serves  to  concentrate,  within  limits  adapted  to  tbe  asumilativ* 
powers  and  ciroumatanoes  of  annual  and  biennial  planls,  the  food- 
Supplies  diffused  by  natnreoveramuoh  wider  ezpanseof  time  and 
^oe.  to  suit  T^etation  of  perennial  growth.  Bnt  it  is  of  tbe 
deepest  importaooe  to  observe,  that  the  more  abundant  crops,  and 
apparently  inoressed  fertility  usually  induoed  by  high  farming,  an 
in  too  many  oases  but  the  premonitory  symtoms  of  an  accelerated 
process  of  exhaustion.  The  sembhnoe  of  prosperous  husbandry 
thus  created  is  as  facUtioos,  as  the  Bpendthrift's  roinoiu  nuigDi&' 
OSDoe  maintained  by  squandering  his  capital ;  and  "  high  farming," 
eren  when  coupled  with  "high  manuring,"  and  the  keeping  of 
many  cattle  for  their  daag,  is  oileo,  for  the  nawary  busbandaui^ 
*Ij  *  flowwj  road  to  dettruoiion. 


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192  THB  OANADIAN  NATtTBALIST.  [JuDS, 

For  it  IB  to  be  remembered  that  a  soil  may,  by  the  excemiye  use  of 
Haie,  oommoD  salt,  Ditrates,  and  other  solvent  or  dieiiitcfirsDt 
BMiures,  as  also  by  dil^nt  ploa^rhing,  soarifyinp;,  erosbing,  and 
Other  processea  of  meoboDioiit  ooinuinutioa,  be  made  to  yield  its 
nservea  in  aooossible  form,  at  ao  anduly  aocelenited  rate.  Tka 
■auie  result  may  eoaue,  if  tbe  volutile  tbrms  of  plant-food,  «hicb 
n«iure  supplies  only  in  moderate  annual  propnn.ion,  be  addrd  to 
pr  foaion  to  the  soil,  without  due  eure  to  conjoin  ^crewitb  pro- 
portiuujt«  supplies  of  sBh-constituenta,  or  cinereal  food. 

KuTATiON  or  CBOPaoTT£N  fixBAirsTEVK — Utod  tbe  Tunnt- 
ed  system  of  rotation — %.  «.,  the  growth  of  fodder-crops  alternate 
ly  with  cereals,  theoe  latter  receiving  as  manure  the  dung  of  dis 
eattle  ted  on  tbe  former — is  but  too  olten  so  oarried  on  as  to  be 
in  truth  a  spoliatory  operation  ;  a  t»ort  of  artiGen,  eerviog  only  (0 
dii^uise  and  retard  tbe  period  of  finiJ  eitiausu6n  ;  which  an  far 
from  averting,  it  does  but  make  more  protonnd.  For  the  powe^ 
All,  deeply. penetrating  rootd  of  the  fodder-cropb  extract  from  t)>e 
SubsoL  ibj  ash-eonsti taenia;  vhioh,  after  passing  through  tbe 
bodies  of  tbe  oatde,  are  deposited  in  their  dun<;  on  the  suriitee, 
tbenoe  to  sink  into  the  upper  layN«  of  the  soil,  and  so  to  find  their 
way  to  the  libres  of  tbe  young,  slender-rooted  cerea)  plants ;  in 
«h03u  grain  l^ey  are  finally  exported  from  the  iurm. 

Loia-WsEDON  Syeteh  ;  its  Spoliatokt  Charactkk.  - 
Tlie  so-called  i»iB-Weedon  system  of  euitivution  is  optm  lo  cinii- 
br  obje^tiun.  This  system,  as  is  well  known,  consiHte  in  the  ^ioir> 
ia^,  year  after  year,  apon  soil  whieb  is  never  manured,  of  oonh 
pkuM  thinly  sown  iu  rows,  separated  by  wide  int«rTalB ;  the  in- 
tiirals  tteingeadi  year  stirred  and  hdlowed,  t«  beoiHne  the  next 
jmr'sgrowiag  spaces;  and  so  on  in  annual  alternation  Tbisxyt- 
4em  of  lmsbaiMlry,'«hiohn^  be  regarded  aa  an  eitrerae  ezeoi- 
^i&oauonof  Jetttro  f  aU'ii  duetritie,  is  stated  to  have  elicited  froU 
the  tields  in  which. it  is  pursu«d,  a  aeries  ot  fnll  gmin.oi>ipB  ler 
^kuiy  years  in  soeceniett.  This  remit  is  in  tbe  h^e^t  degree 
probuble.  And  this  appareot  prosperity  may  be  kept  np  tor  a 
MTies  of  years,  longer  or  shorter  t'M-  eacti  soil,  as  this  may  happen 
to  have  been  originahyiuarecr  lesfrriehly  endowed  by  nature  wi^ 
onereal  {dantJbod.  But  «tae  end  «f  ttiis  ututhod  akoueznuustion, 
-T-ipevitable  IbrB^wwiedethaBstiow,— exbaoetiaa  o>  wuion  eaeta 
.".  pn»pertMis  "  orop'is  Mt  an.  advaaeii^  stage,  aa4  whom  rate  tbe 
,dMNua(<nMiti9«%'«itta:ataMfiMUneii;aD  tlwABiHnl^  4«n«q[ 


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1864.]  OHIHIBTET  or  HANnUB.  193 

veiffht  of  ■  little  dust  in  the  pan  of  a  balance.  UnleEB  the  weight 
of  tb«t  dust  (the  available  BBh*o.>nstitneiit8  of  the  Boil)  remain 
year  nft-  r  jear  a  oonstant  qnaDtlty,  the  ttiBbandtuBii,  hoveoerer 
prosperous  he  may  seem  to  be,  pursues  a  downnard  roail ;  and  he 
is  fntallj'  prepariog  for  hiineelf  or  his  posterity,  impoTeriehiDent 
and  fititi)  ruin. 

DisPROPiiETioVATE  Mancrino. — Nay  wore  :  the  weight  of 
ash  in  the  balance  may  even  be  annually  increased,  by  a  profuse 
manaring  of  the  soil,  and  yet  exhaustion  and  ruin  may  impend. 
This  will  be  the  result,  if  one  of  the  fixed  atinients— phoHphorie 
acid  for  example — be  added  to  the  soil  in  superabundance,  with- 
out proporlioDate  supplies  of  other  cinereal  oonstituents, — say  for 
example,  silica  or  potash.  So,  again,  if  manures  which,  like 
guano,  are  at  onoe  nitrogenous  and  phosphatic,  but  iiot  propor- 
tionately rich  in  all  the  cinereal  elements  of  plant-food,  be  em- 
ployed iu  esceea,  the  farming  will  be  higher  still,  the  crops  more 
luxuriunt,  the  "  prosperity "  more  brilliant  than  ever,  and  the 
eatiistrophe  proportionately  nearer  t^e  more  disastmns. 

The  practice  of  multiplying  cattle  on  a  farm,  and  of  fattening 
tliem  with  the  oil  of  purchased  oil-calce,  in  order  that  the  ash  of 
the  oaktj,  after  pasmng  through  their  bodies,  may  become  aTsilable 
for  the  cinereal  replenishment  of  the  soil,  is  another  form  of  high 
farming,  at  present  very  much  in  fashion.  Bat,  broadly  Tiewed, 
with  reference  not  to  individual  but  to  eollective  interests,  this 
^st«m  also  will  be  found  to  originate  in  an- overnight,  and  to  end 
in  an  illusion.  The  facts  overlooked  are,  thut  oil-oake  purchased, 
ia  also,  of  necessity,  oil-cake  sold ;  that  all  oil-cako  is  the  produce 
of  land;  and  that,  consequently,  what  one  farm  gains,  another 
loses,  when  oil-eake  chuDgee  hands.  The  ash  of  oil-cake,  together 
with  the  fertility,  immediate  or  prospective,  which  that  ash 
represents,  is  a  fixed  quantity,  which  commerce  may  serve  to 
distribute,  but  oannot  possibly  increase,  The  distributive  opera- 
tion may  be  more  or  less  useful  to  vary  the  apportionment  of 
fertility  in  space  and  time.  But  cake-fed  cattle  are  not,  as  they 
are  frequently  supposed  t«  be,  a  $ourai  of  cinereal  manure ;  and 
the  practice  which  grows  oat  of  this  illusory  belief  Is  but  one 
taore,  and  not  the  least  dangerous  in  ita  tendent?,  of  the  fashion- 
able agricultural  abuses  decorated  with  the  name  of  high 
fimning. 

Should    high    fanning,  in  either  or    all    of   th«M    sporiOBB 


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194  THX  CANADIAN  NATtTBAUST.  [JoiW, 

forma  unh&ppil;  become  prevalent  among  civiliEed  nations,  so  w 
to  bring  about  the  exhaustion  of  extensive  tracts  of  the  earth's 
anrface,  at  about  the  same  period  of  time, — aaj,  for  bsUnce,  in 
the  third  or  fourth  generation  hence ;  in  each  case  the  demand 
for  cinereal  manures,  arisii^  simultaueouely  over  whole  continents, 
would  necessarily  exceed  all  possible  supplies,  and  incalculable 
misery,  in  the  form  of  famine  and  pestilence,  must  ensue. 

The  exhaustion  consequent  on  scanty  manuring  has  been  the 
theme  of  many  exhortations ;  but  the  danger  of  similar  evil  from 
injadicioua  or  excessive  manuring  has  not  been  sufficiently 
inmsted  on. 

One  more  example  of  this  danger  is  all  for  which  space  oan  be 
afforded  here. 

Thegrowthof  the  wheat-plant  may  be  divided,  like  that  of  the 
biennial  turnip.  Into  three  main  periods; — the  first,  during  which 
the  growing  power  of  the  plant  Is  chi^y  employed  in  developing 
its  earliest  leaves  and  its  root ;  the  second,  during  which  its  vital 
force  is  directed  to  increasing  its  foliage  and  shooting  forth  its 
stalk  ;  the  third,  during  which  flowering  and  fruition  take  place, 
and  the  grain  fills  with  nitrogenous  and  amylaceous  compounds, — 
^e  main  objects  of  its  culture.  Now,  injudicious  manuring,  with 
excess  of  nitn^nous  compounds  and  of  the  special  ash-constitaenla 
of  straw,  may  cause  such  a  development  of  stalk  and  leaf,  and  so 
undne  a  consumption,  by  these,  of  food  and  force  required  to  form 
the  grain,  that,  when  this  comes  in  its  turn  to  the  ripening  period, 
the  conditions  of  its  evolution  fall  short,  and  the  result  is  a  crop 
of  magnificent  straw,  with  only  half-filled  ears. 

All  these  dangers  and  disasters  disappear,  all  perplexity  oeases, 
and  the  course  of  the  farmer  becomes  clear  and  safe,  if  he  takes 
for  his  guidance  the  natural  laws  of  husbandry, — prominent  among 
which  is  that  which  enjobs  the  scrupulous  restitution  to  the  soil 
of  the  ash-ingredients  removed  in  the  crop. 

SOCLAL  AND    FoLIXIOAL    AsPBOTB   07   TDK    QltESTION. — By 

%noranoe  or  neglect  of  these  laws,  ancient  families,  possessed  of 
vast  estates,  have  been  brought  to  ruin ;  distress,  the  perturber  of 
dynasties,  has  befallen  great  nations ;  and  migh^  empires  have 
fallen  to  decay. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact,  and  well  worthy  of  the  meditation  of 
statesmen,  that  the  line  which  indicates,  by  its  rise  and  fall,  the 
finctuating  price  of  com  in  France,  from  year  to  year,  during  the 


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1864.]  QHKKIBTRT  Ot  HANUKES.  19fi 

first  bilf  of  tlie  present  oenlury,  rises,  at  two  pomte  of  time,  to 
aaddea  and  conspicuous  eminence.  Those  significant  pinnacles 
bear  date  1829  and  1847.  The  political  catastrophea  which 
followed  these  two  seasons  of  distress  respectively,  do  not  require 
indication.  How  far  the  precursory  distress  depended  on  inclement 
BBasoDs,  how  far  on  erroneous  bushandry,  the  reporter  is  not 
aware.  But  lie  believes  that  no  institutions  strike  root  deeply  in 
a  country  that  is  badly  farmed. 

Empihioal  MANoaES. — From  these  oorsory  remarks  it  will 
be  apparent  that  mannres  can  only  be  used  with  success,  when 
they  are  applied  with  judgment  and  moderation,  and  with  doe 
reference,  as  well  to  the  nature  and  condition  of  the  soil  to  h» 
amended,  as  to  the  parUcular  description  of  the  crop  to  be  raised. 
Empirical  mixlnres,  vaunted  as  suiting  special  crops,  are  likely 
(even  when  honestly  composed)  as  often  to  fail  as  to  snoceed, 
beoaose  they  are  commonly  employed,  in  blind  confidence,  on  all 
Iduds  and  conditions  of  soils.  So  extensively  does  haphazard  pre- 
vail, as  yet,  in  this  matter,  that  costly  ammoniacal  salts  or  composts 
are  often  applied,  without  avail,  to  fields  which  a  cheap  dressing 
(say  with  lime  or  ullca)  would  have  fitted  to  bear  a  good  crop. 
Nay,  in  some  cases  a  manure  may  chance  to  be  efficient  by  the 
very  ingredient  employed  for  its  adulteration  ;  as,  for  instance, 
land-mixed  gnano  by  its  silica. 

LlEBlo's  Manubes. — The  history  of  Liebig's  mineral  manure 
—a  mixture  of  ash -ingredients  patented  by  the  illustrious  philoso- 
pher in  April  1845,*  as  the  practical  embodiment  of  hie  theory 
published  five  years  previously — is  too  remarkable  to  be  passed 
In  silence  here.  This  manure  is  stated  in  the  specification  of  the 
patent,  to  be  composed  of  substances  "containing  the  elemente  of 
the  ashes  of  the  plants  to  be  grown,"  ground  up,  and  "  oocaeionally 
mixed  with  gypsum,  calcined  bones,  silicate  of  potash,  magnesian 
and  ammoniacal  phosphates,  and  common  salt "  Here  appeared, 
indeed,  to  be  the  elements  of  a  restoratiTC,  well  adapted  to  renew, 
in  con&rmity  with  theory,  the  fertility  of  ssh-exhauBt«d  soils. 
Nevertheless  this  manure,  which  excited  the  highest  antioipations, 
and  was  eagerly  tried  on  fields  mnumerable,  occasioned  universal 
disappointment;    and  was  everywhere  abandoned  as  a  failure. 

•  ThU  paUDt  (Ho.  10,816,  April  15, 1B4H)  ii  {ranted  to  J.  Haspratt, 
at  "for  a  commantcatton  fram  JnitcR  Liebig." 


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196  THE   CAWAWAM  KATOEALIBT.  [JoM, 

Many,  indeed,  in  tbe  excesi  of  their  diMppointment,  were  led  to 
repudiate  the  "  minerd  theory  "  itsetf,  and  to  impugn  all  scienttSo 
fansbaodry  ab  a  dangerous  delnnon. 

It  is  now  easy,  and  also  in  the  highest  d^rce  inatructiTe,  to 
Croce  thi^  error  of  tbe  lUustrioos  philosopher  to  its  source  in  the 
then  Btjite  of  science.  The  spedal  discovery,  which  has  rendered 
impossible  the  recurrence  of  such  an  error,  may  abo  now  be 
pointed  out;  and  this  is,  in  itself,  of  so  much  interest  aod  impor- 
tance that  it  deserves  our  moat  careful  attention. 

Early  View  of  the  Inoesiiok  op  Cisereai,  Aliment. 
— At  the  iaU)  of  Liebig's  patent  it  vae  universally  believed  tb&t 
the  ash-const itucnta  of  plants  were  supplied  t«  tbe  roots  in  moving 
aqueous  soiutiun  ;  i.  e.,  in  soluUons  permeating  the  soil  uaebanged, 
■nd  uieetinj^  in  its  passage  rootlet  after  rootlet,  so  that  tbe  tonfier 
■pougioJes,  boing  immersed  tberdn,  could  drink.  According  to 
tbU  view,  it  nus  tiot  the  roots  vhiob  travelled  to  the  asb-constitii- 
entd,  but  the  ash-cone titnents  which  were  carried,  in  solution,  to 
.  tbe  roots,  Tliis  belief  led  Liebig  to  fear  that  the  more  soluble 
alkalino  injjrcdierits  of  his  manure  would,  by  the  rain  falling  on 
the  land,  bo  washed  away  from  the  other  ingredients,  and  thus 
■eparutcd  therefrom.  He  therefore  directed  his  niisture  to  bo 
tri;iiied  "  iu  suuLi  a  manner  that  the  character  oi'  the  alkaline 
matters  may  be  changed,  and  tbe  same  renderud  less  soluble"  ;  and 
he  indicalud,  as  the  best  mode  of  effecting  tliis  obJL'Ct,  rhe/utum 
of  the  m-iUruiU  in  a  revtrberatory  fumaee.  Tbe  danger  feared 
by  Liebig  w^s,  wo  now  know,  ilhisory ;  and  the  treatment  he 
adopted  to  avert  the  Bupposed  evil  was  auch  as  to  render  Ub 
mixture  eoiup:ir»  lively  inert.  It  wae  reserved  for  an  Engliab 
ehemiat,  John  Thomas  Way,  to  make,  same  five  years  later,  tlie 
important  invcstL<:ation  whioh  led  to  tbe  abandonment  of  tbe 
kbove-stated  opiniuu  aa  to  the  oonvt^nee  of  rt<|uid  plant-food  to 
the  roots,  and  introduced  in  its  stead  ao  entirely  new  view  of  tiie 
distributive  a\-  <  h::uiam  of  the  soil. 

AflaoRPTivt:  I'.iwer  of  SorLB.^Way's  observation,  briefly 
stated,  was  that  -oils  possess  an  absorptive  pmiT,  in  virtue  itt 
which  they  withlr  lw  from  aqoeona  solutjons  oi  .'^.iline  plant^fbod 
filtered  through  them,  sometimes  the  whole,  sometimes  the  base 
only,  of  tbe  dissolved  Salt.  He  tbond  that,  in  the  tatter  case,  the 
acid  of  the  salt  from  which  tbe  soil  bad  thus  withdrawn  the  base, 
passed  through  the  soil  in  oombliiation  with  lime.    By  a  w^> 


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1864.}  OEUKIBTBT  OV  HAUCSEa.  197 

devised  uid  extenaiTely-Taiied  series  of  e^Mariments,  he  detenoined 
the  comparative  amouotof  this  absorptive  power  pt^Beeaed  by 
several  varieties  of  soil,  whether  natural,  or  artifioially  composed, 
These  he  tried,  both  in  their  raw  state,  and  buried,  as  also  under 
<^toar7  and  eitraordinar^  conditions  of  oompresston,  comminu- 
tion, &c,  tesUng  each  with  solatiods  of  the  alkalies  and  alkalin* 
esrUui,  sometimes  caustic,  sometimes  oarbocated,  sometimes  in 
eombinatioa  with  the  strong  mineral  acids.  Bj  thaae  experiments 
be  confirmed  and  extended  partial  observations  of  like  kind 
recorded  Iod)^  ago  by  Lord  Bacon  and  Dr.  Hales,  as  also  a  number 
of  analogous  fucts,  experimentally  ascertained  b;  Beraelius  and 
Matteucci  abroad,  and  by  Mr.  Huxtable  uid  Mr.  H.  S.  Thomp- 
son ia  this  country.  Referring  tjlie  reader  for  details  to  Way's  * 
original  papera  on  the  aabjeot,  the  reporter  may  simply  state  hers 
that  Way  attributes  this  power  to  tbe  peculiar  properties  of  th« 
alnminiferouB  double  silioates,  wbicb  be  states  to  he  more  abun- 
dant in  soils  in  proportion  as  these  possess  higher  absorptiv* 
power.  This  interpretation  of  the  observed  pbenomanon  has  not 
met  with  universal  acceptance  i  many,  with  Liebig  at  their  head, 
denying  the  proportionality  alleged  by  Way,  and  seeing  in  tbs 
■bfiorptive  power  of  soils  for  salts  dissolved  in  water,  only  anothor 
aspect  of  the  physico-chemical  surfece-action  due  to  their 
porou^,  and  enabling  them  t«  absorb  gases  and  vapors  from 
tbeir  difiuaion  or  aolatioD  in  the  atmosphere.  Tbe  reporter, 
&U  his  own  part,  rather  iuolines  to  the  latter  view. 

But  the  facts  mveetigated  by  Way,  independently  bi  their 
{^ysical  oonditioQS  and  theoretical  interpretation,  possess  an 
importwce  and  a  generality  which  entitle  them  to  rank  among 
the  most  conspicuous  contributions  to  modem  agrieultural  science.. 
They  prove,  among  other  things,  that  the  plant-food  arrested  by 
the  soil  can  be  delivered  only  to  tbe  spongiolea  in  immediate 
■outset  therewith :  and  that,  consequently,  these  can  obtiun  fresh. 
food  only  under  one  of  two  conditions ; — (a)  when,  by  the  grow- 
ing of  the  rootlets,  they  are  pushed  forward  into  contact  with  fresh 
portions  of  the  mould  ;  (b)  when  tbe  descent  of  rain  through  tha 
soil  effects  the  solution  of  fresh  saline  matter,  and  calls  again  into 
(lay  the  surfacoi^ttraction  of  the  pores,  so  as  to  replenish  those 
pevionaly  exhaosted  by  the  condguous  sponglcles.      Showen 

■  Boyal  Agrle.  3oo.  Jouin.  ISSO-U'SB. 


,,;.  Google 


f98  THK  OANASIAir  NATUBALIfiT.  [Jul 


,  ia  a  doable  Bense,  "genial";  firati;,  as  liberatii^ 
withia  tlie  soil  a  fresh  enpplj  of  surface-held  plant-food,  aTailable 
for  the  rootlets  to  touch  and  take;  seoondly,  as  promoting  the 
growth  of  the  rootiets,  and  bo  moving  forward  thousands  of  spon- 
gioles  simultaneonslj  into  contact  with  fresh  food-holding  sur- 

Tbeee  beautifal  relations  of  the  soil,  tlie  food,  and  the  roots, 
now  that  thej  are  discovered,  are  peroeived  to  be  bo  indispensable, 
that. one  almost  w<Miders  they  were  not  arrived  at  by  d  priori 
reasoning.  For,  had  soils  been  undefended  bj  this  absoq)tive 
^xiperty,  the  runfall  of  centuries  passing  through  them  must 
have,  ages  ago,  washed  away  every  trace  of  their  soluble  salta. 
Subsoil  drainage,  so  fiir  &om  tending,  as  it  does,  to  fertiliEe  land, 
would  but  have  exposed  its  sandy  remnants  to  a  lixiviating  process 
more  rapid  and  exhausting  than  even  that  of  the  natural  filtration. 

Distributive  Mechanism  or  Soils. — It  does  not  of  connw 
fall  within  the  scope  of  the  present  rapid  sketch,  to  trace  this 
newly-discovered  property  of  soils,  to  all  its  important  conse- 
quences. As  one  example,  perhaps  the  most  striking,  of  these, 
the  reporter  would  single  out  the  admirable  distributive  influence 
of  the  absorptive  power ;  which  (counteracting  in  this  respect  the 
force  of  gravitation)  tends  to  mtuntain  the  nutritive  ingredients 
where  they  are  most  needed,  t.  e.,  in  the  upper  layers  of  the  soil, 
leaving  the. surplus  only  to  be  deposited,  as  in  a  reservoir,  in  the 
layers  beneath.  Each  layer,  in  fact,  when  saturated  itself,  lets 
pass  unchanged  the  sur[dus  solution,  to  saturate  the  layer  next 
below  i  and  so  on,  in  pn^resmon,  through  the  whole  depth  of  the 
cultivable  soil. 

Kevertii^,  with  this  property  of  soils  before  as,  to  Liebig'a 
patented  manure,  we  see  clearly  the  cause  of  its  fiulnre.  In  aiming 
at  its  improvement  by  the  reduction  of  its  solubility,  the  illustrious 
inventor  inadvertently  placed  himself  in  opposition  to  a  law  of 
nature.     How  nobly  he  retrieved  this  error  will  presently  appear. 

DiSTaiBUTiVE  Meooanuui  of  Faru-yard  Dunq. — Mean- 
while, it  is  a  point  worth  notice,  that  an  error,  similar  to  Licbig's, 
is  apt  to  vitaate  ezpeninental  comparisons  between  the  immediate 
fertilizing  effect  of  farm  yard  dung,  and  that  of  the  ash  obtained 
tty  its  incineration.  The  inferiority  of  the  ash  to  the  dung  itself, 
as  an  immediate  fertilizer,  is  oommonly  ascribed  solely  to  the  dis- 
sipation by  fire  of  the  volatile  ooDstitnenls  of  dung,  and  particularly 


,,;.  Google 


1864.}  OaiHIBTBT  OV  HARUBBS.  199 

of  its  ammonia;  and  maoh  prominenoe  has  been  given  to  the 
reeulls  of  such  trials,  as  erideDce  of  the  alleged  inefficacy  of 
cinereal  snppUes  to  com.  Among  the  objecdons  to  this  line  of 
argument  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  observed  difference  proba- 
bly depends,  in  a  oonuderable  degree,  on  the  modification  by 
fire  of  the  ash-oonstituents  themselves.  lo  the  unburnt  dung, 
composed,  to  a  large  extent,  of  decaying  straw,  the  cinereal  ele- 
ments are  diffosed  throogbont  the  organic  tisanes,  in  a  state  of 
uGniteaimoI  molecular  subdivision.  By  the  decay  of  the  dung 
in  the  soU,  the  organic  molecules  are  gradually  converted  into 
carbonic  acid  and  water,  the  proper  solvents  of  cinereal  food. 
Thoa  considered,  a  decaying  straw  containing  (say)  five  per  cent, 
of  ash-ingredients,  constitutes  as  perfect  a  piece  of  distributive 
mechanism  as  can  easily  be  conceived,  for  spreading  throughout 
the  soil  the  needful  cinereal  restoratives,  along  with  the  liquid  and 
the  gas  requisite  for  their  solution  and  final  delivery  to  the  roots. 
But  this  is  not  aU.  The  straw  acts  with  equal  efficacy  as  a  distri- 
butive vehicle  of  the  urine  with  which  it  is  soaked,  and  of  the 
cinereal  and  volatile  plant-food  dissolved  therein.  Before  decay, 
its  fibrous  tissues  constitute  a  sponge,  to  absorb  and  retain,  as  also 
widdy  to  expand,  the  nutrient  solution ;  and  when  the  sponge  has 
brought  tbis  solution  into  contiguity  with  an  extensive  surface  of 
soil  it  silently  disappears  ;  its  solid  tissues  dissolve, — tbcir  capil- 
larity, having  done  its  office,  ceases  to  eiist, — the  capillarity  of  the 
toil  comes  into  play,  and  its  pores  delioalcly  take  up  the  ailment 
which  be  straw,  in  the  act  of  its  dissolution,  as  delicately  depoBit«d. 
Hoffmann,  in  one  of  his  Phantiuint&cke,  desoribes  a  mysterioua 
hand,  which,  moving  in  palpuble  sobstanoe  through  the  air,  car- 
ries a  cup  of  food  to  one  of  the  personages  of  his  talc,  and  having 
set  it  down  before  him,  vanishes  into  thin  sir.  Each  fragment  of 
strawindungaclsaBsuchaband  totbesoil.  The  substantive,  palpa- 
Ue  vehicle  melts  into  gas  and  water  when  its  work  is  done.  Nor  is 
the  apace  left  empty  by  its  disappearance  without  a  special  use  : 
it  forms  a  channel  for  the  tender  rootlet  to  travel  along, — a  channel 
which  the  decay  of  the  straw  at  once  hollows  out,  und  warms,  and 
lines  with  aliment;  with  aliment,  as  we  have  seen,  finely  divided, 
aarfucc-beld,  and  provided  with  its  approprialfi  solvent. 

All  this  delicate  adjustment  of  means  to  a  special  end  is  utterly 
destroyed  by  fire,  which  disaipntes  the  hydro^oarboaaceous  matter 
of  straw,  so  that  its  ash-ingredlents,  no  longer  separated  by  inter- 


,,;.  Google 


£00  *THI   OAHASUN  HATDRA.IIST.  [JdU^ 

Tening  moleonlea,  ooUapse  into  dust.  In  this  form  they  do  Dot 
ocoapy  a  bnndredtli  p&rt  of  the  Tolnme  throi^rh  which  tbej  wen 
[ffeTiODsly  spi'ead ;  and  thej  are,  moreover,  very  apt  to  be  fnrthtc 
eompaoted  bj  'aotual  fnsioa  during  thu  agitation.  Fann-dnng 
ash  is  particularly  liable  to  vitrification,  becanse  its  Btraw  oontaios 
both  the  alkaline  and  siltoioos  elements  of  glaaa.  The  vitreoDf 
or  semi-vitreonB  ash  thna  produced  by  ineineration  is  batahghtly 
soluble.  In  a  word,  the  efieet  of  incineration  on  &rm-daD|; 
closely  TCBembleB  that  produced  by  Liebig's  fomacMreatmeDt  on 
his  Mineral  Manure. 

These  oonsiderations  should  he  atteotivdy  borne  in  mind,  ia 
estimating  the  value  of  experiments  adduced  to  prove  the  ioeS- 
cacy  of  the  einereal  eoostitneutfl  of  farm-dang,  as  oontradistia- 
guished  fVom  its  ammoniacaj  ingredientd.*= 

Thk  NiTKoaEM  Thsort,  and  the  Doctkinb  or  Spwipio 
Mandees. — It  is  not  however  to  be  inferred  from  the  foregoiog 
remarks  that  einereal  plant-food,  such  as  Lietug's  mannre  (or  U 
the  ash  of  incinerated  dang),  even  if  su|^lied  in  a  prifectly  sala- 
ble fcffm,  would  be  indtserimiDately  applieaUe  to  increase  in  an 
•qnal  d^^ree  the  immediate  productive  power  of  all  oonditioDS  of 
soil,  for  every  kind  of  crop.  It  was  against  this  undue  prelennoo, 
which  was  supposed  to  follow  from  some  of  the  statements  pat 
fbrth  in  Liebig's  earlio-  works,  that  the  advocates  of  the  M-osHod 
"  Nitrogen  theory"  .(who  also  support  the  doetriite  of  "  SpeaGu 
mannres")  originally  raised  their  flag.  It.may  be  doubted  whether 
the  illustrioos  author  of  the  mineral  theory,  even  in  his  earliect 

*  Id  pointing  out  the  Taluable  dJsCributire  properties  of  &nn-duiig 
tbe  reporur  would  doI  he  suppo»d  to  orerlook  tbe  still  wider  diffil- 
sion  oTfertiliaiDK  matters  ol)titJaabIe  bj  liquid  msDurin^.  Thissrsiem, 
indeed,  hu  been  already  Indicated  as  the  prinoipal  distributlremfthin- 
iim  of  tbe  fumre.  It  eaables  tbe  brmer  to  direct,  firom  a  central  point 
ndiating  itreami  of  plaot-fbod  to  bis  remotest  field*  ;  and  by  the  men 
tDraios  of  a  tap,  to  adopt  tbs-iapplj  with  the  utmost  aicety  to  tlw 
requiiemeots  of  eier;  plot.  The  carlage-cost,  and  manual  labor  Ineuri- 
Tsd  in  spreodiag  dung  apon  tbe  soil,  maj  tbus  to  a  great  extent  be 
replaced  by  aieam-power )  or  erta,  in  faTorable  caera,  by  the  iliU 
cheaper  force  of  graritation.  To  soil t  requiring  a  carbonaceoas  luppif 
Sucb  u  the  cattle-litter  in  dnnff  affardi,  tbts  material  (cut  up)  »^^ 
perhapt  be  economically  conveyed  in  suspension  in  the  liquid  dmoi'^ 
streams.  For  clay,  and  other  insoluble  matters  capable  of  suapenticn 
in  water,  this  mode  of  distribution  h<is  been  found  arailabie. 


,.,.d.i.  Google 


1864.]  OHUOSTBT  or  HANIF&Ba.  201 

and  cradest  eaoDciatioDB  (^  tb&t  dootrioe,  otot  oommitted  bimeelf 
to  the  fallaoj  imputed  to  him  by  the  upholders  of  the  rivul  sys-' 
tem.  If  he  did,  be  has  long  eiooe  abjured  his  error ;  or  rather  it 
has  fallen,  like  a  deoidooos  leaf,  in  the  gradual  ripening  of  his 
opinioDB  during  more  than  ttrent;  years  of  eiperimeot  and 
research.  The  reporter  belierea  that,  upon  this  point,  there  exists 
at  the  present  time  but  little  real  difference  between  the  views  of 
the  contending  parties;  i.  «.,  between  those  who  affirm  that  the 
■dies  removed  in  the  crop  do,  and  those  who  maintain  that  they 
do  not,  represent  the  return  to  be  made  to  the  soil,  to  keep  np  its 
ftrttlity.  No  two  opinions,  oertatnly,  can  seem  more  diametrically 
opposed  than  these;  and  at  the  outset  of  the  oontroversy,  the 
opposition  was  not  only  apparent  but  real.  But  for  many  yeats 
past,  the  disputants  have  be^  n  gradually  approaching  eaoh  other, 
by  approaching  the  great  central  truths  which  lay  between 
them.  By  the  dropping,  on  both  sides,  of  some  earlier  crudi- 
ties, often  perhaps  rather  of  phrase  than  thooght,  and  by  the 
discussion,  by  common  consent,  of  maturtd  opinions  only,  many 
of  these  truths  will,  the  reporter  is  convinced,  be  foand  expres- 
sible in  terms  acceptable  to  both. 

With  reference,  for  example,  to  the  effect  of  cinereal  manuring, 
both  parties  will  certainly  admit  that,  whether  soils  be  rich  or 
poor,  they  derive  ^eoeteru  paribm)  from  equal  increments  of  their 
cinereal  stock,  equal  absolute  benefit;  to  be  manifested,  sooner  or 
later.  Id  equally  increased  production.  It  will  also  be  allowed  on 
all  hands  that  soils,  already  containing  enough  cinereal  food,  in 
the  surface-held  soluble  stale,  to  supply  a  series  of  maximum  crops, 
cannot  immediately  make  manif^t,  and  retorn,  in  the  form  of  _ 
augmented  produce,  the  value  of  the  additional  supply  received. 
Such  immediate  return,  tt  wiU  be  agreed,  is  to  be  looked  for  only 
&om  soils  already  exhausted  of  one  or  more  of  their  cinereal 
ingredients ;  or  if  not  absolutely  exhausted  thereof,  at  least  defi- 
cient of  the  requisite  supplies  in  the  unlooked  soluble  condition, 
which  alone  renders  them  available  for  immediate  assimilation  by 
plants.  Bven  in  this  case,  moreover,  botii  parties  will  admit  that 
aasinulatlon  cannot  take  place,  and  there  can  consequently  be  no 
immediate  return,  except  in  ao  far  as  alt  the  other  conditions 
(ponderable  and  imponderable)  of  plant-growth  are  rimultaneonsly 
supplied,— nitn^n  among  thereat.  In  mentioning  nitrogen,  w« 
touch  the  veij  centre  and  throbbing  heart  of  oontroversy ;  on* 


,,;.  Google 


202  THK  CANADIAN  NATURALIST.  [Jlioe, 

party  looking  to  Mature,  ttie  other  to  Art,  for  sufficieDt  a^jricultn- 
ral  supplies  of  this  element,  in  the  form  of  ammooia.  Yet  both 
udea  mast  and  do  admit  that  eaoh  acre  of  soil  receives  from  natare 
ui  aDDual  quantity  of  ammonia,  greater  or  less  as  the  seasoDS  are 
more  or  less  propitions;  part  being  supplied  by  the  air,  la  th« 
maauer  already  explained,  part  (as  we  may  now  fairly  presume) 
being  generated  within  the  soil  itself,  by  some  reaotioo  ana]<^u« 
to  that  observed  by  SohSnbein. 

Thus  much  agreed  on,  both  parties  would  probably  be  prepitred 
to  admit,  aa  a  perfect  or  typical  soil,  for  the  growth  of  any  given 
rotation  of  maximum  cropa,  one  coDtainiDg  a  duly  proportioned 
snd  available  supply  of  all  the  oin^reals  requisite  during  such 
rotation  ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  receiving  from  nature,  during 
(be  same  period,  a  quantity  of  volatile  plant-food,  nitr<^enoua, 
oarbonaoeoos,  and  aquatic,  precisely  correepondingto  this  cinereal 
supply.  Assuming,  of  course,  the  mechanical  and  physical  con- 
ditions of  such  a  soil  to  be  also  typically  perfect ;  and  assuming  it, 
further,  to  be  worked  durio;:  a  series  of  typical  Beaeons;  it  would 
evidi^Dtly  require  only  typical  manunog;  i  e.,  the  exact  restita- 
tioD,  during  each  rotatjon,  of  the  cinereala  withdrawn  by  the  crops. 
This  is  a  proposition  to  which  no  one,  at  the  present  time,  will 
demur.  But  in  reality,  as  we  all  know,  these  various  classes  of 
typical  conditions,  mechanical,  physical,  chemical,  and  climatic,  are 
never  simnltaueou'-ly  fulfilled.  Each  deviation  from  one  or  more 
of  them  involves  a  corresponding  deviation  from  typical  manur- 
ing. Hence  arises  a  scries  of  special  agricultural  oases,  as  manifold 
as  the  changes  on  a  set  of  bells ;  and  an  aoonrate  knowledge  of 
every  condition,  in  each  of  auy  number  of  cases  selected  for  com- 
parison, is  necessary  for  their  correct  interpretatioD.  It  is  in  the 
midst  of  these  complications  that  oversights  take  place,  and  dlffer- 
mces  creep  in.  Many  of  these  are  wholly  irrespective  of  the  nature 
of  the  soil.  Take  for  example,  two  experiments,  otherwise  (by 
hypothesis)  equal,  but  made  in  two  different  counties  or  districts, 
one  happening  to  enjoy,  during  the  growth  of  the  crop,  a  larger 
onmber  of  boors  of  uninteroeptted  sunshine  than  the  other ;  it  ia 
obvious  that,  notwithstanding  the  assumed  equality  on  all  other 
points,  the  results  must  differ  mure  or  less,  and  may  differ  very 
notably,  in  the  two  cases.  Agiin,  assame,  for  ai^ument's  sake, 
absolute  equEility  in  all  the  external  conditions  of  plaut-growlh, 
bitt  a  difference  In  the  quality  of  the  seed  employed  in  two  trials ; 


,,;.  Google 


1664,]  OOIHIBTRT  or  UANHBES.  203' 

OTideDtly  there  will  be  a  disparity  in  tbe  resnlts,  which  will  appear 
ineiplicable.  br  which  will  perhnps  be  attribute  I,  by  the  adTOcntefl 
of  rival  theories,  to  thia  or  that  property  of  the  manure  employed. 

Bat  it  ie  not  nooessary  to  go  beyond  the  soil  itself  in  search 
of  aach  dcclensioDB  from  type.  Ddects  of  the  soil  occur,  ^rade 
below  grade,  th-ongh  all  the  possible  Ysrieties  of  poverty,  down 
to  sbsolate  barrenness ;  and  the  characters  and  cauRee  of  defective 
fertility  differ  fully  as  much  as  do  its  innumerable  degrees.  One 
■oil,  for  instance,  will  contaiu  but  a  poor  supply  of  one  or  moro 
of  the  essential  cinereal  inp^dients  of  the  plants  to  be  grown,  or 
will  even  be  totally  deficient  thereof.  Another,  well  endowed  with 
cinerenls,  duly  apportioned  to  supply  the  desired  rotation  of  crops, 
will  be  deficient  of  carboniferous  material,  or  non-retentive  of 
moisture,  or  not  porous  enough  to  bold  a  suCBcient  supply  of  air. 
A  third,  perfect  perhaps  in  those  respects,  will  fall  short  as  to  the 
peculiar  physioo.chemical  properties  necessary  for  the  absorption, 
or  generation,  or  retention  therein,  of  ammoniaoal  supplies,  in  pro- 
per proportion  to  the  air  and  water,  to  the  carbon,  and  to  the 
oinereals.  All  parties  moat  assuredlv  admit,  with  respect  to  such 
soils,  that  their  natural  deficiencies,  whether  cinereal  or  ammo- 
niacal,  aerial,  hygroscopic,  or  carbonaceous,  may  with  propriety  be 
artificially  made  good, — so  farasauob  amendment  be  economicilly 
possible ;  and,  in  each  such  case,  some  particular  kind  of  manure 
will  of  course  prove  specially  beneficial  for  the  growth  of  cmps. 
Thus  much  will  be  conceded  by  those  who,  with  Baron  Liebig, 
most  strennously  oppose  the  doctrine  of  "  specific"  manures.  In 
some  cases,  for  example,  nitrogen  will  be  "  specific"  for  com ; 
though  only  in  the  same  sense,  and  in  the  same  dc^ee,  that  lime 
will,  in  other  oases,  "  specifically  "  benefit  the  same  crop. 

Again,  that  leguminous  crops  rapidly  assimilate  atmospheric 
ammonia  by  means  of  their  widely-spread  leal^,  whereas  tho 
oereals.  with  their  scanty  foliage,  are  much  more  dependent  on  their 
roots  for  ammoniaoal  supplies, — these  are  facts  which  no  one  will 
dispute.  Th-  use  of  fodde^^)^opB  and  cattle-feeding,  as  means  of 
artificially  accumulating  the  ammonia-supplies  naturally  difi'nsed 
over  the  whole  period  of  rotation,  and  bringing  this  concentrated 
provision  to  bear  on  the  cereals,  which  could  not  else  absorb 
ammonia  at  a  sufficiently  rapid  rate  to  keep  their  nitrogenous  on  & 
par  with  their  oinereul,  carbonaceous,  and  aquatic  alimentation, — 
thia  also  will  certainly  be  admitted  by  all. 


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204  THE  OAHASUjr  HATUBALIBT.  [J<">^ 

This  accumulative  and  diBbibntive  agency  of  a  normal  rotation 
of  crops,  s^rowin^  (by  hypotheaia)  on  a  typdcal  soil,  most  strikinji;ly- 
nfleota,  in  what  may  be  termed  the  phyBiolo(i;ica1  mechaniam  of 
agriculture,  tlie  regulative  inftuenoo  ezercieed  in  mecbanics  by  the 
II  -wbeel ;  which,  in  like  manner,  during  each  rntatioa,  stores  uf 
the  momvDtum  Ruined  at  the  period  of  maiiiDUtii  impulsion,  to 
pve  it  out  aa  work  at  the  period  of  maumum  resistance.  Thna, 
nuoh  beinir  udiaitt^d  by  all  with  reference  to  the  auppoaed  typical. 
■oU,  there  will  only  remain  for  conaideration  the  case  of  soils  fall- 
ing so  far  abort  of  this  hypotbetitnl  perfection,  with  respect  to 
their  natural  aomoniferous  endowmenta,  that  the  total  supply, 
inolading  that  ooUected  by  the  legaminosae,  proves  inadequate  to 
neet  the  demand  of  the  cereaU.  The  utility,  in  snob  oaaea,  of 
nitroxenoua  manurea,  and  the.  propriety  of  the  husbandman's 
iaterrentioD,  thus  artificially  to  make  good  the  defeot  of  th9 
natural  amiQOoia-supply,  will  not  by  any  one  be  contested. 

Thus,  point  by  point,  the  maio  ground  of  difference  (the  alleged 
preponderating  value  of  nitrogen)  aeems  reducible  to  a  mere 
Itatistical  question  ; — how  many  European  com'fielda  are  relatirely 
poor  in  this  or  that  cinereal  ?  how  many  are  deficient  of  hnrans, 
or  water,  or  air  'I  how  many  fall  short  as  to  their  natural  ammo- 
niferuB  properties?  Whichever  element,  fixed  or  volatile,  might 
be  indicated  by  the  result  of  tbia  inquiry,  as  deficient  in  the  laigeat 
number  of  cases,  might  be  described  as  the  element  ot prepondti- 
atin0  "  importance,  witboat  yiolenoe  to  the  opinions  of  either 

This  method  of  settling  the  great  Ditr<^n-coDtrovenjy  would, 
however,  still  leave  open  for  disonssion  agrave  question  coDcerning 
this  element  of  plant-food, — a  qaeatlon  which  the  intellectual  for- 
eee,  heretofore  expended  in  conflict,  might  be  nsefuUy  combined  to 
Mt  at  rest.  This  queatbn  is,  how  much  ammonia  is  it  possible,  in 
the  present  state  of  our  industrial  resonrces,  to  provide  for  soils 
not  naturally  well  supplied  therewith  ?  If  high  farming  is  to 
become  nniversal,  and  to  be  carried  out  on  second  and  third  clasi 
soils,  at  as  high  a  pitch  above  their  nataral  ammooiferoos  endow- 
ments,  as  is  now  aimed  at  in  many  Engliah  farms,  the  demand  for 
uumonia  seems  hkely  to  exceed  all  the  means  at  onr  disposal  for 
its  supply. 

The  saving  of  urban  ejects,  and  the  consequent  return  to  the 
soil  of   the  eaormous  masaea  of  cinereals  now  wasted,  appean 


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1864.]  CHiMBTBT  or  MAirtrEEe.  205 

likely  to  incre^iBe  the  relative  dem&nd  for  ammonia  ;  eapeoiallj  u 
poor  lands,  of  natnrally  low  BmmoniferoaH  endnwmenta,  « ill  proba- 
bly be  those  selected  <Bofar  as  local  lircumsiances  permit)  for 
ini^tJon  with  town  Bewage.  For,  though  sewage  is  rich,  as  well 
Id  the  nitroj^enous  as  in  the  cinereal  oonstituents  of  tht.'  food  con- 
sumed in  towns,  it  is  not  proportionately  so  ricli  in  the  tbnner  ai 
in  the  latter  inijredicnla  ;  the  reason  being  that  part  of  Ihe  ararao- 
nia  of  food  is  dissipated  daring  the  procenses  of  animal  life,* 
wherea-  all  the  fixed  cinereal  oonstitnents  that  are  tikun  into  tho 
lyatem  of  aduhs  reappear  andimiuished  in  their  rjoct:i.  Moreover, 
no  waste  nece)<4,irily  attends  the  transit  of  thi:  eincn^iU  in  .solution, 
mloDg  the  subterranean  oonduite,  from  the  hous(!3  in  which  they 
are  produced  to  the  fields  in  which  they  are  consumed ;  whereas 
the  ammonia  of  sewage  is  liable  to  undergo  a  considerable  amount 
of  waste  durinn  its  passage  from  town  to  country  in  the  ordinary 
oonduits  ;  a  circumstance  vhiah  (it  maybe  piriintbcttcilly  men- 
tiooedi  has  led  .Mr.  F.  0.  Ward  to  the  beliuf  that,  in  tiie  lutnr« 
progress  of  urban  organization,  It  will  be  found  oetmouiical  to  pro- 
vide separate  uriuarj  and  fsecal  systems;  bringing  ilius,  by  a  far- 
ther refinement,  tho  collective  organism  into  okinor  oiirro.sjioiidcnoe 
with  the  individual.  The  probability  of  this  ult<:ri<>r  ini|irovuiueat 
'  Till,  perhaps,  be  the  more  readily  reci^ized,  when  it  is  <^onHidered 
that  three  tbunbs  and  upwards  of  the  value  of  liuman  >■}  ctu.  are 
comprised  in  the  urine, — only  the firaotional  retnaindi:riii  itiettcces. 
But,  as  even  the  wparation  of  sewage  from  raiutlill  ia  not  yet 
officially  admitted,  it  would  be  a  premature  ^tnd  [liurulun:  a  hop«> 
less  cmsade  to  press,  at  present,  fiw  further  niiM;in.'s  nl  org.miia- 
tion.  These  will  come  in  due  time,  irben  the  rtaiiiua  ol  lowai^ 
DOW  officially  described  an  "  a  noisance  to  bo  gut  ria  oi,"  shrill  bt 
r^arded  in  their  just  %ht  as  "  a  propertjto  be  iidiuhUHlered," 
— naymore,  as  the  propertyonirtiaee  sound  adiu.niat  rat  ion  depends, 
in  a  greater  degree  than  on  any  Other  single  condition,  t.lie  laaiing 
prosperity  of  nations. 

Beverting  to  the  nitrogen  question,  should  U  provu  true  that  ft 
dissipation  of  ammonia  takeaplaoe,  as  some  cx[K'riuiciitaiints  m^n- 
taio,  during  the  growth  of  oenal  plants;  anU^hum^j  this  waata 

*  This  polDt  bu  been  vsmiM  tha  sntgnct  of  direci  GiriiiioniDUirby 
BonHlngault,  Burral,  BegDaol^  B«lMt,  and  Law«!i,  Karl  ii  uny  be  twIiaB 
•«  ■  fair  arentge  eglimatt,  tbat,  of  the  uiUogea.  coudi.uiL  '.<  in  tbe  (tpif 
ObIj  about  fuar  fiftbi  ar*  NcoTciabla  in  tlw  ej«cia. 


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206  THK  OANADIAN  NATTEALIST.  [Jaoe, 

lie  foaad  to  exceed  the  annuoDia-accaranlating  power  of  the  iega.- 
minosse,  when  growo,  in  due  proportion,  in  rotation  with  cereals; 
ander  such  hypothetiual  ooaditioDS  the  drain  of  ammoDia  will 
doubtless,  in  s  still  larger  number  of  oases,  exceed  the  oatanl 
■applj,  and  compel  recourse  to  ammoniacal  manures. 

Liebig's  view  of  the  suffioienoj  of  natural  ammoDia-supplies, 
eren  for  the  purposes  of  b^h  faiuiiiig,  wheo  fairljand  skilfully 
conducted  on  suitable  soils,  is  not  incompatible  with  the  opinion 
that  artiSoial  ammonia- supplies  may  become  in  an  increasiog 
degree  the  husbandman's  principal  requirement  hereafter,  under 
the  modified  agricultural  conditions  rapidly  sketched  aboTe. 

How  far  it  may  be  wise  to  encourage  the  development  of  such 
%  system,  is  a  serious  question.  For,  nnliss  some  cheap  source  of 
ammonia  should  be  iu  the  meantime  discovered,  the  exhaustion 
of  the  goanO'deposits  (relatively  a  limited  quantity)  must,  under 
Buch  circumstaDoes,  bring  ruinous  disaster  in  its  train.  The  col- 
lapse of  the  foundation  would  of  necessity  involve  that  of  the 
edifice  reared  therooo  ;  and  large  populatjoos,  called  into  esistenoe 
by  these  fiiotitious  means,  would  find  themselves  deprived,  more  or 
less  suddenly,  of  their  accustomed  food-supplies. 

(Jonsidered  from  this  point  of  view,  the  great  "  nitrogen  ques- 
tion "  merits  the  gravest  consideration,  not  only  of  agriculturists, 
but  also  of  statists  and  politicians. 

Thus  far  the  matteiB  in  dispute  seem  capable  of  settlement  in 
terms  admissible  by  both  the  contending  parlies;  but  the  questions 
at  issue  comprise  points,  or  rather  perliaps  are  presented  in  forms, 
on  which  the  divergences  of  opinion  appear  too  wide  to  afford  any 
prospect  of  harmonization. 

Thus,  for  example,  it  is  affirmed  on  one  side,  and  denied,  point 
blank,  on  the  other,  that  potash  acts  "  specifically  "  (i.  «.,  otherwise 
than  in  oonfbrmity  with  Liebig's  law)  in  promotii^  the  growth  of 
the  leguminous  plants,  such  as  beans  and  peas.  Those  who  main- 
tain this  view  all^e,  as  their  reason,  that  the  l^;nminDSEB,  though 
,  characteristically  rich  in  nitrogen,  require  potassic,  not  ammoniacal 
manures.  The  fallacy  of  this  reasoning  becomes  apparent  when 
it  is  eonsidered,  first,  that  the  l^pim  inous  pi  an ta,  absorbing  as  they 
do  ammonia  in  abundance  by  their  leaves,  can  naturally  dispense 
vith  a  supply  of  this  aliment  to  Uttar  roots ;  seoondly,  that  of  all 
Ae  ingredients  in  the  ash  of  the  l^nmini^sa,  lime  and  potash  ara 
'   the  two  most  pominent ;   so  that  for  soils  abounding  in  lime  (ai 


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1864-3  CHEHIBTRT  OF  HANTIRBS,  207 

oultivat«i]  Boila  for  the  meet  part  do)  pottmh  remaios,  conformably 
with  Lithig"*  hie,  the  ohiiracteriatio  manure  for  the  It^mlnosse. 

The  root-orops,  however,  and  partionUrtj  turnips,  are  brought 
forward  as  contradictory  to  Licbig's  law,  and  coofirmatory  <>f  the 
theory  of  manurial  "  apecifics" ;  because,  though  the  aih  of  the 
tumip  oontaiaa  more  potash  than  phos,  horio  acid,  this  plant  is 
nevertheless  found  to  benefit,  oouvcrsely,  more  by  artificial  'supplieB 
of  phosphoric  acid  than  of  potash. 

"It  muat  be  admitted,"  say  the  principal  cbatnpioDB  of  the 
dootriae  specific,  "  that  the  extraordinary  effect  of  auperphosphata 
of  lime  oannot  be  aooouoted  for  by  the  idea  of  merely  supplying 
itin  the  actual  constituenla  of  the  crop,  but  that  it  is  due  to  gome 
tpedal  agena/  in  devdoping  the  agrimilative  proceuet  of  tJu 
plant."*  And  sgdn  they  say,  "  It  is  at  any  rate  certun  that 
phosphoric  acid,  though  it  forms  ao  small  a  proportion  of  the  ash 
of  ^e  turnip,  has  a  very  striking  effect  on  its  growth  when  applied 
»  m™™."t 

On  these  statements  it  is  first  to  be  remarlced  that  the  experi- 
mental results  on  which  they  are  founded,  and  which  were  obttuned 
ftt  Rothamstead,  are  at  variance  with  those  obtained  on  other  soils 
by  other  equally  trustworthy  observers.  Aocording  to  the  best 
analyses  of  the  aah  of  turnips  (swedes),  these  planta  may  be  taken 
to  contain  about  01  per  ceot.  of  phosphoric  acid.  On  the  other 
band,  ordinary  superphosphate  of  lime  contains  about  16  per  cent, 
of  this  ingredient  in  the  soluble  form  of  combination ;  so  that  three 
owt.  of  this  manure  oontain  between  fifty-three  and  fifty-feur  lbs. 
of  immediately-available  phosphoric  acid.  Mr.  J.  Russell  t  divided 
a  tnrnip-field  into  plots :  upon  one  plot  he  applied  three  owt.  of 
superphosphate ;  upon  two  others  five  owt. ;  npon  tvo  otbere  aeven 
cwt.  and  ten  cwL  respectively.  On  comparing  the  crops  yielded  by 
the  two  plots  equally  manured,  a  difference  of38  owt.  was  observed 
between  their  respective  weights.  The  figure  fixes  the  limit  of  varia> 
tion  fairly  attributable  in  this  case,  to  causes  other  than  the  quan- 
tity of  manure  employed.  The  plot  manured  with  three  owt.  of  super- 
phosphate yielded  to  Mr.  Rnsaell  480  owt.  of  swedes.  These  would 

■  Od  AffrioaUttral  Ohemiab'j,  cspeciallj  la  Belstion  to  the  HinBral 
Tbeorf  of  Baron  Llebig.  Jaom.  B07.  Ag.  Soe.  of  Bnglaod,  vol.  xU, 
part  i,  18G1. 

t  Ibia. 

t  Joom.  Boy.  Ag.  Soc.,  vol.  xxll,  p.  M. 


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208  THB  OANADIAN  NATURALffiT.  [JunO, 

conttun  in  their  aah,  at  thp  sbove^tated  proportion  of  0-1  per  cent, 
just  53-76  lbs.  of  phosphoric  acid ;  a  resnlt  in  ourio  isl j-close  corres- 
pondence with  the  quantity  of  phosphoric  aoid  contained  in  the 
superphosphate  used.  The  mean  yield  of  the  two  ploM  manured 
with  fivecwt.of  auperphosphftte  each  did  not  differ  from  the  yield  of 
the  plot  manured  with  only  three  cwt.  so  mnoh  as  the  respective  pro- 
ducts of  those  two  plota  differed  from  each  other.  Hence  it  appears 
that  the  addition  to  the  soil  of  a  larger  proportion  of  soluble  phos- 
phoric acid  than  the  tamip-plants  oonld  consume  had  no  "  specific" 
influenoe  in  promoting  their  growth  in  this  case.  As  for  the  crop 
of  the  plot  manured  with  seven  owt,  of  superphosphate,  it  not  only 
did  not  exceed,  but  fell  shortby  a  few  cwt.  of  the  mean  yield  of  the 
plots  manured  with  five  cwt.  each.  A  still  further  deficit,  of  a  few 
owta.,  was  observed  in  the  yield  of  the  plot  manured  with  ten  ewt. 
of  superphosphate.  Both  these  deficiencies,  however,  were  less  than 
the  difference  of  yield  by  the  two  plots  equally  manured.  So  that 
in  this  case,  the  yield  of  the  plot  which  received  in  the  manure 
the  esact  quantity  of  phosphorio  acid  removed  in  the  onip  was 
(within  the  limits  of  eiperi mental  error)  equal  to  the  yield  of 
plots  respectively  supplied  with  quantities  66  per  cent,  133  per 
oent,  and  233  per  cent  greater.  Two  plots  which  wen*  left 
unmBDured,  on  this  occasion,  for  comparison's  sake,  gave  a  meau 
yield  of  only  330  cwt,  of  turnips  per  aero  :  being  about  one  third 
lebs  than  the  yield  of  the  manured  plots. 

Hence  it  would  appear  that  the  turnip-plant  benefits  l>y  an  arti- 
ficial supply  of  soluble  superphosphate  up  to,  but  not  beyond,  the 
limit  of  its  assinitlating  powers.  And  if  it  be  admitted  that  the 
phosphates  of  the  soil  are  in  a  less  solable  state  than  the  artificial 
•ttperphosphate  (a  probable  supposition),  this  case  would  seem  to 
,  Wgue  that  the  roots  of  the  turnip,  when  simultaneously  presented 
with  difierentformsof  phospbatio  food  soluble  in  different  d^reea, 
,  preifer  the  most  soluble,  and  imbibe  this  first. 

These  results,  ia  the  reporter's  jadgmeat,  stand  in  strong  oppo- 
.  ,ltion  to  tiose  obtained  at  Rothamsteid,  and  tend  to  negative  the 
Tiew  that  phosphorio  a<nd  benefits  tamipe  by  some  "speoifie 
.^enoy,"  other  than  tliat  doe  to  it  as  k  eonsttenent  of  their  ash. 

Theadvooatee  of  th«  "sporifie"  doetrine,  however,  take  np 
another  ground.  It  is,  they  say,  a  aniyerwlly  reoogniied  fart 
among  farmers,  that,  in  the  ordinary  ooarw  of  husbandry,  super 
phospluUe— not  pot»«h-^»  Uie  nuoore  for  turnips,  thouj^  potath 


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1864.]  OHxiosTBT  or  luiniBia.  209 

{nedominatea  over  phoaphonc  acid  in  their  ash.  To  quote  their 
own  laa|2^iige  oo  tbia  point,  as  given  in  the  paper  already  referred 
to:  "  Common  practice  has,"  theysay,  "  definitely  detennioed  in 
favor  of  phosphoric  acid  rather  than  of  the  alkalis,  as  the  special 
manure  to  be  provided  for  tbe  turnip  from  souroee  external  to  the 
farm  itself." 

Admitting  this  case  to  be  a  very  freqnent  one  (it  is  certainly 
not  aaiversal),  it  appears  to  the  reporter  susceptible  of  an  explan- 
atJOQ,  by  which  it  falls,  quite  simple  and  readily,  within  the  scope 
of  Liebig'a  law. 

For,  in  the  ordinary  coarse  of  rotation,  cereals  and  root-crop 
follow  each  other,  and  alternately  feed  on  the  soil.  Now  the 
cereals,  as  every  one  knows,  are  greedy  ooasumers  of  silica,  partly 
for  the  coating  of  their  grain,  but  principally  for  that  of  their 
straw.  Tbe  cereals  alao  assimilate  phosphoric  acid,  and  divide  it 
in  like  manner  between  their  grain  and  straw ;  this  time 
however  depositing  it  mostly  in  the  groia.  The  silica  and  phos- 
phates of  the  grain  are,  be  it  remembered,  exported  from  the  land. 
Of  potash,  the  cereals  are  far  less  greedy  than  of  phoaphorio  acid  \ 
and  of  the  potash  they  do  assimilate,  the  larger  proportion  a 
deposited  in  their  straw,  and  retaros  in  tbe  dncg  to  the  soil. 
Keeping  these  facts  ip  view,  and  considering  also  the  original 
composition  of  fair  arable  soils,  containing  ordinary  proportioos  of 
potaasic  silicates  in  course  of  gradual  diaintegratioa,  it  appears  to 
the  reporter  that  the  cereals  tend  to  withdraw  tbe  Hcid-iagredieDt 
of  these  silicates,  leaving  their  alkaline  bases  aa  a  bequest  (so  to 
apeak)  to  the  following  geoeration  of  plants.  Thus,  when  tbe 
root-crop  enters  into  possession  of  the  field,  it  meets  with  a  soi 
recently  droned  of  available  phoaphatea,  bat  not  by  any  means 
exhausted  of  potash.  What  more  nataral,  under  such  circum- 
Btanoen, — what  more  strictly  ooDformable  with  Liebig'slaw, — than 
that  soluble  phosphates,  not  potash,  abould  be  the  oiaereal  supply 
required? 

Upon  the  whole,  therefore,  tbe  reporter  is  constrained  to  believe 
that  phosphoric  acid  is  no  more  a  "  apedfic"  {in  any  peculiar  or 
mysterious  sense)  for  the  root-crops,  than  potash  is  for  beans  and 
peas,  or  nitrt^n  for  oora.  The  more  attentively,  indeed,  the 
&ots  are  examined,  the  more  strongly  do  they  appear  to  confirm 
the  grand  and  simple  mle  Wd  down  by  Justus  Liebig,  as  tbe  prime 
oooditioQ  of  sonnd  and  dnrabte  Boeoew  in  hosbaadry,  via.,  (Ae 
Tot.  I.  o  Mo.  8.' 


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210  THI  OAHADUir  NATtTBALIBT.  \^.^! 

/aith/ui  ratibUxon  to  the  $oU  of  the  ath-coattUutntt  removed  in 
the  crops. 

Twelve  yeara  >go  iodeed,  the  leaders  of  the  "  nitrogen  "  soho<tl 
O&rried  their  doctrine  so  far  bb  to  declare  ammoDia  a  auffioient 
"  subetittite  "  for  oinereal  manures.  "  Even  mpposiog,"  said  they 
(writing  in  1851) — "evea  Bupposiog  a  mineral  manure,  founded 
on  a  knowledge  of  the  ashes  of  plants,  to  be  still  the  great  desid- 
eratum, the  farmer  maj  rest  ooDtented  meanwhile  that  he  has  in 
ammortia,  supplied  to  him  by  Peruvian  guano,  by  ammooiaoBl 
salta,  and  by  other  sources,  bo  good  a  BUBSTlTnT£."*  The 
reporter  does  not  hesitate  to  condemn  the  doctrine  set  up  in  this' 
passage  as  one  of  unjustifiable  spoliation. 

Nine  years  later  (in  1861)f  the  same  vrilers  tell  the  farmer 
that  an  ordinary  oorn-growing  soil,  taken  as  one  foot  deep,  culU- 
yated  in  the  usual  way,  and  annually  exporting  its  whole  produce 
of  corn  and  meat,  without  rettitutum  of  their  eiitereal  conslituenlt, 
contains  enough  [AosphcM^o  aeid  to  support  this  drain  for  1000 
years,  enough  potash  to  meet  the  demand  for  2000  years,  and 
enough  silica  to  last  for  no  less  than  6000  years. 

The  evident  tendency  of  these  stupendous  figuros  is  to  produce 
the  impression  that  "  restitution"  to  such  a  reservoir  ag  this  would 
be  a  more  absurdity.  If  the  available  cinereal  treasnrra,  lying 
withiB  twelve  iocbes  under  the  soles  of  our  feet,  be  really  of  this 
dazzling  description,  a  proportionate  supply  of  ammoni^i,  to  bring 
them  as  last  as  possible  into  activity,  may  well  be  put  forward  as 
our  chief  agrioultural  requirement. 

We  are  thus  brought  hack  to  the  nitrogen  ^oestion;  which,  in 
the  light  of  this  doctrine  of  inezhaastibility,  actjuires  a  new  and 
incommensarable  importance.  For,  if  we  oan  only  match  our 
"inexhaustible"  cioereals  with  a  similar  supply  of  ammonia,  the 
lamp  of  Aladdin  (so  to  speak)  is  at  the  disposal  of  mankind,  and 
the  language  of  Soheherzade  is  soarcely  gorgeous  enough  to  paint 
the  golden  future  of  our  happy  race. 

To  the  momentOQB  question  thus  raised,  tbs  prophets  of  cinereal 
jilenty  uSbrd  us,  by  their  new  mode  of  oompntatton,  the  means  of 

*  '  On  Agrioaltaral  Obembtij',  espocial^,'  Ac,  see  the  preoedisf 
■note. 

t'On  SoDM  Poiata  in  Oonnection  with  the  BihaastloDof  Soils.' 
'Bapon  of  the  Brit.  Anoc.  for  the  Advancement  of  SoiauM'for  18SI. 


,,;.  Google 


1864]  oaaiOBTBT  oi>  XAinrKSB.  211 

Biddng  &  moat  satiaftetory  np\j.  We  know,  fivm  tlie  ranlts  of 
nnmberltts  anidyses  of  soils,  that  wberaaoerer  we  plaoge  a  spade 
tea  ioehea  deep  into  ao  average  arable  soil,  we  iDteraeot  a  layer  of 
Bitingenoiu  plant-food,  held  as  "  availably  "  as  the  oiaemJ  itcree, 
and  safficieol  in  quantity  to  noorish  good  whe&t-oropa,  year  after 
yeutj/or  upward*  of  tent^  cenfitriet. 

To  thiB  magnifiooDt  nitn^aons  reserve  large-handed  Nature 
Ubraally  adds,  ont  of  onr  pleateons  BtmoBpherio  stores,  at  least 
two  thirds  of  the  quantity  annually  required,  even  when  this  is 
ealcnlated  at  the  most  liberal  rate  of  farming ;  so  that  it  will  take 
2100  years  to  eshanst  our  aadergronnd  stock  of  nitrc^n.  If 
theiefare  we  have,  as  we  are  assured,  phosphates  for  1000  years, 
onr  ammoniaool  wealth  (computed  by  the  same  rule)  is  fully  twice 
as  great;  and  these  figures,  be  it  observed,  do  not  take  into 
aeconnt  (on  either  aide)  bo  mnob  as  a  third  of  the  depth  really 
explored  by  the  sbsorbeat  roots. 

Why,  then,  do  these  annual  wbeatHiiops  refuse  to  grow  f  With 
all  this  ammonia  lying  amongst  their  roots,  and  with  einereal  sup- 
plies in  similar  profusion,  why  are  these  oorn-plants  (to  use  the 
huBbaodmaa's  metaphor)  so  "  shy  ?"  We  turn  Daturally  (o  the  pro- 
pounders  of  the  "  inexhaustible  "  theory  for  an  explanation.  Alas  I 
we  find  that  they  studiously  refrain  from  pressing  the  ammouiaoal 
halfofthur  argument.  They  place  at  our  disposal  phosphates 
tor  1000  years,  potash  for  twenty  centuries,  and  siliea  for  a  three- 
fbld  cycle  of  time  ;  but  of  ammonia,  by  the  same  rule  simUarly 
abandaut,  they  will  not  grant  ua  one  poor  century's  supply,  nor, 
indeed,  a  tingle  yea^t. 

They  supply  us,  instead,  with  the  eurious  fact,  that  an  artificial 
aaline  dressing,  calculated  to  supply  to  a  cornfield  "  lOO  lbs.  of 
ammonia  per  acre,"  and  "  only  iuoreasing  the  percentage  of  am- 
monia in  the  soil  by  0-0007," — a  ehemioally  inappreciable  addi- 
tion,— will  give  "  a  pndaee  at  leatt  dovhle  that  of  the  unmanartd 
land."*  Thos,  with  the  ammonia  of  centuriet  crowded  iuto  a 
qwn-deep  layer  beneath  onr  f^et,  we  have  still  to  go,  money  in 
hand,  year  by  year,  to  the  gas-works  or  Uie  guaoo-atores  for  each 
mooeeding  erop's  supply. 

One  ooosolatJOD  remains.  Though  ammonia,  Qie  "  good  sub- 
fltitute  "  fat  otnereahi,  is  withheld,  and  the  application  of  the  "  i;fi- 

■  '  On  Agrionltuial  Chemistry,*  Ao-t  loe.  pru. 


,,;.  Google 


212  THB  OANADIAR  KATVBAUBT.  [June, 

Qzbsnstible"  theory  to  thi>,  "tbemoetprecioiiB"  of  plant-foodB, is 
forbidden,  we  bave  gtill  our  grant  of  oinereal  treasures  to  fall  back 
on.  To  these,  at  least,  the  ''  iDezhaostible  "  theory  does  appljr ; 
for  are  not  its  magniGcent  conclusions  before  «s,  stated  in  figures 
b;  its  creators  themselves  ? 

There  is  in  this  much  comfort.  For,  of  the  ammonia  we  need, 
Nature  supplies,  after  all,  the  major  part ;  whereas,  of  the  cinereals, 
every  ounce  exported  from  the  fields  by  man,  must  be  by  man, 
at  his  own  cost,  restored. 

But  this  comfort  also  is  snatehed  from  ns  1  Our  gravely  de- 
monstrated oinereal  wealth,— our  "inexhaustible"  treasure  of 
silica,  potash,  and  tht  phosphates,  turns  out  to  be  as  impalpable 
as  the  ammonia  itself.  Like  conjurers'  money,  this  treasure  also 
vanishes  oot  of  our  hands,  even  while  we  are  trying  to  count  it. 

Who  then  deprives  na  of  this,  the  remaining  moiety  of  our 
agricultural  fortune  7  Can  it  be  that  the  theorists  who  gave  it 
OS,  themselves  also  take  it  away  ?  It  is  even  so.  The  promulga- 
tors of  the  grand  doctrine  of  cinereal  affluenee,  caution  ns  iwt  to 
act  on  it.  They  idl  ns  that  they  do  not  adopt  it  "  iu  practice  " 
fi)r  their  own  guidance ;  and  we  learn  with  sorrow,  from  their 
own  pre-oited  paper,  the  disastrous  issue  of  an  attempt,  continaed 
daring  eighteen  years  to  carry  it  into  effect  ■. — 

"  They  [the  authors  of  the  paper]  had  grown  ^heat  for  ei^- 
teen  years  consecutively  on  the  same  land,  respectively  without 
manure,  with  farm-yard  mBOure,  and  with  different  constituents 
of  manure,  and  they  bad  determined  the  amounts  of  the  different 
mineral  constituents  taken  off  in  the  crop  from  the  respective 
plots.     Numerous  tables  of  the  results  were  exhibited.       *       * 

"  Turning,"  they  add,  "  to  the  bearing  of  the  results  on  the 
main  subject  of  inquiry,  It  appeared  that  when  ammonia-salts 
were  nsed  alone,  year  after  year,  on  the  same  land,  the  composi- 
tion of  the  ash,  both  of  the  grnn  and  straw,  showed  an  appreciable 
decline  in  the  amount  of  phoiphoric  acid,  and  that  of  the  straw  a 
cotuida-able  reduction  in  the  percentage  o/ ntica."  Farther  on  in 
the  same  paper,  the  farmer  is  told  that  the  experimentalists  "do 
Dotreoommend  such  exhaustive  practice  as  that  quoted  from  their 
own  experiments."  Ten  years  previously  (in  1851)  the  "inez- 
banstible  "  theory  was  in  a  more  vigorous  stage  of  its  existence. 
Then  the  colossal  reserves  were  only  deemed  liable  to  contingent 
exbauetion,  in  the  double  event,  first  of  the  discovery  (not  yet 


1,;.  Google 


1864.]  OHBMIST&T  OF  XAirUBtS.  213 

aooomplisbed)  of  "  a  cheap  soaroe  of  ammonia"  ;  and,  secondly, 
of  the  "  exoessiTe"  nse  of  each  newly-lband  nitrogenous  sn]^lieB : 
in  which  case,  said  the  theorists,  "  the  available  mineral  [cinereal] 
oonstitnenta  might,  in  their  tarn,  heoome  exhausted." — (ioe. 
prec) 

Rererting  to  the  paper  of  1861  foronemore  quotation, — and  it 
shall  he  the  last, — the  doctrine  that  nitrogen  is  a  "  specific  "  for 
ooro,  anda  "good  eahstitate"  for  oinorcals,  is,  in  tolerably  explicit 
terms,  abandoned  hy  its  anthora  themselveB ;  wlio,  after  referring 
to  the  oomparatire  oropa  they  obtained  by  means  of  (1)  ammonia 
taltg  alone,  and  (2)  mineral  [oinereal}  oonstitnenta  only,  thns 
epitomise  their  experienee : — 

"  Bat  in  neither  of  these  cases  was  there  anything  like  the 
amonnt  of  mineral  oonstitneata  obtuned  in  the  crop,  that  there 
was  when  the  ammonia-salts  and  mineral  manures  were  ased 
together,  or  when  farm-yard  manure  was  employed." 

To  sum  this  matter  up  in  plain  words  :  the  "  good  anbstitnte  " 
for  cinercals,  pat  forth  in  1851,  has  had  a  fair  trial,  and  has  failed. 
Ammonia,  judged  by  the  experiments  of  its  advocates  (as  well  as 
by  many  other  trials),  provee  not  to  be,  as  was  allied,  a  "  specific  " 
manure  for  corn.  The  "  specific  "  value  of  potaeh  and  the  phos- 
phates, for  leguminons  and  root  crops  respectively,  stadds  equally 
disproved.  Oom  and  meat  cannot  be  oondnnonsly  exported  from 
soils  for  6000,  2000,  or  1000  years,  without  restitution  (respec- 
tively) of  the  siUoa,  potash,  and  phosphates,  removed  in  their 
tdssne^  from  the  soils.  These  illusory  views,  whioh  their  advocates 
(to  do  them  jostice)  have  already,  to  a  large  extent,  honorably 
renoauced,  must  be  utterly  abandoned.  The  celebrated  "nitrc^en 
theory  "  is  at  an  end ;  and  with  it  &I1b  also  the  doctrine  of 
"mannrial  specifies." 

We  now  know  that  the  costliest  ammoniaoal  salt,  and  the  obeap- 
eet  and  commonest  of  the  oinereals  (say  for  example  silica  or  lime), 
judged  by  the  spongiole  of  a  plant's  root,  are  of  precisely  equal 
value ; — each  priceless,  so  tar  as  essential  to  the  plant's  natrition ; 
each  worthless,  aa  to  every  molecule  beyond. 

We  know  alao  that  thegreat  law  ofRftsTlTUTlON  applies  equally 
te  fixed  and  volatile,  to  scarce  and  to  abundant,  ingredients  of  plant- 
food;  though  the  fiilfilmentoF  that  law  devolves  unequally  on  man 
and  natore,  in  every  different  ewe.' 

We  know  that  the  prosperi^  of  tha  orop,  whieh  represents 


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214  THE  OANASUM   HATtTBALlBf.  {JmH,' 

dividaul,  »  bat  a  delnsiva  te$tv£  SmtiMtji-aaitBt  it  be  BMomp»- 
nied  by  tbe  proaperit;  of  tbe  soil,  vbioh  itfnaeiHa  capffnf. 

Everj-  exoeaa,  nhethea'  on  the  side  of  expeDditan  or  oap&tidiw 
tion,  irhetber  on  tbe  side  of  OTar-eroppiog  the  land  ei  of  undvly 
aogmentiDg  its  reaeires,  ia  eqaaily  a  derelietion  of  agiioultarsl 
duty,  and  equally  reprehenaible  as  a  frmn  of  teorte.  For,  if  dis- 
proportionate expeaditnre  diaBipates  tbe  subetuiM  of  wealth  to 
apaoe,  dispropOTtionate  c^italisalJOD  (tbe  mistir'B  findt)  aqsaaden 
its  usnfruet  in  time.  It  ia  therefoie  onr  dnty  to  call  tbrth  and 
oonsume  tbe  largeat  erope  ire  can ;  bat  onlj  asd  alvajB  on  tb« 
oonditioD  of  sot  iufKi^ng  on  the  rabAvee  of  tbe  soil.  If,  tbroiqjli 
indolence,  we  fail  to  prodnoe  the  lai^jett  poaMUe  enpfAj  of  food 
for  tho  consamption  c^  the  prweat  generation^  we  retard,  ptv 
tatUo,  the  maltiplicatioQ  of  oar  raee,  and  fw)  in  our  dnty  to  tiio 
unborn.  If,  on  ike  other  hand,  greed  of  immediate  gain  tempt 
us  to  redooe  the  mineral  balanee  in  tbe  soil  (of  ^irit,  be  it, 
remembered,  we  are  not  omXrt  bat  Muteai)  i  we  eqnally  sin  gainst 
tbe  unborn,  bj  derouring  their  inheritance.  We  owe  to  onr 
fathers,  end  we  are  boond  to  pay  to  oar  diildren,  who  are  also 
thars,  a  doulde  debt, — life,  and  the  meani  of  it*  sapport.  A 
generous  race  as  soomfally  di>daii»  to  band  down  to  its  |iioet«rit^ 
an  impo7wished  soil,  as  a  d^neiate  Mood.  The  nitrc^n  ibeocy 
failed  to  reoi^niie  these  priaoiplee,  and  benoe  its  downfall. 

Skwaoa-Mangki  £xpebihsmt6  at  Rdqbt. — If,  from  tbe 
point  of  view  now  reaohed,  attention  be  given  to  tbe  oonrHe  of 
ezperimentB  reeendy  undertaken,  and  Moll  in  ptognm,  at  Bugbj, 
to  det^mine  tbe  valiie  <^  sewag^mannre,  it  will  he  readily  per- 
oeived  that  tbeee  experimenta  are  btsed  on  a  miBOOneeptioa,  u 
well  of  the  problem  to  foe  solved,  as  of  the  ezperimeotid  melliod 
which  alone  Is  adequate  to  its  conelaBive  eolation. 

The  nature  of  liiis  twofold  miseonoeption  is  inffioentfy  mani- 
fested iu  the  tests  of  value  ezelusively  appealed  to  in  Uiese  trials. 
These  tests  are,  on  the  om;  hand  the  qtiantitj,  and  on  tbe  otber 
band  the  quality,  of  the  oiops  raised  upon  measBred  areas  of 
land,  under  the  influence  of  dlSbreot  volomes  of  sewi^,  as  com- 
pared with  the  yield  of  a  similar  area  kept  purposely  unmanored. 
A  few  yean  ^o  this  method  would  have  met  with  rery general' 
approbation  and  ooncurroQce.  But  in  the  present  state  of  agri- 
oaltural  knowledge  its  fallacy  will  be  readily  perceived.  We  are 
now  aware  that  the  value' of' a  manure  doai  not  bear  any  snob 


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1864.]  dfiiHisTRT  or  manitbes.  21^ 

fited  and  exclasive  relation,  as  the  method  in  queation  enppoaes, 
to  its  immediate  influence  on  the  crop.  The  reader  who  haa 
accompanied  the  reporter  throngli  the  foregoing  pages  of  this 
section  will  be  prepared  to  recognise  that,  nader  cooditione  of 
&eqaent  oeonrrenee,  a  luxuriant  crop,  obtained  by  the  use  of  an 
artificial  mannrc,  so  far  from  tnaoifesting  increased  fertility,  may 
liiit  be  the  sign  and  measure  of  accelerated  ezhauBtion.  He  will 
alao  understand  that  a  maitiire  may  have  added  not  a  single  sheaf 
to  the  harvest,  not  so  much  aa  one  blade  to  the  yield  of  hay,  and 
yet  may  have  solved  the  great  problem  of  agriculture,  hy  exactly 
batancing  the  drain  made  on  the  soil  hy  the  crop. 

An  unlimited  supply  of  the  former  mannre  might  be  a  positive 
CiiTse  to  a  nation,  by  tempting  them  nndnly  to  exhaost  their 
soil.  The  gratuitcns  gift  of  the  latter,  on  the  contrary,  in  due 
adaptation  to  every  field,  would  be  tlie  most  precious  boon  a 
nation  could  receive ;  because  it  vould  place  their  agriculture  on 
a  footing  of  perdurable  prosperity. 

It  may  however  be  urged  that  the  object  of  the  Bagby  experi- 
ments is  simply  to  determine  the  lutnnsic  valae  of  the  Rugby 
sewage ;  meauing  its  degree  of  richness  in  available  plant-food  of 
all  kinds,  or  its  absolute  orop-inoreasing  power.  And  this  infor- 
mation, it  may  be  contended,  the  direct  teet  to  which  the  sewage 
is  brought  at  Bogby  (and  which  may  be  compendiously  termed 
tlie  crop-teit),  seems,  at  all  events,  well  adapted  to  elicit 

But  a  very  brief  consideration  of  the  matter,  in  the  light  of  the 
above-stated  principles,  will  suffice  to  show  that  these  reasonings 
fjso  are  illusory;  and  that  the  orop-test,  of  itself,  cannot  afford 
^y  reliable  or  conclusive  information  as  tc  the  crop-increasing 
power  of  sewage. 

For  the  benefit  resolting  to  any  given  crop,  from  the  use  of 
lUiy  given  manure,  wiU  vary  from  absolutely  nil  up  to  the  maxi- 
mum attainable  effect,  aooording  to  the  nature  and  composition 
of  the  soil,  which,  in  the  Rugby  experiments,  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  determined.  The  richer  the  soil  of  the  experimental 
fields,  the  poorer  must  the  Rugby  sewage  seem ;  because,  however 
nch  this  sewage  maybe,  the  increase  It  can  determine  in  the  crop 
depends,  uot  merely  on  the  wealth  it  brings,  but  also  on  the  want 
which  it  supplies. 

The  blowing  sands  at  Craigentinny,  manured  with  the  Edia- 
bui^  sewage,  want  every  form  of  plant-food  bat  silica,  and  con- 


,,;.  Google 


216  THK  OAHADIAM  NATnRALtBT.  [June, 

tEun  even  that  only  in  ite  insolnble  Tuietj.  It  is,  aooordioglj, 
on  these  sands  that  tlie  richeet  increase  ever  obtained  by  means 
of  sewage  has  been  achieved,  It  is  impossible  to  infer  from  this 
inoreaee  what  the  effect  of  the  Edinburgh  sewage  would  be  on 
the  grass-crop  of  the  Bugby  meadows ;  or  on  any  other  crop  else- 
where. Still  less  oan  the  crops  obtiuned,  either  at  Oraigentinny 
or  Rugby,  afford  of  themselves  the  slightest  indication  of  the  area 
to  which  the  sewage  of  the  British  population  is  due. 

It  is  not  necessary,  and  it  might  seem  invidious,  to  pursue 
these  reasonings  further,  or  to  trace  in  minuter  detail  the  erro- 
neous conditions,  which  involve  in  doubt,  and  render  inconclusive, 
the  trials  in  progress  at  Rugby.  Those  trials  are  carried  od  by 
a  body  of  able  men,  who  will  doubtless  improve  their  method  as 
tfaey  proceed.  The  reporter  however  is  anxious,  in  quitting  this 
subject,  to  record  his  conviction  that  no  experiments  on  sewage 
oan  determine  its  value,  or  settle  the  problem  of  its  atilizatton, 
unless  the  measurement  of  its  influence  on  the  avp  be  conjoined 
with  that  of  its  effect  on  the  toil ;  unless,  in  other  words,  the 
maintenance  of  capital  receive  a  share  of  attentiou,  as  well  as  the 
increase  of  expenditure  ;  unless,  to  sum  up  all,  we  approach  this 
question,  not  merely  in  the  hope  of  advantage  to  ourselves,  but 
also  under  a  deep  sense  of  our  duty  to  posterity. 

Tbibute  to  Messbb.  Lawes  and  Gilbert. — Having  spoken 
in  condemnatory  terms  of  the  "  nitrogen  theory,"  and  of  the  doo- 
trine  of  "  manurial  apeeifios,"  and  having  declared  these  theories, 
to  the  beat  of  his  judgmeut,  defunct,  the  reporter  is  anxious  in 
justice  to  add,  that  their  career,  if  brief,  has  been  brilliant;  that 
they  have  been  advocated  oonrageously  and  conscientiously,  in 
ungle  desire  to  arrive  at  the  truth ;  and  that  the  princely  experi- 
neuts  uodertakeM  for  their  support,  if  they  have  failed  in  estab- 
lifhing  untenable  propositions,  have  nevertheless  elicited  incidental 
Apd  collateral  results,  of  very  high  interest  and  importance.  Twen- 
ty years  of  indefatigable  labor  in  a  difficult  field  of  research  entitle 
Messrs.  Lawes  and  Gilbert  to  an  ample  tribute  of  public  recogni- 
tion. It  is  indeed  impossible  tobelievethatreaaoners  so  acute,  and 
experimcntaliste  so  persevering,  will  long  continue  to  maintain 
the  slightest  remnants  of  a  doctrine  so  manifestly  opposed  to  the 
laws  of  nature.  In  this  respect  their  eminent  anti^nist,  who,  in 
1845,  found  himself  in  a  similar  predicament, — i.  e.,  iu  unwitting 


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1864.]  0B1KI8TRT  or  KANtTRXa,  217 

<q)positiontoalBwofiiBtare  (as  above  explained), — has  set  a  noble 
example, 

HouAOB  TO  Jneius  LiSBia. — The  oorreclion  of  his  error  by 
Way,  Ltebig  frankly  and  nnheeitatingly  aooepted.  Hia  genius 
instantly  appreciated  the  value  of  the  Ei^lish  chemist's  obserra- 
Uon ;  and  shed  upon  it  so  bright  a  light  as  may  be  said  to  have 
doubled  its  importance.  Liebig,  in  fact,  studied  the  new  tiiith 
in  all  its  bearings,  supplied  its  most  generally-reoeived  interpreta' 
tion,  displayed  its  momentous  consequeneee,  elevated  it  to  the 
rank  of  a  law  of  nature,  and  embodied  this  law  as  one  of  the 
OOmei^toneB  of  his  great  edifice. 

Probably,  in  all  Liebig'a  illustrions  career,  no  incident  bean 
higher  testimony  than  this  to  the  vigor  and  fertility  of  his  intel- 
lect, to  his  andeviating  candor,  and  to  his  diunterested  solidtude, 
on  all  oooasionfi,  for  truth  and  truth  alone. 

The  writer  would,  indeed,  be  doubly  untrue  to  his  functions  afl 
reporter  on  this  occauon,  and  to  his  feelings  as  Iiiebig's  country' 
man  and  former  pupil,  if  he  foiled  to  acknowledge  here,  in  a  few 
words  uttered  &om  his  heart,  the  debt  of  Europe — nay,  of  man- 
kind at  Urge — to  the  illustrious  r^enerator  of  agriculture.  Con- 
tinuing the  work  of  his  revered  predecessors,  Lavoisier  and  Sir 
Humphrey  Davy,  Liebig  has  nobly  trod  the  arduous  path  which 
it  was  their  gloiy  to  point  out.  And,  ude  by  side,  as  long  as  hus- 
bandry shall  last,  will  these  three  names  shine  in  co-equal  glory,— 
Antoink  Lavoismb,  Hcmphrbt  Davy,  Justus  LrEsia.  To 
Lavoisier  belongs  the  noble  initiation  of  the  work ;  to  Davy,  its 
e^endid  prosecution  ;  to  Liebig,  its  glorious  consummation.  Em- 
bracing in  his  masterly  induction  the  results  of  all  foregone  and 
contemporary  investigation,  and  supplying  its  large  defects  by  his 
own  incomparable  researebee,  Liebig  has  buUt  up  on  imperishable 
foundations,  as  a  connected  whole,  the  code  of  simple  general 
laws  on  which  r^nerated  agriculture  must  henceforth  for  all 
time  repose. 

Li  speaking  thus  of  his  illustrious  countryman  and  revered 
master,  the  reporter  does  not  fear  to  be  misunderstood.  No  nar- 
row spirit  of  patriotism  animates  his  words.  Qenius,  indeed,  in 
its  highest  manifestations,  transcends  mere  national  boundaries ; 
Idngdoma  are  too  narrow  to  be  its  birthplace ;  and  in  the  homage 
it  reodves,  not  this  or  that  country,  or  continent,  or  hemisphere, 
but  humanity  at  large,  is  exalted. 


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Tui  akWMtAii  Nii^rlUtiBV.  {iJsheV 


NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY. 

AHMnAL  HKKTtNQ. 

The  anouil  meeting  of  ttn  Society  was  held  in  its  rooms  on 
tbeevetainig  of  May  18th,  PrinoipKl  Dawson,  President,  in  the 
chm.  A  iitgfi  number  of  the  members  were  pieeent.  Mr.  3.  ¥. 
WhiteBTea,  the  Recording  Seoretaiy,  road  the  minntee  of  the  l«8l 
uioaal  meeUng;  after  whieb  the  u^tuil  ann&al  addren  of  the 
President  was  read,  as  follows  :— 

Addribs  or  TOM  Frbsidxnt. 


GBNTLBMEtT, — I  labor  on  this  occasion  nnder  the  dtsadvant^e 
of  having  had  twice'  in  sncoession  to  pi-epara  the  annnal  address 
of  the  President;  a  circnmstance  which  should  not  ordinarily' 
oobnr  in  a  society  of  this  character,  in  which,  following  the  usage 
of  our  older  sisters,  we  should  endeaTor  to  have  a  new  mind 
bought  to  bear  on  this  work  in  each  sucoessive  year.  I  shall 
however  tak^  advantage  of  this  circamstancc  to  deviate  somewhat 
frina  the  course  usual  with  Us  on  such  occasions,  and,  aftermerely 
ghnciog  at  the  scientific  wort  of  the  Society,  to  direct  your  atten- 
tion to  some  speculations  of  my  own  on  snbjeota  now  attracting 
the  attention  of  natur&Iiats. 

The  BoientiftA  papers  laid  befbie  this  Society  in  its  session  jngf 
concluded,  if  not  quite  so  nant^ns  as  in  some  previous  sessions, 
art  not  inferior  in  point  of  interest  and  importance.  In  geolc^, 
Sir  William  Logan  has  continned  in  our  journal  the  discussion  of 
the  age  and  distribution  of  the  Quebec  Oroup  of  Rocks.  Dr. 
dnntbas  given  further  and  important  &ctB  in  ohemioal  geology. 
Professor  Bell  has  illuatnited  certain  portions  of  the  super&cid 
deposits,  and  has  deserihed  one  of  our  most  important  quarries 
of  roofing-slate.  Mr.  HoFaTlane  has  contribntcd  an  elaborate 
disoussion  of  the  interior  oondition  of  our  planet  and  of  the 
mode  of  formation  of  Metunorphic  and  Igneous  Rooks.  Professor 
Bidley  has  elueidated  an  obscure  portion  of  the  Qeology  of  New 
Brunswick,  indirectly  of  mnch  interest  to  Canadian  geologists. 
Hr.  BillingB  hu  oontributed  &  paper  on  %  disputed  genus  of  Bra- 


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18S4.]  NAirtraiAi;  rijMPoBT  BocniiT^  219" 

oMopods.  Froftesorfiow  hu  given  TIB  ADalpeB  of  Mineral  Watera 
in  NoTi  Scotia.  Mr.  Jones  has  sent  ns  an  interesting  paper  qo  the 
geoIogtoal'iintKirtanoe  oTOoean  Gorrents.  I  t&ve  myself  occupied 
Witib  Bpa<fe  in  onr  protSeedingswitli  my  reSearchea  on  Reptiles  and 
Plants  of  the  Cod-Period;  and  in  connection  with  these,  I  would' 
desire  to  say  here  that  I  regard  the  conclusions  of  Hr.  Hant  in 
hit  short  bat  vslnable  paper  on  tfa6  Climate  of  tlte  Pateoxoic 
period  as  of  great  importance.  Whatever  views  we  may  adopt 
U  to  the  (^ginal  heated  condition  of  the  earth,  if  we  take  into 
aooonot  the  enormous  length  of  time  required  by  the  calculations 
ot  pfaysicists ''^  fbr  tlie  reduction  of  the  earth's  temperature  even 
one  degree,  it  seems  chimerical  to  suppose  that  any  appreciable 
efeat  on  afinfate  could  have  been  produced  by  internal  heat 
in  tike  eoal-period.  Tet  thie  character'  abd  distribution  of  the 
flora  of  that  pleriod  would  appear  to  imply  a  comparatively 
high  and  equable  temperature  in  the  northern  temperate  and  buV 
sMtic  tones.  Now  if  the  experiments  of  Tyndall,  cited  by  Dr. 
Hnnt,  oan  be  taken  to  establish  that  a  small  percentage  of  carbonio 
acid  and  an  additional  amount  of  aqueous  vapour  diffused  ihron^ 
the  atmosptme  would  largely  econotdise  the  solar  beat  by  prevent^ 
ing  radiation,  and  thus  give  conditions  similar  to  those  of  a  glass- 
ibofed  oonservatory,  we  have  in  this  consideration,  in  connection 
irith  the  known  distribution  of  land  and  water  in  the  oubonifer- 
ons  era,  a  snffii»ent  cause  for  any  difference  of  olimatal  conditions 
required  by  the  flora.  To  appreciate  more  folly  the  vdue  of  this 
Bi^lgestibn,  it  wonld  be  necessary  to  make  experiments  as  to  the 
amount  of  oarbonio  acid  which  might  be  beneficially  present  in 
the  air,  in  the  case  dt  plants  like  those  of  the  coal-period,  for 
instance  Ferns,  LyeopodUuxa  and  Cycadacce,  and  also  to  oalcn- 
lato  the  effect  of  such  proportion  of  carbonic  acid  in'  impeding 
radiation. 

Before  leaving  the  work  of  the  Society  in  the  past  year,  I  must 
Mtomit  to  mention  that  we  have  not  n^ected  soQlogy  and  botanj^ 
ud  among  oontribntions  of  this  kind  I  could  have  wished  to 
notice  at  some  length  those  of  Mr.  Packard  on  the  Marine  Inver- 
tebratee  of  Labrador,  and  of  Professor  Lawson  on  Canadian 
Botany. 

*  For  example,  those  of  Poistoa  and  Hopkins,  which  wonld  gtre 
100,000,000,000  of  jeara  for  a  ditninntion  of  one  to  thrM  dagreei  of 
ttmperatare. 


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220  THX  OAHADUH  NATUBALI8T,  [Jane, 

By  far  the  most  importaat  poblioation  of  the  past  year,  in  the 
Natural  History  of  Canada,  has  been  the  great  Report  of  the 
Qeological  Survey,  a  work  in  which,  aa  the  aohievement  of  mem- 
bers of  this  Society,  we  may  very  well  take  pride ;  and  on  whioh 
we  may  oongratalate  onrselves  as  faoilitatiag  the  labors  of  those 
wnong  OB  who  pay  attention  to  geology,  either  with  a  view  to  prae- 
tioal  or  Goientifio  results,  and  aa  greatly  rai^ng  the  seientiGo 
reputation  of  this  oonntry. 

The  Report  of  the  Survey  has  already  been  reviewed  in  the 
NataralUt,  and  I  propose  here  not  so  much  to  say  anything  as  to 
its  general  merits,  as  to  refer  to  a  few  points  in  Canadian  geolt^ 
to  which  it  directs  our  attention. 

One  of  these  is  the  discovery  uf  fossils  in  the  old  Laoreotian 
rooks,  heretofore  usually  named  Azoic,  as  being  deatitnte  of  life, 
and  much  older  than  any  rocks  known  to  oontain  fossils.  The 
oldest  remains  of  living  beings,  until  this  disoovery,  had  been 
found  in  rocks  known  as  Oambrian,  or  Primordial,  and  equivalent 
in  age  to  our  oldest  Silurian  of  Oanada,  or  at  the  most  to  our 
Borooian.  But  the  Huronian  series  in  Oanada  rests  on  the 
aptnraed  edges  of  the  Laurentian,  which  had  been  hardened  and 
altered  before  the  Huronian  seriee  was  deposited.  Again,  Sir 
William  Logan  has  shown  that  the  Laurentian  system  itself 
contaios  two  distinct  series  of  beds,  the  npper  of  which  rests 
nnoonformably  on  the  lower.  There  are  thus  in  Canada  at  least 
two  great  series  of  rocks,  of  such  thickness  as  to  indioate  two 
distinct  periods  eaeh  of  vast  length,  below  the  lowest  fossiliferous 
rooks  of  other  oountries.  Tet  in  the  lowest  of  these  so-called 
Azoio  groups  fossils  have  now  been  found;  Canada  thus  dis- 
tancing all  other  parte  of  the  world,  so  far  as  yet  known,  in  the 
antiquity  of  its  oldest  fossils. 

I  have  had  the  happiness  to  submit  these  remarkable  specimens 
to  mioroBOopio  examination,  at  tiie  request  of  Sir  W.  E.  Logan, 
and  have  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  they  are  of  animal  nature, 
and  belong  to  the  very  huinbleat  type  of  animal  ezistenoe  known, 
that  of  the  Rhiaopodt,  though  they  far  outstrip  in  magnitude  any 
known  modern  representatives  of  that  group,  The  discovery  of 
this  remarkable  fossil,  to  be  known  as  the  Eozoon  Canadenie,  will 
be  one  of  the  brightest  gems  in  the  scientific  crown  of  the  Geo- 
logical Survey  of  Canada. 

In  oonneotion  with  this  snbjeot,  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the 


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1861.]  NATtmAI.  BI8T0BT  SOCIXTT.  221 

greDd  order  of  snocession  in  (he  [Lanrentian  ByBtem  seems  to  b« 
the  same  with  that  so  often  repeated  in  other  parts  of  the  geo- 
Ic^ical  Bcale, — coarse  fragmentary  beds  represented  by  conglomer- 
ate and  gneiss ;  oaicateons  and  fossiliferous  basds  represented  b; 
tiie  EoiooD  limestones ;  and  finer  earthj  deposits,  represented  by 
felspatbio  rocks.  This  brings  the  Lanrentian,  into  a  cycle  some- 
what similar  to  that  of  the  Potsdam  gandatone,  the  Chazy  and 
Trenton  limestone,  and  the  Utica  slate  and  Hudson  Biver  in  the 
Lower  Silnrian;  or  to  that  of  the  Medina  sandstone,  the  Niagara 
limestone,  and  Lower  Helderberg  in  the  Upper  Silorian ;  or  to  that 
of  the  Oriskany  sandstone,  Comiferous  limestone,  and  Hamilton 
uid  Chemung  groups  in  the  Devonian ;  or  to  that  of  tbe  liower  Car- 
boniferous conglomerates  and  sandstones,  the  Carboniferous  lime- 
stones, and  the  Coal-measures  in  the  Carboniferous  period.  This 
recnrrenoe  of  cycles  of  deposit  cannot  be  accidental.  It  is  more  or 
kea  to  be  seen  throughout  the  geological  scale,  and  in  all  countries ; 
and  aa  I  have  elsewhere  pointed  out,  it  inolndea  numerous  subor- 
dinate cycles  within  the  same  formation,  as  in  the  coal-measurea. 
Eaton,  Hunt,  and  Dana  have  referred  to  it ;  but  it  deserves  a  moT« 
careful  study  as  a  means  of  settling  the  sequence  of  oscilla- 
tions of  land  and  water  in  connection  with  the  saccesaion  of  life.  It 
will  also  be  important  in  giving  fixity  to  our  geological  classifications, 
and  may  eventually  aid  in  establishing  more  preoiae  views  of  the 
dynamics  of  geology  and  of  tlie  lapse  of  geological  time.  The  prog. 
Tees  of  the  earth  has,  like  most  other  kinds  of  progress,  been  not 
by  a  continuous  evolution,  but  by  a  series  of  cycles,  of  great  summers 
and  winters,  or  days  and  nights,  of  physical  and  vital  changes,  in 
eaofa  of  which  all  things  seem  to  revolve  back  to  the  place  of  begin- 
oing ;  only  to  begin  a  new  cycle  or  new  turn  of  a  spiral,  similar  to 
the  last  in  its  general  course,  though  altogether  different  in  its 
details,  accompaniments,  and  results. 

There  is  another  subject  of  great  geological  importance  onwhiob 
the  publication  of  the  Report  enables  strong  ground  to  be  takeo. 
I  refer  to  the  conditions  under  which  t&e  Boulder-Drift  of  Canada 
was  deponted.  It  has  been  customary  to  refer  this  to  the  action  of 
ioe-laden  seas  and  currents,  on  a  continent  first  aubdding  and  then 
le-elevated.  But  this  opinion  has  recently  been  giving  way  before 
a  re-aasertion  of  the  doctrine  that  land-glaoiers  have  been  the 
principal  agents  in  the  distribution  of  tbe  boulder-drift,  and  in  the 
etouoDfl  with  which  it  was  aooompanied.  I  oonfess  that  I  have  stead- 


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222  lEUC  OANAJ)!^  i^xuaALisx.  [Jni^, 

U;  rejected  thiH  last  do4triii£;beiD^ooiimoedtlutiiaaperd9ls^7ffi^ 
cal  and  meteorologioalolyeotiqDH  might  b6  urged  agaioBt  it,  and  that 
it  irafi  not  in  aooordanoe  with  the  facta  wliioh  I  bad  mjaqlf  observed 
in  J4ova  Scotia  and  in  Canada.  The  additiooal  &ot8  coutaioed 
in  the  present  Report  enable  ine  to  assert  with  ooufideooe, 
though  with  all  humility,  that  glacierB  could  souoely  b^re  beep 
the  t^ente  in  the  striation  of  Canadian  rocks,, the  transport  of 
Canadian  boulders,  or  the  excavation  of  Canadian  laketb^^ns.  In 
making  this  statement  I  know  that  I  differ  in  some  degree  from 
many  of  m;  geological  friends,  but  I  know  that  they  irill  be 
rejoiced  that  I  should  freely  and  franUy  sti)te  the  reasons  of  my 
belief. 

The  facta  to  be  accounted  for  are  the  striation  and  polishing  of 
rock-surfaces,  the  deposit  of  a  she^tof  unatraldfied  day  and  stoneB, 
the  transport  of  boulders  from  distant  sites  lying  to  the  north- 
ward, and  the  deposit  on  the  boulder-day  of  beds  of  stratified 
olay  and  sand,  containing  marine  shells.  The  rival  theories  in 
discussion  are—Jirtt,  that  which  supposes  a  gradual  subsidence  and 
re-elevation,  with  the  action  of  the  sea  and  Its  currents,  bearing  ioe 
at  oertoin  seasons  of  the  year ;  and,  seeoadlj/,  that  which  supposes 
the  American  land  to  have  been  covered  with  a  sheet  of  glacier 
several  thousands  of  feet  thick. 

The  last  of  these  theories,  without  attempting  to  undervalue  its 
application  to  such  r^ons  as  those  ^  the  Alps  or  of  Spitxbei^en  or 
Greenland,  has  appeared  to  me  inapplioable  to  the  drifi-depodts 
of  eastern  America,  for  the  foUowmg  ammg  other  reasons : 

1.  It  requires  a  series  of  suppositions  unlikely  in  themselves 
ftnd  not  warranted  by  facts.  The  most  important  of  these  is 
the  coincidence  of  a  wide-spread  continent  and  a  nniveraal  ooyer- 
ing  of  ice  in  a  temperate  latitude.  In  .the  existii^  state  of  the 
world,  it  is  well  known  that  the  ordinary  conditions  reqaired  by 
glaciers  in  temperate  latitudes  are  elevUed  dkains  snd  peaks  ex- 
tending above  the  snow-line ;  and  that  cases  in  which,  in  BOoh 
latitudes,  glaciers  extend  nearly  to  the  sea-levd,  occur  only  where 
the  mean  temperature  is  jednoed  by  odd  ooean^curren,ta  iq^voaohing 
to  high  laud,  as  for  ipalja^oe  fa  Teriia  del  Fuegi>  agd  the  sonthew 
extremity  of  South  Amerioti.  Bji,t  t^  Uapftxtia  ttf^oia  of  North 
America  could  not  be  ooyered  with  a  permanent  j^antle  of  ise 
under  the  existing  conditions  of  solar  ndiation ;  fi»  evm  if  the 
whole  were  deyated  into  f  t^le-laiid,itfl  bntdtjh  would  aMfue  asufi- 


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A8^.]  w^■WM.  ^^vom  jwhwt.  .223 

jjent  evnmer  heai  to  m«lt  aw&y  the  m,  ezoept  jrom  high  mavnUin- 
peaks.  Either  thea  there  iqtut  haye  been  unmense  moontuB- 
phaina  which  hfive  disappeared,  or  there  miut  have  beea  Bome 
onexampled  aatronoDiioal  cause  of  refrigeration,  aa,  for  example, 
ibe  earth  pasuDginto  ,a  oolder  portion  of  sp&ce,  or  the  amount  of 
BoUr  beat  being  dimiiiiahed.  But  the  former  mppoaition  has  no 
warrant  from  geology,  and  astronomy  affords  no  evidenoe  for  ^e 
Utter  views,  whiqh  besides  would  imp);  a  diminnlioii  of  evapora- 
ikta  militatiag  as  muoh  against  the  gl^cierrUieorjr  as  wonid  an 
uoess  of  heat.  An  atUmpt  has  recently  been  made  by  Professor 
Fnnldand  to  aooon^t  for  snph  a  state  of  things  by  Uie  sappoeition 
of  a  higher  temperature  of  the  aes,  along  wjtb  a  qolder  temperature 
of  the  land :  bat  ttua  inveraion  of  the  usual  state  of  things  is 
unwarranted  by  the  dootdne  of  the  secular  cooling  of  the  earth ; 
it  is  contradicted  by  the  fossils  of  the  period,  which  show  that  the 
seas  were  ctHder  tluu  at  present ;  and  if  it  eziated,  it  oonld  not 
produce  the  effects  n>qnired,  unless  a  pr.- tematural  arrest  were  at  the 
same  time  kid  on  the  winds,  which  spread  the  temperature  of  the 
sea  over  the  land.  The  all^d  facts  obserTod  in  Norway,  and 
Stated  to  support  this  view,  are  evidently  nothing  but  the  results 
ordinarily  observed  in  rangesof  bills,  one  sideof  which  fronts  cold 
BSft-water,  and  the  other  land  warmed  in  summer  by  the  sun. 

2.  It  seems  physically  impossible  that  a  ^eet  of  ice,  such  as 
diat  sapposed,  could  move  over  an  uneven  suriaoe,  striating  it  in 
direotions  uniform  over  vast  areas,  and  often  different  from  the 
present  inclinations  of  the  Enrface.  Qlacier-ice  may  move  on  veiy 
slight  slopes,  ,bat  it  must  follow  these ;  and  the  only  resnlt  of  the 
immense  aoonmulation  of  ice  sapposed,  would  be  to  prevent  motion 
alt(^;ather  by  the  want  of  slope  or  the  ooanteraction  of  opposing 
slopes,  or  h)  indape  a  slight  and  irregular  moUon  toward  the 
matins  or  oatward  from  the  more  prominent  protaberanoes. 

It  is  to  be  observed,  also,  that,  as  Hopkins  has  diown,  it  iaonly 
lite  Hiding  motiop  o(  glaoiers  that  can  ptdisb  or  erode  sorfiuMS, 
and  that  any  iaternal  ehangea  runlting  from  the  mere  weight  of  a 
thjek  mass  of  ioa  reptii^  on  a  level  aaxtkaa,  ooold  have  little  or  no 
inflnrace  in  this  way. 

3.  The  trauspoctof  boulders  togreatdistanoes,  and  thelodgment 
of  thooa  on  hilktope,  oould  not  have  been  ooeaaloned  fay  gla<ners. 
Xhcfle  carry  downward  the  blocks  that  fall  on  them  from  wasting 
iHiSa.    Bat  the  anivenal  glacier  sapposed  oovid  have  no  sooh 


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224  THE  CANADIAN  MATCBALIST.  [June, 

oUfi  ^m  wMoh  to  ooUeot ;  and  it  uiut  have  carried  boulden  for 
hnndredB  of  mileB,  and  left  them  on  points  as  high  as  those  they 
were  taken  from.  On  the  Montreal  MonotatQ,  at  a  height  of 
600  feet  above  the  aea,  are  huge  boulders  of  feldspar  from 
the  Laurentide  hills,  which  most  have  been  carried  50  to  100 
miles  from  pointe  of  scarcely  great«r  elevatioD,  and  over  a 
valley  ia  which  the  etrise  are  in  a  direction  nearly  at  right  angles 
with  that  ot  the  probable  driftage  of  the  boulders.  Quite  as  strik- 
ing examples  oooar  in  many  parts  of  this  country.  It  is  also 
to  be  observed  that  boulders,  often  of  large  size,  occur  aoattered 
through  the  marine  stratified  clays  and  Bands  containiag  sea-shells; 
and  whatever  views  may  be  entertained  as  to  other  boulders, 
it  cannot  be  denied  that  these  have  been  borne  by  floating  ice. 
Kor  is  it  true,  as  has  been  often  affirmed,  that  the  honlder-clay  is 
destitute  of  marine  fossils.  At  Mnrray  Bay  and  St.  Nicholas,  on 
the  St.  Lawrence,  and  also  at  Cape  Elisabeth,  near  Portland,  there 
are  tough  stony  days  of  the  nature  of  true  "  till,"  and  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  drift,  whioh  contain  numerous  marine  shells  of  the 
usual  Post-pliocene  Bpeoiee. 

4.  The  Post-pliooeoe  deposits  of  Canada,  in  their  fossil  remains 
and  general  character,  indicate  a  gradual  elevation  from  a  state  of 
depression,  whioh  on  the  evidence  of  fbsdlBmnsthaveestendedto 
at  least  500  feet,  and  on  that  of  far-travelled  boulders  to  nearly  ten 
times  that  amount,  while  there  is  nothing  but  the  boulder-olay  to 
npresent  the  previous  subsidence,  and  nothing  whatever  to  repre- 
sent the  supposed  pri'vions  ioe-clad  state  of  the  land,  esoept  the 
soratehes  on  the  rock  surfaces,  which  must  have  been  caused  by 
the  same  agency  which  deposited  the  boulder-clay. 

5.  The  peat  deposits  with  fir-roots,  found  below  the  boulder, 
olay  in  Cape  Breton,  the  remains  of  plants  aD4  iand-snails  in 
the  marine  clays  of  the  Ottawa,  and  the  shells  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
olays  and  sands,  show  that  the  aea  at  the  period  in  question  had 
much  the  temperature  of  the  present  arotio  ourrents  of  our  ooostG, 
and  that  the  land  was  not  covered  with  ice,but  supported  a  vegetation 
umilar  to  that  of  Labrador  and  the  north  shore  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence at  present.  This  evidenoe  refers  not  to  the  later  period  of 
the  Mammoth  and  Mastodon,  when  the  re^evation  was  perhaps 
nearly  complete,  but  to  the  earlier  period  oontemporaneons  witli 
or  immediately  following  the  supposed  glaoier'period.  In  my 
former  pikers  on  the  Post-jdiooene  of  the  St  Lawrence,  I  have 


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1864.]  HATQBAL  HIBTOftT  BOOHTT.  225 

abovn  that  tlie  ohange  of  climate  inTolved  is  not  greater  than  that 
which  maj  have  been  doe  to  the  snbiiideDoe  of  land,  and  to  the 
ohaoge  of  coarse  of  the  Arctic  current,  actually  proved  by  the 
deposits  themselves. 

These  objections  might  be  pnrsned  to  maohgreater  length; 
bat  enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  there  are  in  the  case 
cf  northeastern  America,  strong  reaaona  against  the  existence 
of  any  such  period  of  extreme  glaciation  as  sapposed  b;  many 
geolo<;ist8i  and  that  if  ire  can  otherwise  explain  the  rook  Htriatton 
and  polishing,  and  the  formatloa  of  fiords  and  lako-basinH,  the 
strong  pointe  with  these  theorists,  we  can  dispense  alt<^ther 
with  the  portentous  chanttea  in  phygioal  geography  involved  in 
their  views,  and  which  are  not  neoessary  to  explain  any  of  the  other 
phenomena. 

It  is  on  these  points  more  espeoially,  that  the  Report  of  the 
Geological  Survey  throws  new  light ;  though  Sir  William,  with  his 
osnal  oaation,  has  not  comiuitled  himself  to  theoretic^  oon- 
doaiotis ;  and  in  one  or  two  local  oases  he  aeems  to  favor  the- 
^aciei  theory.  It  has  long  been  known  to  geologists,  that  ia 
Dortheaetern  America,  two  main  directions  of  striatioo  of  rock-sur- 
&ces  occur,  from  northeast  to  southwest,  and  from  northwest  to- 
southeast ;  and  that  locally  the  directions  vary  from  these  to  north 
and  south  and  east  and  west.  Various  attempts  have  been  mude,  bnb 
without  much  success,  to  account  for  these  directions  of  striiition 
by  the  motion  of  glaciers ;  and  while  it  is  quite  easy  for  any  one  pre- 
possessed with  this  view  to  account  in  this  way  for  the  striatioo. 
in  a  parlicaUr  valley  or  part  of  a  valley,  yet  so  may  exceptional  facta 
occur  as  to  throw  doubt  un  the  explanation,  exoept  in  the  case 
of  a  few  of  the  smaller  and  steeper  mountain-gorges. 

lathe  Report  of  theSnrvey  of  Canada  a  valuable  table  of  these 
Bbriatioos  is  given,  from  which  it  appears  that  they  are  locally 
distributed  in  sooh  a  way  as  to  throw  a  decided  gleam  of  light  on 
Qtai  origin. 

It  would  seem  that  the  dominant  direction  in  the  valley  of  the 
St.  Lawrence,  along  the  high  lands  to  the  north  of  it,  and  across 
weatemNewYork,ie  northeast  and  southwest',  and  that  there  is 
another  series  of  scratches  running  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the 
fiffmer,  across  the  neck  of  land  between  Georgian  Bay  and  Lake- 
Ontario,  down  the  valley  cf  the  Ottawa,  and  across  parts  of  the 
Bastera    Townships,  connecting  with  tite  prevalent  soutiieask 

Tw.  L  r  Ho.  8. 


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226  THK  OAKADIAN  HATUBALIBT.  [JmU) 

.  Bbriation  whioh  oooon  in  the  valleys  of  the  GoDneodoat  and  Lake 
Ghamplaia,  and  elsevbere  Id  New  EogUnd.  What  were  the  d«tor- 
miniog  oonditiona  of  theu  two  cooraea,  and  were  tixej  oontempo- 
raneous  or  diatinot  in  time?  The  first  point  to  be  settled  in  an- 
nrering  these  qaestions,  is  the  direction  of  theforoe  which  caused  the 
itrise.  Now,  I  have  no  hesitation  in  asserting,  from  my  own 
observations  aa  well  as  from  those  of  othera,  that  for  the  southwest 
striation  the  direatJon  was /ttmh  f&«  oc«an  toioard  the  intetior, 
agrtintt  the  dope  of  the  St.  Laurence  valley.  The  crag-snd-tail 
forms  of  all  oar  isolated  hills,  and  the  dir  otion  of  transport  of 
boulders  carried  from  them,  show  that  througbont  Canada  tlte 
moveraeat  was  from  aor^east  to  southwest.*  This  atonce  disposes 
of  the  glacier-theory  for  the  prevailiag  set  of  strite;  for  we  cannot 
suppose  a  glaoier  moving  from  the  Atlantio  up  into  the  interior. 
Oo  the  other  hand,  it  is  eminently  favorable  to  the  idea  of  ooean 
drift.  A  subsidence  of  Amarioa,  such  as  would  at  present  convert 
all  the  pluias  of  Canada  and  New  York  and  New  England  into 
sea,  would  dstermino  the  oourse  of  the  Arctic  current  over  this 
submerged  land  from  northeast  to  southwest;  and  as  the  current 
would  move  u^  a  tlope,  the  ioe  which  it  bore  woald  tend  to  ground, 
and  to  grind  the  bottom  as  it  passed  into  shallower  water ;  for  it 
mnat  be  observed  that  the  cburucter  of  slope  which  enables  a 
glacier  to  grind  the  surface,  may  prevent  ioe  home  by  a  onrrent 
from  doing  so,  and  vice  vena. 

Now  we  know  that  in  the  Post-pliooene  period  eastern  America 
was  submerged,  and  oonseqnently  the  striation  at  oooe  oomea  into 
harmony  with  other  geological  facts.  We  have  of  course  to  sap- 
pose  thai  the  striation  took  place  during  submergence,  and  that 
the  process  was  slow  and  gradual,  beginning  near  the  sea  and  at 
the  lower  levels,  and  carried  upwards  to  the  higher  grounds  in 
enccessive  oeatariea,  while  the  portions  previously  striated  were 
covered  with  depositsswept  down  from  the  sinking  land  or  dropped 
from  melting  ice.  It  would  be  easy  to  show  that  this  view  oor- 
nsponds  with  many  of  the  minor  foots. 

Farther,  the  faots  thus  asoertained  aooonnt  for  the  excavation 
of  the  deep  and  land-looked  basins  of  our  great  American  lakes. 
Ocean  cnrrents,  if  oold,  and  ctingiag  to  the  bottom,  must  out  out 
pot-holes,  just  as  riTers  do,  though  geologists  are  too  apt  to 
limit  their  Inno^on  to  the  throwing  op  of  banks.     The  oontae 

■  Tbe  few  eiceptlonal  cues  appear  to  belong  mostlj  to  the  later 
period  of  the  stratified  sands. 


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1864.]  HATtniAL  HI8T0BT  BOOIXIT.  .      227 

of  the  preaent  aretio  onrreDt  along  tfae  Amerioan  coast  Imb  its 

deep  hollows  as  welt  aa  ite  Band  banks.      Our  American  lake- 

bosiaa  are  out  out  deeply  iulo  the  softer  atraU.     Bunoiug  water 

on  the  laod  would  uat  have  done  tbu,  for  it  ooald  hiive  n  >  outlet ; 

oor  oould  this  result  be  effeoled  by  breakers.     Glaciers  could  not 

have  efiectedit;  ibr  even  if  tfae  climalal  conditions  for  these  were 

admitted,  there  is  no  height  of  land  to  give  titem  momentum. 

Bat  if  we  suppose  the  lund  sabmerged  so  that  the  Arclio  oarrent, 

flowing   from   the   northeast,  should  pour  over   the  Lanrentian 

rooks  on  the  north  side  of  Lake  Superior  and  Lake  Huron, 

it  would  neceeSArily  out  oat  of  the  softer  Silarian  strata  jnstBUoh 

baaios,  drifting  their  materials  to  the  southwest.     At  tfae  same 

time,    the  lower  strata  of   the  onrreat  would  be  powerfally 

determiued  through    the   strait   between  (he   Adirondae    and 

L&oreulide  MIIb,  and,  flowing  over  the  ridgo  of  hard  rock  which 

oooneots  them  at  the  Thousand  Islands,  would  cat  out  the  long 

basin  of  Lake  Ontario,  heaping  up  at  th»8ame  time  in  the  lee 

of  tfae  Laurentian  ridge,   the  great  mass  of  boulder-clay  which 

intervenes  between   Lake  Ontario  and  G^rgian    Bay.      Lake 

Brie  may  have  been  out  by  the  flow  of  the  opper  layers  of  water 

over  the  Middle  Silurian  esoariHDent ;  and  Lake  Michigan,  though 

le»  olosdy  connected  with  the  direction  of  the  ourrent,  is,  like 

the  others,  due  to  tfae  action  of  &  oontlnnons  eroding  force  on  rocka 

of  unequal  faardnesa. 

Tfae  predominant  aoutfaweet  striation,  and  tiie  cutting  of  the 
upper  lakes,  demand  an  outlet  to  the  west  for  the  Arctic  current. 
But  both  during  depression  aud  elevation  of  the  land,  there  must 
have  been  a  time  when  this  outlet  was  obstruoted,  and  when  the 
lower  levels  of  Now  York,  New  England,  and  Canada  were  still 
under  wat«r.  Then  the  valley  of  the  Ottawa,  that  of  tfae  Mohawk, 
and  tfae  low  country  between  Lakes  Ontario  and  Huron,  and  tfae 
valleys  of  Lake  Champltun  and  the  Connecticut,  would  be  straits 
m  arms  of  the  sea,  and  tfae  current,  obstructed  in  its  direct  flow, 
would  set  pnocipally  along  these,  and  act  on  tfae  roeks  in  north 
and  south  and  northwest  and  souUieast  directions.  To  tfais  portion 
«f  tfae  process  I  would  attribute  the  nortfawest  and  Bontheast  stria- 
tion. It  is  true  tfaat  tfais  view  does  not  account  for  tfae  southeast 
Btriaa  observed  on  some  high  peaks  in  New  England ;  but  it  must 
be  observed  that  even  at  the  time  of  greatest  depression,  the 
Arctic  oarrent  would  oling  to  the  northern  land,  or  be  tfarown  w 


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2SS  TBI  OANADUR  NAnnuLm.  [June, 

npidly  to  the  west  that  its  direct  utioii  might  not  readi  moh 
mrnmits. 

Nor  would  I  exclude  altogether  the  actbo  of  glatnen  id  eastern 
Amerioa,  tboo}^  I  most  diseent  from  any  view  which  woald 
asaign  to  them  the  priaoipal  ageooy  ia  onr  glacial  phenomena. 
Under  a  condition  of  the  oontinent  in  which  on);  its  higher  peaks 
were  above  the  water,  tlie  air  woold  be  so  moiat,  and  tiie  tempera- 
tnra  solow,  tbatpennanent  ioemay  have  dang  about  moaataios  in 
the  temperaU  latitudes.  The  atriaUon  itself  shows  that  there  most 
have  been  extenaive  gtaoiers  as  now  in  the  extreme  Arotio  regions. 
Yet  I  think  that  most  of  the  alleged  instances  moat  be  founded  on 
error,  and  that  old  sea-beaches  have  been  mistaken  for  moraines. 
I  have  failed  tofind  ev«)  in  the  White  Monntains  tuy  distinct  sign 
of  glacier  action,  though  the  aotion  of  the  ooean-breakers  is  visible 
almost  to  ihdr  summits ;  and  though  I  have  observed  in  Canada 
and  Nova  Sootia  many  old  sea-beaohes,  gravel-ridges,  and  lake- 
mai^ns,  I  have  seen  nothing  thut  oonld  fairly  be  regarded  as  tho 
work  of  gliMJiers.  The  so4alled  moraines,  in  so  far  as  my  obser- 
vatioD  extends,  are  more  probaUy  shiogle  beuehee  and  bars,  old 
coast-lines  loaded  wiA  boulders,  trains  of  boulders  or  "  oaars." 
Host  of  them  convey  to  my  mind  the  impreeuon  of  ioo-aotion  along 
a  slowly  subsiding  coast,  forming  succeasive  deposits  of  stones 
in  the  shitllow  water,  and  hnryiog  them  in  clay  and  smaller  stones 
as  the  depth  increased.  These  deposits  were  b^d  modified  dur- 
ing emei^ODce,  when  the  old  ridges  were  sometimee  bared  by 
denudation,  and  new  once  heaped  np. 

I  shall  dose  these  remarks,  perhaps  nlready  too  tedious,  by  a 
mere  reference  to  the  allied  prevaleoce  of  lake-batiBB  and  fiords 
in  high  northern  latitndes,  as  onnneott  d  with  glaoiul  aotion.  In 
reasoning  on  this,  it  seems  to  be  overlooked  that  the  prevalence 
of  disturbed  and  metamorphio  rooks  over  wide  areas  in  the  north 
is  one  element  in  the  matter.  Again,  cnld  Aretio  currents  are  the 
cutters  of  baainB,  not  the  warm  sarfae^eurrenls.  Further,  the 
fiords  on  coasts,  like  the  deep  lateral  valleys  of  monntuns,  are 
evidencesof  the  action  of  die  waveBrathBTthanofthatof  ice.  lam 
sare  that  this  is  the  oass  with  the  nuuierous  indeotationB  of  the 
eoaatofNova9ootia,whidiare  cut  into  the  softer  and  more  shat- 
tered bmda  of  rock,  and  show,  in  raised  beaches  and  gravel 
ridges  like  thoee  of  the  present  coast,  the  levds  of  Hie  sea  at  the 
time  of  theii  fhrmation. 


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1864.]  VATUKAL  HIBTOST  SOOIXTT.  229 

In  oondiinoo,  allow  me  to  ezpresB  my  r^^t  that  the  preeeiure 
of  odter  DOOMpatioos  has  allowed  me  so  little  time  to  discharge  my 
daties  as  your  premdent,  and  to  hope  that  the  oonrae  of  the  Sooiety 
in  the  coming  year  may  be  still  mora  prosperous  and  successfdl 
thaa  in  the  past 

BKPORT  OP  THB  OOITNOIL. 
The  Connoil  of  the  Monti^  Natnral  History  Society,  at  their 
thirty-sixth  annnal  meeting,  and  in  conformity  with  their  prescribed 
duty  and  the  yearly  cnstom,  b^  to  lay  before  its  members  an 
account  of  their  prooeedings  doling  their  tenure  of  office,  which 
this  evening  brings  to  a  close :  and  in  so  doing  have  mnoh  pleasare 
to  congratulate  ite  members  on  the  steady  and  onward  progress 
which  has  eharaotericed  the  prooeedings  of  the  past  year. 

Thk  Mdsedm. 

Thedonations  to  the  Muaeam  have  been  nnmeroos  and  valuable ; 
and  yonr  Council  would  more  especially  acknowledge  donations 
from  the  University  of  our  sister  city,  the  Laval  UniTentity  ;  of 
■ome418  species  of  insects  from  Mr.  Saunders  of  London,  G.W.j 
also  donations  from  our  worthy  president,  Dr.  Dawson,  oon«sting 
of  fishes  and  shells;  several  birds,  and  three  oases  of  insects  from 
Mr.  Perrier,  oar  treasurer ;  and  some  valuable  donations  from  Mr. 
Baraston ;  beddes  several  small  donationa  from  other  parties, 
which  though  not  so  oamerons,  are  not  the  less  valuable  A  list 
oftbeflcwill  be  found  appended  to  thisrepmt. 

Yonr  Council  would  b^  to  make  special  mention  of  the  Scien- 
tific Curator,  Mr.  Whiteaves,  who  oontinnes  to  give  the  most 
entire  satis&otion.  His  work  has  been  onerous  and  diffionlt.  An 
inspection  of  the  Museum  will  at  once  convince  anyone  of  the 
labor  and  eara  he  has  bestowed  on  the  ola88ifi(^ation  and  labelling 
of  the  specimens  in  each  department  of  Natural  History.  And 
yonr  Council  would  ooogratolatetlie  Society  on  this  judicions  and 
effirient  appointmen  t. 

Thx  Librabt. 

The  donationa  to  tbe  Library  have  not  been  very  nnmeroos ;  the 
oompletionof  Silliman'sJonrnal  (by  purohase),  and  the  nsusl  ex- 
changes from  uster  Societies  form  by  far  the  greatest  featnre  on  the 
lilt  of  new  books.  The  Oonncil  easnofe  but  express  its  K^ret,  tha^ 


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THE  CANADIAN  NATURALIST. 


[Jni 


owing  to  the  wnot  of  faad«,  few  new  parohaBes  bare  been  able  to 
be  mode.  Notwithstanding,  vdaable  doDstioDB  of  sonie  twenty- 
four  rolumsa  bave  been  received  from  the  Literary  and  BiBtoriol 
Soeietj  oi  Quebec ;  and  jonr  Conncil  baie  again  to  record  the 
generosity  of  Mr.  Ferrier,  our  treasurer,  who  hae  also  presented 
some  eleven  or  twelve  volumes. 

Original  Papers  Bsad. 

Daring  the  past  Beaaon  twenty-fonr  original  papers  have  been 
read  and  discussed  on  the  various  departments  of  Natural  His- 
tory, viz.,  Qeology,  Zoology,  nnd  Botany.  Host  of  these  pxpers 
have  been  published  in  Thx  Canadian  Naturalibt;  which, 
besides  being  the  record  of  our  own  tmnsnctioDS  here,  is  the  means 
of  disseminating  and  spreading  an  account  of  our  prooeedings  to 
other  countries ;  and  your  Council  cannot  but  regard  this  publiod- 
tion  as  an  important  feature  in  oor  future  progress  and  nseftil- 

Owi[^  to  the  liberality  of  the  publishers,  Messrs.  Dawson 
Brothers,  The  Canadian  NATUaALiST  has  become  second  to  no 
other  publication  of  a  like  nature,  containing,  as  it  does,  a 
great  amount  of  osefiU  and  scientific  knowledge.  The  Editing 
Committee  deserve  from  your  Council  special  mention  for  thur 
successful  labors  in  this  important  department. 

PUBLtO  LSOTITRES. 

The  annual  ooarse  of  Sommerville  Lectures  was  delivered  in 
the  Lecture  Hall  of  the  Society,  to  ver;  kige  and  respectable 
audienoed.     The  following  form  the  subjects  of  the  course : — 

First  Lecture— 18th  February  1864,  by  W.  Eingston,  M.D., 
F.R.C.S.E.,  "  On  the  Harmony  observed  in  Nntnro." 

Second  Leotnre — 'i&th  February,  by  Charles  Smallwood,  M.D., 
LL.D.,  "  On  Terrestrial  Miigoedsm." 

Third  Lecture— 3d  Slurch,  by  H.  B.  Small  (Lin.  Coll.  Oz.), 
"  On  a  Trip  to  our  Satellite." 

Fourth  Lecture — lOtb  March,  by  James  Peoh  (Hus.  Doo.), 
"  Co  Music  and  the  People." 

Fif^h  Lecture— 17th  March,  by  T.  Sterry  Hunt,  M.A.,  F.R.S., 
"  On  the  Correlation  of  Forces." 

Sixth  and  concluding  Lecture  on  the  24th  M^iroh,  by  Dr. 
Dawson,  F.R.8.,  F.G.S.,  io.,  (the  President,)  "  On  Man's  Plaoe 
in  Nature." 


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1864.]  NATtlSAL  HISTORT  SOOIXTr.  231 

GONTBKBAZIONB. 

The  BMond  annual  ooQTeraaiinne  was  held  in  the  Society's  roomB 
on  the  evening  of  the  :^nd  of  February,  and  was,  as  on  n  former 
oooanon,  very  well  attended.  Some  wotIcb  of  artwere  exhibited,  and 
also  several  mioroBOopea  /ind  other  philosophical  instruments.  A 
variety  of  very  snooesafnl  ohemio^l  experiments  vere  shown  bjr 
Prof.  Bobbins ;  and  dissolving  views  were  also  kindly  exhibited  by 
Hr.  C.  Hean,  optioian.  AddroKaeawnre  delivered  by  tbePresident, 
Dr.  Dawson,  Hon.  Mr.  Sheppard,  and  Professor  Milea.  Efforts  on 
the  part  of  your  Coonoil  were  mad'  to  secure severul scientific  and 
literary  friends  from  a  distance,  but  who,  from  variuus  causes, 
oould  not  be  preaent.  The  Hon.  Mr.  Sheppard  of  Drummond- 
nlle,  and  Professor  Miles  of  Lennoxville  College,  were  the  only 
two  geo^emen  who  kindly  aaaisted  on  Uie  occasion. 

Your  Council  would  also  b«^  to  mention,  that,  owing  to  the  kind- 
ness of  Col.  Dunlop,  the  Bund  of  t  <e  Royal  Artillery  perf^.rmed 
■ome  choice  pieces  of  music  daring  the  evening. 

The  snooess  of  these  re-onions  has  been  very  decided;  and 
your  Council  Ibndly  bope,  that  they  have  proved  a  source  of  great 
intelleotoal  enjoyment  to  those  persona  preaent,and  which  they  trust 
will  tend  to  prove  the  increasing  desire  on  the  part  of  the  ciliiens 
of  MoDtreai  generally  for  the  attainment  of  a  knowledge  of  Natu- 
ral History  and  ita  kindred  Bolencfe. 

In  oonneotioo  with  this  subjeot  yonr  Council  would  state,  that  a 
Course  of  twelve  Lectures  on  Qeclo'^,  and  twelve  oo  Botany,  won 
delivered  by  Mr.  Whiteavea  in  the  rooms  of  the  Society  and  under 
its  auspicee  during  the  past  winter,  at  a  reduced  charge  to  menjbers 
of  the  Society.  The  reaulta  were  satisfactory,  and  some  additional 
members  were  thus  obtained,  and  some  few  donations  to  the  library. 

MlBOBLLANBOUa. 

Your  Council,  in  accordance  with  the  desire  of  the  Snoiety,  have 
oansed  the  silver  medal  to  be  transmitted  to  Dr.  Daniel  Wilson  of 
Toronto,  bearing  an  appropriate  inscription,  to  which  Dr.  Wilson 
has  returned  a  very  suit  ible  and  feeling  reply. 

And  your  Council,  in  furtherance  of  the  objects  of  the  Socie^^ 
utd  in  accordance  with  itseonstitution,  would  recommend  that  the 
Society's  silver  medal  for  tbia  year  be  presented  to  Sir  W.  B.. 
Logan,  one  of  liie  early  and  very  active  members  of  the  Socie^, 
and  who  has  so  long  and  so  well  labored  in  developing  the  vait 


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232  THK  OAHASIAH  MATURALI8T.  [Junt, 

geolc^oal  and  mineral  resouroen  of  Canada ;  and  jour  GonnoU 
wonld  BUKgost  that  the  present  time  seems  a  ver;  appropriate  one, 
on  the  oooasioD  of  the  publioatioa  of  his  general  work  on  OanadiaD 
Geolo);;. 

Some  defects  in  the  qhimnejs  (cansed  by  the  method  of  warming 
the  rooms  of  the  Society)  gave  rise  to  some  neoenaryrepursfwhidi 
were  stated  to  be  of  frequent  oocarrenoe) ;  and  it  was  deemed  ad- 
visuble  to  ooDSult  with  Meaan.  Frowse  &  MoFariane  as  to  the 
ohenpeat  and  best  waj  of  keeping  the  rooms  warm  during  the  winter 
months.  It  was  thought  deairablo  to  erect  a  hot-air  fornaoe;  but 
wjtioD  in  this  matt«r  was  not  taken  until  somewhat  late  in  the 
Ksson,  which  consequently  ineurred  a  somewhat  large  expenditure 
for  coal,  which  will  be  obviated  iD  future,  by  purohaaing  it  at  an 
earlier  period.  A  contract  was  entered  into  with  Hesars.  Prowse  & 
McFarlane,wha,  in  a  most  generouaand  liberal  spirit,  offered  to  give 
a  long  credit  if  required,  for  the  cost  of  its  erection.  Your  Cooocil 
fully  believe  that  in  the  end  it  will  effect  a  considerable  saving. 
Double  windows  are  also  required,  at  a  cost  of  abont  tlOO.  Your 
Oouncil  wonld  respectfully  urge  this  on  die  atteutiou  of  thor  sue- 
oeseore. 

New  cases  have  been  made  fiir  the  reoeptiou  of  the  mammals, 
and  also  a  cabinet  for  the  collection  of  insects.  Some  new  cases 
have  been  set  up  for  the  reception  of  apemmena  of  Canadian  fishea, 
also  four  or  five  additional  cases  for  birds.  Much  remains  to  be 
done  in  this  department,  and  a  still  greater  want  of  proper  casei 
ud  cabinets  for  the  reception  of  the  numerous  specimens  already 
olaaeihed. 

Your  Coanoil  wonld  Ix^  to  tender  to  Mr.  Ferrier,  the  treasurer, 
the  thanks  of  the  Society  for  the  liberality  with  which  he  has  at 
all  time  made  advances  for  the  purposes  of  liquidating  the  mort 
nrgeal  demmds  of  the  current  expenses  of  tbe  Society.  Your 
Oouncil  would  also  bear  a  willing  testimony  to  the  efficiency  of 
Hr.  Sunter,  who  has  discharged  his  duties  with  satisfaction  :  and 
it  is  pleasing  to  be  able  to  testify  to  his  obliging  and  kind  manner 
on  all  occisions,  and  also  to  make  mention  of  many  specimens  of 
fishes  and  birds  furnished  by  him  to  tbe  Museum. 

The  Council  would  also  report  that  they  have  received  a  grant 
■of  money  (though  of  smaller  amount  thau  in  any  previous  year) 
Aom  the  Oovemment  for  the  past  year ;  and  wonld  also  further 
«tate  with  re^^t,  that  no  action  has  at  present  been  taken  to  dis- 
dioTge  the  debt  still  dae  by  the  Society. 


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1864.]  MATim&L  BIBTOBT  SOOIIIT.  233 

During  tbe  put  winter  your  Gooaoil  have  permitted  tlie  NnmU- 
matio  Societ;  and  the  Montreal  Literary  Club  to  hold  their  meet- 
ing in  their  roome  on  eTeningg  not  spedally  devoted  to  our  own 
Sooietj,  and  at  a  reasonable  rate  for  fuel  luid  l^hL 

Your  Counoil  would  Further  Bu^est,  and  in  aceordaace  with 
tiie  amended  aot  of  Farliameat,  that  the  number  of  Vioe-Preai< 
dente  should  not  exceed  nine,  and  that  the  Council  should  alao 
ooneiet  of  nine  members. 

Your  Counoil  would  b^  leave  further  to  state,  that  tliey  have 
received  a  communication  fVom  Mr.  Leeming,  calling  attention  to 
the  fact  that  the  remains  of  the  late  Rev.  TAt.  Sommerville  are  at 
{ffeaent  in  the  old  Protestant  burning-ground  in  Dorchester  street, 
and  calling  on  the  Society  to  asaist,  conjointl;  with  the  Cor- 
poration of  the  Montreal  General  Hospital,  the  Trustees  of  St, 
Gabriel  Church,  and  a  clergyman  now  resident  in  Quebec,  for  the 
removal  of  die  body  to  the  Mount  Royal  Cemetery,  and  also  the 
Honument  at  preseDl  erected  over  his  remains.  Your  Council 
would  therefore  snggest  that  some  action  be  taken  in  this  matter 
at  as  early  a  period  as  possible. 

They  have  also  received  a  communication  from  the  Board  of 
Arts  and  Manufactures,  in  which  it  sets  forth  that  it  has  "  in 
its  hands  a  oonsidcrable  property,  subject  to  a  ground-rent,  and 
burtheoed  with  bypotheqncs  so  large  as  to  consume  all  its 
annual  grant,  and  render  the  Board  unable  to  carry  on  its  proper 
(^rations,  vis.,  to  increase  and  maintiun  its  free  Library,  to 
eetabliah  and  keep  up  a  Museum  of  Industrial  Products,  and  to 
pomote  the  education  of  mechanics  and  artiaans. 

"  The  property  thus  held  has  been  set  apart  for  the  use  of  scieu- 
tific  and  iiteritry  bodiw  who  might  wish  to  erect  buildings  for 
their  aooommodation,  having  been  acquired  with  a  view  to  such 
uses.  In  tact  the  Board  has  considered  itself,  in  some  sort,  a 
trustee  for  these  other  publio  bodies,  either  existing  or  projected. 
But  the  members  of  the  Board,  hitherto  disappointed  of  relief 
from  the  Provincial  Oovemment,  feel  that  they  cannot  continue 
to  hold  this  property  for  a  much  longer  period,  at  a  cost  so  great 
■8  the  abdication  of  their  own  functions  under  the  statute,  and 
are  therefore  desirous,  as  speedily  as  possible,  to  come  to  an 
arrangement— if  it  be  possible — with  your  own  and  other  socie- 
ties, by  which  a  building-site  may  be  traoBferred  to  you  on  easy 
terms,  afid  co-operation  secured  between  the  Society  and  this  Board 
in  promoting  objeots  which  we  may  have  in  o 


V,  Google 


234  THE  OAKADIAS  NATtmALIBT.  [June, 

"  Either  by  tamafemng  a  portion  of  tlie  land  aronnd  the  Exhibi- 
tion building,  bj  aesiBting  yoar  Society  to  erect  apon  it  a  build- 
ing adapted  for  its  uses,  or  by  securing  your  oo-operatioo  in  the 
exlenaion  of  the  present  building  upon  a  plan  adapted  to  your 
wants,  we  hope  that  this  Board  may  be  of  aseistanoe  to  you,  and 
receive  oo-operation  and  support  in  return.." 

Tour  Oouuoii  would  reoommeud  the  consideration  of  this  mat- 
ter to  the  Society,  in  furtherance  of  the  said  object. 

Your  Council  cannot  but  express  ita  regret,  that  the  report  of 
the  treasurer  showe  a  balance  aguost  the  Society ;  and  would 
urge,  that  offorts  he  m  tde  by  each  indiridual  member,  to  endeavor 
by  all  means  to  increase  the  funds  so  necessary  for  the  support 
and  furtherance  of  the  objects  for  which  it  was  founded. 

Tonr  Oounoil  must  now  resign  their  charge  into  ihe  hands  of 
others,  wishing  them  a  prosperous  and  increasing  year  of  useful- 
ness. One  thing  your  Gouacil  would  place  on  record,  is  the  kind- 
ness and  unanimity  that  has  actuated  the  whole  of  the  memben, 
a  Bare  prestige  of  increasing  strei^th  and  usefulness ;  and  they 
close  their  report  with  a  fervent  hope,  that  the  Montreal  Natural 
Histoiy  Society  may  grow  and  prosper. 


HOHTHLT  HBBTINO. 


The  monthly  meeting  of  the  Society  took  place  at  its  rooms,  on 
Monday  evuniuK,  May  30lh,  Dr.  Dawson,  President,  in  the  chair. 
The  following  donations  were  announced : 

To   TEC   MDBBtlH. 

From  A.  Ramsay,  Esq.— Fine  specimen  of  Uie  Snow  Goose 
(Atuer  hyperboreui,  Pallus),  shot  at  Nun's  Island. 

From  James  Ferrier,  jun.,  Esq. — The  Turnstone  Streptilat 
inUrpret,  IW'igBf  ;     Carious  Japanese  Mirror  and  Case. 

From  Mrs.  MoCullooh.— 138  skins  of  Canadian  birds,  &  do 
foreign,  20  do.  mammals. 

From  U.  B.  S.ielton,  Elsq.— 4  Indian  pipes,  from  an  excavation 
in  Hospital  Street. 

From  Jas.  Ctaxton,  Esq. — 8  Bpeoimens  of  minerals  (Quarti, 
Quart!  with  Pyrites,  C  ito  Spar,  and  Sulphate  of  Barytes;,  from 
Devon  and  Cornwall,  Engknd, 


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1864.]  HATtnUL   HI8T0BY  BOOEBTT.  236 

Prom  Mr.  W.  Hnnter.— The  yellow-bellied  Woodpecker  (Cen- 
(•nif  flaoiventrit,  SwaiDSon)  ;  tbe  golden-wioged  Vordpecker 
(Colaplea  aur-itut,  Linn.) ;  2  Robins  (Thirdug  migraloriut, 
Linn.);  1  blae  yellow-backed  Warbler  {Parula  Amerieana, 
Bonaparte). 

To  THI  LlBBABT. 

Preliminary  List  of  the  Plants  of  Boffalo. — From  the  Buffalo 
Society  of  Natar  d  Sciences. 

Arboretum  etFruticeium  Britaonioam,  byJ.  C.  Loudon;  8 
Tole.  8vo.,  illustrated.—  From  James  Perrier,  juD.,  Ksq. 

Bombay  Magnetical  tod  Meteorologiosl  Ubservations,  1862. 

NXW  MRMBERa. 

John  Tempest,  and  Alexander  S.  Ritobie,  Esqs.,  were  eleoted 
ordin&iy  memberB  of  the  Society. 

Fbooixdinqb. 
The  Reoording  Secretary  then  read  a  communication  by  Dr. 
Bowerbaok,  on  two  new  N.  Amerioan  Sponges.  Thefiretof  these 
was  a  small  marine  form  (of  the  genus  Tethea),  dredged  by  Dr. 
Dawson  off  tbe  coast  of  Portland,  Maine.  The  second  was  k 
green  fresh-water  speeiee  (of  tbe  genue  SpongiUa),  occarring  in 
quiet  little  bays  along  tbe  St.  Lawrence  about  Montreal,  also  in 
Upper  Canada,  in  whioh  plaoee  it  has  been  taken  by  Dr.  Dawson, 
Rev.  A.  F.  Kemp,  Mr.  R.  J.  Fowler,  and  others.  Dr.  Dnwson 
remarked  that  a  greai  number  of  the  N.  Amerioan  sponges  differed 
somewhat  from  allied  European  forms,  and  were  probably  new 
species.  The  present  paper,  be  remarked,  might  be  looked  upon 
SB  the  first  instalment  of  a  somewhat  ehiborate  memoir  upon  these 
very  ill-anderetood  and  low  forms  of  animal  life,  to  the  study  of 
which  Dr.  Bowerbank  has  paid  much  attention.  Dr.  Dawson 
then  gave  an  aeoonnt  of  several  species  of  Annelida  and  Bryosoa, 
from  Mingan  and  Metis.  Tbe  Mingan  specimens  were  collected 
by  Mr.  Ricbardi;on,  jun.,ortheQeol.  Surrej.and  the  Metis  forms 
by  Mrs.  H.  Parkinson.  The  doetor  commenced  by  making  draw- 
ings explanatory  of  the  stmoture  of  the  animal  of  the  genua 
Spirorbis.  He  explained  that  these  creatures  were  marine  worm- 
like  animals,  which  conetmeted  small,  flattened  epira]  shells,  wbick 
were  generally  attaebed  to  sen-weeds,  stones,  or  shells.  Hetbeno- 


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S^S  THl  OANADtAH  MATimALIST.  [JvBe, 

hibited  eigbtdiffereiit8p«oieBofthiigenDS,and|KnDtedout  laoidly 
the  difference  between  Uiem.  After  exhibiting  a  species  of  Ser- 
pnla,  with  its  insular  ejUndricil  shellj  tube,  the  Doctor  oalled 
atteotion  to  some  of  the  Bryoioa  of  the  Galf.  He  stated  that 
some  of  the  species  resembled  brown  sea-weeds,  otbeis  corallines, 
bnt  that  the  strooture  of  the  animals  was  nearest  to  that  o'' some 
tif  the  hivalre  shells.  He  exhibited  examples  of  some  fifteen  or  six- 
teen species,  illiutratiD^  the  subject  by  dia{rramB,and  by  mierosoo|d- 
oalprcparationsshowin^  the  shape  of  the  cells  of  theee  creatures, and 
some  of  their  organs  of  defence.  After  come  discnssioii  as  to  the 
supposed  usee  of  these  animals,  the  meeting  broke  up. 


On  TBI  BlVALTKD  BNTOUOSTOAnA  0¥  TBS  CaKB0HI?KB0U8 

Strata  of  Grkat  Britain  and  Ireland. 
Bj  ProfMsor  T.  Rdpibt  Joaaa,  P.O.3.,  and  J.  W.  Eikbt,  Esq. 

Afier  a  review  of  what  forraer  oba  -rvers  hare  pnblisheil  on  the 
Biva'ved  BntoraostrHCH  of  >he  Cnrbonife  oiis  f  Tmxtions.  the  aa- 
tbor'  proceed  to  point  not:  1st,  a  fuv*  rather  deubtful  Cypndet 
or  Candana.  fmm  th'*  CnaUmeasureii.  Smlly,  Cgthtrti;  of  whicb 
the<e  are  about  ei^ht  'ip<oi-«.  tihieflf  rom  the  Coal •nteasDrea. 
Srily.  BairivB;  sb lut  eight  apeuies,  mo<'ly  from  the  MountaiD- 
lim-st'ine  anl  \i*  ithales.  4tlilj.  Cgpridinilna;  comprising 
OypridiiM,  Oi/firidella,  O^prella,  E'tlamxonehai.  and  Ci/tkerella, 
from  ihe  MoDii  ain-li  nestone-  A  fine  culltjctioi  of  tliose  thth  torma 
from  Little  lalaiid,  Cork,  liberslly  |iUc  d  hi  Hossn.  Jones  and 
EiikUy'H  dispowil  by  Ur.  Jfr^ph  Wiiifbt,  will  eincidate  ih«  rela- 
tioiishiiia  uf  thu-e  liiiherto  obscure  genera  and  tlieir  speiiiea* 
tfthly,  Ltperdttida ;  comprioinK  Leprrditia  (to  which  genus 
J>eloiiiI  tlie  so-'-allel  GgprU  Soolab'trdigaUtuii,  C.  inJIaUi,  O, 
mbrtxia,  Cfftk^r  inariiala,  and  oibers;  many  of  thein  dwarf 
yari«ti«a  uf  odu  s|>e-'i<-e,  and  mostly  bKlonging  to  the  Moaiibtin- 
UmwUone  series)  i  £ulomit  (Uountnin-limesioBe),  D.  vonian  aod 
Cnrlioiiireroiis  firinnuf  whitibhave  been  mistaken  for  Ggp>\dimi- 
Mb;  B-yfickice  (from  nearly  all  pan8i>riheOHrU>niferouKBy%ttiiD, 
WVrral  speoien,  of  which  B.  arcuaia,  Bean,  sp.,  is  Ihe  moxt  com- 
JDon);  Hod  Ki-kbi/iK,  somewhat  rsit^,  and  chiefly  firom  the  Moun- 
tain-limeslone  serin, 

Lfpvditia  and  Beyriehia  are  also  Silurian  and  Devonian 
j[enera;  they  do  not  appear  to  pus  upwards  into  the  Permian 


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1864.]  msoKLLAKioira.  237 

formation.  Bairdia  aiirl  Sirkhya  aaawr  first  in  ihe  CHrl>onif-roD8 
and  re-8ppear  in  the  PermiHO  deposits,  even  in  il.e  same  s|»-i-iGo, 
forms ;  an  I  Bairdia  h  i*  been  freely  rupr-JsenltHl  in  S  ■condnry  find 
Teniary  deposita,  and  esisuai  present.  Of  tiiu  CifpriUnida  ander 
notii^e,  Cyprideila,  Cj/prellt,  an<l  EatomoeonehaB  a|>peHr  ti>  be 
contintid  to  the  Man'iiiiii-liiaHdtono;  C'gpridina  occurs  in  ibe 
Perm  an,  and  with  Ggtherella  is  found  in  Sawnday  and  Ttjriinry 
rockx,  Hnd  in  eiisting  Bra<.  JSntomh  is  u  Silurifin  and  Oevunian 
genus,  mpeoiailychHrHctonaingibe  so-called  "Oyiiridineii-Si-Jiiofer" 
of  Gertimny. 

M'Uoy'ti  Daiihna  priinani  is  a  Cypridina ;  Di-  Kminck's  Cy- 
pridina  Edwardaiana  and  ^gitridelU  eraeititn  axu  C'jpndKlla  : 
his  C/pridinn  annulata  and  Cypreth  cKryKlidea  are  Cjfpreiia  j 
knd  his  CjfpriditM  conemlnea  is  an  EtUomit. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 
THK  LATB  i'RINClPAL  LBITOH. 
Our  issue  of  yesterday  oontaiued  the  sad,  though  not  mVL- 
peoted,  anooanoement  of  Principal  Leitch's  death.  '^Uiatn 
Leitch  was  born  at  Rothsay,  in  the  Island  of  Bute,  Sootlaod,  in 
the  year  1814,  and  was  ut  his  death  under  Ufty  years  of  age. 
The  robost  health  of  his  boyhood  was  taken  from  him  by  an  aeu- 
dent,  whioh  ooofioed  him  for  eighteen  months,  and  threatened 
even  his  life  bdore  he  reoorered.  When  about  fourteen  years  of 
^e  he  fell  from  the  mast  of  a  yacht  in  the  bay  of  his  native  town, 
and  the  fall  prodnoed  a  eomminnted  fracture  of  the  hipgoint, 
whioh  made  him  lame  for  life.  This  accident  was  the  oooaeioa  of 
determiQiDg,iD  a  somewhat  remsilable  way,the  tendencies  by  which 
■11  his  subsequent  life  has  been  characterised  ;  for  during  his  long 
and  dreary  confinement,  the  relief  from  intense  snffaring,  wbitdi 
most  boys  of  ereu  high  intellectual  character  would  have  sought  in 
the  fascination  of  fiction,  be  found  in  the  study  of  mathematics ; 
and  his  after  lifb,  whioh  became  almost  from  neoessity  that  of  a 
Btndent,  was  devoted  chiefly  to  the  mathematical  sciences.  After 
finishing  his  preparatory  studies  for  the  Church  of  Scotland,  he 
did  not  immediately  enter  on  the  practical  work  of  his  profession, 
but  remained  for  some  yens  in  oonneotion  with  the  Qla^w 
Obserratoiy,  under  the  late  Frofeuor  Nichol.  In  the  year 
1843  however,  he  aooeptad  a  presentation  to  the  Parish  of  Hunt 
mail  in  Fifhohin,  where  he  tbund  that  congenial  quiet  in  whkh  he 


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238  TEX  OAItADIAM  NATtTBAlIST. 

was  able  to  oootinae  his  stnilies  and  to  extend  his  inquiries 
into  other  branches  of  physical  scienoe,  aa  well  as  ioio  those 
departments  of  philosophy  and  theology  with  which  tJie  physical 
wuenoea  are  more  closely  connected.  During  bis  resiclence  at 
Monimail,  he  made  himself  known  by  eztfiuuve  oontributiona  to 
various  periodicals  and  cyolopedias,  on  those  subjects  to  which  he 
had  specially  devoted  his  time;  and  tiy  ^is  means  he  enjoyed  an 
intimate  aoquaintance  with  many  of  the  most  distinguished  literary 
nuentifiomeain  Oraat  Britain.  The  scienoeto  which  he  remained 
most  fondly  attached  was  that  of  astronomy ;  snd  from  his 
thoroagb  familiarity  with  the  praclioal  work  of  an  Observatory, 
fh)m  the  enthusiasm  with  which  he  studied  every  improvement  in 
astronomical  inatrumeats,  and  hailed  every  fresh  discovery  to 
which  it  led,  as  well  as  from  his  general  scientific  attainments,  it 
was  thought  probable  that,  had  ha  not  left  Scotland,  be  would 
have  been  appointed  to  the  chair  of  bis  teacher,  the  lute  Professor 
Nichol,  in  the  University  of  Olusgow.  De  Quinoey,  in  a  noble 
article  on  Lord  Rosee's  telescope,  speaks  of  his  friend  Professor 
Nichol  as  havini;  contributed  more  than  any  other  living  man  to 
keep  general  English  readers,  who  have  not  time  fbr  the  soientific 
investigations  of  astronomers,  acquainted  with  the  latest  and  pro- 
foandest  leaulta  to  which  these  investigations  are  leading ;  and 
during  the  two  years  which  have  passed  since  the  Professor's  death, 
it  would  be  difficult  to  point  to  a  man  for  whom  the  same  distinc- 
tioQ  could  have  been  bo  justly  claimed  as  the  late  Principal  of  our 
University. 

In  1860  he  was  invited  by  the  Trustees  of  the  Queen's  Uni- 
veraity  to  beoome  its  Principal ;  and  afterspending  session  1860- 
61  in  the  duties  of  the  ofioe,  he  decided  to  accept  their  invitation. 
His  brief  and  sad  career  among  ns  is  so  unfinished  that  even  its 
imperfect  results,  and  oertainly,  at  least  the  larger  and  nobler  aims 
by  which  it  was  guided,  oould  be  adequately  described  only  at 
greater  length  than  is  poeelble  In  a  hnrried  newspaper  notice. 
Those  who  have  been  interested  in  his  movements  must  have 
reot^nized  the  hopes  which  he  entertHued  for  the  progress  Ol 
•oience  by  the  efficient  working  of  our  Observatory,  and  for  the 
advancement  of  higher  education  by  a  more  orderly  government 
of  our  University,  aa  well  as  by  a  reform  in  the  general  relations 
of  all  the  Universities  of  Upper  Canada. — Kingtion  Ifeiet,  May 
l\ih. 

PnUished,  Montreal,  June  1&,  1864. 

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CANADIAN  NATIJEALIST. 

BECOKD  KBIEB. 


ELEMENTARY  VIEWS  OF  THE  CLASSIFICATION 

OF  ANIMALS. 

Bt  J.  W.  DiiraoH,  LL.D.  P.R.S. 

[The  matter  of  the  fotlowiaj;  pages  has  been  prepared  priDcIpalljr 
for  the  benefit  of  students,  who  are  in  geaeriil  mnch  more  apt  to 
learn  names  and  details  than  to  attain  to  general  views.  It  is 
introductory  to  the  printed  sjaopsis  of  lectures  which  I  annnally 
prepare  for  my  oUsses,  and  is  now  pabliahed  under  the  impression 
tbat,  though  bat  elementary  and  geaeralj  the  views  which  it  con- 
tains may  prove  interesting  to  naturalists,  and  nsefni.  to  some  of 
those  who  may  be  stru^ling  with  the  difficulties  incident  to  the 
study  of  zoology  nnder  the  heterogeneous  methods  of  claasification 
which  are  found  in  most  elementary  books.  Shoald  time  permit, 
it  may  be  followed  by  illustrations  of  the  details  of  some  of  the 
classes  and  orders  of  animals.  The  writer  acknowledges  his 
obligations,  as  soarces  of  recent  information,  to  Agassii's  Essay 
on  Classification,  Dana's  Remarks  on  the  Classification  of  Animals 
based  on  Cephalisation,  and  Huxley's  Leotutes  on  Classifioatioo, 
thongh  be  cannot  follow  throughout  the  systems  of  any  of  these 
authors.] 

1,  Inteoductobt  Rkbcabks. 

No  Bubjeet  is  at  present  more  perplexing  to  the  practical  cool* 
ogist  or  geologist,  and  to  the  educator,  than  that  (^  xoi>l<^CBl 
olassificBtioa.  The  sabjeot  in  itsdf  is  very  intricate,  and  the 
views  ^Ton  as  to  certain  groups  by, the  most  eminent  naturalists 
BO  conflicting,  that  the  student  is  tempted  to  abandon  it  in  despair, 
as  incapable  of  being  gatie&ctoiily  oom^Aended. 

The  reasons  of  this,  it  seems  to  tlra  vrriter,  are- twofold.  First, 
loOlogy  ia  so  extenrive,  that  it  has  beeome  divided  into  a  number 
of  sabordinato  branohee,  the  oaltivatoTS  of  which  attaeb  an  cxag- 

ToL.  I.  4  Ho.  4. 


Ctxic^lc 


242  THK  CANADIAN   NATURALIST.  {A^g- 

gerated  value  to  their  own  specialties,  and  are  unable  to  appre- 
oiate  those  of  others.  Thus  we  find  natordista  subdividing  one 
group  more  miautel;  than  others,  or  raising  onegroap  to  a  position 
of  equivalency  with  others,  to  which,  in  ihe  opinion  of  the  stu- 
dents of  these  others,  it  is  quite  subordinate.  So  also  we  have 
some  EoiJlogisCs  basing  olassificatiou  wholly  on  embryology  or  on 
mere  anatomical  structure,  or  even  on  the  functions  of  some 
one  class  of  organs.  Secondly,  there  is  a  failure  to  perceive 
that,  if  there  is  any  order  in  the  animal  kingdom,  some  one  pria- 
oiple  of  arrangement  must  pervade  the  whole;  and  that  our 
arrangement  most  not  be  one  merely  of  convenhnoe,  or  of  a 
desultory  and  uncertain  character,  but  uniform  and  homogeneous. 
The  writer  of  these  pages  does  not  profess  to  be  in  a  position 
to  escape  from  these  causes  of  failure ;  but  as  a  teacher  of  some 
expericQce,  and  as  a  student  of  certain  portions  of  the  animal 
kingdom,  he  has  endeavoured  carefully  to  eliminate  from  bis  own 
views  the  prejudices  incident  to  bis  specialties,  and  to  take  a  general 
view  of  the  subject ;  and  is  therefore  not  without  hope  that  the 
results  at  which  he  bas  arrived  may  be  found  useful  to  the  young 
naturalist. 

Classification  in  any  department  of  Natural  History  is  the 
arranging  of  the  objects  which  we  study  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
express  their  natural  relationship.  In  other  words,  we  endeavour 
in  classiSoation  to  present  to  our  minds  such  a  notion  of  the 
resemblances  and  differences  of  objects  as  may  enable  us  to  under^ 
stand  them,  not  merely  as  isolated  units,  but  as  parts  of  the  sys- 
tem of  nature.  Without  such  arrangement  there  could  be  no 
scientific  knowledge  of  nature,  and  our  natural  history  would  bo 
merely  a  mass  of  undigested  facts. 

At  first  sight,  and  to  a  person  kuowing  only  a  few  objects,  such 
arrangement  may  appear  easy ;  but  in  reality  it  is  encompassed 
with  difficulties,  some  of  which  have  not  been  appreciated  by  the 
framers  of  systems.  The  more  important  of  these  difficulties 
we  may  shortly  ooudder. 

1.  There  are  in  the  animal  kingdom  a  vast  number  of  kinds  or 
spcdes.  To  form  a  perfect  classification  it  would  be  necessary  t« 
know  the  characters  or  distinctive  marks  of  all  these  species. 
To  make  even  a  tolerable  approximation  to  a  good  system,  re- 
quires an  amount  of  preparatory  labour  which  can  be  estimated 
only  by  those  who  have  oorefiilly  worked  up  at  least  a  few  species 
in  these  nspeota. 


,,;.  Google 


1864.]      SB.  DAWSON  ON   CLAdSIFIOATION   Or  ANIMALS.        243 

2.  So  B[>oa  as  we  have  ascertained  the  characters  of  a  ooDsid- 
erable  number  of  epecies,  we  fiod  that  in  their  neareet  Tesemblaoceg 
these  do  not  oonstitate  a  linear  series,  but  arrange  themselves  ia 
groups  more  or  less  separated  from  each  other  like  constellations 
in  the  heavens,  and  having  relationships  tending  with  more  or 
less  force  in  different  directions.  This  not  only  introduces  com- 
plexity into  our  systems,  but  renders  it  impossible  to  represent 
them  adequately  in  written  or  spoken  discourse,  or  even  by  tables 
or  diagrams.  We  think  and  speak  of  things  in  aeries,  bat  nature's 
objects  are  not  so  arranged,  but  in  groups  radiating  from  each 
other  like  the  branches  of  a  tree;  and  our  imperfect  modes  of 
thought  and  expression  are  severely  tested  in  the  attempt  to 
understand  nature,  or  to  oouvey  ideas  of  classification  te  the  minds 
of  others. 

3.  The  conuderatious  above  stated  oblige  ub  to  enquire  what 
leading  characters  we  may  take  as  the  principal  thread  of  our 
arrangement,  so  as  to  make  this  as  natural  as  possible  and  at  the 
same  time  intelligible.  It  is  simplest  to  teke  only  one  obvious 
character,  as  if  for  example  we  were  te  arrange  all  animals  accord- 
ing to  their  colour  or  to  the  number  of  their  limbs ;  bat  the  greater 
the  number  of  characters  we  can  use,  or  the  more  completely  we 
can  represent  the  aggregate  of  resemblances  and  difi^ences,  the 
more  natural  will  our  arrangement  be,  and  conseqnently  also  the 
more  scientific  and  useful. 

In  attempting  te  weigh  the  several  characters  presented  by 
any  object,  we  find  acme  that  ore  of  leading  importance,  others 
that  are  comparatively  unimportant,  though  still  not  to  be 
neglected;  and  we  find  that  some  indicate  grades  of  complexity, 
others  are  connected  with  adaptations  to  certain  uses,  and  others 
indicate  plan  of  constmotion.  Doe  weight  must  be  given  to  all 
these  kinds  and  degrees  of  oharactera.  It  is  perhaps  in  the  proper 
estimation  and  value  of  their  relative  importance  and  different 
modes  of  application  that  the  greatest  failures  have  been  made. 

Keeping  in  view  these  difficulties  of  the  subject,  we  may  now 
proceed  to  the  con^daration  of  the  more  elementaty  of  the  groups 
in  which  ve  arrange  animals. 

2.  Tbe  Speoieb  in  Zooloot. 

We  cannot  consider  the  animals  witli  which  we  are  familiar 

without  perceiving  that  they  constitute  kinds  or  Specia,  which  do 

not  appear  to  graduate  into  each  other,  and  which  can  be  dlstin- 


,.,.d.i.  Google 


244  TBI   OAHADIAK  NATURALIST.  [Ang. 

gabbed  by  certwn  cKaTactert.  Tet  Bunple  tbongli  tbis  at  firet 
sigbt  appears,  we  eball  find  that  many  intricate  questions  are  con- 
nected vitb  it.  Oar  idea  of  the  species  is  based  on  the  resem- 
blance of  the  individuals  composing  it  in  all  the  oharaeters  which 
we  consider  essential.  If,  for  instsDce,  a  nambcr  of  sheep  and 
goats  are  placed  before  ns,  we  readily  select  the  individuals  of 
each  species.  In  doing  this  we  give  no  r^ard  to  di&rences  i£ 
sex  or  age,  but  put  the  young  and  old,  the  male  and  female,  of 
each  species  tc^ether.  Nor  do  we  pay  atteotioD  to  merely  acci- 
dental differences  :  a  mutilated  or  deformed  spedmen  is  not  oo 
that  account  separated  from  its  species.  Nor  do  we  attaoh  nine 
to  characters  which  experience  has  proved  to  vary  according  b) 
oircumstances,  and  in  the  same  line  of  desoent.  Such,  for  ex- 
ample, are  differences  of  colour,  or  fineness  of  the  hair  or  wool. 
The  remaining  resemblances  and  differences  are  those  ou  which 
we  rely  for  our  determination  of  the  species,  and  which  we  tens 
essential.  Wo  shall  find  that  these  essential  characters  of  the 
species  are  points  of  structure,  proportion  of  pdrts,  omameutation, 
and  habits. 

These  characters  oonstitute  onr  idea  of  the  species,  which  we 
can  readily  separate  from  the  Individual*  composing  it.  The 
individuals  are  temporary,  but  the  species  is  permanent,  beii^ 
oondnued  through  the  suoceasion  of  individuals.  If  all  the  adalt 
individuals  are  alike  and  indistinguishable  from  each  other,  then 
any  one  may  serve  as  a  specimen  of  the  species.  If  there  are 
differences  of  sex  or  Varietit*  subordinate  to  the  species,  then  i 
suite  of  specimens  showing  these  will  represent  the  species.  The 
species  is  thus  an  assemblage  of  powers  and  properties  manifested 
in  certain  portions  of  matter  called  indiWdnals,  and  which  are  its 
t«nporary  representatives.  It  follows  that  the  spedes  is  the  tnte 
nnit  of  our  classification,  and  tliat  the  indefinite  multiplicadon  of 
individuals  leaves  this  unchanged. 

Our  idea  of  the  species  will  however  be  imperfect  if  we  do  not 
distinctly  place  before  our  minds  its  continued  existence  in  time. 
This  depends  on  the  power  of  reproduction,  whereby  the  indi- 
viduals  now  existing  have  descended  from  similar  prc^nitots,  and 
will  give  birth  to  successors  like  themselves.  A  moment's 
thought  will  suffice  to  show  that,  independently  of  this,  species 
could  have  no  real  existence  in  nature.  If  animals  were  not 
reprodnotive,  tlie  spedes  would  beoome  extinct  afW  the  lapse  of  a 
generation.    If  tlieir  reproduction  fi^owed  no  oertain  law,  and 


,Cooc^lc 


1864.]      DB.   DAVBOK  ON  OLABSITIOATION  07  ANIUALS.       24$ 

Qie  progeay  might  be  difiereat  iroin  the  pirenta,  then  the  oharao- 
ters  of  the  speoiee  voald  speedily  become  changed,  kbA  it  woald 
[WMtically  cease  to  be  the  same.  Again,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
reproduction  of  speoiee  should  be  pare  or  unmixed ;  for  an  indie- 
oriminate  hybrtdity  would  soon  obliterate  tlio  bonodarieB  of  spe- 
cies. It  is  impossible,  therefore,  to  separate  the  idea  of  species 
from  the  pover  of  continuous  unohaDged  reproduotion,  without 
deprivii^  it  of  its  essential  oharaotois. 

In  like  manner  it  is  obviouB  that  ve  must  aaaume  a  separate 
origin  for  eaoh  species,  and  that  we  need  not  aeeume  more  than 
one  origin.  Practtoally,  species  remain  unchanged,  and  do  not 
originate  fVom  one  another ;  and  if  all  the  individuals  of  a  species 
were  destroyed  except  one  pair,  this  would,  under  fayourahle  cir- 
onmstances,  be  sufficient  to  restore  the  species  in  its  original 
abundance. 

The  qnestions  which  liave  been  raised  aa  to  the  origin  of  spec'es 
by  deecent  with  indefinite  variation,  and  as  to  the  possible  creation  of 
individuals  of  the  same  species  in  different  places  or  at  different 
times,  are  not  of  a  praodeal  character,  at  least  in  loology  proper, 
and  the  wht^e  burden  of  proof  may  be  thrown  on  those  who  assert 
such  views. 

We  are  thus  brought  to  the  definition  of  species,  long  ago  pro- 
posed by  Cuvier  and  De  CandoUe,  and  may  practically  unite  in 
one  species  all  those  individuals  which  so  resemble  each  other  that 
we  mny  reasonably  infer  that  they  have  descended  from  a  common 
ancestry.  All  our  practical  teeta  for  the  detennination  of  species 
resolve  themselves  into  iba  general  oonaideratjon.  The  only 
modification  of  this  atetement  on  which  even  a  Darwinian  can 
insist,  is,  that  a  sufficient  time  and  groat  geological  changes  being 
given,  one  fpceies  may  possibly  s[dit  into  two  or  more  ;  and  since 
this  is  an  unproved  hypoUiens,  we  may  practically  n^lect  -it, 
except  as  a  warning  te  be  very  sure  that  we  do  not  separate  as 
distinct  species  any  forms  which  may  be  merdy  varieties  of  a 
single  qteoies,  an  error  exceedingly  prevalent,  and  which  viuates 
not  a  little  of  onr  reasoning  on  anoh  subjects. 

The  origin  of  the  first  individuals  of  a  species  may  he,  and 
probably  is,  a  problem  not  within  the  province  of  natural  history. 
In  the  case  of  vital  force  it  is  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  gravita- 
tion and  other  forces.  We  can  observe  its  operation  and  ascer- 
tain the  lawaof  ita  aotion,bnt  of  the  force  itself  we  know  nothing. 
It  is  to  OB  merdy  an  expresuon  of  Ibe  power  and  will  of  the 


,.,.d."i.  Google 


216  THE  CAMADUN  MATtlBALtST.  C-^^' 

Creator.  Witb  r^srd  to  the  creative  force  or  power,  ve  axe  still 
more  ignorant.  We  do  not  witnese  its  operation.  We  know 
nothing,  except  b j  inference,  of  its  laws ;  and  whatever  we  maj 
succeed  in  aBcertaining  as  to  these,  we  may  he  snre  that  in  the 
last  resort  we  shall,  as  in  the  case  of  all  other  natural  effects,  be 
obliged  to  pause  at  that  line  where  what  we  call  force  resolves 
itself  into  the  will  of  the  supreme  spliitual  Power.  The 
"  miracle "  of  enactment  must  necessarily  precede  law ;  the 
"  miracle  "  of  creation,  the  existenoe  of  matter  or  force.  Those 
who  deny  this  have  no  refuge  but  in  a  bald  Ecepticism,  discred- 
itable to  a  scientific  mind,  or  in  metaphysical  subtilties,  into  wbiob 
the  loologist  need  not  enter. 

We  most  not  suppose,  however,  that  the  species  is  absolutely 
invariable.  Variability,  in  some  species  to  a  greater  extent  than 
in  others,  is  a  law  of  specific  czisteQcc.  It  is  the  measure  of  tbe 
influence  of  diatnrhing  forces  from  without  in  their  action  on  the 
specific  unity.  In  some  cases  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  varie- 
ties  from  true  species,  and  with  many  naturalists  there  has  been 
&  tendency  to  introduce  new  species  on  insufficient  grounds.  Such 
errors  oau  he  detected  ordinarily  by  comparing  lai^  suites  of 
specimens  and  ascertaining  tbe  gradations  between  them,  which 
always  occur  in  tbe  case  of  varieties,  bnt  are  absent  in  the  case  of 
species  truly  distinct.  Such  comparisons  require  much  time  and 
labour,  and  must  he  pnrsacd  witb  much  greater  diligence  than 
heretofore,  in  order  to  settle  finally  the  question  whether  tbe 
varietal  perturbations  always  tend  to  return  to  a  state  of  equili- 
brium, or  whether  in  any  case  they  are  capable  of  indefinite 
divei^noefrom  tbe  specific  nni^. 

The  species  is  the  only  group  which  nature  furnishes  to  us 
ready  made.  It  is  the  only  group  in  which  tbe  individuals  must 
bebonnd  tc^ther  by  a  reproductive  oounection.  There  m^htor 
might  not  be  affinities  which  would  enable  us  to  group  species  in 
larger  a^r^ates,  m  genera  tmd/amilie*;  and  the  tie  which  binds 
these  together  is  merely  onr  perception  of  greater  or  less  resem- 
blance, not  a  genetic  connection.  We  say  for  example,  that 
all  the  individuab  of  tbe  commou  Crow  constitute  one  species, 
and  we  know  that  if  all  these  birds  were  destroyed  except  one 
pair,  the  species  would  really  exist,  and  might  be  renewed  in  all  its 
previous  numbers.  We  can  make  the  same  assertion  with  reference 
to  the  Raven  or  to  the  Blue  Jay,  considered  as  species.  But  if, 
because  of  resemblances  between  these  species,  we  group  them  in 


,,;.  Google 


18&4.]      SB.   DAWSOH  ON  OLASSH'IOATION  OF  AMIHALS.        247 

the  genus  Cormtt  or  in  the  family  Corvidce,  ve  ezpreaa  merely  our 
belief  in  a  oertaia  stmotaral  resemblanoe,  not  in  any  genetic  con- 
neotion.  Nor  need  ve  Bnppoee  that  if  any  of  the  species  of  a  genns 
were  destroyed  they  would  be  reproduced  from  the  others.  Further, 
while  all  the  individuals  of  any  of  the  species  may  be  precisely 
similar  to  each  other  and  still  be  disUnct  individuals,  all  the  species 
of  the  genos  cannot  be  simUar  in  all  their  characters,  otherwise 
they  would  cooatitate  bat  one  species. 

In  other  words,  the  species  and  the  genus,  considered  as  groups, 
differ  not  in  degree  hut  in  kind.  To  make  this  very  plain,  let  us 
take  a  familiar  illustration.  I  have  a  number  of  maps,  all  uniform 
iasizeandinstyleofexeoationj  but  in  the  whole  there  are  only  two 
kinds, — maps  of  the  eastern  hemisphere,  and  maps  of  the  western 
hemisphere.  Now  all  of  the  maps  of  one  kind  constitate  a  species ; 
tliose  of  both  kinds,  a  genus.  The  individuals  of  one  species,  say 
of  the  eastern  hemisphere,  are  all  alike.  They  have  all  been  stmek 
from  one  plate,  from  which  many  simUar  maps  may  be  produced. 
Bnt  the  other  map,  though  necessary  to  make  up  the  set  or  genns, 
may  be  quite  disumilar  in  all  its  details  from  the  first,  and  could 
not  be  produced  fh>m  its  plate.  We  have  no  difficulty  here  in 
understanding  that  the  specific  unity  is  of  adifferent  kind  from  the 
generic  unity,  wd  that  the  distinction  is  by  no  means  one  of  mere 
grade  of  resemblance.  A  very  little  thought  must  oonvince  any  one 
that  this  applies  to  species  and  genera  in  Ecology  ;  and  that  those 
naturalists  who  affirm  that  species  have  no  more  real  existence  in 
nature  than  genera,  have  overlooked  one  of  the  essential  elements 
of  classification.  Nor  would  this  distinction  be  invalidated  by 
the  assumption  of  a  descent  with  modification,  unless  it  conld  be 
shown  that  in  actual  nature  species  shade  into  each  other ;  and 
this  is  certainly  not  the  case  in  those  which  are  reckoned  as  good 
species. 

I  have  been  thus  careful  to  insist  on  the  nature  of  the  species 
in  natural  history;  because  I  believe  that  loose  views  on  this 
subject  have  caused  a  large  proportion  of  the  errors  in  olasufica- 
tJon. 

Though  the  groups  higher  than  species  do  not  elist  in  nature 
in  the  same  sense  in  which  species  exist,  they  are  not  arbitrary, 
but  depend  on  our  conception  of  resemblances  and  differeuces  which 
actually  exist.  We  go  out  into  tbe  forest  and  perceive  different 
species  of  trees ;  hut,  at  the  same'  time,  we  find  that  these  species 
can  be  grouped  in  genera,  as  Oaks,  Bircbes,  Maples,  &c.,  under 


,,  Google 


248  TBB   OANADIAM  NATDBALIST.  [Aug. 

each  of  wbioli  generie  Quaea  there  maj  be  Beveral  speciei.  It 
is  evidently  not  an  arbitrary  arrangement  of  oars  thas  to  group 
species :  tiie;  naturally  arrange  themselTes  in  such  groups,  under 
the  action  trf  our  oomparing  powers. 

3.  Genera  and  HiasEa  GBorpe. 

In  oomparing  species  mtii  each  other  for  purposes  of  clasBifica- 
tion,  there  are  four  distinct  grounds  uniriuch  suoh  oomparlsanoan 
be  made.  These  are: — Ist.  indmate  struotoral  or  analomieal  resem- 
l^noe;  2nd.  Grade  or  rank;  3rd.  Use  or  function;  4th.  Flan 
or  type.  All  of  these  may  he,  indeed  must  be,  used  iu  olasaiGca- 
tioQ,  though  in  very  different  vays. 

1.  Intimate  itructural  relatiojuhip  is  the  ground  on  whioh  we 
frame  Genera.  Two  of  more  species  resemble  each  other  structurally 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  same  deGuition  will  in  many  impOTtant 
points  apply  to  both.  Such  apeciee  we  group  in  a  genus.  It  is 
most  important  to  observe,  as  Agassis  has  well  pointed  out,  that 
this  close  resemblanoe  in  strueture  is  really  our  main  ground  lor 
the  formation  of  geaera.  But  for  this  very  reason  it  is  not  to  be 
expected  in  oar  higher  groups.  It  is  the  mistalcen  application  of 
this  oriterion  to  classes,  which  constitutes  the  leading  defect  of  a 
work  otherwise  very  valuaUe,  and  which  I  cordially  reeoiumend 
to  students, — Huxley's  "  Lectures  on  Classifioation." 

2.  Grade  or  rank  refers  to  degree  of  complexity  of  structure, 
or  to  the  degree  of  development  of  those  functions  that  are  the 
highest  iu  the  animal  natore.  A  coral  polyp  is  more  umple  in 
structure  than  a  fish,  and  is  therefore  lower  in  rank.  A  fish  is  lese 
highly  endowed  in  brain,  seosation,  and  iatelligenoe,than  a  mammal, 
and  is  therefore  of  bwer  rank.  An  egg  or  an  embryo  is  simpler 
than  Uio  adult  of  the  species  to  which  it  belongs ;  and  when  one 
animal  resembles  the  embryo  of  another,  it  ranks  lower  in  the 
scale.  A  w<»in  ranks  lower  than  an  insect  whose  larva  it  resem- 
bles. 

We  use  ihie  difference  of  grade  or  rank  in  grouping  genera  in 
Orden;  but  it  occupies  a  very  subordinate  place  in  the  construo- 
tion  of  other  groups.  Hauy  grave  errors  have  arisen  from  its 
mdisoriminate  application ;  most  heterogeneous  assemblages  being 
formed  when  we  construct  groups  larger  than  orders  merely 
on  the  ground  of  lower  grade :  and  when,  on  the  other  hand,  we 
separate  the  lower  members  of  natural  groups  on  the  ground  of 
aimplicil;  of  structure,  we  fall  into  an  equal  mistake  of  another 


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1864-3      ^^'  DAW80N  ON  OliABSlflOAIION  OF  ANIUALS.        249 

kind.  Of  errors  of  tltese  kinda  atill  carrent,  I  may  instoDce  the 
attempt  of  aome  naturalists  to  establish  a  province  or  eub- kingdom  of 
Protozoa,  toiaclode  all  thesimplestmemberB  of  the  Animal  Kiog- 
dom,  aod  the  separation  of  the  Sntozoa  or  intestinal  vorms  from 
die  other  worms  aa  a  distinct  class.  The  olassifioation  in  Owen's 
"  Leotureson  the  Inrert«brale  Animals,"  which  I  have  long  used 
with  advantage  as  a  texUbook,  is  defective  in  some  parts  ia  this 
respect. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  investigation  much  used  in  classifica- 
tion, which  more  especially  davelope  the  idea  of  grade  or  rank 
among  animals.  One  is  tiiat  of  embryology,  or  the  development 
of  animals  from  the  ovum.  Another  is  that  of  cephaliEation,  or 
the  development  cS  the  head  and  organs  connected  therewith. 
Both  of  Uiese  are  of  great  importance,  bat,  on  the  principles 
above  stated,  th^  aid  as  chiefly  in  referring  animals  to  their 
Orders.  Other  limitations  of  the  criterion  of  grade  or  rank  will 
appear  when  ve  arrive  at  the  consideration  of  Ckusea. 

3.  Function  or  Uie. — In  different  animals  we  often  find  the 
same  use  served  by  different  kinds  of  organs,  as,  for  instance,  the 
wing  of  a  bird  and  the  wing  of  an  insect,  which,  though  both 
used  for  flying,  are  constructed  in  very  different  ways.  It  woold 
lead  us  as^y  were  we  to  arrange  animals  primarily  on  this  ground : 
for  instaDce,  if  we  were  to  group  togellier  fishes  and  Crustacea 
because  both  swim ;  or  birds  and  insects,  because  both  fly.  Again, 
in  different  groups  of  animals,  certain  functions  and  the  oigans 
which  subserve  them  are  greatly  developed  in  comparison  with 
Others.  For  example,  the  enormous  reproductive  power  of  fishes, 
or  tiie  remarkable  development  of  the  locomotiveorgansin  birds,  aa 
compared  with  other  vertebrates.  This  con^deration  is  not  ap- 
plicable in  onr  primary  division  of  animals,  but  it  constitutes  the 
principal  ground  on  which  naturalists  have  based  the  secondary 
divisions  or  Cloittt;  and  it  serves  also  to  indicate  the  analogic* 
between  the  corresponding  members  of  difierent  primary  groups, 
as,  for  instance,  of  the  birds  in  one  group  to  tJio  insects  in 
anothra. 

4.  Plan  or  Ti/pe. — Under  this  head  we  consider  the  similarity 
of  construction  in  different  animals  or  organs,  witbont  regard  to 
uses.  We  say,  for  example,  that  the  wing  of  the  bird  and  the  bat, 
the  paddle  of  the  wbale,  and  the  fore-lE^  of  the  dog,  are  similar 
in  type  or  homoloyoia  to  each  other,  because  they  are  made  up  of 
nmilar  seta  of  bonee.    They  are  modifioatioas  of  one  general  plan 


.;,  Google 


250  THB  OANADtAM  NATURALIST.  C^Og* 

of  strnctaro.  Animfils  thuB  construoted  on  eimilar  plana  are  said 
to  have  an  affinity  to  each  otber. 

It  ia  evident  that  this  conaideratton  of  homology  or  sffinit;,  if 
we  can  really  detect  it  in  nature,  should  be  a  primary  groand  in 
our  arrangement;  beoaase,  if  ve  r^ard  nature  as  an  orderly 
Eyatem,  and  atill  more  if  ve  regard  it  aa  the  expression  of  an 
intelligent  mind,  this  must  be  the  aspect  in  which  we  can  best 
comprehend  its  scheme  or  plan  of  construction. 

As  a  simple  illustration  of  this  and  the  preceding  heads,  we  may 
suppose  that  we  are  writing  a  treatiae  on  architecture,  or  the  art 
of  building.  We  observe  1st,  that  there  are  differeooes  of  mate- 
rial employed,  as  stone,  brick,  or  wood ;  2nd,  that  tbereare  varioas 
gradesof  buildings,  from  the  simplest  hut  to  the  moat  elaborate  pal- 
ace or  temple ;  3rd,  we  find  a  great  variety  of  nsea  for  which  bnild- 
ing  are  constructed,  and  to  which  they  are  adapted ;  4th,  there  are 
different  orders  of  architecture  or  styles,  which  indicate  the 
various  plans  of  constfuction  adopted.  It  will,  in  stndying  snch 
a  subject,  be  the  most  logical  order  to  consider,  let,  the  several 
orders  of  architecture  or  plans  or  types  adopted ;  2nd,  under  each 
of  these  to  classify  the  various  kinds  of  buildings  according  to  their 
OSes;  3rdly,  under  each  of  these  aecondary  heads,  to  treat  of 
buildings  more  or  less  elaborate  or  complex;  and  4thly,  to  con- 
sider the  materials  of  wliicb  the  structures  maybe  composed.  This 
is  precisely  what  the  most  successful  formera  of  systuns  have  done 
in  natural  history,  in  dividing  the  animal  kingdom  into  provinces 
or  branches,  classes,  ordere,  and  genera.  On  the  other  hand, 
classifications  produced  by  mere  anatomists  who  content  themselves 
with  a  close  adherence  to  similari^  of  structure  and  T^d  defini- 
tions based  on  these,  may  be  compared  to  a  system  of  architec- 
ture produced  by  a  mere  bricklayer,  who  r^rds  only  the  mate- 
rials nsod  and  the  manner  of  putting  them  together. 

4.  The  Oenebal  Natubx  of  the  Animal. 

Having  settled  the  more  important  of  the  general  priuciples  of 
classification,  we  now  proceed  to  their  practical  application  ;  and 
first,  as  a  necessary  preliminary,  to  ascertain  what  we  understand 
by  the  term  Animal,  and  what  are  the  preeiie  limitt  o/the  Ani- 
mal Kingdom. 

In  answer  to  the  question.  What  is  an  animal  7  we  may  aay 
in  the  first  place  that  the  animal  is  a  being  possessing  oiganiaation 
based  oo  cell-Btmctares,  and  vital  fiiroe.     This  suffices  to  diatin- 


nisiti.cdDy  Google 


1864.]      DB.   DAVrSOH  ON  0LA8SIFI0ATI0N   OT   ANIMALS.        251 

gaiBh  it  from  mineral  Bubatances,  bat  not  ttom  the  plant,  whioh  is 
also  on^oised  and  liWog,  tboogli  in  a  mode  aomeirhBt  diSereDt. 

To  distingaisb  the  animal  from  the  plant,  ve  ma;  affirm,  let, 
that  it  is  reprodnctive  by  ^s  and  not  bj  seeds;  2nd,  that  in  its 
processes  of  nntritioD  it  digests  oiganic  food  in  an  internal  cavit;, 
subfieqoently  consuming  a  part  of  this  food  at  the  expense  of  the 
oxygen  of  the  atmosphere ;  and  ttiat  it  builds  up  its  tissues  prin- 
cipally of  nitrogenised  matter;  3rd,  tliat  tbe  animal  possesses  the 
poirer  of  voluntary  motion,  and,  to  subserTe  this,  moscular  tiesue; 
4th,  that  it  posseBses  sensation,  and,  to  subserve  this  and  motion 
as  well,  a  nerrous  system  and  external  senses. 

We  tbns  find  four  general  obaracteristios  of  Uie  animal : 

1.  Sengatio/t — by  means  of  a  nervous  system  and  special 

sensee. 

2.  VoliMtari/  motion — by  means  of  the  muscular  and  nervous 

systems. 

3.  Nutrition — by  means  of  a  stomach  and  intestines,  with 

absorptive,  circulatory,  and  respiratory  apparatus. 

4.  Reproduction — by  ova  and  sperm-cells. 

In  every  animal,  even  the  simplest,  these  fbnotlons  are  in 
greater  or  less  perfection  performed;  and  it  is  the  presence  of  the 
aggr^te  of  these  fuactioDS  or  the  organs  proper  to  them,  that 
enables  ns  to  call  any  oi^anism  an  animal.  It  is  important  to  carry 
with  us  this  definition  of  the  animal ;  first,  as  indicating  the  limits 
of  the  creatures  which  the  zoologist  has  to  classify ;  and  secondly, 
as  pointing  out  to  ns  the  nature  of  the  characters  on  which  we 
must  rely,  in  our  classification.  For  the  student  I  hold  it  to  be 
necessary,  before  prooeeding  further,  to  understand  well  these 
fanotioDB  and  stmotures,  as  they  exist  in  some  one  of  the  higher 
animals. 

5.  Fbiuart  Divibion  of  Animals  into  Provinces  or 
Branches. 

This,  on  the  principles  already  stated,  most  be  made  solely  on 
the  ground  of  type  or  plan,  and  this  taken  in  its  most  general 
aspects. 

If  we  bring  before  us  mentally  the  several  members  of  the  ani- 
mal kingdom,  we  shall  probably  be  struck  in  the  first  instance 
with  the  general  prevalence  of  bilateral  symmetry,  or  the  arrange- 
ment of  parts  equally  on  the  right  and  left  sides.  We  may 
observe,  however,  that  there  is  a  large  group  of  animals  to  which 


.;,  Google 


252  THE  OANABUN  SAXVJULlSt.  [-^Og- 

diis  general  style  of  constraoUon  doee  not  spply,  and  vbidi  have, 
Id  the  words.of  AgasHE,  a  "varUoal  axis  aroaad  which  the  pri- 
mary elements  of  their  Btnieture  an  Bymmetrically  arranged," 
OonfariuiDg  in  thia  reapeot,  and  also  often  in  other  points,  to  the 
symmetry  of  the  plant,  rather  Uian  to  that  of  the  m«e  perfect  ani- 
mals. We  would  thns  obtain  what  is  perhaps  the  moat  obvionsof 
all  primary  divisioos  of  animsla, — that  into  those  with  bilateral 
symmetry  and  Utoee  that  are  radiated,  or  the  Artioxoaria  and  the 
Aeiinozoaria  of  Blainville.  We  shall  soon  find,  however,  on  more 
detailed  examination,  that  this  division  is  very  nneqnol,  since  the 
first  gronp  includes  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  aninul  kingdom, 
and  its  members  are  nearly  as  dissimilar  among  ttianBelves  as  any 
of  them  are  from  the  radiates. 

Penetrating  a  little  deeper  into  structural  character,  we  find 
that  one  large  group  of  the  bilateral  animals  possesses  an  internal 
skeleton,  arranged  in  such  a  way  as  to  divide  the  body  into  an 
upper  chamber  holding  the  brain  and  nervous  VTB^m,  and  an 
under  chamber  for  holding  the  ordinary  viscera;  whereas  in  the 
greater  number  of  the  bilateral  animals  and  all  the  radiates,  there 
is  bat  one  chamber  for  containing  the  whole  of  the  ot^:ans.  The 
first  of  these  groups,  from  the  vertebras  or  joints  of  the  backbone, 
peculiar  to  its  members,  we  name  Vert^fota,  and  all  the  oth« 
aniraals  laverUbrala,  as  proposed  by  Lamarck:  this  division  0(»- 
responda  to  the  enaima  and  a»aima  of  Aristotle.  Here  also  how- 
ever we  have  a  very  unequal  division, — the  invertebrata  being  a 
vast  and  heterogeneous  assemblage. 

If,  however,  after  separating  the  vertebrata  on  the  one  hand, 
and  the  radiata  on  the  oAer,  we  study  the  remainder  of  the  ani- 
mal kingdom,  we  find  that  it  readily  resolves  itself  into  two  groups, 
known  as  the  Articulata  and  the  Mollueea.  Wc  thus  reach  the  four- 
fold division  of  Cuvier ;  which  is  by  much  the  most  natural  and 
philosophical  yet  proposed,  however  much  it  may  be  carped  at  by 
some  merely  anatomical  systematists.  This  system  may  be  sum- 
marised as  follows : 

ProoiTteea  or  Branches  of  the  Animal  Kiiigdom. 

1.  VESTEBaATA,  including  Xammals,  Birds,  Reptiles,  and 
Fishes.  All  these  animals  are  bilateral  and  symmetrical,  have  an 
internal  vertobrated  skeleton,  a  brain  and  a  dorsal  nerve-cord  lodged 
in  a  special  cavity  of  the  skeleton.    With  reference  to  the  general 


,,;.  Google 


1864.]       TE.   DAWBOH   ON  OLAaSIFIOATIOIT  01*  ANtUALS.       263 

form,  they  may  be  termed  donUy  symmetrioal  animals  i    with 
Tefexmce  to  their  neirooa  sjetem,  Mi/elencq>halov». 

2.  Abticulata,*  inoludii^  Anchsida,  or  spiders  and 
SOorpioDs;  laseots;  Crustaceans,  and  Wonns.  These  animals 
are  bilateral  and  symmetrical,  have  an  external  annnlose  skeleton, 
a  oervons  system,  oonEisting  of  a  ring  and  ganglion  around  the 
gullet,  connected  with  a  double  abdominal  nerve-cord.  They  are 
Otherwise  named  Amadota,  loDgitudloal  animals,  or  Htnnogan- 
gliata. 

3.  MoLLUSOA,  including  Gutlle-fish  and  their  allies;  Oaater- 
opods  or  univalve  BbcU-fishea  and  their  allies  ;  Lamellibranchiates 
or  bivalve  shell-Gshea,  &e. ;  Braohiopods  and  llieir  allies.  They 
are  bilateral  but  not  always  symmetrical,  have  no  skeleton,  and 
an  ceeophageal  nervous  ring  widi  nerve-fibres  and  ganglia  not 
symmetrically  disposed.  They  are  otherwise  named  massive 
animals,  or  Heterogangliata. 

4.  Kadiata,  including  Sea-urcbins  and  starfisbes ;  Sea-nettles 
and  bydras;  Polyps  and  coral-animala ;  and  Sponges  and  their 
allies.  These  have  the  porta  arranged  radially  aroond  a  central 
axis,  and  the  nerve-ayatem  when  discernible  oonsisting  of  a  central 
ring  with  radiating  fibres.  They  may  be  otherwise  named  peripheric 
animal-',  or  Npnatoneara. 

This  fbnrfold  diviuon  includes  the  whole  animal  kingdom, 
and  is  the  only  rational  one  which  can  be  based  on  type  or  plan  of 
stractnre.  Sinoe  the  time  of  Cuvier,  tbough  modifications  in 
detail  have  become  necessary,  it  has  been  strengthened  by  the 
|vogress  of  discovery ;  and  more  especially  Von  Baer  has  shown 
that  the  study  of  embryology  establishes  Cuvier'e  branches,  by 
showing  that  in  their  development,  animals  pass  through  a  series 
of  forms  belonging  to  their  own  branch  and  to  that  twly. 

The  attempts  which  have  been  made  to  introduce  additional 
branches  or  provinces,  I  r^ard  as  retrograde  steps.  Such  for 
example  is  the  province  Ccelenterala  of  Lenckart,  including  the 
Polyps  and  the  Aoalephs,  both  of  them  good  classes,  but  not 
together  constituting  a  group  equivalent  to  a  Prorince;  the 
Pn>vince  Pmtoxoa  of  Siebcdd,  which  to  resume  onr  arohitec. 
tnral  ffgnre,  inclndee  merely  the  bats  and  cabins  wbicb  it  is  difficult 
to  refbr  to  any  a^le  of  architecture,  but  which  do  not,  on  that 

>  I  prefbT  this  term  to  "  Annnlosa,"  u  iKing  Oaviet'i  original  Dome— 
a&ct  which  iboald  overiQle  merely  verbal  objectionsi 


,.,.d.i.  Google 


254  THX  OANADUN  NATUKALIBT.  [A^- 

xooooat,  themselfes  ooostitate  a  oew  style;  &nd  the  FroriaceB 
MoUMooida  and  Annuloida  of  Hasley,  which,  as  thdr  names 
indeed  import,  are  in  the  main  merely  simple  forms  of  MoUusoa 
oaA  Artionlata. 

6.  DrvTBiON  or  Provinces  into  Classes. 

Ha^g  formed  our  Primary  divisions  or  Provinces  on  the 
ground  of  type  or  [Jan,  we  must,  in  dividing  these  into  ctaasea, 
hare  regard  either  to  subordinate  details  of  plan,  or  to  some  other 
ground.  Id  point  of  fact,  naturdtsts  seem  to  have  taoitly 
agreed  to  form  classes,  on  what  Agaaslz  terms  the  "  manner  in 
which  the  plan  of  their  respective  great  types  is  executed,  and 
the  means  employed  in  their  execution."  In  other  words,  they 
hare  in  forming  classes  adopted,  perhaps  unconsciously,  a  func- 
tional system,  similar  to  tiiat  employed  by  Oken  in  forming  bis 
pnmnry  groups.  They  have  taken  the  relative  development  of 
the  four  great  functional  systems  of  the  animal, — the  sensative,  the 
locomotive,  the  digestive,  and  the  reproductive.  This  is  very 
manifest  in  the  ordinary  and  certainly  very  natural  sub-division  of 
the  rertebrates  into  the  four  classes  of  Mammals,  Birds,  Reptiles,* 
and  Fishes.  The  Mammals  are  the  nerve  or  sensuous  animals, 
representing  the  highest  development  of  sensation  and  intelligence. 
The  Birds  are  eminently  the  locomotive  class.  The  Reptiles 
represent  merely  the  alimeutary  or  vegetative  life.  The  Fishes  are 
the  eminently  reproductive  or  embryonic  class. 

If  this  is  a  natural  division  of  vertebrates  into  classes,  and  if 
the  other  three  Provinces  are  of  equivalent  value,  then  there 
should  be  but  four  olssses  in  each,  one  corresponding  to  each  of 
the  great  functional  systems.  We  may  name  the  first  of  these 
the  nervous  class ;  the  second,  the  motive  class ;  the  third  the 
nntridve  class;  the  fourth,  the  reproductive  or  embryonic  class. 
Let  us  then  endeavour,  as  a  test  of  the  truth  of  this  system,  to 
make  such  an  arrangement  of  the  classes  of  the  animal  kingdom. 


*  The.d'npAtKii,asI>aDawellargneaon  tbepriDCipleofc«phelisatioD, 
are  clearly  Reptiles,  becaase  we  arraoga  aDunals  in  their  matare  and 
not  in  their  embryonio  conditioa,  aod  because  the  poiots  of  reproduction 
ia  whicb  Amphilria  diSTer  from  ordiDarf  reptiles,  have  relation  to  an 
wjaatic  babltat,  and  are  ordioal  or  raak  characters  merely. 


,,;.  Google 


1864.]      DB.  DAWSON  OH  OLASBIFICATION   OF   ANIUAL8.        255 
TABLE  OP  CLASSES  OF  ANIMALS. 


Provinces  or 
Brancb«s. 

ArticDista 

Mollaaca. 

RadUta. 

1.  NerrouB  cIoaB. 

2.  Hotire  clus... 

3.  Nalrilifi  clus. 

4.  Embryooio    or 

Reprodnadre 

ClUi. 

j1v*$ 

RtplUia.... 
PUcu 

Sradtnida. 
Initela.... 

Onutacia... 
Snnulala.. 

aphalopodc 

eluding  Ptero- 
poda) 

[Ola. 
MoUuKoida    (in- 

cIudingT^iea- 

flrjoMO, 

Echimdtr- 
Lmala. 

All  of  the  above  groups  are  recognized  by  common  consent  as 
classes,  except  a  few  wbtob  have  been  already  incidentally  ad- 
verted to,  and  to  whiob  it  is  not  DeoBSsary  agua  to  refer  here.* 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  order  in  descending  the  oolamns  is 
that  of  affinity  ;  that  in  reading  across  the  colnmnsis  the  order  of 
attahgy.  The  affinities  no  naturalist  vill  seriously  doubt.  The 
analt^ies  may  be  less  familiar.  In  examining  them,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  firat  class  in  each  province  includes  animals  remark- 
able for  condensation  of  the  head  and  body,  where  the  former 
exists ;  for  high  nerrons  energy,  sensation,  and  intelligence ;  for 
prehensile  apporatos,  and  for  absence  or  simplicity  of  metamor- 
phosis. The  classes  in  the  second  line  are  characterized  by  the 
greatest  locomotive  powers  in  their  respective  provinces;  Uiose  in 
the  Uiird  line  by  the  development  of  the  nutritive  apparatns  and 
of  v^etative  growth ;  those  in  the  fourth  line  by  embryonto  char- 
acters when  mature,  and  by  abundant  reproductive  energy. 

It  will  be  observed  also  as  a  necessary  consequence  of  the  sys- 
tem we  have  pnrsaed,  that  each  of  onr  classes  includes  animals  of 
very  various  rank  or  grade.  Indeed,  most  of  them  have  at  their 
bases  forms  so  simple  or  imperfect  that  it  is  almost  impossiblo  to 
include  them  In  the  clasB-charaoters.  This  is  no  objection  to  onr 
arrangement,  but  a  proof  of  its  correctness ;  for  we  have  now 
arrived  at  the  point  where  wo  must  ibrm  Ordert  based  solely  on 

*  The  rank  g^l Ten  to  U]e.jrafi(nid(>  will  bsdiapntsd  bfiomenatDraliiU; 
bat  a  consideration  of  the  itmeturas  of  theie  anlmala  will  ibow  that 
their  relations  to  tbeinaectaand  the  cmaUeeaare  similar  to  those  of  the 
mammals  to  the  birds  and  the  reptiles;  and  that  it  is  no  more  rtoaonable  to 
aa;  that  the  aracboidaDS  are  nearer  to  tbe  eriutaceaai  than  to  the  Insects, 
on  the  KTOond  of  general  stmelare,  than  it  would  be  to  do  the  same  in 
(be  case  of  the  mammals  and  the  reptiles  as  compared  with  the  birds. 


,,;.  Google 


256  THE  CAHADtAH  MATUBALraT.  [^ng- 

tbia  coDsideratton  of  rank.  Of  these  humbler  members  of  our 
classes  ve  may  mention  ihe  MarmpitUt  and  the  Monotreme*  among 
the  mammals,  the  Amphibia  among  the  reptiles,  the  Xitet  among 
the  araohnidans,  the  Myriapodt  among  the  inaeots,  the  Entotoa 
among  the  worms.  Indeed  it  is  quite  posaiblo  on  thU  ground  to 
divide  each  of  our  classes  into  two  or  more  Suh^latiet.  This  is 
sometimes  convenient  for  the  st^e  of  more  accurate  definition ; 
but  it  is  not  neoessarj,  since  the  division  into  orders  sufficiently 
expresses  these  grades  of  complexity  or  elevatjon. 

7.  DiTIBIOK   OF  CLA88K8   INTO    ObDKBS  AND  FAMILIES. 

Orders,  as  already  stated,  are  based  principally  on  rank  or 
grade,  to  be  ascertained  by  relative  complexity  or  by  the  develop- 
ment of  the  higher  nature  of  the  animal.  The  laat  seclioD,  how- 
ever, obliges  us  to  take  this  with  some  limitation ;  for  since  we 
have  four  descriptione  or  sorts  of  classes,  each  of  these  must  have 
the  grade  within  it  ascertained  on  special  grounds.  For  example, 
the  orders  of  birds,  insects,  gasteropods,  and  acalephse,  should 
be  ascertained  chiefly  by  reference  to  the  locomotive  organs,  as 
being  the  system  of  organs  most  eminently  represented  in  the 
class.  If  we  glance  for  a  moment  at  the  systems  which  have 
been  proposed,  we  shall  see  that  this  view  has  unconsciously  com- 
mended itself  to  naturalists.  The  orders  of  insects,  for  exam- 
ple, are  very  plt^nly  based  on  such  characters,  being  founded 
mainly  on  the  wings.  This  is  nearly  equally  manifest  in  the 
ordinarily  received  orders  of  birds.  It  appears  in  the  division 
into  Pteropods,  Heteropods,  and  Gast«ropods  proper  among  the 
Gasteropoda.  It  is  also  seen  in  the  orders  Clenophora,  Diico- 
phora,  SiphoTwphora,  among  Acalepbse.  It  would  be  easy  to  show 
by  a  detailed  review  of  the  orders  in  the  animal  kingdom,  that, 
in  BO  far  as  they  have  been  disUnctly  defined,  they  have  in  most 
cases  been  framed  with  a  reference  to  the  prevailing  cbaraoteristics 
of  the  class ;  and  also  with  the  idea  of  grade  or  rank  as  a  leading 
ground  of  arrangement.  As  previonsly  observed,  also,  it  is  in  the 
construction  of  orders,  and  in  ascertaining  rank  in  other  divi- 
sions, that  embryology  and  the  doctrine  of  oephalisatiou  are 
chiefly  useful  For  the  present,  however,  we  must  leave  this  sub- 
ject until  we  shall  hare  an  opportanity  to  enter  into  descriptive 
zoology. 

In  Botany,  orders  and  &milies  are  identioal.  In  Zoology  we 
use  the  term  Family  for  a  group  inferior  to  an  otder,  and  equi- 
valent to  the  Bub-OTder  or  tribe  in  botany.      The  family  con- 


C^.txiglc 


1864.]      DB.  DAWSOH   OH  OLABBIFIOATION  07  AIIUIAL8.        25? 

sists  of  an  aasemblage  of  genera  resembling  each  other  in  general 
aspect.  Most  large  orders  sre  readil;  diviaible  into  such  assem- 
blages, which,  though  in  themselfea  somewhat  vagne,  have  the 
advantage  of  being  formed  on  gronnds  which,  being  conspicuous 
and  obfiona  at  first  sight,  much  aid  the  naturalist  in  the  prelimi- 
nary parts  of  bis  work.  For  example,  among  the  carnivorous 
mammalia  snob  gronpe  aa  the  Mwtelidce  or  weasels,  the  Canida 
or  dogs,  the  Feluke  or  cats,  are  so  obvioua  that  any  member  of  one 
of  these  groups  oan  be  referred  to  that  to  which  it  belongs  almost 
at  first  sight.  Still  I  do  not  regard  families  as  necessary  divi- 
sions of  the  Older.  Some  small  orders  may  not  admit  of  division 
into  families;  and  even  where  snch  division  is  admissible,  the 
genera  may  be  studied  as  members  of  the  order,  without  being 
grouped  in  families,  though  this  grouping  is  often  very  useful  and 
ooDVcnient. 

It  is  important  to  observe,  before  leaving  this  part  of  the  snb- 
jeet,  that,  in  consequence  of  the  great  multiplication  of  species  in 
some  groups,  and  the  close  scrutiny  of  their  structures,  it  is  the 
tendency  of  specialists  to  form  many  small  genera.  This  leads  to 
the  constrnotion  of  numeroos  families,  many  of  which  would  more 
properly  remain  as  genera.  A  still  worse  consequence  is,  that,  In- 
stead of  forming  sub-ordere  and  sub-classes,  such  specialists  often 
call  sub-orders  or  even  &milieB  orders,  and  rMse  sub-classes  or 
orders  to  the  rank  of  nominal  classes,  thus  introducing  a  confusion 
which  leads  the  stndent  to  supprae  that  these  terms  have  no  defi- 
nite meaning.  I  would  further  observe  here,  that  I  do  not  so 
much  insist  on  the  nse  of  one  name  for  a  group  rather  than  another, 
as  on  the  constant  use  of  each  term  for  groups  truly  equivalent  in 
the  system. 

It  may  be  necessary  here  to  state  that  the  formation  of  orders 

on  the  ground  of  rank,  and  of  families  on  the  ground  of  general 

aspect,  does  not  exclude  the  ideas  of  rank  and  general  aspect  from 

the  province  or  cbss.      On  the  contrary,  as  a  secoDdary  ground, 

general  aspect  is  a  good  character  in  the  province  and  class,  and 

a  grodution  of  rank  oan  be  perceived  in  provinces  and  classes.   In 

the  provinces,  the   Vei-tebrata  stand  highest,  and  the  Radiata 

lowest,  the  Arlievlata  and  the  Mollutea  being  nearly  equal,  and 

their  lower  members  not  so  high  as  the  highest  Radiata  ;  so  that 

they  would  stand  in  a  diagram  thus : 

VertthraUt 

Artiealaitt  llollwk$ 

Radiattt. 


258  ,  THE  CANADIAN  NATURALIST.  {.^^S- 

So  among  classes,  the  nerve  class  in  each  province  is  the  highest 
and  the  embryonic  does  the  lowest,  and  the  other  two  inlenne- 
diate  ;  but  the  idea  of  rank  is  not  here  the  primary  one,  as  it  is 
in  forming  the  orders.  It  is  also  trne  that  from  the  prorince 
downward  the  idea  of  type  or  plan  is  constantly  before  ns. 

We  have  now  in  descending  from  provinces  reached  the  genera 
and  species,  with  the  consideration  of  which  we  commenced ;  and 
if  the  preceding  views  have  been  onderstood,  we  shall  he  prepared 
to  commence  the  study  of  Descriptive  Zoology,  or  to  enter  upon 
the  details  which  fill  np  the  outline  which  has  been  sketched. 
In  doing  this  we  most  take  speoimens  of  known  species  and 
stndy  them  in  their  stmctaral  and  physiological  peculiarities,  and 
in  their  relations  to  the  other  species  congeneric  and  co-ordinate 
with  them. 


ON  THE  OCCURRENCE  OF  PIEEI3  RAP.^  IN  CANADA. 
Br  0.  J.  Bowles,  Sec,  Eat.  Soc.  of  Caaada,  Quebec  Branch. 

During  the  summer  of  1863 — my  first  collecting  aeaaon — I 
captured  in  the  vicinity  of  Quel>ec  numerous  specimens  of  a  but- 
terfly of  which  no  description  coald  be  found  in  any  work  on 
American  entomology.  Mr.  Cooper,  to  whom  I  applied  for 
assistAnce,  was  equally  at  a  loss  to  determine  the  species,  con- 
sidering it,  as  I  did,  to  be  indigenous  to  Canada.  lu  order  to 
solve  the  problem,  however,  he  forwarded  some  specimens  of  the 
imago  to  Mr.  William  Saunders,  of  London,  C,  W.,  who  pro- 
nounced them  to  be  identical  with  Pierit  rapce,  the  small  white 
butterfly  of  England,  one  of  the  most  common  and  injurious 
lepidopterous  insects  of  that  country.  In  the  meantime  I  bad 
enclosed  a  drawing  of  the  butterfly,  ti^ther  with  the  wings,  to 
Mr.  S.  H.  Scudder,  of  Boston,  Mass.,  from  whom  I  received  a 
reply,  stating  that  af^er  comparing  the  drawing  and  wings  with 
specimens  of  P.  rapce  in  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology 
at  Cambridge,  he  saw  no  reason  to  consider  them  distinct:  at  the 
same  time  he  desired  further  investigation  to  be  made  respecting 
the  larva  and  pupa  states  of  the  insect.  This  investigation  has 
been  successfully  carried  out,  and  places  beyond  doubt  the  iden- 
tity of  the  butterfly  with  the  English  P.  rapae,  thus  establish- 
ing another  instance  of  the  transportation  of  a  lepidopterous 
insect  across  a  wide  expanse  of  ocean,  and  its  naturaliiation  io 


CVtxiglc 


1864.]  BOWLES   OS   FIEKIS  EAP^   IN  CANADA.  259 

&  new  coantrj, — an  inatanoe  nliich,  when  tlie  evidence  ia  cod- 
Bidered,  must  be  regarded  as  the  moat  conclusiTe  on  record. 

The  identity  of  the  English  and  Canadian  species  is  thus 
proved  by  the  exact  similarity  of  the  two  insects  in  all  their 
stages.  That  the  imagiaes  are  alike,  in  both  sexes,  I  have  on  the 
anthority  of  the  gentlemen  above  named ;  for  in  Quebec  I  could 
have  DO  opportunity  of  comparing  specimens  taken  in  both  coun- 
tries. It  is  singular,  too,  that  a  curious  variety  of  the  male  is 
common  to  both :  in  Canada,  however,  (perhaps  from  the  effect  of 
ft  different  climate)  it  is  more  frequently  met  with  than  in  Eng- 
land. Two  males  of  a  bright  canary  color,  but  with  the  usual 
markings  of  the  species,  were  captured  here  last  summer — one  by 
Mr.  Couper,  the  other  by  me;  and  this  season  I  have  already  seen 
several  similar  individuals.  On  referring  to  a  valuable  work  in 
thelibraryof  Parliament,  (Curtis's  Farm  Insects,)  Iwos gratified 
to  find  that  the  author  mentions  having  in  his  collection  a  male 
P.  rapac,  "  taken  near  Oldham,  in  Lancashire,  which  has  alt 
the  wings  of  a  bright  yellow  color."  As  to  the  pupa,  in  size, 
color  and  markings,  it  exactly  agrees  with  engravings  and  descrip- 
tions of  the  English  chrysalis,  and  also  in  its  usual  place  of  depo- 
sition, &c.  The  last  link  in  the  chain  is  furnished  by  the  simi- 
larity of  the  cuterpillar,  which  also  agrees  with  the  best  English 
descriptions.  I  took  several  of  these  larvie  from  cabbie-plants 
in  hotbeds  on  the  8th  of  June,  and  have  reared  four  of  them  to 
maturity.  When  about  half-grown,  they  b^n  to  exhibit  the 
characteristic  markings  of  the  species, — these  markings  becoming 
more  decided  as  they  increased  in  size. 

That  this  in^ct  is  not  native  to  Canada,  is  certain  from  two 
interesting  circumstances  connected  with  its  history.  A  limit  can 
be  set  to  its  existence  in  Canada;  and  the  place  where  it  first 
appeared  can  be  specified.  Until  within  a  few  years,  the  butt«rSy 
was  unknown  in  this  country.  No  description  of  it  is  found  in 
Kirby's  "Fauna  Boreali  Americana";  nor  in  the  "Canadian 
Naturalist,"  by  Gosse,  who  visited  (Juebec,  and  collected  here 
about  1839.  The  "Synopsis"  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  is 
also  wanting  in  this  respect;  and  I  have  carefully  examined  the 
volumes  of  our  magazine  of  natural  history,  (the  "  CunadiuQ 
Naturalist,"  Montreal)  without  finding  any  notice  of  the  species. 
This  periodical  contains  two  lists  of  lepidoptera  collected  in 
Lower  Canada ;  one  by  Mr.  R.  Bell,  Jun.,  of  butterflies  taken  on 
the  Lower  St.  Lawrence;  the  other  by  Mr.  D'Urban,  of  those 
found  in  the  vicinity  of  Montreal  in  18o7<8-9.    The  only  Pierii    , 

iglc 


260  TBI  CAKASUN  NATUOALIBT.  C-^^' 

meDtioned  in  these  liats  is  P.  oleracea,  a  speoiea  which  ma;  be 
diBtinguished  &t  a  glance  iVom  P.  rapa,  the  markings  bdng 
altogether  different.  Mr.  Gouper  captured  a  specimen  of  P. 
rapa  withia  the  city  limits  of  Quebec,  about  fiye  years  ago,  bat 
did  not  iDveatigate  the  subject,  though  considering  the  insect  a 
rare  one,  his  special  study  being  coleoptera.  This  is  the  earliest 
notice  of  the  butterfly  in  Canada;  and  it  evidently  points  out 
Quebec  as  the  hcaliCy  of  introduction,  and  fixes  the  period  at 
about  seven  or  eight  years  ago. 

W^th  respect  to  the  means  by  which  it  has  been  brought  into 
the  country,  some  plausible  conjectures  may  be  advanced.  Of 
course  the  introduction  took  place  during  the  season  of  navigation. 
The  turnip,  cabbage,  and  other  kindred  v^etablcs,  constitute  the 
principal  food  plants  of  the  insect;  and,  adhering  to  one  of  thcse^ 
it  must  have  been  carried  across  the  ocean,  either  in  the  egg, 
larva,  or  chrysalis, — the  last  being  the  most  unlikely,  as  the  larva 
always  forsakes  its  food-plant,  and  becomes  a  pupa  in  some  shel- 
tered situation,  usually  under  the  coping  of  a  wall,  &o.  The  ^^ 
are  laid  on  the  under  side  of  cabbage  and  turnip  leaves,  where  the 
larva,  on  emerging,  find  themselves  in  close  proximity  to  their 
food.  Perhaps  the  vegetable  refuse  thrown  from  one  of  oar  ocean 
steamers  on  her  arrival,  has  contained  a  few  eg^  or  larvie,  which 
under  these  unfavourable  circumstances,  have  retained  their  vita- 
lity ;  and  from  these  have  sprung  the  imagines  destined  to  become 
the  parents  of  the  species  in  Canada. 

The  habitat  of  the  insect  is  siill  very  limited.  After  making 
enquiry,  I  do  not  think  that  it  has  extended  more  than  forty  miles 
from  Quebec  as  a  centre,  so  that  a  circle  of  eighty  miles  diameter 
would  include  the  present  habitat.  This  may  seem  great  progress 
during  the  short  period  of  its  naturalization,  but,  considering  the 
fecundity  and  habits  of  the  species,  it  is  not  surprising. 

There  is  some  importance  connected  with  the  introduction  of 
this  butterfly,  apart  from  the  scientific  interest  of  the  subject  to 
entomologists.  Hitherto,  Lower  Canada  has  poseessed  but  one 
species  of  the  genus  Pierii  (P.  oleracea,  Harris  ;  Pontia  ca$ta, 
Kirby,)  and  this  apecies  so  insignificant  in  numbers,  at  least  in  , 
the  Quebec  region,  that  its  depredations  have  passed  unnoticed. 
The  new  importation,  however,  must  be  regarded  in  a  different 
light.  As  the  insect  is  now  permanently  settled  in  the  country, 
is  very  prolific,  and  the  larvse  extremely  voracious,  we  may  anti- 
cipate its  becoming  a  great  pest  to  farmers  and  gardeners,  not  only 
where  it  is  now  found,  bat  ultimately  in  the  whole  of  Canada,  and 


1864.]  BOWLES  ON   PIEBtS  EAP£  IM   OANABA.  261 

parts  of  t^o  United  States.  And  that  it  will  in  the  course  of  time 
epreod  over  these  regions,  admits  of  no  doubt.  The  food-plants  of 
the  Bpecies  are  cultivated  Id  every  partof  the  country,  and  besides, 
the  insect  has  the  power  of  accommodating  itself  to  altered  cir- 
cumstances. Mr.  Curtis,  in  the  won:  before  mentioned,  states 
that  the  caterpillars  have  been  found  feeding  on  the  willow,  and 
on  mignionette,  nasturtiums,  &c.  It  is  therefore  probable  that  its 
progress  westward  will  not  be  impeded  bj  the  scarcity  of  its  fa- 
vorite food  in  certain  localities,  but  that  it  will  overcome  all  diffi- 
culties of  this  nature  by  resorting  to  other  plants,  not  confining 
itself  to  the  cruciferse. 

Last  autumn,  in  the  vicinity  of  Quebec,  the  ravages  of  these 
larvsB  were  very  great.  Large  plots,  and  even  fields"  of  cabbages, 
cauliflowers,  &c.,  were  completely  destroyed ;  the  caterpillars  only 
rejecting  the  strong  supporting  ribs  of  the  leaves.  Serious  loss 
was  thus  occasioned  to  market  gardeners  and  others.  One  inform- 
ed me  that  he  had  sustained  a  loss  of  more  than  two  hundred  dollars 
by  their  depredations ;  another  that  nearly  the  whole  of  his  crop 
of  cabbages  was  deatrojed,  the  small  portion  saved  requiring  to  be 
carefully  washed  before  being  sent  to  market,  A  gentleman  also  told 
me  that  they  had  not  only  eaten  up  his  garden  produce,  but  had 
demolished  a  bed  of  mignionette,  even  to  the  stalks. 

Nature  bae  provided  more  than  one  means  of  checking  the  in- 
crease of  the  species.  The  chrysalis  is  attacked  by  a  parasite, 
(probably  one  of  the  Ichneumonidte)  as  several  collected  by  me 
this  spring  gave  evidence.  Laige  numbers  of  the  pupee  are  also 
killed  by  the  frost,  where  they  have  been  placed  in  exposed  situa- 
tions, and  thus  the  spring  brood  of  butterflies  is  materially  les- 
sened. I  noticed  a  singular  circumstance  connected  with  these 
winter  pupse.  Living  chrysalids,  brought  into  the  warm  house 
from  the  cold  outside,  invariably  shrivelled  and  dried  in  a  few 
days.  Out  of  many  that  I  gathered  during  last  winter,  not  one 
produced  a  butterfly. 

Last  year  the  species  was  exceedingly  abundant  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Quebec,  flying  by  hundreds  over  the  fields  and  gar- 
dens, and  even  in  the  most  crowded  parts  of  the  city ;  and  this 
season  it  promises  to  be  equally  numerous.  Early  in  March,  the 
butterflies  b(^n  to  appear  in  houses,  from  pupa  which  had  been 
suspended  on  the  walls  during  the  previous  autumn.  On  the  Cth 
April,  at  Laval,  about  fifteen  miles  trom  Quebec,  several  specimens 
were  taken  in  the  open  air ;  and  on  tbe  26tb  May,  loountedmore 


Dy  Google 


262  THK  CANADIAN  NATURALIST.  [^<1S- 

than  fifty  iodi victuals,  met  with  on  about  a  mile  of  road  withia  a 
short  dialBuce  of  the  city. 

Considering  their  great  ahaudance  within  their  preMeat  habitati 
and  tbeir  proBpeotive  diBSeminatioD  over  the  Province,  it  is  deeir- 
able  that  information  respecting  the  appearance  and  habits  of  these 
insects  should  be  given  to  the  public,  and  means  devised  for  their 
destruction.  Farmen  and  gardeners  shonld  kill  every  caterpillar 
on  their  turnips,  cabbages,  &o.,  and  be  provided  with  nets  to  cap- 
ture the  perfect  inscots.  The  ohrysalids  should  also  be  sought  for 
on  the  fences  during  the  fall  and  wint«r,  and  destroyed.  Unless 
these  precautions  be  taken,  tha  injury  caused  by  this  butterfly  to 
the  green  crops  in  Canada  may  become  very  serious. 

The  following  is  a  description  of  the  insect : 

Mate — wings  white,  (or  light  yellow)  with  one  blackish  spot  on 
the  fore  winga  above,  and  two  beneath,  a  black  band  on  the  apex 
on  the  upper  side,  extending  a  short  distance  along  the  adjacent 
margins,  a  black  dash  on  the  fore  edge  of  the  bind  wings,  which 
are  beneath  of  a  pale  yellow  sprinkled  with  black  Body  black, 
antennjB  annujated  with  black  and  white.  Female  has  tiro  black- 
ish spots  on  upper  side  of  anterior  wings.  Expands  about  two 
inches. 

Chrysalis — Pale  green,  speckled  with  black,  suspended  horizon- 
tally by  the  tail  and  a  thread  across  the  middle. 

Caterpillar — Ahont  1^  inches  long  when  full  grown,  green  finely 
dotted  with  black,  a  yellow  stripe  along  the  back,  and  a  raw  of 
yellow  spots  along  each  side  in  a  line  with  the  spiracles. 

The  caterpillars  reared  by  me  were  about  one-twelfth  of  an  inch 
long  when  I  procured  them,  and  attained  their  full  size  in  eleven 
days.  On  the  1 9th  Jane  they  beeame  pupse,  and  seven  days  after 
the  perfev:t  insecta  appeared.  The  butterfly  therefore  passes 
through  all  its  changes  in  leas  than  a  month.  Three  or  four 
broods  are  produced  during  the  season. 

(_Read  be/ort  thi  Qutbtc  Branch,  Entomological  Socitty  of  Canada.  T(& 
Juli/,  1S64.) 

SYNOPSIS   OF   CANADIAN    FERNS   AND    FILICOID 

PLANTS. 

Bt  Oioaoi  Lawboh,  Pa.D.,  LL.D. 

The  following  Synopsis  embraces  a  concise  statement  of  what  Is 

known  respecting  Canadian  ferns  and  filiooid  plants.     Imperfect 

as  it  is,  I  trust  that  it  will  prove  useful  to  botanists  and  fern 


,,;.  Google 


1864.]  LA.VBON  ON  CANADIAK   FEESS.  263 

&nciera,  and  stimulate  to  renewed  diligenoe  in  investigation.  The 
whole  nnmber  of  speoiea  enumerated  ia  seventy-foiir.  Of  these 
eleven  sre  doabtful.  Farther  investigation  will  probably  lead  to 
the  elimination  of  several,  of  the  doabtful  species,  whioh  aro 
letained  for  the  present  with  a  view  to  promoto  inqniry ;  but  a  few 
additional  spedes,  as  jet  unknown  within  the  bonndariea  of 
Caiuula,  may  be  discovered.  The  above  number  may  be  regarded, 
theo,  aa  a  fair  estimate — perhaps  slightly  in  excess — of  the  actual 
aamber  of  ferns  and  filiooid  plants  existing  in  Canada.  The 
DumbeF  certainly  known  to  exist,  after  deducting  the  species  of 
donbtfut  occurrence,  is  sixty-three. 

The  nnmber  of  species  described  in  Professor  Asa  Oray's  exhane- 
tive  Manual,  as  actually  known  to  inhabit  the  northern  Unitod 
Sttttes,  that  is  to  say,  the  country  lying  to  the  eonth  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  River  and  Great  Lakes,  stretching  to  and  including  Vir- 
ginia and  Kentncky  in  the  sonth,  and  extending  westward  to  the 
Mississippi  River,  is  seventy-five.  This  number  does  not  include 
any  doubtful  species. 

The  nnmber  described  in  Dr.  Chapman's  Flora,  aa  inhabiting 
the  Southern  States,  that  is,  all  the  states  sooth  of  Virginia  and 
Kentucky  and  east  of  the  Mississippi,  is  sixty-nine.* 

From  these  statements  it  will  be  seen  that  we  have  our  due 
cihare  of  ferns  in  Canada. 

The  whole  number  of  ferns  in  all  the  American  States,  and  the 
BHtiah  North  American  Provinces,  is  estimated,  in  a  recent  letter 
from  Mr.  Eaton,  as  probably  over  100. 

In  the  British  Islands  there  areabout  60  ferns  and  filiooid  planta- 
in ialands  of  wanner  regions  tlie  number  is  greatly  increased. 
Thus  Mr.  Eaton's  enumeration  of  the  true  ferns  collected  by 
Wright,  Scott,  and  Hayes,  in  Cuba,  embraces  357  species.  The 
proporticnsof  ferns  to  phanerogamous  plantain  the  floras  of  dif- 
ferent countries  are  thus  indicated  by  Professor  Balfour,  in  the 
Claas-Book  of  Botany,  page  998,  §1604 ;— "  In  the  low  plains  of 
tlie  great  oontlnents,  within  the  tropics,  ferns  ate  to  phauerogamoas 
plants  as  1  to  20 ;  on  the  mountainous  parte  of  the  great  conti- 
nents, in  the  same  latitudes,  as  1  to8,or  1  to6j  in  Congo  aa  1  to  27; 
in  New  Holland  as  1  to  26.  In  small  islands,  dispersed  over  a 
vide  ocean,  the  proportion  of  ferns  increases;    thus  while   in 


,,;.  Google 


264  THE  OANADIAN  HATDBALIST.  [^Ilg- 

Jamioa  the  proportion  is  1  to  8,  in  Otaheite  it  u  1  to  4,  and  in  St. 
Helena  and  AacoDsioQ  nearly  1  to  2.  In  the  temperate  zone, 
Humboldt  gives  the  proportioa  of  ferns  to  phanerogsmons  plants 
as  1  to  70.  In  North  Amerioa  ihe  proportion  ii  1  to  36 ;  in  Fronoe 
1  to  58;  in  Germmy  1  to  62;  in  the  dry  parts  of  southern  Italy  aa 
1  to  74 ;  and  in  Greece  1  to  84.  In  colder  r^ons  the  propor^on 
increases ;  that  is  to  say,  ferns  decrease  more  slowly  in  number  than 
phanerogamous  plants.  Thus  in  Lapland  the  proportiin  is  1 
to  25  ;  in  Iceland  I  to  IS ;  and  in  Greenland  I  to  12.  The  pro. 
portion  is  least  in  the  middle  t^nperate  tone,  and  itincreaeesbolh 
towards  the  eqnator  and  towards  the  poles;  at  the  same  time  it 
must  be  remarked,  that  ferns  reach  their  absolute  maximum  in 
the  torrid  zone,  and  their  absolute  minimum  in  the  arctic  sone." 

Canada  consists  of  a  belt  of  land,  lying  to  the  north  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  River  and  the  Great  Lakes.  By  these  it  is  separated, 
along  nearly  the  whole  extent  of  its  south-eastern  and  western 
boundaries,  from  the  northern  United  States,  which  thus  eDoioBe 
Canada  on  two  sides.  A  striking  resemblance,  amonnting  almost 
to  identity,  is  therefore  to  he  looked  for  tn  the  floras  of  the  two 
oountriea.  Yet  species  appear  in  each  that  are  absent  in  the 
Other, 

The  species  of  ferns  and  filicoid  plants  which  are  certainly 

Canadian,  amount  to (i3 

Of  these  there  inhabit  the  Northern  States, 68 

Do.  do.  Southern  States,  38 

Do.  do.  Europe,  36 

The  following  table  is  designed  lo  show  some  of  the  goographioal 
relations  of  our  Canadian  ferna.  The  first  column  (I.)  refers  cjc- 
olusively  to  theoccurrenceof  the  species  within  the  Canadian  boun- 
dary. The  pluy  sign  ( +  )  Indicates  that  the  speciej  ia  general,  or 
at  least  does  not  show  any  decided  tendency  towards  the  extreme 
eastern  or  western,  or  northern  or  southern  parts  of  the  Provinoe. 
The  letters  N,  S,  E,  W,  &o.,  variously  combined,  indicate  that  the 
species  is  BO  limited  to  the  corresponding  northern,  Bouthern,eastera 
or  webtern  parts  of  the  province,  or  at  leust  has  a  well-defined  tea* 
dency  lo  such  limitation.  The  mark  of  interrogation  (7)  signifies 
doubt  as  to  the  occurrence  of  the  speciea.  The  eeoond  oolumn  (II.) 
shows  what  Canadian  species  occur  also  in  the  Northern  States,  that 
is  the  region  embraced  by  Gray's  Miinual ;  and  the  third  column 
(III.)  those  that  extend  down  south  into  Chapman's  territory. 
The  fourth  column  (IV.)  shows  the  oocurreooe  of  our  species  iu 


,,;.  Google 


1864.]  LAW80N    OK  CANADIAN  FERNS.  26S 

Europe;  G  in  this  CoIoidq  iodicating  CoDtinental  Europe,  and  B 
the  British  Islands.  Tho  fifth  or  last  column  (V.)  shovs  the  spe- 
cies that  extend  northwards  into  the  Arctic  circle — 35  in  all,  of 
which  hoffever,  only  14,  or  perhaps  15,  are  known  to  be  Arctic  ia 
America.  Am.,  As.,  Eu.,  and  G.,  indicate  respectively  Arctic 
America,  Arctic  Asia,  Arctic  Europe,  and  Arctic  Greenland.  The 
information  contained  in  the  last  column  has  been  chiefly  derived 
from  Dr.  Hooker's  able  Memoir  in  the  Linneean  Transactions 
(vol.  xxiii.,  p.  251). 

Hitherto  no  attention  whatever  has  been  paid,  in  Canada,  to  the 
study  of  those  remarkable  variations  in  form  to  which  the  species 
of  ferns  are  so  peculiarly  liable.  In  Britain,  the  study  of  varieties 
has  now  been  pursued  by  botanists  so  fully  as  to  show  that  the  phe- 
nomena which  they  present  have  a  most  important  bearing  upon 
many  physiological  and  tautological  questions  of  the  greatest  scien- 
tific intecest.  The  varieties  are  studied  in  a  systematic  manner, 
and  the  laws  of  variation  have  been  toa  certain  extent  ascertained. 
And  as  the  astronomer  can  point  out  the  existence  of  a  planet 
before  it  has  been  seen,  and  the  chemist  can  constmct  formnlss  for 
oi^nio  compounds — members  of  homolc^us  series— in  antici- 
pation of  their  actual  discovery,  so  in  like  manner  the  pteridologist 
now  studies  the  variations  of  species  by  a  comparative  system, 
whichenableshimtalookforequivalent  forms  in  the  corresponding 
species  of  different  groups.  Studies  so  pursued  are  calculated  to 
evolve  more  accurate  and  definite  notions  as  to  the  real  nature  of 
species,  and  the  laws  of  divergence  in  form  of  which  they  are 
capable.  I  would  therefore  earnestly  invite  Canadian  botanists  to  a 
more  careful  stndy  of  the  varietic$  of  the  Canadian  ferns,  after 
the  manner  of  Moore  and  other  European  leaders  in  this  compara- 
tively new  path.  The  elasticity,  or  proneness  to  variation,  of  the 
Bpecies  in  certain  groups  of  animals  and  plants  has  been  somewhat 
rashly  used  to  account  for  the  origin  of  species,  by  what  is  called 
the  process  of  variation.  It  seems  to  tell  all  the  other  way.  In- 
numerable as  are  the  grotesque  variations  of  ferns,  in  forkingsand 
frillings,  and  tassellings,  andabnormarveiningSj  &o.  (see  the  figures 
in  Moore's  works),  we  donot  know  of  asingle  species  in  irhlchsuch 
peculiarities  have  become  permanent  or  general,  that  ia  tprxifie, 
BO  that  the  species  can  be  traced  back  to  such  an  origin.  Surely 
something  of  the  kind  would  have  happened  had  all  species  origin- 
ated by  a  process  of  variation. 


,,;.  Google 


266  TBB  OANADUn  NATUaALIST.  [Aug. 

Tiibular  View  of  the  Dlilribulion  of  O-tnadian  Ferns  and  Allied 


Planu  over  Certain  ParU  0/  the  A^orthem  Memisphere* 

Nm. 

I. 

II. 

HI. 

IV. 

V. 

J 

i 

y 

IJ 

PoLTPODIACEjB. 

1.  Polypodinm  Tulgare,    .     . 

+ 

+ 

+ 

C.B. 

El. 

2.  P.  hexagonopUinuii,       .     . 

+ 

+ 

+ 

3.  P.  Phogopteris,    .... 

+ 

+ 

c'.'b. 

Eu!'g. 

4.  P.  Dryopteris,      .... 

+ 

+ 

C.B. 

En.Am.G 

B.  P.  RobertiaQum,       .     .     . 

+ 

+ 

C.B. 

6.  Adiantum  pedatum,      .     . 

+ 

+ 

+ 

7.  Pteria  aquilina,    .... 

+ 

+ 

+ 

C.B. 

Eo. 

8.  Pellaia  atropurpurea,     .     . 

9. 

+ 

+ 

9.  AlloaoraB  Stelleri,     .     .     . 

+ 

+ 

WW 

"i 

■Am. 

+ 

+ 

C 

En. 

+ 

+ 

+ 

13.  Asplenium  Trichomanea,  '. 

+ 

+ 

+ 

C.B. 

14.  A.  viride, 

N.E, 

C.B. 

Eu.'q. 

15.  A.  anguatifolinm,     .     .     . 

9.W. 

+ 

+ 

16.  A.  ebeneum, 

+ 

+ 

+ 

17.  A.  msrinum, 

E.? 

C.B. 

+ 

+ 

+ 

19.  A.  montaaum,      .... 

? 

+ 

+ 

20.  A.  Ruta  muraria.      .     .  ,  . 

? 

+ 

+ 

C.B. 

Ett. 

21.  Athyrium  Filix  fcemina,    . 

+ 

+ 

+ 

C.B. 

Eu. 

22.  Woodwardia  Virginica,      . 

S.W. 

+ 

+ 

23.  Scolopendrium  vulgare,      . 

WW 

+ 

C.B. 

24.  Gamptosorns  rhizophylliu, . 

w. 

+ 

+ 

... 

25.  Lastrca  dilataU,  .... 

+ 

+ 

C.B. 

En.  Am. 

26.  h.  marginalia,      .     . 

+ 

+ 

+ 

27.  L.  Filii-mas,  .     .     . 

77 

C.B. 

Eu^'o. 

28.  L.  criatata,      .     .     . 

+ 

+ 

C.B. 

29.  L.  Goldieana,.     .     . 

W. 

+ 

30.  L,  fragrana,    .     .     . 

NW7 

+ 

Ai!.Am.G. 

31.  L.  Thelypteris,    .     . 

+ 

+ 

+ 

C.B. 

32.  L.  Nov-Eboracenaia, 

+ 

+ 

+ 

33.  Polystichum  angulare. 

+ 

+ 

C.B. 

En. 

34.  P.  Lonchitis,  .     .     . 

N.W. 

+ 

C.B. 

Ea.Am.G 

35.  P,  aoroatichoidee,      . 

+ 

+ 

+ 

36.  Cvstopteria  fras-ilia,  . 

+ 

+ 

+ 

C.B. 

Ga.Am.G 

37.  C  bulbifera,  .          . 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

* 

+ 

,.,.d.i.  Google 


1864.] 


LAWSON  OH   OANASIAM   VKENS. 


KlHI. 

r.    1  I.. 

III. 

n.\     V.     1 

1 

li 

I 

1 

I| 

39.  Woodaia  IlveMiB,     .    .     . 

+ 

+ 

+ 

C.B 

lEu.As. 
1  Aid.  8. 

*0.  W.  olpioa, 

+ 

C.B 

E„.  G. 

11.  W.  glabella, 

+ 

+ 

Am. 

42.  W.  obtiwa 

? 

+ 

+ 

*3.  OBmanda  wgalis,      .     .     . 

+ 

+ 

+ 

cVi 

U.  0.  cinnftmomea,  .... 

+ 

+ 

+ 

15.  0.  ClaytoDiana,    .... 

+ 

+ 

+ 

16.  Schizaa  pnsilk,  .... 

? 

+ 

Ophioqlossacrk. 

17.  Botryohium  Vii|;iiiiciim,    , 

+ 

+ 

+ 

En.e. 

48.  B.  lunarioidea 

+ 

+ 

+ 

y 

19.  B.  lunaria 

N. 

C.B 

En's. 

? 

+ 

+ 

C.B. 

Eu. 

LreopoDiAOEA. 

bl.  FlaDaathna  Selago,  .    .     . 

N.? 

+ 

+ 

C.B. 

fEu.Ai 
{Ain.G. 

52.  P.  luoidolua, 

+ 

+ 

+ 

0. 

&3.  P.  alopecuroidea,      .     .     . 

?? 

+ 

+ 

54.  P.  inuudatns,       .... 

+ 

+ 

+ 

C.B. 

55.  Lfcopodium  clavatum,  .     . 

+ 

+ 

+ 

C.B. 

b»!'b. 

56.  L.  aonotinum,      .... 

+ 

+ 

+ 

C.B. 

Eii.Am.a 

57.  L.  deDdroideum,      .     .     . 

+ 

+ 

+ 

58.  L.  complanatum,      .     .     . 

+ 

+ 

+ 

C. 

EuVai 

59,  Selaginella  spiaalosa,     .     . 

N.B. 

+ 

+ 

C.B. 

En.  a 

GO.  Slachygynandrum  mpestre, 

+ 

+ 

+ 

Gl.  Diplostachjum  apodiun,     . 

+ 

-t- 

+ 

Ma,rsileaoe.S. 

62,  Azolla  Caroliniana,   .     .     . 

8. 

+ 

+ 

63.  Siilvinia  naUna,   .... 

?? 

+ 

c! 

64,  IsoStes  laoustria,  .... 

+ 

+ 

+ 

C.B. 

Eil'a 

Equisetaob*. 

G5.  Equisetum  sylvaticum, 

+ 

+ 

C.B. 

Eii.Ad.G 

66.  E.  umbrosum,      .... 

+ 

+ 

C.B. 

En. 

B7.  E.  aryense, 

+ 

+ 

C.B. 

f  En.AB. 
lAm.G. 

B8.  E.  Telmateja,      .... 

W. 

+ 

C.B. 

69.  E.  limosum 

+ 

+ 

C.B. 

Eu. 

70.  E,  hyemale, 

+ 

+ 

C.B. 

Eu. 

11.  E.  robaatum, 

+ 

+ 

12.  E.  varif^mu,     .     ,     ,     . 

N.  E. 

+ 

C.B. 

f  Eli' Am 

73.  E.  scirpoides,       .... 

+ 

+ 

0. 

1      G. 
(En.  A.. 
(Am.  G. 

7(.  E.  palnBtre 

K. 

:i 

::: 

C.B. 

En.  Am. 
1, 

tXIc^lc 


268  THE  OANADUH  NATUBALIST.  l.^^- 

Nat.  Ord.  POLYPODIACE^. 

POLYPODIDM. 

P.  vulgare,  Linn. — Frood  linear-oWongor  somewhat  lanceolate, 
more  or  lesK  acnminate,  deeply  pinnatifid,  in  some  forma  almost 
pinnate ;  lobes  (or  pinnse)  linear-obloog,  obtose,  often  acute,  rarely 
acuminate,  entire  or  crenate  or  serrate ;  sori  large  ;  very  variable 
aa  rt^rds  outiinc  of  the  frond,  form,  &o.,  of  the  lobes,  and  serrature, 
P.  vufffare,  Linn.,  A.  Gray,  Moore,  &o.  P.  Virginianum  of  English 
gardens.  P.  oalgare,  Tar.  Americanum,  Hook.,  Torrey,  Fl.  N.  Y.,  ii, 
480. — On  rocks  in  the  woods,  not  rare  around  the  oity  of  Kingston ; 
abundant  on  the  rocky  banks  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  in  Pittsburg; 
in  the  woods  at  Collina's  Bay ;  and  ou  Judge  Mallooh's  farm,  a  mile 
west  from  Brookville ;  Q-ananoque  lakes  and  rivers ;  Farmersville ; 
Newboro  on  the  Rideau ;  Toronto ;  on  the  great  boulder  of  the 
Trent  Valley,  near  Trenton ;  on  rocks  west  from  Brockville,  outcrop 
of  Potsdam  Bundstone  at  Oxford,  and  Hull,  mountains  near  Chelsea, 
C.  E.,  B.Billings,  jun. ;  near  Gatineau  Mills,  D,  M'GilliTray,  M.D. ; 
Mount  Johnson,  C.  E.,  and  Niagara  River,  P.  W.  Maclagan, 
M.D. ;  Brighton,  in  the  crevioe  of  a  rock  in  a  Geld,  and  abundant 
on  rocky  banks  right  bank  of  the  Moira,  above  Belleville, J. Maconn ; 
Bamsay,  Bev.  J.  K.  McMorioe,  M.A. ;  nofth-weat  from  Granite 
Point,  Lake  Superior,  R.IBell,  jnn.;  mountain  top,near  Mr.  Bridge's 
house,  Hamilton,  C.  W.,  Judge  Lc^o ;  River  Rouge  and  lower  end 
oF  Gut  Lake,  W.  8.  M.  D'Urban ;  Cape  Haldimand,  Gaapd,  John 
Bell,  B  A. ;  Bed  River  Settlement,  Governor  M'Tavish  ;  foot  of 
Cape  Tourmente,  Abb^  Provancher;  L'Orignal  and  Grcnville, 
C.  E.,  J.  Bell,  B.A.  The  habitata  above  cited  show  that  although 
this  fern  is  not  so  common  in  Canada  aa  in  Britain,  itia  neverthe- 
less widely  dititribut«d.  It  ia  common  in  New  York  Stat«,  accord- 
ing to  Professor  Torrey,  and  in  the  Northern  States  generally  ac- 
cording to  Professor  Asa  Gray ;  rarer  in  the  South,  according  to  Dr> 
Chapman. 

P.  hexOgonopta-um,  Mich. — Frond  triangular  in  outline,  acumi- 
nate, pinnate,  huiry  throughout;  pinnae  broadly  lanceolate,  pinna- 
tifid  ;  lowest  pair  of  pinnae  lai^r  than  the  othera,  not  deflexed  ; 
lobea  of  the  pinnie  linear-oblong  or  lanooolate,  strongly  toothed,  or 
almost  pinnatifid,  The  decurrent  pinnse  haye  a  tendency  to  form 
conspicuous  irregular-angled  winga  along  the  rachis.  !^tipe  not 
scaly  except  at  the  base.  Rhizome  long,  slender,  ramifying.  Whole 
plant  muoh  larger  than  P.  Phegopterti,  and  quite  a  different  apeeies. 


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1864.]  LAWBON   OH  OAHADIAM  PBEN8.  269 

P.  hexa^onoplerum,  Micbx.,  A.  Gray,4o.  The  figure  ia  Lowe's 
Ferns,  vol  i,  p.  143,  tab.  49,  is  a  little  too  moeh  like  Phegopteris, 
i*.  Flu-ffopterit,  y  maju»,  Hook,  Fl.  Bor.  Amor.,  ii,p.  258.  Hooker's 
yS.  intermedia  of  Ph^pteria  is  connertile,  Willd.,  which  A.  Gray 
refers  to  P.  Phegopterit,  L.  Ph^oplerit  hexagonoptera,  J.  Sm. 
CaL,  p.  17.— Canada,  Goldie  in  Hook.  Fl.  B.  Amer.;  Chippawa, 
C.  W.,  P.  W.  Maola^n,  M.D. ;  Mirwio'a  Wood*,  near  Prescott, 
rarOgB.  Billingsjaa.  inearWeatmiasler  Pond,  London,  W.  Saun- 
ders. Not  by  any  means  so  general  in  Canada  aa  in  New  York 
State,  where  Professor  Torrey  states  it  is  coramon. 
P.PhegaplerU,  Linn. — Frond  acutely  triangular  in  ontline,  acumi- 
nate, pinnate;  the  pinnte  llnear-lanoeolata,  pJnnatiGd,  lowest  pair  de- 
flezcd;  lobes  of  the  pinn»Dblong,Boythe-9hBped,obtnse  approximate, 
entire;  rachis  hairy  and  minuteljscalytothe  apex  of  thefrond,  as 
well  as  the  midribs  (^the  pinnee.  P.  Phegopterit,  Linn. ,  A.  Gray, 
Moore,  &a.  Pkegopterii  vulgaris,  J.  Sm.,  P.  eonnectile,  Michx, 
Pursh  Fl.  Am.  Sept.,  2nd  ed.,  vol.  »,  p.  669. — Canada,  Hookeri 
Black-Lead  Falls  and  DeSalaberry,  west  line,  W.  S.  M.  D'Urban ; 
Ramsay,  Rev.  J.  K.  McMorine,  M.A. ;  Nicolet,  P,  W.  Maclagan, 
M.D. ;  Prescott,  damp  woods,  not  common ;  Osgood  Station  of  the 
Ottawa  and  Prescott  Railway ;  also  Gloucester,  near  Ottawa,  grow- 
ing on  the  side  of  a  ravine,  and  Chelsea,  C.  E.,  B.  Billings,  jnn ; 
opposite  Grand  Island,  Lake  Superior,  R.  Bell,  jun. ;  L'Orignal 
and  Harrington,  J.  Bell,  B.A. 

P.  Dryoplerit,  Linn. — Frond  thin,  light^reen,  pentangular  ia 
outlino,  consisting  of  three  divaricate  triangular  aubdivisiona,  each 
of  which  is  pinnate,  with  its  pionse  more  or  less  deeply  pinnatiGd; 
pinnules  oblong,  obtuse,  nearly  entire ;  stipe  slender  and  weak,  not 
glandalose.  P.  Drgopteria.  Linn.  A.  Gray,  Moore,  &c.  Phegoplerit 
J)rgoplerii,3.3m. — Abundant  in  the  woods  around  Kingston; 
Itamsay,  Rev.  J.  E.  M'Morine,  M.A.;  very  common  in  woods 
about  Prescott.  B.  Billings,  jun. ;  Montreal  and  Nioolet  Rivers, 
C.E.,  P.  W.  Maclagan,  M.D. ;  Belleville,  common  in  the  wooda, 
J.  Maconn  ;  opposite  Grand  Is' and.  Lake  Superior,  R.  Bell.  jun.  i 
River  Rouge,  Round  Lake,  Montreal,  De  Salabeny,  west  line, 
and  Black  Lead,Falls,  W.  S.  M.  D'Urban  ;  Newfoundland,  Labra- 
dor, Somerset,  and  St.  Joachim,  Abb^  Provancber;  L'Orignal, 
J.  BeU,  B.A. 

Var.  /3.  ereetum. — Frond  erect,  rigid,  with  a  very  stout  and  very 
long  glabrous  stipe  (18  inches  long) ;  beech  woods  at  ColUns's  Bay, 


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270  THB  CANADIAN  NATCIIALIBT.  [Aug. 

near  Kingston,  with  the  normal  fonn.     This  variety  resembles  P. 
Rolerlianum  Id  general  aspect,  but  is  not  at  all  glandulose. 

P.  Robertianum,  Hoffman. — A  stouter  plant  than  P.  Dryoplerh ; 
fronds  more  rigid  and  etect ;  raohis,  &o.,  closely  beset  with  minute- 
Btalked  glands.  P.  Robertianum,  Hoffoian,  Moore.  &o.  P.  calca- 
ream,  Sm,,  P.  Dryoptent,  var.  Mlcareum,A.  Gray,  Canada,  Mooro 
andotherauthorB;Unitcd  States,  Oraj  and  others.  This  species 
is  commonly  spoken  and  nrittun  of  as  a  Canadian  fern.  Not 
having  had  an  opportunity  of  seeing  Canadians  specimens,  I  cannot 
cite  special  habitata.  The  minntely  glandulose  rachis  serves  at  once 
to  dietingiiLsh  it. 

Adiantcm. 
A.pedatam,  Linn. — Stipe  blaokand  shining,  erect,  forked  at  top, 
the  forks  secundly  branched,  the  branches  being  oblique  triangular 
oblong  pinnules.  A.  pedatum,  Linn.,  A.  Gray,  &c.,  Low's  Ferns, 
vol.  iii,  pi.  14.  Abundant  in  v^;elable  soil  in  the  woods  around 
Kingston;  woods  around  the  iron-mines  at  Newboro-on-the-K,ideau  ; 
Farmersville ;  Toronto;  Montreal,  Ghippawa,  Wolfe  Island,  and 
Maiden,  P.  W.  Maclagan,  M.D. ;  Belleville,  in  rich  woods,  abun- 
dant, J.  Maooun  ;  Ramsay,  Rev.  J,  K.  McMorine,  M.A. ;  Ke-we- 
naw  Point,  R.  Bell,}UQ;  attho  Sulphur  Spring,  and  common  every- 
where about  Hamilton,  Judge  Logie ;  Lake  Huron,  Hook.  Fl.  B. 
A.;  Ue  Salabcrry,  west  line,  W.  S.  M.  D'Urban  ;  on  the  Oatincan 
near  Qilmour's  rafting-ground,  D.  M  Gillivray,  M.D. ;  Lon.lon, 
W.  Saunders;  St.  Joachim  and  Isle  St.  Paul,  Montreal, 
Abb6  Provanchor ;  West  Hawkesbury  and  Grenville,  C.  E.,  J. 
Beil,  B.  A.  Apparently  common  everywhere  in  Upper  Canada. 
I  cannot  speak  so  definitely  of  the  Iiower  Province.  This  is  one 
of  our  finest  Canadian  ferns ;  "  the  most  graceful  and  delicate  of 
North  American  ferns,"  says  Torrey.  It  is  easily  cultivated.  Fine 
as  it  is  in  the  Canadian  woods,  I  have  specimens  even  more  hand- 
some from  Schooley's  Mountains  (A.  0.  Brodie,  Ceylon  Civil  Ser- 
vice) ;  their  fan-like  fronds  spread  out  in  ^  semicircle,  with  a  rndius 
of  2J  feet.  It  is  not  a  variable  species  in  Canada.  T.  Moore,  in 
"  Index  Filicnm,"  gives  its  distribution  as  N.  and  N.  W.  America, 
California  to  Sitka,  North  India,  Sikkim,  Noapul,  Gurwhal,  Simla, 
Kumaon,  Japan.  There  is  a  var.  j8.  Aleutictimj  Bupr.,  in  tbe 
Aleutian  Islands. 

Pteri8. 

P.  aquilina,  Linn. — Stipe  stout,  1  to  3  feet  high,  frond  ter- 

nate,  branches  bipinnate,  pinnules  oblong  lanceolate,  sori  oontino- 


X'.ooglc 


1864.]  LAWBON   ON   CANADIAN   FERNS.  271 

(ma  noder  their  recurred  mar^ns.  Pi.  aquilina,  Linn.,  A,  Gray, 
Moore,  Ac. — Abundant  on  Dr.  Yatca's  farm  in  Pittabui^,  and  else- 
where about  Kingeton;  Wuterdovn  Road,  Hamilton,  commoD, 
Judge  Logie  -,  Chippawa  and  Maiden,  C.  W.,  P.  W.  Maclagan, 
U.D.;  Ramsay,  Rev.  J.  K.  M'Morine,  M.A.;  PreBcott,  oomraon,  B. 
Billings,  jun.,  Belleville, very  common  on  barren  ridges,  J.  Macoun  ; 
Grand  Island,  Lake  Superior,  R.  Bell,  Jan. ;  Red  Lake  River,  also 
between  Wild  Rice  and  Hed  Lake  Rivers,  and  Otter  T^iil  Lake  and 
River,  between  Snake  Hill  River  and  Pembina,  &c,,  J.C.Schulti, 
M.D. ;  Black  Lead  Falls,  and  Portage  to  Bark  Lake,  W.  S.  M. 
D'Url>an ;  Gatineau  Mills,  very  common,  D.  M'Gillivray,  M  D. ; 
Lakefield,  North  Dooro,  Mrs.  Traill ;  New  Brunswick,  Hook.  Fl. 
Bor.  Amcr.;  L'Orignal,  J.  Bell,  B.A.;  London, W.  Saunders. 

a.  vera. — Pinnules  pinnatiGd  (the  normal  or  typical  form  of 
Hoore),  Dr  Yates's  farm,  Kingston. 

j3.  inte^errima. — Pinnules  entire  (a  sub-variety),  common  in 
Canada  and  westward.  There  are  various  other  sub- varieties; 
differing  in  size,  pabescence,  &e. 

■f.  decipient. — Frond  bipinnate,  thin  and  membranous,  lanuginose, 
pinnules  pinnatiSdly  toothed,  or  in  small  forms,  entire,  barren; 
L'Aose  i.  Cahielle,  Gaspd,  John  Bell,  B.A.  This  ia  a  very 
remarkable  fern,  resembling  a  Lastrea,  and  in  the  absence  of  fmo- 
lilication,  it  is  doubtfully  referred  to  Plerit  ojuvfiua,  yet  the  vena- 
tion seems  to  indicate  that  it  belongs  to  that  speoies,  which  is 
remarkable  for  its  puzzling  forms.  Being  at  a  loss  what  to  make  of 
this  fern,  I  sent  it  to  Mr.  D.  C.  Eaton,  H.A.,  who  is  justly  looked 
up  to  by  American  botanists  as  our  best  authority  on  American 
ferns,  and  he  Ukewise  failed  to  reoc>gnise  it.  I  hope  some  visitor 
to  Gasp^  will  endeavor  to  obtain  it  in  a  fertile  state,  and  thus 
relieve  the  doubt.* 

[Var.S.  caudala  appears  occasionally  in  lists.  I  have  as  yet  no 
satisfactory  evidence  of  its  oecurrence  In  Canada  proper.  The 
nearest  approach  to  it  is  aspecimen  from  thcHudson  Bay  territories^ 
probably  from  the  Red  River  Distriot  (Governor  M'Tavlsh}.  In 
the  South  it  is  a  very  distinct  form,  of  which  there  are  beautiful 
Bpecimens  in  Wright's  Cuban  Plants  (No.  872),  and  is  very  close 
to  the  Fierit  eteuknta  of  Australia,  j 

*  Since  the  above  was  written,  I  bave  bad  aa  opportunily  oretiidjrlng 
Ibe  fcroig  and  development  o(  Plerit  aguilina  and  am  quite  satisfied  that 
the  donbirul  plant  U  a  Btat«  of  tbat  species,  not  old  enough  to  be  fertile. 


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THB  OANADIAH  NATUaMilST.  [^"fr 


FELLiBA. 


P.  atropuTpurea,  Liok. — Stipe  and  raobis  almmt  black,  shiniag, 
6  to  12  incbes  high,  frond  coriaceous,  piaa&te,  divisions  opposite, 
linear-oblong  or  somewhat  oval.  PterUalri^urpwea,liiaii.  Piaty- 
loma  atrop.,  J.  Stn.,  Torr.  N.  T.,  ii.  p.  483.  Allotorut  alrvpur- 
pureoM,  A.  Gray.  Pelkea  atropurpurea,  Link.,  1^66,  J.  Sm.  in  Cat., 
Eaton. — Niagara  River,  at  the  Whirlpool,  three  miles  below  the 
Falls.  This  fern  seems  to  retain  its  fronds  all  winter,  for  I  have 
fertile  specimens,  in  a  fine  Btat«  collected  at  the  Whirlpool  at  the 
end  of  February,  1859,  by  A.  0.  Brodie.  Dr.  P.  W.  Maolagan  has 
also  collected  it  there.  It  ie  not  common  anywhere  on  the  Ameri- 
can con^nent  so  far  as  I  can  learn.  Mr.  Lowe  speaks  of  it  as  in 
cultivation  in  Britain,  "  an  cve^een  frame  or  greenhouse  species, 
not  sufficiently  bordy  to  stand  over  winter's  cold."  There  must  be 
Bome  other  reason  for  want  of  success  in  itsoultivation  in  Britain. 

Allosorits. 

^.iS'feZ2«n',Baprecbt.— -Fronds  pale  gre«>,  thin  and  papery,  3  to 
9  inches  long,  bipinnate  and  tripinnate,  some  of  the  smaller  barrel) 
fronds  soaroely  more  than  pinnate ;  pinnse  five  or  sii  pairs ;  lobes  of 
the  barren  frond,  rounded,  oval,  veiny  ;  of  the  fertile  frond,  much 
narrower,  linear-lanoeolate,  firmer ;  aori  at  the  tips  of  the  forked 
veins  along  the  margins,  stipe  red,  whole  plant  glalnvus.  A  bcanti- 
{u[  and  delicate  fern,  growing  in  the  crevices  of  rocks,  rare.  Allo- 
lortti  Stelleri,  Ledeb,  Fl.  Roesioa.  Allotorui  gracilU,  Presl.,  A. 
Gray,  Torrey  Fl.  N.  T.  ii.  p.  487.  In  aletterfromMr.  T.Moore 
(1857),  he  mentioned  to  me  that  be  had  learned  from  specimens 
from  Dr.  R^el,  St.  Petersburg,  that  "the  Nortii  American  ^I^kk'us 
gradlii  is  the  old  Fterit  Stelleri  of  Amman,  so  that  it  spreads 
from  North  America  through  Siberia  to  India,  whence  Dr.  Hooker 
has  it."  Alloioriu  minuliu,  Turoz.  Pl.Ezs.  Ckeilanthet  gr^cilit, 
Klf.  Cryptogramma  gracilu,  Torrey.  Pterii  Stelleri,  Gmelin, 
PUrU  minula,  Turcs.  Cat.  PI.  Baik.  Dah.  Pt.gmci/it,  jMichaux. 
— Near  Lakefield,NorthDonro,O.W., on  rooks,  Mrs  Traill;  abun- 
dant in  crevices  of  limestone  rocks,  on  the  rocky  banks  of  the 
Moira,  Belleville,  Co.  Hastings,  J.  Maoonn;  Lake  of  Three  Moun- 
tains, W.  S.  M.  D'Urban  j  Canada  to  the  Saskatchewan,  Hook.  Fl. 
Bor.  Am. ;  Dartmoath,  Oasp^,  John  Bell,  B.  A.  This  is  a  North- 
em  species,  and  rare  in  the  United  States. 


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1864.]  lAWBOM  OS  OAMADUM  »TO»8.  273 

OaTPTOaRAHUA. 

C  acrottichoidv,  B.  Br. — "  R«markabl«  far  ito  sporaDgia  ^- 
tondingfai  down  on  the  obliqae Tains,  boas  to  fonn  linear  linee  of 
fruit."  I  have  not  seen  the  plant.  It  is  referred  by  Sir  William 
Hooker  to  ^IfoK)nMerMfMM(A.  6r.  in  GDnm.  of  Dr.  Parry's  Ro4^ 
Mt-Plante).  Crgptogramanaaeroitic}uniie»,'R.BT.,VltMro.  AUok- 
rtu  aerottirhoidei,  A.  Gr. — Isle  Boyele,  Lake  Superior.  Plaoed 
in  Dr.  Hookor't  Table  as  a  CaQadUn  speoiee  that  does  not  extend 
into  the  United  States.  It  haa  reoeotly  been  found  on  the  Roc^ 
UooDtains.  AUotoru*  critpw  is  general  Utrongfaoat  Borope,  and 
ooonre  at  Sitka,  in  North- West  Am«doa.  Mr.  Moore  observes  that 
tlte Eastern  (Indian)  speeies,  A.  BrmMmitMut,  is  very  donbtfidly 
diatinot  ftom  the  European  plant. 

Stehthioftkbis  . 

S-  Otntuaiica  var.  P  Peiuu^loaiUea. — Rhizome  stont,  ereet ; 
fronds  tufted ;  atnile  ones  large  pioDato,  ereet-spreading,  de^y 
pinoatiGd  ;  ^le  fertile  ones  eteot,  rigid,  with  revolote  oontraet«d 
divisioDB,  wholly  covered  on  the  haok  by  sporangia.  A  nty 
grteefnl  fern,  well-flaited  f»  onltiTadoD  in  gardens.  StrvpAwp- 
terii  Penn^vaniw,  WiUd,,  Ptush,  J,  Sm.  Cat.  S.  OtrvKintea, 
Hooker,  Torrey  Fl.  N.  T.,  ii,  p.  486,  Gray.  Ownunda  Struthiop- 
terit,  Lino. ;  Onocha  Struthiapterit,  Sobkr.-,  Onoclea  noduhia, 
Sohkr.,  according  to  Hooker.  Torrey  refers  0.  nodulota,  Michx., 
to  WoodwaTdia  anguttifolia. — FrankvilJe,  Kitley  ;  Loogpoint ; 
Lansdowne;  Hardwood  Greek  ;  nsnally  fonnd  along  the  margins 
of  creeks,  &c. ;  common  in  rich,  wet  woods  Dear  PreGcott,  and 
abnndant  aronnd  Ottawa,  B.  Billings,  jnn. ;  low  rich  groands,  Bel. 
leviUe,  abundant  along  Cold  Creek,  J.  Macoon ;  Ke-we-naw  Point, 
Lake  Superior,  in  low  ground,  at  times  under  water,  R.  'BkW,  jun.  ; 
Ramsay,  Rev.  J.  E.  M'Morine,  M.A. ;  near  Lakefield,  North 
Donro,  Mrs.  Trail ;  field  beyond  Waterdxwn,  Hamilton,  Judge 
Logie ;  Osnabmck  and  Prescott  Junction,  Rev.  E.  M.  Epstein ; 
near  Montreal,  W.  8.  M.  D'Urhan  ;  Assiniboine  River,  John  C. 
Scbnlti,  M.D.;  Canada,  to  the  Saskatchewan.  Hook.  Fl.  Bor. 
A.;  fbot  of  Cape  Tonnuente,  Abb^  Provanchcr.  Tbieis  theoom-  ' 
movest  plant  in  the  Bedford  swamps;  Gasp4  and  L'Original,  J. 
Bell,  B.A. ;  London,  W.  Saunders.  Found  in  tbe  weatero  part 
of  New  York  State,  but  tare,  aocording  to  Torrey. 

TnL,  I.  a  No.  4. 


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2t4  thl  oaaadun  natukalibt.  [.^^^■ 

Onoclea. 

0.  imnbilu,  Lino. — Rhizome  creeping ;  barren  frond  broad, 
leafy,  deeply  pinnatifid ;  fertile  odcb  erect,  spioate,  coatraoted, 
doubly  pinnate,  irith  unall  revolute  pinnalea,  encloaing  the  spor- 
angia, not  at  all  leafy.  Onoclea  teiuibilit,  Linn.,  Gray,  J.  Sm., 
&a,  Loire's  Ferns,  vol.  vi.  pi.  1. — In  voods  along  the  banks  <f 
the  Little  Cataraqui  Creek  in  great  abandance,  and  in  moist 
Bwampy  plaoee  in  the  woods  in  rarions  other  plaoes  about  Bling- 
Bton;  west  end  of  Loughboroogh  Lake;  Beoanoonr,  Abb^ 
ProTanober;  London,  W.  Saanders;  oommon  in  marshy  ground 
at  Hamilton,  Judge  Logie;  Lakefleld,  North  Douro,  Mrs.  Traill; 
St.  John's,  C.  E.,  Niagara  and  Maiden,  P.  W.  Maolagan,  M.D. ; 
Belleville,  in  low  marshy  places,  abundant,  J.  Maconn;  Ramsay, 
Rev,  J.  K.  M'Morine,  M.A. ;-  Amagos  Greek,  Lake  Superior,  B, 
Bell,  jnn. ;  Presoott,  oommon,  B.  Billings,  jun. ;  on  the  river  shore, 
Gatineau  Mills,  D.  M'GilliTray,  M.P. ;  L'Anse  an  Cousin,  Gaspd 
and  L'Orignal,  J.  Bell ;  Nova  Bootis.  This  carious  fern  has 
been  caldTated  in  England  since  1699  ;  at  Kew,  sinoe  1793.  It 
is  very  variable  as  i^ards  the  outline  and  subdivision  of  the  barren 
frond. 

Var.  fi.  bipiTmata. — Fronds  bi[»nnate ;  perhaps  not  a  eoDsiant 
form.  Fertile  fronds  of  this  variety  originated  the  0.  obtvnh- 
lata,  Sehkr.  Fdohe  Rirer,  and  near  Gantley,  Hull,  D.  M'Qilli- 
vray,  M.D. 

ABFLINnFH. 

A.  Triehomanei,  Linn. — Frond  small,  narrow,  linear,  pinnate ; 
pinnee  roundiBh^oblong  or  oval,  oblique,  almost  senrile,  crenate : 
laohis  blackish  brown,  shining,  margined  ;  sori  distant  from  the 
midrib.  Atpleniwn  Trichotnanet,  Linn,,  Moore,  Gray,  &o.,  Lowe's 
Ferns,  vol.  v.  pi.  22.  Atp.  mdanocaulon,  Willd.,  Pursh.  Fi.  Sept. 
Amerio.,  11.,  p.  666.  J«p.  ancep*,  Lowe. — Inhabits  rocky  river 
banks,  &e.,  but  is  not  oommon  in  Canada.  On  rocky  banks,  at 
Marble  Rook,  on  the  Gananoque  River;  Mamainse,  dry  ground 
on  the  top  of  a  mountain,  R.  Bell,  jun. ;  rooky  woodlands  west 
from  Brockville,  rare,  B.  Billings,  jnn.;  Montreal,  Jones's  Falls 
and  Niagara,  P.  W.  Maclagan,  M.D. ;  Lake  Medad,  Hamilton, 
Judge  Logie;  Pittsburg,  near  Kingston,  John  Bell,  B. A. ;  foot 
of  Gape  Tourmente,  Abb^  Provancber ;  near  Belleville,  J.  Macoun. 

p.  delicatulum. — Frond  narrower,  pinnie  much  smaller,  thin- 
ner, and  wider  apart  than  in  the  normal  fbnn.     This  is  a  sub 


,,;.  Google 


1864.]  LAWBON  Olf  OAMADIAN  rBBHB.  275  .' 

variety,  passiog  by  intermediate  atatea  into  the  tyfaoal  plant,  which 
ia  the  common  fonn  of  northern  Europe.  The  variety  is  the 
prevalent  fbrm  in  Canada,  bnt  alBo  oooura  farther  sonth  in  the 
United  Stat«e,  for  I  have  speoimens  from  Catskill  (A  0.  BTodie) : 
and  ia  oot  oonfined  to  the  Aroerioan  continent,  for  Profesaor 
Camel,  the  aonte  author  of  "  Flora  Italiana,"  aenda  apeoimena 
of  a  eimilar  form  from  Florence.  There  ia  an  .1.  Trich.  var. 
majiu,  in  Cuba  (according  to  Mr.  Eaton's  enumeration  of 
Wright's  Cuban  fema).  A.  aneept  Is  a  Madeiran  fcmn,  not  dis- 
ting;aiBhabl6,  eo  far  as  I  can  see,  irom  common  European  atotea  of 
A.  Trichomantf. 

A.  viride,  Hudson. — Frond  small,  linear,  pinnate ;  pinnte 
Toundish-oblong  or  oval,  more  or  lees  onneate  at  base,  slightly 
stalked,  orenate  or  slightly  lobed ;  raohia  bright  green ;  eon . 
■ppro\imate  to  the  midrib;  in  outline  of  frond  and  general  aspect 
reeembles  the  preceding  species.  A.  viride,  Hudson,  Flora 
Anglioa,  385  ;  Sm.,  Bab.,  Uoore,  &a.  A.  TnchomoKa,  0  ramo-  , 
turn,  Linn. — Tbia  beantiiul  alpine  fern  was  found  in  Canada  for 
die  first  time  last  summer,  having  been  oollected  in  oonaiderable  '. 
quantity  at  Q»af6,  C.E.,  by  John  Bell,  B.A.,  who  formed  one  of 
a  party  of  the  Provincial  Geoli^al  Sorv^.  It  was  previously 
Icnown  to  oconr  sparingly  in  N.  W.  America,  at  one  apot  on  the 
Bocky  Mountains,  and  in  Greenland,  Mr.  Bell's  diaooveiy  of  its 
occurrence  in  Qaspd  is  Uierefore  extremely  interesting  in  a 
geographical  point  of  view.  The  Oaspj  specimena,  although 
young,  agree  perfectly  with  the  typical  European  form  of  A.  viride, 
of  which  I  have  a  full  aeries  of  Scotch  examples,  as  well  as  others 
collected  in  Norway  by  T.  Anderson,  M.D.  In  young  specimens 
the  ptnnee  are  usually  Urge,  thin,  and  more  cnneat«  and  lobed 
tban  in  the  matore  plant,  in  which  they  aie  roundish-ovate. 

A.  an^viti/olium,  Michx. — Frond  hrge  (1  to  3  feet  high), 
annual,  lanceolate,  pinnate;  pin  me  long,  linear-lanceolate,  acute; 
ferUle  fronds  more  contracted  than  the  barren  ones,  "  bearing 
sixty  10  e^ty  curved  fruit4ots  on  the  upper  branches  of  the 
pinnate  forking  veins,"  (Eaton).  A.  angu$ti/olium,  Hiohimx,  A, 
Gray,  Eaton,  J.  Smith,  Lowe's  Feme,  vol  v,  pi.  24. — In  Canada 
tikis  fern  appears  to  be  confined  to  the  extreme  south-western  point 
of  thepioviDcc;*  Maiden,  P.  W.  Haclagan,  M.D. ;  at  the  Oil 
Wells,  township  of  Ennisldllen,  Lady  Alexander  Bnaaell.     For 

■  SabMqiwntly  found  in  tbe  BelUvUle  dUtrkt  by  Ur.  Hacoan. 

n,s,t,..dDi.  Google 


27C  DBS  0£SiStUM  VATCatXIMt.  C-^- 

infimualiini  of  die  latter  sUtion  1  sm  indAtoJ  to  the  tisdnen 
of  Jnijge  Lo^  of  Hamilton.  Thie  fsm  appeue  to  be  >tlll  rare 
in  coltivatioo  Rmong  tbe  fbn'&ncUra  of  Surape.  It  miB  inlro- 
daced  to  Britain  ia  1812  by  Mr.  John  Lyon  of  DnndM. 

A.  ebeneum,  AitoB. — Frond  erect,  Unee-lioear,  pinnate  ;  pinnie 
DDmerona,  lanceolate  (tbe  lower  oblong),  BeaHle,  ili^tly  anricled  at 
base  and  finelj^  serrate ;  Tushis  blaekid)J>rowii,  shining.  Atpiaium 
ebeneum,  Ailon,  Hortua  Eowenab,  ed.  2,  vol.  v,  p.  M6,  Gh«y,  Eaton, 
•T.  Smith,  Lowe's  Ferns,  vol.  t,  pi.  2.  A-poigpodvAdu,  B<Akr. — 
Hookj  woods,  BrooknUs,  B.  BiiUngt,  Jan.;  the  only  looali^  in 
Canada  from  whioh  I  have  seen  specimens.'^  Althot^  so  rare 
with  OS,  this  Bpeoies  tppMrs  to  be  not  nDoomnimi  in  tte  United 
States.  Oraiy  speaks  of  it  as  "  eather  ominon ; "  I  hare  sperimcnB 
from  Sobooiar'B  Homtaina,  West  point,  N.  T.,  Prondeme,  Fbil- 
adelpbia,  &e.  Jndgiiig  from  Mr.  latoa's  indioation  in  Chap- 
man's Flon,  it  again  aeema  to  deoraaaa  in  the  sontb,  so  that  its 
praaent  headqnartera  are  in  the  NoChen  States. 

[A.  man'num,  Linn.— Frond  broad  and  Icaiy,  linear-laneeolate, 
tapered  above,  piniwte;  pinne  orate^obloBg  or  linear,  oblique, 
shortly  stalked,  rarely  pinnntifid,  the  upper  ones  eonflnent,  stipe 
brownish,  raobis  brown  below,  green  and  winged  abore,  sori  large, 
linear,  obUqoe;  grows  on  rooks.  Ajepkniwn  martnum,  Linn., 
Moore,  J.  Smith,  &c.  A.  Icetum.  Hort.-'Naw  BnunwiiA,  E.  N. 
Kendal,  in  Hook.  Fl.  Bor.  Am.  I  cannot  learn  that  this  fern  has 
been  saboequendy  found  in  North  Ameriea,  and  hope,  theretbie, 
that  botaoistfl  will  look  for  it  on  the  roeky  shores  of  New  Bnuu- 
wick.  It  osually  grows  ont  of  the  crevices  of  ehore>oli&,  and  is 
very  limil«d  in  its  geograpbieal  range,  growing,  according  to 
Moore,  only  in  the  western  part  of  £nn^,  oroasing  i^m  Spain 
to  Tangiara  on  the  Afrioan  oaast,  and  being  again  met  with  in 
Madeira,  the  Aiorea,  end  Canary  Isles.] 

A.  tMi/pteroida,  Hicbanx. — Fronds  large  Dbk>ng<ivate,  pin* 
Date;  .pinnm  laaoelokte,  aonminate,  from  a  broad  seaaile  base,  and 
de^ly  pinnatjfid,  the  lobes  obl<Mig,  minutely  toothed.  A^tmtum 
theli/pieroidet,  Miohanz,  Fnrsh,  Bigelow,Torrey,  Beck,  Darlington, 
Gray,  Eaton.  Diphzivm  thtlypterotdtt,  Prefll,  J.  Sm. — In  rich 
woods,  SeSalabcrry,  west  line,  W.  S.  H.  B'Urban ;  Minvin'a 
woods,  &o.,  Preseott,  B.  Kllings,  jr. ;  BcIimI  Monntaui,  P.  W, 
Madagan,  M.D.;  nunst  woods  near  the  Hop  Qarden,  BeUeville, 
rare,  J.  Haconn  (a  deeply  serrated,  leafy  fbrm) ;  Ramsay,  Ber. 


■  Sabtequentlj  fooad  near  BellcTille  b;  Ur.  UaGoua. ' 


„  Google 


1864.]  LAVBOH  ON  OAiuJ>uir  Fxass.  277 

J.  K.  M'Morine,  M.A.  ;8t.  JouMm,  Abb^ProvaiMiber;  London, 
W.  Sannden.  Not  a  c<nniiion  fero  in  Canada ;  perhaps  more 
pleatifnl  in  tiie  United  Statae.  I  have  a  fine  •eriea  of  ■peoimenB 
from  Schodey'B  HounlAina  (A.  0.  BiodieJ,  and  otLera  from 
FrovidoBoe. 

;S,  taraltmu — Lobea  of  the  pinnn  ovate-oblong,  approximate, 
■troDgly  and  iociadj  Mirate.  TioB  may  be  regarded  as  a  snb- 
Tarietj. — Belleville,  J.  Macoun. 

[^.  montama»,  WiSd.,  vhioh  eitendaaloDg  tlie  Alleghanica,  has 
not  ;et  been  fbnod  in  Canada,  but  ma;  poeaibly  ooonr.  It  growa 
onclift.] 

[^A.  KtUttmuraria,  Linn. — The  wall-me,  a  small  speeies,  whioh 
gFowB  in  til*  oNTtoe*  of  limflBtone  oliSa  in  Uie  Northern  3t«t«8, 
and  is  oomnioM  on  Btone  walla  and  i^  bmbMoBB  in  Britain,  is  to 
be  looked  for  in  Cuiada.J 

Athtbich. 

A.  Filix-fcemina,  B.  Br. — Trond  ample  (1-3  feet  long),  broadly 
oblong-lanceolate,  bipinnnle ;  pinnae  also  lanceolate ;  pinnnlefl  ovate- 
lanceolate  or  oblong,  incisely  toothed.  Grows  in  lat^  tnfla,  the 
frond*  delicate,  of  a  br^t  green  fane.  Lady  Fetn  of  the  poets. 
Aiij/rum  FUxxfaemina,  B.  Br.,  Spreng.,  Roth.,  Hook..  Moor^ 
&B.  Atpidium  Filic-fixmvia,  Bwarta,  Pnrsh,  Beck.  Aepidium 
mtpleuwida,  Swarti,  Willd.,  Pnrafa.  A^tlenivm  Alhyrijan,  Scbkr. 
Atplenium  Miehavxii,  Spreng.  Atplentum  JPiUx^cnnina,  A. 
Grsy,  Man.,  p.  &9&.  ^eykrodimn  aapleniotdei  and  Fil^/omiina, 
Hichz.  Afptmiutn  a>tjiuaf«m,  WiUd.,  Pnah. — Common  in  the 
woods  near  Kingston,  Toronto,  Trenton,  &b.;  P&he  River, 
Ottawa,  Dr.  M'OiUivray;  Temiacooata,  Chippawa  end  Maiden, 
P.  W.  Madagao,  H.D. ;  Belleville,  ttoiat  woods,  veiy  oommon, 
several  varieties,  J.  Maoonn ;  Raiasay,  Rev.  J.  K.  H'Horine, 
M.A. ;  month  of  the  Awaganisns  Brook,  Onlf  of  St.  Lawrence, 
C.E.,  and  Sebihwab  River,  Lake  Superior,  R.Bdl.jnn. ;  Gemeteiy 
groaods,  Hanihon,  and  od  Prinee'i  Island,  Jadge  Logic ;  Hamil- 
Mhi'b  farm  and  base  of  Biker  Mt.,  W.  S.  M.  D'Uriwn ;  Mountain 
Pall,  H.  B.  t.,  Ckivemor  H'Tavish ;  Snake  Hill  RIvct,  John  C. 
SehulU,  M.I>. ;  L'Anse  k  la  Barbe,  Gt»ap6  and  L'Orignal,  John 
Bell,  B.A. ;   St.  Tite,  Abb«  Provan^er ;   LondoD,  W.  Saunders. 

j9.  on^iuftfm.— Proad  narrow,  lineerrlaDoeotate  ;  pinnae  rather 
etowded ;  pinnnlei  not  pinnaiiftd,  but  incisely  toothed,  with  reenr- 
vedtKargina;  aotiabortfesrved  (.d«pu/tumallflMtllln,WiUd.?)— 
Fa^nersvi^e  :  Delta ;  Belleville,  J.  Macoun, 


,.,.d.i.  Google 


.278  .    THB  OANADIAH  KATURALIBT.  C-^^- 

y.  rhxtiaan. — Frond  ratlier  small,  finn,  narrowl;  lanceolate 
in  outline ;  pin»  more  or  le^s  distant  and  narrovi;  Uneeolate  ; 
pinnules  inoliely  toothed  or  deeply  pinoatifid,  linear,  or  more  fre- 
t^aently  Ianoeolal«-acnte,  and  acquiring  a  linear  aspect  from  the 
reReolion  of  the  lobes,  often  crowded  with  coDflnent  son.— Dr. 
Yatea'e  farm,  on  the  banks  of  the  St.  Lawrenoe,  near  Kiagstou  ; 
.  near  Hontrenl,  Rev.  E.  M.  Epstein,  M.D. ;  near  Lakefield,  North 
Donro,  Mrs  Traill. 

d.  rigidum. — Frond  small,  rigid;  pinnules  approximate,  con- 
neeted  at  the  base  b;  a  broad  deourrent  membrane,  son  oonfined 
to  the  lower  part  of  each  pinnule. — Lakefield,  North  Douro,  Mrs. 
Traill. 

There  are  other  forms  of  this  speoies,  dependent  in  many  oases, 
no  doubt,  upon  situaiion ;  some  with  thin  Tsiny  fronds  of  great 
sise,  bearing  few  scattered  son.  One  form,  yeiy  like  the  British 
Tar.  molle,  was  gathered  at  BellcTille  by  Mr.  Macoun.  I  kaow  no 
fern  more  variable  than  Uiis.  Onr  Canadian  forma  require  careful 
examination. 

WOODWAXDIA, 

W.  f^f^inton,  Willd.— Frond  pinnate;  pinnn  lanceolate,  piu- 
natifid ;  son  arranged  in  Hoe  on  either  side  of  the  midribs  of 
pinnee  and  pinnules.  Wondwardia  Virginiea,  Willd. ;  Gray 
Hao.,  p.  593.  {Doodia,  R.  Br.)— Millgrove  Marsh,  G.  W.,  Judge 
Xogie;  sphagnoos  swamp  near  Heck's  mills,  ten  miles  from  Pres- 
eott,  Augusta,  C.  W.,  B.  Billings,  jun. ;  Pelham,  C.  W.,  P.  W. 
Haolagan,  M.D. ;  Belleville,  J.  Haoonn. 

SOOLOFXNDBIITH. 

S.  vuigare,  Smith. — Fronds  (in  tuAs)  strap^haped,  with  • 
cordate  base  undivided,  margin  entire,  stipe  scaly.  StxhpmdTiwm 
wig'tre,  J.  £.  Smith,  Bab.,  J.  Sm..  Moore,  &o.  S.  oficinarum, 
Swarta,  Suhkr.,  Gray,  Man.,  p.  593  ;  Torr.  Fl.  N.  T.  ii,  p.  490. 
S.  PhylUfui,  Roth.  8.  officitMie,  DO.  S.  lingua,  CavaniUes. 
Atplenium  Sa>l"pendnvm,  Linn.  8p.  Plantamm,  tu.  A.  don- 
gatum,  S^lisb.  Bltchnwrn  linguifolium,  Stokes.  Phi/lliti*  Scolo- 
pendriam.  Newman  — Owen  Sound.  Georgian  Buy,  Lake  Huron, 
OD  soft  sprinsy  ground,  amongst  latge  stones,  growing  in  tufts, 
abundant,  1861,  Robert  Bell,  jun.  This  interesting  addition 
to  our  list  of  Canadian  ferns  has  been  oolleoted  in  the  same 
t^ace  by  the  Rev.  Prof.  William  Hinoks,  F.L.9.     Mr.  Bdl's 


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1864.]  LAVflON  OM  OANADUN  nEKNS.  279 

apecimenB  agree,  in  ereiy  reepeot,  with  the  typical  European  form 
of  the  species,  which  is  exceedingly  Tarinble.  Only  one  station 
waa  prerionsly  known  for  this  fern  in  all  North  America,  tie,, 
limestone  rocks  along  Ghtttenango  Creek,  near  the  Falls,  reapcting 
which  Profeasor  Toirey  observed : — "  This  fern  is  nudoobtedly 
tadigenoua  in  the  loeality  here  friven,  which  is  the  only  place  where 
it  has  hitherto  been  found  in  North  AmerioL"  It  was  first 
detected  by  Porsh,  who  fonnd  it  in  shady  woods,  among  loose 
rooks  in  the  western  p^rts  of  New  York,  near  Onondago,  on  the 
plnntations  of  J.  Oeddis,  Eaq.  This  speiries  (he  said)  I  have 
seen  in  no  otlier  plaoe  bat  that  here  mentioned,  neither  have  I 
had  any  information  of  its  having  buen  found  in  any  other  part 
of  North  America.  (PunA.)  Nattoll  states  that  he  found  it  in 
the  western  part  of  the  state,  without  giving  the  locality ;  but 
according  to  Dr.  Pickering,  the  specimens  of  Mr.  Nnttell,  in  the 
berbariom  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Philadelphia,  are 
marked,  "  near  Canandoigna,  at  Qi^ddis's  farm,  in  a  shady  wood, 
with  Taxttt  Canadennt,"  Torrey  Fl.  N.  Y.,  ii,p.  490.  This  fern 
occurs  thronghout  Europe,  and  also  in  Northern  Aua.  Mr. 
Hoore  considers  the  Uezioan  S.  Lindeni  as  a  mere  veriety  of  this 
species.  In  Europe  there  are  many  remarkable  varieties,  of  yrhioh 
Hr.  Moore  has  figured  and  desoribed  more  than  fifty  that  oocur 
ID  BKtaia.  The  great  beauty  and  remarkable  character  of  many 
of  tbese  render  them  very  suit  ible  for  cultivation.  None  of  the 
abnormal  forms  have  as  yet  been  found  in  America,  probably 
merely  because  they.Iiave  not  been  looked  for. 
Cauptosobus. 
C.  rhiiophyUut  Presl. — Freed  lanceolate,  broad  and  hastate, 
or  cordate  at  base,  attenuated  towards  the  tip,  which  strikes  root 
and  give-i  rise  to  a  new  plant;  hence  this  fern  is  called  the  Walk- 
ing Leaf;  fronds  evergreen.  Oamplotortu  rhizophylltu,  Link, 
Preal,  A.  Gray,  Eaton,  Hooker.  ^pUnium  rhixop?u/Uum,  Linn, 
in  part  (Linnmus's  name  included  Faiyma  proli/era,  a  totally 
different  plant),  Miobanx,  Pursh,  Fl.  Am.  Sept.  ii,  p.  666,  Bige- 
low,  Torrey,  Beck,  Darlington,  Lowe's  Ferns,  vol.  t,  pi.  14  a. 
Anligramma  rhixophUa,  3.  8m.,  Torrey,  Fl.  N.  T.  il  p.  494. 
CamptotOTut  rumicifoliut,  Link. — On  tiie  flat  perpendicular  face 
of  a  rock  in  the  woods,  on  the  Spike's  Corners  side  of  the  mills 
at  High  Falls,  township  of  Portland,  0.  W.,  July  1862.  In  a 
rooky  wood,  a  mile  north-west  from  the  Ozfbrd  station  of  the 


1,;.  Google 


280  THI  OAMABIAH  NATCAAUST.  [Ah^ 

Ot  kwa  and  Preeoott  Rulvay,  npon  a  rode  aliglitlf  covered  with 
mould,  B.  Biliogs,  jua. ;  monnUin-ude  west  from  Hamiltoa.  ilw 
At  Anoaater  and  al  Lake  Medad,  Judge  Logie;  Wolfe  Idand,  £. 
J.  Fox;  not  mo  aboat  Owen  Sonnd,  Rev.  Prof.  W.  Hmoks; 
Montreal  HoDQtatn,  Ahb6  Provaaeher;  rather  northern  in  its 
range  in  North  Ainerioa,  but  not  common  anjwhete  in  Canada. 
This  oarions  fern  haa  been  loag  in  ooltivatioa  io  the  botanio 
gardens  of  Europe. 

Labtbia. 

i.  dilatata,  Preel. — Fronds  spreadiog,  broadly  Isnoeolate, 
rather  pale  but  vivid  green,  bipinnite;  the  pinnules  pioDate  or 
pinnatiSd  with  pointed  lobes;  on  the  lower  pinnm  the  posterior 
pinnules  are  longer  than  the  anterior  ones;  stipe  with  rather 
distant  pale  uniooloms  soales;  sori  smaU.  This  desoription  refers 
onlj  to  the  oommonest  form  in  Canada.  It  Is  a  vary  viiriabla 
species.  Aipidium  $pmulotum,  Graj. — Abundant  in  the  woods 
about  Eingstoa,  as  CoUins's  Bay,  &a..  Smith's  Falls,  Odessa, 
woods  near  the  Falls  of  Ningara,  Hinchinhroolc,  Oananoque  lelces, 
Farmeraville,  Hardwood  Creek,  Delta,  Upper  Rideau  Lake,  New- 
boro-on-the-Bid«an,  Longpoiot;  Mouth  of  the  AwaganUsia  Brook, 
Onlf  of  St.  Lawrunoe,  Goulab  River,  also  Grand  Island,  and  at 
Elo-we-naw  Point,  Lake  Superior,  R.  Bell,  jun. ;  Ramsay,  Rev.  J. 
K.  M'Morine,  M.A. ;  Preaoott,  very  common.  B.  Billings,  jun. ; 
St.  John's,  St.  Valentine,  and  Betoil,  P.  W.  MaoUgan,  M.D. ; 
Belleville,  very  common,  J.  Maoonn ;  St.  Foy  Woods,  W.  S.  M. 
D'Urban;  Daniel's  Harbor,  Newfonmllaad,  James  Richardson 
(a  peculiar  form) ;  FSche  River,  Chelsea  and  CanUey,  Hull,  D. 
M'GUIivray,  M.  D.  Of  varieties  referable  to  var.  Bootlii,  Gray, 
var.  dumetoram,  Gray,  or  others,  di&ring  from  the  oommen 
(whieh,  howi:Tur,  is  perhaps  not  the  typioilj  form,  I  have  seen 
speaimons  from,  or  obtained  informatioD  of  their  having  been 
eoUeoted  in,  the  following  looalities ; — Maiden,  Brighton,  Point 
Rich,  Newfunndluid,  Haoiilton's  Farm,  Murray,  Hamilton,  &o. 
These  rariedes  still  require  careful  stndy,  with  a  view  to  th«r 
tdea:iSaation  withEiiropeanforms,  which  are  now  well  understood. 

0-  tanaettifolia. — Frond  largo  and  very  broad,  triangular, 
tripinnate,  with  tha  pinnules  pinnatiGd  or  deeply  incised,  lobed. 
P.  tanaceti/olium,  DC.  ?— Pointe  des  Mens,  Gaspd,  John  Bell, 
Mr.  Bell's  specimeo  seems  to  agree  well  with  Mr.  Moore's 
deacription  of  var.  taitaeaifolift.    The  typwal  L.  dilatata,  with 


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1864.3  LAwson  oh  cakasiah  rmm.  281 

iuk'teaini  walce,  to  oemmon  in  Soodan^  I  bsn  not  j«i  seen 
poving  ia  the  CaiudiaD  wood<;  but  a  fragment,  tbo  nppn 
portioD  of  a  frond,  fvoot  Point  lUah,  NewfoandUnd,  Jbbws 
BicturdflOB,  htoks  like  it. 

if.  mor^'noZM,  J.  Saiih.— Fraud  ovale  oblong,  a  foot,  mora  or 
Ian,  in  lengUt,  Inpinnftte,  pale  green,  sotuevb&t  ooriaoaoos,  laatii^ 
tba  viater ;  pinine  linearJuuedate,  broad  at  bKge ;  pinnnkc 
obloo;,  Tery  obtuse,  obeoletely  incised ;  sori  margiiial ;  stipe  of  a 
pals  eiBoaooB  oolor  whoa  old,  with  la^^e  tbio  pale  scales  proftise 
bdow.  Ii.  maifinalit,  J.  Sm.,  Aynditm  margintiie,  Swarta^ 
Pnish,  B^cJow,  Beok,  DarHngton,  Gray,  Eaton,  Love's  Ferns, 
Tol.  ri,  [d.  6  (a  bad  ftg<^),  Torrey  Fl.  N.  Y.  ii,  p.  465.  Fbfy- 
podium  MMf^Mofe,  Linn.  N^krodmm  mdrymaJe,  Midiaax.— - 
This  apeciw  is  as  eommon  in  the  Canadian  woods  as  Latrea  Filio' 
ma*  is  in  Hiose  of  Britain ;  woods  arooitd  ffiogston,  abandant ; 
near  Odessa;  Newboro-oo-tbo  Bidean;  along  Ae  coane  of  tiia 
Gananoqns  lUrer  and  Uies,  in  Tarions  [daoes ;  very  fine  at  Har- 
Ue  Bock ;  FumeraviUe ;  ^rdwood  Greek ;  Valley  of  the  Trent, 
feand  on  the  ftreat  boolder,  fta.  -.  on  Judge  Mallooh'a  farm  and 
slaevhwn  about  BroeknUe ;  on  Umestone  rooks  above  the  Biq>idB 
at  Sbaw'a  H^l,  Lakafidd,  North  Dooro,  Urs.  Traill ;  Snlphuz 
Spring,  Hamilton,  Judge  Logie;  Cedar  Uand,  A.  T.  Otvi^ 
Boad,  juo.,  B.A. ;  SmitJi'e  Falls,  and  Chlppawa,  P.  W.  Haol^n, 
1I.D. ;  RaniBay,  Bev.  J.  E.  H'Morine,  H.A. ;  PteaeoU,  oommon, 
B.  Billings,  jun. ;  Bellerille,  in  rich  low  moist  woods,  common,  J. 
Maoonn;  above  :raaeklead  FaSa,  W.  S.  M.  D' Urban ;  Gatineaa 
HiUi,  D.  M'Gillirray,  M.D.;  Oape  Tonrmeute,  Abb«  Pr>- 
rancher ;  Hirrington,  J.  Bell,  BA. ;  Loodon,  W.  Saonders. 
This  is  exoloaively  an  Ameriean  fern.  It  Tariea  in  aiu  and 
^peanneo ;  in  some  speeimans  the  pinan  are  wide  apart,  thnr 
(Unsions  amall  and  narrow ;  in  others,  the  pinnae  overlap  each 
•tiier,  and  Uieir  divisions  are  broad  and  laaf^,  also  overlapping, 
sod  in  snoh  forms  they  am  osnaily  toothed  into  rounded  lobea. 
Mr.  Haooun  eeads  a  form  from  B^eville,  more  deeply  serrate 
than  osaal. 

?■  JVaiflB.— Fronds  very  l^e  m  feet  long),  bipinnate,  afl 
lb  pinnules  pinnatifid.~Lakefield,  North  Douro,  ^rs.  TrsilL 
TlusHa  a  vury  handsome  variety,  and  woidd  form  an  attraotive 
pUnt  in  enltivation.  It  has  the  saine  relation  to  the  type  (tf  £. 
Maryina/ii  whkh  L.  mois  {ttota)  has  to  typed  FQ,ia>'ma», 


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282  THl  OARADUM  NATUKALIST,  [Aug. 

La»trea  FHin^nat  is  wieneonalj  refbrred  to  in  some  American 
works  on  Materia  Medica  as  a  eommon  North  American  and 
Canadian  fern.  It  has  recent);,  however,  been  fbnnd  on  the 
Boclcy  Monntuns  by  Br.  Parry.  Profeeaor  Gray  says  that  Dr. 
Parry's  specimens  are  apparently  identiosl  with  the  Europoan 
plant.  Nothing  like  it  ooonrs  in  Canada,  so  &r  as  I  can  ascertain. 
Varieties  of  L.  manpnalU  have  been  sent  to  me  nnder  the  name 
of  L.  Filix'Buu. 

L.  crittata,  Presl. — Fronds  ereot,  rigid,  lineaP«blong  in  outline, 
vivid  green,  pinnal«  «  slightly  bipinnat«;  pinnas  triangalar- 
lanceolate;  pinnules  largo,  oblong,  approximate,  decorrent;  aori 
Im^,  in  a  rin^e  seriee  on  eaeb  side  of,  and  near  to,  the  vun ; 
stjpe  with  few  pale  scales.  Lastrea  crittala,  Presl,  Moore,  Ao. 
Polypodiwm  erittatum,  Linn.  Atpidium  crUtalwn,  Swarti, 
■mild.,  Pursh,  E.  B.,  Beck,  Torrcy  PI.  N.  T.,  ii,  p.  496.  Gray. 
Atpidium  crifftiAaw,  p.  Laneattrimse,  Torrey  ;  A.  Lanca$trUiue, 
Spreng.,  Bigelow,  Beok,  Darlington,  Hooker. — Woods  around 
Kingston ;  near  the  Pfohe  River,  Oatinean,  a  tributary  of  the 
Ottawa,  D.  M'Gillivray,  M.D. ;  Three  Rivers,  St.  John's  and 
Obippawa,  P.  W.'  Madagau,  M.D. ;  Spronle's  Swamp,  east  irom 
Belleville  (a  cedar  swamp),  not  common,  J.  Haoonn  ;  Ramsay, 
Bev.  J.  E.  M'Morine,  M.A. ;  Presoott,  eommon,  B.  Billing, 
jun. ;  Lake  of  Three  Motmtains,  W.  S.  M.  D'TTrban ;  Silver 
Brook,  Gasp^  John  Bell,  B.A.  j  SL  Fereol,  Abbd  Provancber;  , 
L'Orignal,  J.  Bell ;  London,  W.  Saunders. 

L.  GoldUana,  J.  Smith. — Frond  very  laige  (3  or  4  feet  or 
more  in  length),  dark  green,  bipinnate;  pionm  6  to  8  inches  long, 
narrow,  linear-lanceolate,  not  much  attoonated  towards  the  tips ; 
jdnnules  (12—20  pairs),  linoar^blong,  approximate,  uniformly 
curved  forwards,  aoythe-shaped,  sometimes  with  an  extra  lobe  at 
base ;  sori  small,  near  the  midrib  ;  stipe  with  pale  sha^y  scales 
above  and  latter  dark-centred  ones  below ;  our  loigoet  Canadian 
fern,  usoally  barren.  Lcutrea  Goldieana,  J.  Smith.  Atpidivm 
Goldianum,  Hooker,  Edin.  New  Phil.  Jour,  vi,  p.  333,  and  Fl. 
Bor.  Am.,  ii,  p.  260,  Gray.  NepHrodiam  Ooldieanum,  Hook, 
and  Orev.  A^tditan  Fiia-mai,  Pursh,  not  of  Willd.,  Jto. — 
Farmersvillf,  in  woods  near  the  village,  abundant  and  very  fine, 
forming  immense  tufts ;  near  Hamilton's  farm  and  De  Salaberry, 
town-line,  W.  S.  M.  D'Urban  ;  Bolmil  Honntain,  Hootreal  and 
Maiden,  P.  W.  Maolagan,  M.D. ;  Belleville  Woods,  near  Castle- 
ton  ;  woods  below  Heely's  Falls,  west  ude,  and  in  Simon  Terrill's 


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■  1864.]  LAWSOM  ON  OA.NADUN  HRNB.  283 

WckmIb,  Brighton,  J.  Maooun ;  At^;nsU,  Robert  Jsrdine,  B.A. ; 
sbont  MoDtreal,  Mr.  Qoldie  in  Hook.  Fl.  Bor.  Amet.  London, 
W.  Sanndera.  This  fine  fern  was  appropriately  named  Ij  Sir 
William  Hooker  in  Iionor  of  iia  diaooTerer,  a  snocessfnl  inTesU- 
gator  of  Canadian  botany,  now  resident  at  Paris,  C.  W.  The 
Bpeoies  belongs  ezoluaivelj  to  the  American  oontineot.  In  Canada 
we  have  two  aah-Tarietiee : — 

a.  terrata,  in  whioh  the  divisions  of  the  {anose  are  ooarsely 
serrate.    Monb«al. 

p.  inlegerrima,  in  which  the  divisions  of  the  pinnae  are  almost 
or  qnite  entire.     FarmersTille. 

i.  fragrant,  Moore. — Frond  8  to  12  inohee  long,  ooriaoeons, 
bipinnate,  pionee  triangular,  of  few  (4  or  fi  pairs)  of  pinnnlea, 
which  are  crowded  and  oovered  beneath  by  the  lai^e  rusty  mem* 
branons  indnsia,  which  conceal  the  BorL  Baohis  with  proflise, 
large,  palish  scales,  especially  near  the  base.  A^tidiumfragranty 
Swarte,  A.  C^ray. — Booka,  Penokee  Iron  Bidge,  Lake  Superior, 
Mr.  Lapham,  and  north-west — Professor  Wood,  in  Glass-Book ; 
shaded  trap  rooks,  Falls  of  the  St.  Croiz,  Wisoonstn,  Dr.  Parry, 
and  high  northward,  Gray's  Manual.  I  have  not  yet  seen  Cana- 
dian specimens  of  this  species,  which  is  quite  a  northern  fern, 
stretching  al  >ng  the  northern  shores  of  the  Russian  Artio  domi- 
nions. I  have  specimens  from  Repulse  Bay,  collected  by  Captain 
Rae's  party  while  wintering  there  in  1855.  This  plant  does  not 
appear  to  be  in  caltivation  in  any  European  garden. 

L.  ThfJgplerii,  Presl. — Frond  erect,  lanoeolate,  mostly  broad 
at  base,  and  narrowed  upwards,  thin,  and  herbaceous,  or  slightly 
ooriaoeons,  glabrous  or  downy,  pinnate;  pinnie  linear,  rather 
distant,  deeply  pionatifid;  pinnules  with  revolnte  margins,  veins 
forked,  sori  near  their  middle,  beooming  confluent.  Stipe  as  long 
as,  or  longer  than,  the  frond,  and  naked.  Lattrea  TkelypterU. 
Presl,  Moore,  J.  Sm.  Aspidimn  Thtli/pterit,  Swartz,  E.  B. 
Willd.,  Pursb,  Bigelow,  Beck,  Darlington,  Torr^  y  Fl.  N.  Y.  ii,  p. 
696,  A.  Gray,  Man.  Polypodium  Thdi/pteriii,  Linn.  Dryop- 
terit  ThdgpUrit,  Gray. — Swamps  in  the  woods,  tewnships  of 
Hinohinbrook,  Portland,  Emeetown,  toa. ;  Millgrove  Marsh, 
Hamilton,  Judj^  L<^e;  Gatinean  Mills  on  the  Ottawa,  D. 
M'GDlivray,  M.D. ;  Prescott,  oommon,  B.  Billinf^,  jun. ;  Temis- 
conata,  Thorold  and  Maiden,  P.  W.  Maolagan,  M.D. ;  Belleville, 
very  common  in  swamps,  J.  Maooun ;  Bauuay,  Rev.  J.  K.  M'Mo- 
rirte,  M.A. ;  portage  to  Bark  Lake,  and  on  Inmber-ioad  through 


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284  TOB  aXHAJIUlS  NAIITBAUBT.    .  t'^Og- 

the  woods  east  fhnn  HuniliOD's  fittin,  W.  8.  H.  D'Hrbm ; 
Hontreal,  Dra.  MaoUgan  aod  Epstein ;  Hodaon  Bay  Territories 
near  Red  Kiver  SetAteinent;,  Governor  U'TaTiBh ;  St.  Joactrim, 
AbM  Prorandier;  L'Orignal,  J.  Bell,  B.A. ;  London,  W. 
Saanders.  In  the  State  of  New  York  the  tpeeiee  ia  eommon  in 
swamps  and  wet  tliiclteta  (Tom;).  Ihxn  it  from  West  Pditt, 
N.  Y.  In  the  sonth,  Eaton  indioatee  Florida  and  northward. 
Very  Mtflom  ftFond  widi  froetifieation  (Ptush).  Fertile  epedaene 
arc  not  rare  with  ub.  The  forked  veins  of  the  pinnules  dislia- 
gniih  this  spedea  tmn  the  neat  In  the  Oanadian  plant,  the  ont- 
line  of  the  frond  is  a  little  different  from  SetAdb  and  IrMi  speoi- 
mena,  being  leea  naiTow«d  attbebase.  There  are  tiiree  fbrms  of 
tiiia  species  in  Canada.  The  first  (a)seemBtobelliepUntof0n7's 
Hanu^,  the  fleooBd(j8)  is  more  like  tlie  L.  Ti^pleru  of  Bnnope, 
and  tJtc  thirdly)  ^  intexmediate  between  this  speoiea  and  Ae  next. 

a.  pvbeKeiu. — ^Frond  somewhat  eoriaomu  densely  p^)eaoeDt 
or  downj  throngfaoat.     Odessa,  Hodson  Bay. 

p.  glabra. — Frond  thin,  barbaoeone,  ^abrona.  Hontreal,  Chd 
na,  Hichmbrook,  to. 

y.  inttrmedia.— Frond  narrowed  below,  glabronaj  stipe  sl^fafly 
elongated  (veins  fotked).    QMp6,  J.  Bdl,  B.  A. 

L.  Not-Ebormsmn*. — Frond  lanceolate,  narrow  at  llie  base,  Wb 
and  herbaceoBB,  pinnate ;  pinns  linear-laneeoUte,  m<»e  er  lea  ap. 
prszimate,  deeply  pinnatifid;  pinnnlea  oblong,  uenally  flatj  vane 
umpte  (not  forked),  son  never  confluent ;  stipe  short,  raohb,  fte., 
downy,  phnnlss  more  or  lees  distinetly  cilnta.  Lattrea  Nov^iot- 
*o«nti*,  Prenl.  Palgpodittm  .NoeeioniemM,  Linn.,  Sohk.  Aipi- 
tlimm  iM^ptarotdet,  Sworta.  Atpinium  Haveboracente,  Willd, 
A.  Gray,  Baton — Pittaburg  near  Kingston;  Lakefield,  North  Donro, 
Hra.  Traill;  Mowitain  ude,  Hamilton,  Judge  Logie;  Preseott, 
common,  B.  BilUnfis,  jqd.,  HeuDts  Johnson,  Montreal,  and  Beicml, 
P.  W.  HaoUgan,  M.  D. ;  Ramsay,  Rev.  J.  K.  N'Mmne,  M.A. ; 
near  Chelsea,  J).  MISiHivniy,  H.D. ;  London,  but  not  eommon, 
W.  Sauodera;  L'Origaal,  J.  Bell.  This  fern  bebni^  exolnaivelj 
to  the  American  eentinent.  It  ssems  to  be  more  idmndant  and 
more  distinat  in  the  United  Statea  then  with  ns.  In  Flora  BoreaR' 
Amerieami,  Sir  William  Hooker  observed :  "  The  A^ndiun 
Noeeboraeeiue  is  ([nite  ideatieal  witii  A.  TheU/pUrit."  In  the 
reoently-publi^ed  volnae  of  SpeoU*  FUiaim  (wbidi  at  present 
I  can  only  quote  at  sseond  hand),  doubts  an  still  etprsesed  as  to 
it  being  a  qnoiea  really  distinct  fron  L.  TWyptem.    Mr.  Eaton 


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1864.]  LAVMH  OR  CAVAtaAK  nXKB.  265 

and  oAer  AmeriMn  pteridolt^iitB  think  it  qnita  distinet.  Ita  mont 
obvioaB  cbarMtersffK — (1.)  Tbs  Upmingfomi  of  the  lower  part  of 
the  frond  (althongb  there  ia  also  a  fonn  of  £.  ThHgpttrit  having 
this  peculiarity ;  (2.)  eon  few,  mostly  near  the  base  of  the  |an- 
nnles,  and  not  Mnflnent,  not  overiapped  hj  a  reenrved  ma^a ; 
(3.)  Teios  of  the  pIdduIm  nmple,  not  forked.  The  oatlioe  of  the 
frond  moBt  not  be  depended  upon,  U  the  Sfmteh  and  Irisli  L. 
Thei^teru  m  narrowed  at  the  baie  like  L.  ^ov-EboraututM, 
This  epeeiei  is  allied  to  X,  nunttona,  Hoore  [Oreopttrit,  Bory.) 

POLTSTIOHUU. 

P.  annulare,  f}.  Srannii. — Frond  soft,  herbaeaoni,  laneeolste, 
bipinnate ;  pionolea  italked,  Bcrada ;  the  small  teeth  tipped  by  soft 
briatlei ;  stipe  and  ndtis  scaly  tbrouf^nt ;  In  tiie  Canadian 
plant  the  Bcaiee  of  the  raohie  are  larger  than  in  the  typical  P.  annu- 
lare of  England,  iVom  which  it  may  be  speiifioally  distinct :  At- 
pidiwn  BrmutH,  Bpenner.  Atpidimn  aaUeAtum  Tar.  Braunii,  A. 
Oray,  Han.  Bot.,  p.  MI9,  A.  aoukatum,  Abb6  Proranehw;  Hap- 
rington,  Cape  Bon-Ami  and  Dartmontii,  N.  fork,  €iaap^,  JcAv 
BeU,  B.  A. ;  baseof  Silver  Monataia,  W.  8.  H.  S'Urbsn. 

P.  LonehaU,  Both. — Frond  rigid  and  shiniog,  Ihiear-laneeolate, 
amply  pinnate ;  pinut  nytb««1)&ped,  anriried,  spinore.  Poh/t- 
tuAum  Lo»ehitit,  Both,  Moore,  J.  Sm.,  &o.  Fiilgfodutm  Ltm- 
«itti»,  Linn.  Lapidimm  Lonehtti;  SwarU,  8ohk. — Limestone 
rae^  Owen  Sonnd,  C.  W.,  166,9,  Rer.  Professor  Hincks. 
Profcesor  Hinoks  faaa  ako  kindly  ftamidied  me  with  apoimenB  from 
the  above  looalily.  Woods,  sontbern  diere  of  Lake  Superior  and 
north-westward,  Professor  Asa  Gray,  in  Han. ;  BTitieli  America, 
Professor  Wood  in  Class  Book.  It  will  be  observwi  that  Pro- 
fessor Hinoka's  statioD  la  the  only  deflnite  Canadian  one  vith 
which  weare  acquainted.  Mr.  T.  Dmmmond  foond  thU  fern  on 
the  Booky  Mountains  many  years  a|^. 

P.  aorattiekoidet,  Sohott — Frond  pale  green  shining,  long  and 
narrow,  Iinear4anoeolate,  simply  pinnate  ;  pin nss  long  and  narrow, 
liBea7>laaoe(4at«,  shortly  stalked,  anrided  anteriorly  at  the  bese, 
mere  or  less  distinedy  aemte,  widi  hair4jpped  teeth ;  fertile  (upper) 
piaue  slightly  oontraeted,  ooveted  beneailiby  the  large  eonfluent 
son  stipe  proftwely  riiaffy,  with  pale  seales,  FolgttUAmm  acrvi- 
li<Ju»de»,  Sohott,  J.  Sn.  jtspt^utm  aav$tielMtltt,  Swarti, 
A.  Oray,  Baton.  Aipid.  owrioalatum,  8ohk.  Nephrodimm 
aero4litAoida,  Michx. — Abundant  in-tb»w«eda  a  ftw  miles  fi«a 


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286  TBI  OAHADIAR  NATDRALIST.  [Ang 

Kingston ;  abo  not  rare  in  the  woods  of  the  Midland  District  of 
Canada  generally ;  Upper  Rideaa  Lake  ;  woods  aronod  Toronto, 
Bev.  Dr.  Barclay;  Stanfold,  AbbS  Pronnoher;  L'Orignal, 
J.  Bell ;  London,  W.  Saunders ;  Solphur  Spring,  Hamilton,  Judge 
Lope,  PresoottgOommrai,  B.  Billings,  jdd;  Micoletand  St.  Valentino, 
G.  £.,  and Chippawa, G.  W.,P.  W.  Maolagan,  M.D.;  Btrlleville 
Ter;  oommon  in  rooky  woods,  as  in  Hop  Garden,  J .  Maoonn ; 
B^maay,  RcT.  J.  K.  M'Morine,  M.A. ;  hills  and  woods,  portage  'to 
Bark  Lake,  W.  S.  H.  D'Vrban ;  Gilmonr's  Fann,  Chelsea,  D. 
M'GiUivray,  M.D, ;  Ognafamok  and  Presoott  Junction,  Bev.  E.  U< 
Epstein.    This  species  is  exoluflively  American. 

[p.  indtum,  pinnte  strongly  eerrateor  incissd  into  lobes.  AtpC- 
dium  /ichioeinUtii,  BecL  This  form,  whioh  I  have  from  Schooley's 
Hbuutains,  &o.  (A..  0.  Brodie),  will  no  doubt  be  found  in  Canada.] 

CrsTOPTEBIS. 

C./ragili*,  Bemhardi — Pronds  delicate,  green,  lanceolate  in  out- 
line, glal^ons,  bipinnate ;  pinnte  and  pinnules  ovate-lanceolate  or 
oblong;  the  latter  obtuse,  incisely  toothed,  thin  and  veiny;  sori 
large ;  stipe  dark  purple  at  the  base.  Cj/itopterU  fragilU,  Bem- 
hardi, Hook.,  Bab.,  Moore,  Newm.,  A.  Gray.  Polypodivm  fragihj 
Linn.  Cytlapterit orientaiiM,'DBmaai.  Polypod.  viriduliim,Det:v. 
Aik]frium/raffiU,8id\er.  Gyat1ieafrag\li»,8m,  C.c]/wipi/olia mi 
C-  a»thri*ei/olia,  Both.  Cgitea  fragilU,  Sm.  Cy^opteri*,  S.  F. 
Gray. — Booky  woods  and  olib  about  Kingston,  in  various  places 
but  not  abundant;  Fannersrille ;  Mountain  side,  Hamilton,  on 
moist  rooks,  Judge  L<^ie ;  rocks  by  the  bay'«hore,L' Anse  an  Cousin 
and  Dartmouth  Uiver,  Gaspj,  John  Bell,  B.A. ;  Mirwin's  woods, 
Presoott,  conuuon,  B.  Billings,  jun. ;  Montreal  and  Jones's  Falls,  P. 
W.  Maolagan,  M.D. ;  rooky  bank  of  the  Moira,  rather  rare,  J. 
Maooun ;  Bamsay,  Rev.  J.  K.  M'Morine ,  M.A. ;-  camp  at  base  of 
Silver  Moant,on  rocks,  also  BiverBot^, abundant;  DeSalaberry, 
west  line,  and  at  Black  Lead  Falls,  W.S.  M.  D'Crban;  St.  Jo- 
aohim,  Abb£  Provanoher ;  Grenville,  C.  E.  John  Bell,  B.  A.; 
London,  W.  Saundera.  In  Dr  Hooker's  valuable  Table  of  Arctic 
Distribution  this  plant  is  indicated  as  a  Canadian  species  that 
does  not  enter  the  United  Stat«8,  which,  I  presume,  arises  from  a 
misprint,  as  the  species  is  not  uncommon  in  the  Northern  StetoSj 
and  extonds  south  to  the  mountains  of  Carolina.  The  delicata 
C.  tenvM  is  the  form  known  in  the  south,  but  in  Canada  we  have 
the  stout  ty^oal  Enropeaa  foim  of  V./ragUu, 


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1864.]  lAWBON  ON   (UHAStAN  FERNS.  287 

p.  anguitata. — PinnnleB  iiKnsed,  withlongiih  and  apraading teeth. 
Cyst.  frag.  ^m.  a/napi/olia,  J.  liOwe.— Gaep^,  Join  Bell,  B. A. 
Speoimens  referable  to  tbia  form  were  likeviee  gathered  at  Lake 
of  Three  MonntuDB  by  Mr.  D'UrbsD.  Mr.  Bell's  epecimens 
agree  perfectly  vitb  Esgliab  BpecimeDS  from  Dr.  John  Lo»« 
((7./.  egnapi/olia).  Italian  apeoinens  from  Professor  Camel  of 
Pisa,  labelled  "  Cytt.fragilit"  belong  to  this  variety.  Mr.  Bell 
has  a  fertile  frond  from  Gasp^  vitb  very  broad  veiny  pinnse, 
deeply  incised,  but  not  pinnat«. 

C^.  6u2&>yera,  Bemhardi. — Frond  thiD,  green,  lanceolate  or  Uneu- 
lanueolate,  bipinnate,  bulblferooB  towards  the  apex  on  the  nader 
surface  ;  pinnie  oblong-lanoeolate,  narrowed  at  the  tips ;  pinnules 
oblong-obtnse,  inoisely  toothed  j  son  small,  not  very  numerons ;  in> 
dusiom  abort.  Tery  variable  in  the  ute  and  form  of  the  frond.  C. 
httlbi/era,  Bemhardi,  A.Or.,  J.  Sm. ;  AMpidiam  bvlbi/entm,  Swurti, 
Sehk.,  Pnrsb.  A^idium  ulomaritan,  Mnhl. — Moist,  swampy 
woods  about  Kingston,  as  Collins's  Bay,  KingstoD  Mills,  &o. ; 
abundant  on  Jndge  Malloch's  farm,  a  mile  west  from  BroclcTille ; 
PeUt  Portage,  &o.,  Gasp£,  John  Bell,  B.A. ;  Wolfe  Island,  A.  T. 
Dmmmond,  B.A. ;  Mirwin'a  woods,  Presoott,  common,  B.  Bil- 
lings, jun.  (short  form);  Belceil  Mountain,  F.  W.  Maolagan,  M.D. ; 
rocky  banks  of  the  Moira,  Belleville,  and  in  oedar  swampa  and 
wet  woods,  very  common,  J,  Macoun  ;  R&msay,  Rev.  J.  K.  M'Mo- 
line,  H.A. ;  Monntain  side,  Hamilton,  common,  Jndge  Logie; 
Bhick  Lead  Falla,  on  limestone  rook,  W.  8.  M.  D'Urban  ;  Foot 
of  Cape  Tonrmente,  AVbi  Provancher;  Grenville,  G.  E.,  J. 
Bill;  London,  W.  Saunders.  There  are  two  distinct  forms  or 
varieties  of  this  species. 

a-  horiamtaUt. — Frond  triangniar-lanceolAte,  broad  at  base,  not 
more  than  three  or  four  times  longer  than  broad;  pinnie  boriioD- 
tal.     Nugara  Falls,  within  the  spray,  Collins's  Bay,  &o. 

p.  flagelli/oTtnu. — Frond  linear,  attennated  upwards,  very 
long  and  narrow,  six  or  seven  times  longer  than  broad ;  jnnue 
less  horiiontal.    Frankville,  Montreal,  Gasp^,  tie. 

DXMNSTJEDIIA. 

D.  punctihhula,  Moore. — Frond  broadly  lanoeolate,  pale  green, 
thin,  witli  a  stout raobis,  bipinnate;  the  pinnnlea  pinnatifid ;  sori 
minute,  usually  one  on  the  anterior  basal  tooth  of  each  lobe  of 
the  pinnole,  which  is  reflexed  over  Uie  soms ;  the  proper  indusiiua 
to  pale,  cnp-ahaped,  opening  at  top.    Bbixome  slender,  creepi^ 


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288  THl  (UltADUIt   NATITRAI.aT,  [Adg 

throi^  tbe  loil ;  whole  plant  f^dnUrdown^.  J>e»tnttaidtia 
(Bernhtrdi,  1800)  ptmeHloMa,  Moore,  Index  Filionm,  p.  zoriL 
XKektania  ptuKfUoMa,  HocJcer,  A.  Gnj,  3.  8m.  D.  pUotivt- 
evia,  WiUd.,  Hook.  VI.  Bor.  Amer.  Nephroditimpiiitetiiobulttm, 
Hichz.  Aqtidium  puitetilobulum,  Swarti.  Patania,  Freal- 
Diduonia  pt^ieKtiiu,  Sohkr.  Silolobitun  pUotiuiathim,  Desr.,  3. 
Sm.  Gen.  Fil. — Fittebarg  neir  KiogBtoo,  John  Bell,  B.A. ;  Kiver 
Boage,  W.  S.  M.  D'Urbui ;  Montroil,  P.  W.  Haolagan,  «.  D. ; 
Prescott,  on  Dr.  Jeeenp's  moist  pastnre-land,  B.  Billinga,  Jan.; 
New  Bmoiwidc,  E.  N.  Kendal,  in  Hook.  Fi.  Bor.  Amer. ;  Bam- 
ny,  R«7.  J.  EL  H'Morine.  Mr.  Baton  has  mentiontd  to  me  that 
the  drying  ftnnda  have  the  odor  of  new  hay. 

WooDBii., 
IT. iZreMtf ,  B.  Br—- Frond  l«neeoUte,anulljfiMrorfivfiinohM 
long,  bqtiniwte,  or  nearly  ao,  ptonn  approximate,  pi  oiuiln  oblong, 
obtose,  atipe  (red),  raobia  and  whole  lower  anriaee  of  the  frond 
oloHied  with  ohnlFf  Males,  whieh  are  nisty  at  maturity.  Scwi 
nanally  oonflnent  aronnd  the  mai^ne  of  die  |»nnBlea.  Flnt 
obaerred  in  the  IbU  of  Elba  (Iln),  henoe  named,  after  Dal»- 
champ,  AenttiiAam  JIveate  hy  Linnteus,  whow  PhoBniz  waa 
veej  wroth  thereat;  see  Englidi  Flora,  voL  It,  p.  323.  Woodiia 
Itoauig,  B.  Br.,  Hook.,  Moore,  J.  8m.,  Gray,  &o.  ^^hrodivm 
luiuMtun,  MitAiz. — Abnndant  on  the  ridge  of  Lanrentian  rocks  at 
Kingston  Mills;  Rooks  west  from  Brot^ville  and  at  Ohelaea,  B. 
Billiogs,  jnn.,;  Mount  Johoaon  and  Belonl  Monnttua,  P.  W. 
Maotagan,  M.D.;  mountain  gnotsa  nx^,  opposite  Bonge  River, 
W.  8.  M.  D'Urban.  I  have  likewise  speotmens  from  the  HudsDn 
Bi^  territories  (Ooveraor  M'Tavi^),  but  without  special  looality. 
On  foeke,  Canada,  Pnreh ;  Canada  to  Hndaon  Bay,  Hook.  Fl. 
B.  A. ;  foot  of  Cape  Tonreiente,  Abb4  Provaaaher.  I  think 
ovr  plant  most  be  mneh  larger  and  more  sealy  than  the  European 
one.  A  tnft  Whidi  I  have  &(»t  CatakiU  Moantains  (A.  0.  Bro- 
die)  has  richly  &uited  frends  a  foot  k>ng  and  two  io^ee  wide. 
(I  find  that  large  American  forms  of  this  species  have  been  mis- 
taken for  W.  obtttia.  The  ioTolucre,  which  is  large  and  not  split 
into  hairs  in  ihe  latter  ^eoiee,  serves  readily  to  disttngnieh  it.) 
Morfi  of  tlK  TT.  Mventit  in  oultiTatioo  in  Europe  is  prcbahlj'  tJte 


fi-  jfraeUit. — ^Frofid  more  slender,  mere  hairy  and  less  eoaly 
than  the  type ;  pinnte  ra^er  dirtant,  dee^y  {anitatifid,  or  par 

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1864.]  LAWSON  ON  CANADIAN  PBRNB.  289 

tially  piDDale.  Dartmouth  River,  Gasp^,  John  Bell,  B.A.  In 
technical  characters,  this  form  agrees  better  with  W.  alpina 
(Tiy perhorea),  but  it  has  quite  a  different  aspect. 

W.  alpina,  S.  F.  Gray. — Frond  small  (from  one  to  two  or  three 
inches  long),  broadly  linear,  pinnate,  somewhat  hairy  without  dis- 
tinct scales;  pioDic  ovate,  somewhat  triangular,  obtuse,  pinoatifidly 
divided  into  roandish  lobea.  TVojdna  alpina,  S.  F.  Gray,  Brit;, 
PI.,  Sloore.  Woodtia  hyperhorea,  B.  Br.  in  Linn.  Trons.,  vol.  zi ; 
Pursh,  Fl.  Am.  Sept.  ii,  660.— In  the  clefts  of  rocks,  Canada, 
Pursh;  Canada  to  the  Saskatchewan,  Hooker.  Noticed  in 
Dr.  Hooker's  Table  of  Arctic  Plants  as  a  Canadian  species  that 
does  not  extend  into  the  American  States. 

IT.jifoW/a,  R.  Br.— Fronda  few  (2-4)  inches  long,  linear, 
bright  greea  and  glabrous  on  both  sides,  simply  pinnate ;  the  pin- 
me  short,  rounded  or  rhombic,  cut  into  rounded  or  wedged  lohes. 
Stipe  with  a  few  scales  at  the  base  only.  Woodtia  glabella,  R. 
Br,,  Hook.  FI.  Bor.  Amer.,  tab.  237  ;  Gray.  Canada,  Prof. 
Wood  in  Class  Book.  Sir  W.  Hooker,  in  the  Fl.  Bor.  Amer., 
gave  Great  Bear  Lake  as  the  only  station  then  known  for  W.  gla- 
bella. Mr.  D.  C.  Heaton  has  kindly  furnished  me  with  speci- 
mens from  Willoughby  Lake,  Vermont  (Goodale  leg.',  and  Pro- 
fessor Grey  notices  ite  occurrence  on  rocks  at  Little  Falls.  New 
York  (Vasoy),  and  "  high  northward." 

^.  Belli. — Frond  larger  (6-7  inches  long) ;  pinnes  more  elong- 
ated, pinnatifidly  incised  in  rounded  lobes  (bright  green,  glabrous). 
Gaspi',  on  the  Dartmouth  River,  twenty  miles  from  its  mouth, 
John  Bell,  BA. 

ir.  obluga,  Torrey. — Frond  nearly  a  foot  long,  linear-lanoeolate- 
glandulose,  bipinnate;  pinnules  slightly  decurrent,  oblong,  obtuse, 
crenate,  or  somewhat  pinaatiSd ;  ioduaium  large,  enveloping  the 
Bonis,  torn  into  a  few  marginal  lobes ;  stipe  with  few  scattered, 
pale,  eliaffy  scales.  Woodsia  obtuta,  Torrey,  A,  Gray,  J.  Sm. 
Aspidium  oblutum,  Willd.  Pki/iemalium  obtusum,  Hook,  Fl. 
Bor.  Amer.  Woodtia  rcrrincana.  Hook,  and  Orov.  Ic.  Fl.  PoiTy- 
podl-im.  obtttuan,  Swartz, — An  impression  prevails  that  this  plant, 
which  is  B^d  to  be  common  In  the  Northern  States,  especially 
towards  the  weet,  grows  also  in  Canada.  Mr.  D.  C.  Eaton,  in  the 
kindest  manner,  out  out  of  his  own  herbarium  a  specimen  for  me, 
&om  near  High  Bridge,  New  York  city,  in  an  excellent  state  for 
examination,  which  has  enabled  me  to  understand  the  species,  and 
to  ascertain  t^t  we  have  as  yet  no  Batisfaclory  evidence  of  its 
ToL.  I.  T  No.  *. 


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290  THB  OAHADIAN  MATimALIST.  [Aug. 

ocoarrenoe  in  Canada.  Large  fonns  of  W.  Ilventi*  have  in  some 
oasea  passed  for  it.  (I  introduce  this  notice  of  the  plant  with  a 
view  to  promote  farther  inquiry.) 

OSMUNBA. 

0-  regiilU  ?■  ipectabiUs. — Fronds  erect,  pale  green,  glabrous,  bi- 
pinnate;  pinnules  oblong-lanoeolate,  oblique,  shortly  stalked,  very 
slightly  dilated  at  the  base,  nearly  entire;  fertile  pinnules  forming 
a  racemose  panicle  at  the  summit  of  the  frond.  Otmvinda  tpecta- 
bilU,  WiUd.,  J.  Smith.  Fa»mersville ;  Hardwood  Creek,  Hinch- 
inbrook,  and  other  places  in  rear  of  Kingston,  usually  in  thiokety 
swamps,  by  corduroy  roads,  &o.;  Millgrove  Marsh,  Hamilton, 
Judge  Logie;  Kamsay,  liov.  J.  K.  M'Morine,  M.A. ;  woods  near 
the  Hop  Garden,  Belleville,  not  common,  J,  Macoun  ;  Prescott, 
common,  6.  Billings,  jun. ;  around  Metis  Lake,  &c. ;  opposite  Gros 
Cap ;  also  Sou-sou-wa-ga-mi  Croek  and  Sohibwah  Biver,  R.  Bell, 
jun.;  near  iMontreal,  Kev.B.  M.Epstein  andW.S.M.  D'Urban; 
mountain,  Bon oe  Bay,  Newfoundland,  on  rocks  1000  feet  above 
the  sea,  James  Richardson  (a  small  form)  ;  Welland,  J.  A.  Kemp, 
M.D. ;  Osnabruck  and  Fresoott  Junction,  Bev.  E.  M.  Epstein, 
Nicolet;  Wolfe  Ishmd  and  Navy  Island,  P.  W.  Maolagan,  M.D,; 
Lake  St.  Charles,  Abb£  Provaaoher ;  Caledonia  Springs  and 
L'Orignal,  J.  Bell;  Portland.  Thoa.  B.  Dupuis,  M.D.;  Bedford; 
London,  W.  Saunders.  The  fronds  of  our  plant  are  a  little  more 
'drawn  out  than  those  of  the  European  one ;  the  pinnules  are  often 
distinctly  stalked,  and  the  overlapping  auricles  either  altogether 
absent  or  only  slightly  developed.  This  is  0.  »pectahilU,  Willd. ; 
0.  regalii,  3.  Linn.  Sp.  PI.  Some  botanists  distinguish  two  Amer- 
-ican  forma,  one  agreeing  with  the  typical  0.  regalU of  Entope  ;  bat 
it  is  difficult  U>  do  bo.  The  typical  0.  regalU  is  a  larger,  more 
robust,  and  more  leafy  plant,  with  more  widely  spreading  or  diw- 
gent  pinnae,  and  more  leafy  aaricled  sessile  pinnules,  more  or  lesa 
pinnatiGd  at  the  base ;  in  oar  Canadian  plant  they  are  quite  en- 
tire. The  divisions  of  the  fertile  portion  of  the  pinuie  are  also 
more  widely  divergent  In  a  regalu.  The  fiond,  moreover,  is  of  « 
darker  color. 

0.  cinnamomea,  Linn. — Sterile  and  fertile  fronds  distinct,  the 
former  ample,  broadly  lanceolate,  pinnate ;  the  pinnss  rather  deeply 
pinnatiGd ;  lobes  r^ular,  entire ;  fertile  frond  contracted,  erect, 
in  the  centre  of  the  tut^  of  sterile  fronds,  and  not  at  all  foliaceous. 
Sporangia  ferruginous.    Fertile  frond  decaying  early  in  the  sam* 


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1864.]  LAWSOK  ON  CANADIAN   FXONS.  291 

mer.  Otmunda  eintiamomea,  Linn.,  Gray,  J,  Sm.  0.  Clayton- 
tanu,  Conrad,  pot  of  Linn. — Fairfield  farm  and  elsewhere  about 
Kingston,  not  uncommon;  Millgrove  Marsh,  Hamilton,  Judge 
Logie;  Sandwich  and  Montreal,  P.  W.  Msclagan,  M.B. ;  opposite 
GrosCap;  also  Two-Heart  River,  Lake  Superior,  R.  ISell,  jun., 
C>E. ;  Bellerille,  swampa  and  low  grounds,  oontni on,  J.  Macoan; 
Bamsaj,  Rot.  J.  K.  M'Morine,  M.A.;  St  Joy  Woods,  on  the 
river  shore,  near  Gatineau  Mills,  D.  M'Gillivray,  M.D. ;  New- 
foundland, Miss  BrentOD,  in  Hook,  Fl.  Bor.  Am. ;  Presoott,  com- 
men,  B.  Billings,  Jan.;  Nicolet,  Abb^  Provancher;  L'Or^nal, 
J.  Bell ;  near  London,  W.  Saunders. 

0.  Clagtonuina,  Linn. — Frond  narrowly  lanceobte,  pinnate; 
pinnie  lanceolate,  about  three  pairs  of  pinnie  near  or  below  the 
middle  of  the  frond  contracted  and  fertile ;  sporangia  brown,  with 
green  spores.  This  species,  when  fresh,  has  a  strong  odor,  re- 
sembling that  of  rhubarb  (Pie-plant)  stalks.  0.  Claytoniojut, 
Linn.,  Gray,  J.  Sm.  0.  interrupta.  Michaus. — Between  King- 
ston and  Kingston  Mills,  in  wet  swampy  places  by  the  roadside  > 
Little  Cataraqui  Creek ;  Waterloo ;  banks  of  the  Hnmber,  near 
Toronto;  Princes  Island,  Hamilton,  Judge  Logie ;  Ramsay,  Rev. 
J.  K.  McMorine,  M.A. ;  Ke-wc-naw  Point,  in  wet  soil,  R.  Bell, 
jun. ;  Belleville,  low  rich  grounds,  not  rare,  J.  Maooun;  Prescott, 
common, B.  Billings,  jun.;  Round  Lake,  W.  S.  M.  D'Urban;  Lake 
Settlement,  and  on  the  river  shore  near  Gatineau  Mills,  D.  McGiili- 
vray,  M.D. ;  Newfoundland,  Miss  Brenton,  in  Hook.  Bor.  Am.; 
Oanabruck  and  Prescott  Junction,  Rev.  Dr.  Epstein;  on  Judge 
Malloch's  farm  and  elsewhere  about  BrookviUe ;  Dartmouth  River, 
Oaspi,  John  Bell,  B.A.;  St.  Fereol,  Abb^  Provancher. 
Abundant  on  uncleared  bnd  along  the  Bedford  Road,  where  the 
dried  fronds  are  used  by  the  farmers  as  wint«r-fodder  for  sbci^p. 
Augmentation  of  Granville,  C.  E.,  J.  Bell,  B.A. ;  near  Eomoka, 
C.  W.,  W.  Saunders.  This  fern  is  common  also  in  the  Northern 
States.  I  have  a  lax  form,  with  long  stipes  and  remarkably  short 
somewhat  triangular  pinnae,  from  Sohooley's  Mountain. 

SCHIZ^A. 

[S.panUa,  Pursh, — Newfoundland,  De  la  Pylaie.  I  have  no 
further  information  respecting  its  oceurrenoe  in  British  America. 
Professor  A.  Gray  indicates  its  distribution  in  the  United  States 
thus; — "Low  grounds,  pine-barrens  of  New  Jersey,  rare,"  which  is 
not  at  all  favorable  to  its  being  found  in  Newfoundland  or  Canada! 


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292  THE   CANADIAN  HATDBALIST.  E-^^- 

Mr.  Eaton  has  eent  me  beaotifdl  epecimena  team  eaxtdj  Bwamps 
in  Ocean  County,  New  Jersey.] 

Ifat.  Ord.  OPHIOGLOSSACE^. 

BOTRTCHIUM. 

B.  Virginiwrn,  Sirartz. — Barren  branch  sessile,  attached  above 
the  middle  of  the  main  stem,  thin,  delicate,  veiay,  tripionat^,  lobee 
of  the  pinnules  deeply  incised  ;  fertile  braooh  bi-  or  sightly  tri- 
pinnate.  Very  variable  in  size,  usually  a  foot  or  more  in  height, 
but  sometimes  only  a  fen  inches.  Botrychium  Virginicum,  Swarti, 

A.  Gray,  J.  Sm.  jB.  Virginianum,  8chk.  Otmunda  Virginica, 
Linn.  Sp,  PI.  Botrypai  Virginiciu.  Michx. — Not  uncommon  in 
the  woods  about  Eingston  and  the  surrounding  country,  as  near 
Odessa,  in  Hinchinhrook,  &c. ;  Delta;  Toronto;  Sulphur  Spring, 
Hamilton,  Judge  Logic;  Prescott,  in  woods,  common,  B.  Billings 
jnn. ;  Nicolet,  Montreal,  Wolfe  Island  and  Chippawa,  P.  W.  Mao- 
lagan,  M.B.;  Bellcyille,  rich  woods,  very  common,  J,  Macoon; 
Bamsay,  Rev.  J.  E.  M'Morlne,  M.A. ;  Biver  Marsouin,  St.  Law- 
rence Gulf,  also  opposite  Grand  Island,  Lake  Superior,  B.  Bell, 
jttn.,  C.E. ;  Biviere  Bouge,  and  De  Salaberry,  west  line,  W.  S. 
M.  D'Urban;  Montreal,  Osoabmck,  and  Prescott  Junction,  Bev. 
£.  M.  Epstein;  Hill  Portage  above  Oxford  House,  Oovemor 
MeTarisb;  Newfoundland,  Miss  Brenton,  in  Fl.  Bor.  Amer. ;  Lake 
Huron  to  Saskatchewan,  Hook.  Fl.  Bor,  Am. ;  GasptS,  John  Bell, 
B.A.;  Stanfold,  Abb6  Provancher;  Grenville,  C.  E.,  J.  Bell; 
London,  W.  Saunders. 

/3.  jrflctfe.— Very  small  (5  or  6  indies  high),  fertile  branch 
less  divided.  B.  gracile,  Pursh.  Hill  Port^e,  above  Oxford 
House,  Governor  MoTavish. 

y.  simplex. — Barren  branch  oblong,  pinnatiGd,  the  lobes  ovate, 
incised,  veiny.  B.  timpttst,  Hitchcock.  Grenville,  C.  E„  John 
Bell,  B.A. 

B.  lunarioidei,  SwartE. — Barren  branch  long-stalked,  arising 
from  near  the  base  of  the  main  stem,  thick  and  leathery,  bipinnate, 
the  pinnules  sltuhtty  crcnate ;  fertile  branch  bipinnate.  Root  of 
Ions  thick  tuber-like  fibres.  Botrycliium  lannrioidet,  Swartu, Gray. 

B.  fam-irioidei,  Willd.,  Provancher.  Botn/pua  limiirwida,'M'K]a.. 
Gananoque  Lake,  May  1861  ;  Plains  near  Castleton,  and  woods 
near  the  Hop  Garden,  Belleville,  rare,  J.  Macoun ;  Three  Rivers, 
C.E.,  P,  W.  Maolagan,  M.D., ;  Waste  pkoes  west  from  Prescott 


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1864.]  LAWBOS   ON  OANADIAN   FXKNS.  293 

Janction,  rare,  B.  Billings,  jr. ;  St.  Joiicliim,  Abb^  Provancheij 
L'Orignal,  J.  Bell:  Soglisb's  Woods,  W.  Saunders;  in  the 
Northern  Statea  thia  species  grows  in  dry  rich  woods,  "  mostly 
Boathward,"  aooordiDg  to  Professor  Gray's  Manual. 

B,  obli^um,  Muhl.,  appears  to  be  chiefly  distinguished  hy  its 
laiger  size,  more  compound  fertile  frond,  and  the  narrower  oblique 
divisions  of  the  barren  one.  B.  obliguum  (Muhl.),  Pursh.  Fl. 
Amer.  Sept.,  vol.  ii,  p.  €56.  Newfoundland,  Dr.  Morrison  in 
Hook.  Fl.  Bor.  Amer ;  Wesleyan  Cemetery,  London,  W.  Sann- 
dera. 

B.  Lunaria, — Swarti. — Barren  branch  ses»le,  arieiog  from  the 
middle  of  the  stem,  thick  and  leathery,  oblong,  pinnate ;  pinnte 
laoate  or  fan-shaped  slightly  incised  on  the  rounded  margin. 
Botnfchium  Lunaria,  Swartz,  Schk.,  Hook.,  Moore,  J.  Sm, 
Onnunda  Lunaria,  Linn. — Nipigon,  18S3,  Governor  McTavish ; 
N.S.  America,  Dr.  Hooker's  tab. ;  Newfoundland,  Saskatchewan, 
and  Rocky  Mountains  to  Behring's  Bay  in  N.  W.  Am.,  T.  Moore, 
Hbk.  Brit.  Fens. 

Ophioolossuu. 

\0.  vulgatum,  L.,  which  is  widely  distributed  throughout 
Europe  and  Northern  Asia,  and  grows  also  in  tha  Northern  United 
States,  although  there  "not  common,"  is  to  be  looked  for  in 
Canada.  In  one  of  its  forms  (0.  reticulatum,  Linn.),  it  extends 
to  the  West  Indies.] 

Ml.  Ord.  LYCOPODIACE.ffl.* 
Plahakthits. 
p.  Selago,  PaltisotrBesuvois. — Stem  diohotomonsly  branched, 
erect  fasiigiate;  leaves  in  about  8  rowei,  more  or  less  convergent  or 
spreading,  lanceolate,  acuminate,  entire;  sporangia  in  the  axils  of 
the  common  leaves  (not  in  spikes).  Lycopodiam  Sehgo,  Linn., 
E.  B.,  Bigelow,  Beck,  Hook  and  Grev.,  Torrey  PI.  N.  Y.  ii,  p. 
Ii08,  Gray.— Labrador,  Hudson  Bay  to  Bocky  Mountains,  Hcok. 
FL  B.  A. ;  shore  of  Lake  Superior  and  northward,  Professor  A. 
Gray,  Man.  Bet.,  N.  S.,  p.  ()03.    I  have  not  seen  Canadian  sped- 

•  Id  thia  order  the  arrangement  of  A.  U.  F.  J.  pBlligot-Beauroia  is 
adopted,  ai  it  aeems  to  afford  the  best  basis  for  a  re-adjustnieDt  of  (he 
genera  of  Zycopodiacex,  which  ia  much  required.  For  F.-B.'s  genua 
Lepidotit,  I  bare  thought  it  better  to  sabstitate  the  avne  Lscopoditim,  na 
old  name  that  sbonld  not  be  discarded. 


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294  THE   CANADIAN   KATURALI8T.  [Al^. 

mena  of  tbis  pUot.  The  Btations  koown  ahow  that  it  enoirclee 
Canada,  and  some  of  them  are  probably  within  our  limits.  Prin- 
cipal DawBOD  obtained  the  alpine  variety  on  the  White  Monntains, 
Herb.  Bot.  Soc.  Canada,  It  ia  a  rare  plant  in  the  Unit«d  States. 
There  are  two  forma  of  this  species  (both  of  which  are  figured  by 
Dillenina) ;  a.  iylualicut,  leaves  convergent,  almost  appressed;  ^. 
alpinv*,  leaves  widely-spreading,  stems  shorter. 

P.  lucidulut.  Stem  dichotomonsly  divided  into  long  erect 
branches;  leaves  bright  green,  in  about  8  rows,  reflexed,  Unear- 
lanceolate,  acute,  deaticulat«  ;  sporaogia  in  the  axils  of  the  oom- 
moa  leaves  (not  in  spikes).  Lympodium  luciduhan,  Miohaui, 
Pursh,  Bigelow,  Torr.  Fl.  N.  Y.  ii,  p.  508,  Gray,  Beck,  Darling- 
ton, Hook,  and  Grev.  Bot  Mis.  L.  rejleicum,  Schk.  Lycopodimn 
luhereeliim  of  Lowe,  a  Madeira  plant.  Selago  Am^eana,/oliU 
denliculatu  TtJkxU,  Dill.  Hist.  Mus.  t.  Ivi. — Gananoque  Lakes, 
Collina's  Bay,  Newboro^)n-the-Rideau,  woods  in  rear  of  Kingston, 
&c. ;  PreScott,  common,  B.  Billings,  jnn. ;  Nicolet,  C.  E.,  St. 
Catherines  and  Grantham,  P.  W.  Maclagan,  M.D.;  Belleville,  in 
Bwamps  and  cold  woods,  rather  common,  J.  Maconn;  River  Bis- 
tigouche,  St.  Lawrence  Gulf,  R.  Bell,  jun.,  G.E. ;  L'Orignal,  J. 
Bell,  B.A. ;  London,  W.  Saunders ;  Ramsay,  Rev.  J.  K.  McMorine, 
M.  A.  This  species  is  stated  by  Professor  Torrey  to  be  rather  oom- 
mon  in  New  York  State.  "  Frequently  bears  bulbs  instead  of 
capsules,"  Pursh. 

[P.  alocuperoida,  P.  Beauv. — The  habitat "  Canada"  is  given 
for  Lyeopodium  aloeuperoida,  Linn.,  in  the  "  Species  Plantarum," 
ed,  3,  vol.  ii,  p.  1565;  but  it  is  probably  not  a  Canadian  plant.! 

P.  inundatui,  P.  Beauv.  Steins  prostrate,  adherent  to  the  soil, 
the  fertile  ones  erect  ?  leaves  secund,  yellowish-green,  lance-awl- 
shapcd,  acute ;  sporangia  in  diatinot,  terminal,  leafy,  sessUe,  solitaiy 
spikes.  Lyeopodium  inundatum,  Linn.,  E.  B.,  Michauz,  PnTsb, 
Beck,  Tuokerman,  Torr.  Fl.  N.  Y.  ii,  p.  608,  Gray.  Plananihut 
inundatui,  Beauv.  L.  alocuperoidet,  hiaa.,  ia  part? — In  cedar 
swamps  and  overflowed  woods,  Canada,  Pursh.  Professor  Torrey 
notices  its  occurrence  in  the  uorth-westero  part  of  the  State  of 
New  York.  Professor  Gray  observes,  that  the  leaves  are  narrower 
in  the  American  than  in  the  European  plant,  and  suggests  that  it 
may  be  a  disdnot  species.  I  have  not  yet  seen  Canadian  specimens. 

LYCOPODinM. 

L.  clavatum,  lAnh. — Stems  robust,  and  very  long,  prostrate, 
rooting,  forked,  with  short  ascending  branches;  leaves  pale,  in- 


,  Cooc^lc 


1864.]  LAVSON  ON  flANADIAM  TSBNS.  295 

'  curved,  lioear-awl-sliaped,  tipped  with  a  white  bur  point ;  Bporen^ 
in  Boaly  catkins,  which  are  usually  ;n  pairs  on  common  pedancles. 
Lyeopodium  ctavatwm,  Linn.,  E.  B.,  Michaoz,  Fnrah,  Bigelow, 
Beolc.  Darlii^toD,  Spring,  Hook.,  Torrey,  Gray.  L.  trittachyum, 
FuTsh  1  L.  integri/oUum,  Hook.  L.  arwtatum,  Humboldt.— 
Oooaalonally  fbuod  in  the  woods  in  rear  of  Kingston,  but  not  com- 
mon ;  Newfoundland,  Hook.  Fl.  Bor.  Amer. ;  between  Tbessalon 
and  Mis«sagni  Bivere.  Lake  Huron,  R.  Bell,jun. ;  Fresco tt,  com- 
mon, B.  Billings,  juD. ;  Three  Rivera,  Temigcooata,  and  Wolfe 
Island,  P.  W.  Maclagan,  M.D. ;  Seymour,  in  pine  woods,  rare, 
J,  Macoun ;  Ramsay,  Rev,  J.  K.  MoMorine,  M.A. ;  River  Ris- 
tigouche,  St.  Lawrence  Gulf,  R.  Bell,  jun. ;  London,  W.  Saunders, 
L'Orignal  and  L'Anse  an  Cousin,  Gasp^,  J.  Bell ;  Belmont. 
The  spores,  chiefly  of  this  species,  oonsljtuto  the  pulvU  iyixpodH, 
which  is  used  by  apothecaries,  and  was  at  one  time  employed  for 
making  artificial  lightning  in  the  theatres. 

L.  annoUnam,  Michaux. — Stems  very  long,  prostrate,  creeping, 
forked,  with  ascending  branches;  leaves  bright  green,  spreading 
or  slightly  deflczed,  in  about  five  rows,  linear-lanceolate,  mucronatei 
serrulalo;  sporangia  in  scaly  catkins,  which  are  sessile,  solitary, 
oblong-cylindrical,  thick.  Lyeopodium  aniiotinum,  Michaux,  £.  B., 
Fursh,  Beck,  Tuckerman,  Torrey,  Fl.  New  York  State,  ii,  p.  509. 
— Pine  ibrests  in  Hinchinbrook  ;  rocky  woods  in  Fittsburgh,  oq 
the  north  bank  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  near  Kingston  ;  Gananoqne 
Lakes ;  L'Anse  an  Couun,  Gosp^,  John  Beil,  B.A. ;  Prescott, 
common,  B.  Billings,  jun. ;  Riviere  dn  Loup,  Nicolet,  Montreal, 
and  Kiugston,  P,  W.  Maclagan,  M.B. ;  Belleville,  in  cool  woods, 
common,  J.  Macoun;  Ramsay,  Rev.  J.  E.  McMorine,  M.A. ; 
Priceville,  C.  I.  Cameron,  B.A. ;  Newfoundland,  Hook.  Fl.  Bor. 
Amer.;  St.  Augustin  and  Cape  Tonrmente,  Abb€  Provancher. 
Frequent  in  New  York  State,  according  to  Professor  Torrey.  Of 
this  species  there  are  two  forms,  only  one  of  which,  the  normal 
one,  or  type,  I  have  as  yet  observed  in  Canada.  The  var.  yS  alpo' 
tre,  Uartm.  Scan.  Fl.,  having  broader,  shorter,  paler,  less  spreading 
leaves,  I  have  from  the  Dovrefleld  (T.  Anderson,  M.D.),  Lochna- 
gar,  Scotland  (A.  Croall),  and  entrance  to  Glen  Fee,  Clova,  where 
I  found  it  growing  with  the  typical  form. 

L.  dendroideum,  Michz. — Stems  upright,  bare  below,  bushy 
above  (giving  the  plant  a  tree-like  aspect),  arising  from  a  long 
creeping  rhizome,  leaves  more  or  less  appressed  ;  sporangia,  in  scaly 
oatkins,  which  are  sessile,  cylindrical.    Lyeopodium  dendroideum^ 


OoO'^Q 


296  THE  OANADIAtr  NATtTEALIST.  [Ang. 

Michx.,  Purshj  Bigelow,  Hook.,  Beck,  Darlington,  i.  ohKunim, 
Linn.,  Bigelow,  Oakes. — White-cedar  woods  near  Batb,  abundant, 
and  throughout  the  woods  generally  in  rear  of  Kingston ;  Gana- 
noque  River;  Prioeville,  C-  I-  Cameron,  B, A.;  Pre scott, common, 
B.  Billings,  jun. ;  Nieolet,  Mount  Johnaon,  and  Montreal,  P.  W. 
MaclagaD,  M.D.;  Seymour  and  Cramahe,  in  cool  moiat  woods, 
J.  MacouD ;  River  Riatigoachej  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  R.  Bell, 
jun.;  Ramsay,  Rev.  J.  K.  McMorine,  M.A. ;  New  Brunswick, 
Hook,  F.B.A. ;  Osoabruok  and  Frescott  Junction,  Rev.  E.  M. 
Epstein;  London,  W.  Saunders;  Harrington,  L'Orignal,  and 
Gasp^,  John  Bell,  B.A. ;  St  Joachim,  Abb^  Provancher. 

L.  complanatum,  Linn. — Stems  rhizome-like  with  ascending 
branches,  which  are  dichotomoaSly  divided,  flattened  ;  leaves  short, 
in  four  rows,  those  of  two  rows  imbricated,  apprcssed,  of  the  other 
two  somewhat  spreading;  sporangia  in  scaly  cylindrical  catkins, 
in  twos,  threes,  or  fours,  on  a  common  peduncle.  LytopotUum 
complanatum.,  Linn.,  Gray,  Blylt.  L.  ckamwci/jtarittiiis,  Braun. 
L.  mbina/otium,  Willd. — Not  uncommon  in  the  woods  about 
Kingston,  and  in  rear ;  Newhoro-on-the  Ridean ;  Gananoque 
River ;  River  Ristigouche,  St.  Lawrence  Gulf,  and  St.  Joseph's 
Island  opposite  Campment  d'Ours,  Lake  Huron,  R.  Bell,  jun. ; 
Ramsay,  Rev.  J.  K.  McMorine,  M.A. ;  pine  grove  near  Bine 
Church  Cemetery  and  woodlands  west  from  Brockvilte,  not  com- 
mon, B.  Billings,  jun. ;  Three  Rivers  and  Temiseouata,  C.E., 
P.  W.  Maelagan,  M.D. ;  sandy  woods  around  Oastleton,  sterile 
hills,  Brighton  and  Murray  ;  J.  Maconn  ;  L'Orignal  and  L'Anse 
an  Cousin,  Gasp6,  J.  Bell,  B.A.,  Trois  Pistoles,  Abbd  Pro- 
rancher;  London,  W.  Saunders.  To  this  species  is  referred 
L.  tabin<E/ot{wn,  Willd.,  L.  chammei/paritgias,  A.  Braun ; 
with  branches  more  erect  and  fascicled.  Prof  Asa  Gray  remarks : — 
"  The  typical  form  of  L.  complanatum,  with  Spreading,  fan-like 
branches,  is  abundant  southward  (in  N.  States),  while  northward 
it  pnsses  gradually  into  the  var.  sahinafoliwm,."  I  have  only  one 
rather  imperfect  specimen  of  the  European  L.  chamacyparUdat, 
collected  at  Bonn  on  the  Rhine,  by  my  friend  Professor  G.  S. 
Blnckie,  which  does  not  differ  in  the  branching  from  ordinary 
Canadian  forms  of  L.  complanatum.  It  appears  to  be  quite  a 
common  species  in  the  States,  for  I  have  it  fVom  a  great  many  places. 

SCLAaiNELLA. 

S.  tpinulota,  A.  Braun. — Small,  prostrate,  leaves  lanceolate, 
acute,  spreading,  spinosely  toothed ;  fertile  branch  atoater,  ascend. 


.(XH^Ic 


1864.]  LAWSOM  ON  OANADIAN   TEBNS.  297 

ing  spifco  aesaile.  Selayindla  tpimthta,  A.  Braun,  BIytt,  Norges 
Fl. ;  Lycopodium  tehginoidet,  Linn.  Pursh  Fl.  Am.  Sept,  ed.  ii, 
p.  €54.  SelagiTiella  epinosa,  Beaav.  Selaginella  lelaginoxdee,  A. 
Grey,  Man.Bot.  N.  States,  p.  605.— Gasp^,  John  Bell,  B.A. ; 
Canada,  Michani ;  Lake  Saperior  and  norltiTtard,  pretty  rare, 
FrofesEor  Abb  Gray  in  Man.  Bot.  N.  States ;  Canada,  Pureh,  viho 
oteerves,  "  the  American  plant  is  smaller  than  the  European." 
Staohtqtnakdecm. 
S.  rupestre,  P.  Beauv. — Much  branched,  leaves  slightly  spread- 
ing when  moist,  appressed  when  dry,  carinate,  hair-tipped ;  com- 
pact and  moss-like,  growing  od  bare  rocks.  Selaginelh  rupestrit, 
Spring,  A.  Gray,  Eaton.  Lycopodium  rupatre,  Linn.,  Pursh  Fl. 
Am.  Sept.,  od.  ii,  p.  654. — On  the  perpendicular  faoea  of  Lauren- 
tian  rocks,  along  the  north  bank  of  theSt.  Lawrence,  in  Pittsburgh, 
and  on  the  Thousand  Islands  at  BrockviUe,  &o. ;  Long  Point  on 
the  Gunanoque  Eiver ;  near  FarmerBville,  C,  W.,  T.  F.  Chamber- 
lain, M.B.;  rocks  in  pine  groves  two  miles  west  from  Prescott, 
near  the  river,  and  on  rooks  west  from  BrockviUe,  not  Dommon, 
B.  Itillings,  jnn.;  Bamsay,  Rev.  J.  K.  McMorino,  M.A.;  Bcloeil 
and  Monnt  Johnson,  C.  E.,  P.  W.  Maolagan,  M.D. 

DiPLOSTACHYUM. 

2).  apodum,  P.  Beauv.— Slcma  creeping,  branched ;  leaves  pale 
vivid  green,  of  two  kinds, — the  larger  spreading  horizon tuUy, 
ovate-oblique,  the  smaller  appressed,  acaminate,  stipule-like.  Forms 
compact  tufts.  Lytopodium  apodum,  Linn,,  Pureh.  Fl.  Am. 
Sept.,  cd.  2.  ii,  p.  654.  Selaginella  aput,  Gray,  Eaton. — Abun- 
dant on  low  wet  ground  east  of  Front  street,  Belleville,  below  the 
hill,  where  it  was  pointed  out  to  me  by  Mr.  J.  Macoun,  July  1863. 
In  September  1863,  I  found  it  sparingly  but  fertile,  on  grassy  flats 
by  the  river  side  at  Odessa.  Near  London,  ...  Saunders;  Detroit 
Eiver,  0.  W.,  P.  W.  Maclagan,  M.D.  Apparently  not  common 
in  the  United  States.  I  have  it  from  Schooky's  Mountain.  This 
is  a  very  small,  compactly-growing  moss-like  species,  welt  adapted 
for  cultivation  under  a  glass  shade.  It  was  agreat  favorite  with 
the  late  Dr.  Patrick  Neill,  in  whose  stove-house,  at  Canonmills, 
Edinburgh,  I  first  saw  it  many  years  ngo. 

JV"a(.  Ord.  MABSILEACE.ffi. 

AZOLLA. 

A.  Canliniana,  Willd. — Pinnately  branched  with  cellular, 
imbricated  leaves ;  plant  reddish,  circular  in  outline,  ^1  inch  ia 


,  Cooc^lc 


298  THB  OANADIAH  HATUBAIJST.  [Aog. 

diameter;  leaves  ovate  obtnae,  ronnded  aad  roughened  on  tbe 
back  (Eaton).  Resembles  a  fioatiog  moss  or  Jnngennannia 
(Torre;).  Oray,  Man.  Bat.,  t.  11.  Floating  on  the  waten  of 
Lake  Ontario,  Fursh  FI.  Am.  Sept.,  ed.  2,  il,  p.  672.  In  Uw 
adjoining  states,  Professor  Asa  Gray  notices  it  as  occurring  in 
pools  and  lakes,  New  York  to  Illinois  and  southward,  and  observes 
that  it  is  probably  the'  same  as  A.  ma^eUanica  of  all  Sonth 
Amerioa. 

Salvinia. 
[^Sfilvinia  natangi^ Marxilea  natatu,  Linn.  Sp.  pt.  "  Floating 
like  Lemna  on  the  surfaoe  of  stagnant  waters,  in  several  of  the 
small  lakes  in  the  western  parts  of  New  York  and  Canada." — 
Porsh  Fl.  Amer.  Sept.  ed.  2,  ii,  p.  672.  Professor  Asa  Gray  sUtes, 
that  it  has  not  been  found  by  any  one  except  Pnrsh,  and  be  there- 
fore omits  it  from  bis  Manual  of  Botany  of  the  Northern  States.] 


/.  heu$trU,  L.— Belroil,  C.  E.,  P.  W.  Maolagan,  M.D.;  8a»- 
katebewan,  Hook.  Fl.  Bor.  Amer.  This  plant  is  spoken  of  by 
Pursh  as  growing  in  the  Oswego  River,  near  the  Falls  ;  and  Pro- 
fessor Gray  and  others  allude  to  it  as  not  rare  in  the  New  England 
States.  It  should  be  oarefolly  looked  for  in  the  numerous  lakes 
and  creeks  of  Upper  Canada.  It  ^ows  in  jnoddy  bottoms,  form- 
ing green  meadows  under  water.  Much  interest  is  attached  to 
the  genus  ho'itet,  since  Professor  Babington  has  shown  tha 
instead  of  one  there  are  many  species,  or  at  least  diBtioct  races  or 
forms,  in  Britain.  In  the  United  States  four  are  known: — 
/.  lacuslrie,  Linn.;  /.  riparia,  Engelm.;  /.  Engehnani,  Braan; 
and  I.fiaccida,  Shattlew.,  the  last  a  southern  form.  Professor 
Babington  is  certain  of  the  existence  of  at  least  eight  European 
species ; — I.  lacualTis,  h. ;  I.  echinotpora,  Dar. ;  /.  tenuUtima, 
Bor.;  I.  adsperga,  A.  Br.;  /.  tetacea,  Del.;  I.  vdata,  Bory.; 
/.  Syxlrix,  Dur. ;  and  /.  Duricei,  Bory.  As  yet  we  know  of 
only  one  Canadian  species,  which  is  here  rendered,  rather  unoe^ 
tainly,  /.  lactutrU.  The  American  species  are  described  in 
Gray's  Manual,  the  British  ones  in  the  new  Journal  of  Botany, 
London. 

Nal.  Ord.  EQUISETACEJE. 
Equisetum. 

The  Equiseta  having  been  described  in  a  previous  paper,  it 
will  be  sufficient  te  give  here  a  mere  list  of  the  species,  with  eonu 
additional  notes  obtained  since  the  former  paper  was  written. 


Ctxic^lc 


1864.]  LATTBON   ON   CANADIAN  FERNa.  299 

E.  sglvaticrtm,  Linn.  Newfoaadland  and  New  Brunswick, 
Hook.  Fl.  Bor.  Amer. 

E.  tylvaticitm,  ^.  capilVire,  Much  branched ;  branches  veiy 
long  straight,  and  exceedingly  slender  (capillary).     FarmersTille, 

E.  umbrotam,  Wilid.     Belmate. 

E.  arveite,  Linn.  West  from  London,  W.  Saunders.  The 
rhizome  beara  large  spherical  piU-like  modules,  which  are  how- 
ever more  conspicuous  in  var.  fi.  granulatwn. 

E.  arvertte,  ^.  granulatum. 

E.   Tdmateja,  Ehrhart.     Shores  of  Lake  Ontorio,  Beck. 

E.  limoaum,  Foria. — The  great  value  of  this  species  and  of 
E.  arvettM  as  fodder-plants,  is  confirmeil.  On  the  western  prairies 
horses  are  said  to  get  "  rolling  fat  "  on  equiaetum  in  ten  days; 
and  experienced  travellers  tell  me,  that  their  horses  always  go 
fester  next  day  after  resting  at  niijht  on  equisefum  pasture.  The 
horses  do  not  take  to  it  at  first ;  but  after  having  a  bit  of  equise- 
turn  put  oooafiooally  into  their  mouths,  they  soon  acquire  a 
liking  for  it,  and  prefer  it  to  all  pther  herbage.  Near  Komoka, 
W.  Saunders. 

E.  %nnafc,  Linn.  Lake  Huron,  Hook.  PI.  Bor.  Am.;  8t. 
Joachim,  AbbS  Provancher;  London,  W.  S. 

E.  robustum,  Braun.  Stems  much  thicker  than  in  E.  Jiffemale, 
the  rid^^es  with  one  line  of  tubercles;  sheaths  shorter  than  broad, 
with  a  black  band  at  base,  and  a  less  distinct  one  at  the  margin  ; 
teeth  about  forty,  three-keeled.  E.  rohuttiim,  Braun,  A.  Gray. 
Grenadier  Pond,  on  the  Humber  River  near  Toronto,  3d  June 
1862.  It  is  diffioolt  to  decide  whether  this  and  other  forms  are 
really  distinct  from  E.  ki/emale;  certainly  that  species  varies  in 
size,  in  roughness,  and  in  other  characters.  In  E.  robustum  the 
teeth  are  twice  as  many  as  in  E.  hi/emaU,  but  even  this  is  perhaps 
not  a  constant  character. 

E.  variegatum,  Weber  and  Mobr. ;  St,  Joachim,  Afab^  Pro- 
vancher. 

E.  Kirpoidet,  Miobatiz. 

E.  gcirpoidei,  ^.  miTuyr. 

E.  pnlmtre,  Linn. — "  Canada,  from  Lake  Huron,  Dr.  Todd, 
Mr.  Cleghorn,  Mrs.  Perceval,  to  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Sea,  Dr. 
Riohardson,  Drnmmond,  Sir  Joba  Franklin,  Captain  Back." — 
Hook.  Fl.  Bor.  Amer. — Pr6fessor  A.  Gray  speaks  of  "  the  Euro- 
pean E.paltttlre,"  attributed  to  this  country  (the  N.  American 
States)  by  Pnrsh,  probably  incorrectly."   Dr.  Hooker  indicates  its 


„  Gooc^lc 


300  TnS  OANADU.N   NATURALIST.  [Aug. 

eziatenoe,  irithoat  doubt,  in  Arctic  Weet  AmericH  and  Arctic  East 
Amerioa.  The  name  of  the  plant  haa  occasionally  appeared  in 
CaDadiaa  lisU,  but  I  have  as  yet  seen  no  Canadian  specimen. 
It  remaiua  for  Canadian  or  Hudson  Bay  botanists  to  trace  its  south- 
ern Yiniii  on  the  American  Continent.  In  Europe  and  Asia  it  has 
no  tendency  to  Arotio  limitation. — From  the  Edinhwgh  New 
Philoiophical  Journal. 


OBSERVATIONS  ON  SUPPOSED  GLACIAL  DRIFT  IN 
THE  LABRADOR  PENINSULA,  &o. 

Bt  Hknuv  Todlb  Hind,  U.A.,  F.R.G.S. 

[The  most  important  pan  of  this  paper  is  that  which  relates  to 
the  Labrador  Peninsula,  which  we  copy  entire : — Eds.] 

During  an  exploration  of  a  part  of  the  interior  of  the  Labrador 
Pcuinaulaiu  1801, 1  had  au  opportunity  of  obserTiogthe  extraor- 
dinary immber,  magnitude,  and  distribution  of  the  erratics  in  the 
valley  of  the  Aloisie  River  and  some  of  its  tributaries,  as  far  north 
as  the  south  edge  of  the  table-land  of  the  Labrador  Peninsula  (lat- 
50'  50'  N.,  long.  66"  W,),  and  about  110  miles  due  north  of 
the  Oulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  Boulders  of  large  dimensions,  ten  U> 
twenty  feet  in  diameter,  began  to  be  numerous  at  the  Mountiua 
Portage,  1460  fuet  above  the  sea,  and  sixty  miles  in  an  air-line 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Moisia  River.  They  were  perched  upon 
the  summits  of  peaks  estimated  to  be  1500  feet  above  the  point  of 
view,  or  nearly  3000  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  wera  observed 
to  occupy  the  edges  of  clifis,  to  be  scattered  over  the  slopes  of 
mouotatu-ranges,  and  to  be  massed  in  great  numbers  in  the 
intervening  valleys. 

At  the  "  Burnt  Portage,"  on  the  north-cast  branch  of  the  Moide, 
nearly  100  miles  in  an  uir-line  from  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence, 
and  1850  feet  above  the  oceun,  the  low  gneissoid  bills  for  mnny 
miles  around  were  seen  to  be  strewed  with  erratics  wherever  a  lodg- 
ment for  them  could  be  found.  The  valleys  (one  to  two  miles 
broad)  were  not  only  floored  with  them,  but  they  lay  there  in  tiers, 
three  or  more  deep.  Close  to  the  banks  of  the  rivers  and  lakes 
near  the  "  Burnt  Portage,"  where  the  mosses  and  lichens  have 
been  destroyed  by  fire,  very  coarse  sand  conceals  the  rocks  beneath ; 
but  on  ascending  an  eniiueiice  away  from  the  immediate  banks  of 
the  river,  the  true  character  of  the  country  becomes  apparent.  At 
the  base  of  the  gneissoid  hills  which  limit  the  valley  of  the  east 


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1864.]  H.   T.    HIND   ON  GLACIAL  DRIFT.  301 

braocb  (&bont  three  miles  broad)  at  this  point,  they  are  observed 
to  lie  two  or  three  deep,  and,  although  of  laige  dimenBiona,  that  is 
&om  five  to  twcDty  feet  in  diameter,  they  are  nearly  all  ice  or 
water-worn,  with  rounded  edges,  and  gonerally  polished  or  smoothed. 
These  accamulatlons  of  erratics  frequently  form  tongues,  or  spots, 
at  the  termination  of  small  projecting  promontoriis  in  the  hill- 
ranges.  I  have  several  times  counted  three  tiers  of  these  travelled 
rocks  where  the  mosses,  which  once  covered  them  with  a  uniform 
mantle  of  green,  had  been  burnt;  and  occasionally,  before  reach- 
ing the  sandy  area  which  is  sometimes  found  on  the  banks  of  the 
river.  I  have  been  in  danger  of  slipping  through  the  crevices 
between  the  boulders,  which  were  concealed  by  mosses,  a  foot  and 
more  deep,  both  before  and  after  passing  through  the  "  Burnt 
Country,"  which  has  a  length  of  about  thirty  miles  where  I 
crossed  it.  I  oxtraot  the  following  note  from  my  journal  of  the 
appearance  of  these  travelled  rocks  in  the  "  Burnt  Country  "  : — 

"  Huge  blocks  of  gneiss  and  labradofite  lie  in  the  channel  of 
the  river,  or  on  the  gaeissoid  domes  which  hero  and  there  pierce 
the  sandy  tract  through  which  the  river  flows.  On  the  summit  of 
the  mountains,  and  along  the  crest  of  the  bill-ranges,  about  a  mile 
off  on  either  side,  they  seem  as  if  they  had  been  dropped  like  bail. 
It  is  not  difficult  to  see  thut  many  of  these  rook-fragments  are  of 
local  origin ;  but  others  have  evidently  travelled  far,  on  account  of 
their  smooth  outline.  From  a  gaeissoid  dome,  I  see  that  they  are 
piled  to  a  considerable  height  between  hills  300  and  400  feet  high; 
and  from  the  comparatively  sharp  edges  of  many  around  me,  the 
parent  rook  cannot  be  far  distant." 

On  all  sides  of  Cariboo  Lake,  110  miles  in  an  ur-line  from  the 
Gulf,  and  1870  feet  above  it,  a  confli^ation  bad  swept  away  trees, 
grasses,  and  mosses,  with  the  exception  of  a  point  of  forest  which 
came  down  to  the  water's  edge  and  formed  the  western  limit  of  the 
living  woods.  The  long  lines  of  enormoos  nnworn  boulders,  or 
&af;mente  of  rocks,  skirting  the  east  branch  of  the  Atoiaie  at  this 
point,  were  no  doubt  lateral  glacial  moraines.  The  coarse  sand  in 
the  broad  valley  of  the  river  was  blown  into  low  dunes,  and  the 
surrounding  hills  were  covered  with  millions  of  erratics.  No  gla- 
tnal  stria)  were  observed  here,  hut  the  gneissoid  hills  were  rounded 
and  smoothed  at  their  summit ;  and  the  flanks  were  frequently 
seen  to  present  a  rough  surface,  as  if  they  had  been  recently  ex- 
posed by  land-slides,  which  were  frequently  observed,  and  the 
oaose  which  prodaeed  them,  namely,  frozen  watei&lls. 


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302  THE  CANADIAN  NATUaALIST.  [-A.Og- 

No  clay  or  gravd  was  seen  after  passing  the  mouth  of  Cold- 
water  River,  forty  miles  from  the  Oolf,  and  320  feet  above  it.  The 
soil,  where  trees  grew,  was  always  shallow  as  far  as  observed  ;  and 
although  a  very  luxuriant  v^tatioa  existed  in  secluded  valleys, 
yet  it  appeared  to  depend  upon  the  presence  of  labradorite-rock  or 
a  very  ooarse  gneissoid  rock,  in  which  flesh-colored  feldspar  was 
die  prevailing  ingredient. 

Observers  in  other  parts  of  the  Labrador  Peninsula  have  re- 
corded the  vast  profusion  in  which  erratics  are  distributed  over  ita 
su'faoe.  There  is  one  observer,  however,  well  known  in  another 
branch  of  science,  who  has  left  a.  most  interesting  record  of  his 
journey  in  the  MistasBinni  oonntry,  between  the  St.  Lawrenoe  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Saguenay,  and  Rupert's  River,  in  Hudson's  Bay. 
Andr6  Miohaux,  the  distinguished  botanist,  traversed  the  country 
between  the  St.  Lawrenoe  and  Hudson's  Bay  in  1792.  He  passed 
through  Lake  Mistaseinni ;  and  in  his  manuscript  notes,  which 
were  first  printed  in  1861,  for  private  circulation,  at  Quebec,  a 
brief  description  of  the  journey  is  given.  ".The  wholeMistassinni 
counti;y,"  says  Miohaux,  "  is  cut  up  by  thousands  of  lakes,  and 
covered  with  enormous  rocks,  piled  one  on  the  top  of  the  other, 
which  are  often  carpeted  with  lui^  lichens  of  a  black  color,  and 
which  increase  the  sombre  aspect  of  these  desert  and  almost  unin- 
habitable regions.  It  is  in  the  spaces  between  the  rocks  that  one 
finds  a  few  pines  (^Pinui  rupulrU),  which  attain  an  altitude  of 
three  feet;     and  cveu  at  this  small  height  showed  signs  of 

The  remarkable  absence  of  erratics  in  the  Moisie,  until  an  alti- 
tude of  about  1000  feet  above  the  sea  is  attained,  may  be  ex- 
plained by  the  supposition  that  they  may  have  been  carried  away 
by  icebergs  and  coaat-ioe  during  a  period  of  submergence,  to  the 
extent  of  about  1000  feet.  I  am  not  aware  that  any  traces  of 
marine  shells  or  marine  drift  have  been  rect^nized,  north  of  iho 
Labrador  Peninsula,  at  a  greater  elevation  than  1000  or  1100 
feet.  In  thevalleyof  the  St.  Lawrence,  marine  drift  has  not  been 
observed  higher  than  600  feet  above  the  sea.  Glacial  striie  were 
seen  on  the  "gneiss-terraces"  at  the  "  Level  Portage,"  700  to 
1000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  sloping  sides  of  these  terraces  are 
polished  and  furrowed  by  glacial  action.  Orooves  half  an  inch 
deep,  and  an  inch  or  more  broad,  go  down  slope  and  over  level 
continuously.  It  is  on  the  edge  of  the  highest  terrace  here  that 
t^e  first  tai^  boulders  were  observed. 


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1864.]  B.  T.  HDfD  ON  OLAOtAL  DBIVT.  303 

The  entire  Bbsence  of  claj,  and  tho  eztraordinar;  profasioD  of 
both  worn  and  ragged  masses  of  rook  piled  one  above  the  other  in 
the  valley  of  the  east  branch  of  the  Moisie,  as  wo  approach  the 
table-land,  lead  me  to  attribute  their  origin  to  local  glacial  action, 
as  well  as  the  excavation  of  s  lai^  part  of  the  great  valley  io 
which  the  river  flows.  Its  tribotary,  the  Cold-water  River,  flows 
in  the  strike  of  the  rooks  throngh  a  goi^  2000  feet  deep,  excavated 
in  the  comparatively  soft,  labradorite  of  the  Labrador  series.* 

The  descriptions  which  have  recently  been  publishedf  of  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  Labrador  Peninsula  not  visited  by  me,  favor  the 
supposition  that  the  origin  of  the  sorfaoe-features  of  the  areas 
described  may  be  due  to  glacial  action,  similar  to  that  observed 
in  the  valley  of  the  Moisie  River. 

The  remainder  of  the  paper  treats  of  the  "  Forced  Arrangement 
of  Blocks  of  Limestone  in  Boulder  Clay,"  "  The  Driflless  Area  in 
Wisconsin,"  "  Beaches  and  TerrMc^,"  "  Anchor-ice  and  Excava- 
tion of  Lake-basins,"  "  Parallelism  of  Escarpments  in  America." 
Many  interesting  facts  are  adduced  in  these  subjects;  and  the  author 
takes  strong  ground  in  advocacy  of  the  action  orglucicrs  rather  than 
of  icebergs  in  the  production  of  glucial  striic.  He  cliiims  this 
view  as  suggested  by  him  in  1869.  His  view  in  reference  to 
the  excavation  of  lake-basins  is  stated  in  the  following  terms.  It 
suggests  some  new  views;  though  probably  all  geologists  will  not 
acoept  the  cause  assigned,  as  the  most  important  of  those  which 
have  acted  in  producing  thb  effect : 

It  has  been  frequently  stated  that  a  difficnlty  arises  as  to  the 
modut  operandi  by  which  a  moving  glacier  can  excavate  lake- 
basins.  May  not  the  manner  in  which  stratified  rocks,  at  least,  over 
which  a  glacier  may  be  moving,  can  be  involved  in  its  mass  in  the 
form  of  slabs  or  mud,  constituting  dirt-beds,  be  partially  explained 
by  the  phenomena  attending  the  formation  of  anchor- ice  1      It  is 

*  See  Sir  WilllBm  Logan's   "Qeologjof  Oanada"   (1863),  on   tbe 
•  Diviaion  of  the  LanrentlaD  Rocks  into  "  two  rormalioiiB  " : 
iBt.  Tbe  Labrador  aeries. 
2od.  The  LaDr«nil«n. 
Tbe  Labrador  series,  I  have  been  reeeatlj  informed  hj  Sir  William 
LopiD,  has  been  aieertained  bf  him  to  teat  aaconformabl/  upon  the 
older  Lanrtntiao,  and  will  be  distiagaiibed  b;  a  separate  color  on  his 
new  Uap  of  Oanada.    See  also  Ut.  Sterry  Hunt  on  Ohemiatty  of  Meta> 
morpbic  Kocka. 

t  See  m;  "  EiplocaUoos  in  tbe  Inleiior  of  the  Labrador  Feainsala." 
Longmans,  1893. 


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304  THX  CANADIAN  NATSOALIBT,  C"^^- 

no  nnoominoTi  occnrrenoe  for  the  anoliors  of  the  nets  of  a  "  seal- 
fishery  "  on  the  north  shore  of  the  Qulf  of  St.  LawreDoe  to  be 
frozen  to  the  bottom  at  the  depth  of  from  thirty  to  sixty  feet ; 
and  when  anchors  are  then  rused,  they  briag  with  them  frosen 
masses  of  sand.  But  it  i<  in  rapid  rivers  that  the  formation  of 
anohor-ioe  Is  most  remarkable,  and  most  effective  in  exoavatiog 
these  beds.  It  forms  on  the  beds  of  rivers  above  the  head  of  a 
rapid,  and  frequently  bursts  up  with  a  load  of  frozen  mnd  or 
shingle,  or  slabs  of  rooks,  which  it  has  torn  from  the  bottom.  This 
phenomenon  is  witnessed  every  winter  in  the  valley  of  the  St. 
Lawrence ;  but  it  is  best  observed  after  a  prolonged  term  of  cold, 
when  the  thermometer  indicates  a  temperature  considerably  below 
sero.  Anchor-ice  has  only  been  observed,  as  far  as  my  knowledge 
of  the  subject  goes,  in  rapid  currents  in  open  water;  and  thesud- 
den  and  apparently  inexplicable  rise  of  the  St.  Lawrence  during 
extreme  cold  is  most  probably  due  to  this  cause.*  It  is  not  diffi- 
cult to  see  how  the  rivers  issuing  from  beneath  the  precipitous 
walls  of  glaciers,  as  described  by  Dr.  Kink,  may  rapidly  excavate 
deep  channels  by  means  of  anchor-ice,  to  be  widened  by  the  sub- 
sequent operations  of  the  glacier  itself.  Nor  ia  it  improbable  that 
by  tdbis  means  a  glacier  in  very  oold  climates  may  increase  from  the 
bottom  upwards  with  a  load  of  frozen  mud  and  fragments  of  rock, 
particularly  near  its  base,  when  that  does  not  meet  the  open  sea. 
The  great  lakes  of  North  America,  inclading  Lake  Winnipeg,  are 
excavated  on  the  edges  of  the  fossiliferous  rook-basins ;  and  these 
lakes  may  represent  the  boundary  of  a  glacial  muss  similar  to  that 
which  now  oevers  Oreeoland. — From  the  Journal  of  the  Geological 
Society. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TWO  AMERICAN  SPONGES. 
Bt  Dr.  J.  S.  BowiRBAHE.  F.R.8.,  Ac. 

1.  Tethea  hUpida,  Bowerbank. 

Sponge  sessile.  Surface  strongly  and  thickly  hispid.  Osonlf 
and  pores  inconspicuous?  Dermis  abundantly  spiculous;  epicula 
diqioscd  at  right  angles  to  the  surface,  uniformly  crowded 
tj^etber;  super-fusiformi,  sub-ovo-Bpinulato,  very  minute;  form- 
ing a  secondary  series  of  defensive  spicnla.  Primary  series  of 
defensive  spicnla  super-Aisiformi-aouate  or  snb-ovo-epinulate,  veiy 
large  and  long.    Skeleton  spicnla  super-fusiformi-acuate  and  sub- 

■  See  "NolcB  on  Anchor-Ice,"  bj  T.  0.  Eeefer,  O.B.,  OaaadSan  Jour- 
nal, new  series,  vol,  vii,  p.  173,  (18S3). 


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1864.]  DB.  BOWESBAKK  OK   AUXBICAM  BPDNQEB.  305 

OTO-epinabte,  luge  and  long.     Teodon  epiciila  saper-fiiHifonui 
sab-OTO-spiotilate,  small,  irregolarl;  dispersed,  Domeroas. 
Color.  Dried,  l^ht  gray. 
Habitat.  Portland,  Muae,  N.  America. 

Dr.  DaffsoD,  McOill  College,  Montreal : 
Examined  in  the  dried  state. 

I  received  a  small  slice  of  this  spoi^  from  Prof.  Dawson.  From 
the  curve  of  the  snrface  the  specimen  appears  to  have  been  about 
an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter.  In  its  present  state  the  bispida- 
tiofi'  of  the  sorfaoe  is  very  strongly  produced,  and  probably 
much  exaggerated  by  drying;  the  spionla  are  comparatively  very 
Luge  and  bug,  more  bo  than  those  of  the  skeleton  fasoiouli.  The 
secondary  series  of  defensive  spionla  are  of  the  aamefocm  as  those 
of  the  interstitial  membranes,  but  not  more  than  half  their 
average  size.  The  whole  of  the  spicula  are  exceedingly  fusiform, 
the  middle  of  the  shaft  being  frequently  twice  the  diameter  of  the 
base  of  the  spioulom.  The  ovo-spioulate  character  prevails  more 
or  less  in  all  the  spicula,  but  is  more  distinatly  produced  in  those 
of  the  interstitial  membranes,  and  the  secondary  dermal  defensive 
ones.  I  could  not  detect  any  gemmnles  in  the  piece  of  sponge 
Beat  to  me. 

2.  SpongiUa  Daioioni,  Bowerbank. 

Sponge  sessile  7,  branching ;  surface  smooth.  Oscula  and  pores 
inoonspicupus.  Dermal  and  interstitial  membranes  abundantly 
Bpicaloua;  spicula  fusiformi-acerate,  entirely  spin ed ;  spines  numer- 
oaa,  short,  and  conical.  Skeleton-spicula  aoerate  or  snbfusiform- 
aoerate.  Ovaria  spherical ;  dermal  spicala  numerous,  disposed  in 
flat  fasciculi,  or  groups  of  spicula  parallel  to  each  other  ;  groups 
irregularly  dispersed ;  spicula  acerate  or  subcylindrioal,  entirely 
spioed;  spines  numerous,  obtuse,  and  ill- defined.  Sarcodeaspi- 
oolous. 

Color,  in  the  dried  state,  emerald^reen. 

ffab.  Kiver  St.  Lawrence,  Montreal,  Canada  (jtfr.  Fowler,  and 
Bea.  A.  Kemp)  ;  a  lake  near  Brockville  (^Reo.  A.  Kemp). 

Examined  in  the  dried  state. 

About  two  years  ago  I  reoeived  a  small  fragment  of  this  species 
fix>in  Dr.  Dawson,  who  stated  that  it  was  found  in  the  River  St. 
Lawrence,  at  Montoeal ;  but,  as  the  Iragment  was  destitute  of 
gexumules  and  very  small,  there  were  not  anffioient  characters  to 
mrraot  a  speciSo  deeoriptioa  of  it.     la  October  1859  I  received 

ToL.  L  V  No.  4. 


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306  TBI  OAHADUN  IIATDBALI8T.  [Ang. 

ftom  the  suue  getttleman  a  farther  supply  of  fragments  of  tills 
species,  oontaiaiDg  ovuia,  and  ^vii^;  a  better  idea  of  its  form  than 
those  first  sent  to  me.  The  largest  of  the  pieces  sent  was  1^  inch 
in  length  and  2^  lines  in  diameter,  evideotlj  a  portion  of  a  longer 
branch.  At  the  proximal  end  tLere  is  a  short  branch,  3  lines  In 
length  and  one  line  in  diameter ;  and  Ae  distal  end  divides  into 
two  small  bninohefl  of  mmilsr  dimensions  to  the  first,  thna  satis- 
&otorilj  indicating  the  branching  habit  of  the  speeiea.  In  several 
parts  of  this  piece  there  are  ovaries  imbedded  in  the  sponge,  and 
there  were  maoy  others  in  the  fragments  of  the  same  apeoira  that 
aocompanicd  it.  The  general  external  oharaoters  appear  vorj  like 
those  of  the  European  speoioa  S.  lai-tutni ;  and  from  this  simi- 
larity, I  haTo  very  little  donbt  of  its  sarfaoe  In  the  living  state 
having  been  smooth  and  even,  as  in  that  species.  In  the  Euro 
pean  species  the  branches  spring  from  a  broad  spreading  base, 
about  half  an  inch  in  thickness  i  and  I  think  it  highly  probable 
that  the  Amerioan  species  will  be  tband  to  poasoss  the  same 
habit.  I  oonid  not  detect  oacuta  on  any  of  the  Iragments  in  my 
possession. 

The  dermal  and  interstitial  membranes  abound  with  tension- 
spicala,  and  especially  the  dermal  one,  in  which  they  seem  to 
attain  their  fullest  degree  of  development.  Th^r  normal  form  is 
Atsiformi-acerate  i  but,  ^m  the  abundant  production  of  the 
spines  at  their  terminations,  they  freqnently  appear  to  be  cylin- 
drical rather  than  sccrate.  Th(7  are  dispersed  on  these  tissues 
rather  nnevenly,  abounding  in  some  q>ot^  while  they  are  com- 
paratively scarce  in  others. 

The  spicula  of  the  skeleton  are  of  abont  the  same  proportions 
as  those  of  the  Enropcan  species.  They  are  usnally  of  ther^;nlaT 
acerate  form,  but  occasionally  beoome  subfnsiform. 

The  spicula  and  their  mode  of  arrangement  in  the  dermis  of 
the  ovarium  cannot  be  readily  seen  without  the  aid  of  treatment 
with  hot  nitric  acid,  in  which  they  should  be  immersed  for  a  few 
ee<  ends,  and  the  acid  should  then  be  immediately  dilnted  widt 
water,  afW  which  they  should  be  dried  on  the  glass,  on  which  they 
are  to  be  mounted  in  Canada  balsam.  The  sjucuk  in  the  dermis 
of  adult  ovaries  are  very  abundant.  They  are  similar  in  form 
and  proportions  to  those  of  t^  dermal  membrane;  but,  generally 
speaking,  they  are  more  fully  produced,  and  the  greater  portion 
of  them  are  soboylindrioal  from  the  prtrfusion  of  spines  at  their 
i^iow.    Theii  form  and  mode  of  arrangement  in  the  OTS17  render 


.;,  Google 


1864.]  DR.  BOVERBANK   ON  AHBBIOAM  SFONQES.  307 

them  exoeedingly  valaable  as  specific  oharacters.  In  some  of  the 
yoDDg  and  incompletely  developed  ovaries  I  could  not  detect  a 
single  specimen  of  these  sptoula.  The  only  difference  I  oould 
find  between  these  spiuula  and  those  of  the  dermul  membrane 
was,  that  the  spioee  on  those  of  the  latter  were  more  sharply 
and  fully  prodnced,  while  on  those  of  the  ovary  they  were  fre- 
quently ill-defined  and  often  only  in  an  incipient  state,  bnt  very 
abundant. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  spicula  for  examination,  I  found  a 
few  birotulate  ones  having  the  rotoke  very  deeply  divided.  These 
spicula  were  no  part  of  the  sponge  in  ooune  of  desoription,  but 
were  nadoubtedly  from  the  gemmules  of  another  speoies  inhabit- 
ing the  8t.  Lawrence. 

(Note  by  thb  Editoos.)  The  above  descriptions  may  be 
taken  as  a  first  instalment  of  descriptions  of  Canadian  and  other 
Aiberioan  Sponges,  now  in  the  hands  of  Dr.  Bowerbank.  The 
first  was  forwarded  to  ua  in  MS.  by  the  author.  The  second 
is  taken  from  a  late  paper  in  the  Proceediogs  of  the  Zoological 
Society  of  London. 

The  first  of  the  above  species  was  dredged  by  Dr.  Dawson  at 
Portland.  The  original  specimen,  part  of  which  was  sent  to  Dr. 
Bowerbank,  is  of  an  oval  form,  an  inch  and  a  half  in  its  longest 
diameter,  and  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick  intheoentre.  It  is 
.  attached  partly  to  a  stone,  and  partly  to  the  side  of  a  lai^e  speci- 
men ot  Balanui  porcatus. 

The  second  speoies  was  collected  by  Mr.  Fowler  and  Rev. 
Mr.  Kemp,  and  the  ^lecimens  were  presented  by  these  gentlemen 
to  the  Museum  of  McOill  University,  whence  the  portions  exam- 
ined by  Dr.  Bowerbank  were  sent  with  a  number  of  others  by 
Dr.  Dawson. 


MISCBLLANEOnS. 


Hail-Stobu  in  Pontiao. — Extract  of  a  Letter  from  Wm-Kixg, 
Etq.,  of  Briatol. — Two  days  ago  a  very  deelructive  hail  storm 
occurred  in  this  and  tlie  neighboring  townships.  Some  singular 
(MToamstances  connected  with  it  may  be  noteworthy.  On  Mon- 
day, IJie  11th,  about  two  p.m.,  the  storm  came,  accompanied  by 
thunder  uid  lightning.  IlscouTBewas  from  west  to  east,  ondabout 
two  mijes  wide.  Almost  all  the  glass  in  the  westerly  windows  of  the 
brm-houaee  within  its  range  was  broken ;  the  crops  of  wheat,  in 


,  Cooc^lc 


308  ,.         TBE   OAHADIAK  NATURALIST,  [Aug. 

com,  oats,  potatoes,  &c.,  greatly  injured,  and  in  some  instanoea 
wholly  destroyed.  The  pieces  ofioe  were  from  half  an  inch  to  over 
two  inches  diameter,  round,  angular,  and  square ;  some  of  them  had 
small  spicules  round  their  edges.  A  farmer  told  mo  that  on  his 
land  the  hail  corered  the  grouod  from  three  to  four  inches  deep, 
hard  and  closely  packed ;  but  the  most  extraordinary  thing  is,  that 
a  respectable  farmer  of  undoubted  veracity  says  he  picked  up  a 
piece  of  hail  or  ice,  in  the  centre  of  which  was  a  small  grefnfrog 
dead.  Deeming  suoh  a  thing  rather  rare  in  meteorology,  I  com- 
municate it  to  you.  I  may  remark  that  the  heaviest  hail-storms 
occur  here  in  the  month  of  July. — Bristol,  July  13, 1864, 


NATURAL  HISTOEY  SOCIETY. 
Repobt  of  thb  Sciemtifio   Cckatoe. 

In  this  account  of  the  work  done  since  the  last  annual  meeting, 
I  propose  to  adopt  a  natural  history  order.  A  large  case,  divided 
into  five  compartments,  has  been  erected  (at  a  cost  of  $120)  for 
the  reception  of  the  Society's  collection  of  mammals.  A  few 
species,  viz.,  the  moose,  the  white  whale  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
(delpkinapterui)  and  two  seals,  are  too  bulky  to  be  admitted  into 
this  case  without  muchdifturbing  the  general  classification  :  these 
have  accordingly  been  omitted.  AVith  these  exception',  the  rest 
of  the  collection  has  been  arranged  aa  f ar  as  practicable  in  accord- 
ance with  Prof.  Baird's  elaborate  monograph  on  North  American 
mammals.  Large  printed  labels  have  been  attached  to  each 
species,  the  nomenclature  adopted  being  that  of  the  author  just 
quoted.  Several  new  specimens  have  been  put  up ;  and  the  col- 
lection now  contains  eighty-nine  specimens,  illustrating  forty-nine 
North  American  species. 

The  miscellaneous  mammalia  have  been  grouped  in  one  com- 
partment by  themeelvea,  and  have  been  named  according  to  the 
most  recent  authors.  It  would  be  very  desirable  if  a.  small  sum 
of  money  conid  he  voted  annually  for  the  purchase  of  specimens 
of  such  of  the  wild  animals  of  Canada  as  are  wanting  to  complet« 
our  local  collection.  I  propose  in  the  annual  report  of  this  year 
to  publish  a  list  of  all  Uie  Canadian  species  of  mammals,  birds, 
reptiles,  and  fiah^  contained  in  the  museum,  so  tiiat  our  friends 
may  see  what  species  we  want.  The  collection  of  birds  has  been 
regrouped,  and  a  number  of  additional  oases  full  nf  Bpeoimena 


Ctioglc 


1864.]  HATUEAL  HBTOET  SCtCIETT.  309 

have  been  prepared.  The  aeries  of  names  printed  bv  the  Society 
Bome  years  ago  is  oat  of  date,  and  it  ie  proposed  to  BnbBtitate  for 
item  the  labels  issaed  by  the  Smithsonian  Institute.  Thepreeent 
arrangement  of  the  species  in  small  oases,  and  tiiese  not  of  uniform 
size,  oanses  a  great  waste  of  room.  Were  each  specimen  monnted 
on  a  proper  separate  stand,  as  is  nsnally  dooe  in  lai^  museums, 
tbe  oollection  might  be  arrai^d  in  a  much  more  acoaratesoieatiGc 
order.  We  have  now  about  210  species  of  Canadian  birds,  but 
several  spedes  are  wanting  to  complete  our  local  series.  A  collec- 
tion of  the  qrgs  of  oar  local  birds  has  been  made;  the  series  has 
been  named  and  arranged  in  a  glass  case,  with  a  covering  of  green 
baize,  to  prevent  the  iojarioas  effects  of  light  on  the  specimens. 
We  have  now  the  ^gs  of  some  fifty  Canadian  species  carefully 
identified ;  and  friends  at  Quebec  have  lundly  promised  to  add 
largely  to  this  branch  of  onr  collection  daring  the  snmmer.  The 
reptiles  have  been  arranged  and  named  as  far  as  our  oases  would 
admit,  with  the  exception  of  severxl  exotic  snakes.  Three  oases 
of  Canadian  fi  sbes  have  also  been  prepared  by  Mr.  Hunter,  con- 
taining some  thirty-one  speoies:  these  I  have  named  and  labelled. 
Two  eases  of  mieoellaaeous  fishes  have  also  been  prepared,  and 
have  been  named  so  far  as  the  limited  access  to  proper  books  of 
reference  in  Canada  will  admit.  Our  collection  of  Canadian  fishes 
is  still  very  im  perfect,  particularly  as  r^ards  the  marine  fishes  of 
the  golf,  which  are  almost  unrepresented  in  the  musenm. 

In  the  invertebrate  seotion  of  the  animal  kingdom  progress  has 
been  made  as  far  as  our  material  would  admit.  We  have  now 
25  cases  of  shells,  alt  oarefally  arranged  and  named.  Of  species 
pnrely  Canadian  we  have  nearly  200.  Five  oases  are  devoted  to  the 
illoitration  of  the  land  and  fresh  water  shells  of  the  United  States, 
and  to  the  marine  shells  of  the  east  and  west  coasts  of  the  same 
country.  The  general  series  ocoapies  thirteen  large  oases.  This 
portion  of  onr  collection  has  been  oonuderably  more  than  doubled 
during  tJie  past  fourteen  months.  The  orustaoeans,  barnacles,  sea- 
nrchins,  corals,  and  sponges  have  been  named  as  fkr  as  possible, 
and  arranged  in  one  large  oase  at  the  end  of  the  gallery.  Large 
donations  of  insecta  have  been  made  to  the  Society,  by  Mr.  Saun- 
ders and  Mr.  J.  Ferrier ;  and  a  cabinet  to  hold  all  our  specimens 
has  been  made  at  a  cost  of  some  t37.  I  am  waiting  for  the  arrival 
of  some  proper  cork  irooi  England  for  the  lining  of  the  drawers, 
to  work  at  this  important  branch  of  our  oollection. 

I  wonld  oalt  special  attention  to  the  large  seriea  of  rooks  and 


,,;.  Google 


810  THE  OANADIAH  NATtraALIST.  [-^^> 

minerals  beloDgiDg  to  the  Society,  many  of  which  are  atill  nn- 
packed.  Ponr  table-cases,  to  hold  our  foadls  snd  minerals, 
would  cost  US  fVom  100  to  120  dollars,  and  this  is  aa  improve- 
ment which  I  think  shonld  be  onr  first  object  when  the  state  of 
our  funds  will  permit.  I  think  it  is  no  esaggem^on  to  saj  that 
we  have  some  3000  or  4000  specimens  of  rocks,  minerals,  aod 
fossils  that  we  have  no  means  of  exhibiting,  The  only  proper 
case  we  have  contains  some  1800  spedmens.  Of  theee  I  have 
carefully  classified  and  labelled  a  little  over  1200.  Onr  collection 
of  fossils  I  have  partially  arranged  and  nuaed,  and  have  placed 
them  tempcmtrily  in  the  drawers  under  the  mineral  cabinet.  In 
acknowledgment  of  the  liberality  of  the  Geol.  Survey,  the  oonnoQ 
of  the  N.  H.  S.  have  anthoriied  rae  to  paek  up  mi  distribute 
five  series  of  the  duplicate  shells,  sea-nrcMos,  &o.,  belonging  to  the 
Survey,  to  the  following  Societies:  Laval  University,  and  the 
Museum  of  the  Literary  and  Historical  Sooie^,  Quebec ;  MoCHll 
College,  Montreal;  Queen's  College,  Kingston ;  and  UniverBtty 
Collage,  Toronto.  I  have  aocordingly  selected,  named,  and  for- 
warded these  Bets  to  the  afore  mentioned  institutions;  and  among 
the  resalte  proceeding  from  this,  may  be  meotiooed  a  valuable 
donation  of  books  from  the  Literary  and  Historical  Society  of 
Quebec,  and  the  aoqui^tion  of  several  interesting  additions  to  the 
Museum  from  MoG-ill  Oolite  in  this  oity,  and  from  the  Laval  Uni- 
versity of  Quebec.  Sinoe  the  date  of  my  first  connection  with  the 
Society,  some  2000  specimens  have  been  added  to  the  Mnsenm, 
and  it  is  hoped  that  satisfaotoiy  progress  has  been  made  during 
the  past  year  in  the  work  of  arrangement  and  classification.  Dr. 
Smallwood  having  adverted  to  tiie  conrse  of  leotures  I  had  the 
pleasure  of  giving  during  the  past  winter,  further  allusion  to  them 
is  nnnooessary. 

As  Beoording  Secretary  to  the  Society,  it  has  been  my  duty  to 
issue  notioe  of  council  meetings,  and  to  prepare  and  direct 
cirenlars  calling  the  usual  monthly  meetings,  to  keep  the  minntee 
of  all  ordinary  and  special  meetings,  to  prepare  proper  aoconnta 
of  onr  monthly  proceedings  fbr  the  press,  and  for  the  Naturalist, 
to  return  thanks  for  donations,  to  issue  diplomas  and  notices 
of  election,  and  to  transact  many  little  items  of  general  bnsiness 
for  the  Society.  Finally,  as  an  ex-officio  member  of  Uie  edi^ng 
committee  of  the  Naturalist,  I  have  endeavored  to  do  what  I  could 
for  the  Joomal,  whether  directly  or  indirectly. 

J.  P.  WeiriAVBS,  P.G.8.,  &o., 
Bee.  Secretary  and  Soientifio  Curator,  N.H.S. 


C^.txii^lc 


1664.]  HATU&AI.  mSTDBT  BOQinT.  311 

Mr.  Jas.  Fenier,  Jan.,  thea  presented  his  Report  as  Treaeurer 
of  the  Society,  which  will  be  foond  on  Ao  other  side. 

It  was  moved  by  Uie  Right  Rev.  the  Lord  Bishop,  Becoaded  by 
Stanley  C.  B^g,  and  unanimously  rewlved:  "  That  the  reports 
just  read  be  adapted,  and  printed    for  diatribntion  among  the 


A  vote  of  thanks  to  the  officers  of  the  past  year  was  moved  by 
Dr.  David,  aeocnded  by  L.  A.  H.  Latonr. 

The  followiog  gentlemen  were  elected  as  office-bearers  during 
ttie  ooming  year,  as  follows : 


0PWCEK3  FOB  1864-65. 

iVentJenf.— Principal  Dawson,  LL.D.,  F.R.8.,  &□. 

VUe-Presidentt.—Rev.  A.  De  Sola,  LL.D. ;  Sir  W.  B.  L(^n, 
LL.D.,  P.R.S.,  ic.;  E.  BiUings,  F.G.S.;  Dr.  T.  Sterry  Hunt, 
M.A.,  F.B,S.,  Ac. ;  W.  H.  A.  Davies ;  The  Bight  Rev.  the  Lord 
Bishop ;  C.  Smallwood,  M.D.,  LL.D. ;  Rev.  A.  P.  Kmp,  M. A. ; 
John  Deeming. 

Tteaiurer. — Jas.  Ferrier,  jun. 

Cor.  Seeretaiy.—Frot.  P.  J.  Darey,  M.A. 

Rec  Secretary  and  Scieruijk  Curator. — J.  F.  Whitoaves, 
P.O.S.,  &c. 

Librarian. — Stanley  C.  Bagg. 

Council. — A.  Rimmer,  G.  Bamston,  E.  Murphy,  Dr.  Hing- 
Bton,  L.  A.  H.  Latonr,  D.  A.  P.  Watt,.C.  Robb,  J.  H.  Joseph, 
aaA  Dr.  David. 

Library  '  Committee. — Messrs.  J.  C.  Becket,  Prof  Comiah, 
Dr.  Fenwick,  Dr.  David,  and  Dr.  Mackay, 

Editing  Committee  of  the  "Canadian  Naturalist." — D.  A. 
Poe  Watt,  Acting  Editor;  Dr.  Dawson;  Dr.  Hunt;  E.  Bil- 
lings; Rev.  A  F.  Eemp,M.A.;  Prof  Robins,  B.A.;  Dr.  Small- 
wood;  and  the  Corresponding  and  Recording  Seoretoriea. 


1,;.  Google 


THE  OAlfADUK  NATITBALIST. 


[Ang. 


If  I  li    ?iffiiis-i5ir=i°i' 


AS    a 
si    P 


S  B  r-B  a  "  B      S 


n,s,t,..dDi.  Google 


1864.]  KATCHAL  BtSTOBT  800IITT.  313 

LiBT  or  DoRATiOMs  TO  THE  Miraiinc. 

IT.B.— The  d*tei  relbrta  the  meeUagi  of  the  Soidetj  mt  whiah  the  ■peaiment 


Dohorb'  Nahis. 


Ju.  F«rrier,  jnn., 
Mr,  W.  Hantar.... 


Jm.  Ferrier,  Jan.,  Esq.. 


Jul7  Ist,  1863. 

StuflTed  BpecimcQ  of  tbe  nnaller,  or  "puIliDg- 
donn"  otCer.  (Lufra  dtitmctor,  BarnatOD.) 

EggB  of  tbirteeo  species  of  birds  from  Sew 
BruDBvick. 

Egg-capsula  of  P;nila.     (^  noruw  unjmltx 

12  ipedea  of  marine  shells  from  Jftm&ica. 

S  apeciet  of  foreign  shells. 

Tbe  mud  or  b«aT«r  lisb.    Amia  ocetlicanda, 

Ricbardson;  (..dmia  eoZm,  Linnseus?)  from 

Sorel. 
Red  seabe. 

Specimen  of  the  grnDtilated  (T)  salamander. 
(Saiamandra  granulatat  Holbrook). 
Abnormal  groirth  of  spiucc  from  tbe  White 

Houn tains,  with  specimens  of  qnartzjte  id 

which  it  woe  imbedded. 
Dendroica  coronata?    Graf,  male.     (FrUotv- 

crointad  wood-ieaTbler,} 
Troglodytes  byemalis,  VIellot,  male.      (W1»- 

Ur-wrtu.') 
Certbia   AmerlcAna,  Bonap«rte.     (Jmtrican 

CbrjiomilTiB  pinna,  Bonaparte.      (PiiM-JIneft.) 
Cyanospiia  cyanea,  Baird.    Ondigo-bird.'i 
Tree-Frog.  (/fy/a  turncoJor,  Leconte.) 

September  astb,  1S83. 

3  caaeg  of  miacellaneona  inaecta. 
1  chameleon.    iChoniaUo  vulgarUJ') 
Large  block  of  crystals  of  ealc-spar. 
Collection  of  CaDadlan  inaects  (in  Jivt  eatit), 
which  took  the  firat  prize  at  the  ProTinclal 
Exhibition  oflS63,  and  of  irhich  tbe  follow- 
ing is  an  estimate  : 
Lepidoptera,(Suftfr/IiuiHuf  jroJAi,)T88pec>«>. 
ColeopCera,  (Bttlltt,)  394      " 

Hymenoptera,  {Bta,  mltp;  4«.,)     IB      " 
Diplera,  {FiU;)  3       " 

Kenroptera,  (Dragon-Jlia,  ie.,)         6      " 
Hemiptera,  4      " 

Ortboptera,  (CricktU,  hcuiti,  $c.,>  B      " 
(Id  all  nearV  400  species  of  Oanadlao  in- 


,,;.  Google 


THS  OAlf ADUIT  KATDBALKT. 


[Aug. 


DoHou'  Hima. 


Dr.  DouglBB,  Quebec. 

Mr.  Jos.  Hartley,  (Park 
Farm,  near  Braniford, 
O.W.) 


John  Leeming,  Esq . . . . 

Ju.Shen>r,Eaq....... 

Jno.  Swanaton,  Esq,... 

O.  Bamston,  Beq 

Principal  DairsoD 

J.  F.  WhiteaTBB,  Esq. . . 
W.L.  Dontney,  Esq... 


DaTid  Hou,  Eiq 

Hn.  Bdirlu  AtwaMr. . 


Septembar  38th,  ises,    (CtoXinucd.) 

aecU,   beaatifbllj  prepared  and  carefally 

named.) 
6  spBcies  of  corals. 
Egg  of  elder  duck  (Somateria  tlioUUnina,Ltach,') 

from  Hare  Iiland. 
Sea-urchin.  (^Falaatltrina — 7)rroiii  the  Eoeeae 

limeBtane  at  the  base  of  the  great  pyramid 

at  Ghizeh. 
B  Bpecies  of  DeTooiaa  fMaBi,  from  Caoada 

West. 
4  Bchlnocyamiigp  Dili  Ids,  ^J  imall  tAvtodrmi,) 

and  4  Trochna  Uagas,  (^  marine  thtU,) 

both  from  Britain. 

1  Bpecimen  of  the  violet  aalamander,  ($a:{a> 
mandra  mbviotacta,   BartOD.) 

Sponge.  (HallchondraT)  from  Portland,  He. 
'^Mcimen  of  the  Tloiet  Balamaoder.     (^Sala- 

mandra   lubviolacea,)   and   do.   of  another 

apeclea  of  Salamandra. 
Two  speciee  of  fosBJls  (IVrritiUa  eariaalat 

and  an  OitTad),  from  (he  Potomac. 
Dress  worn  bjoneof  the  Loncheauor  "Sqnint* 

ejed  "  Indians,  from  the  HcKenale  River. 
The  red  throaled  diver.      (CWyntui  Stpltntri- 

analit,  Ltnnsius.) 

2  Bpecies  of  marine  sheila.  {Myadora  ovata. 
Reeve,  N.  S.  WaJeii  and  Donax  ana/MM, 
Britain.) 

eggs  of   the   chtpping-aparrow.      {SpistlUi 
locialii,  Bonaparte.) 

apeciea    of   freeh-waler   sheila    ttoat    tho 
Southern  States. 
Specimen  of  the  chipmoak.  (_TiimiaffriAtui, 
LinDeene.) 

3  scorpions  from  the  West  Indies. 

The     red    tiat.     (^Vtiptrlilio  Noetboraetntii, 

lie  iiramp  aparrow.      (Mdotpita  paliuMt, 

Baird  ) 
The  Philadelphian  Bjcatcber.  (  Virio  FhUadtt- 

pAtcui,  Oaisin.) 
Pacaimile  of  I^mdnn  Timtt   of  October  3rd, 

ITSB,  eon tainlDg  despatches  an noan clog  the 

Ti«torj  of  the  Nile, 
A  home-made  ireddiag-apron,   span,  vrovea, 

and  embroidered  by  Mrs.  Aim;,  about  the 

jear  li5G0. 
Capelin  (JiaUofM  vQlanu),  in  a  drift  nodola 

fiiom  the  Ottawa  district. 


,,;.  Google 


1864.] 


HATURAL  msTOBT  eOOtBTT. 


DoaOBE^  Nahu. 


Frinoiptl  DawBon. . 


0.  Barm  ton,  Esq.. 
Hr.  W.  HoBter 


JobnOilinonT,BM|.,  Qm 
Jag.  Ferrler,  jon.,  Esq.. 


October  36tb,  1863. 

The  bADded  ptpe-fisb,  (Synfnatkiu  fOKiattit, 

DeKay)  from  Nova  SeoUa,  also  an  eiotio 

apecies  of  Sjngoalbui. 
Two  corallines  from  Florida.      (Leptogor^ 

virgala,  and  Ztpkigorgia  anetpt,  botb  of  Gd- 

wards  and  Haim«.) 
Star  Sab,  {Ophiura  Egtrtoni,")  trom  tbe  Li&B  ot 

Lfme  Regie,  England. 

ipecimens  of  native  aoppar,  froni  tbe  Laka 

Superior  dlBtriot. 

eiamplo  of  iron  pjritw,   in   oonglomerata 

from  Uaasachnsetu. 
ifeadow  moase.    (Jrmcola  Hparia,  Ord.) 
Head  of  tbe  eoDnDon  or  woodland   caribou, 

tRangiftr  Caribou,  Andubon  and  Bacbman.) 
3  laa.gullB,  in  immatnre  plillnflg«,  species  an- 

determined. 


Jas.  Ferrier,  job.,  Esq. . 

Rer.   0.  Brnnet,  Laval 

Untversitf,  Qnebac< 
J.  F.Whiteaves,  Esq  , 


Hr.  W.  HnnlM 

Principal  Dawson.  ■ 


C.  Eobb,  Esq.,  O.B 

A.  Rimner,  Esq 

CapMin  Noble 

Jno.  BrowD,  Esq.,Hamil' 

lon,O.W 

li.  Oocbrane,  Baq 

W.  Leamont,  E«q 


NoTember  30th,  1833. 


1  specimen  of  tba  hooded  merganser.  {Lopho- 
dytit  cucuUatut,  Reich.) 

2  Species  of  eiotic  starfishes. 

"        of  foreign  Bbells. 
species  of  foreign  shells. 

1   fossils  (named),  from  the  Trenton  lime- 
stone, near  Qnebee. 

pecimen  of  the  chipmunk  or  striped  gronnd- 
■quirrel.   (romiof  flrio/ui,  Linnsos.) 
"cone  in  oone"  concretions  from  the  coal 
fteldi  of  Oiaoe  Bay,  Cape  Breton. 

December  2Sth,  1863. 

Star-nosed  mole,  CCotidyfuracri«(o(a,Linnffins.) 
Tbe  mole  shrew.  {Btarina  taijKndtt,  Qraj.) 
Snowy  owl,    {Nycttanitta,  Gray.) 
Tbe  doable- crested  cormorant.  (OraailtadUo- 

phut,  Gray.) 
Specimen  of  the  spotted  Menobrancbns,  (Jlfeno- 

brim(hut  lattralii,  Say)  in  spirits. 
Cairngorm  stone,  cat  and  polished. 

Jan.  2Btb,  1S64. 

8  species  of  Chinese  marine  shells. 

1  example  of  Andonta  Implieata,  Bay.       (J 

rather    tcarc*  Lover  Canadian  frtth-vattr 

bivalvt  Aril.) 


,,;.  Google 


THK  OANADIAM  MATnEALIBT. 


[Ang. 


Aadrew  Allui,  Esq. . 
H.  Q.  Tennor,  Esq... 


Piof.  Uilea,  LennoiTille. 


Prinolpal  Damon.. 
Hr.  W.  Hunter 


Ju.  SSth,  I8S4.    (Omlinutd.) 

Slar-FiBh,  (J$lTopkyl<m  —?)  frotc  the  Galf of 
St  Lawreoce. 

iro  spGcimcns  of  the  "drinker"  moth,  (Gon- 
opttra  tibatrii,')  from  a  cftve  at  the  Cote  St. 
Michel,  near  UoatreAl. 

February  SBih,  18fl4. 

2  Specimeutof  gotta  percbaia  its  erode  slate, 

of  qaalities  No.  I  aod  2. 
Fibres  from    the   bark  of  tbe  Spanieb  aloe, 

(Jfam,)  aa  extracted  by  machiaerj. 
Another  eianiple  of  aloe  fibre. 
Specimen  ofCingalaie  aloe  fibre,  with  pteceof 

cord  made  from  the  same  and  reddened  by 

vegetable  juicei. 

eiamplea  of  raw  mohair,  ai  it  comes  from 

tbe  aniinal, — of  two  inlermediate  qualities. 
Another  sample  of  mohair. 
"  Kcimen  of  pare  mofaaic  "top,"  combed  to 

preparation  for  maDufacture. 
Example   of  yam  spun  from  pare   mobair 

"  top." 
2  specimens  of  down  of  the  silk  cotton  tree. 

(^Briodendron  anfractuotum.) 
Prepared  Sarracenia  purpurea,  (^The pUcker- 

planl,')  the    Indian  remedy  for  Bmalt-poi, 

aa  used  by  the  Micmacs ;  from  Nova  Scotia. 
Samples  of  llr.  Bacben's  proposed  sabsUtuta 

for  cotton,  the  fibrous  alva. 
Specimen  of  a  Javan  vegetable  fibre  proposed 

as  a  enbstitute  for  coiton,bat  aa  prepared  for 

manufacture  by  Uessrs,  Marshall  li  Dalmer 

of  London,  (England,)  found  to  answer  bet- 
ter in  admixture  vltb  silk. 
10  specimens  of  fossil  plants  (named),    from 

the  coal  measnres  of  Kova  Scotia. 
Small  brown  weasel.      {Putoriui  cigognanii, 

Bonaparte. 
Hairy  woodpecker,  variety.     (_Pieui  vilktm, 

Linnvus.) 
Bohemian     chatterer..     (Jnpettt  garmliu, 


March  aatb,  1864. 

Jas.  Ferrier,  jnn.,  Esq...  1  stuQ'ed  ipeclmea  of  tbe  goshawk,  female, 
I    (Jttttr  airicapiUuif  Bonaparte.) 


,,;.  Google 


1864.] 


NATURAL  HIBTOBT  SOOIKTT. 


Ur,  W.  Hunter 

Ura.  H.  Parkiaaou 

A.  RaniHy,  Faq 

Ju.  Ferrier,  Jan.,  Esq.. 
Ut.W. Hunter 

Ifra.  UcGulloch 

B.  E.  Sbelton,  Eaq 

Jbs.  Claiton,  Eaq . .  ■  ■ . 


April  SStb,  1864. 

DC  example  of  the  iroadchuek  or  groand- 

bog,     {Arctomy    monax,    Gmelin,)     Itom 

BrockTille,  C.  W. 
The  downy  woodpecker.      (Pinw  ptAuetnt, 

LiDDtene.) 
A  small  collection  of  mArine  sheila,  brjozoa, 

Rnnellda,  and  seft-weeds,  frem  Little  UeUs 

Bay,  Oaepd. 


U«y  30tb,  ise4. 

'goose.  (Jiutr  hyptrboreta,  Pallae,) 

Nud'b  Island. 

;one.     {StrtptUa*  Mtryrtt,  llliger.) 
GiiriODB  Japaoese  mirror  and  case. 
The   J  el  low-bellied   woodpecker.     (C«niurui 

fiavivtntrU,  Swainaon.) 
The    golden -winged  woodpecker.      (Colapttt 

auralai,  Swainaon,) 
Two  robina,  male  aadfemale.  (_Tiirdtu  migra- 

lorim,  Linnsiia.) 
The   blue   jeliow-backed   warbler.      (Parulo 

jmericana,  Bonaparte.) 
13S  skina  of  Canadian  birds. 

G      "  Foreign      " 

20  mammala,  (mosilj  howerer  duplicate  apeci- 

Indian  pipea,  from  an  eicaration  in  Hoapital 
street,  Montreal. 
8  epecimeoB  of  minerals,  viz.,  qnartz,  and 
quartz  with  pjtitea,  calc-apar  and  sal- 
pbatii  of  barytes ; — from  Devon  and  Corn- 
wall, England. 


J.  F.  Whiteatbs,  P.  G.  S.,  &j., 
Soientifio  Cmator  &  Beo.  Secretary  N.  H.  S. 


,,;.  Google 


318  tbs  oanaduh  hatdoalist.  [^%- 

The  Cakadun  Natukalist. 
The  CaTtadian  Naluralitt  ie  Mnt  to  the  ibUowiDg  InatitutionB 
and  Societies : 

OAHADA,  ETO. 

University  Coll^, Toronto. 

Trinity  College, Toronto. 

Canadian  Inatlttito, Toronto. 

Enos'sGoIl^e, Toronto. 

Victoria  College, Coboui^. 

Queen's  College, Kiugaton, 

HcGill  College Montreal. 

Bishop's  Gollt^ LennoxTille. 

Laval  University Qnebeo. 

Literary  and  Historionl  Society, Quebec. 

Natural  History  Society, St.  John,  N.  B. 

TMITED  STATES. 

Harvard  College, Camhiidge,  Mass. 

Amherst  Collie, Amherst,  Mass. 

Yale  Coll^, NeiT  Haven,  Cmid. 

Natural  History  Society, Boston,  Mass. 

State  Library, Albany,  New  York. 

Albany  Institute, Albany,  New  Yoric 

Essex  Institnto, Salem,  Mass. 

Lyoeum  of  Natural  History, New  York. 

Astor  Library, New  York. 

Aoadoiny  of  Natural  Sciences, ....Philadelphia. 

-  Franklin  Institute, Fhiladelphia. 

Smithsonian  Institnto , Washington. 

Academy  of  Science, St.  Louis,  Missouri. 

University  of  Nashville, Tennessee. 

Natural  History  Society Portland,  Mune, 

OBEAT   BftlTAIN. 

Geological  Socie^, London. 

Linntean  Society, London. 

Royal  Society, London. 

Boyal  Qeographioal  Society, London. 

British  Museum  Library...... London, 

Univerai^  Gollc^ London. 


,.,.d.i.  Google 


1864.]  THB  OAKADIAK  NATURALIST.  3X9 

Society  of  Arts, Loodon. 

Geologio^l  Surrey  of  Great  Britain,... .London. 
Natural  History  Society,  Dawson  St.. ..Dublin. 

BojbI  Dublin  Society, Dublin. 

Literary  and  Fhiloaopbicat  Society, Manoh^ter. 

Natural  History  Society, Newcutlo-upoa-Tyne. 

Bodleian  Library...... Oxford. 

University  Library, Cambridge. 

Univeraily  Library, Edinbui^b,  Scotland. 

tJniveraity  Library, Gla^w,  Scotland, 

UniTeraity  Library, St.  Andrew's,  Scotland. 

Colle^  Library, Maynooth,  Ireland. 

Queen's  College, Cork,  Ireland. 

Queen's  College, Belfast,  Ireland. 

CWNTINXMT  or    ETSOFI. 

Soci^t^  G^ogiqoe  de  Franoe, Paris,  France, 

Acad^mie  des  Sciences, Paris,  France. 

AcadiJmie  des  Sciences, Bologna,  do. 

Academia  Car.  Loop., Jena,  Saze  Weimar. 

Imper.  Geoli^ioal  Institute, Vienna,  Austria. 

Deutiiches  Geolog.  Gesellschafit, Berlin,  Prussia. 

Soci^t^  HoUandaise  des  Sciences, Haarlem,  Holland. 

Eouigl.  Saobs.  Geaellschaft  der  Wissen- 

scbaAeo, Leipzig,  Saxony. 

Soci^t^  Imp^riale  des  Naturalistefl, Moscow,  Russia. 

Konigl.  Bayerischen  Akademie  der  Wis- 

Benschaften, Muniob,  Bavaria. 

Stockholm  Biksbiblioleket, Stockholm,  Sweden. 

Upsala  Univerdty, Upsala,  Sweden. 

Academy  of  Soienoes, Stockholm,  Sweden, 

Christiania  University, Christiania,  Norway. 

Koyal  Library, Copenhagen,  Denmark. 

St.  Petersburg,  BibUoihSque  Imp6riale,St.  Petersburg,  Russia. 

Dorpat  University, Dorpat,  Bussia. 

Elasan  University, Kasan,  Russia. 

Helsii^ors  University, Helaingfors,  Russia. 

Amsterdam  Stadsch  Bibliotheok, Amsterdam,  Holland. 

Leyden  Batavian  Academy, Leyden,  Holland. 

GiQoingen  Unlveruty, GrOningen,  Holland. 


,.,.d.i.  Google 


320  THK  OAMADIAK  NATUOALIST. 

Bonn  ITniveraity,. Bonn,  PruBsia. 

Breslau  University, Breslao,  PruBeia. 

Freiberg  Royal  Acad Freiberg,  Saxony. 


And  to  the  following  Periodicals : — 

CANADA. 

Canada  Medical  Journal, Montreal. 

Journal  of  tbe  Board  of  Arta,.., Toronto. 

tTNITXD  STATES. 

Silliman'a  Journal New  Haven. 

QRXAT  BKITAIM. 

ZoologiBt,  1  Paternoster  Row. 

Intellectual  Observer, 5  Paternoeter  Row. 

Technol<^Bt,  23  Paternoster  Row. 

Geological  Magazine, 39  Paternoster  Row. 

Popular  Science  Review, : 192  Piccadilly. 

Seemau's  Journal  of  Botany, 192  Piccadilly. 

Jonmal  of  Science, 11  New  Burlington  St. 

Natural  History  Review, 14  Henrietta  Street,  Co- 
vent  Garden. 
Pbytologist 28  Upper  Manor  St. 

CONTINENT   OF  ECROFE. 

Annales  dea  Sciences  Naturellea, Paris,  France. 

Allgemeine  Dcutecbes  Naturb.  Zcitnng,Diesden,' Saxony. 
Arehiv.  for  Naturgeschicbte  by  Weig- 

man, ; Berlin,  Prussia. 

Leopoldoia, Jena,  Saxe  Weimar. 

Leonbard  und  Brobu  Jabrboob, Stntgardt,  Wnitembntg. 


Pal>li8hed,iUoabtea],  September  15, 1864. 

n,s,t,..dDi.  Google 


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s^3$ss33$ss^3SS3sessae£3er:ass2 


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CANADIAN  NATURALIST. 


MICHAUX  AND  HIS  JOURNEY  IN  CANADA. 

B;  tbe  AsBi  Ovub  Bhuhit,  Profeasor  of  Botan;  at  the  Laval  DniveraitT' 

Qaebec* 

It  ia  well  known  to  botanists,  that  the  Flora  Boreali-AmeritMna 
of  Michaus  oft«n  fails  to  iDdicate  the  precise  localities  of  the  plants 
there  first  desoribed,  and  thut,  in  oonsequence,  many  of  these  plants 
are  either  still  nnknown  to  collectors,  or  esoeBsivelj  rare.  In 
the  hope  of  being  able  to  determine  the  localities  of  those  plants 
which  this  anthor  has  noticed  as  occurring  in  Canada,  I  attempted 
several  years  since  to  trace  the  steps  in  his  journey  to  tbe  Sague- 
nay,  and  to  Hudson's  Bay.  At  that  time  however,  the  only 
materials  at  my  disposal  were  the  Flora,  and  some  scattered  notes 
in  the  works  of  his  son.  I  had  not  then  seen  his  Herbarinm, 
which  is  rich  in  notes  of  localities ;  and  the  manuscript  journal  of 
his  journey,  in  the  library  of  the  American  PhiloEOphical  Society 
in  Philadelphia,  was  unknown  to  me.  Since  that  time  however^ 
I  have  been  able  to  consult  the  original  collections  of  Michauz, 
which  are  in  part  at  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  of  Paris,  and  in  part 
in  the  museum  of  Mr.  Benjamin  Delessert  of  that  city.  Tbe 
American  Philosophical  Society  has  moreover  permitted  me  to 
copy  the  manuscript  journal,  for  which  favor  I  take  this  occasion 
of  expressing  my  thanks. 

■  TaufBLiToa'sNoTi. — ThUiaterestbg  paper  was  printed  a  few  months 
Biace,  ia  French,  bj  Ur.  Brnnet,  for  private  distribalioa  onl^.  I  have 
accordingl;  translated  it  for  publication  in  the  Canadian  NaturalUI,  Eup- 
presaing  aome  anessential  portiona,  with  tbe  approbation  of  the  author  - 
who  has  added  to  it  a  map  of  tbe  region  from  Lake  St.  John  to 
Hndsoa's  Baj.  A  MS.  map  bj  tbe  Jesuit  Lanre,  wbo  was  a  mls- 
aionar;  in  Canada  daring  the  early  part  of  ihe  last  centurj,  ia  the  chief 
authority  for  the  region  beyond  Lake  St.  John,  tbongh  other  oldFrencIt 
mapa  were  consnited.  The  map  of  Laare  is  in  tbe  library  of  the  Oano- 
dian  Parliament.— T.  S.  H. 
Tob.  I.  w  So.  S. 


1.;.  Google 


326  THE  CANADIAN  NATDttALIST.  [Oct. 

In  the  following  piig^,  which  I  have  prepared  with  the  aid  of 
the  materials  thus  placed  at  my  disposal,  I  shall  ^ve  a  list  of  the 
most  interesting  plants  found  by  our  botanist  in  the  variouB 
localities  visited  during  hia  Canadian  journey ;  while  for  the  more 
common  species,  I  shall  only  notice  the  most  northern  points  at 
wbiob  they  were  observed.  There  will  be  found  in  these  pages, 
notices  of  more  tlian  one  hundred  and  sixty  plants  observed  by 
MIehaux  in  localities  not  mentioned  in  hia  Flora.  These  indica- 
tions, it  is  to  be  hoped,  will  not  he  devoid  of  interest  to  collectors, 
and  to  students  of  geographical  botany;  while  in  addition  will  "be 
found  some  interesting  details  from  the  journal  of  iMicbaox  on  the 
chsrBct«rs  of  a  portion  of  that  almost  unknown  region  which  forms 
the  water-shed  between  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Hudson's  Bay. 

Andr^  Michaux,  the  early  years  of  whose  life  were  devoted  to 
agriculture,  soon  conceived  a  plan  for  visiting  foreign  countries 
with  the  object  of  studying  their  plants,  and,  if  possible,  intro- 
ducing them  into  France.  As  a  preparation  for  this,  be  came 
to  Paris  in  1779,  and  studied  botany  for  two  years  under  Bernard 
de  Jusiiieu.  Aflcr  having  in  the  pursuance  of  his  plan  visited 
England,  and  crossed  the  Pyrenees  into  Spain,  he  visited  Persia, 
from  whence  he  brought  great  colleotlons  of  plants  and  seeds. 
The  French  government,  desirous  of  introducing  into  France  some 
of  the  trees  of  North  America,  then  decided  on  sending  Hichanx 
to  this  continent ;  where  bis  orders  were  to  travel  through  the 
United  States,  and  collect  both  trees  and  seeds,  which  were  to  he 
sent  to  France.  In  pursuance  of  this  mission,  he  sailed  on  the 
25th  of  August  1785,  and  reached  New  York  the  1st  of  October, 
accompanied  hy  a  gardener.  Although  his  journey  had  for  its 
chief  object  the  introduction  of  fores t-trecs,  Michnux  had  received 
orders  to  send  also  such  shrubs  and  plants  as  might  serve  to  orna- 
ment the  king's  gardens. 

He  at  first  made  New  York  bis  bead-quarters,  from  which  he 
visited  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  and  Maryland,  and  he  esbb- 
lished  a  nursery  in  New  Jersey,  with  a  view  of  raising  young 
trees  which  should  be  of  better  growth  than  those  found  in  the 
forests.  In  the  year  following,  Michanx  sent  to  Paris  twelve  boxes 
of  seeds,  and  several  thousand  young  trees.  After  a  time  he 
removed  to  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  and  there  established  a 
second  nursery,  which  soon  obtained  great  dimenuons  from  the 
immense  collections  of  trees  and  shrubs,  the  fruit  of  more  than 
eixty  jotumeys  in  varioas  parts  of  the  int«iior.     The  muiaacript 


.;,  Google 


1864.]  UIOHAUX   AND    EIS   JOUBNXT  IN   CANADA.  327 

notes  of  Michanx,  however,  g^ve  ns  no  details  of  these  excur^ODS 
up  to  the  month  of  April  1787,  when  he  made  hia  first 
journey  to  the  AJlf^hanies,  going  np  the  Savannah  River  to  its 
head,  and  thence  gaining  the  heights  of  the  moantun  region. 
Having  made  fViends  with  some  of  the  Indians,  he  then  ascended 
with  them  one  of  the  trihutartes  of  the  Savannah,  and  reached 
a  branch  of  the  Tennessee  on  the  other  side  of  the  monntains. 
This  was  the  limit  of  his  voyage,  and  he  then  returned  to  Char- 
leston on  the  first  of  July,  after  a  voyaf^e  of  300  leagnee  in 
South  Carolina  and  Oeorgia.  His  manuscript  notes  of  this 
journey  contain  many  observations  on  the  plants  met  with,  and 
precise  indications  of  their  localities.  In  1788  and  1789  he  vis- 
itod,  successively,  Florida,  the  Lncayan  islands,  and  Virginia,  pass- 
ing through  the  mountain  region  of  North  Carolina,  He  returned 
to  Charleston  from  this  last  excursion  in  September  1789,  but 
revisited  the  region  in  the  course  of  the  following  winter,  accom- 
panied by  his  son,  reaching  Charleston  again  in  the  spring  of  1790, 
where  he  remained  until  April  1791.  His  notes  during  this  year 
are  wanting. 

Michaux  had  now  spent  six  years  in  America,  his  pecuniary 
resources  were  nearly  exhausted,  and  he  feared  to  be  obliged  to 
return  to  France  without  having  completed  hia  plans  on  this 
coDlioent.  He  had  long  desired  to  add  to  his  studies  npoa  the 
American  Flora,  some  researches  on  the  gec^raphicaj  distribution 
of  the  forest  trees,  and  to  determine  the  native  region  of  each, 
which  he  regarded  as  that  ia  which  the  plant  attains  its  greatest 
size  and  strength.  The  tulip'tree  (^Inriodendron  tidipifera) 
for  example,  appears  in  Western  Canada  with  a  maximum  height  of 
sixty  feet,  and  a  diameter  of  three  feet ;  while  westward,  and  espe- 
cially in  Kentucky,  where  it  forms  by  itself  vast  forests,  it  reaches 
a  height  of  one  hundred  and  forty  feet,  and  a  diameter  of  seven 
or  eight  feet  To  the  northward,  on  the  contrary,  it  becomes 
rarer  and  smaller,  and  Michaux  was  hence  led  to  regard  this  tree 
as  a  native  of  Kentucky.  In  accordance  with  these  views,  he 
resolved  to  study  the  top<^raphy  of  the  North  American  trees. 
He  had  already  extended  his  travels  southward  to  Florida,  but 
another  journey,  longer  and  more  difficult,  but  still  more  important 
to  his  investigations,  yet  remained  to  be  accomplished, — a  visit 
to  Canada  and  northward  as  far  as  Hudson's  Bay,  This  project 
be  attempted  in  1792.  Leaving  Charleston  in  April,  he  proceeded 
northward  by  land,  and,  as  we  leam  from  his  mauusoript  notes, 


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328  THE   CANADIAN  NATURALIST.  [Oot. 

went  first  directly  to  New  York,  thenc«  to  New  Haven,  and  finallj- 
to  Albany,  where  be  arrived  on  tbe  14th  June.  On  the  18th 
we  find  him  at  Saratoga,  and  on  the  20th  he  embarked  on  Lake 
Champlain  at  Whitehall.  The  remainder  of  this  month  was 
employed  in  examiniag  the  vegetation  on  the  shores  of  the  lake, 
which  he  crossed  several  times.  In  his  Flora,  mention  is- 
made  of  a  great  number  of  plants  which  be  found  in  this  r^on.* 
On  the  30th  of  June,  Mlchanx  reached  Montreal,  where  he  spent 
ten  days  in  coUectiog  the  plants  of  the  environs.  On  the  let  of 
July,  he  tells  us  he  botanized  on  the  mountain.  "  On  the  3rd,  in 
the  country  and  the  low  meadows,"  and  "  on  Sunday  the  Sth,  in 
the  wood  of  Lachine,  for  a  league  along  the  river-side."  In  thes» 
excursions  he  collected  the  following  plants,  which  are  marked  in 
his  herbarium  as  having  been  colleoted  about  Montreal: 

Sdrpia  spatkaceus,  Michi. ;  Slodea  CanadenfU,  Michx. ;  Poa 
oompreisa,  Linn. ;  Scutellaria  parvvla,  Miohx. ;  Oxalit  comicn- 
lata,  Linn. ;  Hyperimm  macrocarpum,  Michx. ;  Acalypha  Fir- 
gitiica,  Linn. ;  Zanthoxylum/raxineum,  Willd, 

On  the  11th  June  Michaux  left  for  Quebec;  but  adverse- 
winds  obliged  him  to  put  in  at  Sorel  and  at  Batiscan,  where  he 
made  collections.  In  the  latter  locality  he  found  Scheuchzeria 
palustria,  Lino. ;  Triglochin  marilimtim,  Linn. ;  Drotera  longi- 
/olia,  Linn. 

He  reached  Quebec  on  the  16th  July,  and  remained  there  a 
fortnight,  in  which  time  he  made  several  exonrBions  in  th& 
environs,  visiting  the  Falls  of  Montmorency,  Lorette  (probably  La 
Jeune  Lorette),  and  botanized  in  the  forest  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  river  St.  Charles.  As  the  season  was  advancing,  he  now 
made  arrangements  for  his  journey  to  Hudson's  Bay.  Engaging 
as  an  interpreter  a  young  half-breed,  who  had  been  three  year» 
with  the  Indians,  he  started  for  the  Saguenay.  The  following 
extracts  from  his  notes  will  show  his  route : 

■  It  woald  b«  BaperflooDS  to  forniab  lists  of  plaats  whoae  names  and 
localities  are  fonnd  in  the  Flora  of  Michaux.  -  When  therefore  ia  this, 
narrative  I  give  a  list  of  plants  found  b;  our  botonist  io  an?  locality,  it 
will  be  understood  to  include  onl;  those  which  have  not  been  mentioned 
In  his  Flora  as  tbers  occurring ;  but  which  ore  given  in  his  Herbariumr 
or  in  bis  manuscript  notes  as  having  been  foaad  in  that  locetity.  For 
the  caaTeaicDce  of  reference,  bovrever,  I  give  in  tbe  following  manner, 
the  p^eB  where  the  plants  not  here  named  will  be  found  ipentioned: 

Flora  Boreal i- Americana,  in  Canada,  ad  ripas  lacDS  OttunjiJafn,  voL 
i,  fol.  4T,  TS,  136,  1^3,  304 ;  vol.  ii,  fol.  S8,  198,  12T,  246. 


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1864.]  HtCHAUX  AND   HIS  JOtJUNEY  IN   OANASA.  S29 

"  Leil  Quebec  J\x\y  31,  Bailtng  by  Oape  Toarmento  and  Cape 
BraU,  which  are  distant  twelve  and  fourteen  leagues  from  Qaebeo. 
Sow  upon  the  moantains  Juniperu*  communit,  Tkaja,  Abies 
haUamea,  A.  alba,  Epigoea  repent,  Linnaa  hoTealU,  etc.,  et«. 

That  aight  lay  off  Bay  St.  Paul August  1st.  The 

"niod  changed  and  rain  fell ;  botanized  on  the  mountains 

August  2nd.  Arrived  at  Malbaie,  and  left  there  on  the  4tb,  reach- 
ing the  mouth  of  the  Saguenay,  where  I  passed  the  night.  On 
the  morning  of  Sunday  the  5th  reached  Tsdonaeao,  forty-six 
leagues  from  Quebec." 

Tbe  plants  collected  by  Micbaui  at  Maltude  were  as  follows : 

Ilippurie  vulgarit,  Linn. ;  Salicomia  kerbacea,  Linu. ;  PuI- 
monaria  parvijlora,  Miohx, ;  Ligasticum  Scoticum,  Linn. ;  Sai- 
tola  gdUa  t  Michz. ;  Polygoratra  eUinode,  Miohx. ;  FotentUla 
Jiirtala,  Micbx. ;  Aitragalvt  itcundus,  Michz.  ;*  Medicago  lup^ 
Una,  Linn. ;  PterU  gracilu,  Michz. 

A  little  lower  down  on  the  shores  of  the  St  Lawerence  he 
gathered  Salieomia  herbaeea,  Linn.;  Arundo  arenaria,  hiao. ; 
Glaux  mariiima,  Linn, ;  Sdliola  »alm  ?  Michz. ;  AtripUxpatula, 
Linn.  ;  Rumtx  verticillatut,  Linn.  ;  Armaria  rubra,  Linn., 
(  =  Spergvlaria  rubra,  Pers.);  Potenlilla  hirmla,  Michz. ;  Emp6- 
4rum  nigrum,  Linn. 

The  picturesque  little  village  of  Tadoussao  is  built  upon  a  point 
of  rock  at  the  entrance  to  the  Saguenay,  and  was  a  poet  of  tbe  Hud- 
son's Bay  Company.  Here  Micbanx  bought  two  bark-caaoes,  and 
«ngaged  three  Indians;  here  also,  as  we  learn  from  his  Flora  and 
hia  Herbarium,  he  collected  the  following  plants :  lAgutticam 
Scoticum,  Linn. ;  L.  acUei/oUum,  Michz. ;  Gentiana  acuta, 
Michz.;  Epilobium  tetragonum,  Linn.;  Vacdnium  Vitit-Idaea, 
Linn. ;  Potentilla  hirmtta,  Miobz.;  Ilex  Canadentis,  MIchi.  f 

He  was  soon  however  on  bis  way  up  tbe  Saguenay,  which  for  a 
-distance  of  twenty-seven  miles  flows  between  immense  walls  of 
gneiss,  often  extremely  bold  and  picturesque.  The  banks  are 
almost  destitute  of  vt^lation,  ezcept  in  .tbe  fissures  of  tbe  rocks, 
where  a  few  stunted  pines  and  spruces,  wild  gooseberries  and  blae- 
iherries  laden  with  fruit,  and  a  juniper  (Juniperui  tabina),  form 

■  S«e  nol«t  on  page  331. 

t  Flora  Boreal i- A mericBDa,  ad  ripas  Sumiaia  5.  £aur«nfii,  jaila  Ta- 
-doussac,  vol.],  Tol,  IBS,  ITT;  ia&am]nti S.Lavrentii tqaia  affluents mara 
sabsalsiB,  toI.  L  fol.  1,  6T,  96, 102,  133. 


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330  THE  CANADIAN  NAirEAUBT.  [Oct. 

a  green  tapestry  hangiog  on  the  embanlcmeuts,  which  rise  Bome- 
times  a  height  of  1 100  feet* 

As  weapproach  Hal  hal  Bay  the  shores  beoome  lower,  and  tie- 
great  piae  forests  which  form  the  wealth  of  this  r^ion  are  seen. 
At  Ghicontimi,  where  the  river  ceases  Ut  be  aavigable  for  large 
Teasels,  it  spreads  into  a  wide  basin  which  receives  a  cascade  of 
ibrty  feet  in  height.  Miohanx  reached  this  spot  on  the  11th  of 
Atigust. 

Chicoudmi,  which  signifies  deep  water,  was  then  a  little  villsge 
at  the  junction  of  the  river  of  this  name  with  thet^aguenay.  Upon 
a  point  which  projects  into  the  basin  was  a  small  chapel  abont 
twenty-five  feet  long,  bnilt  by  the  Jesnits,  and  having  within  a  single 
altar  and  a  few  pictures,  while  outside  was  seen  the  tomb  of  Pere 
Coquart,  the  last  of  the  Jesuits,  who,  with  the  PSre  Lahrosse,  had 
first  preached  the  Ooepel  to  the  natives.  Michanx,  in  the  mann- 
Boript  notes  which  he  left  to  his  son,  thus  speaks  of  this  obapel : 
"  On  my  way  to  Hudson's  Bay  I  reached  in  the  month  of  August 
the  Lake  Chiooutimi,  near  the  48th  degree  of  latitude,  and  there 
found  the  church  erected  in  1728  (as  indicated  by  the  date  placed 
over  the  principal  entrance)  by  the  Jesuit  fathers  for  the  natives 
of  the  vicinity.  This  building,  made  of  squared  timbers  of  white 
cedar  {Thuja  occidentalie)  placed  upon  each  other,  was  in  good 
preservation  ;  and  although  these  beams  had  never  been  covered 
either  within  or  without,  the  wood  at  the  depth  of  half  a  line  was 
not  the  least  altered  after  a  lapse  of  more  than  sixty  years."-)-  This- 
little  chapel  was  still  standing  in  1857. 

The  route  to  Lake  St.  John  was  then  much  more  difficult  than- 
that  which  is  now  followed.  Michauz  went  up  the  river  Chicou- 
timi  in  a  canoe  and  then  passed  through  Lake  Kinogomi,  from 
whichfbyaportageofhalfa  mile,  he  reached  Lake  Kinogomichiche ; 
this  discharges  itself  by  a  slow  and  tortuous  stream  into  Belle 
Biver,  which  falls  into  Lake  St.  John,  which  our  traveller  reached 
after  a  journey  of  six  days  from  Chtcou^mi,  gathering  the  follow- 
ing plants  in  his  way : 

Seirpu*  tpalkaceu*,illiebx.]  Steerlia  comicttlala,'Lijm.;  Pri- 
not  verlicillatu»,  liinn.;  Gerttiana pneunionanthe,IAan. ;  Drosera 
rotundi/olia,  Linn. ;  Tnglockin_patttglre,  Linn. ;  JuncutflnitaiiMf 
Miohz.;  Milella  diphyUa,li\aD.;  Sparganium  natani,  }/li<Aii.. ; 

*  Flora  Boreali-AmericaoB,  in  sazosU  ad  amnem  Sasntnay,  vol.  1^ 
fol.  3.  vol.  ii.  fol.  246. 
t  Uichaui  Gl8,  Arbrea  Foreattera,  vol.  iii,  p.  34, 


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1864.]  HICHADZ  AND    BIS  JOURNEY  IN   CANADA.  331 

NymphBalutea,^.  Za/miana,  Lion.;  Spergulattrum  laneeola- 
tam,  Michz.,  {  =  SeeUaria  horeali*,  Bigelon) ;  Alnm  critpaf 
Michx. ;  A.  glauca-,  Michz. ;  Lohdia  Dortmanna,  Lian. 

Lake  St.  John  lies  between  latitude  43°  23'  and  48°  42',  and 
between  longitude  71°  29'  and  72°  9',  its  greatest  length  being 
sixteen  leagues;  it  is  more  than  thirtj  leagues  to  the  north  of 
Quebec.  Miohaux  went  entirely  around  it,  and  collected  a  great 
number  of  plants  ;*  but  in  pursuance  of  his  plan  of  studying  the 
trees,  he  also  penetrated  into  the  surrounding  forests,  which  abound 
in  valuable  timber-trees,  details  with  regard  to  the  nature  and 
distribution  of  which,  will  be  given  further  on. 

It  was  on  the  16th  August  that  oar  botanist  reached  this  lake, 
but,  delayed  by  an  adverse  wind,  he  spent  the  next  day  at  the 
month  of  Belle  River,  where  he  found  Lgcoput  Virginicus,  Linn. ; 
Ciraea  Canadentis,  Linn. ;  Bromus  Canadensit,  Michx,  ;  Arando 
areitaria,  LioQ^. ;  Galium  CUiytonii,  Michx.;  G.  afpreUvm, 
Miohx, ;  Comut  altemifoUa,  Lian. ;  Polygonum  amphibium, 
Linn. ;  Ceroiut  pumila,  Michx, ;  Laihyrua  paluslris,  Linn. ; 
Attr-jgalut  seciindut,'\  Michx.;  Sedyianim  alpinum,  Michx.} 
Aeter  amygdalinitt,  Michx.;  A.  cordifoliM,  Linn.;  Solidago 
Jlexicaulis,  Linn.;  S.  axpera.  Ait. ;  Senecio pauperculvt,  Michx.; 
Arlemitia  Canadensis,  Micbx. ;  Lobelia  Kalmii,  Linn.;  Erio- 
caulon  pellacidum,  Michx. ;  Calla  paliulrii,  Linn. ;  Salix  car- 
data,  Michx. ;  /fcx  Canadentii,  Michx. ;   Viti*  riparia,  Michx. 

Of  the  Ftfis  JDst  named,  Michaux  has  in  his  Herbarium  the 
following  notes  :  "  Called  beach-vine  {vigne  des  hatlurei)  by  the 
French  voyageurs  on  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi,  because  it  grows 
upon  the  rocks  and  sands  which  are  exposed  to  the  annual  floods, 

This  species  is  never  found  to  the  east  of  the  All^hany 

Mountains." 

•  Flora  Boreal i-Amerlcao a,  in  laco  vel  jujtta  lacum  S.  Joannit,  vol.  i, 
fol.  340,  Tot.  ii,  fol.  305,  220,  225. 

t  Prof.  Asa  Gray  had  for  some  time  aappoied  the  ^ilragatui  itcundtu 
of  Uichanx  to  be  (he  Pkaca  atlra^alirta,  D.  C,  (^itragalui  atpititis, 
Linn.,)  when  in  1861,  I  re-discorered  the  planl  at  Lake  St.  John,  where 
Uichaoi  bad  Grat  Toand  it,  aad  gent  BpecimeDS  of  [t  to  Prof  Ora;,  which 
fullj  confirmed  bU  optnioa  Ibal  it  ia  bat  aoolher  form  of  .4.  alpinvr, 
Linn.  But  whence  this  diSereace  of  form  T  L»st  year,  at  tbe  Uland  of 
Orleans,  where  this  speciea  is  abundaat,  I  found  the  two  Tarietica  in  tbe 
same  localitj;  and  I  was  able  to  observe  that  when  it  grows  on  exposed 
rocks  tbe  pUnt  baa  tbe  ordiaary  fonn  ol  Phaca  aiiragalina ;  while  on  Iha 
contrary,  (rhen  sheltered  by  a  growth  of  taller  plaala,  it  asBumas  the 
Blender  and  elongated  form  of  tbe  plant  of  Uicbanx. 


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332  THE   OANADIAM   NATtT&ALIST.  [Oot. 

Among  the  rivers  which  fiJl  into  Lake  St.  Joha  is  the  Mistasuni, 
called  alao  R.  dea  Sahlea,  from  the  great  qaantitj  of  sand  which  it 
brings  down.  Bj  this  river,  which  has  a  length  of  abont  150 
miles,  the  Indians  known  bj  the  name  of  MistoBsins,  and  living 
around  the  great  lake  of  that  name,  were  accustomed  to  descend 
at  Pointe  Bleue,  the  most  northern  trading-post  in  this  region, 
where  they  sold  their  furs.  They  still  come  down  every  year  in 
the  month  of  June  for  the  purpose  of  trude,  and  also  to  meet  the 
missionary  who  pays  them  an  annual  visit.  It  was  by  this  river 
that  MichaDZ  proposed  to  pass  to  Hudson's  Bay.  Leaving  the 
post  at  Pointe  Bleue  on  the  21st  August,  he  reached  in  a  few  hours 
the  river  Mist^ssini.  The  waters  were  shallow,  and  for  five  or  six 
leagues  flowed  through  banks  of  moving  sands,  which  were  some- 
times more  than  half  a  league  long.  The  lands  on  either  Bide 
were  low  and  fertile,  no  mountains  were  visible,  and  the  trees  were 
chiefly  elms,  ashes,  and  pines,  of  a  good  growth.*  At  the  end  of 
about  eighteen  leagues  Miohauz  arrived  at  a  beautiful  waterfall 
about  eighty  feet  in  height,  and  on  the  evening  of  the  22nd  August 
encamped  on  the  borders  of  the  basin  below. 

This  point  which  was  known  as  Larges  Kapides,  Michauz 
observed  as  the  northern  limit  of  PotentiUa  tridentata,  while 
daahkeria  procumheitff  disappeared  ten  leagues  above  Lake 
St.  John,  although  Hooker,  in  his  FUira  Borealt- Americana,  has 
indicated  Qaebec  as  its  northern  limit. 

The  23rd  being  a  day  of  rain,  Michauz  remained  in  camp ;  but 
the  three  following  days  he  continued  the  ascent  of  the  river, 
which  became  narrower,  and  so  rapid  that  the  canoes  could  only 
be  propelled  by  means  of  poles.  At  length  he  reached  the  portage 
called  Mmte-i-peine,  where  he  was  obliged  to  make  a  difficult  and 
even  dangerous  ascent  of  a  hill  eight  or  nine  hundred  feet  in 
height.  From  the  summit  he  looked  down  into  an  immense 
valley,  traversed  by  green  hills  which  resembled  great  waves  in  an 
ocean  of  verdure.  A  single  small  river  alone  broke  the  monotony 
of  this  landscape ;  to  it  the  travellers  directed  their  steps,  and  soon 
reached  a  stream  which  was  only  abont  eighteen  feet  wide.   During 

•  Flora,  in  Canada  sd  amoem  Uislatiitii,  vol.  i,  fol.  31,  61,  110. 

t  Some  botanists  hare  ventured  to  change  tlic  natne  of  this  plant  to 
Gaatiera;  but  the  trae  ortbographj  of  the  name  of  lis  discoverer  is  Gaa- 
tbier,  as  appears  from  the  reKiatera  of  Xotre  Dame  de  Quebec  (Register 
of  Aug.  S6,  1751).  It  would  besides  be  undesirable  to  change  a  name 
consecrated  lilie  tbis  b;  loug  Mtt. 


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1864-3  MIOHADX   AND   HIS  JOUEHBT   IN   CANADA.  333 

the  portage  the  folloniag  plants  were  met  with ;  Vaccinium  cces- 
pitosum,  Michx. ;  Epigcea  repena,  Linn. ;  Arbutui  Jlvaurn, 
Linn.;  Lycopodium  inwidatum,  Linn.;  L.Selagitwidcs,lA\an.-j 
Sotrypxa  lunaroiilesj  Michx. 

The  little  riveron  which  they  now  embarked  was  generally  deep 
«nongh  for  their  canoes,  but  the  navigation  was  often  interrupted 
by  the  dama  constructed  by  the  beavera,  whose  cabins  were  seen 
on  the  ahores.  This  stream  led  them  to  Swan  Lake  (Lao  des 
Oygnes),  which  they  reached  in  the  afternoon  of  the  29th  Angnst. 
This  picturesque  little  lake,  which  is  about  forty-five  leagueti  from 
Lake  8t.  John,  is  very  irregular  in  form,  in  some  parts  having  a 
breadth  of  two  leagues,  and  at  others  being  very  narrow.  The 
shores  are  generally  low,  with  occasional  hills  covered  by  stunted 
trees.  Around  the  shores  of  this  lake  Michaux  found  the  following 
plants :  Avena  striata,  Michx. ;  Anindo  Canadmiu,  Michx, ; 
.SytosteumTit^foium,  Miohx.;  Jancuimelanocarput,  Michs. ;  Vacei- 
nittm  VilU-Idtea,  Linn. ;  Epigma  repent,  Linn. ;  Epilohium 
oliganthum,  Michi. ;  PotentUla/ruticota,  hinn.;  A»ter  uniflurui, 
Micbx. ;  Carex  lenticalaris,  Wicti^. ;  Jiies  6o?sann/eTo,  Michi. ; 
A.  denliculala,  Micbx. ;  Betula  glanduhta,  Michx. 

He  remarks  that  Avena  striata  is  the  only  gramineous  plant 
observed  by  him  in  this  vicinity,  and  also  that  Swan  Lake  appears 
to  he  the  most  northern  limit  of  Vaccinium  Vitit-Ideea. 

Lake  Mistassini  is  about  100  leagaes  from  Lake  St.  John,  and 
Michaux  had  already  traversed  about  half  the  distance,  but  the 
most  difBcult  part  remained.  He  had  to  cross  a  dismal  wilderness, 
where  the  v^tation  consists  only  of  a  small  number  of  stunted 
and  depauperated  species.  "  The  trees  which  predominate  in  the 
forests,  a  few  degrees  to  the  southward,  have  here  almost  entirely 
disappeared,  from  the  severity  of  the  winters  and  the  sterihty  of 
the  soil.  All  this  region  is  traversed  by  thousands  of  lakes,  and 
-covered  with  enormous  rocks  piled  upon  one  another,  and  generally 
covered  with  huge  black  lichens,  which  add  to  the  gloomy  aspect 
of  this  desert  and  almost  uninhabitable  country.  Between  these 
rocks  are  seen  here  and  there  some  specimens  of  a  stunted  pine 
(Pinus  rupettrU),  which  at  the  height  of  three  feet  is  seen 
bearing  fruit,  and  having  all  the  marks  of  decrepid  old  age. 
One  hundred  and  fifty  miles  to  the  southward  this  pine  attains  a 
height  of  eight  or  ten  feet,  and  jiresents  a  much  more  vigorous 
growth."* 


■  Michaui  fila,  Atbrea  ForesUers,  vol.  i,  pag«  i' 


V,  Google 


334  THE  OANADIAM   KATUBALIST.  [Oct. 

Of  this  r^ion,  between  Swan  Lake  and  Lake  MiBtassini, 
Micbaux  remarks  in  his  journal,  that  it  evidentl;  occupies  the 
height  of  land,  ^nce  the  waters  of  the  latter  lake  fall  northward 
into  Hudson's  Bay,  while  those  of  Swan  Lake  through  the 
river  Mistassini  reieh  Lake  St.  John  and  the  St.  Lawrence.  We 
cannot  give  a  better  notion  of  the  climate  and  v^etation  of  this 
elevated  and  semi-arctic  region,  than  b;  the  following  extracts 
from  the  manuscript  journal  of  Michaax : 

"  August  30th.  We  have  passed  through  three  lakes,  which  lie 
among  low  hills,  and  are  connected  by  short  streams.  The  whole 
of  this  r^on  is  cat  up  into  mountains  and  bills;  the  low  places 
between  which  are  filled  with  water,  forming  innumerable  lakeB, 
which  for  the  most  part  have  no  names  among  the  Indians  who 
hunt  in  this  country.  Wide  intervals  are  often  covered  with 
Sphagttum,  in  which  the  traveller  sinks  to  his  knees,  and  which 
even  in  the  dry  weather  is  always  saturated  with  water.  In  the- 
conrse  of  the  day  we  have  made  three  portages,  and  have  travelled 
three  or  four  le^ues  only,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  crossing 
these  marshes. 

"  These  marshes  abound  in  Kalmia  glauca,  Andromeda  poll/- 
folia,  Sarracenia  purpurea,  and  Vaccinium  Oxj/coccm.  In  the 
drier  parts  are  Andromeda  calyculata,  Ledum  pahittre,  Kalmia 
attgusli/olia,  Epigma  repem,  and  Pinus  rubra.  AHe»  bahami/era, 
may  be  said  to  cease  at  Swan  Lake  r  I  saw  only  three  specimen* 
of  it  to  day  in  the  form  of  little  shrubs.  All  the  plants  here  seem 
like  decrepid  pigmies  on  account  of  the  sterility  and  the  severity 
of  the  cold. 

"  August  31st,  We  paddled  for  an  hour ;  and  then  came  to  » 
portage .  The  cold  was  excessive,  the  sky  cloudy  for  the  last  two 
days,  and  the  rain  like  melted  snow.  When  we  stopped  for 
breakfast,  the  cold  took  away  our  appetites,  and  the  Indians,  who 
were  drenched  with  water,  trembled  with  cold. 

"  September  let.  The  rain  prevented  our  travelling,  and  one  of 
our  Indians  was  sick.  In  the  afternoon  the  weather  was  clearer, 
and  ne  went  on  notwithstanding  Ibe  rain.  All  night  we  had  rain 
with  thunder  and  lightning.  We  made  six  leagues,  passing 
throngh  a  lake  and  along  streams  scarcely  wider  than  a  canoe. 

"  September  2nd.  Sunday.  The  weather  was  very  thick  in  the 
morning,  and  a  balf-melted  snow  fell ;  the  cold  became  less  severe, 
but  we  had  a  portage  of  three  quarters  of  a  league  across  a  marsh. 
De^ite  showers  of  hail,  which  lasted  all  day,  we  kept  on,  for  the 


,.,.d.i.  Google 


1864.]  MIOHAUZ  AND  HIS  JOtTRNEr  IN  CANADA.  33& 

Indians,  like  myself,  were  most  ansioua  to  reaob  Lake  MiBtaseini 
before  the  aoow  and  cold  should  aogmeDt,  We  crossed  three  lakesr 
&nd  travelled  about  tea  let^ea. 

"  September  3rd.  Ice  formed  about  a  tine  in  thickness.  After 
midnight  a  white  frost  was  seen  on  tbe  vegetation  aroond  onr 
camp,  and  there  was  promise  of  a  fioe  day ;  bat  about  seven  in 
the  morning  the  air  became  thick,  and  we  had  alternations  ot 
snow,  rain,  hail,  and  sunshine,  *  *  *  At  eleveno'olock  we 
reached  a  great  river  flowing  northward,  and  with  a  favoring 
onrrent  we  made  eighteen  or  twenty  leagues  today.  The  &Dil 
appeared  to  grow  better. 

"  September  4th.  We  were  obliged  to  make  three  portages,  on    ■ 
account  of  rocky  rapids,  and  at  a  quarter  past  ten  reached  Lake 


The  following  plants,  in  addition  to  these  already  mentioned, 
were  met  with  in  crossing  the  height  of  land :  ScirpJti  erw- 
phonan,  Michx. ;  Cinna  arundinacea,  Linn.;  Avina  striata, 
Miohx  ;  Symphoricarpot  racemosui,  Micbs.  ;  Gentiana  pneu- 
monanlhe,  Linn.;  Juncu$  mdanocarpus,  Michs.;  Triglochin 
maritiftmm,  Linn.;  Aluma  plantago,  Linn, ;  VacciniuTrt 
O3ycoccu$,  Michx.;  F,  caspitotum,  Michx.;  V.  myrtilloide*, 
Michx.  (  V.  Pennsylvanicum,  Lam.)  ;  Mentha  horcalit,  Michx. ; 
fimiJ  inopg  f  Ait. ;  Lycopodium  SelagiTwides,  Linn. 

Of  the  great  Mistassin  Lake  but  little  is  known ;  the  sketch  of  it 
given  in  the  accompanying  map  represents  its  size  and  shape  as  far 
as  can  be  gathered  from  the  misuonaries  and  Indian  traders. 
Bapert's  River,  by  which  it  empties  into  James's  Bay,  is  described 
aa  being  from  fifty  to  sixty  leagues  in  length,  and  latter  than  the 
Saguenay.  Its  name,  and  that  of  the  natives  of  its  shores,  is 
derived  from  the  Indian  word  nii<(OMini,  by  which  they  designate 
a  huge  rock  which  hangs  over  the  lake  near  its  outlet,  and  is 
regarded  as  the  abode  of  a  Manitou  or  Great  Spirit,  who  is  an  object 
of  religions  worship.  When  crossing  the  lake  they  are  said  to- 
keep  their  eyes  turned  away  from  this  rock  lest  he  in  bis  ire 
should  excite  a  tempest.  Near  tbe  lake,  on  a  smalt  river  which  flows 
into  it,  is  said  to  be  a  rude  cavern  in  marble,  which  the  Indians 
call  the  house  of  the  Great  Spirit.  The  notes  of  Michaux  add 
but  little  to  our  knowledge  of  this  lake.  He  tells  us,  however,  that 
the  shores  are  low,  and  the  hills  remote,  and  adds  that  "  the  wa- 
ters of  the  lake  are  discbai^ed  by  rivers  to  the  north  and  northwest, 
vhieh  fall  into  Hudson's  Bay,  the  journey  to  which,  from  the 


.;,  Google 


NATURALIST.  [Oot. 

lake  requires,  according  to  the  iDdiane,  foar  days,  although,  oa 
iLCCoant  of  the  rapids,  it  requires  ten  days  to  return." 

Michaux  reached  Lake  Mistassini  on  the  4th  of  September,  aad, 
after  paddling  along  it  for  ten  or  twelve  leagues,  encamped  on  a 
long  peninsula  on  the  west  side  of  the  lake.  The  next  momiog 
he  hegan  to  collect  plants,  of  which  he  gives  the  following  namea, 
■exclusive  of  those  mentioned  in  his  Flora  as  occarriog  in  this 

Lycopm  Virginia^,  Linn. ;  Scirput  tylvaiiaa,  Linn,  j  S. 
'eriopkorum,  Michx. ;  Pkalarie  arundinaeea,  Linn. ;  Corruu 
Canad^ntii,  Linn.;  C.  sloloni/era,  Michx.  ;  Pota'moge(on perfo- 
■iiatum,  Linn.;  LinncBa  borealii,  Qronov.;  Ulmusfuha,  Michx.; 
Strfpti^mt  distortut,  Jilichx-f  ConvaMaria  »tdlata,  Linn.;  7Wj- 
hchin  maritimum,  Linn. ;  EpilobiumangutitfoKmn,  LiDn. ;  Vac- 
<inium  oxycoecus,  Linn, ;  V.  higpidulum,  Linn. ;  T.  ttliffinomm, 
Linn.;  Pyrola secimda,  Linn.;  Hpigaearepetu,  Linn.;  Spergtdat- 
irum  lanceolatum,  Michx. ;  Cerasia  borealit,  Michx. ;  Sorbas  a«- 
■cuparia,ljiiin.,  <^I'i/ru8  Americana,!).  C);  Geum  rivale,  Lina.  • 
Potenfilla/ruticosa,  Linn. ;  Euhut  oeddentalis,  Linn. ;  R.  arcti- 
■cus,  Linn. ;  Prunella  vulgarU,  Linn. ;  Rhinanihus  CrUta-gaUi, 
Linn. ;  SUyrinchium  Bermudiana,  Linn. ;  Geranivm  Caroli- 
nianum,  Linn, ;  Bartsia  pallida,  Linn. ;  Sedt/garvtn  alpinum, 
Miohi. ;  ffieracium  acabrum,  Michx. ;  H.  Ganadense,  Michx. ; 
Aiter  macrophijllut,  Linn. ;  Solidago  atpera.  Ait. ;  SeiKcio, 
■aureut,  Linn. ;  Lobelia  Dortmanna,'^  Linn. ;  Carezftaoa,  Linn.  ; 
Betulapapyrifera,  Miohx. ;  Sparganium  angutti/olium,  Michx, ; 
Abies  alba,  Miohx. ;  A.  balsami/era,  Miohx. ;  A.  dealiculata, 
Michx. ;  PiTiui  inops  f  J  Ait. ;  Salix  incana,  Miohx ;  Acer  monta- 
■num,  Ait. ;    OsTnunda  riyalia,  Linn, 

Having  made  his  eoUectJons,  and  reached  the  other  side  of  the 
'lake,  Michaux  proceeded  on  his  jonmey ;  chostng  for  this  purpose, 
Among  the  discharges  of  the  lake,  a  large  and  fine  river  falling  into 
Hudson's  Bay,  and  known  as  the  BiviSre  des   QoSlands   (Gull 

*  Flora  Boreali-Americana, ad  aiDum  ffuitoniiet  juitalacuE,Jl(i(famni, 
■vol.  i,  fol.  G,  II,  14,  61,  64,  111,  134,  191,  323;  tqI.  ii,  fol.  3,  115,  121, 
t23,  153,  154,  ITl,  172,  173,  lT5,  180,  383. 

t  Ttie  Lobelia  Dorlnianna  is  a  rare  apeciee  in  Canada :  I  have  aa  jet 
foand  it  in  bat  two  localities.  Lake  Eenogami  and  Lake  St,  Joachim. 

X  The  Pimin  inop$  here  mentioned  is  the  P.  Sanktiana,  Lamb.,  P. 
ruptitrit,  Uichi.  Git,,  alread;  mentioned  on  page  333.  It  mt,y  be  here 
remarked,  however,  that  it  attains  In  gome  looalitles  a  height  of  thirlj 
(feet. 


1,;.  Google 


1864]  BEHINI80ENOES  OF  AMHERST   OOLLEOB.  337 

River),  whicb  is  very  probably  that  designated  id  the  maps  as 
Rupert's  River.  He  followed  this  for  some  distance,  and  camped 
on  the  night  of  September  &th,  near  the  Atchoukae  or  Seal  River. 
The  next  day  a  cold  fog  was  Baooeeded  by  rain  and  sdow,  and 
compelled  him  to  slop.  The  Indians,  fearing  the  rigors  of  the  season, 
refused  to  go  further,  assnring  him  that  if  the  snow  continued  it 
would  be  impossible  for  them  to  return.  It  was  therefore  decided 
that  they  should  immediately  retrace  their  way  to  Lake  Mistassini, 
where  they  arrived  that  night.  Along  the  hanks  of  the  Gull 
River  the  following  plants  were  collected: — X\/lo»teum  villotam, 
Michz. ;  Primula  Mittaetinica,  Miobz. ;  Ledum  latifoUam, 
Ait.;  Ruhu»  Chamamorue,  Linn.;  AeUr  v^dflorat,  Michz.; 
Car^  Richardi,  Thuill. ;  Betula  nana,  Linn. ;  MynophyUum 
gpicalum,  Linn. ;  Salix  incana,  Michz. ;  Mffrica  Gak,  Linn. ; 
Lycopodiwm  amiotinvan,  Linn. 

Michaux  left.  Lake  Mistassini  on  the  ?th  of  September.  His 
journey  back,  although  difficult,  was  rapid ;  and  from  the  height  of 
land  the  descending  currents  of  the  rivers,  now  swollen,  enabled 
the  travellers  to  pass  down  in  their  oanoes  over  most  of  the  rapids 
where  they  had  made  portages  in  ascending.  On  the  9th  of  Septem- 
ber be  passed  Swan  Lake  and  camped  at  Monte-&-Peine,  and  OD 
the  10th  reached  the  river  Mistassini,  and  camped  at  night  "four 
leagues  below  the  Larges  Rapides,  near  the  first  Weymouth  pines 
(Pi'niM  strobui)  which  we  met  on  our  way  downwards."  On  the 
12th,  Michaux  reached  Lake  St.  John,  and  two  days  later  left  for 
Quebeoj  from  which  he  returned,  by  way  of  Montreal  and  Lake 
Champlain,  to  Philadelphia,  where  he  arrived  on  the  8th  of 
December,  1792. 


"  REMINISCENCK9  OF  AMHERST  COLLEGE." 
Bt  Bdwibd  HiTCHOOOB,  D.D.,  LL.D.* 

Tbis  is  a  book  which  should  be  read  by  all  our  young  natural- 
ists, and  by  all  connected  with  onr  collies  and  schools.  It  shows 
what  can  be  done  for  natural  Bcienoe,  edncatioD,  and  Christianity 
by  the  earnest  labors  of  a  self-denyiug  mao,  even  under  the  dis- 
advantages of  poverty,  want  of  educational  privileges,  and  bodily 
weakness ;  and  is  full  of  suggestive  hints  as  to  the  best  means  of 
overcoming  the  difficulties  which  beeet  the  pursuit  of  soienoe  and 
education  in  this  country. 

*  NocChamptoD,  Uoss.,  U.  S. :  Published  by  Bridgman  A  Ohildi,  1883. 


..Gooc^lc 


338  THE  CANADIAN   NATBRALI8T.  [Oct. 

Its  interest  as  a  Darrative  &nd  as  a  study  of  human  natore  ia 
also  great.  Mixed  with  some  purdonable  egotisms,  it  briaga 
before  us  a  vivid  picture  of  the  genuine  old  New  England  puritan 
character,  in  its  energy,  its  stubborn  endurance,  its  rigid  honesty 
and  integrity,  ita  horror  of  debt  and  dependence,  and  its  quiet 
enthusiasm, — qualities  which,  it  is  to  be  feared,  hare  somewhat 
died  ont  in  more  recent  times,  and  which  certainly  require  cnl- 
ture  among  the  young  men  of  Canada. 

We  purpose,  in  the  present  notice,  to  give  a  few  estracta  illus- 
trative of  the  early  life  and  character  of  Dr.  Hitchcock,  and  of  his 
efforts  in  behalf  of  natural  hbtory,  and  especially  of  the  museum 
of  Amherst  College. 

The  following  extracts  refer  to  the  dlfEculties  of  his  early  life : 

"  One  of  these  cireumetancea  was  the  comparative  poverty  of 
my  early  condition.  It  was  not  absolute  poverty,  for  my  father 
moved  among  the  most  respectable  of  the  people  of  Deerfield,  where 
I  was  bom,  and  was  honored  among  them  especially  by  being 
chosen  deacon  of  the  Orthodox  church,  of  which  he  was  long  one  of 
the  strongest  pillars.  But  he  had  to  struf^le  hard  with  a  trade 
not  very  lucrative,  to  feed,  clothe,  and  educate  a  lai^e  family. 
He  had  commenced  his  family  career  during  the  Revolutionary 
War,  in  which  he  had  been  twice  engaged  as  a  soldier,  as  was  his 
father,  who  fell  a  sacrifice  to  the  diseases  of  the  camp.  The  dehta 
which  he  contracted  when  Continental  Notes  were  almost  the  only 
money,  bung  like  an  incubus  npon  him  nearly  all  his  life,  and  he 
was  relieved  only  when  his  sons  were  old  enough  to  aid  him.  Bnt 
he  was  highly  intellectual  in  his  habits,  and  studied  theology 
especially,  with  much  success."  [Towards  the  close  of  his  life,  as  bat 
few  sympathized  with  him  in  his  religious  views,  the  church  with 
which  he  was  connected  having  passed  into  other  hands,  he  com- 
mitted many  of  his  thoughts  towriting,  and  some  of  the  essays  and 
sermons  which  be  left  "  would  do  no  discredit  to  educated 
«lei^men."3 

"  1;  cannot  be  doubted  that  auoh  a  father  would  do  all  he  could 
for  the  education  of  his  children.  We  were  first  carried  thoroughly 
through  the  primary  school,  and  then  had  the  advantages  of  a 
good  academy,  as  much  as  we  could  find  time  and  means  to 
improve.  But  he  could  go  no  farther  with  eay  of  us — be  had 
three  sons.  And  nothing  vaa  before  me  but  a  life  of  manual 
labor.  But  as  I  had  a  great  aversion  to  being  apprenticed  to  a 
tradesman,  he  did  not  attempt  even  to  t«ach  me  hia  own  trade. 


,,;.  Google 


1864.]  BEMINISOENOEB  OP  AMHERST   COLLEGE.  339 

that  of  a  batter.  FarmiDg  was  the  only  reBort,  and  I  worked  on 
the  form — not  on  my  fother's,  for  he  had  none — but  on  Jand  hired 
by  mj  brother — I  know  not  how  many  years.  I  liked  the  employ- 
ment; but,ae  I  shall  state  more  particularly  in  afew  momenta,  I  had 
acquired  a  strong  relish  for  ecientific  pursoita,  and  I  seized  upon 
«Tery  moment  I  conid  secure — especially  rainy  days  and  evenings — 
for  those  studies.  I  was  treated  very  leniently  by  my  father  and 
brother,  who  probably  did  not  know  what  to  do  with  me,  but  saw 
plainly  that  I  should  not  become  distinguished  as  a  farmer.  My 
literary  taste  was  also  greatly  encouraged  by  a  few  companions  in 
Seerfield  with  whom  I  united  in  a  society,  whose  weekly  meetings 
we  kept  up  for  years,  which  had  a  department  for  debate,  and 
another  for  philosophical  discneeion.  I  always  regarded  this  as 
one  of  the  most  important  means  of  mental  discipline  that  I  ever 
«n joyed. 

"But  perhaps  the  mostimportantlesson  taught  me  by  my  strait- 
ened  circnmatancee  was  habits  of  rigid  economy.  I  learnt  that 
these  were  more  important  than  a  lai^e  income.  I  learnt  the  value 
of  money,  and  that  the  use  of  it  is  one  of  those  talents  for  tvhicb 
■we  must  give  an  account.  It  has  made  me  ever  since  opposed  to 
any  useless  expenditure  of  money  in  clothing,  food,  furniture,  ser- 
Tants,  equipage,  jouroeyings,  &o.  I  have  been  opposed  to  large 
salaries ;  and  am  confident,  that,  if  the  truth  were  known,  our 
public  institutions,  literary,  political,  and  religious,  have  the  greatest 
real  prosperity  when  their  officers'  salaries  are  low  ;  for  the 
temptattOQ  to  extravagance  with  an  increase  of  means  is  well  nigh 
irresistible.  I  have  always  felt  it  to  be  an  imperious  duty  for  the 
officers  of  a  literary  institution,  which  contains  indigent  young 
men,  to  set  an  example  in  plainness  In  dress,  equipage,  and  living, 
that  they  might  be  encouraged.  In  respect  to  books,  apparatuF, 
and  specimens,  and  even  objects  to  improve  the  taste,  such  as 
paintings,  statuary,  and  articles  of  vertu,  I  would  counsel  as  large 
an  expenditure  as  possible,  for  that  is  true  economy  j  and  to  get 
large  sums  for  these  and  benevolent  objects  is  the  great  purpose  of 
economy  in  personal  expenses.  But  I  have  ever  found  men  more 
ready  to  call  your  economy  parslmoniousness,  than  to  inquire  into 
the  liberality  of  your  benefactions  for  worthy  objects. 

"For  the  formation  of  a  taste  for  science  I  wasdoubttess  indebted 
to  my  uncle,  Major-General  Epaphras  Hoyt,  of  Deerfield,  a  near 
neighbor.  He  gave  the  most  attention  to  military  science,  on 
which  he  published  some  valuable  works,  and  to  which  I  devoted 


,.,.d.i.  Google 


340  THE  OAKAItlAN   NATURALIST,  [Oct. 

myself  with  coDBiderable  ioterest,  especially  to  fortification,  wbeo 
fVom  fifteen  to  eighteen  years  of  age.  But  he  was  also  deeply- 
iDterested  Id  astronomy  and  natural  philosophy,  and  these  branches 
became  my  favorites.  The  great  comet  of  1811,  and  aocess  to 
some  good  instruments  for  observing  it,  belonging  to  Deerfield 
Academy,  gave  me  a  decided  bias  for  astronomy.  From  the  7tb 
of  September,  1811,  to  the  17th  of  December,  corresponding  to 
the  appearance  and  disappearance  of  the  comet,  I  was  engaged  in 
making  observations,  not  only  on  the  comet's  distances  from  stars^ 
but  on  the  latitute  and  longitude  by  lunar  distances  and  eclipses- 
of  the  sun  and  moon,  and  on  the  variation  of  the  magnetic  needle. 
I  gave  myself  to  this  labor  so  assiduously  that  my  health  failed, 
and  I  well  remember  that  when  my  physician  was  consulted  he 
said,  '  I  see  what  your  difficulty  is :  you  have  got  the  comet's  tail 
in  your  stomach.'  To  reduce  my  numerous  observations  cost  me 
several  more  montba  of  study,  so  imperfect  were  the  means  of  cal- 
culation in  my  hands.  Yet  I  have  sometimes  thought,  when 
looking  over  my  record  of  these  observations  and  the  reuults,  that 
they  might  almost  he  worth  publication,  although  much  inferior 
to  similar  works  in  the  observatories  of  the  present  day.  Indeed, 
General  Hoyt,  under  whose  direction  I  labored,  and  who  often 
aided  me  in  observations,  communicated  some  of  them  to  tho 
American  Academy  of  Arte  and  Sciences,  and  they  were  published 
by  that  society.  But  I  experienced  great  benefit  from  the  work, 
in  the  mental  discipline  it  required,  and  I  acquired  a  strong  love 
for  theoretical  and  practical  astronomy.  I  became,  in  fact,  sucb 
an  enthusiast  in  this  respect,  that  I  could  cheerfully  forego  every 
ordinary  source  of  pleasure  sought  after  by  young  men,  in  order 
to  gratify  this  scientific  passion. 

"  But  I  was  destined  to  a  sad  disappointment  in  this,  my  first 
Bcientifio  love.  I  had  for  a  considerable  time  been  engaged  in  the 
study  of  Latin  and  Qreek,  in  the  hope  of  entering  the  University 
at  Cambridge  in  advanced  standing,  and  using  my  eyes  upon 
Greek  during  an  attack  of  the  mumps,  a  sudden  weakness  of  the 
eyes  came  on  which  compelled  mo  to  suspend  nearly  all  study  and 
to  change  tbo  whole  course  of  my  life,  abandoning  a  college  couiso 
as  impracticable,  and,  for  a  time,  nearly  all  hope  of  pursuing  science 
or  literature  as  a  profession.  I  have  uow  struggled  with  this 
affliction  fifty  years  j  and  though  for  some  time  past,  through  the 
kindneaa  of  Providenoe,  it  has  been  much  mitigated,  it  has  seemed  to 
be  a  very  serious  obstacle  to  my  literary  puTsaits,  and  it  certainly 


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1864.]  BEUINIB0CN0I8  OF   AUHIBST   GOLLEQE.  341 

bas  produced  much  BoffertDg.  I  am  not  eura,  honever,  but  it  has 
been  a  merciful  check  npou  nj  disposition  tc  over-nork,  and 
therebj  boa  tended  to  lengtben  out  luy  life  and  ability  to  labor. 
If  so,  how  thankful  I  ought  t«  be  for  it  I 

"  But  Providenoe  had  better  things  in  store  for  me  in  a  variety 
of  respeota,  to  whiah  this  trying  failure  of  my  eyes  and  blasting  of 
my  plana  and  hopes  would  introduce  me.  To  aay  nothing  of 
spiritual  blessings,  new  fields  of  science  were  thus  to  be  opened  to 
me,  where  woniters  yet  more  attractive  awaited  me.  My  eyes 
feiled  in  the  spring  of  1814,  and  for  two  years  darkness  that  might 
be  felt  rested  upoa  my  prospects.  Still  loould  not  give  up  study, 
and  tried  all  maoner  of  ways  to  make  some  progress.  In  1816, 
the  Trustees  of  DeerGeld  Academy  ventured  to  commit  that  Insti- 
tution to  luy  care ;  where  for  three  years  I  labored  intensely  to 
miUDtain  myself,  in  spit«  of  a  defective  education,  weak  eyes,  and 
poor  health.  It  was  at  this  time  that  I  oommenoed  study  for  the 
Christian  ministry,  having  been  led  by  my  trials  to  feel  the  infinite 
importance  of  eternal  things,  and  the  duty  of  consecrating  myself 
to  the  promotion  of  God's  glory  and  man's  highest  good.  There, 
too,  at  first,  chiefly  as  a  means  of  promoting  health,  my  attention 
was  turned  to  Natural  History.  About  that  time  Professor  AmoB 
Eaton  had  been  lecturing  ut  Amherst,  and  we  became  acquainted 
with  him,  and  I  always  r^arded  him  as  the  chief  agent  of  intro* 
dncing  a  t^te  for  these  subjeote  in  the  Connecticut  Valley.  Dr. 
Stephen  W.  Williams,  Dr.  Dennis  Cooley,  and  myself,  all  of  Deer 
field,  took  hold  of  mineralogy  and  botany  with  great  zenl.  Dr. 
Gooley  and  myself  collected  nearly  aU  the  plants,  pheDOgamous  and 
oiyptogamoos,  in  the  Valley.  Dr.  Cooley  became  an  excellent 
botanist;  and  even  to  a  recent  date,  when  he  died  in  Michigan, 
had  purauad  the  subjoot  with  zest.  Dr.  Williams  afterwards 
became  Professor  of  Medical  Jurisprudence  in  the  Berkshire 
Medical  School. 

"  I  ought  also  to  state  a  few  facts  which  formed  a  part  of  my 
education,  and  which  served  to  diminish  the  evils  of  a  self-tanght 
oonrse.  I  have  already  referred  to  the  benefits  which  I  derived 
from  being  for  many  years  aleading  member  of  a  debating  society. 
I  there  had  an  opportunity  So  practice  oitempore  speaking  and 
oompoiition,  and  to  aoquire  facility  in  philosophical  reasoning,  prob- 
ably to  a  ten  times  greater  extant  than  does  a  student  in  coUc^. 
It  was  also  an  admirable  discipline  I  was  compelled  to  go  through 
vhen  called  to  instruct  in  die  academy  in  Deerfield.    As  thera 

Vol.  I.  X  Ho.  S. 

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342  THE  OAKADUN  NATURALIST.  [Oct. 

were  always  in  the  sohool  a  uamber  who  were  Sttjog  for  collie,  I 
foand  a  thorough  review  of  a  large  part  of  my  olaasioal  studiee 
indiepensable — not  ODce  merely,  but  over  and  over  again,  so  that 
the  details  have  remained  in  my  mind  even  to  the  present  time) 
and  the  same  is  true  of  the  many  other  stadles  one  is  called  to 
teach  in  an  academy.  It  waa  a  mnch  more  severe  discipline  than 
if  I  had  been  throagh  college  drilliDg ;  and  I  would  advise  do 
young  man  to  venture  upon  it  unless  driven  to  it,  as  I  was,  by 
dire  necessity. 

"  The  academy  owned  a  very  good  philosophical  apparatus,  and  I 
prepared  a  Dumber  of  lectures  on  aatural  philosophy,  which  wei« 
delivered  with  eiperimcnts  before  the  school,  and  in  the  evening 
before  the  citizens  of  the  village.  This  was  my  first  attempt  at 
lecturing. 

"  Bntmybestmental  discipline  was  connected  with  the  nse  oft]ie 
astronomical  instrnments  of  the  academy.  In  another  place  I  have 
described  the  observations  which  I  made  on  the  comet  of  1811,  as 
well  as  on  other  heavenly  bodies.  The  subsequent  winterwas  in  a 
good  measure  devoted  to  a  reduction  of  those  observations ;  and  as 
I  had  access  to  only  a  few  books,  I  was  obliged  to  calculate  by 
spherical  trigonometiy  many  elements  which  at  this  day  are 
found  in  the  tables  of  practical  astronomy.  The  mere  effort  to 
form  an  accurate  idea  of  the  numerous  spherical  triangles  I  had  to 
construct  out  of  the  imaginary  circles  of  the  celestial  sphere, 
was   an   admirable  discipline,   and   their  accurate   solution   not 

Much  more  might  be  usefully  said  on  this  subject ;  but  we  turn 
to  his  experiences  as  Professor  aud  President  at  Amherst  Coll^. 

"When  I  joined  the  College  in  tho  wiuterof  1826,  there  was  no 
laboratory,  no  philosopbioal  cabinet,  no  natural  history  cabinet, 
and  no  chapel.  Two  dormitory  balldlags  had  been  erected,  and 
in  the  fourth  story  of  the  most  northerly  of  these  (the  present 
North  College  South  £ntry)  two  rooms  were  thrown  tt^ther,  a 
jdatform  built  od  which  was  placed  a  small  tab-like  pulpit,  which 
oonld  be  moved  off  to  allow  the  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy 
to  leotnre  one  part  of  the  day,  and  the  Professor  of  Chemistry  the 
other  part,  taking  care  to  finish  before  evening  prayers. 

"  On  the  catalogues  for  1825  and  1826  my  title  appears  as  Pro- 
fessor of  Natural  History  and  Chemistry.  The  order  of  these 
subjects  was  changed  on  the  aubsequeat  catalogues,  and  continued 
time  till  IdiS.    For  nearly  twenty  yeate  I  hut  entire  charge  of 


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1864.]  BEUINI80BH0ES   OF   AUEEBST   GOLLEOE.  343 

these  two  wide  fields,  except  that  in  1843  Mr.  Sheppard  was 
appointed  Lecturer  of  Agricaltural  Chemiatiy  and  Mioeralf^. 
Bnt  it  should  be  recollected  that  these  branches,  especially  natural 
history,  thirty  years  ago  were  but  little  thought  of  in  thiscountry, 
and  were  in  fact  in  eoQiparative  iofanoy.  And  besides,  we  had 
then  nest  tu  no  collections,  and  a  leading  object  before  me  vras 
to  provide  them.  Indeed,  I  may  state  it  as  a  general  fact,  that 
in  all  the  subjects  in  which  I  have  given  instmction  in  Amherst 
College,  I  hare  been  obliged  to  provide  the  apparatus,  models,  and 
epecimens,  sometimes  with,  but  more  often  withont,  funds,  except 
my  private  resources.  Nevertheless,  my  first  oonraes  of  lectures 
and  recitations  were  nearly  as  extensive  as  they  have  been  since. 
They  averaged  nearly  four  exercises  per  week,  or  about  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  in  the  year.  In  partioular  branches,  as  new  instruo- 
tors  have  been  appointed,  more  time  has  been  given.  For  instance, 
when  Professor  Adams  took  the  department  of  zoology  he  was 
allowed  from  thirty  to  fi^rty  recitations  and  lectures,  as  was  also 
Professor  Clark,  though,  for  what  reason  I  know  not,  they  have 
since  been  reduced  to  ten  lectures,  which  is  equivalent  to  five  reci- 
tations; for  it  is  common  now  to  put  lectures  in  different  depart- 
ments side  by  side,  so  that  two  shall  be  eqnal  to  one  recitation — 
that  is  a  half  day.  Even  in  its  infant  days,  I  never  gave  less  than 
twenty  or  thirty  lectures  on  zo6]ogj — say  ten  to  fifteen  on  mam- 
malogy, omithol(^,  herpetology,  and  ichlhyolc^,  and  ten  to  fifteen 
on  conchology  and  the  other  branches  of  invertebrate  zoSlogy ;  also 
ten  to  fifteen  on  botany.  At  this  day,  all  those  important  discus- 
siona  respecting  the  distribution  of  specie,  their  metamorphoses, 
and  the  unity  of  the  human  species,  must  require  several  more 
lectures,  or  it  is  impossible  to  teach  graduates  how  to  defend 
religion  against  the  assaults  of  sceptics. 

"  The  title  of  Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Natural  History,  which 
I  had  for  twenty  years,  conveys  but  an  imperfect  idea  of  what  I 
attempted  to  teach,  or  rather  of  the  grand  object  I  had  in  view. 
That  object  waste  illustrate,  by  the  Bcientificfaeta  which  I  taught, 
the  principles  of  natural  theology.  This  I  stated  at  the  com- 
mencement of  my  course,  and  on  other  proper  occasions.  At 
length  when  I  became  President,  I  took  natural  theology  as  the 
leading  titJe  of  my  professorship.  And  really  the  instruction 
^ven  in  the  natural  sciences  in  college  is  scarcely  more— often 
lees — than  is  neoesBary  to  understand  their  religious  bearing.  But 
this  is  their  most  important  uBe,  as  it  is  of  all  knowledge,  and  this 


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344  THB  OASADIAM  NATDRALISX.  [OcL 

thought  I  made  the  basis  of  my  iQaagurol  AddresB,  when  inducted 
into  the  Presidency.  I  had  endeavored  to  act  on  this  prinoi[Je 
in  all  my  teaching  ;  but  now  I  pat  It  into  the  form  of  a  profesaor- 
ahip,  and  a  richer  or  nobler  field  I  do  not  know  in  the  whole  circle 
of  science.  I  called  it  a  Professorship  of  Natural  Theology  and 
Geology,  adding  this  latter  science  because  I  have  been  in  the 
habit  of  going  more  into  detail  concerning  it,  and  because  no 
science  equals  this  in  its  religious  applications. 

"  It  was  a  deep  conviction  of  the  importance  of  such  a  professor- 
ship  that  led  me  to  seek  its  endowment.  The  manner  in  which 
it  was  secured  has  already  been  referred  to.  Mr.  Witliston  bad 
just  agreed  to  endow  a  professgrsbip,  which  was  finally  called  the 
Graves  ProfeaaoTship,  in  honor  of  Mrs.  Williston's  maiden  name, 
and  be  offered  to  give  half  enough  to  endow  another,  if  some  gen- 
tleman could  be  found  to  take  the  other  half,  and  proferhis  name 
to  the  whole.  I  immediately  communicated  with  Samuel  A. 
Hitchcock,  of  Brimfield,  and  I  merely  stated  the  case  and  told 
him  that  as  he  waa  childless,  I  wanted  that  be  should  make  the  Pro- 
fessorship of  Natural  Theology  and  Geology  his  heir,  and  that  so 
long  as  I  was  oonneoled  with  the  College,  I  would  fill  the  chair, 
and  thus  make  it  a  HItohcook  q/^ut'r  all  round.  The  oonoeit  struck 
Hm  favorably,  and  by  return  mail  the  proposal  was  accepted.  Sub- 
sequently, through  fear  that  some  of  hia  securities  might  fall  below 
par,  he  added  two  thousand  dollars  more,  making  the  whole  endow- 
ment twenty-two  thousand  dollars,  which  is  the  largest  among  the 
profestiorsbips,  and  the  income  is  almost  sufficient  to  sustain  two 
professors." 

The  perplexities  in  the  management  of  a  New  England  Col- 
1^  are  amusingly  sketched  as  follows  ; 

"There  are  threebodiesof  men  officially  connected  with  Coll(^, 
at  whose  meetings  the  President  is  expected  to  preside,  and  for 
which  his  duty  is  to  prepare  business.  The  first  is  the  Trusteee, 
vboae  meetings,  in  ordinary  times,  are  only  once  a  year.  The 
second  is  the  Pmdential  Committee,  who  look  aAer  pecuniary 
affiiirs,  and  almost  anything,  in  fact,  needed  to  be  done  in  tbe 
absence  of  the  Trustees.  These  hold  their  meetings  r^ularly  aa 
often  aa  once  a  mouth,  and  frequently  much  oftener.  The  third 
is  the  Faculty,  who  hold  a  weekly  meeting  for  attending  to  the 
discipline  and  government  of  the  College,  considering  petitions, 
and  seeing  to  it  that  everything  is  in  place  and  order.  Here 
everything  that  makes  friction  or  is  out  of  gear,  among  officers  or 


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1864.]  OXHINiaOKHOBS  OF  AHHXRST  OOLLEOE.  346 

stndeots,  is  developed ;  and  though  men  who  have  a  kDDCk  of 
throwing  off  personal  respoanbilit;  and  shirking  their  duties  oaa 
go  through  Bach  meetlDgs  lightly,  and  even  jocosely,  tiiey  often 
weigh  heavily  upon  the  President,  who  is  personally  responsible 
for  the  proper  adjustment  and  man^ement  of  the  whole  nrochine. 
Consequently  these  Faculty  meetings,  held,  as  they  usually  are, 
in  the  evening,  and  aometimes  protracted  to  a  late  hour,  are 
among  the  moat  trying  of  a  President's  duties.  They  often  wore 
very  much  npou  me,  especially  when  followed,  as  they  sometimes 
were,  by  the  admonition,  dismissal,  or  expulsion  of  delinquents. 
In  almost  every  such  case,  the  public  sentiment  and  sympathy  in 
Goll^  wonld  be  with  the  offender,  however  gross  his  crimes. 
The  same  wonld  generally  be  the  case  with  friends  at  home,  and 
with  the  communitj'  at  large.  A  coll^  Faculty  are  looked  upon 
by  many  as  an  aristocratic,  arbitrary,  and  tyrannical  set,  whom 
every  humane  man  is  bound  to  oppose ;  and  multitudes  who  never 
saw  even  the  outside  of  a  college,  feel  fully  competent  to  sit  in 
judgment  upon  their  acta  and  to  denounce  them.  It  is  this  out- 
side sympathy  with  those  who  arc  under  discipline  that  does  more 
than  anything  else  to  sustain  them  in  their  misdeeds,  and  to 
encourage  the  rebellions  that  are  the  frequent  consequence  of  coll^ 
discipline;  and  it  is  the  necessity  of  thus  going  against  the  popular 
will,  and  of  enoountering  reactions  as  the  consequence  that  may 
rend  the  college  in  pieces,  that  is  more  trying  to  a  President  than 
all  his  literary  labors.  Even  in  a  Christian  coUt^,  where  is  often 
a  sprinkling  of  some  of  the  most  difficult  elements  to  control,  he  is 
not  anfhsquently  made  to  feel  that  he  sits  upon  a  volcano,  which, 
though  now  quiet,  may  at  any  moment  become  active. 

"My  epistolary  correspondence  in  the  Presidency  was  peculiarly 
onerous.  I  had  previously  been  so  much  of  a  jack  at  all  trade* 
that  I  had  laid  myself  open  to  enquiries  and  assaults  trom  a" 
classes.  The  same  mail  (and  I  hardly  essggerate  the  literal  fact) 
might  bring  inquiries  about  some  point  in  the  theory  of  temperance 
— how  to  empby  garnet  in  making  sand-paper— Jiow  to  reconcile 
the  imputation  of  Adam's  md  with  onr  sense  of  justice — where  to 
find  the  best  beds  of  sulphate  of  baryta — whether  I  would  like  to 
exchange  or  buy  shells,  minerals,  and  fossils — how  cheaply  an  indi- 
gent young  man  oan  go  through  the  collie,  and  with  what  helps 
— whether  I  knew  of  any  one  who  would  muka  a  good  teacher  of  a 
common  school  or  of  an  academy,  or  a  professor  in  a  coll^,  or  any 
ono  to  supply  a  pulpit — what  I  thought  of  a  new  theory  of  drift,  or 


V,  Google 


346  THV  OANADUM  MATtTOALlST.  [Oot. 

of  latoot  beat— or  new  views  of  the  rel&tionB  of  geology  to  Moses 
—or  a  new  poem— or  a  new  work — all  of  whioh  were  sent,  and  an 
answer  requested,  if  possible,  by  return  mail.  During  my  Prem- 
dency  I  oaloulated  tbat  I  was  obliged  to  answer  as  many  as  foor 
hundred  or  fi^e  bundred  letters  annnally,  and  to  these  should  be 
added  at  least  one  bundred  reoommendations  to  students  going 
out  to  teaob  school,  and  for  other  purposes,  and  to  graduates." 

Along  with  this  we  may  place  the  practioal  difficulties  of  the 
Professor  of  Chemistry : 

"  I  bave  already  given  some  idea  of  the  state  of  preparation  in 
the  College  for  obemicol  experiments  when  I  joined  it.  Not  only 
vras  I  obliged  to  lecture  in  the  fourth  story  and  in  a  sort  ofohapel, 
but  there  were  no  instrumenta  or  iagrediente  worth  uBming  pro- 
vided by  those  wbo  preceded  me.  For  four  gentlemen  bad  lectured 
on  tbat  subject  before  me,  viz..  Col.  Rufus  Graves,  Professor 
Olds,  Professor  Amos  Eaton,  and  a  Mr.  Cotting,  who  was  after- 
wards appointed  State  Geologist  in  Georgia. 

"  I  most  have  given  at  least  two  fourth-story  courses  of  lectures. 
But  when  the  ohapel  building  was  erected  in  1826,  an  opportunity 
was  presented  for  fitting  up  a  laboratory.  Tbo  basement  story 
at  the  east  end  was  mostly  above  ground,  with  cellar  rooms  adjoin- 
ing. I  had  ample  space  for  a  large  lecture-room,  apparatus-room, 
and  office,  and  means  enough  were  furnished  for  supplying  eco- 
nomically furnaces,  oisterns,  gasometers,  and  apparatus.  Tbe  only 
difficulty  was  that  the  room  was  beueatb  all  tbe  otbers,  and  par- 
tially under  ground.  But  at  that  time  the  idea  generally  was  tbat 
such  was  the  proper  place  for  a  laboratory.  Because  the  chemist 
eliminates  many  mepbitio  gases,  therefore  place  him  where  he 
cannot  get  them  out  of  hia  room;  or  if  they  do  escape  through 
the  ceiling,  they  will  let  all  in  the  rooms  above  him  get  a  whiff  of 
the  atmosphere  which  he  is  obliged  to  breathe  in  concentrated 
purity.  Nevertheless,  I  spent  at  least  a  third  of  my  time  for 
eighteen  years  in  that  laboratory,  and  found  it  in  moat  respeota 
very  convenient.  I  do  not  doubt  tbat  its  dampness  and  tbe 
unwholesome  gases  which  I  got  rid  of  only  by  opening  the  doors 
and  windows,  have  oontributcd  to  bring  on  and  aggravate  those 
pulmonary  and  bronchial  difficulties  that  now  press  so  heavily 
upon  me,  and  will  soon  t«rmiDal«  my  days.  But  probably  aperson 
in  good  health  need  not  fear  active  employment  in  such  rooms.  I 
have  found  analytical  chemistry  to  be  more  trying  in  such  a  place 
than  the  mere  preparation  for  lectures,  because  the  former  requires 
such  long-continued  attention." 


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1864.]  KEHIMIS0EN0E8  Of  AHHEEBT  OOLLXOS.  347 

We  reserre  oar  remaiciiDg  spaoe  for  extraots  from  the  remark- 
able history  of  Dr.  Hitohoook'e  mnaeum  ;  the  whole  of  vhich  is 
well  worthy  of  being  read : 

"When  loame  here,  in  1826,  a  Natural  History  Society  existed 
among  the  students,  which  had  b^;un  to  bring  together  specimena 
chiefly  in  mineralogy,  geology,  and  mammalogy ;  bat  they  were  too 
few  to  be  employed  in  lecturing.  I  therefore  took  up  the  bufiinesa 
of  collecting.  I  had,  however,  in  previons  years,  obtained  a  few 
hundred  specimens,  mostly  in  minerali^y  and  geolc^,  and  the 
Trustees  in  1826  "  voted  that  Professor  Hitchcock  be  requested 
to  deposit  his  private  geological  cabinet  in  the  Cabinet  of  the 
College."  Previous  to  this  time,  I  beheve,  the  Natural  History 
Society  had  presented  tite  whole  or  part  of  their  collections ;  so 
that,  so  far  as  numbers  were  concerned,  oar  cases  looked  quite 
respectable.  But  to  one  acquainted  with  natural  history,  probably 
the  laiger  part  would  come  under  the  ironioal  title  of  JactaUtet  ; 
Hat  b,  specimens  to  be  thrown  away.  However  they  did  a  very 
good  Bervioe  so  long  as  no  bettor  collections  were  near.  And  it  is 
a  fact  that  some  of  the  ablest  naturalists  fho  graduated  here  (ex. 
qr.  Shepard  and  Adams),  started  in  these  daysof  meagre  scientiGo 
illustration.  Their  fewness  led  such  men  to  study  what  we  had 
with  more  attention,  end  that  awakened  the  desire  to  see  and 
possess  more ;  and  in  these  two  facts,  conjoined  with  good  native 
talent  and  schobrship,  you  have  tiie  elements  of  able  naturalists. 

"In  1830 1  was  appointed  to  make  a  geological  survey  of  Alassa- 
cbnssetts,  and  this  opened  a  door  for  the  introduction  of  numerous 
specimens.  The  Government,  indeed,  directed  that  a  collection 
of  the  rocks  and  minerals  of  the  Stale  of  moderate  size  should  be 
collected  for  each  of  the  collies.  They  amounted,  I  believe,  in 
the  first  survey,  to  about  eight  hundred.  I  also  collected  four 
times  as  many  for  the  State  Cabinet,  and  nearly  as  many  for 
myself.  Having  deposited  the  latter  in  the  Cabinet,  tlie  Trustees, 
feeling  under  obligation  to  Williston  Seminary,  or  rather  to  its 
founder,  presented  to  it  the  collection  of  eight  hundred  speci- 
mens. 

"  Another  way  which  has  been  a  prolific  one  of  increasing  the 
Cabinet  in  all  its  branches,  organic  and  inorganic,  is  by  securing 
the  help  of  tbe  graduates  of  the  CoU^e,  especially  the  foreign  mis- 
sionaries. The  Zodlogical  Afnsenm  has  in  this  way  often  been 
enriched.  In  the  Woods  Cabinet  is  a  collection  of  rocks  and 
minerals  chiefly  from  Asia,  of  more  than  twelve  hundred  speoi- 


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348  THE  OANA.DUK   NATURALIBT.  [Oct. 

tnenB,  sent  in  a  great  meunre  by  mieuoii&ries,  or  by  men  on  inio- 
rionary  ground.  Many  of  these  speeimene  poBeeea  a  (ipecud 
interest  from  the  sacred  localities  from  which  they  came.  Bat 
they  are  numerous  enougli  fkim  some  extenuTe  re^ong  to  give  a 
tolerable  idea  of  the  geology ;  as  for  instance  Syria  and  Palestine, 
especially  Mount  Lebanon,  Armenia,  and  dio  nortb<veet  part  of 
Persia,  and  the  Ghaut  Mountains  of  India. 

"  My  oolleetion  of  fossil  footmarks  waa  b(^n  in  1835.  For  aa 
soon  as  I  had  turned  my  attention  to  lefanology,  Icommenced  the 
accumulation  of  specimens,  and  from  that  day  to  tha  present  I 
have  never  ceased  to  gather  in  all  which  I  oonld  honestly  obtain. 
For  no  other  part  of  the  cabinet  have  I  labored  so  hard  or  encoun- 
tered so  many  difficulUes.  ^rue,  for  some  years  at  first  I  had  ^e 
fiel<]  essentially,  to  myself;  and  had  I  then  been  fnlly  aware  of  its 
riohnesB  and  extent,  I  might  have  secured  alai^  amount  of  speci- 
mens at  a  reasonable  rate.  But  the  subject  opened  npon  me 
gradually,  and  the  disclosures  made  by  my  writings  attracted 
others  into  the  field  who  became  uncompromising  competitors  in 
the  way  of  collecting,  and  with  some  it  became  a  matter  of  trade. 
The  oonseqnence  was  that  the  value  of  specimens  rose  to  idmost 
^buloas  prices.  The  man  who  had  made  the  laigest  collection 
was  Dexter  Marsh,  of  Greenfield,  who  was  himself  a  quarryman, 
and  had  the  ambition,  as  he  told  me,  to  get  togetiier  the  largest 
collection  in  the  world.  He  succeeded,  if  we  take  into  account 
tbe  quality  of  the  Specimens.  But,  poor  man  I  he  died  before  his 
work  was  done ;  having,  in  my  opinion,  hastened  his  decease  by 
excessive  labor  in  the  hot  sun  in  getting  out  beryls  and  other 
minerals.  His  executors  sold  hb  collections  at  auction.  I  kneir 
they  would  sell  higfa,  for  I  was  one  of  the  appraisers,  and  we  marked 
them  high.  But  I  could  not  see  those  fine  specimens  ail  scattered 
through  the  land  without  making  an  effort  to  raise  some  money  to 
secure  some  of  them,  and  I  adopted  this  plan.  My  collection  of 
footmarks  had  beoome  so  large,  that,  in  tbe  opinion  of  so  good  a 
judge  as  Professor  G.  U.  Shepard,  its  value  was  not  lees  than 
$3,500 ;  and  that  it  oould  be  disposed  of  for  at  least  $2,000  in 
cash.  In  a  circular  to  ^veral  benevolent  gentlemen,  I  offered  to 
present  this  to  the  Coll^,  if  others  would  furnish  me  with  six  or 
seven  hundred  dollars  with  which  to  secure  some  of  the  slabs  at 
Marsh's  auction.  It  so  happened,  or  rather,  as  I  view  it,  Provi- 
dence so  ordered  it,  tliat  I  first  addressed  John  Tappan,  Esq. 
He  responded  by  a  subscription  of  (600.     To  this  extraordinoiy 


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1864.]  BEUIHIfiOIMOKS  Of   AUHBBST   OOLLEOB.  349 

liberality  I  attribate  mj  snoce«  in  filling  np  the  preeeat  lai^ 
cabinet.  For  »  high  a  standard  had  imitators.  Hod.  David 
Sears  soon  added  another  $500;  Gerard  HoUoclc  fbllowed  with 
9250,  Hon.  £.  P.  Frantioe  with  9150,  and  several  other  gentle- 
men with  8100  eaoh.  So  that  I  went  to  the  auction  with  nearly 
$2,000  in  my  pocket.  MoreoTer  the  Htmam  of  bencTolenoe  which 
had  thns  been  diverted  into  this  channel  did  not  oeese  to  flow  with 
&.e  Slorsh  sale;  bat  almost  to  the  present  day  new  aod  liberal 
inorementa  have  continued  to  be  made  to  the  t^inds  in  my  hands 
diiofly  devoted  to  footmarks ;  bo  that  they  have  risen  to  $3,800. 
Among  the  donors  was  the  widow  of  Hon.  Abbott  Lawrence, 
who  sent  me  $300,  although  I  suggested  as  a  maximum 
<mly  $100.  Had  Mr.  Tappan  headed  the  aubeoription  with  $50, 
— and  I  could  not  reaeonabty  have  expected  more, — prcbably  I 
should  have  been  compelled  to  see  it  okse  at  $500,  and  the  Ich- 
nologieal  Cabinet  would  have  been  a  meagre  a&ir  compared  with 
what  it  is  now. 

"  When  I  reached  Greeofield  to  attend  the  anetaon  in  September, 
1 8^3, 1  found  Eereral  naturaliste  there  fhnn  Boston  with  poolcets  w^ 
Uned,  who  oame  with  the  intenlioQ— ^as  they  had  a  right  to  do- 
to  t«ke  the  whole  of  Mr.  Marsh's  collection  for  the  Boston  Society 
of  Natural  History.  I  told  them  that  tliere  were  many  duplicates 
in  the  collection,  enough  if  divided  to  supply  both  the  College  and 
their  Society.  But  if  they  insisted  upon  monopolizing  the  whole,  I 
had  made  up  my  mind,  having  $2,000  on  hand;  to  be  very  benevolent 
towards  the  widow  by  compelling  them  to  pay  voy  liberal  prices. 
They  seemed  to  feel  the  reaaonableness  of  my  sn^jestions,  and 
they  fbnnd  as  I  statod  that  there  were  enough  speoimene  for  ns 
both.     My  bill  went  as  high  as  $700,  and  theirs  higher. 

"  Since  this  auction  I  have  continued  to  lay  out  large  sums  in 
tite  purchase  of  tbotmarks.  To  Roswell  Field,  who  lives  on  the 
most  remarkable  known  locality,  and  has  disinterred  more  tracks 
than  any  other  man,  I  have  paid  not  tar  fVom  $4,000.  His 
prices  have  indeed  been  generally  high,  bnt  when  the  specimea 
was  unique,  I  must  give  him  what  he  asked,  or  leave  it  for  some 
one  else;  and  Mr.  Field  has,  in  at  least  two  oases,  presented 
e^imens  to  the  Cabinet  which  I  have  eetimBt«d  at  $300. 

"To  persons  not  fitmiliar  with  the  value  of  natural  history  speoi- 
mens,  the  idea  of  giving  $160  for  a  broken  stab  of  stone  a  ftm 
feet  square — I  have  several  speoimens  that  cost  me  that  sum- 
seems  eztravaganoe  and  felly.      I  may  mention  an  aneedal«  in 


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350  THK  OAHASIAH  HATTIBALIST.  [OoL 

point  AtbBT  the  aaotion  at  Greenfield,  I  employed  a  waggoner 
to  transport  my  specimens  to  the  railroad.  I  h&ppened  to  be  a 
Little  ont  of  sight,  and  heard  hitn  describing  to  a  oitiien  standing 
by  the  sums  I  had  paid  for  them.  '  The  man,'  said  the  citizen, 
'  who  will  waste  money  like  that,  should  have  a  gaardian  placed 
over  him.'  I  could  not  restrain  a  loud  laugh,  which  brought  us 
into  conversaljon,  when  I  said,  '  Yon  will  at  least  acknowledge 
that  my  insane  prod^ality  ia  a  good  thing  for  Mrs.  Marsh.' 

"  I  must  acknowledge,  however,  that  in  no  enterprise  in  my  life 
have  I  been  obliged  to  work  so  hard,  and  exercise  so  msoh  strate- 
gic skill  to  avoid  paying  exorbitant  prices,  and  even  being  defeated, 
as  in  the  collection  of  thip  lohnoli^cal  Cabinet.  The  high  prices 
paid  at  the  auction  (one  slab  sold  for  (375)  produced  an  impreft- 
sion  of  the  great  value  of  these  relies  throughout  the  Talley,  and 
exorbitant  prices  were  attached  to  them  wherever  found.  But  very 
'  few,  however,  knew  enough  about  the  different  kinds  to  distin- 
guish the  rare  and  valuable  ones.  But  since  I  had  studied  them 
all,  I  found  that  wherever  I  expressed  any  particular  interest  in  a 
qie^men  the  presumption  was  that  it  was  rare,  and  the  price  went 
up  accordingly.  I  was  obliged,  therefore  to  exercise  a  good  deal 
of  prudence,  and  show  much  sangfroid,  or  I  oould  not,  with  my 
small  means,  make  much  headway.  I  worked  as  quietly  as  pos> 
dble,  with  my  plans  looked  up  in  my  own  bosom,  yet  with  inflexible 
resolution  and  perseverance,  looking  constantiy  to  Qod  for  help. 
I  felt  that  such  a  collectioti  would  illnstrato  a  curious  chapter  of 
His  providence  towards  our  globe,  and  that  the  lai^er  the  ooUeo- 
tion,  the  more  full  the  illustration.  I  expected  myself  to  make 
only  a  beginuing ;  but  I  wanted  to  provide  the  means  for  mysno- 
oessors  to  carry  forward  the  work  which  they  never  ooutd  do  if  the 
specimens  are  scattered  all  over  the  world,  or  rather  if  all  the 
varieties  are  not  found  in  some  one  cabinet.  Large  as  the  oolleo- 
tkin  now  is,  I  have  been  often  pained  to  see  very  fine  specimens 
taken  out  of  my  hands  by  those  who  could  pay  more  for  them  than 
I  could,  and  carried,  I  know  not  whither. 

"In  such  circumatanoes,  I  have  tried  to  beaseoonomioalaapos- 
uble  in  the  use  of  the  money  in  my  hands  for  this  purpose.  When- 
ever I  could,  I  have  myself  gone  to  the  quarries  and  dug  out  tiie 
specimens.  When  not  too  large,  also,  I  have  transported  them  on 
my  own  business-waggon.  Again  and  again  have  I  entered 
Amherst  upon  such  a  load ;  geuerally,  however,  preferring  not  to 
arrive  till  oTeniug ;  because,  especially  of  late,  sueh  manual  labor 


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Ili64.]  BIUINISGXNOKS  OV  AUHEBST  OOLLIQB.  3R1 

u  r^arded  by  many  as  not  oomporting  witli  the  dignity  of  a  prv- 
fiaesor.  I  have  not  howerer,  la  general,  paid  mnofa  attention  to 
snob  a  feeling,  except  to  be  pained  by  seeing  it  increase,  because 
its  prevalence  wonld  change  the  character  of  the  Collie,  by  driv- 
ing away  thoBe  who  are  obliged  to  do  their  own  work. 

"  During  theee  twenty-six  years'  experience  in  gathering  these 
foolmatke,  I  have  met  some  very  unique  examples  of  human 
nature.  While  some  of  my  conntrymen  in  the  lower  classes  of 
society  have  shown  a  sbrewdness  and  generosity  and  made  me  feel 
proud  of  New  Ei^land,  others  have  exhibited  a  eelfiahnesa  and 
meanness  that  made  me  exclaim,  Farvum  parva  decmt  I  For 
iDstsnoe,  suppose  on  your  arrival  at  a  locality  of  footmarks,  one 
bad  preceded  you  with  whom  you  were  on  friendly  tonus,  bntwho 
was  so  anxious  to  prevent  your  obtaining  any  specimeoH,  that  he 
hsd  mutilated  the  good  ones  that  were  aocesaible,  which  he  had 
not  time  to  remove  I  Alas,  if  I  had  not  known  this  vandalism 
practiced  several  times  by  professedly  respectable  naturalists,  I 
should  not  mention  it. 

"  Some  of  my  experiences  have  been  quite  amusing.  Having 
found  some  impressions  which  I  called  tracks  {Earpagoput  Hud- 
tonivt)  in  the  sidewalks  of  Qreenwich  Street,  in  New  York  city, 
I  requested  a  moulder  to  take  a  plaster  cast  of  them,  which  he 
did-  But  on  going  to  the  spot  again  some  hours  later,  I  was  told 
that  some  one  else  had  meantime  taken  caste  of  them  I  although 
he  conid  not  have  known  that  they  were  of  any  value;  but  it  shows 
bow  prone  men  are  to  follow  an  example.  A  laigo  crowd  bad 
gathered  when  I  took  Uie  first  oast ;  and  I  was  told  afterwards  that 
all  which  saved  me  from  being  voted  a  fit  subject  for  a  Innatio 
asylum,  was  the  testimony  of  a  young  lady,  in  one  of  the  adjoin- 
ing houses,  who  had  attended  my  lectures  on  geol<^  at  Amherst, 
aud  who  testified  tJiat  I  was  no  more  deranged  than  sach  men 
usually  are." 

These  ore  but  specimens  of  tJie  enthnsiastio  work  of  a  lifetime, 
which  occupies  in  the  narraliTe  no  small  portion  of  the  book.  The 
lesalts  are  very  marvelloua,  even  whan  we  take  into  account  the 
credit  due  to  Profs.  Adams  and  Sheppard,  and  others;  all  of 
which  is  acknowledged  by  Dr.  Hitchcock.  The  museum,  as  it 
DOW  stands,  is  one  of  tie  finest  in  America,  and,  in  some  respects, 
as  in  pbonolites  and  meteorites,  second  to  none  in  the  world.  It 
is  valned  at  more  than  9100,000,  and  has  been  collected  at  an 
e^«nso  to  the  College  almost  nominal. 


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352  THB   OAKABIAH   NATimALIBT.  [Oot 

AuaefulpnrposewUlbeseirediD  this  ooan try,  where  snch  tMnga 
are  as  yet  too  little  appreciated,  by  qaoting  Br.  Hitchoodc's  eeti- 
mate  of  the  utility  of  natural  bbtory  oollecHous. 

"1.  Theyare  indispensable  to  give  Btndente  a  knowledge  of  the 
natural  prodnotiooa  of  di&rent  partu  of  tbe  earth ;  and  without 
vhiob,  Ifaeir  views  would  be  narrow,  and  they  would  be  liable  to 
constant  blunders  in  their  literary  produotiooB. 

"2.  When  studied,  they  helpTerymnohta  sharpen  the  disorimV- 
natjon,  and  teach  students  how  to  distii^ish  between  the  appa- 
rent and  the  real.  Indeed,  aa  a  means  of  mental  disnpline,  no 
branch  of  knowledge  goes  before  natural  history ;  though,  from  the 
very  limltod  attention  usually  given  to  such  snbjeotA,  this  effect  is 
but  slightly  realized. 

"  3.  They  are  indispensable,  also,  to  ^ve  ftoilities  to  any  stu* 
dents  who  have  a  natural  taste  and  fitness  for  such  pursuits,  to 
qualify  themselves  for  &ture  distinction  in  them ;  and  this  they 
can  do,  if  the  collections  are  good,  without  interfering  with  recita- 
tions in  other  branches,  by  devoting  those. leisure  hours  to  tlie 
cabinets,  which  most  give  to  useless  recreation  or  to  something 
worse. 

"4.  They  deeply  iut»«st  and  instmet  the  oommunity  sur- 
rounding a  college,  and  all  who  visit  it,  and  thus  give  reputation 
to  it.  Visitors  cannot  be  shown  much  in  mathematios,  or  in  tba 
classics,  as  they  pass  through  coll^e-halla,  unless  partioularly  well 
acquainted  witb  the  subjects,  and  even  large  libraries  are  all  sees 
at  a  glanca  But  almost  every  one  will  see  enough  in  nature's 
[ffoducta  to  awaken  interest,  inquiry,  and  admiration.  Thla 
explains  the  fact  that  as  many  as  fifteen  thousand  viMtora  annually 
have  registered  thdr  names  in  the  Amherst  Cabinets,  small  and 
retired  as  the  plaoe  Is.  The  Collie  could  not  afford  to  lose  the 
influence  in  favor  of  the  institntion  thus  s|»ead  through  tbe  ooua- 
try.  It  turns  Uie  attention  of  many  young  men  to  this  plaoe ;  and 
irtien  they  learn  that  in  aH  other  respects  tJie  institntion  stands 
high,  this  feature  often  brings  them  here,  in  spite  of  the  claims  of 
rival  colleges.  This  is  not  indeed  the  most  important  tiling  in 
the  College ;  but  we  need  to  combine  all  the  influences  tJiat  we 
can  to  enable  the  College  to  maintain  the  high  position  it  has 
ttiken,  and  to  continue  its  upward  course. 

"  6.  These  cabinetfl  form  an  anchor  to  steady  the  CoU^  in 
stormy  times.  Snoh  periods  of  trial  not  nnfrequently  come,  when 
the  temptation  is  to  give  up  tbe  dup,  or  transfer  it  to  to  some  otlier 


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1864.]  KEMIHISOSHOES   OF  AUHEBfiT  OOLIEOK.  3!»S 

place.  Bat  though  it  be  easy  to  transfer  able  teaohBTS  aod  funds, 
&nd  even  libraries,  large  cabinet  buildings,  with  oosUy  fixture^ 
oannot  so  easily  be  changed;  and  the  friends  of  the  College  would 
be  quite  apt  to  rally  aronnd  the  fruit  of  seventy-five  years  of  laboi 
which  theycontain,  since  mere  money  oannot  make  their  place  good. 

"6.  Theee  oabioets  are  indispensable  to  toaoh  young  men  how 
to  defend  and  illustrate  religion.  This  ia  their  most  important 
use.  For  I  hesitate  not  to  say,  that,  however  otherwise  well  eda- 
oated  a  scholar  is,  he  cannot  defend  ChrislJanity,  or  even  natural 
religion,  from  the  subtle  attacks  which  of  late  years  have  been 
drawn  from  natural  history,  from  geology  uid  zofilogy.  For  instance, 
if  he  has  not  seen,  and  to  some  extent  studied  the  specimens  oa 
which  these  objections  are  founded,  he  must  see  and  examine  rooks 
and  fossils  before  he  can  UDdustand  the  disoussions  raised  by 
geology  on  the  ago  of  tiie  world,  on  die  eternity  of  matter,  on  the 
pio-adamio  existonoe  of  suffering  and  death,  on  special  Divine  inters 
ventions  in  nature,  and  on  the  extent  of  the  deluge.  He  must 
study  animals  and  planta,  or  he  oannot  rofiite  the  advocates  of  the 
development-hypothesis  or  of  the  plurality  of  origin  of  the  human 
species.  Where  else  but  in  college  can  those  who  mean  to  bo 
ministers  of  the  Qospel  acquire  such  knowledge  ?  Surely  not  in 
oar  theologioal  seminaries,  nor  in  the  familiee  of  private  cleigy- 
men.  The  abstract,  metaphysical  way  of  treating  those  subjects 
which  they  may  learn  elsewhere,  will  only  excite  the  ridicule  or 
contempt  of  the  able,  sceptical  nataralist. 

"  On  the  other  'hand,  it  is  only  by  the  study  of  cabinets  that 
theological  studeute  can  learn  how  to  use  with  ability  those  nume- 
TOOB  illustrations  and  oonfirmations  of  religious  tmth  which  of 
Ute  years  have  been  derived  irom  natural  history.  The  krger 
part  and  the  most  striking  of  tiie  proofs  and  iUustradons  r^;ard- 
ing  the  Deity  end  his  attributes,  have  been  derived  from  this 
department  of  knowledge.  It  is  a  rich  field,  and  furnishes,  besides 
the  case  just  indicated,  numerous  striking  confirmations  and  illuB- 
trations  of  some  of  the  most  preoions  truths  of  revealed  religion,  ss 
the  works  of  MoCosh,  Hugh  Miller,  Dana,  Harris,  Chalmers,  and 
many  others  show. 

"  7.  Finally,  large  cabinets  are  neoesaaiy  to  enable  instructors 
to  make  new  discoveries  in  science,  and  to  trace  out  new  religions 
illustrations.  With  small  collections,  the  prospect  of  finding 
vndescribed  objects  would  be  small.  And  in  this  fact,  not  in  want 
of  abUity,  do  we  see  a  reason  why  so  fen  ptofessoM  of  natoral 


.;,  Google 


354  TBS  CANADUH  KATURALIST.  [Oot. 

history  add  maoy  new  feots  to  their  departments,  or  suggest  now 
illustrations  of  religion.  Tnie,  the  vaat  in  oar  libraries  of  the 
great  standard  books  on  these  subjects  published  in  Europe,  is 
another  almost  equally  powerful  obstacle  to  new  disooverias,^  as  the 
want  of  Bpeoimens.  But  what  a  pity  that  in  both  theee  ways  our 
professors  should  be  deprived  of  a  credit  they  ought  to  have  the 
power  to  attain,  and  be  oompelled  to  put  into  the  hands  of  Euro- 
peao  Datundiste  every  object  apparently  new  which  they  meet, 
because  they  are  afraid  to  describe  it,  lest  it  shonld  have  beea 
already  described  by  transaUantio  naturalists  I 

"  It  is  for  such  reasons  that  I  felt  justified  in  devoting  so  mnoh 
time  and  effort  during  thirty-eight  years,  to  build  up  and  fill  the 
Cabinets  at  Amherst.  I  have  no  expectation  or  wish  to  give  the 
subjects  of  natural  history  here  an  undue  prominence,  but  only  to 
make  them  subserve  the  objeetf  I  have  specified,  and  to  do  something 
towards  sustaining  the  credit  and  popularity  of  the  institation." 


NOTES  ON  THE  HABITATS  AND  VARIETIES  OP 
SOME  CANADIAN  FERNS. 

Bt  David  E.  HoOobd,  B.A.,  HontieaL 

POLTPODIDM  YUIQABK. — Common  m  Lower  Canada ;  eight  to 
twelve  inches  long,  oooasioaally  smaller.  Ab  it  grows  upon  rocke, 
it  may  sometimes  be  seen  curled  up  by  drought.  I  have  not  yet 
observed  any  abnormal  forms ;  bat  eiooe  in  Qreat  Britain  there 
are,  according  to  Lowe,  thirty-seven  varieties  more  or  less  constant 
in  cultivation,  attention  to  this  fern  is  particularly  to  be  desired 
&om  Canadian  pteridologists.  Montreal,  not  common;  Chatiiam; 
Waterloo ;  Sorel,  Lady  Dalhouue ;  Temiaoonata,  common,  J.  Q. 
Thomas,  M.D.;  Qnebeo,  Hon.  William  Sheppard.  White  Monn- 
talns,  New  Hampshire. 

PoLTFomTH  HEZAOONOPTXBUH. — Usnally  thinner,  less  ooria- 
oeooB  than  P.  Phegopterit.  Waterloo;  Chatham;  Sorel,  Lady 
Dalbonsie ;  Quebec,  Hon.  William  Sheppard. 

PoLYFODiuu  Pheooptkeis. —  Rhizoma  many  rooted,  stipes 
ascending  at  short  intervals  ;  oooaaionally  sixteen  inches  in  hught, 
(including  stipe).  Temiscouata,  common,  J.  Q.  Thomas,  M.D. ; 
Waterloo :  Lennoxville ;  Chatham ;  Durham,  Wickham,  and  Hel- 
bonine,  John  A.  Botbwell,  B.A. ;  Qaebe<^  Bev.  Prof.  Braneb 


,.,.d.i.  Google 


1864.]  H'OORD  OM   CANADIAN   FIBN8.  356 

POLTPODIUM  Dbtoptkris.— Bbizoma  black,  few  rooted.  Mon- 
treal, not  fine ;  Waterloo ;  Lennozville,  very  fine ;  Chathatn ;  Dor- 
ham,  Wiokham,  and  Melbourne,  Jobn  A.  Bothwell,  B.A. ;  Quebec, 
Hon.  William  Sheppard  j  TemiBCosata,  oommon,  J.  Q-.  Thomas, 
M.D.    White  Monntuns,  New  Hampshire. 

p.  erectum. — I  have  a  specimen  whiob  appears  to  correspond 
with  this  variety,  fifteen  inchee  high  and  nine  inches  broail,  hnt  its 
size  is  the  ohieF  difference  I  can  detect  between  it  and  the  normal 
smaller  specimens.  Tbe  pinnse  are  however  more  deeply  pin- 
natifid,  and,  in  the  case  of  the  lowest  ones,  almost  pinnate. 
Waterloo,  June  6, 1862. 

PoLYPOBiDM  RoBEBTiANUH. — Sorel,  Lady  Dalhonsie. 

AniANTUU  PBDATDU. — When  it  first  t^pe&rs  in  spring,  in  Ha 
early  part  of  May,  tbe  stipe  is  covered  with  thick  chaffy  scales, 
and  the  frond  circioate ;  the  scales  soon  disappear,  and  in  a  week  or 
two  the  stipe  is  at  foil  height.  Common  almost  everywhere  in 
Lower  Canada.  Montreal;  licnnciville  ;  Waterloo  j  Chatham; 
Sorel,  Lady  Dalhonsiei  Quebec,  Hon.  William  Sheppard;  Dur- 
ham, Wiokham  and  Melbourne,  John  A.  Bothwell,  B.A.  White 
Mountains,  New  Hampshire. 

Var.  trUiTyulare.  —  From  Chatham,  where  a  large  clump 
grew.  Very  deep  green,  fewer  pinnn  (branches)  than  normal, 
and  fewer  pinnules;  these  more  deeply  pinnatifid,  sometimea 
divided  half  way  to  tbe  midrib  at  back.  Instead  of  the  common 
oblong-shaped  pinnules,  this  variety  displays  a  triangolar  form, 
and  the  whole  aspect  is  in  a  measure  different. 

Ptbbis  aqdilina. — Common  everywhere  ia  Lower  Canada. 
Montreal;  Watorloo ;  Chatham;  Lennoxville;  Durham,  Wick- 
ham,  and  Melbourne,  John  A.  Bothwell,  B.A. ;  Temiscouata, 
J.  G.  Thomas,  M.D. ;  Sorel,  Lady  Dalhonsie.  White  Mountains, 
New  Hampshire ;  Portland,  Maine. 

The  varieties  of  this  fern  are  very  numerous.  F(ir«.  a.  vera 
and  p.  mtegeirima.  I  have  collected  sperimens  of  both  these 
varieties,  though  they  do  not  adhere  exactly  to  Dr.  Lawson's 
descriptions  of  them.  I  have  also  one  or  two  beautiful  specimens 
of  another  variety,  with  a  brown  stripe  of  six  and  a  balf  inches  iu 
length,  surmounted  by  the  frond,  which  is  three  inches  high,  and 
three  and  a  half  broad.  The  branchefl  are  pinnate,  the  pinne 
pinnatifid  and  very  clearly  divided.  The  spedmeus  were  min- 
utely chaffy-hairy  and  in  fruit.  Now  the  vart  a.  vera  and  fi. 
tnUgtrrUna  areof  largeuie,andnot80thiokorooriaoeous,thoii^ 


,.,.d.i.  Google 


S66  TBS  OUIADIAN  MATDBALIBT.  [OoL 

they  agT«e  irith  this  v&rietj  id  the  namber  of  braDcbee  and  ia 
point  of  pinnatifioation.  Whether  specimenB  of  this  variety  in  a 
sterile  state  would  be  lees  ooriaceoua,  I  uu  not  in  a  position  to  say. 
These  ket  mentioaed  specimenB  were  coUeoted  at  Chatham  on  the 
Ottawa,  a  locality  rich  in  ferns;  and  I  may  also  add,  in  phce- 
DOgamous  plants.  I  hare  bIbo  another  variety  of  P.  aquilina  dis- 
playing extremely  lanceolate  pointed  pinnules ;  bnt  whether  this 
aonminate  property  be  constant,  I  cannot  now  affirm. 

ALLOSoaua  oeaoilis. — Rare.  Rooks,  county  of  Presoott,  C. 
W. ;  on  the  shore  of  River  Ottawa,  opposite  the  residence  of  Lem- 
uel Gushing,  Esq. ;  Chatham;  Caoonna,  very  fine  q>eouDeQa,  Dr. 
J.  W.  Dawson ;  Riviere  du  Loup  (en  baa),  J.  G.  Thomas,  M.D. ; 
near  Britannia  MiUa,  rare,  Hon.  William  Sheppard ;  Murray  Bay, 
B.  Anstruther  Ramsay,  B.A. 

Stkdthiopterib  Geruakioa. — Very  oommon.  Among  other 
localities: — Montreal;  Waterloo;  Lennoxviile;  Chatham;  Sorel, 
Lady  Doihousio;  Quebec,  Hon.  William  Sheppard;  Durham, 
Wiokham,  and  Melbourne,  John  A.  Botbwell,  B.A. ;  along  the 
Green  Riv»',  J.  Q.  Thomas,  M.D.  White  Monnuine,  New 
Hampshire. 

Onoolea  SKN8IBILIS. — A  very  variable  and  intereeting  fem.  Of 
many  barren  specimens  some  are  de^ly  pinnatifid,  which  appear* 
the  normal  state,  or  with  the  last  pair  of  divisions  almost  pinnate ; 
but  in  every  onse  that  I  have  yet  observed  there  is  a  wing,  however 
minute,  upon  the  rachis,  so  that  we  cannot  properly  apply  the 
term  pinnate  to  this  fern.  I  have  several  sterile  varieties,  one 
covered  with  glands,  another  in  which  the  propertiea  of  the  stt^ile 
and  fertile  are  seen  in  the  same  frond,  as  may  be  observed  in  pia- 
nnles  oi  0»miindaTeg<dit,yax.  tpectabilU.  Some  are  contracted  and 
deeply  pinnatifid  ;  one  obtusely  terminated  at  apex  and  at  ends  of 
divisions.  Whether  these  would  be  constant  under  cultivation  I  can- 
not say,  as  I  have  not  had  time  to  invesdgate  this  fem  sufficiently, 
aikl  have  only  mentioned  these  varieUes  as  a  sUmulns  to  observa- 
tion. On  the  whole  it  would  appear  that  from  the  earliest  develop- 
ment of  Onodea  tiiere  are  two  general  forms.  One  from  the  mol- 
taf^ication  of  wavy-toothed  divisions,  the  other  by  the  development 
of  lanceolate-triangular  divisions;  under  these  may  be  included 
all  the  abnormal  forms  whwb  I  have  seen.  Common.  Montreal ; 
Sorel,  Lady  Dalbouue ;  Waterloo ;  Chatham ;  Lennoxviile ;  Que- 
.bec,  Hon.  William  Sheppard;  Durham,  Wiokham,  and  Met- 
bonme,  John  A.  Bothwell,  B.A. ;  TemisoouaU,  J.G.  Thomaa,M.D.i 
White  Mountains,  New  Hampshire;  Portland,  Maine. 


■v,  Google 


1864.]  U'OOOD   ON   OA.NADIAJI   FEKNa.  367 

Abplkmidh  vnuDB. — Qaa^,  John  Belt,  B,A.  A  very  iatet- 
eeXing  little  fern.  From  the  BpecimeDS  diat  I  have  Been,  thoogli 
not  from  tlie  above-mentioned  locality,  it  may  be  distingaiBhed 
from  A.  Trichomant*  (among  otJier  didferenoesj)  by  having  a 
green  raohis,  and  a  dark  colored  stipe,  while  A.  Triehomana 
beaiB  a  stipe  and  rachis  of  dark  shining  blacldah-brown.  In 
A.  viride  the  frucUfioatioo  oocapies  more  of  the  enrfaoes  of  (be 
lunnse,  and  thej  are  lem  numerous. 

AspLKNiDU  Tbiobomanks. — Chatham,  on  rooks,  in  laige 
tdumps ;  obserred  in  no  other  locality  in  Lower  Canada. 

AsPLSNiDU  A-HQvatirohmu.. — Vtxj  beautiful,  not  oommon. 
Montreal,  lai^r  and  smaller  mountuns ;  open  woods,  in  company 
with  Lattrcea  Goldiana;  Sept.,  1863.  Obaerred  specimens  wiA 
a  bifuroatioD  at  apex,  as  in  some  British  varietiea  of  Pol^ipodivm 
and  also  of  A.  Felix-/cemitia. 

Abplenktu  THKI.TPTKB0IDE8. — Montreal;  Waterloo;  Leo* 
nozville;  Chatham,  and  northward  to  Wentworth,  Harrington, 
Howard,  and  Arundel ;  Qoebeo,  Hon.  William  Sheppard ;  Bur- 
ham,  Wickham,  and  Melbourne,  John  A.  Bothwell,  B.A.  Port- 
land, Maine ;  White  Mountains,  New  Hampshire. 

/3.  terratum. — Very  fine,  Chatham. 

Athfbidh  Felix-v(euina. — Common,  Montreal ;  Chatham, 
and  northward ;  Lennoxville;  Waterloo;  Quebec,  Hon.  William 
Sheppard  j  Durham,  Wickham,  and  Melbourne,  John  A.  Both- 
well,  B.A. ;  Temiscouata,  very  oommon,  J.  O.  Thomas,  M.D, 
White  Mountains,  New  Hampshire;  Portland,  Maine.  I  have  a 
variety  or  two,  agreeing  in  some  respects  irith  p.  erectwm,  and  also 
with  y.  rhceticum,  bat  would  not  presume  to  identify  them,  as  I 
have  not  studied  the  varieties  of  this  fern. 

Caupiosokus  aaizoPHTLLira. — Rare ;  dry  rooks  at  TAbord-ft- 
Floufie,  on  the  river  Jesus,  rear  of  the  island  of  Montreal;  bub 
not  easily  found  even  there.  St.  Helen's  Island,  rare,  Hon.  Wil- 
liam Sh^iipard;  Sorel,  Lady  Dalhousio,  as  Atplenium  rAw- 
ophyllum. 

LiSTB-Si  DILATATA. — (^AtpvUwia  tpinulotum,  of  Oray's 
Manual.) — I  have  many  specimens  of  this  most  variable  speoiea 
from  those  ^ort  both  ia  stipe  and  frond,  and  triai^ular,  the  pin- 
soles  being  deeply  toothed  orlobed.h^dlypinnatifid,  to  those  that 
are  broadly  lanceolate,  spreading  or  not,  and  finely  cut.  I  cannot, 
however,  identify  j8.  tonoceti/blta  with  any  of  them.  Ihavetbevar. 
BooUii  (of  Gray's  Mannal),  with  g^aodolar  indnuom.  I  also  found 

ToL.  I.  T  No.  B. 


1.;.  Google 


358  THE   CANADIAN   NATURALIST.  [Oot. 

at  Waterloo,  June  &th,  1862,  aoontnioCed,  depauperated, thoDgh  tall, 
specimea  of  X.  dilatata,  wbioh  bore  indosia  thickly  covered  with 
glands,  Btalked,  and  many  furnished  irith  a  fnnnel-shaped  head. 
In  this  case  the  pinnules  were  curved  towards  the  back  of 
frond,  and  these  glands  were  also  thickly  scattered  over  the  front 
and  the  back  of  the  pinnse.  The  abnormal  appearanoe  of  Ibis 
specimen  indnoedme  to  esamine  the  front  of  the  frond  for  glands, 
and  in  other  specimens  they  might  perhaps  be  discovered  aimilarly 
sitnated,  if  search  were  made.  This  fern  requires  careful  study. 
Montreal ;  Chatham  ;  Lennoxville ;  Sorel,  (?)  Lady  Dnlhousie  ; 
Durham,  Wickham,  and  Melbourne,  John  A.  Bothwell,  B.A.  j 
Temiscouata,  common,  J.  G.  Thomas,  M.D. ;  Quebco,  Rev.  Prof. 
Bninet.  White  Mountains,  New  Hampshire ;  Portland,  Maine. 
Lastrsa  Maroinalis. — Common.  Montreal;  Chatham;  Len- 
noxville; Quebec,  Hon, William  Slieppard;  Sorel,  Lady  Dalhousie; 
Durham,  Wickham,  and  Melbourne,  John  A.  Bothwell,  B.A. ; 
Temiscouata,  J.  G.  Thomas,  M.D.  White  Mountains,  New  Hamp- 
shire; Portland,  Maine,  I  do  not  know  the  var.  (3.  Traillce,  which 
must  be  very  handsome.  I  have  two  speoimcna  of  s  small  varie^ 
(eleven  inches  long),  with  few  pinnse,  where  the  apex  is  composed 
of  a  pinna  instead  of  the  ordinary  mode  of  growth;  aimilar  in 
style  to  the  top  of  Polypodium  vulgare,  var.  erenalum  (Moore), 
or  var.  umilacerum.  I  do  not  think  this  variety  is  constant. 
Another  variety  displays  only  three  plnnie  in  a  slightly  circular 
form.    Montreal,  1863. 

Lastraa  CRISTATA. — Not  uncommon.  Montreal;  Chatham  ; 
Lennosville ;  Qaebeo,  Hon.  William  Sheppard  ;  Durham,  Wick- 
ham, and  Melbourne,  John  A.  Bothwell,  B.A.  I  am  inolbed  to 
think,  that,  from  a  number  of  specimens  I  possess,  there  is  a 
variety  of  this  fem,  larger,  broader,  the  pinnules  less  triangular, 
more  lanceolate  and  more  scythe-shaped  than  the  normal,  and, 
jtom  their  size  and  their  position,  not  to  he  referred  to  Jj. 
Boldiana.  It  is  a  handsomer  fern  than  the  common  L.  crUlata; 
and  intermediate  forms  may  be  traoed  between  this  variety  and  the 
triangular-pinnated  specimens.     Chatham,  C,  E. 

Lastrsa  Ooldiana. — I  think  my  specimens  may  be  referred 
to  rar.  a.  terrala,  bat  cannot  speak  oertunly,  as  I  have  only 
observed  the  fern  in  one  spot,  near  Montreal ;  and  the  sori  are 
lai^r  than  in  any  other  fern  we  have,  which  bears  an  indusinm ; 
whereas  Dr.  Lawson  says  the  sori  are  small.  My  barren  fronds 
aie  smaller  than  the  fertile.    Montreal,  sniallar  moontaio,  with 


.;,  Google 


1864.]  U'OORD  OM   CANADIAN  VIRNB.  359 

Atplmium  anguiti/oUnm.    Durham,  Wiokhun,  &nd  Melbourne, 
John  A.  BothweU,  B.A. 

LabtbiEA  Thbltpteris. — Common.  Montreal,  very  fine  speoi- 
mens;  Chatham;  Waterloo;  Sorel,  Lady  Dalhooue;  Durham, 
Wiokham,  and  Melbourne,  John  A.  Bothwell,  B,A.;  Queheo, 
Rev.  Prof.  Brunet.  White  MounUine,  New  Hampahire ;  Port- 
land, Maine. 

Lastb^a  Not-Ebobaosnsis. — Montreal ;  Wat«rloo ;  Quebeo, 
Hon.  William  Sheppard;  Dnrham,  Wickham,  and  Melbourne, 
John  A.  Bothnell,  B.A. 

FoLTSTiCHUU  ANO0LARB.— ^.  Braunii.  Quebec,  Hon.  Wit 
liun  Sheppard,  as  P,  aculeatum.  Temisoon&ta,  not  common, 
J.  G.  Thomaa,  M.D. 

P0LT8TICHUM  AoaosTioaoiDBB,— Montreal ;  Waterloo;  Chat- 
ham ;  Lennoxville ;  Sorel,  Lady  Dathoosie ;  Durham,  Wickham, 
and  Melbourne,  John  A.  BothweU,  B.A. ;  Quebeo,  Hon.  William 
Sheppard. 
p.  tneuum.— Montreal,  July  24th,  1861. 
Otstofteris  FRA01LI8. — Montreal ;  Sbefibrd  Mountains,  near 
Waterloo,  in  one  spot  only  ;  Chatham,  very  fine;  Dnrham,  Wiok- 
bam,  and  Melbourne,  John  A.  BothweU,  B.A. ;  Quebeo,  Rev.  Prof. 
Brunet.  My  specimens  from  Montreal  measure  about  ten  inches  in 
length,  three  of  which  are  stipe;  narrowly  lanceolate,  not  more  than 
one  and  a  half  inch  in  breadth;  whUe  those  fkim  Chatham  are 
much  finer,  being  eight  inches  long,  ezclnslTe  of  sdpe,  three  inches 
broad,  bi-pinnate,  pinnules  incised,  and,  like  the  ordinary  specimens, 
the  pinnse  are  not  approximate.  This  constitutes,  I  think,  a  variety. 
Those  from  Waterloo  are  more  triangular,  thinner,  pinnie  more 
^proximate,  but  are  twice  pinnate,  hence  they  cannot  be  roterred 
to  Mr.  Bell's  speoimens,  whose  pinna  are  not  pinnate.  This  fern 
requires  careful  study. 

CrsTOPTERis  BCLBirsRA. — Montreal ;  Chatham ;  Waterloo, 
me,  only  one  clump  seen  ;  Quebec,  at  the  Falls  of  Lorette,  north 
declivity  of  the  river,  Hon.  William  Sheppard ;  Upper  Falls  of 
the  Riviere  du  Loup  en  has,  variable  in  outline,  J.  G.  Thomas, 
M.D. ;  Sord,  Lady  Dalhonde. 

DiNNST^soTiA  PDNOTILOBULA. — Said  to  be  at  Long  Point, 
near  Montreal,  but  I  cannot  vouch  for  it.  Sorel,  Lady  Dalhouaie; 
Daleeville,  near  Chatham;  LennozvUle;  Waterloo;  Quebeo,  Hon. 
William  Sheppard;  Durham,  Wickham,  and  Melbourne,  John 
A.  BothweU,  B.A.  Portland,  Mune;  White  Mountains,  New- 
Hampshire. 

.Google 


360  TBI  OANASUIt  HATD&ALIBT;  [OoL 

WooDSiA  Ilvenbis— Montreal ;  ChaUiam ;  Wolfe's  Core,  Que- 
bec, Hon.  William  Sheppard ;  Lachate ;  Rtvi^  dn  Loup  en 
baa,  on  rocl^  bouka,  J.  G-.  Tbomu,  t/ij).;  Sorel,  Lady  Dat 
hooeie. 

j8.  ffracilit. — If  I  have  this  variety,  aa  I  am  dbposad  to  tbink, 
tbepiniue  and  pianides  are  bolli  more  lBnDeDlate,andmQre  covered 
with  ohaffy  aoales,  as  meotioiied  by  Dr.  Lawson ;  the  Btjpea  are  aln 
not  BO  dark  in  oolor. 

WooimiA  OLABSLLA.— Montreal?  very  Tsre;  Chath&m ;  ran, 
at  the  Upper  Falls  of  the  Biviere  du  Loap  en  baa,  J.  Q. 
Thomas,  M.D. 

OsuUNDA  HKOALiSj  TBT.  ^.  tptctobxlii. — Montreal;  Waterloo; 
Chatham;  Leanoxville,  rare;  Qoebec,  Hon.  Wifliam  Sheppard; 
Sorel,  Lady  DUhooaie,  aa  Otmunda  regalu;  Durham,  Wiokham, 
and  Melbourne,  John  A.  Bothvell,  B.A.  I  also  noticed  thia  fam 
in  the  White  MoantEunB,  New  Hampdiire ;  Portiand,  Maine.  It 
is  common  in  this  fern  to  observe  a  pinnule  partly  in  iroit  and 
partly  barren. 

OsuUNDA  oiNHAUOUEA.— Montreal ;  Ohatliam ;  Waterloo ;  Len- 
Bozville;  Qaebec,  Hon.  William  Sheppard;  Sorel,  Lady  Dal> 
bonsie;  Durham,  Wiokham,  and  Melbourne,  J(An  A.  Both- 
Vell,  B.A.;  Temisoouata,  J.  Q.  Thomas,  M.D.  Portland,  Maine; 
While  Mountains,  New  Hampshire. 

Obudnda  Clattoniana.  —  Variable  in  ute.  Montreal; 
Lennozville  ;  Waterloo ;  Chatham ;  Soiel,  Lady  Dalhoosie  ;  Que- 
bec, Hon.  William  Sheppard ;  Temiseouata,  J.  G.  Thomas,  M.D. 
White  Mounttuns,  New  Hampshire;  Portland,  Maine. 

BoTRTOHiDU  VnUHKlOUU. — Oonunou.  Montreal;  Cfaatluua; 
Waterloo;  Qaebec,  Hon.  William  Sheppard ;  Lennoxville;  Bur- 
ham,  Wiokham,  and  Melbourne,  Jolm  A.  Bothwell,  B.A. ;  Tent* 
isoonata,  J.  0.  Thomas,  M.D. 

y.  tttnplisc— Montreal,  July  28th,  1661 ;  Quebec,  Iter.  Prof. 
Brunet ;  Temisoouata,  rare,  near  the  eea>-diore,  J.  G-.  Thomas,  M.D. 

BoTaTOHinic  LDNAaioiDSS. — Bather  rare.  Montreal ;  Sore], 
Lady  Dalhousie,  aaB./umaTioidet;  Quebec,  Hon.  William  Shqt- 
pard,  rare;  Durham,  Wiokham,  and  Melbourne,  John  A.  Both- 
well,  B.A, 

My  specimens  hardly  agree  witii  Dr.  Liwson's  dividon  of  thki 
fern.  One,  with  barrel  branch  M-pinnate  and  fertile  bruioli  b(- 
almoet  tri-pinnate,  wonld  appear  to  agree  with  £.  htnariotdtij 
another  with  a  lai^,  tri-^nnUe  fertile  ftvnd,  agrees  in  this  retpMt 


„  Cooc^lc 


1864.]  M'OOBD  0>  OAHADIAS   TXSMa.  361 

with  B.  obUqmim,  bat  not  in  die  barren  frond,  whiob,  aldiongh  Ih- 
pnnate,  hu  not  nannwer  divuiona.  They  are  simply  mon 
oousely  oienato  and  more  ooriaoeoiiB.  This  may  of  oonrse  be  not 
at  all  A  obUqtmm  of  Dr.  LawBon,  and  I  liad  regarded  it  aa 
m  variely  of  the  B.  btnarioidM.  I  can  add  nodiing  farther,  as  I 
have  not  seen  many  BpeoimeDS  of  this  fern.  I  have  a  variel^  of 
it  ot^lected  at  Lake  Memphraoagt^,  C  E.,  in  1862,  by  Mn. 
J.  H.  Thompson,  whiob  wonld  be  in  the  aune  relation  to  B. 
hakorioidei  tJiat  the  variety  y.  mmplex  is  to  3.  Vxrginician,  The 
■terilo  Iwanch  is  almost  twioe  pinnate,  with  few  wedgo-sh^ied 
minntdy-tootbed  lobes ;  the  ferUle  braaoh  is  also  almost  or  entinly 
twtoo  pinnato :  bnt  the  whole  Bpeaimen  has  this  peooliarity,  tliat 
instead  of  there  being  three  barren  branoblets,  and  one  fbrtile, 
there  are  three  fertile  and  one  barreo. 

BoTRTCBiDH  Ldnabu. — NoTtfa  side  of  Island  of  Orleans, 
J.  F.  WhiteaTOs,  F.G.S. ;  and  Rivi^  da  Loup  en  bas. 

OPHioflLOSsuu  vuLGATnii. — Mdhoome,  C.  E.,  where  eioeedr 
in^y  fine  specimens  are  to  be  &aiid.  Miss  Isabella  Molntosh,  Buin- 
mde  Hoose,  Montreal.  This  fon,  witii  the  Bolrgchium  Lvnaria 
mmtioned  above,  are  now  for  the  first  time  recorded  as  bang 
aatives  vi  Canada  proper. 

The  above  brief  statement  of  tJie  Lower  Gui&di^  ferns,  intended 
aa  a  supplemest  to  Dr.  Lawson's  ralvaUo  paper,  iiKlndes  thirty- 
seven  ^eoies,  to  which,  if  we  add  the  six  addidoosJ  ones  which 
•re  as  yet  peooliar  to  Upper  Canada,  we  have  a  total  of  forty- 
three  speoles  of  CanaiUaa  ferns.  I  enumerate  the  six  abov« 
alluded  to. 

PeLLJA  ATKOPUaPUBKA,  Link. 

OKTPTOaKAHHA  AGROSTIOBOIDES,  R.  BrOWn, 

ASPLENIUU  BBENXUH,  AitOn. 

WooDWABDiA  ViitaiNiOA,  WiUdenow. 

SOOLOPENURIDH  VOLOASE,  Smith. 

F0LT8TICHDH   LONOHITIS,    Both. 

There  are,  then,  in  Canada  almost  as  many  species  of  ferns  as 
in  Qreat  Britain,  and  much  is  yet  left  for  observation,  particularly 
in  Lower  Canada, — where  other  species  may,  perhaps,  be  dia- 
covered ;  and  we  have  also  the  iaveatigatjon  of  varieties  to  in- 
terest us. 

There  are  forty-nine  species  mentioned  by  Gray  as  being  in  the 
Borthern United  States;  andof  Qieseagood  namber,  txLygodivm 
paimatum,  Swarls,  Schixata  pmilta,  Fursh,  and  others,  are  not 


Dy  Google 


362  IHB  OANASUM  MAIUBALIST.  [Oot 

to  be  looked  for  in  Oankda,  from  ita  nortfaem  position.  On  t}ie 
other  band,  Dr.  Lawson's  liala  include  AtplmiTim  viride,  Hudson, 
Botrychium  lunaria,  SwartE,  and  others  which  are  beyond  Qra.y'a 
Btatcd  limits,  (see  pa^e  263).  Should  we,  then,  not  find  some 
Canadian  ferns  recorded  by  Gray  or  other  Ameiioan  authorities, 
we  must  look  to  other  countries  of  the  same  latitude,  eleraljos, 
&o.,  as  ours.  Taking  a  general  view,  more  than  half  of  the 
Lower  Oanadian  ferns  are  inhabitanta  of  tracts  of  country  not 
dry;  they  are  found  in  open  meadowa,  or  swamps;  the  remainder 
grow  upon  rocks,  with  little  moisture,  as  Woodsia  Ilvensis,  Cy*- 
iopteru  fragilU,  (oooasionally,)  Atlotorut  gracilU,  &o. ;  or 
upon  rocky  positions  but  requiring  moisture,  in  which  ease 
they  suffer  during  dry  seasons,  aa  Atpienium  TrUhomanet,  Ac. 
Not  a  few  grow  in  either  dry  or  damp  positions,  in  shade  or 
sunshine,  when  different  varieties  may  be  looked  for ;  while  a 
change  of  habit,  such  as  is  produced  by  clearing  land,  proves  fatal 
to  some  species.  A  northern  aspect  is  also  sometimes  noticed- 
What  the  progress  of  civilization  may  do  in  affec^ng  the  ferus, 
time  will  evince,  aa  I  havenotioedfernsslowly  disappearing;  though 
the  loss  of  species  will  of  course  require  loog  lapses  of  time.  For 
instance,  have  we  any  record  what  were  the  ferns  of  Europe,  or 
of  Great  Britain,  some  centuries  ago  1 

With  r^ard  to  Quebec,  one  of  the  localities  indicated  in  the 
above  not«e,  the  Honorable  William  Sheppard,  who  kindly  furaisbod 
me  with  a  list  of  the  ferns  to  be  found  there,  is  disposed  to  thick 
that  some  more  species  than  he  has  named  might  ba  discovered. 
He  was  guided  by  notes,  and  Ir^  memory,  aa  his  own  collection  was 
UDfortuaately  destroyed  by  fire  some  years  ago. 


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1864.]  DAV80N  ON  THE  OENDB  BUBOFHTCUa.  363 

ON  THE  FOSSILS  OF  THE  GENUS  RUSOPHYOUS. 
Bt  J.  W.  DiwsoN,  LL.D.,  F.R.S,,  Ac. 

The  genus  Rutophyait  was  CBtabliehed  by  Prof.  Hall  foi 
certain  transversely  wrinkled  impresBioDS  found  in  the  Clinton 
group  of  Oneida  County,  New  York,  and  supposed  to  be  fossil 
Bea-weeds.  Objects  of  similar  appearance  have  been  detected  by 
Mr.  Billings  in  the  Chazj  sandstone  of  Greuville,  and  described  by 
him  under  the  name  of  R.  Grenvilleugit.  They  much  resemble 
one  of  Prof.  HaL's  species,  B.  bilobatiu,  which  ia  the  type  of  short 
bUobat«  forms  Incladed  in  the  genus.  Similar  markings,  bat  of 
much  smaller  size,  oconr  in  the  Lower  CarbonlferouB  of  Nova 
Scotia,  and  have  been  described  and  figured  by  the  writer  as  prob- 
ably casta  of  the  lower  extremities  of  worm-buirows,  in  the  Journal 
of  the  Geological  Society  of  London,  vol.  xiv,  p.  74.  In  the  12th 
volume  of  the  same  journal,  Mr.  Salter  had  described  small  bilobate 
impressions,  not  striated  transversely,  from  the  Longmynd  rocks 
of  England,  under  the  name  ArenicoUtet  didyma.  He  supposed 
tihem  to  be  burrows  of  worms. 


Fig.  1.  Rmophyctu  Grtavillmri*,  rar.  a,  half  nat.  site. 
I  bad  an  opportunity  last  summer,  in  oompany  with  Mr.  J.  A. 
Botbwell,  B.  A.,  to  examine  the  locality  of  th  e  Grenville  speolraeus, 
and  fonod  them  to  be  quite  abaadaat  in  certain  layers  of  sand- 
stone alternating  with  shale  on  the  bank  of  the  Orenville  canal. 
The  facts  obtuned  from  their  study  in  place  enable  me  to  throw 
some  light  on  their  probable  nature,  and  possibly  to  reacne  them 


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361  THK   OANADIAH    NATURALIBT.  [Oot. 

fVoro  the  coDTemeot  groap  of  facoids,  into  wbich  pabeoutologiBtB 
H&ve  throwD  so  many  obsenre  and  doubtful  foMils, 

Mr.  Billings  describes  ihe  species  as  follows : 

"  This  Bpecies  is  found  in  tbe  form  of  irr^olar,  oblong-ovate  or 
depressed  hemispberioal  masses,  one  end  uflQallj  divided  into  two 


Fig.  3.    Rvtophycm  OrenvUlerait,  tit.  b,  Mf  nat.  aiie. 
parts  b;  a  farrow  of  more  or  less  depth.     Tbe  whole  mass  is  gen- 
erally crossed  by  numenras  nndDlating  wrinUea,  which  have  a 
trsnsrerse  direction  to  that  of  the  furrow.    The  more  common 
dimeosions  are  f¥om  three  to  four  inohea  in  length,  and  from 


Pig.  3.     Rtuophytut  earbonaritit. 
two  and  a  half  to  three  and  a  half  in  breadth,  bnt  ooctsionany  speei- 
meos  occur  mnoh  larger  and  also  sranller ;  one  of  them  is  nine  and 
a  half  inches  by  five  and  a  half,  and,  in  addition  to  the  principal 
groove,  eihibita  two  or  duee  obsenre  fnRowB  oit  eacA  fflde." 


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18ft4.]         DAW80N  oM  tHi  onms  strsoPHTODs.  3S6 

To  this  description  it  is  only  neoesiary  to  add,  tliat,  in  oomparing 
a  lai^  unmber  of  specitnoDS,  many  divenideB  are  apparent  in  the 
relief  of  tho  forms,  in  the  extent  of  the  lon^tndinal  tiirrow,  and  in 
the  number  of  the  transrerM  wrinkles.  The  two  lobeB  are  also 
most  frequently  slightly  nneqn&l  in  thdr  relief ;  and  some  of  the 
qteoimens  riope  gradaally  at  one  end,  and  are  thus  somewhat  elon- 
gated. In  all  oasee,  however,  the  gmeral  fonn  is  the  same,  the 
lofiptndinal  and  transTerse  fiirrows  are  oonstant,  and  the  former  ia 
always  more  strongly  marked  at  one  extremity  of  the  fossil.  The 
qfiecimens  have  no  indication  of  a  stem  or  stalk ;  though  a  oast  of 
a  worm-burrow  or  shrinkage-oraok  sometimes  simulates  such  »a 

In  viewing  these  ibesUs  and  tlte  sorfhoes  of  the  beds  oontaining 
(h«n,  it  ftppetuvd  evident  that  they  are  in  reality  oaata  of  hollows 
M  holes  excavated  in  clay,  and  filled  with  sand  which  has  taken 
and  retained  in  ita  oonsoUdated  state  the  impression  of  their  forma. 
The  supposed  foasib  project  from  the  lower  surfaoe  of  the  Band- 
stone,  where  this  rests  on  friable,  dark  gray  shale.  They  have  the 
same  appearance  with  the  surfaeea  of  the  beds  of  sandstone,  and 
diow  no  traces  of  organic  matter.  There  are  on  the  same  surfaces 
tMsts  of  worm-traoks,  dso  in  relief,  and  which  sometimes  extend 
omr  the  Bpemiaeae  ol Baaophj/eut.  TherearealsoonllieseBurfaeas 
Miws  of  wrinkles,  or  easts  <^  furrows  umilar  to  those  of  J^*oph>/eui ; 
and  some  of  thess  form  trails  to  or  Avm  the  ends  of  the  latter. 
(Fig.  2,  a.)  Casts  of  shrinkage^racks  in'  relief,  also  occur  on  the 
Same  Borfaoee.  La^  speoimens  c£  Suiophj/cut  sometimes  overlap 
imafi  ones  in  sneh  a  manner  aa  to  show  that  they  must  have  been 
scooped  oat  of  the  clay.  On  the  othw  hand,  if  Hm  supposed 
fdeoids  were  really  ^  that  oharacter,  they  must  have  been  solid 
masses  or  vesii^es,  and  in  the  former  ease  must  have  left  some 
tnee  of  oi^anie  matter,  while  in  tbc  latter  they  coold  souoely  have 
im^eaeeil  tbemselveB  so  deeply  on  ttie  clay. 

These  appearances  nan,  I  think,  be  explained  on  the  snppo- 
tftticn  that  some  animal  orawlliig  on  the  soft  mud  at  the  bottom 
of  shallow  water,  by  means  of  feet  which  made  a  double  series  of 
tetnsverse  marks,  was  in  the  haUt  of  ezoava^g  deep  burrows  for 
Aelter  or  repose,  and  that  these  burrows  were  filed  with  drifted 
Mud  ooustitutii^  the  lower  partof  whatisnow  a  thin  bed  d'dark- 
M^red  Sandstone.  The  burrowing  of  Uta  modern  LimKlut,  as 
deeeribed  bf  the  vrriter  in  vol.  vii  of  this  journal,  would  produce 
a  similar  eSect.    I  have  not  seen  the  burrows  of  ImmiIiu  in  day  j 


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366  THE  CANADIAN  NATT&ALIBT.  [Oot 

and  iQ  sand  a  quantity  of  thia  material  ia  thrown  out  b^nd, 
which  in  a  oaat  would  have  left  two  hollows,  not  present  in  tbe 
fossils ;  bat  should  a  Limuiut  bnrrow  in  fine  mud,  which  would 
become  diffused  or  washed  away  as  Uirown  out,  then  the  appeai- 
ance  would  be  not  nnlilce  that  of  these  fos^.  The  front  of  the 
carapace  would  give  the  rounded,  anterior  end;  the  two  rows  of 
walking  and  swimming  feet  would  form  the  depressions  with  traus- 
verae  strife;  and  the  only  addition  would  be  tlie  mark  of  the 
caudal  spioe  of  Limulut,  of  which  there  is  no  trace  in  the  fossils. 
The  animal  required  would  therefore  be  aomstacean,  having  feet 
and  habits  of  life  geDerally  resembling  those  of  Limvlut,  bnt 
without  a  caudal  spine.  The  only  known  animals  of  the  period 
that  could  have  fulfilled  these  conditions  are  the  Trilobites;  and 
since  the  interesting  discovery,  by  Mr.  Billings,  of  the  feet,  or  bases 
of  the  feet,  of  Axaphut,  the  objeotion  to  this  view  which  mi^il 
Jiave  been  taken  from  our  ignorance  of  the  feet  of  these  aaimaU, 
no  longer  exiats.  The  feet  of  AMaphtu,  in  short,  appear  to  oon- 
stitute  juat  such  a  double  aeries  of  laminie  as  would  necesaarily 
produce  markings  like  those  referred  to. 

From  the  great  depth  of  these  burrows,  and  the  indications  of 
shallow  water  in  the  vicinity  of  a  shore  presented  by  the  shrink. 
age-cracka,  I  would  further  consider  it  probable  that  these  hdee 
were  places  of  incubation ;  and  that  the  Trilobites  carried  tbdr 
spawn  atteehed  to  their  swimming-feet,  and  were  in  the  habit  of 
resorting  to  shallow  water  for  the  purpose  of  incubation. 

The  above  remarks  apply  more  especially  to  R.  GrenviUtntit. 
I  can  speak  with  less  confidence  of  Professor  Hall's  species ;  but 
the  only  specimen  which  I  possess  of  the  R.  bilobatut  of  New 
York,  differs  from  the  QrenviUe  apecimens  (inly  in  the  proportions 
of  length  and  breadth ;  as  might  be  expected,  if,  as  is  probably  the 
case,  it  ia  the  track  of  a  different  species.  My  bilobate  impres- 
sioDS  from  Nova  Scotia  have  been  produced  by  a  small  animal ; 
perhaps  the  little  species  of  Phillipna  which  cccuts  in  the  same 
formation.  Mr.  Salter's  ATenxcola  from  the  Longmynd  wants 
the  transverse  markings,  and  the  impressions  are  somewhat  separate^ 
so  that  they  may  be  of  a  different  character  from  the  others.  I  think 
it  quite  likely,  however,  that  the  more  elongated  apecies  of  Ran- 
phgau,  in  the  Clinton  of  New  York,  may  be  casts  of  tracka  of 
Trilobites,  and  I  have  long  believed  that  a  similar  explanatioii 
will  apply  to  some  at  least  of  the  supposed  focoids  known  u 
Arthrophyau. 


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1864.]         DAwaoM  OH  thk  genub  etjbophtodb.  367 

Taking  this  view  of  the  origin  of  these  singular  objects,  I 
would  surest  to  change  the  generic  name  of  the  Grenville  fossil  to 
Raichnitei.  Id  such  impressions  it  is  scarcely  to  be  expected 
Uiat  good  specific  characters  can  exist.  I  think  it  probable,  how- 
ever, that  the  Grenville  speoimena  may  Indicate  the  presence  of 
three  species  of  Trilobites.  Some  of  the  smaller  specimens  are 
more  elongated  than  the  others,  and  have  more  numerous  furrows. 
Other  and  larger  ones  are  Bhort«T  and  with  fewer  and  more  obtuse 
transverse  furrows.  A  third  variety  is  that  referred  to  by  Mr. 
Billings  in  his  description,  as  having  traces  of  lateral  longitudinal 
ftirrows.  These  may  in  the  meantime  be  included  under  i?,  Gren- 
villensit,  Billings,  as  varieties  (a),  (6),  and  (c).     (Figs.  1  and  2). 

Bfy  Nova  Scotia  specimens,  though  small,  show  little  difference 
of  character,  but  1  would  regard  them  as  constituting  a  distinot 
species,  under  the  name  R.  carbonariut.     (Fig.  3). 

A  third  species  of  Rasichniles  has  recently  come  into  my  pos- 
session, in  a  collection  of  fossils  from  the  coal  formation  of  Sydney, 
Cape  Breton,  sent  to  me  by  my  friend  Richard  Brown,  Esq. 
These  impressions  are,  like  the  others,  casts  in  relief,  on  a  slab 
of  sandstone.  Each  impression  consists  of  the  oasts  of  oontigaons 
rounded  furrows,  each  about  on&«ighth  of  an  inch  in  breadtb, 
and  crossed  by  carved  undulations  and  striie,  in  such  a  maoDer 
as  to  give  the  appearance  of  a  pinnate  leaf  carved  in  high  relief. 
At  each  side  of  these  impressions,  and  about  a  tenth  of  an  inch 
distant  from  them,  aro  ioterrupted  lines,  in  relief  in  the  casts, 
and  running  parallel  with  the  casts  of  the  furrows.  The  whole 
has  exactly  the  appearance  of  the  track  of  the  swimming  feet  and 
edgea  of  the  carapace  of  a  small  Limvloi,  about  half  an  inch  wide. 
The  tracks  have  also  the  same  tortuous  charaoter  with  those  of 
the  modem  Limulus.  Lvmali  have  not  yet  occurred  in  the  ooal 
formation  of  Nova  Scotia,  though  they  occur  in  rocks  of  this  age 
elsewhere ;  but  from  these  traoks  I  infer  that  animals  of  this 
kind  lived  in  the  Sydney  ooal  field,  where  their  remains  will 
probably  hereafter  be  found.  I  propose  for  these  impressions  the 
name  R.  Acadinu,  and  will  endeavor  to  ^ure  tbem  in  the  next 
number  of  the  NdturaUit. 


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368  TBI  OiMADIAN  If ATrSALISX.  [Oct 

ON  THE  GEOLOGY  OF  EASTERN  NEW  YORK. 
B;  ProfewoT  JlHU  Eub  and  Sir  Wuuui  E.  Loau. 

Profeesor  James  Hall  and  Sir  Williun  Jjogaa  epeDt  &  few  itys 
together  last  sumnier  in  oxaminii^  aome  points  of  the  geology  of 
Eastern  New  York,  and  propose  to  oontinne  their  examiaalioos 
next  season,  when  we  may  expeot  from  them  a  detailed  acooant  of 
their  results.  Their  priDoipal  objeot  was  to  compare  the  rooks  rf 
that  region  with  some  of  those  of  Eastern  Canada;  and  I  ham 
BOW  permission,  in  the  abeeaee  of  tbeae  gentlemen,  to  lay  befora 
tiiia  Society  some  of  the  resulle  of  this  exploration. 

The  shales  of  the  Hadson  River  group,  which  are  seen  for  a 
oonsiderable  distance  north  and  south  of  Albany,  disappear  a  few 
miles  east  of  the  Hudson,  and  are  suooeeded  by  harder  and 
coarser  shales,  sometimes  red  or  green  in  color,  and  pasung  into 
green  argillaceous  sandstones.  These  various  strata,  which  ace 
associated  with  cono^tioaaiy  and  shaly  Umeetones,  are  now  reoog- 
niEcd  as  bdonging  to  the  Qnebeo  f^up.  The  line  of  oontaot 
between  Utis  and  the  much  more  reeeat  Hudson  River  group  has 
nowhere  been  clearly  seen  in  this  region,  but  the  two  series  are 
readily  distinguished  by  tiieir  diffsrenoes  in  oolor,  texture,  and 
bardneas, — difierenoes  which  were  formerly  supposed  l«  depend 
apon  the  partial  metunorphiem  of  the  eastern  portion,  when  this 
was  looked  upon  as  a  paA  of  the  Hudson  Biver  group.  The 
green  sandstones  and  conglomerates  of  Grafton  Muuntain,  formerly 
looked  upon  as  a  portion  of  the  Sfaawaugunk  conglomerate,  are 
recognized  as  belongiiig  to  on  outlying  portion  of  the  Silleiy  foE- 
nation.  This  mountain  Professor  Hall  had  found  in  a  previoas 
Biploration  (1844-4!^)  to  have,^apoiBt  ftither  south,  a  syncluW 
■tmotnre,  and  it  probably  lies  in  three  low  synclinal  axes.  The 
Silleiy  formation  soaroely  extends  south  of  Rensselaer  County. 

CauaMi  Mountain  is  also  ^pu»ntly  syni^inal,  and,  while  Ume* 
atones  appear  in  the  valleys  on  each  side  of  it,  crasists  chiefly  <^ 
slates,  the  highest  beds  being  a  hard  gteeo  sandstone,  sometuaes 
shaly,  without  any  of  \h.6  eonglomeratee  of  the  Sillery ;  although 
boulders  and  angular  fragments  of  these  are  found  in  the  adjacent 
Tatleys.  To  the  east  of  this,  Richmond  Mountain,  in  Massacha- 
eetta,  presents  in  its  upper  portion  a  compact  green  slate,  passing 
upwards  into  a  liarder  lock  similar  to  that  of  the  summit  of  Car 
nsan  Mountain.     To  tite  southward,  as  &r  as  Hillsdale,  the 


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1864.]        ON  THX  OIOLOOT  Or  BABTIBM  ITBW  TORE.  309 

sparry  limestones  of  tlie  Quebec  gnrap  appear  in  the  valleys, 
wliile  the  hills  are  of  slate.  Proceeding  thsnoe  'westward  towards 
the  river,  only  the  lower  portions  of  the  Qnebeo  group  are  met 
with,  nntil  we  oome  npon  the  rocks  of  the  Hndson  River  group. 

Washington  Mountain  is  also  of  slate,  flanked  by  limestone,  all 
of  the  Quebec  gnrap,  end  is  probably  synclinal  in  stnioture.  The 
T&lley  to  the  south  of  the  mountain  exhibits  limestones,  apparently 
tlternating  n'Hh  slatee.  Columbia  and  Dntohees  counties  appear 
to  be  mainly  ocou|Hed  by  the  shales  of  the  Quebec  group,  witli 
broad  ezposores  of  its  limestones,  until  we  approach  the  river  to 
the  westward,  when  the  shales  of  the  Hndson  River  group  are  met 
with,  extending  a  coiuuderable  distance  below  the  city  of  Hudson. 

From  Fishkill  the  explorers  proceeded  to  Coldspring,  oroasuig 
what  Mnther  called  the  Mattewan  granite,  hut  which  they  found 
to  be  an  altered  sandstone.  Soon  aAer  this  they  came  upon  the 
great  gneiss  formation  of  the  Highlands  of  the  Hndson,  whiob 
continues  beyond  Peekskill.  They  failed  to  find  the  sandstone 
described  hy  Mather  as  ooming  out  at  this  place;  nor  was  anything 
representing  the  Potsdam  sandatone  detected  in  appioacbing  the 
Highlands  from  Fishkill,  nor  elsewhere  along  their  northern  limits. 
Near  to  Peekskill,  in  the  vall^  of  the  oreek,  was  found  a  low 
ridge  of  bhick  slate,  supposed  to  belong  to  the  Quebec  group,  and 
a  similar  slate  was  observed  along  the  north  dde  of  the  Highland 
range,  not  far  from  the  gneiss.  The  gneiss  of  the  Highlands 
presents  all  the  aspects  and  oharaoterisdca  of  that  of  the  Laoren- 
tian  system,  as  seen  in  northern  New  York  and  in  Canada. 

Further  examinations  are  necessary  to  determine  the  extension 
to  the  north-east  of  the  Lanrentian  rocks  of  the  H^blands,  and 
also  the  succession  of  strata  to  the  south-east  of  them.  The  recog- 
nition of  the  Sillery  and  of  the  Quebec  group  in  this  region  are  great 
and  iropor)ant  facts  £>r  its  geology,  and  not  less  so  the  identification 
with  the  Laurentian  qrstem  of.  the  gneissic  district  of  the  High, 
lands,  to  which  the  interesting  mineral  region  of  Orange  connty 
and  the  adjacent  parts  of  New  Jersey  doubtless  belongs.  This 
oonclnsion,  although  opposed  to  the  views  df  Mather  and  Rogera, 
who  looked  upon  ihe  crystalline  rooks  of  the  latter  r^ifm  as 
altered  Lower  Silurian  strata,  is  in  acoordance  with  the  older 
observations  of  Vannxem  and  Keating,  and  with  the  more  recent 
ones  of  Professor  Cook,  according  to  all  of  whom  the  gneiss  and 
erystalline  limestones  of  Orange  Connty  and  of  New  Jersey 
nnderiie  nnconformably  the  I<ower  Silurian  strata.         T.  s.  a. 


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870  TEX  OANA.DIAir  MAIU&ALtST.  [Oet. 

KATUBAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY. 

The  fiTBtmouthl J  meeting  of  the  Society  for  the  Session  1864-65 
waa  held  at  its  rooms  on  Moada;  eveoiiig,  September  26tli,  Dr. 
DavBOD,  Preeident,  in  the  chair.  A  large  nnmber  of  donations 
vere  announced : 

To  THX  Mdbkuh. 
Blackbomian  warbler  (Dmdroiea  Blachhumxee)  and  the  black- 
throated  green  warbler  (^Dendroiea  virena),  ehot  near  Montreal,  and 
presented  by  Mr.  W.  Hunter.  AlargecoUcctionof  English  beetles, 
^m  W.  M.  S.  D'Urban,  Esq.  A  fine  series  of  Canadian  insects,  of 
all  orders,  from  Messrs.  John  B.  Goode,  C.  Foley,  R.  J.  Fowler,  aod 
Jas.  Ferrter,  Jan.  Fossils  and  recent  shells  from  Prof  Dana  (New- 
haven),  Dr.  Hobbard  (Staten  Island),  E.  Seymour  (New  York}, 
and  C.  Hart.  Also  a  number  of  single  specimens  of  ioterest,  but 
which  we  cannot  particularize  from  want  of  space.  The  donations 
to  the  Library  were  also  numerous, 

Nev  Meubsrs. 
Prof.  R,  Bell  was  elected  a  oorrceponding,  and  G,  W.  Simpson, 
Esq.,  an  ordinary  member  of  the  Society, 

Pbocbedihos. 

The  ftrst  paper  (On  Rusophyew  Grenvillmng,  Billings)  was 
then  read  by  Friaoipal  Dawson.  This  paper  is  printed  ia  the  pre- 
sent number. 

Mr.  Billings  read  a  paper,  "  On  a  remarkable  specimen  of  Aia- 
phu»  Plati/cephaliu."  The  principal  point  of  interest  in  this  com- 
mnnication  was  that  the  author  claims  to  have  discovered  what  the 
1^  of  trilobites  were  like.  The  atmctare  of  the  npper  part  of 
these  remarkable  foseils,  so  familiar  to  the  student  of  the  older 
fossiliferons  rocks,  has  long  been  known  to  naturalists.  Dr.  Buok- 
land,  in  his  Bndgewater  treatise,  has  described  the  microscopio 
details  of  the  eyes  of  these  curious  crustaceans,  which  oi^ns  are 
not  unfreqnently  preserved  in  the  rooks, — and  has  fully  illustrated 
their  complex,  compound  character.  But  until  now,  the  only  por- 
tion of  the  under  surface  known  was  the  part  oontaioiog  the 
mouth.    This  oi^an  is  situated  in  a  plate  on  the  under  sorfaoe  of 


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1864.]  NATTIBAL  HIBTOBT  800IBTY.  371 

the  head,  a  conaidarable  dUbinoe  from  its  apex.  From  ibia  ciroom- 
atanoe  Bnrmeister  infers  that "  they  sn'am  in  an  inverted  position, 
tba  bell;  upwards  and  the  back  downwards,"  as  the  moath  ia 
situated  so  far  backwards  oa  the  nnder  side.  Bat  although  even 
the  e;e8  of  these  cnriona  creatoreB  are  often  preserved,  no  traces 
of  the  l€^  have  hilherto  been  detected.  It  was  supposed  that  they 
were  thin  and  foliaoeons,  for  it  was  plauubly  urged  that  if  these 
aalmals  had  the  stout,  calcareona  k^  of  ordinary  orabs,  some  trace 
of  tJtem  would  have  beeD  met  with  in  the  rocks. 

Mr.  Billiags  exhibited  a  specimen  from  the  Trenton  limestone 
of  Ottawa,  which  had  been  in  part  careAilly  extricated  from  the 
matrix.  He  stated  that  in  his  opinion  trllohites  had  a  piur  of  thin, 
ibliaceous  1^  to  each  s^jment  of  the  thorax,  or  rather  abdomen. 
The  specimen  of  A$aphiu  Platt/rephalui  which  he  passed  round 
for  examination  was  a  speoimen  with  eight  thoracic  s^ments,  and 
exhibited  on  the  nnder  side  eight  semicylindrical  ridges  on  each 
aide  of  the  median  line,  all  curving  outwards  and  forwards. 
These  he  believed  to  be  the  bases  of  the  attachment  of  eight  pairs 
uf  swimming  feet — one  pair  for  each  s^ment  of  the  thorax. 
Bnrmeister  had  made  a  sketch  of  wliat  he  supposed  the  legs  of  a 
trilobite  would  be  like,  and  Mr.  Billings  stated  that  this  ideal  res- 
toration was  fully  borne  out  by  his  specimea,  except  that  in  Bur- 
meister's  drawing  the  legs  were  directed  backwards,  whilst  thoseof 
the  actual  specimen  pointed  forwards. 

Dr.  Dawson  remarked  that  the  Natural  History  Society  might 
well  feel  proud  that  this  important  discovery  in  palseontolcgy  had 
been  made  by  one  of  its  own  members. 

Mr.  BlIllDgs  stud  that  in  his  opinion  the  specimen  exhibited 
tended  to  verify  the  views  that  Dr.  Dawson  advocated  with  respect 
to  the  Grenville  fossil  previously  treated  of. 

Mr.  D.  R.  McCord,  B.A.,  next  made  a  commnnioation  "  On 
Canadian  Perns,  their  Yarietiea  and  Habitats."  This  paper  is 
printed  in  the  present  number. 

The  Becordiag  Secretary  exhibited  a  collection  of  native  ferns, 
OoUected  and  prepared  by  Miss  Isabella  Mcintosh  (of  Burnside 
Hoose),  among  which  were  three  species  of  peculiar  interest.  The 
first  was  the  "  green  spleenwcrt "  {^Agplenium  viride,  Hudson),  a 
small  species  oconrriog  somewhat  rarely  in  mountainous  distriotfl 
in  England,  and  in  various  localities  in  Europe.  It  had  been 
previously  detected  in  Gasp^,  in  the  summer  of  1863,  by  John 


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372  THE  OAKASIAS  NATUBALI8T.  [Oet. 

Bell,  B  A.,  tod  this  vas  the  onlj  atatioD  in  which  it  was  previimsly 
kaovn  to  oocor  in  Canada.  The  other  apeeies  are  the  "  Adder's 
tongue  fern,"  (Ophioglauitm  vulgcUum),  at  which  fine  speoimens 
veie  ooUeoted  at  Melbourne,  in  the  Eaatarn  TowDshipa ;  and  the 
"  Moonwort "  (BofrycAiBm  Inatana),  two  apeoiea  well  known  to 
inhabit  Europe,  bnt  now  for  the  first  time  reoordod  as  oocniring 
in  Canada. 

0.  Robb,  Esq.,  exhibited  a  series  of  ferns  odleoled  in  Canada 
West,  by  Mrs.  Traill,  the  well-known  autboreas. 

Dr.  Dawson  remarked  that  the  study  of  the  non-flow»ing  plnta 
of  Canada  was  as  yet  bnt  in  its  infancy,  and  that  Prof.  Lawson's 
and  Mr.  UcCord's  papers,  excellent  as  they  were,  most  be  oon- 
ndered  as  only  fwming  the  commeneement  of  an  inveatigation 
full  of  inteicet  and  pnHuise. 


The  second  monthly  meeting  of  the  Society  fer  the  Besston 
1864r-65  was  held  in  its  rooms  on  Monday  evening,  Ootobei  24th. 
The  following  donations  were  announced  : 

To  iHi  MmBUH. 

From  Frinoipal  Dawson,  twen^-three  spsnes  of  Canadian  drift- 
SjshIb,  and  twenty-two  specimens  of  coal-plants  from  Nova  Soolaa. 

From  C.  Bobb,  Esq.,  Columnaria  alveolata,  a  fosul-cor&l  ttom 
the  Black  River  limestone  of  Boi^ess,  C.  W.  Specimen  of 
diallage  from  Brompton,  and  examples  of  native  and  mannfaotoied 
gntimony  fVom  Sooth  Ham. 

From  Mr.  W.  Hunter,  stuffed  specimen  of  Uie  night  heron 
{Nyctiardea  Oardeni),  Baird. 

From  Mra.  Mclntoeb,  a  quantity  of  living  fishes  for  the 
Aqnaria. 

To  TBK  lilBSAilT. 

From  tihe  Antlior,  Geologjoal  Survey  of  Mtohigan,  1860,  by 
Ft^.  A.  WinoheU. 

Nkv  Mkhbebs. 

Hugh  Fraaer,  Esq.,  was  elected  a  life  member,  and  ihe  Ber. 
Ilobt.  McDonald  and  Prof.  H.  Y.  Hind,  corresponding  memb^i 
oftheSode^. 


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1864.]  natural  hi&toet  60ciett.  '  373 

Pkooeedinos. 

The  first  paper,  entitled  "Notes  on  the  Geolog;  of  Eastern 

New  York,  by  Prof.  James  Boll  and  Sir  Wr  E.  Lc^an,"  was 

read  by  Dr.    T.  Sterry  Hunt.      This  paper  is  printed  in  the 

present  number. 

Dr.  Hunt  then  made  a  verbal  communication  on  pbospbate 
of  lime;  he  described  its  nature  and  composition  generally',  its 
sources  in  nature,  and  its  various  uses,  particularly  as  a  manure. 
After  notiDg  the  manufacture  of  superphosphate  of  lime  from 
bones,  coprolites,  and  guano,  he  protreeded  t«  describe  the  supplies 
of  the  phosphate  of  lime  known  to  mineralogists  as  apatite,  which 
is  met  with  in  crystalline  rocks  and  especially  in  Canada  ;  where 
the  mineral  is  fonnd  abundantly  in  the  victDity  of  Perth,  and  olro . 
at  several  points  along  the  Ottawa.  The  pbospbate  occurs  both 
disseminated  in  small  crystals  through  certain  beds  of  crystalline 
limestones  of  the  Laurenttan  system,  and  in  r^ular  veins  which 
intersect  the  rocks  of  the  same  system.  In  these  veins  the  mineral 
is  sometimes  found  nearly  pure,  and  at  other  times  associated  with 
pyroxene,  large  crystals  of  mugnesian  mica  (which  are  wrought), 
and  other  ailioated  minerals.  Not  unfrequently  also  it  is  mingled 
with  lauellur  carbonate  of  lime,  which  sometimes  so  far  predomi- 
nates as  to  give  rise  to  what  may  be  called  a  crystalline  limcslone, 
holding  grains  and  crystals  of  apatite,  and  can  scarcely  be  dis- 
tinguished from  those  stratified  Laurentian  limestones  of  the 
region,  which  also  contains  apatite,  except  by  the  fact  that  it 
occurs  in  veins,  cutting  tiie  strata.  Many  of  these  are  too  poor 
in  apatite  to  be  wrought  with  advantage ;  but  Dr.  Hunt  exprei^sed 
the  opinion  that  all  the  workable  phosphate  of  the  region  occurs 
in  true  veins,  some  of  which  are  of  considerable  width,  and  are 
filled  with  phosphate  of  lime  almost  without  any  foreign  admixture. 
Dr.  HuQt  then  proceeded  to  give  a  history  of  these  deposite,  which 
were  first  described  in  1848,  in  the  report  of  the  Geological  Sur- 
vey, the  officers  of  which  had  since,  on  repeated  occasions,  called 
attention  to  the  value  of  this  material,  and  had  shown  it  at  the 
great  exhibitions  of  London  and  Paris.  He  then  described  the 
attempts  now  being  made  to  work  the  deposits  of  this  mineral  by 
some  New  York  capitalists  in  North  Bm^;e3S,  where  they  have 
tbrty  or  fifty  workmen,  und^i  the  direction  of  a  skillful  mining 
engineer. 

\0L.  I.  I  No.  5. 


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THS  OANABUH  NATDBALIST.  [Oct 


ENTOMOLOGICAL  SOCIETY  OF  CANADA. 

Tbb  ordinaiy  monthly  meeting  of  the  Society  was  held  in  the 
Goanoil-room  of  the  Canadian  Institute  on  Tuesday,  Dec.  8th,  at 
3  p.m.  Nearly  all  thetuemberB  from  Toronto  and  the  vicinity  were 
present.  Id  the  absence  ofProf.  Croft  and  Mr.  Saunders,  Dr. 
Morris  was  called  to  the  chair,  and  Mr.  Hnbbert  appointed  secretai; 
pro  tern.  The  mioates  of  the  previous  meeting  were  read  and 
cooSrmed. 

CommuDications  were  received  from  Prof.  Hincke,  ezpresdog 
r^et  at  his  inability  to  attend  from  in  disposition ;  from  F 
Grant,  £sq.,  and  R.  V.  Rogers,  Esq.,  on  business  connected  with 
the  Society. 

Rev.  H.  P.  Hope,  aod  Bice  Lewis,  Esq.,  Toronto,  and  Jamee 
Wright,  Esq.,  Vienna,  C.  W.,  nei-e  proposed  as  suitable  peraonB 
to  become  members. 

The  following  donation!)  were  acknowledged,  and  the  tbanks  of 
the  Society  voted  to  the  donors : 

Fhm  Prof.  Croji. 

A  cabinet  or  MTSD  drawers. 

Totht  Library,  from  thi  Smithtoniim  Imtitutioti. 

UoDOgcapb  of  tbe  Diptera  of  North  America,  b;  U.  Low.    Part  I. 
From  tht  author,  W,  Saundtn,  Etq.,  London,  C.  W. 

(1.)  Honogrnph  of  tbe  Arctiades  of  Canada.     20  copies. 

(2.)  Description  often  new  gpeeiei  of  Arctia. 

(3  )  "  On  BomB  bitbecto  undescribed  Lepidopterous  Larvn." 

JVoia  ^.  S.  Packard,  Eiq.,  Jun.,  Camiridge,  Mam.,  through  Priae^ 
DatBion. 

Photographs  of  the  followlD^;  andeaccihed  bombjces ; 

C ram bida pail ida,  Cailimorpba  Testa,  Oallochlora  chlorata,  Oyrlosla 
alb  [pun  c  Lata,  male  and  female,  Bntrutricudes  tcsucea,  Cj'rtosia  gemt- 
Data,Cilodas7BcinerearronB,LaphDdoDtafeirDgiQea,  UluphiiLatriliDeata, 
maie  and  female,  Platjarma  furcilia,  Cilodasjs  biguttata,  Edaplenjx 
bilioeata. 

From  Jamti  Hubberl,  E$q.,  B.^. 

Popuiar  Entomoioey,  by  Maria  E.  Catlow. 

British  Butterflies,  b;  W.  S.  Coleman. 

To  tht  Cabinet,  from  Prof.  Croft. 

48  specimeas,  iacludiDg  2T  species  of  Chinese  Lepidoptera. 

164  specimeas,  iacludiag  SI  ipecies  of  Coleoptera. 
From  a.  R.  Morrit,  Eiq.,  B.A.,  M.D. 

41  specimens,  inclndiag  16  Bpeciea  of  Ooleoptera. 


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1864.]  ENTOMOLOaiOAL  800IBTT  OF  CANADA.  375 

A-OH  J.  B.  Saagiter,  Etq.,  M.J. 
33  Bpecimeos,  laclndiiig  Ilspeciea  of  Coleopterft. 
6        "  "  6      "        "  Lepidoptara. 

U        "  "  10     "       "  Diptera. 

10        "  "  10      "        "  Hymenopteio. 

6        "  "  A      "        "  Neuroptcn. 

*       "  "  4     "       "  Orthopterft. 

Fran  B.  BOUngt,  Etq.,  Oltaaa. 
IseBpecimBngfincludiDg  132>p«cies  oF Coleoplera. 
31        "  «  18     "       "  LepidopMra. 

6        "  "  G      "        "  Diptera. 

1       "  "  e     "       "  Orthoptera. 

3        "  "  2      "        "  Sttepsiptet*. 

3  "  "  3      "        "  Hamiptora, 

JV-on/anifi  Hubbert,  Etq.,  B.J. 
261  specimeiu,  including  ITS  sp«ciea  of  Ooleoptera: 
63  ■        "  "  25       "         "  LepidopWra. 

44       "  "  40     "       "  DEptora. 

38        "  "  3T      "        "  Hymenoptera. 

13         "  "  10      "        "  Orthoptera. 

13        "  "  8      "        "  Neuroplara. 

16       "  "  10     "       "  Hemiptera. 

From  Thomat  JUynoldi,  Eiq.,  Mmtrttd. 
13  >p«cimen8,  including  B  epeeiea  of  Goleoptera. 
159        "  "  63      "        "  Lepidoptera. 

1  "  "  1      "        "  Diptera. 

9        "  "  e      "        "  Hf  menoptera. 

2  "  "  1      "        "  Hemiptera. 

From  W.  Savruttri,  Etq.,  London. 
345  Bpecimens,  iDcladiog  121  apeeiea  ofColeoptera. 
Ill         "  "  31      "        "  Lepidoptera. 

8        "  "  6      "  ,      "  Neuroptera. 

1        "  "  1     "       "  Dipleia. 

4  "  "  1      II       II  Strepgiptera. 

A  oommnnication  was  read  from  Mr.  Saunders  r^;ardiag  the 
piacticability  of  publishing  a  catalogne  of  the  Icnown  Canadian 
BpecieB  of  each  order  of  insects.  After  considerable  diBOnaBion  as 
to  the  best  form,  etc.,  it  was  moVed  and  seconded,  That  the 
Society  take  immediate  steps  to  prepare  and  pnbliah  catalogues  of 
the  Coleoptera  and  Lepidoptera;  to  be  followed  by  similar  cata- 
li^es  of  the  other  orders  as  soon  as  possible;  and  that  Mr. 
Sanadera,  Prof.  Croft,  and  Mr.  Billings  be  a  committee  on 
Coleoptera ;  and  Prof.  Hincks,  Mr.  Sanndem,  and  Dr.  Moiris  on 


V,  Google 


376  THE  CANADIAN  NAXUBALI8T.  [Oot 

Lepidoptera.  Carried,  The  Committees  are  very  sDzioaa  to 
secure  the  oo-operntion  of  all  persons  baviog  either  named  col- 
teotioDs  or  lists  of  species.  Any  information  which  would  aid  in 
bringing  out  full  and  aoonrat«  catalogues  should  be  commnnicnted 
without  delay  to  Mr.  Saunders  or  Prof.  Hioclcs.  Moved  and 
aeconded  that  a  supply  of  entomological  pins,  and  sheet  cork  for 
lining  cabinets,  be  procured  and  kept  on  hand,  to  be  furnished  to 
members  at  the  lowest  cost  prices.     Carried. 

It  ia  intended  ultimately  to  keep  all  the  apparatus  required  in 
capturing  and  preserving  inaecU. 

Moved  and  seconded  that  the  Rev.  Chas.  J.  Bcthnne,  B.A.,  be 
requested  to  use  his  influence  to  advance  the  interests  of  the 
Society  among  entomolt^ists  in  Britain.     Carried. 

A  verbal  communication  waa  made  by  Dr.  Morris  on  insects 
captured  in  the  vicinity  of  Orillia  during  the  summer  of  1863. 

Among  tlie  interesting  specimens  exhibited  by  Dr.  Morris  weie 
several  examples  of  Coliai  edueaco,  seldom  met  with  in  Canada, 
only  two  or  three  individuals  having  been  taken  as  yet.  The  Dr. 
remarked  that  this  insect  seems  to  differ  from  the  C.  eduta  of 
British  naturalists  in  its  habits  of  Sight,  etc.,  which  seem  to  indi- 
cate either  a  new  species  or  very  wide  variations. 

Both  sexes  of  Leriai  leia,  also  very  rare  in  Canada,  had  been 
captured.  A  species  of  ArrheriocUt,  taken  by  Mr.  P.  Grant  of 
Orillia,  was  also  exhibited.  The  general  appearance  of  the  insect 
closely  resembled  that  of  A.  teptenlrioait,  of  which  it  is  probably 
a  variety.  The  form  of  the  rostrum,  however,  is  so  peculiar  as  to 
lead  the  Dr.  to  think  that  possibly  there  may  be  two  species 
with  us. 

Papers  presented  by  Mr.  Hubbert  r 

(1).  '■  Notes  on  Insects  captured  near  Kingston,  1863." 

(2).  "  What  the  Insects  do  in  January." 

The  meeting  theo  a^jonrned. 


ON  TBE  LABT.a  O?   ATTACtTS  POLTFHXMQS. 

BT  wtLbUM  ooanv,  qmato. 

On  the  14th  of  August  1863, 1  found  two  caterpillars  of  A. 
poh/phemut  feeding  on  sweet-briar  in  the  vicinity  of  Montmo- 
renci  river,  near  Qnebeo.  They  were  carefully  carried  to  my 
home,  and  the  above  food<|ilant  supplied  daily,  excepting  Hint  the 


,,;.  Google 


1864.]  XNTOUOLOaiCAL  SOOIETT  OF  CANADA.  377 

thorns  were  picked  off  the  branches  belbre  the  larvte  were  attnched 
thereon.  The  lepidopteristwill  no  doubt  understand  my  astonish- 
ment to  find  the  large,  soft,  thin-skinned,  and  hairless  lar^a  of  ^. 
polifpkemut  feeding  (in  the  sweet-briar,  a  plant  said  to  be  intro- 
duced into  Canada.  Harris  gives  three  food-plants,  i.  e.,  tbe  oak, 
elm,  and  lime  trees.  Formerly  I  fonnd  it  feeding  on  a  species  of 
maple  at  Toronto,  and  now  in  tbe  Lower  Provinces  we  find  it 
on  the  thorny  briar.  How  Ibey  manage  to  turn  and  creep  from 
one  branch  to  anotber  without  coming  in  contact  with  the  nume- 
rous thorns,  I  am  unable  to  explain.  They  continued  to  feed  on 
the  supplied  food  up  to  the  28th  of  August,  on  wbicb  day  they 
ceased  to  feed,  and  prepared  to  spin.  The  caterpillar  that  pro- 
duced the  male  first  ceased  feeding ;  it  was  also  tbe  first  to  issue 
from  its  coeoon,  although  both  were  subject  to  an  equal  tempera- 
ture. A  short  time  previous  to  spinning,  both  caterpillars  ejected 
tbe  contents  of  the  viscera,  consisting  of  about  a  t^aspoonful  of  a 
dark  green  fluid,  and  immediately  afterwards  they  began  to  form 
their  cocoons.  I  notice  this  singular  caterpillar  tjectamentum, 
as  I  think  it  has  been  hitherto  overlooked,  and  it  would  be 
advancing  oar  knowledge  in  entomological  science  to  have  this 
flnid  analyzed.  The  caterpillar  that  produced  the  male  had  the 
dorsal  tubercles  much  shorter  than  the  one  that  issued  from  the 
other  coeoon ;  they  were  tipped  with  bright  yellow,  with  a  slight 
golden  reflection.  The  caterpillar  of  the  second  cocoon,  or  tbe 
one  producing  the  supposed  female,  had  the  lateral  and  dorsal 
tubercles  bright  orange  red,  mingled  with  golden,  the  tubercles 
were  more  robust  and  longer  than  the  one  which  produced  the 
male.  Unfortunately,  during  my  absence  from  home,  the  moth 
from  the  second  cocnon  escaped  through  the  window,  and  I  am 
therefore  unable  to  prove  tbe  imago  sex  with  the  larvas.  But 
from  external  eharaetcrs  alone,  I  rest  satisfied  that  tbe  future  inves- 
tigator will  find  that  the  richest  colored  caterpillar  forms  the 
cradle  of  the  female.  I  trust  my  short  ioTestigation  may  lead 
others  to  study  the  metamorphosis  of  this  genus  of  moths.  No 
doubt  if  a  thorougli  search  is  also  made  for  tbe  larvES  of  A.  hina 
in  the  Lower  Provinces,  it  will  be  found  feeding  on  a  plant  differ- 
ent from  its  western  food,  and  probably  hitherto  unknown  to  be 
used  as  such  by  this  beautiful  moth. 


,,;.  Google 


378  THK  CANADIAN   HATDRALIST.  [Oct. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Calldna  Vdlqabis. — Professor  Laweon,  of  Dalhouaie  Col- 
lie, Halifax,  has  seat  to  one  of  the  editors  a  speoimen  of  this 
plaot,  the  oommon  heather  of  Scotlaad,  from  St.  A.dd's  Bay,  Cape 
BretoD.  This  oonfirma  an  old  report,  referred  to  in  vol.  vii  of 
this  joarnal,  p.  343,  of  its  occurrence  in  that  island;  and  affords 
another  certainly  ascertained  Amerioan  locality,  in  addition  to  those 
preTiously  known  in  Massachusetts  and  Newfoundland,  It  should 
be  satiafaatory  to  the  Scotsman  in  British  America  to  know  that 
there  is  at  least  one  spot  in  his  adopted  oonntry  where  he  can  plant 
his  foot  on  his  native  heather.  The  apparent  rarity  of  the  plant 
in  Amenoa  is  however  no  less  curious  than  its  extension  to  this 
oonntiy ;  and  it  remains  as  a  question  for  future  botanists  to  settle 
whether  it  is  now  being  introduced  to  the  new  world  or  gradually 
dying  out  from  it. 

Thb  Geological  Magazine. — The  GeohgUt,  of  London,  has 
been  merged  in  a  new  periodical,  to  be  edited  by  Prof.  T.  B.  Jonea 
and  Henry  Woodward.     Its  prospectus  says : 

The  rapid  progress  of  geolc^  in  all  iU  branches,  and  especi- 
ally the  wide-spread  interest  imparted  to  this  science  by  the 
recent  careful  investigation  of  some  of  the  more  modern  strata, 
have  largely  increased  the  number  of  those  who  study  geology, 
either  professionally  or  as  amateurs.  The  frequent  discoveries, 
also,  which  result  from  the  exertions  of  practical  geologisls,  both 
at  home  and  abroad,  appear  to  indicate  the  necessity  of  a  monthly 
periodical,  not  only  for  the  publication  of  original  papers  on  geol- 
ogy and  kindred  subjects,  as  well  as  of  translations  of  important 
foreign  memoirs,  but  also  as  the  means  of  oommunicution  between 
geologists  and  palteontologists  in  England  and  other  countries. 

The  valuable  Journal  of  the  Geological  Society  fulfils  some  of 
these  requirements;  but  being  published  only  quarterly,  and 
necessarily  restricted  almost  entirely  to  the  proceedings  of  that 
Society,  it  cannot  serve  all  the  purposes  proposed  by  the  oondno- 
tors  of  The  Geological  Magazine. 

In  Germany  the  Neae*  Jahrbuch  has  fulGlled  the  require- 
ments of  the  geological  public  for  the  last  thirty  years  with  un- 
varying success ;  and  the  editor  and  publishers  of  the  Monthly 
Geologut  have  during  six  years  endeavored  to  meet  them  in 
England,  The  latter  work  is  now  merged  in  The  Geologital 
Magazine. 


,,;.  Google 


1864.]  LIOT0U  BT  DB.  UVINOSTOHE.  379 

The  publishers  and  editors  of  The  Qeologieal  Magazine  have 
not  hastily  nadertaken  the  tadt  which  lies  before  them;  bat, 
having  consulted  the  most  eminent  geologists  and  palseontolo^sta 
of  the  da;  (amongst  whom  may  be  mentioned  Sir  Philip  Egertou, 
Sir  Roderick  Marcbieon,  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  G.  Poulett  Scrope,  Esq., 
Professors  Sedgwick,  Phillips,  Owen,  Ramsay,  Morris,  and  Huxley, 
and  Dr.  Falconer),  they  are  not  unaware  of  what  will  be  expected 
of  them  ;  and  they  have  received  such  annranoes  of  support  and 
encouragement,  as  well  as  promises  of  original  contributions,  that 
they  confidently  trust  thdr  efforts  will  meet  with  success. 

Another  well-known  soieutifio  magazine,  the  Edinburgh  New 
Philotopkieat  Journal,  has  been  merged  in  the  uew  Quarterly 
Journal  of  Science,  published  in  London. 


MEETING  OF  BRITISH  ASSOCIATION. 

LECTUBB    BY    DB.    LPTINOSTONB. 

On  the  evening  of  September  20,  the  theatre  was  crowded  by 
members  of  the  Association,  anxious  to  hear  the  lecture  announced 
by  Dr.  Liringstoue  on  his  travels  and  labors  in  Africa. 

Sir  B.  Murchison  stated  that  the  asustaat-general-seoretBry,  Mr. 
Griffiths,  had  made  such  excellent  arrangemenls  that,  while  Dr. 
Iiivingstooe  b  lecturing  there,  his  lecture  would  be  read  in  another 
place  to  many  hundreds  of  the  Associatjon  who  could  not  &nd  room 
in  the  theatre;  and  that  when  that  assembly  was  adjourned,  his 
Mend  would  move  to  the  other  room,  and  there  thank  that  assembly 
which  was  met  to  do  him  honor  also. 

Dr.  Livingstone  then  delivered  the  ibllowing  lecture : — In 
order  that  the  remarks  I  have  to  offer  may  be  clearly  understood, 
it  is  necessary  to  oalt  to  mind  some  things  lAich  took  place  previous 
to  the  Zambesi  Expedition  being  sent  ont ;  and  most  of  you  are, 
no  doubt,  aware,  that  previous  to  the  discovery  of  Lake  Ngami  and 
tbe  well-watered  oountiy  in  which  the  Makololo  dwell,  the  idea  pre- 
vailed  that  a  la^  part  of  the  interior  of  Africa  was  composed  of 
vast  sandy  deserts  into  which  rivers  ran  and  were  lost.  In  a  jcor- 
ney  from  sea  to  sea  across  the  continent,  somewhat  north  of  the 
lake  first  discovered,  it  was  found  that  there,  too,  the  country  was 
well  watered.  Large  tracts  of  fertile  soil  were  covered  with  forest, 
and  oocupied  by  a  couuderable  popnlalXcn.    We  had,  then,  the 


,.,.d.i.  Google 


380  THK  OANADIAN   NATttBALISI.  '  [Oet 

form  of  trlie  oontinent  revealed  to  be  an  eleTnted  piftteaa,  somewhat 
depressed  in  the  centre,  nith  fissures  at  the  sides,  by  which  tlie 
rivers  escaped  to  the  sea :  and  this  great  fact  in  physical  geography 
can  Dever  be  referred  to  withoat  mentioning  the  remarkable  hy- 
pothesis by  which  the  distinguished  President  of  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Society  (Sir  E.  Murchison)  clearly  delineated  it  h^ore 
it  was  verified  by  actnal  observation  of  the  altitudes  of  the  ooantry 
and  courses  of  the  rivers.  It  was  published  in  one  of  his  famona 
anniversary  addresses  ;  and  he  has  been  equally  happy  in  bis  last 
address  in  pointing  out  the  ancient  geological  condition  of  the  in- 
terior of  this  continent  ns  probably  the  oldest  in  the  world — a  fact 
we,  wlio  were  on  the  spot,  could  but  dimly  guess.  But  he  aeeina 
to  have  the  faculty  of  collecting  facts  from  every  sonree,  and  con- 
centrating them  into  a  focus  in  a  way  no  one  else  can  accomplish. 
(Cheers.)  We  understand  it  only  after  he  has  made  it  all  plain 
in  his  stady  at  home.  Then  followed  the  famous  travels  of  Dr. 
Barth  and  Francis  Gallon ;  the  mo^t  interesting  discoveries  of 
Lake  Zangnyika  and  Victoria  Nyawya,  of  Captain  Burton,  and 
Captain  Spcke,  whose  sad  loss  we  all  now  so  deeply  deplore,  and, 
again,  of  Lakes  Shirwe  and  Nyassa  ;  the  discoveries  of  Van  der 
Decken  and  several  others;  but,  last  of  all,  the  gr^md  discovery  of 
the  main  source  of  the  Nile,  which  every  Englishman  must  feel 
proud  to  know  was  accomplished  by  our  countrymen  Speke  and 
Grant.  In  all  this  exploration  the  main  object  in  view  has  not 
been  merely  to  discover  objects  of  nine  days'  wonder — to  gaze,  and 
be  gazed  at  by  barbarians — I  would  not  give  a  fig  to  discover  even 
a  tribe  with  tails  I — but,  in  proceeding  to  the  west  coast,  to  lind 
a  path  to  the  sea,  whereby  lawful  commerce  might  be  introduced 
to  aid  missionary  efforts.  I  was  very  much  struck  by  observing  that 
the  decided  influence  of  that  which  isknown  as  Lord  Palmerston's 
policy  existed  several  hundreds  of  miles  from  the  ocean.  I  found 
piracy  had  been  abolished,  and  that  the  slave-trade  had  been  so  far 
suppressed  as  to  be  spoken  of  aa  a  thing  of  the  post ;  that  lawful 
commerce  ha  1  increased  from  20,000^.  in  ivory  and  gold-dust  to  be- 
tween 2  000,000/.  and  3,000,000^.,  1,000,000;.  of  which  was  in 
palm-oil  to  our  own  country ;  that  over  twenty  missions  had  been  es- 
tablished, with  schools  in  which  12,000  pupils  were  taught ;  that 
life  and  property  were  secure  on  the  coast,  and  comparative  peace 
established  in  large  portions  of  the  interior  ;  and  all  this  was  at  n 
time  vhea,  from  reading  the  speeches  of  well-informed  gentlemen 
&t  home,  I  had  come  to  the  oonolusion  that  oar  craisers  had  done 


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1864.]  LBOTITRX  BT  SB.  I.tTUIGBTONX.  381 

nothing  but  a^rsmte  tLe  evils  of  the  slare-trade.  Well,  not  finding 
what  I  wished  by  going  to  the  west  coast,  I  came  down  the  Zambesi 
to  t^e  east  coast,  and  there  I  found  the  country  scaled  up.  The 
same  eflforts  had  been  made  by  onr  oruisere  here  as  on  the  west 
coast,  but,  in  oonscqaence  of  foreigners  being  debarred  fiomentas 
ing  the  country,  neither  traders  nor  missionBrics  had  established 
themselTes.  The  trade  was  only  in  a  little  ivory,  and  gold-dustand 
slaves  ;  just  as  it  was  on  the  west  coast  before  Lord  Paimerston's 
policy  came  into  operation.  It  seemed  to  me,  therefore,  that  as  the 
Portuguese  Government  professed  itself  willing  to  aid  in  opening 
the  country,  and  we  had  a  large  river,  Zunbcsi,  which,  l>eing  full 
when  I  first  descended,  it  seemed  a  famous  inlet  to  the  higher  lands 
and  interior  generally  ;  I  knew  the  natives  to  be  almost  all  fond  of 
trading,  and,whcn  away  from  the  influence  of  the  slave-trade,fricndly 
and  mild,  the  soil  fertile,  and  cotton  and  other  products  widely 
cultivated.  It  therefore  appeared  to  me  that  if  I  could  open  this 
t^ion  to  lawful  commerce  I  should  supplement  the  eflbrls  of  oar 
cruisers,  in  the  same  way  as  has  been  done  by  traders  and  missioo- 
ancs  on  the  west  coast,  and  perform  a  good  service  to  Africa  and 
to  England.  To  acoomplisfa  this  was  the  main  object  of  the  Zam- 
besi Espcdition,  and  in  speaking  of  what  was  done,  it  is  to  be  on- 
derstcod  that  Dr.  Kirk,  Mr.  Livingstone,  and  others  composed  it; 
and  when  I  speak  in  the  plural  number  I  mean  them,  and  wish  to 
bear  testimony  to  the  zeal  and  untiring  energy  with  which  my  com- 
panions worked.  They  were  never  daunted  by  difficulties,  nm^ 
dangers,  nor  hard  fare,  and  were  their  services  required  in  any 
other  capacity  might  be  relied  on  to  perform  their  duty.  The  first 
discovery  we  made  was  a  navigable  entrance  to  the  Zambesi,  about 
a  degree  west  of  the  QuilHbiane  River,  which  had  always  been  re- 
presented as  the  month  of  the  Zambesi,  in  order,  as  somo  matn- 
t^ned.  that  the  men-of-war  might  be  induocd  to  watch  the  false 
mouth  while  slaves  were  quietly  shipped  from  the  real  mouth.  This 
mistake  has  lately  been  propagated  in  amapby  theColooialMinis, 
ter  of  Portugal.  On  ascending  tho  Zambesi  we  found  that  the  I'orto- 
gueee  authorities,  to  whom  their  Government  had  kindly  com- 
mended us,  had  nearly  all  fled  down  to  tho  sea-coast,  and  the  conntiy 
was  in  the  hands  of  the  natives,  many  of  whom,  by  their  brands, 
we  saw  had  been  slaves.  As  they  were  all  quite  Wendly  with  uB, 
wc  proceeded  to  our  work,  and  ascended  the  river  in  a  littie  steamer- 
which,  having  been  made  of  steel  plates,  a  material  never  before 
tried,  and  with  an  engine  and  boiler,  the  sweepings  of  some  shop, 


.;,  Google 


382  TBE  CANADIAN  NATUBALIBT.  [Oot 

very  soon  fkiled  ns.  Indeed,  tbe  common  oanoee  of  the  conntrr 
pused  as  with  ease,  and  the  people  in  them  looked  buck,  wondering 
what  this  puffing,  asthmatic  thing  oonid  mean.  The  crocodiles 
diought  it  was  a  land-animal  swimming,  and  rushed  at  it  in  hopes 
of  having  a  feast.  The  river  for  the  first  300  miles  is  from  half  a 
mile  to  three  miles  wide.  During  half  the  jear  the  water  is  abun- 
dant and  deep :  during  the  other  half,  or  the  dry  seasoo,  it  is  very 
ihallow  ;  but  withproperlycoostraotedvessels  much  might  be  made 
of  it  during  the  whole  of  ordinary  years.  We  proceeded  as  soon 
SB  we  could  to  the  rapids  above  Zett«,  our  intention  having  or^- 
nally  been  to  go  up  as  far  as  the  Great  Victoria  Falls,  and  do  what 
we  oould  with  the  Makololo,  but  our  steamer  could  not  stem  a  four- 
knot  current.  We  then  turned  off  to  an  affluent  of  the  Zambed, 
which  flows  into  it  about  100  miles  from  the  sea ;  it  is  called  the 
Shire,  and,  as  for  as  we  know,  was  never  explored  by  any  European 
before.  It  flows  in  a  valley  about  200  miles  long  and  twenty  broad. 
Ranges  of  bills  shut  in  the  landscape  on  both  sides,  while  the  river 
itself  winds  excessively  among  marshes  ;  in  one  of  these  we  counted 
800  elephants,  all  in  sight  at  one  time.  The  pojiulation  was 
very  large  ;  crowds  of  natives,  anned  with  bows  and  poisoned  ar- 
rows, lined  the  hanks,  and  seemed  disposed  to  resent  any  injury 
that  m^ht  be  inflicted.  But  by  oare  and  civility  we  gave  them 
no  occasion  for  commencing  hostilities,  though  they  were  oncejust 
on  the  point  of  dischargiug  their  arrows.  On  a  second  visit  they 
were  more  friendly,  and  the  women  and  children  appeared.  We 
had  so  far  gained  their  confidence  that  we  left  the  steamer  at  Mur- 
ohison's  Cataracts ;  and  Dr.  Elrk  and  I,  proceeding  on  foot  to  the 
N.N.U.,  discovered  Lake  Shirwe.  This  lake  is  not  large  ;  it  is 
said  to  have  no  outlet,  and  this  ia  probably  the  case,  for  its  water 
is  brackith  ;  it  abounds  in  fish,  hippopotami,  and  leeches.  The 
scenery  around  is  very  beautiful,  the  mountains  on  the  east  rising 
to  a  height  of  8,000  or  9,000  feet.  We  were  now  among  Manganja, 
a  people  who  had  not  been  visited  by  Eoropeons,  end  as  I  am 
often  asked  what  sort  of  folk  these  savages  are,  I  may  answer 
they  were  as  low  as  any  we  ever  met,  except  Bushmen,  yet  they 
all  cultivate  the  soil  lor  their  sustenanoe.  They  raise  large  quan 
titles  of  maize,  or  Indian  oom,  and  another  grain,  which  grows  in 
a  stalk  ten  or  twelve  feet  high,  with  grain  very  much  like  the 
hempseed  given  to  oauaries,  and  called  by  the  Arabs  dura  (^Sat- 
ctM  georghum} ;  another  kind  of  grain  (tennisetum) ;  several  Jcinda 
of  beans,  pumpkins,  and  melons ;  ououmbeis,  from  the  seeds  of 


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1864.]  LIOTUBI  B7  DB.  LITTOOSTOin:.  383 

which  &  fine  oil  is  extracted  ;  oaBBavs,  from  which  onr  tapioca  ia 
made ;  gronnd-natB,  which  yield  an  oil  for  cooking ;  oaetor-oil, 
with  which  they  anoiot  their  bodies;  and  tohacco  and  Indian 
hemp  for  smoking.  The  labor  in  the  fields  seemed  to  be  per- 
fbrmed  by  the  whole  family, — men,  women,  and  children  heiiig 
generally  seen  in  the  fields  together.  Eaoh  family  had  a  patoh  of 
cotton,  jast  as  our  forefathers  had  each  a  patch  of  lint;  and  iha 
ootton  was  spun  and  woven  by  the  men,  white  the  women  malted 
and  groood  the  corn,  and  made  the  beer.  Near  many  of  the  Til- 
lages fiimacea  were  erected  for  smelting  iron  f^om  the  ore,  and 
excellent  hoea  were  mnde  very  cheap.  All  were  very  eager  tra- 
ders, and  very  few  were  banters  ;  so  they  can  scarcely  be  called 
Bavages,  though,  withoat  a  doubt,  they  were  d^raded  enough. 
Their  life  has  always  appeared  to  me  to  be  one  of  fear.  They  may 
be  attacked  by  other  tribes,  and  sold  into  slavery;  and  the  idea 
this  brings  is,  that  tJiey  will  be  taken  away,  iattened,  and  eaten  by 
tiie  whites.  The  slaTO-trader  oalls  them  beasts  and  savages,  and 
they  believe  the  slave-traders  to  be  cannibals.  They  also  live  in 
fear  of  witchcraft ;  and  suspected  persons  are  frequently  compelled 
to  drink  the  ordeal  water,  which  is  just  about  as  sensible  a  means 
of  detecting  witches  as  our  former  mode  of  ducking  in  a  pond.  If 
the  suspected  person  vomits,  she  is  innocent ;  if  not,  guilty :  and 
yet  we  laugh  heartily  at  our  forefathers  believing  that  the  woman 
who  sank  in  the  pond  was  innocent,  and  guilty  if  she  swam, — just 
as  monomaniacs  do  with  their  illusions.  Cultivating  large  tracts 
of  land  for  grain,  a  fiivorite  way  of  using  the  produce  is  to  convert 
it  into  beer.  It  is  not  very  intoxicating,  but  when  they  consume 
lai^  quantities  they  do  beoome  a  little  elevated.  When  a  family 
brews  a  large  quantity,  the  friends  and  neighbors  are  invited  to 
drink,  and  bring  their  hoes  with  them.  They  let  off  theexcttement 
in  merrily  hoeing  their  friend's  field.  At  other  times  they  consame 
lai^  qnantitiee  forthe  same  object  as  oar  regular  topers  at  home. 
Weentered  one  village,  and  found  the  people  all  tipsy  together.  On 
seeing  us  the  men  tried  to  induce  the  women  to  run  away ;  but  the 
ladies,  too,  were,  as  we  mildly  put  it,  "  a  little  overcome,"  and 
laughed  at  the  idea  of  their  running.  The  village  doctor  arranged 
matters  by  bringing  a  large  pot  uf  the  liquid,  with  the  intention, 
apparently,  of  reducing  us  to  the  general  level.  Well,  the  peo|da 
generally,  if  we  exoept  the  coast  tribes,  are  very  much  like  these, 
without  the  drankenness.  Wherever  tietze  exists  the  people  poa- 
seas  no  cattle,  as  this  insect  proves  fatal  to  all  domestic  animali^ 


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ZSi  THE  OANADIAK    ITATUBALIBT.  [Oot. 

except  the  goat,  man,  and  donkey.  Its  bite  doM  no  barm  to  mui 
nor  to  the  donkey,  thongb  one  donkey  we  took  through  a  tsetse 
district  did  die,  probably  from  over-fatigue.  We  msde  no  discoTery 
as  to  the  nature  of  the  cnrions  poison  injected  by  the  insect,  nor 
could  we  find  ont  where  it  laid  its  e^e.  Where  the  slave-trade  is 
unknown  the  cattle  are  the  only  oaose  of  war.  The  Makoblo 
will  travel  a  month  for  the  sake  of  lifting  cattle ;  this  is  not  consid- 
ered stealing;  and  when  the  qneetion  Is  put,  "  Why  should  yos 
lift  what  does  not  belong  to  you  ?' '  they  return  the  Scotoh  answer, 
"  Why  should  these  Makalaka  (or  black  fellows)  poBsess  cattle  if 
tJiey  can't  defend  them  ?"  Having  secured  thegood-wiUof  all  the 
people  below  and  adjacent  to  Murchison's  Cataracts,  we  next  pro. 
ceeded  further  nortb,and discovered  the  Shire  flowing  in  a  broad,  gen- 
tle stream  out  to  Lake  Nyassa,  about  sixty  miles  above  the  cataracts. 
The  country  on  each  side  of  the  river  and  lake  rises  up  in  what, 
from  below,  seem  ranjies  of  mountains,  but  when  they  have  been 
ascended  they  turn  out  to  be  elevated  plateaux,  cool  and  well  watered 
withetreams.  Toshow  thediffcrcocc  of  temperature,  we  were  drink, 
ina;  the  waters  of  the  Shire  at  eighty-four  degrees,  and  by  one  day's 
march  up  the  ascent,  of  between  3,000  and  4,000  feet,  we  had  it  at 
sixty-five  degrecB,  or  nineteen  degrees  lower.  It  felt  as  if  iced.  We 
bad  no  trouble  with  tbo  people.  No  dues  were  levied,  nor  fines  de- 
manded, though  the  Manganja  were  quite  independent  in  their  bear- 
lug  towards  us,  aod  strikingly  dilfereut  from  what  they  afterwards 
became.  Our  operations  were  confined  chiefly  to  gaining  the  friend- 
ship of  the  diflerent  tribes,  and  impartii^  what  information  we 
could  with  a  view  to  induce  them  to  cultivate  cotton  for  expor- 
tation. It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  each  family  had  its 
own  cotloo-patch ;  some  of  these  were  of  considerable  extent ;  one 
field,  close  to  Zedzan  Cataract,  I  lately  found  to  be  630  paoes 
on  one  side,  and  the  cotton  was  of  excellent  quality,  not  requiring 
replanting  oftener  than  once  in  three  years,  and  no  fear  of  injury 
by  froHt.  After  careful  examination,  I  have  do  hesitation  in 
re-asserting  that  we  have  there  one  of  the  finest  oott«n-fieldi 
io  the  world.  Oo  remonstrating  with  tha  chiefs  against  sellii^ 
their  people  into  slavery,  they  justified  themselves  on  the  plea 
that  none  were  sold  except  criminals.  The  crimes  may  not  always 
be  very  great,  but  I  conjecture,  from  the  the  extreme  ugliness  of 
many  slaves,  that  they  are  the  d^raded  criminal  classes  ;  and  it 
is  not  fair  to  take  the  typical  nef^  from  among  them  any  more 
than  it  would  be  to  place  "Bill  Sykes"  or  some  of  Fuaeh't 


g,t,'.dDi.  Google 


1864.]  LECTORI  BT  DB.   UVINQSTOHB.  385 

garrotters  as  the  typical  JohQ  Boll.  For  years  I  had  boen  luokiDg 
out  for  the  typical  negro,  and  oever  felt  satisfied  that  I  had  got. 
him,  for  many  of  them  are  the  piotures  of  the  old  Assyriaos ; 
othera,  barring  color,  which  wo  soon  forget,  cloeely  resemble  - 
acquaintances  at  home.  But  Mr.  Wiawood  Read,  in  his  work, 
"  Savage  Africa,"  seems  to  have  l^hted  right  on  the  head  of  the 
idea,  in  saying  that  no  typical  negro  b  seen  in  the  portraits  and 
tnonniuents  of  die  anoient  Egyptians.  When  we  had  succeeded 
Id  gaining  the  goodwill  of  tho  people  which  crowded  the 
Shire  valley,  the  mission  under  the  late  Bishop  Mackenzie  came 
into  the  country.  Dr.  Kirk  had  performed  a  journey  from  the 
Murohisou  Calaraotfl  across  to  Zctte,  a  Portuguese  village  upon  the 
Zambesi.  Slave-hunters  then  were  sent  along  Dr.  Kirk's  route 
by  the  sanction  of  the  present  OoTemmeut,  calling  themselvea 
"  my  children."  The  scamps  I  They  joined  themselves  to  another 
tribe  called  Ajawa,  then  in  the  act  of  migrating  from  the  south- 
east, and  who  had  been  accustomed  to  take  slaves  annually  dowa 
to  Quiilimane,  and  otlier  settlements  on  the  coast  Fumbhing  the 
Ajawa  with  arms  and  ammunition,  tlkey  found  it  easy  U>  drive  those 
who  were  armed  only  with  bows  sod  arrows  before  them.  When  Dr. 
Kirk  and  Mr.  Charles  Livingstone,  and  I  went  up  to  show  Bishop 
Mackenzie  on  to  tho  highlands,  we  met  a  party  of  these  Portuguese 
slavescomingwith  eighty-four  captives  bound  and  led  towards  Zette. 
The  head  of  the  par^  we  knew  perfectly,  having  had  him  in  our 
employment  in  Zette.  No  force  was  employed,  for  even  the  slaves  of 
the  Governor  knew  that  they  were  doing  wrong,  and  fled,  leaving 
the  whole  of  the  captives  on  our  bands.  Bishop  Mackensie  received 
tliem  gladly,  and  in  a  fertile  country,  with  laud  free,  in  the  couise 
of  a  year  or  two,  might,  by  training  some  sixty  boys  to  habits 
of  industry,  have  rendered  his  mission  independent  as  &r  as  native 
support  was  concerned.  Havlngbeenengagedintheformation  of  two 
misMons  in  another  part  of  the  country,  and  having  been  familiar 
with  the  history  of  several,  I  never  knew  amission  undertaken  under 
more  favorable  auspices.  This  would  be  the  opinion  of  all  who 
have  commeuced  similar  enterprises  in  other  parts,  and  it  was 
tlut  of  the  good  bishop  himself.  He  was  so  thoroughly  unselfish, 
Mid  of  suoh  a  genial  dispoaitjon,  that  he  soon  gained  the  confi- 
dence of  people ;  and  this  is  the  first  grea6  stop  to  suooees.  The 
best  way  of  treating  these  degraded  people  must  always  be  very 
much  that  which  is  pursued  in  m^ed  schools.  Their  bodily 
naots  must  be  attended  to  as  the  baais  of  all  dtos  at  their  ele- 


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386      '  THE  OANASUN  NATTTOALIST.  [Oot 

Tation.  The  slaTe-trade  is  the  gig&ntio  eTJl  which  meets  ns  at 
every  step  Id  the  oountTy.  We  oanuot  more  through  any  put 
without  meeting  captured  men  and  women,  bound,  and  sometimeB 
gagged;  bo  no  good  can  be  done  if  thb  orjing  evil  is  not 
grappled  with.  The  good  hisbop  had  some  200  people  entirely 
at  his  disposal,  and  would  eoon  have  presented  to  the  conntry 
an  example  of  a  free  community,  supported  by  its  own  industry, 
where  fair  dealing  oould  ho  met,  which  undoubtedly  would  have 
created  immenae  influence;  for  wherever  the  English  name  is  known 
it  is  associated  with  IVeedom  and  fair  play.  Some  seem  to  take  » 
pleasure  in  running  down  their  fellow-countrymen ;  but  the  longer 
I  live,  I  like  tiiem  the  better.  They  oatry  with  tJiem  some  aenee 
of  law  and  justice,  and  a  spirit  of  kindliness;  and  were  I  in  a 
difficulty,  I  should  prefer  going  to  an  Englisbman  rather  than  to 
any  other  for  aid.  And  as  fot  EnglisbwomeD,  tbey  do,  undoubt- 
edly, make  the  beet  wives,  mothers,  sisters,  and  daughters  in  tbe 
world.  It  is  this  conviolaon  that  makes  me,  in  my  desire  to  see 
slavery  abolished,  and  human  happiness  promoted,  ardently  wish 
to  have  some  of  our  oountrywomen  transplanted  to  a  region  where 
tbey  would  both  give  and  receive  beDefit,  where  eyery  decent 
Christian  Gngliahman,  whether  churabman  or  dissenter,  learned 
or  ODleamed,  liberal  or  bigoted,  would  certainly  become  a  bles- 
sing by  introducing  a  better  system  than  that  which  has  pre- 
vailed for  ages.  We  conducted  Bishop  Mackenize  and  party  wf 
to  the  highlands,  and  after  spending  three  or  four  days  with  them, 
returned,  and  never  had  any  more  oonneotioa  with  the  conduct  of 
that  misdoD.  We  carried  a  boat  past  Murobison's  Cataracte. 
By  these  the  river  descends  at  different  leaps  of  great  beauty,  1,200 
feet  in  a  distance  of  about  40  miles.  Above  that  we  have  sixty 
miles  of  fine  deep  rivers,  flowing  placidly  out  of  Lake  Nyassa. 
As  we  sailed  into  this  fine  freshwater  lake,  we  were  naturally 
anxious  to  know  its  depth — ten,  twelve,  twenty,  thirty  fathoms — 
then  no  bottom  with  all  onr  line ;  and  John  Neill,  our  sailor,  at 
last  pronounced  it  fit  for  the  Great  Eastern  to  sail  in.  We  touched 
the  bottom  in  a  bay  with  a  line  cS  100  fathoms,  and  a  mile  out 
could  find  no  bottom  at  116  fathoms.  It  contains  plenty  of  fish, 
and  groat  numbers  of  natives  daily  engage  in  catching  them  with 
neta,  hooks,  spears,  torches,  and  poison.  The  water  remains  at  72°, 
and  the  crocodiles  having  plenty  of  fish  to  eat  rarely  attack  men. 
It  is  from  fifty  to  uxty  miles  broad,  and  we  saw  at  least  225  miles  of 
its  length.    As  seen  from  the  lake,  it  se^na  snirooiided  by  moon- 


,.,.d.i.  Google 


1864.]  LEOTnaB  bt  dr.  LivffiaBTOME.  387 

tains,  and  from  tbesefurioiu  storma  come  suddenly  down  and  raise 
b^hseas,  which  are  dangerous  for  a  boat,  but  the  native  canoes  are 
formed  bo  as  to  go  easily  along  the  aurfaoe.  The  apparent  mountains 
on  the  vest  were  ascended  last  year,  and  found  to  be  only  the 
edges  of  a  great  plateau,  3,000  feet  above  the  sea.  This  is  cool, 
well  watered,  and  well  peopled  with  the  Manganja  and  the  Maori, 
some  of  whom  possess  cattle ;  and  I  have  no  doubt  bat  that,  the  first 
hardships  over,  abd  properly  housed  and  fed,  Europeans  would  enjoy 
life  and  comfort.  Thia  part  of  Africa  has  exactly  the  same  form 
as  Western  India  at  Bombay,  only  this  is  a  little  higher  Bad 
cooler.  Well,  having  now  a  fair  waj  into  the  highlands  by  means  of 
the  ZamI)eBi  and  Shire,  and  a  navigable  course  of  river  and  lake, 
of  two  miles  across,  which  all  the  slaves  from  the  Bed  Sea  and  the 
Persian  Gulf,  as  well  as  some  for  Cuba  took,  and  nearly  all  the 
inhabitants  of  thia  densely-peopled  conotry  actually  knowing  how 
to  cultivate  cotton,  it  seemed  likely  that  their  strong  propensity  to 
trade  might  be  easily  tnmed  to  the  advantage  of  our  own  country 
u  well  as  theirs.  And  bere  I  bc^  to  remark  that  on  my  first  jour- 
ney, my  attention  not  having  then  been  turned  to  the  subject,  I 
noticed  only  a  few  oases  of  its  oulUvadon,  but  on  this  I  saw  much 
more  than  I  had  previously  any  idea  of.  The  oottou  is  short  in 
the  staple,  strong,  and  like  wool  in  the  hand — as  good  as  upland 
American.  A  second  variety  has  been  introduced,  as  is  seen  in  tho 
name,  being  foreign  cotton,  and  a  third  of  very  snperior  quali^, 
very  long  in  the  fibre,  though  usually  believed  to  belong  to  Sooth 
America,  was  found  right  in  the  middle  of  the  oontinent  in  the 
country  of  the  Makololo.  A  tree  of  it  was  eight  inches  in  diameter, 
or  like  an  ordinary  apple-tree.  And  all  these  require  planting  not 
oftener  than  onoe  in  three  years.  There  is  no  danger  of  frosts, 
either,  to  injure  the  crops.  No  sooner,  however,  had  we  begun 
our  lalrars  among  the  Manganja  tlian  the  African  Portuguese,  by 
instating  the  Ajawa,  with  arms  and  ammunition,  to  be  paid  for  in 
slaves,  produced  the  utmost  oonfusion.  Village  after  village  was 
attacked  and  burnt;  for  the  Manganja,  armed  only  with  bows  and  aT> 
tows,  could  not  stand  before  firearms.  The  bowman's  way  of  fight- 
ing is  to  be  in  ambush,  and  to  shoot  his  arrows  unawares,  while 
those  with  guns,  making  a  great  noise,  cause  the  bowmen  to  run 
away.  The  women  and  children  become  captives.  This  prooeEB 
of  slave-hunting  went  on  for  some  months,  and  then  a  panio  srazed 
the  Manganja  nation.  All  fled  down  to  the  river,  only  anxious  to 
get  that  between  them  and  thdr  enemies ;  but  they  bad  left  all 


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368  TBI   OANADIAH  KATHBALIST.  [Oct 

their  food  behiod  diem,  and  starvation  of  tfaonsande  ensued.  The 
Shire  valley,  where  thousands  lived,  at  our  first  visit  was  converted 
literuily  into  a  valley  of  dry  bones.  One  cannot  now  iralk  a  mile 
vrithont  seeing  a  human  skeleton  ;  open  a  hut  in  the  now  deserted 
villages,  and  there  He  the  unburied  skeletons.  In  some  I  opened, 
there  were  two  skeletons;  and  a  little  one,  rolled  up  in  a  mat, 
between  them.  I  have  always  hated  putting  the  blame  of  being 
baffled  upon  any  one  else,  from  a  oonviction  that  a  man  ought  to 
succeed  in  all  feasible  projeclfi,  in  spite  of  everybody;  and,  more- 
over, I  wish  not  to  be  underatood  as  casting  a  slur  upon  the  Por- 
tuguese in  Europe,  for  the  Viscount  Lavaidio,  ihe  Viscount  de  la 
Bandeira,  and  others,  are  as  anxious  to  see  the  abolition  of  the 
slave-irade  as  could  be  desired;  but  the  evil  is  done  by  the  asser- 
tbu  in  Europe  of  dominion  in  Atrica,  when  it  is  quite  well 
kuowii  that  the  Portuguese  in  Africa  were  only  a  few  half'^eastas, 
the  children  of  converts  and  black  women,  who  have  actually  lo 
pay  tribute  to  the  pure  natives.  Were  they  of  the  smallest  benefit 
to  Portugal?  If  any  one  ever  made  a  fortune  and  went  home  to 
spend  it  In  Lisbon  ;  or  if  any  pleasure  whatever  could  be  derived 
by  the  Portuguese  government  from  spending  £5000  annunlly  od 
needy  governors,  who  all  connive  at  the  slave-trade,  the  thing 
could  be  understood.  But  Portugal  gains  nothing  but  a  shocking 
bad  nanfe,  as  the  first  that  b<^n  tho  slave-trade,  and  the  last  to 
end  it.  To  us  it  is  a  serious  matter  to  see  Lord  Paluierston's 
policy,  which  has  been  so  eminently  suco^slul  on  the  weet,  so 
largely  nentralised  on  the  east  coast.  A  great  nation  like  ours 
cannot  get  rid  of  the  obligations  to  other  members  of  the  great 
community  of  nations.  The  poiioo  of  the  sea  must  be  maintained; 
and  should  we  send  no  more  cruisora  to  suppress  the  slave-trade, 
we  would  soon  be  obliged  to  send  them  to  suppress  piracy,  for  no 
traffic  engenders  lawlessness  as  does  this  odious  trade.  The  plan 
I  propose  required  a  steamo-  on  Lake  Nyassa  to  take  up  the  ivory- 
trade,  as  it  is  by  the  aid  of  that  trade  that  the  traffic  in  slaves  is 
carried  on.  The  Goveruuient  sent  out  a  steaiuer,  which,  though 
an  excellent  one,  was  too  deep  for  the  Shire.  Another  steamer  was 
then  built  at  uiy  own  expense ;  this  was  all  that  could  be  desired, 
made  to  unsorew  into  twenty-four  pieces,  and  the  Lady  Nynssa,  or 
Lady  of  the  Lake,  was  actually  unscrewed  and  ready  for  conveyance 
to  the  scene  of  the  missionary  work,  but  that  must  be  done  by 
younger  men,  specially  educated  for  it — men  willing  to  rough  it, 
and  yet  hold  quietly  and  patiently  on.   When  Z  became  Consul,  it 


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1864.]  ADDRESS  BT  SIE  OBABLES   LYELL.  389 

was  with  the  oonfideot  hope  that  I  should  carry  out  this  work,  und 
I  do  not  mean  to  give  it  up.  If  being  baffled  bad  ever  made  me  lose 
heart,  I  should  never  have  been  here  iti  the  position  which  hy  your 
kindness  I  now  occupy.  I  inteod  to  make  another  attempt,  but 
this  time  to  the  north  of  the  Portuguese  territory ;  aad  I  feel  greatly 
encouraged  by  the  interest  you  show,  as  it  cannot  be  for  the  person, 
but  from  your  sympathy  for  the  cause  of  human  liberty;  for  it 
startles  us  to  see  n  great  nation  of  our  own  blood  despising  the 
Afi  lean's  claims  to  humanity,  and  drifting  helplessly  into  a  war 
about  him,  and  then  drifting  quite  as  helplessly  into  abolition 
ind  slavery  principles;  then,  leading  the  Africans  to  fight.  No 
mighty  event  like  this  terrible  war  ever  took  place  without  teaching 
terrible  lessons.  One  of  these  may  be  that,  though  "  on  the  side 
of  the  oppressor  there  is  power,  there  be  higher  than  they."  With 
respect  to  the  Africnn,  neither  drink,  nor  disease,  nor  slavery  can 
root  him  out  of  the  world.  I  never  had  any  idea  of  the  prodig- 
ious destruction  of  human  life  that  takes  place  subsequently  to  the 
skve-huntini;,  till  I  saw  it ;  and  as  this  has  gone  on  for  centuries, 
it  gives  a  wonderful  idea  of  the  vitality  of  the  nation. 

EXTRACTS   FBOM   THE  ADDRESS  OF  THE  FRESIDENT, 


Gentlenien  of  the  British  Association, — The  place  where  we 
have  been  invited  this  year  to  hold  our  thirty-fourth  meeting 
is  one  of  no  ordinary  interest  to  the  cuitivnlors  of  physical  science. 
It  might  have  been  selected  by  my  fellow-luborers  in  geology  as 
a  central  point  of  observation,  from  which,  by  short  ezcursl  ns  to 
the  east  and  west,  they  might  examine  those  rocks  which  constitute, 
on  the  one  side,  Ihe  more  modern,  and  on  oth^r  the  more  ancient 
records  of  the  pnst,  while  around  them  and  at  their  feet  lie  monu- 
ments of  the  middle  period  of  the  earth's  history.  But  there  are 
other  sites  in  England  which  might  successfully  compete  with  Bath 
as  good  surveying  stations  for  the  geologist.  What  renders  Bath, 
a  peculiar  point  of  attraction  to  the  student  of  natural  phenomena 
is  its  thermal  und  mineral  waters,  to  the  sanatory  powers  of  which 
the  cilj  has  owed  its  origin  and  celebrity.  The  great  volume  and 
high  ta;niperature  of  these  waters  render  theui  not  qniy  unique 
in  our  island,  but  perhaps  without  &  paralled  in  the  rest  of  Europe, 
when  we  duly  take  into  account  their  distance  from  the  nciireat 
r^ion  of  violent  earthquakesorof  active  or  extinct  volcanoes.  The 

ToL.  I.  ki.  No.  G 


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390  THE  OANADIAK  MATDEALI8T.  [Oct. 

spot  where  tbej  issue,  as  we  learn  from  the  researches  of  the  his- 
torian and  aDtiquary,  was  lonely  and  desert  when  the  Romans  first 
landed  in  this  island,  but  in  a  few  years  it  was  ooDverted  into  ono 
of  the  chief  cities  of  the  newly  conquered  prorinoe.  On  the  site 
of  the  hot-springa  was  a  largo  nioross  from  which  clouds  of  white 
vapor  rose  into  the  air  ;  find  there  Gratwas  the  spacious  bath-room 
built,  in  a  highly  ornamental  style  of  architecture,  and  decorated 
with  columns,  pilasters,  and  tessellated  pavements.  By  its  side 
was  erected  a  splendid  temple  dedicated  to  Minerva,  of  which 
some  statues  and  altars  with  their  inscriptions,  and  ornate  pillars, 
are  still  to  be  seen  in  the  Museum  of  this  place.  To  these  edifices 
the  quarters  of  the  garrison,  and  in  the  course  of  time  the  dwellings 
of  new  settlers,  were  added ;  and  they  were  all  encircled  by  a 
massive  wall,  the  solid  foundations  of  which  still  remain. 

A  dense  mass  of  soil  and  rahbish,  from  10  to  20  feet  thick,  now 
sepiirates  the  level  on  which  the  present  city  stands  from  the  level 
of  the  ancient  AquK  Solis  of  the  Romans.  Digging  through  this 
mat^s  of  heterogeneous  materials,  coins  and  coffins  of  the  Saxon 
period  have  been  found  ;  and  lower  down,  beginning  at  the  depth 
of  from  12  to  15  feet  from  the  surface,  coins  have  been  disinierred 
of  Imperial  Home,  bearing  dates  from  the  reign  of  Claudius  to  that 
of  Maximus  in  the  fifth  century.  Beneath  the  whole  arc  occasion- 
ally seen  tessellated  pavements  still  retaining  their  bright  colors; 
one  of  which,  on  the  site  of  the  Mineral-water  Hospital,  is  still  care- 
fully preserved,  affording  us  an  opportunity  of  gauging  the  difiierence 
of  level  of  ancient  and  modern  Bath, 

On  the  slopes  and  summits  of  the  picturesque  hills  in  the  neigh- 
borhood rose  many  a  Roman  villa,  to  trace  the  boundaries  of  which 
and  to  bring  to  light  the  treasures  of  art  concealed  iu  tbeni,  are 
tasks  which  have  of  late  years  amply  rewarded  the  researches  of 
Mr.  Scartb  and  other  learned  antiquaries.  No  wonder  that  OD 
this  favored  spot  we  should  meet  with  so  many  memorials  of  for- 
mer greatness,  when  we  reflect  on  the  length  of  lime  during  which 
the  imperial  troops  and  rich  colonsils  of  a  highly  civilized  people 
sojourned  here  ;  having  held  undisturbed  posse:uion  of  the  country 
for  as  many  years  as  have  elapsed  from  the  first  discovery  of  America 
to  our  own  (iraes. 

One  of  our  former  Presidents,  Dr.  Daubeny,  has  remarked  that 
nearly  all  the  most  celebrated  hot-springs  of  Europe,  such  as  those 
of  Aii-la-Chapelle,  Baden-Baden,  Naples,  Auvergne,  and  the  Py- 
renees, have  not  declined  Id  temperature  since  the  days  of  the  Ro- 


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1864.]  ASSRESS  BT  8IE  OBASLES  LTELL.  391 

mans  ;  for  many  of  tbem  etill  retain  sb  great  a  heat  as  is  tolerable 
to  the  haniHD  body,  fand  yet  when  employed  by  the  aDcientH  they 
do  not  seem  to  have  required  to  be  firat  cooled  down  by  artificial 
meBQS.  This  aniformity  of  temperature,  maintuined  in  some  places 
for  more  than  2000  yeurs.  together  nith  the  oonstancy  in  the  vol- 
ume of  the  water,  which  never  Tariea  with  the  seasons,  as  in  ordinary 
springs,  the  identity  also  of  the  mineral  ingredients  which,  century 
after  century,  are  held  by  each  spring  in  aolution,  are  Btrilcing  &cts, 
and  they  tempt  ub  irresistibly  to  speculate  on  the  deep  subterranean 
sources  both  of  the  heat  and  mineral  matter.  How  long  baa  this 
uniformity  prevailed  7  Are  the  EpringB  really  ancient  in  reference 
to  the  earth's  history,  or,  like  the  course  of  the  present  riTera  and 
the  actual  shape  of  our  hills  and  valleys,  are  they  only  of  high  an- 
tiquity when  contrasted  with  the  brief  space  of  hnman  annals  ? 
May  they  not  be  like  VeBuvins  and  Etna,  which,  although  they 
have  been  adding  to  their  flunks,  in  the  course  of  the  last  2000 
years,  many  a  stream  of  lava  and  shower  of  ashes,  were  still  moun- 
tains very  mi^ch  the  same  ns  they  now  are  In  height  and  dimensions 
from  the  eailiest  times  to  which  we  can  traee  hack  their  ezlstenoe  7 
Yet  although  their  foundations  are  tens  of  thousands  of  years  old, 
they  were  laid  at  an  era  when  the  Mediterranean  was  already  in- 
habited by  the  same  species  of  marine  shells  as  those  with  which 
it  is  now  peopled;  so  that  these  volcanoes  most  be  regarded  as  things 
of  yesterday  in  the  geological  calendar. 

Notwithstanding  the  (.'cneral  persistency  in  charaoter  of  mineral 
waters  and  hot-springs  ever  since  they  were  first  known  to  us,  we 
find  on  inquiry  that  some  few  of  them,  even  in  historical  times, 
have  been  subject  to  great  changes.  These  have  happened  during 
earthquakes  which  hare  been  violent  enough  to  disturb  the  sub- 
terranean drainage  and  alter  the  shape  of  the  fisenrea  up  which 
the  waters  ascend.'  Thus  during  the  great  earthquake  at  Lisbon 
in  1755,  the  temperature  of  the  spring  called  La  Source  do  la  Beine 
at  Bugn^res  de  Luchon,  in  the  Pyrenees,  was  suddenly  raised  as 
much  as  75°  F.,  or  changed  from  a  cold  spring  to  one  of  122°  F., 
a  heat  which  it  has  sinoe  retained.  It  is  ulso  reoor  Jed  that  the  hot- 
springs  at  Bagn^res  de  Bigorre,  in  the  same  mountain-chain,  bo- 
came  suddenly  cold  during  a  great  earthquake  which,  in  1660,  threw 
down  several  houses  in  that  town. 

It  has  been  ascertained  that  the  hot-springs  of  the  Pyrenees,  the 
Alps,  and  many  other  regions  are  situated  in  lines  along  which  the 
rocks  have  been  rent,  and  usually  where  they  have  been  displaced 


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392  TBB   CANADIAN   NAinRALIBT.  [Oct 

or  "  faulted."  Similar  dislooationB  in  the  Bolid  crust  of  the  earth 
are  generally  suppose!  to  have  determined  the  spots  where  active 
and  extinct  volcanoes  have  burst  forth  ;  for  several  of  theso  often 
affect  a  linear  arrangement,  their  position  seeming  to  have  been  de- 
teruitned  by  great  lines  of  fiesure.  Another  connecting  link  he* 
tween  the  volcano  and  the  hot-spring  is  recognizable  in  the  great 
abundance  of  hotrsprings  in  regions  where  volcanic  eruptions  still 
occur  from  time  to  time.  It  is  also  in  the  same  districts  that  the 
waters  occasionally  attain  the  boiling-temperature,  while  some  of 
the  associated  stufus  emit  steam  considerably  above  the  boiling- 
point.  But  in  proportion  as  wo  recede  from  the  great  centres  of 
igneous  activity,  we  find  the  thermal  waters  decreasing  in  frequency 
and  in  their  average  heat,  while  at  the  same  time  they  are  most  con- 
npicuousin  those  territories  where.as  in  Central  France  or  the  Kil'el  in 
Germuny,  there  aro  cones  and  craters  still  so  perfect  in  their  form, 
and  streams  of  lava  bearing  such  a  relation  to  the  depth  and  ehapo 
of  the  existing  volleys,  as  to  indicate  that  the  internal  fires  have 
become  dormant  in  comparatively  recent  t  mes.  If  there  be  excep- 
tions to  this  rule,  it  is  where  hot-springs  are  met  with  in  parts  of 
the  Alps  and  Pyrenees  which  have  been  violently  convulsed  by 
modern  earthquakes. 

To  pursue  still  further  our  comparison  between  the  hot-spring 
and  the  volcano,  we  may  regard  the  water  of  the  spring  as  represent- 
ing those  vast  clouds  of  aqueous  vapor  which  are  copiously  evolved 
for  days,  someticnes  for  weeks,  in  succession  from  craters  during 
an  eruption.  But  we  shall  perhaps  be  asked  whether,  when  we 
contrast  the  work  done  by  the  two  agents  in  question,  there  is  nut 
a  marked  failure  of  analogy  in  one  respect — namely  a  want,  in  the 
case  of  the  hot-spring,  of  power  to  raise  from  gre^it  depths  in  the 
earth  voluminous  masses  of  solid  matter  corresponding  to  llie  heaps 
of  scoriio  and  streams  of  lava  which  the  volcano  pours  out  on  the 
surface.  To  one  who  urges  such  an  objection  it  mEiy  be  s;ii<l  that 
the  quantity  of  solid  as  well  as  gaseous  matter  tran.st'erred  by  springs 
from  the  interior  of  the  earth  to  its  surface  is  far  more  considerable 
than  is  commonly  imagined.  The  thermal  waters  of  Bath  arc  far 
from  being  conspicuous  among  European  hot-springs  for  the  quan- 
tity of  mineral  matter  contained  in  them  iu  proportion  to  the  water 
which  acts  as  a  solvent ;  yet  Professor  Ramsay  has  calculated  that 
if  the  sulphates  of  lime  and  of  soda,  and  the  chlorides  of  sodium 
and  magnesium,  and  the  other  mineral  ingredients  which  they  con- 
tain, were  solidified,  they  would  i'orm  in  one  year  a  square  column 


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1864.]  ACDBZBS  BY  SIR  CHARLES  LTELL.  393 

-  nine  feet  in  diameter,  and  no  less  than  1 40  feet  in  height.  All  this 
matter  is  now  quietlj  conveyed  by  a  Etream  of  limpid  water,  in  an 
■DTisible  form,  to  the  Avon,  and  by  tbe  Avon  to  the  sea  ;  but  if, 
instead  of  being  thus  removed,  it  were  deposited  around  the  orifice 
of  eruption,  like  tbe  silioeoaslnyers  which  encrust  the  circular  basin 
of  an  Icelandic  geyser,  we  should  soon  see  a  considerable  cone  built 
ap,  with  a  crater  in  tbe  middle  ;  and  if  the  action  of  the  spring 
were  intermittent,  so  that  ten  or  twenty  years  should  elapse  be- 
tween the  periods  when  solid  matter  was  emitted,  or  (say)  an  in- 
terval of  three  centuries,  as  in  the  case  of  Vesuvius  between  1306 
and  1631,  tbe  discharge  would  be  on  so  grand  a  scale  as  to  afford 
no  mean  object  of  comparison  with  the  intermittent  outpourings  of 
a  volcano. 

Br.  Daubeny,  after  devoting  a  month  to  tbe  analysis  of  the  Bath 
waters  inlB33,  Ascertained  that  the  daily  evolution  of  nitrogen  gas 
amounted  to  no  less  than  250  cubic  feet  in  volume.  This  gas,  he 
remarks,  ts  not  only  characteristic  of  hot-springs,  but  is  largely 
disengiiged  from  voloanio  craters  during  eruptions.  In  both  cases 
he  suj^sts  that  the  nitrogen  may  be  derived  from  atmoephcric 
air,  which  is  always  dissolved  in  raia-water,  and  which,  when  this 
water  penetrates  the  earth's  crust,  must  be  carried  down  to  great 
depths,  so  as  to  reach  the  heated  interior.  When  there,  it  may  be 
fubjected  to  deoxidating  processes,  so  that  the  nitrogen,  being  left 
in  a  free  state,  may  be  driven  upwards  by  the  expansive  force  of 
heat  and  steam,  or  by  hydrostatic  pressure.  This  theory  has  been 
very  generally  adopted,  as  best  accounting  for  tbe  constant  disen- 
gagement of  large  bodies  of  nitri^en,  even  where  the  rocks  through 
which  the  spring  rises  are  crystalline  and  un fossil ife reus.  It  will, 
however,  of  course  be  admitted,  as  Professor  Bischoff  has  pointed 
out,  that  in  some  places  organic  matter  has  supplied  a  large  part  of 
the  nitrogen  evolved. 

Carbonic-acid  gas  is  another  of  the  volatilised  substances  dis- 
charged by  tbe  Bath  waters.  Br.  Gustav  Bischoff,  in  the  new 
edition  of  his  valuable  work  on  chemical  and  physical  geology, 
when  speaking  of  the  exhalations  of  this  gas,  remarks  that  they 
are  of  universal  occurrence,  and  that  they  orginute  at  great  depths, 
becoming  more  abundant  the  deeper  we  penetrate.  He  also 
observes  that,  when  the  silicates  which  enter  so  largely  into  the 
composition  of  the  oldest  rocks  are  percolated  by  this  gas,  they 
must  be  Cimtinually  decompORcd,  and  the  carbonates  formed  by 
the  new  combinations  thence  arising  must  often  augment  the 


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394  THIS   CANADIAN   HATCRALIST.  [Ocl. 

Tolutne  of  the  altend  rocks.  This  increase  of  balk,  he  says,  most 
Bometimes  give  rise  to  mechanical  force  of  expansion  capable  of 
uplifting  the  incumbent  crust  of  the  earth  ;  and  the  same  force 
may  act  laterally  so  us  to  compress,  dislocate,  and  tilt  the  strata 
on  each  side  of  a  mass  in  which  the  new  ohemical  changes  are 
developed.  The  calculations  made  by  this  eminent  German  chem- 
ist of  the  exact  amount  of  distention  which  the  origin  of  new 
mineral  products  may  cause,  by  adding  Ui  the  volume  of  the  rocks, 
deserve  the  attention  of  geologista,  as  affording  them  aid  in  explain- 
ing those  reiterated  oscillations  of  level — those  ridings  and  sink- 
ings of  land — which  have  occurred  on  so  f;rand  a  scale  at  succes- 
sive periods  of  the  past.  There  are  probably  many  distinct  causes 
of  suoh  upward,  downward,  and  lateral  movements,  und  any  new 
Bn^eetioQ  on  this  head  is  most  weloome  ;  but  I  believe  the  expan- 
sion and  oontroctioo  of  solid  rocks,  when  they  are  alternately 
heated  and  cooled,  and  the  fusion  and  subsequent  consolidation  of 
minerjl  masses,  will  continue  to  rank,  as  heretofore,  as  the  moat 
influential  causes  of  such  movements. 

The  temperature  of  the  Bath  waters  varies  in  the  different 
springs  from  117'  to  120°  F.  This,  as  before  stated,  is  eioep* 
tionally  high,  when  we  duly  allow  for  the  great  distance  of  Bath 
from  the  nearest  region  of  active  or  recently  extinct  volcanoes  and 
of  violent  earthquakes.  The  hot-springs  of  Aix-la-Chapeli-  have 
a  much  higher  temperature,  viz.  135'  F.,  but  they  are  situated 
within  forty  miles  of  those  cones  and  lava-streams  of  the  EifuL 
which,  though  they  may  have  spent  their  force  ages  before  the 
earliest  records  of  history,  belong,  nevertheless,  to  the  moat  modem 
geological  period.  Bath  js  about  400  miles  distant  from  the  same 
part  of  Germany,  and  440  from  Auvei^e — another  volcanic 
re.'ion,  the  latest  eruptions  of  which  were  geologically  ooSval  with 
those  of  the  Eiffel.  When  these  two  regions  in  France  and  Ger- 
many were  the  theatres  of  frequent  convulsions,  we  may  well  sup- 
pose that  England  was  often  more  rudely  shaken  than  now ;  and 
such  shocks  as  that  of  October  last,  the  sound  nnd  rocking  motion 
of  which  caused  so  great  a  sensation  as  it  traversed  the  southern 
part  of  the  island,  and  seems  to  have  been  partioulariy  violent  in 
Berclbrdahire,  may  be  only  a  languid  reminder  to  us  of  a  force 
of  which  the  energy  has  been  gradually  dying  out. 

But  there  are  other  ehariicters  in  the  structure  of  the  earth's 
crust  more  mysterious  ia  their  nature  than  the  phenomena  of 
metalliferous  veins,  on  which  the  study  of  hot-springs  has  thrown 


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1864.]  ADDBSSB  BT  8IK  GHABLEB  LTELL.  395 

light — I  allude  to  the  metamorphism  of  Bedimentary  roclis.  Strata 
of  TuioQS  ages,  many  of  thorn  once  full  of  organic  remaius,  bare 
been  rendered  partially  or  wholly  orystdliae.  It  U  admitted  on 
all  hande  that  heat  has  been  instrameotal  in  brioging  about  this 
re-arrangement  of  particles,  which,  when  tie  metamorpbism  has  been 
oarried  out  to  its  fullest  extent,  obliterates  all  trace  of  the  imbed- 
ded fossils.  But  as  moan  tain-masses  many  miles  in  length  and 
breadth,  and  severul  thousands  of  feet  in  height,  have  nndergone 
Bnch  alteration,  it  has  always  been  difficult  to  explain  in  what 
manner  an  amount  of  heat  capable  of  so  entirely  changing  the 
molecular  condition  of  F«diraentary  masses  could  have  come  iuto 
play  without  utterly  annihilating  every  sign  of  strati6cation,  as 
well  as  of  on^anic  structure. 

Various  experiments  have  led  to  the  conclusion  that  the  min- 
erals which  enter  most  largely  into  the  composition  of  the  metauior- 
phio  rocks  have  not  been  formed  by  crystalli/.ing  from  a  state  of 
fuaon,  or  in  the  dry  way,  but  that  they  have  been  derived  from 
liquid  sotutioQS,  or  in  the  wet  way — a  process  requiriog  a  fur  less 
intense  degree  of  heat.  Thermal  springs,  charged  with  carbonic 
acid  and  with  bydro-fluoric  aoid  (which  last  is  often  present  in 
small  quantitiea],  are  powerful  causes  of  decomposition  and  chemi- 
oal  reaction  in  rocks  through  which  they  percolate.  If,  therefore, 
large  bodies  of  hot  water  permeate  mo  untu  in -masses  at  great 
depths,  they  may  in  the  course  of  ages  superinduce  in  them  a  crys- 
talline Btrocture ;  and  in  some  cases  strata  in  a  lower  position  and 
of  older  date  may  be  comparatively  unaltered,  retaining  their  fosHl 
remains  undefuced,  while  newer  rocks  are  rendered  metamorphic. 
This  may  happen  where  the  waters,  after  passing  upwards  for 
thousands  of  feet,  meet  with  some  obstruction,  as  in  the  oase  of 
the  Wheal-Cliffotd  spring,  causing  the  same  to  be  laterally  diverted 
80  as  to  percolate  the  surrounding  rocks.  The  efficacy  of  such 
hydro-thermal  action  baa  been  admirably  illuatruted  of  late  years 
by  the  experiments  and  observations  of  S^armont,  Daubrde, 
Delesse,  Soheerer,  Sorby,  Sterry  Hunt,  and  others. 

The  changes  which  Daubr^  has  shown  to  have  been  produced 
by  the  alkaline  waters  of  Plombi^rea,  in  the  Vosges,  are  more  espe- 
(Ually  instructive.  These  thermal  waters  have  a  temperature  of 
160"  F.,  and  were  conveyed  by  the  Romans  to  baths  through  long 
conduits  or  aqueducts.  The  foundations  of  some  of  their  works 
consisted  of  a  bed  of  concrete  made  of  lime,  fragments  of  brick,  and 
nndstone.     Through  this  and  other  masonry  the  hot  waters  have 


.;,  Google 


396  THE  CANADIAN   NATURALIST.  [Oot 

Wn  percolatinj^  for  Oi'titurips,  and  have  given  rise  to  various 
zeolites — apophyllite  and  chabazit«  among  others ;  also  to  calca- 
reous spar,  arragonite,  and  fluor  spar,  together  with  siliceous  min- 
erals, such  as  opul, — all  found  in  the  interspaces  of  the  hrioks  and 
mortar,  ot  oonstituting  part  of  their  rearranged  mat«rials.  The 
quantity  of  heut  brought  into  action  in  this  instance  in  the  course 
of  2000  years  has,  no  doubt,  been  enormous,  although  the  inten- 
sity of  it  developed  at  any  one  moment  has  been  always  incon- 
siderable. 

The  study,  of  late  years,  of  the  constitaent  parte  of  granite  has 
in  like  manner  led  to  the  conclusion  that  their  consolidation  has 
taken  place  at  temperatures  far  below  those  formerly  supposed  to 
be  indispensable.  Gustav  Rose  has  pointed  out  that  the  quartz 
of  granite  has  ihe  specific  gravity  of  2'6,  which  characterizes  silica 
when  it  is  precipitated  from  a  liquid  solvent,  and  not  that  inferior 
density,  namely  2-3,  which  belongs  to  it  whea  it  cools  and  solidifies 
in  the  dry  way  from  a  stale  of  fusion. 

But  some  geologists,  when  made  aware  of  the  intervention  on  a 
large  scale,  of  water,  in  the  formation  of  the  component  minerals 
of  the  granitic  and  volcanic  rocks,  appear  of  late  years  to  have  been 
too  much  disposed  to  dispense  with  intense  heat  when  accounting 
for  the  formation  of  the  crystalline  and  unstrutified  rocks.  Aa 
water  in  a  state  of  solid  combination  enters  largely  into  the  alumi- 
nous and  some  other  minerals,  and  thi-refore  plays  no  small  part 
in  the  composition  of  the  earth's  orust,  it  follows  that,  when  rocks 
are  melted,  water  must  be  present,  independently  of  the  supplies 
of  rain-water  and  sea-water  which  find  their  way  into  the  regions 
of  subterranean  heat.  But  the  existence  of  water  under  great 
pressare  affords  no  ailment  against  our  attributing  an  esces- 
sivcly  high  temperature  to  the  mass  with  which  it  is  mixed  up. 
Still  less  does  the  point  to  which  the  melted  matter  must  be  cooled 
down  before  it  consolidates  or  crystallizes  into  lava  or  granite 
afford  any  test  of  the  degree  of  beat  which  the  same  matter  mu«t 
have  acquii-ed  when  it  was  melted  and  made  to  form  lakes  and 
seas  in  tho  interior  of  the  earth's  crust. 

The  evidence  of  a  period  of  gre^t  cold  in  England  and  North 
America,  in  the  times  referred  to,  is  now  so  universally  admitted 
by  geologists,  that  I  shall  take  it  for  granted  in  this  Address,  and 
briefly  consider  what  may  have  been  the  probuble  causes  of  tho  re- 
frigeration of  central  Europe  at  the  era  iu  question.  One  of  those 
causes,  first  suggested  eleven  years  ago  by  a  celebrated  Swiss  geo- 


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1864.]  ASDRESB  BT   BIB  CHARLES  LYELL.  397 

legist,  has  not,  I  think,  received  the  attention  which  it  well  de- 
served. When  I  proposed,  in  1S33,  the  theory  that  ullerationa  in 
phyaic&l  gcog^phy  might  hare  given  rise  to  thoi^c  revolutions  in 
climate  which  (he  earth's  surface  has  experienced  at  successive 
epochs,  it  was  objected  by  many  that  the  Bigns  of  upheaval  and  de- 
pression were  too  local  to  nocount  for  such  general  chan;^  of  tem- 
perature. This  objection  was  thought  to  be  of  peculiar  weight 
when  applied  (o  the  glacial  period,  because  of  the  shortness  of  the 
time,  geologically  speaking,  which  has  since  transpired.  But  the 
more  we  examine  the  monuments  of  the  ages  which  preceded  the 
historical,  the  more  decided  become  the  proofs  of  a  general  altera- 
tion in  the  position,  height,  and  depth  of  eeaa,  conlinenta,  and 
mountain-chains  since  the  commencement  of  the  glacial  period. 
The  lueteorolf^ist  also  has  been  learning  of  late  years  that  the  quan- 
tity of  ice  and  snvw  in  oertuin  latitudes  depends  not  merely  on 
the  height  of  mountuin-chains,  but  also  in  the  distribution  of  the 
Burrounding  sea  and  land  even  to  considerable  distances. 

M.  Escher  von  der  Linth  gave  it  as  his  opinion  in  1852,  that  if  it 
were  true,  as  Ritter  had  suggested,  that  the  great  African  desert, 
or  Sahara,  was  submerged  within  the  modem  or  post-terliary  period, 
the  same  submergence  might  explain  why  the  Alpine  glaciers  had 
attained  so  recently  those  colossal  dimensions  which,  reasoning  on 
geological  data,  Yenetz  and  Charpentier  had  ussigacd  to  them.  , 
Since  bli-cher  first  threw  out  this  hint,  the  fact  that  the  Sahara  was 
really  covered  by  the  sea  at  no  distant  period  has  been  confirmed 
by  many  new  proofs.  The  distinguished  Swiss  geologist  hiiusetf 
has  just  returned  from  an  exploring  expedition  through  t!ie  caat- 
ern  part  of  the  Algerian  desert,  in  which  ho  was  accouipanied  by 
M.  Desor,  of  Neuchatel,  and  Professor  Marlins,  of  Monlpellier. 
These  three  experienced  obaervera  satisfied  IheniseWes,  during 
the  last  winter,  that  the  Sahara  was  under  water  during  the 
period  of  the  living  species  of  Testaoea.  We  had  already  learnt  in 
1856,  from  a  memoir  by  M.  Charles  Laurent,  that  sands  identical 
with  those  on  the  nearest  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  contuin- 
ning,  among  other  recent  shells,  the  common  ooclcle  {Cartlium 
edule),  extend  over  a  vast  space  from  west  to  east  in  the  desert, 
being  not  only  found  on  the  surface,  but  also  brought  up  from 
deplha  of  more  than  20  feet  by  the  Artesian  anger.  These  thella 
have  been  met  with  at  heights  of  more  than  900  feet  above  the  eea- 
leve),  and  on  ground  sunk  300  feet  helow  it;  for  there  are  in 
Africa,  as  in  Western  Asia,  depressions  of  land  hclow  the  level  0 


,,  Google 


398  THE   OAITADIAN  NATOBALIBT.  [Oot 

tie  xa.  The  same  cockle  baa  been  obflerved  BtiU  Imng  in  several 
salt'laken  in  tbe  Sahara:  and  anperficial  inerustations  in  many 
places  seem  to  point  to  the  drying  up  by  evaporation  of  eevenl 
inland  seas  in  certain  districts. 

Mr.  TriRtram,  in  his  travels  in  1859,  traced  for  many  miles  aloDg 
the  soathern  borden  of  the  Frecoh  possessions  in  Africa  lines  of 
inland  sea-clifis,  with  caves  at  their  bases,  and  old  sea-beaches  form* 
ing  suooessive  terraces,  'n  which  recent  shells  and  the  casts  of  them 
were  a^liitinated  blether  with  sand  and  pebblea,  the  whole  having 
the  form  of  a  conglomerate  The  ancient  sea  appears  once  to  have 
Btrelched  from  the  Gnlf  of  Gabea,  in  Tunis,  lo  the  west  coast  of 
Africa  north  of  Senegnmhia,  having  a  width  of  several  hundred 
(perbsps  where  greatest,  according  to  Mr.  Tristram,  800)  miles- 
The  hi'ch  binds  of  Burbary,  including  Monicco,  A^ria,  and  Tunis, 
most  have  been  separated  at  this  period  from  the  rest  of  Africa  by 
a  sea.  All  that  we  have.lcamt  from  zoologistA  and  botanists  in  re- 
gard to  the  present  fanna  and  flora  of  Barbary  favors  ihb  hypo- 
tbesis,  and  seems  at  the  same  time  to  point  to  a  former  connexion 
of  that  country  with  Spain,  Sicily,  and  South  It;ily. 

When  speculating  on  these  changes,  we  may  call  to  mind  that 
certain  deposits,  full  of  marine  shells  of  living  species,  have  long 
bef  n  known  as  fringing  the  bordf  rs  of  the  Bed  S«a,  and  rising  sev- 
eral hundred  feet  above  its  shores.  Evidence  baa  also  been  obtained 
that  Egypt,  placed  between  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Sahara,  partici- 
pated in  lhei;e  great  continental  movements.  This  may  be  inferred 
from  the  old  river-terraoea,  lately  dercrihed  by  Messrs.-  Aaams  and 
Murie,  which  skirt  the  modem  alluviul  plains  of  the  Nile,  and  rise 
above  them  to  various  heighta,  from  30  to  100  feet  and  upwards. 
In  whatever  direction,  therefore,  we  look,  we  see  grounds  for  assum- 
ing that  a  map  of  Africa  in  that  glacial  period  would  no  more  resem- 
ble onr  present  maps  of  that  continent  than  Europe  now  resembles 
North  America.  If,  then,  argues  Rscber,  the  Sahara  was  a  sea  in 
poet-tertiary  times,  we  may  understand  why  the  Alpine  glaciers 
formeriy  attained  such  gigantic  dimenuons,  and  why  they  have  left 
moraines  of  snch  ma^itnde  on  the  plains  of  northern  Italy  and 
the  lower  country  of  Switxerland.  The  Swiss  peasants  have  a  say- 
ing, when  they  talk  of  the  melting  of  the  snow,  that  the  sun  could 
do  nothing  without  the  Fohn,  a  name  which  they  give  to  the  well- 
known  sirocco.  This  wind,  after  sweeping  over  a  wide  expanse  of 
parched  and  burning  sand  in  Africa,  blows  occasionally  for  days 
in  saoi-ession  across  the  Mediterranean,  carrying  with  it  the  acordi- 


CtXH^Ic 


1864.]  ADDBBSB  BT   BIB  OBARLES   LTZLL.  399 

ing  heat  of  the  Sahara  to  melt  the  snows  of  the  Appenninee  aod 
Alps. 

M.Denzler,  in  a  memoir  oq  thbeubject,  obaerTeathat  the  Fohn 
blew  tempestuooslj  at  Algiers  on  the  ITth  July  1&41,  and  then, 
erossing  the  Mediterranean,  reached  Marseilles  in  sis  hours.  In 
five  more  hours  it  was  at  Geneva  and  the  VaUis,  throwing  dowa 
a  lai^  extent  of  forest  in  the  latter  distriot,  while  in  the  cantons 
of  Zurich  and  the  Orisons  itsuddenlj  turned  the  leaves  of  many 
trees  from  green  to  yellow.  In  a  few  honrs  new  mown  grass  wbb 
dried  and  ready  for  tie  haystack ;  for  althoogh,  passing  over  the 
Alpine  snows,  the  sirooeo  absorbs  much  moisture,  it  is  still  far  be- 
low the  point  of  saturation  when  it  reaches  the  sub-Alpine  countiy 
to  the  north  of  tbe  great  chain.  MM.  Escber  and  Denzler  have 
both  of  them  observed  on  different  occasions  that  a  thickness  of  one 
fi>ot  of  snow  has  disappeared  in 'four  boars  durin<[  tbe  prevalence 
of  this  wind.  No  wonder,  therefore,  that  the  Fohn  is  so  much 
dreaded  for  the  sudden  inundationB  which  it  sometimes  causes. 
The  snow-line  of  the  Alps  was  seen  by  Mr.  Irsoher,  the  astrono- 
mer, from  his  observatory  at  Neucbatel,  by  aid  of  the  telescope,  to 
lise  sensibly  every  day  while  this  wind  was  blowing.  Its  influence 
is  by  no  means  ounfined  to  tbe  summer  season,  for  in  the  winter  of 
1S62  it  visited  Zurich  at  Christmas,  and  in  a  few  days  all  the  sur- 
rounding country  was  stripped  of  its  snow,  even  in  the  shadiest 
places  and  on  the  crests  of  hif^  ridges.  I  feel  tbe  better  able  to 
appreciate  the  power  of  this  wind  from  having  myself  witnessed  in 
Sicily,  in  1828,  its  effect  in  dissolving,  in  tbe  monih  of  November, 
the  snowB  which  then  covered  the  summit  and  higher  parts  of 
Mount  Etna.  I  had  been  told  that  I  should  be  unable  to  ascend 
to  tbe  top  of  the  highest  cone  till  tbe  following  spring;  hut  in 
thirty-six  hours  the  hot  breath  of  the  sirocco  stripped  otf  from  the 
mountuin  its  whita  mantle  of  snow  and  I  ascended  without  diffi- 
culty. 

It  iswell  known  that  the  number  of  days  during  which  particular 
winds  prevail,  from  year  to  year,  varies  considerably.  Between 
tiie  years  181 2  and  1 820  the  Fohn  was  less  felt  in  Switzerland  than 
nsnal;  and  what  was  the  consequence?  All  the  glaciers,  duiing 
those  eight  or  nine  years,  increased  in  height,  and  crept  down  below 
their  former  limits  in  their  respective  valleys.  Many  similar  ex- 
amples might  be  cited  of  tbe  sensitiveness  of  the  ice  to  slight  vari- 
fttioDS  of  temperature.  Captain  Godwin-Austen  has  lately  given 
OB  a  description  of  the  gigantic  glaciers  of  tbe  western  Himalaya 


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400  THE  CANADIAN  NAT0EALI8T.  [Oot 

in  th<ne  valleys  where  the  sources  of  the  Indus  rise,  between  the 
latitudes  35°  and  36*^  N,  The  highest  peaks  of  the  Karakornm 
rang^  attain  in  that  region  an  elevation  of  28,000  feet  above  the 
Bea.  The  gUciers,  says  Captain  Austen,  have  been  advancing, 
vithin  the  memory  of  the  living  inhabitants,  so  as  greatly  to  en- 
croach on  the  cultivated  lands,  and  have  so  altered  the  climate  of 
adjoining  valleys  immediately  below,  that  only  one  crop  a  year  can 
DOW  be  reaped  from  fields  which  formerly  yielded  two  crops.  If 
snuh  changes  oin  be  experienced  in  less  than  a  century,  without 
any  perceptible  uiodificiition  in  the  physical  geography  of  that  part 
of  Asiu,  what  mighty  effects  may  we  not  imagine  the  submergence 
of  the  S:ihara  to  have  produced  in  adding  to  the  size  of  the  Alpine 
glaciers?  If,  between  the  years  1812  and  1820,  a  mere  diminu- 
tion of  the  number  of  days  during  which  the  sirocco  blew  could  so 
much  promote  the  growth  and  onward  movement  of  (he  ice,  how 
much  greater  a  change  would  result  from  the  total  cessation  of  the 
same  wind  1  But  this  would  give  no  idea  of  what  must  have  hap- 
pened in  the  glacial  period  ;  furwc  cuhnot  suppose  the  action  of  the 
south  wind  to  have  been  suspended ;  it  was  not  in  abeyance,  but  its 
character  was  entirely  different,  and  of  an  opposite  nature,  under 
the  altered  geographical  conditions  above  contemplated.  First, 
instead  of  passing  over  a  parched  and  scorching  desert,  between  tlie 
twentieth  and  thirty-fifth  parallels  of  latitude,  it  would  plentifully 
absorb  moisture  from  a  sea  many  hundreds  of  miles  wide.  Nest, 
in  its  course  over  the  Mediterranean,  it  would  take  up  still  more 
aqueous  vapor  ;  and  when,  after  complete  saturation,  it  struck  the 
Alps,  it  would  be  driven  up  into  the  higher  and  more  rarified 
regions  of  the  atmosphere.  There  the  aSrial  current,  as  fust  as  it 
was  cooled,  would  dischai^  its  aqueous  burden  in  the  form  of 
Bnow,  so  that  the  same  wind  which  is  now  called  "  the  devourer 
of  ice  "  would  become  its  principal  feeder. 

If  we  thus  embrace  Escher'a  theory,  as  accounting  in  no  small 
degree  for  the  vast  size  of  the  extinct  glaciers  of  Switzerland  and 
Northern  Italy,  wo  are  by  no  means  debarred  from  accepting  at 
the  same  time  Charpen tier's  eu^es tie n,  that  the  Alps  in- the 
glacial  period  were  2000  or  3000  feet  higher  than  they  are  now. 
Such  a  difference  in  altitude  may  have  been  an  auxiliary  cause  of 
the  extreme  cold,  and  seems  the  more  probable  now  that  we  have 
obtained  unequivocal  proofs  of  such  great  oscillations  of  level  in 
Wales  within  the  period  under  consideration.  We  may  also  avaU 
ourselves  of  another  source  of  refrigeration  which  may  have  colii- 


COOC^IC 


1864.]  ADDBEB3  BT  SIB  CHARLES  LTSLL.  401 

oided  ia  time  vith  the  Eubmer^ence  of  the  Sahara,  namelj,  the 
diversioD  of  the  Galf-etream  from  its  present  course.  The  shape 
of  Europe  and  North  America,  or  the  tjouadaries  of  sea  and  land, 
departed  so  widely  in  the  glacial  period  from  those  now  established, 
that  we  canoot  suppose  the  Gulf-stream  to  have  taken  at  that 
period  its  present  north-western  course  across  the  Atlautic.  If  it 
took  some  other  direction,  the  climate  of  the  north  of  Scotland 
would,  according  to  the  calculations  of  Mr.  Hopkins,  suffer  a 
diminution  in  its  average  annual  temperature  of  12°  F.,  while  that 
of  the  Alps  would  lose  Z"  F.  A  combination  of  all  the  conditions 
above  enumerated  would  oertuinlj  be  attended  with  so  great  a 
revolution  in  climate  as  might  go  far  to  account  for  the  excessive 
oold  which  was  developed  at  so  modern  a  period  in  the  earth's 
history.  Bui  even  when  we  assume  all  three  of  them  to  have 
been  simultaneous  in  action,  we  have  by  no  means  exhausted  all 
the  resources  which  a  differenco  in  the  g^ographtoal  condition  of 
the  globe  might  supply.  Thus,  for  example,  to  name  only  one  of 
them,  we  might  suppose  that  the  height  and  quantity  of  land  near 
the  north  pole  was  greater  at  the  era  in  question  than  it  is  now. 

The  vast  mechanical  force  that  ice  exerted  in  the  glacial  period 
has  been  thought  by  some  to  demonstrate  a  want  of  uniformity  in 
the  amount  of  enet^  which  the  same  natural  cause  may  put  forth 
at  two  successive  epochs.  But  we  must  be  careful,  when  thus 
reasoning,  to  hear  in  mind  that  the  power  of  ice  is  here  substituted 
for  that  of  running  water.  The  one  becomes  a  mighty  agent  in 
transporting  huge  erratios,  and  in  scoring,  abrading,  and  polishing 
rooks;  but  meanwhile  the  other  is  in  uheyance.  When,  for 
example,  the  ancient  Khone  glue ier  conveyed  its  moraines  from  the 
upper  to  the  lower  end  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  there  was  no  great 
river,  as  there  now  is,  forming  a  delta  many  miles  in  extent,  and 
several  hundred  feet  in  depth,  at  the  upper  end  of  the  lake. 

The  more  we  study  and  comprehend  the  geographical  changes 
of  the  glacial  period,  and  the  migrations  of  animals  and  plants  to 
which  it  gave  rise,  the  higher  our  conceptions  are  raised  of  the 
duration  of  that  subdivision  of  time,  which,  though  vast  when 
measured  by  the  succession  of  events  comprised  in  it,  was  brief, 
if  estimated  by  the  ordinary  rules  of  geological  classification.  The 
glacial  period  was,  in  fact,  a  mere  episode  in  one  of  the  great 
epochs  of  the  earth's  history ;  for  the  inhabitants  of  the  lands 
and  seas,  before  and  after  the  grand  development  of  snow  and  ice, 
were  nearly  the  same.    As  yet  we  have  no  satisfactory  proof  that 


1.;.  Google 


402  THE  OANADIAK  KATDBALI8T.  [Oot. 

man  existed  in  Europe  or  elsewhere  dnring  the  period  of  extreme 
oold ;  but  our  investigations  on  this  head  are  Btill  in  their  infancy. 

In  an  early  portion  of  the  poatfrlscial  period  it  hoB  been 
ascertained  thai  nan  flourished  in  Europe ;  and  in  tracing  the 
fligns  of  his  existence,  from  the  historical  ages  to  those  immediately 
antecedent,  and  so  backward  into  more  aneiept  times,  we  gradually 
approach  a  dissimilar  geographical  state  of  things,  when  the 
climate  was  colder,  and  when  the  configuration  of  the  surface 
departed  considerably  from  that  which  now  prcTuils. 

I  will  now  briefly  allude,  in  conclusion,  to  two  points  on  whiofa 
a  gradual  change  of  opinion  has  been  taking  place  among  geo]<^8t8 
of  hite  years.  First,  as  to  whether  there  has  been  a  continnoos 
Buccessinn  of  events  in  the  organic  and  inorganic  worlds,  uninter- 
rupted by  violent  and  general  catastrophes  j  and  secondly,  whether 
clear  evidence  can  be  obtained  of  a  period  antecedent  to  the  crea- 
tion of  organic  beings  on  the  earth.  I  am  old  enon^  to  remember 
when  geologists  dogmatized  on  both  these  questions  in  a  manner 
very  different  from  that  in  which  they  would  now  venture  to 
indulge.  I  believe  that  by  far  the  greater  number  now  incline  to 
opposite  views  trom  those  which  were  onoe  most  commonly  enter- 
tained. On  the  first  point  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that,  although 
a  belief  in  sudden  and  general  conTnlsions  has  been  losing  ground, 
SB  also  the  dootriae  of  abrupt  tranutions  from  one  set  of  species 
of  animals  and  plants  to  another  of  a  very  diflerent  type,  yet  the 
whole  series  of  the  records  which  have  been  handed  down  to  us 
are  now  more  than  ever  r^arded  as  fragmentary.  They  ought  to 
be  looked  upon  as  more  perfect,  because  numerons  gaps  have  been 
filled  up;  and  in  the  formations  newly  intercalated  in  the  series  we 
have  found  many  missing  links  and  various  intermediate  gradations 
between  the  nearest  allied  forms  previously  known  in  the  animal 
and  vegetable  wcrids.  Yet  the  whole  body  of  monnmenta  which 
we  are  endeavoring  to  decipher  appears  more  defective  than  be- 
fore. For  my  own  part,  I  agree  with  Mr.  Darwin  in  coni>idering 
them  as  a  mere  frtiction  of  those  which  have  once  existed,  while 
no  approach  to  a  periect  series  was  ever  formed  originally,  it  having 
never  been  part  of  the  plan  of  Nature  to  leave  a  complete  record 
of  all  her  works  and  operations  for  the  enlightenment  of  rational 
beings  who  might  study  them  in  after-ages. 

In  reference  to  the  other  great  question,  or  the  earliest  date  of 
vital  phenomena  on  this  planet,  the  late  discoveries  in  Canada  have 
at  least  demonstrated  that  certain  theories  founded  in  Europe  on 


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1864.]  ASDftESB  BY  SIR  CHARLES  LTSLL.  403 

mere  negative  evidence  were  alhigetber  delusive.  In  the  coarse  of 
a  geological  Bnirey,  carried  on  under  the  Hble  direction  of  Sir 
William  E.  Logso,  it  has  been  shown  that  nortbward  of  tbe  river 
St.  Lawrence  there  is  a  vast  series  of  stratifieil  and  crystalline 
rocks  of  gneiss,  mitu-schist,  quartsite,  and  limestone,  about 
40,000  feet  in  thiokDess,  whicb  have  been  called  Laurentian. 

They  are  more  ancient  than  the  oldest  fossiliferous  strata  of 
Europe,  or  those  to  which  tbe  term  primordial  had  been  rashly 
assigned.  In  the  first  place,  the  newest  part  of  this  great  crys- 
tallioe  series  is  unconformable  to  the  ancient  fossiliferous  or  so- 
oalled  primordial  rocks  which  overlie  it ;  so  that  it  must  have 
undei^ne  disturbing  movenients  before  the  latter  or  primordial 
set  were  formed.  Then  again,  the  older  half  of  the  Laurentian 
series  is  unconformable  to  the  newer  portion  of  the  same.  It  is 
in  this  lowest  and  moat  ancient  system  of  crystalline  strata  that  a 
limestone,  ahont  a  thousand  feet  tl.ick,  has  been  observed,  contain- 
ing organic  remains.  Theee  fossils  have  been  examined  by  Dr. 
Dawson,  of  Montreal,  and  he  has  detected  in  tbem,  by  aid  of  the 
microscope,  the  distinct  structure  of  a  lai^  speoira  of  Bhizopod. 
Fine  speoiiueus  of  this  fossil,  called  Eozoon  Canadente,  have  been 
brought  to  Bath  by  Sir  William  E.  Logan,  to  be  exhibited  to  the 
members  of  the  Association.  We  have  every  reason  to  suppose 
that  the  rocks  in  which  the^e  uoimal  remains  are  included  are  of 
as  old  a  date  as  any  of  the  formations  named  azoic  in  Europe,  if 
not  older,  so  that  they  preceded  in  dale  rocks  once  supposed  to 
have  been  formed  before  any  organic  beings  had  been  created. 

But  I  will  not  venture  on  speculations  respecting  "  the  signs  of 
a  beginning,"  or  "  the  prospects  of  an  end,"  of  our  lerrestrial 
aysteiij — that  wide  ocean  of  scientific  conjecture  on  whicb  so 
many  theorists  before  my  time  have  suffered  shipwreck.  ^Vithoat 
trespaEsing  longer  on  your  time,  I  will  conclude  by  expressing  to 
yon  my  thanks  for  the  honor  you  have  done  me  in  asking  me  to 
preside  over  this  meeting.  I  have  every  reason  to  hope,  from  the 
many  members  and  distinguished  strangers  whom  1  already  see 
assembled  here,  that  it  will  not  be  inferior  in  interest  to  any  of 
~  Ae  gatherings  which  have  preceded  it. 


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CANADIAN  NATURALIST. 


SEOOim  SEBtBB. 


OBSERVATIONS  ON  CANADIAN  GEOGRAPHICAL 
BOTANY. 

Bt  a.  T.  DBtrHHo:iD,  B.A.,  LL.B. 

The  more  observikble  features  id  the  distributiOD  of  oar  native 
plants  can  now,  I  think,  be  indicated  with  some  degree  of  accuracy 
by  tbe  lud  of  the  catalogues,  published  and  unpublished,  of  va- 
rioua  collectora  in  different  parts  of  the  province.  The  range 
of  many  species  is  of  course  not  yet  satisfactorily  ascertained,  and 
doubtless  in  coming  years  there  may  be  some  plants  at  present 
thought  Co  be  restricted  to  particular  localities,  which  will  be  found 
to  have  a  somewhat  wider  distribution.  I  feel  certain,  too,  that 
a  careful  search  along  our  boundary-lines  will  be  rewarded  by 
the  discovery  of  many  species  as  yet  unknown  to  Canadian  col- 
lectors, which  will  thus  increase  the  floras  peculiar  to  differ^t 
districts.  Many  details,  therefore,  require  to  be  yet  worked  out, 
before  results  entirely  satiefuctory  can  be  arrived  at. 

Gec^raphically,  Canada  ezteuda  over  an  area  of  abont  twenty- 
eight  d^rees  of  longitude  and  ten  and  three  quarters  d^rees  of 
latitude;  stretching  from  East  Gape,  Antioosti,  to  the  Biver 
Kaminastiquia,  which  flows  into  Lake  Superior;  and  from  Point 
Pel^e,  which  juts  into  Lake  Erie,  to  latitude  52°  ib',  the  northern 
limit  This  area,  whilst  extensive,  has  some  peculiar  physical 
features,  which  have  a  most  important  bearing  upon  tbe  distribu- 
tion of  the  plants  composing  its  flora.  The  southern  and  western 
limits  are  bounded,  for  the  greater  part  of  the  distance,  by  the  river 
St.  Lawrence  and  a  chain  of  extensive  sheets  of  wat«r,  which 
stretch  through  several  degrees  of  latitude,  locating  our  proviow 

Vol.  I.  ■■  Ha.  «. 


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406  THE   CANADIAN   NATURALIST.  [DeO. 

ia  the  same  parallels  with  Maine,  Vermont,  New  Hampahire,  and 
nearly  the  whole  of  New  York  and  MaBsachnsetts  on  the  east,  and 
with  Michigan  on  the  west.  Our  north-eastern  border,  moreover, 
adjoina  Labrador,  and  extends  far  into  the  Hudson's  Bay  Terri- 
tory. We  therefore  meet  in  the  western  part  of  the  province 
many  plants  having  decidedly  a  soathem  character,  and  some  of  a 
peculiarly  western  tjrpe ;  while  on  Anticosti  and  the  neighboring 
^ores  are  found  alpine  species  till  recently  tinobserved  south  of 
the  Labrador  coast. 

While  the  remarkable  natural  extension  of  our  boundaries  has 
the  effect  of  including  within  our  limits  many  interesting  plants, 
other  causes  have  also  exerted  their  iafluence.  Apart  from  the 
characters  of  soils,  as  their  looseness  and  temperature,  there  is  one 
cause — the  chain  of  great  lakes — which  must  exert  a  very  con- 
siderable inflnence  upon  the  vegetation  of  Canada.  These  bodies  of 
water,  00  account  of  their  great  extent  and  depth,  have  an  equalii- 
ing  effect  upon  the  temperature  of  the  air  near  their  shores,  the 
water  not  being  subject  te  those  sudden  extremes  of  heat  and  cold 
which  we  obmrve  in  the  atmosphere.  The  great  amount  of  evapo- 
ration, constantly  taking  place  over  the  broad  surface  of  each 
lake,  also  tends  to  make  the  neighboring  air  more  moist  than 
in  inland  localities.  A  similar  effect  being  produced  upon  the 
sea^coast,  instances  of  alpine  and  sub-alpine  plants  occurring  far 
down  ou  the  coast-line  are  not  rare. 

In'  taking  a  general  view  of  the  distribution  of  the  various 
species  of  plants  which  occur  in  Canada, — excluding  mossos.Hchens, 
and  lower  forms, — I  think  that  the  following  types  will  be  readily 
recognized : 

I.  Canadian  Typb. — Species  generally  distrihoted    through 

the  whole  or  greater  part  of  the  province. 

II.  Krie  Type. — Species  chiefly  restricted  to  the  district  bor- 

dering Lake  Erie. 

NoTi.— Id  addition  to  published  catalogaea  of  plants,  I  have  to  ackaaw- 
ledge  having  received  much  valuable  ioformalioD  from  lists  made  at  the 
fallowing  places : — Nenrfouadland,  J.  Richardsou  of  OeoLSarver,  coll.  in 
herb.  Bo(,  Soc.  Can. ;  Gaspd,  J.  Bell,  B.A.;  Quebec,  J.  RichardsoD,  coll. 
in  herb.  Bot.  Soc.  Cau.;  L'Orignal,  J.  Bell,  B.A. ;  Carletoa  Place,  J. 
Bell,B.  A. ;  Ramsaf,  Rev.  J.  E.  HcUoriae,  M.A. ;  Brockville,  R.  Jardine, 
B.A.-,  Belleville,  J.  Uacoun.  H7  0wn  collectioDS  have  been  chieajmade 
at  Uontreal,  amoDg  the  Thousand  Islands,  at  Kingston,  Stone  Uilla, 
CoboDfg,  Gollingwcod,  Hiagara  Falls,  London,  and  Port  Stanlej.-A.T.D. 


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1864.]  DRUMHOND   ON   CANADIAN   BOTANY.  407 

III.  SOPERIOR  Type.— Species  ooly  found  about  Lakes  Huron 
and  Superior,  and  most  of  which  have  evidently  migrated 
from  the  country  watered  by  the  Saskatchewan, 

iV.  Maritime  Type.— Species  confined  to  the  aea-shore. 
V.  Alpine  Type. — Species    chiefly    known,  at  preaeat,    to 
occur  abont  our  north-eastern  borders. 

I.  Canadian  Type. 

The  flora  of  Canada  (aa  do  the  floras  of  all  other  cotintries) 
inclndes  a  very  large  number  of  species  which  are  widely  spread 
over  the  whole  provioce.  They  are  found  thriving  upon  the 
shores  of  Lakes  Superior,  Huron,  and  Erie,  and  range  thence 
to  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  many  even  beyond  into 
Newfoandland.  A  considerable  number  appear  to  have  their 
centre  of  range  within  the  province  or  near  its  north-western 
border.  They  are  distributed  over  the  more  northern  portions  of 
the  United  States,  and,  overspreading  Canada,  find  their  limit  id 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Territory ;  but  the  m.ixima  of  the  individuals  of 
each  species  appear  rather  to  be  in  Canada  than  in  the  wide  dis- 
tricts on  either  side.  Other  Canadian  species,  again,  extend  not 
only  throughonl  the  northern  United  States,  but  even  as  far  south 
as  the  Gulf  of  Mesico.  Very  many,  too,  are  common  to  Europe  and 
America,  whilst  a  number  are  widely  diffused  over  the  temperate 
r^ons  of  both  hemispheres.  And  did  I  include  the  lower 
cryptogamic  plants,  numerous  instances  might  be  noted  of  species 
which  are  almost,  if  not  quite,  cosmopolites. 

As  yet  the  north-eastern  and  north-western  limits  of  some  of  our 
most  common  plants  have  not  been  ascertained  as  definitely  aa 
could  be  desired.  Some  species  met  with  in  almost  every  other 
part  of  the  province  do  not  appear — judging  by  lists  to  which  I 
have  had  access — to  range  down  the  St.  Lawrence  banks  beyond 
Quebec ;  and  qnite  a  number,  as  Tilia  Americana,  Hepaliea  acu- 
lilobia,  and  Ilepatica  triloba,  abundant  in  Central  and  Western 
Canada,  are  entirely  wanting  in  the  Lake  Superior  lists  and  in 
the  lists  from  the  maritime  counties.  IMore  northern  limits  than 
hitherto  observed  may  yet  be  ascertained  for  many  of  them.  Dis- 
tributed, however,  as  they  are,  over  the  greater  portion  of  the 
province,  they  may  be  classed  under  the  general  Canadian  flora. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  trace  somewhat  approximately  the  northern 
limit  of  distribution  of  some  of  the  more  conspicuous  plants. 
Surveyors  and  others  readily  recognise  our  forest  trees,  and  with 


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408  THE   CANADIAN   NATURALIBT.  [DeO. 

the  identity  of  some  of  these  trees  there  can  be  do  possibility  of 
error.  I  shall  only  here  iDstancc  the  basswood  (  TUia  Aniericatia), 
■nd  the  red  oak  {Qaercai  rubra), — trees  not  easily  mistakeD, 
Entering  Canada  from  Maine,  the  biissnood  is  observed  in  the 
counties  of  Arthabaska,  Wolfe,  and  Nicolet,  thence  it  ranges  along 
the  St.  Lawrence  to  the  river  Ottawa,  and  fur  up  that  stream, 
throu'^h  Argenteuil  and  Ottawa,  to  the  Island  of  Alumette.  Cross- 
ing the  country,  it  ia  met  with  in  the  townships  of  Richards, 
BruDel,  and  Stephenson,  ond  finally  appears  to  take  ite  leave  of 
Canada  at  Sturgeon  Bay  on  Lake  Huron.  It  re-appears  on  the 
south  shore  of  Lake  Superior,  and  at  Rainy  Luke  on  the  British 
side,  whence  it  extends  to  the  Red  River,  and  northward  to  latitude 
52**.  A  most  remarkable  locality  is  Lake  St.  John  near  its  outlet 
into  the  Saugenay,  recorded  by  Professor  Bell  in  the  Oeological 
Survey  Report  for  1857.  The  red  oak,  again,  ranges  from  the 
neighborhood  of  Quebec,  where  the  variety  Q.  rubra  var.  borealit 
is  siid  by  Cooper  (Smithsonian  Reports)  to  attain  its  north-eastern 
limit,  up  to  Montreal,  and  thence  skirting  the  Ottawa,  apparently 
sparingly,  it  extends  westward  to  Lake  Huron;  on  the  north 
shore  of  which,  and  on  the  Manitoulin  Islands,  where  it  is  said  to 
attain  considerable  size,  it  is  frequently  observed.  On  the  eastern 
shores  of  Lake  Superior,  too,  red  oaks  are  met  with ;  but,  accord- 
ing to  .\gassiz,  Michipicoten  Island  forms  in  Canada  the  north- 
western limit  of  distribution. 

The  following  species  may  be  instanced  as  some  which  have  a 
wide  range  over  the  province: 


Anemone  PenDsylvanica. 

Solidago  bicolor. 

Thalictrum  corauti. 

S.  CanadenstB. 

RiiniiQCLilua  repens. 

AaleDDaria  margarilacea. 

CKlih«  i>aluslris. 

Vaociniura  PenoaylTanicu 

Nuptanr  adreaa. 

Chiog^oM  Mspldula. 

Naslurliutn  palustro. 

Veronica  Amaricaoa- 

Droeera  rol.uidi folia. 

Lycopu3  Virgintcas. 

St«llncUlu.,gifolia. 

Menyanlhea  tri  folia ta. 

Ulmus  Americana. 

RbuE  Toil  cod  endroD. 

Cory  ills  rostra  ta. 

Acer  saccbnrinum. 

Be  tula  papyracea. 

A.  spicatum. 

LalhyruB  pal ua Iris. 

Plaunihera  pay  codes. 

Pruau9  Virginiana. 

P.  diUtau. 

P.  Pennsylvaiiica. 

Smilacioa  racemoaa. 

Geum  atrictum. 

SlreptopuB  roaeus. 

Seirpus  Eriopborum. 

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1864.]  DRUUUOND  ON   CANADIAN   BOTANY.  409 

Eabag  triBuras.  Carex  aure». 

Epilobiam  aDguBtifolInm.  Avena  gtriala. 

Ribes  lacustrs.  Equisetum  sjlTaticum. 

Uiiella  nada.  B.  arrenw. 

Sanicula  Harjlaadica.  Polypodinm  vulgare. 

LicnEea  borealis.  Strutblopteris  Grrmanica. 

LoDicera  ciliata.  AspUnium  Elii-f<EiniDa. 

Aster  punTceua.  Ljcopodium  complanstuia. 

Gupatorium  pnrpaream.  L.  dendroideum. 

Among  the  larger  orders,  Rosacese  and  Bricacete  afford,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  Bpecies  represented  in  Canada,  the  greatest  number 
of  species  of  very  extensive  dietributioD.  Contferae  and  Beta- 
lacese,  amoDg  the  amalter  orders,  have  a  large  proportion  of  u  wide 
range.  Among  the  CoDiferse,  in  fact,  only  Abiet  Fraaeri,  Pinvt 
rigida,  P.  Banktiana,  and  P.  miti*  appear  to  be  sparingly 
diSiised. 

H.  Brib  Ttpb. 

The  forests  of  that  part  of  the  deep  peninsula  of  Upper  Canada 
vbich  borders  Lake  Erie,  are  characterised  by  an  abundance  of 
beech  {/'oywa/errujinea),  sugar-maple  {Acer  laccharinum),  oak 
{Quercua  rubra,  Q.  macrocarpa,  and  Q.  alba),  and  walnut  (Jii- 
fflani  niffra).  Clumps  of  white  pine  {Pinvg  ttrobut)  are  sometimes 
seen;  bat  I  have  not  yet  observed  the  red  pine  (Pinut  rainosa),  so 
common  in  some  parts  of  Canada.  The  flats  on  either  side  of  the 
Thames,  io  the  neighborhood  of  London,  are  remarkable  for  a 
splendid  growth  of  the  buttonwood  (^Platanm  oceidentalis),  which 
in  this  locality  is  rarely  seen  elsewhere.  Nearer  the  mouth  of 
the  river,  where  the  country  is  very  level,  this  tree  attains  an 
enormous  size.  The  chestnut  [G<t»taHea  eesci),  though  not  abun- 
dant, is  yet  characteristic  of  these  western  forests.  Neither  the 
chestnut  nor  buttonwood  appear  to  esten<l  farther  north  than  the 
counties  oF  Middlesex  and  Halton.  The  tuHp-tree  (Liriodenilron 
tulipi/era)  rarely  occni'S  in  the  central  part  of  the  district  around 
London  and  St.  Thomas,  bat  is  a  familiar  tree  at  Chatham,  and 
is  occasionally  met  with  in  the  Niagara  district  as  far  west  as 
Hamilton. 

The  flora  of  the  Lake  Erie  district  resembles  very  much  that 
of  the  western  part  of  the  State  of  New  York;  and  this  resem- 
blance will  become  closer  the  more  the  district  is  explored.  Mag- 
nolia acuminata  and  Anmina  triloba,  both  of  which  have  been 
observed  at  Lewiston  on  the  Niagara  river,  Gillmia  stipnlacea. 


,.,.d.i.  Google 


410  TSB  CANADIAN   NATURALIST.  [Dec. 

Silphtum,  irl/oliaivm,  and  others  of  similar  range  in  the  Northern 
States,  and  not  yet  fumiliar  to  ne  as  Canadian  plants,  are  to  be 
loolicd  for  here ;  and  possibly  some  species  of  a  more  Southern 
type  in;iy,  like  Viola  villoan,  Polygala  NiUtullu,  and  Affrimonia 
paivijtorn,  also  he  discovered  in  this  district.  * 

The  flora,  peculiar  as  regards  other  parts  of  Canada  to  the 
neighborhood  of  Lake  Erie,  embraces  no  plant  not  likewise 
met  with  in  one  or  other  of  the  adjacent  United  States. 
Many  of  the  speeies  composing  it  form  only  the  outliers,  as  it 
were,  of  a  flora  which  has  its  centre  in  the  central  States  of  the 
Union.  Others,  again,  are  rather  western  in  their  range.  To 
those  of  a  somewhat  southern  type  already  mentioned,  may  be 
added  Polygala  fa»tigiato,  PliaseoJu*  helvoliu,  Comat  Jlorida, 
Lobelia  puheruh,  L.  Nultallii,  Scutellaria  inlegri/olta,  and 
Vrlica  purjiurascens.  Among  western  and  south-western  species, 
or  species  not  frequently  observed  in  the  Eastern  States,  are  Je/- 
/enonia  diphylla,  Baptitia  lencanlha,  Artemliia  biennii,  I/ithot- 
permutn  eanexixnt,  I'latanut  occidentalii,  Juglatit  nigra,  and 
Qtttrcut  cagUinea.  Plalanut  oecidentiili*  is  said  to  be  also  ft 
native  of  Lower  Canada,  and  I  have  seen  one  or  two  trees  of 
Querati  cattanea  in  the  township  of  Pittsburg,  near  Kingston. 
The  Erie  district,  hoirever,  here  forms  the  northern  limit  of  these 
species,  though  many  of  them  extend  nortb-westwardly  to  Wis- 
consin, and  even  penetrate  the  section  of  country  watered  by  the 
Saskatchewan.  This  peculiar  north-westward  distribution  of 
many  American  plants  is  a  remarkable  feature  in  the  vegetation 
of  both  the  northern  United  States  and  Canada.  Humboldt,  I 
believe,  ascribes  the  circumstance  to  the  diSerent  directions  of  the 
valleys  in  the  Atlantic  and  Western  States. 

Among  the  species  characterising  the  district  along  Lake  Erie, 


LiriodendroQ  tulipifera. 

JeffcMonm  dipbjUa. 

Scutellaria  iategrirolia. 

VioU  VilloBl. 

Lilhospermum  canescona. 

Hjdroplij-llHm  append icolatum. 

EuonjmuB  alropurpureUB. 

Fraaera  CarolinensU. 

E.  AmericaDua. 

ABclepiftB  varipgata. 

Polygala  NutUllii. 

HoDtelia  tamariaciaa. 

P.  faatigiata. 

LupiDUB  perennis. 

Benioin  odoriferum. 

Euphorbia  corollaia. 

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1864.]  DRUHHOND  ON   OANACIAH   BOTANT.  411 

Phaseolas  helTolai.  L.  Nuttallii. 

BaptlsU  leucantba.  PtaUnuB  accldentaKj, 

Oilleaia  trifoliata.  Costaaea  Tesca. 

AgrimoDJa  patTiflora.  Crlica  parpuraBcens. 

L.Ttbrum  alatnm.  Boebmeria  laleriflora. 

CEaoibera  cbrjMiDtba.  Juglaiu  nigra. 

Tbaspium  barbiaode,  Quercus  castanea. 

ErigenU  bulbosa.  Hypoxis  erecta. 

Rudbeckia  fulgida.  LUium  snpeibnin. 

R.  horta.  L.  Cawsbtei. 

Artemisia  bieuniB.  Prosartea  tanuginOBa. 

Lobelia  pabernla.  AndrDpogou  argentens. 

L.  ipicata.  AltoBorus  alcopatpDreus. 

Two  or  three  of  the  species  above  enumerated  are  stated  bj 
Prof.  Gray  to  be  common  in  the  northern  United  States,  but  I 
am  not  aware  that  they  have  been  observed  in  Canada  in  localities 
beyond  the  Erie  district 
ill.  Sdperioe  TrpE. 

It  is  upon  the  shores  of  Lakes  Huron  and  Superior,  especially 
of  the  latter,  that  the  v^ietation  bc^ns  to  partake  somewhat  of 
the  character  of  that  west  of  the  Red  River.  Such  plants  aa 
Linwn  perenne,  Lomcera  involucrata,  CrepU  rvncinata,  and 
Coriotpermmn  hgttopi/oHum  do  not  fail  to  remind  us  of  the 
country  watered  by  the  Saskatchewan,  aad  of  the  adjacent  Amer- 
ican territories.  Not  many  of  these  far-western  species  have  as 
yet  been  met  with ;  oOTerthelesB,  the  resemblance  is  sufficiently 
marked  to  be  noticeable.  Future  collectors  will,  there  ia  little 
doubt,  not  only  increase  the  number  of  these  species  already 
detected,  bnt  also  add  to  the  list  of  sub-alpine  plants  whose 
occurrence  has  been  noted  on  the  north  shore  of  Lake  Superior, 

Were  theee  western  plants  absent,  the  flora  of  the  east  and  north 
diorea  of  Lake  Superior  would  much  resemble  that  of  Uie  section 
of  country  along  the  south  shore  of  the  St.  Lawrence  from  about 
Quebec  downwards  to  the  Gulf.  The  Cupulifera  find  their  limits 
upon  the  eastern  coasts  of  the  lake,  whilst  TiHa  AmericaTta  is 
entirely  absent,  Fraxinm  gambud/olia  is  still  met  with,  bnt 
F.  Amerieana  does  not  penetrate  much  beyond  the  upper  shoree 
of  Lake  Huron. 

Among  the  weat«m  apeoiea  at  present  known  to  difiiise  them* 
selves  as  far  as  our  borders,  are  included  the  following  plants: 

Anemone  narclsaiflora.  Ctepia  ruacinata.  ^ 

Rananculm  abortiTDB,  Uulgedium  pulchellam. 

var.  mieraDtbas.  Taaacetum  Uaronense. 


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412  THE  CANADIAN  NATUKALIST.  [Dec. 

Caltba  DBtana.  Senecio  etnas. 

Aqnilegia  Tulgarii.  ArtemUia  LodoTictsaa. 

Arabia  petrea.  Nardosmia  sagittala. 

Turrltia  patuU.  MvlBmpjram  praleiiEe. 

T.  br&cbjcarpa.  Uerteosia  pUoaa. 

T,  retrafracta.  U.  pnaiculala. 

DroBera  linearis.  Polemoaicm  denileam. 

Li  nam  pereaoe.  EumuluB  Lupnlue. 

Rosa  stricta.  Cotiospermam  hjssopifoliaai. 

Rubus  ffiilkanns.  Elsagnns  argentea. 

Looicara  inrolucrata.  Comandra  livida. 

Sjmpboricarpus  occidentalis.  Echinodorus  subulatns. 

Malricaria  inodora.  Carei  Vahlii. 

Aster  graminiroliua  AllosoruB  acrosliclioLdes. 

Cirsium  Pitchert.  Aspidlnm  fragcaosl 

C.  nndnlatum.  A.  Loachitis. 

I  have  not  stations  for  Anemone  naraitifiora,  TarritU  pahila, 
T.  retrofracta,  Linutn  perenjtt,  and  Polemonium  axruleum, 
beyond  the  mere  fact  of  their  presence  in  Canada;  but  judging 
\>j  their  range  in  British  America,  the  Lake  Superior  or  Lake 
Huron  region  must  be  the  place  of  their  occurrence. 

The  shores  of  Lake  Huron,  it  may  be  mentioned,  are  the  only 
recorded  stations  in  Canada  for  Matricaria  inodora,  M-algedium. 
pukhellum,  Cirsium  TittdulatTim,  Crepis  ruTicinata,  Senecio  canut, 
and  Atpidium  Lonchilis.  Owen  Sound,  on  the  Georgian  Bay,  is 
a  station  for  the  very  rare  Scolopendrium  ojidnamm.  Mesperit 
matTOHcUit,  and  Poterium  sajtguiwrba,  both  garden-plants,  are 
said  by  Hooker  to  have  been  found  on  the  shores  of  the  same 
lake.  The  very  rare  Juncus  ttygius  haz  also  been  gathered  at  the 
Brace  Mines. 

In  addition  to  the  plants  enumerated  in  the  above  list,  there 
are  some  which  in  Canada  appear  to  be  confined  to  this  district, 
but  in  their  range  beyond  the  province  cannot  be  classed  as 
western  plants.  Such  are  Sitymbriam  caneteent,  Goreopti*  lancety 
lata,  and  C-  verliceUata  (?),  which  extend  into  the  southera 
United  States. 

There  are  also  a  few  species  met  with  around  the  upper  lakes, 
which  in  the  United  States  flora  appear  to  be  exclusively  north- 
western  plants,  but  which  re-appear  near  the  north-eastern  Cana- 
dian boundary-line,  and  doubtless  are  spread  over  the  iuterveaing 
qiace.  Parnauia  palitttrit,  a  species  of  Upper  Michigan,  the 
Lake  Superior  region,  and  north-westward,  likewise  occurs  in 
Labr.idor  and  Newfoundlaud ;  and  ArUmitia  horealit,  another 


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1864.]  DKUMMOND   ON  CANADIAN   BOTANY.  413 

north-vestern  plant,  appears  also  in  Anticosti  and  Labrador. 
Sofn/thium  Lunaria,  a  foreigner  to  the  United  States  flora,  and 
Allium  Schcenopratum,  bave  a  similar  range  to  the  Atlantic  coast, 
the  former  occurring  oa  Orleans  Island,  and  the  latter  extending, 
according  to  Prof.  Bailey,  to  the  Nepisiquit  in  New  Branswick. 

Some  of  the  plants  which  I  have  above  ennmerated  are  dis- 
tributed through  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota,  and  others 
even  extend  to  Oregon  and  Oalifomta.  The  following  are,  how- 
ever, not  included  in  Gray's  Manual  of  Botany,  as  being  within 
those  States  east  of  the  Mississippi  River : 

AnemoDS  niir<'isalSot'a.  Crepis  runcinata. 


Callhft  natans. 

Matricaria  inodora. 

Aqailcgia  TnlgarU. 
Arabia  petroea. 
Tnrrilis  patula. 

Mulgedium  palcheUmn. 
Uelampymin  prate  nee. 
Hert«neia  piloaa. 

Linum  percDoe. 

Rosa  stricta. 
Loniwra  in»olucr«ta. 

Corioapermum  hyasopifoli 
Ela;«enoe  argealea. 
EchinodoruB  subulains. 

Seaecio  canal. 

Carei  Vabln. 

NardOBmia  sagitlata. 

Allosorus  acroBtichoides. 

Carex  VahlU  and  Alhgorut  aerostichoidet,  it  is  to  be  observed, 
have  been  found  on  Isle  Royale ;  which  island  forms  a  part  of 
the  State  of  Minnesota,  and  is  therefore  within  Gray's  limits. 
Melampyrum.  pratenie  and  Echinodorut  eabulatut,  though  not  in 
the  Manual,  are,  aceordin;;  to  Dr.  Parry  (Owen's  Geol<^cal  Sur^ 
vey  of  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota),  fonnd  at  St.  Croix  in  Wis- 
consin. 

It  wilt,  in  this  place,  be  proper  to  mention,  before  adverting  to 
the  maritime  type,  that  Upper  Canada  and  Lower  Canada  appear 
each  to  have  a  peculiar  flora.  The  materials  requisite  to  4eflne 
with  sufficient  accuracy  the  distinctive  features  of  each  flora, 
which  are  at  command,  are  not,  however,  so  ample  aa  could  ba 
desired.  From  the  upper  province  I  have  several  fall  and  reliable 
catalogues,  though  much  may  yet  there  be  done ;  hut  the  eastern 
townships  and  vicinity  of  the  neighboring  United  States  boundary- 
line,  have  not  been  sufficiently  explored  to  preclude  the  hope  that 
not  a  few  species,  at  present  thought  not  to  range  into  Lower 
Canada,  will  be  detected  there.  Most  of  the  plants  indigenous  to 
the  northern  districts  of  Maine  and  Termont,  Ghould  occur  there, 

I  may  here,  for  the  sake  of  illnstrating  the  two  floras  mentioned, 
and  with  a  view  of  more  fully  indicating  in  this  paper  the  general 


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414  THB  CANADIAN  NATDRALIST.  [Dec. 

features  in  the  dUtribatioD  of  our  Canadiao  plants,  poiat  out  a 
few  of  the  species  which  seem  to  be  restricted,  or  nearly  so,  to 
each  province. 

There  appears  to  be  a  very  large  number  of  Upper  Canadian 
species  which  have  not  been  met  with  in  Lower  Canada.  Many 
of  these,  however,  occur  in  Maine  und  Vermont,  and  will,  I  doubt 
not,  be  observed  by  collectors  in  the  eastern  townships.  Still, 
there  are  a  number  in  the  upper  province  which,  judging  by  the 
range  ascribed  to  them  by  Gray,  are  not  to  be  looked  for  far 
beyond  the  dividing-line  between  the  provinces.  Among  these 
are  such  plants  as  HydraUii  Canadeniii,  Altine  Michauxii,  Poly- 
gala  »enega,  Aitrogolu»  Canadentit,  MyriophyllumhelerophyUam, 
Lonicera  ohlongifolia,  Vibunium  puheteetu,  lAatrit  cyliniiracea, 
and  Asler  ptarmieoidet.  Pinui  riylda  appears  to  be  of  very 
restricted  occurrence,— the  only  reliable  locaiitj  of  which  I  know 
being  the  Thousand  Islanda ;  and  recorded  stations  for,  among 
others,  Helianthemum  corymhotum,  Hkm  aromalica,  Geum  tri- 
Jlorum,  Valeriana  Kylvatica,  Pycnantliemum  lanctolatum,  and  Ae- 
plaiium  eheneam  (for  which  fern  I  may  here  mention  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Kingston  as  a  third  Canadian  locality),  are  as  yet  rare. 

tn  Lower  Canada  there  are  a  number  of  species  whioh  may  be 
regarded  as  confined  to  that  province,  others  which  range  for  a 
considerable  distance  along  the  St.  Lawrence  towards  Lake  On- 
tario, and  not  a  few  whicb  appear  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior, 
though  not  found  elsewhere  in  Upper  Canada.  Thus  Draba  vtma, 
Stellaria  cragsi/iiUa,  Astragalus  alpinut,  Oxytropit  Lamberti, 
Comut  suecica,  Rhodora  CanadaisU,  and  Platanthera  fimhriala, 
have  no  recorded  Upper  Canadian  stations;  and  Corydalii  glauca, 
Viola  Selkirkii,  Cloytonia  CaroUiiiana,  Bctula  alba  vai.popU' 
U/olia,  with  others,  have  but  a  limited  range  in  the  triangular 
section  of  country  between  the  rivers  Ottawa  and  St.  Lawrence. 
As  to  those  eastern  species  which  are  common  to  Lower  Canada 
and  the  Lake  Superior  country,  in  addition  to  Allimn  Schceno- 
pratum  and  Sotryckium  Lunaria  already  noted,  it  will  not  be 
necesBary  here  to  refer  to  more  examples  than  Anemone  parvijiora, 
Ihaha  arabixans,  PoteatUla  tridentala,  P.  /ruticoea,  Gcntiana 
taponaria  var.  liiiearis,  and  Piniit  Banktiana, 

I  shall  not  at  present  farther  illustrate  these  two  floras,  but  hope 
to  recur  to  the  subject  on  some  future  occasion,  and  to  be  able  to 
give  fuller  and  more  definite  details. 


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1864.]  DBtlUMOND  ON   CANADIAN   BOTANT.  415 

rv.  Maeitime  Type. 

Dr.  Gray,  in  the  American  Journal  of  Scienoea,  has  enumerated 
sixty  species  of  maritime  plants  inhabiting  the  American  ooaat 
betiTcea  Maiae  and  Vii^nia.  Our  maritime  district,  in  addition 
to  being  Eituated  far  up  on  the  Atlantic  coastrlinc,  is  of  veiy 
limited  latitudinal  extent,  and  yet  I  have  evidence  of  the  occur- 
rence there  of  twenty-eight  shore  species.  This  number  includes 
Sahbatia  gracilU,  which  is  a  Canadian  plant  according  to  Kalm, 
and  S.  stellaris,  the  occurrence  of  which  within  our  limits  rests 
upon  the  authority  of  Wood.  The  aea-lavendcr  (Statice  Limonium), 
judging  by  the  range  assigned  it  by  Dr.  Gray,  is  to  be  looked  for 
upon  the  gulf-ooaat.  It  is  a  native  of  Newfoundland.  A»ter 
EjiIuIu,  a  coast  form,  which,  in  the  United  States,  ranges  from 
Delaware  to  Maine,  is  found  in  Anticostl  and  Newfoundland. 
Though  resembling  the  sea-shore  species  in  its  preference  for  the 
coast,  it  does  not  appear  to  be  a  strictly  maritime  form.  It  is  not 
included  in  Dr.  Gray's  list. 

The  small  catalogue  here  given  embraces  every  species  known 
to  me  to  occur  on  the  gulf-coast  between  the  Bay  of  Chaleura 
and  Labrador. 

Ranancutns  C}'ml>alaria.  Mertensia  maritliDa. 

Cakile  Americaoa.  Sabbstia  gracilis. 

BudsoDia  tomentosa.  S.  stellaris. 

Boakenja  peploide«.  Atriplex  boatata. 

Spfrgularia  rubra,  Salicoraia  herbacea. 

var,  mariiia.  Cbeaopodina  mtirititns. 

Hibiscus  moscbeutoa.  Salsola  Kali. 

Latbyrus  marilimus.  Acaida  eannabina. 

Ligusticura  Scoticnm.  Euphorbia  polfgoaifolia. 

Archangelica  pereBriaa.  Triglocbla  palustre. 

SulidagD  semper firena.  T.  maritimum. 

Plan  (ago  marilima,  Judcus  bulbosns. 

var.  juDcoidea.  Calamagrostis  arenatia. 

Armeria  vulgaria.  Spartiua  polystacbja. 

Glanxuaritima.  Brizopyrum  spicatum. 

In  conneoljon  with  this  snbject,  it  may  not  be  inappropriate 
here  to  notice  the  peculiar  occurrence  of  maritime  species  in  the 
interior  of  Canada,  and  of  New  York  and  other  States.  They  are 
found  as  well  upon  the  coasts  of  Lakes  Superior  and  Huron,  as 
near  the  matins  of  Lakes  Eric,  Ontario,  and  Champlain.  Mr.  J. 
E.  Cabot,  the  author  of  the  narrative  of  the  expedition  in  Agassiz'a 
Lake  Superior,  thus  adverts  to  the  eastern  side  of  the  lake :  "  The 


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416  THE  CANADIAN  NATDOALIST.  [DeC. 

resemlilaDoe  to  the  sea-shore  ofleo  recurred  to  my  mind.  Accord- 
ing to  Dr.  Leconte,  several  iosocte  foood  here  are  identical  irith 
specieB  belonging  to  the  aea-shore,  and  others  corresponding  or 
similar.  The  beach-pea  {Lalhyna  maritimui),  and  Polygonum 
m'lritimum,  both  of  them  sea-shore  plants,  are  abundant  in  this 
Deighborhood  ;  the  former,  indeed,  throughoat  the  north  shore  of 
the  lake."  In  addition  to  these  two  species,  six  truly  sea-shore 
species  have  been  observed  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  same 
lake. 

The  neighborhood  of  the  lai^e  lakes  is  not,  in  every  instance, 
the  place  of  growth  of  these  maritime  plants;  for  at  the  salt-springs 
of  Salina  in  New  York  State,  according  to  Torrey,  Gray,  and  other 
authorities,  there  have  been  fonnd  Raauncnlut  Cyntbularia,  Sibit- 
cus  motckeutoi,  Salicomia  herhacea,  Triglockin  marUitaam,  T. 
palutire,  and  Scir^ut  marititnvg. 

From  varioas  sources,  I  have  ascertained  that  the  following 
species  occur  along  the  Great  Lakes,  or  near  salt-springs  in  New 
York. 

Euphorbia  polygon  [folia. 
PoIjgoDum  marititnum. 

Cakile  AiDecicaoa.  Triglocbio  a 

EibiBcuB  moscheuWs.  T.  palustre. 

Latliyrus  maritimns.  Scirpus  mari 

Alriplei  hastata.  Calamagroal 

Galicoraia  berCacea.  Qordeum  jubatum. 

The  occurrence  of  these  maritime  species  in  localities  now  so 
far  distant  from  their  natural  homes  appears  to  point  to  a  time 
when  a  very  considerable  portion  of  the  province  was  covered  by 
the  ocean ;  when  the  ocean  limits  were  maeh  farther  inland  than 
they  are  now,  and  sea-shore  vegetation,  as  a  consequence,  occupied 
a  different  location  from  that  which  it  at  present  retains.  The 
most  recent  period  during  which  such  a.  change  in  the  aspect  of 
our  province  took  place,  was  at  the  time  wheu  the  marine  clays  of 
the  Ottawa  valley  were  deposited.  There  is  evidence  derivedfrom 
T^etable  remains  in  these  clays  that  some  of  our  moat  common 
plants  had  an  existence  then,  and  we  have  thus  reason  to  suppose 
that  present  species,  including  maritime  plants,  had  been  created 
at  that  time.  During  this  period,  the  maritime  plants,  compelled 
by  the  gradual  depression  of  the  land  and  the  consequent  inroads 
of  the  ocean  over  what  is  now  eastern  Canada,  must  have  migrated 


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1864.]  SRUHUOND  ON   CANADIAN   BOTANT.  417 

to  localities  previonsl;  tar  inlaad,  aod  towards  the  lakes.  The 
lakes  were  then,  doubtless,  much  lai^r  than  at  present,  and  it 
maj  be  that  at  that  time  thej  nere  united  into  one  vast  inland 
fresb-water  sea,  extending  from  near  the  then  ocean-coast  west- 
ward. Means  of  diffusion  was  thus  afforded,  to  these  sea-shore 
plants.  The  presence  of  extensive  bodies  of  fresb-wuter  would 
bave  a  moderating  effect  upon  the  atmosphere,  which  would, 
with  the  exwption  of  the  absence  of  the  saline  element,  be 
much  the  same  as  that  of  the  sea-coast.  That  the  vicinity  of 
these  lakes  would  form  a  not  altogether  unfavorable  habitat 
for  a  maritime  vegetation  is  shown  by  t!ie  fact,  that,  as  a  general 
rule,  the  maritime  species  scattered  through  Canada  at  the  present 
time,  are  only  found  in  such  localities.  We  may  then  readily 
imagine  that  having  become  settled  there,  when,  after  the  gradual 
lapse  of  time,  the  waters  of  the  lake  retreated  to  their  present 
limits,  these  plauls  would  follow,  still  continuing  to  retain  their 
positions  near  the  shores,  which  would  thus  accouutfor  their  wide 
diffusion  throughout  the  country  at  the  present  time.  We  may 
then  regard  these  peculiarly  distributed  plants  as  the  relics  of 
a,  more  extended  maritime  vegetation  of  the  post^tertiary  period. 

This  theory  of  the  causes  of  the  distribution  of  sea-shore 
plants  over  Canada,  which  I  bave  briefly  endeavored  to  explain, 
resting  as  it  does  almost  entirely  upon  a  consideration  of  the  past 
geological  conditions  of  the  country,  and  upon  some  assumptions 
not  yet  fully  sustained  by  facte,  may  be  open  to  objections.  It 
may  be  a  question  whether  the  facilities  for  migration  to  the  ancient 
lakes  and  for  distribution  along  their  shores,  were,  at  that  time, 
ao  ample  as  I  have  supposed.  Still  it  is  conceived  that  the 
peculiar  diffusion  of  these  species  must  have  originated  in  some 
such  way  as  that  conjectured.  I  cannot  think  that  it  Is  due  to 
mere  accident. 

V.  Alpine  Type. 

The  species  enumerated  in  the  list  given  below  to  illustrate  onr 
alpine  and  sub-olpine  floras  have  been  chiefly  obtained  from  the 
Uingan  Islands,  Anticosti,  and  Gaap£.  The  Mingan  Islands  and 
AnticoBli  have  recently  afforded  to  collectors  many  very  interesting 
ftlpine  forms, — some  hitherto  unknown  south  of  Labrador,  unless 
found  upon  the  high  alpine  tops  of  the  White  Mountains.  Draba 
wcana,Cochlearia  tridaetylitet,  Dryae  iategri/olia,Rubu*  arcticut, 
and  some  other  boreal  forms  detected  there,  form  valuable  additions 


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418  THE  CANADIAN   MATCRAL18T.  [DeC- 

to  the  Conadian  flora.  On  the  GaBp^  cliffs,  however,  the  vegetation 
psrtakes  more  of  n  sub-alpine  character.  Solidago  ikynoidea, 
Dn/iis  Drummondiif  Vaccinium  Vilie-Idoai,  and  Saxi/raga  aisoon 
are  there,  with  Aiplenivm  viride,  a  fero  until  lately  unknown  on 
the  Atlantic  coast  Bouth  of  Greenland.  The  northern  shore  of 
Lake  Superior  appears  also  to  be  sab-alpine. 

The  north-western  parts  of  Newfoundland  near  the  Straits  of 
IWisle  have  been  recently  visited  by  "Mr.  Kiehardson  of  the  Geo- 
logical Survey  of  Canada,  and  in  a  small  coUeation  of  plants  made 
by  him  occur  Lychnis  alpina,  Dryas  integi-i/olia,  Rabu»  arctieut, 
SoUJago  virga-aurea  var.  alpina,  DitipejiEia  Lapponica,  Satix 
reticulata,  and  S.  phylicifolia,  all  alpine  species.  Rubus  Chamcemo- 
ru»,  Vacccinium  uliginosum,  V.  Vitis-Idaa,  Empetrum  nigrum 
and  two  or  three  other  sub-alpine  forms,  were  aiao  obtained  by  him 
in  the  same  localities.  On  the  neighboring  coast  of  Labrador 
the  alpine  plants  collected  by  the  Abbfi  Ferland  were  Silmeacaulii, 
Rubus  arcticiiB,&dum  Rhodiala,  Aretotfapkt/hs  alptna,Diapenna 
Lapponica,  Fleurogyne  rotata,  and  Salix  alpestrit.  Anticostl  and 
the  north-western  part  of  the  island  of  Newfoundland  appear  to 
form  the  southern  limit  of  alpine  v^etation  upon  the  Atlantic 
coast.  Their  complete  exposure  to  the  effects  of  the  polar  current, 
as  well  as  the  rather  high  latitude  occupied  by  them,  must  aid  in 
giving  their  shores  an  alpine  aspect. 

In  addition  to  the  list  of  alpine  plants,  I  enumerate  a  number  of 
species  which,  judging  by  their  range  in  Canada,  or  their  limits  upon 
high  monnttuns  in  the  United  States,  must  be  regarded  as  sab- 
alpine.  Vacdnum  asspitosum,  Loiteleuria  procumhem,Caslillfia 
teptenfrionalit,  and  Pkleum  alpinnm  do  not,  according  to  Gray, 
descend  beyond  the  alpine  districts  on  the  mountainsof  New  Eng- 
land, but  with  us  range  into  the  sub-alpine  districts  aroand  Lake 
Superior,  and  the  latter  two  have  been  likewise  observed  in  Gasp^. 
Woodna  alpiiia  and  Aspkniam  viride  I  also  provisionally  class  as 
snb-alpine.  Catsiope  hj/pnoidct  can  hardly  be  even  r^arded 
as  sub-alpine,  if  Professor  Bell's  locality  on  the  south  side  of  La 
Cloche  Island  in  Lake  Huron  be  correct 

1.  Alfine  species. 

Tbblictnim  alpinum.  Sedum  Rhodtola. 

RaDQDcnlus  affinis.  Sai[frag&  Btellaris. 

Drabft  iocana.  S.  niTalia. 

Erygimum  lanceolatnm.  KabaluB  Danns. 

Tesicaiia  exctica.  Anienaaria  Carpklhica. 


V,  Google 


1861.]  OBANT  ON  THE  OEOLOOT  OF  THE  OTTAWA.  419 

Cochltarla  tridactjiites.  Senecio  pwudo-ttrnica. 

Tbloapi  monlaaam.  Erigeron  acre. 

Viola  paluslris.  ArctosUphjIoa  alpina. 

ParnassiaparriSora.  Andromeda  letragona. 

Dryaa  integrifolia,  '      Pleurogjne  rolata. 

D.  octopetala.  Rumei  domceticus. 

Sibbaldis  proeombeDB.  Betala  nana. 

RubuB  arcticns.  SalU  telJcnUta, 

Epilabium  alpiaam,  var.  vestita. 

vnr.  majuB,  S.  repeos- 
8.  OrtenUndica. 

2.  Sub-Alpine  species. 

Al9la«  GrcenUndica.  Caatilleia  septeatriODalia. 

Hedfgaruiii  boreale.  Euphrasia  oSciaalia. 

AalragaluB  secuadiis.  PoljgnDum  riviparum. 

Dtjoi  Drunmondii.  Gmpeinim  Digram. 

Kabu9  Cbameemotag.  Tofieldia  paluslris. 

Bolidago  ibjrsoiJea,  Scirpug  cngpitosaa. 

3.  TJrga-aurea.  Poa  alpina. 

Arnica  mollis.  Phleam  alpiaam. 

Vacciaam  uliginoBam.  Woodeia  alpina. 

T.  Vitis-ldtta.  AspUnium  viride. 

V.  csapiUiBum.  Ljcopudinm  S  elago. 

Of  the  alpine  species  enumentted,  only  eight  are  natives  of  the 
United  States ;  but  in  the  eub-alpine  list  there  arc  only  six, — Astra- 
galiti  tecundtu,  Drya»  Driitnmondil,  Tofieldia  pahtstrU,  Poa 
alpina,  Woodtia  alpina,  &ii<l  Asplenium  viride,  which  are  not 
likewise  indigenous  to  the  Northern  States.  TofieldUi  paluttrU 
is  omitted  from  Dr.  Gray's  Manual,  apparently  under  the  mistaken 
impression  that  Isle  Royale  on  which  it  has  I)ecn  observed 
doea  not  form  a  part  of  the  Union.  The  island  belongs  to 
jMinnesota,  and  does  therefore  strictly  come  within  tbe  limits  of 
the  work. 

London,  C.  W.,  Oct.,  1864. 


THE  GEOLOGY  OF  THE  OTTAWA  VALLEY. 
By  Jia.  A.  Qiuitt,  U.D.,  F.R.C.S.E.,  F.6.S. 

The  obannel  of  the  river  Ottawa,  in  this  immediate  neighbui^ 
hood,  is  wholly  excavated  in  the  Trenton  limestone,  which,  to  a 
considerable  extent,  can  be  seen  on  both  sides;  it  also  constitutes 
tho  projecting  points  of  roek  seen  from  tbe  Suspension  Bridge,  as 


,,;.  Google 


420  THE  CANADIAN   NATURALIST.  [DeC. 

well  as  the  small  island  immediately  beneath, — upon  which 
island  it  haa  been  proposed  to  erect  a  monumeot  to  the  Prince 
of  Wales. 

The  range  of  hlUa  seen  running  along  the  north  shore  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  from  ita  mouth  to  Quebec,  and  onward  in  a  westerly 
direction,  along  the  north  aide  of  the  Ottawa  Kiver,  is  looked  upon 
as  being  at  one  time  the  shore  of  an  ancient  ocean.  A  view  from 
the  summit  of  one  of  these  hills  in  a  direction  south,  exhibits  a 
great  tract  of  level  country,  lotr  l^ingi  ^nd  considered  as  thewide, 
flat  valley  of  an  ancient  ocean,  whose  waters,  long  since  removed, 
have  left  behind,  in  remembrance  of  their  cxialence,  the  great  beds  of 
Silurian  rooks,  abunnding  in  fossilized  remains  of  the  various 
organisms  which  flourished  during  that  interesting  epoch.  Of  the 
strata  entering  into  the  formations  of  this  section,  the  lowest  rock 
is  the  Potsdam  Sandstone,  excepting  the  Metamorphic  Kocka, 
which,  although  stratified,  may  be  distioguisbed  by  a  more  or  less 
granitic,  and  crystalline  aspect,  and  are  of  older  date.  The  greater 
number  of  the  boulders  scattered  so  profusely  over  the  entire  face 
of  the  country,  are  gneiss  in  one  of  two  forms, — as  either  the  mi- 
caceous or  ordinary  gneiss,  or  homblendic  gneiss.  The  former 
consists  of  quartz,  feldspar,  and  mica  ;  the  latter,  of  quartz,  feld- 
spar, and  hornblende.  Gneiss  is  generally  known  from  gninile 
by  ite  striped  or  banded  character, 

FoTSDAU  Sandstone  is  a  term  given  by  the  New  York  geolo- 
g^ts  to  a  formation  which  b  well  developed  at  Potsdam,  in  northern 
New  York,  and  is  there  considered  as  forming  the  buse  of  the 
palfBOzoio  series  of  rocks.  Sir  William  Lc^an  considers  this  forma- 
tion as  a  member  of  the  Potsdam  Group.  It  crosses  from  St. 
Lawrence  County,  New  York,  into  Canada;  the  greatest  develop- 
ment on  this  side  being  at  the  County  of  Beauharnois.  It  is  said 
to  fill  up  the  inequalides  of  the  underlying  Laurentian  series. 
This  formation  is  met  with  to  the  eastward,  between  Lake  Chan- 
di^e  and  a  spur  of  Laurentian  rocks,  from  three  to  five  miles 
removed  from  the  right  bank  of  the  Lac  des  Chata,  to  Nepean,  a 
distance  of  fully  thirty  miles.  In  Nepean  the  rook  dips  north- 
ward, and  thus  sinks  beneath  the  calciferous  formation.  By  means 
of  a  dislocation,  the  south  side  of  the  band,  after  leaving  the  gneiss, 
is  brought  against  the  Chazj  and  Trenton  formations.  The  con- 
tinuation of  the  dislocation  on  the  south  side  of  the  Laurentian 
spur,  accounts  for  the  absence  of  Potsdam  sandstone  in  that  par- 
ticular position.    In  the  "  Geology  of  Canada"  it  isheie  stated  as 


,  Gooc^lc 


1864.]  OBANT  ON  THB  OBOLOOT  OP  THB  OTTAWA.  421 

coostltQtiDg  the  sovtli  side  of  a  synclinal  form,  on  the  north  ade 
of  which  it  rises  in  Hull,  from  beneath  the  higher  members  of  the 
Lower  Silurian  series.  In  Hull  it  is  observed  abont  five  miles 
north  of  the  Ottawa,  and  about  two  miles  east  of  the  Gatineau, 
where  it  is  alao  brought  into  view  by  a  dislocation  which  branches 
in  Oagoode  and  Gloucester,  from  the  one  previously  mentioned, 
and,  passing  in  a  direction  somewhat  west  of  north,  crosses  the 
Ottawa  at  the  Little  ChandiSre  Falls,  and  shows  a  downward  throw 
-on  the  east  side.  According  to  Professor  Dana,  daring  the  first 
half  of  the  Lower  Silurian  era,  the  whole  east  and  nest  were  alike 
in  being  covered  with  the  sea,  and  that  in  the  first  or  Fotedam 
period,  this  continent  was  just  beneath  or  at  the  SDrface.  After- 
wards, in  the  Trenton  period,  the  depth  became  greater,  and 
afforded  pure  waters  for  the  very  abundant  marine  life. 

Calcifbbous  Sand-Bock  succeeds  Potsdam  sandstone,  and 
the  characteristio  portion  of  this  formation,  in  Canada,  is  a  granu- 
lar magnesinn  limestone  or  dolomite,  of  a  dark  bluish-gray  color, 
crystalline,  strongly  coherent,  weathering  yellowish  brown,  and 
frequently  containing  small  geodes,  filled  either  with  calcareous 
spar,  quartz  crystals,  sniphate  of  barytes,  sulphate  of  .atrontia,  or 
sulphate  of  lime.  Its  fossils  are  very  imperfect,  and  in  most 
cases  only  monlds  of  these  are  to  be  found.  In  some  places  the 
upper  part  of  this  formation  is  of  a  bluish-gray  calcareous  argilite. 
When  exposed  to  the  air,  it  turns  yellow  or  brown,  and  frequently 
develops  a  bituminons  odor.  The  calcareous  beds  in  many  districtfi 
yield  a  poor  description  of  lime,  and  hence  the  term  bastard 
limestones  is  applied  to  them  by  settlers  and  others.  Calciferous 
8androck  forms  part  of  the  great  series  of  strata  called  the  Quebec 
Group.  It  is  seen  along  the  south  shore  of  the  Ottawa  in  many 
localities  from  Carillon  to  the  Chats.  At  Aylmer  it  occurs  on 
both  sides  of  the  river,  and  from  the  Alumette  Island  extends 
south  to  Prescott,  at  which  point  it  crosses  the  St.  Lawrence  Into 
the  United  States,  A  little  below  Prescott,  on  the  spot  where  the 
battle  of  the  Windmill  was  fought,  gentle  undulations  are  to  be 
observed  in  the  strata  of  this  formation,  but  more  particularly  on 
descending  the  river  from  Maitland  to  this  point.  According  to 
Sir  W.  Logan,  the  total  thickness  of  this  formation  is  abont  300 

Chazt    Limestone  overlies  the  Calciferous   formation,  and 

derives  its  name  from  Chazy,  in  the  State  of  New  York,  west  of 

ToL.  I.  CO  No.  6. 


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422  THE   CANADIAN    NATDOALIST.  [DeO. 

Lako  Gltamplaiii,  where  it  was  Grat  described  by  the  New  York 
geologists.  In  Canada  it  ia  associated  with  eandstones  and  ahale, 
and  ia  here  described  aa  Chazj  formation.  It  is  exposed  in  the 
outting  of  the  Qrenville  oanal,  and  there  crosses  the  Ottawa  to 
Hawkeshnry.  Id  its  geographical  distribution,  it  forms  a  zone 
around  the  geological  depression  between  the  Ottawa  and  the  St, 
Lawrence.  It  forms  two  patches  on  the  calciferous  outlier  of  the 
Lac  des  Chats,  also  of  the  lowest  outlier  of  the  Alnmette  Islands. 
The  arenaceous  part  of  the  Chazy  is  seen  at  Aylmcr,  in  Hull,  and 
in  the  eleventh  range  of  Eardley,  on  the  north  aide  of  tbe  Ottawa. 
It  is  also  found  in  the  Townships  of  Huntly  and  Bamsay.  The 
great  mass  of  limestone  which  overlies  the  Chazy  formation  is 
divided  into  three  portion^  by  the  New  York  geol<^st8.  Tbe 
divisions  are  supposed  to  have  been  characterised  by  peculiar  fa^sila. 
However,  in  Canada,  a  separation  of  this  kind  cannot  be  definitely 
carried  out,  owing  to  the  circumstance  that  the  Birdseye  and 
Black  River  formations  become  very  indistinct  j  they  are,  in  con- 
sequence, grouped  together.  Not  only  are  the  strata  blended  to- 
gether, but  also  the  fossils  characteristic  of  the  one  are  found  in 
the  other ;  thus  the  difficulty  of  division.  According  to  Sir  W. 
L<^n,  tbe  Birdseye,  Black  River,  and  Trenton  formations  con- 
stitute one  of  tbe  most  persistent  and  conspicuously  marked  series 
of  tbe  strata  of  the  Lower  Silurian  period  of  North  America. 

The  limestone  of  the  Trenton  group  is  found  extensively  in 
Canada  East  and  West,  and  particularly  between  tbe  Ottawa  and 
the  St.  Lawrence,  but  more  especially  around  the  capital  of 
Canadn,— Ottawa.  The  limestones  of  this  locality  are  affected  by 
two  parallel  dislocations  between  five  hundred  and  six  hundred 
yards  apart,  west  of  the  Rideau.  "  One  of  these  dislocations  cornea 
to  the  Ottawa  a  little  below  the  exit  of  the  canal,  in  a  small  up- 
throw to  the  south;  and  theotber  aboutsix  hundred yardsaboveit,. 
beyond  tbe  Barrack  Hill,  isa  downthrow  of  seventy  feet  in  the 
same  direction."  Farther  west  this  series  of  limestones  come  up 
against  the  Gloucester  and  Hull  fault,  extending  from  the  west 
side  of  the  junction  gore  of  Gloucester  across  the  Ottawa  to  the 
front  of  the  sixth  lot  of  the  fifth  range  of  Hull.  Owing  to  these 
various  faults  it  has  been  found  difficult  for  tbe  Geological  Survey 
to  estimate  the  thickness  of  the  series  in  this  neighborhood.  It  is, 
however,  oomputed  that  tbe  total  volume  of  the  limestones  of  this 
locality  will  not  fall  short  of  six  hundred  feet. 

Utica  Slate  (so  termed  from  Utioa  in  tbe  State  of  New 
York). — It  comprises  a  series  of  dark-brown,  bitnmiuouB  shalee. 


C^.txii^lc 


1864.]  QBANT  OR  THE  QEOLOOT  OF  THE  OTTAWA.  423 

iaterstratified  here  and  there  with  a  few  beds  of  dark  lime- 
Btooe.  It  is  found  in  considerable  qoaDtJt;  near  this  city,  and  is 
Been  cropping  out  directly  across  the  Eideau  Bridge,  near  the 
General  Protestant  Hospital.  In  the  Townships  of  CoUingwood 
and  Whitby  this  shale  is  sufficiently  bituminous  to  produce 
mineral  oil  in  considerable  quantity. 

The  Drift  ok  BocldebFo&mation,  of  which  wehaTeumpIe 
evidence  in  this  locality,  comes  under  the  Poat-pliocene  or  Post- 
tertiary  period.  The  clay,  sand,  and  gravel  of  the  valleys  of  the^ 
Ott&wa  and  St.  Lawrence,  containing  sea-shells  or  the  skeletons 
of  marine  fish,  are  also  referred  to  it.  Owing  to  the  manner  in 
which  drift  is  supposed  to  have  been  formed  (that  is,  transported 
by  ancient  glaciers),  it  is  termed  Glacial  Drift.  "  The  greatest 
development  and  extension  of  these  glaciers  is  said  to  have  been- 
dnring  the  interval  between  the  close  of  tht  Cainozoic  period  and 
the  commencement  of  the  existing  epoch,  properly  so  called."  lb 
forms  the  surface  of  country  over  a  great  part  of  the  triangular 
area  included  by  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Ottawa  rivers.  StratiSed 
clays  and  sand  fill  up  depressions  of  great  extent  over  this  surface? 
and  erratic  boulders  of  great  size  are  to  be  observed,  in  localities- 
the  most  anespected.  A  granitic  boulder  of  considerable  magni- 
tude is  to  be  seen  just  above,  and  to  the  right  of  the  Suspension' 
Bridge,  on  the  table  of  rock  lying  below ;  and  one  on  the  island  im- 
mediately above  the  Chaudi^re  Falls,  of  mnch  greater  size.  Dana 
states  that  nothing  but  moving  ice  could  have  transported  the 
drift,  with  its  immense  boulders.  lu  the  glacial  regions  of  the 
Alps,  ice  is  peribrming  this  work  at  present.  In  that  locality 
there  are  evidences  of  stones  of  great  Bixe,  which  have,  in  former 
times,  been  borne,  by  a  slow  moving  glacier  from  the  vicinity  of 
Hont  Blanc  across  the  low  lands  of  Switzerland  to  the  slopes  of 
the  Jura  Mountains,  and  left  there,  a  height  of  2,203  feet  above 
the  present  level  of  Lake  Oeneva.  The  ohaonel  of  the  Otiawa 
River  is  contracted  at  various  parts  by  ridges  of  glacial  drift,  of 
boulders  running  north  and  south.  The  nearest  of  these  is  to  be 
seen  above  the  mouth  of  Qreen's  Creek,  between  seven  and  eight 
miles  below  this  city.  In  this  locality  a  well-marked  line  of  boul- 
ders runs  quite  across  the  river,  and  forms  a  considerable  obstruc- 
tion to  nav^ation  during  low  water,  such  as  we  have  had  this 
season  particularly.  Professor  Dawson  divides  the  eastern  post- 
glacial beds  into  two  series,  the  lower  a  deep-sea  deposit,  named  the 
Leda  Clay,  from  one  of  its  characteristic  shells;  and  the  upp«r, 


..Cooc^lc 


424  THE  CANADIAN   NATDRALIBT.  [Dec. 

for  a  Bimilar  reaeoo,  the  SazioaTa  sand,  formed  in  shallow  watere, 
Oa  the  south  bank  of  the  Ottawa  River,  from  this  city  to  Hawkes- 
bury,  the  lower  clay  formation  of  Dr.  Dawson  is  to  be  Been  in 
hanks  from  twenty  to  forty  feet  high.  "  The  overlying  sand  gene- 
mllj  approachee  the  river  and  conceals  the  clay  except  along  the 
streams."  Wherever  these  clay  formatioDS  exist  along  tlu  river 
the  shellB  Saxieava  ruyo$a  and  Tdlina  Or<aitandica  are  to  be 
fonnd,  and  in  a  bed  of  clay  at  Green's  Creek  nodular  masses  exist 
in  coDsiderable  ahnndance.  The  most  oommon  fossil  embedded  in 
those,  is  the  M'lilotat  villosai  or  capeling  of  the  Lower  St.  Law- 
rence. This  capeling  is  also  found  in  nodules,  in  clay,  on  the 
ChaudiSre  Lake,  183  feet;  on  the  Madawaakaat  20G  feet;  and  at 
Fort  Coulooge  Lake,  at  365  feet  above  the  sea.  This  formation 
contains  also  various  other  fossils.  On  the  north  side  of  the 
Ottawa,  from  Hull  to  Isle  Jesus,  this  clay  formation  covers  a  con- 
siderable breadth  between  the  Laurentian  Hills  and  tbe  river.  It 
can  aUo  be  traced  in  considerable  abundance  along  tbe  banks  of 
the  Gatinean  and  river  Rouge.  Id  the  former  locality  it  is  well 
knowD  to  the  lumberers,  who  io  wet  weather  describe  it  as  the 
sticking  clay  of  the  Gatinoau.  A  well-deSncd  bill  of  clay  exists 
on  the  front  and  to  the  left  of  the  General  Protestant  Hospital, 
facing  the  Rideau  River,  and  to  the  rear  an  extensive  mound  of 
sand,  both  of  which  are  drift  formations.  Tbe  boulder  formation 
or  glacial  drift,  both  ia  the  Britbh  Isles  and  North  America,  is 
referred  by  Lyell  to  the  a^  of  the  newer  pliocene,  of  which  it 
marks  its  close ;  while  the  stratified  deposits  which  overlie  it,  oon- 
sisting  partly  of  boulder  formation  re-arraoged  by  water,  are 
placed  among  post-tertiary  strata.  The  records  of  the  drift  or 
boulder  period  extend  over  North  America,  north  of  parallel  40°, 
as  well  as  over  all  the  northern  countries  of  Europe,  and  tbe 
various  boulders  have  been  moved  from  the  nortb  towards  the 
soutb.  Throughout  the  r^ions  occupied  by  tbe  drift,  tbe  rocks 
in  place  are  more  or  less  polished,  striated,  or  grooved.  Those 
marks  are  observed  on  tbe  consolidated  formations  that  appear  at 
the  surface,  and  constitute  a  very  essential  part  of  the  records  of 
this  period. 

Book  Basins  ok  Pot-holes. — These  are  everywhere  common 
along  rapid  brooks  and  rivers.  They  are  most  frequently  seen  on 
elevated  ground,  and  present  all  the  appearances  of  those  formed 
at  water-falls  by  the  gyration  of  the  pebbles.  Professor  Emmons 
gives  an  example  of  one,  as  seen  at  Antwerp,  St.  LawreniM  County, 


,.,.d.i.  Google 


1864.]  QBANT  ON  THB  OEOLOGT  OJ  THE  OTTAWA.  425 

N.  Y.  He  states  that  it  is  at  leaat  one  hundred  feet  above  the 
Oswegatchie,  three-fourths  of  a  mile  distant,  with  an  interrening 
Mil  higher  bj  some  fi%  feet  than  thia  remarkable  pot-hole,  which 
is  from  twenty-four  to  thirty  feet  deep,  and  from  twelve  to  tburteen 
feet  in  diameter,  bearing  the  nsaai  marks  on  the  interior  of  water- 
worn  surfaces.  Another  example  of  this  kind  is  described  id 
Grafton,  New  Hampahire,  on  the  crown  of  a  high  Talle7,between  the 
waters  of  the  Conneo  tiont  and  Merrimack  rivers,  at  an  elevation  abon  t 
2000  feet  above  them,  and  a  smaller  one  eight  or  ten  feet  higher. 
The  celebrated  basin  at  Franconia  Notch  is  one  of  these  wells,  forty 
feet  in  diameter,  and  twenty-e^ht  feet  deep.  It  is  filled  to  the  depth 
of  eight  or  ten  feet  with  pare  wat«r,  which  revolves  with  such  force 
that  it  is  ooundered  a  dangerous  place  for  even  an  expert  swimmer. 
These  basins  have  also  been  noticed  in  the  granites  of  high  and 
exposed  regions  of  Devonshire,  England,  varying  fVom  one  to 
several  feet  in  depth,  and  from  a  few  inchea  to  several  feet  in 
diuneter.  At  one  time  superstition  ascribed  the  excavation  of 
thcee  basins  or  pot-holefi,  in  that  locality,  to  the  Druids;  but 
no  person  now  doubts  their  true  origin,  as  the  results  of 
deoomposition  and  attrition  on  the  softer  portions  of  the  graoite. 
Pot-holes  in  process  of  tbrmation  are  described  in  Chambers's  Gaset- 
teer,  vol.  i,  p.  188,  as  seen  in  the  course  of  the  river  Devon. 
Throt^hout  various  parts  of  Canada  these  pot-holes  have  been 
noticed,  via  :  At  French  River  they  occur  at  considerable  distance 
above  the  river  level,  and  range  from  one  to  three  and  a  half  or 
four  feet  in  depth,  and  from  twelve  to  ei<;hteen  inches  in  diameter. 
At  the  High  Falls,  on  the  River  du  Maine,  several  pot-holes  are 
to  be  seen  in  the  gneiss  rocks.  Very  peculiar  formations  of  this 
description  arc  to  be  seen  at  the  Hoob^  Capetaine  Rapids,  on  the 
Ottawa  River,  at  an  elevation  of  fifty  to  sixty  feet  above  the  pres- 
ent river  level.  Several  small  ones  are  met  with  at  and  above 
the  High  Falls  of  Dartmouth  River,  which  enters  into  the  north- 
west arm  of  Gaap^  Bay  ;  also  on  York  River,  which  eaters  the 
south-west  arm  of  Gaap^  Bay ;  also  seen  in  tlie  black  ahale  in 
the  bed  of  the  Black  River,  lota  l€th  and  17th,  fifth  range  of  Acton, 
in  the  Eastern  Townships.*  Those  who  take  an  interest  in  such 
formations,  need  not  proceed  beyond  the  limits  of  Ottawa  City  in 
order  either  to  gratify  curiosity  or  satiate  a  thirst  for  knowledge 
in  this  respect.  Numerous  small  formations  are  seen  in  the  aur- 
faco-rock  on   the  roadside   towards  the  Little  Chaudiiire  Falls  : 


*  Report  of  the  Geological  SurTpy. 


■v,  Google 


426  THE   CANADIAN   NATURALIST.  [Dec. 

also  on  the  Le  Breton  Flat,  in  which  locality  theyposBcss  no  small 
degree  of  interegt,  and  have  called  forth  considerable  remark, 
owing  to  several  of  them  appearing  as  natural  wells.  Of  these, 
the  one  most  recently  discovered  is  in  the  foundation  just  excavated 
by  Mr.  Richards,  Chaudi^re,  near  the  residence  of  the  Hon. 
James  Skead.  It  was  exposed  after  the  removal  of  a  bed  of 
alluvium,  about  two  feet  in  thickness,  and  was  filled  above  for  two 
feet  with  drift  material,  containing  numerous  recent  shells;  and 
below,  with  sand,  pebbles  and  boulders  of  various  sizes.  These 
beiii;^  all  removed,  the  dimensions  were  shown  to  be  in  diameter 
three  feet,  and  in  depth  thirteen  feet.  At  present  this  pot-hole 
is  filled  with  pure  water,  of  excellent  quality.  Within  the  last 
few  weeks  several  hundreds  have  visited  this  interesting  locality, 
and  a  few  have  taken  away  a  portion  of  the  water,  from  a  belief 
that  it  possessed  medicinal  properties,  but  in  my  opinion  its  pro- 
perties are  equal  to  those  of  any  other  well  in  that  locality,  but 
not  superior.  A  pot-hole  in  the  floom  of  Mr.  Perley's  mills,  is 
ten  feet  in  diameter,  and  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  deep. — Extracted 
from,  a  hcture  on  the  Geohgieal  Structure  of  the  Ottaioa,  read 
he/ore  the  Ottaioa  Natural  History  SocUti/. 


ON  PEAT  AND  ITS  USES. 
B7  T.  S.  Hdbt,  A.m.,  F.R.S. 

The  peat  deposits  of  Canada  have  been  made  the  subject  of  re- 
peated notice  in  successive  Annual  Reports  of  the  Geological  Sur- 
vey, and  are  at  length  attracting  the  attention  of  practical  men. 
A  few  years  since  attempts  were  made  by  Mr.  C.  M.  Tate  to  work 
the  peat  of  Chambly,  which  were  partially  successful ;  and  more 
recently  we  learn  that  Mr.  Hodges,  haviag  purchased  a  large  area 
of  peat-bog  in  Bulstrode,  on  or  near  the  line  of  the  Arthahaska 
railway,  bas  imported  machinery  of  the  most  approved  construction, 
for  the  purpose  of  compressing  the  peat  for  fuel.  We  think  there- 
fore that  the  following  pages  extracted  from  "Gtcolc^  of  Canada" 
published  in  1863,  will  not  be  without  interest  to  our  readers,  as 
d. -scribing  both  the  principal  applications  of  peat,  and  some  of  its 
localities  in  Canada. 

Great  deposits  of  peat  are  met  with  in  various  parts  of  Eastern 
Canada,  which  seems  to  pre.sent  conditions  of  soil  and  climate 
peculbrly  favorable  to  its  growth  and  accumulation.     The  pe&t- 


,.,.d.i.  Google 


3S64.]  SB.   T.   STEBBT   HCNT  ON   PBAT.  427 

bogs,  SO  r&r  as  knowii,  are  chiefly  conSoed  to  the  plains  along  the 
St.  Lawrence  and  its  tributaries,  and  appear  to  have  been  foimed 
in  shallow  lakes,  which  have  been  gradaallj  filled  up  by  a  v^e- 
table  growth.  The  peat  often  rests  upon  a  lajer  of  shell-marl, 
which  at  one  time  formed  the  bottom  of  the  lake.  The  vegetation 
conaista,  for  the  most  part,  of  mosses  belonging  to  the  genus  Sphag- 
num. Besides  these,  however,  the  bogs  often  support  a  growth 
of  tamarack  (^Larix  Americana),  and  of  various  ericaceous  plants, 
belonging  chiefly  to  the  genera  Cuttandra,  Andromeda,  Kalmia, 
and  Ltdum.  The  leaves,  roots,  and  stems  of  these  help,  with  the 
moss,  to  make  up  the  peat.  The  peat  near  the  surface  of  the  bog, 
consists  of  the  moss  hut  little  altered,  and  is  very  soft  and  porous ! 
but  in  the  older  and  deeper  portions  of  the  deposit  it  is  more 
dense  and  darker  iu  color ;  the  v^;etable  tissue  having  undergone 
a  partial  decay,  by  which  its  Gbrous  structure,  to  a  great  or  less 
degree,  disappears,  and  the  peat  becomes  earthy  in  its  texture. 

These  different  forma  of  peat  present  very  great  variations  in 
their  specific  gravity.  That  from  the  surface  of  the  Bog  of  Allen, 
in  Ireland,  according  to  Sir  Robert  Kane,  has  a  density  of  0.335, 
or  only  one  third  that  of  water ;  while  the  blackish-brown  earthy 
peat,  from  a  lower  layer  in  the  same  bog,  is  from  0.639  to  0.672,  or 
double  that  of  the  surface.  A  peat  which  is  dug  near  Tavistock 
in  Devonshire,  has  a  density  of  0.850.  Similar  differences  will 
be  found  in  the  peat-bogs  of  Canada.  A  specimen  of  peat  from 
Sherrington,  described  on  page  642,  is  still  more  dense  than  any 
of  these,  being  so  heavy  as  to  sink  in  water ;  while  at  the  same 
time  it  only  contains  3.5  per  cent,  of  ash.  One  of  the  great  obstacles 
to  the  use  of  peat  is  the  large  amount  of  water  which  it  holds, 
and  the  obstinacy  with  which  it  ret^ns  this  water.  The  average 
results  of  a  great  number  of  experiments  made  in  the  Irish  bi^, 
show  that  the  general  mass  of  the  undrained  peat,  including  both 
the  lighter  and.  denser  varieties,  contains  from  92  to  95  per  cent 
of  water ;  while  the  edges  of  the  bog,  and  parts  more  or  less 
drained,  in  the  state  in  which  peat  is  generally  cut,  contain  from 
88  to  91  per  ceut.  The  turf,  as  used  in  that  country,  often  holds 
from  20  to  35  per  cent  of  water;  while  that  which  has  been 
stacked  from  six  to  twelve  months,  stiU  retains  from  18  to  20  per 
cent,  and  that  which  has  been  kept  in  a  dry  house  for  two  years, 
from  10  to  15  per  cent  of  water.  The  above  details,  and  many 
of  those  which  follow,  are  taken,  in  part,  from  Sir  Robert  Kane's 
iTork  on  "  The  Industrial  Resources  of  Ireland,"  and  a  subsetjuent 


,,;.  Google 


428  THE  CANADIAN   NATtT&ALIBT.  [DeO. 

report  by  him  on  the  working  of  peat ;  and  also  io  part  from  a 
recent  paper  bj  Mr.  C.  Hodgson,  read  before  the  Institution  of 
Civil  Engineere  of  Ireland. 

From  tbis,  it  will  be  seen  that  jo  cutting  ont  and  removing  th© 
peat  from  the  bc^,  it  becomes  necessary  to  transport  about  nine 
tons  of  water  for  each  ton  of  real  fuel.  So  long  as  a  turf-cutter 
works  along  the  edge  of  the  bog,  or  of  one  of  the  main  draine,  he 
can  spread  the  material  as  he  cute  it ;  but  when  large  quantitie» 
are  wanted,  additional  laborers  are  required  to  carry  the  peat,  with 
its  great  weight  of  contained  water,  to  a.  proper  place  for  spreading 
and  drying.  From  the  slowness  of  this  process  of  air-  and  sun- 
drying,  moreover,  a  given  dbtrict  can  only  produce  a  small  amount 
of  dried  peat  annually.  The  connequence  is,  that,  although  peat 
prepared  in  the  ordinary  way  is  a  cheap  domestic  fuel,  and  is  sold 
at  a  moderate  price,  it  is  found  that  as  soon  ts  the  consumptiott- 
increases  in  a  district,  the  price  increases,  and  that  it  is  impossible 
to  augment  the  supply  beyond  a  certain  limit.  The  Irish  Peat 
Company,  who  a  few  years  since  constructed  works  near  Atby,  for 
distilling  peat  at  the  rate  of  fifty  tons  daily,  bad  counted  upon 
obtaining  this  supply  at  from  2s.  6d.  to  3s.  the  ton ;  but  it  was 
found  that  before  they  had  secured  the  quantity  necessary  for 
carrying  on  their  works  successfully,  the  price  of  peat  increased  to 
5s.,  and  ultimately  to  6s.  6d.,  and  7b.,  sterling  the  ton.  This 
increase,  together,  as  we  are  told,  with  the  impossibility  of  obtain- 
ing, at  any  reasonable  price,  a  much  lai^er  supply,  were  among 
the  oauses  of  the  failure  of  the  enterprise. 

It  is  obvious,  then,  that  in  order  to  extend  the  use  of  peat, 
either  as  a  combustible,  or  as  a  material  for  distillation,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  introduce  great  improvements  into  its  mannlkcture, 
which  will  make  it  possible  to  free  it  as  rapidly  and  as  completely 
as  possible  from  the  water  which  it  contains.  It  is  also  de^rable 
to  reduce  its  volume,  for  the  convenience  of  transportation  ;  and 
to  give  it  a  solidity  and  tenacity  approaching  to  coal,  which  will 
allow  it  to  be  used  in  ordinary  grates  and  furnaces,  and  to  bear  a 
strong  blast.  For  this  purpose,  many  plans  have  been  proposed, 
and  numerous  patents  obtaioed  within  the  last  twenty-five  years. 
One  of  the  most  satisfactory  processes  is  said  to  be  that  now  pur- 
sued at  Ekman's  iron  works  in  SwedeD,'Which  is  similar  to  that 
patented  by  Linuing  in  1837.  According  to  his  specifications, 
the  peat  is  first  ground  to  a  homi^eneous  mass  in  a  png-mill,  simi- 
lar to  that  used  by  brick-makers,  but  with  longer  and  sharper 


..G-QOc^lc 


1864.]  DB.   T.  8TERRT   HUNT  ON  PEAT.  429 

kniTea,  placed  obliquely.  The  pulp  thas  obtuDod  ie  moulded  into 
ooaTenient  shapes,  and  couBolidsted  by  a  hydranlic  or  other  press  i 
after  which  the  blocks  are  dried  by  artificial  heat.  The  use  of 
bydraoKo  preaanre  was  several  years  since  tried  on  an  extensiye 
scale,  by  Mr.  C.  M.  Williams  at  Cappogae  in  Ireland.  He,  having 
broken  tip  the  peat,  placed  it  inlayera  between  cloths,  and  subjected 
it  to  a  powerful  hydraulic  press.  By  this  means,  he  succeeded 
in  redncing  it  to  one  half  its  original  weight,  and  to  one  third  its 
volume.  The  remaining  water  was,  however,  difficult  to  be 
expelled  &om  the  consolidated  peat ;  and  the  more  fibrcus  varieties- 
expanded  a  good  deal  in  dicing.  This  experiment  was  lately 
repeated,  on  a  considerable  scale,  by  the  Irish  Peat  Company ; 
and  with  similar  results.  They  also  built  lai^  drying-houses,  id 
which  attempts  were  made  to  dry  ordinary  peat  by  artificial  heat ; 
but  the  quantity  of  fuel  required  to  expel  the  great  amount  of 
water  from  the  peat,  was  found  to  be  so  considerable  that  the  pro- 
cess was  not  economical. 

A  different  plan  was  some  years  since  proposed  for  overcoming 
certain  of  the  difficulties  of  the  problem  ;  which  was,  after  drying 
peat  in  the  ordinary  manner,  to  pulveme  it  by  passing  it  through 
rollers,  then  to  drive  off  the  remaining  water  by  heat,  and  consoli- 
date the  dry  powder  by  powerful  pressure.  This  process  is  Fol- 
lowed at  Rosenheim,  in  southern  Bavaria,  where  the  peat  is  made 
into  small  blocks  of  eight  or  ten  ounces,  and  weighing  from  seventy 
to  eighty  pounds  to  a  cubic  foot.  The  latter  weight  corresponds 
to  a  speoifio  gravity  of  1.25,  which  is  nearly  that  of  bituminous 
coal.  (Percy's  Metallurgy,  vol.  i,  p.  78.)  Several  patents,  based 
upon  this  plan  of  dry  oompresBion,  have  been  within  the  last  few 
years  obtained  in  England ;  but  practical  difficulties  were  met  with, 
in  the  machinery  for  compression  f  besides  which,  as  Mr.  Hodgsou 
has  well  remarked,  the  great  problem  of  obtaining  a  cheap  and 
abundant  supply  of  dried  and  powdered  peat  still  remained.  This 
however,  according  to  him,  is  in  great  measure  resolved  by  a  um- 
ple  expedient.  By  passing  a  veij  light  harrow  over  the  surfaoe  of 
the  bc^,  a  thin  layer  is  broken  up.  After  a  few  boars  of  exposure 
to  the  air,  for  draining  and  partial  drying,  it  is  removed  by  scrap- 
ing ;  and  in  this  way  a  powdered  peat,  far  drier  than  the  general 
mass,  may  be  obtidoed  every  day  when  it  does  not  rain.  The 
material  thus  collected  costs  five  pence  the  ton,  and  contains,  on  an 
averse,  forty-five  per  cent  of  solid  matter;  while  reoently-cat 
peat  contains  only  ten  per  cent.    It  is  heaped  in  embankmentSy 


,  Cooc^lc 


430  THB   CANADIAN   NATUEALIST.  [Dec. 

nhere  it  is  foand  not  to  absorb  water,  and  is  dried  by  being  BpretA 
out  over  iron  plates  warmed  by  the  waste  steam  from  thecompress- 
ing  engine.  In  this  way,  according  to  Mr.  Hodgson,  the  peat 
standing  in  the  bc^  in  the  morning  may  be  harrowed  and  scraped, 
brought  in,  driedj  compressed,  and  oonTerted  into  an  exoellent  fuel 
before  night.  He  employs  for  its  compression,  an  engine  patented 
1»y  himself;  which  he  describes  as  a  bori£ontal  reciprocating  ram, 
working  in  a  cylinder  five  feet  long,  with  a  uniform  bore.  The 
powdered  peat  falls  into  this  as  the  ram  draws  back  at  each  stroke, 
and,  soon  filling  the  whole  length,  considerable  friction  takes  place 
against  the  sides  of  the  tube.  This  becomes  so  great  that  as  each 
■charge  tails  in,  it  is  completely  consolidated  between  the  advancing 
ram  and  the  column  of  peat  in  the  tube,  before  the  frictional 
resistance  of  the  column  is  overcome,  and  the  whole  mass  moves 
on ;  so  that  the  blocks  formed  at  the  one  end  are  saccessively  dis- 
charged at  the  other,  at  the  rate  of  sixty  a  minute;  making  in  an 
hour  about  fifteen  hundred-weight  of  compressed  peat,  equal  in 
density  to  coal.  This  apparatus  is  now  in  operation  at  Derrylea, 
near  Monasterevan ;  and  it  is  said  by  the  inventor  to  leave  no 
doubt  of  the  practicability  of  producing  dry  compressed  peat  on  a 
large  scale,  and  with  profit. 

Peat  is  not  only  an  economical  fuel  for  domestic  use,  but  is  in 
many  countries  employed  for  generating  stoam,  and  for  the  manu- 
facture of  iron.  For  the  latter  purpose,  it  is  used  in  Sweden, 
France,  and  in  many  parts  of  Germany,  where  the  supplies  of 
mineral  coal  are  not  abundant.  It  is  particularly  well  fitted  for 
producing  steam,  and  compressed  peat  has  now  for  several  years 
been  used  in  locomotive  engines  in  Bavaria ;  but  we  are  told  that 
before  this  application  was  successful,  many  difficulties  had  to  be 
surmounted.  Several  years  ago,  according  to  Sir  Bobert  Kane,  it 
was  in  general  use  upon  the  steamers  on  the  river  Shannon  in 
Ireland. 

In  H  paper  communicated  to  the  Society  of  Arts  in  London  in 
November,  1862,  Dr.  B.  H.  Paul— whose  eipcriments  on  the  dis- 
tillation of  peat  are  described  further  on — has  given  some  interest- 
ing conclusions  as  to  the  relative  value  of  peat  and  coal  as  Aiet. 
According  to  him,  while  the  calorific  or  heat-giving  power  of  car- 
bon is  represented  as  1000,  that  of  the  various  mineral  coals  is 
equal  to  from  903  to  906  ;  while  that  of  perfectly  dried  peat,  as 
•deduced  from  its  average  composition,  will  be  660.  But  as  ordi- 
nary ur-dried  peat  contains  about  one  fourth  its  weight  of  water, 


,.,.d.i.  Google 


1864.]  ,    DB.   T,   STXEEtr   HUNT   ON   PEAT.  431 

its  calorific  power  is  reduced  to  495,  or  about  one-half  that  of  the 
fiame  weight  of  coal.  The  averf^  weight  of  a  ouhio  foot  of  solid 
coal  is  aboat  eighty  pounds,  while  air-dried  peat  has  a  denaitj  cor- 
responding to  only  sixty-four  pounds.  A  cubic  foot  of  brokea  coal, 
however,  contains  about  sixty  pounds,  while  the  same  volume  of 
ordinary  peat  weighs  only  about  thirty  pounds ;  "  so  that  with  but 
half  the  calorific  power,  it  takes  twice  the  space ;  and  thus  to  pro- 
duce a  given  effect  with  air-dried  peat,  it  would  require  twice  the 
wdght,  and  four  times  the  bulk,  of  the  coal  necessary  lo  produce 
the  same  effuct."  This  calculation  as  to  bulk  of  course  refers  to 
uncompressed  peat  I  if  reduced  to  the  density  of  ooal,  aa  claimed 
by  Mr.  Hodgson's  process,  its  volume  is  of  course  diminished  oae 
half.  From  his  own  experience  in  Lewes,  Dr.  Paul  found  that 
on  the  moors,  where  peat  was  to  be  had  for  two  shillings  the  ton, 
it  oould  be  economically  used  for  generating  steam,  and  for  burn- 
ing bricks;  while  at  Stornaway,  near  by,  where  the  cost  of  the 
.peat,  delivered,  was  six  or  seven  shillings,  coal,  which  waseighteen 
ebillinga  the  too,  was  found  more  advantageous.  He  concludes 
that  peat  cannot  be  economically  transported  to  any  considerable 
distance ;  but  that  wherever  a  peat  having  a  fuel-value  one  half 
that  of  coal,  can  be  delivered  at  the  place  of  consumption  at  a  cost 
of  four  shillings  sterling  the  ton,  it  may  advantageously  replace 
coal,  where  this,  under  the  same  circumstances,  cosU  more  than 
.ten  shillings ;  hut  if  the  price  of  coal  is  ten  shillings  or  less,  there 
would  be  a  disadvantage  in  the  use  of  peat.  During  four  years 
Dr.  Paul  used  it  as  the  only  fuel  under  stationary  steam-boilers, 
and  found  it  to  answer  admirably  ;  and  he  states  that  Mr.  James 
Napier  of  Glasgow,  having  tried  it  upon  a  steamer,  is  of  opinion 
that  it  might  be  used  in  place  of  coal.  This,  of  course,  appliesto 
short  voyages,  and  to  coaditions  where  space  is  not  a  great  con- 
sideration. It  is  a  question  for  Lower  Canada  whether  properly 
dried  peat  can  be  furnished  at  a  price  per  ton  less  than  two  fifths 
that  of  coal;  in  which  case,  it  might  perhaps  be  advantageously 
employed  in  our  inland  navigation. 

Large  quantities  of  peatcharcoal  are  manufactured  in  France, 
.and  in  Germany.  For  this  purpose,  either  ordinary  stacks,  or 
cylindrical  kilns  built  of  brick,  are  employed.  A  current  of  steam 
heated  to  450°  or  460°  F.  has  likewise  been  employed  for  the 
.purpose ;  and  the  compressed  peat  has  also  been  distilled  in  iron 
retorts,  like  those  used  for  making  coal  gas ;  by  which  means  vols' 
tile  oils  and  combustible  gas  are  obtained  besides  the  chaico&l. 


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432  THE   CANADIAN    NATURALIST.  [Dsff. 

Good  air-dried  peat,  in  stacks  or  in  kilos,  yields  from  thirty  t9 
forty  per  cent  of  ita  bulk,  and  from  twenty-five  to  thirty-five  per 
cent  of  its  weight  of  charcoal ;  much  of  oouree  depending  oa  the 
amount  of  ash  which  the  peat  contains.  Large  quantities  of  peat 
and  of  peat-charcoal  are  prepared  for  the  market  of  Paris;  where- 
the  latter  fuel  is  lai^cly  used  for  domestic  purposes.  About  fifty 
miles  from  Paris,  near  Liancourt,  on  the  Northern  Railway,  is  a 
large  bog,  from  which,  in  1855,  10,000  or  12,000  tons  of  peat 
were  obtained.  The  peat  from  the  whole  thickness  of  the  bog, 
about  ten  feet,  was  transferred  to  flat-boats,  trampled,  and  turned 
over  with  shovels,  and  finally  moulded  by  pressure  into  small  bricks, 
which  when  dried  are  heavier  than  water.  These  were  charred  on 
the  spot,  and  yielded  about  forty  per  cent  of  charcoal,  which  gave 
27'0  per  cent,  of  ash  ;  the  dried  peat  itself  yidding  10-0  or  ll'O 
per  cent.  The  wholesale  price  of  this  compressed  peat  in  Paris 
was,  at  that  time,  $3-75  the  ton  of  2200  pounds,  while  the  char- 
coal made  from  it  was  $18.00  the  ton  ;  its  retail  price  being  about 
S24.00.  Ita  combustion  is  slower  than  wood -charcoal,  which  was 
sold  at  about  the  s^ne  price ;  while  both  mineral  coal  and  fire- 
wood were  retailed  at  from  S7.50  to  $9.50  the  ton  weight.  These 
figures  will  aid  in  obttuaing  a  notion  of  the  comparative  value  o€ 
the  various  kinds  of  fuel. 

The  object  proposed  by  the  Irish  Peat  Company,  as  already- 
mentioned,  was  the  distillatjon  of  peat;  by  which  it  is  made  to 
yield  a  tar,  from  which  are  extracted  illuminating  and  lubricating 
oils,  and  paraffine ;  besides  ammonia,  acetic  acid,  and  pyroxyiic 
spirit,  which  are  dissolved  in  the  watery  products  of  the  distillation. 
A  taige  amount  of  combustible  gas  is  also  diseng^ed,  which  may 
be  employed  as  a  source  of  heat  in  various  operations,  such  as  dis- 
tilling, burning  bricks,  and  lime.  By  distilling  the  dried  peat  in 
retorts,  a  considerable  amount  of  tar  is  obtained,  besides  a  reeidne 
of  coke  or  charcoal,  which,  however,  is  not  sufficient  to  heat  th& 
retorts,  so  that  there  would  be  a  further  expenditure  for  fuel.  It 
was  therefore  desirable  to  devise  some  more  simple  and  economical 
way  of  conducting  the  distillation,  and  the  works  of  the  Company 
at  Athy  were  built  in  accordance  with  the  system  patented  by  Mr. 
Bees  Recce  in  1849.  This  consists  in  burning  the  air-dried  peat 
by  means  of  a  blast,  in  cylindricLd  furnaces  of  brick,  shaped  some- 
what like  iron  blast-fa  maces,  but  closed  at  the  top,  and  furnished 
with  pipes  for  carrying  off  the  volatile  products  to  a  proper  con- 
densing apparatus.  The  furnacesbeingfilled  with  peat,  and  dosed. 


..Gooc^lc 


3864.]  DB.    T.   BTEREtT    HUNT   ON   FEAT.  433 

are  lighted  from  below,  and  the  blast  applied.  The  heat  from  the 
■combuetion  of  the  peat  in  the  lower  part  of  the  fumaee  serves  to 
^istjl  the  upper  lasers;  while  the  gases  from  the  oombustioD, 
together  with  the  volatile  produota  of  the  distillation,  are  carried 
forward  by  the  blast  towards  the  condensers. 

This  proeess  was  to  a  certain,  extent  successful;  but  it  was 
found  that  when  the  force  of  the  blast  was  augmented,  in  order 
to  obtain  a  more  rapid  combustion  of  the  peat,  the  amount  of  tar 
was  greatlj  diminished.  Thus,  aooordiiig  to  Br.  Paul,  it  was 
found,  by  experiments  in  Antrim,  with  a  furnace  three  feet  in 
diameter  and  fifteen  feet  in  height,  that  when  oae  and  a  tialf  tons 
of  peat  were  buroed  in  twenty-four  hours,  31  per  cent  of  tar 
were  obtained;  with  two  tons  in  the  same  time,  18  per  cent; 
with  three  tons,  only  098 ;  and  when  nine  tons  were  burned  in 
twenty-four  hours,  only  two  pouods  of  tar  were  obtained  to  the 
ton.  Accordiug  to  the  experiments  of  Sullivan,  Irish  peat,  wfaeu 
distilled  in  retorts,  gave  from  1*5  to  3-5  per  cent,  being  an 
average  of  2'5  per  cent  of  tar;  which  furnished  from  38'0  to 
72-0  per  cent  of  oil,  the  mean  being  520  per  cent.  Of  this  oil, 
50  per  cent  distilled  below  212°  F. ;  200  per  cent  between 
260°  and  320° ;  350  per  cent  between  320°  and  550"  ;  and  the 
residue  at  a  still  higher  temperature.  Hence,  as  an  average,  100 
tons  of  Irish  peat  would  yield  682  gallons  of  tar,  and  333  gallons 
of  refined  oils.  It  was  found  that  under  favorable  conditions, 
the  amount  of  tar  obtained  by  Mr.  Keece's  process  was  very  nearly 
6qual  to  that  produced  by  distilling  the  same  peat  in  closed 
retorts. 

Dr.  Paul  has  lately  undertaken  a  series  of  experiments  on  the 
distillation  of  peat  on  a  large  scale,  at  Stornaway  in  the  island  of 
Lewes;  the  results  of  which  he  communicated  to  the  British 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  at  Cambridge,  in 
October,  1862.  The  mountain  peat  of  that  region  is  compact, 
heavier  than  water,  and  is  superior  for  this  manufacture  to  ordi- 
nary bog-peat.  By  distillation  in  a  retort,  it  gave:  tar  908, 
ooke  31-50,  water  3788,  gas  (loss)  21-64;  =  100-00.  The  tar 
thus  obtained  was  a  sotl  solid  at  60°  F. ;  it  had  a  specific  gravity 
«f  '960,  an  acid  reaction,  and  gave,  by  rectification,  forty-two  per 
cent  of  a  refined  oil,  boiling  above  300° ;  besides  from  thirty  to 
forty-«x  per  cent  of  more  volatile  liquids.  These,  as  well  as  the 
ammonia,  acetic  acid,  and  pyroxylio  spirit  were  neglected  by  Dr. 
Paul  in  his  experiments.     The  refined  oil  contained  aboat  one 


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434  THE  CANADIAN   NATUBALI8T.  [DeC:. 

teoth  its  weight  of  paraffine  (equal  to  four  per  cent  of  the  crude' 
tar).  Abont  one  half  of  the  oil  boiled  at  a  t«mperatare  between 
330°  and  500°  F. ;  it  hifrned  without  charring  the  wick,  had  but 
little  odor,  was  not  explosive  at  ordinary  temperatures,  and  com- 
pared favorably  with  refined  petroleum.  The  remainder,  whicb 
boiled  between  500°  and  600°  F.,  had  a  specific  gravity  of  -860, 
and,  when  mingled  with  fat  oils,  was  an  excellent  lubricator. 

In  his  early  -attempts  to  work  Ibis  peat  on  a  lai^  scale,  by 
distillation  in  brick  furnaces  or  kilns.  Dr.  Paul  substituted  for  the 
blast  the  draught  of  a  chimney ;  but  in  this  way  he  was  unable 
to  obtaiikmore  than  three  per  cent  of  tar,  instead  of  the  Dide  per 
cent  which  the  same  peat  furnished  when  distilled  in  retorts.  It- 
was  found,  moreover,  that,  on  an  average,  only  about  fifty  tons  a 
week  were  distilled  in  each  kiln  ;  white  in  order  to  ^ve  a  profit- 
able return  it  was  necessary  to  work  about  seventy  tons  weekly, 
and  to  obtain  five  per  cent  of  tar.  His  apparatus  consisted  of 
cylindrical  brick  chambers,  five  feet  in  diameter  and  twelve  leet' 
high  ;  Aimished  at  the  bottom  with  a  fire-grate  having  an  area  of 
two  feet,  and  at  the  top  with  a  hopper  and  lid  for  feeding.  Ten 
of  these  kilns  were  built  side  by  side,  in  a  block ;  and  from  the 
top  of  each,  a  pipe  of  twelve  inches  in  diameter  led  to  a  main  of 
three  feet,  and  thence,' through  a  condensing  apparatus,  to  a 
chimney.  In  order  to  secure  a  regular  current  of  air  through  the 
apparatus,  a  draught  waa  finally  eHtubliahed  by  means  of  a  thirty- 
inch  fan,  of  Schiele's  patent,  making  1600  revolutions  a  minute, 
and  driven  by  an  eight-inch  steam-engine;  which  worked  at  the 
same  time  some  pumps,  and  a  winding-drum  by  which  the  peat 
was  drawn  up  an  incline  ia  the  kilos.  This  fan  was  capable  of 
passing  2000  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  minute,  and  of  maintaining  a 
steady  powerful  draught  through  seven  inches  of  water,  without 
rusing  the  combustion  at  the  fire-grate  of  the  kiln  to  a  greater 
extent  than  was  desirable.  By  this  means  the  vapor  was  rapidly 
drawn  from  the  kilns,  and  was  passed  several  times  through  water, 
and  also  through  four  chambers  filled  with  bundles  of  heather. 
This  contrivance  was  found  effectual  to  separat«  the  tarry  matter- 
mechanically  suspended  and  carried  over  by  the  current  of  gas. 
This,  when  discharged  from  the  fan,  was  highly  inflammable,  and 
was  led  by  an  underground  tunnel  to  a  proper  furnace;  where  it 
burned  with  a  fiame  from  six  to  ten  feet  high,  six  feet  long  and 
six  inches  thick,  and  was  available  for  generating  steam,  distilling 
tar,  evaporating  liquids,  or  drying  peat.    It  was  found  tliat  tlifr 


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1864.]  DR.    T,   STERBT    HUNT   ON  PKAT.  435 

whole  of  the  charred  peat  was  not  required  for  the  diBtillation ;  so 
that  bj  means  of  an  arched  opening  fitted  with  a  door  just  above 
the  fire-grate,  a  porUoD  of  the  charcoal  could  be  removed  from 
time  to  time.  By  this  meaoa,  the  amouot  of  peat  which  conid  be 
worked  was  mach  increased,  The  removal  of  the  charcoal  ia  this 
way  was  however  attended  with  difficulty  daring  the  prevalence  of 
high  winds. 

With  these  improved  arran cements,  it  was  found  that  the 
amoant  of  peat  distilled  was  always  above  seventy  tons,  and  in 
favorable  weather  upwards  of  one  hundred  tons  weekly,  for  each 
kiln;  while  the  proportion  of  tar  was  raised  from  3-9  per  cent,  to 
7'6,  and  was  on  average  as  much  as  70  per  cent.  In  this  way 
there  were  obtained  in  the  year  1861-62,  from  one  hundred  tons 
of  peat — 

749  gallons  of  oil  (wilh  parRfBae),  at  29, £H  IS  0 

From  which  is  to  be  deducted — 

For  100  tons  of  pent,  at  2b, £10    0  0 

"     coat  of  maaafactare 28  14  8 

38  14  S 

Le«viDKa  balance  of, £36    3    6 

These  are  given  by  Dr.  Paul  as  his  working  results  within  the 
last  year,  and  contrast  most  favorably  with  those  obtained  in  Ire- 
land, as  stated  by  Mr.  Sullivan  inhis  report  to  the  directors  of  the 
Irish  Peat  Company  in  1855  j  according  to  which,  one  hundred 
tons  of  peat  gave — 

IGOgallonaof  oil  at  2b., £15     0     0 

300  poands  of  paraffiae,  at  It., 15    0    0 

G2  gailons  of  wood-aapbtba 3  10    0 

3  cwt.  of  sulphate  of  ammonia, I  16    0 

£34    ft    0 

From  which  is  to  be  deducted — 

For  100  tons  of  peat,  at  48., £20    0    0 

"    cost  of  man nfac tare 14    3    4 


Leaving  a  balance  of. £0     2     8 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  cost  of  the  Irish  b(^-peat  was,  for 
reasons  already  mentioned,  4s.,  instead  of  2s.,  the  ton;  while  its 
yield  was  so  mach  less  than  that  of  Lewes,  that  even  at  an  expense 
of  manufacturing  which  was  only  half  the  latter,  its  distillation 
ti^peaia  to  have  been  no  longer  profitable ;  although  the  wood- 


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436  THE   CANADIAN    KATUBAUST.  [DeC. 

oapbtlia,  pjTOzylic  spirit,  and  the  sulphate  of  ammonia,  products 
ntgleoted  by  Dr.  Paul,  were  preserred.  While  some  of  the 
advantages  of  the  results  obtained  at  Lewes  are  to  be  ascribed  to 
the  method  pursued,  the  superior  quality  of  the  peat  is,  according 
to  Dr.  Paul,  a  more  important  element.  The  light  refined  oU 
from  the  Lewes  peat  was  sold  in  1862  in  Gla^ow,  under  the 
name  of  lignole  j  and,  according  to  the  report  of  Dr.  Anderson,  it 
compared  favorably  with  the  burning  oils  from  coal,  shale,  and 
petroleum ;  being  pale  in  color,  and  with  much  less  unpleasant 
odor  than  the  cool  oils.  The  statements  of  Armand  that  peat  may 
be  made  to  yield  as  much  as  fifteen,  or  even  eighteen  per  cent  of 
tar,  do  not  appear  to  be  oonfirmed  by  other  inT-estigators.  Accord- 
ing to  Vobl,  who  in  1858  published  an  elaborate  investigation  into 
the  distillatloD  of  lignite,  peat,  and  bituminous  schists,  the  various 
peats,  when  distilled  in  retorts,  yield  from  six  to  nine  per  cent,  of 
tax ;  and  to  the  case  of  a  light  peat,  5-37  per  cent.  In  rectiP^g 
the  tar,  the  distillation  may  be  carried  to  dryness  when  it  is 
wished  to  obtaiQ  the  greatest  amount  of  liquid  products,  as  in  Dr. 
Paul's  operatjons.  By  arresting  the  prooeas  at  the  proper  pomt, 
a  large  proportion  of  the  material  remains  in  the  retort,  as  a  kind 
of  pitch;  which  may  be  used,  like  asphalt  or  solid  bitumeQ,  for 
covering  roofs  and  similar  purposes.  In  this  way,  according  to 
Vohl,  one  hundred  parts  of  tar  yield  forty-two  parts  of  piteh.  In 
order  to  purify  the  distilled  oil  for  burning  in  lamps,  it  is  first 
treated  with  a  solution  of  soda,  and  afterwards  with  concentrated 
sulphuric  acid,  as  in  the  reBning  of  petroleum.  The  alkaline  solu- 
tion dissolves  a  considerable  amount  of  creosote  and  of  carbolic 
acid  ;  which  may  be  afterwards  separated  by  means  of  an  acid,  and 
have  a  commercial  value.  The  para&ae  separates  in  a  orystalline 
form  from  the  heavier  and  less  volatile  oils,  when  these  are  exposed 
to  cold.  With  the  present  demand  for  oils  and  paraffine,  it  is 
more  profitable  te  dbtil  the  tar  to  dryness,  than  to  manufacture  a 
portion  of  it  into  pitoh.  The  value  of  a  ton  of  crude  tar,  capable 
of  yielding  one  hn  ad  red  gallons  of  oil  and  paraffine,  may,  according 
to  Dr.  Paul,  be  estimated  at  £&  sterling;  and  he  concludes  that 
peat  approachieg  in  richness  to  that  of  the  Highlands  of  Scotland 
may  be  distilled  with  great  profit.  It  remains  to  be  seen  wbetber 
Borne  of  the  extensive  peat-bt^  of  Canada  may  not  produce  a 
material  equally  available.  The  importance  of  these  deposits  as  a 
eonrce  of  fuel  to  the  country  should  not,  however,  be  lost  sight  of; 
and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  before  long  successful  attempts  may  be 


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1864.]  Ba.   T.    BTEORT  HUNT  ON   FSAT.  437 

made  to  introdnce  oompressed  peat  as  a  oombnstible,  for  the  gene- 
ration of  steam  and  for  domestic  porposes. 

The  prindpal  depouts  of  peat  which  are  as  jet  known  in  Can- 
ada, will  now  be  noticed.  It  is  to  be  remarked,  that,  with  the 
exoeption  of  a  partial  trial  made  of  the  peat  near  Chamblj,  none 
of  these  depoeita  have  ever  jet  been  worked ;  and  that  it  ia  only  in 
a  few  localities  that  the  thicknees  of  the  peat  has  been  determined 
by  pits,  or  by  borings.  Beginning  to  the  westward,  a  deposit  of 
peat  ooonrs  on  the  twelfth  lot  of  the  fonrth  and  fifth  ranges  of 
Sheffield ;  where  it  overlies  a  bed  of  marl  already  described,  and 
extends  over  three  or  fonr  hundred  acres.  The  average  thickness 
of  the  peat  is  about  four  feet,  aod  it  is  said  to  be  of  superior 
quality.  In  the  level  region  between  the  St.  Lawrence  and 
Ottawa  rivers,  described  in  "  Oeolt^  of  Canada,"  page  8, 
several  large  peat-bogs  ocour ;  but  from  their  nature,  the  vic- 
inity has  been  avoided  by  settlers,  and  they  are  therefore  diffi- 
cult of  access.  There  is  said  to  be  a  considerable  area  of  peat 
iu  the  rear  of  the  seigniories  of  Vaudrenil  and  Bigand;  and 
also  in  Caledonia,  where  its  thickness  does  not  appear  tj)  exceed 
three  or  four  feet.  Peat  occurs  at  the  sources  of  the  Pain  River 
in  Roxburgh,  Osnabruck,  and  Finch ;  and  also  in  Clarence,  Cum- 
berland, and  Gtoncester.  In  the  third,  fonrth,  and  fifth  ranges  of 
the  latter  township  is  a  tract  known  as  the  Mer  Bleue,  which  con- 
sists of  two  king  peat-bogs,  separated  by  a  narrow  ridge  of  higher 
land,  and  occupying  each  about  2500  acres.  These  deposits  were 
sounded  iu  many  places,  with  a  rod,  to  a  depth  of  tweaty-one  feet, 
without  finding  bottom ;  in  other  parts,  the  peat  was  from  eight  to 
fifteen  feet  in  thickness.  This  tract  is  situated  only  three  miles  from 
Uie  Ottawa,  and  is  about230  feet  above  tho'level  of  the  sea.  Three 
large  areas  of  peat,  of  from  1000  to  3000  acres  each,  occur  in 
Nepean  and  Goulbourn  ;  one  of  them  to  the  east,  and  two  to  the 
west,  of  the  village  of  Richmond.  It  is  also  found  on  ^e  third 
and  eighth  ranges  of  Beokwith,  to  the  east  of  Mississippi  Lake;  and 
an  area  of  about  3000  acres  of  peat  occurs  in  Westmeath,  in  the 
rear  of  front  A,  and  from  the  first  to  the  fifth  range  behind  it.  In 
the  ninth  and  tentii  ranges  of  Huntley,  there  are  about  2500  acres 
of  peat ;  whioh  in  some  parts  baa  a  thickness  of  eight  or  ten  feet, 
while  iu  other  parts  no  bottom  was  found  at  a  depth  of  fifteen  feet. 
It  is  probable  that  peat  may  be  met  with  in  many  other  localities 
throughout  this  n^on. 
On  the  north  nde  of  tJie  Ottawa,  three  small  areas  of  peat  have 
Tob.  I.  DD  Ho.  S. 


n,s,t,.,.d.:,  Google 


438  THB  CANADIAN   NATUKALIST.  [DeO. 

becD  observed  in  Grenrille.  One  of  these,  on  the  fonrtli  and 
fiflh  lota,  covers  about  thirtj-aix  aorea,  and  has  &  depth  of  ten 
feet.  It  has  been  nsed  ia  the  ne'igbborhood,  and  ta  prononnoed 
of  excellent  quality.  Another  depoait  of  abodt  the  same  extent 
occurs  ou  the  first  lot  of  the  same  range,  and  is  in  some  parts  more 
than  fifteen  feet  in  thickness.  A  third,  of  about  tMrty  acres, 
occurs  on  the  fbarth  lot  of  the  seventh  range.  On  the  fourth  and 
fifth  Iota  of  the  first  raU'^e  of  Harrington,  is  a  bog  of  about  forty 
acres,  the  peat  of  which  varies  in  depth  fVom  ten  to  twenty-five 
feet.  Another  b(^  is  described  aa  ocouriiog  on  the  first  and  second 
lots  of  the  fifth  range  of  the  same  township.  It  extends  over  about 
sixty  acres,  and  has  a  thickness,  in  some  parts,  of  twenty-five  feet. 
All  of  these  areas  might  be  drained  without  much  diffioulty.  To 
Ae  eastward  of  this,  a  peat-bog  is  met  with  in  the  Hang  Double 
of  Mille-Itea.  It  exhibits  a  breadtli,  on  the  road  from  St.  Jan- 
vier to  St.  Jerome,  of  about  half  a  mile,  and  baa  an  area  of  perhaps 
five-eightha  of  a  aquare  mile.  Its  depth  along  the  road  was  found 
to  be  in  aeveral  places  from  two  to  eighteen  feet,  the  greater  depth 
being  towards  the  aouth-eaat  side,  and  its  average  may  be  taken 
at  eight  feet.  A  smaller  deposit  of  peat  occurs  half  a  mile  nearer 
to  St.  Janvier  ;  it  haa  a  breadth  of  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  but 
itasuperficies  and  depth  h:iTe  not  been  ascertained.  Upon  the 
same  great  plain  with  these,  a  little  to  the  north  of  the  church  of 
Ste.  Anne  des  Plainea,  and  on  the  north-east  side  of  the  road  lead- 
tog  to  NewOlaf^ov,  is  a  peat-bog  having  an  area  of  about  asquare 
mile.  Its  depth  was  not  determined,  but  it  is  supposed  to  average 
about  five  feet.  The  farmers  are  in  the  habit  of  burning  the  sur- 
fiioe  of  parts  of  this  bog,  and  employing  the  ashes  as  a  manure  for 
the  underlying  portions,  until  by  repealed  burnings  they  reach 
the  subjacent  clay  ;  wliicb,  mingled  with  the  last  thin  layer  of 
peut  and  a  portion  of  the  ash,  constitutes  a  very  fruitful  soil. 

Near  the  front  of  the  aeiguiories  of  Assumption  and  St,  Snlpice 
there  is  a  peat-bog  three  and  a  half  miles  in  length  with  an  average 
breadth  of  half  a  mile,  giving  an  area  of  about  IIOO  acres.  Its 
depth  varies  ttom  two  to  fifteen  feet ;  and  the  result  of  ten  trials 
made  in  two  lines  across  the  bi%  gave  an  average  of  ten  feet. 
In  the  seigniories  of  Lavaltrie  and  Lanoraye,  there  are  two  exten- 
sive peat  bogs,  running  parallel  with  each  other.  Of  these  the 
northern  is  the  lai^r,  and  ia  known  aa  the  Grande  Savanne.  It 
baa  a  length  about  e^ht  miles  from  north-east  to  south-west,  and 
a.  breadth  of  from  half  a  mile  to  two  miles  and  a  hal^  oovering  a 


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1864.]  DB.   T.  BTKRRT  HUNT   ON  PEAT.  439 

snperficies  of  from  twelve  to  fifteen  eqaare.  miles.  Two  sections 
were  made  across  this  bog  ;  one  on  the  line  of  the  railway  between 
Lanorayo  and  Industry,  which  traverses  it  about  three  miles  from 
its  south-west  extremity.  It  here  reaches  t«  within  four  miles  of 
the  St.  Lawrence,  and  has  a  breadth  of  two  and  a  half  miles.  The 
depth  along  this  line  was  found  to  be  from  four  to  fourteen  feet; 
the  average  of  twelve  trials  giviog  about  eleven  feet.  The  other 
section,  along  the  Lavaltrie  road,  about  four  miles  to  the  north- 
east, gave  a  breadth  of  half  a  mile,  and  a  depth  of  from  seven  to 
fourteen  feet ;  averaging,  as  before,  eleven  feot.  The  smaller  of 
these  bogs  lies  between  that  just  described  and  the  St.  Lawrence 
at  a  distance  from  the  last  of  aboat  two  milee.  On  the  line  of  the 
railway  it  has  a  breadth  of  over  half  a  mile,  and  an  average 
thickness  of  about  five  feet.  It  has  a  lengtli  of  more  than  five 
miles,  extending  four  and  a  half  miles  to  the  south-west  of  the 
railway,  and  a  superficies  of  about  three  square  miles. 

In  the  fief  St.  Etienne,  about  a  mile  and  three  quarters  south- 
west of  the  Gr^,  on  the  St.  Maurice  Kiver,  the  main  road  crosses 
a  peat-bog,  which  is  there  half  a  mile  in  breadth,  with  an  averuge 
depth  of  about  six  feet.  Its  extent  to  itie  north-east  und  south-west 
has  not  been  ascertained.  Another  was  met  within  the  seigniory 
of  Champluin,  about  three  miles  from  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  on 
the  road  from  the  church  to  the  river  Champlain.  Its  breudth  on 
the  road  is  about  three  quarters  of  a  mile,  und  its  averugc  depth 
in  this  port  five  feet.  Its  length  from  north-east  to  south-west 
appears  to  be  about  two  miles ;  giving  to  the  bog  an  area  of  about 
a  mile  and  three  quarters.  In  the  fief  D'Auteuil,  on  tbe  road 
between  Cap  Sant^  and  the  village  of  L'Enfant  Jisux,  there  is  a 
peat- bog,  with  a  breadth  of  about  aquarterof  a  mile,  which  has  not 
been  further  examined.  Several  other  peat^bogs  are  known  to 
exist  between  this  last  locality  and  the  vicinity  of  Quebec. 

On  the  south  side  of  tbe  St  Lawrence,  there  is  a  hu^  area 
occupied  by  peat  on  the  WMt  side  of  the  river  Richelieu.  It 
covers  portions  of  the  seigniories  Be  L^ry  and  Lacolle,  and  of  the 
townships  of  Sherrington  and  Hemmingford,  embracing  perhaps 
fifteen  or  twenty  square  miles.  This  area  Is  drained  in  part  by 
the  Lacolle  River.  It  has  not  been  carefully  examined  as  yet; 
but  it  contains  in  some  parts,  particalarly  it  is  said  in  Sherrington, 
a  very  great  tiiokness  of  peat.  Of  two  specimens  from  this  town- 
ship, one,  which  was  dark-colored,  So^^ained,  compact,  and 
so  heavy  as  to  sink  in  water,  gare  only  3-53  per  c«nt  of  ash ;  while 


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440  THl   CANADIAN   NATDEALIST.  [DeO, 

the  lighter  peat  from  Dear  the  Burface  of  the  bog  yielded  4'66  per 
cent  of  s«h.  Both  of  these  are  very  pure ;  and  the  compact  peat, 
which  ia  remarkable  from  its  great  density  and  ila  freedom  from 
earthy  matters,  is  particularly  worthy  of  attention. 

A  large  peat-bog  ocenrs  in  the  seigniory  of  Longneail,  on  the 
road  to  Chamblj ;  and  an  attempt  was  made  a  few  years  since  to 
raise  the  peat  and  introduce  it  to  the  Montreal  market.  A  peat- 
bog of  lai^  size  is  fonnd  in  the  seigniory  of  Ste.  Marie  de  Mod- 
noir ;  and  another  in  the  parish  of  St.  Dominique,  inolnding  part 
of  Ste.  Rosalie  and  St.  Pie.  Its  diniensiona  may  be  five  or  six 
miles  is  one  directios,  by  three  or  fonr  in  another.  Thia  extent 
is  covered  by  a  layer  of  peat;  which,  fiom  two  or  three  feet  at 
the  edges,  attains  a  depth  of  six  feet,  and  in  some  parte,  itiswud, 
ia  eighteen  feet  in  thickness.  The  bog  has  been  partially  drained, 
and  portions  of  the  land  reclaimed  for  agrioultnral  purposes.  The 
drained  land  being  first  cleared  of  trees,  ia  ploughed,  and  then,  in 
the  dry  season,  set  on  fire.  In  this  way,  eight  or  ten  inchea  of  peat 
are  burned,  leaving  an  ash  which  serves  as  a  manure,  and  enables 
the  surface  to  yield  one  or  two  crops  of  barley  or  oats.  After  two 
years,  the  soil  becomes  exhausted,  and  it  requires  to  be  again 
burned  over  to  render  it  productive.  When  by  several  repetitions 
of  the  process,  the  peat  has  been  reduced  to  a  few  inches,  the 
remaining  portion  is  mingled,  by  ploughing,  with  the  under- 
lying clay,  and  a  rich  mellow  soilia  obtained.  '1  he  peat  from  this 
bog  yields,  when  heated  in  close  vessels,  about  thirty-«x  per  cent 
of  coke,  and  contains  from  six  to  seven  per  cent  of  ash. 

In  the  seigniory  ofthe  Riviiire  Quelle,  there  is  a  peat-bog  which 
covers  about  4000  acrea ;  and  another  one  occurs  in  the  seigniory  of 
Riviere  du  Loup,  huvlng  a  superficies  of  6000  acres.  Its  breadth 
on  the  Temiscouata  road  is  a  mile  and  a  quarter,  and  its  depth  in 
some  parte  has  been  asoertuned  to  be  eighteen  feet.  Peat  is 
found  in  abundance  on  the  first  and  second  ooDcessions  of  the 
seigniory  of  lie  Verte;  and  from  a  point  two  miles  below  the 
Rimouaki,  there  is  a  belt  of  peat-bog  extending  nearly  all  the  way 
to  the  Mritis  River,  a  length  of  over  twenty  miles.  Its  distance 
from  the  St.  Lawrence  is  from  a  quarter  to  half  a  mile,  and  its 
breadth  from  a  quarter  of  a  mile  to  a  mite.  The  deplb  of  the 
deposit,  where  observed,  was  from  one  to  six  feet.  To  the  oast  of 
the  Rimouski  River,  tbero  is  a  peat-bog,  which  has  a  length  of 
three  or  four  miles,  in  the  townships  of  Duquesne  and  Macpes; 
with  a  breadth  of  abont  three  quart«rB  of  a  mile,  and  a  thioknesa 


nisiti.cdDy  Google 


1864.]  KATUEAL   HtETOET  BOCtXTT.  441 

whioh  was  found  to  be  from  five  to  twelvo  feet :  it  is  said  to  be  in 
one  place,  thirty  feet  in  depth.  Another  locality  of  peat  is  stated 
to  be  in  the  townahipa  of  Matanne  and  Mscnider,  between  the 
rivers  Blanche  and  Matanne.  A  peal-bog  of  about  one  handred 
acres  occurs  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Msdawaaka,  just  above  the 
twelfth-mile  poet  on  the  road  to  the  Little  Falls. 

The  moit  eitensive  peat  deposits  in  Canada  are  found  on  Anti- 
oosti.  Along  the  low  lands  on  the  south  coast  of  the  island,  from 
Heath  Point  to  within  eight  or  nine  miles  of  Southwest  Point,  a 
oontinuons  plain  covered  with  peat  extends  for  upwards  of  eighty 
miles,  witli  an  average  breadtJi  of  two  miles ;  thus  giving  a  snper- 
fioies  of  mora  than  one  hundred  and  sixty  square  milee.  The 
tbiclcness  of  the  peat,  aa  observed  on  the  coast,  was  from  three  to 
ten  feet,  and  it  appears  to  be  of  an  excellent  quality.  The  height 
of  this  plain  may  be,  on  an  average,  fifteen  feet  above  high-water 
marL,  and  it  could  be  easily  drained  and  worked.  Between  South- 
west Point  and  <jie  west  end  of  the  island,  tliere  are  many  smaller 
peat^bogs,  varying  in  supertioies  fiom  100  to  1000  acres. 


NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY. 

The  monthly  meeting  of  the  Society  was  held  on  Monday 
evening  November  28,  and,  notwithstanding  the  unfavorable 
aspect  of  the  weaUier,  the  attendance  was  lai^. 

Among  the  donations  aanouDced,  we  notice  the  following: 
To  THi  Mdskuu. 

Fcetal  monkey  from  Australia,  also  an  antique  apoon,  two  rings, 
and  a  fragmentof  (human)  bone  dug  up  in  the  fields  near  Cacouna, 
from  Dr.  A.  Hall ;  eighty-two  beautifully  prepared  specimens 
of  Canadian  butterflies  and  moths,  from  Mr.  P.  Kutcing ;  speci- 
men of  the  spruce  partridge  (^Tetrao  Canadm»U,  Linn.),  from 
Mr.  Jas.  Ferrier,  jun. ;  an  American  woodeock  (Pkifohela 
minor, Gray),  from  Mr.  More;  specimen  of  the  painted  bunting 
{PUctruphatuit  pietui),  from  the  plains  of  the  Saskatohewan,  from 
Mr.  G.  Bamston  ;  and  a  pair  of  fine  black  squirrels  from  Upper 
Canada,  from  Mr.  W.  Huntor. 

New  Mehbehs. 

CaptaiD  Booke,  S.  F.  G.,was  elected  a  corresponding  member, 
and  Messrs.  H.  Abbot,  T.  F.  Hanlon,  B.  E.,  and  W.  S.  McFar- 
lanc,  ordinary  members  of  the  Society. 


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442  THX  CANADIAN    NATCRALIBT.  [Dm. 

PEtOCEKDlNOS. 

The  Report  of  the  Scientific  Curator  was  first  read,  as  follows  : 

KePORT   of  THX  SciENTIFIO   CUBATOR. 

Since  the  annual  meeting,  the  Society's  yearly  report  for  the 
BCBSton  1863-64  has  been  prepared  and  issued  to  the  members. 
Under  the  anspioes  of  the  council,  a  catalogue  of  the  Canadian 
vertebrata  contiiined  in  the  museum  has  been  prepared  and  pub- 
lished with  the  Report,  in  order  that  friends  at  a  distance  may 
know  what  sptbies  are  desiderata  in  our  oollection.  Care  has 
been  taken  to  make  the  list  of  do  nation  a  to  the  museum  and  library 
for  the  past  year,  foil  and  complete.  Efibrte  have  been  made  to 
make  the  list  of  members  accurate  and  trustworthy ;  but  it  is  feared 
some  errors  may  yet  remain  uncorrected.  The  co-operation  of 
members  is  desired  in  order  that  such  mbtakes  may  be  avoided  in 
future. 

At  the  date  of  my  last  report  (May  18)  about  1200  speoimens 
of  minerals  bad  been  carefully  labelled.  Since  then,  the  remaining 
part  of  the  Holmes  collection,  oon»atingof  about  500  specimens 
has  also  been  carefully  labelled.  The  mass  of  confusion  in  the 
large  case  in  the  aquarium-room  has  been  reduced  to  something 
like  order,  and  about  430  specimens  of  rocks  and  minerals  bave 
been  named  and  exhibited.  Many  packages,  that  have  remained 
unopened  for  years,  have  been  unpacked,  and  some  of  the  best 
apeoiiucns  selected,  named,  and  exhibited.  Although  upwards  of 
2000  examples  of  minerals  and  rooks  have  been  iabelled,  about  as 
many  more  remain  without  their  names  affixed.  As  soon  as  proper 
cases  can  be  obtained,  it  is  proposed,  first  to  name  all  those  which 
are  unlabelled,  as  far  as  possible,  and  then  to  tlioroughly  re-arrange 
and  classify  the  whole  oollection.  The  rock- specimens  we  ultimately 
hope  to  arrange  after  the  olassifioation  adopted  by  Prof  Duna,  in 
the  last  edition  of  his  Manual  of  Geology,  and  simple  minerals 
after  the  plan  followed  in  the  "  Mineralc^"  of  the  same  author. 
It  is  hoped  that  when  the  collection  of  rocks  and  minerals  is  thus 
arranged,  it  will  be  of  far  more  usj  to  the  student  of  geology  or  of 
mineralogy  than  in  its  present  scattered  state.  Our  Post  Tertiary, 
Tertiary,  Cretaceous,  Oolitic,  Ltassic,  and  Carboniferous  fossils 
have  been  monnted  on  tablets,  claasiSod,  and  named.  Mr.  Bil- 
lings has  kindly  promised  to  determhie  the  Silurian  and  Devonian 
species.  The  most  important  part  of  the  summer's  work  has  been 
the  arrangement  of  the  inaect-oabinet.      Thanks  to  Uie  liberality 


,Cooc^lc 


1864.]  NATCKAL   HISTORY  SOOIETT.  443 

of  McflBra.  W.  Sauodere,  W.  S.  M.  D'Drban,  John  B.  Goode,  P. 
Eutzing,  C.  Fole^,  R.  J.  Fowler,  and  James  Fenier,  jnn.,  tlie 
Booietj's  oolleation  of  uaeota,  already  wmewhat  large,  has  been 
nearl;  doubled.  Our  scattered  series  have  beeo  incorporated  into 
one  general  ooUeoiion  ;  they  have  been  arranged  provisionally,  and 
named  as  far  as  possible.  Thirteen  drawers  (22  inches  by  16|  in 
diameter)  are  devoted  to  Canadian  inseolB,  and  thirteen  to  British 
and  exotic  species.  We  have  mote  speoimeoB  than  one  cabinet 
will  hold :  it  would  be  demrable,  at  some  future  time,  to  get 
another  similar  one,  to  be  devoted  exclusively  to  the  reception  of 
British  and  exotic  forms.  The  old  specimens  have  been  washed 
with  a  solution  of  corrodve  sublimate  in  alco  bol,  as  a  preservative, 
and  many  have  been  replaced  by  fresh  examples.  The  Anoelida 
from  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  have  been  mounted,  nfmed,  and 
classified.  The  Polyzoa  (or  Bryozoa),  from  the  same  district, 
havo  been  sent  te  Dr.  Dawson  for  microscopioal  investigation. 
They  have  just  been  returned,  carefully  named;  and  in  a  short 
time  it  is  hoped  that  they  will  be  available  for  the  use  of  stnd<  nte, 
"  Several  of  the  exotic  birds  have  been  named,  but  as  yet  a  large 
number  of  the  Bpecie#are  still  undetermined.  Throagh  the  kind- 
ness of  several  personal  friends  in  New  Haven  and  New  York,  con- 
nderable  additions  have  been  made  to  the  collections  of  mollasoa, 
radiate,  and  fossils.  These  have  had  accordingly  to  be  rearranged 
and  classified.  A  series  of  the  most  critical  species  of  marine 
shells  from  the  Oulf  of  St.  Lawrence  have  been  sent  to  Dr. 
StimpsoD,  at  Washington  ;  and  when  they  are  returned  I  propose 
te  bring  before  the  Society  a  paper,  in  which  an  attempt  will  be 
made  to  dear  up  the  confused  nomenclature  of  the  Canadian 
marine  molliuoa.  Printed  labels  have  been  atteebed  to  all  the 
spedmens  of  Canadian  reptiles,  and  the  snakes  in  particular  have 
been  carefully  studied.  J.  F.  w. 

To  this  suooeeded  a  paper  on  the  Night  Heron  [Nyctiardea 
Qardeai)  by  Mr.  H.  G.  Vennor,  which  was  read  by  the  Recording 
Secretary,  in  the  absence  of  the  author. 

Mr.  Braun's  paper  on  the  Atlantic  Tel^raph  was  also  read 
by  the  Recording  Seoretary.  It  gave  a  somewhat  daborate  account 
of  the  history  of  the  whole  scheme,  with  reasons  for  its  fulure ; 
and  concluded  by  a  description  of  some  mechanical  appliances,  the 
main  object  of  which  appeared  to  be  to  keep  the  cable  firmly  on  the 
sea-bottom.  The  peculiar  mechanism  by  which  this  was  proposed 
to  be  effected  was  described,  and  illustrated  by  diagramBj  wbidi 


V,  Google 


444  THE  CANADIAN   NATURALIST.  [Dec. 

Utter  may  be  seeo,  by  any  persons  interestod  in  tbe  sabject,  al 
the  Society's  Hoseum. 

SpeoimenB  of  the  nev  cable  were  kindly  lent  fbr  the  ocosnon  by 
Mr.  H.  Lyman ;  and  Dr.  Smallnood  brought  a  diagram,  taken 
from  a  seriee  of  soundiaga,  in  whioh  the  differenoee  of  level  in  Uitt 
aea-bottem  between  Valeoda  and  Newfoundland  were  dearly 
ahown. 

An  animated  diaauasion  took  place  after  the  reading  of  thia 
paper,  in  which  Friacipal  Dawson  and  others  took  part. 


ENTOMOLOGICAL  SOCIETY. 

ON  A  QALL-PBODUOJNO  HTUEHOFTXK,  BSARKD   raOU  TBITIOCH 

RKPSNS,  LINN. 

B;  Wh.  Codfbb,  Quebec. 

There  ia  a  large  extent  of  cleared  land  in  thA  neighborhood  of 
Quebec  whioh  does  not  appear  to  be  ezhatut^^  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses, and  yet  it  is  Delected.  The  ooneequenoe  of  Uiis  neglect  is 
that  itbeoomesocoupied  by  innumerable  noxiooHweeds:  oneof  these 
is  the  common  creeping  wbeat-graas,  Triticum  repau  <^  Liun»tis. 
This  grass  is  attacked  by  a  hymenopterous  insect  whioh,  I  sup- 
pose, ia  the  yellow-l^ed  or  New  Tork  barley-fly,  £uri/loma 
/uloipa  of  Fitch.  The  insect  appears  in  Jane,  when  the  female 
depodte  an  e^  in  each  joint  of  the  grass,  producing  a  gall  as 
represented  in  the  following  figure. 

This  grass  is  most  troublesome  to  the  Canadian  fanner 
owing  to  its  creeping  habit.  "  Its  long  undei:gronnd  stems  pene- 
trate tbe  loose  soil  in  every  direction,  and,  when  once  they  have 
possession,  are  very  difficult  to  eradicate,  as,  broken  up  by  the 
plough  or  spade,  every  fragment  vegetatea  apart,  thus  renewing 
and  extending  the  crop.  Few  plants  exhaust  tbe  gronnd  so 
rapidly  of  nutiitive  matter,  and  it  can  only  be  got  rid  of  by 
repeated  fallowing  or  laying  down  to  pasture."  If  onr  farmers 
would  appropriate  such  land  to  pasture  it  would  help,  in  a  great 
measare,  to  remove  ite  present  worthless  parasite.  Although  this 
insect  attacks  the  grass,  it  by  no  means  lessens  its  growth ;  there- 
fore, if  we  make  no  effort  te  check  the  increase  of  worthless  plants, 
depend  upon  it  the  insects  which  are  attached  to  them  will  increase 


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1864.]  OOUPER  (M  A  OALL-PBODDOIMO  HTVENOFTEB.        446 

aa  well,  beoomii^,  aa  in  many  other  oases,  a  double  evil, — for  this 
very  Eurytoma  maj  Bome  year  be  produced  in  such  abundance 
tbat  any  of  our  useful  cereala  may  be  destroyed  by  it.  It  ia 
different  from  the  barley-straw  inaect  described  by  Harris  in  the 
"  New  England  Fanner,"  vol.  ix,  p.  2,  as  Eurytoma  hordei.  It 
is  lai^r,  and  only  one  iuseot  ia  found  in  each  gall.   As  soon  aa  the 


Qall  of  Triiiaim  rtptJU. 
a,  tha  hole  made  b7  the  iaaect  bj  which  it  aacapea. 
larva  issaee  fivm  the  ^g,  it  places  its  head  downwards  in  the  gall, 
remaining  in  that  poaition  until  it  eats  its  way  through.  About 
the  end  of  September  it  ceases  to  feed,  and  prepares  to  meet  a 
Canadian  winter  (a^  far  as  I  have  investigated  its  history,  it  is 
able  to  stand  a  very  low  temperature).  By  this  time  tiie  gall  is 
hardened,  and  Uie  larvra  remain  in  a  torpid  state,  beoomii^  active 
again  in  the  following  spring,  obanging  to  the  perfect  insect  in 


,  Cooc^lc 


446  THE  OANASIAII  NATOKALIST.  [DeO. 

time  to  attaok  tiie  young  grasa  of  tfae  aeiiBOD.  Of  thirty-Bix  gklla 
collected  early  last  Hay,  all  prodaoed  the  iaseot  but  three,  whiah 
vore  empty.  I  have  not  detected  a  parasite  on  the  Euryloma 
during  the  admnoed  etoge  of  the  gall ;  but  about  the  first  of  August, 
1863,  wbeu  the  galls  were  brought  to  my  nctioe  by  Mr.  Rirkwood 
of  the  Crown  Lands  Department,  I  forwarded  a  few  in  the  green 
state  to  Baron  Osten  Sackeu,  thinking  that  they  were  produced  by 
a  cecidomyia.  He  says,  "  It  is  not  at  all  unlikely  that  TWd'cum 
repent  ia  infested  by  a  cecidomyia,  but  in  the  specimens  yon  sent 
me  I  found  nothing  except  a  very  minute  larva  of  a  hymenopt«- 
rons  parasite."  Since  then  I  sent  more  advanced  galls,  toother 
with  the  insect,  to  Mr.  Edward  Norton,  of  New  York,  who  is 
considered  good  authority  on  American  bymenoptera.  He  had 
removed  to  New  Orleans,  where  my  letter  found  him,  and  he 
answers,  "  that  on  account  of  his  collection  having  been  left  in 
New  York,  he  was  then  nnable  to  answer  my  questions  " ;  however, 
he  forwarded  the  galls  and  inseote  to  Baron  Osten  Sacken  for  his 
investigation.  The  baron  writes  to  me  as  follows :  "  The  insect  is 
a  Earytoma,  but  whether  it  is  E.  fuhipei  of  Fitch,  as  you  sorest, 
I  am  unable  to  tell.  This  genus  is  very  numerous  and  apparently 
very  difficult,  as  the  species  seem  to  vary  in  site,  and  most  of 
them  have  nearly  the  same  coloring.  I  have  reared  numbers  of 
them  from  galls,  without  ever  attempting  to  separate  the  species." 
If  it  is  E.  fixlvipet,  then  I  may  safely  state  that  it  does  not 
confine  itself  to  a  single  species  of  plant,  and  any  of  the  cereals 
may  be  destroyed  by  it.  To  bring  this  insect  before  Ganadiau 
entomologists  is  the  object  of  this  short  notice  ;  and  I  only  wish 
that  one  of  them  will  find  sufficient  leisure  to  investigate  its  com- 
plete history. — Read  before  the  Quebec  Branch,  Oct.  6(&,  1864. 


MEETING  OF  BRITISH  ASSOCIATION. 

0BSXETATI0N8  ON   THI  BALHOKIDil. 

Dr.  J.  Datt  read  the  following  paper,  entitled  "  Some  Observa- 
tions on  the  Salmonidte,  chiefly  relating  to  their  Oeuerative  Func- 
tions :" — It  is  now  well  known  as  an  established  fact  that  the  young 
tX  the  salmon  in  its  parr-stage,  has,  in  the  instance  of  the  male,  the 
testes  fiilly  developed,  so  as  to  be  capable  of  impr^natii^  the  ova  of 
the  adult  fish.  Bemarkabla  and  anomalous  as  this  must  be  admitted 
to  be,  it  ia  the  more  so  considering  that  la  tlie  £Bmale  pair  of  Hie 


.;,  Google 


1864.]  DATT  ON   THE  BALHOMDiS.  447 

same  age,  the  OTaries  are  merely  in  their  rudimentary  state, 
end  are  indeed  so  small  that  the;  may  readily  escape  obser- 
vatioD,  and  give  rise  to  the  opinion  that  the  pairs  are  eiclvaively 
males.  Snoh  a  notion,  I  am  intbrmed,  is  even  entertained  hy  the 
fishermen  of  the  river  Tyne.  That  it  is  founded  in  error  I  need 
hardly  remark.  When  at  NewcastleK>n'Tyne,  in  September  last, 
I  had  an  opportunity  of  examining,  through  the  kindness  of  Dr. 
Charlton,  sii  specimens  taken  the  preceding  day.  Four  of  them  were 
moles,  distended  with  milt,  the  milt  nearly  matare,  and,  notwith- 
standing, the  fish  bad  not  fallen  off  in  condition, — a  noteworthy 
eircumstance.  Two  had  no  vestiges  of  testes,  nor  conid  I  discover 
their  ovaries,  which  may  have  been  owing  to  solution,  to  which 
the  parts  of  the  yoang  fish  are  especially  liable  where  adjoining  to 
the  pyloric  appendices.  From  aaoh  observations  as  I  have  made 
when  on  angling  excursions,  I  can  state  with  confidence  that  the 
proportion  as  to  number  of  the  two  sexes  is  much  the  same.  A 
question  naturally  arises,  is  this  peculiarity  of  the  early  develop- 
ment of  the  male  oi^ns  oonfined  to  the  salmon  (Salmo  »'ihr),  or 
is  it  to  be  met  with  in  its  congeners  of  the  same  stage  of  gro^^b  ? 
The  common  opinion  is  that  the  parr  of  Uie  sea-tront  (S.  trutfa) 
baa  the  same  peculiarity ;  but  I  am  not  aware  that  the  conclusion  is 
founded  on  precise  and  reliable  observation.  The  determination  of 
this  point  is  a  desideratum.  This  is  not  an  easy  matter  to  accom- 
plish, owing  to  thenearresemblanneof  theparrof  the  two  speoiee. 
To  effect  this,  a  river  shonld  he  selected  which  is  known  to  be 
frequented  by  the  sea-  or  white-trout,  of  which  there  are  many  in 
Ireland.  The  probability,  I  think,  is,  that  a  oonfirmation  of  the 
opinion  would  then  be  obtained.  I  am  led  to  think  so  from  the 
few  observations  which  I  have  made.  These  I  shall  relate.  They 
were  made,  or  part  taken,  in  Leeven,  a  river  that  flows  out  of 
Windermere,  and  is  f^uented  by  salmon  and  Bea-trout ;  lie  latter 
being  moat  plentiful.  Two  parrs  taken  on  the  29th  of  September 
were  each  about  four  inches  long;  the  milt  in  each  was  large; 
their  fins  were  yellow.  From  their  size  and  yellow  fins  they  were 
supposed  to  be  the  young  of  the  sea-trout,  or  "  morte,"  the  local 
designation.  Six  parrs,  taken  ou  the  21st  of  October,  were  about 
six  inches  in  length.  Of  these  four  were  mates;  their  testes 
voluminous,  their  fins  light-yellowish.  These  were  supposed  to  be 
the  young  of  the  salmon.  A  parr  taken  on  the  1st  of  January 
wassiz  andaqnarterincheain  length;  it  weighed  740grains;  the 
'  testes  weighed  fifty-five  grains;  the  contents  were  nearly  liquid! 

„  Google 


448  THB  CANASUN  NATDBALIST.  [Dec 

ita  fina  were  bright  TellowUh ;  it,  too,  was  inferred  to  be  a  salmon- 
parr.  I  need  hardly  remark  that  these  few  observationa  justify 
no  more  tban  the  probability  that  the  male  parr  of  the  sea-trout, 
like  the  male  parr  of  the  salmon,  exercises  geaeratJTO  funotions- 
The  size  of  the  young  fish  and  the  color  of  the  fina  can  ecaroely 
be  relied  on  as  oharaoteri sties  of  speoies.  Be  this  as  it  may,  it  is 
noteworthy  in  ihe  history  of  the  mnle  parr,  that  it  diseharges  ita 
milt  before  it  descends  to  the  sea  as  a  smelt,  which  is  the  name  the 
young  fish  receives  when  the  parr-markings  are  hid  by  a  new 
growth  of  silvery  scales.  In  no  instanoe  that  I  have  examined 
smelts,  in  their  advanced  stage,  when  migrating  seaward,  have  I 
found  their  testes  otherwise  than  shrank.  No  suspicion  is  entertained 
that  I  am  aware  of,  that  the  brown-trout  of  our  lakes  and  rivers 
{S./<*rio]  exhibits  the  peculiarity  in  question, — the  early  develop- 
ment of  its  testes.  The  absence  of  it  baa,  I  believe,  hitherto  been 
taken  for  granted,  rather  than  proved.  To  endeavor  to  satisfy 
myself  about  it,  I  have  examined  a  certain  number  of  young  trout 
when  in  that  stage  of  growth,  similar  to  the  parr ;  when  about 
eight  months  old  it  may  be  preenmed,  about  four  iudies  long,  and 
having  transverse  bar-markings  on  their  akin  like  those  of  the  parr 
hut  fainter,  and  distinguishable  only  when  wet  and  during  the 
life  of  the  fish.  In  none  of  them  have  I  found  the  testes  more 
than  rudimentary,  merely  fibre-cords,  corresponding  in  size  to  the 
mdimeotary  state  of  the  ovaries  of  the  females  of  the  same  species. 
I  shall  pass  on  now  to  another  point  which  is  not  without  interest, 
the  time,  namely,  when  the  salmon  and  sea-trout  bc^n  to  breed. 
It  may  be  stated,  I  believe,  aa  an  established  fact,  that  the  salmon 
breeds  on  its  first  retnm  from  the  sea,  when  it  b  dea^nated  a 
grilse,  and  oommonly  weighs  from  five  to  seven  pounds.  That  it 
breeds  thus  early  ia  a  oonclusion  founded  on  nature,  or  nearly 
naturo,  ova  having  been  found  in  the  female  oa  entering  the  fresh 
water,  and  the  disappearance  of  these  ova  when  the  fish  is  taken 
on  roturuing  to  the  sea.  Is  the  breeding-time  of  the  sea-trout  ana- 
logous ;  is  it,  too,  on  its  first  migration  from  the  sea  suScieutly 
advanced  to  propagate  its  kind  ?  I  believe  not.  From  my  own 
observations,  and  from  all  tbe  informaUon  I  have  been  able  to  col- 
lect, its  ovaries  on  quitting  the  sea  as  a"  finnick  "  )  the  designation 
applied  to  it  in  the  north  at  this  period  of  its  growth)  are  little 
more  than  in  a  rudimentary  state ;  and,  further,  that  they  ad- 
vance very  little  towards  maturity  during  the  sojourn  of  the  fish 
in  river  or  lake.    The  following  observatioDS,  taken  from  my  not«> 


,.,.d.i.  Google 


1864.]  DATT  ON   THE  BALKOSIDM.  449 

book,  are  given  in  endeoM,  justifj^ng,  as  it  seems  to  me,  the  oon- 
cliui<»t : — Od  the  27th  of  Augost,  fishiDg  in  the  river  that  flows 
ont  of  Morsgael  Bake,  in  the  Lews,  I  took  with  the  &j  oioeteen 
Be&troate,  varyiog  in  w«ght  from  half  a  pound  to  two  pounds  und 
a  half.  The;  were  all  fresh  rnn  from  the  sea.  Many  had  the  sea- 
louee  on  them.  The  larger  fish  were  full  of  milt  and  roe, 
both  nearly  mature.  The  smaller  had  tbe  roe  and  milt  very  small, 
and  BO  not  likely  to  breed  that  year.  The  males  and  females  were 
nearly  of  the  same  number.  The  following  year,  fishing  in  the 
lake  juBt  mentioned,  and  in  the  some  month,  vis.,  August  Slet, 
I  took  with  the  fly  forty-four  aea-trout.  Of  these,  twelve  were 
males,  the  rest  females;  of  the  latter,  twenty-two  had  roe  nearly 
full  eize.  The  other  ten  were  much  smaller  fiab ;  each  was 
about  a  quarter  of  a  pound,  in  excellent  oondition,  and  yet  their 
ovaries  were  so  very  small  that  they  might  have  escaped  detection 
had  they  not  been  carefully  sought  for.  Of  the  males,  all  but  two 
had  the  milt  laige  ;  these  two  were  also  fish  of  about  a  quarter  of 
a  ponod.  Their  testes  had  the  appearance  of  fine  threads.  The 
"  finnick,"  suob  as  I  have  seen  it  in  the  Lews  of  the  Hebrides, 
and  in  the  fresh  rivers,  and  lakes  of  Kerry,  Donegal,  and 
Coanamaro,  is  the  same,  I  bdieve,  as  the  wbitiog  of  tiit  Eden 
and  the  Solway  and  the  smaller  sewen  of  the  Welsh  rivers.  It  is  a 
beautiful  and  bright  fish,  rarely  exceeding  half  a  pound  in  weight, 
and  is  of  great  delicacy  of  flavor  as  an  article  of  food.  The  color 
of  its  mosalee  is  ligh^piDk,  very  much  lighter  than  that  of  the 
muscles  of  the  salmon  or  of  the  full  grown  sea-trout,  when  in  its  best 
oondition.  The  light  silvery  lustre  of  its  abdominal  portion, 
equally  remarkable  in  the  adults  when  fresh  from  the  sea,  fairly 
entitles  it  to  the  name  of  white-trout,  as  it  is  called  in  Ireland, 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  brown-trout.  There  seems  to  be  as 
little  reason  to  doubt  that  they  spawn  on  their  second  advent 
from  the  sea,  as  that  they  are  not  sufficiently  advanced  to  perform 
that  office  on  their  first  arrival.  Their  spawning-time  is  believed 
to  be  earlier  than  that  of  the  salmon,  about  three  weeks  or  a  montii, 
and  is  mostly,  at  least  in  l^e  Lews,  late  in  September.  There  is 
a  third  question  which  I  beg  to  propose  respecting  these  fish, — the 
salmon,  the  sea-tront,  the  common  trout,  and,  I  may  add,  theoharr. 
Do  they  breed  yearly  or  in  alternate  years?  The  generally 
received  opinion,  I  believe,  is  that  their  fertility  is  continuous  from 
year  to  year.  From  such  observations  as  I  have  made,  I  am  dis- 
posed to  doubt  the  correotness  of  this  conclusion,  and  to  infer  that 


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450  THS  CANADIAH   NATT7KALI8T.  [Dec. 

their  breeding  takes  place  rather  ia  alternate  jean,  or  at  least  not 
Id  successive  years.  The  facts  on  which  this  infereDce  is  founded, 
are,  that  in  the  instance  of  each  of  the  fishes  above  named,  a  num. 
her  of  them  are  met  with  which  huve  their  ovaries  and  testes  so 
small  as  to  preclude  the  idea  of  their  spawning  during  the  season, 
the  ova  in  the  one  being  merely  grannies,  the  testes  in  the  other 
little  more  than  slender  cords  or  threads.  As  rcguds  the  salmon 
and  the  charr,  it  is  admitted  by  experienced  fishermen  that  what 
they  call  "  barren  fish  "  are  taken  at  the  same  times  as  those  of 
the  eeartrout  and  of  the  common  trout.  Of  the  last  it  is  re- 
markable that  in  the  Rathay,  a  tributary  of  Windermere,  tliis 
fish,  even  in  llie  epawnlng-moDth,  aad  throughout  tiie  year,  is  found 
in  good  condition,  its  testes  and  ovaries  little  developed.  I  have 
numerous  Dot«s  to  this  effect.  I  shall  give  only  one.  "  October 
25tfa,  of  four  trout  from  the  river  in  flood,  two  were  males,  two 
were  females ;  they  were  beautiful  silvery  fish ;  their  ovaries  and 
milts  very  small."  The  breeding-fish,  it  may  be  inferred,  at  the 
breeding-season  quit  the  miun  stream  and  ascend  the  smaller  ones. 
The  peculiarity  of  the  trout  being  always  in  season  in  this  river 
may  be  owing  to  this  circumstance,  and  to  anoUier,  that  it  flows 
out  of  one  lake  into  another,  and  is  consequ^itly  throughout  the 
year  nearly  of  the  same  temperature,  and  so  favorable  to  the  pro- 
duction of  such  food  as  is  required  to  keep  the  trout  In  the 
condition  mentioned.  I  shall  give  only  one  note  from  my  note- 
book relating  to  the  sea-trout.  "  On  the  11th  of  September,  about 
eighty  sea-trout  were  taken  in  an  estuary  of  the  Lews,  in  one 
haul  of  the  net.  The  largest  weighed  about  four  pounds  and  a 
half.  About  one-half  of  the  whole  number  were  called  barren  fish, 
their  milts  and  roes  being  so  very  small  as  to  preclude  the  idea  of 
their  breeding  that  season."  tiovi,  as  it  seems  improbable  that  so 
large  a  proportion  should  be  really  barren,  the  other  conclusion  thai 
tJiey  nere  in  a  fidlow  state  for  the  season,  seems,  I  cannot  but  think, 
most  reasonable.  To  have  strict  proof,  in  would  be  neoeesary  that 
a  special  enquiry  should  be  iostituted,  and  that  fish  should  be 
marked  after  the  manner  of  those  on  which  observations  have  been 
made  to  determine  the  rate  of  growth  of  the  young  salmon.  The 
points  of  difference  in  nearly  allied  species,  such  as  the  salmouidse, 
are  an  interesting  subject  for  enquiry ;  they  are  to  be  witnessed, 
not  only  in  certain  qualities  of  organization,  bat  also  in  ratio  of 
growth,  aud,  as  we  have  seen,  of  generative  power,  and  likewise  in 
habits  of  feeding  and  the  tffaata  of  atmoej^eric  iDfloenoes.     The 


,,;.  Google 


1864.]  DATY  ON   THE  BALMONIDA.  451 

growth  of  the  eea  trout  in  the  sea  is  slow  in  oomparison  with  tliat 
of  the  BalmOD  ;  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  food  in  the  stom&ch  of 
the  fonner  when  in  freeh- water,  bnt  tl  is  rare  that  any  food  is  found 
in  the  stomach  of  the  latter  atter  leaving  the  sea.  The  sea-trout,  as  is 
well  known  to  theexperienoed  angler,  is  more  readilj taken, using  tha 
artiGoial  fiy,uoder  ciroumatancea  of  weather  differing  from  those  moat 
favorable  to  the  capture  of  the  salmon ;  a  dark  wind;  day  being 
best  for  the  latter,  a  warm  cloudy  day  with  gleams  of  sunshine  for 
the  former.  Oue  quality  they  have  in  common  with  river  and 
lake  tronta,-~tbat  their  ova  are  oapable  of  being  batobed  only  in  fresh 
and  well-aerated  water,  leading  to  the  oonctusioD  that  (he  migratory 
species  must  always  hare  been  migratory,  unless  indeed  we  sup- 
pose that  there  was  a  time  when  the  seas  were  leas  salt  than  at  pres- 
ent and  the  lakes  and  rivers  less  fresh,  and  that  then  the  habits 
of  Ihe  aalmonidie  were  formed,  and  they  gradually  became  divided 
int^  the  migratory  and  non-migratory  species. 

Sir  W.Jardinb  offered  some  observations  on  Dr.  Davy's  paper. 
In  reference  to  the  male  parr  or  young  salmon  being  endowed  with 
the  power  of  imprecating  tbe  ova  of  the  adult  fish,  be  said  the 
same  power  had  not  been  found  in  any  other  of  the  salmon  species. 
He  was  not  aware  that  esperimente  had  ever  been  made  with  any 
other  variety,  the  fish  not  having  been  found  in  a  state  fit  for  the 
purpose.  With  regard  to  the  salmon  breeding  yearly,  or  in  alter- 
nate years,  that  waaavery  difficult  point  to  prove;  but,  aaDr.  Davy 
had  observed,  the  number  of  barren  fish  occasionally  taken,  was 
presumptive  of  their  breeding  in  alternate  years.  If  Dr.  Davy 
would  go  to  the  river  Tweed  in  the  end  of  November,  and  fish  with 
salmon  roe  (which  was  now  forbidden),  he  might  kill  a  basketful 
of  the  Salmon  eriox  all  in  a  fit  condition  for  the  table.  Last  year 
he  (Sir  W.  Jardine)  went  there  to  try  experiments,  believing  that 
the  fence-time  was  far  too  protracted,  and  that  the  salmon  kind 
shoultl  not  be  taken  so  late  in  the  year  as  November.  They  netted 
the  river,  and  in  three  draughts  took  out  between  seventy  and 
eighty  salmon  and  bull-trout,  not  one  of  whidi  was  fit  for  the 
table.  Nothing  was  fit  for  the  table  except  the  small  Salmo  eriox. 
As  to  the  spawning-tlme,  he  had  no  doubt  that  the  common  trout 
spawned  earlier  than  the  other  varieties  of  the  salmon.  There  was 
a  great  many  common  trout  of  all  sizes  barren,  audit  was  the  com- 
mon trout  caught  in  January  and  February  that  were  now  coming, 
in  beautiful  condition,  into  the  London  market.  In  the  b^;inning 
of  the  season  they  would  probably  have,  out  of  fifty  tnmt  taken, 


,.,.d.i.  Google 


452  THB  CANADIAN   MATOBALIST.  [DeO. 

not  three  or  four  that  were  fit  for  the  table ;  bot  as  the  season  ad- 
vaaoed,  the  seasonable  fish  increased  in  number.  Dr.  fiavy,  refei^ 
ring  to  the  experiments  made  by  i?ir  W.  Jardine,  said  tbere  ought 
to  be  no  difficulty  in  carrying  oot  these  experiments,  inasmnoh  aa 
the  Act  allovred  the  capture  of  salmon  during  the  fence-term  for 
aoientifio  purpoaes. 

TttANSPORT  OF   BALHON  OTA  TO   AD3TRALIA. 

Mr.  T.  Johnson  read  the  following  paper : — At  one  of  the  sec- 
tional meetings  of  the  Britjsh  Associalion  last  year,  I  had  the 
honor  to  read  a  paper  giving  some  account  of  the  attempt  which 
had  been  made  to  transport  to  Australia  the  ova  of  the  most  beau- 
Uful  specimens  of  the  finny  race,  the  salmon.  Upon  that  occasion 
the  President  of  the  Section  hoped  that  at  the  next  meeting  of  the 
Association  an  aooonnt  of  the  auooeaa  of  the  undertaking  to  tranS' 
port  the  Sabno  talar  ta  Australia,  would  be  given  to  the  members 
of  the  Association.  Having  kept  the  president's  sug^tion  in 
view,  and  the  fourth  attempt  to  transport  the  ova  of  tJie  salmon  to 
Australia  having  this  year  terminated  suocessfully,  I  have  prepared 
a  short  account  of  the  plan  adopted  ;  the  arrival  of  the  expedition 
at  Melbourne  and  Tasmania;  the  progress  of  the  most  critical 
part  of  the  experiment, — the  rearing  of  the  fish ;  the  temperature, 
of  the  rivers  intended  for  the  reception  of  the  fish,  and  the  further 
prosecution  of  the  plan  of  acolimatiziog  this  noble  specimen  of 
the  species. 

The  plan  of  operations  which  has  this  time  been  crowned  with 
success  was  confined  to  an  ice-house,  holding  over  thirty  tons  of 
Wenham  Lake  ice,  which  was  built  on  board  Messrs.  Wigram'a 
ship  Norfolk,  sailing  from  London  on  January  21st,  and  Ply- 
mouth on  the  29tb  Januaiy,  1864.  The  ice-house  was  built  of 
two  thicknesses  of  three-inch  deals,  forming  an  open  space  of  from 
seven  to  nine  inches,  which  was  fiUed-in  with  charcoal  dust.  The 
lining  was  of  lead  from  seven  to  nine  pounds  per  square  Toot,  the 
watercourses  and  drain-pipes  leading  to  the  ship's  timbers.  In  the 
ice-house,  amongst  the  ice,  were  deposited  181  boxes  of  common 
deal,  measuring  twelve  by  nine  inches  by  five  inches  deep,  con- 
taining upwards  of  100,000  salmon-ova,  taken  from  English  and 
Scotch  rivers  in  the  month  of  January,  and  3000  trout-ova ;  all 
carefully  packed  amongst  damp  moss.  One  tier  of  boxes  was 
plaoed  upon  the  gratings  at  the  bottom  of  the  house,  covered  with 
ioe,  others  about  midway,  and  tlie  remainder  at  the  top  of  the  ice- 


,,;.  Google 


1864.]  JOHNSTON   ON  SALMON   OTA.  4&3 

bouse.  The  Norfolk,  after  a  fine  passage  of  sexentj-fiTe  days 
from  Plynioutb,  arrived  at  Melbourne  od  tbe  fifteenth  of  April 
last.  Mr.  Edward  Wilson,  presidentof  tbe  AcclimatiEation  Society, 
and  other  gentlemen  wnre  soon  in  nttendanoe,  and  examined  eleven 
boxes  cont^ning  the  ova ;  every  box  of  this  number  exhibiting 
its  contents  in  a  fine  state  of  preservation.  These  boxes  ivere 
detained  at  MclbouiDe,  to  form  the  nucleus  of  the  Balmon-sup- 
ply  for  Melbourne.  The  remuining  170  boxes  were  then  re- 
shipped,  packed  with  the  remainder  of  the  ice,  in  large  cases,  on 
board  U.  M.  C.  steamship  Victoria,  and  sent  off  to  Tasmania. 
The  Victoria  arrived  and  anchored  off  Battery  Point  on  the  20th 
of  April,  when  the  members  of  the  Acclimatization  Society  boarded 
her.  The  following  gentlemen  composed  the  Committee  of  Man- 
agement, viz.  :'Mr.  Qibbon  (officer),  Mr.  M.  Allport,  Mr.  Fulconer 
(Director  of  Public  Works),  the  Hon.  J.  M.  Wilson,  Mr.  Gould 
(the  government  geologist),  and  several  others.  The  following 
plan  was  adopted  as  tbe  means  of  transport  to  tbe  breed  ing-boxes 
on  the  river  Plenty :  A  considerable  number  of  attendants  were 
told  off  as  ourriers,  the  parties  being  again  subdivided  into  two 
relays,  destined  to  relieve  each  other  from  time  to  time  on  the 
way.  The  mode  of  oarriage  was  that  of  the  Chinese,  and  famil- 
iarly known  as  such  to  resident  visitors  to  the  neighboring  colony 
of  Victoria.  Each  case  was  provided  with  two  bandies  of  rope  on 
either  side,  and  through  each  pair  was  passed  a  bamboo-stick  of 
some  twelve  feet  in  length,  the  extremities  of  which  rested  on  the 
shoulders  of  bearers.  On  arriving  at  the  pond  some  little  delay 
was  occasioned  through  a  considerable  accumulation  of  alluvial 
deposits  on  the  gravel-beds  which  had  to  be  removed  before  the  ova 
could  be  deposited ;  this  however,  was  soon  done,  and  tbe  ova  after- 
wards speedily  placed  in  tbe  batchiog-boxea.  The  analysis  of  the 
eoQteotsof  tbe  boxes  at  Melbourne  and  at  Tasmania  shows  that  out 
of  the  103,000  ova  traoeported,  upwards  of  31,0U0  were  safely  de- 
posited in  tbe  prepared  gravel-beds.  We  cannot  but  r^ret  that  out 
of  103,000  we  should  have  so  few  left.  Remarkable  as  the  case 
appears,  and  considering  tbe  various  and  many  precarious  changes 
which  the  ova  have  been  Bubject«d  to  from  the  dat«  of  impregnation 
until  the  arrival  at  Melboome  and  at  Tasmania,  we  can  scarcely  fail 
to  acknowledge  that  the  experiment  has  been  singularly  successful. 
As  it  is  intended  to  continue  the  transporting  of  salmon-ova  dur- 
ing some  years  to  oome,  and  with  the  view  of  eliciting  opinions  or 
ToL.  [.  u  Mo.  S. 

n,s,t,..d:,i.  Google 


464  THB  CANADIAN  NATURALIST.  [DeO. 

suggestions  bcariog  iipoo  the  modes  of  transport,  I  may  be  allowed 
to  BtELt«  a  few  of  the  difficulties  we  h&ve  hud  to  contend  against. 
And  let  it  be  borne  in  mind  that  there  are  manj  dangers  on  board 
ship,  Euch  as  wc  have  not  upon  land.  These  difficulties  may  be 
gathered  from  the  following  extract  from  the  letter  of  Mr.  Joul. 
He  says,  "  It  is  impossible  to  account  for  the  diff^cnce,  as  it 
may  arise  from  so  many  causes.  Some  of  the  ova  was  not  in  the 
befit  condition ;  it  may  be  the  moss,  or  the  water  it  was  washed 
with,  or  the  water  it  was  drenched  with,  or  foul  air  in  the  ridge, 
or  some  of  the  ova  got  frozen  before  the  Norfolk  lefl  the  docks 
during  the  severe  frost."  To  these  probable  causes  I  would  add, 
the  fish  may  have  been  partly  or  wholly  diseased,  or  the  impurities 
of  the  ice,  or  insect  matter  as  it  escaped  through  the  melting  of 
the  ice,  but  more  particularly,  I  should  say,  the  bilge-water  in  the 
ship.  In  this  opinion  I  am  partly  borne  out  by  Dr.  Officer,  who, 
in  a  letter  to  Mr.  Joul,  dated  22nd  of  April,  1864,  says—"  Mr. 
Ramsbottom  thinks  that  the  boxes  nearest  the  bottom  were  the 
least  healthy."  These  causes,  we  may  infer,  are  very  serious  draw- 
backs, and,  in  my  opinion,  the  principal  cause  of  destruction. 
Previous  to  the  ice-house  being  commenced  with,  I  proposed  » 
plan  of  drainage  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  any  bilge- water  enter- 
ing the  ice-house,  but  could  not  have  it  carried  out.  Mr.  Joul 
saw  the  necessity  for  such  an  arrangement,  but  the  owners  of  the 
Norfolk  refused  permission,  allying  that  it  would  materially 
interfere  with  the  stowing  of  the  cargo.  Mr.  Joul  gave  way, 
although  I  could  come  to  no  such  conclusion.  The  plan  I 
proposed  would  have  provided  a  thorough  system  of  drainage, 
without  being  exposed  to  the  evils  attendant  upon  opening 
a  oommunication  with  the  ship's  timbers.  This  could  have 
been  done  by  draining  off  the  ice-water  into  two  tanks,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  ice-house  i  having  attached  to  each  an  ordi- 
nary pump,  communicating  with  the  upper  deck.  Had  such  an 
airrangement  been  carried  out,  a  two-fold  object  would  have  been 
achieved,  viz.,  there  would  have  been  no  open  channel,  by  which 
the  bilge-water  could  have  entered  the  ice-house ;  and  the  per- 
son in  charge  would  have  been  enabled  to  pump  up  the  ice-water 
and  meastire  it  off,  showing  correctly  how  much  ice  was  being 
melted  per  diem.  I  should  here  observe,  thai  as  the  owners  of 
the  Norfolk  gave  the  space  taken  up  by  the  ice-house  gratis, 
and  that,  as  it  was  very  difficult  to  get  a  suitable  ship,  Mr.  Joul 
had  no  other  choice  but  to  agree  to  the  plan  we  worked  out.    The 


Dy  Google 


1864.]  JOHMsr^iX  o^^  saucon  ota.  455 

ova  bdng  safely  depoeitcd  in  the  beds  at  Melbourne  and  Tasmama, 
ve  came  to  the  next  mitioal  test — vie.,  the  b&tohing-OQt,  and 
the  rearing  of  the  jouag  fry.  The  advioes  ve  have  from  Mel- 
bonme  and  Tasmania  record  the  appearance  of  the  ova  when  de- 
posited, and  when  the  fish  were  hatched,  the  last  day  of  hatehing, 
and  the  number  of  young  fry  they  have  at  each  place  up  to  the 
20th  June,  1864.  It  appears  at  the  time  the  ova  were  deposited 
in  the  hatching-boxes,  the  fonnation  of  the  fish  in  many  instanoes 
was  so  far  complete  that  their  eyes  were  plainly  visible.  This 
fact  led  Dr.  Officer  and  other  gentlemen  of  the  Acclimatteiiig 
Society  to  conclude  that,  before  many  days,  numbers  of  the  young 
fry  would  emei^  from  the  shell.  Such,  however,  was  not  the  case, 
inasmuch  as  the  first  fish  wasnot  hatched  until  the  4th  of  May,  and  at 
Helhoumeon  the7thof  May.  By  the  11th  as  many  as  forty  trout 
and  nine  salmon  were  hatched,  the  numbers  increasing  daily.  Un- 
fortunately during  the  hatching,  the  mortality  of  the  ova  and  the 
fry  reached  tosometbinglike  100  per  diem,  which  decreased  as  the 
season  grew  colder.  The  last  fish,  says  Dr.  OfGcer,  hatehed-out 
on  the  8th  of  June,  fifty-four  days  after  the  arrival  at  Tasmania,  and 
147  days  afler  the  date  of  impregnation.  After  this  great  success,  a 
want  ofcaution,  probably  from  an  over-deaire  to  do  more  than  nature 
will  bear,  seemstobeoneof  the  greatest  disorders  we  have  to  oon tend 
against.  The  advices  down  to  the  20th  June  show  the  Rttio  of 
mortality  amongst  the  ova  and  the  young  fry  to  be  so  great,  that  the 
total  number  of  fi^,  both  at  Melbourne  and  Tasmania,  does  not 
exceed  3,300.  To  what  cause  are  we  to  attribute  the  fearful  mor- 
tality among  the  young  fish  ?  Mr.  Joul,  writing  upon  the  aubjeot, 
■ays,  "  It  is  an  establbhcd  fact  that  salmon  and  trout  ova  can  be 
Bent  to  the  antipodes,  and  batched  there  ;  butas  I  am  not  satisfied 
with  only  about  3,000  fry  being  hatched  from  about  30,000  living 
healthy  ova  that  were  placed  in  the  breeding-ponds  in  Tasmania, 
and  about  300  from  1,200  hcnlthy  ova  in  Melbourne,  I  wish  to 
call  the  attention  of  Mr.  Bucldand,  Mr.  Francis,  Mr.  Buist,  and 
other  artificial  breeders,  to  these  numerous  deaths  of  the  ova, 
after  having  advanced  so  far  in  hatching  as  to  have  the  eyes  well 
developed,  and  when  they  ought  to  be  considered  safe,  with  the 
view  to  elicit  from  these  gentlemen  an  opinion  of  the  probable 
causes,  and  to  au^jest  a  remedy.  My  own  experience  is  that  out 
of  100  healthy  ova  taken  from  the  moss,  which  have  not  been 
more  than  100  days  in  ice, I  can  hatch  eighty;  and  there appearp, 
&om  what  I  know  of  the  river-water  and  climate  of  TsBmania,  no 


,.,.d.i.  Google 


456  THK  CANADIAN   NATURALIST.  [Oeo. 

reasoD  why  similar  results  shoold  aot  be  obltdoed  there.  I  am 
the  more  sdz ions  to  obtain  the  opinions  of  these  gentlemen,  becaass 
I  learn  thnt  for  years  to  come  further  attempts  are  to  be  made 
to  cany  oya  in  ioe  to  that  colony." 

HBW  METHOD   OF   EXTRACTINO  GOLD    PROM  OHM. 

Mr.  Briqob  read  a  paper  from  Mr.  F.  C.  Calvert,  of  Manches- 
ter, on  a  New  Method  of  Extracting  Gold  from  Anriferous  Ores. 
At  the  present  time  when  the  anriferous  ores  of  Great  Britain  are 
attracting  public  attention,  it  may  be  advaatageouB  to  persons 
interested  in  gold-mining,  to  be  made  acquainted  with  a  new  and 
simple  method  of  extracting  gold  from  such  ores,  which  preseolB 
the  advantages  of  not  only  dispensing  with  the  costly  use  of  nier- 
onry,  but  of  also  extracting  the  silver  and  copper  which  the  ore 
may  contain.  Further,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  process  can  beprr. 
fitably  adopted  in  cases  where  the  amountof  gold  is  small,  and  the 
expense  of  mercury  consequently  too  great.  Without  entering  here 
into  all  the  details  of  the  numerous  (about  one  hundred)  experiments 
which  I  made  some  years  since,  before  I  finally  arrived  at  the  new 
method  of  extracting  gold,  which  I  huve  now  the  honor  of  com- 
municating, allow  me  to  state  a  few  facts  whi^h  are  necessary  to 
give  a  complete  view  of  the  subject.  If  2.2  psrts  of  pure  and  finely 
divided  gold,  ol>tained  hy  the  reduction  of  a  salt  of  that  metal,  be 
added  to  100  parts  of  pure  sand,  and  placed  in  a  bottle  with  a  satu- 
rated solution  of  chlorine  gas  for  24  hours,  only  0.5  of  gold  b  dis- 
solved. If  the  same  experiment  be  repeated,  but  instead  of  chlorine 
water,  a  mixture  of  chlorine  water  and  hydrochloric  acid  be  used, 
0.6  of  gold  is  dissolved.  If,  instead  of  employing  hydrochloric 
acid  and  chlorine  gas,  a  mixture  of  sand,  reduced  gold,  and  perox- 
ide of  manganese,  with  hydrochloric  acid,  are  placed  in  a  bottle, 
1.4  of  gold  is  dissolved  ;  so  that  it  would  appear  that,  under  the 
influence  of  nascent  chlorine,  the  gold  is  more  readily  dissolved 
than  when  the  same  gas  is  mixed  in  solution  with  hydrochloric  acid, 
previously  to  being  placed  in  contact  with  the  auriferous  sand.  Still 
these  processes  leave  a  great  deal  to  be  desired  in  a  commercial 
point  of  view,  as  more  than  a  third  of  the  gold  remains  undissolved. 
The  same  results  are  obtained  if  the  chlorine  gas  be  generated  by 
Another  method,  viz.,  by  adding  to  the  suriferoos  sand  a  mixture 
of  chloride  of  sodium,  sulphuric  acid,  and  peroxide  of  manganese. 
Being  convinced,  therefore,  that  nascent  chlorine  gas  was  a  fit  and 
proper  agent  for  cheaply  extracting  gold  from  ores,and  that  it  was  pro- 
bably only  necessary  to  modify  the  method  of  operating,  I  allowed 


..Cooc^lc 


864.]  CALTIBT   ON  THE  EXTEACTION  OF   QOLD.  457 

tlie  mixtnre  of  hydrochlorio  aoid  and  peroxide  of  mangODese,  or  of 
Euipliario  acid,  peroxide  of  manganese,  and  chloride  of  aodium,  to 
retaiuD  for  twelve  hoars  ia  contact  with  the  aariferous  saad  ;  and, 
taben,  icatead  of  washing-out  the  solution  of  gold,  I  added  a  small 
quantity  of  watfir,  which  removed  a  part  of  the  actiog  agent,  and 
this  was  made  to  percolate  several  times  through  the  sand  ;  hj 
which  method  I  succeeded  in  extracting  from  the  sand,  within  a 
fraction  the  whole  of  the  gold.  I  then,  repeated  tlie  last  experi- 
ments with  natural  auriferous  quartz,  and  easily  extracted  the  two 
onncea  of  gold  per  ton  which  it  contained.  I  therefore  propose 
the  fbtlowing  plan  for  extracting  the  gold  on  a  oommeroial  scale : — 
The  finely-reduced  auriferous  quartz  should  be  intimately  mixed 
with  about  one  per  cent  of  peroxide  of  manganese  ;  and  if  com- 
mon salt  be  used  this  material  slionld  be  added  at  the  same  time 
as  the  manganese,  in  the  proportion  of  three  parts  of  salt  to  two 
of  manganese.  The  whole  should  be  then  introduced  into  closed 
Tats,  having  false  bottoms,  upon  which  is  laid  a  quantity  of  small 
branches  covered  with  straw,  so  as  to  prevent  the  reduced  quarti 
ttom  filling  the  boles  in  the  false  bottom.  Muriatic  acid  should 
tben  be  added  if  manganese  alone  is  used,  and  diluted  sulphuric 
acid  if  manganese  and  salt  have  been  employed;  and,  after  having 
lefkthe  whole  in  oontact  for  twelve  hours,  water  should  be  added  so  as 
to  fill-up  the  whole  space  between  the  false  and  true  bottoms  with 
fluid.  This  fluid  should  then  be  pumped-up  and  allowed  to  per- 
colate throi^h  the  mass  j  and  after  this  has  been  done  several  times, 
the  fluid  should  be  run  off  into  separate  vats  for  extracting  the 
gold  and  copper  that  it  may  oootain.  To  effect  this,  old  iron  is  placed 
in  it  to  precipitate  the  copper  ;  and  after  this  has  been  removed,  the 
liquor  is  heated  to  drive  away  the  excess  of  free  chlorine,  and  a  con- 
centrated solution  of  sulphate  of  protoxide  of  iron,  or  green  copperas, 
must  be  added,  which,  acting  ou  the  gold-solution,  will  precipitate 
the  gold  in  a  metallic  form.  By  this  method,  both  gold  and  copper 
are  obtained  in  a  marketable  condition.  If  silver  is  present  in  the 
ore,  a  slight  modifioation  in  the  process  will  enable  the  operator  to 
ibtain  this  metal  also.  It  is  simply  necessary  to  generate  the 
chlorine  of  the  vitriol,  manganese,  and  chloride  of  sodium  process, 
taking  care  to  use  an  excess  of  salt,  that  is,  six  parts  instead  of 
t^ree,  as  above  directed.  The  purpose  of  this  chloride  of  sodium 
being  to  hold  in  solution  aoy  chloride  of  silver  that  may  have  been 
formed  by  the  action  of  chlorine  on  the  silver-ore,  and  to  extract 
tike  metal,  the  following  alteration  in  the  mode  of  precipitation  is 


V,  Google 


458  THK  CANADIAN   NATrRALlHT.  [DcC. 

DecesBaiy.  Blades  of  copper  must  be  placed  in  tlie  metallic  soln- 
tioDB,  to  throw  down  the  Biiver  in  a  metallio  form,  then  blades  of 
iron  to  throw  down  the  copper,  the  gold  being  then  extracted  aa 
previously  directed.  I  think  the  advantages  of  this  process  are, 
let,  cheapoeES  ;  2Dd,  absence  of  injury  to  the  health  of  the  persons 
employed  ;  3rd,  that  not  only  is  the  metallia  gold  in  the  ore  ex- 
tracted (as  is  done  by  mercury),  but  it  attaolu  and  dissolves  all 
gold  whioh  may  be  present  in  a  combined  state,  besides  enabling 
the  miner  also  to  extract  what  silver  and  copper  the  ore  may  con- 
tain. I  cannot,  however,  conclude  without  reminding  yon  of  what 
is  generally  underrated  ;  that  is,  the  heavy  expeuses  which  attend 
the  bringing  of  the  ore  to  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  crushing 
and  preparing  it  for  being  acted  upon  by  mercury  or  by  any  other 
agents. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 


RcaicBNiTBa  Acadicus. 
For  description,  see  ante,  page  367. 


V,  Google 


1864.]  UIBGELLA.NEOnB.  459 

Galltina  Vuloaris  in  Nbwfodndland,— Mr.  Murray, 
late  of  tlie  Geological  Sarve;  of  Canada,  and  now  engiiced  id  a 
■nrrey  of  Newfoundland,  haa  brought  to  Montreal  specimeuB 
of  this  plant,  which  were  collected  h;  Judge  Robinson  on  the 
east  coist  of  Newfoundland,  near  Ferrjland  (lat.  47°,  long. 
52°  50'),  and  which  are  stated  to  be  from  a  small  pitch  of  the 
plant  not  more  than  three  yards  square.  The  locality  is  in  the 
same  part  of  the  island  to  which  the  specimens  collected  by  a 
Mr.  Cormaok  (or  MicCorm  wk),  and  formerly  in  the  collection  of  the 
Linnsein  Society,  are  referred,  (American  Journal  of  Science,  vol. 
xxxxviii,  p.  122,)  namely  the  south-east  peninsula;  and  two 
additional  loeilities  in  this  peninsula  are  noticed  in  Oormaok's 
label,  namely,  the  head  of  St.  Mary's  Bay  and  Trepassj  Bay 
or  Harbor.  It  b  supposed  that  the  Connack  who  Collected 
these  specimens  ie  the  well-known  eiplorer  of  the  interior  of  New- 
foundland; but  we  do  not  find  any  Dotice  of  the  plant  in  hie 
published  narrativo,  although  it  contains  man;  hotanioal  notes. 

De  la  Pylaie  was  no  doubt  the  first  to  collect  the  plant  in  New- 
foundland, since,  though  it  is  not  in  his  herbarium,  Prof.  Bninet 
informs  as  that  it  is  mentioned  in  bis  MS.  notes. 

We  now  have  certain  knowledge  of  localities  of  heather  in 
Massachusetts,  in  Cape  Breton  (see  ante,  page  378),  and  in  New- 
foundland, to  which  may  be  added  Giesecke's  testimony  that  it 
occurs  in  Greenland. 


The  Gold  of  Nota  Sootia  of  PftB-04Rii  oNiFEaons  Aoi. 
— At  Corbilt's  Mills,  about  four  miles  north  of  Gay's  Biver,  Col- 
chester Coun^,  Nova  Scotia,  auriferous  clay-slates  of  the  name 
character  as  Uiose  of  the  other  Gold  districts  of  the  Province,  are 
overlud  unoonformably  by  nearly  horisontal  beds  of  grey  and  red 
conglomerate,  grit,  and  sandstone,  of  Lower  Carboniferous,  pro- 
bably Lower-Coal-measures  age.  At  the  mills  these  last  are  only 
a  few  feet  in  thickness.  They,  in  turn,  are  overlaid  by  a  mass  of 
drift,  and  by  beds  of  stratified  sand  and  clay  of  variable  thickness. 

The  little  brook  anpplying  the  water-power  (o  the  mills,  has 
out  through  the  Post-tertiary  and  Carboniferous  beds,  and  in  some 
places  has  worn  for  itself  a  channel  in  the  slates,  so  that  in  the 
Dumerous  excavations  on  its  banks  very  good  sections  are  exposed. 

As  to  the  Carboniferous  age  of  the  conglomerate  and  sandstones 
there  can  be  no  doabt.     They  cannot  be  Silurian,  for  they  overlie 


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460  THB  CANADIAN   NATDRALIST.  [Deo, 

UDComformably  rocks  of  this  sge.  They  are  totally  unlike  any  Devo- 
nian rocks  occnrring  in  the  Province,  while  they  agree  perfectly 
with  the  Lower  Garbontferons  conglomerates  and  Bandstonee  of 
the  Carboniferona  basin  on  the  mai^gin  of  which  they  lie.  Tbe^ 
contain  a  few  ill-pr«served  foseil  plants  like  diote  found  in  simitar 
GarboniferouB  beds.  Between  the  Carboniferous  and  Drift,  the 
only  formation  occurring  in  Nova  Scotia  is  the  New-Red-Sandstone, 
to  the  rocks  of  which  Uie  beds  under  consideration  bear  no  resem- 
blance. They  cannot  be  of  drifV-age,  for  their  fhigmeats  ibrm 
rounded  boulders  in  that  depout.  They  show  no  sign  of  having 
suffered  from  metamorphism.  The  lower  part  of  the  beds  of  eon- 
glomerate  or  grit  at  their  junction  with  the  sl&les,  is  richly  auri- 
ferous, the  gold  oocurring  principally  in  the  form  of  flattened  scales, 
■ometiinea  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  dianiet«r,  disseminated  through 
the  rock.  I  have  seen  many  fragments  of  the  conglomerate,  not  a 
,aubic  inch  in  size,  on  the  surface  of  which  tweoty  or  thirty  scales 
of  gold  ooald  be  counted  with  the  naked  eye.  Levels  are 
driven  into  the  banks  of  the  brook,  at  tbe  junction  of  the  two  foi^ 
mations :  a  foot  or  more  of  the  lower  part  of  the  conglomerated 
bed  is  removed  and  washed  in  the  common  miner's  cradle  and  pan, 
yielding  rich  returns.  It  is  from  this  sonroe  that  the  greater  part 
of  the  gold  mined  at  the  locality  is  obtained. 

A  machine  b  being  erected  on  the  spot  to  crush  the  conglome- 
rate, in  order  that  the  gold  may  be  more  tboioughly  extracted. 

Gold  has  been  washed  from  the  drift  overlying  the  conglomerate. 
The  source  whenoe  tbe  gold  was  derived,  was,  doubtless,  quarts- 
veins  in  the  olay-sl^tes.  Ooly  one  lead,  about  a  quarter  of  su 
inch  in  thickness,  has  been  discovered  beneath  the  conglomerate. 
It  is  richly  aariferons,  and  has  a  strike  of  about  north  and  south, 
and  a  dip  to  the  eastward  of  70°.  NoD-aunferous  quartx-veins  are 
very  numerous  in  the  slate-hills  of  the  vicinity.  That  this  lead 
is  older  than  the  Carboniferous  strata  is  plain  from  its  endii^ 
abruptly  at  the  junction  with  the  slates. 

From  the  above  facts  I  think  there  can  be  do  doubt  that  tb« 
gold  of  Corbilt's  Mills  is  of  Pre-Carboniferous  origin  ;  and  sinoe 
tbe  gold  of  that  locality  was  derived  from  strata  precisely  similar 
in  character  to  those  of  the  other  gold-regions  of  Nova  Scotia,  and 
which  strata  are  but  tbe  re-appearanco  northward  of  the  gold-bear- 
ing rocks  of  the  gold-fields  of  Renfrew  and  Oldham,  and  of  the 
metamorphic  band  of  the  Atlantic  coast,  I  think  that  tbe  Pre- 
Carboniferous  age  of  the  gold  of  Nova  Scotia  is  clearly  indicated. 


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1864.]  THC   LATE  FBOFKSBOa  SILUHAN.  461 

It  is  a  very  generally  acoopted  theory,  propounded  by  Sir 
Roderick  Murchison,  that,  while  gold  is  confined  to  Lower  Silurian 
atrata,  it  did  not  make  its  appearance  therein  until  just  before  the 
time  of  tbe  drift.  As  the  gold  of  Nova  Scotia  was  probably  in- 
traduced  into,  or  asromed  its  preeent  form  in  the  quartz-leads,  at 
the  time  of  the  metamorphiam  of  the  Silurian  rocks,  which  meta- 
morphism  was  Pre-Carboniferous,  I  had  doubted  the  correctness  of 
this  theory.  The  occurrence  of  gold  in  the  Garboniferaus  rooks 
of  Corbitt'fl  Mills,  shows  that  it  is  not  to  be  applied  to  the  Prov- 
ince of  Nova  Sootia. 

0.  Fbkd.  Habtt. 

Halifax,  Oct.  27, 1864. 


OBITUARY. 

PSOFEBSOR  BENJAMIN  8II.LIMAN. 


Our  honored  associate,  Professor  Benjamm  SiUiman,  the  founder 
of  this  Journal  (Silliman's  Journal),  whose  name  has  appeared 
upon  the  title-page  of  every  number,  from  the  first  until  the 
present,  is  with  ns  no  more.  He  died  at  his  rewdence  in  New 
Haven,  eariy  Thursday  morning,  November  24, 1864,  (the  day  set 
apart  for  a  national  thanksgiving,)  having  reached  the  age  of 
eighty-five  years. 

It  beoomes  our  duty  to  plaoe  on  record  in  these  pt^ee,  as  an 
inscription  to  the  monument  which  be  has  himself  erected,  an  out- 
line of  his  career  and  a  tribute  to  his  memory.  Few  men  enter 
life  with  such  promise  as  he ;  fewer  still  sustain  themselves  so 
evenly,  and  die  so  widely  lamented. 

Instmotion  in  natural  science  has  been  his  great  work ;  and  in 
it  he  was  emf^ticaUy  a  man  of  the  times.  Banning  when 
almost  nothing  was  known  b  this  country  of  tbe  departmente  to 
which  he  was  especially  devoted,  he  lived  ta  see  them  carried  for- 
ward to  a  high  d^;ree  of  progress,  and  their  importance  everywhere 
acknowledged.  His  life,  which  was  one  of  few  marked  incidents, 
was  passed  in  his  native  State,  in  connection  with  Yale  College, 
tbe  institution  that  early  selected  him  as  one  of  it«  faculty.  Two 
or  three  times  he  was  invited  to  become  the  president  of  colleges 
elsewhere,  but  New  Haven  continued  his  chosen  home.  Twioe 
he  visited  Europe,  first  in  1805-6,  in  order  to  qualify  himself  fiir 


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462  THB  CANADIAN   NATUBALIST.  [DcO. 

his  work  id  life  by  altendance  upon  lectures  in  London  and  Edin- 
burgh, and  by  obacrration  of  foreign  inetitatioQB  of  learning ;  and 
agaio,  near  the  close  of  his  life,  in  1851,  vhen  be  was  accompa- 
nitid  by  his  son,  and  made  a  more  extended  toar  of  observation 
and  inquiry.  It'requent  journeys  in  his  own  country  made  him 
ac4]uainted  personally  with  the  institutions  and  the  men  of  every 
State,  while  his  habits  of  prompt  and  friendly  correspoDdence 
perpetuated  the  intimacies  which  he  formed  at  home  and  abroad. 

Without  attempting  a  formal  biography  (which  the  late  day  of 
bis  decease  renders  impossible  at  this  time),  we  propose  to  speak 
briefly  of  Professor  Silliman's  career  as  an  officer  of  Yale  College, 
and  as  a  man  of  scienoe,  and  then  of  his  personal  character  and 
influence  in  the  community. 

The  Silliman  family  has  resided  in  Fairfield,  Conn.,  since  the 
early  colonial  days.  Tradition  says  that  Claudio  Siliimandi,  their 
earliest  known  ancestor,  was  driven,  in  lfil7,from  Lucca,  Italy,  to 
Switzerland,  by  religious  persecution.  The  descendants  resided  in 
Berne,  and  afterwards  in  Geneva,  whence  they  emigrated  tbrongh 
Holland  to  this  country  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury.  A  worthy  pastor  of  the  name,  living  with  his  family  near 
Neufohatel,  was  visited  by  Professor  Silliman  in  1851. 

Ehenezer  Silliman,  the  grandfather  of  Benjamin,  graduated  at 
Tale  College  in  1727,  and  Gold  Selleok,  the  father,  in  1752.  The 
latter  was  a  brigadier^neral  of  militia  in  the  Revolution,  and 
was  entrusted  for  a  time  with  the  defence  of  the  Long  Island  coast. 
In  1775  he  was  married  to  Mary,  the  daughter  of  the  Rev.  Joseph 
Fish  of  Stonington,  and  the  widow  of  the  Rev.  John  Noyes.  The 
two  children  of  this  marriage.  Gold  Selleck  and  Benjamin, 
became  members  of  the  same  class  in  collie,  and  have  maintained 
through  life  an  intimacy  peculiarly  fresh  and  cordial.  The  younger 
brother,  Benjamin,  was  born  in  North  Stratford,  Oonn.,  (now  the 
town  of  Trumbull,)  August  8,  1779.  The  elder,  who  was  born 
in  1777,  is  still  living  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Throughout  his  active  life.  Professor  Silliman  has  been  identi- 
fied with  Yale  College.  Reentered  the  institution  in  1792,  gra- 
duated in  1796,  became  a  tutor  in  1799,  was  appointed  professor 
of  chemistry  and  natural  history  in  1804;  and  in  1853,  having 
been  relieved,  at  hia  own  request,  from  further  service  as  an 
instmctor,  he  was  designated,  by  the  corporation,  professor  emeri- 
ftw.  Thus,  during  a  period  of  nearly  three-quarters  of  a  century, 
hia  name  has  a|^)eared  aa  a  student  and  a  teacher  successively  on 


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1864.]  THX   LATE  PBOrEBSOa  BILLIUAN.  463 

the  oatali^eB  of  the  collie.  He  was  a  pupil  of  both  Dr.  Stilee 
and  Dr.  Dwight,  and  tho  colleagae  of  the  latter  during  eighteeu 
yeara.  With  Preaident  Day  and  Professor  Kingelej  he  was 
associated  for  half  a  century  or  more  ia  the  goTerDmeat  of  the 
institutioD. 

Iq  the  capacity  of  a  oolI^e-officer,  be  was  pre-eminent  as  a 
teacher.  The  profesBor'a  chair,  in  the  laboratory  or  ia  tho  lecture- 
room,  was  the  place  above  all  others  in  which  his  enUiusiasm,  his 
sympathy  with  nsefui  aapirationa,  his  varied  acquisitions,  his 
acquaintaDce  with  the  world  of  nature  and  of  art,  and  hia  graceful 
utterance,  exerted  their  highest  end  most-enduring  influence. 
The  minds  which  be  aroused  to  the  study  of  nature  have  become 
investigators  and  teachers  in  every  portion  of  the  country  ;  and  all 
his  pupils,  whether  devoted  to  science  or  to  letters,  will  bear  testi- 
mony to  the  interest  which  he  awulceaed  in  these  pursuits.  They 
will  never  forget  tho  admirable  tact  with  which  the  manipulations 
of  the  laboratory  were  performed,  or  the  brilliant  experiments  in 
chemistry  which  the  lecturer  seemed  to  enjoy,  as  if,  like  the  class, 
be  bad  never  witnessed  them  before.  The  course  in  chemistry,  in 
early  years,  extended  through  one  hundred  and  twetrty  lectures. 
In  later  days  it  was  not  so  long,  but  was  followed  by  a  course  in 
mineralogy  and  another  in  geolc^.  Here,  too,  Professor  Silliman 
had  the  same  magnetio  influence  on  his  students,  sending  them  off 
on  long  walks  about  New  Haven  and  at  home  to  search  for  speci- 
mens, or  to  study  the  phenomena  of  geolc^.  The  third  of  tbese 
annual  courses,  that  on  geology,  he  gave  with  peculiar  test  and 
eloquence.  He  delighted  to  depict  the  catastrophes  of  geoli^cal 
history,  and  to  oloUie  the  world  with  the  plants  and  the  animals  of 
former  days. 

Professor  SiUiman  was  less  concerned  in  the  government  of  the 
atadents  than  some  of  his  asHociates)  but  questions  were  continn- 
ally  arising  in  which  hia  counsel  was  of  weight.  He  was  prompt 
iu  rebuking  every  form  of  youthful  delioqueucy,  yet  was  never 
harsh  nor  inconsiderate.  No  student  ever  left  his  presence 
feeling  wronged  or  indignant.  He  would  much  rather  sacrifice  a 
rule  than  injure  an  offender.  If  he  seemed  sometimes  to  be 
lenient,  it  was  the  leniency  of  a  father,  for  his  mind  regarded  the 
improvement  of  his  scholars  rather  thun  the  enforcement  of  routine 
and  discipline.  His  paternal  lectures  to  the  Freshman  class  on 
morals  and  manners  were  admirable  in  their  influence  ;  and  many 
a  graduate  of  the  college  will  aolcnowledge  that  his  habits  for  life 


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464  THB  CANADIAN   NATURALIST.  [D60. 

w«re  affei^ted  by  the  judicious  hiots  which  he  received  from  his 
kind  and  sympathising  teacher. 

Mr.  SiUiman's  labors  began  with  iDstruction  ;  bat  they  did  not 
end  there.  His  active  and  versatile  disposition  led  bim  to  become 
interested  in  and  to  help  forward  whatever  would  contribute  to 
the  welfare  of  Yale  Coll^;e.  When  he  went  abroad,  in  1805,  to 
fit  himself  for  the  dnties  of  his  professorship,  the  purchase  of 
bookfl  for  the  libraiy  was  one  of  the  duties  with  which  he  was 
especially  charged.  He  was  one  of  the  library  eoniniittee  until 
his  retirement.  In  his  own  departtpents,  not  only  the  Chemical 
Laboratory,  but  also  the  Cabinet  of  Minerals,  owed  its  exiBt«nee 
to  bis  energy.  This  collection  is  indeed  so  important,  that  some- 
lihing  more  than  the  mere  mention  of  it  seems  due.  About  the 
time  when  Mr.  Silliman  was  appointed  a  professor,  the  entire 
minemlc^cal  and  geok^eal  cotleotion  of  Yale  College  was  trans- 
ported to  Philadelphia  in  one  small  box,  that  the  specimens  might 
be  named  by  Dr.  Adam  Seybert,  then  fresh  from  Werner's  School 
at  Freiberg,  the  only  man  in  this  country  who  ooald  be  r^arded 
as  a  mineralogist  seieiitt6cally  trained.  From  this  small  beginning 
grew  the  present  cabinet.  Id  1810,  owing  to  personid  r^rd  for 
Professor  Silliman,  Col.  Geoi^  Gibbs  deposited  with  Tale  Coll(^ 
his  valuable  collection  of  minerals;  and  after  it  had  remained 
open  to  the  pablio  fifteen  years,  varions  friends  of  the  college, 
chiefly  through  the  instrameotaltty  of  Professor  Silliman,  sub- 
scribed for  its  pnrchase  the  sum  of  120,000.  Other  important 
accessions  were  also  secured  through  his  influence,  not  only  from 
college  graduates  and  sther  American  gentlemen,  but  from  various 
foreign  collectors. 

The  Otark  telescope  is  another  of  the  donations  to  Tale  GoDc^ 
due  to  Professor  SiUtman.  This  ezcellent  glass,  the  best  in  the 
country  at  the  time  of  its  purchase,  was  the  means  of  exciting 
flinoDg  the  students  of  the  coll^  unusual  attention  to  astronomi- 
eal  pursuits  for  many  years  after  ite  reception.  The  liberal  donor, 
a  farmer  near  New  Haven,  by  this  and  other  more  important  gifla, 
placed  himself  foremost  among  all  the  benefactors  of  tbecoUege  up  to 
that  time,  and  Prof.  Silliman  was  the  medium  through  whom  his 
benefactions  were  bestowed.  The  Trumbull  Gallery  of  Paintings, 
a  collection  of  priceless  value,  not  only  as  works  of  art,  but  also 
as  illuHtrations  of  American  history  and  biography,  was  secured  to 
the  college  through  the  same  enlightened  instrumentality.  The 
Medical  InsUtntioa  of  Tale  Coll^  and  Ute  Sheffield  School  of 


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1864.]  THE   LATB   PBOFESSOa  BILLIHAIf.  46S 

Science,  importaDt  branches  of  the  Dniveraity,  were  both  greatly 
aided  in  their  b^inniiigs  hy  the  influential  exertions  put  forth  by 
Professor  SillimoD.  He  was  one  of  the  chief  founders  of  the 
Alumni  AssociaUon  of  the  oollc^e;  and  at  their  anniversaries  and 
on  other  occasions,  he  was,  as  another  has  said,  "  the  standing 
'orator'  of  the  college;  the  principal  medium  between  those  who 
dwelt  in  the  academic  shade  and  the  great  pabUo."  Not  unfre- 
qnently  he  was  the  college  solicitor,  asking  funds  for  the  expan- 
sion of  the  institution,  and  never  asking  in  vain. 

Althongh  his  services  as  a  college-officer  were  great.  Professor 
Siliiman'a  strongest  elaim  to  the  gratitude  of  men  of  science  resta 
upon  the  establishment,  and  the  maintenance,  often  nnder  very 
discoura^ng  cironmatanoee,  of  the  American  Journal  of  Science. 
The  history  of  thb  undertakiog  has  already  been  given,  in  his 
own  words,  in  the  introdnotion  to  the  fiftieth  or  index  volume  of 
the  first  series  of  tiie  Journal ;  and  it  is  for  others,  rather  than 
for  ui,  to  give  an  estimate  of  his  editorial  services.  It  is  but  just, 
however,  to  call  attention  to  a  few  oircumstances,  which  all  will 
r^rd  as  creditable  to  its  founder. 

He  had  the  sagticity  to  foresee,  as  long  ago  as  1818,  the  scope 
which  Boch  a  magazine  should  take.  The  proepeotos  which  he  then 
wrote  is  applicable  almost  exactly  to  our  pages  to-day.  Experience 
has  established  the  wisdom  of  the  conrse  which  he  marked  out. 

He  maintained  the  Journal,  from  the  b^inning,  at  his  own 
pecuniary  rbk.  Its  publication- has  often  been  a  serious  financial 
harden,  and  in  its  most  prosperous  days  has  not  yielded  a  fair  return 
for  editorial  labor.  But  it  has  bean  continued,  at  this  personal 
inconvenience,  for  the  sake  of  American  science,  that  the  labors 
of  our  countrymen  might  be  made  known  abroad,  and  the  labors  of 
Europeans  understood  in  this  country. 

The  Jonmal  has  never  been  used  for  the  benefit  of  any  party 
or  inilividual,  bat  solely  for  the  advancement  and  diSiiuon  of 
scientific  truth.  Its  pages  have  been  always  open  to  free  soientifio 
discussion,  with  truth  as  the  single  end  in  view. 

The  original  investigations  of  Prof.  Silliman  are  not  nnmeroos. 
In  the  early  part  of  his  career  he  began  witii  energy  some  impor- 
tant experiments  and  researches.  He  undertook  a  geologioal 
survey  of  Gonneoticnt ;  be  published  a  paper  in  conjunction  with 
Prof.  Kingsley  on  the  &mous  Weston  meteorite ;  he  applied  the 
newly-invented  blowpipe  of  his  friend.  Dr.  Hare,  to  the  fusion  (^ 
a  variety  of  bodies,  which  ware  before  r^arded  M  infooible;  be 


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466  THE  CANADIAN   NATUBALIBT.  [DeC 

demonstrated  in  the  galvanic  battery  the  transfer  of  particles  of 
carboD  from  one  charcoal-point  to  the  other ;  he  made  eoientifio 
examinations  of  various  localities  interesting  in  their  geological  or 
mincrulogical  aspects.  But  he  was  too  mnch  needed  elsewhere  to 
be  allowed  to  remain  a  close  stadent  in  the  laboratory,  or  to 
engage  with  constancy  as  an  explorer  in  the  field  of  geological 
research.  He  has  probnbly  been  a  more  useful  man  in  the  wider 
epheres  of  influenoe  to  which  he  was  called,  than  he  could  have 
been  in  a  life  devoted  to  ncientific  inveatigation. 

During  a  considerable  part  of  his  life,  he  was  one  of  the  few 
men  in  the  country  who  could  hold  a  popular  audience  with  a 
lecture  on  science.  The  public  early  knew  of  hie  capabilities ;  and 
for  many  years  he  yielded  to  invitations  from  various  parts  of  the 
country  to  deliver  lectures  on  Qeolt^  and  on  Chemistry.  In  1833  ' 
he  gave  his  first  popular  course  on  Oeoli^  at  New  Haven,  which 
was  repeated  in  1834  at  Hartford  and  Lowell,  and  in  1835  at 
Boston  and  Siilem.  At  Boston,  the  audience  desiring  to  attend 
was  so  mnch  larger  than  the  largest  hall  would  hold,  that  each 
lecture  was  given  twice,  fbr  the  accommodaUon  of  the  public. 
From  1840  to  1843  inclusive,  he  gave  four  successive  courses 
of  the  Lowell  Lectures  in  Boston.  Besides  various  other  en- 
gagements in  the  Northern  and  Eastern  States,  he  went  in  1847 
by  invitation  to  New  Orleans,  and  on  his  way  appeared  before 
crowded  audiences  in  other  cities  of  the  South ;  and  five  years 
after  the  resignation  of  bis  professorship  in  collie,  when  be  had 
passed  his  75th  year,  he  made  the  long  journey  to  St.  Louis,  in 
obedience  to  a  call  for  a  course  of  lectures  from  the  oitiEons  of 
that  place. 

In  lecturing,  his  language  was  simple ;  his  flow  of  words  easy, 
generous  and  appropriate ;  his  style  animated,  aboundiuLf  iu  life- 
like and  well-adorned  description,  often  eloquent,  end  sometimes 
varied  with  anecdote  running  occasionally  into  wide  digressions. 
Hb  manner  was  natural,  and  every  feature  spoke  as  well  as  his 
mouth.  His  noble  countenance  and  commanding  figure  (be  was 
nearly  ux  feet  in  height,  with  a  well-built  frame)  often  called 
ibrth,  as  he  entered  the  lecture-hall,  the  involuntary  applause  of 


In  his  popular  conraea  he  often  lectured  on  the  subject  of 
Geology  and  Genesis;  and  as  be  was  widely  known  not  only  as 
a  man  of  science,  but  also  as  a  nncere  believer  in  the  sacred 
Scriptures,  he  greatly  aided  in  removing  from  the  religious  world 


,.,.d.i.  Google 


1864.]  THE  LATX  PB0FES60B  BILLIHAN.  467 

the  appreheonon  that  soienoe  &nd  religioo  were  hostile  in  their 
teachings. 

Mr.  Sillimaa  found  great  pleasure  in  helping  forward  other  men 
of  scienoe.  He  rejoiced  heartily  in  their  progress  ;  his  house  and 
his  lahoratory  were  always  open  to  receive  them,  and  if  a  friendly 
word  or  letter  from  him  ooold  advance  their  interests,  bf  was  ever 
ready  to  bestow  it.  He  also  felt  a  deep  concern  for  the  advance- 
ment of  scientific  investigations  in  every  part  of  the  country ;  and 
whenever,  in  halls  of  l^islatiOD,  or  before  the  publio,  the  name  of 
Benjamin  Silliman  would  advance  a  useful  project,  it  was  not 
withheld.  In  more  than  one  instance,  the  foreigner  or  the  exile 
remembers  his  kindness  with  almost  filial  devotion. 

Prof.  SiUiman'a  scientific  publications,  apart  from  his  contribn- 
tjons  to  this  journal,  were  chiefly  text-books.  He  edited  Henry's 
Chemistry  and  Bakewell's  Geology,  for  the  use  of  his  pupils ;  and 
also  published  a  work  on  Chemistry,  in  two  volumea. 

His  long  labors  for  science  brought  him  honors  from  all  parts 
of  the  world.  His  name  is  on  the  roll  of  several  of  the  principal 
Bcieutifio  Academies  or  Societies  of  Europe,  and  of  those  of  hia 
own  country.  He  was  one  of  the  original  members  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  a  Regent  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution. 

Aside  from  Professor  SiUiman's  inflnecce  as  an  officer  of  Yale 
Goli^e,  and  as  a  well'known  man  of  science,  his  persoaal  hold 
upon  the  community  at  large  was  remarkably  strong.  This  was 
due  somewhat  to  the  favor  with  wliich  his  popular  lectares  were 
received,  and  to  the  wide  circuit  over  which  ho  had  journeyed.  It 
was  also  Offing  in  part  to  the  pleasure  and  instruction  which  were 
afforded  by  his  books  of  travel.  Twice,  as  we  have  stated,  Pro- 
fessor Silliman  visited  Europe,  the  interval  between  his  journeys 
being  nearly  fifty  years.  Both  these  visits  led  to  the  publication 
of  his  observations  in  volumes  which  were  widely  read.  The  nar- 
rative of  his  earlier  journey  especially  was  received  by  the  public 
with  great  delight.  Few  Americans  then  went  abroad  j  and  hardly 
any  had  published  narratives  of  what  they  had  seen.  Mr.  Silli- 
man's  volumes  were  fascinating  to  young  and  old, — and  many  were 
the  testimonials  which  be  received  of  the  interest  thus  awakened 
in  European  institutions  and  manners.  His  Journal  of  a  Tour 
to  Canada  was  another  contribution  to  the  literature  of  the  day. 

But  the  general  influence  of  Mr.  Silliman  must  be  attributed  to 
his  personal  character,  rather  than  to  any  of  what  may  be  termed 


Dy  Google 


468  THE  CANADIAN    NATURALIST.  [Dec 

the  accideatal  oircunuitaDoes  of  bU  life.  He  was  a  man  of  vigoroiu 
anderBtaniling  «nd  eound  judgment,  led  on,  bat  never  carried 
away,  by  an  entbusiastio  disposition,  glowing  and  oonstant.  With 
this  was  assooiat^d  sterliog  integrity,  which  never  harbored  a 
selfish  or  dishonorable  purpose,  but  rejoiced  In  doing  and  encour- 
aging whatever  was  right.  Every  oae  ooold  trust  him.  These 
fundamental  traits  were  adorned  by  the  outward  qnalities  of  afia- 
bility  and  courtesy,  or  rather  were  expreeeed  in  manners  at  once 
■o  dignified  and  so  kind  that  all  with  wbom  he  came  in  contact 
were  charmed  at  once,  and  on  closer  interooarse  were  bound  to  him 
as  friends  for  life.  Such  friendships  he  never  neglected  or  forgot. 
Even  the  sons  and  the  grandsons  of  his  early  associates  inheritdd 
a  share  in  t^e  r^ard  which  he  had  bestowed  npon  their  parents. 
Blending  with  and  ennobling  all  these  virtues,  was  the  child-like 
simplicity  of  bis  Christian  faith. 

A  character  like  this  shines  the  brighter  the  nearer  it  is  seen. 
In  his  own  family  circle,  Mr.  SilUman  has  moved  for  years  as  a 
patriarch,  surrounded  by  bis  descendants  to  the  third  and  fourth 
generation.  The  very  house  which  he  occupied  has  become  his- 
toric, reflecting  in  its  arrangements,  its  family  portraits,  ita 
interesting  mementoes  of  absent  friends,  and  its  long  shelves  of 
books,  the  controlling  mind  which  has  dwelt  there. 

In  the  neighborhood  and  town  where  he  redded,  Mr.  Sillimau 
was  peculiarly  beloved  and  respected.  "  New  Haven  will  not  be 
New  Haven  without  him,"  said  more  than  one  of  his  associates, 
as  he  hc;ird  of  his  death.  His  band  was  always  open  to  the  needy ; 
be  was  given  to  hospitality.  He  frequenUy  took  part  in  public 
meetings,  and  was  actively  concerned  in  all  questions  of  local 
improvement.  He  rarely,  if  ever,  failed  to  discharge  his  duties  as 
a  citizen  at  the  polls,  and  was  alwuys  ready  to  express  his  opinions 
on  questions  of  public  policy. 

A  whole-souled  patriot,  he  viewed  wilb  Uie  deepest  interest  the 
oomplii-ations  brought  into  the  afi'airs  of  t^e  country  by  the  system 
of  slavery.  His  general  benevolenoe  ever  led  him  to  sympathice 
witb  the  oppressed,  and  the  wrongs  of  the  African  touched  him 
deeply. 

As  soon  as  the  atrocities  in  Kansas  revealed  the  determination 
of  the  advocates  of  slavery  to  perpetuate  and  extend  that  institu- 
tion, even  if  they  dissevered  or  destroyed  the  nation,  Mr.  SiUiman 
came  out  with  all  his  youthful  ardor,  and  with  the  influence  of 
his  years  and  repatati<»i,  as  the  opponent  of  the  slave-power.    He 


,.,.d.i.  Google 


1864.]  THB   LATE   PB0F£S8OK  SILLIIfAN.  469 

thus  became  the  object  of  personal  defamation,  even  in  the  Senate- 
chamber  at  Waahinglon ;  but  he  atill  remained  firm,  for  he  re«^- 
nized  in  this  war  a  slaveholder's  rebellioD.  All  the  lofc^  sentimeDts 
of  patriotaBm  wlucb  were  awakened  in  childhood  as  he  witnessed 
the  coDimeDcemeat  of  national  life,  were  intensified  by  this 
straggle  to  maintain  the  Union.  He  was  sure  that  the  nation 
ironld  be  purified  by  the  oonfiict,  and  liberty  established  througb- 
ont  all  the  land. 

Mr,  Silliman  baa  always  been  remarkable  for  nniform  good 
health,  and  in  his  later  years  hot  slightly  manifested  the  enoroach- 
ments  of  age.  To  the  last,  his  form  was  as  erect,  bis  brow  as 
serene,  and  his  features  as  full  of  life  and  cheerfulness,  as  in  his 
earlier  days ;  and  his  gait  was  only  a  little  slower  and  more 
cautious. 

He  continued  as  usual  until  the  middle  of  November  just  past, 
vhen  he  was  for  a  few  days  quite  unwell,  probably  as  an  imme- 
•  diate  consequence  of  exposure  to  cold  when  attending  an  evening 
meeting  in  behalf  of  the  Sanitary  Commission.  Be  had  gradually, 
to  appearance,  Trained  nearly  hi^  former  strength  during  the 
Ibllowing  week,  and  on  Wednesday  was  intending  to  join  the 
family  Thank^ving  festival  the  next  day  at  the  house  of  bia  son- 
in-law,  Prof.  Duna.  On  the  morning  of  that  day  (November  24), 
he  awoke  early,  after  a  night  of  quiet  rest,  feeling  stronger,  as  he 
said,  thun  he  had  done  for  some  days.  He  spoke  with  his  wife  of 
the  many  reasons  there  were  for  thankfulness,  both  public  and 
private  ;  dwelling  at  length  upon  the  causes  for  national  gratitude, 
especially  in  the  recent  re-election  t«  the  Presidency  of  a  man  who 
had  proved  himself  so  true,  so  honest,  so  upright  in  conducting 
the  affairs  of  the  governmemt  as  Mr.  Lincoln.  As  was  his  ctiHtom, 
he  offered  up,  while  still  in  his  bed,  a  short  prayer,  and  repeated  a 
familiar  hymn  of  praise.  In  resuming  his  conversation,  before 
rising,  he  spoke  of  Uie  possibility  of  bia  attending  the  public  ser- 
vices of  the  day,  of  the  happiness  of  his  home,  of  the  love  of  his 
children,  and,  in  strong  terms  of  endearment,  of  his  wife.  Just 
as  these  bis  last  words  of  love  were  uttered,  there  was  a  sudden 
change  of  countenance,  a  alightly  heavier  breath,  and  he  was 
gone.  At  the  advanced  ttge  of  eighty-five,  life  to  him  was  still 
beautiful ;  and  not  leas  so  was  its  close.  His  bud  set  in  the  blesa- 
ednees  of  the  Christian's  faith,  to  rise  on  a  brighter  morrow. — 
JVom  Am.  Jour.  Sci.  [2],  vol.  xxxii.  No.  115. 

Vol.  I.  w  No.  «. 


1.;.  Google 


470  THB  OUIADIAH  NATDBALIST.  [Dee. 

REVIEW. 

The  Boston  Socibtt  of  Natural  Hibtoby  has  isaned  the 
following  oironlar: — 

"  On  aooount  of  the  gradual  diminntion  of  the  nnmber  of  eab- 
Boribere,  the  increased  coat  of  publication,  and  the  limited  income 
of  the  BoBtoD  Society  of  Natural  Hialoiy,  it  baa  been  Deoesaai;  to 
soepeod  tbe  publication  of  ita  Journal  and  Proceedings. 

"  Ttds  sospeuBion  b  a  serious  injury  to  tbe  Society,  as  it  oats  <^ 
the  aieauB  of  making  its  labors  public,  and  deprives  it  of  tiie  mate- 
rial for  exchange  with  other  soientifio  bodies  for  tbe  increase  of  the 
Library.  The  Pnbliahing  Committee,  with  tbe  consent  of  the 
Connoil,  have  therefore  deemed  it  advisable  to  invite  its  Patrons 
and  Members,  and  the  friends  of  Science,  to  subscribe  for  these 
worlca,  BO  that  their  publication  may  at  onoe  be  reeumed. 

"  The  Society  has  already  published  aeven  volumes  in  8vo  of  the  . 
Journal,  illustrated  witli  many  plates;  and  nearly  nine  volumea 
in  Svo  of  the  Proceedings.  The  fbrmer  will  hereafter  be  issued 
in  4to,  under  the  style  of  Memoirs ;  the  latter  will  be  published 
as  heretofore,  in  monthly  sheets,  but  will  not  any  longra  be  far- 
uiahed  free  of  cost  to  members. 

"  Pbicb. — The  Memoirs  will  be  furniabedtomemberaand  patrons 
at  S3.50  per  number ;  to  the  public,  at  ti.  A  number,  averaging 
125  pages  and  four  plates,  will  be  published  about  onoe  a  year,  font 
numbers  completing  a  volume. 

"  The  ProceediogB  will  be  furnished  to  members  and  pstrims  at 
(3  per  volume ;  to  the  public,  at  |4.  They  will  be  issued  in  sheets 
of  16  pages  each,  averaging  24  sheets  to  a  volnme,  the  volume  being 
completed  iu  about  two  years.  Payment — for  Memoira  will  be 
due  on  the  preeentation  of  each  nnmber;  for  the  Proceedings,  on 
the  iBSue  of  the  first  sheet. 

"  Boston,  December  1,  1864." 

Signed  by  tbe  Publishing  Committee. 

We  are  indebted  to  the  author  for  tbe  first  part  of  the  Memoirs 
above  alluded  to,  being  a  "  Revision  of  die  Polyps  of  tbe  Eaatem 
Coast  of  the  United  States,"  by  A.  E.  Verrill,  and  consisting  of  45 
pages  of  quarto  letter-press,  and  one  lithogrsphio  plate  illustrating 
five  species.  The  author,  aAer  noticing  the  impcrfec^on  of  some  snd 
the  inaccessibility  of  much  of  tbe  aviulable  material  ueoessary  to  tbe 
study  of  these  animBl3,adda,  "  It  was  for  the  purpose  of  supplyingin 


.;,  Google 


1864.]  EBVlBW.  471 

some  meamre  the  deficiency  in  these  respects,  and  to  establbh  a  baaie 
for  fntore  iDTes^iitiona,  rather  than  to  present  aajtbiog  oew,  that 
the  present  vork  was  nndertaken ;  but  on  acoonnt  of  the  constant 
hccesaionB  of  new  materials,  it  baa  now  become  neoessary  to  present 
quite  a  number  of  undescribed  species,  and  it  is  very  probable  that 
many  more  remun  to  be  hereafter  discoTered."  The  fringed  sclj- 
nia  figured  in  this  Journal,  vol.  iii,  pages  401—2,  as  Actinia  dian- 
thu$,  is  here  named  Metridiiem  marginatum  (of  Milne-Edwards), 
and,  though  closely  allied  to  the  ^.  tJMnt&iM  of  Europe,  is  said  to  be 
a  "  perfectly  distinct "  species.  Mr.  Verrill  says  of  it — "  It  is  the 
most  abundant  species  along  the  whole  coast  of  New  England  and 
of  the  provinces  of  New  BroDswick  and  Nova  ScoUa.*  *  *  In  the 
Bay  of  Pundy  it  is  particularly  abundant,  and  grows  to  a  very 
lai:ge  site.  At  Mount  Desert,  on  the  ooost  of  Maine,  I  have  seen, 
during  a  veiy  low  tide,  a  rocky  bottom  completely  covered  for  aores 
with  this  species,  from  low-water  oiark  to  a  depth  of  two  fathoms  or 
more."  We  have  found  it  equally  abundant  on  ibe  north  shore  of 
the  St.  Lawrence  a  few  miles  below  the  Sagnenay ;  the  specimens 
in  form  and  color  agre^ng  exactly  with  Dr.  Landsborougli's  figure 
of  A.  dianthut,  save  that  the  column  was  proportionally  more 
slender  than  shown  by  him.  We  may  add  that  we  have  found  the 
Bell-anemone  (LuMmaria  auricula)  plentiful  at  Metis  on  the 
south  sbore,  where  it  occurs  in  rocky  pools,  adhering  to  the  fronds 
of  Bea-needs,  and  is  easily  found  during  low  tide. 

These  Memoirs  are  fixim  the  Riverude  Press,  Cambridge,  Mass., 
and  are  in  the  usual  excellent  style  of  that  establishment. 


Published,  Montreal,  January  11, 1865. 

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INDEX. 


Jctr  Ntguude T 

Actinia  dianlhtu  mentioned 471 

Adiaatitn  ptdattim 3lD,  3SG 

Agriculture,  Application  of  St«un-poweT  to 112 

Jttotonu  SttUeri,  J.  gracilU ITJ,  896 

Amberat  College,  Hitchcock's  RemialBoenceB  of 337 

Angler-Katuraliit,  qaoted  from 144 

Aaiicais,  Dr.  Oawgon  oa  the  CloBiificatloD  of 341 

Anticoati  and  Uingaii,  Flora  of 3 

Jralia  juin^ue/olta 1 

Mpleniam  (aptaitB  ot,  described) 374,  357 

Mh^imn  FUii:-/amma 377,  357 

Mtatvtpolyphtnnu,  Oonper  OQ 376 

^iMa  CaTolxmaita 2&7 

BallejOD  theQeoloK7  and  Botaoj  of  New  Braiuwiek  81 

Balfour'a  Address  to  Biitlgh  AsaociatloD 70 

Bamboos,  Indian 11 

Baroard  on  Fisb-Breediog 137 

Bokmtria  t^icifotia 18 

Boston  Sooietj  of  Natural  Historr,  Ciienlar  of. 47D 

Bailey  on  tbe  Botanj  of  New  Bronawick 81 

Drummond  an  Qeographical  Bolanr 40S 

Habitats  of  Heather  (CbUww  vuigari>> .378,  468 

Lbhsod's  Botanical  Notes 1 

Lawson  od  Canadian  Ferns 3S3 

McCord  on       do.        do    3B4 

Micbaui  and  Ilia  JoQcnej,!)/ Prof.  Branet 33S 

Prof.  Baifbar's  Addreaa  to  British  Association 70 

BofrycAtum  (species  of,  described)..... 392,  360 

Bowerbank  on  Two  New  American  Sponges 304 

Bowles  on  f^m*  rapa 3&6 

Boi-wood  for  the  GograTer,  from  India 13 

BBITISH  AasOOIlTIOK. 

Address  by  Sir  Chules  Lrell 389 

CalT«rt  DD  the  Extraction  of  Gold 406 

Davy  on  the  3alinonida» 446 

Oeograpby  and  Ethnology 15) 

Johnston  OD  the  Transport  of  Salmon  Ora 451 


■v,  Google 


Beitt9h  Assocutios — conlinutd. 

Lecture  b;  Dr.  Livingstooe 379 

Prof.  Bilfouea  Addreai TO 

Prof.  Jones  on  Foraminifera 79 

Prof.  RolleBton'a  Address 75 

Branet  on  Micb&ux'a  Journe;  in  Canada 32S 

Buckland  on  Fish-Halchlng 13* 

Buxbaumia  ajAyila  in  Nora  Scotia S 

Bvlea  frondoia 10 

Buxiu  ttmperviTmi 13 

CalciferoaB  Sandrock  in  the  Ottawa  Valle; 131 

Callvna  tul^arU 378,  459 

Calrert  on  [he  eitraclioa  of  Qold 456 

Camplosorvi  rKizophyUui 379,  357 

Canada,  Contemplated  Flora  of,  referred  to   I 

Cave  in  the  Limestone  near  Montreal 14 

C\i&7.y  Limestone  in  the  Ottava  Valley 431 

Cbemistrf  of  Manures,  Messrs.  Hofmaao  and  Ward  on  the 97,  1S9 

Classification  of  Animals 341 

CleghorD  oa  Indian  Boi-wood 13 

"  "        Nettle  Fibre 13 

CltrodendT«n  Tkomnma ' 

Compass  plant,  Dr.  LawBon  on 4 

Coriaria  Tata ■ B 

Corylut,  Canadian  species  of 3 

Cotton  in  India,  on  the  Improvement  of. II 

Cooper  on  Mlaeut  polypkemut 376 

"    on  a  Qall  produced  from  Tritieam  rtpem 444 

CVypinp-nmnwuHTOiiicAotdei 373,  361 

Currents,  J.  U.  Jones  on  Oceanic 37 

(:%<(op(eri»,  (apecies  of,  described) 359,  38$ 

Davy  on  tbe  Salmonidn 446 

Dawson,  J.  W.,  Address  b? 318 

"  on  the  ClasBl6cation  of  Animals 341 

"  "      Qtaai  R-utophyeut 363,468 

Deniutadlia  punctilobula 187,  359 

Diatoms  of  the  South  Pacific 14 

Dioiites,  Dr.  Hunt  on 183 

Diplottaehyum  apodum,  Canadian  Habitats  of,  ic 3,  297 

Dolerites,  Dr.  Hunt  on  176 

Drift-Formalion  in  the  Ottawa  Valle; 433 

Drummond  on  Geographical  Bolanj 40S 

Earthquake  of  April  1864 168 

Ehtouoloqioal  SocitTV.     Papers  read  before : 

Bowles  on  PierUrapa 358 


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EsTOMOLooioit  SocMTY,  Papers  read  before — conlimud. 

Coaler  aa  Mtacut  polsphemut 3TQ 

"         "    a  Gall  o(  IHlifum  rtpmi 444 

ProoecdiTiKS  of 3T4 

Enlomostraca,  Prof.  Jonei  oo  FoMil 33S 

EozMa  Cnaadeaie ■ 160 

Equiielum,  Caaadian  species  of 7,  398 

EruplivB  Rocks,  Dr.  Hunt  on 161 

Ethaolog;  and  Qeograpbj  (Address  on) 151 

Farming,  High,  bow  far  juitiGable 191 

Ferns,  Dr.  Lnvson  on  Ganadiaa 4,  262 

"      Mr.  UcGord  on        "         3S4 

Fish-Hatching;  bj  Frank  Buckland 124 

"  ioNorwaj 13l 

Flora  of  Canada,  Contemplated  Work  on  the 1 

"  of  Anticosli  and  Uingan 3 

Foraminifera,  Prof.  Jones  on  FoSBil T9 

"  in  Laurentiaa  Rocks IGd 

Fossils,  Dr.  Hunt  on  tbeSilicificatianof 46 

Geographical  Distribution  of  Plants 40S 

Geographj  and  ElhQolog7  (Address  on) 152 

Geological  llagaiine 378 

Geological  Map  of  part  of  New  Brunswick opposite    61 

Geological  Survey  of  Canada,  Report  of,  noticed 65 

GBology  of  New  Brunswick,  Prof.  Bailey  On 81 

Geology  of  New  York,  Prof.  Eall  and  Sir  Wm.  Logan  on 368 

Geology  of  the  Ottawa  Valley,  Dr.  Grant  on 419 

Ginseng,  Canadian I 

Glacial  Drift,  H.  Y.  Hind  on 300 

Gold,  Calvert  on  the  Eitraction  of. 466 

Gold  in  Nova  Scotia,  Hartt  on 458 

Grant,  Dr.  James,  on  the  Geology  of  the  Ottawa 41S 

Hail-Stnrm  in  Ponllac. 307 

Hall,  James,  on  the  Geology  of  Neir  York 368 

Hartt  on  Gold  in  Nova  Scotia 4G9 

Heather,  Habiuta  of. 378,  459 

Hind  on  Glacial  Drift 300 

Hitchcock's  Reminiscences  of  Amherst  College 337 

Hofmann  on  the  CLemistry  of  ilsnnres 87,  189 

Hooker's  Contemplated  Flora  uf  Canada 1 

Hunt,  T.  Sterry,  ContribQlioos  to  LitholoRy 16,  161 

"              on  the  Silicificalion  of  Fossils 48 

"              on  Peat  and  its  Uses 426 

hattft  lactitlrit 388 


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Johnston  on  Ihe  Tniasport  of  Salmon  0*s 491 

Jones,  J.  MsUhew,  on  Ocean  Driru  lod  Currents 3T 

"      T.  Rupirt,  on  Fomminirera 79 

"  "         on  EntomoBlntea ^ 23S 

Kane,  Sir  Robert,  on  Peat  (qnoted) 421 

King,  WillUin,  Letter  rtoa,  on  Hail-ttorm 307 

Labrador,  H.  Y.  Hiod  od  Glacial  Drift  in 300 

Laltes,  Vegetation  of  the  Oreat 411 

Lakh  Dye  of  Commerce,  Ur.  HcLeod  on 10 

Zoferaa  (species  of,  deicribed) 280,  SSI 

Lauren lian  Rocks  of  Canada,  Orgsniami  in 1B9 

LawBon,  Botanical  tfotea  bj 1 

"        on  CansdiaD  Pernt 263 

Leitch,  Principal,  Obitnar?  Notice  oT 137 

LiobenB  and  Hepatiew,  new  Irish S 

Liebig,  Ja«tn«,  Homage  to 211 

Lime«tonei  in  the  Ottaira  Talley 421 

Lithology,  Dr,  Hnot's  Contributions  to 16,  161 

Livingslone,  Dr.,  Lecture  bj 319 

Logan,  Sir  Wm.,  on  Organic  Remains  in  the  Laarentian  Rocks. . . .  169 

"  on  the  Qeologx  of  Hew  York 368 

Luctmaria  euricuia  \o  Canada ■ 411 

Lycopodium  (species  of,  described) 294 

Ljell,  Sir  Charles,  Address  by 389 

Ifsnares,  Chemistry  of 97,  1B9 

"       Early  History  of. 91 

"      Nature  and  Operations  of. 116 

"      Trade  Id 106 

Haple-Lcaf  Cutler 64 

Harliime  Vegetation 416 

HcCordon  Canadian  Feros 354 

KcLeod  on  the  Lakh-Dje 10 

Mitridium  nmrginaluni  mentioned 411 

Uichan^B  Journey  through  Canada 32S 

HtTCBlti  HlBTORT  SoCtITT  OV  UOHTBt&L. 

Annual  ConTersazione  of. 60,  231 

Annual  Ueeting  of. 218 

Conunnnication  on  the  Uaple-Leaf  Cotter 64 

Dr.  Dawson's  Address 61 

Hon.  Ur.  Sheppard's  Address 63 

Hr.  WhiteaTes'e  Reports 308,443 

New  Members 339,  3T0,  372,  441 

OfBcenof,  for  1864-66 311 

Proceodinga  of. 134,  310,  372,  441 

Prof.  Ililei's  Address 68 


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Natdsai.  Histobt  Sodiitt  of  Moit*!*!.  ■  conlvnttd. 

Report  of  the  Ooaaell 33S 

TbeLeoinres    230 

The  Library 229,  236,  371 

TheHnMDm 229,  234,  313,  3T0,  372,  441 

The  Presideat'i  Addreai 218 

Tfae  Trtuurer*!  Report 311 

If  ATORAi,  HiaTOBT  SocuTT  Or  Niw  Bkuhswiok — Paper*  read  before : 

BsiUj'a  Notes  oa  Ibe  Geologj  aod  Botany  of  New  Branswick. .     81 

JoDCB  OQ  Ocean  Drifu  and  (^rreDti 37 

NepUiqult  Rirec,  Qeolog7  and  Botany  of 81 

Nettle-Fibres 13 

"Norway,  Sport  Id,"  quoted  from 137 

Nats  and  Qooaebecriea,  Canadian 2 

Ocean  DtiTta  and  Carrenu,  J.  H.  Jonea  on 37 

OUaZailoon 13 

OtmcUa  untibilU 374,  3S6 

OpMogtoatm  eulgatuM 293,  361 

Omix  acerifolieUa    64 

Orthopbyre,  Dr.  Hunt  on 163 

Otmunda  (gpecles  of,  described) 290,  360 

Ottawa  Valley,  Grant  on  the  Qeology  of  the 419 

ParocAcf  lu  wnmunii q 

Paul,  Dr.  B.  N.,  on  Peat  (qnoted) 430 

Peat  nod  iu  Uses,  by  Dr.  T.  S,  Hunt 428 

Penoell  on  the  Salmon  (quoted) 144 

Phonolite,  Dr.  Qant  on 173 

Pliy$oitiiiaa  Ttnmonim S 

Piacicuitare 124 

Plants,  Application  ofUannre  to. 97 

Plants,  Qeograpbical  Distribution  of. 405 

Poa  laxa  found  on  the  Whiu  HoDUtAlna 3 

Poiaon-Bean  of  Oalabar S 

Polar  Plant,  Dr.  Lawsonon...^ 4 

Peltaa  atropurjiurta 371,  361 

PUriirapa,  Ml.  Bowles  on 268 

PfonimfA iM  (species  of,  described) 293 

Po2j7Mdiun  (species  of,  described) 268,  364 

PoJyiIicAufB  (species  of,  described) 28B,  359 

Potsdam  Sandstones,  Grant  on  the 420 

PItrU  aquUina 270,  366 

'Reminiscences  of  Amherst  College,  by  Dr.  Hitchcock 337 

Benan  on  Primitire  Langn^es,  reTiewed 146 

AAmnnut  uiilit 9 

sat;  Oaaadian  Species  of. 1 


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Rollealon's,  Pcof.,  Address  to  British  Association 7S 

AutopAymi  (Bp«cie8  of,  Ggur«d  and  described) 363,  4S8 

Biiiicknilit  Jlcadicui .- 4fi3 

Salmon,  Natural  History  of  the 144 

Salmon  Ots,  Jobaaton  on  the  Transport  of '. 4S3 

Salmonidte,  DaTj  on  the 44{ 

Satviiiia  nalam 398 

SaDdBtones  of  tb«  Ottaira  Valley 420 

Sargattuia  bacci/erum,  found  at  Cape  Sable 3 

3cliisaa  puiUla * 391 

Scolopendrium  eulgare 3T8,  33! 

Stlaginetla  aput,  Canadian  Habitats  of 3 

Stlagintlta  ipinutoia 296 

Stqiioia  Latotoniana 1 

SiliciGcatiun  of  Fossils,  Dr.  Hunt  on 46 

Silliman,  Professor  b.,  Obitoary  Notice  of. .'  4Sl 

SUplmun,  lacimatitm  (the  Compass  Plant) 6 

Smallwood,  Dr.,  Meteorological  Tables  of S39,  321,  404,  412 

Sponges,  Bowerbanb  on  Two  New  Amcrlcaa 304 

Spongilta  DaiDtimi 30S 

Stachygynixndrmn  rupeitrt 297 

Strttttiioptirii  Germaaica 373,  358 

Superphosphate  of  Lime,  Manufacture  of 103 

Syenite,  Dr.  Hunt  on 184 

Ttlhea  hitpida 304 

Tobjque  Biver,  Geology  and  Botany  of. 81 

Trachytes,  Dr.  Hunt  on 166 

Trilicuni  rrpiat,  on  a  Qall  reared  from 444 

Urlica  graeilit  and  hiterophylla 13 

UiicaSIalein  the  Otuwa  Valley 422 

Vennor,  H.  G-,  on  a  Cave  near  Montreal 14 

Verrill  on  the  Polyps  of  the  Doited  Slates  (rerietv.) 470 

Vitreous  Slates  in  Ihe  Ottawa  Valley 432 

Ward  on  tbe  Chemistry  of  Manures .'....   ST,  139 

Water,  Supply  of,  to  Plants 120 

WooiUia  alpina 4 

"        (Bpecies  of,  described) 288,  360 

Woodvsariiia  Virginica 378,  36! 

Yucca  filainentota 7 

Zoology,  Dr.  Dawson  on  Species  in 313 


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